Proportion and Structure of the Human Figure in Byzantine Wall-Painting and Mosaic 9780860541967, 9781407330075
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English Pages [236] Year 1982
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Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
Dedication
Preface
List of Text Figures
List of Plates
The Proportion and Structure of the Human Figure in Byzantine Wall Painting and Mosaic
Proportion in the Antique World
Byzantine Proportion: The Texts and Commentary
Figural Proportion in the Mediaeval West: The Texts and Commentary: The Measures of Ristoro d'Arezzo
Measured Examples of Byzantine Figural Mosaic and Wall-Painting
A Comparison of Proportion
Conclusion
Footnotes
Bibliography
Plates
Citation preview
Proportion and Structure of the Human Figure in Byzantine Wall-Painting and Mosaic June and David Winfield
BAR International Series I 54 1982
B.A.R. 122 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England
GENERAL EDITORS A . R. Hands , B . Sc • , M. A . , D • Phil. D . R• Walker, M. A •
B.A.R. -S154,1982 :' Proportion and Structure of the Human Figure in Byzantine Wall-Painting and Mosaic' © June and David Winfield,1982 The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860541967 paperback ISBN 9781407330075 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541967 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com
CO N T E N T S
P reface L ist o f T ext F igures L ist o f P lates
i ii v ii
I NTRODUCTION
1
MODERN S TANDARDS OF P ROPORTION
7
PROPORTION
I N THE A NTIQUE WORLD
B YZANTINE P ROPORTION : THE T EXTS & COMMENTARY
1 9
3 5
F IGURAL P ROPORTION I N THE MEDIAEVAL WEST : THE T EXTS A ND COMMENTARY
1 03
MEASURED E XAMPLES OF B YZANTINE F IGURAL MOSAIC AND PAINTING
19
A COMPARISON OF P ROPORTION
1 67
CONCLUSION
1 73
FOOTNOTES
1 87
B IBLIOGRAPHY
2 00
P LATES
F or t he memory o f LA W R E N C E F riend
ST R A N G M A N a nd P atron
PR E F A C E
This monograph i s t he r esult o f s ome f i fteen y ears o f t hinking a bout B yzantine p roportional s ystems. T o a rrive a t a ny worthwhile c onclusions i n t he s tudy o f p roportion i t i s n ecessary t o h ave a vailable f or c omparison n umerous p aintings o f h igh q uality b y a s ingle painter c ontaining many h uman f igures o f d iverse s ize a nd s tance. T his i s b ecause a ccuracy d emands t hat t here must b e s ufficient material f rom which t o e stablish t he e vidence o f c onstant p roportional r atios b etween d ef ined measures. S uch a n o pportunity o ccurred i n Cyprus i n 1 968 w ith t he c hance o f f ive y ears work a t a c hurch w ith f ine p aintings s ecurely d ated t o 192 A .D. T his was a l ong e nough p eriod f or t esting, r etesting, a nd r evising t he p ossible l ines o f m easurement u sed by t he Master who p ainted i n t he l ate 1 2th c entury a t t he P anaghia t ou A rakos a t L agoudera. S o l ong a p eriod o f t ime was i n f act n ecessary s ince i t i s v ery e asy t o d raw measurement a nd c ompositional l ines a cross a painting. I t i s l ess e asy t o b e s ure t hat t he method o f c ontrolling t he p roportion o f f igures a s u sed by a p ainter h as b een a ssessed c orrectly. The f ive y ears t hat we were l ucky e nough t o s pend a t L agoudera p rovided b oth t he t ime a nd t he material f or t his s tudy a s well a s t he o pportunity t o l ook a t p roportional r elationships i n t he p aintings a nd mosaics i n o ther c hurches i n Cyprus. T he r eader w ill j udge whether o ur c onclusions a re c orrect. F or t his p er iod o f f ield work we a re g rateful t o t he D epartment o f Antiquities o f t he R epublic o f Cyprus f or p ermission t o work, a nd t o D umbar ton Oaks ( Harvard U niversity) f or whom we worked o n t he c leaning a nd c onservation o f wall p aintings. T he p aintings o f t he c hurch a t L agoudera w ill b e published by D umbarton O aks, a nd t his s tudy o f B yzantine p roportional methods s eemed t o u s a n e ssential p reliminary t o a p roper u nderstanding o f t he p aintings i n t he c hurch. Dumbarton Oaks h ave a lso k indly s upplied t he p hotographic i l lustrations f or t his monograph. T he a cademic r esearch h as b een c arried o n c oncurrently w ith o ther work i n t he y ears b etween 1 973 a nd 1 980 when D avid W inf ield h as b een g rateful f or a V isiting F ellowship a t A ll S ouls C o llege a nd a S enior R esearch F ellowship a t M er ton C ollege, Oxford. D avid W inf ield i s a lso g rateful f or s upport i n t his p er iod f rom D umbarton Oaks, a nd f rom t he T rustees o f t he L everhulme F und. We a re g rateful f or d iscussion o f meanings i n t he G reek t exts w ith P rofessor Cyril Mango , but a ny f aults i n i nterpretation must r emain o ur own.
W e a re a lso g rateful t o Mrs. Ann Worrall o f t he Wall P ainting Workshop a t Canterbury Cathedral f or t yping t his manuscript. B oth G reek a nd L atin word f orms a re mainly d ictated by t he s ource mater ial.
u sed,
t he
c ho ice
J .C. a nd D .C . S ummer , 1 982
11
b eing
W inf ield,
L ist o f T ext F igures F ig 1 .
The
p roportions
P . R icher : a ) a nterior a spect; i nside v iew.
o f
t he
t he b )
human
f igure
a ccording
t o
s tanding male f igure i n t he t he l eg i n t he p rof ile a spect -
F ig
2 .
The l ines, f urrows d eveloped male t orso , R icher)
a nd d epressions o f t he well i n t he a nterior a spect. ( af ter
F ig
3 .
T he measures f or t he anterior a spect o f t he h ead, a f ter t he manner o f J ean C ousin a nd a s r ecommended by R icher.
F ig
4 .
The p roportional measures o f t he f lexed l ower l imbs.
F ig 5 .
T he c hanging p roportions w ithin t he human f igure a ccording t o a ge a nd maturity. Above 7 an a dult h ead A a nd a baby's h ead B . B elow : t he d istribution o f f orm i n r elation t o h eight a nd i n r elation t o t he c entrepoint o f t he b ody ( median l ine) f rom i nfancy t o maturity. ( after R icher)
F ig 6 .
An e xample o f t he e arly E gyptian c anon based o n 1 8 s quares d emarcating t he h eight o f t he f igure f rom t he f orehead o r r oot o f t he hair t o t he s ole o f t he f oot.
F ig
7 .
F ig 8 .
F ig
9 .
An e xample s quares.
o f
t he
l ater
E gyptian
c anon
based
o n
2 1
The E gyptian c anon o f 1 8 s quares a s a pplied t o t he s eated f igure. S chema o f a f igure o n a n MS i n t he B ritish Museum, N o 5 601, Tuthmosis I TT. Only t he numerals a re s uperimposed, s ee I verson, Canon a nd P rop., o p. c it., P l. 1 8. An i nterpretation o f V itruvian
man.
F ig 1 0.
B yzantine n ude f igures.
F ig 1 .
B yzantine nude f igures.
F ig 1 2.
D ionysios o f F ourna, t he v ertical measures s tanding nude male i n t he a nter ior a spect.
11 1
o f
t he
F ig 1 3 .
P anselinos, t he v ertical measures f or nude male f igure i n t he a nter ior a spect.
t he
F ig 1 4.
P anse linos,
t he
F ig 1 5.
P anselinos, h ead.
t he
F ig 1 6.
P anselinos, s chema o f measures f or t he h ead o f H odegetria ( a) a nd f or t he o blique h ead o f P anaghia ( b).
F ig 1 7.
Panselinos, t he measures h ead o f t he Chr ist Child.
f or
t he
f rontal
a nd
o bl ique
F ig 1 8.
Panselinos, t he measures h eads o f o ld men.
f or
t he
f rontal
a nd
o blique
F ig 1 9 .
C ennino C ennini, human f igure.
f or
t he
F ig
2 0.
C ennino C ennini, s chema o f t he h orizontal a nd v ertical measures f or t he upr ight f igure w ith e x tended a rms.
F ig
2 1.
C ennino C ennini, t hree p ossible i nterpretations o f C ennini' s i nstructions f or t he c onstruction o f t he f ace.
F ig
2 2.
K iti, s chema tic d rawing ( the V irgin Mary).
F ig
2 3.
K iti, s chematic Chr ist.
F ig
2 4.
K iti, s chematic Gabriel.
F ig
2 5.
K iti, s chema o f t he p ossible measures f or t he f igure o f t he A rchangel Gabriel.
F ig
2 6.
Lythrankomi, r elationships t he Apostles.
F ig
2 7.
L agoudera,
s eated f igure o n h orseback. measures
f or t he
s chema
o f t he
d rawing
d rawing
o f
a symmetrical
h ead
t he
o f t he
f rontal
c onstruction
o f t he
h ead
h ead
o f
o f t he
s chematic d rawing o f t he w ithin t he r oundels c ontaining
192.
s tanding
o f
t he t he
t he
P anaghia
t he
Child
A rchangel
measure h eads o f
The a symmetrical f rontal f ace.
F ig 2 8 .
L agoudera, 192. The s emi-prof ile t he 2 f rontal o r o blique h ead).
F ig
Lagoudera, 192. The i nclined h ead - s chematic d rawing o f t he h ead o f a n a ngel f rom t he d ome.
2 9 .
F ig 3 0 .
L agoudera, 192. A c ompar ison o f h eads o f P anselinos a nd L agoudera.
i v
h ead
t he
( also t ermed
a symmetrical
F ig 3 1.
L agoudera,
192.
The
s tanding
t aken f rom t he n ude f igure but g iven a n u pright h ead.
male
o f Christ
i n
n ude t he
f igure
B aptism,
F ig 3 2.
L agoudera, 192. T he P rophet D aniel; i n t he a nter ior a spect.
F ig 3 3.
L agoudera, 192. T he P rophet Moses f igure i n t he c omplex s emi-prof ile a spect.
F ig 3 4 .
L agoudera, 192. T he f rontal a nd p rof ile h ead o f t he Christ C hild.
F ig 3 5 .
L agoudera, 192. S chematic d rawing o f t he P antokrator i n t he d ome s howing c onstruction l ines a nd measures, a nd i mpressed a nd i ncised guide l ines.
F ig 3 6.
L agoudera 192. S chematic d rawing o f a r oundel s howing t he c onstructional l ines a nd m easures, t aken f rom t he a ngel r oundels i n t he d ome.
F ig 3 7 .
S ystems o f p roportion r elated t o t he h ead.
based
F ig 3 8 .
Abstract a bove.
s ystems o f p roportion d escribed
F ig 3 9a
S ketch o f t he h ead o f S t. F lorian ( mural), c entury, f rom t he N onnberg C onvent, S alzburg.
s chema o f t he
o n
a c lothed f igure
t he
a
c lothed
o blique
a natomical
o r
3 z
modules
1 2th T he
t races o f p reliminary d rawing l ines w ithin t he h ead a nd h alo s uggested t hat c oncentric c ircles were u sed t o c onstruct t his h ead i n t he manner o f S chema 3 9 b . I n f act a c ircle c entred o n t he c entre o f t he r oo t o f t he n ose a nd w ith a r adius o f o ne n ose l ength i s t angent t o t he r oo t o f t he h air a nd t he o uter l ateral e dges o f t he e ye s ockets b ut n ot t o t he o utlines o f t he f ace. H owever , t he h ead may well b e c ontained w ithin a c ircle w ith a r adius c entred o n t he n ose r oot. F ig 3 9h. P anofsky, o p. c it., F ig. 2 , p . 1 09. " The t hree c ircle s ystem o f B yzantine a nd B yzantinizing A rt" a s a pplied t o a 1 3th c entury h ead o f Christ i n a manuscript i n t he U niversitats B ibliothek H amburg. F ig 4 0.
S ketches f or t he h ead t aken f rom t he A lbum D e H onnecourt, P ls XXV a nd XXVII.
F ig 4 1.
S ketch o f a nude male f igure i n t aken f rom t he A lbum o f V illard XL11.
o f V illard
t he a nter ior a spect D e H onnecourt, P l.
L ist o f P lates P late I . P reliminary d rawing o n t he r oughcast p laster a nd b r ickwork o f t he c upola o f S t. J ohn C hrysostomos, Cyprus. T he a rtist made t his p reliminary s ketch p rior t o t he p lastering a nd p ainting o f a s eries o f s eated A postles a round t he d ome. P late 2 . T he h ead o f S t. E phraim o f S yria, ( 12th c entury), f rom t he n ave o f t he c hurch o f S t J ohn Chrysostomos, Cyprus. P reliminary d rawing r evealed o n t he b ase p laster a f ter t he f laking away o f t he upper l ayers o f p igment. O f p articular n o te a re t he e yeline a nd n oseline. P late 3 . H ead o f a s tanding F ather f rom t he a pse o f t he Church o f t he H oly A postles, P erachorio , C yprus, ( 12th c entury). T he u pper l ayers o f paint h ave f laked away t o s how t he o riginal p reliminary d rawing a nd p ainted g uide l ines f or t he h ead. A s c an b e s een, t he f inal h ead a nd h alo were e xecuted t o a l arger s cale. P late 4 . A d etail s howing t he Apostles f rom t he A scension i n t he c hurch o f t he H oly Apostles a t P erachorio , Cyprus, ( 12th c entury). The u pper l ayers o f p aint h ave f laked away f rom t he h eads r evealing t he l ively p reliminary d rawing i ncluding t he e yeline a nd n oseline p roportional r eference guides. T he a postle i n t he f oreground i s a g ood e xample o f t he o ccasional l ack o f f luency i n t he o rganizing o f B yzantine f igures. P late 5 . A d etail s howing A postles f rom t he C ommunion o f t he A postles i n t he a pse o f t he H oly A postles, P erachorio, Cyprus, ( 12th c entury). The upper p aint l ayers have f laked away t o r eveal t he p reliminary d rawing a nd guide l ines f or t he h ead. P late 6 . H ead o f t he A rchangel Gabriel f rom t he Annunciation o n t he n orth wall o f t he n ave o f t he c hurch a t E ski Gumus, n ear N igde i n c entral T urkey. D ue t o t he t hinness o f t he l ayer o f f lesh c olour i t i s p ossible t o s ee t he p reliminary d rawing g uide l ines f or t he e yeline a nd n oseline. P late 7 . S t. G eorge a nd t he D ragon, f rom t he s outh b ay o f t he n arthex o f t he c hurch o f t he P anaghia P horviotissa a t A sinou, Cyprus,
( 12th c entury).
P late 8 . A g eneral v iew o f t he a pse mosaic i n t he c hurch o f t he P anaghia Angeloktistos a t K iti , Cyprus, ( preiconoclast). T he V irgin a nd Child e scorted b y t he A rchangels M ichael a nd Gabriel. P late 9 . The r oundel w ith t he b ust o f S t. Thomas f rom t he a pse mosaic i n t he c hurch o f t he P anaghia K anakaria a t L ythrankomi, Cyprus, ( pre-iconoclast).
v ii
P late 1 0 . T he h ead o f Christ Antiphonetes f rom t he n aos o f t he c hurch o f t he P anaghia t ou A rakos, L agoudera, Cyprus, ( 1192). P late 1. T he h ead o f t he P anaghia f rom t he A scension i n t he s anctuary vault o f t he c hurch o f t he P anaghia t ou A rakos, L agoudera, Cyprus, ( 1192). P late 1 2. T he h ead o f S t. G regory t he M iracle Worker , f rom t he west bay o f t he c hurch o f S t. J ohn Chrysostomos, Cyprus, ( 12th c entury). P late 1 3. T he h ead a nd s houlders o f t he A rchangel Gabriel f rom t he Annunciation i n t he e astern p endentives o f t he c hurch o f t he P anaghia t ou A rakos, L agoudera, Cyprus, ( 1192). N ote t he 3 7 , p rofile h ead a nd n eck j oined t o s houlders s hown i n t he p osterior a spect. P late 1 4. R oundel w ih A rchangel f rom t he d ome o f t he c hurch o f t he Panaghia t ou A rakos, L agoudera, Cyprus, ( 1192). P late 1 5. T he f igure o f S t. J ohn t he B aptist f rom t he n aos o f t he c hurch, o f t he P anaghia t ou A rakos, L agoudera, Cyprus, ( 1192). P late 1 6. T he f igure o f t he P rophet D aniel f rom t he d ome o f t he c hurch o f t he P anaghia t ou A rakos, L agoudera, Cyprus, ( 1192). P late 1 7. T he f igure o f t he P rophet Habakuk f rom t he d ome o f t he c hurch o f t he P anaghia t ou A rakos, L agoudera, Cyprus, ( 1192). P late 1 8. T he f igure o f t he A rchangel Gabriel f rom t he Annunciation i n t he e astern p endentives o f t he c hurch o f t he Panaghia t ou A rakos, L agoudera, Cyprus, ( 1192). N ote t he u nnatural c ontortion o f t he f igure. P late 1 9. T he h ead r oundel b etween t he
o f t he Christ Child e astern p endentives
P anaghia t ou A rakos L agoudera,
Cyprus,
' Emmanuel' f rom t he i n t he c hurch o f t he ( 1192).
P late 2 0. G eneral V iew o f t he P antokrator i n t he d ome o f t he c hurch o f t he P anaghia t ou A rakos, L agoudera, Cyprus, ( 1192).
v iii
THE P ROPORTION A ND S TRUCTURE OF THE H UMAN F IGURE
I N
B YZANTINE WALL PAINTING AND MOSAIC
I NTRODUCTION I t i s, w e h ope a r eadily a cceptable t ruth t hat t he B yzantine s tyle i s t he l ast o f t he g reat h ieratic a rts o f A ntiquity. I ts l ongevity o f more t han a t housand y ears, a nd i ts p lace i n t ime a re b oth f acts t hat q ualify i t f or t his p osition. T his i s n ot t o s ay t hat i t i s a s tyle w ithout c hange a nd d evelopment, f or t hese b ecame e vident e ven i n t he ' monumental i mmobility' o f a s tatic s tyle s uch a s a ncient E gyptian a rt . B ut t he i mmobility i s more a pparent t han a re t he c hanges a nd d evelopments. 1 I f t his p roposition b e a ccepted, t hen i t f o llows t hat B yzantine a rt, l ike o ther h ieratic a rts, c onforms i n many i mportant a spects o f i tself t o a s et o f r ules. One s et o f r ules c oncerns t he s ub ject matter o f B yzantine a rt a nd t his i s i ts i conography , t he p r incipal i ngredient o f which i s t he human f igure, whether i n d ivine o r h uman guise. A nother s et o f r ules g overns t he c raf tsmanship, o r t he way i n which a B yzantine work o f a rt was made. 2 F or t he a rts o f wall p ainting a nd mosaic w ithin t he B yzantine p er iod we h ave o nly t he f ragmentary t exts o f E lpios R omaios f rom t he 9 th o r 1 0th c entury, a nd N icephoros G regoras' d escription i n p roportional t erms o f t he f ourteenth c entury mosaic o f t he Christ i n t he d ome o f S t. S ophia i n C onstantinople . B ut f rom t he p ost B yzantine p eriod w e h ave t he i nstructions o f D ionysios o f F ourna a nd o f P anselinos which s et o ut many o f t he r ules o f B yzantine p ractice e ven t hough t hey a re p ost B yzantine i n d ate. T he p re-eminence o f t he h uman f igure i n B yzantine a rt was t he c ause o f t he p resent e nquiry , which s eeks t o a scertain whether o r n ot a g enerally a ccepted s ystem o f p roportion was t he b asis f or f igural r epresentations, a nd i f t here was s uch a s ystem o r s ystems, h ow f ar d id t hey c hange o ver t he c enturies. The e vidence d erives p artly f rom t he p ost-Byzantine t exts a nd p artly f rom a s tudy o f t he measurements o f t he h uman f igure i n B yzantine p ainting a nd mosaic. T his e vidence i s f ar f rom c omplete a nd much more i nformation may b e g ained, a nd t he f indings o f t his a rticle p erhaps modified, when t he o ther manuscript t exts o f p ainters' guides i n B ucharest, A thens a nd J erusalem a re c ollated a nd p ublished. 3 I n t he meanwhile t he e vidence o f o ne s et o f p ublished t exts i s a nalysed h ere, a nd i t s eemed worthy o f p resentation i n t he h ope o f e ncouraging t hose who p ublish monuments w ith f igural d ecoration t o i nclude a n a nalysis o f measures. T he h istory o f i deas a bout h uman p roportions r aises l arge q uestions t o which t he l ate P rofessor P anofsky d evo ted h imself
1
i n a n otable e ssay. While t he i ntentions h ere a re much more n arrow, i t i s n ever theless n ecessary t o i ntroduce a g eneral a pproach t o t he s ub ject o f p roportion, a nd t o c onsider p roportional r ules i n t he e arlier a rts o f t he A ntique World where t hese a re r elevant t o B yzantine A rt. I t w ill b e s een t hat s ome o f o ur o bservations d uplicate t hose made by P anofsky a nd t he material i s r epetitive i n c ertain a reas, b ut t his c ould n ot b e a voided ince t he c onclusions t hat we d raw a re f requently d ifferent . Moreover t he p oint o f v iew t hat we h ave most w ished t o b ear i n m ind i s t hat o f t he c raf tsman o r a rtist who n eeded a p roportional s ystem i n o rder t o make s atisfactory r epresentations o f t he h uman b ody, a nd i t d oes n ot f orm p art o f o ur a im t o a pproach t he s ub ject d e h aut e n b as a nd a ttempt t o d erive p hilosophical o r a rt h istorical p rinciples f rom p roportional s ystems . 5 T he o b jective o r s cientif ic s ti ldy o f t he e xterior f orm o f t he h uman f igure c onsists i n a c ombination o f morpho logy, which i s t he s tudy o f o rganic f orm, a nd a nthropometry, which c onsists i n t he d etermination o f measuring p oints i n t he h uman b ody, a nd t he a ssembly o f s tatistical i nformation a bout t he measurements b etween t hem . Morpho logy a nd a nthropometry o nly r eached t heir o b jective s tatus a s a ccurate s ciences i n t he l atter h alf o f t he n ineteenth c entury . B efore t his p er iod b oth h ad d epended o n t he s low b uild up o f o bserved f acts a bout t he h uman b ody, d ating b ack t o t he b eginnings o f h uman a ctivity . B efore m easure was i nvented a nd made p ossible s ome s ystem o f p roportion, i t was morpho logical o bservat ion t hat p roduced t he p in men o f L ascaux a nd t he s teatopygous mother g oddess f igurines o f t he O ld S tone A ge. S ystems o f measurement were a ll o riginally b egotten o ut o f a nthropometry a s c an b e d educed f rom t he f act t hat t he e ar liest measurements o f wh ich we k now a re h uman m easurements. T hus t he c ubit, which i s a measure o f l ength t aken f rom t he a rm , was a n O ld T estament measure u sed among o thers by t he H ittites, t he A ssyrians, t he E gyptians a nd t he B yzantines, a nd t he f oo t may b e a measure o f s imilar a ntiquity t hough i t i s o nly f irst d ocumented by t he G reeks a nd t he R omans. I n t he Ancient World i t was a l i teral t ruth t hat Man i s t he m easure o f a ll t hings. I n c ontrast t o t he i mpartial s ciences o f morpho logy a nd a nthropometry, t he r epresentation o f t he h uman f igure i s t he r esult o f a p rocess i n which morpho logical a nd a nthropometric f acts a re s elected a nd c ombined a ccording t o a n a rtistic c anon o f h uman p roportion, a nd s uch a c anon i s b y d ef inition s ub jective. 6 l t h as b een s tated t hat i n p ast h istory a rtistic c anons were r elated c onsc iously o r u nconsciously t o t he r eligious b eliefs o f a p articular c ivilization s ince t he h uman f igure was n ormally o nly p or trayed f or r eligious p urposes. F rom t his o pinion s tems a p roposition o f d oubtful v alidity which s tates t hat a t heory o f h uman p roportion n ecessarily r ef lects t he s tyle t o which i t b elongs.' A rtistic
c anons h ave
t he
f unction
2
o f e stablishing
f or t he
c raf tsman o r a rtist a t able o f t he l engths a nd w idths o f t he b ody a nd i ts p arts i n f ormulae which s tandardise t he measure r elationships w ithin t he f igure. T hese r elationships c an b e d ef ined i n d ifferent ways a nd t o v arying d egrees o f a ccuracy. T hree t ypes o f a rtistic c anon c an b e o bserved. T he f ractional c anon i nterprets e ach p art o f t he b ody i n i ts r elation t o t he t otal h eight i n t he f orm o f f ractions, p ercentages, o r multiples o f s ingle u nits. 8 T he h armonic t ype o f c anon s tarts by d ef ining t he r elationship o f o ne par t o f t he b ody t o t he n ext p art, a nd b uilds u p s o t hat e ach p art i s d ef inable i n t erms o f t he p revious p ar t u ntil t he whole f igure i s s o d ef ined b y a s eries o f c onsecutive measures i n g eometrical c orrespondence w ith e ach o ther .' The modular t ype o f c anon u ses a c ommon u nit o f measure o r module which s erves t o e stablish t he r elationships o f t he p arts o f t he b ody t o e ach o ther , a nd t he p arts t o t he whole o f t he f igure. T he module may b e a n a nthropometrical u nit o f measure s uch a s t he f ist o r t he palm o f t he E gyptian c anons, o r t he n ose-length o f B yzantine c anons o r i t may b e a n a rbitrary u nit o f measure which may o r may n ot b e a n a ctual u nit o f a s tandardized measuring s ystem. T he u se o f a modular c anon p resents d istinct a dvantages o ver t he o ther s ystems. T his i s b ecause i t e stablishes a ll t he measures i n t erms o f multiples o f t he module, a nd b y v arying t he s ize o f t he module i t i s p ossible t o v ary t he s cale o f t he whole f igure f rom t he m iniature t o t he c olossal a s r equired, while maintaining t he e stablished p roportional r elationships o f t he c anon. B ut while i t h as b een n ecessary i n t he i nterests o f c larity t o d ef ine t he d ifference b etween f ractional a nd modular c anons, i t w il l b e s een f rom t he e xample o f V itruvius' s tatements a bout p roportion t hat t he t wo t ypes which a re r elevant t o o ur e nquiry, t he f ractional a nd t he modular s ystems, a re b y n o m eans e xclusive t o e ach o ther a nd t hat f ractions a re u sually e asily t ranslatable i nto multiples o f a module. I n f ixing t he p roportional r atios which a re c onsidered i deal o r a t l east s uitable f or a c anonical s tandard o f measure t he a rtist i s n ecessarily s elective, f or a lthough t he human b ody may b e r educed b y h im t o a s ingle t able o f f orms a nd f igures, N ature by c ontrast p rovides a n i nf inite v ariety f or e ach i ndividual. l u Whatever c anon i s u sed, t he units o f l ength a re measured o n s traight l ines f rom t op t o b o ttom o f t he whole f igure o r a long l ines d ef ining p arts o f t he f igure. T he r eference p oints a long t hese l ines must b e c learly d ef ined i f t hey a re t o b e u seful t o t he a rtist o r c lear t o t he o nlooker who w ishes t o u nderstand h ow a f igure was made. B ut e ven when t hey a re c lear, t he s traight l ines a nd t he r eference p oints, which f orm a s i t were t he s keletal c onstruction f or a n a rtistic c anon, c annot b ut b e a rbitrary. T hey a re s o b ecause t hey d ef ine d istances i n a s ingle d imension which c annot t ake i nto a ccount t he c urving f luid f orms o f t he human b ody. Moreover The d istances b etween o ne r eference p oint a nd a nother d o n o t r emain
c onstant i n
n ature
s ince t he
3
b ody
a d justs a nd
c hanges
i ts f orm a nd t he l engths o f i ts p arts a ccording t o i t s s tance, t he v ariations o f which c ause c hanges i n t he a rticulation o f t he b ones a nd t he e xpansion a nd c ontraction o f t he muscles. T hese a re a ctual c hanges t hat o ccur i n t he p rototype b ody o n which t he c anon i s b ased . F urther v ar iations o f measure t hat must b e a llowed f or a re n ot a ctual c hanges o f m easure i n t he p ro totype b ody, but o nly a pparent c hanges which a r ise f rom t he a ngle o f v ision f rom which t he c anon was c onstructed. I t i s t herefore f undamental t o t he u sefulness o f a ny c anon t hat i ts s ubject matter a nd v iewpoint b e d ef ined. I t must f or e xample b e s tated whether a f igure i s n ude o r c lothed: s tanding u pright o r s eated; i n t he f rontal, t he t hree q uarter f rontal, t he p rof ile, o r i n t he p oster ior a spect; f urthermore a ccount must b e t aken o f whether l imbs a re s traight o r b ent, making a llowance f or t he f oreshor tening o f t hem i n p erspective; a nd whether t he b ody may b e p ortrayed i n a rrested movement, wh ich i nvolves a s et o f measures a llowing f or t he a rticulation a nd f oreshortening o f t he b ody t o i mply movement. T he ma jority o f a rtistic c anons o f p roportion i n t he p ast h ave t aken a s t heir model t he n ude male f igure, a nd f rom most o f t hem t he p osition o f t he f igure i s c lear , b ut t his i s n o t a lways t he c ase, a s w ill b e s een i n C ennini's i nstructions where, among o ther d ifficulties, i t i s b y n o means c ertain whether h e was g iving measures f or a f ully f rontal f ace o r f or a n a symmetrical f ace. F inally t he p oints o f measure i n a rtistic c anons o f t he past a re n ot a lways e asy t o i nterpret s ince t he o nly p re-Renaissance c anon o f which c ontemporary v isual i l lustrations s urvive i s t he E gyptian c anon. A ll t he o thers c onsist o f v erbal i nstructions, a nd i n t he c ase o f B yzantine c anons t heir a natomical r eference p oints h ave u sually t o b e worked o ut o n c lothed f igures o n t he walls s ince t he r eference p oints would o nly h ave b een v isible a t t he s tage o f t he p re liminary d rawing a nd c onstruction o f t he f igure. P lates 1 5 g ive e xamples o f s uch p reliminary f ixed p oints, v isible where f inal p aint l ayers have a ll f laked away . A t ypical e xample o f d iff iculty w ith p recision i s t he r eference o f ten g iven t o t he s houlder p oint. E ven o n t he nude b ody o f a s tanding f igure i n t he a nterior a spect t his p oint i s d iff icult t o f ix s ince i t m ight b e t he t op o f t he s houlder , o r i ts o utermost e dge, o r t he b ase o f t he s houlder a t t he a rmpit. T hese
a re
p oints
which
h ave
a ll
n eeded
much
c are
i n
i nterpretation, a nd i t i s b ecause o f t hese d iff iculties t hat we b egin w ith a modern a nthropometric model t o s erve t hroughout a s a n o b jective s tandard o f r eference. T he modern model r epresents a s n early a s p ossible a n o b jective v iew o f h uman p roportion, whereas t he l ack o f a ccurate a natomical k nowledge makes B yzantine a nd i ndeed a ll o ther p roportional s ystems o f t he p ast t o s ome d egree s ub jective a nd i naccurate.
4
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t r rt a -Sk -
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s o l eo ff o o
7
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F ig 1 . T he p roportions o f t he h uman f igure a ccording t o P . R icher : a ) t he s tanding male f igure i n t he a nterior a spect; h ) t he l eg i n t he p rof ile a spect - i nside v iew.
6
MODERN S TANDARDS O F PROPORTION T he
modern f igure t hat
we i l lustrate
( Text F igs.
1 ,2)
i s based
o n work b y t he l ate D r . P aul R icher, a nd t he d rawings a re u seful b ecause t hey have b een g enerally a cceptable a nd were b ased o n a w ide knowledge o f a natomy, a nthropometry, a nd a rt h istory. T he p oints o f r eference a re s ecurely based u pon t he s keleton, a nd i ts d imensions c orrespond t o t he p rincipal measures o f t he s cientific c anons. R icher 's c anon employs a modular u nit b ased o n t he h eight o f t he h ead f rom i ts v ertex t o t he p oint o f t he c hin a nd h e makes h is f igure 7 + h eads i n h eight f rom t he v ertex t o t he h eel. Apart f rom d ividing t he h ead l ength i nto t wo e qual p arts b y a n h orizontal l ine t hrough t he c entre o f t he e yes h e makes n o f urther s ubdivisions o f t he h ead s uch a s a re g iven i n B yzantine t exts. H owever h e d oes r ecommend C ousins' d ivisions o f t he h ead. ( Text F ig . 3 )1 2 C ousin's h ead l ike t hat o f R icher i s s ymmetrical. I t i s b isected b y a v ertical f rom v ertex t o c hin r unning a long t he b ridge o f t he n ose, a nd o n e ither s ide o f t his l ine t he f eatures a nd c ontours a re s ymmetrically d istributed. T he b isecting v ertical i s d ivided i nto 4 e qual p arts: t he h airy s calp, t he f orehead, t he n ose, a nd t he c hin. T hese a re d ivisions which e cho B yzantine p ractice. W e f o llow t he C ousin d ivisions, a nd s ince B yzantine t exts g ive t he n ose a s a modular u nit o f I h ead-length t he R icher s ystem i s h ere a nalysed i n t erms o f n ose-lengths, ( abbreviated a s n ose o r n oses) a s well a s i n h eadlengths i n o rder t o f acilitate t he c omparative s tudy o f f igures. E ach n ose-length e quals f o f a h ead-length o r + o f a f ace-length. W e d ef ine t he f ace a s t hat a rea o f t he h ead c omprised b etween t he t op o f t he f orehead ( root o f t he h air) a nd t he t ip o f t he c hin. T his a ccords w ith t he d ef inition g iven i n t he ma jority o f s ystems o f p roportion a nd i t i s a lso t he B yzantine d ef inition o f a f ace , but s ome modern a natomists d iffer f rom t his v iew i n d ef ining t he f ace a s t he a rea b etween t he e yebrows a nd t he t ip o f t he c hin. R icher 's f igure h as a h eight o f 7 + h ead-lengths, which c onforms w ith t he a verage h eight o f a well d eveloped male f igure, a nd i n R icher 's d rawings a ll p erspective h as b een e liminated i n f avour o f t he ' h ead-on-view ' s o t hat t he d orsum o f t he f rontal f oot i s f oreshortened. T he n ude
s tanding male i n t he f rontal a spect w ith a rms a longside t he b ody ( Text F ig .1 )
Measures o f H eight T he r eference p oints a re n ecessarily t hose t o b e o bserved i n s urface a natomy but were f ixed b y e stablishing t he r atios o f t he b ony s tructures b eneath. V ertex t o c hin P oint o f c hin t o b ase o f n ipples B ase o f n ipples t o n avel
1 1 1
7
h ead h ead h ead
(4 n oses) (4 n oses) (4 n oses)
‘ n s i c i eo fn e ck m u s c l e ( s k e Y n or n a s t o r d e t& a nc i l eo f ek
p o s
1 0Y hi nc p o ;nt o f - t \ ne 5 \ r t go l der
r o t i i t o fs h o u lder .
e t ,‘
p i t o ft h Y oat d e l t o te pec to r a lf u r r ow
a n t e rt o yb o y c le r o i i n F r amamma y9f u r r ow a n te to y r i to fs ( e t s i ga s En kd ery e s s im
e t e t
/ i / f /W o m 1 d ei l /k 4 i
, ( e / / /
( h u l ,w /
„ '
41 /
h
f urrow che st .
m ed ian s i n e . l a te ca . \I t ' ne . f lank navei A iac l ine _
l i ne .
ban sv e Y sa 4 u f row ( 1 D a se . D d e l ly)
l i ne
F ig 2 . T he l ines, f urrows a nd d epressions o f t he well t orso , i n t he a nterior a spect. ( after R icher)
8
o f 3rotn £ 4 1 .1 3h
d eveloped
male
N avel t o f ork 1 F ork t o b ase o f k nee ( articular i nterline o f k nee b e low t he patella)... 1 4 B ase o f knee t o h eel 2 T otal H eight: v ertex t o h eel 7 4
h ead
(4
n oses)
h eads h eads h eads
(6 n oses) (8 n oses) ( 30 n oses)
T he T orso T he d istance b etween t he c hin a nd t he p it o f t he t hroat v aries b etween a nd 4 a h ead-length ( 1-2 n oses) a ccording t o t he f orward o r b ackward s tance o f t he h ead. The waist , o r t he f ree margin o f t he r ibs, l ies 1 4 h eads ( 6 n oses) b elow t he c ollar b one which i s marginally h igher i n l evel t o t he p it o f t he t hroat. The l evel o f t he waist c an a lso b e r eckoned a s l ying f h ead ( 1 n ose) a bove t he l evel o f t he n avel. A f urther v ertical measure, t aken f rom t he l ateral a nd p osterior a spects o f t he f igure , i s t he d istance f rom t he i l iac c rest t o t he b ase o f t he buttocks which i s 1 h ead ( 4 n oses). The i l iac c rests a re o n a l evel w ith t he navel a nd t he b ase o f t he buttocks i s o n a l evel w ith t he f ork. The c entre o r m iddle p oint o f t he v ertical h eight f rom t he v ertex t o t he h eel, l ies j ust b elow t he pubis, a t a p oint o n t he v er tical med ian which l ies 1 h ead-length f rom t he waist a nd 1 f ace-length f rom t he n avel. T he l ower l imbs T he l eg c an b e s aid t o m easure 4 h ead-lengths ( 16 n oses) f rom t he t op o f t he t high b one ( the t rochanter o f t he f emur) t o t he s ole o f t he f oot. I t d ivides a s f ollows: F rom t he t op o f t he t high b one ( trochanter) t o t he b ase o f t he k nee ( articular i nterline o f knee) .. 2h eads ( 8 n oses). F rom t he b ase o f t he k nee s ole o f t he f oot
( articular i nterline o f k nee) t o t he 2h eads ( 8 n oses).
I n s urface a natomy t he u pper measure p oint o f t he t op o f t he t high c an b e r eckoned a s a f raction o f a n ose-length h igher t han t he t ransverse l ine o f t he g roin. ( The j ut o f t he k nob o f t he t high b one ( trochanter), g ives way t o a d epression b eneath i t o n t he s ides o f t he t highs.) T his p oint may a lso b e c alled t he b ase o f t he b elly, a nd i t i s i n a lignment w ith t he t ransverse l ine o f t he g roin. Where f igures a re g iven a n e longated p roportion o f 8 h ead-lengths ( vertex t o h eel) t he e xtra 4 h ead-length i s c ontained i n t he t high, a nd t he b ase o f t he b elly ( abdomen) b ecomes t he c entre-point o f t he v ertical h eight.
9
T he f oo t I n R icher 's f rontal f igure t he f eet a re f oreshortened t o a ccommodate t he s tr ictly h orizontal v iew p oint s o t hat t he l ength o f t he d orsum a nd t oes i s f i tted i nto t he v ertical d istance o f *h ead ( 1 n ose), which marks t he h eight f rom a nkle t o h eel. F ig. l b g ives t he i nterior l ateral a spect o f t he l eg a nd i ts measures, t ogether w ith t he p rof ile f oot. R icher r ates t he d istance f rom h eel t o t oes i n t his a spect o f t he f oot a s 1 h ead a nd o n h is d rawing t he l ength o f t he d orsum o f t he f oo t t o t he e nd o f t he l ongest t oe i s 2 -h ead ( 3 n oses o r 1f ace). M easures o f w idth T he g reatest w idth o f t he s houlders i s o n a l evel w ith t he a nterior f olds o f t he a rmpits f or i t i s a t t his l evel t hat t he d eltoid muscles r each t heir maximum c onvexity. T his i s c ontrary t o t he c ommonly h eld v iew t hat t he g reatest w idth i s a cross t he c lavicles. T he w idth o f t he f igure a t t he waist, which marks t he n arrowest p oint o f t he t runk, i s 1 h ead ( 4 n oses) T he w idth o f t he h ips a cross t he p elvis e quals more t han a h ead. T he w idest measure a cross t he t runk l ies o n a l evel w ith t he t ransverse f old o f t he g roin a t t he base o f t he b elly a nd i t i s 1 + h eads ( 6 n oses); t his w idth s hould n o e xceed t he w idth a cross t he b ody a t t he l evel o f t he a rmpits when t he a rms a re a longside t he b ody. M easures o f t he u pper l imbs U nless o therwise s tated t he measures l isted b elow a pply t o t he a rms when t hey d rop f ully e xtended a longside t he t runk. HEADS T he t op o f t he a rmpit h ollow t o t he t ip o f t he m iddle f inger ( medius)—
3
T he t op o f t he a rmpit h ollow t o t he p oint o f t he s houlder
2
NOSES 1 2
2
1 1
6
The p oint o f t he e lbow t o t he t ip o f t he m iddle f inger (medius ) when t he a rm i s f lexed : ( when t he a rm i s e xtended t he d istance i s f ractionally l ess)
2
8
T he p oint o f t he e lbow t o t he b ase o f t he p alm
1 *
5
T he p oint o f t he s houlder t o t he e lbow
T he b ase o f t he p alm t o t he t ip o f t he m iddle f inger ( medius)
0
...
3 z
3
The base o f t he p alm t o t he b ase o f t he knuckle o f t he m iddle f inger ( medius) o r t o t he base o f t he f atty p ad b elow t he m iddle f inger ( medius)
1
T he b ase o f t he knuckle o f t he m iddle f inger ( medius) o r t he b ase o f t he f atty p ad b elow t he m iddle f inger ( medius) t o t he t ip o f t he m iddle f inger T he h and f rom t he b ase o f t he p alm t o t he t ip o f t he m iddle f inger ( medius)
1
2
3
3
T he u pper a rm c an b e d ef ined a natomically o r morphologically. Anatomically t he u pper a rm i s marked a t i ts u ppermost p oint b y t he j oint o f t he u pper a rm b one ( humerus) w ith t he s houlder b lade ( scapula) but t he o uter h ead o f t he a rm b one i s buried d eep u nder t he d eltoid muscle. A more s atisfactory r eference i s t he p oint o f t he s houlder where t he c ollar b one ( clavicle) a rticulates w ith t he s houlder b lade. I n s urface a natomy i t c an b e s een t hat t he s houlder a rea c omprises t he mass o f t he d eltoid muscle, a nd i t i s d elimited by t he p oint o f t he s houlder a bove t he d eltoid p ectoral l ine o n t he i nner s ide, a nd t he a nterior b order o f t he a rmpit a t i ts b ase. T he upper a rm a rea r uns f rom t he a nterior b order o f t he a rmpit t o t he e lbow. O ther p oints o f r eference f or t he a rm a re: t he f old l ine o f e lbow ; t he e x ter ior p o int o f t he e lbow , which i s marked b y o lecranon o r p oint o f t he u lna, a p rominent f eature when a rm i s f lexed; a nd a s a n a lternative t o t he l atter when a rm i s e xtended t he e picondyle o r e xterior p oint o f humerus.
t he t he t he t he t he
The h and i s d ef ined by t he a rea b etween t he p alm a nd t he t ip o f t he m iddle f inger ( medius). When t he a rm i s e xtended a longside t he b ody t he t ip o f t he m iddle f inger ( medius) s hould r each m id t high ( 1 h ead o r 4 n oses f rom t he base o f t he knee) a nd t he wrist s hould b e l evel w ith t he c entre o f t he b ody. T here i s h owever a t endency i n a rt t o make t he a rms s horter t han i n n ature i n o rder t o e nhance t he e legance o f t he f igure. R icher 's r eference p oints a nd measures d o n o t t ake i nto a ccount t he morpho logical d ivisions which s eparate t he mass o f t he s houlder f rom t he u pper a rm. B ut b y r eference t o h is measured f igures i t i s p ossible t o a pproximate 1 h ead ( 4 n oses) f rom t he a nter ior b order o f t he a rmpit t o t he c entre o f t he e lbow a nd f ractionally more t han 1 h ead ( 4 t o 4 + n oses) f rom t he e lbow p oint t o t he wr ist o r b ase o f t he p alm , when measuring a long t he e xtended a rm. T hus t he a rm f rom t he a rmpit t o t he b ase o f t he p alm d ivides i nto t wo a pproximately e qual measures. W e s hall s ee h ow t his r atio b etween t he t wo a rm s ections i s d irectly r elevant t o t he B yzantine a ssessment o f
1
F ig 3 . T he m easures f or t he a nter ior a spect o f t he h ead, manner o f . T ean C ousin a nd a s r ecommended b y R icher .
1 2
a f ter
t he
p roportional r elationships w ithin t he u pper l imbs. T he h ead R icher f ollows t he f our e qual v ertical d ivisions made by C ousin ( Text F ig.3.) w ith m inor r eservations: 1 . T he h airy s calp: v ertex t o r oot o f h air 2 . T he f orehead: f rom t he r oot o f t he h air t o a n otional e yeline
3 . The n ose: f rom t he e yeline t o t he b ase o f t he n ose 4 . T he c hin: f rom t he base o f t he n ose t o t he p oint o f t he c hin B ut
while
C ousin
d ivides
t he
h ead
i nto
h alf
by
a
c entral
e ye line, a nd R icher a lso u ses a s imilar b isecting l ine t hrough t he m iddle o f t he e yes, R icher c omments t hat t his p rovides a n i nadequate a llowance f or t he c hin a rea a nd t hat i t would b e more e xact t o d ivide t he d istance b etween t he e yebrows a nd t he c hin i nto t wo h alves, p lacing t he n ose i n o ne h alf a nd t he c hin i n t he o ther. T he varying u se o f e yebrow o r e yeline e xemplified i n t hese modern v iews f inds a n e cho i n B yzantine t heory a nd p ractice. T he d istance b etween t he base o f t he n ose a nd t he c hin i s f urther d ivided b y C ousin i nto t hree e qual parts a s f ollows:1 .From t he b ase o f t he n ose t o t he c entre l ine o f t he l ips. 2 .From t he c entre l ine o f t he l ips t o t he c lef t o f t he c hin. 3 .From t he c lef t o f t he c hin t o t he p oint o f t he c hin. C ousin's h orizontal measures f or t he f ace a re d ivided a long a n ot ional b isecting e yeline f rom e ar t o e ar . A long t his h orizontal m edian C ousin makes a d ivision i nto 5 e qual parts, e ach o f which c an b e e quated w ith h alf a n ose-length:- 2 parts f or t he t emples, t he e yes e ach o ne p art, a nd o ne p art f or t he d istance b etween t he i nner c orners o f t he e yes. T he c entre o f t his l atter p art l ies o n t he c entre o f t he n ose b ridge s o t hat C ousin's f ace i s c onceived a s a s ymmetrical c onstruction i n r elation t o t he median o f t he n ose, T he S eated F igure
a s h is d rawing i ndicates. ( Text F ig.4.)
I n t he s eated f igure t he d ifference b etween t he f rontal a nd t he l ateral a spects i s s elf e vident. I n b oth a spects t he s eated f igure w ill v ary a ccording t o t he a ngle o f v ision a nd a ccording t o t he d egree t hat t he s pine a nd l imbs a re f lexed. I n t he u pright s eated f igure , i f t he t high a nd l ower l eg a re f lexed a t r ight a ngles t o e ach o ther a nd t he t high i s a t a r ight a ngle t o t he t runk, t hen t he t op o f t he knee i s o n a l evel w ith t he t ransverse f old o f t he g roin ( base o f b elly) a nd t he b ase o f t he k nee i s o n a l evel w ith t he b ase o f t he b uttocks a nd w ith t he f ork. S uch a s tiff a ngular s tance i s s eldom v isible i n n ature but t he measures t hat c an b e t hus
1 3
T
xcv
i
1 4
e stablished a re a g ood guide f rom which t o a ssess v ariations. H eads
N oses
F rom t he t op o f t he h ead t o t he b ase o f t he b uttocks
4
1 6
F rom t he b ack o f t he buttocks t o t he f ront o f t he k nee
2 +
1 0
F rom t he g round t o t he u pper s urface o f t he b ent k nee —
2 1+
9 +
T he l atter measure i s made u p o f t he d istance f rom t he h eel t o t he b ase o f t he k nee which e quals 2 h eads ( 8 n oses) p lus t he t hickness o f t he l ower t high which c an measure a + a h ead. ( 1 t o 2n oses)
g , -t o
T he t otal v ertical s pace o ccupied by s uch a s eated f igure f rom t he v er tex t o t he b ase o f t he h eel w ill e qual t he h eight f rom t he v ertex t o t he b ase o f t he buttocks which i s 4h eads ( 16 n oses) p lus t he h eight o f t he l ower l imb f rom h eel t o b ase o f k nee which i s 2 h eads ( 8 n oses) making a t otal o f 6 h eads ( 24 n oses, o r 8f ace-lengths). T he f emale f igure T he b ones o f t he f emale a re s horter a nd n arrower t han t hose o f t he male . T he h ead i s s maller a nd t he s houlders narrower s o t hat t heir w idth s hould n ot e xceed a f o f t he t otal h eight o f t he f igure . I n t he f emale, t he u pper a rm b one ( humerus) i s s horter t han t hat o f t he male s o t hat when t he a rms a re e x tended a longside t he b ody t he f ingertips w ill n o t quite r each m id t high l evel, a nd t he e lbow l evel w ill b e h igher t han t hat o f t he male f igure . B y s caling d own t he h ead i t i s p ossible t o c onstruct a f emale f igure u sing s imilar r eference p oints a nd measures t o t hose p rescribed f or t he male. Two main d ifferences must h owever b e emphasized: f irst, t he t runk o f t he f emale i s l onger t han t hat o f t he male s o t hat t he 4 th h ead measure f rom t he v ertex l ies a lmost a n ose-length a bove t he l evel o f t he f old o f t he g roin, a nd t hus t he c entre o f t he f igure, measured f rom v ertex t o h eel, l ies o n t he a rch o f t he p ubis. T he l ower l imbs o f t he f emale a re s horter i n p roport ion t o t he t otal h eight t han a re t hose o f t he male, a nd s hould measure l ess t han 3 h eads f rom t he t op o f t he t high b one j ut ( trochanters) t o t he b ase o f t he f oot. A rt h ere t ends t o d isagree w ith n ature a nd t o e longate t he l egs o f t he f emale t o a dd g race a nd e legance t o h er f igure. T he s econd a nd more s triking d ifference b etween t he male a nd t he f emale i s t he g reater w idth a cross t he h ips o f t he f emale, which r esults f rom t he g reater w idth o f h er p elvis. T he w idth a cross t he h ips o f t he f emale c an b e s aid t o e quate w ith t he d istance b etween t he f olds o f t he a rmpits p lus t he t hickness o f o ne a rm , The g reater w idth o f t he p elvis a lso l eads t o a g reater o bliquity o f t he t high b ones a nd a b roader t high w idth. T he f emale p elvis i s
1 5
0
6
1
h e a . c i .6
5I mads
6h eeds
eh ea ds
c i s
F ig 5 . T he c hanging p roportions w ithin t he h uman f igure a ccording t o a ge a nd maturity . Above : a n a dult h ead A a nd a b aby 's h ead B ; b elow : t he d istr ibution o f f orm i n r elation t o h eight a nd i n r elation t o t he c entrepoint o f t he b ody ( median l ine) f rom i nfancy t o maturity. ( af ter R icher)
1 6
s hallower t han t hat o f t he male s o t hat a l ower l evel a nd t he f lanks a re l onger.
t he i l iac
P roportion i n t he b odies o f I nfants a nd Y ouths
c rests l ie
a t
( Text F ig . 5 . )
S ome c onsideration o f modern o bservations a bout t he p roportions t o b e o bserved i n t he f igures o f i nfants a nd y ouths i s n ecessary i n t his s urvey s ince t he f igures o f t he I nfant a nd Y outhful Christ have a n i mportant p lace i n B yzantine i conography. A t b irth, t he h ead o f t he i nfant i s a l i ttle l ess t han t he s ize o f t hat o f t he a dult. The h ead o f t he i nfant i s c haracterised by t he r elatively l arge s ize o f t he b rainbox i n r elation t o t he l ength o f t he l ower f ace, ( the n ose a nd c hin a rea). Thus a n h orizontal l ine b isecting t he c hild ' s u pright h ead would r un a bove t he e yes whereas i n t he a dult's h ead s uch a l ine r uns t hrough t he c entre o f t he e yes. T he e nlarged p roportion o f t he c ranial a rea i n r elation t o t he l ower f ace a lso l eads t o a b roader a nd r ounder h ead i n t he i nfant i n c ontrast w ith t he o void o f t he mature a dult, f or t he h ead g rows more i n l ength t han i n b readth. T he b ody o f t he n ewborn i nfant m easures 4 i nfant h eadl engths: 2 h eads f rom t he c hin t o t he f ork, a nd 1 h ead f rom t he f ork t o t he h eel, a nd t he c entre o f t he b ody l ies a bove t he n avel. A t 2 y ears t he c entre o f t he b ody w ill b e a t t he n avel a nd t hereaf ter b e low. A t 3y ears t he h eight o f t he c hild i s h alf t hat o f t he a dult. A t 4y ears t he h eight o f t he c hild i s e qual t o 5h ead-lengths. A t 9y ears t he h eight o f t he c hild i s e qual t o 6h ead-lengths. A t 1 0 y ears t he h eight o f t he c hild i s 1 4t hat o f t he a dult . A t 1 6 y ears a y outh m easures 7 h eads i n h eight. T he maturing c hild d oes n o t g row u niformly t hroughout t he b ody. An e xample o f t his i s t hat t he l ength o f t he a rm i s e qual t o t he l ength o f t he l eg ( heel t o f ork) a t 7y ears o f a ge, whereas b efore t hat t he a rm i s l onger, a nd a fterwards i t i s s horter . And a t 1 0 y ears t he f oot l ength ( heel t o t oe) i s e qual t o t he l ength o f t he h ead ( vertex t o c hin) whereas b efore t hat t he f oot i s s horter a nd a f terwards i t i s l onger. While t he f orms o f t he h ealthy i nfant o f u p t o 2 y ears may b e r ounded a nd d impled d ue t o t he f atty l ayers o verlying t he j oints, t he b odies o f a ctive t oddlers o f f rom 3 y ears t o 7 y ears d o n ot r etain s uch p lump f orms, but we h ave a lready s een t hat A rt s ometimes h as a w ill o f i ts own, a nd t he painters o f t he c hubby b ambini o f t he R enaissance o r o f t he c herubs o f t he 1 8th c entury e ndow t heir ' children' w ith t he p roportions o f 5t o 7y ear o lds while r etaining t he p lump f orms o f t he 2 y ear o ld.
1 7
O ld Age When a man i s f ull g rown t he p roportions o f h is b ody s tructure w ill n ot c hange s ince t hese a re f ixed by t he b ony s keleton. B ut a ge, a nd p articularly o ld a ge, e ffects c ertain physical c hanges i n t he s urface f orm a nd t he c arriage o f t he f igure. I n o ld a ge t he b ody i nclines t o s toop, t he muscles l ose t heir e lasticity a nd f irmness, t he s kin wrinkles a nd g athers, a nd b ony eminences b ecome more p rominent. The h air d isco lours t o g rey a nd white, a nd v arying d egrees o f b aldness may a ppear . T he f ace i s c reased w ith f urrows a nd wrinkles, t he e yes r etreat a nd n arrow u nder t he p ronounced j ut o f t he o rbital b ones, t he c heekbones s tand o ut , a nd t he t oothless j aws c lose f irmly, d rawing t he c hin u pwards a nd f orwards. T he n eck i s wrink led w ith l oosening s kin a nd t he A dam 's a pple i s more p ronounced. I n g eneral t he f lesh l oses i ts f irmness a nd t he f igure b ecomes more a ngular a nd l oses i ts s trong a nd s turdy s tance.
1 8
PROPORTION
I N THE ANTIQUE
WORLD
I ntroduction Antique a r t r elied o n a s elective morpho logical a pproach f or t he i nterpretation o f t he h uman b ody. T he Chaldaeans, t he E gyptians, t he A ssyrians, t he G reeks, t he R omans, a nd t he B yzantines, e ach e mphasized d ifferent p hysical c haracteristics a ccording t o t he p urpose a nd i deal t hat t heir r epresentations o f t he h uman f igure were i ntended t o s erve. T he p roportions o f t he h uman f igure a nd i ts p arts v ary c onsiderably i n Chaldaean a nd A ssyrian works. B ut i n E gypt, l ong p eriods o f p olitical s tability a nd t he r e ligious monopo ly o f t he f igural a rts l ed t o t he e stablishment o f s tandardized c anons o r s ystems o f p roportion which were i n u se o ver l ong p eriods o f t ime f or t he c onstruction o f f igures, whether f or s culpture i n t he r ound, f or r eliefs, o r f or p aintings. 13 W ithin a more l iberal e nvironment, G reek c raftsmen w ith t heir q uesting m inds, a nd i deals o f t ruth embodied i n physical b eauty, g ave p re-eminence t o t he s culptural r epresentaton o f t he human f igure. The p roportional h armony o f t he b ody p arts t o e ach o ther, a nd t o t he f igure a s a whole, was f undamental t o t his i deal o f physical e xcellence, a nd s o t he G reek c raftsmen, e ach b uilding o n t he e xperience o f h is p redecessors, s ought t o r ationalise t hese p roportional r elationships i n t heir a ttempt t o q ualify a nd a chieve t heir a esthetic i deal. The q uestion o f whether o r n o t t here was a ny i ndependent p ractical e laboration o f p roportional m ethods by t he R omans r emains t o b e s olved by i nvestigation, but i t i s a ccepted t hat R oman c raf tsmen a ssimilated many o f t he m ethods a nd s kills o f t he G reeks, a nd amongst t his knowledge t hey n o d oubt made u se o f G reek p roportional t heories. T his G raeco-Roman p ool o f knowledge was i n t urn i nherited a nd p ut t o u se by t he B yzantines. I t w ill b e s een f rom t he c omparative i l lustration ( Text F ig.37) t hat t he d ifferences b etween a ny o f t he c anons o f human p roportion i s s light. I t i s i n t he d iffering u se o f c anons o f p roportion t hat t he g enesis o f s tylistic c hange i s t o b e f ound. The C lass ic b elief t hat b eauty was t o b e a chieved by t he s tudied a rrangement o f t he p roportions o f t he f igure was q uestioned i n t he l ate Antique World by p hilosophers s uch a s P lotinus, who h eld t hat b eauty l ay o utside s uch a r ational a nalysis a nd c ould o nly a rise f rom s piritual a nd a esthetic p erception. B ut i t i s d ifficult t o a ssess h ow much i nfluence, i f a ny, t he s peculations o f a philosopher l ike P lotinus may h ave h ad o ver t he p ractical a pplicat ion o f p roportional s ystems by t he c raf tsmen who made t he human i mages.' 4 T he E gyptian Canons I n
c ontrast
t o
o ther
a ncient
( Text F igs. c anons
1 9
o f
6 -8) p roportion,
o ur
1 8
r d e
1 7 1 6 1 5 1 4 1 3 1 2 . 1 1 0
• •
9
6 5
4 3 1 4
F ig 6 . A n e xample o f t he e arly E gyptian c anon b ased o n 1 8 s quares d emarcating t he . h e ight o f t he f igure f rom t he f orehead o r r oo t o f t he h air t o t he s o le o f t he f oot.
2 0
knowledge o f t he E gyptian v iewpoint i s d erived f rom t he v isua l e vidence o f c ontemporary E gyptian i mages w ith g rid p atterns u nderlying t hem . T here i s s o f ar n o s urviving t extual e vidence e xplaining t he E gyptian a ssessment o f h uman f igural p roportion, a nd t he b rief n otice t hat we g ive b elow i s b ased u pon t he d eductions o f modern s cholars. 1 5 T he e xistence o f p recise i nstructions f or t he p roportional c onstruction o f f igures i s h owever s ubstantiated by a n i nscription o n t he walls o f t he l ibrary o f t he t emple o f E dfu which r efers t o t he c ontents o f c askets, which a re n ow l ost but which were o nce d eposited t here. I n t he s econd c asket was " Le l ivre d es p r scriptions q ui r egardent l es p eintures d es murailles e t l es p roportions a d onner a ux f igures". 16 T he modular a nthropmetric c anons o f p roportion t hat c ontrolled a nd r egulated t he c onstruction o f E gyptian f igures i n s culpture i n t he r ound, r eliefs, a nd p aintings, were l inked w ith t he s tandardised E gyptian s ystem o f d imensional measure which was i tself d erived f rom t he n atural p roportional r elationships b etween t he parts o f t he u pper l imb, a nd t he p re Saite d ynasty ( pre-664 B .C.) measures c an b e l isted a s f o llows: The f athom:
r oot o f hair t o h eel = 6 c ubits = 1 6 f ists = 2 4 palms = 9 6 d igits.
T he c ubit:
e lbow t o t ip = 2 4 d igits
T he
3cubit:
o f t humb = 4 1 - f ists = 6 p alms
e lbow t o wrist = 3 f ists = 4 palms = 1 6 d igits. F rom t his m easure i s d erived t he G reek a nd R oman f oot.
The f ist:
t he w idth o f hand a cross t he knuckles i ncluding t he w idth o f t he t humb = p alms = 5 * d igits.
The t humb:
w idth a cross t humb = 1 1 d igits. F rom t his we d erive t he i nch a nd t hus t he c ubit o r f oo t o f 1 6 d igits a lso e quals 1 2 i nches.
T hese E gyptian mea s ures t hat we l ist a re o f c ourse n otional measures a nd t heir a ctual l ength was s tandardised by o fficial measuring r ods f or p ractical r eference, b ut t he r atios were s tandard. The E gyptian p roportional c anons were a pplied by means o f a s quared u p g rid s ystem o f l ines l aid o ut u pon t he s urface o f a s tone b lock o r wall, t he s ide o f e ach g rid s quare b eing e quated w ith t he module. Two main E gyptian c anons h ave b een i dentif ied: t he e arlier c anon, which was i n u se b efore 6 56 B .C., was made u p
2 1
F ig 7 . A n e xample o f t he l ater E gyptian c anon b ased o n 2 1 s quares.
2 2
o f 1 8 s quares d emarcating t he v ertical h eight f rom t he r oo t o f t he hair t o t he h eel ( Text F ig.6), a nd t he l ater c anon, which o riginated i n t he c ourse o f t he 2 6th o r S aite Dynasty , was f ormed o f 2 1 s quares d emarcating t he v ertical h eight f rom t he r oo t o f t he n ose t o t he h eel ( Text F ig.7). I t h as b een s uggested t hat t he c hange f rom t he 1 8 s quare c anon t o a 2 1 s quare c anon was d ue t o a r eform o f t he E ygptian s ystem o f m easure i n t he S aite p eriod, when t he s hort c ubit measured f rom t he e lbow t o t he t op o f t he t humb was a bandoned a nd r eplaced b y t he R oyal c ubit, which was measured f rom t he e lbow t o t he t ip o f t he medius. The c ubital s ubdivisions r emained n ominally t he s ame but t heir d imensions were a ltered. The S aite c anon o f 2 1 s quares r epresents a r e-alignment o f t he e arlier c anon t o b ring i t i nto c onformity w ith t he r eformed measures while r etaining t he c orrect p roportions f or t he f igure. T he c hange i n t he c anon a ppears t o h ave b een made f or a n a dministrative r ather t han f or a n a esthetic r eason. The p roportional c oncordance o f t he t wo c anons i s v ery c lose but t he e arly c anon employed a module o r s ide o f s quare e qual t o t he f ist a nd t he l ater S aite c anon u sed a s maller a natomical d iv ision which a ppears t o h ave b een t he p alm. T he p o ints o f r eference a re a lso d ifferent i n e ach c anon, b ut b oth c anons u se t he v ertical g rid l ines t o mark o ut r eference p oints f or t he w idth o f t he f igure a nd b oth u se t he h orizontal g rid l ines t o mark o ut t he r eference p oints f or t he h eight o f t he f igure. I n b oth c anons i t was p ossible t o e nlarge o r d ecrease t he s ize o f t he f igure b y i ncreasing o r d ecreas ing t he s ize o f t he modular s quare while maintaining t he s tandard p roportional r elationships. T he f rontal a spect o f s tatues was f urther c ontrolled b y a n a xis which d ivided t he f igure i nto s ymmetrical h alves. T his v ertical a xis r an d own t he n ose a nd t hrough t he n avel a nd t he f ork o f t he l egs. T he l ateral a spect o f t hree d imensional f igures a nd t he f lat c ompound a spect o f t he f igures i n r eliefs a nd p aintings o n t he wall were c ontro lled by a v ertical a xis f alling f rom t he e ar. I n t he c ase o f t he l ateral a spect o f s eated f igures ( Text F ig.8) t he v ertical a xis made a r ight a ngle a t t he b ase o f t he buttock t o r un h orizontally t o t he base o f t he k nee where i t made a f urther r ight a ngle t o r un v ertically f rom t here t o t he b ase o f t he h eel. T he h eight o f 1 8 o r 2 1 s quares was c alculated u p a nd a long t his a rticulated axis w ith t he p oints o f r eference r emaining t he s ame. The E gyptians r esolved t he p roblem o f r elating t he t hree d imensional h uman f igure t o a f lat s urface i n r eliefs a nd p aintings b y r epresenting t he f igure a s a c omposite o f d ifferent v isual a spects. T he h ead i s i n p rof ile, t he b road s houlders a re f rontal, t he c hest d isplays o nly o ne n ipple o r f emale b reast, a nd t he s ubmammary a rea n arrows s harply i nto a wasp waist , t he b elly i s 2 - f rontal w ith t he n avel u sually c learly i ndicated, a nd t he l egs a nd f eet a re i n p rof ile. T his h abit o f c ompounding various a spects o f t he h uman f igure i n a
2 3
F ig 8 .
T he E gyptian c anon o f 1 8 s quares a s a pplied t o t he s eated f igure. S chema o f a f igure o n a n MS i n t he B r itish Museum , N o 5 601, T uthmosis I ll. O nly t he n umerals a re s uper imposed, s ee I verson, C anon a nd P rop., o p. c it., P l. 1 8 .
2 4
s ingle c ontorted i mage was c ommon t o o ther a ncient s tyles a nd i t c an b e s een t o maintain i ts r elevance a s a c raf tsman's d evice r ight d own t o t he e nd o f t he B yzantine p er iod. The E gyptian f emale f igure i s more s lender t han t hat o f t he male a nd i t i s made t o b e h igh b reasted w ith a n arrow p elvis; t he f emale b uttocks t end t o b e more r ounded a nd t he t highs a re b roader t han t hose o f t he male. The f igures o f c hildren a re p ortrayed a s m iniature a dults. S ome f oreshor tenings d o o ccur i n E gyptian f igural works, a nd a g reat v ariety o f s tances a nd g estures a re i l lustrated i n r eliefs a nd wall p aintings, but n o r ecognisable r ules f or c ontrolling t hese h ave y et b een f ormulated. T he f uneral s tele o f t he s culptor I ritisen b ears w itness t o E gyptian c apabilities i n t his r espect i n a n i nscription which s tates t hat among o ther a ccomplishments h e c ould r epresent t he movements o f men a nd t he c arriage o f women, a nd t heir various p oses a nd g estures. 17 I mages o f E gyptian f aces a re c ompletely l acking i n emotional e xpression w ith t he e xception o f f emale mourners. 18 T he emotiona 1 c ontent i n E gyptian works i s d erived f rom g esture, s tance, a nd c ontext, a nd t hese c haracteristics a re s hared w ith B yzantine r eligious a rt. O ther c ommon u sages o f c ertain c onventions a ppear i n B yzantine a nd E gyptian works, l ike t he h abit o f d istinguishing t he c entral o r f ocal f igure o r f igures o f a c omposition f rom l esser c haracters by i ncreasing t heir s ize. Among e xamples o f t his c onvention a re t omb paintings which d epict t he owner a s l arger t han h is v arious a ttendants; o r r epresentations o f G ods who a ppear l arger t han a ccompanying f igures o f mortals. The Pharaoh h imself i s o f ten a ccompanied by a w ife w ith s imilar d imensions t o h is own, but when h e i s r epresented i n h is d ivine c haracter h e i s a ccompanied by d iminutive w ives. S imilarly i n B yzantine n arrative c ompositions t he c entral f igures t o t he t heme a re f requently p or trayed a s l arger t han more h umble p articipants i n t he a ction. T his k ind o f d ifferentiation b y s ize i s purely a matter o f t he i mportance o f f igures, who a re made l arger o r s maller a ccording t o r ank a nd n ot a ccording t o p erspective o r t he v ariations o f n ature. I n s uch e xamples t he p roportions o f t he f igures a re a ll s imilar a nd t he more i mportant p ersonages a re m erely d istinguished by t heir l arger s cale. Another c onvention which a ppears i n t he a rt o f b oth c ultures i s t he r epetition o f t he k ey f igure i n a c omposition i n o rder t o l ink t wo d ifferent p arts o f t hat c omposition. A p icture i n a t omb a t Memphis i l lustrates t he a rrival o f a f oreign d elegation w ith a g if t o f h orses f or t he K ing. T he s trangers a re s hown t o t he r ight o f t he p icture s trip s peaking w ith a n i nterpreter. T he f igure o f t he i nterpreter i s s hown a gain, n ext t o h imse lf b ut b owing t o t he l eft, a nd ' speaking'
2 5
w ith t he V izir t ime, w ith h is K ing .19
Haremhab. Haremhab i s a lso s hown a s econd b ack t o h imself , t his t ime s peaking w ith t he
I n B yzantine murals, i n a s cene s uch a s t he C ommunion o f t he Apostles, t he f igure o f Christ i s p ortrayed t wice i n t he s ame c omposition. Christ a ppears o n b oth s ides o f t he c entral a ltar ; o n o ne s ide H e i s d epicted a s d ispensing b read t o s ix a postles a nd o n t he o ther H e i s d epicted o ffering w ine i n a g oblet t o t he r emaining a postles. T he w idespread u se o f t hese i dentical c onventions i n c ultures s o r emoved f rom e ach o ther i n t ime a nd t radition a s t he E gyptian a nd t he B yzantine c an o nly b e c o-incidental. I t i s unlikely t o b e t he r esult o f i nherited knowledge a nd p robably d erives f rom t he c ommon n eed t o e xpress a h ieratic p urpose i n t heir a rts. S acred a rt t hat i s s uccessful t ends a lways t owards s uch r igid f ormulae a s t hese s o t hat meaning i s g eneralised a nd c lear a nd c anno t b e d istorted i nto i ndividual i nterpretations which m ight i mperil t he i mmortal s oul. I n s ummary i t c an b e s aid t hat f igural r epresentation i n t he h ieratic a rt o f E gypt was h ighly r egimented b ecause o f i ts d eep r eligious a nd magical s ignif icance a nd t he h uman f orm was c rystallized i nto s tandard f eatures which c ould b e e asily p ortrayed w ith t he h elp o f t he modular c anons. T he C anons o f p roportion o f t he Ancient G reeks An a pparent l ink b etween t he s tyle a nd t he c anonical p roportions o f E gyptian f igural s culpture a nd t he a rchaic ' kouroi' s tatues o f Ancient G reece , t ogether w ith a s imilarity b etween t he m easures o f l ength i n u se a nd t heir r elation t o t he natural p roportions o f t he human f igure may i ndicate t hat t he l ate E gyptian c anon o f t he S aite p eriod was a dopted a nd t hen f reely a dapted by G reek s culptors. H owever t he o pinions o f s cholars a re s harply d ivided a s t o t he e xtent o f E gyptian i nfluence o n e arly G reek a rt. 2 0 T he writings o f G reek a uthors r ef lect t he c oncern o f G reek philosophers a nd a rtists a like w ith t he a esthetic a nd p ractical p roblems o f a chieving a c orrect p roportion o r s ymmetria when r epresenting t he h uman f igure. P ainters a nd s culptors a re known t o h ave written t reatises o n f igural p roportion but n one o f t hese manuals h ave c ome d own t o u s. I t i s known t hat t he 5 th c entury s culptor P olykleitos o f S ikyon, wrote a guide t o p roportion a nd u sed i ts measures i n making a b ronze s tatue known a s t he D oryphoros. T his s tatue, a ccording t o G reek a nd R oman writers, was r egarded a s a c anonical work o f r eference f or a rtists a nd c ritics a like, b oth f or i ts i nterpretation o f s ymmetria a nd a s a n i deal o f male b eauty. 21 T he s tatue s urvives o nly a s a R oman c opy, n ow i n t he Vatican Museum. The s tructure a nd t he method o f a pplication o f P olykleitos'
2 6
c anon a re l ost t o u s a nd o nly s ome t antalizing c omments a nd p ossible q uotations f rom h is manuscript r emain t o t ease t he s cholarly m ind . P hilo o f B yzantium, t he G reek e ngineer , writing i n t he 2 nd c entury B .C. q uotes P olykleitos a s h aving s tated t hat 'p erfection a rises l i ttle b y l i ttle t hrough many n umbers' .22 Galen, writing i n t he 2 nd c entury A .D., s eems t o s uggest t hat t he P olykleitan c onception o f b eauty a s s tated i n h is t reatise l ay: ' in t he c ommensurability o f t he p arts o f t he b ody , s uch a s t hat o f f inger t o f inger , a nd o f a ll o f t he f ingers t o t he palm, a nd t he wrist, a nd o f t hese t o t he f orearm , a nd o f t he f orearm t o t he u pper a rm , a nd i n f act o f e verthing t o e verything e lse.' 2 3 T hese a re b ut v ague c lues t o a p roportional s ystem which c an b e var iously i nterpreted. Galen 's c omment h as l ed t o a g reat variety o f i nterpretations a nd i ndeed i t c ould b e s aid t o r efer t o a n h armonic c anon ,24 t o a f ormula s imilar t o t he Egyptian c anons, 2 5 o r i t may r efer t o a f ractional s ystem ‚ L e ' o r p ossibly i t may i ndicate t he u se o f a n a rithmetic o r a nthropometric s ystem. 2 7 H owever t his may b e, i t i s a t l east c ertain t hat a c anonical t reatise written by P olykleitos e xisted, a nd i t a ppears t hat i t i nvolved s ome f ormula f or t he c ommensurability o f t he parts o f t he h uman b ody , but t he n ature o f t he f ormula a nd t he manner i n which i t was a pplied i n t he workshop r emain unknown. The R oman c opy o f t he D oryphoros, a s measured by Kalkmann a ppears t o c onform t o a h eight o f 7 h ead-lengths f rom v ertex t o h eel. 28 P olykleitos' s tatues were d escribed by P liny a s ' t etragonos ' p resumably t o i ndicate a t hickset f igure, 2 9 a nd t hey a re f urther c haracterised a s h aving s quare f lat t opped h eads a nd s hort t orsos w ith w ide h ips, a nd s hort l egs. T hese c haracteristics s uggest a t ype o f f igure w ith r ather s hort p roportions. 3 0 P olykleitos' f igures a re c ontrasted b y P liny w ith t he s lender a nd more e legantly p roportioned f igures o f t he 4 th c entury s culptor L ysippos, who made h is h eads s maller a nd whose f igures c an b e s aid t o b e 8 h eadlengths i n h eight f rom v ertex t o h ee1. 3 1 T he l ack o f a ccurate s tatistics makes i t d iff icult t o a ssess h ow c losely a rtists a dhered t o a ny c alculated f ormulae but s ome g uide a s t o t he r elationships o f t he measures o f t he human b ody would b e n ecessary when r oughing o ut a s tone b lock, o r a mass o f c lay, particularly when d ealing w ith t he c onstruction o f a c olossal s tatue. G reek v ersatility i n r egard t o s ize i s well i l lustrated by L ysippos who i s k nown t o h ave v aried t he s izes o f h is s tatues f rom t he m iniature t o t he c olossal, a nd h is s tatue o f J upiter a t T arentum i s known t o h ave measured 4 0 c ubits, which i s s ome t en t imes t he h eight o f a n a verage man. 32 I t h as b een s uggested t hat c omplicated f ormulae would h ave r estr icted t he f reedom o f t he G reek s culptor , a nd t his i s o f c ourse t rue i f s uch c omplicated f ormulae were i ndeed i n u se i n Ancient G reece. B ut t he e vidence f or c omplicated
p roportional f ormulae l ies o verwhelmingly i n t he m inds o f modern a rt h istorians a nd n ot i n t he meagre s ources o n G reek a rt . T o b e u seful a p roportional s ystem must b e s imple , a nd i t m erely e stablishes l inear l engths f rom r eference p oint t o r eference p oint. I t n eed n ot d epend o n a g rid, a nd t here i s n o n eed f or i t t o i nhibit t he f inal c onf iguration a nd modelling o f t he f igure, o r t he s eparate u se o f s ome s tandard o f r eference f or f oreshortening. F rom t he meagre i nformation l ef t t o u s i t i s t hus c lear t hat t he G reek i nterpretations o f p roportional r elationships w ithin t he f igure were n ot s tatic. N o s ingle r evered f ormula was c onsidered i mmutable, a nd a rtists a dopted a nd a dapted s ystems a ccording t o t heir own i ndividual p references. T he p roportional s ystems o f P olykleitos a nd L ysippos a re t herefore n ot t o b e s een a s a bsolute s tandards o f measure. T heir i mportance l ies i n t he f act t hat t hey i l lustrate a nd e xplain t he e xistence o f p roportional r ules f or t wo c ontrasting t ypes o f h uman b ody; t he s hort a nd s tocky f igure, a nd t he e longated a nd s lender f igure. T his i s a c ontrast which i s e choed i n B yzantine f igural d ecoration o ver t he c enturies. V itruvius T he c ryptic p uzzle a s t o t he e xact s tructure o f G reek f ormulae i s f urther c onfused by t he c omments o f V itruvius. H is t reatise o n a rchitecture was p robably written a f ew y ears b efore t he b eginning o f o ur e ra, a nd i t a ppears t o i ncorporate much o f a ncient G reek p ractice. I t b ecame a s tandard work o f r eference i n t he R oman world a nd i t a ppears t o have b een known t o B yzantine s cholars. 3 3 V itruvius e mphasizes t he i mportance o f s ymmetry a nd h armony i n a rchitectural s tructures a nd h e s tates t hat a n a rchitectural p lan " must h ave a n e xact p roportion worked o ut a f ter t he f ashion o f t he members o f a f inely s haped h uman b ody". 3 ' 4 L ater o n h e writes: " Symmetry a lso i s t he a ppropriate h armony a rising o ut o f t he d etails o f t he work i tself ; t he c orrespondence o f e ach g iven d etail among t he s eparate d etails t o t he f orm o f t he d esign a s a whole j ust a s i n t he h uman b ody, f rom c ubit, f oot, p alm, i nch, a nd o ther s mall parts c omes t he s ymmetric q uality o f e urythmy". 3 5 T o i l lustrate t he p roportional r elationships which e xist i n t he h uman b ody V itruvius p rovides u s w ith a n i ncomplete f ractional c anon whereby t he l engths o f p arts o f t he b ody a re i nterpreted i n t he f orm o f f ractions o f t he whole b ody h eight. I n i ts f ractional f orm t he r elationship o f o ne part o f t he b ody t o a nother i s g iven o nly f or t he v ertical h eight o f t he f ace ( root o f h air t o c hin) a nd t he s ubdivisions o f t he f ace. T he V itruvian f ace i s d ivided v ertically i nto t hree e qual parts, o ne o f which i s t he n ose-length. T his u se o f t he n ose l ength i s a v ital p iece o f e vidence f or t he c ontinuity o f p roportional m easures f rom t he C lassical p eriod t hrough i nto t he B yzantine a nd modern world.
2 8
T he V itruvian s tatements. 3 6
( Text F ig.
9 )
We i nterpret t he V itruvian f ractions a s f orming p art o f a unified s ystem wherein e ach f raction r elates t o t he t otal h eight f rom t he v ertex o f t he h ead t o t he h eel. T he l ist o f t he f ractional r elationships b etween t he p arts o f t he b ody a nd t he whole f igure i s a n i ncomplete o ne, b ecause V itruvius was n ot i nstructing a rtists a s t o t he c onstruction o f t he h uman f igure but merely i l lustrating t he h armony o f t he p roportional r elationships t hat c an b e f ound i n t he b ody a s a guide f or a rchitectural p lanning. H owever , h e d oes s tate t hat " the o ther l imbs", p resumably t he l egs, " also h ave t heir own p roportionate measurements". And i t i s p ossible t o d educe f urther measures f rom t hose t hat h e d oes g ive t o u s. T he f ractions l isted b elow h ave a c ommon multiple which i s t hat o f t he t otal b ody l ength f rom v ertex t o h eel, a nd a ccording t o V itruvius t he l ength o f t he b ody amounts t o 4 c ubits. T his v ertical h eight measure i s e qual t o t he h orizontal measure a cross t he c hest f rom t he t ip o f o ne m iddle f inger t o t he t ip o f t he o ther when t he a rms a re e xtended a t r ight a ngles t o t he b ody. 37 This e quality o f t he measures o f b readth a nd h eight a s s tated by V itruvius was r epeated i n Mediaeval, R enaissance, a nd p ost R enaissance c anons, a nd we s hall f ind o ne e xample o f i t e choed i n t he i nstructions o f C ennino C ennini. I n n ature, h owever, t he h orizontal w idth a long t he o utstretched a rms i s l onger t han t he v ertical h eight. W e a ssume t he V itruvian f igure t o b e male, s tanding a nd f rontal i n a spect. The V itruvian f ractions c an b e l isted a s f ollows:1 .
T he h ead:
T he v ertex t o c hin
2 .
T he f ace:
3 .
T he f orehead:
4 .
T he n ose:
5 .
The c hin: b ase o f n ose t o p oint o f c hin
6 .
F rom t he t op o f t he b reast w ith t he b ottom o f t he n eck t o t he r oot o f t he h air
1 8
1
f oot o f hair t o c hin
1 0
r oot o f h air t o r oot o f n ose
1
r oot o f n ose t o b ase o f n ose
3 0 1 3 0
7 .
F rom t he p it o f t he t hroat o r a dd. Gal. f rom t he m iddle o f t he b reast ( pit o f s tomach) t o t he v ertex
8 .
T he w idth o f t he b reast: p resumably f rom a rmpit t o a rmpit
9 .
The c ubit: f rom t he e lbow t o t ip o f m edius.
2 9
1 3 0
3 8
1 6
1 0 .
The h and:
f rom b ase o f palm t o t ip o f medius.
1 1 0
1.
T he f oot:
f rom h eel t o e nd o f t he t oes
1 6
The d eductive measures B y u sing t he a bove s tatements i t i s p ossible t o work o ut o ther d istances b etween g iven r eference p oints. 1 2.
T he h airy s calp, o r v ertex t o l ess t he f ace ( 2): _ 1 _ _L = L 8
1 3.
1 0
T he f orearm: h and ( 10):
e lbow t o t ip - 1 = 1 0
o f medius = a c ubit
( 9) l ess t he
2 0
T he h eight o f t he c hest: p it o f t hroat t o p it o f s tomach = v ertex t o m iddle o f c hest ( 7) l ess t he n eck ( 13) a nd t he h ead ( 1): - 1 - 1 = 7 4
1 6.
p oint o f t he c hin t o p it o f o f t hroat ( 6) l ess t he f ace
1 5
4
1 5.
( 1)
4 0
T he n eck which i s f rom t he t hroat = r oot o f h air t o p it ( 2): _ 1 1 6
1 4.
1 0
r oot o f h air = t he h ead
1 5
8
1 20
T he u pper a rm: e lbow t o a rmpit = t he o verall w idth ( f ingertip t o f ingertip) o r h eight l ess t he b reast w idth ( 8) l ess 2 c ubits ( 9) d ivided by 2 : 1-I _ 2
The T ext F ig. 9 , and t he c har t o f measurements g iven b elow a re b ased o n t he V itruvian s tatement t hat t he h eight o f a man i s 4 c ubits. C olumn 1 g ives t he V itruvian f ractions. C olumn 2 g ives a t ranslation o f t hose f ractions i nto f actors o f t heir l owest c ommon multiple o f 1 20 units; C olumn 3 t ranslates t he f ractions i nto d igital f actors o f 4 c ubits ( 96 d igits); C olumns 4 t ranslates t he f ractions i nto u ncial f actors o f 4 c ubits ( 72 i nches); a nd C olumn 5 l ists t he number o f n ose l engths t o which t hese f ractions c an b e made t o r elate , s ince i t f ollows f rom s tatement ( 2) t hat a f igure o f 1 0 f acelengths i s e qual t o a f igure o f 3 0 n ose-lengths b ecause t he f ace i s made u p o f t hree e qual p arts ( 3), ( 4) and ( 5) o f which o ne i s t he n ose . The r emaining d imension o f t he V itruvian h ead i s t he d istance f rom t he v ertex t o t he r oot o f t he h air ( 12) t his i s l ess t han o ne n ose (2 1 ,n ose). A s a p arallel t o t his, i t may b e n oted t hat while t wo o f t he manuscript B yzantine c anons t hat we s hall e xamine b e low g ive a f ull n ose measure f or t he h airy s calp, i t i s c lear i n s ome B yzantine wall paintings t hat t he f ourth d ivision o f t he h ead v aries f rom o ne n ose-length t o more o r t o l ess t han o ne n ose-length, a lthough t he t hree e qual d ivisions o f t he f ace r emain t he s ame. V itruvius' l ist o f o f t he p ar ts o f t he p rovides n o r atios q uestionable ( 7), a nd
f ractions e stablishing t he r elationships b ody t o t he whole i s i ncomplete. H e f or measuring t he t orso e xcept t he n one f or t he l ower l imbs t hough h e d oes
3 0
v e r tex .
h a Är
f er rsh€4 4
1 c h in
n osa c h in
! m o t s
3 n a v a l
CU 6I k
m ; d e l l e 5 V L c LIz hou lder s I c u b (
6 k n e e
T an i 4c u6 ils 8' l ead l e nghs
s o l ec r f F o ot
x5,
F ig 9 . A n i nterpretation o f V itruvian man.
3 1
C hart of t he
I nterpretation of t he V itruvian f ractions 1
M odules
O ne
T otal h eight h eel ( 1)
T he h ead
1
hair ( 3)
f ace
f orehead
( 4)
( 5)
T he n ose
3 0
3 0
c hin
:n osetip
t o
base of c hin ( 6)
P it of t hroat
( 7)
t o
6
M iddle o f b reast
( 8)
( 9)
T he c ubit
:e lbow t o
of m iddle
f inger
T he hand
4 1
( 11)
T he
T he
f oot
:h eel
R oot o f h air t o v ertex
( 13)
T he n eck
( 14)
T he
base
of h and
( 15)
T he h eight o f t he
f orearm
:p it of s tomach
T he u pper a rm
4 0
1 5
:e lbow t o
p it o f t hroat ( 16)
7 .2
3
4
3 .2
2 .4
1
4
3 .2
2 .4
1
4
3 .2
2 .4
1
2 0
1 6
1 2
5
3 0
2 4
1 8
7/ 12
3 0
2 4
1 8
7 %
3 0
2 4
1 8
7 %
1 2
9 .6
7 .2
3
2 0
1 6
1 2
5
3
2 .4
1 .8
8
6 .4
4 .8
2
1 4.4
1 0.8
4%
5 .6
4 .2
1 %
9
3 %
3 4
1
:p it of
t o p oint o f c hin
t o a rmpit
9 ,9
1
( 12)
c hest
3 %
t o
( profile)
d eductive m easures
t hroat
1 2
9
: base o f
p alm t o t ip o f m edius
e nd of t oes
1 2
:
t o a rmpit
t ip ( 10)
1 5
3 0
t o
..
W idth o f b reast
a rmpit
7 2
1 3 0
r oot o f h air
v ertex
9 6
1
:r oot of
t o n osetip T he
1 20
1
: r oot
of h air t o r oot of n ose
n ose
5
1
:r oot of
t o c hin T he
4
I nches N oses
:v ertex / 18
T he
3 D igits
:v ertex t o
:4 c ubits
t o c hin ( 2)
2 U nits
t o --
3 2 0
1 8
7 1 20
7
: e lbow / 1 8
1 5
1 2
s tate t hat t hey a lso have t heir p roportional measurements. I t s eems l ikely t hat t he V itruvian f ractions r elate t o c anons o f p roportions u sed by 'a ncient painters a nd f amous s culptors' 39 but t he f ractions a s t hey s tand p rovide u s w ith n o r atios t o d ef ine t he r elationship o f t he parts t o e ach o ther, w ith t he e xception o f t he t hree f acial f eatures ( 3), ( 4) a nd ( 5), n or d o V itruvius' c omments i nform u s a s t o whether t he f ractional c anon was a pplied d irectly i n t he f orm o f f ractions o r i ndirectly b y t he r eduction o f t hose f ractions i nto f actors o f a c ommon muliple. When t he V itruvian f ractions a re t ranslated i nto f actors o f a c ommon multiple ( see Chart C olumn 2 ) i t i s p ossible t o d etermine n ot o nly t he r atio o f t he parts o f t he f igure t o t he whole but a lso t he r atios o f t he parts t o e ach o ther . T hus t he h and i s i n a r atio o f 1 :10 t o t he whole f igure a nd h as a r atio o f 4 :5 t o t he h ead, a nd a r atio o f 3 :5 w ith t he f oot, e tc. F urthermore, t he u nit o f t he c ommon multiple c ould b e v aried a ccording t o t he s ize o f f igure r equired while a t t he s ame t ime t he e stablished p roportional r atios c ould s till b e maintained. Thus t he V itruvian f ractions c an e asily b e i nterpreted a s d escribing a modular s ystem o f a pplied p roportion which r egulates t he r elationships o f t he parts b oth t o e ach o ther a nd t o t he whole. I n c olumns 3 a nd 4 i t c an b e s een t hat t he t ranslation o f t he f ractions i nto d igital a nd u ncial u nits i s q uite p ossible, but t he r esult g ives s ome f ractional measures which would c ause c onsiderable p ractical d ifficulty i n t he a pplication o f s uch a d igital o r u ncial i nterpretation. S uch a t ranslation d oes, h owever , e stablish a l ink b etween R oman a nd G reek s tandard measure a nd t he p roportional r atios i n t he V itruvian f igure, s ince t he V itruvian f oot a nd c ubit e ach e quate c orrectly w ith t he n ominal s tandard R oman f oot a nd c ubit measures o f 1 6 d igits ( 12 i nches) a nd 2 4 d igits ( 18 i nches) r espectively. C olumn 5 l ists a t ranslation o f t he V itruvian f ractions i nto n ose-length units. T his may i ndicate t hat t he n ose-length was p reviously u sed a s a module i n t he Ancient G reek world j ust a s i t was u sed l ater i n t he B yzantine p er iod. We h ave s een t hat t he V itruvian f ractions c an b e i nterpreted a s f actors o f a c ommon multiple. I t i s p ossible t hat t he G reek c anons o f f igural p roportion were f ormulated i n t erms o f n umerical multiples o f a s ingle modular u nit, a nd t his may b e what was i mplied by 'a c onfusion o f n umbers' i n t he s tatement o f P hilo o f B yzantium c oncerning t he f orm o f t he P olykleitan c anon. V itruvius a dvocates t he u se o f modules i n t he c onstruction o f a rchitectural p lans a s a m eans o f c ontrolling t he p roportional r elationships o f t he p arts a nd t he whole. 4 0 H e a lso p roposes t hat t hese r elationships s hould b e a s e xact a s t hose g overning t he s tructure o f t he h uman f igure, s ome o f whose p roportions h e t hen p roceeds t o i ndicate i n t he
3 3
f orm o f f ractions o f t he t otal h eight . B ut while t he s imple f ractions l ike halves o r quarters o r e ighths a re s imple t o e stablish , more c omplex f ractions l ike t hirds a nd t enths n eed t he a pplication o f a measuring r od o r t he u se o f g eometric c onstructions. I n c ontrast t o t he c lumsiness o f t he f ractional s ystem t he modular s ystem i s e asily a daptable f or d ifferent s izes o f f igures, a nd i t c an b e e asily a pplied t o d etermine l engths w ithin t he b ody by t he s imple p rocess o f r epetitive marking, e ither d irectly o n t he s urface t o b e painted, o r o n a m easuring r od o r s tring. T he u se o f a n a rithmetical module i s p ractical i n a g eneral way but i t p resents p roblems t o a c raf tsman working a t s peed, s uch a s a wall p ainter s triving t o c omplete h is c omposition a nd t o l ay i n h is c o lours b efore h is p laster s urface c ongeals. F or s uch c raf tsmen t he u se o f a n a nthropometric module which c ould e asily b e c ompared w ith t he r est o f t he f igure would h ave b een a welcome a id i n h is work. T he d ivision o f t he V itruvian f ace i nto t hree e qual p arts, a nd t he s imilarity b etween h is f ace a nd h and measures, may h ave r esulted f rom o r l ed t o a more a nthropometric r e-interpretation o f p roportional c anons, i n t he f orm o f modular f ormulae b ased o n t he n ose a nd/or f ace module. The V itruvian f igure o f 8 h ead-lengths ( vertex t o h eel) would a ppear t o r elate more c losely t o t he s mall h eaded s lender f igures t o b e a ssociated w ith c ertain works o f L ysippos t han t o t he s hor t s tocky f igures a ttributed t o P olykleitos. A lthough t aller t han t he modern s cientif ic average by f a h ead-length, t he V itruvian f igure d oes n o t l ack s ubstance , a nd w ith i ts 2 h ead l engths f or t he w idth o f t he c hest i t s uggests t he physique o f a n a thlete. 4 1 T hese o bservations s uggest t hat t he V itruvian f ractions c ould r elate t o p revious c anons o f G reek f igural p roportion, a nd V itruvius may a lso h ave p rovided a p oint o f d eparture f or t he f ormulation o f t he modular a nthropmetric c anons o f which we h ave f ragments i n E lpios R omaios a nd N icephoras G regoras, a nd more f ully d eveloped v ersions i n t he t exts o f D ionysios a nd P anselinos.
3 4
B YZANTINE PROPORTION THE T EXTS A ND COMMENTARY I ntroduction B yzantine a r t g rew u p i n a G raeco-Roman e nvironment i n which i t h ad t o f ight f or a nd f ind a Christian i dentity among t he t raditions o f E mundane a nd i ntensely physical i nterpretation o f f igural r epresentation. A p articular B yzantine i conography was f ormulated wh ich a bsorbed w ithin i tself t hose i ngredients o f Antique a rt which were s uited t o t he h istories o f t he Chr istian F aith. While r emaining n aturalistic, B yzantine f igures were f ormalized i n t he s ervice o f a r eligious a nd d idactic p urpose i n s uch a way t hat t his l inking o f t he physical a nd t he D ivine c aused t he h uman i mage t o b ecome a means t o a n e nd, a nd n ot, a s i n t he C lassical world, a n e nd i n i tself . I n t he l ate R oman a nd E arly Christian p eriods u p t o t he 7 th c entury A .D. f igural d ecoration s eems g radually t o h ave multiplied a t t he e xpense o f d ecorative p attern-making o n t he walls, v aults a nd f loors o f c hurches. T his p ro liferation o f f igures was c ompleted i n c hurches o f t he p ost-Iconoclast p eriod which a re d ecorated f rom f loor t o d ome w ith p ainting o r mosaic o f s ingle f igures a nd n arrative s cenes. T he n arrative s cenes a re d ominated b y t he f igures, a nd b ackground a nd f oreground f eatures, i f p resent a t a ll, b ecome i ncreasingly s ubservient t o t hem. C onsiderable v ariation i n t he s ize o f t he f igures c an b e o bserved n ot o nly f rom r egister t o r egister o r p anel t o panel but a lso w ithin s ingle c ompositions, where t he h ierarchical i mportance o f c ertain c haracters i s emphasized i n a t raditional way by a n i ncrease i n t heir s tature, i n c ontrast t o t hat o f l esser a ctors i n t he d rama unfolding. A s triking a nd e nduring c haracteristic o f s o many s equences o f mural d ecoration i s t he h armony o f p roportion which e xists b oth w ithin t he s ingle f igure, a nd b etween a ll t he f igures w ithin a s ingle s cheme o f d ecoration, d espite t he f act t hat t he s ize o f t he f igures may v ary c onsiderably. S uch a ppa r ent d is cipline makes a s harp c ontrast t o t he more h aphazard a nd s ometimes d isharmonious i mpression g iven by R omanesque f igural d ecorations. D iscipline a nd h armony i n a l arge s cheme o f f igural d ecoration a re o nly p ossible i f t he d esigner employs a m ethod o f c ontro lling a nd c o-ordinating t he p roportions o f t he f igure, n ot o nly w ithin i tself but i n i ts r elation t o o ther f igures. T he o nly p ossible method o f c onsistently c ontrolling t he p roportions o f f igures which v ary i n s ize i s t o e mploy a s imple modular p roportional s tructure. I f we a ccept t hat B yzantine a rtists u sed a modular s ystem o f p roportion, h owever i ts r atios may h ave v aried o ver t he c enturies, t hen i t i s i mportant t o e stablish t he n ature o f t he
3 5
modules t hat t hey u sed. The most a daptable a nd c onvenient u nit o f measure f or a n a rtist c oping w ith a g reat d iversity o f f igure s izes i s a n a nthropometric u nit which c an e asily b e c ompared w ith t he r est o f t he f igure. I n t he p er iod b efore t he e nd o f t he B yzantine Empire t he t extual e vidence f or p roportional s ystems i s meagre. We a re a ble t o g ive o nly t wo i ncomplete r eferences, n either o f which c an b e c onstrued i nto c oherent c anons. T heir i mportance i s t hat t hey s erve t o e stablish t he e xistence o f i deas a bout p roportion. T he t wo t exts t hat we d o a nalyse a re t he o ne b y D ionysios o f F ourna, a nd t he d escription o f t he p ainting m ethods o f P anselinos. D ionys ios l ived i n t he 1 7th c entury but t he manuscript t hat we u se i s f rom t he 1 8 th c entury . T he P anselinos manuscript i s a lso 1 8th c entury, a lthough t he p ainter P anse linos i s s aid t o h ave b een working i n t he 1 4th c entury which, i f t rue, would b ring h is m ethods b ack t o w ithin t he l ate B yzantine p er iod. T here a re a lso i ndications i n t hese a nd i n s ome o f o ther p ainters' t exts t hat t he i nstructions a re p artly made f rom s ets o f r ules t hat a re much o lder. 4 2 Moreover i t w ill s een b elow t hat measurement o f a ctual p aintings c onf irms e xistence o f e arlier s ets o f p roportional r ules.
t he u p b e t he
I t w ill a lso b ecome c lear t hat B yzantine p roportional c anons were n ot r elatively s tatic l ike t hose o f E gypt, but c hanges w ere made b oth i n t heory a nd i n p ractice , a nd i t may b e t hat w ithin t he s ame p eriod o ne s et o f r ules was f ollowed b y o ne s chool o f p ainters, while a d ifferent s et o f r ules was f ollowed by a nother s et o f p ainters. Only t he f urther p ublication o f t he t exts o f t he ' Painters' Guides' 1 4 3 a nd o f m easurements o f t he h uman f igure i n d ifferent c hurches o f t he s ame a nd o f d iffer ing p eriods w ill r esolve t his p roblem . B ut i f f uture r esearch p roduces e vidence o f c onsiderable d iversity i n measure a nd p roportion, i t must b e emphasized t hat s uch d iversity w ill n ot b e e vidence a gainst t he u se o f p roportional c anons, b ut r ather a p roof o f a s pirit o f e nquiry a nd o f i ndividual d istinction b etween s chools o f p ainters. T he a rguments f or t he e xistence o f B yzantine p roportional c anons w ill b ecome c learer by d etailed a nalysis o f s ome o f t he p roblems i n b oth t exts a nd wall p a intings. T he n ose-length T he
e vidence
o f
b oth
m iddle
B yzantine
wall
p ainting
a nd
t he
p ost B yzantine t exts s uggests t hat a lthough c anons o f p roportion may v ary i n d etail, a b asic a nthropometr ic u nit o f measure may well h ave b een i n c ommon u sage, a nd t his was p robably t he n ose-length. B yzantine a rtists p aid p articular a ttention a nd c are t o t he s tructure a nd a ppearance o f t he h ead
3 6
a nd t he p ost B yzantine t exts make i t c lear t hat b oth t he h eadl ength a nd t he f ace-length ( root o f n ose t o b ase o f c hin) were u sed, a nd t hat a c ommon unit t o b oth t hese g reater modules was t he n ose-length, which was a ccepted a s Io f a h ead-length a nd a s 1 o f t he f ace-length. We h ave s een t hat t his r atio f or t he n ose i n r elation t o t he f ace c an p reviously b e f ound i n V itruvius, a nd o utside t he B yzantine world i t c an b e f ound i n t he d rawings o f D e H onnecourt ( Text F ig .3 9 ), C ennino C ennini ( Text F ig . 21) , L eonardo d a V inci ( 15th c entury) , a nd l ean C ousin ( 16th c entury). C ousin' s p roportions f or t he h ead a re i n t urn r ecommended b y t he s tandard modern a uthorities R icher ( 1900) a nd T homson ( 1929). 4 4 T he p articular c hoice o f t he r ose l ength i n a ll t hese c anons o f p roportion p robably r esults f rom c onvenience, f or i t p rovides a s mall u nit f or measuring s hort d istances w ithin t he f igure while a t t he s ame t ime i t i s a module o f r eference which i s n ever o bscured by t he v arying s tyles o f h eadgear , hair , o r b eard, a nd i t r emains t he s ame l ength whatever t he a spect o f t he h ead. I n B yzantine p reliminary d rawings which h ave b een r evealed b y t he f laking away o f t he u pper l ayers o f p igment many e xamples c an b e s een o f t he h ard d elineation o f a n h orizontal e yeline r unning t hrough t he n ose r oot a nd t he upper r im o f t he e yes f rom whence a s trong d ecisive L s haped p erpendicular d escends t o mark t he n ose. 4 5 S uch i ndications i n p reliminary d rawings f or p aintings a nd manuscripts f rom many p laces a nd many p eriods emphasize t he p robability t hat t he n ose-length was u sed by B yzantine p ainters a lthough t hey d iffered a bout o ther measures i n t heir c anons o f f igural p roportion. F oreshor tening a nd p erspective I f we a ssume t he e xistence o f B yzantine c anons i t i s c lear t hat t hey must h ave b een a nthropomorphic a nd modular i n t ype s o t hat t hey c ould s erve a s p ractical a nd e asy methods o f c ontrolling t he p roportions o f f igures whose s ize was d ictated p artly by h ieratic i mportance, a nd partly by t he a rchitectural l imits o f t he c hosen s pace f or t he p ainting. W e h ave a lready r emarked t hat t he a ngle o f v ision f rom which a f igure i s o bserved w ill c ondition t he amount o f f oreshortening t o b e r equired i n a n aturalistic f igure. T he e stablishment o f t he l aws o f o ptical p erspective i s a p ost-Renaissance a chievement, a nd p revious t o t heir g eneral a cceptance p erspective a nd f oreshor tening were i ncompletely understood a nd i nterpreted o n f lat s urfaces, s o t hat t hey p layed o nly m inor r oles i n d etermining t he s hape o f a rtistic c ompositions. T he c onvention t hat f eatures a nd f igures i n a c omposition s hould b e i nterpreted a s o bserved f rom a s ingle a ngle o f v ision h ad b een p artially known t o t he R omans but t he B yzantines d id n o t c onform t o i t . N evertheless, v ar ious d evices w ere u sed by a r tists a nd c raf tsmen t o c onvey t he t hree d imensional q uality o f t hickness a nd d epth b oth w ithin t he f igures t hemselves, a nd i n t heir r elat ionships t o e ach o ther a nd t o t he p icture s pace t hat t hey o ccupy. A s r egards t he l atter i t may s uff ice t o r emark t hat d iminishing p erspective, whereby o b jects a nd
3 7
f igures g et s maller a s t hey r ecede f rom t he f ront o f t he p ictorial s pace, was n ot a c onvention r ecognized i n Antiquity o r i n B yzantine s tyles. B yzantine f igures i n t he s ame c omposition may v ary i n s ize f or h ieratic r easons, b ut a s i n Antique a rt, o verlaps a nd t he p lacing o f p eople, a rchitectures, o r l andscape f eatures a bove e ach o ther were t he o nly d evices u sed t o i ndicate r ecession f rom t he f oreground a nd t o s uggest d ifferent p ictorial p lanes. T he t hree-dimensional n ature o f t he f igure i tself was s uggested i n v ar ious ways i n t he B yzantine a nd Antique worlds. F or e xample, t he E gyptians s tandardised t he upright f igure a nd c ombined i nto i t a c omplex o f v isual a spects which we k now b ut c annot s ee a t o ne t ime, a nd t hus i ndicated t he s alient c haracter istics o f t he t hree d imensional h uman f igure w ith t he u se o f a m inimum o f f oreshortening. A s trong a nd c ontinuous l ine was u sed t o c ontour a nd o utline t he main s hapes o f t he b ody, a nd c olour was a pplied i n monotone w ithout b lending o r g rading a s t o s hade o r h ue, s o t hat n either l ine n or c olour h elp t o s uggest t he modelling a nd r elief o f t he h uman f orm. I n G reek a nd R oman painting t he u se o f f oreshortening a nd p erspective w ere i ncompletely u nderstood b ut a pplied w ith c onsiderable n aturalistic e ffect, while t he s ubtle u se o f g raded l ight a nd d ark c o lours, t ogether w ith t he s imulation o f c ast s hadow a ll h elp t o g ive v olume t o t he f igure. A d iversity o f p erspective d evices a ppears t o b e u sed i n B yzantine c ompositions where e ach e lement i s t reated i ndividually , a nd n o s ingle a ngle o f v ision i s maintained. D espite t his d iversity t he human f igure i n B yzantine murals a ppears t o b e s ub ject t o a s tandardized c onvention a s t o f oreshortening, a nd s uch a s tandard would i ndeed h ave b een e ssential i f c anonical s ystems o f measure were a pplied. One c onvention o f r egular a ppearance i s t hat t he u pper s urface o f t he h ead, t he s calp a nd t he p arting o f t he h air a re r evealed w ith a d egree i nconsistent w ith t he s traight a ngle o f v ision u nless t he h ead were t i lted f orward; while t he s houlders o f t he s ame f rontal f igure a re s een a s p erpendicular t o t he e ye a nd t heir upper s urfaces a re n o t r evealed ( Pls.3,14,20). I n t he t hree q uarter f rontal f igure o r i n t he p rof ile t orso t he s houlder t o t he f orefront o f t he p icture p lane i s d rawn w ith i ts u pper s urface r evealed e xcept i n t he c ase o f f igures c lothed i n l oroi o r p r iestly s toles ( Pls.8,17). I n t he s ame f rontal, o blique o r p rof ile f igures, t he a rm c an b e f lexed s o t hat i t l ies h orizontally a cross t he b ody r evealing t he e xter ior s urface o f t he f orearm. T he f orearm i tself c an a ppear a s f oreshortened w ith a d istance f rom wrist t o e lbow s o s hort a s t o s uggest t hat t he f orearm i s j utting f orward o ut o f t he p icture p lane; but whether o r n ot t his f oreshor tening i s p resent, t he h orizontal f orearm r eveals n o p art o f i ts u pper l ateral s urface s uch a s would b e c onsistent w ith a f igure c onforming t o t he a erial p erspective v iew-point s uggested by t he f orward s tance o f t he
3 8
h ead. ( Pl. 1 4). O ccasionally when t he u pper a rm i s a longside t he b ody i n i ts f rontal a spect t he f orearm i s f oreshortened a s i f i t were p ro jecting d irectly f orwards, a nd i n t his c ase t he u pper p lane o f t he f orearm i s u sually d isplayed t o a s hortened e xtent ( P1.17). When t he u pper t orso o f a f igure i s t wisted s o a s t o r eveal t he p osterior a spect o f t he s houlders a nd t he f ront a rm i s e x tended f orward a cross t he p icture p lane, ( P1.4) ( this p osture i s f requently u sed f or t he A rchangel G abriel i n t he Annunciation ( P1.18) t he f oreshortening o f t he back a nd s houlders i s f requently m isunderstood, a nd t he b ack may a ppear h umped. A lso t here i s s ome d istortion i n t he t ransition f rom a n o blique h ead a nd n eck t o s houlders i n t he p osterior a spect which a re t hen a ttached t o a f rontal a bdomen ( Pls.4,13). I n t he a rticulated s tances i mplying a rrested movement B yzantine mural f igures f requently s how a l ack o f f luent t ransition b etween t he v arious s egments o f t he b ody s uch a s t he h ead t o n eck, t he n eck t o s houlders, a nd t he b reast t o t he a bdomen. S uch c ontortion, which i s o f ten d ue t o i ncorrect f oreshor tening, i s o f ten o bscured by t he f luent t reatment o f t he r obe f olds a nd t he c olours built up w ithin t hem; t hese p lease a nd d istract t he e ye f rom a natomical a nd morpho logical i nnaccuracies. O ther p eculiarities may o ccur b ecause o f t he o verall c o lour c ontrasts. T hus s tanding f igures, whether i n t he f rontal, o blique, o r p rof ile a spects, f requently d isplay t high a reas whose c o lour build-up s tresses t he l ight t ones i n c ontrast t o l ower l eg a reas where t he c olour build up s tresses t he d arker c o lour t ones. A s a r esult t he t highs a ppear t o j ut f orwards i nto s pace a nd t he l ower l egs t o r ecede b ackwards, a nd s o upright f igures a ppear t o b end f orwards a t t he knees. I n f rontal s eated f igures t he t high i s u sually f ully f oreshortened a nd t he t op o f t he knee i s i n a lignment w ith t he b ase o f t he a bdomen; but variant a spects a re a lso d rawn w ith t he k nees a t d ifferent a ngles. F igures i n t he o blique o r l ateral a spect when s eated r eveal a n a erial v iew o f t he l ap b ecause t he f ront l eg i s d rawn w ith t he t high p erpendicular t o t he t runk, a nd t he r ear l eg a nd t high a re p laced a t a h igher l evel o f t he p icture p lane. O f t he t wo B yzantine t exts t hat we a nalyse o nly t he i nstructions p ertaining t o P anselinos c an b e s aid t o r efer i ndirectly t o t he p roblems o f f oreshortening. T hese i nstructions r elate t o t he f igures o f E vangelists, t he upright s eated f igure, a nd t he b owed s eated f igure. T hree m easures a re s pecif ically p rovided: T hese a re t he t otal v ertical h eight o ccupied by e ach f igure ( crown t o a nkle): a nd t he t wo c omplementary d ivisions o f t his h eight : t hat f rom c rown t o k nee, a nd t hat f rom k nee t o a nkle . T he t otal h eight f or t he s eated f igure i s s horter t han t hat f or t he upright f igure ( crown t o a nkle), a nd t he t otal h eight o f t he u pright s eated f igure i s marginally g reater t han t hat o f t he s eated f igure w ith b owed b ack. I n b oth s eated s tances t he d istance f rom t he k nee t o a nkle i s t he s ame a s t hat o f t he u pstanding f igure b ut t he h eights f rom c rown t o k nee a re l ess. T he h eight f rom c rown t o k nee i n t he b owed s eated f igure i s s horter t han t he s ame d istance i n t he u pright s eated f igure. The
3 9
f oreshor tening o f t he t high i n b oth f igures, a nd t hat o f t he b ack i n t he b owed f igure a re t hus b oth e xpressed i n t erms o f s hor tenings o f t he v ertical s pace o ccupied by t he whole f igure. N o f urther i nstructions a s t o t he measure o f t he b ody w ithin t he g eneral s pecif ication f or s eated f igures a re g iven, a nd i t may b e p resumed t hat t he a rtist employed t he g iven measures f or t he v er tical u pright f igure , a dapting t hem t o f i t w ithin t hese s pecif ications. One o f t he most s triking f eatures o f B yzantine f rontal f igures i s t he i nterpretation o f t he f eet . F igures a re most c ommonly d rawn w ith t heir f eet p lanted a part a nd s et a t a s light d iagonal o utwards. T he f eet a re s hown w ith t he d orsum a nd t oes f ully e xtended whereas i n t he l evel h ead-on v iew t hey s hould b e f oreshortened t o f i t w ithin a d istance e quivalent t o t he h eight b etween t he a nkle a nd t he base o f t he h eel. T he e xtended f oot l ength o f B yzantine f igures most f requently a dds a n e xtra h ead-length t o t he o verall v ertical h eight o f t he f igure s o t hat t he p roportions o f s lender f igures a ppear e ven more e longated by i ncreasing t he r atio o f h eight t o w idth. B yzantine a rtists s how d iversity w ith r egard t o t he a ngle o f v ision when i nterpreting t he human f igure, a nd t hey a re i nconsistent e ven w ithin a s ingle f igure, but t his v ery d iversity a nd i nconsistency r emains c onstant i n f orm . T he t hree d imensional c haracter o f t he human f igure i s eminently well s uggested i n B yzantine mosaic a nd p ainted f igures t hrough t he t echnique o f building u p s alient a nd r ecessive a reas i n l ight a nd d ark c o lours r espectively . T hese l ight a nd d ark a reas were painted w ithout r egard f or t he i dea t hat d epth must n ecessarily a ppear t o r ecede b ackwards i nto t he p icture s pace. I n many f igures s een i n t he f rontal a spect t he build u p o f l ights a nd d arks a ppears t o b e c onditioned by a l ight s ource d irectly i n f ront o f t he f igure, b ut c loser o bservation s hows t hat a lthough t he l ights s erve t o p ick o ut s alient a reas t hrusting f orward o ut o f t he p icture f rame, t here i s n o c omplementary r ecessing f or t he d arker c o lours s o a s t o b e c onsistent w ith t he u se o f f rontal i l lumination. S imilarly f igures i n t he s emi-prof ile a spect a ppear t o b e i l luminated f rom t he d irection i n which t hey a re f acing, b ut t he p lacing o f t he l ights a nd d arks w ithin t he f igure i s s eldom d irectionally c o-ordinated w ith a ny p recision a nd c onstancy e ither w ithin t he s ingle f igure, o r w ithin a c omposition c ontaining s everal f igures. T he c onsciousness o f a f ixed l ight s ource n ecessarily i mplies t he c asting o f s hadows. R oman a nd E arly Chr istian A rt u sually c onformed t o t he c onvention o f a f ixed l ight s ource a nd t hus painted o r mosaic f igures t hrow a t l east a v estigial s hadow. A fter t he I conoclast p eriod t he c ast s hadow i s r arely i f e ver d epicted i n B yzantine wall p ainting o r mosaic. 4 6 I t f ollows f rom t his o bservation t hat t he build u p o f l ight a nd d arks w ithin t he f igure must b e r egarded a s c onstructional.
4 0
T hey a re u sed a s a method o f i ndicating v olume i ndependently o f l ight s ources a nd p erspective.
a nd
mass
T hese f ew c haracteristic f eatures o f B yzantine f igural work h ave b een s ingled o ut b ecause t hey i nf luence, a nd a re i nfluenced by, t he g overning p roportional c anon . I t s eems f airly c lear t hat i t was a f ter t he I conoclast p eriod t hat B yzantine f igural p ainting c ame t o e xhibit s tandard f eatures t hroughout t he l ength a nd b readth o f t he Empire, a nd t hat t he c anons o f p roportion o f t he p er iod u p t o t he s ixth c entury may h ave b een more c losely r elated t o t hose o f t he C lassical world. (B elow T he B yzantine n ude
( Text F igs.
1 0.11)
T he n ude f igure i s n ot c ommon i n B yzantine works but i t i s r etained where t he n arrative t ruth r equires i t . Christ H imself i s s hown a s a nude i nfant i n t he hands o f t he m idwives, d isrobed when i mmersed i n t he I ordan t o b e baptised by I ohn, a nd a ttired i n a l o incloth f or t he s cenes a ssociated w ith H is c rucifix ion. T he s emi-nude i s n o t u ncommon i n t he c ase o f a scetic s aints a nd i t was n ecessary f or t he f igures o f t he 4 0 Martyrs o f S ebasta e a. S cenes o f t he L ast l udgement o f ten c ontain n ude f igures i n H ell, a nd t he p ersonif ications o f E arth a nd S ea a re f requently s emi-nude. I n O ld T estament s cenes, Adam a nd Eve a re n aked i n P aradise a nd c lothed when e xpelled t here-from . A n e xception o ccurs a t T rebizond, where i n t he s culpted f rieze o n t he s outh p orch o f t he Church o f S aint S ophia, Adam a nd Eve a re r espectably c lothed i n P aradise, b ut when t hey a re b anished f rom t hence, t heir s in a nd s hame a re s ymbolized b y t heir nudity. 4 7 I n n ature, t he n ude f igure d isplays a c omplex s urface t opography i n which t he e xtrusion o f b ony p rocesses, a nd t he c onvex a nd c oncave muscular masses mould t he s urface o f t he b ody . F urrows a nd c onvex f orms a re v ar iously i nterpreted a nd s tylized by a rtists c onstructing f igures o n f lat s urfaces, a nd h ard o utline a nd c ontour a re f requently u sed t o d ef ine t he f lowing p lastic f orms o f t he b ody. T he T ext F ig.2 i s a n i l lustration o f t he r eliefs, d epressions a nd f urrows which a ppear o n t he t runk o f t he h uman b ody i n i ts a nterior v iew. T his f igure ( af ter P . R icher) i s i ntended t o s erve a s a r eference f or t he s tylizations o f t he B yzantine n ude f igure a nd a s a n i l lustration o f p roportional r eferences i n t his a rea. R icher 's f igure i l lustrates t he t runk o f a well d eveloped a thletic male w ith b road s houlders a nd w ith well d eveloped c hest, a rm, a nd a bdominal muscles. S uch well d eveloped musculature w ill e nhance t he f urrows where t he muscles b ecome i nserted a nd c onceal s ome o f t he b ony e xtrusions more n oticeable i n t he l ess d eveloped male f igure. B yzantine a ccentuate t he
a rtists f requently d elineate t he f urrows a nd muscular a nd b ony s tructures o f t he human
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f igure w ith a h arsh l inear e mphasis. T heir f igures a re o f ten l onger a nd n arrower i n f rame t han i s f ound i n N ature. ( Text F igs. 1 0,11). Physical c haracterization i s r are i n B yzantine a r t, but a scetic s aints a re o f ten p ortrayed w ith e xaggeratedly t hin l imbs a nd b ony t orsos a nd t he ' man a ff licted w ith d ropsy ' h as a b loated a ppearance q uite i n k eeping w ith t he p hysical s ymptoms o f h is d isease. I n B yzantine f igures t here i s a c onsiderable awareness o f t he morpho logical a ppearance o f t he nude, b ut i ts r epresentation i s f requently a rbitrary a nd e rratic t o t he e xtent t hat i t o ccasionally d evolves i nto a bstract p attern making, a nd i t e xhibits l i ttle awareness o f p lastic f orm a nd a natomical a ccuracy . T here i s a c ertain amount o f v ariation o ver t he c enturies b ut t he f o llowing g eneralisations may s erve a s a n e xplanatory guide t o t he t reatment o f v arious a reas. I n n ature t he f rontal a spect o f t he n eck when t he c hin i s l evel i s c haracter ised by t he V s haped j ut o f t he l ateral n eck muscles ( sternomastoids). T he h ollow a t t heir b ase marks t he p it o f t he t hroat. T he t wo p oster ior ( or l ateral) t r iangles o f t he n eck f orm s hallow h ollows t o e ither s ide o f t he n eck, b etween t he upper r idge o f t he s houlder a nd t he c ollar b one ( clavicles). S ee T ext F ig. 2 . T hese h ollows f all e ither s ide o f t he b ase o f t he V s hape o f t he n eck muscles ( sternomastoids). I n B yzantine f igures t hese c haracteristics a re i gnored o r v ar iously i nterpreted. Many y oung men h ave n ecks w ith o nly a s hallow h orizontal s emi-circle t o i ndicate t he t hree d imensional f orm; i n o thers, t his s emi-circle i s i nterrupted a t t he c entre by a s mall U t o mark t he p it o f t he t hroat; y et o ther f igures h ave a marked V w ith a w ide U a t t he b ase. S uch h ard l ines o ccasionally g ive t he n eck a g oitrous a ppearance. T he p osterior t r iangles o f t he n eck a re o f ten i ndicated b y a n h orizontally e longated C a nd a r eversed C , but s eldom a ppear i n c orrect r elationship t o t he c ollar b one ( clav icles). I n t he r are p rof ile h eads t he j ut o f t he Adam's a pple i s n ot i ndicated. T he B yzantine f igure o f ten has s teeply s loping s houlders a s i f t he c ollar b ones ( clavicles) were s et d iagonally r ather t han h orizontally i n r elation t o t he b reast b one ( sternum). T he s teep s lope o f t he s houlder t hus s hortens t he a pparent h eight o f t he s houlder ( delto id a rea), a nd t he d istance f rom t he t op o f t he s houlder t o t he e lbows c an b e s horter i n p roportion t o t he who le f igure t han i t i s i n n ature. I n T ext F ig.2, t he b reast muscles ( pectorals) a re h ighly d eve loped a nd t he c entral f urrow s eparating t hem i s n arrow while t he f urrow b eneath t hese muscles ( inframammary f urrow) i s v ery p ronounced. I n B yzantine f igures t his f urrow i s o f ten s trongly d ef ined by a c ontinuous l ine a nd o ccasionally a s econdary l ine a dds e ven f urther emphasis. T he a rea b etween t he b reast muscles which r uns o ver t he b reastbone ( sternum) i n l ess d eve loped c hests, o f ten r eveals t he j ut o f t he r ibs ( chondrosternal a nd c hondrocostal a rticulations) i n t he f orm o f s hallow h orizontal r idges. S ome B yzantine a rtists p ortray t hese
4 4
b y a s eries o f h or izontal l ines o ver t he b reast b one ( sternum). T he s urface o f t he b reasts ( pectoral s urface) c ontains t he n ipples which i n B yzantine f igures a re f requently r epresented by s mall c ircles. T he a rea a round t he n ipple, when n ot p lain, i s v ar iously s tr iated a nd o ccasionally i t i s f i lled w ith c ircles c oncentric t o t he n ipple. T he f emale n ude i s r arely d epicted i n B yzantine works a nd i t i s c onf ined mostly t o f igures o f Eve a nd c ertain a scetic s aints s uch a s t he s emi-nude f igure o f Mar ia o f E gypt , a nd t o c ertain d enizens o f h ell i n s cenes o f t he L ast j udgement. T he Eves d epicted u pon e arly C hristian s arcophagi r etain t he p lump r ounded b reasts s o c haracter istic o f H ellenistic s culpture, but i n p ost-Iconoclast murals t he b reast f orms a re p endulous a nd o f ten t riangular i n s hape.
i s
a
B elow t he muscles o f t he c hest a t t he c entre o f t he t runk s mall d epression marking t he e nd o f t he b reast b one
( sternum) a bove i ts d eeper e xtension ( ziphoid p rocess). T his h o llow i s k nown a s t he p it o f t he s tomach ( epigastric d epression). I n B yzantine f igures i t i s i ndicated by a n o val o r b y a s mall s emi-circle j oined t o t he u nder l ine o f t he c hest muscles ( inframammary f urrow). T he s urface o f well d eveloped f igures i s i nterrupted o n e ither s ide o f t he t runk b eneath t he c hest muscles b y t he i rregular r idges f ormed by t he d igitations o f t he r ib muscles ( intercostal muscles). I f t hese a re u nder-developed a nd t he b ody i s t hin, t hen t he r idges o f t he r ibs t hemselves c an b e o bserved. I n many B yzantine f igures t he r ibs a re s trongly d emarcated, s ometimes t o e xcess, a nd f requently w ith a f ew a dditional r ibs t o t hose w ith which n ature h as e ndowed t he h uman f orm. I n nature t he c entral a bdominal r egion o f t he t runk i s c haracter ised by t he u ndulations o f t he a bdominal muscle ( rectus a bdominus) a nd i t i s marked by a s eries o f h orizontal f urrows, t he l owest o f which r un t o t he n avel, while a c entral f urrow r uns v ertically t o t he n avel. T he o utline f urrows f ollow t he o gival c ontour o f t he r ib c age a nd t hen d escend v ertically a longside t he f lanking muscle ( obliquus e xternus) t o p ick up t he c ontcur o f t he h ip ( i liac l ine) a nd c ontinue d own a nd a long t he d iagonal a nd t ransverse l ines o f t he g roin. T hese a bdominal f urrows a re n ot c ont inuous d epressions a nd a re most c learly v isible i n t he well d eveloped male whose muscles a re h ard a nd c ompact. I n C lassical s tatuary t he a bdominal r eliefs a nd d epressions a re o f ten c learly a nd s ometimes h arshly i ndicated. I t may b e f rom t his h eritage t hat t he B yzantine a rtist d rew h is h ard l inear i nterpretation o f a bdominal t opography, w ith a bdominal f urrows p or trayed i n h arsh c ontinuous l ines. T he p ubic r egion i s d emarcated by t he t ransverse l ine a t t he b ase o f t he b elly, a nd t he l ine o f t he t highs; i t i s t riangular i n f orm a nd i ts b ase s upports t he r eproductive o rgans. I n most B yzantine nudes o r s emi-nudes t his a rea i s
4 5
c oncealed e ither by a l o incloth o r by s ome e xternal d evice s uch a s a c onvenient b ranch o f f oliage. T he nude Christ i n t he J ordan, when h e i s n o t modestly s creened by t he u ndulations o f water, r eveals a p lain a nd s ometimes h airy t riangle. T he A dam d epicted i n t he mosaics o f S an Marco i n V enice i s more p roperly e quipped a s t he b egetter o f t he h uman r ace. T he nude B yzantine t high s f usiform i n s hape . I t i s n arrow a t t he k nee a nd t he s pindle f orm w idens a s i ts o utline c ontinues u p t he i nner l ine o f t he t high a nd a long t he d iagonal f urrow o f t he g roin, a nd t hen u p a nd o ver t he t op o f t he h ip b one ( i liac l ine) t o r eturn d ownwards, o utlining t he buttock a nd t he t high. T his e longated f usiform t high i s a s trong f eature o f B yzantine f igures where t he l eg i s s een i n p rof ile o r s emi p rof ile. I ts f orm i s c learly v isible i n many c lothed f igures where t he r obe f olds a nd c o lour build-up a ccentuate t he s hape. I n s ome f rontal f igures t his e xtended d elineation o f t he i nner t high l ine o ver t he h ip c auses t he b elly t o b e r educed t o a n arrow V . T he k nee i s o ne o f t he most e lusive f orms o f t he h uman b ody, a nd many B yzantine a rtists a re c ontent t o mark i t w ith a n a rbitrary c ircle, a nd s ometimes t wo c ircles. T he l ower l eg i s marked b y t he r igid l ine o f t he t ibia which l ies c lose t o t he s urface s kin, a nd by t he j ut o f t he c alf muscle b ehind i t . I n t he p rof ile l eg B yzantine a rtists f requently c ontinue t he b ack o utline o f t he t high d own i nto t he l eg where i t s eparates t he l eg b one ( t ibia) f rom t he bulge o f t he c alf muscle; t he l ower l eg i s, i n many c ases, s eparated f rom t he f oot by a n e ncircling c urve. T he f oot i s u sually q uite c orrectly o bserved a lthough o f ten r ather s hort, w ith t he a rch o f t he f oo t a ppear ing c orrectly o nly when t he i nside l eg i s e xposed. T he s play o f t he t oes i s u sually s hown w ith t he t oes r egressing i n s ize f rom t he b ig t oe, b ut q uite f requently t he s econd t oe i s s hown a s l onger t han t he b ig t oe, a s c an b e o bserved i n n ature. Apart f rom t he r oundness o f t he s houlder d emarcating t he upper a rm ( deltoid muscle) t he o utlines o f t he upper l imbs a re s traight, a nd t he i nside o f t he a rticulated e lbow i s u sually s eparated f rom t he upper a rm a nd f orearm b y s emi-circles. T he u pper a rm a nd f orearm a re t hemselves u sually t raversed w ith c urved l ines t o i ndicate musculature . T he r epresentation o f h ands s hows a v ariety o f s uccess a nd f ailure i n t he d etail t reatment o f t heir p roportion a nd a rticulation. B yzantine
f aces
a lways
r emain
s chematic
t o
s ome d egree,
a nd t hey s how a n e nigmatic u nemotional s tandardization. T he e yes a re n ot g iven t ear d ucts o r l ashes a nd s ome a rtists l eave o ut t he i ris s urround ing t he pupil, a nd t he i nner o rbit l ine marking t he c rease o f t he r ecessed e yelid, a nd t he d epth o f t he o rbital h ollow. Eyebrows c an b e s mooth, a s i s u sually t he c ase w ith y oung m en, c hildren, a nd women, o r s triated, a s i n t he
4 6
c ase o f Chr ist, o r m iddle-aged a nd o ld men. The e yes o f o ld m en a re f requently n arrowed a nd t heir e yebrows t i lted. N oses v ary a l i ttle f rom t he Child, t o t he y oung f ace, a nd t he o ld f ace, but t he v ariation i s s eldom i ndividual, a lthough t here i s a l ong t radition f or making t he n ose o f t he a ged s hepherd i n t he N ativity s cene r ed a nd bulbous. B yzantine mouths a re i mmobile a nd a lways c losed, a nd n ever a rticulated, s o t hat B yzantine f aces, y oung o r o ld, r emain i mpassive. 48 B ut e xceptionally, t he g rieving f igures o f a s cene s uch a s t he D ormition a re g iven f aces w ith a d iagonal l ine o f g rief r unning f rom t he i nner c orner o f t he e ye d own a cross t he c heek. G rief , i ndicated b y d iagonal l ines o r d otted l ines i n t he c heek, i s a lso t he o nly emot ion p ortrayed i n t he e nigmatic f aces o f Ancient E gyptian A rt. B ut i n B yzantine A rt t he emotion i s h eightened b y t he l inear a rticulation o f t he f igure a nd b y t he c ontext. Thus we c an s ee t hat i f t he B yzantine a rtist was s omewhat a rbitrary a nd l inear i n h is r epresentation o f t he s urface a natomy o f t he n ude f igure, h e was a t l east aware o f t he major f orms w ithin i t . A more s ubtle a nd b lended c o lour t reatment may b e b etter s uited t o t he d epiction o f t he r eality o f p lastic f orm, but i t much weakens t he i mpact o f f igures d esigned t o b e o bserved f rom a d istance. T he B yzantine c lothed f igure T here a re s everal c haracteristic garments which a ppear r egularly o n B yzant ine f igures, t he most c ommon o f which a re t he c hiton a nd t he h imation, worn by t he Apostles a nd by Chr ist H imse lf . T he c hiton i s a l oose f i tting t unic w ith b road s leeves, c overing a bout t hree-quarters o f t he f igure a nd u sually r evealing a n arrow s leeved under-garment ( P1.18). The n eckline o f t he c hiton f alls b eneath t he p it o f t he t hroat i n l oose f olds a nd u sually o ne s houlder a nd a rm c lad i n t he c hiton a re r evealed b eneath t he o vergarment o r h imation. T he h imation i s a l ength o f c loth which e nfolds t he f igure l oosely, u sually f alling o ver o ne s houlder a nd a rm, a nd f requently e ncircling t he c entre o f t he b ody i n h orizontal f olds. T he h imation f olds o verlap t he s kirt o f t he c hiton a nd o f ten r each t o t he a nkle o f o ne l eg while h itching u p i n a d iagonal l ine a cross t he t high o f t he o ther l eg ( Pls . 8, 15 , 18 ,2 0). A r oyal c ostume worn by K ings a nd A rchangels c onsists o f a n embroidered t unic, a b e jewelled l oros, a nd b oots, w ith t he a ddition o f a c loak a nd c rown where a ppropriate . T he t unic c onsists o f a c hiton w ith embroidered h em, s ome a pplique embroidery a nd b e jewelled c uffs. T he l oros i s a l ong r ectangular s tiff b e jewelled p anel which i s e ntwined r igidly a round t he b ody. T he f olds o f i t t ake t he f orm o f r igid v ertical c entral p anels, s temming e ither f rom a w ide s emi-circular c ollar o r f rom c rossed d iagonal panels o ver t he c hest, a nd f urther a rticulated i nto a b road d iagonal panel a cross t he t highs ( P1.14). C our tiers f requently wear embro idered t unics
4 7
a nd most c ourtly f igures h ave a b elt t ied u nder t he l oros, o r o ver t he t unic, ( P1.16).
i n
a b ow ,
worn
M ilitary f igures u sually wear a l eather , c hain mail, o r metal s urcoat, o ver a t unic o f v aried l ength which r eveals l egs c lad i n h ose a nd b oo ts. S urcoats a nd b reast p lates u sually j ut a t t he s houlder, a nd t he c hest muscles a nd a bdominal f urrows a re f requently p icked o ut a s i f t hey c ould b e s een u nder t he p rotective c lothing, u sually i n h ighlight c olours p ainted o ver t hem. F emale f igures u sually wear v eils, a nd a v oluminous o vergarment, which s eldom r eveals t he f orms b eneath, a lthough s ome a rtists d o c ontour t he b reasts. Overgarments a re u sually g athered b y a g irdle a t t he waist but t he g irdle i s c oncealed by o verlapping f olds. S ome i nd ication o f t he t high, k nee a nd l ower l eg f orms i s u sually g iven by t he a rticulation o f t he f olds o f t he s kirt, a nd t he i nner l ines o f t he t high a re f requently c ontinued u pwards t o t he g irdle l ine ( Pls.15,17,18). Many B yzantine c lothed f igures s how a c onsiderable awareness o f t he s urface a natomy b eneath t he o f ten c omplex s wathes o f f olds. T he a natomical r eference p oints u sed t o e stablish t he c orrectly p roportioned s tructure o f t he b ody a re a lso u sed t o guide a nd p osition t he v arious p eculiarities o f c ostume, a nd t he c ompleted f igure w ill s how t o a v arying d egree t he c ontours o f t he a natomy o f t he f igure b eneath. I n many p re-Iconoclast mosaics t he g arments a re v oluminous a nd d ivided u p b y s trong v ertical a nd d iagonal f olds f orming a n i ndented b arrier b ehind which t he c urvacious f orms o f t he b ody a re e ntirely c oncealed. I n t he p ost-Iconoclast p eriod, a rtists r eveal much more p recisely t he t opography o f t he nude f igure b eneath. I n s ome f igures t he f lowing f orms o f t he b ody may b e awkwardly a rticulated a nd t he b ody i s a lmost a rbitrar ily s egmented i nto c hest, a bdomen a nd t high, but e ven i f t he g eneral d ivision i s a rbitrary, e ach s egment o r c ompartment may c ontain c ontours u nderlined w ith varying s ubtlety s ometimes i n t he f orm o f g eometric d esign a nd s ometimes a s f ine c ontour f olds. B y t he 1 3th c entury t he f igure h ugging garment g ives way t o l ooser a nd more v oluminous c lothing w ith a more massive i nterpretation o f b ody f orm. I n g eneral i t i s p ossible t o l ocate a natomical p oints o f r eference i n c lothed f igures d espite t he c onvolutions o f t he r obe f olds a nd t he g eneral d esign. T his c an b e d one by v erifying t he p lacing o f c ertain c haractertistic f eatures. T hus t he p it o f t he t hroat i s t he r eference p oint f or f i tted n ecklines, f or t he e dge o f embroidered c ollars, a nd f or t he n eckline o f p riestly r obes, while t he n eckline o f t he c hiton i s u sually i rregular a nd s ited b elow t he p it o f t he t hroat. T he p it o f t he s tomach a nd t he t ransverse c urves marking t he b ase o f t he b reast i n
n ude f igures
a re
s eldom a pparent i n
4 8
c lothed f igures,
but t hey d o o ccasionally a ppear c learly o utlined w ithin t he m ilitary g arment o f martial s aints. T his p oint would s eem t o s erve a s a g uide b oth f or t he b ase o f t he w ide s emi-circular embroidered c ollars, a nd a s a r eference p oint f or t he i ntersection o f c ertain p riestly s toles. I n f emale f igures t he p it o f t he s tomach s hould c orrespond t o t he b ase c urve o f t he b osom but f eminine f orms a re u sually d iscreetly c oncealed b eneath f lowing v ertical a nd h orizontal f olds. T here a re, h owever , s ome e xceptions s uch a s t he v ery f eminine f igure o f S alome i n t he n orth s ide a isle o f t he Church o f t he Twelve Apostles i n S alonica, t he B eatitudes i n t he d ome o f S an Marco i n V enice, t he p rocession o f l adies i n S ant' A pollinare N uovo a t R avenna, a nd t he o dd 1 2th c entury r epresentation o f t he s oul o f t he Mother o f G od i n a D ormition a t t he Church o f S t J ohn C hrysostomos i n Cyprus. T he waist l ine i n t he n ude marks t he d ividing p oint b etween t he f ree margin o f t he r ibs a nd t he b eginning o f t he o utward c urve o f t he f lank. T his p o int i s f requently u sed t o d emarcate t he u pper l ine o f t he t ransverse f olds o f t he h imation, a lthough i n s ome f igures t he waist l ine i s t aken up a s f ar a s t he p it o f t he s tomach, a s i n t he Empire o r R egency s tyle o f d ress. The knotted s ash o ccasionally worn by a rchangels, k ings, c ourtiers, a nd warr ior s aints i s f requently p laced a t t his p oint, which c an a lso b e u sed t o mark t he i nner p o int o f t he e lbow when t he a rm i s f lexed o r e xtended a longside t he b ody. Many a rtists marked o ut t he n avel e ven w ithin t heir c lothed f igures, e ither i n t he m iddle o f a n o val s wir l o f h imation f olds e ncircling t he s well o f t he b elly, o r by p lacing i t j ust b elow t he b ase o f t he t ransverse h imation f olds, i n t he f orm o f a n u pside d own Y . The n avel t hus u sefully d emarcates t he b ase l evel o f t he h orizontal f olds o f t he h imation. T he b ase o f t he b elly o r a bdomen i s a nother i mportant p oint o f r eference s ince i t marks t he e nd o f t he t runk, a nd i t was u sed t o mark t he l owest p oint t o which t he t op o f t he l oinc loth d escends; i t c an a lso mark t he t opmost p oint o f t he d iagonal f old o f t he l oros p anel which o verlaps t he t highs. T he c urve i ndicating t he b ase o f t he b elly a lso d emarcates t he s emi-circular ' girdle' f old o f t unics a s worn f or e xample by c our tiers a nd warr ior s aints ( P1.16). T he k nee i s f requently c learly i ndicated w ithin g arments i n t he f orm o f a s trongly u nderlined c urve a nd v arious f orms o f t hick h ighlight. T he a nkle u sually e quates w ith t he l ine o f t he h em o f l ong g arments, b ut t he l ong s kirts o f monks a nd l adies f requently e xtend o ver t he d orsum o f t he f oot, t hus r evealing o nly t he t oes o r t he t ips o f s lippers. F rom t hese o bservations i t i s c lear t hat many a rtists u sed
4 9
a natomical p o ints a s guide l ines f or t he d esign a nd a rticulation o f g arments, but i t i s n evertheless d iff icult t o a rgue i n r everse f rom t his p roposition a nd e ndeavour t o r elate a natomical p oints o f r eference a nd t heir p ossible r elationships t o a p roportional s ystem built u p a ccording t o t he a rticulation a nd d esign o f g arments. T o p rove s uch a p roposition i t i s n ecessary t o a nalyse t he measurements o f a n umerous s election o f c lothed f igures a ll made by t he s ame a rtist. T he writers were f ortunate e nough t o b e a ble t o d o t his i n t he c ourse o f f ive y ears c onservation work a t t he c hurch o f t he P anaghia t ou A rakos a t L agoudera i n Cyprus a nd t he r esults a re a nalysed b elow. One i nstance o f t he k ind o f u ncertainty t hat n eeds t esting i s t he multiple s eries o f c urved o r h ooked l ines by which t he b ase o f t he b elly i s u nderlined by s ome p ainters:here i t i s o f ten d ifficult t o d etermine which i s t he p recise d emarcation l ine. O r a s ash may b e p ainted a t t he l evel o f t he waist , but t he s ash may b e w ide, a nd i s i t t he t op, o r t he b ottom, o r t he c entre o f t he s ash which i s t he a ctual r eference p oint? A t L agoudera, t he b ase o f t he b elly was c learly u sed t o i ndicate t he p lacing o f t he t ransverse panel o f t he l oros, but t he l oros i tse lf c onsists o f a b road y ellow r ectangle s tudded w ith j ewels a nd h emmed o n e ither b order by b lack bands a lso b e jewelled. E xamination o f t he build u p o f t he p aint l ayers s howed t hat t he y ellow b ase a nd g round c o lour o f t he c entre o f t he l oros panel d id n o t e xtend b eyond t he i nner e dges o f t he b lack b orders which were t hemselves painted o ver t he g round c olour o f t he t unic. T hus t he i nner e dge o f t he b lack b ands marked t he r eference p oints o f t he l oros, a nd n ot, a s would s eem a pparent, t he o uter e dges o f t he b lack b ands. S o , a p recise k nowledge o f t he t echnique u sed b y t he p articular p ainter i n building-up h is p aint l ayers c an b e v ital t o a c orrect a ssessment o f m easuring p oints. T he h ead g ear a nd h air s tyles worn b y B yzantine f igures a re d iverse i n t heir f orms a nd i n t heir m easurements. K ings wear j ewelled c rowns a nd c ourtiers u sually wear s mall hats. Women, married o r o f marriageable a ge, wear c lose-f itting w imples c overed b y a v eil o f v arying s ize a nd c ontour ; when i n mourning t hey may r eveal t heir h air p reviously modestly c oncealed. Y oung women a nd g irls wear t heir h air l oose a nd o ccasionally h ave h air b ands; Angels a nd A rchangels h ave masses o f h air i n c urls a nd t resses i n w ig-like a bundance, u sually h eld w ith a h air b and w ith l oose h anging e nds. T he h ead g ear o f t he m ilitary s aints a nd t heir h elmets a re a lso v aried i n s ize. T hus h air s tyles a nd h ead g ear may t hemselves a ffect t he measur ing o f h ead l engths, a nd i t i s f or t his r eason t hat t he f ace-length was a more u seful module t han t he h eadl ength. F ace-lengths t aken f rom t he r oot o f t he h air t o t he t ip o f t he c hin d id n ot n eed t o v ary w ith i ndividuals o r w ith s ocial r ank whereas h ead-lengths c ould b e v ar iable. T his d ifference a ppears t o h ave b een a ppreciated i n B yzantine t hinking a bout p roportion a nd t he s ame c onsideration c an b e d educed i n E gyptian t hinking s ince n either t he o ld n or t he n ew g rid s ystems o f p roportion r each a bove t he l evel o f t he e ye o r 5 0
f orehead . T here a re many o ther p itfalls i n e ndeavouring t o a scertain c anons o f p roportion f rom t he c ompleted c lothed f igure a nd a n i ntimate knowledge o f t he p ainting t echnique a s well a s a w ide c ho ice o f f igures by t he s ame master i s r equired b efore t he s eeker c an e stablish s atisfactory c onstants i n m easure r elationships. E lpios R omaios I ntroduction T he e arliest e vidence t hat we h ave f or a B yzantine p roportional s ystem i s i n manuscripts by t he a uthor known a s E lpios R omaios, d ating f rom t he n inth o r t enth c entury. T here i s t oo l i ttle o f t hese manuscripts t o a llow o f e xtracting d etailed i nformation f rom t hem, but t heir c ontents h ave t wo o f t he t hree t ypes o f i nformation t hat g o t o make up t he Manual o f P ainting o f D ionys ios o f F ourna. D ionysios p rovides i nformation o n t he t echnique o f p ainting, i ncluding r ecipes f or c olours, g lues a nd v arnishes; i nformation a bout p roport ion; a nd i nformation a bout i conography. E lpios p rovides s ome a bbreviated a nd unclear i nformation a bout p roportion, a nd i conographic d etails, but n o i nformation a bout t echnique. A d iscussion o f t he d evelopment o f p ainting manuals would b e o ut o f p lace a t p resent , but i t i s i nteresting t hat E lpios d evotes much more a ttention t o h is d escription o f t he a ppearance o f Chr ist t han h e d oes t o t he o ther f igures. T his s ame a ttention t o d etail i n t he f igure o f Our L ord may b e n oted b oth i n t he p roportional i nstructions o f P anselinos ( below) a nd i n B yzantine painting a nd mosaic where t he o nlooker m ight e xpect a nd i s most c ertainly f ulf illed i n h is e xpectation t hat t he a rtist w ill h ave p aid more a ttention t o t he f igure o f C hrist t han t o h is o ther work. A s econd c haracter istic o f E lpios' writing i s t he b rief a nd a lmost t erse d escriptions o f t he a ppearance o f t he S aints. T hese make s ense o nly i n t he c ontext o f a n a rt o f s tereotypes s uch a s f orm t he c ontent o f B yzantine f igural p ainting. A p recedent f or t his t ype o f t erse i nstruction a pplied t o s cenes, a nd r eflecting t he s implif ications o f E arly Chr istian A rt may b e f ound i n t he Quedlinburg Manuscript d ating f rom t he 4 th o r e arly 5 th c entury. 4 9 P aulinus o f N ola 's d escr iption o f O ld a nd N ew T estament s cenes o n t he walls o f a Church d ating f rom about t he y ear 4 00 A .D., d oes n ot c onstitute a s et o f d irect i nstructions a ny more t han d o t hose o f E lpios, but t hey a re c learly b ased o n t he s ame d escriptive t radition t hat r egards t he basic c ontent o f a p ainting a s a dequate e nough i nformation f or t he making o r r ecognising o f i t . And a n I r ish manuscript o f t he 8 th c entury w ith painting i nstructions a bout t he a ppearance o f t he A postles a s t hey p aint t hem i n R ome a lso p reserves t he s ame b revity o f e ssential f act. 5 1 A fter
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5 2
I A öc E LQ L i ,tO E 17 i ' Ah R .C O : r e ( 7 )r o g 1 7 ) ; T ( ' ) T O i 5 ( ) F AA z r 7 .a1 1E 1; i vee (o : To ; I t grOOV f ) Ä tz tag z n iza; t iaaaor i g i j i t cu , µ Er ü a ) ; % Ewa 7 . 7 1; c t i r roi ) ,( 1 ); E iv e a t t iv c d u ro i i n r ir ro i 3 h ax .r awv x 9 1,0 n
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I nformation
T he i nformation t hat E lpios g ives a s t o measures a pplies a ppropriately e nough t o t he f irst man, Adam. T here a re c ontradictions i n t he measurements t hat a re g iven, a nd t hey a re s o s cant t hat w e make n o a ttempt t o r e-create a f igure a f ter E lpios. T hree p oints o f i nterest may b e d erived f rom h is s tatements. T he f irst i s t hat t he d escription o f A dam , a lbeit i ncomplete, i s u ndoubtedly a d escription o f a man b ased u pon a modular a nthropometric c anon o f p roportion. S econd, t he measures t hat h e u ses c an e asily b e i nterpreted a s d escendants o f t he measures u sed i n t he A ncient World. T hus h e u ses t he ' pick' which i s t he G reek t erm f or t he s hort c ubit, o r l ength o f t he f orearm ; t he ' daktilo ' o r f inger b readth which was t he s mallest measure i n u se; a nd t he ' spithame' o r s pan which i s u sually t he d istance b etween t he t ips o f t he t humb a nd t he l i ttle f inger when t he palm i s o utstretched. T hese t erms o f measure w ere u sed by Galen, who c ommented o n V itruvius i n t he 2 nd c entury A .D., a nd t hey a ppear a gain i n t he 1 4th c entury d escr iption o f t he P antokrator i n t he d ome o f S t. S ophia, by N icephoros G regoras ( below). T hird, t he E lpios f ragments p o int t he way t o t he modular p roportional s ystem o f D ionysios a nd P anselinos by t heir c ommon u se o f p arts o f t he b ody a s u nits o f measure.
5 2
N icephoros G regoras I ntroduction G regoras was a B yzantine h istorian o f t he f ourteenth c entury who wrote a h istory o f t he y ears 1 204 t o 1 359 . D uring h is l ifetime a p art o f t he d ome o f S t. S ophia f ell d own a nd when i t was r epaired i n t he t hirteen-f if ties a n ew mosaic o f Chr ist P antokrator was made i n t he c entre o f t he d ome. 5 3 I t i s e vident f rom t he t ext b elow t hat G regoras went u p o n t he s caffold t o l ook a t a nd measure t he i mage. T he measures, wh ich d o n ot add u p c orrectly, a re i n s pithame which may b e p alms o r s pans. T he i mportance o f t he p assage i s t he c lear a ssumption t hat measurement o f t he p ar ts h ad a m eaning, a nd t his i s c onfirmed by G regoras e xplicit c omment t hat " Painters w ill b e a ble, b y u sing p roportional a nalogy, t o r eckon s traight away t he l ength a nd b readth o f t he o ther m embers a nd p arts a s well a s t he c onformation o f t he e ntire b ody o f t hat h oly i mage o f t he S aviour". G regoras would have b een aware o f , a nd i nterested i n p roportional c anons b ecause h e was a d istinguished mathematician a nd a stronomer a s well a s a n h istor ian. T he T ext
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The T ranslation H aving r eached t his p oint, i t would b e f i tting t o s et d own t he l ength a nd b readth o f t he h oly i mage o f t he e nhypostatic W isdom o f G od, I mean Christ o ur S aviour, t hat was r ecently d epicted o n t he i nner c urved s urface o f t he r oof .. . I t i s worth r ef lecting, I t hink, t hat when o ne l ooks u p ( at t he i mage) f rom b e low , o ne i s unable ( to a pprehend) b y means o f s ight i ts t rue p roportions a nd t ransmit t hem t o t he m ind, s ince s ight i s u sually d eceived b y t he i nterposition o f d istance b etween t he s pectator a nd t he o b ject s een...The h eight ( of t he h ead) f rom i ts s ummit t o t he t ip o f t he b eard i s 2 8 palms, i ts w idth 1 4, t he f irst f inger 8 + l ong a nd t he o thers i n p roportion. E ach e ye i s 3 palms, a nd t he n ose n early 8 . N ow t hat I h ave g iven t hese e lements, t he more a ccomplished p ainters w ill b e a ble, b y u sing p roportional a nalogy , t o r eckon s traight away t he l ength a nd b readth o f t he o ther members a nd parts a s well a s t he c onformation o f t he e ntire b ody o f t hat h oly i mage o f t he S aviour . T he Measures o f D ionysios I ntroduction T he master D ionysios was b orn a t t he v illage o f F ourna i n c entral G reece a bout t he y ear 1 670 a nd t he l ast e vidence o f h is l ife i s i n a l etter o f 1 744. H e was a p rofessional p ainter , s ome o f whose works s urvive o n Mount A thos a nd e lsewhere , a nd h e may h ave c omposed h is Manual b etween t he y ears 1 722 a nd 1 734 . 55 T hat n o e arlier manuals t han t hat o f D ionysios s urvive i s n ot p erhaps s urprising s ince t hese were c raftsmen's handbooks which would have b een c arried a bout a nd u sed u ntil t hey f ell t o p ieces. L ater t exts d o s urvive i n t he l ibraries o f B ucharest, A thens, a nd J erusalem , a nd t heir e xistence s uggests t hat D ionysios' Manual was n ot j ust a n i ndividual c omposition o r c ompilation but a p ar t o f a t radition o f making s uch h andbooks. T his k ind o f p ainter 's h andbook f ulf illed a p ractical n eed. I f , a s we h ave s uggested h ere, B yzantine A rt was a n h ieratic a rt f irmly b ased i n r ules a nd c onventions, t hen t he n eed f or s uch p ainters' h andbooks i s c lear a nd n eeds 5 4
n o f urther e xplanation. A n a ttempt was made i n a n e arlier a rticle t o s et o ut t he t echnical r ules o f Byzantine wall p ainting a nd r elate t he e vidence o f t he a ctual wall p aintings t o D ionysios a nd o ther t exts, b ut n o a ttempt was t here made t o d eal w ith t he i nstructions a bout p roportion which w e g ive b elow. We u se t he b est o f t he p rinted t exts a nd h ave n ot a ttempted t o e xamine t he manuscripts. T he T ext
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T he i nterpretation f igure).
o f
t he
n atural
measures
( of
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h uman
L earn, 0 s tudent, t hat a man may a ccording t o n ature, 8 8 b e d ivided i nto 9 e ggs, t hat i s 9 measures, f rom t he f orehead t o t he s oles o f t he f eet. 5 9 T o b egin w ith t ake t he f irst e gg ( measure), a nd d ivide i t i nto 3 parts a nd make t he f irst p art t he f orehead, t he s econd t he n ose, t he t hird t he b eard ( area f rom n ose t o p oint o f c hin o r b eard g rowing a rea), but make t he h air o ne n ose ( length) o utside ( above) t he e gg ( shape o f t he f ace) " a nd a gain measure o ut t hree parts b etween t he c hin a nd t he n ose: a nd i n t he t wo parts f i ts t he c hin, i n t he o ne f i ts t he mouth; a nd t he t hroat ( is) 1 n ose ( length). A f terwards measure f rom t he c hin t o t he m iddle 81 3 ( egg) measures a nd t o t he knees a nother 2 ( egg) measures a nd a t t he knees t ake 1 measure a s much a s t he n ose ( length): a gain a nother 2 ( egg measures) t o t he a nkle a nd a gain f rom t here t o t he s ole o f t he f oot 1 n ose ( measure) a nd a gain f rom t here t o t he n ails 1 ( egg) measure, a nd a gain f rom t he l arynx ( the p it o f t he t hroat) t o t he s houlder 1 ( egg) measure ( in w idth), a nd s imilarly f or t he o ther s houlder . F or t he r ound o f t he s houlder t ake 1 n ose ( measure) a nd measure t o t he e lbow f rom t he i nside p lace ( the a rmpit) 1 ( egg) measure a nd a gain a nother ( egg) m easure t o t he base o f t he h and 6 2 a nd a gain f rom t hence t o t he t ip o f t he f ingers 1 ( egg) measure. A s ( the measure o f) o ne e ye i s l ong, s o i s t he ( measure o f t he) o ther o n t he l evel: a nd l ikewise i s t he d istance f rom o ne t o t he o ther ( the l ength o f o ne e ye). And when t he h ead i s s ideways ( probably o blique o r s emi-profile), i t wants 2 e yes ( lengths) f rom t he e ye t o t he
5 6
e ar:
a nd when t he f ace i s n ot s o ( when i t wants 1 e ye ( width f rom t he e ye t o t he e ar), b e l ike t he n ose ( in l ength), t he m iddle ( lengths) i n b readth, when n ude, a nd when ( measures i n b readth): t he g irdle wants t o where t he e lbows r each t o. 6 3
i s f rontal) 6 1 + i t t he e ar wants t o ( waist) 4 n oses c lothed 1 1 e ggs b e a t t he waist
C omment o n t ext The t ext o f D ionysios, which d irectly r elates t o t he l aying o ut o f b ody measures u pon t he wall, c ommences w ith t he s tatement t hat t he v ertical h eight o f a man f rom t he t op o f t he f orehead t o t he s ole o f t he f oot, c an b e e quated w ith 9 e gg s hapes o r m easures. E ach o f t hese 9 measures i s e qual t o t he f irst measure wh ich D ionysios d efines a s a n e gg s hape o r o val, d ivided i nto 3 p resumably e qual p arts, t he f orehead, t he n ose, a nd t he c hin. T hus we h ave t wo b asic modular units o f measure: t he l arger which i s a f ace-length, a nd t he s maller wh ich i s o f t he f ace a nd i s r eferred t o a s t he n ose-length. D ionys ios' measure s ystem f or t he c onstruction o f t he human f igure c an t herefore b e c onstrued a s a n a nthropometrical modular s ystem o f p roportion o f which t he basic module i s t he n ose unit. The u se o f s uch a module a s a c ommon f actor t o t he d imensions o f t he p arts a s well a s t o t he whole h eight p ermits t he e stablishment o f p roport ional r atios b etween t he p arts o f t he b ody a nd t he whole f igure h eight, a nd b etween t he p arts t hemselves. T he v ertical m easures o f t he
s tanding n ude male ( Text f ig.12)
The 9 f ace m easures d ef ine t he d imension o f t he f igure f rom t he t op o f t he f orehead t o t he s oles o f t he f eet a nd d o n ot i nclude t he t op o f t he h ead b etween t he t op o f t he f orehead a nd t he v ertex. D ionysios s pecifically a llocates a n i ndependent measure o f 1n ose-length ( 3 - f ace) f or t he h air o r u pper h ead. T hus t he h ead ( from v ertex t o c hin) may b e r eckoned a t 4n oselengths ( 13 f ace-lengths). N ine f ace-lengths f rom t he t op o f t he f orehead t o t he s oles o f t he f eet c an b e i nterpreted a s 2 7 n osel engths which w ith t he a ddition o f 1n ose-length f or t he h air g ives a f igure 2 8 n ose-lengths l ong f rom t he v ertex o f t he h ead t o t he h eel. S ince a h ead-length c an b e r eckoned a s 4 n osel engths, D ionysios' f igure c an t hus b e i nterpreted a s 7 h eadl engths i n h eight. The measures o f t he v ertical f igure, i ncluding t he c ontrad ictory s tatements, c an n ow b e s ummarized a s f ollows: N oses T op o f f orehead _ t o s ole o f f eet
9f aces
2 7
( 1)
T op o f f orehead t o c hin
1f ace
3
( 2)
Chin t o m iddle
3f aces
9
5 7
v e r te x . J 02: g . hes ic i
l f a c e c h i . n — f 3 r _ t7
0 S8
b ro t
1 f a c e
b a s e ,c fb r ea st
1 f a c e _t ai s t
1 f a c e
r n t d d . le or
— V a s eT bd 1 )
2f a c e s
F ig 1 2.
D ionysios o f F ourna, t he v ertical measures s tanding n ude male i n t he a nterior a spect.
5 8
o f
t he
( 3)
M iddle t o k nee
2f aces
6
( 4)
T he k nee
1f ace
1
( 5)
K nee t o a nkle
2f aces
6
( 6)
Ankle t o s ole o f f eet
1f ace
1
( 7)
T op o f f orehead t o s ole o f f oot
P * f aces
( 8)
N eck
( as i ndependent measure)...
( 9)
T op o f f orehead t o v ertex o f h ead -
( 10) Ankle t o t oes
( 26 n oses)
1f ace
1n ose
f ace
1n ose
1f ace
3n oses
l t c an b e s een i n s tatement ( 7) t hat t he l isted measures a dd u p t o 8 * f aces which i s 1 o f a f ace measure s hort o f t he g iven t otal o f 9 f aces, f rom t he t op o f t he f orehead t o t he s oles o f t he f eet. T he n ose-length o f 1 f ace m easure g iven f or t he n eck ( 8) i s g iven i n t he t ext i n d irect s equence t o t he i nitial f ace m easure a nd b efore t he c hin t o m iddle ( 2) measures o f 3f aces. I f t he d ef inition o f t he l atter measure ( 2) i s c orrect t hen t he n eck ( 8) i s p resumably i ncorporated w ithin i t . B ut i f t he n eck measure i s r egarded a s a n i ndependent measure i n i ts own r ight, l ike t hat g iven f or t he knee ( 4) o r t he h eight o f t he f oot ( 6) t hen t he c hin t o m iddle measure o f 3 f aces would r efer t o t he d istance b etween t he base o f t he n eck ( the p it o f t he t hroat) a nd t he m iddle, a nd t he s um o f t he v ertical measures f rom t he f orehead t o t he h eel would t hus t otal 9 measures. S uch a n i nterpretation o f D ionysios' t ext would b e s upported by t he measures o f f igures i n i kons p aintings t hat a re a ttributed t o h im. 6 5 I n t hese t he f igural d imensions a nd r eference p oints c an b e w ith t he t extual s pecifications o nly i f t he n eck i s s eparately f rom t he 3 f ace l ong t runk ( pit o f t hroat o r f ork).
a ppear t o a nd wall p aintings r econciled measured t o m iddle
I f t his i nterpretation i s a ccepted t hen t he ' middle' p oint o f r eference i n s tatement ( 2) which s eems t o i ndicate a n otional c entre-point i n t he b ody, w ill b e f ound t o l ie 1 4 n oselengths f rom t he t op o f t he h ead a nd 1 4 n oselengths ( 4* f aces) f rom t he s o le o f t he f oot. T he T ext F ig.12 i l lustrates D ionys ios' measures a nd t he m issing 1 measure i s r epresented a s t he n eck, i ndependently t o t he b ody measure a s o utlined a bove.
5 9
The p oints o f r eference f or t he v ertical measures a re n o t p recise. T he t op o f t he f orehead i s p resumably t he r oot o f t he h air , t hat i s t he l owest p oint a t which t he h air g rows i n t he c entre o f t he f orehead. T he ' chin' i s p resumably t he d istance b etween t he b ase o f t he n ose a nd t he p oint o f t he j aw . T he ' throat' o r ' neck' c ould b e d ef ined by t he p oint o f t he c hin a nd t he p it o f t he t hroat j ust a bove t he t op o f t he s ternum. T he ' middle' i s vague, t hough c learly a s we h ave p ointed o ut a bove a nd a s c an b e s een f rom t he d rawing i n T ext F ig.12 t he ' middle o r ' mesi' ( 3) r efers t o a c entrepoint w ithin t he b ody r ather t han t o t he waist. I f t his i s t he c ase i t must l ie i n t he r egion o f t he f ork a nd t he b ase o f t he a bdomen. I f t he ' middle t o t he knee ' ( 3) r efers t o t he t high s haft, t hen t he u pper p oint o f t he t high i s marked by t he l ateral e xtrusion o f t he upper e xtremity o f t he t high b one ( the t rochanter major). T his i s a pproximately o n a l evel w ith t he t ransverse l ine o f t he g roin, which marks t he b ase o f t he a bdomen o r b elly . I t i s d ifficult t o a ssess t his p oint a ccurately f rom p aintings s ince t his a rea o f t he b ody i s u sually d iscreetly v eiled. We i nterpret t he knee ( 4) a s a s eparate s egment f rom t he u pper a nd l ower l imb measure, a nd t herefore i t i s g iven a s eparate d emarcation which i n n ature would c oincide w ith t he a nterior b one o f t he k nee, t he patella. T he b ase o f t he l eg i s marked by t he a nkle which we t ake t o i ndicate t he p oint o f j unction o f t he l eg s haf t a nd t he d orsum o f t he f oot. T his j unction i s o f ten c learly i ndicated i n mosaics a nd p aintings by a s emi-circle d elineating t he a nter ior c urve o f t he l eg. T he d istance f rom t his p oint v ertically d own t o t he s ole o f t he f oot g ives t he h eight o f t he f oot. F rom t he a nkle t o t he t oes i s t he l ength o f t he d orsum o f t he f oot e xclusive o f t he h eel; t he f ull l ength o f t he f oot ( heel t o t oe) i s n o t g iven by D ionysios. O ther omissions a re p oints o f r eference o n t he t orso s uch a s t he p it o f t he s tomach, t he n avel a nd t he waist. T he o verall h eight f rom c rown t o s ole o f f oot g ives a s um o f 7 h ead-lengths, r ather s horter t han t he a verage modern r eckoning o f t he h eight o f t he male which i s c alculated a t 7 + h ead-lengths. N evertheless t he measures which make u p t he h eight a re q uite naturalistically p roportioned. T he c entre-point o f t he h eight c an b e l ocated a t t he base o f t he a bdomen, a nd t he t high l ength i s i n c orrect p roportion t o t he l ower l eg. I n nature t he t high o r f emur ( trochanter t o b ase o f k nee) i s l onger t han t he l ower l eg ( base o f knee t o a nkle) by a d istance e qual t o t he h eight o f t he f oot f rom t he a nkle t o t he s o le o f t he h eel. I n a ccord w ith t his D ionysios r eckons t he t high ( middle t o t op o f k nee + k nee) a s 1 n oselength l onger t han t he l ower l eg
( base o f knee t o a nkle).
The measures o f t he upper l imbs a nd t he s houlder
D ionysios makes n o c omment a s t o whether t he measures h e g ives f or t he u pper l imbs a re t o b e a pplied t o t he f ully e x tended a rms a longside t o o r h orizontal t o t he b ody, o r t o t he
6 0
f lexed a rm . I n h is i nstructions f or t he b ody w idths h e s tates t hat t he waist i s o n a l evel w ith t he e lbows, which would a rgue t hat t he u pper a rm a t l east i s v ertical a nd t herefore l ateral t o t he b ody. B yzantine f igures u sually h ave t heir a rms f lexed i n g esture a nd t hey a re s eldom f ully e xtended a longside t he b ody. F or t his r eason we h ave g iven o ur f igure ( Text F ig.12) f lexed a rms. D ionysios' measures f or t he u pper l i r rb c an b e s ummarised a s f ollows:( 1 ) T he r ound o f t he s houlder ( 2) B ase o f s houlder t o i nner p oint o f e lbow ( 3) I nner p o int o f e lbow t o b ase o f h and ( 4) B ase o f hand t o e nd
( 1 f ace)
( 1 n ose)
( 1 f ace)
( 3 n oses)
( 1 f ace)
( 3 n oses)
o f t he f ingers ( 5) L arynx t o s houlder
( I f ace) ( I f ace)
( 3 n oses) ( 3 n oses)
( width)...
T he r ound o f t he s houlder ( 1 ) p resumably d ef ines t he c urve o f t he muscle ( deltoid) when t he u pper a rm i s a longside t he b ody. 6 6 T he b ase o f t his muscle i nserts a t a p oint o n t he e xter ior s ide o f t he a rm s lightly l ower t han t he a nterior e dge o f t he a rmpit. I n s urface a natomy t his m easure c ould b e s aid t o g ive t he d istance b etween t he b ony p rominence o f t he s houlder a nd t he o uter a nterior e dge o f t he a rmpit. I n n ature a n ose-length f or t his d istance i s d ef initely s hort a nd i t would a pproximate more c losely w ith 1 1 t o 2 n oses, but i t must b e r emembered t hat B yzantine f igures f requently h ave e xcessively s loping s houlders. I f t he a bove measure ( 1 ) c an morpho logically b e d escribed a s t he measure o f t he s houlder t hen t he u pper a rm i s measured f rom t he b ase o f t he s houlder t o t he i nner f old o f t he e lbow ( 2). T he i nner f old o f t he e lbow would b e i n parallel v ertical a lignment w ith t he a nterior f old o f t he a rmpit a nd t he p oint o f t he s houlder . T he l ength o f t he h and ( 4) i s g iven a s 1 f ace-length ( 3 n oses). T his measure i s s imilar t o t hat g iven f or t he e lbow t o t he b ase o f t he h and. I n n ature t he i nside measure o f t he u pper a rm ( as d ef ined a bove) a nd t he f orearm a re o f e qual d imensions but t hey o nly a pproximate t o a h and-length when t he a rm i s f lexed a t r ight a ngles. When t he a rm i s e xtended t heir l ength i ncreases a s t he e lbow f lattens o ut. B yzantine a rms a re s eldom f ully e xtended, s o t hat i f D ionysios i ntended h is a rm measures t o b e a pplied t o t he a rm f lexed a t a r ight o r a n a cute a ngle h is measures c an b e s aid t o b e c orrectly p roportioned. I n n ature t he h and-length f rom t he b ase o f t he p alm t o t he t ip o f t he medius a pproximates f airly a ccurately w ith t he f ace-length f rom t he c hin t o t he r oo t o f t he h air a nd i t c an b e s aid t o e quate w ith o ne-ninth o f t he t otal h eight f rom v ertex t o h eel. D ionysios' h and measure ( 4) t herefore c onforms w ith n ature i n e quating w ith t he f ace-length ( 1) a nd a s imilar e quation c an b e f ound i n V itruvius ( see a bove) a nd i n P anselinos a nd C ennini ( see b elow). H owever t here a re d ifferences i n t hat t he D ionysian h and-length i s marginally
6 1
more t han o ne-ninth o f t he t otal whereas t he V itruvian h and i s h eight . F or c ompar ison t he r atio t o t he h ead l ength c an b e s aid t o V itruvian h and-length t o t he h ead
f igure i n h eight (e f aces) o nly o ne-tenth o f t he who le o f t he D ionysian h and-length b e 1 2:16, whereas t hat o f t he l ength i s 1 2:15 .
T he r elation b etween t he upper l imb a nd t he t horax i s more c learly e stablished when t he measures o f w idth a re t aken i nto a ccount. D ionysios s tates:( a) F rom t he l arynx ( pit o f t hroat) t o s houlder i s e qual t o 1f ace . ( b) ' the g irdle wants t o b e a t t he waist where t he e lbows a re'. T he s houlder p oint i n ( a) i s n ot c lear but p resumably t he m easure i ndicates t he w idest w idth o f t he s houlder , a nd when t his measure i s d cubled t he measure g ives u s a w idth a cross t he s houlders o f 2 f aces ( 6 n oses) o r 1 1 h eads. I f t he t op o f t he s houlder i s o n a l evel w ith t he l arynx t hen i t must l ie 1 n ose-length f rom t he c hin l evel. T he i nner e lbow p oint ( 2) l ies a t 4 n ose-lengths f rom t he t op o f t he s houlder a nd 5 n osel engths f rom t he c hin. I f we a ccept t he p remise t hat D ionysios' a rm measures r elate t o t he f lexed a rm, t hen t he o uter e lbow would l ie b elow t he i nner e lbow p oint by a d istance o f a t hickness o f t he a rm which i s a pproximately 1 n ose-length. I t f o llows t hat t he e xter ior p oint o f t he f lexed e lbow ( the o lecranon o r h ead o f t he u lna) marks t he waist a nd l ies a t a p oint d istant 6 n oselengths o r 2f ace-lengths f rom t he l arynx. T he m easures o f w idth T hese c an b e l isted a s f ollows: ( a) p it o f t hroat t o s houlder ( c) t he w idth a cross t he m iddle ( nude f igure) ( d) t he w idth a cross t he m iddle ( clothed f igure)
1f ace
3n oses
i f f aces;
4n oses
i f f aces;
4 i n oses
We h ave s een t hat t he s houlders c an b e c alculated a t 2 f aces ( 6 n oses o r 1 1 h eads). T his i s n arrow i n r elaton t o t he h eight, a nd f igures built t o s uch a r atio would t end t o l ook l ong a nd s lender. 1h is i s more particularly t rue o f f rontal f igures b ecause t he o verall h eight o f 7 h eads f rom c rown t o h eel b ecomes e xtended by t he l ength o f t he unforeshorte -i ed f rontal f oot, w hich e quals a n e xtra f o f a h ead. T he w idths g iven f pr t he c lothed l nd nude f igures r espect ively ( c) e i nd ( d), a re t aLen a cross t he ' middle', but whether a t t he c entrepoint o f t he b ody o r a t t he waist i s u ncertain. T he d ifference i s a nyway s mall a nd e ither p lace would s erve f or t he n arrow h ipped male f igure. I t s hould b e r emembered t hat t he w idest w idth o f t he n ude t orso c annot e xceed t he w idth o f t he s houlders ( 6 n oses) l ess t he w idth o f
6 2
t he t wo a rms ( approx. 2 n oses), a nd w idth b etween t he a rmpits o f 4n oses.
t his
would
g ive
u s
a
Our i nterpretation o f D ionysios' m easures h as b een d eductive i n r egard t o t he i nadequate s tatements. W e h ave t ried t o s ubstantiate a nd c larify t hese b y r eference t o h is p aintings, a nd t he r esults c an b e s ummed u p a s f ollows:S ummary T able o f V ertical t he f rontal a spect
measures
f or
t he
n ose measures
u pright
e ggs o r f ace m easures
V ertex o f h ead t o r oot o f h air
1
3
T he f ace, which i s f rom r oot o f h air t o c hin
3
1
C hin t o l arynx o r p it o f t hroat
1
L arynx t o waist ( deductive), t he waist b eing l evel w ith t he e lbow
6
2
Waist t o m iddle
3
1
M iddle t o k nee
6
2
K nee
1
K nee t o a nkle
6
Ankle t o b ase o f f oot o r h eel
1
" j •
R oot o f h air t o b ase o f f oot
2 7
9
V ertex o f h ead t o b ase o f f oot
2 8
9 4
( deductive)
f igure
3 -
2
A rm m easures t o r elate t o t he f lexed a rm a cross t he b ody:T op o f s houlder t o a rmpit
1.
i
A rmpit t o i nner e lbow
3
1
I nner e lbow t o b ase o f h and
3
1
B ase o f h and t o t ip o f m iddle f inger —
3
1
3
1
6
2
O ther measures L ength o f f oot:
a nkle t o t oes
W idth o f s houlders
( deductive) 6 3
i n
W idth o f f igure a t t he waist o r c entre
4.
W idth o f c lothed f igure a t waist o r c entre
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T hese measures a ppear t o b e g iven f or t he u pright n ude male f igure w ith a rm f lexed a nd n o a daptations a re g iven f or o ther s tances. A s i nstructions t hey a re i mprecise a nd l imited . B ut D ionysios l ike P anselinos a nd C ennini b efore h im a nd K ontoglu a f ter h im , p o ints o ut t hat t he m easures o f t he h uman f igure a nd t heir a pplication s hould b e l earnt i n p ractice w ith a g ood master , a nd t hat h is i nstructions a re m erely s ummary . T he m easures f or t he h ead T hese c an b e l isted a s f ollows:N ose l engths
4 3
V ertex t o c hin R oo t o f h air t o c hin V ertex t o r oot o f h air R oo t o f h air t o r oo t o f n ose... R oo t o f n ose t o t ip o f n ose T ip o f n ose t o c hin
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F ace m easures 1 1 1 3 1 3 1 3 1
T he e yes a re s tated t o b e o f e qual l ength o r w idth. N o r eference m easure i s g iven, a nd t his i mportant s tatement i s n o t s ubstantiated by h is p aintings. T he d istance b etween t he e yes i s s aid t o b e e qual t o 1 e ye w idth . T his r elative m easure i s a gain n ot s ubstantiated by h is p aintings where t he d istance b etween t he i nner e ye c orners i s o bv iously l ess t han 1 e ye w idth. F rom t he e ye t o t he e ar i n 4 • -p rof ile f aces -_ _ .. ...... . . . . . F rom t he e ye t o t he e ar i n f rontal f aces —
. .
2e ye w idths 1e ye w idth
D ionysios d ivided t he h ead v ertically i nto f our e qual p arts, t he h air , t he f orehead s , t he n ose , a nd t he c hin. H e d oes n ot d ef ine t hese a reas p recisely b ut t he e xamination o f h is p aintings s uggests t hat t hey a re t o b e d ef ined b y a n otional v er tical r unning f rom t he c rown t o t he r oo t o f t he h air i n t he m iddle o f t he f orehead; t hence t o t he r oo t o f t he n ose o n a l evel w ith t he u pper " r ims o f t he e yes; t hence t o t he n osetip; a nd t hence t o t he c hin. H e f urther d ivides t he d istance f rom t he n ose t o t he c hin i nto t hree p arts: o ne f or t he mouth a nd t wo f or t he c hin. Observation o f h is p ainting s uggests t hat t he n o tional l ine d ividing t he u pper p art f rom t he l ower t wo p arts r ests o n t he l ine b etween t he t wo l ips o f t he mouth.
6 4
D ionysios g ives n o d imensions f or t he w idth o f t he f ace a nd t he whole h ead. H e o nly s tates, a s we h ave s een, t hat t he l ength o f o ne e ye i s e qual t o t hat o f t he o ther , a nd t hat t he d istance b etween t he e yes i s a lso o ne e ye w idth, w ith t he e yes b eing o n a l evel. H e d oes n ot r elate t his e ye l ength measure t o t he n ose l ength o r f ace measure. I n h is p aintings t he e yes d o i ndeed a ppear l evel b ut t hey d o n o t a ppear e qual, a nd t he l arger e ye i s a pproximately e qual t o a n ose-length. D ionysios
a lso s tates t hat when t he h ead i s o blique o r i n t he d istance f rom t he e ye t o t he e ar i s t hat o f 2 e ye w idths, but when t he f ace i s n o t o blique a nd i s p resumably f rontal, t hen t he d istance f rom t he e ye t o e ar i s 1 e ye w idth. I t may b e r emarked t hat f or b oth a spects o f t he f ace t he d istance f rom t he e ye t o t he e ar i s g iven i n t he s ingular , a nd t hus t he e vidence f or a s ymmetrical o r a symmetrical f ace i s i ndeterminate i n t he t ext. I f t he d istance f rom t he e ye t o t he e ar was t o b e a pplied t o b oth s ides o f t he f rontal f ace t hen t his f ace c ould b e c onstrued a s s ymmetrical. H owever , m iddle a nd l ate B yzantine p aintings, a nd t hose o f D ionysios h imself , a re c haracterised by a s trictly a symmetrical f rontal f ace . I n what may b e c alled t his s tandard B yzantine f ace, t he n ose i s s hown a s f rontal w ith b oth n ostrils f ully s hown, a nd t he mouth i s e qually s ymmetrical, but n otwithstanding t his s ymmetry o f s ome f eatures, o ne s ide o f t he f ace i s a lways w ider t han t he o ther i n r elation t o t he c entral v ertical o f t he n ose-bridge, a s i f t he f ace were s lightly t urned. B oth t he e ye a nd t he d istance f rom t he e ye t o t he e ar a re l arger o n t his w ider s ide o f t he f ace t han o n t he o ther. The g aze i s d irected a cross t he w ide s ide o f t he f ace a nd t urned t owards t he i nterior o f t he c hurch o r t owards t he a pse i n t he c ase o f s ingle f igures o r busts. I f D ionysios' i nstructions b ear a ny r elation t o a c rystallization o f Byzantine t raditions t hen i t i s i mportant t o t ry t o e stablish t he a symmetrical d esign o f h is f rontal f aces. A u seful p iece o f e vidence i n t his d irection i s t hat D ionysios r elates h ow h e h imself s tudied a ssiduously t he p aintings o f P anselinos, whose methods o f f igural c onstruction a re r elated b elow. 3
profile,
6 7
W e s hall s ee t hat P anselinos c learly d escribes a n a symmetrical c onstruction f or t he f rontal f ace a nd h ead, a nd moreover t his a symmetry i s v ery s triking i n t he p aintings o f t he c hurch c alled t he P rotaton o n Mount A thos which a re a scribed t o h im. B ut e ven i f t hese paintings c annot b e s ecurely a scribed t o P anselinos we s hall s ee t hat a f ace d rawn o ut a ccording t o h is written i nstructions c an o nly b e d istinctively a symmetrical. T he f ace o f t he Christ P antokrator a scr ibed t o D ionysios i n t he monastery c hurch o f V atopedi o n Mount A thos 6 8 i s c learly a symmetrical, a nd t he e yes a re unequal i n l ength. T his i s a n i mportant e xample b ecause t he P antokrator was t he most c hallenging a nd d emanding i mage t o b e painted by a B yzantine a rtist, b oth o n a ccount o f i ts s ize a nd d ominance i n t he a pse o r d ome where i t i s most f requently t o b e f ound, a nd b ecause i t embodies t he e ssence o f Christianity
6 5
i n d epicting Christ H imself . A n a rtist would p ut a ll h is knowledge a nd s kill i nto t he p ortraying o f t he f igure o f Christ, a nd t he a pparent c ontradiction b etween D ionysios' written i nstructions a nd h is p aintings c anno t b e e xplained w ith a ny c ertainty. T he a symmetry o f h is own p ainted f aces, o f t he works o f P anselinos which h e c laims t hat h e s tudied, a nd o f n early a ll p ost-Iconoclast h eads i n t he f rontal a spect p ortrayed i n mosaic o r i n wall p ainting s tand a s e vidence o n o ne s ide o f t he a rgument , while h is s tatements a bout measures s tand i n c ontradiction a s e vidence f or a s ymmetrical h ead. We o ffer t wo p ossible e xplanations: t he f irst i s t hat a c opyist may h ave m isunderstood t he i nstructions, a nd e vidence f or o r a gainst t his v iew may emerge w ith t he p ublicaton o f o ther manuscripts o f t he Guide. T he s econd i s t hat t he s tatements which r elate t o s ymmetry a re e vidence o f t he i ncorporation o f much e arlier material i nto t he Guide s ince h eads o f t he p reI conoclast p er iod a re q uite c ommonly d epicted a s s ymmetrical when i n t he f rontal a spect. I n s upport o f t his v iew t hat t he Guide i ncorporates much e arlier material t here i s s ome e vidence which we h ave a lready n oted a s t o p oints o f s imilarity b etween t he i nstructions o f D ionysios a nd V itruvius. T he Measures o f P anselinos T he measuring i nstructions purporting t o b e t hose o f P anselinos a re t o b e f ound i n t he manuscript c opied a nd e dited by P apadopoulos K erameus a s Appendix A i n h is e dition o f D ionysios ( pp. 2 37 - 2 39). T hey a re p articularly valuable s ince t hey g ive f ar more d etailed e vidence a s t o m easures t han i s t o b e f ound i n D ionysios, o r i ndeed i n a ny o ther a uthor o f e arlier d ate e xcept D urer.
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T ranslation : C oncerning t he m easures o f P anselinos When t hou w ishest t o d raw, o p upil, f irst d ivide t he s pace i nto 7 m easures , n amely 7 h eads, a nd t hen d ivide t he f irst ( measure) i nto 4 parts: t he o ne ( of t hose) make t he h air , t he o ther t he f orehead, a nother t he n ose , a nd t he o ther t he c hin, a nd t aking h alf t he m easure o f t he n ose make t he e ye i n t he w idest p art o f t he f ace , b ut d o n o t make t he p upil o f t he e ye i n t he m iddle o f t he e ye, r ather l et i t b e a l i ttle f urther t owards t he p lace o f t he e ar . T hen t ake t he m easure ( which) i s t he n ose w ith t he c ompass, n amely p irgelion: 6 9 n ext p lace ( the p o int o f ) o ne p art o f t he c ompass i n t he p upil o f t he l arge e ye a nd measure t o t he o ther p art o f t he f ace a nd make t he
6 8
o ther pupil, a nd d raw r ound i t t he o ther e ye i n t he n arrower p art ( of t he f ace): e xcept make t his e ye a l i ttle r ounder a nd s maller t han t he o ther o ne a nd a l i ttle l ower . A nd f rom t he e nd o f t he l arge e ye t o t he e ar i t n eeds ( the w idth o f ) o ne l arge e ye , a nd a gain f rom t here t o t he o uter e dge o f t he h air ( the w idth o f ) a n e ye a nd a h alf : f rom t he e nd o f t he s mall e ye t o t he o ther e ar i t n eeds f a l arge e ye ( width) a nd a b it, a nd a gain f rom t here t o t he e nd ( outer e dge) o f t he h air a nother s ingle l arge e ye ( width). T hen make t he n ose l evel w ith t he t op p art o f t he e yelashes 7 ° a nd t he e yebrows a rched s tarting t hem f rom t he n ose. L et t he e ars b e o ne s maller t han t he o ther a nd a l i ttle a bove t he n ostrils o f t he n ose: f rom t he n ose t o t he c hin m easure o ut 3 measures, a nd i n t he o ne measure t hat i s c loser t o t he n ose make t he mouth, a nd l eave t he o ther 2 ( measures) f or t he c hin: a nd make t he n eck o ne n ose m easure a s f ar a s t he s eparation o f t he l arynx ( the p it o f t he t hroat). A nd t hese i n t ruth ( are) t he measures f or t he f ace o f C hrist a nd t he r est o f t he S aints a nd o f t hose s imilar t o t hem. C oncerning t he P anaghia ( The A l l H o ly O ne , which i s t he G reek t i tle f or t he V irgin Mary), y ou must k now ( that) when s he s tands u pright a nd t urns a l i ttle t hat ( f igure) i s ( called) a s t hey s ay , t he H odegetr ia; ( This t i tle " showing t he way" i s g iven t o a s tandard B yzantine p ose f or t he V irgin a nd C hild): f rom t he s ide o f t he n ostrils o f t he n ose t o t he . e ar t here i s o ne n ose ( measure), a nd s imilarly f rom t he e nd o f t he l arge e ye a s f ar a s t he m iddle o f t he t op o f t he n ose ( roo t o f n ose) 1 n ose ( measure), a nd a gain t he s ame ( measure) f rom t he m iddle o f t he t op o f t he n ose t o t he e dge o f t he n arrowest p art o f t he f ace: a nd a gain f rom t he u pper p ar t o f t he n ose t o t he e dge o f t he h ood 71 a cross t he w ide s ide o f t he f ace ( measure) 2 n oses, a nd a cross t he n arrowest s ide o f t he f ace t o t he o ther e dge o f t he h ood ( measure) 1 n ose a nd a b it. B ut a s c oncerns s eeing h er s ideways 7 2 f rom t he e dge o f t he n ostril o f t he n ose t o t he e ar ( is) 1 n ose ( measure) a nd a b it: a gain f rom t here t o t he e dge o f t he h ood ( is) 1 n ose m easure: t hen f rom t he t op o f t he h ood t o t he e ye ( measure) 2 n oses: f rom t he p upil o f t he l arger e ye t o t he e dge o f t he n arrower p ar t o f t he f ace ( is) 1 n ose ( measure). A nd f rom t he e ye t o t he e dge o f t he n arrower p art o f t he f ace ( is) 1 n ose ( measure). A nd f rom t he e yes t o t he c hin ( measure) 2 n ose ( lengths), f rom t he n ose t o h er c hin 3 measures, a nd i n t he o ne make t he mouth , a nd t he o ther t wo make t he l ip a nd t he c hin. T hen f or t he I nfant make t he h ead h alf ( the s ize) o f t he f ace o f t he P anaghia a nd f rom t he t op o f H is h ead t o t he e yes ( measure) 3 n oses: f rom t he e yes t o t he c hin 2 n oses, b ecause t he m easurements o f t he I nfant d iffer i n t hat H is n ose i s s maller a nd w ider t han t he n ose o f o ther s aints. T hen f rom t he p upil o f t he l arge e ye t o t he b eginning o f t he e ar ( measure) 1 n ose , a nd f rom t he b eginning o f t he s maller e ye t o t he b eginning o f t he e ar ( measure) 1 n ose, a nd f rom t he b eginning o f t he s maller e ye t o t he b eginning o f t he o ther e ar ( measure) 1 n ose, a nd H is h air i s a bove t he e ars. T hese ( measures)
6 9
c oncern t he f rontal v iew o f t he C hild: b ut s een f rom s ideways H e wants 1 n ose ( measure) f rom t he e nd o f t he e ye t o t he b eginning o f t he e ar ,7 3 a nd H is h air i s b elow t he e ars. A nd i n l ike manner o ther y oung s aints h ave m easurements s imilar t o t hose o f t he P anaghia, b ut t heir h air i s 1 n ose ( measure) a nd t heir f orehead 1 n ose ( measure): b ut c oncerning t he d imensions o f S aint G eorge , make h is h air l ike t hat o f C hr ist b elow t he e ars a nd l ikewise t hat o f s imilar s aints. 7 4 Make ( the h air) o f S aint D emetr ios a bove t he e ars a nd c loser f i tting, when h e l ooks s traight a head: b ut when s ideways ( oblique o r s emi-prof ile) make i t b elow t he e ars, a nd t hese ( measures) r efer t o t he y oung m en. F or o ld men, l et t he h eads o f t he b ald o nes h ave t he t op p ar t s lightly more t han 2 n oses a nd t heir n oses a re w ider t han t hose o f y oung m en a nd f arther f rom t he p upils, b ut t he o ther m easures ( are) s imilar t o t hose o f t he o ther s aints. 7 5 A nd t hese ( instructions) r efer t o t he f rontal v iew: b ut c oncerning t hose ( measures) s een f rom s ideways ( 2 p rof ile) f rom t he e nd o f t he l arge e ye t o t he e ar i s 1n ose ( measure) a t t he u pper p art ( of t he e ar), a nd a t t he l ower ( part) f rom t he e nd o f t he e ar t o t he n ostril ( measure) 2 l arge e yes: f rom t he b eginning o f t he l arge e ye t o t he e nd o f t he n arrow p ar t o f t he f ace i s 1 n ose, a nd t he e ars o f a ll t he s aints must b e o f t he g reatness o f 1n ose ( measure). T he r emaining p arts o f t he b ody a re measured t hus: when y ou make t he h ead make a lso t he n eck 1 n ose ( measure): t he s econd measure make t he e nd o f t he b reast, t he t hird t he m iddle ( waist) a nd l et i t b e t he w idth o f 1 m easure :7 6 a t t he f ourth m easure make t he e nd ( or b ase) o f t he b elly , a t t he f if th a nd a h alf ( measure) make t he k nees, a nd a t t he s eventh t he a nkle. F rom t he a nkle t o t he n ails o f t he f eet ( measure) 3 n oses, a nd a gain f rom t he s ide o f t he e nd o f t he n eck t o t he e nd o f t he s houlders 1 m easure, f rom t he s houlder t o t he e lbow 1m easure, a nd f rom t he e lbow t o t he h orny p ar t o f t he h and 1 m easure, a nd a gain f rom t here t o t he t ip o f t he f ingers 3 n oses. And t hese ( measures) r efer t o ( f igures) s tanding u pright. ( The h eight) o f t hose ( f igures) s itting o n c hairs s uch a s E vangelists makes 6 m easures a nd t he k nees o f t hese ( are) a t 4 1 m easures a nd t hen ( i t i s) 1 m easures t o t he a nkle, t hen f or t hose ( f igures) s itting a nd writing ( upper b ody b ent f orwards) make 5 measures making 3 1 m easures t o t he k nee a nd t he r emainder a s t he f irst. ( 11 m easures f rom knee t o a nkle). 7 7 T hose ( f igures) s itting o n h orseback make 6 m easures, a nd t hose o f t heir h orses l ikew ise ( 6 measures) f rom t heir h ead t o t heir h indquarters: a nd t he f irst m easure make t he h ead, t he s econd ( measure) t he n eck, t he t hird ( measure) t he f oreleg, t he f our th a nd a h alf ( measure) t he e nd o f t he b elly, a nd t he e nd o f t he s ixth ( measure) t he h indquarters . F rom t he knee j oint o f t he b ack l eg t o t he h oof ( is) 1 m easure, t hat o f
7 0
t he f ront l egs a b it l ess t han make t he h alf 3 m easures. 7 8
2 measures
f rom
h ip
t o
h oof :
When y ou make t he T heotokos ( The G od B earer , a s econd t i tle f or t he V irgin Mary) make t he t op o f t he h ead o f t he C hild d irectly u nder t he n ose o f t he P anaghia, a nd make H is b ody 4 1 measures t o t he a nkle o f t he f ront f acing l eg, a nd f rom t he s ole o f H is f oot 7 9 t o t he k nee must . b e 1 measure, a nd l ikew ise f rom t he o ther f oo t. I n t his manner a re t he m easures o f P anselinos m easured o ut. And I h ave made a c oncise i nterpretation o f t hem . T hou, 0 worthy s tudent , i f t hou a r t e ager t o l earn a nd i f t hou a rt e ager t o a cquire w isdom: a nd i f i ndeed t hou d esirest t o u nderstand more f ully , t hou must s earch o ut a nd f ind a t eacher t hat h e may t each t hee a t f irst h and: a nd i f t hou c anst n o t f ind o ne , s ub ject t hyself s o t hat t hou p aintest c hurches a ccording ( to t he manner) o f P anse linos, h aving my g uide w ith t hee ( if ) t hou w ishest t o t ake t he t rouble t o u nderstand ( this a rt). P anse linos , t he v ertical f igure ( Text F ig:13).
measures
f or
t he
s tanding
male
n ude
T hese m easures c an b e l isted a s f ollows:h eads •
n oses
f aces
( 1) V ertex t o a nkle
7
2 8
( 2) H ead
( vertex t o c hin)
1
4
1 1
( 3) F ace
( root o f h air t o c hin)
3 7 «
3
1
( 4) U pper h ead ( ver tex t o r oo t o f h air)
1
( 5) F orehead ( root o f h air r oot o f n ose)
1
1
( 6) N ose ( root o f n ose t o b ase o f n ose)
1
1
( 7) C hin ( end o f n ose t o e nd o f c hin)
1
1
z i
1
1 5
( 9) Chin t o p it o f s tomach
1
4
1 1
( 10) P it o f s tomach t o waist
1
4
1 1
( 11) Waist t o e nd o f b elly
1
4
1 1
( 12) E nd o f b elly t o knees
1 1
6
2
( 8) N eck
( chin t o p it o f t hroat)
7 1
( 13) K nees t o a nkle
1
6
2
( 14) A nkle t o e nd o f t oes
3 7 ,
3
1
( 15) S houlder t o e lbow
1
4
1 1
'1
4
1 1
( 16) E lbow t o wrist ( 17) W rist t o e nd o f f ingers
3 Z
3
1
( 18) W idth o f b ody a t waist
1
4
1 1
( 19) P it o f t hroat t o e nd o f s houlder —
1
4
1 1
( 20) W idth o f s houlders ( twice t he a bove)
2
8
2 1 -
P anse linos t hus l ists h is s eries o f measures i n t he f orm o f a natomical modular u nits t hat d ef ine l engths b etween f ixed a natomical r eference p o ints. T he l arge module i s t he h eadl ength ( vertex t o c hin) which i s u sed t o d ef ine t he t otal l ength o f t he f igure f rom v ertex t o a nkle , a nd t o d ef ine t he l ength o f t he l arger s egments o f t he f igure. A s maller module i s t he n ose-length ( 1 h ead-length) a nd t his i s d ependent o n t he e stablished h ead-length. I t i s u sed t o d ef ine t he l ength o f t he s maller s ections o f t he b ody s uch a s t he h and a nd t he s tructural d istances w ithin t he h ead. Ano ther i mportant module u sed o nly f or t he f ace i s t he e ye-length ( 1 n oselength o r o f t he h ead-length). B y i ncreasing o r d ecreasing t he s ize o f t he h ead-length module i t i s p ossible t o v ary t he s ize o f t he f igure while maintaining t he r elationships b etween t he p arts o f t he f igure a nd t he whole f igure , a nd o f t he p ar ts t o e ach o ther . P anselinos g ives n o i nstructions a s t o t he m easure o f t he d istance b etween t he a nkle a nd t he h eel. I n most B yzantine p aintings, whether i n t he 1 4th c entury o r b efore o r a f ter , t his d istance a ppears t o e quate w ith 1 n ose-length . I f w e a pply t his n ose-length t o P anselinos' f igure i t would m easure 7 1 h eads f rom v ertex t o h eel, which i s 1 o f a h ead-length s hor ter t han t he modern s cientif ic a verage o f 7 1 h ead-lengths. B yzantine f rontal f igures g enerally a ttain a g reater l ength b ecause p ainters h ardly e ver f oreshortened t he f rontal f oot which i s s hown a s s een f rom a bove, p lanted a t a s light d iagonal t o t he v ertical s haf t o f t he l ower l eg, s o t hat t he f ull d orsum o f t he f oot i s r evealed . P anse linos g ives a m easure o f 3 n ose-lengths f or t he d istance f rom a nkle t o t oenails, a nd t his i s a measure which c ould b e a pplied b oth t o t he f rontal a nd t he p rof ile f oo t. H e d oes n ot g ive a m easure f or t he f ull f oo tl ength f rom h eel t o t oe . T he P anselinos f igure a ppears t o h ave i ts c entre a t a p o int b etween t he n avel a nd t he b ase o f t he b elly , whereas i n 7 2
F ig 1 3 .
P anselinos, t he v ertical m easures f or t he male f igure i n t he a nterior a spect.
7 3
s tanding n ude
n ature t he f ork i s r eckoned a s t he c entre o f t he u pright f igure ( vertex t o h eel). A s a r esult o f t his d ispropor tion t he t orso a nd h ead o f P anselinos' f igures a re e longated a t t he e xpense o f t he l eg l ength. T he w idth o f t he s houlders i s g iven a s 2 h ead-lengths. T his i s v ery b road a nd i t e quals t he maximum w idth t hat i s g iven b y R icher a nd T homson f or t he modern f igure o f 7 1 h ead-lengths ( ver tex t o h eel). I t c an t herefore b e s een t hat t he f igures o f P anselinos m ight h ave a b road a nd s tocky c haracter b ut t his r educed r atio b etween w idth a nd h eight i s c ounteracted i n f rontal f igures b y t he e xtra f oo t l ength c aused b y t he a pparent t ip t oe s tances . T his a dds a f urther f h ead l ength t o t he 7 1 h eadlengths o f t he h eight ( vertex t o h eel). D iscussion o f t he R eference P oints g iven b y P anselinos T he r eference p oints g iven by P anselinos were n o d oubt a bsolutely c lear t o h im b ut s ome o f t hem may l ack p recision t o t he u ninitiated. T he m easures g iven p resumably r elate t o t he d istance i n a s traight l ine f rom r eference p o int t o r eference p o int. T hese r eference p oints a re a natomical, b ut b y i nterpretation i nto t he l inear i diom o f B yzantine f old l ines t hey c an b e a pplied t o t he c lothed f igure, a nd P anselinos s tates t hat t hey a re f or a f igure s tanding u pright . B ut t hey c ould b e a pplied t o t he f rontal, t he 4 3 -p rof ile, o r t he p rof ile a spects o f s uch a n u pright f igure a nd s uch a multiple u se would b e v ery p ractical s ince many B yzantine f igures d isplay a c ombination o f a spects i n t he o ne i mage . ( 1) V ertex t o a nkle: 7 h ead-lengths. T he t op o f t he h ead a nd t he p o int where t he s haf t o f t he l eg m eets t he f oo t make c lear r eference p oints. I n t he c ase o f o ld m en t he f igure h eight i s s lightly i ncreased b ecause P anselir ios' i nstructions f or t he h eads o f o ld men g ive a g reater a llowance f or t he u pper p ar t o f t he h ead, b ut i t i s u nlikely t hat t his would e xceed a f o f a n ose-length. ( 2) V ertex t o c hin: 1 h ead-length. T his m easure which d ef ines t he l arge module i s c lear a s t o i ts r eference p o ints. T he e xtra a llowance f or t he h eads o f o ld m en would a ppear t o b e s pecif ic t o t he a ctual h ead i tself a nd n ot t o p ertain t o t he g eneral m easures. ( 3), ( 4), ( 5), ( 6) ( 7) T he v ertical d ivisions o f t he h ead i n to 4 p resumably e qual p arts w ill b e d iscussed i n d etail i n t he s ection d ealing w ith t he m easures a nd p roportional s tructure o f t he h ead. ( see b elow). ( 6) T he n ose-length i s d ef ined b y P anselinos a s s tarting p oint where t he e yebrows b egin a nd i t would a ppear t o t he l evel w ith t he r oot o f t he n ose a nd t he u pper r im e yes. I ts m easure e quals o f t he modular h eadlength i n t he c ase o f t he C hr ist C hild. ( see b elow)
7 4
a t t he b e o n o f t he e xcept
( 8) T he n eck: 1 n ose-length T he n eck measure i s i ncluded i n t he s econd h ead-length m easure g iven b y P anselinos s o t hat i ts u pper r eference p o int i s p resumably t he c hin . T he l ower r eference p oint i s p resumably t he p it o f t he t hroat. T he p it o f t he t hroat i s q uite c learly i ndicated i n n ude f igures i n B yzantine murals a nd i n many c ases i t i s t angent t o t he b ase o f t he h alo i f t he h alo w ere t o b e c ontinued a cross t he b ody , a nd i t f requently e quates w ith t he f i tted n eckline o f c lothing. F or a modern c ompar ison R icher g ives t he n eck p roportion a s o f a h ead, which i s r ather l onger t han t he f h ead g iven b y P anselinos . ( 9) Chin t o e nd o f b reast: 1 h ead-length. T he l ower r eference p o int i s u nclear a nd i t c ould r efer e ither t o t he b ase o f t he p ectoral muscles o r t o t he p it o f t he s tomach. T he d ifference i n h eight b etween t hese t wo p oints i s marginal, a nd t he p it o f t he s tomach , which i s a p o int c learly marked i n most B yzantine n udes, i s i n d irect v ertical a lignment w ith t he p it o f t he t hroat. R icher 's e quivalent f or t his measure i s 1 h eadlength f rom t he c hin t o t he n ipples, which i n n ature l ie s lightly h igher t han P anselinos' m easure p oint . ( 10) E nd o f b reast t o waist: 1 h eadlength. I n n ature t he waist l evel l ies a t a pproximately f h ead-length a bove t he l evel o f t he n avel a nd i t marks t he n arrowest w idth o f t he t runk. R icher g ives 1 h ead-length f or t he d istance f rom n ipples t o n avel , s o t hat t he waist a s d ef ined b y P anse linos would a ppear t o b e r ather l ow. ( 11) Waist t o e nd o f b elly: 1 h ead-length. I n t he n ude male t he b ase o f t he b elly i s c learly i ndicated by t he t ransverse l ine o f t he g roin wh ich l ies a pproximately o f a h ead h igher t han t he f ork. T he f ork i s g enerally a ccepted a s marking t he c entre o f t he v ertical b ody ( vertex t o h eel), a nd R icher g ives a d istance o f 1 h ead-length f rom t he n avel t o a p o int 1 3 3 -o f a h ead-length b elow t he t ransverse l ine o f t he g roin . T he c entre o f R icher 's f igure i s 8 -o 1 f a h ead l ength b elow t hat l ine, b ut i n h is f igure t he d istance f rom waist t o t ransverse l ine o f t he g roin i s i n f act 1 h ead l ength. H owever , t he c entre o f t he P anselinos f igure ( vertex t o h eel) must l ie b etween t he n avel a nd t he b ase o f t he g roin. ( 12) E nd o f b elly t o k nees: 1 . 1 h ead-lengths. P anselinos d oes n o t p rovide u s w ith a s eparate m easure f or t he k nees, b ut h e d oes s tate ' at t he f if th a nd a h alf m easure make t he k nees'. I t i s i mpossible t o b e c ertain whether t hey f orm p art o f t he n ext a nd f inal measure o r n ot. ( 13) K nees t o a nkle: 1 1 h eadlengths. T his m easure o bviously p roceeds f rom t he e nd o f t he p revious m easure . T he l ower r eference p o int i s t he a nkle which i s p resumably marked b y t he a nkle s alient where t he s haf t o f t he l eg m eets t he d orsum o f t he f oot. I t w e c onsider t he l eg a s a whole, t hat i s f rom t he s urface p rotuberance o f t he u pper e nd o f t he t high
7 5
b one ( great t rochanter) which i s o n a l evel w ith t he t ransverse l ine o f t he g ro in, t o t he b ase o f t he l eg a t t he a nkle b one ( medial maleolus), i t w ill b e o bserved t hat t he t high b one i s l onger t han t he s hin b one b y a pproximately t he h eight o f t he k nee b one ( patella). T he k nee b one ( patella) f orms p ar t o f t he t high b one ( femur) whose l ower e xtremity i t o bscures when t he l eg i s o bserved i n t he f rontal a spect , b ut i n o rder t hat t he l eg may b e d ivided i nto t wo e qual m easures i t i s n ecessary t o i nclude t he h eight o f t he k nee b one w ithin t he m easure g iven f or t he s hin b one. When t his f act i s r elated t o t he l eg m easures o f P anse linos i t i ndicates t hat t he k nees s hould b e made l ower a nd a f ter t he u pper l eg m easure, a nd i ncluded w ithin t he 7 th a nd f inal h ead-length. T hus m easure ( 12) s hould r ead f rom ' end o f b elly t o t op o f k nee b one '. I n T ext F ig. 1 i t may b e o bserved t hat R icher 's l eg r atio t o t he who le h eight i s l onger t han t hat o f P anselinos who , a s w e h ave o bserved a bove , a ppears t o a llow f or a l onger t runk a t t he e xpense o f t he l eg l ength. A nkle t o h eel: t his v ertical d istance i s n o t g iven b y P anselinos. I n most B yzantine f igures i n paintings a nd mosaics where t he f eet a re s hown i n t he p rof ile a spect t he h eight o f t he f oot f rom h eel t o a nkle a ppears t o e quate w ith a n ose-length. ( 14) Ankle t o t oe-nails: 3n oselengths. T his m easure g ives u s t he l ength o f t he d orsum o f t he f oot f rom where i t m eets t he s haf t o f t he l eg t o t he e nd o f t he t oes. P anselinos g ives n o m easure f or t he f oot l ength, f rom h eel t o t oe. I n most o f t he p aintings t hat we h ave e xamined i n which t he d orsum c onforms t o a m easure o f 3 n ose-lengths, t he who le f oot l ength measures 4 n ose-lengths a nd t he w idth o f t he a nkle a nd t he h eight o f t he f oot f rom h eel t o a nkle a re e ach e qual t o 1 n ose-length. B yzantine a rtists n ever f oreshortened t he f oo t i n i ts f rontal a spect. I t i s n ormally s hown a t a s light d iagonal t o t he s haf t o f t he l ower l eg o r s hin w ith t he f ull d orsum o f t he f oo t r evealed, g iving r ise t o t he t iptoe s tance r idiculed b y V asari. T he measures g iven b y P anse linos c an b e a pplied e qually well t o t he p rof ile f oot. R icher g ives t he f oot l ength f rom h eel t o t oe a s e qual t o 1 * h ead-lengths ( 5 n ose-lengths), a nd t his makes i t o f t he t otal f igure h eight . T he P anselinos f oo t m easure i s 1n ose-length s hor ter t han i n R icher , a nd i ts r atio t o t he t otal b ody h eight i s t herefore c onsiderably s maller . ( 15) a nd ( 16) h ead-length .
S houlder t o e lbow a nd
e lbow t o
wr ist:
e ach
1
( 17) W rist t o f inger t ips: 3 n oselengths. I n n ature, t he f orearm ( elbow t o wrist) c an o nly a pproximate t o a n e qual m easure w ith t he u pper a rm i f t he l atter i s measured f rom t he b ase o f t he s houlder ( anterior f o ld o f t he a rmpit) t o t he e lbow . S imilarly i t i s o nly p ossible t o r elate e ach a rm l ength t o a h ead-length i f t hese m easures a re t aken a long t he o utside o f t he f lexed a rm. R icher m easures 3 h ead-lengths f rom t he
7 6
a rmpit t o t he t ip o f t he m edius i n t he l aterally e xtended a rm, a nd t he d istance f rom a rmpit t o e lbow i s s horter t han t hat f rom e lbow t o wr ist. B ut when t he a rm i s f lexed t he l ength o f t he u pper a rm i s e xtended d ue t o t he d escent o f t he p oint o f t he e lbow ( olecranon), a nd t he d ifference b etween t he f ore- a nd u pper- a rmlengths i s r educed. I t would t hus s eem l ikely t hat t he u pper r eference p o int f or t he a rm i n P anse linos' f igure i s a t a rmpit l evel, a nd f rom t hence t o t he e xterior p oint o f t he f lexed e lbow i s 1 h ead-length. F rom t he e lbow t o t he wrist a long t he u nderside o f t he a rm i s a f ur ther 1 h ead-length, a nd t he h and f rom t he wr ist t o t he t ip o f t he m edius makes 3 n osel engths. ( 18) W idth o f b ody a t p resents n o p roblems. ( 19) ( 20) s houlder :
waist:
F rom t he p it 1h ead-length;
o f
1h ead l ength.
t he
t hroat
t o
t he
T his
e nd
m easure
o f
t he
( 20) W idth o f t he s houlders: T his i s e qual t o t wice t he p revious m easure. T hese m easures i ndicate a w idth o f s houlders o f 2 h ead-lengths, R icher c onsidered 2 h eadlengths a s a maximum s houlder w idth i n t he c ase o f t he w ell d eveloped a thletic male. H e r eckoned t hat t he w idth o f t he s houlders was e quivalent t o t he l ength f rom t he p oint •o f t he e lbow ( olecranon) t o t he t ip o f t he m edius. T his l atter measure a ccording t o t he i nstructions o f P anselinos would a dd u p t o h ead-lengths. P anse linos makes t he waist 1 h ead-length i n w idth, a nd e ven a llowing f or t he t hickness o f t he a rms, h is f igure w ith i ts s houlders o f 2 h ead-lengths a nd a waist o f 1 h ead-length h as a v ery s harp n arrowing o f t he t horax . R icher d oes n o t g ive a ny m easure f or t he waist a nd m erely s ays t hat t he w idest w idth o f t he t runk, measured a cross t he u pper t highs, i s e qual t o t he w idth o f t he s houlders l ess t he w idth o f t he a rms.
1
T he s eated f igure P anselinos i ncludes s ome i nstructions a s t o t he measures t o b e a pplied t o s eated f igures, a nd a f urther d istinction i s made b etween t he s eated E vangelist whose b ack i s u pright a nd t he s eated E vangelist who i s b ent f orward o ver h is writing s o t hat h is h ead a nd b ack a re o n a d iagonal. P ar ticulars a s t o t he e xact a spects o f t hese f igures a re n o t g iven, b ut i n mural p ainting a nd mosaics s eated E vangelists a re u sually p or trayed i n t he 2 -profile o r o blique a spect. I n t his a spect t he t highs a re f oreshortened a nd t he l ap o r u pper s urface o f t he t high i s u sually v isible s ince t he f urther t high i s p laced h igher t han t he n earer t high, which i s s et a t a s light d iagonal t o t he t runk .
7 7
T he m easures c an b e l isted a s f o llows:T he u pr ight s eated f igure:
h eads
v er tex t o a nkle:
6
2 4
8
•L i -
1 8
6
v ertex t o k nee k nee t o a nkle
1 4
n oses
6
f aces
2
T he s tooped s eated f igure:
_
v ertex t o a nkle v ertex t o k nee k nee t o a nkle •
5
2 0
6 4
•3 1
1 4
4 4
1 4
6
2
T hese m easures d ef ine t he h eight o f t he v er tical s pace t o b e o ccupied b y e ach f igure , b ut n o d ef init ion i s g iven a s t o t he h orizontal s pace t o b e a llowed . T he v ertical h eight i s s ubdivided i nto t he d istances f rom v er tex t o k nee a nd f rom k nee t o a nkle. I n b oth f igures t he h eight f rom k nee t o a nkle i s t he s ame. T he h eight o f t he u pper a rea o f t he u pright s eated f igure i s g reater b y 1 h ead-length t han t hat o f t he s tooped f igure. B oth t he v ertex a nd t he ' ankle a re c lear r eference p oints b ut t he k nee p o int i s n ot c learly d ef ined. I n t he c ase o f t he u pright s eated f igure t he d istance f rom t he v ertex t o t he knee i s g iven a s 4 + h eadlengths a nd f or c ompar ison i t i s n ecessary t o r emember t hat i n h is i nstructions f or t he v ertical s tanding f igure P anselinos g ives t he d istance f rom t he v ertex t o t he b ase o f t he b elly ( transverse l ine o f t he g roin) a s 4 h ead-lengths. When t he l eg i s f lexed a nd t he t high i s a t r ight a ngles t o t he t runk, t he b ase o f t he b elly i s o n a l evel w ith t he t op o f t he t high a nd w ith t he t op o f t he k nee. T hus t he v ertical d istance f rom • t he l evel o f t he b ase o f t he b elly t o t he l evel o f t he b ase o f t he k nee must b e 4 a h ead-length. 8 ° T he m easures f or t he v ertical u pr ight b ody a lso g ive 1 4 h ead-lengths f or t he d istance f rom k nee t o a nkle ( see a bove) s o t hat t his 4 h ead-length must r efer t o t he t hickness o f t he t high. N o h or izontal m easures a re g iven b ut i n h is g eneral f igure i nstructions P anse linos g ives a d istance o f 1 4 h eadlengths f rom t he b ase o f t he b elly t o t he k nee, a m easure wh ich c ould b e a pplied i n t he s eated s tance ; t he d istance f rom t he g roin t o t he b ack o f t he b uttock i s n ot g iven. P anselinos' measures a re r emarkably s imilar t o t he a r ticulation o f t he E gyptian c anon a s e xemplif ied i n t he s eated f igure i n t he R hind p apyrus. ( Text F ig. 8 ) T he l inear m easures o f t he B yzantine c anon c ould h ave b een a nd p robably were i ndicated o n t he wall b y a s eries o f c ompass a rcs t o g uide t he a rtist a s t o t he d istr ibution o f h is s pace , whereas t he E gyptian c anon was i ndicated by t he more r igid g rid
7 8
s tructure. R icher .
S ix
h ead
l engths
i s
a lso
t he
m easure
g iven
P anselinos' i nstructions f or t he c onstruction o f t he s eated f igure d iffer o nly f rom t hose f or t he u pr ight f igure i n t hat t he h eight o f t he u pper b ody s pace i s b y a f urther h ead-length. P resumably t he m easures u pper b ody a nd t he h ead a re a pplied a long a d iagonal o f a v ertical.
b y
s tooped s eated r educed f or t he i nstead
We h ave i nterpreted t hese i nstructions f or t he u pright s eated f igure a s m easures f or t he s tandard B yzantine o blique v iew but t hey c ould e qually b e a pplied t o t he f rontal s eated f igure. I n t he f rontal f igure t he 1 h ead-length f rom t he b ase o f t he b elly t o t he k nee c an b e s aid t o m easure t he d egree o f f oreshortening i n t he f rontal t high a s well a s t he h eight o f t he k nee, i n t hat l eg which i s n ot s hown t o b e a t r ight a ngles t o t he t runk. P anselinos' measures f or t he t wo s eated f igures a re g iven i n t erms o f t he d istribution o f t he v ertical s pace , a nd p resumably t he r emaining m easures f or t he b ody t hat was a r ticulated w ithin t hat s pace a re s imilar t o t hose g iven f or t he u pright f igure. F igures s itting u pon h orseback
( Text F ig.
1 4 , P l.
7 )
F igures u pon h orseback i n B yzantine murals a re l imited t o p opular m ilitary s aints s uch a s D emetr ios a nd G eorge. T he h orse, mule a nd d onkey a re n ot a lways c learly d ifferentiated, a nd i t i s p robable t hat P anselinos' i nstructions c ould a pply e qually well t o a ll t hree, a nd t hat t his i nstruction i s i ncluded a s a g uide f or p ainting s uch c ommon s cenes a s ' The E ntry i nto J erusalem ' a nd ' Flight i nto E gypt' . T he main d ifferences b etween t he h orse, t he mule a nd t he d onkey i n many B yzantine murals l ie n ot i n p roportion but i n t he c olour, t he e ars, a nd t he t ail. P anselinos' i nstructions a ppear t o i mply a s eries o f s ix e qual v ertical d ivisions o f s pace i nto which t he h orse i s f i tted. T he h ead i s p laced w ithin o ne o f t he m easures, t he n eck i nto a s econd, t he f oreleg i nto a t hird , t he b elly o ccupies a f urther 1 1 m easures a nd t he h ind-quarters o ccupy t he f inal 1 1 measures c reated b y t hese n otional v ertical d ivisions. T he h eight o f t he h orse i s o bscure; i f t he l ast i nstruction r efers t o h alf t he h eight t hen t he t otal h eight o f t he h orse ( top o f h ead t o b ase o f l owest h oof must b e s ix measures. B ut s ix m easures i s r ather s hor t). 8 1 . The i nstructions f or t he r ider a re l imited t o t he t erse s tatement ' make s ix measures'. T hese ' six m easures' c an p resumably b e r elated t o t he i nstructions g iven f or t he s eated u pright f igure, s ee a bove. I f s o t he s eated r ider r elates t o a v er tical s pace d ivided i nto 6 e qual m easures i n t he f ollowing manner :-
7 9
1
", 3
1
t i t
—C
c t )
—d e 4 )
f igure o n h orseback.
— C
I o t
1
I
«10
•
1
1
8 0
-1
4 1 m easures:
f rom t he v er tex t o t he t op o f t he k nee
1 1 m easures:
f rom t he a nkle t o t he t op o f t he k nee
T he 4 1 m easures must a lso c over t he d iagonal a nd t hickness o f t he t high . I n t he s eated f igure t he u nit m easure i s t he l ength o f t he h ead f rom v er tex t o c hin. F or t he h orse i t i s u nclear whether o r n ot t he v alue o f t he m easures i s a nthropometric. I t d oes h owever s eem l ikely t hat a s imilar m easure l ength i s u sed f or b oth h orse a nd r ider s o t hat t he p roportional r elationships b etween t hem a re s tandardized whatever t he a ctual s ize f ixed u pon f or t he b asic module o r m easure. F ollowing t his i nterpretation o f P anse linos ' i nstructions w e h ave i l lustrated a n h orse a nd r ider i n T ext F ig. 1 4 . I t c an b e s een t hat t he f igure l ooms r ather l arge o n t he p rancing p ony, a nd t he t high i s a t a v ery s harp a ngle t o t he t orso i n o rder t hat t he f oo t o f t he f igure s hould n o t t ouch t he g round . T he a ngle f or t he l eg i s c orrect i f t he s tirrups a re s hort, a nd i t would b e p ossible t o make t he h orse 's l egs l onger . T he o nly mounted f igure t hat we h ave b een a ble t o m easure c arefully i s t hat o f a l arge mural p ainting o f S aint G eorge i n t he n arthex o f t he c hurch o f t he P anaghia P horb io tissa a t A sinou , i n Cyprus. T he p ainting d ates t o c irca 1 200 A .D. a nd T ext F ig. 1 4 h as b een a dapted f rom t his p ainting, but i n t he A sinou v ersion t he S aint 's l eg i s f lexed a t a more o btuse a ngle t han t he i nstructions o f P anselinos would a llow. ( Pl. 7 ) I n t he A sinou p ainting i f we t ake e ach m easure a s b eing e qual t o t he w idth o f t he h orses h ead a cross t he f orehead , t hen t he w idth o f S aint G eorge 's h orse f rom t he o utline o f t he f orehead t o t he h ind q uar ter c ould b e d ivided i nto s ix m easures i n t he manner p rescribed by P anselinos, but t he h eight o f t he h orse f rom v ertex t o t op o f h ooves h as a r atio o f 7 s uch measures t o t he s ix f or t he w idth, a s imilar r atio i n P anselinos i s 6 :6 a s i l lustrated i n T ext F ig. 1 4 . T he f igure o f t he A sinou S aint G eorge i s c onstructed a round a n otional v ertical a x is which b isects t he h orizontal w idth o f t he h orse. T his a xis a lso b isects t he a symmetr ical f ace o f S aint G eorge t o o ne s ide o f t he n ose o n t he w ider s ide o f t he f ace. T he m easure module f or t he h orse 's w idth ( six measures a s i n P anse linos) i s e qual t o t hree n ose l engths, a nd f rom t he c hin o f S aint G eorge t o t he b ase o f h is b elly ( where i t m eets t he t op o f t he h orse 's back) c an b e measured a s 9n ose-lengths. I t i s l ikely t hat t he f ace m easured t hree n ose-lengths f rom t he r oot o f t he h air t o t he c hin b ut i n t his r epresentation o f S aint G eorge t he u pper r eference p o int i s o bscured b y t he j ewelled c irclet which d escends a cross h is f orehead. T he h ead , f rom v ertex t o c hin, m easures l ess t han 4 n oses a nd t he c hin a rea ( base o f n ose t o c hin) measures 1 n ose-length. T he d ifference b etween t he h eight o f S aint G eorge 's h orse a s p ainted a t A sinou, a nd t he h eight p rescr ibed i n P anselinos' i nstruction, 8 1
i s I measure, a nd t his l ies i n t he h eight o ccupied b y t he l egs . T he A sinou p ainting o f S aint G eorge 's h orse h as t he n earside h ind l eg f ully e xtended while t he n earside f oreleg i s n o l onger v isible. I t i s p ossible t hat P anselinos' i nstruction r eferred t o a h orse w ith a ll l egs s trongly f lexed , i n which c ase t he m easure d ifference b etween t he h orses i s e asily a ccounted f or . W e h ave i l lustrated a h orse w ith f lexed l imbs b ecause i f t he l egs were e xtended t hey would l ook f ar t oo • short i f t heir l ength were c onf ined w ithin a s ingle m easure , a nd P anse linos h imself d oes n ot p rescribe a ny p articular s tance. T hese s imple i nstructions o f P anselinos a re q uite s uff icient b oth f or r egulating t he p roportional r elationships o f h orse a nd r ider a nd f or p lanning o ut t he g eneral d isposition o f a mounted f igure i n a g iven s pace a s c an b e s een i n T ext F ig 1 4. T hey p rovide t he e ssential v ertical a nd h orizontal m easures, a nd t hese measures, a s we h ave s een i n t he A sinou S aint G eorge, c an b e c onstructed a round a c entral a xis. T hey a re t hus s imilar t o P anse linos' i nstruction f or t he c onstruction o f h eads i n t hat b oth a re b ased o n a c entral a rmature a round wh ich t he a rtist c ould c onf idently p roceed w ith h is c omposition. T he C alculation o f t he t otal H eight a nd o f t he N ose Module N either P anselinos n or D ionysios o f F ourna mention a ny measures f or t he h alo a nd w e s hall d iscuss t he c onstructional r elationship b etween h ead a nd h alo i n t he s ection o n t he p aintings o f t he c hurch a t L agoudera. I n b oth t he v ertical a nd t he s eated f igures t he v ertical s pace t hat i s s pecif ied i s o ccupied b y a f igure measured f rom t he v ertex t o t he a nkle o nly . N o f urther s pace i s i ndicated f or t he h alo o r t he f eet , a lthough t he i nstructions f or t he u pright s tanding f igure d o i nclude a m easure f or t he d orsum o f t he f oot. B ut whatever t he s tance o f a f igure may .b e t he s pace a llowed f or i t o n t he wall h as t o b e d ivided i nto 9 , 7 , 6 , o r 5 , e qual m easures, a nd o nly when t his l arger module h as b een d ef ined d oes i t b ecome p ossible f or t he a rtist t o a ssess t he s ize o f t he s maller m odule , wh ich i s t he n ose-length ( 1 h ead-length, f ace-length). W e h ave s een t hat i t i s b y t his n ose-measure t hat t he d orsum o f t he f oot , t he n eck, e tc , a nd o ther s hor t l engths w ithin t he f igure were d ef ined . Our own m easurements o f many B yzantine f igures s uggest t hat 1 n ose-length was a lso u sed t o d ef ine t he d istance b etween t he v ertex o f t he h ead a nd t he c ircumference o f t he h alo . F or t he a rtist , t he e stablishment o f a r egular m easure d ef ining t he d istance b etween h ead a nd h alo was n ecessary i n o rder t o e nsure t hat t he c ircumference o f t he h alo i s a s e quidistant a s p ossible f rom t he c ontour o f t he h ead. T he measures f or t he h ead P anselinos
s upplies v ery p recise a nd d etailed measures f or t he 8 2
c onstruction o f h eads. H e d eals s pecif ically w ith t he f rontal a symmetrical h ead, t he p rof ile o r o blique h ead, t he h eads o f o ld men, t he h ead o f t he Christ Child, a nd t he ' turned' h ead o f t he Panaghia H odegetria. T he marked a ttention t hat P anselinos g ives t o h ead t ypes a nd s tances i n c omparison t o t he r ough m easures h e i ndicates f or t he b ody i s e choed i n B yzantine painting i tself where i t may b e o bserved t hat a rtists g ave c onsiderably more c are t o t he painting o f t he h ead t han t o t he r est o f t he f igure. T he f rontal a symmetrical h ead
( Text F ig.
1 5)
F rontal h eads a re u sually r egarded a s s ymmetrical. On t his a ssumption t he h ead c an b e d ivided by a n otional v ertical l ine r unning d own t he c entre o f t he n ose, a nd t he o ther s alient f eatures o f t he h ead a re a ligned s ymmetrically t o e ither s ide o f t his c entral v ertical l ine. T he c onstruction o f t he Panselinos h ead i s by c ontrast d eliberately a symmetrical s o t hat t he f ace i s w ider o n o ne s ide o f t he v ertical n oseline t han o n t he o ther . B ecause o f t his, t he measures f or t he e ye, t he t emple which i s t he d istance f rom e ye t o e ar, a nd t he w idth o f t he h air, a re w ider t o o ne s ide o f t he f ace t han o n t he o ther . P anselinos a dds t o t he a symmetrical e ffect by r ecommending t hat t he l argest e ye s hould b e h igher t han t he s maller e ye. P anselinos'
v ertical measures c an b e l isted a s f ollows:-
( 1) The hair
( vertex t o r oot o f h air)
( 2) The f orehead r oot o f n ose)
1n oselength
( root o f h air t o 1n ose-length
( 3) T he n ose ( root o f n ose t o base o f n ose)
1n ose-length
( 4) The c hin ( base o f n ose t o p oint o f c hin)
1n ose-length
( 5) The mouth l ip l ine)
( base o f n ose t o c entral n oselength
( 6) The c hin j ut ( l ip l ine t o p oint o f j aw)
3 -n ose-length
T he v ertical measures a re n o t v ery p recise. T he t op o f t he f orehead c an b e t aken t o mean t he r oot o f t he h air o r t he a pex o f t he f orehead where t he hair d ivides t o e ither s ide a s i n t he h eads o f Christ. The upper p oint o f t he n ose a ppears t o b e o n a l evel w ith t he upper r im o f t he e ye which i s a lso t he s tarting p oint f or t he u pward c urve o f t he e yebrows; B yzantine f aces a re n ot u sually e ndowed w ith e yelashes but i n n ature t he u pper r im o f t he e ye f orms t he r ooting p oint o f t he e yelashes. T his a ccords e xactly w ith n umerous e xamples o f B yzantine p ainted h eads where l ayers o f p igment have f laked away t o
8 3
c rown ö r y e/ ex o fh em I nose TOOt O f l '
i nose
l n oe
•
« Je l in .
. . • • 4
1 n
o s
e
• . ,
0
.
•
•
4 / 1
1. 1.
le i
II
.
U
)
k
ft .
4
^ .
( a . " . ." . . . ' L. / • . . . ..
1 nose .
4n '
n oseh i n
. c l un i n '
» . inose 'Me Of
t i l to l U r r oat F ig 1 5.
P anselinos, h ead.
t he
measures
8 4
f or
t he
a symmetrical
f rontal
r eveal t he p re liminary d rawing, i n which a v ertical l ine marking t he n ose i s d rawn p erpendicular t o t he e yeline r unning a cross t he u pper r ims o f t he e yes. T he e yebrows i n B yzantine f aces move u pwards f rom a s tarting p o int a t t he s ide o f t he n ose which i s l evel w ith t he u pper r ims o f t he e yes. T he b ase o f t he n ose i n P anselinos ' m easures c ould m ean t he b ase o f t he n ose t ip o r t he b ase o f t he n ostrils. I n B yzantine works t his c ho ice d epends o n t he s tyle o f t he n ose; t hus o ld men f requently h ave p ronounced S emitic n oses whereas y ounger m en h ave n oses o f a m ore r ounded s of tness. P anselinos h imself r efers t o t he n ostril when h e w ishes t o i ndicate t he l evel o f t he l owest p oint o f t he e ar . T he mouth i s d escribed a s b eing w ithin t he u pper t hird o f t he l owest d ivision o f t he h ead f rom t he c hin t o t he n ose. W e i nterpret ' mouth ' a s b eing t he l ine d ividing t he t wo l ips a nd w e p lace t his l ine o n t he b ase o f t he u pper d ivision o f t he c hin a rea. T he c entral h orizontal l ine o f t he mouth i s a n o bvious m easuring p oint i n t he B yzantine • face. I t i s n early a lways a p lain h orizontal s ince t he mouth was n ot manipulated t o e xpress e motion, a nd i t i s o nly i n B yzantine p aintings o f t he e arly 1 4th c entury t hat i t a cquires a l i ttle mobility a nd b ecomes s lightly l ess o f a s tandard f eature. I f b o th l ips w ere i ncluded i n t he u pper d ivision o f t he c hin, t he mouth would a ppear t o b e s quashed a gainst t he n ose while t he c hin would b e a bnormally o ver-elongated. T his o bservation i s c onf irmed b y P anse linos' i nstructions f or • t he 2 p rof ile P anaghia i n which h e a gain d ivides t he d istance b etween t he n ose a nd t he c hin i nto t hree e qual p ar ts a nd h e s pecif ically p laces t he mouth i n t he u pper d ivision a nd t he l ip i n t he s econd. T he mouth l ine must t hus b e p laced o n t he n ot ional p artition l ine b etween t he u pper a nd m iddle p arts o f t he c hin. I n a llowing o ne f ull n ose-measure f or t he h air P anselinos s eems t o e cho t he B yzantine p ractice o f d isregarding f rontal p erspective i n which t he t op o f t he h ead a ppears s maller t han t he f orehead .8 2 H e f ur ther s pecif ies t hat o ld m en s hould h ave a f orehead a nd h air h eight e xceeding 2 n ose-measures, b ut B yzantine p ractice a ppears t o v ary a s t o whether t he h eight o f t he h eads o f o ld m en s hould b e s o i ncreased . I n s ome mosaic a nd p ainting t he c urve marking t he t op o f t he h air o f t he a symmetrical f rontal h ead i s s ymmetrical t o t he c entre o f t he h ead, while i n o ther h eads t he c urve o f t he h air i s h igher a bove t he w ider s ide o f t he f ace ; i n b oth c ases t he p arting o f t he h air may e ither b e i n a lignment w ith t he v ertical o f t he n ose, o r t o o ne s ide o f i t . P anselinos d ivides t he h ead h orizontally i nto 7 p arts a long a n otional l ine l evel w ith t he u pper r im o f t he l arge e ye. T he u nit o f m easure f or t hese d ivisions i s t he w idth o f t he l arge e ye f rom c orner t o c orner , which P anse linos s ays i s e qual t o f a n oselength.
T he h orizontal m easures c an b e l isted a s f ollows:-
8 5
( 7) L arge e ye ( 1 l arge e ye)
7 1
( 8)
D istance b etween p upils..
( 9)
Small e ye
n ose
1n ose n ose
( 10) L arge e ye t o e ar
( 1- l arge e ye)
n ose
( 1 l arge e ye)
n ose
( 11 l arge e yes)
( 11) E ar t o h air e dge o n w ide s ide o f f ace
3 7-
( 12) Small e ye t o e ar o n n arrow s ide o f f ace
1 + n ose
( 13) E ar , t o h air e dge o n n arrow s ide o f f ace
( 2 l arge e yes)
n ose
( 1+ l arge e ye)
( 1 l arge e ye)
N .B. When P anselinos s tates t hat a d istance i s a l i ttle more o r a l i ttle l ess t han t he m easure h e g ives, we e xpress t his b y m eans o f t he a ddition o f a +o r a - s ign r espectively . N o a ctual m easure i s g iven f or t he d istance b etween t he i nner c orners o f t he e yes. N o o verall m easures a re g iven f or t he w idths o f t he f ace o r t he h ead . T hese w idths must r emain i ndeterminate i n v iew o f t he i mprecision o f t he m easures g iven f or t he s mall e ye ( 9) a nd t he ' temple ' ( 12) o n t he n arrow s ide o f t he f ace . T he w idth b etween t he e yes i s n o t g iven f or t he f rontal f ace a nd t his d istance i s c onditioned b y t he p upils a nd t he d rawing o f t he s mall e ye, i t c anno t e xceed 1 n oselength a nd a pproximates t o r ather more t han f a n oselength. S ome o f t he m easures g iven b y P anselinos f or t he h ead a re t he i ndef inite p lus o r m inus ' a l i ttle ' , we p resume t hat t his ' l ittle ' i s l ess t han 1 o f t he m easure u sed o r h e would h ave q ualif ied i t a s a 1 . T he d rawing o f t he s mall e ye i s c onditioned b y t he p lacing o f t he p upil. T his must l ie e ither a t t he c entre o f t he e ye o r t owards i ts i nner c orner o n t he a ssumption t hat t he measures a re d esigned f or t he n ormal B yzantine i ndirect g aze. T he . m easure f or t he d istance b etween t he s mall e ye a nd t he e ar ( 12) c anno t b e much g reater t han a 4 n ose-length s ince t he a symmetry o f t he f ace would d isappear i f i t were a s g reat a s a n ose-length. T he T ex t F ig. 1 5 r epresents a B yzantine h ead d rawn o n t he b asis o f t he m easures o f P anse linos a nd g iving a f ace w idth a t t he l evel o f t he e ye-line o f u nder 2 * n oselengths. T he m easures c ould a lso b e i nterpreted i n o rder t o make i t s lightly w ider , b ut t he w idth would n ot e xceed 2 + n oselengths. T he w idth o f t he whole h ead i s r ather more t han 3 1 n ose-lengths. I f w e a ssume t hat i n t his f igure t he n ose i s p laced c entrally b etween t he i nner e ye c orners, t he a symmetry o f t he f ace i n r elation t o a c entral l ine c an b e m easured a s L o f a n ose a nd t hat o f t he h ead a s 1o f a n ose.6 T he
d eliberate
a symmetrical
c onstruction
8 6
o f
t he
f rontal
h ead i s g iven f urther i nterest b y t he p articular d irect ion o f t he g aze. I t m ight b e a ssumed t hat b ecause o f i ts a symmetr ical s tructure i n r elation t o t he v ertical r idge o f t he n ose P anselinos' f rontal h ead i s i n f act t urned a l i ttle i n t he d irection o f t he n arrow s ide o f t he f ace. B ut t his a pparent d eviation f rom t he s trictly s ymmetrical f rontal s tance i s c ounterbalanced b y t he d irection o f t he g aze , which i s f ocussed a cross t he w ider s ide o f t he f ace. A ccording • t o P anselinos ' i nstr u ctions t he l arge e ye must b e p laced w ithin t he w ide s ide o f t he f ace a nd t he p upil o f t hat e ye must l ie o ff c entre t owards t he e ar . T hus t he t urn o f t he h ead must l ie i n t he o pposite d irection t o t hat o f t he g aze. T he measures t hus a llow f or a s uccessfully c ounterbalanced f igure i n which t he a symmetrical h ead i s r econciled t o t he f rontal n eck a nd s houlders. T he p eculiar q uality a nd i mpact o f t he g aze o f t he C hr ist P antocrator a nd i ndeed o f most B yzantine f aces h as o f ten b een t he s ub ject o f c omment. I t i s i n t he e volution o f s uch a s et o f m easures a s t hese g iven b y P anselinos, t hat t he g reatness o f t he B yzantine a chievement l ies. I n t heir f inal f orm t hese m easures a re r elatively s imple a nd o f p ractical u se f or t he p ainter , a nd P anselinos i s g iven t he c redit f or t hem, b ut t he f ormulation o f t he s ystem a lmost c ertainly s panned a l ong p eriod o f t ime a nd was t he work o f t he B yzantine g enius f or t his a rt. T he s lightly t urned h ead a nd t he
p rof ile h ead.
F ollowing h is i nstructions f or t he f rontal a symmetrical h ead o f C hr ist , P anse linos g ives s ome s pecif ic measures f or t he h ead o f t he P anaghia H odegetria a nd f or t he h ead o f t he P anaghia s een i n p rof ile. H e f urther i nstructs t hat t hese measures may b e u sed w ith s ome modif ication f or t he h eads o f a ll y oung s aints. T he h ead o f t he P anaghia, whatever i ts s tance , i s c haracter ised by h er h eaddress which h as s tandard f orms b ut i t n evertheless i mposes s ome r estr ictions o n c areful m easure. S he wears a c lose f i tting w imple which d escends l ow d own o vei t he f orehead a nd t hen s lants d iagonally a cross t he t emple c oncealing t he h air a nd r evealing o nly t he l obe o f t he e ar . F rom t he b ack t he w imple c omes f orward t o f i t s nugly a l i ttle way b elow t he e ar . Over t he w imple s he w ears a v eil which c losely c ontours t he h ead i n a h oodlike f ashion b ut which i s a rticulated i n a n umber o f l oose f olds. T he h eaddress c onceals t wo o f t he r egular m easure p oints: o ne a t t he r oot o f t he h air , a nd o ne marking t he j unction o f t he e ar a nd t he f ace o n t he e yeline. P anselinos, . h owever , c ompensates f or t his b y p roviding a lternative m easure p o ints.
8 7
141 )
c d . +
t i n r d C d
41 0
( x i " c t v
7 1 : 4 3 0 ( 1 )
0 c + +
C d
C d 4 -, b r ) 0
+ Z U
c 4 — + 0
c d ( 1 )
measures
0
0 r d c u ( r )
8 8
.
T he s lightly t urned h ead o f t he P anaghia H odegetria T here a re more i mages o f t he P anaghia H odegetria s urviving i n t he f orm o f p ortable i cons t han a s wall p aintings o r mosaics, a nd t here i s s ome v ariation among t hem i n t he s tance i n t he h ead . I n g eneral t he h ead i s u pright b ut s lightly t urned i n t he d irection o f t he Child i n t he c rook o f h er a rm . T he f ur ther n ostril i s v isible a nd t he g aze i s d irected t owards t he v iewer r ather t han s ideways t owards t he C hild. T o maintain t his g aze t he p upil o f t he l arger e ye i n t he w ider s ide o f t he f ace i s e ither p laced c entrally o r t owards t he e ar . T ext F ig. 1 6a s hows t he c onstruction o f t he h ead o f t he P anaghia H odegetria a ccording t o t he i nstructions o f P anse linos. T he v ertical m easures a re t aken f rom h is i nstructions f or t he o blique h ead o f t he P anaghia. T hese i nstructions a re s imilar t o t he v ert ical m easures f or t he f ace o f C hrist which p recede t hose o f t he P anaghia . T o maintain t he f rontal g aze i n t his s lightly t urned h ead we h ave p laced t he p upil o f t he l arge e ye a ccording t o t he i nstructions g iven f or t he a symmetr ical f rontal f ace o f C hrist. T hese v ertical measures c an b e s ummed u p a s f ollows:-
( 1)
F rom t he v ertex o f t he h ead t o t he r oot o f t he n ose
2n oses
( 2)
F rom t he r oot o f t he n ose t o t he c hin
2n oses
( 3)
F rom t he r oot o f t he n ose t o t he e nd o f t he n ose
1n ose
( 4)
F rom t he e nd o f t he n ose t o t he c hin
1n ose
( 5)
F rom t he e nd o f t he n ose t o t he c entral m outh l ine
n ose
F rom t he c entral mouthline t o t he t ip o f t he c hin
n ose
( 6)
I n t he h eads o f t he H odegetr ia a nd t he p rof ile P anaghia t he v ertical c onstruct ion l ine d oes n o t r un d own t he r idge o f t he n ose. I n t he c ase o f t he H odegetria a v ertical f rom t he a pex o f t he h ead i ntersects t he e ye-line a t a p oint marking t he i nner c orner o f t he l arge e ye, a nd t he d istance b etween t hese t wo p o ints i s t wo n ose-lengths. T he d istance f rom t he i nner c orner o f t he e ye t o a p oint p arallel t o t he p oint o f t he c hin i s a lso 2 n ose-lengths. I n t he c ase o f t he p rof ile h ead o f t he P anaghia t he v ertica lS c onstruction l ine f rom t he a pex t o a p o int i n a lignment w ith t he c hin i s b isected a t a p oint o n t he e yeline which c orresponds w ith t he o uter c orner o f t he l arge e ye . When 2 -p rof ile h eads a re i nclined, o r t hrown b ack a s i n A scension s cenes, t his c onstructional v ertical k eeps t he s ame a lignments but i s n o l onger v ertical a nd b ecomes d iagonal t o a .d egree which may v ary f rom v ertical t o h orizontal. T he
8 9
m easures f or t he f orehead ( in t he c ase o f y oung m en w ith u ncovered f oreheads), t he n ose , a nd t he c hin, r emain t he s ame , bu t t he u pper m easure f or t he h air i s f requently s hortened. ( Text F ig.29) s hows h ow s uch a m easure s ystem c ould b e a dapted t o t he a rticulated h ead a nd n eck. T his e xample i s t aken f rom a m easured d rawing o f a n i nclined h ead f rom t he 192 s equence o f p aintings a t t he C hurch o f t he P anaghia t ou A rakos a t L agoudera i n Cyprus. T he h orizontal m easures p ar ticular t o t he P anaghia H odegetria ( Text F ig. 1 6a) ( 7)
( 8)
( 9)
F rom t he n ostril t o t he e ar ( wide s ide o f f ace)
1n ose
F rom t he r oot o f t he n ose t o t he e nd o f t he l arge e ye
1n ose
F rom t he r oo t o f t he n ose t o t he e dge o f t he n arrow s ide o f t he f ace
1n ose
( 10) F rom t he r oot o f t he n ose t o t he o uter e dge o f t he v eil a cross t he w ide s ide o f t he f ace
2n oses •
( 11) F rom t he r oot o f t he n ose t o t he e dge o f t he v eil a cross t he n arrow s ide o f t he f ace
1n ose+
T hese i nstructions a s t hey s tand a re f airly s imple a nd c lear b ut t here i s s ome l atitude i n t he m easure f or t he n arrow s ide o f t he h ead ( 11). M easure ( 8) a ppears t o g ive a v ery w ide e ye s ocket o n t he w ide s ide o f t he f ace, s ince t he e ye l ength s hould n o t e xceed h alf o f t he n ose l ength t hat i s g iven i n i nstruction ( 7). T he o blique h ead o r t he F ig. 1 6b)
p rof ile h ead o f t he P anaghia
T he v er tical m easures:( 1)
F rom t he t op o f t he h ead t o t he e yeline
2n oses
( 2)
F rom t he e yeline t o t he c hin
2n oses
( 3)
F rom t he n ose t o t he c hin
1n ose
( 4)
F rom t he n ose t o t he c hin a re t hree e qual p arts. I n t he o ne p art make t he mouth
1n ose
I n t he o ther t wo p arts make t he l ip a nd c hin
5 ose 2 n
T he h orizontal measures:-
9 0
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( 5)
( 6) ( 7)
F rom t he n ostril t o t he e ar ( wide s ide o f f ace)
1n ose
F rom t he e ar ( in a lignment w ith t he n ostril) t o t he o uter e dge o f t he v eil F rom t he p upil o f t he l arge e ye t o t he e dge o f n arrow s ide o f t he f ace
••
1n ose 1n ose
T he d egree o f o bliquity i n t his h ead o f t he P anaghia i s c ontrolled b y t he measure g iven f or t he d istance f rom t he p upil o f t he l arge e ye t o t he e dge o f t he n arrow s ide o f t he f ace ( 7). A lthough t he a ctual w idth o f t he n arrow s ide o f t he f ace must r emain u ncertain, i t i s q uite e vident t hat t his o blique f ace i s n p o r t of i a l et h re ua ed s pr t o o fi l b e e a o n bd se r tv h e a d t i n t B m yu zs a tn t r in e l ea tw eo r tk os . t h e By co t m he mo 1 n 4t h c entury when P anselinos i s s upposed t o h ave b een a t work , t he p rof ile h ead was n o l onger c onfined o nly t o r epresentations o f s uch malignant c haracters a s t he H igh P riest o r J udas I scariot, b ut i t was a lways a r arity i n B yzantine a rt i n c omparison t o t he 2 . p rof ile h ead. I t i s t herefore n ot s urprising t hat P anselinos g ives n o i nstructions f or t he t rue p rof ile h ead. T he B yzantine 2 -p rof ile h ead i s c haracterised b y a p rof ile n ose t hat i s d rawn w ith t he f urther n ostril c oncealed , b ut t he f urther e ye i s a lways v isible. I n s uch f aces t he f urther t emple i s e xcluded a nd t he o uter e nd o f t he f urther e ye • d etermines t he l imit o f t he f ace a t t he e yeline. I n t he h ead o f t he P anaghia t he f urther s ide o f t he f ace i s s ometimes e xtended b y a n arrow s trip o f v eil, b ut P anselinos ' i nstructions d o n ot i nclude t his. H e g ives n o i nstructions a s t o t he a rticulation o f t he h ead , n or d oes h e g ive a ny s pecif ic p oint o f i ntersection o n t he e ye l ine f or t he d istances f rom t he t op o f t he h ead t o t he e yeline, o r f rom t he c hin t o t he e yeline. P anse linos f urther s pecif ies t hat t he h eads o f a ll y oung m en c an b e made i n t he s ame way a s t hat o f t he P anaghia, a nd h e g ives t he a dditional s pecif ications t hat t he f orehead i s 1n ose-length a nd t he h air a lso i s 1n ose-length, a nd h e n otes t hat c ertain s aints h ave s pecif ic h airstyles. T he a ccuracy o f t his i nstruction a bout t he s imilar c onstruction o f t he h ead o f a woman a nd t he h eads o f y oung m en i s e ntirely b orne o ut b y o bservation o f B yzantine wall p ainting a nd mosaic a nd we h ave m et w ith n o e xceptions t o t he r ule. T he h ead o f t he C hrist Child
( Text F ig.
1 7)
A f ter h is i nstructions f or t he d iffering h eads o f t he P anaghia P anse linos p rovides u s w ith s pecif ic m easures f or t he a symmetrical f rontal h ead a nd t he 2 -p rof ile h ead o f t he Christ C hild. H e a dds t hat when t he C hild i s h eld b y t he P anaghia t he v ertical h eight o f H is h ead f rom . c rown t o c hin i s h alf t hat o f t he f ace o f t he P anaghia; a nd, when h is i s h eld by H er i n
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III 1 68
V itruvius, i t i s p ossible t o t ranslate h is o bservations e qually well i nto a modular s ystem based o n a n a rithmetical u nit. A l arge module, t he h ead o r t he f ace l ength, i s u sed t o map o ut t he s pace t o b e o ccupied by t he whole f igure a nd t o mark t he main r eference p oints w ithin i t . A ll t he s ystems make u se o f a s imilar measure, t he n ose l ength ( 1 f ace o r f h eadlength) f or t he m inor measures w ithin t he b ody a nd t he h ead, but t he u se o f t he n ose l ength i s l imited t o t he f ace i n t he c ase o f V itruvius a nd t o t he h ead i n t he c ase o f R icher . Analysis o f t he v ertical a nd h orizontal measures. A ll s ix o f t he f igures have s imilar h ead a nd f ace l engths w ith t he e xception o f C ennini whose i nstructions d o n o t i nclude a m easure f or t he u pper h ead ( vertex t o r oot o f h air) a nd t he V itruvian f igure where t he u pper h ead ( root o f h air t o v ertex) measures l ess t han o ne n ose l ength. F or t his r eason we h ave e nlongated t he f ace o f t he V itruvian f igure s o t hat t he t hree e qual d ivisions w ithin t he f ace a re r etained a nd t he f ace l ength e quals o netenth o f t he t otal l ength o f t he f igure ( vertex t o h eel), i n a ccordance w ith h is f ractional i nstructions. The h eight o f t he n eck, ( chin t o p it o f t hroat) i s s imilar i n a ll t he f igures but , a s R icher p ointed o ut, t he a ctual l ength o f t he n eck w ill v ary a ccording t o t he s tance o f t he h ead a nd t he p erspective i nvo lved. The s houlder l evel i s s imilar i n a ll s ix f igures a lthough t heir w idth varies. W ith t he e xception o f ' Lagoudera', t he l evel o f t he b reast i s s imilar i n f our o f t he f igures. D ionysios d oes n ot p rovide a ny i nformation a s t o t he l evel o f t he b reast, t he waist o r t he n avel. The l evel o f t he ' breast ' r eference p oint s eems t o v ary b etween t he p it o f t he s tomach, t he n ipple, a nd t he s ubmammary f urrow, but t he a ctual d istance b etween t hese l evels i s marginal. The waist a nd t he n avel a re variously t he n ext p oint o f r eference. D ionysios a nd V itruvius p rovide u s w ith n o r eference p oint f or t he waist, which, i n n ature, l ies f h ead l ength a bove t he navel . C ennini a nd ' Lagoudera' b oth h ave r eference p oints f or t he waist, o ne f ace l ength f rom t he b reast l evel. T his c ould a lso b e t rue f or P anselinos a nd f or t he f igure o f R icher where t he waist p oint l ies f h ead l ength a bove t he n avel a nd h ead b elow t he b reast p oint. The n ext p oint o f a natomical r eference l ies a t t he b ase o f t he a bdomen a nd i s v ar iously r eferred t o a s t he ' middle', t he ' base o f t he b elly ' a nd t he ' point o f t he t high '. Where t his r eference p oint i s r eferred t o a s t he ' middle' a s i n t he f igures o f R icher, D ionysios, a nd V itruvius, i t l i terally l ies a t t he c entre o f t he g iven h eight f rom v ertex t o h eel. I n t he c ase o f t he l atter t wo f igures i ts e xact a natomical l ocation i s uncertain, but i t must l ie b etween t he h orizontal l ine o f t he
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g roin a nd t he e nd o f t he pubic a rea. I n t he c ase o f P anselinos, i t c an b e s een t hat t he b ase o f t he b elly p oint l ies a f ull f our h ead l engths f rom t he v ertex , a t a p oint t oo l ow t o mark t he e nd o f t he a bdomen. T he s tarred c entrepoint o f t he ' Lagoudera' f igure l ies r ather l ower t han t he ' base o f t he b elly ', but o nly n ose l ength h igher t han t he ' middle ' o f V itruvius whose t otal v ertical h eight i s o nly 1 n ose l onger t han t he t otal v ertical h eight o f t he ' Lagoudera' f igure. T he ' Lagoudera' f igure w ith i ts e longated l egs, would i n f act b e v ery c lose t o t he V itruvian p roportions i f i t were n ot f or t he o ddly s hortened h eight o f t he b reast a nd t he n arrow w idth o f t he s houlders. The f ormer i s q uite u nmistakable a nd c an b e c learly s een i n t he s emi-nude f igure o f S t J ohn t he B aptist i n P l. 1 5. I t may a lso b e o bserved t hat a gain, but f or t his c ur ious s hor tening, t he measures o f t he ' Lagoudera' t orso a re v ery c lose t o t hose o f t he t orso o f t he C ennini a nd D ionysios f igures, a nd, a s f ar a s t he n avel, t o t hose o f t he f igures o f Panselinos a nd R icher. I n N ature, a s i l lustrated b y R icher , t he p roportional r atio b etween t he upper a nd l ower l eg i s a s f ollows: t he l ength o f t he t high b one = l eg b one + h eight o f f oot. T he e xtrusion o f t he h ead o f t he t high b one ( great t rochanter) i s v isible i n c ontour a t a p oint o n t he l ateral e xterior o f t he t high which i s l evel w ith t he b ase o f t he b elly ( horizontal f old o f t he g roin), a nd t he e nd o f t he t high b one ( femur) l ies a t t he b ase o f t he k nee ( patella). I t c an b e s een t hat t his p roportional r elationship i s a ccurate i n D ionysios a nd ' Lagoudera' but a n ose l ength t oo l ong i n Panselinos a nd n ose t oo s hort i n C ennini . The a nkle t o h eel h eight i s s imilar t o a ll e xcept V itruvius a nd Panselinos who g ive n o measu l •e f or t his d istance. The f igures o f V itruvius, P anselinos, a nd R icher, a ll h ave a s houlder w idth o f t wo h ead l engths, a nd t his i s t he maximum i n Nature f or well d eveloped f igures. T he s lender f igures o f ' Lagoudera', C ennini, a nd D ionysios, o nly have 1 1 h ead l engths f or t he s houlder w idth. S o s lender a w idth i n c ombination w ith a l ong f igure a nd t he e xtended u nforeshortened f oot g reatly a dd t o t he e ffect o f h eight a s c an b e s een i n T ext F ig. 3 7. S imilarly , a f igure b road i n t he s houlders a nd t orso w ill a ppear s horter a s c an b e o bserved i n R icher a nd P anselinos. I n s umming u p t he c haracteristics a nd s imilarities which e xist among t he s ix s chematic f igures i t i s p ossible t o i l lustrate h ow l i ttle t hey v ary f rom t he n atural h uman f igure. T he d ifferences which d o o ccur d o n o t l ie i n p roportional a berrations o r i n a esthetic a pproaches b ut e volve r ather f rom t he a ctual s ize o f t he f igure f rom which t hey were t aken. R icher s tates t hat a c anon o f e ight h eads c an o nly r ef lect t he measures f or v ery t all p eople , whereas a c anon o f s even h eads i s o nly f ound among v ery s hort p eople, a nd t he c anon which h e c hoses t o a nalyse a nd i l lustrate measures 7 } h ead l engths i n h eight a nd i t r epresents t he modern s cientif ic v iew o f t he
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a verage.
9 6
Early a rtistic c anons were, a s we h ave s een, a ssessed f rom o bservations o f t he s urface a natomy o f t he human b ody. T he modern s cientific a pproach a s r epresented by R icher s eeks t o a dd p recision t o t his a pproach by u sing t he s keleton which i s l ess variable i n i ts l engths a nd r atios. U pon s uch a s keletal s tructure i t i s p ossible t o c onstruct a n a ssortment o f p hysical t ypes. I n t he i l lustrations f or h is c anon R icher c hose t he physique o f a well d eveloped a thlete which may h ardly b e c onsidered a s r epresentative o f t he a verage man. N evertheless, t he o nly measure a ffected b y h is particular c hoice i s t hat o f t he w idth o f t he s houlders which r eaches t he maximum b readth o f t wo h ead l engths b ecause o f t he muscular e xpansion o f t he c hest muscles. Byzantine f igures s eem by c ontrast t o R icher 's a thlete t o b e c haracter ised b y a more s tandard physique w ith v ery l i ttle v ariation, e ven i f t he p roportional r atios o f w idth t o h eight i ndicate a s lender o r more bulky t ype o f physique. T his s imple d istinction i n t ypology i s a pparent i n t he c hoice o f d ifferent a rtists o f d ifferent p er iods but d oes n ot o ccur w ithin t he s ame s equence o f p ainting. I n B yzantine murals t he b ody a ppears t o b e o f l i ttle p articular i nterest e xcept a s a n a ppendage t o t he h ead. T he b ody i s u sed i n n arrative s cenes f or t he a rticulation o f g esture a nd s tance i n o rder t o emphasize t he d rama u nfolding, a nd t he f orms o f t he b ody a re t he basis f or t he a rtistic d isposition o f f lowing d raperies. O ccasional variations i n physique d o o ccur among B yzantine f igures b ut t hey a re l imited t o a f ew s pecif ic c haracterisations s uch a s t hose o f a scetic s aints ( with s kinny l imbs a nd t orso), t he man a ff licted by d ropsy ( with b loated a bdomen), a nd a f ew o thers. B ut, a part f rom t he h ead, t here i s n o physical d istinction b etween t he male c haracters i n a s cene; f or e xample, i f t he t welve Apostles a re a ssembled t ogether, t hey may b e c haracterised by y oung o r o ld f aces, d iffering hair , b eard, a nd garment s tyles a nd b ody s tances, but t heir physique d oes n ot v ary. P eter i s n ot f atter, t hinner, s horter o r t aller t han J ames, n or i s h e more s tooped o r gnarled t han y oung J ohn; i ndeed h is b ody p hysique i s n o d ifferent f rom t hat o f t he o ther Apostles. D ifferentiation i n h eight d oes o ccur among f igures i n B yzantine n arrative s cenes but t his i s o f a n h ierarchical n ature, a nd n o t t he r esult o f n atural o bservation o r o f a r ecognition o f t he r ules o f r eceding p erspective. T he e nlarged s ize o f t he main c haracters c entral t o t he d rama i s a chieved by merely e nlarging t he basic module, while t he p roportional r atios r emain t he s ame. A s i n Ancient G reece, t wo basic physical t ypes emerge: t he t all and s lender f igure which i s e pitomized a t L agoudera a nd which c an b e o bserved i n many o ther s equences o f 1 2th c entury painting. T his i s a physical t ype which s till c ontinues t o appear i n l ater c enturies when t he s tocky a nd b roader
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physical t ype b ecomes p redominant e specially i n t he l ate 1 3th a nd 1 4th c enturies. P anselinos h imself i s r eputed t o h ave worked i n t he 1 4th c entury o n Mount A thos a nd p ossibly a lso i n Macedonia a nd S erbia where f igures e choing h is i nstructions c an b e n oticed o n t he walls. Thus i t c an b e s aid t hat t he R oman, B yzantine, a nd Western Mediaeval e xamples o f s ystems o f p roportion, a s i l lustrated i n t he c omparative d rawings ( Text F igs. 3 7 , 3 8), a s well a s t he Ancient E gyptian a nd C lassical G reek a ssessments o f p roportion, a re a ll f irmly b ased o n n atural o bservation. T he d ifferences t hat a re a pparent r efer t o d ifferent builds o f t he human f igure a nd n ot t o a ny f undamental d ifference i n t he t heory o f h uman p roportions.
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CONCLUSION C ommon s ense a nd p ractical n ecessity c ombine t o i ndicate t hat a ny maker o f h uman i mages o n a monumental s cale, whether s culpted, o r i n mosaic, o r i n p aint, must h ave s ome s ystem o f measurement a s a guide f or h is work i f h e i s t o c reate a l ikeness t hat i s e asy t o c omprehend. T his a rgument a lone s hould b e s uff icient t o e stablish t he e xistence o f a p roportional s ystem o r s ystems o f measurement f or B yzantine f igural work. B ut i f i t b e n ot s uff icient, t here i s i n s econd p lace t he e vidence o f t he s hort t exts o f E lpios f rom t he 1 0th c entury a nd o f N icephoros G regoras f rom t he 1 4th c entury t o s how t hat t he i dea o f f igural p roportion was known t o t he B yzantines. T he l ater t exts a re t hose o f D ionysios o f F ourna a nd t he i nstructions o f P anse linos. T hese have t he d isadvantage t hat t he D ionysios t ext was c ompiled i n t he f irst h alf o f t he e ighteenth c entury , while t he manuscript a bout Panselinos i s a lso e ighteenth c entury a nd r elates i n a ny c ase t o t he work o f a p ainter whose e xistence a nd works a re l egendary , a lthough a scribed t o t he f irst h alf o f t he f ourteenth c entury. They have t he a dvantage a s e vidence t hat t he s tatements i n t hem c an b e c hecked a gainst d ated works o f B yzantine wall p ainting a nd mosaic. Much more work w ill have t o b e d one b oth o n published and unpublished manuscripts, a nd o n t he measurements o f f igural mosaics a nd p ainting b efore we c an b e q uite c ertain a bout t he meaning a nd i mportance o f t his t extual e vidence, but meanwhile e nough e vidence h as b een p roduced t o s how t hat t he t wo t exts d o c onstitute valid e vidence f or t he e xistence o f a B yzantine p roportional s ystem o r s ystems. T he R oman t ext o f V itruvius a nd t he mediaeval I talian t exts o f R istoro D 'Arezzo a nd C ennino C ennini p rovide s ome written e vidence t hat t he D ionysios a nd Panselinos t exts have l inks w ith t he R oman past a nd w ith t he Western mediaeval world o f t he C rusading p eriod a nd a fterwards. T he t hird c ategory o f e vidence f or t he u se o f a p roportional s ystem f or Byzantine f igural work l ies i n t he a ctual monuments. F ive y ears o f measuring, c hecking a nd r ec hecking o ne monument, t he Church o f t he P anaghia t ou A rakos a t L agoudera i n Cyprus, d ated t o 192 , c onvinced u s, a nd, we h ope, t he r eader t hat t he L agoudera master d id p lan h is f igural work o n a p roportional s ystem; h e was a n a cademic painter who worked w ith a c are a nd p recision unusual i n a B yzantine wall painter . T his monument, t hen, c an b e f airly c laimed a s s ound a nd d ated e vidence f or a p roportional s ystem i n t he l ate 1 2th c entury. The r emaining o bservations t hat have b een advanced a re partly based u pon measurement o f monuments, a nd o ccasionally, a nd w ith r eservations, u pon measurements o f photographs. T his e vidence i s o f a v ery partial n ature b ecause t he o pportunity f or measuring u sually o nly a rises when s caffolds a re put u p f or r estoration work, a nd i t i s o f ten hard t o b e c ertain t hat a photograph r epresents a n a ccurate f rontal v iew. W ithin t hese l imitations t he e vidence
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o f o ther B yzantine f igural d ecorations o f g ood s uggestive o f t he u se o f p roportional s ystems.
q uality
i s
a ll
I n r egard t o t he f irst p roblem f acing a wall p ainter , t he o verall o rganization o f d ecoration i n a c hurch, t here i s d irect e vidence f or t he p lanning o f t his o n t he walls o f t wo c hurches t hat w e h ave b een a ble t o o bserve: a t S t. J ohn C hrysostomos i n Cyprus , t he g reat c ircle f or t he P antokrator i s p ainted o n t he masonry a s a g uide f or t he p laster p atch, a nd t here i s a lso s ome p reliminary s eit ing o ut o f f igures i n t he d rum ; a nd i n t he 1 3th c entury c hurch o f H aghia S ophia a t T rebizond, 97 r ough l ines o n t he masonry i ndicate t he p lacing o f t he r egisters o f p ainting, a nd t his a t l east i s e vidence o f t he a bility t o measure a nd p lan, a lthough n o t o f f igural m easurement. S imilar t races o f t he o verall p lanning o f a p ainted d ecoration must await o bservation a nd r ecording i n many o ther B yzantine c hurches where t he walls a re b are o f p ainted p laster a nd t here may e ven b e e vidence o n t he masonry o f p roportional m easures f or t he l arger f igures. I t i s c urious t hat t here i s n o B yzantine t extual e vidence f or t his v ital p reliminary a ctivity . I t i s o nly i n t he H andbook o f C ennini t hat t he p roblem r eceives a t l east s ome c ursory a ttention. T he e v idence f or t he k ey p oint o f m easure f or f ace a nd b ody i s t o b e f ound i n t he s tage o f p reliminary d rawing, u sually i n r ed o chre, a nd i t c an b e s een i n t he d amaged a reas o f manuscript i l lumination a s w ell a s wall p ainting. T he h eads f rom t he c hurch o f S t. J ohn C hrysostomos a nd f rom P erachorio i n Cyprus ( Pls. 1 - 5 ) s how t he T j unct ion p oint o f e ye l ine a nd n ose f rom which t he f acial f eatures a nd p robably t he whole o f t he v er tical m easures f or t he b ody w ere made , b ut t he l atter a re s t ill o bscured b y t he f inishing l ayers o f p aint. T he c areful p roport ional d issection o f t he h ead i nto s mall m easurements t hat i s e xplained i n t he P anselinos t ext may s eem a t f irst r eading t o b e o ver f ussy a nd u nrealistic. T he i nspection o f m iddle a nd l ate B yzantine wall p aintings d oes h owever s how a c orresponding c are a nd a ttention t o d etail i n t he p ainting o f h eads t hat i s i n marked c ontrast t o t he b older t reatment o f a ll t he r est o f t he c omposition . T here i s t hus a c orrelation b etween t he t exts a nd t he p aintings i n t he r elative i mportance o f t he h ead a s o pposed t o t he r est o f t he b ody. T he m easure p oints i n p reliminary d rawings f or t he whole b ody h ave n ot b een f ound b y u s b ut t hey must s urely e xist a nd o nly await o bservation b y t he a ttentive o nlooker . T he l ate 1 2th c entury p ainter a t L agoudera d rew i n f old l ines i n d ark g rey a s p art o f h is p reliminary d rawing f or t he f igure. T hese d ark g rey l ines would s how t hrough t he c oats o f l ight c o loured p aint f orming t he o verall b ase c olour o f a g arment , a nd would f orm a v aluable g uide t o t he d istr ibution o f t he g raded d arks b uilt u p u pon t his u niform s urface c olour . I n t he d ome a t L agoudera w e h ave t wo e xamples o f t his t echnique b u t t he s ections o f p reliminary d rawing r evealed i n t hese f igures a re s mall. I n t he a ccount o f t he B yzantine c lothed f igure ( see a bove) w e
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h ave c ommented u pon t he a pparently c lose r elationship b etween t he d esign o f c lo thes a nd t he d istribution o f f olds a nd t he m easure p oints o f t he a natomy b eneath. T he e vidence o f m easuring p oints i n t he f inal p ainting c an s till b e f ound o ccasionally i n s mall s traight l ines i n t he c lothing o f f igures which a re h ard t o e xplain e xcept a s m easure l ines which a p ainter h as c hosen t o k eep u ntil t he f inal s tages o f h is work. I t w ill b e s een f rom t he i l lustrations o f t he c lo thed f igure ( Tex t F igs. 3 2 , 3 3) t hat s ome o f t he m easuring p oints, a nd f rom t hem i n t urn t he p roportional s ystem , c an s ometimes b e i nferred f rom t he s haping o f t he g arment f olds o n a f igure. T he most o bvious o f t hese a re t he waist , t he n avel , a nd t he b ase o f t he k nee. W e h ave n oted t hat t he i dea o f t he a pparently l ong-legged f igure i n B yzantine a rt i s i n f act n ot d ue t o d isproportionate f igural m easurements. I t i s a n i mpression c aused b y t he r atio b etween w idth a nd h eight , t he a pparent e longation i n c lothed f igures o f t he i nner l ines o f t he t high a s f ar u p a s t o h ip l evel, a nd t he c onsistent d isplay o f t he f ull d orsum o f t he f oo t when t he f oot i s s hown i n t he a nterior a spect. T he c onvention o f modern p erspective would r equire t hat a f oot o bserved i n s uch a n a spect s hould b e f oreshortened t o a h ead o n v iew, whereas t he B yzantine c onvention a dds a f ull o f a f ace ( 1 - h ead) t o t he l ength o f t he f igure. I n t he 1 3th a nd 1 4th c enturies w ider s houldered f igures a ppear , a nd t he e ffect o f mass i s f urther i ncreased b y w ider a reas f or t he h ighlight c olours i n t he f inal b uild u p o f a f igure. G ood e xamples o f t hese h eavier f igures c an b e s een a t S opocani i n S erbia a nd a t S t. C lement a t O hrid i n Macedonia. I n t he p ainted c hurches o f Cyprus, 1 4th a nd 1 5th c entury p aintings d isplay f igures i n n arrative c ompositions wh ich a re e ven r educed t o a h ead t o l ength ( ver tex t o h eel) r atio o f 1 :6 . T his was d one mainly i n o rder t hat t he r equired q uantity o f s cenes c ould b e f i tted i nto a s mall c hurch where t he s ize o f t he n arrative r egisters o f p ainting was r educed b y l ack o f wall s pace i n r atio t o q uantity o f s ub ject matter . A f inal p roof t hat a s ystem o f f igural p roportion l ies a t t he b asis o f g ood B yzantine wall p ainting i s t o b e d erived f rom t he d ifference b etween g ood a nd p rovincial B yzantine p ainting. The b etter s ort o f p ainting w ill b e s een t o a bide b y a r ational p ropor tional s ystem, whereas much p rovincial p ainting l acks t his s ound b asis a nd a ppears u ndisciplined a nd f ormless . T his o f ten s eems t o b e what a rt h istorians h ave meant when t hey d raw a d istinct ion b etween me tropolitan a nd p rovincial work, a lthough t he l ine i s n ot a lways e asy t o d raw i n a r egion l ike C appadocia where t he work o f a ll k inds a nd c onditions o f p ainter h as c ome d own t o u s. T he l ack o f a w ell u nderstood p roportional s ys tem a lso e xplains t he u naccountable f eeling o f f amiliarity t hat c omes t o t he t rained o bserver who k nows e ither B yzantine p rovincial p ainting o r R omanesque wall p ainting, when h e moves f rom t he s tudy o f o ne s tyle a nd i s c onfronted by t he o ther . C onversely, t he f ine a nd s ophisticated R omanesque h as a r ecognisable a ff inity t o g ood B yzantine wall p ainting
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b ecause i t was made by R omanesque painters o f a p roportional s ystem.
w ith a knowledge
A ccepting t hen, t hat B yzantine f igural p ainting a nd mosaic were made a ccording t o a p roportional s ystem we h ave a lso s een t hat t here a re variations i n i t a nd t hat i t would b e i nnaccurate t o s peak o f o ne s ystem o f p roportion. T here a ppear t o h ave b een d evelopments a nd movements i n t he s tyles o f B yzantine painting . The k ind o f d evelopments t hat a re i mportant a re t he c hange f rom t he s ymmetrical t o t he a symmetrical f ace i n t he f rontal a spect, a nd t he move f rom t he r ather s quat a nd h eavy f igures o f t he f i fth a nd s ixth c enturies t o t he t aller a nd l ivelier f igures o f t he m iddle a nd l ate B yzantine p eriods. We d o n ot know why e arly Christian a nd B yzantine a rtists adopted t he s ymmetrical f rontal h ead, t hough t his may have b een i n s imple c ontinuance o f t he R oman p ractice, o r why, more i mportantly, i t was l ater a bandoned i n f avour o f t he a symmetrical h ead. T his c hange d emanded g reater s ubtlety a nd a bility o n t he p art o f t he p ainter , a nd i t may b e t hat t he u se o f a symmetry was t o r emove t he d ull c onformity o f t he e arlier f aces a nd r eplace i t w ith s ome l ife a nd i nterest while s till r etaining t he i mpersonal g randeur o f t he s ymmetrical unarticulated f aces. Another p ossible e xplanation f or t he c hange f rom t he d irect f rontal g aze o f t he s ymmetrical f ace t o t he i ndirect l ateral gaze o f t he a symmetrical h ead may l ie i n t he f act t hat t he f ormer d raws a nd f ocuses t he a ttention o f t he o bserver u pon i tself whereas t he l atter d raws t he a ttention o f t he o bserver t o a p oint b eyond i tself . C ertainly t he c hange i s c haracter istic o f p ostI conoclast works a nd a ppears but r arely o n p re-Iconoclast work. I t i s n ot s ufficient t o e xplain t his g aze by s aying t hat t he a symmetrical f ace i s s lightly t urned, f or i f i t were s o t hen t he gaze would b e d irected i n t he s ame l ateral d irection a s t hat t urn, a nd i t i s q uite c lear f rom works f rom t he 1 0th c entury o nwards, and f rom P anselinos' i nstructions, t hat t he g aze o f t he a symmetrical f rontal f ace i s d irected i n t he o pposite d irection t o t he t urn o f t he f ace a nd d irectly a cross t he w ider p lane o f t he f ace. These f aces b elong t o f igures whose b ody i s i n t he d irect f rontal s tance, a nd t his i s p articularly t rue o f s ingle f igures, half f igures i n r oundels, a nd g enerally t o f igures i n t he f rontal a spect. F rom a bout t he 1 0th a nd 1 1th c entury o nwards t he c hanges i n f igural p roportion a ppear t o b e l ess c oncerned w ith t he f undamental c anon t han w ith d etails o f measurement a nd ways o f e xpressing t hem. A g ood working hypothesis would b e t hat t here was i n t he m iddle a nd l ater B yzantine p eriods a n a ccepted s ystem o f f igural p roportion w ithin t he f ramework o f which master p ainters a nd s chools o f painting m ight e ach e volve t heir own p references a s t o t he e xact measure f or e ach part o f t he b ody . B ut a g eneral r emark s uch a s t his i s n ecessarily t entative s ince s o much r emains t o b e d one i n c ollecting a nd c ollating a ccurate m easurements a nd measure r elationships. T his
B yzantine
p roportional
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s ystem,
b oth
i n
t heory
a s
d escribed i n t he t exts a nd i n t he wall paintings a nd mosaics t hat a re o ur f actual e vidence, p rovides i nteresting e vidence o f a dherence t o natural p rinciples a nd o f a c oncern f or t he n atural h uman f orm. S ome s alient p oints which p rove t his a re t he o bservation a nd d epiction o f t he t hree a ges o f man; t he a symmetry o f t he f eatures o f t he f rontal f ace, which a grees w ith t he modern morpho logical o bservation t hat human f aces a re n ot s ymmetrical; a nd t he m easurements f or t he h uman b ody which a ccord c losely w ith modern a nthropometrical s tudy. I t must b e s tressed o nce a gain a t t his p oint, by way o f a n i mperative n egative t hat n either i n t he t exts n or i n m easures t aken o n monuments i s t here a ny e vidence f or t he i dea o f g eometrically c onstructed f igures a nd f or s ystems o f c oncentric c ircles f or h eads a nd h aloes. I t has n ot b een t he purpose o f t his e ssay t o make a n egative c onclusion, but t he i mportance o f t he l ack o f g eometry must b e emphasized s ince t he i dea t hat B yzantine p roportion was based o n g eometry a nd c oncentric c ircles has n ow b ecome c anonized by t he p owerful e ffect o f r epetition i n t ext b ooks, f ootnote r eferences i n a rticles, a nd e ntries i n e ncyclopaedias. The u se o f a pair o f c ompasses o r d ividers i n B yzantine wall p ainting i s u ndeniable, a nd t he marks o f t he c entrepoint f or d rawing o ut h aloes a re o f ten t o b e s een, but t he u se o f t hese i nstruments i s n o t e vidence o f a d esire t o u se a g eometric s ystem t o c reate a g eometric i mage, wh ich would have b een a v ery e asy way o f p ainting. C ompass a nd d ividers were u sed , a s t he s implest a nd most e ffective t ool f or measuring o ut d istances o n a wall a nd n ot a s s ervants o f ' The mediaeval p roclivity f or p lanimetric s chematization'. 98 A t t he e arly s tage o f p reliminary d rawing t he p laster would s till b e s of t a nd moist a nd i n o rder t o avoid damage t o i ts s urface t he manipulation o f c ompasses would have b een r educed t o t he m inimum o f i mportant work s uch a s t he o utlining o f t he halo a nd t he t ransference o f t he r elevant modular d istances. When t hese basic p oints were worked o ut b oth t he a symmetric f ace a nd t he t hree q uarter p rof ile f ace were s imple t o c onstruct i n r elation t o a n otional v ertical a long which t he f our d ivisions o f t he h ead c ould b e marked o ut. T hese f ew r emarks o n t he e xistence a nd c haracter o f t he B yzantine p roportional s ystem may b e c oncluded w ith s ome r emarks a bout i ts r elation t o e arlier s ystems a nd i ts i nfluence i f a ny, o n c ontemporary a nd l ater western s ystems. ( Text F ig. 3 7) E gyptian f igural p roportion was e xpressed i n s chematized i mages o f a n i deal h uman b eing, a nd i t p rovided a p ractical a nthropometric a nd modular c anon f or t he c onstruction o f f igures varying f rom t he m inuscule t o t he c olossal. The f igure was a n i deal p erson o f a geless s tature and s tandardized f eatures. F igures were d istinguished, t he o ne f rom t he o ther , o nly by h ieratic c hanges i n h eight, t he c ontext o f t he
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c omposition,
a nd t he p articularities o f c lothing a nd h air s tyle.
F or t he G reek a nd R oman worlds we o nly h ave t he d etailed e vidence f or o ne p roportional s ystem i n V itruvius, but l i terary r eferences a nd t he n umber a nd v ariety o f f igural works o f a rt, particularly s culptures, a re c lear e vidence t hat more t han o ne s ystem was i n u se. T he V itruvian i nstructions a re t he i ncomplete work o f a n a rchitect who o nly c ites t hem f or t he purposes o f c omparison. T hey h ave f requently b een i nterpreted a s s imple i nstructions f or a f ractional s ystem o f p roportion, but we have s hown t hat t hey a re a lso q uite e asy t o i nterpret a s a p ractical modular s ystem which g ives u s t he p roportions f or a n i deal h uman b eing. N othing i s s aid i n V itruvius a bout t he v ariety o f mankind but i t s eems t o b e a pparent f rom r eference t o t he e arlier G reek s ystems a nd t o L atin t exts t hat a t l east t wo t ypes o f h uman physique were f avoured b y t he g reat G reek s culptors, a nd n o d oubt t hese were t aken u p a nd ad justed t o t he t aste o f o ther s culptors, b oth G reek a nd R oman. T hese t wo t ypes were t he s hort s tocky p owerful f igures a pparently f avoured b y P olykleitos, a nd i n c ontrast t he t all s lender f igures a pparently f avoured by L ysippos. T he mass o f f igural a rt t hat h as c ome d own t o u s f rom t his G raeco-Roman world s hows a c onsiderable v ariety o f h uman physique, a nd i nterest i n t he d ifferent a ges o f man a nd t he d ifferent physical c haracteristics o f woman. Thus t he e vidence o f t he t exts o n t he o ne hand s uggests a p roportional s ystem f or o ne o r more i deal t ypes o f f igure, whereas t he e vidence o f t hg a rt i tself s hows a n i ncreasing awareness o f d iversity i n t he human f orm a nd t he a bility t o r e-create t his i n f igural i magery. A parallel i s t o b e o bserved b etween t he d evelopment o f t he p ortrayal o f d iversity i n human b odily c haracteristics a nd i n human emotions, a nd t he f ate which t hese d evelopments s uffered i n B yzantine f igural r epresentation o ver t he c enturies. The B yzantine t exts d o n ot d iffer n otably f rom V itruvius e xcept i n d etailed measurement, a nd t here i s c ertainly n o d ivergence o f p rinciple i n t he s ystem o f f igural p roportion. B oth a re c oncerned t o g ive t he measurements f or a s tandard i deal male human b eing, a nd b oth s ystems a ppear t o h ave b een b ased o n a c lose o bservation o f t he p roportions o f t he n atural b ody , s upported by s ome knowledge o f s urface a natomy . T he B yzantine t exts g ive u s s ome e xtra i nformation a bout d ifferent p roportions f or t he d ifferent a ges o f man. I n C lassical t imes, physical e xcellence i n f igural r epresentation was t he e nd i n i tself , but i n Byzantine works f igural a rt i s t he s ervant o f t he s piritual message o f Christianity. Unlike G raeco-Roman f igural a rt , Byzantine f igural p ainting d oes g ive a f aithful p icture o f what t he t exts t ell u s. I t p ortrays t he t hree a ges o f men a nd o f women. I t d oes n ot p ortray i ndividual s orts o f p eople , t all o r s hort, f at a nd t hin, 9 9 but i t d oes g ive r ecognizability t o t he f igures, and e ven a c ertain amount o f i ndividuality by t he s ame means t hat a re t o b e f ound i n E gyptian c haracterization. T hese a re t he u se o f a v ariety o f h airstyles; t he p resence o r l ack o f a b eard; t he t ype o f c lothing; a nd t he r elative s ize o f
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t he f igures , t ogether w ith t he a llimportan t written l abel t o p revent a ny d isastrous m istake i n i dentif ication. T hese h owever a re matters t hat c oncern t he c onstruction o f t he h uman i mage r ather t han t he p roportional s ystem f or i t . W e c an r easonably s tate t hat t he B yzantine p roport ional s ystem i s a kin t o t he V itruvian s ystem a nd t hat i t h as s ome s imilarities w ith t he E gyptian s ystem , i n t hat a ll t hree a re b ased o n a h ighly a daptab le module, which i n t he c ase o f t he B yzantine a nd t he E gyptian s ystems , i s a module o f a nthropometric d ef init ion. I n t he c ase o f t he E gyptian p roportional s ystem t heir module was c losely l inked w ith t he e stablished s ystem o f measures o f l ength. I t s eems l ikely t hat t he B yzantine s ystem a lso h ad s imilarities w ith a ncient G reek s ystems o f p roportions, f rom which i ndeed i t may h ave b een d irectly d erived , s ince a ny modular s ystem i mplies e stablished r elationships b etween t he p arts a nd t he whole a nd t he p arts a nd e ach o ther , b ut u ntil t he m easure r elationships t o b e f ound i n a ncient G reek f igural a rt h ave b een more w idely a nalysed t he c lassical s ystem o r s ystems c an o nly b e g uessed a t . W e c an make t he g eneral o bservation o f E gyptian, G reek, R oman a nd B yzantine p roportional s ystems t hat t hey w ere a ll d esigned t o e nable t he c raf tsman t o c ontrol t he c onstruction o f h is f igure a nd t o maintain t he p roportional r atios o f t he i ndividual measures b etween t hemselves a nd t he who le f igure. I n E gypt t he measures t hough a pparently o riginally d erived f rom a nd i nterpreted i n t erms o f l engths o f t he b ody i tself , s eem t o h ave b een a pplied w ith a n h ieratic r igidity a nd s tandardization o f a esthetic f orm. T he G reek s culptors, while s eeking d iscipline a nd a n i deal h armony i n f orming p roport ional c anons, s eem t o h ave s peculated a rdently a s t o t he i deal i nterpretation o f h uman p ropor tions. I n B yzantine a r t p roportion a ppears t o h ave b ecome a mechanical a id t o a chieve o rder a nd r apid e xecution a nd c ertainly i t was i nvaluable i n s erving s uch a p urpose. A lthough B yzantine c hurch d ecoration may a ppear t o b e l ess r igid t han E gyptian r eligious a nd f uneral a rt , i t i s n evertheless h ieratic a nd i t would b e i nteresting t o e stablish h ow c haracter istic t he 1 2th c entury B yzantine c anon o f p roportional r elationships a s e stablished a t L agoudera i n Cyprus, i s e lsewhere i n B yzantine d ecorations o f t hat p er iod . Modular p roportional s ystems h ave o nly a l imited e ffect u pon t he f inal a ppearance o f a f igural i mage s ince t he i ndividual c haracterization o f h uman p hysique i s b uilt u p w ith mass, c o lour , a nd l ine, t he v arying u se o f which c haracterises a nd f orms a p articular a rtistic s tyle. M odular p ropor tion d oes h owever r egulate t he d imensional h armonies w ithin t he h uman f igure, s ince i t p rovides t he b asic a rmature which c ontro ls a nd maintains t he h armony b etween t he p arts a nd t he whole , b etween t he p arts t hemselves b oth w ithin t he i ndividual f igure a nd b etween d ifferent f igures o f s imilar o r d ifferent s izes, a nd b etween d ifferent c ompositions. T hus p roportional c anons p rov ide t he n ecessary b asis f or u nity t hroughout a whole d ecoration e ven t hough t he a ctual s tyle o f t hat d ecoration may d iffer f rom o ne p art t o a nother w ith d ifferent a rtists.
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C omparison o f m iddle B yzantine f igural painting w ith t he c ontemporary R omanesque work o f western E urope i s n ot e asy t o make b ecause n o p roportional s ystems a ppear t o have b een worked o ut f or R omanesque f igural work. T o t he o bserver t rained t o l ook a t g ood q uality B yzantine work, much o f t he R omanesque work s eems f ormless, a lthough i t o f ten p ossesses t he p owerful a nd d irect appeal o f p rimitive a rt. I n t he p resent l ack o f f acts a bout ‚ proportion i n t his p eriod t wo r emarks may b e worthy o f s ome t hought. G ood quality R omanesque p ainting e xhibits t wo q uite o pposed t endencies i n t he f ield o f f igural p roportion. T he f irst i s a more o r l ess c lose a pproximation t o B yzantine s ystems which, a s we have s een, a re a lways well r elated t o t rue a nthropometrical f indings. T he s econd i s a t endency t o s ubordinate t he human f igure t o a n o verall g eometric d esign, t he s ymmetry o f which matters more t han t he u se o f a ccurate p roportions. The a pproximation t o B yzantine models i s, a s m ight b e e xpected, most c ommon i n I taly , but i solated e xamples o ccur i n s urviving d ecorations t hroughout western E urope. T he g eometric t endency i s b y c ontrast l ess c ommon i n I taly a nd t he l ands c lose t o t he B yzantine Empire, but c ommon i n t he c hurch d ecorations o f n orthern a nd western E urope. T he t wo t endencies a re n ot a lways mutually e xclusive a nd s omething o f t he way i n which a n ortherner a nd R omanesque master worked may b e understood f rom t he d ecoration a t N onnberg, n ear S alzburg i n Austria. ( Text F ig .3 9 ) The o utward a ppearances o f t his d ecoration have a n umber o f B yzantine c haracter istics a nd t hese were s trong e nough t o l ead P anofsky t o u se t he p aintings a s t he most i mportant e vidence i n h is r econstruction o f a B yzantine p roportional s ystem. 1 00 B ut i t i s p recisely t he f eature t hat h e p icked o ut a t N onnberg, namely t he p reliminary d rawing o f c ircles f or t he h ead, a nd t he e quiplaned f ace, t hat c haracterize t hese f igures a s t he work o f a R omanesque p ainter who t hought i n g eometr ic t erms. A t N onnberg t he p reliminary d rawings f or t he h ead o f S t. F lorian, a re c lear e vidence o f t he n on-Byzantine g eometric t endencies i n n orthern R omanesque a rt. T hey s how t he work o f a R omanesque master who h ad l ooked c arefully a t a g ood many B yzantine p aintings, whether n ear a t h and i n V enetian l ands, o r f urther a f ield o n C rusade. A g ood painter knows t hat i f h e d esires t o i mitate s ophisticated work h e must l earn t he r ules a nd s ystem by which i t i s made, a nd S t. F lorian's h ead i s a r are e xample where we c an s ee a R omanesque painter t rying t o a pply s imple r ules t hat h e h as t hough a bout , but t hought o ut w ithin h is own f ramework o f g eometric r ules, a nd n ot i n u nderstanding o f t he B yzantine s ystem which h e h ad i n f act w ished t o i mitate. Only o ne p ossible a lternative e xplanation e xists t o e xplain t he d rawing a nd t he e quiplaned h eads o f N onnberg, a nd t his i s t hat t he painter h ad a ccess t o t exts n ow l ost t o u s, which gave i nstructions f or t he p roportional s ystem o n which t he e quiplaned h eads a nd f igures o f e arly Christian A rt were b ased. T his i s a p lausible hypothesis which c an n either b e
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F ig 3 9a S ketch o f t he h ead o f S t. F lorian ( mural), 1 2th c entury, f rom t he N onnberg C onvent, S alzburg. T he t races o f p reliminary d rawing l ines w ithin t he h ead a nd h alo s uggested t hat c oncentric c ircles w ere u sed t o c onstruct t his _h ead i n t he manner o f S chema 3 9 b . I n f act a c ircle c entred o n t he c entre o f t he r oot o f t he n ose a nd w ith a r adius o f o ne n ose l ength i s t angent t o t he r oo t o f t he h air a nd t he o uter l ateral e dges o f t he e ye s ockets b u t n o t t o t he o utlines o f t he f ace. H owever , t he h ead may w ell b e c ontained w ithin a c ircle w ith a r adius c entred o n t he n ose r oo t.
F ig 3 9b. P anofsky , o p. c it., F ig. 2 , p . 1 09 . " The t hree c ircle s ystem o f B yzantine a nd B yzantiniz ing A r t" a s a pplied t o a 1 3th c entury h ead o f C hr ist i n a manuscript i n t he U niversitats B iblio thek H amburg.
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p roved n or d isproved a t p resent i n v iew o f t he l ack o f f actual e vidence. A f urther i nsight i nto western European t hinking o f f i f ty y ears o r more l ater t han N onnberg may b e gained f rom t he d rawings o f V illard d e H onnecourt. ( Text F igs. 4 0, 4 1) I n p roportional t heory h e o ccupied a parallel p osition t o t hat o f V itruvius i n t hat w ith b oth men we h ave t o r ely f or o ur e vidence o n a rchitects a nd n o t o n painters and s culptors. D e H onnecourt's v erticäl d ivision o f t he h ead i nto f our n ose l engths c ould b e e vidence o f a knowledge , p ossibly a t s econd h and, o f a B yzantine p roportional s ystem, but t he r est o f t he s chema i nto which h e d ivides h is h ead h as n othing B yzantine a bout i t . 1 01 T he f rontal a nd s emi-frontal f igures w ith f eet i n t ypical B yzantine p ositions may a lso i ndicate p ro totypes f rom s ome B yzantine t ext, b ut l ike t he h ead, t he g eometric s hapes t hat D e H onnecourt i mposed u pon h is f igures have n othing t o d o w ith B yzantine i nf luence. D e H onnecourt's d rawings h ave s ometimes b een t aken a s e xamples o f t he G othic s pirit o f s chematization t hat i nsisted u pon t he c onstruction o f t he human f orm a nd i ndeed o f a nimal f orms u pon g eometric p rinciples. B ut t his v iew puts t he c art b efore t he h orse, a nd c areful s tudy o f t hem s uggests t hat t hese d rawings p rovide e xamples o f t he s ame t endency t hat we h ave f ound i n t he N onnberg d ecoration. D e H onnecourt was n ot t rying i n h is d rawings t o r educe h uman a nd a nimal f orms t o g eometric c onstructions. H e was o n t he c ontrary e ndeavour ing t o f ind a nd understand a p roportional s ystem t hat would a llow o f t he a ccuräte a nd quantity p roduction o f human i mages, a matter o f h igh i mportance t o t he a rchitect o f a mediaeval c hurch. I n o ther words t he g eometric s ystem f or t he h uman b ody d id n o t e xist but D e H onnecourt h oped by e xperiment t o f ind o ne. H e knew t hat a s ystem o f h uman p roportion e xisted, a s we c an s ee f rom t he B yzantine e choes i n h is d rawings b ut h e d id n ot know what t he s ystem was, a nd w ithin t he l imitations o f h is W estern a nd g eometric way o f t hinking h e was making a n i ntelligent e ffort t o u nderstand a nd d iscover t he B yzantine s ystem. A s ystematic p roportional f ramework f or t he mass p roduction o f human i mages was n ecessary t o t he master mason o f a g reat c athedral o r c hurch i n o rder t hat t he work o f i ndividual masons m ight a ppear h armonious a nd w ithout t oo many d isparate c haracteristics. I n b ringing t he ' maniera g reca' t o I taly i n t he t hirteenth c entury B yzantine painters must have b rought w ith t hem a nd t aught t heir p roportional r ules f or painting t he h uman f igure. T hese a re i n e vidence i n t he p ainting o f C imabue a nd o ther 1 3th c entury I talian masters a nd i n s ome o f t he paintings a ttributed t o G iotto , a nd t heir e ventual d isappearance i s a c onspicuous f actor i n t he c reation o f t he n ew a nd i ndependent I talian s tyle. We h ave s tatement o f
t aken n o measurements o urselves but a ccept Eugenio B attisti, 102 t hat C imabue d ivided
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t he t he
F ig 4 0 .
S ketches f or t he h ead t aken f rom t he A lbum o f V illard D e H onnecourt, P ls XXV a nd XXVII.
F ig U.
S ketch o f a n ude male f igure i n t he a nterior a spect t aken f rom t he A lbum o f V illard D e H onnecourt, P l. XL11.
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c omplete h eight o f h is f igure manner t hat w e h ave s een t o c ontemporary R istoro d 'Arezzo .
i nto t en e qual p arts i n t he b e d escribed b y h is l earned
F rom t his e vidence i t would a ppear t hat i n 1 3th c entury I taly t he m odular p roportional c oncept ion o f t he h uman f igure b ased o n t he f ace ( forehead t o b ase o f c hin) a nd d ividing t he b ody i nto 1 0 e qual p ar ts, was s ufficiently we ll k nown a nd a ccepted a s t o b e ‚ r ecorded b y a n on-artist a s w ell a s t o b e u sed b y t he p ainter C imabue a nd o thers i n t he f orm o f a c anon o f p ropor tion g overning t he c onstruction o f t heir f igures. B attisti f urther r emarks t hat t he measures f or t he h and a nd t he f oot were a lso d erived f rom t he f ace l ength, t hough h e d oes n o t q ualify t hese l engths w ith a ny p recision. H e a lso a dds t hat t he d iameter o f C imabue 's h aloes was e qual t o t wo f ace l engths. T hese p roportional p articulars which a pparently c haracterise t he f igures o f C imabue a lso c haracterise t he f igures p ainted b y t he master o f t he 192 p aintings a t t he c hurch o f t he P anaghia t ou A rakos a t L agoudera, s ee a bove . T he s imilarities e ven e x tend t o C imabue 's p rof ile h eads, which h ave a c entrepo int a bove b ut o n a l evel w ith t he o uter c orner o f t he l arger e ye , while h is f rontal f aces h ave u nequal f ace p lanes i n r elation t o t he m edian o f t he n ose, a nd t hey s tare a t u s w ith a n i ndirect g aze. S o i t would i ndeed a ppear t hat C imabue a nd h is c ontemporaries p ainted i n t he manner o f t he G reeks. G iotto , a s we k now f rom h is c ontemporary a dmirers, was a p easant who h ad n o u se f or t radition a nd d id t hings i n h is own way . H e was a n ecessary f orce i n t he b reaking d own o f t he B yzantine t radit ion , a nd h is s lit-eyed p eople w ith t heir mobile c ontours a nd massive b odies were t he h eralds o f a d ifferent v iew o f l ife a nd a rt . T he r e ject ion o f , o r t he l ack o f k nowledge o f , t he B yzantine p roportional s ystem which i s a pparent i n l ater G io ttesque p aintings b ecomes o f i nterest b ecause i t p resents t he s ame d ivergence o f e vidence b etween t he p aintings a nd t ext t hat w e s aw i n A ntique A r t . C ennini 's ' II L ibro d el 'Arte ' p urports t o i nstruct u s i n t he manner o f p ainting o f G iotto . W e h ave s een t hat h is i nstructions a bout p roportion a re i ncomplete a nd d iff icult t o i nterpret, p erhaps b ecause o f c orruptions i n t he t ext , b ut n evertheless i t i s c lear t hat t hey a re c losely r elated t o t he B yzantine p roportional s ystem a nd t hat t hey may a pply t o G io tto a nd t o s ome o f h is c ontemporaries. G io tto 's f igures a re d iff icult t o a ssess w ith r egard t o p roportion , a s t he manner i n which h e b uilds u p h is b road f old t echnique a nd t he way t hat h e p aints mass r ather t han t he i ntimate c ontour o f t he f igure b eneath t he b ulky r obes makes i t d iff icult t o a ssess a ny p oints o f r eference. H is c rucif ied f igures o f C hr ist h ave l ong a nd s lender f igures b ut t he n ature o f t he f igure s tance makes m easure u nreliable, a nd t he l ack o f n umerous e xamples r enders a ny c onclusions h azardous. B ut i t d oes a ppear f rom o bservation o f h is f igures i n g eneral t hat G io tto u sed t he f ace m easure a s a m odule s ince
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t he u pper h ead ( vertex t o f orehead) i n s o many o f h is f igures i s n ot o nly v aried but s ometimes q uite f lattened. I n g eneral h is f igures a ppear t o c onform t o 9f aces i n t he v ertical f igure, f rom f orehead t o b ase o f f oot. G iotto a voids t he u se o f t he ' f lipper ' f oot which p rovided t he t enth measure o f C imabue a nd R istoro D 'Arezzo , a nd h is u se o f b road a reas o f paint emphasises t he w idth o f c lothing a nd makes t he f igures a ppear s maller i n h eight a ccording t o t he g reater emphasis g iven t o t heir w idth. I t would r equire a s eparate e ssay t o pursue t he d iscussion o f B yzantine f igural p roportion i n i ts r elation t o R enaissance t heories a nd i t must s uffice t o s tate i n c losing t hat most R enaissance t heorists would n ot have f ound a nything s trange o r b arbarous i n t he B yzantine p roportional s ystem. Whosoever was i n q uest, n o t o f r ules f or a n i ndividual i mage , but o f a s et o f r ules by which t o measure t he average o r t he i deal man, would h ave f ound much i n t he B yzantine s ystem t hat h e d id n ot n eed t o c hange. S imilar c alculations t o t hose o f t he B yzantine s ystem, e ither i ndependently c alculated, o r p erhaps t ransmitted i n t exts n ow l ost, a re t o b e f ound i n A lberti, Ghiberti, L eonardo , C ousin, a nd o ther R enaissance writers. T he b reak i n t he t radition c omes w ith t he e fforts t o e laborate p roport ional r ules f or a ll s orts a nd c onditions o f men a nd women a t t he d ifferent a ges o f l ife. The a verage o r t he i deal man was n ot what Durer s ought a f ter i n h is P roportionslehrer , a nd w ith h is b ook t he • B yzantine t radition has n ought t o d o . B yzantine p roportional c anons d o h owever s tand i n t he mainstream o f work o n s ystems o f f igural p roportion f rom Ancient E gypt u p t o t he p resent d ay , a nd t hey d o n ot e xemplify a ny b reak i n t radition b etween t he C lassical a nd B yzantine worlds. T hus s ystems o f f igural p roportion d o n ot a lways a ppear t o m irror t he s tyle o f a rt which t hey s erve; but a g reater a ttention t o t he measurement o f f igural works o f a rt m ight a dd u sefully t o t he s um o f f acts which c ould h elp i n d escribing t he d ifferent s chools a nd s tyles w ithin B yzantine a rt. D ifferences o r s imilarities o f measure may a lso h elp i n making more a ccurate j udgments a bout what i s B yzantine a nd what i s f oreign i n t he mosaics o f V enice a nd S icily, a nd i n d efining B yzantine i nfluence o n c ontemporary s tyles i n t he Mediaeval West.
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FOOTNOTES 1 .
2 .
3 .
4 .
5 .
6 . 7 . 8 .
9 .
1 0 .
T he e xpression ' monumental i mmobility ' was t he h appy i nvention o f G . S cott. T he A rchitecture o f H umanism, ( London, 1 914) , 1 947 e dition, p .18 . O . M. D alton, B yzantine A r t a nd A rchaeo logy , ( London, 1 911), p p.33-35 , s ummed u p t he h ieratic a spect o f B yzantine A rt i n a s plendid s entence ' The r estraint o f a n e ver p resen t l aw may i mpoverish i magination, b ut i t f orbids r hetoric, a nd l ends t o t he a rtistic l anguage t he s tately g randeur o f a l i turgy .' D .C . W inf ield, " Middle a nd l ater B yzantine Wall P ainting M ethods", D umbarton O aks P apers, 2 2, ( Washington, 1 968), p p. 6 3-140 . P ublication o f t he manuscripts i n B ucharest a nd i n A thens h ave b een p romised o f r ecent y ears i n b oth R umania a nd G reece. E . P anofsky, " Die E ntwicklung d er P roportionslehre a ls A bbild d er S tilentwicklung", i n Monatshef te f ür K unstwissenschaft , X IV , ( 1921), p p. 1 88-219 . T ranslated : " The H istory o f t he T heory o f H uman P ropor tions a s a r eflection o f t he H istory o f S tyles", i n M eaning i n t he V isual A rts, E . P anofsky, ( London, 1 970) , p p. 8 2-138 . P age n os. r efer t o E nglish t ext. i dem, P anofsky, p . 1 18 , o f m ediaeval p roportion ' It h ad d egenerated i nto a c ode o f p ractical r ules'. I t i s w ith t hese r ules t hat t he f ollowing p ages a ce c oncerned . i dem , P anofsky, p . 1 28, f or a s imilar v iew b ut d ifferently s tated. i dem, P anofsky, T his f orms t he t i tle o f h is a rticle . V itruvius, D e A rchitectura, e d. G ranger , ( Loeb, L ondon, 1 962) , B ook II, c h. 1 , p . 1 59 , g ives a n i ncomplete a ccount o f a f ractional s ystem o f p roportion wherein l engths w ithin t he b ody a re d escribed i n t erms o f f ractions o f t he whole h eight. L .A . J Q Aelet, A nthropometrie o u m esures d es d ifferentes f acult r es d e 1' h omme , ( Brussels, 1 870) , a ssesses t he c omparative m easures o f d ifferent h uman f igures b y i nterpreting t he l ength m easures o f t he p arts o f t he b ody i n t erms o f p ercentages o f t he whole b ody h eight . I n t he S anskrit work t he S ilpa S astra ( of t he F ine A rts) t he m easures f or t he h uman f igure a re i nterpreted i n t he f orm o f multiples o f u nits d own a n o tional v ertical d emarcating t he f igure h eight. T he t otal h eight i s made u p o f 4 80 u nits, a nd t he a natomical d ivisions o f t he f igure, s uch a s t he f ace ( 55 u nits) o r t he u pper h ead ( 15 u nits ) e tc., a re e ach a llocated a s pecif ic amount o f t he t otal n umber o f u nits. A n h armonic c anon o f p roport ion m ight b e s aid t o r elate t o t hose c anons whose s tructure i s b ased o n t he P ythagorean G olden S ect ion a nd t he G olden N umber . S ee, f or e xamples, Matila C . G hyka, L e N ombre d 'Or , ( Paris, 1 952); E .C . K ielland, G eometry i n E gyptian A rt, ( London, 1 955). S ir J oshua R eynolds a rgued t hat i n e ndeavouring t o s eek a n i deal o r a p erfect s tandard o f r eference among t he
1 87
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1 2. 1 3 .
1 4 .
1 5.
1 6 . 1 7.
i nevitable i mperfections t o b e f ound i n Nature , t he a rtist a rrives a t a c entral f orm f rom which a ny d eviation i s a d eformity. D iscourses o f S ir J oshua R eynolds, e d. B urnet, ( London, 1 842), D iscourse T hree, e sp. pp. 4 3-44 . D r. P aul R icher, was p rofessor o f Anatomy a t t he B eaux A rts a nd a t t he P aris A cademie d e M edecine, a nd h is work Anatomie A rtistique, ( Paris, 1 890) which a ppears i n s everal v olumes i s e xtremely d iff icult t o l ocate. More r ecently a s ummary b ut e ff icient t ranslation o f t his work a ppeared i n E nglish : D r . P aul R icher, A rtistic A natomy , e d. a nd t ransl. R . B everly Hale, ( New Y ork, 1 971). T he c anon o f p roportion r ecommended by R icher i s r eferred t o by many writers o n t he s ub ject a nd i n p articular b y A rthur Thompson, e rstwhile P rofessor o f Anatomy t o t he U niversity o f Oxford a nd t o t he R oyal A cademy, i n h is b ook : A Handbook o f Anatomy f or A r t S tudents, ( Oxford, 1 896) a nd ( Dover P ress, N ew Y ork, 1 964); i n t he l atter e dition we r efer particularly t o pp. 4 26-446. Maistre J ean C ousin, L ivre d e P ortraicture, ( Paris, 1 642), i n p articular t he d iagram o n p .4 . W ith t he e xception o f t he Amarna p eriod, t he s tatic n ature o f E gyptian a rt i s s ubstantiated by s urviving works. I ts l imitations a nd c hangelessness d rew c omments t o t hat e ffect f rom P lato who t ravelled i n E gypt i n t he e arly 4 th c entury B .C. P lato, S ynesius, 2 nd B ook o f L aws, ( ed. L oeb, L ondon, 1 961), t ransl. R .G. B ury, V ol. I , pp. 1 001 03 . Cause a nd e ffect a re n ot a t a ll c lear, a nd i t may b e t hat t he s pirit o f t he t imes c aused a s pontaneous a nd i ndependent c hange o f d irection i n b oth philosophers a nd c raf tsmen. P lotinus, T he E nneads, t ransl. S . Mackenna, ( Oxford, 1 969 ), p p . 4 22 -4 24 . F or a d etailed h istory a nd a ccount o f t he i ndentif ication a nd s tructure o f E gyptian c anons we r efer t he r eader t o t he f ollowing : C . R. L epsius, D enkmaler a us A egypten u nd A ethiopien, T extband I , ( Leipzig, 1 897) . C .C. Edgar . " Remarks o n E gyptian S culptor 's Models", R eceuil d e T ravaux r elatifs a l a philologie e t a 1'a rchäeologie e gyptiennes e t a ssyriennes, XXVII, 1 37 ( Paris, 1 905) S culptor 's S tudies a nd unf inished works, Catalogue g eneral d es a ntiquites e gyptiennes d u Musee d u Caire, n os. 3 3301-33506, v ol XXXI, ( Le Caire , 1 906). E . Mackay , ' P roportion s quares o n t omb walls i n t he T heban n ecropolis ', i n J ournal o f E gyptian A rchaeology, I V , ( 1917), pp. 7 4 -8 5 . M . B aud, L es d essins e bauche s ' s d e l a n ecropole t hebaine, ( Cairo, 1 935) . E . I verson, " A c anonical d rawing i n t he B ritish Museum", i n t he J ournal o f E gyptian A rchaeology, 4 6 , ( 1960), pps. 7 1-89, - " The Canonical T radition", i n t he L egacy o f E gypt, e d. j .R. H arris ( Oxford, 1 971), o n. 3 , p p . 5 5 -8 1. A . Mariette B ey, V oyage d ans l a Haute E gypte - v ol. I, ( Paris, 1 893), p . 9 6 . M . B aud, " Le Me tier d ' I ritisen", i n Chronique d e 1'E gypte ( 1938), p p. 2 1-24. T he i nscribed s tele o f I ritisen was a lso
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1 9 . 2 0 .
t ranslated by G . Maspero , i n T ransactions d e l a S ociete B iblique d e l 'Archaeölogie, ( 1877), I V , p p. 5 55 -5 62 . I n E gyptian a r t t he f aces o f f emale mourners r emain i nexpressive, b ut while t he e yes r emain u nchanged, t hree t ear l ines a re a dded r unning d own t he c heek f rom t he l ower r im o f t he e ye. T he B yzantine a rtist, by c ontrast d oes o ccasionally n arrow t he e yes o r e ven c lose t hem , a nd t he e yebrows a re h itched u p i n a f rown i n t he f aces o f mourners . A l l mourning f aces a lso r eceive a t ear l ine r unning d own t he c heek f rom t he i nner c orner o f t he e ye. B ut B yzantine f aces a re l ike t he f aces o f E gypt ian f igures i n t hat u nless t hey a re p laced i n a c ontext o f mourning, t hey r emain u narticulated a nd e nigmatic. I n p articular H . Maguire, " The d epiction o f S orrow i n M iddle B yzantine A rt", D umbarton O aks P apers, 3 1, ( 1977), p p. 1 23174 . H . S chafer , P rinciples o f E gyptian A rt , e d. E . B runnerT raut/ J. B aines, ( Oxford, 1 974), p . 2 29-230 , F ig. 2 46 . E . I verson, i bid, " The C anonical T radition", p p. 7 3-81; E . I verson, " Diodorus ' A ccount o f t he E gyptian C anon", i n t he J ournal o f E gyptian A rchaeo logy 5 4 , ( 1968 ), p p. 2 152 18 . D iodorus S iculus i n t exts q uoted i n J .j. P o llitt , T he A rt o f G reece 1 400 - 3 1 B .C., S ources a nd D ocuments i n t he H istory o f t he A rt s eries ( New J ersey, 1 965), p .7, s tates t hat a rchaic s tatues a scribed t o D aedalus h ave s trong a ff inities w ith t he a ncient s tatues o f E gypt a nd ( p.19) D iodorus w rites t hat t wo s culptors c onstructed a s tatue , o n a modular b asis, d ivided i nto 2 1 p arts, a nd e xecuted i n t he manner o f t he E gyptians. H owever , P o llitt s uggests t hat D iodorus i s r eferring t o s culptors o f t he 4 th c entury B .C . a nd n o t t o a rchaic masters. R .M . C ook, G reek A rt , ( London, 1 976), a rgues i n p reference f or a S yr ian i nf luence o n t he d evelopment o f s tone s culpture i n G reece a nd t he D aedalic s tyle , p p. 8 5 -8 6 , a nd h e r e jects t he s imilarities b etween t he G reek K ouro i a nd E gyptian s tatuary , p .96 . A t a n e arlier d ate P . R icher h ad a lso p o inted o u t t he c lose s imilarity b etween t he works o f a rchaic G reek s culptors a nd t hose o f A ssyria i n r egard t o p hysical a nd a natomical d etail r ather t han t o a ny l ikeness w ith t he works o f Ancient E gypt. ' Le N u d ans l 'Art, ( Paris, 1 894 ), pp. 3 31 -3 40 . G . R ichter , K ouro i , A s tudy o f t he d eve lopment o f t he K ouros t ype i n G reek s culpture, ( London, 1 960). M iss R ichter a ccepts t he i nfluence o f E gypt, M esopo tamia, a nd e ven t he O rient o ver t he d evelopment o f G reek s culpture b ut a rgues i n f avour o f t he i ndividuality o f G reek s culptors who b uilt u p e xperience a nd c hanged a nd d eveloped t heir a rt, s o t hat t he K ouro i s how a p rogression t owards a more a nd more n aturalistic r epresentation o f t he h uman f igure. S ee a lso : B .S . R idgway, ' Greek K ouro i a nd E gyptian M ethods', American J ournal o f A rchaeology, ( 1966), p p. 6 8-70 . A .W . L awrence, G reek a nd R oman S culpture, ( London, 1 972-) , p p. 3 2-33,78 . J ohn B oardman, G reek S culpture: T he A rchaic P eriod, ( London, 1 978) f or a n i mpressive s ummary o f p roport ion a nd t echnique , p p. 7 7 -7 9 .
1 89
2 1.
2 2.
2 3 . 2 4 .
2 5 .
2 6 .
2 7.
F or a c omprehensive a ccount o f P o lykleitos s ee G . M. R obertson, H istory o f G reek A r t, v ol.1, ( Cambridge , 1 975), p p. 3 28-339 . T . L orenz , P olyclet, ( Wiesbaden, 1 972); H . v on S tuben, D er C anon d er P olyclet - D oryphoros u nd Amazone, ( Tübingen, 1 973); R . M. C ook, o p. c it . p . 1 24 ; J .J. P ollit t o p. c it , T he A r t o f G reece , t he i ndex f or p ages c ontaining c lassical t exts which r efer t o ' symmetria ', a nd J .J. P o lli tt , T he A ncient V iew o f G reek A rt, C r iticism o f H istory a nd T ermino logy, ( Yale, 1 974), p p. 2 56-258 . L ucian t rans. A . M. H armon, ( London, 1 969). v ol.v. T he d ance 7 5 , p .277 f or a n a ncient d escription o f t he q ualities o f t he P olykleitan c anon. P hilo M echanicus, S yntaxis, I V , p . 4 9 .20 , e d. S chone, ( Berlin, 1 893), s ays t hat P o lykleitos s tated t hat ' perfect ion a rises p ara m ikron'. T he p recise m eaning o f t he p hrase ' para m ikron ' i s much d ebated a nd i t h as b een v ar iously i nterpreted a s ' through many n umbers', ' from a m inute c alculation', ' from a s mall u nit ' ;f or a d iscussion o f t he m eaning o f t his p hrase s ee J .T . P o llitt , o p . c it., T he A rt o f G reece, p . 9 2 , f n. 1 11. G alen, d e P lacititis H ippocratis e t P latonis, V ., s ee J .J. P ollitt, o p. c it., T he A rt o f G reece, p .89 . A n h armonic c anonical i nterpretation c ould b e a pplied b y a dapting t he g olden s ection, which would s eem t o b e a daptable t o most s tructures, o r a lternatively a n h armonic s ystem c ould b e b ased o n a n a natomically r elated p rogression o f g eometrica lly r elated measures, s uch a s t hat s uggested b y J .J. T obin, " The C anon o f P olykleitos", American J ournal o f A rchaeo logy, 7 9 , N o . 4 , ( October , 1 975), p p. 3 07-321. Galen's c omment i s d iscussed by I verson, o p. c it., T he C anonical T radition p p . 7 7.78 . While r ecognising t hat t he G reek a pproach t o p roportion a nd t he h uman f igure b e longs t o a d ifferent a nd more f er tile s ense o f r ea lity t han t hat a llowed f or b y t he E gyptian f ormulae , I verson r emarks t hat t he c ommensuration b etween t he p arts o f t he u pper l imb q uoted b y G alen c onstitutes a s imilar s equence o f measure r elationships t o t hat d ef ined i n t he E gyptian c anons, e ven t hough t he G reek ' Polykleitan' f ormula may b e d erived f rom a n o rganic a nthropometr ic a ssessment r ather t han f rom m etrological s tandards. P anofsky, o p. c it., p .394, r e jects a ny r elationship b etween t he P olykleitan c anon a nd t hat o f E gypt, a s h e r egards t he u se o f a modular c anon a pplied t hrough a g rid s ystem a s t oo m echanical. H e i nterprets t he G reek c anon i n t he f orm o f a p urely f ractional s ystem d ef ining t he r elationships o f t he p art t o t he who le h eight w ithout a ny d ef inition o f t he r elationships b etween t he p ar ts t hemselves. T he s tatement o f B yzantinus M echanicus c ould r efer t o a n a rithmetical s ystem o f n umbers. N umbers c an b e u sed a s multiples o f a modular u nit, a nd p rovided t hat t he multiples r epresenting p arts a re t hemselves i n t urn f actors o f a c ommon multiple r epresenting t he t o tal h eight,
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2 9 .
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i t would b e p ossible t o maintain a nd e stablish t he r atios o f t he p arts t o t he whole . T he m odular u nit i tself c ould b e a s tandard m etro logical u nit , o r a natomical i n n ature . A s we s hall s ee when d iscussing V itruvius, a c anon i n t he f orm o f f ractions d oes n ot e xclude a modular i nterpretation p rovided t hat t hose f ractions r epresent t he p arts o f t he b ody a nd c an b e r educed t o c ommon f actors o f a multiple r epresenting t he t otal h eight. T he R oman c opy o f t he ' Doryphoros', t he c anonical s tatue o f P o lykleitos, was m easured by A . K alkmann, D ie P roportionen d er G esichts i n d er g reichischen K unst, 5 0 , B erlin, W inckelmannsfeste, (B erlin, 1 893) , v ol. 5 3 , I D I D• 3 6-37 . P liny , N atural H istory , X XXIV , 5 5,56 , L oeb e d ., t ransl. W .H .S . J ones, ( London, 1 956) , F or a d iscussion o f t he m eaning o f t he word ' q uadratus/tetragonos ' s ee J .J. P o llitt, A r t o f G reece , o p . c it., p . 8 9 , F n 1 00 a nd J .J. P o llitt, o p. c it., T he a ncient v iew o f G reek A rt, p p. 1 74-194 . D e R idder a nd Norma, A rt i n G reece , ( London, 1 927),
p p . 2 45 , 2 46 . 3 1.
3 2 .
3 3 .
3 4 . 3 5 . 3 7 . 3 8 .
3 9 .
4 0 . 4 1.
4 2
4 3 .
P liny, N atural H istory, o p. c it., XXXIV , 6 1, D e R idder a nd Dgonna, o p. c it., p p. 2 45 , 2 46 L A .J Quetelet , Anthropom6tr ie..., o p. c it., p .87. P liny, N atural H istory , o p. c it., XXXIV , 4 0 . T here i s a r eference t o V itruvius, B ook V III, i n T zetze 's c ommentary o n L ycophron , A lexandra 1 024 , a ccording t o G ranger s ee V itruvius, i ntroduction, x v . F . D ieterici, D ie P ropaedeutik d er A raber , ( Berlin, 1 865) pp. 1 35-139 . W e h ave n ot i l lustrated t his G erman t ranslation o f a 1 0th c entury A rab t able o f m easures f or t he h uman b ody s ince t here a re c ontrad ictions i n i t which w e c ould n o t c heck . B ut t here a re e nough s imilarities w ith V itruvius i n t he A rab t ext t o s uggest t hat t he writer h ad a ccess t o a c opy o f V itruvius. V itruvius, o p. c it., B ook II, C h.1, p . 1 59 . i bid, B ook I , c h .2, p .27 . i bid, B ook II, c h.1, p p. 1 58-161. i bid., B ook II, p .158 , f n. 5 . I t i s c ommonly a ccepted t hat t he V itruvian s tatements c ontain e rrors , a nd c ertainly t he d istance f rom t he v ertex t o t he p it o f t he s tomach c an b e b etter e quated i n N ature w ith 2 h eadlengths , s ee R icher , T ext F ig. I . i bid., B ook II, c h. I . p p. 1 60-161. i bid , B ook II, c h. 3 , p p . 1 72-173 ; c h . 5 , p p . 1 90 -1 93 . i bid, B ook II, c h. 1 , 1 58-159 . While we h ave i nterpreted t he c hest a s m easuring f o f t he t otal w idth f rom a rmpit t o a rmpit when t he a rms o f t he f igure a re e xtended h orizontally , t he V itruvian t ext merely s ays ' the b reast a lso a q uar ter '. W inf ield,. B yzantine Wall P ainting M ethods, o p. c it., p p. 1 13-123 . P . H etherington, T he P ainter 's Manual o f D ionysius o f F ourna, ( London, 1 974), p p. iv, a ppendix p p. 13-117,
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4 7 . 4 8 .
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f or a w ider d iscussion o f t he D ionysios t exts. Among t hose who u se t he n ose l ength a s a module o r measure a re : V itruvius, o p . c it., B ook II, c .I, p . 1 59 ; t he V itruvian s tatements were p icked u p a nd r e-used b y l ater writers, n o tably L eonardo d a V inci, s ee S elections f rom t he N otebooks o f L eonardo D a V inci, e d . I .A . R ichter , ( Oxford, 1 977), p p. 1 45-149 . T he D rawings o f L eonardo d a V inci, e d. A .E. P opham, ( Repr . S oc. L ondon, 1 957) P lates 2 16, 1 91. J ean C ousin , o p . c it., p .4 u ses t he n ose a s module f or t he v ertical d ivisions o f t he h ead a nd t hese d ivisions were f urther r ecommended b y A rthur T hompson, o p. c it., p .431. T he 1 3th c entury A rchitect, V illard D e H onnecour t a ttempted t o r educe t he s tructure o f t he h uman h ead t o a s imple a rbitrary g eometric f orm, b ut t wo o f h is e xploratory s ketches ( Text F ig. 4 0) a ppear t o i ndicate t he u se o f t he n ose l ength a s a n e sssential p art o f t he s tructure . A lbum d e V illard d e H onnecourt , e d. J .B. L assus, ( Par is, 1 968), P ls XXXV a nd X XXVII. F or e xamples o f B yzantine p reliminary d rawing s ee P lates 1 - 5 where t he L s hape l ine d emarcates t he n ose a nd a n h orizontal l ine marks t he e yeline . P re-Iconoclast works , s uch a s t he m osaics i n R ome a nd R avenna, r eveal t hat B yzantine mosaicists o f t he p reI conoclast p er iod w ere aware o f t he c onvention r egarding c ast s hadows. F rom t he f eet o f f igures, t he p aws o r h ooves o f a nimals a nd t he b ase o f o b jects d ark c ontrasting c olour c ubes f an o ut. T his . i nterpretation o f c ast s hadow i s h owever v estigial a nd f ormal . T he m ost e ffective a nd d ramatic u se o f c ast s hadow i n e ar ly C hr istian A rt i s s urely t he i mage made b y t he m osaicist a t Galla P lacidia where t he f l ickering f lames e ngulf ing S t. L awrence 's g rid i ron a re r ef lected b y d ark t ongues o f l eaping d ark b lue s hadows which s tand o ut a gainst t he u pper l ight b lue g round. T he C hurch o f H aghia S ophia a t T rebizond, e d . D . T albo t R ice, ( Edinburgh, 1 968), p p• 4 7-49 , ( Pls 1 6-18). T he mouth i n B yzantine f aces n ever c ontracts o r o pens t o i nd icate emotions o f amazement , f ear , h orror , m isery , p ain, e tc. I n t he b rief s ummar ies o f i ndividual c haracter istics i n t he i conographic l ists o f s aints a nd s cenes c ontained i n t he P ainter 's Guides, t he a llusion t o e motion i n f acial e xpression i s r are . T he wonder o f t he A postles p resent a t t he A scension o f C hrist i s e xpressed i n p hysical g esture a nd s tance , b ut t he f aces r emain s tatic . A r are o pen mouthed f igure i s t hat o f t he b oy p ossessed b y d ev ils, i n a s cene f rom t he L ife o f C hr ist , o n t he s outh wall o f t he n arthex a t t he c hurch o f H aghia S ophia a t T rebizond, o p. c it., p . 1 41, ( Text F ig. 1 03). T he mouth o f t he c hild i s f orced a s w ide o pen a s p ossible a nd a d evil i ssues f orth. C . D avis-Weyer , E arly M edieval A rt 3 00-1150 , S ources a nd D ocuments i n t he H istory o f A rt S eries, ( New J ersey, 1 971), p p. 2 3-25 . i dem, p p. 1 7-23 .
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5 3 .
5 4 .
5 5 .
5 6 .
5 7 .
5 8 .
5 9 .
6 0 .
6 1.
i dem , p p . 7 8-79 . T he t ext i s t aken f rom M . C hatzidakis,
'
t c ov g Äruou
töu Löyt i n 7 E6TripL E taLp'Lc tg v ov Eno c o8ov , X IV , ( Athens, 1 938), p .409 . Cyril Mango , T he A r t o f t he B yzantine Empire , 3 12-1453 , S ources a nd D ocuments i n t he H istory o f A rt S eries, e d. H . W. J anson, ( New j ersey, 1 972), p .249 . N icephor i G regorae, e d. I . B ekker, C orpus S criptorum H istor iae B yzant , inae, e d. B .G . N iebuhr , ( Bonn, 1 855) , II, B ook XXIX , c . 4 7-48 , p p . 2 55-266 . F or f ur ther i nformation o n D ionysios o f F ourna s ee : P . H ether ington, T he P ainter 's Manual o f D ionysios o f F ourna, ( London, 1 974). K . D imara, " The L ife o f D ionysios o f F ourna b y T heophanes o f A grapha", i n H ellenika, ( Athens, 1 938), B ook 1 0 , P art 2 , p p. 2 13-272. H e llenika, i bidem , p p 2 73-279 . A . Z yngopoulos, F our p ortable i kons o f D ionysios o f F ourna, f igs 1 -4 . F or i l lustrations o f h is p ainting o n M t . A thos, a t V atopedi a nd K aryes, s ee R . B yron a nd D . T albo t R ice , T he B irth o f W estern P ainting, ( London, 1 930), p p. 19-125 . P lates: 8 ,i,ii; 1 0 ,i,ii; 1 2,i; 2 4 ,ii; 2 8 ,i,ii,29 ,i,ii; 6 7,i; 7 8 ,ii, D ionysios o f F ourna, Eept .-V E .L .c t . . g coVe—a L ej i l 9 TAv e d . A . P apadopoulos K erameus, ( St. P etersburg, 1 909) , p p . 3 4-35 . T he o r iginal manuscript was n o t d ivided i nto n umbered p aragraphs w ith c hapter h eadings; t hese were p rovided by P apadopoulos K erameus when h e e dited , t he t ext. ' Töü va -c oup6 .XE' . B oth a ncient a nd modern G reeks would h ave u sed t he t erm tx . a . -c a c puo n 1 a nd IT ZU VaTOUP6 .A .6 which D ionysios u sed i n t he i ntroduction a nd e lsewhere i s a b orrowed t erm. I t may c ome v ia s ome manuscript c ontaining V itruvius' i nstructions o n t he p ropor tions o f t he h uman f igure s ince t he p hraseology o f t he b egining o f D ionysios a nd V itruvius i s s trikingly s imilar . V itruvius o p. c it., B k. II, c h. I , p . 1 59 , h as ' Corpus e nim i ta n atura c omposuit '. O r p erhaps t he e xpression c ame t o D ionysios t hrough t he much l ater i nf luence o f V enice a nd t he V eneto-Cretan s chool o f p ainters. naTouva .vf must r efer t o t he b ase o f t he f igure. T his p o int which l ies o ne n ose l ength d own f rom t he a nkle, must r efer t o t he b ase o f t he h eel o r s o le o f t he f oo t. I t i s a n i mportant p o int o f r eference f or t he p rof ile f oo t a nd f or t he b ase o f t he r obe o f f emale o r monkish f igures. T his i s c onclusive e vidence t hat ` C . C .uNe» .( r efers t o t he o val o f t he f ace a nd n o t t o t hat o f t he h ead s ince D ionysios c learly d istinguishes t he measurement o f t he u pper h ead o r h air ( ver tex t o r oo t o f n ose) a s a n i ndependent m easure n o t o nly f rom t he f ace b ut f rom t he t otal b ody m easures, b ut h e s till u ses t he s maller n ose m ea , sure module t o d ef ine i ts r elative l ength. 'i E unv 'can m ean ' middle ' a s i mplying a p oint e quidistant f rom t wo o thers, i .e. t he c entre o f t he b ody l ength b etween t he v er tex a nd t he h eel; o r i t may b e a word s ignify ing t he waist. I n t his c ase , t he d istance f rom t he
1 93
6 2.
6 3.
6 4. 6 5 . 6 6 . 6 7.
6 8. 6 9 .
7 0 .
7 1.
7 2.
7 3.
h ead i s t oo g reat f or t he waist t o a pply a nd i t must r elate t o t he c entre o f t he b ody b elow t he b ase o f t he b elly. F or a p ractical r eference p oint, s uch a s t hat r equired b y a p ainter , t he base o f t he h and i s a b etter mark t han t he wrist. T he wrist i s a natomically i mportant a s marking t he s tyloid p rocess a t t he l ower e nd o f t he r adius a nd t he u lna b one o f t he f orearm, but t his i s n ot a v isual p o int i n s urface a nato ,my. D ionysios u ses t he word ' c p s c iA .LaLv 'o r ' horny ' p resumably t o d escribe t he muscle p ad a t t he b ase o f t he h and. T he u se o f t he p rof ile f ace i s r are i n m iddle B yzantine works, t hough more f requent i n l ater e xamples o f t he s tyle. D ionysios h imself a ttempts a p rof ile i n t he h ead o f l onah, s ee R . B yron a nd D . T albot R ice o p. c it., Vatopedi, s ee P lates. T he most c ommon v iew i s t he 2 p rof ile h ead, t o which t hese measures must r efer . F or a d iscussion o f t he f rontal f ace, s ee b elow. Zyngopoulos, F our P ortable i cons..., o p. c it. R . B yron a nd D . T albot R ice, o p. c it., P lates i dem. I n many n ude o r c lothed f igures t he r elief o f t he d elto id muscle i s i ndicated by a c urved l ine. T he o blique h ead must i mply a h ead t urned t o a s tance b etween t he p rof ile a nd t he a symmetrical f rontal s tance , s ince t he p rof ile i s r are. T he 2 p rof ile i s h owever c ommonplace a nd i t i s c haracterised by a p rof ile n ose r evealing o ne n ostril, a f ull l ength e ye a nd a b road t emple t o o ne s ide o f t he n ose, a nd a s maller e ye t o t he o ther s ide o f t he n ose w ith n o t emple b eyond. Only o ne e ar i s s hown a nd t he d irection o f t he e yes i s a cross t he n arrow s ide o f t he f ace. T his c ontrasts w ith t he a symmetrical f rontal f ace i n which t he gaze i s d irected a cross t he w ide s ide o f t he f ace. R . B yron a nd D . T albot R ice , o p. c it., P l. 1 2, i . We h ave b een u nable t o t race t his word but i t o bviously r efers t o a c ompass o r t o d ividers o f s ome k ind w ith which t he p ainter c ould r elay h is measures a t s peed. When t he e yes a re o pen t he e yelashes which s tem f rom t he upper r ims o f t he e yes a re t hen l evel w ith t he n asal i ncision o r r oot o f t he n ose. The V irgin Mary i s a lways s hown wearing a c lose f i tting w imple which d escends l ow o ver t he f orehead a nd f i ts t ightly a round t he f ace. Over t he w imple s he wears a v eil t he ' koukoulas' which s nugly o utlines t he h ead a nd f alls l oosely o ver t he s houlders. T his ' sideways' o r o blique v iew o f t he h ead o f t he Panaghia i s c learly 2 p rof ile i n s tance whereas t he h ead o f t he Mother o f G od H odegetria i s o nly ' slightly t urned'. The d ifference i s c lear i n t he i nstructions f or t he H odegetria which i nclude measures which d elimit t he e xtent o f t he h ood t o b oth s ides o f t he h ead, whereas t he i nstructions f or t he o blique h ead a llow f or n o e xtent o f h ood b eyond t he narrowed s ide o f t he f ace. I n most B yzantine murals t he p lacing o f t he e ars i s o n a
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7 4 .
7 5 .
7 6 .
7 7
7 8 . 7 9 .
8 0 .
8 1.
8 2 .
l evel w ith p lacing o f t he n ose. I n t he P ainter 's Manual, e d. P . K erameus, o p. c it., S t. G eorge i s d escribed a s a y oung man, u nbearded , w ith c urly h air . S ee p p. 2 70 , 2 95 . C hrist i s t raditionally r epresented i n B yzantine murals w ith t he l ong f lowing h air o f t he N azarene. T he h ead o f C hrist a nd t hat o f S t. G eorge a re h owever b oth c haracterised a s b eing t hose o f y oung m en, a nd i t t hus a ppears t hat P anselinos ' i nstructions f or t he o blique h ead c an b e a pplied t o male a nd f emale a like ' w ith t he e xception o f t he h air s tyling. T he c onstruction o f t he a symmetr ical f rontal h eads o f o ld m en a ppears t o f ollow t he i nstructions g iven f or t he f rontal s ymmetrical h ead o f C hr ist, w ith t he m inor e xception o f t he e xamples g iven h ere . I n t he c ontext o f t hese i nstructions t he i nterpretat ion o f ' mesi ' must c learly b e ' waist ' a s t he ' mesi ' l ies b etween t he b ase o f t he b reast a nd t he b ase o f t he a bdomen. T he d istance f rom t he a nkle t o t he h eel o r t he b ase o f t he f oot i s n o t g iven, p ossibly b ecause o f t he ambiguity o f t he B yzantine n on f ore-shortened f rontal f oo t. T he l atter m easure i s o bscure b u t p resumably r efers t o h alf t he h eight. ' r taTouvav' t his p oint o f r eference must a pply t o t he b ase o f t he f oot s ince, a par t f rom t he a nkle , t here i s n o o ther p articular a natomical p oint o f r eference i n t he l ower l eg o ther t han t he p reviously m entioned k nee o r a nkle) T he d irections f or t he s tanding f igure g ive t he d istance f rom t he v ertex t o t he b ase o f t he b el ly : 4h ead l engths. T he i nstructions f or t he u pright s i tting f igure g ive t he d istance f rom t he v ertex t o t he b ase o f t he k nee : 4 + h eads. T his would i mply t hat t he v ertical d istance b etween t he b ase o f t he b elly a nd t he k nee i n t he s eated f igure i n t he l ateral a spect i s f h ead l ength. T his e xtra h ead l ength would p resumably c over t he t hickness o f t he t high. T hus t he measures f or t he s eated f igure c ould r ead: 4h eads v ertex t o b ase o f b elly b ase o f b elly t o b ase o f k nee 7 i h ead b ase o f k nee t o a nkle 1 + h eads T otal v er tical s pace o ccupied b y s eated f igure when m easured f rom t he v ertex t o t he a nkle 6h eads. I f t he module m easures u sed f or t he r ider a nd t he h orse h ave t he s ame v alue, t hen t he h eight o f t he r ider , s hould h e b e s tanding, would e xceed t hat o f t he h orse . P erhaps t he h orse f rom which t he s tandard measures w ere d erived was i tself s mall i n s tature. T he h eight o f t he h orse v ertex t o b ase o f h ooves 6h eads T he h eight o f t he u pright f igure v ertex t o h eel 7h eads T he h eight o f t he s eated f igure v ertex t o a nkle 6h eads. I f t he f igure i s s een i n t he h ead-on v iew t he u pper h ead
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8 3 . 8 4 . 8 5 .
8 6 .
8 7.
8 8 . 8 9 . 9 0 .
9 1.
o f t he s tanding f igure a ppears f oreshortened. V itruvius ' m easures t ake t his i nto a ccount : t he u pper h ead ( ver tex t o r oot o f h air o r t op o f f ace) e qual t o o ne-fourthieth o f t he f igure whereas t he n ose, t he f orehead, a nd t he c hin , a re e ach e qual t o o ne-thirtieth o f t he t otal f igure h eight ( vertex t o h eel). V itruvius, o p. c it., B ook II, C h. I , p .159 . E . B attisti, C imabue, ( Milan, 1 963) p p. 2 9-30 . R istoro D 'Arezzo , L a c omposizione d el Mondo , e d. E . N arducci, ( Rome, ' 1 858/9), p . 3 02 , C h.XX. c ol. 1 09 . C ennino C ennini, I L ibro d ell'Ar te , T he C raf tsman 's H andbook, t ransl. D aniel V . T hompson, 1 r , ( New Y ork, 1 933), p .17 C ennino C ennini, 1 L ibro d e ll 'Arte , e d. D .V . T hompson J r ., ( Yale, 1 932), p .17. C ennino C ennini, 1 L ibro d ell'Ar te , o p. c it., p p. 4 6-47 . C ennino C ennini, T he C raf tsman's H andbook, o p. c it., p p. 4 8-49 . A .H.S . M egaw a nd E .T. W . H awkins, T he C hurch o f t he P anagia K anakar ia a t L ythrankomi i n C yprus, D umbarton O aks S tudies, 1 4 , ( Harvard, 1 977). 0 . D emüs, B yzantine Mosaic D ecoration, ( London, 1 947), p p.32 , 3 3, f or a d iscussion o n p reventive d istortion. W inf ield, B yzantine Wall P ainting, o p . c it., p p . 7 5-79 . P reliminary d raw ing i s o nly v isible where t he u pper l ayers o f p aint h ave c ompletely f laked away l eaving t he d rawing a nd t he p reliminary c olour l ayers v isible o n t he p laster . S ince t he t echniques o f B yzantine p ainting were d esigned t o e ncourage t he a dhesion o f t hese u pper p igment l ayers t o t he p laster b eneath, i t f o llows t hat e xamples a re n o t c ommon. H owever , t wo h eads o f s tanding s aints a t t he C hurch o f S t . J ohn C hrysostomos, a nd a n umber o f h eads o f f igures among t he paintings i n t he c hurch o f t he H o ly A postles a t P erachorio h ave l ost t he u pper l ayers o f c olour , a nd t he p reliminary d rawing a nd g uide l ines a re t hus r evealed b eneath. P ls. 1 - 5 . O bservations made i n many p ainted c hurches h ave l ed u s t o c onclude t hat i t was t he c ommon p ractice o f B yzantine p ainters t o c omplete t he f ace a nd f lesh a reas o f f igures a t a l ate s tage i n t he p rocess o f p ainting p anels a nd s cenes. W inf ield, B yzantine Wall P ainting M ethods, o p.cit., p .104 . T he f ace was c ompleted a f ter t he h alo , s ince t he f inal h alo o ut lines w ere u sually e xecuted w ith a c ompasslike t ool , o ne o f whose b ranches would r est u pon t he c entrepo int o f t he h alo , i tself l ocated i n t he f ace a rea. E xamination o f t he s equence o f o verlapping p aint l ayers a t t he n eckline a nd t he f requent p resence o f f inal r etouching c learly i ndicates t hat t he g arments were c ompleted b efore t he f lesh c o lours were a pplied. B y t he t ime t hat t he p ainter c ame t o p ainting t he f lesh a nd f ace a reas t he c ondition o f t he p laster s urface would b e c ritical f or t he f irm a dhesion o f t he u pper l ayers o f p igment, t hough t his m ight b e q ualif ied b y t he n ature a nd s trength o f t he m edia u sed. T his s equence i n p ainting t he v ar ious e lements o f a n i mage o r s cene g oes f ar t o e xplain
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9 2 .
9 3 .
9 4 .
9 5 .
9 6.
9 7 .
why t he p aint l ayers o f t he g arments a nd o ther e lements t hat were painted a t a n e arly s tage r emain f irm. P anofsky , o p. c it., pp. 1 08-109 , a nd T ext F ig 2 . The t hree c ircle s cheme f or t he c onstruction o f h eads a s i nterpreted a nd i l lustrated by P anofsky, c ould s ometimes b e a pplied t o t he s trictly s ymmetrical h eads c onstrued w ith e qual measures t o e ither s ide o f t he median o f t he n ose a nd t he c entre o f t he n ose r oo t. P ost-Iconoclast wall painting a nd mosaic i l lustrates s trictly a symmetrical f rontal h eads, a nd t he many e xamples o f p reliminary d rawing t hat we have o bserved i n d amaged wall paintings, a nd o bservation o f i mpress a nd i ncised guide l ines where u sed, g ive n o i ndication o f t he u se o f c oncentric c ircles f or t he c onstruction o f h eads. T he u se o f c ompass d rawn c ircles t hat h as b een s uggested by Panofsky f or d emarcating s uch s mall d istances a rgues a f inicky l ack o f a ssurance i n a p ainter , whereas wall painters h ad t o h ave t he c onf idence t o u se a t echnique r equiring s peed, a nd b old, f ree-arm b rush s trokes. The t exts a nd c ommonsense a ll i ndicate t hat t he c ompass was u sed f or r elaying measures, a nd f or o utlining haloes a nd r oundels. P reliminary d rawings f or haloes a nd r oundels, where we have o bserved t hem, were e xecuted o n f resh p laster i n a g rey o r a r ed e arth c olour . An e xception was a t t he c hurch o f S t. N icholas o f t he R oof a t Kakopetria i n Cyprus where t he h aloes o f p ainted f igures dated p robably t o t he 1 1th c entury were d emarcated a t a p reliminary s tage w ith o utlines i ncised and r egulated by c ompasses ( a nail a nd s tring would d o), but t he painted o utline was i rregular , a nd c learly e xecuted f reehand w ith a b rush f ollowing t he i ncised o utline t hat l ay b eneath. I t m ight e qually b e s aid t hat t he L agoudera f igures measure 1 0 f ace l engths f rom v ertex t o a nkle e xcept f or t he e xamples o f s ome o ld men where t he upper h ead h eight i s marginally i ncreased. H owever , i t s eems t o b e c lear t hat t he h ead module was n o t u sed by t his master. A v ery g ood e xample o f t he particular u se o f i ncised l ines i n t he c ase o f l arge i mages i s t o b e f ound i n t he n arthex o f t he c hurch o f A sinou, Cyprus. The s hallow c entral s aucer d ome c ontains a l arge i mage o f t he Christ P antokrator whose f eatures : e yebrows, e tc. a re h eavily i ncised. B ut o ther paintings i n a s equence by t he s ame painter b elow t he d ome, c ontain n o e vidence o f i ncised guide l ines. F or i l lustration s ee W inf ield, B yzantine Wall P ainting, o p. c it., P ls. 1 4-17. O ther r oundels w ithin t he 1 192 s equence o f p aintings c ontain waist l ength s aintly f igures whose h eads a nd s houlders a re i n t he a nterior a spect. I n t hese r oundels t he v ertical d iameter s erves a s a n a xis f or t he b ody, h ead, a nd h alo , a nd b isects t he f ace t o t he s ide o f t he n ose, t o t he r ight o r t he l ef t a ccording t o t he d irection o f t he g aze. R icher, A rtistic Anatomy, o p. c it., p . W inf ield, Byzantine Wall P ainting
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1 32 . Methods,
o p.
c it.,
p . 8 0 . P anofsky, H istory o f Human P roportions, o p. c it., p . 10 . 9 9 . There a re s pecif ically c haracterised e xceptions a s mentioned a bove, but t hese c haracters, t he b uco lic s hepherd, t he d ropsical man, e tc, r elate t o a particular n arrative s equence a s p ortrayed i n t raditional s cenes. T he Apostles, a nd i ndeed o ther s aints, a re d istinguished t he o ne f rom t he o ther by a v ariety o f s tandardised h air s tyles, a nd by y outh a nd a ge, a nd s ome s aints a re d istinguished i n ' addition b y g arment s tyles, i nsignia, a nd s ymbols; but t heir physique ( with t he e xception o f a scetics) a nd p articularly t heir h eight w ithin a s cene where t heir h ierarchical i mportance i s undifrerentiated, r emains s tandard. 1 00 . P anofsky u ses t he h ead o f S t. F lorian f rom a mural i n t he N onnberg C onvent a t S alzburg t o j ustify h is t heory o f c oncentric c ircles a s a b asis f or t he c onstruction o f h eads i n B yzantine murals. I n f act, h e was f ollowing a nd e laborating u pon t he c areful a nd p erceptive d escription o f t he N onnberg p aintings b y P . B uberl, " Die r omanischen Wandmalereien i m K loster N onnberg i n S alzburg u nd i hre B eziehungen z ur S alzburger buchmalerei und z ur B yzantinischen Kunst", i n Kunstgeschichtliches I ahrbuch d er K .K. Z entralkommission f ur E rforschung u nd E rhaltung d er Kunst u nd H istorischen D enkmale, 1 11, ( Vienna, 1 909), pp. 2 5-98 . a lso K . M. Swoboda, ' Geometr ische V orzeichnungen r omanischer Wandgemalde' i n A lte u nd N eue Kunst, (Wiener K unstwissenschaf tliche B lätter. ) , ( Vienna, 1 953), I, pp. 8 1-100. B uberl a nalysed what h e t hought t o b e t he g eometrical s ystem o f c onstruction o f t he f igures i n t he n iches a t N onnberg, ( pp. 4 0-44 , T ext F ig. 3 9), but h e g ives n o measurements, a nd a lthough h e c laims t hat t he s ystem t hat h e d escribes i s a ll t here i n t he p reliminary d rawings made by t he painter , t his i s n o t t he c ase. T here a re v ertical a nd h orizontal d iameter l ines f or t he halo o f S t. F lorian, but t he r emaining marks made by t he N onnberg painter were i nterpreted by B uberl, s o t hat h is g eometr ic d ivisions a re b ased u pon h is own i nterpretations a nd n ot o n a f actual d escription o f h ow t he N onnberg p ainter worked, which may have b een q uite d ifferent f rom t he B uberl a nd Panofsky e xpositions. I n s eeking t o d emonstrate t he B yzantine o rigins o f t he N onnberg p roportional s ystem B uberl, a nd P anofsky a fter h im, moved o n t o t he u se o f much t hinner e vidence. Panofsky based h is t heory o f t he B yzantine ' three c ircle s ystem' o n a n i nterpretation o f t he i nstructions p rovided i n t he P ainter 's Guide. T hese i nstructions t ell t he painter t o u se a pair o f c ompasses o r d ividers t o r elay s imilar measure l engths, f or which p urpose s uch a n i nstrument i s a dmirably s uited. N either t he t ext o f D ionysios n or t hat purporting t o r etail t he p roportional methods o f P anselinos, c ontain a ny r eference t o t he making o f c ircles. Panofsky ' s i nterpretation h as, h owever , b ecome r espected a s i f i t were t he c ontent o f t he B yzantine 9 8 .
1 98
Manual , a nd n o t a t heoretical i nterpretation. N either P anofsky n or B uberl c laimed t o h ave measured up t he B yzantine e xamples, while e ven t he photographs o f B yzantine works t hat a re i l lustrated by B uberl s how a symmetrical a nd n ot s ymmetrical f aces. I f e ither s cholar h ad had t he o pportunity f or a ny c lose o bservation o f p ostI conoclast Byzantine mural d ecoration t hey would s urely h ave h esitated t o p ropound a t heory o f Byzantine p roportion based l argely o n a s ingle R omanesque p reliminary d rawing which was n ot a ccurately d escribed but l oosely i nterpreted. The c ompounding o f a n e rror c an p roduce a maze wherein t he t ruth i s d iff icult t o f ind. 1 01. The A lbum o f V illard D e H onnecourt, e d . T .B.A. L assus, ( Par is, 1 968), i n particular P ls. XXVII, XXV, XLII. H .R. H ahnloser , V illard D e H onnecourt, ( Graz, 1 972), pp. 8 8 , 1 00-102, 2 75-277. 1 02. E . B attisti, C imabue, o p. c it. pp. 2 9-30 . R istoro d 'Arezzo, L a C omposizione ,o p. c it., c ol. 1 09.
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2 03
P late 2 . T he h ead o f S t. E phraim o f S yria, 1 2th c entury, f rom t he n ave o f t he c hurch o f S t J ohn Chrysostomos, Cyprus. P reliminary d rawing r evealed o n t he b ase p laster a f ter t he f laking away o f t he u pper l ayers o f p igment. O f particular n o te a re t he e yeline a nd n oseline.
P late 3 . H ead o f a s tanding F ather f rom t he a pse o f t he Church o f t he H oly Apostles, P erachor io , Cyprus, ( 12th c entury). The u pper l ayers o f p aint h ave f laked away t o s how t he o riginal p reliminary d rawing a nd p ainted guidelines f or t he h ead. A s c an b e s een t he f inal h ead a nd halo were e xecuted t o a l arger s cale.
P late 4 . A d etail s howing t he A postles f rom t he A scension i n t he c hurch o f t he H oly Apostles a t P erachorio , Cyprus, ( 12th c entury). T he u pper l ayers o f p aint h ave f laked away f rom t he h eads r evealing t he l ively p reliminary d rawing i ncluding t he e yeline a nd n oseline p roportional r eference guides. T he a postle i n t he f oreground i s a g ood e xample o f t he o ccasional l ack o f f luency i n t he o rganizing o f B yzantine f igures.
r eveal t he
P late 6 . H ead o f t he A rchangel G abriel f rom t he Annunciation o n t he n orth wall o f t he n ave o f t he c hurch a t E ski n ear N ig 'de i n c entral T urkey. D ue t o t he t hinness o f t he l ayer o f f lesh c o lour i t i s p ossible t o s ee t he p reliminary d rawing g uide l ines f or t he e yeline a nd n oseline.
P late 7 . S t . G eorge a nd t he D ragon, f rom t he s outh b ay o f t he n arthex o f t he c hurch o f t he P anaghia Phorv iotissa a t A sinou, Cyprus, ( 12th c entury).
P late 9 . T he r oundel w ith t he b ust o f S t. T homas f rom t he a pse mosaic i n t he c hurch o f t he P anaghia K anakaria a t L ythrankomi, Cyprus, ( preiconoclast).
h ead
o f C hrist
P late 1 2 . T he h ead o f S t. G regory t he M iracle Worker, f rom t he west b ay o f t he c hurch o f S t. J ohn Chrysostomos, Cyprus, ( 12th c entury).
P late 1 3 . T he h ead a nd s houlders o f t he A rchangel Gabriel f rom t he Annunciation i n t he e astern p endentives o f t he c hurch o f t he P anaghia t ou A rakos, L agoudera, Cyprus, ( 1192). N ote t he p rof ile h ead a nd n eck j oined t o s houlders s hown i n t he p oster ior a spect.
P late 1 4. R oundel w ih A rchangel f rom t he d ome o f t he t he Panaghia t ou A rakos, L agoudera, Cyprus, ( 1192).
P late 1 5 . T he f igure o f S t. J ohn t he c hurch, o f t he P anaghia t ou A rakos,
c hurch o f
B aptist f rom t he n aos o f t he L agoudera, Cyprus, ( 1192).
P late 1 8 . The f igure o f t he A rchangel Gabriel f rom Annunciation i n t he e astern p endentives o f t he c hurch o f P anaghia t ou A rakos, L agoudera, Cyprus, ( 1192). N ote u nnatural c ontortion o f t he f igure.
t he t he t he
P late 1 9 . T he h ead o f t he C hr ist C hild ' Emmanuel' f rom r ounde l b etween t he e astern p endentives i n t he c hurch o f P anaghia t ou A rakos L agoudera, C yprus, ( 1192).
t he t he
P late 2 0. G eneral V iew o f t he P antokrator i n t he d ome o f t he c hurch o f t he P anaghia t ou A rakos, L agoudera, Cyprus, ( 1192).