Prehistoric Sri Lanka: Late Pleistocene rockshelters and an open-air site 9781407306834, 9781407336848

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Title Page
Copyright
FOREWORD
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
ABSTRACT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF MAPS
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF PLATES
LIST OF TABLES
CHAPTER 1 THE PLACE OF SRI LANKA IN PREHISTORY AND THE PLACE OF PREHISTORY IN SRI LANKA
CHAPTER 2 HISTORY OF PREHISTORIC ARCHAEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS IN SRI LANKA
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY
CHAPTER 4 STRATIGRAPHY, CHRONOLOGY AND SEDIMENTARY HISTORY OF BATADOMBA-LENA ROCKSHELTER
CHAPTER 5 THE ORGANIC REMAINS FROM BATADOMBA-LENA
CHAPTER 6 THE TECHNOLOGY OF BATADOMBA-LENA STONE, BONE, ANTLER AND SHELL ARTEFACTS
CHAPTER 7 BELLAN-BANDI PALASSA: AN OPEN-AIR PREHISTORIC SITE
CHAPTER 8 PREHISTORIC SOCIAL ARCHAEOLOGY IN SRI LANKA
CHAPTER 9 TOWARD THE AMPLIFIED STUDY OF THE PREHISTORY OF SRI LANKA
APPENDIX A 1980-82 CLASSIFICATION OF BATADOMBA-LENA STONE ARTEFACTS
APPENDIX B COMMENTS ON THE MOLLUSCAN REMAINS FROM BATADOMBA-LENA
APPENDIX C PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS OF CHARCOAL REMAINS EXCAVATED IN 2005 FROM BATADOMBA-LENA
APPENDIX D SELECTED ARTEFACTS FROM THE 1980-82 BATADOMBA-LENA EXCAVATION, STUDIED UNDER THE MICROSCOPE
APPENDIX E ARTEFACTS FROM THE BATADOMBA-LENA (2005) SEDIMENT SAMPLES, STUDIED UNDER THE MICROSCOPE
APPENDIX F BELLAN-BANDI PALASSA, PHASE II: CORES, NON-FLAKED ARTEFACTS, AND BACKED IMPLEMENTS (SQUARES M6/7)
REFERENCES TO LITERATURE
INDEX

Citation preview

BAR S2142 2010

Prehistoric Sri Lanka Late Pleistocene rockshelters and an open-air site

PERERA

Halawathage Nimal Perera

PREHISTORIC SRI LANKA

B A R Perera 2141 cover.indd 1

BAR International Series 2142 2010

19/08/2010 16:50:32

Prehistoric Sri Lanka Late Pleistocene rockshelters and an open-air site

Halawathage Nimal Perera

BAR International Series 2142 2010

ISBN 9781407306834 paperback ISBN 9781407336848 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407306834 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

BAR

PUBLISHING

Foreword Investigations into the Stone Age of Sri Lanka commenced in the 1890s and, after a faltering start became established by 1908. Thereafter it progressed fitfully until the late 1930s, when it became steadier. These were pioneering forays, conducted on a somewhat ad hoc basis. In 1968 the Department of Archaeological Survey of the Government of Sri Lanka established a special branch for research excavations, and for the first time the island’s prehistoric archaeology received the full-time professional attention it deserved. The investigations thereafter were conducted in several stages. Stage I comprised the synthesising of previous research and formulation of a problematique; Stage II, the undertaking of spot-surveys indicated by Stage I; Stage III, problem-orientated excavation of sites highlighted in Stage II; Stage IV, synthesis and publication of results of preceding stages, and the formulation of a fresh problematique to be addressed in Stage V. Stage IV indicated unequivocally that the next major focus of research should be on the prehistoric cave habitations in the equatorial rainforests of south-western Sri Lanka. Thence Stage V commenced with the systematic excavation of two caves, Kitulgala Beli-lena and Batadomba-lena, followed by Attanagoda Alulena and Fa Hien-lena. The salient results were published in summarised form. But it took a long while for justice to be meted out to what turned out to be data of great significance. It was at this juncture that Mr Nimal Perera, Assistant Director in charge of research excavations at the Department of Archaeological Survey, took the baton for the next lap of the research relay. He was able to incorporate the data from the cave excavations, primarily Batadomba-lena, in his doctoral dissertation for the School of Archaeology and Anthropology at the Australian National University in Canberra. He was thereby enabled to adopt state-of-the-art method, theory and practice in analysing and interpreting the data under the tutelage of a group of specialists of international repute. The resultant dissertation (2008) was the first comprehensive treatise to emerge on the archaeology of prehistoric cave habitations in South Asia; and it proved to be a landmark. Mr Perera’s return to Sri Lanka shortly thereafter was followed by minor revisions to his dissertation in the light of fresh appraisals in the field. The result is the present publication. In concluding Stage IV of the research design, as incorporated in the monograph titled The Prehistory of Sri Lanka: an Ecological Perspective (1992), I projected that ‘within less than two decades from now there would be an adequate body of new data so as to justify the assaying of yet another synthesis such as this, as a prelude to the formulation of a further mega-stage of prehistoric research in Lanka’. This prediction has come true. Dr Nimal Perera’s contribution provides the vital springboard for launching a series of advanced investigations into the prehistory of Sri Lanka, with leads into the rest of South Asia. Of global significance is its relevance to the problem of the dispersal of anatomically modern humans from Africa.

S.U. Deraniyagala



Retd Director-General of Archaeology, Sri Lanka

i

Acknowledgments The present work is a slightly revised version of a PhD dissertation submitted to the School of Archaeology and Anthropology, Australian National University, Canberra (Perera 2007). First of all I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisory panel at the School. The chair of my panel, Dr David Bulbeck, helped me design my course of study and programme of research, directly supervised my laboratory analysis of sediment grain size and shape, provided statistical advice, and edited the text. Professor Peter Bellwood also provided critical administrative support and made valuable comments on Chapters 1 and 2. Dr Peter Hiscock provided useful comments on Chapter 3 and valuable direction on debitage recording as well as the microlith technology and sources of stone material used at Batadomba-lena. My external advisor Dr Johan Kamminga also provided advice on Chapters 3 and 6, and freely gave of his time in supervising my observations of lithics under low power microscopy. I am also grateful for the contribution of specialists who conducted supplementary analyses. Professor Ian Simpson performed thin-section and sediment micromorphology analyses, and informed me of his early results. Dr Katherine Szabó identified the mollusc species present in the Batadomba-lena sediment sample, and my fellow PhD student, Nuno Vasco Oliveira, performed the plant macro-fossil identifications (with advice from Dr Andrew Fairbairn). Antonio Gonzalez, PhD student at the Australian National University, helped me with the analysis of Sri Lanka’s fauna, and Alex McKay designed my Approach database for recording lithics in Sri Lanka. I would like to express particular gratitude to my colleague and fellow student Daniel Rayner for his support in numerous ways (on and off campus) while I was at the ANU. Mr Rayner also participated in the Batadomba-lena excavation site, and assisted me in preparing this manuscript in its final form. I am also grateful for the encouragement and support of the general staff at the ANU School of Archaeology and Anthropology, in particular David McGregor, Elizabeth Walters and Susan Fraser. I also would like to extend my gratitude for the support of the Archaeological Department of the Government of Sri Lanka and in particular Dr S.U. Deraniyagala, Dr W.H. Wijeyapala and Dr Senarath Dissanayake, present and past Director-Generals, who encouraged me to undertake these studies and gave me their fullest support throughout. In addition to training me in prehistory, S.U. Deraniyagala supported my involvement in the Australian Research Council project led by David Bulbeck and Professor Colin Groves, and freely discussed my studies with me (in addition to providing detailed comments on Chapters 4 and 7). I would like to thank all staff of excavation branch of the Archaeological Department who assisted in the excavations, in particular K.K.N. Dharmadasa, U.W. Karunasena and J.H.N.K. Jayamaha for coordinating the excavation projects. The present work would not have been possible without the help of the staff of the Department’s Excavation Branch. I particularly thank the Archaeological Officers L.V. de Mel and Susantha Nihal for acting as excavation supervisors. The staff at Anuradhapura, P.G. Gunadasa, Anura Santha, A.A. Wijeratne, R.A. Udeni and U.W. Karunasena, were also helpful in many ways. The late P.B. Karunaratne, K. Manamendra-Arachchi and Jude Perera identified the faunal remains from the 1980-82 excavation. Jude Perera identified those from the 2005 excavation, and prepared reports of both. R. Deldeniya created the database for my field data. M. Piyadasa (in 1982) and S.J. Sunil (in 2005) produced all the section illustrations and artefact drawings and Nuwan Abeywardana the GIS-based maps. In addition, David Bulbeck prepared Figures 3.1 to 3.6, 4.7, 7.1, 7.4 and 7.5, which he has allowed to be used in this publication but which remain his copyright. Tom Clift, a fellow student at the ANU and Franziska Schrader of the University of Applied Sciences in Berlin, provided the artefact photographs and Sebastian Schade of the same institution surveyed Batadomba-lena. Kelum Manamendra-Arachchi, a naturalist consultant in Colombo, provided the domestic dog identification from Bellan-bandi Palassa, as well as the illustrations of faunal remains, and advice on Sri Lanka’s fauna. The Faculty of Arts at the ANU funded my fieldwork and also underwrote my international student tuition fees. My PhD thesis, which constitutes the basis for the present work, was funded by the Australian Research Council grant to David Bulbeck and Colin Groves’ project “The Contribution of South Asia to the Peopling of Australasia”. Grants from the Centre for Archaeological Research, ANU, paid for the University of Waikato radiocarbon dates. I am obliged to Professor Osmund Bopearachchi, Director of Research at the Ecole Nationale Superieure of the CNRS, Paris, for facilitating the present publication in the BAR series. I wish to affirm responsibility for the slight revisions that have been incorporated in the present work vis à ii

vis my thesis of 2008. Certain interpretations required re-assessment in the field and with the field staff of 2005; for instance the microscopic information on the depositional history of the sediments had to be better integrated with the macroscopic evidence. My parents Lily Margaret and Thomas Perera provided me moral support. And finally I thank my wife Sunietha and my two daughters Dinisha and Asirini and son-in-law Nishan Perera for their inspiring support and their patience, love, strength and encouragement throughout this study.

iii

Abstract Sri Lanka is a tropical island that lies approximately halfway between Africa and Australia along the northern rim of the Indian Ocean, and has one of the best recorded prehistoric sequences in South Asia. A review of its prehistory is a vast subject. The present study investigates the island’s hunter-gatherer archaeology between the Late Pleistocene and the middle Holocene, with lowland Wet Zone rockshelters as the principle topic of study. This work synthesises past and current archaeological research in the island as well as presenting new findings from excavations in the Batadomba-lena rockshelter and the open-air site of Bellan-bandi Palassa. The excavation of Batadomba-lena has provided fresh data for understanding human adaptations to the changing environment between approximately 36,000 and 12,000 years ago. A rainforest environment evidently persisted throughout this period in the environs of the site, but the climate was cooler at around the Last Glacial Maximum. Intensive occupation, succeeded by increased attention to the management of plant resources, followed the Last Glacial Maximum. Microliths, small tools defined by the presence of blunting retouch, as well as the bifacially trimmed Balangoda Point and polished bone points, were evident from the earliest occupation. The symbolic capacities of the inhabitants were also revealed through the recovery of ornaments and ochre fragments throughout the sequence. The Batadomba-lena sequence has important implications for the Out-of-Africa theory on modern human origins, as well as Sri Lanka’s recognition of its cultural heritage.

iv

Table of Contents Foreword

i

Acknowledgments

ii

Abstract

iv

Chapter 1 The Place of Sri Lanka in Prehistory and the Place of Prehistory in Sri Lanka 1 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Overview of Late Quaternary Climate Change in Sri Lanka 1.3 Overview of the Distribution of Prehistoric Sites in Sri Lanka 1.4 General Description of Sri Lanka’s “Balangoda” (Mesolithic) Lithics 1.5 Overview of Sri Lanka’s Palaeoanthropology 1.6 Vadda Ethnohistory 1.7 Dating the Origins of Agricultural Society in Sri Lanka 1.8 Three Major Research Questions

Chapter 2 History of Prehistoric Archaeological Investigations in Sri Lanka 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Research on Prehistory during the Early Pre-Independence Period 2.3 Research on Prehistory during the Late Pre-Independence Period 2.4 Overview of Research on Prehistory since Independence 2.5 Excavation of Fa Hien-lena 2.6 Excavation of Kitulgala Beli-lena 2.7 Excavation of Prehistoric Human Remains

Chapter 3 Methodology

1 3 5 11 11 13 14 17

20 20 20 23 24 26 27 29

31

3.1 Introduction 3.2 Excavation and Recording 3.3 Laboratory Analysis of the Sediment Samples 3.4 Thin-Section Analysis and Sediment Micromorphology 3.5 Stone Artefact Analysis 3.6 Faunal Analysis 3.7 Plant Macrofossil Analysis

Chapter 4 Stratigraphy, Chronology and Sedimentary History of Batadomba-lena Rockshelter 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Relationship between the 2005 and Prior Excavations 4.3 Overview of the Batadomba-lena Sediments 4.4 Rockshelter Formation and Pre-Habitation Deposits (Phases I to III) 4.5 Habitation up to the Last Glacial Maximum (Phase IV) 4.6 Habitation immediately following the Last Glacial Maximum (Phase V) v

31 31 33 34 34 43 46

47 47 54 58 58 67 68

4.7 Habitation later after the Last Glacial Maximum (Phase VI) 4.8 Terminal Pleistocene Habitation (Phases VII and VIII) 4.9 Phase IX 4.10 Summary

Chapter 5 The Organic Remains from Batadomba-lena 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Extant Non-Marine Fauna of Sri Lanka 5.3 Batadomba-lena Invertebrate Remains 5.4 Batadomba-lena Vertebrate Remains 5.5 Comparison with other Faunal Assemblages from Sri Lanka Rainforest Sites 5.6 Batadomba-lena Plant Macro-Remains 5.7 Conclusions

75 80 82 82

87 87 88 91 93 101 104 106

Chapter 6 The Technology of Batadomba-lena Stone, Bone, Antler and Shell Artefacts 107 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Overview of the Stone Artefact Assemblage 6.3 Analysis of the Unretouched Lithics 6.4 Artefacts of Bone and Antler 6.5 Land Snail Shell Artefacts

107 107 115 125 141

Chapter 7 Bellan-bandi Palassa: an Open-Air Prehistoric Site 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Environment 7.3 Previous excavations 7.4 Methodology of the 2005 Excavation and Laboratory Analysis 7.5 Overview of Chronology and Sedimentary History 7.6 Sedimentary Analysis 7.7 Faunal Analysis 7.8 Lithics Analysis 7.9 Conclusions

Chapter 8 Prehistoric Social Archaeology in Sri Lanka 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Burial Practices 8.3 Use of Pigments 8.4 Ornaments and Exotic Items 8.5 Social Organization and the Basic Family Unit 8.6 Conclusions

Chapter 9 Toward the Amplified Study of the Prehistory of Sri Lanka 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Batadomba-lena Periods

142 142 142 142 144 147 151 155 157 172

174 174 174 180 182 184 185

187 187 187

vi

9.3 Implications for the Three Major Research Questions 9.4 Implications for the Out-of-Africa Theory 9.5 Prospects for Future Research 9.6 Epilogue

188 189 189 191

APPENDIX A 1980-82 Classification of Batadomba-lena Stone Artefacts

192

APPENDIX B Comments on the Molluscan Remains from Batadomba-lena

210

APPENDIX C Preliminary Analysis of Charcoal Remains Excavated in 2005 from Batadomba-lena

212

APPENDIX D Selected Artefacts from the 1980-82 Batadomba-lena Excavation, Studied under the Microscope

218

APPENDIX E Artefacts from the Batadomba-lena (2005) Sediment Samples, Studied under the Microscope

238

APPENDIX F Bellan-bandi Palassa, Phase II: Cores, Non-flaked Artefacts, and Backed Implements

246

References to Literature

252

Index

260

List of Maps Map 1.1 Sri Lanka’s ecozones Map 1.2 Sri Lanka’s prehistoric sites Map 4.1 Batadomba-lena: site location Map 7.1 Bellan-bandi Palassa: site location

4 6 48 143

vii

List of Figures Figure 3.1 Batadomba-lena: range of distributions for log-10 transformed artefact weights (> 0.2 g) 43 Figure 3.2 Batadomba-lena: range of distributions for log-10 transformed artefact lengths 44 Figure 3.3 Batadomba-lena: range of distributions for log-10 transformed artefact widths 44 Figure 3.4 Batadomba-lena: range of distributions for log-10 transformed artefact thicknesses 45 Figure 3.5 Batadomba-lena: range of distributions for log-10 transformed platform widths 45 Figure 3.6 Batadomba-lena: range of distributions for log-10 transformed platform breadths 46 Figure 4.1 Batadomba-lena: site plan 49 Figure 4.2 Batadomba-lena: three-dimensional plan 49 Figure 4.3 Batadomba-lena: cross-section through excavation 51 Figure 4.4 Batadomba-lena: 18-G, 18-H and 18-I partial squares excavated in 2005, in relation to the 1980-82 excavation 51 Figure 4.5 Batadomba-lena: north section of the 1980-82 excavation, after cleaning and context labelling in 2005 (scale: 50 cm) 52 Figure 4.6 Batadomba-lena: north section of the 2005 excavation 53 Figure 4.7 Batadomba-lena (2005): context matrix 56 Figure 4.8 Batadomba-lena (2005): cumulative proportions of the sand fraction, plotted on probability paper, of representative samples 62 Figure 4.9 Batadomba-lena (2005): pre-habitation deposit and weathered bedrock of the four sections of the 16-I to 16-K block of excavated squares, with 2005 context numbers assigned to the 1980-82 excavations 66 Figure 5.1 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): pharyngeal teeth of mahseer (K. Manamendra-Arachchi del.) 89 Figure 5.2 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): vertebrate remains (K. Manamendra-Arachchi del) 89 Figure 5.3 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): Sri Lanka green pit viper, fang fragments (K. Manamendra-Arachchi del) 90 Figure 5.4: Batadomba-lena (1980-82): leopard skeletal parts (K. Manamendra-Arachchi del) 91 Figure 5.5 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): seriated dendrogram of the BrainerdRobinson coefficients between the layers based on mammalian faunal percentages. Coefficient of determination of the seriated order = 74.6%. Note that 2 and 1 comprise disturbed layers 99 Figure 5.6 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): abundance of monkeys, giant squirrels and snakes within the faunal assemblage 100 Figure 5.7 Fa Hien-lena, Kitulgala Beli-lena, Batadomba-lena: seriated dendrogram of Brainerd-Robinson coefficients between fauna NISP percentages of layers. R2 of seriation = 96.0%. For site-layer acronyms, see caption to Table 5.21 101 Figure 5.8 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): shark tooth from layer 3, undated (scale: 5mm) (K. Manamendra-Arachchi del) 106 Figure 6.1 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): layer 3, undated; bone and antler tools, spine of marine ray 125 Figure 6.2 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): layer 4, 16,000 – 12,000 cal BP; stone and bone tools 126 Figure 6.3 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): layer 4, 16,000 – 12,000 cal BP; bone tools, stone core 127 Figure 6.4 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): layer 5, 16,500 – 14,000 cal BP; microliths, micro-blades, antler core, marine shells, perforated shell 128 Figure 6.5 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): layer 5, 16,500 – 14,000 cal BP: bone tools and antler core 129 Figure 6.6 Batdomba-lena (1980-82): layer 6, 20,000 – 15,500 cal BP; microliths, bone tools, shell beads 130 Figure 6.7 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): layer 7a, ca. 19,500 cal BP; microliths, bone tools, spine of marine ray 131 Figure 6.8 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): layer 7b, 28,500 – 22,500 cal BP; microliths, backed micro-blades, Balangoda Point; bone tools 132 Figure 6.9 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): layers 7c, 37,000 – 32,000 cal BP; microliths. 133 viii

Figure 6.10 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): layer 7c, 37,000 – 32,000 cal BP; Balangoda Point, microliths, backed micro-blades, micro-blades core Figure 6.11 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): layer 7c, 37,000 – 32,000 cal BP; bone tools, marine shell bead Figure 7.1 Bellan-bandi Palassa: excavated locations Figure 7.2 Bellan-bandi Palassa: 1970 excavation, with M6, M7 excavated in 2005 Figure 7.3 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): context matrix Figure 7.4 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): west and north stratigraphic sections Figure 7.5 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): cumulative proportions of the sand fractions, plotted on probability paper, of representative sediment samples Figure 7.6 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): pie chart of the faunal assemblage of middle of context 10 Figure 8.1 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): shark tooth from layer 3, undated (K. Manamendra-Arachchi del) Figure C.1 Total weight of charcoal remains per context; plant remain categories; radiocarbon dates

ix

134 135 148 148 149 149 156 158 184 216

List of Plates Plate 1.1 Pallemalala: shell midden site Plate 1.2 Horton Plains, with Sri Pada (Adam’s Peak) on the horizon Plate 1.3 Embilipitiya: Site 43; Balangoda Point, clear quartz Plate 2.1 Iranamadu Formation, Minihagal-kanda: Pleistocene gravels and red dunes on Miocene limestone Plate 2.2 Fa Hien-lena Plate 2.3 Kitulgala Beli-lena Plate 2.4 Kitulgala Beli-lena: microlithic lunate Plate 2.5 Kitulgala Beli-lena: bone points Plate 3.1 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): Balangoda Points Plate 3.2 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): layer 7c, c. 37,000 – 32,000 cal BP; backed microlith Plate 3.3 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): layer 7c, c. 37,000 – 32,000 cal BP; backed microlith Plate 3.4 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): layer 7c, c. 37,000 – 32,000 cal BP; backed microlith Plate 3.5 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): layer 7c, c. 37,000 – 32,000 cal BP; backed microlith Plate 3.6 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): layer 7c, c. 37,000 – 32,000 cal BP; backed microlith Plate 4.1 Batadomba-lena: (1980-82): excavated layers 1-7 Plate 4.2 Batadomba-lena: entrance Plate 4.3 Batadomba-lena: entrance Plate 4.4 Batadomba-lena (2005): inspection of the north section of the excavation Plate 4.5 Batadomba-lena (2005): context 68, the unexcavated fill in the context 67 burial pit Plate 4.6 Batadomba-lena (2005): north section of 17-G and 17-H squares Plate 5.1 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): tiger phalanx Plate 6.1 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): layer 7c; 37,000 – 32,000 cal BP Plate 6.2 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): stone tools, microliths, micro-blades Plate 6.3 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): microliths, micro-blades Plate 7.1 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): an open glade in the vicinity of a seasonal stream Plate 7.2 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): the site on limestone bed-rock exposure along the stream below the modern dam Plate 7.3 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): view of site before excavation Plate 7.4 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): north section of squares M6 and M7 Plate 7.5 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): diagrammatic representation of the contexts and phases in relation to the site’s stratigraphy (square M6, west section) Plate 7.6 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): domesticated dog tooth; c.12,000 cal BP Plate 7.7. Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): pig-eye shark tooth Plate 8.1 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): human skeletal remains Plate 8.2 Bellan-bandi Palassa (1956-61): human skull remains; c. 12,000 BP Plate 8.3 Bellan-bandi Palassa (1956-61): human mandible; c. 12,000 BP Plate 8.4 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): marine shell bead from layer 7c, 37,000 - 32,000 cal BP Plate 8.5 Fa Hien-lena: shark vertebra bead; c. 38,000 cal BP, anterior and posterior views Plate 8.6 Fa Hien-lena: marine shell bead; c. 38,000 cal BP, dorsal and ventral views Plate 8.7 Fa Hien-lena (2009): marine shell bead; c. 38,000 cal BP, dorsal and ventral views Plate 8.8 Fa Hien-lena (2009): shell pendant (Acavus); c.. 38,000 cal BP, dorsal and ventral views Plate 8.9 Fa Hien-lena: shark tooth; c. 38,000 cal BP, posterior and lateral views Plate 8.10 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): a disc-bead made from shell Plate 8.11 Kitulgala Beli-lena: lagoon shell, Potamides cingulatus; c. 21,000 cal BP Plate 9.1 Iranamadu Formation, Minihagal-kanda: left, quartz artefacts on basal gravels; at c. 40 m asl; right, large bifacially trimmed quartz point x

8 16 19 25 27 28 29 29 37 41 41 41 41 41 47 50 50 84 84 85 92 109 110 111 145 145 146 146 147 173 173 177 179 179 184 185 185 185 185 186 186 186 190

List of Tables Table 1.1 Osteological traits of Sri Lanka Mesolithic hunter-gatherers Table 1.2 Dorawaka-lena: excavated contents (summarised from Wijeyapala 1997: 420-43) Table 1.3. Mean sizes of pollen grains measured at Peradeniya Herbarium (Premathilake 2006: 472) Table 1.4. Size criteria for classifying pollen grains (Premathilake 2006: Figs. 2 – 3) Table 2.1. Calibrated radiocarbon dates (on charcoal) from Fa Hien-lena Table 2.2. Calibrated radiocarbon dates on charcoal from Kitulgala Beli-lena Table 3.1 Definitions of lithic classifications Table 3.2 Batadomba-lena: observations by H.T.M.G.A. Pitawala on chert artefacts Table 3.3 Artefact size classes employed during the microscopic observations Table 3.4 Batadomba-lena: average standardised skewness for the untransformed and log-transformed data for the six metrical variables used here Table 4.1 Batadomba-lena (2005): summary of the contexts, layers and phases recognised (based on Deraniyagala 1982) Table 4.2 Batadomba-lena: sediment Munsell colours recorded in the field during 2005 excavations Table 4.3 Batadomba-lena (2005): excavated contents Table 4.4 Batadomba-lena (2005): observations from the sediment samples, including finds recovered during sieving, and moist Munsell colour (where recorded) Table 4.5 Batadomba-lena (2005): summary of excavated finds, including excavated totals Table 4.6 Batadomba-lena (1980-82, 2005): calibrated radiocarbon dates on charcoal Table 4.7 Batadomba-lena (2005): weights in grammes of gravel, sand and silt in the sediment samples, and skewness of the sand component. Table 4.8 Batadomba-lena (2005) contexts: Phases II to IV, for which pH, moisture content, organic content, carbonate content, or cultural content (in the field) were recorded Table 4.9 Batadomba-lena (2005): contexts, Phase Va, for which pH, moisture content, organic content, carbonate content, or cultural content (in the field) were recorded Table 4.10 Batadomba-lena: (2005) contexts, Phase Vb, for which pH, moisture content, organic content, carbonate content, or cultural content (in the field) were recorded Table 4.11 Batadomba-lena (2005): contexts in Phase VI, for which pH, moisture content, organic content, carbonate content, or cultural content (in the field) were recorded Table 4.12 Batadomba-lena (2005): granule morphology observations from context 109 Table 4.13 Batadomba-lena (2005): granule morphology observations from context 113 Table 4.14 Batadomba-lena (2005): granule morphology observations from context 23 Table 4.15 Batadomba-lena (2005): contexts, Phase VII, for which pH, moisture content, organic content, carbonate content, or cultural content (in the field) were recorded Table 4.16 Batadomba-lena (2005): Phase VIII contexts, for which pH, moisture content, organic content, carbonate content, or cultural content (in the field) were recorded Table 5.1 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): invertebrate NISPs Table 5.2 Batadomba-lena (2005): summary of Jude Perera’s records on mollusc remains Table 5.3 Batadomba-lena: recorded and estimated (recorded + calculated) vertebrate faunal weights from the 1980-82 excavation, and recorded vertebrate faunal weights from the 2005 excavation, in grammes Table 5.4 Batadomba-lena (1980-82, 2005): vertebrate faunal NISPs (including unidentified). Figures in brackets are the average weight in grammes per NISP

xi

12 15 16 16 26 28 36 37 41 42 54 54 58 60 61 61 63

65

70

72

76 78 79 79

80

81 92 93

94 94

Table 5.5 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): layers (listed in top row); teeth (and mandible parts), mammalian and non-mammalian NISPs 95 Table 5.6 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): layers (listed in top row); mammalian and non-mammalian NISPs, all elements 95 Table 5.7 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): layers (listed in top row); mammalian and non-mammalian NISP column percentages (to nearest percent), all elements. X = presence at less than 0.5% 96 Table 5.8 Batadomba-lena (1980-82) excavation: teeth and mandible parts NISPs by taxon – mammals 96 Table 5.9 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): layers (listed in top row); mammalian NISPs, all elements 97 Table 5.10 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): layers (listed in top row); mammalian NISP column percentages (to nearest per cent), all elements. 97 Table 5.11 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): Brainerd-Robinson coefficients (percentages) between the layers based on mammalian fauna 98 Table 5.12 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): potential correlations with the differences between the layers in their faunal assemblages. 99 Table 5.13 Batadomba-lena (2005): layers (listed in top row); mammalian and non-mammalian NISPs, all elements 102 Table 5.14 Batadomba-lena (2005): layers (listed in top row); mammalian and non-mammalian weights (in grammes), all elements 102 Table 5.15 Batadomba-lena (2005): layers (listed in top row); mammalian NISPs, all elements 102 Table 5.16. Batadomba-lena (2005): layers (listed in top row); mammalian weights (in grammes), all elements 103 Table 5.17 Batadomba-lena: Brainerd-Robinson coefficients between faunal assemblages 103 Table 5.18 Batadomba-lena: Brainerd-Robinson coefficients between faunal assemblages 103 Table 5.19 Batadomba-lena (2005): burnt and unburnt, identified individual faunal specimens 104 Table 5.20 Fa Hien-lena, Kitulgala Beli-lena, Batadomba-lena: layers, their chronological relationship and correlative climates (extrapolated from Premathilake 2006). 104 Table 5.21 Fa Hien-lena, Kitulgala Beli-lena, Batadomba-lena: BrainerdRobinson coefficients between the faunal assemblages (NISP percentage data) from the layers 105 Table 6.1 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): summary of lithic classifications undertaken in 1988 (see Appendix A) 107 Table 6.2 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): row-wise percentages of lithic classifications undertaken in 1988 (see Appendix A). For acronyms, see Table 6.1 108 Table 6.3 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): summary of the stone artefact classes 108 Table 6.4 Batadomba-lena (2005): Microlithic, retouched and utilised lithics identified from the sediment samples 112 Table 6.5 Batadomba-lena (2005): debitage and non-flake lithics identified from the sediment samples. 112 Table 6.6 Batadomba-lena (2005): chert artefacts (other than retouched pieces and cores and excluding sediment samples). 114 Table 6.7 Batadomba-lena (2005): opaque quartz artefacts (other than retouched pieces and cores and excluding sediment samples) 114 Table 6.8 Batadomba-lena (2005): clear quartz artefacts (other than retouched pieces and cores and excluding sediment samples) 114 Table 6.9 Batadomba-lena (2005): average weights of chert artefacts in grammes 115 Table 6.10 Batadomba-lena (2005): average lengths of chert artefacts in mm. 115 Table 6.11 Batadomba-lena (2005): average breadths of chert artefacts in mm. 116 Table 6.12 Batadomba-lena (2005): average thicknesses of chert artefacts in mm. 116 Table 6.13 Batadomba-lena (2005): average platform widths of chert artefacts in mm. 116 Table 6.14 Batadomba-lena (2005): average platform breadths of chert artefacts in mm 116 Table 6.15 Batadomba-lena (2005): summary statistics 117

xii

Table 6.16 Batadomba-lena (2005): average weights (> 0.02 g) of opaque quartz artefacts from Batadomba-lena (2005) in grammes. Table 6.17 Batadomba-lena (2005): average lengths of opaque quartz artefacts in mm. Table 6.18 Batadomba-lena (2005): average breadths of opaque quartz artefacts in mm. Table 6.19 Batadomba-lena (2005): average thicknesses of opaque quartz artefacts in mm. Table 6.20 Batadomba-lena (2005): average platform widths of opaque quartz artefacts in mm. Table 6.21 Batadomba-lena (2005): average platform breadths of opaque quartz artefacts in mm. Table 6.22 Batadomba-lena (2005): average weights (> 0.02 g) of clear quartz artefacts in grammes. Table 6.23 Batadomba-lena (2005): average lengths of clear quartz artefacts in mm. Table 6.24 Batadomba-lena (2005): average breadths of clear quartz artefacts in mm. Table 6.25 Batadomba-lena (2005): average thicknesses of clear quartz artefacts in mm. Table 6.26 Batadomba-lena (2005): average platform widths of clear quartz artefacts in mm. Table 6.27 Batadomba-lena (2005): average platform breadths of clear quartz artefacts in mm. Table 6.28 Batadomba-lena (2005): ranges of means of log-transformed values on clear quartz complete flakes for layer assemblages divided into smallest, medium and largest on each measurement. Table 6.29 Batadomba-lena (2005): ranges of means of log-transformed values on clear quartz transversely broken flakes for layer assemblages divided into smallest, medium and largest on each measurement. Table 6.30 Batadomba-lena (2005): ranges of means of log-transformed values on clear quartz flake fragments for layer assemblages divided into smallest, small, medium and largest on each measurement Table 6.31 Batadomba-lena (2005): modified coefficients of variation (median divided by the standard deviation of the log-transformed values) of the clear quartz flake fragments in the layers as tabulated in Table 6.30 Table 6.32 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): observations on artefacts of bone and antler Table 6.33 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): summary of observations on double-ended bone points Table 6.34 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): summary of observations on single-ended bone points Table 6.35 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): observations on artefacts of bone Table 6.36 Batadomba-lena (2005): bone points Table 7.1 Bellan-bandi Palassa (1970): lithic and pottery specimens from the L5, L6, M8, M9 squares, and fauna from all squares in the 1970 excavation (extracted from Deraniyagala and Kennedy 1972: 32, 37, 42. An anomalous figure of 55 lithics from stratum 3 on p. 32 is a printing error (S.U. Deraniyagala, pers. comm.)) Table 7.2 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): sediment samples; weights in grammes of gravel, sand and silt, and skewness of the sand component Table 7.3 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): sediment characteristics and cultural content of the contexts Table 7.4 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): observations on the granules from the context 11 sediment sample Table 7.5 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): observations on the granules from the middle context 10 sediment sample Table 7.6 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): observations on the 1 mm fractions from the lower and upper context 10 sediment samples Table 7.7 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): observations on the granules from the context 4 sediment sample Table 7.8 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): faunal identifications from context 10. Weights in grammes except where otherwise specified Table 7.9 Bellan-bandi Palassa (1970, 2005): summary of mammalian NISP identifications from the main prehistoric layer Table 7.10 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): broad classification of the lithics. Table 7.11 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): two-way Chi-square tests for xiii

117 118 118 118 119 119 120 120 121 121 122 122

123

123

124

124 136 139 140 140 140

150 152 152 153 153 154 155 158 159 160

differences in artefact composition between Phase II (top spit), Phase II (lower spits), Phase III and Phase IV assemblages (n.s. = not significant) Table 7.12 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): weights (> 0.02 g) in grammes of clear quartz and opaque quartz artefact classes. Table 7.13 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): lengths in mm of clear quartz and opaque quartz artefact classes. Table 7.14 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): breadths in mm of clear quartz and opaque quartz artefact classes. Table 7.15 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): thicknesses in mm of clear quartz and opaque quartz artefact classes. Table 7.16 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): striking platform widths in mm of clear quartz and opaque quartz flake classes. Table 7.17 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): striking platform breadths in mm clear quartz and opaque quartz flake classes. Table 7.18 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): average weight and dimensions of different classes of flakes of clear quartz Table 7.19 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): median weight and dimensions of different classes of complete flakes of clear quartz Table 7.20 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): average log-transformed weight and dimensions of different classes of complete flakes of clear quartz Table 7.21 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): striking platform dimensions in mm of different classes of clear quartz flakes. Table 7.22 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): average weight and dimensions of various classes of Phase II clear quartz artefacts Table 7.23 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): median weight and dimensions of various classes of Phase II clear quartz artefacts Table 7.24 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): average log-transformed weight and dimensions of various classes of Phase II clear quartz artefacts Table 7.25 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): striking platform dimensions in mm of various classes of Phase II clear quartz artefacts. Table 7.26 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): summary of statistically significant differences Table 7.27 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): weights (> 0.02 g) in grammes of clear quartz utilised and retouched artefact classes from context 10 Table 7.28 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): lengths in mm of clear quartz utilised and retouched artefact classes from context 10. Table 7.29 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): breadths in mm of clear quartz utilised and retouched artefact classes from context 10. Table 7.30 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): thicknesses in mm of clear quartz utilised and retouched artefact classes from context 10. Table 7.31 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): striking platform widths in mm of clear quartz utilised and retouched flakes from context 10. Table 7.32 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): striking platform breadths in mm of clear quartz utilised and retouched flakes from context 10. Table 7.33 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): average and (in square brackets) median weight and dimensions of different debitage classes of clear quartz Table 7.34 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): average, logarithmically transformed weight and dimensions of different debitage classes of clear quartz Table 7.35 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): striking platform dimensions in mm of different debitage classes of clear quartz. Table 7.36 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): summary of t-test comparisons on log-transformed variables, clear quartz. Table 7.37 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): counts of clear quartz cores and fragments from context 10, by spit

xiv

160 160 161 161 161 161 161 162 162 162 163 163 164 164 164 165 165 165 165 166 166 166 167 167 168 168 169

Table 7.38 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): counts of opaque quartz cores and fragments from context 10, by spit Table 7.39 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): size classes of micro-blade (including possible/probable micro - blade) cores from context 10, by spit. Table 7.40 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): size classes of bipolar (including probably bipolar) cores from context 10, by spit. Table 7.41 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): size classes of other cores from context 10, by spit Table 7.42 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): size classes of core fragments from context 10, by spit Table 7.43 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): aggregated quartz core size classes from context 10, by spit Table 7.44 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): edge angles of different classes of clear quartz complete and transversely broken flakes. Table 7.45 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): terminations on clear quartz flake classes Table 7.46 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): initiation and striking platform observations on clear quartz flakes. Table 8.1 Main prehistoric human skeletal series from Sri Lanka Table 8.2 Fa Hien-lena (1986): human remains Table 8.3 Batadomba-lena: human remains Table 8.4 Kitulgala Beli-lena: human remains Table 8.5 Bellan-bandi Palassa (1956-61, 1970): representation of human skeletal elements Table 8.6 Nilgala shelter: human remains Table 8.7 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): grindstones and potential grindstones Table 8.8 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): pigment fragments Table 8.9 Kitulgala Beli-lena: pigment-stained stones Table 8.10 Kitulgala Beli-lena: pigment fragments Table A.1 Counts of the different stone tool types from Batadomba-lena (1980 - 82) Table B.1 Batadomba-lena (2005): molluscan species identified Table C.1 Batadomba-lena (2005): charcoal; total weight of analysed material, as well as percentage weights within each identified category

xv

169 169 169 169 169 170 170 171 172 174 175 176 177 178 180 182 182 183 183 196 210 214

Chapter 1 The Place of Sri Lanka in Prehistory and the Place of Prehistory in Sri Lanka

1.1 Introduction

over 4,000 mm. Particularly where the gradient from the coastal plain to the central highlands is abrupt, as in the southwest, the mountains capture the warm, moist air from the surrounding sea and produce alternating zones of heightened precipitation and rain shadows. Average temperature is also variable with altitude, ranging from a generalised average of 26ºC in the lowlands to 18ºC in the highlands (Survey Department of Sri Lanka 1988; Deraniyagala 1992).

The prehistory of Sri Lanka is of great significance for several major questions in current hunter-gatherer archaeology studies. This tropical island lies approximately halfway between Africa and Australia along the northern rim of the Indian Ocean, and accordingly plays a pivotal role in discussions over the Replacement Theory for the origins of Homo sapiens, whereby anatomically modern humans had evolved in Africa during the Late Pleistocene and dispersed across the rest of the Old World within the last 100,000 years. Archaeological evidence for a microlithic industry in Sri Lanka more than 30,000 years ago – widely viewed as an isolated claim when the evidence was first reported – can now be seen in the context of similarly old microlithic artefacts in India and considerably older microliths in Africa (James and Petraglia 2005; Mellars 2006: Clarkson et al. 2009). Parts of Sri Lanka remained under habitation by forest foragers, known as the Vaddas, until the nation’s birth as an independent republic in the twentieth century. This long period of hunter-gatherer habitation, combined with extensive ethnohistorical and ethnographic accounts of the Vaddas, and a rich archaeological record, makes Sri Lanka of great interest to studies of tropical hunter-gatherer archaeology (Deraniyagala 1988; 1992). Its considerable size and rugged relief have endowed it with considerable variability in temperature and rainfall patterns, and it has witnessed climatic changes over the last 40,000 years, especially during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) and the Holocene amelioration. Sri Lanka thus has enormous potential for research into questions such as forager adaptations to climatic change, and whether foragers could make a living in tropical rainforests if not assisted by exchanges with agriculturally based neighbours (Bailey et al. 1989; Mercader 2003).

The current population of the republic of Sri Lanka is over 20 million people, of which around 74% are Sinhala, 8.5% are Tamils, 7% are Muslims (“Moors”) and 10.5% are unspecified. The Sinhala, who are based mostly in the centre and south of the island, are predominantly Buddhist, and speak an Indo-European language closely related to Sanskrit, Pali of the Buddhist scriptures and Hindi. The predominantly Hindu Tamils, who speak a Dravidian language also spoken widely today in South India, reside mainly in the northern and eastern parts (Central Intelligence Agency 2006). According to the Sinhala chronicles, and especially the Legend of Vijaya, the ancestors of the Sinhala arrived from north India over 2500 years ago, to establishg a series of historical kingdoms. However, inscriptions and other texts include references to Tamils as early as the second century BC, and mention Tamil rulers and soldiers who assisted Sinhala rulers throughout the first millennium AD. Sri Lanka was briefly under the control of the Tamil Cola Empire (based in South India) at the start of the second millennium AD, prior to the restoration of Sinhala sovereignty in AD 1070 (Kiribamune 1986). The long history of Tamil immigrants from the vicinity of today’s Tamil Nadu to Sri Lanka would appear to account for the cultural and genetic similarities observed between Sri Lanka’s Sinhala and Tamils (Saha 1988). A further major transportation of Tamil workers to the then British colony of Ceylon occurred during the nineteenth century.

The pear-shaped island of Sri Lanka is situated some 48 km off the southern tip of Indian, between 6 and 10 degrees north of the equator. It has a maximum length of 432 km, and a maximum width of 224 km, giving it an area of approximately 65,610 square km. Most of the island consists of plains between 30 and 200 metres above mean sea level (asl), but the altitude rises to above 2,500 metres in the rugged central highlands. The tropical southwest monsoon, which blows between May and September, has the dominant overall effect on the island’s climate, complemented by the weaker northeast monsoon between the months of December and February. However, annual precipitation ranges very widely, from c. 635 mm to well

Sri Lanka’s cultural sequence is conventionally divided, according to technological phases, into the Middle Palaeolithic, Mesolithic (both described later in this chapter), Protohistoric Iron Age, Early Historic, Late Historic and Modern periods. A Neolithic period has yet to be adequately defined. The beginnings of the Iron Age, associated with Indianderived Black and Red Ware pottery, is dated to around 1000 BC by excavations at the Early Historic capital of

1

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Anuradhapura. The centuries between 900 and 600 BC are marked by the appearance of iron technology, horses and domesticated cattle, and paddy cultivation, and Anuradhapura had grown to a township that extended over at least 50 ha (Deraniyagala 1990). Graffiti on pottery – South Asia’s oldest known occurrence of Brahmi writing – is radiocarbon dated to 600 – 500 BC from three localities at the Citadel of Anuradhapura (Deraniyagala 1992: 740; Seneviratne 1994: 16), heralding the commencement of the Early Historic Period (Deraniyagala 1992: 739-50; Coningham and Batt 1999; Deraniyagala and Abeyratne; Allchin 2006).

for early habitation in excess of 125,000 years ago, and the current state of knowledge on a swathe of open-air sites and rockshelters dating between the late Pleistocene and the late Holocene. Wijeyapala (1997) expanded on Deraniyagala’s documentation of rockshelter sites, with his major focus on the sites which are especially important for providing the preservation conditions and contextual evidence that are vital to the study of hunter-gatherer adaptations. The most important of these sites, all from the Lowland Wet Zone, include Fa Hien-lena (~40,000 – 5400 BP), Batadomba-lena (~36,000 – 11,500 BP), Beli-lena Kitulgala (over 32,000 – 3500 BP), and Attanagoda Alu-lena (10,500 BP). The present study is therefore heavily focused on the last 40,000 years, which is the time-frame of Sri Lankan archaeology documented in rockshelters. Open-air sites with a similar wealth of archaeological evidence are few, but of particular interest is Bellan-bandi Palassa in the south-centre of the island (Deraniyagala and Kennedy 1972). Radiocarbon determinations obtained through my research now allow initial habitation at this site to be dated back to 12,000 BP (Chapter 7).

The mid-Early Historic period is associated with the arrival of Buddhism in Sri Lanka at around 250 BC and the early monasteries and monumental palace centres up to around AD 300, not only Anuradhaphura, but also other major sites such as Kantarodai, Mantai, and Tissamaharama in the south and north (Bandaranayake et al. 1990; Deraniyagala 1992). The Middle Historic period (AD 300 – 1200) commenced with the end of the Mahavamsa dynastic succession and ended with the collapse of the great hydraulic civilization of the Sinhalas, centred about Anuradhapura, Tissamaharama and Polonnaruwa, in the 12th century. The Late Historic period (AD 1200 – 1500) extends between the Dambadeniya period, the Kotte period (which is marked by the arrival of the Portuguese in the sixteenth century) and the Kandy period. The Portuguese established their trading fortress at Galle, which was taken over by the Dutch in the seventeenth century, before the maritime provinces were ceded to the British in 1796 (Central Intelligence Agency 2006). As well as the numerous historical sites (seven on the World Heritage Register) associated with Sri Lanka’s historical developments, the Sinhala chronicles, the Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa and Chulavamsa, provide a 2300-year record of events within Sri Lankan history up to the last king of Kandy in 1815.

Most of the rockshelters mentioned above have yielded human remains, and the time-depth and quantity of Pleistocene fossils of Homo sapiens in Sri Lanka overshadows the known remains of Homo sapiens in India, which are entirely Holocene in age (Kennedy and Elgart 1998; Kennedy 1999). Sri Lanka’s human fossil record attracted the attention of “The Contribution of South Asia to the Peopling of Australasia” project of the Australian National University funded by the Australian Research Council. The main aim of that project is to perform a comparative study of the relevant human remains from South Asia, Indo-Malaysia and Australia to address current anomalies, presented by the Australian human fossil record, for the Replacement or Out of Africa theory on the origin of Homo sapiens (Bulbeck et al. 2003). In 2003 David Bulbeck, Colin Groves and Daniel Rayner, of the Australian National University, consulted with officers of the Archaeological Department of Sri Lanka to set up a collaborative sub-project, entitled “The Contribution of South Asia to the Peopling of Australasia – Sri Lanka Axis”. These consultations highlighted a number of urgent priorities for the advancement of Sri Lankan prehistory, including a full report on the excavations at Batadombalena, a secure chronology for Bellan-bandi Palassa, and an integrated study of late Quaternary environmental change and forager adaptations. Information from these topics was anticipated to integrate particularly well with Rayner’s planned study (for his PhD) on the morphology of Sri Lanka’s prehistoric human remains, the majority of which were recovered from Batadomba-lena and Bellanbandi Palassa.

For three main reasons, some awareness of the Sinhala heritage in Sri Lanka is important for understanding the island’s prehistoric archaeological resources. First, Sinhala constructions (Buddhist monasteries in rockshelters, irrigation tanks on the dry plains) have often interfered with prehistoric sites. Second, excavations of historical sites have sometimes yielded evidence of prehistoric habitation beneath the historical layers. Third, the Sinhala chronicles document the interactions between the early Sinhala and the Vadda indigenes, providing a link between the ethnography recorded by early European scholars and the hunter-gatherer occupation of the island prior to the Sinhala and Tamil incursions. Ethnographic documentation of the Vaddas was undertaken by European scholars, notably Seligmann and Seligmann (1911) and Spittel (1924), as well as by the Swiss anthropologists Fritz and Paul Sarasin (1892-93; F. Sarasin 1939), during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

Deraniyagala (1992) used numerous proxies, for example fauna, flora, soils and meteorology, for a general evaluation of climatic shifts in various parts of the island. He also included sedimentological evidence for climatic change at Batadomba-lena; but his results needed further corroboration due to the limited analysis of the sediments he had available. Wijeyapala (1997: 457) noted evidence for

Sri Lanka has one the best-recorded prehistoric sequences in South Asia, as synthesised in S.U. Deraniyagala’s The Prehistory of Sri Lanka: an Ecological Perspective (1988; 1992; and in 2007). Deraniyagala documented the evidence

2

The Place of Sri Lanka in Prehistory continuity of equatorial rainforest, without any transition to open parkland, at the three rockshelters he focused on, and this would explain why environmental change was not addressed as an explanatory variable in his thesis. However, even minor vegetation shifts can dramatically impact upon foraging practices (e.g., Dortch 2004), and so I take the view that evidence for environmental change, and forager adaptations, will need to be reviewed on a site-by-site basis. The resulting perspectives will frame the wider questions of interest such as whether Sri Lanka’s early microlithic technology should be interpreted in terms of local adaptation or as a technology that had probably been introduced with the earliest representatives of Homo sapiens on the island.

and Faure (1997), not Ray and Adams (2001), would appear to be the relevant source for Sri Lanka’s late Quaternary climatic modelling.

1.2 Overview of Late Quaternary Climate Change in Sri Lanka

• > 24,000 – 18,500 cal BP: cool and dry, with a progressive decrease in precipitation to very dry. • 18,500 – 17,600 cal BP: trend to warmer and wetter • 17,600 – 16,000 cal BP: semi-humid • 16,000 – 13,600 cal BP: return to relatively cool and dry. • 13,600 – 12,000 cal BP: humid • 12,000 – 10,200 cal BP: relatively cool and dry • 10,200 – 8700 cal BP: perhumid climate, with a peak around cal 10,000 BP. • 8700 – 3600 cal BP: progressive trend toward semi-arid conditions. • 3600 – 2000 cal BP: strongly pluvial, with a peak around 3,200 cal BP. • 2000 BP – Present: dry, with a slight increase in precipitation at c. 600 BP.

A particularly useful model is Premathilake’s recently completed palyno-stratigraphic study of two peat swamps of the Horton Plains in the wet highlands of Sri Lanka. Premathilake employed pollen and sediments as climatic indicators throughout a sequence whose radiocarbon chronology spanned the upper Würm pleniglacial and the Holocene. Accordingly he reconstructed a series of climatic fluctuations, detailed below, for the period from around 20,000 years ago to the present (Premathilake and Risberg 2003).

Sri Lanka was connected to the South Asian mainland between the last interglacial (approximately 120,000 years ago) and 7000 years ago; but the land connection across the Palk Strait was thin and Sri Lanka was a peninsula (Deraniyagala 1992:174; Kennedy 2000). Nonetheless, Ray and Adams (2001) treat the whole of Sri Lanka as having been the southernmost extension, during the LGM (25 – 15 ka), of a tropical grassland zone that had also extended across the southern two-thirds of India and reached northwards through north-central India to the Himalayan foothills. By tropical grassland, Ray and Adams mean landscapes with greater than 20% vegetation cover, most of it grassy and with less than 5% cover by woody plants. They point out that their vegetation map is preliminary and broad-scale, and so pockets of other vegetation types would be compatible with their overall reconstruction. This may be the case, but the sheer generality of their reconstruction leaves much to be desired for the finer vegetation reconstructions that are required for archaeological purposes. For instance, the occurrence of rainforest land snails dated to the LGM at Batadombalena, and to the terminal Pleistocene at Beli-lena, indicates maintenance of rainforest stands surrounding these sites throughout and after the LGM, with the main difference being temperatures up to 5º less than today’s (Deraniyagala 1992: 139-142; Kennedy 2000: 130-131).

As noted by Premathilake and Risberg (2003), these fluctuations between drier and more humid conditions on the Horton Plains (altitude > 2000m), between 21,000 and 600 BP, correlate well with similar evidence of late Quaternary climatic change in South India, notably in the Nilgiri Highlands. Palaeoclimatic investigation there pointed to arid conditions having prevailed at around 23,700 cal BP and to a lesser extent around 4500 cal BP (Sukumar et al. 1993; Sukhija et al. 1998). In addition, being part of Sri Lanka’s Wet Zone, the Horton Plains sequence may to some degree parallel the climatic changes in the Wet Zone lowlands, where the richest archaeological evidence on forager adaptations in Sri Lanka is to be found. However, as emphasised by Hope and Hope (1976) for New Guinea, the climatic effects of late Pleistocene sea-level changes on equatorial islands have been much more pronounced at higher than at lower altitudes. Premathilake’s climate change sequence should be viewed as a hypothesis for testing at the low-altitude sites which the present work primarily considers. Moreover, Premathilake’s sequence does not extend as far back as 40,000 years ago, the date for which rockshelter habitation in Sri Lanka first emerges. In short, the evidence for the timing and extent of climatic change will need to be reviewed separately at each Sri Lankan prehistoric site.

Evidently, great care should be exercised in applying the vegetation map of Ray and Adams to any particular part of Sri Lanka, even to the extent of inferring a more mosaic landscape in currently forested areas. Indeed, the comparable map in Adams and Faure (1997: 639), briefly referred to by Ray and Adams (2001), would appear much better supported by current evidence on Sri Lanka’s palaeoclimate. Even at 18,000 radiocarbon years ago, according to Adams and Faure’s map, the Sri Lanka peninsula would have been covered by tropical woodland, except its southeastern uplands. The map does not indicate any particular vegetation for these uplands, but presumably Adams and Faure suspected forest rather than woodland. Two of these authors’ other maps on the same page indicate that tropical rainforest had covered the southern c. 95% of Sri Lanka at 8000 and 5000 radiocarbon years ago. Adams

As will be covered in Chapter 3, and detailed in the relevant chapters that follow, a range of approaches are being applied to the excavated materials. Sedimentary and grain-

3

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka

Map 1.1 Sri Lanka’s ecozones: F arid lowlands; A semi-arid lowlands; B dry lowlands; E intermediate dry uplands; D1 wet lowlands, 40,700 to 12,050 BP, the Shum Laka rockshelter in northwest Cameroon with six radiocarbon dates between 30,000 and 13,000 BP (Cornelissen 2002), and the Lukenya Hill assemblages (Kenya) dating back to at least 22,000 BP and perhaps even 39,000 years ago (Kusimba 2001: 97-98). The Matupi rockshelter, along with a re-estimated 20,000 year old dating for the famous incised bone from Ishango in the Congo, was instrumental in changing archaeologists’ interpretations of the so-called Later Stone Age of Africa (Cornelissen 2002). Of particular importance, assemblages dominated by backed microliths characterise the central African Lupemban industry sites dated to around 250,000 - 300,000 years ago (Hiscock and O’Connor 2006).

Major Topic 1 - Early Date for Microliths in Sri Lanka The announcement by Deraniyagala (1992) of Late Pleistocene geometric microliths in Sri Lanka, dated to around 30,000 years ago, did not receive immediate acceptance in the wider archaeological community (Figures 1.1-11, Plates 1.1-3). At that time, archaeological evidence for microliths of a similar great antiquity was just beginning to emerge in Africa (Deraniyagala 1992: 293) but was by no means universally accepted. The precocious dating of the Sri Lanka microliths, compared to Europe – where they were always overshadowed by blade tools during the Late Palaeolithic, and did not really come into prominence until the Madgalenian, after 17,000 BP (Mithen 1994) – or any comparably dated microliths in India or Pakistan, engendered considerable scepticism about the dating and/ or classification of the Sri Lanka specimens. In the decade since Deraniyagala’s original claims, three developments in archaeological research – the demonstration of comparably early microliths at several sites in Africa, the recovery of rockshelter sequences in South India that parallel the Sri Lankan sequence, and the rising popularity of the “southern dispersal route” for the spread of early Homo sapiens from Africa to Australasia (Oppenheimer 2005; Bulbeck 2007) – have given the Sri Lanka claims considerable respectability.

Hiscock and O’ Connor (2006) take a different perspective by emphasising that in Africa, as in Australia, the technology of backing stone flakes appeared before the distinctive microlith assemblages with their proliferation of miniature backed flakes. For instance, the central African Lupemben industry dated to around 250,000 - 300,000 years ago is dominated by backed artefacts including small flakes. The African sequence is of critical importance not only for the very early appearance of microliths, but also for the long time frame which allows monitoring of the persistence of microliths within flaked stone industries. In the African case, microliths appear to have decreased in frequency to archaeologically invisible levels following the Lupemban sites, until enjoying resurgence with the much later Howieson’s Poort industry, followed by another decline until their resurgence after 40,000 BP. These findings imply that many groups of humans with the technological capacity to produce microliths did not do so, for reasons that would require explanation in terms of proximate causes, as would also be required for the resurgence of backed microlith production (Hiscock and O’Connor 2006).

The sea change in opinion is perhaps best represented by Mellars (2006). The review by Mellars of the Sri Lanka microliths is restricted to their dated occurrence at Batadomba-lena as early as 36,000 BP. Mellars

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Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Stone artefact types should therefore not be viewed as marking a mindset or cultural stage of development, but as behavioural adaptations to particular cultural and/ or environmental circumstances. This perspective could explain why the assemblages cited by Mellars (2006) as evidence of anatomically modern humans vary between blade-based industries (especially in the Middle East), to microlithic industries at Patne and Jwalapuram in India and Batadomba-lena, and broadly “Middle Palaeolithic” assemblages in the Horn of Africa and Sunda (the Pleistocene continent that connected what is now the Malay Peninsula and the islands of western and central Indonesia).

served as spear barbs (cf. Mulvaney and Kamminga 1999), and the vegetation was much more open during the LGM (when thrown spears would have been more advantageous than in closed forest conditions), then there may be an argument based on cultural adaptation for the popularity of microliths during this period. Hiscock (1994, 2002) has developed an environmentally based explanation for the surging popularity of backed microliths across much of Australia during the middle Holocene, when the climatic instability of the onset of modern ENSO conditions would have selected for these easily transportable and multiplex artefacts.

On the other hand, James (2007), while noting the occasional occurrence of backed artefacts in Indian Middle Palaeolithic industries (over 60,000 years old), argues that the proliferation of composite tools implied by the microblades, microliths and bone points found in later Indian assemblages is indicative of behavioural modernity. The Patne and Jwalapuram excavations demonstrate that backed microliths occurred in India from 34,000 BP, as in Sri Lanka (James and Petraglia 2005; Clarkson et al. 2009), but that would not overturn the archaeological evidence that, across most of India, geometric microliths appear to have been essentially an archaeological phenomenon of the Holocene. Certainly, Sri Lanka would appear to be distinct in that the tradition of manufacture of geometric microliths had evidently become fixed in the cultural practices of the prehistoric inhabitants for a period of over 35,000 years.

Stone artefacts provide direct and indirect clues to economic adaptation (Kuhn and Stiner 2001: 104). Kuhn and Stiner consider “projectile tips, spear points, arrowheads, and harpoons” as clear correlates of hunting and fishing, while “grinding stones, mortars and pestles, querns and mullers indicate heavy reliance on wild seeds and nuts”. Of course, grinding stones may also serve other functions such as pigment grinding or abrading and polishing bone in tool manufacture. Apart from the flaked lithic component, Sri Lanka’s Late Pleistocene assemblages include a considerable number of non-flaked tools such as grindstones, pestles, mortars and pitted hammer-stones and pitted nut-stones, mainly of gneiss and occasionally of quartz (Chapter 7). Attention to the possible evolutionary change of these latter artefact classes during the late Quaternary is a neglected topic that has arguably been overshadowed by the focus on demonstrating claims for early microliths.

The early dates claimed for geometric microliths by Sri Lankan archaeologists may no longer stand out as controversial, but that would hardly imply that the issue no longer merits investigation and testing. It remains important to test the claim for early appearance of microliths with the full armoury of current archaeological techniques so as to confirm it beyond reasonable doubt or, if deficiencies are found with the evidence, to identify clearly what the concerns may be. One important strategy will be to take sediment samples from the full two metres of cultural deposit at Batadomba-lena, and bring them to the Australian National University for extraction of the micro-debitage under controlled laboratory conditions. Large-scale production of microliths is often associated with distinctive flake-reduction and retouch debitage, but these involve flake sizes that are hard to recover in the field, even in the 2-mm sieve fraction. Further chronometric dates on the Batadomba-lena deposits are also important to determine whether its chronology can be corroborated. Study of the attributes of the early microliths is also necessary to ensure that their classification does not depend on impressionistic shape attributes but instead on the defining characteristics of microliths (see Chapter 3).

The faunal record from Sri Lanka’s rockshelters is considerable. Analysis so far has extended only to providing lists of taxa or to fuller quantitative accounts which, however, have not led to interpretation in climatic or behavioural terms (Wijeyapala 1997). Premathilake’s model of climate change, based on the Horton Plains evidence, would suggest detectable shifts in the suites of faunal assemblages from the wet lowland rockshelters – for instance, those dated to the LGM should have a greater proportion of deer, buffalo and other ungulates that prefer more open conditions, whereas arboreal game should be more frequent during times of greater forest cover. There should also be evidence of greater use of plants during periods of more extensive dense forest cover, as animal quarry would have been less visible. The predicted changes in procurement strategies, if confirmed by the excavated ecofacts, should also be reflected in changes to the stone artefacts manufactured either for direct processing of foodstuffs or in the production of organic artefacts used in food processing tasks. In the future, research on stable isotope ratios in the osteological remains of the prehistoric foragers (e.g., Krigbaum 2005) may provide further evidence of relevance to these questions.

Major Topic 2: Influences of Vegetation and Faunal Change on Lithic Technology

Major Topic 3: How is the Transition from the Stone Age to the Iron Age evidenced in the Archaeological Record?

Technological adaptation to Sri Lanka’s significant climate changes during the late Quaternary has not previously been addressed in a systematic way. This research topic may relate to the previous one: if backed microliths predominantly

This topic involves issues of cultural chronology,

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The Place of Sri Lanka in Prehistory Unfortunately, the impact of agricultural communities on the indigenous foragers of Sri Lanka, and any transition to agriculture on the part of these forager communities, has been poorly documented archaeologically. One reason for this is that many upper deposits in caves, which might have provided data relevant for understanding any putative transition to agriculture, have recently been removed or disturbed due to extraction for fertiliser and other levelling activities. At Fa Hien-lena, Wijeyapala (1997) noted a stained line approximately 3 m above the present floor level before starting the excavation. Clearly the uppermost deposits, which would have included any transitional Iron Age deposit, had been removed before the site was converted to a place of Buddhist pilgrimage. Alu-lena, also excavated by Wijeyapala (1997), had also had its uppermost deposits removed and levelled by Buddhist monks during the Early Historic period. At Beli-lena Kitulgala, a very large shelter, approximately 5 m of deposit (most likely representing the transitional phases) had been removed as fertiliser (Wijeyapala 1997). As for Batadomba-lena, Deraniyagala (1992) stated that the uppermost strata were disturbed due to extraction of fertiliser and levelling of the floor in recent times. Adikari (2007) has recently proposed a “post-Mesolithic” period characterised by the co-occurrence of flaked lithics and potsherds. He accepts a commencement as early as 6300 BP based on an uncritical interpretation of the Dorawaka-lena sequence which, as discussed above, would not be wise. The possibility of mixed materials from different ages looms large whenever questions of origins and transitions are raised, as is a major issue for Bellan-bandi Palassa (Chapter 7). Indeed, the associations of pottery and lithics from Pidurangala are disputed on the basis that it would appear to have been a floor fill consisting of earth transported from the Reddish Brown Earth Formation. A deposit in the Reddish Brown Earth Formation with more than the density of lithics implied for Pidurangala has been definitively documented in the excavation of Site 43 at Embilipitiya (Deraniyagala 1992: Appendix III), and this strengthens the case for the view that such a site had been quarried for its gravel and redeposited at Pidurangala during the Middle Historic period. However, it is clear that the ancestors of the present-day Vaddas successfully adapted to the progressively decreasing component of hunting, rapidly replaced by farming based on cultivation of plants supplemented by animal husbandry, which characterised Sri Lanka’s general economy during the Iron Age after 1000 BC (Deraniyagala 1992; Manatunga 1996).

Plate 1.3 Embilipitiya: Site 43; Balangoda Point, clear quartz (photo, courtesy Studio Times) (scale: 1 cm).

interpretation of the archaeological record, and potential applicability of Vadda ethnographic studies. Early scholars, such as Sarasin and Sarasin (1908), were essentially interested in the prehistory of Sri Lanka to bolster their assertion that the Vaddas were an indigenous Sri Lankan population, and not simply poor, backwoods Sinhalas. Later ethnographic studies of the Vaddas (e.g., by the Seligmanns) took this point for granted and indeed viewed Vadda ethnography as a potential source of analogues for interpreting the prehistoric assemblages (Deraniyagala 1992). Sarasin and Sarasin (1908) had certainly noted that the Vaddas were an Iron Age people, without any knowledge of stone flaking, dependent on the Sinhalas for their iron implements, just as many of their other customs had evidently been acquired from Sinhala contact. In their attempt to dismiss the viability of independent rainforest foragers, Headland et al. (1989) resurrected the anti-Sarasin interpretation of the Vaddas as Sinhala offshoots, whereas following Endicott and Bellwood’s (1991) interpretation of the Semang foragers of Malaysia, the Vaddas would be seen as originally independent foragers who then succumbed to the attractions of trade with the Sinhala.

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Chapter 2

History of Prehistoric Archaeological Investigations in Sri Lanka

2.1 Introduction

foundation), who were officers of the East India Company, carried out the initial archaeological research (Misra 2002). To enhance education, the first colleges were established, namely the presidency colleges of Calcutta and Madras in 1817, and the Deccan College at Pune in 1821. Scholars became more interested in culture history and archaeology, and on 31 May 1863 Robert Bruce Foote of the Geological Survey of India discovered and identified the first Palaeolithic tools at Pallavaram in the Chingleput District of the Madras Presidency. In the following four decades over 250 prehistoric sites in southern and western India were identified, and attempts were made to put forward hypotheses to explain the past environment and ancient lifeways (Pappu 2001).

This chapter will review the history of archaeological research on the Stone Age of Sri Lanka from its beginnings in 1885. The research can be broadly divided into three periods: (a) incipient research during the pre-independence period, (b) research during the late pre-independence period, which saw the inception of systematic prehistoric archaeological research in Sri Lanka, and (c) research during the post-independence period. During the last period, most of the research was undertaken by the Excavations Section of the Archaeological Department of the Government of Sri Lanka, under the directorship of S.U. Deraniyagala. A fourth period of research, beginning in the late 1970s, can also be recognised. Between 1978 and 1990, Deraniyagala was instrumental in training young scholars interested in archaeology and giving them the opportunity to participate in prehistoric excavations. Another important event was the establishment in 1985 of the Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology (PGIAR) of Kelaniya University, specifically dedicated to advanced research in archaeology. The PGIAR has acted as Sri Lanka’s convenor of the SigiriyaDambulla Region Settlement Archaeology project, which has recovered important evidence on the prehistory of the “Cultural Triangle” as well as cultural developments during the Iron Age. Other archaeologists at the University of Kelaniya, and also at the University of Peradeniya, have been active in the research as well as the teaching of prehistory. Since the mid-1980s the Archaeological Department has largely passed the reins of prehistoric research into the hands of universities, and focused on its regulatory functions. Senior officers of the Archaeological Department have had the opportunity to undertake sustained research only through the vehicle of a PhD programme, as was the case with Wijeyapala (1997) and has been the case with the present study.

Influenced by these discoveries, various Western scholars initiated prehistoric investigation in Sri Lanka. In 1885 E.E. Green and J. Pole discovered stone artefacts in the Zone D2 uplands (Parker 1909: 62; Pole 1913). Green collected quartz and chert artefacts from the vicinity of Maskeliya while Pole picked up the same from Peradeniya and Nawalapitiya. However, their collections were surface finds and their human authorship was held in doubt by scholars at the British Museum as well as their colleagues in India, because knowledge of prehistoric artefacts without clear counterparts in Europe was in its infancy (Moser 1994: 285). More definitive investigations were undertaken by Fritz and Paul Sarasin, two Swiss natural historians. The Sarasin cousins conducted the first research into the physical anthropology and ethnography of the Vaddas, and collected items of their material culture, observations on their traditional economy, and oral accounts of their traditions (Sarasin 1939). The Sarasins were propelled towards archaeological research because of opposition from other scholars who doubted the Sarasins’ claims for the specifically indigenous status of the Vaddas. In 1885, the same year that Green and Pole had made their collections, the Sarasins collected stone artefacts from the Maha-oya region (in the Zone C intermediate dry lowlands), but they were also afflicted by doubts about the authenticity of these stone artefacts. However, after the Sarasins’ investigations in the Lamoncong rockshelters in Sulawesi in 1903, they became convinced that the materials they had handled in Sri Lanka represented stone artefacts. This view stemmed from their conviction that the Sulawesi Toala, who lived in and near the Lamoncong rockshelters, were closely related to the Vaddas. Their renewed hope saw them back in Sri

2.2 Research on Prehistory during the Early PreIndependence Period To understand early prehistoric research in Sri Lanka, one should start with the beginnings of prehistoric research in India, for the initial development of prehistoric archaeology in the Sri Lanka followed developments akin to those on the Indian subcontinent. The establishment of the Asiatic Society by Sir William Jones in 1784 at Calcutta was a key factor for the beginning of field archaeology in the South Asian subcontinent. Members of the society (after its

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History of Prehistoric Archaeological Investigations in Sri Lanka Lanka in January 1907, determined to make an assault on the problem of the existence of Stone Age remains on the island (Sarasin and Sarasin 1908: v, 1-2).

hill to the northeast of Nilgala. The Maligaha shelter contained only historical materials, but the Gonginne shelter at Ekiriyan Kumbura yielded some chert and quartz artefacts in a layer disturbed by Sinhala historical occupation (Sarasin and Sarasin 1908: 13-14). The Sarasins then left Zone C (as it is now classified) for the dry grassy hills of Bandarawela, in Zone E (intermediate dry uplands). They explored several hilltops and regularly encountered surface scatters of quartz and chert artefacts, to such an extent that suggested that habitation within rockshelters had played a secondary role compared to habitation on the Bandarawela ridges (Sarasin and Sarasin 1908: 16-18). Their follow-up surveys in the vicinity of Kandy, in Zone D2, were less rewarding, but did lead to the recovery of several surface collections of stone artefacts. They also visited Peradeniya where they met E.E. Green and, based on their familiarity with Sri Lankan stone artefacts, were able to pronounce Green’s collection from Pundalu-oya, and subsequently Pole’s lithics from Maskeliya and Nawalalapitya, as indubitable artefacts. The Sarasins and Green cooperated in furthering the survey of Zone D2 sites by jointly making a collection from a hill beside the Mahaweli river, close to Peradeniya (Sarasin and Sarasin 1908: 19-20).

The Sarasins were convinced that, if they could find incontrovertible archaeological evidence of Stone Age habitation in the caves and rock shelters of Sri Lanka, the Vaddas would have to be the biological and cultural descendents of these Stone Age inhabitants. To substantiate their supposition, they first probed the Darniya-galge shelter near Tellulla in Zone B of southern Sri Lanka, but abandoned their excavation after a metre’s depth and no sign of an end to the historical rubble at the site. They then moved to the twin rockshelters at Galge near the historical temple of Kataragama, in Zone A (Map 1.1). The excavation was very brief, but productive, as they came upon a prehistoric deposit containing quartz artefacts, a chert core, and faunal remains beneath the well-stratified historical layer. The Sarasins still harboured some lingering doubts on being able to prove the authenticity of the prehistoric stone artefacts, so they moved onto the Vadda country and undertook a series of excavations in the area between Bibile and Nilgala in the eastern hinterland (Zone C). They first excavated three rockshelters around Nilgala but only recovered sterile deposits or historical materials (Sarasin and Sarasin 1908: 5-10).

Paul Sarasin’s study of the lithics (in Sarasin and Sarasin 1908: 23-56) attempted, as far as possible, to fit the Sri Lanka lithics (and bone artefacts) into a European typology, based on shape attributes and inferred use (derived mainly from ethnographic analogies taken from the Australian literature, and accounts on how the Andaman Islanders used their artefacts of flaked glass). Paul Sarasin interpreted the Sri Lanka assemblages as a facies of the late Palaeolithic Magdalenian of Europe, and not as related to the European Mesolithic. Had the latter comparison applied, he would have expected roughly flaked elliptical stone axes of the Maglemosian type. At no stage in his analysis did Paul Sarasin recognise the Sri Lanka microliths as a distinctive type, even though he effectively described backing on several of the specimens which he assigned to various shape (and inferred use) categories, and even though a Mesolithic designation had been well established in India since the late 1880s. Although Paul Sarasin was quite firm that the Nilgala assemblage truly represented a facies of the Magdalenian, he did not believe that his Sri Lankan lithics were nearly as old as the Magdalenian in Europe, because the Nilgala fauna appeared entirely modern, and because his theory of culture history involved migrating cultures whose antiquity could be very different towards the start and the end of their migrations.

The Sarasins persisted with an excavation at a site they called Gongodadeniya-galge, better known as the Nilgala shelter, and this site did yield prehistoric occupation deposit with stone artefacts, and sparse human skeletal remains, beneath the historical layer. However, according to Deraniyagala (1992), the correct name for the Nilgala site would appear to be Mahawella-galge for, based on his examination of Gangodadeniya-galge, it is devoid of prehistoric remains and is not the Nilgala shelter described by the Sarasins. The Sarasins excavated several trenches during the space of a week. Despite the rapid pace of the work, they paid sufficient attention to stratigraphy to be able to distinguish clearly between the historical and prehistoric layers, and to assert which prehistoric finds had been recovered in a secure context. They did not believe the prehistoric deposit to be very old, based on the depth of 60 cm or less for the major habitation layer, compared to 35 cm for the “Sinhala” cultural layer above it (Sarasin and Sarasin 1908: 10-12). Assuming steady stratigraphic build-up, and allowing a 2000 year time depth for the upper pottery-bearing layer, we would infer a time depth of around 5500 BP for the commencement of deposition of the prehistoric deposit. The abundance of Acavus phoenix in the site (Sarasin and Sarasin 1908: 83), a rainforest snail which is today essentially restricted to the wet lowlands in Sri Lanka’s southwest (Hausdorf and Perera 2000), would imply habitation during a pluvial period, such as the period 3600 – 2000 BP suggested by research in the Horton Plains (Chapter 1). The Sarasins also had the foresight to leave a part of the shelter unexcavated for future research.

The Sarasins’ Stone Age sites and stone artefacts spurred a wider interest in the prehistory of Sri Lanka. Although the Archaeological Department of Sri Lanka had been established as early as 1890, its initial activities had been restricted to Anuradhapura and other historical sites, which indeed remained the Department’s focus until 1968 (Deraniyagala 1990: 1). Meanwhile prehistoric investigations focused on discovering Stone Age sites in the eastern and southern parts of the country as well as on surface finds in the hill country. A considerable number

The Sarasins were intent on demonstrating ubiquitous Stone Age habitation in Sri Lanka, and continued their investigations with excavations in shelters on the Danigala

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Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka of stone artefacts were collected from the various regions of Sri Lanka and made available for study in Sri Lanka. (The Sarasins had taken their collection back to Basel, in Switzerland, where they are now held at the Culture History Museum.)

which stands till today as the authoritative ethnography on these people. Hartley (1913) developed on the Seligmanns’ research with his survey and excavation, over two years (in 1913 and 1914), at Bandarawela. He surveyed almost every hilltop within several kilometres of Bandarawela, where he found plentiful lithics, particularly along the ridge of hills located behind the Anglican Church on the Bandarawela–Welimada road. This main concentration of artefacts, known as the Church Hill site, was excavated by laying a trench 30 m x 5 m. The trench was dug to bedrock at a depth of 15 cm, and provided a large sample of specimens (4768) which Hartley classified as worked implements; while he discarded the specimens he regarded to be unmodified artefacts. Some of the artefacts collected from the site were housed in the Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology at Cambridge University (Deraniyagala 1980; Moser 1994).

In the south-central area, in Zone D2, Gardner identified prehistoric sites and collected artefacts around Belihuloya (Parker 1909:64), which appears to have been one of the core areas for Sri Lanka’s prehistoric huntergatherers. Lewis briefly investigated the Urumutta shelter in the Matara District of Zone D1 and recovered quartz artefacts, red ochre and faunal remains from not more than a few centimetres below the surface (Lewis 1912). Pole, whose artefacts from Maskeliya had been certified by the Sarasins, described these collections and suggested that the chert pieces were older than those made on quartz, and that some chert specimens could even be assigned to the Madras Acheulean Industry. Other surface collections made by Pole documented the existence of sites at Mankulam in Zone A (northern Sri Lanka), Galle in Zone D1 (in the south), Dimbula, Dick-oya and Bogavantalava in Zone D2, Nuwara-eliya in Zone D3, and Madulsima in Zone E (Deraniyagala 1980; Moser 1994).

Hartley (1913, 1914a) attempted to construct a lithic typology for the Stone Age of Sri Lanka when he distinguished between the Bandarawela specimens, assigned to the Neolithic, and the microlithic artefacts which Hartley called pygmies (in contrast to the Neolithic non-pygmies). With reference to the sequences recognised for Western Europe, Hartley inserted his pygmies between the Palaeolithic and the Neolithic, although he avoided classifying them explicitly as Mesolithic. At a more detailed level, he classified his assemblages into eighteen different categories on the basis of perceived functional variation. Similar to Paul Sarasin’s treatment of the Nilgala lithics, Hartley (1914b: 57) described many pieces in detail, but his attempt at a typological classification based on function, when in fact he had little idea as to the purpose of the tools, included a number of unnecessary subdivisions and overlapping types. Hartley (1914b: 67) also declared that the artefacts described as Palaeolithic by Pole were more likely to be Neolithic choppers or cores.

Parsons, after being appointed as chief mineralogist to the government, established (independently of Paul Sarasin) that quartz and chert had been the two major materials used during the Stone Age for making stone artefacts in Sri Lanka (Parsons 1908). He also excavated the Beli-galge shelter on the Dikmukalana Tea Estate near Gurubavila, in Zone D1, to the northeast of Ratnapura (Hartley 1911: 197; Seligmann and Seligmann 1911: 20-22). Beli-galge was re-excavated more extensively by Hartley, and yielded a prehistoric habitation deposit containing many faunal remains, most notably molluscs, to a considerable depth. Hartley’s excavation, albeit not published in any detail, was significant in having first brought to light a deposit of prehistoric remains of interesting depth, in contrast to the shallow stratigraphy encountered by the Sarasins (and later the Seligmanns) in the eastern and southern lowlands (Deraniyagala 1980; Moser 1994).

The advantages of Hartley’s classification, over the Sarasins’, were to break away from a misleading Magdalenian classification, to recognise a specific category for microliths, and to introduce some concept of periods in Sri Lanka’s prehistory. On the negative side, Hartley clearly had very little idea of what those periods might have been, and his classification was still anchored in a European typology. Finally, Hartley was fully aware that stone artefacts represent but a single facet of prehistoric human activity, and that open-air sites were particularly susceptible to the non-preservation of any other types of remains, and so he emphasised the significance of excavations in rockshelters (Deraniyagala 1980; Moser 1994).

C.G. and B.Z. Seligmann followed the research agenda of Paul and Fritz Sarasin in combining research into Vaddas ethnography, specifically those of the eastern hinterland of Zone C, with archaeological investigations. C.G. Seligmann (1908) collected stone artefacts from Bandarawela in the patana grasslands of Zone E, but, in contrast to the Sarasins, assigned most of them to a Neolithic phase. The Seligmanns (1911: 23) also posited a Neolithic affinity for the stone artefacts they recovered, beneath the historical layer, at Bandiya-galge rockshelters near Henebedda in the eastern hinterland of the country. They also undertook an excavation at Mulgama-galge, which is a large habitable cave in the same area. However, no prehistoric deposit was found beneath the topmost layer and the historical layer beneath it (Seligmann and Seligmann 1908: 163). At the time of the investigation the shelters were occupied by Vaddas. In 1911 they published their study The Veddas,

Another early scholar, E.J. Wayland, developed on Hartley’s work on open-air collections by adopting a geoarchaeological approach. Wayland’s initial survey took place in the area between the Kala-oya and Moderagam Aru rivers in the northwest (Zone A). He identified a distinctive implement-bearing geological formation – elevated basal gravel terraces capped by a dark red loam – which he termed the Plateau Deposits (Wayland 1919: 101). His treatment

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History of Prehistoric Archaeological Investigations in Sri Lanka of the depositional environment of the Plateau Deposits constituted the first attempt at reconstructing the physical environment of Sri Lanka’s prehistoric inhabitants. He postulated a wet pluvial phase correlating with a Pleistocene glaciation, followed by a dry aeolian phase during which the red loam had been deposited (Wayland 1915: 146; Wayland 1919: 104-6, 117-18). He then attempted to relate his environmental periods to a typological classification of the artefacts he had collected. This classification incorporated the specimens from Wayland’s 1915-1919 survey of openair sites, none of which he excavated, which included more than half of the island’s coastal sector, from Uda Pottana in the southeast part of Zone A, clockwise via Zone D1 to Mullaitivu in the northeast of Zone A.

sector of the Wet Zone. He mainly focused on the extinct vertebrate fauna in the Ratnapura Beds, which he termed the Ratnapura Fauna, and between 1936 and 1939 published his initial descriptions. The occurrence of extinct fauna, most notably Hexaprotodon, a hippopotamus with six incisors, led Deraniyagala to posit a correlation with the Middle or Upper Pleistocene fossils found in alluvial deposits of peninsular India, notably along the Narmada River (de Terra and Paterson 1939). This in turn led to a correlation with the Upper Siwalik fauna of the Punjab (Deraniyagala 1954: 114). Wayland’s (1919: 124) postulation of a Pleistocene phase had been confirmed with the discovery of Pleistocene fauna in the Ratnapura Beds (Moser 1994). P.E.P. Deraniyagala further observed that the Ratnapura Fauna fell into three groups. The first group consisted of extinct Pleistocene genera and species, the second group was characterised by the remains of forms which became extinct during the historical period, and the last group consisted of forms which continue to inhabit the island. The presence of fossils together with the occasional discovery of historical artefacts in the same horizon caused Deraniyagala to suspect that at least some of the fossiliferous gravels had undergone redeposition, resulting in the mixing of Pleistocene and more recent strata. This question was addressed through a series of uranium assays conducted by K.P. Oakley, of the British Museum of Natural History, on samples of Ratnapura Fauna (Deraniyagala 1958: 10304; 1963a: 5). These assays suggested that some of the deposits had indeed suffered redeposition, although a larger number of samples would have had to be assayed before any conclusive statement could be made. Additionally, two radiocarbon assays conducted on samples of wood from two localities in the Ratnapura Beds indicated that these deposits at least included a Pleistocene component (Chowdhury 1965).

Wayland (1919: 90) divided the island’s lithics into two series based on an apparent distinction in the size of the artefacts. The lithics from the red loam upper member of the Plateau Deposits, and from certain redeposited gravels of the Plateau Deposits, were seen as similar to Hartley’s pygmies from Bandarawela. These provided the basis for a “hill” series of small artefacts which Wayland assigned to a cultural phase between the Palaeolithic and Neolithic. Wayland’s second, “lowland” series included larger artefacts in the basal gravel of the Plateau Deposits. He tentatively correlated these with the Middle Palaeolithic or Mousterian of Western Europe (and sub-Saharan Africa) on the basis of supposed typological similarities. Wayland’s first series identified in all but name a Mesolithic period, to which the vast majority of Sri Lanka’s prehistoric lithics would now be assigned. His argument for older artefacts along the coastal zone was subsequently confirmed with the recognition of Middle to late Upper Pleistocene assemblages associated with the Iranamadu Formation along the island’s south coast. Wayland is also credited with providing useful data on the relative densities of artefacts and site scatters in the area he surveyed. He observed sites to be abundant and rich in the south and northwest whereas those in the east and north were found to be few and meagre (Deraniyagala 1992; Moser 1994).

In the decades following the 1930s, Deraniyagala discovered several sites with stone artefacts in the gembearing gravels, from the same horizons as those which had yielded Ratnapura Fauna fossils, and which were accordingly assigned to a Ratnapura Culture. By that time, two Lower Palaeolithic industries had been identified in subcontinental India, namely the Acheulian (or Madrasian) and the Soanian. The Soanian had been identified over parts of Pakistan and northwest India, based on the dominance of pebble or core tools, and was characterised as predominantly a chopper-cum-chopping tool industry. The Acheulian, characterised by bifacially flaked artefacts such as handaxes and cleavers, had been identified over much of the rest of India (Pappu 2001). According to P.E.P. Deraniyagala, the Ratnapura artefacts were typologically amorphous, and had no Acheulian characteristic, but they did display some chopper characteristics, making them akin to the Soanian ( Moser 1994).

2.3 Research on Prehistory during the Late PreIndependence Period In the 1930s, a decade before Sri Lanka’s independence, prehistoric research was stimulated by the appointment of P.E.P. Deraniyagala as Director of the National Museum at Colombo. This saw the inception of a new era of prehistoric research in Sri Lanka. Many of the sites which have proved pivotal during late twentieth century research were first investigated by P.E.P. Deraniyagala. Initially Deraniyagala’s main study was the alluvial sediment filling the valleys of Ratnapura. Previously, Hartley (supported by some other scholars) had proposed that the gem pits of Sabaragamuwa constituted a likely source of data on the Palaeolithic in Sri Lanka, but none had had the opportunity to probe the area. Deraniyagala collected data on fossil fauna from the gem pits in the alluvial gravel of the strike valleys of the south-western

Later on, S.U. Deraniyagala (1971) observed how the typological non-distinctiveness of the Ratnapura Industry (as he called the assemblages), compounded with the nebulous stratigraphy of these alluvial sediments, impeded any attempt at a chronological sequence. Specifically,

23

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka because of the redeposition undergone in places by the Ratnapura Beds, some of the stone artefacts occurring with the vertebrate fossils might be younger than the fossils (Deraniyagala 1992). S.U. Deraniyagala (1992) illustrated the specimens most closely approximating Acheulian types, to emphasise that even these could not be technically termed Acheulian, and declared choppers and flake tools to be the most common Ratnapura tools. He also refuted any attempted explanation for the absence of Acheulian artefacts on Sri Lanka in terms of its isolation from the Indian mainland, pointing out that Sri Lanka would have been a peninsula of India during the lower sea-levels which prevailed during most of the Pleistocene.

Beli-lena Athula, in Maniyangama of D1 Zone, conducted by Gunaratne (1971) of the National Museum of Sri Lanka). The resultant publication, The Prehistory of Sri Lanka: an Ecological Perspective (Deraniyagala 1988; 1992), is considered to be the first comprehensive in-depth account of the prehistory of Sri Lanka. A three-stage approach was planned with a view to filling the above-mentioned lacunae in the knowledge of Sri Lanka’s prehistory. The multi-stage approach permitted Deraniyagala the maximum opportunity for revamping his tactics as the research proceeded, and to narrow down the major gaps in the available knowledge of the prehistory of Sri Lanka.

In addition to the Ratnapura research, work proceeded on sites that had been investigated in the early twentieth century. In 1939 E.C. Worman Jr., a postgraduate student at Harvard University, re-investigated Wayland’s Plateau Deposits when he collected further stone artefacts from the north-western coastal lowlands between the Kala-oya and Moderagam Aru rivers. Worman agreed with Wayland in assigning the artefacts from the basal gravel to the Middle Palaeolithic. Those artefacts which he collected from the sandy clay he assigned explicitly to the Mesolithic, along with artefacts found in the vicinity of Bandarawela, thereby registering the first use of the term “Mesolithic” for Sri Lanka’s lithics (Deraniyagala 1992; Moser 1994). This idea had clearly found its time because H.A. and H.V.V. Noone, who re-investigated the Bandarawela Church Hill in 1940 (Noone and Noone 1940), also designated the site Mesolithic from the presence of microliths (Deraniyagala 1992). The most recent work at the site, to answer several outstanding questions concerning the stratigraphy and chronology of the site, was undertaken by the present writer between 8th February and 31st April 1994, allowing the site to be dated to the middle Holocene (Perera 1994).

Stage 1 included a set of probes designed to provide the necessary basis for more elaborate and cohesive projects. One major focus of attention was the open-air site of Bellan-bandi Palassa, in the dry lowlands directly beneath the Kaltota escarpment. The records left by P.E.P. Deraniyagala of his excavation and finds were deemed scanty in the critical areas of stratigraphy, chronology and cultural evolution. Two particular questions that had been left unanswered were the chronometric dating of the deposits, and the issue of the presence of pottery in association with lithics in the upper horizons (Deraniyagala and Kennedy 1972). Another objective was to analyse the stone artefacts recovered from the previous and new (1971) excavations at the site. S.U. Deraniyagala’s re-excavation addressed these problems (see Chapter 7), but it was not entirely successful in achieving all its objectives, as will be outlined in Chapter 7 where I present the results of my own fieldwork at the site. A second major project was the excavation of the Citadel of the Early and Middle Historic capital of Anuradhapura. This took place in 1969 in collaboration with K. de B. Codrington, Professor of Archaeology at the Institute of Archaeology in London. The major research aim was to delineate the transition between the Protohistoric and Early Historic periods, and to define the upper limit of Sri Lanka’s Stone Age. This landmark excavation provided definite proof that field archaeology in Sri Lanka held tremendous possibilities for future research; and it set the stage for professionalism in the field, based on new methods and techniques, introducing stratigraphic excavation to Sri Lanka for the first time. The Citadel excavation also traced the full transition in the cultural sequence from the Mesolithic, followed by a hiatus, and then the protohistoric Iron Age (Early Iron Age) developing into the Early Historic associated with the establishment of Anuradhapura as a capital city (Deraniyagala 1972b).

2.4 Overview of Research on Prehistory since Independence The establishment of the Excavation Branch of the Archaeological Department under the directorship of S.U. Deraniyagala in 1968 marked a watershed in prehistoric research in Sri Lanka. After his appointment, Deraniyagala reviewed the overall archaeological scene in Sri Lanka, and realised the vast potential of the island’s prehistoric archaeology, which remained considerably less documented than for the historical period. Deraniyagala identified thematic problems, selected those within the purview of the Excavation Branch, and devised ways of resolving them. These problems were the (a) absence of a chronological framework to which prehistoric assemblages could be referred, even tentatively, (b) lack of a cohesive palaeo-environmental history, (c) ignorance on human/ environment interactions, with particular reference to subsistence strategies, and (d) lack of placement of Sri Lanka’s prehistory within the context of South Asian and world prehistory. Since 1968, problem-oriented prehistoric research has been conducted, mainly by the Archaeological Department of Sri Lanka, under the project directorship of S.U. Deraniyagala (one exception being the research at

Stage 1 also included two major explorations for prehistoric sites. The first was conducted in the previously unexplored coastal sector between Mullaitivu in the northeast and Kumana in the southeast (see Map 1.1). The main objective of Deraniyagala and his collaborator, W.G. Solheim II of the University of Hawaii, was to test the hypothesis that prehistoric Malays had used Sri Lanka as a stop-over on their sea voyage to Madagascar (Solheim and Deraniyagala

24

History of Prehistoric Archaeological Investigations in Sri Lanka

Plate 2.1 Iranamadu Formation, Minihagal-kanda: Pleistocene gravels and red dunes on Miocene limestone (photo, courtesy Studio Times).

1972). A small number of flaked stone artefacts, presumed to be prehistoric, were recovered from the surface of various rockshelters and open sites, but evidence in support of early Malay presence was minimal. The second exploration occurred in the central highlands including the Horton Plains in Zone D3. This area has long been known to have been inhabited by prehistoric humans (Hartley 1913: 122). Systematic site survey was conducted on knolls, hill-saddles and grasslands, and brought to light some 25 Stone Age sites, with the more diagnostic assigned to the Mesolithic on the basis of lithic typology (Deraniyagala 1972a). After completion of the above work, Deraniyagala focused on human responses to palaeo-climatic change for Stage 2 of his research design. This included securing chronological resolution between the Palaeolithic and the Mesolithic through stratigraphy and artefact typology. Wayland’s Plateau Deposits, redesignated the Iranamadu Formation (Deraniyagala 1976), and were the ideal locations to begin this investigation. Deraniyagala undertook an extensive survey of these deposits, covering the northern, northwestern and southern sectors of the Iranamadu Formation (Plate 2.1). Over 50 sites were investigated, and the collected artefacts appeared to fall into two different industries, with large and medium-sized flakes and choppers indicating an early phase, perhaps of Middle Palaeolithic affinity, in contrast to the Mesolithic status indicated for geometric microliths, backed semi-lunates, and microblades of less than 2 cm length.

25 m at site 45, 15 m at site 50 and 8 m at site 49. It was hypothesised that each of these levels would correlate with a discrete altithermal (warm and wet) episode during the Pleistocene. The Red Latosol overlying the basal gravel at sites 50 and 49 was dated through thermoluminescence (TL) to c. 75,000 and 28,000 BP (Singhvi et al. 1986). Singhvi et al. were unable to provide reliable error estimates, but suggested an error of around 15% of the median estimate. In this context it should be noted that the two dates for site 50 (64.4 and 74.2 ka) differed more than the two dates for site 49 (22.7 and 28.3 ka). The latter date from site 49 is confirmed by a date from site 50, in the upper latosol, of 28.5 ka (Singhvi et al. 1986). Deraniyagala (1992: 686) inferred that the artefact-bearing horizon in the basal gravel at site 50, with its small quartz artefacts and discoidal cores, could be dated to the Last (Eem) Interglacial at around 125,000 BP, while the basal gravel of site 49 would date towards the end of this interglacial at c. 75,000 BP. More recently, Abeyratne (1996: 101) has proposed an OSL (optically stimulated luminescence) date of 150,000 BP for the basal gravel at site 50, although his only supporting reference is to unpublished data. Be that as it may, the artefact assemblage dated to around 28 ka at site 49 is distinguished by the presence of lunates, triangles and trapezoidal microliths, mainly quartz but occasionally chert. Deraniyagala (1992: 252) additionally recognised a type he called the Balangoda Point, in association with geometric microliths, which could serve as a chronological index in view of its technological and stylistic specialisation.

Stage 3 continued with detailed investigation of sites 45, 49, and 50 in and around Bundala in the south (Deraniyagala 1992). These sites were selected based on the absolute heights of their basal gravels above mean sea level – c.

In stage 4 Deraniyagala (1988) synthesised the data secured from stages 1-3. The problems formulated in this stage were (and still are) assayed in stage 5. The latter comprised primarily a series of excavations of rockshelters,

25

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka in the lowland Wet Zone of Sri Lanka, between 1978 and 1986. Deraniyagala recognised the importance of these sites for providing long continuous sequences, with better preservation conditions than in the Iranamadu Formation. The three major excavations, Fa Hien-lena, Kitulgala Belilena and Batadomba-lena, are most relevant to my research, and the first two are described in some detail below. A fourth important site is Attanagoda Alu-lena (“ash cave”), located c. 15 km west of Kegalla. The deposit of the largest of the three westward facing entrances to the Alu-lena cave complex was excavated to bedrock over a single season in 1983, under the direction of W.H. Wijeyapala. During the early Anuradhapura period, much of the prehistoric deposit appears to have been removed when the site was levelled during its conversion into a temple. Of the three identifiable cultural deposits that remained, the upper two layers seem to have been disturbed during the recent construction of a Buddhist shrine, and only layer 3, the lowest, survived as a well sealed occupation deposit. It has two radiocarbon dates on charcoal of around 10,350 cal BP (Wijeyapala 1997).

so as to build up the entrance. Area A currently comprises roof-fall with vestiges of prehistoric occupation within it at c. 6.2 m below the surface. The age of the deposit has not been determined, although Deraniyagala (1992: 695) has hypothesised a correlation with the last interglacial at c. 125,000 BP. Area B is located approximately 20 m east of the main chamber. It was excavated on a grid of one metre squares over 4 x 5 metres labelled alphanumerically. The following squares were excavated: K6, K7, M6, M7, M8, M9, N5, N6, N7, N8, O6, and O7. The excavation was conducted stratigraphically down to bedrock and yielded a cultural sequence from c. 38,000 to 5400 years ago, including reports of Sri Lanka’s oldest human burial (Deraniyagala 1992; Wijeyapala 1997). The top layer, Layer 1, comprised brown silty sand with prehistoric occupation debris mixed with recent artefacts, due to levelling of the floor. Beneath it, Layer 2 consisted of light brown grey silty sand, approximately 50 cm thick, with a high density of cultural material, and the fractional remains of two interred individuals coated with red ochre. The layer is dated by a radiocarbon determination on charcoal to c. 5400 cal BP. The next layer down, Layer 3, is light brown, loose sandy silt which is very rich in cultural material. Two radiocarbon dates have been secured on charcoal – c. 7700 cal BP and 7900 cal BP (Table 2.1).

2.5 Excavation of Fa Hien-lena Fa Hien-lena (site code YF), one of the largest known caves in Sri Lanka, is situated at 80º 12’ 55” E by 6º 38’ 55” N in Yatagampitiya village near Bulathsinhala in the Kalutara District (Plate 2.2). It is popularly known as Fa Hien’s cave because of the belief that the famous Chinese Buddhist monk Fa Hien had sojourned there while on his pilgrimage to Adam’s Peak. This shelter in gneiss rock faces east and is easily accessed via a stone path. The mouth has a width of c. 30 m and an average height above the floor of 20 m. The interior is c. 10 m deep and slopes down from west to east. The site was first examined by S.U. Deraniyagala in 1968 and excavated over several seasons between 1986 and 1988 by W.H. Wijeyapala (1997).

The dominant occupation deposit at the site occurred in Layer 4, comprising dark brown silty sand of medium compactness, c. 25 cm thick, with a high density of occupation debris (Wijeyapala 1997). The contents included a partial interment in a lower horizon of layer 4 without red ochre, a grindstone smeared with red ochre, and seven postholes. The three radiocarbon dates (on charcoal) calibrate to between c. 38,000 and 30,000 BP. The earliest human occupation at the site is represented by Layer 5, with fragmentary human remains. It is a dark brown to yellow, moderately loose, sandy silt. Layer 5 is very rich in cultural material including faunal remains, stone artefacts and burnt shell, and is dated on charcoal to around 38,000 BP, but possibly in excess of 40,000 BP (Table 2.1). In summary, Fa Hien-lena represents habitation during the Late Pleistocene prior to the LGM, and during the middle Holocene, but it lacks any dated evidence of occupation between the LGM and the early Holocene, suggesting a lengthy hiatus in occupation between layers 4 and 3.

Two areas of the cave, labelled A and B, were probed with a view to understanding the cultural sequence of the cave. Area A, located in the middle of the main chamber, used to be a higher and more extensive occupation deposit than it is now. Wijeyapala (1997) observed a stained line on the cave walls, approximately 3 m above the present floor, which he identified with the original floor of the shelter, before the Buddhist occupants levelled the deposit to transform it into a place of pilgrimage. A considerable amount of deposit appears to have dumped at the front of the shelter

Table 2.1. Calibrated radiocarbon dates (on charcoal) from Fa Hien-lena. With the top three dates, calibrated using CALIB 5.0.2 (Stuiver and Reimer 2005), minimum range refers to the one-sigma range and maximum range refers to the two-sigma range. With the bottom three dates, calibrated using CalPal (Weninger et al. 2006), minimum range refers to the median intercept on the calibration axis (returned by CAlPal) and maximum range refers to the entire range of possible dates on the calibrated output. Layer

Sample

Lab. Code

Determination (BP)

Minimum range (BP)

Maximum range (BP)

2 3 3a 4 4 4a 5

B-N5-2 B-M6-2 B-N6-2a B-M7-3 B-N7-3 B-M7-5 B-M6-6

Beta-33297 Beta-33293 Beta-33298 Beta-33295 Beta-33299 Beta-33296 Beta-33294

4750 + 60 6850 + 80 7100 + 60 24,470 + 290 30,060 + 290 32,060 + 630 33,070 + 630

5334-5585 7611-7783 7857-7981 29,440 35,330 37,540 38,220

5324-5594 7571-7917 7795-8020 28,100-36,000 33,500-36,800 35,200-38,900 36,300-41,600

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History of Prehistoric Archaeological Investigations in Sri Lanka

Plate 2.2 Fa Hien-lena (scale: human figures in distance).

2.6 Excavation of Kitulgala Beli-lena

nearly 4 m below the surface, and identified nine major occupation phases labelled X, IX, VIII, VII, VI, V, IV, III and II, before reaching bed rock in the tenth (I) layer. Layers X and IX consist of recent backfill comprising sieved residues from the shelter deposits which appears to have been disturbed in historical and recent times, during the extraction of guano fertiliser and the levelling of the floor by the Buddhist monks who lived in the site. Layer VIII possibly represents a transitional episode between the Stone Age and the Early Iron Age (Wijeyapala 1997), although Deraniyagala (1992: 697) suspects that it may be contaminated with later material.

Beli-lena is located in the Ingoya Estate near Kitulgala (Plate 2.3). The shelter is ideally suited for habitation by human foragers: the average dimensions of the floor are around 30 m x 10 m, and it is well lit and dry even at the height of the monsoon. A stream flows over and below the shelter, which is similar to Batadomba-lena in that respect. The entrance faces west and is easily accessed, in recent times along a stone path. Lowland rainforest is found in a very limited area adjoining the shelter, as most of the surrounding primary forest had been cleared for rubber and tea plantations during the last century. The upper deposit in the shelter has been disturbed during extraction of guano fertiliser for the plantations, to a depth of 5 m (Wijeyapala 1997). In the 1950s the shelter was converted into a Buddhist monastery.

The in situ, prehistoric habitation deposit ends with Layer VII, dated to the late Holocene by the two calibrated radiocarbon dates of c. 3400 BP and c. 4000 BP. The Layer VI deposit, which contains stone artefacts and faunal remains, and which was found over most of the habitable area of the shelter, reflects more intensive habitation at the site. It is dated to the early Holocene with calibrated dates of c. 7900 and 9100 BP. Pleistocene habitation was encountered in Layer Va (1 – 3), which is represented by buff coloured silt with a high degree of homogeneity in its bedding (Deraniyagala 1992; Wijeyapala 1997). The nine radiocarbon dates from the layer are stratigraphically consistent and range, after calibration, between c. 11,500 and 14,000 BP (Table 2.2).

Beli-lena was first tested in 1960 by P.E.P. Deraniyagala, then Director of National Museums. His cursory and essentially unreported excavation recovered stone artefacts and faunal remains. In 1978, S.U. Deraniyagala tested the site as part of Stage 5 of his research design. Deraniyagala’s test excavation revealed that the shelter contained a rich habitation deposit which fully merited intensive excavation. This occurred over several seasons, in 1979 and 1983 under the direction of Deraniyagala with W.H. Wijeyapala as senior field supervisor; and finally in 1986, under the direction of Wijeyapala (Deraniyagala 1992: 697). This extensive excavation reached the base of the deposit at

Layer IV, a dark yellowish deposit, is culturally Mesolithic with geometric microliths. The two dates from the basal

27

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka

Plate 2.3 Kitulgala Beli-lena (scale: human figures in distance).

Table 2.2. Calibrated radiocarbon dates on charcoal from Kitulgala Beli-lena (CALIB 5.0.2). Dates from Deraniyagala (1992) and Wijeyapala (1997). Layer

Lab. code

Determination (BP)

One sigma range (BP)

Two sigma range (BP)

VII-a-2 VII-a-1 VI-b-1 VI-a-1 V-a-3 V-a-3 V-a-3 V-a-3 V-a-3 V-a-3 V-a-3 V-a-2 V-a-1 IV-b-3 IV-b-2 IV-b-2 III-c-3 III-c-2 III-c-2 III-c-2 III-c-1 III-b-1 III-b-1 III-a-3 III-a-2

Beta-18448 PRL-1012 Beta-18446 Beta-18445 BS-287 BS-288 BS-289 PRL-861 BS-290 Fra-91 BS-291 BS-292 BS-293 Beta-33287 BS-294 Beta-33286 Beta-33285 Fra-163 Fra-164 Beta-18443 Beta-18442 PRL-1013 Beta-18441 Beta-33283 Beta-18439

3640 + 60 3170 + 120 8160 + 80 7040 + 80 10,200 + 170 10,280 + 170 10,010 + 160 11,910 + 430/-410 11,550 + 180 11,780 + 220 11,570 + 210 11,520 + 220 12,240 + 160 11,860 + 70 11,750 + 390 13,210 + 80 13,150 + 90 15,780 + 400 16,400 + 650 18,050 + 180 17,810 + 170 17,870 + 570/-530 18,900 + 350 20,560 + 130 BP >26,425 BP

3875-4078 3255-3557 9011-9248 7794-7949 11,408-12,232 11,653-12,543 11,250-11,802 13,266-14,345 13,247-13,602 13,392-13,836 13,247-13,649 13,197-13,622 13,882-14,453 13,652-13,801 13,204-14,042 15,439-15,832 15,347-15,745 18,729-19,419 18,952-20,176 21,114-21,806 20,752-21,310 20,557-21,942 22,044-22,990 24,395-24,898 >31,070

3778-4148 3069-3688 8791-9337 7697-7998 11,267-12,585 11,367-12,670 11,140-12,146 13.041-15,039 13,100-13,771 13,212-14,094 13,057-13,851 12,947-13,799 13,785-14,848 13,496-13,884 12,898-14,759 15,271-16,059 15,186-15,973 18,104-19,825 18,140-21,101 20,831-22,035 20,497-21,615 19,996-22,465 21,468-23,557 24,213-25,325 >31,070

28

History of Prehistoric Archaeological Investigations in Sri Lanka

Plate 2.4 Kitulgala Beli-lena: microlithic lunate (scale: 1 cm).

Plate 2.5 Kitulgala Beli-lena: bone points (scale: 2 cm).

discovery with Leo, Hexaprotodon, Rhinoceros, and Bibos at a depth of 4.57 m. However, its hominid status is in question. A similar problem of identification seems to apply to the left central upper incisor, found at a depth of 5.5 m at the Balahapuva gem pit in association with remains of Hexaprotodon, Rhinoceros, Elephas, Bibos, Axis and Rusa. It is a gaur or other large ungulate according to Kennedy (2000: 187), whereas Deraniyagala (1963) had assigned it to a new hominin genus – Homopithecus sinhaleyus. The other Ratnapura find, a semi-mineralised, dolichocephalic skullcap of a young Homo sapiens woman, found at the depth of 2.74 m in a gem pit in Dakaragoda, is clearly human but its antiquity is unknown (Kennedy 2000: 187-88).

horizon of this layer (IV-b-2), which includes two secondary human interments, range after calibration between c. 13,500 and 15,500 BP (Table 2.2). With reference to layer III the occupation deposits III-c-3 (upper) and III-c-2 proved to be very rich in ash and charcoal, the by-products of cooking as indicated by the inclusion of food remains. The Layer III-c-3 date calibrates to c. 15,500 BP, while Layer III-c-2 has three radiocarbon dates between c. 19,000 and 21,500 BP (calibrated). Beneath Layer III-c-2 occurred Layer III-c-1, with a calibrated date on charcoal of c. 21,000 BP, Layer III-b-1, with two calibrated charcoal dates of c. 21,000 and c. 22,500 BP, Layer III-a-3, with geometric microliths and a calibrated charcoal date of c. 24,500 BP (Table 2.2), and Layer III-a-2 with a charcoal date in excess of 26,425 BP (Beta-18439). This last date would calibrate to over 31,070 BP using CalPal (Weninger et al. 2006).

The Sarasins’ excavation of the Nilgala shelter in 1907 yielded the first prehistoric human remains in Sri Lanka. Four distinct individuals were identified on the basis of the tooth and jaw fragments, while the postcranial fragments (including pieces of long bone and a partial phalanx of a right big toe) were not clearly assignable to the three (or two? – see Chapter 8) identifiably distinct individuals. The description of heavily worn teeth on two of the adults would be consistent with a hunter-gatherer subsistence pattern, as would the (presumed) recovery of these remains from beneath the layer with potsherds. Sarasin and Sarasin (1908: 91-92) also described prominent alveolar prognathism on two of the individuals, including the child, and robust cranial fragments up to 9 mm thick on the mature adult identified as male. These undiagnostic fragments are at least consistent with the skull morphology described from Sri Lanka’s better preserved prehistoric human remains (Table 1.1).

Overall, the Beli-lena Pleistocene deposits complement Fa Hien-lena in representing habitation between the LGM and the Pleistocene-Holocene junction, a period not captured in the latter sequence. Finally, Layer III-a-1 is predominantly a very compact clayey loam with in situ occupation deposits, but (unfortunately) very poor preservation of charcoal for dating. Its antiquity in the range of perhaps 35 – 40 ka would suggest broad contemporaneity with the oldest deposits at Fa Hien-lena. 2.7 Excavation of Prehistoric Human Remains The previous outline of research into Sri Lanka’s prehistory provides the context to describe the recovery of human remains from the island. The recovery of archaic forms of Homo would provide important confirmation of the archaeological evidence for habitation as early as the Middle Pleistocene, but unfortunately remains of this ilk are yet to be reliably identified. P.E.P. Deraniyagala (1955) nominated the taxon Homo sinhaleyus for a specimen resembling an early hominin frontal bone from Jahinge Angilia Kumbura, Ratnapura, found in association with an Upper Pleistocene hippopotamus and more recent fauna. Close study however revealed the specimen’s true status to be a natural conglomerate of stony gravel (Kennedy 2000: 187). P.E.P. Deraniyagala (1963b) assigned a premolar fragment from the Lindagava Kumbura gem pit to the same taxon, confident of its early age from its reported

The re-excavation by Hartley of Beli-galge also yielded fragmentary human remains, cranial parts and bits of long bone, which were apparently deposited in the Colombo Museum. The human remains from Beli-galge appear to have been associated with the Balangoda (Mesolithic) Culture (Hartley 1911: 197; Seligmann and Seligmann 1911: 20-22; Deraniyagala 1992: 329). P.E.P. Deraniyagala, in his 1937 exploration of Batadomba-lena, also recovered the remains of ten individuals (Kennedy and Elgart 1988: 75-76) in association with Mesolithic cultural remains from the upper layers of the shelter. Most of these remains have been assigned to adults, apart from a few deciduous

29

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka teeth from one or more juveniles. The remains were sent to a Harvard-trained physical anthropologist in India, B.S. Guha, for comment, who did not deliver any commentary owing to the highly fragmented nature of the material. Of some interest nonetheless is P.E.P. Deraniyagala’s observation that certain cranial fragments displayed exceptional thickness, and that differences between the bones in their loss of organic content may suggest variation in antiquity (P.E.P. Deraniyagala 1940: 367-68, 1953: 129; S.U. Deraniyagala 1992: 329).

left parietal, recovered from Guneratne’s (1971) excavation at Beli-lena Athula, in a Mesolithic context radiocarbon dated to c. 7800 BP. The excavations by S.U. Deraniyagala and myself at Batadomba-lena in 1980-82 recovered burials solely in the deposit from the earliest two habitation phases (contexts 6 and 7 in Kennedy and Elgart 1988), in contrast to the burials which P.E.P. Deraniyagala had excavated from more recent habitation layers) (see Kennedy and Elgart 1998: 74-76). Although all of these burials are of Late Pleistocene age, the 1980-82 burials are more informative and include a massive mandible with dimensions that compare well with those of Middle Pleistocene hominin mandibles from Heidelberg in Germany and Ternifine in Algeria (Kennedy 2000: 185). The terminal Pleistocene burials from the Kitulgala Beli-lena excavations, directed by Deraniyagala (1978-83) and Wijeyapala (1985), are poorer preserved than the Batadomba-lena remains, but nonetheless back up the Batadomba-lena sample in indicating large, well-worn teeth, as also recorded at Bellan-bandi Palassa (Kennedy 2000: 185). The literature on the Kitulgala Beli-lena burial material is rather confused (see Chapter 8) but the point to observe, as stated by Wijeyapala (1997: 348), is that “Human skeletal remains were collected from all undisturbed levels”.

The first definitive indication of the physical appearance of Sri Lanka’s Stone Age inhabitants was the human frontal bone excavated at Ravanalla, in Zone E, which also produced a well-worn third molar at a depth of approximately 0.8 m (Deraniyagala 1953: 128). This individual, aged c. 30 years at death, had conspicuously thick bone, heavy supraorbital ridges with strongly developed zygomatic processes, and a thick frontal crest. Deraniyagala designated it as the holotype for “Balangoda Man” (Kennedy 1974: 202). Alu-galge, near Telulla in Zone B, also yielded a poorly preserved, carbonate-encrusted, fragmentary individual, possibly from a Mesolithic context. Unlike many rockshelter burials it was however a primary burial, probably a female, placed on its left side in a flexed position and facing east (Kennedy 2000: 237). Although the cranial bone is not as thick as in the frontal from Ravanalla, the heavily developed supraorbital ridges and well-worn third molar equal the Ravanalla condition. Although the mandible is gracile with a small but distinct mental tubercle, the temporal lines are prominent, suggesting the sex to be male (Deraniyagala 1955a: 296-301). Deraniyagala concluded that the Ravanalla and Telulla Alu-galge specimens possessed strong “Australoid” affinities, and that they were the direct ancestors of the Vadda huntergatherers.

The most recent excavation of prehistoric human remains involved the recovery of the Fa Hien-lena series by Wijeyapala between 1986 and 1988. The burials were sent to K.A.R. Kennedy for analysis, including an unsuccessful attempt to recover mitochondrial DNA from the remains, and have apparently been returned to the Archaeological Department in Colombo. Most of the Fa Hien-lena remains are highly fragmentary, and dominated by juveniles, apart from a young adult female described as generally gracile. The moderately large size of the teeth extend to the deciduous dentition, and even the deciduous teeth show the high rates of occlusal wear to be expected of huntergatherers (Kennedy 2000: 181-82, 238-39).

The initial season of excavation of the open-air site of Bellan-bandi Palassa, in 1956, recovered a more adequate sample representing the remains of at least twelve individuals (Deraniyagala 1958a). Subsequent field seasons at the site, up to 1961, yielded an estimated total of 30 – 35 individuals (Chapter 8), a number that has not been increased with the later, more limited excavations by S.U. Deraniyagala and Kennedy (1972) or the present writer. This series formed the basis for the PhD dissertation written by K.A.R. Kennedy (1962) at the University of California, Berkeley, and also is the primary source of information for the morphological description of “Balangoda Man” as muscular and archaic (Table 1.1). As discussed in Chapter 7, the deposits in which the burials occurred is now dated to the terminal Pleistocene. Kennedy’s study also included a fragmentary human cranium, consisting of an occipital and

The Fa Hien-lena material includes Sri Lanka’s oldest definite human remains, dating to perhaps as early as 40,000 years ago (cf. Table 2.1). They cap off a remarkable burial sequence that extends throughout the remainder of the Pleistocene through to the mid- to late Holocene. As noted in Chapter 1, palaeoanthropologists have not seen reason to infer any more than a single population (“Balangoda Man”) for these burial remains. They also indicate one expected attribute of fully modern humans – intentional burial – throughout the circa 40,000 years represented by Sri Lanka’s rockshelter deposits.

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Chapter 3 Methodology

3.1 Introduction

common goals at both sites but also certain site-specific goals. At both sites, sediment samples were collected from the major contexts (stratigraphically definable units) and analysed at the Australian National University. Charcoal, faunal residues and lithic micro-debitage was extracted from both sites’ sediment samples. Sediment blocks were collected by Professor Simpson for augmented sedimentary analysis at both sites. However, the Batadomba-lena sediment samples I collected were generally much richer in cultural content than those from Bellan-bandi Palassa. Identification of plant macrofossils from the Batadombalena sediment samples makes a significant contribution to reconstructing patterns of site use and environmental change, but this is not the case for Bellan-bandi Palassa. Moreover, the Batadomba-lena stratigraphy is complex, with numerous features that reflect site activities, whereas the Bellan-bandi Palassa stratigraphy is coarse-grained and primarily of value for chronological (rather than behavioural) interpretation.

This chapter will describe the specific techniques used in my fieldwork and laboratory analyses, justified in terms of the research questions detailed at the end of Chapter 1. The relevant topics are: (a) Excavation and Recording, including attention to filling the gaps in the radiocarbon chronology; (b) Sediment Analysis, including grain-size and grainshape analysis, and measurement of organic and carbonate content; (c) Sediment Micromorphology, currently being undertaken by Ian Simpson, Professor of Geo-archaeology and Environmental History at the University of Stirling in Scotland; (d) Stone Artefact Analysis; (e) Faunal Analysis; and (f) Plant Macrofossil Analysis. In the case of Batadomba-lena, which is my main site, the bulk of the cultural material, recovered during previous field seasons directed by S.U. Deraniyagala, has been classified but not described. The Late Pleistocene deposit at this site is perhaps the most important in Sri Lanka for understanding early modern human behaviour in South Asia, and so the site’s archaeological documentation dovetails neatly with addressing my major research questions.

An explanation should be provided of the meaning of “context” in Sri Lanka archaeology. The intended meaning is roughly “unit of stratification” as described by Harris (1989). However, the contexts were given binomial and even trinomial labels to capture stratigraphic relationships as interpreted by the excavator. For instance, at Kitulgala Beli-lena, the lowest units with cultural content were labelled Contexts III-a-1, III-a-2, III-a-3, III-b-1, III-c-1, III-c-2 and III-c-3 (Deraniyagala 1992; Wijeyapala 1997; Kennedy and Elgart 1998: 80-81). In the present work, contexts as recognised in earlier descriptions of rockshelters are renamed layers (Tables 2.1 and 2.2), and the term context is redefined to correspond exactly with Harris’s units of stratification. This change in terminology reflects standard practice at Sri Lanka’s Archaeological Department following its adoption of Harris’s (1989) recording methodology of stratigraphy.

My 2004-2005 fieldwork in Sri Lanka included limited re-excavation of two sites, Batadomba-lena and Bellanbandi Palassa; a third site, the Pallemalala shell midden, was also targeted, but this plan was dashed by the site’s destruction during the tsunami in 2004. The two reexcavated sites differ in terms of their environment, chronology, information context, and implications for my research questions. Batadomba-lena is one of three major rockshelters located in Sri Lanka’s lowland Wet Zone (Zone D1) with evidence of occupation extending back to c. 36,000 years ago. The cultural contents of the two other main sites, Fa Hien-lena and Kitulgala Beli-lena (Chapter 2), were analysed by Wijeyapala (1997). The Batadombalena cultural contents had remained largely unanalysed, and this task was accordingly a priority for my thesis research, including comparison with Wijeyapala’s (1997) findings to the degree that such comparisons can be made. Bellanbandi Palassa, on the other hand, stands out on its own as a large, open-air site of the dry lowlands (Zone B), notable for its burials and preservation of organic remains to a degree otherwise restricted to shell middens (in terms of openair sites). In addition, the chronology was expected to be Holocene, based on the excavation report by Deraniyagala and Kennedy (1972).

3.2 Excavation and Recording All excavations undertaken in 2005 observed depositional (‘natural’) stratigraphy and took place on a 1 metre x 1 metre, or smaller, grid. Wherever a boundary could be observed between depositional units, be they features or layers, excavation proceeded along the interface so as to keep the contents of the depositional units distinct. However, on occasions a thick layer of particular interest – in particular, the basal cultural layer at Bellan-bandi Palassa – was subdivided vertically into sub-layers to provide

My limited re-excavations allow the achievement of certain

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Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka control over chronological intervals not distinguished from each other through detectable depositional processes. This concession to arbitrary depth units (“spits”) marks a strategic departure from the practice of stratigraphic excavation recommended by Harris (1989). However, it still admits analysis of the excavated units through context matrices. Stratigraphic unconformities such as pit outlines, as well as pit infills, are treated as separate contexts, as are large blocks of roof-fall and other major inclusions.

lena samples, small portions were used for the precise measurement of their pH at the Low-Country Tea Research Institute in Ratnapura. In addition, Ian Simpson visited both of the excavated sites to collect block samples of sediment for thin-section analysis and micro-morphological study. These block samples were collected from the exposed section walls and their location was recorded on the relevant section drawings (e.g., Figure 7.4). Excavation was performed using 2-inch long (c. 5 cm) masonry trowels, brushes and dust-pans. The excavators recovered cultural items that they could identify and placed them in zip-lock plastic bags, labelled inside and outside, with items of the same type (e.g., lithics) bagged together for each excavated unit. In addition, all excavated sediment was wet sieved through a 1/8-inch (c. 3 mm) mesh. At Batadomba-lena, wet sieving took place at the stream immediately beneath the site, and at Bellan-bandi Palassa it occurred at the stream that cuts past the site. The wet-sieved finds were then sun-dried and sorted by local labourers under the supervision of Archaeological Department personnel. Wet sieving also assisted the collection of organic remains because charcoal and other floral remains, and the less mineralised faunal material, tend to separate from the mineral constituents by floating in water. These organic remnants were collected by skimming the top of the sieve, and stored in zip-lock plastic bags separately from the materials collected directly during excavation.

At both Batadomba-lena and Bellan-bandi Palassa, site documentation was performed using the Sri Lanka Archaeological Department’s standard context cards and sheets. These are dual language (Sinhala and English), and were completed on site by the excavation supervisors, who endeavoured to maintain consistent standards across the recording system. Recorded information includes context number, excavation square, the excavator’s name and the date of excavation. The site supervisors also recorded the approximate average thickness of the context, the Munsell colour of the (moist) sediment, the composition or texture of the sediment (sand, silt and clay) as it appeared to the supervisor, and the compaction of the deposit based on its resistance to excavation (gauged in terms of high, medium, or loose). The supervisors also estimated the likely processes that had led to deposition of the sediment, such as rapid backfill, fluviatile activity, or human activity, and whether the unit seemed to have clear-cut or diffuse bedding. The sharpness of the boundary between abutting contexts was noted along a gradient from very diffuse, medium diffuse, slightly diffuse, slightly sharp, and medium sharp to very sharp. Finally, the site supervisors noted the apparent density of cultural remains in terms of their absence, low density, moderate density, or high density, along with notes on specific finds.

The collection of charcoal is particularly important in addressing three major issues of chronology regarding my sites. One is the precise dating of the basal habitation layer at Batadomba-lena, which is currently known only through a single determination with a large error (27,700 +2,090/-1,660 BP; PRL – 857). The second is the antiquity of layer 3, the uppermost intact habitation deposit at the site, for which no determination has been available (Chapter 4). The third issue is to date the main habitation deposit at Bellan-bandi Palassa, for which there are four contradictory and dubious radiocarbon, uranium-thorium and thermoluminescence determinations (Chapter 7).

Other graphical and metrical records made on site, all at a 1:20 scale, include cumulative section drawings across the site, and two-dimensional plans of each separate context with in situ features and large artefacts plotted on the context plan before removal. At Batadomba-lena, the recording of the relative depths of layers, features, and plotted artefacts was facilitated with reference to a surveying mark attached to the shelter wall.

Specific Details for the Batadomba-lena Rockshelter The major excavation at Batadomba-lena, between 1979 and 1986, covered an area of 6 metres north-south by 5.5 metres east-west, to a depth of c. 2.8 metres, where the gneiss bedrock was encountered. The mechanical procedures of excavation were the same as those described above. However, at that time the excavation protocols followed by Sri Lanka’s Archaeological Department had not yet been revised to conform to the detailed stratigraphic system recommended by Harris (1989). Ten layers, originally called contexts, were recognised (Deraniyagala 1992), or 12 including sub-layers (4a, 4b, 6a, 6b, 7a, 7b and 7c). The layers, which increment sequentially from the top to the bottom of the site, were correlated with eight phases which increment sequentially from the bottom to the top (see Chapter 4). Smaller excavation units within the excavated layers, often cross-referenced to a square or collection of squares were frequently recognised. However, interpreting

During the excavation, sediment samples were regularly collected from the contexts with sedimentary content, and, in the case of the largest or most complex contexts, two to three sediment samples were collected. Collection of sediment samples for laboratory analysis has not been standard practice in archaeological research in Sri Lanka, and accordingly the information to be provided on the sedimentary history of my two excavated sites will make a novel contribution to the interpretation of these sites. Occasionally, judgment was exercised not to collect a sediment sample, particularly with contexts towards the top of a site where recent disturbance was suspected. The samples were chosen to be representative of the context, but did not conform to column sampling, which in any case would have been impossible for the complex depositional sequence at Batadomba-lena. With many of the Batadomba-

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Methodology these excavation units for the purpose of analysing the excavated assemblage, and relating them to the contexts recognised in the 2005 excavation, would have introduced major complications of uncertain benefit, and accordingly synthesis of the Batadomba-lena remains will usually be in terms of layers. Only with layer 7a to 7c are the data kept disaggregated, in view of the long time period represented, and the importance of a detailed understanding of the site’s earliest habitation.

David Bulbeck. The analysis followed standard procedures developed for the analysis of archaeological sediments, as detailed by Limbrey (1975) and Hughes (1986). The sediment sample was removed from its bag, the Munsell colour of the moist sediment was checked, and any soil textural features were observed and described. Any observed cultural materials were removed from the sample. The sample was then subdivided into three: a bulk sample weighing approximately 100g, a laboratory sample of approximately 25g, and a small control sample (resealed, relabelled and stored for future reference).

Following the 1980s excavations, a protective wall had been built to preserve the sections and unexcavated deposit for future study. At the start of the 2005 season, the north section of the protective wall was carefully dismantled and removed. Nearly two weeks were required to dismantle the wall in a way that minimised risk to the sections, and allowed ready restoration of the wall following the 2005 season. The major occupation deposits, as previously identified, were demarcated with reference to the notebooks, section drawings, floor plans, and context diagrams which had been stored at Anuradhapura in the Department’s storage centre. Attention focused on the north section of the previous excavation, as it represents all major phases of the occupation deposit.

The bulk sample was air-dried for at least 48 hours, then reweighed to estimate the moisture content (i.e., the difference between the bulk sample’s moist and dry weight, expressed as a percentage of its dry weight). The Munsell colour of the air-dried sediments was recorded, and the sample placed in a set of nested sieves with mesh sizes of 2 mm (-1 Φ), 1 mm (0 Φ), 0.5 mm (1 Φ), 0.25 mm (2 Φ), 0.125 mm (3 Φ), and 0.0625 mm (4 Φ), set on a pan to collect the silt- and clay-sized particles. The set of nested sieves was manually shaken for a minimum of 20 minutes, and the sediment size fractions collected in each of the nested sieves, and the pan, were weighed and bagged. The graded weights of the sediments within the size range of sand particles (0 Φ to 4 Φ) were plotted as cumulative frequencies on probability graph paper. These weights also allowed the sediment to be accurately characterised in terms of its composition of gravel, sand and clay/silt particles.

The northern section, along the northern baulk of the 17G, 17H, 17I, 17J, and 17K squares, was cleaned using 1-inch (c. 2.5 cm) brushes. The exposed wall of sediment was closely inspected, and a new context recognised and numbered with each change to the observed sedimentary conditions, including roof-fall and cut and fill features. The contexts were then followed for half a metre north, and over two metres east-west. The excavated quarter- and halfsquares were labelled 18-G, 18-H and 18-I, to conform to the previous grid system. During the procedure, depositional units initially treated as distinct from each other were found to connect with each other, and so refer to the same unit, and in these cases the context numbers are treated as equal. In summary, the 136 contexts recognised during excavation have been reduced to 125 distinct contexts in the final stratigraphic interpretation (Chapter 4).

Before sieving commenced, charcoal, ecofacts and other cultural materials (more readily apparent after drying compared to their presence in the wet sediment sample) were collected from the 2 mm fraction. Further cultural materials were collected as they appeared in the nested sieves. These micro-material samples have proved particularly valuable for the micro-debitage and plant macro-fossil analyses from Batadomba-lena (Chapters 5 and 6). Further information on the sediments was collected using the following three methods. (1) The organic content was estimated through the loss-on-ignition test, by heating 2.5 grammes of air-dried sediment in an oven at 650o C for an hour. The sediment was weighed again after being extracted from the oven, and the loss in weight expressed as a percentage of the pre-heated weight, to estimate the sediment’s percentage of organic content. (2) The presence of carbonates in the sediment was recorded by adding a few drops of hydrochloric acid (5% concentration) to about 1.5 g of air-dried sediment, and observing the extent of fizzing that resulted, and any perceptible loss in sediment weight during the fizzing. This test was not carried out on every sediment sample, because it soon became apparent that the presence of carbonates was generally minimal. (3) Shape analysis of the granules using a standard chart that illustrates granule shape along two dimensions, varying from rounded to angular along one dimension, and spherical to tabular and platy along the other dimension (Limbrey 1975). The shape of the granules in the 2 mm fraction was recorded with the naked eye, while the granule shape in the

3.3 Laboratory Analysis of the Sediment Samples All sediment samples collected during the 2005 season were transported directly to the Quarantine Laboratory at the School of Archaeology and Anthropology. The sediment attributes noted in the field were then complemented or even superseded by laboratory observations on the sediment samples. For instance, after the sediment samples were unpacked, their colour was recorded again with the Munsell chart, both before and after drying. Composition of the sediment was also determined precisely through sorting the dried sediment through a set of graded sieves with their mesh size decrementing from 2 mm to 0.0625 mm. Field observations however remain important for verification of the identity of the context and explanation of differences observed under field and laboratory conditions. I performed the sedimentary analysis between November 2005 and February 2006 under the direct supervision of

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Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka smaller-sized fractions was recorded under a low-power microscope. At both sites, granule shape appeared similar throughout the layers represented by sediment samples, and accordingly, owing to time constraints, not all sediment samples were analysed for granule shape.

saw blade into blanks almost 10 mm thick. Each cut blank was then hand ground to a flat surface using different grades of wet and dry carborundum abrasive paper. The block was then mounted on a glass using lactite light-cured adhesive. After the bubbles from the glue were removed, the sample was prepared, and dried for 15 minutes through exposure to ultraviolet light. The mounted block was then cut to about 2 mm thickness and then slowly ground down to a consistent 30 μm thickness, monitored optically and through direct measurement, in a Logitech LP 50 diamond lapping and polishing machine. Finally a cover glass was placed on the thin-section.

3.4 Thin-Section Analysis and Sediment Micromorphology The full results of Ian Simpson’s studies of the sediment samples he collected from Batadomba-lena and Bellanbandi Palassa are not available at the time of submission of this work for printing. I look forward to future collaboration with Professor Simpson on the publication of his results, and his information on the sites’ formation processes and sedimentary history, in the light of my research. In the meantime, some preliminary results are available and will be referred to in the relevant chapters. Therefore, I describe the methodology Simpson employed from information he provided.

The thin-sections were then examined under a petrographic microscope, and the features described. Micromorphological analyses of the glass-mounted thinsections are being undertaken using an Olympus BX-50 polarising microscope over a range of magnifications (x 7.5 to x 400). Both transmitted (plain polarised and between crossed-polar) and reflected (oblique incident) light sources are used. Descriptions are being made following internationally accepted terminology (Bullock et al., 1985; Stoops, 2003) with assessment of the coarse and fine mineral material, organic material and groundmass fabric. The description includes structure, which refers to the size, shape and arrangement of particles and voids in aggregates. It also includes the mineral and organic components, which are identified in relation to their sizes and volumes, and pedofeatures, which are “discrete fabric unit present in soil materials recognisable from adjacent materials recognisable in concentration in one or more components….or by difference in internal fabric” (Bullock et al. 1985: 19). Roundness is described based on the coarse/fine grain size ratio, texture birefringence and type of fabric. Colour is identified in both plain-polarised light and cross-polarized light (XPL). The resulting, semi-quantitative analysis of features is recorded in summary tables.

Thin-section micromorphology is a method of analysis that involves examining soil and sediment structure and components in their undisturbed state. It was developed from the 1930s by W.L. Kubiena, contributing to soil classification and our understanding of soil-formation processes. It has been widely utilised in pedology, agronomy and sedimentology and has been applied to archaeological questions since the 1950s. In the past three decades, this line of research has increased its popularity in archaeology. Soil micromorphology has been applied to many issues including spatial analysis and palaeoenvironmental reconstruction. Simpson’s introduction of the method to Sri Lanka includes application to the historical landscape around Anuradhapura as well as the prehistoric sites of Batadomba-lena, Kitulgala Beli-lena and Bellanbandi Palassa. The practice of soil micromorphology has been standardised with the publication of the Handbook for Soil Thin Section Description (Bullock et al. 1985), together with a key to the handbook by Stoops (1998), published to supplement and systematise the descriptions. The seminal work of Courty et al. (1989) has made the approach relevant to the interpretation of archaeological site formation, including the discernment of depositional and post-depositional processes.

Based on the description of soil thin-sections, an analyst can proceed to decipher different depositional processes, including geogenic, biogenic and anthropogenic processes, responsible for site formation and sedimentary history. Geogenic processes include diagenesis, weathering and erosion. The biogenic component is derived from animals and plants that inhabit the cave, including land snails near the mouth, and root movement and worm action that reshape the soil structure. Anthropogenic contributions include living surfaces, features, food refuse, artefacts, and sediment that humans unintentionally carry into the cave, attached to their feet or garments.

Soil micromorphology analysis is carried out on undisturbed soil samples in thin section. The technique involves taking a sample of undisturbed soil in a tin box driven into the section of the deposit (Fitzpatrick 1984; Goldberg and Macphail 2003), recording orientation. Water was removed from the sediment samples through vapour-phase acetone exchange, confirmed by repeated measurement of the density of the acetone solution. Samples were impregnated under vacuum with polyester resin (Crystic), which enters the sample by capillary action, and peroxide catalyst (Murphy 1986). The blocks were cured for six to eight weeks in a well-ventilated fume cupboard, with a final period of one week in an oven at 40° C. The impregnated samples were cut using a diamond

The interpretation of the complex stratigraphy and sedimentary history at Batadomba-lena (Chapter 4) should be treated as provisional until supplemented by the pending results of Ian Simpson’s sediment micromorphological analysis. 3.5 Stone Artefact Analysis Currently, the classification of stone artefacts in Sri Lanka is based on the typology adumbrated by Deraniyagala

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Methodology However, the ad hoc technology involved actually suggests relatively benign conditions where timing and place of use were highly predictable (Nelson 1991: 64), and pressures on mobility were limited (Shott 1986). Further, all is not lost from the point of view of behavioural reconstruction, when attention is paid to edge angles, given the relationship between edge angle and potential task, along other, relevant metrical attributes. Additional information would have been available in this regard from use-wear analysis (Hayden 1979; Kamminga 1982; Davenport 2002), but limitations on my fieldwork time and prior training prevented this line of enquiry beyond more than the two lithic samples I brought back to the Australian National University for analysis. Evidence of utilisation and retouch was investigated on the observed lithics, employing the criteria described by Cotterell and Kamminga (1990: 135-39), Kamminga (1982) and other sources, without overlooking the risk of confusing these phenomena with other forms of edge damage. The latter concern especially affects the Batadomba-lena lithics which had been stored, multiple specimens per bag, for about 20 years at the Archaeological Department’s storage centre in Anuradhapura.

(1992). This system attempts to distinguish waste cores and other flaking debris from tools, with the latter recognised by a combination of shape, inferred function, retouch/ trimming and utilisation attributes. The system has been applied to Batadomba-lena, as detailed in Appendix A, which also outlines the system. Wijeyapala (1997) adapted Deraniyagala’s system to include forms not captured by the original system. For various reasons, stone artefact analysis in the present work takes a different course. First, the earlier system tends to place, at the same taxonomic level, well-defined types such as Balangoda Points (Plate 3.1; Table 3.1), and tools with highly distinctive retouch (in particular, backing retouch), with tool types recognised simply by a useful-looking shape. Secondly, the earlier system does not accommodate preforms for the distinctive types just mentioned. Thirdly, where not rigorously defined, tool classifications based on shape and apparent function are prone to subjectivity, making comparisons between assemblages of limited value. This contrasts with debitage classifications which, at least in theory, can be formally defined in terms of specific attributes. This brings us to the fifth reason for not applying the earlier classification system – its non-inclusion of debitage analysis. As a sixth reason, the inference of function based simply on general form could, unless stringent precautions are taken, lead to erroneous reconstructions of activities undertaken at a site (for further discussion, see Andrefsky 1998). Finally, because Johan Kamminga kindly supervised me in microscopic examination of selected artefacts, these tended to be classified according to Australian terminology (see Mulvaney and Kamminga 1999; Holdaway and Stern 2004).

The description and analysis of products of flaking entail measurement of dimensions, and the recording of physical attributes, as well as identification of possible function or use. Different lithic analysts however have parted company on which attributes to record, or the definitions to be applied, such that comparisons between assemblages recorded by different observers can be difficult (Hiscock and Clarkson 2000). Michael Shott recommended a minimum set of attributes to make analyses comparable from different archaeological and experimental data sets. He proposed, as a minimum set, weight, cortex area, dorsal scar count, platform angle, platform class, degree of completeness, and stone material (Shott 1994: 99). Dorsal scar count was found to be difficult to record reliably on the quartz artefacts, which dominate Sri Lankan assemblages, but the other attributes recommended by Shott are covered in the system employed here. This system is based on attributes largely developed by Hiscock (1988) and found widely useful in an Australasian context (e.g., Pasqua and Bulbeck 1998; Bulbeck et al. 2004). The purpose is not to foster direct comparison between Sri Lanka and other assemblages, in view of the comparability problems noted by Hiscock and Clarkson (2000), but to allow systematic analysis of the Sri Lanka assemblages which I recorded.

Debitage attributes are an important background for understanding the attributes of informal tools selected for the tasks at hand; they illustrate the reduction sequence employed at a particular time and place, for both formal and informal tools, and the extent of reduction of cores and other flaked pieces; and their implications for stone provisioning hold important information for range, mobility and many other aspects of forager organisation (Andrefsky 1998; Flenniken and White 1985; Hiscock and Clarkson 2005). Previously, debitage analysis in Sri Lankan archaeology has not moved beyond the classification and generalised size description provided by Moser (1994) for the assemblage from Pidurangala. The present work applies debitage analysis to very large samples from Batadombalena (c. 20,000) and Bellan-bandi Palassa (c. 4300).

The system employed here for recording debitage and ad hoc tools, described below, was finalised through consultation with my supervisors Peter Hiscock and David Bulbeck. The recording system was prepared in a Lotus® Approach database format by Alex MacKay, a PhD student in my school. Statistical manipulation was performed by exporting the Approach records to Microsoft Excel spreadsheets and utilising the Excel functions. A different system was employed during the examination of the artefacts from the Batadomba-lena sediment samples, and selected lithics from my two sites, using a Wild Leitz stereoscopic microscope at low magnification, as indicated at relevant points in the following text. The differences

Notwithstanding the tens of millennia during which microliths were produced in ancient Sri Lanka (Deraniyagala 1992), the majority of stone tools throughout were informal tools with minimal modification. This expedient technology, as it is labelled by Binford (1983) and Nelson (1991), involves flakes and other flaked products in a variety of shapes and sizes, discarded after use: “The extent of shaping by retouch will be conditioned by the task at hand, not by planned maintenance or reuse. Unretouched flakes and marginal retouched flakes are expected” (Nelson 1991: 80).

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Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Table 3.1 Definitions of lithic classifications. Category

Definition

Flake

A recognisably knapped lithic with single ventral and dorsal surfaces (Sullivan and Rozen 1985). A knapped piece of stone whose surfaces are either cortical, striking platforms or flake scars (Andrefsky 1998: 80-81). Unless it is observed to correspond to a further definition given below, it is called “no further described”. Small, bifacially pressure-flaked point (Deraniyagala 1992) Fragment retaining diagnostic features of a Balangoda Point (this study). Preform (see below) deemed to have presaged a Balangoda Point (this study). A flake or blade selected for shaping by retouch into an implement. For inclusion in this category an artefact must have some degree of retouch. A range of small, delicate implements with backing retouch (Holdaway and Stern 2004: 261). Microlith with a pointed morphology and asymmetry around the longitudinal axis, < 50 mm long, called Bondi points in the Australian context (Holdaway and Stern 2004: 261). Microlith with symmetry around the transverse axis, < 50 mm long (Holdaway and Stern 2004: 262). “Subtype of microlith with an orange-plan segment” (Kamminga and Grist 2000: 15). Points with backing along the opposing margins (this work) A retouch flakelet pressed off a microlith preform during the creation of an abruptly angled thick margin. This type of flake usually has a slight to pronounced plunging termination, which, on such small flakes, reveals that the preform was only a few millimetres high (Kamminga and Grist 2000: 11). Non-pointed flakes “with one or more margins of continuous retouch” (Holdaway and Stern 2004: 227). “A small flake with a convex scraper edge, shaped like a thumbnail and located opposite the flake’s platform” (Holdaway and Stern 2004: 234-35). A small elongated stone flake with at least one ridge along the length of its outside surface. Ordinarily they are less than 50 mm long. Technically, their length is at least twice their width (Kamminga and Grist 2000: 11). A proximal, distal or longitudinal piece from a broken micro-blade (Kamminga and Grist 2000: 11). “A small core from which regularly shaped micro-blades have been struck. Some … have only one or two micro-blade facets; others have numerous facets emanating from more than one initiation surface” (Kamminga and Grist 2000: 11). A flake with a point of impact and striking platform, intact margins and a recognisable termination (Sullivan and Rozen 1985). A flake with a point of impact and intact margins, but lacking a recognisable termination (Sullivan and Rozen 1985). A flake with a point of impact and a recognisable termination, but lacking one or both intact margins (Pasqua and Bulbeck 1988). A flake lacking a point of impact and intact margins, with or without a recognisable termination (Sullivan and Rozen 1985). “A flake displaying utilisation wear along one or more edges. The wear may comprise edge scarring, edge rounding, scratching (called striations), surface polish and abrasive smoothing” (Kamminga and Grist 2000: 17). “A flake retaining evidence of bipolar fracture damage on at least one end. Some of these are compression flakes formed by substantial compressive force. A broken bipolar flake has a transversely oriented breakage” (Kamminga and Grist 2000: 2). “A core (nucleus) that is supported on a stone anvil surface and struck repeatedly with a hammerstone from above. Diagnostic attributes of bipolar fracture damage are point or sinuousridge type initiation platforms, crushing, cracks, and concentrated overlapping step fractures emanating from areas of hammer impact” (Kamminga and Grist 2000: 2). Core with two or more striking platforms orientated obliquely toward each other (Hiscock 1988). A piece of stone with core characteristics and at least one additional surface, apparently sheared, which is not cortical, a striking platform, or a flake scar (this thesis). “A piece of lithic material that has a generally convex or dome-shaped ventral surface, often with evidence of fracture initiation from a location within the surface and not from the edge” (Kamminga and Grist 2000: 13).

Core Balangoda Point Balangoda Point fragment Balangoda Point preform Preform Microlith Asymmetric microlith Geometric microlith Segment microlith Bi-marginal microlith points Microlith backing flake Retouched flake: scraper Thumbnail scraper Micro-blade (bladelet) Micro-blade portion Micro-blade (bladelet) core. Complete flake Transversely broken flake Longitudinally broken flake Flake fragment Utilised flake Bipolar flake

Bipolar core Rotated core Core fragment Potlid-like

36

Methodology varieties of siliceous stone; that is to say, those materials that have the least direction-dependent properties” (Cotterell and Kamminga 1987: 677). Jelinek (1976) described the view common amongst archaeologists working in Eurasia. Regions rich in high-quality stone such as chert will tend to have a greater range of tool types, while regions with poor-quality rock will tend to have fewer types of lithic implements, and instead an emphasis on expedient tools, such as flake tools with minimal or no retouch. Andrefsky (1998) makes a similar point but with greater applicability to places such as Sri Lanka where chert is a very minor component of most assemblages (Deraniyagala 1992). Knowledge of how a particular rock will fracture is a major consideration in the selection of stone material suitable for a particular task. This makes it important for knappers to learn the flaking properties of the different rocks in their environment, as well as to know the availability and points of access of the various raw materials (Andrefsky 1998). In particular, the quality of stone material affects the structuring of the reduction of cores and other objective pieces, as fine-grained homogenous stone materials tend to be more easily shaped and reduced than coarser-grained and flawed raw materials, which are more difficult to reduce in a controlled manner (Andrefsky 1994: 29).

Stone Material

In Sri Lankan archaeology, the major classes of stone material which are generally recognised include a range of quartz varieties, chert, metamorphic crystallines (especially gneiss), and pigment materials (e.g., Deraniyagala and Kennedy 1972; Deraniyagala 1992; Wijeyapala 1997: 292; the present work, Appendix A). However, to characterise the knapped assemblages dealt with here, the important categories are clear quartz (rock crystal), which dominates the assemblages, followed by opaque (milky) quartz, and chert as a miniscule component. Opaque quartz is sufficiently common to test Andrefsky’s assertions as to its greater difficulty of flaking, in a controlled manner, is clear quartz.

The type of stone material used in knapping influences the form of the end products and the debitage produced as a by-product. Siliceous stone is the most appropriate material to knap due to its homogeneity and isotropic attributes. “In flaking stone to make tools, the lithic materials normally favoured were the more homogeneous and isotropic

Hiscock noted that some of the Batadomba-lena “chert” artefacts did not look like chert, and following his suggestion I showed representative specimens to H.T.M.G.A. Pitawala, Senior Lecturer in Geology at the University of Peradeniya. His observations on six specimens (Table 3.2) illustrate the great variety of rock types identified by professional

Plate 3.1 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): Balangoda Points (ventral and dorsal aspects); top, stratum 7b, 28,000 – 23,000 cal BP; bottom, stratum 7c, 37,000-32,000 cal BP (scale: 1 cm)..

reflect the methodology employed by Johan Kamminga, who supervised this component of my work.

Table 3.2 Batadomba-lena: observations by H.T.M.G.A. Pitawala on chert artefacts. Specimen

Stone type

Colour

13K36/18 BD/00/ST20/54

Impure chert

Dark brown

K-10 VI a

Vitreous chert

Yellowish white

13D/00/ST/20/16 12H7C

Impure chert

Brown

BD/00/ST20/17

Chert

Reddish brown

PL36/L18l 13D/00/ST/20/67

Chert

Reddish brown

PL36/L18l 13D/00/ST/20/5

Highly compacted chert

Brown

37

Comments Rich in white non-crystalline secondary inclusions; Fe3+ content may be high. Contains inclusions of black materials and white laminations. Contains inclusions of mica (possibly muscovite) and dark inclusions; porosity is comparatively high. Dull lustre; many pores; impure materials are very high. Impure materials of minerals inclusions, which are mainly mica and feldspars. Conchoidal fractures are common and cavities are filled by both primary and secondary materials.

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka geologists in Sri Lanka as chert. As noted in Chapter 6, some (but not all) of the Batadomba-lena “chert” artefacts may be classified as jasper, a recognised chert variety (Andrefsky 1998: 52).

artefacts, with a weight estimated at 0.02 or 0.01 g, were excluded from consideration (see discussion below). Fortunately, log-transformation usefully reduces the impact of unrepresentative (including unreliable) measurements at the extremes of the range of variation (Altman 1991: 126).

Drawing on their geological background, Sarasin and Sarasin (1908: Plates I to V captions) drew a distinction between Sri Lanka artefacts of clear quartz (Bergkrystall = rock crystal) and opaque quartz. Distinguishing between these lithologies on all, or many, of the artefacts I studied would have been a daunting task, especially as the systematic search for procurement places, such as quarries, of flaking stone has been barely pursued in Sri Lanka. The emphasis of the Sarasins’ (1908: 23-24) lithological observations was to distinguish between the vein quartz which streaks through the gneiss of many of the island’s rockshelters, and which has relatively poor flaking properties, and the clear quartz which very rarely occurs as part of quartz veins, but does occur as waterworn stones in stream beds. This was a crucial element in their argument for the cultural status of the stone items they had recovered. For my purposes, it suggests that waterworn stones collected from riverbeds may have been a major raw material source in Pleistocene Sri Lanka. Waterworn surfaces were frequently observed on the Batadomba-lena and Bellan-bandi Palassa artefacts I studied, but were generally restricted to clear quartz.

Cortex Cortex refers to the outer, weathered surface of a stone, and may be visible on cores or the dorsal surface of a flaked product. The amount of cortex will increase with smaller size of nodules selected for working and with less intensive reduction strategies, and the type of cortex – for instance, whether geological or waterworn – can indicate the source of the exploited nodules. Removal of cortex is often performed at quarry sites to reduce the weight of the objective pieces to be carried to locations for working into usable tools. Cortex on a striking platform certainly suggests a very early stage in reduction (Andrefsky 1998: 77). During my debitage analysis, the presence of cortex was recorded as an estimated percentage of its coverage of the dorsal surface. As it turned out, cortex only occurred on approximately ten percent of flaked pieces, and usually in small amounts (at around ten percent). At least with the assemblages described in this work, cortex prevalence proved difficult to relate to any other technological attributes, and accordingly is not reported.

Weight

Debitage Classification and Recording

Weight is a useful proxy for artefact volume, and thus a measure of overall artefact size. Changes in flake weight, either between sites or between layers in a site, should reflect the extent of reduction of objective pieces on site. A predominance of small flakes should accompany the more intensive stages of stone reduction (e.g., Flenniken and White 1985), as a result of stresses on forager time budgets, economisation of stone material, greater costs in accessing or transporting suitable stone material, or the use of highly fissionable stone.

Stone flakes are knapped products with single ventral and dorsal surfaces (Andrefsky 1998: 77). Sullivan and Rozen (1985) formulated a widely employed classification system, included in Table 3.1. A complete flake retains a point of impact and striking platform (the surface to which force is applied in flake production), intact margins and a recognisable termination. Sullivan and Rozen recommended limiting these terminations to feather or hinge varieties, because a step-terminated flake can easily be misidentified as a broken flake, rather than the result of flaking failure. However, I have followed Cotterell and Kamminga (1990) and other authorities in recognising complete flakes whenever any of the five types of terminations, described below, were recordable.

An ISCO electronic balance accurate to 0.005 g was available for my observations, and was particularly useful for weighing micro-debitage. However, during my laboratory studies in Sri Lanka, weight was measured on a less sensitive electronic balance accurate to only 0.1 g. A substantial proportion of the debitage was found to weigh less than 0.1 g, either because the balance wavered between 0.1 and 0 g, or failed to register any weight. Weights under 0.1 g were estimated from flake volume – in view of the weight-volume relationship – calculated from the product of length, breadth and thickness (described below).

The broken flakes referred to by Sullivan and Rozen here are transversely broken flakes, which have all of the expected flake features apart from an intact termination. Longitudinally broken flakes, on the other hand, may (or may not) retain their termination but no longer have two intact margins. Both classes have their point of impact present, but this feature is missing from the fourth category, flake fragments, which are recognisable flaked products only on the basis of distinguishable dorsal and ventral surfaces. Sullivan and Rozen reserve the term “debris” for recognisable flaked products that lack even a distinct ventral surface. However, in the case of Sri Lankan lithics, the great majority of which are made on quartz, the distinction between flake fragments and debris was difficult to maintain, and all flaked products lacking their point of impact were classified as flake fragments.

The reliability of this attempt to impose some level of metrical control over the very small component of the size spectrum is difficult to assess on independent criteria. Indeed, log-transformation of artefact weights tended to produce much more noticeable deviations from a normal distribution, whereas the conformity to a normal distribution was generally satisfactory with the log-transformed linear variables. This remained the case even after the very small

38

Methodology Flake Terminations

hard-hammer percussion at edges that have small angles (Cotterell and Kamminga 1990: 130-45).

Observations on flake terminations are useful to assess the skills of knappers (e.g., Sheppard 1993; Kibunjia 1994) and to identify the varieties of tools blanks produced through knapping for different purposes (Cotterell and Kamminga 1990). Five types of flake terminations are recognised in the literature (Hayden 1979; Cotterell and Kamminga 1987; Hiscock 1988; Pelcin 1997).

In my debitage analysis, initiations were recorded on the basis of being Hertzian or non-Hertzian. While all three types of initiation would be distinguishable on chert, chert artefacts were rare in the assemblages I recorded, and the vast majority of chert flakes (i.e., pieces revealing their point of impact) are conchoidal flakes with a Hertzian initiation (e.g., Plate 3.4). Initiations which are clearly Hertzian did not occur so regularly with the quartz flakes, which dominate the studied flake assemblages, and instead many of the initiations appear flat. However, the less than ideal flaking qualities of quartz made it difficult for me to distinguish between conchoidal flakes with an indistinct bulb of percussion, flakes with wedging initiations, and flakes with bending initiations, and so these are all included together under the “non-Hertzian” category.

(1) Feather terminations are recognised by a minimal thickness at the distal end and an acute angle between their dorsal and ventral surfaces (Crabtree 1972: 64). (2) Axial or snap terminations occur when the crack forming the flake moves right through the core, meeting the opposite side at approximately right angles (Cotterell and Kamminga 1987). (3) Step terminations occur when a flake terminates abruptly at a right-angle break. There are two varieties of step termination, depending on whether the flake detaches completely from the nucleus, or part of the flake remains attached (Cotterell and Kamminga 1990: 145), but the rarity of the latter variety I observed in Sri Lanka assemblages reduces the benefit of noting this distinction. (4) Hinge terminations are formed when the fracture meets the surface of the core at approximate right angles to the longitudinal axis of the flake. Experimental evidence reveals a sharp drop in the velocity of the fracture propagation immediately before the hinge termination forms. Hinged flakes are usually undesirable in manufacturing tools (Cotterell and Kamminga 1990: 146). (5) Plunge terminations, or outrépasse terminations, occur when the fracture plane (the ventral surface of the flake) curves markedly away from the face of the core, detaching part of the nucleus with the flake (Cotterell and Kamminga 1990: 147).

However, as noted at relevant places in Chapters 6 and 7, when working on selected artefacts, it was possible to identify compression and other bipolar flakes, as well as bipolar cores from microscopic examination of hammerstone damage. Platform Angle The term platform angle (or exterior platform angle) refers to the angle between the platform and a flake’s dorsal surface. The platform angle correlates with the shape of a flake (e.g., Dibble 1997), and experimental studies have shown that the platform angle assists inferences about knapping techniques (Dibble and Whittaker 1981). Angles are either read with a protractor or recorded as a series of ordinal categories, although either method involves problems with observer error (Dibble and Bernard 1980). In my debitage study, platform angle was measured to the nearest 5º interval.

Initiations There are three basic kinds of fracture initiation, depending largely on the hardness of the hammer and whether the knapped piece is held against an anvil or other hard surface, as well as ancillary factors. A Hertzian initiation, marked by the development of a cone or bulb of force immediately beneath the point of impact, typically occurs during free-hand flaking with a hard hammer. However, the development of a distinctive conchoidal fracture is most readily observable on homogenous, isotropic siliceous stone. Wedging is similar to a Hertzian initiation but differs by detrital particles from prior percussion creating a wedge effect at the point of impact, or by sharpness of the hammerstone where it contacts the nucleus. A wedging initiation is more likely if initiation occurs away from the side of the nucleus or if the angle of the adjacent edge exceeds 90 degrees, and predominates in bipolar flaking (compression-controlled propagation, when the flaked piece rests on an anvil or other hard surface). Finally, a bending initiation is characterised by flake detachment commencing some distance from the point of application of load, such that bending flakes lack a bulb of concussion but generally sport a waist beneath the initiation platform. Bending initiations can occur as a result of pressure flaking, percussion flaking with a soft hammer, or during

Platform Width and Breadth Platform size is a useful indicator of flake mass, as the two are correlated. This is particularly useful with broken flakes for which the original mass cannot be directly measured (Dibble and Pelcin 1987). However, control over platform size, especially smaller platforms, may point to greater control over core reduction and flake production (Soriano et al. 2006). Platform width is measured across the surface where the flaking load was applied, between the points where the dorsal and ventral surfaces meet on the left and right flake margins. Platform breadth (or thickness) is the distance across the platform from the point of flake initiation to the intersection of the dorsal and platform surfaces. As with the other linear variables, described below, measurements were recorded directly from a Mitutoyo “Absolute Digimatic” electronic dial calliper, accurate to 0.01 mm. In recording measurements to 0.01 mm, no pretence is made that the measurements have that level of precision, but this procedure was deemed easier and less prone to error than attempting to round measurements up to a tenth of a millimetre.

39

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Edge Angles

maximum length for other flaked products, and in general, length comparisons (as well as other size comparisons) should be restricted to specimens assigned to the same debitage category.

Edge angles have long been employed in the analysis of stone artefacts, under the commonsense assumption that an acute edge would be best for cutting and penetrating tasks, and an oblique edge would be best for scraping and whittling tasks (e.g., Andrefsky 1998). Similar problems confronting the measurement of the platform angle also face the measurement of edge angles (Dibble and Bernard 1980). In theory, any flaked product could be measured on its edge angles, but problems of definition in identifying the sides of an artefact arise with flaked pieces. In addition, a specification of where to measure an edge angle, based on the spatial relationship between the striking platform and the termination (e.g., half way along the length of the edge), would not be applicable to transversely broken flakes. In this study, edge angle was recorded only on flakes (including broken flakes), on both the left and right sides (where these were intact), distal of the bulb of percussion or other initiation feature, and avoiding locations of blunting through use or other edge damage, but including retouched margins (where appropriate). A part of the edge representative of the free edge of the flake was used for recording edge angle, to the nearest 5º, as long as the abovementioned conditions were met.

Width In this study, width was recorded as the longest line that can be drawn at right angles to the length, across the ventral surface (if identifiable). In the case of complete flakes, this technique is compatible with the usual procedure of recording the width of a flake as a straight line distance perpendicular to the flake length (Andrefsky 1998). It differs from oriented flake width, which is defined as the width half-way between the point of flake initiation and the termination (Hiscock 1988). Note that with some flaked pieces, distinguishing the ventral (or indeed the dorsal) surface was not possible, and width was simply the maximum distance in any direction at right angles to the length. Thickness In this study, thickness is the maximum distance between the ventral and dorsal surfaces, wherever these are recognisable, at right angles to the length and width. If the dorsal surface was not identifiable, thickness was the maximum distance from the ventral surface perpendicular to length and width, and if the ventral surface could not be identified either, thickness was simply the maximum distance perpendicular to length and width. In the case of complete flakes, my implementation differs from oriented thickness, which is taken at the point where the oriented length and width intersect (Hiscock 1988).

Length Length was defined differently for complete flakes and other artefacts (including debitage categories). The length recorded for complete flakes was flake length or oriented length, defined as the distance from the point of force application to the point where the force exited the nucleus (usually but not always at the flake termination). This definition could sometimes be applied to longitudinally broken flakes, although these are relatively scarce in the assemblages which I recorded, but would not be applicable to transversely broken flakes or flaked pieces. To simplify my data collection, length was recorded as maximum length on all artefacts other than complete flakes.

Microscopic Examination and Recording Artefact Size During the microscopic examination of selected lithics, artefact size was recorded in terms of size classes, following the now standard procedure practiced by many Australian archaeological consulting companies, such as the Canberra firms National Heritage Consultants and Navin Officer Heritage Consultants. The artefact was placed on a 1-cm unit grid, and its size determined from its maximum diameter in any direction (Table 3.3).

Flake length serves as a minimum estimate of maximum length of a core’s face, and for any given stone material at a site, a decrease in the medium value of flake length is likely to reflect increased reduction of a stone core prior to detachment of the flake. If flaking is performed at a site, flake length accordingly should correlate with the intensity of core reduction, although if flakes are carried to a site – as may be reflected by their rarity in the assemblage, or their restriction to large pieces or to retouched tools – flake length would have minimal implications for reconstructing on-site lithic manufacture. The maximum length of other debitage (and tool) categories would have similar implications, but less directly so, given that flake length is no longer measurable. The natural expectation would be for debitage categories other than complete flakes to be smaller than complete flakes, whether they represent flakes that broke during or after detachment, or they represent miscellaneous spall products (e.g., Bulbeck et al. 2004). Length itself need not always reflect this relationship accurately, given the comparison of oriented length for complete flakes and

Several tool types familiar to Australian archaeologists were observed amongst the Sri Lanka artefacts. Examples are scrapers, including thumbnail scrapers, and microliths assigned to asymmetric (Bondi point), geometric and segment types (Table 3.1; Plates 3.2 to 3.6). Bi-marginal points, with backing retouch along opposing margins, which are not noted as an Australian type, were observed from Batadomba-lena. All Sri Lanka microliths which I recorded had a maximum length much less than 50 mm ceiling allowed for Australian cases (Holdaway and Stern 2004: 261-62).

40

Methodology Table 3.3 Artefact size classes employed during the microscopic observations. Code

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Size category

5 80 mm

Plate 3.2 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): layer 7c, c. 37,000 – 32,000 cal BP; asymmetric point (dorsal surface) (scale: 1 cm).

Plate 3.6 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): layer 7c, c. 37,000 – 32,000 cal BP; bimarginally blunted point (scale: 1 cm).

Statistical Analysis Plate 3.3 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): layer 7c, c. 37,000 – 32,000 cal BP; asymmetric point (blunted margin) (dorsal surface) (scale: 1 cm).

Statistical analysis of the data collected from the lithics (Chapters 6 and 7) was restricted to univariate comparisons. All of the potential insights from debitage analysis discussed above are amenable to investigation on a trait by trait basis. The interaction between traits, which could be explored through multivariate techniques, would also be a worthwhile topic of research, but time did not permit this avenue of study. Given the importance of the fracturing properties of the stone material to flake production, the different types of raw material are kept separate in the data compilations tabulated in Chapters 6 and 7. Overall statistics across stone material types are not given, since their value for analysis is debatable, though it can be noted that these cross-material statistics vary little from the counterpart statistics for clear quartz, especially on metrical attributes, simply because of the sheer dominance of clear quartz in the assemblages. Otherwise, it should be noted that utilised and debitage pieces will be kept distinct, and that the different debitage categories will also be treated apart.

Plate 3.4 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): layer 7c, c. 37,000 – 32,000 cal BP; geometric microlith (ventral surface) (scale: 1 cm).

On categorical attributes, proportional occurrences (e.g., the proportions of the different terminations on complete flakes of clear quartz) are the focus of attention. Observed differences (e.g., between Bellan-bandi Palassa contexts in the example just described) are tested with standard nonparametric tests, particularly the chi-square test, and the Fisher exact test for two-by-two cross-tabulations which do not satisfy the assumptions made by the chi-square test (see Startup and Whittaker 1982). Consistent with the focus of my research questions on forager adaptations, repeated exploration with chi-square (and Fisher exact) tests are expected to pry apart the main factors behind the observed differences (in categorical attributes) between assemblages. For instance, in a review of an analysis by Stiles (1979) on Developed Oldowan and Acheulean assemblages, Lewis (1986: 293-304) found that multivariate log-linear and logit analyses, and the chi-square tests performed by Stiles, revealed the same patterns underlying the differences between these assemblages, notwithstanding the superior mathematical sophistication of the multivariate approach.

Plate 3.5 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): layer 7c, c. 37,000 – 32,000 cal BP; geometric microlith (blunted margin) (scale: 1 cm).

41

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Table 3.4 Batadomba-lena: average standardised skewness for the untransformed and log-transformed data for the six metrical variables used here. “Left side” indicates the layer shown on the left of the cited figure, and “Right side” indicates the layer shown on the right of the cited figure. Measurement

Untransformed data

Log-transformed data

Weight (g) – Fig. 3.1 Length (mm) – Fig. 3.2 Width (mm) – Fig 3.3 Thickness (mm) – Fig. 3.4 Platform width (mm) – Fig. 3.5 Platform breadth (mm) – Fig. 3.6

Left side 149.88 41.663 10.112 5.4408 28.7841 1.5687

Left side -0.2841 -0.0011 -0.0020 -0.0033 -0.0022 -0.0044

Right side 115.116 43.17 16.805 3.2087 19.1559 5.3775

With the non-angular metrical attributes, including platform dimensions, application of the Excel mean and median functions revealed a greater (or at least equal) value of the mean in every case involving reasonable sample sizes of around 30 or more (Chapters 6 and 7). To explore this observation, all Batadomba-lena artefacts in a layer were plotted in histogrammes using equal bin widths for their metrical attributes. In every case, a strongly positively skewed distribution emerged, involving a small number of cases much larger than the average and large numbers of cases clustered together at values much less than the average. According to Brown et al. (2005: 49-51), flaked stone fractures in a self-similar or fractal pattern, and the natural logarithm of debitage size, plotted against the natural logarithm of the cumulative frequency of debitage pieces larger than benchmark sizes, should produce a straight-line graph. However, attempts to reproduce this result on the Batadomba-lena debitage instead produced arc-shaped, curvilinear graphs, which suggested that their distributions on metrical variables did not depart from a normal distribution as strongly as fractal fragmentation would indicate.

Right side -0.0472 0.0007 -0.0007 -0.0023 0.0033 -0.0104

between measured values), was calculated for each of the data sets illustrated in Figures 3.1 to 3.6. Specifically, the standardised skewness measure was calculated in each case for the untransformed and the log-transformed data. As shown in Table 3.4, skewness of the untransformed data was always positive, and, when standardised against the average for the sample, at least 1.5 times the average and up to 150 times the average. Skewness of the logtransformed data, on the other hand, is negligible for the linear measurements (maximum of 1% of the average for the sample) and minor for weights. Further, with the linear measurements, skewness, negligible as it is, may be either negative or positive. Log transformation of the weights appears to be slightly less successful in simulating normal distributions, with the residual skewness around 5% to 28% of the sample mean, and evidently always negative (as suggested by Figure 3.1). However, this residual skewness is drastically reduced compared to the gross positive skewness of the original weights (Table 3.4). The Student t-test, which is the most widely used test for the statistical significance of differences between means, is generally robust in the face of deviations from a normal distribution, at least for sample sizes in excess of 30 (Startup and Whittaker 1982: 105). Log-10 transformations of the metrical data clearly bring them close to the normal distribution which the t-test assumes, and so these are the data which will be used in significance testing between means. Significance testing between medians (Fletcher and Lock 1991: 79-80) could also have been used, but would be superfluous when the differences between means can be validly tested. Nonetheless, in the case of strongly skewed measurements, such as those I recorded for Sri Lankan artefacts, the median is a superior indicator of central tendencies than the mean, and will be reported (along with the means) in Chapters 6 and 7.

An alternative data treatment, which produces approximations of normal distributions, is log transformation, as widely used to simulate normalcy (Altman 1981). In the Excel spreadsheets, base 10 logarithmic transformations (natural logs could also have been employed) of the artefact data were computed. The log-transformed data were graphed onto histogrammes with equal bin widths, which, after being appropriately set to reflect the distribution of the data, generally produced distributions whose normalcy was visible upon inspection (see Williams 1997: 71-74). The range of resulting distributions for the Batadomba-lena artefacts, excluding layers 1 and 2 which both had small artefact numbers (under 150), are shown in Figures 3.1 to 3.6, with the least normal distribution shown on the left, and the most normal on the right. The departure of some of the log-transformed weights and thicknesses (by layer) is considered in Chapter 6. For present purposes, it is sufficient to note the general effectiveness of log transformations in corralling nonangular measurements into distributions close to the normal.

A final consideration is the Bonferroni correction, often recommended for multiple applications of statistical significance tests to the same body of data (Weisstein 1999). The view taken here is that the lowering of the p-value, at which the null hypothesis is rejected, is neither necessary nor advisable for related sets of data pointing to the same conclusion. For instance, if all our non-angular metrical attributes suggest that flakes from one layer are larger than flakes from another layer, and each would be significant at p < 0.05 on its own, it would make no sense to apply the Bonferroni correction and perhaps find that none of

To quantify the above points, skewness (the average of the third product of the difference of observations from the mean), standardised with reference to the average (placed in the denominator, to take into account differences 42

Methodology the metrical differences would now be deemed statistically significant. Appropriate use of the Bonferroni correction would appear to be cases when a statistically significant difference would otherwise be plucked out of apparently unpatterned data relationships.

Pteropodidae, or fruit bats), to the genus (e.g., Herpestes, the mongoose), to the species, as well as intermediate categories (e.g., freshwater fish). The extant terrestrial vertebrate fauna which might be expected in archaeological sites of Sri Lanka’s hinterland is described in Chapter 5.

3.6 Faunal Analysis

Perera’s reports provide numbers of individual specimens (NISP), Minimum Number of Individuals (MNI), and weights. Perera’s data are therefore compatible with the growing trend among zooarchaeologists to turn to MNIs as of the 1950s (see Reitz and Wing 1999: 194-195). However, Grayson (1984: 90) recommends NISPs over MNIs, as the latter statistic tends to reduce total faunal counts, depending on the extent to which excavated units are aggregated into larger assemblages. Such a procedure would be susceptible to subjective bias, especially at Batadomba-lena, where both the major and the 2005 excavations recognised a multiplicity of excavation units. It would also raise problems for aggregating data at different taxonomic levels; for instance, given an MNI of 1 for jungle fowl (Gallus gallus), and an MNI of 1 for “birds”, would the MNI for Aves be 1 or 2? Further, MNIs and NISPs tend to be highly correlated, at least when the fauna is well sampled (Grayson 1979). There are certainly occasions when NISPs might be misleading, for instance when a large number of vertebrae could readily derive from a single snake, but such likely data redundancies can be handled by identified weights, which Perera also provides. Unlike MNIs, weights can be aggregated across excavated units without data diminution, and avoid potential paradoxes such as equating an entire elephant carcass with a single tooth fragment from a small rat (MNI of one in both cases).

Faunal identifications from the main Batadomba-lena excavation were performed in Colombo by the late Mr. P.B. Karunaratne, zoologist to the National Museums Department, assisted by Jude Perera and Kelum Manamendra-Arachchi, who were both then of the Archaeological Department. Identifications of the fauna from the excavations in 2005 were performed by Jude Perera, who also transferred the previous observations by Karunaratne to Excel spreadsheets. Additional identifications include the report by Szabó (2007; Appendix B) on the mollusc species in the Batadomba-lena sediment samples. As the great majority of identifications were collated or made by Jude Perera, the discussion here will focus on the records he made, and the use that can be made of those records. The records consist of two forms – Excel spreadsheets, which are itemised accounts of most of Perera’s identifications, and summary reports he prepared of his observations and sent to me. The summary reports provide taxonomic identifications to the finest detail Perera considered reliable, based on comparison with the reference collections available to him in Colombo. The level of taxonomic distinctiveness varied from the order (e.g., birds), to the family (e.g.,

Figure 3.1 Batadomba-lena: range of distributions for log-10 transformed artefact weights (> 0.2 g).

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Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka

Figure 3.2 Batadomba-lena: range of distributions for log-10 transformed artefact lengths.

Figure 3.3 Batadomba-lena: range of distributions for log-10 transformed artefact widths.

44

Methodology

Figure 3.4 Batadomba-lena: range of distributions for log-10 transformed artefact thicknesses.

Figure 3.5 Batadomba-lena: range of distributions for log-10 transformed platform widths.

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Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka

Figure 3.6 Batadomba-lena: range of distributions for log-10 transformed platform breadths.

Perera’s reports also state the number of faunal fragments, per layer and taxonomic unit, which show signs of burning (another reason for preferring NISPs, as rates of burnt remains could only be calculated in relation to NISPs, relying on Perera’s reports). Bones and teeth tend to fragment severely on exposure to high heat, a process that rarely occurs when a carcass is cooked, but often affects faunal refuse when fires are lit in rockshelters (Walshe 2000: 78-79). Therefore, burning rates are not specifically diagnostic of prey that had been cooked, but are a useful proxy for the frequency and intensity of hearth events in a shelter deposit.

significance testing, with chi-square and Fisher exact tests, but this is more difficult with weight data, which will serve mainly as a check on the patterns suggested by analysis of the NISPs. Finally, Perera also made observations on the occurrence of apparently artificial holes made on the shells of the larger land snails, a phenomenon first observed by Sarasin and Sarasin (1908: 66-69). 3.7 Plant Macrofossil Analysis Identification of plant macrofossils was essentially restricted to identifiable fragments recovered from the Batadombalena charcoal, apart from 5g of Canarium shell identified by Jude Perera amongst the layer 3 faunal fragments (main excavation). More specifically, only the charcoal extracted from the sediment samples during their laboratory processing could be studied for their plant remains. The precise procedures are described by Vasco Oliviera (2007; Appendix C). Despite the potential sampling issues associated with relying on burnt specimens to represent flora introduced to or present near a site, the available information is interesting in terms of apparent correlations with other evidence of site usage and environmental change (Chapter 5).

Perera’s reports also include indications of the relative proportions of juvenile and adult specimens (principally, remains which appear to represent small and full-sized members of the taxon), which may be useful ancillary information in certain analytical contexts. Perera’s Excel spreadsheets also include observations on the identified element, but time constraints did not permit my analysis of butchering patterns on the basis of these data. The analysis which could be performed was largely restricted to changing patterns of faunal predation over time, based on NISPs and weights. NISP data are directly amenable to non-parametric

46

Chapter 4

Stratigraphy, Chronology and Sedimentary History of Batadomba-lena Rockshelter

4.1 Introduction

observations recorded during the two major excavation seasons in 1981 and 1982 (Plate 4.1).

Excavation of the Pleistocene rockshelter of Batadombalena has yielded a well-sealed and major cultural sequence covering the period between c. 36,000 and 12,000 years ago. Habitation evidently continued through the LGM, a period of significant climate change, as well as other intervals when climatic fluctuations are suggested by Premathilake’s research in the Horton Plains (Chapter 1). I undertook the site’s fourth season of excavation in 2005 to collect sediment samples, along with 2 mm and smaller fractions of the site’s artefactual and ecofactual contents, and additional stratigraphic observations relevant to documenting the site’s occupation history. This chapter will combine the results from my field and laboratory observations with the field

Location Batadomba-lena rockshelter (labelled BD for short) is located at 6° 46’ N and 80° 12’ E (Avissawella one inch topographical sheet 67), 460 metres above sea level in the foothills of Sri Pada (Map 4.1, Plate 4.2 and 4.3). The site can be reached from Kuruwita junction, six km west of Ratnapura. From Kuruwita there is a motor road leading to Eratne; after travelling one km along the road, one reaches Ekneligoda, and another road leading to the Siripagama. Four km along the latter there is a mountain footpath through the Batadomba-lena forest reserve. It leads up the hill for two km over rushing streams studded with boulders before terminating at the entrance to the shelter. From this point, one is afforded a view of Sri Lanka‘s strike valleys (Deraniyagala 1992: 485), the forest spread across it, rolling hills and mountains, and the deep cleft of the Ratnapura valley. The shelter faces northeast through an inverted V-shaped entrance, 10 metres high at the middle and 15 metres wide. The floor measures 20 metres wide by 10 metres long and is dry even during rainy seasons. The interior of the shelter is well-lit. It is easy of access and water is provided by a small waterfall streaming over the shelter on one side. The discharge runs beneath the shelter to join the stream some 30 m beneath the shelter which drops into the access path to the site (Figures 4.1 to 4.3). Geology The shelter lies within the lower or first peneplain of Sri Lanka, in gneissic rock of the Highland Series of PreCambrian basement crystallines. This Highland Series is classified as metamorphic sediments, and comprises a heavily folded complex of highly metamorphosed quartzites, granulites, schists and gneisses. The principle mineral resources of the research area are gemstones which occur in alluvial gravel deposits in the valleys and floodplains throughout the Ratnapura-Kuruwita region. Climate Batadomba-lena falls within Sri Lanka’s D1 Wet Zone (Map 1.1), with an annual rainfall of 3,000 – 4,000 mm. Precipitation is fairly evenly distributed throughout the

Plate 4.1 Batadomba-lena: (1980-82): excavated layers 1-7.

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Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka

Map 4.1 Batadomba-lena: site location.

48

Stratigraphy, Chronology and Sedimentary History of Batadomba year, although January and February are drier months. The annual climatic pattern is dominated by the southwest monsoon. The terrain abutting the cave is covered by dense lowland equatorial rainforest distinguished by evergreen plant communities typical of the Wet Zone in Sri Lanka (Deraniyagala 1992: 506). Previous Excavations Batadomba-lena was first excavated by P.E.P. Deraniyagala in 1938, then the Director of Sri Lanka’s National Museum. The excavation was cursory, but the finds included fragmentary human remains (Chapter 2) and stone artefacts from beneath a horizon of crystalline nitrate and bat guano dust. The maximum depth reached was around 4 feet (1.3 metres) below the surface (Deraniyagala 1940, 1943b, 1953). Deraniyagala assigned the assemblage of stone artefacts, in particular the association of microliths and human remains, to the Balangoda Culture phase. During stage 5 of Sri Lanka’s Archaeological Department’s multi-stage investigation of the prehistory of Sri Lanka (Chapter 2), attention turned to the excavation of rockshelters, where organic materials could be expected to be preserved (Deraniyagala 1992: 479). After Beli-lena in Kitulgala had been assayed in 1978, Batadomba-lena was selected as being well-appointed for excavation of a prehistoric forager habitation. A preliminary examination by S.U. Deraniyagala in 1979, then the Assistant Commissioner of the Department, confirmed that Batadomba-lena contained a rich occupation deposit which fully merited intensive excavation. There followed two months of excavation in 1981 and three months in 1982 across an area of 33 square metres (Figure 4.4). The 1982 excavation proceeded to bedrock at c. 2.5 metres below the surface (Deraniyagala 1982). This bedrock was clearly weathered, and in 1986 a probe bored nine metres deep into the weathered bedrock of the shelter without reaching the unweathered horizon. These excavations recovered a large collection of artefacts and faunal remains, which are the subject of documentation and analysis in Chapters 5 and 6.

Figure 4.1 Batadomba-lena: site plan.

The stratigraphic sequence of seven main occupation layers, and two underlying strata directly above bedrock, is described by Deraniyagala (1982). Layers 1, 2 and 3, from the top downwards, were considered to have been disturbed in recent times by the extraction of guano fertiliser for village paddy fields, and levelling of the floor by monks who used to live in the rockshelter. The occupation deposit in layer 4 was described as a massive homogeneous stratum with brownish sand and silt containing stone artefacts and faunal remains. Layers 5 and 6 were considered to be the site’s major occupation deposits, as they were very rich in ash, charcoal and food remains. Occupation layer 7 was divided into three sub-layers (a – c) distinguished on the basis of colour and texture. It was a brownish loam with lots of stone artefacts, including geometric microliths which were radiocarbon dated to around 30,000 years BP.

Figure 4.2 Batadomba-lena: three-dimensional plan.

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Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka

Plate 4.2 Batadomba-lena: entrance (width: c. 15 m).

Plate 4.3 Batadomba-lena: entrance.

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Stratigraphy, Chronology and Sedimentary History of Batadomba Figure 4.3 Batadomba-lena: cross-section through excavation.

Figure 4.4 Batadomba-lena: 18-G, 18-H and 18-I partial squares excavated in 2005, in relation to the 1980-82 excavation.

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Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka

Figure 4.5 Batadomba-lena: north section of the 1980-82 excavation, after cleaning and context labelling in 2005 (scale: 50 cm).

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Stratigraphy, Chronology and Sedimentary History of Batadomba

Figure 4.6 Batadomba-lena: north section of the 2005 excavation.

The 2005 Season

Gunadasa, David Silva, Mustafa, Atukorala, and Jude Perera (excavators), along with 25 local labourers. The excavation supervisors used dual language (Sinhala and English) Archaeological Department context cards and sheets, each labelled BD 2005, to record the standard set of observations outlined in Chapter 3. Records of the relative depths of layers, features, and plotted artefacts were made with reference to a surveying bench-mark attached to one

The 2005 excavation lasted just over three months, from late February to early June 2005. The Archaeological Department personnel who assisted me during the excavation included S.J. Sunil, who laid out the grid plan related to the previous excavations, with L.A. de Mel, Susantha Nihal (excavation supervisors), P.G.

53

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Table 4.1 Batadomba-lena (2005): summary of the contexts, layers and phases recognised (based on Deraniyagala 1982). Contexts 1 (1 in all) 2, 3, 4, 5, 6/99, 7, 12, 16, 17, 19, 20, 26/28, 29, 30, 32, 34, 35, 36 (18 in all) 8, 15, 27, 31, 33, 101 (6 in all) 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 18/102, 21, 23, 24, 25, 38, 100, 103, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 123, 124 (30 in all) 22/41/79/74, 37, 39, 40/45, 42/73, 43, 44, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 61, 63, 64, 65, 66, 80, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 105, 112, 122, 125, 126, 127, 128, 133 (41 in all) 59, 60, 62, 67, 68, 69/81, 72, 75, 77, 78, 82 (11 in all) 70, 76, 84, 85, 86, 87 (6 in all) 83, 88/89, 90, 104, 134 (5 in all) 71 (1 in all) 91, 98, 129, 135 (4 in all) 130 (1 in all) 131/132 (1 in all)

Phase

Layer

IX VIII VII

1 2 3

VI

4

Vb

5

Va IVc IVb Ia III II I

6 7a 7b 7c 8 9 10

Table 4.2 Batadomba-lena: sediment Munsell colours recorded in the field during 2005 excavations (context numbers in brackets) compared to Munsell colours from the 1980-82 excavations (Deraniyagala 1982). Layer

1980-82

Contexts – dry

Contexts – moist (field records)

1

10YR 4/3 (dry)

No data

2

10YR 4.5/2 (dry)

10YR 5/2 (2, 6/99, 35, 36), 10YR 4/2 (16, 17, 20)

3

10YR 6/2.5 (dry)

4

10YR 4/3 (moist)

5

10YR 3/1, 10YR 4/3, 10YR 6/2, 10YR 7/2, 10YR 5/5 (all moist)

7.5YR 4/3 (1) 10YR 4/2 (4, 20, 32, 35, 36), 7.5YR 4/2 (27, 29), 7.5YR 5/3 (6/99), 7.5YR 4/4 (7), 10YR 3/2 (17), 2.5YR 3/2 (26/28), 10YR 2/1 (16), 7.5YR 6/2 (2) 10YR 7/2 (101), 7.5YR 4/2 (8, 15, 33) 10YR 4/3 (38, 106, 111, 115), 7.5YR 4/3 (13), 10YR 4/2 (14, 109, 113), 10YR 5/3 (23,), 5YR 4/3 (10), 10YR 4/4 (108), 7.5YR 3/4 (100), 10YR 3/2 (18/102), 10YR 5/2 (25, 110), 10YR 6/3 (116), 7.5YR 5/2 (11, 115), 10YR 4/6 (103), 10YR 7/4 (9) 10YR 2/1 (80), 10YR 4/1 (52), 5YR 5/1 (50, 105), 5YR 7/1 (133), 7.5YR 3/2 (66, 94, 112, 126), 10YR 3/2 (53, 55, 96, 122), 10YR 4/2 (37, 39, 42, 43, 51, 73, 128), 7.5YR 5/2 (92), 10YR 5/2 (95), 7.5YR 6/2 (56, 65, 40/45), 10YR 6/2 (54), 7.5YR 4/3 (44, 57, 93), 10YR 5/3 (64), 10YR 4/4 (58), 10YR 5/4 (63), 10YR 5/6 (49, 97)

6

10YR 2/5 (moist)

7a

10YR 4.5/4 (moist)

7b

10YR 4/4 (moist)

7c 8 9 10

10YR 3/4 (moist) Yellowish brown No data 10YR 4/6 (moist)

10YR 6/2 (101) 10YR 4/3 (13, 111, 115), 10YR 4/2 (18/102), 10YR 5/3 (14, 23, 25, 38, 106, 109, 110, 113), 10YR 5/4 (103, 108), 10YR 7/1 (9) 10YR 2/1 (80), 10YR 3/1 (53), 10YR 3/2 (55, 73), 10YR 4/2 (39, 43, 51, 58, 122), 10YR 5/2 (37, 52, 65), 10YR 6/2 (54, 56), 10YR 7/2 (133), 10YR 5/3 (40/45, 63, 64), 7.5YR 5/3 (57) 10YR 3/4 (62, 82), 10YR 4/3 (75), 10YR 5/3 (60), 10YR 3/2 (69, 72), 10YR 4/2 (59), 10YR 5/2 (81) 10YR 3/3 (70), 10YR 5/8 (76) 10YR 6/4 (134), 10YR 4/6 (104), 10YR 3/6 (83, 88/89) 10YR 5/6 (71) 10YR 6/3 (91), 10YR 7/6 (135) 7.5YR 5/8 (130) No data

of the shelter’s walls. Professor Ian Simpson of Stirling University, Scotland, also visited the excavation, to collect soil blocks for thin-section and micromorphological analysis.

10YR 5/5 (60), 10YR 3/4 (62), 7.5YR 4/4 (78), 10YR 4/3 (75), 10YR 3/2 (69), 7.5YR 3/2 (82), 10YR 4/2 (59), 10YR 3/1 (72) 10YR 4/4 (85), 7.5YR 4/4 (76), 7.5YR 3/4 (70, 87) 10YR 4/4 (104), 10YR 5/4 (134), 7.5YR 3/4 (83, 88/89), 7.5YR 4/3 (90) 7.5YR 5/4 (71) 10YR 7/3 (91), 10YR 6/4 (135) 7.5YR 5/6 (130) No data

metre section between the 17-L and 17-G squares revealed a complex stratigraphy, drawn at a 1:20 scale in the field (Figure 4.5). This section provides an intricate example of the application of the context concept in Sri Lankan archaeology, including roof-fall and pit outlines as well as sedimentary deposits. Over 100 discrete contexts were recognised along this northern section (the great majority labelled on Figure 4.5), and Munsell colours of the moist sediment were recorded for most of the contexts with sedimentary content. Based on the records from the 1980s’ excavations, the contexts were related to the ten layers (and two of the sub-layers) recognised by S.U. Deraniyagala

4.2 Relationship between the 2005 and Prior Excavations The 2005 excavation focused on the northern section of the previously excavated area, because it contained deposits from all of the layers recognised during the 1980s’ excavations. Careful cleaning of the exposed 5.5

54

Stratigraphy, Chronology and Sedimentary History of Batadomba (1982), as indicated by bold lines between contexts in Figure 4.5. Because time did not permit excavating the western part of the north section, the only field records on the contexts confined to the western three metres are observations made on the exposed section, including moist Munsell colours and an estimate of density of cultural materials (where appropriate).

Table 4.2 compares the Munsell colours reported by Deraniyagala (1982) with the moist Munsell colours recorded in the field (in 2005) for the contexts, and, in those cases where sediment samples were collected, the dry Munsell colours recorded in the laboratory. Deraniyagala (1982) noted the great variability in sediment colours in layer 5, and the variability between the layer 5 contexts in their Munsell colours is indeed greater than for the other layers, although layers 2, 6 and especially 4 also have considerable variation in their context Munsell colours (Table 4.2). The implications of this variability for stratigraphic interpretation are detailed in due course, where the names applicable for the Munsell colours will also be given. Table 4.2 also shows that the Munsell colours given by Deraniyagala (1982) can be closely matched with context Munsell colours from the same layer, especially when moist is compared with moist and dry is compared with dry. Finally, it can be observed that many of the contexts, especially those to the west of the 2005 excavated area, have their Munsell colour represented only by the moist sediment reading made in the field, and so these will be the readings employed in the stratigraphic interpretation (detailed below).

Excavation then followed the contexts from the 17-I, 17H, and 17-G (western half) northern section. The eastern half of the 17-G section was not excavated in view of the proximity to the retaining wall. Excavation commenced at the surface and worked downwards, half a metre into the exposed section. However, the top 1.8 metres of the western half of the 17-I square comprised solid rock fall, although excavation could proceed beneath this rock fall. Additionally, the basal metre of the eastern half of the 18-G square was left intact, to prevent any risk of section collapse. Accordingly, the northern face of the 2005 excavation, drawn at a scale of 1:20 (Figure 4.6), illustrates the complete profile (half a metre into the previously unexcavated sediment) only for the 18-H square (Plate 4.4). Many of the contexts observed along the northern face of the 17-G to 17-I squares petered out during excavation, while new contexts appeared, and all of the contexts altered their sectional shape as excavation proceeded (compare Figures 4.5 and 4.6). The complex morphology of the contexts prompted the excavation supervisors to recognise provisionally distinct contexts, which subsequently proved to join into the same context (e.g., 69/81). As a result, the 135 contexts recognised during section inspection, and excavation, were reduced to 125 distinct contexts in the final stratigraphic interpretation.

Quite a few of the contexts have no Munsell reading at all, because they refer to roof-fall, pit outlines and other phenomena that are not sedimentary events. They are listed here in approximate sequence from bottom to top, and can be related to their appearance in the context matrix given in Figure 4.7. 1. Context 129 (layer 9) refers to a slab of stone (136 cm x 50 cm x 12 cm) which appears to have fallen from the shelter wall, and was found embedded in context 130 in a highly weathered state (Figure 4.9). 2. Context 98 (layer 8) refers to another large stone slab embedded in context 91 near its surface. 3. Context 86 (layer 7a) refers to a deep, narrow pit cut around 23 cm depth through contexts 83 and 88/89, and filled with sediment labelled context 87. The pit is oval in outline but its function is unclear. 4. Context 84 (layer 7a) refers to a deep pit outline of approximately 32 cm depth, with vertical sides and flat base, cut through contexts 76 and 83, into context 87 (i.e., the fill associated with the context 86 pit). This pit, which may reflect termite or rodent activity (cf. Mercader et al. 2003: 60-61), was subsequently filled with the deposit labelled context 85. 5. Context 77 (layer 6) refers to another steep-sided pit cutting with a flat base, also interpreted as a posthole, around 18 cm long, 16 cm wide and 20 cm deep. It had been cut from the surface of context 62 through contexts 69, 70 and 76, and was filled with sediment labelled context 78. 6. Context 67 (layer 6) refers to the cutting of a large pit from the surface of context 62 through contexts 69, 70, 83 and 71. Its shape is rectangular, with a width of c. 75 cm and a depth of c. 55 cm. Human remains observed in the section indicate that this pit had been cut for a

Sediment samples were collected from the great majority of the excavated sedimentary contexts. The approximate location of many of the samples is shown in Figure 4.5, along with the locations where Professor Simpson took his sediment blocks. In view of the complexity of the stratigraphy, and its potential as a source on evidence for forager activities at the site, analysis of the sediments offers great promise to enhance the behavioural evidence from site stratigraphy. Sedimentological study should also be an important source of information on the intensity of occupation at different times, with important inferences for reconstructing the occupants’ responses to climate change. Study of the sediments may also provide direct evidence on climate change, for instance, as a test of Deraniyagala’s (1982) proposal that the sediment corresponding to Phase 4 may have deposited by wind action during a dry phase. The evidence used in relating Deraniyagala’s layers to the contexts recognised in 2005 included sediment colours, based on Munsell readings, as well as the physical description of the layers and their cultural contents (Deraniyagala 1982). Figure 4.6 depictd the contexts along the northern section of the 2005 excavation, with some of Deraniyagala’s layers shown by bold inter-context lines. The assignment of my contexts to Deraniyagala’s layers, and the corresponding phases, is detailed in Table 4.1.

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Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka

Figure 4.7 Batadomba-lena (2005): context matrix.

56

Stratigraphy, Chronology and Sedimentary History of Batadomba grave. The sedimentary infill is labelled context 68 (not excavated or recorded). 7. Context 61 (layer 5) refers to a weathered rock with a strongly burnt surface found on the surface of context 59. 8. Context 48 (layer 5) refers to another weathered, burnt slab of rock, found lying on the surface of the previously mentioned rock (context 61). 9. Context 22/79 (layer 5) refers to a large slab of rock that appears to have fallen from the southwest corner of the fall of the shelter. This rock slab measures around 4 metres in length and 1 metre in thickness. Context 74, a zone of burnt and weathered rock particles, evidently also belongs here, as the particles appear to have derived from the context 22/79 roof-fall. 10. Context 127 (layer 5) refers to the outline of a rectangular pit, about 5 cm wide and at least half a metre north-south, filled in with sediment labelled context 128. The pit had been cut approximately 10 cm into context 133 from the context’s surface. 11. Context 125 (layer 5) refers to a rectangular pit, about 5 cm in width and at least half a metre north-south, dug some 10 cm into context 40 from the surface of the context, and filled in with sediment labelled context 126. 12. Context 46 (layer 5) refers to the cutting for a pit that also originated from the surface of context 40, and plunged through this context into context 43. This pit, interpreted as a posthole, was filled with sediment labelled context 47. 13. Context 123 (layer 4) refers to a cutting into context 25, filled in with sediment labelled as context 124. 14. Context 107 (layer 4) refers to the outline of a deep, large pit that had originated from the surface of context 25 and cut through contexts 25 and a number of layer 5 contexts. Its fill consists of several layers of sediment, labelled contexts 111, 110, 109 and 108 from bottom to top. 15. Context 21 (layer 4) refers to a large slab of stone, approximately 125 cm in length and width, lying on the upper boundary of context 25. It appears to be roof-fall. 16. Context 117 (layer 4) refers to the outline of a pit originating from the surface of context 13, and cutting into contexts 13, 14 and 25. The fill is labelled context 106. 17. Context 118 (layer 4) refers to the outline of a semicircular pit dug into contexts 13, 14, 25 and 126, as far as context 40 (in the layer 5 deposits), from the base of context 23. Its width and depth are respectively c. 30 cm and 60 cm. The pit has three layers of infill: a basal deposit labelled context 38; three slabs of stone (labelled contexts 119, 120 and 121) on the surface of context 38; and an upper deposit labelled context 113. 18. Context 114 (layer 4) refers to the outline of a pit that originated from the base of context 18/112 and cut through contexts 11 and 13 before terminating at the surface of context 14. The pit is approximately 20 cm wide and 46 cm deep, and is filled with a deposit labelled context 115. 19. Context 31 (layer 3) refers to a boulder of fall fall found lying embedded in context 11.

20. Context 5 (layer 2) refers to the incomplete outline of a pit that had had been cut into context 8. Its sedimentary infill is labelled context 7 (at the base) and context 6/99 (higher up). 21. Context 3 (layer 2) refers to the outline of large pit cut into context 35. The series of fills in the pit are labelled contexts 36, 17, and 2 from bottom to top. 22. Context 19 (layer 2) refers to the outline of a large pit that originated from the base of context 16 and cut through contexts 4, 12, 27, 35, 15, 11 and 23 before terminating at context 13 (i.e., it was cut through layers 3 and 4). Its depth is approximately 46 cm, and its fill is labelled context 20. Table 4.3 lists the contents recorded for the excavated contexts. Bone and shell weights are excluded from Table 4.3 as Jude Perera recorded them by layer. Note that the charcoal weights are uncleaned charcoal and may exaggerate the actual charcoal quantity. Table 4.4 lists the materials recovered from the sediment samples during processing. Although any sediment sample is only a small sampling of the context’s total sediment, being on average 150 – 200 g (though with a range of 56.3 – 464.9 g, depending on the context thickness at the sampled location), they provide some standardisation in volume compared to the widely different volumes of the excavated contents. (Table 4.4 also gives the moist Munsell colours recorded in the laboratory as a check on those made in the field.) Thus, the average quantity (lithics, charcoal or ecofacts) per sediment sample per layer provides an indication of changing habitation intensity, and/or the capacity of different materials to survive the ravages of time, particularly when considered along with the total excavated contents from the same layer Chronology Having related the layers from the main excavation to the contexts recorded in 2005, I can now list all the radiocarbon determinations on charcoal obtained from Batadomba-lena (Table 4.6). As indicated there, the entire extant habitation deposit, certainly in the area of the limited re-excavation, is Pleistocene in age. Despite the complexity of the stratigraphy, the dates fall in perfect sequence, with every deeper layer (and sub-layer) older than any (sub-) layer above it. The deposit had evidently built up at different rates at different times, as will be detailed below. Layer 7c now has a reliable date of around 36,000 years ago, compared to the previously available date (PRL-857) with a wide error bar, although the lacuna between this new date for layer 7c, and the considerably less ancient dates for layer 7b, still leaves some room for chronological irresolution. Abeyratne et al. (1997) published a series of radiocarbon and ESR dates on shell, ESR dates on bone, and OSL and TL dates on sediment. These determinations are highly variable, ranging from around 2,000 years ago (layer 4) to around 80,000 years ago (layer 7b), and each class of these dates has numerous stratigraphic inversions. The main benefit of these dates may be their predominant Pleistocene antiquity, in conformity with Table 4.6. Abeyratne et al.

57

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka the two extremes, and in one instance two contexts (69 and 81) interpreted to be the same context produced quite different degrees of skewness.

recognised the disparity between their inconsistent results and the perfect stratigraphic sequence of Deraniyagala’s (1992) dates on charcoal. The Waikato determinations confirm the wisdom of deferring to the charcoal-based radiocarbon dates.

The majority of the Batadomba-lena sediments are classified as sand, but the coarsest are classified as gravel, and the proportion of sand hovers around 50% and rarely exceeds 70% (Table 4.7). Both the gravel and silt/clay proportions vary widely, from less than 10% to over 40%. Given the abundant inclusion of particles larger and/or smaller than sand grains in the rockshelter sediments, the interpretation that would be made of sand-grain size positive skewness in sand bodies – specifically, an indication of a river or dune deposit (Friedman 1961) – may not be directly applicable to Batadomba-lena. Instead, the classification of the sediment, and the roundedness of the grains, may be more diagnostic of the origins and transport mechanisms of the sediment in the shelter floor.

4.3 Overview of the Batadomba-lena Sediments Table 4.7 summarises the data collected from the analysed sediment samples. Gravel refers to 4Φ nested sieves, and silt/clay refers to the sediment collected in the bottom pan. The sediment with grain size less than 2 mm was plotted as a cumulative distribution on probability paper with ticks at each Φ size (Figure 4.8). Based on the slope of the cumulative distribution, an estimate was made of the proportions of silt and clay in the silt/clay fraction, allowing classification of the sediment. The cumulative distribution is straight when the sand grain sizes follow a normal distribution, and departures from a straight line reflect skewness of the distribution of sand grain sizes. Specifically, for Batadomba-lena, the 0Φ proportion was frequently less than in a normal distribution, while the 3Φ and 4Φ proportions were sometimes greater than in a normal distribution, in both cases indicating positive skewness. Cumulative distributions with nil and strongly positive skewness can be readily distinguished, but those with weakly positive skewness vary continuously between

4.4 Rockshelter Formation and Pre-Habitation Deposits (Phases I to III) My observations on the Batadomba-lena shelter and its surroundings suggest that it was formed by water action against the rock face. The Batadomba-lena stream, which currently flows around 30 metres below the shelter’s floor, would have flowed at the same level as the shelter before

Table 4.3 Batadomba-lena (2005): excavated contents. “Description” summarises the interpretation of the contexts in the analysis detailed below. Charcoal weights include the weight of attached sediment. Layer

Context

Description

Charcoal (g)

Lithics (number)

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

16 20 4 2 17 35/36 6/99 7 12 8 27 15 101 18/102 9 10 115 11 100 103 23 106 113 13 108 109 110 111

Stratum Fill Fill Hearth fill Hearth Stratum/fill Hearth Hearth Stratum (margin) Stratum Stratum (margin) Stratum (margin) Stratum Hearth Hearth Substratum Fill Stratum Hearth Substratum Stratum Fill Oven fill Stratum Oven fill Oven fill Oven fill Oven fill

42 12 7.5 8 52 15 10 15 0 8 45 0 43 55 24.5 0 0 54 0 0 38 25 70 34.9 0 0 0 107

75 13 5 9 64 16 65 2 0 65 0 0 0 29 77 15 9 612 0 0 123 24 97 170 40 76 58 77

58

Stratigraphy, Chronology and Sedimentary History of Batadomba Layer 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7b 7b 7b 7b 7c 8 8 9

Context

Description

Charcoal (g)

Lithics (number)

14 116 38 124 25A 25B 25C 37 49 122 126 47 40/45 39 51 43 42 73 65 128 133 52 64 53 54 55 80 56 63 59 72 60 75 78 62 82 69/81 70 85 76 134 87 83 104 88/89 90 71 91 135 130

Substratum Hearth Hearth Fill Substratum Substratum Substratum Hearth Fill Hearth Fill Fill Stratum/hearth Hearth Hearth Hearth Hearth Hearth Remnant hearth Fill Hearth Hearth Hearth Hearth Hearth Hearth Hearth Hearth Stratum Stratum Hearth Hearth Hearth Fill Stratum Hearth Hearth Stratum Fill Stratum Stratum Fill Stratum Fill Stratum Stratum Stratum Stratum Stratum Stratum

24.7 65 50 0 25 20 15 19 24 14.1 0 0 15.3 25 25 9.1 34 42 42 0 0 30 12.8 14.1 12.2 15.2 20.5 26 32 15.7 11.8 18.4 0 0 128 38.9 17.5 10.5 0 44 79 0 34.8 62.2 30.3 23.5 60 0 0 0

74 85 150 7 85 102 64 61 0 31 0 0 175 104 42 27 120 31 38 10 16 174 155 137 84 31 36 99 104 64 40 152 103 0 34 54 71 80 0 81 0 0 74 85 102 26 68 0 0 0

59

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Table 4.4 Batadomba-lena (2005): observations from the sediment samples, including finds recovered during sieving, and moist Munsell colour (where recorded). Layer

Context

2 2 2 2 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6

20 17 36 6/99 101 18/102 9 115 103 23 106 113 13 108 109 110 111 14 38 25A 25B 25C 37 122 45 40 49 39 51 43 42 73 65 133 52 64 53 54 55 80 56 63 59 72 60 75 62 69/81

6 7a 7a 7a 7b 7b 7b

82 70 76 134 104 83 88/89

Munsell colour (moist)

Charcoal (g)

Lithics

Bone (g)

Shell (g)

Not recorded 10YR 3/2 7.5YR 4/2 10YR 4/3 Not recorded 10YR 3/2 Not recorded 10YR 4/3 Not recorded 10YR 5/3 10YR 4/3 7.5YR 5/3 10YR 5/3 10YR 4/4 10YR 4/2 10YR 5/2 10YR 4/3 10YR 4/3 10YR 4/3 10YR 5/4 10YR 4/2 Not recorded 10YR 5/1 10YR 4/2 10YR 5/3 10YR 5/3 Not recorded 10YR 3/2 10YR 3/2 Not recorded 10YR 4/2 As above 10YR 4/2 Not recorded 10YR 4/2 10YR 5/2 Not recorded 10YR 6/2 10YR 3/2 10YR 2/1 10YR 6/2 10YR 5/2 10YR 4/2 Not recorded 10YR 4/4 10YR 4/3 10YR 3/3 10YR 2/2 (69) 10YR 5/2 (81) 10YR 3/3 7.5YR 3/2 7.5YR 4/4 Not recorded 10YR 4/4 Not recorded Not recorded

0.7 1.5 0.5 1.2 0.4 15.0 1.2 0.2 0 1.0 1.5 1.0 0.4 0.2 1.0 1.0 1.5 0.1 1.0 0.1 0.1 1.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0 0 0.1 0 0.1 1.0 0 1.0 0.1 1.5 0.1 0.1 0 0.1 0.5 0 0 0.3

2 5 4 3 0 3 9 1 1 4 1 3 5 0 4 4 1 1 3 3 2 6 2 5 2 4 0 10 10 6 6 4 7 10 3 15 0 21 7 8 6 3 4 1 2 8 3 8

0.4 1.0 1.2 0.3 14.5 10.0 4.5 0 0 9.0 29.5 5.5 0.4 2.0 3.5 15.2 2.5 1.0 5.8 1.2 3.5 10.0 1.5 0.1 0.6 0.1 2.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 15.5 1.0 3.2 5.0 0.3 1.5 0.5 0.1 1.0 5.0 8.0 0.1 0.5 1.0 0.4 0

0 0.2 1.0 1.3 0.1 2.0 2.0 0.8 1.0 0 3.2 10.0 8.0 2.0 7.3 20.8 10.2 1.5 12.0 0.7 1.1 3.0 2.5 11.0 9.2 0.3 2.0 7.0 7.0 4.8 11.9 16.8 12.5 10.0 11.7 7.5 0.9 8.0 20.0 1.5 4.1 3.0 3.0 0.1 1.5 1.0 0 0

0.2 0.1 0 0.1 0.1 0 0.1

14 1 6 4 6 4 6

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

60

Stratigraphy, Chronology and Sedimentary History of Batadomba

Layer 7c 8 8 9

Context

Munsell colour (moist)

Charcoal (g)

Lithics

Bone (g)

Shell (g)

71 91 135 130

Not recorded 10YR 7/3 10YR 6/4 Not recorded

0.1 0 0 0

7 1 0 0

0 0 0 0

0.1 0 0 0

Table 4.5 Batadomba-lena (2005): summary of excavated finds, including excavated totals (E) but excluding sediment samples, and average quantities (S) from sediment samples. Charcoal, shell and bone weights in grammes. Layer 2/3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Charcoal (E)

Charcoal (S)

Lithics (E)

Lithics (S)

Bone (E)

Bone (S)

Shell (E)

Shell (S)

257.5 608.1 422.3 230.3 344.3 0 0

1.1 1.6 0.4 0.2 0.1 0 0

314 1974 1475 518 516 0 0

4 3.1 6.8 5.7 4.9 0.5 0

512.0 3160.2 1753.7 1339.7 269.0 0 0

0.8 6.5 2.0 1.4 0 0 0

519.3 7548.7 7563.0 4437.0 0.5 0 0

0.8 5.3 7.5 0.8 0 0 0

Table 4.6 Batadomba-lena (1980-82, 2005): calibrated radiocarbon dates on charcoal. All are conventional dates except Wk-19662 to Wk-19664 which are AMS determinations. Calibration of Wk-19662 to Wk-19665 was provided by the University of Waikato Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory; other dates calibrated using CALIB 5.0.2 (Stuiver and Reimer 2005) when the median estimate is less than 22,000 years ago, or else using CalPal (Weninger et al. 2006). The PRL dates have been calibrated based on the larger of the two standard errors provided. The minimum range refers to the one-sigma range and maximum range refers to the two-sigma range, except with the CAlPal calibrations where the minimum range gives the median intercept on the calibration axis, and the maximum range refers to the entire range of possible dates on the calibrated output. Sample

Lab Code

Determination (BP)

Minimum range (cal BP)

Maximum range (cal BP)

Context 18 (Layer 4a)

Wk-19965

10,193 + 57

11,771-12,028

11,624-12,095

Layer 4a

PRL-855

12,841-13,403

12,396-13,786

Layer 4b

PRL-856

14,207-15,599

13,743-16,313

Layer 5

PRL-860

14,934-16,219

14,136-16,712

Layer 6a

PRL-859

15,980-17,093

15,490-17,772

Layer 6b

PRL-858

Layer 7a Context 134 (Layer 7b)

17,846-19,303

16,884-19,819

Beta-33281

11,200 +330/-320 12,770 +470/-450 13,130 +440/-420 13,880 +370/-360 15,390 +610/-570 16,220 + 300

19,062-19,766

18,886-19,940

Wk-19964

19,350 + 121

22,702-23,236

22,578-23,488

23,212-25,317

22,433-25,981

Beta-33282 BS-784

20,150 +740/-680 20,320 + 500 22,360 + 650

23,736-25,307 26,890

22,833-25,621 24,000-28,700

Wk-19962

22,903 + 172

27,750

27,100-28,600

32,100

Incalculable

35,820

34,400-37,200

Layer 7b

PRL-920

Layer 7b Layer 7b Context 104 (Layer 7b) Layer 7c

PRL-857

Context 71 (Layer 7c)

Wk-19963

27,700 +2090/-1660 30,603 + 400

61

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka cutting down to its present level. I hypothesise that the palaeo-stream would have meandered against the cliff face to commence carving out the chamber of the shelter from a pocket of soft minerals. Even after the stream’s usual level would have dropped slightly below the level of the shelter floor, water action would have still scoured the area of the shelter during floods. Two lines of evidence indicate that the birth of the rockshelter had occurred millions of years ago. First, the time of the shelter’s formation would date to when the stream’s level lay around 30 metres above its present level, before cutting down through hard pre-Cambrian crystallines. Secondly, during the 1980s fieldwork, a probe was bored nine metres deep into the weathered floor of the shelter without reaching unweathered bedrock. The cavity

of the shelter must have been exposed to the elements for a very long time, for such a depth of weathering to have eventuated. The probe into the floor of the rockshelter (labelled context 131/132, corresponding to Phase I) was undertaken to search for the unweathered Pre-Cambrian gneiss that constitutes the shelter’s roof and walls. For the whole nine metres of the probe, however, the extracted material comprised highly weathered minerals. This weathered rock was classified in the field as a red/yellow podzol of sandy silty clay without any gravel component (Deraniyagala 1982). The moist Munsell reading of 10YR 4/6 (dark yellowish brown) indicates a stronger coloured deposit than

Figure 4.8 Batadomba-lena (2005): cumulative proportions of the sand fraction, plotted on probability paper, of representative samples.

62

Stratigraphy, Chronology and Sedimentary History of Batadomba Table 4.7 Batadomba-lena (2005): weights in grammes of gravel, sand and silt in the sediment samples, and skewness of the sand component Sample Phase II, context 130 Phase III, context 135 Phase III, context 91 Phase IVa, context 71 Phase IVb, context 88 Phase IVb, context 83 Phase IVb, context 104 Phase IVc, context 134 Phase IVc, context 76 Phase IVc, context 70 Phase Va, context 82 Phase Va, context 69 Phase Va, context 81 Phase Va, context 62 Phase Va, context 75 Phase Va, context 60 Phase Va, context 72 Phase Va, context 59 Phase Vb, context 63 Phase Vb, context 56

Gravel

Sand

19.0 (26.8%) 10.6 (23.6%)

48.0 (67.7%) 30.3 (67.5%) 36.5 (67.2%) 50.0 (53.8%) 47.3 (50.4%) 50.3 (53.6%) 35.0 (59.9%) 50.2 (52.6%) 55.3 (60.2%) 55.3 (48.5%) 40.2 (44.4%) 15.2 (32.2%) 36.1 (39.6%) 41.7 (45.4%) 20.9 (45.4%) 50.4 (55.7%) 13.4 (41.0%) 34.6 (35.9%) 39.4 (45.4%) 39.4 (50.6%) 18.1 (65.1%) 20.0 (42.3%) 34.5 (60.4%) 19.4 (70.8%) 26.7 (56.2%) 44.9 (53.2%) 17.2 (40.3%) 42.3 (50.5%) 35.5 (53.4%) 17.7 (48.0%) 26.7 (48.5%)

4.5 (8.3%) 30.5 (32.8%) 35.0 (37.3%) 32.0 (34.1%) 14.0 (24.0%) 34.2 (35.8%) 32.3 (35.1%) 39.5 (43.6%) 41.7 (46.1%) 27.5 (58.3%) 42.0 (46.1%) 42.5 (46.3%) 19.9 (43.3%) 18.7 (20.7%) 14.4 (44.0%) 54.6 (56.6%) 24.6 (28.4%) 11.7 (15.0%)

Phase Vb, context 55

4.5 (16.2%)

Phase Vb, context 80

21.9 (46.3%)

Phase Vb, context 54

5.6 (9.8%)

Phase Vb, context 53

2.4 (8.8%)

Phase Vb, context 64

9.0 (18.9%)

Phase Vb, context 52

13.6 (16.1%)

Phase Vb, context 133

5.0 (11.7%)

Phase Vb, context 65

20.5 (24.5%)

Phase Vb, context 73

9.0 (13.5%)

Phase Vb, context 42

7.5 (20.3%)

Phase Vb, context 43

7.5 (13.6%)

Silt/clay

Description

Skewness

3.9 (5.5%)

Clayey silty sand

Weakly positive

4.0 (9.0%)

Clayey silty gravelly sand

Nil

13.3 (24.5%) 12.5 (13.4%) 11.5 (12.3%) 11.6 (12.4%)

Clayey gravelly silty sand Clayey silty gravelly sand Clayey silty gravelly sand Clayey silty gravelly sand

9.4 (16.1%)

Clayey silty gravelly sand

11.1 (11.6%)

Clayey silty gravelly sand

4.3 (5.3%)

Clayey silty gravelly sand

7.2 (7.9%)

Clayey silty gravelly sand

8.6 (9.5%)

Clayey silty sandy gravel

4.5 (9.5%)

Clayey silty sandy gravel

13.1 (14.4%)

Clayey silty sandy gravel

7.6 (8.3%)

Clayey silty sandy gravel

5.2 (11.3%)

Clayey silty gravelly sand

21.4 (23.6%)

Clayey silty gravelly sand

4.9 (15.0%)

Clayey silty sandy gravel

7.3 (7.6%)

Clayey silty sandy gravel

22.7 (26.2%) 26.7 (34.3%)

Strongly positive Weakly positive Weakly positive Weakly positive Weakly positive Weakly positive Weakly positive Weakly positive Weakly positive Weakly positive Strongly positive Weakly positive Weakly positive Weakly positive Weakly positive Weakly positive

Clayey silty gravelly sand

Nil

Clayey gravelly silty sand

Nil

5.2 (18.7%)

Clayey gravelly silty sand

Strongly positive

5.4 (11.4%)

Clayey silty sandy gravel

Nil

17.0 (29.8%)

Gravelly clayey silty sand

5.6 (20.4%)

Clayey gravelly silty sand

11.8 (24.8%) 25.9 (30.7%) 20.5 (48.0%) 20.9 (25.0%) 22.0 (33.1%) 11.7 (31.7%) 20.9 (37.9%)

63

Clayey silty gravelly sand Clayey gravelly silty sand Gravelly clayey silty sand Clayey silty gravelly sand Clayey gravelly silty sand

Weakly positive Weakly positive Strongly positive Nil Weakly positive Weakly positive Weakly positive

Clayey gravelly silty sand

Nil

Gravelly clayey silty sand

Nil

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Sample

Gravel

Phase Vb, context 51

7.8 (18.2%)

Phase Vb, context 39

4.1 (8.8%)

Phase Vb, context 45

4.5 (13.8%)

Phase Vb, context 122

3.5 (10.4%)

Phase Vb, context 37

5.6 (13.6%)

Phase VI, context 25A

8.8 (10.1%)

Phase VI, context 25B Phase VI, context 25C Phase VI, context 111 Phase VI, context 110 Phase VI, context 109 Phase VI, context 108 Phase VI, context 13 Phase VI, context 38 Phase VI, context 106 Phase VI, context 113 Phase VI, context 23 Phase VI, context 103 Phase VI, context 115 Phase VI, context 9 Phase VI, context 18/102 Phase VII, context 101 Phase VIII, context 6/99 Phase VIII, context 36 Phase VIII, context 17 Phase VIII, context 2 Phase VIII, context 20 Phase VIII, context 16

12.3 (14.4%) 15.6 (17.5%) 21.8 (23.8%) 13.8 (16.4%) 17.9 (20.7%) 16.4 (18.7%) 16.7 (19.6%) 27.3 (30.6%) 24.9 (27.9%) 22.1 (24.9%) 14.6 (16.6%) 15.8 (17.3%) 7.2 (8.1%) 12.6 (14.7%) 12.0 (16.4%) 11.0 (12.1%) 12.9 (14.4%) 23.2 (23.1%) 47.6 (52.3%) 11.1 (24.6%) 43.8 (46.2%) 43.3 (45.4%)

Sand

Silt/clay

21.6 (50.5%) 25.5 (54.7%) 15.3 (47.0%) 16.2 (48.4%) 19.6 (47.7%) 40.5 (46.4%) 41.2 (48.0%) 40.4 (45.4%) 43.6 (47.5%) 40.8 (48.4%) 38.9 (45.0%) 45.4 (51.7%) 45.0 (52.8%) 43.0 (48.6%) 40.4 (45.3%) 43.4 (48.9%) 48.9 (55.6%) 67.4 (74.0%) 53.2 (60.0%) 37.8 (44.2%) 42.4 (58.0%) 52.9 (58.2%) 54.7 (61.0%) 61.5 (61.3%) 33.9 (37.3%) 30.0 (66.4%) 50.5 (53.3%) 41.8 (43.9%)

13.4 (31.3%) 17.0 (36.5%) 12.8 (39.3%) 13.8 (41.2%) 15.9 (38.7%) 37.9 (43.5%) 32.2 (37.6%) 32.9 (37.0%) 26.3 (28.7%) 29.2 (34.6%) 29.7 (34.3%) 26.0 (29.6%) 23.6 (27.7%) 18.8 (21.1%) 24.0 (26.9%) 23.3 (26.2%) 24.5 (27.8%) 7.9 (8.7%) 28.2 (31.8%) 35.1 (41.1%) 18.7 (25.6%) 27.0 (29.7%) 22.1 (24.6%) 15.6 (15.6%)

Description

Skewness

Clayey gravelly silty sand

Weakly positive

Gravelly clayey silty sand

Nil

Gravelly clayey silty sand

Nil

Gravelly clayey silty sand

Nil

Gravelly clayey silty sand

Weakly positive

Gravelly clayey silty sand

Nil

Gravelly clayey silty sand

Nil

Clayey gravelly silty sand

Nil

Clayey silty gravelly sand Clayey gravelly silty sand Clayey silty gravelly sand Clayey gravelly silty sand Clayey silty gravelly sand Clayey silty gravelly sand Clayey silty gravelly sand Clayey silty gravelly sand Clayey gravelly silty sand

Nil Weakly positive Weakly positive Weakly positive

Silty gravelly sand

Nil

Gravelly clayey silty sand

Weakly positive

Gravelly clayey silty sand

Nil

Clayey silty gravelly sand

Nil

Clayey gravelly silty sand Clayey gravelly silty sand Clayey silty gravelly sand

9.5 (10.4%)

Clayey silty sandy gravel

4.1 (9.1%)

Clayey silty gravelly sand

0.5 (0.5%)

Silty gravelly sand

10.2 (10.7%)

Clayey silty sandy gravel

64

Weakly positive Weakly positive Weakly positive Weakly positive Weakly positive

Strongly positive Weakly positive Strongly positive Weakly positive Strongly positive Strongly positive Weakly positive

Stratigraphy, Chronology and Sedimentary History of Batadomba most of the wet Munsell readings in the contexts above this weathered bedrock (Table 4.2), except, significantly, context 130 (Phase II).

(though hardly diagnostic of) derivation from the shelter floor. Interestingly, the sediment was found to have approximately 6% organic content, and an alkaline pH of 8.23 – the most alkaline reading obtained from any sample. Field notes record the presence of highly weathered shellfish fragments but no trace of vertebrate remains. These data are unlikely to reflect human presence, given the stratigraphic context of the sediment and its probable great age.

Phase II is interpreted as referring to the period when the shelter was being formed through fluviatile erosion. It is represented by context 130, a stony sediment corresponding to the basal 20 cm above context 131/132 (Figure 4.9). Field notes record that approximately 40% of the sediment consists of sub-rounded to sub-angular stones. Some large blocks of roof-fall can be observed in the section, but the main source of material would presumably have been water-weathered rock from the shelter floor. Deraniyagala (1982) suggested that the sub-angular edges on the rocks in the sediment indicates fluviatile transport from outside the shelter, but this would presuppose a stream of torrential strength to carry pebbles and cobbles in, as is evident even at present when the stream is in spate during the southwest monsoon; more parsimoniously, the slight rounding of some of the rocks’ edges would be the natural result of water percolation through a rocky substrate.

Phase III is interpreted as referring to the period prior to habitation when the stream had cut its bed below the shelter, flooding the shelter only during high-water events. Two contexts are involved (Figure 4.9) although the boundary between them is diffuse. Context 135 occurs at the northeast section as a capping over the weathered boulder of bedrock (context 129), with an average thickness of 12 cm across the area excavated in 2005, at the west as fill in a depression in the stony substrate (context 130), and at the southwest as a localised capping. Context 91 is present as mounded deposit on top of context 135, as a multiple mounded deposit over two metres in length at the west, and as the fill in a depression at the south. Stream action would appear to be responsible for the undulating surface of the Phase III deposit, or its absence where context 130 would have been exposed to the surface. The major contribution of roof-fall to the Phase III deposit is illustrated by the boulders in context 91 along the south section (Figure 4.9) and the boulders near the bottom of the north section of the main excavation (Figure 4.4). Weathered products from these boulders, and other roof-fall detritus, would also have contributed to the Phase III deposit, but there is evidence from the sediment samples to suggest at least some contribution by exogenous sediment.

A sediment sample was collected from between the stones in context 130. Its gravel component is moderate, but it has one of the highest proportions of sand, and lowest proportions of silt/clay, recorded for the site (Table 4.7). This would be consistent with the removal of the silt and clay from the sediment through suspension in running water. The Munsell colour of the moist sediment differs little from that recorded for the underlying bedrock (Table 4.2), which suggests that the sand may be largely derived from the shelter floor through weathering. The shape characteristics of the grains are also consistent with endogenous origins and slight rounding through water percolation. In both the 2 mm and 1 mm fractions, the grains were mainly sub-rounded or else sub-angular in roundedness, and tabular to spherical or otherwise platy in shape. In the smaller fractions, the grains were mainly sub-rounded and otherwise sub-angular or spherical, with a predominance of tabular shapes. Further, the mineralogy of the grains appears to be mainly gneiss, quartz and other minerals (including mica), which would be consistent with

Both samples are approximately 67% sand, but the remainder is predominantly gravel in context 135 and silt/clay in context 91 (Table 4.7). This agrees with their interpretation as flood deposits, with the larger particles being deposited toward the base of the stream and the finer particles being carried higher in the water through suspension. The moist Munsell colours of the contexts –

Table 4.8 Batadomba-lena (2005) contexts: Phases II to IV, for which pH, moisture content, organic content, carbonate content, or cultural content (in the field) were recorded. Context

Munsell name (moist)

pH

Moisture content

Organic content

Carbon-ate content

Density of cultural remains

130 (II) 135 (III) 91 (III) 71 (IVa) 90 (IVb) 88/89(IVb) 83 (IVb) 104 (IVb) 134 (IVc) 76 (IVc) 70 (IVc)

Strong brown Light yellowish brown Very pale brown Brown/dark brown Brown/dark brown Dark brown Dark brown Dark yellowish brown Yellowish brown Brown/dark brown Dark brown

8.23 7.35 7.05 – – – 7.27 7.72 4.80 5.05 7.30

9.9% 7.6% 9.3% 7.2% – 13.8% 8.4% 4.5% 5.4% 3.8% 9.8%

6% Nil Nil 12% – 8% 12% 8% 16% Nil 16%

Low Nil Nil Nil – Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil

Nil Nil Nil Medium Low High Medium Medium High High Low

65

Figure 4.9 Batadomba-lena (2005): pre-habitation deposit and weathered bed rock of the four sections of the 16-I to 16-K block of excavated squares, with 2005 context numbers assigned to the 198082 excavations.

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka

66

Stratigraphy, Chronology and Sedimentary History of Batadomba very pale brown in context 91, and light yellowish brown in context 135 (trending towards the colour of context 130) – are not found elsewhere in the Batadomba-lena sequence (Table 4.8). Under the microscope, the gravels and sand of context 135 had the appearance of gneiss and other rock particles smeared with clay. The shape of the particles (as revealed in the 2 mm to 0.0625 mm fractions) is mainly sub-rounded, but otherwise sub-angular, and mainly platy tending towards being spherical. The context 91 grains show greater signs of fluviatile transport as reflected by their predominantly sub-rounded status, tending towards fully rounded in the 2 mm fraction, and their predominantly tabular but otherwise spherical shape. These observations are consistent with the origins of much of this sediment as soil derived from the Pre-Cambrian gneiss outside of the shelter, and its fluviatile transport into the shelter (rounding the grains).

76 and 134, both with a pH of around 5, in contrast to the mildly alkaline pH readings of every other habitation deposit (7.27 – 7.95). Habitation in Batadomba-lena during Phase IV would not appear to have been intensive, as can be seen by comparing the approximate depth of the corresponding sediment (around 85 cm) to the long period of time revealed by the radiocarbon dates (around 36 ka cal to 19.5 ka cal – Table 4.6). Phase IVa Phase IVa is associated with two radiocarbon dates with calibrated ages in excess of 30 ka. The average thickness of the Phase IVa sediment excavated by Deraniyagala (1982) was 40 cm, and it extended across the entire excavated area, yielding a large assemblage of stone artefacts and faunal remains. It is represented by context 71, with an average thickness of c. 20 cm, in the 18-H and 18-I squares excavated in 2005. When human habitation commenced in the shelter, the floor would have been studded with boulders of ancient roof_fall, between which lay the sand of contexts 135 and 91. The characteristics of the sediment sample suggest in situ derivation from these strewn boulders of roof-fall. Given that the time period spanned by Phase IVa could be 5,000 years (c. 37 – 32 ka cal) or more, its average thickness of 40 cm would be entirely consistent with a slow source of sediment such as boulder weathering.

Neither context has revealed clear evidence of habitation. The analysed samples did not have any organic or carbonate content, and their pH readings of 7.05 and 7.35 are effectively neutral (Table 4.8). Field notes record highly weathered fragments of shell and bone in context 135, but this observation is not mirrored in the sediment sample. Although a tiny stone artefact was recovered during preparation of the context 91 sample, it may well have infiltrated down from occupation relating to context 71, which is artefact rich (Tables 4.3 and 4.4). In summary, habitation at Batadomba-lena does not appear to have commenced prior to c. 36,000 years ago, which is the earliest date associated with Phase IV.

The analysed sample from context 71 revealed a more angulated shape than that observed in the lower sediment samples. The 2 mm fraction was dominated by mineral particles of weathered rock which are sub-angular to angular in roundness, and mainly platy or tabular (otherwise spherical) in shape. The smaller-size fractions reveal a slightly more rounded form, with roundedness varying between sub-angular and sub-rounded, and spherical shapes being seen as often as platy and tabular shapes. Slow weathering of the shelter wall and roof-fall over a period of thousands of years, during which the smaller and more weathered particles would have become rounded through abrasion and water percolation, could explain these observations. They would also be consistent with the scanty presence of faunal material in the sediment sample, apart from some comminuted shell (Table 4.4), owing to post-depositional degradation (cf. Mercader et al. 2003: 56). Given the slow rate of deposition, even low levels of habitation would be sufficient to account for the 12% organic content and medium density of cultural remains.

4.5 Habitation up to the Last Glacial Maximum (Phase IV) Phase IV can be characterised as a lengthy period of late Pleistocene occupation, represented by layer 7 with minimal preservation of faunal remains, but a density of stone artefacts comparable to that of the other habitation layers (Table 4.5). Although field observations record the excavation of more charcoal in layer 7 than layers 6 and 2/3, most of this “charcoal” disappeared upon cleaning, which is why AMS dates had to be availed to date the layer 7 contexts (Table 4.6); the average of 0.1 g of charcoal per sediment sample (Table 4.5) is a better indication of the sparseness of charcoal in this layer. Observable carbonate content was not present in any sample (Table 4.8), in sharp contrast to the samples higher up which almost always revealed at least a slight carbonate content. Organic content of the tested samples is moderate (8 – 16%), apart from a nil reading for context 76.

Phase IVb Phase IVb is associated with five radiocarbon dates whose calibrated age would be around 28.5 – 22.5 ka cal (Table 4.6). During the 1980-82 excavation, the Phase IVb (layer 7b) sediment was recorded across the entire excavation, approximately 30 cm thick, and richer in cultural material (including less comminuted charcoal) than the Phase IVc sediment. Layer 7b includes context 90, a 6 cm thick lens of gravelly sandy silty loam (as recorded in the field), directly overlying context 71 in the north section of the 1980s excavation. The major Phase IVb contexts represented in

The sand component of the Phase IV sediment samples is less than is the case with the Phase III samples, while the gravel component tends to be greater (Table 4.7). Sediment colour varies only slightly, between brown/dark brown and (dark) yellowish brown, contrasting with the wider range of sediment colours higher up. Moisture content is also moderate (c. 4-14%), while the density of cultural material recorded in the field varies between low and high. A very unusual finding is the strongly acidic readings in contexts

67

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka the 2005 excavation are contexts 88/89 and especially 83, both present in the 18-H and 18-I squares. The analysed samples from these contexts reveal similar attributes to those of the context 71 sample, suggesting that the sediment had similarly derived predominantly from in situ weathered detritus from the shelter roof and walls.

in the 2005 excavation. The suggestion of more intensive occupation comes from two possible anthropogenic features in the north wall section, which are the context 86 and 84 pits (recorded in the field as filled with silty gravelly sand). Context 134 is the lowest stratum assigned to Phase IVc in the 18-I square, where it underlies the context 76 stratum. These contexts were recorded as around 30 cm and 22 cm thick respectively. Moisture content of the analysed samples from both contexts is low (4 – 5%), which may be related to their high gravel content and low to very low silt/clay content (Table 4.7). Although the granules’ origin as mineral and other weathered rock particles remains clear under the microscope, the roundedness of the grains is less angular than in contexts 71, 83 and 88/89 beneath them. Specifically, the context 134 sample showed predominantly sub-angular and sub-rounded forms in the 2 mm and 1 mm fractions, becoming less angular in the 1 mm fraction, and also spherical to tabular in shape, compared to the mainly platy and tabular shape of the 2 mm fraction particles. As for the context 76 sample, the 2 mm fraction had similar proportions of sub-angular, sub-rounded and angular forms, of mainly tabular or platy shape, whereas the 1 mm fraction had mainly sub-rounded (sometimes rounded) grains of equally represented spherical, tabular and platy shapes.

The sediment samples of both contexts 88/89 and 83 consist of gravel-rich sand (Table 4.7). Burnt patches and laminae speckled with charcoal were observed in context 88/89 but not in context 83. With the context 88/89 sample, the form of the grains became rounder with decreasing size, and varied from even proportions of the angular, subangular and sub-rounded categories in the 2 mm fraction, to predominantly sub-angular (otherwise sub-rounded) in the 1 mm fraction, to evenly sub-rounded and subangular in the smaller fractions. The shape of the grains was consistently divided fairly evenly between the platy, tabular and spherical categories, except in the 1 mm fraction where tabular shapes were not recorded. The context 83 sample was characterised by less rounded grains, whose mineralogy as mica or other weathered gneiss products was particularly evident. All observed fractions had grains dominated by angular and sub-angular outlines, and with fairly even proportions of tabular, platy and spherical shapes. Any water rounding of the sediment from context 83 would appear to have been slight during the estimated period of thousands of years when the weathered product from the ancient roof-fall gradually covered the fallen boulders.

Field records indicate no stone artefacts excavated in context 134 so they may have been included with the stone artefact count from context 76. The lack of a measurable organic content in the context 76 sediment sample contrasts with field records of 44 g of charcoal recovered from this context, and the high organic content in the context 134 sample (Tables 4.3 and 4.8). The inconsistency between these observations may reflect heterogeneity of these deposits, which could be a consequence of artificial deposition. The uniquely acidic pH readings for these contexts, along with their differences in grain roundedness compared to the underlying contexts, would also be compatible with an exogenous source, and Deraniyagala’s interpretation of a floor dressing.

Context 104 is the fill in an oval-shaped pit, approximately 32 cm wide and 25 cm deep, which had originated within context 83, and cut through context 71 to the surface of a slab of rock. It is quite alkaline and more yellowish than the other Phase IVb contexts, and its sediment sample is slightly sandier and less gravelly (Tables 4.7 and 4.8). Under the microscope, the analysed sample was observed to include quartz, mica and other minerals from weathered gneiss, while the rounding of the grains divided fairly evenly between sub-angular and sub-rounded, and the shape was mainly tabular or else spherical (and occasionally platy). All these observations resemble those made for context 130, which suggests that basal sediment from the shelter had somehow found its way into the context 104 pit, along with charcoal (which has the earliest date recorded for Phase IVb) and lithics (Tables 4.3, 4.4 and 4.6).

Context 70 directly overlies context 76 (along a diffuse boundary) in the 18-H square, with a thickness of approximately 7 cm. It differs from the contexts 76 and 134 sediment in its slightly alkaline pH and higher moisture content (Table 4.8), as well as gravel content in excess of 40%, which is a feature of the Phase Va deposits (Table 4.7). Roundedness of the grains was fairly evenly split between the sub-rounded, sub-angular and angular categories in the 2 mm and 1 mm fractions, but mainly sub-angular in the smaller-sized fractions, especially the 0.25 and 0.125 mm fractions in which angular grains were lacking. The grain shapes are mainly tabular or spherical, along with platy shapes in all but the 1 mm fraction. Weathered gravels from the roof and walls of the shelter are the likely source of these grains.

Phase IVc Phase IVc (layer 7a) corresponds to habitation leading into the LGM, as indicated by the available radiocarbon dates of c. 23 ka and 19.5 ka cal (Table 4.6). The 1980s excavation recorded the Phase IVc sediment as a possible floor dressing, of about 15 cm thickness, defined by sharp boundaries relative to the Phase IVb sediment beneath it and the Phase V deposits above it (Deraniyagala 1982). The phase IVc sediment evidently thickens towards the north of the major excavated area, as the depth of this sediment is approximately 50 cm along the north section, and the three major sedimentary units assigned to Phase IVc were present

4.6 Habitation immediately following the Last Glacial Maximum (Phase V) Phase V is one of the major occupation deposits of the

68

Stratigraphy, Chronology and Sedimentary History of Batadomba shelter. It is characterised by high density of artefacts and faunal remains, together with human interments. The upper horizons show progressively clearer bands of ash and burnt shell, suggesting fireplaces. Deraniyagala (1982) described it as approximately 115cm of very dark greyish brown, gravelly silty sand with no colluvial component. The calibrated radiocarbon dates indicate a time span of around 3000 years, between 18.5 and 15.5 ka cal, when (at least on the Horton Plains) the climate ameliorated following the peak of the LGM.

Context 80 is a band of charcoal with a thickness of c. 4 cm, excavated in the 18-I square, where its boundary with context 56 is sharp. Field records indicate predominantly canarium (kekuna) nut charcoal, which might suggest a pit for cooking or processing harvested plants, which would be consistent with the very high organic content but low carbonate content (Table 4.10). Analysis of the sample was complicated by the high proportions of charcoal flakes and burnt sediment granules, which together constituted 6070% of some of the fractions. Even the rock and mineral particles presented a slightly burnt appearance. Sediment type would be silty sandy gravel, with the gravel component making up nearly half of the non-organic component (Table 4.7). These mineral grains were strongly angulated, being mainly angular and otherwise sub-angular in roundedness, and mainly platy or else tabular in shape. Probably, gneissic rock in or near this hearth feature (hearth lining?) had been fractured through intense heat. Intact preservation of this hearth feature for posterity has been afforded by the context 22/79 roof-fall, which sealed it (Figure 4.6).

Phase Va Phase Va corresponds to layer 6 as recognised during the 1980s excavations. The two radiocarbon determinations from layer 6 would date it to the end of the LGM, based on calibrated determinations of approximately 18.5 and 16.5 ka (Table 4.6). The 1980s excavation revealed layer 6 to be of approximately 50 cm depth, and rich in cultural material, including ash, charcoal, and patches of burnt shell. These impressions are confirmed by the observations collected in 2005. The recorded density of cultural remains is moderate to high, consistent with the tendency towards dark brown to dark grey Munsell readings (Table 4.9). A carbonate presence was recorded in every context except 82 (the lowest stratified context). The high gravel content of the sediment samples, which on occasions led to their classification as sandy gravel (Table 4.7), may be related to cool climatic conditions, especially as this characteristic is shared with context 70. Features attributable to Phase Va include hearths, a posthole-like pit (context 77), filled with sediment recorded in the field as a gravelly silty sand with considerable ash and charcoal, and a burial pit (context 67), as demonstrated by the observation of human remains in the unexcavated section at the base of the pit (Plate 4.5).

Context 82 is a large hearth feature, of about 9 cm depth, distributed along the north face of the 17-H to 17-J trench, and extending into the 18-H and 18-I squares. Its status as a hearth is suggested by layered charcoal flecks, a reddish colour to its gravels (suggestive of burning), and its high organic content (the highest of any analysed Phase Va sample). Grain-shape analysis revealed a dominance of angulated particles with the larger-sized fractions, suggestive of heat fracturing. Both the 2 mm and 1 mm fractions were dominated by sub-angular or else angular forms, with a platy or otherwise tabular shape (occasionally spherical in the 1 mm fraction). It was only in the 0.5, 0.25 and 0.125 mm fractions that roundedness was more often sub-rounded than sub-angular, and that platy and spherical shapes dominated. Even in these smallest fractions, the gneissic origin of the granules (including quartz and mica grains) was clear, along with ochre-like particles of burnt sediment and, in the 0.5 mm fraction, burnt carbon grains.

Context 63 is overlain to the east by context 56, a complex deposit variegated with bands of yellowish brown, burnt earth (10YR 5/5, recorded in the field) and light grey, burnt shell (10YR 7/2, recorded in the field), as well as a general, light brownish grey matrix. It was excavated in squares 18-G and 18-H as a c. 20 cm thick deposit rich with cultural material. Its high organic and carbonate content are complemented by several shell and other faunal fragments, as well as stone artefacts, extracted from the collected sample before processing. Grain-size is finer than in context 63, and the sediment can be classified as clayey gravelly silty sand (Table 4.7). Under the microscope, the proportion of grains that are organic or granules of burnt sediment increased from 5% in the 2 mm fraction to 25% in the smaller-sized fractions. The mineral grains also changed from mainly gneissic nodules in the 2 mm fraction to predominantly quartz grains (milky, granular and clear) in the 0.5 mm and smaller-sized fractions. In all samples, the gneissic particles tended to be sub-rounded or otherwise rounded, and the quartz grains to be angular or otherwise sub-angular. There was also a difference in shape between the gneissic rock particles (predominantly spherical and tabular, otherwise platy) and the quartz grains (mainly platy, otherwise tabular).

A small lens of sediment overlying context 82 in the north section of the 17-I square was labelled context 81, and this context was found to join up with context 69 in the 18-H and 18-I squares. Samples from both contexts were analysed (Table 4.9) and found to be similar in their moderate moisture and organic content, and the presence of at least some carbonate. Grain-shape analysis revealed many similarities to the context 82 observations. The rock particles were predominantly angular to sub-angular in every fraction except the 1 mm fraction, where the grains were sub-rounded or else angular. Shape was predominantly tabular or platy, with spherical shapes emerging only in the 0.25 and 0.125 mm fractions. The gneissic origin on the rock particles was clear, with quartz and to a lesser degree mica minerals common in the 1 mm and smallersized fractions. Hard-baked sediment, charcoal, and faunal fragments including shell constituted the non-rock particles. In summary, context 69/81 also appears to have been a hearth feature, whose status was not obvious in the field but is demonstrated through laboratory analysis.

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Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Table 4.9 Batadomba-lena (2005): contexts, Phase Va, for which pH, moisture content, organic content, carbonate content, or cultural content (in the field) were recorded. Context 82 69 81 62 75 60 72 59 58 57 63 56 55 80

Munsell name (moist)

pH

Dark brown

–

Very dark greyish brown

–7.56

Dark brown Brown/dark brown Yellowish brown Very dark grey Dark greyish brown Dark yellowish brown Brown/dark brown Yellowish brown Light brownish grey Very dark greyish brown Black

7.65 7.52 7.64 7.68 7.72 – – 7.78 – – –

Moisture content

Organic content

Carbonate content

Density of cultural remains

7.9% 3.6% 6.4% 7.0% 5.3% 7.3% 2.8% 2.3% – – 8.9% 6.4% 4.7% 7.7%

16% 10% 8% 4% 12% 8% 4% 12% – – 16% 14% 18% 25%

Nil Slight 4.5% Slight Slight 5% 2-3% Slight – – 5% 5% 7.5% 1-2%

High

Context 62 capped context 82 along a diffuse boundary and context 69/81 along a sharp boundary. It extended into squares 18-H and 18-I at an average thickness of some 12 cm. Organic content is low (and carbonate content slight) but otherwise its characteristics are almost identical to those of the three previously described contexts. In all of the fractions ranging from 2 to 0.125 mm, the observed granules consist mainly of rock particles, including quartz grains, and are mainly of angular to sub-angular roundedness. In term of shape, they divide fairly evenly between the platy and tabular shape categories. Although some burning of the context 62 deposit (associated with hearth building) has clearly affected the observed texture of the sediment, it is also evident that the original sediment was predominantly angular to sub-angular. Its likely source is weathered rock from the roof and walls of the shelter, the product of a weathering process that would have been hastened through intensive use of the rockshelter, as the occupants brushed against the sides of the shelter or varied the temperature and humidity through hearth building and other activities (Hughes 1983). Finally, a deep burial pit (context 67) had been dug into the deposit immediately following the occupation represented by context 62, as was another pit tentatively interpreted as a posthole (context 77).

High High High High Moderate Moderate Moderate High High High High High

otherwise angular in the 2 mm fraction and sub-rounded or even rounded in the smaller fractions. Tabular, platy and spherical grain shapes were observed at fairly equal frequencies in all the fractions. Context 60 corresponds to deposit formed on top of contexts 62 and 75 (differing across the 18-H and 18-I squares) across a medium-sharp boundary, to a depth of about 11 cm. Its high content of burnt fragmented shell, recorded during the excavation, relates to the lighter colour of the deposit and the c. 5% recorded concentration of carbonate (Table 4.9). Little charcoal was observed during preparation of the sediment sample, but ash was noted along with some burnt faunal material (Table 4.4). Grains of hardbaked sediment were observed in all of the fractions, along with rock and mineral particles. Roundedness of the grains was predominantly sub-angular, along with sub-rounded to rounded forms in the 2 mm fraction, and with angular forms in the smaller-sized fractions. Grain shape was fairly evenly divided into spherical, tabular and platy categories in all of the fractions. The greater roundedness of the grains compared to the other Phase V contexts, and the markedly lower gravel proportion (Table 4.7), suggest sediment imported from outside the shelter (presumably related to the introduced shell) in constructing this hearth feature.

Context 75 capped context 62 along a moderately sharp boundary to a depth of about 11 cm. Bands of shell (consistent with the recorded carbonate presence) and ash were evident in section, along with a very high density of cultural material. However, this context is generally similar to the previously described Phase V contexts, albeit with a tendency to less angular grains. Again we would seem to be dealing with a hearth feature or features in sediment derived from roof weathering, perhaps more subjected to human trampling (over time) to account for the less angulated clasts. Grains of burnt sediment were observed in the 2 mm and 0.5 mm fractions, along with particles of rock and mineral (predominantly quartz, feldspar and mica) in all the fractions, and organic material (including comminuted shell) in the 0.5 mm fraction. Roundedness was predominantly sub-angular in all fractions, but

It appears likely that context 60, along with context 72 immediately above most of it (along a very sharp boundary), marks an ancient hearth, in which context 60 was the section of the hearth dug into the subsurface, and context 72 was the above-surface capping. Bands of charcoal as well as ash were observed in context 72, consistent with the very dark grey sediment colour (drying out to very dark greyish brown). The analysed sample from context 72 had the high proportion of gravel typical of Phase Va deposit. The lower moisture and carbonate content of context 72, compared to context 60, are consistent with the interpretation of a more oxidised, heated environment (Tables 4.7 and 4.9). Grain-shape analysis revealed particles of charcoal and burnt sediment in the 2 mm and 1 mm fractions, along with gneissic material (especially milky and granular

70

Stratigraphy, Chronology and Sedimentary History of Batadomba quartz) in all of the fractions. Roundedness increased with smallness of the fraction, being mainly angular or otherwise sub-angular in the 2 mm fraction, equivalently angular, subangular and sub-rounded in the 1 mm fraction, and mainly sub-rounded (otherwise sub-angular) in the smallest-size fractions. Platy, tabular and spherical shapes were fairly equally represented in all of the fractions.

pits (contexts 46, 125 and 127), interpreted as postholes associated with a living floor, and a possible subsurface hearth or earth oven, further reflect intensive habitation towards the end of Phase Vb. The transition to Phase Vb is associated with a burnt, weathered slab of stone labelled context 61 (overlain by another rock, context 49). Contexts 57 and 58, which were recorded in the north section from the previous major excavation, but did not extend into the squares excavated in 2005, also belong to the transition. They appear to be hearth features produced in a pocket of the burnt stone slab labelled context 61. Context 58 was described in the field as gravelly sandy silt, of c. 11 cm thickness, with bands of ash but a low density of cultural material. Context 57 was recorded also as being gravelly sandy silt, but less silty and more gravelly than context 58, of about 7 cm thickness. It was also recorded as looser and darker than context 58 owing to its high content of ash and charcoal.

Context 59 corresponds to sediment which had been deposited on top of context 72, where the boundary is sharp, as well as directly onto context 60. This sediment makes up a relatively thick stratum of about 13 cm depth across the 18-H square. As observed in the field, and confirmed by the laboratory sample, the sediment has a high gravel component (even by Phase Va standards). Some of the matrix would appear to have weathered directly from a highly burnt and weathered stone slab (context 61) excavated on top of the context, in addition to weathered roof products. Context 59 is not recognisable as a hearth feature, but the burnt surface of the stone, the dark greyish brown sediment colour, and the high organic content (12%) all indicate repeated firing events associated with intensive occupation. Microscopic study of the fractions revealed burnt sediment grains and charcoal flecks along with tiny fragments of shell and other fauna, amidst the dominant presence of rock and mineral (milky, granular and clear quartz, and some mica) particles. The rock and mineral particles are predominantly sub-angular (otherwise angular in the 2 mm fraction, and otherwise sub-rounded or angular in the other fractions), and also platy or tabular in shape (sometimes spherical in the 1 mm fraction).

Context 63 is the earliest excavated context attributed to Phase Vb. It has high organic and carbonate content (Table 4.10), and bands of grey ash and shell intercalated within the sediment. The charcoal in the deposit was classified in the field as mainly canarium seed (kekuna) charcoal. Shell and other faunal material, along with a high density of stone artefacts, was also observed (Table 4.3). Highly fragmentary shell and other fauna were observed in the sediment sample under the microscope (Table 4.4), along with grains of burnt sediment in the 1 mm and finer fractions. In the 2 mm fraction, grain roundedness was evenly distributed between the sub-angular, sub-rounded and angular categories, with a shift towards sub-rounded forms in the 1 mm fraction, and disappearance of angular forms in the finer fractions. Tabular, spherical and platy shapes were more or less equally present in all fractions. Identified minerals included mica as well as quartz (clear, milky and granular), consistent with interpretation of the non-organic grains as weathered shelter gneiss. Context 63 constitutes a quite thick habitation deposit, with considerable evidence of hearth activity, beneath the rooffall of context 22/41/79.

Phase Vb Phase Vb corresponds to layer 5 as recognised during the 1980s excavation. Deraniyagala (1982) characterised the layer 5 deposit as approximately 65 cm in thickness, and highly variegated as the result of hearth facies, and bands and lenticles of ash and burnt earth. The single radiocarbon determination from layer 5, which calibrates to around 15.5 ka, is sandwiched between calibrated dates of c. 16.5 ka in layer 6a and 15 ka in layer 4b (Table 4.6). In other words, layer 5 (Phase Vb) would appear to represent intensive occupation, over a period of some 1500 years, when repeated hearth construction events built up the deposit by approximately 65 cm. The transition from layer 6 to layer 5 can be correlated with a change to much lower proportions of gravel and much higher proportions of silt/clay (Table 4.7), and the change from generally dark brown sediments to the wide variety of sediment colours recorded both during the 1980s and during my 2005 season (Table 4.2). High levels of deposition of (burnt) shell are reflected in the consistent presence of carbonate in the analysed samples, often responsible for 5-15% of the total sediment, and the associated tendency towards lighter sediment colours (Table 4.10). Adding to the stratigraphic complexity of Phase Vb, a huge block of roof-fall (context 22/79) had collapsed on context 63 (and context 56), two of the earliest deposited contexts attributable to Phase Vb. This roof-fall compressed and distorted the underlying habitation deposit, and also restricted the available area for habitation. Three

Context 55 was excavated in the 18-G and 18-H squares as a 2 to 4 cm thick deposit sharply demarcated from context 56. However, its characteristics are very similar to those of context 56, and it may be equally regarded as a hearth feature. Despite its thinness, variegated bands of charcoal, burnt earth and burnt shell could be observed within its very dark greyish brown matrix. Organic and carbonate content are even higher (based on the analysed sample) than in context 55 (Table 4.10). Under the microscope, the fractions can include up to 30% and other organic material, especially in the smaller-sized fractions. Roundedness of the rock and mineral particles is mainly sub-angular, with a minority component of sub-rounded forms in the 2 mm fraction, and angular forms in the 1 mm and finer fractions. Tabular and platy shapes are dominant, complemented by spherical shapes in the 1 mm fraction. Context 54 was evidently deposited after the context 22//79

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Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka roof collapse. It was described in the field as an 8-cm layer (in the 18-G and 18-H squares), deposited along a sharp boundary with context 55, and comprising 65% burnt shell, 25% burnt earth, and 10% charcoal. Evidently, context 54 is essentially the remnants of a mollusc cooking episode. The analysed sample produced very high organic (36%) and carbonate (c. 15%) content. Over 20 stone artefacts, 8 g of shell, 4 g of burnt sediment, and some highly fragmentary bone were extracted from the sample prior to processing it (Table 4.3). The gravel component of the sample was also observed to be highly burnt. The sediment is fine-grained and can be classified as gravelly clayey silty sand (Table 4.7), with a strong predominance of fine to very fine sand. The mineral component in all fractions was observed to be mainly sub-angular and otherwise angular in roundedness, and mainly tabular but otherwise platy in shape. The fineness and angular form of the grains suggest that intense heat had repeatedly fractured the mineral grains caught up in this hearth feature.

the darker colour but lower organic and carbonate content compared to context 54 (Table 4.10). In this highly sandy deposit (Table 4.7), burnt sediment and organic material accounted for up to 20% of the granules in the fractions observed under the microscope. In all the fractions, roundedness of the grains fell predominantly in the angular and sub-angular categories, and shape was tabular or otherwise platy. This sediment suggests characteristics similar to those of context 54, but with less contribution from very fine angled particles, suggesting slightly less heat fracturing. Context 64 evidently corresponds to another hearth feature, of 4 – 6 cm depth (in the 18-G square) where its boundary with context 53 is sharp. Bands of charcoal and burnt pulverised shell were observed in the field, within a generally brown deposit. The analysed sample had high organic content (24%), but lower carbonate content (c. 6%) than recorded in the two hearth contexts beneath it (Table 4.10). Granule morphology differed slightly from context 53, in that spherical, tabular and platy shapes were equally dominant in all the fractions, even though roundedness remained predominantly sub-angular and otherwise angular.

Context 53 probably represents a darkened capping over the context 54 shell hearth. It was excavated across the 18-G and 18-H squares to a thickness of c. 4 cm, where the boundary with context 53 was observed to be very sharp. The composition in the field was recorded as 50% burnt earth, 40% charcoal and 10% ash, with bands of burnt earth and some shell. These observations agree well with the observed characteristics of the analysed sample, such as

Context 52 is yet another stratified hearth feature, excavated in square 18-G to a depth of around 4 cm, where its boundary with context 64 is moderately sharp. During excavation, a considerable number of burnt gravels

Table 4.10 Batadomba-lena: (2005) contexts, Phase Vb, for which pH, moisture content, organic content, carbonate content, or cultural content (in the field) were recorded. Context 54 53 64 52 133 65 73 42 43 51 39 40 45 122 126 44 97 96 95 94 93 92 105 112 66 49 37

Munsell name (moist)

pH

Moisture content

Organic content

Carbonate content

Density of cultural remains

Light brownish grey Very dark greyish brown Brown Dark grey Light grey Light brownish grey Dark greyish brown Dark greyish brown Dark greyish brown Dark greyish brown Dark greyish brown Light brownish grey Light brownish grey Very dark greyish brown Very dark greyish brown Brown/dark brown Yellowish brown Very dark greyish brown Greyish brown Dark brown Brown/dark brown Brown Grey Dark brown Dark brown Yellowish brown Dark greyish brown

– 7.59 7.64 – 7.56 7.55 7.65 7.76 – 7.88 7.39 7.70 – 7.73 – – – – – – – – – – – – 7.66

9.1% 8.8% 4% 5.4% 2.5% 5.7% 6.0% 4.7% 4.9% 4.7% 5.0% 4% 4.4% 5.0% – – – – – – – – – – – – 5.5%

36% 14% 24% 24% 8% 10% 20% 28% 20% 28% 8% 12% 22% 12% – – – – – – – – – – – – 18%

15% 9% 6% Slight 6% 5% 2-3% 6% 10% Slight Slight Mild 6.3% 15% – – – – – – – – – – – – 5%

High Low Medium Medium Low High High High High High High High High High Low High High High High Low Low Low Low Low High High Moderate

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Stratigraphy, Chronology and Sedimentary History of Batadomba were observed, as well as bands of charcoal and burnt pulverised shell. The sample analysed in the laboratory included considerable shell (as well as highly fragmented bone, and some stone artefacts), but after removal of this relatively intact shell, the carbonate content in the sample was low. Nonetheless its very high organic content (24%) corresponds well to the dark grey colour of the deposit (Tables 4.4 and 4.10). Grain-size composition is typical by Phase Vb standards (Table 4.7), and observations on grain shape were indistinguishable from those for the context 53 sample.

73 sample included 16.8 g of shell, or c. 20% of the total by weight (along with 7.3 g of stone artefacts), and even after extraction of this shell, the remaining sample still registered a mild carbonate content. The high organic content of this sample (20%) corresponds to its dark colour. Similarly, for the context 42 sample, six stone artefacts weighing 20.5 g, and burnt shell weighing 11.9 g, were collected from the laboratory sieves, compared to only 29.4 g of processed sediment. This sediment additionally included a high quantity of organic material (28%) and burnt earth particles (Tables 4.4 and 4.10). The sediment in both samples would be classified as clayey gravelly silty sand. As in context 56, there appeared a transition from a predominance of gneissic granules in the 2 mm fraction (75%) to a majority status of quartz grains in the 1 mm and smaller fractions. The gneissic granules were mainly sub-rounded or sub-angular in roundedness, and tabular, platy or otherwise spherical in shape, while the quartz grains were mainly sub-angular or angular in roundedness, and mainly platy or otherwise tabular in shape. Heat fracturing of quartz, as well as the parent gneiss, would appear to have made a substantial contribution to the mineral content of this analysed sample.

A particularly distinct and thick band of burnt shell, stratified above context 52, has been labelled context 133. It was excavated in square 18-G with an average thickness of c. 3 cm. Consisting largely of shell, this light grey deposit is cultural of itself, though the density of other cultural remains such as stone artefacts was recorded in the field as low. However, the laboratory sample yielded 4.8 g of stone artefacts as well as 10 g of shell, compared to only 37.7 g of (air-dried) sediment, much of which appeared burnt. After removal of the macroscopic shell particles, carbonate content, which would account for most of the organic content, was only c. 6% (Table 4.10). Roundedness and shape of this fine, gravelly clayey silty sand, were indistinguishable from those recorded for context 53.

Context 43 is another stratified hearth dominated by burnt shell, excavated to a depth of c. 8 cm in the 18-G square where it was deposited on top of context 73 along a sharp boundary. The deposit was observed in the field to include bands of ash and charcoal, as well as stone artefacts and dense whitish inclusions of pulverised, burnt shell, within a generally dark greyish brown deposit. Approximately 12 g of the analysed sample consisted of shell (over 10% by weight), and even after extraction of this shell, c. 10% of the remaining sample was carbonate. The high organic content (20%) matches the dark greyish brown colour of the deposit. Six stone artefacts including a microlith and fragmented bone were also extracted from the laboratory sample, as well as charcoal flecks. Context 43 has a very similar grain shape distribution to context 73, and the same transition was observed from a predominance of gneissic granules, sub-rounded or otherwise sub-angular in roundedness and mainly tabular but otherwise spherical shape, in the 2 mm fraction, to a dominance of mineral grains (angular or otherwise sub-angular in roundedness, and mainly platy but otherwise tabular or occasionally spherical in shape) in the finer fractions.

Context 65 was deposited on top of the context 42 boulder to a thickness of about 12 cm. The light brownish grey colour of the deposit reflects the inclusion of whitish burnt shell, ash, and red-burnt sediment, without evident banding. The origin of the contents as hearth material is, however, clear from my observations on the analysed laboratory sample. Seven stone artefacts, 12.5 g of fragmentary and burnt shell, 15.5 g of highly burnt bone, 7 g of burnt sediment, and flecks of charcoal were extracted from the sample prior to processing. Nonetheless organic content was recorded at 10% and carbonate content at c. 5%. The quite high gravel content of the sample (Table 4.7) may reflect some level of admixture with weathered products from the context 41 boulder. In the 2 mm fraction, about 75% of the sample consisted of gneissic particles of sub-angular to angular roundedness and platy, tabular or otherwise spherical shape. The remaining 25% consisted of organic remains including burnt shell, and particles of baked earth (sub-rounded to sub-angular in form, and tabular or otherwise spherical in shape). In the 1 mm and finer fractions, undifferentiated gneissic particles gave way to quartz grains, mainly subangular or otherwise angular in form, and predominantly platy but otherwise tabular in shape. Particles of baked earth continued to be observed in the finer fractions, with roundedness and shape characteristics as described for the 2 mm fraction.

Context 51 refers to another hearth feature in square 18G, of c. 7 cm thickness, which was observed to include bands of burnt pulverised shell. Both this attribute, and the observation of a high cultural content, were confirmed during pre-treatment of the laboratory sample, from which 7.0 g of shell and 7.6 g of stone artefacts were extracted (compared to a dried sediment weight of 35 g). This sediment itself was observed to include a considerable quantity of shell and other faunal material, along with burnt sediment granules and quartz grains. The grain-size distribution is typical by Phase Vb standards (Table 4.7). In all the fractions, roundedness was mainly sub-angular and otherwise angular, while shape was mainly tabular and otherwise platy.

Context 42/73 is another stratified hearth feature, excavated in squares 18-G and 18-H with a thickness of c. 8 cm, where it capped context 65 along a diffuse boundary and context 133 along a sharp boundary. Observations in the field mention inclusions of burnt gravels, burnt shell and charcoal, as well as thin layers of ash, within a generally dark greyish brown deposit. The dry weight of the context

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Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Context 39 was deposited on top of context 42 (and context 43) along a sharp boundary to a thickness of around 7 cm. In the field it was recorded as a hearth with a very high density of burnt shell, which was often distributed in bands. A high density of artefacts was also noted. These observations were confirmed during my pre-processing of the laboratory sample. Ten flakes weighing some 20 g together were extracted from the sample, along with 7 g of shell, and tiny quantities of bone and charcoal, compared to a (dried) sediment sample of 42.5 g. After extraction of these components, both organic content (8%) and carbonate content were mild. Gravels were scarce in the sample which is classified as gravelly clayey silty sand (Table 4.7). Even these gravels were predominantly granules of burnt sediment (around 70%), as observed under the microscope, being sub-rounded or otherwise sub-angular in form, and mainly tabular to platy in shape. Only some 20% of the gravels were identified as particles of gneiss (with the remaining 5% being organic remains). In the 1 mm and finer fractions, a mineral component was dominant, but consisted mainly of quartz particles (around 70%). These quartz grains were mainly sub-rounded or otherwise subangular, with a tabular, spherical or otherwise platy shape in the 1 mm fraction, but became more jagged in the finest fractions (mainly angular or otherwise sub-angular, with a platy, tabular or else spherical shape). Grains of burnt sediment, typically of sub-rounded and platy form, along with hardened ash and organic remains, constituted the remainder of the finer fractions.

a living floor, protected by a shelter of branches or other perishable material. Context 45, on the other hand, had the fine distribution of grain sizes typical of the Phase Vb hearth features, as determined from its sediment sample (Table 4.7). Observations on grain shape revealed burnt sediment, charcoal and other organic remains in all of the fractions. Both the quartz grains and the undifferentiated gneissic granules had similar forms, being predominantly sub-angular (tending towards sub-rounded for the gneiss particles and angular for the quartz grains), and changing shape from mainly tabular or otherwise platy (or even spherical) in the 2 mm fraction, to mainly platy or else tabular in the finer fractions. Context 122 is another hearth facies in square 18-G, of around 10 cm thickness, which was described in the field as an ashy deposit with a high density of shell. Based on my study of the laboratory sample, the shell component of this very dark greyish brown sediment was highly concentrated. Shell fragments and complete shells weighing 11 g (many showing no signs of burning), along with five tiny artefacts and traces of charcoal, were extracted prior to processing, leaving a (dried) sediment sample of merely 30 g. Even then, carbonate content (accounting for all of the recorded organic content) was measured as 15%. The sediment had the fineness typical of the Phase Vb hearth features (Table 4.7). In the 2 mm fraction, approximately 75% of the grains appeared to be granules of baked earth, of a sub-rounded to sub-angular form and the whole range of shapes (spherical, tabular and platy). The remaining 25% of the fraction consisted of pulverised shell and other organic remains, along with rock and mineral particles. In the finer fractions, white grains, probably including both quartz and powdered shell, was dominant. These grains were angular or otherwise sub-angular in roundedness, and mainly platy or else tabular in shape.

Contexts 40 (in squares 18-G and 18-H) and 45 were originally treated as separate in the field, with context 40 stratified between contexts 51 and 45 (Figure 4.6), but then treated as equivalent during subsequent investigations. Hence, although certain laboratory tests were carried out on sediment samples from both contexts, only the context 45 sample was studied for its grain size distribution and grain shape features. In fact, context 40 would appear to have been a living floor, and context 45 a hearth feature. The c. 12 cm thick deposit of context 40 did not contain observable banding, and the quantity of charcoal, bone and shell in the sediment sample is small. In contrast, the context 45 sample contained considerable shell. These differences are reflected in the laboratory tests that were undertaken, which revealed considerably higher organic and carbonate content in the context 45 sample than the context 40 sample, even though both sediments are indistinguishable in their Munsell colour and moisture content (Tables 4.4 and 4.10).

After the habitation deposit had built up around the context 22/79 roof-fall to the top of these boulders, the area regularly used for habitation would logically have spread to cover the roof-fall. The contexts involved here were recorded in the north section of the 17-I and 17-J squares, but were not observed in the squares excavated during 2005. Context 66 represents an early episode in habitation above the roof-fall. (Context 112 is stratified beneath context 66, but it is interpreted as containing context 66 habitation deposit which had slipped between the context 22 and context 79 boulders, and become mingled with rocks weathered from these boulders.) It was recorded in the field as dark brown, gravelly silty sand, of c. 10 cm depth, laced with bands of charcoal and ash. Compaction was recorded as medium loose, and cultural content as high.

Part of the difficulty between distinguishing between these contexts was the occurrence of a 10 cm deep pit – a suspected posthole, labelled context 46 and filled with context 47 – cut between contexts 40 and 45 in the north section of the 17-G square (Figure 4.4). Although stratigraphically related to context 45 by the rules of context matrices (Figure 4.7), it should probably be considered as a posthole cut into context 40, given the existence of another suspected posthole – context 125, filled with a loose, gravelly sandy silt, with only a low density of cultural material (context 126, field observations) – cut into context 40. These observations suggest that context 40 represents

At a very late stage during Phase Vb, a large depression was evidently cut through contexts 122, 40, 39, 42/73 and 65, as far as context 66 (along a diffuse boundary) and the fragmented surface of the context 41 roof-fall boulder. The fill in this pit, context 49, was recorded in the field as yellowish brown, gravelly silty sand of c. 20 cm depth, laced with bands of small shells. Compaction is slightly hard, and cultural content, at least in terms of

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Stratigraphy, Chronology and Sedimentary History of Batadomba charcoal recovered (Table 4.3), is high. The purpose of this depression, assuming its artificial nature, is unclear.

the Munsell colour was yellowish brown. Context 96 was stratified above context 97 along a sharp boundary, and was also recorded as of around 10 cm thickness. It contained bands of ash and a high density of faunal refuse, and was medium loose in compaction and very dark greyish dark brown in colour. Context 95 lay above context 96 along a sharp boundary, and contained bands of ash within its c. 8 cm of greyish brown deposit. It was again similar to the contexts beneath it in its medium loose compaction. Context 94 was recorded as a 25 cm thick, dark brown deposit, of slightly loose compaction, intercalated with bands of charcoal. Context 93 was stratified above context 94 along a diffuse boundary, similar in colour to context 94 (brown/dark brown), but less rich in charcoal and ash. Nonetheless bands of ash were recorded in its c. 6 cm thickness of deposit. Its compaction was medium loose. Context 92 was recorded as a hearth facies of brown colour rich in burnt shell. It had been deposited above context 93 along a diffuse boundary, to a depth of c. 6 cm, and included bands of ash. Compaction was recorded as high owing to the high content of pulverised shell. Context 105, which is stratigraphically contemporary with context 92 and directly overlies the context 22/79 roof-fall, is similar to context 92 in its strong presence of burnt shell and ash. Compaction in this grey deposit was recorded as medium.

Context 44 corresponds to one of the highest stratified deposits assigned to Phase Vb. It was observed as approximately 20 cm thick along the northern section of square 17-G, but it seemed to peter out abruptly along the section, and could not be followed into the square 18-G excavation. In the field it was recorded as gravelly silty sand intercalated with bands of ash, and containing a high density of cultural material. At the far east of the 17-G north section, a small lens of deposit between contexts 45 and 44 was labelled context 50, but no particular observations were made of it apart from noting the grey colour of the sediment. Another of the highest stratified deposits assigned to Phase Vb is context 37. It has a thickness of approximately 13 cm, including an upper boundary distinguished by brownish burnt earth and ash, suggesting a floor level. Habitation debris was observed to be very dense in the field, as confirmed during my preparation of the laboratory sample. Two stone artefacts including a core (combined weight 7.1 g), 6.2 g of shell including five complete shells, and 6.4 g of burnt sediment, charcoal and bone were extracted prior to laboratory testing. Even then, both organic content (18%) and carbonate content (c. 5%) were high. The very fine sediment is classified as gravelly silty clayey sand, and a lot of this (especially the 2 mm “gravel” fraction and 1 mm “very coarse sand” fractions) consists of shell and other organic material, along with burnt sediment, as revealed under the microscope. The mineral component appeared to be predominantly quartz, including milky, clear and granular varieties, of mainly angular (to sub-angular) form and platy (to tabular) shape. Despite the field observations suggesting a living floor, the characteristics of context 37 are indistinguishable from other Phase Vb contexts treated as hearths.

4.7 Habitation later after the Last Glacial Maximum (Phase VI) The excavated area of Batadomba-lena would appear to have been temporarily abandoned just after 16 ka cal. The next phase of occupation, Phase VI, is represented at its base by context 25, whose boundaries with every immediately underlying context are described as sharp (contexts 44, 92 and 105) or very sharp (contexts 37 and 49). This consistent boundary sharpness would indicate depositional unconformity, i.e., some degree of localised erosion prior to the resumption of deposition (with context 25). Phase VI equates to layer 4 as recognised during the major, 1980s excavation. The two radiocarbon dates from this layer calibrate to c. 15 and 13 ka (Table 4.6). The layer 4 deposit was observed to be approximately 1 metre thick, but less dense in its concentration of cultural debris than layer 5, and considerably simpler in its stratigraphy. In fact, sediment colour of the contexts deposited during Phase VI shows considerable variability, although less so than for Phase Vb, and density of cultural remains was typically moderate to high. Carbonate content tends to be moderate but organic content is highly variable, including the site’s record reading of 52% (Table 4.11). Ian Simpson (pers. comm.) advised me of the presence of shell fragments in one of the samples he had prepared from layer 4. An interesting development during this phase is an emphasis on subsurface hearths, which may have been earth ovens. Intensive occupation was clearly sustained in this section of Batadomba-lena during the very late Pleistocene, even if the evidence for successive hearth building is less pronounced than it is for the Phase Vb deposits.

More or less contemporarily with the sequential construction of hearth features and a living floor to the east of the context 22/79 roof-fall, a sequence of deposits was built up to the immediate west of this roof-fall (subsequent to the roof-fall event). These contexts were recorded only in the north section of the 17-L square, and were not excavated in 2005 because excavation was not performed in the 18-L square. The three oldest contexts, 97 to 95, were recorded as having a high density of cultural material, while the overlying contexts (94 to 105) were all recorded as having a low density of cultural remains. However, all of them contained notable quantities of ash and charcoal, so they would appear to represent the remains of hearth construction events (as with the contexts to the east of the roof-fall). All of these contexts were additionally described as made up of gravelly silty sand. My field notes describing these contexts, as they were observed in the 17-L northern section, are summarised below. Context 97 was recorded as around 10 cm thickness, laced with bands of ash and also containing charcoal. Because of these inclusions, compaction was medium loose, while

Context 25 corresponds to the basal occupation deposit of Phase VI. It held a moderate to high density of cultural

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Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka materials, and bedding was not observed except for some lenticles of ash in the lower levels. Along the north section of the main excavation, the deposit is approximately 30 cm thick, across all of the 18-G, 18-H and 18-I squares. To test for variation in this thick massive deposit, laboratory samples were collected from the lower (25C), middle (25B) and upper (25A) levels. There is some variation in colour and especially organic content (12-20%) but overall the samples are very similar, as in their slight to mild carbonate content and narrow range of moisture content (Table 4.11). All three samples produced moderate amounts of stone artefacts, bone and shell, supplemented by burnt sediment and charcoal in the lowest sample (25C), and in all cases the sediment was as fine as the Phase Vb contexts (Table 4.7).

38. This would appear to be a pit of c. 30 cm width and 40 cm depth, dug out at an early stage during the deposition of context 25, into Phase Vb deposit. In square 18-G, another pit was later dug through the context 38 deposit and filled with context 25 deposit, while in square 18-H another block of context 25 deposit can be seen stratified above context 38 (Figure 4.6). Context 38 was observed in the field to contain ash and charcoal, as well as rock particles from the shelter wall, and to be of medium compaction. High cultural content is indicated by the 50 grammes of charcoal and 150 lithics recovered during excavations, as well as the extraction of 12.0 g of shell, 5.8 g of bone, 1.0 g of items charcoal, and three stone flakes from the laboratory sample (Tables 4.3 and 4.4).

Microscopic inspection of the fractions produced similar records for all three samples. The representation of charcoal increased in the finer fractions, supplemented by some shell and other fragmentary faunal in the 1 mm fraction. In all fractions, however, particles of rock and mineral were the dominant constituents. Their roundedness varied slightly from sub-angular or otherwise sub-rounded (2 mm fraction), to equally sub-angular and sub-rounded (1 mm fraction), to mainly sub-angular but also sub-rounded or angular in the finest fractions. Shape was mainly tabular, supplemented by spherical shapes in the 2 mm fraction, spherical and platy shapes in the 1 mm fraction, and platy shapes only in the finest fractions. The lower angularity of the granules, compared to those in the Phase Vb hearth features, as well as the context’s thickness and relative uniformity, point to its interpretation as compacted habitation deposit, without distinctive hearth features.

Organic content of the context 38 sample is moderate (17%) but carbonate content is only mild. In agreement with field observations, the gravel component is high by Phase VI standards (Table 4.7). The proportion of the grains identified to be fragmented habitation debris, under the microscope, increased from around 10% in the 2 mm fraction to around 30% in the 0.5 mm and finer fractions. The mineral granules exhibited angular and sub-angular roundedness in all fractions, and a predominantly platy shape (including tabular or otherwise spherical shapes in the 2 mm fraction). The strong angularity of the mineral component would be consistent with a derivation through heat fracturing, suggestive of an in-ground hearth feature or dump for hearth debris. As noted above, a pit filled with context 25 deposit appears to have been cut through context 38 in the 18-G square. This context 25 deposit itself was cut through by a pit, labelled context 123, and filled with deposit labelled context 124. The pit is sealed by context 116, which was described

As excavation proceeded through the 18-G and 18-H squares, context 25 gave way to a different deposit, context

Table 4.11 Batadomba-lena (2005): contexts in Phase VI, for which pH, moisture content, organic content, carbonate content, or cultural content (in the field) were recorded. Context

Munsell name (moist)

pH

Moisture content

Organic content

Carbonate content

Density of cultural remains

25A 25B 25C 38 14 111 110 109 108 13 106 113 23 103 10 100 115 9 18/102

Yellowish brown Dark greyish brown Greyish brown Brown/dark brown Dark greyish brown Brown/dark brown Greyish brown Dark greyish brown Dark yellowish brown Brown Brown/dark brown Dark greyish brown Brown Dark yellowish brown Reddish brown Dark brown Greyish brown Very pale brown Very dark greyish brown

7.60 – 7.95 – – 7.63 7.48 – – 7.70 – – 7.63 7.68 – – 7.55 – –

10.4% 12% 10.7% 6.7% 9.2% 4.4% 9% 9.5% 7.7% 12% 7.8% 9.2% 9.2% 6% – – 7.9% 6.8% 13.1%

12% 14% 20% 17% 20% 20% 22% 36% 20% 4% 24% 24% 16% 14% – – 10% 8% 52%

Slight Slight Mild Mild Moderate 5% Mild 7% 6% 13% 8% 7% Slight Slight – – 10.5% Mild Mild

High Moderate Moderate High Moderate Moderate High Very high Moderate High High High High Low Low High Low High Moderate

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Stratigraphy, Chronology and Sedimentary History of Batadomba in the field as a thin stratum, c. 10 cm in thickness, of pale brown gravelly sand whose light sediment colour had been caused by a rich deposit of in situ burnt shell. Compaction in this hearth feature was medium, and ash and charcoal were also observed, although finer layering of the deposit was not in evidence.

The next layer deposited in the pit is a c. 20 cm thick lens labelled context 110. Field records mention its greyish brown colour, high cultural content, slightly loose compaction, and inclusions of burnt sediment, burnt shell, ash and charcoal. During pre-processing of the sediment sample, 20.8 g of shell, 15.2 g of bone, 1.2 g of burnt sediment and charcoal, and four lithics were extracted (compared to an analysed sample of 70.5 g by air-dried weight). Fragments of burnt stone and sediment, and charcoal flecks, were continually observed in the sizesorted fractions, while organic content of the sample was measured at 22%. The sediment is slightly finer than that of context 111 (Table 4.7). The proportion of granules in the fractions identified as shell, bone or charcoal was 10-20% (increasing in the finer fractions), so slightly less than in context 111. The mineral content was also slightly more angulated, with the granules of burnt rock and sediment categorised as sub-rounded or angular (and tabular, spherical or otherwise platy in shape) in the 2 mm fraction, and mainly angular or otherwise sub-angular (and platy, tabular or otherwise spherical in shape) in the 1 mm and finer fractions. Quartz grains of angular to sub-angular roundness, and predominantly platy shape, made up around 20% of the 1 mm and finer fractions, as in the context 111 sample. The minor differences from the context 111 sample may reflect firing in a slightly less reducing environment.

Context 24 appeared at the far east of the north section of the 17-G square as a tiny lens; no further observations are available. Context 14 refers to a stratum of dark greyish brown, gravelly clayey silty sand deposited above context 116 at the eastern margin of the 17-G northern section, and above context 25 at other places along the northern section of the 2005 excavation (Figure 4.6). Thin bands of ash were observed, and the compaction was recorded as loose (looser than context 25). A sample was extracted from square 18-G and, during preparation for laboratory analysis, small amounts of shell, bone, charcoal (Table 4.4), and a burnt seed were extracted. The attributes of the analysed sample are similar to those of context 25C (Table 4.11). Thus, context 14 could be considered an upper sub-stratum of context 25. Towards the end of the deposition of context 25, a large pit some 75 cm in width and 65 cm in depth (labelled context 107) was dug through the accumulated deposit as far as the context 41, fragmented roof-fall boulder. It was filled with four lenses of organic-rich deposit all of which include considerable amounts of charcoal. These observations, detailed below, suggest that the context 107 pit had been dug to serve as a subsurface hearth, perhaps an earth oven. This is a more likely explanation than use of the pit (a) to deposit rubbish, given that the contents of the pit are quite distinct in their characteristics from context 25, or (b) for burial, when we would expect to find a single layer of undifferentiated fill.

Context 109 corresponds to a c. 20 cm lens deposited on context 110. Field observations record its dark greyish brown colour, medium loose compaction, and very high cultural content. Indeed, during preparation of the laboratory sample for granimetric analysis, 7.3 g of shell, 3.5 g of bone, 1.0 g of charcoal and four tiny stone artefacts were extracted. Other similarities with context 110 include c. 35% silt/clay content (Table 4.7), observations of charcoal flecks in all of the fractions, the observed mineral component of the fractions, and the grains’ roundedness and shape (Table 4.12). The main differences from context 100 are higher readings for organic content (36%) and carbonate content (c. 7%), and observations of shell and bone fragments specifically in the 0.025 mm fraction.

The basal deposit in the context 107 pit is labelled context 111. Field records mention its brown to dark brown colour and moderate cultural content. Prior to granimetric analysis, 10.2 g of shell, 2.5 g of bone, 1.5 g of charcoal (including a burnt seed), and a tiny stone artefact were extracted from the sediment sample. Fragments of shell and bone, and traces of charcoal, made up an estimated 10% to 30% of the grains, with an increasing presence in the finer fractions. This observation is consistent with the recorded organic content of 20% and carbonate content of c. 5% (Table 4.11). Grain-size composition is c. 20% gravel and c. 30% silt/clay, with a weakly positive skew, as is typical of the Phase IV samples above context 25 (Table 4.7). The mineral component, especially in the 2 mm fraction, consisted mainly of rock and earth granules of sub-rounded or otherwise rounded form, and tabular, spherical or else platy shape. In the 1 mm and finer fractions, angular to subangular quartz grains, of platy shape, made up an estimated 20% of the granules. The mineral granules tend to be less angulated than would be expected of a hearth deposit (or were recorded for the context 25 samples), which may reflect slow combustion and relatively low temperatures in a subsurface hearth with a reducing atmosphere.

Context 108, the uppermost layer in the pit, was deposited to a depth of c. 30 cm along a diffuse boundary with context 109. Field observations include a dark yellowish brown colour, presence of bands of ash, loose compaction, and moderate cultural content. During preparation of the laboratory sample, 2.0 g each of shell and bone, and 0.2 g of charcoal were extracted. Organic content (20%) and carbonate content (c. 6%) of the remaining sample are high (Table 4.11). Grain-size analysis revealed minimal differences from contexts 109 and 110 (Table 4.7). Particles of burnt sediment (sub-rounded or otherwise sub-angular, of spherical or tabular shape) made up 30% of the 2 mm fraction and a smaller component of the finer fractions. Grain shape of the remaining sample differs from that in the three underlying layers in being more angulated, and lacking a distinctive component of quartz grains. Roundedness varied from angular and sub-angular in the 2 mm fraction, to mainly sub-rounded or otherwise sub-angular in the finer fractions, while shape was variably platy, tabular and

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Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka spherical throughout. The greater angularity of the mineral particles, compared to contexts 109 to 111, may reflect firing under hotter, more oxidising conditions.

The second pit, context 118, was cut as deeply as context 38 with an angled base that cuts under contexts 14 and 25 (Figure 4.6). This unusual undercut appears to have been enabled by a layer of three stone slabs (labelled contexts 119, 120 and 121) wedged into the base of the pit. The fill above the stones, labelled context 113, with a depth of around 48 cm, has characteristics strongly indicative of a hearth feature. These observations suggest the pit had been dug to serve as a subsurface hearth, probably an earth oven, with the three stone slabs propping up this subterranean structure and serving as a heat-retaining, basal platform.

Context 13 refers to habitation deposit, of c. 10 cm thickness in the 18-G, 18-H and 18-I squares, formed above context 14 along a very diffuse boundary. Context 13 also caps context 24, the large block of roof-fall labelled context 21, and even context 25, along the north section of the main excavation (Figure 4.4). Field observations mention a high concentration of stone artefacts and shell, high compaction, and some ash and charcoal inclusions. Prior to analysis of the laboratory sample, 20.3 g of burnt sediment, 8.0 g of shell, 0.4 g of bone, 46.7 g of stone artefacts (five in total), and 0.4 g of charcoal were extracted (compared to an airdried sediment sample of 68.6 g). The carbonate content of an analysed sub-sample was measured at c. 13%, but there must be some variability here because the sub-sample tested for organic content produced a value of only 4% (Table 4.11). Grain-size analysis indicates clayey silty gravelly sand, similar to the deposits in the context 107 pit, but coarser than the context 25 sediment (Table 4.7). Traces of shell, charcoal and bone (up to 30% of the total granules) were observed in all the fractions, under the microscope. Particles of quartz, mainly angular or otherwise sub-angular, and platy to tabular in shape, constituted 20% or less of all of the fractions. The remaining granules (70% of the 2 mm fraction, and around 50% of the finer fractions), were subrounded or otherwise rounded in form, and mainly spherical or else tabular in shape. Their general roundedness perhaps reflects abrasion through human trampling, suggesting that context 13 represents a living floor.

The context 113 fill was observed in the field to have a high component of cultural material (burnt shell, bone and sediment) and to be of medium compaction. The laboratory sample yielded 10.0 g of shell, 5.5 g of bone, and three stone flakes, as well as 1.0 g of charcoal that could be extracted from the burnt sediment. After removal of these inclusions, both organic content (24%) and carbonate content (c. 7%) still remained high. Grain-size analysis revealed the sediment to be clayey silty gravelly sand, and very similar to context 106 in its distribution of sand grain sizes. Shape analysis under the microscope indicated slightly less angular forms than in context 38 (Table 4.13). All these observations are consistent with subsurface heating under reducing conditions. Context 23 is a major occupation deposit, of c. 40 cm thickness in the 18-G, 18-H and 18-I squares, which had accumulated on top of context 13 along a diffuse boundary. Field observations included apparent bands of ash, a high density of cultural material especially shell and other fauna, medium compaction, and brown coloration. These observations were largely confirmed by the laboratory sample, except that extractable shell was absent (and carbonate content low). Four stone artefacts, 9.0 g of bone, and 1 g of charcoal were extracted (Table 4.4), compared to the air-dried analysable sediment weight of 73.4 g. Organic content was recorded as high (16%). Grain-size analysis indicated clayey gravelly silty sand, but with gravel and silt present fairly equally (Table 4.7). The grains appear fairly rounded under the microscope, which may reflect the abrading effect of human trampling (Table 4.14).

Two pits, labelled contexts 117 and 118, had been cut into context 13. Context 117 was filled with a deposit labelled context 106. There are no field notes for this deposit, but a high density of cultural material is indicated by the excavated charcoal and lithics, and the 29.5 g of bone, 3.2 g of shell, and 1.5 g of charcoal collected from the sediment sample (Tables 4.3 and 4.4), compared to the (air-dried) weight of only 64.3 g for the analysed sample. Organic content and carbonate content of the processed sample were both high (24% and c. 8%) respectively. Charcoal traces continued to be observed in the size-sorted fractions, which indicated a clayey silty gravelly sand, fairly coarse by Phase VI standards (Table 4.7). Based on these observations, context 117 would appear to have been a subsurface hearth, probably an earth oven.

Context 11 refers to what is essentially the uppermost stratum of Phase VI, and has an average depth of around 38 cm along the north section of the 1980s excavation. It was excavated in the 18-G, 18-H and 18-I squares, where its boundary with context 23 underneath is medium

Table 4.12 Batadomba-lena (2005): granule morphology observations from context 109. Fraction 2 mm 1 mm 0.5 mm and finer.

Roundedness

Shape

Mainly sub-rounded, otherwise sub-angular and angular. Predominantly sub-rounded, otherwise sub-angular or rounded. Angular to sub-angular grains of quartz increased in frequency to around 20-25%; rock granules mainly sub-rounded or otherwise rounded, occasionally sub-angular.

78

Predominantly tabular and platy. Mainly tabular or else spherical. Platy (quartz); mainly spherical and tabular (rock granules).

Stratigraphy, Chronology and Sedimentary History of Batadomba Table 4.13 Batadomba-lena (2005): granule morphology observations from context 113. Fraction 2 mm 1 mm 0.5 mm and finer.

Roundedness

Shape

Mainly sub-angular, otherwise angular or subrounded in equal proportions. Mainly sub-angular, otherwise angular or subrounded in equal proportions. Fragments of charcoal, bone and shell; angular to sub-angular granules of mica and quartz; subrounded to rounded rock fragments.

Mainly tabular, otherwise spherical or platy in equal proportions. Mainly tabular, otherwise spherical or platy in equal proportions. Platy (quartz and mica); mainly spherical and tabular (rock granules).

Table 4.14 Batadomba-lena (2005): granule morphology observations from context 23. Fraction 2 mm 1 mm

Roundedness

Shape

Mainly rounded, otherwise equally sub-rounded, angular and sub-angular. Mainly sub-rounded, otherwise sub-angular, angular and rounded.

Tabular and platy in equal proportions. Mainly spherical, otherwise tabular or platy.

sharp. Considerable charcoal (54 grammes) and 612 lithics were collected during the excavation (Table 4.3), but unfortunately the collected sediment sample was not found among the materials brought to the Australian National University for analysis. Hence my description will concentrate on context 103, identified as a substratum of context 11, restricted to the 18-G square.

and could account for much if not all of the organic content (10%). Grain-size analysis revealed very fine sediment with the lowest gravel content recorded for Batadomba-lena (Table 4.7). The pit may have been a posthole. At the top of context 11, at the east of the studied area, lie three hearth-related features. The lowest of these, labelled context 10, appeared at the north face of the 17-G square as a 4 cm thick deposit. The reddish brown colour of context 10, compared to the brown colour of context 11, evidently reflects heating of the sediment. Context 10 was described in the field as gravelly silty sand, with some burnt sediment and burnt powdered shell, and of medium loose compaction compared to the medium compaction of context 11. Context 10 is interpreted as an upper layer of context 11 that had been heated during the creation of the hearth represented by contexts 9 and 18/102, immediately above it.

Context 103, which has a thickness of c. 3 cm, is looser, more yellow, and much poorer in cultural material than context 100 (Table 4.3). Although a large sample (wet weight of 250.4 g) had been collected for laboratory analysis, only 1.0 g of shell, and one tiny stone flake, needed to be extracted from the sample prior to analysis. Carbonate content proved to be slight but organic content moderate (14%), and around 10% of the 2 mm fraction appeared to be organic. The analysed sample was unusual in lacking any palpable clay component (Table 4.7). All fractions appeared to show a clear division between gneissic granules, making up 60-70%, and quartz particles making up around 30% of the fraction. The gneissic granules were mainly sub-rounded and otherwise sub-angular, with spherical and tabular shapes, while the quartz is mainly angular, or otherwise sub-angular, with a platy or tabular (occasionally spherical) shape. The source of this sedimentary lens is probably decaying roof-fall.

Context 9 was recorded in the 18-G square as a c. 6 cm lens of highly burnt shell and sediment, with a particularly high density of stone artefacts (Table 4.3). In the laboratory, organic content was recorded as only 8%, and carbonate content as mild, but observations on the grain fractions suggest higher shell content than these results would indicate. Prior to analysis, nine stone artefacts, 4.5 g of bone, 2.0 g of shell, 1.2 g of charcoal, and 1.7 g of burnt sediment were extracted from the gradated sieves. Grainsize analysis indicates very fine sediment classified as gravelly clayey silty sand (Table 4.7). The proportion of grains identified under the microscope as burnt shell, bone, charcoal, and burnt sediment increased from around 30% in the 2 mm fraction to around 70% in the 0.25 and 0.125 mm fractions. The mineral granules were mainly sub-rounded in all fractions, and otherwise sub-angular or angular, and mainly tabular in shape (but otherwise platy or spherical). They would appear to represent burnt recycled (redeposited) sediment as well as heat-fractured rock (the presence of burnt gravels was recorded during the excavation of this layer).

Context 100, which overlies context 11 in the 18-H square, is of c. 4 cm thickness, dark brown colour, and has a hard compaction. This probable hearth feature was recorded in the field to be very dense in charcoal, ash and powdery shell, although individual pieces of charcoal were not collected (Table 4.3). A pit, labelled context 114, had been cut from the surface of context 11 to a depth of some 46 cm, and a width of c. 20 cm, in square 18G. The fill, labelled context 115, was recorded in the field as a homogenous brown sediment, of medium compaction, with some ash and charcoal (but a low cultural content generally). During preparation of the laboratory sample, only 0.8 g of shell, 0.2 g of charcoal, and a tiny stone flake were extracted. However, carbonate content appeared to be high (c. 10.5%),

Context 18/102 was excavated in both the 18-G and 18-H

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Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Table 4.15 Batadomba-lena (2005): contexts, Phase VII, for which pH, moisture content, organic content, carbonate content, or cultural content (in the field) were recorded. Context

Munsell name (moist)

pH

Moisture content

Organic content

Carbonate content

Density of cultural remains

101 8 15 33 27

Light grey Dark greyish brown. Brown Brown/dark brown Brown/dark brown

7.70 – – – –

6.7% – – – –

28% – – – –

Mild – – – –

High High Low High Low

squares, with a thickness of c. 3 cm and a very dark greyish brown coloration. Bands of ash were recorded during the excavation, as well as charcoal (mainly from burnt Canarium seeds), shell and bone. Although the cultural content was recorded as medium, the laboratory sample suggests this should be high. Including cultural items extracted from the 2 mm and 1 mm sieves, 15 g of charcoal, 10 g of tooth and bone, 5.7 g of stone artefacts, and 2 g of shell were retrieved (compared to an air-dried analysable sample of 62 g). Organic content was a stupendous 52% (Table 4.11). Under the microscope, the proportion of grains that appeared to be charcoal, and burnt bone, shell or sediment, rose from some 30% in the 1 mm and 2 mm fractions, to around 50% in the finer fractions. Grain-size distribution was typical by Phase VI standards (Table 4.7). The rock and mineral particles were strongly angulated, with the angular and sub-angular categories in fairly equal contention for the 0.5 mm and coarser fractions, and subrounded forms being observed only in the 0.25 and 0.125 mm fractions. Platy shapes dominated, along with tabular shapes in the 2 mm fraction. The main source of these mineral grains would appear to have been heat-fractured rock.

stone artefacts appear to be absent (Tables 4.3 and 4.4). The sediment proved to have a high organic content (28%) but only mild carbonate content. Flecks of charcoal persisted in the sieved fractions. The grain-size composition points to a clayey gravelly silty sand that would be typical by Phase VI standards (Table 4.7). Context 8 refers to a thick deposit, of c. 28 cm, which had accumulated on top of context 101 (and also contexts 9, 115, and 18/102) in the G-18 and H-18 squares, along a sharp boundary. It was recorded in the field as gravelly silty sand, of medium compaction, containing highly burnt sediment, charcoal, and a high density of cultural material (Tables 4.3 and 4.15). The remaining deposits assigned to Phase VII are contexts 15, 33 and 27. Contexts 15 and 33 are separated by a major roof-fall event, a fragmented boulder labelled context 31, which had collapsed onto context 11, perhaps during the brief abandonment following Phase VI (Figure 4.4). Context 15, described in the field as silty gravelly sand of c. 20 cm thickness, would appear to have accumulated beneath the eastern margin of the roof-fall, and extends marginally into the 18-I excavated square. Its compaction is medium loose and its density of cultural material low (see Table 4.3). Context 33 is known only from field records taken along the north section of the 1980s excavated area. It is described as gravelly silty sand of c. 20 cm thickness, loose compaction, and a high density of cultural material, especially in terms of shell and bone fragments. Field notes suggest that it may have been disturbed through the extraction of bat guano in recent times. Context 27 had accumulated on top of the context 31 roof-fall boulder, and context 15, to an average depth of around 20 cm. It was described in the field as gravelly silty sand, of medium compaction, and whose low density of cultural material included ash and charcoal. Field notes also described it as apparently disturbed by floor levelling activities in recent times.

4.8 Terminal Pleistocene Habitation (Phases VII and VIII) Phase VII Phase VII corresponds to layer 3 as recognised in the 1980s excavation. Layer 3 is described as a thin (c. 10 cm) stratum of greyish brown, rubbly silt which formed a sharp boundary with the underlying layer 4 deposit (Deraniyagala 1982). This may suggest a brief period of abandonment of Batadomba-lena, leading to consolidation or even slight erosion of the surface deposit prior to the resumption of habitation and deposition. No radiocarbon dating is available for layer 3. Sediment colour is brown to grey (Table 4.15). Deraniyagala (1982) indicated that the deposit appears undisturbed and, although field notes suggest possible disturbance of contexts 27 and 33, no such evidence was found in the excavated area.

Phase VIII Phase VIII corresponds to layer 2 as recognised in the 1980s excavation. Layer 2 has been described as rubbly silt, more rubbly than layer 3, and puckered with irregular bands and lenticles of burnt shell, ash and charcoal. Its depth was approximately 25 cm, and it is interpreted as recent fill from levelling of the floor of the shelter, resulting in a mixture of prehistoric, historical and modern materials (Deraniyagala 1982). The highly variegated nature of these layers is also indicated by the results from contexts excavated in 2005

One of the clearly intact contexts is context 101, an apparent hearth feature excavated in the 18-G and 18-H squares. It was recorded in the field as a light grey deposit, of c. 5 cm thickness, very rich in charcoal, ash and other cultural material. Prior to analysis of the sediment sample, 6.6 g of burnt sediment, 0.4 g of bone, 0.4 g of charcoal, and a trace quantity of shell were extracted. Interestingly,

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Stratigraphy, Chronology and Sedimentary History of Batadomba Table 4.16 Batadomba-lena (2005): Phase VIII contexts, for which pH, moisture content, organic content, carbonate content, or cultural content (in the field) were recorded. Context

Munsell name (moist).

pH

Moisture content

Organic content

Carbonate content

Density of cultural remains

35 36 7 6/99 17 2 4 32 29 26/28 12 20 16

Dark greyish brown Dark greyish brown Brown/dark brown Brown. Very dark brownish grey. Pinkish grey Dark greyish brown Dark greyish brown Brown/dark brown Very dark greyish brown. Very dark greyish brown. Dark greyish brown Black

7.45 7.69 – 7.55 7.50 – 7.42 – – – – – –

– 5% – 7.2% 4.9% 4.9% – – – – – 2.6% 2.4%

– 20% – 16% 24% 15.4% – – – – – 15.4% 12%

– 3% – 5% 4% 3% – – – – – Slight 5%

Moderate Moderate Low Moderate High High Low Low Low Low Low High High

and assigned to Phase VIII (Table 4.16). Sediment colour varies from light grey to black, cultural content ranges from low to high, and numerous irregular features were recorded in the stratigraphy. The sequence of pits repeatedly cut into earlier pits is so complex that not all the pit outlines could be assigned their own context number in the field. However, since these pits almost certainly represent subsurface disturbance associated with historical activities (extraction of bat guano, or floor levelling for the Buddhist temple formerly built inside the site), full stratigraphic documentation of these features is of minimal significance for interpreting the site’s forager archaeology. Pottery and other historical artefacts were come upon in layer 2 excavated in 1980-82; although none were encountered in 2005.

square 18-G. It was recorded as brown in colour, slightly compact, and deemed to have a medium density of cultural material (but a high organic content). Three lithics and small amounts of bone (0.3 g), charcoal (1.2 g), and shell (1.3 g) were collected from the laboratory sample before and during processing. Both organic content (16%) and carbonate content (c. 5%) are moderate. The sediment is finer than the context 36 and 101 sediments, and is classified as clayey gravelly silty sand (Table 4.7). As with context 7, it may be a remnant hearth feature.

A possibly intact deposit assigned to Phase VIII is context 35. Few observations were made of this context, but a large pit cut through it appears to have been refilled with the same sediment, labelled context 36 (Table 4.16), which has been recorded in more detail. Context 36 was recorded in the field as dark greyish brown, medium compaction, and having moderate cultural content. Prior to (and during) analysis of the laboratory sample (whose wet weight was 177.2 g), 0.5 g of charcoal (including half a Canarium seed), 1 g of shell, 1.2 g of bone, and four stone artefacts were extracted. Organic content was high (20%) and carbonate content also noticeable (c. 3%). The grain-size composition is substantially lower in the silt/clay fraction than is the case with the great majority of Phase Vb to Phase VII sediment samples (Table 4.7). This low silt/clay component is suggestive but not diagnostic of the effects of post-depositional disturbance.

At some later point another large pit was cut through contexts 36 and 6/99, over an area of around one metre east-west and at least half a metre north-south, and filled with context 17. Context 17 was recorded in the field as c. 10 cm thick, very dark greyish brown, loose in compaction, banded with ash, and containing a high density of cultural material. Materials extracted from the sediment sample during and after processing include five lithics, 1.5 g of charcoal (including a Canarium seed), 1 g of bone and teeth, and 0.2 g of shell (see Tables 4.3, 4.4 and 4.6). Similar to contexts 36 and 6/99, organic content (24%) and carbonate content (c. 4%) were high. The sediment is very coarse and over 50% gravel, distinguishing it from every underlying context except those in Phase Va (Table 4.7). Similar to context 59, at the top of Phase Va, most of the gravels appear burnt. We would appear to be dealing with a very large (if shallow) fireplace which had incorporated abundant roof-fall (presumably related to intensive habitation). However, whether the fireplace was constructed during the terminal Pleistocene, or dug into terminal Pleistocene deposit during historical times, is not clear.

Stratified above context 8, in square 18-G, is a c. 17 cm thick deposit designated context 7. It appears to be the fill of a pit cut into context 8 (Figure 4.6). It was recorded in the field as gravelly silty sand with some charcoal and ash, low density of cultural material, medium compaction, and brown to dark brown colouration. The eastern outline of a pit (context 5) can be observed cutting into context 7. Its extant fill, labelled context 6/99, is c. 15 cm thick in

Yet another pit, labelled context 3, was cut into context 17, and filled with deposit labelled context 2 (Figure 4.6). Context 2 was recorded in the field as pinkish grey in colour, banded with burnt powdery shell, and dense with faunal material generally (as well as lithics). The laboratory sample yielded 1.0 g of bone, 0.2 g of shell, 0.8 g of charcoal, and evidence of high organic (15.4%) and notable carbonate (c. 3%) content. The sediment is quite 81

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka coarse, although not nearly as coarse as context 17, and in fact similar to context 36 (Table 4.7). Finally, context 4 had been deposited on top of contexts 2, 17, and 35, to a thickness of c. 15 cm, along a sharp boundary. It was described in the field as dark greyish brown, medium loose in compaction, and low in its density of cultural material (see Table 4.3). Unlike the sediments which it caps, context 4 would appear to be pit refill – presumably related to historical construction events – rather than a hearth feature.

the sample, organic content was recorded as 15.4% and carbonate content as slight. The sediment is very coarse, and classifies as a gravelly sand with virtually no silt or clay content (Table 4.7). It most likely reflects fill of a similar material to the deposit in context 16, to which we now turn. Context 16 is a black deposit that had built up above context 4 and the context 19 pit to a depth of c. 10 cm. Grain-size analysis of the laboratory sample identifies it as coarse, clayey silty sandy gravel (Table 4.7), probably the weathered product of shelter’s roof and wall. The gravels and larger gneissic stones appear aligned in beds, based on field observations. Additionally, compaction was recorded as loose and cultural content as high, with particular regard to the presence of stone artefacts (Table 4.3). In support of this last observation, analysis of the laboratory sample recorded organic content and carbonate content as quite high (12% and 5% respectively). This uppermost deposit in Phase VII would appear to contain the remnants of forager habitation disturbed during recent site use.

Several contexts recognised along the north section of the 1980s excavation, corresponding to squares 17-J to 17-L, should now be described (Figure 4.4). Context 32 corresponds to a deposit that had accumulated above contexts 33 and 27 along a very diffuse boundary. Its field description mentions a silty sandy gravel constitution, slightly loose compaction, dark greyish brown colouration, and a low density of cultural material. It appears to have been recently disturbed through floor levelling or bat guano extraction. Context 29 refers to a deposit of silty sandy gravel that had accumulated to approximately 12 cm thickness above context 32 along a very diffuse boundary. Colouration was recorded as brown to dark brown, compaction as slightly loose, and the density of cultural material as low. Field notes record its recent disturbance through a pit associated with floor levelling. Another deposit of silty sandy gravel (of greyish brown colour), labelled context 30, had then accumulated above context 29 along a medium sharp boundary to about 30 cm depth. The gravels, which are weathered rock particles from the shelter wall, are mixed with some ash and charcoal, and the deposit has been disturbed through extraction of bad guano during recent times. Stratigraphically overlying context 30 is a complex deposit, context 26/28, described as very dark greyish brown, sandy silty gravel, of loose compaction, and low in its density of cultural material (apart from some ash and charcoal). The gravels appeared to have derived from the shelter wall as well as from outside the shelter, and disturbance through floor levelling and bat guano extraction were suspected. Stratigraphically overlying context 28 is context 34, recorded in the northern baulk of the K-17 and L-17 squares. It is described as brown gravelly sandy silt, with some ash and charcoal, of c. 16 cm depth, disturbed in recent times by activities for levelling the floor and extracting bat guano.

4.9 Phase IX Phase IX is represented by a sole context, context 1, which is the topsoil of the shelter. Its boundary with both contexts 16 and 12/26/28 is very sharp. It was excavated to a depth of c. 4 cm in all of the 18-G to 18-I squares. Field notes record it as a powdery loam of rubbly silt, and brown to dark brown in colour. It corresponds to layer 1 of the 1980s excavation, except that layer 1 appears to have been deeper in other parts of the rockshelter, as its depth was recorded as c. 45 cm on average (Deraniyagala 1982). This may be because a deposit comparable to context 16 in the 2005 excavated area had been assigned to Phase IX of the 198082 excavations. 4.10 Summary A total of 125 archaeological layers and features were identified and recorded as identifiable contexts during the course of excavation 2005. The Context matrix (Fig. 4.7), which summarises the depositional sequence at the site, has been divided into twelve chronological phases in the attempt to relate my contexts to the phases and layers identified during the 1980s’ excavation. The rationale for this is that the majority of the archaeological and ecofactual remains available for study were recorded during the previous excavation by Deraniyagala (Chapters 5 and 6).

Context 26/28 also overlies context 12, a very similar deposit which had accumulated on top of context 27 (Figure 4.4). Following the deposition of contexts 12 and 4, a huge pit (context 19) full of roof-fall rocks was cut to a depth of 46 cm through the Phase VIII to VI deposits (Figure 4.6). This pit and its fill (context 20) were excavated in the 18-H and 18-I squares, and extend 75 cm east-west and at least 50 cm north-south. The pit lacks a parallel in the underlying deposit and is best interpreted as recent digging to extract fertiliser. The fill was described as dark greyish brown and high in its density of cultural material. The latter observation was supported to some degree by analysis of the laboratory sample. Charcoal weighing 0.7 g, bone weighing 0.4 g, and two stone artefacts weighing 0.5 g were extracted from the sample. During analysis of

Phases I to III represent formation of the shelter prior to habitation. Field and laboratory observations support the notion that the shelter was formed by the action of the Batadomba-lena stream eroding the rock face. This body of water is currently located approximately 30 metres beneath the shelter’s floor, and would have run at the same level as the shelter before reaching its current position. Sources of sediment would have included weathered bedrock, weathered roof-fall, and, in contexts 135 and 91, exogenous sediment introduced through water action. A specimen of lithic debitage, extracted from the context 91 sediment

82

Stratigraphy, Chronology and Sedimentary History of Batadomba sample, is most parsimoniously interpreted as infiltration from context 71 (Phase IV).

Phases Va and Vb (layers 6 and 5, respectively) represent the dominant occupation deposit of the site, whose depth of over 1 metre includes a major roof-fall event in the area excavated in 2005 (Plate 4.6). The associated sediment samples differ strongly between Phase Va, with a gravel component typically between 43 and 58%, and Phase Vb, with a gravel component typically between 9 and 28%, especially in the stratigraphically more recent contexts. This difference may reflect cooler conditions during Phase Va, dated to 20-15.5 ka cal BP, compared to Phase Vb, dated to 17-14 ka cal BP. Climatic amelioration during Phase Vb is also indicated by the deepest field identifications of Canarium nut charcoal. In both phases, the major source of sediment would appear to have been detritus from the shelter walls and ceiling, caused by intensive human habitation.

Phase IV was divided into three sub-phases – IVa, IVb, and IVc – on the basis of chronological and material cultural evidence. Corresponding to layer 7, it represents the earliest habitation deposit of the rockshelter. It was characterised by a lengthy period of human occupation during the Late Pleistocene. Signs of human activity can be found throughout the deposit corresponding to this phase. Although some charcoal (including associated sediment) and faunal remains were excavated during the 2005 season, relatively little material of organic origin was found in the contexts corresponding to this phase, in contrast with the overlying phases (Table 4.5). As a whole, it would appear that habitation in Batadomba-lena rockshelter during phase IV was not intensive, as shown by the relative thinness of the corresponding sediment (85 cm) corresponding to a depositional period from c. 37 ka to 19.5 ka cal (Table 4.6).

Both phases are characterized by a variety of archaeological features, such as hearths, pits that resemble postholes, ash and charcoal, and burial pits (see also Deraniyagala 1982, 1992). They are also identifiable by the presence of a high density of cultural materials, not only stone artefacts but also an abundance of faunal remains including shells. Only small quantities of charcoal could be retrieved from the sediment samples (Table 4.5) but this probably reflects agerelated degradation. Ian Simpson (pers. comm.) advised me of iron-rich, clay-based inclusions, along with wood ash, in one of the samples he had observed from layer 6 (Phase Va). Phase Vb in particular is characterised by intercalated bands of whitish shell lime, grey ash, charcoal, red burnt earth and brown earth. All of these features probably represent short and long term activities by small family groups.

Phase IVa represents the earliest habitation deposit in the rockshelter, with a thickness of c. 20 – 40 cm. The two available radiocarbon determinations both point to habitation from c. 37,000 to 32,000 years ago (calibrated). Habitation in the area excavated in 2005 is represented by a single context (71). According to field data and laboratory analysis, when human habitation commenced in the rockshelter the living floor would have been studded with boulders transported by fluviatile and colluvial processes and ancient rock falls, and the habitable floor would have lain between these boulders. The sediment of this phase is a clayey silty gravelly sand which appears to have derived from weathered roof-fall, especially the previously fallen boulders, with some rounding attributable to fluviatile and colluvial transport, but primarily to water percolation. Phase IVa is marked by a moderate density of stone artefacts, but preservation of organic remains is poor and no hearth features have been preserved.

Phase VI corresponds to another major habitation use of the site, with a deposit of around one metre thickness (layer 4), dated to 16-11.5 ka cal BP. According to Premathilake’s research in the Horton Plains, this period saw a return to relatively cool and dry conditions (Chapter 1), but there is little suggestion of a difference in the sediments’ gravel and clay/silt components compared to the stratigraphically later contexts of Phase Vb (Table 4.7). The deposits related to Phase VI are stratigraphically less complex than those related to Phase V, which may be related to slightly less intensive habitation. This would be suggested by the lower density of stone artefacts extracted from the sediment samples; although more charcoal and faunal material was collected on average from the samples (Table 4.5); this could reflect superior preservation conditions. Additionally, a particular development during Phase VI appears to have been the construction of deep subsurface hearths which evidently functioned as earth ovens. These subsurface hearths would have helped to heap up the deposit, contributing to the depth of sediment built up over the 2500 year period of Phase VI, and the contexts in their fill would appear to be related to the specifically high concentrations of charcoal and faunal material extracted from the sediment samples (cf. Tables 4.3 and 4.4).

Phase IVb represents one of the major occupation events of the site, with sediment approximately 30 cm thick composed of clayey silty gravelly sand. Analysis of the sediment suggests its derivation mainly from weathered roof-fall, as with Phase IVa. Greater intensity of habitation, perhaps associated with drier conditions inside the shelter, is suggested by the detection of several distinct strata and a pit (context 104), although no hearth features have been preserved. It has five radiocarbon determinations dating to between c. 28 – 23 ka cal BP. Phase IVc is interpreted as a major habitation deposit dated to the period leading into the peak of the LGM, as indicated by a radiocarbon date of 20-19 ka cal BP. The associated sediment, c. 35 cm thick, remains clayey silty gravelly sand, but weathered boulders of ancient roof-fall no longer appear to have contributed to the deposit. More intensive habitation is suggested by two distinctive contexts interpreted as floor dressing, and two possible anthropogenic pits. The deposit is rich in stone artefacts but preservation of organic remains continues to be poor, without evidence of intact hearths, similar in these respects to Phase IVb.

Phase VII (undated) to IX cover perhaps terminal Pleistocene habitation in the rockshelter, and historical to recent use of the site as a Buddhist temple and in the

83

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka

Plate 4.4 Batadomba-lena (2005): inspection of the north section of the excavation, Note the unexcavated deposit – eastern half of 18-G, lower western half of 18-G, and upper western half of 18-I.

Plate 4.5 Batadomba-lena (2005): context 68, the unexcavated fill in the context 67 burial pit, Phase Va.

84

Stratigraphy, Chronology and Sedimentary History of Batadomba

Plate 4.6 Batadomba-lena (2005): north section of 17-G and 17-H squares, focusing on contexts assigned to Phase V (layers 5 and 6) (scale: 50 cm).

85

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka extraction of deposit for fertiliser. Phase VII (layer 3) would appear to consist of in situ strata. Evidence of major disturbance to the deposit comes with the contexts assigned to Phase VIII. Any evidence of Holocene forager

habitation at Batadomba-lena would appear to have been destroyed through subsurface disturbance associated with the construction of living floors and the extraction of bat guano.

86

Chapter 5

The Organic Remains from Batadomba-lena

5.1 Introduction

from the local rainforest but had not been observed. The same information is also useful background on the Bellanbandi Palassa fauna, which has yielded much the same taxa as Batadomba-lena, although the proportions are very different (Chapter 7). The ecology of the occasional specimens of species no longer extant in Sri Lanka, but still present on the Indian subcontinent will be addressed when those specimens are reported.

As discussed in Chapter 4, excavations at Batadombalena have yielded a very large archaeological assemblage, including abundant organic remains, from initial habitation (from c. 36,000 years ago) to the terminal Pleistocene. In Sri Lanka, this period witnessed several climatic shifts, although the effects on the lowland rainforests, particularly in the environs of Batadomba-lena, are not precisely known (Chapter 1). Climate change need not translate directly into tightly correlated differences between organic assemblages, for a number of reasons (e.g., Butzer 1982; Mercader 2003). Human selectivity filters the organic materials in the local environment that are introduced to and deposited at a site, and the depositional context profoundly affects preservation; for instance, only plant material used as tinder, or at least incorporated into a hearth, would preserve as carbonised material. Changes to foraging ranges in the visited area or its micro-environmental diversity would affect the variation in organic resources that the site occupants came upon, while particular items may be exchanged over considerable distances. Foraging technology and practices may provide access to subterranean, aquatic and arboreal resources as well as ground-level resources. Certain resources themselves may relate only loosely to climate, as the result of human over-predation, adaptations of prey species to human predation, human-induced vegetation change, or the greater niche breadth of certain species (especially large vertebrates) compared to more niche-specific species.

Certain restrictions should be noted on the scope of the present analysis. Excel spreadsheets prepared by Jude Perera for the author include identification (and ancillary information) of the element for most of the identified taxa, which would enable the study of butchery patterns. However, the time available for completion of my thesis research did not permit the pursuit of this promising line of research. Jude Perera’s reports on Batadomba-lena summarise information on the proportions deemed young versus adult, and the proportion of specimens that appear burnt, but this summary information is available only for the remains excavated in 2005. For the much larger assemblage from the 1980-82 excavation, whose identifications were originally made by P.B. Karunaratne, the only reported information is in the spreadsheets collated by Jude Perera. This information does not always include weights, and in these cases it was necessary to estimate weights from the reported NISPs, as described below. In view of the evidence for intensive habitation of the Batadomba-lena shelter, particularly following the LGM, the default assumption is made that the organic remains have been introduced to the deposit through human agency. In support of this assumption, Antonio Gonzalez (pers. comm.) observed nine cases of human tooth marks on the 93 vertebrate specimens extracted from the sediment samples recovered in the 2005 excavation, compared to only one case of tooth marks attributed to a porcupine and one case of gnawing by a small rodent. These observations by Gonzalez would suggest only a minor non-human taphonomic effect on the assemblage, and no particular evidence for non-human introductions to the site. Szabó (2007) observes that land snails are often assumed to be self-introduced to a site, but this need not always be the case; and S.U. Deraniyagala (pers. comm.) provides firm advice that a dry cavern interior (such as Batadomba-lena) could not serve as possible habitat for rainforest arboreal snails, as further demonstrated by the frequent deliberate perforation of the shell (Chapter 6).

The organic remains from Batadomba-lena will be reviewed starting with molluscs, before moving onto vertebrate remains and plant remains. Apparent tools made of bone, antler and shell are described at the end of Chapter 6, while ornaments and suspected curios of organic material are considered in Chapter 8. Molluscs are discussed before vertebrates as the former would be generally expected to have greater niche specificity (e.g., Szabó 2007), and so may be a better indicator of vegetation change. Many plants would also have a narrow niche breadth, but the available sample size of remains is very small, and the full implications of this line of evidence await future research (Vasco Oliveira 2007). Prior to the presentation of the Batadomba-lena data, relevant ecological and related information on the fauna known from Sri Lanka, especially its rainforests, will be provided. This will serve as useful background to the recovered fauna, and also on any fauna which might have been expected in a “natural assemblage”

87

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka 5.2 Extant Non-Marine Fauna of Sri Lanka

Invertebrate Fauna

A listing of land snails and river snails found in Zone D1 of Sri Lanka can be found in Deraniyagala (1992), Naggs and Raheem (2000) and Szabó (2007) who also provides habitat information. Other useful sources include Sarasin and Sarasin (1908: 83-87), Starmuhlner (1974) and Hausdorf and Perera (2000); and Bahir and Ng (2005) provide information on freshwater crabs.

Family: Acavidae • Acavus phoenix (Pfeiffer 1854). Habitat: terrestrial, lowland forest. • Acavus superbus (Pfeiffer 1850). Habitat: terrestrial, lowland forest. • Oligospira waltoni (Reeve 1842). Habitat: terrestrial, lowland forest.

Deraniyagala (1992) provided a listing of archaeologically relevant vertebrates from Sri Lanka, which the following account largely summarises. The main taxonomic sources cited by S.U. Deraniyagala (1992) cover the following vertebrates: fish, Deraniyagala (1952); reptiles, Deraniyagala (1939, 1953b, 1955c); birds, Legge (1878-80) and Henry (1955); and mammals, Deraniyagala (1955d), McKay (1971), Eisenberg and Lockhart (1972), and Philips (1980). Ecology and approximate adult weights (essentially for reptiles and mammals) are from Deraniyagala (1953b) and Eisenberg and McKay (1970), supplemented by the detailed ecological study of Eisenberg and Lockhart (1972). I have also obtained supplementary information from the following sources: freshwater fish, Pethiyagoda (1991); amphibians, Dutta and Manamendra-Arachchi (1996), Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda (1998); reptiles, Manamendra-Arachchi and Liyanage (1994), Batuwita and Bahir (2005); and mammals, Corbett and Hill (1992), Bates and Harrison. (1997), Macdonald (2001), Nekaris and Jayawardena (2004) and Groves and Meijaard (2005). A useful website for mammals is provided by the Sri Lanka Wildlife Conservation Society (n.d.).

Family: Pleuroceridae • Paludomus loricata (Reeve, 1847). Habitat: clean flowing fresh water. • Paludomus neritoides (Reeve, 1847). Habitat: clean flowing fresh water. • Paludomus sulcatus (Reeve, 1847). Habitat: clean flowing fresh water. Anon (n.d.) also mentions two species of the Pila freshwater apple snails that specifically occur in Sri Lanka, and four more species in South Asia or India. Freshwater Crabs • Perbrinckia sp. • Ceylonthelphusa sp. Non-mammalian Vertebrate Fauna Freshwater Fish Family: Cyprinidae

As will become evident, the majority of identifiable faunal material from Batadomba-lena consists of mammalian remains. According to Deraniyagala (1992), the land mammals of Sri Lanka comprise some 39 genera and 109 subspecies, all of which also occur in India. This diversity reflects the island’s environmental diversity, although some Indian mammals are lacking in Sri Lanka today (Eisenberg and McKay 1970: 70), such as the antelopes, Nilgiri wild goat, striped hyaena, red dog, fox, wolf, lion and tiger (Sarasin and Sarasin 1908). While mammalian remains are certainly important to reconstructing the palaeo-diet, the broad habitat range of many mammals makes their use in environmental reconstruction a matter of interpretation. For instance, looking at the Sri Lankan zones where particular mammalian species (listed below) have been observed, we note that fully 24 are found in Zone D1 (the wet lowlands), but only one of these is restricted to Zone D1, and that species (the hog deer) is restricted to the coastal tract. Thus the occurrence of remains of Zone D1 mammals at Batadomba-lena is unlikely to be diagnostic of a similar climate there, during the late Pleistocene, to that observed today. Perhaps more diagnostic will be the four species (grey langur, axis (spotted) deer, water buffalo, and sloth bear) which are reportedly absent from Zone D1, but found in zones A, B and C, and whose presence in the Batadombalena faunal assemblage would reflect a drier climate than today.

• Stone sucker, Garra ceylonensis (Bleeker 1863) • Olive barb, Puntius sarana (Hamilton 1822) • Mahseer, Tor khudree (Sykes 1841) – Figure 5.1 Family: Bagridae • Long-whiskered catfish, Mystus gulio (Hamilton, 1822) • Yellow catfish, Mystus cavasius (Bloch 1794) • Striped dwarf catfish, Mystus vittatus (Bloch 1794) Family: Siluridae • Butter catfish, Ompok bimaculatus (Bloch 1794) Family: Clariidae • Walking catfish, Clarias brachysoma (Gunther 1864) Family: Heteropneustidae • Stinging catfish, Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch 1797) Family: Channidae • Giant snakehead, Channa marulius (Hamilton 1822) • Murrel, Channa striata (Bloch 1793)

88

The Organic Remains from Batadomba-lena Figure 5.1 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): pharyngeal teeth of mahseer (K. ManamendraArachchi del.).

Family: Anguillidae • Long finned eel, Anguilla nembulosa (McClelland 1844) • Level finned eel, Anguilla bicolor (McClelland 1844) Amphibians Family: Bufonidae • Common toad, Bufo melanostictus (Schneider 1799) • Nollert’s toad, Bufo noellerti (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 1998). Reptiles Family: Trionychidae

Figure 5.2 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): vertebrate remains (K. Manamendra-Arachchi del).

• Soft-shelled terrapin, Lissemys punctata punctata (Lacepede 1788). Habitat: mainly found in the lowlands but also occupies some water bodies in the hills. Zones: all except D2, D3 and E. Weight: 6 kg.

Family: Agamidae • Green forest lizard, Calotes calotes (Linnaeus, 1758) • Garden lizard, Calotes versicolor (Daudin 1802) • Hump-nosed lizard, Lyriocephalus scutatus (Linnaeus 1758).

Family: Bataguridae (Geoemydidae) • Spotted hard-shelled terrapin, Melanochelys trijuga thermalis (Lesson 1830). Habitat: wide range including paddy field and ditches in town areas. Zones: all except D3. Weight: 6 kg. • Parker’s hard-shelled terrapin, Melanochelys trijuga parkeri (Deraniyagala 1939). An endemic taxon considered to be the rarest freshwater turtle in Sri Lanka. Habitat: lowland dry zone to semi-arid zones. Zones: A, B and C. Weight 5 kg.

Family: Gekkonidae • Bent-toad geckos, Cyrtodactylus sp. Family: Scincidae • Skinks, Mabuya sp.

Family: Testudinae

Family: Boidae

• Star tortoise, Geochelone elegans (Schoepff 1795). Habitat: scrub jungles with open grass tracts in the Dry Zone from sea-level up to 270 m asl. Zones: A, B and C. Weight: 6 kg.

• Rock python, Python molurus molurus (Linnaeus 1758) Family: Viperidae • Sri Lanka green pit viper, Trimeresurus trigonocephalus (Latereille 1801) – Figure 5.3.

Family: Varanidae (Figure 5.2)

Birds

• Water monitor, Varanus salvator salvator (Laurenti 1768). Habitat: river banks and swamps, from rainforests to semi-arid zones. Zones: B, C, D1, and perhaps A. Weight: approximately 50 kg. • Land monitor, Varanus bengalenesis (Daudin 1802). Habitat: ranging from rainforest to semi-arid zones, but common in dry, open forests. Zones: all except D3. Weight: 10 kg.

Family: Phasianidae • Sri Lanka jungle fowl, Gallus lafayettii (Lesson 1831) • Sri Lanka spur fowl, Galloperdix bicalcarata (Forster 1781).

89

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Zones: three subspecies which respectively occur in A, B, C; D1; and D2. Weight: 250 g. • Sri Lanka flame-striped jungle squirrel, Funambulus layardi (Blyth 1849). • Small flying squirrel, Petinomys fuscocapillus (Jerdon 1847.

Figure 5.3 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): Sri Lanka green pit viper, fang fragments (K. Manamendra-Arachchi del).

Family: Hystricidae Mammalian Fauna

• Crested porcupine, Hystrix indica (Kerr 1792). Habitat: dense forest to semi-arid zones. Zones: all except D3. Weight: 9 kg.

Family: Cercopithecidae (Figure 5.2) • Sri Lanka toque macaque, Macaca sinica (Linnaeus 1771) Habitat: three subspecies which occur respectively in Zones A, B and C; D1 and D2; and D3. Weight: 7 kg. • Purple-faced leaf monkey, Trachypithecus vetulus (Erxleben 1777). Habitat: four subspecies which occur respectively in zones A and B; D1; D2; and D3. Weight: 7 kg. • Grey langur, Semnopithecus priam thersites. Distribution: it does not occur in Sri Lanka’s Wet Zone. Weight: 7 kg.

Family: Muridae • Malabar bandicoot, Bandicota indica (Bechstein 1800). Habitat: all zones except A and D3. Weight: 5kg. • Ceylon mole rat, Bandicota bengalensis (Gray 1835). Zones: all except D3. Weight: 3 kg. • Bush rat, Golunda ellioti (Gray 1837) • Soft-furred field rat, Millardia meltada (Gray 1837) • Field mouse, Mus booduga (Gray 1837) • Sri Lanka spiny rat, Mus mayori (Thomas 1915) • Indian house mouse, Mus musculus (Linnaeus 1758) • Nillu rat, Rattus montanus (Phillips 1932) • Common rat, Rattus rattus (Linnaeus 1758) • Sri Lanka bicoloured rat, Srilankamys ohiensis (Phillips 1929). • Sri Lanka long-tailed tree mouse, Vandeleuria nolthenii (Phillips 1929). • Long-tailed tree mouse, Vandeleuria olevacea (Bennett 1832). • Antelope rat, Tatera indica (Hardwicke 1807).

Family Lorisidae • Grey slender loris, Loris lydekkerianus (Obrera 1908) • Sri Lanka red slender loris, Loris tardigradus (Linnaeus 1758). Family: Pteropodidae • Lesser dog-nosed fruit bat, Cynopterus brachyotis (Muller 1838). • Short-nosed fruit bat, Cynopterus sphinx (Vahl 1797) • Flying fox, Pteropus giganteus (Brunnich 1782) • Fulvous fruit bat, Rousettus leshenaulti (Desmarest 1820).

Family: Leporidae • Black-naped hare, Lepus nigricollis (Cuvier 1823) Habitat: most inhabit open grassy areas. All zones Weight: 3 kg.

Family: Hipposideridae

Family: Soricidae

• Leaf-nosed bats, Hipposideros sp. (four species).

• Horsfield’s shrew, Crocidura horsfieldi (Thomes 1856) • Pearson’s long-clawed shrew, Solisorex pearsoni (Thomas 1924). • Pygmy shrew, Suncus etruscus (Savi 1822) • Highland shrew, Suncus montanus (Kelaart 1850) • Common musk shrew, Suncus murinus (Linnaeus 1766) • Sri Lanka jungle shrew, Suncus zeylanicus (Phillips 1928).

Family: Pteromyidae • Giant flying squirrel, Petaurista philippensis (Elliot 1839). Habitat: tropical rainforest to semi-arid zones; arboreal, nesting in tree branches or cavities. Zones: three subspecies which respectively occur in A, B, C; D1; and D2. Weight: 5 kg. • Giant squirrel, Ratufa macroura (Pennant 1769). Habitat: Zones D1, D2 and D3. Weight: 5 kg. • Small squirrel, Funambulus palmarum (Linnaeus 1766). Habitat: tropical rainforest to semi-arid zones; arboreal, nesting in tree branches or cavities. Zones: three subspecies which respectively occur in A, B, C; D1; and D2. Weight: 250 g. • Dusky-striped jungle squirrel, Funambulus sublineatus (Waterhouse 1838). Habitat: tropical rainforest to semiarid zones; arboreal, nesting in tree branches or cavities.

Family: Manidae • Indian pangolin or scaly anteater, Manis crassicaudata (Gray 1827). Habitat: rainforest to semi-arid, in all zones except D2, D3, and E. Weight: 15 kg. Family: Herpestidae • Brown mongoose, Herpestes brachyurus (Gray 1837) • Grey mongoose, Herpestes edwardsii (Geoffrey 1818)

90

The Organic Remains from Batadomba-lena • Ruddy mongoose, Herpestes smithii (Gray 1837) • Badger mongoose, Herpestes vitticollis (Bennett 1835)

Family: Elephantidae

• Otter, Lutra lutra nair (Linnaeus 1758)

• Indian elephant, Elephas maximus (Linnaeus 1758). Habitat: evergreen and dry deciduous forest, thorn scrub jungle, swamp and grassland; from sea level up to 2,000 metres. All zones. Weight: 1,800 kg.

Family: Viverridae

Family: Bovidae

• Common Indian palm cat, Paradoxurus hermaphroditus (Pallas 1777). • Golden palm cat, Paradoxurus zeylonensis (Pallas 1778). • Ring-tailed civet or Ceylon small civet-cat, Viverricula indica (Desmarest 1817).

• Wild water buffalo, Bubalus bubalis Zones A, B and C. Weight: male 1200 kg, female 800 kg.

Family: Mustelidae

Family: Cervidae • Sambar, Cervus unicolor (Kerr 1792). Habitat: woodland, avoiding open scrub and densest forest. All zones. Weight: 227-272 kg. • Spotted deer or axis deer, Axis axis ceylonensis (Erxleben 1777). Habitat: forest edge, woodland. Zones: A, B and C up to 300 m asl. Weight: 60 kg. • Barking deer, Muntiacus muntjak (Zimmermann 1780). Habitat: woodland and forest with good undergrowth. All zones except D3. Weight: 18 kg. • Hog deer, Axis porcinus (Zimmermann 1777). Habitat: swamps. Zones: D1 in the coastal tract of the southwest. Weight: 36-45 kg.

Family: Felidae • Leopard Panthera pardus (Linnaeus 1758). Habitat: rainforest to semi-arid regions. All zones. Weight: 3070 kg, males about 50 percent larger than females. See Figure 5.4. • Rusty-spotted cat, Prionailurus rubiginosus (Geoffrey 1831). • Fishing cat, Prionailurus viverrinus (Bennett 1833) Family: Canidae

Family: Tragulidae

• Golden or common jackal, Canis aureus (Linnaeus 1758). Habitat: From arid short grasslands to moist woodlands or dry busy woodlands. All zones except D3. Weight: 7-15 kg.

• Sri Lanka pygmy mouse-deer, Moschiola kathygre (Groves and Meijaard 2005). Zones: all except D3. Weight: 4 kg.

Family: Ursidae

5.3 Batadomba-lena Invertebrate Remains

• Ceylon sloth bear, Melursus ursinus. Habitat: Lowland Dry Zone. Zones: A, B and C. Weight: 100 kg.

1980-82 Excavation Deraniyagala affirms (pers. comm.) that very large quantities of gastropods, predomintly Acavus and Paludomus, were found in the main excavations of the 1980s and that these were identified and quantified, these records were not available to Jude Perera who was only able to collate a slim quantum of data. The latter consist entirely of invertebrate fragments found amongst the vertebrate material, without any records of weights (Table 5.1). The number of identified fragments from layer 7 is much greater than from layers 4 to 6, which is in sharp contrast to the records from the 2005 excavation (Table 5.2). This contrast presumably reflects collection and recognition differences rather than some distinction between the 18-G to 18-I squares and the rest of the site. The observation that may be of main value in Table 5.1 is the positive identification of the rainforest snail Acavus in layer 7c, dated to 37-32 ka, along with the fragmentary claw of a freshwater crab. The uniqueness of the latter find perhaps suggests a natural presence rather than human introduction. This could be through disturbance following the specimen’s original inclusion in layers 8 and 9 (when the site is interpreted to have formed part of a stream bed), or because a freshwater crab had burrowed into the layer 7c deposit at a time when the shelter floor was still moist (cf. Bahir and Ng 2005).

Family: Suidae • Wild boar or Indian wild pig, Sus scrofa cristatus (Linnaeus 1758). Habitat: broad-leaved woodland and steppe. Active during day and twilight. All zones. Weight: 50-200 kg.

Figure 5.4: Batadomba-lena (1980-82): leopard skeletal parts (K. Manamendra-Arachchi del).

91

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka

Plate 5.1 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): tiger phalanx from layer 5, 16,700-14,000 cal BP (above) and upper carnassial tooth from layer 4, 16,300-11,600 cal BP (below) (scale: 1 cm).

Table 5.1 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): invertebrate NISPs.

“Mollusc” Acavus Land snail Freshwater snail Crab

Layer 4

Layer 5

Layer 6

Layer 7a

Layer 7b

Layer 7c

1 0 0 0 0

3 0 0 0 0

15 0 0 1 0

14 0 0 0 0

31 0 0 0 0

85 2 1 0 1

92

The Organic Remains from Batadomba-lena Table 5.2 Batadomba-lena (2005): summary of Jude Perera’s records on mollusc remains. Layer 5 includes five complete shells of P. sulcatus (weight 20.5 g, one burnt), and a single, unburnt complete shell of P. loricatus (weight 5.5 g). Layer 6 includes a single, burnt complete shell of P. sulcatus (weight 0.4 g). Layer 4

Layer 5

Layer 6

Layer 7

Acavus complete shells Acavus fragments Acavus weight Burnt Acavus Oligospira complete shells Oligospira fragments Oligospira weight Burnt Oligospira Unidentified land snail fragments Unidentified land snail weight Total land snail weight

3 1 55 g 40% 1 6 6g Yes 0 0g 61 g

47 2450 1.8 kg 20% 13 21 180.2 g 10% 2987 541.2 g 2.5 kg

11 492 503 g 70% 3 79 67.6 g 35% 6 1.2 g 571.8 g

1 32 26 g 100% 0 0 0g – 0 0g 26 g

Paludomus complete shells Paludomus fragments Paludomus weight Burnt Paludomus Pila fragments Pila weight Burnt Pila Unidentified freshwater snail fragments Unidentified freshwater snail weight Total freshwater snail weight

5,286 26,690 11.63 kg 30% 0 0g – 0 0g 11.63 kg

935 7332 2.186 kg 20% 5 1.6 g 0% 1,260 286 g 2.5 kg

10 66 74.2 g 10% 0 0g – 48 11 g 85.2 g

10 6 3.5 g 70% 0 0g – 0 0g 3.5 g

discrepancies between partly cleaned specimens recorded in the field and fully cleaned specimens properly studied in the laboratory. The available data suggest the continually increasing recovery of excavated shell from layer 7 (around 30 g) through to layer 4 (around 11.7 kg). Where land snails could be identified, they were always rainforest genera (see also Szabó 2007), and it would be reasonable to infer that the majority comes from Acavus. The weight of rainforest snail shell thus increased from 26 g from layer 7 to around 2.5 kg in layer 5, before plummeting to 61 g in layer 4. The ratio produced by dividing rainforest snail shell by freshwater snail shell consistently drops with decreased age of the deposit, from 7.4 (layer 7), to 6.7 (layer 6), to 1.0 (layer 5), to 0.05 (layer 4). The small weights of rainforest snail shell in layers 6 and 7 would therefore appear to reflect preservation and identifiability conditions rather than a non-forested environment. The scarcity of rainforest snail shell in layer 4, compared to the identified abundance of freshwater snail shell, tentatively suggests an environment different from that of lowland rainforests – either drier, cooler or more open – as well as a focus on the collection of freshwater molluscs, at 14-12 ka cal BP.

The freshwater crabs of Sri Lanka are concentrated in the island’s Wet Zone (Bahir and Ng 2005), which would be consistent with the Acavus identifications, but there would certainly be no grounds to suspect environmental change in the environs of Batadomba-lena from the scanty data presented in Table 5.1. 2005 Excavation Sediment Sample Specimens Szabó (2007) reports identifying specimens of all six species of the Acavidae and Pleuroceridae families listed above, but notes that the available sample size is too small to afford quantification. However, since only layers 4 and 5 yielded more than a gramme of mollusc fragments from their sediment samples (Table 4.5), it would be reasonable to infer that both layers had included remains of these terrestrial rainforest and freshwater molluscs. This would suggest a rainforest habitat and a clean, flowing stream in the vicinity of Batadomba-lena during the period between 16 and 12 ka cal BP. Szabó (2007) also notes the frequent calcining of the specimens she examined, which (to the extent she could determine) could be due to fire-processing the shellfish for food or the incorporation of their remains in hearths.

The consistent records of burnt shell, at a ratio of 10% or higher (Table 5.2), are consistent with Deraniyagala’s (1992) suggestion that the snails had been collected for consumption and processed in the rockshelter. Another use of the land snail shells would also have been to produce tools, as first observed by Sarasin and Sarasin (1908). Spreadsheets provided by Jude Perera indicate that 35 of the Acavus shells had artificial holes in them, as did six of the Oligospira shells.

Excavated Specimens Jude Perera’s report on the Batadomba-lena mollusc remains excavated in 2005 are summarised in Table 5.2. The reported total weights by layer differ to some degree from those reported in Table 4.5, as a result of identification 93

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka 5.4 Batadomba-lena Vertebrate Remains

Regression formula: bone weight (grammes) = – 6.6 + 3.572 * (bone NISP)

The first task is to provide a general impression of the quantity of excavated vertebrate material, both in terms of NISPs and weights. However, bone weights are unavailable for some of the bags in the spreadsheets produced by Jude Perera for the main Batadomba-lena excavation. This especially affected those bags where only teeth and mandibles (and no other skeletal elements) had been identified. A linear regression model was employed (using Excel macros) to relate tooth/mandible NISP and weight data, and bone NISP and weight data, based on those bags for which both data sets are available. Please note that in the former cases, the recorded weight data clearly tend to exceed the weights that could be accounted for by the recorded tooth/mandible NISPs, indicating that the same bags usually included additional, unidentified bone fragments. The discovered relationships thus allow the missing tooth and bone weights to be estimated from the respective NISP counts, by plugging NISP values into the formulae listed below. (However, in those cases where almost all of the identifications within a bag were clearly of teeth or mandibles, a weight of 1 g per specimen was allowed for.)

Bone (Teeth) Weight Regression on Mandible/Teeth NISP Pearson’s correlation coefficient r = 0.468 Coefficient of determination r2 = 0.219 n = 203, t = 7.5 (significant at p < 0.000) Regression formula: bone (teeth) weight (g) = – 7.5 + 28.88 * (mandible/teeth NISP) The resulting estimated total bone weights (in grammes) for the seven contexts recognised in S.U. Deraniyagala’s excavations of Batadomba-lena are shown in Table 5.3, along with the weights from Jude Perera’s report on the 2005 excavated remains. The weights recorded during laboratory analysis of the 2005 excavated material differ somewhat from those recorded in the field (Table 4.5), owing to factors such as the full removal of sediment during cleaning, and superior identification conditions in the laboratory. The recovery of faunal material during the 2005 season was very slim for layers 1 to 3 and 7 compared to the yield from the 1980-82 excavation; but for layers 4 to 6, the weight identified from the 2005 season is approximately one tenth of the weight recognised for the 1980-82 excavation. Overall, approximately 78 kg of vertebrate faunal material have been excavated from Batadomba-lena, which is an impressive amount, although it should be remembered that

Bone Weight Regression on Bone NISP Pearson’s correlation coefficient r = 0.81 Coefficient of determination r2 = 0.656 n = 203, t = 19.6 (significant at p < 0.000)

Table 5.3 Batadomba-lena: recorded and estimated (recorded + calculated) vertebrate faunal weights from the 1980-82 excavation, and recorded vertebrate faunal weights from the 2005 excavation, in grammes. Layer

1980-82 excavation – recorded weight

1980-82 excavation – recorded plus calculated weight

2005 season identifications

Total

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Total

138 1047 1221 4487 4513 1603 139 13,148

1449 4599 8347 27,441 16,465 7072 4612 69,985

0 0 31.7 3625.3 3608.5 513.5 19.4 7977.9

1449 4599 8379 31,066 20,074 7586 4631 77,784

Table 5.4 Batadomba-lena (1980-82, 2005): vertebrate faunal NISPs (including unidentified). Figures in brackets are the average weight in grammes per NISP. Layer

1980-82 excavation

2005 season identifications

Total

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Total

74 (19.6) 352 (13.1) 573 (14.6) 1495 (18.4) 1526 (10.8) 731 (9.7) 1769 (2.6) 6480 (10.8)

0 (–) 0 (–) 183 (0.2) 2218 (1.5) 11,468 (0.3) 1099 (0.5) 51 (0.4) 15,029 (0.5)

74 352 756 3713 12,994 1830 1820 21,539

94

The Organic Remains from Batadomba-lena only around 20% of the assemblage consists of identified fragments.

non-mammalian and mammalian components of the fauna, layer by layer. Table 5.5 presents the relevant NISP data identified on teeth and mandible parts (therefore, excluding birds), while Tables 5.6 and 5.7 presents the relevant NISP data, and percentages, for all skeletal elements.

Table 5.4 provides the corresponding NISP data, along with the average weight per NISP. The total NISP count approaches 22,000, of which over three-quarters were recovered during the 2005 season. The average weight per NISP from the 1980-82 excavation is approximately 20 times that from the 2005 season, and the two assemblages have non-overlapping ranges when the average weight per NISP is considered by layer. These differences indicate that much greater attention to detail was paid with regard to the 2005 assemblage, during collection, identification or counting, or some combination of these. In view of their very different sampling attributes, not to mention the scarcity of weight data for the assemblage from the main excavation, this assemblage and the one from 2005 season should be treated separately, and not aggregated. If both faunal assemblages reveal similar differences between the layers, such a result could be regarded as independent confirmation of the suggested changes.

Mammals clearly dominate the assemblages from the 1980-82 Batadomba-lena excavation, accounting for around 98% of tooth/mandible identifications, and around 92% (88% – 94% across all layers) of the identifications from all elements. Mammals are slightly over-represented on the tooth/mandible identifications because these exclude birds, which account for around 2% of all identifications, and under-represent snakes compared to their potential vertebra identifications (around 4% of all identifications). Fish on the other hand were recognisable mainly on their teeth/mandible parts. Overall, while the diverse assemblage includes snake remains from every layer, bird, lizard and fish remains from nearly every layer, and even some amphibian remains, it is dominated by mammalian remains, consistently through time.

1980-82 Excavation

Equally clearly, the mammalian component is dominated by monkey identifications. These make up over 50% of the mammalian identifications in every layer, whether we

A useful entry into the analysis is to distinguish between the

Table 5.5 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): layers (listed in top row); teeth (and mandible parts), mammalian and non-mammalian NISPs. Vertebrate (group) Mammals Varanus Python Snake Terrapin Catfish Fish Total

Layer 1

Layer 2

Layer 3

Layer 4

Layer 5

Layer 6

44 (98%) 0 0 0 0 0 1 45

135 (98%) 1 1 0 0 1 0 138

277 (95%) 2 0 1 0 4 8 292

809 (98%) 2 0 1 1 8 1 822

486 (99%) 0 0 0 0 2 5 493

158 (98%) 0 0 1 0 0 2 161

Layer 7 6 (100%) 0 0 0 0 0 0 6

Total 1915 (98%) 5 1 3 1 15 17 1957

Table 5.6 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): layers (listed in top row); mammalian and non-mammalian NISPs, all elements. Taxon

1

2

3

4

5

6

7a

7b

7c

Total

Mammals Jungle fowl Bird Varanus Skink Lizard Python Snake Terrapin Amphibian Catfish Channa Fish

65 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 0 0 0 0 1

314 3 0 9 0 0 1 23 0 0 1 0 1

525 2 0 6 0 0 0 28 0 0 4 0 8

1378 15 1 12 0 0 0 48 1 0 8 0 9

1370 45 4 5 0 0 0 32 0 1 2 0 8

577 26 0 2 0 1 0 17 4 0 0 0 4

65 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0

223 5 2 0 1 1 0 13 2 2 0 1 0

547 10 5 1 0 1 7 21 4 0 0 0 1

5064 106 12 35 1 3 9 191 12 4 15 2 32

Total

74

352

573

1472

1467

631

70

250

597

5486

95

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Table 5.7 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): layers (listed in top row); mammalian and non-mammalian NISP column percentages (to nearest percent), all elements. X = presence at less than 0.5%. Column figures may not sum up to 100% owing to rounding-off errors. Taxon

1

2

3

4

5

6

7a

7b

7c

Total

Mammals Jungle fowl Bird Varanus Pangolin Skink Python Snake Terrapin Amphi-bian Catfish Channa Fish

88 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 0 0 0 0 1

89 1 0 3 0 0 X 7 0 0 0 0 0

92 X 0 1 0 0 0 5 0 0 1 0 1

94 1 X 1 0 0 0 3 X 0 X 0 1

94 3 X X 0 0 0 2 0 X X 0 1

91 4 0 X X 0 0 3 1 0 0 0 1

93 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0

89 2 1 0 X X 0 5 1 1 0 X 0

92 2 1 X X 0 1 4 X 0 0 0 X

92 2 X 1 X X 1 3 X X X X 1

Total

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

Table 5.8 Batadomba-lena (1980-82) excavation: teeth and mandible parts NISPs by taxon – mammals. Mammal

Layer 1

Layer 2

Layer 3

Layer 4

Monkey

36 (82%) 0 2 0 4 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

92 (68%) 2 7 0 28 4 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

175 (63%) 4 36 0 46 6 0 2 0 0 3 1 4 0 0 0 0

427 (53%) 17 84 1 190 27 0 19 1 9 1 0 10 1 2 1 19

Mongoose Palm civet Civet cat Giant squirrel Small squirrel Otter Porcupine Canis sp. Mouse deer Boar Elephant Rattus Ceylon fruit bat Leaf-nosed bat False vampire bat Bat Total

44

135

277

809

consider only teeth/mandible identifications (Table 5.8), which arguably would be the most reliable identifications, or identifications on all skeletal elements (Tables 5.9 and 5.10). The only indications of extant taxons not found in Sri Lanka’s rainforests today are the single axis deer specimen from layer 7c (Table 5.9) and the Felis specimens which have been identified as tiger (Plate 5.1) (ManamendraArachchi et al.). The latter form is no longer extant on Sri Lanka but would hardly be incompatible with a rainforest environment. There are however suggestions of an increased importance of giant squirrels as a secondary prey taxon in layers 1 to 4, at the expense of small squirrels, rats and bats (Table 5.10).

Layer 5

Layer 6

Layer 7

8 43 0 68 12 0 5 0 2 11 0 5 0 0 0 1

123 (78%) 2 8 0 11 4 0 3 0 2 1 0 2 0 0 0 2

3 (50%) 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

486

158

6

331 (68%)

provided by the Brainerd-Robinson coefficient (Robinson 1951). This coefficient is calculated by summing the absolute differences between the percentage values and subtracting from the theoretical maximum of 200% – thus, 0% indicates total dissimilarity between percentage values, 100% indicates as many similarities as dissimilarities, and 200% indicates the percentage values are exactly the same. To calculate the Brainerd-Robinson coefficients between the different layers, the data in Table 5.9 were entered into an Excel spreadsheet, to base the calculations on percentages more exact than those shown in Table 5.10. After the inter-layer coefficients had been calculated, the layers were clustered into a hierarchical dendrogram using average linkage, and then seriated to produce the best possible match between the inter-layer coefficients

A more formal method to compare percentage data is 96

The Organic Remains from Batadomba-lena Table 5.9 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): layers (listed in top row); mammalian NISPs, all elements. Taxon

1

2

3

4

5

6

7a

7b

7c

Total

Monkey Mongoose Palm civet Civet cat Giant squirrel Small squirrel Otter Porcupine Pangolin Ceylon jackal Canis sp. Leopard Felis sp. Tiger Mouse deer Sambar Barking deer Axis sp. Boar Elephant Rattus Bandicoot Ceylon fruit bat Leaf-nosed bat False vampire bat Bat

51 0 2 0 9 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

229 19 13 0 43 4 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 2

357 29 54 2 58 6 0 2 3 0 1 0 1 3 0 1 0 0 4 1 4 0 0 0 0 2

854 80 121 3 207 26 0 21 1 0 3 0 4 1 17 1 0 0 2 0 13 0 1 2 1 21

1062 63 80 0 93 16 0 5 3 0 0 0 1 0 12 3 1 0 12 0 12 0 0 0 0 7

454 14 27 1 26 6 0 7 1 1 2 0 8 0 5 4 0 0 4 0 7 0 3 1 0 6

49 1 4 0 2 3 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 1

176 4 14 1 6 3 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 8 0 0 0 0 6

407 10 46 0 23 9 0 7 3 0 0 2 0 0 6 2 0 1 1 0 15 1 3 1 1 9

3639 220 361 7 467 73 2 45 12 1 7 2 15 4 45 11 1 1 24 1 62 1 7 4 2 54

Total

65

314

525

1379

1370

577

65

223

547

5068

Table 5.10 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): layers (listed in top row); mammalian NISP column percentages (to nearest per cent), all elements. X = presence at less than 0.5%. Column figures may not sum up to 100% owing to rounding-off errors. Taxon

1

2

3

4

5

6

7a

7b

7c

Total

Monkey Mongoose Palm civet Civet cat Giant squirrel Small squirrel Otter Porcupine Pangolin Ceylon jackal Canis sp. Tiger Leopard Felis sp. Mouse deer Sambar Barking deer Axis sp. Boar Elephant Rattus Bandicoot Ceylon fruit bat

79 0 3 0 14 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

73 6 4 0 14 1 0 X 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 X 0 0

68 6 11 X 11 1 0 X 1 0 X X 0 X 0 X 0 0 1 X 1 0 0

62 6 9 X 15 2 0 2 X 0 X X 0 X 1 X 0 0 X 0 1 0 X

77 5 6 0 7 1 0 X X 0 0 0 0 X 1 X X 0 1 0 1 0 0

79 2 5 X 5 1 0 1 X X X 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1

75 1 6 0 3 5 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0

79 2 6 X 1 1 X X X 0 X 0 0 0 X 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0

74 2 8 0 4 2 0 1 1 0 0 0 X 0 1 X 0 X X 0 3 X 1

72 4 7 X 9 1 X 1 X X X X X X 1 X X X X X 1 X X

97

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Taxon

1

2

3

4

5

6

7a

7b

7c

Total

Leaf-nosed bat False vampire bat Bat Total

0 0 0 100

0 0 1 100

0 0 X 100

X X 1 100

0 0 1 100

X 0 1 100

0 0 1 100

0 0 3 100

X X 2 1000

X X 1 100

Table 5.11 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): Brainerd-Robinson coefficients (percentages) between the layers based on mammalian fauna.

Layer 4 Layer 3 Layer 2 Layer 1 Layer 5 Layer 6 Layer 7c Layer 7a

Layer 3

Layer 2

Layer 1

Layer 5

Layer 6

Layer 7c

Layer 7a

Layer 7b

181.8

177.6 181.7

160.6 165.8 180.7

166.7 178.2 182.8 178.3

159.8 167.6 173.9 175.2 187.9

167.0 172.1 172.6 165.9 181.4 183.8

160.3 163.3 169.1 170.3 182.9 185.5 187.0

155.9 164.9 169.7 166.2 179.4 182.9 184.5 185.3

and their proximity on the dendrogram (as explained in detail by Bulbeck 2006). The resulting R2 coefficient of determination, of 0.746, shows that 74.6% of the variance in the Robinson-Brainerd coefficients is explained by the seriated order. Table 5.11 presents the coefficients, after seriation, and Figure 5.5 presents the seriated hierarchical dendrogram.

the layers 14 ka cal or more recent to the left of the seriated dendrogram (Figure 5.5), and the layers 15 ka cal or older – in approximate chronological order – to the right of the seriated dendrogram. Palaeoclimate, at least as judged from Premathilake’s research in the Horton Plains, would not however appear to be involved. Layer 7a, corresponding to the height of the LGM, has an assemblage which clusters with (suspected) humid assemblages, whereas layer 3, corresponding to a return to humid conditions, clusters with layers dated to cool and dry phases. Intensity of occupation may be a contributory factor, because the millennia of intense habitation corresponding to layers 6, 5 and 4 could have altered the vegetation structure of the local micro-environment and/or made the main local prey – monkeys – particularly wary of human hunters. The noticeable distinctiveness of the layer 4 assemblage (see also Figure 5.6), as also observed in the virtual absence of rainforest land snails and intense focus on freshwater molluscs (Table 5.2), would thus be interpreted as the end stage of intensive occupation at Batadomba-lena, and layers 3 to 1, while allowing for 2 and 1 being disturbed deposits, could mark a progressive return to more “natural” conditions with a decrease in occupation intensity.

As Figure 5.5 shows, layers 3 and 4 have the most distinctive faunal composition, with an average BrainerdRobinson coefficient of only 167.2% (cf. Table 5.11) with the other layers. Layer 4 is particularly unlike these other layers. All three sub-layers of layer 7 cluster together, at an average Brainerd-Robinson coefficient of 184.9%, and are particularly far removed from layers 3 and 4 in their faunal composition (cf. Table 5.11). The faunal composition of layer 5 and especially layer 6 resembles that of the layer 7 assemblages, whereas layers 1 and 2 trend towards layers 3 and 4 (average Brainerd-Robinson coefficient of 171.4%), albeit being slightly closer to layers 5 to 7 (average Brainerd-Robinson coefficient of 172.4%). Overall, two pairs of layers (5 and 6, 7c and 7a) have very similar faunal assemblages, reflected in their coefficients of nearly 190%, whereas layer 4 registers coefficient values almost as low as 150% compared to some of the lower layers, especially layer 7b.

It should however be stressed that the faunal changes at Batadomba-lena are subtle, and reflect a partial substitution of monkeys with other arboreal game or small carnivores. Ungulates remain unimportant throughout the sequence, and the same could be said for the non-mammalian prey (with the partial exception of snakes). There is minimal evidence to suggest dramatic vegetation change – given the arboreal focus of the faunal assemblage throughout – or major changes in hunting strategies or technologies.

Table 5.12 lists the percentages of the four main prey mammals from Batadomba-lena, along with information on the layers’ age and habitation intensity (from Chapter 4) and suspected palaeo-climate (from Chapter 1). It can be observed that the assemblages from layers 3 and 4 are distinctive owing to their relatively low proportion of monkeys, and relatively high proportions of giant squirrels, palm civets and mongoose, and that the layer 2 assemblage is similar in three of these respects (but not in the palm civet percentage). A chronological component would appear to be involved, given the division between

The 2005 Excavation The mammalian dominance of the Batadomba-lena faunal assemblage is also clear from the remains excavated in

98

The Organic Remains from Batadomba-lena

Figure 5.5 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): seriated dendrogram of the Brainerd-Robinson coefficients between the layers based on mammalian faunal percentages. Coefficient of determination of the seriated order = 74.6%. Note that 2 and 1 comprise disturbed layers.

Table 5.12 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): potential correlations with the differences between the layers in their faunal assemblages. Note that 2 and 1 comprise disturbed layers. Layer

4

3

2

1

5

6

7c

7a

7b

Monkey % Giant squirrel % Palm civet % Mongoose % Antiquity Palaeoclimate Habitation intensity

62

68

73

79

77

79

74

75

79

15

11

14

14

7

5

4

3

1

9

11

4

3

6

5

8

6

6

6

6

6

0

5

2

2

1

2

16-12 ka Cool/ dry

-

-

Humid

Cooler

Cool/ dry?

16.5-14 ka Cool/ dry

20-15.5 ka Semihumid

37-32 ka Humid ?

20-19 ka Cool/ dry

28.5-22 ka Humid ?

Quite high

Medium

Low?

High

High

Light

Light

Light

High

2005. Mammalian identifications comprise 80 – 93% of the total by NISP and 79 – 95% of the total by weight (Tables 5.13 and 5.14), compared to 88 – 94% of the total NISPs from the main excavation (Table 5.7). Snakes are equally well represented in the 2005 assemblage and the main assemblage, while jungle fowl (Gallus) and fish appear to be better represented, especially in layer 4. The fair representation of fish in layer 4, as also suggested by the 1980-82 excavation (Table 5.7), suggests an increased importance of aquatic resources during the corresponding phase, in line with the considerable importance of freshwater molluscs at that time (Table 5.2). However, even the layer 4 assemblage is dominated by mammals, albeit accompanied by a broad spectrum of other vertebrate resources.

prey is also clear. The red slender loris is added to the range of taxa, but otherwise the faunal assemblages are depauperate samples of those obtained from the 1980-82 excavation. One interesting difference is the slightly greater importance of boar and deer in the 2005 assemblage, responsible for around 5.5% of all NISPs (compare Tables 5.10 and 5.15). Indeed, when weight data are considered (Table 5.16), ungulates are seen to constitute around 8% of the identifiable mammalian assemblage, including 2% for elephants (based on two specimens!). Nonetheless the dominance of small to medium game in the Batadomba-lena fauna persists as the major impression. However, the inter-layer distinctions between the faunal assemblages suggested by Figure 5.5, and Tables 5.11 and 5.12, are not well confirmed by the data from the 2005 excavation. When NISP data are compared, the layer 4 assemblage excavated in 2005 is not at all like the layer 4 assemblage from the 1980-82 excavation, but instead resembles the layer 5 to 7 assemblages (Table 5.17). This anomaly is corrected to some degree when the 2005 weight

Tables 5.15 and 5.16 summarise the mammalian identifications collated by Jude Perera. Monkeys’ dominance of the mammalian assemblages is confirmed, whether judged by NISP or weight data, and the importance of giant squirrels, palm civets and mongoose as secondary 99

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka

Figure 5.6 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): abundance of monkeys, giant squirrels and snakes within the faunal assemblage.

percentages are compared to the NISP percentages from the main excavation, and layer 4 (2005 excavation) appears no more unlike layer 4 than any of the other layer 3 to 7c layers (Table 5.18). Similarly, the layer 5 assemblage recovered in 2005 is unlike all of the assemblages from the main excavation, including layer 5, apart from layer 4 and to some extent layer 3, on the NISP comparisons; however, comparison of the weight percentages (2005 season) and NISP percentages (1980-82 excavation) improve the interlayer 5 similarity. Finally, the layer 6 assemblage excavated in 2005 is not at all like the 1980-82 layer 6 assemblage on the NISP data, but instead resembles the 1980-82 layer 4 assemblage, whereas the layer 6 weight percentages are very similar to the layer 6 NISP percentages from the 198082 excavation (Tables 5.17 and 5.18).

layer, then layers 5 and 6 (excavated in 2005) should also correspond to the 1980-82 lower layers rather than layer 4. Fortunately, the availability of weight data from the 2005 excavation does permit a reasonable comparability with the data from the 1980-82 excavation, even though these are NISP data, and suggests that sampling issues might be involved. In any case, the patterns which consistently emerge – the prominent role of monkeys in the cull, with a secondary role of a wide range of fauna including squirrels, palm civets, mongoose, snakes, and on occasion ungulates and freshwater fish – should be emphasised as the consistent faunal signature from Batadomba-lena. Another benefit of Jude Perera’s observations is his records of burnt specimens, recorded as a percentage of identified NISPs. Overall, around 24% of all 1197 identified specimens have traces of burning, rather more in layer 4 than layer 5 (Table 5.19; the layer 7 percentage is based on a small sample size). Looking at the animal phyla, we observe a negative relationship between prey size and proportion of burnt specimens; mammals, which include the largest prey species, have the lowest burnt proportion, while fish and amphibians have the highest burnt proportions. This would be consistent with burning as a result of post-depositional incorporation of the discarded bone into hearths, as discussed in Chapter 3. On the other hand, the largest prey species of all, the boar and deer, do have the highest burnt proportion of any mammalian group, albeit followed by rodents (Table 5.19). The lack of burnt (small) bat bone may suggest that bats frequented the shelter only during times when humans were away, and their remains represent natural deaths and were not incorporated into the hearths.

The incongruity in the NISP comparisons (Table 5.17) would be difficult to explain in terms of methodological differences between how the two sets of assemblages were studied, because the Brainerd-Robinson coefficients between the three (main) mammalian assemblages recovered in 2005 are also low – only 160.7 between layers 4 and 5, 158.5 between layers 4 and 6, and 155.1 between layers 5 and 6. As can be observed from Table 5.15, it is layer 6 and especially layer 5 that have the relatively low proportion of monkeys, and fair proportions of giant squirrels, palm civets and mongoose, that otherwise characterised layers 3 and 4 in the 1980-82 excavation. Moreover, mismatching between the 1980-82 and 2005 excavations would not appear to be the cause for the incongruity – if (for instance) layer 4, excavated in 2005, should be related to the 1980-82 layer 5, or a lower

100

The Organic Remains from Batadomba-lena 5.5 Comparison with other Faunal Assemblages from Sri Lanka Rainforest Sites

same period from Beli-lena and from Batadomba-lena. In every case, these layers either cluster as a pair (Beli-lena Va and Batadomba-lena 4, Beli-lena IIIc and Batadombalena 5/6/7a, Beli-lena III-a-2 and Batadomba-lena 7c) or at least seriate adjacently (Beli-lena III-a-3 – III-b-1 and Batadomba-lena 7b). Clearly, the faunal assemblages from these two Wet Zone rockshelters change in tandem, pointing to consistent chronological trends. The Fa Hien-lena layers are hard to match to the layers from the other two sites, as only Fa Hien 4/5 has chronological counterparts, which are Beli-lena III-a-2 and Batadomba-lena 7c, both of which are less similar to Fa Hien 4/5 than are Beli-lena IIIc and Batadomba-lena 5/6/7a.

Wijeyapala (1997) provided NISP data on the faunal identifications from Fa Hien-lena and Kitulgala Beli-lena. To facilitate comparison of these data with Batadomba-lena, I simplified the nominal categories into monkey, mongoose, palm civet, other carnivores, giant squirrel, flying squirrel, porcupine, pangolin, mouse deer, other ungulates, rats, bats, varanid, snakes, jungle fowl, other birds, terrapins, freshwater fish, and “other”. Brainerd-Robinson coefficients were then calculated between the assemblages from the Fa Hien-lena, Beli-lena and Batadomba-lena layers. The chronological relationship between these layers, and the expected climate (extrapolated from Premathilake’s research), are given in Table 5.20.

Moving from the left to the right of the seriated dendrogram, we see that the chronology changes from mid-Holocene, to post-LGM Late Pleistocene, to terminal Pleistocene/early Holocene (which thus may include Fa Hien-lena layer 1), to pre-LGM Late Pleistocene (Fa Hienlena Layers 3/4), to LGM, and finally to pre-LGM Late Pleistocene again (Batadomba-lena layer 7c, to Beli-lena layers III-a-3 – III-b-1). There is thus a fairly consistent trend for more recent layers to seriate to the left of the dendrogram, and more ancient layers to seriate to the right. Certainly, this trend would be more consistent than any climate-related trend (based on Premathilake’s research), which would change (left to right) from cool and dry, to humid (Batadomba-lena layer 3) back to cool and dry, then unknown/warm and wet, and back to cool (at the far right of the dendrogram). Alternatively, there may well be a climatic factor (perhaps explaining the slight inconsistencies in the general chronological trend) which, however, is not captured by Premathilake’s research as this factor would be specific to Zone D1.

Table 5.21 provides the Robinson-Brainerd coefficients, with the layers from the three sites ordered following the seriation of their average-linkage hierarchical dendrogram (as described above). The seriated dendrogram is depicted in Figure 5.7. The seriated order has an R2 coefficient of determination of 0.96 with a perfectly seriated order of the same coefficients, which is very strong. Fully 96% of the variance of a perfectly seriated order is explained by the order found after seriation of the hierarchical dendrogram, which indicates that the different compared layers sit neatly along a single axis of variation. To illustrate the point, Table 5.21 (bottom left half-matrix) shows these distances after they had been sorted into a perfect seriation as close as possible to the original half-matrix of coefficients (top right, Table 5.21) – cf. Bulbeck (2006). There is a very close match between the layers dated to the

Figure 5.7 Fa Hien-lena, Kitulgala Beli-lena, Batadomba-lena: seriated dendrogram of Brainerd-Robinson coefficients between fauna NISP percentages of layers. R2 of seriation = 96.0%. For site-layer acronyms, see caption to Table 5.21.

101

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Table 5.13 Batadomba-lena (2005): layers (listed in top row); mammalian and non-mammalian NISPs, all elements. Taxon

Layer 3

Layer 4

Layer 5

Layer 6

Layer 7

Total

Mammals Jungle fowl Bird Varanus Hump-nosed lizard Python Snake Amphibian Channa Fish

24 (83%) 3 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

448 (80%) 40 (7%) 16 (3%) 0 0 1 27 (5%) 2 0 28 (5%)

386 (93%) 6 1 10 (2%) 1 5 5 0 3 0

156 (90%) 0 2 3 0 4 8 0 0 0

6 (86%) 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

1020 (86%) 49 (4%) 21 (2%) 13 (1%) 1 11 (1%) 40 (3%) 2 3 28 (2%)

Total

29

562

417

173

7

1188

Table 5.14 Batadomba-lena (2005): layers (listed in top row); mammalian and non-mammalian weights (in grammes), all elements. Taxon

Layer 3

Layer 4

Layer 5

Layer 6

Layer 7

Jungle fowl Bird Varanus Hump-nosed lizard Python Snake Amphibian Channa Fish

10.5 (90%) 1.0 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

773.9 (88%) 28.8 (3%) 1.5 0 0 0.1 7.0 (1%) 0.2 0 68.5 (8%)

664.7 (90%) 1.1 0.2 43.2 (6%) 1.1 11.9 (2%) 19.1 (3%) 0 0.3 0

186.4 (95%) 0 0.2 1.9 0 4.0 (2%) 3.0 (1%) 0 0 0

3.8 (79%) 0 0 0 0 1.0 0 0 0 0

Total

11.7

880.0

741.6

195.5

4.8

Mammals

Total 1639.3 (89%) 30.9 (2%) 2.1 45.1 (2%) 1.1 17.0 (1%) 29.1 (2%) 0.2 0.3 68.5 (4%) 1833.6

Table 5.15 Batadomba-lena (2005): layers (listed in top row); mammalian NISPs, all elements. Taxon

Layer 3

Layer 4

Layer 5

Monkey

17 (71%)

Loris Mongoose

0 1 (4%)

323 (72%) 1 8 (2%)

Palm civet

0

25 (6%)

38 (10%)

Giant squirrel

0

25 (24%)

Small flying squirrel

0

10 (22%)

Otter Porcupine Pangolin

2 4 0

Elephant Rattus Bandicoot

0 0 0 1 (4%) 0 0 1 (4%) 0 0 0

Small bat

4 (17%)

2 8 (2%) 2 7 (2%)

43 (11%) 10 (3%) 1 4 6 9 (2%) 3 1 9 (2%) 0 9 (2%) 4 4 (1%)

Total

24

448

386

Mouse deer Sambar Barking deer Boar

12 (3%) 3 0 16 (4%)

212 (55%) 1 32 (7%)

102

Layer 6 101 (65%) 0 6 (4%) 4 (3%) 36 (23%) 2 (1%) 0 3 1

Layer 7

Total

6 (100%)

659 (65%)

0 0

2 47 (5%) 67 (7%) 104 (10%) 22 (2%) 3 11 7 22 (2%) 6 1 26 (3%) 2 19 (2%) 6 16 (2%)

0 0 0 0 0 0

0

0

0 0

0 0

0

0

0 2 (1%) 0 1 (1%)

0 0 0

156

6

0

1020

The Organic Remains from Batadomba-lena Table 5.16. Batadomba-lena (2005): layers (listed in top row); mammalian weights (in grammes), all elements. Taxon

Layer 3

Layer 4

Layer 5

Layer 6

Layer 7

Total

Loris

5.3 (51%) 0

428.8 (65%) 0.1

155.5 (84%) 0

3.8 (100%) 0

Mongoose

1.0

393.3 (51%) 0.1 5.8 (1%)

33.9 (5%)

4.8 (3%)

0

Palm civet

0

36.3 (5%)

68.5 (10%)

3.8 (2%)

0

Giant squirrel

0

Small flying squirrel Otter

0 0

7.6 (1%) 4.1 0.6

Porcupine

0

17.2 (2%)

Pangolin

0

Mouse deer

0.1 (1%)

Sambar

0

Barking deer

0 4.0 (38%)

0 7.6 (1%) 9.6 (1%) 0

Elephant

0

275.0 (4%)

0

0

0

Rattus Bandicoot Small bat

0 0 0.1

1.2 1.3 1.8

1.9 1.7 5.0

0.4 0 0.1

0 0 0

986.7 (60%) 0.2 45.5 (3%) 108.6 (7%) 42.5 (3%) 24.6 1.1 29.5 (2%) 6.4 17.4 (1%) 35.9 (2%) 3.3 49.1 (3%) 275.0 (2%) 3.5 3.0 7.0

Total

10.5

773.9

664.7

186.4

3.8

1639.3

Monkey

Boar

19.0 (3%) 20.0 0.5 8.5 (1%) 4.8 9.7 (1%)

12.4 (2%)

15.9 (9%) 0.5 0

0 0 0

3.8 (2%)

0

1.6

0

0

0

26.3 (4%)

0

0

3.3 32.7 (5%)

0

0

0

0

Table 5.17 Batadomba-lena: Brainerd-Robinson coefficients (based on NISP data) between the faunal assemblages from the layers excavated in 2005 (rows) and the layers from the 1980-82 excavation (columns). Layer

4

3

2

1

5

6

7c

7a

7b

4 5 6

163.3 174.6 176.6

170.7 171.7 171.1

174.5 159.3 175.0

170.1 146.0 163.0

180.9 155.2 162.3

179.5 146.6 157.4

182.9 156.2 157.8

180.6 149.0 154.2

177.5 146.6 153.9

Table 5.18 Batadomba-lena: Brainerd-Robinson coefficients (using 2005 weight data) between the faunal assemblages from the layers excavated in 2005 (rows) and the layers from the 1980-82 excavation (columns). Layer

4

3

2

1

5

6

7c

7a

7b

4 5 6

123.1 169.7 156.0

119.5 173.3 165.6

117.5 159.6 174.4

115.2 147.8 178.1

121.3 165.0 180.5

124.0 160.7 180.1

123.7 168.8 171.3

120.7 160.1 169.7

122.7 164.5 176.4

Pie charts for the site layers were created from the Excel spreadsheet used to calculate the Brainerd-Robinson coefficients. They clearly show a progressive change from proportionately more giant squirrel NISPs at the left of the seriated dendrogram to an increasing dominance of monkey NISPs at the right of the dendrogram. The Fa Hien-lena Layer 2 assemblage is particularly distinctive in this regard, exhibiting more giant squirrel than monkey NISPs, as well as a good representation of Varanus, ungulates and other taxa. While its distinctiveness is correctly shown by the level at which it joins the other

layers in the dendrogram, the point that it conforms (albeit as an extreme case) to an overall trend affecting all the compared layers is demonstrated by seriation (Figure 5.7). As monkey NISPs increasingly predominate, even allowing for the proportionate decrease in giant squirrel NISPs, the representation of the other taxa on the pie chart tends to become increasingly compressed, without any outstanding patterns in evidence. That is, broad-spectrum hunting (and foraging for small game) was followed from at least 37,000 years ago to the mid-Holocene, in an overall chronological trend for monkeys to have given way to giant squirrels.

103

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Table 5.19 Batadomba-lena (2005): burnt and unburnt, identified individual faunal specimens. Category

Number burnt

Number unburnt

Proportion burnt

Layer 3 Layer 4 Layer 5 Layer 6 Layer 7 Total Bats Rodents (Rattus, bandicoot, porcupine) Squirrels Primates Smaller carnivores (mongoose, civet, pangolin, otter) Ungulates (boar, deer) Mammals Reptiles Birds Amphibians Fish

7 170 73 35 5 290 0

22 392 353 138 2 907 16

24.1% 30.2% 17.1% 20.2% 71.4% 24.2% 0%

10

26

27.8%

15 150

111 511

11.9% 22.7%

28

96

22.6%

23 226 23 21 1 19

34 794 51 49 1 12

40.4% 22.2% 31.1% 30.0% 50.0% 61.3%

Table 5.20 Fa Hien-lena, Kitulgala Beli-lena, Batadomba-lena: layers, their chronological relationship and correlative climates (extrapolated from Premathilake 2006). Chronology (calibrated BP) ~ 5000 BP ~ 7500 BP 12-15,000 BP 16-19,500 BP ~ 24,500 BP 40-30,000 BP

Fa Hien-lena

Beli-lena

Batadomba-lena

Climate

Layer 2 Layer 3 – – – Layers 4/5

– – KBVa (1-3) KBIIIc (2-3) KBIII-a-3 – b-1 KBIII-a-2

– – Layers 3, 4 Layers 5, 6, 7a Layer 7b Layer 7c

Dry Becoming dry Cool, dry Warm, wet Cool Unknown

The likely causes are habitat disturbance following tens of millennia of human habitation, allowing vertebrates other than monkeys to flourish in the lower storey and undergrowth, combined with the monkeys’ learning how to foil attempted human predation.

left). At the right, the height of the LGM would correspond to Beli-lena layers III-a-3 – III-b-1 and Batadomba-lena layer 7b, the slightly warmer periods immediately before and after the LGM correspond to layers slightly to the left, and the remainder of the sequence reflects continuing climatic amelioration into the mid-Holocene. An association between warm temperatures and less monkey NISPs (more giant squirrel NISPs) would also explain why Fa Hien-lena, the least altitudinous of the rockshelters, has a leftward tendency relative to Beli-lena and Batadomba-lena (Figure 5.7).

5.6 Batadomba-lena Plant Macro-Remains The analysis of the carbonised plant macro-fossils is detailed by Vasco Oliveira (2007) and only the main points need be summarised here. Canarium nut (Canarium zeylanicum) fragments appear conspicuously rare in the Batadomba-lena assemblage between c. 19 and 15.5 ka cal BP. His observations are supported by Ian Simpson’s (pers. comm.) observation of wood charcoal in a sediment sample from layer 6. This may reflect conditions too cool for this warmth-loving plant – effectively, a climate like that in Zone D2 of Sri Lanka today, but supporting a fauna similar to that of Zone D1. The implied contradiction with Premathilake’s sequence (Table 5.20) suggests his Horton Plains results may not be directly applicable to Sri Lanka’s Zone D1. If so, then the seriated order in Figure 5.3 could well be correlated with cool (at the right) to warm (at the

There is a particular dominance of canarium nut at Batadomba-lena in the charcoal from layer 3, after a trend towards growing importance (relative to wood charcoal) during the period corresponding to layer 4 (Vasco Oliveira 2007). This point is supported by my field observations (Chapter 4). Archaeologists who work in the Zone D1 rockshelters regularly identify the charcoal as kekuna, or canarium nut (e.g., Wijeyapala 1997), but this practice whereby Sri Lanka’s rainforest foragers had consistently used canarium nut would appear to have originated towards the end of the Pleistocene.

104

194.9

178.4

164.6

164.4

164.1

163.5

161.9

161.8

161.5

161.2

153.5

148.0

114.4

112.3

109.9

109.4

105.7

104.8

103.4

92.0

90.5

88.6

88.5

84.5

77.0

BD4

BD3

FH3

BD1/2

FH1

FH4/5

BD5/6/7a

KBIIIc

BD7c

KBIIIa2

BD7b

KBIIIa3-IIIb1

114.4

KBVa

KBVa

FH2

FH2

105

148.1

155.5

161.8

163.8

164.2

164.9

166.0

166.0

167.3

172.0

180.8

194.9

112.3

BD4

150.2

155.5

162.2

165.7

167.8

168.0

169.3

173.4

177.8

179.2

180.8

178.4

103.4

BD3

152.8

158.2

162.5

166.0

169.7

169.4

174.7

177.3

179.5

167.3

164.6

161.9

109.9

FH3

154.5

160.3

163.8

166.1

169.8

169.7

175.7

178.4

169.4

179.2

173.4

172.0

105.7

BD1/2

154.9

164.1

165.8

166.2

170.4

170.6

179.5

178.4

179.5

177.8

166.0

164.4

109.4

FH1

168.3

165.9

167.1

167.1

170.5

171.1

179.5

175.7

177.3

174.7

164.9

163.5

104.8

FH4/5

174.6

178.8

178.6

178.6

189.4

169.7

167.8

171.1

161.8

169.3

164.1

161.8

92.0

BD5/6/7a

174.7

183.8

184.6

184.6

189.4

170.4

166.2

168.0

162.5

166.0

166.0

164.2

90.5

KBIIIc

177.2

187.2

199.3

184.6

178.6

170.6

166.1

167.1

161.5

169.7

165.7

163.8

88.6

BD7c

179.7

187.4

199.3

184.6

178.6

170.5

165.9

167.1

161.2

169.8

165.8

163.8

88.5

KBIIIa2

180.0

187.2

187.4

183.8

178.8

168.3

160.3

164.1

158.2

162.2

155.5

153.5

84.5

BD7b

180.0

174.7

174.6

179.7

177.2

154.5

152.8

154.9

148.1

155.5

150.2

148.0

77.0

KBIIIa3-IIIb1

Table 5.21 Fa Hien-lena, Kitulgala Beli-lena, Batadomba-lena: Brainerd-Robinson coefficients between the faunal assemblages (NISP percentage data) from the layers. The bottom left half-matrix shows the coefficients after perfect seriation; note that every coefficient increases, or at least remains the same, with each step closer to the diagonal. The top right half-matrix shows the original coefficients; note how they are close to a perfect mirror image of the perfectly seriated coefficients. FH2 = Fa Hien-lena 2; KBVa = Beli-lena V-a -(1-3); BD4 = Batadomba-lena 4; BD3 = Batadombalena 3; FH3 = Fa Hien-lena 3; BD1/2 = Batadomba-lena 1/2; FH1 = Fa Hien-lena 1; FH4/5 = Fa Hien-lena 4/5; BD5/6/7a = Batadomba-lena 5/6/7a; KBIIIc = Beli-lena III-c -(2 - 3); BD7c = Batadomba-lena 7c; KBIIIa2 = Beli-lena III-a-2; BD 7b = Batadomba-lena 7b; KBIIIa3-b1 = Beli-lena III-a-3 to III-b1.

The Organic Remains from Batadomba-lena

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka 5.7 Conclusions

Figure 5.8 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): shark tooth from layer 3, undated (scale: 5mm) (K. ManamendraArachchi del).

Quantitative analysis of the faunal assemblages from the Zone D1 rockshelters of Sri Lanka suggests an overarching distinction between assemblages dominated by monkeys, and assemblages in which monkeys share a more equal billing with other taxa, especially giant squirrels. The shift between the former and the latter assemblages appears closely related to a younger chronology, apart from the particularly high monkey representation in two layers (Beli-lena and Batadomba-lena) which would appear to correspond to the height of the LGM. This observation, combined with the decreased monkey presence at Fa Hienlena compared to the other two sites, suggests that a warmer climate in the D1 Zone of Sri Lanka was related to more open or hospitable forests, where a greater variety of prey species could flourish. However, none of the assemblages reveal reliable evidence of an environment other than rainforest, and the full extent of climate change would probably be comparable to the difference between the D2 and D1 zones of Sri Lanka today.

(Figure 5.22), although it would signify contact with coastal populations rather than a marine component to the diet. Batadomba-lena, together with Fa Hien-lena and Kitulgala Beli-lena, documents forager occupation of the rainforests of Sri Lanka from around 40,000 years ago till the late Holocene. The local environment supported intensive habitation at Batadomba-lena between c. 18 ka and 12 ka cal, immediately following the LGM, associated with a broadened subsistence base. The growing importance of canarium nuts during Phase VI (layer 4), combined with the major focus on freshwater molluscs, may also represent adaptations to pressures on subsistence resources, including management of economically useful rainforest plants (Vasco Oliveira 2007). The immediate forest environment probably became more open during this phase, but dis-intensification during Phases VII and VIII (Chapter 4) was the apparent result of unsustainable pressures on local resources. Even during Phase VI, however, monkeys remained the dominant prey animal, and this might be evidence for projectile technology (bow and arrow) which is known to be used in forest settings, and which technology has been claimed for Niah Cave in Borneo (Piper and Rabett 2006). Other possible hunting techniques include trapping, and the use of spears (consistent with microlith technology – Bulbeck et al. 2000) or even blowpipes.

Notwithstanding systematic variation in proportional frequencies, the same range of arboreal, terrestrial and aquatic fossil taxa have been recovered from every layer at Batadomba-lena, and indeed from Fa Hien-lena and Beli-lena. Examples of secondary taxa include the palm civet, a mostly nocturnal species, which could have been procured with relative ease when these animals rested at day in accessible hollows of trees. The aquatic fauna is probably under-represented as fish bones tend to be small and to preserve less well than mammal bone. Fishing is important today along the Batadomba-lena stream, which passes the entrance to the rockshelter at a distance of a few hundred metres. In this context, the recovery of a shark’s tooth from Batadomba-lena layer 3 is worth mentioning

106

Chapter 6 The Technology of Batadomba-lena Stone, Bone, Antler and Shell Artefacts

6.1 Introduction

1 and 2, 4.5% for layer 3, 5.4% for layer 4, 2.8% for layer 5, 12.2% for layer 6, 4.4% for layer 7a, 6.7% for layer 7b, and 9.6% for Layer 7c.

This chapter describes the stone artefacts from Batadombalena, as well as the assemblage of 198 bone and antler points, and the rainforest snail shells with artificial holes. The major collection of over 400,000 lithics was recovered during S.U. Deraniyagala’s excavations in 1980-82, and two samples are analysed here – a total sieve retrieval sample consisting of around five percent of the assemblage, and a smaller sample of 524 artefacts, comprising microliths, cores, and other lithics, brought from Sri Lanka to the ANU for documentation. In addition, the micro-debitage (along with other lithics) extracted from the sediment samples collected in 2005 offers a valuable source of information on artefacts collected under rigorous laboratory conditions.

The dominance of the assemblage by flaked debitage products is clear when the artefact types recorded in 1988 are expressed as percentages by layer (Table 6.2). Around 96% of the assemblage, and not less than 91 – 94% in any layer, consists of flaked debitage. Where debitage is slightly less predominant, this is due to above-average proportions of “potential tools” (layers 6 and 7b) or cores (layers 3 and 6). The slightly higher “potential tool” counts in layers 6 and 7b may reflect a less intensive reduction sequence, boosting the detachment of flakes that look like points or other useful products (cf. Flenniken and White 1985). A less intense reduction sequence would also account for the layers (3, and 6 again) with a slightly higher proportion of recognised cores to flaked debitage. All other lithic types were recorded so rarely that their contribution to the assemblage proportions is miniscule.

6.2 Overview of the Stone Artefact Assemblage As detailed in Appendix A, and summarised in Table 6.1, slightly over 400,000 stone artefacts have been classified from the main excavation of Batadomba-lena (Figures 6.1 to 6.11). Even layer 1, the least artefact-rich layer in the site, yielded almost 10,000 lithics. The sample size of about 20,000 flaked lithics, recorded during my debitage study in 1987-88, thus represents approximately five percent of the excavated assemblage. While I attempted to study a representative sample of the debitage from each layer, the sampled proportion generally increased towards the lower layers of the site, which I deemed to be of greatest archaeological interest. Specifically, when my debitage counts are related to the debitage flaked products (DB) counts in Table 6.1, the sampled ratio was 0.8% for layers

A partial exception is the 0.5% of the layer 1 assemblage classified as utilised tools, a statistically significant higher proportion than in any other layer (two-way chi-square tests, UT versus other, chi-square varies between 27.1 and 106.8, 1 degree of freedom [d.f.], p 0.1). There is an interesting suggestion that used flakes tended to have a smaller platform than the other flakes, and here the differences are statistically significant both for platform width (t = 2.2, 21 degrees of freedom, p < 0.025) and platform breadth (t = 2.1, 21 degrees of freedom, p < 0.025). After log transformation of the metrical variables (top three rows of Table 6.15), the differences between used and unused flakes in weight, length, breadth and thickness remain statistically

compared to other debitage categories (and used pieces) may be taken to represent more intense knapping activities within the shelter, especially given the fragility of clear quartz. Analysis of Metrical Attributes by Technological and Material Class Tables 6.9 to 6.14 summarise the metrical attributes for the chert pieces in terms of weight, length (oriented length except for the single flaked piece), breadth (oriented except for the flaked piece), thickness, platform width and platform breadth. The results are consistent with a pattern of greater

Table 6.16 Batadomba-lena (2005): average weights (> 0.02 g) of opaque quartz artefacts from Batadomba-lena (2005) in grammes. The first number in brackets shows the sample sizes, and the trailing expression in brackets shows the range where sample size exceeds 1, except in the last row where the standard deviation is given. Not included is the transversely broken flake from Layer 6 which weighs 2.2 g. Layer

Used Flakes

Complete Flakes

Flake Fragments

Total

1 2

– –

(2) 1.0 (0.4, 1.5) (1) 3.6

(2) 1.0 (0.4, 1.5) (2) 4.1 (3.6, 4.5)

3

(1) 11.9

(20) 1.8 (0.03-5.4)

(25) 2.5 (0.03-11.9)

4

(3) 24.4 (7.1-48.3)

(13) 1.1 (0.06-2.1)

(30) 5.6 (0.06-48.3)

5

–

(31) 0.7 (0.2-2.2)

(35) 1.3 (0.2-11.3)

6

–

(44) 0.8 (0.03-4.1)

(50) 1.3 (0.03-8.6)

7a 7b

– –

(29) 1.1 (0.03-4.3) (10) 0.6 (0.04-1.1)

(30) 1.3 (0.03-5.8) (10) 0.6 (0.04-1.1)

7c

–

– (1) 4.5 (5) 3.4 (0.3-8.2) (14) 5.7 (0.6-22.0) (4) 5.3 (0.5-11.3) (5) 5.7 (3.3-8.6) (1) 5.8 – (5) 4.6 (1.5-13.5)

(52) 1.4 (0.05-8.1)

(57) 1.7 (0.05-13.5)

Total

(4) 21.3 + 18.5

(202) 1.1 + 1.3

(242) 2.0 + 4.2

(35) 5.1 + 5.0

117

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Table 6.17 Batadomba-lena (2005): average lengths of opaque quartz artefacts in mm. The first number in brackets shows the sample sizes, and the trailing expression in brackets shows the range where sample size exceeds 1, except in the last row where the standard deviation is given. Not included is the transversely broken flake from Layer 6 with a length of 20.2 mm. Layer

Used Flakes

Complete Flakes

Flake Fragments

Total

1 2

– –

(2) 16.7 (13.2, 20.2) (1) 19.4

(2) 16.7 (13.2, 20.2) (2) 23.9 (19.4, 28.4)

3

(1) 45.6

(22) 17.3 (8.3-27.0)

(28) 20.0 (16.0-45.6)

4

(3) 47.3 (33.155.3)

(25) 14.6 (6.2-28.4)

(42) 20.5 (6.2-55.3)

5

–

(57) 12.3 (7.2-24.4)

(61) 13.3 (7.2-38.5)

6

–

(63) 12.7 (5.0-26.5)

(69) 13.8 (5.0-33.7)

7a 7b

– –

(37) 13.6 (3.4-27.2) (15) 11.0 (7.2-17.2)

(38) 13.7 (3.4-27.2) (15) 11.0 (7.2-17.2)

7c

–

– (1) 28.4 (5) 26.5 (16.0-32.5) (14) 25.3 (17.9-34.8) (4) 28.2 (15.3-38.5) (5) 26.1 (17.4-33.7) (1) 18.8 – (5) 26.3 (23.2-30.8)

(90) 12.1 (4.5-30.8)

(95) 12.9 (4.5-30.8)

(312) 13.0 + 4.9

(352) 14.7 + 7.3

Total

(4) 46.9 + 10.1

(35) 26.0 + 6.1

Table 6.18 Batadomba-lena (2005): average breadths of opaque quartz artefacts in mm. The first number in brackets shows the sample sizes, and the trailing expression in brackets shows the range where sample size exceeds 1, except in the last row where the standard deviation is given. Not included is the transversely broken flake from Layer 6 with a breadth of 17.4 mm. Layer

Used Flakes

Complete Flakes

Flake Fragments

Total

1 2

– –

(2) 9.7 (8.3, 11.2) (1) 8.7

(2) 9.7 (8.3, 11.2) (2) 12.3 (8.7, 16.1)

3

(1) 19.6

(22) 10.9 (4.4-19.1)

(28) 12.2 (10.7-22.3)

4

(3) 28.2 (19.933.4)

(25) 8.1 (3.4-16.3)

(42) 12.6 (7.6-33.4)

5

–

(57) 8.1 (3.4-17.2)

(61) 9.0 (3.4-31.5)

6

–

(63) 8.2 (3.2-20.6)

(69) 9.2 (3.2-22.7)

7a 7b

– –

(37) 8.7 (3.3-26.1) (15) 8.0 (4.5-12.3)

(38) 9.2 (3.3-26.1) (15) 8.0 (4.5-12.3)

7c

–

– (1) 16.0 (5) 16.5 (10.7-22.3) (14) 17.3 (7.6-41.2) (4) 21.3 (1.9-31.5) (5) 19.5 (15.0-22.7) (1) 26.1 – (5) 17.5 (8.8-32.4)

(90) 8.2 (3.3-24.4)

(95) 8.7 (3.3-32.4)

(35) 18.2 + 7.4

(312) 8.4 + 3.5

(352) 9.6 + 5.3

Total

(4) 26.0 + 7.3

Table 6.19 Batadomba-lena (2005): average thicknesses of opaque quartz artefacts in mm. The first number in brackets shows the sample sizes, and the trailing expression in brackets shows the range where sample size exceeds 1, except in the last row where the standard deviation is given. Not included is the transversely broken flake from Layer 6 with a thickness of 6.9 mm. Layer

Used Flakes

Complete Flakes

Flake Fragments

Total

1 2

– –

(2) 4.4 (3.6, 5.2) (1) 4.7

(2) 4.4 (3.6, 5.2) (2) 6.5 (4.7, 8.4)

3

(1) 8.6

(22) 6.1 (2.3-13.3)

(28) 6.1 (2.3-13.3)

4

(3) 16.1 (7.021.6)

(25) 3.9 (0.9-10.3)

(42) 5.9 (0.9-21.6)

5

–

(57) 4.2 (1.2-9.4)

(61) 4.3 (1.2-9.7)

6

–

(63) 4.8 (1.2-10.4)

(68) 5.0 (1.2-10.4)

7a 7b

– –

(37) 4.6 (1.3-9.4) (15) 4.2 (1.4-8.3)

(38) 4.8 (1.3-10.9) (15) 4.2 (1.4-8.3)

7c

–

– (1) 8.4 (5) 5.4 (2.4-8.4) (14) 7.3 (3.0-17.2) (4) 6.6 (2.2-9.7) (5) 7.3 (6.1-9.5) (1) 10.9 – (5) 6.3 (3.6-11.6)

(90) 4.8 (1.1-11.1)

(95) 4.9 (1.1-11.6)

(35) 6.9 + 3.3

(312) 4.7 + 2.2

(351) 5.0 + 2.7

Total

(4) 14.2 + 7.5

118

The Technology of Batadomba-lena Table 6.20 Batadomba-lena (2005): average platform widths of opaque quartz artefacts in mm. The first number in brackets shows the sample sizes, and the trailing expression in brackets shows the range where sample size exceeds 1, except in the last row where the standard deviation is given. Layer 2 3 4 5 6 7a 7b 7c Total

Used Flakes

Complete Flakes

Transversely Broken Flakes

Total

– (1) 17.8 (3) 23.3 (20.9-26.5) – – – – –

(1) 27.1 (5) 16.6 (11.4-24.3) (14) 17.2 (7.7-39.5) (4) 16.4 (9.2-25.6) (5) 17.1 (11.4-25.5) (1) 16.8 – (5) 15.0 (7.6-28.3)

– – – – (1) 9.2 – – –

(1) 27.1 (6) 16.8 (11.4-24.3) (17) 18.3 (7.7-39.5) (4) 16.4 (9.2-25.6) (6) 15.8 (9.2-25.5) (1) 16.8 – (5) 15.0 (7.6-28.3)

(4) 21.9 + 3.6

(35) 16.9 + 3.5

(1) 9.2

(40) 17.5 + 7.6

Table 6.21 Batadomba-lena (2005): average platform breadths of opaque quartz artefacts in mm. The first number in brackets shows the sample sizes, and the trailing expression in brackets shows the range where sample size exceeds 1, except in the last row where the standard deviation is given. Layer 2 3 4 5 6 7a 7b 7c Total

Used Flakes

Complete Flakes

Transversely Broken Flakes

Total

– (1) 9.2 (3) 10.0 (5.6-15.4) – – – – –

(1) 4.4 (5) 5.8 (3.2-9.3) (14) 7.5 (2.3-16.9) (4) 4.8 (2.3-10.7) (5) 7.9 (5.5-11.0) (1) 10.1 – (5) 6.4 (3.1-12.8)

– – – – (1) 3.5 – – –

(1) 4.4 (6) 6.3 (3.2-9.3) (17) 7.9 (2.3-16.9) (4) 4.8 (2.3-10.7) (6) 7.2 (3.4-11.0) (1) 10.1 – (5) 6.4 (3.1-12.8)

(4) 9.8 + 4.1

(35) 6.6 + 4.1

(1) 3.5

(40) 7.0 + 4.1

insignificant (range of t values, 0.2 – 1.1, p > 0.1), but the smaller platform dimensions of the used flakes compared to unused flakes remain statistically significant (t = 1.9 for both platform width and platform breadth, p < 0.05).

log-transformed values (range of t values 1.5 to 3.8, 37 d.f., p < 0.05 to p < 0.005). In addition, used flakes and unused flakes are both larger in their weight, length, breadth and thickness than the flake fragments, and the differences are strongly to extremely significant (untransformed means, range of t values 5.3 to 15.5, 204 to 345 d.f., p < 0.005 to p = 0.000; log-transformed means, range of t values 4.5 to 13.0, 204 to 345 d.f., p < 0.005 to p = 0.000).

Sample sizes are clearly too small for a productive investigation of chronological changes in the chert pieces’ metrical attributes. Overall, then, the chert artefacts from Batadomba-lena should be treated as a single sample, with an average weight of 8 g, average (oriented) length of 29 mm, average (oriented) breadth of 23 mm, and average thickness of 8 mm. Platform dimensions are around 14 mm by 5 mm for used flakes and 22 mm by 8 mm for unused flakes. As will be seen, these attributes tend to stamp the chert artefacts as substantially larger, in their middling tendencies, than the artefacts of other types of material.

Opaque quartz artefacts clearly show a size gradation from large used flakes, to moderate-sized unused (complete) flakes, to small flake fragments. Indeed, the used flakes of opaque quartz are on average larger than the chert used flakes, and the difference is statistically significant on every metrical attribute except oriented breadth (range of t values on other attributes, including platform dimensions, 1.91 to 2.87, p < 0.05 to p < 0.01 for untransformed measurements, and 1.65 to 2.40, p < 0.1 to p < 0.025, for log-transformed measurements). In contrast, the unused opaque quartz flakes tend to be smaller than their chert counterparts, although this difference appears to be statistically significant only for oriented breadths and platform widths (breadths, t = 2.0 and 1.8, p < 0.025 and p < 0.05, for untransformed and logtransformed measurements respectively; platform widths, t = 1.8 and 1.5, p < 0.05 and p < 0.1, for untransformed and log-transformed measurements respectively).

Tables 6.16 to 6.21 provide the averages and ranges for the different classes of opaque quartz artefacts. Here, the used flakes appear to be substantially larger than the unused, complete flakes, being some four times as heavy on average, twice as large on metrical attributes of the flake, and furnished with striking platforms that are around 30% wider and 30% broader. The differences between these two classes are always statistically significant, whether reference is made to the untransformed means (range of t values 1.3 to 6.1, 37 d.f., p < 0.05 to p < 0.005) or to the means of the

119

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Table 6.22 Batadomba-lena (2005): average weights (> 0.02 g) of clear quartz artefacts in grammes. Data structure is the same as in Tables 6.9 to 6.14. Layer

Used Flakes

1

–

2

(1) 13.0

3

(14) 8.0 (0.5-48.2)

4

(121) 5.1 (0.0359.0)

5

(33) 4.6 (0.1-23.9)

6

(22) 8.8 (0.4-67.3)

7a

(11) 6.4 (0.5-26.0)

7b

(8) 2.5 (0.6-6.8)

7c

(59) 3.8 (0.2-11.4)

Total

(269) 5.2 + 7.8

Complete Flakes (33) 3.2 (0.3-10.3) (68) 2.6 (0.1-13.0) (497) 1.8 (0.1-36.0) (858) 3.0 (0.03-26.6) (186) 3.5 (0.03-70.9) (219) 3.0 (0.1-16.2) (16) 3.7 (0.2-12.0) (32) 2.9 (0.1-8.4) (211) 3.0 (0.1-13.4) (2118) 3.0 + 3.6

Transversely Broken Flakes

Longitudinally Broken Flakes

Flake Fragments

(6) 1.7 (0.8-3.7)

–

(18) 1.1 (0.04-8.9)

(12) 2.4 (0.5-8.2)

(4) 3.1 (1.2-6.2)

(32) 0.9 (0.03-3.9)

(115) 2.8 (0.1-30.5)

(43) 2.2 (0.3-14.2)

(272) 1.2 (0.04-28.4)

(132) 2.4 (0.2-18.9)

(35) 2.4 (0.1-13.6)

(1565) 1.0 (0.03-13.6)

(37) 2.6 (0.03-12.0)

(7) 1.2 (0.5-12.8)

(1510) 1.0 (0.03-15.0)

(72) 2.6 (0.2-10.5)

(11) 1.2 (0.2-3.1)

(1484) 1.0 (0.03-28.3)

(6) 3.4 (0.1-5.8)

–

(787) 0.8 (0.03-19.9)

(15) 4.5 (0.8-10.6)

(6) 2.0 (0.1-3.9)

(384) 0.5 (0.03-3.6)

(22) 3.6 (0.2-14.9)

(11) 2.3 (0.2-6.0)

(1494) 0.7 (0.03-13.5)

(419) 2.7 + 2.9

(117) 2.1 + 2.4

(7547) 0.9 + 1.4

Total (57) 1.4 (0.04-10.3) (117) 2.2 (0.03-13.0) (941) 2.4 (0.04-48.2) (2711) 1.9 (0.03-59.0) (1773) 1.3 (0.03-70.9) (1808) 1.4 (0.03-67.3) (820) 0.9 (0.03-26.0) (445) 0.5 (0.03-3.6) (1797) 1.1 (0.03-15.1) (10,468) 1.5 + 2.7

Table 6.23 Batadomba-lena (2005): average lengths of clear quartz artefacts in mm. Data structure is the same as in Tables 6.9 to 6.14. Layer

Used Flakes

(14) 23.7 (15.826.0) (123) 24.7 (11.0-23.1) (33) 26.4 (10.478.3) (21) 29.7 (13.468.9) (11) 27.9 (15.641.7) (8) 23.6 (18.235.5) (60) 26.1 (12.957.6)

(33) 23.2 (8.8-35.4) (68) 22.7 (8.8-42.6) (498) 22.8 (7.9-80.6) (860) 22.8 (6.1-46.5) (186) 20.7 (8.1-51.6) (219) 23.0 (10.9-46.0) (16) 24.4 (12.2-40.0) (32) 22.5 (12.0-35.3) (212) 24.2 (10.5-49.2)

(270) 25.7 + 9.9

(2122) 23.0 + 7.8

1

–

2

(1) 41.4

3 4 5 6 7a 7b 7c Total

Complete Flakes

Transversely Broken Flakes

Longitudinally Broken Flakes

Flake Fragments

(6) 19.5 (5.5-25.5)

–

(25) 13.9 (7.4-30.0)

(12) 21.1 (14.7-28.5) (116) 23.5 (11.3-48.3) (133) 21.2 (6.1-46.5) (38) 20.7 (8.2-35.7) (72) 21.4 (10.4-31.6) (6) 24.3 (14.4-39.9) (15) 24.7 (14.8-40.2) (22) 22.0 (14.6-35.6) (420) 22.0 + 6.1

(4) 27.5 (20.836.0) (43) 19.7 (9.341.7) (35) 24.3 (11.050.9) (7) 20.2 (13.826.5) (11) 22.1 (15.435.0) – (6) 19.7 (13.625.2) (11) 23.2 (16.335.5) (117) 21.9 + 7.7

The size data for clear quartz artefacts, provided in Tables 6.22 to 6.25, show a clear size gradient from used flakes, to complete flakes, transversely broken flakes, longitudinally broken flakes, and finally flake fragments at the small extreme. Comparisons between these artefact classes with the t-test demonstrate the statistical significance of this size gradient so regularly that only the exceptions need be noted (comparisons were made specifically with the logtransformed data in Table 6.15, which are more correct for the heavily skewed distributions addressed here). Complete

(46) 13.7 (3.7-26.4) (460) 13.4 (4.7-36.0) (2613) 13.5 (3.9-52.0) (2878) 13.1 (3.1-41.9) (3095) 12.5 (3.3-84.8) (1967) 11.3 (2.4-39.4) (1078) 10.7 (3.3-27.3) (4197) 10.8 (3.2-36.1) (17,139) 12.6 + 5.7

Total (66) 19.2 (7.4-35.4) (131) 19.7 (3.7-42.6) (1131) 18.9 (4.7-80.6) (3764) 16.4 (3.9-65.3) (3142) 13.9 (3.1-78.3) (3418) 13.5 (3.3-84.8) (2000) 11.5 (2.4-41.7) (1139) 11.3 (3.3-40.2) (4501) 11.7 (3.2-57.6) (19,288) 13.8 + 6.8

flakes and transversely broken flakes are not significantly different on weight or thickness; complete flakes and longitudinally broken flakes are not significantly different on breadth; transversely broken flakes and longitudinally broken flakes are not significantly different on length or breadth; and in three cases (used flakes versus longitudinally broken flakes on breadth, and complete flakes versus transversely broken flakes and longitudinally broken flakes on length), the level of statistical significance is marginal (p < 0.1). Otherwise, all weight and artefact dimension

120

The Technology of Batadomba-lena Table 6.24 Batadomba-lena (2005): average breadths of clear quartz artefacts in mm. Data structure is the same as in Tables 6.9 to 6.14. Layer

Used Flakes

7a 7b 7c Total

(6) 13.1 (10.3-15.7)

–

(25) 9.0 (3.3-20.7)

(12) 14.5 (10.8-24.8)

(2) 19.3 (13.1, 25.6)

(46) 8.5 (1.6-25.4)

(116) 13.6 (5.2-28.5)

(30) 14.9 (6.9-29.6)

(458) 8.2 (2.2-29.3)

(4) 16.4 (12.1-19.3)

(2602) 8.3 (1.1-34.0)

(38) 14.8 (4.9-29.4)

(4) 9.3 (5.2-16.4)

(2877) 7.9 (0.4-29.4)

(72) 15.3 (3.0-28.3)

(1) 13.7

(3091) 7.7 (1.1-38.4)

(6) 16.4 (6.3-25.4)

–

(1966) 7.1 (1.9-33.3)

(15) 19.3 (12.2-25.1)

(1) 16.4

(1077) 6.7 (1.3-15.2)

(22) 16.1 (7.0-35.5)

(4) 13.4 (5.8-22.8)

(4194) 6.7 (1.1-25.1)

(267) 18.4 + 8.9

(2117) 15.7 + 6.5

(420) 14.7 + 4.8

(46) 15.7 + 6.4

(16,335) 7.5 + 3.5

(1) 21.6

6

Flake Fragments

(133) 14.5 (1.5-33.9)

2

5

Longitudinally Broken Flakes

(13) 23.9 (6.8-45.4) (121) 18.6 (4.7-53.4) (32) 17.4 (7.3-37.1) (22) 19.8 (3.7-53.0) (11) 16.2 (6.9-39.3) (8) 15.7 (6.8-23.1) (59) 17.3 (5.3-31.1)

–

4

Transversely Broken Flakes

(33) 15.3 (6.2-30.9) (68) 15.1 (4.0-13.6) (495) 15.4 (2.4-45.2) (858) 15.5 (1.1-42.1) (186) 16.4 (1.2-78.4) (218) 16.6 (4.8-36.9) (16) 16.7 (7.0-26.1) (32) 16.5 (2.5-36.0) (212) 15.6 (3.4-39.4)

1

3

Complete Flakes

Total (65) 12.6 (3.3-30.9) (129) 12.8 (1.6-30.6) (1112) 12.4 (2.2-58.5) (3718) 10.5 (1.1-53.4) (3137) 8.6 (0.4-78.7) (3404) 8.5 (1.1-53.0) (1999) 7.2 (1.9-39.3) (1133) 7.2 (1.3-36.0) (4491) 7.3 (1.1-39.4) (19,185) 8.7 + 5.1

Table 6.25 Batadomba-lena (2005): average thicknesses of clear quartz artefacts in mm. Data structure is the same as in Tables 6.9 to 6.14. Layer

Used Flakes

(14) 6.8 (2.9-11.4) (121) 6.2 (1.7-24.7) (33) 6.2 (1.8-16.1) (21) 7.1 (1.9-14.2) (11) 6.0 (2.0-10.3) (8) 3.8 (2.4-5.2) (59) 5.5 (1.3-13.2)

(33) 5.7 (1.8-11.0) (68) 4.7 (1.6-14.1) (498) 4.9 (0.8-21.1) (860) 5.3 (0.8-22.7) (186) 5.3 (1.4-16.3) (219) 5.4 (1.6-16.0) (16) 6.1 (1.2-11.8) (32) 5.0 (1.3-9.9) (212) 5.3 (1.0-15.0)

(268) 6.1 + 3.2

(2122) 5.2 + 2.6

1

–

2

(1) 10.7

3 4 5 6 7a 7b 7c Total

Complete Flakes

Transversely Broken Flakes

Longitudinally Broken Flakes

Flake Fragments

(6) 4.3 (3.1-6.5)

–

(25) 4.0 (1.0-11.8)

(12) 5.8 (3.5-10.2)

(4) 4.6 (2.1-9.2)

(46) 4.4 (1.3-11.5)

(115) 5.3 (1.5-18.9)

(43) 4.7 (1.2-10.9)

(460) 3.9 (0.4-25.1)

(132) 4.6 (0.5-14.3)

(35) 4.5 (1.3-10.0)

(2612) 3.4 (0.5-18.6)

(38) 4.7 (1.1-10.8)

(7) 3.8 (2.0-6.2)

(2876) 3.3 (0.2-14.6)

(72) 5.2 (1.4-11.3)

(11) 3.3 (2.0-5.7)

(3093) 3.2 (0.3-25.1)

(6) 6.1 (2.1-9.6)

–

(1966) 3.3 (0.4-30.5)

(15) 6.5 (3.2-10.1)

(6) 4.1 (2.4-6.4)

(1077) 3.1 (0.6-10.4)

(22) 5.6 (1.8-9.1)

(11) 5.2 (2.8-12.2)

(4192) 3.0 (0.1-16.2)

(418) 5.1 + 2.3

(117) 4.5 + 2.1

(16,347) 3.2 + 2.0

Total (64) 4.9 (1.0-11.8) (131) 4.7 (1.3-14.1) (1130) 4.6 (0.4-25.1) (3760) 4.0 (0.5-24.7) (3140) 3.5 (0.2-16.3) (3416) 3.4 (0.3-25.1) (1999) 3.3 (0.4-30.5) (1138) 3.2 (0.6-10.4) (4496) 3.0 (0.1-16.2) (19,272) 3.5 + 2.2

differences (p < 0.1 to p < 0.005) from used flakes, complete flakes and transversely broken flakes on platform width, and from transversely broken flakes on platform breadth.

attributes show statistically significant differences in the order noted above. Interestingly, platform dimensions (Tables 6.26 and 6.27) appear to show minimal differences between used flakes, complete flakes, and transversely broken flakes. This impression is confirmed by the absence of statistically significant differences (using t-tests) between these classes. Only longitudinally broken flakes tend to have smaller platform dimensions, with statistically significant

The clear quartz artefacts are clearly smaller than either the chert or opaque quartz artefacts. This generalisation holds for every metrical attribute, including platform dimensions, when the clear quartz average is compared against the chert or opaque quartz average in the same technological class. Moreover, the vast majority of the differences are

121

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Table 6.26 Batadomba-lena (2005): average platform widths of clear quartz artefacts in mm. Data structure is the same as in Tables 6.9 to 6.14. Layer

Complete Flakes

Transversely Broken Flakes

(10) 18.2 (4.2-30.2) (117) 14.4 (2.8-61.6) (32) 14.8 (4.0-28.6) (20) 15.3 (3.3-32.2) (10) 13.8 (5.1-42.0) (8) 11.8 (6.1-23.2) (57) 13.4 (1.8-33.0)

(33) 14.8 (3.6-29.9) (68) 13.8 (3.7-32.1) (483) 13.4 (1.6-47.9) (846) 13.6 (0.9-40.9) (184) 14.0 (2.1-52.3) (217) 14.3 (3.5-32.2) (16) 14.0 (5.1-25.6) (32) 16.6 (4.0-35.2) (210) 13.7 (2.7-36.8)

(5) 13.9 (7.2-21.9) (12) 12.5 (7.1-20.1) (114) 11.5 (1.2-23.2) (131) 11.9 (3.3-35.3) (38) 13.0 (4.5-30.5) (71) 15.0 (5.4-27.0) (6) 13.0 (3.5-27.9) (15) 16.2 (4.0-35.2) (22) 14.8 (5.0-19.0)

(255) 14.1 + 7.9

(2089) 13.7 + 6.4

(414) 13.2 + 5.6

Used Flakes

1

–

2

(1) 21.5

3 4 5 6 7a 7b 7c Total

Longitudinally Broken Flakes

Total

(3) 12.3 (5.2-19.0)

(38) 14.7 (3.6-29.9) (83) 13.6 (3.7-32.1) (608) 13.1 (1.247.9) (1100) 13.6 (2.861.6) (255) 13.9 (2.1-52.3) (310) 14.5 (3.332.2) (32) 13.8 (3.5-42.0) (56) 16.2 (4.0-35.2) (285) 13.6 (1.836.8)

(16) 11.2 + 6.7

(2774) 13.7 + 6.4

– (2) 7.7 (4.6, 10.8) (1) 11.1 (6) 14.6 (5.2-25.7) (1) 4.1 (2) 8.2 (7.3, 9.2) – (1) 8.3

Table 6.27 Batadomba-lena (2005): average platform breadths of clear quartz artefacts in mm. Data structure is the same as in Tables 6.9 to 6.14. Layer

Complete Flakes

Transversely Broken Flakes

(10) 6.3 (2.7-9.8) (116) 5.6 (1.125.5) (32) 5.9 (1.1-17.9) (20) 6.1 (1.7-13.0) (10) 5.8 (1.0-14.2) (8) 2.6 (0.9-4.0) (57) 4.9 (1.1-13.4)

(33) 5.5 (1.3-10.6) (67) 5.2 (1.9-18.1) (483) 4.9 (0.717.8) (847) 5.0 (0.517.6) (184) 5.4 (1.015.0) (217) 5.3 (1.014.3) (16) 5.6 (1.2-11.9) (32) 5.8 (1.2-12.0) (210) 5.0 (0.416.8)

(5) 4.6 (3.5-7.3) (12) 5.7 (2.2-11.3) (113) 5.0 (1.3-14.4) (130) 4.6 (1.1-18.3) (37) 4.8 (1.5-11.2) (71) 5.5 (2.0-16.0) (6) 5.2 (2.9-9.1) (15) 6.7 (1.4-10.6) (22) 5.6 (1.9-10.0)

(254) 5.5 + 3.4

(2089) 5.1 + 2.6

(411) 5.1 + 2.4

Used Flakes

1

–

2

(1) 15.7

3 4 5 6 7a 7b 7c Total

Longitudinally Broken Flakes – (3) 3.5 (2.5-4.2) (2) 4.6 (4.0, 5.2) (5) 4.9 (2.1-8.0) (1) 1.7 (2) 3.8 (3.3, 4.4) – (1) 2.0

Total (38) 5.3 (1.3-10.6) (83) 5.3 (1.9-18.1) (608) 4.9 (0.7-17.8) (1098) 5.0 (0.525.5) (254) 5.3 (1.0-17.9) (310) 5.4 (1.0-16.0) (32) 5.6 (1.0-14.2) (56) 5.5 (0.9-12.0)

(3) 5.7 (3.8-7.5)

(292) 5.0 (0.4-16.8)

(17) 4.3 + 1.9

(2771) 5.1 + 2.6

is statistically significant at p < 0.025 to p < 0.005. The smaller size of clear quartz compared to chert artefacts can be attributed to the lack of flaking of chert at Batadombalena. The smaller size of clear quartz compared to opaque quartz artefacts, both of which were evidently knapped in the shelter, can be attributed to the finer flaking properties of clear quartz, which allowed controlled reduction of the clear quartz into smaller artefacts.

statistically significant, as shown by applying t-tests to the log-transformed data in Table 6.15. Chert used flakes and complete flakes can be tested against clear quartz used flakes and complete flakes; the only differences that are not significant are those involving the platform dimensions on used flakes, and perhaps length of complete flakes (marginally significant, at p < 0.1). Opaque quartz used flakes, complete flakes and flake fragments can be compared against their clear quartz counterparts, and every difference

122

The Technology of Batadomba-lena Chronological Change in the Metrical Attributes of Clear Quartz Debitage

The very clear tendency for flake fragments of clear quartz to decrease with size is demonstrated in Table 6.30. On all three dimensions, the specimens from layers 1 to 4 are largest on average, the specimens from layers 7b and 7c are smallest on average, and the specimens from layers 5 to 7a are intermediate. Many of the differences are statistically significant, usually at p < 0.0005. The weight data conform to the same trend, but less clearly so. The discrepancy is at least partly due to the difficulty of assigning weights to very small specimens (discussed in Chapter 3); in fact, the bimodal weight distribution shown for layer 6 (Figure 3.1) is equally evident for layers 4, 7a and 7b, i.e., the four layers whose flake fragments have the smallest weights on average.

Tables 6.22 to 6.27 suggest that the size of flake fragments of clear quartz decreases with depth, whereas the size of transversely broken flakes and complete flakes tends to increase with depth or stay the same. Artefact size comparisons between the layers generally support this impression. The transversely broken flakes of clear quartz from layer 7b are on average exceptionally large, and only on length are they approached by specimens from other layers (layers 3 and 7a). The transversely broken flakes from layers 1, 4 and 5 tend to be the smallest, while those from layers 2, 6 and especially 7c tend to be intermediate (Table 6.29). Any relationship with size of the complete flakes is obscure, but there is a tendency towards increasing size with depth. (Note also that layers 3, 6 and 7b tend to be characterised by larger complete and transversely broken flakes than the other layers, in accordance with their reduced proportion of the debitage class listed in Table 6.2.)

Could the decreasing size of clear quartz flake fragments with stratigraphic depth reflect greater post-depositional breakage, as a function of age in the deposit or susceptibility to trampling damage in the lowest deposits which had accumulated more slowly? If this were the case, random breakage should have produced greater metrical variance with depth, especially on the lengths and

Table 6.28 Batadomba-lena (2005): ranges of means of log-transformed values on clear quartz complete flakes for layer assemblages divided into smallest, medium and largest on each measurement. Statistically significant differences: weight, layer 6 > layers 2, 3, 4 and 5 (p < 0.025 – p < 0.01, t = 2.0 – 2.6); length, layer 7c > layers 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7b (p < 0.05 – p < 0.0005, t = 1.8 – 3.8); breadth, layer 6 > layers 2, 3, 4 and 7c (p < 0.025 – p < 0.005, t = 2.1 – 2.8); thickness, layers 1, 4, 6 and 7c > layer 2 (p < 0.05 – p < 0.01, t = 1.7 – 2.5) and layers 1, 4 and 6 > layer 3 (p < 0.05 – p < 0.01, t = 1.7 – 2.5); striking platform width, layers 1, 2, 5, 6 and 7c > layer 3 (p < 0.01 – p < 0.0005, t = 2.5 – 2.9) and layer 6 > layer 4 (p < 0.01, t = 2.4); striking platform breadth, layers 5 and 6 > layers 3 and 7c (p < 0.05 – p < 0.01, t = 1.7 – 2.4).

Weight (g) Flake length (mm) Flake breadth (mm) Flake thickness (mm) Platform width (mm) Platform breadth (mm)

Smallest

Medium

Largest

2, 3, 4, 5 (0.21 – 0.25) 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7b (1.32 – 1.34) 1, 2, 3, 4, 7c (1.14 – 1.15) 2, 3, 7b (0.62 – 0.65) 3 (1.02) 3, 4, 7c (0.64)

7b, 7c (0.28, 0.29) 1, 7a (1.35, 1.36) 5, 7b (1.16, 1.17) 4, 5, 7c (0.67) 2, 4, 5, 7a, 7c (1.08 – 1.1)

1, 6, 7a (0.31 – 0.35) 7c (1.37) 6, 7a (1.19, 1.20) 1, 6, 7a (0.69 – 0.71) 1, 6, 7b (1.12) 1, 2, 5, 6, 7a, 7b (0.67 – 0.69)

Table 6.29 Batadomba-lena (2005): ranges of means of log-transformed values on clear quartz transversely broken flakes for layer assemblages divided into smallest, medium and largest on each measurement. Statistically significant differences: weight, layer 7b > layers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 (p < 0.01 – p < 0.0005, t = 2.6 – 3.3); length, layers 3 and 7b > layers 1, 4, 5 and 6 (p < 0.05 – p < 0.001, t = 1.7 – 3.3); breadth, layer 7b > layers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 (p < 0.025 – p < 0.0005, t = 2.2 – 4.5), and layer 6 > layer 3 (p < 0.025, t = 2.3); thickness, layer 7b > layers 1, 3, 4, 5 and 6 (p < 0.025 – p < 0.001, t = 2.1 – 3.2), and layers 3, 6 and 7c > layer 4 (p < 0.05 – p < 0.001, t = 1.9 – 3.2).

Weight (g) Length (mm) Breadth (mm) Thickness (mm)

Smallest

Medium

Largest

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7a (0.14 – 0.28) 1, 5 (1.28) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7c (1.11 – 1.15) 1, 4, 5 (0.62 – 0.63)

7c (0.37) 2, 4, 6, 7c (1.31 – 1.34) 6, 7a (1.16) 2, 3, 6, 7a, 7c (0.67 – 0.74)

7b (0.56) 3, 7a, 7b (1.36 – 1.38) 7b (1.28) 7b (0.79)

123

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Table 6.30 Batadomba-lena (2005): ranges of means of log-transformed values on clear quartz flake fragments for layer assemblages divided into smallest, small, medium and largest on each measurement. Boundaries between size classes are based on statistically significant differences, which are too numerous to list (109 in all).

Weight (g) Length (mm) Breadth (mm) Thickness (mm)

Smallest

Small

Medium

Largest

7b (-0.55) 7b, 7c (1.01) 7b, 7c (0.79, 0.8) 7c (0.41)

6, 7a (-0.41, -0.42) 7a (1.03) 7a (0.82) 5, 6, 7a, 7b (0.43 – 0.44)

1, 2, 4, 5, 7c (-0.29 – -0.36) 5, 6 (1.06, 1.08) 5, 6 (0.85, 0.86) 4 (0.46)

3 (-0.16) 1, 2, 3, 4 (1.09 – 1.12) 1, 2, 3, 4 (0.87 – 0.92) 1, 2, 3 (0.52 – 0.59)

Table 6.31 Batadomba-lena (2005): modified coefficients of variation (median divided by the standard deviation of the logtransformed values) of the clear quartz flake fragments in the layers as tabulated in Table 6.30.

Weight (g) Length (mm) Breadth (mm) Thickness (mm)

Smallest

Small

Medium

Largest

7b (0.8) 7b, 7c (72.1 – 80.0) 7b, 7c (35.9, 38.8) 7c (9.6)

6, 7a (0.8, 0.9) 7a (74.3) 7a (36.5) 5, 6, 7a, 7b (11.2 – 12.3)

1, 2, 4, 5, 7c (0.9 – 1.4) 5, 6 (63.5, 65.9) 5, 6 (35.5, 36.0) 4 (12.0)

3 (1.8) 1, 2, 3, 4 (63.3 – 85.7) 1, 2, 3, 4 (28.8 – 43.2) 1, 2, 3 (12.9 – 19.5)

breadths, as well as a reduced middle value. Although I did not calculate standard deviations layer by layer on the untransformed data, standard deviations are available for the log-transformed data, and these can be placed in the denominator, with the untransformed median (a superior indicator of the middle value than the average, when heavily skewed data are dealt with) placed in the numerator. If increased random breakage, or sampling bias (i.e., a tendency to collect or record an increased proportion of small flake fragments in the lower layers: which was not the case), were responsible, then the median length and breadth, divided by the standard deviation of the log-transformed data, should decrease with depth.

and breadths. In addition, the constant or increased size of complete and broken flakes with depth would also militate against random breakage or sampling error explanations. There may have been a gradual evolution in core reduction practices which had allowed clear quartz flakes of the same size to be detached with less production of flake fragments (Table 6.8) of larger average size (Tables 6.22 to 6.25); for instance, through less intense core reduction. However, as noted previously, there is strong evidence for a decline in the production of microliths over time at Batadomba-lena. Therefore, it can be hypothesised that the numerically secondary population of thin featherweight clear quartz flake fragments in the lowest layers (6 to 7c) reflects the preparatory working of clear quartz waterworn stones to detach flakes suitable as microlith preforms.

No such tendency is evident amongst the Batadomba-lena flake fragments of clear quartz (Table 6.31); the (modified) coefficient of variation for the lengths and breadths from layers 7a to 7c fall comfortably within the range recorded for layers 1 to 4. That is, the reduced size of the layer 7 flake fragments is matched by a concomitant reduction of their variance. Interestingly, however, both thickness and weight do show a plummeting coefficient of variation with reduced average size. These were the two variables which tended to exhibit a bimodal distribution even after log-transformation of the data (Chapter 3), including layers 7b and 7c on thicknesses, and thus the increasing variance (reduced coefficient of variation) does reflect the existence of two flake fragment populations in the lower layers. However, this production of two populations based on thickness (and weight, as a consequence) would appear to have been a systematic feature of stone reduction at the site, rather than the result of breakage patterns or sampling error, because there is no comparable pattern for the lengths

While observations were recorded on the platform features and edge angles of the utilised flakes and debitage from Batadomba-lena, regrettably the time available for my research schedule did not allow analysis of these data. In summary, technological change at Batadomba-lena in terms of stone procurement and flaking practices appears to have been slight. Chert, imported as used and usable flakes from a variety of sources (Chapter 3), was always rare and hardly ever flaked on site. Locally available crystal and opaque quartz were both flaked on site, but the coarser flaking properties of the opaque quartz resulted in consistently larger debitage and a class of large used flakes. Clear quartz, which usually dominated the assembleges, was knapped to produce flakes for general purpose uses as well as blanks (including blades) for microliths and other fine

124

The Technology of Batadomba-lena tool types. The large sample sizes of clear quartz permitted investigation of metrical variation over time. Slight changes in knapping practices at different periods were suggested by statistically significant metrical differences between the layers in the flakes’ and broken flakes’ dimensions, but the only clear chronological signal was the reduced size of the flake fragments in layer 7. Their reduced size was due to a secondary contingent of very small flake fragments, which tied in with other evidence that the manufacture of clear quartz microliths was most marked during the earliest millennia of occupation at the site, and tailed off over time.

material, bone and antler items pointed at one or both ends were extracted from the general assemblage for study of their artificial working. The observations on the 142 singleended bone points and 31 double-ended bone points from the 1980-82 excavations (Figures 6.1 to 6.11) are listed in Table 6.32 (summarised in Tables 6.33 and 6.34), along with observations on the four single-ended antler points (Table 6.35). In addition, 15 single-ended and six double-ended bone points were identified amongst the faunal remains excavated in 2005, and identified to taxon and element by Jude Perera, along with other observations (Table 6.3).

6.4 Artefacts of Bone and Antler

As described by Deraniyagala (1992), the majority of the bone points appear to have been manufactured through longitudinally splitting long bones or antler, and grinding

During the documentation of the Batadomba-lena faunal

Figure 6.1 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): layer 3, undated; bone and antler tools, spine of marine ray.

125

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka

Figure 6.2 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): layer 4, 16,000 – 12,000 cal BP; stone and bone tools.

126

The Technology of Batadomba-lena

Figure 6.3 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): layer 4, 16,000 – 12,000 cal BP; bone tools, stone core.

127

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka

Figure 6.4 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): layer 5, 16,500 – 14,000 cal BP; microliths, micro-blades, antler core, marine shells, perforated shell.

128

The Technology of Batadomba-lena

Figure 6.5 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): layer 5, 16,500 – 14,000 cal BP: bone tools and antler core.

129

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka

Figure 6.6 Batdomba-lena (1980-82): layer 6, 20,000 – 15,500 cal BP; microliths, bone tools, shell beads.

130

The Technology of Batadomba-lena

Figure 6.7 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): layer 7a, ca. 19,500 cal BP; microliths, bone tools, spine of marine ray.

131

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka

Figure 6.8 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): layer 7b, 28,500 – 22,500 cal BP; microliths, backed micro-blades, Balangoda Point; bone tools.

132

The Technology of Batadomba-lena

Figure 6.9 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): layers 7c, 37,000 – 32,000 cal BP; microliths.

133

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka

Figure 6.10 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): layer 7c, 37,000 – 32,000 cal BP; Balangoda Point, microliths, backed micro-blades, micro-blade core.

134

The Technology of Batadomba-lena

Figure 6.11 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): layer 7c, 37,000 – 32,000 cal BP; bone tools, marine shell bead.

135

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka at one or both ends into a point (as revealed by the traces of longitudinal and transverse striations). Some of the bone artefacts retain cut marks from the stone knives which would appear to have been used in the primary excision and subsequent shaping of the bone slivers. In this study, “split” signifies bone points which retain traces of their original split lines, “abraded” signifies bone points with surfaces that show preliminary grinding, “rounded” refers to specimens where grinding has left a rounded surface, and “polished” signifies smoothly ground bone points (up to two of these descriptions are recorded on bone points with variably treated surfaces).

have traces of abrasion, 75 (43.4%) have rounding, 49 (28.3%) have some polishing, 26 (15.0%) retain split margins, and one point is described as flattened. Both single and double points had been recovered from every layer except layer 1; three in layer 2, 32 in layer 3, 44 in layer 4, 28 in layer 5, 24 in layer 6, 17 in layer 7a, six in layer 7b, and 19 in layer 7c (Tables 6.33 and 6.34). Interestingly, both classes of points reveal a preponderance of split or abraded points in the upper layers (2 to 4), and a highest proportion of points with polishing in layer 7c. Thus, the fully fledged technology was practised from initial occupation of the site, at around 37 ka cal BP, and if the technology had changed at all during the remaining 25,000 years of habitation, there was a trend toward devolution.

The most common technological classification for the points (both single- and double-pointed) from the 198082 excavation is abraded, with 58 examples, followed by abraded/rounded (46 specimens). Considering also combined categories, we find that 147 of the points (85.0%)

The majority of the (complete) specimens are light, with recorded weights generally between 0.1 and 0.5 g, and never more than 1.3 g (Table 6.32), or 1.4 g including the

Table 6.32 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): observations on artefacts of bone and antler. Square

Layer

Function

Technology

Length (mm)

Weight (g)

Width (mm)

12 G 13 K 13 G 14 J 16 L 14H 16I 16G 12 G 14 J 13 H 13I 13 J 12G 15G 13 I 15G 15 K 13 H 12 H 15J 14K 13J 15G 12G 15 G 12J 12G 12L 16 G 13 K 13 G 13 H 13 G 14 J

7a 7c 5 4 4 5 4 7c 7c 7c 6 5 4 4 4 7a 4 3 7b 6 6 5 4 4 4 4 3 3 2 3 3 7c 7c 7c 6

Double point Double point Double point Double point Double point Double point Double point Double point Double point Double point Double point Double point Double point Double point Double point Double point Double point Double point Double point Double point Double point Double point Double point Double point Double point Double point Double point Double point Double point Double point Double point Single point Single point Single point Single point

Rounded / Polished Abraded / Polished Abraded / Polished Abraded / Polished Abraded / Polished Split / Polished Polished Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Rounded Rounded Rounded Rounded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Split Split Rounded / Polished Rounded / Polished Rounded / Polished Rounded / Polished

33.85 22.11 27.00 26.68 20.84 29.87 37.66 22.75 18.96 18.89 20.75 21.84 23.38 21.65 21.35 24.84 54.86 40.49 17.87 31.26 18.22 31.35 35.54 27.18 26.44 21.87 36.04 30.91 26.42 30.82 21.88 30.79 26.98 9.03 20.94

0.5 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.3 1.3 0.9 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.4 0.9 0.3 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.1 0.6 0.3 0.1 0.5

4.88 5.80 3.95 4.65 4.95 4.25 3.98 4.50 3.65 4.65 3.55 4.55 3.55 4.55 4.65 4.55 4.85 5.55 2.65 5.55 2.95 5.25 4.95 4.35 4.67 3.45 5.85 5.95 5.65 3.15 3.65 3.65 4.65 9.50 3.50

136

Remarks

Broken

The Technology of Batadomba-lena Square

Layer

Function

Technology

Length (mm)

Weight (g)

Width (mm)

14 H 12 G 14 J 13 J 15 J 13G 13 G 14K 14K 13G 14 G 12 G 17 H 14G 13 K 14J 14 J 12 G 13H 13 J 12 G 14L 13 J 14 G 13 J 12 J 12 G 13 J 12 K 13 H 14 H 13 J 13 I 13 G 14 J 15 G 12 G 16 G 14 K 15 J 13 G 14 G 14 G 15 K 13 J 16 H 14 J 13 I 15 G 16 J 16 J 12 J 12 G 14 J 16 J 14 J

4 3 7c 7c 7c 7c 7a 6 5 5 4 4 4 3 3 3 7c 7a 6 5 4 3 7b 7a 6 6 5 5 5 4 4 7c 7c 7b 7b 7b 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point

Rounded / Polished Rounded / Polished Abraded / Polished Abraded / Polished Abraded / Polished Abraded / Polished Abraded / Polished Abraded / Polished Abraded / Polished Abraded / Polished Abraded / Polished Abraded / Polished Abraded / Polished Abraded / Polished Abraded / Polished Abraded / Polished Split / Polished Split / Polished Split / Polished Split / Polished Split / Polished Split / Polished Polished Polished Polished Polished Polished Polished Polished Polished Polished Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Rounded

10.35 14.41 18.99 15.99 15.75 15.31 28.35 20.69 30.71 23.32 19.25 16.79 13.93 24.11 16.17 12.94 23.02 34.40 30.07 26.28 23.81 18.79 17.49 12.35 15.98 14.35 23.55 15.25 11.92 18.68 11.40 16.65 10.03 20.57 19.95 40.59 30.12 17.80 17.10 16.72 16.23 14.27 27.00 23.07 21.58 20.65 38.16 34.95 30.95 25.60 20.59 20.55 15.16 14.95 14.55 12.80

0.1 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.2 0.5 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.4 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.1 0.2 0.7 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1

2.76 2.60 2.65 2.65 2.55 3.67 3.68 4.67 4.76 3.67 2.55 3.24 4.50 4.65 3.55 2.75 2.65 3.60 5.75 3.95 3.65 3.25 3.50 2.65 2.50 2.55 3.55 2.55 2.55 3.55 3.85 2.54 2.50 4.50 3.95 4.55 3.85 3.90 3.95 6.65 2.15 5.80 4.80 5.65 3.67 4.95 4.55 7.75 6.55 5.60 4.95 4.55 3.85 5.50 3.50 3.90

137

Remarks

Broken

Broken base

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Square

Layer

Function

Technology

Length (mm)

Weight (g)

Width (mm)

17 J 16 J 15G 13 J 13 G 15 G 12G 12 G 15 J 14 G 12G 12 H 14 G 13 G 14 J 14 K 16 H 12 J 13 G 12 J 12 J 13 K 12I 15 K 16G 16 I 14G 12 J 12G 16 H 13G 13H 15G 15 G 15 G 13H 15H 14 G 14 K 12 G 13H 16 J 14H 16 G 15G 14 K 17H 16G 12 G 12G 16 L 12G 13I 14 H 16 J 15K

5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 2 7c 7a 6 5 5 4 4 3 7c 7c 7c 7b 7a 7a 7a 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3

Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single Point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point

Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Flattened Rounded Rounded Rounded Rounded Rounded Rounded Rounded Rounded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded

10.52 24.95 24.90 20.75 17.80 16.65 15.99 12.75 11.72 10.55 37.56 17.74 16.60 22.54 19.35 21.55 33.06 12.75 11.41 13.71 11.60 15.44 47.25 15.92 8.78 27.52 26.14 18.52 13.52 89.24 38.28 34.28 32.55 30.35 23.70 18.94 12.72 27.73 20.24 14.93 14.44 72.24 50.28 27.76 27.73 23.62 21.38 20.82 19.26 18.92 18.85 17.01 14.37 14.24 12.92 26.56

0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.7 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.6 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.5 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.3 1.3 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2

5.55 4.92 4.90 3.65 4.85 5.55 2.67 4.90 2.85 2.80 4.77 3.55 2.78 4.55 2.85 3.65 5.80 2.34 2.65 2.65 2.65 2.45 4.75 3.55 4.55 4.85 4.25 3.45 2.65 2.65 4.32 4.20 4.87 3.75 3.65 3.75 3.54 3.95 3.45 2.65 2.75 5.85 4.76 4.28 3.96 3.54 4.65 5.65 3.55 4.55 2.95 3.26 3.25 2.25 2.65 3.55

138

Remarks

Broken Broken

Broken

Broken Broken

Broken

Fragment Broken

Fragment

The Technology of Batadomba-lena Square

Layer

Function

Technology

Length (mm)

Weight (g)

Width (mm)

13H 12 G 14H 13 J 13 J 12 H 13H 13K 14 K 12 J 13H 14 K 12 G 12 J 13 J 15 J 13 J 13 G 13 H 13 G 13 H 14 IG 16 G 16 K 12 G 12 G

3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 6 7c 7a 6 6 6 5 4 4 3 3 3 3 3

Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Single point Double point Single point Single point Single point

Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Abraded Split / Abraded Split Split Split Split Split Split Split Split Split Split Split Split Split

25.12 23.98 23.62 19.56 19.01 15.62 15.45 15.31 12.99 12.20 11.72 22.81 21.12 25.79 30.01 36.64 31.58 12.85 21.21 20.12 13.11 37.85 30.82 17.22 16.22 13.32

0.5 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 0.5 0.1 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.3

4.45 2.95 3.25 2.76 2.76 2.68 2.25 4.43 2.56 2.45 2.35 3.76 4.85 2.55 4.65 5.50 3.65 2.56 4.95 3.85 2.55 5.76 3.15 2.65 3.55 2.85

Remarks

Broken Broken

Fragment

Layer

Rounded/ Abraded/ Polished Polished

Abraded/ Split/ Polished Rounded Polished

Abraded/ Flattened

Abraded/ Split

Rounded Abraded Split

Total

2 3 4 5 6 7a 7b 7c

– – – – – 1 – –

– – 2 1 – – – 1

– – – 1 – – – –

– – 1 – – – – –

– – 3 1 1 – – 3

– – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – –

– 1 1 – – 1 – –

1 3 3 1 2 – 1 –

– 2 – – – – – –

1 6 10 4 3 2 1 4

Total

1

4

1

1

8

0

0

3

11

2

31

Table 6.33 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): summary of observations on double-ended bone points. Layer

Abraded/ Abraded/ Abraded/ Rounded/ Abraded/ Split/ Rounded Abraded Polished Rounded Flattened Split Polished Polished Polished

Split

Total

2 3 4 5 6 7a 7b 7c

– 1 1 – 1 – – 3

– 3 3 2 1 1 – 4

– 1 1 1 1 1 – 1

– – 2 3 2 1 1 –

– 3 9 11 4 6 3 2

1 – – – – – – –

– – – – 1 – – –

– 1 2 2 – 1 – 1

1 12 14 4 8 4 1 3

– 5 2 1 3 1 – 1

2 26 34 24 21 15 5 15

Total

6

14

6

9

38

1

1

7

47

13

142

139

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Table 6.34 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): summary of observations on single-ended bone points. Square

Layer

Function

14 H 16 J 17 G 13 J

7a 6 5 4

Single point Single point Single point Single point

Technology

Length (mm)

Weight (g)

Width (mm)

20.95 40.55 33.95 19.95

0.2 0.5 0.3 0.3

5.50 5.55 5.25 3.85

Abraded / Rounded Rounded Abraded / Rounded Abraded / Rounded

Remarks

Table 6.35 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): observations on artefacts of bone. Layer

Context

Material

2 2 2

5 5 16

2

16

3

8

4

9

4

11

Monkey fibula

Single point

4

11

Monkey ulna

Single point

4

23

Monkey femur

Single point

Length (mm)

Width (mm)

Thickness (mm)

Weight (g)

Surface polished Distal end broken Surface polished Small Fragment (with point)

30 11 35

5 5 7

4 4 3

0.5 0.1 0.8

10

4

3

0.1

Surface polished

27

Not recorded

3

0.4

23

4

2

0.1

37

5

4

0.7

31

7

5

0.8

61

6

5

1.4

Typology

Description

Monkey bone Monkey bone Monkey femur

Double point Single point Single point

Monkey bone

Single point

Monkey femur or humerus Jungle fowl metatarsus

Double point Single point

Surface polished; distal end broken Surface polished; distal end broken Surface polished; distal end broken Surface polished; distal end broken

Table 6.36 Batadomba-lena (2005): bone points. Layer

Context

Material

4

23

4

25

4

38

4

100

Monkey femur or humerus Monkey femur or humerus Monkey femur

4

102

Monkey femur

Double point

4

102

Monkey fibula

Single point

5

49

Jungle fowl bone

Single point

5

56

Monkey femur or humerus

Double point

5

80

Monkey femur

Single point

6

72

Monkey femur

6

78

Monkey femur

6

78

Monkey femur

Single point Piece of single point Piece of single point

Monkey femur

Length (mm)

Width (mm)

Thickness (mm)

Weight (g)

Surface polished; distal end broken

52

5

5

0.9

Complete tool (burnt)

23

4

3

0.2

32

4

3

0.2

40

6

4

0.6

25

7

4

0.3

23

5

4

0.1

26

5

3

0.1

30

7

3

0.1

32

1

4

0.1

52

7

5

1.1

Surface burnt

45

5

4

0.8

Surface burnt

32

4

3

0.4

Typology

Description

Single point Single point Double point Double point

Surface polished; complete tool Complete tool Surface polished; complete tool Surface polished; distal end broken Surface burnt; distal end broken Surface polished; complete tool Surface polished; complete tool Distal end broken

140

The Technology of Batadomba-lena heaviest specimen from the 2005 excavation (Table 6.36). The lengths of the (complete) points are highly variable, and range between 9.0 mm (for a rounded/polished single point from layer 7c) and 89.2 mm (an abraded single point from layer 6). The ranges of the lengths of the double-ended points typically fall within the ranges of the lengths of the single-ended points, as would be expected given the greater numbers of the latter. The only exceptions are the rounded/ polished double point from layer 7a, the polished double point from layer 4, and two of the three rounded double points (layers 3 and 4), which are all longer than any singleended point in the same technological class. Particularly long bone splinters may have been selected for rounding or polishing at both ends.

fishing spearheads, blowpipe darts (as suggested for South Sulawesi double-ended points; see Olsen and Glover 2004), winkles to extract mollusc meat, and as large picks. The wide metrical range of the points would suggest multiple functions, not to mention the likely multiple uses of any one point. In the consistent rainforest environment around Batadomba-lena, arrowheads and blowpipes would certainly have assisted the pursuit of monkeys and other arboreal game, although whether these were known in Pleistocene Sri Lanka remains uncertain. 6.5 Land Snail Shell Artefacts The extensive excavations in Batadomba-lena have also yielded many excellently preserved rainforest land snails (Acavus and Oligospira), especially from Layer 5 (Chapter 5). These snails are well known for their pleasing colour and attractiveness (Hausdorf and Perera 2000). Some of the snails appear to have been used for making necklaces or pendants, by executing a perforation in the centre of the body-whorl allowing the shells to be suspended or strung together. An alternative explanation for these holes is their facilitating the extraction of the shell meat (Deraniyagala 1992) or their use as planing tools, for which there are ethnographic analogues in Australia and Brasil (Sarasin and Sarasin 1908: 67-69). Jude Perera, who identified the land snails, also observed cases of apparent artificial holes in the shells. Thirty-five of the 62 relatively complete Acavus shells (56.5%) had round holes, as did six of the 17 relatively complete Oligospira shells (35.3%). As described by Sarasin and Sarasin (1908: 66) for the examples from the Nilgala shelter, the holes tend to be circular to semicircular, or if oval then with the long axis generally running perpendicularly or obliquely to the aperture. Diameters range between 10 and 25 mm, and the distance of the margin of the hole from the snails’ aperture varies between 7 and 15 mm.

Of the 21 bone points excavated in 2005, 19 were evidently manufactured from long bones of monkeys – the dominant prey of the occupants (Chapter 5) – and two, both weighing 0.1 g, from jungle fowl bones. Polishing is noted at a higher rate (13/21 specimens) than with the main assemblage, but the time constraints did not allow me to check these specimens directly against bone points not described as polished from the main excavation. Double points were recognised at a higher rate (6/21, or 29%) than in the main assemblage (18%). Four of the bone points appeared burnt, which is close to the ratio for the faunal assemblage in general (Table 5.19). Only layers 2 to 6 are represented in the bone tool assemblage from the 2005 excavation. The four points of antler (Table 6.35) all have a single point and all show rounding (mostly, abraded/rounded). There is little to distinguish them from the bone points; their weight range (0.2 – 0.5 g), length range (20 – 40 mm) and provenance in the site (layers 4 to 7a) are typical of the points in general. Deraniyagala (1992) discusses the possible uses of the bone points: projectile points (arrowheads or spearheads),

141

Chapter 7 Bellan-bandi Palassa: an Open-Air Prehistoric Site

7.1 Introduction

secondary grassland but was originally, in the mid-1950s, predominantly monsoon cum evergreen forest. The area has a wide range of wild animals. Amongst these, elephants are prominent, but there are also spotted deer, water buffaloes, sambar deer, bears, crocodiles, grey langurs and other Dry Zone fauna.

Bellan-bandi Palassa is important to the “Contribution of South Asia to the Peopling of Australasia” project on several accounts. The large assemblage of human burials excavated by P.E.P. Deraniyagala from the site has come to be treated as the type collection of “Balangoda Man”, yet the dating of the burials has been cloaked with uncertainty (Kennedy 2000). The main cultural deposit is coeval with the terminal period of well-dated habitation at Batadombalena, and facilitates the comparison of forager adaptations between different environments. The excavation by S.U. Deraniyagala recovered pottery in the upper horizon related to local Sinhala historical developments. The prehistoric habitation deposits had been partly incorporated into an ancient reservoir dam (bund), which raises questions of interpretation of the depositional history at the site.

The site lies in an open glade beside the seasonal Bellanbandi stream (Plate 7.1). The latter runs in a south-easterly direction across a flat crystalline outcrop belonging to the Khondalite Group of Pre-Cambrian limestone (Map 7.1). This limestone exposure has a breadth of over 60 m and extends some 400m from the northwest to the southeast, with artefacts scattered across it and beyond for a distance of 135 m downstream (Plate 7.2). Away from the stream, excavations revealed a colluvial deposit, similar to the Reddish Brown Earth Formation with which Zone B is associated (Deraniyagala and Kennedy 1972: 26). According to Deraniyagala (1992: 306), there is an abundance of suitable stone in the vicinity for knapping. Sources include outcrops of vein-quartz in an exposure 2 km from Bellan-bandi Palassa, pebbles of high-quality quartz and chert available from the Uda Walawe river bed, and pebbles from the basal gravels of the Reddish Brown Earth Formation.

The three main issues which motivated my limited reexcavation of the site were: (1) obtaining charcoal from a secure archaeological context to date the main habitation at the site; (2) collecting sediment samples for detailed laboratory analysis, to refine the current understanding of the site’s formation processes; and (3) recovering samples of lithics, fauna and, if possible, human remains from the main habitation and other phases of site use.

7.3 Previous excavations

7.2 Environment

The site of Bellan-bandi Palassa was discovered in 1956 by Arthur Delgoda, who unearthed an assortment of human bones and quartz flakes. Following this discovery, in the same year, P.E.P. Deraniyagala, the Director of National Museums, conducted a preliminary excavation, followed by four more campaigns up to 1961. These fieldwork seasons were short, averaging a fortnight or less, and the excavation techniques were coarse, with spatial control provided merely by a 2 m by 2 m grid. Nonetheless, P.E.P. Deraniyagala recorded numerous burials within the basal cultural deposit, and recovered a large assemblage of human remains (Deraniyagala 1958a; 1960; 1963a; Kennedy 1965). A summarised account of the interpretations made by scholars of the Bellan-bandi Palassa burials can be found in Kennedy (2000: 237-38). In addition, the lithics from P.E.P. Deraniyagala’s excavation were classified and described by S.U. Deraniyagala (1971b).

Bellan-bandi Palassa is located in Zone B of the Ratnapura District, 2 km from the Uda Walawe River in the Uda Walawe National Park (wildlife reserve). The park lies in the Uda Walawe Basin within the Monaragala and Ratnapura Districts, and covers an area of approximately 308,821 square km (Map 7.1). The Kaltota escarpment, which lies 10 km from Bellan-bandi Palassa, separates the Zone B lowlands (with an average annual rainfall of 2,050 mm) from the intermediate uplands of the Dry Zone. The site’s location, close to the ecotone between Dry and Wet Zones, would have increased the range of resources available to the hunter-gatherer occupants. The site’s proximity to the Uda Walawe River, and a local seasonal stream, would also have provided access to potable water, aquatic resources, and game coming to drink. The intermediate uplands located close to Bellan-bandi Palassa are characterised by submontane evergreen forests and secondary grassland. The vegetation surrounding Bellan-bandi Palassa is at present mostly

P.E.P. Deraniyagala sited his excavation in a raised area, interpreted as the dam (bund) of an ancient reservoir, which had been scoured out through erosion by the Bellan-bandi

142

Bellan-bandi Palassa

Map 7.1 Bellan-bandi Palassa: site location.

Palassa stream which carries overflow from the modern reservoir at the site (Figure 7.1). Although he published his excavation findings extensively (Deraniyagala 1956: 119; 1957a: 8-9; 1957b: E4; 1958a: 66-82; 1958b; 1960; 1963a), his data on the stratigraphy and cultural sequence of the site are scanty. A synthesis of the extant data, assayed by S.U. Deraniyagala in 1970 (Deraniyagala 1971b: 47; Deraniyagala and Kennedy 1972: 19), provides limited

information on the cultural contents and their stratigraphic contexts. As per P.E.P. Deraniyagala’s reports, the basal layer in the D1 square, c. 15 cm (half a foot) thick, contained human bones, stone artefacts, and no pottery. This description, with the addition of river pebbles, also applies to the basal layer of the E2 and E3 squares. A radiocarbon date of 2070 +

143

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka 200 BP (square B1) and a uranium-thorium date of 200010,000 BP (square C4) were obtained from this level. In the D1, E2 and E3 squares, there was an overlying layer about 0.75 of a foot (23 cm) thick. The E2/E3 description of a fine brown earth with a scattering of quartz flakes and hardly any gravel probably also applies to square D1. A radiocarbon date of 508 + 150 BP was obtained from this level (square C1). In square D1 the top layer (about 2.5 feet, or 75 cm thick) consisted of fine gravel with quartz flakes and limestone fragments. However, in squares E2 and E3 there was a transition from a brownish gravelly deposit with some quartz flakes, to a light brown gravelly deposit with pottery and quartz flakes, to a brown surface soil with pottery. A synthetic profile has a basal layer c. 15 cm deep, with bones and artefacts, overlain by an earth dam (with pottery) of nearly 3 feet (1 m) depth.

was identified in the assemblage. This tooth, apparently in a secondary context, was recovered from a part of the site where stratum 3, which relates to the construction of the ancient reservoir dam, abuts stratum 6, the basal level where P.E.P. Deraniyagala had recovered human burials (Deraniyagala and Kennedy 1972: 38). 7.4 Methodology of the 2005 Excavation and Laboratory Analysis Following guidance from S.U. Deraniyagala, I directed the fieldwork with a crew from the Sri Lanka’s Archaeological Department. Excavation was assisted by L.A. de Mel, S.J. Sunil, Susantha Nihal, P.G. Gunadasa and Jude Perera, and the survey of the study area was undertaken by A.P. Asoka, S.J. Sunil and Nissanka. The field season was from 1st to 31st August 2005.

S.U. Deraniyagala re-excavated the site over a period of two weeks in 1970 to develop a clearer perspective of the general stratigraphy of the site, together with its associations of cultural and skeletal materials. Time constraints prevented a detailed excavation of the individual micro-strata. This excavation, dug in eleven 1-metre squares, was located immediately north of the area that P.E.P. Deraniyagala had investigated (Figure 7.1). It was conducted through two L-shaped trenches which flanked P.E.P. Deraniyagala’s area as closely as possible while still leaving a thin, unexcavated baulk to allow for any colluvial deposition from P.E.P. Deraniyagala’s excavation. S.U. Deraniyagala also excavated a 1 m x 2 m area (Trench S) at a location approximately 50 metres south of the main excavation. The intention was to investigate the right bank of the Bellan-bandi Palassa stream, where surface survey had revealed a high concentration of implements. An additional square metre (Trench Z) was excavated into the red earth found on the left bank, approximately 100 m southeast (and downstream) from the main site (Deraniyagala and Kennedy 1972).

With the aid of the previously drawn map, and local personnel who had assisted the 1970 excavation season, we managed to locate the site which had been left to the elements for a long time (Plate 7.3). We observed that a large portion of the site, in particular the previously excavated trenches by P.E.P. Deraniyagala, was exposed and subject to erosion. Fortunately, however, a small projection of in situ deposits of the site, including the test pits excavated by S.U. Deraniyagala, had been preserved. This preserved deposit slopes slightly from south to the north toward the Bellanbandi Palassa stream. After the field team had cleared the shrub vegetation, S.U. Deraniyagala’s two L-shaped trenches were identified, surveyed and mapped. Constrained by time, a scarcity of drinking water and unruly wild elephants, my team excavated just two 1 m by 1 m squares which linked Deraniyagala’s trenches - which affected the quantitative adequacy of the samples secured for firm comparison with Deraniyagala’s data. The squares were labelled M6 and M7 to be consistent with Deraniyagala’s numbering system (Figures 7.1, 7.2 and 7.3).

Deraniyagala recognised six strata in his main excavation. These will be detailed in the context of my 2005 reexcavation. The deposit in Trench S was unstratified, and only the lower levels produced artefacts. They are interpreted as having been redeposited by the Bellan-bandi Palassa stream from P.E.P. Deraniyagala’s excavations, as they included pottery, stone artefacts and mineralised bone mixed up with numerous concretions of calcium carbonate. Trench Z did not yield any cultural materials, and is interpreted as a recent, colluvial deposit (Deraniyagala and Kennedy 1972).

The excavation was conducted stratigraphically as described in Chapter 3. The site’s identifying code on the context sheets was BBP 2005. Twelve contexts (Figure 7.3; Plates 7.4 to 7.5) were identified during the excavation, as detailed below. The upper layers were excavated as thick depositional units, and not subdivided into spits. This decision was made in view of the constraints imposed by time. The basal cultural deposit (context 10), however, was divided into upper, middle and lower spits. The fine-tuned excavation of this unit reflects my project’s focus on dating the time of deposition of this unit, and reconstructing the occupants’ cultural practices at this time.

The tools used during the S.U. Deraniyagla’s excavation included a small 9-inch (22 cm) pick, a broad hoe, a small shovel, and a knife. Sieving (wet sieving, with a 4 mm sieve) was performed only where the dampness of deposit or profusion of sediment concretions prevented reliable extraction of the cultural remains directly from the excavated deposit (Deraniyagala and Kennedy 1972: 23). The lithics, pottery and faunal remains are described in some detail by Deraniyagala and Kennedy (1972; see also Deraniyagala 1992), but only a single human tooth

The northern and western sections were drawn after excavation (Figure 7.4). Other stratigraphic details such as features were not noted during excavation, apart from an apparently natural pit (context 11) recorded in square M6. The spatial extent of the pit was recorded on the square plan but is not reproduced here as it carries minimal implications for interpreting human activities at the site. Nine sediment samples were collected during the

144

Bellan-bandi Palassa

Plate 7.1 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): an open glade in the vicinity of a seasonal stream.

Plate 7.2 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): the site on limestone bed-rock exposure along the stream below the modern dam.

145

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka

Plate 7.3 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): view of site before excavation.

Plate 7.4 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): north section of squares M6 and M7 (scale: in cm).

146

Bellan-bandi Palassa

Plate 7.5 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): diagrammatic representation of the contexts and phases in relation to the site’s stratigraphy (square M6, west section) (scale: in cm).

excavation, specifically from the site’s well-sealed occupation deposits, as well as from the pit dug into the bedrock of Pre-Cambrian limestone. All samples were selected to be representative of the sediments from the context in question. The aim of the analysis was to identify the nature and derivation of the sediment, and thus determine the sedimentary history of the site (Chapter 3). In addition to the samples collected for my laboratory analysis, soil blocks were taken by Professor Ian Simpson (Stirling University, Scotland) for micro-morphological and thin section analysis (Figure 7.4).

stratum 3 fauna count, given for the entire main excavation (in Table 7.1), is much larger than the fauna count for strata 4 and 5, but the lithics and pottery, given for the squares where stratum 3 is thinnest, show no such pattern.

7.5 Overview of Chronology and Sedimentary History

As noted above, chronometric determinations of around 500, 2000, and 2000 to 10,000 BP, had been obtained from low levels in P.E.P. Deraniyagala’s excavation. However, the charcoal samples used for radiocarbon dating are known to have been contaminated by ungloved handling, cotton wool and shellac impregnation (Deraniyagala 1971a: 38; 1992: 109), and the large error–range for the uraniumthorium date challenges its usefulness. The problem has been resolved by two charcoal samples collected in squares M6 and M7 from context 10, which corresponds to S.U. Deraniyagala’s stratum 6. These have been dated through AMS by the University of Waikato Radiocarbon Laboratory in New Zealand. The charcoal in the lower part of context 10 is dated to 10,086 + 142 years BP (Wk-17820), which calibrates to the period 12,250 to 11,150 years BP (95% probability). The charcoal thirty centimetres above it, in the upper part of context 10, is dated to 10,163 + 45 years

The figures in Table 7.1 suggest that strata 4 and 3 correspond to a late phase when pottery was in use. Stratum 5 would appear to represent a time of minimal habitation at the site. The small amount of cultural material in this stratum could have derived from, elsewhere, perhaps through colluvial action.

Deraniyagala and Kennedy (1972) recognised three cultural phases: a prehistoric occupation phase, represented by stratum 6; a phase of building up the ancient dam, represented by strata 3 to 5; and a phase post-dating the ancient bund, represented by strata 1 (recent colluvium) and 2 (a pit, with virtually sterile fill, dug into the ancient dam). However, strata 3, 4 and 5 have very different proportions of lithics and pottery (Table 7.1), and one pottery form – C, tentatively dated to the 6th to 9th centuries AD – is restricted to stratum 3 (Deraniyagala and Kennedy 1972: 41-42). If these strata were re-interpreted as in situ deposits, they would reflect material cultural change. Note also that strata 4 and 5 (and 6) thin towards the west of the main excavation, which is dominated by stratum 3 (Deraniyagala and Kennedy 1972: Fig. 4). This would explain why the

147

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka

Figure 7.1 Bellan-bandi Palassa: excavated locations.

Figure 7.2 Bellan-bandi Palassa: 1970 excavation, with M6, M7 excavated in 2005.

148

Bellan-bandi Palassa extrapolation of the Horton Plains climate sequence to other parts of Sri Lanka may be unreliable (Chapter 5). P.E.P. Deraniyagala had observed that the burials were concentrated within 3 metres of the Bellan-bandi Palassa stream (Deraniyagala and Kennedy 1972: 38). The fact that S.U. Deraniyagala recovered only a single human tooth, despite the extent of his excavation, and the 2005 excavation recovered only a single human bone (see below), confirms the restriction of burials to the area close to the stream. Such a concentration of at least 30 individuals (Chapter 8) in an area of around 20 square metres (cf. Figure 7.1) strongly indicates a cemetery. Bellan-bandi Palassa shows three of the criteria (considerable number of burials, their contiguity, and boundedness of the burial ground) which characterise hunter-gatherer cemeteries – as opposed to sites with occasional burials – in Australia, based on detailed archaeological and ethnographic evidence (Pardoe 1988, 1993). Whether the burial ground was reserved exclusively for burials during the period of interments can no longer be determined, as the excavation by P.E.P. Deraniyagala had evidently left little (perhaps none) of the burial ground unexcavated for modern archaeological investigation. However, with three criteria clearly met and the fourth indeterminate, it would be reasonable to conclude that the site had included a hunter-gatherer cemetery, which Pardoe (1988) associates with localised, resource-rich foraging grounds in the Australian context.

Figure 7.3 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): context matrix.

BP (Wk-18719). This calibrates to the interval 12,050 to 11,620 years BP, which is essentially identical with the date from lower context 10. The main phase of habitation at Bellan-bandi Palassa is accordingly dated to between 11,000 and 12,000 years cal BP. Climatically it would have been a humid phase as indicated by the presence of Acavus arboreal snails in this stratum (Deraniyagala 1963a: 88). While the Horton Plains pollen data would suggest a cool, dry period (Chapter 1),

The terminal Pleistocene dating of the deposit in which the burials had been interred suggests a maximum age for the antiquity of these burials. The sediments surrounding the burials could not be distinguished from those of stratum

Figure 7.4 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): west and north stratigraphic sections.

149

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Table 7.1 Bellan-bandi Palassa (1970): lithic and pottery specimens from the L5, L6, M8, M9 squares, and fauna from all squares in the 1970 excavation (extracted from Deraniyagala and Kennedy 1972: 32, 37, 42. An anomalous figure of 55 lithics from stratum 3 on p. 32 is a printing error (S.U. Deraniyagala, pers. comm.)). Stratum

Lithics

Pottery

Fauna

3 4 5 6 3 to 6

533 (8.6%) 1,347 (21.8%) 461 (7.5%) 3842 (63.0%) 6183 (100%)

68 (44.4%) 78 (51.0%) 7 (4.6%) 0 153 (100%)

420 (28.0%) 51 (3.4%) 26 (1.7%) 1008 (67.0%) 1505 (100%)

6 (P.E.P. Deraniyagala 1965: 297; S.U. Deraniyagala pers. comm. with reference to burials lifted in plaster jackets), which would suggest burial during the period of deposition of these sediments. squares. On the other hand, a thermoluminescence date of 6500 + 700 BP obtained on some fired rock crystal in direct association with one of the burials (Wintle and Oakley 1972) would date the use of the site as a cemetery to a period around 3500 years after its major habitation phase. The reliability of this latter date is, however, very much in question. The major unconformity between the main habitation and the immediately overlying layer (described below) indicates loss of the deposit corresponding to the tail end of the major habitation phase, and conceivably some overlying deposit too. The chronological span of this gap in the site’s sequence is unknown, owing to the lack of a reliable chronological determination relating to Deraniyagala’s stratum 5. Whether the burials date closer to 6,000 or 12,000 years ago could be determined by direct dating on the remains themselves, but unfortunately human fragments sent to the Waikato Laboratory for AMS dating by Daniel Rayner had no detectable carbon content (Fiona Petchey, pers. comm.). At present, considering the indubitable reliability of the radiocarbon dates for stratum 6, the age of c. 12,000 BP for the human skeletal material, until disproven, could be accepted as accurate.

Extrapolation of the material cultural record from verified, nearby Sinhala sites would justify the assumption by Deraniyagala and Kennedy (1972) that all the lithics in their strata 3 to 5 had been re-deposited from their stratum 6 (or from another prehistoric deposit at the site) in association with dam building. A conceivable alternative is that stratum 4 relates to occupation of the site by “proto-Vaddas”, in contact with early Sinhala settlers, at around 2000 years ago. This interpretation would accord with Moser’s (1994) (stratigraphically disputed) account of a large lithic assemblage being contemporaneous with associated modest quantities of pottery dated to the early centuries AD at Pidurangala, in central Sri Lanka, and the ethnohistorical records of Sinhala-Vadda interactions. But such an interpretation would fly in the face of the major Early Historic urban settlement at Galpaya at a mere 5 km distance from Bellan-bandi Palassa – and, in the case of Pidurangala, the 5th century AD urban centre of Sigiriya a few hundred metres away. A test between these two interpretations is possible, although inconclusive, through analysis of the debitage. Differences between the assemblages relating to stratum 6 and the overlying strata should be minimal if the artefacts higher in the profile had been redeposited from stratum 6; whereas, assuming that the site contained only stratum 6 as a prehistoric deposit, and assuming that assemblages throughout the site in stratum 6 were technologically uniform, technological differences could imply a chronological difference. These two assumptions weaken the hypothesis of chronological change. A modification of the first hypothesis is that the earth transported for stratum 4 was derived from multiple sources in the area of the site: partly from a source containing lithics from a different period and/or activity facies to that of stratum 6 and partly from a source with historical pottery. Indeed the macroscopic appearance of stratum 4 in the field is very different from that of stratum 6, thus supporting this last hypothesis (also see Tables 7.2, 7.3 below). The only unequivocal method of clearing any doubt would be to conduct a further excavation directed at resolving the chronology of contexts 9 – 3. A set of radiocarbon dates, supported by a closer examination of the stratigraphy would suffice.

Epigraphical and archaeological evidence indicates that the region within a radius of 15 km of Bellan-bandi Palassa had been settled by Early Historic Sinhalas. Inscriptions dated between the 2nd century BC and 1st century AD, in the Magama tradition of southeast Sri Lanka, record donations of rockshelters by lay chieftains to the Buddhist clergy (Collins 1933). Galpaya, a mere 5 km from Bellan-bandi Palassa, and an epicentre of the Ruhuna urban complex, is dated from the 8th century BC to the 14th century AD (Weisshaar et al. 2001; Somadeva 2008). Other nearby Sinhala sites with pottery-rich habitation deposits (and no associated flaked stone artefacts) include Handagiriya, a ruined town within 2 km (8th – 10th centuries AD; Collins 1933) and Ridiyagama (3rd century BC onwards; Bopearachchi 1996). Further, over 150 ironworking sites, identified by the presence of discarded slag, have been located on exposed hilltops and in the valleys in the area of Samanalawewa close to Bellan-bandi Palassa, with radiocarbon dates spanning from 3rd century BC to the 11th century AD, and ethnographic metalworking extending to the early twentieth century (Juleff 1998).

We can now relate Figure 7.3 to the overall site history. Phase I includes pre-habitation material in a pit (context 11) etched into bedrock. Phase II (context 10) corresponds to the dominant prehistoric occupation deposit at the site. Although only one context could be distinguished, it was

150

Bellan-bandi Palassa Phase I

excavated in three spits, namely upper 10, middle 10 and lower 10, to allow for a possibly lengthy chronology. Phase III (contexts 7 to 9), corresponding to Deraniyagala’s stratum 5, could represent a period of colluvial deposition, or (as interpreted by Deraniyagala and Kennedy 1972) basal fill for the construction of the dam, with an admixture of prehistoric and historical cultural material. Phase IV (contexts 2 to 6), which corresponds to Deraniyagala’s strata 4 and 3, is interpreted by Deraniyagala and Kennedy (1972) to represent the construction of a dam for a reservoir in the Early or Middle Historic period. An alternative interpretation, which perhaps should not be immediately dismissed out of hand, would recognise an Early Historic settlement prior to construction of the dam, and a Middle Historic period (related to the growth of Handagiriya) when the dam was built. Finally, The crucial question is whether stratum 4 comprises dam construction fill or habitation deposits. Phase V, the present ground surface, is represented by a thin layer of top soil in the 2005 excavation (context 1). This period includes the time of the previous excavations, and can be dated to the time of the modern dam, built in the 1940s and maintained till around the 1970s, when the villagers were evacuated during the creation of the Uda Walawe Wildlife Reserve.

A major depression in the bedrock, approximately 16 cm deep, can be traced from the north wall of square L6 (Deraniyagala and Kennedy 1972: Fig. 4) to the north wall of square M6 (Figure 4). Its fill, labelled context 11, is predominantly gravel (Table 7.2), as also observed in the field. Owing to this gravel component, compaction is only medium, and moisture content in the sediment sample is nil. Cultural materials are absent, and the organic content is nil (Table 7.3). Carbonate content is also nil, which would be inconsistent with derivation (through weathering) from the underlying crystalline limestone, and instead indicates sediment infill from elsewhere. In particular, the sediment is a coarse colluvium, with a typically angular shape of the particles, including quartz (up to 30%) and minor components of mica and perhaps feldspar evidently derived from the country rock near the site. The moist Munsell colour is a strong brown (7.5YR 6/6), but after drying it has the same dark brown colour (7.5YR 3/4) as the other prehistoric sediment in the deposit. Bedding is absent, the boundary with context 10 is very sharp, and no attempt has been made to date this sediment. My observations on the granule shape and composition are detailed in Table 7.4.

7.6 Sedimentary Analysis

Phase II

Context 12 equates to the bedrock of Pre-Cambrian crystalline limestone. It correlates with stratum 7 recognised during Deraniyagala’s 1970 excavation. The boundary between the bedrock, and the overlying context 10 (the main prehistoric occupation layer), is very sharp. At this junction, a shallow, ochre weathering horizon can at times be found on the surface of the bedrock. The horizontal jointing of the bedrock would have provided a convenient camping spot (Deraniyagala and Kennedy 1972). In particular, the surface is uneven and depressed beneath the main habitation deposit (Figure 7.4; Deraniyagala and Kennedy 1972: Fig. 4), allowing this part of the site to have acted as a trap for sandy sediment.

Context 10 represents the dominant occupation deposit of the site, as a camping spot atop a local depression of crystalline limestone. It is distributed across the M6 and M7 squares with a thickness of approximately 26 cm, and corresponds to stratum 6 in the 1970 excavation. The deposit includes a high density of stone artefacts and faunal remains, but no pottery. Numerous burials have been recovered from this layer, presumably interred in pits dug into this stratum, although no remnant grave cuttings have been identified during any excavation (Deraniyagala and Kennedy 1972). During the 2005 re-excavation, numerous lithics (3885) and faunal material were recovered, but only a single (adult) human bone (J. Perera, n.d.).

Nine sediment samples from Bellan-bandi Palassa were analysed, to produce the observations summarised in Tables 7.2 and 7.3, complemented by observations in the field. These nine samples are identified in terms of their phase and context number. Contexts 1 to 4 were not analysed because the focus of this analysis was on the lower layers.

The sediment colour changed little during drying, being recorded as a dark reddish brown (5YR 3/3) during excavation, and a dark brown (around 7.5YR 3/2) in the laboratory (Table 7.3). Organic content was around 10%, rising to 12% in the middle context of the layer, which also had the highest moisture content (around 9%, compared to around 3% above and below it). No carbonate content was recorded. Compaction was recorded as medium in the field, bedding was observed to be absent, and the boundary with context 9 was noted to be very sharp. Deraniyagala and Kennedy (1972: 25) saw the undulating surface along which these layers meet each other (Deraniyagala and Kennedy 1972: Fig. 4; see also my Figure 7.4) as markedly flat, which they took as evidence for deliberate human levelling.

The data in Table 7.2 reveal that sand was deposited during Phases II and III, whereas sandy gravel was deposited in context 11 and during Phase IV. The cumulative sand sizes (0 Φ to 4 Φ) for Phases II and III also produce straight-line graphs on probability paper, indicating a normal distribution, whereas they equate to slightly skewed distributions in contexts 11 and 4 (Figure 7.5). Interpretation of the skew of the sand component in terms of wind or water action may be unreliable owing to the very high gravel content (Chapter 4). Finally, silt is always a minor component of the sediment, reaching a peak of 2.4% in context 9, which has the finest sediment of any analysed sample.

Grain-shape analysis focused on the middle context 10, sediment sample (Table 7.5); observations on the 1 mm fraction from upper and lower levels of context 10 are highly commensurate with those from the middle level (Table 7.6). Similar proportions of granules with a

151

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka crumby appearance, and granules identified as quartz, were observed in all fractions (as well as those in context 11). With the middle context 10 samples, the crumby grains become slightly more rounded but also less spherical (more tabular) with decreased size, and the quartz grains slightly more angular, with variable roundedness (Table 7.5). As in context 11, the crumby grains are modally sub-angular and the quartz grains mainly angular to sub-angular, with predominantly spherical and tabular roundedness.

or (more probably) deliberate filling by humans with gravel taken from the stream bed. However, despite this characterisation of the deposit as predominantly gravel, grain-size analysis indicates that the deposit is best described as sand, with a decreasing gravel component as the sediment built up (Table 7.2). In addition, the sediment appears to be colluvial, derived from adjacent higher land, probably through soil creep and perhaps some waterborne movement. This is indicated by the angular to sub-rounded shape of the particles, and a similar mineral composition to that described for context 11.

According to Deraniyagala and Kennedy (1972), the deposit is a dark yellowish brown loam with a coarse gravel component comprising angular and sub-angular (rolled) particles, together with a predominant presence of ferruginous concretions. They interpreted the sub-angular, coarse quartz gravel as evidence of stream flooding,

The micro-morphological and thin-section observations by Ian Simpson (pers. comm.), on the block sample from context 10, strongly reinforce my conclusions that the primary form of deposition of the sediment is colluvial,

Table 7.2 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): sediment samples; weights in grammes of gravel, sand and silt, and skewness of the sand component. Sample Phase I, context 11 Phase II, context 10 (lower). Phase II, context 10 (middle). Phase II, context 10 (upper). Phase III, ontext 9 Phase III, ontext 8 Phase III, context 7 Phase IV, ontext 6 Phase IV, context 4

Gravel

Sand

Silt

Description

Skewness

172.1 (90.5%)

17.8 (9.4%)

0.3 (0.1%)

Sandy gravel

Positive

1.0 (1.1%)

Silty sand

Nil

0.8 (0.9%)

Silty sand

Nil

1.2 (1.3%)

Silty sand

Nil

2.3 (2.4%)

Silty sand

Nil

0.4 (0.4%)

Sand

Nil

1.6 (1.7%)

Silty sand

Nil

0.6 (0.6%)

Sandy gravel

Nil

1.7 (1.7%)

Silty sandy gravel

Negative

38.6 (40.1%) 28.2 (31.7%) 26.1 (27.4%) 13.5 (14.1%) 16.3 (16.8%) 22.8 (24.1%) 52.5 (53.5%) 51.7 (51.6%)

56.6 (58.8%) 61.5 (68.0%) 67.9 (71.3%) 80.1 (83.5%) 80.6 (82.8%) 70.2 (74.2%) 45.0 (45.9%) 46.7 (46.7%)

Table 7.3 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): sediment characteristics and cultural content of the contexts. Sample Phase I, context 11 Phase II, context 10 (lower) Phase II, context 10 (middle) Phase II, context 10 (upper) Phase III, context 9 Phase III, context 8 Phase III, context 7 Phase IV, context 6 Phase IV, context 4

Moist Munsell

Dry Munsell

Moisture Content

Organic Content

Carbonate Content

Density of Cultural Material

7.5YR 6/6

7.5YR ¾

Nil

Nil

Nil

Nil

7.5YR 3/3

7.5YR 3/3

2.8%

8%

Nil

Very high

7.5YR 3/2

7.5YR ¾

8.8%

12%

Nil

Very high

7.5YR 3/3

7.5YR 3/2

3.2%

8%

Nil

Very high

7.5YR 3/4

7.5YR ¾

3.1%

8%

Nil

Low

7.5YR 3/4

7.5YR ¾

2.2%

8%

Nil

Low

7.5YR 3/4

7.5YR ¾

3.0%

8%

Nil

Low

7.5YR 3/4

7.5YR 4/3

1.4%

Nil

4-5%

Low

7.5YR 3/3

7.5YR 3/3

1.5%

Nil

Nil

Low

152

Bellan-bandi Palassa derived from the adjacent highlands rather than the stream bed. However, instead of envisaging a secondary role for alluvial processes, Simpson identifies some aeolian contribution from the well-sorted silt fraction of angular quartz grains.

sediment as sandy clay, although grain-size analysis in the laboratory indicates silty gravelly sand (Table 7.2). Despite the relative uniformity of particle size, which suggested alluvial sorting, Deraniyagala and Kennedy (1972: 25) considered the angle of dip and lenticular form of this stratum to be more indicative of transportation and heaping by humans. However, the lenticular form of the stratum could be due to post-depositional truncation caused by erosion near the Bellan-bandi Palassa stream (Deraniyagala and Kennedy 1972: Fig. 4), and any such lenticular form for contexts 7 to 9 is not apparent in the 2005 section (Figure 7.4). Despite the lighter concentration of artefacts (132 lithics excavated), moisture and organic content are essentially the same as in the top portion of context 10, while absence of carbonates was also noted. The persistence of 8% organic content (Table 7.3) throughout the Phase III contexts suggests inclusion of a derived habitation component in the sediments.

Phase III Context 9 is distributed across the M6 and M7 squares with an average thickness of around 12 cm. It is the lowest context recorded in Phase III, which is equivalent to stratum 5 as recognised during the 1970 excavation. Deraniyagala and Kennedy (1972) described the deposit as a brown sandy loam with isolated patches of yellowish red mottling related to ferruginous concretions. According to C.R. Panabokke, Head of the Soil Survey of Sri Lanka, the mottling and concretions would have formed within a zone of fluctuating ground water (Deraniyagala and Kennedy 1972: 25, 45). The observations by Simpson (pers. comm.) also indicate water logging of the sediment, in context 10 as well as context 9, related at least partly to water pooling captured by the historical dam.

In the field, the Munsell colour was recorded as dark reddish brown (5.5YR 3/4), although in the laboratory the Munsell readings barely differed from those for context 10. The compaction is higher (and the sediment harder), related to the higher silt content, and bedding is absent. A

Deraniyagala and Kennedy (1972) characterised the

Table 7.4 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): observations on the granules from the context 11 sediment sample. Fraction

Granule Appearance

Granule Shape

Granule Roundedness

2 mm

Predominantly crumby

Evenly divided between spherical, and non-spherical (mainly tabular)

1 mm

c. 70% crumby, 30% quartz (perhaps some feldspar)

Rounded, sub-angular and angular (fairly evenly) Mainly sub-angular, otherwise angular (crumby); mainly subangular, otherwise sub-rounded (quartz)

0.5 mm

c. 70% crumby, 25% quartz, 5% other (notably mica, feldspar).

Mainly sub-angular, otherwise sub-rounded (crumby); mainly angular (quartz).

Mainly spherical, otherwise tabular (crumby); spherical to tabular (quartz) Mainly spherical, sometimes tabular (crumby).

Table 7.5 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): observations on the granules from the middle context 10 sediment sample. Fraction

Granule Appearance

Granule Shape

2 mm

c. 70% crumby, 30% quartz

1 mm

Mainly crumby, otherwise quartz

0.5 mm

c. 70% crumby, 30% quartz

0.25 mm

Mainly crumby, else quartz with some feldspar and mica

0.125 mm

c. 60% crumby, 30% quartz, 10% mica and other minerals

0.0625 mm

c. 60% crumby, 40% quartz, some mica and other minerals

Mostly angular and subangular Mainly sub-angular, otherwise sub-rounded (crumby); mainly angular, otherwise sub-angular (quartz) Sub-angular to sub-rounded (crumby); mainly angular or else sub-angular (quartz) Mainly sub-angular, otherwise sub-rounded (crumby); mainly angular, otherwise sub-angular (minerals) Mainly sub-angular, otherwise sub-rounded (crumby); mainly angular, otherwise sub-angular (quartz) Mainly sub-angular, otherwise sub-rounded (crumby); mainly angular, otherwise sub-angular (quartz)

153

Granule Roundedness Spherical and tabular, otherwise platy Mainly spherical, otherwise tabular (crumby); mainly tabular or else platy (quartz) Mainly tabular or else platy (quartz) Mainly spherical, otherwise tabular (crumby); mainly tabular, otherwise spherical (mineral granules) Mainly tabular, otherwise spherical (crumby); mainly platy, otherwise tabular (quartz) Mainly tabular, otherwise spherical (crumby)

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Table 7.6 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): observations on the 1 mm fractions from the lower and upper context 10 sediment samples. Granule Appearance c. 65% crumby, 35% quartz, some mica and feldspar (lower) c. 70% crumby, 30% quartz, some mica flakes (upper)

Granule Shape

Granule Roundedness

Mainly sub-angular or else subrounded (crumby); mainly angular, else sub-angular (quartz) Mainly sub-angular or else subrounded (crumby); mainly angular, else sub-angular (quartz)

Mainly spherical, otherwise tabular (crumby); mainly tabular or else platy (quartz) Mainly spherical, otherwise tabular (crumby); mainly tabular or else platy (quartz)

predominantly colluvial transport for the sediment is again suggested by my observations of mainly sub-angular (to sub-rounded) grains, split between crumby-looking grains (mainly spherical, otherwise tabular) and quartz grains (mainly tabular, otherwise platy, and more angular than the crumby grains). The observations by Ian Simpson (pers. comm.) also point to predominantly colluvial deposition, without any indication of human agency, albeit finergrained than in context 10 (cf. Table 7.2) and with some presence of clasts from the immediate bedrock. Simpson further observed iron/manganese oxide impregnation in the samples from both context 10 and context 9, especially the latter, which he interpreted as the post-depositional effects of a succession of wet and dry climatic conditions. In short, Simpson’s observations describe context 9 as a natural deposit exposed to the elements over a very long time.

concretions. According to Deraniyagala and Kennedy (1972), the angle of dip and lenticular form of this stratum are indicative of transportation and heaping by humans, although the source of the sediment would have been different from that in their stratum 5. Context 6 was found distributed across M6 and M7 during the 2005 re-excavation, with a thickness of c. 12 cm. Its boundary with context 3 is very diffuse. Field observations indicate only slight compaction due to a high level of gravel (about 50%), absence of bedding, and a dark brown colour (Munsell 7.5YR 3/4). These observations were essentially confirmed by the laboratory analysis, which identifies the sediment as silty sandy gravel with a dry Munsell colour of 7.5YR 4/3. While organic content could not be detected, carbonate content of around 5% was observed (Table 7.3). This could be attributed to the inclusion of clasts of crystalline limestone, derived from bedrock, in the deposit, as observed by Simpson (pers. comm.) in low numbers in context 9.

The boundary between contexts 9 and 8 is diffuse. Context 8 (the middle context in Deraniyagala’s stratum 5) is distributed across M6 and M7 with an average thickness of only c. 4 cm. The field records note a fairly even representation of sand, silt and clay, and a similarly high compaction to that observed in context 7, but the laboratory sample indicates sand (Table 7.2). The Munsell readings made during excavation and in the laboratory are identical (dark brown, 7.5YR 3/4). The density of cultural material appears to be lower than in context 7, although organic content stays at 8%, even while moisture content dropped slightly. Shape analysis of the sediment indicates colluvial deposition. The continuing decrease in gravel content (compared to context 10) probably reflects a local mounding effect, limiting the transport of gravels to the site.

During the 2005 excavation, the only cultural remains recovered from context 6 were 51 lithics, which is a far smaller yield than in the 1970 stratum 4 (Table 7.1). While Deraniyagala and Kennedy attribute the presence of lithics to the incorporation of sediment from their stratum 6, this explanation would imply incorporation of organic content too, but no organic content was found in the sediment sample (Table 7.3). A more tenable interpretation is that context 6 was derived from sources other than stratum 6, as suggested above. Deraniyagala and Kennedy (1972: 32, 36) referred to unpublished data stored with the Archaeological Department, and asserted that the lithics from the different strata showed no indication of typological evolution (but see below). Finally, their description of a lenticular form of the stratum might possibly reflect post-depositional events in their excavated area, and is not observable in my (shorter) section (Figure 7.4).

Context 7, at the top of the 1970 layer 5, is also distributed across the M6 and M7 squares, with a slightly greater thickness of c. 13 cm. All the comments made on the laboratory analysis for the sediment from context 8 apply to context 7, apart from the slightly higher silt presence, which is probably responsible for the slightly increased moisture content (Tables 7.2 and 7.3). A low density of stone artefacts (97 from the context) in particular was noted. The boundary with context 6 is moderately sharp.

Contexts 4 and 5 correspond to a pit originating from the base of context 3, cut through contexts 6, 7 and 8 as far as the middle of context 9 (i.e., almost to the base of the sediment deposited during Phase III). It was found in the M6 square, with a width of c. 48 cm and a depth of around 37 cm. The fill (context 4) is siltier than context 6, and no carbonate content was observed, so the sediment source would have differed from that for context 3. Bedding is absent, compaction is only slight, the boundary with context 3 is moderately sharp, and the only cultural inclusions were 98 lithics. It is similar in all these respects to a pit Deraniyagala and Kennedy (1972: 24, 26) observed in their

Phase IV Context 6 in my 2005 re-excavation corresponds to the lower portion of stratum 4 in the 1970 excavation. Deraniyagala and Kennedy (1972) described the deposit as a dark brown loam, different from the loam in the main prehistoric occupation layer, with a predominance of yellowish red ferruginous mottling and derivative

154

Bellan-bandi Palassa Table 7.7 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): observations on the granules from the context 4 sediment sample. Fraction

Granule Appearance

Granule Shape

Granule Roundedness

2 mm

Predominantly crumby

Evenly divided between platy, tabular and spherical

1 mm

c. 80% crumby, 20% quartz

c. 50% angular, 25% subangular, and sub-rounded Mainly sub-rounded, otherwise sub-angular (crumby); mainly angular, otherwise sub-angular (quartz)

0.5 mm 0.25 mm

c. 70% crumby, 25% quartz, 5% blackish minerals c. 70% crumby, 30% quartz

Mainly spherical, otherwise tabular (crumby); equally spherical and tabular (quartz)

As above (crumby and quartz); mainly sub-angular (blackish)

As above (crumby and quartz); non-spherical (blackish)

As above (crumby and quartz)

As above (crumby); mainly platy, otherwise tabular (quartz)

square M9, which they labelled stratum 2. Deraniyagala and Kennedy indicate that their pit had been dug into stratum 3, but its depth into strata 4 and 5 would be around 50 cm, similar to the depth of the pit which I recorded. Both pits could have been dug by animals rather than humans. Grain-shape observations on the context 4 fill (Table 7.7) suggest slightly less angularity than in contexts 10 and 11, but a predominantly colluvial depositional process would still be indicated.

to the strongly mounded surface of the context). This is similar to the depth of stratum 3 illustrated by Deraniyagala and Kennedy (1972: Fig. 4). We also observed an absence of cultural material or bedding, a dark brown soil colour (7.5YR 3/4), and a high compaction owing to a considerable clay content (60% clay, 20% sand and 20% silt, according to field records). The boundary with context 1 is very sharp. The Phase IV cultural materials from the 2005 excavation are much sparser than those from the 1970 excavation, as witnessed by the lack of pottery or faunal remains, and the diminished amount of lithics. However, the contexts that correspond to stratum 4 of 1970 yielded 207 lithics, compared to zero lithics from context 2 (corresponding to stratum 3). The squares excavated in 1970, which produced much larger counts of lithics and potsherds, surround and abut my M6 and M7 squares, so this contrast would appear to reflect micro-patterns of site use.

Context 3 corresponds to the upper portion of stratum 4 in the 1970 excavation. It was found distributed across M6 and M7 with a thickness of c. 20 cm. Our observations include absence of bedding, a predominantly gravelly composition (60% gravel, 20% clay and 20% sand), only slight compaction, and a dark brown (7.5YR 3/3) Munsell colour. The density of cultural material in context 3 is low, restricted to 56 lithics, and the boundary with context 2 is sharp.

Phase V

Context 2, the uppermost context associated with Phase II, corresponds to the 1970 stratum 3. According to Deraniyagala and Kennedy (1972), the deposit was dark brown and clayey. Particle size increased with depth, attributable to earthworm activity, and soil colour also became lighter with depth, reflecting a decrease in the amount of humus dissipated through the A2 soil horizon. Hence some of the contents of stratum 3, such as slabs of limestone, might have sunk from the surface and thus belong to a period after the construction of the dam. Some of the sediment, particularly in squares K1 and L1 to L3, could be colluvial, derived from the upper layers of the old dam wall (Deraniyagala and Kennedy 1972). An additional point to observe is that stratum 3 rests on the limestone bedrock close to the Bellan-bandi Palassa stream, and follows a mounded contour over the prehistoric site (Deraniyagala and Kennedy 1972: Fig. 4), which is even more accentuated in squares M6 and M7 (Figure 7.4). These observations are consistent with (1) fluviatile erosion of the deeper deposit close to the Bellan-bandi Palassa stream, prior to the deposition of stratum 3, and (2) unambiguous identification of stratum 3 (context 2) with the mounded dam.

Context 1 corresponds to the present ground surface, which S.U. Deraniyagala labelled stratum 1. Deraniyagala and Kennedy (1972) interpreted it as a brown loam which has been deposited as a colluvium over the surface of P.E.P. Deraniyagala’s previous excavation, along with material washed in through rain water. Our 2005 excavation recorded context 1 across M6 and M7 with a thickness of c. 2 cm. We also recorded a dark brown (7.5YR 3/3) sediment colour, loose compaction, absence of bedding, and a predominantly sandy composition (60% sand, 30% silt and 10% clay). Consistent with the interpretation that this is re-deposited sediment from previous excavations, we observed mixed cultural material in the deposit. 7.7 Faunal Analysis The original faunal assemblage excavated by P.E.P. Deraniyagala, summarised by Kennedy (2000: 221), is expanded on by S.U. Deraniyagala (1992). Mollusc taxa include ground-dwelling (Cyclophorus), aquatic (Unio, Paludomus) and arboreal forms (Acavus roseolabiatus and Acavus prosperus). Acavus are humid-adapted snails, no longer found in the vicinity of the site, although Deraniyagala (1992) suggests that the Acavus shells may have been trade items.

The 2005 excavation found context 2 distributed across M6 and M7, with a thickness of c. 44 cm (highly variable owing

155

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka

Figure 7.5 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): cumulative proportions of the sand fractions, plotted on probability paper, of representative sediment samples.

The non-mammalian vertebrates at Bellan-bandi Palassa include star tortoise (Testudo elegans), black terrapin (Geoemyda trijuga), soft-shelled terrapin (Trionyx punctata), land monitor (Varanus bengalensis), python, and jungle fowl. Both Kennedy and Deraniyagala contrasted the absence of crocodile and fish remains with their abundance in the rivers of the region today, including the Uda Walawe river at a distance of two km. The 2005 excavation demonstrates that freshwater fish, while rare, were not absent (Table 7.8), whereas in the case of crocodiles, these might have been considered too dangerous for human predation. At the Nilgala shelter, Sarasin and Sarasin (1908: 82-83) recovered the land monitor and two tortoise species including the soft-shelled terrapin.

and porcupines, suggests permanency of occupation at the site. Udupiyan-galge and Telulla Alu-galge, two rockshelters located in Zone B (Chapter 1), yielded very similar faunal assemblages to Bellan-bandi Palassa (Deraniyagala 1992: 308). Another suitable comparison would be the Nilgala shelter, where the recorded mammalian fauna, in approximate descending order of occurrence, comprises: spotted deer; grey langur; sambar deer; porcupine; wild boar; pangolin; muntjak deer; giant squirrel; black-naped hare and toque macaque (one specimen each); a probable sloth bear; a probable domestic dog; and a gaur or waterbuffalo (Sarasin and Sarasin 1908: 76-82). All the Bellan-bandi Palassa elephant remains belong to juvenile individuals, and this suggests discretion on the part of the hunters in targeting manageable prey. The large bovid could represent either the gaur, no longer present on Sri Lanka (Kennedy 2000: 221), or the water buffalo, or both, as the osteological identification of large bovids from South and Southeast Asia is notoriously difficult (Deraniyagala 1992). The smaller bovid in this faunal assemblage could possibly be ascribable to an ancestral form of Bos indicus, depending on confirmation from further research. The canid could be a jackal or a domestic dog (Deraniyagala 1992).

The mammalian fauna include large and medium-sized bovids, wild boar, sambar deer, spotted deer, muntjak deer, mouse deer, elephant, sloth bear, black-naped hare, pangolin, porcupine, toque macaque, grey langur, giant squirrel, a medium-sized canid, and civet cat. Deraniyagala and Kennedy (1972: 37) also report a felid. As with most of the non-mammalian fauna, these remains would represent food items. The preservation of these remains, in the face of likely scavenging and bone-gnawing activities by jackals

156

Bellan-bandi Palassa Of the 149 mammalian fauna specimens identified by Deraniyagala and Kennedy (1972: 37), 89 (59.7%) are macaque, 29 (19.5%) are rodent, 13 (8.7%) are bovid, and 9 (6.0%) are felid or canid, with smaller amounts of deer and boar (2.7% each) and sloth bear (0.7%). The possibility of chronological change in faunal content is suggested by the proportions of 47 macaque and only 9 non-macaque identifications in their stratum 3, compared to 30 macaque and 35 non-macaque identifications in their stratum 6. The Chi-square value of 18.6 (1 degree of freedom, p = 0.000) that can be calculated from these figures allows certain rejection of the null hypothesis of no difference, and suggests that monkeys constituted a larger proportion of the prey during historical than during prehistoric times at the site.

directional, and overall the faunal profiles of context 10 and stratum 6 are very similar (Table 7.9), with any differences attributable to methodological discrepancies. A major contrast can be observed with the Batadomba-lena fauna, and the fauna from other rockshelters in the Wet Zone (Chapter 5). While monkey remains the single most common identification, it accounts for only some 40% of NISPs. In contrast, deer, which occur sparsely in the Wet Zone rockshelter assemblages, account for around 30%. The rest of the sample is highly diverse, and the abundance of arboreal species probably reflects proximity to rainforest. Overall, the Bellan-bandi Palassa fauna reveals a successful hunting adaptation to the combination of wet and dry environments in the vicinity of the site. Part of this adaptation could well have been the use of domestic dogs by the terminal Pleistocene (Plate 7.6), contrasting with their absence at Batadomba-lena.

The faunal identifications made by Jude Perera (n.d.) for the lower, middle and upper spits in context 10 are tabulated in Table 7.8. Bovid and sloth bear remains were not observed, which differs from the identifications provided by Deraniyagala and Kennedy (1972: 37) for their stratum 6, especially with respect to bovid remains where they recorded ten examples (of 66 mammalian identifications). On the other hand, deer are much better represented than the single specimen identified for stratum 6. Rosa Tenazas and Patricia Deusua, who identified the fauna from the 1970 excavation, may have left these remains in the unidentifiable category (844 specimens from stratum 6) or may even have conflated bovid and cervid identifications. Of particular interest are the identifications of a tooth from a pig eye shark, and a domestic dog tooth, (confirming Deraniyagala’s suggested identification, noted above), from the upper spit of context 10 (Plates 7.6 and 7.7). The shark tooth indicates exchange relationships which extended from Bellan-bandi Palassa to the coast by the terminal Pleistocene. This exchange relationship would have facilitated the arrival of domestic dogs at the site by the terminal Pleistocene at c. 12,000 BP. Note that this occurrence is very close in age to the earliest known domesticated dog from anywhere in the world at c. 15,000 BP.

7.8 Lithics Analysis 1970 Excavation S.U. Deraniyagala focused on 4330 specimens from stratum 6 for his description of the Bellan-bandi Palassa lithics excavated in 1970. The great majority (98.4%) are quartz, followed by chert (2.3%), gneiss (0.2%) and a single piece of red ochre. In addition, most are small, with a maximum diameter less than 45 mm (97.5%); 2.3% had a maximum diameter between 4 and 8 mm, and only seven specimens, four of them non-flaked, exceeded 8 mm in their maximum diameter. Deraniyagala classified 42.4% as waste, 38.7% as potential tools, 14.2% as cores, and the remainder as used, shaped, or non-flaked. Fluted micro-blade cores occur as a rare component. The used pieces include 71 identified as cutters, 32 assessed as scrapers, and a single used chopper. The shaped pieces were classified into 74 points, 34 awls, 12 multi-purpose tools, and 5 awls. Retouch had been executed through direct percussion, except where thin edges had been backed through rasping (according to Deraniyagala’s analysis). Microliths included lunates, trapezoids and ovoids. One illustrated artefact had been ground near its edge, and two slabs had been drilled to produce a dimpled pitted nut-stone. The occurrence of hammers as well as cores in the assemblage indicates local knapping activities (Deraniyagala and Kennedy 1972: 2736). From the 2005 excavation, we can ascribe a terminal Pleistocene age to this assemblage which includes backed microliths, pitted stones, and a single ground artefact.

The middle spit of context 10 (Figure 7.6) has a lower representation of monkeys, compared either to ungulates or to small mammals, than the upper or lower spits of context 10, or the stratum 6 assemblage from the 1970 excavation (Table 7.9). This can be demonstrated by two-way chi-square tests, where the middle context 10 assemblage is significantly different from the three other assemblages, both when monkey and ungulate counts are compared (chi-square = 5.0 to 9.3, p < 0.025 to p < 0.005) and when monkey and “small mammal” counts are compared (chi-square = 5.7 to 11.1, p < 0.025 to p < 0.005). No other differences suggested by Table 7.9 are statistically significant. The low representation of monkeys in the assemblage from middle context 10 may reflect a temporary drier period of less forested conditions, corresponding to peak aridity during a dry phase in Sri Lanka. An alternative explanation would be a hunting focus on the less forested habitats in the immediate vicinity of the site. This assemblage also has the highest representation of reptile NISPs (35.4%). However, any chronological trend was non-

2005 Excavation – General Assemblage Characteristics A total of 4374 flaking products were recovered from the 2005 excavation, all made from quartz, apart from two chert flakes in context 3. The majority, 3076 or 70.3%, were recovered from the upper spit from context 10, and have a distinctive profile compared to the other assemblages (Table 7.10). Opaque quartz accounts for 20.2% of the specimens assigned to this spit, compared to only 7.0% for the lowest two spits in context 10, and 13.0% in the Holocene (historical) levels. Focusing on clear quartz

157

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka utilised pieces), but make up only 0.9% of the specimens from the two lowest spits where, instead, retouched pieces outnumber utilised pieces. (Owing to lack of time, evidence of utilisation was not investigated on the lithics from contexts 3 to 9.) All of the differences noted above are statistically significant (Table 7.11). These observations dispute the claim by Deraniyagala and Kennedy (1972: 29, 36) that all the stone artefacts at Bellan-bandi Palassa would have derived from stratum 6 habitation. That claim would be confirmed only if the Phase III and Phase IV assemblages behaved statistically like samples drawn from the same population as the Phase II sample, which is not the case. It is possible, however, that variability in the Phase II assemblage is reflected in the re-deposition of different assemblages in the Phase III and IV deposits; or that the latter had nothing to do with Phase II but were derived from more than one source of varying age, both prehistoric and historical. But such an interpretation of the results would be improved by positive empirical support, which is currently unavailable.

Figure 7.6 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): pie chart of the faunal assemblage of middle of context 10.

debitage, we find that complete flakes are considerably rarer than flake fragments in the top spit from context 10, but approximately twice as common as flake fragments both above and below this spit. Flake fragments are particularly infrequent amongst the Phase III specimens. Utilised pieces are a prominent component of the assemblage from the top spit of context 10 (6.5%, including the two retouched

The top spit of the Phase II assemblage shows signs of local stone working (including opaque quartz), to judge by the high occurrence of flake fragments, along with in situ activities given the frequent identification of use-wear damage. In contrast, the lower Phase II assemblage, and to a lesser extent the Phase III and Phase IV assemblages,

Table 7.8 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): faunal identifications from context 10. Weights in grammes except where otherwise specified.

Monkey Sambar Spotted deer Mouse deer Barking deer Pig Giant squirrel Flying squirrel Mongoose Palm civet Porcupine Bandicoot rat Rattus sp. Felis sp. Dog Bird Varanus bengalensis Python Snake Pond terrapin Soft terrapin Freshwater fish Pig eye shark Total identified Unidentified

Upper NISP

Upper Weights

Middle NISP

Middle Weights

Lower NISP

Lower Weights

43 13 6 4 1 6 9 1 4 0 3 1 1 1 1 1 16 15 5 1 0 0 1 133 3,242

166.3 338.5 119.0 17.0 5.0 119.0 9.5 1.0 3.5

25 6 3 5 12 12 16 3 5 2 12 0 0 0 0 0 19 20 11 5 1 1 0 158 1,475

60.9 81.5 20.3 15.1 32.8 96.4 18.0 4.3 5.8 3.0 22.3

11 1 3 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 18 125

10.2 5.0 4.0

9.0 0.5 0.1 0.5 2.0 0.2 82.0 35.0 10.0 10.0

2.0 928.1 4.2 kg

158

42.4 70.0 8.0 13.7 0.5 0.1 495.1 4.5 kg

4.0

2.0

0.5

25.7 55

Bellan-bandi Palassa Table 7.9 Bellan-bandi Palassa (1970, 2005): summary of mammalian NISP identifications from the main prehistoric layer, based on data in Table 7.8 and Deraniyagala and Kennedy (1972: 37). Percentages may not add up to 100% owing to rounding-off errors.

Total context 10 Lower context 10 Middle context 10 Upper context 10 Stratum 6

Monkeys

Ungulates

Carnivores

Small mammals

79 (37%) 11 (65%) 25 (25%) 43 (46%) 30 (46%)

72 (34%) 4 (24%) 38 (38%) 30 (32%) 13 (20%)

2 (1%) 0 0 2 (2%) 4 (6%)

59 (28%) 2 (12%) 38 (38%) 19 (20%) 18 (28%)

are dominated by complete flakes, suggesting transport from a manufacturing site elsewhere. The two chert flakes restricted to context 3, and the high occurrence of retouched pieces in the lower two spits of context 10, point to a similar conclusion.

and both striking platform dimensions (and would also be larger on breadth and thickness at p < 0.1). Performing the same comparison between retouched complete flakes and retouched transversely broken flakes, and between nonutilised complete flakes and transversely broken flakes, the difference is statistically significant (at p < 0.25 to p < 0.005) on every comparison. The longitudinally broken flakes approximate the transversely broken flakes on all available dimensions (Tables 7.22 to 7.25), and the flake fragments are still smaller than the broken flakes (Tables 7.22 to 7.23). In the case of transversely broken flakes, the utilised specimens, which presumably include utilised flakes broken during use, are barely larger (and indeed thinner) than the unutilised specimens, which would be dominated by flakes broken during flaking (Tables 7.22 to 7.26).

One point to observe is that, as at Batadomba-lena (Chapter 6), opaque quartz artefacts are consistently larger than clear quartz artefacts assigned to the same class. Tables 7.12 to 7.15 compare clear and opaque quartz artefacts (holding phase and class constant) on their weight, length, breadth and thickness, for all classes with at least three opaque quartz specimens. In every comparison, the clear quartz mean and median (usually smaller than the mean, in line with the positively skewed distribution of these lithics) are smaller than the opaque quartz mean and median. For reasons explained in Chapter 3, statistical tests for a significant difference between means (using the Student’s t-test) are performed on the logarithmically transformed data. The difference between means is statistically significant whenever the sample size for opaque quartz artefacts is 12 or more, indicating that only the small sample size of the other two opaque quartz classes (utilised flakes and transversely broken flakes) prevents the emergence of a statistically significant difference between means. Similar observations hold for the comparison between clear and opaque quartz flake classes on their striking platform dimensions (Tables 7.16 and 7.17).

The retouched transversely broken flakes are very small, being hardly larger than (unretouched) flaked pieces, and the retouched flake fragments are miniscule (Tables 7.22 to 7.26). These latter categories include microliths and preforms whose assignment to debitage categories merely reflects the degree to which re-shaping has removed the flake termination and the striking platform. Four backed microliths were recovered during the 2005 excavation from context 10 with maximum lengths between 14 and 28 mm (Appendix F). The descending size order of complete flakes, transversely broken flakes and flake fragments generally pertains to the Phase III and Phase IV clear quartz artefacts. (The supporting data for this claim can be found by gleaning the relevant tables in the next sub-section. Irregularities, such as the larger size of Phase III transversely broken flakes than complete flakes, and smaller size of Phase IV transversely broken flakes than flake fragments, presumably reflects sampling error.) If we restrict our comparisons to the logarithmically transformed data on complete flakes and flake fragments, for which we have decent sample sizes, the complete flakes from both phases are significantly larger than the flake fragments on weight, length and breadth (t = 3.28 to 6.67, p always < 0.005). Interestingly, however, there is no significant difference between these classes on thickness in the Phase III assemblage, and the Phase IV flake fragments are significantly thicker than the Phase IV complete flakes (t = 2.28, p < 0.025). This result suggests a technological difference in the lithics of the Holocene deposit, compared to the terminal Pleistocene, whereby coarse parts of the core were roughly struck, producing relatively thick flake fragments, till suitable platforms

In the Phase II and Phase III assemblages, the largest artefact class, certainly as far as clear quartz is concerned, involves retouched complete flakes (Tables 7.18 to 7.21). The retouched complete flakes in the Phase IV assemblage, however, are remarkably small, but their sample size is small (as with Phase III). As noted above, evidence of utilisation was not recorded on the Phase III and Phase IV assemblages, but in the Phase II assemblage, utilised complete flakes are significantly larger than their unutilised counterparts. This suggests a tendency, at least during Phase II, for the occupants to have selected larger flakes for use in tasks, and to have persevered with particularly large, thick flakes to the extent of retouching them prior to discard. The Phase II transversely broken flakes (Tables 7.18 to 7.21) are, as expected, smaller than the complete flakes. Comparing utilised complete flakes with utilised transversely broken flakes for their logarithmically transformed data (Tables 7.20, 7.21, 7.24 and 7.25), we find that the complete flakes are significantly larger at p < 0.05 than the transversely broken flakes on weight, length,

159

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Table 7.10 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): broad classification of the lithics. Abbreviations: CR = clear quartz retouched pieces (including five also utilised, from the upper spit of context 10). CU = clear quartz utilised pieces. OU = opaque quartz utilised pieces. CC = clear quartz complete flakes. OC = opaque quartz complete flakes. CT = clear quartz transversely broken flakes. OT = opaque quartz transversely broken flakes. CL = clear quartz longitudinally broken flakes. OL = opaque quartz longitudinally broken flakes. CF = clear quartz flake fragments. OF = opaque quartz flake fragments. Phase (Context) Phase II, low (10) Phase II, mid (10) Phase II, top (10) Phase III, (9) Phase III, (8) Phase III, (7) Phase IV, (6) Phase IV, (5) Phase IV, (4) Total

CR

CU

OU

CC

OC

CT

OT

CL

OL

CF

OF

6

4

0

181

0

1

0

3

0

74

29

13

3

0

283

0

28

0

7

0

155

28

37

196

3

296

8

142

3

9

1

1774

607

0

0

0

88

0

5

0

0

0

24

21

1

0

0

29

1

2

0

0

0

12

6

1

0

0

64

0

5

0

0

0

15

6

0

0

0

21

0

1

0

0

0

25

4

4

0

0

52

0

0

0

0

0

32

10

1

0

0

24

0

2

0

0

0

13

14

63

203

3

1038

9

186

3

19

1

2124

725

Table 7.11 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): two-way Chi-square tests for differences in artefact composition between Phase II (top spit), Phase II (lower spits), Phase III and Phase IV assemblages (n.s. = not significant).

Crystal quartz; milky quartz Crystal quartz – complete flakes: flake fragments Crystal quartz – retouched pieces: other pieces

Top Phase II: Lower Phase II

Top Phase II: Phase III

Top Phase II: Phase IV

Lower Phase II: Phase III

Lower Phase II: Phase IV

Phase III: Phase IV

77.4 (p = 0.000)

8.9 (p < 0.005)

4.8 (p < 0.05)

8.4 (p < 0.005)

9.8 (p < 0.005)

0.1 (n.s.)

721.9 (p = 0.000)

515.6 (p = 0.000)

204.6 (p = 0.000)

10.1 (p < 0.005)

4.7 (p < 0.05)

18.3 (p = 0.000)

5.8 (p < 0.025)

0.5 (n.s.)

2.4 (n.s.)

2.7 (n.s.)

0.01 (n.s.)

2.3 (n.s.)

Table 7.12 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): weights (> 0.02 g) in grammes of clear quartz and opaque quartz artefact classes. The first number (in round brackets) is the sample size, the second number is the mean, the third number (in square brackets) is the median, and the final figures give the mean and standard deviation of the log-transformed data. * = statistically significant difference at p < 0.005. ** = statistically significant difference at p < 0.01. Artefact Class

Clear Quartz

Opaque Quartz

Phase II utilised flakes Phase II complete unutilised flakes** Phase II transversely broken flakes Phase II flake fragments* Phase III flake fragments* Phase IV flake fragments*

(189) 2.4 [1.7] 0.19 + 0.45

(7) 2.7 [2.4] 0.33 + 0.31

(753) 2.0 [1.2] 0.03 + 0.54

(12) 3.2 [3.6] 0.43 + 0.31

(192) 1.5 [1.0] -0.06 + 0.52

(3) 2.6 [1.5] 0.25 + 0.45

(1763) 0.6 [0.4] -0.48 + 0.47 (51) 0.8 [0.7] -0.19 + 0.31 (70) 1.2 [1.0] -0.02 + 0.28

(607) 0.8 [0.6] -0.24 + 0.35 (33) 1.8 [1.4] 0.12 + 0.38 (28) 2.5 [1.9] 0.26 + 0.35

160

Bellan-bandi Palassa Table 7.13 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): lengths in mm of clear quartz and opaque quartz artefact classes. Data structure is the same as in Table 7.12. * = statistically significant difference at p < 0.005. Artefact Class

Clear Quartz

Opaque Quartz

Phase II utilised flakes Phase II complete unutilised flakes* Phase II transversely broken flakes Phase II flake fragments* Phase III flake fragments* Phase IV flake fragments*

(189) 21.5 [21.1] 1.31 + 0.13 (753) 18.5 [17.25] 1.24 + 0.16

(7) 22.2 [22.2] 1.34 + 0.10 (12) 24.2 [24.2] 1.37 + 0.10

(191) 17.0 [16.6] 1.21 + 0.14

(3) 22.5 [23.4] 1.34 + 0.13

(1774) 12.0 [11.5] 1.06+0.13 (51) 13.4 [12.9] 1.12 + 0.10 (70) 16.0 [15.5] 1.19 + 0.09

(607) 13.4 [12.8] 1.11+0.12 (33) 17.3 [17.7] 1.23 +0.11 (28) 19.0 [18.5] 1.27 +0.11

Table 7.14 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): breadths in mm of clear quartz and opaque quartz artefact classes. Data structure is the same as in Table 7.12. * = statistically significant difference at p < 0.005. ** = statistically significant difference at p < 0.025. Artefact Class

Clear Quartz

Opaque Quartz

Phase II utilised flakes Phase II complete unutilised flakes** Phase II transversely broken flakes Phase II flake fragments* Phase III flake fragments** Phase IV flake fragments*

(189) 14.8 [14.1] 1.14 + 0.16

(7) 16.5 [15.6] 1.19 + 0.15 (12) 17.1 [17.1] 1.22 + 0.11

(756) 13.3 [12.1] 1.09 + 0.18 (191) 12.0 [11.6] 1.05 + 0.16

(3) 15.9 [12.4] 1.14 + 0.29

(1774) 8.0 [7.6] 0.88 + 0.15 (51) 9.8 [9.5] 0.98 + 0.10 (70) 10.6 [10.5] 1.01 + 0.11

(607) 9.0 [8.4] 0.94 + 0.13 (33) 11.3 [12.2] 1.04 + 0.13 (28) 12.7 [12.1] 1.09 +0.10

Table 7.15 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): thicknesses in mm of clear quartz and opaque quartz artefact classes. Data structure is the same as in Table 7.12. * = statistically significant difference at p < 0.005. ** = statistically significant difference at p < 0.025. Artefact Class

Clear Quartz

Opaque Quartz

Phase II utilised flakes Phase II complete unutilised flakes** Phase II transversely broken flakes Phase II flake fragments* Phase III flake fragments* Phase IV flake fragments**

(189) 4.9 [4.8] 0.65 + 0.20

(7) 5.5 [5.7] 0.73 + 0.07

(756) 4.8 [4.4] 0.63 + 0.22

(12) 5.8 [5.8] 0.76 + 0.09

(191) 4.3 [3.8] 0.59 + 0.21

(3) 5.2 [5.5] 0.67 + 0.24

(1774) 4.1 [3.8] 0.57 + 0.19 (51) 5.2 [4.9] 0.69 + 0.15 (70) 6.2 [5.9] 0.77 + 0.13

(607) 5.0 [4.7] 0.67 + 0.14 (33) 6.9 [6.6] 0.81 + 0.17 (28) 7.6 [6.3] 0.84 + 0.18

Table 7.16 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): striking platform widths in mm of clear quartz and opaque quartz flake classes. Data structure is the same as in Table 7.12. ** = statistically significant difference at p < 0.025. Artefact Class

Clear Quartz

Opaque Quartz

Phase II utilised flakes Phase II complete unutilised flakes** Phase II transversely broken flakes

(189) 12.4 [11.3] 1.05 + 0.20

(7) 12.9 [12.0] 1.05 + 0.23 (12) 14.1 [14.6] 1.14 + 0.10

(756) 11.1 [10.2] 1.00 + 0.21 (189) 9.9 [9.3] 0.96 + 0.19

(3) 10.1 [7.5] 0.97 + 0.21

Table 7.17 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): striking platform breadths in mm clear quartz and opaque quartz flake classes. Data structure is the same as in Table 7.12. *= statistically significant difference at p < 0.005. Artefact Class

Clear Quartz

Opaque Quartz

Phase II utilised flakes* Phase II complete unutilised flakes* Phase II transversely broken flakes

(189) 5.0 [4.5] 0.65 + 0.20

(7) 6.6 [6.2] 0.79 + 0.16 (12) 5.5 [5.5] 0.72 + 0.14

(755) 4.5 [4.1] 0.60 + 0.23 (189) 4.0 [3.7] 0.55 + 0.23

161

(3) 4.3 [3.6] 0.54 + 0.35

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka statistically significant differences, at p < 0.05, emerge only when utilised flake breadths are compared between the lower/middle and upper spits (t = 1.70), and when retouched flake striking platform breadths are compared between the lower/middle and upper spits (t = 2.23). Small sample sizes are obviously a problem here, especially with the utilised transversely broken flakes from the lower/ middle spits, which are very small (narrow and thin) but represented by merely two specimens.

emerged for the detachment of relatively thin complete flakes. Metrical Comparisons of the Context 10 Upper Spit Assemblage In the previous subsection, I observed that the upper spit of context 10 had a higher proportion of utilised to retouched pieces than the middle and lower spits in the same context. This suggests greater use of curated pieces – specifically, larger flakes with rejuvenating retouch – for the tasks represented by the middle and lower spits, and greater use of ad hoc flakes of a usable size for the tasks represented by the upper spit. The metrical data support this interpretation because the utilised flakes (and transversely broken flakes) from the upper spit appear larger than those from the lower and middle spits, while the retouched flakes and flaked pieces from the lower and middle spits appear larger than those from the upper spit (Tables 7.27 to 7.32). However,

To compare debitage categories between the various assemblages (lower/middle spits from context 10, upper spit from context 10, Phase III, Phase IV), it is necessary to pool utilised and non-utilised specimens for any debitage category. This is because evidence of utilisation was not sought on the Phase III and Phase IV artefacts. The statistics are detailed in Tables 7.33 to 7.35, and the results of the t-test comparisons between each pair of assemblages, for every debitage category, are summarised in Table 7.36.

Table 7.18 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): average weight and dimensions of different classes of flakes of clear quartz.

Phase II retouched (n = 24) Phase II utilised (n = 189) Phase II other (n = 753-756) Phase III retouched (n = 2) Phase III unretouched (n = 181) Phase IV retouched (n = 5) Phase IV unretouched (n = 99)

Weight (g)

Length (mm)

Breadth (mm)

Thickness (mm)

3.7 2.4 2.0 6.0 3.0 0.4 2.7

21.4 21.5 18.5 22.3 19.2 14.3 19.0

15.4 14.8 13.3 19.5 14.9 7.3 14.2

6.7 4.9 4.8 8.5 5.7 2.7 5.7

Table 7.19 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): median weight and dimensions of different classes of complete flakes of clear quartz.

Phase II retouched (n = 24) Phase II utilised (n = 189) Phase II other (n = 753-756) Phase III retouched (n = 2) Phase III unretouched (n = 181) Phase IV retouched (n = 5) Phase IV unretouched (n = 99)

Weight (g)

Length (mm)

Breadth (mm)

Thickness (mm)

2.4 1.7 1.2 6.0 1.3 0.3 1.6

19.8 21.1 17.3 22.3 17.3 13.9 18.1

13.3 14.1 12.1 19.5 13.1 7.5 13.6

6.4 4.8 4.4 8.5 5.0 2.5 5.3

Table 7.20 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): average log-transformed weight and dimensions of different classes of complete flakes of clear quartz. *Significantly smaller than Phase II retouched flakes on thickness, but no other variable. **Significantly smaller than Phase II retouched flakes on all four variables at p < 0.05 (including p < 0.01 on weight and p < 0.005 on thickness). Significantly smaller than Phase II utilised flakes on all of weight, length and breadth at p < 0.005, but no significant difference on thickness. ***Significantly larger than Phase IV retouched flakes on all of weight, length and thickness at p < 0.005, and perhaps breadth (0.1 > p > 0.05).

Phase II retouched (n = 24) Phase II utilised (n = 189)* Phase II other (n = 753-6)** Phase III retouched (n = 2) Phase III unretouched (n = 181) Phase IV retouched (n = 5) Phase IV unretouched (n = 99)***

Weight (g)

Length (mm)

Breadth (mm)

Thickness (mm)

0.31+0.49 0.19+0.45 0.03+0.54 0.38 0.15+0.48 -0.47+0.24 0.19+0.48

1.31+0.14 1.31+0.13 1.24+0.16 1.33 1.26+0.14 1.15+0.06 1.25+0.15

1.16+0.16 1.14+0.16 1.09+0.18 1.24 1.14+0.17 0.85+0.10 1.12+0.17

0.77+0.21 0.65+0.20 0.63+0.22 0.80 0.71+0.21 0.42+0.14 0.71+0.19

162

Bellan-bandi Palassa Table 7.21 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): striking platform dimensions in mm of different classes of clear quartz flakes. The first number (in round brackets) is the sample size, the second number is the mean, the third number (in square brackets) is the median, and the final figures give the mean and standard deviation of the log-transformed data. *Significantly smaller dimensions than Phase II utilised flakes’ at p < 0.005; significantly smaller breadth than Phase II retouched flakes’ at p < 0.025. ** Significantly larger dimensions than Phase IV retouched flakes’ at p < 0.005. Artefact Class

Platform Width

Platform Breadth

Phase II retouched Phase II utilised Phase II other* Phase III retouched Phase III unretouched Phase IV retouched Phase IV unretouched**

(24) 13.0 [12.0] 1.05 + 0.23 (189) 12.4 [11.3] 1.05 + 0.20 (756) 11.1 [10.2] 1.00 + 0.21 (2) 17.4 [17.4] 1.18 (181) 12.3 [10.8] 1.05 + 0.20 (5) 6.2 [6.4] 0.79 + 0.09 (99) 12.3 [11.2] 1.06 + 0.17

(24) 5.8 [5.6] 0.71 + 0.22 (189) 5.0 [4.5] 0.65 + 0.20 (755) 4.5 [4.1] 0.60 + 0.23 (2) 6.6 [6.6] 0.73 (181) 5.7 [5.0] 0.71 + 0.19 (5) 2.8 [2.5] 0.44 + 0.14 (99) 5.7 [5.3] 0.72 + 0.19

The comparisons involving complete flakes show that those in the lower/middle (“lower”) and upper spits of context 10 (Phase II) are similar in size, and smaller than those in the Phase III and Phase IV assemblages (which are similar to each other). A similar result, albeit less clear, emerges for the other two debitage categories. The lower/ middle spits of context 10 contain the smallest transversely broken flakes of any assemblage, but the flake fragments from these same spits are the largest of any assemblage. The upper spit of context 10 contains the smallest flake fragments of any assemblage, but the transversely broken flakes are (insignificantly) larger than those of the Phase IV assemblage. The Phase III transversely broken flakes are larger than those of Phase IV, but this relationship is reversed with the flake fragments. Overall, the Phase II debitage is smaller than the Phase III/IV debitage in every category. While this could suggest the knapping of slightly larger flaked products in Phase III/IV compared to Phase II, the chrono-stratigraphic status of Phase IV has to be further clarified before coming to any conclusions.

which flakes of the same size as those in the lower spits of context 10 could be detached. This last point is contextualised by observations on the 228 Bellan-bandi Palassa cores and core fragments from context 10 (Appendix F), performed under Dr Johan Kamminga’s supervision. These specimens were assigned to fairly equal numbers of clear quartz and opaque quartz specimens (Tables 7.37 and 7.38), in contrast to the much more numerous, flaked products of clear quartz compared to their opaque quartz counterparts. Quartz often combines clear and opaque components, and the clear component would have been preferentially flaked until the waste core of opaque quartz was reached. Both previous points reflect the lesser potential of opaque quartz nodules to yield large numbers of flakes under conditions of controlled knapping. Accordingly, micro-blade cores of clear quartz greatly outnumber those of opaque quartz, while “other” cores of opaque quartz outnumber those of clear quartz. In addition, bipolar and “other” cores, and core fragments, of opaque quartz are larger than those of clear quartz (Tables 7.40 to 7.42), because opaque quartz nodules tend to become no longer usable at a larger size than clear quartz nodules.

As previously observed, flake fragments are particularly common in the assemblage from the upper spit of context 10, and the current analysis shows that they are particularly small. More intensive recovery of the smaller debitage in the upper spit of context 10 (thus tending to recover a disproportionate number of flaked pieces) would be one explanation, except that the same excavation methodology was observed throughout. The likely explanation is that more intensive core reduction towards the end of the Phase II habitation produced greater amounts of small debitage but was successful in producing striking surfaces from

Of importance here, the upper spit from context 10 produced considerably less micro-blade and bipolar cores than the lower and middle spits, whereas the number of “other” cores is even between the spits (Tables 7.37 and 7.38). The micro-blade and bipolar cores both tend to be smaller than the other cores, but the latter, at least the clear quartz examples, tend to be smaller in the upper spit than the middle and lower spits (Tables 7.39 to 7.41). As

Table 7.22 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): average weight and dimensions of various classes of Phase II clear quartz artefacts. Artefact Class Retouched transversely broken flakes (n = 17-18) Utilised transversely broken flakes (n = 21-22) Non-utilised transversely broken flakes (n = 170-171) Longitudinally broken flakes (n = 18) Retouched flake fragments (n = 17) Unretouched flake fragments (n = 1988)

Weight (g)

Length (mm)

Breadth (mm)

Thickness (mm)

0.9

14.1

9.3

3.4

1.5

18.8

12.8

4.2

1.5

16.8

12.0

4.3

2.0 0.5 0.6

18.9 12.6 12.6

12.0 7.6 8.4

5.0 2.8 4.3

163

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Table 7.23 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): median weight and dimensions of various classes of Phase II clear quartz artefacts. Artefact Class Retouched transversely broken flakes (n = 17-18) Utilised transversely broken flakes (n = 21-22) Non-utilised transversely broken flakes (n = 170-171) Longitudinally broken flakes (n = 18) Retouched flake fragments (n = 17) Unretouched flake fragments (n = 1988)

Weight (g)

Length (mm)

Breadth (mm)

Thickness (mm)

0.7

13.9

9.8

3.6

1.1

16.9

12.9

3.65

1.0

16.35

11.45

3.8

1.3 0.3 0.4

17.1 12.8 12.0

11.0 6.9 8.0

5.4 2.3 4.1

Table 7.24 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): average log-transformed weight and dimensions of various classes of Phase II clear quartz artefacts. Artefact Class

Weight (g)

Retouched transversely broken flakes (n = 17-18) Utilised transversely broken flakes (n = 21-22) Non-utilised transversely broken flakes (n = 170-171)

-0.34 + 0.60

Longitudinally broken flakes (n = 18)

0.02 + 0.60

Retouched flake fragments (n = 17) Unretouched flake fragments (n = 1988)

0.01 + 0.41 -0.07 + 0.53 -0.65 + 0.60 -0.42 + 0.48

Length (mm)

Breadth (mm)

1.13 + 0.13 1.26 + 0.11 1.20 + 0.14 1.24 + 0.18 1.08 + 0.14 1.08 + 0.14

0.94 + 0.16 1.09 + 0.13 1.05 + 0.16 1.04 + 0.20 0.84 + 0.19 0.90 + 0.16

Thickness (mm) 0.46 + 0.30 0.58 + 0.21 0.59 + 0.20 0.66 + 0.20 039 + 0.22 0.59 + 0.20

Table 7.25 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): striking platform dimensions in mm of various classes of Phase II clear quartz artefacts. The first number (in parentheses) is the sample size, the second number is the mean, the third number (in square brackets) is the median, and the final figures give the mean and standard deviation of the log-transformed data. Artefact Class Retouched transversely broken flakes Utilised transversely broken flakes Non-utilised transversely broken flakes Longitudinally broken flakes

Platform Width

Platform Breadth

(16) 8.5 [8.9] 0.87 + 0.24

(16) 3.3 [3.1] 0.44 + 0.27

(21) 9.2 [9.4] 0.94 + 0.18

(21) 3.9 [3.9] 0.56 + 0.17

(168) 10.0 [9.3] 0.96 + 0.19

(168) 4.0 [3.7] 0.55 + 0.23

(13) 12.8 [10.7] 1.03 + 0.27

(13) 5.4 [4.9] 0.67 + 0.25

a result, the quartz cores from the upper spit are overall smaller than those from the lower and middle spits (Table 7.43), despite a smaller representation of the smaller core classes. The decline of micro-blade and bipolar flaking towards the end of Phase II was evidently accompanied by increased reduction of unspecialised, “discoidal” cores and the greater production of small debitage, associated with a more expedient flaking technology (discussed below).

spits of context 10 suggest some level of curation of larger, thicker flakes, while the upper spit of context 10 suggests utilisation of ad hoc flakes. Measurements of edge angles support this interpretation. The edge angles of the retouched complete flakes from “lower” context 10 are less acute than those of any other class of clear quartz flakes (Table 7.44). Further, this difference is statistically significant on at least one side in every comparison (t = 1.69 to 3.97, p < 0.05 to p < 0.005) except with respect to retouched complete flakes from upper context 10, retouched transversely broken flakes from

Analysis of Technological Attributes Previously it was observed that the bottom and middle

164

Bellan-bandi Palassa Table 7.26 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): summary of statistically significant differences (at p < 0.05) on logarithmically transformed data between Phase II clear quartz non-complete flake artefact classes, arranged in order from largest (utilised transversely broken flakes) to smallest (retouched flaked pieces). Longitudinally broken flakes are not included, but they are approximately as large as other transversely broken flakes, with no statistically significant differences on any variable. Other Transversely Broken Flakes Utilised transversely broken flakes

Length

Non-utilised transversely broken flakes

Utilised Transversely Broken Flakes

Flake Fragments

Retouched Flaked Pieces

Weight, Length, Breadth, Platform breadth Weight, Length, Breadth, Thickness, Platform width, Platform breadth

Weight, Length, Breadth, Thickness

Weight, Length, Breadth, Thickness

Weight, Length, Breadth

Weight, Length, Breadth, Thickness

Thickness

Breadth

Retouched transversely broken flakes

Weight, Length, Breadth, Thickness

Flake fragments

Table 7.27 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): weights (> 0.02 g) in grammes of clear quartz utilised and retouched artefact classes from context 10. The first number (in parentheses) is the sample size, the second number is the mean, the third number (in square brackets) is the median, and the final figures give the mean and standard deviation of the log-transformed data. Artefact Class

Lower and Middle Spits

Upper Spit

Utilised flakes Utilised transversely broken flakes Retouched flakes Retouched transversely broken flakes Retouched flaked pieces

(5) 1.2 [1.0] 0.07 + 0.17

(180) 2.4 [1.7] 0.19 + 0.45

(2) 0.15 [0.15] -0.85

(20) 1.6 [1.15] 0.06 + 0.34

(8) 5.2 [3.35] 0.49 + 0.51

(12) 2.8 [1.55] 0.18 + 0.49

(5) 0.5 [0.5] -0.32 + 0.25

(12) 1.0 [0.75] -0.36 + 0.70

(5) 0.9 [0.8] -0.45 + 0.82

(12) 0.3 [0.25] -0.73 + 0.50

Table 7.28 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): lengths in mm of clear quartz utilised and retouched artefact classes from context 10. Data structure is the same as in Table 7.27. Artefact Class

Lower and Middle Spits

Upper Spit

Utilised flakes Utilised transversely broken flakes Retouched flakes Retouched transversely broken flakes Retouched flaked pieces

(5) 17.3 [17.7] 1.22 + 0.13

(180) 21.6 [21.2] 1.32 + 0.13

(2) 17.7 [17.7] 1.25

(20) 18.8 [16.9] 1.26 + 0.11

(8) 22.4 [20.4] 1.33 + 0.14

(12) 20.7 [18.4] 1.29 + 0.14

(5) 16.2 [17.9] 1.20 + 0.10

(13) 13.3 [13.3] 1.10 + 0.14

(5) 11.9 [10.2] 1.04 + 0.19

(12) 12.9 [13.2] 1.09 + 0.12

Table 7.29 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): breadths in mm of clear quartz utilised and retouched artefact classes from context 10. Data structure is the same as in Table 7.27. Artefact Class

Lower and Middle Spits

Upper Spit

Utilised flakes Utilised transversely broken flakes Retouched flakes Retouched transversely broken flakes Retouched flaked pieces

(5) 14.9 [16.5] 1.16 + 0.12

(180) 14.8 [14.1] 1.14 + 0.16

(2) 6.8 [6.8] 0.83

(20) 13.2 [13.0] 1.11 + 0.10

(8) 17.2 [18.8] 1.22 + 0.15

(12) 14.2 [13.1] 1.12 + 0.17

(5) 9.5 [9.6] 0.97 + 0.11

(13) 9.3 [10.0] 0.93 + 0.18

(5) 8.3 [6.9] 0.86 + 0.26

(12) 7.3 [6.4] 0.83 + 0.17

165

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Table 7.30 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): thicknesses in mm of clear quartz utilised and retouched artefact classes from context 10. Data structure is the same as in Table 7.27. Artefact Class

Lower and Middle Spits

Upper Spit

Utilised flakes Utilised transversely broken flakes Retouched flakes Retouched transversely broken flakes Retouched flaked pieces

(5) 3.6 [3.55] 0.54 + 0.11

(180) 5.0 [4.8] 0.65 + 0.20

(2) 2.0 [2.0] 0.18

(20) 4.3 [3.8] 0.58 + 0.22

(8) 7.9 [5.9] 0.84 + 0.23

(12) 5.9 [6.0] 0.73 + 0.21

(5) 3.2 [3.25] 0.50 + 0.10

(13) 3.5 [3.7] 0.44 + 0.35

(5) 3.3 [2.0] 0.40 + 0.36

(12) 2.6 [2.5] 0.39 + 0.15

Table 7.31 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): striking platform widths in mm of clear quartz utilised and retouched flakes from context 10. Data structure is the same as in Table 7.27. Artefact Class

Lower and Middle Spits

Upper Spit

Utilised flakes Utilised transversely broken flakes Retouched flakes Retouched transversely broken flakes

(5) 11.8 [12.6] 1.06 + 0.14

(180) 12.5 [11.2] 1.05 + 0.20

(2) 4.2 [4.2] 0.57

(19) 9.8 [9.4] 0.98 + 0.11

(8) 15.8 [16.8] 1.11 + 0.31

(12) 11.0 [9.8] 1.01 + 0.17

(5) 7.4 [6.9] 0.84 + 0.16

(11) 8.9 [10.0] 0.88 + 0.28

Table 7.32 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): striking platform breadths in mm of clear quartz utilised and retouched flakes from context 10. Data structure is the same as in Table 7.27. Artefact Class

Lower and Middle Spits

Upper Spit

Utilised flakes Utilised transversely broken flakes Retouched flakes Retouched transversely broken flakes

(5) 4.2 [4.5] 0.61 + 0.09

(180) 5.0 [4.5] 0.65 + 0.21

(2) 2.0 [2.0] 0.11

(19) 4.1 [4.0] 0.58 + 0.15

(8) 7.7 [6.3] 0.83 + 0.23

(12) 4.6 [4.1] 0.62 + 0.19

(5) 2.8 [2.7] 0.43 + 0.12

(11) 3.5 [3.9] 0.45 + 0.32

and 2.08, 25 degrees of freedom, p < 0.05 and p < 0.025). Another distinction is the high ratio of 9 snap terminations to 11 feather terminations on the Phase II retouched flakes – the highest for any flake class (Table 7.45) – compared to feather terminations on all seven retouched flakes from Phases III and IV (Fisher exact test, p = 0.01). This suggests a diachronic change in technology.

context 10, and utilised complete flakes from lower context 10 (t = 0.30 to 1.56, p > 0.05). The utilised complete flakes from upper context 10, on the other hand, have relatively acute edge angles, significantly more acute on at least one side than any other flake category from upper context 10 (t = 1.86 to 3.98, p < 0.05 to p < 0.005), except the utilised transversely broken flakes (t = 0.10 to 0.15). Nor can this contrast between lower context 10 retouched flakes, and upper context 10 utilised flakes, be explained in terms of general flaking patterns, because the “other” flakes from upper context 10 have a less oblique edge angle than those from lower context 10, and the difference is statistically significant on the right side (t = 2.48, p < 0.005). Thus, the represented activities in lower context 10 appear to have involved greater use of oblique-edged, thicker, larger flakes maintained through retouch, possibly for scraping tasks, while the represented activities in upper context 10 involved greater use of acute-edged flakes selected rapidly from the available flakes, possibly for cutting tasks.

In general, the flakes from upper context 10 have a greater variety of terminations, a higher proportion of snap terminations and a lower proportion of feather terminations than either lower context 10 or the Holocene assemblages (Table 7.45). Performing a two-by-two chi-square test on snap and feather terminations, we find the difference is statistically significant in both cases (cf. lower context 10, chi-square = 7.8, p < 0.01; cf. Phases III and IV, chi-square = 9.5, p < 0.001), whereas lower context 10 and Phases III/IV cannot be distinguished on this basis (chi-square = 0.54). Snap terminations (or axial terminations) occur when the propagation of the flaking force meets the opposite face of the nucleus at an angle close to 90º (Cotterell and Kamminga 1990:145). This suggests that, though similar in size, the flakes in the assemblage from upper context 10, compared to lower context 10, tended to be manufactured

The retouched flakes from Phases III and IV have more acute edge angles than those from Phase II (Table 7.44), and the differences are statistically significant when the upper and lower Phase II examples are combined (t = 1.77

166

Bellan-bandi Palassa Table 7.33 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): average and (in square brackets) median weight and dimensions of different debitage classes of clear quartz. Artefact Class

Weight (g)

Lower/middle Phase II complete flakes (n = 463-465) Upper Phase II complete flakes (n = 470-471) Phase III complete flakes (n = 181) Phase IV complete flakes (n = 99) Lower/middle Phase II transversely broken flakes (n = 30-31) Upper Phase II transversely broken flakes (n = 162) Phase III transversely broken flakes (n = 7-12) Phase IV transversely broken flakes (n = 3) Lower/middle Phase II flaked pieces (n = 221-225) Upper Phase II flake fragments (n = 1763-1774) Phase III flake fragments (n = 51) Phase IV flake fragments (n = 70)

2.1 [1.2] 2.05 [1.3] 3.0 [1.3] 2.7 [1.6] 0.8 [0.5] 1.6 [1.1] 3.05 [2.1] 0.8 [0.8] 1.3 [1.1] 0.6 [0.4] 0.8 [0.7] 1.18 [1.00]

Length (mm) 18.7 [17.3] 19.45 [18.6] 19.2 [17.3] 19.0 [18.1] 14.65 [13.5] 17.4 [16.95] 20.6 [21.4] 16.1 [15.1] 16.8 [16.25] 12.0 [11.5] 13.4 [12.9] 16.0 [15.5]

Breadth (mm) 13.6 [12.3] 13.5 [12.7] 14.9 [13.1] 14.2 [13.6] 9.5 [8.7] 12.5 [12.5] 15.85 [14.0] 9.1 [9.3] 11.3 [11.3] 8.0 [7.6] 9.8 [9.45] 10.6 [10.5]

Thickness (mm) 5.1 [4.5] 4.6 [4.3] 5.7 [5.0] 5.7 [5.3] 3.2 [3.0] 4.5 [4.0] 7.3 [7.4] 4.3 [3.95] 6.2 [6.05] 4.1 [3.8] 5.2 [4.85] 6.2 [5.9]

Table 7.34 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): average, logarithmically transformed weight and dimensions of different debitage classes of clear quartz. Artefact Class

Weight (g)

Length (mm)

Breadth (mm)

Thickness (mm)

Lower/middle Phase II complete flakes (n = 463-465) Upper Phase II complete flakes (n = 470-471) Phase III complete flakes (n = 181) Phase IV complete flakes (n = 99) Lower/middle Phase II transversely broken flakes (n = 30-31) Upper Phase II transversely broken flakes (n = 162) Phase III transversely broken flakes (n = 7-12) Phase IV transversely broken flakes (n = 3) Lower/middle Phase II flake fragments (n = 221-225) Upper Phase II flake fragments (n = 1763-1774) Phase III flake fragments (n = 51) Phase IV flake fragments (n = 70)

0.05 + 0.52 0.07 + 0.52 0.15 + 0.48 0.19 + 0.48 -0.40 + 0.55 -0.00 + 0.49 0.36 + 0.35 -0.10 + 0.05 0.00 + 0.34 -0.48 + 0.47 -0.19 + 0.31 -0.02 + 0.28

1.24 + 0.16 1.26 + 0.15 1.26 + 0.14 1.25 + 0.15 1.15 + 0.13 1.22 + 0.13 1.31 + 0.05 1.20 + 0.05 1.21 + 0.10 1.06 + 0.13 1.12 + 0.10 1.19 + 0.09

1.10 + 0.18 1.10 + 0.18 1.14 + 0.17 1.12 + 0.17 0.95 + 0.16 1.07 + 0.14 1.18 + 0.14 0.95 + 0.10 1.04 + 0.13 0.88 + 0.15 0.98 + 0.10 1.01 + 0.11

0.66 + 0.22 0.61 + 0.22 0.71 + 0.21 0.71 + 0.19 0.46 + 0.19 0.61 + 0.20 0.84 + 0.15 0.63 + 0.10 0.76 + 0.17 0.57 + 0.19 0.69 + 0.15 0.77 + 0.13

167

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Table 7.35 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): striking platform dimensions in mm of different debitage classes of clear quartz. Data structure is the same as in Table 7.27. Artefact Class

Platform Width

Platform Breadth

Lower/middle Phase II complete flakes

(465) 11.2 [10.3] 1.00 + 0.20 (471) 11.5 [10.6] 1.01 + 0.21 (181) 12.3 [10.75] 1.05 + 0.20 (99) 12.3 [11.2] 1.05 + 0.17 (30) 8.1 [7.0] 0.86 + 0.21 (159) 10.3 [9.4] 0.98 + 0.17 (7) 14.6 [11.6] 1.13 + 0.19 (2) 10.0 [10.0] 0.99

(464) 4.6 [4.2] 0.61 + 0.23 (471) 4.6 [4.2] 0.60 + 0.23 (181) 5.7 [5.0] 0.71 + 0.19 (99) 5.7 [5.3] 0.72 + 0.19 (30) 2.8 [2.5] 0.39 + 0.22 (159) 4.2 [3.9] 0.58 + 0.22 (7) 6.5 [6.0] 0.77 + 0.22 (2) 4.8 [4.8] 0.66

Upper Phase II complete flakes Phase III complete flakes Phase IV complete flakes Lower/middle Phase II transversely broken flakes Upper Phase II transversely broken flakes Phase III transversely broken Flakes Phase IV transversely broken Flakes

Table 7.36 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): summary of t-test comparisons on log-transformed variables, clear quartz. In each debitage category, the descending order is from small to large. The larger artefact category is shown in the cell. * = p < 0.05, ** = p < 0.025, *** = p < 0.01, **** = p < 0.005. n.s. = difference not significant. Complete Flakes

Weight

Length

Breadth

Phase II lower (P2L) vs. Phase II upper (P2U)

n.s.

P2U **

n.s.

n.s.

n.s.

n.s.

P3 ****

n.s.

n.s.

Thickness

n.s.

P3 **** n.s.

P2L **** P4 *** P3 **** P4 **** P3 **** n.s.

Phase III (P3) vs. Phase IV (P4)

P4 ** P3 ** P4 ** P3 * n.s.

Transversely Broken Flakes

Weight

Length

Breadth

Thickness

Phase II lower (P2L) vs. Phase IV (P4) Phase II lower (P2L) vs. Phase II upper (P2U)

n.s. P2U **** P3 **** n.s. P3 ** P3 ***

n.s. P2U **** P3 **** n.s. P3 *** P3 *

n.s. P2U **** P3 **** n.s. P3 ** P3 **

n.s. P2U **** P3 **** n.s. P3 * P3 ****

Weight

Length

Breadth

Thickness

P3 **** P4 **** P2L **** P4 **** P2L ****

P3 **** P4 **** P2L **** P4 **** P2L ****

P3 **** P4 **** P2L ****

P3 **** P4 **** P2L **** P4 **** P2L ****

n.s.

n.s.

Phase II lower (P2L) vs. Phase IV (P4) Phase II lower (P2L) vs. Phase III (P3) Phase II upper (P2U) vs. Phase IV (P4) Phase II upper (P2U) vs. Phase III (P3)

Phase II lower (P2L) vs. Phase III (P3) Phase IV (P4) vs. Phase II upper (P2U) Phase IV (P4) versus Phase III (P3) Phase II upper (P2U) vs. Phase III (P3) Flake fragments Phase II upper (P2U) vs. Phase III (P3) Phase II upper (P2U) vs. Phase IV (P4) Phase II upper (P2U) vs. Phase II lower (P2L) Phase III (P3) vs. Phase IV (P4) Phase III (P3) vs. Phase II lower (P2L) Phase IV (P4) versus Phase II lower (P2L)

n.s.

n.s. P2L **** P2L *

168

n.s.

Platform Width

Platform Breadth

n.s.

n.s.

P4 *** P3 **** P4 * P3 *** n.s.

P4 **** P3 **** P4 **** P3 **** n.s.

Platform Width

Platform Breadth

– P2U **** P3 **** –

– P2U **** P3 **** –

–

–

P3 **

P3 **

Bellan-bandi Palassa Table 7.37 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): counts of clear quartz cores and fragments from context 10, by spit.

Micro-blade cores Bipolar cores Other cores Core fragments Total

Lower

Middle

Upper

Total

9 3 20 8 40

8 4 29 7 48

5 2 22 3 32

22 9 61 18 120

Table 7.38 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): counts of opaque quartz cores and fragments from context 10, by spit.

Micro-blade cores Bipolar cores Other cores Core fragments Total

Lower

Middle

Upper

Total

3 3 25 4 35

0 2 31 4 37

1 0 31 4 36

4 5 87 12 108

Table 7.39 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): size classes of micro-blade (including possible/probable micro-blade) cores from context 10, by spit. Size

Clear Quartz

Opaque Quartz

Class

Lower

Middle

Upper

Lower

Middle

Upper

3 4 5 6

2 4 1 2

2 2 4 –

1 3 1 –

1 1 1 –

– – – –

– – 1 –

Table 7.40 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): size classes of bipolar (including probable bipolar) cores from context 10, by spit. Size

Clear Quartz

Opaque Quartz

Class

Lower

Middle

Upper

Lower

Middle

Upper

3 4 5

2 1 –

– 4 –

– 2 –

– 1 2

– 2 –

– – –

Table 7.41 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): size classes of other cores from context 10, by spit. Size

Clear Quartz

Opaque Quartz

Class

Lower

Middle

Upper

Lower

Middle

Upper

3 4 5 6 7 8 9

3 7 8 – 2 – –

8 6 4 3 5 2 1

9 8 3 – 2 – –

2 6 8 2 5 1 1

3 4 8 4 9 1 2

5 4 9 5 5 2 1

Table 7.42 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): size classes of core fragments from context 10, by spit. Size

Clear Quartz

Opaque Quartz

Class

Lower

Middle

Upper

Lower

Middle

Upper

2 3 4

– 8 –

1 5 1

– 3 –

– 3 1

– 3 1

– 2 2

169

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Table 7.43 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): aggregated quartz core size classes from context 10, by spit. Size Class

Lower

Middle

Upper

Total

3 4 5 6 7 8 9

10 18 20 4 7 1 1

13 18 16 7 14 3 3

15 17 14 5 7 2 1

38 53 50 16 28 6 5

Total

61

74

61

196

Table 7.44 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): edge angles of different classes of clear quartz complete and transversely broken flakes. Specimens have been pooled across sub-assemblages when sample sizes are small.

Lower context 10 retouched complete flakes Upper context 10 retouched complete flakes Phase III/IV retouched flakes Lower context 10 utilised flakes Upper context 10 utilised (non-retouched) flakes. Lower context 10 other complete flakes. Upper context 10 other complete flakes. Phase III other complete flakes Phase IV other complete flakes Context 10 retouched transversely broken flakes Context 10 utilised transversely broken flakes Lower context 10 other transversely broken flakes Upper context 10 other transversely broken flakes Phase III/Phase IV other transversely broken flakes

from smaller cores, as would also be compatible with the higher frequency of overpass (or plunging) terminations from upper context 10 (cf. Cotterell and Kamminga 1990:147). The flakes from the Phase III/IV levels, though larger than those from lower context 10, were similar in overstepping the flaked surface of the core (leading to snap terminations) in only around 11% of cases.

Right Edge Angle

Left Edge Angle

(8) 48.8 + 7.9 (12) 47.1 + 10.3 (7) 40.7 + 10.6 (5) 43.0 + 2.7 (180) 39.7 + 8.4 (459) 41.9 + 6.0 (291) 43.4 + 10.6 (181) 40.5 + 6.4 (99) 42.8 + 6.1 (11) 44.6 + 9.6 (20) 40.0 + 10.9 (17) 40.0 + 6.6 (126) 43.2 + 10.0 (7) 36.4 + 5.6

(8) 49.4 + 9.4 (12) 46.7 + 9.6 (7) 40.0 + 5.0 (5) 43.0 + 2.7 (180) 39.9 + 8.7 (452) 42.0 + 6.9 (289) 42.4 + 9.3 (181) 41.1 + 5.6 (99) 42.8 + 7.3 (11) 43.2 + 9.3 (20) 37.5 + 7.0 (17) 39.7 + 6.5 (127) 42.1 + 8.9 (7) 40.0 + 5.8

platforms of the upper context 10 flakes (7.8%) than either the lower context 10 flakes (1.4%) or the Phase III/IV flakes (0.3%), and this difference is statistically significant (chisquare = 23.7 and 21.5 respectively, p < 0.005). Overhang removal also appeared to be restricted to the upper context 10 flakes, but so rarely that this feature is not statistically significant (Fisher exact test, p = 0.10 cf. lower context 10, p = 0.22 cf. Phases III and IV). Grinding was the most commonly observed form of preparation observed on the striking platforms of all sub-assemblages (10-14%), and no statistically significant differences were found in its frequency (chi-square = 0.06 – 1.89).

Further evidence of a distinctive reduction strategy for the assemblage from upper context 10 comes from my observations on flake initiations and striking platform preparation (Table 7.46). Compared to either lower context 10 or the Phase III/IV assemblage, the upper context 10 crystal quartz flakes have a lower proportion of Hertzian initiations on every comparable flake class. Further, the difference is statistically significant on every comparison involving “other” complete flakes (where samples sizes allow confident application of the chi-square test; chi-square = 121.8 – 204.3, p = 0.000). The method of detaching the upper context 10 flakes had led to a flat initiation region, without a recognisable Hertzian cone, in 65% of specimens (Table 7.46), owing to some combination of initiation taking place away from the side of the nucleus, and an angle greater than 90º of the nearby edge (cf. Cotterell and Kamminga 1990:141-2).

The complete flakes from Phases III and IV share the highest ratio of Hertzian initiations at Bellan-bandi Palassa, at 97 – 99%, and their difference from lower context 10 is statistically significant in that regard (Phase III, chi-square = 48.1, p = 0.000; Phase IV, chi-square = 21.2, p < 0.005). Consistent with this distinction, the average Phase III/Phase IV platform angle of 87.7º, while still close to a right angle, shows slightly more swelling at the point of initiation than either the average lower context 10 (89.0º) or upper context 10 (89.1º) platform angle, and the difference is statistically significant (t = 2.30, p < 0.025 and t = 3.52, p < 0.005, respectively). In no other respect (Table 7.46) can the postcontext 10 flakes be distinguished from those in the lower context 10 assemblage. Thus, their differences from the

Faceting was also more often present on the striking

170

Bellan-bandi Palassa Table 7.45 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): terminations on clear quartz flake classes.

Lower context 10 retou-ched complete flakes (8) Lower context 10 utilised flakes (n = 5) Lower context 10 other complete flakes (n = 460) Lower context 10 (473) Upper context 10 retouched complete flakes (12) Upper context 10 utilised flakes (n = 180) Upper context 10 other complete flakes (n = 296) Upper context 10 (488) Phase III/IV retouched complete flakes (n = 7) Phase III other complete flakes (n = 181) Phase IV other complete flakes (n = 99) Phase III/IV (n = 287)

Feather

Snap

Overpass

Step

Hinge

3

5

0

0

0

5

0

0

0

0

400

54

6

0

0

408

59

6

0

0

8

4

0

0

0

147

30

3

0

0

225

57

9

3

2

380

91

12

3

2

7

0

0

0

0

161

20

0

0

0

87

11

2

0

0

255

31

2

0

0

Lithics summary

context 10 flakes can be summarised in terms of larger size, high frequency of Hertzian initiations, and more acute edge angle – in other words, detachment at an early stage in the core-reduction process, as would also be consistent with the low occurrence of debitage other than complete flakes (cf. Flenniken and White 1985).

The results of my debitage analysis are not directly comparable with the stone artefact description by S.U. Deraniyagala (in Deraniyagala and Kennedy 1972). This is because I excavated a slightly different part of the site, with the potential for the representation of different activities, especially given the lack of pottery and fauna from my Phase III/IV levels; my attention to the Phase III/IV artefacts, which Deraniyagala did not publish; my focus on debitage analysis; and, I suspect, my recovery of specimens to a smaller size than those recovered by Deraniyagala. Therefore, it would not be advisable to generalise my findings beyond the M6 and M7 squares. It should be noted that no unequivocal support was found for treating the Phase III/IV artefacts excavated in 2005 as secondarily derived from the Phase II deposits of context 10, which does not rule out their being derived from multiple contexts other than context 10 of both prehistoric and historical periods. Only a further excavation targeting this problem could resolve this issue.

A brief description is appropriate of the opaque quartz and chert flakes. The (non-utilised) opaque quartz complete and transversely broken flakes, all from the context 10 upper spit, rarely have a Hertzian initiation (1/10) but do show grinding on the platform surface (3/10), and have nearly as many snap (3) as feather (5) terminations. Edge angles are relatively obtuse, more so on the right (46.5 + 8.8 degrees) than the left side (43.0 + 9.9 degrees), and the platform angle is close to 90 degrees (88.2 + 6.0º). The two complete chert flakes, both form Phase IV, are in fact the largest category of flaked products from the site, with an average weight of 9.6 g, average oriented length of 33.6 mm, average oriented breadth of 20.5 mm, and average oriented thickness of 9.5 mm. Both have feather terminations and Hertzian initiations, and their large striking platforms (average width 20.1 mm, average thickness 11.6 mm) show no preparation. Average edge angle varies between 45º on the right side and 40º on the left.

The assemblages from the bottom and middle spits of context 10 had the only four microliths, and the lowest ratio of opaque quartz to clear quartz. Compared to the 4.5 kg of fauna, flaked debitage was not particularly abundant (1.45 kg), and the majority of specimens are complete flakes. However, the large number (160) of cores and core fragments, weighing 4.2 kg (1.85 kg in the lower spit, 2.34 kg in the middle spit – Appendix F) point to local knapping. The flakes appear to have been detached from micro-blade and bipolar cores, and from other cores larger than those found in upper context 10, resulting in small flakes with moderate proportions of feather terminations and Hertzian initiations. A particular feature is large, thick retouched flakes with obtuse edge angles which were evidently

Finally, 24 non-flaked tools were excavated from context 10 during the 2005 excavation (Appendix F). All are of gneiss apart from three hammerstones of opaque quartz. Eleven of the gneiss lithics were also identified as hammerstones. The remainder consisted of two hammerstones also used as mullers or pounders (based on their use marks), a hammerstone with a single dimple, a dimpled nut-stone with seven pits (and traces of grinding use), three grinders (one exhibiting traces of yellow ochre), and two grindstones or grindstone fragments.

171

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Table 7.46 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): initiation and striking platform observations on clear quartz flakes. The summarised data for upper and lower context 10 flakes include observations on retouched and utilised transversely broken flakes.

Lower context 10 retouched complete flakes (n = 8) Lower context 10 utilised flakes (5) Lower context 10 other complete flakes (n = 453-9) Lower context other trans-versely broken flakes (n = 26-28) Lower context 10 (n = 498-507) Upper context 10 retouched complete flakes (n = 12) Upper context 10 utilised flakes (n = 180) Upper context 10 other complete flakes (n = 291-5) Upper context 10 other trans-versely broken flakes (n = 134-8) Upper context 10 (n = 648-651) III/IV retouched complete flakes (n = 7) III other complete flakes (n = 181) IV other complete flakes (n = 99) III/IV other transversely broken flakes (n = 7-9) Phase III/IV (n = 294-296)

Hertzian Initiations

Grinding Preparation

Faceting Preparation

Overhang Removal

Platform Angle

4/8 (50%)

1/8 (12.5%)

0/8 (0%)

0/8 (0%)

88.8º + 13.6

3/5 (60%)

0/5 (0%)

0/5 (0%)

0/5 (0%)

90.0º +0

347/453 (76.6%)

60/453 (13.2%)

7/453 (1.5%)

0/453 (0%)

89.0º + 7.1

15/26 (57.7%)

4/26 (15.4%)

0/26 (0%)

0/26 (0%)

89.8º + 0.9

374/498 (75.1%)

66/498 (13.3%)

7/498 (1.4%)

0/498 (0%)

89.0º + 7.0

5/12 (41.7%)

2/12 (16.7%)

1/12 (8.3%)

0/12 (0%)

87.9º + 5.0

42/180 (23.3%)

20/180 (11.1)

13/180 (7.2%)

3/180 (1.7%)

89.2º + 3.1

97/295 (32.9%)

43/295 (14.6%)

21/295 (7.1%)

0/295 (0%)

89.2º + 3.1

64/134 (47.8%)

19/134 (14.2%)

12/134 (9.0%)

0/134 (0%)

89.0º + 4.9

227/648 (35.0%) 7/7 (100%) 180/181 (99.4%) 96/99 (97.0%)

89/648 (13.7%) 0/7 (0%) 15/181 (8.3%) 13/99 (13.1%)

50/648 (7.7%) 0/7 (0%) 0/181 (0%) 1/99 (1.0%)

4/648 (0.6%) 0/7 (0%) 0/181 (0%) 0/99 (0%)

89.1º + 3.4 90.0º +0 86.9º + 11.5 88.8º + 5.2

6/7 (85.7%)

3/7 (42.9%)

0/7 (0%)

0/7 (0%)

90.0º +0

289/294 (98.3%)

31/294 (10.5%)

1/294 (0.3%)

0/294 (0%)

87.7º + 8.8

rejuvenated for the performance of scraping tasks. (These are also present in the upper context 10 sub-assemblage, but as a smaller component.)

The Phase III/IV assemblage is not large, 1.133 kg in all, and is probably derived from a part of the halo of habitation activities, both prehistoric and historical, occurring in the area excavated by Deraniyagala and Kennedy (1972). The complete flakes are relatively large and outnumber other artefacts, and have relatively acute edge angles (both retouched and non-retouched) and a very high proportion of Hertzian initiations. Along with the moderately high level of feather terminations, these observations are consistent with flakes detached at an early stage in the core-reduction sequence. A possible difference between the Phase III and Phase IV assemblages is suggested by the higher proportion of complete flakes (relative to flaked pieces) in Phase III, and the addition of chert flakes with Phase IV. Unfortunately, time did not permit investigation of utilisation evidence on the Phase III/IV lithics.

The assemblage from the upper spit of context 10 had the highest ratio of opaque quartz to clear quartz in the site. Weighing 2.8 kg, compared to 4.2 kg of fauna, and considering the 1.65 kg of cores and core fragments, the debitage represents a larger proportion of the excavated cultural remains compared to lower context 10. Intensive core reduction, but under less controlled flaking conditions, is indicated by the high proportion of flaked pieces and broken flakes, representing around 82% of the flaked products. The multiple rotated cores were reduced to a particularly small size, resulting in a low proportion of Hertzian initiations (35%) and relatively low proportion of feather terminations (78%). One objective of knapping would appear to have been the production of acute-edged flakes, which were selected from the knapped products and probably used mainly in cutting tasks.

7.9 Conclusions Bellan-bandi Palassa is located on an ecotone with access

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Bellan-bandi Palassa

Plate 7.6 Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): domesticated dog tooth; c. 12,000 cal BP (scale: 1 cm).

Plate 7.7. Bellan-bandi Palassa (2005): pig-eye shark tooth (Carcharhinus amboinensis) (scale: 1 cm).

to wet, upland and dry, lowland environments, very close to local ponds and within 2 km of the Uda Walawe river. These advantages appear to have been particularly important during the terminal Pleistocene, when the site was intensively occupied. Study of the fauna and the lithic debitage suggests cultural change during the period of terminal Pleistocene habitation, such as a particular focus on ungulates at one stage, and intensive core reduction as a late development. The arrival of the domestic dog, and exchange relations with the coast suggested by the occurrence of a shark tooth, also appear to have been new developments during the last period of terminal Pleistocene habitation at the site. In particular, adaptation to the local environment is clear from the lower contribution of monkeys and higher contribution of ungulates to the faunal refuse, compared to the Wet Zone sites. It reflects the biomass of monkeys vs. ungulates in these two zones.

Based on on-site macro-evidence, Deraniyagala and Kennedy (1972) interpreted the entire deposit above the main habitation layer as related to the construction of the ancient dam at the site. However, Ian Simpson’s micromorphological and thin-section analyses on a sediment block from context 9, and my own analyses, indicate a colluvial depositional history of long duration, which would have incorporated both prehistoric and historical artefacts from the surrounding area. Contexts 3 to 9 suggest a postcontext 10 shift in their lithic inclusions towards larger flakes and, if we may include the data of Deraniyagala and Kennedy (1972), the introduction of small amounts of pottery after 2000 BP, and a focus on monkey predation in the Middle Historic period. This interpretation need not be incompatible with Deraniyagala and Kennedy’s interpretation of successive episodes of dam construction, at least for the layers above context 9. The critical question of whether the cultural contents of the dam layers reflected the material culture (inclusive of lithics) at the time of construction, rather than comprising an admixture of historical and prehistoric material derived from multiple contexts in the site area, could only be resolved by a further excavation focusing on the post-context 10 contexts at the site. The proximity of Early Historic urban settlements, such as Galpaya, to Bellan-bandi Palassa, weighs in favour of the latter view.

The period of intensive habitation at Bellan-bandi Palassa is now dated to around 12,000 – 11,000 years cal BP. While this dating appears to supersede the early Holocene antiquity of the burials indicated by Wintle and Oakley’s thermoluminescence date, the circumstances under which the burials were excavated deny us a detailed knowledge of their stratigraphic context, and only a fresh excavation of a burial, failing which direct dating of the bone, will determine their age beyond reasonable doubt. What is clear, both from my excavation and S.U. Deraniyagala’s, is that the burials were concentrated in the area excavated by P.E.P. Deraniyagala, close to the current Bellan-bandi Palassa stream. The stream appears to have found its present location no earlier than the late Holocene, and its coincidence with the Bellan-bandi Palassa cemetery appears to have been the cause for the exposure of the burials, allowing the site’s discovery.

Unfortunately, my excavation cannot contribute further towards resolving this issue, because of the paucity of my Phase IV cultural remains, and because of the complications to archaeological interpretation introduced by the damconstruction activities at the site.

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Chapter 8 Prehistoric Social Archaeology in Sri Lanka

8.1 Introduction

(Kennedy 1999). A minority of the remains, such as the semi-fossilised Homo sapiens calotte found 2.74 m below the surface in a gem pit at Ellawala in the Ratnapura Beds (Kennedy 2000: 187-88), may represent individuals who had died alone. In addition, isolated teeth such as the single loose molars found at Ravanalla (Chapter 2), or the human teeth which occasionally crop up in rockshelter faunal assemblages, are hardly evidence of death, let alone burial, since we know from the many sets of jaws lacking one or more teeth that many people had shed permanent teeth during life. Cut marks on human bones from several of the rockshelters suggest cannibalism (P.B. Karunaratna pers. comm.; K. Manamendra-Arachchi pers. comm.), but details are unavailable. Nonetheless the great majority of the remains to be described here come from intentional burials.

The current chapter deals with evidence of symbolic behaviour and its wider social implications, based on the recovery of human burials, shell ornaments, ochre, and exotic artefacts such as the inland movement of shark teeth from the coast. At present there is no evidence for prehistoric rock art in Sri Lanka – the parietal engravings at Dorowakalena appear to be dated firmly to the Early Historical Period (Wijeyapala 1997: 443-47) – and a suggestion will be made as to why visual symbolic representations, as indicated through the recovery of ochre, had evidently been focused on body decoration and (presumably) three-dimensional art using perishable media. The Batadomba-lena shelter is critical to understanding Sri Lanka’s social archaeology, given the extent of the site and the intensity of occupation over tens of millennia. However, a number of other systematically excavated and dated sites in the Wet Zone show striking similarities to Batadombalena. In addition, Batadomba-lena would have been utilised as just one component of a social network which certainly would have extended to similar environmental and geological settings in the general vicinity during the tens of thousands of years recorded at the site. Therefore, this chapter synthesises the evidence regarding symbolic expression, not only from my main site but also from other occupied rockshelters – most notably Kitulgala Beli-lena, Alu-lena, and Fa Hien-lena, not to mention the open-air site of Bellan-bandi Palassa. 8.2 Burial Practices

As described in Chapter 2, early investigations in the rockshelters of Sri Lanka’s D1 Zone regularly recovered fragmentary human remains. This pattern of recovery is compatible with the remains documented from the professional excavations instigated by S.U. Deraniyagala, and so further attention to them in the present context would not add any additional information. Of particular note however is the Telulla Alu-galge burial, in Zone B, which appears to have been primary. Another noteworthy find is the Ravanalla frontal bone whose interior surface had been smeared with red ochre, and with possible evidence of other ritualistic treatment such as rubbing and the perforation of a circular pit at the zygomatic trigone (Kennedy 2000: 236). Sri Lanka’s main prehistoric burial series are summarised in Table 8.1 and detailed in the following text.

Sri Lanka boasts one of the richest and earliest records for Pleistocene fossils of anatomically modern humans in all of tropical Asia, particularly in comparison to India where such remains are yet to be identified with certainty

The Fa Hien-lena shelter is credited with the oldest known burials in Sri Lanka, based on their recovery in layers 4 and 5 with calibrated dates between c. 38,000 and 30,000 BP (Table 2.1). The description of the remains in Kennedy

Table 8.1 Main prehistoric human skeletal series from Sri Lanka. Site Fa Hien-lena Batadomba-lena Beli-lena Kitulgala Bellan-bandi Palassa Pallemalala midden Sigiriya-Potana Nilgala shelter

Minimum No. Individuals 14 35 13 30 7 2 3

Climate Zone D1 D1 D1 B A B C

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Antiquity 38-30 ka, 8-5 ka 37-32 ka, 19-15.5 ka 15.5-13,5 ka 12 ka Mid-Holocene? Mid-Holocene Mid-late Holocene?

Prehistoric Social Archaeology in Sri Lanka Table 8.2 Fa Hien-lena (1986): human remains. Individual

Layer

Age

Sex

Representation

Fa Hien 4 (≥ 2) Fa Hien 3 (≥ 2)

5 4a

Unknown Unknown

Fa Hien 1 (1)

4

Fa Hien 1 (2) Fa Hien 1 (3) Fa Hien 1 (4) Fa Hien 1 (5) Fa Hien 2 Fa Hien 7 (1) Fa Hien 7 (2) Fa Hien 5 Fa Hien 6

4 4 4 4 4 3a 3a 3 2

Unknown Unknown 5½ - 6½ (child) < 1 (infant) Infant Juvenile Adult Child Juvenile Infant ~ 5 years 17 – 21

Commingled secondary burials Commingled secondary burials Jaws, vault fragments, seven cervical vertebrae. Vault fragments Skull remains Skull remains Skull remains Mandible, teeth, cranial fragments Commingled secondary burial Commingled secondary burial Jaws, cranial and postcranial fragments Cranium, postcranial bones

Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Female Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Female

and Elgart (1988: 92-94) and Kennedy (2000: 181-82, 238-39) is summarised in Table 8.2. The two earliest burial sets, from layer 5 and Layer 4a (c. 38,000 BP), are both described as commingled remains of secondary burials, representing an indeterminate number of persons. It is noteworthy that the oldest known burials are also the least determinate, although this comminution might reflect the great age of the remains rather than a difference in mortuary practices compared to the site’s later burials. Fa Hien 1, associated with the B-N7-3 charcoal whose date calibrates to around 35,000 BP (Table 2.1), is also interpreted as the commingled remains of secondary burials. There is insufficient detail to decide whether the five persons had been buried at different times in the same location or buried together following treatment of the corpse prior to final disposal. As observed by Kennedy (2000: 181), the recovery of all of the child’s cervical vertebrae (as well as much of the skull) suggests burial of the neck bones attached to the incompletely decomposed head by desiccated tendons. Finally, Fa Hien 2, associated with charcoal that calibrates to around 35,000 BP, is another child represented by skull remains. Overall, the available Pleistocene evidence for Fa Hien-lena suggests a focus on skull burials, mainly of sub-adults, and presumably secondary.

Batadomba-lena has yielded the second oldest human remains in Sri Lanka, some of which exceed 30,000 years in age. The initial discoveries (discussed in due course) were exhumed by P.E.P. Deraniyagala, and the remainder during the site’s major excavation by S.U. Deraniyagala (1985) (Plate 8.1). Kennedy identified eight specimens (Batadomba-lena 10 to 18, in Kennedy and Elgart 1988) amongst the habitation material recovered from Layer 7c (Kennedy and Deraniyagala 1989). Kennedy and Deraniyagala (1989: 396) observed that several of these specimens revealed traces of burning, probably postdepositional alteration due to their proximity to fireplaces. The context of the remains and their lack of a grave outline suggest they may not have been intentional burials, although a thoracic vertebra (Batadomba-lena 12) is coloured with yellow ochre (Kennedy 2000: 183), which would certainly indicate ritual treatment of human relics. In identifying the individuals buried at Batadombalena, Kennedy evidently followed the presumption that specimens represent different persons unless clear evidence could be found of derivation from the same skeleton. Hence we have the remarkable coincidence of three different individuals from Layer 7c (Batadomba-lena 13, 14 and 15) being represented respectively by their third, fourth and fifth manual phalanges (Kennedy and Elgart 1988: 76), which may suggest they belong to the same individual. Further, Batadomba-lena 16, being a loose tooth, may not reflect a human death at all (Table 8.3). Description of the individual specimens in Kennedy and Deraniyagala (1989) provides enough evidence to distinguish between Batadomba-lena 11, 12 and 17 in their age at death, but neither of the latter is clearly distinct from Batadomba-lena 10. The summary of the list of remains (Kennedy and Elgart 1988: 75-77) in Table 8.3 thus recognises six potential buried individuals, four of them represented by parts of their skull, and five of them adult. The minimum number of individuals may be as small as four, consisting of three adults (both male and female) of different ages, and the child betokened by an unerupted molar. The apparent emphasis on skull remains is similar to the earliest Fa Hien-lena burials but the dominance of adults over sub-adults is not.

The early to middle Holocene burials from Fa Hien-lena diverge from their Pleistocene counterparts in that the emphasis on skull burials appears to have waned. These burials, Fa Hien 5 to 7 (Table 8.2), retain the emphasis on sub-adults but include a well-represented female. As observed by Kennedy (2000: 239), the distinct absence of mandible and extremity bones, and the colouration of the bones with red ochre, demonstrates the secondary nature of this burial. While it is reasonable to follow Kennedy’s (2000) conclusion in the inference of secondary burials throughout the Fa Hien-lena sequence, it may also be worth noting that sub-adults may have been treated to lesser attention in their mortuary treatment than adults, based on the restriction of ochre colouuration to the single adult. Burial goods are not evidenced anywhere in the record as the cultural remains found in proximity with the burials (Kennedy 2000) could all be cultural material in the burial fill.

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Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Table 8.3 Batadomba-lena: human remains. Specimen

Layer

Age

Sex

Representation

BDL 10 BDL 11 BDL 12 BDL 13/14/15

7c 7c 7c 7c

Female Male Unknown Unknown

Mandible Mandible, teeth, vault fragments Thoracic vertebra Third, fourth and fifth manual phalanges

BDL 16

7c

Unknown

Upper third molar (not a burial?)

BDL 17

7c

Unknown

Vault fragment

BDL 18 BDL 19 (≥2)

7c 6/7c

Adult Mature Senile Adult Mature/ senile. Young adult Juvenile Unstated

Unknown Unstated

BDL 1

6

25-30

Male

BDL 2 BDL 3 BDL 4 BDL 5 BDL 6 BDL 7 BDL 8 BDL 9 Unexcavated BDL 1 BDL 2 BDL 3 BDL 4 BDL 5 BDL 6 BDL 7 BDL 8 BDL 9 BDL 10

6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 5 4/5? 4/5? 4/5? 4/5? 4/5? 4/5? 4/5? 4/5? 4/5? 4/5?

35-40 Child Adult Adult Adult Adult Child Adult Unknown Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult Child

Female Unknown Male Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Male Male Unclear Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown

Unerupted permanent molar crown Commingled bones and teeth Mandible, teeth, cranial fragments, postcranial fragments Postcranial fragments Cranial fragments Mandible, teeth Clavicle fragment Clavicle fragment Tibia fragment Teeth, vault fragments Mandible, teeth Unexcavated Jaws, incomplete vault Vault fragments Scapula fragments Pelvic fragments Pelvic fragments Pelvic fragments Vault fragments Long bone fragment Mandible Milk teeth, permanent tooth germ

S.U. Deraniyagala (1985) recognised three burial features in layer 6, which dates to between 16,000 and 19,000 years ago (Table 4.6). Field observations indicated burials in shallow pits without identifiable outlines and not exceeding 45 cm in depth, covered by occupation debris, and interred in a flexed position in two cases. The three features were carefully lifted from the ground with the deposit surrounding the bone kept intact by a casing of plaster of Paris, with jute hessian and iron mesh for reinforcement. All three burial features were dispatched to K.A.R. Kennedy at Cornell University, who identified multiple individuals in the two burial features from Layer 6 (Kennedy 2000: 182-83). The two flexed burials, Batadomba-lena 1 and 2, are complete enough to indicate primary inhumations, making them the oldest known from Sri Lanka (Kennedy 2000: 183).

primary inhumations, and up to 14, including at least two children, were fractional, probably secondary, burials (cf. Kennedy 2000: 182-83). As noted in Chapter 4, the 2005 excavation of Batadombalena came upon a burial pit, and phalanges in the section (Daniel Rayner, pers. comm.), which were left in situ because of time constraints. Burials from layers 4 and 5 are tentatively represented by the ten identifiable specimens recovered by P.E.P. Deraniyagala (BDL 1 to 10 in italics in Table 8.3; cf. Kennedy and Elgart 1988: 74-76). These burials, if indeed from layers 4/5, would date to c. 13 to 15 ka (Table 4.6). I shall use ten as my estimate for the minimum number of individuals, although Kennedy (2000: 236) notes that up to 20 individuals might be represented amongst the commingled remains. Kennedy’s further inference of exposure of the bodies to fire and secondary burial needs to be put in the context of the repeated construction of hearths and earth ovens in layers 4 and 5 (Chapter 4). Any human remains in shallow interments could well have suffered disturbance, commingling and post-depositional burning. Definitive information is unfortunately not available because S.U. Deraniyagala did not encounter any burials in layers 4 and 5, and I was unable to exhume the burial I saw.

Kennedy and Elgart (1988: 76) listed seven further specimens from Layer 6, but Kennedy (2000: 183) indicates that 14 other specimens were finally retrieved from the same burial features that had contained Batadomba-lena 1 and 2. These specimens could include Batadomba-lena 19 which Kennedy and Elgart (1988: 77) described as “commingled bones and teeth of other individuals” from layers 6 and 7c. On present evidence I will use Kennedy’s most recent estimate of 16 individuals from Layer 6 (thus, six more than tabulated in Table 8.3), of which two were

176

Prehistoric Social Archaeology in Sri Lanka fragments from nine different layers, but Kennedy and Elgart (1998: 82) list only one mandible for the BKL 3 to 10 individuals they recognised. Although all the important Kitulgala Beli-lena human remains were reportedly sent to Kennedy for study (Wijeyapala 1997: 348), it is difficult to correlate the data of Wijeyapala, and Kennedy and Elgart. The best course of action may (sic) be to assign archaeological expertise to the archaeologist in charge and osteological expertise to the physical anthropologists involved. Accordingly, I follow Kennedy and Elgart in terms of which remains are assigned to which individuals, but I tentatively use the information in Wijeyapala (1997: 347) to infer that these individuals could have come from any layer between III-c-1, dated to c. 21,000 years ago (perhaps IV-b-2), and VI-b-1, dated to c. 9000 years ago (Table 2.2), while bearing in mind Kennedy and Elgart’s proviso about BLK 3-10. Table 8.4, which summarises the resulting compendium of information, also includes in italics a second BLK 3. This individual, identified as a secondary burial of a 5½ year old child, was reportedly recovered during the final excavation in 1987 from Layer III-a-2 (Wijeyapala 1997: 345), although its matrix in the plaster jacket suggested Layer IV-b-2. It appears distinct from any other burial in the site in terms of the layers that yielded human remains – the chart given by Wijeyapala (1997: 347) lists no human remains from III-a-2 – and in terms of skeletal constitution (none of BLK 1 to 10 as identified by Kennedy and Elgart could possibly correspond to this individual). This last individual is particularly important because of the age of the layer in excess of 31 ka (Chapter 2) and because of Wijeyapala’s report of a piece of yellow ochre found in association with the burial. Adding this individual to those represented by BLK 1 to 10, of which BLK 4 and BLK 6 represent two individuals each, we arrive at a minimum number of 13 individuals buried at Kitulgala Beli-lena.

Plate 8.1 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): human skeletal remains in situ, layer 6; 20,000 - 15,000 cal BP (scale: 50 cm).

The list of human remains from Kitulgala Beli-lena (Kennedy and Elgart 1988: 81-82) includes a semi-complete female skeleton and a child’s skull burial. These individuals (BLK 1 and 2 in Table 8.4), from Layer IV-b-II dated to 15,500 – 13,500 BP (Chapter 2), are the only two burials on which the accounts by Wijeyapala (1997: 344-49) and Kennedy and Elgart (1998: 81-82) agree. As examples of the level of disharmony, Kennedy and Elgart (1998: 82) assign most of the Kitulgala Beli-lena individuals to context (stratum) X, but this was a mixed layer with over 9400 potsherds, in striking contrast to Wijeyapala’s assignment of most of the human remains to the unmixed Layers III-c-1 to VI-b-1 (Wijeyapala 1997: 346-49). As another point of disagreement, Wijeyapala (1997: 347) lists 60 mandible

The Bellan-bandi Palassa individuals identified by Kennedy (in Kennedy and Elgart 1988: 86-89) amount to 35 individuals, i.e., Bellan-bandi Palassa 1 to 34 and the

Table 8.4 Kitulgala Beli-lena: human remains. Specimen

Layer

Age

Sex

BLK 1

IV-b-2

Adult

Female

BLK 2 BLK 3 BLK 4 BLK 4 BLK 5 BLK 6 BLK 6 BLK 7 BLK 8 BLK 9

IV-b-2 III – VI III – VI III – VI III – VI III – VI III – VI III – VI III – VI III – VI

Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown

BLK 10

Mixed

10-11 Child Adult Adult Adult Unstated Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult and sub-adult

Fragmentary cranium, mandible, postcranial bones Fragmentary cranium, teeth Vault fragment Fragmentary mandible Tooth, maxilla, radius, talus Tooth, vault fragments Vault fragments >27 teeth >8 teeth Neck vertebra Fragmentary radius

Unknown

Commingled bones and teeth

BLK 3

III-a-2 (IV-b-2?)

5½

Unknown

Dentition, long bones

177

Representation

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Table 8.5 Bellan-bandi Palassa (1956-61, 1970): representation of human skeletal elements (summarised from Kennedy and Elgart 1988: 86-89). Element Teeth Mandible Maxilla Cranial Vertebrae Sacrum Ribs Sternum Clavicle (twice bilaterally) Scapula (thrice bilaterally) Pelvis Humerus (bilaterally ten times) Radius (bilaterally six times) Ulna (twice bilaterally) Femur (bilaterally seven times) Tibia (bilaterally six times) Fibula Patella (once bilaterally) Manual extremities Pedal extremities “Postcranial bones”

5½ year old child (commingled with Bellan-bandi Palassa 26) not listed separately by these authors (plate 8.2 and 8.3). Daniel Rayner (pers. comm.) has identified cases of cross-joining fragments assigned by Kennedy to separate individuals, so his analysis of the individuals buried at the site may differ from Kennedy’s. Thus, Kennedy’s (2000: 237) assessment of up to 30 buried individuals (Table 8.1) may be closer to the mark than 35. Kennedy (2000: 237) observes that the original excavation by P.E.P. Deraniyagala recovered five flexed burials and two supine burials, and concludes that secondary burial is unlikely given the completeness of many of the skeletons. Daniel Rayner (pers. comm.) has also observed cases of articulating limb bones, which would be unlikely for secondary burials.

Adult Male

Adult Female

All Adults

4 3 2 4 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 4 3 3 5 4 1 1 2 3 0

3 3 0 5 2 0 2 0 3 2 1 3 3 2 2 2 0 0 3 3 0

16 12 5 17 7 1 8 1 6 7 6 14 9 6 10 7 1 1 10 10 12

through a combination of non-preservation, disturbance, and recognition failure during excavation, than with a scenario of secondary burials. As observed by Kennedy (2000: 237), the Bellan-bandi Palassa series is dominated by adults, with males (seven) and females (six) similarly represented. While the paucity of sub-adults might reflect their poorer preservation to some degree, in particular it would appear to reflect a different status for sub-adults compared to adults. As noted in Chapter 7, the part of Bellan-bandi Palassa where burials were excavated would appear to have been a cemetery. The human remains from the Nilgala shelter represent a child and two mature adults with heavily worn teeth (Sarasin and Sarasin 1908: 91-92). The fully erupted and lightly worn status of the deciduous teeth of the child’s jaw (Sarasin and Sarasin 1908: Plate IX [241]) would suggest an age at around five years old (cf. Hillson 1996: Fig. 5.9). Sarasin and Sarasin opined that the form of the vault fragments suggests intentional smashing, but discounted any possibility of cannibalism because none of the human fragments show traces of burning. The Sarasins’ description of heavy wear on the teeth of the other two individuals suggests that the Nilgala population had indeed experienced the rapid tooth wear rates that would be expected of huntergatherers (cf. Hillson 1996: 239). They also described the recovery of various adult postcranial fragments which may or may not represent separate individuals (Table 8.6). Finally, the Sarasins (1908: 91-92) mentioned a possible adult represented by a barely worn permanent incisor, but there is no reason to assume that the tooth represents mortuary activity, as teeth can be dislodged from the mouth through a variety of events, including incisor

Table 8.5 summarises the Bellan-bandi Palassa burial information in terms of the frequency of skeletal elements represented by number of individuals (as identified by Kennedy). The twelve cases of “postcranial bones” equate to highly fragmented individuals, whose description in terms of individual elements was not pursued by Kennedy, and five of which have no representation from the cranial skeleton. Similarly, three individuals are represented only by cranial remains. Looking at the individual elements, we see that those that are most durable (teeth, mandible, humerus), and/or most recognisable to archaeologists (cranium), occurred the most frequently. We can also observe that very small elements that would be prone to being lost during the primary mortuary ceremonies preparatory to secondary burial – manual and pedal extremities, and even the sternum and patella – are represented. Males and females are similarly represented for all skeletal elements. There is much greater consistency of these data with primary burials whose skeletal elements have been winnowed away

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Prehistoric Social Archaeology in Sri Lanka

Plate 8.2 Bellan-bandi Palassa (1956-61): human skull remains; c. 12,000 BP (scale: 1 cm).

Plate 8.3 Bellan-bandi Palassa (1956-61): human mandible; c. 12,000 BP.

evulsion traditionally practised in parts of Australia and Africa (Aufderheide and Rodriguez-Martín 1998: 411). Its proposed adult status is also questionable, because if the population had been experiencing heavy rates of occlusal wear, the incisors should have started showing substantial wear during the person’s teens (e.g., Richards and Brown 1981).

is compatible with the comminuted status of the human remains, which the Sarasins attributed to scavenger activity, it is not consistent with their observation of deliberate smashing of the child’s vault. Many of the assemblages from intentional burials in the Zone D1 shelters appear equally comminuted, and the Sarasins’ excavation technique may have been too coarse to have allowed them the opportunity to observe grave outlines, assuming these would have survived the disturbance to the deposits described by Sarasin and Sarasin (1908: 11). Accordingly, there is insufficient evidence to infer a difference in mortuary rites at the Nilgala shelter compared to the pattern documented at other rockshelters.

The Sarasins (1908: 91-92) inferred that the remains represent the vestiges of corpses abandoned by their kinsfolk, perhaps protected by loose vegetation or a stone lain on the chest, which they report to have been the wild Vaddas’ method of corpse disposal. While this inference

179

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Table 8.6 Nilgala shelter: human remains. Age

Sex

~5 years old Mature adult

Unknown Unknown

Mature adult

Male

Young adult (?)

Unknown

Representation Upper jaw fragment, cranial vault fragments Upper and lower anterior teeth, possible postcranial fragments. Lower jaw fragment, four cranial vault fragments, broken molar, possible postcranial fragments. Isolated incisor (not a burial?)

To conclude this survey of human burial remains, mention should be made of the two primary inhumations recovered in a flexed position from the Sigiriya-Potana shelter in a layer dated to c. 5800 BP (Adikari 1994a). The practice of primary inhumation recorded here, and also at the midHolocene Pallemalala shell midden (Ranaweera 2002), has Pleistocene antecedents in Sri Lanka, as will now be discussed.

may also reflect a social distinction between mature and “apprentice” members of society. Along the lines described by Pardoe (1988) for southeastern Australia, the Bellanbandi Palassa cemetery may have acted as a corporate statement of the land access rights of the hunter-gatherers who were fortunate enough to hold this ecotone. Sri Lanka’s rockshelters however do not appear to have been used as cemeteries or major burial repositories, and must have received only a tiny fraction of the thousands of individuals who had occupied those sites over the millennia. How representative the excavated remains are of Mesolithic forager burial practices is therefore unclear, but most probably rockshelters sporadically received individual burials at times when this was a convenient option for the relatives of the deceased. Variability in mortuary practices is evident from the use of ochre to paint the remains of two individuals, the occasional practice of flexed primary burials, and the possible distinction between skull burials and burials that included postcranial bones. However, there is no evidence of a directional change in mortuary practices over time. The variability in mortuary practices summarised by Deraniyagala (1992) for foragers in the South Asian and Southeast Asian region broadly corresponds to the variability observable in Mesolithic Sri Lanka.

Primary inhumation was the disposal method for two 16,000-19,000 year-old adults (male and female) from Batadomba-lena, and possibly also the disposal method for the 15,500-13,500 year-old female adult from Kitulgala Beli-lena. The Bellan-bandi Palassa burials, which may be cosidered 12,000 years old, were also primary interments, as was the undated Alu-galge burial. At the same time, secondary disposals are demonstrated by the ochre-coloured remains from pre-LGM Batadomba-lena and early Holocene Fa Hien-lena. The circumstantial evidence of highly fragmentary remains also strongly indicates secondary disposal for the majority of the burials in rockshelters. One particular expression involved skull burials, especially of children, most notably as observed in Layer 4 of Fa Hienlena but as recently as at the Nilgala shelter. This mortuary practice appears to be reliably inferred notwithstanding the difficulties of recording postcranial remains, especially of sub-adults, in deposits with less than optimal preservation conditions.

Interestingly, however, of all of these ethnographic accounts, Vadda practices would seem to be the least similar to those in prehistoric Sri Lanka. As described by Nevill (1887: 179), Sarasin and Sarasin (1908: 91-92), Seligmann and Seligmann (1911:147), and Spittel (1933:82-83), when a Vadda died at an open-air camp, the corpse was placed in a crevice or other secure place some distance from the camp, and covered with vegetation as protection against scavengers, or occasionally a large stone was placed on the chest. In the case of rockshelters, the corpse was left exposed at the site, and the shelter was abandoned, to be reoccupied only after a lengthy period when the bones were simply swept away. To the degree that these descriptions accurately reflect Vadda ethnographic practices, they would seem to represent a significant simplification of Sri Lanka Mesolithic mortuary customs.

Burial goods are not in evidence in Sri Lankan prehistory. Cultural material found near human remains, including the faunal remains and ochre associated by Wijeyapala (1997: 345) with the deepest burial at Kitulgala Beli-lena, is indistinguishable from the content that would be expected when the deposit removed to create a pit was returned. The practice of flexed burials recorded at several sites would be explicable in terms of reducing the labour required to dig a pit for the corpse (Deraniyagala 1992). Secondary burial, where it occurred, would also have saved on labour, although it would have involved at least a two-stage mortuary process with prior diminution of the physical remains of the deceased through temporary burial, exposure to the elements, or possibly exposure to fire. The age and sex composition of the rockshelter burials, considered as a whole, does not depart significantly from an expected demographic profile; the higher proportion of sub-adults at Fa Hien-lena compared to Batadomba-lena and Kitulgala Beli-lena may reflect chance. Interestingly, the three cases of ochre-coloured burial remains in rockshelters (including Ravanalla) were all adults. The clear predominance of adults at the Bellan-bandi Palassa cemetery (and at Pallemalala?)

8.3 Use of Pigments As observed above, ochre was very occasionally used in colouring the remains of the deceased, as in the cases of the thoracic vertebra with yellow ochre colouration dated to c. 30,000 years ago at Batadomba-lena, and the red-ochre colouration bones of the middle Holocene female from Fa Hien-lena. The Batadomba-lena specimen is paralleled

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Prehistoric Social Archaeology in Sri Lanka by the use of red ochre to coat the Willandra Lakes 3 burial, at Lake Mungo in Australia, which is currently dated to over 40,000 years ago (Bowler et al. 2003). There is considerable evidence for the use of pigments at Batadomba-lena in contexts other than mortuary rituals, as revealed by fragments of red ochre, yellow ochre, graphite, and mica from the earliest prehistoric occupation onwards, often smeared on stone artefacts that had been used to grind the pigment.

As noted above a piece of yellow ochre was found in reported association with the burial of a child from Layer III-a-2 at Kitulgala Beli-lena. This ochre is not listed amongst the site’s mineral finds by Wijeyapala (1997: 233-58) though it might have been included with the 1341 ochre pieces mentioned for the site in total (Wijeyapala 1997: 292; a figure somewhat less than the total of 1419 pieces as calculated by me). Tables 8.9 and 8.10 summarise Wijeyapala’s list of occurrences of ochre, graphite (including the mention on p. 292 of graphite in Layer VI-a), and artefacts with ochre stains. None were recorded from layers II, IV-a-1, IV-b-1, V-a-1, V-a-2, V-a-3, and VII-b, although in all cases this lack could be attributed to the general sparseness of finds from these layers. Only a small proportion of the identified grinders and mullers from this site actually bore recognised evidence of ochre stains, which suggests that the same point would also apply to Batadomba-lena (Table 8.7 includes all potentially suitable stone tools, whether bearing ochre stains or not).

As noted above a piece of yellow ochre was found in reported association with the burial of a child purportedly from Layer III-a-2 at Kitulgala Beli-lena. This ochre is not listed amongst the site’s mineral finds by Wijeyapala (1997:233-58) though it might have been included with the 1341 ochre pieces mentioned for the site in total (Wijeyapala 1997:292; a figure somewhat less than the total of 1419 pieces as calculated by me). Tables 8.9 and 8.10 summarise Wijeyapala’s list of occurrences of ochre, graphite (including the mention on p. 292 of graphite in Layer V1-a), and artefacts with ochre stains. None were recorded from layers II, IV-a-1, IV-b-1, V-a-1, V-a-2, V-a-3, and VII-b, although in all cases this lack could be attributed to the general sparseness of finds from these layers. Only a small proportion of the identified grinders and mullers from this site actually bore recognised evidence of ochre stains, which suggests that the same point would also apply to Batadomba-lena (Table 8.7 include all potentially suitable stone tools, whether bearing ochre stains or not).

Although red ochre (from Layer III-a-1) is the oldest recognised ochre at Kitulgala Beli-lena, the layers dated to between 25 and 20 ka BP show a strong preponderance of yellow ochre (and tools with yellow ochre stains), compared to the layers from 15 ka BP onwards when red ochre, and stones with red ochre stains, are numerically dominant (Tables 8.9 and 8.10). This changeover, with greater use of yellow ochre during the LGM, would suggest cultural choice, since access to both red and yellow ochre would not have changed through time. In any event, as is the case at Batadomba-lena, use of ochre is demonstrated from the onset of regular use of the rockshelters for habitation.

Tables 8.7 and 8.8 summarise the evidence from Batadomba-lena (1980-82) for the use of pigments. Code numbers 45 to 47 represent different grindstones. Type 45 connotes a grindstone with signs of use such as one or more large depressions, one or more small depressions (of approximately 8 cm diameter), or a deep groove. Often these used surfaces reveal smears of red ochre, graphite and chalk. Type 46 stands for dimple-pitted hammerstones, some of which display surfaces smoothed by grinding, as well as traces of red ochre. Fractured specimens are common. Type 47 connotes dimple-pitted nut-stones, which are large and multiple pitted and, at times, with signs of having been used for a grindstone. Red ochre has been ground on some specimens. As indicated in Table 8.7, these utilised stones regularly occur from Layer 7c (dated to c. 36,000 years ago) through to Layer 2 (terminal Pleistocene), in a pattern that correlates with other debris and indications of intensity of habitation.

The evidence from Batadomba-lena and Beli-lena Kitulgala suggests that ochre should be a common occurrence at Sri Lanka prehistoric sites, regardless of their age. Ochre was also used to coat the Ravanalla human frontal. Wijeyapala (1997: 381) mentions pigment at an unspecified level at Fa Hien-lena, and as noted above a mid-Holocene burial from the site had its bones coated with ochre. Deraniyagala and Kennedy (1972: 36) recorded a single piece of red ochre from their excavation at Bellan-bandi Palassa, while noting that none of the burials from the site show traces of ochre coating (as would be understandable of primary burials). Observations from the 2005 season at Bellan-bandi Palassa include traces of yellow ochre on a grinder from context 10, dated to the terminal Pleistocene (Appendix F). Numerous pieces of used red and yellow ochre have been found in the Mesolithic artefact-bearing sites of the basal gravels of the Iranamadu Formation in the south of the island, which have been dated to 28,000 years BP from thermoluminescence (Deraniyagala 1992: 239, 245, 248, 250, 251, 257). Moreover, a considerable number of used red and yellow ochre pieces have reportedly been found in the mid-Holocene habitation deposits of the Warana and Pilikuttuwa rockshelters, in Gampaha District (Gamini Adikari, pers. comm.)

Categories 48a to 51 in Table 8.8 represent used red ochre (48a), red ochre without evidence of use (48b), used yellow ochre (49a), yellow ochre without signs of use (49b), used graphite (50), and graphite fragments with or without sign of use (51). The frequencies of these pigments appear to rise and fall steadily with the number of stones that had been used, or had the potential to be used, for grinding pigment, as well as the quantity of habitation debris (e.g., Tables 5.3 and 6.1). These data demonstrate that the occupants of the shelter were employing pigment, presumably for body decoration or colouring their artefacts of perishable material, from the outset.

The lack of prehistoric parietal art in Sri Lanka might be surprising in view of the abundant evidence for the use of pigments from as early as 40,000 years ago. A simple

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Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Table 8.7 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): grindstones and potential grindstones. Phase

Layer

IVa IVb IVc Va Vb VI VII VIII IX Total

7C 7B 7A 6 5 4 3 2 1

Used Grindstones type 45 3 5 8 12 11 8 10 8 – 65

Dimple-pitted Hammerstones type 46

Dimple-pitted Nutstones type 47

2 4 9 15 14 13 7 3 – 67

1 4 6 17 7 18 8 4 – 65

Total 6 13 23 44 32 39 25 15 0 197

Table 8.8 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): pigment fragments. Phase

Layer

IVa IVb IVc Va Vb VI VII VIII IX Total

7C 7B 7A 6 5 4 3 2 1

Ochre type 48a

Ochre type 48b

Ochre type 49a

Ochre type 49b

Graphite type 50

Graphite type 51

Total

24 38 40 125 173 80 25 17 – 542

50 25 65 134 170 101 10 3 – 558

60 49 82 102 144 50 40 25 – 552

69 70 83 50 113 89 54 81 – 609

25 17 33 51 62 35 12 5 – 240

17 23 19 20 36 14 13 6 – 148

245 222 322 482 698 369 134 137 0 2649

explanation might be the dark colour of the gneiss surfaces of Sri Lanka’s rockshelters, providing poor contrast with any ochre or graphite pigments painted onto the shelter walls. Engravings would also be difficult to make out. When we look at prehistoric parietal art across the world there is an obvious tendency for it to be found in limestone and sandstone shelters, where the whitish to yellowish background contrasts with the applied pigment or engravings (e.g., van Heekeren 1972: 117-23; Mellars 1994: 73; Flood 2000: Chapter 11). The availability of these surfaces may not be a sufficient condition for flourishing parietal art, but it is a necessary condition, one that Sri Lanka lacks.

6.5), which is dated to 20-19 ka BP (this was probably not an ornament, but used as barbed point) and fragments of a marine bivalve and a cowrie from Layer 5, dated 17-15 ka BP, and a shark’s tooth from Layer 3 (Figure 8.1). Another shark tooth was also recovered from a context dated to ca. 38 ka cal BP at Fa Hien-lena in the 2009 excavations (Plate 8.9). The nearest coastal area to Batadomba-lena is Sri Lanka’s south coast, which lies some 50 km away. The distance by foot would have been much greater in Sri Lanka’s rugged terrain, and it would be reasonable to assume that the marine shell bead had reached Batadombalena through several linked exchanges. Evidence for the use of local resources in crafting ornaments starts at Layer 6, dated to the height of the LGM at 20-15.5 ka BP. Here we find two distinctive disc beads made of mother of pearl, from the river bivalve Unio anodontina. They are remarkable for the fine work executed on them, notably the extremely thin serration along the edges of one and the fine threading hole in the centre (Figure 6.4; Plate 8.10). A similar example to the latter was recovered from Layer 5 (Figure 6.3), immediately postdating the height of the LGM. A shark vertebra bead was also recovered from a context dated to c. 38 ka BP from Fa-Hien-lena (2009) (Plate 8.5).

8.4 Ornaments and Exotic Items Ornaments and exotic items are treated together because at least some of the items of marine origin found in rockshelters were ornaments. As argued by Deraniyagala (1992), Mellars (1994, 2006) and others, ornaments mark a form of symbolism associated with modern humans and a collective understanding among the particular group of people that produced the jewellery. The oldest at Batadomba-lena is a bead of marine shell (univalve) from Layer 7c dated to 37-32 ka BP (Figure 6.11; Plate 8.4). The bead indicates personal ornamentation in Sri Lanka from a very early period. Contact with the coast is indicated by the spine of a sting-ray recovered from Layer 7a (Figure

Kitulgala Beli-lena is similar to Batadomba-lena in revealing long-term contact with the coast, notwithstanding

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Prehistoric Social Archaeology in Sri Lanka Table 8.9 Kitulgala Beli-lena: pigment-stained stones. Layer III-a-1 III-a-3 III-b-1 III-c-1 III-c-2 III-c-3 IV-b-2 IV-b-3 VI-a-1 VI-b-1 VII-a-1 VII-a-2 VIII-a-1 IX-a-1 X Total

Date (ka BP)

Muller, Yellow Ochre

> 31 24.5 22 21 20 15 14 13.5 8 9 4 4 Undated Undated Disturbed

Grindstone, Red Ochre

0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 5

Muller, Red Ochre

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 16 1 0 0 6 25

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 3

Total 0 1 1 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 16 2 0 0 10 33

Table 8.10 Kitulgala Beli-lena: pigment fragments. Layer

Date (ka BP)

Red Ochre

Yellow Ochre

Graphite

Total

III-a-1 III-a-3 III-b-1 III-c-1 III-c-2 III-c-3 IV-b-2 IV-b-3 VI-a-1 VI-b-1 VII-a-1 VII-a-2 VIII-a-1 IX-a-1 X Total

> 31 24.5 22 21 20 15 14 13.5 8 9 4 4 Undated Undated Disturbed

1 34 8 0 0 68 93 0 63 76 168 83 57 7 223 881

0 101 34 14 38 48 62 0 35 7 120 2 5 0 62 528

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 X 0 0 0 0 0 10 > 10

1 135 42 14 38 116 155 0 > 98 83 288 85 62 7 295 > 1419

the greater distance involved (>80 km today, as the crow flies). A shell of the lagoon habitat gastropod Potamides cingulatus was found in Layer III-c-1 which dates to c. 21 ka BP (plate 8.11). This mollusc lives in their millions on lagoon flats in the inter-tidal zone and, as it is inconspicuous, the only mechanism by which it could have reached Beli-lena is as an inclusion within rock salt. Today, rock salt is collected in the form of evaporates located along the coast in Zone A, and often has inclusions of this mollusc (Deraniyagala 1992: 317). This evidence for contact between the coast and the rainforest communities in Kitulgala Beli-lena at c. 21 ka BP here takes on a very practical guise, given the value of imported salt in providing sodium chloride and iodine to communities in iodinedeficient areas.

the guise of a shark’s tooth from Layer VII-a-2 (Wijeyapala 1997: 343), dated to c. 4 ka BP (Table 2.2). Wijeyapala (1997: 320) further mentions specimens of marine molluscs from his excavation, although none appear to have been fashioned into ornaments, as well as some evidence of Acavus snails with perforations through the body-whorl. Excavations in 2009 at Fa Hien-lena yielded several perforated marine shells which could have served as beads as well as an Acavus shell with multiple perforations which could have been a pendant, all of which are assigned to a layer dated to ca 38 ka cal BP (Plates 8.6-8). During 2005, a tooth from a pig-eye shark (Plate 7.11) was excavated in context 10 in Bellan-bandi Palassa, dated to c.12 ka BP, and which appears to have been used as an ornament. A shark’s tooth was also recovered from Layer 1 at Fa Hien-lena (Wijeyapala 1997: 386), which is unfortunately disturbed but may be Pleistocene (Chapter 5).

Much later evidence of contact with the coast appears in

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Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka The ethnography on the Vaddas collected by the Sarasins and the Seligmanns indicate that, at around 1900, neither men nor women tattooed or painted themselves, or wore ornaments of any kind (Sarasin 1939: 143; Seligmann and Seligmann 1911: 205, 207). However, in earlier times women are remembered to have worn necklaces of shell (Lewis 1911: 125) and bone marrow was apparently used as an ointment on hair and skin (Nevill 1887: 189). Once again we seem to be dealing with the situation where Vadda ethnography is not of particular help in illuminating Sri Lanka’s Mesolithic archaeological record. Of more relevance are the indications of symbolic behaviour in archaeological sites dating to around the same time as the early occupation of Sri Lanka by anatomically modern Homo sapiens.

Plate 8.4 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): marine shell bead from layer 7c; 37,000-32,000 cal BP (scale: 1 cm).

Blombos Cave in South Africa has yielded pieces of red ochre with incised geometric designs dated to c. 75 ka BP. Another southern African site, Diepkloof, has produced fragments of water containers, made of ostrich shell, with similar geometric designs, dated to c. 75 and 60 ka BP. Carefully shaped and perforated beads of ostrich shell have not only been recovered from southern African sites of the same antiquity (Mellars 2006: 798) but also from Patne and Jwalapuram, in India (Sankalia 1974: 226-8; James and Petraglia 2005), where they are of around the same age as the earliest beads from Batadomba-lena. Mellars (2006) would appear to have a strong case in associating the appearance of symbolic behaviour along the rim of the Indian Ocean, whose earliest dates occur in sub-Saharan Africa, with the eastward dispersal of anatomically modern Homo sapiens (as indicated by the genetic evidence). The appearance of ochre in the earliest habitation layers in Sri Lanka’s rockshelters, as described above, contributes additional support to the case.

Figure 8.1 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): shark tooth from layer 3, undated (K. Manamendra-Arachchi del).

lena and its larger counterparts, Kitulgala Beli-lena and Fa Hien-lena, are easily large enough to accommodate several hearths at any one time. In addition, when in 1907 the Sarasins visited an isolated family of Vaddas in the Danigala mountains, they recorded a tiny hut which catered for six men, three women and six children. Only the married couples and children slept inside the hut; the unmarried men were required to sleep next to a fire outside the hut (Sarasin 1939: 166-67). It is not necessary to assume an extended residential family of this kind in prehistoric Sri Lanka to realise that a single hearth hardly indicates its use by the entire residential kindred.

8.5 Social Organization and the Basic Family Unit The use of space in the Sri Lanka rockshelters is well illustrated by the numerous traces of discrete fireplaces represented in phases Va and Vb at Batadomba-lena, dated to c. 15 ka BP, with a diameter generally in the order of one metre. With their micro-strata of ash and burnt shell lime, these hearths suggest short-term activities over restricted areas by small groups (Chapter 4). Similarly, at Kitulgala Beli-lena, the horizon dated to 15 – 13 ka BP revealed several discrete fireplaces (evidenced by reddening of the underlying colluvial yellow loam) with each measuring approximately 1 m in diameter. Hearths are used as places for multiple purposes, including cooking, sleeping, warmth and light, and the focus around which people can relax, interact socially, or engage in ceremonies (Nena 1997).

Notwithstanding the considerable caution that should be exercised in applying information on Vadda social organisation to Mesolithic Sri Lanka, it is of interest to consider Vadda social organisation. Brow (1978: 84-86) recorded that the conjugal (nuclear) family was the most common household unit amongst the Anuradhapura Vaddas. Whether this was also the case amongst the wild Vaddas is entirely unclear. As described by Brow, the predominant interest of the Seligmanns, and Edmund Leach’s commentary on their work, is whether the Vadda hunter-gatherers had been organised into matrilineal clans. If so, this type of social organisation would be incompatible with nuclear family units. However, the Seligmanns clearly strayed well beyond their evidence in attempting to find a Dravidian kinship system among the Vaddas and a

If we assume that there was only one fireplace in use at any time, and that the entire family unit congregated around this single fireplace, then we would infer that the nuclear family was the basic family unit (Deraniyagala 1992). This is because fireplaces of one metre diameter would not have been large enough to have serviced more than a single nuclear family at a time. However, there is little basis to insist on either of these assumptions. Batadomba-

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Prehistoric Social Archaeology in Sri Lanka

Plate 8.7 Fa Hien-lena (2009): marine shell bead; c. 38,000 cal BP, dorsal and ventral views (scale: 1 cm).

Plate 8.8 Fa Hien-lena (2009): shell pendant (Acavus); c.. 38,000 cal BP, dorsal and ventral views (scale: 1 cm).

connection with the rainforest Dravidian speakers of India (Brow 1978: 17-26). If we turn to the Semang rainforest foragers of Peninsular Malaysia, who were organised into nuclear family foraging units, we might have a plausible ethnographic analogy for Mesolithic Sri Lanka, except that in this case Semang social organisation is not a suitable analogy even for prehistoric Malaya. As argued by Bulbeck (2003), the ethnographic social organisation of the Semang appears to have been an adaptation to the threat of slave raiding and the opportunities provided by the blowpipe for taking arboreal game, and the chronological change in faunal refuse suggests that the Semang form of social organisation had come into existence only within the last few thousand years.

Plate 8.5 Fa Hien-lena: shark vertebra bead; c. 38,000 cal BP, anterior and posterior views (scale: 1 cm).

8.6 Conclusions This chapter’s survey of Sri Lanka’s prehistoric social archaeology demonstrates fully modern behaviour (cf. James 2007) from the onset of rockshelter habitation in the order of 40,000 years ago. One example is the practice of intentional burial, including ritualistic treatment of the remains, notwithstanding the lack of evidence for grave goods. Two other examples are the fashioning of ornaments, and the use of ochre and other pigments at a level of regularity greater than that currently recorded for archaic hominins. In addition, the modern utilization of space is evidenced by the intact remains of discrete hearths at two sites, Batadomba-lena and Kitulgala Beli-lena, after 15,000 BP. This evidence is fully compatible with the behavioural modernity of these early Sri Lanka hunter-gatherers implied by their regular use of composite tools, as testified by the occurrence of microliths and bone points throughout the Batadomba-lena sequence (Chapter 6). As discussed by

Plate 8.6 Fa Hien-lena: marine shell bead; c. 38,000 cal BP, dorsal and ventral views (scale: 1 cm).

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Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka

Plate 8.10 Batadomba-lena (1980-82): a disc-bead made from shell; layer 6, 20,000-15,000 cal BP, dorsal and ventral views (scale: 1 cm). Note incised serrations along margin.

Plate 8.9 Fa Hien-lena: shark tooth; c. 38,000 cal BP, posterior and lateral views (scale: 1 cm).

Plate 8.11 Kitulgala Beli-lena: lagoon shell, Potamides cingulatus; c. 21,000 cal BP (scale: 1 cm).

James (2007) for South Asian sites generally of the last 40,000 years, the Pleistocene rockshelter deposits in Sri Lanka may not reveal the “explosion” of modernity and symbolic behaviour found in contemporary European sites, but they do signify a consistent signature of unmistakably modern human behaviour throughout their sequences. Of particular interest is the indication of long-term contacts with the coast, as suggested by Sri Lanka’s oldest known object of marine origin, a shark’s vertebra bead dated to c. 38 ka BP from Fa Hien-lena. In view of the coastal route taken by Homo sapiens from Africa, as indicated by current genetic and archaeological evidence (Mellars 2006), we may be dealing here with a trace of the exploration of Sri Lanka’s wet lowlands by settlers with an originally maritime orientation. All the Zone D1 rockshelters with very early deposits (more than 30,000 years old) appear to register merely low intensities of habitation at that

time. This suggests that hinterland groups were still in the process of establishing themselves and their independence from coastal populations – although it is very likely that taphonomic factors, associated with colluvial sedimentation in the basal levels of rockshelter deposits, were also responsible for the low density of cultural materials in these basal horizons.

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Chapter 9

Toward the Amplified Study of the Prehistory of Sri Lanka

9.1 Introduction

conditions of Oxygen Isotope Stage 4, between c. 70,000 and 45,000 BP, Field et al. (2007) find that colonists who had reached India’s far southern tip would probably have migrated north of Adam’s Bridge rather than follow the isthmus southwards into Sri Lanka. This is not consistent with the dates greater than 70,000 BP (or younger than 45,000 BP) from the southern Iranamadu Formation sites which, as explained in Chapter 1, occur in raised sand dunes model deposited through the high sea-levels of interglacial phases. In particular, the early Iranamadu Formation dates to the same time as the Toba super-eruptiion of c. 74,000 years ago, which created colder conditions across the planet and may have impacted particularly severely on Asia’s inhabitants (Oppenheimer 2005: 166-69; Jones 2007). On the other hand, Sri Lanka (along with parts of India) may have been spared the worst effects of the Toba ash shower (Jones 2007), and the Jwalapuram sequence in southern India reveals continuity of a ‘Middle Palaeolithic’ assemblage despite more than 2 metres of ash having fallen here (Petraglia et al. 2007). Thus, it is difficult to entertain a scenario with a depopulated Sri Lanka between the c. 75,000-year-old Iranamadu Formation sites, and c. 50,000 years ago when, according to some researchers, Sri Lanka’s coasts would have been reached by a southern, coastal dispersal of early Homo sapiens migrating eastward from Africa (Macaulay et al. 2005; Mellars 2006).

One major obstacle to a full reconstruction of Sri Lankan prehistory is the limited extent of evidence from the earliest sites, as described in Chapters 1 and 2 (see also Deraniyagala 1992). The oldest sites that can be dated even approximately occur in the Iranamadu Formation, particularly in the north and southeast of the country. The red colouration of the soil here is due to latosolic tropical weathering with a high percentage of oxidation of the iron particles in the soil.The hostile taphonomic conditions have reduced the archaeological record to inorganic remains. The Ratnapura Beds are less promising despite their being one of the major sources of palaeontological evidence for Sri Lanka. These beds of alluvial sediment fill the valleys of the rugged country in the south-western and south-central hinterland of the island and consist mainly of sands, silts and clays ranging up to 30 m or more in depth, with gravel intercalations in the basal levels. This gravel occasionally yields artefacts made of quartz and chert but, in contrast to the extinct animal remains, the artefacts cannot be usefully dated from their morphology alone. In particular, any association with extinct fauna could well be the result of secondary or tertiary deposition, limiting the information that can be derived from them. The evidential basis expands to include faunal refuse and people’s use of space only with the rockshelter deposits in the D1 Wet Zone from approximately 40,000 BP onwards. As will be outlined below, the Pleistocene sequence from Batadomba-lena can be schematically divided into four periods. It lies beyond the scope of this work to investigate rigorously how generally these three periods can be applied to Sri Lanka’s prehistory, but the impressive parallels between the Batadomba-lena and Kitulgala Beli-lena Pleistocene sequences in their faunal remains (Chapter 5) and symbolic dimensions (Chapter 8) are encouraging. In addition, the last period at Batadomba-lena, which can be glossed as the terminal Pleistocene, overlaps with the sequence from the major open-air site of Bellan-bandi Palassa. This allows some comparison between rockshelter and open-air sites in their archaeological signature for this period.

9.2 Batadomba-lena Periods The first schematic period at Batadomba-lena relates to layer 7, or Phases IVa to IVc. Dated to between 37,000 and 19,000 years ago, it should have been a period of considerable climatic change as the cooler conditions of the LGM set in. Remains of the warm rainforest Acavus and Oligospira terrestrial snails are few in layer 7 (Tables 5.1 and 5.2), especially layers 7b and 7a (approaching the height of the LGM), but the fauna from the 1980-82 excavation shows a high proportion of monkeys in these layers (Table 5.10). Classification of the monkey remains to species level was not possible, but they are assumed to represent two forms found in rainforests, the toque macaque and purple-faced leaf monkey, based on the rainforest signature of the general faunal assemblage. The prevailing climate at Batadomba-lena would therefore appear to have shifted from D1 to D2 conditions (in present terms) as the LGM set in. This scenario can be tested through future classification of the layer 7 monkey remains by an expert in cercepithecoid osteology, to confirm the absence of grey langurs (not found in the Wet Zone) and also to investigate

Whether the Pleistocene record at Batadomba-lena and other Sri Lanka rockshelters can be linked to the earlier archaeology from the Iranamadu Formation sites remains unclear on current evidence. In their modelling of potential colonisation routes by early humans during the glacial

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Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka an increase, over time, of the subspecies of the purple-faced leaf monkey found in the D2 rather than the D1 Zone.

and corresponding increase in squirrel identifications (Table 5.10). Charcoal from the canarium nut rather than wood increasingly figures in the plant macrofossils (Appendix C). The growing importance of this lowland rainforest tree testifies against a shift to cool and dry conditions (extrapolating from the Horton Plains sequence) as the cause for the steep decline in Acavus and Oligospira. The likely scenario is a disturbed habitat, providing habitat for a wider range of rainforest vertebrates, captured more through trapping or with bone-tipped projectiles than microlith-tipped projectiles (see Chapter 6). A growing role of plant resources and their management is suggested by the importance of canarium and the evidence for habitat disturbance.

Notwithstanding any climatic change, the pattern of occupation of Batadomba-lena evidently changed little. Sedimentary build-up was slow, with only c. 85 cm having accumulated over some 17,000 years (Chapter 4), and evidence of deliberate burials is lacking. Layer 7 was however characterised by a greater variety and proportional occurrence of microliths (including the very small bimarginal points) than the higher layers, potentially related to a distinct sub-population of thin featherweight flake fragments recovered from this layer (Chapter 4). Layer 7c also yielded a complete Balangoda Point from the site (Plate 3.1), and a considerable number and variety of bone points, including polished specimens (Chapter 4). The toolkit thus suggests a focus on projectile points, and probably bowpropelled arrows, given also the reconstructed rainforest environment and high monkey cull. Exotic items from the coast were found from layer 7c onwards, pointing to longrange contacts, which may also be the appropriate context where to place the otherwise anomalous axis deer tooth from layer 7c (Table 5.9). In sum, at least in Batadombalena and its surrounds, mobility would appear to have been high and population densities low during this period, and the economy centred on hunting arboreal game, including through archery.

Layer 3 (phase VII) was associated by Deraniyagala (1982) with temporary abandonment of the shelter, and it is certainly represented only sketchily in the 2005 excavation. This suggests that after 6000 years of intensive habitation at the site, the environment had been depleted of too many resources to sustain forager occupation. The shark tooth from layer 3 (Figure 8.2) may represent arrival from elsewhere. In sum, reduction in intensity of habitation in the locale appears to have permitted recovery of the rainforest vegetation. Whether this use of the local landscape was sustainable cannot be determined, owing to the damage to the upper deposits wreaked during historical times at the site. However, from other D1 rockshelters we know that foragers continued to flourish in this Zone (Chapters 1 and  2).

The second schematic period corresponds to layers 6 and 5 (Phase V), dated to 20,000 to 14,000 years ago. In substantial agreement with Premathilake’s sequence for the Horton Plains, this would appear to have been a time of climatic amelioration, as reflected by the strong occurrence of Acavus and Oligospira in the faunal material (Table 5.2). The mammalian fauna was still dominated by monkeys (Table 5.10), and microliths were still a notable part of the toolkit (Tables 6.1 to 6.3). However, during this period Batadomba-lena appears to have served as a base camp. Over one metre of deposit, including numerous hearth layers, accumulated over some 6000 years. Most (and potentially all) of the burials in the site relate to this period, not because the shelter was used as a cemetery, but presumably reflecting the relatively frequent occurrence of deaths within proximity of the site. Layer 5 has the largest lithic assemblage of any layer (Table 6.1), and the recovery of numerous freshwater molluscs, as well as terrestrial snails (Table 5.2) and freshwater fish (Table 5.6), suggests a shift towards small and/or aquatic resources in the broadspectrum strategy of these rainforest foragers. The two ornaments of freshwater shell (Chapter 8) also point to localisation of mobility patterns, although the cowry and marine bivalve fragments indicate some maintenance of wide-ranging exchange networks.

Coincidentally with disintensification at Batadomba-lena, Bellan-bandi Palassa appears to have been established as a semi-permanent base camp at c. 12,000 BP, fostered by its proximity to fresh water (Chapter 7). Its strategic location between wet uplands and dry lowlands appears to have afforded access to a wide range of game, with deer and other ungulates important. Artefact sizes of the Phase II assemblage are consistently smaller than those of Batadomba-lena layers 2 and 3 (compare the figures in Tables 7.12 to 7.17 with those in Tables 6.22 to 6.27 for clear quartz, and those in Tables 6.16 to 6.20 for opaque quartz). This points to more intense core reduction at Bellan-bandi Palassa associated with intensity of occupation. Microliths are present but few and marginally backed (Appendix F); the curation of large, thick flakes for maintenance activities is a feature of the assemblage. The establishment of a cemetery at Bellan-bandi Palassa reinforces the impression of a concentration of natural resources near the site. 9.3 Implications for the Three Major Research Questions One major question for Sri Lanka’s culture history was to test rigorously the evidence for microliths in excess of 30,000 years ago. At Batadomba-lena, layer 7c yielded the greatest variety and greatest concentration of microliths, and the five lithics from the excavated (2005) sediment sample (context 71) included a microlith and a microlith backing flake (Chapter 6). The association between initial habitation and microliths at the Zone D1 rockshelters is

The third schematic period corresponds to layer 4 (Phase VI), dated to 16,000 to 12,000 years ago. It is around one metre thick in the 2005 excavation, and characterised by pits with complex fill, provisionally interpreted as earth ovens. The mollusc component of the fauna shows a predominant focus on freshwater shell (Table 5.2), and the mammalian component has a distinct decline of monkey identifications

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Toward the Amplified Study of the Prehistory of Sri Lanka strongly confirmed, and at Batadomba-lena the microlithic technology evidently waned over time.

rockshelters suggests the same for Sri Lanka. One particular benefit of the Batadomba-lena record is the recovery of marine items from the deep layers. These have some value as a proxy record for coastal sites which in most cases would have been submerged or destroyed with changing sea-levels. Combined with the Iranamadu Formation sites, some of which are dated to over 70,000 years ago (as well as the c. 28,000-year-old sites), the archaeological record of coastal habitation in Sri Lanka has a longer, positively dated chronology than the hinterland record.

According to the summary by James (2007) of South Asia’s late Pleistocence archaeology, artefacts may have been occasionally backed at some sites in India before 45,000 years ago, but Sri Lanka’s (backed) microliths are the earliest known in South Asia. This conclusion is confirmed by my study of Batadomba-lena. Human “modernity” is arguably a necessary condition for even Africa’s earliest backed microliths, albeit not a sufficient condition, as indicated by the manner which backing technology appears to have waxed and waned in many places where it occurred (Chapter 1). However, the stabilisation of the technology in Sri Lanka for over 30,000 years implies strong “natural” selection pressures (following James 2007) favouring the local production of microliths.

The proxy archaeological value of marine items traded inland is related to their symbolic overtones. The recovery of a shark tooth from Bellan-bandi Palassa, as at Batadombalena (layer 3), a Holocene layer at Kitulgala Beli-lena, and the uppermost layer at Fa Hien-lena (albeit disturbed), contrasts with the accent on marine shell in the rockshelter layers 15,000 years and older (Chapter 8); note that marine shell beads and a shark vertebra bead were subsequently found in Fa Hien-lena (2009) from c. 38,000 BP. Does this observation may just suggest widespread change in symbolic manifestations with the terminal Pleistocene, and/ or advances in fishing technology along the coast. Does the symbolic domain, which is certainly in evidence from the earliest known habitation of the Sri Lanka rockshelters, changes with developments in the technological and wider socio-economic domain (e.g., Pardoe 1988)? At the same time, care should be exercised when drawing generalisations from particulars. The repeated hearth features in layers 5 and 6 at Batadomba-lena, and regular association with habitation debris, demonstrate the controlled use of fire and a camping arrangement whereby people prepared food, ate, and processed implements around the fire (cf. Anderson 2005). Similar behaviour corresponding to the deeper layers at the site would be likely, but less in evidence.

With regard to the second major question, the Batadombalena sequence suggests a complex relationship there between lithic technology, resource procurement, habitation intensity, and vegetation change (both climatic and anthropogenic). This was the case even though rainforest vegetation could be inferred throughout the sequence. My study of lithics potentially related to plant processing could not proceed as far as I had hoped, during the time available for my research, although it can be stated that dimplepitted stones were present right from Phase IVa (Layer 7c) through to the penultimate phase (Table 8.7). The four periods outlined above for Batadomba-lena all incorporated a broad-spectrum subsistence strategy, notwithstanding the shifts in emphases implied by archaeological analysis. As to the transition between the Stone Age and the Iron Age in Sri Lanka, none of my key sites could address this question decisively. As argued in Chapter 1, agriculture appears to have been introduced by an intrusive, Iron Age people. Arguments for a long period of pottery at Dorawakalena, and an even longer period of cereal cultivation on the Horton Plains, cannot be upheld convincingly without further intensive study. The adjustment of the Vaddas to Sinhala technological and numerical superiority would have been relatively abrupt. This is well illustrated by the cultural impoverishment of the wild Vaddas (if the ethnographies can be believed) relative to their Balangoda ancestors (Chapter 8), or else their incorporation into Sinhala (and Tamil) society as a sub-culture with memories of a hunting ancestry (Chapter 1). Productive research on this question may lie in the domain of historical (rather than prehistoric) archaeology (cf. Morrison 2007).

In summary, Sri Lanka’s Pleistocene archaeology is certainly compatible with its use made by Mellars (2006) in supporting the southern dispersal route for the Out-ofAfrica theory, and the entire 40,000-year sequence from Sri Lanka rockshelters can be confidently assigned to fully modern humans (Chapter 8). However, we do not yet have a handle on Sri Lanka’s prehistory between 40,000 and 75,000 years ago, which is critical for addressing the question of when modern human bahaviour first appeared in South Asia (James 2007; Field et al. 2007). 9.5 Prospects for Future Research The present work falls within Stage 5 of S.U. Deraniyagala’s (1992; 2007) research design to invigorate prehistoric hunter-gatherer research in Sri Lanka. As described in Chapter 2, stage 5 focused on the island’s lowland Wet Zone rockshelters. The PhD thesis by Wijeyapala (1997) documented several of these sites, and the present research availed itself field practices and analytical techniques which are not yet standard in Sri Lanka.

9.4 Implications for the Out-of-Africa Theory Coastal colonisation was first brought to widespread attention by Bowdler (1977) in the Australian context, and is now invoked in the movement of modern humans outside of Africa by the southern dispersal hypothesis (Oppenheimer 2005). In Australia, movement inland appears to have rapidly followed initial colonisation, even if that had occurred predominantly along the coast (O’Connor and Chappell 2003), and the archaeology from the Zone D1

Stage 5 is at the midway mark. The re-excavation on a limited scale of Bellan-bandi Palassa and Batadomba-lena on a problem-oriented basis has yielded a wealth of new

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Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka information. However, the other important rockshelters excavated in the 1980s, notably Kitulgala Beli-lena and Fa Hien-lena, are urgently in need of similar assays.

Hathagala, Hambantota District. It has been radiocarbon dated (on charcoal) to 4400 – 3800 cal BP. A discrete research programme is required to investigate these sites systematically. Their potential is considerable: research on aquatic foraging in Sri Lanka continues to be an uncharted field.

Investigations have already commenced at Beli-lena. Nikos Kourampas and Ian Simpson of the School of Environmental and Biological Sciences, University of Stirling, Scotland were invited by me to conduct a study of the micromorphology and microstratigraphy of the archaeological deposits (>31,000 – 7880 BP) in the site. Their primary objectives were to document processes of site formation, including natural and human-induced sediment deposition and post-depositional modification, and to explore links between sediment deposition in the site and late Quaternary shifts in the wider tropical landscape resulting from changing intensity of the predominant climatic driver in the region, the Southwest Monsoon. They have produced a pioneering description and interpretation of microfacies from a tropical rockshelter in gneiss (Kourampas et al. 2009).

Further sites are calling out to be documented and protected under Sri Lanka’s Antiquities Ordinance, and await the modern prehistorian’s attention on a problemoriented (and minimally destructive) basis. All such projects would continue the legacy of S.U. Deraniyagala’s research programme. In particular, test-excavations have commenced in Fa Hien-lena, as the next project in Stage 5, on a basis similar to that of Bellan-bandi Palassa and Batadomba-lena. This is to be followed by Kitulgala Beli-lena, and various unexcavated rockshelters. A strong case has been made for the recognition of Fa Hien-lena, Batadomba-lena and Kitulgala Beli-lena as human fossil sites of World Heritage significance, as much for their early evidence of fully modern human behaviour as for their human remains (Perera et al. 2007). Further research into Sri Lanka’s rockshelter sites can only augment their national and international heritage significance.

The series of shell middens bordering the lagoons of the southern coast, of which Pallemalala is one, are estimated to number in the hundreds. A fresh exposure of such a midden with human interments in a shell quarry was monitored and sampled by me in 2008 at the site of Mini-athiliya, in

Finally, there are the Quaternary shore gravels and

Plate 9.1 Iranamadu Formation, Minihagal-kanda: left, quartz artefacts on basal gravels at c. 40 m asl; right, large bifacially trimmed quartz point (found on basal gravel exposure by P.B. Saranelis (1907 - 2010) in 1966); (scale: 4 cm) (photo, courtesy, Studio Times).

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Toward the Amplified Study of the Prehistory of Sri Lanka consolidated dunes, referred to as the Iranamadu Formation (Plate 9.1), with prehistoric habitation deposits within them, which have been only provisionally dated. New developments in optically stimulated luminescence dating could conceivably clear this chronological impasse – which could bring to light sites which are of Middle Pleistocene age. Additionally, the evidence for contemporaneity of some Iranamadu Formation sites with the Toba supereruption, and the existence of at least some of the dunes as potential camping surfaces during Oxygen Isotope Stage 4, highlights their potential for illuminating South Asia’s Late Pleistocene archaeology. Investigations into the numerous coastal shell-middens along the southern coast in Zone A and the Iranamadu Formation will constitute two sub-stages of a major stage in the overall research design, which could be designated Stage 6.

and implementation with the other major institutions implementing the National Archaeological Policy. These include primarily the professional body referred to as the Sri Lanka Council of Archaeologists, the Central Cultural Fund, the four main universities, the provincial universities and, primarily for the transfer of state-of-the-art methods and techniques in the field and in analyses, foreign institutions. Through this mechanism, it is envisaged that the widest spectrum of Sri Lankan human resources will be brought to bear on the implementation of the projects. In addition, training has been accorded the highest priority, and this should see Sri Lankan prehistorians being upgraded to international standards. The procedures for project management are set out in an advanced document drawn up by the Archaeological Department, which has been accepted for the entire country by its professional body for safeguarding ethics and standards, the Sri Lanka Council of Archaeologists. Lessons learned during my current research should have long-term benefits for the study of Sri Lanka’s remarkable prehistory, and its pivotal place in addressing major issues in world prehistory, including current debates associated with the Out-of-Africa theory on modern human origins.

9.6 Epilogue The apex institution for archaeology in Sri Lanka is the Government’s Archaeological Department. Its head, the Director-General, has been legally empowered to formulate a National Archaeological Policy. This has been done; and it is a holistic document which sets out the need for lateral integration of Sri Lanka’s archaeological planning

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APPENDIX A 1980-82 Classification of Batadomba-lena Stone Artefacts

Type 3: Microlithic triangle

In 1988, under the supervision of S.U. Deraniyagala, I classified the Batadomba-lena stone artefacts according to the system of Deraniyagala (1988; 1992). Of the 83 tool types within sixteen classes which he recognised, 46 (described below) were identified during my study. This system recognises types, sub-types, variants and sub-variants within a class on the basis of features such as plan-form, size and apparent (as defined by Deraniyagala) function. Size variation is determined by the maximum linear dimension, falling within the categories of very small (< 2 cm), small (2 – 4.5 cm), medium (4.5 – 8 cm), large (8 – 16 cm), and very large (>16 cm).

Sub-type a: Form 24 Variant i: Cutter Sub-variant a: Small Sub-type b: Form 26 Variant i: Scraper Sub-variant a: Small Type 4: Microlithic sub-triangle Sub-type a: Form 29 Variant i: Cutter Sub-variant a: Very small

Class I (Types 1-6): Geometric microliths. Small and very small geometric forms which have been formtrimmed with blunting-trimming. The terms sub-lunate and sub-triangle signify plan-forms which appear to be variants on clear-cut geometric segments and triangles, respectively.

Type 5: Microlithic trapezoidal Sub-type a: Form 39 Variant i: Cutter Sub-variant a: Very small

Type 1: Microlithic lunate

Class II (Types 6 and 7). Very small and small semilunates which have been form-trimmed with blunting retouch. Types 6 and 7 are differentiated on the basis of plan-form, and sub-types according to apparent function or plan-form.

Sub-type a: Form 19 Variant i: Cutter Sub-variant a: Very small b: Small Variant ii: Scraper Sub-variant a: Very small Variant iii: Awl Sub-variant a: Very small b: Small Variant iv: Point Sub-variant a : Small Sub-type b: Form 35 Variant i: Cutter Sub-variant a: Very small b: Small Variant ii: Scraper Sub-variant a: Small

Type 6 : Very small and small backed semi-lunate Sub-type a: Form 20 Variant i: Cutter Sub-variant a: Very small b: Small Variant ii: Scraper Sub-variant a: Small Variant iii: Point Sub-variant a: Very small Sub-type b: Form 21 Variant i: Cutter Sub-variant a: Small Variant iii: Point Sub-variant a: Very small b: Small

Type 2: Microlithic sub-lunate Sub-type a: Form 5 Variant i: Cutter Sub-variant a: Small Variant ii: Scraper Sub-variant a: Very small b: Small

Type 7: Very small and small backed sub-semi-lunate Sub-type a: Form 23 Variant i: Awl Sub-variant a: Very small

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Appendix A Class III (types 8-19): Non-geometric microliths. Small and very small artefacts which have been form-trimmed with blunting retouch. Types within this class are differentiated on the basis of plan-form. Sub-types and variants are based on apparent function and size variation respectively.



Type 8: Form 6

Type 18: Form 36

Sub-type a: Cutter Variant i: Small Sub-type b: Scraper Variant i: Small Sub-type c: Point Variant i: Very small

Sub-type a: Cutter Variant i: Very small Sub-type b: Awl Variant i: Small

Type 9: Form 8

Sub-type a: Point Variant i: Very small

Variant i: Very small

Type 17: Form 34 Sub-type a: Point Variant i: Very small

Type 19: Form 40

Sub-type a: Point Variant i: Very small ii: Small Sub-type b: Awl Variant i: Small Sub-type c: Cutter Variant i: Small

Class IV (Types 20, 21): Artefacts with blunting retouch, but without trimming retouch. Types are differentiated on the basis of blank-production technology, and six sub-types according to trimming, and variants according to function. In the absence of form-trimming, plan-form does not play a significant taxonomic role.

Type 10: Form 9

Type 20: Small and very small blades with blunting trimming

Sub-type a: Awl Variant i: Very small

Sub-type a: Cutter Variant i: Very small b: Small Sub-type b: Scraper Variant ii: Very small b: Small Sub-type c: Point Variant iii: Very small

Type 11: Form 11 Sub-type a: Cutter Variant i: Very small Type 12: Form 12

Type 21: Very small or small flakes with blunting trimming

Sub-type a: Cutter Variant i: Small Sub-type b: Point Variant i: Very small

Sub-type a: Backed with edge- and/or body-trimming Variant i: Cutter Sub-variant a: Very small b: Small

Type 13: Form 15 Sub-type a: Point Variant i: Small

Sub-type a: Awl Variant i: Very small

Class V (Types 22-29): Small, form-trimmed artefacts without blunting trimming, with or without edge- and body-trimming. Types are differentiated on the basis of trimming and plan-form, and sub-types according to planform and apparent function. Highly distinctive within this class, morphologically, are Balangoda Points (Type 24).

Type 15: Form 23

Type 22: Form 3

Sub-type a: Awl Variant i: Very small

Sub-type a: Scraper Variant i: Very small

Type 16: Form 25

Type 23: Form 4





Type 14: Form 21

Sub-type a: Point

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Sub-type a: Scraper

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka

Variant i: Very small

according to size, and variants according to apparent function.

Type 24: Form 7 (Balangoda Point)

Type 33: Used blade

Sub-type a: Point Variant i: Very small Variant ii: Small

Sub-type a: Very small Variant i: Cutter ii: Scraper Sub-type b: Small Variant i: Cutter ii: Scraper

Type 25: Form 8 Sub-type a: Point Variant i: Very small Variant ii: Small

Type 34: Used flake or core

Type 26: Form 12

Sub-type a: Very small Variant i: Cutter ii: Scraper iii: Awl iv: Point v: Cutter + Scraper Sub-type b: Small Variant i: Cutter ii: Scraper iii: Awl iv: Point v: Point (Chopper) vi: Cutter + Scraper Sub-type c: Medium Variant i: Cutter ii: Scraper iii: Chopper iv: Scraper + chopper v: Cutter + scraper Subtype d: Large Variant i: Scraper ii: Chopper iii: Scraper + chopper

Sub-type a: Point Variant i: Small Type 27: Form 13 Sub-type a: Awl Variant i: Very small Type 28: Form 15 Sub-type a: Scraper Variant i: Very small Type 29: Form 20 Sub-type a: Point Variant ii: Very small Class VI (Types 30-32): Edge- and/or body-trimmed artefacts without form-trimming, and excluding true blades. Types are differentiated on the basis of size, and sub-types according to apparent function.

Class VIII (Types 35, 36). Potential edge- and pointtools without use marks or secondary trimming. These possess an edge or point which, in morphological features such as extent of regularity, symmetry, positioning relative to the overall plan-form, and robustness, display functional potential as cutters, scrapers, points, etc. Types are differentiated on the basis of primary trimming (according to the techno-trait of blade vs. non-blade), sub-types according to size, and variants according to apparent function.

Type 30: Very small edge- and/or body-trimmed flake or core

Sub-type a: Cutter

Type 31: Small edge- and/or body-trimmed flake or core

Sub-type a: Scraper Sub-type b: Point

Type 32 : Medium sized edge- and/or body-trimmed flake or core

Type 35: Blade Sub-type a: Very small Variant i: Cutter ii: Scraper Sub-type b: Small Variant i: Cutter ii: Scraper

Sub-type a: Scraper Sub-type b: Chopper

Class VII. Used artefacts, without secondary trimming. Types are differentiated on the basis of trimming (namely the techno-trait of blade vs. non-blade), sub-types

Type 36: Non-blade

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Sub-type a: Very small

Appendix A Class XI (Types 42-47). Non-flaked stone artefacts. By virtue of the definition of an artefact, this class excludes manuports devoid of trimming or use-marks. Types are differentiated on the basis of trimming (dimple-pitted vs non-pitted) and apparent function. Sub-types are categorised according to size.

Variant i: Cutter ii: Scraper iii: Awl iv: Point v: Cutter + Scraper Subtype b: Small Variant i: Cutter ii: Scraper iii: Awl iv: Point v: Cutter + Scraper vi: Scraper + Awl Sub-type c: Medium Variant i: Cutter ii: Scraper

Type 42: Non-pitted hammer-stone with use marks Sub-type a: Small b: Medium sized c: Large Type 43: Muller with use marks Sub-type a: Small b: Medium sized c: Large d: Very large

Class IX (types 37-40): Cores displaying negative scars from flake or blade manufacture, and which cannot apparently function as tools in their own right.

Type 44: Multiple-function hammer + muller + pounder with use marks.

Type 37: Blade core Sub-type a: Very small b: Small Type 38: Discoidal core

Su-btype a: Medium b: Large c: Very large

Sub-type a: Very small b: Small c : Medium sized

Type 45. Grindstone with signs of use, with small or large depressions or a deep groove. Red ochre stains appear at times over the used surface.

Type 39: Sub-discoidal core

Sub-type a: Large b: Very large

Sub-type a: Very small b: Small c : Medium sized

Type 46: Dimple-pitted hammerstone, some of which display surfaces smoothed by grinding, as well as traces of red ochre. Fractured specimens are common. As to what function the pits served is still unknown; they could have resulted from pressing down on fire-drills. Sub-types are differentiated on the basis of size.

Type 40: Core on plan-form 1, non-descript Sub-type a: Very small b: Small c : Medium sized d : Large

Sub-type a: Medium b: Large c: Very large

Class X (Type 41): Waste flakes and blades, byproducts of knapping

Type 47: Dimple-pitted nut-stone, which is a large, multiple pitted slab, at time with signs of having been used for a grindstone as well. Red ochre has been ground on some specimens. A few display longitudinal grinding grooves.

Type 41: Non-descript waste from tool manufacture Sub-type a: Very small b: Small c: Medium sized d: Large

Sub-type a: Large b: Very large

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Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Table A.1 Counts of the different stone tool types from Batadomba-lena (1980 - 82). Layer

Raw Material

Class

Type

Count

7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c

clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz (mainly)

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I II II II III III III III III III III III III IV IV IV IV IV IV IV IV IV V V V V VI VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VIII VIII VIII VIII

1a ia 1a ib 1a iia 1a iiia 1a iiib 1a iiia 1a iiib 1a iva 1b iia 1b ia 1b ib 2b iia 3a ia 4a ia 5a ia 6a ia 6a ib 6b iia 8c i 8c i 9a i 9a ii 10a i 12a i 13a i 15a i 18a i 20a ia 20a iia 20a iiia 20a iiia 21a iiia 21a ia 21a ib 21a iva 21a ivb 22a i 26a i 23a i 24a ii 31b 33a i 33b ii 34a ii 34b ii 34a v 34b i 34b ii 34c ii 34c i 35a i 35b i 36a i 36a ii

2 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 5 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 5 1 1 19 56 4 2 66 1 207 316

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Appendix A

Layer

Raw Material

Class

Type

Count

7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7c 7b 7b 7b 7b 7b 7b 7b 7b 7b 7b 7b 7b 7b 7b 7b 7b 7b 7b 7b 7b 7b 7b 7b 7b 7b 7b 7b 7b 7b 7b 7b 7b

clear quartz (mainly) clear quartz (mainly) clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz (mainly) clear quartz (mainly) clear quartz (mainly) clear quartz (mainly) clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz (mainly) clear quartz clear quartz (mainly) clear quartz (mainly) clear quartz (mainly) clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz cear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz

VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII IX IX IX IX IX IX X X X XI XI XI XI XI I I I I I II III III III III III IV IV IV IV IV IV VI VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII

36a iii 36a iv 36b i 36b ii 36b i + b ii 36b iii 36b v 36c i 36c ii 37b 38b 39b 40a 40b 40c 41a 41b 41c 42b 43b 45a 45b 42c + 43c 1a ia 1b ib 2a iib 2a iib 3b ia 6b ia 9a i 9b i 12b i 14a i 19a i 21a ia 20a ia 21a ib 20aii b 21a ia 21a iva 31a 33a ii 33b ii 34a i 34a ii 34a iii 34b i 34b ii 34b iv 34c ii 35a i 35a ii 35b i 36a i 36a ii

80 79 237 406 71 79 45 33 55 11 8 2 13 133 9 36,277 12,709 252 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 3 1 2 1 1 1 6 11 1 3 63 76 3 69 59

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Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka

Layer

Raw Material

Class

Type

Count

7b 7b 7b 7b 7b 7b 7b 7b 7b 7b 7b 7b 7b 7b 7b 7b 7b 7b 7b 7b 7b 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a

untranscribed clear quartz (mainly) clear quartz (mainly) clear quartz clear quartz untranscribed clear quartz (mainly) clear quartz (mainly) clear quartz (mainly) clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz (mainly) clear quartz (mainly) clear quartz (mainly) clear quartz (mainly) clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz (mainly) clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz opaque quartz chert smoky quartz clear quartz opaque quartz

VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII IX IX IX IX X X X XI XI XI XI I II II III III III III IV IV IV IV IV IV IV IV V V V VI VI VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII

36a i + a ii 36a iii 36a iv 36b i 36b ii 36b i + b ii 36b iii 36b iv 36c i 36c ii 37b 38b 40a 40b 41a 42b 41c 43a 45a 45b 42b + 43a 1a iia 6a ia 6b iib 9b i 11a i 18b i 19a i 21a ia 21a ia 20a ib 20a iib 21a iiia 21ai iia 21a iiia 25a ii 25a ii 25a ii 27a i 30a 31a 33b i 34a i 34a ii 34b i 34b ii 34b vi 34b iii 34c iii 36a i 36a i 36a i 36a i 36a ii 36a ii

34 37 20 38 112 24 46 39 119 11 1 2 2 200 12,593 4457 250 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 3 5 16 1 1 1 12 33 9 1 38 52

198

Appendix A

Layer

Raw Material

Class

Type

Count

7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a 7a

chert smoky quartz clear quartz opaque quartz chert ccear quartz clear quartz opaque quartz chert clear quartz opaque quartz chert clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz chert clear quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz chert smoky quartz rosy quartz granular quartz clear quartz opaque quartz chert smoky quartz clear quartz opaque quartz gneiss

VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII IX IX IX IX IX IX IX X X X X X X X X X X X X XI

36a ii 36a ii 36a iii 36a iii 36a iii 36b i 36b ii 36b ii 36b ii 36b iii 36b iii 36b iii 36b iv 36b iv 36c ii 36c ii 36c iv 37b 37b 38b 40a 40a 40b 40b 41a 41a 41a 41a 41a 41a 41b 41b 41b 41b 41c 41c 43a

14 1 41 63 2 1 96 112 4 41 71 4 18 31 8 12 1 1 3 1 4 1 24 12 12,354 15,721 42 2 5 4 7545 9916 15 1 293 310 1

7a

gneiss

XI

43a

1

6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6

clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz ccear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz

I II II II III IV IV V VI VI VII VII VII VII VII VII VII

1a ia 6a iiia 6a ia 7a ia 9b ai 21a ia 21a va 29a i 31a 32a 33a i 33a i 34a ii 34b i 34b 34b ii 34b ii

2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 1 1 2 2 5 1 3 3

199

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka

Layer

Raw Material

Class

Type

Count

6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6

chert chert clear quartz chert chert clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz chert clear quartz opaque quartz smoky quartz chert clear quartz opaque quartz chert clear quartz opaque quartz chert clear quartz opaque quartz chert clear quartz opaque quartz rosy quartz rutile quartz chert clear quartz opaque quartz chert clear quartz opaque quartz chert clear quartz opaque quartz chert clear quartz opaque quartz granular quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz chert clear quartz

VII VII VII VII VII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII IX IX IX IX IX IX IX IX IX IX IX IX

34b ii 34b i + b ii 34c ii 34c ii 34c i + c ii 35a i 35a i 35b ii 35b i 35b i 36a i 36a i 36a i 36a ii 36a ii 36a ii 36a ii 36a iii 36a iii 36a iii 36a iv 36a iv 36a iv 36b i 36b i 36b i 36b ii 36b ii 36b ii 36b ii 36b ii 36b i + b ii 36b i + b cii 36b i + b ii 36b v 36b v 36b v 36c i 36c i 36c i 36c ii 36c ii 36c ii 37b 38b 38b 38b 39b 39b 39c 39d 40a 40a 40a 40b

4 1 1 3 5 50 75 2 16 25 131 154 50 159 127 9 11 17 15 1 33 14 3 50 126 11 70 189 1 1 23 23 45 3 28 17 1 13 28 2 33 18 1 2 4 4 6 1 1 1 1 157 232 2 257

200

Appendix A

Layer

Raw Material

Class

Type

Count

6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

opaque quartz granular quartz rosy quartz opaque quartz granular quartz clear quartz opaque quartz rosy quartz smoky quartz granular quartz amethyst rutile quartz clear quartz opaque quartz rosy quartz granular quartz rosy quartz clear quartz opaque quartz chert clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz opaque quartz chert grey chert clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz chert smoky quartz clear quartz opaque quartz chert smoky quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz opaque quartz chert clear quartz opaque quartz chert clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz clear quartz opaque quartz chert

IX IX IX IX IX X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X II II III IV IV VI VI VI VI VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII

40b 40b 40b 40c 40c 41a 41a 41a 41a 41a 41a 41a 41b 41b 41b 41b 41b 41c 41c 41c 41d 41d 6b iia 6b iib 8c ii 21a iiia 21a iia 31a i 31a 31c 31b 33ai 33bi 33b ii 34a i 34a i 34a i 34a ii 34a ii 34a ii 34a ii 34a i + a ii 34a iii 34b i 34b i 34b i 34b ii 34b ii 34b ii 34b i + ii 34b i + ii 34b iv 34c ii 34c ii 34c ii

362 65 4 3 1 9460 14,511 11 21 11 2 1 1620 3210 3 24 11 161 234 1 4 2 1 1 1 1 1 7 6 1 1 6 1 1 10 1 1 7 6 1 1 1 1 9 6 1 34 51 11 2 4 2 1 6 7

201

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka

Layer

Raw Material

Class

Type

Count

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

opaque quartz chert hert clear quartz mlky quartz clear quartz opaque quartz smoky quartz chert clear quartz opaque quartz granular quartz smoky quartz chert clear quartz opaque quartz rosy quartz chert clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz chert clear quartz opaque quartz rosy quartz chert clear quartz opaque quartz chert clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz opaque quartz clear quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz chert clear quartz opaque quartz chert clear quartz opaque quartz chert clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz

VII VII VII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII IX IX IX IX

34c i 34c i 34d i 35a i 35a i 35b i 35b i 35b i 35b i 36a i 36a i 36a i 36a i 36a i 36a ii 36a ii 36a ii 36a ii 36a i + a ii 36a i + a ii 36a iii 36a iii 36a iv 36a iv 36a iv 36b i 36b i 36b i 36b i 36b ii 36b ii 36b ii 36b i + b ii 36b i + b ii 36b iii 36b iii 36b iv 36b iv 36b ii + iii 36b ii + iii 36c i 36c i 36cii 36c ii 36c ii 36c v 36c v 36c v 36c v 36c v 36c iv 37a 37b 38a 38a

2 7 1 24 14 20 18 7 4 71 34 3 12 9 88 69 5 15 15 30 25 30 19 31 1 122 69 1 35 224 405 58 31 45 30 32 17 19 13 13 16 16 11 49 5 10 14 1 12 15 15 3 20 12 5

202

Appendix A

Layer

Raw Material

Class

Type

Count

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

clear quartz opaque quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz opaque quartz opaque quartz clear quartz clear quartz opaque quartz smoky quartz chert opaque quartz clear quartz rosy quartz smoky quartz chert opaque quartz granular quartz chert clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz rosy quartz smoky quartz chert clear quartz opaque quartz rosy quartz smoky quartz chert clear quartz opaque quartz rosy quartz smoky quartz chert clear quartz opaque quartz gneiss ggeiss gneiss gneiss gneiss gneiss clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz

IX IX IX IX IX IX IX IX IX IX IX IX IX IX IX IX IX IX IX IX IX IX X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X XI XI XI XI XI XI I IV V V VI VI VI VI VII VII

38b 38b 38c 39a 39a 39c 39b 39b 40a 40a 40a 40a 40b 40b 40b 40b 40b 40c 40c 40c 40d 40d 41a 41a 41a 41a 41a 41b 41b 41b 41b 41b 41c 41c 41c 41c 41c 41d 41d 42c 43a 43c 43c 45a 45b 2aia 21a via 25ai 28ai 31a 31a 32a 32b 33a i 33b i

1 39 3 2 3 1 4 1 219 245 2 17 370 416 12 2 18 16 2 1 10 2 49,987 52,353 160 30 50 6871 7371 31 17 35 470 629 3 2 3 12 7 1 1 1 1 3 17 1 1 2 1 9 4 2 1 1 1

203

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka

Layer

Raw Material

Class

Type

Count

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz clear quartz opaque quartz rosy quartz clear quartz opaque quartz chert clear quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz clear quartz opaque quartz chert clear quartz opaque quartz chert opaque quartz clear quartz chert clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz chert clear quartz opaque quartz chert clear quartz opaque quartz chert clear quartz opaque quartz chert clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz rutile quartz chert clear quartz opaque quartz chert clear quartz opaque quartz chert clear quartz opaque quartz rosy quartz

VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII

34a i 34a ii 34a ii 34a i + a ii 34a iv 34b i 34b i 34b i 34bi i 34b ii 34b ii 34b i + b ii 34b iii 34b iii 34b iv 34c i 34c i 34c iii 34c i 34c i 34c i 34c iii 34c iii 34c ii + c i 35a i 35a i 35b i 35b i 35b i 36a i 36a i 36a i 36a ii 36a ii 36a ii 36a ii + a ii 36a i + a ii 36a i + a ii 36a iii 36a iii 36a iv 36a iv 36b i 36b i 36b i 36b i 36b ii 36b ii 36b ii 36b v 36b v 36v i 36b iii 36b iii 36b iii

2 5 4 2 1 7 11 1 22 42 2 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 11 4 1 4 7 55 37 3 60 60 3 28 35 12 3 2 34 15 98 44 1 4 184 424 4 22 13 3 17 19 2

204

Appendix A

Layer

Raw Material

Class

Type

Count

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

chert clear quartz clear quartz opaque quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz chert clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz clear quartz opaque quartz chert opaque quartz clear quartz chert opaque quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz opaque quartz opaque quartz clear quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz smoky quartz granular quartz chert clear quartz opaque quartz smoky quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz rosy quartz smoky quartz granular quartz opaque quartz clear quartz rosy quartz smoky quartz granular quartz amethyst clear quartz opaque quartz granular quartz rosy quartz

VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII IX IX IX IX IX IX IX IX IX IX IX IX IX IX IX IX IX IX IX X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

36b v 36b v 36b iv 36b iv 36c i 36c ii 36c ii 36c ii 36c vi 36c vi 36c v 36c iii 36c iv 36c iv 36c iii 36d i 36d i 36d i 36d ii 36d ii 36d ii 37a 37b 38a 38b 38b 38c 39a 40a 40a 40b 40b 40b 40b 40b 40c 40c 64c 40d 40d 41a 41a 41a 41a 41a 41b 41b 41b 65b 41b 41b 41c 41c 41c 41c

5 4 13 17 4 35 35 6 1 1 1 1 1 3 2 1 6 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 3 1 148 102 232 224 3 1 1 78 77 1 25 1 24,103 35,556 317 96 341 5231 4428 46 34 39 6 310 401 36 1

205

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka

Layer

Raw Material

Class

Type

Count

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

chert clear quartz opaque quartz gneiss gneiss gneiss gneiss gneiss gneiss gneiss gneiss gneiss gneiss clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz clear quartz opaque quartz chert smoky quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz chert clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz smoky quartz rosy quartz chert clear quartz opaque quartz rosy quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz

X X X X X X XI XI XI XI XI XI XI VI VII VII VII VII VII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII IX IX

41c 41d 41d 41c 41c 41d 45a 45b 43a 43c 43c 46a 46b 31a 34a ii 34a iv 34b i 34b ii 34b ii 35a i 35a i 35b i 35b i 35b ii 35a i 35a i 35a i 35a i 36a ii 36a ii 36a iii 36a iii 36a iii 36a iii 36a iii 36a iv 36a iv 36b i 36b i 36b i 36b i 36b i 36b ii 36b ii 36b ii 36b vii 36b ii 36b iii 36b iii 36c ii 36c ii 36c vi 36c vii 37b 38b

14 25 36 1 4 1 2 6 1 4 1 1 3 1 1 1 3 4 4 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 13 11 5 6 5 3 1 5 1 27 8 2 2 1 29 153 1 1 4 10 6 2 12 3 4 1 1

206

Appendix A

Layer

Raw Material

Class

Type

Count

3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

clear quartz opaque quartz chert clear quartz opaque quartz rosy quartz granular quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz rosy quartz smoky quartz granular quartz clear quartz opaque quartz rosy quartz smoky quartz granular quartz amethyst clear quartz opaque quartz rosy quartz gneiss gneiss gneiss gneiss gneiss gneiss gneiss gneiss clear quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz chert opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz rosy quartz granular quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz chert smoky quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz smoky quartz clear quartz opaque quartz

IX IX IX IX IX IX IX IX IX X X X X X X X X X X X X X X XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII

40a 40a 40a 40b 40b 40b 40b 40c 40c 41a 41a 41a 41a 41a 41b 41b 41b 41b 41b 41b 41d 41d 41d 42a 43c 43d 45b 46c 46c 46c 46b 34a i 34a ii 34a ii 34b i 34b i 34b ii 34c ii 36a i 36a i 36a i 36a i 36a ii 36a ii 36a iii 36a iii 36a iii 36a iii 36a iv 36a iv 36b i 36b i 36b ii 36b ii 36b ii

264 355 2 598 293 1 17 2 8 7634 10,410 5 35 63 3455 4767 5 14 175 3 575 410 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 4 4 1 1 13 15 1 1 19 10 11 6 4 1 9 4 15 14 2 17 42

207

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka

Layer

Raw Material

Class

Type

Count

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

rosy quartz clear quartz opaque quartz rosy quartz clear quartz opaque quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz rosy quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz smoky quartz chert amethyst rutile quartz granular quartz clear quartz opaque quartz rosy quartz smoky quartz chert granular quartz rutile quartz clear quartz opaque quartz rosy quartz smoky quartz chert granular quartz clear quartz opaque quartz gneiss gneiss gneiss gneiss gneiss gneiss gneiss gneiss gneiss clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz

VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII IX IX IX IX IX IX IX IX IX IX IX X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI VII VII VII VII VII VII VII

36b ii 36b iii 36b iii 36b iii 36b v 38b 39b 39b 39c 40a 40a 40c 40c 40c 40c 40c 41a 41a 41a 41a 41a 41a 41a 41a 41b 41b 41b 41b 41b 41b 41b 41c 41c 41c 41c 41c 41c 41d 41d 42b 42b 43c 44a 45a 45b 46b 46b 46b 33b i 33b i 34a i 34a ii 34b i 34b i 34b ii

1 15 3 5 1 5 1 1 4 110 74 94 69 15 54 24 5044 6140 70 30 49 2 2 19 2377 3567 49 13 16 32 2 47 32 49 13 16 14 2 3 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 5 2 12

208

Appendix A

Layer

Raw Material

Class

Type

Count

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

opaque quartz chert rosy quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz chert clear quartz opaque quartz chert clear quartz opaque quartz chert opaque quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz clear quartz clear quartz opaque quartz clear quartz clear quartz opaque quartz granular quartz clear quartz opaque quartz granular quartz clear quartz opaque quartz chert rosy quartz smoky quartz clear quartz opaque quartz chert rosy quartz smoky quartz clear quartz clear quartz opaque quartz chert rosy quartz smoky quartz

VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII IX IX IX IX IX IX IX IX IX X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

34b ii 34b ii 34b ii 34b i + b ii 34b i + b ii 34c ii 34c ii 35b i 35b i 36a i 36a i 36a ii 36a ii 36a ii 36b i 36b i 36b i 36b ii 36b ii 36b ii 36b v 36b iii 36b iii 36b iv 36c i 36c ii 36c ii 36c vi 38b 40a 40a 40b 40b 40b 40c 40c 40c 41a 41a 41a 41a 41a 41a 41b 41b 41b 41b 41d 41c 41c 41c 41d 41d

14 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 4 6 5 9 9 1 19 15 1 20 90 2 5 4 4 3 1 1 7 2 1 10 7 24 4 1 1 8 1 3330 3442 10 20 15 1219 1319 2 10 10 17 13 2 10 2 2

209

APPENDIX B Comments on the Molluscan Remains from Batadomba-lena by

Katherine Szabó

Department of Archaeology and Natural History Australian National University

Introduction

may provide in terms of our understanding of human gathering strategies, the nature of the surrounding environment and local hydrological conditions.

Small amounts of molluscan remains were identified within the soil samples discussed in this work. The remains are highly fragmented and cannot be assumed to be representative of molluscan presence, frequency or taphonomy within the site at large. Despite these limitations however, worthwhile information can be extracted that allows us insight into the nature of the Batadomba-lena deposits, as well as the local environments being exploited by its human residents. These samples have been analysed and contextualised within earlier summations of invertebrate zooarchaeological remains from Batadomba-lena, as well as investigations into the ecological parameters of the various taxa represented.

•

Methodology After an initial assessment of the samples, it was decided that a full quantitative analysis would not go any way to providing the basis for robust interpretations or answering fine-grained temporal or ecological questions. In short, the size of the samples meant that the absence of particular taxa or taphonomic traces (e.g., burning, weathering) at given points in the sequence would be neither statistically nor generally meaningful. The high levels of fragmentation further meant that a great many fragments could not be identified with any degree of certainty, further distorting quantitative aspects of the samples present.

To discuss quantitative aspects of the very small samples in question would be misleading, and no attempt has been made here to investigate temporal trends or proportions of various taxa or taphonomic features hinted at. There are, however, a number of features of the Batadombalena shell assemblage which can be fruitfully commented upon, including species presence and associated reflections of locally exploited ecological niches, and the action of taphonomic processes which give suggestions of human behaviour at the site.

The discussion that follows here, then, is based upon species identifications that could be made, as well as notes on evidence for the action of particular taphonomic processes. These observations have not been contextualised temporally. Prior studies are also drawn upon, in order to provide ancillary information as to variation within the Batadomba-lena sequence.

Aims in studying the molluscan samples from Batadombalena included: •

The isolation of molluscan species gathered for the purposes of subsistence.

•

The investigation of what such information this

The evaluation of the state of preservation of the molluscan remains recovered.

Results What is apparent from both largely intact and highly fragmented shells is that burning is fairly frequent, and that

Table B.1 Batadomba-lena (2005): molluscan species identified (despite the small samples and high degree of fragmentation). Family

Species

Authority

Niche

Pleuroceridae

Paludomus loricata Paludomus neritoides Paludomus sulcatus Acavus phoenix Acavus superbus Oligospira waltoni

(Reeve, 1847) (Reeve, 1847) (Reeve, 1847) (Pfeiffer, 1854) (Pfeiffer, 1850) (Reeve, 1842)

Clean, flowing fresh water Clean, flowing fresh water Clean, flowing fresh water Terrestrial; lowland forest Terrestrial; lowland forest Terrestrial; lowland forest

Acavidae

210

Appendix B there are zones of depositional stasis, where shell fragments close to the top of old surfaces display signs of weathering. This latter feature is typically signalled by a ‘chalky’ surface, resulting from the swift reduction of the organic component of the shell structure and the loss of structural integrity during long periods of exposure. From the sample available, it is unclear whether evidence for burning noted on shell fragments is related to food processing, or simply indicates that discarded shells were in zones where fires were created for other purposes.

2003). Regardless of whether landsnails are introduced into cave deposits by humans or are self-introduced, however, they provide a useful indicator of the surrounding environs. Landsnails tend to be highly habitat-specific, and do not cover great distances unless assisted by other vectors (e.g., aeolian or water transport). Thus, if self-introduced, they can be expected to provide a very fine-grained and high-resolution picture of the environments present in the immediate vicinity of the site. In the case of Batadombalena, the three terrestrial snail species identified are associated with lowlands of Sri Lanka in wet-forest habitats where “the ground is moist [and] the trees covered with moss” (Webb 1948:81). Their presence reinforces the information gleaned from the freshwater snails; namely that the environs around the site continued to be forested throughout the occupational sequence.

Discussion What is evident from the samples available for this study, as well as the results of prior analyses, is that a combination of freshwater and terrestrial snails dominate the Batadombalena sequence throughout. The freshwater snails clearly represent the introduction of a food resource, and as such, indicate clearly that surrounding freshwater streams were being utilised as food procurement zones. Paludomus snails inhabit clean, flowing freshwater habitats, eschewing stagnant and ephemeral water sources. Their consistent presence within the Batadomba-lena sequence, then, indicates that these habitats were consistently accessible to inhabitants of the site. The clearance of forest and subsequent erosion of land surfaces, leading to increased silt-load within surrounding hydrological systems, can have a severe impact on freshwater mollusc communities. This can even result in complete species turnover, with the colonisation of such water sources by hardier and more silt-tolerant taxa (e.g., snails in the Viviparidae and Ampullaridae); this scenario is evident within the 45,000 year sequence represented at the Niah Caves, north-western Borneo (Szabó and bin Kurui, in prep.). This turnover, however, is not seen at Batadomba-lena, attesting to the continuing integrity of freshwater systems and, by inference, the surrounding forest.

Evidence from the Niah Caves, Borneo, further suggests that landsnail frequencies within long sequences may provide valuable insights into the nature and rate of sediment accumulation (Szabó and bin Kurui, in prep.). In the case of the West Mouth at Niah, dense bands of landsnails occur between phases of intense human activity, thereby indicating phases of depositional hiatus (Szabó and bin Kurui, in prep.). With a larger sample, the nonarboreal landsnail remains from Batadomba-lena could provide important insights into site formation processes, and change/stability in environmental context. Conclusions While the available sample of molluscan remains from Batadomba-lena was small, important information regarding human gathering practices, site environs, site formation processes and taphonomic processes could be pieced together. The environmental picture is one where relative consistency through time is a strong motif (see also Kennedy et al. 1987: 443; Deraniyagala 1988; 1992; Kennedy and Deraniyagala 1989:397), and this is also mirrored in the consistency of the human molluscgathering within freshwater environments. Taphonomic signatures recorded within the available samples indicate the regular lighting of fires within Batadomba-lena, while the presence of weathered shell fragments suggests strongly that deposition was episodic. A larger sample would allow the discussion of temporal and spatial trends at the site, and meaningful quantification would give insight into the potential subtleties of changing human behaviour and environmental context.

While the freshwater snail remains clearly represent the introduction of a food source to the cave by ancient humans, the presence of landsnails could be related to a number of conditions and vectors. Landsnails are often assumed to be self-introduced into archaeological deposits, attracted by the ‘free’ calcium carbonate of decomposing midden shell. While this is often the case, landsnails are a food resource of importance in some places (Szabó et al. 2003), and there must be archaeomalacological measures in place to differentiate between naturally- and culturallyaccumulated landsnail remains (Szabó et al. 2003; Szabó

211

APPENDIX C Preliminary Analysis of Charcoal Remains Excavated in 2005 from Batadomba-lena by

Nuno Vasco Oliveira

Department of Archaeology and Natural History Australian National University Abstract: Charred plant remains, mostly fragments of Canarium cf. zeylanicum, a species known locally as “dik-kekuna”, were recovered from excavations undertaken in 2005 at Batadomba-lena cave, in southwest Sri Lanka. These are bracketed by terminal Pleistocene radiocarbon dates and are interpreted as one of the oldest evidences for plant management practices by local living communities. This report presents preliminary results on the assemblage analysed and discusses the importance of an archaeobotanical framework within future archaeological work in the region.

Introduction/Aims

Lanka with a focus on the recovery of macrobotanical remains are in its first stages of development, and most plant materials from archaeological contexts published come from projects with distinct research frameworks (Kajale 1989; Deraniyagala 1988; 1992). This clearly impacts on the recovery methods used, the size and diversity of assemblages and the possible interpretations on plant use by past communities. The non-existence of a comprehensive modern reference collection, based on herbarium identifications and morphological and anatomical descriptions using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), also makes the identification of archaeological specimens more problematic.

Excavations undertaken in 2005 at Batadomba-lena cave, in Sri Lanka, by Nimal Perera and a team from the Archaeological Department of Sri Lanka, revealed the preservation of charred plant remains within layers radiocarbon dated to the terminal Pleistocene. These were briefly analysed with the use mainly of a lowpowered microscope. Despite the non-existence of any modern reference material for comparative purposes, most recovered fragments were tentatively identified as Canarium cf. zeylanicum, locally known as “dik-kekuna”. The very small size of the analysed assemblage hinders very definitive conclusions at this stage. However, the apparent ratio between the well preserved Canarium cf. zeylanicum and the rest of the material (especially wood charcoal) seems to be uncommon when compared to other charred macrobotanical assemblages (Oliveira, in prep.), thus calling for future work at this and other sites within the region.

Archaeological investigation of Batadomba-lena cave was initiated in the first half of the 20th century, with cursory excavations undertaken by P.E.P. Deraniyagala between 1937-40 (Kennedy 2000). Later, in 1979-82, systematic excavations were directed by S.U. Deraniyagala, providing the first chronometric sequence based on radiometric evidence extending back to c. 30,000 BP (Deraniyagala 1992). Seven layers were identified, with the site’s major occupational phase dated to the terminal Pleistocene and represented by layers 5 and 6, described as being rich in cultural materials, ash, charcoal and food remains (Deraniyagala 1992).

Preservation of fruit and nut fragments within Pleistocene radiocarbon dates is not new in Sri Lanka (Deraniyagala 1988; 1992; Kajale 1989) or to this part of the world (see, amongst others, Fuller et al. 2004, as well as Fuller 2006 for an updated synthesis in South Asia), making the case for an ancient use of fruit and nut trees, either as wild or cultivated plant resources. Although worthwhile information can be gathered from small assemblages such as the one under study, investigation specifically aimed at the recovery and analysis of charred plant remains from archaeological contexts is arguably the best way to infer past plant management practices and environmental conditions through time around archaeological sites, as well as helping addressing site formation process issues.

The excavation undertaken in 2005 by Nimal Perera, was to re-assess and clarify the previous stratigraphic sequence. 124 excavation layers were recorded and a new set of radiocarbon dates is now available. Materials and Methods During the referred 2005 field season, a test pit of 200 x 50 cm was laid immediately to the north of the excavation area from the 1980s, aiming to reassess the previous stratigraphic sequence (Perera pers. comm.). All excavated sediment was wet sieved using 1 and 2 mm mesh sieves, with buoyant charcoal remains being skimmed from the top of the sieve.

Background Multidisciplinary archaeological investigations in Sri

212

Appendix C Although more charcoal has been recovered through this process, only a small portion was brought from Sri Lanka back to the Australian National University. The observed assemblage was part of small sediment samples used for thin-section analysis, which was later dry sieved and separated into different size fractions (1-2 mm, 2-4 mm and > 4 mm fractions). The rest of the charcoal recovered and deposited at the Archaeological Department, in Colombo, has not been analysed.

charcoal than any other category, such as seed and fruit remains, pulses or parenchyma (Oliveira, in prep.). Whether these nutshell fragments represent evidence of procurement activities of a community solely engaged in gathering (and hunting) as part of their subsystem strategy, or if they were part of a more complex socio-economic system where some trees may have been planted and systematically harvested, is difficult to say. A larger sample could help addressing the issue of its status as wild or domesticated, based on the evolution of morphological and anatomical characteristics through time, but that is impossible on an assemblage of this size.

Preliminary identifications were made using a low-powered microscope and the existing literature. Fragments were separated into different categories (i.e. seeds, nutshells, wood charcoal, etc.), and tentatively identified whenever possible. No modern reference material has been recovered from around the site for comparative purposes, and to support identifications of morphological and anatomical parameters made with the use of SEM. A couple of SEM micrographs, taken on Canarium sp. fragments, are presented below.

Due to its physical properties, fragments of Canarium nutshell are also likely to be over-represented in archaeobotanical assemblages when compared to its usual occurrence in the environment (Fairbairn 2005b), making it even more difficult to render any significant meaning to its presence in a site.

Results

Also of notice is a mismatching relation between descriptions of the excavated contexts (Perera pers. comm.; see also table 1) and the analysed assemblage. Some contexts are identified as hearth features but have yielded no charcoal (e.g. contexts 52, 73, 43), and others are referred to as having charcoal and no charcoal was found in the samples. This could again be due to the small assemblage size, in which case analysis of the remaining charcoal deposited in Sri Lanka could make sense of those relations and help interpreting the site formation process.

Table 1 shows the total weight of analysed material, as well as percentage weights within each identified category. A brief description of each excavated context that yielded charcoal remains was added, as well as the available calibrated radiocarbon dates. As there was no modern reference material available for comparative purposes, identification of fragments as part of Canarium nutshell can only be tentative. However, based on the published literature (Kajale 1989) and the fact that only one species of edible Canarium is described as existing in the wild in Sri Lanka (Deraniyagala 1992: 633), this can be identified as Canarium cf. zeylanicum, known locally as “dik-kekuna” (figure 1 – microscope and SEM pictures of Canarium sp.)

Batadomba-lena is located in the lowland Wet Zone of Sri Lanka (ecozone D1), an area which had been dominated by equatorial lowland rainforest, which remains around the cave at present (Perera pers. comm.) Although Ray and Adams (2001) believe the whole of Sri Lanka was covered with tropical grassland (i.e. less than 5% of woody plants) during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), at c. 25-15 ka, the occurrence of rainforest land snails dated to the LGM at Batadomba-lena (Perera pers. comm.) and to the terminal Pleistocene at Kitulgala Beli-lena (Deraniyagala 1992), indicates the maintenance of rainforest stands surrounding these sites throughout and after the LGM, with temperatures only c. 5º less than today (Deraniyagala 1992; Kennedy 2000). Studies by Adams and Faure also point to a main tree cover at c. 18,000 BP, mostly tropical woodland, with tropical rainforest between 8000 and 5000 BP (Adams and Faure 1997).

Most of the remaining nutshell remains and possibly many of the fruit/seed fragments are also very likely to be of the same Canarium species. As it was not practical to use SEM on the whole assemblage, identification of most specimens was based upon morphological parameters (i.e. general shape and inner and outer surface description). This is obviously not ideal and limits identification to the larger fragments. No diagnostic whole seeds or evidence of cereals or pulses was found in any of the contexts analysed.

Although the analysed sample is very small, Canarium fragments seem to be virtually absent from layer V, radiocarbon dated to the end of the LGM, being present in most analysed contexts from layers VI and VII, dated to the terminal Pleistocene. It is tempting to suggest that the local climate around Batadomba-lena during the LGM was too cold to support Canarium stands (this tree needs very warm temperatures throughout the year), but once again the size of the assemblage analysed is too small to render any definitive conclusions. Whether the decrease in numbers of Canarium fragments closer to the LGM represents a

Discussion and Conclusion Despite the very small size of the assemblage, it is easily observable that an uncommon ratio between preserved wood charcoal and the other categories, specially Canarium sp. and other nutshell fragments, does exist. With the exception of very particular cases (e.g., plant storage areas accidentally burnt or cooking pits where no wood has been used as fuel), most charred archaeobotanical assemblages are characterised by much larger quantities of wood

213

4

VI

5 to 6

1 2 to 3

VIII VII

V

Layer

Phase

214

39 40 42 45

37

13 14 23 25A 25B 25C 102 102/18 106 108 110 111 113 115

9

1 2 4 16 17 20 35 36 101

Context

14,136-16,712 (5); 15,490-17,772 (6a); 16,884-19,819 (6b)

11,624-12,09513,743-16,313 (4a); 13,743-16,313 (4b)

0.01 0.05 0.05 0.06

0.01

0.12 0.34 0.09 0.,16 0.19 0.63 3.2 4.68 0.76 0.26 043 0.47 0.09 0.22

0.82

11,624-12,095

Total (g) 0 0.62 0.68 0.67 2.31 0.52 0.33 0.44 0.10

N/A N/A

95.4% (2σ) cal. BP (CALIB REV5.0.2.)

0 0 0 0

0

0.04 0.25 0 0.06 0.02 0.45 3.2 4.42 0 0 0.35 0.29 0 0

0.80

0 0.61 0.55 0.64 1.84 0.44 0.30 0.42 0

Canarium sp.

0 0 0 0

0

0.01 0 0 0 0 0.06 0 0.11 0.04 0.04 0 0 0.05 0.05

0

0 0 0.09 0 0.02 0.01 0 0.02 0.01

Other Nutshells

0 0.02 0 0.06

0

0 0.01 0.01 0 0.01 0.01 0 0.11 0 0 0 0 0 0

0

0 0.01 0 0 0.20 0.06 0.03 0 0.08

Fruit/Seed

0.01 0.03 0.03 0

0.01

0.07 0.08 0.08 0.10 0.16 0.10 0 0.01 0.71 0.22 0.08 0.18 0.04 0.17

0.02

0 0 0.04 0.03 0.17 0.01 0 0 0

Wood

0 0 0.02 0

0

0 0 0 0 0 0.01 0 0.03 0.01 0 0 0 0 0

0

0 0 0 0 0.08 0 0 0 0.01

Other

high high high high

moderate

high moderate high high moderate moderate N/A moderate high moderate high moderate high low

high

N/A high low high high high moderate moderate high

Density of Cultural Remains

Same as context 40.

Hearth feature. Same as context 45.

Hearth feature. Hearth feature. Earth oven. Earth oven. Earth oven. Earth oven. Earth oven. Posthole.

Hearth feature.

Burnt shell.

Earth oven. Rich in charcoal.

Hearth feature.

Topsoil. Hearth feature.

Comments

Table C.1 Batadomba-lena (2005): charcoal; total weight of analysed material, as well as percentage weights within each identified category; a brief description of each excavated context that yielded charcoal remains; the calibrated radiocarbon dates.

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka

215

7a

7b

7c

IVc

IVb

IVa

71

104

134

51 56 62 63 65 69 72 80 82 122

Context

18,886-19,940 22,578-23,488 22,43325,981;22,83325,621; 24,00028,700 27,100-28,600 (104); 27,700* (7c) 34,400-37,200 N/A N/A N/A

95.4% (2σ) cal. BP (CALIB REV5.0.2.)

* Uncalibrated determination.

III II I

Layer

Phase

0

0.02 N/A 0 0 0

0

0

N/A 0 0 0

0 0 0.29 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 N/A

Canarium sp.

0.01 0.01 0.66 0.08 0.07 0.23 0 0.05 0.13 0.04 0 N/A

Total (g)

N/A 0 0 0

0

0

0 0 0.08 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 N/A

Other Nutshells

N/A 0 0 0

0

0

0 0 0.04 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 N/A

Fruit/Seed

N/A 0 0 0

0.02

0

0.01 0.01 0.25 0.08 0.07 0.23 0 0.05 0.13 0.04 0 N/A

Wood

N/A 0 0 0

0

0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 N/A

Other

moderate N/A N/A N/A

moderate

moderate to high

high high high high high high moderate high high high low to high high

Density of Cultural Remains

Possible cooking pit. Large hearth feature. Hearth feature.

Redeposited hearth. Hearth feature.

Hearth feature.

Comments

Appendix C

Figure C.1 Total weight of charcoal remains per context; plant remain categories; radiocarbon dates.

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka

216

Appendix C lack of adaptability of the species to a cooler climate or is indicative of an environment with less tree cover is hard to say. Analysis of the remaining macrobotanical plant remains recovered during the 2005 excavations could be critical to confirm this and the obtained ratios between fragment types, as well as to shed some light on the early subsystem strategies and plant management practices in use.

Such practices, within broader multi-proxy investigations (Fairbairn 2005b), could potentially help unravelling issues related to the history of plant domestications in the country, the adaptability of communities to rainforest environments and the composition of vegetation through time around archaeological sites. Acknowledgments

Analysis of any direct macrobotanical evidence from archaeological contexts is important but only adds a minimum to our overall understanding of the relations between past societies and their surrounding environment. A more comprehensive archaeobotanical framework within archaeological research, focused on systematic recovery techniques (Fairbairn 2005a), is still missing in Sri Lanka.

I wish to acknowledge Andrew Fairbairn and David Bulbeck for valuable comments on the initial draft of this report; Nimal Perera is greatly thanked for providing all background information on his ongoing research, as well as for inviting me to analyse the macrobotanical remains discussed above.

217

APPENDIX D Selected Artefacts from the 1980-82 Batadomba-lena Excavation, Studied under the Microscope

Artefact No.

Test pit

521

Phase

Layer

Colour

Stone

Category

Size

Weight (g)

IVa

7c

clear

quartz

core

3

24.14

414

12H

1Va

7c

clear

quartz

microlith

2

0.72

415

12J

1Va

7c

clear

quartz

microlith

3

0.46

416

13k

1Va

7c

clear

quartz

microlith

3

0.91

417

15g

1Va

7c

clear

quartz

micro-blade

3

0.95

418

14g

1Va

7c

clear

quartz

microlith

3

0.37

419

14g

1Va

7c

clear

quartz

microlith

2

0.76

420

14j

1Va

7c

clear

quartz

microlith

2

0.32

421

14j

1Va

7c

clear

quartz

microlith

2

0.58

422

13j

1Va

7c

clear

quartz

Balangoda Point

4

4.61

423

13j

1Va

7c

clear

quartz

microlith

3

0.35

218

Comments remnant pebble cortex. Triangle-shape microlith; 21.73 mm; It has continuous micro-flaking along the chord, in particular on one side. Its triangle shape was not intended by the maker and may be an attempt to make a segment-shape microlith. Asymmetric point; 20.76 mm. This item has a snapped tip; one dorsal facet planar crystal facet. Asymmetric point; 21.60 mm.Very fine bifacial micro-flake scarring along the proximal end which may be possible utilisation damages but is below threshold of identification as such; the backing retouch is initiated from a dorsal facet indicating variability in product. Micro-blade; 29.90 mm; initiated from planar crystal facet; this item is regarded as classic example of a micro-blade; extremely scarring along both lateral margins; this item is below threshold of recognition. Asymmetric point; 21.39 mm.This item has very extensive fracture damage consistent with scuffing/ treading. Asymmetric point; 19.25 mm. Incidental micro-scarring along the chord. Asymmetric point, roughly backed; 17.9x5.89x2.1 mm. Asymmetric point very fine continuous micro-scarring along the end half of the point; 21.11x5.33x3.14 mm. Has bifacial retouch; well-formed tang; asymmetrical shaped towards the tip; 35.6x17.44x6.31 mm. Segment- shape microlith; 15.02x6.82x2.34 mm.

Appendix D Artefact No.

Test pit

Phase

Layer

Colour

Stone

Category

Size

Weight (g)

424

13k

1Va

7c

clear

quartz

broken flake

2

2.11

425

13g

1Va

7c

clear

quartz

microlith

2

0.43

426

13g

1Va

7c

clear

quartz

microlith

3

0.74

427

13k

1Va

7c

clear

quartz

Balangoda Point fragment

2

0.29

2

0.13

428

15h

1Va

7c

clear

quartz

microlith tip

429

15h

1Va

7c

clear

quartz

bi-marginal point

2

0.26

430

12g

1Va

7c

clear

quartz

microlith

2

0.3

432

13I

1Va

7c

clear

quartz

microlith

2

0.56

431

15g

1Va

7c

clear

quartz

microlith

2

0.39

433

14H

1Va

7c

clear

quartz

2

0.23

434

13G

1Va

7c

clear

quartz

2

0.14

435

12H

1Va

7c

clear

quartz

2

0.55

436

13G

1Va

7c

clear

quartz

2

0.23

437

14G

1Va

7c

clear

quartz

1

0.16

438

12H

1Va

7c

clear

quartz

micro-blade

3

0.82

439

12J

1Va

7c

clear

quartz

microlith portion

2

1.2

440

13I

1Va

7c

clear

quartz

microlith

2

0.22

microlith portion microlith portion microlith micro-blade fragment microlith portion

219

Comments Remnant area of pebble cortex on dorsal surface; well-formed Conchoidal fracture; abruptly angled retouch along both lateral margins; possibly asymmetric point pre-form; distal end of the artefact appears to be broken possibly during manufacture. Segment-shape microlith; 17.52x7.71x2.14 mm; very fine micro-scarring along the chord, not use-wear. Asymmetric point; segment-shape microlith; 23.37x7.34x2.74 mm; very fine micro-scarring, not use-wear. Interpreted as snapped-tip of tang of a Balangoda Point; bifacial flaking; 15.87x6.64x3.30 mm. Asymmetric point, microlith tip; 15.98x4.2x1.61 mm; tip of microlith is bulbar end of original micro-blade. Asymmetric point; 14.84x6.65x1.91 mm; with retouch on most of one lateral margin and distal end of opposite margin. Asymmetric point backed along butt of the point as well as on one side; 18.12x5.40x2.68 mm. Asymmetric point, 16.38x8.13x2.68 mm. Asymmetric point; short and wide in shape; 14.49x9.03x2.36 mm. Asymmetric point portion (proximal). Asymmetric point portion; tip snapped off. Segment-shape backed microlith; 20.32x8.14x3.99 mm. Micro-blade portion (proximal). Asymmetric point portion (midsection). Micro-blade; one dorsal surface is planar crystal surface; scattered flake-scarring along thin lateral margins; definite use-wear not identifiable. Asymmetric point portion, tip half; fracture damage consistent with projectile breakage; 18.61x9.30x3.38 mm. Asymmetric point; 18.15x4.95x1.33 mm.

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Artefact No.

Test pit

Phase

Layer

Colour

Stone

Category

Size

Weight (g)

441

13G

1Va

7c

brown

chert

utilised flake

4

6.84

442

13K

1Va

7c

red

chert

flake

5

13.91

443

12H

1Va

7c

brown

chert

core fragment

4

12.94

131

16i

1Va

7c

opaque

quartz

potlid-like

1

0.09

129

16i

1Va

7c

opaque

quartz

flake

2

0.67

130

16i

1Va

7c

opaque

quartz

broken flake

1

0.07

392

15g

1Va

7c

clear

quartz

utilised micro-blade

132

16i

1Va

7c

opaque

quartz

potlid-like

1

0.07

133

16i

1Va

7c

opaque

quartz

flake

3

1.82

134

16i

1Va

7c

clear

quartz

1

0.09

135 136 137

16i 16i 16i

1Va 1Va 1Va

7c 7c 7c

opaque opaque opaque

quartz quartz quartz

2 1 1

0.51 0.03 0.08

138

16i

1Va

7c

opaque

quartz

1

0.09

139

16i

1Va

7c

opaque

quartz

2

0.52

flake fragment broken flake broken flake potlid-like micro-blade fragment micro-blade fragment

444

14K

1Vb

7b

clear

quartz

microlith

2

0.32

445

13G

1Vb

7b

clear

quartz

bimarginal point

2

0.13

446

13G

1Vb

7b

clear

quartz

microlith

3

0.91

447

12H

1Vb

7b

clear

quartz

microlith

3

0.69

140

16i

1Vb

7b

clear

quartz

flake

1

0.14

448

12H

1Vb

7b

clear

quartz

bimarginal point

1

0.14

449

14K

1Vb

7b

clear

quartz

microlith

3

1.85

450

12H

1Vb

7b

clear

quartz

microlith

4

2.1

451

15G

1Vb

7b

clear

quartz

broken flake

4

3.48

141

16i

1Vb

7b

clear

quartz

broken flake

2

0.85

220

Comments Utilised flake; large bifacial fracture along the cutting edge associated with distinct edgegrinding on unfractured part of the edge; at least one flake scar identified as post-excavation damage; streaky use-smoothing on at least one surface; use-wear contact with relatively hard material such as wood. Jasper with rough texture; some fresh damage along the margins. Core fragment?

Proximal portion; granular. Fine bifacial flake-scarring along both lateral margins; abruptly angled detached scar on the distal end, probably intended to blunt end of micro-blade. Partially opaque; well-formed conchoidal flake. Longitudinal portion. Proximal portion.

Granular; proximal portion. Asymmetric point; pebble cortex at butt; tip of the microlith from bulbar end of flake; 16.28x5.27x2.97 mm. Bimarginal backed microlith; 14.22x4.0x1.31 mm. Asymmetric point; fine bifacial flake scarring along chord; 26.81x9.04x3.09 mm. Asymmetric point; 24.29x7.33x3.09 mm.

Bi-marginal microlith; very short specimen; 9.04x4.51x1.92 mm. Segment-shape microlith; bifacial scarring along chord; 22.24x12.86x5.07 mm. Asymmetric point; backed along the tip; 36.05x11.47x4.35 mm. Flaked piece; possibly complete or broken Balangoda Point pre-form; bifacial flaking along one margin. Highly translucent; pebble cortex on dorsal surface; cortical flake; well-formed conchoidal flake.

Appendix D Artefact No.

Test pit

Phase

Layer

Colour

Stone

Category

Size

Weight (g)

Comments

142

16i

1Vb

7b

clear

quartz

flake

2

0.47

Possibly a very short micro-blade indicating an intention to strike a micro-blade.

143

16i

1Vb

7b

clear

quartz

bipolar flake

4

6.07

Bipolar compression flake.

144

16i

1Vb

7b

opaque

quartz

broken flake

2

1.08

Longitudinal portion.

145

16i

1Vb

7b

clear

quartz

3

1.86

Distal portion; a cortical flake.

146

16i

1Vb

7b

clear

quartz

broken flake flake fragment

2

0.76

Possibly a micro-blade fragment.

147

16i

1Vb

7b

opaque

quartz

flake

3

1.77

148

16i

1Vb

7b

opaque

quartz

3

2.16

149

16i

1Vb

7b

opaque

quartz

2

1.49

150

16i

1Vb

7b

clear

quartz

flake

3

1.12

151

16i

1Vb

7b

opaque

quartz

flake

3

1.73

152

16i

1Vb

7b

clear

quartz

flake

2

0.47

Very translucent.

153

16i

1Vb

7b

clear

quartz

flake

2

0.22

Macroscopically it would have been identified as a micro-blade.

154

16j

1Vb

7b

clear

quartz

flake fragment

2

1.24

155

16j

1Vb

7b

clear

quartz

flake

2

1.55

Has remnant pebble cortex on dorsal surface.

2

0.52

Planar cortex surface presumably crystal facet; frosted in appearance, forms one dorsal facet.

1

0.39

Proximal portion.

1

0.33

Distal portion. Proximal portion.

bipolar flake flake fragment

156

16j

1Vb

7b

clear

quartz

micro-blade

157

16j

1Vb

7b

clear

quartz

158

16j

1Vb

7b

clear

quartz

159

16j

1Vb

7b

clear

quartz

broken flake

1

0.39

160

16j

1Vb

7b

clear

quartz

micro-blade core

3

5.78

161

16j

1Vb

7b

clear

quartz

flake

3

1.01

162

16j

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

flake

2

0.84

163

16j

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

2

0.05

164

16j

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

2

0.49

165

16j

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

flake

2

0.65

166

16j

1Va

7a

opaque

quartz

bipolar flake

4

5.55

167

16j

1Va

7a

opaque

quartz

broken flake

3

2.23

168

16j

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

utilized flake

4

3.98

169

16j

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

flake

3

5.52

micro-blade fragment broken micro-blade

flake fragment flake fragment

221

Highly translucent; possibly a compression flake.

A milky band longitudinally through the centre. Remnant pebble cortex on dorsal surface; possibly a bipolar flake; seems to be pseudo micro-blade.

Initiation surface is pebble cortex; one or two micro-blade facets; possible steep-edged scraper. Well-formed conchoidal flake; initiation surface is planar with white colouration.

Well-formed conchoidal flake. Appears to be a compression flake; remnant pebble cortex on dorsal surface; partially milky quartz. Distal portion; small area of remnant pebble cortex minimally weathered. 25 mm length of fine flake scarring along one lateral margin, interpreted as use-scarring.

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Artefact No.

Test pit

Phase

Layer

Colour

Stone

Category

Size

Weight (g)

170

16j

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

micro-blade

4

3.67

171

16j

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

bipolar flake

3

5.34

172

16j

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

flake

3

2.59

173

16j

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

broken flake

2

1.6

174

16j

1Va

7a

opaque

quartz

flake

3

3.22

175

16j

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

bipolar flake

5

27.63

176

16j

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

broken flake

2

0.33

Longitudinal portion.

177

16j

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

broken flake

2

0.46

Distal portion.

2

0.55

2

0.8

1

0.28

2

0.92

Comments Indistinct longitudinal ridge on dorsal surface; possibly a pseudo micro-blade. Small area of remnant cortex on dorsal surface; probably a compression flake. Step-terminated flake; somewhat milky in part. Three abruptly angled flake scars on distal half of dorsal surface on one lateral margin. Possibly a bipolar flake; evidence of core rotation on dorsal surface. Compression flake; one half of split bipolar core.

178

16j

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

179

16j

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

180

15h

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

181

15h

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

flake fragment flake bipolar flake micro-blade

182

15h

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

broken flake

2

0.39

183

15h

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

flake fragment

2

0.46

184

15h

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

flake fragment

1

0.23

185

15h

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

broken flake

1

0.24

186

15h

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

2

0.49

187

15h

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

1

0.08

188

15h

1Va

7a

opaque

quartz

1

0.11

189

15h

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

3

2.81

251

13G

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

2

0.76

252

13G

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

3

1.53

May be a distal portion of a flake; ?pseudo micro-blade portion.

253

13G

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

broken flake

3

6.31

Proximal portion.

2

0.21

flake fragment flake fragment flake fragment utilised flake flake fragment flake fragment

? Proximal portion; this item may be a broken bipolar flake. Roughly formed ?micro-blade. Longitudinal portion with step termination.

Appears to be fragment of either proximal or distal portion if it is bipolar. Proximal portion; planar pebble cortex on initiation surface.

Fine use-flake scarring along entire length of one lateral margin and along straight distal margin.

254

13G

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

flake fragment

255

13G

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

flake

3

2.5

Cortical flake; light brown staining on cortex; highly translucent.

256

13G

1Va

7a

opaque

quartz

flake fragment

3

3.69

Possibly mid-section of flake.

257

13G

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

flake

2

0.71

Pebble cortex with brown colouration on one dorsal surface.

258

13G

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

1

0.3

260

15j

1Va

7a

opaque

quartz

2

2.66

261

15j

1Va

7a

opaque

quartz

6

10.41

262

15j

1Va

7a

opaque

quartz

3

16.4

flake fragment flake flake fragment micro-blade core

222

Planar pebble cortex, probably bipolar flake.

Appendix D Artefact No.

Test pit

Phase

Layer

Colour

Stone

Category

Size

Weight (g)

Comments

263

15j

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

micro-blade

3

0.17

Well-formed.

265

15j

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

flake

2

0.28

264

15j

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

microlith

3

0.94

266

15j

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

flake

2

0.94

267

15j

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

micro-blade

3

0.55

268

15j

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

utilised flake

3

0.24

269

15j

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

microlith preform

3

1.55

270

15j

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

3

1.66

271

15j

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

3

2.06

272 273

15j 15j

1Va 1Va

7a 7a

clear clear

quartz quartz

3 3

0.68 0.74

274

15j

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

2

0.28

275

15j

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

2

0.86

276

15j

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

3

2.51

277

15j

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

2

0.23

Very fine bifacial chord.

278

15j

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

2

0.87

Fracture along lateral margins; possibly use-ware.

279

15j

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

3

0.7

282 280

15j 15j

1Va 1Va

7a 7a

opaque clear

quartz quartz

5 2

20.78 0.31

281

15j

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

bipolar flake

3

1.15

283

15j

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

flake fragment

2

0.21

284

15j

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

flake

1

0.21

285

15j

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

3

0.43

286

15j

1Va

7a

opaque

quartz

2

3.48

287

15j

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

broken flake

2

0.15

Longitudinal portion.

2

1.1

Bifacial flake scarring along both lateral margins; initiation surface of the flake has been removed by a single intentional flake scar.

thumbnail scraper utilised flake flake flake core fragment bi-marginal point utilised micro-blade bipolar flake micro-blade flake fragment bipolar core flake

microlith fragment bipolar flake

288

15j

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

utilised flake

289

15j

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

utilised flake

3

1.15

317

16i

1Vc

7a

clear

quartz

utilised micro-blade

3

0.63

353

12h

V11

7a

clear

quartz

bipolar core

3

13.14

359

12h

V11

7a

clear

quartz

bipolar flake

3

1.74

223

Pebble cortex on initiation surface artefact. Asymmetric point; 22.87 mm; very fine, flake scarring along the chord; not identifiable as use-wear.

Only a few flakes scars comprising minimal flakes; some incidental fracture damage along the chord. Irregular bifacial flake scarring along one straight lateral margin.

Very small point; probably an arrow-head with abrupt flaking along two lateral margins initiated from different initiation surfaces. Very fine fracturing continuously along both lateral margins.

Apparent use-life fracture damage along chord; presumably accidental damage.

Fine bifacial flake scarring along both lateral margins. Pebble cortex; slightly smoky; greasy lustre.

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Artefact No.

Test pit

Phase

Layer

Colour

Stone

360

12h

V11

7a

clear

quartz

372

15g

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

373

15g

1Va

7a

clear

quartz

452

14H

1Vb

7a

clear

quartz

Category bipolar flake flake fragment micro-blade fragment

Size

Weight (g)

2

0.58

2

1.52

Remnant of crystal facet.

2

0.5

Proximal portion.

2

0.24

453

16J

1Vb

7a

clear

quartz

microlith

2

0.17

454

14G

1Vc

7a

clear

quartz

microlith

2

0.3

455

15K

1Vc

7a

clear

quartz

microlith fragment

1

0.07

456

15K

1Vc

7a

clear

quartz

microlith

2

0.15

457

13G

1Vc

7a

clear

quartz

microlith

2

0.37

458

13G

1Vc

7a

clear

quartz

microlith

2

0.37

459

12G

1Vc

7a

clear

quartz

microlith fragment

2

0.34

460

15I

1Vc

7a

clear

quartz

microlith fragment

3

2.21

461

13J

1Vc

7a

clear

quartz

retouched flaked

4

10.27

462

14J

1Vc

7a

clear

quartz

microlith

3

0.42

463

14H

1Vc

7a

clear

quartz

utilised micro-blade

3

0.97

7a

clear

quartz

micro-blade core

5

58.41

509

464

14H

1Vc

7a

clear

quartz

broken flake

3

4.75

465

17H

Va

6

clear

quartz

flake

3

5.55

466

15G

Va

6

clear

quartz

flake

3

7.98

2

0.25

467

14G

Va

6

clear

quartz

microlith fragment

468

17G

Va

6

clear

quartz

microlith

2

0.28

469

17G

Va

6

clear

quartz

flake

2

0.11

224

Comments

Asymmetric point; tip formed from bulbar end of the micro-flake or micro-blade; 14.6x5.45x2.22 mm. Asymmetric point; 16.3x7.09x1.36 mm. Asymmetric point (proximal). Asymmetric point made from a narrow micro-blade; backing retouch along the tip end; 17.31x4.23x1.66 mm. Asymmetric point; 19.29x6.27x2.6 mm. Bimarginal microlith; bifacially bimarginal retouch backed (variety 3); 18.69x6.03x2.43 mm. Bimarginal microlith portion (proximal); backed along both lateral margins; 13.81x6.35x1.9 mm. Asymmetric point; proximal point portion; bi-directional backing retouch along one lateral margin and butt end; 26.4x11.36x4.98 mm. Large chunky flake; retouched and has some flaking scars along one lateral end; remnant pebble cortex on dorsal surface. Bimarginal microlith; backing initiated from different faces of the implement; 22.24x6.70x2.81 mm. Utilised micro-blade; fine small fractures, of different sizes and bifacially distributed along both lateral margins, which is interpreted as possible use-wear.

Flaked piece; probably Balangoda Point portion; bifacially flaked along one lateral margin with opposite margin missing as a result of major tangential break across the body of the implement; possibly broken Balangoda Point preform.

Asymmetric point portion (proximal); tip snapped off; possibly “Bondi”-like point preform. Asymmetric point; 16.38x6.32x1.95 mm.

Appendix D Artefact No.

Test pit

Phase

Layer

Colour

Stone

Category

Size

Weight (g)

470

15G

Va

6

clear

quartz

microlith

2

0.39

471

17G

Va

6

clear

quartz

microlith

2

1.11

472

14H

Va

6

opaque

quartz

core

5

22.01

473

15H

Va

6

clear

quartz

flake

3

0.32

475

17G

Va

6

clear

quartz

2

0.24

476

13H

Va

6

clear

quartz

core Balangoda Point preform

4

6.66

477

16H

Va

6

clear

quartz

microlith

2

0.26

507

6

clear

quartz

micro-blade core

3

13.02

508

6

clear

quartz

core

4

15.07

2

0.32

1

0.13

4

16.55

flake flake flake flake fragment

2 2 1

0.56 0.6 0.5

1

0.42

utilised flake bipolar flake

290

15j

Va

6

clear

quartz

291

15j

Va

6

clear

quartz

292

15j

Va

6

opaque

quartz

203 204 205

15h 15h 15h

Va Va Va

6 6 6

clear clear clear

quartz quartz quartz

206

15h

Va

6

opaque

quartz

207

15h

Va

6

clear

quartz

flake

1

0.53

208

15h

Va

6

clear

quartz

flake fragment

2

0.24

209

14h

Va

6

clear

quartz

flake

2

0.58

190

15h

Va

6

clear

quartz

bipolar flake

4

10

191

15h

Va

6

clear

quartz

bipolar flake

4

9.09

192

15h

Va

6

clear

quartz

utilised flake

3

5.37

193

15h

Va

6

clear

quartz

flake

3

1.25

194

15h

Va

6

clear

quartz

flake

2

1

197

15h

Va

6

opaque

quartz

bipolar flake

4

26.31

195

15h

Va

6

clear

quartz

bipolar flake

2

0.61

bipolar flake

225

Comments Triangle-shaped microlith; Asymmetrical plan-shape; 13.98x10.23x2.01 mm. Triangle-shaped microlith; Asymmetrical plan-shape; 17.42x13.10x2.01 mm. Core rotation is evidenced.

Balangoda Point preform; if it is a Balangoda Point, it is an unusual variation in terms of shape. Asymmetric point microlith made from a micro-blade; backed only along the tip half; 18.49x6.5x1.37 mm. Possibly micro-blade core; pebble cortex.

Compression flake; very early stage in the reduction of a quartz pebble; extensive pebble cortex.

Well-formed conchoidal flake. Small remnant area of pebble cortex; compression flake; evidence of core rotation. Evidence of core rotation; probably a compression flake. Continuous fine flake scarring along the entire length of one lateral margin, mostly on the dorsal surface with a few scattered scars along the ventral surface, interpreted as use-scarring from working at least a moderately hard material such as wood or bone. Distinct conchoidal initiation.

Granular; probable compression flake. Conchoidal initiation; conchoidal flake with features on its distal end consistent with detachment from a bipolar core; a pseudo micro-blade or possibly an actual micro-blade.

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Artefact No.

Test pit

Phase

Layer

Colour

Stone

Category

Size

Weight (g)

196

15h

Va

6

clear

quartz

flake

3

2.48

198

15h

Va

6

clear

quartz

broken flake

2

0.65

199

15h

Va

6

clear

quartz

flake

2

1.16

200

15h

Va

6

clear

quartz

3

3.58

201

15h

Va

6

clear

quartz

2

0.44

bipolar flake flake

Comments Two areas of remnant cortex; planar cortex at distal end on dorsal surface; planar cortex, yellow stained, forms initiation surface. Micro-blade portion; distal portion.

Appears to be compression flake.

202

15h

Va

6

clear

quartz

micro-blade

2

0.34

Pronounced longitudinal curvature; poorly defined dorsal ridges; possibly a pseudo microblade.

1

13g

Va

6

clear

quartz

flake

2

0.27

Possibly microlith backing flake.

2

13g

Va

6

opaque

quartz

flake

3

1.33

3

13g

Va

6

opaque

quartz

flake

5

21.47

Granular texture.

4

14i

Va

6

clear

quartz

broken flake

1

0.25

Longitudinal portion.

5

14i

Va

6

clear

quartz

flake

2

0.82

6

14i

Va

6

clear

quartz

flake

1

0.47

7

15g

Va

6

clear

quartz

flake

3

1.22

8

15g

Va

6

clear

quartz

flake

2

0.49

9

15g

Va

6

clear

quartz

flake

3

1.82

10

15g

Va

6

clear

quartz

flake

1

0.09

11

15g

Va

6

clear

quartz

micro-blade

3

2.81

Proximal portion.

12

15j

Va

6

clear

quartz

flake

1

0.18

Possibly a micro-blade portion.

13

15j

Va

6

clear

quartz

flake fragment

1

0.21

14

15j

Va

6

clear

quartz

flake fragment

4

2.42

15

16g

Va

6

clear

quartz

micro-blade

3

4.45

16

16g

Va

6

clear

quartz

micro-blade fragment

2

0.42

17

16g

Va

6

opaque

quartz

flake

3

5.07

18

16g

Va

6

opaque

quartz

mbp

1

0.23

19

15h

Va

6

clear

quartz

flake fragment

2

0.37

20

15g

Va

6

clear

quartz

flake

3

2.43

21

16g

Va

6

clear

quartz

micro-blade

2

1.09

22

16g

Va

6

clear

quartz

flake

1

0.13

23

16g

Va

6

clear

quartz

micro-blade

2

0.34

24

16g

Va

6

opaque

quartz

2

0.46

25

16g

Va

6

clear

quartz

2

0.81

26 27

16g 16g

Va Va

6 6

opaque opaque

quartz quartz

broken flake flake fragment flake flake

2 4

0.36 5.14

28

16g

Va

6

clear

quartz

flake

3

1.36

226

Slightly granular texture on one face, which may be a minimally water worn surface.

Distal portion.

Proximal.

Possibly micro-blade fragment. Possibly attempt to produce micro-blade.

Appendix D Artefact No.

Test pit

Phase

Layer

Colour

Stone

Category

Size

Weight (g)

29

16g

Va

6

clear

quartz

flake

3

2.52

30

16g

Va

6

opaque

quartz

flake

1

1.36

Possibly micro-blade fragment.

31

16g

Va

6

clear

quartz

broken flake

1

0.24

Longitudinal.

32

16g

Va

6

clear

quartz

flake fragment

2

1.07

Possibly a mid-section of a micro-blade.

33

12g

Va

6

clear

quartz

flake

4

3.36

34

12g

Va

6

clear

quartz

2

2.13

Possibly a micro-blade portion.

35

12g

Va

6

clear

quartz

flake micro-blade fragment

1

0.51

Mid-section.

36

12g

Va

6

clear

quartz

broken flake

2

1.37

37

12g

Va

6

opaque

quartz

compression flake

3

2.57

38

12g

Va

6

clear

quartz

micro-blade

2

1.63

39

12g

Va

6

clear

quartz

flake

1

0.36

40

12g

Va

6

clear

quartz

2

1.43

41

12g

Va

6

clear

quartz

2

3.17

42

12g

Va

6

clear

quartz

2

1.37

43

12g

Va

6

clear

quartz

flake

1

0.26

44

12g

Va

6

clear

quartz

broken flake

2

0.88

45

12g

Va

6

clear

quartz

broken flake

3

1.38

46

12g

Va

6

clear

quartz

flake

4

5.73

47

12g

Va

6

opaque

quartz

flake fragment

1

0.18

48

12g

Va

6

clear

quartz

flake

3

2.57

49

12g

Va

6

clear

quartz

flake

2

1.45

50

12g

Va

6

clear

quartz

flake fragment

1

0.25

522

13k

Va

6

red

quartz

flake

6

29.68

Jasper; cobble cortex.

3

4.81

Bipolar flake.

flake fragment flake fragment flake fragment

Comments

Proximal portion; possibly a micro-blade portion. Chunky flake exhibiting an area of red cobble cortex.

Granular texture.

Possibly a micro-blade portion.

523

121

Va

6

clear

quartz

bipolar flake

524

15k

Va

6

clear

quartz

microlith

3

1.58

529

16j

Va

6

opaque

quartz

broken flake

3

2.34

530

12k

Va

6

clear

quartz

microlith

2

0.74

Asymmetric point; 18.44x7.81x3.16 mm.

210

14h

Vb

5

clear

quartz

flake

2

0.49

Well-formed conchoidal flake.

211

14h

Vb

5

clear

quartz

bipolar flake

2

0.87

212

14h

Vb

5

brown

quartz

potlid-like

3

0.59

213

14h

Vb

5

clear

quartz

flake

3

3.01

214

14h

Vb

5

clear

quartz

scraper

227

4

12.24

Segment-shape microlith; pebble cortex; 26.25x11.59x4.12 mm. Possibly a micro-blade with incidental fracturing along margins.

Potlid-like flake with potlid-like flake scars on both ventral and dorsal surface.

Remnant pebble cortex; slightly yellow on dorsal surface; retouched to form a nose along the distal end of one lateral margin; nose and adjoining concavity at the distal end of one lateral margin.

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Artefact No.

Test pit

Phase

Layer

Colour

Stone

Category

Size

Weight (g)

215

14h

Vb

5

clear

quartz

flake

3

3.08

216

14h

Vb

5

clear

quartz

flake

2

0.77

217

14h

Vb

5

clear

quartz

flake

5

7.27

218

14h

Vb

5

clear

quartz

flake

2

0.64

219

14h

Vb

5

clear

quartz

flake

2

0.91

51

12g

Vb

5

clear

quartz

flake fragment

1

3.37

52

12g

Vb

5

clear

quartz

flake

4

4.38

53

12g

Vb

5

clear

quartz

flake

1

1.25

54

12g

Vb

5

clear

quartz

flake

3

13.67

55

12g

Vb

5

clear

quartz

flake fragment

2

2.47

56

12g

Vb

5

clear

quartz

flake

3

2.71

57

12g

Vb

5

clear

quartz

flake

2

3.55

58

12g

Vb

5

opaque

quartz

flake

2

1.45

Granular texture; possible area of rough brown cortex.

59

12g

Vb

5

clear

quartz

micro-blade

4

14.37

Hinge termination.

60

12g

Vb

5

clear

quartz

2

2.34

61

12g

Vb

5

clear

quartz

3

17.78

62

12g

Vb

5

clear

quartz

2

3.17

63

12g

Vb

5

clear

quartz

2

3.37

64

12g

Vb

5

clear

quartz

flake

3

32.91

65

12g

Vb

5

clear

quartz

flake

5

9.25

66

12g

Vb

5

clear

quartz

broken flake

4

16.33

67

12g

Vb

5

clear

quartz

broken flake

2

1.17

68

12g

Vb

5

clear

quartz

flake fragment

3

6.12

69

12g

Vb

5

clear

quartz

flake

1

1.63

2

1.22

3

3.97

3

3.26

2

0.37

2

1.09

flake fragment core flake fragment micro-blade fragment

70

12g

Vb

5

opaque

quartz

flake fragment

71

12g

Vb

5

clear

quartz

broken flake

72

12g

Vb

5

clear

quartz

73

12g

Vb

5

clear

quartz

74

12g

Vb

5

clear

quartz

micro-blade fragment broken micro-blade broken flake

220

14h

Vb

5

oque

quartz

flake

4

5.73

221

14h

Vb

5

clear

quartz

flake fragment

1

0.17

222

14h

Vb

5

clear

quartz

flake

3

2.19

223

14h

Vb

5

clear

quartz

flake

1

0.06

224

14h

Vb

5

clear

quartz

1

0.18

225

14h

Vb

5

opaque

quartz

1

0.2

flake fragment flake fragment

228

Comments Remnant pebble cortex on dorsal surface. Very translucent; secondary fracture damage along distal margin created at time of detachment of flake. Initiation surface is pebble cortex

Possibly attempt to produce micro-blade, or removal of a spur on a micro-blade core.

Evidence of core rotation.

Possibly a micro-blade portion.

Possibly distal end of micro-blade.

Micro-blade portion (mid-section). Core rotation evident from fractures on the dorsal surface.

Very transparent.

Appendix D Artefact No.

Test pit

Phase

Layer

Colour

Stone

Category

Size

Weight (g)

226

14h

Vb

5

clear

quartz

flake fragment

1

0.05

227

14h

Vb

5

clear

quartz

flake

1

0.03

228

14h

Vb

5

clear

quartz

flake

1

0.15

229

14h

Vb

5

clear

quartz

flake

1

0.06

230

13G

Vb

5

opaque

quartz

potlid-like

1

0.09

231

13G

Vb

5

clear

quartz

1

0.2

232

13G

Vb

5

opaque

quartz

1

0.25

321

16i

Vb

5

clear

quartz

3

1.24

480

14J

Vb

5

clear

quartz

5

11.53

478

14J

Vb

5

opaque

quartz

4

7.22

479

14J

Vb

5

clear

quartz

3

4.45

Balangoda Point preform portion (proximal); it has cobble or pebble cortex on dorsal surface.

481

16H

Vb

5

clear

quartz

3

5.53

Balangoda Point preform portion (proximal).

482

12J

Vb

5

clear

quartz

microlith fragment

1

0.19

Asymmetric microlith portion; proximal; bifacial flake scarring along the chord.

483

15G

Vb

5

clear

quartz

core

3

1.03

484

14I

Vb

5

clear

quartz

Balangoda Point preform

4

7.02

485

15I

Vb

5

clear

quartz

Balangoda Point preform

3

3.48

486

13I

Vb

5

clear

quartz

flake

3

0.99

487

15H

Vb

5

clear

quartz

utilised flake

5

8.56

505

5

clear

quartz

micro-blade core

4

30.86

511

5

opaque

quartz

core

5

37.17

516

5

opaque

quartz

bipolar flake

3

10.16

525

5

clear

quartz

microlith preform

3

2.61

527

5

brown

chert

flake

7

34.65

This item has fresh trowel damage.

528

5

clear

quartz

micro-blade

3

1.32

Micro-blade; 26.30x8.95x3.1 mm.

chert

utilised flake

105.42

Use-scar along one lateral margin and bifacial use-fractured along opposite margin; use on hard material such as dense wood; 82.6x62.5x20.2 mm.

531

16g

5

brown

flake fragment flake fragment broken flake core fragment flake Balangoda Point preform Balangoda Point preform

229

8

Comments

Granular.

Granular; black tinge. Proximal portion core rotation, or platform faceting; highly transparent; remnant pebble cortex. Core fragment; possibly large and chunky flake.

Possibly roughly made Balangoda Point preform; remnant pebble cortex on dorsal surface. Bifacially flaked on one side and unifacially flaked other side; possibly intentionally discarded as too short for further retouch. Flake scarring along the lateral margin. Abraded bevel 1.5 mm wide which has been transversely retouched; suggestion of abrasion or scraping of a very hard resistant stone such as a grindstone or mortar; the bevel is 16 mm long. Possibly a micro-blade core; minimally water worn; pebble cortex. Bipolar flake; planar pebble cortex. Segment-shape microlith preform; backing along one end; 22.41x12.95x6.49 mm.

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Artefact No.

Test pit

532

17H

Phase

536

Layer

Colour

Stone

Category

Size

Weight (g)

5

red

chert

utilised scraper

5

33.46

5

red

chert

flake

2

3.91

75

12g

V1

4

clear

quartz

flake

4

13.26

76

12g

V1

4

clear

quartz

flake fragment

3

5.21

77

13I

V1

4

clear

quartz

flake

4

2.07

78

13I

V1

4

clear

quartz

3

8.81

79

13I

V1

4

opaque

quartz

3

4.47

80

13I

V1

4

81

13I

V1

4

op aque clear

82

13I

V1

4

clear

83

13I

V1

4

84

13I

V1

85

13I

86

flake fragment flake fragment

quartz

broken flake

1

3.21

quartz

flake

2

1.48

quartz

flake

3

5.71

clear

quartz

flake

4

13.77

4

clear

quartz

flake fragment

2

0.36

V1

4

clear

quartz

flake

3

8.71

13I

V1

4

opaque

quartz

flake

2

1.37

87

13I

V1

4

clear

quartz

flake fragment

2

0.89

88

13I

V1

4

opaque

quartz

flake

4

8.26

3

3.51

2 6 2

6.22 24.37 1.46

3

1.91

3

6.39

Comments Pebble cortex; use-flaking at end of used edge; flat bevelled scraper; 42.5x48.5x14.3 mm. Jasper; a series of bending fractures along one lateral margin; no identifiable use-wear.

Has area of planar cortex.

Granular texture.

89

13I

V1

4

clear

quartz

90 91 92

13I 13I 13I

V1 V1 V1

4 4 4

clear clear clear

quartz quartz quartz

93

13I

V1

4

opaque

quartz

94

13I

V1

4

clear

quartz

flake fragment flake flake flake flake fragment flake

95

13I

V1

4

clear

quartz

broken flake

2

6.61

96

13I

V1

4

clear

quartz

broken flake

1

3.01

97

13I

V1

4

clear

quartz

2

1.49

98

14j

V1

4

opaque

quartz

4

5.67

99

14j

V1

4c

clear

quartz

3

6.77

Pebble cortex.

100 101

14j 14j

V1 V1

4 4

clear clear

quartz quartz

flake fragment flake flake fragment flake flake

2 2

33 0.8

Possibly micro-blade portion.

102

14j

V1

4

clear

quartz

potlid-like

1

0.6

Possibly a piece of pebble cortex.

103

14j

V1

4

clear

quartz

2

0.23

104

14j

V1

4

clear

quartz

2

0.49

Highly transparent crystal quartz.

105

14j

V1

4

clear

quartz

2

0.52

Translucent; proximal portion; fine bifacial fracturing along chord.

106

14j

V1

4

clear

quartz

2

0.17

107

14j

V1

4

clear

quartz

1

0.1

Granular.

233

13G

V1

4

opaque

quartz

2

0.28

Pebble cortex on dorsal surface.

bipolar flake flake broken micro-blade flake fragment flake flake fragment

230

Appendix D Artefact No.

Test pit

Phase

Layer

Colour

Stone

Category

Size

Weight (g)

234

13G

V1

4

opaque

quartz

1

0.11

235

13G

V1

4

clear

quartz

1

0.3

236

13G

V1

4

opaque

quartz

1

0.23

237

13G

V1

4

clear

quartz

2

0.23

238

13G

V1

4

cpaque

quartz

flake flake fragment potlid-like flake fragment flake

1

0.13

239

13G

V1

4

clear

quartz

flake

1

0.19

240

13G

V1

4

opaque

quartz

1

0.25

241

13G

V1

4

opaque

quartz

2

0.47

242

13G

V1

4

clear

quartz

2

0.26

243

13G

V1

4

opaque

quartz

2

0.38

244

13G

V1

4

clear

quartz

1

0.72

245

13G

V1

4

clear

quartz

1

0.15

Planar crystal facet forms one surface.

246

13G

V1

4

clear

quartz

2

0.59

Probably bipolar.

247

13G

V1

4

clear

quartz

1

0.08

248

13G

V1

4

clear

quartz

broken flake

1

0.12

Distal portion.

249

13G

V1

4

clear

quartz

broken flake

2

0.61

Beautifully translucent proximal portion.

250

13G

V1

4

opaque

quartz

3

3.5

293

15j

V1

4

clear

quartz

3

3.96

294

15j

V1

4

clear

quartz

bipolar core

2

5.76

295

15j

V1

4

opaque

quartz

bipolar core

5

25.4

296

15j

V1

4

opaque

quartz

bipolar core

3

11.84

297

15j

V1

4

opaque

quartz

bipolar flake

4

10.29

298

16i

V1

4

clear

quartz

micro-blade

2

0.77

299

16i

V1

4

clear

quartz

flake

2

0.36

300

16i

V1

4

clear

quartz

utlised flake

2

1.43

301

16i

V1

4

clear

quartz

flake

2

0.26

302

16i

V1

4

clear

quartz

micro-blade

3

0.34

303

16i

V1

4

clear

quartz

flake

3

2.21

304

16i

V1

4

clear

quartz

bipolar flake

3

1.44

305

16i

V1

4

clear

quartz

micro-blade

2

0.2

306

16i

V1

4

clear

quartz

flake

3

1.54

307

16i

V1

4

clear

quartz

flake

1

0.31

308

16i

V1

4

clear

quartz

flake

2

0.34

flake fragment flake fragment flake fragment bipolar flake bipolar flake flake fragment flake fragment flake fragment

flake fragment flake fragment

231

Comments

Distal portion.

Planar frosted cortex. Core rotation providing two sets opposing battered ridges; remnant pebble cortex. Core rotation providing two sets opposing battered ridges; remnant pebble cortex stained red; translucent in part.

Step-terminated; pebble cortex on dorsal surface. Fine bifacial flake scarring along one lateral margin. Core rotation.

Somewhat broad in plan-shape; scattered small flake scars along chord.

Faint smoky tinge.

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Artefact No.

Test pit

Phase

Layer

Colour

Stone

Category

309

16i

V1

4

clear

quartz

Balangoda Point preform

310

16i

V1

4

clear

quartz

flake

Weight (g)

Comments

3

5.43

Possibly preform; two hardhammered abruptly angled flake removals on either side of the point creating a rough denticulate plan-shape.

3

0.63

Size

A thin flake, fragmented; bimarginally retouched to form a point; retouch on each side is initiated from opposing dorsal surface and from the ventral surface on the other side; base of the point transversely snapped.

311

16i

V1

4

clear

quartz

bi-marginal point

1

0.08

312

16i

V1

4

clear

quartz

flake

3

0.25

313

16i

V1

4

clear

quartz

utilised flake

1

0.11

314

16i

V1

4

red

chert

flake

4

7.62

315

16i

V1

4

clear

quartz

bipolar flake

3

0.86

316

16i

V1

4

clear

quartz

core fragment

3

2.86

318

16i

V1

4

clear

quartz

thumbnail scraper

3

1.83

319

16i

V1

4

clear

quartz

bipolar flake

4

1.98

320

16i

V1

4

clear

quartz

micro-blade

3

1.44

322

16i

V1

4

clear

quartz

flake

3

0.94

323

16i

V1

4

clear

quartz

flake

2

1.19

324

16i

V1

4

clear

quartz

flake

2

1.88

488

12H

V1

4

clear

quartz

scraper

3

12.01

489

12J

V1

4

clear

quartz

Balangoda Point preform

3

8.12

Balangoda Point preform’s butt portion with bifacial retouch along one lateral margin.

490

13G

V1

4

brown

chert

flake

3

3.28

Well-formed conchoidal flake.

491

15J

V1

4

brown

chert

flake

6

17.18

492

15K

V1

4

clear

quartz

core

6

55.98

493

15K

V1

4

yellow

chert

flake

7

15.2

232

Moderately weathered surfaces; pebble cortex form the initiation surface.

Remnant pebble cortex. Greasy lustre on all surfaces; slightly smoky grey; translucent. Pseudo micro-blade; core rotation; associated with #318 by its lustre and colouration. Stepped terminated; possibly a platform preparation of the initiation surface; well formed conchoidal initiation.

Remnant planar cortex on dorsal surface. Relatively large flake with invasive flake scars along one face of one lateral margin; (similar to flaking observed on Balangoda Point).

Chopper? large conchoidal flake; initiation surface is cobble cortex; some incidental fresh scars along one lateral margin. Core rotation is evidenced; possibly micro-blade core with single identifiable micro-blade facet. Well-formed large conchoidal fracture with retroflex hinge termination; potential usesmoothing along feathered part of the distal margin.

Appendix D Artefact No.

Test pit

Phase

Layer

Colour

Stone

Category

494

16I

V1

4

clear

quartz

microlith preform

495

13I

V1

4

clear

quartz

micro-blade

Weight (g)

Comments

4

5.33

Asymmetric point preform; probably partially backed; snapped tip; probably discarded during manufacture.

2

0.39

Micro-blade.

Size

496

17I

V1

4

clear

quartz

core

3

8.34

Core rotation visible; possibly exhausted micro-blade core; however, there were three initiation surfaces; no complete micro-blade facet.

497

15H

V1

4

red

chert

broken flake

6

15.14

Flake portion.

498

14I

V1

4

clear

quartz

utilised flake

3

3.61

499

14G

V1

4

clear

quartz

micro-blade

2

0.25

500

14G

V1

4

clear

quartz

Balangoda Point preform

4

10.83

Utilised flake with bifacial flake scars along relatively straight distal margin; shallow step-scars interpreted as use-wear; use-wear consistent with scraping mediumhard material or short- term working of harder material. Micro-blade; very fine scarring along the chord, not identifiable as use-wear. Possibly finished Balangoda Point made with minimal retouch. Originally a bipolar compression flake; it has primary flake removal from free-hand percussion method along one side, suggesting that this relatively large piece had been used to detach a small conchoidal flake for selection as implement preform or cutting tool. Jasper; cobble cortex on dorsal surface.

501

15G

V1

4

clear

quartz

core

7

76.81

502

14H

V1

4

brown

chert

flake

5

24.47

503

13I

V1

4

grey

chert

flake

5

23.28

0

4

opaque

quartz

core

3

24.36

537

4

yellow

chert

flake

6

9.05

Fresh fracture damage.

533

4

yellow

chert

flake

4

8.35

Jasper.

504

Granular texture; cobble cortex on dorsal surface.

Rough pebble cortex; utilised flake; straight edge of distal part is bifacially use-fractured from contact with at least moderately resistant worked material such as wood (medium-dense). “Bondi”-like point;. 15.13x6.19x2.01 mm. Potlid-like flake caused by thermal fracture of a larger piece of chert; negative potlid-like scars form the dorsal surface. “Bondi”-like; tip snapped off; 28.16x10.37x3.54 mm.

503a

4

yellow

chert

utilised flake

4

12.07

526

4

clear

quartz

microlith

2

0.26

534

4

red

chert

potlid-like

3

2.79

519

4

clear

quartz

microlith

3

2.18

510

4

opaque

quartz

core

5

37.56

Planar pebble cortex.

512

4

clear

quartz

core

3

23.12

Probably bipolar core.

514

4

opaque

quartz

bipolar core

3

16.38

Pebble cortex.

108

14j

V11

3

opaque

quartz

flake fragment

1

0.06

109

14j

V11

3

opaque

quartz

flake

1

0.18

233

Granular.

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Artefact No.

Test pit

Phase

Layer

Colour

Stone

Category

Size

Weight (g)

110

14j

V11

3

opaque

quartz

1

0.17

111

14j

V11

3

Clear

quartz

1

0.8

112

14j

V11

3

clear

quartz

1

0.16

113

14j

V11

3

opaque

quartz

flake flake fragment flake fragment flake fragment

1

0.09

114

14j

V11

3

opaque

quartz

flake

2

0.31

115 116 117 118

14j 14j 14j 14j

V11 V11 V11 V11

3 3 3 3

clear clear opaque opaque

quartz quartz quartz quartz

flake flake flake flake

2 1 1 1

0.17 0.17 0.1 0.04

119

14j

V11

3

opaque

quartz

flake

1

0.05

120

14j

V11

3

opaque

quartz

bipolar flake

1

0.1

121

16i

V11

3

opaque

quartz

flake

1

0.14

122

16i

V11

3

opaque

quartz

potlid-like?

2

0.51

123

16i

V11

3

opaque

quartz

potlid-like?

1

0.16

124

16i

V11

3

opaque

quartz

potlid-like

2

0.33

125

16i

V11

3

opaque

quartz

potlid-like

2

0.08

126

16i

V11

3

opaque

quartz

bipolar flake

2

0.28

Granular.

127

16i

V11

3

opaque

quartz

flake

1

0.21

Yellow-brown colouration.

128

16i

V11

3

opaque

quartz

flake fragment

1

0.05

Granular; yellow-brown colouration.

325

16i

V11

3

clear

quartz

flake

3

0.8

326

16i

V11

3

clear

quartz

flake

3

0.99

327

16i

V11

3

clear

quartz

flake

2

1.35

Well-formed conchoidal flake; pebble cortex; bifacial flake scarring along one lateral margin, possibly incidental.

328

16i

V11

3

opaque

quartz

bipolar core

4

17.36

Core rotation.

2

0.32

Planar cortex. Chunky flake with flake scars initiated from ventral surface; remnant pebble cortex on one thick side.

329

16i

V11

3

opaque

quartz

flake fragment

330

13i

V11

3

clear

quartz

core

4

7.5

331

13i

V11

3

clear

quartz

flake

3

0.98

332

13i

V11

3

clear

quartz

flake

4

2.4

333

13i

V11

3

clear

quartz

broken flake

4

1.8

334

13i

V11

3

clear

quartz

bipolar flake

3

3.18

335

13i

V11

3

clear

quartz

flake

1

0.25

336

13i

V11

3

clear

quartz

broken micro-blade

3

2.38

337

13i

V11

3

clear

quartz

micro-blade

3

0.64

338

13i

V11

3

clear

quartz

flake fragment

3

0.43

234

Comments

Granular. Well-formed conchoidal flake with step termination; possibly from a micro-blade core. Very translucent. Core rotation is evidenced. Granular. Granular. Granular; yellow-brown colouration.

Granular.

Possible irregular shaped microblade; incidental fracturing along lateral margins. Proximal; cortical flake detached from a water-rolled crystal; pseudo micro-blade. Remnant planar pebble cortex.

Appendix D Artefact No.

Test pit

Phase

Layer

Colour

Stone

Category

Size

Weight (g)

339

13i

V11

3

clear

quartz

utilised flake

4

4.89

340

13i

V11

3

clear

quartz

utilised flake

4

4.62

341

13i

V11

3

clear

quartz

flake

1

0.31

342

13i

V11

3

clear

quartz

bipolar core

4

6.79

343

13i

V11

3

clear

quartz

flake

1

0.16

3

3.64

2

0.36

bipolar flake flake fragment

Comments Continuous fine flake scarring along one relatively straight lateral margin; predominantly unifacial on the dorsal surface; inferred to be utilisation damaged. Red pebble cortex on dorsal surface; fine bifacial flake scarring along entire acute-angled lateral margin.

Core rotation.

Pebble cortex.

344

13i

V11

3

clear

quartz

345

13i

V11

3

clear

quartz

346

13i

V11

3

clear

quartz

flake

2

1.85

347

13i

V11

3

clear

quartz

flake

3

2.64

348

12h

V11

3

clear

quartz

bipolar core

3

8.41

349

12h

V11

3

clear

quartz

bipolar core

2

1.5

350

12h

V11

3

clear

quartz

flake

2

0.2

351

12h

V11

3

opaque

quartz

3

7.96

352

12h

V11

3

clear

quartz

1

0.25

354

12h

V11

3

opaque

quartz

2

0.53

355

12h

V11

3

clear

quartz

2

0.32

356

12h

V11

3

clear

quartz

1

0.33

357

12h

V11

3

opaque

quartz

2

1.07

358

12h

V11

3

clear

quartz

broken flake

2

1.32

Proximal portion; core rotation.

361

12h

V11

3

clear

quartz

flake

3

2.72

Probably bipolar flake.

362

12h

V11

3

clear

quartz

broken flake

2

0.88

Proximal portion.

363

12h

V11

3

clear

quartz

4

3.75

364 365

12h 12h

V11 V11

3 3

clear opaque

quartz quartz

2 2

1.47 0.75

Planar pebble cortex; more distinct crystal facet. Pebble cortex; cortical flake. Planar cortex.

366

12h

V11

3

opaque

quartz

2

4.21

Pebble cortex.

367

12h

V11

3

clear

quartz

flake fragment flake flake flake fragment broken flake

2

1.07

368

12h

V11

3

clear

quartz

flake

3

1.98

369

15g

V11

3

clear

quartz

broken flake

3

0.77

371

15g

V11

3

clear

quartz

broken flake

2

0.64

Distal portion. Planar crystal facet forming initiation surface. Distal portion; corner of a quartz crystal. Proximal portion; possible portion of roughly made micro-blade.

374

15g

V11

3

opaque

quartz

flake

2

0.07

375

15g

V11

3

clear

quartz

1

0.06

376

15g

V11

3

clear

quartz

1

0.1

bipolar flake flake fragment flake fragment flake fragment flake fragment flake fragment

flake fragment flake fragment

235

Pebble cortex probably associated with #344. Iron staining within cracks; planar pebble cortex; core rotation. Iron staining within cracks; planar pebble cortex; associates with #346. Core rotation. Possible intent to make a microflake. Remnant pebble cortex. Red coloured pebble cortex.

Granular.

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Artefact No.

Test pit

Phase

Layer

Colour

Stone

Category

Size

Weight (g)

Comments

377

15g

V11

3

clear

quartz

flake

2

0.6

Remnant pebble cortex.

378

15g

V11

3

clear

quartz

flake fragment

1

0.06

379

15g

V11

3

clear

quartz

flake fragment

1

0.24

380

15g

V11

3

clear

quartz

2

0.49

381

15g

V11

3

clear

quartz

3

5.01

Probably bipolar flake.

382

15g

V11

3

clear

quartz

2

1.33

Possibly bipolar.

383

15g

V11

3

clear

quartz

2

1

384 385 386 387

15g 15g 15g 15g

V11 V11 V11 V11

3 3 3 3

opaque clear clear clear

quartz quartz quartz quartz

3 2 2 2

3.69 0.28 0.42 0.56

flake fragment flake flake fragment flake fragment flake flake flake flake

388

15g

V11

3

clear

quartz

flake

3

2.87

389

15g

V11

3

opaque

quartz

flake

2

1.08

390

15g

V11

3

clear

quartz

bipolar flake

3

5.06

391

15g

V11

3

clear

quartz

broken flake

2

0.42

393

15g

V111

3

clear

quartz

flake

2

0.88

394

12h

V111

3

clear

quartz

flake

1

0.16

395

15g

V111

3

clear

quartz

broken flake

1

0.17

396

15g

V111

3

clear

quartz

micro-blade

2

0.15

397

15g

V111

3

opaque

quartz

1

0.1

398

15g

V111

3

clear

quartz

1

0.07

399

15g

V111

3

clear

quartz

1

0.05

400

15g

V111

3

clear

quartz

1

0.11

401

15g

V111

3

clear

quartz

1

0.16

402

15g

V111

3

clear

quartz

1

0.1

403

15g

V111

3

clear

quartz

1

0.05

404

15g

V111

3

clear

quartz

1

0.08

405

15g

V111

3

clear

quartz

1

0.1

406

15g

V111

3

clear

quartz

1

0.04

407

15g

V111

3

clear

quartz

1

0.06

408

15g

V111

3

clear

quartz

1

0.03

409

15g

V111

3

clear

quartz

1

0.03

flake fragment flake fragment flake flake fragment flake fragment flake fragment flake fragment flake fragment flake fragment broken flake flake fragment flake fragment flake fragment

236

Pebble cortex forms initiation surface; fabric characteristic, moderately granular with microcracks infilled with quartz either completely or partially; indifferent flaking quality due probably to partially sub-conchoidal fracture. Probably bipolar flake; two parallel planes of weakness passing through the body of this flake; where exposed these planes are flat and frosted in appearance; these planes would be a source of some planar surfaces on artefacts.

Proximal.

Longitudinal portion.

Appendix D Artefact No.

Test pit

Phase

Layer

Colour

Stone

410

15g

V111

3

clear

quartz

411

15g

V111

3

clear

quartz

412

15g

V111

3

clear

quartz

413

15g

V111

3

clear

quartz

506 513 517 518

3 3 3 3

opaque clear clear clear

quartz quartz quartz quartz

520

3

clear

quartz

535

3

yellow

chert

515

2

clear

quartz

Size

Weight (g)

Comments

1

0.06

Remnant pebble cortex.

1

0.04

1

0.07

1

0.05

5 3 2 3

35.96 2.67 0.27 1.42

3

4.53

Probably a micro-blade core.

flake

3

4.52

Fracture damage along one lateral margin, which is not interpreted as use-wear.

flake fragment

2

1.06

Category flake fragment flake fragment flake fragment flake fragment flake microlith flake micro-blade core

237

APPENDIX E Artefacts from the Batadomba-lena (2005) Sediment Samples, Studied under the Microscope

Artefact No.

Phase

Context

Colour

Stone

Category

Size

Weight (g)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V

37 37 45/40 45/40 122 122 122 122 122 42 42 42 42 42 42 45/40 45/40 45/40 54 54 54 54 54 54 43 43 43 43 43 43

clear clear clear clear clear clear clear clear clear clear clear clear clear clear clear clear clear clear clear clear clear clear clear clear clear clear clear clear clear clear

quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz

bipolar flake flake fragment flake fragment flake flake flake fragment flake fragment flake flake fragment bipolar core flake flake flake fragment flake fragment flake flake fragment microlith preform flake fragment flake flake flake fragment flake flake flake flake flake fragment flake fragment flake fragment flake

4 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 5 1 3 1 2 1 2 3 1 3 2 2 3 4 4 1 2 1 1 2 1

6.59 0.33 0.2 0.28 0.07 0.01 0.07 0.01 0.05 15.33 0.45 3.1 0.03 0.73 0.01 0.72 ; 0.04 2.64 0.62 0.58 2.45 11.95 2.21 0.01 0.06 0.06 0.15 0.19 0.01

31

V

65

clear

quartz

bipolar flake

4

21.35

32

V

65

clear

quartz

flake fragment

3

3.31

33

V

63

clear

quartz

flake fragment

1

0.16

34

V

63

clear

quartz

flake fragment

2

0.53

238

Comments

Longitudinal portion.

Proximal portion. Core rotation.

Planar cortex.

Cortical flake; extensive area of water-worn cortex on the dorsal surface; possibly a compression flake. Distal portion; small remnant area of water-worn iron-stained cortex on dorsal surface.

Appendix E Artefact No.

Phase

Context

Colour

Stone

Category

Size

Weight (g)

35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43

VII VII V V V V V V V

99/6 99/6 60 60 64 64 64 64 64

clear clear clear clear milky clear clear clear clear

quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz

broken flake flake fragment flake fragment flake fragment flake fragment flake fragment flake fragment flake micro-blade

1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1

0.03 0.03 0.05 0.01 2.64 0.11 0.01 0.16 0.43

44

V

64

clear

quartz

flake

2

1.37

45 46 47 48 49 50 51

V V V V V V V

64 64 64 64 64 64 64

clear clear clear clear clear clear clear

quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz

flake flake fragment flake flake flake flake flake fragment

1 1 2 1 2 1 1

0.03 0.31 0.17 0.02 0.27 0.15 0.01

52

V

64

clear

quartz

flake

2

0.53

53 54 55 56 57 58

V V V V V V

64 52 52 52 65 65

clear clear clear clear clear clear

quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz

2 1 2 3 1 1

0.44 0.05 0.43 3.06 0.16 0.01

59

V

75

clear

quartz

2

0.23

60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69

V V V V V V V V V V

75 75 75 75 75 75 75 56 56 56

clear clear clear clear clear clear clear clear clear clear

quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz

flake flake fragment flake fragment flake flake flake broken microblade flake broken flake flake fragment flake broken flake flake flake fragment flake flake flake fragment

2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

0.39 0.03 0.07 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.1 0.04 0.11 0.04

70

V

56

clear

quartz

flake

1

0.01

71

V

56

clear

quartz

broken flake

1

0.08

73

V

82

clear

quartz

1

0.06

72

V

56

clear

quartz

1

0.09

74

V

82

clear

quartz

flake micro-blade fragment flake fragment

2

0.78

75

V

82

clear

quartz

flake

3

5.14

76

V

82

clear

quartz

flake

1

0.13

77

V

82

clear

quartz

broken flake

1

0.15

78 79 80 81

V V V V

82 82 82 82

clear clear clear clear

quartz quartz quartz quartz

flake broken flake flake broken flake

2 2 1 1

0.23 0.56 0.07 0.14

239

Comments Distal portion. Proximal portion. Distal portion.

Red-stained; water-worn cortex at the distal end.

Planar cortex comprises the flake initiation surface.

Snapped distal end. Distal portion.

Proximal portion.

Mid-section portion; possibly a micro-blade portion. Mid-section portion; possibly a micro-blade portion. Longitudinal portion. Remnant water-worn cortex on dorsal surface. Water-worn cortex on dorsal surface.

Distal.

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Artefact No.

Phase

Context

Colour

Stone

Category

Size

Weight (g)

82 83 84 85

V V V V

82 82 69/81 69/81

clear clear clear clear

quartz quartz quartz quartz

flake fragment flake flake flake fragment

1 1 1 2

0.28 0.07 0.07 0.94

86

V

69/81

black

chert

potlid-like

1

0.28

87

V

69/81

black

chert

potlid-like

6

8.14

88 89 90 91 92

V V V V V

69/81 69/81 69/81 59 59

milky clear clear clear clear

quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz

flake flake fragment flake flake fragment broken flake

2 1 1 3 4

1.28 0.36 0.03 4.32 2.99

Comments

Potlid-like flake fragment; heat fractured. Potlid-like flake; heat fractured on all surfaces.

Remnant red-stained water-worn cortex; relatively thick flake; steeply retouched on the dorsal surface to form two notches; each notch created by a single hammer blow; retouch is abruptly angled.

93

V

59

clear

quartz

bipolar flake

5

14.31

94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108

V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V

59 73 73 73 73 51 51 51 51 51 51 51 51 133 133

clear clear clear clear clear clear clear clear milky clear clear clear clear clear milky

quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz

flake flake fragment flake flake fragment core fragment flake flake flake flake fragment flake fragment flake fragment flake flake fragment flake fragment flake

2 1 3 2 3 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 2

2.55 0.02 2.84 0.54 3.72 0.6 0.85 2.28 0.22 0.1 0.35 0.11 0.45 0.06 1.1

109

V

133

milky

quartz

flake

3

2.42

110

V

133

clear

quartz

flake fragment

1

0.12

Red-stained. Water-worn cortex on dorsal surface. Proximal portion.

111

V

133

clear

quartz

flake fragment

2

0.84

Longitudinal portion.

112

V

63

clear

quartz

flake

4

9.48

113

V

72

clear

quartz

bipolar flake

3

4.63

114 115 116 117 118 119

V V V V V V

39 55 55 55 55 55

clear clear clear clear milky milky

quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz

core flake fragment broken flake flake fragment bipolar flake flake

5 1 1 1 2 3

17.66 0.07

240

0.02 0.33 2.22

Mid-section.

Hand-held flake tool with abruptly angled retouch along relatively straight lateral margin including two large bending-initiated scars; precise tool-use activity not known; tool probably held in the first three fingers, more likely by a right-handed person; a red substance on the surface is possibly use residue. Remnant red-stained water-worn cortex; margin to the edge of initiation surface.

Proximal portion. Possibly a small bending flake.

Appendix E Artefact No.

Phase

Context

Colour

Stone

Category

Size

Weight (g)

120 121 122

V V V

62 62 80

clear clear clear

quartz quartz quartz

flake flake broken flake

2 1 1

1.03 0.04 0.01

123

V

80

clear

quartz

flake fragment

1

0.05

124 125 126

V V lVa

80 80 104

milky milky clear

quartz quartz quartz

flake fragment bipolar flake broken flake

2 3 1

0.87 4.44 0.05

127

lVa

104

clear

quartz

flake fragment

1

0.04

128 129 130

lVa lVa lVa

104 104 104

clear clear clear

quartz quartz quartz

micro-blade flake broken flake

1 2 1

0.08 0.89 0.08

131

lVa

104

clear

quartz

retouched flake

2

0.89

132 133 134 135

lVa lVa lVa lVa

71 71 71 71

clear clear clear clear

quartz quartz quartz quartz

flake flake fragment flake fragment flake

2 1 1 1

0.11 10 0.01 0.07

136

lVa

71

clear

quartz

flake fragment

1

0.05

137 138 139

lVa lVa lVb

71 71 88/89

clear clear clear

quartz quartz quartz

flake microlith broken flake

1 1 1

0.15 1.2 0.09

140

IVb

88/89

clear

quartz

microlith fragment

3

Comments

Distal portion. Water-worn cortex on the dorsal surface. Probably a compression flake. Longitudinal portion. Possibly the tip of a ”Bondi”-like point. Flake scarring along the chord. Proximal portion. Flake with incidental retouch along one lateral margin. Crystal facet on the dorsal face.

Red residue that could be sedimentary in nature. Asymmetrical segment microlith. Longitudinal portion.

0.24

A long thin micro-blade with a snapped tip; there is unifacial backing along one lateral margin, and continuous flake scarring distributed bifacially along the opposite lateral margin which is the cutting edge; in the centre of this length of fine flake scarring there is area of fine abrasion that has rounded the edge; this edge damage (flake scars and abrasion) is inferred to be use-wear.

141

IVb

88/89

clear

quartz

microlith

2

0.36

Microlith with minimal backing retouch to form a segment-shape; flake scars along the chord may be use-wear.

142

IVb

88/89

clear

quartz

core fragment

3

1.76

Cortical flake (water-worn cortex on dorsal surface). Water-worn cortex; possibly a utilised micro-blade; various flake scars along the margins, possibly intentional; use-wear at apex at the tip; identified as a flake tool for engraving or other light-duty work.

143

IVb

88/89

clear

quartz

flake

2

0.39

144 145

IVb lVc

88/89 134

clear clear

quartz quartz

flake fragment broken flake

1 1

0.05 0.03

146

lVc

134

clear

quartz

utilised flake

4

2.2

241

Bifacial flaking along the lateral margins; possibly an arrow point, or possibly a hand-held cutting or scraping tool.

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Artefact No.

Phase

Context

Colour

Stone

Category

Size

Weight (g)

Comments Equivalent to “thumbnail” scraper identified in Australian assemblages. A broken piece of a stone implement of unidentified type; this artefact is associated with #134 by retouch and use-wear attributes; this item should be re-examined for use-wear and tool type classification; Kamminga suggests that it may be associated with arrow-making activities.

153

lVc

76

clear

quartz

thumbnail scraper

1

0.28E

147

lVc

134

clear

quartz

utilised flake

3

2.05

148

IVc

134

clear

quartz

broken flake

1

0.1

149

lVb

83

clear

quartz

flake

2

0.36

150

IVb

83

clear

quartz

utilised flake fragment

1

0.27

151

IVc

76

clear

quartz

utilised microblade

3

0.75

152

lVc

76

clear

quartz

flake fragment

1

0.11

154

155

lVc

lVc

76

76

clear

clear

quartz

quartz

utilised microblade

utilised microblade

4

4

Proximal portion; this is possibly a piece of a retouched artefact; very fine flake scarring along the lateral margins. Very fine bending-initiated and conchoidal flake scars along one lateral margin of this small flake; possibly the flake scars are incidental and not the result of tool-use or other prehistoric activity. Possibly a piece of a utilised flake with bifacial edge-flaking that could be use-wear on a cutting edge. Conchoidal and bending-initiated flake scars along one side of a straight lateral margin; possibly used for light-duty cutting or scraping.

4.56

Quite large micro-blade with three flake indentations along one lateral margin, and very fine continuous flake scars along the opposite lateral margin; this flake scarring is identified as probable use-scarring from light-duty tool-use.

4.35

Remnant water-worn cortex on dorsal surface; the artefact has continuous flake scarring along one side of a straight lateral margin; inferred to be use-wear from a very light-duty cutting activity.

156

lVc

76

clear

quartz

microlith

1

0.47

Segment microlith; continuous very fine bifacial flake scarring along the cutting edge; this flake scarring may be use-wear.

157 158 159

VII VII VI

99/6 35/36 109

clear clear clear

quartz quartz quartz

flake broken flake flake fragment

1 1 1

0.09 0.1 0.01

Longitudinal portion.

160

VI

109

clear

quartz

flake

3

0.89

Water-worn cortex on initiation surface.

161 162 163 164 165 166 167

VI VI VI VI VI VI VI

106 110 110 110 110 109 109

clear clear milky clear clear clear clear

quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz

flake flake flake fragment flake flake fragment broken flake flake fragment

1 1 1 1 1 1 1

0.49 0.04 0.49 0.75 0.06 0.09 0.01

Large hinge termination.

242

Longitudinal portion.

Appendix E Artefact No.

Phase

Context

Colour

Stone

Category

Size

Weight (g)

Comments

168

VI

13

B

chert

retouched flake

6

5.63

Red chert, classic jasper; incidental flake scars along one lateral margin; possible fresh flake scars, apparently smoothing along the distal margin of the bulbar face; this margin has retouch scars on the ventral surface with initiation from dorsal surface.

169

VI

13

clear

quartz

utilised microblade

3

2.03

Continuous bifacial flake scars along one lateral margin.

170

VI

13

clear

quartz

utilised microblade

4

5.63

171

Vl

13

clear

quartz

utilised microblade

5

8.01

172

Vl

13

clear

quartz

micro-blade core

4

14.89

173

Vl

38

clear

quartz

retouched flake

3

0.48

174

Vl

38

clear

quartz

broken flake

1

0.14

175 176 177 178 179

Vl Vl Vl VI Vl

25b 25b 25c 25c 25c

clear clear clear clear clear

quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz

flake fragment flake flake flake flake

1 1 1 3 3

0.03 0.01 0.05 4.11 1.09

180

Vl

25c

clear

quartz

utilised microblade

3

1.91

181 182 183 184

Vl Vl Vl Vi

25c 25c 35/36 25a

clear clear clear clear

quartz quartz quartz quartz

flake broken flake broken flake broken flake

2 2 1 1

0.48 0.61 0.09 0.03

185

VI

25a

clear

quartz

flake

2

0.35

186 187 189 190

Vl Vl VI Vl

25a 111 113 113

clear clear clear clear

quartz quartz quartz quartz

flake broken flake broken flake flake fragment

1 1 2 1

0.03 0.03 0.62 0.25

188

Vl

113

clear

quartz

utilised microblade

2

0.38

191 192 193

Vl Vl VI

35/36 35/36 23

clear clear clear

quartz quartz quartz

flake fragment flake flake

1 1 3

0.06 2.04 4.34

194

VI

23

clear

quartz

utilised flake

3

3.88

195 196 197 198 199

VI Vl VI VI VI

103 115 9 9 9

clear clear clear clear clear

quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz

flake fragment flake fragment flake flake micro-blade

1 1 1 2 4

0.01 0.09 0.39 0.9 4.14

200

Vl

9

clear

quartz

flake

3

6.86

243

Possible use-flaking along lateral margin. Water-worn cortex; flake scars distributed bifacially along a lateral margin. Roughly square shape. Retouch flake with incidental flaking along one lateral margin.

Possibly mis-shaped micro-blade. Flaking evident along the lateral margins. Longitudinal portion.

Water-worn cortex; snapped along the lateral margin.

Proximal portion. Very fine bifacial flaking along both lateral margins, representing either scuffage and treadage or very short-term, light-duty activity.

Bifacial flaking along the lateral margins; possibly evidence of utilisation.

Cortical flake; water-worn cortex on dorsal surface; possibly associated with items #197 to 198.

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Artefact No.

Phase

Context

Colour

Stone

Category

Size

Weight (g)

201

VI

9

clear

quartz

microlith

2

0.38

202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 229 230

VI VI Vl VI Vl Vl 1Vb 1Vb V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V

9 102/18 102/18 102/18 23 23 83 83 133 133 133 133 133 39 39 39 39 39 39 39 39 39 45/40 51 51 54 54 54

clear clear clear clear clear clear clear milky clear clear clear clear milky clear clear clear clear clear clear clear clear clear clear clear clear clear clear milky

quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz

broken flake flake flake fragment flake broken flake bipolar core flake flake flake broken flake flake flake fragment flake fragment flake flake fragment flake flake flake fragment flake broken flake flake fragment flake broken flake flake flake fragment flake fragment flake broken flake

1 1 1 2 1 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 2

0.01 0.01 0.06 0.49 0.04 28.58 0.61 0.21 0.54 0.63 0.6 0.83 0.84 0.09 0.08 0.12 0.11 0.14 0.05 0.11 0.63 0.03 0.93 0.11 0.09 0.11 0.12 0.6

228

V

54

clear

quartz

broken flake

1

0.08

231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242

V V V V V V V V V V V V

54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 55

clear clear clear clear clear milky milky clear clear clear clear clear

quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz

flake fragment broken flake broken flake flake fragment flake fragment flake fragment broken flake flake fragment flake flake fragment flake fragment flake

1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 3 2

0.09 0.11 0.06 0.61 0.42 0.36 0.84 0.51 0.11 0.01 0.95 0.35

244

Comments Slightly asymmetrical segment microlith; bifacial flake-scarring along the chord; scattered furrow striating variously angled at 75 -950 to the cutting edge; use-wear on adjoining facet on the dorsal surface; occasional striations on the opposite ventral surface; this set of attributes is probably use-wear and associated abrasion that occurred while implement was hafted and being used. Longitudinal portion.

Proximal portion. Waterworn cortex.

Longitudinal portion.

Probably a bipolar flake.

Mid-section.

Possibly a microlith backing flake or a flake from some other kind of preform with probable backing retouch.

Proximal portion. Frosted planar crystal facet. Water-worn cortex. Possibly a bipolar flake.

Appendix E Artefact No.

Phase

Context

Colour

Stone

Category

Size

Weight (g)

243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257

V V V V V V VI V1 V1 V1 V11 V11 V11 V11 V11

55 65 65 65 62 69/81 38 9 9 9 17 17 17 17 17

clear clear clear clear clear milky clear clear milky clear milky clear clear milky clear

quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz

flake fragment flake flake flake flake broken flake flake fragment flake flake fragment flake flake fragment broken flake broken flake broken flake flake fragment

1 2 2 2 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

0.4 0.16 0.57 0.22 0.21 1.02 0.81 0.48 0.99 1.05 0.36 0.45 0.61 0.56 0.47

245

Comments

Proximal portion.

APPENDIX F Bellan-bandi Palassa, Phase II: Cores, Non-flaked Artefacts, and Backed Implements (Squares M6/7)

Abbreviations c: core mbc: micro-blade core bpc: bipolar core cf: core fragment gn: grinder

dpns: dimple pitted nut-stone nphs: non-pitted hammerstone mhcmp: multiple-function hammer + pounder m: microlith

Artefact No.

Context

Colour

Stone

Category

Size (cm)

Weight (g)

1a 2a 3a 4a 5a 6a 7a 8a 9a 10a 11a 12a 13a 14a 15a 16a 17a 18a 19a 20a 21a 22a 23a 24a 25a 26a 27a 28a 29a 30a 31a 32a 33a 34a

10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower

opaque opaque clear clear opaque clear opaque opaque clear opaque opaque clear opaque clear clear clear clear opaque opaque opaque opaque opaque clear clear opaque clear opaque clear clear opaque opaque clear opaque opaque

quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz

c c c c mbc c c c mbc c bpc mbc c mbc cf c cf c c c c c bpc c c c c cf c c cf c c c

5 4 4 7 5 3 5 3 4 7 4 5 5 4 3 4 3 5 4 5 3 4 4 3 7 4 4 3 5 3 4 5 5 4

37.17 21.13 4.71 52.79 13.70 23.67 40.37 5.37 35.87 64.75 20.37 52.41 25.42 8.78 5.71 7.50 6.34 48.21 22.53 32.29 6.22 15.12 17.38 6.45 75.21 23.15 24.33 5.67 23.67 6.65 4.89 32.56 39.25 23.13

246

Comments

Probably a micro-blade core. Core rotation evidenced. Possibly a micro-blade core. Cobble cortex.

Granular texture.

Core rotation evidenced. Pebble cortex with red colouration.

Pebble or cobble cortex.

Possibly a micro-blade core.

Pebble or cobble cortex.

Cobble cortex.

Appendix F Artefact No.

Context

Colour

Stone

Category

Size (cm)

Weight (g)

35a 38a 36a 37a 39a 40a

10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower

opaque clear clear clear clear clear

quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz

c c c c c c

6 5 3 4 3 3

42.23 42.25 7.22 24.43 8.50 5.51

41a

10 lower

clear

quartz

mbc

4

10.72

42a 43a 44a 45a 46a 47a 48a 49a 50a 51a 52a 53a 54a 55a 56a 57a 58a 59a 60a 61a 62a 63a 64a 65a 66a 67a 68a 69a 70a 71a 72a 73a 74a 75a 76a 77a 78a 79a 80a 81a 82a 83a 84a 85a 86a 87a 88a 89a 90a 91a

10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 lower 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle

clear clear clear clear opaque opaque opaque opaque opaque clear opaque clear clear clear clear clear clear clear clear opaque clear clear opaque clear clear opaque opaque clear clear opaque opaque opaque opaque opaque opaque clear clear clear clear clear opaque opaque clear clear opaque opaque opaque opaque opaque opaque

quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz

c cf cf c c cf c c bpc c cf c c c c c c mbc cf c c c c cf mbc c c c c bpc cf c c c c c c bpc c mbc c c c c c c c cf c c

5 3 3 5 7 3 6 5 5 3 3 5 4 7 5 5 4 6 3 8 4 3 7 3 6 9 4 5 4 5 3 7 5 4 3 5 6 4 7 5 7 5 6 3 7 6 8 4 9 7

32.14 6.32 5.32 17.26 35.16 3.34 22.67 32.12 23.67 3.37 4.57 15.72 24.33 63.56 41.34 38.26 22.77 17.24 7.23 87.41 23.57 5.71 52.23 3.45 16.70 120.23 11.23 14.65 17.76 32.43 5.21 38.15 21.39 13.14 7.33 13.48 43.35 37.31 52.33 13.34 64.55 20.45 43.21 5.32 74.56 53.12 66.78 8.33 133.37 69.37

247

Comments Pebble cortex. Possibly a micro-blade core.

Core rotation evidenced; remnant pebble cortex.

Granular texture. Core rotation. Possibly a core fragment. Possibly a micro-blade core. Minimally water- worn.

Core rotation. Granular texture.

Core rotation. Granular texture. Pebble cortex.

Possibly a micro-blade core. Pebble cortex.

Pebble cortex.

Possibly a micro-blade core.

Granular texture. Weathered; granular texture.

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Artefact No.

Context

Colour

Stone

Category

Size (cm)

Weight (g)

92a 93a 94a 95a 96a 97a 98a 99a 100a 101a 102a 103a 104a 105a 106a 107a 108a 109a 110a 111a 112a 113a 114a 115a 116a 117a 118a 119a 120a 121a 122a 123a

10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle

opaque opaque opaque clear clear clear clear opaque opaque opaque clear clear clear clear clear clear clear clear clear clear clear clear opaque opaque clear clear clear clear clear clear clear clear

quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz

c c c mbc c c c c c c c c mbc c c c cf mbc cf c c c c cf bpc c c c c cf c mbc

6 3 7 5 4 3 7 5 4 7 6 4 5 4 3 4 3 5 4 5 4 3 5 3 4 4 7 3 3 3 5 4

33.45 9.23 34.68 23.67 9.32 4.21 20.34 22.17 10.34 65.86 40.34 12.34 13.79 26.15 22.15 24.87 9.34 59.46 12.55 33.14 15.24 9.34 45.56 9.27 10.12 5.48 63.17 17.34 7.12 4.17 17.45 6.76

123a

10 middle

opaque

quartz

c

7

35.76

124a 125a 126a 127a 128a 129a

10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle

opaque opaque opaque clear opaque opaque

quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz

c c c cf m cf

5 6 5 3 5 3

16.67 26.33 12.47 4.47 18.65 5.34

130a

10 middle

clear

quartz

c

3

7.78

131a 132a 133a 134a 135a 136a 137a 138a 139a 140a 141a 142a 143a 144a 145a 146a 147a

10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle

opaque opaque clear opaque opaque opaque clear clear clear clear clear opaque opaque clear opaque opaque opaque

quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz

c c mbc c c c c c mbc bpc cf bpc c cf c c c

6 7 4 5 4 4 9 7 3 4 3 4 7 2 3 4 9

47.56 49.76 6.67 29.78 17.05 5.56 78.57 56.67 4.67 13.78 4.59 19.47 67.45 3.67 6.07 9.56 79.18

248

Comments

Weathered; granular texture. Core rotations.

Granular texture.

Core rotation. Core rotation. Probably a bipolar core.

Planar pebble cortex. Large chunky flake.

Granular texture.

Probably a micro-blade core. Pebble cortex. Core rotation. Possibly a micro-blade core. Core rotation. Highly weathered; granular texture.

Core rotation; possibly a microblade core. Granular texture. Core rotation.

Possibly a micro-blade core. Pebble or cobble cortex. Core rotation.

Granular texture.

Core rotation. Granular texture.

Appendix F Artefact No.

Context

Colour

Stone

Category

Size (cm)

Weight (g)

Comments

148a 149a 150a 151a 152a 153a 154a 155a 156a 157a 158a 159a 160a 161a 162a 163a 164a 165a 166a 167a 168a 169a 170a 171a 172a 173a 174a 175a 176a 177a 178a 179a 180a 181a 182a 183a 184a 185a 186a 187a 188a 189a 190a 191a 192a 183a 194a 195a 196a 197a 198a 199a 200a 201a 202a 203a 204a 205a

10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 middle 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 Upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 Upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper

clear clear clear clear clear clear clear clear opaque opaque opaque clear clear opaque clear opaque opaque opaque clear clear clear opaque opaque clear clear clear clear opaque opaque opaque clear clear opaque clear clear opaque clear opaque clear opaque opaque clear opaque opaque opaque opaque opaque opaque opaque clear clear clear clear clear opaque opaque opaque opaque

quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz

c mbc c c bpc cf c c bpc cf c c c m c c c c cf c mbc c c c cf bpc c c cf c c c c c c c c mbc c c c c cf c c c cf c c cf mbc c bpc c c c c c

8 3 3 3 4 3 5 7 4 3 7 3 8 5 4 6 6 5 3 4 4 5 5 4 3 4 7 5 3 7 4 3 3 4 5 7 3 5 3 6 3 3 3 3 8 5 4 5 4 3 3 4 4 4 7 8 9 5

56.41 4.71 7.41 6.78 14.56 8.23 6.72 43.21 15.34 3.67 45.78 6.09 67.76 24.67 16.67 57.08 52.12 32.17 3.34 6.76 12.56 22.06 18.05 17.67 3.08 13.67 65.09 23.06 7.07 73.14 13.56 4.71 5.89 21.87 12.39 22.78 3.87 5.21 4.27 44.07 4.56 4.05 4.12 3.23 108.34 19.34 6.67 18.45 12.70 7.56 7.89 16.75 21.45 18.56 68.79 81.29 134 23.14

Minimally water-worn. Core rotation. Possibly a flake.

249

Core rotation. Water-worn; minimally worked. Possibly a micro-blade.

Granular texture. Granular texture. Granular texture. Possibly a flake. Core rotation.

Possibly a micro-blade core.

Water-worn pebble.

Possibly a micro-blade core. Core rotation. Pebble cortex.

Core rotation.

Granular texture.

Core rotation.

Core rotation.

Granular texture. Granular texture. Granular texture.

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Artefact No.

Context

Colour

Stone

Category

Size (cm)

Weight (g)

206a 207a 208a 209a 210a 211a 212a 213a 214a 215a 216a 217a 218a 219a 220a 221a 222a 223a 224a 225a 226a 227a 228a 229a 230a

10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 Upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 Upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper 10 upper

opaque opaque clear clear clear clear clear opaque clear opaque clear opaque clear opaque opaque clear clear clear opaque opaque opaque opaque opaque clear clear

quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz quartz

c c c mbc c c c c c c c c c m m c bpc c c c cf c c c c

4 3 5 5 4 3 3 7 3 5 4 3 3 4 4 7 4 5 6 6 4 5 7 3 4

32.82 9.23 43.67 17.87 6.78 4.79 7.31 32.76 4.67 18.07 6.87 7.68 6.78 9.52 10.59 34.25 13.59 37.59 68.09 72.34 9.51 25.06 42.67 6.08 19.87

231a

10 lower

grey

gneiss

nphs

6.5x 5x 3.5

Non-pitted hammerstone with use marks.

232a

10 lower

grey

gneiss

nphs

8.5x 12.5x 4.5

Non-pitted hammerstone with use marks.

233a

10 lower

grey

gneiss

nphs

5.5x 8.5x 3.2

Non-pitted hammerstone.

234a

10 lower

grey

gneiss

mhcmp

16.5x 7.5x 4.5

Multiple function, hammerstone + muller + pounder, with use marks.

235a

10 lower

grey

gneiss

nphs

9.5x 14.5x 4.5

Non-pitted hammerstone with use marks.

236a

10 lower

grey

gneiss

g

24x 15x6.5

Grindstone with signs of use marks which comprise one large depression.

237a

10 middle

grey

gneiss

gd

14x 8.5x 5

Grinder with use marks; with trace of yellow ochre.

238a

10 middle

grey

gneiss

nphs

5.5x 3.2x3

Non-pitted hammerstone with use marks.

239a

10 middle

grey

gneiss

mhcmp

18.5x 12x 4.5

Multiple function, hammerstone + muller + pounder, with use marks.

240a

10 middle

opaque

quartz

nphs

5.5x 3.5 x3

Non-pitted hammerstone with use marks.

241a

10 middle

grey

gneiss

mhc mp

15x 8x 6

Multiple function, hammerstone + muller + pounder, with use marks.

242a

10 lower

opaque

quartz

nphs

7x 5x 3

Non-pitted hammerstone with use marks.

243a

10 lower

grey

gneiss

nphs

4.5x 3x 2.3

Non- pitted hammerstone with use marks.

250

Comments

Minimally water- worn. Core rotation. Core rotation.

Core rotation. Core rotation.

Granular texture.

Granular texture.

Appendix F Artefact No.

Context

Colour

Stone

Category

Size (cm)

244a

10 lower

grey

gneiss

nphs

12x8x6

Non-pitted hammerstone with use marks.

245a

10 middle

grey

gneiss

nphs

6.5x 4x 3.5

Non-pitted hammerstone with use marks.

246a

10 upper

grey

gneiss

dphs

7x 6x 4

Dimple-pitted hammerstone with one pit.

247a

10 upper

opaque

quartz

nphs

4.5x 4x 3.5

Non-pitted hammerstone with use marks.

248a

10 upper

grey

gneiss

gd

12x 8x 5

Grinder.

249a

10 upper

grey

gneiss

fg

8x 7x 3

Fragment of a grindstone.

250a

10 upper

grey

gneiss

nphs

8x 5.5 x4.4

Non-pitted hammerstone.

251a

10 upper

grey

gneiss

nphs

8x 5.5x 3

Fragment of a non-pitted hammerstone.

252a

10 upper

grey

gneiss

gn

17x 7x 4

Grinder.

253a

10 upper

grey

gneiss

nphs

8x 5x 3

Non-pitted hammerstone.

Weight (g)

Comments

Dimple-pitted nut-stone; large, multiple pitted slab with 7 pits; exhibits use as a grindstone as well. Backed microlith; micro-blade with a truncated distal end; it appears to have been minimally backed given the item’s somewhat rectangular planar shape; fine flake scarring along the chord may be use-wear.

254a

10 upper

grey

gneiss

dpns

19.5x 15x 4.5

255a

10 upper

clear

quartz

m

13.92x 8.89x 2.27 mm

0.43

256a

10 upper

clear

quartz

m

28.16x 10.37x 3.54 mm

2.18

Tip snapped off.

257a

10 middle

clear

quartz

m

18.44x 7.81x 3.16 mm

0.74

Fine fracture along the chord may be interpreted as use.

258a

10 middle

clear

quartz

m

16.27x 5.15x 4.45 mm

0.33

Segment-shape microlith.

251

References to Literature

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259

Index

A

Noones 24 excavation Hartley 22 Perera, Nimal 24 Seligmann, C.G. and B.Z. 22 sites 21 Bandiya-galge 22 Batadomba-lena 11 14,000-12,000 BP (ref. layer 4) 16,500-14,000 BP (ref. layer 5) 20,000-16,500 BP (ref. layer 6) 19,000 BP (ref. layer 7a) 28,500-22,500 BP (ref. layer 7b) 37,000-32,000 BP (ref. layer 7c) Acavus 92-92 37,000-32,000 BP 91 perforation 93 Axis sp. 96,188 Balangoda Points 37,107 preforms 109 beads, chronology 182 bone and antler artefacts 188 1980-82 136-141 2005 141 canarium 188 Phase Vb 71 2005 212 chalk 181 charcoal 2005 214-216 chronology 2,57 beads 182 radiocarbon 61 chrono-stratigraphy, phases summary 82-83, 86 climate 47 Phase Va 69,70 coast contact 182,188 Phase Vb 188 context matrix, 2005 56 cowrie shell 182 environment change 93 comparison, Horton Plains 188 Phase V 188 sequence 187 environment/culture interaction 189 excavated contents, 2005 58-62 excavations pre-2005 49 1980-82 32-33 2005 33,51,53,54,55,84 Fauna 1980-82 91-98,106 2005 98-100,102,104 1980-82/2005 99-100,103 analysis 87,94 bone weights 94 comparison

Acavus, arboreal snails Batadomba-lena 92-93 37,000-32,000 BP 91 perforation Batadomba-lena 93 function 141 Bellan-bandi Palassa 149,155 Kitulgala Beli-lena perforated 183 perforated 183 function 141 Acheulian Sri Lanka 23-24 Agriculture Advent, Sri Lanka 189 Horton Plains 189 Aligala, chronology 9 Alu-galge, Telulla: ref. Telulla Alu-galge Alu-lena, Attanagoda: ref. Attanagoda Alu-lena Anatomically modern humans behaviour traits 185-186 diffusion 186 ornaments 184 Sri Lanka, chronology 189

Anuradhapura Citadel 24 Archaeological Department, Government of Sri Lanka 191

prehistoric research 20,24 acknowledgments, staff ii Archaeological heritage management, Sri Lanka 191 Art Doravaka-lena 174 prehistoric 181-182 Artefact preservation 4 Attanagoda Alu-lena 11,26 chronology 2 Australian National University, author’s PhD dissertation ii Australian Research Council ii Axis sp., Batadomba-lena 188

B Balangoda Man (ref. palaeoanthropology) 13 Bellan-bandi Palassa 142 nomenclature 30 type collection 142 Balangoda Points Batadomba-lena 37,107 preforms 109 layer 7b, 1980-82 132 layer 7c, 1980-82 134 Iranamadu Formation Bundala 25 typology 194 Bandarawela 7 chronology 24

260

Index overview 107-115 sample 1980-82 107 2005 107 sampling 111 sequence 188 size 115 technological change 124-125 thumbnail scrapers 109,111 types 196-209 unretouched 115 location 47,48 marine shell 182 mica 181 microliths 110,111,188-189 1980-82 125-135 37,000-32,000 BP 109 modern behaviour 185 molluscs 87,92-93 2005 210-211 cooking, Phase Vb 72 environment, 2005 211 terrestrial/aquatic proportions 93 mortuary 174-177 Phase V 188 nutstones 182 pigments 181-182 Oligospira, perforation 93 ovens 59,188 Phase VI 75 ornaments 182 palaeoanthropology 29-30,69,84,174-177,180 comparison, Heidelberg/Ternifine 30 periods 187-188 phases I-III 58-67 I 58,62,65 II 65 lithics, 2005 246-251 III 188 habitation 67 IV 67-68,187-188 IVa 67 IVb 67-68 IVc 68 V 68-75,188 Va 69-71 Vb 71-75 VI 188,75-80 VII 80 VIII, 80-82 IX 82 conclusions 187-188 pigments 181-182 chronology 181 grindstones 181 pitted hammerstones 182 chronology 189 pigment 181-182 plants 2005 212 analysis 213 environment 215 sampling 212-213 macroremains 104 population (demography) 188 project, 2005 47 ray’s spine 182 red ochre 181-182 research, future 187-188 rockshelter formation and pre-habitation deposits 58,62,6567 sediments

1980-82/2005 99-100,103 Kitulgala Beli-lena/Fa Hien-lena 101-106 counts 94 environment, 1980-82 97 freshwater crabs, 37,000-32,000 BP 91 grey langur 187 mammals 1980-82 95,97 2005 99,102,103 sampling, 1980-82/2005 94-95 sequence 187-188 taphonomy 87 vertebrates 93-106 1980-82 95 floors, occupation Phase IVc 68 Phase Vb 75 geology 47 graphite 181 grindstones 182 pigment 181 habitation up to Last Glacial Maximum 67-68 following Last Glacial Maximum 68-75 later after Last Glacial Maximum 75-80 in terminal Pleistocene 80 hearths 59,184 Phase V 69-70 Phase Vb 71,73,74 Phase VI 75-78 Phase VII 80 layer 3, 1980-82 artefacts 125 layer 4, 1980-82 artefacts 126,127 environment 93 layer 5, 1980-82 artefacts 128 bead 128 bone and antler artefacts 128,129 lithics 128 shell artefacts 128 layer 6, 1980-82 beads 130 bone and shell artefacts 130 lithics 130 layer 7a, 1980-82 bone and shell artefacts 131 ray’s spine 131 lithics 131 layer 7b, 1980-82 Balangoda Point 132 bone and antler artefacts 132 lithics 132 layer 7c, 1980-82 Balangoda Point 134 bead 135 bone and antler artefacts 135 lithics 133,134 shell artefact 135 lithics 37,000-32,000 BP (ref. layer 7c) 41 2005 112-113 bipolar flaked 109-110 categories 108 from sediment samples 238-245 materials 113-115 metrical attributes analysis 115-122 chronological change 122-125 micro-blades 109,111 microliths 107-111 microscopic analysis, 1980-82 218-237

261

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka technological 164-171 material 142 summary 171-172 mortuary 149-150,177-178,188 ochre 156 ornament, shark 183 palaeoanthropology 30,177-179 1970 144 chronology 149 phases 150-151 1970 147 I 151 II 151-153 III 153-154 IV 154-155 pottery, contexts 147 project, objectives 142 red ochre 181 sediments analysis 151-156 settlement, permanency 156 shark 157 significance 142 site 142-146 function 149 stratigraphy 150 1956-61: 144,150 1970: 144,147 2005: 146-147,149 phases 150-151 conclusions 173 subsistence 188 thin-section analysis 33 yellow ochre181 Bellwood, P. ii Bibliography 252-259 Bintenne rockshelters 21 sites 5 Bogavantalava 22 Bone and antler artefacts Batadomba-lena 188 1980-82 136-141 layer 3 125 layer 5 126,127 layer 5 128,129 layer 6 130 layer 7a 131 layer 7b 132 layer 7c 134,135 2005 141 classification 136 points, function 141 Bopearachchi, O. ii Bos sp. Bellan-bandi Palassa 156 Ratnapura Fauna 11 Bow and arrow 106 Batadomba-lena 188 Brahmi script, chronology 2 Bulbeck, D. ii,33 Bundala Iranamadu Formation, chronology 25 Wellegangoda site 49, chronology 8

2005 58 analysis 33,62-65 sequence 188 settlement mobility 188 Phase V 188 shark 106 shell artefacts, 1980-82 130 shell burning 93 shelter genesis 58,62,65 site 2005 50 plan 49 use 189 stratigraphy 47,52 1980-82 49 2005 54,85 bed-rock weathering 62 Iron Age, Early Historic 19 molluscs 211 stream, downcutting 58,62,65 subsistence 189 change 188 fauna 87 Phase V 188 Phase VI 188 thin-section analysis 33 tiger 91,96 yellow ochre 180-181 Beads Batadomba-lena chronology 182 serrated 186 layer 5, 1980-82 128 layer 6, 1980-82 130 layer 7c, 1980-82 134,135 Fa Hien-lena, shells 183,185 crafting 182 serrated 186 Beli-lena Kitulgala ref. Kitulgala Beli-lena Belihul-oya, sites 22 Bellan-bandi Palassa 30 Acavus 149,155 Bos sp. 156 Batadomba-lena, comparison 188 cemetery 149 chronology 2,150 1956-61 142-143,147 2005 147-149 chrono-stratigraphy ref. phases coast contact 157,173 comparison, Batadomba-lena 188 conclusions 172-173 context matrix, 2005 149 Deraniyagala, P.E.P. 24,142-144 Deraniyagala, S.U. 24,144 dog, domestic 156,157,173 elephant 156 environment 142 12,000 149 excavations, 1956-61 142,143 1970 144 2005 144,146 plans 148 previous 142-144 fauna 155-159 dog 156,157,173 gaur 156 gaur 156 lithics 1956-61 142,157 2005 158-172 metrical attributes 162,164-167

C Canarium 104 Batadomba-lena 188,212 2005 Phase V, environment 213,215 Phase Vb 71 rockshelter deposits 174 cannibalism, Nilgala 178

262

Index

E

Charcoal, Batadomba-lena 2005 214-216 Chronicles, historical 2 Chronology Aligala 9 anatomically modern humans, Sri Lanka 189 Anuradhapura Gedige, prehistoric period 9 Bandarawela 24 Batadomba-lena, radiocarbon dates 61 Bellan-bandi Palassa 150 1956-61 142-143,147 2005 147,149 Iranamadu Formation 191 optically stimulated luminescence dating 191 palaeoanthropology 174 Potana 9,180 Reddish Brown Earth Formation 9 red ochre, Kitulgala Beli-lena 181 Climate ref. environment Coast contacts 189 Batadomba-lena 182,188 Phase V 188 Fa Hien-lena 182,186 Kitulgala Beli-lena 182-183 Coast survey, east coast 24-25 Chalk, Batadomba-lena 181 Collure 10 ‘Contribution of South Asia to the Peopling of Australasia’ project 2 Cowrie shell, Batadomba-lena 182 Culture/environment interaction Batadomba-lena 189

Early Historic period, chronology 2 Ecozones, Sri Lanka 4-5 Elephant, Bellan-bandi Palassa 156 Embilipitiya, Site 43 7 Environment 12,000 BP, Bellan-bandi Palassa 149 Batadomba-lena canarium 2005, 213,215 change 93 comparison with Horton Plains 188 fauna, 1980-82 97 interaction with culture 189 molluscs 93,211 phases 187 V 188 Batadomba-lena/Kitulgala Beli-lena/Fa Hien-lena 106 change Batadomba-lena 93 Batadomba-lena/Kitulgala Beli-lena/Fa Hien-lena 104 Zone D1, wet lowlands 106 ecozones, Sri Lanka 4-5 Horton Plains sequence, applicability to other ecozones 149 Late Pleistocene to Holocene 3 Late Pleistocene, Sri Lanka 3 research strategy 3-4 Ethnography, Semang 185 Excavation procedures, 2005 Batadomba-lena, Bellan-bandi Palassa 31-32

D

F

Debitage ref. waste Delgoda, A. 142 Deraniyagala, P.E.P. Batadomba-lena 29-30,49 Bellan-bandi Palassa 142-144 Kitulgala Beli-lena 27 Ravanalla 30 research, prehistory Deraniyagala, S.U. Batadomba-lena 30,49 Bellan-bandi Palassa 144 Fa Hien-lena 26 Iranamadu Formation, investigations 7 Kitulgala Beli-lena 27 publication, The Prehistory of Sri Lanka 24 research 2 prehistory 24 rockshelters 17 research design 189-190 Dick-oya, sites 22 Diffusion, India/Sri Lanka 187 Dimbula, sites 22 Dimple-pitted hammerstones ref. pitted hammerstones Dimple pitted nutstones ref. nutstones DNA, mitochondrial analysis 30 Dry Zone site density 9-10 lowland sites 9-10 Dorawaka-lena 10,14-15 art 174 pottery 189 stratigraphy 19 Dog, domestic Bellan-bandi Palassa 156,173 Nilgala 156

Fa Hien-lena 11,26,27 beads, marine shell 185 chronology 2,26 coast contact 186 excavations 190 fauna 101 marine shells, perforated 183,185 mortuary 174,186 red ochre 174,180 palaeoanthropology 30,174,180 pigment 181 red ochre 180 research potential 190 shark bead 182,185 shell pendant 183,185 stratigraphy 26 Iron Age 19 Family units, prehistoric 184-185 Fauna analysis 43,46,96 Batadomba-lena 93-94 Perera, J. 43,46 Axis deer, Batadomba-lena 96 Batadomba-lena 1980-82 91-98,106 2005 98-100,102,104 Acavus 92-93 analysis 87 comparison, 1980-82/2005 99-100,103 mammals, 1980-82 95,97 molluscs 87,91-93 Pila apple snail 93 sequence 187-188 taphonomy 87 tiger 91,96 vertebrates 93-106

263

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka chronology 5 Jwalapuram 187 land connections with Sri Lanka 5 prehistoric research, history of 20 teris 7 Iranamadu Formation 187 Bundala Levagangoda, Site 45 7 Bundala Wellegangoda, Site 49 7 chronology 7-8,25,191 optically stimulated luminescence dating 8 Patirajawela, Site 50 25 Deraniyagala, S.U. 7 environment, Wayland 23 excavations 7 Bundala sites 25 India, human diffusion 187 investigations 7 lithics 8,25 Middle Pleistocene 191 Minihagal-kanda 190 nomenclature 7,25 ochre 181 optically stimulated luminescence dating 8 Patirajawela Site 50 7 research potential 190-191 survey, 1971-72 Deraniyagala, S.U. 25 lithics 25 thermoluminescence dating 7-8 Wayland, E.J. 22-23 Iron Age chronology 2 Mesolithic transition 189 rockshelters, stratigraphy 19 technology 2 Tissamaharama, Sandagiri Dagaba site 9

Bellan-bandi Palassa 155-159 comparison Batadomba-lena/Kitulgala Beli-lena/Fa Hien-lena 101-106 Fa Hien-lena 101 freshwater crab, Batadomba-lena layer 7c 91 Kitulgala Beli-lena 101 molluscs, Bellan-bandi Palassa 155 Nilgala 156 research potential 18 Sri Lanka, present fauna 88-91 tiger, Batadomba-lena 91,96 Fieldwork 2004-2005 31 Floors, occupation Batadomba-lena Phase Vb 75 Flora ref. plants

G Galge 8-9,21 Gaur Bellan-bandi Palassa 156 Nilgala 156 Geometric microliths, typology 192 Graphite Batadomba-lena 181 Kitulgala Beli-lena 181 Green, E.E. 20 Grindstones Batadomba-lena 182 Gurubavila Beli-galge 22 Palaeoanthropology 29 Bellan-bandi Palassa, pigment 181 Kitulgala Belio-lena, pigment 181 pigment 181 typology 195 Groves, C. ii

J

H

Jwalapuram, India 187

Hartley, C. Bandarawela 22 Gurubavila 22 Lithic classification 22 Hawkey, D. 12-13 Hearths Batadomba-lena 59,184 Phase V 69-70 Phase Va 69,70 Phase Vb 71,73-74 Phase VI 75-78 Phase VII 80 Kitulgala Beli-lena 184 rockshelters 184 sizes 184 Highlands ecozone, sites 10 Hiscock, P. ii Horton Plains 10 chronology 3 environment 3 applicability to other ecozones 149 plant domestication15-16,189 sites 21 survey, 1970 25 Human remains ref. palaeoanthropology

K Kamminga, J. ii,37,110 Kandy, sites 21 Karunaratne, P.B. 43 Kelani river basin, sites 10 Kennedy, K.A.R. Palaeoanthropology Batadomba-lena 30 Bellan-bandi Palassa 30 Kitulgala Beli-lena 11,27-29 chronology 2,27-29 coast contact 182-183 excavations 190 fauna 101 graphite 181 grindstones, pigment 181 hearths 184 lithic typology 35 marine molluscs 183 modern human behaviour 185 mortuary 177 palaeoanthropology 30,177,180 pigment 181 grindstones 181 Potamides cingulatus lagoon mollusc 183,186 red ochre 181 research potential 190 salt 183 stratigraphy 27

I India

palaeoanthropology 174

264

Index quartz 38 raw materials 37 availability 5 Reddish Brown Earth Formation 19 sampling 111 size analysis 40 small form-trimmed, typology 193-194 statistical analysis 41-43 typology 192-195 Deraniyagala, S.U. 34-35 Kitulgala Beli-lena 35 used 194 Wijeyapala, W.H. 35 pitted hammerstones 195 used, typology 194 waste, typology 195 weight analysis 38

subsistence, salt 183 yellow ochre 181 shark 183 Kourampas, N. 190

L Land snails ref. molluscs, Acavus, Oligospira Langur Batadomba-lena 187 Bellan-bandi Palassa 156 Last Interglacial (Eem) sites in Iranamadu Formation 7-8 Late Historic period 2 Late Pleistocene environment Sri Lanka 3 Horton Plains 3 Lithics analysis 4,34-43 backing 189 chronology 17-18,189 Balangoda Points 11 Iranamadu Formation 25 Batadomba-lena bipolar flaking 109-110,113 from sediment samples, 2005 238-245 layer 4, 1980-82 126-127 layer 5, 1980-82 128 layer 6, 1980-82 130 layer 7a, 1980-82 131 layer 7b, 1980-82 132 layer 7c, 1980-82 41,43-46,133-135 metrical attributes analysis, 2005 115-122 chronological change in 122-125 micro-blades 109,111 microliths 107-109,110 1980-82 125-135 microscopic analysis, 1980-82 218-237 overview 107-115 Phase 2, 2005 246-251 raw material 113-115 sample, 1980-82 107 sequence 188 size 115 technological change 124-125 thumbnail scrapers 109,111 unretouched 115 Bellan-bandi Palassa 1956-61 157 2005 158-172 comparison, Batadomba-lena 188 metrical attributes, 2005 162-167 raw material 142 summary 171-172 technological attributes, 2005 164-171 bow/arrow technology 188 chert 37 classification 35-37 cores, typology 195 debitage analysis 35,38-40 edge-/body-trimmed, typology 194 flake attributes 38-40 large, bifacially trimmed 190 Mesolithic, Sri Lanka 11 micro-blades, typology 194-195 micro-blade cores, typology 195 microliths, chronology 8 non-flaked lithics, typology 195 plant processing 18 potential tools 194-195

M Madulsima, sites 22 Malays, prehistoric migrations in Indian Ocean 24 Manamendra-Arachchi, K. 43 Mandakal-aru, shell midden 8 Manel-lena, Gavaragiriya 10 Maniyangama Beli-lena Athula 24 Mankulam, sites 22 Mantai (Matota), prehistoric site 9 Marine molluscs Fa Hien-lena 183 Kitulgala Beli-lena 183 Maskeliya, sites 22 Mesolithic Iron age transition 189 terminology, Sri Lanka 24 Mica, Batadomba-lena 181 Micro-blades, Batadomba-lena 109 Microliths Africa 17 chronology 1 backed, typology 193 Batadomba-lena 1980-82 125-135 layer 4 126 layer 5 128 layer 6 130 layer 7a 131 layer 7b 132 layer 7c 109,133-134 chronology 5,17-18,188-189 Sri Lanka vs. India, Africa 17-18 environment, associations 18 geometric, typology 192 identification via debitage 18 India, chronology 1 Iranamadu Formation Bundala 25 chronology 8 non-geometric, typology 193 semi-lunates, typology 192 southern India 17-18 Sri Lanka, origins 3 Middle Historic period 2 Middle Palaeolithic of Sri Lanka, Wayland, E.J. 23 Middle Pleistocene, Iranamadu Formation 191 Mini-athiliya 190 Molluscs Batadomba-lena 92-93 2005 210-211 analysis, 2005 210 Mortuary Batadomba-lena 174-177,180 Phase V 188

265

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka Bellan-bandi Palassa 30,149,177-180 chronology 174,180 DNA, mitochondrial analysis 30 excavation, human remains 29 Fa Hien-lena 30,174,180 Gurubavila Beli-galge 29 India, comparison 174 Kitulgala Beli-lena 30,177,180 Maniyangama Beli-lena Athula 30 Nilgala 29,178-180 Pallemalala 8,180 population, Batadomba-lena 188 Potana 9 Ratnapura Beds 11 Ellawala skull 174 Ravanalla 30,180 rockshelters, Sri Lanka 11 role in project 11 Sri Lanka anatomically modern humans 189 sample 11-12 Telulla Alu-galge 30 Palaeoenvironment ref. environment Pallemalala 190 mortuary 180 palaeoanthropology 8,180 shell midden 8 Parsons, J. 22 Patirajawela chronology 7-8,25 Iranamadu Formation, chronology 25 Pendant Fa Hien-lena, shell 183 Peradeniya sites 21 Perera, H.N., Batadomba-lena 30 Perera, J. 43 Pidurangala chronology 9 stratigraphy 19 Pigments 180-184 Batadomba-lena 181-2 chronology 181 Fa Hien-lena 181 grindstones comparison, Batadomba-lena/Kitulgala Beli-lena 181 grinding 181 Kitulgala Beli-lena 181 Kitulgala Beli-lena 181 grindstones 181 Pilikuttuwa 181 Pila apple snail, Batadomba-lena 93 Pilikuttuwa, ochre 181 Pitted hammerstones Batadomba-lena 182 pigment-smeared 181-182 chronology 189 typology 195 Plants ref. charcoal analysis 213 macro-remains 46 Batadomba-lena 104 2005 212 sampling, 2005 212-213 subsistence 188 research potential 217 domestication Horton Plains 15 lowlands 16-17 Plateau Deposits, nomenclature 25 Pole, J. 20 Population, Batadomba-lena 188

Phase Vb 72 Bellan-bandi Palassa 149-150,177-178,180,188 ochre 181 comparison South/Southeast Asia 180 Vaddas 180 Fa Hien-lena 174 Kitulgala Beli-lena 177,180 Nilgala 178-180 Pallemalala 180 Potana 180 Ravanalla 174 rockshelters 180 Telulla Alu-galge 174,180 Vaddas 180

N Nagas 13 National Archaeological Policy, Sri Lanka 191 Neolithic, Doravaka-lena 19 Nilgala 5,21 cannibalism 178 dog 156 fauna 156 gaur 156 mortuary 178 palaeoanthropology 29,178-180 Non-geometric microliths, typology 193 Noone, H.A. and H.V.V. 24 Nutstones ref. dimple-pitted nutstones Batadomba-lena 182 pigment on 181-182 typology 195 Nuwara-eliya, sites 10

O Ochre ref. red, yellow ochre Iranamadu Formation 181 Pilikuttuwa 181 Warana 181 Oligospira snail perforated, Batadomba-lena 93,141 Optically stimulated luminescence, Iranamadu Formation 191 Organic remains in rockshelters climate correlation 87 Ornaments ref. beads 182-184 anatomically modern humans, dispersal 184 Batadomba-lena 182 Bellan-bandi Palassa, shark 183 crafting of 182 Fa Hien-lena, Acavus shell pendant and marine shell beads 183 Kitulgala Beli-lena, Acavus shells 183 Out-of-Africa theory southern dispersal route 189,191 Ovens Batadomba-lena 59,188 Phase VI 75

P Palaeoanthropology ref. Balangoda Man Balangoda Man, comparison Australoid 30 Heidelberg/Ternifine resemblance 30 osteological traits 12 Vaddas 12-13 Batadomba-lena 29-30,69-70,84,174-177,180

266

Index

S

Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology, Sri Lanka prehistoric research 20 ‘Post-Mesolithic’ period 19 Potamides cingulatus lagoon mollusc, Kitulgala Beli-lena 183,186 Potana chronology 9,180 palaeoanthropology 9 mortuary 180 Pottery, Doravaka-lena 189 Prehistory, Sri Lanka data sources 2 research, history of 20 Purple-faced leaf monkey, Batadomba-lena 187

Salt, Kitulgala Beli-lena 183 Saranelis, P.B. 190 Sarasin, F. and P. 8,20-21 lithics disposition 22 typology 21 Vaddas 19 Script, Brahmi chronology 2 Sediments analysis 33 Batadomba-lena sequence 188 micromorphology Seligmann, C.G. and B.Z. 22 Vaddas 19 Semang, social organization 185 Settlement Australia, diffusion rate within 189 Batadomba-lena mobility 188 Phase V 88 mobility 188 Sri Lanka, diffusion rate within 189 Shark Batadomba-lena 106 Bellan-bandi Palassa 157,173,183 Fa Hien-lena 182 Kitulgala Beli-lena 183 Shell artefacts Batadomba-lena 1980-82 layer 5 128 layer 6 130 layer 7c 134-135 perforated land snails, Batadomba-lena 141 shell, perforation 141 burning, Batadomba-lena 93 Shell middens 8 Mini-athiliya 190 Pallemalala 17 research potential 190 Ussangoda 8 Weliwala 8 Sigiriya-Dambulla region, prehistory 20 Simpson, I. ii,33,147,190 analyses 31 Site distribution, ecozones 5-10 Social organization 184-185 Sri Lanka, environment 1 Sri Lanka Council of Archaeologists 191 Stratigraphy Batadomba-lena, 2005 85 molluscs 211 Bellan-bandi Palassa 150,173 Fa Hien-lena 26 Kitulgala Beli-lena 27 Subsistence ref. fauna, plants Batadomba-lena 189 change 188 fauna 87 Phase V 188 Phase VI 188 plants 188 Bellan-bandi Palassa 155-157,188 comparison Batadomba-lena/Kitulgala Beli-lena/Fa Hien-lena 106 canarium nut 104 Dorawaka-lena 14-15 hearths ref. primary heading for hearths

Q Querns ref. grindstones

R Radiocarbon dates ref. chronology Ratnapura Beds 10-11.187 chrono-stratigraphy 23 Deraniyagala, P.E.P. 23 Hartley, C. 23 palaeoanthropology, Ellawala skull 174 Ratnapura Culture (Industry) 23 Ratnapura Fauna 10-11 Ravanalla 5-7 palaeoanthropology 30,180 Rayner, D. 2,11 Ray’s spine Batadomba-lena,1980-82 182 layer 3, 125 layer 7a, 131 Red ochre Batadomba-lena 181=182 Bellan-bandi Palassa 181 Fa Hien-lena 180 mortuary 174,180 Kitulgala Beli-lena chronology 181 Reddish Brown Earth Formation 9 gravels with lithics 17 Research Batadomba-lena, future 187-188 problematics 17 research design stages i,24 stage 4 – synthesis 25 stage 5 – rockshelters 25-26,49,189 stage 6 191 shell middens 17 strategy, 2004-2005 31 universities, Sri Lanka 20 Rockshelters 17 comparison, Batadomba-lena/Kitulgala Beli-lena/Fa Hienlena 187 chronology 2 excavation 190 Gampola District 10 hearths 184 palaeoanthropology 2 Iron Age, stratigraphy 19 lowland Wet Zone (wet lowlands) 11 mortuary 180 occupation 184,186 UNESCO World Heritage listing 190

267

Halawathage Nimal Perera - Prehistoric Sri Lanka ethnicity 13 ethnography 2 Seligmann, C.G. and B.Z. 22 family unit 184-185 foreigners’ accounts 13-14 habitations 184 identity, interpretation 19 mortuary 180 ornament 184 rockshelters 22 Sarasin, F. and P. 19 Seligmann, C.G. and B.Z. 19 Sinhala interaction 14 subsistence 14 village Vaddas 13

Kitulgala Beli-lena, salt 183 plants 188 salt 183 Symbolic domain evolution, Sri Lanka 189

T Taphonomy fauna, Batadomba-lena 87 Technology bow and arrow 106,188 lithics, backing 17-18 Telulla Alu-galge, palaeoanthropology 30 Teris 7 The Prehistory of Sri Lanka, publication 24 Thin-section analysis 33 Tiger, Batadomba-lena 91,96 Tissamaharama Sandagiri Dagaba prehistoric deposit 9 Toba eruption, effects Jwalapuram, India 187 Sri Lanka 187 Transition, Mesolithic/Iron Age 189 Tunmodera, Vak-oya 10

W Warana 10 ochre 181 Wayland E.J. Iranamadu Formation (‘Plateau Deposits’) 7,22-23 environment 23 survey 22-23 Lithics 7 classification 23 Middle Palaeolithic 23 Weliwala, shell midden 8 Wet uplands ecozone, sites 10 Wijeyapala, W.H. 101 Fa Hien-lena 26 Kitulgala Beli-lena 27 research 2

U Universities, Sri Lanka prehistoric research 20 Urumutta 22 Ussangoda, shell midden 8

Y

V

Yakkas 13 Yellow ochre Batadomba-lena 180 mortuary 174,180 Bellan-bandi Palassa 181 Kitulgala Beli-lena 181

Vadda-rata 13 Vaddas ancestry, Balangoda Man 30 Anuradhapura 13 categories 13 chronicles, references 13 coast Vaddas 13

268