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PROCESSES OF EVALUATING CONTEMPORARY PAINT INC AS APPLIED TO TEE WORK OF THREE SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA ARTISTS

A T h e s is P r e se n te d t o t h e F a c u l t y o f t h e D e p a r tm e n t o f F i n e A r t s T he U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a

In P a r t ia l F u lfillm e n t o f t h e R e q u ir e m e n ts f o r t h e D e g r e e M a s te r o f A r t s

by G eorge S a u c ie r A u gu st 1950

UMI Number: EP57898

All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion.

UMI Dissertation Publishing

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This thesis, written by O B Q B flB.£*..S& U & Jn................................................

under the guidance of hda... Faculty Com m ittee , a i h / approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Council on Graduate Study and Research in partial fulfill­ ment of the requirements fo r the degree of

MS.IER...QF...A&X&_ _ _

Date.

jLUGLUai..l55f i_______

Faculty Committee

Chairman

C&C'

TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I.

PAGE

THE PROBLEM AND ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY . . . T h e p r o b le m

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

S t a t e m e n t o f t h e p r o b le m M ethod

1

• • « . • • • « .

3



4

S ig n ific a n c e o f a e s t h e t ic s

• * • • • • • •

O r g a n iz a t io n o f t h e r e m a in d e r o f t h e s t u d y II.

X

4 .

THE PROCEDURE FOR TEE STUDY . . . . . . . . . . T he m eth od o f s e l e c t i n g t h e a r t i s t

• • .

. .

5 6 6

T h e m eth od o f s e l e c t i n g t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e w ork o f e a c h a r t i s t III.

• . . . . • • • • • • •

AN EXAMINATION OF THREE PAINTINGS BY THE PHILOSOPHICAL PROCESS OF ART EVALUATION . . .

15

A rt a s

im ita tio n

17

A rt a s

p le a s u r e • • • • • • • • • • • • « • •

22

A rt a s

p la y

26

A rt a s

an esca p e or an i llu s io n

29

A rt a s

c o m m u n ic a tio n

32

A rt a s

e x p r e s s io n . • • • « . . . . • . • • •

36

A rt a s

e x p e r ie n c e

40



Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IF .

11

44

AN EXAMINATION OF THREE PAINTINGS BY THE PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESS OF ART EVALUATION . . .

46

...................................

48

A rt in s tr u c tu r a lis m

iii CmOTR

PAGE A r t i n b e h a v io r is m

V.

« .

................................... « • .

A rt i n

g e s t a l t p sy c h o lo g y

A rt i n

p s y c h o a n a ly s is

• • • • • • . • •

55

. . . . . . . .

58

. . .

A r t i n f m n c t i o n a l i s m .............................. • • • • . .

62

Snmmary

66

• . • • • • « • . . • • • • . . . «

AH EXAMINATION OF THREE PAINTINGS BY THE FORMALISTIC PROCESS OF ART EVALUATION A rt o f l i n e A rt o f

m ss

. . . • . •

69 77

« • « • • • • • • • . • • • • •

80

» . • • • . • • « •

83

A rt i n s p a c e

A r t o f l i g h t and sh a d e • • ..........................

71.

51

• .



86

A rt o f c o l o r • • • • « • . • • • . . . . . .

89

Summary

93

STJMMAKY AND C O N C H JS IO N S .........................

97

BIBLIOGRAPHY..................................................................................................

104

APPENDIX . .

114

.....................................................

..

.

LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE 1.

PAGE S t i l l L if e w it h D e s e r t P la n t by H en ry M cFee • • • • • • • • • • • • • » • «

2.

V e r t i c a l C o m p o s it io n b y R i c o L eb ru n • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

3.

115

116

S i r Women i n C a s s is by S t a n t o n M a e d o n a ld -W r ig h t

• • • • • • • • •

117

CHAPTER I THE Great

PROBLEM AND ORGANIZATION OP THE STUDY t h i n k e r s o f t h e p a s t and t o d a y a g r e e t h a t man

h a s an i n h e r e n t a b i l i t y , sta n d in g , to

irresp ectiv e of h is in te lle c tu a l

r ec o g n ize b eau ty.*

T his a b i l i t y

to r e c o g n iz e

b e a u t y h a s b r o u g h t f o r t h s p e c u l a t i o n a s t o t h e q u a l i t y some­ t h i n g m u st c o n t a i n i n o r d e r t o p o s s e s s b e a u t y .

T h ought

sy ste m s have appeared a t te m p tin g to e x p la in th e b e a u t i f u l , and t h e s e t h e o r i e s and s t a n d a r d s o f v a l u e i n t h e r e a l m o f b e a u t y and t h e a r t s a r e c a l l e d a e s t h e t i c s . c o n c e r n e d w i t h man’ s s e n s i t i v i t y "It i s

A esth etics is

to th e b e a u t i f u l in a r t .

t h a t f u n c t i o n o f s e n s u o u s p e r c e p t i o n w h i c h h e knows

a s t h e c o n t e m p l a t i v e e n j o y m e n t o f b e a u t y , ” w r o t e James 2 S u lly . T his s tu d y i s a problem in a e s t h e t i c s . Some p e o p l e , h o w e v e r , g i v e up a e s t h e t i c and t a k e no i n t e r e s t

sp ecu lation

in d is c u s s in g the n atu re o f a rt because

t h e y f e e l t h a t t h e r e i s no l i k e l i h o o d o f t h e i r a r r i v i n g a t any d e f i n i t e c o n c l u s i o n .

A u t h o r i t i e s se e m t o d i f f e r w i d e l y

in t h e i r o p in io n s a s to w h ich t h i n g s are b e a u t i f u l , t h e y do a g r e e t h e r e i s

or i f

l i t t l e means o f k n o w i n g wh at i s

the

p o i n t o f agreem ent.

^ T h e o d o r e G r e e n e , The A r t s and t h e A r t o f C r i t i c i s m ( P r i n c e t o n : P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y £ r e s s , ! $ 4 0 ) ', p . 147 2 James S u l l y , " A e s t h e t i c s , " E n c y c l o p a e d i a B r ita n n ic a , 11th e d i t i o n , I , 277.

What, Le e s a i d , w rote,

in f a c t ,

do t h e s e men mean by b e a u t y ?

"A p i c t u r e h a s b e a u t y when i t

"The b e a u t i f u l

is

t h a t w hich i s

object o f a u n iversal s a tis fa c tio n Y et,

Vernon

sa tisfies* " ^

Kant

thought o f as the

a p a r t f r o m any c o n c e p t .

f u r t h e r i n h i s w r i t i n g , he s a i d t h a t t h e f i n e a r t s a r e

a r t i n p r o p o r t i o n a s t h e y se e m a t t h e same t i m e i n n a t u r e . ^ S c h ille r w rote,

"No e r r o r w i l l

ev er be in c u r r e d ,

i f we s e e k

t h e i d e a l o f b e a u t y on t h e same r o a d on w h i c h we s a t i s f y p la y -im p u lse•

T olstoy sa id ,

H egel, however, "Beauty l i v e s is

our

" a ll beauty i s p le a s u r e ." 7

s u p p o r t e d an e s c a p i s t t h e o r y and s a i d ,

in seem ing.

.

.

.

Wi t h John Dewey, b e a u t y

r o o t e d i n t h e warp and w o o f o f a l l e x p e r i e n c e . ^

Then

F r e u d w r i t e s t h a t b e a u t y i s o b t a i n e d i n a p a i n t i n g when i t *2

V e r n o n L e e , The B e a u t i f u l U n iv ersity P re ss, 1913), p . 2.

( C a m b r i d g e : The Cam bridge

^ E. F . C a r r i t t , P h i lo s o p h ie s o f Beauty (O xford: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 3 1 ) , p . 1 1 0 . 5 Ib id ., p.

118.

^ Nathan B o s t , t r a n s l a t o r , F r e d r ic h S c h i l l e r ' s A e s t h e t i c a l and P h i l o s o p h i c a l E s s a y s (New Y o r k : B r a i n a r d P u b l i s h i n g Company, 1 9 0 2 ) , p . 5 3 . ^ A y lm e r Maude, t r a n s l a t o r , Leo T o l s t o y *s What i s A r t (New Y o r k : Thomas Y. C r o w e l l and Company, 1 9 0 0 ) , p . 4 0 . 8 C arritt,

op.

c it .,

p. 160.

^ Jo h n Dewey, Art a s E x p e r i e n c e (New Y or k : M i n t o n , B a l c h and Company, 1 9 3 4 ) , p . 3 5 5 .

3 c o n t a i n s a f u l f i l l m e n t o f u n f i l l e d w ishes.-*^ in h i s

theory,

said beauty i s

W illia m James,

" w h o l l y due t o e l i m i n a t i o n .

There a r e t h o s e t h a t e m p h a siz e form i n a e s t h e t i c s . A b ell s a id , v a l u e . " 12

"Form i s

W alter

th e dom inating so u rce o f a e s t h e t i c

C live B e ll,

w r i t i n g on t h e b e a u t i f u l ,

and c o l o r s c o m b i n e d i n a p a r t i c u l a r way, r e l a t i o n s o f forms s t i r our a e s t h e t i c

said ,

" L in e

c e r t a i n f o r m s and

e m o t i o n s . w1^

T h i s c i t a t i o n o f v a r i o u s a u t h o r i t i e s m e r e l y p o i n t s up e x i s t i n g c o n t r a d ic t io n s in th e study o f a e s t h e t i c s . man i n h i s own way h a s

fa ile d

those of h is p red ecesso rs. v a r ia n c e w it h one a n o th e r , a b o u t t h e same t h i n g .

to c o r r e l a t e h i s th eo ry w ith

The j u d g m e n t s o f e x p e r t s a r e a t and i t

However,

se e m s a d e q u a t e t o

the v a riou s th e o r ie s

i n t h r e e main d i v i s i o n s f o r t h i s

Statem ent o f the problem . study ( l )

seem s t h e y a r e n o t t a l k i n g

Ho o n e e x p l a n a t i o n

c o v er such wide d i f f e r e n c e s . may b e c l a s s i f i e d

Each

study.

I t was t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s

to p r e s e n t e x p l a n a t i o n s o f t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l ,

p sy ch o lo g ica l,

the

and t h e f o r m a l i s t i c p r o c e s s e s o f e v a l u a t i n g

10 J oan R i v i e r e , t r a n s l a t o r , Sigmund F r e u d ’ s P s y c h o A n a l y s i s (Hew Y or k : L i v e r i g h t P u b l i s h i n g C o r p o r a t i o n , 1 9 3 5 ) p . 327. ^ W i l l i a m J a m e s , P r i n c i p l e s o f P s y c h o l o g y (Hew Yo rk: H enry H o l t and Company, 1 9 2 3 ) , I , p . 2 8 7 . 12 W a l t e r A b e l l , R e p r e s e n t a t i o n and Form (Hew Y o r k : C harles S c r ib n e r ’ s Sons, 1 9 3 6 ), p . 163. 1^ C a r r i t t ,

op.

c i t .,

p . 264.

contemporary p a i n t i n g ,

and ( 2 )

to e v a lu a t e a r e p r e s e n t a t iv e

work o f e a c h o f t h r e e S o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a a r t i s t s b y t h e s e system s* M ethod* made t o p r e s e n t ,

In t h i s

in v estig a tio n ,

an a t t e m p t h a s b e e n

in a condensed form, t h e g r e a t e r p a r t o f

a c c r e d i t e d o p i n i o n on t h e s u b j e c t ,

and t o r e l a t e t h e s e

v a r i o u s v i e w s t o t h r e e main p o s i t i o n s f r o m w h i c h t h e t h e o r y o f a r t - c r i t i c i s m may p r o c e e d * S ig n ifican ce of a e sth e tic s * able in t e r e s t l a t e l y

There h a s been c o n s i d e r -

in t h e problem s o f a e s t h e t i c s b e c a u s e

o f t h e modern movement i n p a i n t i n g *

P a in tin g

in t h i s

c o u n t r y , u n t i l t h e 1 9 2 0 ’ s , had been dom inated by l i f e l e s s a c a d e m i c i s m and E u r o p e a n i n f l u e n c e * d o c t r i n e s seemed s u f f i c i e n t

E xistin g a esth etic

to e x p l a i n t h e b e a u t i f u l .

a w id er know ledge o f non-European p a i n t i n g ,

W ith

such as E a stern

and P r i m i t i v e a r t and p s y c h o l o g y d e v e l o p i n g a s a s c i e n c e , new t h e o r i e s d e v e l o p e d i n a e s t h e t i c s *

The o l d e r m e t h o d s o f

a p p r o a c h w e r e f o u n d i n a d e q u a t e f o r some o f t h e a e s t h e t i c i a n s * The nu m erous t h e o r i e s , h o w e v e r , may b e c l a s s i f i e d f o l l o w i n g mann er i n t o lo g ic a l,

in th e

three groups: p h ilo s o p h ic a l, psycho­

and f o r m a l i s t i c *

5 ORGANIZATION OF THE REMAINDER OF THE STUDY The p r o c e d u r e b y w h i c h t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r o b t a i n e d a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e work o f e a c h o f t h r e e a r t i s t s , fo r s e l e c t i o n o f the a r t i s t

and t h e b a s i s

i s o f f e r e d i n C h a p t e r Two*

The p h i l o s o p h i c a l p r o c e s s o f e v a l u a t i n g p a i n t i n g was p r e s e n t e d i n Chapter Three.

In t h i s p r o c e s s ,

the th ree

p a i n t i n g s w ere examined by t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l t h e o r i e s o f im ita tio n , p leasu re, p la y , exp ression ,

e s c a p e and i l l u s i o n ,

com m unication,

and e x p e r i e n c e .

C hapter Four p r e s e n t s t h e sy ste m o f contem porary p a in tin g

e v a l u a t i o n by means o f p s y c h o l o g y .

g e s t a lt , p sych oan alysis,

B ehaviorism ,

and f u n c t i o n a l i s m w e r e u t i l i z e d

in

t h i s approach. An e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e f o r m a l i s t i c p r o c e s s may b e found in Chapter F i v e .

T his p r o c e s s an a lyzed th e p a i n t i n g s

w it h r e s p e c t to t h e i r form al q u a l i t i e s o f l i n e , m ass, l i g h t and s h a d e ,

space,

and c o l o r .

The summary and c o n c l u s i o n s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n C h a p t e r S ix.

CHAPTER I I THE PROCEDURE FOR THE STUDY W henever a p e r s o n i s in g,

en joyin g,

o r a p p r e c i a t i n g an o b j e c t o f a r t ,

adm irin g,

contem plat­

there are, p la in ly ,

d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f t h e s i t u a t i o n w h i c h may b e e m p h a s i z e d . As h e s e l e c t s o n e o r a n o t h e r o f t h e s e a p p r o a c h e s ,

so s h a l l

h e d e v e l o p o n e o r a n o t h e r o f t h e main a e s t h e t i c d o c t r i n e s . ^ In t h e c h o i c e , he s h a l l be d e c i d i n g w h ich d o c t r i n e he i s em ploying. tio n ,

Thus, he m ig h t b e g i n w i t h i m i t a t i o n ,

communica­

form , or t h e o t h e r t h e o r i e s . The p r i n c i p a l f e a t u r e s o f t h e v a r i o u s a e s t h e t i c

d o c t r i n e s , w i t h q u o t a t i o n s and r e f e r e n c e s i n s u p p o r t o f each, are o ffe r e d c ite d ,

in t h i s

study.

Hot o n l y a r e t h e d o c t r i n e s

but th ey a r e a p p lie d to p a i n t i n g s o f to d a y .

The

m eth o d o f s e l e c t i n g

s e v e r a l p rom inent contem porary a r t i s t s

a nd t h e i r p a i n t i n g s

f o r t h i s a p p lic a t io n i s p r e se n te d in

t h is chapter. THE METHOD OF SELECTING THE ARTIST I n t h e d i f f e r e n t w r i t i n g s on a e s t h e t i c s ,

th e m ajor­

i t y o f a u t h o r s h a v e u s e d f o r t h e i r e x a m p l e s t h e work o f

1 I . A. R i c h a r d s , C. K. O gden, and James Wood, The F o u n d a t i o n s o f A e s t h e t i c s (Hew Yorks L e a r P u b l i s h e r s , I n c . , 1 9 2 5 ) , p." 1 8 .

7 a rtists

lon g dead.

Even t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y w r i t e r s ,

B a rn es, Buermeyer, M u lle r , R ichards,

de M a z i a , L e e , F r y , O gden,

and Wood, i l l u s t r a t e

"by o l d p a i n t i n g s * for a r t i s t i c

De we y,

t h e i r r e a s o n i n g on a e s t h e t i c s

T h e s e p a i n t i n g s h a v e "been t h e s u b j e c t s

criticism

o v e r and o v e r .

In t h i s

study,

the

i n v e s t i g a t o r wanted to a v o id m erely s t a t i n g im portant t h e o ­ ries,

and w i t h t h e i r main p o i n t s ,

in gs.

c ritic izin g

several p a in t­

The i n v e s t i g a t o r w a n t e d t o t a k e s e v e r a l p a i n t i n g s

w h ich a r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f d i f f e r e n t p a in tin g ,

and to c r i t i c i z e

s t y l e s o f contemporary

each by th e v a r io u s system s o f

ev a lu a tio n used today. From t h e v a r i e t y o f m e t h o d s c o n t e m p o r a r y a r t i s t s em p lo y i n p a i n t i n g p i c t u r e s ,

f r o m c o m p l e t e e m p h a s i s on

s u b je c t m atter to pure a b s tr a c tio n w ith ou t s u b j e c t , sty les

three

a re in c lu d e d in t h i s stu d y w hich r e p r e s e n t s e p a r a t e

p h a s e s i n t h i s v a s t gamut.

The r e a l i s t i c

or n a tu r a lis tic

s t y l e o f p a i n t i n g i s one p h ase o f contem porary p a i n t i n g con tained in t h i s stu d y .

A s e m i - a b s t r a c t s t y l e , where t h e r e

i s a b a l a n c e b e t w e e n r e a l i s m and a b s t r a c t i o n i s m ,

and w h i c h

tak es account o f th e va lu e o f s u b je c t m atter,

the second

sty le

in clu d ed .

in t h i s

is

The t h i r d m eth od o f p a i n t i n g r e p r e s e n t e d

in v estig a tio n

is p ra ctica lly

th e pure a b s t r a c t ,

w h e r e t h e f o r m a l e l e m e n t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y c o l o r and l i n e , stressed .

are

8 Of t h e many men and women i n t h e f i e l d today,

o f p a in tin g

s e v e r a l ha d t o h e c h o s e n w h o s e work w o u l d h e a g o o d

rep resen ta tio n o f th ese s t y l e s .

In o r d e r t o a d e q u a t e l y

e v a l u a t e t h e work o f t h e a r t i s t s

in the v a rio u s p a in t in g

m odes,

th e study could in c lu d e o n ly th r ee p a i n t e r s ,

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f o ne s t y l e . those p a in te r s liv in g lim ited

to

The s t u d y was f i r s t

in th e U n ited S t a t e s ,

each

l i m i t e d to

and f u r t h e r

th o se p a in t e r s r e s i d in g in the Southern p a r t o f

C a lifo rn ia .

By n a r r o w i n g t h e f i e l d

to a sm all group in

Southern C a l i f o r n i a , t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r co u ld i n t e r v ie w each a rtist

ahout h i 3 p a i n t in g . H en ry McFee r e p r e s e n t s t h e f i r s t

c o n sid ered in t h i s n a tu ra listic. p lete

s t y le o f p a in tin g

i n v e s t i g a t i o n which i s

W ith t e c h n i c a l

fu sio n o f in t e lle c t u a l

r ea listic

e a s e and f u l l n e s s ,

or

and a com­

and s e n s u o u s e l e m e n t s comes

M cF ee 1s p a r t i c u l a r k i n d o f " r e t u r n t o n a t u r e . "

H is w i l l i n g ­

n e s s t o u s e a g r e a t d e g r e e o f o p t i c a l f a i t h f u l n e s s i s an p i n d i c a t i o n o f h i s power o f p e r c e p t i o n . D i g n i t y and d e l i b ­ eration

i s M cF ee1 s l a n g u a g e i n p a i n t i n g a c o l l e c t i o n o f

p h ysical o b jects. R i c o Lebrun i s

an a r t i s t

though n o t in i t s pure s e n s e , P

that p a in ts a b s tr a c tly ,

and r e p r e s e n t s t h e s e c o n d

V i r g i l B a r k e r , Hen ry L e e McFee (New Y o r k : The M a c m i l l a n Company, 1 9 3 l ) , p . 1 0 .

9 s t y l e o f p a in tin g used in t h i s

in v estig a tio n .

R i c o Lebrun

b e l o n g s i n t h e new A m e r ic a n a b s t r a c t s c h o o l w h e r e t h e r e i s both a f lu id ,

o r g a n i c form o f a b s t r a c t i o n to a g e o m e t r ic

and m e c h a n i z e d a r t . in h i s work, y e t ,

There i s

a stron g u n d erlyin g rea lism

h e h a s worked o u t a b a l a n c e betw een

r e a l i s m and a b s t r a c t i o n . ^

He m o ves f r o m s u r r e a l i s m t o

g e o m e t r y , and o c c a s i o n a l l y c o m m u n i c a t e s i n c l e a r , rea listic

strong

term s.4

An a r t i s t who p a i n t s t o w a r d t h e more p u r e l y a b s t r a c t , w h ich i s t h e t h i r d

sty le

in clu d ed in t h i s

M acdonald-W right.

He i s

c o n c e r n e d more w i t h t h e f o r m a l

elem en ts o f a p i c t u r e . m a n ifesta tio n s

He s a i d ,

study,

i s S.

"I h a v e l o o k e d a t a l l a r t

i n c l u d i n g t h e f a s h i o n a b l e and c o m m e r c i a l b u t

I h a v e c l u n g , p e r h a p s w i t h more s t u b b o r n n e s s t h a n p r a c t i c a l sense,

to t h e s e fo rm a l a r t s t h a t answer t h e n e e d s o f th e

form al

s p

i r

i t .

The a r t i s t h a s done much i n t h e f i e l d o f

a d v a n c i n g and r e c e d i n g p l a n e s , The e x p r e s s i o n o f c o l o r ,

of in te r-p la y in g co lo r-m a sses.

r a is e d to a h ig h p i t c h ,

the a r t i s t ’ s c o n tr ib u tio n s to p a in tin g .

is

one o f

By r e - o r g a n i z i n g

3

F r e d e r i c k S . W r i g h t , A m e r ic a n P a i n t i n g i n Our C e n t u r y (Hew Yorks C h a n t i c l u r P r e s s , 1 9 4 9 ) , p . 1 0 0 . 4

Ifcid** P « 2 4 .

5 S t a n t o n M a c d o n a l d - W r i g h t , "The Way I P a i n t , ” ( u n p u b lis h e d p ap er w r i t t e n f o r M acdonald-W right’ s e x h i b i ­ t i o n a t The S t e n d a h l G a l l e r i e s , Los A n g e l e s , A p r i l 2 - 2 1 , 1945).

10 n a tu r a l form s,

now t r a n s p o s i n g i n t o

the a b str a c t key,

M acdonald-W rightf s achievem en t has e n r ic h e d th e a r t o f p a i n t in g. H en ry McFee e x h i b i t e d i n 1 9 1 2 w i t h t h e P o s t I m p r e s ­ s i o n i s t s a t t h e McDow ell C l u b , Hew Y o r k , "Forum E x h i b i t i o n . ”

and i n 19 1 6 a t t h e

S i n c e t h a t t i m e h i s work h a s b e e n shown

i n m o s t o f t h e i m p o r t a n t n a t i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l t i o n s where i t

ex h ib i­

has been accorded the f o llo w in g hon ors;

H onorable M en tion ,

In tern ation al E x h ib itio n ,

I n s t i t u t e , P itts b u r g h , P en n sy lv a n ia , M e n t i o n and t h e Garden P r i z e ,

Carnegie

1923; F i r s t H onorable

In tern a tio n a l E x h ib itio n ,

C arnegie I n s t i t u t e , P it t s b u r g h , P e n n s y lv a n ia ,

1930; m e d a lis t

a t th e P a r i s Salon in 1937; m e d a lis t at the P e n n sy lv a n ia Academy o f P i n e A r t s i n 1 9 3 8 .

He h a s won p r i z e s a t t h e

V i r g i n i a Museum o f P i n e A r t s i n 1 9 3 8 ,

and t h e P e p s i - C o l a

C om p etition in 1946. R i c o Lebrun h a s

earned a f i n e r e p u t a t i o n s i n c e h i s

coming to t h i s c o u n t r y from H a p l e s , g r a n t e d a G uggenheim F e l l o w s h i p .

Ita ly .

He w as t w i c e

He was c o m m i s s i o n e d b y t h e

S e c t io n o f P in e Arts o f the P u b lic B u ild in g s A d m in istr a tio n t o p a i n t f r e s c o e s f o r t h e Hew York C i t y P o s t O f f i c e A n n e x . He was o n e o f t h e e i g h t e e n A m e r i c a n s t o b e e x h i b i t e d i n 1 9 4 2 i n t h e Museum o f Modern A r t .

He won f i r s t p r i z e a t t h e

C h i c a g o A r t I n s t i t u t e ’ s E x h i b i t o f A b s t r a c t and S u r r e a l i s t

11 A r t i n 1946 l o r t h e p i c t u r e V e r t i c a l C o m p o s i t i o n . S t a n t o n M acdonald-W right has e x h i b i t e d a l l U n ited S t a t e s ,

over the

h u t s i n c e 1 9 1 9 , h e h a s ha d o n l y s i x one-m an

shows i n New York and C a l i f o r n i a .

S . M acdonald-W right has

e x h i b i t e d w i t h t h e A m e r ic a n S u r r e a l i s t and A b s t r a c t P a i n t e r s , and i s

i n c l u d e d i n t h e W h i t n e y P i o n e e r s o f Modern A m e r i c a n

A rt. Upon c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e l e a d i n g a r t i s t s o f t h e s e c t i o n f o r t e c h n i q u e and s t y l e , pain ter,

n a t io n a l r e c o g n i t io n as a

c o n t e s t s won, r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n m a j o r museums,

l i t e r a t u r e p u b l i s h e d i n b o o k s and p e r i o d i c a l s a b o u t e a c h , and t h e f a m i l i a r i t y o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r w i t h t h e i r w o r k, th ese three a r t i s t s

s t o o d o u t p r e d o m in a t e ly a s t h e ones to

be in clu d e d in t h i s

study.

THE METHOD OF SELECTING THE REPRESENTATIVE WORK OF EACH ARTIST I t was n e c e s s a r y ,

a f t e r th e t h r e e a r t i s t s were c h o se n ,

to s e l e c t one p a i n t i n g o f each a r t i s t t h a t c o u ld be s u b m it t e d t o t h e num erous e v a l u a t i n g s y s t e m s u s e d t o d a y .

The n e x t s t e p

i n t h e p r o c e d u r e was f i n d i n g a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e p a i n t i n g o f R i c o L e b r u n , Henry M cFee , and S . M a c d o n a l d - W r i g h t . decid ed th a t on ly a r t c r i t i c s ,

curators,

a r t e d i t o r s should q u a l if y f o r s e l e c t i n g

I t was

art d irecto rs,

and

such a p a i n t i n g .

12 The i n v e s t i g a t o r t h e n c o l l e c t e d h o o k s , p e r i o d i c a l s , p la tes,

museum

and p h o t o g r a p h s o f many o f t h e p a i n t i n g s o f e a c h

p ain ter*

W i t h t h e s e , h e p r o c e e d e d t o c o n s u l t men and women

in the f i e l d

of art.

A r t e d i t o r s and c r i t i c s museum c u r a t o r s and d i r e c t o r s ,

o f the v a r io u s new spapers, art teachers,

and a r t l i b r a r ­

i a n s i n and n e a r t h e c i t y o f Los A n g e l e s w e r e i n t e r v i e w e d * Some o f t h e men and women c o n s u l t e d w e r e : M illier,

art c r itic

Mr* A r t h u r

f o r The L o s A n g e l e s T i m e s ; M i s s Alma

Cook , a r t e d i t o r o f The H e r a l d E x p r e s s ; Mr* R o b e r t M o ore , a r t e d i t o r o f The D a i l y N e w s : M i s s Kay E n g l i s h ,

art c r it ic

f o r The L o s A n g e l e s E x a m i n e r ; Mr* H a r o l d P e t e r s o n , e d i t o r o f The M i r r o r : Mr* Ken R o s s ,

art c r itic

P a s a d e n a S t a r - N e w s ; M rs. F r i t z R i c h a r d s ,

art

f o r The

art lib ra ria n of

t h e L os A n g e l e s P u b l i c L i b r a r y ; M i s s L e e K i r k g a a r d ,

art

l i b r a r i a n o f th e P asadena P u b li c L ib r a ry ; M iss E . Boyd, a r t l i b r a r i a n o f t h e Los A n g e l e s C o u n t y Museum; Mr* James B u r n s , c u r a t o r o f c o n t e m p o r a r y a r t a t t h e Los A n g e l e s C o u n t y Museum; Mr. B e r n a r d Bergman ,

d ir e c to r o f the A sso c ia te d

A m e r i c a n A r t i s t s G a l l e r i e s ; Mr. D a l z e l l H a t f i e l d , o f t h e H a t f i e l d G a l l e r i e s ; Mr. A l v a n C. E a s t m a n , t h e P a s a d e n a Art I n s t i t u t e ; art teach ers,

d irector d irector of

and s e v e r a l l e s s e r known a r t i s t s ,

and d i r e c t o r s o f s m a l l a r t g a l l e r i e s .

13 A fte r s t a t i n g the purpose o f t h i s th ese p eop le,

the

study to each o f

i n v e s t i g a t o r p r e s e n t e d them w i t h t h e p a i n t ­

i n g r e p r o d u c t i o n s and a s k e d them t o s t a t e t h e i r p r e f e r e n c e f o r o n e p a i n t i n g w h i c h e m b o d ie d t h e d i s t i n c t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s ­ tics

o f t h e work o f e a c h a r t i s t .

w e r e shown c o l l e c t i v e l y , p a in tin g s,

The p a i n t i n g s o f o n e a r t i s t

an d upon e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s

t h e a u t h o r i t y c h o o s i n g w o u ld g i v e h i s c h o i c e a s

t h e o n e m ost r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f wa s r e p e a t e d f o r t h e o t h e r

t h a t a r t i s t . T his p r o c ed u r e

two a r t i s t s .

The

c o n s u lt e d f o r t h e stu d y were q u i t e o b l i g i n g , in terest

menand women and showed

in th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

Upon c o m p i l a t i o n o f V e r t ic a l C om p osition , w ith

the s e le c t io n s o f

thea u t h o r it ie s ,

i t s s h e e r s i m p l i c i t y , was c o n ­

s id e r e d th e b e s t o f Lebrun’ s p a i n t i n g s ;

S till

L ife w ith

D e s e r t P l a n t was t h e c h o i c e f o r H en ry McFee, f o r i t p o s ­ sessed a l l o f the fin e still

l i f e p a in tin g ;

q u a l i t i e s o f M cF ee*s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

and S i x Women i n C a s s i s , w i t h i t s

b e a u t i f u l arrangem ents o f c o lo r s c a t t e r e d o v e r th e s u r f a c e , was c h o s e n a s M a c d o n a l d - W r i g h t ’ s m o s t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e w o r k . Over t w e n t y a u t h o r i t i e s w e r e c o n t a c t e d and t h e r e was l i t t l e d isagreem en t in th e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e s e p a i n t i n g s as b e in g t y p i c a l R io L e b r u n , Hen ry M cFee, and S . M a c d o n a l d - W r i g h t . V e r t i c a l C om position r e c e iv e d t h e approval o f a l l a u th o rities

e x c e p t t w o ; St i l l

o n l y two c h o i c e s a g a i n s t i t ,

the

L ife w ith D esert P la n t r ec eiv ed and t h e y w e r e f o r a n o t h e r s t i l l

14 life ;

and S i x Women i n C a s s i s , b e c a u s e o f s e l e c t i o n s

o rien ta l

for h is

s t y l e o f p a i n t in g , r e c e iv e d a l l but four c h o i c e s .

A lso,

th e i n v e s t i g a t o r in te r v ie w e d each a r t i s t

in d i­

v i d u a l l y and a s k e d him w h i c h p i c t u r e h e c o n s i d e r e d t o b e t h e m o s t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f h i s w o r k , and w h i c h o n e h e l i k e d the b e s t . itie s

They c h o s e t h e same p i c t u r e s a s d i d t h e a u t h o r ­

in th e f i e l d .

Thus, w i t h t h e c o m b in a tio n o f t h e

a r t i s t ’ s c h o i c e and t h e c h o i c e o f t h e p e o p l e w o r k i n g w i t h a rt,

t h e b e s t p a i n t i n g o f e a c h o f t h e t h r e e a r t i s t s was

assured,

and o n e p a i n t i n g m o s t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f e a c h a r t i s t

was o b t a i n e d .

CHAPTER I I I AN EXAMINATION OE THREE PAINTINGS BY THE PHILOSOPHICAL PROCESS OE ART EVALUATION In a e s t h e t i c s , to c l a r i f y

the p h ilo so p h e r c r i t i c i z e s

the p r in c ip le s

by w h i c h men t r y t o d i s t i n g u i s h

t h e "beautiful from t h e u g l y .

Art c r i t i c s ,

c o n t i n u a l l y p r a i s i n g o r condemning a r t i s t i c judgm ents a s to what i s lim ited

to c r i t i c s ,

do n o t h e s i t a t e

to

l o r exam ple, a r e objects;

and

b e a u tifu l or u g ly are not only

w hether educated in a r t or n o t, p e o p le a s s e r t an o p i n i o n a s t o t h e b e a u t y o r

u g lin e ss of a p a in tin g . ju stify

and s e e k s

I t i s when t h e y a r e a s k e d t o

s u c h j u d g m e n t s and t h e n a t t e m p t t o f o r m u l a t e p r i n ­

c i p l e s t h a t w o u l d e n a b l e them t o do s o , p h ilo so p h ize.*

In t h i s

chapter,

t h a t th ey b e g in to

t h e p h i l o s o p h i e s w h i c h men

h a v e s o u g h t t o make c l e a r t h e i d e a o f b e a u t y a r e p r e s e n t e d . A esth etic

i n q u i r y b e g i n s t h e moment man b e g i n s t o

e x a m in e h i s j u d g m e n t s i n an e f f o r t t o u n d e r s t a n d them o r t o j u s t i f y them .2

The i n v e s t i g a t i o n

up o n c e n t u r y man h a s b e e n e n g a g e d , the produ ction o f b ea u ty ,

is

in ev ita b le.

For c e n tu r y

in v a r io u s ways,

in the

and t h e a e s t h e t i c n a t u r e o f t h i n g s

* H a r o l d T i t u s , L i v i n g I s s u e s i n P h i l o s o p h y (New Y o r k : A m e rica n Book Company, 1946)", p • 3 0 9 . ^ K ate Gordon, E s t h e t i c s Company, 1 9 2 2 ) , p . 3*

(New Y o r k ; H en ry H o l t and

16 h a s b e e n a s u b j e c t f o r s e a r c h i n g t h o u g h t by p h i l o s o p h e r s * The m e a n i n g o f b e a u t y and t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f i t h a v e b e e n e a g e r l y and e n d l e s s l y s o u g h t , b u t t h e t a s k i s n o t an e a s y one,

and no s e t f o r m u l a h a s y e t b e e n d e v i s e d t h a t l e a d s

e i t h e r to th e s u c c e s s f u l p r o d u ctio n or to a c le a r u n d erstan d ­ in g o f beauty*

Bosanquet w r o te ,

scheme o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n

'‘T h e r e i s no m e t h o d o r

th a t i s g e n e r a lly accep ted ."

T h e o r i e s o f a r t a r e many and v a r i e d ,

and h a v e a p p e a r e d

t h r o u g h o u t human h i s t o r y . The a t t r a c t i o n o f p h i l o s o p h y c o n s i s t s v e r y l a r g e l y in i t s

c a th o lic ity .

The p h i l o s o p h e r s e e k s t o c o m p re h e n d

t h e u n i v e r s e as a w h o le . o f inq uiry i s

The d i s a d v a n t a g e o f s u c h a f o r m

the lack o f e s ta b lis h e d r e s u l t s .

h a s no a g r e e d b o d y o f k n o w l e d g e t o o f f e r , i n c lin e d to be im p atien t w ith i t s many t h o u g h ,

P h ilosop h y

and many w i l l

in co n clu siv en ess.

oe

For

the very in c o n c lu s iv e n e s s o f p h ilosop h y i s

its

a ttra c tio n .^ The i n v e s t i g a t o r h a s n o t s o u g h t t o c o v e r t h e w h o l e field a ll

o f b e a u ty in p h i lo s o p h y , nor has he t r i e d to b r in g in

t h e p h i l o s o p h e r s , o r d e a l f u l l y w i t h t h e work o f any

Bernard B o sa n q u et, A H is t o r y o f A e s t h e t i c s Y o r k : M a c m i l l a n and Company, 1 8 9 2 ) , p • 4 .

(Hew

^ E . M. J o a d , G u id e t o P h i l o s o p h y (Hew Y o r k ; Random House, 1 9 3 5 ), p . 15.

17 s in g le p h ilo so p h er.

H i s m ain p u r p o s e was t o p r o v i d e a g e n ­

e r a l s u r v e y o f t h e main s y s t e m s o f a e s t h e t i c s , in trod u ce,

in th e course o f the survey,

that p h iloso p h ers d is c u s s .

and t o

th e c h i e f problem s

S e v e n o f t h e more p o p u l a r i n t e r ­

p r e ta tio n s are s e t fo r th h e r e,

and an a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h

them w i l l h e l p o n e t o s e e t h e b r e a d t h and t h e r i c h n e s s o f the f i e l d . ART AS IMITATION The p r i n c i p l e o f i m i t a t i o n a s t h e m e a n i n g o f a r t h a s b e e n p r o m i n e n t s i n c e t h e t i m e o f t h e a n c i e n t G r e e k s , when it

r e c e i v e d su p p o r t from b o t h P l a t o

and A r i s t o t l e ,

con tin u ed to have n a iv e , pop ular a c c e p ta n c e . is

and h a s

Greek th o u g h t

e s p e c i a l ly f r e e o f th e su b je c tiv ism th a t has been char­

a cteristic

o f W estern th ou gh t in r e c e n t t i m e s .

h o w e v e r , many c r i t i c s

t o d a y who s t i l l

There a r e ,

avow t h e p r i n c i p l e s

t h a t w e r e s e t f o r t h by t h e G reek t h i n k e r s ,

thus proving th a t

s u b j e c t i v i s m had n o t ta k en o v e r c o m p l e t e ly t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l thought in a e s t h e t i c s im ita tio n

today.

The p h i l o s o p h i c a l v i e w o f

i s p e r h a p s t h e most p o p u la r v i e w t h a t h as e v e r

b e e n h eld.** O bjects o f beau ty,

a s v i e w e d by t h i s

theory,

are not

c o n s i d e r e d to be f u n d a m e n t a lly d i f f e r e n t from o t h e r o b j e c t s 5

I . A. R i c h a r d s ,

and o t h e r s ,

op.

c i t ., p.

25.

18 known t h r o u g h t h e s e n s e s * 8 arts,

P la to ,

a great lo v e r o f the

as w e l l as t h e i r s e v e r e c r i t i c ,

makes some r e f e r e n c e

t o them i n n e a r l y a l l o f h i s D i a l o g u e s . is

t h a t works o f a r t

i m i t a t e so m e t h in g .* ?

and Wood, e x p l a i n i n g t h e t h e o r y s a i d , b eau tifu l

in p r o p o r t i o n a s what i t

d e s c r i b e s i s b e a u t i f u l * ”®

H is c e n t r a l id e a R i c h a r d s , Ogden,

"art i s

e ssen tia lly

s u c c e s s f u ll y im ita t e s or

Mr. R u n e s , w r i t i n g on i m i t a t i o n ,

s a i d t h a t a p i c t u r e s h o u l d b e an im ag e o f v i s i b l e n a t u r e , as in a m irror.^

A r is to tle fin d s

in im it a t io n a n a tu ra l

ten d en cy w hich he reg a r d s as t h e e x p la n a t io n o f som ething b eau tifu l

in art.^ ®

the d e s i r e to lik e

The e n j o y m e n t o f p a i n t i n g g r o w s o u t o f

s e e l i k e n e s s o f p e r s o n s and t h i n g s .

P eop le

r e p r e s e n ta tio n because they enjoy th e f e e l i n g o f recog­

n itio n .^ Every a e s t h e t i c f i e d by r e f e r e n c e t o

T itu s,

o£.

judgment t h a t

i s made w i l l b e j u s t i ­

some s u c h p a t t e r n t h a t man r e g a r d s a s

c it ., p.

310.

^ Loc. c i t . 8 R ichards,

and o t h e r s ,

lo c. c it .

^ D a g o b e r t R u n e s , T w e n t i e t h C e n t u r y P h i l o s o p h y (New Y or k : P h i l o s o p h i c a l L i b r a r y , I n c . , 1 9 4 3 ) , p . 4 2 . 10 C a r r i t t , o £ . c i t . , p .

31.

11 K a t h e r i n e G i l b e r t , and H elm ut Kuhn, A H i s t o r y o f E s t h e t i c s (New Y o r k : The M a c m i l l a n Company, 1 9 3 9 ) , p . 3 4 .

19 a b s o l u t e . 12 patterns

j n im ita tio n ,

it

in w hich t h e v a r io u s

proper prop ortion . o f im ita tio n ,

B eauty i s

i s b e s t c h a r a c t e r i z e d as e l e m e n t s a r e o r g a n i c and i n con sid ered ,

in the p h ilosop h y

t h e m e a s u r e and p r o p e r p r o p o r t i o n o f o b j e c t s

i n t h e w o r l d . 3-3

T h e s e q u a l i t i e s m ust b e i n t h e p a i n t i n g s

o f th e th ree a r t i s t s b e fo r e the p h ilo so p h er o f im ita tio n c o u l d come t o a s a t i s f y i n g c o n c l u s i o n . th e la ck o f p rop ortion in im ita tio n i s The b e a u t i f u l ,

t h e mark o f u g l i n e s s .

acco rd in g to t h i s th e o r y ,

measurement o f o r g a n i c t h i n g s . nature i s

On t h e o t h e r h a n d ,

S in cerity

f o r i m i t a t i o n i n n a t e w i t h i n h i m . 3^ e a r l i e s t ch ild h ood , as i s

in the im ita tio n o f

i n s i s t e d upon by t h i s d o c t r i n e . ^

Man’ s e v a l u a t i o n o f a p a i n t i n g i s

him ,

i n v o l v e s an a b s o l u t e

due t o t h e t e n d e n c y

A risto tle

sa id ,

"From

t h e i n s t i n c t f o r i m i t a t i o n i s n a t u r a l to

the u n i v e r s a l

e n j o y m e n t i n i m i t a t i o n . * * 3-^

The

t h e o r y o f i m i t a t i o n s e e m s t o h a v e an e f f e c t up on e v e r y o n e . A risto tle,

in fu r th e r support o f im it a t io n ,

p l e a s u r e in l o o k i n g a t t h e most r e a l i s t i c

said ,

"We t a k e

rep resen ta tio n s

J . A. N i c h o l s o n , P h i l o s o p h y (New Y o r k : The M a c m i l l a n Company, 1 9 3 9 ) , p . 1 0 6 .

^

i£ £ * c i t .

1^ J o a d ,

0£.

C a rritt, 16 L o c . c i t .

c it ., lo c.

p . 331.

c it.

20 of th in g s.

M^ 7

T herefore,

a cco rd in g to t h i s d o c t r i n e ,

the

p a i n t i n g s o f M a c d o n a l d - W r i g h t , M cP ee, and Lebrun s h o u l d h a v e rea listic

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s b e f o r e th e y c o u ld be c o n s i d e r e d .

I n t h e e x e r c i s e o f h i s n a t i v e r e s o u r c e f u l n e s s , man c o p i e s n a t u r e and d e s i r e s stresses

it

in a p a in tin g .

G ilb ert sa id ,

t h e b e a u t y and o r d e r w i t h i n n a t u r e . " ^ ®

"man

S till

L ife

w i t h D e s e r t P l a n t w o u ld b e t h e b e s t p a i n t i n g o f t h e t h r e e a c co rd in g to th e p r i n c i p l e s s t r e s s e d h e r e . in th e o b j e c t s p a in te d o f th e organ ic w orld.

There i s b e a u t y McPee h a s

p a i n t e d a p i c t u r e , w hich by v i r t u e o f t h e o b j e c t s d e p i c t e d , o f f e r s sh eer d e lig h t fo r the v iew er. The r i g h t n e s s o f a p i c t u r e t h e n , im ita tiv e theory,

lie s

a c co r d in g to the

in t h e r e p r o d u c tio n o f th e o r i g i n a l .

The p o r t r a i t o f a man m ust show t h e members o f a b o d y i n t h e i r c o r r e c t number and e x a c t r e l a t i o n

to each o t h e r ,

and

that,

t h r o u g h o u t , t h e c o l o r s and s h a p e s o f m o d e l and r e p l i c a 19 should co rresp on d . B e f o r e an e v a l u a t i o n o f a work c a n b e

made b y t h e t h e o r y ,

t h e c o n n o i s s e u r m ust p a s s on t h e c o r r e c t ­

n ess of the p a in tin g , is

and h e m ust u n d e r s t a n d w h a t t h e work

i n o r d e r to make no m i s t a k e o f j u d g m e n t a b o u t t h e p a r t i c ­

u l a r work.

17

I n s u c h an e v a l u a t i o n ,

C arritt,

if

lo c. e ft.

G i l b e r t and Kuhn, l o c . c i t . 19 T .. Loc. c i t .

it

is not im ita tiv e ,

21 i t w i l l be a lo n g tim e b e f o r e he w i l l d i s c e r n th e r i g h t n e s s o r wrongness in th e a r t i s t s purpose* possesses

A b e a u tifu l p a in tin g

exact r e fle c tio n s o f the o r i g i n a l .2°

M acdonald-

Wri g h t ’ s and L e b r u n ’ s p a i n t i n g s , b y t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e t h e o r y , w ould b e c o n s i d e r e d i m p e r f e c t r e f l e c t i o n s o f o b j e c t s and p e o p l e ,

fo r they la c k the exact d e t a i l o f the o r ig in a ls *

M cF ee ’ s p a i n t i n g , h o w e v e r , w o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d a p a i n t i n g o f h ig h e r m er it than th e o th e r tw o.

The i m i t a t i o n s o f n a t u r e

and o b j e c t s a r e i n p r o p o r t i o n t o e a c h o t h e r a s t h e y a r e i n nature.

To K a n t , t h i s

is

im portant,

f o r he d e c la r e d t h a t

t h e f i n e a r t s a r e a r t i n p r o p o r t i o n a s t h e y seem a t t h e same t i m e i n n a t u r e . 21

From t h i s s t a n d p o i n t , M cF ee ’ s p a i n t ­

ing p o s s e s s e s b e a u ty . T his e a r l y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a r t , b e c a u s e o f i t s s i m p l i c i t y and t h e f a c t t h a t i t

se e m s t o s o l v e many p r o b l e m s ,

h a s had a s t r o n g i n f l u e n c e upon t h i n k i n g .

Some men, how­

e v e r , have in fu s e d in th e th eory the s u p p o s it io n o f im ita ­ tiv e

truth,

n a t u r e . 22 canvas w i l l

as i d e a l i z i n g

im ita tio n o f n atu re,

or s p i r i t o f

In e i t h e r thou gh, a p e r so n s t a n d in g b e f o r e a in sist

on a s k i n g ,

"What i s

t h a t supposed to

20 G i l b e r t and Kuhn, l o c . c i t . 21 C a r r i t t , 22 R i c h a r d s ,

op. c i t . , p . and o t h e r s ,

118. op. c i t . , pp. 36-57.

22 represent?"

When h e i s

to ld

that i t

d oes n o t r e p r e s e n t any­

t h i n g , b u t i s j u s t a p i c t u r e , h e t u r n s s a d l y away, b e c a u s e h i s mind demands a m e a n i n g . in g,

The more s i g n i f i c a n t

t h e more r e a d i l y h e w i l l

There i s

little

g rasped by a l l ,

c o n t e m p l a t e t h e b e a u t y . ^3

doubt t h a t McFee’ s p a i n t i n g i s and t h e r e i s

t h e mean­

e a sily

some q u e s t i o n a b o u t e v e r y o n e

e n j o y i n g t h e o t h e r two p i c t u r e s . ART AS PLEASURE T his i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e b e a u t i f u l

stresses

the

p l e a s u r e r e c e i v e d f r o m c r e a t i n g and v i e w i n g a p a i n t i n g . a rtist

is

a p e r s o n who d e l i g h t s

The

i n b e a u t y and s p e n d s h i s

tim e in th e c r e a t io n o f b e a u t i f u l o b j e c t s ,

w hich i s

true

a l s o o f t h e c r i t i c who s p e n d s t i m e l o o k i n g a t a p i c t u r e f o r t h e amount o f p l e a s u r e h e g e t s f r o m i t . persons then, and t h i s

p lea su re,

A c c o r d i n g t o some

the proper fu n c tio n o f a r t i s

i s th e stan dard by w hich i t

evalu ated .



to g iv e p le a s u r e ,

s h o u l d b e j u d g e d and

I f ob jects o f a r t, p a r tic u la r ly p a in tin g , they are c a l l e d

they are l i k e l y

" g o od a r t "

to be n e g l e c t e d ,

P e o p l e go t o t h e a r t g a l l e r i e s ,

23

5

if

they f a i l

g ive

to p l e a s e ,

i f n ot a c t u a l l y denounced. and t o p l a c e s w h e r e n a t u r e

A l b e r t B a i l e y , A r t and C h a r a c t e r (New Y o r k : The A b in g d o n P r e s s , 1 9 3 8 ) , p . 3 8 . ^

T itu s,

lo c.

c it.

23 r e v e a l s h er s p le n d o r s in o rd er to g a in

p

l e a s u r e .

p u r p o s e and m e a n i n g o f a r t , ” B a i l e y w r o t e , a e s t h e t i c p l e a s u r e ." * * ®

R i c h a r d s , Odgen,

"A ll p l e a s u r e s a r e i n t r i n s i c is

MThe

" is to g i v e

and Wood s a i d ,

and p o s i t i v e v a l u e s ,

c o n s t i t u t e d by t h e o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n o f An a r t i s t

25

p l e a s u r e .

and b e a u t y "27

seems to f i n d g r e a t p l e a s u r e in h i s work.

N o t o n l y d o e s h i s a r t i s t i c work d e l i g h t t h e a r t i s t h i m s e l f , he n orm ally se e k s to d e l i g h t o t h e r s as w e l l . N icholson ,

" A r t i s t s v i e w i t h one a n o t h e r to a t t a i n t h e f a v o r

o f the p eop le.

T his fa v o r i s

g a i n e d b y t h e a r t i s t who g i v e s

them t h e g r e a t e s t p l e a s u r e . "28 ler ie s

A ccording to

Men do n o t go t o a r t g a l ­

and l o o k a t p i c t u r e s o r b u i l d b e a u t i f u l homes w i t h

a v i e w t o m o r a l e d i f i c a t i o n o r some o t h e r r e a s o n . t h e s e t h i n g s in o r d e r to be entertained.**®

They do

P a in tin g i s

p l e a s u r e f o r t h e m a s s e s , and t o o o f t e n t h e e v a l u a t i o n n e g le c ts the o b je c ts or a c t i v i t i e s m a j o r i t y o f p e o p l e . 3®

25

B a iley ,

t h a t occupy th e g r e a t

"To s a y t h a t a wor k o f a r t i s

good,"

lo c. c it .

Loc> c i t . 27 R i c h a r d s , 2® N i c h o l s o n ,

and o t h e r s ,

op.

c i t ., p.

52.

op. c i t . , p. 92.

E a r l o f L i s t o w e l , A C r i t i c a l H i s t o r y o f Modern A e s t h e t i c s ( L o n d o n : G e o r g e A l l e n and Unwin L t d . , 1 9 3 3 ) , p. 2 2 . 3® Maude, o p .

c i t ., p.

100.

24 T olstoy sa id , is

"but i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e t o t h e m a j o r i t y o f men,

t h e same a s s a y i n g o f some k i n d o f f o o d t h a t i s g o o d b u t

t h a t most p e o p le c a n ’ t e a t into

i t . "31

An e v a l u a t i o n s h o u l d t a k e

c o n sid e r a tio n p le a su r e fo r the m asses. On t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s ,

h a s m ass a p p e a l b e c a u s e i t objects.

the p ic tu r e o f the s t i l l i s o f sim ple, p le a s in g ,

The m a s s e s c o u l d u n d e r s t a n d i t

the p a in tin g .

The e v a l u a t i o n

m ajority lik e s

it.

A gain,

p la c e d in th e background. approval o f a l l .

life

natural

and f i n d b e a u t y i n

sh ould be f a v o r a b l e i f

the

t h e o t h e r two p a i n t i n g s m u s t b e They a r e t o o a b s t r a c t f o r t h e

M a c d o n a l d - W r i g h t 1s p i c t u r e

t o o com plex f o r th e g e n e r a l p u b l i c

esp ecia lly is

t o e n j o y and f i n d p l e a s ­

ure in i t . S e v e r a l im portant t h in k e r s have c o n t r ib u t e d to t h i s concept.

P l a t o , w h i l e d en y in g t h a t p l e a s u r e i s paramount

i n a p a i n t i n g , g a v e some s u p p o r t t o t h i s

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n by

com bining th e n o t io n o f p l e a s u r e w it h h i s p r i n c i p l e o f im ita tio n . p l e a s a n t ."32

He s a i d ,

"Art i s

th e i m i t a t i o n o f t h a t w h ich i s

T o ls t o y , however,

sa id th a t beauty i s p le a su r e

w h eth er looked a t s u b j e c t i v e l y or o b j e c t i v e l y .

He w r o t e ,

In t h e s u b j e c t i v e a s p e c t , we c a l l b e a u t y t h a t w h i c h s u p p lie s us w ith a p a r t i c u l a r kind o f p l e a s u r e . In t h e o b j e c t i v e a s p e c t , we c a l l b e a u t y s o m e t h i n g

3* Maude, l o c . c i t . 32 T i t u s ,

lo c. c it .

25 a b s o l u t e l y p e r f e c t , and we a c k n o w l e d g e i t t o b e so o n l y b e c a u s e we r e c e i v e , from t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f t h i s a b s o l u t e p e r f e c t i o n , a c e r t a i n k i n d o f p l e a s u r e ; so th a t t h i s o b j e c t i v e d e f i n i t i o n i s n o th in g but the sub­ j e c t i v e concep tion d i f f e r e n t l y ex p ressed . In r e a l i t y b o t h c o n c e p t i o n s o f b e a u t y amount t o o n e and t h e same t h i n g , n a m e l y , t h e r e c e p t i o n by u s o f a c e r t a i n k i n d o f p le a s u r e in a l l b ea u ty . . . .33 In The S e n s e o f B e a u t y , G e o r g e S a n t a y a n a i d e n t i f i e s b e a u t y ana p l e a s u r e ,

though i t

i s more s u b j e c t i v e and e m o t i o n a l .

He s a i d t h a t b e a u t y i s p l e a s u r e r e g a r d e d a s t h e q u a l i t y o f a th in g out in th e w orld* 3 4

D r . J o h n s o n se e m e d t o r e g a r d

p le a su r e as the u ltim a te r e q u is it e fo r b eau ty,

f o r upon

d e s c r i b i n g a p a i n t i n g he s a i d , . . . I have se en a t l e a s t one p a i n t i n g o f a t h r o s t l e i n a hawthorn bu sh , p o u r in g f o r t h i t s s o u l in op en m o u t h ed d e l i g h t , s o t h a t t h e v e r y n o t e s o f i t s s o n g trem bled in o n e ’ s e a r. . . .3 5 A l l o f t h e men s u p p o r t i n g t h i s v ita lly

theory agree th a t p le a su r e i s

i m p o r t a n t i n a p a i n t i n g and s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d

f i r s t before ev a lu a tin g . Santayana s a i d ,

The t e s t

is

a l w a y s t h e sa m e, a s

MD o e s t h e p a i n t i n g p l e a s e ? " 3 ^

33 Maude, l o c . c i t . 3 4 I r w i n Edman, The P h i l o s o p h y o f S a n t a y a n a (New York: C h a rles S c r i b n e r ’ s S o n s, 1 9 3 6 ) , p . 3 7 . 35

R ichards,

36 Edman, o£ .

and o t h e r s , c i t ., p.

op. c i t . , p.

39.

51.

26 ART AS PLAY An e v a l u a t i o n o f a r t w h i c h i s hand,

to the p le a s u r e th e o r y ,

n otion th at art i s

rela ted ,

on t h e o n e

a n d , on t h e o t h e r h a n d ,

an e s c a p e from l i f e ,

is

to th e

the theory th a t

a r t i s r e l a t e d t o p l a y and g r o w s o u t o f t h e s u r p l u s e n e r g y o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l b o t h i n c r e a t i n g and a p p r e c i a t i n g . order to p r o v id e such t h in g s as fo o d , c l o t h i n g ,

In

and s h e l t e r

f o r t h e m s e l v e s and t h e i r d e p e n d e n t s , men m ust w o r k .

Such

l a b o r i n c l u d e s s t r e s s and e f f o r t and s u s t a i n e d c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f a t t e n t i o n f o r th e sake o f o th e r ends. to work,

is

in c o n tr a s t

a f r e e and s p o n t a n e o u s d i s c h a r g e o f t h e e x c e s s

energy o f th e organism . fu l

"P lay,

.

.

.

P lay in p a in tin g

is

a wonder­

r e l e a s e o f a b u n d a n t e n e r g y , " Raymond s a i d i n w r i t i n g on

the theory o f p l a y . 3^

By t h e d o c t r i n e t h e n , p l a y i s t h e

h i g h e s t form o f p a i n t i n g . The a d h e r e n t s o f t h e p l a y t h e o r y s t a t e t h a t o f a l l th in gs p resen t in the

realm o f l i f e ,

th e p l a y im pulse

e m e r g e s d o m i n a n t w h i c h l i b e r a t e s man f r o m h i s s l a v e r y t o natural b in d in g s.

38

H e r b e r t S p e n c e r , on w r i t i n g u p o n t h e

c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f a r t and p l a y ,

said ,

we c a l l p l a y a r e u n i t e d w i t h t h e a e s t h e t i c

"The a c t i v i t i e s a c tiv itie s,

^ G e o r g e Raymond, The E s s e n t i a l s o f A e s t h e t i c s Y o r k : G. P . P u t n a m ’ s S o n s , 1 9 2 1 ) , p . 4 0 . 38

C arritt,

o£ .

c i t . , p.

127.

by

(Hew

27 the t r a i t

that n e ith e r subserve,

p r o c e s s e s c o n d u c t i v e t o l i f e . M^ supporters o f t h is d o c tr in e , l y d i v o r c e d fro m u t i l i t y

i n any d i r e c t w a y , t h e S p e n c e r , l i k e most o f t h e

regarded a r t as b e in g a b s o l u t e ­

. 40

B e a u t y c a n n o t , on t h e o n e h a n d , b e p u r e l y p h y s i c a l ; n o r , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , c a n i t b e p u r e f o r m ,

as has been

t h o u g h t by s p e c u l a t i v e p h i l o s o p h e r s and a r t i s t s , th eir d e fin itio n ,

l e t t h e m s e l v e s b e t o o much i n f l u e n c e d b y

th e requirem ents o f a r t . b oth ," S c h i l l e r

who, i n

said ,

"Beauty i s

"for i t

t h e common o b j e c t o f

i s the o b je c t o f p la y .

" 41

S c h i l l e r s a id th a t ord in ary language f u l l y j u s t i f i e s

the

term,

f o r u s a g e commonly g i v e s t h e name o f p l a y t o w h a t e v e r 42 i s n o t f o r c e d up o n man. B e a u t y i s a r e s u l t o f p l a y , and

t h i s b e a u t y a l o n e makes t h e s u p r em e c r i t e r i a f o r e v a l u a t i o n and j u d g m e n t i n t h i s

theory.

The s u g g e s t i o n t h a t a r t i s a f o r m o f p l a y a p p e a r s t o h a v e o r i g i n a t e d w i t h Immanuel K a n t i n The C r i t i q u e o f J u d g ­ ment w h e r e h e makes b r i e f r e f e r e n c e t o a r t a s p l a y . 4 ^

39

I M d . # p* 1 8 2 .

40

R ichards,

and o t h e r s ,

4 -^ N a t h a n B o s t , ^

op.

c i t .,

p . 50.

loc ♦ c i t .

^o c » c i t .

4 ^ J . H. B e r n a r d , t r a n s l a t o r , Kant * s C r i t i q u e o f J ud gm en t ( L o n d o n : M a c m i l l a n and Company, L t d . , 1 9 3 1 ) , p . 6 4 .

F o llo w in g Kant, F r i e d r i c h S c h i l l e r d e v elo p ed th e greater d eta il* in cu rred ,

S ch iller

sa id ,

"No e r r o r w i l l

theory in

ever be

i f we s e e k t h e i d e a l o f b e a u t y on t h e same r o a d

on w h i c h we s a t i s f y o u r p l a y - i m p u l s e * "44 model d i s c i p l e o f S p e n c e r ’ s t h e o r y , much q u o t e d f o r m u l a ,

is

Grant A l l e n , a

r esp o n sib le fo r the

"The a e s t h e t i c a l l y b e a u t i f u l

is

that

w h i c h a f f o r d s t h e maximum o f s t i m u l a t i o n w i t h t h e minimum o f f a t i g u e o r w a s t e * "45

O t h e r s c h o l a r s , K o nr a d L an g e and K a r l

G r o s s h a v e s u p p o r t e d t h e p l a y t h e o r y , b u t t h e y v i e w a r t more a s a form o f e s c a p e , w h ich i s

a tra n sitio n

in to the next

t h e o r y . 46 M a c d o n a l d - W r i g h t ’ s p a i n t i n g , by t h e s e s t a n d a r d s , w ould r e c e i v e t h e h i g h e s t e v a l u a t i o n .

He h a s e n j o y e d p a i n t ­

i n g t h e p i c t u r e and h a s p r o d u c e d t h a t e f f e c t up o n t h e v iew er.

By b r e a k i n g up t h e p i c t u r e p l a n e w i t h p a t c h e s o f a

cam ouflaged e f f e c t ,

he produces a p la y f u l a t t i t u d e .

There

i s p l a y when t h e e y e m o v e s o v e r t h e s u r f a c e f r o m o ne a r e a o f t o n e and c o l o r t o a n o t h e r .

Even t h e c o l o r i s

f u l n a t u r e , and t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r l i k e w i s e * women i n c l a s s e s o u t - o f - d o o r s ,

44 B o s t ,

op.

c i t . , p.

o f a p la y ­

By p l a c i n g

the

t h e r e i s no r e m i n d e r o f

56.

45 G i l b e r t , op * c i t . , p .

542.

46 M e l v i n R a d e r , A Modern Book o f E s t h e t i c s H e n r y H o l t and Company, 1 9 3 5 ) , p . 7 .

(New York

29 l a b o r i o u s s t u d i e s b e in g co n d u cted in dark b u i l d i n g s . c a l C om position i s a grim rem inder o f th e days p a s t , S till

L ife w ith D esert P la n t o f hunger,

V erti­ and

and t h e two l a c k t h e

p l a y f u l a t m o s p h e r e c o n t a i n e d i n M a c d o n a l d - W r i g h t *s p a i n t i n g . ART AS AN ESCAPE OR AN ILLUSION In t h i s w o r ld ,

t h e r e i s much s k e p t i c i s m and u n c e r ­

t a i n t y a b o u t many t h i n g s ,

and t h e s e d o u b t s and u n c e r t a i n t i e s

seem to c a r r y o v e r i n t o t h e f i e l d u n certa in ty

I f there is

even about th e n a tu r e o f s e n s i b l e q u a l i t i e s ,

then th e a r t o f p a i n t in g i s P lato

of p a in tin g .

left

in a p reca rio u s

p o sitio n .* ?

se e m e d t o h a v e r a i s e d many q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e w o r l d

o f t h e s e n s e s and s a i d t h a t t h e r e a l and a b i d i n g w o r l d l i e s b e y o n d t h e f l e e t i n g w o r l d o f ph en o m en a .* ® who c o n t e n d e d t h a t a l l tio n s,

F r ie d r ic h H egel,

s e n s ib le q u a l it i e s are ideas or sen sa­

and o n l y t h e s p i r i t i s

rea l,

rein forced th is uncer­

t a i n t y reg a r d in g th e b ea u ty o f t h i s w orld.*^ More r e c e n t l y ,

Schopenhauer, N ie tz s c h e , E l i e Faure,

Marc C h a g a l l , A n a t o l e F r a n c e , and o t h e r s h a v e g i v e n some support to th e view that a r t i s

*7

T itu s, o£. c i t ., p.

*® L i s t o w e l ,

e sse n tia lly a fic tio n

313.

. c ^it« , p . 3 0 .

*9 C a r r i t t , o p . c i t . ,

p.

173.

o r an

30 illu sio n *

For S chop en hau er,

o f " s t r i v i n g " w hich h as i t s meaning in l i f e .

th e w orld i s

irra tio n a l

source in d e sir e *

"w ill"

T h e r e i s no

Y e t p a i n t i n g o f f e r s a t l e a s t a tem porary

e s c a p e and i n t h i s

e s c a p e and i l l u s i o n ,

t h e r e i s b e a u t y * 50

Schopenhauer s a i d , . . . The a r t i s t l e t s u s s e e t h e w o r l d t h r o u g h h i s eyes. That h e h a s t h e s e e y e s , t h a t h e knows t h e i n n e r n a t u r e o f t h i n g s a p a r t fro m a l l t h e i r r e l a t i o n s , i s t h e g i f t o f g e n i u s , i s inb orn ; b u t t h a t he i s a b le to le n d us t h i s g i f t , to l e t us see w ith h i s e y es, i s acq u ir­ edU • * + » 51 C S c h o p e n h a u e r s a i d t h a t a p a i n t i n g c o n t a i n s b e a u t y when t h e a r t i s t no l o n g e r c o n s i d e r e d t h e a c t u a l , im agined form ,

thus o m ittin g a l l

and p a i n t e d o n l y

d i s t u r b i n g a c c i d e n t s . 52

The o n l o o k e r t h e n h a s o n l y t o s i n k h i m s e l f i n t o p e r c e p t i o n and l o s e h i m s e l f i n t h e p a i n t i n g ,

forget a ll

in d iv id u a lity ,

su rr en d e r t h a t k in d o f knowledge w hich f o l l o w s th e p r i n c i p l e o f s u f f ic ie n t reason,

and w i t h s u c h , h e w i l l b e t a k e n o u t o f

t h e s t r e a m o f t i m e and a l l o t h e r r e l a t i o n s , t h e t r u e b e a u t y o f t h e p a i n t i n g . 53 these step s before

and w i l l

fin d

The e v a l u a t o r m u s t t a k e

e v a l u a t i n g a p a i n t i n g by t h i s

system .

50 R. B . H a l d a n e , t r a n s l a t o r , A r t h u r S c h o p e n h a u e r ' s The W orld a s W i l l and I d e a ( L o n d o n : K egan P a u l , T r e n c h , T r u b n e r and Company, L t d . , n . d . ) , p . 4 1 2 . 51 C a r r i t t ,

op. c i t . , p.

140.

52 L o c . c i t . 55 Raymond, 0 £ .

c i t . , p.

33.

31 H e g e l g a v e some s u p p o r t t o t h e d o c t r i n e b y s t a t i n g t h a t a p a i n t i n g i s b e a u t i f u l when i t q u a lities.

54

"Beauty l i v e s

K o n r a d La n ge j u s t i f i e d

in se e m in g ," s a id H e g e l.

to s e l f - d e c e p t i o n ,

w hich th e a r t i s t

the e s s e n c e o f b eau ty in a p a i n t i n g b e in g con­

scio u s se lf-d e c e p tio n . T herefore,

55

in e v a lu a tin g the r e p r e s e n t a t iv e p a i n t ­

i n g s , t h e r e must be q u a l i t i e s

i n th e m w h i c h p e r m i t t h e

v i e w e r to e s c a p e from t h i s w o r ld . that present illu s io n s .

There s h o u ld b e q u a l i t i e s

U n f o r t u n a t e ly , n o t one o f t h e t h r e e

p i c t u r e s w o u l d b r i n g an e n t h u s i a s t i c e sca p ist.

55

t h i s t h e o r y o f a r t on t h e g r o u n d

t h a t man h a s an i n s t i n c t can s a t i s f y ;

con tain s illu s io n a r y

a p p r a i s a l f r o m an

Where c o u l d h e e s c a p e i n o n e o f t h e m , o r w h a t

i l l u s i o n s could he r e c e iv e ?

The e s c a p i s t w o u l d n o t c o n s i d e r

the n a t u r a lis t ic

fo r the o b j e c t s are c o n s t a n t ly

still

b e f o r e h im e v e r y d a y .

life ,

T h e r e i s no r e l i e f f r o m common e v e r y

d a y h a p p e n i n g s i n S i x Women i n C a s s i s , b u t t h e e s c a p i s t m ight l i k e th e i l l u s o r y

q u a lit y in the d i v i s i o n s a c ro ss the

p i c t u r e s u r f a c e , w hich g i v e M acdonald-W right seems to

54

C arritt,

it

an u n r e a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c .

su ggest escap in g, but brin gs

op. c i t . , p.

160.

koc* c i t . c

R ichards,

and o t h e r s ,

op. c i t . ,

p.

37.

32 n a tu r a l o b j e c t s back in to th e i l l u s o r y p l a n e s . work i s

too grap h ic

in i t s p o r tra y a l o f p h y s ic a l o b je c ts fo r

an e s c a p i s t t o f i n d s a t i s f a c t i o n

in i t .

He c o u l d n o t e s c a p e

v e r y f a r i n b r o k e n b i t s o f wood and w h e e l s , c e r t a i n l y no i l l u s i o n

view s

and t h e r e i s

about th e o b j e c t s .

D i f f e r e n t men o f t h i s p a in tin g ,

Lebrun’ s

s c h o o l a l l want e s c a p e in

though t h e y s e e p a i n t i n g from v a r y in g p o i n t s o f

a s a " u s e f u l f i c t i o n " p r o t e c t i n g man f r o m t h e d e c e p ­

t i o n s and u n h a p p i n e s s o f t h e e x t e r n a l w o r l d ;

as a con sciou s

s e l f - d e c e p t i o n b y means o f i m a g i n a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s ;

as a

m e d ic in e w h ic h g i v e s r e l i e f from t h e c h a o s o f c o n f l i c t i n g sen sa tio n s;

and a s a n e s c a p e t o some r e a l m w h e r e e x t e r n a l

c o n d i t i o n s do n o t b i n d t h e human s p i r i t . ^7

Some i l l u s i o n

or

ways o f e s c a p e must be i n a p a i n t i n g b e f o r e i t w i l l p o s s e s s b eau ty a cco rd in g to t h e i r v ie w s . b y many p s y c h o l o g i s t s t o d a y ,

The c o n c e p t i s

d e a lt w ith

and i t p r a c t i c a l l y o m i t s t h e

p h ilo so p h ica l. ART AS COMMOTICATIOff A c o n s i d e r a b l e number o f e v a l u a t o r s o f a r t t h i n k t h a t com m unication i s

in d isp e n sa b le to a r t ,

and t h a t i t

most a d eq u a te e x p l a n a t i o n o f th e a e s t h e t i c

T itu s,

lo c.

c it.

is

response.

the These

33 t h e o r i e s v a r y g r e a t l y f r o m t h e v i e w s o f some t h i n k e r s f o r whom a r t r e v e a l s t h e i d e a l ,

t o t h o s e who t h i n k t h a t a r t i s

th e idiom o f th e em otion s, but to a l l , that

is

it

is

com m unication

im p o r ta n t.58 A p e r so n f e e l s a s e n s e o f com pulsion to sh are h i s

in sig h ts of l i f e

or n a tu r e w hich are a b id in g w it h h i s f e l l o w

m en*^

se n s a tio n u s u a lly has j u r i s d i c t i o n over the

A visu a l

p e r s o n t o whom i t

comes,

and h e w i s h e s t o c o m m u n i c a t e i t

o t h e r s b y c r e a t i n g some o b j e c t

t h a t e m b o d i e s i t * 60

f e e l i n g does not o b l i g e o t h e r s to a c c e p t i t , dem onstrates th at th e beauty o f a p a in tin g i s

to

such a

but a rt h is t o r y not r e a liz e d

by t h e i n d i v i d u a l i n c o m p le te i s o l a t i o n o r s o l i t u d e *

P h ilip

McMahon s a i d ,

but i t

is

also

"It i s

t r u e f o r h im who e x p e r i e n c e s i t ,

t r u e f o r a g o o d many o t h e r s a t t h a t same p e r i o d o f

t i m e and a f t e r w a r d s ; com m unicated."

it

is

c a p a b l e o f b e i n g r e c o r d e d and

61

In t h e c o m m u n i c a t i v e t h e o r y ,

t h e r e a r e two t y p e s o f

c o m m u n i c a t i o n , d e s c r i p t i v e and l y r i c a l * ^

58

C arritt, o£.

The f i r s t

is

c i t *, p p . 62 and 158*

59

R i c h a r d G u g g e n h e i m e r , S i g h t and I n s i g h t H a r p e r and B r o t h e r s , 1 9 4 5 ) , p . 139*

(Hew Y o r k ;

P h i l i p McMahon, The M ea n in g o f A r t (Hew Y o r k : W. W. H o r t o n and Company, 1 9 3 0 ) , p . 2 9 6 . ^

c it. R u n e s , o£ .

c i t *, p.

32*

34 i l l u s t r a t e d by a p a i n t i n g ,

t h e aim o f w h i c h i s

the record in g

and c o n v e y a n c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n .

The o t h e r i s

a p a in tin g ,

the in d u ction o f a m o o d .^

t h e aim o f w h i c h i s

In d e s c r i p t i v e p a i n t i n g s , m eanings a s p l a n t s , p a in tin g .

fru it,

th e c o lo r e d shapes have t h e i r and d r a p e s ,

a s s e e n in McFee’ s

The human f o r m s i n M a c d o n a l d - W r i g h t ’ s p a i n t i n g

m ight be c o n s i d e r e d d e s c r i p t i v e ,

though th e interw oven

co lo red areas in d ic a te a l y r i c a l q u a lit y . p i c t u r e i s more l y r i c a l o f a mood.

i l l u s t r a t e d by

sin ce i t

R ico Lebrun’ s

d e p e n d s up o n t h e i n d u c t i o n

Whether b y t h e l y r i c a l o r t h e d e s c r i p t i v e ,

com bination o f b o t h ,

or a

t h e t r u e e n j o y m e n t o f a p a i n t i n g comes

o n l y by means o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n . ^ Among modern t h i n k e r s ,

C o n d i l l a c , V i c o and H e r d e r

have d e fin e d th e c o n c e p tio n o f p a in t in g as a s p e c ie s o f language or com m unication.

66

Leo T o l s t o y g i v e s

p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a r t as com m unication.

He s a i d ,

a clea r-cu t "Speech

t r a n s m i t t i n g t h e t h o u g h t s and e x p e r i e n c e s o f man s e r v e s a s a means o f u n i o n among them , and a r t a c t s manner.

" 66

A rt,

fo r T olstoy,

seems to b e t h e com m unication

Runes, l o c . c i t . 64 » P- 45. 65 L T o c . c t h e r e c e p t i o n o f t h e

a r t i s t ’ s purpose i s McFee’ s p a i n t i n g .

a little

more d i f f i c u l t

N ev erth eless,

t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e women

in th e d if f e r e n t c la s s e s - - p a i n t i n g , are d is tin g u ish a b le . in c h a r a c te r , upon o n e ,

as i t

though i t

to grasp than in

drama, " b i o l o g y ,

etc.-*-

V e r t i c a l C o m p o s i t i o n i s more l y r i c a l s e t s a c e r t a i n mood o f t i m e c r e e p i n g is

done w i t h d e s c r i p t i v e o b j e c t s .

A ll

t h r e e w ould r e c e i v e a h ig h e v a l u a t i o n . ART AS EXPRESSION A ccording to t h i s v ie w , sio n .

Art i s

in sig h t,

t h e k e y word in a r t i s

t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f some d e e p e m o t i o n ,

o r some i n t u i t i o n .

^

A p a in tin g is

expres­

some

an e x p r e s s i o n

o f the a r t i s t ’ s p r e feren ce, or sense o f v a lu e s.

These

v a l u e s a r e many i n v a r i e t y and nu m b e r, b u t t h e f a c t t h a t the a r t i s t

i s a b l e t o d i s c e r n th e m and t o e x p r e s s them f o r

o th ers c o n s t it u t e s the valu e o f a p a in tin g . d e p e n d s up o n t h e s e l e c t i o n b y t h e a r t i s t o f h i s in w h ich he i n t e n s i f i e s regards o th e r s.

Beauty exp ression s,

some t h i n g s and r e j e c t s o r d i s ­

T h is t e n d s to be c l o s e l y co n n e c te d w it h

R a f f a e l l o P i c c o l i , B e n e d e t t o C r o c e (New Y orks H a r c o u r t , B r a c e and Company, 1 9 2 2 ) , p . 1 0 6 .

70

T itu s,

op. c i t . , p.

317.

37 t h e m o r a l i s t i c v i e w , b e c a u s e man i s sense of v a lu es.

a b l e t o s e l e c t and h a s a

The s u p p o r t e r s o f t h e t h e o r y s a y t h a t t h e

works o f a r t w h ic h g i v e t h e r e l i g i o u s o r m e t a p h y s ic a l v a l u e s exp ression , sen sib le sp irit

are the g r e a t e s t .

71

x

exp ression o f a concrete id ea ,

and n o t h i n g b u t s p i r i t .

feelin g s

H egel s a id ,

and i n s i g h t s ,

the

t h e form o f w h ic h i s

By e x p r e s s i n g h i s own

1*7 2

the a r t i s t

allow s o th e rs to p a r t i c i ­

p a t e i n t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e s e same A ccording to

MB e a u t y i s

v a lu e s.

73

t h e I t a l i a n p h i l o s o p h e r and s t u d e n t o f

a r t , B en ed etto Groce, th e e sse n c e o f a p a i n t in g i s

in tu i­

tio n ,

74

or i n s t i n c t i v e k n ow led ge, w h ich i s

Man’ s i n t u i t i o n s

t e l l h im t h a t t h e t r u t h s o f t h i s d e e p e s t

s e a r c h i n g m erg e i n t o w hich he c a l l s

expressed.

a m y stica l sort o f id e n t it y w ith th at

the b e a u t i f u l .

75

I n t u i t i o n s , however, are

i m p e r f e c t so l o n g as t h e y a r e o n l y i n th e s t a g e o f s e n s a ­ tio n , is

f o r t h e y n e e d e x p r e s s i o n . 7^

Guggenheimer s a i d ,

a poor p h ilo so p h y th a t does n ot take account o f th e

71

Runes, op.

c i t ., p.

48.

7 2 B . S’. C a r r i t t , The T h e o r y o f B e a u t y ( L o n d o n : M ethu en and Company, 1 9 2 3 ) , p . 2 8 6 . 7 5 Y i j o H i r n , The O r i g i n s o f A r t (Hew Y o r k : The M a c m i l l a n Company, 1 9 0 0 ) ' , p . 8 0 . 74

P icco li,

lo c.

c it.

G uggenheim er, o p . c i t . , p . 2 . 75

P ic co li,

lo c.

c it.

**It

38 m ysteries o f a e s th e tic s ,

and i t

i s poor p a in tin g th a t does

n o t p o s s e s s t r a n s c e n d e n t a l forms*" transcendental q u a litie s r e a s o n and i s just lik e

77

The t h e o r y s t r e s s e s

in p a i n t in g ,

s p ir it u a l or m ystical*

fo r beauty i s w ith ou t

78

They s a y t h a t i t

is

t h e c h i l d who r e p e a t s t h e s m i l e s and t h e l a u g h t e r

of i t s parents, before i t

and can t h u s p a r t a k e o f t h e i r j o y l o n g 7Q a b le to u n d ersta n d i t s c a u s e . The a r t i s t

is

th en sh ou ld b e s a t i s f i e d m erely to and n o t s e e k t o u n d e r s t a n d them* o r s a d n e s s may o f t e n ,

if

express h is in t u it io n s H irn s a i d ,

e x p r e s s e d , p a s s o v e r from one i n d i ­

v i d u a l t o a n o t h e r who b o r r o w s t h e f e e l i n g * t h i s ph en om en on i n p a i n t i n g * " out rea so n ,

and i s

Croce s t a t e d ,

Croce, theory o f

in tu itio n

"but a f e e l i n g

lig h tn ess o f it s

"A s t a t e o f j o y

sym bolism ."

B eauty, expressed.

We e x p e r i e n c e

to Croce,

i s w ith­

"It i s not th o u g h t,"

th a t g i v e s to a r t th e a i r y 81

i n w r i t i n g on a e s t h e t i c s ,

c le a r ly u n fo ld s the

e x p r e s s i o n i n o n e p a r a g r a p h , when h e w r o t e ,

77

G u g g e n h e i m e r , o p . c i t * , p* 3 .

78

C a rritt,

op* c i t * , p .

289.

7^ H ir n , l o c . c i t . 80

Ib id . ,

p. 81.

8 -*- C a r r i t t , P h i l o s o p h i e s o f B e a u t y , op* c i t . , p . 241.

39 • . . What we s e e k and e n j o y i n a r t , w h a t makes o u r h e a r t l e a p up and r a v i s h e s o u r a d m i r a t i o n , i s t h e l i f e , t h e m o vem e n t, t h e p a s s i o n , t h e f i r e , t h e f e e l i n g o f t h e a r t i s t ; t h a t a l o n e g i v e s u s t h e su p r em e c r i t e r i o n f o r d i s t i n g u i s h i n g w o r k s o f t r u e and f a l s e a r t , i n s p i r a t i o n and f a i l u r e . P a s s i o n and f e e l i n g c o v e r a m u l t i t u d e o f sin s. I f th e y are la c k in g , n o th in g can tak e t h e i r p l a c e . 82 W i t h i n man, t h e r e i s t i f u l by i n t u i t i o n

th a t q u a lity fo r r e c o g n izin g th e beau­

a s t h e r e was i n t h e c r e a t i o n o f i t . ® ^

th e system o f e x p r e s s io n ,

then, a b e a u tifu l p a in tin g

By

i s one

th a t p o s s e s s e s tra n scen d en ta l q u a l i t i e s , m y stic a l or s p i r i t ­ u a l v a l u e s , w h i c h c o m b i n e s t h e f e e l i n g s o f t h e a r t i s t and the e v a lu a to r. The p a i n t i n g s c o n s i d e r e d i n t h i s s t u d y se e m t o con tain l i t t l e

s p i r i t u a l or m y stica l v a lu e s .

w ith D esert P la n t, w ith i t s

S t i l l L ife

sim ple o b j e c t s o f d iv in e c rea ­

t i o n , m ight r e c e i v e a good e v a l u a t i o n . t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f some d e e p e m o t i o n .

I t l a c k s , however, There i s n o th in g

m y s t ic a l or s p i r i t u a l

i n t h e human f o r m s i n M a c d o n a l d -

W right*s p a i n t i n g ,

anyth ing,

a rtificia l little

if

j u s t the o p p o s ite .

It

is

and m e c h a n i c a l i n t h e s u r f a c e a r r a n g e m e n t , w i t h

feelin g

expressed by the a r t i s t .

t i o n w ould r e c e i v e t h e b e s t

82

Ib id .,

p. 244.

83

IM d. . p.

233.

V e r t i c a l C o m p o si­

e v a l u a t i o n by t h e t h e o r y o f

40 exp ression .

I t i s m e l a n c h o l y i n q u a l i t y and s e e m i n g l y h a s

an im istic v alu es. of the a r tis t

The p a i n t i n g r e v e a l s t h e f i r e

toward t h e i m m a t e r i a l .

As h e h a s p a i n t e d ,

m a t e r i a l o b j e c t s b r e a k down and d e t e r i o r a t e . c e r ta in ly a sp ir itu a l q u a lity sa tisfy

t h e men o f t h i s

and f e e l i n g

There i s

i n t h e p a i n t i n g , w h ich w ould

theory.

ART AS EXPERIENCE Art i s

too f r e q u e n t l y

or p ie c e o f scu lp tu re in i t s exp erien ce. c r itic iz e s

i d e n t i f i e d w i t h some p a i n t i n g e x i s t e n c e a p a r t f r o m t h e human

I n h i s b o o k , A r t a s E x p e r i e n c e , J o h n Dewey t h e s e g r e g a t i o n o f a r t f r o m t h e common e v e r y d a y

e x p e r i e n c e s o f men and i t s r e l a t i o n t o t h e museum and t h e 84 art g a llery . The t a s k , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e t h e o r y o f e x p e ­ rien ce,

is

t o r e s t o r e c o n t i n u i t y b e tw e en forms o f e x p e r i e n c e

t h a t a r e w o r k s o f a r t and t h e common e v e n t s o f l i f e . p a in tin g ,

fo rc efu lly

expressed id e a s,

85

In

g r a p h ic a lly p roclaim ed ,

g iv e g r e a t s a t i s f a c t i o n , because they g iv e p ic tu r e sq u e em phasis to a s p e c t s o f l i f e , s e a s i d e enchantm ent,

s t r e n u o u s l y and e a r n e s t l y p a i n t e d com­

m e n t a r i e s o f human b e h a v i o r ,

84

as in t r a n q u i l p i c t u r e s o f

etc.

John Dewey, o p . c i t . ,

Loc. c i t .

These r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s

p . 3.

41 are in t e r e s t in g because they c h a r a c te r iz e v i v i d l y ,

and add

c o lo r to th e average view o f t h i n g s . 8 8 " A r t , " s a i d John D ew ey, an e x p e r i e n c e ,

and i t

common e x p e r i e n c e .

”87

”i s

a q u a lit y th a t perm eates

should i d e a l i z e A rtistic

and a e s t h e t i c

i m p l ie d i n a l l normal e x p e r i e n c e s . to s e e a r t i s t i c

q u a l i t i e s found in q u a l i t y c a n be

A p erson should be a b le

q u a l i t y in t h e g r a c e o f th e b a l l p l a y e r ,

th e i n t e l l i g e n t m echanic in a good p i e c e o f work, tr a n s fe r th at q u a lity in to p a in t in g . warp and w o o f o f a l l

e tc .,

in and

”A r t i s r o o t e d i n t h e

e x p e r i e n c e , ” Dewey

w r o te.88

By e x p e r i e n c e i s m ea n t t h e p r o c e s s o f i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n an o r g a n i s m an d i t s and v a r i e d a s l i f e

itse lf.

e n v i r o n m e n t , and i t

QQ

The a r t i s t

is

as broad

con trib u tes h is

memory and i m a g i n a t i o n a s w e l l a s h i s k n o w l e d g e and i n s i g h t , and t h e

e n v iro n m en t p r o v i d e s t h e m a t e r i a l s i n t h e form o f

c o l o r and f o r m s and r e l a t i o n s , ters.

The a r t i s t

is

even ts,

and l i v i n g

charac­

a p e r s o n who i n t e r a c t s w i t h h i s

ronm ent i n a c e r t a i n k i n d o f w a y . 9 ®

88

G uggenheim er, op. c i t . ,

87

D ew ey, o p . e f t . , p .

88

Loc. c i t .

89

T itu s, op. c i t .,

p.

en vi­

For the s p e c t a t o r ,

the

176.

326.

p . 319.

9 8 A l b e r t B a r n e s and V i o l e t t e de M a z i a , '’E x p e r i e n c e and G r o w t h , ” A r t and E d u c a t i o n ( M e r i o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a : The Barnes F oundation P r e s s , 1 9 4 7 ), p . 182.

42

enjoym ent o f t h e p i c t u r e c o n s i s t s i n t h e enhancement o f h i s memory and k n o w l e d g e o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l t h i n g s t h r o u g h o u t h i s c o n t a c t and i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e a r t i s t i c Buermeyer s a i d ,

o b j e c t s .91

" A l l p e o p l e b r i n g b e f o r e t h e i r m in d s

f o r c o n t e m p l a t i o n o f w h a t t h e y h a v e a l r e a d y somehow s e e n o r d o n e . "92

i n t h e f a c e o f any g i v e n s i t u a t i o n ,

im p ossib le fo r a l l

of a person’ s past

however,

it

is

e x p e r i e n c e s to be

p r e s e n t i n t h e mind i n t h e s h a p e o f i n t e l l e c t u a l j u d g m e n t s , but a l l o f i t response,

is

i n some d e g r e e r e p r e s e n t e d b y h i s

em otional

fo r a l l o f h i s p a s t exp erien ce has helped to b u ild

up t h a t e m o t i o n . ^

A l b e r t B a r n e s e x p r e s s e d t h e i d e a when h e

w rote, . . . resp on se to a r t ta k e s in g , not m erely i n t e l l e c t u a l l y p e r s o n a l i t y ; o f r e - c r e a t in g in ar e a b l e , t h e e x p e r ie n c e w h ich and e m b o d i e s * • • . 9 4

t h e form o f u n d e r s t a n d ­ bu t w it h our w hole o u r s e l v e s , so f a r a s we t h e work o f a r t r e c o r d s

When a p e r s o n l o o k s a t a p a i n t i n g and l i k e s

it,

it

is

exact­

l y w h a t t h e o b s e r v e r h a s f e l t b u t n e v e r s e e n so w e l l e x p r e s s -

A l b e r t B a r n e s and V i o l e t t e de M a z i a , S e e , " A r t and E d u c a t i o n * o p . c i t . , p . 1 4 9 .

"L earning to

9 2 L a u r e n c e B u e r m e y e r , The A e s t h e t i c E x p e r i e n c e ( M e r i o n , P e n n a . s The B a r n e s F o u n d a t i o n P r e s s , 1 9 2 4 ) , p . 93

tio n ,

G o rd o n ,



.

13.

c i t . , p . 43.

^ A lbert B arnes, o£ . c i t . , p . 5 0 .

"The R o o t s o f A r t , " A r t and E d u c a ­

9 5 Dewey, o p . c i t . , p . 3 0 9 .

On e v a l u a t i o n ,

Dewey s a i d t h a t t h e m a t e r i a l o u t o f

w h ic h judgm ent grows i s

th e work, th e o b j e c t s , but i t

is

in

th e o b j e c t s as th ey en ter in to th e e x p e rien ce s o f the c r i t i c b y i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h h i s own s e n s i t i v i t y , store of past e x p e r ie n c e s.^ i n g o f t h e s i x women,

There i s

know ledge,

then,

and

in th e p a i n t ­

a rem iniscen ce o f c o lle g e l i f e .

If

t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e o b s e r v e r w h il e in c o l l e g e were e n j o y ­ a b l e , h e w o u l d p r e f e r M a c d o n a l d - W r i g h t 1s p i c t u r e o v e r t h e o th e r tw o.

The woman’ s s t r u g g l e w i t h t h e monkey i n t h e

p a i n t i n g w o u l d c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e memory o f t h e o b s e r v e r f o r d is ta s t e f u l biology c la s s e s , t h e same l i n e .

i f h is

e x p e r i e n c e s ran a lo n g

A nother f i g u r e m ight r e c a l l p a s t

o f som ething e l s e .

experien ces

The p a i n t i n g w o u l d c o n t a i n t h i n g s w h i c h

t h e o b s e r v e r h as f e l t b u t had n e v e r s e e n d e s c r i b e d in such a s a t i s f y i n g way.

The wagon w h e e l s and y o k e w o u l d b e t h e

m ost i n t e r e s t i n g

to a n o t h e r o b s e r v e r b e c a u s e th e y would be

o b j e c t s from h i s

environ m en t w h ich w ould s t i r h i s a e s t h e t i c

em otion.

To an e v a l u a t o r i n t e r e s t e d

o f the s t i l l

life ,

the f r u i t

h is a esth etic d e sir e s.

It

is

in the su b je c t m atter

and t h e p l a n t w o u l d s a t i s f y a c c o r d in g to t h e environm ent

o f e a ch e v a l u a t o r t h a t one p i c t u r e w ould b e p r e f e r r e d o v e r another.

S till

L i f e w i t h D e s e r t P l a n t would m eet t h e

44 a p p r o v a l o f more p e o p l e ,

f o r most e v ery o n e h a s b een in

co n ta ct w ith the su b ject m atter p r e v io u s ly , SUMMARY L ooking back o v e r t h e s e se v e n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f th e m eaning o f a r t ,

each w i l l

c o n t a i n some e l e m e n t o f t r u t h .

P r o b a b ly most p e o p l e c o u ld a g r e e t h a t each o f t h e i n t e r p r e ­ ta tio n s

c o n t a i n s some e l e m e n t s o f t r u t h and p o s s i b l y no o n e

o f them i s b road ly.

com p letely adequate u n le s s i t The l a s t

is

ap p lied very

t h r e e a r e t h e most a d e q u a te , how ever,

f o r any o n e o f t h e s e t h r e e c o u l d b e so s t a t e d t h a t i t w o u l d e m b ra c e t h e o t h e r s , b u t t h e t h e o r y o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n c o u l d a ss u m e a l l

the th e o rie s*

The t h e o r y o f i m i t a t i o n b e c a m e s e c o n d a r y w i t h t h e a d v e n t o f t h e c a m e r a , and t h e e s t e e m f e l t p e r c e p t ib ly d w in d lin g. p eop le,

fo r im ita tio n i s

The t h e o r y o f p l e a s u r e ,

i s not a s u f f ic ie n t

exp lan ation ,

t o many

f o r p l e a s u r e s tend

t o a c co m p a n y c r e a t i v e a c t i v i t y i n d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s erary p r o d u ctio n s, th eo ries, is

sc ien tific

research,

etc.

a s p l a y and e s c a p e and i l l u s i o n ,

related ,

in i t s

o rig in ,

p la y s, p oetry, n ovels,

as l i t ­

Some o f t h e

contend th a t a r t

t o p l a y , b u t some p e o p l e t u r n t o

d r i n k , o r v a c a t i o n s f o r t h e same

purpose. There i s

left

then,

com m unication,

exp ression ,

and

e x p e r i e n c e , w h ich a r e t h r e e o f t h e most a d e q u a te t h e o r i e s

45 f o r th e e x p la n a t io n o f a r t by th e p h i l o s o p h i c a l method, y e t , c o m m u n i c a t i o n c a n b e so s t a t e d t h a t i t w i l l e x p r e s s i o n and e x p e r i e n c e t h e o r i e s .

e n g u lf both th e

The a r t i s t must b e a b l e

to communicate what he f e e l s

and g e t s y m p a t h e t i c r e s p o n s e

f r o m h i s f e l l o w men w h i c h i s

e x a c t l y t h e same p r i n c i p l e

s ta te d by the th eo ry o f e x p r e ssio n .

A lso,

if

an a r t i s t h a s

an e x p e r i e n c e , b u t i s u n a b l e t o c o m m u n i c a t e t h a t e x p e r i e n c e , th e on lo ok er cou ld h ard ly c o n sid e r h i s p a in t in g to be a w or k o f a r t . Thus,

th e se v a rio u s ex p la n a tio n s o f a r t ,

c a n , more

o r l e s s , be in c lu d e d in t h e one th e o r y o f com m unication, though each th e o r y has a s e n s e o f o b l i g a t i o n in crea se beauty.

t o s e e k and t o

CHAPTER IV AH EXAMINATION OP THREE PAINTINGS BY THE PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESS OP ART EVALUATION In t h i s

c e n t u r y , p s y c h o l o g y h a s made i t s

a d v a n c e and came o f a g e ;

and f o r t h i s ,

there is

s y s te m a tte m p tin g to a n a ly z e p a i n t i n g .

greatest another

P rev io u sly ,

the

p h ilo s o p h ic a l d e f i n i t i o n s o f the b e a u t if u l in a p a in t in g h a v e been g iv e n w h eth er by i m i t a t i o n , p l e a s u r e , p l a y , sio n ,

com m unication,

ex p ressio n , or exp erien ce.

out o f p h ilo so p h y , p sych ology o f f e r s b e a u ty in a r t .

P sychology, u n t i l

and A r i s t o t l e , th eo ries, a tic

D evelop in g

anoth er approach to

the n in e te e n th cen tu ry,

w a s n o t c o n s i d e r e d a s c i e n c e and i t s th e realm o f p h ilo s o p h y .

illu ­

su b ject m atter f e l l

Many p h i l o s o p h e r s ,

in

in clu d in g P lato

s p e c u l a t e d a b o u t human n a t u r e and p r o p o s e d

some o f w h i c h h a v e l a s t e d u n t i l t o d a y .

But s y s t e m ­

o b s e r v a t i o n o f human b e h a v i o r d i d n o t be c o m e a d e f i n i t e

fie ld u n til

the 1890*s.^

P sychology is a s c ie n c e ; i n a s c i e n t i f i c way.** h im self,

that i s ,

it

stu d ies even ts

Man h a s a l w a y s b e e n i n t e r e s t e d

in

and h a s a l w a y s a t t e m p t e d t o f i n d a n s w e r s t o q u e s t i o n s

^ S t a n s f e l d S a r g e n t , The B a s i c T e a c h i n g s o f t h e G r e a t P s y c h o l o g i s t s ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : The B l a k i s t o n Company, 1 9 4 4 ) , p. 2. ** Edward R o b i n s o n , P r a c t i c a l P s y c h o l o g y (New Y o r k : The M a c m i l l a n Company, 1 9 2 6 ) , p . 8 .

47 c o n c e r n i n g t h e wh ys and hows o f e x p e r i e n c e and Most p e o p l e h a v e o p i n i o n s , b e l i e f s psych ology i s e sp ecia lly

in terested

in terested

in t h e s e .

in c e r ta in

eon d u ct.^

th in g s,

and

The e v a l u a t o r s h o u l d be

i n them a s a p p l i e d t o p a i n t i n g .

A

p s y c h o l o g i c a l approach d i f f e r s thou gh from a p h i l o s o p h i c a l one,

in t h a t i t h a s ad op ted s c i e n t i f i c methods o f s t u d y ,

opposed to th e

s p e c u la tio n in p h ilo s o p h y .

as

Thus, t h e p s y ­

c h o l o g i s t c l a i m s t h a t h e h a s a more a c c u r a t e and d e p e n d a b l e approach to b e a u t y . A n a t i o n - w i d e su r v e y a t t h e p r e s e n t tim e would r e v e a l p s y c h o l o g i s t s working a lon g a g r e a t v a r i e t y o f l i n e s . 4

We

have s e v e r a l s c h o o ls o f p s y c h o lo g ie s p o i n t in g in d i f f e r e n t d irectio n s,

each p u t t i n g forward a c e r t a i n sy stem o f id e a s

d e s i g n e d t o p o i n t t h e way t o t h e a e s t h e t i c p ictu re. is

q u a lity o f a

Each s c h o o l b e l i e v e s t h a t h id d e n i n i t s

t h e t r u e k e y t o an e v a l u a t i o n o f a p a i n t i n g .

own f i e l d The s y s t e m s

g iv e n here are n ot a com plete p i c t u r e o f p sy c h o lo g y in th e U n ite d S t a t e s t o d a y , bu t o n l y t h e o n e s most im p o r ta n t in A m e r ic a n p s y c h o l o g y .

3 R ob in son , 4 Sargent,

lo c.

c it.

op. c i t . , p. 3.

48 ART Ilf STRUCTURALISM T h i s p s y c h o l o g y was v e r y e a r l y i m p o r t e d i n t h e U n ited S t a t e s , T itch en er,

and i t s m o s t a r d e n t c ham pio n was Edward

a b r i l l i a n t young Englishm an*

y e a r s was a l l h u t d o m in a t in g ,

and h i s

an e s s e n t i a l p o i n t o f r e f e r e n c e L o t z e , and L i p p s a r e a l s o

H is i n f l u e n c e f o r

s c h o o l h a s rem ained

in p sy c h o lo g y .^

V iseh er,

su p p orters o f the s c h o o l.

It is

a p s y c h o l o g y t h a t h a s no g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d name, h u t w h i c h is

r e fe r r e d to

som etim es a s s t r u c t u r a l i s m ,

som etim es as

in tro sp ectio n ism .® "Psychology i s "and i t h a s i t s ence,

t h e s c i e n c e o f m i n d ," s a i d T i t c h e n e r ,

sta rtin g -p o in t

or t h i s w orld,

in exp erien ce.

i t must h e n o t e d s p e c i f i c a l l y ,

o f c o n t e n t s th a t can he o b s e r v e d . M o b servab le p r o c esses

T h is e x p e r i ­ co n sists

E x p erien ce c o n s i s t s

in t h e w orld o f n a t u r e .

of

The e m o t i o n s

are not in v o lv e d , hut o n ly the m ental p r o c e s s e s

in r e la t io n

w i t h t h e e v e n t s o f t h e p h y s i c a l w orld.®

® Edna H e i d h r e d e r , S e v e n P s y c h o l o g i e s C e n t u r y Company, 1 9 3 3 ) , p . 1 1 8 .

(Hew Y o r k : The

Loc. c i t . ^ Edward T i t c h e n e r , E x p e r i m e n t a l P s y c h o l o g y (Hew Y o r k : The M a c m i l l a n Company, 1 9 0 2 ) , I , p . 1 0 9 . ® Loc. c i t .

49 I n t r o s p e c t i o n i s t h e method t h a t T i t c h e n e r em ploys in h is p sych ology, it,

and Wendt l a t e r t a k e s i t up and e m p h a s i z e s

" I n t r o s p e c t i o n , w hich i s

o b serv a tio n ,"

self-a n a ly sis,

T itch en er w rote.^

is

a form o f

Wendt s a i d t h a t i n t r o s p e c ­

t i o n s i m p l y m ea n t h a v i n g an e x p e r i e n c e and l a t e r d e s c r i b i n g i t . 1^

In i n t r o s p e c t i o n ,

a p e r s o n h a s t o s e e , m e m o r i z e , and

then im m ed iately r e c o n s u lt h i s

c o n s c io u s n e s s in ord er to

f i n d o u t w h a t h e h a s r e t a i n e d and t h e manner i n w h i c h t o judge th e p a i n t in g .

11

It

is

the im pression th at

is

left,

t h e t h i n g s t h a t a p e r s o n rem em bers o r t h e memory i m a g e s w hich w i l l b e c o n sid e r e d b e a u t i f u l , there i s

i s o l a t e d o b s e r v a t i o n and l e s s d a n g e r o f b e i n g l e d

a s t r a y by i r r e l e v a n t t h i n g s . ^ sa id ,

f o r i n memory i m a g e s ,

R i c h a r d s , Ogden an d Wood

"What h a s t o b e r e p r o d u c e d i s w h a t i s

a r t i s t and n o t h i n g e l s e , context or ir r e le v a n t

a f f e c t i n g the

n o t h i n g d r a g g e d f r o m some o t h e r

e x p e r ie n c e .M e m o r y

i s v e r y im por­

ta n t in the th e o ry .

^ T itch en er,

lo c. c it .

W ay land Vaughn, G e n e r a l P s y c h o l o g y (Mew Y o r k : W. W. N o r t o n an d Company, 1 9 3 0 ) , p . 8 .

^ 12

^oc • s i t * H eidbreder, op. c i t . , p . R ich ard s,

and o t h e r s ,

op.

131. c i t ., p.

31.

50 A p erson e v a lu a t in g th e th r e e Southern C a l i f o r n i a p a i n t e r s 1 w o r k s "by t h e i n t r o s p e c t i v e m e t h o d w o u l d l i k e l y e x c l u d e M acdonald-W right ’ s p a i n t i n g , in g.

for i t

There a r e b a r r i c a d e s o f c o l o r p a t c h e s

the su b ject m atter,

is

too c o n fu s ­

in terru p tin g

and c o n s u l t i n g t h e memory w o u l d o n l y

produce a sp o tted p i c t u r e .

McFee’ s p i c t u r e w ou ld r a t e a

h i g h p o s i t i o n on an i n t r o s p e c t i o n i s t *s e v a l u a t i o n , Lebrun’ s .

Both p i c t u r e s c o n t a i n s i m p l e ,

th e p h y s ic a l w orld. theory,

c lea r,

a s would

objects

T h is i s one d e s i r e d q u a l i t y

in

in th e

f o r i n o r d e r t o rem em ber, t h e r e m u st h a v e b e e n

a tten tio n ,

and i n o r d e r t o h a v e h a d a t t e n t i o n ,

have been c l a r i t y a harness,

i n c o n t r a s t t o o b s c u r i t y . 14

and an a x l e l o o m up v i v i d l y

o f memory i m a g e s .

T h is p a i n t in g i s

t h e r e must Two w h e e l s ,

i n an i n t r o s p e c t i o n

su p erior in the use o f

s i m p l e o b j e c t s , w h i c h g a i n t h e a t t e n t i o n and n e v e r l e t s

it

go. The memory o f i m p r e s s i o n t h a t h a s r e m a i n e d a f t e r p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e mind w h i l e v i e w i n g t h e p a i n t i n g i s

the

b e s t s o u r c e f o r p l a c i n g an e v a l u a t i o n on a p a i n t i n g . B y in tro sp ectio n ,

a p e r s o n f i n d s e n j o y m e n t i n c a l l i n g up and

m a n i p u l a t i n g memory i m a g e s o f p h y s i c a l o b j e c t s

14 H e i d b r e d e r , oj>. c i t . , p . ^

T itch en er,

oj>. c i t . , p .

140. 129.

in the

51 p a i n t i n g . 16 ART IH BEHAVIORISM B ehaviorism s t a r t e d o f f very d e f i n i t e l y scio u sly ,

a s a s c h o o l , w i t h J ohn W a t s o n ,

and c o n ­

and i t was o p p o s e d

t o t h e s u p p o s e d l y d o m i n a n t s c h o o l o f s t r u c t u r a l i s m and i t s in tro sp ectio n ,

and to f u n c t i o n a l i s m ,

as rep resen ted hy

W i l l i a m James and t h e C h i c a g o g r o u p . 17

B ehaviorism i s

opposed to a l l p s y c h o lo g y t h a t d e a l s w ith c o n s c i o u s n e s s , and i t

in sists

d iscard ed .

t h a t t h e n o t i o n o f m ind h e u n e q u i v o c a l l y

M en ta listic

sa tio n , p ercep tion ,

con cep ts are avoid ed ,

and e m o t i o n ,

c e p t s a r e e m p l o y e d . 18

such as s e n ­

and o n l y b e h a v i o r a l c o n ­

B ehaviorism keeps i t s

e y e s on t h e

s e n s e o r g a n s and o n l y o b j e c t i v e l y o b s e r v a b l e f a c t s a r e a d m i s s i b l e . 19

The human c r e a t u r e and a l l h i s

a c tiv itie s

in

t h i s t h e o r y c a n b e e x p l a i n e d b y o n e who r e g a r d s him a s a s t im u lu s - r e s p o n s e m achine.

T itch en er, 17 S a r g e n t ,

lo c . c it .

op. c i t .,

p.

5.

3*8 R o b e r t Woodw orth, C o n t e m p o r a r y S c h o o l s o f P s y c h o l ­ o g y (Hew York* The R o n a l d P r e s s Company, 1 9 4 8 ) , P* 1 2 4 . 19 C l a r k L . H u l l , P r i n c i p l e s o f B e h a v i o r (Hew Y o r k : D. A p p l e t o n - C e n t u r y Company, 1 9 4 3 ) , p . 2 4 .

52 The s t i m u l u s - r e s p o n s e i d e a s t a t e s

th a t the p ic t u r e

m ust b e t h e s t i m u l u s and t h e v i e w e r w i l l p r o d u c e t h e r e ­ s p o n s e . 20

The t h e o r y e m p h a s i z e s t h e m o t o r a s p e c t s o f c e r ­

ta in p sy ch o lo g ica l p r o c esses. and l i n e s

A tten tion i s

t h a t s u g g e s t c e r t a i n motor s e t s .

o f l i n e s a r e s a i d t o be i m p o r t a n t . s e n s e o f d i g n i t y and s t r e n g t h .

g iv e n to f ig u r e s The d i r e c t i o n s

V ertica l lin e s

D iagonal l i n e s

o f a c tio n or o f strenuous e x e r tio n .

are the l i n e s

H orizon tal l in e s

s u g g e s t r e p o s e and r e l a x a t i o n o r e v e n s p e e d . 21 sa id ,

convey a

Vernon Lee

" C e r t a i n c o l o r s w i l l make a p e r s o n f e e l warm o r c o o l ,

refresh in g or s t i f l i n g , eye w i l l turn i t s

d iffe re n tly se n sitiv e p o sitio n s

or avoid the s tim u lu s , h ig h er or low er, w ith i t .

d ep ressin g or e x h ila r a tin g ."

turnin g i t

pp

The

to meet

to th e r ig h t or l e f t ,

and s o m e t i m e s t h e w h o l e b o d y m ov es a l o n g

"The v i e w e r i s n o t d o i n g , b u t d o n e t o b y t h e

s t i m u l a t i o n s f r o m w i t h o u t , " L ee w r o t e . ^

T h e s e m o v em e n t s

and a t t i t u d e s a r e p r e s e n t when a p e r s o n l o o k s a t a p i c t u r e o r a s t a t u e o r o t h e r works o f a r t . c o lo r s , p a r t ic u la r ly the f r u i t

in the s t i l l

20 R i c h a r d s , and o t h e r s , o £ . Pi T itu s , 0£ . c i t . , p . 315.

op

Lee, £ £ .

23 I b i d . . p .

c i t ., 31.

p.

24.

C ertain o b je c ts or

c i t . , p.

life ,

63.

m ight

53 g iv e a person p leasu re* the view er,

and o n e w o u l d f i n d , w h i l e o b s e r v i n g

t h a t h e would r esp o n d in b o d i l y m ovem ents.

There w o u ld b e accom panying s e n s a t i o n s and n o s t r i l s ; objects

a ll

the

and c o l o r - - i s m e r e l y t h e a t t e m p t t o s u b m i t f u r t h e r

tend to r e p e a t .

That w h ich i s p l e a s i n g ,

P l e a s a n t and u n p l e a s a n t f e e l i n g s

a s s u m e d t o r e g u l a t e and m o t i v a t e t h i s also

throat,

o f w h ic h - -t h e o n ly a c t i v e r e sp o n s e s to

to th e a lre a d y p le a s a n t s e n s a tio n .* ^ p eop le

in t h e mouth,

a c tio n .

25

are

"They a r e

t h e c a u s e o f t h e accom panying enjoym ent o r a f f e c t i v e

ton e."

L a n g f e l d w r o t e . 26 An e v a l u a t i o n b y t h e t h e o r y o f b e h a v i o r i s m d e p e n d s

up o n e x t e r n a l o b j e c t s . v a lid ity

'

I t r a i s e s no q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e

o f extern al o b je c ts ,

f o r t h e y can e n t e r in t h e

a p p r e c i a t i o n o f a l l o b s e r v e r s . 26 f r o m a p a i n t i n g when i t

P eop le d e r iv e p le a s u r e

con tain s o b je c tiv e c h a r a c t e r is t ic s ,

f o r t h e y c o n t a i n t h e p o w e r t o a d a p t t o many o f i t s c h a r a c te r istic s.^

24

Lee,

lo c.

K i n g i n w r i t i n g on b e h a v i o r i s m ,

o b jectiv e sa id ,

c it.

^ P a u l Y o u n g , M o t i v a t i o n o f B e h a v i o r (Hew Y o r k : John W i l e y & S o n s , I n c . , 1 9 3 6 ) , p . 3 1 8 . H e r b e r t L a n g f e l d , The A e s t h e t i c A t t i t u d e Y o r k : H a r c o u t e , B r a c e & Howe, 1 9 2 0 ) , p . 1 2 2 . 27

H eidbreder,



.

^

Loc. c i t .

^

Young, l o c . c i t .

c i t .,

p.

281.

(Hew

54 "The w o r l d w h i c h a p p e a r s t o t h e e y e o f c r i t i c a l is

r eflectio n

t h e world in w hich t h e a r t s f l o u r i s h , McKee*s p a i n t i n g h a s o b j e c t i v e v a l i d i t y ,

o t h e r two a r e more s u b j e c t i v e i n n a t u r e . the natural o b je c ts The f r u i t

is

The c o l o r s

in. b e in g a s t im u lu s f o r th e o n lo o k e r .

to th e s a liv a r y g la n d s.

T h e r e i s no a v o i d ­

i n g t h e s t i m u l u s , b u t r a t h e r an a t t r a c t i o n . t h a t he i s b e i n g g i v e n a p r e v ie w ,

d r a p e s h a v e opened j u s t f o r him , are h i s .

support

in a r ip e n e d c o n d i t i o n , w i t h r i c h t o n e s , w hich

are t a n t a l i z i n g

feels

where th e

The v i e w e r

th at the c u r ta in s or

and t h a t a l l o f t h e o b j e c t s

L e b r u n ' s p i c t u r e and M a c d o n a i d - W r i g h t 9 s p i c t u r e

have l i t t l e

to s t i m u l a t e t h e o n l o o k e r .

M acdonald-W right

s e e m s t o h a v e h a r s h and r e p e l l e n t c o l o r s and t h e r e i s

little

in h i s p a i n t in g ,

o b je c tiv e v a lid it y w ith in

has s u b j e c t m a tter to w hich i t

is

d ifficu lt

it.

Lebrun

to resp ond ,

thou gh t h e e v a l u a t o r m ignt have motor r e s p o n s e in t h e u s e of lin e. C lo se ly connected t o , theory i s

i f not a c tu a lly w ith in ,

a p h i l o s o p h i c a l term c a l l e d

empathy.

th is

Empathy

r e f e r s t o t h e s y m p a t h e t i c m o t o r a t t i t u d e s and a g r e e a b l e f e e l i n g s w hich one e x p e r i e n c e s

v ille ,

in th e p r esen ce o f o b j e c t s

^ W illia m K in g , B e h a v io r is m , A B a t t l e L ine (KashT e n n .: Cokesbury P r e s s , 1 9 3 0 ) , p . 2 7 2 .

55 o f a r t . 3*

T h is i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a r t had i t s

wor k o f c e r t a i n German s c h o l a r s , and T h e o d o r L i p p s .

o rig in

in clu d in g L otze,

in the

V isch er,

L ipp s u s e d t h e term E in fu h u n g , m eaning

" fe e lin g in to ," hut the p s y c h o lo g is t,

T itch en er,

t h e term empathy.

however, have taken

The p s y c h o l o g i s t s ,

suggested

•3 tO

o v er th e th eo ry today. ART IN GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY G esta lt

i n Germany, l i k e b e h a v i o r i s m i n A m e r i c a ,

rose c o n s c io u s ly as a p sych ology o f p r o t e s t , Max W e r t h e i m e r , K u r t K o f f k a ,

expounded by

and W o l f g a n g K o h l e r .

They h a d

b e c o m e d i s c o n t e n t e d w i t h t h e s e n s o r y and a s s o c i a t i o n p s y ­ c h o l o g y o f Wundt, and t h e y w o u l d n o t s h a r e W a t s o n ’ s d i s g u s t w ith a l l school i s

in trosp ection . to

The b a s i c

teachin g o f t h is

s e e t h e w h o l e , w h i c h i s n o t a m ere sum o f

p a r t s , b u t th e w hole w hich d o m in a tes i t s p a r t s . 3 ^ a g r e e s w i t h James i n h i s b e l i e f t h a t t h i n g s , of a ll

sorts,

text.

A p erson ’ s h ab it of th in k in g

31 32

o b jects, u n its

are c r e a te d by b e in g to rn out o f t h e i r

p.

R ichards,

oj>. c i t . ,

and o t h e r s ,

3 3 Woodw orth , l o c . c it.

c it.

con­

in terms o f p a r t j o i n e d

H e i d b r e d e r , o|>. c i t . ,

3^ Loc.

It d is­

314. p.

65.

56 t o p a r t m u st "be d i s c a r d e d i n t h i s To K u r t K o f f k a ,

t h e o r y . 35

t h e r e a r e two i m p l i c a t i o n s i n man’ s

lo o k in g a t o b j e c t s or p a i n t i n g s .

He s a i d t h a t a p e r s o n

does not see c lu s t e r s o f s e n s a t io n s , but u n if ie d w h o les, and h e s e e s t h a t t h e w h o l e s a r e d e f i n i t e o f t h e w h o l e . 36 sa id ,

"A g e s t a l t

shapes or p a r ts

g i v i n g t h e m eaning o f "G estalt,** he is

th e re fo re a product o f o r g a n iz a tio n ,

o r g a n iz a tio n th a t le a d s to a

g e s ta lt.

To t h e g e s t a l t p s y c h o l o g i s t s ,

**3? among t h e s e n s o r y p e r ­

cep tion s o f se e in g , h ea rin g , t a s t in g , a c h i e v e d t h e d o m i n a n t r o l e . 38

s m e llin g , v i s io n has

The e y e r e c e i v e s n o t h i n g

more t h a n a t u r m o i l o f l i g h t

im pacts.

Man c a n n o t b e a r

c h a o s and h e m u s t a r t i c u l a t e

the l i g h t

im pacts in t o o r d e r .

A c c o r d i n g t o t h e t h e o r y , man s e e s o p t i c a l m e a s u r e s and q u a lities

to g eth er because o f th e ir p roxim ity,

sim ila rity ,

common l i n e a r c o n t i n u a n c e , o r c o m p l e m e n t i n g p s y c h o l o g i c a l q u a litie s .

39

T h u s , when h e s e e s a number o f b l a c k d o t s on

a p i e c e o f w h i t e p a p e r i n v a r y i n g d i s t a n c e from each o t h e r ,

^

H eidbreder, o p . c i t . , p .

346.

38 K u r t K o f f k a , P r i n c i p l e s o f G e s t a l t P s y c h o l o g y (Hew Y o r k : H a r c o u r t , B r a c e and Company, 1 9 3 5 ) , p . 1 2 5 . 3^ I b i d . , p .

682.

38 Howard S p o r e l , t r a n s l a t o r , W i l l i a m S t e r n ’ s G e n e r a l P s y c h o l o g y (Hew Y o r k s The M a c m i l l a n Company, 1 9 3 8 ) , p . 1 3 1 . 39 K o f f k a , o p . c i t . , p .

167.

57 he w i l l

see

some o f t h e d o t s a s p a r t s o f s m a l l g r o u p s b e ­

cause th ey are c lo s e to

each o th e r or because they are

s i m i l a r i n shape o r s i z e ; th ese dots as u n it s

in to

and a s s o o n a s h e h a s i n t e g r a t e d

sm all g r o u p s, he w i l l p e r c e iv e th e groups

and go on t o e s t a b l i s h a new r e l a t e d n e s s i n v o l v i n g

new and l a r g e r g r o u p s f o r m e d f r o m t h e s e u n i t s . is

continu ed u n t i l a l l T h i s m eth od o f

that i f

T h is p r o c e s s

th e elem en ts are u n i f i e d . ^ seein g

in r e la t e d n e s s i s

so s t r o n g

o p t i c a l c o n d i t i o n s p r e v e n t a p e r s o n from r e a c h i n g

an o r g a n i z a t i o n , h e w i l l b e m o s t p h y s i o l o g i c a l l y d i s t u r b e d . "The s e n s o r y b r a i n a c t i v i t y t e n d s t o w a r d e q u i l i b r i u m o r minimum t e n s i o n , " w r o t e W o o d w o r t h . 4 * a person i s h is

c o n f r o n t e d b y an o p t i c a l

On t h e o t h e r h a n d ,

if

s i t u a t i o n w hich o f f e r s

e y e s a n e a s y p a t h t o v i s u a l o r g a n i z a t i o n b y a common

l i n e a r continu ance o f d i f f e r e n t

s h a p e s , b y c o l o r s w h i c h com­

p le m e n t one a n o t h e r i n a h arm on iou s w h o le , by rhythm o f lig h t

and d a r k , o r by p r o p o r t i o n i n s i z e and d i s t a n c e , h e

i s drawn t o

i t because i t

confirm s h i s

search fo r in te rg r a -

i p

tio n .

A fin e p a in tin g

sh o u ld p o s s e s s q u a l i t i e s w hich

w ou ld m in im iz e t e n s i o n and g i v e

sa tisfa c tio n .

40 Woodworth, o p . c i t . , p . 41 I b i d . .

p.

129.

130.

42 G y o r g y K e p e s , " V i s u a l F o r m - S t r u c t u r a l F orm ," A r t s and A r c h i t e c t u r e . 6 7 : 2 8 , M a rc h , 1 9 5 0 .

58 By t h e s e r e q u i r e m e n t s ,

there i s

d ifficu lty

in group­

i n g t h e f i g u r e s and o b j e c t s i n S i x Women i n C a s s i s .

The

f i g u r e s and o b j e c t s a r e s c a t t e r e d o v e r t h e p i c t u r e p l a n e w ith l i t t l e

c o n t r i b u t i o n toward a u n i f i e d w h o le .

a maximum o f t e n s i o n f o r t h e o b s e r v e r .

There i s

M c F e e ’ s and L e b r u n ’ s

p a i n t i n g s m e e t t h e t e s t o f t h i s t h e o r y much b e t t e r . ing i s

e a s y and e n j o y a b l e i n t h e w h e e l s and a x l e .

Group­ The

i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e h a r n e s s on t h e a x l e d o e s n o t make t h e o b j e c t s c o n f u s i n g b u t t e n d s t o draw t h e two f u r t h e r m o s t objects togeth er.

There i s

a form ation o f a g e s t a l t ,

w hich th e r e l e v a n t o b j e c t s f a l l th e w h ole.

in to p la c e w ith r e s p e c t to

The f r u i t i n t h e s t i l l

l y by th e v ie w e r , b u t th e r e i s p l a n t around i t .

in

life

c a n be g r o u p e d n i c e ­

some c o n f u s i o n w i t h t h e

The p l a n t d o e s n o t se em s t r o n g e n o u g h t o

u n i f y t h e v a s e and t h e f r u i t ,

and t h e r e i s maximum t e n s i o n

p resen t. However, p rin cip les

these p r in c ip le s

a r e e x a c t l y t h e same

s t r e s s e d by t h e t h e o r y o f fo rm a lism in Chapter

V, and a m ore t h o r o u g h e v a l u a t i o n by t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s w i l l be r e s e r v e d f o r t h a t c h a p t e r . ART IN PSYCHOANALYSIS The p s y c h o a n a l y t i c

in te r p r e ta tio n o f psych ology i s

a

movement s t r i k i n g l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h o s e c o n s i d e r e d so f a r .

59 The s y s t e m s j u s t r e v i e w e d * w h a t e v e r t h e i r d i s a g r e e m e n t s * a lik e

in b e in g academ ic, but p s y c h o a n a ly s is i s n e i t h e r a c a ­

d em ic n o r p u r e . 4 *5

I t w a s f o u n d e d b y Sigmund F r e u d and

c o n s i d e r s u n c o n s c i o u s m o t i v e s and c o n f l i c t s . 44 ar

t i m e s c a l l e d t h e "em otion p s y c h o l o g y . " * attem p tin g to fin d w ish es,

as the

some g r a t i f i c a t i o n

etc.

u n c o n s c i o u s m o t i v e s do n o t l i e at l e a s t ,

It

In i t ,

is

some-

man i s

for u n fu lfille d

day dream p o i n t i n g b a c k t o an u n f u l f i l l e d

w ish o f e a r l ie r ch ild h ood ,

tim e,

are

In p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , dormant, and,

from tim e to

t h e y b e c o m e u r g e n t and s e e k t o

con sciou s b eh avior.

Jun g s a i d ,

"It i s

the

e m e rg e i n t o

a flo w o f thoughts

a s im ages d r i v in g tow ards e x p r e s s io n in sh a p e s." The p a i n t i n g b e i n g e v a l u a t e d by t h i s

ah

t h e o r y must

p o s s e s s q u a l i t i e s o f t h e dream w o r l d , w h e r e t h e a r t i s t and h i s a d m i r e r s f i n d an i d e a l s a t i s f a c t i o n fied

i n s t i n c t s . 4®

The a r t i s t

creates

for th e ir u n sa tis­

i m a g e s and s i t u a t i o n s

S i l v a n T o m k i n s , C o n t e m p o r a r y P s y c h o l o g y (Cam bridge, M a s s .: Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 4 6 ) , p . 3 7 6 . 44 G uggenheim er, 45 T o m k i n s ,



.



.

c it.,

c it ., p.

p.

56.

507.

I^oc. c i t . 47 J o l a n J a c o b i , The P s y c h o l o g y o f Jun g (Hew H a v e n : Y ale U n iv e r s it y P r e s s , 1 9 3 4 ), p . 74. 48 I v e s H e n d r i e h , F a c t s and T h e o r i e s o f P s y c h o ­ a n a l y s i s (Hew Y o r k : A l f r e d A. E n o f f , 1 9 4 7 ) , P« 3 7 .

60 w hich b e lo n g to

t h i s dream w o r l d , w h e r e i n men a r e f r e e t o

p l a y th e r o l e w hich th e y a l l in a ctu a l l i f e . ^

A p i c t u r e i s g o o d when i t h a s i n i t

a v e ra g e p e r s o n ’ s day dreams, w h i c h com es n a t u r a l t o a l l p a in tin g .

t h i n k t h e y h a v e somehow m i s s e d

so t h a t

the

the w ish f u l f i l l m e n t

c o in c id e s p r e c i s e ly w ith the

T h e n , by a p r o c e s s w h i c h i s mere c h i l d ’ s p l a y i n

t h e dream l i f e ,

a person in s ta n t ly i d e n t i f i e s h im se lf w ith 50 the su b ject m atter. T a u b e s s a i d , "The im a ge c o n c e i v e d by t h e p a i n t e r l e a d s y o u r h o m e -b o u n d m ind a b r o a d , sp irit

lu r e s your

t o w a r d a d v e n t u r e , and n o u r i s h e s y o u r m e a n d e r i n g f e e l ­

i n g s . " 5*

A p a in t in g should a l l e v i a t e

a p erson ’ s repressed

d e s i r e s by p i c t u r i n g dreams, h a l l u c i n a t i o n s ,

and r e l a t e d

p h e n o m e n a . 52 In t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n to P s y c h o - A n a l y s i s , Dr. Freud w r i t e s o f t h e r eq u ire m en ts u t i l i z e d by th e a r t i s t

in a

p a in tin g as: F i r s t o f a l l h e u n d e r s t a n d s how t o e l a b o r a t e h i s d a y d r e a m s , so t h a t t h e y l o s e t h a t p e r s o n a l n o t e w h i c h g r a t e s u p o n s t r a n g e e a r s and b e c o m e s e n j o y a b l e t o o t h e r s ; h e knows how t o m o d i f y th e m s u f f i c i e n t l y so

^ Edwin Burgum, The Hew C r i t i c i s m P r e n tic e -H a ll, I n c ., 1930), p. 304.

(Hew Y o r k :

Loc. c i t . F r e d e r i c T a u b e s , You D o n ’ t Know What You L i k e (Hew Y o r k : Dodd, Mead and Company, 1 9 4 2 ) , p . 1 5 y . 52 L o c . c i t .

61 th a t t h e i r o r ig i n in p r o h ib it e d so u rc es i s n ot e a s i l y detected* F u rth er, he p o s s e s s e s th e m y sterio u s a b i l i t y t o m o u ld h i s p a r t i c u l a r m a t e r i a l u n t i l i t e x p r e s s e s t h e i d e a o f h i s p h a n t a s y f a i t h f u l l y ; and t h e n h e knows how t o a t t a c h t o t h i s r e f l e c t i o n o f h i s p h a n t a s y - l i f e so str o n g a stream o f p l e a s u r e t h a t , f o r a tim e a t l e a s t , t h e r e p r e s s i o n s a r e o u t - b a l a n c e d and d i s p e l l e d b y i t . When h e c a n do t h i s , h e o p e n s o u t t o o t h e r s t h e way b a c k t o t h e c o m f o r t and c o n s o l a t i o n o f t h e i r u n c o n s c i o u s s o u r c e s o f p l e a s u r e , and so r e a p s t h e i r g r a t i t u d e and ad m iration , . . .5 3 The e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e t h r e e p a i n t i n g s b y p s y c h o ­ a n a l y s i s w i l l depend upon u n c o n s c i o u s , ties,

The p a i n t i n g s ,

however,

q u a lity or s u r r e a l i s t i c

dream -w orld q u a l i ­

a r e n ot o f a dream -w orld

in s u b je c t m a tter.

l y s t m ight read h i s d e s i r e d p o i n t s

in to

The p s y c h o a n a ­

the p a i n t in g s .

V e r t i c a l C o m p o sitio n w ould r a t e a good e v a l u a t i o n a c c o r d in g to

th is

th eory, because i t

su bconscious.

h a s q u a l i t i e s coming from t h e

T h e r e c o u l d b e no o t h e r e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e

b l o t s o f c o l o r t h a t se e m a s t h o u g h t h e y w e r e l i t e r a l l y t h r o w n on t h e c a n v a s s f r o m some d i s t a n c e b a c k .

M ost p e o p l e

h a v e h a d t h e i m p r e s s i o n o f t h r o w i n g some p a i n t a t a p a i n t i n g ju s t because o f r e p r e ssio n .

The p i c t u r e

c a u s e t h e a r t i s t h as done i t

for the observer.

p lea sin g

s a tis fy in g be­ It

t o s e e a p o i n t p r o j e c t i n g o u t o f an o v a l ,

the b in ding fo r c e s are broken. dream -like c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ,

53

is

R iviere,

lo c. c it.

is

also

as though

S i x Women i n C a s s i s h a s some

th e f i g u r e s b ein g in l i q u i d

62 patches,

e a c h m o v i n g i n and o u t o f t h e m i s t y q u a l i t y ,

a s i n a dream.

ju st

T h is p a i n t i n g would p r o b a b ly r e c e i v e th e

b e s t e v a l u a t i o n b y t h i s p r o c e s s t h a n i n any o f t h e o t h e r th eo ries.

A lthough i t

i s not e n tir e ly

s e s s e s su b con sciou s a sp ects flu id

d ream -lik e, i t p o s­

such as jag ged d i s t o r t i o n ,

t o n e s p l a y i n g on t h e s u r f a c e ,

can h a r d l y b e c o n s i d e r e d i n t h i s

etc.

and

M cFee’ s p a i n t i n g

e v a lu a tio n , because i t

is

t o o o b j e c t i v e and n a t u r a l i s t i c . ART IN FUHCTIOHALISM The f u n c t i o n a l p s y c h o l o g i s t s owe t h e i r s y s t e m t o W i l l i a m J a m e s , and t h e y s h a r e h i s n e s s i s n o t a mere f r i l l casual fa cto r

in l i f e

con viction

that co n scio u s­

o r phenomenon, b u t r a t h e r a g e n u i n e

and b i o l o g i c a l

Dewey a r e a l s o w i t h Jam es o n t h i s

s u r v i v a l . 54

theory.

A n g e l l and

The f u n c t i o n a l i s t

says th a t every se n sa tio n or f e e l i n g has a fu n c tio n as r e fe r r in g to

some k i n d o f o b j e c t ,

i n g o r r e j e c t i n g i t . 55

in th e w orld as i t

e v e r y day o b s e r v a t i o n . ^

54

Sargent, op.

c i t . , p.

5 § W oodworth, o p . c i t . , H eidbreder,

and a l s o

choos­

P s y c h o l o g y , by t h e f u n c t i o n a l i s t i c

method i s p r i m a r i l y i n t e r e s t e d n aive,

knowing i t

op.

app ears to

W i l l i a m Jam es s a i d t h a t

31. p.

c i t . , p.

35. 175.

63 n a t u r e ’ s m a te r ia ls le n d th e m se lv e s r e a d ily to our t r a n s i t i o n o f th em i n t o a e s t h e t i c th e w orld

form s.M inds

have a r e l a t i o n to

o f o b j e c t s in w hich th e y e x i s t - - t h a t o f

aware o f t h o s e o b j e c t s ,

o f knowing them,

being

and w e l c o m i n g

them.^® In f u n c t i o n a l i s m , W i l l i a m Jam es and o t h e r s u p p o r t e r s a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h man’ s c o n s c i o u s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , stream o f thought o f c h o o s i n g . ^ in support o f t h i s is

the

thought.

art o f sk ip p in g ,

the

James g a v e many e x a m p l e s

He s a i d ,

"The a r t o f r e a d i n g

so t h e a r t o f b e i n g w i s e i s

o f k n o w i n g w h a t t o o v e r l o o k . ”6 ^

the a rt

Upon g i v i n g f u r t h e r

exam ples, he s a i d , . . . I may a p p e a r t o h a v e s t r a y e d f r o m p s y c h o l o g i ­ cal a n a ly sis in to a e s th e tic c r it ic is m . But the p r i n c i p l e o f s e l e c t i o n i s s o i m p o r t a n t t h a t no i l l u s ­ t r a t i o n se e m s r e d u n d a n t w h i c h may h e l p t o sh ow how great i s i t s s c o p e . . • .61 By v ita lly

th is

t h o u g h t , a c c e n t u a t i o n and e m p h a s i s

im portant.

t i o n s worthy o f i t s

are

A t t e n t i o n w i l l p i c k up c e r t a i n n o t i c e and w i l l

suppress a l l

sensa-

the r e s t .

57 W i l l i a m J a m e s , P r i n c i p l e s o f P s y c h o l o g y (Hew Y o r k : H enry H o l t and Company, 1 9 2 3 ) , I I , p . 6 4 0 . H eidbreder, James, op .



.

c i t . , p . 176.

c i t . , I, p.

60 I b i d . ,

II, p.

61 I b i d . ,

p.

62 I b i d . ,

I, p.

369.

371. 284.

284.

6

p *

64 H elm holts,

o f t e n s p o k e n o f by J a m e s ,

s a i d t h a t a p e r s o n seems

to n o t i c e o n ly s e n s i b l e

q u a l i t i e s , w hich a e s t h e t i c a l l y

terests h im .^

se le c tiv ity ,

On t h i s

in ­

James s a i d ,

• • • And t h e n , among t h e s e n s a t i o n s we g e t f r o m e a c h s e p a r a t e t h i n g , what happens? The mind s e l e c t s a g a i n * I t c h o o ses c e r t a i n o f th e s e n s a t io n s to r e p r e se n t the t h i n g m o s t t r u l y , and c o n s i d e r s t h e r e s t a s i t s a p p e a r ­ a n c e s , m o d i f i e d b y t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e moment. . . . 6 4 In a e s t h e t i c s ,

th is fa ct

is

q u ite ob viou s.

James

w rote, . . . The a r t i s t n o t o r i o u s l y s e l e c t s h i s i t e m s , r e j e c t i n g a l l t o n e s , c o l o r s , s h a p e s , w h i c h do n o t h a r ­ m o n i z e w i t h e a c h o t h e r and w i t h t h e main p u r p o s e o f h i s work. That u n i t y , harmony, ’ C o n vergen ce o f c h a r a c t e r s , * a s M. T a i n e c a l l s i t , w h i c h g i v e s t o w o r k s o f a r t t h e i r s u p e r i o r i t y o v e r w o r k s o f n a t u r e , i s w h o l l y du e t o elim in a tio n . Any n a t u r a l s u b j e c t w i l l d o , i f t h e a r t ­ i s t h a s w i t e n o u g h t o p o u n c e upon some o n e f e a t u r e o f i t a s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , and s u p p r e s s a l l m e r e l y a c c i d e n t a l i t e m s w h i c h do h a r m o n i z e w i t h t h i s . • ♦ . 6 5 The human r a c e a s a w h o l e l a r g e l y knows w h a t i t w a n t s and a g r e e s a s t o w h a t i t

s h a l l n o t i c e and name and w h a t n o t .

Among t h e n o t i c e d p a r t s , we s e l e c t a ccen tu ation , The a r t i s t ,

and p r e f e r e n c e o r s u b o r d i n a t i o n and d i s l i k e . 66

th erefore,

ch a ra cteristic

i n much t h e same way f o r

th a t can s e l e c t

in h i s p a in t in g th e

t h i n g o f an o b j e c t f r o m a l l

63 I b i d . , p . 2 8 5 . 64 Jam es, * ext., 65 I b i d . , p . 2 8 7 . I b id ., p . 289.

p • 285
. c i t . ,

p.

266.

D e W i t t P a r k e r , The A n a l y s i s o f A r t (New H a v e n : Y ale U n iv e r s it y P r e s s , 1 9 2 9 ), p . 7 4.

78 s e n s e o f q u i e t and p e a c e t o t h e s c e n e . a lin e for

th a t i s b alan ced , fo r c e f u l,

a c t i o n

.

T h is l i n e

lin e

is

a nd d y n a m i c , and r e a d y

i s t h e dominant one in V e r t i c a l

C o m p o s i t i o n , and b y i t s u s e , and w i t h o u t r e s t .

The v e r t i c a l

There i s

the p a in tin g

i s very fo r c e fu l,

no d e v i a t i o n f r o m t h e v e r t i c a l

e x c e p t in th e h a r n e s s , w hich i s p l a c e d t h e r e to keep t h e v e r t i c a l from b e i n g t o o h a r s h .

There i s

a fe e lin g of d ig­

n ity

i n t h e c o m p o s i t i o n , w i t h t h e v e r t i c a l f o r m r i s i n g up

lik e

a c olu m n w i t h a c a p i t a l and b a s e .

t i o n to th e v e r t i c a l l i n e , diagon al l i n e t h e name

is

Lebrun h a s t h e s p o k e s

runs through

and a c r o s s

seem in gly r e v o lv in g

by

force,

A as

th in g s.

th e use o f the

The w h e e l s a r e f u l l o f a c t i o n ,

th e p a in tin g p o s s e s s e s the r a d ia tio n o f l i n e , a rtists

in a d d i­

a stron g u se o f the d ia g o n a l.

s u g g e s t i v e o f movement, a c t i o n ,

im p lies, fo r i t

d iagon al l i n e .

There i s ,

also ,

because

w h a t some

c l a i m t o b e t h e s t r o n g e s t c o n t e n t o f m o vem e n t. The r i g h t a n g l e ,

the square,

and t h e r e c t a n g l e ,

c o m b i n a t i o n s o f h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l

as

l i n e s , p o s s e s s the

s tr e n g th o f both l i n e s ;

th ey have s o l i d i t y ,

force.^

i s s a i d t o b e a much more i n t e r e s t i n g

The r e c t a n g l e

c a l m , and

36 L o u i s e D u d l e y and A u s t i n F a r i c y , The H u m a n i t i e s (Hew Y o r k : M c G r a w - H i l l Book C o . , I n c . , 1 9 4 0 ) , p . 1 5 3 . T iln ey ,

op. c i t . , p.

43.

Dudley,

op * c i t . , p .

154.

79 sh ape than t h e sq u a r e .

If it

is

s t a n d i n g on i t s

i t p a r t a k e s o f t h e p e a c e o f t h e h o r i z o n t a l .^9 b a l a n c i n g on a c o r n e r i s s q u a r e r e s t i n g on i t s

shape t o o ,

A square

a e s t h e t i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t from a

sid e.

The d i f f e r e n c e s a r e due m a i n l y

to d i f f e r e n c e s o f l i n e a r a t t i t u d e s . T h e in terestin g

short sid e

tria n g le i s

an

f o r th e a c t i o n o f the d ia g o n a l i s

jo in e d w ith the s t a b i l i t y o f the h o r iz o n ta l.

McPee h a s

u s e d b o t h t h e t r i a n g l e and t h e r e c t a n g l e o f t h e d r a p e s w i t h the h o r iz o n ta l w h ole i s

rectan gle of the ta b le .

The c o m p o s i t i o n a s a

trian gu lar.

C u rv e d l i n e s

are alm ost alw ays l i n e s o f a c t i o n ,

and e n e r g y ; b u t t h e y a r e n e v e r h a r s h o r s t e r n . ^ sa id ,

"It i s p r o g r e ssio n w ithou t d e s c r ip t iv e

q uick curve i s f e l t curve.

D avidson

f o r c e . T h e

t o b e more e x u b e r a n t t h a n t h e s l o w

In M a cd o n a ld -W r ig h t' s p a i n t i n g ,

u s e d t o an e x c e s s .

life ,

There i s

life

th e quick cu rves o f the p a i n t i n g .

th e curved l i n e

and v i t a l i t y

He h a s u s e d l i n e

d e s c r ib in g contours o f shapes o n ly , but fo r i t s r h y t h m and i n i t s e l f .

though,

is in

not for

in terest

McPee h a s made g o o d u s e o f c u r v e d

39

S t e p h e n P e p p e r , A e s t h e t i c Q , u a l i t y (Hew Y o r k ; C h a r l e s S c r i b n e r 1s S o n s , 1 9 3 7 ) , p . 1 3 9 . Loc. c i t . ^ M o r r i s D a v i d s o n , An A p p r o a c h t o Modern P a i n t i n g (New Y o r k : Coward-McConn, I n c . , 1 9 4 8 ) , p . 8 4 . Loc. c i t .

in

80 lin es, harsh*

e sp e cia lly Large,

in the p la n t ,

though t h e y ten d to be

fo r c e fu l curves are p resen t

in Lebrun’ s

p a in t in g g iv in g the heavy tim bers a s l u g g is h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . L in e h as o t h e r d u t i e s w hich e n t e r i n t o t h e com p osi­ tio n .

I t can p r o v id e th e eye w ith ea sy e n tr a n c e in t o

p i c t u r e and t h e n l e a d i t a lso

fits

in d ir ec tly

to th e c e n te r o f i n t e r e s t .

in to

the

43

It

the o r g a n iz a tio n o f the p a in t in g .

A p erso n can d i s c e r n at a g la n c e th e l i n e o r g a n i z a t i o n , w hether sym m etrical, pyram idal, p ersp ectiv e,

ra d ii c e n tr a l,

c o m b i n a t i o n o f s e v e r a l . 44

silh o u ette,

tu n n el, It

is

S curve,

c ircu la r, e tc .,

im portant o n ly to

deep

or a see that

i t h a s a l i n e p l a n and n o t t o name any i n d i v i d u a l p l a n . ART 03? MASS Pepper w r i t e s , L in e, however, e f f e c t i v e as i t i s in a p a in t in g , s u f f e r s f r o m o n e i n e r a d i c a b l e e f f e c t ; i t c a n n e v e r make f u l l u s e o f more t h a n a s m a l l f r a c t i o n o f t h e s p a c e a t i t s d i s p o s a l , f o r t h e g r e a t e r p a r t must alw ays be blan k . . . .45 An o b j e c t n e e d s s o m e t h i n g m ore t h a n l i n e , and w e i g h t and t h a t s e n s e o f f i l l e d

43

D udley, op.

c i t . , p.

358.

44 I«oc♦ c i t . 45 P e p p e r , o p . c i t . , 4^ Loc.

cit.

p.

141.

it

n e e d s volum e

e x te n sity .T h e

81 form alist strip p ed

is

c o n s c i o u s o f mass i n a p a i n t i n g .

e v e r y f o r m t h a t h e u s e d o f t e x t u r e and m e a n i n g ,

o r d e r t o r e a l i z e m a ss and s h a p e a t t h e i r f u l l Fry s a i d , feels

Cezanne in

in ten sity .

" I t i s when t h e o b j e c t h a s i n e r t i a and a p e r s o n

i t s p o w e r o f r e s i s t i n g m o v e m e n t , t h a t t h e m a ss g i v e s

a e s t h e t i c p l e a s u r e . "4? P a i n t i n g s u s u a l l y c o n s i s t o f a g r o u p o f two o r more m a s s e s made i n t e r e s t i n g b y s h a p e and p r o p o r t i o n , b y t h e way in w h ic h t h e y a r e com bined,

and b y t h e p l a y o f l i g h t .

O n l y when t h e m a s s o f t h e p a i n t i n g i s th in g th a t p l e a s e s th e eye w ith i t s p rop ortion s,

organized in to

sta b ility ,

so m e ­

b alan ce,

and harmony d o e s i t be c o m e a wor k o f a r t .

B ell lik e s

49

t h e h e a v y q u a l i t y o f m a s s , a s "mass p i l i n g

i t s e l f on m a s s . ”^

C r e a t e d s h a p e s i n a g i v e n a r e a do n o t

n e c e s s a r i l y h a v e m a s s i v e f o r m , b u t when t h e y a p p e a r r o u n d o r a p p ea r to have volum e, t h e y become forms in m ass. a r e s u g g e s t e d on a f l a t

The f o r m s

s u r f a c e b y m o d e l i n g and s h a d i n g i n

c o l o r and t o n e .

E v e r y o b j e c t t h a t p e o p l e s e e e x e r t s an

em otional e f f e c t

on them b e c a u s e o f i t s

47

size,

volum e,

and

Pry, l o c . c i t .

48

H elen Gardner, U n d e rs ta n d in g th e A rts H a r c o u r t , B r a c e and Company, 1 9 3 2 ) , p . 1 0 . 49 I b i d . , p . 50 B e l l ,

141.

A r t, op.

c i t .,

p.

235.

/

(Hew Y orks

82 shape, or m a s s .^ The m a ss i n V e r t i c a l C o m p o s i t i o n i s h e a v y and f u l l o f strength* objects

I t a p p e a r s t o b e more h e a v y b e c a u s e o f t h e

in r e la t io n

m atter f i l l s

to th e p ic t u r e fram e.

The s u b j e c t

m o st o f t h e s u r f a c e a r e a , w i t h t h e w h e e l s

p r a c t i c a l l y p u s h i n g t h e t o p and b o t t o m o u t .

They a r e so

s t r o n g t h a t t h e f r a m e i s no l o n g e r a b l e t o c o n t a i n t h e m . h as p r a c t i c a l l y g e o m e tr ic s h a p e s , w h ich i s h elp in g the s o lid , The b a l a n c e i s th e bottom . d esign .

It

sheer sim p lic ity

b u l k y m a s s e s t o g a i n t o u g h n e s s and m i g h t .

sa tisfy in g ,

w i t h a w h e e l on t o p and o n e on

There are m a sses b a la n c in g in a sy m m etrica l

W eight o f t h e c h i e f m a s s iv e a r e a i s

in the c e n te r ,

w h i l e a s m a l l e r m a ss i s p l a c e d on e a c h end o f t h e c e n t r a l m a s s i n s u c h an o p p o s i n g s i t u a t i o n

a s w o u l d e n a b l e them t o

a p p e a r t o w e i g h t h e same a s t h e c e n t r a l m a s s . life ,

t h e mass i s

s i m i l a r to Cezanne.

s o l i d l y up o n t h e t a b l e ,

and i s s o

v a s e and t h e d r a p e a r e i t s

In t h e s t i l l

The f r u i t

so lid ly

i s p laced

drawn t h a t t h e

counter b a la n ce .

The m a s s i v e

d a r k a r e a s a r e n i c e l y b a l a n c e d t h r o u g h o u t b y d a r k on t h e s id e o f th e t a b l e , under th e t a b l e , In t h e p a i n t i n g o f t h e

and b a c k o f t h e o b j e c t s .

s i x women, t h e r e i s

not the s o lid ,

m a ssiv e q u a l i t y found in th e o t h e r tw o.

The f i g u r e s

seem

R alph W ic k is e r , Art A c t i v i t i e s H o l t and Company, 1 9 4 7 ) , p . 3 2 .

(Hew Y o r k : Henry

83 as though th e y were f l o a t i n g restricted

in a i r .

i n two d i m e n s i o n a l t o n e s .

The v o l u m e o f f o r m i s The v e r y

" earth in ess"

° f V e r t i c a l C o m p o s i t i o n w i n s a p e r s o n ’ s c o n f i d e n c e more rea d ily

than th e o t h e r tw o . ART IN SPACE

" S p a c e i s an o r d e r t h a t a l l p e o p l e r e a l i z e , " P r a l l KO w rote. A p a i n t in g i s s i t u a t e d in s p a c e , but a work, a l s o , treats

space a c co r d in g to i t s

s p a c e a s may b e n e c e s s a r y t o

own n e e d s an d c r e a t e s s u c h it.

Pearson sa id th a t space

d e a ls w ith d i v i s i o n s o f s u r fa c e s or areas betw een o b j e c t s . P a in tin g does not d eal w ith space d i r e c t l y ,

a

as does a r c h i­

t e c t u r e , b u t i s t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f s p a c e on a t w o - d i m e n ­ sion al su rface.

F o cillo n w r ite s,

" P a in tin g could not be

rea lized

i n an u n c o n d i t i o n a l e d s p a c e , 54 a s p e c i f i c v a lu e." Among t h e f o r m a l i s t s ,

and c o n f e r s u p o n s p a c e

th e lim it e d space o f the p a in t ­

i n g i n v o l v e s two d i s t i n c t and c o n t r a d i c t o r y a i m s t h a t s h o u l d b e r e s o l v e d and f u s e d :

t h e s t a t e m e n t o f r e l a t e d o b j e c t s and

a r e a s in d e p th , w hich i s

th e t h ir d dim ension;

and a r h y th m

cp D. W. P r a l l , A e s t h e t i c A n a l y s i s Y. C r o w e l l Company, 1 9 3 6 ) , p'7" 5 2 .

(New Y o r k : Thomas

Ralph P e a r s o n , E x p e r ie n c in g P i c t u r e s B r e w e r , W a r r e n , and P u t n a m , 1 9 3 2 ) , p7 1 3 7 . Hogan and K u b l e r ,



.

c i t .,

p.

28.

(New Y o r k :

84 or f l a t desigrif fu n ction

t h a t m ust o p e r a t e on t h e s u r f a c e and

s p a c i a l l y . 55

A c c o r d i n g t o C l i v e B e l l and Rhys

C a rp en ter, t h e e v a lu a t o r sh o u ld have a know ledge o f t h r e e dim ensional

s p a c e i n o r d e r t o a p p r e c i a t e a work o f a r t ,

s i n c e many o f t h e m o s t m o v i n g f o r m s e v e r c r e a t e d a r e i n three d im e n sio n s.^

F o eillo n

says the o p p o s it e , however,

i n t h a t o r n a m e n t a l a r t co m es t h e c l o s e s t s p a c e . 57

W ith e i t h e r v i e w ,

space i s

the a p p re c ia tio n o f a p a in tin g , sh iftin g

to p o s s e s s in g

a v i t a l fa cto r for

for i t

can c a u se th e

o f f o c u s from f l a t p l a n e t o d e p th o r t h e s i m u l t a ­

neous view o f b o th .

In su p p o rt o f t h i s , A l b e r t B arnes

sa id , S p a c e - c o m p o s i t i o n i s s u c h an a r r a n g e m e n t o f t h i n g s i n t h e d e p t h o f s p a c e t h a t t h e i n t e r v a l s , b a c k and f r o n t a s w e l l a s up and down and t o r i g h t and l e f t , a r e f e l t t o h a v e a p l e a s i n g r e l a t i o n t o e a c h o t h e r and to t h e o b j e c t s w hich th e y s e p a r a t e . • . .5 8 A ll th r ee p a in tin g s b ein g ev a lu a ted p o s s e s s s p a c ia l q u a lities.

MePee h a s s t r i v e n f o r d e p t h i n t h e t h i r d d i m e n ­

s i o n , w h i l e b o t h L e br un and M a c d o n a l d - W r i g h t a c h i e v e two d im ensional

55

space.

M acdonald-W right h a s red u c ed volum e

D avidson, op. B e ll,

c it.,

p.

44.

S in c e Cezanne, o p . c i t . , p .

57 Hogan and K u b l e r , o p . c i t . , p . c it.,

58 B a r n e s , p. 115.

27.

19.

" P l a s t i c Form ," A r t and E d u c a t i o n , o p .

85 and s p a c e t o c o l o r and l i n e w i t h a two d i m e n s i o n a l q u a l i t y . The s p a c i a l a r e a s o f t h e b r o k e n s u r f a c e i s bute o f th e p a in tin g . each in r e la t io n s h ip

I t has very s e n s it i v e

sp a cia l areas,

to a n o th e r , w hich have s e e m in g ly been

an o b s e s s i o n w i t h t h e a r t i s t . e sted in t h i s

the b e st a t t r i ­

than he i s

In f a c t ,

h e i s m ore i n t e r ­

in anyth ing e l s e

in th e p i c t u r e .

Le br un h a s l i m i t e d t h e s p a c e i n h i s p a i n t i n g , o f f o r m s b e c o m i n g weak a s t h e y r e c e d e , c le a r ly s ta te d at every p o in t. r e c e s s i o n by a l t e r n a t i n g is

s e q u e n c e s , b u t t h e m ain i n t e r e s t

s p a c i a l a r e a s on t h e s u r f a c e i s

if

The b r e a k i n g up o f t h e

f o r c e f u l and i t

strengthens

The e m o t i o n a l q u a l i t y w o u l d b e l o s t

th e o b j e c t s were in

f r a m e . 59

they are kept

The a r e a s h a v e a l i t t l e

i n t h e two d i m e n s i o n a l a s p e c t .

the su b ject m atter.

and i n s t e a d

sm aller r e la t io n

to th e p i c t u r e

T h e r e i s no m i s t a k e t h a t McFee h a s a c h i e v e d t h e

th ir d d im ension al q u a lit y

in h i s p a i n t in g .

By p l a c i n g t h e

d r a p e i n t h e f o r e g r o u n d and h a v i n g d i f f e r e n t p l a n e s r e c e d e back from i t ,

he has gain ed s p a c i a l depth.

There a p p ea rs

t o b e much s p a c e b e t w e e n t h e d r a p e and t h e b a c k g r o u n d , and t h e o b j e c t s se e m s o l i d w i t h s p a c e e n c l o s i n g t h e m . p a i n t i n g h as c o n c a v it y w h ich v i b r a t e s p a in tin g .

59

Fry,

op. c i t . , p .

34.

throughout th e

The

86 ABT OF LIGHT AND SHADE L i g h t and s h a d e s e r v e many p u r p o s e s i n p a i n t i n g , b e i n g u s e d t o c r e a t e mood i n p a i n t i n g and i n t h e g r a p h i c arts,

and s o m e t i m e s c o n t r a s t i n g m o o d s . 6 0

have em o tio n a l a s p e c t s s i m i l a r to

L i g h t and s h a d e

l i n e and c o l o r .

Through

t h e m , man e x p r e s s e s s h a d e s o f f e e l i n g ana i m p a r t s i d e a s . H i s v e r y mood i s m a t c h e d b y an e q u i v a l e n t t o n a l q u a l i t y , and e a c h i d e a i n a r t

is

e x p r e s s e d b y o n e t o n e o r a n o t h e r . 61

The r a n g e f r o m l i g h t t o d a r k i s valu es i s

e n o r m o u s , and t h e r a n g e o f

e s p e c ia lly stim u la tin g

r i c h n e s s and c o n t r a s t .

A c o m p o s it io n w hich i s m o s t l y dark,

c r e a t e s an a i r o f q u i e t d i g n i t y , th e o th e r hand, in to n e , n otation , happy;

to em otion s b e c a u se o f i t s

o r an a i r o f m y s t e r y .

a c o m p o s itio n w hich i s p r e v a i l i n g l y l i g h t

c r e a t e s a l m o s t no mood a t a l l . lig h t valu es are,

s o l i d and s u b s t a n t i a l ,

be m y s t e r io u s ,

Dark v a l u e s a r e

and v a l u e s t h a t m e r g e h a z i l y

esp ecia lly

in the darker t o n e s ,

e v e n m y s t i c a l . 62

60 F r y , l o c . c i t . ^

g a y and

s o m e t i m e s g l o o m y and m e l a n c h o l y .

Sh a rp c o n t r a s t s a r e d r a m a t i c , the o th e r ,

In e m o t io n a l c o n ­

in g e n e r a l, b r ig h t,

som etim es th e y a r e i n s u b s t a n t i a l .

one i n t o

On

Doc. c i t .

6 2 D u d l e y and F a r i c y ,



.

c i t . , p.

163.

t e n d to

87 The amount o f l i g h t a f f e c t s t h e a p p a r e n t s i z e o f s

p

a

c

e

s

.

Bark a lw a y s seem s s m a l l r e g a r d l e s s o f s i z e .

L ig h t a f f e c t s th e apparent shape o f o b j e c t s as w e l l as c h a n g i n g t h e i r c o l o r v a l u e s and s i z e .

I t c a n make f o r m s

f l a t when t h e y a r e s e e n a g a i n s t t h e l i g h t ,

or i t

them s t a n d o u t i n b o l d r e l i e f when t h e f o r m i s t h e s i d e so t h a t p a r t o f i t

is

i n shadow.

c a n make

l i g h t e d from

There i s ,

a lso ,

t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l a s p e c t o f t o n e , w hich r e l a t e s m a in ly to effectiv en ess

in th e d is t in c t io n

of th in g s.

g u i s h e s e a c h t h i n g more p r e c i s e l y b y i t s

its

A person d i s t i n ­

tonal q u a lity ,

and

many p r o b l e m s a r e s o l v e d t h r o u g h h i s a b i l i t y t o d i s c r i m i n a t e b e t w e e n d a r k and l i g h t t o n e s . very e a s ily

A p e r s o n ’ s j u d g m e n t s may b e

i n f l u e n c e d by t h e t o n a l c h a r a c t e r o f o b j e c t s .

The p o s s i b i l i t y o f r e p r e s e n t i n g t e x t u r e s

in p a in t

s h o u l d b e i n c l u d e d i n l i g h t and s h a d e , b e c a u s e i t

depends

l a r g e l y on t h e f a c t t h a t d i f f e r e n t m a t e r i a l s r e f l e c t l i g h t i n a g r e a t v a r i e t y o f ways .6 4 f i g u r e , h e saw n o t a s m o o t h , of lig h t

and s h a d e .

When F r a n s H a l s l o o k e d a t a continuous s u r fa c e , but p a tc h e s

T e x tu r e , g a in e d by l i g h t

and s h a d e c a n

add t h a t n e c e s s a r y e m o t i o n a l q u a l i t y d e s i r e d b y t h e a r t i s t .

63

W ick iser,



.

c i t . , p.

24.

6 4 C a r l T h u r s t o n , Why We Look a t P i c t u r e s D odd, Mead and Company, 1 9 2 6 ) , p . 3 0 .

(New Y o r k :

88 The e f f e c t s alm ost i n f i n i t e .

to be g a in e d through l i g h t In s tu d y in g i t ,

th r e e p o i n t s sh ould be

n oticed .

F irst

Second i s

th e t r a n s i t i o n betw een t o n e s ,

lin es

is

the c o n tr a s t o f to n e s as g r e a t or s l i g h t .

se p a r a tin g ton es are c le a r - c u t ,

T hird i s

and s h a d e a r e

the ch a ra cter o f the l i g h t

f o r som etim es t h e

som etim es f u z z y .

shade in th e m asses

used,

as in th e s p o t t in g o f the t o n e s .

lig h t

and d a r k c o n s t i t u t e s an a r r a n g e m e n t w h i c h i n d u c e s

a esth etic

fa cto r s.^ 5

S i x Women i n C a s s i s q u a lities

i s more i n t e r e s t i n g

t h a n t h e o t h e r two p a i n t i n g s .

b r o k e n up i n a r e a s o f d i f f e r e n t tiv e

The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f

q u a lity .

The f i r s t

in to n a l

The p i c t u r e

t o n e s , w hich g i v e a d e c o r a ­

im p ression th a t a person g e ts

n o t o n e o f t h e a c t i v i t y o f t h e women, b u t t h e e y e i s i n t h e s t r o n g l y c o n t r a s t i n g l i g h t and d a r k a r e a s , w hich i t

is

i s g u id e d by s t r o n g rh y th m s.

is

caught

through

M acdonald-W right h a s

a c h i e v e d c o h e r e n c e b y t h e u s e o f t h e s e a r e a s o f l i g h t and shade.

As t h e r e

sh a d o w s a r e c a s t , lig h t

i s no i l l u m i n a t i o n f r o m o n e s o u r c e , no n o r an i l l u s i o n o f d e p t h p r o d u c e d .

and d a r k m a s s e s a r e s h a r p l y s e p a r a t e d ,

c o n t r a s t i n g l y b r o k e n and u n b r o k e n .

The

and t h e y a r e

Lebrun, how ever,

is

not

f a r b e h i n d M a c d o n a l d - W r i g h t i n b r e a k i n g up t h e p i c t u r e p l a n e

Rh ys C a r p e n t e r , The E s t h e t i c B a s i s o f G r e e k A r t (ETew Y o r k : Lon gmans, G r e e n and Company, 1 9 2 1 ) , p . 1 0 8 .

89 w ith c o n tra stin g tones o f lig h t

and d a r k .

H i s l i g h t and

d a r k s a r e much s h a r p e r and much more h a r s h and r u g g e d .

The

to n a l areas are in c h a r a c te r w ith th e o ld o b j e c t s o f tr a n s ­ p ortatio n .

The d a s h e d - o n a r e a s g i v e t h e p a i n t i n g a v a r i e t y

i n t h e s o l i d b a c k g r o u n d and w e r e p l a c e d t h e r e , p r o b a b l y ,

for

no o t h e r r e a s o n t h a n t h e a r t i s t was c o n s i d e r a b l y c o n s c i o u s o f l i g h t and s h a d e i n d i f f e r e n t a r e a s . a strong l ig h t , In S t i l l

depth.

and t h e y h a v e v e r y s t r o n g shadow f o r s u p p o r t .

L ife w ith D esert P la n t,

play o f lig h t s

The o b j e c t s a r e i n

there i s

an i n t e r e s t i n g

and d a r k s , b u t t h e y a r e u s e d f o r d e p i c t i n g

T h e r e i s much d e p t h b e c a u s e o f t h e d e e p t o n e s

a r o u n d t h e o b j e c t s and i n t h e b a c k g r o u n d , and t h e n , v e r y s h a r p l i g h t s p l a y i n g on t h e c e n t r a l o b j e c t s . lig h ts

are not a u ste r e but p le a s in g

th ir d dim ension . lig h t,

the The

in i t s m od elin g o f th e

The o b j e c t s do n o t b l u r w i t h t h e r a d i a n t

but they s o l i d i f y b eca u se o f i t .

Th ey b e c o m e s h a r p l y

d e fin e d as geom etric s o l i d s . ART OF COLOR U n l i k e l i g h t an d s h a d e , bein g overlooked. first

co lo r is

Thurston s a i d ,

i n no d a n g e r o f

"C olor i s u s u a l l y t h e

t h i n g o n e s e e s i n a p i c t u r e and t h e l a s t . " ^

66 T h u r s t o n ,

op. c i t . , p.

4.

Some

90 men f e e l

that c o lo r i s

th e m ost d e s c r i p t i v e

form al c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . form s,

tonal q u a lity ;

id ea s,

em otions;

more e x p r e s s i v e it

is

It

elem en t o f th e

can b e employed to c r e a t e l i n e s ,

to d e n o te t e x t u r e ;

to

and t o p o r t r a y m o o d s . ® 7

suggest space,

C olor i s p r o b a b ly

than th e o t h e r s t r u c t u r a l e le m e n ts b e c a u s e

a p a r t o f e a c h , and b e c a u s e i t s

q u a lity a ffe c ts

p e r s o n ’ s e m o t i o n s d i r e c t l y and i m m e d i a t e l y . ® ®

a

C live B e ll

s a i d t h a t t h e a r t i s t ’ s m i x i n g and c h o o s i n g t h e c o l o r s d o e s not a f f e c t

a p e r s o n ’ s em otion s, but th e shapes o f h is c o lo r s

and t h e c o m b i n a t i o n s o f t h o s e s h a p e s a r e w h a t a r e i m p o r t a n t . * " C o l o r b e c o m e s s i g n i f i c a n t o n l y when i t b e c o m e s f o r m , ” B e l l w r o t e . 7®

Roger Fry s a i d t h a t t h e r e i s

em otional q u a l it y in

c o l o r by i t s e l f or in th e arrangem ents o f c o l o r s , c a n make a p e r s o n g a y , C olor,

lik e

sad,

tone,

angry,

ex cited ,

shade one in t o

and f r o m o r a n g e , y e l l o w - o r a n g e t o y e l l o w . in fin ite

number o f d i s t i n c t

h im s e l f to

six ,

op.

c i t .,

p.

A rt, op. c i t . » p.

boc. c i t . 71 F r y ,

and t h e n t o o r a n g e T h e r e a r e an

c o lo r s , but the a r t i s t lim i t s

18.

c it.

®9 B e l l ,

red changes

and when h e n e e d s more t h a n t h e s i x ,

67 W i c k i s e r , ^

o r d e p r e s s e d . 71

another;

by s m a l l d e g r e e s from r e d to r e d - o r a n g e ,

fo r they

lo c . c it .

237.

an

91 in term ed iate i s u sed .

no

In t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f a p a i n t i n g ,

t h e t h r e e a s p e c t s o f c o l o r m ust b e k e p t i n m i n d : t h a t o f h u e, w hich i s

t h e d i s t i n g u i s h i n g o f one c o l o r from a n o t h e r ;

v a l u e , w h i c h i s t h e l i g h t and d a r k q u a l i t i e s ; w hich i s

th e s t r e n g t h o f a c o l o r . 73

and c h r o m a ,

A good p a i n t i n g w i l l

make u s e o f t h e s e a s p e c t s w h i c h c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e p a i n t i n g and i t s C haracter i s

em otional e f f e c t .

one q u a l i t y t h a t can be r e p r e s e n t e d

t h r o u g h t h e p r o p e r u s e o f c o l o r and c o l o r c o m b i n a t i o n s .

74

An o b j e c t o f s t r e n g t h s h o u l d b e p a i n t e d i n c o l o r s w h i c h em phasize i t s

strength,

a s Lebrun h a s d o n e i n p o r t r a y i n g

t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e w h e e l s and a x l e .

A d e l i c a t e woman

s h o u ld be p a i n t e d w i t h c o l o r s t h a t em phasize h e r d e l i c a t e ­ n e s s s u c h a s t h e p i n k s and y e l l o w s u s e d b y M a c d o n a l d - W r i g h t in h i s p a in tin g . p a rtia lly

The c h a r a c t e r o f e v e r y t h i n g i s r e v e a l e d

through c o lo r .

To f o r m a l i s m , e f f e c t i n g moods,

it

75

co lo r is

76

a " feelin g to n e ." '0

e x e r t s wh a t i s

in e f f e c t

B esid es

a p h y sica l

7 ^ R. W. C h u r c h , An E s s a y on C r i t i c a l A p p r e c i a t i o n ( L o n d o n : G e o r g e A l l e n and U n w in , L t d . , 1 9 3 8 ) , p . 1 6 4 . 73 P e p p e r , 74

lo c . c it .

W ick iser,

7^ Loc. c i t . 76 P r a l l , o£♦

o£ ,

c i t . , p.

c i t . , p.

78.

20.

92 i n f l u e n c e on t h e e m o t i o n s *

and c o l o r s t h e m s e l v e s a r e r e f e r r e d

t o a s c o o l o r warm: t h e b r o w n s , y e l l o w s , a r e warm; t h e g r e e n s ,

b lu es,

oranges,

and r e d s

and p u r p l e s a r e c o o l . 77

The

warm c o l o r s a r e more a c t i v e and more e x c i t i n g and se em c lo s e r than th e cool c o lo r s .

C o o l c o l o r s i n t h e same p i c ­

t u r e w i l l c h a n g e t h e warm c o l o r s , the presen ce o f oth er c o lo r s . c o l o r s around i t .

f o r c o l o r s a r e c h a n g e d by

A c o lo r changes w ith a l l

the

I t l o o k s dark b e s i d e a l i g h t e r c o l o r ,

and l i g h t b e s i d e d a r k e r c o l o r . Saarin en w rote th a t th e fu n c tio n o f c o lo r in a r t i s t o c r e a t e mood,

t o a t t r a c t and d i r e c t a t t e n t i o n ,

f u n c t i o n a s an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f f o r m . w ill

79

He s a i d ,

and t o "C olor

a l w a y s r e m a i n c o n n e c t e d w i t h f o r m and s u b o r d i n a t e d t o

i t # »80

c o l o r w i l l b r i n g v a r i e t y and f r e s h n e s s t o f o r m .

M acdonald-W right w ould b e c o n s i d e r e d t h e b e s t c o l o r i s t b e ­ c a u s e h e d e p e n d s upon i t of the p a in tin g .

and a p a t t e r n o f i t

fo r th e beauty

The s h a p e s o f h i s c o l o r s and t h e c o m b i n a ­

t i o n s o f t h o s e s h a p e s a r e p l e a s i n g and c o n s t i t u t e p r a c t i ­ c a l l y t h e m a in i n t e r e s t o f t h e p a i n t i n g .

77 P r a l l , 78 P a r k e r ,

The c o l o r s a r e

lo c. c it . oj>. c i t . ,

p. 75.

7 ^ E l i e l S a a r i n e n , S e a r c h f o r Porms (Hew Y o r k : R e i n h o l d P u b l i s h i n g Company, 1 9 4 8 ) , p . 2 3 1 . Loc.

c it.

93

e x c i t i n g and command a t t e n t i o n .

In Lebrun’ s p a i n t i n g , t h e

shapes o f t h e c o l o r e d a r e a s seem to be more i n t e r e s t i n g than the co lo r i t s e l f .

Lebrun has u sed g r e y e d t o n e s w hich con­

t r i b u t e to t h e m e la n c h o ly mood o f t h e p a i n t i n g .

C olor i s

j u s t an a d d i t i o n a l means o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g o b j e c t s i n t h e still

l i f e by McPee.

I t i s d i f f i c u l t to p i c t u r e c o l o r h e r e

th ou g h , i n t h e a b s t r a c t . SUMMARY A c o n c l u d i n g a s p e c t o f f o r m a lis m , w hich p e r t a i n s to a l l t h e form al e l e m e n t s j u s t r e v i e w e d , i s t h a t o f t h e i n t e ­ g r a t i o n o f t h e s e e l e m e n ts o r u n i t y .

The a n c i e n t form ula o f

u n i t y w i t h i n a m a n i f o l d can h a r d l y be b e t t e r e d as a d e s c r i p ­ t i o n o f t h e s p e c i a l s t r u c t u r e t h a t any o b j e c t must p o s s e s s 01

i f i t i s to s a t i s f y t h e c r i t e r i o n o f formal b e a u t y . OA Stein sa id ,

Leo

wThe enjoyment o f t h e b a r e form o f o b j e c t s must

come w i t h t h e u n d e r l y i n g u n i t y o f a complex w h o l e . Samuel A lexan d er w r o t e , lie s

wThe b e a u ty o f t h e b e a u t i f u l o b j e c t

i n th e congru en ce o r c o h e r e n c e o f i t s p a r t s . T h e r e

s h o u l d be a u n i f y i n g q u a l i t y f u n c t i o n i n g in t h e p a i n t i n g * ft!

L i s t o w e l , o £ . c i t . , p . 2 21.

Leo S t e i n , The A. B. C. o f A e s t h e t i c s (New York; Boni and L i v e r i g h t , I n c . , ~ 1 9 2 7 ) 7 P* 8 4 . C a r r it t , 0£. c i t . , p. 271.

94 f o r b y t h e g r o u p i n g and o r d e r i n g o f i s o l a t e d o b j e c t s , p e r s o n b e c o m e s a w a r e o f t h e c o h e r e n t w h o l e and f i n d s

a real

enjoym ent. C arpenter s a i d , w ise u n rela ted p a rts structure

HU n i t y i s

in to

the o r g a n iz a tio n o f o th e r ­

a w h o l e . E a c h

s h o u l d b e so a r r a n g e d t h a t i t

o f w h olen ess.

elem en t o f

adds to th e f e e l i n g

The c o m p o s i t i o n m u st h a v e p l a n n i n g and f e l t

r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f th e elem en ts o f s t r u c t u r e in ord er to e sta b lish u n ity.

When t h e e l e m e n t s ,

p ro p erly arranged,

j u s t review ed,

are

th e com p osition conveys a f e e l i n g o f OK

c o m p l e t e n e s s and s a t i s f a c t i o n . 00

U n ity i s n e c e ss a r y to a r t , the o b ser v er ’ s a tte n tio n

is

so t h a t ,

a t t r a c t e d and h e l d l o n g e n o u g h

fo r th e eye to p e r c e iv e a l l o f th e p a r t s tion.® ®

f o r one t h i n g ,

in th e com posi­

Buermeyer w r o t e ,

"Order" ( u n i t y ) , i n so f a r a s i t p r o m o t e s c l a r i t y o f p e r c e p t io n , c o n s i s t s m erely o f th e b a la n c in g o f th e p a r t s o f a p i c t u r e about a c e n t e r l i n e , w hich c a u s e s t h e eye to rem ain w i t h i n t h e frame o f t h e c a n v a s . It e f f e c t s such a p r e s e n t a t io n o f th e p a r t s as to secu re t h a t each s h a l l have a fu n d a m e n ta lly harm onious r e l a t i o n w ith every o th e r . . • .8?

ft 4

°

C arpenter,

op. c i t . , p.

62.

Loc. c i t . W ick iser, op. ft 7

c i t . , p.

53.

B u e r m e y e r , "The E s t h e t i c s o f R o g e r F r y , " A r t and E d u cation , o p . c i t . , p . 235.

95 When t h e e y e i s

first

a t t r a c t e d to th e p a i n t i n g ,

i t u su ally

e n t e r s i n t o t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n on t h e l o w e r l e f t - h a n d s i d e . I f t h e p a r t s a r e w e l l r e l a t e d and move o n e i n t o

the o th e r ,

th e eye i s guid ed over th e e n t i r e p a in t in g in a lo n g ,

c ir ­

c u l a r movement i n o r d e r t o m e e t t h e c l i m a x n e a r t h e c e n t e r o f th e pain tin g.® ®

Thus,

elem en ts o f s t r u c t u r e com p osition .

th e a r t i s t has to o r g a n iz e the

so t h a t t h e y l e a d t h e e y e o v e r t h e

I f t h e e y e m o v e s a i m l e s s l y a b o u t and b e c o m e s

c o n f u s e d from l a c k o f g u id a n c e t h a t i t w on ders beyon d t h e p ictu re,

the beauty i s

fo rm a list,

lo st

to t h e o b s e r v e r .

can o n l y d e r i v e from t h e a r t i s t e s

U n ity,

com p lete under­

s t a n d i n g o f t h e e l e m e n t s and t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s t o other.

A b e a u t i f u l p a i n t i n g must have u n i t y

sp a tia l areas, lin e s ,

te x tu r e s, m asses,

to th e

each

in to n e ,

and c o l o r .

form,

Each

m u st c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e p a i n t i n g a s a w h o l e , y e t r e m a i n in terestin g

in i t s e l f .

Barnes w ro te,

. . . A p a i n t e r , un able to e n ter f u l l y in to h i s s u b j e c t , t o s e e i t i n i t s c o n c r e t e f u l l n e s s and w i t h an e y e t o a l l i t s r e l a t i o n s , o r o n e w i t h an i n s u f f i ­ c i e n t command o v e r a l l t h e p l a s t i c m e a n s , i s i n c a p a b l e o f ach ievin g a u n ifie d p a in tin g . He may s i n g l e o u t f o r e m p h a s i s some o n e f e a t u r e and s l i g h t t h e others. . . I f th e com p osition i s p r o p e r ly arranged,

and t h e a r t i s t ’ s

W ick iser, l o c . c i t . c it.,

p.

Barnes, 116.

’’P l a s t i c E o r m , H A r t and E d u c a t i o n , o p .

96 i d e a s and e m o t i o n s a r e m o u l d e d i n t o m a jo rity o f p eop le w i l l fin d 90 s a t i s f a c t i o n and b e a u t y .

a new p r e s e n t a t i o n ,

in th a t p r e s e n t a t io n ,

the

a true

The i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e t h e o r y o f f o r m c a n b e e s t i m a t e d by t h e m e r e s t g l a n c e a t t h e h i s t o r y o f a e s t h e t i c s ,

where

it

the

fig u res,

a g a i n and a g a i n ,

p r e se n t day, a p p lica tio n is

from t h e Greek e r a t o

receiv in g e s p e c ia lly

e l a b o r a t e and e x a c t

i n t h e h a n d s o f C l i v e B e l l and R o g e r P r y .

c o n s i d e r e d , h o w e v e r , more a s a v e r y new t h e o r y .

c a lls old ,

t h e s e w r i t e r s o f form alism " u ltra-m od ern ." ^ 1

It

Barnes Hew o r

t h e t h e o r y o f fo rm h a s t o b e a c c e p t e d a s an i m p o r t a n t

theory in a e s t h e t ic s .

It

i s w id ely i n f lu e n t ia l

in contem -

, 92

p o r a r y a r t * 57

90

W iek iser, op.

c it .,

p.

66.

^ B a r n e s and de M a z i a , " E x p e r i e n c e and G r o w t h , " A r t and E d u c a t i o n , o p . c i t . , p . 1 9 1 . 92 Buerm eyer, p.

123.

" P a t t e r n and P l a s t i c P o r m , " I b i d . ,

CHAPTER VI SUMMARY ARB CONCLUSIONS T h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n was n o t an a t t e m p t t o l a y down ru les It

e i t h e r f o r t h e m aking o r t h e j u d g i n g o f p a i n t i n g s *

i s not ab le

t o g i v e a d v i c e a s t o w h a t s h o u l d b e don e

and what s h o u ld n o t b e d o n e.

I t was r a t h e r an a t t e m p t t o

a r r a n g e a v a i l a b l e m a t e r i a l on c e r t a i n m e t h o d s o f e v a l u a t i n g a p a in tin g .

T h e r e h a s b e e n no a t t e m p t t o a r r i v e a t c o n ­

c l u s i o n s about th e v a l i d i t y o f th e c o n t e n t s o f th e v a r io u s system s.

D e t a il s have not been s tu d ie d , but r a th er the

m ost prom inent f e a t u r e s o f t h e v a r i o u s p r o c e s s e s . i n v e s t i g a t i o n has n o t a ttem p ted to

The

i m p o s e an a r t i f i c i a l

u n i t y upon i t s m a t e r i a l . I t w o u l d b e w e l l t o su m m a r iz e b r i e f l y system s.

the p reced in g

I t h a s b e e n shown t h r o u g h o u t t h e s t u d y how e n ­

l i g h t e n e d m i n d s h a v e b e e n e n g a g e d i n d i s c u s s i n g b e a u t y and e v alu a tin g p a in tin g s .

Modern man h a s r e e x a m i n e d o l d

p h i l o s o p h i e s t o f i n d a n e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e g o o d and bad in p a in tin g .

R e g a r d e d a s a member o f t h e f a m i l y o f p h i l o ­

sop h ical d is c ip lin e s ,

a e sth e tics

is

the youngest.

e x p la n a tio n s have been g iv e n in the p h i l o s o p h i c a l o f e v a lu a t in g contem porary p a i n t i n g . system ,

Seven process

In t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l

the c r i t e r i o n o f im ita tio n , p le a s u r e , p la y , exp ression ,

escape

or i l l u s i o n ,

com m unication,

and e x p e r i e n c e h a v e

been g iv e n .

Three p a i n t i n g s by t h r e e S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a

98 a r t i s t s have been t e s t e d v a r io u s m ethods.

and e v a l u a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s e

The same h a s b e e n d o n e w i t h two d i f f e r e n t

system s,

t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l and t h e f o r m a l i s t i c .

was a l s o

su b d iv id ed in to

W ithin p sy c h o lo g y ,

P sychology

d if f e r e n t sch o o ls o f thou ght.

t h e same p a i n t i n g s w e r e t e s t e d

and

e v a lu a ted by th e t h e o r ie s o f s tr u c tu r a lis m , b eh a v io rism , g esta lt, istic

p sy ch oan alysis,

process,

and f u n c t i o n a l i s m .

th e p a i n t i n g s were e v a lu a te d a c c o r d in g to

th e fundam ental req u irem en ts o f a p i c t u r e , m ass,

space,

By t h e f o r m a l ­

lig h t

and s h a d e ,

and c o l o r ,

w hich are l i n e ,

a l l m a k in g up a

u n i f i e d w h ole. The t h r e e p a i n t i n g s b y S . M a c d o n a l d - W r i g h t , H en ry M cP ee, a n d R i c o Lebrun a r e e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t su b ject m atter, to

and t r e a t m e n t , y e t ,

each has been exposed

t h e s e same s y s t e m s o f e v a l u a t i o n ,

and e a c h h a s r e c e i v e d

b o t h f a v o r a b l e and u n f a v o r a b l e c r i t i c i s m . process, tio n s

in s t y l e ,

W ithin each

t h e r e h a v e b e e n some r e j e c t i o n s b e c a u s e o f o b j e c ­

in th e d i f f e r e n t t h e o r i e s ,

gave th e th r ee equal ev a lu a tio n ,

ev a lu a tio n s.

but th e p r o c e s s as a w hole In th e p h ilo s o p h ic a l

th e t h r e e p a i n t i n g s were c o n s id e r e d e q u a l l y ,

and i n e a c h p a i n t i n g t h e r e w e r e q u a l i t i e s w h i c h w e r e i n har m ony w i t h t h e t e a c h i n g s o f t h e p r o c e s s .

B u t t h e same

h a s b e e n d o n e t o t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l and t h e f o r m a l i s t i c

99 processes*

They l i k e w i s e , h a v e c e r t a i n t h e o r i e s ,

when a p p l i e d t o

t h e same p a i n t i n g s

m eet th e d e s i r e d q u a l i t i e s p a in tin g .

w hich,

e v a lu a t e d by p h i l o s o p h y ,

fo r th e p r e sen ce o f beauty in a

Can o n e s a y t h a t t h i s

s y s t e m i s m ore r e l i a b l e ,

and a c c u r a t e t h a n t h a t ? One t h e o r y ,

in th e s e th r ee approaches, cannot be

p r o n o u n c e d more n e a r l y c o r r e c t , o r l e s s another.

in e r r o r than

I t w o u l d b e an u n s y s t e m a t i c a n a l y s i s t o

select

j u s t one t h e o r y from one o f t h e t h r e e s y s t e m s o f con tem p or­ ary p a i n t i n g e v a l u a t i o n as t h e h i g h e s t form f o r c r i t i c i z i n g a p a in tin g .

Each d o c t r i n e c o n t a i n s e le m e n ts o f t r u t h .

P a i n t i n g w ould s u f f e r g r e a t l y

if

i t had to f i l t e r

through

and b e c r i t i c i z e d by t h e i n c o m p l e t e v i e w p o i n t o f j u s t o n e theory,

though i t s

adherents p roclaim i t

fo r recogn izin g a fin e p a in tin g . g iv en a h igh e v a lu a tio n , y e t ,

a s t h e o n l y method

V e r t i c a l C o m p o s i t i o n was

S till

L ife w ith D esert P la n t ,

S i x Women i n C a s s i s a l s o , b y t h e same s y s t e m s . nu m erous t h e o r i e s

in th e th r e e p r o c e s s e s can g i v e each o f

t h e t h r e e p a i n t i n g s an e q u a l e v a l u a t i o n , elem en t or e le m e n ts i n each w hich i s processes. who i s

I f the

t h e r e m u s t b e some

common t o a l l

three

When a p a i n t i n g i s p l a c e d b e f o r e an e v a l u a t o r ,

a n a ly z in g i t by a th e o r y in p h i lo s o p h y ,

a n a ly z in g i t by a sy stem in p s y c h o lo g y , fo rm a listic p rocess,

another

and o n e b y t h e

and e a c h c o n c l u d e s w i t h a f a v o r a b l e

100 c riticism ,

t h e r e m ust b e p r e s e n t some i n t e g r a t i n g f a c t o r ,

p r o m i n e n t i n some t h e o r i e s

and l e s s

T h is would i n f e r t h a t t h e r e i s outw ard, u n it y

sa lien t

some h i d d e n ,

in o t h e r s . though o f t e n

i n t h e many t h e o r i e s .

At t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f p h i l o s o p h y i n C h a p t e r I I I ,

it

w as shown t h a t t h e v a r i o u s t h e o r i e s c o u l d b e i n c l u d e d i n th e one th e o ry o f com m unication.

The a r t i s t h a s t o commu­

n i c a t e to o t h e r s what h e f e e l s ,

eith er of h is

or h is

love for im ita tin g nature,

fe e lin g of p lay,

escape,

or exp ression o f p le a su r e . p ic t u r e com p osition, he f e e l s

exp erien ce,

W ithout th e form al t o o l s

of

h e c a n n o t a d e q u a t e l y com m unicate what

so s t r o n g l y .

These v a r io u s t h e o r i e s ,

g o o d and b a d ,

d e p e n d up o n t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f f o r m a l q u a l i t i e s . In t h e c o n c l u s i o n , ic a l process, se lec tio n ,

i n C h a p t e r IV , o f t h e p s y c h o l o g ­

fu n ctio n a lism , w ith i t s

was shown t o

em p hasis upon

e n g u lf four t h e o r i e s , w ith p sych o­

a n a l y s i s b e i n g co nsu m ed i n d i r e c t l y .

C areful s e l e c t i o n o f

t h e many p o s s i b l e a n g l e s and d i r e c t i o n s o f l i n e s , m ass, v a r ie t y o f c o lo r s , S electio n

is

areas of

im portant to th e s e t h e o r i e s .

appears to b e th e c o n n e c tin g th read in a e s t h e t i c s

in psych ology. Thus,

i f the th e o r ie s

i n p h i l o s o p h y can be e x p r e s s e d

i n t h e t h e o r y o f com m u nication , w it h com m unication n e e d in g th e form al e le m e n ts,

and t h e u n i t i n g o f t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l

101 t h e o r i e s hy t h e th r ea d o f s e l e c t i o n , w hich em p hasizes th e form al q u a l i t i e s ,

the p r o c e ss e s

o f p h i l o s o p h y and p s y c h o l o g y

c o u ld become s u b o r d i n a t e to t h e p r o c e s s o f f o r m a lis m . p r o c e s s e s a r e d e p e n d en t upon t h e p r i n c i p l e s form alism , w h ereas, form alism i s is

s u f f i c i e n t by i t s e l f

Both

s ta te d in

d e p e n d e n t up o n n e i t h e r .

It

to g iv e a thorough e v a lu a tio n o f

any p a i n t i n g . N o t h i n g i s more d i s c o u r a g i n g t h a n t h e d i v e r s i t y o f o p in io n s in e v a lu a tin g a p a in t in g . have been t r i e d

A thousand d e f i n i t i o n s

and a b a n d o n e d down t h r o u g h h i s t o r y and

t h e r e w i l l b e o t h e r s who w i l l c a r r y on t h i s game and add new i t e m s t o t h e l o n g l i s t

in te llec tu a l

of fa ilu re s.

A

t r e m e n d o u s amount o f work h a s l a t e l y b e e n d o n e i n t h e f i e l d o f a e s t h e t i c s and t h e r e c e n t p u b l i c a t i o n s b u l k l a r g e r t h a n t h o s e o f any e a r l i e r

epoch.

Nobody w o u l d d e n y t h a t a g r e a t

many o f t h e s e b o o k s and a r t i c l e s

h a v e b e e n w r i t t e n by o u t ­

s t a n d i n g a u t h o r s and t h a t t h e a p p l a u s e f r e e l y g r a n t e d t o them i s w e l l d e s e r v e d .

A p e r s o n may b e l i e v e

in the e x c e l ­

l e n c e o f t h e w ork w h i c h i s b e i n g d o n e ,

and y e t f e e l

i s d e f i c i e n t on some e s s e n t i a l p o i n t .

T h is c o u ld be a v o id e d

if

and e v a l u a t i n g p a i n t ­

the person in t e r e s t e d

in g w ould f i r s t c o u l d ad d l a t e r , tio n s.

in a e s t h e t ic s

s t a r t w i t h t h e t h e o r y b a s e d on f o r m .

that i t

He

p h i l o s o p h i c a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l e v a l u a ­

Upon a c l e a r v i e w and u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f f o r m a l i s m ,

102 th e sea rch could he conclu ded.

It

where t h e m a jo r ity o f th e c r i t i c s

is

the on ly p r o c e ss

c o u l d h a v e a common b a s i s

f o r a n a l y s i s and a g r e e m e n t . * S u c h a c o n c l u s i o n w o u l d n o t p u t an end t o a l l ica l

d i s p u t e s , b u t fo r m a lis m a p p ea r s to be t h e most a d e q u a te

process of art

f o r e v a lu a t in g contem porary p a i n t i n g . is

d istin ct

E v e r y work

a com plex o r g a n i z a t i o n c o n t a i n i n g a v a r i e t y o f elem en ts a l l

accuracy. it

c rit­

o f w h i c h may b e m e a s u r e d w i t h f a i r

A work o f a r t i s

should f i t

in to

a r e s u l t o f human m i n d , t h u s ,

t h e o r b i t o f human i n t e l l e c t .

raphy o f a p a i n t in g i s p l a s t i c

and m e a s u r a b l e ;

m easurable w ith f a i r

accuracy,

and d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n s

w h i c h mark t h e d e g r e e

it

The t o p o g ­ is

and a l l t h e f i n e v a r i a t i o n s o f m a ste ry can

b e e x p l o r e d and r e g i s t e r e d . ^ Man w i l l c o n t i n u e t o e v a l u a t e o n e p i c t u r e o v e r a n o th e r , w hether he does i t w i s e l y or f o o l i s h l y .

He w i l l

e it h e r says "I l i k e

it.”

” 1 d o n 1t l i k e H i s d e c i s i o n may n o t

^ Greene, op .

it .” be fin a l,

c i t . , p.

and h i s f u t u r e

v i e w may

483.

^ F r e d e r i c T a u b e s , Anatomy o f G e n i u s (Hew Y o r k : D o d d, Mead and Company, 1 9 4 8 ) , p . 8 .

103 c h a n g e , h u t h i s c h o i c e w i l l he h i s own, no m a t t e r w h a t a n y ­ o n e e l s e may s a y , w r i t e , th is

s tu d y m ig h t come.

do, or th in k ,

o r to what c o n c l u s i o n

BIBLIOGBAPHT

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D u c a s s e , C. J o h n , A r t , t h e C r i t i c s and Y o u . P ie s t , 1944. 170 p p .

Few Y o r k : Okar

D u c a s s e , C. J o h n , The P h i l o s o p h y o f A r t . London: G eorge A l l e n and U n w in , L t d . , 1 9 2 9 . 314 p p . D u d l e y , L o u i s e , and A u s t i n F a r i c y , The H u m a n i t i e s . Few Y o r k : M c G r a w - H i l l Boo k Company, I n c . , 1 9 4 0 . 600 p p . E a r l o f L i s t o w e l , A C r i t i c a l H i s t o r y o f Modern A e s t h e t i c s . L o n d o n : G e o r g e ~ A l l e n and U n w i n , L t d . , 1 9 3 3 . 288 p p . Edman, I r w i n , The P h i l o s o p h y o f S a n t a y a n a . Few Y o r k : C h a r l e s S c r i b n e r ’ s S o n s , 1936*1 58^ p p . F l a c c u s , L o u i s , A r t i s t s and T h i n k e r s . G r e e n and Company, 1 9 1 6 . 200 p p .

Few Y o r k : Lon gm an s,

F l a c c u s , L o u i s , The S p i r i t a n d S u b s t a n c e o f A r t . P . S . C r o f t s and Company, 1 9 4 1 . 593pp. Pry, R oger, Last L e c tu r e s. 1939. 37 0 p p .

Few Y o r k :

Few Y o r k : The M a c m i l l a n Company,

P ry, Roger, T ran sform ation s. 1926. 236 pp. P r y , R o g e r , V i s i o n and D e s i g n . 302 p p .

Lo n do n : C h a t t o and W i n d u s , Few Y o r k : B r e n t a n o ’ s ,

1929.

F u r r y , W i l l i a m , The A e s t h e t i c E x p e r i e n c e * B a l t i m o r e : The R e v i e w P u b l i s h i n g Company, 1 9 0 8 . 155 pp . G ardner, H e le n , U n d erstan d in g t h e A r t s . B r a c e and Company, 1 9 3 2 . 336 p p .

Few Y o r k : H a r c o u r t ,

1 07 G a u n t , W i l l i a m , The A e s t h e t i c A d v e n t u r e . B r a c e and Company, 19 4 5* 2 69 p p .

Hew Y o r k : H a r c o u r t ,

G i l b e r t , K a t h e r i n e , S t u d i e s i n Re c e n t A e s t h e t i c s # H i l l : The U n i v e r s i t y o f H o r t h C a r o l i n a , 1 9 2 7 .

Chapel 178 p p .

G i l b e r t , K a t h e r i n e , and H elm u t Kuh n, A H i s t o r y o f E s t h e t i c s . Hew Y o r k : The M a c m i l l a n Company, 1 9 3 9 . 582 p p . G i l f o r d , J . P . , F i e l d s o f P s y c h o l o g y . Hew Y o r k : D. Van H o s t r a n d Company, I n c . , 1 9 4 0 . 695 pp . Gordon, K a t e , E s t h e t i c s . 1922. 315 pp.

Hew Y o r k : H e n r y H o l t and Company,

G r e e n , P e t e r , The P r o b l e m o f A r t . Hew Y o r k : Longm an s, G r e e n a n d Company, 1 9 3 7 . 218 p p . G r e e n e , T h e o d o r e , The A r t s and t h e A r t o f C r i t i c i s m . P rin c eto n : P rin ceton U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1940. 700 p p . G u g g e n h e i m e r , R i c h a r d , S i g h t and I n s i g h t . Hew Y o r k : H a r p e r and B r o t h e r s P u b l i s h e r s , 1 9 4 5 . 246 p p . H a l d a n e , R. B . , t r a n s l a t o r , A r t h u r S c h o p e n h a u e r * s The W orld a s W i l l an d I d e a . L ondon: K eg a n P a u l , T r e n c h , T r u b n e r and Company, L t d . , n . d . , 496 p p . H a r n e y , K a r e n , Are You C o n s i d e r i n g P s y c h o a n a l y s i s ? Hew Y o r k : W. W. H o r t o n and Company, I n c . , 1 9 4 6 . 262 p p . H a rtm a n , H e n r y , A e s t h e t i c s : A C r i t i c a l T h e o r y o f A r t . C o lu m b u s : R . G. Adams and Company, 1 9 1 9 . 250 pp . H e id b r e d e r , Edna, Seven P s y c h o l o g i e s . Company, 1 9 3 3 . 4 56 p p .

Hew Y o r k : The C e n t u r y

H e n d r i c k , I v e s , F a c t s and T h e o r i e s o f P s y c h o a n a l y s i s . Y o r k : A l f r e d A. K n o f f , 1 9 4 7 . 369 p p . w—

Hew

H e y l , B e r n a r d , Hew B e a r i n g s i n E s t h e t i c s and A r t C r i t i c i s m . Hew H a v e n : Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 4 3 . 172 p p . H i r n , Y i j o , The O r i g i n s o f A r t . Company, 1 9 0 0 . 331 p p .

Hew Y o r k : The M a c m i l l a n

108 Hog a n, C h a r l e s , and G e o r g e K u b l e r , t r a n s l a t o r s , H e n r i F o c i l l o n * s The L i f e o f Forms i n A r t . Hew H a v en : Y a l e U n iv e r sity P r e s s , 1942. 76 p p . H o g a r t h , W i l l i a m , The A n a l y s i s o f B e a u t y . and L e e Company, 1 9 0 8 . 242 p p . H u l l , Clark L . , P r i n c i p l e s o f B e h a v io r . A p p l e t o n - C e n t u r y Company, 1 9 4 3 . 422

C hicago: R e i l l y New Y o r k : D. pp.

J a c o b i , J o l a n , The P s y c h o l o g y o f J u n g . New H a v e n : U n iv e r sity P r e s s , 1943. 161 p p . James, W illia m , P r i n c i p l e s o f P s y c h o lo g y . Y o r k : H enry H o l t and Company, 1 9 2 3 . J o a d , E. M . , G u i d e t o P h i l o s o p h y . 1935. 592pp.

Y ale

2 v o l s . ; New

New Y o r k : Random H o u s e ,

K edney, John, t r a n s l a t o r , George H e g e l* s A e s t h e t i c s . C h i c a g o : S c o t t , F orem an an d Company, 1 8 9 7 . 302 p p . K in g , W illia m , B e h a v io rism , A B a t t l e L in e . N a s h v i l l e , T e n n e ss e e : Cokesbury P r e s s , 1 9 3 0 . 3^9 p p . K o ffk a , K urt, P r i n c i p l e s o f G e s t a lt P s y c h o lo g y . H a r c o u r t , B r a c e a n d Company, 1 9 3 5 . 720 p p .

New Y o r k :

K o h l e r , W o l f g a n g , G e s t a l t P s y c h o l o g y . New Y o r k : H o r a c e L i v e r i g h t and Company, 1 9 2 9 . 403 pp. L add, G e o r g e , t r a n s l a t o r , Herman L o t z e * s O u t l i n e s o f A esth etics. B o s t o n : G in n and Company, 1 8 8 S ." l T 3 p p . L a n g f e l d , H e r b e r t , The A e s t h e t i c A t t i t u d e . New Y o r k : H a r c o u r t , B r a c e and Howe, 1 9 2 0 . 287 p p . L e e , V e r n o n , The B e a u t i f u l . P ress, 1913. 158 p p .

C a m b r i d g e : C a m b rid g e U n i v e r s i t y

L o n g , S a m u e l , A r t : I t s L a w s , and t h e R e a s o n f o r Them. York: L ee, Shepard, D illin g h a m , 1871. 248 pp.

New

M ather, Frank, C on cern ing B e a u t y . P r i n c e t o n : P r in c e t o n U n iv ersity P r e ss, 1935. 302 p p . M a th e w s , H e l e n , t r a n s l a t o r , M. G uya u* s P r o b l e m s o f Conternporary A e s t h e t ic s . Los A n g e l e s : De V a r s s and Company, P u b ., 1947. n .p .

109 Maude, A y l m e r , t r a n s l a t o r , Leo T o l s t o y t s ~What i s A r t . Mew York* Thomas Y. C r o w e l l and Company, 1 9 0 0 * 237 p p . McMahon, P h i l i p , The M e a n in g o f A r t . Mew Y o r k : W. W. M o r t o n and Company, 1 9 3 0 . 205 p p • M e i e r , Mormal C h a r l e s , A r t i n Human A f f a i r s . W h i t t l e s e y House, 1 9 4 2 . 222 p p .

Lon don :

M o o r e , J a r e d S . , The F o u n d a t i o n s o f P s y c h o l o g y . P rin ceton U n iv ersity P r e ss, 1924. 239 p p .

P rin ceton :

Nahm, M i l t o n , A e s t h e t i c E x p e r i e n c e and I t s P r e s u p p o s i t i o n s . Mew Y o r k : H a r p e r and B r o t h e r s , 1 9 4 6 . 554 p p . N ic h o lso n , J . A ., P h ilo so p h y . Company, 1 9 3 9 . 508 p p .

Mew Y o r k : The M a c m i l l a n

O g d e n , C. K . , I . A. R i c h a r d s , and J . E . H. Wood, The F o u n d a t i o n s o f A e s t h e t i c s . Mew Y o r k : L e a r P u b l i s h e r s , In c ., 1925. 92 p p . O g d e n , R o b e r t , The P s y c h o l o g y o f A r t . S c r ib n e r ’ s Sons, 1938. 291 p p .

Mew Y o r k : C h a r l e s

P a rk er , D eW itt, P r i n c i p l e s o f A e s t h e t i c s . B u r d i t t and Company, 1 9 2 0 . 374 p p . P a r k e r , D e W i t t , The A n a l y s i s o f A r t , U n iv e r sity P r e ss, 1929. 190 p p .

Mew Y o r k : S i l v e r ,

Mew H a v en : Y a l e

P a u l , E d n a , and P a u l C e d a r , B a u d o u i n C h a r l e s * P s y c h o ­ a n a l y s i s and A e s t h e t i c s . Mew Y o r k : Dodd Mead Company, 1924. 328 p p . P e a r so n , R alph, E x p e r ie n c in g P i c t u r e s . Warren and P u tn a m , 1 9 3 2 . 222 pp. P epper, Stephen, A e s th e tic S c r ib n e r ’ s Sons, 1937.

Q .uality. 255 pp .

Mew Y o r k : B r e w e r ,

Mew Y o r k : C h a r l e s

P e p p e r , S t e p h e n , The B a s i s o f C r i t i c i s m i n t h e A r t s . Cambridge: Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 19457 177 p p . P h i l l i p p s , L i s l e , Form and C o l o r . Company, 1 9 1 5 . 294 p p .

L on do n : D u c k w o r t h and

110 P i c c o l i , R a f f a e l l o , B e n e d e t t o C r o c e * New Y o r k : H a r c o u r t , B r a c e and Company, 1 9 2 2 . 3i& p p . P r a l l f D. W . , A e s t h e t i c A n a l y s i s . New Y o r k : Thomas Y. C r o w e l l Company, 1 9 3 6 . 21 1 p p . P u f f e r , E t h e l , The P s y c h o l o g y o f B e a u t y . M i f f l i n Company, 1 9 0 5 . 286 p p .

New Y o r k : H o u g h t o n

R a d e r , M e l v i n , A Modern Book o f E s t h e t i c s . H o l t and Company, 1 9 3 5 . 504 p p .

New Y o r k : H e n r y

Raymond, G e o r g e , The E s s e n t i a l s o f A e s t h e t i c s . G. P . P u t n a m f s S o n s , 1 9 2 1 . 404 p p .

New Y o r k :

Raymond, G e o r g e , The R e p r e s e n t a t i v e S i g n i f i c a n c e o f Form . New Y o r k : G. P . P u t n a m ' s S o n s , 1 9 0 9 . 514 pp . “' J R e a d , H e r b e r t , A r t Now. New Y o r k : H a r c o u r t , B r a c e and Company, 1 9 3 3 . 144 p p . R e a d , H e r b e r t , The M e a n in g o f A r t . New Y o r k : H o u g h to n M i f f l i n Company, 1 9 1 3 . 188 p p . R i v i e r e , J o a n , t r a n s l a t o r , Sigmund F r e u d ' s P s y c h o - A n a l y s i s . New Y o r k s L i v e r i g h t P u b l i s h i n g C o r p . , 1 9 3 5 . 412 pp . R o b i n s o n , Edward, P r a c t i c a l P s y c h o l o g y . M a c m i l l a n Company, 1 9 2 6 . 479 p p .

New Y o r k : The

R u n e s , D o g o b e r t , T w e n t i e t h C e n t u r y P h i l o s o p h y . New Y o r k : P h ilo s o p h ic a l L ib rary, I n c ., 1943. 571 p p . S a a r in e n , E l i e l , Search f o r Jbrm s. New Y o r k : R e i n h o l d P u b l i s h i n g Company, 1 9 4 8 • 3 5 4 p p . S a r g e n t , S t a n s f e l d , The B a s i c T e a c h i n g s o f t h e G r e a t P s y c h o l o g i s t s . P h i l a d e l p h i a : The B l a k i s t o n Company, 1944. 344 p p . S p o r e l , Howard, t r a n s l a t o r , W i l l i a m S t e r n a G e n e r a l P s y c h o l o g y . New Y o r k : The M a c m i l l a n Company, 1 9 3 8 . 589 p p . S t e i n , L e o , The A. B. C. o f A e s t h e t i c s . L iv erig h t In c .,~ 1 9 2 7 . 271 p p . T a u b e s , F r e d e r i c , Anatomy o f G e n i u s . and Company, 1 9 4 8 . 155 p p .

New Y o r k s B o n i

New Y o r k : Dodd, Mead

I ll T a u b e s , F r e d e r i c , You D o n * t Know What You L i k e . Do d d, Mead and Company, 1 9 4 2 . 183 p p .

Hew Y o r k :

T h o r n b u r n , J o h n , A r t and t h e U n c o n s c i o u s . London; K. P a u l , T r e n c h , T r u b n e r and Company, 1 9 2 5 . 24 1 p p . T h u r s t o n , C a r l , Why We Look a t P i c t u r e s . Mead and Company, 1 9 2 6 . 184 p p .

Hew Y o r k ; Dodd,

T i l n e y , F r e d e r i c k , The L u r e o f t h e F i n e A r t s . Chapman and H a l l , L t d . , 1 9 3 1 . 315 p p . T i t c h n e r , Edward, E x p e r i m e n t a l P s y c h o l o g y . Y o r k : The M a c m i l l a n Company, 1 9 0 ^ . T it u s , H arold, L iv in g I s s u e s in P h ilo s o p h y . A m e r ic a n B ook Company, 194&. 4 36 p p .

L o ndon;

2 v o ls.;

New

Hew Y o r k :

Tomkins, S i l v a n , Contem porary P s y c h o l o g y . Cam bridge, M a s s .; Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 4 6 . 600 p p . V a u g h n , W a y l a n d , G e n e r a l P s y c h o l o g y . New Y o r k : D o u b l e d a y , Dor an and Company, I n c . , 1 9 3 9 . 745 p p . W ic k is e r , R alph, Art A c t i v i t i e s . Company, 1 9 4 7 . 215 pp.

Hew Y o r k : H e n r y H o l t and

W oodw orth , R o b e r t , C o n t e m p o r a r y S c h o o l s o f P s y c h o l o g y . Y o r k : The R o n a l d P r e s s , 1 9 4 8 . 2 79 p p .

New

W r i g h t , F r e d e r i c k S . , A m e r i c a n P a i n t i n g i n Our C e n t u r y . New Y o r k : C h a n t i c l u r P r e s s , 1 9 4 9 . 134 p p . Y o u n g , Thomas, M o t i v a t i o n o f B e h a v i o r . New Y o r k : John W i l e y and S o n s , I n c . , 1 9 3 6 . 56 2 p p . B. Brook, A lexander, 1923.

PERIODICAL ARTICLES

"Henry L e e M cF ee ," The A r t s , 4 : 2 5 1 - 2 6 1 ,

Carey, E l is a b e t h L u th er, 4, 1924.

"Henry L e e M c F e e ," C r e a t i v e A r t ,

C r o w l e s , R .» "What t h e A r t i s t 34:346-251, 1941.

i s A f t e r , " M agazine o f A r t ,

112 D a v e n p o r t , R. W. and W. S a r g e n t , A rt," L i f e , 2 5 :5 6 -6 8 , 1948.

" L i f e Round T a b l e on Modern

G r a f l y , D . , "Some A s p e c t o f A r t C r i t i c i s m , " E d u c a t i o n , 6 3 :2 5 3 -2 5 7 , 1942. ~ G r e e n , T . M . , " A m eric a n a s C r i t i c , " L ite r a tu r e , 23:30, 1940.

Saturday Review o f ~

Howe, G . , "M eaning o f t h e A r t s T o d a y , " M a g a z i n e o f A r t , 35:162-167, 1942. K e p e s , G y o r g y , " V i s u a l F o r m - - S t r u c t u r a l F orm ," A r t s and A r c h ite c tu re , 6 7 :28-29, 1950. K i r s t e i n , L . , " A r t i s t s and C r i t i c s , " 27-29, 1949.

Hew R e p u b l i c ,

120:

M alraux, A . , " P sy c h o lo g y o f C r e a t i o n ," M agazine o f A r t , 41:122-127, 1949. M cF ee , H e n r y , "My P a i n t i n g and I t s D e v e l o p m e n t , " C r e a t i v e A r t, 4, 1929. McKeon, R . , " P h i l o s o p h i c B a s i s o f A r t and C r i t i c i s m , " Modern P h i l o s o p h y , 4 : 6 5 : 8 7 , 1 9 4 3 . M e i s t e r , F . , " E s t h e t i c s o f A r t ," American P h o t o g r a p h e r , 3 9 :3 5 , 1945. M u n i t z , M . , "Toward a P h i l o s o p h y o f A r t a s C r e a t i o n , " A m e r i c a n S c h o l a r , 10 n o . 4 : 4 7 2 - 4 8 2 , 1 9 4 1 . Murphey, B. " P s y c h i a t r i s t Looks a t A r t ," 43:336-338, 1948. P a c h , W . , " A r t i s t s and C r i t i c s , " 1949. Poharnok,

I.,

School A r t s ,

Hew R e p u b l i c ,

120:30,

"What i s A r t ? " S c h o o l A r t s , 4 8 : 3 2 6 - 3 2 9 ,

1949.

S c h a c k , W ., " C r it iq u e o f A rt C r i t i c i s m , " V i r g i n i a Q u a r te r ly R eview , 1 :9 3 -1 0 9 , 1942. S t e i n , L . , " E x ercises in C r itic is m ," no. 2 :1 65-169, 1948.

A m e r i c a n S c h o l a r , 17

_________, "Art C r i t i c i s m , " M a g a z i n e o f A r t , 3 8 : 1 ,

1945.

115 T a y l o r , H . , "What Makes a P i c t u r e G r e a t ? " Mew York T im es M a g a z i n e , n o . v . , 1 8 - 1 9 , May 2 8 , 1 9 4 4 . C.

ESSAYS

B erk ley , George, E s s a y s , P r i n c i p l e s , D ia lo g u e s . C harles S c r ib n e r ’ s Son s, 1921. 46 9 p p . C h u r ch , H. W . , An E s s a y on C r i t i c a l A p p r e c i a t i o n . G e o r g e A l l e n and U n w in , L t d . , 1 9 3 8 . 296 p p . D.

Hew Y o r k : L ondon:

ENCYCLOPEDIA ARTICLES

S u l l y , James, " A e s t h e t i c s , " E n c y c lo p e d ia B r i t a n n i c a , 1 1 th e d itio n , I , 277-289. E.

UNPUBLISHED MATERIALS

B o y l i n , J o h n , "The D e v e l o p m e n t o f a C o u r s e o f T r a i n i n g i n , and A n a l y s i s o f t h e E l e m e n t s o f E s t h e t i c s and T h e i r R e la tio n s h ip to C r ea tiv e D e sig n ." U n published M a ste r ’ s t h e s i s , The U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a , L o s A n geles, 1947. 116 p p . H o l l y , J . W i l s o n , "A F a c t o r i a l S t u d y o f Some A e s t h e t i c Judgm ents." U n p u b l i s h e d M a s t e r ’ s t h e s i s , The U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a , Los A n g e l e s , 1 9 4 7 . 65 p p . M a c d o n a i d - W r i g h t , S t a n t o n , "The Way I P a i n t . " U n published p a p e r w r i t t e n f o r M a c d o n a l d - W r i g h t ’ s e x h i b i t i o n a t The S t e n d a h l G a l l e r i e s , Los A n g e l e s , A p r i l 2 - 2 1 , 1 9 4 5 . 1 p.

APPENDIX

FIGrDKE I S t 1X1 L i f e w i t h D e s e r t P l a n t b y H e n r y M cFee

F IG rT JK E

I I

V e r t i o a l C o m p o s it io n "by R io o L eb ru n

FICrUEE I I I S ix Women i n G ass I s by S ta n to n M acdonald-W right

ty o f s o u t h e r n C a lif o r n ia uior**;