Proceedings TEEM 2022: Tenth International Conference on Technological Ecosystems for Enhancing Multiculturality: Salamanca, Spain, October 19–21, 2022 9819909414, 9789819909414

Table of contents :
TEEM 2022 Preface
Organization
Contents
Trends on Computational Thinking, Engineering Education, Technology in Medicine, Qualitative and Mixed Methods, Diversity in STEM, Lab-Based Education, Technology and Education, Gamification and Games for Learning and Smart Learning at TEEM 2022
1 Computational Thinking and Robotics in Education
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Computational Thinking and Robotics Papers in TEEM 2022
2 Engineering Education: Teachers’ and Students’ Competences Recent Developments
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Engineering Education Papers in TEEM 2022
3 Technological Applications in Medical Training and Practice
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Technological Applications in Medicine Papers in TEEM 2022
4 Implementation of Qualitative and Mixed Methods Researches
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Qualitative and Mixed Methods Papers in TEEM 2022
5 Bridging the Diversity Gap in STEM
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Diversity and Gender Gap in STEM Papers TEEM 2022
6 Lab-Based Education in STEM
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Lab-Based Education Papers in TEEM 2022
7 Identity, Technology and Education. Identity Construction Processes in Hyperconnected Ecosystems
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Identity, Technology and Education Papers in TEEM 2022
8 Gamification and Games for Learning (GAMILEARN)
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Gamification and Games for Learning Papers in TEEM 2022
9 Smart Learning
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Smart Learning Papers in TEEM 2022
References
Computational Thinking and Robotics in Education
Vocabulary Enrichment in Mother Language After Preschoolers’ Interaction with  a Social Robot
1 Introduction
2 The Present Study
2.1 Aim
2.2 Method
2.3 Results
3 Discussion
4 Conclusions
References
The Way for Learning Initial Programming: Activities, Feedback, and Predict Model
1 Introduction
2 Context and Background
2.1 Study Group
3 Methodology
3.1 Stage 1-Problem Identification and Motivation
3.2 Step 2-Define the Objectives of a Solution
3.3 Step 3-Create an Artefact
3.4 Step 4-Demonstration
3.5 Step 5-Evaluation
3.6 Step 6-Communication
4 Conclusion
References
Educational Robotics and Dyslexia: Investigating How Reinforcement Learning in Robotics Can Be Used to Help Support Students with Dyslexia
1 Introduction
2 Research Design and Method
3 Critical Literature Review of Reinforcement Learning and Dyslexia with Robotics
3.1 Machine Learning/AI and Reinforcement Learning
4 Conceptual Model for Support Assistant for Robot with Reinforcement Learning
5 Conclusions
References
Designing Exercises for Block-Based Languages: The Case of ScratchJr
1 Introduction
2 Features of Block-Based Programming in ScratchJr
3 Exercises for ScratchJr
3.1 Predictive and Trace Exercises
3.2 Comprehension Exercises
3.3 Translation Exercises
4 Experience and Discussion
5 Conclusions and Future Work
References
An Overview of European Projects About Computational Thinking
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
2.1 Mapping Questions
2.2 Inclusion, Exclusion and Quality Criteria
2.3 Sources and Search String
3 Data Extraction
4 Results
4.1 What are European Research Trends Regarding Computational Thinking at Pre-university Level?
4.2 In Which Countries Were the Projects Implemented?
4.3 Which Calls for Proposals Fund this Type of Research Project?
4.4 What Years do the Projects Cover?
4.5 How Much Money Has Been Invested in These Projects?
4.6 In What Context Were the Projects Carried Out?
4.7 What Actions Have Been Developed in the Projects?
5 Conclusions
References
Engineering Education: Teachers’ and Students’ Competences Recent Developments
Digital Competence in Educators Through Interaction with a Virtual Learning Environment
1 Introduction
2 Context
3 Method
4 Results
5 Discussion
6 Conclusions
References
SDART Software: A Novel Tool Designed to Enhance Learning in Adjustment Computation in Surveying
1 Introduction
2 Academic Context
2.1 Support Teaching Software
3 Teaching-Learning Methodology
4 Conclusions
References
Software Alternatives to Design Learning Activities for Lean Six Sigma in e-learning
1 Introduction
2 Educational Context and Learning Requirements
3 Study of Software Alternatives
4 Discussion and Conclusions
References
Following Up on the Examination of Accesses to Educational Resources in a Blended Learning Flipped Classroom Controls Course
1 Introduction
2 The Controls and Servomechanisms Course
3 Available Courseware
4 Accesses to Courseware
4.1 Accesses in 2021.1
4.2 Accesses in 2021.2
4.3 Accesses in 2022.1
5 Comments
References
Roleplay Ethical Debates, An Activity to Learn to Apply Ethical Theories to Dilemmas and Improve Critical Thinking
1 Introduction
2 Course, Didactical Resource and Methodology
2.1 Courses Description
2.2 Didactical Resource
2.3 Methodology
3 Results
4 Discussion
5 Conclusions
References
Understanding Engineering Real Projects as an Innovative Learning Activity: A Case Study in the Bachelor’s Degree in Electrical Engineering
1 Introduction
2 Expected Learning Outcomes
3 Materials and Methods
3.1 Design of the Activity
4 Example of the Learning Activity
5 Discussion and Conclusions
References
Team-Based Learning to Enhance Student’ Competencies in a Fluid Mechanics Module
1 Introduction
2 Fluid Transport System
2.1 Course Characterization
2.2 Course Objectives
2.3 TBL Methodology Implemented and Course Assessment
3 Materials and Methods
3.1 Students’ TBL Questionnaire Description
3.2 Students’ Characterization
4 Results and Discussion
4.1 Students’ Habits of Study
4.2 Students’ Perceptions About Competencies Acquired with TBL
4.3 Teacher’ Perceptions
5 Conclusions
References
The Internship Subject in a CTeSP Course
1 Introduction
2 Higher Technical Professional Course (CTeSP)
3 Internship Subject Analysis
4 Conclusions
References
Technological Applications in Medical Training and Practice
The Metaverse in Medical Education and Clinical Practice
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results
4 Conclusions
References
Students’ Assessment of the Use of 3D Vision Technology Resources for Independent Learning
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results
4 Conclusions
References
Embedded Mobile App Prototyping
1 Introduction
2 Method
2.1 Nature and Approach
2.2 Context
2.3 Participants
2.4 Procedures and Data Collection
2.5 Data Analysis
2.6 Ethical Aspects
3 Results
4 Discussion
5 Conclusions
References
Private Health Record System: Improving the Patient’s Medical Knowledge with an e-Learning Approach
1 Introduction
2 Related Works
3 The Patient’s e-Learning Through PHR
4 The Role of EMR in e-Learning of the Patients
5 Comparison of the Patient’s e-Learning Approach via the PHR and Without It
6 Conclusions
References
Analysis of Ergonomic Aspects in the Surgery Field: Surgeons’ Appraisals
1 Introduction
2 Material and Methods
2.1 Tools
2.2 Sample
2.3 Exclusions
2.4 Data Processing
3 Results
3.1 Posture vs Tipology of Surgery
3.2 OR Elements: Surgeons’ Appraisals
4 Discussion
5 Conclusions
References
A Production Workflow for Healthcare Educational Dashboards Using Clinical Data
1 Introduction
2 Related Works
3 Proposed Approach
4 An Illustrative Case Study
4.1 Repository Creation
4.2 Infrastructure Provision
4.3 Dashboard Generation
5 Conclusions
References
Testing and Improvements of KoopaML: A Platform to Ease the Development of Machine Learning Pipelines in the Medical Domain
1 Introduction
2 First Version of the Platform
3 Methodology
4 Prototypes
5 Prototype Evaluation Results
5.1 DICOM Prototype
5.2 Redesign and Recommendation Mode
6 Discussion and Conclusions
References
Creating Virtual Models of a Flexible Endoscope in Unity
1 Introduction
2 Background
3 Modeling a Flexible Endoscope in Unity
4 Analysis
5 Conclusions
References
INOVSAFECARE Tools for the Training of Practitioners
1 Introduction
2 INOVSAFECARE, Creating Knowledge to Be Shared
2.1 Directed Exploration
2.2 Evaluation of the Workshop
3 Conclusions
References
Proposal and Definition of a Novel Methodology for Improving the Design and Manufacturing of 3D Printed Prosthetic Hands in Developing Countries
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Methodology
2.2 Tools and Techniques
3 Case Study
3.1 Understanding the Problem
3.2 Market Study
3.3 Hierarchical Organization
3.4 CAD Design
3.5 Analysis of the Model
4 Discussion
5 Conclusions
References
Design of a Methodology Based on Analysis of Vibrations for an Efficient Minimally Intrusive Remote Monitoring of the Evolution of Parkinson’s Disease
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Data Acquisition
2.2 Data Transmission
2.3 Cloud Computing and Backend Layer
2.4 End-to-End Interface
3 Case Study
3.1 User Interface (PD PAL APP)
3.2 Physician Interface
4 Discussion
5 Conclusions
References
Development of Mobile Interactive E-tools in Clinical Guidance for Nurse Practitioners
1 Introduction
2 Related Works
3 Proposed Approach
4 A Case Study
4.1 E-tool Design
4.2 E-tool Implementation
4.3 E-tool Testing
5 Conclusions
References
Design of a Novel Respiratory Device for Neonatal Patients
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Design Methodology
3 Design Process
3.1 Generation of Alternatives
3.2 First Generation of Concepts
3.3 Concept Filtering
3.4 Second Generation of Concepts
3.5 Concept Scoring
4 Discussion
5 Conclusion
References
Hyperthermia by Low Intensity Focused Ultrasound
1 Introduction
2 Simulations
3 Conclusions and Perspectives
References
Piloting the Willingness to Use a Didactic Robot in Health Sciences Education on the Basis of the UTAUT Model
1 Introduction
2 Background
3 Methodology
3.1 Questionnaire and Sample
4 Results
5 Discussion and Conclusions
6 Limitations and Future Research
References
Mobile Application Development for Human Veterinary Resources Management in a Low Density Population Context: Promoting Students Engagement by Working with the Community
1 Introduction
2 Related Work
3 Application Functional Requirements
4 Proposed Solution
4.1 Veterinary Registration
4.2 Shift Exchange
5 Implementation
6 Conclusions and Future Work
References
3D Technology Applied on Complex Abdominal Wall Pathologies
1 Introduction
1.1 CT Scanners and 3D Reconstructions
1.2 Patient
1.3 Anaesthesiology Department
2 Conclusions
References
Implementation of Qualitative and Mixed Methods Researches
The Opinion of the Spanish University Population on the Existence of Studies and Professions According to Gender
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Sample
4 Results
5 Discussion and Conclusions
References
Trends in Techno-Social Environments and Gerontechnological Innovation: A Systematic Mapping and European Initiatives
1 Introduction
2 Methodology for Systematic Mapping
3 Data Analysis and Results
4 Results of the Content of Publications
5 European Living Labs and Senior Labs Initiatives
6 Conclusions
References
Towards an Initial Teacher Training in Comprehensive Sexuality Education (CSE): Theoretical Scopes and Presentation of Categories
1 Introduction
2 Context
2.1 Comprehensive Sexuality Education (CSE)
2.2 State of the Situation in Chile
2.3 Initial Teacher Training
3 Methodology
3.1 Participants
3.2 Study Design and Data Collection
3.3 Analysis
4 Results
5 Conclusions
References
Evaluation of Learning Attributes in Higher Education: A Methodological Guide Validation
1 Introduction
2 Background
3 Summary of the Methodological Guide for Evaluating Attributes
4 Research Methodology
5 Results
5.1 Consolidation of the Evaluation Process in the Guide (Strength)
5.2 Improvements Derived from the Attribute Evaluation Process (Strength)
5.3 Rigid Rules (Weakness)
5.4 Definition of Roles and Responsibilities (Weakness)
5.5 Suitability of Instruments and Tools to Support the Process (Weakness)
5.6 Recognition and Adequacy of Workload (Contextual)
5.7 Professor Motivation (Contextual)
6 Discussion
7 Conclusions
References
Qualitative Analysis of the Transition and Learning Needs of Front-Line Refinery Leaders
1 Introduction
1.1 Literature Review
2 Framework
3 Data Collection
4 Data Analysis
5 Findings
6 Recommendations
7 Conclusion
References
Accompaniment Methodology of Open Innovation in Local Universities After COVID-19
1 Introduction
2 Open Innovation Accompaniment Methodology Bases
3 Method
4 Open Innovation Accompaniment Methodology
4.1 Diagnosis
4.2 Description of the Accompaniment Methodology
4.3 Design of the Accompaniment Methodology
5 Discussion
6 Conclusions
References
Digital Qualitative and Mixed Methods Research in the Transformation of Higher Education
1 Introduction
2 Digital Qualitative and Mixed Methods Research in Education During the Covid-19 Pandemic: A Literature Review
3 Systematization and Transformation of Educational Practices
3.1 Context of the Digital Qualitative and Mixed Methods Research
3.2 Results and Systematization of the Research Experience
4 Conclusions and Future Work
References
Bridging the Diversity Gap in STEM
Analysis of Gender and STEM in Secondary School Students
1 Introduction
2 Methodology and Sample Characterization
2.1 Participants
2.2 Description of the Students’ Questionnaire
2.3 Data Collection and Analysis Procedure
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Results of Interest, Tastes, Abilities/skills and Enjoyment
3.2 Influence and Support of Teachers and Parents/Guardians
3.3 Personal Values with STEM and External Motivation
3.4 STEM Role Models
4 Conclusions
References
Design of Didactic Units Focused on Improving Diversity Gaps Within New Multidisciplinary Spaces: The STEAM-Labs
1 Introduction
2 Designing a Unit Plan in STEAM
3 Unit Plan Data Analysis
4 Conclusions
References
Implementing Mentoring Communities Under the TEC21 Educational Model to Ensure the Resilience of Female Students in STEM Areas
1 Introduction
2 Objective
3 Methodology
3.1 Detailed Characteristics of the Instrument
4 Results and Discussion
5 Conclusions
References
A Pilot Experience to Raise Awareness Among Computer Science Undergraduates About the Gender Biases of Algorithms
1 Introduction
2 Experience Design
2.1 Participants Recruitment
2.2 Intervention and Posed Tasks
3 Results
4 Discussion
5 Conclusions
References
A Grey Web Analysis of Existing STEAM Diversity Initiatives
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Results and Discussions
4 Conclusion
References
Access and Dropout in Engineering and Architecture Studies. A Preliminary Study with a Gender Perspective
1 Introduction
2 Context and Methodology
3 Results
3.1 Reasons to Choose Engineering or Architecture Studies
3.2 Support Initiating Engineering or Architecture Studies
3.3 Dropout Engineering/Architecture Studies
4 Conclusions
References
Cultural Differences in Complexity Reasoning in Higher Education
1 Introduction
2 Theoretical Background
2.1 Complexity Reasoning
2.2 National Culture
3 Methodology
4 Results
5 Discussion
6 Conclusions
References
Gender Roles and Gender Stereotypes in Childhood Education: A Pilot Study
1 Introduction
2 Method
2.1 Sample
2.2 Instrument
2.3 Procedure
2.4 Results
3 Conclusions, Limitations, and Further Work
References
Lab-Based Education in STEM
Didactic Analysis of Olive Mill Wastewaters Antimicrobial Activity
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Total Phenolic Content
2.2 Antioxidant Activity
2.3 Antimicrobial Activity
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Total Phenols Content and Antioxidant Activity
3.2 Antimicrobial Activity
4 Conclusions
References
Perceptions of Mechanical Engineering Students Regarding Flipped Laboratory Activities
1 Introduction
2 The Flipped Approach
3 Methodology
3.1 Participants, Instruments, and Methods
3.2 Description of the Intervention
4 Presentation and Discussion of Results
5 Conclusions
References
Augmented Reality for Self-management of Learning in Manufacturing Laboratories (AR-ManufacturingLab)
1 Introduction
2 Development
2.1 Theoretical Framework
2.2 Description of the Innovation
2.3 Implementation Process for the Innovation
3 Results
4 Conclusions
References
GeOrder Simulator as Provocator of Semiotic Representations for Statistics Learning in STEM
1 Introduction
2 Theoretical Framework
2.1 Analysis
2.2 Design and Development
2.3 Implementation
2.4 Assessment
3 Conclusions
References
Identity, Technology and Education. Identity Construction Processes in Hyperconnected Ecosystems
Technology and Teaching Space: A Pedagogical Approach to the Classroom of the Future
1 Introduction
2 The Pedagogical Importance of the Teaching Space
3 (Re)ontologising the Teaching Space: From Classroom to Hyperclass
4 Conclusions
References
Daily Life of Elderly: An Approach to the Use of Gerontechnology
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
2.1 Investigation Objectives
2.2 Instrument and Analytical Procedure
2.3 Sample Participant
2.4 Results
3 Conclusions
References
Combating Screens with School Gardens: The Innovative 21st Century Tool Against Nature Deficit
1 Introduction
2 Theoretical Framework
3 Methodology
4 Conclusions
References
Students as Creators of Online Newspapers: A Tool’s User-Interface Proposal
1 Introduction
2 Theoretical Review
2.1 School Journalism
2.2 Personal Identity
3 State of Art
3.1 PÚBLICO na Escola
3.2 Writable
3.3 Jornal Joca
3.4 Write About
4 User Interface
4.1 News Writing Tool: Structure
5 Conclusions and Future Work
References
The Subjective Perception of Internet Use Among Protected Minors and Young Offenders in the Childhood Protection Scheme in the Spanish Region of Castilla y León
1 Introduction
2 Method
2.1 Research Design
2.2 Population and Sample
2.3 Timeline
3 Results
3.1 Subjective Assessment of Self-concept in Virtual Spaces
3.2 Subjective Assessment of the Emotion/Satisfaction Perceived in Virtual Spaces
3.3 Subjective Assessment of the Threats Perceived in Virtual spaces
4 Conclusions
References
Social Construction of Learning: Analysis from the Participants of an Energy Sustainability xMOOC
1 Introduction
1.1 Massive Open Online Courses (MOOC) and xMOOC Participants
1.2 The Social Construction of Learning in MOOC
1.3 Online Communication and Interaction
2 Method
2.1 Participants
2.2 Data Collection
3 Discussion of Results
4 Conclusions
References
The Anthropological Dynamics Revealed in the Use of Social Networks and What We Can Do from Pedagogy
1 Introduction
2 The Culture-Nature Dialogue in Social Networks
3 The End Shows Us the Way
4 Media is Not Neutral
5 Conclusion
References
Video Games as a Form of Youth Leisure: Socialization Practices and Self-perception Among Young University Students
1 Introduction
2 Self-perception
3 Methodology and Preliminary Results
3.1 Preliminary Results
4 Conclusions
References
Gamification and Games for Learning (GAMILEARN)
Tales from the Future: Exploring Game Design Strategies for Creativity and Play
1 Introduction
2 Background and Approach
2.1 Imagining Futures
2.2 Speculation and Play
3 Designing the Game
3.1 Speculative Thinking
3.2 Episodic Imagination and Narration
3.3 Meaningful Play
3.4 Tangibility and Representation
4 User Study
5 Results
5.1 Speculative Thinking: Imagining the Future
5.2 Episodic Imagination and Narration: Thinking in Patterns
5.3 Meaningful Play: Negotiation and Decisions
5.4 Tangibility and Representation: Visualising the Story
6 Discussion
6.1 Co-Creation and Collaboration
6.2 Decision-Making, Meaning and Sharing
7 Conclusion
References
Design and Implementation of Serious Games on Extended Reality: A Use Case in Construction Safety
1 Introduction
1.1 Research Proposal
2 Game Design
2.1 Learning Objectives
2.2 Elements, Game Mechanics and Core Loop
3 Development (Unreal Engine Implementation)
4 Results and Analysis
5 Conclusions
References
Urban Exploration Game – An EPS@ISEP 2022 Project
1 Introduction
2 Preliminary Studies
2.1 Market Research
2.2 Ethics
2.3 Marketing
2.4 Sustainability
3 Proposed Solution
3.1 Concept
3.2 Design
4 Prototype Development
4.1 Assembly
4.2 Tests and Results
5 Conclusion
5.1 Project Outcomes
5.2 Personal Outcomes
5.3 Future Development
References
Tangible Application of Gamification for Teaching Spatial Topics to Blind People Based on Universal Design for Learning
1 Introduction
2 Development Process
3 Case Study
4 Application of UDL Principles in Digital Educational Game
5 Conclusion
References
Coding is Fun: Engaging Adult On-Line Learners Using Programming Games
1 Introduction
2 Background
3 Methodology
3.1 Context of the Study
3.2 Game Selection Process
3.3 Research Method
4 Findings from the Journaling Process
5 Conclusions and Future Work
References
Gameful English: How Playing Vernacular Video Games May Enhance ESL Learning in an Extra-Mural Educational Context
1 Introduction
1.1 Italian ESL Contemporary Context
1.2 Theoretical Background
2 Gameful English Design Framework
2.1 Participants, Implementation, and Methodology
2.2 Initial Results and Discussion
3 Conclusions
References
Pervasiveness for Learning in Serious Games Applied to Older Adults
1 Introduction
2 Background
3 Integrating Pervasiveness into Serious Educational Games
3.1 Aesthetics
3.2 Purpose
3.3 Rules
3.4 Technology
3.5 Narrative
3.6 Ethics
4 Conclusions
References
Examples of Games for Learning in Erasmus+
1 Introduction
2 Examples of Erasmus+ Projects
2.1 School Field
2.2 Vocational Education and Training Field
2.3 Youth Field: The Suitcase, the Map, and the Voyage of a Youth Worker
3 Conclusions
References
Unplugged Gamification: Towards a Definition
1 Introduction
2 Method
3 Results
4 Discussion
5 Conclusions
References
Smart Learning
Smart Schools: Inclusion and Participation of Vulnerable Students During at Distance Learning
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Main Results: From Problems to Solutions
3.1 Home, School, and Community Partnership
3.2 Distance Learning and Digital Divide
3.3 Distance Learning and Active Learning
3.4 Distance Learning and Cooperative Learning
3.5 Foreign Students and Languages Barriers
4 Conclusions
References
Students’ Acceptance and Efficiency of Virtual Reality in French Language Learning at Higher Education
1 Introduction
2 Framework
2.1 Foreign Language Teaching
2.2 Integrating ICT in the Teaching and Learning of French
2.3 Virtual Reality (VR)
3 Research Methodology
3.1 Sample
3.2 Data Collection and Analysis
4 Results
4.1 The Use of Technologies by Students
4.2 Acceptance of the Instrumented Device: Mondly
4.3 Analysis of the Oral Academic Performances
5 Conclusions
References
Students’ Performance and Academic Success Study Using Self Directed Based Learning Methodology
1 Introduction
2 SDBL Methodology: Key Aspects
3 Analysis Methodology: Definition and Data Collection
4 Analysis Tool
5 Analysis Description
6 Results Discussion
7 Conclusions
References
TEmaps for Designing Courses Based on Smart Learning
1 Introduction
2 Background
2.1 Personalized and Adaptive Learning Model
2.2 Platform
2.3 Principles
2.4 TEmaps
3 Design of the TEmap
3.1 Defining the Facets
3.2 Defining the Levels
3.3 Defining the Components
4 Discussion
5 Conclusions
References
Identifying Demotivation Patterns in Students of Subjects Related to Data Science at College
1 Introduction and Objectives
2 Design of the Study
2.1 Phases
2.2 Analysed Courses and Data
3 Data Analysis
4 Interpretation of Results
5 Conclusions and Proposals
References
Trends on Communication, Educational Assessment, Sustainable Development, Educational Innovation, Mechatronics and Learning Analytics at TEEM 2022
1 Communication, Education, and Social Media
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Communication Papers in TEEM 2022
2 Educational Assessment and Guidance
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Educational Assessment Papers in TEEM 2022
3 Advances on Sustainable Development in Higher Education
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Sustainable Development Papers in TEEM 2022
4 Educational Innovation
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Educational Innovation Papers in TEEM 2022
5 Mechatronics Engineering Education
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Mechatronics Engineering Education Papers in TEEM 2022
6 Those Were the Days! Looking Back at Ten Years of Learning Analytics at TEEM
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Learning Analytics Papers in TEEM 2022
7 Doctoral Consortium
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Contributions to the TEEM 2022 Doctoral Consortium
References
Communication, Education and Social Media
Fact-Checking: A Journalistic Movement yet to Be Discovered? Audience Attitudes and Familiarity Levels in Portugal
1 Introduction
2 Fact-Checking: Attitudes and Perception
3 Methodology
4 Results
4.1 Association Between Variables Under Study
4.2 Political Orientation vs News and Fact-Checking
5 Discussion and Conclusion
References
Opportunities, Challenges, and Risks of Clickbait in the Scientific Communication
1 Introduction
1.1 Dissemination of Science in the Spanish Digital Media
1.2 Clickbait as a Digital Media Strategy
2 Methodology and Objectives
3 Results
4 Conclusions
References
Signs of Culture in Computer Games: Assumption for Education
1 Introduction
2 Theoretical Background
3 Results
References
Women in Front of and Behind the Camera. Analysis of the Representation of Society in Contemporary Spanish Cinema
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
2.1 Sample
2.2 Codebook
3 Results
4 Discussion and Conclusions
References
Chatbot to Provide Initial Assistance to Erasmus Students in Case of Emergency
1 Introduction
2 Background
3 Chatbot
3.1 Chatbot Design and Construction with DialogFlow
3.2 Webhook Tools
3.3 Interaction Scheme
4 Evaluation
4.1 Interaction Example
4.2 Questionnaire
5 Results
6 Conclusions
References
New Technologies to Quit Smoking. Analysis of Mobile Applications Available for iPhone
1 Introduction
2 Objectives
3 Method
3.1 Sample
3.2 Procedure
4 Results
5 Conclusions
References
Are Intercultural Competencies the Key to International Collaboration?: A Systematic Review
1 Introduction
2 Method
2.1 Planning
2.2 Conducting
2.3 Delimitation
3 Results
4 Conclusions
References
Profiles of Smartphone Use and Consumption in Spanish Students of Generations Y and Z
1 Introduction
1.1 Smartphone Usage and Consumption Habits of Generations Y and Z
2 Methodology
3 Results
4 Conclusions
References
The Censorship of Nudes on Instagram: The Female and Male Body and Its Sexualization
1 Introduction
2 Theoretical Background
3 Methodology
3.1 Procedure and Sample
3.2 Procedure and Measures
3.3 Analysis
4 Results
5 Conclusions
6 Limitations and Future Lines of Work
References
Education Through Organizations with a Purpose in Social Networks
1 Introduction
2 Theoretical Background
3 Methodology
4 Results
5 Conclusions
References
Museums and Heritage Education on Instagram: An Analysis of the Actions of the “Museus Conectam” Network
1 Introduction
2 Museums and Cultural Heritage
3 Museums, Social Media and the Formation of the Museums Conectam Network
4 Conclusions
References
The Association of Internet Use with Subjective Well-Being: An Empirical Study Based on CGSS 2017
1 Introduction
2 Literature Review
2.1 Subjective Well-Being
2.2 Internet Use Behaviors and Subjective Well-Being
3 Methods
3.1 Data
3.2 Measures
4 Methods
4.1 Descriptive Analysis
4.2 Regression Model Test
4.3 Heterogeneity Analysis
5 Discussion
References
Educational Assessment and Guidance
Application of the CIPP Model in the Structure of a Satisfaction Survey for Elearning Training Activities
1 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Implementation of the CIPP Model
3 Results
4 Discussion and Conclusion
References
Mentoring in Educational Innovation: Systematization in the Experience of Teachers’ Educational Experimentation and Research
1 Introduction
1.1 Context
2 Methodology
3 Results
3.1 Characteristics of Educational Innovation Projects
3.2 Mentees’ Needs in Educational Innovation Mentoring Processes
3.3 Mentoring Criteria Validated by Mentees
4 Discussion
5 Conclusions
References
Student’s Awareness of the Environment in Mallorca (Spain) on Education for Sustainable Development (ESD)
1 Introduction
2 Methods
2.1 Research Design and Participation
2.2 Instrument, Data Collection, and Analysis
3 Results and Discussion
4 Conclusions
References
Comparing Students’ Critical Thinking by Using the Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy in Online and Face-to-Face Class Formats of Organic Chemistry
1 Introduction
2 Methods
2.1 Participants
2.2 School Curriculums
2.3 Instrument, Data Collection, and Analysis
3 Results
4 Discussion
5 Conclusions
References
The Usefulness of a Mobile App in a Visual Literacy Blended Learning Course for Educators
1 Introduction
2 Method
2.1 Sample
2.2 Procedure
3 Research Tool to Collect Data
4 Data Analysis and Results
4.1 Section 1. Participants’ Opinions About the Usefulness of the Visual Mobile App
4.2 Section 2. Participants’ Usage of the App and the Experience in Understanding the Interface
4.3 Section 3. Participants’ Comments About How the Course and the Mobile App Support Them to Improve the Planning and Development of Teaching Material
5 Discussion
6 Study Limitations and Future Research
7 Conclusion
References
Competences of University Teaching Staff to Use New Learning and Evaluation Resources
1 Introduction
2 Context
3 Method
4 Results
5 Conclusions
References
Advances on Sustainable Development in Higher Education
Learning Object as an Educational Innovation Tool for Energy Management Systems Teaching Based on the ISO-50001 Framework: An Interdisciplinary Descriptive Approach
1 Introduction
2 Research Scenario Contextualization
3 Literature Review
4 PADDIEM Methodology Overview
5 Discussion, Opportunities, and Challenges from an Interdisciplinary Approach
6 Conclusions
References
Learning the Design of Geothermal Sustainable Systems Through the Analysis of Acceptable Outcomes
1 Introduction
1.1 Description of the Academic Context
2 Process
2.1 Geothermal Systems Design Criteria
2.2 Cases
2.3 Case Description
3 Discussion
4 Conclusions
References
Promoting Sustainability and Energy Efficiency in Higher Education Through the Optimized Management of Geothermal Resources
1 Introduction
2 Description of the Academic Context
3 Methodology
3.1 Activity Fundamentals
3.2 Model Processing
4 Activity Outputs
5 Conclusions
References
Electronic Test Subjects and Sustainability
1 Introduction
2 Test Related Concepts
3 Case Study
4 Conclusions
References
Insect Farming – An EPS@ISEP 2022 Project
1 Introduction
2 Preliminary Studies
2.1 Related Work
2.2 Ethics
2.3 Marketing
2.4 Sustainability
3 Proposed Solution
3.1 Concept
3.2 Design
4 Prototype Development
4.1 Assembly
4.2 Tests and Results
5 Conclusion
5.1 Achievements
5.2 Future Development
References
Form Follows Recyclability? Instruments for Dissipation-Aware Product Design
1 Introduction
2 Background
2.1 Design Processes and Material Selection
2.2 Existent Instruments
2.3 Metal Recycling
3 Methodology
3.1 Prototyping
3.2 Qualitative Usability Study
4 Findings
4.1 Interaction with Instruments
5 Discussion and Conclusion
References
The Role of Engineering in Achieving the SDGs: A Case Study on Awareness-Raising Through Different Undergraduate Subjects at the Higher Polytechnic School of Zamora (Spain)
1 Introduction
2 Context and Objective
3 Methodology
4 Results
4.1 Satisfaction Questionnaires
5 Conclusions
References
An Overview of the Evolution of Civil Engineering Education Towards Sustainability in Portugal
1 Introduction
2 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in Education
3 Education in Civil Engineering Towards Sustainability
4 Conclusions
References
Towards Sustainable Living: Undergraduate Training Course Using AWORLD App as an Educational Resource
1 Introduction
1.1 Objective
2 Methodological Elements
2.1 Characteristics of Constructivist Learning
3 The Training Course
3.1 General Description of the Training Course
3.2 Characteristics of the Academic Model Used in the Training Course
4 Conclusions
References
Educational Innovation
Didactic Strategies in Hybrid and Remote Learning Modalities to Promote Critical Thinking
1 Introduction
2 Development of Critical Thinking in Hybrid-Mixed Modalities and Remote Learning [+D]: Didactic Strategies, Paradigms and Models
2.1 Development of Critical Thinking in Hybrid-Mixed Modalities
3 Method, Paradigm, Objective, and Context
3.1 Participants, Data Collection and Analysis
4 Results
4.1 Combination of Strategies: Debates, Simulation, Scaffolding, Films, Videos and Science Fair Exhibits
5 Discussions: Critical Thinking, Contemporary Teaching and Learning
6 Conclusions
References
Academic Analytics Applied in the Study of the Relationship Between the Initial Profile of Undergraduate Students and Early Drop-Out Rates. Defining the Variables of a Predictor Instrument
1 Introduction
2 Context
3 Method
3.1 Type of Data / Factors
3.2 Questionnaire
4 Conclusions
References
Analysis, Progress and Comparative of the European Digital Competence Framework DIGCOMP
1 Introduction
1.1 DigComp 1.0
2 DigComp 2.0
3 DigComp 2.1
4 DigComp 2.2
5 Conclusions
References
A Tool to Analyze the Satisfaction Impact of the MFT Method
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Evaluation Tool
3.1 MFT Surveys
4 Descriptive Results
5 Conclusions and Future Work
References
Digital Competence, Educational Innovation with ICT and Burnout in Tertiary Education Latin American Professors
1 Introduction
2 Theoretical Framework
3 Methodology
4 Results
5 Discussion and Conclusions
References
Perceptions of Future Teachers Experiencing Flipped Learning as Students in a Master’s Course in Spain
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Results
3.1 Descriptive Analysis
3.2 Differences in Students’ Perceptions by Cohort
4 Discussion and Conclusions
References
Typology of Processes in the Shared Leadership of Academic Work Teams
1 Introduction
2 Functional Model
3 Context
4 Results
5 Conclusions
References
Personalized Flipped Classroom
1 Introduction
2 Functional Model
3 Context
4 Results
5 Conclusions
References
Learning Design Using Mobile Technology in Visual Literacy Teacher Training
1 Introduction
1.1 Visual Literacy Course Overview
2 The RASE Learning Design Model
3 A Resource for Promoting Visual Literacy
3.1 Relation Between the Visual App and the Training Process’ Content
4 Usage Throughout the Course
5 Implications for Teacher Training
6 Future Work
References
A Proposal for Innovative Higher Education in Archaeology Through the Use of Virtual Tours
1 Introduction
2 New Teaching-Learning Possibilities After the Pandemic
3 Methodology
3.1 Block I. Contextualization of the Place Under Study
3.2 Block II. Virtual Tours as Immersive Digital Tools
4 Learning Possibilities
5 Conclusions
References
Digital Teaching Skills to Design Virtual Learning Classrooms with the 4PADAFE Methodology
1 Introduction
2 Description
2.1 PADAFE Methodology to Design Virtual Learning Classrooms
2.2 Digital Skills
3 Methodology
4 Results
5 Conclusions
References
Synergies Between Geomatics and Biological Sciences for the Creation of New Virtual Materials for Teaching Taphonomy
1 Introduction
1.1 Context
2 Methodology
2.1 Block I. The Use of New Technologies for the Study of BSMs
2.2 Block II. Photogrammetry as a Tool for Obtaining Precise Geometries of Objects or of Their Details
2.3 Block III. Geometric Morphometrics as a Tool for BSM Analysis
3 Results of the Activity and Discussion
4 Conclusions
References
Gamified Formative Assessment in Local Architectures
1 Introduction and Problem Statement
2 Local Architecture for Educational Applications
3 Gamified Formative Assessment in Local Architectures
3.1 Use Case Test Application
4 Conclusion
References
Enhancing Adaptive Teaching of Reading Skills Using Digital Technologies: The LATILL Project
1 Introduction
2 The Consortium
3 The Project
3.1 The Objectives
3.2 The Work Plan
4 Project Results
4.1 Open Education Platform (R1)
4.2 Adaptive Retrieval of Reading Material Using Topic- and CEFR-Classification (R2)
4.3 Supporting Didactic Materials (R3)
4.4 Professional Development Programme (R4)
4.5 CEFR Reference Corpus for German (R5)
5 Conclusions
References
A Model for Learning with Focus on Social Responsibility, Problem Solving and Collaborative Work in Higher Education
1 Introduction
2 Service-Learning Methodology and the Development of GCs in Higher Education
3 UTEM Service – Learning Model
4 Methodology
4.1 Participants
4.2 Instruments
5 Results and Discussion
6 Conclusions
References
Multi-stakeholder Perspective on the Gap Between Existing Realities and New Requirements for Online and Blended Learning: An Exploratory Study
1 Introduction
2 Context, Sample and Methods
3 Results
3.1 Students
3.2 Lecturers
3.3 Administrative Staff
4 Discussion
5 Conclusions
References
Gamified Values Education for Fostering Migrant Integration at Schools
1 Introduction
2 The Consortium
3 The Project
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Workplan
4 Project Results
4.1 Factor Analysis
4.2 Games-Based English Lessons About EU Citizenship
4.3 Integration via Gamified English Lessons
4.4 Branching Scenarios
5 Conclusions
References
New Trends in Mechatronics Engineering Education
Learning Mechatronics in the MacGyver Way
1 Introduction
2 The Mechatronic's Challenge
2.1 Project Briefing
2.2 Rules and Operational Conditions
3 Implementation and Obtained Results
4 Conclusion
Robot Development for Educational Purposes: Advances on Real and Simulation Environments
1 Introduction
2 Simtwo Simulation Environment
2.1 Robot Control Program
3 Simulation
4 Robot Modelling
4.1 Robot Architecture
5 Conclusions and Future Work
References
Towards a More Accurate Time of Flight Distance Sensor to Be Applied in a Mobile Robotics Application
1 Introduction
2 Time of Flight Sensor
3 Setup for Acquiring Data
4 Results and Discussion
4.1 Horizontal Movement over a Step
4.2 Angle Effect
4.3 Field of View Analysis
5 Conclusion and Future Work
References
Automated Ceramics Tableware Finishing: A Laboratory Prototype for Concept Validation
1 Introduction
2 Finishing Device
3 Collaborative Robot
4 Integration
5 Results
6 Conclusions and Future Work
References
Those Were the Days! Looking Back at Ten Years of Learning Analytics at TEEM
From Variables to States to Trajectories (VaSSTra): A Method for Modelling the Longitudinal Dynamics of Learning and Behaviour
1 Introduction
2 VaSSTra Method Description
3 Case Study
3.1 From Variables to States
3.2 From States to Sequences
3.3 From Sequences to Trajectories
4 Discussion
References
A Revision of LMS Interaction Classifications for Learning Analytics
1 Introduction and Problem Statement
2 Literature Review
2.1 Interactions in Learning Management Systems: The Case of Moodle
2.2 A Review on Existing Classifications of Interactions
2.3 A Proposal for a New Classification of Interactions
3 Learning Cycle Interaction Categories and Learning Analytics
3.1 Visualization and Analysis of the Learning Cycle Interaction Categories: InDash
3.2 Example: Basic Course Analysis
4 Conclusion
References
Higher Education from a Learning Analytics Perspective: an Exploration of the Theory Choice in Doctoral Educational Research
1 Introduction
2 Conceptual Framework
2.1 Academic Communities of Practice
2.2 Doctoral Dissertations
2.3 Learning Analytics Research
3 Research Questions
4 Methods
5 Results
6 Discussion
References
Learning Analytics’ Privacy in the Fog and Edge Computing: A Systematic Mapping Review
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Results and Discussion
4 Conclusion
References
Doctoral Consortium
Digital Transformation in Higher Education Institutions Implementation Model
1 Context and Motivation that Drives the Dissertation Research
2 State-of-the-Art
3 Hypothesis and Problem Statement
4 Research Objectives/Goals
5 Research Approach and Methods
6 Results
7 Dissertation Status
8 Current and Expected Contributions
References
Get the Most Out of Erasmus+ Good Practices
1 Context and Motivation that Drives the Dissertation Research
2 State of the Art
3 Hypothesis/Thesis and/or Problem Statement
4 Research Objectives/Goals
5 Your Research Approach and Methods, Including Relevant Rationale
5.1 Interview
5.2 Focus Groups
6 Results to Date and Their Validity
7 Dissertation Status, Current and Expected Contributions
8 Conclusions
References
Indigenous Women in Higher Education in STEM: A Case Study in Oaxaca
1 Introduction
2 Related Works
3 Objectives
4 Methodology
5 Main Results
6 Conclusions
References
Development of Algorithms and Methods for the Simulation and Improvement in the Quantum Natural Language Processing Area
1 Introduction
2 Doctoral Thesis Project
2.1 Methodology
2.2 Systematic Review
3 Proof of Concept
4 Conclusions
References
Design, Development, and Evaluation of a Serious Game Aimed at Addressing Bullying and Cyberbullying with Primary School Students
1 Context and Motivation that Drives the Dissertation Research
2 State-of-the-Art
3 Hypothesis of the Thesis and Research Objectives
4 Research Approach and Methods
5 Dissertation Status
6 Expected Contributions
References
Teaching Processes Concerning the Production of TV with Portuguese Elderly – From the Gratifications Obtained by Consumption to the Expectancies of the Production Process
1 Context and Motivation that Drives the Dissertation Research
2 State of the Art
3 Hypothesis
4 Research Objectives
5 Research Approach and Methods
6 Results to Date and Dissertation Status
7 Current and Expected Contributions
References
TAM, Assessment, and Mobile Technologies: A Study of Teachers’ Acceptance in Higher Education
1 Context and Motivation that Drives the Dissertation Research
2 State of Art
3 Hypothesis and Problem Statement
4 Research Objectives
5 Research Approach and Methods, Including Relevant Rationale
6 Results to Date
7 Dissertation Status
8 Current and Expected Contributions
References
Validation and Implementation of a Training Course on Digital Competence and Cybersecurity in the Future Teachers of the Autonomous Community of the Canary Islands Using the Escape Room Technique
1 Context and Motivation that Drives the Dissertation Research
2 State-of-the-Art
3 Hypothesis of the Thesis and Research Objectives
3.1 General Objectives
3.2 Specific Objectives
4 Research Approach and Methods
5 Dissertation Status
6 Expected Contribution
References
XR as a Forward-Looking Tool for Mathematics Learning of Secondary School Students with Dyslexia and ADHD: A Thesis Plan
1 Context and Motivation
2 State of the Art
2.1 Preliminary Research
2.2 Literature Review Plan
3 Problem Statement
4 Research Objectives and Expected Results
5 Dissertation Status
6 Conclusions
References
The Influence of Serious Games and Gamification in University Students of English as a Foreign Language
1 Introduction
2 State of Art
2.1 Gamification, Game-Based Learning and Serious Games
2.2 Teaching English as a Foreign Language Using ICT Tools
2.3 ICT in Education
3 Hypothesis and Objectives
4 Research Approach and Methods
4.1 Population
4.2 Instruments
4.3 Systematic Literature Review
5 State of the Thesis
References
Methodological Approach to the Evaluation of Scientific Journals
1 Introduction
2 Hypothesis/Thesis and/or Problem Statement
3 Research Approach and Methods, Including Relevant Rationale
4 Results to Date and Their Validity
5 Dissertation Status
6 Current Status and Expected Results
References
Development of an Accompaniment Program for Women at Risk of Exclusion After Unintended Pregnancies
1 Context and Motivation Driving the Thesis Research
2 Introduction
2.1 The Reality of Unintended Pregnancy
2.2 Subjective Well-Being and Satisfaction with Life
3 Proposal for Research
3.1 Research Objective
3.2 Research Design
4 Dissertation Status
References
The Maker Movement in Engineering Education: A Partial Literature Review of the Research Opportunities on Competency Development
1 Introduction
2 Context and Motivation Guiding the Research Dissertation
3 State-of-the-Art
3.1 Maker Movement
3.2 Makerspace
3.3 Maker Movement and Education
3.4 Maker Movement and Competency Development
4 Research Approach and Methods
5 Results to Date
6 Dissertation Status and Expected Contributions
7 Conclusions
References
Design, Development, and Evaluation of an Intervention in Terms of Teaching/Learning Practices of Curricular Units of Differential and Integral Calculus in Engineering Degrees
1 Context and Motivation that Drives the Dissertation Research
2 State-of-the-Art
2.1 European Society for Engineering Education (SEFI)
2.2 Mathematics Learning Support (MLS)
3 Main Objectives to Be Achieved
4 Research Approach
4.1 Portugal Context in the Access to Engineering Studies
4.2 The Diagnostic Test at ISEC
4.3 Support Center for Mathematics in Engineering (CeAMatE)
5 Current and Expected Contributions
References
Research Plan and Development of the Thesis: Musical Preferences in Primary Education in the Nou Llevant/Sud Neighborhood of Mallorca
1 Introduction
2 Objectives and Development of the Thesis
2.1 Methodology of the Thesis
2.2 New Technologies and Musical Preferences
3 Conclusions
References
Assess Informal Learning, Through Technology, in Science Centers or Science Museums
1 Introduction
2 State of Art
3 Methodology
4 Preliminary Results
5 Conclusions
References
Jazz Standards: From the Manuscript to Multiple Possibilities Through Computation
1 Introduction
2 Hypothesis, Objectives, and Methodology
2.1 Hypothesis
2.2 Objectives
2.3 Methodology
3 Current State
4 Conclusions
References
Definition of a Reference Architecture for the Integration of Augmented Reality/Virtual Reality Techniques in Remote Experimentation Environments
1 Context and Motivation
2 State-of-the-Art
3 Hypothesis
3.1 Research Objectives
4 Research Approach and Methods
5 Results to Date and Their Validity
6 Current and Expected Contributions
References
The Discourse Against the LGTB Community in Social Networks and Its Relationship with Hate Crimes in Spain
1 Context and Motivation that Drives the Dissertation Research
2 State-of-the-Art
3 Hypotheses, Problem Statement, and Research Objectives
4 Research Approach and Methods
5 Results and Dissertation Status
6 Current and Expected Contributions
References
Data Literacy for the Development of Learning Analytics in K-12 Environments
1 Context and Motivation
2 State-of-the-Art
3 Hypotheses and Problem Statement
4 Research Objectives
5 Research Approach and Methods
6 Results to Date and Their Validity
7 Dissertation Status
8 Current and Expected Contributions
References
Grading Criteria in Technology Subject in Secondary Education Within the Framework of the LOMLOE
1 Context and Motivation that Drives the Dissertation Research
2 State-of-the-Art
3 Hypothesis and Objectives
4 Research Approach and Methods
5 Results and Future Steps
6 Conclusions
References
Author Index

Citation preview

Lecture Notes in Educational Technology

Francisco José García-Peñalvo Alicia García-Holgado Editors

Proceedings TEEM 2022: Tenth International Conference on Technological Ecosystems for Enhancing Multiculturality Salamanca, Spain, October 19-21, 2022

Lecture Notes in Educational Technology Series Editors Ronghuai Huang, Smart Learning Institute, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China Kinshuk, College of Information, University of North Texas, Denton, TX, USA Mohamed Jemni, University of Tunis, Tunis, Tunisia Nian-Shing Chen, National Yunlin University of Science and Technology, Douliu, Taiwan J. Michael Spector, University of North Texas, Denton, TX, USA

The series Lecture Notes in Educational Technology (LNET), has established itself as a medium for the publication of new developments in the research and practice of educational policy, pedagogy, learning science, learning environment, learning resources etc. in information and knowledge age, – quickly, informally, and at a high level. Abstracted/Indexed in: Scopus, ACM Digital Library, ERIC, INSPEC, Norwegian Register for Scientific Journals and Series, SCImago

Francisco José García-Peñalvo · Alicia García-Holgado Editors

Proceedings TEEM 2022: Tenth International Conference on Technological Ecosystems for Enhancing Multiculturality Salamanca, Spain, October 19–21, 2022

Editors Francisco José García-Peñalvo GRIAL Research Group Universidad de Salamanca Salamanca, Spain

Alicia García-Holgado GRIAL Research Group Universidad de Salamanca Salamanca, Spain

ISSN 2196-4963 ISSN 2196-4971 (electronic) Lecture Notes in Educational Technology ISBN 978-981-99-0941-4 ISBN 978-981-99-0942-1 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0942-1 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

TEEM 2022 Preface

We celebrated the tenth edition of the Technological Ecosystems for Enhancing Multiculturality (TEEM) International Conference in the University of Salamanca, the institution in which it was born. Nine years ago, this academic conference project started. We had the goal to create a new interdisciplinary event in which the new advances in technology would be reflected in the resolution of the problems of Education and the Knowledge Society. We pursued the establishment of a new research community with a strong aim to help Ph.D. students to have opportunities to know and collaborate with consolidated researchers worldwide. Looking back, we are very satisfied with the obtained results. We are a consolidated research community that has grown, many research projects were born in the previous editions, many collaborative papers in prestigious books and journals have been published, many international internships have occurred, but we are very proud because tens of new Ph.D. participated in the previous editions of TEEM Doctoral Consortium track and contribute to help the future Ph.D. to be part of the TEEM family. This edition is a reunion event, fully face-to-face, after two editions in virtual and hybrid mode due to COVID-19. More than one hundred and ninety researchers shared their scientific advances in this tenth edition. Some of them were new, but most of them were regular participants in this conference, which reinforces the original idea of forming a solid scientific community. It is also important to say that this TEEM tenth edition was within the European Campus of City-Universities (EC2U) Alliance (https://ec2u.eu/), co-funded by the Erasmus+ Programme of the European Union. The EC2U is a multi-cultural and multilingual Alliance consisting of seven long-standing, education- and research-led, locally and globally engaged universities from four diverse regions of the European Union: the University of Coimbra, the University of Ias, i, the University of Jena, the University of Pavia, the University of Poitiers (Coordinator), the University of Salamanca and the University of Turku. TEEM 2022 has had 210 submissions from which 145 full papers were accepted; that is, there is a 30% rejection rate. These papers have involved 424 authors from 26 countries. The TEEM 2022 was organized in 16 thematic tracks that covers research areas such as Educational Assessment and Orientation, Human–Computer Interaction, Computers in Education, Communication Media and Education, Medicine and Education, Learning Analytics, Engineering Education, Robotics in Education, Diversity in Education, Gamification and Games for Learning, Smart Learning and Laboratory-Based Education. In addition to the regular sessions, the TEEM 2022 edition featured three prestigious guest speakers. Firstly, Gema Parreño Piqueras, Developer Advocate at Iterative, gave the inaugural keynote entitled “Alignment of language agents in video games.” Dr. Oriol Borrás Gené, Professor at Universidad Rey Juan Carlos (Spain), gave a keynote entitled

vi

TEEM 2022 Preface

“3 years escaping from a room, learned lessons.” The closing lecture was given by Dr. Ricardo Colomo-Palacios, Full Professor at the Østfold University College (Norway), with the title “Academia-Industry collaboration: a view from IT.” We would like to thank the members of the Steering Committee for their counsel and the International Scientific Committee for their accurate and timely reviewing. We would also like to thank the Track Chairs for their efforts in organizing the academic issues related to each track and the Organizing Committee for their huge effort in all the associated tasks that an international conference involves. We would like to do a special mention for the Editors-in-Chief of the linked journals that have offered special issues or slots in their regular issues for those selected and extended papers of TEEM 2022 conference that will have another in-depth review following the guidelines of each journal. Last, but not least, we would like to thank the participating organizations: University of Salamanca, Research Institute for Educational Sciences at the University of Salamanca, GRIAL Research Group and European Campus of City-Universities (EC2U) Alliance for their support. Next year, we will continue with eleventh edition of TEEM Conference that will be held at Bragança, Portugal, organized by Instituto Politécnico de Bragança. October 2022

Francisco José García-Peñalvo Alicia García-Holgado TEEM 2022 Conference Chairs

Organization

Conference Chairs Francisco José García-Peñalvo Alicia García-Holgado

University of Salamanca, Spain University of Salamanca, Spain

Steering Committee Francisco José García-Peñalvo (Chair) Ricardo Colomo-Palacios Ángel Fidalgo Blanco David Griffiths María José Rodríguez-Conde María Soledad Ramírez Montoya Peter Sloep Robert Tennyson

University of Salamanca, Spain Østfold University College, Norway Technological University of Madrid, Spain Universidad Internacional de la Rioja, Spain University of Salamanca, Spain Tecnológico de Monterrey, Spain OUNL, The Netherlands University of Minnesota, USA

Organizing Committee Lucía García-Holgado (Chair) Alicia García-Holgado (Chair) Andrea Vázquez-Ingelmo Valeria Gabriela Montoya Roncancio Sonia Verdugo Castro Alberto Ortíz López Pamela Palomera

Patricia Sánchez-Holgado

University of Salamanca, Spain University of Salamanca, Spain University of Salamanca, Spain University of Salamanca, Spain University of Salamanca, Spain University of Salamanca, Spain Universidad Metropolitana de Ciencias de la Educación/Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Chile University of Salamanca, Spain

Design Lucía García-Holgado

University of Salamanca, Spain

viii

Organization

Program Committee Adriana Gamazo Adriana Segura Mariño

University of Salamanca, Spain Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador Sede Santo Domingo, Ecuador Agustín Carlos Caminero-Herráez Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia, Spain Agustín Pérez Martín Miguel Hernández University, Spain Alberto Ardèvol Abreu Universidad de La Laguna, Spain Alberto Ortiz López University of Salamanca, Spain Alberto Prats Galino University of Barcelona, Spain Alberto Sánchez Rojo Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Spain Alejandra Martínez-Monés Universidad de Valladolid, Spain Alejandro Rabasa Dolado Miguel Hernández University, Spain Alessandro Ruggiero University of Salerno, Italy Alexander Kist University of Southern Queensland, Australia Alexandre da Silva Pinto Escola Superior de Educação do Porto, Portugal Alicia García-Holgado University of Salamanca, Spain Alicia Murciano Hueso Universidad de Salamanca, Spain Alicia Triviño Universidad de Málaga, Spain Álvaro Luis Rojas Zamorano Universidad Tecnológica Metropolitana, Chile Amílcar Oliveira Universidade Aberta, Portugal Amparo Camacho Díaz Universidad del Norte, Colombia Ana Belén González Rogado University of Salamanca, Spain Ana García Valcárcel University of Salamanca, Spain Ana María Balbín Pontifical Catholic University of Peru, Peru Ana María González Ramos Universidad Pablo de Olavide de Sevilla, Spain Ana María Pinto-Llorente University of Salamanca, Spain Ana Pavani PUC-Rio, Brazil André Fidalgo Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto, Portugal Andrea Vázquez-Ingelmo University of Salamanca, Spain Ángel Fidalgo Technical University of Madrid, Spain Ángel Hernández-García Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain Angela Rees Pontydysgu, Welsh educational research institute, UK Ángeles Domínguez Cuenca Tecnológico de Monterrey, Mexico Anita Tabacco Politecnico di Torino, Italy Anna Puig Universitat de Barcelona, Spain Anna Puigdellívol-Sánchez Universidad de Barcelona, Spain Antonio Fernández Martínez University of Almería, Spain Antonio Fumero-Reverón Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain

Organization

Antonio Jimeno Morenilla António Pedro Dias da Costa Antonio Robles-Gómez Aruquia Peixoto Bahar Kutun Baltasar Fernández-Manjón Bárbara Mariana Gutiérrez Pérez Beatriz Legeren Belén Curto Diego Bernardino Lopes Bertil Marques Bianca Thoilliez Ruano Blanca Ruth Orantes de Pineda Camino Fernández-Llamas Carina S. González-González Carlos Alberola López Carlos Arcila Calderón Carlos Arguedas Matarrita Carlos Cuenca-Enrique Carlos Felgueiras Carlos Vaz de Carvalho Carlos Villagrá Arnedo Carol Rivero Panaqué Cassia Gonçalves Isac Catalina Cerquera Arbeláez Catalina Rus Casas Celina Leão Clara Viegas Claudia Gomes Claudius Terkowsky Cristina Frade Martínez Cristina Mesuita Cristina Pereira Daniel Amo Daniel Aranda Daniel Gonçalves Daniel Riera

ix

University of Alicante, Spain University of Aveiro, Portugal Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia, Spain CEFET/RJ, Brazil Technische Hochschule Ingolstadt, Germany Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Spain Universidad de Salamanca, Spain University of Vigo, Spain University of Salamanca, Spain Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto, Portugal Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain Universidad Tecnológica de El Salvador, El Salvador University of León, Spain University of La Laguna, Spain University of Valladolid, Spain Universidad de Salamanca, Spain Universidad Estatal a Distancia, Costa Rica Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto, Portugal Instituto Politecnico do Porto, Portugal University of Alicante, Spain Pontifical Catholic University of Peru, Peru IFRJ, Brazil Antioquia Institute of Technology, Colombia Universidad de Jaén, Spain Universidade Minho, Portugal Polytechnic Institute of Porto, Portugal Universidade Aberta Lisbon, Portugal TU Dortmund University, Germany University of Salamanca, Spain Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Portugal Polytechnic Institute of Castelo Branco, Portugal La Salle, University of Ramon Llull, Spain Universitat Oberta de Catalunya, Spain INESC-ID, Portugal Universitat Oberta de Catalunya, Spain

x

Organization

Daniela Reimann David Fonseca David Griffiths David López Álvarez Diego González Rodríguez Diogo Ribeiro Dominik May Doris Meza Bolaños Edith Soria Valencia Eduardo Herranz Eduardo Vila Merino Elisabete Nogueira Elise Lavoue Elvira Rincón-Flores Emilia López Iñesta Emiliano Acquila-Natale Encarnación Gimeno Nieves Enric Mor Enrique Soriano Heras Erla M. Morales Morgado Euan Lindsay Eva María Torrecilla Sánchez Faraon Llorens Faraón Llorens Faraón Llorens Federico Simmross Wattenberg Felipe Marañón Lazcano Félix Ortega Mohedano Fermín Viejo Tirado Fernando Blaya Haro Fernando Gil Cantero Fernando Martínez Abad Ferrán Prados Carrasco Flavio Escribano Francisco Álvarez Francisco Esteban Bara Francisco Gallego

Karlsruhe Institute of Technology KIT, Germany La Salle, Ramon Llull University, Spain Universidad Internacional de La Rioja, Spain Polytechnic University of Catalonia, Spain University of León, Spain Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto, Portugal University of Georgia, USA Central del Ecuador University, Ecuador Pontifical Catholic University of Peru, Peru Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain Universidad de Málaga, Spain Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto, Portugal Université Jean Moulin, France Tecnológico de Monterrey, Mexico Universitat de València, Spain Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain Universidad de Alicante, Spain Universitat Oberta de Catalunya, Spain University of Carlos III, Spain University of Salamanca, Spain Aalborg University, Denmark University of Salamanca, Spain Universidad de Alicante, Spain University of Alicante, Spain Largo University of Alicante, Spain [email protected] University of Valladolid, Spain Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, México Universidad de Salamanca, Spain Complutense University of Madrid, Spain Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Spain University of Salamanca, Spain Centre for Medical Image Computing, UK GECON, Fundación Iberoamericana del Conocimiento, Spain Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes, Mexico Universidad de Barcelona, Spain Universidad de Alicante, Spain

Organization

Francisco Gutiérrez Francisco Javier Tejedor Francisco José Gallego Durán Francisco José García Peñalvo Francisco Pastor Vázquez Francisco Revuelta Francisco Xavier Valverde Alulema Gabriela Marín Germania del Rocio Rodriguez Morales Gina Susana Mejía Madrid Gisela Oliveira Graciela Carnevali Guadalupe Soria Rodríguez Gustavo Ribeiro Alves Héctor Barbosa León Hernán Gil Ramírez Higinio Rubio Alonso Ignacio González López Ilkka Jormanainen Inés González-González Inma Rodríguez Isabel Soares J. P. Cravino Jaime Ricardo Valenzuela González Javier Alfonso-Cendón Javier Bravo Javier Garcia-Zubia Javier Vidal García Jenny Hughes Jens Vermeersch Jesús Ruedas Caletrio Jimena Pascual Joan Arnedo Moreno Joan San Molina

xi

Universidad de Granada, Spain University of Salamanca, Spain University of Alicante, Spain University of Salamanca, Spain University of Valladolid, Spain Universidad de Extremadura, Spain Central del Ecuador University, Ecuador University of Costa Rica, Costa Rica Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja, Ecuador Central del Ecuador University, Ecuador Universidade Fernando Pessoa, Portugal National Technological University, Argentina University of Barcelona, Spain Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto, Portugal Instituto Politécnico de Colima, Mexico Technological University of Pereira, Colombia University of Carlos III, Spain University of Córdoba, Spain School of Computing, University of Eastern Finland, Finland Universidad Pública de Navarra, Spain Universitat de Barcelona, Spain University of Porto, Portugal Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal Tecnológico de Monterrey, Mexico Universidad de León, Spain Universidad de Distancia de Madrid, Spain Universidad de Deusto, Spain University of León, Spain Pontydysgu, Welsh educational research institute, UK GO! Onderwijs van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Belgium Universidad de Salamanca, Spain Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Chile Universitat Oberta de Catalunya, Spain Universidad de Girona, Spain

xii

Organization

Joaquim Alves

Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto, Portugal Joaquim Armando Pires Jorge University of Lisboa, Portugal Joe O’Hara Dublin City University, Ireland Jorge Cerqueiro Pequeño University of Vigo, Spain Jorge Joo Nagata Universidad Metropolitana de Ciencias de la Educación, Chile Jorge Simoes Instituto Superior Politécnico Gaya, Portugal José Antonio Cordón García University of Salamanca, Spain José Antonio Jerónimo UNAM, Mexico José Antonio Merlo Vega University of Salamanca, Spain José Carlos Sánchez-Prieto University of Salamanca, Spain José Gonçalves Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Portugal José Lima Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Portugal José Luis Martín Núñez Technical University of Madrid, Spain José M Martins Ferreira University of South-Eastern Norway, Norway José Manuel Muñoz-Rodríguez University of Salamanca, Spain Josep Petchamé Sabartés La Salle, University of Ramon Llull, Spain Juan A. Juanes-Méndez University of Salamanca, Spain Juan Cruz-Benito IBM Research, USA Juan David Cano Moreno University of Politécnica de Madrid, Spain Juan García Gutiérrez Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia, Spain Juan José Igartua Universidad de Salamanca, Spain Juan Pablo Hernández Ramos University of Salamanca, Spain Juarez Bento da Silva Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Brazil Judith Martin Lucas University of Salamanca, Spain Julián Chaparro-Peláez Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain Karina Arrambide University of Waterloo, Canada Kay Margarethe Berkling Duale Hochschule Baden-Württemberg Karlsruhe, Germany Kheng Lee Koay University of Hertfordshire, UK Koen DePryck Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium Laura Calvet Universitat Oberta de Catalunya, Spain Laura García Ruesgas University of Sevilla, Spain Laura-Del-Río-Carazo Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain Leidy Maritza García Toro University of Antioquia, Colombia Leonardo Glasserman Tecnológico de Monterrey, Mexico Lourdes Moreno University Carlos III of Madrid, Spain Lourdes Villalustre Universidad de Oviedo, Spain Luciano Carlos Mendes de Freitas Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Filho

Organization

Lucy Esther Garcia Ramos Luis Guilherme Augsburger Luis Manuel Casas García Luis Panizo-Alonso Luis Schlichting Luis Tomás Gallego Morales Luiz Lizasoain Hernández Lynn Alves Mª Cruz Sánchez-Gómez Mª Jesús Perales Montolio Mª José Rodríguez Conde Mª María del Mar Lorenzo Moledo Mª Teresa Anguera Argilaga Mª Teresa Del Moral Marcos Mª Victoria Martín Cilleros Mabel Calderín Cruz Maddalena Taras Maire Tuul Manuel Caeiro-Rodríguez Manuel Castro Manuel Rodríguez Martín Marc Alier Marcela Cavallo Marcela Isabel Prieto Ferraro Marcelo Zannin Marcos Cabezas-González Margarida Lucas Margarida Ribeiro María Amparo Verdú Vázquez Maria Arcelina Marques Maria Correia Duarte María do Rosário Pinheiro María Elena Rodríguez Benito María Esther Del Moral María Isabel Pozzo María José Hernández Serrano María José Rodríguez-Conde

xiii

Universidad del Norte, Colombia Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina, Brazil University of Extremadura, Spain Universidad de León, Spain Instituto Federal de Santa Catarina, Brazil University of Autónoma de Madrid, Spain University of País Vasco, Spain Universidade Federal da Bahia, Brazil University of Salamanca, Spain University of Valencia, Spain University of Salamanca, Spain Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Spain Universidad de Barcelona, Spain Pontifical University of Salamanca, Spain University of Salamanca, Spain Universidad Católica Andrés Bello, Venezuela University of Sunderland, UK Institute of Educational Sciences, Tallinn University, Estonia Universidade de Vigo, Spain UNED, Spain Universidad de Salamanca, Spain Barcelona Tech, Spain National University of Rosario, Argentina University of Antofagasta, Chile Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Brazil University of Salamanca, Spain Universidade de Aveiro, Portugal Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto, Portugal Technical University of Madrid, Spain Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto, Portugal Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto, Portugal Universidade de Coimbra, Portugal Universidad Pontificia de Salamanca, Spain Universidad de Oviedo, Spain National University of Rosario, Argentina Universidad de Salamanca, Spain University of Salamanca, Spain

xiv

Organization

María José Vieira Aller María Luisa Sein-Echaluce Maria Rosa Fernández María Sánchez Canales María Soledad Ramírez-Montoya Mariana Hare Marílio Cardoso Mariluz Guenaga Maristela Holanda Marjo Virnes Mark Johnson Marta Martín del Pozo Martin Brown Martín Oller Alonso Matteo de Notaris Mervi Heikkinen Miguel Ángel Conde Miguel Ángel Gómez Ruiz Miguel Castelo Branco Sousa Miguel Hernández Miguel Vicente Mariño Mikel Larrañaga Miloš Milovanovi´c Miroslav Minovi´c Natércia Lima Nic Nistor Nikolaos Vryzas Noemí Merayo Álvarez Noura Aknin Nuria Medina Oriol Borrás Oscar Garcia-Pañella Óscar José Martín Sánchez Pablo Rodríguez-Gonzálvez Pablo Ruisoto Palomera Pablo Vicente Torres Patricia Jimenez Patricia Paderewski Patricia Sánchez-Holgado

University of León, Spain University of Zaragoza, Spain Universidad de Extremadura, Spain Technical University of Madrid, Spain Tecnológico de Monterrey, Mexico Pontifical Catholic University of Peru, Peru Instituto Politécnico do Porto, Portugal Universidad de Deusto, Spain University of Brasilia, Brazil Aalto University, Finland University of Liverpool, UK University of Salamanca, Spain Dublin City University, Ireland Università degli Studi di Milano, Italia San Pio Hospital, Italy University of Oulu, Finland University of León, Spain University of Cadiz, Spain Universidade da Beira Interior, Portugal Catholic University of Valencia, Spain Universidad de Valladolid, Spain Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea, Spain University of Belgrade, Serbia University of Belgrade, Serbia Polytechnic Institute of Porto, Portugal Ludwig Maximilians Universität München, Germany Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece University of Valladolid, Spain Abdelmalek Essaâdi University, Morocco Universidad de Granada, Spain Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Spain ENTI-UB/Cookie Box/IEBS, Spain Pontifical University of Salamanca, Spain Universidad de León, Spain University of Navarra, Spain Universidad Técnica Particular de la Loja, Ecuador Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Chile University of Granada, Spain University of Salamanca, Spain

Organization

Patricia Torrijos Fincias Pedro Corcho Sánchez Pedro José Muñoz-Merino Pedro Plaza Peter Sloep Petr Valášek Piedade Barros Pierre Bourdin Pino Caballero-Gil Purificación Sánchez Delgado Rafael Molina-Carmona Rafael Pastor Raul Cordeiro Correia Ricardo Castedo Ricardo Costa Ricardo Morais Rina Wehbe Rita Peñabaena Robert Clarisó Robert Tennyson Roberto D’Amato Roberto Therón Rocael Hernandez-Rizzardini Rodrigo de Luis García Rosa Cabrales Rosa Gil-Iranzo Rosa María Guilleumas García Rosana Satorre Ruth Cobos Salvador Ros-Muñoz Samuel Marcos-Pablos Sandra Cano Santiago Iglesias-Pradas Sara García Cuesta Sara Serrate González Silvia Rueda Pascual Simone M. Biléssimo Sonia Casillas-Martín

xv

University of Salamanca, Spain University of Extremadura, Spain Universidad Carlos III, Spain UNED, Spain OUNL, The Netherlands Czech University of Life Sciences, Czech Republic Polytechnic of Porto, Portugal Universitat Oberta de Catalunya, Spain University of La Laguna, Spain University of Valencia, Spain University of Alicante, Spain Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia, Spain Instituto Politécnico de Setúbal, Portugal Technical University of Madrid, Spain Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto, Portugal Universidade da Beira Interior, Portugal University of Waterloo, Canada Universidad del Norte, Colombia Universitat Oberta de Catalunya, Spain University of Minnesota, USA Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain Universidad de Salamanca, Spain Galileo University, Guatemala University of Valladolid, Spain Universidad de Oriente, Cuba University of Lleida, Spain Technological University of Pereira, Colombia University of Alicante, Spain Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia, Spain University of Salamanca, Spain Universidad San Buenaventura de Cali, Colombia Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain University of La Laguna, Spain Universidad de Salamanca, Spain University of Valencia, Spain Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Brazil University of Salamanca, Spain

xvi

Organization

Sonia Concari Sonia Labrada Sónia Pizarro Sonia Verdugo-Castro Susana Olmos Migueláñez Susana Sastre Merino Tania Alonso Sainz Tapani Toivonen Teresa Alzás García Teresa Gonçalves Teresa Pessoa Teresa Sancho Teresa Sena Esteves Thorsten Händler Trevor Spratt Valeriano Piñeiro-Naval Vanessa Izquierdo Álvarez Veronica Basilotta Gomez Pablos Veronica Rossano Vicente Martínez Vicente Matellán Olivera Vicente Matellán-Olivera Vidal Moreno Rodilla Xabier Martínez Rolán

Universidad Tecnológica Nacional, Argentina Universidad de Oriente, Cuba Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto, Portugal University of Salamanca, Spain University of Salamanca, Spain Technical University of Madrid, Spain Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain School of Computing, University of Eastern Finland, Finland University Isabel I, Spain Polytechnic Institute of Castelo Branco, Portugal Universidade de Coimbra, Portugal Universitat Oberta de Catalunya, Spain Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto, Portugal Vienna University of Economics and Business, Austria Trinity College Dublin, Ireland Universidad de Salamanca, Spain University of Salamanca, Spain University of Salamanca, Spain University of Bari Aldo Moro, Italy Universitat Jaume I de Castellón, Spain University of León, Spain Universidad de León, Spain University of Salamanca, Spain Universidade de Vigo, Spain

Organization

Organization

Collaborators

xvii

Contents

Trends on Computational Thinking, Engineering Education, Technology in Medicine, Qualitative and Mixed Methods, Diversity in STEM, Lab-Based Education, Technology and Education, Gamification and Games for Learning and Smart Learning at TEEM 2022 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gustavo Alves, Joan Arnedo-Moreno, Juarez Bento da Silva, Miguel Á. Conde, António Pedro Costa, Angeles Dominguez, Alicia García-Holgado, Francisco José García-Peñalvo, Carina Soledad González-González, Juan A. Juanes-Méndez, Natércia Lima, Samuel Marcos-Pablos, Arcelina Marques, Judith Martín-Lucas, Rafael Molina-Carmona, José Manuel Muñoz-Rodríguez, Aruquia Peixoto, Teresa Pessoa, Ana María Pinto-Llorente, Joaquim Armando Pires Jorge, M. Isabel Pozzo, Mª Cruz Sánchez-Gómez, Clara Viegas, and Carlos Villagrá-Arnedo

1

Computational Thinking and Robotics in Education Vocabulary Enrichment in Mother Language After Preschoolers’ Interaction with a Social Robot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nicoleta Laura Popa, Oana Alexandra Clim, Adina Boaca, Cristian-Tiberius Axinte, Robert-Gabriel Lupu, and Georgiana Juravle The Way for Learning Initial Programming: Activities, Feedback, and Predict Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . José Figueiredo and Francisco José García-Peñalvo Educational Robotics and Dyslexia: Investigating How Reinforcement Learning in Robotics Can Be Used to Help Support Students with Dyslexia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sarah-May Mcvey, Esyin Chew, and Fiona Carroll

25

33

43

Designing Exercises for Block-Based Languages: The Case of ScratchJr . . . . . J. Ángel Velázquez-Iturbide

50

An Overview of European Projects About Computational Thinking . . . . . . . . . . Tannya Andreina Tene-Tenempaguay, Alicia García-Holgado, Francisco José García-Peñalvo, and Juan Pablo Hernández-Ramos

60

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Engineering Education: Teachers’ and Students’ Competences Recent Developments Digital Competence in Educators Through Interaction with a Virtual Learning Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eduard de Torres and Xavier Canaleta SDART Software: A Novel Tool Designed to Enhance Learning in Adjustment Computation in Surveying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pablo Rodríguez-Gonzálvez, Manuel Rodríguez-Martín, and Paula García-Osorio Software Alternatives to Design Learning Activities for Lean Six Sigma in e-learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Manuel Rodríguez-Martín, Pablo Rodríguez-Gonzálvez, and María del Rosario Domingo

77

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Following Up on the Examination of Accesses to Educational Resources in a Blended Learning Flipped Classroom Controls Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ana Pavani and Vivian S. Medeiros

106

Roleplay Ethical Debates, An Activity to Learn to Apply Ethical Theories to Dilemmas and Improve Critical Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . María José Casañ and Marc Alier Forment

116

Understanding Engineering Real Projects as an Innovative Learning Activity: A Case Study in the Bachelor’s Degree in Electrical Engineering . . . . Cristina Sáez Blázquez, Ignacio Martín Nieto, Miguel Ángel Maté-González, Natalia Nuño Villanueva, and Arturo Farfán Martín Team-Based Learning to Enhance Student’ Competencies in a Fluid Mechanics Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M. Teresa Sena-Esteves, Margarida Ribeiro, Cristina Morais, Isabel Brás-Pereira, Anabela Guedes, Filomena Soares, and Celina P. Leão The Internship Subject in a CTeSP Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Frederico L. Jacob, António Silveira D. P. Alberto, and Pedro M. S. Guimarães

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Technological Applications in Medical Training and Practice The Metaverse in Medical Education and Clinical Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Juan A. Juanes Méndez, Samuel Marcos-Pablos, and Santiago González Izard Students’ Assessment of the Use of 3D Vision Technology Resources for Independent Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Manuela Martín Izquierdo, Marcelo F. Jiménez López, and Juan A. Juanes Méndez Embedded Mobile App Prototyping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Júlia Carneiro de Almeida Nogueira, Alex Sandro Gomes, Amadeu Sá de Campos Filho, and Fernando Moreira Private Health Record System: Improving the Patient’s Medical Knowledge with an e-Learning Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ali Azadi and Francisco José García-Peñalvo Analysis of Ergonomic Aspects in the Surgery Field: Surgeons’ Appraisals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jaime Solleiro Rodríguez, Juan A. Juanes Méndez, and Fernando Blaya Haro A Production Workflow for Healthcare Educational Dashboards Using Clinical Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Félix Buendía-García, Joaquín Gayoso-Cabada, and José-Luis Sierra-Rodríguez Testing and Improvements of KoopaML: A Platform to Ease the Development of Machine Learning Pipelines in the Medical Domain . . . . . Andrea Vázquez-Ingelmo, Alicia García-Holgado, Francisco José García-Peñalvo, Rubén Fraile-Sanchón, Esther Andrés-Fraile, Pablo Pérez-Sánchez, Pablo Antúnez-Muiños, Antonio Sánchez-Puente, Víctor Vicente-Palacios, Pedro Ignacio Dorado-Díaz, Ignacio Cruz-González, and Pedro Luis Sánchez Creating Virtual Models of a Flexible Endoscope in Unity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Adrián Lugilde-López, Fernando A. Mikic-Fonte, Manuel Caeiro-Rodríguez, Martín Llamas-Nistal, and Luis Emilio Fernández-Santiago

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Contents

INOVSAFECARE Tools for the Training of Practitioners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Amaia Yurrebaso, Juan A. Juanes Méndez, Raquel Guzmán-Ordaz, and Eva Picado-Valverde Proposal and Definition of a Novel Methodology for Improving the Design and Manufacturing of 3D Printed Prosthetic Hands in Developing Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Manuel Casal-Guisande, Jorge Cerqueiro-Pequeño, Elena Piñón-Fraga, Daniel Rey-Castro, and Alberto Comesaña-Campos Design of a Methodology Based on Analysis of Vibrations for an Efficient Minimally Intrusive Remote Monitoring of the Evolution of Parkinson’s Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Manuel Casal-Guisande, Jorge Cerqueiro-Pequeño, Katelynn Rooney, Habeeb Busairi, and Alberto Comesaña-Campos Development of Mobile Interactive E-tools in Clinical Guidance for Nurse Practitioners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Félix Buendía-García, Meritxell Leal Ferrandis, and Jorge Casaña Mohedo

227

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Design of a Novel Respiratory Device for Neonatal Patients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Manuel Casal-Guisande, Jorge Cerqueiro-Pequeño, Antía Álvarez-Pazó, Ainhoa Álvarez-Álvarez, Andrea García-Vázquez, Mario González-Quintas, and Alberto Comesaña-Campos

264

Hyperthermia by Low Intensity Focused Ultrasound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Manuel Vielma, David Wahl, and François Wahl

273

Piloting the Willingness to Use a Didactic Robot in Health Sciences Education on the Basis of the UTAUT Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Samuel Marcos-Pablos, Rebeca Cordero-Gutiérrez, Rubén Martín-García, and Juan A. Juanes Méndez Mobile Application Development for Human Veterinary Resources Management in a Low Density Population Context: Promoting Students Engagement by Working with the Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Paulo Matos, Helena Velasco, and José Gonçalves 3D Technology Applied on Complex Abdominal Wall Pathologies . . . . . . . . . . Jose A. Torres Villachica, Álvaro Sánchez Tabernero, Tiago Coelho Morais, Beatriz Montejo Mailló, and Juan A. Juanes Mendez

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Implementation of Qualitative and Mixed Methods Researches The Opinion of the Spanish University Population on the Existence of Studies and Professions According to Gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sonia Verdugo-Castro, Mª Cruz Sánchez-Gómez, and Alicia García-Holgado Trends in Techno-Social Environments and Gerontechnological Innovation: A Systematic Mapping and European Initiatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sonia Verdugo-Castro, Mª Cruz Sánchez-Gómez, and Mª Victoria Martín-Cilleros Towards an Initial Teacher Training in Comprehensive Sexuality Education (CSE): Theoretical Scopes and Presentation of Categories . . . . . . . . . Daniela Dinamarca-Figueroa, Alicia García-Holgado, and M. Cruz Sánchez-Gómez Evaluation of Learning Attributes in Higher Education: A Methodological Guide Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mónica Hernández-Campos, Antonio Gonzalez-Torres, Martha Quesada-Sánchez, Giannina Ortiz-Quesada, and Francisco José García-Peñalvo Qualitative Analysis of the Transition and Learning Needs of Front-Line Refinery Leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Patrick Voorhies, Harold Tinoco-Giraldo, and Mark Veary Accompaniment Methodology of Open Innovation in Local Universities After COVID-19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hilda Angélica Del Carpio Ramos, Pedro Antonio Del Carpio Ramos, Francisco José García-Peñalvo, Jose Carlos Montes Ninaquispe, Haydeé Ysabel del Pilar Chirinos Cuadros, and Eduardo Alberto Martín Zárate Aguinaga Digital Qualitative and Mixed Methods Research in the Transformation of Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Noé Abraham González-Nieto, Margarita Espinosa-Meneses, and Caridad García-Hernández

315

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Bridging the Diversity Gap in STEM Analysis of Gender and STEM in Secondary School Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Alba Ayuso and Noemí Merayo

387

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Design of Didactic Units Focused on Improving Diversity Gaps Within New Multidisciplinary Spaces: The STEAM-Labs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . David Fonseca, Mónica Sanchez-Sepulveda, Roger Olivella, Daniel Amo-Filva, Alicia García-Holgado, Francisco José García-Peñalvo, Giuseppe Maffeo, Yasin Keskin, Kirsten Quass, Christian Hofmann, Gülay Sevinç, and Ömer Yi˘git Implementing Mentoring Communities Under the TEC21 Educational Model to Ensure the Resilience of Female Students in STEM Areas . . . . . . . . . María Gabriela Ortiz-Martínez, Mónica Delgado-Fabián, Verónica Mayve González-Alemán, and Jorge Membrillo-Hernández A Pilot Experience to Raise Awareness Among Computer Science Undergraduates About the Gender Biases of Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Carmen Lacave and Ana Isabel Molina A Grey Web Analysis of Existing STEAM Diversity Initiatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . Henry Hasti, Daniel Amo-Filva, David Fonseca, Mónica Sánchez-Sepúlveda, Roger Olivella, Alicia García-Holgado, Francisco José García-Peñalvo, Giuseppe Maffeo, Yasin Keskin, Kirsten Quass, Christian Hofmann, Gülay Sevinç, and Ömer Yi˘git Access and Dropout in Engineering and Architecture Studies. A Preliminary Study with a Gender Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ana-Belén González-Rogado, Susana Nieto-Isidro, and Alicia García-Holgado Cultural Differences in Complexity Reasoning in Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . Guillermo Rodríguez-Abitia, María Soledad Ramírez-Montoya, Sandra Martínez-Pérez, and Edgar Omar López-Caudana Gender Roles and Gender Stereotypes in Childhood Education: A Pilot Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Carina Soledad González-González, Verónica Violant-Holz, and José María del Castillo-Olivares Barberán

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Lab-Based Education in STEM Didactic Analysis of Olive Mill Wastewaters Antimicrobial Activity . . . . . . . . . Inês S. Afonso, Cristina Duarte, António Ribeiro, Joana S. Amaral, and João Ribeiro

457

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Perceptions of Mechanical Engineering Students Regarding Flipped Laboratory Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Marina Isabel Felizardo Correia Duarte and Maria de Fátima Coelho Monteiro

xxv

466

Augmented Reality for Self-management of Learning in Manufacturing Laboratories (AR-ManufacturingLab) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Felipe Hernández-Rodríguez

478

GeOrder Simulator as Provocator of Semiotic Representations for Statistics Learning in STEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Claudia Orozco-Rodríguez and Abel Palafox González

487

Identity, Technology and Education. Identity Construction Processes in Hyperconnected Ecosystems Technology and Teaching Space: A Pedagogical Approach to the Classroom of the Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Judith Martín-Lucas and Alberto Sánchez-Rojo Daily Life of Elderly: An Approach to the Use of Gerontechnology . . . . . . . . . . Alicia Murciano-Hueso, Judith Martín-Lucas, Sara Serrate-González, Patricia Torrijos-Fincias, and Bárbara-Mariana Gutiérrez-Pérez

499

509

Combating Screens with School Gardens: The Innovative 21st Century Tool Against Nature Deficit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . David Caballero Franco

516

Students as Creators of Online Newspapers: A Tool’s User-Interface Proposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Diogo Miguel Carvalho, Luísa Júlio, and Telmo Silva

523

The Subjective Perception of Internet Use Among Protected Minors and Young Offenders in the Childhood Protection Scheme in the Spanish Region of Castilla y León . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jesús Ruedas-Caletrio, Sara Serrate-González, and José Manuel Muñoz-Rodríguez

531

Social Construction of Learning: Analysis from the Participants of an Energy Sustainability xMOOC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ruth-Elizabeth Minga-Vallejo and María-Soledad Ramírez-Montoya

540

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The Anthropological Dynamics Revealed in the Use of Social Networks and What We Can Do from Pedagogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tania Alonso-Sainz

550

Video Games as a Form of Youth Leisure: Socialization Practices and Self-perception Among Young University Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Luis E. Andrade Silva

556

Gamification and Games for Learning (GAMILEARN) Tales from the Future: Exploring Game Design Strategies for Creativity and Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anna O. Meshcheryakova and Fabian Hemmert Design and Implementation of Serious Games on Extended Reality: A Use Case in Construction Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . María Jesús Bopp Ibar, Felipe Muñoz La Rivera, Javier Mora Serrano, and Miguel Valero García Urban Exploration Game – An EPS@ISEP 2022 Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lina Blaschke, Bram Blauw, Chloé Herlange, Anita Pyciak, Jakob Zschocke, Abel J. Duarte, Benedita Malheiro, Cristina Ribeiro, Jorge Justo, Manuel F. Silva, Paulo Ferreira, and Pedro Guedes Tangible Application of Gamification for Teaching Spatial Topics to Blind People Based on Universal Design for Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Luis Roberto Ramos Aguiar, Francisco Javier Álvarez Rodríguez, Julio César Ponce Gallegos, and César Eduardo Velázquez Amador

565

575

586

597

Coding is Fun: Engaging Adult On-Line Learners Using Programming Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Joan Arnedo-Moreno and David García-Solórzano

606

Gameful English: How Playing Vernacular Video Games May Enhance ESL Learning in an Extra-Mural Educational Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Francesca D’Adamo

615

Pervasiveness for Learning in Serious Games Applied to Older Adults . . . . . . . Johnny Alexander Salazar Cardona, Jeferson Arango López, and Francisco Luis Gutiérrez Vela

624

Examples of Games for Learning in Erasmus+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . María Goretti Alonso de Castro and Francisco José García-Peñalvo

633

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Unplugged Gamification: Towards a Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Carina Soledad González-González

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642

Smart Learning Smart Schools: Inclusion and Participation of Vulnerable Students During at Distance Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Caterina Bembich and Michelle Pieri

653

Students’ Acceptance and Efficiency of Virtual Reality in French Language Learning at Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Claire Babin, Raphaël Jamard, and Celia Paola Sarango-Lapo

662

Students’ Performance and Academic Success Study Using Self Directed Based Learning Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Maria Alsina, Xavier Canaleta, and Ricardo Torres

671

TEmaps for Designing Courses Based on Smart Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Alberto Real-Fernández, Rafael Molina-Carmona, and Faraón Llorens-Largo Identifying Demotivation Patterns in Students of Subjects Related to Data Science at College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Alejandro Rabasa, Kristina Polotskaya, Agustín Pérez-Martín, Nuria Mollá, and Patricia Compañ Trends on Communication, Educational Assessment, Sustainable Development, Educational Innovation, Mechatronics and Learning Analytics at TEEM 2022 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ana María Balbín, Nídia S. Caetano, Miguel Á. Conde, Paulo Costa, Carlos Felgueiras, Ángel Fidalgo-Blanco, David Fonseca, Adriana Gamazo, Alicia García-Holgado, Francisco José García-Peñalvo, José Gonçalves, Ángel Hernández-García, José Lima, Nicolae Nistor, Joe O’Hara, Susana Olmos-Migueláñez, Valeriano Piñeiro-Naval, María-Soledad Ramírez-Montoya, Patricia Sánchez-Holgado, and María Luisa Sein-Echaluce

682

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699

Communication, Education and Social Media Fact-Checking: A Journalistic Movement yet to Be Discovered? Audience Attitudes and Familiarity Levels in Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . João Pedro Baptista, Anabela Gradim, Marlene Loureiro, and Fábio Ribeiro

719

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Opportunities, Challenges, and Risks of Clickbait in the Scientific Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ana María Zaharía and Jesús Miguel Flores-Vivar Signs of Culture in Computer Games: Assumption for Education . . . . . . . . . . . . Gintare Vaitonyte, Eugenija Valiene, and Dalia Senvaityte Women in Front of and Behind the Camera. Analysis of the Representation of Society in Contemporary Spanish Cinema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . David Blanco-Herrero, María Marcos Ramos, and Teresa Martín García Chatbot to Provide Initial Assistance to Erasmus Students in Case of Emergency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Roberto Fermín García Mena, Antonio Balderas, Milagros Huerta, Juan Manuel Dodero, and Nestor Mora Nuñez

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New Technologies to Quit Smoking. Analysis of Mobile Applications Available for iPhone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Laura Rodríguez-Contreras and Juan-José Igartua

764

Are Intercultural Competencies the Key to International Collaboration?: A Systematic Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nicia Guillén-Yparrea and María-Soledad Ramírez-Montoya

772

Profiles of Smartphone Use and Consumption in Spanish Students of Generations Y and Z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Diego Ramos Méndez and Félix Ortega-Mohedano

782

The Censorship of Nudes on Instagram: The Female and Male Body and Its Sexualization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . María del Carmen Tomás-Jiménez, Patricia Sánchez-Holgado, and María-Elena Rodríguez-Benito Education Through Organizations with a Purpose in Social Networks . . . . . . . . Laura Pacheco Barriga

790

798

Museums and Heritage Education on Instagram: An Analysis of the Actions of the “Museus Conectam” Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rafaela Silva Thomaz

806

The Association of Internet Use with Subjective Well-Being: An Empirical Study Based on CGSS 2017 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Yurong Yan, Yuying Deng, Juan-José Igartua, and Xiagang Song

814

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Educational Assessment and Guidance Application of the CIPP Model in the Structure of a Satisfaction Survey for Elearning Training Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jessica Uribe Navarrete, María José Rodríguez Conde, and Susana Olmos Migueláñez Mentoring in Educational Innovation: Systematization in the Experience of Teachers’ Educational Experimentation and Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May Portuguez-Castro Student’s Awareness of the Environment in Mallorca (Spain) on Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Maneerat Sa-ngiemjit, María Antonia Manassero Mas, and Ángel Vázquez Alonso Comparing Students’ Critical Thinking by Using the Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy in Online and Face-to-Face Class Formats of Organic Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Maneerat Sa-ngiemjit, María Antonia Manassero Mas, and Ángel Vázquez Alonso The Usefulness of a Mobile App in a Visual Literacy Blended Learning Course for Educators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Catalina Huilcapi-Collantes, Azucena Hernández Martín, and Juan Pablo Hernández-Ramos Competences of University Teaching Staff to Use New Learning and Evaluation Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Angélica González Arrieta, Guillermo Hernández González, Juan Manuel Corchado Rodríguez, María Belén Pérez Lancho, José Rafael García-Bermejo Giner, Iván Álvarez Navia, Juan Andrés Hernández Simón, Ángel Luis Sánchez Lázaro, and Pastora Isabel Vega Cruz

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Advances on Sustainable Development in Higher Education Learning Object as an Educational Innovation Tool for Energy Management Systems Teaching Based on the ISO-50001 Framework: An Interdisciplinary Descriptive Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Josué Aarón López-Leyva, Sialia Karina Mellink-Méndez, Gloria Janeth Murillo-Aviña, and Paola Monet Cañedo-Bobadilla

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Learning the Design of Geothermal Sustainable Systems Through the Analysis of Acceptable Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ignacio Martín Nieto, Cristina Sáez Blázquez, Miguel Ángel Maté-González, Natalia Nuño Villanueva, and Arturo Farfán Martín Promoting Sustainability and Energy Efficiency in Higher Education Through the Optimized Management of Geothermal Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cristina Sáez Blázquez, Ignacio Martín Nieto, Miguel Ángel Maté-González, Natalia Nuño Villanueva, and Arturo Farfán Martín

900

909

Electronic Test Subjects and Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rúbem Sarmento and Carlos Felgueiras

919

Insect Farming – An EPS@ISEP 2022 Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Benjamin Copinet, Finn Flügge, Leonie Christine Margetich, Marie Vandepitte, Paul-Luchian Petrache, Abel J. Duarte, Benedita Malheiro, Cristina Ribeiro, Jorge Justo, Manuel F. Silva, Paulo Ferreira, and Pedro Guedes

925

Form Follows Recyclability? Instruments for Dissipation-Aware Product Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Konrad Schoch, Fabian Hemmert, and Christa Liedtke The Role of Engineering in Achieving the SDGs: A Case Study on Awareness-Raising Through Different Undergraduate Subjects at the Higher Polytechnic School of Zamora (Spain) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ana Belén Ramos-Gavilán, Mª Ascensión Rodríguez-Esteban, Mª Almudena Frechilla-Alonso, Aitor Cristiam Raposeiras, Diana Movilla-Quesada, Ana María Vivar-Quintana, Isabel Revilla, and Ana Belén González-Rogado An Overview of the Evolution of Civil Engineering Education Towards Sustainability in Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Paulo Silva, Nídia S. Caetano, and Carlos Felgueiras Towards Sustainable Living: Undergraduate Training Course Using AWORLD App as an Educational Resource . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Harold Tinoco-Giraldo, Catalina Huilcapi-Collantes, Aída Gándara-Tovar, and Sandy Antonio Gutiérrez

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Educational Innovation Didactic Strategies in Hybrid and Remote Learning Modalities to Promote Critical Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . John Jairo Dominguez, Manuel Iván Ortiz Ramos, Alex Sandro Gomes, Fernando Moreira, Rossana Gaia, Miguel Ángel Vargas, and Rosane Alencar da Silva Academic Analytics Applied in the Study of the Relationship Between the Initial Profile of Undergraduate Students and Early Drop-Out Rates. Defining the Variables of a Predictor Instrument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Alba Llauró, David Fonseca, Daniel Amo-Filva, Susana Romero, Marian Aláez, Jorge Torres Lucas, and María Martínez Felipe Analysis, Progress and Comparative of the European Digital Competence Framework DIGCOMP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . María Collado-Sánchez, Francisco José García-Peñalvo, and Ana M. Pinto-Llorente A Tool to Analyze the Satisfaction Impact of the MFT Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Marta Gómez-Gómez, José Tomás Alcalá-Nalvaiz, Inmaculada Gómez-Ibáñez, María Luisa Sein-Echaluce, and Ángel Fidalgo-Blanco

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Digital Competence, Educational Innovation with ICT and Burnout in Tertiary Education Latin American Professors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1007 Angel Deroncele-Acosta, Irma Milagros Carhuancho-Mendoza, Fernando Alexis Nolazco-Labajos, Helfer Molina-Quiñones, Jorge Ernesto Torres-Obleas, Susana Edita Paredes-Díaz, and Juanjo Mena Perceptions of Future Teachers Experiencing Flipped Learning as Students in a Master’s Course in Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1016 Iciar Pablo-Lerchundi, Ana Jiménez Rivero, Gema Martí-Blanc, and Susana Sastre-Merino Typology of Processes in the Shared Leadership of Academic Work Teams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1025 Ángel Fidalgo-Blanco, María Luisa Sein-Echaluce, Ana María Balbín, and Francisco José García-Peñalvo Personalized Flipped Classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1034 María Luisa Sein-Echaluce, Ángel Fidalgo-Blanco, José Luis Martín-Núñez, Amparo Verdú Vázquez, and Laura García Ruesgas

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Learning Design Using Mobile Technology in Visual Literacy Teacher Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1044 Catalina Huilcapi-Collantes, Azucena Hernández Martín, and Juan Pablo Hernández-Ramos A Proposal for Innovative Higher Education in Archaeology Through the Use of Virtual Tours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1053 Miguel Ángel Maté-González, Cristina Sáez Blázquez, Jesús Rodríguez-Hernández, and Jesús R. Álvarez-Sanchís Digital Teaching Skills to Design Virtual Learning Classrooms with the 4PADAFE Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1062 Lena Ivanova Ruiz Rojas, Cristhian Castillo, and Santiago Cañizares Synergies Between Geomatics and Biological Sciences for the Creation of New Virtual Materials for Teaching Taphonomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1072 Miguel Ángel Maté-González, Julia Aramendi, Cristina Sáez Blázquez, Mari Carmen Arriaza, and José Yravedra Gamified Formative Assessment in Local Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1082 Ángel Hernández-García, Laura Del-Río-Carazo, Carlos Cuenca-Enrique, Santiago Iglesias-Pradas, Emiliano Acquila-Natale, and Julián Chaparro-Peláez Enhancing Adaptive Teaching of Reading Skills Using Digital Technologies: The LATILL Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1092 Martina Kienberger, Alicia García-Holgado, Karen Schramm, Anne Raveling, Detmar Meurers, Bohdana Labinska, Tetiana Koropatnitska, and Roberto Therón A Model for Learning with Focus on Social Responsibility, Problem Solving and Collaborative Work in Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1099 Álvaro Rojas Zamorano, Emilio Castro Navarro, and Carolina Castro Pereira Multi-stakeholder Perspective on the Gap Between Existing Realities and New Requirements for Online and Blended Learning: An Exploratory Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1109 Miguel Á. Conde, Sonsoles López-Pernas, Elitsa Peltekova, Katina Pancheva, Miroslava Raspopovic Milic, and Mohammed Saqr

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Gamified Values Education for Fostering Migrant Integration at Schools . . . . . . 1117 Lucía García-Holgado, Andrea Vázquez-Ingelmo, Alicia García-Holgado, Francisco José García-Peñalvo, Ömer Yi˘git, Cristina Ramón-Navarro, Dilek Gökçen Pasin, Canan Aktug, and Annette Greilich New Trends in Mechatronics Engineering Education Learning Mechatronics in the MacGyver Way . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1127 João Paulo Coelho and Inês Seixas Robot Development for Educational Purposes: Advances on Real and Simulation Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1135 Emanuel de Jesus Soares Marta, José Gonçalves, and José Lima Towards a More Accurate Time of Flight Distance Sensor to Be Applied in a Mobile Robotics Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1145 Laiany Brancalião, Mariano Alvarez, Miguel Á. Conde, Paulo Costa, and José Gonçalves Automated Ceramics Tableware Finishing: A Laboratory Prototype for Concept Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1156 Mariano Alvarez, Laiany Brancalião, Jorge Carneiro, Paulo Costa, João Paulo Coelho, and José Gonçalves Those Were the Days! Looking Back at Ten Years of Learning Analytics at TEEM From Variables to States to Trajectories (VaSSTra): A Method for Modelling the Longitudinal Dynamics of Learning and Behaviour . . . . . . . . 1169 Sonsoles López-Pernas and Mohammed Saqr A Revision of LMS Interaction Classifications for Learning Analytics . . . . . . . . 1179 Ángel Hernández-García, Carlos Cuenca-Enrique, Uchendu Nwachukwu, and Laura Del-Río-Carazo Higher Education from a Learning Analytics Perspective: an Exploration of the Theory Choice in Doctoral Educational Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1190 Siyu Jiang, Nicolae Nistor, and Dorin Stanciu Learning Analytics’ Privacy in the Fog and Edge Computing: A Systematic Mapping Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1199 Daniel Amo-Filva, David Fonseca, Francisco José García-Peñalvo, Marc Alier Forment, and Maria José Casany Guerrero

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Doctoral Consortium Digital Transformation in Higher Education Institutions Implementation Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1211 Lina María Castro Benavides, Johnny Alexander Tamayo Arias, and Daniel Burgos Get the Most Out of Erasmus+ Good Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1220 María Goretti Alonso de Castro and Francisco José García-Peñalvo Indigenous Women in Higher Education in STEM: A Case Study in Oaxaca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1229 Erika García-Silva, Alicia García-Holgado, and Mª Cruz Sánchez-Gómez Development of Algorithms and Methods for the Simulation and Improvement in the Quantum Natural Language Processing Area . . . . . . . . 1238 David Peral-García, Juan Cruz-Benito, and Francisco José García-Peñalvo Design, Development, and Evaluation of a Serious Game Aimed at Addressing Bullying and Cyberbullying with Primary School Students . . . . . 1246 Alejandro Martel-Santana and Marta Martín-del-Pozo Teaching Processes Concerning the Production of TV with Portuguese Elderly – From the Gratifications Obtained by Consumption to the Expectancies of the Production Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1255 Luís Miguel Pato, Patricia Torrijos Fincias, Cristóvão Margarido, and Ricardo Pocinho TAM, Assessment, and Mobile Technologies: A Study of Teachers’ Acceptance in Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1263 Alberto Ortiz-López, Susana Olmos-Migueláñez, and José Carlos Sánchez-Prieto Validation and Implementation of a Training Course on Digital Competence and Cybersecurity in the Future Teachers of the Autonomous Community of the Canary Islands Using the Escape Room Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1272 David Suárez-Suárez and Juan Pablo Hernández-Ramos XR as a Forward-Looking Tool for Mathematics Learning of Secondary School Students with Dyslexia and ADHD: A Thesis Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1279 Àlex Miró-Mediano, Marc Alier Forment, and Francisco Javier Mora Serrano

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The Influence of Serious Games and Gamification in University Students of English as a Foreign Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1289 Julián Alberto López-Torres, Hernández-Ramos Juan Pablo, and Azucena Hernández Martín Methodological Approach to the Evaluation of Scientific Journals . . . . . . . . . . . 1296 Valeria Montoya-Roncancio and José Antonio Merlo-Vega Development of an Accompaniment Program for Women at Risk of Exclusion After Unintended Pregnancies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1304 Eustasio Pérez Salido, Araceli Queiruga Dios, and Marián Queiruga Dios The Maker Movement in Engineering Education: A Partial Literature Review of the Research Opportunities on Competency Development . . . . . . . . . 1311 Leonardo Saavedra Munar and Marc Alier Forment Design, Development, and Evaluation of an Intervention in Terms of Teaching/Learning Practices of Curricular Units of Differential and Integral Calculus in Engineering Degrees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1320 Maria Emília Bigotte de Almeida, Araceli Queirugas-Dios, and María José Cáceres Research Plan and Development of the Thesis: Musical Preferences in Primary Education in the Nou Llevant/Sud Neighborhood of Mallorca . . . . . 1329 Aurora Ferrer Juan, Noemy Berbel Gómez, and Josep Lluís Oliver Torelló Assess Informal Learning, Through Technology, in Science Centers or Science Museums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1337 Ivone Fachada, Francisco José Garcia-Peñalvo, and Ana Isabel Pereira Jazz Standards: From the Manuscript to Multiple Possibilities Through Computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1346 Patricia García-Iasci and Javier Merchán Sánchez-Jara Definition of a Reference Architecture for the Integration of Augmented Reality/Virtual Reality Techniques in Remote Experimentation Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1354 Isabela Nardi da Silva, Javier García-Zubía, and Unai Hernández-Jayo

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The Discourse Against the LGTB Community in Social Networks and Its Relationship with Hate Crimes in Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1362 Marcos Barbosa and Carlos Arcila Data Literacy for the Development of Learning Analytics in K-12 Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1370 Belén Donate Beby, Francisco José García-Peñalvo, and Daniel Amo-Filvà Grading Criteria in Technology Subject in Secondary Education Within the Framework of the LOMLOE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1377 Aurora Pérez-Fonseca, María Dolores Merchán Moreno, and María Jesús Santos Sánchez Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1385

Trends on Computational Thinking, Engineering Education, Technology in Medicine, Qualitative and Mixed Methods, Diversity in STEM, Lab-Based Education, Technology and Education, Gamification and Games for Learning and Smart Learning at TEEM 2022 Gustavo Alves1 , Joan Arnedo-Moreno2 , Juarez Bento da Silva3 , Miguel Á. Conde4 , António Pedro Costa5 , Angeles Dominguez6 , Alicia García-Holgado7(B) , Francisco José García-Peñalvo7 , Carina Soledad González-González8 , Juan A. Juanes-Méndez7 , Natércia Lima9 , Samuel Marcos-Pablos7 , Arcelina Marques1 , Judith Martín-Lucas7 , Rafael Molina-Carmona10 , José Manuel Muñoz-Rodríguez7 , Aruquia Peixoto11 , Teresa Pessoa12 , Ana María Pinto-Llorente7 , Joaquim Armando Pires Jorge13 , M. Isabel Pozzo14 , Mª Cruz Sánchez-Gómez7 , Clara Viegas9 , and Carlos Villagrá-Arnedo10 1 Polytechnic Institute of Porto, Porto, Portugal

{gca,mmr}@isep.ipp.pt

2 Faculty of Computer Science, Multimedia and Telecommunications, Universitat Oberta de

Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain [email protected] 3 Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Brazil [email protected] 4 University of Leon, Leon, Spain [email protected] 5 University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal [email protected] 6 Tecnológico de Monterrey, Monterrey, Mexico [email protected] 7 Universidad de Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain {aliciagh,fgarcia,jajm,samuelmp,judithmartin,pepema,ampintoll, mcsago}@usal.es 8 University of La Laguna, San Cristobal de La Laguna, Spain [email protected] 9 School of Engineering, Polytechnic Institute of Porto, Porto, Portugal {nmm,mcm}@ipp.pt.pt 10 Smart Learning Research Group, University of Alicante, Alicante, Spain {rmolina,villagra}@ua.es 11 CODIB, CEFET/RJ, Nova Iguaçu, Brazil [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 F. J. García-Peñalvo and A. García-Holgado (Eds.): TEEM 2022, LNET, pp. 1–21, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0942-1_1

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G. Alves et al. 12 University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal

[email protected]

13 University of Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal

[email protected]

14 National Technological University, Rosario Faculty, Rosario, Argentina

[email protected] https://ror.org/02f40zc51

Abstract. The 10th edition of the Technological Ecosystems for Enhancing Multiculturality (TEEM 2022) brings together researchers and postgraduate students interested in combining different aspects of the technology applied to knowledge society development, with particular attention to educational and learning issues. This volume includes contributions related to computational thinking, engineering education, technology in medicine, qualitative and mixed methods, diversity in STEM, lab-based education, technology and education, gamification and games for learning and smart learning. Keywords: computational thinking · robotics · gender gap · diversity gap · culture · medicine · gamification · games in education · remote labs · smart learning

1 Computational Thinking and Robotics in Education 1.1 Introduction STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) [1] and STEAM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts and Mathematics) [2] disciplines and related professional occupations demand persons with more informatics skills, including programming and robotics, focusing the Industry 4.0 development [3]. Computational thinking skills and robotics in education are topics tackled in TEEM Conference since the 2016 edition [4–9]. The associated skills development has been present in all educational levels, from kindergartens to universities, but the focus is on preuniversity education. Computational thinking, programming and coding in pre-university levels, robots, makers, and related topics have been covered by many research projects worldwide, with a particular emphasis on European Union calls, such as TACCLE3 coding [10], VALS [11], W-STEM [12] or RoboSTEAM [13], among others. 1.2 Computational Thinking and Robotics Papers in TEEM 2022 Nicoleta Laura Popa was an invited keynote in TEEM 2022. She and her colleagues were invited to include a paper on the presented issues. Their contribution is entitled “Vocabulary enrichment in mother language after preschoolers’ interaction with a social robot,” which explores the effect of the child-robot interaction on the enrichment of

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mother tongue vocabulary based on a quasi-experimental methodology. The findings suggest promising effects regarding vocabulary richness after interaction with the social robot. In the contribution “The way for learning initial programming: activities, feedback, and predict model,” the authors present a set of strategies to minimise this problem. They are basing the strategy on a wide range of activities of different types with immediate feedback according to the students’ needs and interests. Mcvey et al. review the current literature surrounding reinforcement learning and educational robotics in their paper “Educational Robotics & Dyslexia: Investigating how Reinforcement Learning in Robotics can be used to help support students with Dyslexia.” They state that hat robots can help support students and enhance their learning and that reinforcement learning is a proper machine-learning technique. Velázquez-Iturbide’s contribution is entitled “Designing Exercises for Block-Based Languages: The Case of ScratchJr”, which reviews several taxonomies of programming exercises and block-based questionnaires to propose a range of exercises specific to block-based programming. Finally, Tene Tenempaguay et al. make a systematic review [14] of trends in projects addressing Computational Thinking at the pre-university level in Europe in their paper “An overview of European projects about Computational Thinking.” The main results show that most projects foster computational thinking across STEM subjects. Moreover, institutions in Spain and Italy tend to be more involved.

2 Engineering Education: Teachers’ and Students’ Competences Recent Developments 2.1 Introduction This topic is dedicated to contemporary issues in engineering education concerning students’ learning and teachers’ practices [15]. Specifically those related to the needs of graduate students regarding the required professional skills [16–18]. In this context, the relationship with local companies that receive internship students or employ young graduates is fundamental [19–21]. This year’s special focus also addressed teachers’ professional development and lessons learned during the restrictions of the COVID-19 pandemic [22]. After enduring several semesters with online classes in full or in a hybrid regime, professors worldwide made changes to keep preparing students as competent professionals, even at a distance. Education in general, and engineering education in particular, has been reflecting upon those changes [23]. New approaches have roused massively, as portrayed in recent literature. Teachers were forced to further develop their digital competences and/or work with remote resources. Most of them quickly understood that online classes should have different dynamics. So, they learnt new educational strategies and developed new resources. Competences, which have been a very challenging concept in higher education [24], have become even more diversified than ever before. Teachers may have pursued different paths, but with the common objective of providing their students with the opportunity of continuing achieving their learning goals.

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This topic welcomed works which might reveal these teachers’ reflections based on qualitative/quantitative analyses and/or comparing experiences. Reflections upon their own practice or other teachers’ practices that were worth reporting. Not all went well, and certainly not for everyone. Unfortunately, access to digital resources is not the same all over the planet, but teachers’ efforts were equally eager to succeed. Also, students undertook a difficult period, particularly modifying their social habits and how they were used to learning. The competences students develop during online teaching are certainly different. But to understand which practices would be worth pursuing in the future, even when the Pandemic restrictions of COVID-19 have long passed, there is a need to analyse teachers’ experiences before and after: pros and cons. The lessons learned can contribute to enlarging and enriching these communities of practice [25] regarding not only the improvement of the teaching practices but also students’ engagement and learning about professional skills. 2.2 Engineering Education Papers in TEEM 2022 As expected, this year’s contributions mainly addressed ICT-related issues, from the development of digital competences, educational software, b-learning flipped classrooms, etc., to the discussion of how to teach ethics to engineers. Other topics also addressed in this special topic: active learning approaches, students’ competences and internships are classic topics that are always important when discussing engineering education and professionalisation. “Digital competence in educators through interaction with a virtual learning environment” is the title of a work that, taking into account the impact digital competencies have on modern society, including education, explores the importance of the existence of a framework to access digital competence in teachers, as the DigCompEdu, developed by the European Commission. The work “SDART software: a novel tool designed to enhance learning in adjustment computation in surveying” brings a PBL approach supported by an innovative software and designed by the authors (SDART) for the students’ development of mathematical and statistical competences in Engineering in Geomatics and Surveying in University of Léon (Spain). This practical approach, developed on the subject of Adjustment of Observations, allowed students to develop a complete overview of the process of dealing with topographic observations and measurements. The designed activity covered all learning objectives of this subject and had the duration of the entire semester. The paper “Software alternatives to design learning activities for Lean Six Sigma in e-learning” focuses on teaching quality and statistical process control in engineering programs. The authors have designed a workflow for the teaching-learning of process control methodologies with software in the context of Lean Six Sigma (LSS), applied to students of industrial engineering compatible with e-learning and b-learning. From PUC-Rio (Brazil) came the study “Following Up on the Examination of Accesses to Educational Resources in a Blended Learning Flipped Classroom Controls Course” developed in the pandemic and post-pandemic (COVID-19) phase. Over three semesters, the teachers/authors implemented blended learning with flipped classroom methodology, using numerous digital and remote teaching resources. Their results point to students’ access to these resources being independent of their grade.

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“Roleplay ethical debates, an activity to learn to apply ethical theories to dilemmas and improve critical thinking”, presents us with an important and under regarded issue in engineering education: teaching ethics of ICT to engineers. The authors do an exhaustive literature review and present an innovative idea for working on this difficult topic with their students. They present a case study applied in two courses, one in a Master’s degree, the other in a Bachelor’s degree. In the proposed approach, teachers begin by making traditional lectures where they present and analyse ethical theories as tools to make moral decisions. “Understanding engineering real projects as an innovative learning activity: a case study in the bachelor’s degree in Electrical Engineering” is the title of a proposal based on the value of the service-learning (SL) approach, in which students and community benefit from the activities, and at the same time, extend their learning beyond the university. The objective of the project addressed is to share the technical design, equipment, operation, and safety of a transport overhead medium-high power line. In this sense, this research includes a work methodology adapted to the requirements of a real technical engineering project. The work entitled “Team-Based Learning to Enhance Student’ Competencies in a Fluid Mechanics Module” presents a Team-Based Learning (TBL) experience applied to the Fluid Mechanics course’ viscosity module of the second year of a chemical engineering degree during the first semester of 2021/22 academic year. As it has been defined in the educational literature, TBL is a small-group based active learning-teaching strategy which supports the development of essential competencies while controlling course content. The paper entitled “The Internship Subject in a CTeSP Course” describes a new kind of higher education program in Portugal, the Higher Technical Professional Course, which is a post-secondary and technical training program (4 semesters corresponded to a level 5 accreditation at the European Qualification Program). The internship subject is a vocational work placement, in a company or organisation, throughout the fourth semester. This study also explores the perception and challenges faced by students in undertaking an internship in the CTeSP “Automation, Robotic and Industrial Control” (ARCI), at ISEP.

3 Technological Applications in Medical Training and Practice 3.1 Introduction Over the years, technology has become a great influence on medical outcomes, improving the provided medical care and treatment and the safety of healthcare processes. Moreover, technologies have increasingly been introduced in medical education to provide learning environments to experience procedures and devices that will become common in medical practice in the near future. This topic focuses on technological advances applied to training and education in health sciences contents, to explore the current state of the art of technology in the health sciences domain.

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3.2 Technological Applications in Medicine Papers in TEEM 2022 In the paper entitled “The metaverse in medical education and clinical practice”, the authors present different virtual environments, under immersive systems of virtual reality and augmented reality, representing a metaverse where knowledge can be shared for good medical training. The work “Students’ assessment of the use of 3D vision technology resources for independent learning” presents the opinion of Anatomy students on a three-dimensional visualisation tool to aid learning. After using the tool, a satisfaction survey was used to collect the students’ opinions. The authors conclude that the results show that the tool is intuitive and of great didactic value. The paper “Embedded mobile app prototyping” deals with a very interesting topic as analysing the user experience of a mobile platform for tracking the evolution, monitoring disease symptoms, and integrating information related to the clinical conditions of children with Microcephaly. In “Private Health Record system: Improving the patient’s medical knowledge with an e-learning approach” the authors introduce different solutions to implement an elearning platform embedded in Personal Health Records (PHRs). “Analysis of ergonomic aspects in the surgery field: Surgeons’ appraisals” presents the result of a survey carried out within Spanish territory to understand the ergonomic risks that surgeons face in an operating room. 131 participants from 17 different surgical specialities took part in the study. The authors identify the main ergonomically related problems produced by the different types of surgery, as well as other sources of discomfort such as the range of height of the operating table, foot activation pedals, instrumental, and others. In the paper “A production workflow for healthcare educational dashboards using clinical data” the authors present an educational dashboard production workflow intended to generate dashboards for improving healthcare staff abilities when dealing with high quantities of clinical data. In addition, the authors present a case study as an example of their proposed workflow using synthetic data. “Testing and improvements of KoopaML: a platform to ease the development of Machine Learning pipelines in the medical domain” describes how Machine Learning (ML) applications in the medical domain can become hazardous if the lack of ML skills of health professionals are not taken into account. As such, the authors present the challenges found when a visual platform intended to build ML pipelines is deployed in the medical domain. The paper “Creating Virtual Models of a Flexible Endoscope in Unity” describes a method for modelling an endoscope and its flexibility characteristics using Unity game engine. As the authors state, the goal is to analyse the possibilities that Unity offers to model such components to develop a future lower intestine colonoscopy simulator. Authors describe in “INOVSAFECARE tools for the training of practitioners” a set of tools for the training of health sciences practitioners as part of an Erasmus+ K2 project. Tools were tested with members of the University of Salamanca, providing positive results among the users. In the paper “Proposal and Definition of a Novel Methodology for Improving the Design and Manufacturing of 3D Printed Prosthetic Hands in Developing Countries”

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authors present a methodology to improve the design of prostheses so to make them adaptable to the user and easier to develop. As the authors state, the goal is to help organisations and volunteers in the development and manufacturing of low-cost prostheses in low-income countries. The paper presents the different approaches and tools used in their methodology, along with a case study. The work “Design of a Methodology Based on Analysis of Vibrations for an Efficient Minimally Intrusive Remote Monitoring of the Evolution of Parkinson’s Disease” presents a wearable device to capture data on the amplitude and frequency of the Parkinsonian tremor that could be used to improve the analysis of the evolution of such tremors. In “Development of mobile interactive e-tools in clinical guidance for nurse practitioners” the authors present the use of PowerPoint presentations and SCORM to develop interactive clinical procedure guidelines for nurse students in a Learning Management System. As an implementation example, the authors show an interactive RCP procedure guide which was evaluated by 15 nurse students with great acceptance. The paper “Design of a Novel Respiratory Device for Neonatal Patients” presents a virtual model of a new interface for supplying oxygen to neonatal patients. As the authors declare, the expected benefits of using their design benefits resulting from the designed device include injury formation, the correct fixation of the device and access to the patient’s mouth by the medical staff. In “Hyperthermia by Low Intensity Focused Ultrasound” the authors present free and open-source tools to simulate heating by low-intensity ultrasound, which can be used to model hyperthermia treatment of organ cancer. The authors show the results of pressure field and bioheat calculation simulated using MATLAB over a voxelised generated volume that resembles prostate cancer. “Piloting the willingness to use a didactic robot in health sciences education on the basis of the UTAUT model” describes the employment of a UTAUT model for evaluating the willingness of students to use a didactic robot in health sciences education. “Mobile Application Development for Human Veterinary Resources Management in a Low Density Population Context: Promoting Students Engagement by Working with the Community” presents a mobile application to support veterinary personnel in low density population environments. The application architecture and software development process follow the engineering standards, and the resulting application interface appears easy to use and with great potential. Finally, “3D technology applied on complex abdominal wall pathologies” employs a 3D reconstruction software to classify complex hernia cases to achieve a precise diagnosis and surgical approach.

4 Implementation of Qualitative and Mixed Methods Researches 4.1 Introduction The dichotomy between qualitative and quantitative approaches gave rise to the possibility of combining them to respond to the new and complex research problems that we are currently faced with. Although studies with/on mixed methods are becoming

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increasingly popular, the question of to what extent qualitative and quantitative research methods can be combined is still poorly explored. Many researchers believe they use mixed methods because of the simple fact of using information-gathering techniques that offer numerical and textual data. In this way, it is necessary to consider the adequacy of the research questions, the methodological design, and the studies that integrate the mixed study. In terms of priorities, many studies can focus on both the qualitative and the quantitative, and in sequence, research can start with one or the other [26]. With the amplification of studies using qualitative approaches in the 1980s, CAQDAS proliferated. The evolution of these tools followed the improvements and the usability studies of the software users to be able to use these tools easily [27]. The need, currently, is guided by the suitability of the means to the study that the researcher advocates. In this context, CAQDAS, such as Atlas.ti, Dedoose, MaxQDA, NVivo, QDAMiner and webQDA, have brought closer users using hybrid approaches. An example of this is the visual representation of data, which, in these tools, has, on the one hand, shown the importance of using visual outputs to synthesise and present results and, on the other hand, more remarkable adaptation and suitability for those who carry out mixed studies [28, 29]. Greene, Caracelli, Graham [30] observed that qualitative and quantitative methods could be combined to achieve the following objectives: (1) triangulation, which examines the convergence or corroboration of results of qualitative and quantitative studies explored to study the same phenomenon; (2) complementarity, which seeks to improve, illustrate and elaborate the results of one method with results of another method (for example, the two approaches study the overlapping but different aspects of a phenomenon); (3) development, which uses results from one method to develop or inform the design of another method; (4) initiation, which detects paradox and contrast between two methods (often leading to a reframing of the research question); and (5) expansion, which tends to increase the scope and scope of a study by combining the two approaches. As a bridge, after more than 30 years, the CAQDAS face immense challenges regarding its development and suitability for mixed methods studies. However, the path has already begun, demonstrating this field’s importance. 4.2 Qualitative and Mixed Methods Papers in TEEM 2022 Verdugo-Castro et al., in the contribution “The opinion of the Spanish university population on the existence of studies and professions according to gender”, present a study whose objective is to know the Spanish university population’s perception of whether there are typical studies and professions for men and women. A total of 2101 students and graduates participate in the research. The final results show that gender stereotypes still continue in the attributions of studies and professions. The contribution “Trends in techno-social environments and gerontechnological innovation: a systematic mapping and European initiatives” develop a systematic mapping of scientific production in Living Labs, specifically Senior Labs, in Web of Science and Scopus in the last five years. They use a specific protocol for this systematic mapping, analysing 11 publications. In addition to the systematic mapping, the researchers also analyse 42 European initiatives in the sector. According to the results, there are

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several social innovation initiatives in the form of laboratories. They specialise in different topics and areas, but there is a particular interest in improving the quality of older people’s life, developing Senior Labs. The work “Towards an initial teacher training in Comprehensive Sexuality Education (CSE): Theoretical scopes and presentation of categories” develops a study that defines different categories based on the relationship between Comprehensive Sexuality Education (CSE) and initial teacher training. It is pretended to determine the theoretical and practical scope of the CSE in initial teacher training and to identify how universities operate according to initial teacher training in the area of sexuality and CSE. A total of 25 university teachers participated in the research. The researchers conduct a qualitative study to evaluate the attributes (skills, attitudes, and knowledge) students must acquire and develop by the time they graduate in the contribution “Evaluation of learning attributes in higher education: a methodological guide validation”. They also identify the strengths and weaknesses of the methodological guide proposed, taking into account the opinion of 11 professors. According to the results, the guide is valuable and helpful, and the standard process proposed could improve efficiency and collaboration and reduce workload. However, they also identify some weaknesses. Voorhies et al., in the contribution “Qualitative analysis of the transition and learning needs of Front-Line refinery leaders”, present a qualitative study whose objective is to support and help a company to pinpoint how to identify, select, and develop a good FrontLine Leader (FLL). Different human resources professionals and six current FLLs of the company participate in the research. This research offers some practical findings and recommendations to improve leadership development practices in this organisation and others. The work “Accompaniment methodology of open innovation in local universities after COVID-19” describes qualitative research whose aims are to diagnose the Technological Readiness Level Scale (TRL) of a local university, and to develop a methodology that allows its researchers to apply the open innovation model to get a different level of innovation to improve competitiveness. According to the results, the level of research at the university analysed is basic, so the need to develop higher-level technological research in the context of open innovation is emphasised. The experts that follow the program consider that the Open Innovation Accompaniment methodology is simple, agile and accessible. The study “Digital Qualitative and Mixed Methods Research in the Transformation of Higher Education”, carried out at UAM Cuajimalpa, pretends to systematise the qualitative and mixed methods researches developed during COVID-19 pandemic in that institution, and to show the role of these researches to spread the educational practices carried out during that period. According to the results, these qualitative and mixed methods researches in digital environments have allowed to know and understand in deep the teaching-learning process developed during the pandemic, and to be aware of the necessity of a pedagogical change.

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5 Bridging the Diversity Gap in STEM 5.1 Introduction Nowadays, there is a gap between the professional demand for qualified personnel with specialisation in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics areas (STEM), and those who access studies related to these topics. According to the World Economic Forum in its reports on the future of jobs [31, 32], the industry is undergoing a continuous transformation in favour of technological skills. According to the latest report published [33], the pace of technology adoption is expected to not slow down and is expected to accelerate in some areas. In addition, the STEM education sector suffers from under-representation of gender diversity, namely women [34]. Moreover, there is an underrepresentation of minorities according to race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and students of low socioeconomic status [35]. The percentage of women graduates in ICT is 1.7%, compared to 8.2% of men graduates, according to the indicators provided in the last Global Gender Gap Report [36]. In Engineering and Manufacturing, gender parity is far away from being achieved; only 6.6% of women graduates in those areas against 24.6% of men. These gaps are observed at all lifecycle stages, from primary school to women in top positions in STEM careers [37]. While the loss of interest in STEM areas begins at an early age, this gap is visible through the low number of women who eventually enrol in STEM careers. This topic aims to identify, share and valorise experiences, projects and best practices focused on promoting diversity and reducing inequality in both academic and professional STEM sectors. 5.2 Diversity and Gender Gap in STEM Papers TEEM 2022 The paper “Analysis of gender and STEM in secondary school students” analyses the motivations and preferences of secondary school students towards STEM studies in the Spanish region of Castilla y León. The work finds important gender differences between boys and girls regarding their motivation towards STEM and involvement in out-of-school activities based on 1562 answers. In the contribution “Design of didactic units focused on improving diversity gaps within new multidisciplinary spaces: the STEAM-Labs”, the authors describe the practices developed across one year of implementing STEAM-Labs at secondary schools in Germany, Turkey, Italy and Spain. Ortiz-Martínez et al. contribution entitled “Implementing Mentoring Communities Under the TEC21 Educational Model to Ensure the Resilience of Female Students in STEM Areas” presents an evaluation instrument focused on collecting information about the causes of desertion and determining specific actions to ensure the resilience of female students. The contribution entitled “A pilot experience to raise awareness among Computer Science undergraduates about the gender biases of algorithms” describes an experience

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to work on gender biases in algorithms to raise awareness of the role of developers in designing and using algorithms in decision-making software. Hasti et al., in the paper “A Grey Web Analysis of Existing STEAM Diversity Initiatives”, describe the work done in the CreaSTEAM project to identify initiatives across Europe that are focused on diversity in STEAM. The paper entitled “Access and dropout in engineering and architecture studies. A preliminary study with a gender perspective” is part of a project focused on fostering engineering and architecture degrees among women inside a public Spanish higher education institution. This study delves into the main reasons that lead young people to access those degrees using the GENCE 2.0 questionnaire. Finally, the last work, entitled “Cultural differences in complexity reasoning in higher education” analyse the different dimensions that make up complex thinking (critical, scientific, innovative, and systemic) by gender from a STEM perspective.

6 Lab-Based Education in STEM 6.1 Introduction The value of experimentation to Science (Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics, i.e., STEM) is traceable to the 17th century, as evidenced by the motto of the Royal Society: “Nullius in verba”. As stated in [38]: “The Royal Society’s motto ‘Nullius in verba’ is taken to mean ‘take nobody’s word for it’. It is an expression of the determination of Fellows to withstand the domination of authority and to verify all statements by an appeal to facts determined by experiment.”. In STEM education, lab-based classes play an important role by allowing students to acquire experimental skills, as part of their training. This vital role is evidenced by a seminal paper authored by Feisel and Rosa, which proposes a list of 13 fundamental objectives of laboratories in undergraduate engineering degrees [39]. This same paper also addresses the potential value of combining different lab environments, like remote and virtual labs. The trend to expand the boundaries of traditional – hands-on – labs to the cyberspace, creating a new type of non-traditional – virtual and remote – labs has gained momentum with the COVID-19 pandemic. Nevertheless, this trend has roots that can be traced back to more than 25 years ago [40], as acknowledged by Froyd et al., i.e., “… Remote laboratories allow institutions to share expensive equipment, and equipment downtime is reduced. (p. 1354)”. This topic aims to discuss relevant contributions to the theme of Lab-based Education in STEM. In the last couple of years, mainly related to the pandemic period, lab-based Education has experienced a drawback in terms of face-to-face laboratory work. Nevertheless, the effort observed around the world to compensate for the restrictions posed as a consequence of COVID-19, led to the creation of a diversity of interesting pedagogical materials and didactical approaches. Remote and virtual laboratories became very popular and were introduced in curricular units (courses) in conjunction with traditional or adapted materials (i.e. videos, interactive/dynamic forms, etc.) [41]. At present, the general perception is that most probably most of these didactical approaches and materials will keep on being used for the following years. On the other hand, the use of technological platforms, which were very popular in the same period allowed the development

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of new forms of intensive team interaction, characteristic of great importance in STEM areas. 6.2 Lab-Based Education Papers in TEEM 2022 The purpose of “Didactic analysis of olive mill wastewaters antimicrobial activity” was to study the total phenolic compounds present in olive mill wastewaters (OMWW) from Bragança region olive oil mills, considering different extraction processes and to determine its antimicrobial activity against pathogenic bacteria. This work is an example of a purely experimental study, developed to answer local industrial concerns to improve the industry’s sustainability by reusing its waste in another industrial sector, namely into pharmaceutical applications. Results demonstrated that olive mill wastewaters have antibacterial activity even when used directly in the liquid form, and diluted to 50% or more, therefore suggesting that this residue can be a natural microorganism’s inhibitory agent and can potentially be exploited for different purposes based on this activity. The work “Perceptions of Mechanical Engineering students about flipped laboratory activities” describes an implementation of flipped teaching initiative in laboratory practice in a mechanical engineering course in a Portuguese higher education institution. Despite the interest raised being small, and decreasing throughout the semester, students’ perceptions indicate this initiative as contributing to their learning, which is a very positive result, considering these laboratory activities were extra-class activities, not contributing to their final grade. The contribution entitled “Augmented Reality for Self-management of Learning in Manufacturing Laboratories (AR-Manufacturing Lab)” focuses on applying augmented reality tools to promote learning self-management, namely in industrial robots, lathe, milling machines, and modelling CNCs (Computer Numerical Control), 3D printers, laser and plasma cutters, electronic circuit printers, and PLCs (Programmable Logic Controllers), among others. The proposed learning self-management was based on the use of students’ mobile devices to receive instructions for operating each machine. The augmented reality tool was applied to seventh-semester students in Industrial and Systems Engineering curriculum supported by the free App “HP Reveal”. The use of the tool is unsupervised and contributes to their autonomy in the teaching-learning process. In the context of teaching and learning statistics, often students are not involved in data collection processes for problem-solving, using instead data samples previously prepared. Therefore, as they do not entirely understand the experimentation process, their interpretation of statistical results is insufficient. In “GeOrder simulator as provocateur of semiotic Representations for statistics learning in STEM” authors propose a real-world problem: an e-commerce company wants to analyse the feasibility of implementing its own transportation system. To allow students to develop the experimentation process, it was proposed the development of a simulator – GeOrder, capable of generating random data concerning geospatial location, weight, and origin of the order for many orders organised by weeks.

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7 Identity, Technology and Education. Identity Construction Processes in Hyperconnected Ecosystems 7.1 Introduction We live in a technology-driven society, where nothing escapes the hyperconnectivity generated by the latest technological artifacts and devices, more commonly referred to as screens. It cannot be ignored that these technologies reshape us as users, affecting our ways of being, thinking and living [42, 43]. At the same time, literature shows that we are increasingly living away from contact with nature, which results in a wide range of behavioural problems known as nature deficit disorder [44]. Our starting point is twofold: first, the confluence between the ways of being and acting individually and collectively in the systems mediated by the technologies of our time. And secondly, the fact that we are increasingly moving away from contact with nature. In this line, this topic aims to study the processes of construction, destruction and reconstruction of the OnLife self and the impact that this phenomenon has on the externalisation of our public self and the nature deficit disorder. 7.2 Identity, Technology and Education Papers in TEEM 2022 In this paper, “Technology and teaching space: a pedagogical approach to the classroom of the future”, the authors seek to reveal the pedagogical importance of the teaching environment and how, rather than a place where all kinds of instruction are possible, the classrooms of the future are tending toward more of a non-space. The paper “Daily life of elderly: an approach to the use of gerontechnology” presents part of the results of a national research project “SENIORLAB-LBD”. This research addresses the technological innovation processes with the participation of users and end users and the study of collaborative experiences. The author of the contribution “Combating Screens with School Gardens: The Innovative 21st Century Tool Against Nature Deficit” addresses the importance of what school gardens can offer to the lives of people around them. Through a local research project the author concludes that schools should include the implementation of Sustainable Development Goals in order to alleviate nature deficit disorder. The contribution entitled “Students as creators of online newspapers: A tool’s userinterface proposal” presents an interesting initiative to combat the problem of the consumption of fake news in younger audiences. Through the support of PÚBLICO newspaper, the authors present the conceptual basis and the process of the interface design of a new writing tool. Considering that socialisation is now conditioned by hyperconnectivity and takes place in spaces such as virtual social media. The work “The subjective perception of internet use among protected minors and young offenders in the Childhood Protection Scheme in the Spanish region of Castilla y León” analyses the influence that hyperconnectivity has on the self-concept of minors involved in the tutelage scheme in Castilla y León. Considering the Massive Open Online Courses (MOOC), as spaces for innovative training in higher education. In the paper “Social construction of learning: analysis from

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the participants of an energy sustainability xMOOC”, the authors analysed the social construction of learning from the perception of the participants of an xMOOC. The author of “The anthropological dynamics that are revealed in the use of social networks and what we can do from pedagogy” addresses the phenomenon of social networks from an anthropological point of view. The paper concludes with some ideas on how to approach social networks in a more pedagogical way, especially from the figure of the teacher. The work “Video games as a form of youth leisure: socialisation practices and selfperception among young university students” aims to analyse the relationship between the practice of videogames (and the social relationships that are woven around it) and the definition of personal self-concept among young non-professional gamers.

8 Gamification and Games for Learning (GAMILEARN) 8.1 Introduction Game-based strategies have demonstrated positive effects on student motivation and learning benefits [45]. Gamification draws on game elements to transform teaching and learning processes and create more engaging and engaging gamified learning experiences [46]. The use of gamification in education has been growing since 2011 when the concept became known [47] and there are numerous researches showing its effectiveness, with case studies and experiences [48–50], until reaching the industry sector, specialised in serious games and gamification [51]. Therefore, GAMILEARN aims to bring together people from academia and industry to exchange innovative ideas and experiences on gamification for teaching and learning. In particular, it addresses playful teaching approaches, gamified educational tools or educational games, and experiences carried out by researchers and practitioners from the gaming, design, engineering and education sectors. Gamification extracts game elements to incorporate them in non-game environments [47], such as educational environments, with the aim of increasing motivation and promoting reinforcement or behavioural change. To help us create gamified environments there are different design frameworks [52] with mechanics, dynamics and different components that allow us to create gamified processes. Likewise, ways to classify and evaluate different types of players according to their preferences and characterisation in front of the game are proposed [53]. Game-based learning is related to gamification, although they are not the same, since not necessarily every gamified activity will be a game. Although technology can also support the design and development of gamified activities in education, gamification can also be done without it. In this sense, research is still lacking to demonstrate the advantages and disadvantages of gamification in technological and non-technological ecosystems, as well as the effectiveness and impact on motivation and long-term engagement [54–57]. There are still many challenges to be solved despite the degree of maturity that the research area of gamification in education has already reached [58]. Therefore, this topic brings together different works and projects that delve into some of the open questions of this research area.

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8.2 Gamification and Games for Learning Papers in TEEM 2022 The contribution “Tales from the Future: Exploring Game Design Strategies for Creativity and Play” describes a board game developed to investigate the potential of games and storytelling in creative environments and the design of future scenarios. Co-creation has been used as a participatory design methodology and the game has been found effective mainly for its use for creative scaffolding, social game mechanics and the “magic circle”. On the other hand, the work “Design and implementation of serious games on extended reality: a use case in construction safety” proposes a design guide to facilitate the development by non-expert users who wish to automatize the creation of XR learning experiences. This paper offers recommendations for incorporating and developing game components and narratives, as well as presenting an application case where its reliability is demonstrated. The paper “Urban Exploration Game - An EPS@ISEP 2022 Project” presents the development of an exploratory game for tourism called QRioCity, which facilitates the exploration of cities in a playful way, and as a particular case, the city of Oporto and a public kiosk with an interactive tactile table created for this purpose are presented. Another work “Tangible application of gamification for teaching spatial topics to blind people based on Universal Design for Learning”, describes the design of a videogame that implements tangible user interfaces with educational contents based on Universal Design for Learning (UDL) to teach spatial topics to blind people by providing auditory feedback and different gamification elements. The paper “Coding is fun: Engaging adult on-line learners using programming games” presents a study on the use of two computer games, called “Human Resource Machine” and “7 Billion Humans”, which were applied in different distance learning courses for adult learners. The authors also show a positive impact on the students’ perception of knowledge acquisition and their sense of self-efficacy. Another contribution is “Gameful English: how playing vernacular video games may enhance ESL learning in an extra-mural educational context” which presents a qualitative case study carried out in a public secondary school in Italy. This study presents extracurricular and extra-mural activities to improve English as a second language (ESL) designed around the video game Minecraft as a tool for teaching and learning as well as for assessment. The paper “Pervasiveness for learning in serious games applied to older adults” identifies different aspects that should be considered to offer serious games in pervasive environments to adjust them to the particularities of the older adult population. The contribution “Unplugged gamification” addresses the problem of the lack of consensus and research on unplugged gamification in education and presents a systematic review of the literature that evidences this gap. Another related work is the paper “Boardgames proposal as new paradigm in education gamification. IdeaTRIZ-X project”, which demonstrates that there is a gap in the research on board games as a means of learning. The work describes moving mathematics from a creative technique (TRIZ10) to a board game mechanic to guide brainstorming sessions.

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Finally, another review, entitled “Examples of games for learning in Erasmus+” analyses concrete examples of European educational projects, in the framework of Erasmus+, that use games or educational platforms as the main focus of action.

9 Smart Learning 9.1 Introduction This research line has been progressing over time and has been consolidated. In the first edition [59], we discussed the definition and nature of the term. We can say that the research topic has been consolidating and has moved on to discuss more concrete aspects. In the second edition [60], we focused on the Artificial Intelligence behind the term Smart. The third edition [61] was online and allowed us to survey among the participating authors what the main research topics were within the discipline and their level of maturity, challenge, and impact. The fourth edition [62], born in an assumed context of online teaching, was mainly focused on defining the context for the development of Smart Learning. This fifth edition is focused on the evaluation of results, especially on the learner’s needs as well as on the capacity of smart learning systems to offer solutions to those needs. A true Smart Learning system takes care of the inclusion and participation of students, especially the vulnerable ones, and especially when we are faced with distance learning, without personal interaction. On the other hand, Smart Learning systems have a strong technological component based on Artificial Intelligence, so it is crucial to ask ourselves about the role of this technology, the need to train our students and make them literate in this new paradigm, and, most importantly, its ethical implications. The use of disruptive technologies for learning can greatly benefit learning outcomes, but technologies per se do not guarantee anything. It is necessary to demonstrate the improvement in learning and the degree of acceptance of the technology through scientific experiments. Similarly, the methodologies associated with Smart Learning systems need to be validated, and to this end it can be very interesting to discover patterns of behavior among learners and identify how these patterns influence performance. It is not only necessary to evaluate technologies and methodologies, but also the course structure itself, to detect strengths and weaknesses. To this end, it is very beneficial to provide graphical tools that allow, at a glance, to evaluate the balance of the courses, while at the same time it is possible to dig into more specific aspects and have a fine-grained evaluation. As an ultimate goal, a Smart Learning system should pursue students’ motivation, so it is necessary to know what motivates them and discover behavioural patterns that denote this motivation. In this way it will be possible to early identify which learners are unmotivated and establish strategies to motivate them. 9.2 Smart Learning Papers in TEEM 2022 The first paper is “Smart schools: inclusion and participation of vulnerable students during at distance learning”, where the authors highlight the fact that both students and teachers moved through a deep change in their school experience from face-to-face teaching to distance learning, as a consequence of the COVID-19 pandemic. Although this

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situation has represented an opportunity to develop strategies and resources to guarantee continuity in the learning experience, several factors have negatively affected students’ learning outcomes. They are particularly interested in the negative effects of Distance Learning (DL) on students in conditions of fragility. To do so, they have conducted a bibliographic search and analysed the data obtained from recent national and international literature to rethink digital learning environments, support the learning path of all students, and promote inclusion and participation among those in condition of vulnerability. The objective of the paper “Students’ Acceptance and Efficiency of Virtual Reality in French Language Learning at Higher Education” is to know university students’ perception of the ease of use and usefulness of Virtual Reality (VR) technologies in French language learning. To do so, the authors have prepared an experience of VR based on Mondly software, and then they have applied the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) to evaluate the acceptance of the proposal, mainly its perceived usefulness and ease of use. They have found that, in general, the students had a certain degree of fluency with the use of technologies and were confident with their future use of the app Mondly and VR glasses. The main results show that the student’s acceptance of the app was optimal and their motivation to speak the French language was improved through those virtual practices. The authors of “Students’ performance and academic success study using Self Directed Based Learning methodology” have been applying the so-called Self-directed Based Learning (SDBL) to facilitate the students’ learning process. This methodology places the learners in the centre so that they direct their learning through a guide, which includes different tasks or challenges that the learners must solve, the teaching resources to look and a self-assessment to reinforce their learning. The objective of this paper is to study the response of the students to this methodology, identify the kind of activities that are more directly related to the student’s academic success, and validate the design and construction of the methodology. The authors use some data obtained from the LMS for each student and then they apply a machine learning algorithm to discover frequent patterns, associations, or structures in the student data set. In the paper “TEMaps for Designing Courses Based on Smart Learning”, the authors use TEMap (Technological Ecosystem Map to evaluate the design of a course in a smart learning platform based on the CALM model (Customized Adaptive Learning Model). CALM is a learning model with three principles: it fosters active learning, it strengthens the autonomy of the learner, it generates adaptive activities, and it facilitates teacher supervision. The is then analysed using a TEMap (a polygonal representation, illustrated as a heat map) that provides a whole vision of the course design based on CALM and the platform that implements it. Finally, the authors of “Identifying demotivation patterns in students of subjects related to data science at college” are interested in the early detection of demotivation patterns for an actual smart learning strategy. From data about socioeconomic factors, the students’ careers, and the subjects of study, they study which are the characteristics of students and subjects that have the greatest influence on the change in their motivation, generate models capable of predicting change in student motivation and propose

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recommendations and actions to improve student motivation and performance. They use Machine Learning techniques to generate predictive models.

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Computational Thinking and Robotics in Education

Vocabulary Enrichment in Mother Language After Preschoolers’ Interaction with a Social Robot Nicoleta Laura Popa1(B) , Oana Alexandra Clim1 , Adina Boaca1 , Cristian-Tiberius Axinte2 , Robert-Gabriel Lupu2 , and Georgiana Juravle1 1 Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iasi,

Iasi, Romania {nicoleta.laura.popa,georgiana.juravle}@uaic.ro 2 Faculty of Automatic Control and Computer Engineering, Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iasi, Iasi, Romania {cristian-tiberius.axinte, robert-gabriel.lupu}@academic.tuiasi.ro

Abstract. In the last decade, a number of studies conducted with preschoolers interacting with social robots suggest positive effects on foreign language learning, attitudes towards technology, and the recognition of geometrical shapes and colours. However, the effects of similar interactions for the improvement of mother tongue acquisition among children are rather understudied. The present study explores the effect of the child-robot interaction on the enrichment of mother tongue vocabulary, based on a quasi-experimental methodology. Two groups of Romanian preschoolers (N = 40) interacted with the social robot NAO either individually or as members of a group, based on a custom-developed script. As Romanian language is not covered by the robot’s software, NAO was programmed for this purpose. Preschoolers were individually interviewed pre and post-interaction, and asked to create ‘short stories about a robot’. The qualitative data were analysed with QDA Miner Lite, based on the total number of words in the story, words in the field of technology, and human relationships. Within-participants results were quantitatively explored. The findings suggest promising effects regarding the richness of vocabulary after the interaction with the social robot. Findings are discussed in the context of nowadays usage of technology in early childhood education. Keywords: social robots · preschoolers · mother language vocabulary

1 Introduction Technology advancements are reflected in the increased interest of educationalists and educators for various pedagogical agents and intelligent systems, their benefits for student learning at all ages and for the overall quality of educational programmes [1]. Even though social actors raised a series of concerns about ‘screen time’ among young children, leveraging intentional benefits of technologies has potential positive effects for © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 F. J. García-Peñalvo and A. García-Holgado (Eds.): TEEM 2022, LNET, pp. 25–32, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0942-1_2

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learning, especially in early childhood. There is consensus on children’ high exposure at technology in all types of environments, and the need to exploit this in the favour of skills’ development in educational contexts. Given the young age of Human–Robot Interaction as an autonomous field [2], the use of social robots in education is a rather recent topic in the educational domain, with intensive research determined by the popularity of social robots for long-term interactions [3]. The earliest social robot used in educational settings is Robo-ELC launched in 2013, introduced to students as a tutor [4]. The most recent five social robots introduced in educational contexts are Tabot, Bee-bots, RUBI-6, MOCCA and ZOOO, the last one being tested in 2020 [2]. However, some of the most common social (humanoid) robots used in educational contexts are Pepper and NAO, used as novice learners allowing students to take over the role of the instructors, learning companions, tutors or even teacher assistants across various educational content domains [5, 6]. Learning effects when using social robots in education are cognitive and affective, but positive affective outcomes reported in most studies are not necessarily accompanied by cognitive gains [7]. The mixed effects for the development of motor skills was explained based on wellknown mirror neuron theory: humans imitate motor actions performed by other humans. It appears that the action observation system is activated more strongly for the nonhuman robot movements, when people are shown videos of human dance movements as opposed to videos of more rigid robot movements [8, 9]. Moreover, an incongruent action tends to interfere with the execution of an ongoing action performed by another human, but not by a robot [10]. In the last decade, a number of studies conducted with preschoolers interacting with social robots suggest positive effects on foreign language learning [11, 12], attitudes towards technology [13], and recognition of geometrical shapes and colours [14]. An even greater number of studies address the use of social robots in assisting disabled pupils, mostly learners with autistic spectrum disorder, in various educational and social settings [15]. In what regards learning a second or foreign language, several modalities of utilizing a robot in the classroom have been already tested, among these, story-telling, oral reading mode, or cheerleading mode, together with giving the robot action commands, and/or asking/answering questions [16, 17]. Additionally, social humanoid robots have been described as playfellows for young children, providing educational opportunities for vocabulary enhancement in English as a foreign language through word games [18]. As some researchers already commented [18–23], there is a lack of awareness on the fact that teaching a foreign or second language may require different robot support for learners, as opposed to the case of native speakers developing their mother language skills. In early childhood education in particular, a mix of robot activities and types of interactions, such as singing, dancing, reading books, short conversions, are recommended to support the learning process. In addition, the way the robot provides feedback during common activities is relevant, as it may lead to higher achievement and deeper learning. A recent study [19] underlines the importance of feedback and the type of feedback (e.g., preferred, dispreferred, and no feedback) in robot-child interactions designed for learning English as a foreign language. Even if the learning gains did not vary significantly among the three experimental conditions, the researchers found engagement in

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the activity with the robot was significantly higher when preferred feedback was provided. The same concern is addressed in a study focusing on robot support for learning Chinese as a foreign language [20]. Learners prompted with various eye colours of the robot displayed increased understanding and memory of the words, and the results have been explained by increased interactivity, novelty and ultimately engagement with learning. However, other studies suggest that the level of interactivity should be carefully controlled because it can mislead the learners, and a combination of verbal and nonverbal interactive behaviour is more likely to support confidence and engagement [21]. Other relevant robot’s features are the ability to adapt to children’s language proficiency, provide contingent responses, use meaningful gestures, provide effective feedback and monitor learning progress [22]. Social robots are often presented as emerging and powerful education tools to enhance language and literacy tools among young children, and the studies reporting on the matter is certainly of high importance [23]. Language and literacy skills are the foundation for future reading, writing, speaking and listening ability and the acquisition of these skills is a strong predictor of long-term academic success, future adult health and well-being in society [24]. However, the effects of child-social robot interactions for the improvement of mother tongue acquisition among typically developing children are rather understudied, due to various factors, especially the limited number of languages programmed for social robots, including NAO.

2 The Present Study 2.1 Aim The study aimed to explore the effect of the child-robot interaction on the enrichment of mother tongue vocabulary, based on a quasi-experimental within-participants methodology. The researchers expected longer and richer stories created by the preschoolers after the interaction with NAO, especially an increased number of words from the fields of technology and/or human relationships. 2.2 Method 2.2.1 Participants Two samples of Romanian preschoolers (N = 40) aged 5 to 6 years participated in the study (M = 5.35; SD = 0.48 in the sample of 20 preschoolers assigned to the group interaction condition, respectively M = 5.70; SD = 0.47 in the sample of 20 preschoolers assigned to the individual interaction). All participants were enrolled in urban kindergarten for two previous school years and regularly attended the early childhood programme. 2.2.2 Materials and Procedure The social robot NAO was programmed to express itself in Romanian, and to run a script of approximately three minutes, with the following activities: a) self-presentation

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(name) and the invitation addressed to the child, or the group of children, to present themselves; b) a simultaneous verbal and visual feedback for the accomplishment of the task (“Bravo” accompanied by colourful blinking); c) a dance sequence and the invitation addressed to participants to perform the same movements; d) continuous feedback with head movements while participants dance; e) a simultaneous verbal and clapping feedback for the accomplishment of the task by the participant(s); f) a colour recognition task for the participants; g) verbal, visual, and clapping feedback, if the task is correctly solved/no feedback for incorrect answers; h) goodbye greetings and accompanying hand gesture. The sample was divided in two groups, interacting with NAO in group or individually. In the case of group interaction, the verbal script was slightly adjusted to accommodate the plural instead of the singular when addressing to the participants. All interactions were organised in kindergarten settings, which are familiar to the preschoolers: the group interactions took place in the classroom, and the individual interactions were organised in a kindergarten room. Two researchers were present at all time during the interaction: one communicated with the child, respectively the group of children, and one handled the social humanoid robot. One week before the interaction with the social robot and one week afterwards participants have been interviewed individually and asked, among other tasks, ‘to create a short story about a robot’. All stories have been recorded and transcribed. The early childhood teachers were instructed to avoid contents related to technology in between pre-test and post-test. Informed parental consent has been obtained from all participants, and children’s informed assent was part of the interaction procedure. 2.2.3 Data Analysis Transcripts have been analysed qualitatively with QDA Miner Lite, based on a tree of codes described in the following section of this paper. Quantitative results (i.e., frequencies of each group of codes) were imported in IBM SPSS 24.0 for further quantitative analysis. Descriptive statistics are presented for each category of codes, and effects of the interaction with NAO for each of the two samples are explored with paired samples t-tests. 2.3 Results Content analysis was used to determine the presence in the corpus of three sets of codes depicted in the Fig. 1 below. The total number of words used by children for creating the stories about a robot before the interaction with NAO ranged between 0 and 186 for the participants in the group interaction condition (M = 74.25; SD = 39.87), and between 7 and 145 for the participants in the individual interaction condition (M = 76.25; SD = 34.18). After the interaction with the social robot, the total number of words used in their stories by participants in the group interaction slightly decreased in its maximum, ranging from 34 to 143 (M = 70.65; SD = 32.23), and increased for participants in the individual interaction condition, ranging from 14 to 165 (M = 84.10; SD = 39.81).

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Fig. 1. Codes for the qualitative analysis

The number of words from the field of technology increased after the child-robot interaction for both samples: at pre-interaction time, the number of tech words in the group condition ranged between 1 and 11 (M = 2.55; SD = 2.18), and at the postinteraction time ranged between 0 and 15 (M = 3.10; SD = 3.29); in the case of the participants in the individual interaction condition the same values varied between 1 and 8 words (M = 3.00; SD = 2.07), respectively 0 to 11 words (M = 3.10; SD = 2.70). The number of words related to humans and human relationships also slightly varied for both groups: in the group interaction condition, at time 1 the values ranged from 0 to 10 (M = 2.85; SD = 2.75) and at time 2 between 0 and 11 (M = 2.75; SD = 2.86), while in the individual interaction condition at time one the number of words ranged between 0 and 8 (M = 2.90; SD = 2.33), and at time 2 between 0 and 9 (M = 2.95; SD = 2.58). Within-participants effects for group and individual interaction groups have been tested with paired samples t-tests and resulted in non-significant findings, although the

Fig. 2. Means pre and post-interaction, group and individual interaction with NAO

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number of words in the field of technology increased for both groups. Figure 2 below illustrates pre and post-interaction means for group and individual interaction groups. Affective responses to the interaction with NAO need to be mentioned as complementary research findings, based on unstructured observations during data collection. Most preschoolers were curious and excited to meet the social humanoid robot, made eye contact, and touched it. Post-intervention stories content reflects these observations: an important number of participants from both the group and individual interaction conditions (N = 16) referred to NAO as human, while the rest of them indicated that it is a toy, but tended to attach human features to the robot. Moreover, some preschoolers named the robots in their post-intervention stories with Romanian (N = 2) and English names (N = 4).

3 Discussion The findings of the present study add to the existent empirical evidence suggesting positive effects of using social robots with the purpose of enhancing language skills in young children, especially enriching mother language vocabulary. The contribution of the current research is twofold: firstly, in contrast with previous studies addressing foreign or second language learning [16–18], it focuses on mother language skills, as the social robot was programmed to communicate in a less-taught language, and secondly, it highlights the need to establish clear areas of language skills (vocabulary in this particular case) to be explored when social robots are used as educational tools, in line with similar research [18]. However, several limitations need to be mentioned: the short-time interaction with NAO may have limited the positive effects regarding the vocabulary enrichment, and the study did not include a control group, and therefore between-participants effects were not explored. Although nonsignificant within-participants effects may mislead, the increase in number of words from the field of technology after the interaction may be linked to higher openness to technology in general, but more data are needed for endorsing this idea.

4 Conclusions Although the use of social robots in the classroom is still hindered by technical, logistical and even ethical challenges, the potential benefits need to be further addressed in empirical studies. More empirical evidence is needed in order to fully support previous research findings on social robots’ role in education, and to diversify their use for educational purposes. For early childhood education, the improvement of mother language skills is critical and the promising effects of child-robot interaction in this regard demand more research efforts, with well-structured and focused designs, and larger samples. Acknowledgements. This work was supported by grants from the Romanian Ministry of Education and Research, CNCS-UEFISCDI, project number PN-III-P1-1.1-TE-2019-1699 (GJ) and PN-III-P2-2.1-PTE-2021-0634 (RGL).

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The Way for Learning Initial Programming: Activities, Feedback, and Predict Model Jos´e Figueiredo1(B) and Francisco Jos´e Garc´ıa-Pe˜ nalvo2 1

Research Unit for Inland Development (UDI), Polytechnic of Guarda, Guarda, Portugal [email protected] 2 Grupo de Investigaci´ on GRIAL, Departamento de Inform´ atica y Autom´ atica, Instituto Universitario de Ciencias de la Educaci´ on, Universidad de Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain [email protected] https://ror.org/02f40zc51

Abstract. Teaching programming is a special area with very particular characteristics and demands. It requires hard work and commitment from all those involved in teaching and learning. The teacher must plan, organize, and create the necessary resources so that students can acquire the skills required for the course objectives. Students must be actively involved in the learning process and acquire the necessary competencies in the area. Programming students are also required to have skills such as problem solving, abstraction, persistence, and commitment. Consequently, there are high failure and dropout rates among students. The work presented aims to present a set of strategies to minimize this problem. Basing the strategy on a wide range of activities of different types with immediate feedback according to the students’ needs and interests. The results are used to evaluate the students’ progress and to take immediate action in case of need. The results are also used in a machine learning prediction system for student failure. The whole process is managed by a technological tool, called HTProgramming, allowing all the stakeholders a practical and effective interaction of the teaching and learning process. The results obtained from the application of our strategy indicate significant improvements for the approved students. Keywords: CS0 · CS1 · programming machine learning · DSRM

1

· teaching programming ·

Introduction

Learning programming is a very complex cognitive process involving a set of abstract concepts. Programming is a process of transforming a mental plane of current terms into computer compatible terms [10]. The main aim of teaching programming is for students to develop their skills by acquiring competencies to c The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023  F. J. Garc´ıa-Pe˜ nalvo and A. Garc´ıa-Holgado (Eds.): TEEM 2022, LNET, pp. 33–42, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0942-1_3

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create computer programs that solve real problems. Apart from the difficulties inherent in learning programming students have to learn the syntax, semantics and structure of a new non-natural language in a short period of time. Many other factors can negatively influence the process of teaching and learning programming [11,13,18,19], such as the skills required for problem solving and decomposition and some students have never had the opportunity to practice computational thinking. On the other hand, for many students it is their first time away from home and they have difficulties in adapting to the new education system and also the connotation that programming is difficult. All these factors make the initial courses of learning programming characterised by frustration in the student, high dropout and failure rates, many years for students to finish the course [1]. In the last two years due to the pandemic caused by COVID-19, the problems have worsened. Rapid and huge transformations in the entire teaching and learning system were necessary. With the collaboration and commitment of all the stakeholders in the teaching system, this difficulty was overcome. However, all processes were affected, from the classroom system to the content and assessments. Clearly affecting an already weakened teaching and learning system [6,7,9,12]. Our interest in this problematic is focused on the students’ learning processes, on providing good and motivating experiences with programming, encouraging study, dedication and taste for programming. With the aim of significantly increasing the number of students who manage to acquire the basic skills of the introduction to programming (CS1) course in computer science. With this paper we intend to show that with constant monitoring by the teacher of the teaching-learning process of programming, and with a large set of activities of initiation to programming, such as MCQ (Multiple Choice Question) and Parson Problems among others, the basic skills and results of students improve significantly. The whole process is managed by an application (HTProgramming - Help To Programming) to help the student and the teacher. Where it is possible to manage and monitor activities, results, predict results and feedback to students and teachers. This paper is structured as follows: section two describes the context and background of the problem of teaching and learning programming, and describes our study group. Section three describes the Design Scientific Research Methodology applied to initial programming problems. In the four section the conclusions are addressed.

2

Context and Background

The way students are assessed has a very important effect on their learning process. On the other hand, teachers should plan different approaches to provide feedback and used to encourage students to initiate early interest, commitment and dedication to the study of programming. Overall, there is evidence that starting early assessment has a positive influence on learning [14].

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The importance of learning programming and the constant need for evaluation, led to the appearance of several methods and types of tests for partial evaluation of students, such as multiple-choice-questions (MCQ) or filling-the-hole type questions. The strength of these types of tests is their ease of applicability, evaluation and massification. In [16], a method called the ”Split-Paper (SP) test” is presented, which consists of presenting several lines of code, separated line by line, mixed with similar but unnecessary lines of code. The student must sort and choose the lines that form a program with a certain purpose. The evaluation is automatic and the score is calculated using the Levenshtein distance method, with the aim that the result is not just correct or incorrect. Studies such as the one presented in [15], seek to identify the main obstacles to learning computational thinking through programming. In that work, computational concepts such as parallelism, conditionals, data, and operators were identified as well as computational practices such as testing and debugging and abstracting and modularizing, as the most difficult to learn. Recent studies show that the combination of various strategies significantly improves student performance. It is also widely known that student attention is high at the beginning of the lesson and quickly decreases. In the work developed in [22], the BOPPPS (Bridge, Objective, Pre-test, Participatory Learning, Postassessment, Summary) model combined with the Rain Classroom tool is used [23]. The teaching model based on BOPPPS and Rain Classroom accentuates participatory learning and consequently keeps student attention, interest, and motivation levels high. 2.1

Study Group

In the origin of this work are the problems that we have observed over the years in the teaching of introduction to programming, in the course of computer science, in the Polytechnic Institute of Guarda (IPG). As described the difficulties of teaching and learning programming is not a particular case is a universal problem [1,2,11]. Our group has very particular characteristics. The study involves students from the first semester and first year of the Computer Science course. In this course, the C language is used to teach basic programming concepts. In Table 1, we can verify the number of students enrolled in the first year of the course. It is noteworthy the reduced number of students (First year students) resulting from the national competition for access to public higher education. It is also worth noting the high number of repeating students and the number of students from others special contests, such as change of institution/course pair, applicants over 23 years old, holders of other higher education degrees, holders of professional courses and students from Portuguese-speaking African Countries (Portuguese: Pa´ıses Africanos de L´ıngua Oficial Portuguesa; PALOP), with several problems in their general education.

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Table 1. Total number of students enrolled by academic year in the Introduction to Programming course, IPG, and the respective number of first year students, repeating students and others students. Year Enrolled students First year students Repeating students Others students 2018

85

20 (24%)

51 (60%)

14 (16%)

2019 119

20 (17%)

49 (41%)

50 (42%)

2020 112

36 (32%)

49 (44%)

27 (24%)

2021

11 (17%)

23 (36%)

30 (47%)

64

The final results of the last 5 years in the introduction to programming course can be observed in Table 2. The number and percentage of students approved has been very low, however we see that in the last two years it has increased significantly. Table 2. Results of the last 5 academic years, of the introduction of programming course, IPG. Academic year Total Students students evaluated

Students approved

Percent total students approved

Percent students evaluated approved

2017–2018

88

70

16

18.2%

22.9%

2018–2019

85

66

30

35.3%

45.5%

2019–2020

119

57

20

16.8%

35.1%

2020–2021

112

72

61

54.5%

84.7%

2021–2022

64

30

16

25.0%

53.3%

According to the global results presented, much work needs to be done. The improvements in the last two academic years are the result of the changes made and the strategies used to reduce the problems and difficulties in the initial learning of programming. We describe in the following sections the way we took to achieve our goals.

3

Methodology

Design Scientific Research Methodology (DSRM) includes a set of principles, practices, and procedures and has its main focus on the creation of artefacts for practical purposes [8]. Set of premises fundamental to the realization of our work. The process includes six stages: problem identification and motivation, defining the objectives for a solution, design and development, demonstration, evaluation and communication [17].

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We describe each of the steps of the DSRM methodology below, with the aim of improving students’ success in learning early programming. 3.1

Stage 1-Problem Identification and Motivation

In this stage we seek to identify the problem and justify the reasons for a solution. As presented in Sect. 2.1, the final results obtained in the course are worrying. Low knowledge in the area of STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Math) [20], lack of motivation and mainly serious problems in the area of computational thinking are the main gaps that students present. On the other hand, perhaps aggravated by the recent pandemic we are going through, students have many difficulties in verbalising and presenting their difficulties. In view of the above, students need a great deal of monitoring and attention in their learning process. With a lot of effort, commitment and autonomous work we are convinced that the great majority of the students can reach the objectives defined for the introduction to programming course. But for that to happen it is necessary that the whole teaching and learning process of programming is prepared for that function. 3.2

Step 2-Define the Objectives of a Solution

We have defined as our main objective the definition of a set of strategies for the exhaustive and individualised monitoring of students. As such, we think it is important to have a large number of activities and of different types. These activities should produce immediate feedback for the student and teacher. On these results it should be possible to assess the progress, or lack of progress, of the student in the teaching and learning model and to take action. Only then will it be possible for the teacher to help the students, motivate and encourage for more work or specific work. We have also included a model of a machine learning prediction system for student failure [5], which will allow us to predict student failure based on the set of results of the activities performed by the students. With this model, it should be possible to determine the students who need special attention by the teacher. With this set of strategies for exhaustive and individualized monitoring of students we want students to feel supported and motivated in their learning process, with the main objective that students develop their skills, acquiring skills to create simple computer programs that solve real problems. 3.3

Step 3-Create an Artefact

Identified the compelling need for analysis of results by both teacher and students, we consider it necessary to create a technological artifact for the management and monitoring of the teaching and learning process. With this goal, we created an application, called HTProgramming (Help To Programming), where we concentrate the strategies identified by us as the best to achieve our goals.

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The artefact should include a set of teacher-guided activities, covering the different phases of the initial learning process of C programming. These activities should allow the student to practice at their own pace, without fear of making mistakes, with immediate feedback and able to motivate and encourage the student to learn programming. Fig. 1 shows the general model of the HTProgramming application. The application is divided into the administrator module and the student module. The application was developed in Java, with Netbeans IDE. It is a desktop application that interacts with a remote MySQL database, in a Smart Linux Service Hosting. To use the student module it is necessary to install a C language compiler, such as GCC (GNU Compiler Collection).

Fig. 1. General scheme of HTProgramming application.

The administrator module is used by the teacher to manage the entire teaching and learning process. The teacher can create and configure the activities to present to the students, can analyse student results, use the neural network model to predict student failure and also customise and configure feedback for the students. The student module consists of activity and information areas. The activity area contains MCQ (Multiple Choice Question) type activities, used for introductory concepts of the C programming language, such as: data types, names and identifiers, input/output formatting, syntactic error identification, among others. We also used Parson Problems type activities. Parson Problems are disordered sets of instructions of a program in which the student must put in the correct sequence the instructions presented. We found that this type of activity shows great interest by students, also supported by the works in [21] and [3]. Students are also provided with code-writing activities. We have chosen to divide this type of coding activities into four main areas. The basic area where exercises with sequential instructions are proposed, where emphasis is given to data types,

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39

basic mathematical operations including integer remainder and division and output formatting. The second area consists of the use of the conditional structure simple if, if - else and nested ifs. The next area consists of the manipulation of loop concepts. Finally, an area of array and string structures. In all areas we aim to focus on a particular structure, but naturally the activities involve the application of previous knowledge. It is important that there are a large number of activities so that students can work and practice intensively. They should also cover basic programming concepts such as input validation, switching between two variables, simple ordering, number decomposition, among others. When solving the proposed activities students use their preferred IDE. Then to get feedback they should copy their resolution to the HTProgramming application. The application executes a set of test cases defined and configured by the teacher and presents a result on a scale between 0 and 20 values. According to the result obtained an automatic message is generated suggesting the revision of the activity’s content or the resolution of new activities. The student can consult all the activities carried out, date and respective result. With the sum of the results obtained we build the student’s profile. This value is used to determine the minimum threshold for the student’s success. This value is still under study, due to the constant changes and evolution of our project. 3.4

Step 4-Demonstration

We identified in step 1 that students require a lot of autonomous work and feedback on that work. Students also require a thorough and individualised monitoring of their learning process. We also identified that the teacher should know at each moment the problems and difficulties of each student, intervening if necessary. The construction of our technological artefact is based on these principles, as described in step 3. Students have a large number of different types of activities with feedback and the teacher has at his disposal all the information about the activities carried out by the student, as well as a tool to help predict student failure. 3.5

Step 5-Evaluation

The final results of the introduction to programming course are one of the ways to evaluate our teaching and learning process. As we can see in the 2 the percentage of students assessed as having passed the course has increased significantly, going from values of around 45% and 35%, in the academic years 2018 and 2019, to values of around 85% and 54% in the academic years 2020 and 2021. Representing on average an increase of 75% of approved students. It should be noted that the use of the HTProgramming application took effect in the last two academic years, i.e., the years 2020/2021 and 2021/2022. This is an important measure, but the contact and perception we have in the classroom is very important and difficult to quantify. In this sense, we carried out an opinion survey to the students, about the importance of using the HTProgramming tool and its contents in their learning process. The results are as expressed in the Table 3. As we can

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see about 92% of students consider important or very important the use of the tool and its contents. The opinion expressed by the students should also be highlighted; in general, the students like to use the tool and its contents. The students expressed as less positive points the initial time to access the platform and the correction of the Parson Problems activities. This point was promptly resolved by running the program with a test case. Table 3. Survey results on the importance of the HTProgramming application’s contribution to the learning process. Activities

[1, 3]

[4, 5]

Basic Concepts

2 (8.3%)

22 (91.7%)

Parson Problems 4 (16.7%) 20 (83.3%) Coding

2 (8.3%)

22 (91.7%)

HTProgramming 2 (8.3%)

22 (91.7%)

In evaluating the application of the neural network model predictive of student failure, we used metrics based on the confusion matrix. This matrix contains the number of correctly and incorrectly classified examples (Success/Fail). The results obtained for true positives (TP) and for true negatives (TN) the value is 42.3%. The result for false positives (FP) is 0.0% and false negatives (FN) is 15.4%. Based on these results we can calculate the accuracy (84.6%) which represents the proportion of students that are correctly classified. The accuracy represents the model’s prediction in predicting that the student will fail the course, in our model the value is 100%. Which means that all the students in which the model predicted that they would fail actually failed. These values show how well our predictive model of student failure works, however our teaching and learning strategy has failed. For ideally we wish to counteract this trend, to detect students who will fail and work with them to make them succeed. 3.6

Step 6-Communication

In the DSRM model adopted by us, the step corresponding to communication is the disclosure and presentation of the problem, the measures adopted for its solution, its results and usefulness. This project began in 2016 and over the years we have disseminated our work with the publication of several papers [4]. The work presented here results from the application of different teaching strategies and initial learning of programming, over the years to first year students of the computer science course, in IPG.

4

Conclusion

Learning initial programming is a special area that requires very special skills. We are convinced that with hard work, dedication, and commitment from all

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those involved in the teaching and learning process, all students can acquire the minimum knowledge required for an introductory programming course, even with the particular knowledge and characteristics of our study group [4]. The results of this work point to important improvements in our teaching and learning initial programming process. A consequence of a variety of introductory activities with immediate feedback for students and teachers. The student gets an insight into their knowledge and difficulties in their learning process. The teacher has an insight into the activities developed by the students, and what their difficulties and frustrations are. There is also a predictive model of student failure according to the activities developed, signalling the students with the most urgent need for teacher follow-up. All the process is aided by an application, called HTProgramming, developed to assist and help the teaching and learning model adopted by us. The final results of the introduction to programming course point to a 75% improvement in approved students. Every teaching and learning process should be dynamic and, naturally, needs revisions, improvements, and adaptations to its functioning. However, we are sure that this is the way to minimise the problems and frustrations of students and maximise their knowledge and success in the initial learning of programming.

References 1. Bennedsen, J.: Teaching and learning introductory programming: a model-based approach (2008) 2. Bergin, S., Reilly, R.: Programming. In: Proceedings of the 36th SIGCSE technical symposium on Computer Science Education - SIGCSE 2005, pp. 411-415. ACM Press, New York (2005) 3. Du, I., Luxton-Reilly, A., Denny, P.: A review of research on parsons problems. In: Proceedings of the Twenty-Second Australasian Computing Education Conference, ACE 2020, pp. 195-202. Association for Computing Machinery, New York (2020) 4. Figueiredo, J., Garc´ıa-Pe˜ nalvo.: Design science research applied to difficulties of teaching and learning initial programming. Universal Access in the Information Society (2022). (in press) 5. Figueiredo, J., Lopes, N., Garc´ıa-Pe˜ nalvo, F.J.: Predicting student failure in an introductory programming course with multiple back-propagation. In: Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Technological Ecosystems for Enhancing Multiculturality, TEEM 2019, pp. 44-49, Association for Computing Machinery, New York (2019) 6. Garc´ıa-Pe˜ nalvo, F.J., V Abella-Garc´ıa, A.C., Grande-de Prado, M.: Online assessment in higher education in the time of covid-19. Educ. Knowl. Soci. (EKS), 21 (2020) 7. Garc´ıa-Pe˜ nalvo, F.J., V´ıctor Abella-Garc´ıa, A.C., de Prado, J.: Recommendations for mandatory online assessment in higher education during the COVID-19 pandemic, pp 85–98, (Dec 2020) 8. Geerts, G.L.: A design science research methodology and its application to accounting information systems research. Int. J. Accounting Inf. Syst. 12(2), 142–151 (2011)

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9. G´ omez-G´ omez, M., Hij´ on-Neira, R., Santacruz-Valencia, L., P´erez-Mar´ın, D.: Impact of the emergency remote teaching and learning process on digital competence and mood in teacher training. Educ. Knowl. Soci. 23 (2022) 10. Jean-Michel H., Nguyen-Xuan, A.: Language semantics, mental models and analogy. In Psychology of Programming, pp. 139–156. Elsevier (1990) 11. Jenkins, T.: On the difficulty of learning to program. In: Proceedings of the 3rd Annual Conference of the LTSN Centre for Information and Computer Sciences, vol. 4, pp. 53–58 (2002) 12. Knopik, T., Oszwa, U.: E-cooperative problem solving as a strategy for learning mathematics during the covid-19 pandemic. Educ. Knowl. Soc. (EKS) 22 (2021) 13. Lahtinen, E., Ala-Mutka, K., J¨ arvinen, H.-M.: A study of the difficulties of novice programmers. SIGCSE Bull. 37(3), 14–18 (2005) 14. Leinonen, J., Denny, P., Whalley, J.: A comparison of immediate and scheduled feedback in introductory programming projects. In: Proceedings of the 53rd ACM Technical Symposium V.1 on Computer Science Education, SIGCSE 2022, pp. 885-891. Association for Computing Machinery, New York (2022) 15. Moon, H., Cheon, J., Kwon, K.: Difficult concepts and practices of computational thinking using block-based programming. Int. J. Comput. Sci. Educ. Schools 5(3), 3–16 (2022) 16. Nakayama, Y., Kuno, Y., Kakuda, H.: Split-paper testing: A novel approach to evaluate programming performance. J. Inf. Process. 28, 733–743 (2020) 17. Peffers, K., Tuunanen, T., Rothenberger, M.A., Chatterjee, S.: A design science research methodology for information systems research. J. Manag. Inf. Syst. 24(3), 45–77 (2007) 18. Robins, A.V., Rountree, J., Rountree, N.: Learning and teaching programming: A review and discussion. Comput. Sci. Educ. 13(2), 137–172 (2003) 19. Shuhidan, S., Hamilton, M., D’Souza, D.: A taxonomic study of novice programming summative assessment. In: Proceedings of the Eleventh Australasian Conference on Computing Education, ACE 2009, vol. 95, pp. 147-156. Australian Computer Society, Inc. (2009) 20. Verdugo-Castro, S., Cruz S´ anchez-G´ omez, M., Garc´ıa-Holgado, A.: Opinions and perceptions about stem studies in higher education: An exploratory case study in spain. In: Education in the Knowledge Society, vol. 23 (2022) 21. Weinman, N., Fox, A., Hearst, M.A.: Improving instruction of programming patterns with faded parsons problems. In: Proceedings of the 2021 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, CHI 2021. Association for Computing Machinery, 2021 (2021) 22. Wu, Y., Li, Z., Tang, Y., Shi, L., Yuan, E.: The teaching reform and research of c programming course based on boppps model and rain classroom. In: 2021 4th International Conference on Information Systems and Computer Aided Education, ICISCAE 2021, pp. 785-788. Association for Computing Machinery, New York (2021) 23. Zhang, Q., Zhang, W., Xu, B.: The research on teaching model of flipped classroom based on rain classroom. In: Proceedings of the 2018 4th International Conference on Humanities and Social Science Research (ICHSSR 2018). Atlantis Press (2018)

Educational Robotics and Dyslexia: Investigating How Reinforcement Learning in Robotics Can Be Used to Help Support Students with Dyslexia Sarah-May Mcvey1(B) , Esyin Chew2 , and Fiona Carroll3 1 Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, Wales

[email protected]

2 Robotics and Educational Technology, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, Wales

[email protected]

3 Human Computer Interaction, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, Wales

[email protected]

Abstract. Advances in technology, such as in artificial intelligence (reinforced learning) and robotics, has the potential to help dyslexic people and how they can be supported with their learning. Indeed, it has been shown that students with dyslexia benefit from a support system. This paper will explore the introduction of a humanoid robot as a support assistant to enable a personal aspect as well as have an enhanced impact on the learning experience of the dyslexic student. The amount of people being diagnosed with dyslexia is increasing and the lack of support needs to be addressed to make sure that they get the support that they need to face the challenges of their learning. Limited work has been conducted surrounding the use of a robot with reinforcement learning techniques to help support students with dyslexia. This paper reviews current literature surrounding reinforcement learning and educational robotics. Importantly, it will share the third iteration of a conceptual model for the support assistant robot with reinforcement learning. This model highlights the key areas for reinforcement learning to ensure an effective educational robotic experience. The research for this was conducted by conducting a literature review surrounding reinforcement learning. One finding from this paper was that robots can be useful in supporting students and enhancing their learning also that reinforcement learning is a useful machine learning technique. Keywords: Dyslexia · Educational Robotics · Reinforcement Learning · Learning and Support · Higher Education · Machine Learning · Algorithms

1 Introduction In recent years, assistive technology has been developing and advancing the current support systems that are in place for higher education students with dyslexia [1]. This developing technology has changed the way in which robots are being used within education, robots may end up helping to support academic helpers as support assistants © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 F. J. García-Peñalvo and A. García-Holgado (Eds.): TEEM 2022, LNET, pp. 43–49, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0942-1_4

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[2]. The number of students being diagnosed with dyslexia is increasing and research shows that the current support systems in place at universities need to be improved a robot could be used to combat this problem [3]. Reinforcement learning is another side of robotics that could be utilized to help support students with dyslexia. Reinforcement Learning is a machine learning technique based on rewarding desired behaviours and/or punishing undesired ones. In general, a reinforcement learning agent is able to perceive and interpret its environment, take actions, and learn through trial and error [4]. Deep reinforcement learning is the combination of reinforcement learning (RL) and deep learning. This field of research has been able to solve a wide range of complex decision-making tasks that were previously out of reach for a machine. Deep RL opens up many new applications in domains such as healthcare, robotics, smart grids, finance, and many more [5]. This paper will focus on extending the researchers previous work on dyslexia and reinforcement learning. In the past five years, a lot of progress has been made into the research of dyslexia. The amount of people with dyslexia is increasing, the problem is that the current support system for people with dyslexia is lacking. The current support for dyslexia could be improved [6] as it currently lacks a personal approach and it does not cater to the 6 different types of dyslexia which are Phonological, Surface, Visual, primary dyslexia, Secondary/Developmental and Trauma dyslexia. University support is currently in the form of academic assistants, assessments to help determine which areas students may need help with, or course materials provided in an alternative format [6]. The support could be improved with the use of technology such as, robotics as this could provide the support that would be needed to cater for the six different types of dyslexia such as, help with grammar, repeating things back such as lecture content [7]. The robot has the capability to add a personal approach to the support which the current support does not have, for example the robot will be able to provide 1.1 support whereas the lecturer may be too busy with other students to do this. The main contribution of this paper is the development of the conceptual model of the dyslexic robot it will present the following sections research design and method, critical literature review of reinforcement learning and dyslexia with robotics, conceptual model for support assistant for robot with reinforcement learning, and conclusion.

2 Research Design and Method This research is a work in progress for a PhD study. The methodology consists of several studies, firstly a critical systematic literature review has been conducted to develop a design framework. Following this, a humanoid robot will be programmed to be a support assistant utilizing reinforcement learning techniques to provide tailored support to students with dyslexia. Study 1 is an online questionnaire that asked students with dyslexia about the challenges they face with their learning, and what they think of the current support system in place, in order to identify what features they would want the robot support assistant to have. Study 2 will involve an interview with students with dyslexia to find out their understanding of reinforcement learning and to get a deeper understanding of the challenges they face with their dyslexia in their learning. Study 3 will involve a humanoid robot being placed into a lecture environment to help support

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students with dyslexia while the researcher observes the interactions between student and the robot applying RL techniques to examine how the students react to the robot and see if they benefit from the support given from the robot. The research challenge is to investigate whether students with dyslexia can benefit from a reinforced learning robotic support system. The conceptual design is centred on introducing a robot as a support assistant and companion that will give a personal aspect to the student as well as have an enhanced impact on the students learning experience. Although the critical literature review and the robot are not new, the novelty lies in the integration of reinforcement learning in supporting students with dyslexia in higher education.

3 Critical Literature Review of Reinforcement Learning and Dyslexia with Robotics 3.1 Machine Learning/AI and Reinforcement Learning There are three basic machine learning techniques which are, Reinforcement learning, supervised learning, and unsupervised learning. Machine learning can also be used to detect dyslexia early [8]. Reinforcement learning is concerned with how intelligent agents ought to take actions in an environment in order to maximize the notion of cumulative reward [9]. Could this reinforcement technique be used on a robot to help support dyslexic students with reinforcement learning. When they do something accurately then get praised and support from the robot and when they make an error the robot will help them to reinforce and support them to get to the desired outcome. There are many different types of algorithms that can be used for reinforcement learning such as Q learning, bellman equation, bayes classifier etc. The researcher has decided to focus on the algorithm that uses positive reinforcement rather than negative reinforcement as research shows that positive reinforcement is more effective than negative reinforcement in enhancing learning [10]. If a humanoid robot was introduced as a support system, the student may feel more comfortable to communicate with the robot rather than with the academic staff that are currently in place at the moment [11]. Table 1 shows the different machine learning techniques that can be used. The algorithm that this research will use for reinforcement learning with a humanoid robot that will be included in the design, is the state-action-reward-state-action with eligibility traces [12]. This algorithm has been chosen as it is the best one for reward-based reinforcement learning. 3.1.1 Types of Reinforcement Learning There are mainly two types of reinforcement learning, which are: positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement. Positive reinforcement learning means adding a reward to increase the tendency that an expected behaviour would occur again. It impacts positively on the behaviour of the person and increases the strength of the behaviour [13]. Reinforcement learning in the past limited by weak computer infrastructure. However, as Gerard Tesauro’s backgammon AI super player developed in 1990’s shows, progress did happen. Progress is now rapidly changing with powerful new information technologies

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S.-M. Mcvey et al. Table 1. Machine Learning Techniques [8]

opening the way to completely new inspiring applications. Training the robots that control autonomous cars is an excellent example of a potential application of reinforcement learning [4]. The algorithm gets rewards for reaching specific goals [5]. Another example: deepsense.ai took part in the “Learning to run” project, which aimed to train a virtual runner from scratch [14]. “Learning how to run is a first step in building a new generation of prosthetic legs, ones that can automatically recognize people’s walking and change themselves to make moving easier and more effective” [15]. 3.1.2 Current Challenges in Reinforcement Learning In robotics, the ultimate goal of reinforcement learning is to give robots the capability to learn, advance, adapt, and recreate tasks with changing constraints based on exploration and autonomous learning [9]. There have been situations where a number of challenges have been faced, three examples of reinforcement learning is “a, pancake flipping task, a bipedal walking energy minimization task and an archery based aiming task” [16]. The strategies for teaching new skills to robots have grown significantly and at present, there are three well established types of strategies: direct programming, imitation learning, and reinforcement learning [5]. All of these strategies are still being actively used, and each one has its own advantages and disadvantages [16]. According to [14] “reinforcement learning is the process of learning from trial-anderror, by exploring the environment and the robot’s own body”. The aim in reinforcement learning is given by the reward algorithm, which acts as a positive reinforcement or

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negative punishment which will depend on the achievement of the robot with respect to its desired goal. The main reason for using reinforcement learning is to teach robots new skills and that it offers three missing skills: “to learn new tasks, which even the human teacher cannot physically demonstrate or cannot program, to learn to achieve optimization goals of difficult problems that have no analytic formulation or no known closed form solution” [9]. On the other hand, within educational robotics there are also constraints and challenges with learning and teaching with robotics. Could a humanoid educational robot be designed and developed to help support the students and to combat this constraint using reinforcement learning techniques [5].

4 Conceptual Model for Support Assistant for Robot with Reinforcement Learning To develop an effective educational robotics experience to support dyslexia, it is important to understand how the robot needs to function. Findings from an early primary study [17] in conjunction with secondary data a conceptual model for this robot with reinforcement learning has been developed (third iteration). Advancing from an earlier version [17]. Three new features have been added to the robot these include a feature for checking grammar and spelling, a feature for reading documents/text out loud, a feature for recording and repeating back lectures and meetings. Also, positive, and negative reinforcement will be added to the model this will show how the robot will help to support the student. In addition, the results from a previous questionnaire [18] show that people with learning difficulties would find these features useful because these are

Fig. 1. Third Iterative Model.

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the areas that they struggle with the most within their learning. The algorithm that will be used for the final model will be the deep learning algorithm [10], the packages that will be used to support this will be Python and MATLAB to help with the programming of the robot and the integration of the reinforcement learning into the robot. The model of a dyslexic robot (Fig. 1) shows the principles and features that the robot will have to help support people with learning difficulties. The model shows the process of the principles and how they will work. The features of the robot that have been suggested from the questionnaire and then how reinforcement learning will be used to help reinforce the support and behavior needed to help support people with learning difficulties it also shows how positive reinforcement will be used. This is an improvement on the first model because the model now shows the type of support that will be needed.

5 Conclusions The increase in people being diagnosed with dyslexia and different types being researched shows that there is need for a stronger support system. A stronger support system for people with dyslexia is needed, as the current one is not giving the support that’s needed. The secondary research conducted for this paper signifies that the support systems for people with learning difficulties could be improved with a novel idea of a dyslexic humanoid robot. Today, statistics show that people with learning difficulties can find it hard to disclose that they have learning difficulties [19] a dyslexic humanoid robot could add a personal approach to help them to disclose this information and feel supported. Reinforcement learning is not a new concept however, not much research has been conducted surrounding its involvement with robotics. Studies such as [1] show that robots are already being used in education to help with learning. The conceptual model presented in this paper will support the researcher in integrating reinforcement learning into a humanoid robot to help support people with dyslexia. This will advance current research in this area e.g. Rinat et al. [1]. The conceptual model will support future work for this research and will guide the researchers integrating reinforcement learning techniques into the dyslexic humanoid robot. More research is needed into dyslexia and what can be done to help support people who have been diagnosed with it.

References 1. Rinat, B.R.-K., Yaacov, K., Goren, G.: Robot-supported collaborative learning (RSCL) social robots as teaching assistants for higher education small group facilitation. J. Front. Robot. AI 5, 1–2 (2020) 2. Reid, G.: Dyslexia and Inclusion: Classroom Approaches for Assessment, Teaching and Learning Support, 2nd ed. New York (2013) 3. Newton, P.D., Newton, D.L.: Humanoid robots as teachers and a proposed code of practice. J. Educ. 3, 1–2 (2019) 4. Sutton, R., Barton, A.: Reinforcement Learning, 2nd edn. An Introduction, Second (2018) 5. Lavet, F.V., Henderson, P., Riashat, I., et al.: An introduction to deep reinforcement learning. J. Comput. Sci. Mach. Learn. 11, 3–4 (2018) 6. Cardiff Met: Student Services. In: Web Page (2020). https://www.cardiffmet.ac.uk/study/stu dentservices/Pages/default.aspx. Accessed 12 Nov 2020

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7. Zoubrinetzky, R., Bielle, F., Valdois, S.: New insights on developmental dyslexia subtypes hetrogeneity of mixed reading profiles. J. Med. Heal. 3, 1–5 (2014) 8. Wiering, M., van Otterlo, M. (eds.): Springer Berlin, Heidelberg (2012). https://doi.org/10. 1007/978-3-642-27645-3 9. Miryooefi, S., Brantley, K., Daume, H., et al.: Reinforcement learning with convex constraints. J. Mach. Learn. 2, 56–57 (2019) 10. Kansal, S., Martin, B.: Reinforcement Q-learning from scratch in python with OpenAI gym. In: Web Page (2021). https://www.learndatasci.com/tutorials/reinforcement-q-learning-scr atch-python-opena. Accessed 2 Sep 2022 11. Association, B.D.: Dyslexia. J. Dyslexia 27, 153–274 (1995) 12. Bonaccorso, G.: Machine Learning Algorithms. Birmingham (2017) 13. Dwivedi, K.: A brief introduction to reinforcement learning! In: Web Page (2020). https://med ium.com/student-technical-community-vit-vellore/a-brief-introduction-to-reinforcement-lea rning-6a74f5a61834. Accessed 23 May 2022 14. Kormushev, P., Calinon, S., Caldwell, G.D.: Reinforcement learning in robotics: applications and real-world challenges. J. Intell. Robot. 2, 13–55 (2013) 15. Budek, K.: What is reinforcement learning a complete guide. In: Web Page (2018). https:// deepsense.ai/what-is-reinforcement-learning-the-complete-guide/. Accessed 23 May 2022 16. Geibel, P.: Reinforcement learning for MDP’s with constraints. J. Cogn. Sci. (Seoul) 1, 646– 653 (2006) 17. Mcvey, S., Chew, E., Carroll, F.: A review of humnoid robotics for dyslexia with reinforcement learning. In: The European Conference on E-Learning 2021. ECEL 2021, p 684. Berlin (2021) 18. Horizon, O.: The Avengers: “Dyslexic robot and students in a team for learning equality”. Futur. Learn. Rethink Learn. 30, 30–40 (2022) 19. Montgomery, D.: Spelling, Handwriting and Dyslexia: Overcoming Barriers to Learning, 2nd edn. (2015)

Designing Exercises for Block-Based Languages: The Case of ScratchJr J. Ángel Velázquez-Iturbide(B) Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingeniería Informática, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Móstoles, Spain [email protected]

Abstract. Both formative and summative assessment may take many forms. One approach, known as “many small programs”, consists of providing many programming exercises per week to students, so that they may exercise the different concepts and skills of the course. Different kinds of exercises have been proposed, some of them general purpose, some of them specific to programming. For the latter, the programming paradigm has a decisive influence on the design of these exercises, and even on the feasibility of designing them. In this context, block-based programming represents a new challenge, because the execution state of block-based programs does not depend on such tangible elements as variable contents or reducible expressions. Although some block-based languages allow declaring and using variables, the most relevant elements of the execution state have a visual nature. In the paper, we review several taxonomies of programming exercises and block-based questionnaires to propose a range of exercises specific to block-based programming. Our experience in developing these kinds of exercises also is reported. The proposal does not intend to constitute a novel and complete taxonomy, but an initial effort in the design of programming exercises for this programming paradigm. Keywords: Programming exercises · block-based languages · ScratchJr · predictive exercises · trace exercises · understand exercises · translation exercises

1 Introduction One of the key issues of instruction is students’ assessment [1, 2]. A range of assessment methods exists, such as quizzes, problem solving, or project development. One approach that has aroused increasing interest in programming education consists in assigning many small exercises per week, instead of one single programming project. The approach has been called “many small programs” [3]. Although this kind of exercises had been a subject of study previously (e.g., [4]), the emergence of auto-graders has increased that interest.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 F. J. García-Peñalvo and A. García-Holgado (Eds.): TEEM 2022, LNET, pp. 50–59, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0942-1_5

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Given the wide range of programming exercises available, several taxonomies have been proposed. Thus, Matt Bower proposes 10 types of exercises [5]. It can be illustrative to present 4 of them which comply to the many-small programs format and can be easily mapped into cognitive processes of Bloom’s taxonomy [1]: • Declarative exercises. They ask programming concepts or details of the programming language; thus they demand recalling or remembering processes. • Comprehension exercises. They require from the student to have an understanding of the object of study, typically a piece of code. • Provide-a-model exercises. They demand an abstract explanation, which corresponds to the Explaining cognitive process of the Understand category. • Prediction exercises. They imply the student’s understanding of a piece of code or blind application of the execution rules of the language. In the latter case, they fit the Executing cognitive process of the Apply category. Other taxonomies or classifications can be found in the literature. Ragonis provides a list of 12 types of exercises [6]. Her list includes additional types of exercises which are highly relevant in specific contexts, such as tracing a piece of code or transforming a piece of code into another one. Ruf, Berges and Hubwieser analyzed and classified exercises present in textbooks and exercise sheets, also resulting in 12 types of exercises [7]. Two criteria were used to derive their classification, namely the skills required and the representations of the problem statement and the solution. Boyer et al. analyzed the questions asked by tutors while working with students solving an introductory programming problem [8]. While the motivation of their classification was completely different, they derived 23 types of questions, which can inspire programming exercises. Some types of programming exercises have achieved high relevance in either research or instructional contexts. Thus, the 2004 ITiCSE WG known as the Leeds group conducted a well-known research [9] based on 12 multiple-choice questions (MCQs) of two kinds: “fixed-code” questions and “skeleton-code” questions; the former were predictive, whereas the latter were code-completion questions. Research on students’ mental models often use traces constructed by students [10]. Parsons’ problems [11] have become very popular and many tools have been developed to support them. We are not aware of surveys of exercises aimed at block-based languages. However, we find a number of different exercises in the academic literature, in particular in papers on educational materials, validated tests or research studies. If textual and block-based languages had similar underlying features, the translation of an exercise designed for the textual language into a corresponding exercise for the block-based language would be a trivial task. An experience of this kind was conducted by David Weindrop and Uri Wilenski when they designed and evaluated the Commutative Assessment [12]. The assessment was composed of 28 questions in Snap! and Java grouped into five categories, and heavily relied on imperative constructs such as variables and ‘print’ statements. However, block-based languages have distinct and relevant features beyond a mere change in the representation of statements. In many block-based languages, the visual and auditory elements are first-class elements, while they are absent from most textual languages. Furthermore, the notion of variable often plays a secondary role or it even

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does not exist in languages such as ScratchJr. Accordingly, the information that defines the state of program execution varies. The paper addresses the design of small programming exercises. Surprisingly, we found that designing some types of exercises was much more demanding than expected. Therefore, we present our experience on designing a first set of types of programming exercises, as well as our experience using them for pre- and in-service teacher development. In order to keep the presentation focused and given the relative simplicity of ScratchJr [13], we restrict here to this language. The structure of the paper follows. In the second section, we present the unique features of block-based programming in ScratchJr, which strongly influences the design of programming exercises. In the third section, we present programming exercises aimed at the Understand and Apply categories of the revised Bloom’s category. Two kinds of understanding are presented, by identifying equivalences between different pieces of code and by translating a given statement written in natural language into ScratchJr code. Apply exercises are either predictive or tracing exercises. The fourth section describes our experience using them in formal education. Finally, we summarize our conclusions and future work.

2 Features of Block-Based Programming in ScratchJr Block-based programming is a general term that represents languages with different features. Beyond their use of blocks to represent declarations and statements, there is a huge disparity in the programming elements they support and their corresponding computational models. For instance, ScratchJr neither contains variables nor conditional blocks, while Scratch does have these elements and App Inventor does not include multimedia elements such as movement or look blocks for characters in a scenario. We summarize here the most relevant features of ScratchJr that have an impact on the design of exercises. State of Program Execution. A ScratchJr program does not contains variables, but just contain instructions to animate characters, which move, change their look and speak. The state of execution of a ScratchJr is composed of the following elements [14]: • Active page. • Given a page, the active scripts (plus the active block herein and, for some blocks, housekeeping information necessary to execute them). • Given a page and a character instantiation, the character attributes: X and Y positions, horizontal orientation, angular orientation, size, if visible or hidden, if saying anything, and speed of execution of its blocks. Note that the observable effect of blocks is therefore restricted to actions of characters in a scenario, i.e., to visual and auditory effects. The programming environment hardly provides support to consult the values of these attributes.

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Problems and Algorithms. The absence of variables has another consequence on the programs constructed. Problems solved in textual languages usually take the form of a computation defined as a transformation of given input data into output data. The procedure designed to perform such transformation is an algorithm. However, problems cannot be defined this way for ScratchJr. ScratchJr programs embody an active multimedia narrative, but they do not solve any problem. At most, we may sometimes define in ScratchJr a problem as a change from an initial visual or auditory state of characters into a final state. Therefore, the opportunities to state problems that can be solved algorithmically are limited. Another way of explaining this novel situation follows. In textual languages, given a problem statement, we may ask students to design and code an algorithm that solves the problem. Conversely, given a coded algorithm, we may ask to summarize the code effect. However, these exercises cannot be designed for ScratchJr but in the limited sense explained in the previous paragraph. For other behaviors involving characters, these exercises may take the form of translating a behavior from text into ScratchJr or vice versa, but hardly there is any chance to summarize the behavior in one sentence.

3 Exercises for ScratchJr We have found challenging to design exercises for ScratchJr based on the notion of algorithm, for instance, summary exercises. We were more successful with other kinds of exercises; given the restrictions of pages, we skip presenting exercises which just involve knowledge and we present three other categories of exercises. They are presented as MCQs, although it is straightforward to transform most of them into an open-answer format. 3.1 Predictive and Trace Exercises In textual languages, predictive exercises typically ask the value of variables or the text printed on screen after executing a piece of code. Variations include asking for the value returned by a function or the output value of a method parameter. As explained in Sect. 2, ScratchJr does not store and manage information in variables. The state of a program is given by the active parts of the program and the characters attributes. Consequently, predictive questions must be designed to make use of visible information and of the relative order of execution of blocks and scripts. For instance, the exercise shown in Fig. 1 is intended to check students’ understanding of the Turn Right block. The student must know that each turn rotates 30º the character. Note that the exercise can also be stated in the reverse direction (see Fig. 2).

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Assume a character has an initial position and orientation. After executing the following Turn Right block, how many degrees will the character be turned to the right with respect to its original orientation?

1. 15º

2. 45º

3. 90º

4. 150º

Fig. 1. A predictive exercise.

Assume a character has the following initial orientation. After executing a Turn Right block, it becomes oriented in the second direction. What block instance achieves this effect?

1.

2.

3.

4. Fig. 2. A reversed predictive exercise.

Exercises may also ask about sounds, but the design of these exercises is even more challenging. For instance, exercises may ask whether a given sound is played. A variation of predictive exercises may indirectly ask about control blocks by observing the visible effects of their orderly execution, e.g., events. Tracing exercises can be designed on the same basis as predictive exercises, i.e., on observable or audible effects. The exercise in Fig. 3 asks the actual conversation held by the characters.

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Three characters have a conversation, as shown in the following program. Identify the sequence of sentences displayed by running the program (we only write the visible part of each Say block):

1. 2. 3. 4.

First of First of First of First of

Thanks And Be Well, I And Well, I Thanks Be Be And Thanks Well, I And Well, I Be Thanks Fig. 3. A trace exercise.

3.2 Comprehension Exercises Predictive and trace exercises may be solved by the student’s understanding of the effect of a program. However, they may also be solved by blind application of the operational semantics of the blocks [14]. Therefore, it is recommended to include exercises which can only be solved by understanding. In this section we illustrate understanding by means of equivalent behaviors. A simple exercise statement may involve identifying sequences of blocks equivalent to a single block. Other exercises may ask on more complex patterns of equivalence. For instance, the exercise shown in Fig. 4 involves an understanding of the behavior of sequences and loops. 3.3 Translation Exercises Translation exercises allow checking students’ understanding by asking them to translate simple animation stories into code. Translation may involve the use of written text, code and even diagrams either in the problem statement or in the items of the solution. Their representation as code typically contains several types of blocks.

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What sequences of blocks are equivalent to the following sequence (choose one or several)?

1.

2.

3.

4.

Fig. 4. An understand exercise.

Movements and other observable and auditory effect are often relatively straightforward to translate. However, translating parts of the narratives which involve the use of control blocks is more challenging to novices, e.g., events. The reason of this difficulty is that the effect of control blocks either is not visible or it is indirectly visible by executing other blocks, therefore their effect is often misunderstood by students. For instance, the following exercise asks translating a written behavior into a program that involves the use of events and the Stop block. In case the exercise was given in an open format, some freedom exists for those parts of the written text that do not have a direct translation into ScratchJr blocks. For instance, “the cat is walking” in the exercise of Fig. 5 was implemented by having the cat alternatively walking three steps to the right and to the left, but obviously other interpretations are valid. The use during the course of alternative mini-patterns for different behaviors may assist students in reducing their cognitive load while letting them note that there is room for different implementations.

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We want to construct a ScratchJr program where the cat is walking until we touch it. At that moment, it stops walking, says “Hey! Be careful!” “I leave!” and disappears. Select the correct program:

1.

2.

3.

Fig. 5. A translation exercise.

4 Experience and Discussion The work here reported is part of a research effort on the didactics of block-based programming languages. We have carried out in parallel the design of small exercises and their integration into two courses. In both courses, we designed a small collection of exercises for ScratchJr and Scratch. The collection for ScratchJr has 27 exercises of the three categories presented above and the knowledge category. We have integrated most exercises as Moodle exercises and used them for students’ self-study. In particular, the course “Programming and Computational Thinking I” has been offered for the first time in the academic year 2021/22 at the Master’s Studies on Teachers’ Digital Competency and Computational Thinking” [15]. We asked students to score the use of exercises in a Likert scale of five values (1: very poor; 5: excellent). Eleven students answered, with the result of 8 students rating exercises with 5, 2 students rating them with 4, and only one student rating them with 2. In our experience, the resulting exercises often have a succinct and clear statement. However, their simplicity is misleading, as it is difficult to focus on visible behavior without consulting character attributes as variables. Unfortunately, the ScratchJr programming environment only allows knowing the exact cell occupied by the active character, by making visible a grid on the scenario.

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5 Conclusions and Future Work We have shown that the design of small exercises for block-based languages without variables is feasible, but they have distinct features. In particular, it is easier to design comprehension exercises than predictive or trace exercises, and problem-solving or summarization exercises must be replaced by translation exercises. It is interesting to note that, in general, the exercises presented do not fit well with the types of exercises identified in existing taxonomies. For instance, trace exercises perfectly fit Ragonis’ type 3 of tasks (namely, tracing a given solution) [6]. However, both comprehension and translation exercises may fit type 12 tasks (transforming a solution from one representation to another), the former for questions involving equivalences of code, and the latter for more complex behaviors. We plan to extend the collection of ScratchJr exercises in two ways. Firstly, we want to let them cover all observable effects and blocks of ScratchJr. In some cases, we want to design both “minimal” exercises [4] and more elaborated exercises. Secondly, we would like to design additional types of exercises. For instance, skeleton-code or Parsons exercises can be designed as variations of the translation type of exercises. We have also explored some limited forms of problem-solving exercises, which could be further elaborated. Moreover, we want to explore the seven cognitive processes of the Understand category of the revised Bloom’s taxonomy, because they potentially provide a rich source of ideas for additional variations of comprehension exercises. Acknowledgements. This work was supported by research grants e-Madrid-CM of the CAM (ref. S2018/TCS-4307) and “Ayuda Puente” of the URJC. The e-Madrid-CM grant also is co-financed by the Structural Funds FSE and FEDER.

References 1. Anderson, L.W., et al.: A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching and Assessing. A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Pearson Education (2001) 2. García-Peñalvo, F.J., Corell, A., Abella-García, V., Grande-de-Prado, M.: Online assessment in higher education in the time of COVID-19. Education in the Knowledge Society 21, 2020 (2020) 3. Allen, J.M., Vahid, F., Downey, K., Edgcomb, A.: Weekly programs in a CS1 class: Experiences with auto-graded many-small programs (MSP). In: Proceedings of 2018 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition (2018). https://peer.asee.org/31231 4. Luxton-Reilly, et al.: Developing assessments to determine mastery of programming fundamentals. In: Proceedings of the ITiCSE Working Group Reports 2017, pp 47–69 (2017) 5. Bower, W.: A taxonomy of task types in computing. In: Proceedings of the 13th Annual Conference on Innovation and Technology in Computer Science Education (ITiCSE 2008), pp. 281–285. ACM DL (2008) 6. Ragonis, N.: Type of questions – the case of computer science. Olympiads in Informatics 6, 115–132 (2012) 7. Ruf, A., Berges, M., Hubwieser, P.: Classification of programming tasks according to required skills and knowledge representation. In: Brodnik, A., Vahrenhold, J. (eds.) ISSEP 2015. LNCS, vol. 9378, pp. 57–68. Springer, Cham (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-253 96-1_6

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8. Boyer, K.E., et al.: Principles of asking effective questions during student problem solving. In: Proceedings of 41st ACM Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education (SIGCSE 2010), pp. 460–464 (2010) 9. Lister, R., et al.: A multi-national study of reading and tracing skills in novice programmers. ACM SIGCSE Bulletin 36(4), 119–150 (2004) 10. Götschi, T., Sanders, I., Galpin, V.: Mental models of recursion. In: Proceedings of the 34th ACM Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education (SIGCSE 2003), pp. 346–350. ACM DL (2003) 11. Parsons, D., Haden, P.: Parsons’ programming puzzles: a fun and effective learning tool for first programming courses. In: Proceedings of the 8th Australasian Conference on Computing in Education (ACE 2006), pp. 157–163. ACM DL (2006) 12. Weintrop, D., Wilenski, U.: Using commutative assessments to compare conceptual understanding in blocks-based and text-based programs. In: Proceedings of Eleventh Annual International Conference on International Computing Education Research (ICER 2015), pp. 101–110. ACM DL (2015). https://doi.org/10.1145/2787622.2787721 13. Flannery, L.P., Kazakoff, E.R., Bontá, P., Silverman, B., Bers, M.U., Resnick, M.: Designing ScratchJr: support for early childhood learning through computer programming. In: Proceedings of the 12th International Conf. Interaction Design and Children (IDC 2013), pp. 1–10. ACM DL (2013). https://doi.org/10.1145/x2485760.2485785 14. Velázquez-Iturbide, J.Á.: Towards the design of notional machines for simple block-based languages. In: Proceedings of the XXIII International Symposium on Computers in Education (SIIE 2021). IEEE Xplore (2021). https://doi.org/10.1109/SIIE53363.2021.9583645 15. Paredes-Velasco, M., Velázquez-Iturbide, J.Á.: Una asignatura para la formación del profesorado en programación mediante lenguajes basados en bloques. In: Actas de las JENUI 7, 337–344 (2022). https://aenui.org/actas/pdf/JENUI_2022.pdf

An Overview of European Projects About Computational Thinking Tannya Andreina Tene-Tenempaguay, Alicia García-Holgado(B) , Francisco José García-Peñalvo , and Juan Pablo Hernández-Ramos GRIAL Research Group, Research Institute for Educational Sciences, Universidad de Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain {idu25063,aliciagh,fgarcia,juanpablo}@usal.es https://ror.org/02f40zc51

Abstract. Computational thinking is a 21st-century skill and an emerging global issue. Despite the great benefits for the educational context, there is little knowledge about the projects being carried out in the European context. Therefore, it was decided to re-conduct a systematic review of trends in projects addressing Computational Thinking at the pre-university level in Europe. The search was carried out in the CORDIS and Erasmus+ databases and several inclusion, exclusion and quality criteria were applied. The main results show most projects foster computational thinking across STEM subjects. Moreover, institutions in Spain and Italy tend to be more involved. Also, the projects provide digital didactic material for teachers to work within the classroom to foster students’ computational thinking development. Furthermore, they propose action plans and activities be incorporated into the curricula of any institution. Keywords: pre-university education · European projects · computational thinking · systematic research projects review · SRPR

1 Introduction In the Information and Knowledge Society, individuals must develop computational thinking (CT) to cope with a changing and demanding labour market. According to Wing [1, 2], “Computational thinking is the thought processes involved in formulating problems and their solutions so that the solutions are represented in a form that can be effectively carried out by an information-processing agent”. For this reason, the European Union promotes the teaching-learning of programming in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) areas. Contributing to the above idea, [3] point out the need to promote CT from early childhood education or in the first years of primary education through the principle of activation. This principle consists of incorporating activities and resources into the curriculum.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 F. J. García-Peñalvo and A. García-Holgado (Eds.): TEEM 2022, LNET, pp. 60–74, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0942-1_6

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The development of computational thinking brings advantages to individuals, such as creativity, effective and safe use of technologies, supports for digital competence, and enhances problem-solving, among others [4, 5]. Despite this, no studies investigate computational thinking projects in pre-university stages in the European context. Therefore, this study analyses European research projects related to Computational Thinking to understand the trends and their contributions to society. The paper is divided into six sections. Section 2 details the mapping process. Section 3 describes the data selection and extraction processes. Section 4 presents the results from the mapping questions. Finally, we summarised the main conclusions.

2 Methodology The methodology used to obtain a coherent, detailed, selective and critical study was the systematic research projects review (SRPR) [6]. This approach is an adaptation of systematic literature reviews proposed [7–9] and Petersen’s proposal to carry out systematic mapping studies [10, 11]. It allows reviewing the compendium of resources, documents, and information, which form a research project. This analysis is rigorous, structured, reproducible and uniform, aiming to synthesise information qualitatively and quantitatively. The main difficulty of conducting a review of research projects is identifying the documentation associated with the project to make decisions. If a project is not included in the final selection of the SRPR does not mean that the project is not valid, it means that there is not enough information available to know more details about the project aims, activities and results. 2.1 Mapping Questions The research aims to find out the trends of projects dealing with computational thinking in pre-university education in the European context. The following questions (MQ) were considered: • MQ1: What are European research trends regarding computational thinking at preuniversity level? • MQ2: In which countries were the projects implemented? • MQ3: Which calls for proposals fund this type of research project? • MQ4: What years do the projects cover? • MQ5: How much money has been invested in these projects? • MQ6: In what context were the projects carried out? • MQ7: What actions have been developed in the projects?

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The study also used the PICOC method [12] to review the scope of the project: • Population (P): European research projects. • Intervention (I): European research projects that develop studies related to computational thinking at pre-university level (preschool, primary, secondary, vocational, high school). • Comparison (C): no comparison. • Outputs (O): to know the trends in computational thinking studies at pre-university stages. • Context (C): pre-university education. 2.2 Inclusion, Exclusion and Quality Criteria The project selection process involved several phases in which the projects were analysed. In the first phase, inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied. The inclusion criteria (IC) are: • IC1: The project addresses issues of computational thinking in pre-university education AND • IC2: The project is available in the most relevant databases supported by the European Union AND • IC3: Information on the project is available in English or Spanish. In contrast, the exclusion criteria are the opposite of the inclusion criteria, so we discarded projects that are not related to computational thinking or are focused on higher education, projects that are not accessible in the European databases, or projects that are not available in English or Spanish. The inclusion and exclusion criteria do not ensure the results’ quality, making it difficult to answer the proposed research questions. Therefore, in the second phase, filtering is carried out by applying criteria, ensuring quality. The quality criteria applied are based on those described by the SRPR guidelines [6]: • The project website is available. • The project results are available. • There is more information in English or Spanish about the project than in the project summary. • The project focuses on computational thinking. • The project was carried out in different countries. • The project has some kind of evaluation process focusing on computational thinking. • The project provides a proposal for introducing computational thinking into the curriculum. • The project activity continues after the funding period.

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2.3 Sources and Search String In Europe, different bodies fund national, regional, and international research projects. This study considers the last two levels. It excludes projects at the national and regional levels because they are not English or Spanish-speaking, as this is an established exclusion criterion. Therefore, the chosen databases meet the requirements defined by [6]: • • • •

It is a reference database in the European context. It is a relevant database in the research area of this study. It allows searching and downloading results in an accessible format. It is a database available through the authors’ institution or authors’ membership in an association.

In this study, we searched four European databases: CORDIS (Community Research and Development Information Service) (https://cordis.europa.eu/); the Erasmus+ Project results database (https://ec.europa.eu/programmes/erasmus-plus/projects/); the KEEP database, Knowledge and Expertise in European Programs (https://keep.eu/); and the database of the European Investment Bank (IEB) (https://www.eib.org/en/projects/). The search terms were “computational thinking” and “education”. We combine them to create the search string: (“computational thinking” AND “education”).

3 Data Extraction The data extraction process was carried out in different stages. The process is represented in the PRISMA 2020 flow diagram (Fig. 1). In the first stage, the search strategy was applied in each database to collect projects on computational thinking in pre-university education. However, no information on the topic was found in two of the four databases chosen. The Cordis results were extracted in text format and the Erasmus+ results were extracted in a Microsoft Excel file. The results were combined in a Google Sheets document to be shared openly. (https://bit.ly/3v2S1aF). No duplicates were found. In the second stage, inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied to all projects to determine whether or not it was relevant candidate. A detailed reading of each project’s title, abstract and keywords was carried out to determine the selection. The selected projects are related to computational thinking at pre-university level. The quality criteria were applied to ensure that the above choice was correct. However, before applying these criteria, each project’s website or related documents were identified because the databases only provide basic information on the projects. For this reason, a search was conducted on Google and Google Scholar using the project name or reference number. Each quality criterion is related to a score: 1 (Yes), 0 (No) and 0.5 (Partially). Projects with non-deductible answers were given a dash, which means no value. Only projects that achieved an average of 4.5 out of 9 points passed to the next stage, the final analysis (https://bit.ly/3aRI897).

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Fig. 1. Identification process adapted from PRISMA 2020 flow diagram [13]

4 Results 4.1 What are European Research Trends Regarding Computational Thinking at Pre-university Level? Most of the projects focus on fostering and embedding computational thinking in STEM subjects; they consider the use of robotics, the Internet of Things, different programming environments, digital services and the use and creation of open resources. They also promote computational modelling and coding and incorporate unplugged approaches. Table 1 summarizes the main objectives. 4.2 In Which Countries Were the Projects Implemented? A total of 108 institutions are involved in the 25 selected projects. There are institutions from 28 countries (Table 2). The number of participating institutions from Italy (15), Spain (12) and Poland (8) stands out.

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65

Table 1. Main objectives of the selected projects Title

Objectives

Active Media Education for Disabled Youth (AMEDY) 2018-3-DE04-KA205-017101

Train children and young people with disabilities in digital literacy (basic ICT skills, information literacy, media literacy and computational thinking), digital devices and services. To offer online training to professionals working with them

Code to Create new knowledge using programming in primary school (Code to create) 2016-1-SE01-KA219-022112

Support the exchange of good practice, and create methods for teaching programming in Mathematics, Technology and Crafts. Create an open and innovative resource for teachers

CODING in a cultural Europe 2018-1-ES01-KA229-051065

Create a vertical computational thinking curriculum for students aged 3–13 years. Train teachers in these subjects

Coding the future 2018-1-IT02-KA101-047650

Train secondary school teachers on coding and computational thinking through learning mobility

COmputational thinking and Digital skills in European education for all (Code4all) 2017-1-IT02-KA219-036645

Develop computational thinking so that they can understand how to use technology and become future digital citizens

Computational Thinking Learning Environment for Teachers in Europe (COLETTE) 2020-1-DE03-KA201-077363

Developing a learning environment for teaching and learning computational thinking

Creative Opinions Differentiate Education in Maths (C.O.D.E in Maths) 2018-1-TR01-KA229-059796

Encourage students toward computational thinking and mathematics through robotics and coding to train teachers in robotics, cooperation and leadership

Developing make spaces to promote creativity around STEM in schools (STEMJAM) 2016-1-ES01-KA201-025470

Improve STEM skills (including Computational Thinking) in secondary school students

Developing Teaching Materials for Encourage and develop computational and Preschool Teaching Undergraduates on algorithmic thinking in the early years Computational Thinking and Introduction to Coding (EarlyCode) 2018-1-TR01-KA203-058832 Development of computational and algorithmic thinking in basic education (PIAF) 2018-1-BE01-KA201-038611

Develop various types of computational thinking activities to support teachers

(continued)

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T. A. Tene-Tenempaguay et al. Table 1. (continued)

Title

Objectives

Gifted European mathematician (GEM) 2017-1-RO01-KA201-037470

Literacy in mathematics and English, use computational thinking, and use mathematical procedures and tools to solve challenges, situations and games

Integrating STEAM and Computational Thinking development by using robotics and physical devices (RoboSTEAM) 2018-1-ES01-KA201-050939

Define a knowledge base to facilitate integrating STEAM and computational thinking using robots. This is done by developing pilot programs, gathering good practices and tools, and defining learning actions and educational resources for teachers [14, 15]

It’s Logical, dear Math! 2017-1-PT01-KA219-035766

Develop mathematical and logical thinking using innovative activities and gamification strategies to link mathematical thinking with logical and computational thinking

Modeling at School 2018-1-AT01-KA201-039268

To put the educational pyramid scheme and computer modelling (including the development of computational thinking, creativity, and problem-solving) into school practice for teachers and students

No One Left Behind H2020-ICT-2014-1

Create a programming environment (dynamics, assets and analysis in the SME game) in mobile media for children [16]

Not one less (Non uno di meno) 2018-1-IT02-KA229-048416

Apply Tinkering methodology in infant school, introduce Coding and Robotics activities (including the application of computational thinking) in primary school and experiment with CLIL methodology in STEM subjects

Reviving hands on educational play for learning skills of tomorrow (Play2Learn) 2019-1-UK01-KA201-061466

Support teachers to encourage children to engage with computational thinking and programming and to develop STEM-related skills and competences

roBOTics and STEM education for Provide early childhood and primary school children and primary schools (BotSTEAM) teachers with a new didactic model and 2017-1-ES01-KA201-038204 integrated STEM activities based on research and tested with robotics (continued)

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Table 1. (continued) Title

Objectives

Robotics through sign language: ensuring access and engagement of students with disabilities (deaf or with hearing impairment) to the digital world of coding and robotics (ROBOTICS4DEAF) 2019-1-PL01-KA201-065123

To train teachers working with deaf students. And develop an educational training package, a digital platform and a mobile application to promote coding and robotics skills (including computational thinking) among students with deafness or hearing impairment in formal or non-formal settings

Science, Technology, Engineering, ARTS and Mathematics - Computational Thinking (STEAM-CT) 2019-1-BE02-KA201-060222

Strengthen the teaching and learning of computational thinking skills

STEM Learning Activities & Methods (SLAM) 2018-1-HR01-KA229-047465

Create and develop devices, and exchange practices and learning materials in the STEM area through computational thinking

Step into Future 2017-1-HR01-KA101-035279

Train 8 teachers in technological competences, learning assessment and language teaching through computational thinking, coding and tablets

TACCLE3 – Coding 2015-1-BE02-KA201-012307

Encourage and support teachers to introduce coding, programming and/or computational thinking in the curriculum. To develop digital skills and improve their professional competence, and act as an exchange space for curricula, ideas and practices [17]

We grow digitally 2018-1-IT02-KA229-048037

Develop digital competences (including computational thinking) for students and teachers through activities

Working together: Education through new Improve digital competence and attention to bridges diversity through computational and critical 2019-1-ES01-KA229-065886 thinking

Among the institutions involved, six institutions have participated in two projects. These institutions are Ita-Suomen Yliopisto (Finland), Universidad de Salamanca (Spain), Universitat Linz (Austria), A & A Emphasys Interactive Solutions Ltd. (Cyprus) and Karlsruher Institut Fuer Technologie (Germany). In terms of project coordination (Fig. 2), Spain is the country that coordinates the most projects on computational thinking (24%), followed by Italy (16%) and Belgium (12%).

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T. A. Tene-Tenempaguay et al. Table 2. Number of partners per country

Country

Partners (N = 108)

%

Italy

15

13.89

Spain

12

11.11

Poland

8

7.41

Portugal

7

6.48

Turkey, Germany

6

5.56

United Kingdom, Greece, Finland

5

4.63

Romania, Belgium, Sweden, Cyprus

4

3.70

Austria, Croatia, Slovakia, Lithuania

3

2.78

France, Estonia, Latvia

2

1.85

Luxembourg, Ireland, Bulgaria, The Netherlands, Hungary

1

0.93

Fig. 2. Country in which the coordinating institution is located

4.3 Which Calls for Proposals Fund this Type of Research Project? The selected projects and calls are only from the Erasmus+ and CORDIS databases. In particular, the Erasmus+ projects are from the key actions Cooperation for innovation and the exchange of good practices and Learning Mobility of Individuals. Regarding CORDIS, there is only one project from Horizon 2020 (H2020). Specifically, 96% are Erasmus+ funded projects and 4% are CORDIS H2020 funded projects.

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4.4 What Years do the Projects Cover? Of the 25 selected projects, 56% had a duration of 2 years, 32% had a duration of 3 years and 12% had a duration of one year. Regarding the year of funding, most selected projects were in 2018. Figure 3 shows a summary of the projects funded for each corresponding year.

Fig. 3. Number of projects per funding year

4.5 How Much Money Has Been Invested in These Projects? The projects available in the CORDIS database, specifically the H2020 projects, have a larger budget than the Erasmus+ projects. Table 3 shows that H2020 project funding represents almost 50% of the sum of the 22 “Cooperation for innovation and the exchange of good practices” projects. The year with the highest investment for projects focused on computational thinking at pre-university stage was 2014 (Table 4), which corresponds to the CORDIS project. In total, the European Commission, from 2014 to 2020, has invested 6 938 284.66 euros in projects related to computational thinking. Table 3. Investment per programme Database

Programme

Investment e Projects (N = 25)

Erasmus+ Cooperation for innovation and the exchange of 4 208 456.66 22 good practices CORDIS

Learning Mobility of Individuals

41 903.00

H2020

2 687 925.00 1

2

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T. A. Tene-Tenempaguay et al. Table 4. Investment per funded year. Funding year

Investment e

Projects (N = 25)

2014

3 082 741.25

1

2015

277 856.84

1

2016

150 705.00

2

2017

774 302.00

5

2018

1 678 397.82

11

2019

971 438.00

4

2020

397 660.00

1

4.6 In What Context Were the Projects Carried Out? The majority of the 25 projects selected focus on secondary and primary education levels. In addition, 15 projects address two or more educational levels, such as childhood and primary and/or secondary education (4), childhood and higher education (1), primary and secondary education (7), and secondary and higher education (3) (Fig. 4). Although higher education is not the focus of this study, the selected projects include future teachers as the target group, so there are actions and resources for training them during their university studies. On the other hand, regarding target groups, all projects consider students from different educational levels. Moreover, most projects focus on service teachers and/or future teachers (92%). Highlight that we have identified 4 projects (16%) that consider parents or families and 5 projects that involve teacher trainers (20%).

Fig. 4. Educational levels addressed in the projects

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4.7 What Actions Have Been Developed in the Projects? The main results of the selected projects refer to the creation of digital teaching materials to support teachers in developing computational thinking in students (Table 5). In addition, 10 projects have created and proposed guides, modules or action plans to guide the educational community in introducing computational thinking in any area, not only STEM. On the contrary, few results point to the creation of assessment rubrics and an improvement in the educational offer of the participating institutions (Table 5). Table 5. Main projects actions Title/Acronym

Activities and results

AMEDY

Seminars, multiplier events. Creation of support materials and online training for professionals

Code to create

Lessons in mathematics, technology and handicrafts in schools for use in the classroom. Workshops, online courses

CODING in a cultural Europe

Online and offline coding activities, using programming platforms such as Scratch Junior and Scratch to develop games and digital storytelling

Coding the future

A course on using and integrating web platforms, applications and mobile apps in educational contexts

Code4all

Meetings, events, teacher mobility and product creation

COLETTE

Creation and implementation of a handbook, web portal and mobile app, training of teachers based on the short-term curriculum, conference on the project and its results

C.O.D.E in Maths

Mobilities that include workshops, field work, excursions, socialisation events, competitions, games and meetings with experts on related topics

STEMJAM

Workspaces for coding and computational thinking

EarlyCode

Training Materials Manual, Training Manual on Computational Thinking and Introduction to Coding

PIAF

Ten seminars and symposia. Creating meaningful activities (experiences, lesson plans and design of educational resources) and assessment tools (continued)

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T. A. Tene-Tenempaguay et al. Table 5. (continued)

Title/Acronym

Activities and results

GEM

Two courses (Maths and Coding; MATHISH MASTERS), and a GAMING itinerary based on didactic units and outdoor events

RoboSTEAM

Systematic mapping, test contexts, design of open hardware kits, design and implementation of RoboSTEM Environment

Step into Future

Advanced training and internships. Study plans in subjects and curriculum, creation of digital educational material

It’s Logical, dear Math!

A gamified contest, mixing the PISA assessment and the national curriculum of each country

Modeling at School

Workshops and a congress for teachers and students. Generic curriculum, modelling and assessment tools. Online collection of units and teaching materials

No One Left Behind

Co-creation of games or projects for the curriculum. Creation of lesson plans for 3 curricular areas. And three pilots in UK, Austria, and Spain with 600 children/students from schools and academies

Not one less (Non uno di meno)

Training course about Coding in CLIL. The activities were carried out through the methodology “learning by doing and learning by playing” to address the topic of robotics and coding

Play2Learn

Play2Learn hands-on game kit, development of animated videos about the hands-on game, educational modules, transcription of the contents into interactive multimedia resources. Planning of learning units to experiment in schools

BotSTEAM

Online events, webinars, workshops, assessment rubrics, toolkit and boSTEAM game

ROBOTICS4DEAF

Training on an e-learning platform. Workshops with Scratch, Gears, Catapult, Lego Mindstorm. Comparative report on the education system, disability law and inclusion of deaf students in partner countries. Creating an Inclusive Ecosystem for teaching, learning and assessment of coding and robotics through digital badges. Guidance for establishing Robotics4Deaf clubs (continued)

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Table 5. (continued) Title/Acronym

Activities and results

STEAM-CT

Online course and a didactic model “Educating children to become creative problem solvers”

SLAM

Workshops, webinars, presentations and meetings. Participation in Science Days, visits science festivals, preparation of speeches by scientists. Field experiments and research

TACCLE3

Creation of a website of activities and ideas for teaching coding and programming. And creation of resource kits

We grow digitally

Workshops, discussions and labs on Scratch

Working together: Education through new bridges

Programming and robotics workshops and activities (Scratch JR. - Scratch 3.0) and CLIL with ICT. Creation of a repository of contents and activities

5 Conclusions The study analyses the projects on computational thinking in pre-university stages, funded by the European Commission in the different calls for proposals since 2014. This topic is on the rise and is one of the priorities of education systems, governmental and non-governmental organisations and universities. The countries that are promoting computational thinking the most are Spain and Italy. The projects promote computational thinking through STEM subjects to educate the citizens of the future. In addition, most of them focus on students and teachers at secondary level and therefore propose curricula, activities, modules, games and activities that can be used and implemented in institutions, with and without using technologies. Finally, it should be noted that few projects continue after their funding period. All research has a percentage of bias, which could affect validity. In this study, all authors were involved throughout the review process. In addition, several quality criteria were established to analyse the project information. The information comes from the abstract, web pages, scientific publications, papers, and videos, among others.

References 1. Wing, J.M.: Research Notebook: Computational thinking -what and why? The Link Magazine, pp. 20–23 (2011) 2. Wing, J.M.: Computational thinking. Commun. ACM 49, 33–35 (2006) 3. Zapata, J.M., Jamenson, E., Zapata-Ros, M., Merrill, D.: El Principio de Activación en el Pensamiento Computacional, las Matemáticas y el STEM. Revista de Educación a Distancia (RED) 21, 1–9 (2021)

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4. Salamanca Garay, I.J., Badilla Quintana, M.G.: From computational thinking to creative thinking: an analysis of their relationship in high school students. ICONO 14 19(2), 261–285 (2021) 5. Velázquez Iturbide, J.Á., Martín Lope, M.: Análisis del “pensamiento computacional” desde una perspectiva educativa. Revista de Educación a Distancia (RED) 21, 1–18 (2021) 6. García-Holgado, A., Marcos-Pablos, S., García-Peñalvo, F.J.: Guidelines for performing systematic research projects reviews. Int. J. Interact. Multimedia Artif. Intell. 6, 137–144 (2020) 7. García-Peñalvo, F.J.: Developing robust state-of-the-art reports: systematic literature reviews. Educ. Knowl. Soc. 23, e28600 (2022) 8. Kitchenham, B., Pearl Brereton, O., Budgen, D., Turner, M., Bailey, J., Linkman, S.: Systematic literature reviews in software engineering – a systematic literature review. Inf. Softw. Technol. 51, 7–15 (2009) 9. Kitchenham, B., Charters, S.: Guidelines for performing Systematic Literature Reviews in Software Engineering. Version 2.3. (2007) 10. Petersen, K., Vakkalanka, S., Kuzniarz, L.: Guidelines for conducting systematic mapping studies in software engineering: an update. Inf. Softw. Technol. 64, 1–18 (2015) 11. Petersen, K., Feldt, R., Mujtaba, S., Mattsson, M.: Systematic mapping studies in software engineering. In: Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Evaluation and Assessment in Software Engineering, pp. 68–77. BCS Learning & Development Ltd., Italy (2008) 12. Petticrew, M., Roberts, H.: Systematic Reviews in the Social Sciences: A Practical Guide. Blackwell Publishing, Malden, USA (2005) 13. Page, M.J., et al.: The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ 372, n71 (2021) 14. Conde, M.Á., et al.: RoboSTEAM - a challenge based learning approach for integrating STEAM and develop computational thinking. In: Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Technological Ecosystems for Enhancing Multiculturality, pp. 24–30. Association for Computing Machinery, León, Spain (2019) 15. Conde, M.Á., Rodríguez-Sedano, F.J., Fernández-Llamas, C., Gonçalves, J., Lima, J., GarcíaPeñalvo, F.J.: Fostering STEAM through challenge-based learning, robotics, and physical devices: a systematic mapping literature review. Comput. Appl. Eng. Educ. 29, 46–65 (2021) 16. Gaeta, E., et al.: Evaluation of the Create@School game-based learning-teaching approach. Sensors (Basel) 19, 3251 (2019) 17. García-Peñalvo, F.J.: A brief introduction to TACCLE 3 – coding European project. In: GarcíaPeñalvo, F.J., Mendes, J.A. (eds.) 2016 International Symposium on Computers in Education (SIIE 16). IEEE, USA (2016)

Engineering Education: Teachers’ and Students’ Competences Recent Developments

Digital Competence in Educators Through Interaction with a Virtual Learning Environment Eduard de Torres(B)

and Xavier Canaleta

La Salle – Universitat Ramon Llull, Barcelona, Spain {eduard.detorres,xavier.canaleta}@salle.url.edu

Abstract. Digital technologies have had a huge impact on the modern information society, affecting how education is delivered. For this reason, different institutions have started to define frameworks for the assessment of digital competences. For that reason, the European Commission have created DigCompEdu, to assess digital competence in teachers. Since then, many studies have defined tools to determine the level of competence in educators by creating questionnaires. However, in this study, we want to focus on analyzing whether this level of competence can be inferred through the interaction teachers have with a virtual learning environment such as Moodle. The results presented in this study show that sufficient tools exist to determine a wide range of competence levels. However, the very nature of a virtual learning environment presents some drawbacks that need to be considered. Keywords: digital competence · digital skills · DigCompEdu · Moodle · teacher assessment

1 Introduction The emergence of digitisation technologies has resulted in a significant change in how we deal with everyday activities. Previously acquired skills have become obsolete, as the emerging digital tools have created a new learning need. In this sense, Education, like many other sectors, has been affected by these changes. Traditional educational models are now considered to be outdated and in need of updating to keep pace with the digital age. Most research over the last decade has focused on the acquisition by citizens of the new Digital Competences. In Education, this has led to the creation of policy and tools focused on the skills that primary and secondary education teachers need to impart to their students [1]. In addition, there has been a special emphasis on assessing students’ digital competences [2]. Several studies have reviewed existing tools for the assessment of digital competence. According to these studies, most of the tools analyzed are quantitative [2–4], in the form of self-assessment questionnaires or knowledge tests. They are based on localized competence models [3]. And most of them require further validation to be considered reliable [3, 4]. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 F. J. García-Peñalvo and A. García-Holgado (Eds.): TEEM 2022, LNET, pp. 77–85, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0942-1_7

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In 2006 the European Parliament acknowledged Digital Competence as one of the 8 key competences for Lifelong Learning [5]. This recommendation started a research process that culminated in 2013 as the DigComp framework [6]. At the same time, other stakeholders had also defined tools and frameworks to define and measure digital competence [3, 7–10]. In 2016 [11], 2017 [12], 2022 [13], DigComp has progressively evolved into new versions that have positioned it as a reference framework for digital competence [2, 3, 14]. In tandem with the evolution of the DigComp framework, the Joint Research Centre (JRC) of the European Commission has been proposing other frameworks related to Digital Competence, focusing on specific domains, such as the European Framework for the Digital Competence of Educators, released in 2017, and commonly referred to as DigCompEdu [15]. DigCompEdu aims to describe digital competences specific to educators. In addition, the framework also proposes a model that helps educators to assess and progressively develop their competence levels. This framework is not far removed from other proposals that also address the relationship between technology and the delivery of knowledge. In 2009, Koehler and Mishra [16] presented the TPACK model that proposes the integration of technology into an educator’s pedagogical and content knowledge, giving form to the educator’s technological pedagogical content knowledge. Later in 2011, UNESCO published the ICT Competency Framework for Teachers [17], with its latest revision in 2018 [18]. In this framework, UNESCO highlights that, teachers, in addition to having digital skills and the ability to develop them in their students, must be able to use ICT to help students become collaborative, problem-solving, and creative learners and innovative and engaged members of society. Therefore, this work starts the development of a new tool for the assessment of digital competence. This tool shall focus on the analysis of the daily interaction of teachers with the virtual learning environment (VLE) provided by the university, allowing the automatic measurement of the competence levels of these teachers. The purpose of this evaluation should always be for the faculty’s self-improvement. The DigCompEdu [15] framework defines a total of 22 competences grouped into 6 distinct areas that coexist in 3 different domains. Figure 1 summarizes the framework structure. As can be seen, each domain defines fundamental parts of what it means to be an educator. First, defined within Area 1, an educator is a professional who must cultivate a set of specific competences. Next, an educator must also develop pedagogical competences, framed within Areas 2–5. Finally, an educator must also foster the development of digital competences in their students (Area 6). Moreover, within the pedagogical domain, areas 2, 3 and 4 make sense in any teaching-learning process, as they are related to the stages of planning teaching (Area 2), its implementation (Area 3) and, finally, its evaluation (Area 4). Area 5 is a horizontal area that supports areas 2 - 4. Its function is to recognize the potential of ICT to implement learner-centered learning strategies. The framework also proposes a progression model for educators to self-assess their level in each of the 22 competences. The model defines a total of six competence levels at which an educator may find themselves and proposes definitions, examples, and ideas for improvement for the educator to progress from level to level. The six levels use

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the same system as the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR), ranging from A1 to C2, and are also inspired by the revised Bloom’s taxonomy model [19]. Newcomers (A1) and Explorers (A2) are professionals that are interested in learning how to best include digital tools in their pedagogical and professional practice but might need help from colleagues to guide them through the process. Integrators (B1) and Experts (B2) are the backbones of any educational institution as they can enhance their professional activities through digital tools. Leaders (C1) and Pioneers (C2) should reflect on the current practices and lead innovation as role models.

Fig. 1. DigCompEdu describes 22 competences organised in six Areas [15]

2 Context This study is part of a more extensive study that aims to answer the question: Can teachers’ digital competence be assessed through their interaction with a virtual learning environment? To answer this question, we must first choose a virtual learning environment and a framework for the assessment of digital competence. Then we must ask ourselves: Can Moodle’s activities and resources be mapped to a set of digital competences, based on the definition of DigCompEdu? And then: Do they have any limitations? This study aims to answer these last two questions. The study was carried out at La Salle Campus Barcelona - Universitat Ramon Llull, which has a virtual learning environment based on Moodle (virtual campus). The university has a team to support teachers in deploying teaching methodologies and policies. This team is comprised of experts in Moodle, and members of the research group on Technology Enhanced Learning (GReTEL). This team trains the university’s faculty to use Moodle as a tool to implement new teaching methodologies. This team was instrumental in gathering expert opinion.

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3 Method This study was conducted using the following methodology. First, a search for systematic reviews of the literature on (1) digital competence, (2) teachers’ digital competence, and (3) assessment tools, was conducted. Its goal was to assess whether a new systematic literature review was necessary. However, due to the existence of recently published reviews, it was decided to build on these reviews. Next, the context and scope of the research were defined. As the study was to be done using the university’s data, it was decided that the best tool to use would be the university’s virtual learning environment. At the same time, as the university is in Europe, DigCompEdu was chosen as the best framework to assess digital competence. In terms of scope, it was decided to use the university’s Moodle configuration set by the beginning of the academic year 2021/22, to have a stable environment for the study. Any new plugins installed once the academic year had started were omitted. All activities, resources, and tools analyzed were split into two categories: core or plugin elements, based on Moodle definition of what can be found in a standard Moodle [20]. Once context and scope were defined, a single-round focus group was conducted to gather expert opinions. Finally, the results obtained from the focus group were analyzed and aggregated to draw conclusions.

4 Results To analyze whether digital competence for educators can be assessed through user interaction with a virtual learning environment, 55 activities, resources and tools from Moodle were selected. Among these selected elements, 29 can be found in a standard installation of Moodle, whereas 26 are plugins installed to the university’s custom Moodle. In addition, 28 elements, either core or plugin, activities, 8 are resources, and 19 are tools. Table 1 lists all activities, resources and tools considered core. For each element, the level of competence demonstrated by the use of such element is shown divided into the 6 areas of DigCompEdu. Within each area, the highest level of competence has been taken from among the competences included in that area. Moreover, in Table 2, the same information is shown for the activities, resources and tools considered plugins. For area 1, 18 elements (8 core and 10 plugin) have been identified that can be used to assess the competences included in this area. For the remaining areas the numbers are Area 2, 36 elements (22 core and 14 plugin); Area 3, 25 elements (15 core and 10 plugin); Area 4, 32 elements (21 core and 11 plugin); Area 5, 31 elements (19 core and 12 plugin); and last, Area 6, with 23 elements (12 core and 11 plugin). The maximum level of competence that can be assessed from these elements is a C1 for areas 2–4 and 6, and a B2 for areas 1 and 5. A total of 165 element-area relationships have been defined, of which 144 define a competence level. Of these competence levels, most of them are at A2 (42), B1 (44) or B2 (39) levels. Only 18 entries allow the assessment of a C1 competence level, while there are no entries that allow the assessment of a C2 competence level.

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Table 1. Core Moodle activities, resources and tools classified by DigCompEdu areas (Fig. 1). Activity/Resource/Tool

Area 1

Area 2

Area 3

Area 4

Area 5

Area 6

(LTI) External tool

X

X

X

X

X

X

B2

C1

Activity completion Assignment

A1

Badges

B2

Book

B1

Chat

A2

Choice

B1

B1 B2

A2

A2

A2 A2

B2

Course reports

C1

B1 A2

C1

Database

C1 A2

File

B2

B1

B1

Glossary

B2 B1

A2

B1 A2

B1

A2

B1

Folder Forum

B1

B1

Course completion

Feedback

B2

B1

A2

B1

A2

B1

A2

B1

A2

B2

B1

A2

B2

Gradebook

B1

H5P activity

X

X

X

X

X

IMS content package

X

X

X

X

X

Label

B1

Lesson

C1

Page

B1

Quiz

B1

Restrict Access

B2

Rubric

A2

SCORM Survey

A2 B2

B2

B2

B1

B2

B1

C1

B2

A2

B2

B2

B1

X

X

X

B2

X

A2

URL

B1

Wiki

C1

B2

B2

A2

A2 B2

Workshop

C1

B2

B2

B1

B1

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Table 2. Plugin Moodle activities, resources and tools classified by DigCompEdu areas (Fig. 1). Activity/Resource/Tool

Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area 6

Acknowledge plagiarism statement access rule

C1

Attendance Blackboard Collaborate

B2 A2

CodeRunner

A2

A2

C1

Completion Progress

B1 B2

Configurable Reports

C1

Content Pages

B1

Custom certificate

B1

Filter Codes Group choice

A2

C1

A2

C1 A2

C1 A2

B2 A2

B1

JazzQuiz

B2

B2

B2

B2

Level Up XP - Gamification

C1

B2

B2

B1

Multi-Language Content (v2)

B2

Ouriginal

B2

Peer Work Questionnaire

C1 A2

Record audio Scheduler

A2

B2

C1 B1

A2

A2

B1

B1 C1

Structured label

B1

Student folder

B2

B2 B1

Subcourse

B1

B2

B1 A2

A2

A2

Unilabel

B1

A2

Word Select

A2

B1

Zoom meeting

B1 B1

B1

A2

Shortcodes

Teams

B2

A2

A2

A2

5 Discussion Once the results have been presented, we will proceed to discuss the relevant information that can be obtained from them. To begin with, it should be noted that 4 elements have not been properly classified in the tables according to their competence level. These are the SCORM packages, IMS content package, H5P activity and the external LTI tools. All these elements are used to embed a variety of external activities and resources in Moodle. This variety of resources

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integrated as a single element complicates the analysis of the competence levels provided using each of these resources. For this reason, they have been identified in the list, but not classified according to the established framework. It is also important to mention that Moodle itself, as a VLE, is already a digital tool used in teaching by teachers. This implies that the very use of the tool already demonstrates a minimum level of digital competence on the part of its users. In fact, DigCompEdu competence 2.3 already states that the use of a virtual learning environment for resource sharing demonstrates an Integrator level (B1) by its users. Related to this idea, it should be borne in mind that Moodle as a VLE will favor the assessment of certain areas of competence and, on the contrary, will hinder the assessment of others. This can be seen by the fact that certain areas are more populated with activities, resources, and tools than others. For example, area 1 focuses on the assessment of teacher professional development with competences such as 1.1 Organisational communication, 1.2 Professional Collaboration, 1.3 Reflective Practice and 1.4 Digital Continuous Professional Development. However, of these four competences, only the first of them is feasible for the experts to assess, as a VLE is not an environment in which teachers can collaborate with other teachers in the established sense of the term. Neither can the degree of intention and reflection that a teacher puts into the use of the tool be obtained by studying the use of a VLE so competences 1.3 and 1.4 cannot be assessed either. Competence 1.1 assesses the teacher’s communication with students and families and defines the competence levels according to the use or non-use of digital tools, their choice and suitability for the message, and netiquette. Moodle presents multiple tools for communicating with students (and parents in the case of its use in primary and secondary education), but unless the text of the message is analyzed (with the consequent privacy issues), we cannot know if the channel and the ethics of the message are correct. By contrast, the areas with the highest number of elements are areas 2, 4 and 5, which belong to the area of pedagogical use of digital tools. These areas being highly populated is important, as they represent the technological pedagogical content knowledge defined by TPACK [16]. It is in here that the teacher will choose the best digital tools to strengthen and reinforce the teaching-learning process. As seen in the results, it is difficult to assess the competence levels of Leader (C1) and Pioneer (C2). Part of the reason why difficulties arise is because of the very definition of these levels. The C levels assess concepts such as reflection and the development of new trends and ideas. As already mentioned, it is difficult to know the intentionality behind the use of the tools just by analyzing whether a teacher uses them or not. For example, there are some Moodle activities, such as JazzQuizz, that have been created with a very specific use in mind, so using such activities assumes a certain level of competence inherent in the conception of the activity. One of the drawbacks is that using an activity does not always imply that it is being used correctly. In contrast, activities such as the Forum have a multitude of different uses associated with them that can be inferred from the configuration of the activity itself. But it is not possible to know whether the teacher intended to use the forum with a specific configuration to achieve a specific objective. Finally, it is important to mention that during the focus group sessions, several concerns were raised regarding the definitions given in the DigCompEdu framework to differentiate between the 22 competences and competence levels. It is essential to

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emphasize that the definitions in the framework are still in natural language that can be ambiguous in some cases. One of the problems identified was that some definitions in the framework want to be broad enough to include the use of a range of digital tools from all sectors. At the same time, the framework cannot work with specific definitions if it is to keep up with the constant technological changes. The examples provided to illustrate each of the competence levels for each of the competences were very useful, although it is true that, in some specific cases, more examples would have been appreciated.

6 Conclusions Having analyzed the tools proposed in the existing literature, one of the concerns that we share with other authors is the limitation that a self-reflection questionnaire may have. An important limitation of self-assessment is unconscious incompetence. Unawareness of the fact that one does not know something limits one’s ability to recognize one’s limits. Therefore, to solve this problem, the creation of a tool has been proposed to assess the digital competence of a user, based on the real interactions that this user has with a platform. The goal is to obtain a practical assessment of the knowledge involved. For this reason, we asked ourselves: Can Moodle’s activities and resources be mapped to a set of digital competences, based on the definition of DigCompEdu? And then: Do they have any limitations? We can claim that a large part of the competences defined in DigCompEdu, can be analyzed by studying the interaction that teachers have with a virtual learning environment such as Moodle. The same results also allow us to identify limitations to what can be assessed. For this reason, we believe it is important that one of the future works should seek ways to compensate for these limitations. One conclusion of this study is that any assessment model will surely have limitations due to the very nature of the model itself so that when the tool for the automatic assessment of teachers’ digital competence is implemented and validated, it would be highly recommendable to use it in parallel with other tools to assess teachers from different perspectives.

References 1. Pettersson, F.: On the issues of digital competence in educational contexts – a review of literature. Educ. Inf. Technol. 23(3), 1005–1021 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-0179649-3 2. Zhao, Y., Pinto Llorente, A.M., Sánchez Gómez, M.C.: Digital competence in higher education research: a systematic literature review. Comput. Educ. 168, 104212 (2021). https://doi. org/10.1016/j.compedu.2021.104212 3. Sillat, L.H., Tammets, K., Laanpere, M.: Digital competence assessment methods in higher education: a systematic literature review. Educ. Sci. 11, 402 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/ educsci11080402 4. Mattar, J., Ramos, D.K., Lucas, M.R.: DigComp-based digital competence assessment tools: literature review and instrument analysis. Educ Inf Technol (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10639-022-11034-3

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5. Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December 2006 on key competences for lifelong learning (2006) 6. Ferrari, A., Punie, Y., Brecko, B.: DIGCOMP: a framework for developing and understanding digital competence in Europe. Publications Office of the European Union (2013) 7. Ferrari, A.: Digital Competence in Practice: An Analysis of Frameworks. Joint Research Centre of the European Commission 91 (2013). https://doi.org/10.2791/82116 8. Ferrari, A., Punie, Y., Redecker, C.: Understanding digital competence in the 21st century: an analysis of current frameworks. In: Ravenscroft, A., Lindstaedt, S., Kloos, C.D., HernándezLeo, D. (eds.) EC-TEL 2012. LNCS, vol. 7563, pp. 79–92. Springer, Heidelberg (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-33263-0_7 9. Gisbert Cervera, M., González Martínez, J., Esteve Mon, F.M.: Competencia digital y competencia digital docente: una panorámica sobre el estado de la cuestión. Revista Interuniversitaria de Investigación en Tecnología Educativa, pp. 2529–9638 (2016). https://doi.org/10.6018/RII TE2016/257631 10. Spante, M., Hashemi, S.S., Lundin, M., Algers, A.: Digital competence and digital literacy in higher education research: systematic review of concept use. Cogent Educ. 5, 1–21 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2018.1519143 11. Vuorikari, R., Punie, Y., Carretero Gomez, S., Van Den Brande, G.: DigComp 2.0: The Digital Competence Framework for Citizens. Update Phase 1: the Conceptual Reference Model. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg (2016) 12. Carretero, S., Vuorikari, R., Punie, Y.: DigComp 2.1: The Digital Competence Framework for Citizens. Publications Office of the European Union (2017) 13. Vuorikari, R., Kluzer, S., Punie, Y.: DigComp 2.2: The Digital Competence Framework for Citizens - With new examples of knowledge, skills and attitudes. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg (Luxembourg) (2022) 14. Bashir, S., Miyamoto, K.: Digital Skills: Frameworks and Programs. World Bank, Washington, DC (2020) 15. Redecker, C.: European Framework for the Digital Competence of Educators: DigCompEdu. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg (2017) 16. Koehler, M., Mishra, P.: What is technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK)? Contemp. Issues in Technol. Teach. Educ. 9, 60–70 (2009) 17. UNESCO: UNESCO ICT competency framework for teachers. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris (2011) 18. UNESCO: UNESCO ICT Competency Framework for Teachers - Version 3. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris (2018) 19. Anderson, L.W., Krathwohl, D.R.: Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing, A: A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Longman, New York (2001) 20. Managing a Moodle course - MoodleDocs. In: Moodle Docs(2021). https://docs.moodle.org/ 400/en/Managing_a_Moodle_course. Accessed 28 May 2022

SDART Software: A Novel Tool Designed to Enhance Learning in Adjustment Computation in Surveying Pablo Rodríguez-Gonzálvez1(B) , Manuel Rodríguez-Martín2 and Paula García-Osorio1

,

1 Department of Mining Technology, Topography and Structures, Universidad de León,

Ponferrada (León), Spain {p.rodriguez,pgaro}@unileon.es 2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universidad de Salamanca, Campus Viriato, Zamora, Spain [email protected]

Abstract. This article presents a teaching-learning methodology designed for the acquisition of competences related to the subject of Adjustment of Observations in the Degree in Engineering in Geomatics and Surveying. The activity has been designed to cover the majority of the competences and learning objectives of the subject. And due to the wide scope of the activity’s goal, a novel teaching support software has been developed (SDART) to be used in conjunction with other free suites (Octave). Through an application of the Project-Based Learning methodology in a simple observation project of a surveying network, the students will develop their mathematical and statistical competences. The focus of the approach is allowing the students to understand and interpret the different error sources in field observations and their role in the process of determining the optimal solution by means of least squares. This teaching-learning approach supported by the ad-hoc developed software will assist the students to achieve their learning goals and reach the professional skills required for their practical work in geomatics and surveying. Keywords: Competences · Software development · Least squares · Geomatics · Surveying

1 Introduction Among all the professional competences involved in the training of future engineers in surveying, a specific competence that is interrelated with a multitude of applied works is the knowledge and ability to adjust and solve different kinds of surveying networks. This competence is based on the statement that no observation is exact: i.e., every observation contains errors [1]. It logically follows, therefore, that engineers in geomatics and surveying, who are measurement specialists, must have a thorough understanding of errors. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 F. J. García-Peñalvo and A. García-Holgado (Eds.): TEEM 2022, LNET, pp. 86–95, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0942-1_8

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The subject of Adjustment of Observations aims to provide students with knowledge of the statistical models underlying the process of obtaining topographic observations or measurements, as well as the statistical and mathematical methods of data analysis and their practical application. The least-squares theorem has a very wide application in engineering geomatics and topography and can be used not only for conventional topographic problems but also for photogrammetry [2] or geodesy [3]. Among the teaching methodologies that can be applied, the Project-Based Learning (PBL) methodology is considered to be the most suitable for the context in question. This methodology covers multiple disciplinary issues in its entirety and links the concepts of each discipline with real-life experience [4]. Given the casuistry of application of these approaches in the context of engineering education [5] more specifically in geomatics engineering studies [6], this typology can be considered suitable for learning the subject of Adjustment of Observations. It is also advisable that teaching approaches at the university level are directed towards promoting the use of free resources, in order to favour their asynchronous use and promote students’ autonomous learning [7]. Within an eminently practical approach, the teaching methodology presented in this article seeks to provide students with a complete overview of the process of processing sets of redundant observations, supported by an ad-hoc developed software to obtain the best estimate and related precision.

2 Academic Context The subject of Adjustment of Observations is a basic and fundamental subject in the regulated profession of engineering in geomatics and topography, and as such is explicitly included in the order CIN/353/2009 [8]. The teaching-learning methodology presented in this article is part of the subject Adjustment of Observations of the degree in geomatics engineering and surveying taught at the University of León. This subject covers 4.5 ECTS credits and is taught in the 2nd year of the degree. Figure 1 describes graphically the interrelation of the subject of Adjustment of Observations with other subjects of the degree program. As can be seen in the figure above, the subject of Adjustment of Observations is a fundamental tool in the processing of observations and interpretation of results in most of the subjects that compose the curriculum, hence its importance to prepare students as competent professionals. It should be noted that there are no compulsory prerequisites for taking the subject, although it is recommended that students have prior knowledge of calculus, computing, cartography, surveying instruments, and observations, and algebra. These recommendations are given by the high mathematical workload of the subject, the practical application of geomatics knowledge and instruments (i.e.: geometric transformations; topographic observations, etc.), and the fact that it is based on different statistical concepts. This subject is essential in the degree and will be of daily use in the successive subjects that the student will have to take (Fig. 1). The learning objectives (LO) aim to provide students with the basic concepts of the subject and their importance in geomatics works. According to the teaching guide, the following objectives are included on the subject:

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Fig. 1. The subject of Adjustment of Observations and related subjects in the educational program of the degree in engineering in geomatics and topography at the University of León.

• • • • • •

LO1: Ability to describe statistically a set of topographic measurements. LO2: Ability to apply probability concepts to topographic measurements. LO3: Ability to solve algebra problems using matrix calculus software. LO4: Ability to adjust simple topographic observations by least squares method. LO5: Ability to fit planar networks by least-squares. LO6: Ability to evaluate error propagation in various types of observation fitting problems. • LO7: Improvement of the ability to teamwork, critical reasoning, and autonomous learning. The methodology outlined in Sect. 3 has been designed in such a way that it can contribute to the achievement of the above seven learning objectives. Due to the number of objectives, the duration of the aforementioned activity will be spread over the whole four-month period. In relation to the competences included in the degree program, which students are expected to develop during the course, the following are listed for the subject: • Basic competence (BC): Students know how to apply their knowledge to their work or vocation in a professional manner and possess the competences that are usually demonstrated through the elaboration and defense of arguments and the resolution of problems within their area of study. • General competence (GC): Determine, measure, evaluate, and represent terrain, threedimensional objects, points, and trajectories. • Specific competences (SC): • SC1: Knowledge and application of geomatics methods and techniques in the fields of different engineering. • SC2: Knowledge, use and application of photogrammetric and topographic instruments and methods suitable for carrying out non-cartographic surveys. • SC3: Knowledge and application of least squares adjustment methods in the field of survey-geodetic, photogrammetric and cartographic observations.

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• SC4: Apply adjustment methods and their implementation in a specific mathematical application of numerical calculation. • Transversal competences (TC): • • • • • •

TC1: Autonomous learning. TC2: Capacity for analysis and synthesis. TC3: Computer skills related to the field of study. TC4: Critical reasoning. TC5: Problem-solving. TC6: Teamwork.

It should be noted that competences SC1 to SC3 are explicitly included in the CIN order [8] that regulates the profession of engineering in geomatics and topography. 2.1 Support Teaching Software The adjustment of trilateration using least-squares involves a non-linear equations system that relates the observed quantities (distances) and their inherent random errors to the most probable values of the points (x and y coordinates). Therefore, it is necessary to linearise the equations system by applying a Taylor series function to allow the application of the least squares-based fitting method iteratively [1]. As a result, the matrix involved in the least square adjustment could be large for second-degree students, i.e.: a simple network of 15 unknown stations and 50 field observations leads to a design matrix of 1500 elements. For that reason, the programming of the adjustment (SC4) can be complicated and tedious for students to track down their mistakes. So, to assist students in the intermediate and final steps of the adjustment process, the authors have developed an educational support software called SDART. This software has developed aligned to the present teaching-learning methodology; thus, it allows the step-by-step resolution of a trilateration network. The software will be free for students to use both in the classroom and asynchronously. The SDART software has been developed using the following open-source solutions: • Qt [9]: multiplatform object-oriented framework for the development of programs that use a graphical user interface, using the C++ programming language natively. • Armadillo [10]: linear algebra software library for the C++ programming language. It is an open-source resource, which also has a syntax similar to that used by Octave (matrix calculation software used in the subject).

3 Teaching-Learning Methodology The proposed teaching-learning methodology based on the designed software seeks to present the mathematical and statistical foundations of the subject combined with a practical exercise involving fieldwork, problem-solving, and programming. In this way, students learn about the least-squares adjustment method and its robust variants, in order

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to be able to apply it in the field of geomatic observations. The final outcome will be the adjusted coordinates of a survey network as well as the precision and validity of the adjusted points. As a result, students will acquire the necessary knowledge to apply the methods and techniques of adjustment of observations in the usual operations for his/her future professional career. The design and structuring of the teaching-learning activity have been carried out in accordance with the general criteria established in the literature [11, 12]. More specifically, special attention was paid to the fact that the activity allows, in its quality dimension, an adequate assessment process of the different competences considered (Table 1). In relation to the compatibility of the methodology with e-learning and b-learning processes, field data can be substituted by real data previously captured in case of exceptional situations (i.e.: pandemic confinement situation) in which it would not be possible to carry out the field observations [13]. Table 1. Criteria considered in the design of the teaching activity. Quality

Reality

Economy

Possibility to assess the associated competences

Use of real data captured in the Use of free software field

Visualisation of all stages of the Implementation of code for adjustment process algorithm development (mathematics and statistics) and intermediate results

Use of software employed in other degree subjects

Compatible with online learning Use of standardised processes mathematical tools

Use of the institutional learning management platform

Possibility to replace data collection with input data in case of special situations

Possibility of taking data in the vicinity of the campus

Possibility of obtaining multiple decision variables

Figure 2 shows the general outline of the teaching-learning methodology stating the competences involved in each task and globally in the methodology:

Fig. 2. Outline of the proposed teaching activity.

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To this end, a group practice will be established for the definition, observation, and adjustment of a network, in which the students will carry out a simple but real case, starting from scratch and implementing all the steps using numerical computing software. The execution of this activity will match the theoretical and practical classes, whose temporal sequencing is designed so that students can carry it out throughout the semester. Transversal competences will be promoted through the interpretation of the results based on the mathematical model used, documentation when establishing and justifying the precisions (and therefore the weights) of the observations; and conclusions of combined and/or individual applicability of surveying instruments will be derived, based on the statistical data of the precision of the adjustment, and the standardized residuals. With all of these, the student will significantly develop his/her competences as a geomatics and surveying engineer, although these will be refined in successive subjects of the degree. The field observations will be carried out in the vicinity of the campus and will be based on the definition of a simple survey network of distance observations obtained with different instruments. The area of the survey should be at least 100 m2 . The basic instrumental competences have been acquired in the subject of ‘surveying instruments and observations’ in the first year and continue to be developed in parallel to the subject of ‘surveying methods I’ in the same semester (Fig. 1) so that the acquisition of field data serves for the students to continue putting their instrumental competences into practice. In addition, by using at least two surveying instruments with different precision, the students can carry out a weighted adjustment. Given the breadth of the teaching activity, the inclusion of more complex observables from the mathematical point of view is ruled out, especially due to the temporal sequencing of the subject, in the third semester of the eight that comprise the degree. For the implementation of the concepts seen in the theoretical sessions, a free numerical computing software will be used, proposing the authors the use of Octave [14]. In this way, continuity is given to the programming concepts seen in the first year of the subject of ‘Informatics’ (Fig. 1) and the competences associated with geospatial data management are improved. As can be seen in Fig. 2, there are several stages in which the students have to evaluate whether the partial progress made is adequate or needs to be revised, i.e., repeat measurements in case of outliers in the observations made on the previous day. In this way, the competence of quality motivation is indirectly advanced. The students have to carry out all the programming by themselves, but due to the complexity of the mathematical model, they have at their service the software SDART to check the intermediate matrix results as shown in Fig. 3. In relation to the competence related to teamwork, the students will create and maintain a portfolio in the institutional online platform, shared with the professor, with all the group meetings and activities carried out by each component. In addition, the final grade for the work will be agreed and distributed among the team members, and this distribution must be justified by the evidence contained in the aforementioned portfolio. The evaluation of the work will have a clear formative objective and will be carried out by means of a rubric with the following sections:

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Fig. 3. Example of the presentation of intermediate results by SDART software.

• Extent and number of points that compose the network: minimum criterion to define the significance of the designed network. • Surveying observations: i.e., obtaining field data with the surveying instruments, which is directly related to general competence (GC). • Number of surveying instruments employed: concerning instrumental competences and the general competence (GC). • Justification of the choice of observation weights based on bibliographic sources. This element of the rubric can be used to assess both the transversal competence TC4 and the degree of achievement of learning objectives LO1 and LO2. • Definition of the system of equations. This element is related to the application of theoretical concepts to the specific problem of the network observed in the field (TC5), and therefore allows the assessment of objectives LO4 and LO5. • Programming of the network resolution using matrix software. Based on the equation system proposed (see the previous element), students implement it in the matrix calculation software, an aspect closely related to the TC3 and SC4 competences and the objective. • Determination of the precision of the solution, according to the implemented code, observations made, and established weighting criteria. From the input data, students can evaluate the propagation of the errors of the input data in the final solution (learning objective LO6). • Analysis of the residuals and interrelation with the precision of the instruments employed and the geometry of the network. Similar to the previous element, it allows the assessment of learning objective LO6, as well as the objective related to the application of probability concepts (LO2). • Portfolio: This is the main instrument for assessing the transversal competence TC6, teamwork, which is also included in objective LO7. • Final report, with conclusions about the observed and adjusted network and its validity. In the preparation of this report, the competences TC2 and BC can be assessed, as well as part of objective LO7.

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Overall, the whole teaching-learning methodology described above allows the acquisition of the specific competence SC3. As during the whole process of the teachinglearning activity the students are supported by the SDART software, so they can validate their final results with those provided by the software (Fig. 4) in order to ensure that the final report is suitable.

Fig. 4. Network representation adjusts and error ellipses (in green) associated with each observed point (in blue) by SDART software.

During the teamwork tasks of the final project, group tutorials are held in order to observe the progress of each group in the management of the final project. In addition, each group will present its progress to the rest of the class. In this way, some groups learn from each other’s mistakes and successes regarding the application of the teamwork methodology. The necessary resources for the activity are available to the students through the institutional based-on Moodle learning management system (LMS), consisting of an initial module with the communication forum with the students; a theoretical module with the slides of the theoretical contents, the documentation related to Octave’s frequent commands, and the software SDART, as well as a space for the delivery of the final report.

4 Conclusions In this article, a teaching-learning activity that combines the PBL approach and free software solutions has been presented within the context of the degree in geomatics and surveying engineering. More specifically, it addresses the least square adjustment of networks which is a usual task of the surveyor during their professional life. The acquisition of competences related to the critical analysis of different geospatial data is pivotal to verifying the work’s suitability in relation to the technical specifications. The methodology is based on free software resources, some of them well known as Octave, and others developed specifically for the subject’s learning objectives (SDART). This favor not only the autonomous and asynchronous learning of the students but also

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the improvement of the ICT, mathematical and statistical competences to make good surveying decisions in their professional future. Enabling active learning in the use of scientific software improves students’ readiness for the undergoing changes in the current technological context. Acknowledgements. This work has been supported by the 2022 Educational Innovation Program of the Universidad de León (PAID – Plan de Apoyo a la Innovación Docente).

References 1. Ghilani, C.D., Wolf, P.R.: Adjustment Computations: Spatial Data Analysis. Wiley, New Jersey (2017) 2. Rodríguez-Gonzálvez, P., García-Gago, J., Gómez-Lahoz, J., González-Aguilera, D.: Confronting passive and active sensors with non-gaussian statistics. Sensors 14(8), 13759–13777 (2014). https://doi.org/10.3390/s140813759 3. Nievergelt, Y.: A tutorial history of least squares with applications to astronomy and geodesy. J. Comput. Appl. Math. 121(1–2), 37–72 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0377-0427(00)003 43-5 4. Krajcik, J.S., Blumenfeld, P.C.: Project-based learning. In: The Cambridge Handbook of the learning sciences, pp. 317–334. Cambridge University Press, New York (2006) 5. Naji, K.K., Ebead, U., Al-Ali, A.K., Du, X.: Comparing models of problem and ProjectBased Learning (PBL) courses and student engagement in civil engineering in Qatar. Eurasia J. Math. Sci. Technol. Educ. 16(8), 1867 (2020). https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/8291 6. Fernández-Puerto, J., García-Osorio, P., Rodríguez-Martín, M., Rodríguez-Gonzálvez, P.: Engineering capstone project as a service-learning activity: a case study in Geomatics degree. In: Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Technological Ecosystems for Enhancing Multiculturality (TEEM 2021) (Barcelona, Spain, 27–29 Oct 2021). ACM International Conference Proceeding Series (ICPS), pp. 373–377. ACM, New York, NY, USA (2021). https://doi.org/10.1145/3486011.3486477 7. Rodríguez-Martín, M., Rodríguez-Gonzálvez, P., Sánchez-Patrocinio, A., Sánchez, J.R.: Short CFD simulation activities in the context of fluid-mechanical learning in a multidisciplinary student body. Appl. Sci. 9(22), 4809 (2019). https://doi.org/10.3390/app9224809 8. Spanish Official Gazette: Orden CIN/353/2009, de 9 de febrero, por la que se establecen los requisitos para la verificación de los títulos universitarios oficiales que habiliten para el ejercicio de la profesión de Ingeniero Técnico en Topografía (2009). https://www.boe.es/boe/ dias/2009/02/20/pdfs/BOE-A-2009-2895.pdf. Accessed 03 Jun 2022 9. Qt: Qt Creator - A Cross-platform IDE for software development (2022). https://www.qt.io/ product/development-tools. Accessed 03 Jun 2022 10. Sanderson, C., Curtin, R.: Armadillo: a template-based C++ library for linear algebra. J. Open Source Softw. 1(2), 26 (2016). https://doi.org/10.21105/joss.00026 11. Rodríguez-Martín, M., Rodríguez-Gonzálvez, P.: Learning based on 3D photogrammetry models to evaluate the competences in visual testing of welds. In: 2018 IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference (EDUCON) (Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain, April 17–20), pp. 1576–1581. IEEE (2018). https://doi.org/10.1109/EDUCON.2018.8363422 12. Rodríguez-Martín, M., Rodríguez-Gonzálvez, P.: Learning methodology based on weld virtual models in the mechanical engineering classroom. Comput. Appl. Eng. Educ. 27(5), 1113–1125 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1002/cae.22140

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13. Rodríguez-Gonzálvez, P., Allende-Prieto, C., Rodríguez-Martín, M.: Learning physical geodesy. Application case to geoid undulation computation. In: Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Technological Ecosystems for Enhancing Multiculturality (TEEM 2020) (Salamanca, Spain, 21–23 Oct 2020). ACM International Conference Proceeding Series (ICPS), pp. 84–90. ACM, New York, NY, USA (2020). https://doi.org/10.1145/3434780.343 6546 14. Octave: Scientific Programming Language Version 6.4 (2022). https://www.gnu.org/software/ octave/. Accessed 03 Jun 2022

Software Alternatives to Design Learning Activities for Lean Six Sigma in e-learning Manuel Rodríguez-Martín1(B) , Pablo Rodríguez-Gonzálvez2 and María del Rosario Domingo3

,

1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universidad de Salamanca, Campus Viriato, Zamora,

Spain [email protected] 2 Department of Mining Technology, Topography and Structures, Universidad de León, Ponferrada (León), Spain [email protected] 3 Department of Construction and Manufacturing Engineering, Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia (UNED), Madrid, Spain [email protected]

Abstract. In this article, the authors have designed a workflow compatible with e-learning for the teaching-learning of process control methodologies within the contemporary Lean Six Sigma context, applied to students of industrial engineering. Based on the proposed workflow and e-learning orientation and bibliometric analysis, technical and educational requirements have been established ad-hoc for the choice of the most appropriate computer package. The requirements have been grouped into six categories: usability, power, scalability and efficiency, learning, access, and resources. Each studied software alternative (Matlab®, Minitab®, SPSS®, R, and Python) has been evaluated based on the preset requirements for the same test data sets in a format compatible with all the software evaluated to open a discussion and draw the conclusions of the work. Keywords: Industry 4.0 · engineering education · Lean · Six Sigma · programming · e-learning

1 Introduction Six Sigma is a multidisciplinary strategy that can be effectively implemented in different types of industries. It is oriented towards quality and continuous improvement to enhance the performance of an organization’s processes and reduce variability; this implies finding and eliminating the possible causes of errors, defects, and delays in the processes, always taking as a point of reference the clients and their needs at all times [1]. Other strategies such as Lean were developed in parallel to Six Sigma based on the Toyota production system. Lean was first introduced in [2]. From this need, it was established that classifying as wastes are the things or activities that do not add value to the product which are classified [3] according to overproduction, waiting, transport, © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 F. J. García-Peñalvo and A. García-Holgado (Eds.): TEEM 2022, LNET, pp. 96–105, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0942-1_9

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over-recognition, movements, inventories and rework [4]. To them, human talent as a failure in the use of people’s skills to improve the performance of processes has been also classified as waste by some authors [1]. Currently, there is a tendency to merge the Six Sigma and Lean methodology, combining the structure and power of the analysis and statistical tools of Six Sigma with the process tools and principles of Lean. These approaches have become so useful and widespread that subject matter engineers are frequently required by companies. Therefore, there are specific professional certifications for the LSS (Lean Six Sigma). An example of this is the Belt certifications at different levels [5]. This certification system is internationally standardized [6]. Within the quality control tools in processes to be applied in LSS strategies, the monitoring of them is extremely important. Within the real-time monitoring of processes, Control charts (also called Shewhart charts) are fundamental and therefore are integrated within the so-called “7H” (7 Quality Tools) which can be consulted in the literature (e.g., [7]). These charts have been widely used in recent decades, but they are of importance in processes that require high monitoring of variables or attributes, especially in manufacturing and heavy industries (weight control, geometric measurements, resistance, temperature, etc.), agri-food industry (control of volumes, weights, chemical composition, nutrient levels, etc.) and also in companies in the technology, constructive or service sector (times of attention to the customer, number of incidents, journey times, times of construction, etc.). Assuming that production processes are intended to manufacture a product or provide a service and that by their nature they are stochastic [8], control charts are used to observe and analyze the statistical behavior of a variable or attribute of a process over time. Also, to detect and distinguish different types of variations, both those caused by common causes (and admissible) and those due to special causes that are due to anomalies in the process (attributable causes) and must be analyzed and corrected. This will help to characterize the operation of the process as a whole, and, thus, decide the best control and improvement actions [1]. On the other hand, the process capability study seeks to ensure that processes conform to the established specifications and to ensure the parameters of the process do not change or if they do, it is predictable. This is done from the study of performance and capacity indices that are, today, increasingly used [8]. The capacity of the process is determined by the total variation that comes from the common causes [9]. Therefore, before implementing a capacity study, it is necessary to rule out the existence of attributable causes using control charts. Both standardized tools (control charts and capacity indices) should be known to engineering students for their importance in the field of process control and in new production philosophies such as LSS. Therefore, in the current Industry 4.0 context, industrial processes should be redefined towards a digitized architecture in factory organizations by introducing a set of new technologies (e.g. [10]), such as big data (e.g. [11]) or cyber-physical systems (e.g. [12]) that propose new methods in terms of Statistical Process Control (SPC) and that will be very important in the future work of engineering students.

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The problem is that students often do not have access to control rooms of manufacturing plants. Consequently, it is necessary to generate a software-based training environment in which engineering students can practice with LSS tools and use specialized software and that is compatible with distance teaching that is increasingly widespread not only in official university programs [13], but also in continuous training courses and training to obtain professional certifications and accreditations in terms of quality and, specifically, LSS.

2 Educational Context and Learning Requirements Quality and statistical process control are part of industrial engineering programs. Order CIN/351/2009 [14], is the one that regulates in Spain the “engineering of the industrial branch”. It establishes a structure based on a Basic Training Module, a Module Common to the entire industrial branch (of enormous relevance given the above), a Specific Technology Module (depending on the degree in question Electrical Engineering, Electronic Engineering, and Industrial Automation, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering or Textile Engineering) and, finally, a Final Degree Project. Within the training module common to the industrial branch, the following competencies are established: Basic knowledge of production and manufacturing systems and Applied knowledge of the business organization. These competencies imply the need that students to have knowledge about production and manufacturing systems and management, which denotes the importance of knowledge of LSS tools. However, the specific technology competencies of the mechanics specialty also include the following, closely related to quality: Applied knowledge of manufacturing systems and processes, metrology, and quality control. Although the professionals most related to quality are usually industrial engineers, quality is also present in almost all engineering programs (food engineering, aeronautical engineering, civil engineering, system engineering, etc.). Finally, continuous training courses that aim at professionals to learn about LSS strategies are also very common. Usually, these are oriented to the training in these methods for engineers who are already working and want to learn to work with these methodologies and be accredited with one of the existing certifications (usually according to [6]). The activities that allow an adequate acquisition of competencies can be on the criteria of reality, quality, and economy [13, 15]. The starting dataset of the proposed activities can come from projects or real cases or, on the contrary, can be simulated. In the latter case, it is recommended that the data resemble real cases taking into account tolerances or parameters established by technical standards. In this regard, the data must be variables or attributes from a process, and for which the quality specifications of the product or service are known or can be known. The workflow is the one shown in Fig. 1, which is applied to analyze the measured data of a variable (effective length of a manufactured steel pin). It is based on data processing using control charts to mediate the stability of the processes and then applies a capacity study to detect deviations according to the specifications (usual flow following ISO 7870) to draw conclusions about the process.

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Fig. 1. Workflow followed for the activity

A possible scale for the choice of software can be based on the criteria established in Table 1 through the adaptation of the software requirements established in [16]: usability, power, scalability, learning, access, and resources. The requirements can be grouped into different categories described in Table 1. Table 1. Requirements for the software. Category

Requirement

Usability

Intuitive interface Need for code implementation Data formats allowed and easily of data exporting

Power

Possibility to use advanced tools Assistance for interpretation of results Extension of use at a professional level

Scalability Application for other subjects in the field of industrial engineering Learning

Enhancing the critical thinking Development of transversal competencies (ICT, teamwork, etc.) Possibility of integration and evaluation by competencies at a distance using LMS for e-learning

Access

Free vs. commercial tool Student/academic versions. Campus licenses

Resources Help/support/training tools provided by the developer Free student support resources

Within the learning requirements, critical thinking uses evidence and reasons and strives to overcome individual biases. In this assessment process, one’s attitude, knowledge, and thinking skills are involved [17]. To encourage critical thinking, each student must rely on the data obtained by the tools used to draw their own conclusions, but if, in

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addition, the teaching methodology allows to know how the software has come to obtain the results (fundamentals of the methods) [18], the learning will be deeper and more optimal. If the program allows the use of code, this can be an added value for critical thinking because the student can know in detail the process the software is following to calculate the results. Also, it is necessary that the activities planned with the software, as well as the necessary documentation, can be uploaded to the Learning Management System (LMS) and also that a formative evaluation can be carried out using this tool (through forms, online activities, etc.) to measure the acquisition of competencies and contain feedback so that students can learn from their mistakes.

3 Study of Software Alternatives All the requirements mentioned in the last section are qualitatively evaluated for the software that has been analyzed in this work (without generating an exhaustive list of applications that can be used for this purpose since there may be others that have not been considered). The most efficient and compact way to provide the data to the student is in data matrix form [13] and in CSV format, since it is accepted by all evaluated packages, either directly or through easy conversion. Minitab is a well-known software of high interest in the industry. It allows to analyze and harness the power of data to solve tough business challenges from anywhere in the cloud [19]. It is a reference software that can be used for Six Sigma applications [20]. It does not require the use of programming code and allows the student to work on a visual interface. This makes it possible to work with the software without advanced training or programming knowledge. Control charts are easily drawn from the data, which can be exported in CSV. The possibility of performing the calculations in the cloud has potential in the field of education since each student could use the software without having to have it installed on their computer. Minitab allows to automatically calculate the different capability indexes (Cp, Ci, Cs, Cz, Z, etc.) from the exported. CSV data and draws different typologies of control charts simply, and provides additional information for their interpretation that allows to take into account the rules (Western Electric rules) of the control charts and even quickly and visually evaluate the stability of the process directly (without the need to interpret the graphs). SPSS is an IBM software package widely used academically and professionally. It offers a set of features and tools to extract actionable insights from data quickly and documented. Advanced statistical procedures help ensure high accuracy and quality decision-making. SPSS has been widely used for educational tasks [21]. Matlab is a well-known numerical calculation software with a large number of modules and applications. This allows a suitable adaptation to different branches of science and knowledge, including those directly related to quality [13]. Moreover, it is software that is usually used in other courses of engineering degrees and whose learning is useful for the student’s professional life. There are other free/open solutions such as Octave [15] or Scilab [16] that could be used for this work, although with some shortcomings

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due to the lack of specific modules and certain resources. The use of these free alternatives may be an interesting field to explore in institutions where the Matlab license is not available, for example, in centers/countries with low economic resources. Matlab working mode is currently a solution “hybrid”: the code can be used to program different tools, but Matlab also has numerous visual tools for quality applications. As for control charts, it is possible to plot the chart using code, or on the contrary, using SPC functions and tools included in the “Statistical and Machine Learning Toolbox” module to have them calculated automatically [23]. For the capability indexes, Matlab integrates specific functions that allow them to be calculated automatically [24]. However, with the mentioned tools, the ability to configure graphs and provide additional information for industrial applications may be more limited than in Minitab. To know the scope of the different software packages, bibliometric research was carried out using Scopus (Table 2) following two criteria: all fields (criteria 1) and title, keyword and abstract (criteria 2). We studied the proportion of articles that appeared in each subject area among the four that are considered most relevant to see the scope of each software: engineering, materials science, medicine, social sciences, and computer science. The exclusion criterion was applied to calculate the works that were outside these five areas (others). As can be seen in Table 2, the most scientifically applied software package was Matlab, followed by SPSS and, finally, Minitab. Among the works related to Matlab, most were “engineering” to SPSS, most were “medicine”, and finally, to Minitab, most were “engineering”. The two search criteria yielded compatible results in terms of subject areas. Finally, as a limitation, the results only are for academic works so they may not be representative of the industrial and business use of each package. Table 2. Results from the bibliometric research. Columns 1 and 2 are for criteria 1 and 2 respectively. Matlab Works

SPSS

Minitab

1

2

1

2

1

2

462,907

186,083

262,514

95,022

12,944

2,772

Engineering

43.04%

49.03%

7.24%

6.56%

24.24%

39.74%

Material Science

6.55%

6.61%

1.06%

1.16%

10.26%

22.29%

Medicine

3.71%

3.14%

39.41%

59.07%

6.89%

10.80%

Social science

2.66%

2.39%

20.38%

11.30%

5.01%

3.79%

Computer science

28.14%

27.07%

6.37%

5.07%

8.02%

9.47%

Other

15.91%

11.75%

25.54%

16.84%

45.57%

13.91%

The search was not applied to R and Python because they are general programming languages that can be applied to any development context and in different phases and tasks of the research works, which could make the results inconclusive. Although specific software packages are usually used for LSS’s tasks, languages such as R have the advantage over commercial statistical packages, such as Minitab, which

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are free and open [22]. The same argument is valid over Matlab and SPSS. R-based activities are necessarily code-based to perform different types of control graphics [23] (e.g. with the qcc package). Similarly, the Python programming language can also be used to develop code for the calculation of control charts and capacity indices. Although Python is a general programming language, it does allow you to program many tasks and tools related to engineering and LSS and it is nowadays a very used tool for data analysis and other engineering tasks.

4 Discussion and Conclusions In terms of usability, Minitab and SPSS are very simple packages to handle, with simple navigation through the interface and that generate complete and easy-to-interpret reports, including very useful industrial-level decision support tools (especially Minitab). However, R and Python, being programming languages, are not easy to use and require programming knowledge (slower learning curve). In the middle ground would be Matlab which allows both working with code, and also visualization tools in graphical mode. However, this does not reach the level of simplicity that SPSS and Minitab and does not provide the specific tools of Minitab for reporting and decision making. In terms of performance, the Minitab package allows to perform a multitude of analyses as well as other important tools in the field of LSS and allows very advanced customization of the analysis compared to the other applications analyzed (e.g., calculation of capacity indexes for not normally distributed data, different configurations for control charts, etc.). However, since R is a programming language oriented to data science, it also allows very powerful developments adapted to the requirement of the industry. SPSS is not a specific software mainly used for engineering tasks (Table 2) (unlike Matlab and Minitab) but is a complete statistical package that has several statistical tools applicable in all fields of knowledge, also for SPC. Matlab allows advanced developments and the direct calculus of control charts and capability studies and does not have specific decision support tools and does not allow customization of the analysis like Minitab. In terms of scalability, Matlab is scalable to other subjects in the field of engineering (and makes it more suitable for multidisciplinary and project-based learning). The multidisciplinary use of Minitab is more limited but is always oriented to subjects in the field of industrial engineering. On the other hand, R is oriented to data sciences and its use may be more limited in subjects not directly related to statistics or programming. SPSS is a software widely used in research in different scientific fields (Table 2), but not so applied very much in engineering and technological subjects. Finally, Python may be the high-level programming language more widely used in industrial engineering, as well as its direct use, as well as indirect (scripting) through other well-known engineering packages (e.g., Simulia® [24], Ansys®, etc.). In terms of learning, Matlab, R, and Python (unlike Minitab and SPSS) are very useful to develop transversal ICT-related competencies due to the possibility for the student to program his LSS’s own solutions, which is a motivating task and encourages the acquisition of competencies. It also enhances critical thinking because it allows the student to start from the scientific basis to generate a real solution (not just a “keystroke

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solution”). The possibility of carrying out a remote evaluation is possible using any of the software studied because questionnaires or virtual tasks can be generated in any based-on LMS that allows the student to indicate the results and conclusions obtained and to obtain feedback through the same platform. In terms of access, R and Python, are fully accessible and free, which does not happen with the previous packages. These are commercial and require licenses, although they usually have cheaper educational licenses. However, sometimes it can be a major drawback. The information indicated is summarized in Table 3 of suitability for the proposed training activity according to the criteria of the authors of this article. Finally, in terms of resources, Matlab has a very complete help center (Matlab Help) with a lot of documentation, examples, videos, etc. There are spaces for users to openly share their developments and solutions (something very helpful considering the huge community of Matlab® users worldwide). This allows the student, through autonomous work, to search for quality resources by him/herself with ease (this matter is really important, especially for e-learning programs, in which the student will not have the help of the teacher). Minitab also has training resources and very complete support service. This provides very clear and concise information, especially mathematical and statistical methods. However, its use is not as wide as Matlab, and the number of aid resources may be smaller. As for SPSS, IBM also has a very comprehensive documentation center. R and Python, being free resources, unlike the previous packages, do not have corporate help and support websites. However, its use is so widespread and its community so extremely large, that it is possible to find solutions and answers to doubts in different forums and communities of developers, although sometimes, the level and complexity of the solutions can exceed that desired for the proposed teaching activity and not all the information found may be right or accurate. Finally, it should be noted that learning methodologies in the analyzed context should not always be based on a single software, but can be applied to more than one (e.g. [22]) or combined with general spreadsheet applications [13]. Table 3. Non-exhaustive table for evaluation of the different raised criteria ★: poor, ★ ★: good, ★ ★ ★: excellent.

Usability

Matlab

SPSS

Minitab

R

Python

★★

★★★

★★★

★

★

Power

★★

★★

★★★

★★

★★

Scalabiltiy

★★★

★

★★

★

★★

Learning

★★★

★

★

★★

★★

Access

★

★

★

★★★

★★★

Resources

★★★

★★

★★

★★

★★

In conclusion, the authors have designed a workflow for the teaching-learning of process control methodologies with software in the context of LSS, applied to students of industrial engineering compatible with e-learning and b-learning (Fig. 1). From the

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designed workflow, different requirements have been established for the choice of the most appropriate computer package (Table 1). Based on these requirements, each package has been evaluated for the same sets of test data. In conclusion, it cannot be indicated that any software is better, but that each one has some strengths and weaknesses that must be valued by the teaching team in line with the competencies and skills that are intended to be acquired and the resources available in each university.

References 1. Gutierrez, H.: Calidad total y productividad, 3th edn. McGraw-Hill, México D.F, Mexico (2010) 2. James, W., Daniel, J.B.: Toyota: how to root out waste and Pursue perfection. Harv. Bus. Rev. 1996, 1–16 (1996) 3. Ohno, T,: Toyota Production System: Beyond Large Scale Production. Productivity Press, NY, USA, New York (1988) 4. Drew, J.: Journey to Lean: Making Operational Change Stick. Gordonsville, Macmillan, London, UK (2004) 5. Nicolaescu, S., Kifor, C.: Teaching methodology for Design for Six Sigma and Quality techniques – an approach that combines theory and practice. Balkan Region Conf. Eng. Bus. Educ. 2(1), 328–336 (2018) 6. AENOR: UNE-ISO 18404:2017 Métodos cuantitativos para la mejora de procesos Seis Sigma: Competencias del personal clave y de sus organizaciones en relación con la implementación de Lean y de Seis Sigma (2017) 7. González, C., Domingo, R., Sebastian, M: Técnicas de mejora de la calidad. UNED, Madrid, Spain (2008) 8. AENOR: UNE-EN-ISO 22514-1 Statistical methods in process management – Capability and performance – Part 1: General principles and concepts (2014) 9. AENOR: UNE-ISO 7870-2:2017. Control charts – Part 2: Shewhart control charts (2017) 10. Tissir, S., Fezazi, S.E., Cherrafi, A.: Industry 4.0 impact on Lean Manufacturing: Literature Review. In: 2020 IEEE 13th International Colloquium of Logistics and Supply Chain Management (LOGISTIQUA). IEEE, NY, USA (2020) 11. Stojanovic, L., Dinic, M., Stojanovic, N., Stojadinovic, A.: Big-data-driven anomaly detection in industry (4.0): An approach and a case study. In: 2016 IEEE International Conference on Big Data (Big Data). IEEE, NY, USA (2016) 12. Bordel, B., Alcarría, R., Sánchez de Rivera, D., Sánchez, Á.: Enhancing process control in industry 4.0 scenarios using cyber-physical systems. J. Wireless Mobile Netw. Ubiquit. Comput. Depend. Appl. 7, 41–64 (2016) 13. Rodríguez-Martín, M., García-Martín, R., Lorenzo, M.Á., Rodríguez-Gonzálvez, P.: Control charts based on MATLAB statistical and visualization tools as a compatible with e-learning methodology in the context of quality control. In: Ninth International Conference on Technological Ecosystems for Enhancing Multiculturality (TEEM 2021), 26–29 Oct 2021, Barcelona, Spain (2021) 14. Goberment of Spain: Orden CIN/351/2009 de 9 de febrero, por la que se establecen los requisitos para la verificación de los títulos universitarios oficiales que habiliten para el ejercicio de la profesión de Ingeniero Técnico Industrial (2009) 15. Rodríguez-Gonzálvez, P., Rodríguez-Martín, M.: Design of a didactical activity for the analysis of uncertainties in thermography through the use of robust statistics as teacher-oriented approach. Remote Sens. 13(3) 402 (2021)

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16. Rodríguez-Martín, M., Rodríguez-Gonzálvez, P.: Prácticas basadas en Dinámica de Fluidos Computacional. In: Claves para la innovación pedagógica ante los nuevos retos: respuestas en la vanguardia de la práctica educativa, pp. 3061–3068. Octaedro, Madrid, Spain (2020) 17. Halpern, D.: Thought and Knowledge. Psicology Press, New York, USA (2014) 18. Rodríguez-Gonzálvez, P., Rodríguez-Martín, M.: Design of a didactical activity for the analysis of uncertainties in thermography through the use of robust statistics as teacher-oriented approach. Remoter Sens. 13, 402 (2021) 19. MINITAB, Mintab (2021). https://www.minitab.com/en-us/products/minitab/. Accessed 12 May 2022 20. Henderson, G.: Six Sigma Quality Improvement with Minitab, 2nd edn. Wiley, NY, USA (2011) 21. IBM, IBM SPSS. https://www.ibm.com/es-es/products/spss-statistics. Accessed 12 May 2022 22. Kennet, R., Shelemyahu, Z.: Modern Industrial Statistics with applications in R, Minitab and JMP. Wiley, NY, USA (2021) 23. Anhoej, J.: Control Charts with qicharts for R (2021). https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/ qicharts/vignettes/controlcharts.html#control-chart-basics. Accessed 14 May 2022 24. Rodríguez-Martín, M., et al.: Predictive models for the characterization of internal defects in additive materials from active thermography sequences supported by machine learning methods. Sensors 20, 14, 3982 (2020) 25. Wagner, T., Herrmann, C., Thiede, S.: Industry 4.0 impacts on lean production systems. Procedia Cirp 63, 125–131 (2017)

Following Up on the Examination of Accesses to Educational Resources in a Blended Learning Flipped Classroom Controls Course Ana Pavani(B) and Vivian S. Medeiros Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil [email protected] Abstract. This work addresses the accesses to abundant and varied courseware in a Controls Course taught in Blended Learning with flipped classroom. The time spam is the three terms 2021.1, 2021.2 and 2022.1. The course in mandatory in two Engineering curricula. The courseware had respectively 135, 165 and 158 items of different natures and digital formats; many interactive. Results are available as raw data for each students, each courseware item and date/time of access. In this work data are presented in aggregated form so that privacy is respected. The course was taught by the authors – one author in 2021.1, the other author in 2021.2 and jointly in 2022.1 The results have some common characteristics and other that are quite different. Keywords: courseware · accesses · b-learning · flipped classroom

1 Introduction The pandemic has had different impacts on the teaching/learning of Institutions of Higher Education (IHE). This is due to the fact that they had varied levels of use of ICT-Information and Communication Technology tools. This also happened in different areas/departments within institutions – some had been heavy users of ICT supported learning while others had been very traditional. Faculty who were used to ICT supported teaching/learning had an opportunity to enhance their practices; this included offering additional courseware and relying more on communication functions offered by the Maxwell System (www.maxwell.vrac.pucrio.br). This system is an integrated platform hosting a Learning Management System (LMS) [1], an Institutional Repository (IR) [2] and a Service Broker for Remote Labs [3]. This integrated platform is presented and discussed in [4, 5]. Different models for assessing student’s results were implemented too. This work addresses a specific aspect in the Controls and Servomechanisms course at Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro (PUC-Rio). The aspect to be discussed is how students have been using educational resources during the pandemic. This work is divided in 4 sections besides this introduction. Section 2 introduces the course, Sect. 3 presents the resources available and refers to the first set of results in 2020 – first year of the pandemic [6]. Section 4 is devoted to presenting and interpreting usage data that were gathered from the platform and Sect. 5 comments the results. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 F. J. García-Peñalvo and A. García-Holgado (Eds.): TEEM 2022, LNET, pp. 106–115, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0942-1_10

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2 The Controls and Servomechanisms Course The Controls and Servomechanisms course is mandatory in two curricula of the university – Control and Automation Engineering (CAE), and Electrical Engineering (EE). When taught in the Traditional Face-to-face mode, it had 6h/week of lectures plus 2h/week of traditional brick-and-mortar lab activities. According to the Brazilian credit count, the course is a 6 credit course for the lecture part and 2 credit for the laboratory. The option to switch it to this learning mode was to make it closer to the definitions of credit units both in the European Community (http://ec.europa.eu/education/tools/ docs/ects-guide_en.pdf) and the United States (https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ ous/international/usnei/us/credits.doc). This means putting more responsibilities on the students by making them active players in the process. The course had been taught in the Blended Learning (b-learning) mode with flipped classroom for some semesters before returning to Traditional and finally switching back. B-learning follows the definition in page 5 of [7] which is presented in Table 1. Table 1. Prototypical Course Classification – page 5 [7] Proportion of Content Delivered Online

Type of Course

Typical Description

0%

Traditional

(1)

1–29%

Web facilitated

(2)

30–79%

Blended/hybrid

(3)

80+ %

Online

(4)

(1) Course with no online technology used – content is delivered in writing or orally. (2) Course that uses web-based technology to facilitate what is essentially a face-to-face course. May use a course management system (CMS) or web pages to post the syllabus and assignments. (3) Course that blends online and face-to-face delivery. Substantial proportion of the content is delivered online, typically uses online discussions, and typically has a reduced number of face-to-face meetings. (4) A course where most or all of the content is delivered online. Typically has no face-to-face meetings.

Flipped Classroom uses the definition found at The University of Texas at Austin Faculty Innovation Center webpage (https://facultyinnovate.utexas.edu/instructional-str ategies/flipped-classroom). “A flipped class is one that inverts the typical cycle of content acquisition and application so that: • Students gain necessary knowledge before class, and • Instructors guide students to actively and interactively clarify and apply that knowledge during class.” In March 2020, the course was ready to switch back to b-learning with flipped classroom. For this reason, it was very easy to move to remote learning when the university

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decided to do so due to the COVID-19 Pandemic – the synchronous sessions started being held on the Zoom Platform (zoom.us). There was abundant courseware though new materials started being developed and the synchronous sessions were recorded and made available to students. In [6], the characteristics of the use of educational resources in 2020 were addressed. This work is a follow up of [6] so the characteristics of the classes in 2021.1, 2021.2 and 2022.1 must be presented. Table 2 contains the numbers of students and their overall results in the three terms 2021.1, 2021.2 and 2022.2. Table 2. Students in the classes in 2021.1, 2021.2 and 2022.1 Term

Enrolled

Dropped off

Failed

Passed

2021.1

33 (19 EE/14CAE)

6 (18.18%)

0 (0.00%)

27 (81.82%)

2021.2

16 (12EE/4CAE)

3 (18.75%)

2 (12.50%)

11 (68.75%)

2022.1

14 (11 EE/2CAE/1Int)

4 (28.57%)

1 (7.14%)

9 (64.29%)

CAE – Control & Automation Eng; EE – Electrical Engineering; Int – International Student.

Since 2020.1, the course has been taught with 3h/week of synchronous Zoom sessions and the equivalent of 3h/week of individual or group work solving assignments and using the courseware that is available from the platform. The characteristics of the courseware are described in the next section.

3 Available Courseware Courseware started being developed in 1995 when ICT tools were very limited and the speed of the Internet very low. Very little is left from the first items of courseware. But the development has never stopped – faculty, students (both graduate and undergraduate) and technical staff have been working hard all these years. As time went by, ICT tools have been enhanced and the team has grown more experienced. For this reason, the number of items is constantly growing. The repository side of the platform manages all courseware that is classified as ER – Educational Resource. In 2018, an aggregator to facilitate the access to OER – Open Educational Resources was launched. It is named Open Educational Resources @PUC-Rio (www. maxwell.vrac.puc-rio.br/projetosEspeciais/OER/Home.php). Currently, there are 4,144 ER on the platform and 1,432 are in OA – Open Access. The courseware for the Control and Servomechanisms course is made of both OA and restricted items. The items are: texts (classnotes, class annotations, sets of exercises to solve, study guides), interactive objects (hypermedia, simulators, course guide) and software code developed for specific activities (Cmap Tools, MATLAB® and Simulink® ). One very special item is the Course Guide. It is a large hypermedia file that outlines all the topics of the syllabus in the order they are addressed during the school term. It

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presents the main definitions and methods, suggests activities and has 23 short videos (no longer than 15 min) explaining some topics. Every term, the course schedule is defined based on the Course Guide – the use of b-learning with flipped classroom requires the students to study before coming to the synchronous sessions; for each week the topics of the Guide are assigned in the Course Schedule on the platform. This is a very important characteristic of the course that will be mentioned when accesses are presented and analyzed. Table 3 shows the types and numbers of courseware items in the three terms. Table 3. Courseware items in 2021.1, 2021.2 and 2022.1 Type Collection

Online Exercises (220)

Interactive content

Simulators

2021.1

2021.2

2022.1

1

1

1

44

28

46

Online Course Guide

1

1

1

Hypermedia Objects

45

43

46

1

0

1

Video

Presentations

29

28

28

Software

Cmap Tools

1

0

2

MATLAB® /Simulink®

0

15

6

Sets of Presentation Slides

2

8

5

Study Cases and Guides

2

1

2

Sets of Exercises to Solve

3

10

7

Zoom Synchronous Sessions

Text

Class Notes and Annotations TOTAL

6

29

11

135

165

158

In 2020.1 and 2020.2, the total numbers were respectively 106 and 143 [7]. Section 4 presents data on the usage of the courseware. The data were gathered from the platform that manages students and contents in an integrated form. The platform offers many programs that yield data to faculty and administrators.

4 Accesses to Courseware The objective of this section is to present and discuss the way courseware was used by the students in the three terms. The focus is on the Controls and Servomechanisms course. The platform logs all accesses – even to courseware of other courses, to articles, to theses/dissertations, etc. These contents are available because it is an IR too. Data presented and discussed in this section are from accesses of courseware in Table 3; the system filters accesses to courseware of the course or presents all accesses – it is a decision of the user to examine either one or both.

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Access data are presented in statistical numbers – averages and percentages to protect the privacy of information on students. When students’ performances (grades) are addressed, the students are grouped in grade intervals and the averages of both grades and accesses are used. In order to understand the numbers, it is important to mention that the grading system at the university is from 0.0 (zero) to 10.0 (ten), with one decimal place. The minimum passing grade is 5.0. The importance of the Course Guide comes from the fact that the course schedule is based on it. The course schedule is structured on a weekly basis, so it is expected that each student accesses the Guide, at least, once a week. The term has 15 weeks. Another characteristic that must be mentioned is that online sets of exercises are offered for students to solve. They have automatic grading and the average of the grades in such exercises are 20% of the final grade; two exams add 80%. 4.1 Accesses in 2021.1 In 2021.1, six students dropped the course (18.18%) as shown in Table 2. The ones who remained all passed the course and the lowest final grade was 6.2. Table 4 shows average accesses and average grades computed for the 27 students. The intervals in the first column were defined by the students’ grades while the third column is the average of the grades in the interval. Table 4. Accesses to courseware and grades by grade interval in 2021.1 Grade Interval

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

(9)

(10)

9.1 to 10.0

10

9.60

13.60

61.70

24.50

10.40

10.60

0.20

121.70

12.17

8.1 to 9.0

6

8.52

3.50

54.83

13.50

7.83

5.67

0.00

85.33

14.22

7.1 to 8.0

8

7.40

11.90

41.90

12.70

7.40

7.10

0.00

81.30

10.16

6.1 to 7.0

3

6.40

0.67

57.00

9.67

4.67

4.67

0.00

76.67

25.56

(1) Number of students. (2) Average final grade. (3) Average accesses to videos of the Zoom synchronous sessions. (4) Average accesses to courseware in text format – PDF files of class notes, slides of video presentations, sets of problems to solve, etc. (5) Average accesses to the Course Guide. (6) Average accesses to Interactive Simulator Courseware. (7) Average accesses to Interactive Hypermedia Courseware. (8) Average accesses to software. (9) Average accesses to all courseware. (10) Average accesses to all courseware per student.

For this semester, the instructor chose to rely on the interactive simulators available at Maxwell to present and discuss the behavior of dynamic systems, rather than running

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simulations using a numeric software, such as MATLAB® or Scilab. This explains why there was barely any access to software material. Note that the average number of accesses to all courseware was higher for the students with higher grades, showing the importance of the available materials for the learning process. In general, the students referred mostly to the Course Guide and PDF files (class notes, annotations and exercises) as source of material for studying, followed by the videos from the synchronous sessions and the interactive simulators. The final grade for the course is composed of weekly assignments throughout the semester, worth 20% of the grade, and two exams, worth 80% of the grade. The number of average accesses to all materials per students (last column) was fairly similar, but it is interesting to note that the number of average accesses per student is higher for the students with the lower grades. One reason for this behavior is that these students generally received a lower grade at the first exam and had to increase the study workload to get a sufficient grade to pass in the second exam. 4.2 Accesses in 2021.2 In 2021.2, the term started with approximately half the number of students if compared to 2021.1. The percentage of students who dropped off was similar, but two students failed. Table 5 shows average accesses and average grades computed for the 13 students who did not drop off. The meanings of the columns are the same. The grade intervals are different due to the grades that students got. The lowest passing grade was 5.6. The software material was quite different in terms of offer. While in 2021.1 the software recommended to students was only Cmap Tools (https://cmap.ihmc.us/), in 2021.2, 15 pieces of MATLAB®/Simulink® code were offered for students to download and use. Table 5. Accesses to courseware and grades by grade interval in 2021.2 Grade Interval

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

(9)

(10)

8.1 to 9.0

2

8.65

68.50

2.50

5.50

6.00

20.00

189.50

94.75

7.1 to 8.0

3

7.33

19.00

5.0 to 7.0

6

6.28

57.00

81.00

6.67

3.67

7.33

1.67

119.33

39.78

100.50

6.33

6.67

6.67

20.67

197.83

32.97

#TEST_C=EXCELENTE SI #FOROS_C=EXCELENTE --> #REC_C=EXCELENTE SI #TEST_C=EXCELENTE --> #REC_C=EXCELENTE MPM20 SI #REC_C=SUSPENSO --> NASSIG=SUSPENSO SI #TEST_C=SUSPENSO y #REC_C=SUSPENSO --> NASSIG=SUSPENSO SI #TEST_C=SUSPENSO y #REC_C=NOTABLE --> NASSIG=NOTABLE SI #FOROS_C=EXCELENTE y #TEST_C=EXCELENTE --> #REC_C=EXCELENTE SI #FOROS_C=EXCELENTE y #TEST_C=NOTABLE --> #REC_C=EXCELENTE SI #FOROS_C=APROBADO --> NASSIG=NOTABLE MPM21 SI #FOROS_C=EXCELENTE --> #REC_C=EXCELENTE SI #TEST_C=EXCELENTE --> #REC_C=EXCELENTE SI #TEST_C=NOTABLE --> #REC_C=EXCELENTE SI #REC_C=SUSPENSO --> NASSIG=SUSPENSO SI #FOROS_C=EXCELENTE y #TEST_C=SUSPENSO --> #REC_C=NOTABLE SI #FOROS_C=SUSPENSO --> #TEST_C=SUSPENSO MPM23 SI #TEST_C=NOTABLE --> #REC_C=NOTABLE SI #TEST_C=NOTABLE --> NASSIG=EXCELENTE SI #FOROS_C=EXCELENTE --> #REC_C=NOTABLE SI #FOROS_C=EXCELENTE y #TEST_C=EXCELENTE --> #REC_C=EXCELENTE SI #REC_C=SUSPENSO --> NASSIG=SUSPENSO SI #TEST_C=EXCELENTE --> #REC_C=EXCELENTE MPM24 SI #FOROS_C=EXCELENTE --> #REC_C=EXCELENTE SI #TEST_C=EXCELENTE --> NASSIG=NOTABLE SI #FOROS_C=SUSPENSO --> #TEST_C=SUSPENSO SI #FOROS_C=APROBADO --> NASSIG=NOTABLE SI #FOROS_C=SUSPENSO --> #TEST_C=SUSPENSO SI #FOROS_C=EXCELENTE y #TEST_C=EXCELENTE --> #REC_C=EXCELENTE MPM33 SI #FOROS_C=SUSPENSO --> NASSIG=NOTABLE SI #FOROS_C=SUSPENSO y #TEST_C=SUSPENSO --> NASSIG=NOTABLE SI #TEST_C=EXCELENTE --> #REC_C=EXCELENTE SI #TEST_C=EXCELENTE --> NASSIG=EXCELENTE

% Suport 11.0 11.0 36.0 9.0 9.0 9.0 31.0 11.0 9.0 45.0 40.0 20.0 9.0 26.0 17.0 13.0 11.0 57.0 22.0 15.0 27.0 31.0 25.0 38.0 9.0 27.0 20.0 25.0 23.0 20.0 20.0

%Confidence Subject Code 100.0 N0004 100.0 84.0 80.0 80.0 80.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 N0430 95.0 94.0 81.0 80.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 N0431 83.0 81.0 100.0 100.0 92.0 87.0 84.0 80.0 N0432 100.0 92.0 90.0 N0434 84.0 83.0 81.0 81.0

N0565

MSCMT Relations detected SI #REC_C=EXCELENTE --> NASSIG=NOTABLE SI #FOROS_C=EXCELENTE y #REC_C=NOTABLE --> NASSIG=APROBADO SI #TEST_C=EXCELENTE y #REC_C=NOTABLE --> NASSIG=APROBADO SI #TEST_C=APROBADO --> NASSIG=APROBADO SI #TEST_C=NOTABLE --> NASSIG=APROBADO SI #REC_C=APROBADO --> NASSIG=APROBADO SI #REC_C=NOTABLE --> NASSIG=APROBADO SI #FOROS_C=SUSPENSO --> #TEST_C=SUSPENSO SI #FOROS_C=SUSPENSO --> NASSIG=APROBADO SI #FOROS_C=EXCELENTE y #REC_C=NOTABLE --> NASSIG=NOTABLE SI #FOROS_C=EXCELENTE y #TEST_C=SUSPENSO --> #REC_C=NOTABLE SI #FOROS_C=EXCELENTE y #TEST_C=SUSPENSO --> NASSIG=NOTABLE SI #FOROS_C=NOTABLE y #TEST_C=SUSPENSO y #REC_C=NOTABLE --> NASSIG=NOTABLE SI #FOROS_C=SUSPENSO --> #TEST_C=SUSPENSO SI #FOROS_C=EXCELENTE --> NASSIG=NOTABLE SI #REC_C=SUSPENSO --> NASSIG=SUSPENSO SI #FOROS_C=SUSPENSO --> #TEST_C=SUSPENSO SI #FOROS_C=APROBADO --> #TEST_C=SUSPENSO SI #FOROS_C=APROBADO --> NASSIG=EXCELENTE SI #FOROS_C=NOTABLE --> #TEST_C=SUSPENSO SI #FOROS_C=APROBADO y #TEST_C=SUSPENSO --> NASSIG=EXCELENTE SI #FOROS_C=EXCELENTE --> #TEST_C=SUSPENSO SI #FOROS_C=SUSPENSO y #REC_C=APROBADO --> NASSIG=EXCELENTE SI #FOROS_C=APROBADO y #REC_C=NOTABLE --> NASSIG=EXCELENTE SI #FOROS_C=SUSPENSO --> #TEST_C=SUSPENSO SI #TEST_C=SUSPENSO y #REC_C=NOTABLE --> NASSIG=NOTABLE SI #FOROS_C=SUSPENSO y #TEST_C=SUSPENSO y #REC_C=NOTABLE --> NASSIG=NOTABLE SI #TEST_C=SUSPENSO y #REC_C=SUSPENSO --> NASSIG=SUSPENSO SI #FOROS_C=APROBADO --> #REC_C=EXCELENTE SI #FOROS_C=NOTABLE --> #REC_C=EXCELENTE SI #TEST_C=EXCELENTE --> #REC_C=EXCELENTE SI #REC_C=APROBADO --> NASSIG=SUSPENSO SI #REC_C=NOTABLE --> NASSIG=NOTABLE SI #FOROS_C=EXCELENTE y #TEST_C=EXCELENTE --> #REC_C=EXCELENTE SI #TEST_C=APROBADO y #REC_C=SUSPENSO --> NASSIG=NOTABLE SI #FOROS_C=SUSPENSO y #TEST_C=SUSPENSO y #REC_C=NOTABLE --> NASSIG=NOTABLE

% Suport 35.0 31.0 22.0 9.0 9.0 9.0 45.0 18.0 18.0 13.0 9.0 9.0 9.0 50.0 18.0 18.0 63.0 13.0 13.0 13.0 13.0 9.0 9.0 9.0 70.0 15.0 15.0 19.0 14.0 14.0 14.0 9.0 9.0 9.0 9.0 9.0

675 %Confidence 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 90.0 80.0 80.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 91.0 80.0 80.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 77.0 75.0 75.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Fig. 1. Trend detection results

6 Results Discussion In the results we distinguish between two large groups of rules, which we will analyse separately due to their nature: • The rules that associate to the final grade. • The rules that indicate relationships that associated to the same completion indicators. We begin the discussion with the rules that indicate association to the final grade (NASSIG). In this case we have looked at: • The rules that associate failed (SUPENSO) NASSIG. • The rules associating NASSIG passed, i.e., any grade equal or higher, with the #REC_C completion. • The rules associating NASSIG passed, i.e., any grade equal or higher, with the #FOROS_C completion. • The relations associating NASSIG passed, i.e., any grade equal or higher, with the #TEST_C completion. In the first case we obtain the results that we can see in the (Table 2). These results show that students who do not visualize, read, or analyse the teaching resources provided did not pass the subjects. This occurs between 9% and 19% depending on the subjects, but we can affirm that they are within a confidence margin of 80% and 100%, which corresponds to very high values. This situation was detected in 5 of the 11 subjects analysed. Specifically, 3 of the MUDP and 2 of the MSCMT.

676

M. Alsina et al. Table 2. Rules with a NASSIG = SUSPENSO

Code

#FOROS_C

#REC_C

#TEST_C

NASSIG

%S

%C

MPM20

SUSPENSO

SUSPENSO

9.0

80.0

MPM21

SUSPENSO

SUSPENSO

9.0

80.0

MPM24

SUSPENSO

SUSPENSO

15.0

100.0

N0431

SUSPENSO

N0565

SUSPENSO

SUSPENSO

SUSPENSO

18.0

80.0

SUSPENSO

19.0

100.0

In the second case, the results are as follows (Table 3): Table 3. Rules with focus on #REC_C Code

#REC_C

#TEST_C

NASSIG

MPM20

NOTABLE

SUSPENSO

NOTABLE

9.0

80.0

N0004

EXCELENTE

NOTABLE

35.0

100.0

N0430

#FOROS_C

EXCELENTE

NOTABLE

N0430

EXCELENTE

N0430

APROBADO

N0430

100.0 100.0

APROBADO

9.0

100.0

APROBADO

45.0

90.0

13.0

100.0

NOTABLE

9.0

100.0

EXCELENTE

9.0

100.0 75.0

NOTABLE

NOTABLE

N0432

APROBADO

NOTABLE

SUSPENSO

31.0 22.0

NOTABLE

N0431

N0565

APROBADO APROBADO

NOTABLE EXCELENTE

N0434

%C

NOTABLE

N0431

N0434

EXCELENTE

%S

SUSPENSO

NOTABLE

SUSPENSO

NOTABLE

15.0

NOTABLE

SUSPENSO

NOTABLE

15.0

75.0

NOTABLE

9.0

100.0

NOTABLE

The situation described by the rules is the opposite of the one discussed in the previous situation. The data indicates that the students who work with the learning resources provided with a completion of more than 50% pass the course (70% < 90%). We found rules that indicate a support between 9% and 45% depending on the subject, but we have a degree of confidence between 75% and 100%, mostly at 100%. We also observed this behavior in subjects that correspond to the MSCMT, in fact, in the 6 that are included in this study compared to only 1 of the 5 that are under study in the MUDP. If we now look at the rules that indicate the #FOROS_C completion (Table 4):

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677

Table 4. Rules with focus on #FOROS_C Code

#FOROS_C

#REC_C

MPM21

APROBADO

NOTABLE

9.0

100.0

MPM33

APROBADO

NOTABLE

9.0

100.0

N0430

EXCELENTE

NOTABLE

APROBADO

31.0

100.0

N0431

EXCELENTE

NOTABLE

N0431

EXCELENTE

N0431

NOTABLE

N0431

EXCELENTE

NOTABLE

18.0

80.0

N0432

APROBADO

EXCELENTE

13.0

100.0

N0432

APROBADO

EXCELENTE

13.0

100.0

N0432

APROBADO

EXCELENTE

9.0

100.0

NOTABLE

#TEST_C

NASSIG

%S

%C

NOTABLE

13.0

100.0

SUSPENSO

NOTABLE

9.0

100.0

SUSPENSO

NOTABLE

9.0

100.0

SUSPENSO NOTABLE

According to these rules we observe that students who have worked on the designed tasks with a completion of 50% or higher (#FOROS_C) obtain good subject results. This situation is supported by 9% to 31% depending on the subject, but the confidence is 100% in 9 of the 10 results and in 5 subjects of the 11 that make up the study. In this case we can see it in 2 of the 5 subjects of the MUDP and in 3 of the 6 of the MSCMT. We can also see how some of the rules additionally support that the students work the resources with a completion of 70% < 90% (#REC_C) and some others indicates the students do not complete the self-assessment tests (#TEST_C). Finally, let us look at the effect of #TEST_C (Table 5): Table 5. Rules with focus on #TEST_C Code

#FOROS_C

#REC_C

#TEST_C

NASSIG

%S

%C

MPM23

NOTABLE

EXCELENTE

11.0

83.0

MPM24

EXCELENTE

NOTABLE

25.0

84.0

MPM33 N0430

EXCELENTE

N0430 N0430 N0565

SUSPENSO

EXCELENTE

EXCELENTE

20.0

81.0

EXCELENTE

APROBADO

22.0

100.0

APROBADO

APROBADO

9.0

100.0

NOTABLE

APROBADO

9.0

100.0

APROBADO

NOTABLE

9.0

100.0

In the case of looking at the rules that indicate NASSIG >50% and that contain completions higher than 50% in the case of tests (#TEST_C), we find a support of between 9% and 25% depending on the subject and a confidence of between 81% and

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100%. In this case, we observed this in 3 of the 5 MUDP subjects and in 2 of the 6 MSCMT subjects. From these rules, and supported by the results of support and confidence, we see a clear relationship with the completion of the activities designed for student learning and academic success (NASSIG) of each subject. If we look at these data by program starting with the MUDP (Table 6): Table 6. MUDP association rules with NASSIG different from SUSPENSO Code

Relations detected

%S

%C

MPM20 SI #TEST_C = SUSPENSO y #REC_C = NOTABLE → NASSIG = NOTABLE

9.0

MPM21 SI #FOROS_C = APROBADO → NASSIG = NOTABLE

9.0 100.0

80.0

MPM23 SI #TEST_C = NOTABLE → NASSIG = EXCELENTE

11.0

83.0

MPM24 SI #TEST_C = EXCELENTE → NASSIG = NOTABLE

25.0

84.0

MPM33 SI #FOROS_C = APROBADO → NASSIG = NOTABLE

9.0 100.0

SI #FOROS_C = SUSPENSO → NASSIG = NOTABLE

25.0

84.0

SI #TEST_C = EXCELENTE → NASSIG = EXCELENTE

20.0

81.0

We observe that in each subject we find one of the previously mentioned rules that associates academic success with some completion indicator: #FORO_C, #REC_C or #TEST_C, but in each one it is different. This tells us that students do not rely on the same learning activities for all subjects. We see the results for the MSCMT (Table 7): Table 7. MSCMT association rules with NASSIG different from SUSPENSO Code

Relations detected

%S

%C

N0004 SI #REC_C = EXCELENTE → NASSIG = NOTABLE

35.0 100.0

N0430 SI #FOROS_C = EXCELENTE y #REC_C = NOTABLE → NASSIG = APROBADO

31.0 100.0

SI #TEST_C = EXCELENTE y #REC_C = NOTABLE → NASSIG = APROBADO

22.0 100.0

SI #TEST_C = APROBADO → NASSIG = APROBADO

9.0 100.0

SI #TEST_C = NOTABLE → NASSIG = APROBADO

9.0 100.0

SI #REC_C = APROBADO → NASSIG = APROBADO

9.0 100.0

SI #REC_C = NOTABLE → NASSIG = APROBADO

45.0

90.0

(continued)

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679

Table 7. (continued) Code

Relations detected

N0431 SI #FOROS_C = EXCELENTE y #REC_C = NOTABLE → NASSIG = NOTABLE SI #FOROS_C = EXCELENTE y #TEST_C = SUSPENSO → NASSIG = NOTABLE SI #FOROS_C = EXCELENTE → NASSIG = NOTABLE N0432 SI #FOROS_C = APROBADO → NASSIG = EXCELENTE

%S

%C

13.0 100.0 9.0 100.0 18.0

80.0

13.0 100.0

SI #FOROS_C = APROBADO y #TEST_C = SUSPENSO → NASSIG = EXCELENTE

13.0 100.0

SI #FOROS_C = SUSPENSO y #REC_C = APROBADO → NASSIG = EXCELENTE

9.0 100.0

SI #FOROS_C = APROBADO y #REC_C = NOTABLE → NASSIG = EXCELENTE

9.0 100.0

N0434 SI #TEST_C = SUSPENSO y #REC_C = NOTABLE → NASSIG = NOTABLE

15.0

75.0

SI #FOROS_C = SUSPENSO y #TEST_C = SUSPENSO y #REC_C 15.0 = NOTABLE → NASSIG = NOTABLE

75.0

N0565 SI #REC_C = NOTABLE → NASSIG = NOTABLE

9.0 100.0

SI #TEST_C = APROBADO y #REC_C = SUSPENSO → NASSIG = NOTABLE

9.0 100.0

SI #FOROS_C = SUSPENSO y #TEST_C = SUSPENSO y #REC_C = NOTABLE → NASSIG = NOTABLE

9.0 100.0

In this case we can state the same observation as in the case of the MUDP but we have many more association rules for 5 of the 6 subjects. We can thus state that students do not work the activities in a uniform way as intended from the design perspective but focus on a part of the activities.

7 Conclusions This study was designed to validate the learning process designed for the SDBL methodology. The results according to the trend detection tool indicate that: • Students who work on the proposed teaching resources (#REC_C) perform the tasks (#FOROS_C) and/or test-assessments (#TEST_C). • Students who work on the proposed teaching resources (#REC_C) pass the assignments (NASSIG APPROVED, NOTABLE or EXCELLENT). • Students who complete the assignments (#FOROS_C) pass the subjects (NASSIG APPROVED, NOTABLE or EXCELLENT). • Students who work on the tests (#TEST_C) pass the subjects (NASSIG PASSED, NOTABLE or EXCELLENT).

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With the available data and its associated analysis, we have not been able to validate that academic success (passing the subject) is better or more likely in those students who follow the proposed path: first, work with learning resources, then solving the task and finally validate what they have learned with the self-assessment tests. We have identified that students focus on some of these points. This situation prompts us to study: • Are there students who focus on certain activities in particular? • Although the methodology is the same for all subjects: a) does it affect how the teacher approaches the design? b) does the type of subject affect the activities that have the greatest impact on student learning? These lines are the ones that mark the follow-up of this study incorporating the identification of the student profile in the analysis. Thus, a future research line would use clustering tools to complement the validation of this study.

References 1. Alsina, M., Canaleta, X., Cubeles, A., Torres, R.: Self Directed Based Learning, una metodología de aprendizaje para programas no presenciales. In: Aprendizaje, pp. 325– 330. Innovación y Cooperación como impulsores del cambio metodológico. Servicio de Publicaciones Universidad, Madrid, Spain (2019) 2. Merriam, S.B.: Andragogy and self-directed learning: pillars of adult learning theory. New Dir. Adult Contin. Educ. 2001, 3 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1002/ace.3 3. Cercone, K.: Characteristics of adult learners with implications for online learning design, vol. 23 (2008) 4. Joseph, K.: Constructivism & the Cognitive Apprenticeship Model: 11 5. Lefoe, G.: Creating Constructivist Learning Environments on the Web: The Challenge in Higher Education, vol. 12 (1998) 6. Silén, C., Uhlin, L.: Self-directed learning – a learning issue for students and faculty! Teach. High Educ. 13, 461–475 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1080/13562510802169756 7. Alyahyan, E., Dü¸stegör, D.: Predicting academic success in higher education: literature review and best practices. Int. J. Educ. Technol. High. Educ. 17(1), 1–21 (2020). https://doi.org/10. 1186/s41239-020-0177-7 8. Kappe, R., van der Flier, H.: Predicting academic success in higher education: what’s more important than being smart? Eur. J. Psychol. Educ. 27, 605–619 (2012). https://doi.org/10. 1007/s10212-011-0099-9 9. Broadbent, J., Poon, W.L.: Self-regulated learning strategies & academic achievement in online higher education learning environments: a systematic review. Internet High Educ. 27, 1–13 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2015.04.007 10. McKenzie, K., Schweitzer, R.: Who Succeeds at University? Factors predicting academic performance in first year Australian university students. High Educ. Res. Dev. 20, 21–33 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1080/07924360120043621 11. Komarraju, M., Karau, S.J., Schmeck, R.R., Avdic, A.: The big five personality traits, learning styles, and academic achievement. Pers. Individ. Differ. 51, 472–477 (2011). https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.paid.2011.04.019

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12. Siddiquei, N.L., Khalid, D.R.: The relationship between personality traits, learning styles and academic performance of E-Learners. Open Prax 10, 249 (2018). https://doi.org/10.5944/ope npraxis.10.3.870 13. Macfadyen, L.P., Dawson, S.: Mining LMS data to develop an “early warning system” for educators: a proof of concept. Comput Educ 54, 588–599 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1016/j. compedu.2009.09.008 14. Canaleta, X., Solé, X., Salle, L.: Extracción de Conocimiento Original de los Alumnos, vol. 13 (1998) 15. Romero, C., Ventura, S.: Educational data mining and learning analytics: An updated survey. WIREs Data Min. Knowl. Discov. 10 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/widm.1355 16. Romero, C., Ventura, S.: Educational data mining: a review of the state of the art. IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern. Part C Appl. Rev. 40, 601–618 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1109/TSMCC. 2010.2053532 17. Halde, R.R.: Application of machine learning algorithms for betterment in education system. In: 2016 International Conference on Automatic Control and Dynamic Optimization Techniques (ICACDOT), pp. 1110–1114. IEEE, Pune (2016) 18. Frank, E., et al.: Weka-a machine learning workbench for data mining. In: Maimon, O., Rokach, L. (eds.) Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery Handbook, pp. 1269–1277. Springer, Boston (2009) 19. Holmes, G., Donkin, A., Witten, I.H.: WEKA: a machine learning workbench. In: Proceedings of ANZIIS ‘94 - Australian New Zealnd Intelligent Information Systems Conference pp. 357– 361. IEEE, Brisbane (1994) 20. Crivei, L.M., Czibula, G., Ciubotariu, G., Dindelegan, M.: Unsupervised learning based mining of academic data sets for students’ performance analysis. In: 2020 IEEE 14th International Symposium on Applied Computational Intelligence and Informatics (SACI), pp. 000011–000016. IEEE, Timisoara (2020) 21. Hung, H.-C., Liu, I.-F., Liang, C.-T., Su, Y.-S.: Applying educational data mining to explore students’ learning patterns in the flipped learning approach for coding education. Symmetry 12, 213 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3390/sym12020213

TEmaps for Designing Courses Based on Smart Learning Alberto Real-Fernández(B) , Rafael Molina-Carmona , and Faraón Llorens-Largo University of Alicante, Alicante, Spain {alberto.real,rmolina,faraon.llorens}@ua.es

Abstract. A TEmap (Technological Ecosystem Map) is a polygonal representation, illustrated as a heat map, of the main elements of a technological ecosystem, a powerful tool to analyse it and detect its strengths and weaknesses. We aim to use this kind of tool to design a course in a platform based on smart learning. Concretely, it is based on CALM (Customized Adaptive Learning Model), an adaptive and personalized learning model, so that it analyses the features of each learner in order to individually adapt the learning process and personalized the learning experience to them. The model also includes a platform in which courses from different fields and purposes can be created. In these courses, teachers are those in charge of designing the whole learning content and structure, deciding how they apply the features the model provides. Therefore, the aim of this paper is using a TEmap to evaluate the features of a CALM-based course. Keywords: learning model · adaptive learning · personalized model · technological ecosystem

1 Introduction When designing a course inside a learning platform there are different aspects to consider, mainly those involving the learning model it is based on, such as how the learning content is displayed, how the students interact with it and acquire it, how the learning process works, and so on. This design will establish how the course implements the features of the learning model, since some of them could not be completely fulfilled. So it is important to know the learning model and analyse how our design of the course have fulfilled its features, what can be a crucial part and sometimes difficult to achieve. That is why we propose the use of a TEmap (Technological Ecosystem map), a representation tool that could be very useful to analyse a course design according to a learning model. Concretely, in this research we propose an specific learning model called CALM (Customized Adaptive Learning Model), that we will further describe in the next section [1]. Therefore, the objective of this research is using a TEmap to evaluate the design of a course in a learning platform based on CALM, to analyse the main features of the model and how the course fulfilled them. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 F. J. García-Peñalvo and A. García-Holgado (Eds.): TEEM 2022, LNET, pp. 682–689, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0942-1_71

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2 Background 2.1 Personalized and Adaptive Learning Model As we mentioned before, the model we propose for our objective is a personalized and adaptive learning model, called CALM [1]. The concept of adaptive learning consists of improving the learning process by means of a continuous flow of lessons and activities that are adapted to the needs and characteristics of each learner [2]. On the other hand, the concept of personalized learning is based on configuring the content for each individual learner, giving them the option to choose their own learning path. It is based on active learning, because it is important to give the learner an active role in his or her own learning process; persistent, so that the concepts learned are not forgotten, and the learners are able to continue learning new concepts that are yet to come; and autonomous, so that the learning process does not depend on constant face-to-face supervision, but partially, so that the results can be evaluated and analysed dynamically for each learner, and also for the teacher [3]. Because CALM gives a key role to the teacher in the learning process, who will be not only the creator of all the content, but also who will analyse and supervise the process of each learner, being able to manage it if necessary. It is a model that makes it possible to meet the learning needs detected in the digital society, without neglecting the intentional objectives of teaching, making use of the potential of current technologies, and it is focused on the need to improve student motivation, whose importance and influence is key in the learning process [4]. In order to achieve these objectives, CALM is based on two main concepts: learning competences, the knowledge and skills the learner will be acquiring along the learning process, and activities, the tasks they will resolve to develop one or more competences [1]. These competences are displayed forming a directed graph, called competence map, in which they are connected between them creating dependencies, that will form different learning paths to follow, as we can see in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Example of a competence map with some progress made, as we can see in the first two competences.

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Therefore, each competence has an associated score, called competence force, that will increase as the learner completes activities. At the beginning, all competences are locked except for the initial ones, so that the leaner should do activities in order to unlock the relations and progress in the map. These activities are given to the learner dynamically when they select any available competence of their own choice. 2.2 Platform Based on CALM, a learning platform has been developed, which implements the before mentioned features, towards an open, collaborative, flexible and scalable system. It started as a pilot platform which was used and validated in two different courses [5]. Then, in 2021, the Ministry of Universities, within the so-called UniDigital Plan, grants the University of Alicante a subsidy for the digitization, among others, of learning. The UA decides to incorporate into its digital education ecosystem the CALM model, through the Adaptive Learning Platform with an institutional project for the entire University, and offer it to the rest of the Spanish University System. In this context, four other Spanish universities have joined the Project for its collaborative development, under the coordination of the University of Alicante: the Polytechnic University of Valencia (UPV), the University of Valencia (UV), the Jaume I University (UJI) and the University of Distance Education (UNED). The objective of this project is to fully develop a learning system, based on CALM model, in order to implement a platform for courses and careers in these universities, advocating the digital transformation that we have highlighted in this research. 2.3 Principles From the features explained of CALM and its theorical basis, we define four main principles to be analysed and then exposed in the TEmaps, as we will further explain: • Active: the concept of active learning states that learning is developed by completing activities (tasks), in which also the learner has control of its own learning process. Besides, Merrill proposes the principle of activation as one of its instructional principles [6], according to which learning must be based on applying the previously acquired experience in the new skills or knowledge that is being developed. • Autonomy: one of the main focuses of CALM, related with the concept of active learning, is to give the learners a complete autonomy of its own learning process, by choosing their learning paths and pace. • Adaptive: the base of CALM, as we mentioned before, that consists on dynamically adapting the learning activities given to a learner according to their individual characteristics and state. • Supervision: as we mentioned, the teacher will be the supervisor of the learning process, which we consider crucial, since it is important to rely this task on an expert, not only on an autonomous system.

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2.4 TEmaps From the explained model and the implemented platform based on it, we want to analyse a way to evaluate the design of a course builded in the platform, based on the principles exposed previously and features the platform presents to implement them. To do so we propose the use of a Technological Ecosystem Map (TEMap), that according to its creators is “a polygonal representation of the main elements of a technological ecosystem. It is a powerful tool that have the following main objectives” [8]: • Providing a systematic way to structure the components of the technological ecosystem of the organization. • Evaluating the technological ecosystem of the organization. • Identifying the aspects to improve in the technological ecosystem. It is divided into three sections: facets, that are the principles represented in the ecosystem; levels, the levels of abstraction from which the analysis of the ecosystem will be made; and components, the specific aspects that are affected by it. These concepts are illustrated in Fig. 2, that show how a TEmap is represented. In this way, we could say that each component studied at a concrete facet and from a concrete level, is evaluated according to a maturity level. Each level represents how the element of the ecosystem has fulfilled an objective, and is reflected by a colour, similar as a heat map, so that besides its pyramidal structure it gives a visual representation of the ecosystem’s state.

Fig. 2. Representation of a TEmap [8].

3 Design of the TEmap We have now explained the learning model we propose, the platform that implements it and the concept of TEmap, being the objective of this research to analyse using a TEmap

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how a course can be created in the proposed platform and how it fulfils the principles of the model. To do so we define below the facets, the levels and the components of the TEmaps based on CALM model. 3.1 Defining the Facets First of all, the facets of this TEmap will correspond to the principles defined on CALM, since they are the principles we want to represent: • • • •

Active: one of the concepts the model is based on is active learning. Autonomy: the model provides the learner autonomy in their own process. Adaptive: it is an adaptive learning model. Supervision: the teacher is the supervisor of the learning process.

3.2 Defining the Levels For the levels of the TEmap, we propose four levels of abstraction in order to define the main principles: • • • •

Theoretical level: the principles our model is based on. Model level: the features defined by the model to implement the principles. Platform level: the elements the platform presents to implement the objectives. Course level: how the teacher applies those features in a concrete course.

3.3 Defining the Components Now, for each principle, we define different concrete aspects that define them in every corresponding level. In this research, for length limitations and simplicity, we have exposed only a principle, as we see below. For the rest of them, the same process would be carried out. Theoretical Level In this case, we will focus on the principle Autonomy. The aim of this principle, as we mentioned before, is to give the learner autonomy in their own learning process, so let us analyse how it is achieved in each abstraction level. Model Level In CALM, the autonomy is given to the learner by different means: • Learning paths: the competence map offers different paths to choose in the learning process, and it is the learner who decides which one or ones to follow at any time. • Real-time learning progress: the activities provided to the learners give immediate feedback, so they can know their result obtained after doing an activity, and so the updated score for the corresponding competences. These allows the learner setting their own learning pace and know their learning process state at any time.

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• Competence logic: when the force of a competence reaches a concrete value, some relations can be automatically unlocked, depending on a threshold associated to each of them, and so the adjacent competence will also be unlocked.

Platform Level From the features explained before, let us see how the developed platform implements them: • Directed graph: the competence map is a directed graph, represented by a chart library that creates nodes representing the competences and edges that connect them, representing the dependency relations. • Real-time learning progress: the activities compute their own results and feedback, displaying it when a learner completes any of them. • Competence automatically updated: the force of the competence is automatically updated, and so the availability of each competence.

Course Level Then, when a teacher creates a course in the platform, they can apply the features of the platform in different ways, depending on the design they make: • Competence map design: the teacher will create all the competences of the course and design the competence map as they prefer. Although the main idea is to create multiple paths to let the learners choose, they can make different design models. This could be from a simple one with a lineal design to one with multiple paths to follow. • Real-time learning progress: this will depend on the activities they create. The activities of the model should have a minimum unit of content and be able to give immediate feedback. • Competence logic: the competences of the map will be unlocked when their corresponding connection threshold is reached, but there is an option for the teacher to set a temporal restriction to them. Although it is not the desired aim of the model, there could be some cases in which the teacher has concrete needs for their course and requires that some competences are not unlocked until a concrete time period has elapsed.

4 Discussion Now, in this section, let us see how the TEmap is used to evaluate the design of a course. We have defined the elements used (components) to implement the aimed principles (facets) in each abstraction level. Concretely, we have focused on the principle Autonomy, so that only a face of the TEmap will be represented. There are a total of four rows, one per each abstraction level in the order mentioned (theoretical, model, platform and course), divided in sections that represent each component.

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Then, the maturity levels will represent how the element has fulfilled the objective, that is the level each feature has been implemented. It will depend on the different aspects the teacher applies and how they do it. For example, regarding “Competence map design” on Course Level, here the teacher could create a competence map in multiple ways. It could be from a lineal graph with an only learning path, in which the maturity level would be the minimum; to a complex graph with multiple paths to follow, in which the maturity level would be higher. In Fig. 3 we can see an example of design for a course, in which the teacher has set a more lineal competence map and restrictions to some of the competences.

Fig. 3. A face of a TEmap created for a concrete course, corresponding to principle Autonomy.

5 Conclusions In this research we have exposed the importance of analysing the learning principles we want to fulfil when designing a course in a learning platform, knowing the features the model presents and how they are achieved, in this case a concrete learning model called CALM. To do so we have proposed the use of a TEmap, what we consider it has been useful for this task. With this tool we have been able to identify and describe the learning principles the model follows, and it achieves them, using different abstraction levels: the model itself, the platform that implements the model and the design of the course we want to create. In this process, we have detected, using different maturity levels, how each aspect has been fulfilled, what provides an interesting and useful vision of the state of the course design for each principle.

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In this case we have displayed only one of the four principles exposed, so we would like to go further and do the same study for the rest of them, what would give us a whole vision of a course design based on CALM and the platform that implements it. Acknowledgements. This work has been developed with the support of the project “Artificial Intelligence-based activity selection engine for a Smart Learning platform” funded by the University of Alicante through its Grants for Research Projects 2020 (GRE20-17-C).

References 1. Real-Fernández, A.: CALM: un modelo de aprendizaje adaptativo y personalizado. Tesis Doctoral. Universidad de Alicante (2022) 2. Vesin, B., Mangaroska, K., Giannakos, M.: Learning in smart environments: user-centered design and analytics of an adaptive learning system. Smart Learn. Environ. 5(1), 1–21 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561-018-0071-0 3. Llorens-Largo, F., Gallego-Durán, F.J., Villagrá-Arnedo, C., et al.: Gamification of the learning process: lessons learned. IEEE: Revista Iberoamericana de Tecnologías del Aprendizaje 11, 227–234 (2016) 4. OECD: 21st-Century Readers: Developing Literacy Skills in a Digital World. OECD Publishing, Paris (2021) 5. Real-Fernandez, A., Molina-Carmona, R., Llorens-Largo, F.: How suitable is for learners an autonomous, interactive and dynamic learning model? In: 2021 World Engineering Education Forum/Global Engineering Deans Council (WEEF/GEDC), pp. 617–623. IEEE, Madrid, Spain (2021) 6. Merrill, M.D.: First principles of instruction. Education Tech. Research Dev. 50, 43–59 (2002) 7. Llorens, F., Molina-Carmona, R., Rosique, P., Satorre, R.: Technological ecosystem for open education. Smart Digital Futures 262, 706–715 (2014). https://doi.org/10.3233/978-1-61499405-3-706 8. Molina-Carmona, R., Compañ Rosique, P., Satorre-Cuerda, R., et al.: Technological ecosystem maps for IT governance: application to a higher education institution. In: García-Peñalvo, F.J., García-Holgado, A. (eds.) Open Source Solutions for Knowledge Management and Technological Ecosystems, pp. 50–80. IGI Global, Hershey, PA (2017)

Identifying Demotivation Patterns in Students of Subjects Related to Data Science at College Alejandro Rabasa1 , Kristina Polotskaya1 , Agustín Pérez-Martín1 Nuria Mollá2(B) , and Patricia Compañ3

,

1 Miguel Hernandez University of Elche, Elche, Spain

{a.rabasa,k.polotskaya,agustin.perez}@umh.es

2 Teralco Solutions Ltd. and Miguel Hernandez University of Elche, Elche, Spain

[email protected]

3 University of Alicante, Alicante, Spain

[email protected]

Abstract. Early detection of demotivation patterns is a key tool that could allow the design of educational strategies to reduce it. These patterns may vary depending on the socio-economic factors of the students, their careers and the subjects of study in each case. Therefore, the large amount of input information justifies the use of Machine Learning techniques to generate predictive models to manage this issue. This article presents the case study of Data Science subjects in careers of two different universities. The computational experiments are carried out surveying 168 students from a total of 21 courses, belonging to 13 different university degree programmes, assigned to different faculties or schools of two universities. The paper presents some of the most relevant demotivation patterns and a battery of proposals to reduce it. Keywords: patterns · data science · education · motivation · smart learning

1 Introduction and Objectives Regarding the monitorization and early student performance alerts, there are many contributions to the state of the art, in which analytical techniques of all kinds are used. Some authors [1] propose comparisons of different Machine Learning techniques (Naive Bayes, Decision Trees, SVM, etc.) to predict the evolution of students under different circumstances. Gamification techniques have even been successfully employed in the analysis and subsequent decision-making in learning processes [2]. The variety of predictive techniques used in the field of student performance monitoring is so wide that reviews such as [3] are essential. This work highlights the importance of models to obtain useful information to help in the planning of teaching. Forecasting examples can also be found in the literature, predicting the enrolment [4] or the performance of the students [5, 6]. Obviously, the use of different techniques leads to different model accuracies. Studies, such as [7], offer systematic comparisons of the accuracies achievable in each © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 F. J. García-Peñalvo and A. García-Holgado (Eds.): TEEM 2022, LNET, pp. 690–698, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0942-1_72

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case. The target variables vary from one study to another. Although it is common to measure student performance, there are other focuses of interest in the predictive models. Thus, for example [8] or [9] are oriented towards dropout prediction, as is [10], the first of these focusing on the field of primary education, the second on higher education, and the third on university education. From a more technological point of view, there has recently been a proliferation in the development of tools for monitoring the evolution of students, such as those described in [11, 12]. There are also works with a very solid approach that analyse the metrics of the teaching-learning process, focusing on certain classical disciplines, on which the whole pilot experience is carried out. This is the case with [13] and [14] in medicine, [15– 17] in mathematics, or [18] and [19] in engineering. In this work, we propose a study of methodologies and performance in the educational sphere. One of the subjects that seem to be positioned as the best candidate, is Data Science. Due to the importance of dealing with increasingly large, unstructured and noisy volumes of data, Data Science has raised as a specific discipline, in both the professional and academic fields. In the latter, Data Science includes subjects and courses in most degree programmes currently taught, with different levels of specialisation [19]. The transversality of this discipline and its different orientation leads us to suspect that learning patterns, performance and motivation, might be different in each case. To study this issue and apply the mentioned techniques, the authors propose a survey aimed at university students to collect certain socio-demographic data from the students, their basic performance parameters in the subjects and the explicit characteristics of the subject itself. The aim is to predict whether motivation may decline at some point, maintain during the course, or increase. This work aims to stablish advance knowledge of the patterns that lead to a fall in motivation, to help teachers to prevent and solve this problem. The early detection of student demotivation and the extraction of its patterns could allow educational strategies to adapt to each individual and correct the demotivational tendence of a student. This could be understood as a way of improving the educational system using machine learning and specifically, smart learning techniques in Data Science subjects. To study this, a variety of experiments will be conducted at the Miguel Hernández University of Elche and the University of Alicante. The two universities are geographically close and have a proven track record in the subject in question. For this purpose, dimensionality reduction techniques will be applied and the extraction of patterns on different variables. In this study, the authors set out to achieve the following objectives: • Study which are the characteristics of students and subjects that have the greatest influence on the change in their motivation. • The authors also intend to extract motivation and to generate models capable of predicting change in student motivation (positive or negative). • Finally, the authors will make a proposal aimed at improving student motivation in the form of recommendations and possible action that could potentially help to improve their performance in each case.

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2 Design of the Study 2.1 Phases Firstly, the authors consider the selection of the subjects to be surveyed, ensuring that the courses from both universities come from different schools or types of faculties (social or scientific). The next step is to design the surveys, trying to ensure that they are quick to answer and unambiguous. Authors try to include aspects directly related to the student’s perception of the subject. In this sense, a total of 167 completed survey forms are collected. The data must be duly pre-processed, discretising some values and imputing new variables of interest for the subsequent analysis. This analysis includes a description of how the study variables are distributed, the automatic selection of the most important attributes for predicting the evolution of motivation and the extraction of the most relevant patterns with classification trees that model the increase or loss of interest in the subject. Based on the analytical results obtained, the authors will propose a series of measures intended to improve the learning process for this subject based on the characteristics of the courses and the main performance patterns of their students. 2.2 Analysed Courses and Data To achieve the most transversal approach possible, the authors propose to survey students from a total of 21 courses, belonging to 13 different university degree programmes, assigned to different faculties or schools of the two universities involved in the study. In turn, each course has been classified as science (sci, with a greater scientific and technological focus, 15 of them) or as social sciences (soc, with a greater focus on management and business disciplines, the remaining 6). The courses are divided into different levels. Thus, there are 7 courses in the first year, 3 in the second, 7 in the third and 3 in the fourth. There is one course in a fifth year that is part of a joint honours programme. This has been treated as a final year course. The 21 courses are characterised according to a defined level of difficulty of the software used for practical use, where two levels can be distinguished, 1: Office automation (Excel, Access…) with 7 courses and 2: Programming environments (R, Python, WEKA, SQL…) with 14 courses. The courses are distributed between 16 for University A, and 5 for University B. This approach makes the study easily replicable in new waves of surveys over future years, as well as scalable to other courses for other degrees and universities. The dataset for this study is made up of both the questionnaire provided to the students of the proposed courses, and certain variables calculated based on the original ones. Variables from general information about the courses, which appear in their syllabi, have also been added. The survey has made it possible to collect demographic data, as well as other data deemed to be relevant such as initial motivation before taking the course, motivation after taking it and the level of its perceived difficulty. Students are also asked about their user-level experience and their experience in data handling in general. Both characteristics end up shaping their experience in technology, which is presumed to be important in the scope of this study.

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Therefore, from among the information about the courses, the data collected from the surveys and the imputed variables, and after subjecting them to the pre-processing that has allowed the summary variables to be discretised and imputed, the dataset to be analysed is made up of: • Quantitative variables such as: data_exprnce, user_exprnce, theory_dificulties, practice_dificulties, initial_motiv, final_motiv (all ranged between 0 and 5) tech_exprnce (scale between 0 and 10), age or dif_motiv (calculated with final_motiv and initial_motiv). • Qualitative variables such as: gender, university, degree, subject, final_mark (with categories “No show”, “0–4,9”, “5,0–6,9”, “7,0–8,9”, “9,0–10”, “With honors”), repeat_subject, working, academ_ext_support, economic_ext_support, age_d, degree_type, dif_motiv_d (“+”, “−” or “0”)

3 Data Analysis Firstly, the distributions followed by certain relevant variables are shown, and then, having set the imputed variable motivation difference as the target variable, two types of analytical models are parametrised and launched: patterns (apriori algorithm) and classification trees (Classification And Regression Trees algorithm, CART). For the analyses in this section, the R software version 4.1.3 (2022-03-10) was used. • Selection of the most relevant elements To obtain accurate predictive models and patterns, we can use those variables that have a real influence on the target variable. Therefore, on the differential target variable of motivation, that dataset is subjected to a ranking process of explanatory attributes to determine which are most closely related to this consequent. In this case, the information gain criterion is used. The variable with the greatest influence on student motivation is the subject, followed by the final_mark. The first variable to reduce its importance to less than half of the two most important variables, is university, which is, according to the ranking, the sixth most important. After this one (included in the analysis), the weights of the variables are practically residual, tending towards zero. After a complete study, considering all the inputs, this ranking will be used by the authors to generate the analytical models, with the five most influential variables: subject, final_mark, degree, gender, economic_ext_support (Fig. 1). • Classification Trees The classification trees are generated using the Classification And Regression Trees algorithm (CART) [20]. The trees predict which of the three types of motivational change will occur in certain situations. Three possible values of this target variable are decreasing, constant or growing motivation. Any confidence greater than the random chance (33%) provides valuable information about the student motivation. Initially, classification trees were obtained (with different seeds) using all the variables and leaving it to the

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Fig. 1. Ranking of the most important attributes for modelling motivational change based on information gain criteria.

model’s own heuristics to choose the variables that provide the greatest information gain at each node. Figure 2 shows one of the resulting trees. Each node contains information about the predominant value among the instances contained, the distribution (in %) of the instances corresponding to constant motivation (0), growing motivation (+) and decreasing motivation (−) and the percentage of instances included in that node. Under each node, a condition is placed on one of the explanatory variables. If the condition is met, the tree descends along its left branch, and if it is not met, the tree descends along its right branch. Thus, the root node has a predominantly constant motivation (0) and the software assigns it a greenish tone. Among all the instances, 27% of them correspond to demotivation, 34% (the majority) correspond to constant motivation and 39% correspond to increasing motivation. In the case practice_dificulties >= 4 (very high) occurs, we descend the left branch reaching a node where demotivation predominates (58%). This node contains 29% of the sample. Of these, those who end up failing, the majority (77%) report a clear lack of motivation for the course. At the other branch (the furthest to the right), on certain courses, those students exceeding the conventional marks (the

Fig. 2. Classification tree for motivational change, using all the variables.

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5% “With Honour”) all report a constant motivation, without necessarily being asked about other conditions. Table 1. Accuracies of the experiments with different seeds and number of variables. Experiment

Accuracy (%) all variables

Accuracy (%) with 4 most important variables

#1

37.21

46.51

#2

48.84

44.19

#3

34.88

44.19

#4

32.56

46.51

Average

38.37

45.35

A second set of classification trees were then generated (also with different generating seeds) but this time using only the influential variables indicated by the variable selection ranking method documented above. There is a certain group of courses (DS, REA, STA) in which 83% of the sample expressed increasing motivation. For other courses, it is appropriate to ask for the course mark and segment it successively in order to be able to predict the change in motivation. For the rest of the courses, and between the extreme ranges of marks (from 0 to 4.9 and greater than 9), where 33% of the sample is accumulated, the gender variable is sufficiently discriminating, with men, in 57% of the cases, being clearly demotivated at the end of the course, while 46% of women show a final increase in motivation. The resulting trees using all variables achieve an average accuracy of 38.37%, while after selecting the characteristics, the trees generated with the important variables have an average accuracy of 45.35% (see Table 1). • Most relevant patterns

Fig. 3. Patterns of variation in motivation for the Programming course.

The extraction of the most recurring patterns is achieved by applying the apriori algorithm [21]. Given the high dispersion of the data, the authors propose the extraction of specific patterns for each course. This could help to anticipate increasing student

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demotivation in each course in each degree programme. As an example, Fig. 3 shows the patterns obtained for a specific Programming course. In the first pattern, we can see that the 14% of the students are men with low experience (between 0 and 1.67) and with a motivation between low and medium (from 0 to 3). In these cases, 100% of them (confidence) report a positive difference in motivation from the begging to the end of the course. We also find a significant pattern of 10% of the sample that corresponds to men with the same profile, who also report medium-high practical difficulties, and who, despite this, end up reporting increasing motivation.

4 Interpretation of Results As mentioned above, the heterogeneity of the data when all the courses and degrees are considered simultaneously, leads to generic classification models, where only some branches provide information with sufficient levels of confidence. Having demonstrated the importance of the course in the classification processes, we recommend launching predictive models for each course, where patterns are presented as a solution that is simpler, more precise and easier to interpret. The final mark is presented as a clear influence on student motivation, but it is not easy to discern from the models whether the mark conditions motivation (students with a good mark go on to show more interest) or vice versa (demotivation for the course leads to worse academic results) (see Fig. 2). In any case, it is confirmed that in courses related to Data Science, it is advisable to opt for a teaching strategy whereby students showing better progress are aware of it, and their motivation increases significantly. This will oblige us to decide on special strategies for those with worse partial marks so that they do not become overly demotivated. This fact reinforces that continuous assessment in this type of course should have a significant weight. Students who end up achieving “With Honour” report constant motivation. However, medium and high practical difficulties have a different impact depending on the course and the degree programme in which they are taught. In more technical degrees high practical difficulties do not prevent increasing motivation, while in less technical degree courses, practical difficulties easily lead to demotivation.

5 Conclusions and Proposals From an analytical point of view, it is worth highlighting the increase in the average accuracy that use only the most relevant as explanatory variables (45.35%) compared with those that use all of them (38.37%), which shows the importance of attribute selection in these contexts. On the other hand, it is important to highlight that the patterns presented in this study were obtained from predictive techniques of a discrete nature. However, the small sample size, corresponding to just one year, means that the predictive models are not stable in time. This is a limitation of the study that the authors plan to address by replicating the survey in subsequent years, thereby substantially increasing the cohort of students surveyed. It is also planned to extend the study to data handling/analysis courses at other public universities. The target variable to be modelled was motivational change, but this methodology can be extrapolated to the modelling of other target variables such

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as performance or dropout or learning difficulties in the theoretical or practical part of the course. Motivation is one of the most relevant factors in the learning results [22]. Among the different types of motivation involved in the process, achievement motivation has a strong influence on performance. Students need to be set tasks that involve a challenge and, at the same time, guarantee a certain degree of success. When students perform a task that is appropriate to their abilities, they find themselves in a state of flux in which motivation is at its highest level [23]. If the activity is too difficult, students enter a state of anxiety, while, if it is too easy, they get bored easily. Therefore, to increase motivation, it is essential to propose activities that make the students enter the state of flux as motivation will thus be at its highest level. The state of flux represents the emotional state in which a person is totally absorbed in the activity being performed [24]. During the teaching of the course, it is necessary to try to keep the students in a state of flux by adapting the activities to be performed to the capacity of the students. This also implies having reinforcement of increasing complexity for those students that need it, as well as activities that present a greater challenge for the most advanced students.

References 1. Khor, E.T.: Predictive models with machine learning algorithms to forecast students’ performance. In: INTED2019 Proceedings, pp. 2831–2837 (2019) 2. Llorens-Largo, F., Gallego-Durán, F.J., Villagrá-Arnedo, C.J., Compañ-Rosique, P., SatorreCuerda, R., Molina-Carmona, R.: Gamification of the learning process: lessons learned. IEEE Revista Iberoamericana de Tecnologias del Aprendizaje 11(4), 227–234 (2016) 3. Shahiri, A.M.; Husain, W.; Rashid, N.A.: A review on predicting student’s performance using data mining techniques. Procedia Comput. Sci. 72, 414–422 (2015). ISSN 1877-0509 4. Haris, N., Abdullah, M., Hasim, N., Rahman, F.: A study on students enrollment prediction using data mining, pp. 1–5 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1145/2857546.2857592 5. Villagrá-Arnedo, C., Gallego-Durán, F., Llorens-Largo, F., Satorre-Cuerda, R., CompañRosique, P., Molina-Carmona, R.: Time-dependent performance prediction system for early insight in learning trends (2020) 6. Nicoletti, M.C., Marques, M., Guimaraes, M.P.: A data mining approach for forecasting students’ performance. In: 2018 13th Iberian Conference on Information Systems and Technologies (CISTI), pp. 1–7 (2018). https://doi.org/10.23919/CISTI.2018.8399389 7. Sharma, M., Mavani, M.: Accuracy comparison of predictive algorithms of data mining: application in education sector. In: Unnikrishnan, S., Surve, S., Bhoir, D. (eds.) Advances in Computing, Communication and Control. ICAC3 2011. Communications in Computer and Information Science, vol. 125. Springer, Heidelberg (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3642-18440-6_23 8. Crisol Moya, E., Romero López, M.A.: Inclusive leadership as a strategy to avoid school leaving: opinion of families. Educatio Siglo XXI 38(2), 45–66 (2015) 9. Flores, V., Heras, S., Julian, V.: Comparison of predictive models with balanced classes using the SMOTE method for the forecast of student dropout in higher education. Electronics 11, 457 (2022) 10. Meca, I., Mollá-Campello, N., Rabasa, A.: A new methodology for early warning of critical academic performance, based on discrete predictive models. In: TEEM 2019: Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Technological Ecosystems for Enhancing Multiculturality, pp. 680–685. ACM DL (2019)

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Trends on Communication, Educational Assessment, Sustainable Development, Educational Innovation, Mechatronics and Learning Analytics at TEEM 2022 Ana María Balbín1 , Nídia S. Caetano2 , Miguel Á. Conde3 , Paulo Costa2 , Carlos Felgueiras4 , Ángel Fidalgo-Blanco5 , David Fonseca6 , Adriana Gamazo7 , Alicia García-Holgado7 , Francisco José García-Peñalvo7(B) , José Gonçalves8 , Ángel Hernández-García5 , José Lima8 , Nicolae Nistor9 , Joe O’Hara10 , Susana Olmos-Migueláñez7 , Valeriano Piñeiro-Naval7 , María-Soledad Ramírez-Montoya11 , Patricia Sánchez-Holgado7 , and María Luisa Sein-Echaluce12 1 Pontifical Catholic University of Peru, Lima, Peru

[email protected]

2 University of Porto, Porto, Portugal

[email protected], [email protected] 3 University of Leon, Leon, Spain [email protected] 4 School of Engineering, Porto, Portugal [email protected] 5 Technical University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain {angel.fidalgo,angel.hernandez}@upm.es 6 La Salle, Ramon Llull University, Barcelona, Spain [email protected] 7 Universidad de Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain {adrianagamazo,aliciagh,fgarcia,solmos,vale.naval, patriciasanc}@usal.es 8 Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal {goncalves,jllima}@ipb.pt 9 Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, München, Germany [email protected] 10 DCU Institute of Education, Dublin, Ireland [email protected] 11 Tecnologico de Monterrey, Monterrey, Mexico [email protected] 12 University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain [email protected] https://ror.org/02f40zc51

Abstract. The 10th edition of the Technological Ecosystems for Enhancing Multiculturality (TEEM 2022) brings together researchers and postgraduate students © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 F. J. García-Peñalvo and A. García-Holgado (Eds.): TEEM 2022, LNET, pp. 699–716, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0942-1_73

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1 Communication, Education, and Social Media 1.1 Introduction The links between the areas of communication and education have tremendous specific weight in current research. Both fields have been affected by technology since the internet and social media have caused a great revolution, both in training and in professional activity and research work. However, these ecosystems are constantly evolving since the advancement of technology, and the use of big data is unstoppable, and it is necessary to adapt to it to face its risks. In this context, researchers who develop their studies from a multidisciplinary point of view proliferate, gaining strength in studies on the uses, processes, and effects of the media in education, the understanding of new social realities, or the representation of certain groups. Through the media. The topic “Communication, Education and Social Media” offers a vision of using the media in the educational context to observe and influence society and the possibilities and risks of digitization in communication. Currently, there is a high academic interest in observing the intersections between the areas of communication and education. The study of media effects is one of the main ones since research on narrative persuasion has become a benchmark from the perspective of media psychology. The application of experimental designs makes it possible to explain how and why particular media processes and effects are produced, in addition to verifying how specific narrative strategies can affect the perception or attitude of individuals. See, in this sense, recent works oriented to health [1], the reduction of prejudice towards stigmatized groups [2], or attitudes towards technology [3], among others. Likewise, audiovisual content analysis studies continue to attract the attention of researchers [4], especially in the representation of gender, diversity, and immigration issues, as well as studies of the reception of said content [5, 6]. Meta-research in communication, which provides a transversal view of trends in scientific production in the area (theories, objects of study, or methodologies) [7], also plays a relevant role. As for the most recent lines, they are based on the application of computational methods, taking advantage of the potential of big data. One of the lines that has expanded the most is the study of discourse in social media, especially hate toward vulnerable audiences or the spread of false news [8, 9].

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1.2 Communication Papers in TEEM 2022 “Fact-checking: a journalistic movement yet to be discovered? Audience attitudes and familiarity levels,” by João Pedro Baptista, Anabela Gradim, Marlene Loureiro, and Fábio Ribeiro, from the University of Beira Interior and the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, Portugal. This study aimed to investigate the attitude and perception concerning fact-checking, analyzing the effect of information-consuming practices and the political orientation of the subjects. “Opportunities, Challenges, and Risks of Clickbait in the Scientific Communication,” by Ana Maria Zaharia and Jesús Miguel Flores Vivar from the University Rey Juan Carlos and University Complutense of Madrid, Spain. This paper analyzes the effects of communication that produce in the field of science using Clickbait. The study is based on detecting which linguistic resources of clickbait generate better success and which media incorporates them in its science section to obtain more incredible notoriety to attract readers and encourage them to click on the link on a page. “Signs of culture in computer games: assumption for education,” by Gintare Vaitonyte, Eugenija Valiene, and Dalia Senvaityte from the Vytautas Magnus University of Lithuania. Using semiotics and narratology, and aspects of communication theory, this study focuses on computer games that have specific characteristics of serious games, whose main function is entertainment and where cultural heritage is actualized, to highlight their educational goals. “Women in front of and behind the camera. Analysis of the representation of society in contemporary Spanish cinema,” by David Blanco-Herrero, María Marcos Ramos, and Teresa Martín García from the University of Salamanca, Spain. This investigation confirmed that female characters are far less common than male ones, their narrative objectives are less developed, and they are more frequently sexualized, whereas male characters are more associated with violent behaviors. “Chatbot to Provide Initial Assistance to Erasmus Students in Case of Emergency,” by Roberto Fermín García Mena, Antonio Balderas, Milagros Huerta, Juan Manuel Dodero, and Nestor Mora Nuñez from the University of Cadiz, Spain. This paper proposes a contingency solution for efficient communication with those students and the Erasmus offices based on a chatbot that serves as the first layer of attention to the Erasmus student facing an emergency. “New technologies to quit smoking. Analysis of mobile applications available for iPhone,” by Laura Rodríguez-Contreras and Juan-José Igartua from the University of Salamanca, Spain. This study sets out to examine the content of free Spanishlanguage smoking cessation apps that were distributed through AppStore. Twenty-nine applications that met the selection criteria were included. “Are Intercultural Competencies the Key for International Collaboration?: A Systematic Review”, by Nicia Guillén-Yparrea and Maria-Soledad Ramirez-Montoya from the Tecnologico de Monterrey, México. Through a systematic literature review [10], this paper analyzed scientific evidence from January 2016 to June 2022 from publications available in Scopus and Web of Science databases on developing intercultural and global competencies to incentivize international professional collaboration. “Profiles of smartphone use and consumption in Spanish students of generations Y and Z,” by Diego Ramos Mendez and Felix Ortega Mohedano from the University

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of Salamanca, Spain. This paper analyzes the habits of use and consumption of smartphones among Spanish university students belonging to the generations Y and Z with a quantitative research methodology. “The censorship of nudes on Instagram: the female and male body and its sexualization,” by Maria del Carmen Tomás Jiménez, Patricia Sánchez-Holgado and Maria Elena Rodríguez Benito from the Pontifical University of Salamanca, and the University of Salamanca, Spain. This study analyzes the level of censorship perceived by Instagram users and whether there are differences between the body of women and men in the acceptance of published content. “Age differences through consumption habits and motivations in video games among young Spaniards,” by Eduardo Rodríguez-Barcenilla and Félix Ortega-Mohedano from the University of Salamanca, Spain. This study is based on a survey procedure for completing a questionnaire that aimed to cover the age range of 18 to 30 years and reached 711 valid responses. “Education through organizations with a purpose in social networks,” by Laura Pacheco Barriga, from the Pontifical University of Salamanca, Spain. This paper shows, through the analysis of six cases, that organizations put considerable efforts into teaching society through social networks, making a positive impact on it, and ratifying and reinforcing its purposes as businesses. “Museums and Heritage Education on Instagram: an analysis of the actions of the ‘Museus Conectam’ network,” by Rafaela Silva Thomaz, from Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. This article aims to present the heritage education actions developed by the ‘Museus Conectam’ network (collaboration network between museums located in the city of Porto Alegre, Brazil) on Instagram, discussing the importance of using social media to promote the right to heritage and the memory of the city. “The Association of Internet Use with Subjective Well-Being: An Empirical Study based on CGSS 2017,” by Yurong Yan, Yuying Deng, Juan José Igartua, and Xiagang Song from the Northwest University of Political Science and Law, and the Shihezi University, China and the University of Salamanca, Spain. This paper focuses on Internet usages, such as the frequency of use, range of social interaction, and network centrality, based on the Chinese nationwide data collected in 2017.

2 Educational Assessment and Guidance 2.1 Introduction This year marks the ninth edition of this session aimed at fostering academic conversations around the topic of assessment and guidance in education. Assessment has always been critical to ensuring that any process complies with quality standards and is subjected to a level of accountability. Education is a highly complex field where many actors interact on multiple levels (education system, schools, classrooms, etc.). Therefore, a thorough and well-planned, rigorous, and science-based evaluation is fundamental to ensure quality and provide decision-makers with crucial information to improve education at all levels. For this reason, scientific research grounded in

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the characteristics of current education systems and moves forward the existing knowledge in the field must be fostered and placed at the service of educational innovation and improvement [11]. On the other hand, a comprehensive guidance approach that provides students from all levels with information and support regarding academic, labor, and personal matters has been proven to have several benefits in their cognitive, emotional, and vocational development. Research has proven that planned guidance actions carried u by teachers and guidance counselors that put the students’ needs and interests at the center of the process can significantly improve the quality of education [12], which motivates the inclusion of the topic of guidance within this session. 2.2 Educational Assessment Papers in TEEM 2022 “Application of the CIPP model in the structure of a satisfaction survey for eLearning training activities.” This paper presents the results of an instrument design and validation process. Using the CIPP model as a theoretical starting point, the authors designed a satisfaction survey to assess the results of online training courses in Chile. “Mentoring in educational innovation: systematization in the experience of teachers’ educational experimentation and research.” This paper analyses a mentoring process to support teachers implementing educational innovation projects at the Mexico Tecnologico de Monterrey University. The focus of the research was to determine the main needs of mentees during the process and the main characteristics of the mentoring process. “Student’s awareness of the environment in Mallorca (Spain) on Education for Sustainable Development (ESD).” This paper analyses the level of environmental awareness of secondary education students in a Mallorca (Spain) school. The 40-item instrument the authors used to assess this variable had three main dimensions: knowledge, attitudes, and behavior. “Comparing students’ critical thinking by using the Revised Bloom’s taxonomy in online and face-to-face class formats of organic chemistry.” This paper’s main aim is to compare the levels of critical thinking shown by two groups of university students participating in different learning modalities: face-to-face and online. Both groups were handed a 50-item ad hoc questionnaire to assess the six cognitive processes identified by the revised Bloom’s taxonomy (remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate, and create). “The usefulness of a mobile app in a visual literacy blended learning course for educators.” The authors use an ad-hoc questionnaire to inquire about the usefulness of a mobile app that functioned as a support tool during a blended learning visual literacy course aimed at educators. “Competences of University teaching staff to use new learning and evaluation resources.” The authors address the importance of identifying the conditions for a teaching environment that fosters learning in a scenario of academic uncertainty.

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3 Advances on Sustainable Development in Higher Education 3.1 Introduction In 2015 it was introduced in TEEM conference series, a session devoted to sustainability and related matters. It was then noted the importance of the individual “Sustainability and Social Commitment” and the need to develop teaching and learning tools and approaches that could raise students’ awareness on these topics, making them the professionals of the future with a genuine concern about sustainability issues [13–17]. In this respect, both students and educators (professors) must have active and interconnected roles as the actors of an ongoing movie. Thus, following previous editions of TEEM, this 2022 session aims at continuing the discussion and showing the Advances in Sustainable Development in Higher Education. Recently, Sustainable Development (SD) and its Goals (SDGs) [18] have been on the agenda of nations committed to achieving development without compromising the needs and the availability of resources (be it energy, materials, or water) of future generations [19]. The first step to achieving SD is to empower and build the capacity of the present and future professionals [20], be it through the lifelong learning of active professionals, be it through the inclusion of formal or informal courses that allow the young professionals to gain the required knowledge and understanding of the high multidisciplinarity and diversity of issues that must be taken into consideration and need behavioral adaptation from the stakeholders involved [21]. Thus, an interdisciplinary approach has been advocated to achieve the SDGs [22]. In what concerns behavioral issues, the cultural context of the Middle East was used to assess the relevance of Cairo University in SD competencies promotion [23], and the cultural context of a particular country in Africa and the University of Zambia was used to demonstrate the important role of the intangible or Indigenous knowledge systems, together with the University’s research and community engagement, in fostering sustainable development [24]. Ribeiro et al. [20] recognized that students in Brazil are future leaders who will need to make decisions aiming at sustainable development, having implemented Green Campus Initiatives to promote students’ engagement in the incorporation of sustainability in the university operation. In another research about the Portuguese Higher Education students’ perceptions of SD, Aleixo et al. [25] concluded that only a tiny fraction of this population (8%) included students who still adopt less environmentally friendly practices because they do not believe in climate change. The most considerable fraction (45%) included students whose concern about climate change made them active contributors to SD through 3R practices and participation in organized activities to promote environmental or societal protection. Raising awareness of the SDGs in Higher Education Institutions can be achieved through different kinds of projects, as is the case of the ecological projects described by Manolis and Manoli [26] that aimed at the specific SDGs 3, 4, 6, 7, 12, 13, 14, 15, with good results, as demonstrated by the responses to the corresponding questionnaires. 3.2 Sustainable Development Papers in TEEM 2022 Lopez-Leyva et al. focused on the ISO-50001 framework to formally teach sustainability, more specifically energy resources management, a significant part of sustainability in

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society and companies, especially in the current context of war and energy scarcity. The authors found the existing problem based on international standards not only in academics but also in the labor context. Nieto et al. developed a strategy to include in their classes to design sustainable geothermal systems by analyzing acceptable outcomes. The authors aim to contribute to SD by teaching future energy professionals at the university level. The strategy involves exposing students to negative casuistry and the ways to prevent its occurrence. Sáez Blázquez et al. developed a novel approach aiming at acquiring specific competencies related to energy efficiency in a bachelor’s degree when designing geothermal installations. The authors created a rigorous and straightforward systematic methodology to be used at an educational level to help university students contextualize the theoretical knowledge and better understand and manage future challenges. Sarmento and Felgueiras explored the potential impact of electronic test on CO2 emissions reduction, making it an asset in increasing electronics environment friendliness and reliability. The results of this case study suggested that more thorough tests may be required if more environmentally friendly electronic solutions are demanded, which is the case of higher energy-efficient buildings, vehicles, and appliances. Copinet et al. developed an Insect Farming project aimed at producing insects as a protein source, an alternative to meat that results in the direct emission of greenhouse gases and the indirect contamination of soil and water. The authors concluded that a cultural change is needed before such large-scale facilities could be implemented, as these worms, insects, and bugs are still seen as not pleasant. Schoch et al. explored the potential and criteria of educational instruments to be used in the process of metal selection, aiming to assist students in designing the lowest dissipative loss products. The authors concluded that the potential of future instruments is generally recognized. Ramos-Gavilán et al. presented the results of their teaching innovation project aimed at raising awareness and committing future generations of engineers to SD by acquiring knowledge about the aspects of the UN 2030 Agenda and the importance of STEAM professions in achieving the SDGs. The diagnostic test showed a lack of information concerning SDGs among engineering students, which improved significantly afterward. Silva et al. analyzed the Civil Engineering programs of Portuguese Universities from the point of view of sustainability integration. They concluded that BSc programs show a significant gap in introducing themes/disciplines related to sustainability based on the three fundamental pillars: Society, Environment, and Economy. Some of the MSc programs show a strong focus on sustainability, while others could benefit from further inclusion of education on sustainability-related topics. Huilcapi-Collantes et al. discussed the issues related to Education for Sustainable Development as a provider of all-ages learners with the development of cognitive and non-cognitive skills. A mobile application was used as a core educational resource for this purpose.

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4 Educational Innovation 4.1 Introduction Educational innovation is a process that integrates change and improvement in training and learning processes [27]. Improvements, in turn, are marked by different paths: technologies, methodological renewal, innovative processes, and advances in new da-ta processing models [28]. All paths converge on a single objective: to obtain improvements for students. 4.2 Educational Innovation Papers in TEEM 2022 Different approaches to the design and application of educational innovation have been presented and included in the different papers accepted in the Educational Innovation session of the TEEM 2022 Conference. They address the use of information and communication technologies, virtual approaches, the competencies necessary to apply them in the academic context, and active methodologies such as flipped classrooms and gamification to improve and innovate education. Also, in this session, essential aspects of educational innovation, such as cooperation and teamwork, are addressed. Teachers must incorporate new skills such as digital information processing in their students [29] and, in general, all those associated with managing technologies generating changes in various social, economic, and learning aspects. In this sense, the papers “Analysis, progress and comparative of the European Digital Competence Framework DIGCOMP,” “Digital competence, educational innovation with ICT and Burnout in Tertiary Education Latin American professors,” and “Digital teaching skills to design virtual learning classrooms with the 4PADAFE methodology” presented in this track address the issue of digital competencies, and another critical competence for the development of learning, such as reading skills, as shown in the paper “Enhancing level-and-learner-adequate teaching of reading skills using digital technologies: LATILL project.” On the other hand, some ideas usually sought with educational innovation and its assessment are students’ active participation, satisfaction, and motivation [30]. In this sense, flipped classrooms are one methodology that improves this participation [31, 32]. In this track, we find this methodology in “A tool to analyze the satisfaction impact of the MFT method” and “Perceptions of future teachers experiencing flipped learning as students in a master’s course in Spain.” Likewise, the papers “Gamified Formative Assessment in Local Architectures” and “Gamified Values Education for Fostering Migrant Integration at Schools” present gamification works, another methodology with similar objectives. Personalization of learning [33, 34] (included in the paper “Personalized Flipped Classroom”) is another method being studied in educational innovation to reduce effort and complexity in the learning process. Cooperation is another crucial aspect that educational innovation experiences tend to foster [35, 36], as in the papers “Typology of processes in the shared leadership of academic work teams” and “A model for learning with a focus on social responsibility, problem-solving and collaborative work in higher education.”

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Likewise, educational innovation experiences are increasingly being carried out in virtual environments [37], using information and communication technologies, online content, and processes, and papers “Learning design using mobile technology in visual literacy teacher training”, “Innovative higher education in archaeology through the use of virtual tours”, “Synergies between Geomatics and Biological Sciences for the creation of new virtual materials for teaching Taphonomy”, and “Multi-stakeholder Perspective on the Gap between Existing Realities and New Requirements for Online and Blended Learning: An Exploratory Study” are examples of this. Finally, in educational innovation, the didactic approach [38] (paper “Didactic Strategies in Hybrid and Remote Learning Modalities to Promote Critical Thinking”) and the use of new processes to manage the evidence generated by the interaction of educational agents with technologies, as in the case of the paper “Academic Analytics applied in the study of the relationship between the initial profile of undergraduate students and early drop-out rates. Defining the variables of a predictor instrument,” cannot be overlooked.

5 Mechatronics Engineering Education 5.1 Introduction This session focuses on new trends in mechatronics engineering education, through its several learning stages, from secondary school experiments [39, 40], to the development of industrial applications [41] that require different robustness requisites and inevitably different implementation skills. Mechatronic applications are typical in Automation, Control, and Robotics, being these topics are the focus of the proposed track, although mechatronics is not exclusive to these areas. Educational robotics can play an important role in mechatronics engineering education due to the inherent multi-disciplinary concepts that motivate students to technological areas [42–44]. It also plays an essential role in research and development because it is expected that the outcomes that emerge here will later be transferred to other application areas, such as service robots and manufacturing. Keeping in mind that the cost is always a key indicator [45, 46], in addition to the application performance [47]. Each application has its requirements that must be fulfilled at the lowest possible cost without having a performance compromise. Different methodologies and technologies allow for cost reduction in the development and deployment of mechatronic applications, and these different approaches must be researched and disseminated. 5.2 Mechatronics Engineering Education Papers in TEEM 2022 “Learning mechatronics in the MacGyver way.” This paper describes a pedagogical methodology used at the Polytechnic Institute of Bragança in the mechatronics curricular unit of the master’s degree in Industrial Engineering. Obtained results suggest that, in the vast majority, students adhere end embrace such a challenge with motivation and enthusiasm.

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“Robot development for Educational Purposes: Advances on Real and Simulation Environments.” The authors propose a simulation of an AGV system that uses localization based on mounted cameras for positioning and control by a central system. Also, an actual robot prototype is proposed. The presented results show the developed system in operation. “Towards a more accurate time of flight distance sensor to be applied in a mobile robotics application.” It presents a field-of-view analysis of a time-of-flight sensor that will be applied in a mobile robotics application. The results of this paper will be used as input to a simulation to assist in the development of a mobile robotics application and to be applied in educational contexts. “Automated Ceramics Tableware Finishing: A Laboratory Prototype for Concept Validation.” This paper presents an integration between a finishing device and a collaborative robot to automate the sanding process of the ceramic industry in Portugal. The final system behavior was presented and discussed, which was satisfactory and performed well. The outputs that will emerge here will be applied in a future industrial application, with requisites compatible with the application environment, regarding robustness and repeatability.

6 Those Were the Days! Looking Back at Ten Years of Learning Analytics at TEEM 6.1 Introduction Since its inception, the session on Learning Analytics at the Technological Ecosystems for Enhancing Multiculturality (TEEM) conference [48–56] has aimed to look back at the past (how the field had been developing), the present (where we were that point) and the future (what were the future trends on learning analytics). In the past ten years, we have witnessed and experienced the initial excitement of riding the wave of a whole new discipline, leading to the frenzy of new streams of research. Now, calmly and thoughtfully, we observe how the field matures. This track has always strived to offer a mix of traditional and novel perspectives to establish solid foundations and open new lines and ideas to advance knowledge, but… is that enough? One concern we have raised in recent years is the extreme focus on learning analytics on mathematical methods and algorithms and in the design of learning analytics tools. It is no news that computer science has dominated the field, and we firmly believe that such approaches are necessary for learning analytics to develop further. Systematic literature reviews finally emerge and need to cover all the (multifaceted) aspects of learning analytics. However, it is still necessary and urgent to put back the ‘learning’ in learning analytics and to take the time to make critical assessments of what has been done so far and where we are if we want to know where to go. It becomes clear that learning analytics add new perspectives to the current educational and psychological research and vice versa. With a more robust theoretical underpinning for the analysis of Moodle data logs [57] and the inclusion of the temporal perspectives [58], data become ‘thicker’ (in the sense of thick description [59]), including more data points and longer time segments.

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The samples are also larger, thus allowing perspectives at the national level and across educational institutions [60]. This is not merely “more of a good thing” (as [61] put his hint to dialectics). It may indeed be a quantum transition to a new quality of research. Finally, let us not forget ethics [62] as the access to new knowledge, maybe at the same time the access to new, unknown, or underestimated ethical and moral challenges. Further, the ethical aspects of learning analytics, often neglected in contributions but always discussed in prior editions of the track, need further investigation, especially those related to data privacy, which may lay the ground upon which the ultimate success of learning analytics may be decided. 6.2 Learning Analytics Papers in TEEM 2022 In From variables to states to trajectories (VaSSTra): A method for modeling the longitudinal dynamics of learning and behavior, López-Pernas and Saqr present VaSSTra (Variables to States, states to Sequences, and sequences to Trajectories), a method for the longitudinal analysis of educational data that can be applied at different time scales, from days to weeks or the whole duration of a course. VaSSTra combines life-events methods with sequence analysis and consists of the following steps: conversion from variables to (homogeneous) states, from states to sequences, and from sequences to trajectories (similar grouping sequences in trajectories). A practical case study showcases the application of the method to investigate student engagement across 20 courses. In A revision of LMS interaction classifications for learning analytics, HernándezGarcía, Cuenca-Enrique, Nwachukwu, and Del-Río-Carazo propose a theory-based classification of variables from Moodle data logs to overcome the limitations of machine learning algorithms regarding lack of insight and generalizability of results. The study revises prior interaction data classifications for learning analytics and proposes a new comprehensive categorization based on different learning cycle models, the Learning Cycle Interaction Categories. The classification comprises six categories: engagement, content, knowledge validation (application), knowledge creation (dialogue/sharing), track/review, and learning process management, and it aims to cover the different activities occurring during a typical student session within an LMS. The study also showcases the application of InDash, a Moodle log data categorization, visualization, and analysis application, to exemplify the analysis of Moodle log data from one course. The results suggest that the combination of LCIC and InDash could be valuable for learning analytics but also call for further validation of the LCIC as a helpful tool for learning analytics. In Higher Education from a Learning Analytics Perspective: An Exploration of the Theory Choice in Doctoral Educational Research, Jiang, Nistor, and Stanciu explore theory choice in doctoral educational research to investigate which learning theories doctoral students choose for their educational research, as well as the relationship between theory preference and the university’s research quality. Based on the analysis of 878 doctoral dissertations at 88 U.S. universities and 141 learning theories, the results suggest that doctoral researchers at higher-level universities might prefer classic theories, whereas those at lower-level universities might prefer specialized theories. In Learning Analytics’ privacy in the Fog and Edge Computing: a systematic mapping review, Amo-Filva, Fonseca, García-Peñalvo, Alier-Forment, and Casañ-Guerrero

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make a literature review of learning analytics and data privacy in Fog and Edge computing, which refer to processing data closer to the user within their network and sending anonymized and pre-processed data to the Cloud if additional data aggregation is necessary, respectively. The study reveals increasing interest in the field in recent years, and the authors conclude that using Fog Computing and Edge Computing to solve privacy problems is a domain in emergence in education.

7 Doctoral Consortium 7.1 Introduction The hallmarks of the TEEM Conference are interdisciplinarity, transparency, ethical behavior, open science, and networking, especially involving junior researchers with more established ones. All these are values shared by the Doctoral Programmes, and for this reason, the Doctoral Consortium, since its first edition in 2013, has been one of the main and most lovingly designed sessions [63–71]. After ten editions, we are proud to see how many participants are now established PhDs and return as supervisors of new researchers. This is the great success of the TEEM research community. There is a special link with the Education in the Knowledge Society Ph.D. Programme at the University of Salamanca (Spain) (https://knowledgesociety.usal.es) [72–74], but the TEEM Doctoral Consortium is fully open to any Ph.D. Programme related to the conference topics. 7.2 Contributions to the TEEM 2022 Doctoral Consortium Twenty-two papers have been accepted in the Doctoral Consortium that have been classified into six main categories. The educational governance issues imply developing models and mapping good practices within the context of the digital transformation processes [75, 76]. Two Ph.D. theses are related to this axis “Digital transformation in Higher Education Institutions. Implementation model” and “Get the most out of Erasmus+good practices.” Learning technologies have an interdisciplinary orientation, in which engineering advances must demonstrate not only their technological validity but also a contribution to the improvement of learning, using methods typical of the Social Sciences, such as quantitative and qualitative methods, creating a synergy between Software Engineering and Education. Different subtopics such as gamification and game-based learning (the papers “Design, development and evaluation of a serious game aimed at addressing bullying and cyberbullying with primary school students” and “The Influence of Serious Games and Gamification in University Students of English as a Foreign Language”), digital competence development (the works “Validation and implementation of a training course on digital competence and cybersecurity in the future teachers of the Autonomous Community of the Canary Islands using the escape room technique” and “Data Literacy for the development of Learning Analytics in K-12 environments”), improvement of the musical competence with technologies (the contributions “Research plan and development of the Thesis: Musical preferences in primary education in the

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Nou Llevant/Sud neighborhood of Mallorca” and “Jazz Standards: from the manuscript to multiple possibilities through computation”). The development of social and inclusion social is a very active research field with six contributions: “Indigenous women in higher education in STEM: a case study in Oaxaca,” “Teaching processes concerning the production of TV with Portuguese elderly – from the gratifications obtained by consumption to the expectancies of the production process,” “XR as a forward-looking tool for Mathematics learning of secondary school students with Dyslexia and ADHD: A thesis plan,” “The discourse against the LGTB community in social networks and its relationship with hate crimes in Spain,” “Development of an accompaniment program for women at risk of exclusion after unintended pregnancies” and “The discourse against the LGTB community in social networks and its relationship with hate crimes in Spain.” The assessment procedures with four papers are other important topic in this Doctoral Consortium (“TAM, assessment, and mobile technologies: A study of teachers’ acceptance in Higher Education,” “Methodological approach to the evaluation of scientific journals,” “Assess informal learning, through technology, in science centers or science museums” and “Grading criteria in Technology Subject in Secondary Education within the framework of the LOMLOE”). The Computer Science research has presence with two contributions “Development of algorithms and methods for the simulation and improvement in the quantum natural language processing area” and “Definition of a reference architecture for the integration of Augmented Reality/Virtual Reality techniques in remote experimentation environments.” Finally, the last axis is the Engineering Education issues with two papers “The Maker Movement in Engineering Education: A Partial Literature Review of the research opportunities on competency development” and “Design, development and evaluation of an intervention in terms of teaching/learning practices of Curricular Units of Differential and Integral Calculus in engineering degrees.”

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Communication, Education and Social Media

Fact-Checking: A Journalistic Movement yet to Be Discovered? Audience Attitudes and Familiarity Levels in Portugal João Pedro Baptista1(B) , Anabela Gradim2 and Fábio Ribeiro3,4

, Marlene Loureiro1

,

1 LabCom – Communication and Arts, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, Vila

Real, Portugal [email protected], [email protected] 2 LabCom – Communication and Arts, University of Beira Interior, Covilha, Portugal [email protected] 3 University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal 4 Center for Communication and Society Studies, Universidady of Minho, Braga, Portugal

Abstract. Fact-checking is a very recent journalistic practice in Portugal. This study (n = 618) aimed to investigate the attitude and perception in relation to factchecking, analyzing the effect of information consuming practices and the political orientation of the subjects. Our results show that the majority are supportive and familiar with fact-checking. However, familiarity levels are lower than expected, with 40% of respondents unacquainted with this journalistic practice, and significant skepticism towards the ethics of fact-checkers. Unlike other findings, our results show no effect of political and ideological orientation on favorability and familiarity levels. This study raises relevant points, demonstrating that people might not be as familiar with fact-checking as expected and that there is a great distrust of the rigor and impartiality of fact-checkers, which can be an obstacle to correcting disinformation, while indifference of political/ideological orientation suggests effectiveness across the political spectrum. Keywords: Disinformation · Fact-checking · Fake News · Journalism

1 Introduction Online disinformation became a global threat, both for journalism itself and to democracy, while truth and scientific evidence erode under the massive dissemination of disinformation. In this context, fact-checking acquired greater preponderance, becoming an integral practice of already established news organizations [1]. Commonly used in the USA since the 2000s [2, 3], in the years following it increased significantly throughout the rest of the world. Fact-checking is identified as a practice that reveals facts [4, 5] and uses scientific methods to ascertain the veracity of declarations of public interest [6], ending up being a structuring movement to reform journalism. In 2019, fact-check organizations totalled 188, spread across 60 countries worldwide [7]. However, the effectiveness of fact-checking regarding the reduction of false beliefs is not consensual in © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 F. J. García-Peñalvo and A. García-Holgado (Eds.): TEEM 2022, LNET, pp. 719–727, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0942-1_74

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current literature. Some defend its important role in combating disinformation due to its positive effect on beliefs [8–10]; while others find several limitations to the correction of pre-existing false beliefs [11–13]. Furthermore, the public does not seem to be very familiar with this genre [14], their attitude towards accepting fact-checks may be dependent on political-ideological biases [5, 15, 16] and fact-check interpretation may also depend on different cognitive styles in processing information) [17] All this can somehow justify that fact-checking websites are not visited often [18] and that few users share fact-checking content [19]. With the increasing preponderance of fact-checking in newsrooms, research on the topic has also increased. However, most studies focus on the United States and essentially seek to understand how the message from fact-checkers is received or whether their corrections are effective [20–22]. This study evaluates the attitudes and perception of the audience regarding this journalistic genre in Portugal, a country where fact-checking is very recent, assessing the knowledge and attitudes of the Portuguese towards a new journalistic format, namely by researching the level of familiarity and favorability of the audience, considering the influence of the habits and interests of news consumption and the political-ideological identification of the audience.

2 Fact-Checking: Attitudes and Perception Since its origins, fact-checking assumed itself as a journalistic movement and as a “democratic institution” [2], by the effort it promotes to establish truthfulness, and by the principles of impartiality that it follows to evaluate the declarations of public and political interest. There are several European and North American fact-checking agencies that strictly comply with the ethical principles agreed by the International Fact-Checking Network (IFCN). As a new phenomenon, fact-checking distinguishes from traditional journalism because it aims to draw the audience’s attention to false or true statements. Fact-checking is not limited to an internal journalistic process, common and prior to the publication of a news item [3, 23]. In 2015, before the contemporary fake news phenomenon, the American Press Institute made clear that “fact checkers investigate verifiable facts, and their work is free of partisanship, advocacy and rhetoric” [24]. Based on this editorial directive, the growth of fact-checking practices is due to the growing concern, by media professionals, with the normalization of falsehood or inaccurate statements in political discourse [25], in what has been called the post-truth era [26]. The literature has identified a positive association of discontent with government policies and distrust in the media with a negative or skeptical attitude towards factchecking [27–29]. Other studies focused on the belief and spread of disinformation have also found a positive association with anti-government, anti-system, and populist attitudes [30, 31]. The Portuguese stand out internationally for their trust in the news [32, 33]. With the pandemic, in 2021 this confidence was reinforced, with increased trust in the media and journalists’ work [33]. In Portugal, there are two fact-checkers that are part of the International Fact-checking Network (IFCN): Polígrafo and Observador. Polígrafo is the only and the first independent website dedicated exclusively to fact-checking in Portugal. However, it was in 2015 that Observador created the first section dedicated to

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fact-checking. As for fact-checking familiarity, the Portuguese seem to be on a different route comparing to other countries. According to the Poynter Institute, the Portuguese fact-checker, Polígrafo (created in 2018), managed to reach its “break-even point” in less than a year [34]. Poynter adds that the Polígrafo is “widely known by politicians” and “reached more than 1.1 million people on television in one week”. Several studies have also shown that attitude and knowledge towards fact-checking may be dependent on political and partisan biases [5, 14–16]. People have been shown to accept more easily statements that confirm their beliefs, values or attitudes. This, not only makes them more vulnerable to false information [35, 36], but can also determine the way they seek information [37] or consume news [38, 39]. Also, in terms of factchecking, users are more likely to select content that is compatible with their partypolitical orientation [40]. Regarding ideological asymmetries, several studies point to conservatives and people further to the right of the political spectrum as being more vulnerable to disinformation in general [35, 36, 41]. Conservatives and radical rightwing people are also more likely to resist correcting false beliefs [42] and are associated with more skeptical, negative, and unfavorable attitudes towards fact-checking [14, 16, 27]. In this study we also sought to understand how interest and/or political involvement might be related to familiarity and acceptance of fact-checking practices. If we consider that greater political and partisan involvement can motivate selective news exposure [43], which can increase the likelihood of forming biased filter bubbles [44] and lead to exposition to disinformation websites [45], everything seems to indicate that interest in politics can be a negative predictor. However, political interest/involvement may be associated with greater knowledge about political issues, making people more able to identify disinformative political content [46]. Baptista et al. [47] tested this hypothesis in relation to the belief and dissemination of fake news and found that interest in political news and political knowledge can be elements that help combat disinformation.

3 Methodology In this exploratory study, 618 Portuguese individuals or those residing in Portugal participated voluntarily and anonymously. Our sample consists of participants aged between 18 and 88 years (M = 48.2; SD = 11.5), of which 430 (69.6%) are women and 188 (30.4) are men. For data collection, we used an online convenience and self-response questionnaire, posted on Facebook and online for completion between January 1 and 13, 2022. The questionnaire guaranteed anonymity and confidentiality of the participants’ data. Questionnaire variables such as familiarity and favorability, and attitudes towards fact-checking, considered the work of Amazeen et al. [19], Robertson et al. [16] and Lyons et al. [27]. Regarding familiarity, participants were asked how familiar they were with fact-checking on a 5-point scale. A similar scale was used to measure the level of interest in reading fact-checking articles, how favorable or unfavorable the participants are in relation to fact-checking, and confidence in the news. Except for the question about the frequency of access to fact-checking websites, we used the same scale in the questions related to the frequency of fact-checking articles consumption, the sharing

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of news and fact-checking articles, and information verification. Participants were also questioned on their interest or political involvement; and regarding political-ideological orientation, were asked to position themselves on two 7-point political scales: left vs right and liberal vs conservative.

4 Results Our results show that the Portuguese have, in general, a very favorable attitude (M = 3.99; SD = .98) to the practice of fact-checking. However, in relation to trust in news and in the work of fact-checkers, we can observe greater skepticism (Table 1). Table 1. Participants’ attitude expressed in relation to fact-checking Indicators

M

SD

1

2

3

4

5

N

Trust (news)

3.27

.76

5

84

286

223

20

618

Fact-checkers favor one side

2.64

1

37

143

108

56

16

360

Fact-checking favorability

3.99

.98

6

26

63

137

128

360

Fact-checking familiarity

2.90

1.2

87

161

170

114

81

613

Of those familiar with fact-checking, only 50% (n = 180) disagree that fact-checkers tend to take sides performing their work. About half of the participants were skeptical of fact-checkers impartiality. Also, 40% (n = 248) of the total sample are not familiar with fact-checking, with 14.2% (n = 87) admitting total ignorance. People who are familiar with the genre regularly consume fact-checking news (M = 3.31; SD = .83), just as they frequently verify the news they read (M = 3.25; SD = .93), as shown in Table 2. This result was expectable since verification may be closely related to the consumption of fact-checking news. Table 2. Descriptive measures: habits of consuming information How often do you…

M

SD

1

2

3

4

5

N

a) Consume fact-checking news

3.31

.83

8

42

171

124

24

369

b) Access fact-checking websites

2.08

1.03

124

113

80

22

9

348

c) Share news

2.21

.98

104

113

113

25

5

360

d) Share fact-checking articles

1.95

.95

150

98

95

12

4

359

e) Check the news you read

3.25

.93

18

43

160

116

27

364

Our results indicate a lower tendency to share news content and to access factchecking articles online. About 68% (n = 237) admit that “never/almost never” or only “once a week” access fact-checking websites. On the other hand, 77% (n = 283) indicate

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723

that they check the news regularly. These results suggest that participants consume factchecking without being online and that their verification of news may not involve factchecking articles. As for attention to politics, respondents are interested in political news, as well as in following and debating events associated with political issues (Table 3). Table 3. Descriptive measures: political interest or involvement How much do I agree or disagree with…

M

SD

1

2

3

4

5

N

a) I’m interested in political news

3.68

.98

27

48

125

312

106

618

b) I follow politics closely

3.01

1.15

74

137

162

197

48

618

c) I like to talk about politics

3.20

1.17

63

114

151

217

73

618

In ideological terms, considering the average distribution by political-ideological field, we can observe a leftward trend (M = 3.57, SD = 1.2) with regard to self-placement in the left-right political scale and a more liberal tendency (M = 3.23, SD = 1.2) evident in the political orientation with the liberal-conservative dimension. After recoding the sample, out of 533 responses, 258 placed themselves in the political left field, 166 in the center and 109 in the right. As for the liberalism-conservatism dimension, out of 548 responses, 378 self-positioned in the outlined field as liberal, 59 in the central position and 111 as conservative. 4.1 Association Between Variables Under Study Through Pearson’s linear correlation coefficient, we sought to identify possible correlations between online news consumption habits and practices and attitudes towards the media, not only in relation to knowledge/familiarity about fact-checking, but also through the way those variables correlate with each other. Fact-checking familiarity is positively correlated with general political interest: the greater the interest in political issues, the greater the familiarity with fact-checking. In addition, the level of familiarity tends to increase with the increase of trust in the news (r = .118, p < .01), with the interest in reading fact-checking (r = .246, p < .01), with an increase in the frequency of consuming this type of article (r = .329, p < .01) and in accessing fact-checking websites (r = .254, p < .01). Interesting is the finding that trust in news is not correlated with expressed political interest, however, it is negatively correlated with skepticism regarding the ethics of factcheckers (r = −.288, p < .01) and the frequency with which the news are verified (r = − .144, p = .01). These results suggest that those who are most suspicious of news are more likely to naturally distrust fact-checkers’ work, as well as confirm less regularly the news or information they are exposed to. Although interest in reading fact-checking articles is not correlated with political interest, we found that political interest is positively and significantly correlated with accessing fact-checking websites and sharing news (but not sharing fact-checking articles). Finally, fact-checking favorability tends to increase along with trust in news, familiarity with fact-checking and the consumption of fact-checking and news. Attitudes

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towards fact-checking do not suffer any significant effect with the political-ideological orientation or the political interest of respondents. 4.2 Political Orientation vs News and Fact-Checking To analyze the relationship established between political orientation and (1) factchecking familiarity, (2) trust in news, (3) fact-checking favorability and (4) skepticism about fact-checkers, a multivariate analysis of variance was performed revealing that there were no significant differences in relation to the entire composite of variables, either regarding the left-right orientation or regarding the liberal-conservative dimension. As for the effect of political-ideological orientation on consumption practices of news and fact-checking, results show significant differences only in relation to the effect of the left-right political scale on the interest expressed in reading fact-checking articles (F(2.305) = 5.022, p < .007), revealing differences between people from the center and the other political fields (left and right). People from the center show greater interest in reading fact-checking articles. Regarding the liberal-conservative political dimension, results only identify significant differences in the frequency with which participants confirm the news or information (F(2.306) = 3.915, p < .021), with the multiple comparisons test evidencing differences between liberals and conservatives, and liberals showing greater propensity to verify the information.

5 Discussion and Conclusion Our results show that while most participants have a very favorable attitude towards factchecking and are familiar with this journalistic activity, there is also significant skepticism regarding how journalists verify the facts. Recognizing the importance of fact-checking, respondents doubt the impartiality and rigor of how fact-checkers work. These results are in line with similar international studies [14, 16, 27]. Nevertheless, familiarity levels are lower than expected: 40% are unfamiliar with the journalistic genre, despite the high popularity attributed to fact-checking in Portugal [34, 48]. Considering the importance of television in the Portuguese fact-checking landscape, since the two IFCN fact-checkers have partnered with two main free-to-air television channels [48], and that television remains the main source of news for the Portuguese [33], the attention television gives to fact-checking should contribute to greater audience familiarity. Still, our results are similar to those found in the literature. Even in the North American scenario, Nyhan & Reifler [14] pointed out that half of the audience was unfamiliar with fact-checking, although with high rates of acceptance. Also in Europe, Lyons et al. [27] verified the same trend, noting, in addition, that there was greater skepticism regarding the work of fact-checkers. The level of familiarity tends to increase alongside with trust in news. And decreasing trust in news correlates with skepticism towards fact-checkers, suggesting that subjects who distrust the news may be more vulnerable to misinformation, since they are also the least exposed to fact-checks or corrections. Therefore, distrust in the media seems to be an obstacle to fact-checking, which leads us to question its effectiveness with this specific audience.

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Our results reject the existence of political and ideological prejudice in relation to knowledge and attitudes towards fact-checking. Results did not show any significant effect of political and ideological orientation on the level of familiarity or favorability towards fact-checking. The same is true regarding the practices of information consumption, the trust in news and the skepticism associated with the work of factcheckers. Interestingly, in Portugal, party orientation, in a left-right political dimension, seems, however, to be a predictor of belief in political fake news, namely a right-wing party orientation [35, 36]. Interest and/or political involvement is positively correlated with familiarity with fact-checking, but uncorrelated with favorability towards this journalistic practice. A greater interest in politics presupposes subjects are less skeptical about fact-checking. These results consolidate the importance of political knowledge to combat disinformation. If several studies have confirmed that knowledge/interest or political involvement is not positively correlated with belief in fake news [31, 47], on the other hand, knowledge/interest or political involvement motivates greater familiarity with fact-checking, more frequent access to fact-checking websites and greater trust in fact-checkers, as our results demonstrate. Our study highlights several relevant challenges for the fact-checking activity and for journalism in general. Apparently, fact-checking still doesn’t enjoy high relevance in Portugal, despite the majority being familiar with the movement. Our research indicates that political orientation does not shape participants’ perceptions or attitudes toward fact-checking. However, this study only covered fact-checking in general. We believe it is extremely important to understand, in future studies, to what extent political and partisan orientation can affect the perception and evaluation of political fact-checking articles.

References 1. Humprecht, E.: How do they debunk “Fake News”? A cross-national comparison of transparency in fact checks. Digit. J. 8(3), 310–327 (2020) 2. Graves, L., Cherubini, F.: The Rise of Fact-Checking Sites in Europe. Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism, Oxford (2016) 3. Amazeen, M.A.: Making a difference: a critical assessment of fact-checking in 2012. New America Foundation Media Policy Initiative Research Paper (2013). https://www.newame rica.org/new-america/making-a-difference/ 4. Graves, L.: Boundaries not drawn: mapping the institutional roots of the global fact-checking movement. J. Stud. 19(5), 613–631 (2018) 5. Shin, J., Thorson, K.: Partisan selective sharing: the biased diffusion of fact- checking messages on social media. J. Commun. 67(2), 233–255 (2017) 6. Amazeen, M.A.: Practitioner perceptions: Critical junctures and the global emergence and challenges of fact-checking. Int. Commun. Gaz. 81(6–8), 541–561 (2019) 7. Stencel, M.: Number of fact-checking outlets surges to 188 in more than 60 countries. Duke Reporters’ LAB, pp. 12–17 (2019) 8. Cobb, M.D., Nyhan, B., Reifler, J.: Beliefs don’t always persevere: how political figures are punished when positive information about them is discredited. Polit. Psychol. 34(3), 307–326 (2013) 9. Fridkin, K., Kenney, P.J., Wintersieck, A.: Liar, liar, pants on fire: how fact-checking influences citizens’ reactions to negative advertising. Polit. Commun. 32(1), 127–151 (2015)

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Opportunities, Challenges, and Risks of Clickbait in the Scientific Communication Ana María Zaharía1(B)

and Jesús Miguel Flores-Vivar2,3

1 Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Madrid, Spain

[email protected]

2 Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain

[email protected] 3 Universidad de Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain

Abstract. This paper analyzes the effects of the communication that produce in the field of science with the use of the Clickbait. For some experts, it is a technique used as a new communication strategy in the generation of contents for the dissemination of the science in the digital press. The study is based on detecting which linguistic resources of Clickbait generate more success and which media incorporates them in its science section, to obtain greater notoriety with the aim of attracting readers and encouraging them to click on the link on a page. The sample covers the analysis of headlines published in the science section of the main Spanish newspapers during a week in July 2021. The general results of the study show that, of the 117 headlines analyzed in the science section of the selected digital newspapers, 64 of them used the clickbait technique and as can be seen in the 10 digital newspapers, the most used clickbait resource was incomplete information (51%), 18% higher than exaggeration (33%). Morphosyntax and appellative expressions have been used to a lesser extent in the digital editions of the newspapers selected in the analysis sample of this research, reaching an equal percentage of, respectively, 8%. Keywords: Press · Popular science · Quantitative analysis · Science and technology · Information

1 Introduction The Spanish society is currently growing in scientific culture. In the long run, this means that it is going in the right direction. Unfortunately, the side effect is that journals lacking scientific rigor are producing false articles that provide a venue for pseudo-science that confuses readers, resulting in the deterioration of access to scientific information. The mass media and the journalists are the essential actors for the popularization of science [1], in addition to ICTs, which are constantly evolving and changing. The informative coverage of the scientific news in the digital press is a topic that has been poorly studied in the academic field. Nevertheless, in Amend and Secko’s [2] study in this field, their findings show, on the one hand, the dependence of the science journalists on the science sector to be informed and reporting the information, and, on the other hand, © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 F. J. García-Peñalvo and A. García-Holgado (Eds.): TEEM 2022, LNET, pp. 728–737, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0942-1_75

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the need of the science journalist to have a more training education in the scientific field. Hence, the specialized literature has focused on the homogenization of science news coverage [3–5] while other authors such as Brossard and Scheufele [6] demand “an urgent analysis of the treatment that traditional media are giving to science in their Internet editions” [7]. For Sigourney Humus [8] the journals are the system we use to catalog scientific findings and process evidence-based research. Therefore, the journals and scientific content media provide a safe place to store our findings, having passed a review phase by peer reviewers. But the fact to getting readership is a real challenge. 1.1 Dissemination of Science in the Spanish Digital Media In Spain, the research conducted by López-Pérez and Olvera-Lobo [7] about the treatment of the scientific information in the digital editions of the Spanish newspapers, which includes a study sample of four digital newspapers (“El País”, “El Mundo”, “ABC” and “20 Minutos”) highlights that these four digital media have one specific section dedicated to scientific news. In the same line, the Survey of Social Perception of Science and Technology conducted by FECYT [9] since 2002, shows that 84.1% of men between 15 and 24 years old and 75.5% of women in the same age range are informed about issues related to science and technology through the digital press, compared to 27.3% of men over 65 years old and 23% of women over 65 years old. The same survey shows that the percentage of people who get their information from the general media (“El País”, “El Mundo”, etc.) on the Internet has increased slightly from 2006 (58.9%) to 2008 (59.5%), reaching 63.4% in 2020. In 2021, La Vanguardia was the most read media [10], perhaps because of the impact of the pandemic on online behaviors [11]. There is a common theme in the transmission of scientific content over the Internet: headlines must be attention-grabbing and have impactful value. Finding that balance between sensationalism and Clickbait may seem tricky, but if we can continue to publish good content and still provide real value to the audience, we are hardly at risk of falling into the pits of misinformation or misleading information. The recent research’s shows that the articles with a positive framing and an exciting sentence are more widely shared online. The researcher Gwilym Lockwood [12] found that a positive framing and more interesting phrases generate more attention online. The study that analyzed over 2000 article titles which were published in Frontiers in Psychology between 2013 and 2014 found that the journal articles whose titles contain Clickbait characteristics are more widely shared. The result was that the articles with a positive framing and phrasing excitement in their headlines received higher Altmetric scores meaning that they were more widely shared online. In contrast, having puns in headlines lead to lower Altmetric attention scores, while having a question in the headline made no difference. This is independent of the length of the headline or how interesting the topic was. 1.2 Clickbait as a Digital Media Strategy For Bazaco et al. [13] the Clickbait is a “dynamic communicative phenomenon that resorts to pseudo-informative contents elaborated through attention economy strategies

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that approach sensationalism and infotainment”, so we can affirm that there is Clickbait that have positive or negative consequences and that could be harmful or benefits for the participating actors: journalists, media, and audience. But the Clickbait is not only in the minds of people. The digital writers and editors compelling headlines that are made to grab their attention. These headlines play on emotions such as anger, fear, and happiness. This is what is known as the “information input” or “access mechanisms” [14] that inform or manipulate. According to some experts, this is mainly attributed to emotional arousal and how it affects the decision-making process in a digital environment, which is understood “as the set constituted by technology and digital instruments, as well as by the uses and practices that these make possible” [15]. That is why when strong emotions are aroused, the digital audience tends to respond. In this case, with the clickbait articles, that response will be a click. For Keleher [16], people have a survival instinct to seek information to learn more about their environment and social settings. Since the beginnings of journalism, the purpose of the mass media has been -and isto have the largest possible audience or readership. For Kovach and Rosenstiel [17] the idea of the press as custodian guardian - in charge of deciding what the citizen should or should not know - no longer defines the role of journalism. Therefore, the strategy to gain the largest number of readers not only leads to the development of ad-hoc technologies, but also to the use of techniques to “hook” the audience through the Clickbait. For some researchers, Clickbait is a kind of malpractice that occurs in the current digital media ecosystem and blogosphere, which translates into a nefarious intention to trick readers into clicking on a link and reading an article that does not comply with its tempting title [16]. Added to this is the growing phenomenon of misinformation where pseudoscience arises as the practice of accepting something as scientific without it being based on a scientific method. This means that some people will choose to publish findings that are not real scientific discoveries, but which, equally, will go viral due to the clickbait technique. Thus, the pseudoscientific content, together with several journals of dubious prestige (known as predatory journals), contribute to the collapse of the quality science journalism. For Lockwood [12], the main objective of the newspaper headlines is to attract attention and encourage visitors to click on the article link, so much more effort is spent on attracting the click in the first place than (in many cases) creating valuable content. However, while it is true that, in many cases, the Clickbait titles constitute a marketing strategy malpractice, in others, they can be an important asset if used properly: headlines designed to attract specific audiences and arouse their interest, in addition to using “powerful words” seek to evoke an emotional response in the reader. Therefore, the key to using the Clickbait effectively is to make sure to have quality content to back it up. But, attracting the reader to the news, “is achieved in digital newspapers through an adaptation to the characteristics of the web that cause modifications in the different elements of the headline and in the headline strategies of the journalists” [18]. Along these lines, while Clickbait is more notorious, there are certain techniques in newspaper headlines that make stories read and shared online more frequently [19]. A previous study analyzed articles from The New York Times and found that two factors lead to higher sharing: how positive an article was and how emotionally exciting an article was. This shows that clickbait techniques can also work for science. But the key

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question is what the difference between the stories that is go viral and those that do not [20]. Therefore, the challenge for the Spanish digital media to get a larger audience for scientific information has to do with how to headline the news and achieve a more significant interest from readers.

2 Methodology and Objectives The methodology used is qualitative and quantitative. A qualitative analysis of the characteristic elements of the clickbait technique is proposed, as well as an analysis of the interdependence relations between this component and science and journalism. It is investigated in the previous studies on the digital press, based on the research that cover the field of study of the Clickbait technique. In the quantitative section, the objective is to find out whether Clickbait is part of the so-called “attention economy” through editorial methods that work as bait and are used by content generators to obtain greater interest. A content analysis is performed, following the research model on Clickbait headlines [13, 21]. This quantitative part not only allows us to measure the effectiveness of the scientific news published by the digital media selected in the analysis sample, but also makes it possible to find out whether Clickbait influences the quality of the scientific information disseminated by the digital newspapers in the established study period. For this analysis, the 10 digital editions of the most read and consumed media in Spain have been selected, according to the Reuters Institute Digital News Report [22] conducted by the Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism of the University of Oxford (Table 1). Table 1. The most read newspapers and digital media in 2020. (DNR Reuters Institute). Digital media

URL

El País

https://elpais.com/

El Mundo

https://www.elmundo.es/

20 Minutos

https://www.20minutos.es/

ElDiario.es

https://www.eldiario.es/

El Confidencial

https://www.elconfidencialdigital.com/

OK Diario

https://okdiario.com/

La Vanguardia

https://www.lavanguardia.com/

ABC

https://www.abc.es/

El Periódico

https://www.elperiodico.com/es/

La Razón

https://www.larazon.es/

The unit of analysis has been determined, in this case, the science section of the 10 selected digital newspapers, considering that this unit can be “as small as the word or as large as the entire edition of a newspaper, passing through the sentence, the item

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(news item, article, editorial board), the page or the section” [23]. In the empirical phase, 4 variables and 14 sub-variables were defined (Table 2). These indicators were coded with numerical values to facilitate the counting of the linguistic resources used in the 10 Spanish digital newspapers in the week of analysis (July 12–18, 2021), taking into account that, in order to check whether the Clickbait technique influences the quality of scientific information published by the digital media, it is necessary to identify: firstly, which are the digital media that most use Clickbait in the scientific news analyzed in the aforementioned period; and, secondly, which linguistic resources were used in the scientific headlines in the week of analysis in the selected digital media, thus tracing a clearer profile of the Clickbait phenomenon. Table 2. Clickbait resource analysis variables. (Own elaboration). Variables

Indicators

Categories (Economics of attention- EA)

I. Incomplete information

1. Use of lists and numerals

(EA) Interests and purposes- individuals

2. Questions without answer 3. Spatial deictic expressions (of place and time) II. Appellate expressions

1. Personal deictic formulas 2. Imperative

(EA) Evoke an emotional response in the reader

3. Parenthesis 2. Noun III. Morphosyntax IV. Exaggeration

1. Two points 2. Noun

(EA) Generate interest in reading

1. Neologistic meaning

(EA) Evoke strong feelings

2. Prefixed adverbial connotation 3. Intensifying adjectives 4. Exclamatory symbols 5. Sequence of three dots 6. Use of proverbs and/or popular expressions

(EA) Arouse interest in specific audiences

These indicators have been applied to the 117 headlines collected from the science section of each digital newspaper in the established period, after considering that the time frame is the ideal cycle to develop an adequate longitudinal study. In this sense, we have advocated the technique of the “com-posed week” which, applied in the construction of the “corpus” within the universe, maintains representativeness thanks to the random procedure [24], which, being the week the “minimum construction of a “corpus” has a more didactic purpose and management of research tools” that is applied to the field of communication, journalism, and the media [25].

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Data collection was carried out manually, systematically and in an orderly fashion, during the research week. After that, the results were stored in a database, specifically MySQL, for the final count, always considering the variables and the categories of analysis established. Afterwards, an analysis sheet was made to deepen the linguistic resources of Clickbait, which not only focused on the research model on “hooked” headlines by Bazaco et al. [13] and Bravo Araujo et al. [21], but also on the techniques derived from the bibliographic review and direct observation.

3 Results The general results of the study show that, during the week of July 12–18, out of the 117 headlines analyzed in the science section of the 10 digital newspapers, 64 of them used the Clickbait technique. Thus, it has been shown that the Clickbait is present in the digital media in a very high percentage (over 50%), a fact that shows that digital newspapers make excessive use of this technique, with the aim of attracting reader. It should be noted that, during the period under study, some digital editions did not publish scientific content. Thus, for example, on July 12, while the newspaper "El País" published 26 scientific news items in its digital science section, the digital media “20 Minutos” and “El Diario.es” did not publish any scientific news. In this regard, the greater the number of news items, the greater the amount of Clickbait’s. The breakdown of results and taking into account the established variables of analysis, shows that in the science section of the digital version of “OK Diario” is where the linguistic resource “incomplete information” has been used the most, with a percentage of 31%, much higher than in other digital newspapers such as “20 Minutos”, “El Diario.es” or “La Vanguardia” where the use of lists or numerals, questions without answers or spatial deictic expressions (of place and time) has not been detected. In this regard, it should be noted that the scientific coverage in the digital newspapers “20 Minutos”, “El Diario.es” and “La Vanguardia” and the absence of scientific headlines in these digital editions, not only requires an “urgent” analysis of the treatment that the Internet media are giving to the science editions, but also hinders the work of research in this field, since, after the analysis carried out in the period indicated, zero coverage of scientific information in these three digital versions was detected. This same circumstance occurs in the case of the second variable of analysis, the appellative expressions characteristic of the use of Clickbait, being detected to a lesser extent than incomplete information and only in the digital edition of "El País" in 4 headlines of the 22 published in which the digital newspaper makes use of Clickbait and in "El Confidencial" in 1 headline. An example of this can be found in scientific information such as “There are still 20 years to go until we understand how the Sun works” (El País, July 12, 2021) or “In a few days you will be able to take a covid-19 test at home: Why it can be a problem” (El Confidencial, July 15, 2021). For the third variable of analysis, morphosyntax, which focuses on the use of colons and substantification as linguistic resources characteristic of Clickbait, it has been observed that no clear trend can be established, largely due to the considerable decrease in scientific news coverage by digital newspapers, detecting the use of morphosyntax in the digital editions of “El Confidencial”, in 2 headlines, and “Ok Diario”, in 1 headline.

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Thus, of the four variables defined in this study (Fig. 1), the Clickbait resource most used by the 10 digital newspapers was incomplete information, with a percentage of 51%, 18% higher than exaggeration (33%). The Morphosyntax and the appellative expressions were used to a lesser extent in the digital editions of the newspapers selected in the sample, achieving an equal percentage of, respectively, 8%.

Fig. 1. The linguistic resources of clickbait used by digital newspapers (Own elaboration).

However, as far as the intensifying adjective is concerned (Fig. 2), the digital newspaper “El País” is the one that uses it the most in the scientific headlines published, with a percentage of 56%, well above the digital editions of the other newspapers analyzed, in second position is “ABC” with 19% and in third position “El Periódico” with 13%. Regarding this linguistic resource, there are 5 digital newspapers that do not use it in their headlines (“La Vanguardia”, “El Diario.es”, “20 Minutos”, “OK Diario” and “El

Fig. 2. The Clickbait resource “intensifying objectivation” used by the digital newspapers (Own elaboration).

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Confidencial”), while in “La Razón” and “El Mundo” it has been identified in a lower percentage than in “El País”, “ABC” and “El Periódico”, being detected in a percentage equivalent to 6%. It should be noted that none of the 10 digital newspapers make use in their headlines of exclamatory symbols, neologistic meanings and suspensory points, three of the subvariables included in the “exaggeration” variable, while only the digital newspaper “20 Minutos” in its headlines makes use of proverbs and/or popular expressions, and only in two headlines of “El País”.

4 Conclusions Considering the proportionality of the use of the clickbait techniques analyzed in four dimensions (which include fourteen variables analyzed), the incomplete information was the clickbait resource most used by the 10 digital newspapers, in 51% of the headlines. In second place, comes the dimension of exaggeration, which is used in 33% of the headlines. In last place, and proportionally in a similar way, the dimensions of morphosyntax and appellative expressions have been used to a lesser extent, reaching only 8% in the digital editions of the selected newspapers. As for the appellative expressions, the clickbait resource of deictic formulas is used more in “Ok Diario”, “El Confidencial” and “El Periódico” in 25% of their headlines, followed by “El País”. Likewise, with respect to one of the meanings that has been indicated, which refers to the fact that Clickbait headlines generally correspond to those headlines that attract users due to their exaggeration, and which have been analyzed through the dimension “exaggeration” with six variables, we can point out that, despite being one of the most used as a linguistic resource of Clickbait, it is positioned in second place, used in only 33% of the headlines. As for the second meaning, which includes elements of “bait” and promises one piece of information but offers a completely different one in the actual content of the article, it can be concluded that the greater the number of pieces of information, the greater the amount of Clickbait. In this analysis, its use is over 50%. As a general conclusion, not only is an "urgent" analysis required on the treatment that the Internet news media are giving to science editions and their homogenization in content and dependence on specialized media, but also longitudinal studies are needed to provide continuity in the data and, therefore, a possible trend on the use of Clickbait. Therefore, a possible trend on Clickbait, specifically, on the cases in which this technique, from a positive perspective, requires this broadening and deepening of studies that confirm the importance of its use as a new way of encouraging the consumption of content that disseminates scientific and not pseudoscientific results.

References 1. Pont-Sorribes, C., Cortinas-Rovira, S., Di Bonito, I.: Challenges and opportunities for science journalists in the adoption of new technologies: the case of Spain. J. Sci. Commun. 12, 3–4 (2013). https://bit.ly/3N4Lpi8 2. Amend, E., Secko, D.M.: In the face of critique: a metasynthesis of the experiences of journalists covering health and science. Sci. Commun 34(2), 241–282 (2011). https://doi.org/10. 1177/1075547011409952

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3. De-Semir, V.: Scientific journalism, a drifting discourse, Ibero-American Journal of discourse and society 2(2), 9–37 (2000). https://bit.ly/39HK0Au 4. Stryker, J.: Reporting medical information: Effects of press releases and newsworthiness on medical journal articles’ visibility in the news media. Prev. Med. 35(5), 519–530 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1006/pmed.2002.1102 5. Russell, C.: Science reporting by press release. An old problem grows worse in the digital age. Columbia Journalism Review (2008). https://bit.ly/39xZRBE 6. Brossard, D., Scheufele, D.: Science, new media and the public. Science 339(6115), 40–41 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1232329 7. López-Pérez, L., Olvera-Lobo, M.D.: Treatment of scientific information in the digital editions of Spanish newspapers. El Profesional de la Información 24(6), 766–777 (2015). https://doi. org/10.3145/epi.2015.nov.08 8. Humus, S.: Science journalism Has Become Clickbait (2019). https://bit.ly/3MXKq3z. Accessed 3 Mar 2019 9. Fecyt.es: Survey of Social Perception of Science and Technology in Spain (2022). https://bit. ly/3xBIUOS. Accessed 22 Mar 2022 10. Prnoticias.com: ‘La Vanguardia’ is once again the most read digital newspaper in July, followed by ‘El Mundo’ (2021). https://bit.ly/39wU27O 11. Gevers, A.: The digital landscape in Spain (2021). https://bit.ly/3QscezU 12. Lockwood, G.: Academic clickbait: articles with positively framed titles, interesting phrasing, and no wordplay get more attention online (2016). https://bit.ly/39A0bQp. Accessed 4 Mar 2022 13. Bazaco, A., Redondo, M., Sánchez-García, P.: Clickbait as a viral journalism strategy: concept and methodology. Latin Mag. Soc. Commun. 74, 94–115 (2019). https://doi.org/10.4185/ RLCS-2019-1323 14. Gardner, H.: Structure of the mind. the theory of multiple intelligences. Economic Culture Fund (2014). https://bit.ly/2Ns7c5h. Accessed 3 May 2022 15. Douehi, M.: The great digital conversion. Educ. Prop. 34(2), 119–121 (2010). https://bit.ly/ 3tHs4Nu 16. Keleher, J.: The Science Behind Clickbait Titles (and How to Use Them Responsibly) (2022). https://bit.ly/3HAjgyy. Accessed 5 May 2022 17. Kovach, B., Rosenstiel, T.: The elements of journalism. Aguilar (2012). https://bit.ly/3O2 Vuny 18. Garcia Orosa, B.; Gallur Santorun, S., López García, X.: The use of clickbait in online media in the 28 countries of the European Union. Latin Mag. Soc. Commun. 72, 1261–1277 (2017). https://doi.org/10.4185/RLCS-2017-1218 19. Palau-Sampio, D.: Metamorphosis of the reference press in the digital context: clickbait and tabloid strategies in Elpais.com. Commun. Soc. 29(2), 63–80 (2016). https://doi.org/10. 15581/003.29.2 20. Emerging Technology Team: An Emerging Science of Clickbait, In MIT Technology Review (2015). https://bit.ly/3Qzrgnp. Accessed 4 Mar 2022 21. Bravo Araujo, A., Serrano-Puche, J., Novoa Jaso, M.F.: Use of clickbait in native Spanish digital media. An analysis of El Confidencial, El Español, eldiario.es and OK Diario. Revista de Comunicación Digital 7, 185–210 (2021). https://doi.org/10.7203/rd.v1i7.184 22. Reuters Institute: Reuters Institute Digital News Report 2020 (2020). https://bit.ly/3xE3fCZ. Accessed 1 Mar 2022 23. Lozano, J.C.: Towards the reconsideration of content analysis in the investigation of communicational messages. https://bit.ly/3tK0BKX. Accessed 15 Apr 2022

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Signs of Culture in Computer Games: Assumption for Education Gintare Vaitonyte(B)

, Eugenija Valiene , and Dalia Senvaityte

Educational Research Institute, Vytautas Magnus University, Kaunas, Lithuania {gintare.vaitonyte,eugenija.valiene,dalia.senvaityte}@vdu.lt

Abstract. This study, using semiotics, narratology and aspects of communication theory, focuses on computer games whose main function is entertainment but where cultural heritage is incorporated to highlight educational goals. We analyze popular strategic war and adventure games which are divided into two categories: historical-cultural and cultural-historical games. These are studied by means of content analysis. These games do not require additional preparation to be played, the game process (from beginning to end) is extended in time (from a few days to several dozen or more), and they contain a lot of education-related information. Players may cooperate, communicate with each other, and make collaborative decisions. For this reason, the analyzed games can be associated with the complex development of lifelong learning competence. The aspect of cultural heritage, which manifests itself in certain material and immaterial cultural signs in the studied games, is emphasized in terms of the specific situation of a small country, its representation, and the actualization of one of the lifelong learning competences – cultural awareness and expression competence – in creating cultural and historical narratives. Keywords: Cultural signs · Serious games · Lifelong learning competences · Narrative

1 Introduction Back in 1938 the Dutch historian and cultural theorist J. Huizinga wrote in his book about a playing – Homo Ludens. The author assumed that the primary, the most important element of the flourishing human culture is the game. Over time, games have become more and more related to technological progress, and today computer games, whose the main function can be called entertainment, are an integral part of the daily life of almost every person: since phone became necessary not only for conversation, but also became a smart device, various kinds of games became more and more popular among consumers, not to mention the fact that computer consoles were already used for this purpose. E-sports, based on video games has already become the norm. “Video games have come a long way since the first games emerged in the 1970s. Today’s video games offer photorealistic graphics and simulate reality to a degree which is astonishing in many cases.” [1] The PC gaming market is growing rapidly each year (estimated at $155.88 © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 F. J. García-Peñalvo and A. García-Holgado (Eds.): TEEM 2022, LNET, pp. 738–746, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0942-1_76

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million in 2020) and is predicted to nearly double by 2025 (estimated at $268.81 million per year in that year) [2]. Such a huge demand for games and their mass consumption shows that they are attractive to consumers. In addition, according to P. Greenfield, video games “require the ability to process and simultaneously receive different types of information"[3], i.e., to create parallel (but not sequential) lines of thought. For this reason, it is important to talk about PC games, their functions, wider possibilities of use. PC gaming has been the focus of researchers around the world for some time now. About the specifics of video games wrote Herz [4], N. Lazzaro [5, 6], M. Belinkie [7] etc. A Narrative aspects of PC games were actualized by H. Jenkins [8], S. Domsch [9] ect. One of the first to write about serious games and define them was Clark C. Abt (“Serious Games”, 1970) [10]. Later, more research on this topic appeared: D. Djaouti, J. Alvarez & J. P. Jessel [11], G.S. Freyermuth, L. Gotto, F. Wallenfels [12], F. Laamarti, M. Eid, A. E. Saddik [13] ect. From the review of the conducted studies, it can be seen that when talking about serious games, the contexts of education and/or children/adolescents are often involved: S. J. Brown, D. A. Lieberman, B. A. Gemeny, Y. C. Fan, D. J. Pasta “Educational video game for juvenile diabetes: Results of a controlled trial” [14], M. Griffiths “The educational benefits of videogames” [15], A. Gustafsson, C. Katzeff & M. Bang “Evaluation of a pervasive game for domestic energy engagement among teenagers” [16], K. Novak, R. Nackerud “Choosing a serious game for the classroom: An adoption model for educators” [17], W. J. Boendermaker, P. J. Prins, R. W. Wiers “Prevention in Addiction: Using serious games to (re) train cognition Dutch adolescents” [18], A. D. Druzhinenko, A. I. Podolskiy, O. A. Podolskiy, P. Schmoll “Using videogames to treat childhood obesity” [19] etc. And this is only a small part of the scientific analysis of serious games, which presupposes the context of this study. Looking at the total number of PC games released annually, one can talk not only about their entertainment, but also about their educational functions. In this context, serious games are mentioned – they are defined as games whose purpose is not entertainment or not only entertainment. This term is usually (but not always) associated with video games, which can be used in various fields of human activity to develop certain skills, abilities, imagination (e.g., in the field of health, engineering, politics, military, education, etc.). Most often, these games are simulations – that is, specific circumstances are created with their help, which create a simulated environment relevant to one or another activity. Since the main purpose of recreational video games is to pass the time, although these games may have characteristics of serious games, it would be inaccurate to call them true serious games. It should be noted that recreational games usually aim to reach the widest possible audience, therefore minimizing social restrictions: these games can be played by people of various ages, gender, nationality, education, ideological views, etc., so without much interference “[p]erhaps more than any other aspect of popular culture, video games have blurred the distinction between work and play ” [20], for this reason these games are so popular. As part of popular culture, video games are social, encouraging users to “inscribe their own meanings, construct their own culture” [21]. However, it is interesting in this context to pay attention to the representation of lesser-known and less attractive, but relevant subjects in entertaining, serious games like computer video games. Some cultures (Egyptians, Romans, Vikings, etc.) are presented very often in this

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kind of games and have received the attention of researchers. The situation is different with smaller countries (nations) – either their cultural manifestations are not actualized in such games, or additional efforts are needed to find/identify them. Here we would like to single out the cultural representation of a small country – Lithuania, as a presentation of one of the smaller European countries – while searching for research material the authors of the study came across a small number of games of this type (found 8 games [22], intended for the international market, which present cultural and/or historical aspects of Lithuania). This is where the problem of this study arises – how the cultures of smaller European countries are presented in serious games, creating narratives based on cultural signs and linking them with lifelong learning competencies. For this reason, the object of the study is the connection between cultural signs (presented in serious games), life learning competences and created narratives. Considering the raised problem and defining the object of the research, the aim is to investigate the connections between cultural signs and lifelong learning competences revealed in games with serious game characteristics in the formation of a cultural-historical narrative. The study is conducted based on these objectives: 1. To distinguish the cultural signs that are revealed in video games that have the characteristics of serious games and that represent Lithuanian culture. 2. To reveal what lifelong learning competence is enabled/evoked by Lithuanian cultural signs in serious games. 3. To compare how the links between cultural signs and cultural competence affect cultural and historical narratives in the analysed games. With the help of the theoretical views of S. Peirce and H. White (it complements McLuhan’s media theory), the content analysis of the 8 video games with the characteristics of serious games, in which Lithuanian cultural symbols are actualized, is performed.

2 Theoretical Background In this article, when examining the cultural representation of Lithuania in computer games and its relationship with lifelong learning competencies, several different theoretical perspectives are used. Culture is viewed in a broad anthropological sense. Culture is understood based on the classical holistic concept of F. Boas that culture – beliefs, norms, spirituality, and values – are not sharply separated from human social life or the organization of the universe [23]. Culture includes tangible culture (such as buildings, landscapes, works of art, artifacts) and intangible culture (such as folklore, language, rituals, and). Additionally, it partially includes natural heritage (involving culturally significant landscapes and biodiversity). Analysis of the representation of culture in computer games is based on Ch. S. Peirce’s theory of cultural signs [24]. According to this author’s semiotic theory, a cultural sign consists of an object (to what it points to), a representament (object serving to represent something to the mind) and the summarization and connection of these two things – the interpretant (which depends on the interpreter’s ability to interpret the

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perceived cultural sign). The entirety of interpretants can form an individual narrative perceived by each person. At the same time, H. White’s theoretical insights are also used for disclosure the importance of narration in developing key competences through the cultural signs. Cultural signs are the expression of the past in the present, a kind of material expression of history and its fragile immaterial forms in today’s sociocultural discourse. According to H. White, historians give history a combination of plot, argumentation, and ideological subtext [25]. Making sense of the history itself is possible with the help of different types of stories, i.e., history is explained by providing a plot. Emplotting is the way in which a chain of events in the form of a story is gradually revealed as a certain type of history [26]. The chain of events creates the prerequisites for talking about the historical narrative, which is influenced by its functioning environment (media). When it comes to computer video games, M. McLuhan’s idea that the medium is a message is also important, in other words, the medium itself contains the content of the message [27]. Each type of media has a different effect on the user. The so-called “cold media” enables the user to constantly act, that is, to adapt and react, to participate in “the consequences of each one of his actions” [28]. Serious games can be called “cold media”, because they can develop certain skills or abilities by creating a specific simulation and activity-relevant environment, and the activity of users/players in this process manifests itself as filling “gaps” (the player must make decisions that change the course of the game or that allow the game to be played with the least amount of losses, predict the possible perspectives of their actions and, most importantly, a successful ending). In this kind of game, there is a lot of information, and it circulates intensively to create a reality corresponding to the depicted time, performing an immersive function, and simulating possible scenarios of past events. To analyse scenarios created in games as called G. Freytag’s “pyramid” is used – i.e., paradigm of dramatic structure outlining the seven key steps in successful storytelling: exposition, inciting incident, rising action, climax, falling action, resolution, and denouement [29]. As for the connections between cultural sign games and personal competencies, 5 out of 8 key competencies for lifelong learning are used, which the European Commission singled out as the main ones: multilingualism, personal skills, citizenship, entrepreneurship, cultural awareness, and expression [30].

3 Results 1. All the researched games, which reflects the cultural signs related to Lithuania, can be conditionally grouped into two parts, depending on whether they are more dominated by historical or cultural nature: 1. Historical-cultural (AoE2DE, TWM2, CK2, EU4, HOI4, CK3, SD2BB); 2. Cultural-historical (CandP). Most games (7 out of 8) would be considered as historical-cultural games. In this group of games, two main groups can also be distinguished, according to what historical era is actualized: A) games presenting the period of the Middle Ages TWM2, AoE2DE, CK2, CK3, EU4, AoE2DE). B) games presenting mid-20th century events related to the Second World War (HOI4, SD2BB). 1.1. Historical-cultural games, presenting the period of the Middle Ages can be described as having one and the same narrative – Crusades. Cultural signs can be

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attributed to 7 categories: A) Lithuania as pagan civilization. This pagan theme is especially developed in part CK3 (which presents the old pre-Christian religion, which here is called the religion of “Romuva” ruled by the High Priest. Symbolically, some Lithuanian rulers are given mythological names associated with the old religious tradition (e.g., Samogitian commander Velnias, Pergrubrius). The theme is also conditionally developed by the game TWM2. Lithuanian gods are mentioned here – Perk¯unas, Giltin˙e, Dievas. The game also depicts temples dedicated to these gods. B) The depiction of specific geographical territories, cities historically related to the State of Lithuania. The map presented in the CK2 game indicates Lithuania, as well as individual territories related to Lithuania at that time – Courland, Grodno, Livonia, Polotsk, Prussia, Zemaitija. CK3 – Samogitia, Yotvingians land, and names of some cities (Vilnius, Kernav˙e, Nesvish). In the game TWM2, cities associated with Lithuania are Vilnius, Hrodna, Kaunas, Lida, Minsk, etc. Specific locations related to Lithuania in one way, or another are also mentioned in the game EU4 (Polish-Lithuania Commonwealth; Samogitia, Vilnius, Kovno, Vilna, etc.). Sometimes in medieval games, separate tribes that formed the Lithuanian ethnos (Curonians, Yotvingians) are also presented. C) Historical heads of state of Lithuania (Mindaugas, Vytautas), mythological fictions (e.g., in the game CK3 part of Lithuania’s ruler that year was High Chief Šventagaris of House Palemonaitis. D) Heraldic symbols can also be treated – Vytis (CK3, EU4,), Gediminas poles (AoE2DE). E) The historical context of the environment is helped by the specific weapons used by the country’s armies. (E.g., EU4 displays specific swords, shields, hammers, AoE2DE: archer, skirmishers, etc.) F) Lithuanian language (AoEDE: “Eime statyti! (“Let’s go to build”), “Eime dirbti! (“Let’s go to work”),” Aš pasiruoš˛es”, (“I am ready”), “K˛a ˛isakysite?” (“What will you command?”), etc. G) The Lithuanian context is reflected in the names of the characters of the game EU4 (e.g., Antanas Zabiela, Leonas Masalskis, Linas Skorina, etc.). 1.2. Historical-cultural games, presenting the mid-20th century events related to the Second World War has a micro-view of history, i.e., a highly focused vision of historical fact, where even a slight movement (event) is important, so they are primarily subject to the descriptions of the historical strategic and simulation game. Cultural signs can also be grouped: A) Historical names: in HOI4, some of the characters and historical facts are real (the head of Lithuania – A. Smetona), but there are plot forks where different historical scenarios are possible. The people who lead the SD2BB game are also real, and the names of ordinary Lithuanian soldiers can be associated with persons known in Lithuania today (from persons well known in culture and public discourse, for example, Lithuanian writers Donelaitis (XVII century), Kudirka (XIX century), basketball players Kleiza, Grigonis, Sabonis, up to persons who are not distinguished in history, but potentially locally known: Bindokas, Arstikaitis, Sova, etc., anthroponyms (Stasys Raštikis, Antanas Snieˇckus, Meˇcislovas Gedvilas, etc.) and toponyms (e.g., Biržai, Panevežys, Mažeikiai). In HOI4 the leading (or significant for the course of the game/history) persons have the epithets that characterize them briefly next to their names and surnames (e.g., Vytautas Alantas – Fascist Demagogue, Vlad Mironas – Priestly Prime Minister, Alexander Stulginskis – Agricultural Nationalist, etc.). B) The documentary dimensions: not only photographs of historical personalities, but documentary fragments of battles, photographs of military equipment or archival videos. Distinctive/identifying historical

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cultural signs can be attributed to the heraldry used in these games to identify countries, military units, or political/ideological groups. This group also includes the flags of the countries, which are seen not only in the description of each character, but also noticeable in the details of their outfit. C) War artefacts: items and clothing related to military equipment, armaments, and ammunition, such as the radio sampling “R-311” (Rus. P311), with instructions for use in Russian (SD2BB) attached to it. Not so numerous is the group of signs of everyday life that represent the historical period: newspapers, identity documents, household elements. The SD2BB game depicts a foreigner’s identity card belonging to a Jew Kahane Brache, an exact copy of the Soviet political-literary newspaper “Cevepnoe clovo” (the Word of North) – photos of these items, which are identical to the images presented in the game, can be freely found on the Internet. D) Language: in SD2BB, when army units controlled by a player are sent to attack by the enemy, adequate phrases are heard in this situation: “Ginklas paruoštas!” (“The weapon is ready!”), “Ar matote taikin˛i, pone?” (“Do you see the target, sir?”) and so on. Jargon and the swear words used by the characters create the impression of authentic communication, show strong emotions and attitudes towards a particular thing, such as “Nu, blet, šitas ir sunkus!” (“Nu, blet, this is [so] hard!”) or “Šitas automatas ruskius ištaškys!” (“This automaton will smash the rusks!”). The latter phrase, which uses the emotionally negatively connotated derogatory word “ruskis”, indicates a negative attitude towards Russians. When real historical figures write their names and surnames or the names of certain units of the army, the image is instilled, and the text is given a visual equivalent. 1.3. Cultural-historical game (CandP), presenting nowadays and rethinking in retrospective way Lithuania’s past can be described as cultural first, because cultural signs lead the narrative and open the history later. Cultural signs are A) architecture: the buildings, streets, and squares of Vilnius University. Attention is paid to J. Ch. Glaubitz, as founder of Vilnian Baroque style, Church of the Holy Spirit, Church of St. Catherine, Sapiega Palace, monument of S. Moniuška. B) Science traditions: Vilnius University library, librarian, professor, scientific books, C) Signs that capture the diverse territorial heritage: cultures – Lithuanian Jewish (Litvak), systems – Soviet Union and Grand Duchy of Lithuania, several religious communities – pagan, Orthodox, Catholic. D) Lithuanian language: the name of the main character Milda, the name of the grandfather Rokas Kovas, the assistant – Lithuanian Joris, librarian Eva Bardait˙e. 2. Cultural signs, which affect the story and narrative in different ways, create the possibility to open Lifelong learning key competences: it invites players to react by taking some decisions: i.e., expressing one’s civic position (by opening Citizenship competence) could be made rickety by choosing to fight in the posse of historical enemies or never choosing to do so. The opportunity to lead in games, to cultivate relationships with other cultures by concluding contracts, truces in games, enables the player to develop Entrepreneurship competence. By communicating outside the game on various game platforms, clubs, social networks, which are aimed at communicating and collaborating, often – not in native languages – leads player to achieve the best possible goals of the game, to experience moments of success and open the opportunity to develop Multilingualism, Personal, social, and learning to learn competences. As well as the possibility to choose the right language in the game’s settings (in some games players can chose 3 or even 12 languages. I.e., CandP player can choose 4 (English, French, German, Russian),

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AoE2DE 12 (Eng-lish, French, Italian, German, Spanish-Spain, Spanish Latin America, etc.), EU4 – 3 (English, French, German), HOI4 – 6 (English, French, German, Spanish – Spain, etc.), SD2BB – 7 (English, French, German, Polish, etc.). The gameplay itself suggests different phrases to see and to hear. Interestingly, when constructing the interpretant of a sign using Multilingualism competence, one can apply an outline of the perception of a foreign language, after assessing whether, for example, the Lithuanian phrases are understandable: whether to distinguish and understand words, the most common phrases (for example, the phrase “Labas!” – “Hello”; (AoE2DE), is it possible to understand more complex phrases and commonly used words related to the necessities of the game for action (for example, the phrase “Eime dirbti” – “Let’s get to work”; AoE2DE). It is noteworthy that games present an unequal level of phrases, which makes it possible to review whether it is possible to apply / expand different language frameworks. In games (HOI4, SD2BB), characters are heard in different languages (without an accent), but it should be noted that some of the phrases they say may be different, i.e., depending on the circumstances, intonated, so the player can infer the situation from the sound. In the games themselves, there are textual (e.g., inscriptions, anthroponyms) and auditory (characters’ speech, reactions) fragments of different languages. 3. Cultural signs that stimulate cultural competence, in historical-cultural games mainly perform a function that supports the plot, and in a cultural-historical game there is often one of the plot’s goals (rising action, climax) central axis. How much cultural signs will be recognized depends on the player’s cultural complicity. The player, for whom these signs are completely distant, will be able to understand the essential narration, the story will involve him as a detective that stimulates curiosity and cognition, but from the very desire to be interested and figure out whether what I see and perceive is fiction, or reality, or maybe – the interpretation of history – will depend on how much we get involved in the story. For example, having been in Lithuania and knowing the history and atmosphere of Vilnius university library, the player will not associate the library with one of the many who does not have the Jesuit spirit.

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8. Jenkins, H.: Game design as narrative architecture. Computer 44(3), 118–130 (2004) 9. Domsch, S.: Space and Narrative in Computer Games. Ludotopia: Spaces, Places and Territories in Computer Games, edited by Espen Aarseth and Stephan Günzel, Bielefeld: Transcript Verlag, pp. 103–124 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1515/9783839447307-006 10. Abt CC: Serious Games. Viking, New York (1970). https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0002764270 01400113 11. Djaouti, D., Alvarez, J., Jessel, J.P.: Classifying serious games: the G/P/S model. In: Felicia, P. (ed.) Handbook of Research on Improving Learning and Motivation Through Educational Games: Multidisciplinary Approaches. IGI Global, Hershey, pp. 118–136 (2011) 12. Freyermuth, G.S., Gotto, L., Wallenfels, F.: Serious Games, Exergames, Ex-erlearning. Transcript Verlag (2013). https://doi.org/10.1515/transcript.9783839421666 13. Laamarti, F., Eid, M., Saddik, A.E.: An overview of serious games. Int. J. Comput. Games Technol. 11 (2014) 14. Brown, S.J., Lieberman, D.A., Gemeny, B.A., Fan, Y.C., Pasta, D.J.: Educational video game for juvenile diabetes: results of a controlled trial. Med. Inform. 22(1), 77–89 (1997) 15. Griffiths, M.: The educational benefits of videogames. Educ. Health 20(3), 47–51 (2002) 16. Gustafsson, A., Katzeff, C., Bang, M.: Evaluation of a pervasive game for domestic energy engagement among teenagers. Comput. Entertain. (CIE) 7(4), 1–19 (2010) 17. Novak, K., Nackerud, R.: Choosing a serious game for the classroom: an adoption model for educators. An adoption model for educators. In: Ma, M., Oikonomou, A., Jain, L.C. (eds.) Serious Games and Edutainment Applications. Springer, London, pp. 291–308 (2011). https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-2161-9_15 18. Boendermaker, W.J., Prins, P.J., Wiers, R.W.: Prevention in addiction: using serious games to (re) train cognition Dutch adolescents. In: Gobel, S., Ma, M., Hauge, J.B., Oliveira, M.F., Wiemeyer, J., Wendel, V. (eds.) Serious Games. Springer, Switzerland, pp 173–178 (2015) 19. Druzhinenko, A.D., Podolskiy, A.I., Podolskiy, O.A., Schmoll, P.: Using video games to treat childhood obesity. Psychol. Rus.: State Arta 7(4), 51–64 (2014) 20. Woolf, M.J.P.: Video Games as American Popular Culture, 1 January 2017. https://core.ac. uk/download/pdf/85208317.pdf. Accessed 04 July 2022 21. Fiske, J.: Populiariosios kult¯uros suvokimas. Vilnius: Žara, p. 107 (2008) 22. When writing the study, computer games with serious game characteristics were singled out, and Lithuania appears in the field. The games are presented in the chronological order of their release: Age of Empires II: Definitive Edition (Age of Empires was created in 1997, Age of Empires II was created in 1999 and Age of Empires II: Definitive Edition was created in 2019); time of the narration: 400–1571 (Lithuania – since 1250). Can be described as serious game: learning historical moments, creating alternative history, learning to thing logically and develop economical thinking). Further in the article – AoE2DE. Homepage: https://www.ageofempires.com/games/aoeiide/, Total War: Medieval II (was released for Microsoft Windows in 2006). The campaign is set between the years 1080 and 1530. Why it can be described as serious game: learning historical moments, creating alternative history, learning to think logically and develop economical thinking as well as diplomatic thinking, cultural awareness (for example, religion). Further in the article – TWM2. Homepage: https:// www.sega.com/games/medieval-ii-total-war, Crusader Kings II (set in the Middle Ages, the game was released on February 14, 2012, as a sequel to 2004’s Crusader Kings.) Time of narration: 1066–1453. Why it can be described as serious game: learning historical moments, creating alternative history, learning to thing logically. Further in the article – CK2. Homepage: https://www.paradoxinteractive.com/games/crusader-kings-ii/about, Europa Universalis IV was created in 2013. Time of the narration: 1444–1821. It can be described as a serious game: learning historical moments, creating alternative history, learning to think logically and develop economical thinking). Further in the article – EU4. Homepage: https://

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G. Vaitonyte et al. www.paradoxinteractive.com/games/europa-universalis-iv/about, Hearts of Iron 4 (it is the sequel to 2009’s Hearts of Iron III and the fourth main installment in the Hearts of Iron series; released in 2016). Time of narration: 2 scenarios – in either 1936 or 1939. Can be described as a serious game: learning of logical thinking and negotiations (problem solving), leadership; socio-cultural, history and warfare education in simulation environment; cultivate imagination (creation of alternative history). Further in the article – HOI4. Homepage: https://www. paradoxinteractive.com/games/hearts-of-iron-iv/about, Crusader Kings III (video game set in the Middle Ages, released in 2020). Time of narration 867 – 1453. It can be described as a serious game: learning historical moments, creating alternative history, learning to thing logically. Further in the article – CK3. Homepage: https://www.paradoxinteractive.com/games/ crusader-kings-iii/about, Steel division 2: Burning Baltics (released in 2021). Time of narration: late summer 1944. Can be described as a serious game: learning of logical thinking and negotiations (problem solving); socio-cultural, history and warfare education; cultivate imagination. Further in the article – SD2BB. Homepage: https://steeldivision2.com/, Crowns and Pawns: Kingdom of Deceit (adventure game; released in 2022). Time of the narration: nowadays, reaching the perspective of XVII-XVIII century. Can be described as serious game: balances between fiction and non-fiction, slightly implementing a puzzle piece of Lithuanian cultural heritage, learning to thing logically, learning to find information and old historian facts by reading texts, books). Further in the article – CandP. Homepage: https://crownsand pawns.com/ Kuper, A.: Culture, the Anthropologists’ Account. Harvard University Press, Cambridge (1999) Deledalle, G.: Charles S. Peirce’s Philosophy of Signs. Essays in Comparative Semiotics. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, pp. 37–38 (2001) White, H.: Metahistory. The Historical Imagination in Nineteenth Century Europe. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore & London, p. 42 (1975) White, H.: Metahistory. The Historical Imagination in Nineteenth Century Europe. Baltimore & London. Johns Hopkins University Press, p. 7 (1975) McLuhan, M.: Understanding Media. The extensions of man. London and New York, pp. 7–23 (2003) McLuhan, M.: Understanding Media. The extensions of man. London and New York, pp. 24– 35 (2003) Freytag, G., MacEwan, E.J.: Freytag’s Technique of the drama: an exposition of dramatic composition and art. An authorized translation from the 6th German ed. by Elias J. MacEwan. Scott, Foresman, Chicago (2007). https://archive.org/details/freytagstechniqu00freyuoft Council Recommendation on Key Competences for Lifelong Learning. Key Competences. https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/297a33c8-a1f3-11e9-9d0101aa75ed71a1/language-en. Accessed 04 July 2022

Women in Front of and Behind the Camera. Analysis of the Representation of Society in Contemporary Spanish Cinema David Blanco-Herrero(B)

, María Marcos Ramos , and Teresa Martín García

University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain {david.blanco.herrero,mariamarcos,teresam}@usal.es

Abstract. Despite its advances in recent years, most studies have observed a gender gap in Spanish cinema, both in the lack of relevance of female directors and in the underrepresentation and stereotyping of female characters. Using a content analysis of 3029 characters from 129 Spanish movies of the 21st Century, this investigation has confirmed that female characters are far less common than male ones, their narrative objectives are less developed, they are more frequently sexualized, whereas male characters are more associated with violent behaviours. These differences decrease in movies directed by women, who tend to include more women, and more diverse characters beyond middle- or high-class educated hetero white Spanish male adults. Female characters in movies directed by women are less commonly sexualized and the differences with male ones are smaller in all aspects. Keywords: Gender gap · Spanish cinema · Female directors · Content analysis · Diversity

1 Introduction Spanish cinema has acquired great international prestige and has been able to adapt to the different changes resulting from technological development, such as the appearance of the internet and the recent development of streaming platforms. With a marked and acknowledged hallmark, it has renewed itself, introducing new stories, aesthetics and genres. Many of its works have been well received by the international public and have gone down in cinema history. This is the case of some works by well-known directors such as Pedro Almodóvar (Hable con ella, 2002), Alejandro Amenábar (Los otros, 2001), Álex de la Iglesia (El día de la bestia, 1995) or Isabel Coixet (Mi vida sin mí, 2003). The current panorama has nothing to envy that of past times and continues to be full of great talents who are standing out in the international cinematographic scenario: Juan Antonio Bayona, Jaume Collet-Serra, Nacho Vigalondo, Juan Carlos Fresnadillo or Rodrigo Cortés, are just a few of the names that currently stand out in the field of film directing and that in recent years have had a great international projection and have directed the work of renowned actors and actresses such as Anne Hathaway, Nicolas Cage, Liam Neeson or Ryan Reynolds. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 F. J. García-Peñalvo and A. García-Holgado (Eds.): TEEM 2022, LNET, pp. 747–754, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0942-1_77

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This brief journey through film direction in our country in this century already offers many clues about the gender gap that still persists in the world of Spanish cinema. The latest figures are alarming and show that female directors are still a minority. Of the 280 films that premiered in 2021 in Spain, only 12% were directed by women, according to data provided by the Association of Women Filmmakers and Audiovisual Media [1]. Despite the advances, inequality between men and women in the different cinematographic professional categories continues to be a reality, reflecting, among other issues, that a glass ceiling still persists that does not offer the same opportunities based on gender [2]. This situation has been verified with recent studies [1] that show that the positions in which women are more represented are those linked to traditional gender roles, such as costume design (88%) and makeup and hairdressing (74%), whereas there is greater equality in areas such as production management (59%) and art direction (55%). Research on cinema and gender relations has developed considerably in recent years in the Spanish academic context and has been studied from different perspectives. This research work reflects that there is great concern about problems such as the lack of parity in audiovisual direction and creation in a field in which male names continue to predominate [3–5]. The arrival of women in film directing has been evolving since the middle of the 20th Century, however, with few exceptions, their names do not resonate with the same force, and they continue to be much lower in number [6]. In recent years, the Spanish academia has addressed the work of women filmmakers [7–14] concluding that the number of female directors is still small and that their production tends to be more reduced than that of men. However, less researched are the differences presented the works of male and female directors through quantitative research. In this regard, it has been observed that female directors give the leading role to female characters over males [9]. Along with this need to study the lack of equality in the professional field of cinema, a large part of the research in this field has focused on analyzing audiovisual content in order to understand how narratives and character construction are like, and to what extent they can have certain social and cultural effects. For example, [10] focus not only on women filmmakers, but also study the representation of women in Spanish commercial cinema from 2011 to 2016, noting, among other aspects, that there are fewer female than male protagonists in Spanish feature films. More in detail, the types of goals, the type of character and the workplaces of women have also been studied, in which gender stereotypes are still perpetuated, and women continue to be represented through the family, the home and social relationships, with personal goals related to motherhood and in less prestigious jobs than men [15–19]. Another important aspect is the overrepresentation of female sexuality, in which the sexual activity of female characters is conditioned by attractiveness and age, and in which women must satisfy men [20]. In addition, there is a general trend of certain specific tasks for women, especially those related to child rearing, household care and reproduction, including material and psychological care of children, the elderly and patients [21]. In general, with the arrival and success of new female directors (for instance, Carla Simón or Pilar Palomero) it seems that something is changing in the representation of female characters, and it also seems that these characters have gained weight in films.

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The objective of our work is to know how the relationship between the cinematographic field of Spain and gender relations and representation has evolved. To do this, we use previous studies on gender representation in the Spanish audio-visual field as a basis [22, 23]. Specifically, we seek to verify whether there is a link between the director’s gender and the maintenance or suppression of certain gender stereotypes, the perpetuation or elimination of roles, hypersexualization and heteronormativity. With this, we will answer the following research questions: RQ1. Is there an under-representation of female characters in Spanish films? RQ1.1. Compared to works by female directors, is there a difference in the number of female characters in male directors’ films? RQ2. Is there a difference in the main sociodemographic aspects of the characters (sexual orientation, age, educational level, socioeconomic level, nationality and geographic origin, ethnicity) in male directors’ films compared with female’s? RQ3. Is there a difference in the type of occupations of the characters in male directors’ films compared with female’s? RQ4. Compared with works by female directors, is there a difference in the type of narrative objectives (personal/work goals) of female characters in male directors’ films? RQ5. Are characters more likely to be aggressors or victims of violence in male directors’ films compared with female’s? RQ6. Are female characters more commonly hypersexualized in Spanish films? RQ6.1. Compared to works by female directors, is there a difference in the number of hypersexualized female characters in male directors’ films?

2 Methodology 2.1 Sample The sample for this content analysis includes 129 Spanish films released between 2000 and 2021: those that were nominated for the Best Picture in the Goya awards, as well as the three with the highest grossing of each year according to the reports of the ICAA when they were not among the nominees. With these criteria, the 129 films obtained led to 3029 characters, which represents not only a very significant and representative sample, but also the largest analysis study of the representation of characters in Spanish cinema to date. The average number of characters per film was 23,48, being 7 (Caníbal, by Manuel Martín Cuenca, 2013) the minimum and 62 (Torrente 5, by Santiago Segura, 2014) the maximum number of characters per film. The list of films present in the sample can be seen in https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/29YWJ. 2.2 Codebook The analysis of the characters focused on humans that appear visually throughout the film and engage in dialogue with other characters (talking individuals) [24]. We shaped a codebook based on certain variables provided with specific modifications and variables taken from Álvarez-Hernández et al. [18], Marcos-Ramos [25] and Neuendorf [26]. The codebook included more than 90 variables, distributed in different groups; the ones used

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in this study were: gender of the director, general character data (including gender, sexual orientation, age, educational level, socioeconomic level, nationality, geographic origin, ethnicity, and occupation), narrative level of the character (type of goals defined in the film), hypersexualization of the character (following the concepts of the Geena Davis Institute on Gender in Media [27]), violent behaviours and victim of violent behaviours. With this instrument, the coding was carried out by several trained coders. After this process, another coder acted as inter-judge to test the reliability of the study variables by calculating the inter-coder reliability. For this, nine movies and their 326 characters were used, following the recommendations of Igartua [28] and using more than 10% of the sample. The values, calculated using Krippendorff’s alpha, were always satisfactory, with an average of 0.8682, being the lowest “The character is victim of harm against property” with 0.6262. More detail about all the Krippendorff’s alphas can be found in: https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/29YWJ.

3 Results There is a clear majority of male characters, with 1971 (65.3%), far from the 1041 female characters (34.5% of the sample). Conducting crosstabs and using Chi Square to compare the existence of differences regarding the narrative role of the characters (protagonist, secondary and background), no statistically significant differences were observed. However, there are significant differences when comparing the number of male and female characters in movies directed by men or women [χ2 (2) = 24.666, p < 0.001]. We can observe that female characters are significantly more common when the director is a woman, and the opposite is valid when the director is a man. Nonetheless, also in those movies directed by women the number of masculine characters is much greater than the one of female ones (910 compared to 131). When studying the rest of sociodemographic features of the characters, we do not observe statistically significant differences regarding the sexual orientation of the characters. However, the differences are significant regarding the age group of the characters [χ2 (4) = 11.874, p < 0.05], and movies directed by women tend to have more children and less adults. Female directors also include more characters without studies [χ2 (2) = 18.332, p < 0.001], something that could be also explained by the previous observation, given that children have not competed their studies yet. Furthermore, women directors also depict more characters with lower socioeconomical levels [χ2 (2) = 8.543, p < 0.05]. Finally, there are no differences based on the gender of the director regarding the nationality of the characters (whether they are nationals from the country were the action is set, foreigners temporary in that country or immigrants permanently in that country), however, there are statistically significant differences regarding the geographic origin of the characters [χ2 (5) = 111.007, p < 0.001] and regarding the ethnicity of the characters [χ2 (5) = 75.705, p < 0.001]. Thus, female directors show less characters from Spain and Africa, and more from other European countries, from the USA and Canada, and from Latin America; similarly, women show more Latin characters or with other ethnicities –here there are mostly Roma characters–, while men show more Caucasic characters. When focussing on the occupation, there are also significant differences [χ2 (16) = 79.933, p < 0.001], and movies directed by women have significantly more little business

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owners, more retired people, more students, whereas those directed by men have more office employees, police, armed, and security forces, and more people dedicated to criminal activities. Regarding the narrative objectives of the characters, there are significant differences between male and female characters in general. Male characters have significantly more frequently defined goals [χ2 (2) = 6.884, p < 0.05], something that applies both for work-related goals [χ2 (2) = 37.105, p < 0.001] and for personal goals [χ2 (2) = 32.355, p < 0.001]. However, female characters achieve their goals using sex significantly more commonly than male ones [χ2 (2) = 49.485, p < 0.001], whereas male characters achieve their goals significantly more commonly using violence [χ2 (2) = 58.003, p < 0.001]. These differences remain similar when the director is a man, but they are never significant when the director is a woman, showing that characters tend to have more equivalent narrative objectives in these cases. Similarly, there are significant differences regarding the gender of those committing major physical attacks, which are more commonly men [χ2 (2) = 35.554, p < 0.001]. The same happened when studying the characters committing minor physical attacks [χ2 (2) = 32.790, p < 0.001], harm against property [χ2 (2) = 49.290, p < 0.001], intimidation [χ2 (2) = 56.477, p < 0.001] and hostile comments [χ2 (2) = 56.477, p < 0.001]. At the same time, male characters were also more commonly victims of major physical attacks [χ2 (2) = 7.339, p < 0.05], minor physical attacks [χ2 (2) = 22.110, p < 0.001] and hostile comments [χ2 (2) = 6.873, p < 0.05], but with smaller size effects. These results are very similar when the director of the movie is a man, but in the cases in which the director is a women these differences are not significant anymore, except regarding the characters committing major physical attacks, still predominantly male [χ2 (2) = 9.433, p < 0.01]. Finally, female characters tend to be hypersexualized significantly more commonly than male ones [χ2 (2) = 154.383, p < 0.001]. This difference, however, does not exist when women are behind the cameras.

4 Discussion and Conclusions We can answer RQ1 by saying that female characters are, indeed, underrepresented in Spanish cinema. Answering RQ1.1, this also happens with movies directed by women, even the differences are smaller and female directors tend to show more female characters. In order to answer RQ2, we can say that there are significant differences regarding the sociodemographic features of characters in movies directed by men and women, mostly because female directors tend to show more diverse characters beyond middleor high-class educated hetero white Spanish male adults. These differences, however, should be further developed, especially because in some categories with less characters the effects of very few movies can be strong; for example, the overrepresentation of USA and Canadian characters among female directors is strongly influenced by two movies by Isabel Coixet set in Canada –Mi vida sin mí (2003) and Nadie quiere la noche (2015)–, whereas the overrepresentation of African characters among male directors come mostly from two movies partially set in Africa –Adú (Salvador Calvo, 2014) and El Niño (Daniel Monzón, 2014)–.

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Regarding RQ3, the occupations in movies directed by women are also more diverse, especially because there is a smaller presence of police and armed and security forces and criminals, something that later will also relate to the greater attention to violence paid by male directors. With this, we can assume that men tend to focus more on action, whereas women tend to offer more social stories. Differences regarding narrative objectives (RQ4) and violence (RQ5) are strong, and male characters are still the ones with more defined objectives and female ones are more commonly achieving them using sex. Similarly, male characters are more commonly perpetrators of different forms of violence and, although they are also more commonly the victims, differences are smaller in these cases. All these differences tend to disappear when the director is a woman, showing that characters are more balanced in these cases. In line with these observations, women are significantly more commonly hypersexualized (RQ6), and differences are strong here, but they happen only when directors are men, because these differences are not significant when directors are female (RQ6.1). In general, all this matches the comments made in the theoretical review conducted in the introduction, and two conclusions can be clearly reached: first, the depiction of women in Spanish cinema in the 21st Century is still limited and stereotyped; and second, when the directors are female this representation tends to be more diverse and the differences between male and female characters are blurred. In order to interpret all these observations, it should be noted that, apart from age, gender and ethnicity, which were inferred based on phenotypical features of the characters when no other narrative or dialogue aspect was present, the rest of the demographic conditions were only coded if they were clearly specified. Thus, the observations about the sexual orientation, the education and socioeconomical level, the geographic origin or the occupation were made with less characters; however, given the great sample size, even with these limitations the number of characters from which we had information for these analyses was more than adequate. Furthermore, we have always compared male and female, but trans, fluid or nonbinary characters were also taken into consideration in the statistical tests; however, given the limited amount (n = 7), they never offered significant results from which valid interpretations could be drawn. It should be noted an additional limitation, which is the impossibility to access four movies that, with the presented criteria, should have been part of the sample: El arte de morir (Álvaro Fernández Armero, 2000), El baile de la Victoria (Fernando Trueba, 2009), En la ciudad sin límites (Antonio Hernández, 2002) y Mortadelo y Filemón. Misión: Salvar la Tierra (Miguel Bardem, 2008). Any how, it is not expected that these movies would have a great impacto on our observations, especially because they are all from the first decade of the century and they were all directed by men. To conclude, this study has offered one of the most complete and ambitious approaches to the role of gender in Spanish cinema in the 21st Century, both regarding the characters and the directors. This goes in line with the interest in the academic field of Spain to study the representation of gender in cinema. However, there are still many gaps in this area that need to be further explored. Our study, with a much broader

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codebook, seeks to continue digging into aspects such as the interactions, the personality traits or the conversation topics of both male and female characters, trying to offer a more complete comprehension of gender differences in cinema. Acknowledgements. The authors would like to thank the work conducted by all the people who participated in the research: Javier Acevedo Nieto, Maximiliano Frías Vázquez, Alejandro García, Diana Mediavilla, Julia Palenzuela Zanca, Laura Rodríguez Contreras, Sergio Sevillano García y Margarita del Rocío Tovar Torrealba.

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16. García-Muñoz, N., Fedele, M., Gómez-Díaz, X.: The occupational roles of television fiction characters in Spain: Distinguishing traits. Comunicación y sociedad, 25(1), 349–366 (2012). http://dadun.unav.edu/handle/10171/27371 17. Menéndez, M.I.: Ponga una mujer en su vida: Análisis desde la perspectiva de género de las ficciones de TVE “Mujeres” y “Con dos tacones” (2005–2006)”. Área abierta 14(3), 61–80 (2014). https://doi.org/10.5209/rev_ARAB.2014.v14.n3.45722 18. Álvarez-Hernández, C., González de Garay, B., Frutos-Esteban, F.J.: Gender representation in contemporary Spanish teen films (2009–2014). Rev. Lat. Comun. Soc. 70(8), 934–960 (2015). https://doi.org/10.4185/RLCS-2015-1079 19. Lacalle, C., Gómez, B.: La representación de la mujer en el contexto familiar de la ficción televisiva española. Commun. Soc. 24(47), 59–67 (2016). https://doi.org/10.3916/C47-201 6-06 20. Lacalle, C., Castro, D.: Representations of female sexuality in Spanish television fiction. Convergencia. Revista de Ciencias Sociales 24(75), 45–64 (2017). https://www.redalyc.org/ pdf/105/Resumenes/Resumen_10552722002_1.pdf 21. Plaza-Sánchez, J.F., Sangro-Colón, P.S.: La representación de las mujeres en el cine y la televisión contemporáneos. Laertes, Barcelona (2010) 22. González-de-Garay, B., Marcos-Ramos, M., Portillo-Delgado, C.: Gender representation in Spanish prime-time TV series. Fem. Media Stud. 20(3), 414–433 (2020). https://doi.org/10. 1080/14680777.2019.1593875 23. De-Caso-Bausela, E., González-de-Garay, B., Marcos-Ramos, M.: Representación de género en las series generalistas de televisión españolas emitidas en prime time (2017–2018). El profesional de la información 29(2) (2020). https://doi.org/10.3145/epi.2020.mar.08 24. Koeman, J., Peeters, A., d’Haenens, L.: Diversity Monitor 2005. Diversity as a quality aspect of television in the Netherlands. Communications 32(1), 97–121 (2007). https://doi.org/10. 1515/COMMUN.2007.005 25. Marcos, M.: La imagen de los inmigrantes en la ficción televisiva de prime time. Análisis y recomendaciones para los profesionales. Doxa Comunicación. Revista Interdisciplinar De Estudios De Comunicación y Ciencias Sociales 18, 206 (2014). https://revistascientificas.usp ceu.com/doxacomunicacion/article/view/975 26. Neuendorf, K.A.: The Content Analysis Guidebook. Sage, Estados Unidos, Thousand Oaks (2002) 27. Geena Davis Institute on Gender in Media: Gender bias without borders: an investigation of female characters in popular films across 11 countries (2014). https://seejane.org/wp-content/ uploads/gender-bias-without-borders-full-report.pdf 28. Igartua, J.J.: Métodos cuantitativos de investigación en comunicación. Editorial Bosch, Barcelona (2006)

Chatbot to Provide Initial Assistance to Erasmus Students in Case of Emergency Roberto Fermín García Mena1 , Antonio Balderas1(B) , Milagros Huerta2 Juan Manuel Dodero1 , and Nestor Mora Nuñez3

,

1 Departamento de Ingeniería Informática, Universidad de Cádiz, Puerto Real, Spain

[email protected], {antonio.balderas, Juanma.dodero}@uca.es 2 Departamento Ingeniería Mecánica y Diseño Industrial, Universidad de Cádiz, Puerto Real, Spain [email protected] 3 Departamento Ingeniería en Automática, Electrónica, Arquitectura y Redes de Computadores, Universidad de Cádiz, Puerto Real, Spain [email protected]

Abstract. Erasmus students spend part of their academic stage in a foreign country, which enriches their experience significantly. During the second semester of the 2019–20 academic year and due to the COVID-19 pandemic, many students found themselves isolated and confined in a country that was not their own. Students lived with uncertainty and many doubts about what they could and could not do, while the Erasmus offices of the host universities could not cope with the many and varied issues. This paper proposes a contingency solution for an efficient communication with those students and the Erasmus offices based on a chatbot that serves as the first layer of attention to the Erasmus student facing an emergency. The chatbot has been developed within an Erasmus project with the participation of six European universities, and the first experiences gathered from its use have been very positive. Keywords: Chatbot · Erasmus · Emergencies · COVID-19

1 Introduction Emergencies arise unexpectedly and force institutions to make decisions and establish protocols for action for citizens [1]. That was the case for educational institutions in dealing with the situation brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic, having to take measures to continue teaching remotely [2, 3]. In this context, educational institutions must provide particular support to Erasmus students [4]. These students were in a country that was not their own and needed advice and information on how to act from the host institution. Therefore, the number of different problems to solve overwhelmed Erasmus offices: from basic issues such as whether we can go shopping, to more complex ones about the possibility of travelling home or psychological issues arising from the situation. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 F. J. García-Peñalvo and A. García-Holgado (Eds.): TEEM 2022, LNET, pp. 755–763, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0942-1_78

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This work takes place within the Research for Innovative Practices in Emergency Management of Erasmus (RIPEC) project. The project aims at gathering the experiences of university staff and students with the purpose of recognizing the main challenges and identifying innovative solutions for Erasmus mobility in case of emergency. The solution presented in this paper is a chatbot, one of the outputs of the project. The chatbot to provide initial support to Erasmus students is based on a database of information that collects the different circumstances that these students may face in an emergency. In this way, the main objective of this work is to provide students with a quick and efficient communication in a usable and friendly environment. Furthermore, this would alleviate the workload of the Erasmus offices under this situation, whereby they would only be contacted for more specific issues that the chatbot could not respond. The chatbot is implemented using the DialogFlow platform. Erasmus staff from the universities involved in the RIPEC project tested it.

2 Background The emergencies that can occur in education are the same as for the general population: natural phenomena, pandemics or wars, etc. These kinds of events change people’s lives. In these contexts, people have to change how they work to adapt to the new reality, and technologies have been a fundamental pillar in achieving this. The software that has had a great boom in these emergency contexts are those programs used for videoconferencing. During the confinement due to the COVID-19 pandemic, most faculty decided to continue synchronous teaching using videoconferencing tools [5]. Another emergency scenario can be found in the context of the invasion of Ukraine. In this situation, videoconferencing has also been used to assist in surgical operations [6]. During the pandemic and mostly during the period of confinement, students were not able to attend tutorials with their professors or meet with other classmates to work. Chatbots have been used in education to support teachers in student classes and, above all, to allow students to work remotely without depending on the physical presence of the instructor. Computer engineering students used this chatbot during the pandemic to support faculty in databases teaching, having a very good reception [7]. A situation that strongly affects higher education students is stress, a discomfort that affects their personal life. This work presented a VR chatbot to offer a therapy service to students in stressful situations [8]. With the aim of helping students in their university life and the services available to them, the LiSA chatbot [9] was designed. This chatbot was used in several Italian universities and proved very useful, highlighting that most of the students’ questions were related to exams or class sessions. This work, motivated by the needs of Erasmus students during the COVID-19 pandemic, aims to provide a solution to help in such situations, serving as a first layer of communication in emergencies, also providing useful service information.

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3 Chatbot In this section, the chatbot is described technically, starting with the design, then showing the implementation details and ending with the basic interaction scheme between users and the chatbot. 3.1 Chatbot Design and Construction with DialogFlow Dialogflow has been used for the design and construction of the chatbot. Dialogflow is a platform designed by Google that allows the simple creation of conversational bots. Dialogflow provides a platform and interface already configured, and easy integration with other services. For the RIPEC chatbot, two implementations have been carried out: a chat integrated into the project website and a Telegram bot. For the web integration of the project, the Dialogflow Messenger service was used. It provides an HTML code that must be pasted into the code of the website that generates a floating button that opens a chat window when clicked. To create the Telegram bot, it was necessary to use another bot named BotFather. BotFather generates a unique token that identifies the new bot. This token was pasted into the appropriate text box on the Dialogflow Integrations screen. Regarding language recognition systems and the elaboration of automatic responses, the Dialogflow tools used are Knowledge connectors and Intents. 3.1.1 Knowledge Connectors Knowledge connectors are a Dialogflow tool that allows the system to train itself by parsing different documents written in natural language. This method is suitable for including many questions with text answers and is therefore particularly useful for creating an interactive Frequently Ask Question website (FAQ). Thus, the Knowledge connector used in this project is based on a FAQ published on the official RIPEC website1 . In this case, Dialogflow reads the page and parses it to obtain question/answer pairs. The main advantage of this method is that it does not require additional updating work, as the system scans the website daily for changes and automatically includes them in its database. Knowledge connectors are a very useful tool in many situations but have limitations in providing tailored responses to each situation. To provide personalized responses and build more complex conversations, it is necessary to use another tool called Intent. 3.1.2 Intents Intents are structures to categorize user interactions, enabling the creation of responses that are specifically adapted to each conversation. A more complex chatbot will have more Intents. A basic Intent contains the following information:

1 https://www.ripec-project.eu/faq/.

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• Training phrases: phrases the user can use. It is not necessary to include variations of the same sentence. If it is necessary to extract relevant Parameters from interactions, it is useful to include examples of sentences in which they are used. • Parameters: the system can look for important data in user interactions. Parameters are grouped according to the type of Entity they represent. Dialogflow provides many defaults Entity types (e.g., cities, dates or numbers) but it is possible to create custom ones. For this chatbot, Entities were created to detect names of universities or specific data of the different services (e.g., telephone numbers, e-mails or opening hours). • Responses: information that is sent back to the user. The extracted Parameter values can be used within the responses to assure the user that they have been properly recorded. In addition to this, the Intent contains some extra tools to add complexity to conversations and responses. This project has used the following: • Context: a structure that contains information relevant to all or part of the conversation. This chatbot collects in the context the university where the student is studying or the student’s country of origin. • Fulfillment: feature that allows the connection of Dialogflow with a Webhook service. When a message is matched to an Intent with Fulfillment enabled, a request with all extracted data is sent to the linked Webhook service. This service handles the processing of the response based on the information available to it. 3.2 Webhook Tools Two other Google services have been used to create the Webhook for this chatbot: Google Apps Script and Google Drive. 3.2.1 Google Apps Script Apps Script is a platform that allows the development of applications that are very easy to integrate with the company’s most popular services (such as Gmail, Drive or Calendar). One of the most common uses of this service is the creation of Macros to automate processes, but this same system also allows the creation of web apps. For this chatbot, a service was needed to respond to POST requests with a JSON containing the structured information that would allow Dialogflow to elaborate the response to the bot user. The programming language is based on Javascript with some specific libraries to work with the different services. To implement the required behavior, it is necessary to create a function called doPost (name reserved for this purpose) with an input parameter that will store the information from the POST request. This function shall return an object of a special type called TextOutput containing the information of the response to the request. Finally, it is necessary to deploy the application. 3.2.2 Google Drive Google Sheets has been used to store the information necessary to elaborate the bot’s answers. The reasons for their choice are as follows:

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• Ease of use: some of the information had to be filled in by staff from the different universities participating in the project and Google Sheets provides an interface that most people are familiar with. • Small amount of information: it was not foreseen to work with large volumes of information, so there was no need for an overly complex storage system. • Good integration with Google Apps Script: Apps Script uses libraries that allow easy communication with this spreadsheet service. To keep the information organized, the document has different sheets to store the information about the countries, their embassies, universities and the services they offer. To avoid errors, the cells containing important information for the operation of the system have been locked so that they can only store a series of present values. This ensures that the same service or university always appears with exactly the same name in all rows where it is used. 3.3 Interaction Scheme The basic scheme of a user’s interaction with the system is shown in Fig. 1. It should be noted that, in this scheme, the tools and options used for this project are shown, but they are not the only ones available. As mentioned above, a user has two ways to interact with the bot: an integrated chat on the project’s website and through the Telegram messaging application. Dialogflow processes the messages and compares them with the questions stored in the Knowledge connectors FAQ and with the Training Phrases of the Intents. In case of multiple matches, the platform allows you to configure the order of preference of the answers.

Fig. 1. Interaction scheme

The simplest case is when there is a match with the FAQ. In that case, the system will return the text with the response and will wait for another interaction. On the other hand, if the message matches an Intent, the system will extract the parameters it finds and sends all the information to the webhook service. If all the necessary Parameters have been detected, the application will read the data from Google Sheets and the message that must be sent to the user will be returned. Otherwise, a

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message will be sent requesting the necessary Parameters. In any case, all the information collected from the user will be stored in a Context so that it can be used within the same conversation. Finally, if no match occurs, a default Intent is fired, alerting the user that their query could not be resolved.

4 Evaluation The chatbot evaluation is divided into two subsections. In the first, an example of the interaction between the learner and the chatbot is shown. In the second, the characteristics of a survey conducted with staff related to the international offices of the different universities participating in the project are detailed. 4.1 Interaction Example Figure 2 shows an example of a conversation carried out in the chat integrated in the project website. The conversation starts with the chatbot greeting the user. Next, the user asks a question. In this case, the system understands that it must provide information about the university’s student help service, although there are several other services for more specific problems (e.g. health problems, accommodation or psychological help). In addition, the system detects that a fundamental parameter is missing to provide personalized

Fig. 2. Example of conversation in the project website chat

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help, so it requests it. The Intent that has been activated is saved in a Context to provide the service information when the user enters the missing data. As the user has not requested any specific data, the bot’s response contains all the available information. In this example, the university staff has provided us with the phone number and a link to the service’s website. Finally, information about the user’s university is stored in a permanent Context in case it is needed for other requests within the same conversation. 4.2 Questionnaire Once the chatbot implementation work has been completed, Erasmus program staff from the six universities participating in the project have used it. These universities are The University of Tuscia (Italy), Scuola Superiore Carolina Albasio (Italy), Universidad de Cadiz (Spain), Panteio Panepistmio Koinonikon Kaipolitikon Epistimon (Greece), Wyzsza Szkola Kultury Spolecznej i Medialnej (Poland) and University Univerzita Jana Evangelisty Purkyne V Usti Nad Labem (Czech Republic). The chatbot was presented at a meeting involving members of the six universities, then they were invited to use it, and finally they were provided with a survey to measure the chatbot’s usability based on the Borsci et al. scale [10].

5 Results After testing the chatbot, 14 responses were obtained from staff from the 6 universities participating in the RIPEC project, with the results discussed below. Table 1 shows the 15 questions together with their category and the average rating obtained for each of them. It should be noted that the rating was done on a 5-point Likert scale, so the score will range from 1 to 5 points. The first requirement we pursue in building the chatbot is that users can easily initiate a conversation and reach their goal. This is measured by perceived accessibility to chatbot functions (PA). For these items, the users’ rating is 4 points, i.e., they agree on average with the statement (Q01-Q02). Secondly, seven items (Q03-Q09) were proposed to measure perceived quality of chatbot functions (PQ), i.e., the chatbot’s ability to transmit its function and use the information available on screen to direct the conversation correctly to what the user expects. In this case, item Q09 stands out with 4.5 points, i.e., there is a considerable majority stating that the chatbot’s answers are easy to understand. The rest of the items are around 4 points (between 3.78 and 4.07), except for Q08 which is at 3.71. However, Q08 refers to the chatbot being able to follow up on conversations when the line of conversation is unclear. There is no doubt that this item is a difficult requirement to achieve and yet its score is closer to 4 (agree) than 3 (neither agree nor disagree). Thirdly, the survey measures the perceived quality of conversation and information provided (PC). It is about measuring the chatbot’s ability to engage in a conversation in an appropriate way, providing the information that the user expects and in an accurate manner. For this, four items are used that score close to 4 points (between 3.85 and 3.92). Finally, perceived privacy and security (PPS) and, time response (TR) are measured, with one item for each. In this case, the scores were 4.5 points in both cases, evidencing the achievement of these objectives.

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To check the validity of the survey, an Alpha Cronbach test was conducted on all items as a whole, obtaining a high confidence (0.92). The results obtained after the analysis of the measured attributes were significantly positive. While there is still room for improvement, the assessment of staff who using the chatbot is very satisfactory. Table 1. Summary of item results: id, category, item, average, and standard deviation rating. Id

Cat

Items

Avg

SD

Q01

PA

The chatbot function was easily detectable

4.00

1.03

Q02

PA

It was easy to find the chatbot

4.00

1.03

Q03

PQ

Communicating with the chatbot was clear

4.07

0.91

Q04

PQ

I was immediately made aware of what information the chatbot can give me

3.85

1.23

Q05

PQ

The interaction with the chatbot felt like an ongoing conversation

3.92

1.14

Q06

PQ

The chatbot was able to keep track of context

4.07

0.91

Q07

PQ

The chatbot was able to make references to the website or service when appropriate

3.78

1.31

Q08

PQ

The chatbot could handle situations in which the line of conversation was not clear

3.71

0.72

Q09

PQ

The chatbot’s responses were easy to understand

4.5

0.65

Q10

PC

I find that the chatbot understands what I want and helps me achieve my goal

3.92

1.20

Q11

PC

The chatbot gives me the appropriate amount of information

3.85

1.16

Q12

PC

The chatbot only gives me the information I need

3.92

1.26

Q13

PC

I feel like the chatbot’s responses were accurate

3.92

1.14

Q14

PPS

The interaction with the chatbot felt secure in terms of privacy

4.51

0.85

Q15

TR

My waiting time for a response from the chatbot was short

4.5

0.75

6 Conclusions This paper presents a chatbot to support Erasmus students who may find themselves in an emergency such as the one experienced during COVID-19 and the lockdown. The chatbot aims to be a first stage of contact between these students and the international offices of the host institutions. For this task, the chatbot must have a database with relevant information on how to act in these situations according to the institution and the country where the student is. This work takes place within the Erasmus RIPEC project. The chatbot has been implemented with Google’s DialogFlow technology. To evaluate the implementation, the chatbot has been used by the universities participating in the European project staff. The results gathered from its use are very satisfactory; the chatbot meets the expectations of the staff of these educational institutions. The next

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step will be to put the chatbot at the service of the students so that it can be used in case emergencies happen again. Acknowledgements. This work has been supported by the Research for Innovative Practices in Emergency Management of Erasmus (RIPEC) project, within the Erasmus programme, and by the CRÊPES project, funded by the Spanish National Research Agency (AEI) using ERDF funds (ref. PID2020-115844RB-I00).

References 1. van de Walle, B., Turoff, M.: Decision support for emergency situations. In: Handbook on Decision Support Systems 2. International Handbooks Information System, pp 39–63. Springer, Heidelberg (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-48716-6_3 2. García-Peñalvo, F.J., Corell, A., Rivero-Ortega, R., et al.: Impact of the COVID-19 on higher education: an experience-based approach. In: Information Technology Trends for a Global and Interdisciplinary Research Community. IGI Global, pp. 1–18 (2021) 3. Grande-De-Prado, M., García-Peñalvo, F. J., Corell Almuzara, A., Abella-García, V.: Higher Education assessment during COVID-19 pandemic. Campus virtuales, 10(1), 49–58 (2021) 4. Koris, R., Mato-Díaz, F.J., Hernández-Nanclares, N.: From real to virtual mobility: Erasmus students’ transition to online learning amid the COVID-19 crisis. Eur Educ Res J 20(4), 463–478 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1177/14749041211021247 5. Iglesias-Pradas, S., Hernández-García, Á., Chaparro-Peláez, J., Prieto, J.L.: Emergency remote teaching and students’ academic performance in higher education during the COVID19 pandemic: a case study. Comput. Hum. Behav. 119, 106713 (2021). https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.chb.2021.106713 6. Best, J.: From Ukraine to remote robotics: how videoconferencing and next generation technology are transforming surgery. BMJ o1078 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.o1078 7. Balderas, A., Baena-Pérez, R., Person, T., et al.: Chatbot-based learning platform for SQL training. Int. J. Interact. Multimed. Artif. Intell. (2022, in Press) https://doi.org/10.9781/iji mai.2022.05.003 8. Lin, A.P.C., Trappey, C.V., Luan, C.-C., et al.: A Test Platform for Managing School Stress Using a Virtual Reality Group Chatbot Counseling System. Appl Sci 11(19), 9071 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/app11199071 9. Kurosu, M. (ed.): LNCS, vol. 10903. Springer, Cham (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3319-91250-9 10. Borsci, S., et al.: The chatbot usability scale: the design and pilot of a usability scale for interaction with AI-based conversational agents. Pers. Ubiquit. Comput. 26(1), 95–119 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00779-021-01582-9

New Technologies to Quit Smoking. Analysis of Mobile Applications Available for iPhone Laura Rodríguez-Contreras(B)

and Juan-José Igartua

University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain {laurarodriguezcontreras,jigartua}@usal.es

Abstract. Mobile apps are one of the most widely used interventions for smoking prevention and treatment in recent years. This study sets out to examine the content of free Spanish-language smoking cessation apps that were distributed through AppStore. 29 applications that met the selection criteria were included. Calculator apps (48.3%) and progressive quitting apps (44.8%) were the most common. In general, the user did not have to create a profile, to include nicotine dependence, or to include length of time smoking or motivation to quit. The number of cigarettes smoked per day and the fact of establishing a D-Day were elements that were requested from the user when starting to use the application. Among the most common components were receiving daily progress updates, receiving notifications, general advice to quit smoking and tracking cravings. Finally, only 27.6% had been tested or evaluated and only 17.2% published works were found with the results of the evaluation of the application. In conclusion, it is necessary to carry out a more exhaustive review of the smoking cessation applications available, as well as to encourage the development of evidence-based applications for smoking cessation that consider the characteristics and needs of users. Keywords: mHealth · Smoking cessation · iPhone · Tobacco · Mobile applications

1 Introduction In Spain, tobacco is the second most widespread psychoactive substance in the population and causes more than 50,000 deaths per year, being the cause of 13% of all annual deaths [1]. In fact, smoking is the highest health and social cost that Spanish society must face due to the diseases caused by tobacco. However, this economic, health and human expense is avoidable [2]. In this sense, tobacco support and treatment interventions are a solution to this problem since these interventions show a very favorable costeffectiveness ratio [3]. One of the most used interventions in recent years for the treatment of smoking are mobile applications. This is because smartphones have become a basic element of our daily lives and, with it, the use of mobile applications. In fact, there are currently around 325,000 health applications [4]. In this sense, at least 400 mobile applications are currently available to quit smoking and around 780,000 are downloaded per month © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 F. J. García-Peñalvo and A. García-Holgado (Eds.): TEEM 2022, LNET, pp. 764–771, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0942-1_79

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worldwide [5–7]. In this way, mobile health applications, also known as mHealth, have the potential to transform the way health services are provided by offering health information more quickly [8]. Therefore, mHealth is part of what is called eHealth (or technology at the service of health) and includes the use of mobile devices in the collection, delivery, and access to health information by professionals, researchers, and patients. Although mHealth is an emerging and rapidly developing field, it has the potential to play a key role in the transformation of healthcare to increase its quality and efficiency, and whose mission is to complement rather than replace traditional healthcare [9]. In fact, mobile health technology (mHealth) is a promising tool to engage patients in their own health care because most people own and regularly use a mobile phone, and therefore mHealth is a very appropriate medium to deliver health information [10]. The use of mobile health apps verifiably leads to higher levels of autonomy and increases perceived self-efficacy. Mobile health apps have the potential to help people with and without a clinical diagnosis to promote desired behaviors [11]. Even though there are many mobile applications on the market (both for Android and IOS devices), we find that they suffer from three important problems: a) on many occasions the theoretical evidence bases on which they are based is unknow b) the empirical results obtained on their efficacy or effectiveness as intervention tools are inconclusive; and c) for the most part, the mobile applications for smoking cessation available only include simplistic elements such as calculators. In fact, despite the high number of Apps and downloads, the scientific community establishes that it is necessary to test the efficacy of the treatments they offer, since many of the applications available in stores do not adapt to the established guidelines [6, 12–14].

2 Objectives The main objective of the study is to carry out a content analysis of mobile applications to quit smoking available on IOS for free to analyze the basic components of said applications, as well as whether they consist of empirical evidence or a test of their effectiveness. For it, the following specific objectives were established: O1. Identify in the AppStore which applications are available for free for smokers. O2. Check how many of the applications in the AppStore have a theoretical foundation or have been tested. O3. Describe the basic components of mobile applications to quit smoking available on IOS for free.

3 Method 3.1 Sample The present study examined the content of free applications in Spanish to quit smoking available in the AppStore (iPhone) between November-December 2021. A total of 168 applications for iPhone were identified through the words “dejar de fumar” “fumar” and “stop smoking”, of which 29 met the selection criteria. First, it should be noted that there are multiple applications to quit smoking on the market, in fact, previous studies such as

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the one by Abroms et al. [6] located a total of 400 applications to quit smoking on IOS and Android. Studies such as Abroms et al. [6] limit the sample considering the most popular applications (both IOS and Android). This criterion was not applied, since the AppStore does not include the number of downloads. On the other hand, if those with the highest score were considered popular, it could be that an application was more popular but only had one rating. In addition, reviews such as the one by Haskins et al. [13] observed that some of the applications were not found with terms or plain language in store search engines, for example, they observed that the SmokeFree28 application that consisted of empirical evidence did not appear among the list of the 50 best apps to quit smoking. Therefore, to have a more general vision and considering that the large volume of applications exceeded the available resources, the decision was made to analyze only applications available on IOS, free and in Spanish: • Mobile applications available in the AppStore. Considering the high volume of apps on both platforms, we focus on the AppStore as this store requires the app to meet certain criteria to be listed and maintained on the AppStore. Therefore, we consider that the applications available in this store have a previous quality filter by the platform itself. • Free download mobile applications. Due to the scarcity of available resources, the analysis was limited to free downloadable mobile applications. • Mobile applications in Spanish. As the objective is to know the applications that smokers in Spain can enjoy, only those applications available in Spanish were selected (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Flowchart of IOS applications selected for analysis.

3.2 Procedure The study analyzed the main components of the applications with the aim of deepening the knowledge of what characteristics the smoking cessation applications available on

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the market have. Coding was carried out by two coders. The average agreement between the evaluators was carried out with 10% of the total sample (N = 10) and the inter-rater agreement was calculated based on Krippendorff´s Alpha (>.70). The code book was structured in four different blocks of questions: • Block one: encoder identification questions were displayed. • Block two: included questions to identify each application (e. g. identification number, place where the application is developed, developer, etc.) as well as the words or groups of words with which the application has been in the AppStore and if it has content under payment once the application is downloaded • Block three: Basic features of the application. It includes items referring to the elements that the application offers when it is installed (e. g. profile creation, dependency evaluation, if the user sets a date to quit smoking, etc.) as well as the type of application (e. g. calculator, game, hypnosis, informative), the general components of the application (e. g. includes prizes, daily updates, progress, notifications, information about tobacco, tips…) as well as if it includes additional information (e. g. helpline, external resources, drug recommendation, etc.). • Block four: items were included to establish whether the application had been evaluated and whether there were published works on the evaluation of the application (Table 1).

Table 1. Inter-coder reliability data. Variable

Krippendorff´s Alpha

Variable identification Main objective of the apps

1.00

Price of the app (free or not)

1.00

Price of the app (in-app purchases)

1.00

Developer (country)

1.00

Developer (individuals, private companies, university…)

0.75

Main components Profile

1.00

Nicotine dependence evaluation

0.74

Nicotine dependence evaluation (Fagerström Test)

0.76

Evaluation of the motivation to quit

1.00

Number of cigarettes smoked per day

1.00

D-Day (day for quitting)

0.74

User age

1.00 (continued)

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Variable

Krippendorff´s Alpha

Time smoking

1.00

Prices or badges

1.00

Updates

1.00

Smokeless cigarettes update

1.00

Money saved update

0.80

Improved health update

0.80

Time without smoking update

0.74

Notifications

1.00

Information on tobacco and its consequences

1.00

Benefits of quitting smoking

0.80

General advice

0.79

Personalized advice

1.00

Other elements Tracking of cravings or relapses

0.79

Relaxation techniques

0.80

Links (external resources)

0.60

Share achievements (social networks)

0.74

Evaluation App evaluated or tested

1.00

Published works

1.00

4 Results The main objective of the applications considered for the analysis (n = 29) was 48.3% calculators, 44.8% applications to gradually quit smoking and 6.9% were classified as other. It should be noted that, despite considering only free apps, 62.1% included inapp purchases. Therefore, even though the download was free, many of the components were blocked and the user had to pay for them. Likewise, it is important to highlight that most of them are applications developed outside of Spain (75.9%) and by individuals (51.5%) or private companies (24.1%). In this regard, it was observed that the apps categorized as calculator were developed either by private companies (35.7%) or individuals (64.3%) and were mostly developed outside Spain (85.7%). Those apps with a plan to quit smoking in a progressive manner are those developed by a university (Quitmedikit), a hospital (DayQ-stop smoking), an association (Respirapp) and an organization or institute (S’acabó). Also, three applications developed in collaboration with the above (Stop Tobacco Mobile Trainer, Kwit and Smoke Free) were found.

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Regarding the main components when installing the application, it was observed that in less than half of the applications (34.5%) the user created a profile. In this case, it is in calculator applications that users create fewer profiles. Only 21.4% of the calculator applications (n = 3) allowed the user to create a profile. Compared to 46.2% of applications to gradually quit smoking. Likewise, only 17.2% of all the applications analyzed evaluated nicotine dependence and, of these, only 6.9% (n = 2) did so through the Fagerström Test [15]. Similar results are observed in relation to the evaluation of the motivation to quit smoking, only 17.2% include this element. However, most of the applications (72.4%) asked the user the number of cigarettes smoked per day, as well as the fact of including a D-Day (day for quitting) (72.4%), but not other elements to personalize your profile or smoking quitting process such as age (only asked in two of the applications) or the time you have been smoking (only 17.5% include this information). Among the general components that free applications on the market usually include is the fact of receiving prizes or badges (48.3%) or receiving updates on their progress (82.8%). Many of them show progress through graphs of cigarettes not smoked (55.2%), money saved (65.5%), improved health (51.7%) and time without smoking (58.6%). Likewise, most of the applications include notifications or alert messages (72.4%). They normally do not include information on tobacco and its consequences (20.7%) or on the benefits of quitting smoking (41.4%). Although more than half included general advice (55.2%), only 6.9% (n = 2) included personalized advice considering the information provided by the user. Other elements that are observed in the applications is the tracking of cravings or relapses (51.7%), however, most of the users do not indicate the number of cigarettes smoked (37.9%), a new date of abandonment (13.8%) and the user does not indicate his state of mind after the relapse (10.3%). Other complementary elements that some of the reviewed applications include are relaxation techniques (34.5%), incorporating external resources to the application through links (e.g., links to web pages with additional information) (24.1%) or being able to share achievements through social networks (20.7%). Finally, it is important to highlight that of the total number of applications, only 31% of them were found to have been evaluated and only 17.2% of published works with the results of the evaluation were found.

5 Conclusions The aim of this study was to determine which smoking cessation apps have been developed based on empirical evidence and to determine the availability of such apps on the market, although it has been observed that many of the existing free applications on IOS have not been tested or have been developed by experts, it is true that there are others that can help you during your attempt to quit smoking by smoker, such as S’acabó, from SEDET (Society of specialists in smoking cessation), Stop Tobacco Mobile Trainer, created by psychologists with the support of the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, or Respirapp developed by psychologists from the AECC (Spanish Association Against Cancer). Therefore, although many applications contain specific components to quit

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smoking and motivate the smoker, in the vast majority they are not based on empirical evidence. The results of the present study are consistent with those of meta-analyses and reviews by other authors. In general, previous studies agree that most mobile apps rely on calculators [5, 6]. Moreover, very few apps are based on empirical evidence [13, 16]. This study was limited to iPhone apps in the AppStore at the time of analysis, a limitation given that apps are frequently added to and removed from the AppStore. Also, only those that were downloadable and free are part of the study. On the other hand, the search was limited to the applications that appeared for the terms “dejar de fumar”, “fumar”, or “stop smoking”, so the current frequency data may be biased towards the populations that use this term more frequently. Future research can delve into the analysis of mobile applications that exist to quit smoking in Spain, also considering Android applications (because it is the operating system that most people in Spain use) and not having consider only the free ones. Therefore, it is necessary to carry out a more exhaustive review of the smoking cessation applications available on the market, as well as to encourage the development of evidence-based applications for smoking cessation that consider the characteristics and needs of users. In conclusion, in an era in which the prevalence of smartphones and their associated applications has skyrocketed, it is relevant to explore the applications of these devices to promote public health, specifically, smoking cessation. In this sense, the present study sheds light on the tested and evaluated applications, as well as the applications that are available to the smokers. Acknowledgements. It should be highlighted that this study the study was made possible thanks to FPU Predoctoral Program of the Ministry of Universities (Grant Ref. FPU17/05799).

References 1. Asociación Española Contra el Cáncer (aecc): Tabaquismo y Cáncer en España. Situación Actual (2018). https://www.aecc.es/sites/default/files/content-file/Informe-tabaquisimo-can cer-20182.pdf. Accessed 21 June 2022 2. World Health Organization: Tobacco (2017). http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs3 39/en/. Accessed 21 June 2022 3. Farrelly, M., Hussin, A., Bauer, U.: Effectiveness and cost effectiveness of television, radio and print advertisements in promoting the New York smokers’ quitline. Tobacco Control 21(3) (2007). https://doi.org/10.1136/tc.2007.019984 4. Statista: Number of mHealth apps available in the Apple App Store from 1st quarter 2015 to 2nd quarter 2019 [Graph] (2019). https://www.statista.com/statistics/779910/health-appsavailable-ios-worldwide/. Accessed 19 June 2022 5. Abroms, L.C., Padmanabhan, N., Thaweethai, L., Phillips, T.: iPhone apps for smoking cessation: a content analysis. Am. J. Prevent. Med. 40(3), 279–285 (2011). https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.amepre.2010.10.032 6. Abroms, L.C., Westmaas, J.L., Bontemps-Jones, J., Ramani, R., Mellerson, J.: A content analysis of popular smarphone apps for smoking cessation. Natl. Inst. Health 45(6) (2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2013.07.008 7. Heffner, J.L., Vilardaga, R., Mercer, L.D., Kientz, J., Bricker, J.B.: Feature-level analysis of a novel smartphone application for smoking cessation. Am. J. Drug Alcohol Abuse 41(1), 68–73 (2015). https://doi.org/10.3109/00952990.2014.977486

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8. Marcolino, M.S., Oliveira, J.A.Q., D’Agostino, M., Ribeiro, A.L., Alkmim, M.B.M., NovilloOrtiz, D.: The impact of mHealth interventions: systematic review of systematic reviews. JMIR Mhealth Uhealth 6(1). https://doi.org/10.2196/mhealth.8873 9. Alonso-Arévalo, J., Mirón-Canelo, J.A.: Aplicaciones móviles en salud: potencial, normativa de seguridad y regulación. Revista Cubana de Información en Ciencias de la Salud 28(3) (2017) 10. Schnall, R., et al.: A user-centered model for designing consumer mobile health (mHealth) applications (apps). J. Biomed. Inform. 60, 243–251 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbi. 2016.02.002 11. Bakker, D., Kazantzis, N., Rickwood, D., Rickard, N.: Mental health smartphone apps: review and evidence-based recommendations for future developments. JMIR Mental Health 3(1) (2016). https://doi.org/10.2196/mental.4984 12. Gulati, G.K., Hinds, B.J.: Smoking cessation potential of smartphone-assisted behavioral therapy coupled to programmable carbon nanotube membrane nicotine delivery device. Crit. Rev. Ther. Drug Carrier Syst. 35(6), 495–520 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1615/CritRevTherD rugCarrierSyst.2018020331 13. Haskins, B.L., Lesperance, D., Gibbons, P., Boudreaux, E.D.: A systematic review of smartphone applications for smoking cessation. Transl. Behav. Med. 7(2), 292–299 (2017). https:// doi.org/10.1007/s13142-017-0492-2 14. Thomas, D., Abramson, M.J., Bonevski, B., George, J.: System change interventions for smoking cessation. Cochrane Datab. Syst. Rev. 2(2) (2017). https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD0 10742.pub2 15. Heatherton, T.F., Kozlowski, L.T., Frecker, R.C., Fagerstrom, K.O.: The Fagerstrom test for nicotine dependence. A revision of the Fagerstrom tolerance questionnaire. Br. J. Addict. 86, 1119–1127 (1991) 16. Rajani, N.B., Mastellos, N., Filippidis, F.T.: Self-efficacy and motivation to quit of smokers seeking to quit: quantitative assessment of smoking cessation mobile apps. JMIR mHealth and uHealth 9(4), e25030 (2021). https://doi.org/10.2196/25030

Are Intercultural Competencies the Key to International Collaboration?: A Systematic Review Nicia Guillén-Yparrea(B)

and María-Soledad Ramírez-Montoya

Tecnologico de Monterrey, Monterrey, Mexico {nicia.gy,solramirez}@tec.mx

Abstract. Developing communication skills and intercultural awareness is the engine for collaboration and networks to address complex social issues. This article describes a systematic literature review analyzing the scientific evidence from January 2016 to June 2022 in publications available in the Scopus and Web of Science databases regarding intercultural and global competencies developed to encourage international, professional collaboration. A systematic mapping of the literature was performed firsthand, and selection criteria were applied to determine the articles to be reviewed, resulting in 45 eligible studies. The analysis focused on three competencies: intercultural communication, intercultural sensitivity, and intercultural responsibility. The results highlighted the relevant trend and predominance of (a) qualitative studies, especially case study designs; (b) the themes of intercultural and global competencies; (c) research involving intercultural communication competency, and (d) intercultural education. This study aims to be of value to academic, scientific communities, and those interested in training, communication, and educational innovation. Keywords: Intercultural competency · Professional collaboration · Higher education · Globalization · Educational innovation · Literature review · Communication · Complex thinking

1 Introduction Globalization has shown that the planet’s prosperity is an issue concerning everyone inhabiting it. Since 2015, the United Nations (UN) has promoted its 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development as an action plan to favor people, the planet, and prosperity [1]. The agenda emphasizes the importance of creating collaborative alliances among countries to strengthen partnerships and joint projects for global wellbeing [2]. Thanks also to technological advances, people in various cultural contexts have been able to meet, communicate, and explore issues. Developing intercultural competencies in young university students results from the need for multicultural interaction, collaboration, and the creation of group learning networks in various complex societies.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 F. J. García-Peñalvo and A. García-Holgado (Eds.): TEEM 2022, LNET, pp. 772–781, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0942-1_80

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As Campbell points out, students must believe that it is worth taking the initiative to communicate and work internationally because intercultural communication will likely be relevant to them in their future lives; thus, educators must emphasize that students should not wait until after graduation to develop these skills. When discussing intercultural and global competencies in academic education, concepts related to intercultural education and learning languages arise. Adequate linguistic preparation to communicate with people speaking other native languages must occur [3], but intercultural awareness and knowledge entail more than just verbal understanding; sensitivity and responsibility become indispensable. This knowledge is part of the mega-competency of reasoning for complexity, where critical, systemic, scientific, and innovative thinking underpin the formation and future of education [4, 5]. The intercultural competencies considered and analyzed in this study are: • Intercultural communication: understanding and producing appropriate words and other forms of communication that make sense to the speaker/actor and others [6]. • Intercultural sensitivity: understanding that there are differences and possible difficulties when interacting with people from different cultures [7]. • Intercultural responsibility: recognizing the moral positions and values that describe how individuals participate with others in intercultural encounters and dialogue [8]. Considering the above, we present in this document the results of a systematic review of the literature that aimed to identify the intercultural and global competencies required for professional cooperation in higher education investigated in recent years’ research and determine the methodological tools used by researchers to create a frame of reference that allows delving into the conceptualization of intercultural development in education to promote international collaboration.

2 Method This analysis was carried out using a systematic literature review (SLR), which consists of identifying, analyzing, and interpreting the results of research studies related to a specific topic in a given time [9]. A systematic literature review synthesizes existing work based on a predefined search strategy and concrete objectives [10]. Such review is recognized as a study in itself because the reviewer has one or more research questions, collects data from previous studies, analyzes them, and writes conclusions on what is known about the subject in question, what has been investigated, and what still needs to be investigated [11]. Considering the recommendations and the development process of some authors’ systematic reviews [12–14], we defined four key stages in this study (Fig. 1). 2.1 Planning The first stage of this systematic literature review involved planning the study, with the primary objective of researching what had already been investigated regarding intercultural and global competencies in higher education for professional collaboration, asking specific questions:

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Fig. 1. The review process

RQ1. With what research method and design were the studies conducted? RQ2. What were the main themes and trends addressed by the studies? RQ3. What were the intercultural competencies investigated in the studies? RQ4. Based on the studies’ findings, what are the possible topics and recommended trends to investigate? After generating the research questions, we determined the best way to conduct the review based on the need to give an accurate and complete answer to each one. 2.2 Conducting To overview the studies on developing intercultural competencies to promote international collaboration, we carried out a systematic literature mapping (SML), a method that allows identifying and classifying primary studies of the subject of interest [15]. Articles were extracted from databases that ensure access to high-impact journals such as Scopus and Web of Science. To identify the most appropriate search terms, we read and analyzed articles related to developing intercultural and global competencies in higher education to encourage professional collaboration, thus defining concepts of everyday use in the subject. The search for publications considered the need for up-to-date information, delimiting the last seven years, from January 2016 to June 2022 and establishing as main terms: intercultural competence, higher education, and collaboration. The search string for each database is shown below: Scopus “intercultural competence” AND “higher education” AND “collaboration” AND (“professional” OR “multicultural” OR “training”) AND (LIMIT-TO(DOCTYPE, “ar”)) AND (LIMIT-TO (PUBYEAR,2022) OR LIMIT-TO (PUBYEAR,2021) OR LIMIT-TO (PUBYEAR,2020) OR LIMIT-TO (PUBYEAR,2019) OR LIMIT-TO (PUBYEAR,2018) OR LIMIT-TO (PUBYEAR,2017) OR LIMIT-TO (PUBYEAR,2016)) AND (LIMIT-TO (LANGUAGE, “English”) OR LIMIT-TO (LANGUAGE, “Spanish”)) WoS ((ALL = (Intercultural competence)) AND ALL = (higher education)) AND ALL = ((collaboration OR professional OR multicultural OR training)) and 2016 or 2017 or 2018 or 2019 or 2020 or 2021 or 2022 (Publication Years) and Articles (Document

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Types) and English or Spanish (Languages) and Emerging Sources Citation Index (ESCI) or Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI) or Science Citation Index Expanded (SCIEXPANDED) or Book Citation Index – Social Sciences & Humanities (BKCI-SSH) or Arts & Humanities Citation Index (A&HCI) (Web of Science Index) After extracting the results for the search strings, the articles were imported into Excel to clean up the database and analyze each of the records. 2.3 Delimitation Based on the results obtained in the systematic literature mapping (SLM), we applied the eligibility criteria to identify the studies to be included in this systematic literature review, granting one point for each criterion met. The articles with six and five points were selected (Fig. 2): 1. Is it an empirical research study? 2. Was it cited at least once? 3. Was the study conducted in the context of higher education? 4. Is the study related to the three intercultural competencies (communication, sensitivity, and responsibility)? 5. Is the study potentially related to the development of intercultural and global competencies? 6. Does the study refer to professional collaboration?

Fig. 2. Studies’ selection process

Finally, 45 articles were selected for the SLR. The answers to the questions were downloaded to an Excel file, and the data were analyzed, becoming relevant information based on the conceptual framework previously presented.

3 Results After reviewing the 45 articles selected for the study, we interpreted the information collected and classified. The database is available at: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.680

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2438. This section shows the findings, and the report results are validated by answering each research question. RQ1. With What Research Method and Design were the Studies Conducted? The predominant method (27 studies) was qualitative (60%). The case study research method had a higher percentage (67%), with relevant case study articles such as an intercultural telecollaboration project [16] and a short international mobility program for the professional development and cultural competency of higher education students [17]. We conducted 12 studies with a mixed methodology (27%), nine having an exploratory sequential design, and 3 with an explanatory sequential design. These highlighted studies on using a rubric to measure intercultural competency development [18] and the piloting of global learning through online intercultural collaboration [19]. Only six of the 45 were quantitative studies (13%). In five of them, the experimental design was used, and for the other one, the quasi-experimental design was intended to determine if university students acquire skills related to teamwork through various extracurricular activities and international experiences [20].

Fig. 3. Research method and design of the studies

Figure 3 shows an important opportunity for exploration with empirical studies that evaluate not only the qualitative part of the elements considered but also a quantitative analysis to provide complete information on the perception of competencies beyond the subjective perspective of the experimental group. RQ2. What Were the Main Themes and Trends Addressed by the Studies? The topics most covered in the studies were those related to intercultural and global competencies (69%), from the perspective of internationalization to education and intercultural learning. Of the six studies that address the subject of the three intercultural competencies, the study on the Portuguese academicians’ perspective regarding the components of intercultural competency and the importance of its development by higher education students stands out [21]. Six of the 45 articles address the topic of collaborative learning, highlighting findings that the strategy for promoting student participation

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in intercultural groups first gives students time to become familiar with potential group members [22]. Five of the articles combine [19, 22–25] the approach of the two components of the research theme of this SLR, intercultural and global competencies and professional collaboration. After identifying the main themes and concepts already addressed in the most current empirical studies, it was possible to identify the most current educational practices for developing intercultural competencies and strategies to bring university students closer to multicultural exchange and cooperation; virtuality emerged as the principal means for collaborative learning and international interactions.

Fig. 4. Trends and topics in the studies

RQ3. What Were the Intercultural Competencies Investigated in the Studies? Of the 45 articles reviewed, 62% addressed the three intercultural competencies analyzed in this study, either explicitly or implicitly considered during the development of their empirical research, as in the study that examined the impact of virtual intercultural exchanges on the development of global citizenship competencies considering intergroup empathy and the valuation of cultural diversity [26]. Although intercultural communication competency is the most explored, mainly because it is inherent in language teaching and learning today, the studies also sought to investigate concepts present during intercultural interactions, such as sensitivity and responsibility. This suggests searching for an educational strategy to develop intercultural competency in university students integrally to motivate them to collaborate professionally with people of different nationalities.

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Intercultural and global competencies

Number of articles

Identifier number

Communication

9

1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 13, 20, 23, 26

Sensitivity

1

16

Responsibility

1

8

Communication Sensitivity

6

7, 11, 19, 34, 39, 41

Communication Sensitivity Responsibility

28

4, 5, 10, 12, 14, 15, 17, 18, 21, 22, 24, 25, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 35, 36, 37, 38, 40, 42, 43, 44, 45

RQ4. Based on the Studies’ Findings, What are the Possible Topics and Recommended Trends to Investigate? Intercultural education is the most relevant trend topic to be examined: the tools and means for developing cultural awareness in young university students; the search for the appropriate impulse for interdisciplinary and multicultural collaboration; and leveraging the various contextual developments of individuals during their lives. Studies of intercultural collaboration [22, 27, 28] express the imperative need to develop intercultural competencies to generate communication, interaction, and practical cooperation to achieve common objectives.

Fig. 5. Possible trends and topics for future studies

The themes suggested by the most recent studies include investigating and reporting the impact of virtual or in-person intercultural experiences on developing skills that promote effective global collaboration.

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4 Conclusions The mixed research methodology allows inquiring about relevant factors in the subject of interest from a more detailed vision, combining qualitative and quantitative methodologies. Although studies have been conducted on intercultural and global competencies, the need for exploration through mixed research methodology is evident (Fig. 3). Harwell highlights the use of mixed methods because they offer an especially promising avenue for research design in ways that support rigorous inquiry. It is then proposed to investigate the relationship of these competencies with intercultural collaboration through the mixed methodology for depth and integration in the process and the findings of future empirical studies. The trend of technological advances and digitalization requires online exchanges and interactions for intercultural collaboration and international exchange; intercultural competencies prepare individuals to relate to others in different cultural contexts from their own [29]. The topics that still need to be explored are those referring to competencies in scenarios of intercultural collaboration through group work, either virtual or face-toface (Fig. 4, 5). Interculturality is not defined solely by the geological dimension; instead, it is subject to the diversity and cultural influences in continuous interactions among individuals [30], so it is relevant to find and use the most suitable platforms, networks, and communities for each synergy that increase impact, motivation, and interest [31]. This implies that the effectiveness of developing intercultural and global competencies can be measurable based on the quality of interactions and collaboration in intercultural teams. Thanks to the multiple tools virtuality provides, it is no longer so complicated to expose the student. For effective collaboration to occur, team members must be aware of the value that each one brings from their vision and experiences. The need to integrate the elements that make up intercultural competencies, which provide security and encourage the responsibility of adequate communication, is determined by the richness the individual manages to identify (Table 1). Intercultural cooperation must be carried out under full awareness and through respectful dialogue [8]. It becomes indispensable to identify if the student has developed the ability to recognize and value the differences between individuals of different languages, cultures, epistemologies, and ethical principles. A limitation of this study is that only the two previously mentioned databases were consulted, which could have limited the scientific evidence reviewed and restricted the search terms used in each database. It should also be considered that the intercultural competencies and the categories used to group the different themes and trends were the authors’ decisions. For future studies, we point out that this article presents a synthesized vision of the state of the art of research on intercultural and global competencies to promote professional collaboration and invites researchers interested in this thematic area to perform a scientific inquiry into the trends identified in this systematic review of the literature.

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Acknowledgments. This publication is a product of the project “OpenResearchLab: innovation with artificial intelligence and robotics to scale domain levels of reasoning for complexity” (ID Novus N21-207), funded by the Institute for the Future of Education, Tecnologico de Monterrey. The authors would like to acknowledge the financial and the technical support of Writing Lab, Institute for the Future of Education, Tecnologico de Monterrey, Mexico, in the production of this work.

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18. Gulikers, J., Brinkman, D., Runhaar, P.: Using a rubric to grasp intercultural competence development in vocational education. J. Vocat. Educ. Train. 73, 47–70 (2021). https://doi.org/ 10.1080/13636820.2019.1688854 19. Ambrose, M., Murray, L., Handoyo, N.E., et al.: Learning global health: a pilot study of an online collaborative intercultural peer group activity involving medical students in Australia and Indonesia. BMC Med. Educ. 17, 1–11 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-016-0851-6 20. de Prada, C.E., Mareque, M., Portela-Pino, I.: The acquisition of teamwork skills in university students through extracurricular activities. Educ. Train. 63, 165–181 (2021). https://doi.org/ 10.1108/ET-07-2020-0185 21. Pinto, S.: Intercultural competence in higher education: academics’ perspectives. On Horiz. 26, 137–147 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1108/OTH-02-2018-0011 22. Poort, I., Jansen, E., Hofman, A.: Does the group matter? Effects of trust, cultural diversity, and group formation on engagement in group work in higher education. High. Educ. Res. Dev. 41, 511–526 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2020.1839024 23. Trautrims, A., Defee, C., Farris, T.: Preparing business students for workplace reality - using global virtual teams in logistics and SCM education. Int. J. Logist. Manag. 27, 886–907 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1108/IJLM-01-2015-0003 24. Swartz, S., Shrivastava, A.: Stepping up the game–meeting the needs of global business through virtual team projects. High. Educ. Skills Work-Based Learn. 12, 346–368 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1108/HESWBL-02-2021-0037 25. Sakai, T., Akai, H., Ishizaka, H., et al.: Development of program for “Global Lesson Study” in mathematics education. Int. J. Lesson Learn. Stud. 10, 317–330 (2021). https://doi.org/10. 1108/IJLLS-02-2021-0015 26. Lenkaitis, C.A., Loranc-Paszylk, B.: The role of intercultural virtual exchanges in global citizenship development. J. Int. Intercult. Commun. 15, 222–234 (2022). https://doi.org/10. 1080/17513057.2021.1876241 27. Watzek, V., Mulder, R.H.: Team learning behaviours and team affective reactions: an empirical study on interdisciplinary work teams. Vocat. Learn. 12(1), 1–22 (2018). https://doi.org/10. 1007/s12186-018-9205-3 28. Witkowsky, P., Mendez, S.L.: Influence of a short-term study abroad experience on professional competencies and career aspirations of graduate students in student affairs. J. Coll. Stud. Dev. 59, 769–775 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2018.0073 29. Conrad, C., Serlin, R.: The SAGE Handbook for Research in Education: Pursuing Ideas as the Keystone of Exemplary Inquiry. SAGE Publications Inc., USA (2014) 30. González Di Pierro, C., Flores Fahara, M., Focsan, R.: The development of the intercultural competence, through the perspective of the meaningful learning in foreign language teachers. Revista del Instituto de Estudios en Educación y del Instituto de Idiomas Universidad del Norte 25, 70–86 (2016). https://doi.org/10.14482/zp.22.5832 31. Fonseca, D., Alier, M., Sánchez-Holgado, P.: Re-thinking, connecting, sharing, and starting synergies. Using a collaborative AGORA session for new educational and research connections. In: ACM International Conference Proceeding Series, pp. 985–990. Association for Computing Machinery (2020)

Profiles of Smartphone Use and Consumption in Spanish Students of Generations Y and Z Diego Ramos Méndez(B)

and Félix Ortega-Mohedano

Universidad de Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. Mobile telephony and, later on, smartphones have become key to global connectivity, promoting the emergence of new forms of consumption that go beyond the usefulness and instrumentality of communication devices and position themselves as descriptive elements of the social context. In this article we analyze the habits of use and consumption of smartphones among Spanish university students belonging to the generations Y and Z. The research methodology is quantitative, so a digital questionnaire was designed and applied through faceto-face interviews to a sample of 303 students from the Unamuno campus of the University of Salamanca born between 1980 and 2001. The results of the study indicated differentiations and similarities based initially on generational group and gender, and contrasted with different assessments of smartphone consumption by Millennials and Generation Z, to create non-homogeneous consumption profiles that describe the relationship between users and devices. Keywords: Usage habits · consumption · smartphone · Millennials · Generation Z

1 Introduction Global hyperconnection and the emergence of mobile technologies for broadband internet consumption from anywhere opened up an almost infinite panorama of opportunities and challenges for the world’s population. The ability to experience internet connectivity from the palm of your hand and from multiple platforms extended a new horizon for communications and, of course, for the use of mobile technologies in all areas of daily life. The growth of hardware and software development for the experimentation of mobile broadband internet networks has focused on the enjoyment of a higher quality and speed of connection, offering users increasingly novel and immersive experiences. This, of course, has impacted the consumption habits of users and the creation of new forms of consumption that are increasingly focused on the consumer experience. The Ericsson Mobility Report [1], published in November 2021, reviews that in that year, there were almost 20,000 models of 4G-connected devices on the market, while mobile networks carried 300 times more traffic than in 2011 and 42% more than in late 2018 and early 2019. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 F. J. García-Peñalvo and A. García-Holgado (Eds.): TEEM 2022, LNET, pp. 782–789, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0942-1_81

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In the educational environment, the use of Information and Communication Technologies as a support in the teaching-learning process has been growing, but it has also gone hand in hand with a greater social consumption as part of recreational activities, leisure, work, family and friendly relations, in general, with the daily life of the users. Also, the consumption of technologies is not uniform, but it is possible to find differences according to variables such as socio-cultural context, gender or generational group. In fact, it has been shown that young university students are inclined towards individual consumption of smartphones, marked by multiscreen functions, multitasking and tending towards interaction with audiovisual content on social networks [14]. 1.1 Smartphone Usage and Consumption Habits of Generations Y and Z Millennials and Generation Z share similarities in some characteristics, especially those related to technology: while Millennials lived the birth and rise of the Internet, Generation Z enjoyed the arrival of smartphones. This link of both generations with Information and Communication Technologies has led them to be considered “digital natives”, a term used to describe those who have grown up immersed in the digital world [4]. Both Generations have lived in the midst of the digital technology maelstrom, both in software and network innovation and in the transformation of handset hardware to adapt to the needs and experiences of consumers. The way in which the interaction between the user and the devices (especially mobile phones) occurs and the different variables involved in this interaction (such as coverage, connection speed, average monthly consumption, privacy, investment in the devices and the operating system) are vital aspects that are explored in this study and that allow us to account for usage and consumption habits that have been forged over time. When talking about consumption, it is necessary to mention that the criteria used by users to evaluate products and services are permeated by the sociocultural context and the ascription to subgroups or subcultures; but also, by specific criteria that determine their experience according to the role they play at the moment of consumption [10]. In this way, the functionality of smartphones is not only linked to the technology applied in the mobile, but transcends the social plane through individual and collective consumption that occurs in everyday life, but that encompasses the symbolic plane. Beyond individual and collective identity processes, the construction of smartphone use and consumption habits defines the way in which users approach mobile technologies in order to transform and domesticate them. This process not only includes a profiling based on demographic terms such as age or gender, but also on the consumption decisions of a particular operating system, internet connection networks (4G, 5G, WiFi), internet consumption patterns, purchase decision or spending on technology.

2 Methodology This quantitative study analyzes the consumption habits and use of smartphones by Spanish students of generations Y and Z, including the profiling of respondents according to gender, generational group, operating system preference and mobile data consumption. Data collection included the design of a digital questionnaire (available at https://goo.

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gl/Zn9DFN) and applied through face-to-face interviews with the support of a T-CAPI (Tablet and Computer Assisted Personal Interview). The complete questionnaire consisted of 68 questions-items, of which seven questions-items referring to the “User profile (technology and mobility)” with closed answers and statistically crossed with questions-items 3 and 4 referring to the gender and age of the respondents are described and analysed. The target population of the study corresponds to n = 31,846 students born between 1980 and 2001 in the Degrees of Audiovisual Communication, Sociology, Social Work, Philosophy and Business Administration and Management, and in the Faculty of Education in the Degrees of Pedagogy and Social Education, and in the Faculty of Sciences in the Degree in Computer Engineering of the Unamuno campus of the University of Salamanca, so the sample design included a confidence level of 95% and a margin of error of ±5% for finite populations that resulted in a sample of n = 303 students. The interviews were conducted individually between April and May 2015. Based on the research objectives, this paper hypothesizes: Generational group influences decisions, motivations, dependence, and appraisals about smartphones and access to mobile data. Hypotheses contrasted in items P5, P57, P58, P59, P60, P62.1, P62.3, P62.4 and P63 with date of birth and P2.

3 Results The analysis of the habits of consumption and use of smartphones by Spanish students allows us to distinguish differences and similarities based on the generations under study (Y and Z), so it is possible to define profiles that help to understand the reality of the social context. The analysis of spending on the last smartphone purchased by students does suggest greater differences based on generational group. The majority of respondents (31.8%) spent between 151 and 250 euros on their last smartphone, but generational differences play a role in the spending trend: Generation Y accounted for 37.1% and Generation Z for 25.5%. Also among those who spent 251 to 350 euros there is a percentage difference between Millennials and Generation Z students: 12.5% and 22.6%, respectively (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Spending on the last mobile phone purchased by generational group. Prepared by the authors based on data from the study.

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In terms of generational group, Millennials scored an average dependency rating of 3.55 and Generation Z students scored an average of 3.25, demonstrating a generational difference in the recognition of mobile phone dependency (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Level of dependence on mobile phones by generational group. Prepared by the authors based on data from the study.

In response to the statement “When I change my mobile phone, I increase the time I use it”, the generational group also showed different results in each case. 40.2% of respondents from generation Z accepted that their mobile usage time increases when acquiring a new device, but in generation Y it is 45.9% (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Increase in time of use by generational group. Own elaboration based on the data of the study.

The preference for using the WiFi network is related to mobile data consumption. The highest percentage (15.8%) of respondents who prefer to use the mobile network is among consumers with more than 11 Gb per month and, in contrast, the highest percentage of those who prefer to connect via WiFi is among consumers with less than 2 Gb (87.8%), 8%). Having to continually switch from the mobile network to WiFi to save data is important to 67.0% of Generation Z respondents and 57.2% of Generation Y respondents. The answers to the statement “It bothers me to consume mobile data when WiFi is available” presented different results according to the generational group of the students. 79.3% of the respondents belonging to generation Z are bothered by consuming mobile

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data when WiFi networks are available and 7.2 points below are the respondents of generation Y (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. Discomfort due to mobile data consumption when WiFi networks are available according to generational group. Own elaboration based on data from the study.

Mobile data consumption was more important for Gen Y (3.59) than for Gen Z (3.36). The average importance of coverage was 3.90 points for Millennials and 3.66 for Generation Z, and as seen in Fig. 18, the rating as “Very Important” had a significant difference for Millennials compared to Generation Z (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5. Degree of importance of coverage by generational group.

Prepared by the authors based on data from the study. Connection speed had a higher average importance for Millennials than for Generation Z (4.02 vs. 3.80 points); while features averaged 3.64 among Generation Y and 3.30 among Generation Z (4.02 vs. 3.80 points) Z. Mobile data consumption had implications for the importance of the different aspects evaluated. Consumers with 6 to 10 Gb per month gave higher ratings to all the aspects consulted: mobile data consumption (3.65 points), coverage (4.06), connection speed (4.08), compatibility with other devices (6.06), privacy (4.19) and features (3.69). Consumers with less than 2 Gb gave the lowest ratings to coverage (3.54), connection speed (3.73), compatibility with other devices (2.67) and features (3.23).

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4 Conclusions The global hyperconnection that has come hand in hand with Internet consumption has come to create new habits of use and consumption of technology. These habits combine technological innovation and the emergence of new mobile services that create user needs and, at the same time, offer solutions to the problems faced by consumers in everyday life. But the adoption of technologies and the services they offer does not occur in a linear, permanent or uniform way; it goes through a consumption process that responds to less global and more particular characteristics of the social context of users. The different academic and market studies about mobile telephony suggest that generations Y and Z, being digital natives, use digital tools as part of their social, work and cultural relationships to the point that these tools have allowed them to build their identity through the extensive use of the internet and the multiplicity of services available [5]. As presented in the results of this study, the generational group is determinant in the use of Information and Communication Technologies, in the same way that technological aspects such as internet connection and the development of hardware and software find support in the consumption of mobile products and services. The motivations for renewing smartphones were more or less similar according to the generational group of respondents. However, aspects such as features were more preferred by Millennials, while operating failure and the need for a faster mobile network were more important for Generation Z. This data indicates the trend for Gen Z to consume mobile services with greater agility and quality. The operating system also showed implications in consumption habits. At this point, it should be taken into consideration that Android devices have a great diversity of manufacturers while the IOS operating system is exclusive to the Apple environment (basically, iPad and iPhone). Ortega et al. [14] report that the leadership of the Android operating system over IOS lies in the possibility of accessing a greater number of applications for free or at lower prices, in addition to the fact that manufacturers find Android to be a more accessible system with lower costs for users. In addition to accessibility, the aesthetic perception of the devices influences the emotional relationship that the user establishes with the mobile, increases the perception of usability and motivates the intention to purchase [15]. However, sustained and constant connectivity through mobile phones has implications for the lives of generations Y and Z, who have grown up immersed in the digital world. Dependence on smartphones is a reality that has been widely studied in these generations and is understood as a fundamental part of the terminal-user relationship. However, authors such as Ruíz-Pal et al. [11] point out that the dependency relationship is not related to the device itself, but to the applications that can be accessed through the mobile phone, so that the smartphone becomes the primary means for excessive consumption and dependence on these applications. Millennials recognized a higher average level of dependence than Generation Z. This dependence is influenced by the operating system (IOS users recognize a higher degree of dependence) and also with the consumption of mobile data (the highest levels of dependence are found in users with consumption of more than 6 Gb per month).

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Situations such as the renewal of the smartphone generates a greater use of the device in Millennials. Users of the IOS operating system also increase their smartphone usage time when they renew their mobile phone, with a significant difference compared to Android users. The preference for WiFi over mobile data is present in both generational groups. The preference for the mobile network is found among the highest data consumers (probably motivated by the type of content they consume and the speed of the connection they get through the WiFi network) and also among consumers of less than 2 Gb (among those who may have a greater dependence on the internet, but prefer WiFi consumption to avoid spending on mobile data. Mobile data consumption, coverage, connection speed and features were more important to Millennials than to Generation Z baby boomers. Also, consumers with 6–10 Gb gave a higher degree of importance to all aspects rated than the rest of the monthly mobile data consumption subgroups. As we have seen so far, the habits of use and consumption of smartphones in generations Y and Z show a great complexity of elements that interact to create nonhomogeneous consumption profiles that describe the relationship between users and devices. The duality of technology and social use is finely represented in the habits of use and consumption of mobile phones by showing the mechanisms used by users to experience mobile telephony beyond the instrumental and utilitarian value, and giving way to an interaction that also considers the lived experience in which links are established and meanings are constructed about themselves and others.

References 1. Ericsson: Ericsson Mobility Report (2021). https://www.ericsson.com/4ae6a5/assets/local/ reports-papers/mobility-report/documents/2021/emr_november2021_screen_epsanol.pdf. Accessed 31 May 2022 2. Ditrendia: Ditrendia Report: Mobile in Spain and the World 2020 (2020). https://www.amic. media/media/files/file_352_2531.pdf. Accessed 29 May 2022 3. National Statistics Institute of Spain: Survey on equipment and use of information and communication technologies in households 2021 (2021). https://www.ine.es/dyngs/INE base/es/operacion.htm?c=Estadistica_C&cid=1254736176741&menu=ultiDatos&idp=125 4735576692. Accessed 29 May 2022 4. Moore, K., Jones, C., Scott Frazier, R.: Engineering education for generation Z. Am. J. Eng. Educ. 8(2), 111–126 (2017). https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1162924.pdf 5. Lara, I., Ortega, I.: Generation Z consumers drive the digital transformation of businesses. J. Youth Stud. 114, 71–82 (2017). http://www.injuve.es/sites/default/files/2017/28/publicaci ones/documentos_5_los_consumidores_de_la_generacion_z.pdf. Accessed 30 May 2022 6. Espiritusanto, N.O.: Generation Z: mobiles, networks and user-generated content. J. Youth Stud. 114, 111–126 (2017). http://www.injuve.es/sites/default/files/2017/28/publicaciones/ documentos_8_generacion_._moviles_redes_y_contenido_generado_por_el_usuario.pdf. Accessed 30 May 2022 7. Carlsson, C., Hyvonen, K., Repo, P., Walden, P.: Asynchronous adoption patterns of mobile services. In: Proceedings of the 38th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (2005). https://doi.org/10.1109/HICSS.2005.106, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/ 221179874_Asynchronous_Adoption_Patterns_of_Mobile_Services

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8. Pedersen PE, Nysveen H, Thorbjornsen H.: Adoption of mobile services. Model development and cross-service study. J. Mark. 1–55 (2002). http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download? doi=10.1.1.13.1&rep=rep1&type=pdf 9. García-Ochoa, Y.C.: Usage and consumption habits of the millennial generation on their mobile phones. AdComunica. Sci. J. Strateg. Trends Innov. Commun. 18, 21– 40 (2019). https://doi.org/10.6035/2174-0992.2019.18.3, https://raco.cat/index.php/adComu nica/article/view/365726. Accessed 29 May 2022 10. Solomon, D., Bamossy, G., Askegaard, S., Hogg, M.K.: Consumer behavior: an European perspective. Prentice Hall (2006). https://books.mec.biz/tmp/books/NXHQRTHBQ2L87NI U6YVN.pdf. Accessed 11 June 2022 11. Ruiz-Palmero, J., Colomo-Magaña, E., Sánchez-Rivas, E., Linde-Valenzuela, T.: Study of the use and consumption of mobile devices in university students. Digit. Educ. Rev. 39, 89–106 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1344/der.2021.39.89-104, https://revistes.ub.edu/index.php/der/art icle/view/33083/pdf. Accessed 11 June 2022 12. Cruz-Sotelo, S.E., Ojeda-Benitez, S., Bovea, M.D., Santillán-Soto, N., Favela-Ávila, H., Aguilar Salinas, W.E.: Cell phone consumption habits and practices in Mexico and Spain. International Journal of Environmental Pollution, 29(3): 33–41 (2013). https://www.redalyc. org/pdf/370/37029665004.pdf. Accessed 11 June 2022 13. Herrera Mendoza, K., Gil Vega, L., Acuña Rodríguez, M.: Motivation of young university students towards the use of cell phones. Encounters 15(1), 91–105 (2017). https://doi.org/10. 15665/re.v15i1.631. Accessed 11 June 2022 14. Ortega, F., González Ispierto, B., Pérez Peláez, M.E.: Audiences in revolution, uses and consumptions of media applications on tablets and smartphones. Revista Latina de Comunicación Social 70, 627–651 (2015). https://doi.org/10.4185/RLCS-2015-1063, https://www.redalyc. org/pdf/819/81948469033.pdf. Accessed 11 June 2022 15. Mariano-Mello, T., Ramírez-Correa, P.E., Rondan-Cataluña, J.: Effect of aesthetics on smartphone purchase intention. Technol. Inf. 29(4), 227–236 (2018). https://doi.org/10.4067/ S0718-07642018000400227 16. Caffarel-Serra, C., Ortega-Mohedano, F.: Communication research in Spanish universities in the period 2007–2014. El profesional de la inforación 26(2), 218–227 (2017). https://www. elprofesionaldelainformacion.com/contenidos/2017/mar/08.html 17. García Lirios, C., Hernandez Romero, G., Hernandez, J.: A behavioral analysis in Millenials mobile phone users. Multidiscip. Encount. 57(1–8) (2017). http://hdl.handle.net/ 10486/681463 18. Ancin, I.: Observation of audiovisual and digital content consumed by millennials. Atlante J. (2018). ISSN: 1989-4155. https://www.eumed.net/rev/atlante/2018/08/contenidos-audiovisu ales-millenials.html

The Censorship of Nudes on Instagram: The Female and Male Body and Its Sexualization María del Carmen Tomás-Jiménez1 , Patricia Sánchez-Holgado2(B) and María-Elena Rodríguez-Benito3

,

1 Universidad Rey Juan Carlos de Madrid, Madrid, Spain

[email protected]

2 Universidad de Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain

[email protected]

3 Universidad Pontificia de Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain

[email protected]

Abstract. Social networks reflect all the movements of our daily life, showing different visions of society, geographical, cultural or personal contexts that open their doors to any user, but that do not receive equal acceptance. The controversy of freedom of expression in social networks and the application of style correction regulations by the content management companies themselves, has focused especially on naked bodies, but legislating towards the female body as a sexualized object. This study is preliminary to analyze the level of censorship perceived by Instagram users and whether there are differences between the body of women and men in the acceptance of published content. The conclusions indicate that women are doubly criticized in the public exposure of nudity or sexual content, while men do not generate the same discomfort or repercussion on the network. Keywords: Instagram · censorship · social acceptance · sexualization · feminism

1 Introduction In January 2022 there were 4.95 billion Internet users worldwide, about 62.5% of the population, who spend an average of 7 h a day on the Internet. The use and consumption of social networks has not stopped growing in recent years, becoming a common means of communication, relationship and reflection of the social context of each moment. The number of users is increasing, new networks are being developed to gain a space in the content market and some of the classic ones continue to be the protagonists of the opinion movements that move on the network. The networks reflect all the movements of our daily life, showing different visions of society, geographical, cultural or personal contexts that open their doors to any user, but that do not receive equal acceptance. This means a generation of content by users that is out of control and which has led to the controversy of freedom of expression in social networks and the application of style correction regulations by the content management companies themselves, especially as far as the nude is concerned, one of the main taboo even today. The conflict comes © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 F. J. García-Peñalvo and A. García-Holgado (Eds.): TEEM 2022, LNET, pp. 790–797, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0942-1_82

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when these censorships are applied to works of art and pornography in the same way, without any distinction and directly attacking the right to freedom of artistic creation [1]. With the appearance and democratization of digital photography and the popularization of social networks, a new phenomenon arises, the publication of nude and semi-nude photographs before a large audience on the Internet [2]. In this line, an example of a case was the scandal generated by the musical group “Maneskin”, winners of the Eurovision Song Contest in 2021, who, as a result of their success, became the most exposed on networks and the most criticized for their nude photographs. The new edition of Eurovision 2022 in Spain removed the public display of female breasts thanks to the singer Rigoberta Bandini and her feminist anthem, which caused an avalanche of content on social media from fans and detractors (# BenidormFest22). Although it may seem like a taboo that has been overcome, since we can constantly see nudity in advertising, cinema, or magazines, Instagram’s control regulations are strict in this regard and its algorithms censor any content related to the naked body or that is susceptible of sexualization, as indicated in its legal regulations. In this context, it is relevant to address the level of censorship present in social networks on images of naked bodies, especially on Instagram (platform belonging to Facebook/Meta Platforms Ireland Limited), the original image and photography network, in which it is stated “Instagram is a reflection of our diverse community of cultures, ages, and beliefs,” but below is a bit more specific “we have spent a lot of time considering the different factors that contribute to creating a safe and open environment for everyone.” It is in this space and definition that it is convenient to analyze whether there are differences between the female and male body, both in the process of censorship of the social network, and in the perception of users. The censorship of the body, nudity and the sexual bond is a complex issue, since the perception of people is what can separate an artistic content from one considered uncomfortable [3]. The main objective of this work is to analyze the level of censorship perceived in the social network Instagram towards content related to nudity or susceptible to sexualization. When there is talk of censorship towards nudity or sexualized content, it is immediately assimilated that the body and the feminine elements are the main victims. We could ask ourselves why female nipples are censored, while male nipples have no drawbacks, or why the morality of social networks is double when it comes to sexualizing certain parts of the body when it comes to females, identified as objects of provocation and not as simple artistic or free expression images. Next, a theoretical context will be shown to address this problem and the methodology carried out for the study, the main results will be presented and finally the conclusions and limitations.

2 Theoretical Background According to the annual study “Digital 2022”, in Spain there are 40.7 million users of social networks (87.1% penetration), who are mostly between 16 and 55 years old and invest an average of 1.52 h a day surfing social networks. Facebook has 22 million users, Instagram 21 million users and Twitter 7.5 million users. The most used social networks in Spain, not counting WhatsApp, are: Facebook (73.3%), Instagram (71.7%), Twitter (46.7%), TikTok (38.6%) and Telegram (38. 3%)

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(We are Social, 2022) [4]. The Instagram audience is made up of 55.2% women and 44.8% men. In addition, the age restriction prevents children under 13 from having a profile on the network. All social networks have community standards that are similar in some ways, but differ in others. In the case of Instagram, the censorship of nudity, especially female nudity and content susceptible to sexualization, is especially strict. “We realize that some people may want to share nude images of an artistic or creative nature; however, for various reasons, we do not allow nudity to be posted on Instagram.” [5] The alleged reason is that the content may be suitable for a diverse audience, but the very definition of what diversity and creativity entail is limited to what an algorithm interprets, since the processes are automatic. “This restriction applies to photos, videos and certain digital content showing sexual acts, genitalia and close-ups of fully exposed buttocks. Some photos of exposed female nipples are also included, although these are allowed in the context of breastfeeding, childbirth or later, health-related situations (for example, after a mastectomy, to raise awareness of breast cancer or in connection with sex confirmation surgeries) or as an act of protest. Nudity is also accepted in photos of paintings and sculptures.» [5] In general, when a social network censors a photo, it does not go into detail about why it has been removed. The application sends a generic message to the user informing him that the prohibition of showing a specific publication and, if applicable, if it applies other restrictions, such as deleting hashtags or temporarily blocking the account. In this way, the origin of the censorship is not in a complaint by a user, but in the algorithms themselves that recognize content as likely to violate any of the regulations [6]. Jiménez González reflects on the processes of cultural mediation that lead to representations of women’s bodies being censored in social networks, so that gender stereotypes are transferred in the same way to the digital world, establishing the topics socially assumed by the collective imagination as correct and those that still remain taboo [7]. The legal terms of the Instagram platform dedicate an entire point to community standards on nudity and adult sexual activity. The express prohibition includes: actual nudity of adults (any part related to sexuality that is naturally visible and especially female nipples), sexual activity of any kind that shows intercourse or touching, among others [8]. “We limit the display of nudity or sexual activity to protect certain people in our community who show a special sensitivity to this type of content. Also, by default, we remove these types of images to prevent the sharing of non-consensual or minor content. Restrictions on the display of sexual activity also apply to digitally created content, unless it is posted for educational, humorous, or satirical purposes.” [8] However, in user experience, we find that reality differs from these norms. There are constant cases of censorship both in private profiles of natural persons who wish to show their bodies, these being mainly women’s profiles, and in profiles of cultural institutions,

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such as museums, who wish to disclose their artistic works. An example of the latter case is that of the Vienna Museums, which decided to open a profile on the Only Fans platform, intended for content for an adult audience, to avoid the constant censorship suffered on Instagram. There is, therefore, an inconsistency regarding the regulation of nudity and content susceptible to sexualization. As an example, Instagram is very restrictive in this aspect, while Twitter is very lax, but we also find inequality in terms of gender and the regulation of artistic nudity. Gender is decisive, since a large part of the photos censored on Instagram belong to female bodies, and even on this network we find a specific rule for female nipples, but not for male ones. Particularly worrying is the case of sexualized girls, since they have unlimited access to the Internet and seek a global audience [9]. As for artistic production, although Instagram allows artistic nudity, both from institutional and private accounts, there are many cases of censorship, not only of photographs, but of entire accounts that have been affected despite the supposed permissibility of the network in this area. García Reig analyzes the nude censorship policy on the social networks Instagram, Facebook, Twitter and Tumblr. He addresses the issue from the perspective of the female body, the most censored, and at the same time focuses his attention on Instagram and Facebook, since they are the networks that most tend to prohibit this type of photography [10]. Sibilia addresses the problems that female nipples present individually on social networks such as Instagram and Facebook, showing the hypocrisy towards the female breast, since it is accepted in audiovisual materials such as movies or series, but in the field of social networks. Social, whether individual or artistic, is censored, because it is hypersexualized in Western society and our vision of it is reduced to the realm of the explicit or sensual [11]. In this same line of social perspective, Schaufler reflects on the double standards that we find if we talk about nudity and social networks like Instagram and YouTube: on the one hand, the “liberated” society, where it seems that taboos regarding sexuality and everything that it implies is being demolished, and on the other, the sexualizing gaze that tends to observe the body as something modest, which must, therefore, be censored in the broadest means of communication that currently exist, social networks [12]. There are several authors who have considered what are the criteria to consider the display of the female body as inappropriate or at what times in contemporary culture women have been hypersexualized in graphic representation [13], but the conclusion returns to the context in which that looks at society, the user’s perspective and its cultural and semantic constructions. Marigorda Temoche points out that society is not familiar with any type of nudity, including artistic nudity, confusing it with pornography. In this way, Instagram’s automatic algorithms carry out universal filters that do not differentiate artistic criteria and censor all types of images that show sensitive parts of the body, deciding what can be seen and what cannot, forcing any artist to take action to free that censorship, in order to reach more public with their works [14]. Ponce Witt already indicates that it would be necessary to create an international legal framework for social networks, which could include both the nature of the activities carried out on the network, as well as the very

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nature and context of its users, in such a way that it could be structured for all new media [15]. Based on all this, we propose the following research questions: RQ1. Are users aware of the community regulations on censorship in Instagram posts? RQ2. What is the level of perceived censorship that Instagram applies to nudity and sexualizing content? RQ2a. What is the perception of the level of censorship of the female body? RQ2b. What is the perception of the level of censorship of the male body? RQ3. Are there differences in the perception of the level of censorship on Instagram by gender?

3 Methodology 3.1 Procedure and Sample This is an exploratory study, which is based on a survey carried out through an online questionnaire in November 2021, to young people between 18 and 40 years old. An initial sample of 95 people was obtained, of which 66.3% were women and 33.7% men. The instrument was designed for research, using a questionnaire with sociodemographic variables and closed questions about the perception of the level of censorship on Instagram. 3.2 Procedure and Measures Gender was measured with 0 = male, 1 = female, 2 = other; age was measured with sections from 18 to 24, 25 to 30 and 31 to 40 years, since we focused on young people up to 40 years of age. Knowledge of Instagram regulations was measured with a dichotomous response of 0 = no, 1 = yes. The assessment of the policy in terms of the restrictions it presents was measured on a scale of 1 (not at all restrictive) to 5 (very restrictive). To measure the perception of the level of censorship specifically in the female and male body, a 5-point Likert scale was used from 1 = not at all to 5 = a lot. The total average perception of the level of censorship was calculated based on the two variables of the male and female body. 3.3 Analysis Once the responses were anonymized, descriptive statistical tests were applied (frequency and mean analysis). In the study of the perception of the level of censorship, inferential statistical tests and Student’s t-tests for independent samples were applied in a complementary manner to check whether there were differences depending on the male or female content. For this, the IBM SPSS package, version 26, was used.

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4 Results All the respondents (between 18 and 40 years old) stated that they had a profile on Instagram, but, in response to question RQ1, we can first observe that 67.4% state that they are aware of the censorship policy of the social network, compared to 32.6% who they do not know it. The evaluation they make of the policy in terms of the restrictions that this social network presents, on a scale of 1 (not at all restrictive) to 5 (very restrictive) obtains an average of 3.32 (SD = 0.91), but taking into account those who declare not knowing the censorship policy, the average drops to 3.16, while in those who declare knowing said policy it rises to 3.39. This indicates that those who do not know the specific details of the censorship policy perceive it to be less restrictive than those who do. Responding to the RQ2 question about what is the perceived level of censorship on Instagram with respect to nudity in general, the results show that on a scale of 1 to 5, from not at all restrictive to very restrictive, the total average of the perception of censorship on Instagram it is 2.86 (SD = 0.88). However, if we focus first on the perceived level of censorship on the female body (RQ2a), it shows a mean of 3.26 (SD = 1.19), while looking second on the perceived level of censorship on the male body (RQ2b) we obtain a 2.46 (SD = 1.06), with which the perception of censorship on the female body is much higher than on the male body. To make a comparison according to the gender of the men and women surveyed, and answer RQ3, a Student’s t-test was performed to compare means for independent samples. Attending first to the perception of censorship on Instagram about the female body, it is observed that the perception in men (M = 3.00, SD = 1.016) is lower than the perception of women (M = 3.40, SD = 1.26). We assume normality because in each of the groups there are more than 30 cases. Levene’s F test reflects a value F = 6.25, (p < 0.05), which means that there is no equality in the variances. In this way, the test revealed that there are no statistically significant differences [t(75) = -1.653, p > 0.05] between men (M = 3.00, SD = 1.016) and women (M = 3.40, SD = 1.26) (Table 1). Regarding the perception of censorship on the male body on Instagram, we observed that the mean in men (M = 2.78, SD = 1.04) is slightly higher than the mean in women (M = 2.30, SD = 1.04). Likewise, we assume normality and the Levene test reflects a value of F = 0.317, p > 0.05, which means that there is equality in the variances. The test revealed that there are statistically significant differences [t(93) = 2.123, p = 0.036] in the perception of censorship on the male body in men (M = 2.78, SD = 1.04) and in women (M = 2.30, SD = 1.04) (Table 1).

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M. del Carmen Tomás-Jiménez et al. Table 1. Gender and perceived level of general censorship on Instagram

Level of censorship on the female body (I) Level of censorship on the male body (II)

Gender

Mean

SD

M ale

3.00

1.02

Female

3.40

1.26

M ale

2.78

1.04

Female

2.30

1.04

t

gl

pvalue

Confidence interval

-1.65

75

0.102

-0.875

0.081

2.12

93

0.036

0.031

0.928

(I) Equal variances are not assumed (II) Equal variances are assumed Font: own elaboration

5 Conclusions The main objective of this work is to analyze the level of censorship perceived in the social network Instagram towards content related to nudity or susceptible to sexualization. Based on the results shown, a series of conclusions have been drawn: the experience of Instagram users in terms of nudity varies depending on whether a female or a male body is shown. The majority of users are unaware of the details of the content control regulations on the social network, despite the fact that all of them have declared that they have their own profile and account. The perception of censorship in the female body has been shown to be much higher than the perception of censorship in the male body, but when comparing taking into account the gender of the people surveyed, it is in the case of the perception of the male body, where the differences between men and women have been significant. This was already advanced in all previous studies, in which a gender gap can be seen in terms of the acceptance of the nude. If, in addition, we take the censorship policy of the social network Instagram (one of the most prohibitive) it explicitly differentiates between male and female nipples, something that has been implanted in society for a few decades [11]. The problem is not found in the nude itself or in the female body, but in the sexualized gaze that has developed and that tends to be scandalized by something as natural as a female breast. Therefore, social networks and their policy against pornography -which has nothing to do with the publication of a nude- is obviously conditioned by the very social vision that we still have of bodies, especially the female one, and that tends to give it, automatically, a sexual connotation even though it does not exist.

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6 Limitations and Future Lines of Work In terms of limitations, the survey is aimed at young people, as the main users of Instagram, but mostly women answered it, so the sample is not balanced by gender, a variable that is very relevant in the comparison of the study and above all, which must continue working. As a continuation of this research, the exposure of users to certain content that has been marked by Instagram or other social networks as objectionable material and therefore has been removed will be studied. Future lines of work are analyzing how the real perception of the user towards this type of content is and what are the differences by gender considering the type of body shown in the content, female or male. In the same way, and to complete this research in the future, it would be advisable to carry out a series of personal interviews or discussion groups that would provide a more personalized perspective to the study, broadening the qualitative scope of the work.

References 1. Sánchez Sabido, R.: La feminización de la cultura y el lugar de la mujer en la cultura actual; los tabúes sociales y la imposición de la censura en las redes sociales (2018) 2. Comesaña Barrios, A.: The naked patriarchy: analysis of the publication of female nude self-portraits on Twitter and Instagram (2021) 3. Liévano Ortegón, D.: Instagram approved: análisis de la construcción del cuerpo femenino en la red social Instagram. Pontificia Universidad Javeriana (2017) 4. We Are Social Spain. Digital 2022 (2022) 5. Instagram. Normas comunitarias. Servicio de ayuda de Instagram. (2022). https://www.fac ebook.com/help/instagram/477434105621119. Accessed 10 July 2022 6. Mirón Romero, G.: El desnudo en redes sociales. Universidad de Extremadura (2018) 7. Jiménez González, S.: Cuerpos de mujer y censura en redes sociales. Noteb. Corps Lang. 1–2, 168 (2017) 8. Meta Platforms Ireland Limited. Normativa Comunitaria: Desnudos y actividad sexual de adultos (2022). https://transparency.fb.com/es-es/policies/community-standards/adultnudity-sexual-activity/?source=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.facebook.com%2Fcommunitystan dards%2Fadult_nudity_sexual_activity. Accessed 10 July 2022 9. Díaz-altozano, P., Padilla-castillo, G., Requeijo-rey, P.: Sexualización de niñas en redes sociales: la necesidad de inteligencia semántica. Investigaciones feministas 12, 31–45 (2022) 10. García Reig, C.I.: Análisis de la censura sexual en redes sociales Analysis of sexual censorship in social networks. Universidad Miguel Hernández (2017) 11. Sibilia, P.: La ‘pornificación’ de la mirada: Una genealogía del pecho desnudo. Cuadernos de Música, Artes Visuales y Artes Escénicas 10, 35–63 (2015) 12. Schaufler, M.L.: Potencial erótico de la censura mediática. Letra. Imagen. Sonido: Ciudad Mediatizada 16 182–198 (2016) 13. Rodríguez Solís, L.: La censura en redes sociales. Universidad Politécnica de Valencia (2021) 14. Marigorda Temoche, L.: Políticas de censura en Instagram y restricciones a la libertad de expresión de los fotógrafos profesionales para divulgar fotografías de desnudo artístico (2022) 15. Ponce Witt, P.J.: La censura en redes sociales: el problema, su explicación, y sus soluciones. Universidad de San Francisco de Quito (2021)

Education Through Organizations with a Purpose in Social Networks Laura Pacheco Barriga(B) Universidad Pontificia de Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain [email protected]

Abstract. Nowadays, the objective of organizations which have a positive impact on society goes beyond economic benefits, as they pursue achieving global wellbeing. In this sense, education is a key tool to make real some of the business purposes of many organizations. In order to carry this out, organizations have to their availability a range of tools like social networks with brands can reach directly to their public, communicate, promote, chat or why not, educate them. Objective. The objective of this research is to approach the activity that some organizations spread through their social networks, generating knowledge and offering lessons to society through digital tools. Methodology. To investigate the use that selected companies make of their social networks as tools for the transmission of knowledge, content analysis has been monitored throughout a month of six brands selected under the criteria of experts according to their activity in this countryside. Results. All the organizations taken as a sample generate content linked to the dissemination of knowledge in various fields, which positively impact society. Conclusion. Organizations must establish valuable relationships with their audiences to prosper and become true social agents by generating content that enriches users. Keywords: Purpose · Corporate Social Responsibility · Education · Social Media · Stakeholders

1 Introduction Education is part of the valuable management of intangible assets which organizations from XXI century deal with to consolidate the relationship with their public, since it is in the land of intangible assets where businesses, institutions and countries really compete nowadays [1]. That is why, it has become increasingly necessary to research related to intangible assets management, so that organizations can take advantage of their resources and act in line with their purposes, generating a positive impact on society. In this sense, education has become an essential pillar to generate talent inside and outside the company, and social networks have become an ideal tool for the transmission of information to reach the public and consolidate a community. This research has been developed with the objective of investigating, knowing and approaching - through the analysis of specific cases- the activity that a handful of organizations spread by means of their social networks, generating knowledge and offering © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 F. J. García-Peñalvo and A. García-Holgado (Eds.): TEEM 2022, LNET, pp. 798–805, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0942-1_83

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teachings to society through digital tools, showing in this way that companies can contribute and impact in a positive way in the education of their internal and external public, thus to citizenship. To achieve these global goals, the following specific objectives have been established which will allow an approach to the subject matter of the study: O1. Quantify contents which are dedicated to the creation of knowledge in social networks by organizations. O2. Analyze the kind of content generated and shared in communities from Instagram.

2 Theoretical Background Since some years ago, organizations have been redefining their strategies, reorganizing their priorities and even their teams. The technological advancement experienced in the late decades, climate change, covid-19 pandemic, human rights demands, the 2030 agenda or the recent war between Russia and Ukraine have acted as some of the technological, social and environmental factors which have altered the way of acting of many businesses in our society [2]. In this paradigm, we live the peak of a concept increasingly used in business communication: the purpose. A wide “for what” which makes reference to the sense of the existence of an organization [3]. A concept which, inside the universe of communication and businesses, does not stop acquiring protagonism since it is not enough for a business to only generate economic benefits, if it does not do it together with a purpose. This combination is necessary to achieve the interests of a business, as well as its customers and employees [4]. It is essential that all stakeholders who convey a business pull in the same direction, and so that they can do it, it is essential again a meaningful purpose which gives sense to every role they play. In this sense, education has become relevant inside organizations, becoming a key pillar to make an impact and exercise a positive influence on their teamwork, as well as on society. Education has become fundamental to enrich knowledge inside businesses, and at the same time, it constitutes one of the most valuable intangible assets nowadays. Today we expect from organizations a leadership with purpose and corporate responsibility which adapts to the rough and constant changes which XXI century society is experiencing. We ask businesses to be collaborative, transversal, and that they integrate a social and environmental impact which generates value in their business patterns [5]. Education has become a key tool to make it possible. Some authors such as Sinek addressed the “what for” of organizations as a key element so that they did not have to worry about being different from the rest, in contrast to the ones which did not have a sense as a business (which they should have) [6]; Kotlet, which integrated in 2013 the fifth ‘P’ in marketing: purpose; or as Porter and Kramer, who defend that the «benefits which involve a social purpose represent a higher form of capitalism, one that creates a positive cycle of business and community prosperity» [7]. In this way, there is an increasing number of organizations which look for compromises with a social impact, pursuing greater confidence and connection with all types of public. The strategies of differentiation of organizations have evolved; some years

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ago, the product was the epicentre for building the strategy. However, this has been redirected nowadays towards the purpose, which together with values and other aspects of the brand, build its identity [8, 9]. To be able to communicate their campaigns and establish a trustful and bidirectional relationship with stakeholders, businesses count on a useful tool: social networks. They have become a key element in our daily lives nowadays, which makes them the perfect stage for brands to meet their public, operating in line with their purposes and values and exercising a positive social impact. In recent years, Internet and social networks have altered the way of communicating and relating to population, even having most of it receiving information exclusively through these ways. According to the annual study of social networks from 2022 carried out by IAB Spain, there are already 28,3 million of users of social networks in Spain. They have become means of collaborative communication and they have created an essential space so that brands can listen to their groups of interest and establish with them a bidirectional relationship [9]. In this way, social networks have become an added value for organizations, in its external dimension as well as its internal, which allow businesses optimize their brand images towards customers and even make them aware of their particular causes, optimizing in this way their Corporate Social Responsibility too [1]. This means of communication is the order of the day to sell, share projects, establish conversations or generate and optimize really useful knowledge for society. Although there is a vast amount of research about social networks as a tool for communication and performance for businesses (such as Vélez, 2008; Freire, 2008 o Polo and Perez, 2011) there is a gap in how organizations use social networks as a means of knowledge transmission. Contents generated by organizations in their social networks should represent and contribute to the pursuit of their objectives, without ever forgetting the purpose they defend, as well as their values [9]. Precisely, a good purpose nowadays should contemplate the positive influence that can and should exert on society and the different publics of a company; that is why, education- in internal and external teaching as well- it is a key tool to build a wiser and more critic citizenship, as well as a better world. As Eric Ries mentions in his book The Learn Startup, «The only way to win is to learn faster» [11]. This theoretical framework leads us to ask ourselves a question: Are organizations really allocating efforts and content to enrich knowledge and the day-to-day life of society?

3 Methodology In this research project it will be studied the use which is done by selected companies of their social networks as tools for knowledge transmission. That is why it has been monitoring an analysis of content along the month of May 2022 of the following brands: Mapfre, Caixabank, Telefónica, Acciona, Repsol y DKV. The single has been selected under the criteria of experts according to its activity in this field, all of these brands being relevant for social responsibility, its purpose or its corporate governance. All of them

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are part of the ranking of the most responsible companies in 2021 prepared by Merco (Monitor Empresarial de Reputación Corporativa), the reference corporate monitor in Ibero-America for reputational evaluation based on a multistakeholder methodology made up of six evaluations and more than twenty sources of information, among which experts and managers stand out. This recognition makes these brands examples of responsible and positive organizations for society, being named in numerous congresses or becoming successful case studies. Content analysis has shown to be the most appropriate technique of investigation for this work, as it allows us to extract valid conclusions through the application of inference variables in a repeated way in a simple. It is a useful tool in order to carry out a descriptive investigation like the one we are approaching. As it already indicated Berelson «it deals with a technique of investigation for the objective, systematic and quantitative description of the content of communication, although it can be used in other fields as in the qualitative analysis of variables or in the study of the complexity of a phenomenon among others» [12]. The works of Berelson and Lazarfield became the starting point for other valuable contributions to the analysis of contents carried out later by other authors such as Budd, Thorp y Donohew (1967), Krippendorff (1980), Weber (1990), Frankfort- Nachmias y Nachmias (1996) y Berg (1998) [13]. Descriptive quantitative data is also extracted that allows us to know specific results about the content generated by the brands in their social networks. The following variables of analysis are established to develop the work described previously. 1. The number of followers in the account of the organization. 2. The number of contents generated during the month of may of 2022. 3. Typology of the shared content. – guided towards the product, – contents linked to anniversaries of events which took place on this day in history, – contents focused on generating knowledge > inside themselves, it will be determined the theme of knowledge which will be approached, – related with RSC and the purpose of the organization – or others. Through the content analysis of every post generated in their Instagram feed in each organization during the month of May 2022, we obtain results which get us closer to the role played by companies as generators of knowledge, teaching society and making a positive impact in it.

4 Results From the content analysis developed about the brands taken as a sample during the month of May, the data shown in Table 1 is extracted, complying with the previously established

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study variables. These results bring us closer to the objectives of the research, being able to draw conclusions from it. Table 1. Followers and content of the brands. Brand

Number of followers in thousand

Number of feed contents in IG (May 2022)

MapfreEspaña

17,4

13

Mapfre Global

33,7

16

Fundación La Caixa

48,2

17

Caixabank

121

14

Telefónica

44,2

30

Acciona

173

18

Repsol

55,8

10

DKV

19,2

22

Source: Author’s independent elaboration

First of all, we need to highlight that, in Mapfre, we have observed its global corporate profile, as well as its profile in the Spanish area. In the same way, in this research, we also include Caixabank and Fundación La Caixa for the power and activity that they develop in this field. As a first result, we can prove that all the organizations analyzed count on a great number of followers, making up for the ones with a higher interest: Acciona with 173.000 followers and Caixabank with 121.000. The profiles that have fewer followers are DKW (with 19.200) and Mapfre Spain (with 17.400). Regarding the number of contents generated during the month, we observe an imbalance between companies. Telefónica stands out, generating 30 contents a month in their feed, which means a daily and constant work from the organization. Right in the contrary situation, we find Repsol with only 10 contents generated during the month of May, followed by Mapfre Spain with 13 contents; a very short number to generate and maintain a true engagement with their users. DKV and Acciona also generate contents assiduously in their walls, with 22 and 18 posts, respectively during the month of May. Nevertheless, Mapfre global, as well as Caixabank and Fundación la Caixa generate contents for the feed for half of the month (Table 2). Hereafter, we will classify the type of contents created by the different organizations used as a sample in this research during the month of May 2022: Mapfre España created during the month of May 11 contents of knowledge or education. From this total, 4 can be linked to their Social Corporate Responsibility (SCR) or their purpose as an organization. This profile does not share any post about any product or brand, but they did about one related to a historical event and another included in other categories.

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Table 2. Typology of contents Brand

Of the product or brand

Events

Knowledge/teaching

CRS/Purpose

Other

Mapfre España

0

1

11

4

1

Mapfre Global

1

0

7

5

4

Fundación La Caixa

1

0

9

5

2

Caixabank

7

0

3

3

2

Telefónica

6

2

14

5

3

Acciona

3

1

9

3

2

Repsol

3

1

4

2

2

DKV

1

2

8

7

4

Source: Author’s independent elaboration

On the other hand, Mapfre Global shares a total of 7 divulgative contents, 1 related to a product or brand, another with CSR and another 4 related to other topics. In the case of Fundación La Caixa, it has been 9 contents related to education. From the total contents generated during the month, 5 have also been linked to their SCR or their purpose, 1 to a historical event and 2 to other categories. However, Caixabank only generates 3 contents focused on the spread of knowledge and from the total, 3 have also been included in their SCR or purpose. They allocate 7 posts in their feed to promote products or the brand and 2 to other categories. Telefónica is the organization that assigns more posts to education, with a total of 14 publications in their feed during the month of May. From the total of contents generated by them, 6 belong to their product or brand, 5 to their SCR, 2 to historical events and 3 of other characteristics. Acciona, for its part, shares 9 divulgation contents, 3 linked with SCR or the purpose of the company, 1 to historical events, 3 to products and 2 to other topics. Repsol is the organization which shares fewer posts related to knowledge, only 4 during the selected month. It shares 3 contents about the product, 1 about historical events, 2 linked with SCR and 2 of other types. Finally, DKV generates 8 educative contents, 2 related to historical events, 1 about the product, 7 of the shared total, which also deals with SCR and the purpose of the organization. Among the different profiles, we can highlight Telefónica, Mapfre Spain, Acciona as they are the ones who share more divulgation content during a month, although it stands out that every brand selected does it to a greater or lesser extent. The ones who share less are Caixabank, matching up with the fact that it is a brand that shares more content related to a product or brand and Repsol, which, as it was previously indicated, generated a monthly content lower than it is recommended or usual.

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If we explore its Instragram’s profiles, we can see some examples of the type of content generated by the sample, which are used to enrich the knowledge of users, since they focus on education and the spread of teachings. The range of possibilities is ample, as we find curiosities, advice, definition of concepts or testimonies which allow followers from different accounts to enhance their knowledge, make their life more practical or even acquire new, more responsible and sustainable habits with the environment.

5 Conclusions From the obtained results of the analysis of the approached cases in this research project, we have extracted some conclusions. In the first place, it stands out the evolution that has suffered communication inside a high number of organizations last year, leaving aside the exclusive orientation towards the selling of products, to evolve into a content that interests, enriches and connects with the public. This can be appreciated at the time of observing the social networks’ walls of different organizations: we can see much further than the products and services that they offer. Along the same line, the data obtained in this research shows the same: there exists a clear tendency to not generate too much content linked with the product that it is sold, also boosting other types of contents which have a greater value and impact on users. In the second place, we are surprised by the imbalance in the generation of contents between the brands selected. On the one hand, we find Telefónica, which generates one content a day, but on the other, we can see how Repsol only generates content for a third part of the month, being this a short number for the creation of engagement among users. Another conclusion extracted from this research is that purpose and Corporate Social Responsibility become particularly relevant and present in the contents generated by the brands. In many instances, we can appreciate how they share their good actions, their sustainable way of acting, etc. From this analysis of cases through the observation of profiles of different approached brands, we extract a clear result: all of them allocate time and efforts to generate contents linked with the spread of knowledge from different fields. Education is a valuable asset for society, that is why, companies should manage it as one of their intangible assets and promote it among their internal and external public. Finally, it should be emphasized the positive impact on society that these organizations pursue, allocating time, efforts and creativity for the generation of contents in social networks which can really become useful for their users. The organizations of the 21st century must establish purposes that positively impact society, pursuing beyond the sale of products, a collective benefit. In this sense, the management of intangibles has gained significant relevance in the business world and is a challenge for brands to be much more than providers of products and services for consumers or a means of economic enrichment for their workers.; these can become part of the daily life of their internal and external audiences, optimizing their day-to-day in society and trying to make the world a better place to live. The conclusions of this exploratory research are useful to present new questions on the influence that the companies’ divulgation contents exert on users from social networks. It is necessary for organizations and for society that new investigations arise that deepen the impact that contents can have on citizenship since social networks are

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a key tool to reach publics from organizations; and if they want to contribute with a positive impact on society, the management of these contents can be very useful. It is necessary for organizations to use their tools and take advantage of the opportunity they have to establish two-way dialogues and relationships with their audiences, in order to share knowledge and make citizenship education prosper.

References 1. Ahumada-Muñoz, D.M., Cesme-Cesme, A.F., Santillán-Marroquín, W.E.: Las redes sociales como generador de valor en las organizaciones. Visionario Digit. 4(4), 66–81 (2020). https:// doi.org/10.33262/visionariodigital.v4i4.1441 2. López-Aza, C.: Activismo de marca. Una nueva estrategia de marketing, Pirámide Editorial, Spain (2020) 3. Rodríguez-Ardura, V.: Propósito y valores: cómo hacer que la cultura de una organización florezca. Profit Editorial (2020) 4. Barber, L.: Capitalism. Time for a reset. Financial Times (2019) 5. Navarro, S., Ruiz, S.: El propósito corporativo en la era de la disrupción. Harvard Bus. Rev. 300, 58–60 (2020) https://tinyurl.com/y6zj25mx 6. Sinek, S.: Empieza con el Porqué. Cómo los grandes líderes motivan a actuar, Empresa Activa, Madrid (2018) 7. Porter, M., Kramer, M.: Creating Shared Value: How to reinvent capitalism-and unleash a wave of innovation and growth. Harvard Business Review, vol. 17. FSG, Boston (2011) 8. Ruiz, F.: La década del propósito, el momento de trascender: ¿Qué significa ser una empresa con propósito? Harvard Deusto Business Review, nº 300, p. 14 (2020) 9. Pacheco-Barriga, L., Fernández-Blanco, E.: Estrategias de comunicación publicitaria en redes sociales: diseño, gestión e impacto, pp. 607–623. McGraw-Hill Interamericana de España S.L. (2022) 10. Iniesta-Alemán, I., Mayorga-Escalada, S., Pérez-Serrano, M.J.: Reputación, engagement y marca: gestión estratégica de intangibles para crear valor. Egregius Ediciones (2020) 11. Ries, E.: The lean startup. Penguin Random House, USA (2011) 12. Berelson, B., Lazarfeld, P.: The Analysis of Communication Content. University of Chicago and Columbia University (1948) 13. Tinto-Arandes, J.A.: El análisis de contenido como herramienta de utilidad para la realización de una investigación descriptiva. Un ejemplo de aplicaciónpráctica utilizado para conocer las investigaciones realizadas sobre la imagen de marca de España y el efecto país de origen. Universidad de los Andes. Provincia, núm. 29, enero-junio, pp. 135–173 (2013)

Museums and Heritage Education on Instagram: An Analysis of the Actions of the “Museus Conectam” Network Rafaela Silva Thomaz(B) Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil [email protected]

Abstract. Presenting an intrinsic relationship with education and cultural heritage, museums constitute themselves as privileged non-formal education places for the formation and culture of society through the promotion of heritage education. This article aims to present the heritage education actions developed by the Museus Conectam network (collaboration network between museums located in the city of Porto Alegre, Brazil) on Instagram, discussing the importance of using social media to promote the right to heritage and the memory of the city. The methodology is qualitative, and consists of the documentary analysis of materials published by museums of the Museus Conectam network on Instagram in three actions carried out in 2021. The results indicate that the strategies adopted by museums in the digital environment enable their network performance and contribute to democratization access to education for heritage assets, constituting an important opportunity to deal with historical memory as a reference for identity and the construction of citizenship. Keywords: Museums · Heritage Education · Communication · Social media

1 Introduction Museums as a social phenomenon are configured as strategic social spaces for culture, education, communication and citizenship. Considered in the contemporary world as complex and multifaceted institutions, museums have been through a large transformation throughout its history. The image of the traditional local building structure that displays collections of objects in a dark storage as “treasure troves” [1] has been largely replaced by the concept of the museum as a platform that facilitates cultural creativity, circulates new forms of knowledge, values and experience as expressions of local, national and global heritage. Communication, considered alongside research and conservation as one of the pillars of museology, has been highlighted as one of the main actions in the museological process due to several factors internal and external to the museum. “Internally, museums have been improving a cyclical operational praxis that is closed, but never completed, in communication, specifically in the reception of the public” [2], while externally, museum audiences are increasingly aware of their rights as cultural subjects in the process of interpreting cultural heritage. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 F. J. García-Peñalvo and A. García-Holgado (Eds.): TEEM 2022, LNET, pp. 806–813, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0942-1_84

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The numerous tools for the production and transmission of content on the internet, which have emerged in recent decades, have simplified previously expensive processes that have now become accessible to a large part of the population, engendering new social practices, as well as new ways of seeing and being in the world. As the internet is one of the main means of communication and expression in our lives and in all areas of society [3], it also becomes a space occupied by museums. From the relationship between society, culture and the communication technologies characteristic of the 21st century, understood as cyberculture [4], it became possible for museums to explore new ways of relating to their audiences. Thus, museum professionals have found in cyberspace the necessary tools to communicate through digital media and build narratives that encourage audiences to visit exhibitions, learn about and research the collections, participate in activities and events, and collectively build meanings about the cultural heritage. This article aims to present the heritage education actions developed by the Museus Conectam network (collaboration network between museums located in the city of Porto Alegre, Brazil) on Instagram, discussing the importance of using social media to promote the right to heritage and the memory of the city. The methodology is qualitative, and consists of the documentary analysis of materials published by museums of the Museus Conectam network on Instagram in three actions carried out in 2021. The results indicate that the strategies adopted by museums in the digital environment enable their network performance and contribute to democratization access to education for heritage assets, constituting an important opportunity to deal with historical memory as a reference for identity and the construction of citizenship.

2 Museums and Cultural Heritage The museum, among many other concepts, can be described as in the current definition of the International Council of Museums, ICOM, as an institution that serves society and its development, is open to the public, and “acquires, conserves, researches, communicates and exhibits the tangible and intangible heritage of humanity and its surroundings for the purpose of education, study and delight” [5]. As they are institutions that have an intrinsic relationship with education and cultural heritage, museums are privileged places for non-formal education for the formation and culture of society through the promotion of heritage education. In this way, the heritage education process of individuals carried out by museums through their collections and their educational actions aims to strengthen people’s relationship with their cultural heritage, establishing a better relationship between them and these assets, realizing their responsibility for the valorisation and preservation of heritage and strengthening the experience with citizenship, in a process of social inclusion. “Critical knowledge and conscious appropriation by communities of their heritage are indispensable factors in the process of sustainable preservation of these assets, as well as in the strengthening of feelings of identity and citizenship” [6]. In Brazil, the concept of Cultural Heritage was adopted in the last decades of the 20th century, as a way of expanding what was understood as Historical Heritage. Following this new orientation brought by the Social Sciences [7], the Federal Constitution of 1988 also expands the interpretation of what Cultural Heritage is, incorporating.

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[...] the goods of a material and immaterial nature, taken individually or together, bearers of reference to the identity, to the action, to the memory of the different groups that make up Brazilian society, which include: forms of expression; the ways of creating, doing and living; scientific, artistic and technological creations; works, objects, documents, buildings and other spaces intended for artistic and cultural manifestations; and urban groups and sites of historical, scenic, artistic, archaeological, paleontological, ecological and scientific value (art. 216). Thus, museums, alongside the so-called “memory spaces”, such as monuments, archives and libraries, are a privileged space for the heritage education process, in order to develop citizens’ sensitivity and awareness of the importance the preservation of these cultural assets. When thinking about a democratic society, heritage education cannot be limited, however, to the simple reproduction of cultural goods. It must be understood that heritage is the result of collective production, and in the same way, it constitutes a fundamental collective right for the exercise of citizenship. When proposing a discussion on the relationship between Cultural Heritage and citizenship, Fernandes [7] first analyzes the very concept of Citizenship, moving away from the mere legal relationship that is established between the individual and the country of his/her nationality, because “in this sense, the expression Citizenship identifies those who are in full possession of their political rights, fulfilling their duties as a citizen.” In line with the ideas of the English political scientist T. H. Marshall [8], who considerably expanded this notion, coming to understand Citizenship formed by a set of civil rights, political rights and social rights, Fernandes [7] argues that the expression Citizenship must be taken from a political perspective, identifying the “active subject in the political scene, the subject claiming or provoking the mutation, the transformation of the social”. Considering that the sets of civil, political and social rights correspond respectively to Civil Citizenship, Political Citizenship and Social Citizenship, it is to the Social Citizenship that cultural rights belong [8], as they are understood as those rights that the individual has in relation to the culture of the society in which he is a part of, ranging from the right to cultural production, through the right of access to culture to the right to historical memory. The right to cultural production is based on the assumption that all men produce culture. We are all, directly or indirectly, producers of culture. It is the right of every citizen to express their creativity when producing culture. The right of access to culture presupposes the guarantee that, in addition to producing culture, every individual must have access to the cultural goods produced by that same society. It is about the democratization of cultural goods to the population as a whole. And, finally, the right to historical memory as part of this conception of Cultural Citizenship, according to which all men have the right to have access to material and immaterial goods that represent their past, their tradition and their History. [7]. It is noteworthy that the three groups of rights that make up the so-called cultural rights are interdependent parts of the same conception of Cultural Citizenship. For Marilena Chauí [9], Cultural Citizenship means taking “culture as a citizen’s right and as a

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work of creation […], without confusing them with the figures of the consumer and the taxpayer”. For the author, the idea of cultural citizenship is part of a policy in which “the concept of culture is not reduced to superfluity, entertainment, market standards”, rather, it is realized as “a right of all citizens, a right from which the social division of classes or the class struggle can manifest itself and be worked on”, once that citizens only exercise their right to culture when they act as social and political subjects, differentiating themselves, entering into conflict, communicating and exchanging their experiences. According to the author, this is the only way to refuse some forms of culture and being able to create new ones, which means to move the entire cultural process. Based on reflections on museums as a privileged space for the heritage education process, and on the meaning of culture as a fundamental collective right for the exercise of citizenship, the following session presents the Museus Conectam network, and analyzes the materials published by museums on Instagram in 2021, discussing the importance of using social media to promote the right to the city’s heritage and memory.

3 Museums, Social Media and the Formation of the Museums Conectam Network For a long time, museums were primarily dedicated to collecting and safeguarding collections, conserving cultural assets and exhibiting their collections. In the contemporary scenario, however, there is a greater focus on visitors and their relationship with these spaces, which contributes to museums seeking to create different ways of relating to their audiences, whether physically or virtually. Among the main communicational and educational transformations generated by the rapid and intense development of information technologies in contemporary times, we can highlight notions such as hypertext, hypermedia, interactivity, mobility and ubiquity, which have been conditioning contemporary culture, which, called Cyberculture, presents challenges and possibilities for museums as well. The emergence of new forms of sociability together with the convergence between information technology and telecommunications, which began in the 1970s, has generated peculiar communicational, socio-technical, economic and cultural relationships and transformations, which Levy [10] and Lemos [3] named Information Society and Castells [4] designated as a network society. In addition to causing changes in educational paradigms, the new socio-technical and cybercultural scenario has been presenting museums and their professionals with new challenges in relation to their communication and educational practices and in relation to heritage and culture. “Material and immaterial culture finds a new language to communicate its historicity and its value as a heritage asset” [11]. In 2020, due to the health crisis caused by the Covid-19 pandemic, with the restriction of physical contact, and, consequently, of public access to the physical space of museums, these institutions were faced with communication with the public mediated by the internet still more evident and necessary. It is in this context that the UFRGS Museum, a multidisciplinary university museum responsible for researching and disseminating the cultural heritage of the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, invites,

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in 2021, local museums to celebrate the 249th anniversary of the city of Porto Alegre in a virtual activity, which gave rise to the Connect Museums Network. Today, the Museus Conectam network is made up of the UFRGS Museum, the Museum of the History of Medicine of RS (MUHM), the Santa Casa Historical-Cultural Center (CHC), Casa de Memória Unimed/RS and the Hipólito José da Costa Communication Museum (Musecom), institutions that work with the city of Porto Alegre as transversal themes in their collections on the history of the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, on the history of health, and on the history of social communication, respectively. The project began, therefore, as a desire of the museums to carry out joint actions with the objective of launching different perspectives on history, memory and education for the heritage of the city of Porto Alegre. At the time of writing this work, the Museus Conectam network already has five collective actions carried out on Instagram, and this study focuses on the analysis of the three actions that took place in 2021, described below. The first action, which led to the formation of the Museus Conectam network, was the Porto Alegre Anniversary campaign. It covered three sequential posts on Instagram that were published by the profiles of the four institutions between March 22 and 26, 2021. Portraying the theme “festivities”, as it was about celebrating the anniversary of the city of Porto Alegre, the publications presented the total of four photographs, one from each collection, which were accompanied by texts alluding to the date. The narrative permeating the campaign included a presentation of the project, inviting audiences to prepare their photos in the city to be posted on their social media. There was a caption text for each of the four images, recovering the theme of festivities, paying attention to the impossibility of holding agglomerations in the city, due to the restrictions generated by the Covid-19 pandemic, but with a nostalgic character for the festive Porto Alegre of other times. In addition to the concern to address this aspect of the city’s history and invite audiences to share their photos as a way of celebrating Porto Alegre’s anniversary, specific hashtags were used. The last publication recalled the action carried out during the week with a message of congratulations to the city of Porto Alegre for its anniversary, reinforcing the invitation for the public to share their photographs of the city and thanking the partner institutions of the action (Fig. 1). The second action of the Museus Conectam network had as its motto the State Day of Cultural Heritage, celebrated in the state of Rio Grande do Sul on the second weekend of August. To celebrate the date, the five museums got together to create a sequence of posts for Instagram, with the aim of drawing attention to the celebration of the date and valuing their work for the education and preservation of the city’s history. The first post took place on August 6, 2021, and consisted of the publication of an image that contained the city map and highlighted the geographic location of the museums (Fig. 2). All institutions posted this image on their profiles, announcing that it consisted of another campaign by the Museus Conectam network, this time designed for the State’s Cultural Heritage Day. Throughout the week, from August 9th to 13th, the campaign consisted of a sequence of posts where each day one of the museums published comparative images of its building seen from the same angle in the 1940s and today. Finally, the campaign ended on August 14, through cards that explained the main

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Fig. 1. First action – Final post: congratulations to the city of Porto Alegre. Source: author.

types of mechanisms for protecting Brazilian cultural heritage (inventory, registration, tipping and expropriation).

Fig. 2. Map of Porto Alegre and the geographic location of the museums Source: author.

As in the Porto Alegre Anniversary campaign, the teams of professionals from the museums of the Museus Conectam network were concerned with exploring the potential of Instagram by incorporating specific hashtags for the State Heritage Day, as well as the hashtags used by each museum. The address of each institution on Instagram was also inserted in the caption text, along with an invitation for the public to follow the network’s museums. Another widely used resource was the sharing of actions in the stories of

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each of the museums, also accompanied by the marking of the individual profiles of each institution, in order to encourage the expansion of the number of followers, taking advantage of the communication and sociability potential of cyberspace, marked by free information exchange, sharing and collective cooperation in network flows [3]. Finally, in September, as part of the program for the 15th Spring of Museums, the museums of the Museus Conectam network used Instagram to promote the round table “Museus Conectam: virtual experiences in the network”, which took place on the 22nd of September, in a virtual way, broadcast live on Facebook from the UFRGS Museum. Reflecting on the theme “Museums: losses and beginnings”, museum professionals discussed the activities carried out during the Covid-19 pandemic period and their virtual experiences on the Museus Conectam Network. When describing each of the actions, one can therefore observe the rich potential of Instagram as an educational tool to address the collective memory of Porto Alegre citizens about their origins, traditions, cultural habits, their relationship with the city, with museums and with its historic buildings. Acting in the dimensions of education, communication and culture requires developing in individuals their potential and creativity [12]. And museums, in this sense, seek, through contact with the photographic records of the city, museums and their historic buildings, to provide the public with an apprehension of their own reality, stimulating, through collective memory, human coexistence in which the traditions of the past are valued, but also questioned, reinterpreted and re-signified. When establishing the narratives described, considering that the narratives in the world are numerous and in almost infinite ways, as they are present at all times, in all places, in all societies [13], the actions carried out by the Museus Conectam network present just one of the versions about the history of the city of Porto Alegre, which, when shared, evokes as many other memories and possibilities as the audiences that interact with them are. Resuming the right to culture from the perspective of the right of citizenship, in which culture is a fundamental right [7], museums must work to ensure that all citizens have the right to produce culture, as well as the right of access to cultural property, the right to participate, and the right to historical memory. Although the presence of museums on the internet has been intensifying over the last few decades, it is from the health crisis caused by the Covid-19 pandemic that many institutions now rely only on the virtual space to communicate with the public and offer their educational and cultural actions. In this sense, the set of rights with which the right to culture is related becomes feasible in a large part of museums through mediation with the internet. The rights to produce culture, to participate, to have access to historical memory and cultural assets, are conditioned to the virtual environment, posing new challenges to museum professionals.

4 Conclusions In this work, we sought to reflect on the potential of the internet, and in particular Instagram, so that museums can virtually work on heritage education actions, based on the study of three actions of the Museus Conectam network carried out in 2021 on Instagram. When approaching the actions, we sought to discuss the notions of cultural

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heritage and cultural citizenship as central concepts, as well as to highlight some of the strategies adopted by the Museus Conectam network in the process of heritage education related to the celebration of significant dates in the universe of museums. The results indicate that the strategies adopted by museums in the digital environment enable their networking and contribute to the democratization of access to education for heritage assets, constituting an important opportunity to deal with historical memory as a reference for identity and construction of citizenship. Since the critical knowledge of heritage and its appropriation by communities are essential factors in the process of sustainable preservation of these assets, as well as for the strengthening of feelings of identity and citizenship [6], this work hopes to have contributed to the critical and constructive discussion on heritage education processes within museums, characterizing the evidence of cyberspace in the period of the Covid-19 pandemic as a new scenario of challenges for these institutions, deserving, therefore, special attention from their professionals, in the sense of finding strategic ways of planning communication in museums.

References 1. de Roemer, S.: Conservation – How Ethics Work in Practice. In: Museums, Ethics and Cultural Heritage, edited by Bernice L Murphy. Abingdon. ICOM and Routledge, Oxon (2016) 2. Cury, M.X.: Exposição: análise metodológica do processo de concepção, montagem e avaliação. 1999. 134 p. Dissertação (Mestrado em Comunicação) - Escola de Comunicações e Artes, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo (2004) 3. Lemos, A.: Ciber-cultura-remix. São Paulo: Itaú Cultural (2005) 4. Castells, M.: Museus na era da informação: conectores culturais de tempo e espaço. In: Chagas, M., Storino, C. (eds.) Musas: Revista Brasileira de Museus e Museologia, n.º 5. Instituto Brasileiro de Museus, Brasília (2011) 5. ICOM: Museum Definition (2019). https://icom.museum/en/activities/standardsguidelines/ museum-definition/ 6. Horta, M.D.L.P., Grunberg, E., Monteiro, A.Q.: Guia básico de educação patrimonial. Instituto do Patrimônio Histórico e Artístico Nacional, Museu Imperial, Brasília (1999) 7. Fernandes, J.R.O.: O direito à memória: análise dos princípios constitucionais da política de patrimônio cultural no Brasil (1988–2010). Fundação Casa de Rui Barbosa 8. Marshall, T.H.: Cidadania, classe social e status. Zahar Editores, Rio de Janeiro (1967) 9. Chauí, M.: Cidadania cultural: o direito à cultura. Fundação Perseu Abram, São Paulo (2010) 10. Levy, P.: Cibercultura. São Paulo: Ed. 34 (1999) 11. Mello, J.C.: Museus e Ciberespaço: novas linguagens da comunicação na era digital. Cultura Histórica Patrimônio 1(2), 6–29 (2013) 12. Sodré, M.: Reinventando a educação – Diversidade, Descolonização e Redes. Vozes, Rio de Janeiro (2012) 13. Barthes, R.: Introdução à análise estrutural da narrativa. In: Análise estrutural da narrativa. Vozes, Rio de Janeiro (2011)

The Association of Internet Use with Subjective Well-Being: An Empirical Study Based on CGSS 2017 Yurong Yan1

, Yuying Deng2(B)

, Juan-José Igartua2

, and Xiagang Song3

1 School of Journalism and Communication, Northwest University of Political Science and Law,

Xi’an, China [email protected] 2 Department of Sociology and Communication, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Salamanca, 37007 Salamanca, Spain {yuyingdeng_irene,jigartua}@usal.es 3 School of Law, Shihezi University, Shihezi, China [email protected]

Abstract. With the rapid development of mobile Internet technology, the Internet has taken on an indispensable role in everyday life. There is a continuous debate regarding the relationship between internet use and subjective well-being. In contrast to observing whether one has access to the Internet, this paper focuses on Internet usages such as the frequency of use, range of social interaction, and network centrality. Based on the Chinese nationwide data collected in 2017, the results of the ordinary least squares regression model demonstrate that Internet use has a significant positive association with subjective well-being. In addition, by conducting heterogeneity tests, this study also discovers that Internet usage has different effects on different age groups; middle-aged people benefit from a higher frequency of Internet use and a large-scale network; the youth and the old adults benefit from their organizing communication groups. Keywords: Internet use · Subjective well-being · CGSS 2017 · Heterogeneity analysis

1 Introduction Subjective well-being is linked to a variety of positive outcomes, including improved health and longevity [1]. As a transformative force promoting social restructuring, does the Internet also contribute to individual subjective well-being [2]? The Internet has a wealth of information resources and a wide range of communication channels, which can help users to acquire different kinds of information, and develop social capital [3]. On the other hand, Internet use is thought to be related to online harassment, poor sleep quality, low self-esteem and poor body image [4].

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 F. J. García-Peñalvo and A. García-Holgado (Eds.): TEEM 2022, LNET, pp. 814–822, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0942-1_85

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Many studies have focused on the influence of the Internet on subjective well-being, but the positive or negative association is uncertain [5]. In Gauteng province, the economic hub of South Africa, but only Internet access was an issue [6]. The issue of how people use the Internet and who uses it cannot be overlooked [7]. Besides, the relationship between Internet use and subjective well-being relies heavily on a sample of adolescents and young adults [5]. As of June 2021, China has a huge Internet user base of 1.011 billion people [8]. In the context of China, the purpose of this study is to explore the association of Internet use behaviors with personal happiness. This paper focuses on the behaviors of Internet use in relation to the frequency of use, range of interaction and network centrality. It also further explores the contribution of digital media to the enhancement of personal subjective well-being.

2 Literature Review 2.1 Subjective Well-Being Subjective well-being is a holistic assessment of individuals’ life quality based on internal criteria and is an important comprehensive psychological indicator of an individuals’ life quality [9]. Subjective well-being contains three components: pleasant affect, unpleasant affect, and life satisfaction [9]. There are also empirical studies that have investigated different aspects of people’s subjective well-being, such as 1) emotional aspect of well-being, experienced short-term positive or negative affect (like pleasure or anxiety); 2) evaluative or cognitive well-being, which is concerned with long term selfassessment of life satisfaction [10, 11]. Previous research has investigated that subjective well-being is significantly correlated with sociodemographic characteristics, including gender, income, age and education levels [12, 13] and married people are also happier and more satisfied with their lives than single people [14]. 2.2 Internet Use Behaviors and Subjective Well-Being There is a continuous debate regarding the relationship between Internet use and wellbeing. Internet is concerned to influence subjective well-being by changing the way time is used, facilitating access to information [15]. However, according to a comparative study between American and Finland teenagers, those who exposure to online hate material have lower levels of happiness [16]. Notably, according to an analysis of participants from 18 countries, the claim that excessive use of the internet decreases subjective well-being is not supported [17].

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Based on Chinese data, mass media and lifestyle have direct influences on health, and lifestyle plays a mediating role between mass media and health in 2015 [18]. More recently, Internet usage is positively associated with subjective well-being based on the Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS) 2017 sample of older adults [19]. These also lead to the research questions in this paper: RQ1: Does Internet use have an association with residents’ subjective well-being in a representative all-age sample of the Chinese population? With the rapid development of online platforms, individuals’ Internet use behaviors cannot be measured by a single dimension of use intensity [20] and its relationship is therefore worth continuing to be explored. One study has found that when social media use increases by one hour, users’ happiness decreases by an average of 0.17–0.22 [21]. However, from the data over time, web usage frequency has increased across age groups [22]. Therefore, we assumed the following hypothesis: H1: A greater frequency of Internet use will be associated with a higher subjective well-being of individuals. Evidence from many studies suggested that online communication expands relationship networks for communication and further enhances subjective well-being. In the research of 527 male adolescents in Northern Ireland, adolescents with more online friends are found to score higher on subjective well-being [23]. But the number of Facebook friends has an inverse U-shaped relationship with subjective well-being [24]. Following these results, we hypothesized the following: H2: Individuals with a larger online relationship size have higher levels of subjective well-being. In addition, peoples’ position and influence in their relationship networks are also found to be associated with subjective well-being. People at the core of their networks seem more likely to be happy, while those on the peripheral seem more likely to be unhappy [25]. Meanwhile, managers will be able to send messages to a single team or the entire group at once [26]. They may experience a higher level of subjective wellbeing as a result of their role as the center of these dispersed groups of people with similar socialization needs. Following these previous findings, we postulated: H3: Individuals in the online relationship centrality will have higher levels of subjective well-being. Several scholars have focused on the relationship between individuals’ Internet use behaviors and subjective well-being for different age groups. For the children sample, some researchers concluded that daily overuse of media might replace some beneficial actives through face-to-face communication [27]. A study examined how Facebook can reduce inequalities in well-being among undergraduates of a U.S. university [28]. Also, Internet use may enable the old people to maintain close intergenerational relationships with others, thereby improving their subjective well-being [29]. It can be seen that different age groups have different focuses on using the Internet, which in turn leads to different perceptions between their Internet use behaviors and subjective well-being. Following these results, we additionally asked a research question: RQ2: Does Internet use have different effects on different age groups?

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3 Methods 3.1 Data This study uses data derived from the 2017 Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS). It is the earliest national, comprehensive, and continuous academic survey project, and the representative data about China’s current social situation [30]. The 2017 CGSS data add modules such as network society and social network, which facilitate research on Internet usage behavior. The sample is composed of 2079 individuals with valid data. 3.2 Measures 3.2.1 Outcome Variable Subjective well-being. The dependent variable was measured by asking respondents, in general, whether they think they have a happy life [31]. The only question to analyze the level of SWB is reliable, effective, and feasible [32]. The answer ranges from 1 (very unhappy) to 5 (very happy) (M = 3.90, SD = 0.79). 3.2.2 Predictor Variable We consider three predictor variables. First, the frequency of Internet usage is measured by the question “In the past year, do you often surf the Internet in your spare time?” (M = 4.09, SD = 1.08). Second, the online relationship size is assessed based on the respondents’ answers to the question about the number of people they connect with via the Internet every day (M = 3.12, SD = 1.20). Third, the online relationship centrality is measured by the respondents’ answers regarding whether they organized the virtual communities, either organizing WeChat groups or QQ groups. The number of virtual communities they organized is valued (M = 0.98, SD = 3.05). 3.2.3 Control Variables Demographic backgrounds acting as control variables include gender (0 = female, 1 = male), age (year), marital status (0 = single, divorced, or widowed, 1 = married), an education level, annual income (annual income last year transformed by natural logarithm). Previous literature showed that there is a U-shaped association between age and life satisfaction [33]. Thus, we include an age2 variable to control for the non-linear effects of age.

4 Methods 4.1 Descriptive Analysis Among the overall sample, 50.3% of the sample are females (N = 1046), and 49.7% are males. 76.1% are married. The average age of the whole sample is 41.9 years old (SD = 14.1), and they are educated for about 13.9 years (SD = 2.55). The average score for the frequency of Internet usage is 4.09, indicating that respondents surf the Internet several times a week or every day.

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4.2 Regression Model Test Model 1 explores the control variables on individual subjective well-being. Age is associated with strongly negative effects (B = −.060, SE = .008, p < .001); there is also a non-linear negative effect of age on subjective well-being. Education and income indicate a weak positive effect; respondents with higher education level and higher annual income feel happier (B = .012, SE = .007, p < .1; B = .008, SE = .005, p < .1). Being married is associated with significantly higher subjective well-being (B = .418, SE = .048, p < .001). However, individuals from different sex report insignificantly subjective well-being level. Model 2 to 4 show the regression coefficients of Internet usage on the subjective well-being. As the frequency of Internet use increases by one unit, the probability of being happier increased by 0.05 (B = .055, SE = .017, p < .01). The explanatory of model 2 increases 0.005 compared to the model that only includes control variables. Model 3 shows that there is a significant association between the online relationship size and subjective well-being (B = .039, SE = .015, p < .01); respondents’ online relationship centrality is also beneficial to subjective well-being (B = .016, SE = .006, p < .01). Model 4 presents positive associations between three aspects of Internet usage and subjective well-being (B = .044, SE = .018, p < .05; B = .032, SE = .015, p < .05; B = .016, SE = .006, p < .01). The explained variance increases to 0.056. Consequently, H1, H2 and H3 are supported. 4.3 Heterogeneity Analysis The regression models show that age2 is negatively correlated with the level of subjective well-being and reveal Internet usage may have different effects on different age groups. We group the sample into three age categories. Following the definition of the United Nations and previous studies [34], a young person is in the age under 40, middle-aged in 41 to 59, and an older adult is in the age range above 60. Table 1 represents the OLS regression results with age groups. Frequency of Internet use and the online relationship size show significant positive relationship with subjective well-being for middle-aged respondents but are not link to the subjective well-being of young person and older adults (B = .063, SE = .026, p < .05; B = .043, SE = .025, p < .1). Meanwhile, respondents’ online relationship centrality has a significant relationship with subjective well-being for young person and older adults (B = .015, SE = .007, p < .05; B = .020, SE = .012, p < .10). Thus, a certain degree of heterogeneity exists in the subjective well-being of Internet use on individuals of different ages. Hence, the results answer the second research question in the affirmative.

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Table 1. Heterogeneity of Internet use affecting subjective well-being Young group

Middle-aged group

The older group

B (SE)

B (SE)

B (SE)

−0.022

−0.046

−0.015

(0.050)

(0.057)

(0.093)

0.017 +

0.007

−0.011

(0.010)

(0.012)

(0.018)

LnPInc

−0.004

0.006

0.024

(0.006)

(0.008)

(0.022)

marriage

0.190***

0.590***

0.366**

(0.052)

(0.099)

(0.116)

0.054

0.063*

−0.008

(0.034)

(0.026)

(0.037)

Net_size

0.025

0.043 +

0.019

(0.022)

(0.025)

(0.036)

Net_cen

0.015*

0.024

0.020 +

(0.007)

(0.021)

(0.012)

_cons

3.222***

2.784***

3.615***

(0.207)

(0.213)

(0.317)

N

1020

792

267

R2

0.026

0.068

0.053

Gender Edu

UIF

Note: + p < .1; * p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001

5 Discussion The results support our prediction that the frequency of Internet use is positively associated with subjective well-being. The results demonstrate that online relationship size and online relationship centrality are positively related to subjective well-being, which, to some extent, reveals that social support may contribute to subjective well-being. The findings are in accord with studies indicating that communication via the Internet broadens the scope of personal socialization, enhances interpersonal conversation, and thus improves social relations and perceived quality of life [35]. Furthermore, a meaningful difference is observed among the age groups of respondents. A previous research suggested that teenagers’ friendship group hope is an important factor in improving subjective well-being [36]. In addition, the current study indicates that online relationship centrality has a more obvious association with subjective well-being in the young group; the online relationship size is weak positively linked to the subjective well-being of the middle-aged group.

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But, a higher frequency of Internet use is not linked with greater subjective wellbeing, which may be related to increased skill requirements for the old [37]. In addition, the old organizing more virtual communities enjoy a higher level of subjective well-being. The Internet has been utilized extensively and innovatively, and the old are involved in learning new technologies. Acknowledgements. In this study, publicly available datasets were analyzed. This data is available at http://cgss.ruc.edu.cn/English/Home.htm. This study was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could potentially create a conflict of interest.

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Educational Assessment and Guidance

Application of the CIPP Model in the Structure of a Satisfaction Survey for Elearning Training Activities Jessica Uribe Navarrete(B) , María José Rodríguez Conde, and Susana Olmos Migueláñez University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain [email protected]

Abstract. If we consider that continuous education or training is important, not only for companies and organizations, but also for countries, we must understand that to improve productivity and working capital, it implies that it must generate some effect or impact mainly in their role, so assessing the quality of the activity comes to take a prominent place among those who deliver training. It is important to understand that evaluating the effectiveness of training is a way of understanding the potential impact and transfer of an educational intervention and therefore implies a productive improvement in organizations and companies, giving workers more tools and motivation. Thus, training takes on a concrete and indisputable role. However, the accelerated use of ICTs in times of pandemic has pushed generations to intensive use of these applications. This has meant a change in implementation methodologies in training and has forced OTECs to implement various strategies to be efficient and effective in transferring knowledge to adults. However, training processes of various kinds must not only be evaluated, but also through a standardized structure that validates data collection, so that they provide reliable information for the continuous improvement of the processes, for this we must ensure not only the validity of the instrument, but also of the entire process. In this research we apply the CIPP Model to design a “Satisfaction Survey” because its structure allows us to identify the processes involved, thus having more clarity to address the quality of training from multiple dimensions. This process was conducted in three stages, which were: (1) Preliminary Design of the Survey (under the CIPP Model); (2) Expert Validation and (3) Instrument Redesign. In summary, the results obtained provided essential information from distinct roles and areas, which allow redesigning a validated and useful instrument for, not only continuous improvement, but also to focus resources well and deliver an activity that delivers value to companies. Keywords: CIPP Model · Training · Human Capital

1 Introduction According to Lascurain and López [1] “economic globalization is expanding, it brings with it challenges and opportunities that change the world panorama, a scheme to which © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 F. J. García-Peñalvo and A. García-Holgado (Eds.): TEEM 2022, LNET, pp. 825–837, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0942-1_86

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developing countries do not adapt easily. According to classical theory, the expansion of the global economy leads to prosperity through the division of labor and specialization according to the comparative advantage of each country”, considering that hand in hand with the productivity of companies, finds the development of working capital and, with it, permanent training linked to employment, this allows us to understand that, as Diez and Abreu [2] say, “Personnel training is of great importance; because it allows the company to realize what is the utility that it provides in the economic, productive, work environment and labor competitiveness aspects that can be developed or increased in the organization”. This aspect is a challenge for the industrial and educational sectors, since they must have collaborators who have the necessary and sufficient skills to go for continuous improvement and whose actions are key to change, talent development and achieving strategic objectives. Understanding that, as Martín Cuadrado [3] indicates in his article Continuous Training in the New Millennium: “Professional and personal development is related to a permanent attitude of inquiry, of raising questions and the search for solutions within of the context of the development of the organization in which one works. Most of the time, this professional development implies career development through the adoption of new roles.” Following this line, we find authors who mark a greater challenge by incorporating technological attributes as indicated by Padilla and Juárez [4],“… In the current context, dominated by constant and rapid technological change, the training in the company—as a way of generating human capital—has a vital role in strengthening competitiveness.” If we consider that continuous education or training is important, not only for companies and organizations, but also for countries, we must understand that to improve productivity and working capital, it implies that it must generate some effect or impact mainly in their role, so assessing the quality of the activity comes to take a prominent place among those who deliver training. Valencia and Vallejo [5] indicate that “The evaluation of any human or social process—as an ethical and political event—is of vital importance since it implies advancing in phenomenological feedback processes and the generation of situated or contextualized” which encourages the fact that training processes of different kinds should not only be evaluated, but also through a standardized structure that validates data collection, so that they provide reliable information for the continuous improvement of the processes, for this we must ensure not only the validity of the instrument, but also of the entire process, since according to Jornet and Pérez [6]” Validity is a multidimensional concept, which has been referred to at various times and situations emphasizing different meanings. Applied—and applicable—to any strategy for approaching reality (from basic research, information collection instruments or applied research and diagnosis), it is the substantive criterion from which to assess the quality of any of these processes.” In summary, considering that Continuous Training is of vital importance today to improve the productivity and competitiveness of countries, an evaluation process must be contemplated to ensure the validity of data collection. to ensure the quality and impact of training or training activities for people. The objective of this study is to design an instrument to collect information through a “Satisfaction Survey” that measures the

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different dimensions of training, for this reason it will be structured in the CIPP model (Context, input, process, and product) by Stufflebearn and Shinkfield [7], defined by: The process of identifying, obtaining, and providing useful and descriptive information about the value and merit of objectives; the planning, realization, and impact of a specific objective, to serve as a guide for decision-making; solve liability problems and promote understanding of the phenomena involved. Thus, the key aspects of the object that must be assessed include its goals, its planning, its realization, and its impact. (p183). 1.1 Objectives The research presented in this article seeks to structure a Satisfaction Survey, carried out by the student, which allows obtaining relevant information on the scope, effectiveness, and evaluation of the activity in order to collect data within the framework of their job to improve their productivity, in this context it is interesting to be able to evaluate the effectiveness of trained intellectual capital and how it contributes to the productivity of companies and/or organizations. What is sought is to develop an information collection instrument through a Satisfaction Survey, using the CIPP model, which will be applied later in technical courses, to have valid data for: • • • •

Improve courses Check if they have been effective Review limitations Check if it has an impact on your job

2 Materials and Methods The Chilean State plays a subsidiary role in terms of the training process and presents different actors (Posada and Rosero [8]), from the SENCE, as the mandated agency, and the OTEC, as the agencies executing the training, among the most important. The Evaluation of Training Activities in Chile is described in the Chilean standard 2728:2015, which every Technical Training Organization (OTEC) must have implemented, which indicates that “For the measurement, analysis and improvement, consider: a) measurement data should be converted into beneficial information for OTEC and other stakeholders” (NCH2728:2015, point 8, p30). If we look locally (in Chile), for SENCE, training is: “The process aimed at promoting, facilitating, fostering and developing the skills, abilities or degrees of knowledge of the workers, in order to allow them better opportunities and conditions of life and work, and to increase national productivity, ensuring the necessary adaptation of workers to technological processes and structural changes in the economy” (Law 19.518, article 10 [9]). Although lifelong learning is used in all areas, strategically working with adults can be a viable resource to improve quality of life, rescue what can be salvaged, and implement a culture with universal values (Molina, Hernández, and Valenzuela [10]), thus training takes on a concrete and indisputable role. However, the accelerated use of ICTs

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in times of pandemic has pushed generations to intensive use of these applications, this has meant a change in implementation methodologies in training and has forced OTECs to implement various strategies to be efficient and effective in the transfer of knowledge to the adult, according to Suarez [11] “this is where Virtual Education intervenes as a space to respond from modernity, to the preparation and professional improvement of the adult for having principles similar to the postulates of andragogy”. In this sense, it is important for the OTEC not only to comply with the current regulations to which they adhere, but also because of the role in training and improvement of the human capital they deliver, so that they implement a measurement instrument that provides guidelines clear and precise training for continuous improvement is not just a whim, but rather an important part of delivering quality training activities. According to Belando-Montoro [12], it is necessary to improve people’s skills by promoting the idea of lifelong learning, whether training or education, mainly due to factors such as the aging of the population, globalization and therefore the competition that it generates at the level of professions and the permanent change in technological systems that make people must be constantly learning so that companies are more productive. Considering the rapid changes in the labor market in Chile, the need to incorporate impact professionals who generate value for the economy and society, and the effect of the Pandemic on ICTs, it is necessary to incorporate methods for evaluating the effectiveness of training (or training) that delivers timely information, allowing the necessary adjustments to be made on time and according to market needs, therefore: The methods of evaluating the effectiveness of e-learning training designed in this research strengthen the training processes of companies or organizations, through the delivery of immediate information adjusted to the needs of the moment. Using these methods will improve the effectiveness of training implementation and methodologies. The formation process of a training activity is given by the following process indicated in Fig. 1:

Fig. 1. Execution Process of a Training Activity

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The CIPP model will be used to focus the questions that frame the complete process of the activity, that is, from sending the information until the end of it (without considering the final test taking), according to the structure in the next table (Table 1): Table 1. Structure of the CIPP model Model variable

Description

Context (C)

The context is important as input information, since it will give us clues about the student, their social condition, and their initial expectations (which will be compared with the final expectations)

Input (I)

This information corresponds to all the actions that are executed from the moment you registered (or were registered) in the training activity until before the start, which corresponds to: • Sending information about the course • Contact with the Commercial Executive • Sending of welcome and credentials to enter the activity

Process (P)

This information corresponds to the process since entering the training activity on the stipulated day and time, the complete execution and ending before giving the final test (this with the aim of not having last minute subjectivities, for example, that I did poorly in the test, and I will evaluate everything wrong)

Product or Result (P) The questions oriented to this variable correspond to criteria related to final expectations, the usefulness of the knowledge acquired, whether it could enhance their role to be more productive, among others

2.1 Implementation of the CIPP Model The structure for this research is given by three stages, which are detailed below: 2.1.1 Stage 1: Preliminary Design of the Survey In this stage, the questions associated with each dimension of the CIPP model will be designed, following the process, the construction of the questions will be conducted in accordance with the following criteria: • Negative questions will not be used. • A simple focused item-oriented question will be used so as not to confuse • Open questions will be used only to collect information that could be relevant in the future, but not for the purpose of evaluation. • The answers will be through a Likert scale of five ratings (Totally Agree, Agree, Neutral/Indifferent, Disagree, Strongly Disagree) • The “Context” stage is to collect input information, social and professional, which will allow us to compare, but not evaluate.

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Once this stage is finished and its structure has been validated, the next stage is Expert Validation. 2.1.2 Stage 2: Expert Validation The validation of experts is the most important part of this research, because, although we are based on a validated model, the structure and the questions must be consistent, be understood by all audiences and not exercise orientation towards one assessment or another., in order to have an objective instrument that really serves to collect data for analysis and continuous improvement of the process. In this case, three types of experts are considered, as shown in the following table (Table 2): Table 2. Expert Validation Expert

Definition

Methodological Professional with knowledge in the construction of information collection instruments, for the validation of the standard structure and application of the model Specialist

A professional from the Academy’s operations area, who provides support to students, knowledge of him is important in the sense that he is a fundamental part of the process and knows him thoroughly Professional in charge of the tutoring (tutor), who delivers the knowledge during the execution of the activity to the students, has the theoretical practical management of the contents of the training program

Student

Student of training courses who have already finished their training, therefore, their vision is important when reviewing the instrument, in terms of the form of questions, their length and scope

2.1.3 Stage 3: Instrument Construction Taking into consideration the views of the panel of experts, the instrument will be restructured for its final design. With the final validated design, it will begin to be applied to pilot courses for about 4 to 6 months, during which time the information will be collected to make improvements to the instrument; these results will not be part of this investigation. When the deadline is met, an evaluation will be conducted again to find the final design, which will be implemented in all the courses of the academy.

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3 Results The structure of the Survey is in the following table (Table 3): Table 3. Base structure of the Satisfaction Survey CIPP dimension

Number of questions

Distribution of questions

Context

8

5 Default Listed Response 3 Open questions

Input (I)

10

1 Default Listed Response 9 Likert Scale

Process (P)

20

20 Likert Scale

Product or Result (P)

10

2 Default Listed Response 6 Likert Scale 2 Open questions

Total

48

8 Default Listed Response 35 Likert Scale 5 Open questions

For the validation of experts, a universe of fourteen people was taken, which fulfill a different role, as shown in the following table (Table 4): Table 4. Number of people participating in the validation of experts Expert

Quantity

Methodological

4

Specialist

8

Student

2

Of the validations sent, only 43% were received with the following structure (Table 5): Table 5. Number of people who answered the validation of experts Expert

Quantity

Methodological

1

Specialist

3

Student

2

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The questionnaire was evaluated according to its criteria, Clarity, Coherence and Relevance of a series of items grouped by dimensions. 1) Coherence: The item presents a logical and appreciable relationship with the dimension it measures. 1. 2. 3. 4.

The item has no logical relationship with the dimension. The item has a tangential relationship with the dimension. The item has a moderate relationship with the dimension. The item is completely related to the dimension.

2) Relevance: The item is essential for the dimension; it must be present to measure it. 1. 2. 3. 4.

The item can be eliminated without affecting the measure of the dimension. The item has some relevance, but another item is including it in its measure. The item is important. The item is relevant and should be included.

3) Clarity: The item is easy to understand (syntactically and semantically). 1. The item is not clear. 2. The item requires many modifications in the use of words according to their meaning or their order. 3. A specific modification of some of the terms of the item is required. 4. The item is completely related to the dimension it measures. After the evaluation of each item, the questionnaire proposes an evaluation of the established dimensions; of which the sufficiency of items and the representativeness for the evaluation of that dimension in relation to the Training Evaluation of the Training Activity in Chile are evaluated: 1) Sufficiency of the items for the dimension 1. 2. 3. 4.

The items are not enough to measure the dimension. The number of items must be increased to correctly evaluate the dimension. The items correctly measure the dimension. The items are excessive to assess the dimension

2) Relevance of dimensions 1. 2. 3. 4.

The dimension can be removed without affecting the questionnaire The dimension has a certain relevance, but another is including it in its measure. Dimension is important. The dimension is relevant and must be included

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It is worth mentioning that the CONTEXT dimension was not validated, since, as mentioned above, it only collects input information. From the received validations, the following results were obtained, shown with the weighted averages (see Table 6): Table 6. Tabulated results-weighted averages

Dimension

Questions 1) How would you describe your current knowledge regarding the training activity?

Input (I)

Coherency Relevance Clarity

4

2

3

2) The Commercial Executive who contacted me by phone was clear in the delivery of information about the training activity 3) The Commercial Executive sent me the information via email about the training activity in a timely manner

4

2

4

4

2

4

4) The information regarding the start: Welcome and Programming of the course was sent in an adequate period 5) I have the appropriate technical means to conduct the training activity

4

2

4

6) Content quality is adequate for the course 7) Visual appeal is motivating for the development of the course 8) The format of the materials (presentation, workshops, manual, others) is appropriate

4 2

2 2

4 2

3

3

3

3

2

3

9) The planning (Schedule) of the course clearly indicates the important dates for the course

4

2

4

10) The tutor's file (located on the right side of the course) clearly indicates that he has the appropriate skills to teach the course

4

2

4

4

2

3

4

2

4

4

2

4

3

2

3

4 4

2 2

4 4

4

2

4

4

2

4

4 4

2 3

4 4

4

2

4

1) The technical attention during the course has been adequate 2) The Support Team was very responsive to issues that arose 3) The depth and scope of the contents were adequate for the course 4) The relevance of the contents is in accordance with what is required by the course 5) The content is appropriate to the expectations of the training activity 6) In general, the platform is easy to use 7) The functions of the platform are sufficient for the requirements of the course 8) It was easy for me to adapt to the course and its online activities 9) The work environment through the educational platform is appropriate for the execution of the course

Process (P) 10) Relations with my colleagues have been respectful 11) The online work pace of the training activity has been appropriate to my learning pace (not stressful, not too slow)

(continued)

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J. U. Navarrete et al. Table 6. (continued) 12) The tutor has arrived on time for all sessions 13) The effective use of time for the development of the contents was appropriate 14) The attitude of the tutor in charge of the activity has been respectful 15) The tutor showed knowledge of the topic 16) The tutor clearly explained all the topics of the course 17) The tutor answered the students' questions appropriately 18) The tutor used various activities conducted during the course 19) The number of synchronous sessions of the training activity is adequate

Product or Result (P)

4

2

4

4

2

4

4 4

2 2

4 4

4

2

4

4

2

4

4

2

4

4

2

4

20) The activities (tasks or workshops) conducted were adequate to achieve content learning

4

2

4

1) The delivery of new knowledge for my job is appropriate for my professional profile

4

2

4

4

2

4

4

2

4

4 4

2 2

4 4

3

2

3

4

2

3

4

2

3

4

2

4

4

3

3

2) I feel that I have learned by attending this training course 3) The experience in the training activity exceeded my expectations 4) I would recommend other people or companies to train with us 5) I would take a course with the academy again 6) On a scale of 1 to 5 (1 -very low- to 5 -very highhow would you rate the following characteristics regarding the training activity conducted? 7) What another course would you be interested in taking at SGS? 8) Do you want to receive information about upcoming programs and benefits? 9) Do you have any other comments or suggestions for us? 10) Despite the limitations, I feel very satisfied attending this training course

In general, the questions were quite well received and understood by the experts, however, in some of them some discrepancy was generated, due to their vision regarding the process, related to the Input dimension (I), which were: • 6) Content quality is adequate for the course • 7) Visual appeal is motivating for the development of the course • 8) The format of the materials (presentation, workshops, manual, others) is appropriate. • 9) The planning (Schedule) of the course clearly indicates to me the important dates for the course

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Whose valuation distribution is abrupt, that is, they have valuation 1 and 4 divided, so it is necessary to review what really is the value that they contribute to the process. On the other hand, questions 6 and 7 of the dimension were considered not to contribute to the process or the information to be collected, so they will be eliminated. In the comments associated with each dimension, they also suggest reformulating some questions to provide greater clarity and agree that the length of the Instrument should be reviewed, because they consider it to be exceedingly long, considering that it must be answered before performing the test end of the course, which could cause anxiety about finishing it quickly and that they would not answer objectively. Another aspect that was consulted is whether two instruments could be generated, one considering only the CONTEXT and INPUT questions, at the beginning of the course and the other considering the PROCESS and PRODUCT, at the end of the course, the experts agree that it can be a good strategy as long as it is enabling for the activities of the course, since otherwise it could happen that they do not answer one or all of the surveys. When reviewing the sufficiency and representativeness, the experts agree that: • All dimensions are relevant and should be included. • In the dimension of Process (P) and PRODUCT (P) the items correctly measure the dimension. • In the case of the INPUT dimension (I) the items are excessive (Table 7) Table 7. Sufficiency and Representativeness Results Weighted Average Dimension

Sufficiency

Representativeness

Input (I)

4

4

Process (P)

3

4

Product or Result (P)

3

4

4 Discussion and Conclusion Continuous training systems, especially those that seek to improve human capital skills, must adapt to the new productive and globalized challenges, this is not only about the transmission mechanisms of learning and use of ICTs, it must include everything the process and the collection of information is a fundamental part in improving the connection with the new educational standards, the new generations of workers and the quality of learning, so that in this way the training activity has a real impact not only in society but in the role played by the worker. That is why in this work we focus on improving the Satisfaction Survey instrument, to collect data and information that allow, on the one hand, to identify in which part of the process we should focus our efforts and check if we are generating an impact. Positive agreement to meet student expectations.

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The assessment of student satisfaction in the training activity can provide us with useful information, both to optimize training and to adjust the process. For this reason, a preliminary step of the utmost importance is the construction of an instrument that allows us to rigorously evaluate satisfaction, that is, that provides us with reliable information that allows us to make valid inferences, based on the answers given. To analyze the level of satisfaction in the instrument, the CIPP Model was used, as indicated by Herrera [13] because it represents a global and integrative evaluation approach, in addition its structure allows identifying the processes involved, in this way have more clarity approach the quality of training from multiple dimensions. With respect to the Experts’ review, we can conclude that: • The instrument brings together the ability to review multiple dimensions within the training process. • It is easy to understand due to the different perspectives of the distinct roles that were presented. • The most significant changes are in the extension of the Satisfaction Survey, which must be analyzed to review which questions will be left out of it. • The dimension that generated the most divergence is that of “Input (I),” which must be analyzed for its reprogramming, especially in the questions where the differences were significant and not representative. • By applying the CIPP model, the aim is to permanently improve training programs and not just focus on their weaknesses. Another element that is interesting to review has to do with not overloading the student in evaluating a training activity, considering that: • It must be done in a “compulsory” way to have representative information, however, this obligation should not be perceived by the student in that way, so it should be anchored to an activity, for example, to the opening of the final test. • The Survey must always be conducted “hot”, to have the student’s perception instantly, since in this way they feel valued and can provide more relevant information. • It should not be long so as not to bore and have non-real answers in the last questions. It must be considered that the instruments to evaluate quality through Satisfaction Surveys, not only have a utility to measure the performance and quality of training, but, as indicated by Domínguez-Lara, [14] “This mechanism of quality measurement places human interaction and the opinion of people as a fundamental basis, since it generates spaces free of participation, with the purpose of knowing and understanding the perception of the same students about the processes that they live”. It is important to understand that measuring the effectiveness of training is a way to understand the potential impact and transfer of an educational intervention and therefore implies a productive improvement in organizations and companies, giving workers more tools and motivation., this is relevant given that companies and the State of Chile invest significant resources in providing training/training, also considering that according to Zineldin et al. [15] we are aware that “student feedback on their experiences has become one of the central pillars of the quality process”.

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References 1. Mauricio, L.F., Jesús, A.L.G.: Retos y oportunidades de la globalización económica. con fines de relaciones internacionales y ciencia política 9(17), 9–34 (2013). Accessed 13 June 2022. http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1870-356920130 00100001&lng=es&tlng=es 2. Diez, J., Abreu, J.L.: Impacto de la capacitación interna en la productividad y estandarización de procesos productivos: un estudio de caso (Impact of internal training in productivity and standardization of productive processes: a case study). Daena 4(2), 97–144 (2009) 3. Martin Cuadrado, A.M.: Impacto de la capacitación interna en la productividad y estandarización de procesos productivos: Un estudio de caso. 48 (s. f.) 4. Padilla, R., Juárez, M.: Efectos de la capacitación en la competitividad de la industria manufacturera. CEPAL, Sede Subregional de la CEPAL en México. Naciones Unidas, México D.F. (2006) 5. Valencia Rodríguez, W.A., Vallejo Cardona, J.D.: La evaluación educativa: más que una acción, una cuestión ética. Revista Virtual Universidad Católica del Norte 45, 210–234 (2015). http://revistavirtual.ucn.edu.co/index.php/RevistaUCN/article/view/668/1199 6. Jornet, J.M.: La validez en la evaluación de programas, 16 (s. f.) 7. Stufflebeam, D., y Shinkfield, A.: Evaluación sistémica. Guía práctica y teórica. Barcelona: Ediciones Paidós (1987) 8. Posada, A., Rosero, A.: La capacitación en Chile, un modelo referencial con recorrido histórico. Escenarios 11(2), 30–39 (2013) 9. Ley 19.518 de 1997. http://empresas.sence.cl/documentos/ModificacionLeySENCE.pdf 10. Molina, A.M., Hernández, A.B., Valenzuela, R.G.: Andragogía, una cuestión epistémica y estrategia Educación de la vida y para la sociedad (2005) 11. Yerikson, S.: Impacto de la Educación Virtual y las TIC en la Andragogía (Revista Ciencias de la Educación, Universidad de Carabobo), vol. 28, pp. 326–347 (2018) 12. Belando-Montoro, M.R.: Aprendizaje a lo largo de la vida. Concepto y componentes. Revista Iberoamericana de Educación 75, 219–234 (2017). https://doi.org/10.35362/rie7501255 13. Herreras, E.B.: Metodología de la Investigación Evaluativa: Modelo CIPP. Revista Complutense de Educación 14, 16 (2003) 14. Dominguez-Lara, S.: Review of the internal structure of a satisfaction survey. [Revisión de la estructura interna de una encuesta de satisfacción] Revista Médica De Chile 145(10), 1359–1364 (2017). https://doi.org/10.4067/S0034-98872017001001359 15. Zineldin, M., Akdag, H.C., Vasicheva, V.: Assessing quality in higher education: new criteria for evaluating students’ satisfaction. Qual. High. Educ. 17(2), 231–243 (2011). https://doi. org/10.1080/13538322.2011.582796

Mentoring in Educational Innovation: Systematization in the Experience of Teachers’ Educational Experimentation and Research May Portuguez-Castro(B) Institute for the Future of Education, Tecnologico de Monterrey, Monterrey, Mexico [email protected]

Abstract. This paper aims to analyze the mentoring process carried out during the development of 70 educational innovation projects from Tecnológico de Monterrey, Mexico, financed by the Novus fund. This fund grants financial resources to professors of the institution to perform educational innovation and research projects. The projects analyzed included 243 collaborators impacting 247 courses and 5824 students. For this analysis, the author systematized the experience using instruments to record and follow up on the activities, identifying the primary needs of the participants in the process and the essential elements of mentoring. The results showed that the main requirements for mentees were the definition of the experimental procedure, review of experimentation progress, the presentation of evidence, and scientific writing at the end of the project. The essential elements for mentees were agreeing on times with the mentor and having someone knowledgeable in educational research and their accompaniment. The participants considered the mentoring process positive because they received support on methodologies, writing, and research in educational innovation and had follow-up and good communication. The results of this study can be helpful for universities, innovation managers, and teachers, where a mentor can accompany professors to become more involved in educational innovation and research. Keywords: mentoring · educational innovation · higher education · experimentation · educational research

1 Introduction The knowledge economy requires the emergence of initiatives that strengthen the development and creation of new ideas. Since the world is becoming increasingly globalized and competitive, all fields must assume a culture of innovation, including education [1], where innovative processes must reach educational institutions and their members [2]. Understanding that innovation not only implies a change in the way of doing things but also that people should apply the new ideas in the educational processes to generate value [3]. For this adoption to be effective, it must be understood by all involved and appropriated correctly to incorporate this change over time. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 F. J. García-Peñalvo and A. García-Holgado (Eds.): TEEM 2022, LNET, pp. 838–849, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0942-1_87

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The world has just faced one of the most challenging times for our society. The consequences derived from the pandemic are still known and will continue to be investigated for a long time. This situation led to an accelerated digital transformation, where technologies came to facilitate communication and transform educational models to adapt them to the new conditions [4]. Hence, the role of educational innovation is strengthened now more than ever and is defined as any dynamic change that improves educational processes and student learning and measures the participants’ academic performance [5, 6]. In this process arises the need to evaluate the results obtained by innovation and implement them correctly in different contexts [7]. Here the teacher becomes an essential factor in achieving quality education, so educational systems should be concerned that teachers integrate new content and strategies into the curriculum [8]. The role of the education professional has changed, becoming a facilitator of learning supported by the new Information and Communication Technologies (ICT). In this sense, the teacher has become an agent of change who has had to acquire new knowledge, skills, and competencies to transform technology-based learning experiences with a positive impact on their students [9, 10]. Universities, for their part, must offer programs that enable students to perform in an increasingly competitive world and incorporate emerging technology, educational innovation, soft skills, and active learning methodologies [11]. Therefore, more and more professors must innovate their teaching methods and update themselves to cope with these transformations and use them efficiently [12]. However, educational innovation processes still represent a challenge for teachers. The results of innovation in educational practices should be further analyzed. According to the OECD [13], for technology in teaching and learning processes to generate large-scale impact, it needs to identify the teacher knowledge needs and the effective use of the pedagogy they implement in achieving learning outcomes. Therefore, more and more institutions are encouraging teachers to carry out educational innovation and evaluate its impact [14]. In this sense, research applied to improve teaching practice is a pillar for progress in this area of knowledge [15]. However, there are limitations for teachers to engage in educational research and apply it to their teaching practice. As mentioned by some authors, among the reasons are lack of skills to use scientific knowledge, deficiency of teacher training or time to conduct research, lack of subjects related to research in teacher training, and little contact with educational researchers [16–18]. On the other hand, the digital era pushes educational institutions to train students with new competencies. Technological changes such as artificial intelligence, machine learning, big data, and augmented reality are impacting education [19], so the current paradigm must change to one that allows the development of 21st-century competencies [20]. In educational projects based on ICT, it is necessary to identify success factors and how these results obtained can last over time [21]—considering that they address specific needs of students and teachers in coordination with other partners during the project process. Mentoring programs are processes that support the participants in the educational process. Previous studies provide information on how mentoring strategies successfully helped teachers in educational innovation and research processes [22–24]. Although these programs are increasingly developed by educational institutions [23], the area of

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mentoring is still under-researched, especially within teacher professional development [25]. Mentoring is a discipline that seeks to deepen the skills of people and seeks to help the mentees to participate in their professional development, becoming a factor recognized as a good practice to develop talent and maintain the retention of collaborators [26]. According to the Observatory of Educational Innovation of the Institute for the Future of Education (IFE) [27], there are several criteria for understanding mentoring within an educational context, as shown in Table 1. Table 1. Elements of mentoring processes in the educational context [27]. Criteria

Element

Institutional control

Freedom: Mentor and mentee decide when and where to meet and how many times for what

Transmission of knowledge

Horizontal: The mentor is someone with greater expertise who communicates their knowledge by example (tacit knowledge)

Nature of the relationship

Close and horizontal: It implies personal accompaniment in the learning process

Relationship management

Exploratory: Mentor and mentee mutually discover the relationship’s value, meaning, and scope

Type of relationship

The development of a bond implies a relationship of mutual appreciation sustained over time

Scope of the relationship

Indefinite: Mentoring can focus on problem-solving, emotional support, formative assignments, etc

Primary Purpose

Broad: professional and personal growth of the apprentice

Institutionality

More flexible relationship: mentor and mentee agree on the relationship’s scope, spaces, and times

The mentoring processes in the educational field can be seen as social processes of knowledge construction. This point of view is because there is a social mediation of individual learning where a person or group helps an individual to achieve their goals [28, 29]. For Dorner [22], mentoring processes in educational innovation aims to change teachers’ professional self-concept, educational strategies, and methodology through competence improvement. In these processes, the objectives, and strategies to achieve them are analyzed, and the mentor’s experiences are shared, which provides new perspectives and ideas to the problems. 1.1 Context One initiative that seeks to help teachers develop competencies for educational innovation is the Novus fund of the Institute for the Future of Education of the Tecnológico de Monterrey in Mexico. Since 2012, this fund has been supporting the implementation of educational innovations by the institution’s professors by encouraging experimentation

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and research in educational innovation as a means for the professional development of teachers and the continuous improvement of their educational practice. Its objective is to disseminate, transfer and scale the projects and publish the results in refereed journals, conferences, and international competitions [30]. Novus projects are developed in 18 months, and, according to the assigned fund, they have a publication commitment that can be in a Q1/Q2 journal, or a congress indexed in Scopus. In 2021, Novus included the figure of an experimentation mentor to support teachers in their projects. This study sought to analyze the mentoring process carried out during this period. We should note that the mentor carried out this activity during the pandemic, so all communication was virtual.

2 Methodology The methodology in this study was a systematization of the educational experimentation experience carried out by teachers. Systematization is a participatory action research approach, and its design is close to ethnography with a cross-sectional scope [31]. In this study, the interventions during the mentoring were analyzed, documented, and reflected on the mentees´ experiences [32]. The objective of this reflection is to reconstruct the experience and take a critical look at it to generate new knowledge about what was experienced [33]. The research was carried out from May 2021 to May 2022 with the participation of a project experimentation mentor, who is an educational researcher, and 70 teachers responsible for the educational innovation projects. To systematize the experience, the author followed the process suggested by Jara [32] and used in another research [33–36]: • Step 1. To define the object to be systematized: it consisted of the mentoring experience during the development of 70 educational experimentation projects of teachers in a university in Mexico. • Step 2. To identify the objectives of the systematization: 1) to know the main characteristics of the projects, 2) to identify the mentees´ needs in the innovation management processes and 3) to recognize which mentoring criteria were present in the process. • Step 3. Generate conclusions from the main findings. The instruments used to collect the information were: 1) data on the characteristics of the projects; 2) a form with the interventions carried out by the mentor or requested by the mentees; 3) a questionnaire to take the mentees’ opinions and feedback on the process. The questionnaire results were analyzed in Minitab21 and the form’s contents in MAXQDA 2022 to identify categories and subcategories in the data.

3 Results 3.1 Characteristics of Educational Innovation Projects The projects analyzed have 70 teachers in charge and involve 243 people in their development, mostly belonging to different campuses in Mexico. The distribution of the projects is presented in Fig. 1, and they are mainly from Monterrey (19%), Puebla (16%), and

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Estado de México (16%). With an impact on 247 courses and 5824 students, especially from the School of Engineering and Science (68%), followed by 18% of projects implemented in high school. Most of the projects contemplate studying the impact of learning technologies (81%), including the development of web platforms (15%), virtual reality (9%), remote laboratories (7%), and the internet of things (7%).

Fig. 1. Distribution of projects by campus (Source: Novus, 2022).

The objective of these projects is to measure the impact of these interventions on students’ educational outcomes. For this, the teachers decided to measure mainly the variables of knowledge (40%), which are divided into academic performance and learning; attitudes (26%) such as attention, interest, and motivation; and skills and competencies (16% each), which can be disciplinary or transversal. The types of the study were primarily quantitative (40%), followed by qualitative, and mixed. The measurement instruments used were mainly rubrics (23%), interviews and surveys (14%), and standardized tests (11.4%). The results of the projects are published in congresses and indexed journals, as well as in dissemination spaces. From 2020 to 2022, 96 publications have been indexed in the Scopus database with topics related to educational innovation, engineering education, education computing, higher education, competency, and gamification, among others (Scival 2022). 3.2 Mentees’ Needs in Educational Innovation Mentoring Processes Based on the information obtained, the author created a matrix to identify the primary needs of the teachers (Fig. 2). 51% of the teachers needed to define or revise their experimental protocol, 27% had not selected or sought support to choose the instrument, and 22% were looking to redefine or identify the variables. The main questions were how to complete the experimental protocol, justify the instruments and observations on the variables, and the experimental procedure. In implementing the 70 projects, the author analyzed the form with the interventions. The research during this period identified that 11 projects collaborated with other organizations or companies, other institutional initiatives, and other campuses. Among the outputs that their project would have, professors are mainly interested in academic publications (41.45%), transferring innovation internally (27.1%), and entrepreneurship (3.7%). On the other hand, teachers are interested in disseminating research results in seminars, dissemination articles, and receiving guidance on academic writing from a

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Fig. 2. Primary needs found in the experimental protocol.

mentor. Four projects started intellectual property and entrepreneurship registration processes during the analysis period, and 44 scholarly publications in high-impact journals and congresses (Scopus Q1/Q2) were in preparation, submitted, or published. According to the primary needs of the mentees during the implementation process, the main categories are implementation review, data analysis or writing support, project outputs, and closure. The author analyzed the main themes to identify the main categories and subcategories, as shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3. Main issues identified during the implementation process.

As seen in Fig. 3, during the implementation process, the main topics of the mentoring were to review the experimentation progress and identify the project’s time frame and possible delays in their closure. In some cases, the participants reviewed and adjusted the instruments. The mentor identified problems due to supplier delays or materials delivery. In some cases, the lack of students in attendance during the pandemic prevented the application of the instruments. Then teachers adjusted some projects by delivering kits so students could work from home or apply the instruments online. Some mentees needed support in data analysis and a mentor for writing papers. Very few teachers write their results during the experimentation process, but only after they have finished the project, which delays its completion. There is also a lack of time for the teachers to report their evidence, and most are not in the research career. Regarding the output possibilities, most teachers are interested in publications in academic journals and conferences, entrepreneurship, and how to register the idea and transfer these projects to a national level. In this sense, those interested are contacted with IFE instances dedicated to these purposes to review possibilities (Edtech Entrepreneurship, Writinglab).

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Finally, the mentor, in the closing process, checked that the evidence was available and that teachers evaluated the innovation [37], dissemination of publications in institutional media, social networks, and seminars were worked on, as well as the submission of manuscripts to journals or conferences following the commitment acquired. Once the project complies with this evidence, a certificate is issued to the professor in charge and the participants for their participation in educational innovation projects, considered in teaching classification processes. 3.3 Mentoring Criteria Validated by Mentees Once the mentoring process was completed, the mentees were administered a questionnaire about the process. They were asked to respond on a Likert scale of 1 to 4, from totally disagree to totally agree. Of the 70 teachers surveyed, 30 responded. The questionnaire questions and results are shown in Table 2. Table 2. Results of the mentoring questionnaire Item

Mean SD

I agreed on meeting times with the mentor

4.0

0.00

The mentor demonstrated knowledge that would help in some stage of the project 3.93

0.26

I felt the support during the development of the project

3.89

0.31

The mentoring support I received allowed me to improve aspects of the project

3.93

0.26

Interaction with the mentor helped her to achieve the objectives

3.93

0.26

The item with the highest score was whether meeting times could be agreed upon with the mentor (100%). This answer was followed by the fact that the mentor demonstrated that she had the knowledge to support them in the process (90%). Finally, they felt that the mentor accompanied them in achieving their objectives (87%). Some of the commentaries considered positive in the mentoring process were receiving support on methodologies, writing, and research in educational innovation (33%), having follow-up and accompaniment during the project development process (27%), and good communication and availability (27%). Regarding the activities considered by the mentees as valuable during a mentoring process, the most relevant were: support for the dissemination and writing of articles during the experimentation (11 responses), help in the transfer of innovation after the end of the project (9), presentation of progress according to objectives established by mutual agreement with the mentor (9), having more support during the experimentation process (8) and receiving mentoring from other teachers (7) (Fig. 4).

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Fig. 4. Necessary activities within the mentoring process according to mentees.

4 Discussion Research conducted by teachers to improve their educational practice is still limited, so is required a paradigm shift in universities towards their development [9–11]. The Novus fund is one initiative that seeks to encourage teachers to experiment and research educational innovation [30]. In this study, the author analyzed the mentoring process developed during the implementation of Novus projects, considering that it is a topic that has been little researched in the field of education and teacher development [25]. During the mentoring process, the mentor played a supportive role for the teachers. The primary mentorees’ needs were reviewing the experimental procedure and defining instruments and study variables. The support of an educational researcher was valuable for the participants, considering the need to identify the methodologies to carry out the experimentation [22]. The accompaniment and communication were deemed positive by favoring the social processes of knowledge construction, facilitating the achievement of the mentees’ objectives [22, 28, 29]. This study was conducted when there were still limitations due to the pandemic; then, communication was through digital media. This situation also impacted the projects; many had to adjust them to reach the student population due to the impossibility of having students on campus. Here we could see how technological advances facilitated communication and how people had to adjust to these changing situations [4]. Regarding the mentoring criteria present in this experience [27], the most important elements were freedom to define meeting times, transmitting knowledge in a transversal way to support the processes, where the accompaniment of a mentor allowed improving the project and achieving the objectives.

5 Conclusions The systematization process allowed analyzing the mentoring process developed in educational innovation projects in a higher education institution. In this analysis, it was possible to identify the main needs of teachers when carrying out research processes in educational innovation and the elements considered necessary in mentoring, such as

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agreeing on times, having someone with knowledge in educational research, and accompaniment in the process. It is thought that having a mentor with experience and expertise in educational research can help teachers to improve their competencies in research in teaching. It is recommended that future studies continue to explore new ways of following up on the projects, analyze the results of the mentored projects once they are completed, and contribute to the teacher’s competencies. The study’s limitations were that since mentoring was being incorporated, there were no previous experiences, and teachers were beginning to familiarize themselves with this figure, which could have limited access to information. This article presents a vision of how to carry out mentoring processes in a field that has been little studied. Also, it seeks to propose ideas to continue supporting teachers in developing innovation processes in their practice in educational institutions. Acknowledgements. The author would like to acknowledge the technical and financial support of Novus, Institute for the Future of Education, Tecnologico de Monterrey, Mexico, in the production of this work. Also, the author would like to acknowledge the financial support of the Writing Lab, Institute for the Future of Education, Tecnologico de Monterrey, Mexico, in the production of this paper.

References 1. Portuguez Castro, M., Gómez Zermeño, M.: Educational innovation supported by ICT to identify entrepreneurial skills in students in higher education. In: García-Peñalvo, F.J., GarcíaHolgado, A. (eds.) Proceedings of the Eighth International Conference on Technological Ecosystems for Enhancing Multiculturality (TEEM 2020) (Salamanca, Spain, October 21– 23, 2020). ACM International Conference Proceeding Series (ICPS), pp. 977–984. ACM, New York, NY, USA (2020). https://doi.org/10.1145/3434780.3436556 2. Yañez Figueroa, J., Ramírez Montoya, M., García Peñalvo, F.J.: University-society linkage for educational innovation: the cases of citizen laboratories. In: Ramírez Montoya, M.S., Valenzuela González, J.R. (eds.) Innovación educativa: Investigación, formación, vinculación y visibilidad, pp. 201–225. Síntesis, Madrid (2017) 3. Portuguez Castro, M.: Proposal for an e-learning educational model to identify entrepreneurship skills in university students within an entrepreneurial ecosystem. Dissertation, Tecnológico de Monterrey (2020) 4. Guillén-Yparrea, N., Ramírez-Montoya, M.S.: Intercultural competencies development for professional collaboration: a systematic literature mapping from 2016 to 2021: a systematic literature mapping from 2016 to 2021. In: Alier, M., Fonseca, D. (eds.) Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference on Technological Ecosystems for Enhancing Multiculturality (TEEM’21) (Barcelona, Spain, October 26–29, 2021). ACM International Conference Proceeding Series (ICPS), pp. 231–236. ACM, New York, NY, USA (2021). https://doi.org/10. 1145/3486011.3486452 5. OECD/CERI: Inspired by technology, driven by pedagogy: a systemic approach to technology-based school innovation. Educational research and innovation. OECD Publishing, Paris (2010) 6. Redding, S., Twyman, J., Murphy, M.: Handbook on Innovations in Learning Part 1. Center on Innovations in Learning, Philadelphia (2013)

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Student’s Awareness of the Environment in Mallorca (Spain) on Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) Maneerat Sa-ngiemjit1 , María Antonia Manassero Mas2(B) and Ángel Vázquez Alonso3(B)

,

1 Faculty of Education, University of the Balearic Islands, Palma de Mallorca, Spain

[email protected]

2 Faculty of Psychology, University of the Balearic Islands, Palma de Mallorca, Spain

[email protected]

3 Center of Postgraduate Studies, University of the Balearic Islands, Palma de Mallorca, Spain

[email protected]

Abstract. This article aims to study students’ awareness of the environment in Mallorca (Spain), which is an important educational objective of general education and UNO goals on Education for Sustainable Development. The convenience sample group used in this research is the IES Arxiduc Lluís students in the academic year 2021, with 23 children in one classroom The survey questionnaire utilized by the researchers has a confidence score of 0.97. The tool assessed the kids’ environmental awareness through 40 items separated into three categories: knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors. The results showed students knew the causes of environmental problems. In addition, students’ attitudes show they regard the relationship between humans and the environment, and they regard animals on land and in the sea. Moreover, the behavior of students shows that they avoided creating waste that is harmful to the environment. Based on the assumption that knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors are related to environmental awareness. Although students’ knowledge of the overall average is low, attitudes and behaviors toward environmental awareness remain outstanding. It has been shown that attitudes influence behavior more than knowledge. Thus, further research is needed to explore whether families play a role in promoting student attitudes towards environmental perceived behaviors. Keywords: environment awareness · education for sustainable development (ESD) · knowledge · attitude · behavior

1 Introduction In the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which envision a future of inclusive equality, justice, and prosperity and take into consideration social, environmental, and economic riches, the United Nations Agenda 2030 presents a new integrative road towards sustainability. The Agenda 2030 places a strong emphasis on education, recognizing that it is a necessary tool for achieving all of the SDGs. The promotion of © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 F. J. García-Peñalvo and A. García-Holgado (Eds.): TEEM 2022, LNET, pp. 850–859, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0942-1_88

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“education for sustainability” through Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) is widely acknowledged as a key component of Agenda 2030, in particular Goal 4 (Education of Quality) and Target 4.7. This target’s objective is stated to “ensure that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development, including, among others, education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship”. The emergent idea of learning for sustainability (LfS) is seen to be relevant for analysis in this situation and a crucial facilitator of the other SDGs [1]. The system of education for sustainable development has a lot of potential because it aims to prevent ecological disaster, provide a high standard of living and environmental well-being for the nation and region, develop environmental infrastructure, maintain human health, and inculcate local culture. Additionally, educating the populace about the need to preserve natural resources, combating harmful consumerism, and reducing pollution are important components of education for sustainable development [2]. ESD was developed in response to the rising need for education to address sustainability challenges. It uses creative, action-oriented pedagogy to empower students to gain knowledge and understanding and take action to change society into one that is more sustainable. Human conduct is what has led to the current climate catastrophe and other environmental sustainability concerns. ESD for 2030 will encourage the incorporation of sustainable development and the SDGs into education and learning and make sure that they are integrated into all initiatives that support these causes. ESD for 2030 will intensify efforts in five major action areas, highlighting the crucial role that ESD plays in attaining the 17 SDGs and the need for individual and social transformation to successfully solve the pressing sustainability problems [3]. Environmental activism emphasizes how important it is for people to respect, safeguard, and keep the natural world free from manmade harm. By placing a strong focus on several essential elements like alertness, location, specificity, conservation skill, sustainable development, etc., environmental awareness is a critical component of sustainability success [4]. In general, environmental awareness is crucial for living comfortably. Environmental demands have been classified in this study in many ways. Knowledge, attitudes, and actions are some of the steps required for forming awareness [5]. Understanding the importance of protecting the environment must be followed by a caring attitude, constant remembrance of the environment, and behaviors or acts that protect rather than harm the environment. The presence of these three indicators demonstrates a rise in environmental consciousness among the populace. Because the three indications must cooperate and support one another, environmental awareness is still seen to be insufficient if any one of them is not met [6]. Furthermore, environmental education must start early since it takes time for environmental knowledge and concern to develop into habits and cultural norms. Because it will be challenging to modify practices that are not ecologically friendly and have become ingrained as a culture as it matures, an environmentally conscious culture can be implemented from an early age. In kindergarten, elementary school, and junior high school, an ecologically conscious culture may be established. It is required to give training or environmental seminars on a regular and continuous basis together with the direct practice of caring for the environment in

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adult populations that still do not have the three indicators (knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors) [7]. The Balearic Archipelago’s largest and most strategically located island is Mallorca. The Balearic Islands are situated just to the west of Spain in the center of the Mediterranean Sea. Mallorca experiences a typical summertime, dry mesothermal climate (Csa in the Köppen classification). Due to the island’s latitude, two characteristics of the general circulation of the atmosphere that alternately impact one another must be taken into account: 1) The Balearic Islands are located in the southern portion of the belt of the general western winds throughout the winter, and they occasionally experience the frontal systems linked with it; 2) however, the western wind belt moves to higher latitudes in the summer and is no longer influenced by the subtropical high pressure belt. as a result, dry and sunny weather prevails, as does the convective character of certain scant rainfalls [8]. However, the vegetation of the Balearic Islands has been documented, with a density of 13.5 per 1,000 km2 and 1,500 plant species, of which 3 to 4% are indigenous species [9]. Mallorca’s landscape diversity is far more than the average for the nearby continental regions [10]. The variations in geology, relief, coastline fluctuation, temperature, and flora result in a high degree of landscape variety. This degree of diversity is furthered by distinctive cultural characteristics, which are the result of human intervention in previously natural environments as well as the isolation of those ecosystems due to geological, ecological, and cultural factors [11]. The study’s goal is to look at pupils’ environmental awareness in Palma Mallorca through three steps, such as knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors. Most studies focus on the cognitive component as a result of previous studies showing significant knowledge and awareness of environmental attitudes. Our study was predicated on the idea that information affects attitudes, and attitudes affect conduct. In addition, relationships between students’ environmental awareness and each indicator were determined. Because environmental stewardship and awareness were developed via distinct processes, it is important to start raising children’s understanding of the environment early on. Additionally, environmental knowledge and concern were developed via several phases until they were ingrained in people’s habits and cultures. Thus, students in Mallorca must be educated not only to get a habit for the protection of the environment in present but also to affect the environment in the future according to ESD for 2030.

2 Methods 2.1 Research Design and Participation The study employed a questionnaire survey method, to find the respondents’ environmental awareness. The study used a simple convenience sampling technique. The sample group was students of the IES Arxiduc Lluís Salvador, the academic year 2021, semester 2, 1 classroom, 23 students (10 girls and 13 boys). The students were chosen because they are currently accustomed to the school environment and have one school year remaining to participate in the proposed environmental management plan’s activities. Then a series of questionnaires for the evaluation were supplied to them, Google Form online tool was used to obtain each student’s Spanish language.

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2.2 Instrument, Data Collection, and Analysis The researchers utilized a survey questionnaire they had created to learn more about the first cycle of secondary school students’ environmental awareness. The survey’s overall reliability (Cronbach alpha coefficient) was 0.97. The authors collected the personal information to get to know the study participants better and to examine any potential influences on the study. To fully understand the sample group, information on the sexes and ages of the subjects was evaluated in the personal data. The test tested the pupils’ environmental awareness, 40 items, separated into three indicators: knowledge (13 items, Table 1), attitudes (12 items, Table 2), and behaviors (15 items, Table 3). Students’ environmental awareness to environmental has been determined by Environmental Awareness and Active Participate Scale (EAAPS). EAAPS is a five-point Likert scale (1-strongly disagree, 2-disagree, 3-neutral, 4- agree, 5-strongly agree). This threecomponent model of environmental awareness as an attitude was first developed by a wide number of different writers and has since been used in several studies by Maloney and Ward [12] and Maloney et al. [13]. The questionnaire was developed based on the instrumental framework for measuring environmental awareness [3, 14–16]. The students were answered to indicate whether they agree or disagree with each item. The student who scored less than 1.50 was classified under totally unaware, 1.5–2.49 was classified under slightly aware, 2.5–3.49 was classified under moderately aware, 3.50– 4.99 was classified under very aware, and more than 4.50 was classified under highly aware. Statistical data analysis was carried out with IBM-SPSS ver. 26 Statistical Software. Analysis of data and each indicator, using the sample’s mean and standard deviation. In addition, the Correlation Coefficient between indicators was computed in this study.

3 Results and Discussion The study’s findings led to the development of an ESD-based environmental awareness measuring tool. To facilitate the communication of these results, they are grouped into (1) students’ knowledge of environmental awareness, (2) students’ attitudes toward environmental awareness, (3) students’ behavior toward environmental awareness, and (4) the relationship between environmental awareness and each indicator. Means and standard deviations are shown in Tables 1, 2, and 3, and the correlation coefficient is shown in Table 4. The student’s knowledge shows a “Very Aware” of the environment with an overall mean of 3.65 and a standard deviation of 0.76. The following are the top items: Rising amounts of heat-trapping gases in the atmosphere, known as greenhouse gases, cause global warming; climate change is one of the world’s most serious environmental issues; one of the century’s major environmental issues is the preservation of biodiversity; Would like to harness solar energy, which is generated by nuclear fusion processes deep within the sun’s core, it is my obligation to protect the environment; at the moment, the environment is confronted with a plethora of environmental difficulties and problems; must preserve our culture’s traditions.; sustainable growth entails raising living conditions without damaging the environment; and even if I give very little, the work I put in will

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M. Sa-ngiemjit et al. Table 1. Students’ knowledge of environmental awareness

Questions

Mean S.D. Responses

Knowledge Airborne acids created by electric utility facilities and other 3.26 sources fall to Earth in remote areas as acid rain, a type of air pollution

0.54 Moderately Aware

At the moment, the environment is confronted with a plethora of environmental difficulties and problems

3.74

1.18 Very Aware

Even if I give very little, the work I put in will be useful

3.61

1.12 Very Aware

One of the century’s major environmental issues is the preservation of biodiversity

3.87

1.18 Very Aware

Environmental impacts are less urgent than economic issues 2.74

1.32 Moderately Aware

We must preserve our culture’s traditions

3.74

1.25 Very Aware

Climate change is one of the world’s most serious environmental issues

3.91

1.28 Very Aware

I must protect the environment

3.83

1.19 Very Aware

Install a water-saving toilet in your home (e.g. half-flush option, brick in the cistern, etc.)

3.48

1.24 Moderately Aware

Sustainable growth entails raising living conditions without damaging the environment

3.74

1.10 Very Aware

Would like to harness solar energy, which is generated by nuclear fusion processes deep within the sun’s core

3.83

1.30 Very Aware

Rising atmospheric concentrations of heat-trapping gases known as greenhouse gases are the primary cause of global warming

4.17

0.83 Very Aware

Total

3.65

0.76 Very Aware

Legend: Highly Aware (HA) 4.50 – 5.00; Very Aware (VA) 3.50 – 4.49; Moderately Aware (MA) 2.50 – 3.49; Slightly Aware (SA) 1.50 – 2.49; Totally Unaware (TU) 1.00 – 1.49

be useful. Meanwhile, the respondents are “Moderately Aware” including installing a water-saving toilet in their home (e.g. half-flush option, brick in the cistern, etc.); airborne acids created by electric utility facilities and other sources fall to Earth in remote areas as acid rain, a type of air pollution, it is known as acid rain and environmental impacts are less urgent than economic issues. While students’ attitude toward the environment, in general, is “Very aware”, the overall mean scores and standard deviation were 3.85 and 0.82 respectively. In particular, the following are the indicators with the highest means: Want to maintain the environment clean and healthy and concerned about marine overfishing; Be aware that smoke pollution is hazardous to one’s health; Committed to not causing environmental harm; believe that environmental protection may benefit human health; when they visit the tourism region, they will always maintain a tidy; believed that we should do more to protect endangered

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Table 2. Students’ attitudes toward environmental awareness Questions

Mean

S.D.

Responses

Believe that human health is influenced by environmental health

3.83

1.19

Very Aware

Believe that environmental protection may benefit human health

4.04

1.19

Very Aware

Will look for more specific information on environmental sustainability

3.04

1.15

Moderately Aware

I believe that my efforts to safeguard the environment are critical

3.74

1.14

Very Aware

Committed to not causing environmental harm

4.13

1.22

Very Aware

Concerned about landslides caused by severe weather

Attitude

3.12

1.20

Moderately Aware

Be aware that smoke pollution is hazardous to one’s health 4.22

1.24

Very Aware

When I visit the tourism region, I will always maintain a tidy

3.91

1.28

Very Aware

Want to maintain the environment clean and healthy

4.39

1.16

Very Aware

Willing to adapt my lifestyle to be more ecologically sustainable

3.52

1.24

Very Aware

Concerned about marine overfishing

4.39

0.66

Very Aware

We believe that we should do more to protect endangered plant and animal species

3.87

1.52

Very Aware

The destruction of the world’s rainforests has had an impact on me

3.83

1.40

Very Aware

Total

3.85

0.82

Very Aware

Legend: Highly Aware (HA) 4.50 – 5.00; Very Aware (VA) 3.50 – 4.49; Moderately Aware (MA) 2.50 – 3.49; Slightly Aware (SA) 1.50 – 2.49; Totally Unaware (TU) 1.00 – 1.49

plant and animal species; believe that human health is influenced by environmental health and the destruction of the world’s rainforests has had an impact on me; believe that they efforts to safeguard the environment are critical and willing to adapt my lifestyle to be more ecologically sustainable. Meanwhile, the respondents are Moderately Aware including will look for more specific information on environmental sustainability, and concerned about landslides caused by severe weather. Finally, regarding students’ behavior towards the environment, the respondents are very aware of the environment a standard deviation of 0.86 and an overall mean of 3.72. The following indicators, in particular, have the highest means: while brushing your teeth, turn off the water; instead of taking a bath, take a shower; To reduce solid waste, use reusable water bottles or tumblers instead; glass, paper, and plastic may all be recycled and reused; Always safeguard the environment in my region; Rather than driving a short distance, prefer to walk, cycle, or take public transportation; maintain a healthy eating

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M. Sa-ngiemjit et al. Table 3. Students’ behavior toward environmental awareness

Questions

Mean S.D. Responses

Behavior Try to be environmentally conscious

3.87

1.42 Very Aware

To keep the soil rich, try to grow a variety of terraced plants 3.39

1.34 Moderately Aware

Avoid using plastic and Styrofoam, which are harmful to the 3.22 environment and human health

1.04 Moderately Aware

Avoid tossing rubbish wherever and master the science of solid waste segregation

3.43

1.04 Moderately Aware

Always safeguard the environment in my region

3.91

1.20 Very Aware

Instead of taking a bath, take a shower

4.04

1.15 Very Aware

Rather than driving a short distance, prefer to walk, cycle, or 3.87 take public transportation

1.30 Very Aware

When not in use, turn off the power to any plug-in appliances 3.78

1.13 Very Aware

Use energy-efficient light bulbs

3.39

1.23 Moderately Aware

While brushing your teeth, turn off the water

4.09

1.41 Very Aware

Make use of eco-friendly cleaning products (e.g. vinegar)

3.70

1.18 Very Aware

Glass, paper, and plastic may all be recycled and reused

3.96

1.26 Very Aware

Purchase organic food

3.22

1.09 Moderately Aware

To reduce solid waste, use reusable water bottles or tumblers 4.04 instead

1.02 Very Aware

Maintain a healthy eating habits and avoid eating leftovers and squandering drinking water

3.83

1.23 Very Aware

Total

3.72

0.86 Very Aware

Legend: Highly Aware (HA) 4.50 – 5.00; Very Aware (VA) 3.50 – 4.49; Moderately Aware (MA) 2.50 – 3.49; Slightly Aware (SA) 1.50 – 2.49; Totally Unaware (TU) 1.00 – 1.49

habit and avoid eating leftovers and squandering drinking water; when not in use, turn off the power to any plug-in appliances; make use of eco-friendly cleaning products (e.g. vinegar). Meanwhile, the respondents are “Moderately Aware” including avoiding tossing rubbish wherever and mastering the science of solid waste segregation; using energy-efficient light bulbs; To keep the soil rich, trying to grow a variety of terraced plants; avoiding using plastic and Styrofoam, which are harmful to the environment and human health. Table 4 shows a statistical evaluation of the correlation coefficient (r) to evaluate and determine the link between the independent factors (knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors) and the dependent factor (Environment awareness). First of all, knowledge, attitude, and behaviors have a positive and significant correlation with environmental awareness. The Correlation Coefficients for knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors are 0.97, 0.99, and 0.98 respectively. Every value demonstrated that it is highly connected with environmental

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Table 4. Correlation Coefficients between environmental awareness and the indicators Variables

Environment awareness

Knowledge

Attitude

Environment awareness

1

Knowledge

0.97**

1

Attitude

0.99**

0.94**

1

Behaviors

0.98**

0.92**

0.95**

Behaviors

1

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level

awareness, and the correlation for each variable is significant at the 0.01 level. The findings corroborate previous studies [17] that found a link between environmental awareness and behavior among high school students. Meanwhile, Owens’ research [18] found that a rise in environmental knowledge and awareness did not result in pro-environmental behavior.

4 Conclusions This study examined the environmental perceptions of students in Mallorca (Spain) on environmental perceptions. In general, students are fully aware of their educational environment for sustainable development to shift towards a sustainable future. We step in to rethink what, where, and how to study so that everyone may have the information and attitudes necessary to take informed decisions and take individual and group action on local, national, and global problems. This implies that the students are known the cause of environmental issues like acid rain, global warming, and climate change, and they know for sustainable development protects the environment stay a long time. In addition, students’ attitude shows that they regarded the relationship between human and the environment and they considered the animal on earth and the sea. Moreover, the behavior of the students shows that they avoided creating waste that is harmful to the environment. Based on the assumption that knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors are related to environmental awareness and the results of the research found that the respondents were very aware of the environment. The overall mean of knowledge was lower than accepted attitudes and behaviors, in line with the findings by Ahmad et al. [19] discovered that knowledge does not always lead to appropriate environmental behavior. However, these findings differ from those of Hassan et al. [20], who discovered a substantial link between knowledge and environmental awareness. Furthermore, an attitude toward the effects of activity in the human environment might be described as environmental awareness. Concern for the environment is a response to particular environmental issues [21]. The actions that people must take to try to prevent environmental damage come after knowledge, attitude, and decent behavior toward the environment. Knowledge, attitudes, and behavior are the three indicators, where knowledge and attitudes are the things learned and behavior is the behavior that results from knowledge and attitudes. With the three fields of knowledge insights, habituation of attitudes, and ingrained culture-conscious behavior, this is meant to acquaint

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and civilize environmental consciousness. The three indicators work together as a single unit to grow the environmental awareness movement [6]. Although students’ knowledge of the overall average is the lowest, attitudes and behaviors toward environmental awareness remain outstanding. This result shows that attitude influences behavior, and family is an important role in encouraging attitudes, Brendan B. [22] demonstrate that parents have an impact on their children’s attitudes toward learning. Thus, further research is needed to explore how the role of families in participation in students’ attitudes toward environmental awareness. In conducting environmental education, it is important to the awareness of character through student awareness of the environment. Acknowledgments. The authors are grateful to the teachers and students at the IES Arxiduc Lluís Salvador School in Palma, Mallorca, Spain.

References 1. UNESCO: UNESCO moving forward the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, vol. 22 (2017) 2. Nasibulina, A.: Education for sustainable development and environmental ethics. Procedia. Soc. Behav. Sci. 214, 1077-1082 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.11.7083 3. El-Deghaidy, H.: Education for sustainable development: a road map. In: Ethics, CSR and Sustainability (ECSRS) Education in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) Region (2020). https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003022763-5 4. Chaturvedi, A., Kumari, R., Singh, S.: Environmental awareness through education. IJRARInt. J. Res. Anal. Rev. 6(1), 9–13 (2019) 5. Ham, M., Horvat, M., Mrˇcela, D.: The level of environmental knowledge, awareness, attitudes, and practices among UKM students. IProcedia Soc. Behav. Sci. 1, 159–176 (2016) 6. Kencanasari, R.A.V., Surahman, U., Permana, A.Y.: The instrumental framework to measuring environmental awareness. Innov. Vocat. Technol. Educ. 15(2), 101 (2019). https://doi.org/ 10.17509/INVOTEC.V15I2.19638 7. Joshi, R.: Eco clubs: an effective tool to educate students on biodiversity conservation. Biodiv. Int. J. 1(5), 50-52 (2017). https://doi.org/10.15406/bij.2017.01.00028 8. Guijarro, J.A.: Aspectes Bioclimatics Del Karst de Mallorca/Bioclimatic Aspects of Karst in Mallorca. In: Ginés, A., Ginés, J. (eds.) El Carst i Les Coves de Mallorca/Karst and Caves in Mallorca. Endins, 20/Mon. Soc. Hist. Nat. Balears 3(1), 1986 (1995) 9. Mayol, J., Machado, A.: Medi Ambient, Ecologia 1 Turisme Le Illes Balears. Editorial Moll (1992) 10. Morey, M., Ruiz-Pérez, M.: The Balearic Islands BT - Mediterranean Island Landscapes: Natural and Cultural Approaches. In: Vogiatzakis, I., Pungetti, G., Mannion, A.M. (eds.), pp. 271–296. Springer, Netherlands (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-5064-0_12 11. Ginés, A., et al.: An introduction to the quaternary of Mallorca. Monografies de la Societat d’Historia Natural de les Balears 18(2) (2012) 12. Maloney, M.P., Ward, M.P.: Ecology: Let’s hear from the people: an objective scale for the measurement of ecological attitudes and knowledge. Am. Psychol. 28(7), 583–586 (1973). https://doi.org/10.1037/H0034936 13. Maloney, M.P., Ward, M.P., Braucht, G.N.: A revised scale for the measurement of ecological attitudes and knowledge. Am. Psychol. 30(7), 787–790 (1975). https://doi.org/10.1037/H00 84394

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14. Rogayan, D.V., Nebrida, E.E.D.: Environmental awareness and practices of science students: input for ecological management plan. Int. Electron. J. Environ. Educ. 9(2), 106–119 (2019) 15. Hine, R., Peacock, J., Pretty, J.: Evaluating the impact of environmental volunteering on behaviours and attitudes to the environment. Report for BTCV Cymru (2008) 16. Khoiri, A., Sunarno, W., Sajidan, S., Sukarmin, S.: Analysing students’ environmental awareness profile using strategic environmental assessment. F1000Research 10, 1–27 (2021). https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.51523.2 17. Marpa, E.P., Juele, M., Hiyas, R.: Environmental awareness and practices among high school students: Basis for disaster preparedness program. Appl. Mech. Mater. 848, 240–243 (2016) 18. Owens, S.: Engaging the public: information and deliberation in environmental policy. Environ. Plan A 32, 1141–1148 (2000) 19. Ahmad, J., Noor, S.M., Ismail, N.: Investigating students’ environmental knowledge, attitude, practice, and communication. Asian Soc. Sci. 11, 284 (2015) 20. Hassan, A., Abdullah, N.A., Syed, R.S.I.S.: The level of environmental knowledge, awareness, attitudes, and practices among UKM students. In: Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, pp. 1276–1280 (2012) 21. Culiberg, R., Ica, B.: Understanding environmental consciousness: a multidimensional perspective. Vrijednost Za Potrosace u Dinamicnom Okruzenju, pp. 131–145 (2008) 22. Brendan, B.: An examination of perceptions of parental influence on attitudes to language learning. Educ. Res. 48(2), 211–221 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1080/00131880600732298

Comparing Students’ Critical Thinking by Using the Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy in Online and Face-to-Face Class Formats of Organic Chemistry Maneerat Sa-ngiemjit1 , María Antonia Manassero Mas2(B) and Ángel Vázquez Alonso3(B)

,

1 Faculty of Education, University of the Balearic Islands, Palma de Mallorca, Spain

[email protected]

2 Faculty of Psychology, University of the Balearic Islands, Palma de Mallorca, Spain

[email protected]

3 Center of Postgraduate Studies, University of the Balearic Islands, Palma de Mallorca, Spain

[email protected]

Abstract. The purpose of this study is to compare critical thinking in online and face-to-face formats in an organic chemistry course and report the cognitive dimensions of revised Bloom’s taxonomy. The sample used in this research was a 31 students group of grade 12 students at the Demonstration School of Ramkhamhaeng University, Thailand, in the academic year 2021, semester 2. The students took the online (N = 14) and face-to-face (N = 17) formats and were required to fill out an instrument designed to evaluate critical thinking skills in March 2022. The tools used for the test had 50 items, and 4 choices, with a confidence value of 0.83. The result shows that the face-to-face student has higher critical thinking scores than the online students along the highest cognitive dimensions; on the other hand, face-to-face and online formats did not affect remembering, understanding, and applying levels. These formats are effective for analysis, evaluation, and creation, the student’s face-to-face has more of an analysis and evaluation level than the student’s online. In contrast, online students have a more creative level than face-to-face students. Keywords: critical thinking · online and face-to-face formats · revised Bloom’s taxonomy · Covid-19 pandemic

1 Introduction The pandemic Covid-19 has affected the world to involve in the omnipresent use of virtual learning and distance learning to treasure education continually, as, in the aftermath of earthquakes [1], the magnitude of the current problem is groundbreaking. This pandemic is also probably to have an abiding productive lesson design. The pandemic’s confinement provided educators with an opportunity to think of new teaching strategies © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 F. J. García-Peñalvo and A. García-Holgado (Eds.): TEEM 2022, LNET, pp. 860–869, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0942-1_89

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[2]. The unanticipated pandemic Covid-19 outbreak influenced several economic sectors and every element of human existence in developing nations and throughout the world [3–7]. Online learning systems are web-based software for allocating, pursuing, and administering courses through the Internet, and when advancing online classes students’ demands may be better satisfied if operations to toughen extrinsic and intrinsic motivation were incorporated, as well as forms that allow students to have a minimal degree of personal connection with the lecturer [8]. The Covid-19 situation influences online educational opportunities, it has expanded as families, children, college and university administration, as well as state and federal lawmakers, deal with rising education prices. There were several potential advantages to recommending online courses, as there was a sense that offering some courses online was more economical. There was not always a natural connection between students and teachers in a classroom [9]. Singh and Thurman [10] examined the phrases “online education” and “online learning,” as well as all publications from 1988 to 2018 that defined the concepts. Furthermore, they defined “online education” as instruction that takes place in an online setting and uses the Internet for teaching and studying. This category includes virtual locales and online learning that is not dependent on the actual location of the student. Teachers created synchronous or asynchronous instructional modules to improve learning and engagement and then made the information available online. In Thailand, before the pandemic Covid-19, the Thailand ICT Framework (ICT 2020), and Smart Thailand 2020 policies from the Ministry of Education (MOE) had begun considerable endeavors to improve information and communication technology (ICT) [11]. These strategies and important factors, such as increased mobile broadband penetration and increased Thai citizen information and digital learning, are examples of these strategies and important factors that were specified for widespread ICT access through a continuous ICT infrastructure development program [12]. Furthermore, new leaders renamed, adjusted, and refined the Digital Economy Master Plan (DEMP), which is grouped into five primary initiatives. These include the development and enhancement of complex and soft infrastructure, service, innovation and promotion, and Thai knowledge and society [13]. The global Covid-19 pandemic affected Thailand’s education system and has ground to a standstill, which created an endeavor to change from traditional to online classrooms [14]. The pandemic Covid-19 has had devastating consequences on every industry, forcing all educational models at all levels to devise ways to create continual learning. Online education is a crucial component of the MOE’s most recent regulations, which are aimed to ensure student security in the New Normal. The Thai MOE has strongly advocated reform in the future allocation of educational budgets. To increase the effectiveness of online learning, these reforms will involve shifting funding away from traditional institutions and into the creation of online courses, online teaching, and digital tools [13]. Bloom’s taxonomy guides pupils through a critical thought process of examining material or knowledge. This taxonomy and critical thinking exist together, both are essential instruments for education and meta-cognition. Bloom’s taxonomy can assist

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human services instructors in broadening the breadth and depth of their students’ learning. This taxonomy starts with knowledge/remember and gradually engages students in exploring additional information based on a collection of tiers of questions and keywords that build an operation on the student’s part. Bloom’s taxonomy (1956) contained six levels of conceptual that evolved in education settings. Knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation were the levels of the graduate. Later, Anderson and Krathwohl [15] also created a constructional transformation into the initial Bloom’s taxonomy. Anderson regarded two dimensions in the revised taxonomy instead of one dimension. These dimensions include knowledge (or the type of ability to be studied) and cognitive processes (or the intellectual processes to be used in obtaining knowledge). The cognitive process dimension, renamed from initial taxonomy to remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate, and create were the levels of the graduate. The taxonomy presented a barrier to developing measurements for assessing each of the six stages [16]. Bloom’s prior taxonomy was updated and changed to reflect relevance to the twenty-first century, and it may be utilized by both students and instructors. Furthermore, Anderson and Krathwohl discovered that assessing students at higher levels of cognition made little sense if they were not allowed to study at those levels. It was similar to giving a physics exam during a chemistry class. As a result, a brief discussion of the new Bloom’s taxonomy should take place in the classroom. Most presentations were offered, according to Deal and Hegde [17] allowing for the attainment of higher levels of learning, as revised in Bloom’s taxonomy. Critically thinking was to use the six levels of cognitive thinking predetermined by Bloom, the thinker necessary to go through a collection of reality or different data to operate an informed decision. Important or lifetransform decisions even have the most informed and may present less than acceptable results, these decisions made without going through this process may not be the best [16, 18]. Organic chemistry is the study of the structure, characteristics, components, reactions, and production of carbon-containing molecules. The majority of organic molecules comprise carbon, hydrogen, and numerous additional elements (e.g., nitrogen, oxygen, halogens, phosphorus, silicon, and sulfur) that have been contained in organic compounds [19]. In Thailand classes, students will search and present examples of organic compounds with single, double, or, triple bonds found in daily life, write the Lewis structure formula, abbreviated structural formula, and linear structural formulas, analyze the structure, and identify the types of organic compounds from the functional groups, write structural formulas and name various types with no more than one functional group according to the IUPAC system, write the structural isomers of different types, analyze and compare the boiling point and water solubility with functional groups different molecular sizes or structures, identify the types of hydrocarbon compounds and write down the products of combustion reactions with bromine or reaction with potassium permanganate. In addition, write a chemical equation and describe the esterification reaction, amide synthesis reaction hydrolysis reaction, and saponification reactions, test for esterification reaction hydrolysis reaction, and saponification reactions and search for information and present examples of the use of organic compounds in daily life and industry [20].

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One of the most challenging skills to be taught at all educational levels is critical thinking, which prepares students with adequate instruments to duplicate information and produce knowledge with a lot of designs and suggestions. Since, when the students were quizzed, their scores did not differ so we want to know why and what. Thus, we choose the questions on organic chemistry by using the revised Bloom’s taxonomy framework to organize the test. This article focuses on critical thinking by using the test, which was created from an overview of revised Bloom’s taxonomy and the questions. Further, we consider preparing classes for critical thinking skills in different situations and formats (face-to-face and online) by using the revised Bloom taxonomy and reaching each level of the cognitive dimension of the revised Bloom taxonomy between face-toface and online formats. It can help teachers understand the thinking and understanding of students and adapt their teaching style to the changes in learning styles. The organic chemistry classes used a lot of cognitive dimensions to respond to the aim of this study.

2 Methods 2.1 Participants The population used in this research was 93 students in Grade 12 (Science-Mathematics) at the Demonstration School of Ramkhamhaeng University, Thailand, in the academic year 2021, semester 2, totaling 93 people (46 girls and 47 boys), 3 classrooms. All students receive a survey from the school, whether they want to study online or face-toface. The sample group used in this research, were Grade 12 students at the Demonstration School of Ramkhamhaeng University, the academic year 2021, semester 2, 1 classroom, 31 students (18 girls and 13 boys), obtained by group randomization. In October 2021, the school’s academic department emailed all students to survey how many students wished to study online and face-to-face. In November 2021, we received information about who was online (14 total, 9 girls and 5 men) and face to face (17 total, 9 girls and 8 men). 2.2 School Curriculums The online course comprises 8 multimedia sessions, each lasting around 50 min, and 8 accompanying online activities. Students can email the course teacher questions or ask them in Google Classroom. All students enrolled in the online course have access to previously completed e-learning sessions at any time, allowing for practice and repetition. The eight lectures in the in-person course have the same substance as those in the online course (50 min each). Participants in-person receive detailed notes on each lecture and have online access to the lecture slides through the school’s learning management system. Both courses are one class so after finishing the courses, students will receive the exam date, which tests all groups using Google Forms. The Google Form online tool in the Thai language was employed to get each student’s response to an organic chemistry multiple-choice test. Students in both courses were required to fill in a test designed to evaluate critical thinking for the course in March 2022.

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2.3 Instrument, Data Collection, and Analysis The organic chemistry test was applied to the students who were not in the research sample to test for reliability (Cronbach alpha coefficient). It consists of 50 items and the result of a reliability value was 0.832. The 50-item test is multiple-choice, each item has one answer correct (one score) and focuses on the critical thinking abilities considered fundamental for organic chemistry. The instrument used in this study were developed by the authors. This test was desired by using frameworks of revised Bloom’s taxonomy to test the six Bloom’s new taxonomy identifies cognitive processes: remember (9 items), understand (7 items), apply (7 items), analyze (13 items), evaluate (7 items), and create (7 items). The questions were validated by experts in chemistry for evaluation and assessment. Table 1 contains some examples of questions used to test the various levels of the revised Bloom Taxonomy. The authors found that the multiple-choice questions can promote critical thinking, according to Reza et al. [21], who used multiple-choice questions to study critical thinking skills in chemistry. Table 1. Examples of Questions Cognitive Dimension Questions Remember How do students know that the reaction has already taken place in a halogenation reaction? 1. Gas bubbles 2. Color change 3. Sedimentation 4. Melting Understand Define the following substances with the same number of carbons: Substance A is 3-methyl hexane and Substance B is 2-heptene. Which of the following is correct? 1. A has a higher boiling point than B due to its greater molecular mass. 2. A has a higher boiling point than B because it is an alkane which has a higher boiling point than alkene when the carbon is equal. 3. A has a lower boiling point than B because of its branched structure. 4. A has a lower boiling point than B because A is denser than B. Apply Which of the hydrogen-bonded intermolecular forces cannot exist? 1. CH3 CHO 2. CH3 CONH2 3. CH3 COOH 4. CH3 CH2 OH Analyze Which of the following compounds is an isomer? a. 2,3-dimethyl-3-hexene b. 4-ethyl-5-methyl-2-pentene c. 2-ethyl-3,4-methyl-2-pentene d. 5-methyl-1-hexene 1. a and b 2. d and a 3. b and d 4. c and a Evaluate Any substance cannot undergo resonance in its entire structure?

Create

1. 2. 3. 4. Which substance, when replaced by only one position of bromine, produces the most versatile product? 1. 3,4-Dimethylhexane 2. 3-Methylhexane 3. 3-Ethylpentane 4. 2-Methyl-3-ethylpentane

Statistic data analysis was performed with the use of IBM-SPSS ver. 28 Statistical Software. Analyze students’ critical thinking and cognitive dimension in the organic chemistry compare between online and face-to-face format, using the mean, standard

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deviation, and t-test for independence samples. The means of critical thinking faceto-face (M = 0.50) is more than online(M = 0.44), so the authors want to study the cognitive dimensions which have an effect on critical thinking in each format. In addition, the correlation between critical thinking and cognitive dimension in each format was evaluated.

3 Results This study tested the student’s critical thinking in organic chemistry, which was administered online and face-to-face to experimental groups. The quantitative analysis included the evaluation of global competence and each of the six levels that compose it, according to the definition used in this study. To facilitate the communication of these results, they are grouped into (1) comparing the critical thinking of students in organic chemistry through the revised Bloom’s taxonomy between face-to-face and online formats, (2) reaching each level of the cognitive dimension of the revised Bloom’s taxonomy between face-to-face and online formats and (3) relationship between critical thinking and cognitive dimension. Means, standard deviation, p, and t-tests are presented in Table 2 and Table 3, and the correlation coefficient is presented in Table 4. Table 2. Comparing critical thinking of students in organic chemistry through revised Bloom’s taxonomy between face-to-face and online formats

Critical thinking

Sample

N

X

SD

t*

p

Online

14

0.44

0.07

2.53

0.017

Face-to-face

17

0.50

0.07

* There is a statistically significant level. 05.

This study found that participants in face-to-face format have more critical thinking than in online format. This difference was significant t (29) = 2.53, p = 0.02; however, it did represent a medium-size effect r = .42. Furthermore, we reach cognitive dimensions of revised Bloom’s taxonomy for the study of critical thinking in organic chemistry. The results show that the means of remembering level in a face-to-face format is 0.52 and in the online format is 0.62 and testing for the variance for both formats concluded that the variability of both formats was not significantly different at the .05 level; testing means differences in two groups for average remember at the.05 levels, there was not a significant difference between students in online and face-to-face forms. The means of understanding level in a face-to-face format is 0.47 and in the online format is 0.39 and testing for the variance for both formats concluded that the variability of both formats was not significantly different at the .05 level, testing means differences in two groups, average remember among students in online and face-to-face formats was not significantly different at the .05 level. The apply level show means in a face-to-face and online format the same value is 0.56 and

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Table 3. Comparing cognitive dimensions of revised Bloom’s taxonomy between face-to-face and online formats Cognitive Dimensions

Sample

X

SD

Remember

Online

0.62

0.15

Face-to-face

0.52

0.14

Online

0.39

0.22

Face-to-face

0.47

0.18

Apply

Online

0.56

0.27

Face-to-face

0.56

0.20

Analyze

Online

0.29

0.13

Face-to-face

0.47

0.14

Online

0.13

0.12

Face-to-face

0.74

0.06

Online

0.70

0.09

Face-to-face

0.25

0.12

Understand

Evaluate Create

p

t* 0.54

−2.01

0.26

1.15

0.98

0.02