Principles and Practices in Audio-Visual Education; A Textbook for Teacher-Preparation Classes in Elementary Education

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Principles and Practices in Audio-Visual Education; A Textbook for Teacher-Preparation Classes in Elementary Education

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73-&781

' Spilde, Lulu Mary Casley, 1894Principles and practices in audio­ visual education; a textbook for teacher-preparation classes in elementary education New York, 1942 vi,250 typewritten leaves, illus. (part col.; diagrs. 29cm. Final document (Ed.D.) - New York university, School of education, 1942. Bibliography after each chapter. A84410

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TH IS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN M IC R O FILM E D EXA C TLY AS RECEIVED. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

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PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES IN AUDIO-VISUAL EDUCATION A Textbook for Teacher-Preparation Classes;

in Elementary Education

Lulu_Spilde

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education in the School of Education of New York University

1942

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APR

8

PLEASE NOTE: S o m e pages m a y have i ndistinct print. F i l m e d as received. U n i v e r s i t y M i c r o f i l m s , A Xerox E du cation Company

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CONTENTS Chapter

I.

II.

Page INTRODUCTION

1

THE SCHOOL JOURNEY Brief History Foreign National Advantages Guiding Factors How to Determine Where to Go How to Determine When to Go How to Consider Necessary Planning How to Guide Procedures How to Evaluate the Results Concrete Examples A School Journey to a Library A School Journey to a Newspaper Office A School Journey to an Art Department A School Journey to a Bank Suggested Activities Bibliography

5 5 5 9

STILL PICTURES Educational Advantages Stereograph Convenient Opportunities for Use Housing the Materials Gathering the Materials Flat Pictures Guides in the Selection Preparation for School Use Slides Handmade Etched-Glass Lumarith Typed Photographic Filmstrips Multiple Uses and Cooperative Preparation The Place of Amateur Photography Importance Concrete Example Introductory Overview Procedures

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12 13 13 14 15 17 18

20 20 25 29 32 34 36 37 37 37 38 40 40 42 42 42 44 44 45 46 47 48 , 49 49 51 51 52 54 55

^

III.

Mechanical Equipment Projectors Lantern Slide Strip-FIlm 2 n x 2U Opaque Screens Storage Facilities Suggested Activities Bibliography

GRAPHS Brief History Early Narratives King Tut-ankh-amen1s Tomb Writing Mathematical Guides Christian Archeology Later Developments William Playfair Societies and Leaders General Importance Types for Elementary Schools Specific Graphs Bar Line Area Pictorial Illustration Common Uses School Uses Diagram Cartoon Poster Chart Self-Evaluating Table * Timetable Classification Stream and Tree Flow *' Map Typical Abstractions Suggestions.for Overcoming Abstractions Types i. Globe Relief Flat Guides to Pupil-Made Maps How to Interest Student-Teachers In Graphs Suggested Activities Bibliography

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60 60 60 60 61 61 61 62 63 65 67 67 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 74 76 76 76 78 79 80 82 82 83 84 85 88 89 89 90 90 91 91 93 94 94 96 104 104 104 105 105 106 108 110

IV.

V.

VI.

THE MUSEUM History Ancient Middle Ages to Nineteenth Century Growth in the United States Values Types One-Shelf Selection Example Glass-Case Separate-Room Separate-Building Travelling Home Beginning a School Museum Sources of General Material Pupil-Made Material Labeling of Articles Utilization of School Museum Service Ready Reference Pupil Participation Suggested Activities Bibliography

113, 112 112 113 114 115 116 116 116 116 118 119 119 120 120 121 121 122 122 123 123 124 125 126

THE MOTION PICTURE Brief History Introductory American Educational Values Commonly-Accepted Views Experimentation Insufficient Data Concrete Examples Educational Research of the Payne Fund Harvard Talking-Picture Experiment How to Use the Motion Picture in the Classroom General Principles Concrete Examples Colonial Age Alaska Longfellow Poe Transportation Music Other Topics Common Problems Suggested Activities Bibliography

128 128 128 130 134 134 134 135 138 138 140 141 141 143 143 148 152 154 156 157 159 160 161 163

THE RADIO Brief History Radio and Educational Objectives

165 165 166

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Self-Realization Human Relationships Economic Efficiency Civic Responsibility Interest in Broadcasts for Youth 1940 Survey Common Difficulties Types of Programs Educational Programs During School Hours Educational Programs Out-of-School Hours School and Radio as a Joint Educational Agency Content Schedules Related Activities Current Events Dramatizations English Hygiene Music Cooperation Suggested Activities Bibliography VII.

VIII.

167 168 168 169 169 170 172 173 173 174 174 174 175 176 178 178 179 180 180 183 186 187

THE PHONOGRAPH History Before 1925 After 1925 School Uses Today Music Appreciation Activities Fullerton Plan Thematic Study Literature Social Studies Speech Preparation for Classroom Use Suggested Activities Bibliography

188 188 188 189 190 190 191 196 197 199 201 202 203 205 207

COMMUNITY COOPERATION Overview Importance of the Parent-Teacher Association Mutual Interests in Audio-Visual Aids School Journeys Still Pictures Graphs Museums Motion Pictures Appreciation Censorship Support of Good Motion Pictures Radio Phonograph Suggested Activities Bibliography

209 209 210 212 212 214 215 216 217 217 222 224 225 226 228 230

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IX.

X.

ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION Underlying Principles Administrative Duties Supervisory Suggestions In-Service Courses Conferences Demonstrations Cooperation in the Uses of Audio-Visual Aids Suggested Activities Bibliography

232 232 233 234 234 235 235 237 239 240

SOURCES OP AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS Objects, Booklets, Posters and Charts Graphs Maps Pictures and Photographs Materials and Equipment for Lantern Slides and Filmstrips Projectors Radio Motion Pictures Cabinets Phonograph Music Periodicals

241 241 243 243 244

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245 245 246 247 248 249 249 250

ILLUSTRATIONS Page A School Journey to a Library A School Journey to a Printing Office A School Journey to an Art Department A School Journey to a Bank A Trip to the Netherlands Stereographs from Home Preparation of Plat Pictures Let the Child Do It! Preparation of Slides Ready for the School Journey At the Studio The Dark Room The Fixing Bath The Drying Process Courtesy of the Photographer Cartooning Radio Tree Touring Holland Studying the Hawaiian Islands Graphs One-Shelf Museum Section of Museum, S. D. University Puritan Kitchen Scene Colonial Tea Scene Jamestown Legend Radio Hour Opera Scene Pictures for Opera Study Jtfnjoying the Phonograph Audio-Visual Literature Operating the Pro jector

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24 28 31 33 39 41 44 46 51 53 55 56 57 58 59 87 92 97 102 107 117 123 144 145 146 177 194 195 204 219 236

INTRODUCTION Nature and Importance of Study This work is to be in the foim of a textbook especially adaptable to teacher-preparation classes in elementary edu­ cation.

Textbooks in audio-visual education treat, generally

speaking, of one or more types of audio aids, one or more types of visual aids, or both audio and visual aids but with­ out exercises, projects, or problems for teacher-preparation classes in the elementary grades. It was found, when teaching a course in audio-visual in­ struction for teacher-preparation classes, that it was not practical for the class to purchase a number of books in order to satisfy generalized needs.

Furthermore, a textbook con­

taining questions, exercises, problems, and projects especially designed for teacher-preparation classes will be more service­ able. The importance of audio-visual education is evidenced by the growing attention which is being given to it.

Many state

departments of education now have or are preparing instruction in this field.

New Jersey requires it in the four-year

teachers college course.

Pennsylvania requires a course in

audio-visual education for teacher-certification.

There is

also a Department of Visual Education in the National Edu­ cation Association, which freely extends its service.

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2

It Is important that teachers fully realize the basic princi­ ples underlying the use of audio-visual aids. 1*

These are:

Audio-visual aids should be used as a means to an end.

They should be correlated with other teaching aids.

The

emphasis Is not on the audio-visual aid but rather on the desired outcome to be brought about in the indivisual. 2.

Audio-visual aids should be correlated with the curricu­

lum as a whole and planned accordingly. 3.

Teacher-preparation is necessary in order to intelli­

gently direct the functional use of audio-visual aids. 4.

The aids should beappropriate to the age and experi­

ence of the pupils. 5.

There should be Intelligent community cooperation, for

audio-visual aids are found both within and without the classroom. Collection and Sources of Data The author has specialized in audio-visual education during much of her graduate study and, while taking such courses, tenta­ tively prepared seme of the material for this textbook. Catalogues of over eighty normal schools, teachers colleges, and universities offering courses in audio-visual instruction In • the summer schools of 1940 were examined. courses were noted.

The contents of these

The items most frequently mentioned corre­

spond to the main divisions of

this textbook.

This serves as a

lead to its practicality. The author supervised classes in teacher-preparation for a number of years in a teachers college and normal school and noted the many good uses made of audio-visual aids.

She also served as

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3

Director of Audio-Visual Education Mid supervised the plans in six training schools. Interviews were held with four hundred elementary teachers in order to ascertain their most common needs in the field of audio-visual instruction.

The author wished to avoid the formal

questionalre method, which would automatically preclude the opportunity of discussing problems.

The problems most frequently

mentioned are treated in this textbook.

Briefly listed, they

are as follows: 1.

What are the fundamental steps which aid in making a

successful school excursion? 2.

What are the guiding factors In the selection, use, and

care of still pictures? 3.

How may the graph be used by pupils, not only In

securing Ideas from others, but also in expressing their own interpretations in a more interesting and meaningful way? 4.

Is it possible for every school to have a museum?

What is the relationship of the museum to the curriculum and school life in general? 5.

What are the guiding factors in the educational use of

the motion picture, especially In so far as It concerns classroom teaching? 6.

What are the guiding factors In relation to the edu­

cational use of the radio, especially in so far as it con­ cerns classroom teaching? 7.

How may the phonograph be utilized as an aid to further­

ing education?

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8*

What are some of the most valuable leads In securing

community cooperation in respect to audio-visual aids? 9.

What are the guiding factors in the administration and

supervision of audio-visual aids? 10.

What would constitute a teachers' handy list of free,

rental, and purchasable materials in audio-visual aids? 11.

Could not courses in audio-visual education be so

planned, through exercises or projects for credit, as to permit the class members to apply the principles in re­ spect to their own teaching problems instead of having to take so many isolated excursions, or to make frequent mu­ seum observations according to the instructors' assignments? At the close of each chapter will be found suggested ac­ tivities especially designed to give:

(l) student-teachers

practice in making functional uses of audio-visual aids in training schools, and (2) experienced teachers an opportunity to work on their own problems for part of the course credit.

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5

CHAPTER I THE SCHOOL JOURNEY Brief History The educational excursion or journey is not a new movement. No one has ever said;

(1) just how many should go, (2) for what

purpose, or (3) what means of transportation should he used for an educational trip in order to have it classified as an ex­ cursion.

A number of examples of foreign and national excursions

of educational interest will be described.

The term education,

however, is a broad one and should not be circumscribed by less than the contributing factors which concern life itself. Foreign Over two thousand, three hundred years ago we find Socrates drawing a crowd of youth

together to examine life problems.

it not an educational excursion? self", said Socrates.

Was

"Gnothi seauton", or "know thy­

He frequently asked them during their

conversations and observations, "to' tiV* - "what is it?" Plato, his student, while still impressed by the unjust death of Socrates, made a solitary excursion covering a period of twelve years.

When he returned to Athens, at the age of

forty, we find that his observations in Italy, Egypt, and Sicily had enriched his understanding of philosophy, politics, poetry, science* and art. Roman civilization furnishes an Interesting example of ex­ cursions.

Greek and Phoenician journeys were made to Rome when

it was but a small city.

It was only a question

of time until

Rome studied Greek art and plays and also adopted much of the

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Phoenician alphabet.

Rome did not accept these customs in toto.

What she did accept, she gradually merged into her own culture. Not least among the valuable results of excursions was the ex­ change of ideas. When the Egyptians journeyed to the valley of the Nile, they found a great river doing the work of millions of men. They asked themselves such questions as: river been in existence?

How long has this

Will it continue to be our friend?

What will we do with our time now that this great body does much of our work? and stars?

Is this water in any way related to the sun, moon, Do these bright bodies in the sky have any message

for us if we observe them for a long period of time?

The brain

of the Egyptian was unfolding because of his journey and he found a new world no longer circumscribed by problems of food and shelter. Among some of the best-known travellers to the Orient during the thirteenth century were Marco Polo, his father, and uncle.

They thought the primary purpose of their journey was

that of seeking wealth, but their thirst for knowledge proved to be of greater importance.

They observed with unusual accuracy

the manifold characteristics of each new country.

Speaking of

coal as found in Cathay (China) Marco Polo wrote: Throughout this province there is found a sort of black stone, which they dig out of the mountains, where it runs in veins. When lighted, it burns like charcoal and retains the fire much better than woodj insomuch that it may be preserved during the night, and in the morning be found still burning. These stones do not flame, excepting a little when first lighted, but during their ignition give out considerable heat.^-

1.

Manuel Komroff, Editor, The Travels of Marco Polo, p. 170.

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7

Comenius, the great Moravian educator of the seventeenth century, considered sense realism as a vital factor in the learning process.

He contended that realities rather than hooks

make the most lasting impressions.

He encouraged the use of

objects, copies, models and pictures in his realistic phase of universal knowledge or pansophy, as described in his well-known book The Great Didactic.

It will be recalled that his aims of

education were knowledge, morality,and piety.

His plan of organ­

ization consisted of four periods of six years each:

(1) school

at the mother’s lap, (2) vernacular school, (3) Latin school, and (4) university.

In the mother»s-lap school especially, from the

ages of one to six years, the child was to gain an acquaintance with, and curiosity about his environment.

He was expected to

make journeys to flower gardens, bird habitats, streams^ and trees, which later became topics of conversation and motivation for further inquiry. Rousseau, a French educator of the eighteenth century and an exponent of naturalism, advocated excursions.

In his well-

known book, Emile, we find five stages of education:

(1) infancy,

(2) childhood, (3) boyhood, (4) youth, and (5) education for the girl.

According to Rousseau, when the boy was developing from

ages twelve to fifteen, he should learn astronomy through such study as the sunrise and sunset in different seasons.

Geography

was to be learned through mastery of his environmental relation­ ships.

For example, many trips were to be taken into the forests

and the children were to develop a thirst for more knowledge of the specimens observed.

They were also expected to differentiate

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8

directions and find their way home. Pestalozzi advocated the school journey.

He placed more

confidence in experience and observation than in books, for the intellectual, social, and moral development of children.

In his

famous orphan school at stanz, he capitalized on natural situ­ ations as they arose in order to intensify moral lessons such as charity, love, sympathy,and cooperation.

Observations of the

birds and flowers were used as a basis for nature study but also in relationship, as he taught, to the handiwork of God. In 1908, the London County Council of England made financial provisions for regular school journeys.

As a result, the British

School Journey Association was organized.

Schools helped each

other In excursion plans and the practice became a regular feature of their modern education.

Only the recent war situation inter­

rupted their cooperative study and experiments for the betterment of educational excursions. Ovide Decroly, Belgium1s noted twentieth-century educator, encouraged the educational excursion.

His viewpoint on education

is easily summarized in the expression, ul ’education pour la vie par la vie1', - "education for life by living".

The child’s

outdoor surroundings were given special attention. Jan Ligthart, Holland’s twentieth-century educator, advo­ cated the educational excursion in connection with his public elementary school In The Hague.

H© held that the world should

not be separated from the classroom, but rather should become an integral part of It.

The first grade, for example, was expected

to concentrate on a specific center of learning - the school

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9

neighborhood. Many other European countries, including Germany, Prance, and Poland, made use of the educational excursion. practiced in Asia and Africa.

It was also

No attempt has been made in the

above descriptions to give other than a cross section of his­ torical wide-spread trends.

Attention will now be given to the

national emphasis on excursions. National It would be a difficult matter to say who was the father of the educational excursion movement in America.

It is interesting

to note, however, that as early as the middle of the eighteenth century we find Benjamin Franklin advocating organized journeys to neighboring plantations so that the various methods of farming could be “observed and reasoned upon11. As early as 1875, Francis W* Parker, who was engaged as cur­ riculum specialist in the schools of Quincy, Massachusetts, greatly worried the parents in this community. their schools into recreational centers] went on trips.

They claimed that he turned Classes left school and

Francis Parker, three years previous to this time,

had studied in Berlin and became familiar with the Pestalozzian methods. very keen.

The anxiety for children In the Quincy schools became Finally, when the State Board of Education gave an

examination and found these children superior, In basic knowledge as well as skills, to other children of the same age level, the suspense ceased.

Parker had many followers who widely used the

excursion method, especially in teaching geography.

He also

introduced this method into the Chicago University Laboratory

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School. Junius L. Meriam in 1904 introduced the excursion plan in the Laboratory School of the University of Missouri. stressed four types of activities:

He

observations, play, stories,

and handwork.- The first type was furnished by numerous edu­ cational trips. Many schools from the west

to the east coast have set up

various types of newer educational methods, which include explo­ rations of the modern environs.

Naturally, the free public

schools, for financial reasons and otherwise, did not serve as the forerunners of such a movement.

Among the private schools

of the first quarter of the twentieth century we find the Mari­ etta Johnson’s Fairhope School in Alabama, the Park School in Baltimore, the Shady Hill School, Germantown, Pennsylvania, the Play School, New York City, and Edward Yoeman’s Ojai Valley School in California. New York State has carried on many experiments in newer educational practices.

One of the schools which concentrated on

such a procedure will be described. In 1929, New York City, through its Board of School Superin­ tendents, began an experiment in curriculum making. Red School House was used for this purpose. changes were made in the usual procedures:

The Little

Three outstanding (1) primary children

were made acquainted with their environment through excursions, (2) the acquisition of reading skills was delayed until about the fifth grade, and (3) the children were given manifold avenues for

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11

self-expression, such as drawing, construction work, dramatics, play, song, dance, and discussion.

In 1933 this experiment was

discontinued by the Board because of financial reasons. groups have since maintained it.

Private

Many other cities in the State

experimented with curricular revisions, allowing wider practices in the observation of environs. The school system of Montclair, New Jersey, has carried on Interesting revisions in its curriculum.

The children make fre­

quent excursions to surroundings of interest.

Many specimens for

science are studied in their natural habitat.

Interesting, varied,

and enriched experiences, many of which are under guidance, serve as topics and projects for cooperative furtherance of the edu­ cational program.

The teachers are versatile and plan an ad­

justable program which prevents waste and irrelevant concen­ tration. It is not the intention of the author to mention the several school systems in the many states which carry on such typical edu­ cational procedures to a greater or lesser degree than the one described in Montclair, New Jersey.

Suffice it to say that about

seven-tenths of the schools In towns of 25,000 or more population, about one-half In places from 5,000 to 25,000, and one-third, in places of under 5,000, are undergoing changes in curriculum programs.1 Literature on school excursions in America over a quarter of a century ago is very impoverished.

But since then, and es­

pecially in the past decade, we find that the movement has had

le

Henry Harap, and others, The Changing Curriculum, pp. 1-2.

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12

considerable growth.

In the last few years it has become so

popular that it has been greatly used, and also abused.

The

abuse comes largely from those teachers who attempt to become modern in educational practices but who are unwilling, in­ tentionally or not,-to carefully prepare for such a program. Attention will now be called to the more practical aspects of the school journey, especially to those of value to teachers. Advantages The school journey is truly a cooperative enterprise.

The

author prefers the use of the term journey rather than excursion because the latter suggests a hurried, crowded, and inexpensive trip.

The terms, however, will be used interchangeably because

much of the literature in the field refers to the "excursion”. Among the most important advantages of a well-planned edu­ cational journey are the following: 1.

First-hand information.

2.

Pupil participation.

3.

Weighing values with a purposeful attitude.

4.

Developing interests.

5.

Socializing experiences.

6.

Keener perceptions.

7.

Better appreciation of the community.

8.

A wealth of material depending upon the number and

types of trips taken. None of the above advantages will be realized unless the school journey is considered in the light of guiding factors, a number of which will be treated in the following paragraphs.

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13

Guiding Factors Among the guiding factors in considering a school journey are the following: 1.

How to determine where to go.

2.

How to determine when to go.

3.

How to consider necessary planning.

4.

How to guide procedures.

5.

How to evaluate the results.

Each of the above will be discussed briefly. How to Determine Where to Go One of the first items to be consideredis whether

or not

the journey will be of educational value to the topic ortppics under study.

This point, does not, however, indicate that all

other journeys are nonessential.

It but places emphasis upon

the fact that there are many sources of Interest which are re­ lated to the course of study or its equivalent.

Too often

teachers fail to see educational values in utilizing the ma­ terial close at hand.

Perhaps in their teacher-preparation

courses this practice has not been sufficiently emphasized.

A

bandy list of places is given below, and as the reader follows the Items it will be well for him to keep in mind which may be found in his community and how they may be related to his present or prospective class work. Air Ports Bakeries Banks Churches Cleaners and Dyers Clinics Court Houses

Dairies . Experiment Stations Factories Farms Furniture Stores Garages Green Houses

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Hatcheries Hospitals Libraries Machine Shops Mines Museums Music Centers Natural Scenery New Building Projects Newspaper Plants Packing Plants Social Settlements

Penal Institutions Photography Shops Post offices Power and Light Companies Printing Offices Radio Stations Railroad Yards Schools Stores Telephone Companies Theatres

After the above survey, which is by no means complete, has been made, the next item to check is when to go. How to Determine When to Go Seasonal advantages and disadvantages are important factors in deciding when to carry on a school journey.

It will be a

great saving of time and energy if the teacher reviews his oourse of study, or its equivalent, and plans the dates in advance.

The

ideal time is on or near the same date that the related topic or topics are to be studied.

It is highly advisable to keep it

within the same week, if possible.

The place, purpose, distance,

number to go, and transportation facilities are important elements to be considered.

It should be kept In mind that very often school

journeys aay be arranged for Saturday, or evening hours, by special arrangement, to places of business. churches on Sunday.

Art classes frequently visit

In any event, it is a matter of courtesy to

make arrangements in advance with those who have charge of the centers of interest so that dates of mutual convenience may be arranged. The above suggestions are not intended to give the impression that school journeys should always be carried on outside of school hours.

The Ideal situation occurs when they are carried on

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15

within school hours as part of the regular work.

Such a plan,

however, is frequently inconvenient so alternatives are sug­ gested accordingly. There are many plans to he considered in relation to a school journey.

These will now he presented.

How to Consider Necessary Planning In planning a school journey it is essential that the primary purpose he kept definitely in mind.

Class discussion

and advance reading related to the topic or topics under study are important factors.

Questions often arise which should he

listed hy a class secretary, as a handy memorandum.

The seeking

of information, however, should he hased on a cooperative plan, and the memorandum used only as a check to see that no important question has heen overlooked in the procedures of the school journey. The teacher makes

no attempt to

questions before the trip

answer manyor all of the

is taken. He helps to pr epare the pupils

to experience the joys

of discovery,

hy

arousingtheir curiosity

in advance, and later,

to guide them

in

organizing and interpret­

ing their newly-ohtained data. the place of the teacher.

The school journey does not take

On the contrary, it places more re­

sponsibility on him to recognize and evaluate desirable situations around which information, attitudes, habits, and skills develop. The teacher keeps in mind that he is responsible for the safety of his children during the school journey.

This is often

taken too lightly hy inexperienced teachers as well as those of experience who are not familiar with such factors as transportation regulations.

It is well to remember that in case of a car acci­

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16

dent, car Insurance is void if a private car is carrying passen­ gers for per capita fares.

If the group is too large for the

teacher to supervise, well-qualified assistants should be ob­ tained.

Parents or committees appointed by the Parent-Teacher

Association are frequently glad to assist if so requested. Advice should be given in advance as to the pupils1 needs, including clothing for the trip. ation.

Comfort is of first consider­

Children often become too tired en route.

Some are

found underdressed or overdressed for the occasion because their parents do not understand the circumstances. There should be committee arrangements among the pupils. The author has frequently noticed how, on some school journeys, the teacher acts as a courtesy committee of one, self-appointedI The school journey furnishes an excellent opportunity to develop habits of courtesy, initiative, and cooperation.

A most pleasing

sight on a school journey wa3 witnessed by the author when she saw a pupil, with the teacher in the background, meet the pro­ prietor

of the place for visitation.

arrival of the group.

This pupil announced the

He was especially alert In thanking the

proprietor, in the name of the group, for the many kind favors extended.

This boy had been selected by the class to represent

the group. Assuming that the pupils are now ready for the trip, the next point of consideration is that of how to guide procedures during the journey.

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17

How to Guide Procedures En route to the places of interest the teacher should di­ rect the conversation in such a way as to develop the excursion topic.

Too often time in transit is wasted through irrelevant

conversation. It is essential that the teacher refrain from too much leadership after the arrival to the place of interest. should he allowed to freely ask questions of the guide.

Children Their

interests will naturally arise in terms of their experiences. Children are to be guided in the realization that it is not safe to reach conclusions on the grounds of insufficient data. If permitted and encouraged, they will investigate for them­ selves, and weigh values. s

Before the close of the visitation, questions listed prior

to the trip are to be checked in order to ascertain any possible omissions. An interesting conversation concerning observations made during the visitation is to be encouraged en route home.

Children

will naturally be anxious to agree or disagree, make comparisons or contrasts, or otherwise express their views in relation to the observations made*

A tired teacher often circumscribes this

interesting interval of a school journey.

An alert teacher

recognizes its possibilities, and capitalizes on it accordingly! The last guiding factor is how to evaluate results of the school journey.

This point will be briefly presented, followed

by an evaluation record for a school journey.

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18

How to Evaluate the Results The follow-up results of a school journey throw much light on its degree of value as an educational aid.

The teacher never

dismisses the topic, treating it as completed.

On the contrary,

the time is rife with observations and experiences of individual and group character.

Hence, the continuation of the topic under

study becomes coordinated and integrated into unforeseen patterns of vitality, and of further possibilities. their evaluations should be considered. be carried on.

Student reports and

Additional reading should

Guiding questions are given consideration as

frequently as the need arises for the clearance of the topic or the pursuance of more meaningful investigations. In addition to the above, the teacher may well ask himself whether or not this group experience has had an enriched and vitalizing effect in the lives of the pupils.

The school

journey should help to motivate new interests and better socialize the pupils.

It should especially serve Its original purpose:

that of supplementing better classroom Instruction and enriched learning situations• In order to bring these suggestions to a more pointed focus, the following evaluation record for a school journey Is suggested. Evaluation Record for a School Journey Date

Name of Teacher

Grade

Class

School

Answer questions by "yes", "no”, "partially", or "not necessary". 1.

Was the place visited related to the course of study or Its equivalent?

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19 2.

Was the time selected for the trip -within a -week from the time the topic was -under discussion?

3.

Were advance arrangements made with the repre­ sentative of the place concerned?

4.

Were tentative plans carried out in advance relative to study, interest, and determination of objectives?

5.

Were advance plans made for satisfactory transportation?

6

.

7.

8

.

9.

Were chaperones, if needed, given timely invi­ tations? Were the children advised in advance as to comfortable clothing for the occasion? Were student committees appointed, thus giving cooperative responsibility? Was the conversation en route interesting and related to the topic under study except, when so doing, natural observations of other im­ portant places or things would have been in­ hibited?

10 . While visiting the place of destination, were the pupils allowed to make observations and also to ask fact and thought questions?

.a

11 Were the objectives reasonably well realized as result of the above?

12.Was there an improvement in social attitudes and interests on the part of the pupils? 13. Was there an enriched follow-up lesson as a re­ sult of the journey? 14. Was sufficient thought given to the results of this journey to profit from its strong and weak points? Remarks:

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20 Concrete Examples The author is presenting brief descriptions of school journeys planned and conducted by student and critic teachers in the training schools which she supervised.

It should be

kept in mind, however, that the principles Involved may be ap­ plied elsewhere. The journeys described will be those of trips to a library, newspaper office, bank, and art department. It is suggested that the reader keep in mind the essentials of a good school journey, as heretofore set forth, and that the check list on pages 18 and 19 be applied to at least one of them, after the description is read.

This is requested so that

readers will have a keener vision of the coherent and sequential steps in reading about school journeys in general. For the above reason the first two school journeys will be described in more detail than otherwise.

The other two will be

more generally treated, although the details had been equally worked out in application. A School Journey to a Library In one of the smaller training schools a number of new books were received.

These were on subjects of special Inter­

est to the upper elementary grades.

The teacher wished to plan

a cooperative movement to encourage proper care, use, classifi­ cation, and study of content.

She took up the topic with the

class, correlating elementary library techniques with the reading projects.

A specific need had arisen.

During the discussion of the problem the children gave a

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21 number of suggestions.

The teacher also contributed valuable

leads after first giving the children a chance to express them­ selves.

She had previously made tentative plans for a school

journey, and was anxious to have them see many illustrations of the points under discussion, instead of telling them in an abstract way.

She was also anxious to have them get acquainted

with a number of libraries so that they would become more inter­ ested in such places, and frequent them.

She told them about a

library to which they could go on a school journey, and that she had made arrangements if they wished to do so. The class listed the following questions which they wanted answered: 1.

When a stranger goes into a library and wishes to find

a book, what should he do? 2.

How should new books be first opened?

(This question

grew out of a disagreement on the part of the class as to the various ways in which, they said, different teachers had illustrated). 3.

How should a group of books, such as recently came, be

best classified for a classroom library?

What kind of

labels should be used? 4.

What are some of the most essential factors involved

in setting a price on a book?

(This comment grew out of

the observation that some books, apparently better than others, cost less, comparatively speaking). 5.

What are the steps involved in making a book?

A group secretary took the above list of questions, having copied them from the blackboard after the discussion was com­

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22 pleted for the day.

He indicated that he wanted them as a handy

check list in case some questions might be forgotten. The final date for the school journey was decided upon. There was no problem in the transportation as the school bus took the children to and from their destination, and studentteachers went as chaperones. The librarian, who consented to the group visitation, was prepared for their arrival and had special materials in readi­ ness.

The elementary section of the State Normal School Library

was used for the occasion. The class secretary let the librarian know of the group arrival.

She met them in a very friendly way.

She told them

that there were so many things of interest that she would first like to know of their preferences, if any.

The class secretary

immediately told her that they wanted specific questions answered.

She answered by saying she would like to hear all of

these questions first so she could plan the trip through the library accordingly, and that they could also ask any other questions they wished later.

The class secretary then asked the

class members to state the same questions as had been put on the blackboard.

He kept his list to see that there were no omissions.

Neither was there any delay, for there were certain members of the class who had specifically presented those questions in the first place, and thus aroused the interest and curiosity of others. The librarian, in answer to question one, began by demon­ strating while telling, the steps a stranger would go through in

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23 a public library if he were looking for a certain book.

She

also named a number of books and asked the children to do as she had done in finding the call numbers.

She made the work easy e-

nough for them to enjoy it, but at the same time to experience some of the first fundamental techniques.

She then gave out

complimentary printed rules on how to find a book.

These were

in the form of interesting cartoons illustrating the rules. Each cartoon was meaningful in terms of library techniques. These printed forms were put out by commercial publishers. In answer to the second question on how new books should be opened, she gave a demonstration.

The class was very at­

tentive and asked a number of questions concerning her way of doing it. In relation to the third question on how books should be classified in a classroom library, she asked them a number of questions about the titles and nature of their new books. suggested a tentative classification. book could be labeled.

She

She demonstrated how a

She then permitted some of the class to

label some of her books which were about to be put into the shelves.

These were used books for the elementary section, and

had been re-classified. Regarding the fourth question relative to the price of books, she gave a number of answers.

One boy, however, per­

sistently said his parents ordered a new book and were keenly disappointed In the price, and that “none of the answers fit so far".

He indicated that it cost seven dollars when they had ex­

pected it to be about half that price.

He was finally satisfied,

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24

however, when he learned that this particular book was technical in nature, and that its market was limited from the beginning,

-m

f

whereas a book useful to more people would cost less because of the volume of business. In answer to the next question on how books are made, she answered that a motion picture could be seen on this subject. This picture, however, was not available that particular day but within the same week.

The pupils indicated their anxiety to re­

turn, and did. Both en route to, and from, the place of interest the conver­ sation was animated, and about books.

As a follow-up the pupils

discussed their plans in school for seeing that the new books were

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properly opened, classified, and labeled.

Each member was asked

to tell something of interest about one of the new books of his choice so that the group would have a cross section of the most interesting features.

These topics came during the oral English

period, and.the topic was “Which Book I Like Best, and Why”. As a result, there was much more interest in reading and visitations to other libraries.

The children returned to the

first library visited to see the motion picture on how books were made.

Their attitude toward books was one of greater ap­

preciation for their physical set-up as well as their content. The children had never before realized the great chain of steps needed from the time the author gets the idea until a book is on the market. The author realizes that every librarian may not care to take the same interest as the one above described manifested. Yet, many teachers would be surprised if they realized how eager most well-trained librarians are to be of assistance, and also how many splendid suggestions may be gained by both adults and pupils in such a cooperative enterprise. The author has attended a number of meetings where librarians have discussed one of their major problems:

that of getting

children more interested in books and making visitations to libraries.

The day and age of the librarian as a custodian of

books has passed] A School Journey to a newspaper Office A group

of fifth and sixth grade children in the training

school were writing weekly news-notes for the local newspaper.

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26 This was done in connection with their regular language class. They eventually noticed that all of their notes were not printed and they wondered why. tor.

A letter of Inquiry was sent to the edi­

He invited the class to visit his plant and said that he

would tell them many things of interest which would help them in newswriting. The class expressed a desire to go, and arrangements were made through the class secretary on a date of mutual convenience. Before going, the class decided, with the guidance of the teacher, to have a number of newspapers from various concerns, and to com­ pare or contrast the school news-notes.

They also decided to list

specific objectives in taking the trip.

These were:

1.

To ascertain from the publisher his deciding

factors in

selecting news-notes. 2.

To get his specific criticisms in relation to our news-

notes. 3.

To give suggestions for better news-notes in

4.

To learn whether or not it is worth-while to have all

the class concentrate so much on newswriting, or

the future.

to hav6 but

one or two reporters. The class, with student-teachers and a supervisor, made the trip in the school bus during school hours, so there was no par­ ticular problem in transportation. the publisher of the arrival.

The class secretary informed

He cheerfully took the group

through the various divisions of a newspaper in the making, from the time he used the news-notes until they were taken off the paper-press in printed form.

His assistants were in the process

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27

of getting out their news-notes, so the concrete examples were especially interesting.

After the tour wa3 completed the class

secretary told him that there were specific questions they would like answered. In response to the first question on what makes good newsnotes, he replied that there were three essentials: he interesting, brief, and worthwhile.

They must

He then gave several ex­

amples and let the class make distinctions.

He especially pointed

out that It was possible to have news-notes very interesting but still not worthwhile.

He gave, as examples, murder stories and

comments on divorce cases.

He added that newswriters must not

only educate themselves, but also their readers, to good newsnotes. In regard to the second question as to why he did not use all of the news-notes from the specific school, he indicated that some of the items were too ordinary, although always clean and fine.

He then read some of their previous articles.

They could

then see how many people would take If for granted that certain things were going on without being told.

He also called attention

to the length of the news-notes, indicating how they could be cut down, thus saving time, expense, ana energy in printing. In respect to the third point, better news-notes in the future, he read a number of unusually good school news items as concrete examples, pointing out their superiority, and why.

He

also brought out the good points of the visiting group’s newsnotes and cautioned them to preserve and strengthen such charac­ teristics.

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a*:

As to whether or not there should he but one or two re­ porters, or a total class effort, he selected the latter.

He

explained, however, that the class should weigh the values of their news-notes and have them refined so that the one reporter could make the final delivery after the teacher had given per­ mission.

He gave a number of interesting examples of great men

and women who later paid tribute to the valuable experiences gained in writing good news-notes.

He told about the openings

in journalism and other phases of the printed page, and how many young people were planning to enter the field.

He also said that

if no other use were made of the experience than to write brief, interesting, and worthwhile news, the training was an excellent

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29

exercise in good English. The class expressed their gratitude, and were given news­ papers as souvenirs.

There was thought-provoking conversation

about newspaper work to and from the plant. Follow-up study was especially interesting as there was an intelligent discussion and cooperative checking of news-notes be­ fore they were again turned to the publisher.

Each class member

participated in making the news-notes brief, interesting, and worthwhile.

During the same week the class had letter-writing

assignments and they sent letters of gratitude to the publisher for his cooperation.

The follow-up, when the author last

checked, had been going on for at least one year with added interest and improvement. A School Journey to an Art Department The seventh and eighth grades were studying art as applied to clothing. study.

This was the topic listed in the state course of

The class expressed a desire to go to a large art de­

partment in an attempt to get additional suggestions for the problem under study.

The art teacher in the central system had

previously expressed her desire to cooperate.

Upon receiving a

request from the group, she asked them for a list of some of the questions with which they were especially concerned; and a date of mutual convenience was agreed upon. The class secretary kept a list of the committees appointed, following the same plan as heretofore described in the other ex­ cursions.

The school bus took the group at the appointed time.

The conversation en route was on the topic under study.

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30

Upon arrival, the pupils found a large number of pictorial charts which

were

especially related to theirquestions:

1.

The best

lines for stout people.

2.

The best

lines for slender people.

3.

The conventional meaning of ‘'well-dressed",

4.

Practical color schemes as applied to clothing for an

economical wardrobe. 5.

The source of figures for calico, and other designed

fabrics. After the class secretary announced the arrival and the group were met by the art supervisor, they were invited to look around the room leisurely. later.

She told them she would talk to them

This plan was carried out because she saw they were inter­

ested in the charts and that any attempt to talk to them too soon would inhibit their desire to browse.

In due time she met them

as a group. A very interesting discussion was held relative to each question asked, and frequently answered by her ready blackboard sketches or specific charts.

She gave them a handy technique on

the inch scale of proportions as a substitute for the life-size scale, so that they could make notebook sketches which especially applied to their own respective heights.

She also passed out

drawing paper and crayons, and gave them suggestions for making patterns for such materials as found in calicoes, wallpapers, and curtains.

The freedom and ease with which she let the visitors

work had the result of bringing out much individuality in their creative efforts.

They were allowed to take their patterns home.

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31

Conversation en route home was very interesting, and re­ lated to the demonstrations.

Patterns were compared.

There was a follow-up study and discussion of the principles learned.

It was only a question of time until the pupils ap­

plied more art-sense in the selection and remaking of their own clothing.

They also became observant of designs, and prepared

materials in both cloth and paper for decorative effects in their own classroom.

These pupils did not study art for art*s sake.

Neither did they worry about a test and try to prepare for it. They enjoyed and applied art as related to a higher standard of living for them.

Their written examination, a required one for

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32

the county, was also enjoyable. The author makes no claim that art should be circumscribed by provincial needs and personal problems, but that art should include them. A School Journey to a Bank In the seventh grade the pupils were studying the elementary principles of banking,

They were given blank checks and situations

were created which gave them experience in neatly and accurately completing them. The class expressed a desire to see how a check journeyed in the banking process, and since it was apparently convenient to visit a bank, a request was made for an excursion. One of the pupils who knew the Assistant Cashier very well asked for the privilege of interviewing her regarding the possi­ bility of a visit to the bank.

In due time correspondence was

exchanged and a date of mutual convenience was arranged. The secretary listed the various questions to be asked during the excursion.

The school bus arrived on schedule and took the

group to their destination.

The conversation en route was on the

elementary principles of banking. arrival of the group.

The secretary announced the

They were greeted by the Assistant Cashier.

She first concentrated on the journey of a check.

She took a

local one and put it through its order of procedure.

The class

was very interested and then asked a number of other questions which she clearly answered. The conversation en route home was interesting and about the demonstration.

There was a follow-up lesson about the elementary

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33

principles of banking.

Among the more important topics were;

1.

How a Bank Serves a Neighborhood.

2.

The Honor Behind a Check.

3.

Why Banks have Failed.

4.

Protection to Depositors.

5.

Types and Uses of Checks.

^-

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Suggested Activities 1.

If you are a student-teacher in a teacher-preparation

institution, try to get permission to plan and conduct a school journey from one of the training schools.

If It Is possible

to make the satisfactory arrangements, this should be done under supervision. Such an experience will prove valuable, and also serve as a concrete example for comparison and discussion relative to the guiding factors heretofore mentioned.

The fourteen

points of evaluation, as indicated on pages 18 and 19, may be used as a handy check. 2.

If you are an experienced teacher, arrange to plan and

conduct a school journey with a group of children in your own school and community.

Evaluate it in terms of the fourteen

points found on pages 18 and 19. 3.

If the class finds it possible or convenient, the group

could carry out a school journey among themselves.

It could be

used as a concrete example of the guiding principles. Care should be taken to prevent such a trip from becoming an irrelevant and tiresome one.

There should be a fundamental

interest, and convenient transportation.

If a trip to such as

a museum is planned, the general objective could be that of becoming more familiar with the functional uses of the agency in respect to classroom work.

In this case the chapter on the

museum should be studied before taking the trip. 4.

Make a list of about six places where you could take

your present or future classes on school journeys. relationship of each to your course of study.

Indicate the

Try to visit

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35

these places in advance in order to determine a better working plan for the trips in general, as otherwise many inconvenient conditions might arise with a group of children en route. 5.

Many teachers go on school excursions during the

summer months in order to visit places of interest which are related to their classroom work.

These trips are inexpensive

and some of them are within the reach of practically every teacher.

It is not uncommon to find a number of school author­

ities allowing credit for educational trips in lieu of summer school attendance.

It Is suggested that you gather literature

in respect to such trips.

You should aim to take advantage

of these opportunities as frequently as possible.

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36

Bibliography Alexander, H, B., Education in the Open, School and Society. XXXV (January 9, 1932), pp. 60-62. Department of Elementary School Principals, National Edu­ cation Association. Eighteenth Yearbook. (1939), pp. 465 -488. ________________________ Eighth Yearbook. (1932), Chapter X. Dunn, Fannie W., The Environment as a Primary Source of Ma­ terials of Instruction. New YnrkT Teachers College, fiolumbia'^Oniversity, 1935. Durant, Will, The Story of Philosophy. New York; City Publishing 6o., Inc., 1938. Chapter I.

Garden

Graves, Frank Pierrepont, A Student1s History of Education. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1936. Chapter XI, Harap, Henry, et al., The Changing Curriculum. D. Appleton-Century Company, 1937.

New York:

Hoban, C, F #, Hoban, C. F. Jr., and Zisman, S. B., Visual­ izing the Curriculum. New York: The Cordon Company, 1937. Chapter II. Hessen, C. A., School Tours, School Life. XXIV (April, 1939), pp. 199-200. Komroff, Manuel (editor), The Travels of Marco Polo. Garden City Publishing Co.', 'inc., 1941.

New York:

McKown, Harry C., and Roberts, Alvin B., Audio-visual Aids to Instruction. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1940. ________________ Activities in the Elementary School. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1938. Chapter VIII, Meyer, Adolph E,, The Development of Education in the Twenti­ eth Century. New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1939. National Council for the Social Studies. (1938).

Ninth Yearbook.

WInchell, L. R., Field Trips Develop Community Interest, Edu­ cation. LXI:(February, 1941), pp. 377-378. Wrightstone, J. W., Appraisal of Newer Elementary School Practices. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1938.

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CHAPTER II STILL PICTURES Educational Advantages There is a Chinese expression to the effect that one picture tells as much as a thousand words.

Whether or not this statement

is an exaggeration is not of vital importance.

The fact still re­

mains that pictures bring a wealth of material to children not only within, but without, their own environment. One of the greatest problems in interpretation is that of overcoming verbalism.

Pictures help to clear abstractions.

This is especially true when the child has the opportunity, while seated in a comfortable position, to study and frequently review the picture.

Many of the more expensive pictures, framed and

hung for public observation, may often go unnoticed by him. If he has small pictures at his desk, to be used as freely as his textbooks, his acquaintance with them will lead to permanent values.

The same is true of other t^pes of still pictures con­

veniently arranged for his use. One of the most valuable means of picture study is through the use of the stereograph and stereoscope. Stereograph The American stereoscope was invented in 1861 by Oliver Wendell Holmes.

Through the use of the stereoscope and the

stereograph may be seen vivid combinations of tv'e pictures taken from points of view a little way apart, thus giving the effect of

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38

solidity and depth. Although there are new stereographs and stereoscopes on the market, the effect is the same as that produced by the older ones.

It'is to be regretted that thousands of old stereoscopes

are not utilized for educational purposes, due to the fact that their values to m o d e m methods are overlooked. Stereographs covering almost every subject in the curriculum may now be obtained from various commercial companies. formation is given in Chapter X.

This in­

The following example, taken

from a training school under the writer’s supervision, illustrates the U 3 6 made of a commercial company’s set in the field of geography. This is a lesson as outlined in the Keystone Geography Units.

For

instance, stereograph number 109 (see blackboard in picture on page 39) has the following development: This is a part of the harbor of Rotterdam. What differ­ ent kinds of ships do you see? If you knew the flags of the various countries, you could tell from where the boats came. There are many other parts of the harbor, because so many ships from all parts of the world come here ihat much space is needed for them to load and unload. We see here not only ocean-going vessels but the long boats which have come down the Rhine, and are now being loaded to go back up the Rhine. There are also many canal boats going to other towns in the Netherlands, and there are rowboats which are used to carry goods within the city, just as we use trucks in our cities. Let us now go into the city to see what some of the streets of Rotterdam are like. (Slide of Stereograph No. 109: The Upper Harbor at Rotterdam, Netherlands) In using the stereoscope there are convenient opportunities which encourage further study. Convenient Opportunities for Use The pupil has an opportunity, when viewing stereographs,

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39

to carry on individual study until the conceptions are meaningful to him*

In this

way individual differences are automatically considered. He may also frequently return to It, thereby enriching his impressions as he learns more subject matter. The stereoscope helps the pupil to gain especially vivid impressions outside of his own Immediate ex­ periences, thus bridging the gap between himself and the pupils who have had more enriched oppor­ tunities. If the stereographs and stereoscopes are housed to invite frequent usage, the pictures will serve as a reference rather than a novelty.

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40

Housing the Materials There are three common ways of housing stereographs and stereoscopes.

In many schools stereographs may be found in

the regular library, classified as reference material.

Tables

may be found for the convenient use of the stereoscopes, neatly arranged in cases for such a purpose.

In some schools, each

classroom has its own material and a ready reference table pro­ vided for such a purpose.

The material appropriate to the topic

under study is placed on it.be set out at one time.

Too many stereographs shouLd not

Frequently, the stereoscopes and stereo­

graphs are passed around among the class for observation and study by each individual student.

Those who are waiting their turn

study quietly until the materials may be obtained. Gathering the Materials The growing use of stereoscopes and stereographs in the modern classroom has invited such questions as, "Where may we buy them?"

"How much are they?"

m o d e m schools?"

"Are they used very much in

"Why are these pictures so much more realistic

than others?" Many of the student-teachers in the writer’s class found a number of old stereoscopes and stereographs in their attics at home.

They will use them in the future for their own teaching.

After making a careful review of their course of study, students consulted commercial companies in order to obtSln^pictures which would be related to the most common units of study.

Marly selec­

tions are recommended because the pictures are to be used as a means to an end, and, naturally, in connection with reference

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41

readings• Isolated stereographs have their place, but It should be kept In mind that the best usage of views are those which are

related to an organized unit.

It Is suggested that as new stere­

ographs are needed, the teacher purchase them from commercial houses.

They are Inexpensive

and come as complete units.

These

will fit Into the old, as well as the new, stereoscopes. Closely related In value and Importance to the common usage of the stereograph, are the flat pictures, which, for purposes of convenience, are classified as the general type not especially prepared for projection.

These will now be given the next con­

sideration.

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42

Flat Pictures In addition to the many flat plotarea for aale by commercial companies, there are also numerous sources where such materials may be found without any expense*

For example, newspapers,

calendars, old books and magazines have many valuable pictures; but the selection should be made with care*

There is also the

problem of what to do with them after they have been selected* These problems will be briefly treated. Guides in the Selection Often pictures are incomplete* picture just for the picture’s sake*

There should never be the For example, pictures of

animals out of their natural habitat or activities are not good specimens*

The picture of a tall building without some means

of contrast, such as a man standing by, is not educationally complete* One should question: 1.

Are they authentio?

2*

Do they express comparison and contrast in sizes?

3*

Are the sizes convenient for individual study?

4*

Do they express clarity of thought?

5.

Are they related to the course of study?

6*

Are they within the grade level of the groupstudying

7.

Are they expressive of the theme intended?

them?

After the pictures have been selected, there is theproblem of preparing them for school use* Preparation for School Use It is advisable for the collector to have a file,

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The typi-

43

cal large alphabetized file is handy for such a purpose*

Thus,

the pictures may be placed In their general classifications until attention may be given to their speolfic classifications according to subject headings*

Temporary pictures should be

discarded after they have served their purpose*

When cutting

out a picture, an old razor blade run close to the binding edge is more practical than scissors*

One should not try to tear out

the pictures• In mounting, one should keep In mind that colored pictures do not need margins left in the cutting, but that the color against an attractive background of mounting paper Is sufficient. The black and white pictures look better If a margin of oneeighth to one-fourth inch is left in the cutting before mounting. The mounting should leave no uneven margins on the sides of the mounting paper* For the appearance of the page, the placing of the title of the picture on the page deserves special consideration* not necessary to place it under the picture*

It is

In fact, there are

advantages in placing it in the upper left-hand oorner*

Thus,

it is evident that no centering on the page has been attempted* It also eliminates any need of measured space for the number of words in the title. Children should be taught early to collect and mount valu­ able pictures*

Mounting paper is usually sold in the local

printing shops or drug stores. Below, may be found a group of student-teachers under the author*s guidance who participated in the plan of selecting and preparing pictures for school use*

Piotures which were found

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44

that "would apparently serve a purpose were collected and placed in a temporary folding file.

Others were labeled and put in

the permanent file.

Slides Under this classification may be found both the handmade and photographic types.

Since the handmade ones are more common

for school use, more attention will be given to them.

Pictures

in this section are taken from one of the training schools under the author*s supervision. Handmade Handmade slides are practical, valuable, and economical.

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45

Since pupils may make their own, a cooperative enterprise will prove both interesting and effective.

They may be used in

connection with practically every subject in the curriculum. Consideration will now be given to the various types of handmade slides. Etched-Glass Etched-glass may be purchased from commercial companies. The finely finished material gives better service than the coarse, or otherwise inferior, grades, such as window-glass which is apt to crack under heat.

The simplest way of pre­

paring a picture for such a slide is by tracing outlines with ordinary

medium lead pencil.

Lantern-slide crayons may then

be used for coloring the picture as desired. quickly soluble in soap and water.

Such coloring is

A little household oil

spread over the surface with a soft cloth will easily remove the pencil outline. for many pictures.

In this way the same slide may be used When original drawings are made, they

should be prepared on paper first rather than the slide, and then traced.

This precaution will prevent any blur which

might otherwise result from erasures or experiments on the glass slide.

The use of ink is a more difficult process and

should not be attempted by younger pupils. A lesson on how to prepare slides is advisable as pupils will enjoy the participation.

Too frequently the teacher

does it while the pupil watches.

The process should be re­

versed.

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46

It is advisable, when ordering the glass slides, to obtain a complete set which also has directions for usage.

Both pupils

and teachers find it inconvenient to use directions from a book not especially prepared for such steps. found information on such service. complete set usually includes:

In the appendix may be

Suffice it to say that a

(1) crayons, (2) etched-glass,

(3) cover-glass, (4) binding-tape, (5) sample materials, and (6) directions. Lumarith The lumarith slide is growing in popularity and has several advantages over the glass slide.

It is much thinner, will not

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47

break, takes India ink with little difficulty, and is less ex­ pensive.

The difficulty is that it cannot be washed off and

used again.

Lumarith Sample from Celluloid Corporation, 10 East 40th Street, New York, New York. Typed The typed slides are prepared by typewriting through carbon paper on cellophane, which is later bound between two pieces of lantern-size glass.

This is a common way of presenting such

material as words of songs, announcements, and current events. A commercial radio-mat, which carries out the same princi­ ple, is Inserted below. served:

Three simple directions are to be ob­

(1) the typewriting is done directly in the red open

space, (2) the envelope back and also the red sheet is then dis­ carded, (3) the typed film and mat face of the envelope Is

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48

finally placed between glasses.

(The mat face of the envelope

forms the black frame around the typing on the film in the finished product).

Radio-Mat Slide Co., Inc., 1819 Broadway, New York, New York. Photographic Photographic slides are made from the original negative of a picture.

The image is reproduced on sensitized glass.

it is set, a border, or mat, is placed along the edges.

After The

cover-glass is then used and the edges are bound with tape. The technique of preparing photographic slides is difficult and, as a rule, should not be attempted by the amateur for edu­ cational specimens.

These types of slides are used most frequently

by lecturers and teachers.

Many of the older pupils, however, are

becoming skilled in photographic procedures.

Under proper guidance

they are thus developing techniques in the preparation and use of photographic slides.

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49

Filmstrips Filmstrips are very practical, economical, light weight, and convenient visual aids.

Their advantages are many.

cost runs to about two to five cents per picture.

The

The set of

from twenty-five to seventy-five pictures weighs about one ounce and is housed in a tiny round box.

Small and inexpensive cameras

are available for taking pictures on a 35 mm. negative. known as the candid camera.

They are

Teachers often take advantage of

their vacation periods by taking a number of pictures for class­ room use.

There is one disadvantage in the filmstrip, and that

is the inequality of light brilliancy.

However, the advantages

far out-weigh the disadvantage. Frequently, enlargements are made of the pictures which appear on the film. of this type of work.

Photo-finishing laboratories make a practice Enlargers, contrary to public opinion, are

not expensive. Readers should keep in mind that there is a Kodachrome, or natural color film, for the candid cameras.

Beautiful results

may be obtained through its use, but there is one disadvantage duplicates cannot be made.

Pictures and sources may be found in

the appendix. Multiple Uses and Cooperative Preparation After an interest has been established in the value of still pictures, many opportunities will arise for their usage in such ways as indicated in the following subjects; 1.

Art Appreciation of masterpieces and study of details such as balance, color, and design.

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50

2.

Dramatics Observation of stag© balance, color schemes, and make-up.

3.

English Observation of authors, literary maps, story themes, and creative illustrations.

4.

Geography Study of races, maps, graphs, and details of legends.

5.

History Observation of historical characters, settings, contrasts, maps, and graphs.

6.

Hygiene A study of charts, graphs, disease symptoms, sani­ tation, and specimens.

7.

Mathematics Observation of diagrams, legends, statistical data, comparisons, and contrasts.

8.

Music Knowledge of seating arrangements of symphony orchestras'; recognition of opera characters and scenes, and of composers and Instrumentalists, past and present; comparison of nationality dances and instruments.

9.

Reading Opportunity to show illustrations of original stories; impressions of lessons and correlated suggestions or directions in relation to school life in general.

The above are by no means inclusive.

The picture as shown

below indicates a group of student-teachers preparing material for various subjects and exchanging their ideas of its usage. The principle of such cooperative work is to be earnestly stressed, as so frequently teachers in the same school system

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51

may exchange still pictures#

This group jointly discussed and

illustrated such a plan in a teachers* meeting*

The Place of Amateur Photography The place of amateur photography will he briefly considered from the standpoint of importance and values of concrete ex­ amples in securing interests. Importance The camera is of growing concern to children in the ele­ mentary grades*

There was a time when this instrument, as in

the case of the typewriter, was usually considered to be owned and operated by adults*

The teacher who has a deep interest in

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52

visual education -will early encourage children to have and use their own cameras#

This need not he an expensive plan#

Many

commercial companies now put out very inexpensive kodaks. Children may also learn to develop their own pictures.

It is

not to be expected that the teacher understand all of the de­ tails.

It is advisable for him to introduce the idea to the

children through the assistance of specialists#

It is sur­

prising how cooperative photographers are in receiving a group on excursion trips and also giving interesting steps in the procedures of photography.

The following example is one

carried on by the author^ class# Concrete Example Before taking the trip the class made the usual plans as heretofore described in Chapter I relative to advance preparation for a school journey.

In this particular case the class indi­

cated the following objectives in taking the trip: 1,

To ascertain from a commercial photographer who has a

wide overview of his field, the place of photography as a profession, and whether or not he would advise talented young people to enter it. 2#

To have the actual steps demonstrated in picture-

taking, from the time the photographer takes the first picture until he turns out the finished product. 3.

To secure suggestions for economical photographic pro­

cedures • 4#

To gather literature which would be of specific and

practical assistance to teachers.

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53

The young man standing by the tree acted as the class secre­ tary, and made ar­ rangements with the photographer in advance. i,vvv He also sent a list of the objectives so as to give the pho­ tographer an opportunity to prepare accordingly. Various com­ mittees were elected from the group.

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54

Upon the arrival of the group, the photographer greeted them and made comfortable arrangements for his brief lecture period. Introductory Overview He told about the many openings in the field of photography for people who are especially interested in it.

He called at­

tention to the fact that several noted photographers had first carried on this work as an avocation, but while doing so gained much practical experience. Many interesting comments were made about the place of pho­ tography in other professions.

Among a number of the factors

stressed were that photography would help:

(1) the social-service

worker to picture conditions in the slum areas in stimulating public interest toward constructive measures, (2) the medical leader to gain an interpretation of the causes and preventive measures concerning diseases, (3) the business man to explain his services to the public, (4) the Sunday-school worker in de­ veloping character education, and (5) the teacher in overcoming the barriers of learning as frequently caused by abstract de­ scriptions.

These were by no means Inclusive, but served as a

cross section. He stressed the ethical code of truthfulness in pictures, and the moral obligations on the part of the public in ceasing their demands for exaggerations.

The picture of the Eskimo, for

example, as found In much of the educational literature, Is not a true one.

Photographers found that the odd picture of the

Eskimo was the best seller and considered 11good11.

He added that

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55

as teachers and pupils become alert to ethical standards of pictures, the public will automatically become educated to the need of discouraging untruthful emphasis.

The element of in­

decency, he added, has too long been the only ground on which pictures have been severely protested. Procedures He told that although many who take pictures get their films developed in commercial houses, it would be a valuable experience for the individual to do his own work on them, at least once.

The

observations made in such a procedure would automatically bring out some of the fundamentals of good picture-taking. An explanation and demonstration was given of various types of cameras, Indicating that equipment need not be expensive to

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56

give satisfactory results.

The relationship of the camera to

the photographer1s equipment for taking pictures was compared, thus illustrating the same essential principle. The photographer then took a picture of the class and promised to illustrate the various steps of procedure until it was a finished product.

He added that each could have one as a

souvenir before departure. He described the function of the dark room.

Since film is

very sensitive to light, it is necessary to protect it accordingly. Light, if properly used, is not always harmful.

The red light is

best for general purposes, as films are less sensitive to it. All other light should be excluded from the room.

Some films

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57

are so sensitive that even a slight degree of daylight, for a small fraction of a second, -will ruin them. One of the most practical -mays for providing the red light is through the use of the ruby electric bulb.

Another method

is by placing a flashlight in such as an oatmeal box, tightly covered, but fitted with a ruby glass window about two or three inches square. The source, cost, preparation, and use of the developer were discussed.

The principle of ordinary cameras was explained.

Among the points brought out were that:

(1) When the shutter of

a camera is opened, the light projected on the film outlines an image,

(2) Chemical changes take place in the coating which are

not visible to the naked eye.

(3) The developer acts upon these

changes and turns them to opaque, and black.

(4) Wherever the

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58 light does not fall, the silver compounds are not changed by the developer, and a yellowish appearance is the result. The "fixing bath" was next described ass

(1) a means of

clearing the film and making it safe when exposed to light, and (2) a solution of sodium hyposulphite dissolved in water according to directions, and where the films should rest for several minutes. The washing process was then described. were mentioned:

The following points

(1) The "fixing” process should be removed and

the films covered with clear water.

(2) The washing process

should be carried on for about five minutes by rolling and un ­ rolling the films.

(3) The washing process should be repeated

in fresh water for about a dozen times. The photographer made deviations according to his own par­ ticular equipment, as pictured in the drying process below.

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He

59

stated that generally the drying process consists in hanging the films where they may swing freely. the process.

A light breeze hastens

This cannot be done, however, if there is smoke

or dust in the air. True to his promise, he gave each one a finished picture of the group as they left.

He also passed out literature in

keeping with their specific needs and requests.

It is of

interest to note that this group of student-teachers had much conversation on the way home about their regrets that they had never been through a photographer's studios before.

They de­

cided to do their part in giving their pupils frequent oppor­ tunities for such visitations.

Many photographers were contacted

who welcomed the idea and opportunity of such cooperation. Topics on such types of cooperation were freely stressed in teachers* meetings.

There was a marked growth in alertness to

the truthfulness in pictures on the part of teachers and pupils.

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60 Mechanical Equipment In treating of mechanical equipment for still pictures, consideration will he given to projectors, screens, and storage facilities. Projectors There are four main types of projectors:

(1) the lantern

slide, (2) the strip-film, (3) the 2n x 2", and (4) the opaque. It is not the author's intention, in a textbook of this nature, to go into detail about such equipment and the prices. It would, naturally, be difficult to choose from the standard equipment put out by many reliable companies.

The functional

uses will be briefly described, and for additional inforaiation Chapter X may be noted.

It should be kept in mind that de­

scriptive booklets come with such equipment and the directions, as a rule, are especially clear. Lantern Slide This instrument is used for glass-slide projections.

The

essential features, rather than the shape or beauty, should be given consideration.

For example, the simplicity of construction

and operation, the value of the mirrors and lenses, and the general features of portability and durability are important. Strip-Film The strip-film projector serves the purpose of projecting pictures printed on the strip-film.

It is a very convenient

instrument because of its portability.

It is not an expensive

plan to have such a projector and the film-strips put out by

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61

commercial companies for educational purposes. to hut a few cents.

Each frame comes

Many of these projectors are available in

"tri-purpose” equipment, also taking care of double frames and 2” x 2" glass slides.

Many schools maintain libraries of such

slides and film strips. 2" x 2”

The 2" x 2" projector is used for the glass slides of the same dimensions.

Frequently, however, additional equipment is

added which also takes care of the film-strip projecting as de­ scribed above. Opaque This type of projector is used in the projection of non­ transparent flat materials such as drawings, maps, postcards, and textbook materials.

The images of the materials are re­

flected on the screen by means of mirrors in the projector. ■Screens It is advisable in the very beginning to purchase a screen which will best serve the purpose.

It should be kept In mind

that the clearness of the picture depends upon the light re­ flected from the screen and this is why homemade screens are not as satisfactory as those made in commercial houses.

Many of the

homemade screens such as those made of heavy paper, cloth, and board are not good reflectors. In purchasing the screens from commercial houses it is well to keep In mind the size of the audience which will gener­ ally use it.

Beaded or aluminum-coated screens are excellent

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62

reflectors, but If many people will be so seated as to view the picture from the side isles, diffusion must also be considered. In this case, the plain screen Is, on the whole, more satis­ factory. Storage Facilities When purchasing equipment, the concern of Its storage is an Important matter.

There are alphabetized cases of the right

size for slides which are partitioned so that each slide has its own groove.

Screens which roll are a saving of time, money, and

energy over those that must be tacked up each time they are used. It Is especially true, in the case of still pictures, that there should be a place for each specimen* and each specimen should be found in a well-organized and classified pattern of housing. This pattern will, to a large extent, depend on the size of the school system and the central service.

Such features will be

treated In more detail under Chapter IX, Administration and Supervision.

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63

Suggested Activities 1.

In almost every community there may he found many

stereoscopes which are seldom or never used.

Plan to give

a demonstration lesson for a parent-teacher group on the modern use of the stereoscope.

Both pupils and parents may

participate in the demonstration. The stereographs should he selected accordingly.

It

is better, however, for the group to use as many as possible of the old stereoscopes found in the community, than to pass out new ones.

In this way parents really see that these

old stereoscopes are valuable.

The writer noted, after

observing a demonstration of this type, that many parents brought stereoscopes out of storage and put them to use. Out of the discussion, there also developed the idea that m o d e m stereographs would make nice gifts for the home, especially since the old stereoscopes did not ha\e to be replaced in order to get the desired results.

The vital­

ized results, however, were those which indicated that parents were participating in their own educational advance­ ment.

They used the study guides which accompany the m o d e m

sets of stereographs. 2.

Plan a cooperative enterprise of collecting,

classifying, and filing flat pictures of educational value. Magazines which are very valuable, as far as their picture content is concerned, may well be used for such a purpose.

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64

A discussion on this subject in a parent-teacher meeting will very often bring the desired results. 3.

Make it possible for children to prepare a number

of slides, allowing them freedom in self-expression.

Children

do their best artistic work when not circumscribed by detailed directions. 4.

In order to create interest in amateur photography,

arrange for a school journey to a photographic studio. 5.

Children enjoy telling about their vacation periods.

Many of them collect postal cards on their trips.

Arrange

to have the members of your class use the opaque projector and tell about interesting trips of educational value. plan may frequently be combined with oral Engli± l work.

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This

65 Bibliography Angell, D. M., Making Slides in Elementary Schools, Social Edu­ cation, III (February, 1939), pp. 122-124. Barr, W. F., Types and Uses of Projectors, Department of Ele­ mentary School Principals, National Education Association. Thirteenth Yearbook, (1934), pp. 308-312. Blood, B. R., and Kaasa, E. J., Teaching Geography through Pictures, Department of Elementary School Principals, National Education Association. Thirteenth Yearbook, (1934), pp. 204-208. Bonwell, W. A*, Effective Slides Made by Teacher and Pupil, Department of Elementary School Principals, National Edu­ cation Association. Thirteenth Yearbook, (1934), pp. 319 -324. Cook, K. M., Visual Aids to Instruction Then and Now, School Life. XXIV (February, 1939), pp. 142-159. Dent, E. C., The Audio-visual Handbook, (revised edition). Chicago: The' Society of Visual Education, 1939. Pp. 51 -93, 150-152. Dorris, A. V., Visual Instruction in the Public Schools. Boston: Ginn and Company, 1928. Pp. VO-84‘, 133 -1$0. Engel, E. L., The Opaque Projector In the Schoolroom, Department of Elementary School Principals, National Education Associ­ ation. Thirteenth Yearbook, (1934), pp. 330-335. Hamilton, G. E., The Stereograph and Lantern Slide in Education. Meadvllle, Penna: Keystone View Company, 1939. Hart, G. L., The Stereopticon and Its Uses, Department of Ele­ mentary School Principals, National Education Association. Thirteenth Yearbook, (1934), pp. 313-318. Hoban, C. F., Hoban, C. F., Jr., and Zisman, S. B., Visual­ izing the Curriculum. New York: The Cordon Company, T§377 “ CEapter V.--Koon, C. M., School Use of Visual Aids, Washington D. C.: Government Printing Office, United States Office of Edu­ cation, Bulletin No. 4, pp. 37-45. MacHarg, J. B.. A New Era In Visual Methods, Educational Screen, XVI (June, 1937), pp. 182-183. March, L. S., Pupil-made Lantern Slides in the Social Studies, Social Education, III (December, 1939), pp. 609-611.

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66

Marx, G. H., School-produced Film Strips, Educational Screen, XVT (September, 1937), p. 228. MoKown, Harry C., and Roberts, Alvin, B.. Audio-visual Aids to Instruction. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., mrr. SHapters VI and VII. Miller, P. A*, and Schenck, M. A., A Case for Integration through Slides, Educational Screen, XVIII (June, 1939), pp. 189-190. Probst, E. M., The Lantern Slide as a Teaching Device, Edu­ cational Method, XV (February, 1936), pp. 265-269. Spllde, Lulu, Audio-visual Aids in Teaching American Litera­ ture, Educational Screen, XVIII (April, 1939), pp. 115, 129. Webb, F. H., New Visual Aids, Education. LXI (September, 1940), pp. 35—37»

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CHAPTER III GRAPHS Brief History The story of graphs is so interestingly interwoven with the history of man, as well as modern and business usage, it is ad­ visable to divide it roughly into the early and late sections. Early Narratives To pull the graph out of its cultural context, and to study its history in terms of chronological dates, is not to understand the impelling forces within the culture that have always affected expression.

Man was literally wrenched this way and that.

struggled with the forces of nature. aided by his own nature.

He

He was handicapped and

He attempted to meet his needs and

desires through the use of force, coercion, knowledge, or by control of his own nature through sublimation.

Man was not as

well equipped to protect himself against physical danger as the beasts of the field. brain activity.

Yet, he survived because of his superior

The conflict between desire and reality sometimes

caused a veritable cyclone within man1s nature. broke out in expressions of many forms. otic, romantic, or lazy. all else.

This cyclone

Sometimes life was ex­

Sometimes spiritual values rose above

The graph, In various forms, has served as an early

record of such tendencies in man. Viewing permanent messages from the present to the past, such

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68 stages as the following are observed:

(1) the printed page,

(2) the handwritten page, (3) the messages left on stones and clay, and (4) those thousands of peculiar types of works which, perhaps, only the makers understood.

These were among the

crudest forms of graphs. King Tut-ankh-amen1s Tomb Archeologists have made much progress in the study of early graphic forms and their relationships to the various cultures which they represented.

The amazing discovery of King Tut-ankh-

a m e n ^ (King ’’Tut’s", in common parlance) tomb in 1922 stirred the imagination of the world. talking about it.

Even the man in the street was

Howard Carter, the English Egyptologist, was

one of the men responsible for this discovery.

The tomb is near

Luxor, Egypt. Luxor is a small town of fifteen thousand souls today, situ­ ated in a glorious climate where everything grows to super-proportions.

It still has many ruins of the old town of Thebes of

B. C. days, a part of which was on the same site as Luxor is found today.

Thebes is described in Homer (c. 900 B. C.) and

other ancient writers.

Since the days of the pharaohs, wars

have destroyed much of the extravagant splendor of what was Thebes.

About 2000 B. C. Thebes was the heart of the world.

Luxor’s huge columns of former buildings stand guard over the Valley of the Tombs of the Kings. Excavators working in Luxor, tinder Howard Carter’s di­ rection, found four chambers of an ancient pharaoh which turned out to be King Tut-ankh-amen*s tomb.

In these four chambers,

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69

over six hundred groups of objects were found. objects were previously unknown.

Many of these

Royal tombs were supplied in

ancient times with everything the pharaoh could need in the other world.

The articles, such as tools, furniture, and musi­

cal instruments, were often engraved with graphic figures.

The

story of the pharaoh’s life was depicted in graphic form along the walls of the tomb:

the wars, officials, slaves, wife and

children, house, dramas, idylls, harvest, hunting, beliefs, and thoughts.

Thus, from ancient tombs we learn much of how people

lived and what they thought thousands of years before Christ. King Tut-ankh-amen was the last ruler of the XVIII dynasty, and it was during his reign (1358-1349 B. C.) that iron succeeded bronze in Egypt. Writing The Egyptians used picture-writing for conveying ideas in very early times.

Only the priests could write at first, and

this may have been the reason for the term ’'hieroglyphics'1, which means "sacred carvings".

In due time pictures became so

complicated that it became necessary to produce the same effects with fewer strokes. came into existence.

Gradually a more or less standardized form The strokes in some of the old Egyptian

messages on papyrus resemble, in some respects, the shorthand of today. Commerce between Africa and Asia before 1000 B. C. may have brought about, among other things, the simplification of writing symbols.

Miners and quarrymen on Sinai Peninsula supplied fine

turquoise, copper, and stone to Egypt.

These people were re-

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lated to the Hebrews and Phoenicians,

They were acquainted with

the hieroglyphics of Egypt, but used the cuneiform writing of the Babylonians.

However, both forms of writing were difficult

to learn and cumbersome for their purposes of keeping accounts It is thought by many that in some such way

and marking goods.

the Phoenicians were partially responsible for the simplification of writing.

There is nocertain knowledge regarding this

stage

in the development of crur present-day alphabet, but since the Greeks learned their alphabet from the Phoenicians, it is called the Phoenician alphabet. The Phoenicians used the head of an ox of "A” because their word for ox was "alph” . house was nbetM •

C^f) for

the sound

Their word for

The picture represented a plan of a house ( 0 )

because house began with nBu.

Then ( □ ) came to be known as the

sign for the sound r,BM . And so it was that the ideographic ori­ gins probably came to beused phonetically. Mathematical Guides Only a few examples will be stated in order to give a cross section of the use of graphs in relation to mathematics.

History

is filled with many others. In the predynastic periods of Egypt, many and various geo­ metric designs were used on vases, and other artifacts.

As early

as the Feudal Age, which lasted for several centuries and closed about 1800 B. C., there was a calendar of tv/elve months and thirty days each, plus five extra days.

About 1850 B. C.^under

the reign of Amenembat III, an extensive system of surveying was

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71 carried out which required graphic representation.

In the temple

of Queen Hatshepsut, near Thebes, which was erected about 1500 B. C., there was placed a graphic picture of a money-receipt, perhaps from trade off the coast of Africa.

Pictures of tax lists

of Upper Egypt were found in another tomb near there. The Greeks were very active In the field of mathematics, and to them credit is given for the proof of the theorem concerning the law of the square.

Geometry grew from the actual measurement

of surfaces and solids, into an abstract subject containing adaptable principles, thus saving time and energy.

Graphs were

needed in the presentation of such principles. In China, the Pa-Kua, or eight trigrams, was very important. It Is described in the Book of Permutations.

Some of the Pa-Kua

graphic symbols are as followsj Heaven or Wind or Sky____________________ Wood

Collected Water

Water as in Rain or _____ Moon

Fire



Thunder

Hills

Earth

Babylonia and Assyria extended astronomy and astrology, using many graphic signs in their interpretations. Christian Archeology Christian archeology is filled with many Interesting ex-

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72

simples of* graphs.

During the periods when anti-Christians avidly

carried on persecutions, many crude graphs were made.

An example

was a caricature having the head of an ass attached to the design of the Cross.

Near by was a figure standing in prayer, and be­

neath was a combination of lines and curves which meant, "Alexamenous adores his God". It is highly significant that cemeteries played no small part in representing the character and customs of the times. built above ground and had various inscriptions.

Many were

The lines repre­

senting the figure of a fish were a common symbol, for they had reference to Christ and His miracle.

The dove represented peace.

The elongated vase was significant of towering to heaven.

There were

various religious motives, too numerous to mention, but suffice it to say that each was related to a pattern of religious culture. Later Developments Each century is filled with many and varied types of graphs, the treatment of which would require a separate plan.

The following

brief survey Is presented as the more pertinent development of interest to teachers. In the fifteenth century, Leonardo da Vinci accompanied his explanation of falling bodies with a diagram showing "horizontally the figures for the intervals of time and vertically the distances = probably the first graph known to the history of science".^

As

early as 1637 there was a published work of Descartes which treated rectangular coordinates.

William Playfair is an outstanding name of

special Interest to Americans in connection with the history of graphs. Willard Brinton brings out the fact that educators should know more

1.

Antonina Vallentin, Leonardo da Vinci. p. 207.

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73 about him. William Playfair William Playfair was born in 1759.

He was apprenticed at

an early age as a machinist in Scotland.

Later he became a

draftsman for James Watt, the great Scotch inventor.

Watt had

connections with the University of Glasgow as a maker of astro­ nomical and mathematical instruments.

It will be remembered

that the unit of electrical power was named after him. Brinton^ gives an interesting account of Playfair’s life and contributions.

Among the latter may be found:

(1) a book

on Lineal Arithmetic, 1798, (2) a translation of, and supplement to, Donnant* s Statistical Account of the United States in America, 1805, in which graphic representation was used to make the data more meaningful, (3) a book on graphics, 1786, and (4) comments in one of his later works, Commercial and Political Atlas, 1801, on the need of an international language. In the translation and supplement of Donnant1s work, as mentioned above, there was also am inscription to Thomas Jeffer­ son who was sent twenty-five copies. The following quotation is given as an example of Playfair’s ideas on an international language: Had our ancestors represented the gradual increase of their commerce and expenditures, if it had not been an object of utility, it would at least have been one of curiosity; but had records, written in this sort of shape (plotted curves) and speaking a language that all the world under­ stands, existed at this day, of the commerce and revenue of ancient nations, what a real acquisition would it not have been to our stock of knowledge’. In place of which, a few detached facts sire collected and brought forward as the only criterion from which we can judge of the manners and wealth of the ancient world. 1.

Willard C. Brinton, Graphic Presentation, pp. 11, 12.

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74 It is not only of importance that this species of information should be handed down, but also that it should go down in such a form and manner as that any person might, even though a native of another country, understand the nature of the business delineated. . . . If we could have a copy of the custom-house books of Carthage or Tyre for a hundred years, what value might not be set on them1. These charts (Playfair’s) will be for future nations the same thing that the ancient records we so much desire would be for us now. . . .1 Societies and Leaders A number of societies came into existence in the nineteenth century and furthered statistical treatment.

Among these were:

(1) the American Statistical Association, 1839, (2) the American Society of Civil Engineers, 1876, and (3) the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1880. In the last half of the same century, interest and partici­ pation in educational testing furthered graphic presentation of results.

Horace Mann encouraged printed tests; Reverend George

Fisher used the "scale book” ; Sir Francis Galton used statistical tools; and J. M. Rice invented tests.

Wilhelm Wundt, who lived

from 1832 to 1920, was noted as the founder at Leipsig of the first laboratory for experimental psychology. In the twentieth century such men as Cattell, Thorndike, Stone, Terman, Binet, Simon, Courtis, Rugg, McCall, Pressey, Freeman, and Gcsell put out tests which would require graphic treatment in the presentation of results having educational sig­ nificance. General Importance Graphs have invaded every walk of life. 1.

The man in the

William Playfair, Commercial and Political Atlas, as quoted by Willard C. Brinton, 0]c. clt.. pp. 16, ITT

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75

street to the leader In science finds uses for them.

Prom the

pulpit to the slums, the graph aids in the presentation of ideas and emotions.

The professional and business man presents, by-

means of the graph, many of the vital facts concerning his services.

The graph is indispensable to the teacher.

Many ideas or findings which would otherwise require thousands of words to express, may easily be presented in graphs Humor, an essential phase of life, is encouraged and expressed in graphs.

Maps, cartoons, illustrations, diagrams, posters,

and charts are classified as graphic materials as well as the sub-classification under which may be found the bar, line, area, and pictorial graph. It is highly essential that children in the elementary grades become adept in the interpretation and use of graphs. Emphasis should not only be placed upon the ready-made graph, but also upon the pupil-made graph as a means of expression and recording. It is to be regretted that many teachers who have had no stress placed upon the graph in their own early training are found wanting in alertness to its broad values and uses to children in the elementary grades of today.

Some teachers even

discourage cartoon drawings, forgetting that humor and its ex­ pression is an American way of life, and that life is made up of environment outside, as well as within the schoolroom. The most common types of graphs for school use in the ele­ mentary grades will now be given consideration.

NEW YORK UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF EDUCATION • LIBRARY » Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

76 Types for Elementary Schools In this division will be considered the types most satis­ factory for elementary schools and suggestions for the use of each.

The types will be treated in the following order:

(1)

the specific graph, (2) the illustration, (3) the diagram, (4) the cartoon, (5) the poster, (6) the chart, and (7) the map. Specific G-raphs The term graph has been so commonly used in connection with the names of the bar graph, line graph, area graph, and pictorial graph, it is frequently overlooked that these are but one division of a broad classification.

The illustration, dia­

gram, cartoon, poster, chart, and map also belong to the family of graphs.

In order to distinguish the first division from the

broad classification, the name specific graph is used here. Bar The gar graph consists of a number of bars

30

placed as to

make it possible readily to observe comparisons and contrasts which have been recorded according to scale values.

The bar

graph may be placed in a vertical or a horizontal position. position used is a matter of preference.

The

Many teachers would

rather use the vertical bar graph for recording daily attendance. The following example shows a vertical bar graph on tie daily attendance of a class of thirtyibir one week. data are to be recorded:

The following

Monday, 25; Tuesday, 30; Wednesday, 3 0;

Thursday, 25; Friday, 20.

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77 Daily Attendance of Room X Fourth Week - First Semester - 1941-42 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Mon.

Tue.

TecL

Thu.

W

T .

1 inch:

30.

It may he seen that the inch represents the number, 30, hut any scale may be used on the bar graphs.

The legend should be

indicated to aid in the interpretation. The example of the bar graph on attendance is here given because it has so many possibilities of adaptability to schoollife.

Children could be appointed to check on the daily at­

tendance, and make weekly graphs. cover each week.

Different children could

At the end of a term the weekly graphs could

be used to determine the weekly average.

The weekly average

could then be plotted for the term, each bar representing one week. The writer, in visiting one of the training schools under her supervision, listened to a discussion at a Young Citizens1 League.

The health committee of this League pointed out that a

February average attendance for five successive years was lower than the other months of the same respective years. had been kept on pupil-made charts. something serious to these children.

The records

The picture began to mean They finally reached the

tentative conclusion that because February is

such an inclement

month, illness was the cause of the lower attendance.

Their

memories and experiences substantiated their tentative conclusion.

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78

They decided to try to improve the coming February at­ tendance by preventing, in so far as possible, the common causes of illness.

Posters on health were placed in conspicuous places.

Prevention of the common cold was discussed.

Each one appointed

himself as a committee of one to bring up the February attendance record by concentrating on healthful living.

It was done.

Line The most common plan of using the line graph is to repre­ sent fluctuations in numerical values of a single item.

For

example, a child, in keeping a record of his spelling lessons over a period of nine weeks, in his attempt to master twenty words per week, could make the following line graph: Words Spelled Correctly

22 21

20 19 18 17 16 15 14

It may be seen, from the above, that this child in suc­ cessive weeks manifested the following mastery of words: 20, 15, 14, 18, 19,

17,

20, 20, 19.

It will not be a difficult matter for a pupil to make a self-analysis of his work and offer a solution of his own problem. The teacher should first try to ascertain the pupil's suggestion for a steadier record.

The writer

critic teacher that the words were

heard one pupil tell his evidently given out of their

order of difficulty, as the week he worked the hardest he had

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79 the poorest record.

He added that some of his classmates had

experienced similar difficulties.

A check was made on the order

of difficulty in the words for particular weeks under question, and it led to a word-list revision rather than to a criticism of the pupils’ average term records. Area The circle, or pie-graph, is one of the most common examples of the area graph.

This has been used so much that it needs but

little comment other than that more children should make use of it in giving interpretation to their own conclusions.

Colors,

dots, or lines help to bring out the contrasts. The following example on the subject of corn is self-ex­ planatory: Distribution of Corn

to

c

J

c/n ^ y \

^

\

Tc \

/ H o n s ITS and /V^t-fc'S CM

V /FAKM&

n r\

There is another kind of area graph which indicates separate figures to express contrasts.

An example follows relative to a

century of growth in pig iron resources.

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80

Growth of Pig Iron Production in the United States 1830-1930

a a -

a: b:

165,000 tons, 1830. 42,400,000 tons, 1930. (Courtesy of Rand McNally)

Pictorial The pictorial graph is found in many of our present-day text­ books, magazines, newspapers, and bulletins.

By means of it, much

significant data may be presented in a meaningful and fascinating way.

The point which the author especially wishes to stress is

that children should early learn to enjoy making their own pic­ torial graphs. Technical points of drawings, as such, are not the important considerations. difficulty.

Freehand sketches may be made with very little

The significant factor is that the story to be told by

the graph should be brought to light by the differences in the number of like pictures rather than by their comparative sizes.

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81

If five cities, for example, named respectively A, B, C, D, and E, have comparative populations in round numbers of 5,000, 10,000, 15,000, 30,000, and 50,000, these data are quickly adaptable to pictorial graphic representation. ing ( f t ) may stand for man. representing 5,000 men.

The simple draw­

The key may he that of each man

The data could then be presented as

follows: Comparative Populations of Cities A, B,C, D, E. A

9

*

8

$ * £ 8

B $

£££ £ ££££££££££

C D E

Many symbols may be used other than the one for man. may be indicated by the small circle, (° ).

Dollars

Comparative costs of

operating a school may be easily presented in this way.

After

ascertaining figures from the school board, and working out the graph, children will be much more sensitive to school expenses. The symbol,

k ° ),

may represent any unit from one dollar to such

as a thousand, or more.

Children are not, as a rule, sufficiently

informed on school expenses. Significant data on causes of accidental death, occupations affecting the tuberculosis rate, findings on cancer rate, and many other vital topics, are readily adaptable to the pictorial graph. The alert teacher will permit the pupil to suggest his own symbolic presentation instead of following, too closely, bookish patterns.

Too many teachers attempt to make the symbol represent

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82

a work of art, to be graded as such, rather than a meaningful factor in the legend of mathematical comparisons. The writer carefully observed a child who worked out a pro­ portion for the number of ships owned by leading countries in the world.

He used a simple design for his symbol of a ship.

but suggested a ship outline.

It

The teacher killed his enthusiasm

for presenting the pictorial graph by failing to appreciate his accurate mathematical conclusions, but, rather, calling attention only to the complicated artistic expressions which he might have put into the ship. Illustration In Its broad sense, an illustration is any example used to clarify a meaning or description.

In the treatment here, however,

differentiation will be made as a rough classification to dis­ tinguish it from the typical still picture. Common Uses The business man, for example, may use, to a certain extent, a realistic photograph but have emphasis placed on certain charac­ teristics which will help to further his sales.

He may prefer

not to use the photograph, but to have drawings which give such a realistic effect. In the field of archeology, many things have been found in part, and, on the basis of calculation, the missing essentials later constructed to give an overview of the whole.

Pictures or

drawings of such examples are frequently classified as Illustrations. Symbols are frequently used and have a wealth of meaning. The Holy Spirit, the Red Cross, Santa Claus, Uncle Sam, and the

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83

devil have heen for years presented in symbolic illustrations. From the above it may be seen that illustrations may be used to represent the real, the commonly-accepted real, or the spirit of the real. School Uses Emphasis is to be placed on the fact that the blackboard has had too little usage.

All too frequently children are asked to

define only, rather than to also illustrate, such terms as islands, capes, lagoons, and peninsulas.

These are but a few examples.

Hundreds of others daily enter the school system.

Children should

be encouraged to make meaningful sketches on the blackboard in order to help clarify their definitions. has a bearing here.

The following old story

When a child, who went to Sunday school and

frequently heard the expression, '’Gladly the cross I'd bear”, came home, she was asked about her lesson and gave expression to the same words.

The family were pleased.

She had been in the

habit, however, of illustrating many of her ideas, and it was not until then that the parents were shocked with her interpretation. She drew the picture of a cross-eyed bear and featured him smiling. This example may seem very ridiculous, yet, there is little real­ ization of the many abstractions experienced by children.

Far

too frequently children make major use of the illustration when completing such as reading lessons and "things to do” assignments. It Is equally adaptable to other subjects such as arithmetic and geography. Attention should be called to the fact that the illustration, if circumscribed by set artistic standards which hold to the old-

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84

fashioned theory of "art for art’s sake”, is not functional.

It

should freely aid and clarify expression. Diagram The diagram differs from the illustration in that the former calls for accurate drawings. complicated types.

Blueprints are examples of the more

Children should early learn to develop simple

skills in making diagrams, for they involve;

(1) accuracy, (2)

clearness of expression, when accompanied hy a legend, and (5) a reinforced understanding of the specimen. The author is now reminded of a group

of children who

wondered "if people could sit anywhere when playing in an orches­ tra, just so that those who played like instruments were close to­ gether".

A committee offered to look into the seating arrangement

and make, as well as explain, a diagram of such a plan. mittee later prepared and explained the diagram.

The com­

The children

began to make more observations, when attending orchestra concerts, than they had made before having the diagram explained. Children should be early reminded of the values of Inventions. They should frequently discuss much-needed inventions of the future.

Most inventions were preceded by needs, concentrated

plans, and acceptable diagrams. Diagrams in respect to m o d e m demands make excellent topics for discussion.

A diagram of the schoolroom is a good subject for

practice because it is so easily observed, and the measurements may be made later.

More complicated ones may be practiced

Many commercial companies furnish blueprints, from the

simple to the more complicated forms, which give concrete examples

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85 of how to build additional rooms or stories on buildings.

Local

contractors frequently offer such examples. Whatever the subject for diagram may be, it should be reasonably within the child’s interests, experiences, and ability. The writer found a group of children in a training school under her supervision taking a very active interest in diagrams because of the avenues of interest awakened by the student-teachers. These children noticed geometric patterns in curtains, wallpaper, rugs, and electrical equipment.

Diagrams were made to show such

patterns, and, in some cases, changes were suggested by the children in order to show what they thought would make more interesting designs. The author visited a number of schools in Nova Scotia where it was a common practice for children to be able to make blue­ prints of their homes about to be erected. vitalized.

Diagrams became

The versatile teacher, interested in diagrams, will

be able to awaken manifold interests in children. Cartoon The cartoon is a humorous graphic picture. place in the American school system*

It has no small

Children in the elementary

grades shou.ld be encouraged in this fascinating method of ex­ pression.

It is to be regretted that teachers frequently over­

look its importance, and are contented with the cartoon furnished by professionals as found in printed matter.

Children enjoy

cartoons, but it never occurs to most of them to produce original work, unless it is done out of school almost entirely.

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86

Perhaps one very pronounced reason why teachers do not en­ courage this work is because they have never done it.

It is not

necessary that they take the lead in demonstrating for the children.

It Is an easy matter to secure a professional car­

toonist, or one who has had considerable training and is talented along such lines, to give a demonstration to get children inter­ ested.

Books on cartoons, from the easy to the difficult, may be

purchased at

little cost.

Humor is an essential element in a full life.

It Is a de­

lightful experience for a child to give joy to others through his cartoons, as well as giv e

expression to his own feelings.

Through encouragement and proper guidance, he will grow in his realization of the sterling qualities of humor, rather than respect

the cheap and vulgar cartoons so frequently found on

ugly valentines and the like. The history of humor, through the ages and among various nationalities, is an interesting one. woven with the stages of culture.

Its growth has been inter­

Children, after their interests

are awakened, will automatically sense the finer stages. At this point, the cartoon of an eleven-year-old child, wellknown to the author, is inserted. J.^

A —.

O J .IU O &

Ik a an «



D o C au S o

la a

n o

lbA A *1 a

x o o j-S

A*IkA 1 .

vu Shj

This child is very unhappy at

A M **4 .A M M 4

M

M

xS

M

A.m .1

x :a u ^ u u j •

11 4

« .

x lo

A*A A A 1a A^A

discourages his talent and has complained to his parents about his interest.

His teacher has never done it herself; It is foreign

to her life and interest; and, in addition, she thinks of it as a hobby so negative that he should be robbed of it before it gets a bad hold on him.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

Cartooning Frank Durgin.

«c

G

o

Age 11

6.

K

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

y

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88

The parents of this child have provided him with materials, including books on cartooning.

He is already thinking of how he

may further his father's business through cartooning, and, also, the possibilities of such a field as a profession for himself. His school-life could be much happier if his teacher could ap­ preciate and encourage his talent.

If he were appointed as the

classroom cartoonist, featuring current events, interesting school news, and other matters especially adaptable to bulletin-board material, he would not only grow in his potentiality for such a hobby, but he would also be able to interest and help the other children In such an important activity. Poster The poster is so much utilized, its Importance scarcely needs to be stressed, other than to call attention to the wide variety of themes which may be used in connection with it.

Practically

every subject In the curriculum lends Itself to such treatment. But a few of the many ways it may be used will be mentioned here. In character education, posters on such themes as courage, courtesy, honesty, thrift, loyalty, self-control, cheerfulness, cleanliness, cooperation, generosity, and gratitude may well be stressed.

Frequently, the continuous-poster plan may be used on

such themes as, "One Dozen Lessons in Courtesy".

These are es­

pecially significant if connected with class dramatization and a self-evaluation chart.

Pupil-made posters are to be encouraged.

There are, however, so many free posters furnished by commercial companies, it is well for pupils to write in advance and ask for such.

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89

School represents life and posters may well he used In con­ nection with the major interests, needs, and activities of every group.

Caution should he used that the poster he used to serve

a purposeful place rather than that of primarily making an at­ tractive hulletin-hoard appearance.

Posters should he neat, well-

balanced, meaningful, and clearly lettered. Chart There are many kinds of charts, hut for practical purposes of interest to pupils in the elementary grades, the following classifications will he given:

(l) the self-evaluating, (2) the

table, (3) the stream and tree, and (4) the flow.

Each of these

will he briefly described in respect to school usage. Self-evaluating There are many types of self-evaluating charts, and they are daily growing in importance.

There follows, below, a simple one

for a child in checking on a review lesson in number combinations. Self-Evaluation Record of Fifteen Easy Addition Groups

Name Day

Re>view of J?irteen Easy AdLdition Combinations 2 5 4 1 3 1 5 2. 1 8 3 1 2 4 1 1 5 1 8 2 1 1 2 4 1 3 2 3 4 5

Monday Tuesday

3

X

1

X

Wednesday Total Errors per Combination

X

X

Total No. Missed

X

1 1

1 1

1

X

2

1

6

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90

This child will he able to note her difficulties, and give special attention accordingly. chart and give guidance.

The teacher will also note the

The custom of the teacher keeping all

the records on a child and not letting him participate is gradu­ ally, if not swiftly, passing out of acceptance in almost every school system. Table Educators are rapidly realizing that charts should be more related to life’s problems and used as familiar tools accordingly. There will be two types of table charts discussed here: timetable, and (2) the classification.

(1) the

There are a number of

others, but these are among the most practical. Timetable One of the important items frequently neglected in chart reading is that of the timetable.

Bus lines and railroads

furnish such material gratis, and it is better to use actual schedules than abstract problems taken from books. observed a teacher pass out then ask this question:

The author

railroad timetables to a class and

"What would be the best route from here

to Chicago, and why?” The children, after considerable study, offered information; but there was considerable disagreement among them. and re-checked.

They checked

They then almost agreed, but still did not ar­

rive at a final conclusion.

A committee volunteered to consult

the railroad office in order to determine more about a change that had to be made en route.

The concluding information .was

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91

brought to class the next day.

Many other such problems were

given until the children became familiar with rapid procedures. Classification There are other types of table charts showing such as classifications.

Commercial concerns and textbooks furnish many

excellent examples. make their own.

Children, however, should be encouraged to

Such a technique becomes a very useful device

for organizing and reviewing data. by giving an overview.

The teachers may well assist

For example, if the colonial age is

under study, the following chart form could be suggested for the pupils to fill in as they gather the material: Table Chart of Colonial Life

Pood

Clothing

Homes

Recreation

Education

Work

Communication

Stream and Tree The names suggest the guiding principles in the stream or tree charts.

The fundamental source, or topic, is represented

by the stream or tree trunk, and the divisions, both large and small, are treated accordingly in respect to the whole.

This be­

comes a handy method of visual outlining, and a great quantity of material may be summarized in a systematic manner on one small

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92

\£TT>AC

///LARy

Parf k-

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

C0i.i

93

sheet or cardboard.

This is especially true when meaningful ab­

breviations are used and the pupil does not try to make the drawing a work of art, but rather a guide for the systematic organization of data. Two student-teachers in one of the training schools super­ vised by the writer, made the tree chart on the preceding page showing how the radio was used in their school system.

This

chart is not completed, as the uses were gradually increasing. Many valuable suggestions were obtained by them from Harrison's Radio in the Classroom, and put into operation. Plow The flow chart shows the principles of organization and their respective relationships. such treatment.

Many themes are adaptable to

It is well for the pupil to understand simple

principles of organization in respect to his own school system. For example, such as the following could be featured:

BOARD OP EDUCATION

Sup’t

Teachers The constitution well lends itself to flow chart treatment. With the following lead, the children could try to develop the

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94

plan as they study the respective divisions: THE CONSTITUTION

Executive I

Judicial Supreme Court of The United States

Map Prom infancy to senility man is either directly or indirect­ ly concerned with maps. S-n a I a

n «

au

paper.

n i l

ay) V Ji

MO

n A v»f ^

The map is not always a physical pattern r\ "P

WX

f

V/>-r> i i 11 . m I i

RV»