Political Science: a QuickStudy Laminated Reference Guide 142323877X, 9781423238775

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Political Science: a QuickStudy Laminated Reference Guide
 142323877X, 9781423238775

Table of contents :
WORLD GOVERNMENTS
THEORIES OF WORLD POLITICS
Theory
Realism
Liberalism
Marxism
THREE LEVELS OF ANALYSIS
MODERN INTERNATIONALSYSTEM
INTERNATIONAL LAW
Primary Sources of International Law
Laws of War
Human Rights Laws
INTERNATIONAL POLITICAL ECONOMY
Economic Theories
Economic Division of States
International Economic Institutions
UNITED NATIONS
ARMS CONTROL
Categories of Arms Control
Major Nuclear Arms Control Accords
ACTORS IN WORLD POLITICS
WAR
Immediate & Underlying Causes
Categories of War
Levels of War
PHILOSOPHY OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES
Central Questions Of Study
Methods of Study
Positions in Social Science
Verstehen Method
Interpretive Sociology
Causal Explanation
Materialist Explanation
MAJOR U.S. FOREIGN POLICY EVENTS: 2000–2018
WHAT KIND OF COUNTRY IS THE UNITED STATES?
THE THREE BRANCHES OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT
Congress (Legislative Branch)
The Senate
The President (the Executive Branch)
Election
Organization of the Executive Branch
The Supreme Court & Federal Court System (the Judicial Branch)
HOW A BILL BECOMES A LAW

Citation preview

WORLD’S #1 ACADEMIC OUTLINE

A GUIDE TO U.S. & WORLD POLITICS WORLD GOVERNMENTS AFGHANISTAN

Presidential Islamic republic

ARGENTINA

Presidential republic

AUSTRALIA

Parliamentary democracy and Commonwealth under a constitutional monarchy

AUSTRIA

Federal parliamentary republic

BELGIUM

Federal parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarchy

CUBA

Communist state

DENMARK

Parliamentary constitutional monarchy

EGYPT

Presidential republic

ETHIOPIA

Federal parliamentary republic

FINLAND

Parliamentary republic

FRANCE

Semi-presidential republic

GAZA STRIP

BRAZIL

Controlled by Hamas

CAMBODIA

Federal parliamentary republic

Federal presidential republic Parliamentary constitutional monarchy

CANADA

Federal parliamentary democracy and Commonwealth under a constitutional monarchy

CHILE

Presidential republic

CHINA

Communist state

COLOMBIA

Presidential republic

GERMANY

HONG KONG

Presidential limited democracy; a special administrative region of China (PRC)

HUNGARY

Parliamentary republic

ICELAND

Parliamentary republic

INDIA

Federal parliamentary republic

IRAN

Theocratic republic

IRAQ

Federal parliamentary republic

IRELAND

GREECE

Parliamentary republic

GREENLAND

Parliamentary democracy

Parliamentary republic Parliamentary democracy; part of the Kingdom of Denmark

GUAM (territory of the US)

Presidential democracy; self-governing US territory

HOLY SEE, Vatican City

Ecclesiastical elective monarchy

ISRAEL ITALY

Parliamentary republic

JAMAICA

Parliamentary democracy and Commonwealth under a constitutional monarchy

JAPAN

Parliamentary constitutional monarchy

JORDAN

Parliamentary constitutional monarchy

KENYA

Presidential republic

KOREA, NORTH

Communist state

KOREA, SOUTH

Presidential republic

KUWAIT

Constitutional monarchy

LATVIA

Parliamentary republic

LEBANON

Parliamentary republic

NEPAL

Federal parliamentary republic

NETHERLANDS

Parliamentary constitutional monarchy

NEW ZEALAND

Parliamentary democracy and Commonwealth under a constitutional monarchy

NIGERIA

Federal presidential republic

NORWAY

LIBYA

Parliamentary constitutional monarchy

LUXEMBOURG

Federal parliamentary republic

Operates under a transitional government Constitutional monarchy

MALAYSIA

Federal constitutional monarchy

MEXICO

Federal presidential republic

MONGOLIA

Semi-presidential republic

MOROCCO

Parliamentary constitutional monarchy

PAKISTAN PANAMA

Presidential republic

PERU

Presidential republic

PHILIPPINES

Presidential republic

POLAND

Parliamentary republic

PORTUGAL

Semi-presidential republic

PUERTO RICO (territory of the US)

Presidential democracy; territory of the US with commonwealth status

QATAR

Absolute monarchy

RUSSIA

Semi-presidential federation

SAUDI ARABIA

Absolute monarchy

SINGAPORE

Parliamentary republic

SOUTH AFRICA

Parliamentary republic

SPAIN

Parliamentary constitutional monarchy

SWEDEN

Parliamentary constitutional monarchy

SWITZERLAND

Formally a confederation but similar in structure to a federal republic

SYRIA

Presidential republic (authoritarian)

TAIWAN

Semi-presidential republic

THAILAND

Constitutional monarchy

TURKEY

Parliamentary republic

UKRAINE

Semi-presidential republic

UNITED ARAB EMIRATES

Federation of monarchies

UNITED KINGDOM

Parliamentary constitutional monarchy and Commonwealth

UNITED STATES

Federal presidential republic

URUGUAY

Presidential republic

VENEZUELA

Federal presidential republic

VIETNAM

Communist state

WEST BANK (territory)

NA

YEMEN

Controlled by the Houthis

ZIMBABWE

Semi-presidential republic

THEORIES OF WORLD POLITICS a. Zero-sum game: When the gains of c. The anarchic nature of the international Marx (1818–1883) and influential theorists Theory one actor result in equal losses for system can be reduced or eradicated such as John Hobson and Vladimir Lenin. An intellectual tool that allows us to make another. Realists believe that the zerothrough the establishment of effective 1. Key assumptions: sense of the complex world. sum nature of world politics prevents international organizations and internaa. Capitalism creates two classes of peo1. Based on a set of core assumptions, theory cooperation among states. tional law. ple: Owners (bourgeoisie) and workers paints a picture of the world, explaining b. Security dilemma: When the attempt d. War is not inevitable. (proletariat). how it is put together, what dangers exist, by one state to increase its security 2. Important concepts: b. Owners exploit their workers in order and what opportunities are present. by building up arms results in the a. Mutual benefit gains: When gains to realize profits. a. Theory may explain international bedecreased security of another state. may be achieved simultaneously by c. The search for new markets, resources, havior and/or make predictions about The other state then builds up arms to more than one actor. Idealists believe and profits leads to imperialism, the esthe future. increase its security. that the mutual benefit nature of world tablishment of colonies outside the state. b. Various theories compete to most accuc. Arms races: The logical product of a politics promotes cooperation among d. Imperialism leads to war among capirately explain world politics and guide security dilemma, when two or more states. talist states. states in their international behavior. states build up their militaries in reb. Interdependence: A situation whereby 2. Important concepts: 2. Paradigm: When one theory is adopted by sponse to one another. actions and events in one state, society, a. Class struggle: The inevitable clash of most observers as the most powerful. 3. Policy prescription: or part of the world affect peoples interests between proletariat and bourRealism i. Increase military arms to deter attack. elsewhere. According to liberalism, geoisie classes. ii. Form alliances with other states to interdependence promotes communicaA theory popularized by Greek historian b. Workers’ revolution: Revolt by the promote a balance of power. tion and understanding, resulting in a Thucydides in the fifth century BC as a result proletariat against the bourgeoisie iii. Be suspicious of all states, includreduction of hostilities and war. of his analysis of the Peloponnesian War aimed at ending capitalism and introing allies, and put little faith in c. Democratic Peace: A theory that, (431–404 BC). The theory has dominated ducing communism. international organizations and because democratic states do not fight world politics for 2,500 years. c. Communism: An economic system international law to protect the state each other, the spread of democratic 1. Key assumptions: in which classes are abolished and the from attack. governance throughout the world will a. Individuals are evil by nature. The selfstate withers away. Under communism, reduce the probability of war. Liberalism interest of individuals makes genuine each person works maximally accordcooperation problematic. ing to their ability and receives the A theory associated with French Enlighten- 3. Policy prescription: a. Promote democratic institutions at b. States are guided by a national infruits of collective labors in accordance ment thinkers that challenges the core assumphome and abroad. terest that dictates increased power. tions of realism. with needs. b. Establish and support international c. The international system is anar3. Policy prescription: 1. Key assumptions: organizations and international law. chic, meaning there is no supranaa. Struggle against capitalist states in a. Individuals are good by nature. The c. Create links among people and states tional force capable of regulating order to deter the expansion of capitalfundamental concern for the welfare of through international trade and coopthe actions of states. ist markets. others makes progress through cooperation. Reduce military arms to the d. Peace is obtained when states form b. Reject international organizations and eration possible. level of self-defense. alliances of rough equals, establishing international law as tools controlled b. States with democratic institutions Marxism a balance of power. and used by capitalists to promote the preserve peace; states with non-demo2. Important concepts: cratic institutions promote war. A theory associated with the writings of Karl interests of the bourgeoisie. 1

THREE LEVELS OF ANALYSIS example, we may identify possible causes as characteristic of individuals, states, or the international system. 1. Individual: The focus is on the key decision-makers of states. Characteristics of the individual, ranging from world view to personality profile, are examined in order to understand why a decision maker opted for a particular policy. 2. State: Characteristics associated with the state are analyzed to explain state behavior. Key state-level attributes include the type of government, level of economic development, and geo-strategic location. 3. International: The distribution of power among states is examined to explain events, such as world wars or imperialism. Various international structures can be identified, depending on the distribution of power.

British Empire (All Years) British Possessions

A way to organize thinking about and analysis of world politics. Each level, or point of focus, illuminates some aspect of international rela-

tions. Levels of analysis help us to be systematic in our approach to understanding world politics. In examining a particular war, for

MODERN INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM 1. Holy Roman Empire (1500–1648): Era marked by the rise of the modern territorial state within the boundaries of the Holy Roman Empire, replacing the decentralized city-states, fiefdoms, and princely states. This era is also characterized by the influential role of the pope and Catholic Church. 2. Westphalian Era (1648–1815): Decentralized era following the Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648) in which nation-states gained sovereign equality. This era marked the birth of international law and monopolized the legitimized use of force in the hands of governments. 3. Congress of Vienna (1815–1914): Post-Napoleonic Campaign era characterized by the Concert of Europe, which was designed to promote stability through great power negotiation of disputes. 4. Inter-War Era (1919–1939) a. Period after World War I in which the international community attempted to rebound from the devastation of the war. b. Status quo states, such as France and England, attempted to preserve the international system along the 1919 order. c. Revisionist states, such as Germany, Japan, and Italy, sought opportunities to reorder the international system in ways that would reflect their relative power and status. d. Less involved states, such as the Soviet Union and the United States, tacitly supported the status quo states but did not actively resist the revisionist states. e. The League of Nations (LON) was established to promote international peace and security; disarmament was envisioned and international trade was promoted. f. The entry of Germany into the League of Nations (1926) and the drafting of the Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928), which renounced the first use of force, were high water marks of the era. g. The Great Depression (1929), the rearmament of Germany, and the rise of Adolf Hitler (1933) eroded confidence in the ability of the world to avoid another catastrophic war. The era ended with Germanyʼs invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939. 5. Cold War (1945–1989): Period following World War II in which the United States and the Soviet Union engaged in a global struggle for security and supremacy. Emerging from the ashes of the war as the only complete powers, the superpowers consolidated power in their respective spheres of influence, engaged in a nuclear arms race, constructed military alliances, and sought allies in Third World regions. On three occasions, the two faced off in a superpower crisis: a. Berlin Crisis (1948): Attempting to force West Berlin to succumb, the Soviet Union imposed a land blockade on food, energy, medicine, and supplies into the pro-Western half of the city. The United

States responded with an airlift that kept the West Berlin population alive until Moscow allowed supplies to reach the city. b. Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) i. In response to intelligence reports that the Soviet Union was in the process of constructing nuclear-capable missile silos in Cuba, the Kennedy administration quarantined the Caribbean island to force the Soviets to back down. ii. After much tension, Moscow announced that it would dismantle the silos and promise not to attempt again to place nuclear weapons in Cuba. iii. The United States pledged not to invade Cuba and agreed to remove U.S. missiles in Turkey in exchange.

c. Middle East Crisis (1973): i. Following the Israeli rout of Soviet-supplied Egyptian and Syrian forces during the October War, the Soviet Union announced its intention to unilaterally provide ‘peacekeepers’ to disengage Israeli and Egyptian forces. ii. President Nixon placed U.S. strategic forces on an intermediate defense condition (DEFCON), escalating the crisis to a nuclear level. iii. The Soviet Union backed down from the crisis. 6. Post Cold War (1989–): Era characterized by American hegemony, globalization, democratization, and ethnic conflict. By the 2010s, it was evident that the world was in the process of transitioning from a unipolar system, whereby one state dominates the system, to a multipolar system. West European states, such as France and the United Kingdom, Russia, and China are increasingly important actors in global affairs.

INTERNATIONAL LAW The rules that regulate the relations of states with other states, international organizations, and individuals are called international law. Modern international law was born in 1648 when the decline of the Catholic Church in Europe required states to regulate themselves through the establishment of international laws.

Primary Sources of International Law

1. Treaty: Explicit written agreement between states that regulates their behavior. Once established, treaty law is binding upon all states that have ratified the treaty. a. Steps in the creation of a treaty: i. Drafting: Representatives of states negotiate the text of the treaty. ii. Adoption: Representatives sign the treaty text, indicating approval. 2

Some international structures include: a. Unipolarity: The existence of an exceptionally powerful state, or hegemon, that is both able and willing to manage the international system. Examples of hegemons include: i. Spain (1560–1609) ii. France (1650–1713, 1792– 1815) iii. Great Britain (1815–1914) iv. United States (1991–) b. Bipolarity: The existence of two roughly equal, powerful states. The cold war era (1945–1989) is exemplary of a bipolar system. c. Multipolarity: When three or more great powers are identifiable. Most of modern history (1500–) has been categorized as multipolar.

iii. Ratification: The governmental branch empowered to ratify treaties endorses it. iv. Entry into force: When a specified number of states have ratified the treaty, it becomes binding international law. 2. Ways to change or terminate a treaty: a. Expiration: The treaty’s stated duration expires. b. Amendment: A negotiated alteration of an existing treaty. c. Impossibility of performance: When behavior required by a treaty is no longer possible, the treaty is no longer in force. 3. Custom: A consistent pattern of practice by states that is deemed to constitute an international law. a. Once established, customary international law is binding on all states in the international system, including those that do not practice it. b. Elements of custom: i. Material fact: The practice of states. ii. Duration: The reiteration of the practice over time. iii. Opinio juris: Respect for the custom out of a sense of legal obligation.

Laws of War

Rules that regulate both the recourse to war and military conduct in time of war. 1. Jus ad bellum rules regulate the right of states to go to war. 2. According to the United Nations Charter, states may only go to war for three reasons: a. Self-defense: The act of repelling an attack by another state. b. Collective self-defense: Assisting another state that has been attacked. c. Security Council authorization: Responding to a United Nations call to respond to an attack against a UN member state. 3. Jus in bello rules regulate the conduct of armies in time of war. Key principles include: a. Proportionality: Using a level of military force in proportion to what is necessary to achieve limited objectives. b. Unnecessary suffering: Using weapons of war and tactics that do not cause undue or unnecessary suffering. c. Discrimination: Differentiating between military and civilian targets.

Human Rights Laws

Rules that protect individual freedoms and liberties. Cornerstone human rights treaties include: 1. 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights 2. 1948 Genocide Convention 3. 1965 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination 4. 1966 UN Covenant for Civil and Political Rights 5. 1966 UN Covenant for Social, Cultural, and Economic Rights 6. 1967 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women 7. 1984 Convention Against Torture 8. 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child

INTERNATIONAL POLITICAL ECONOMY The interaction between political and economic forces in world politics.

Economic Theories

1. Capitalism: An economic system that emphasizes money, market-oriented trade, and capital investment for further production and profit. Key elements: a. Minimal government intervention in economic affairs b. Supply and demand determine production and prices c. Free movement of service, money, and people to maximize profits 2. Mercantilism: An economic system that emphasizes the accumulation of wealth. Key elements: a. Active government management of economic affairs b. Protectionism against foreign imports c. Promotion of trade surpluses through aggressive exports

Economic Division of States

1. First World: Wealthy states of Western Europe and North America. a. Capitalist b. Industrialized c. Sophisticated economic systems d. Citizenship with high per-capita incomes and long life expectancies 2. Third World: States of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. a. Various non-capitalist economic systems b. Non-industrialized c. Exportation of raw materials d. Impoverished citizenry 3. Economies in Transition: States of Eastern Europe making the transition from controlled economies to market economies. 4. Asian NICs: Newly Industrialized Countries of East Asia.

International Economic Institutions

1. International Monetary Fund (IMF): Institution that provides short-term economic assistance to states experiencing economic troubles. States borrowing more than their allowed quota are required to adopt IMF conditions, which may include: a. Selling of state-owned industries and assets b. Lower government expenditures on public services c. Increased interest rates to prevent currency collapse d. Increased taxes 2. International Bank of Reconstruction and Development (World Bank): Institution that provides low-interest long-term loans to developing countries for infrastructure development. Typical World Bank projects include: a. Roads b. Bridges c. Dams d. Sea ports e. Communications systems 3. General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT): Series of multilateral agreements designed to coordinate the reduction of tariffs on imports. GATT rounds include: a. Geneva, Switzerland (1947–1948): 23 participating states b. Annecy, France (1948–1949): 33 participating states c. Torquay, England (1950–1951): 34 participating states d. Geneva, Switzerland (1955–1956): 22 participating states e. Dillon Round (1960–1962): 45 participating states f. Kennedy Round (1964–1967): 48 participating states g. Tokyo Round (1973–1979): 99 participating states h. Uruguay Round (1986–1994): 125 participating states 4. World Trade Organization (WTO): Institution created in 1995 to replace the GATT. The WTO is empowered to both adjust international trade rules and settle conflicts arising over their interpretation.

UNITED NATIONS 1. The United Nations (UN) was created in 1945 in the aftermath of the Second World War to promote international peace, security, economic development, and social justice. a. Headquartered in New York City, the UN is open to all nations and in 2018 had a membership of 193 states. b. The UN’s Charter created the organization and outlines its procedures and powers. 2. Principal organs of the United Nations: a. General Assembly (GA): Open to all United Nations members, the General Assembly passes resolutions that address any issue on its agenda. General Assembly resolutions, passed by a simple majority of voting members, are non-binding, reflecting international opinion. b. Security Council (SC): The United Nations organ responsible for the maintenance of international peace and security. Security Council resolutions are legally binding. For a resolution to pass in the Security Council, it must pass two tests: i. Super-majority (9 of 15) vote ii. Concurring votes of the five permanent members 3. Membership is reserved to 15 states. a. Permanent members (P5): Five states (China, France, Russia, United Kingdom, United States) always present on the Security Council that enjoy a veto power on all substantive resolutions. b. Rotating members (R10): 10 states selected on a regional basis that serve for two-year terms. c. The Security Council is empowered to authorize peacekeeping operations (PKOs) in response to threats to international peace and security. Peacekeeping operations are multinational forces that operate under the United Nations flag. 4. Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC): Composed of 54 UN members, ECOSOC considers issues relating to: a. Standards of living b. Economic and social development c. Health-related problems d. International cultural and educational cooperation e. Universal respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms 5. Trusteeship Council: UN organ responsible for the transition of trust territories to independent states. The 11th, and final, trust territory of Palau was admitted as a member of the United Nations in 1994, exhausting the Trusteeship Council’s agenda. 6. International Court of Justice (ICJ): a. Located in The Hague, Netherlands, the ICJ is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations. b. The ICJ’s 15 judges rule on cases brought before it by states. The ICJ also renders advisory opinions to the General Assembly and Security Council when requested. 7. Secretariat: The administrative staff that serves the United Nations and its member-states. a. The highest office in the Secretariat is held by the secretary-general, who is elected for five-year renewable terms by the General Assembly and Security Council. b. Secretary-general: i. Trygve Lie, Norway, 1946–1953 ii. Dag Hammarskjold, Sweden, 1953–1961 iii. U Thant, Burma, 1961–1971 iv. Kurt Waldheim, Austria, 1971–1981 v. Javier Perez de Cuellar, Peru, 1981–1991 vi. Boutros-Boutros Ghali, Egypt, 1992–1996 vii. Kofi Annan, Ghana, 1997–2006 viii. Ban Ki-moon, Korea, 2007–2016 ix. António Guterres, Portugal, 2017– 3

ARMS CONTROL The negotiated regulation of military weapons.

Categories of Arms Control

1. Arms reduction: Agreement that results in an overall decrease in the number of weapons. 2. Arms freeze: Agreement to halt the production of weapons. 3. Arms limitation: Agreement to limit the number or type of weapon to a specific level.

Major Nuclear Arms Control Accords

1. 1963 Limited Test Ban Treaty (LTBT) 2. 1970 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) 3. 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (ABM) 4. 1972 Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) 5. 1979 Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT II) 6. 1987 Intermediate-Range Nuclear Force Treaty (INF) 7. 1991 Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START) 8. 1993 Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START II) 9. 1996 Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) 10. 1997 Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START III) 11. 2002 Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty 12. 2005 International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism 13. 2010 New Strategic Arms Treaty (New START) 14. 2015 Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (Iran Nuclear Deal)

ACTORS IN WORLD POLITICS 1. States are geographic entities governed by a central authority, whose leaders claim to represent all persons within the territory. The emergence of states at the turn of the 16th century ushered in the modern international system. a. Elements of a state: i. Territory: Includes the surface area and beneath to the core of the Earth, twelve miles of adjacent sea, and the airspace above the land and territorial sea. ii. Population: Citizens of the state. iii. Government: Central controlling political institutions. iv. Recognition: Formal declaration from other states that an entity is a state. b. Categories of states: i. Hegemon: Dominant state that writes and enforces international rules. ii. Great power: State that defines its interests globally, wins most of the wars that it fights, and participates in the major international diplomatic conferences. iii. Minor power: State with little international influence that defines its interests narrowly. 2. International organizations (IOs) are multilateral institutions created by states in order to pursue common objectives that cannot be achieved unilaterally. International organizations emerged as a major component of the international landscape during the twentieth century. 3. Transnational non-governmental organizations (NGOs): Institutions composed of private, non-state, international actors, such as individuals, that cut across national boundaries. 4. Terrorist organizations: Groups that employ the unlawful use of violence and force against individuals, infrastructure, and nation-states for political purposes. a. al Qaeda: Group established by Osama bin Laden in the 1990s, claiming to wage a defensive war (jihad) against Western powers to force them out of the Muslim world. Responsible for numerous highlevel attacks, ranging from the bombing of the USS Cole in 2000 to the 2001 World Trade Center attack on New York City and Washington, DC. b. Islamic State: Terrorist organization that claims to fight an offensive war (jihad) in order to establish a Caliphate throughout the Muslim world. The Islamic State was centered in Iraq and Syria before spreading to many Muslim countries. c. Hezbollah: A Syrian and Iranian supported terrorist group that seeks the destruction of Israel. Hezbollah and Israel fought a war in 2006 that resulted in a standoff. d. Hamas: A Palestinian terrorist organization based in the Gaza Strip that struggles politically against the mainstream Palestinian Fatah movement and militarily with the state of Israel. Hamas and Israel have fought several wars, each resulting in significant human and infrastructure damage.

WAR A conflict carried on by force of arms, as between states or between parties within a state. 1. International war: A war involving two or more states. 2. Civil war: War taking place between parties within a state. 3. Political scientists have established a minimum battle death threshold of 1,000 to differentiate war from conflict short of war.

Immediate & Underlying Causes

1. An immediate cause is an event that occurs just prior to the onset of a war that is considered the point of no return. 2. Underlying causes are long-term trends that take place years or decades prior to the onset of the war.

Categories of War

1. Systemic war: Involves most, if not all, great powers in a prolonged and particularly destructive conflict over the structure of the international system. a. Systemic wars determine global leadership. b. Other terms used include structural war, hegemonic war, and world war. c. Since 1500, there have been six systemic wars: i. Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648) ii. War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1713) ii. Wars of the French Revolution (1792–1802) iv. Napoleonic Campaigns (1803–1815) v. World War I (1914–1918) vi. World War II (1939–1945) 2. Great power war: Involves at least one great power on each side of the conflict. Since 1500, there have been sixty-four great power wars. The most recent was the Korean War (1950–1953) between the United States and China. 3. Interstate war: Conflict with one or more great powers fighting on one side against non-great powers on the other. More than 120 interstate wars have been fought since 1500. 4. Minor power war: Conflict between two or more states, none of which is a great power. 5. Civil war: Internal struggle between parties from the same state. A civil war may be fought to determine the leadership of the state or to secure the independence of part of the state from the central government.

Levels of War

1. Nuclear war: Involves the use of atomic, nuclear, or thermonuclear weapons. The Pacific Theater of World War II became a nuclear war when the United States dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945. 2. Total war: Conflict that affects and involves all segments of society, rather than solely the militaries of the participating states. World War I is widely viewed as history’s first total war, with civilian casualties outnumbering battle deaths. 3. High-intensity conflict (HIC): General war that involves major weapons systems and substantial amounts of armed soldiers. 4. Low-intensity conflict (LIC): Unconventional war fought in the Third World that is smaller in terms of military scale.

PHILOSOPHY OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES Study of logic and methods of the social sciences which aims to provide an interpretation of the social sciences.

Central Questions Of Study

1. What are the criteria of a good social explanation? 2. How are the social sciences distinct from natural sciences? 3. Is there a distinctive method for social research? 4. What are the procedures needed to evaluate assertions? 5. Are there irreducible social laws?

6. Are there causal relations among social phenomena? 7. Do social facts require reduction to facts about individuals? 8. What is the role of theory in social explanation?

Methods of Study

1. Descriptive a. Explanations, methods, empirical arguments, theories, and hypotheses in social science literature. b. Philosopher needs extensive knowledge of areas of social science research. c. Philosopher formulates analysis of the social sciences. d. Philosopher’s analysis corresponds to scientists’ practice. 2. Prescriptive a. Field is epistemic. b. Concerned with scientific theories/hypotheses put forward as true or probable. c. Theories are justified on rational grounds. d. Philosopher provides critical evaluation of existing social science methods and practices. e. Philosopher determines if methods are true or false. 3. Descriptive and prescriptive methods: a. Suggest that the philosophy of social science be construed as a rational reconstruction of existing social science practice. b. Suggest that reconstruction is guided by existing practice. c. Suggest that reconstruction extend beyond existing practice. d. Identify faulty assumptions, forms of reasoning, and explanatory frameworks.

Positions in Social Science

1. Naturalism: Methods of the social sciences should correspond closely to natural sciences. 2. Physicalism: All higher-level phenomena and regularities are reducible to: a. Physical entities. b. Laws that govern them. 3. Anti-naturalism: Social sciences are inherently distinct from the natural sciences: a. Social phenomena are metaphysically distinguishable from natural phenomena. b. Social phenomena are intentional. i. Social phenomena depend on the meaningful actions of individuals. ii. Natural phenomena admit of causal explanation. iii. Social phenomena require intentional explanation. iv. There is a corresponding difference between the methods of natural and social science.

Verstehen Method

A method of intuitive interpretation of human action radically distinct from methods of inquiry in natural sciences.

Interpretive Sociology

School within the philosophy of social science that says human action is meaningless. 1. Goal of social inquiry is to provide interpretations of human conduct within the context of culturally specific arrangements. 2. Analogy between literary texts and social phenomena: a. Both are complex systems of meaningful elements. b. Goal of the interpreter is to provide an interpretation of the elements. c. In this respect, social science involves a hermeneutic inquiry. d. Interpreter should tease out the meanings underlying a particular complex of social behavior. e. Interpreter is like a literary critic composing a complex literary text. 3. Max Weber: Relation between capitalism and the Protestant ethic. a. Identifies elements of Western European culture that shaped human action in this environment to produce capitalism. b. Calvinism and capitalism are historically specific complexes of values and meanings. 4

c. We can better understand the emergence of capitalism by seeing how it corresponds to structures of Calvinism. 4. Interpretive sociologists extract meaningfulness from social phenomena. 5. Social phenomena do not admit of causal explanation. 6. Social phenomena derive from purposive actions of individuals.

Causal Explanation

Necessary to distinguish between the causal relation between two events and the causal determination through strict laws of nature. 1. Social phenomena rarely derive from strict laws of nature: EX: Wars do not result from antecedent political tensions in the way that earthquakes result from antecedent conditions in plate tectonics. 2. Non-deterministic causal relations derive from choices of individual persons. 3. Social phenomena admit of causal explanation. 4. Much social explanation depends on asserting causal relations between social events and processes: EX: Claim that the administrative competence of the state is a crucial causal factor in determining the success or failure of a revolutionary movement. 5. A causal explanation discovers conditions existing prior to the event: a. Given the law-governed regularities. b. Sufficient to produce this event. EX: To say that C is a cause of E is to assert that the occurrence of C, in the context of a field of social processes and mechanisms F, brought about E (or increased the likelihood of the occurrence of E). 6. Causal mechanism: A series of events or actions leading from cause to effect. EX: The extension of a trolley line from central city to periphery causes the deterioration of public schools in the central city. To make such a claim, it is necessary to provide an account of social and political mechanisms that join the antecedent condition to the consequent.

Materialist Explanation There is an important variety of causal explanation in social science. 1. Attempts to explain a social feature in terms of features of the material environment. 2. Explains in context which social phenomenon occurs. 3. Features of environment include topography and climate: EX: Banditry thrives in remote regions because rugged terrain makes it difficult for state to repress bandits. 4. Refers to the material needs of society (i.e., the need to produce goods to support the population). 5. Karl Marx: Development of technology drives the development of property relations and political systems. 6. Refers to fact of human agency in order to carry out explanation—human beings are capable of making deliberative choices on the basis of wants and beliefs. 7. Accept that social phenomena depend on the purposive actions of individuals.

MAJOR U.S. FOREIGN POLICY EVENTS: 2000–2018 1. 2001 al Qaeda Terror Attack: A series of four coordinated terror attacks involving nineteen terrorists, whereby commercial airplanes were hijacked and flown into buildings in the United States. Two planes hit the Twin Towers in New York City, causing both buildings to collapse. One plane was flown into the U.S. Pentagon in Washington, DC and the fourth crashed into a field in Pennsylvania. Nearly 3,000 people died in the one-day attack. 2. 2001 Invasion of Afghanistan: In response to the 911 attacks, the United States invaded Afghanistan,

Major U.S. Foreign Policy Events: 2000–2018 (continued) the country that provided safe haven for Osama bin 1781, the Articles of Confederation are considered Laden and his al Qaeda terrorist organization. The America’s first constitution. Yet the Continental Conruling Taliban government was toppled and replaced gress created by the Articles was weak. It had almost with a pro-Western president. The United States and no power in relation to the several States. This made its allies began a long and costly process of nationit difficult to undertake even the most basic of governbuilding in Afghanistan that remains unfinished. ment functions—most importantly, collect taxes, 3. 2003 Invasion of Iraq: U.S. President George W. raise an army, conduct foreign policy, and regulate Bush, citing links between Iraqi President Saddam domestic and foreign commerce. But the PhiladelHussein and the 911 terror attacks, authorized an phia convention went far beyond its original maninvasion of the Persian Gulf nation. Despite the quick date. Convened from May 14 to September 17, 1787, toppling of Iraq’s government, the United States the fifty-five delegates to the convention scuttled struggled to maintain peace and security in the counthe Articles and drafted a second U.S. constitutry. A violent sectarian war broke out, causing further tion—the Constitution of the United States of pain and delay in the nation-building effort. Iraq America. remains deeply fractured among its three main ethnic 2. The Constitution of the United States of America groups—Sunnis, Shia, and Kurds. created a federal republic where the power to gov4. 2011 Invasion of Libya: At the request of the Arab ern is based upon the consent of the governed and League, the United Nations Security Council authogovernmental power is divided among three branchrized the establishment by the North Atlantic Treaty es (Congress, president, and Supreme Court) as Organization (NATO) of a no-fly zone over Libya in well as between the national government and state response to Muamar Qaddafi’s brutal crackdown of governments (federalism). protesters. The United States and its allies sided with a. The Constitution is divided into seven (7) parts anti-government rebels and began a sustained bomb(known as Articles); and twenty-seven (27) ing campaign of Libya, eventually forcing Qaddafi amendments. Congress, the president, and the from power. The Libyan leader was killed by the Supreme Court are established by Articles I, II, rebels upon capture. In the aftermath, Libya deand III, respectively. scended into chaos with multiple groups claiming to b. Articles I, II, and III lay out the governmental be the government of the deeply fractured country. powers of each branch and create a system of President Barack Obama, who authorized the invaseparation of powers and checks and balances. sion, later regretted the decision as his gravest foreign i. The separation of powers system divides the policy mistake. power to make law, enforce law, and interpret 5. 2011 Killing of Osama bin-Laden: Following the law among the three branches of government. U.S.-led invasion of Afghanistan in 2001, al Qaeda’s Article I gives Congress the power to make leader sought refuge in neighboring Pakistan. After law; Article II gives the president power to a decade-long search, U.S. intelligence agents loenforce law; and Article III gives the Supreme cated bin Laden in a compound in Abbottabad. U.S. Court the power to interpret law. President Barack Obama authorized an aerial intera) The powers delegated to Congress are vention that resulted in the death of the al Qaeda enumerated in Article I, Section 8 of the leader. Constitution. They include the power to 6. 2013 Airstrikes in Syria: The Syrian Civil War tax; the power to regulate commerce with began in 2011 as a continuation of the Arab Spring foreign nations; the power to coin money; movement that had destabilized numerous Arab govthe power to declare war; and the power to ernments. Multiple rebel forces squared off against raise and equip a military. Syrian President Bashar al-Assad, with the situation b) The powers delegated to the president are becoming more complex with the rise of the Islamic enumerated in Article II, Sections 2 and State in portions of the country. The United States, 3. They include being the commander siding against Assad and the Islamic State, initiated a series of aerial bombings in an effort to support the and chief of the military; negotiating and anti-government, non-Islamic State rebels. With the concluding treaties (with the advice and support of Russia, Assad remained in power. consent of two-thirds of the Senate); and 7. 2015 Nuclear Arms Deal with Iran: Iran’s progress appointing ambassadors, other public oftoward the development of a nuclear arsenal caused ficials, and members of the Supreme Court great concern internationally. After sanctions failed (with the advice and consent of two-thirds to deter Iran’s program, six major powers (United of the Senate). States, Russia, China, Germany, France, and the c) The powers delegated to the Supreme United Kingdom) entered into negotiations with Iran Court are enumerated in Article III, Secto resolve the issue. The agreement mandated a reduction 2. They include the power to interpret tion of Iranian nuclear capability and the verification law in all cases arising under the Conof inspections by the International Atomic Energy stitution and treaties; cases to which the Agency (IAEA) in exchange for a reduction of inUnited States is a party; among citizens of ternational sanctions applied against Iran. different states; in cases in which a state 8. 2016 Election of Donald J. Trump: Representing shall be a party; and cases affecting amperhaps the most significant change in the foreign bassadors and other public ministers. policy orientation of the United States since World ii. The system of checks and balances gives War II, the election of Donald Trump as the 45th each branch of government the power to president in 2016 reflected a growing American dislimit or consent to the activities of the othcomfort with the global leadership position that it had ers. The purpose of the system of checks assumed in 1945. Candidate Trump called for a reand balances is to ensure that no branch of consideration of international trade deals, a reduction government may encroach on the powers of of U.S. interventions abroad, and the need for allies another. to contribute to their own security. iii. The system of checks and balances ensures that the powers delegated to each branch of government by the Constitution are protected from the encroachment of the other branches. a) Article I gives Congress the power to check the president in five ways. The 1. On February 21, 1787, the Continental Congress president is dependent on Congress for resolved that a convention “be held in Philadelphia funding. The Senate has the power to refor the sole and expressed purpose of revising the ject presidential nominations and treaties Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union.” by a two-thirds vote. Congress can overDrafted by the first Continental Congress on November 15, 1777, and entering into force on March 1, ride presidential vetoes by a two-thirds

WHAT KIND OF COUNTRY IS THE UNITED STATES?

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vote in both the House of Representatives and Senate. And Congress can remove the president from office by impeachment (by a majority vote in the House and twothirds vote in the Senate). Article I gives Congress the power to check the Supreme Court in four ways: The Senate confirms the president’s nominations for Supreme Court justices. The Supreme Court is dependent on Congress for funding. Congress can impeach Supreme Court justices and remove them from office. Congress can override Supreme Court decisions by amending the Constitution. b) Article II gives the president the power to check Congress by means of a veto on congressional legislation. Article II gives the president the power to check the Supreme Court by nominating Supreme Court justices. c) Article III gives the Supreme Court the power to check Congress and the president by ruling on the constitutionality of Congressional legislation and presidential actions (a power asserted in the Supreme Court case of Marbury v. Madison [1803]). c. In addition to the separation of powers and checks and balances systems, the Constitution divides power between the national government and state governments. This is called federalism. The federal structure of the United States is established in the tenth amendment to the Constitution, which asserts that, “The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.” Powers that are shared by the national government and state governments (concurrent powers) include the power to tax, borrow money, and regulate elections. Powers that are exclusively vested in the United States government are those enumerated in Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution, as well as those enumerated in Article II, Sections 2 and 3. Article III of the Constitution gives the Supreme Court the power to rule on the laws and actions of the states.

THE THREE BRANCHES OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT Congress (Legislative Branch) Congress is divided into two chambers: the House of Representatives and the Senate.

The House of Representatives

1. There are 435 members of the House. Members of the House serve two-year terms and are elected from Congressional districts apportioned by the population in each state. Every 10 years, after the Census is conducted, all states are required to reapportion their districts according to the revised state populations. Originally, the House had no fixed number of representatives. In 1911, however, the number of representatives was fixed at 435 by Congress. As of the Census of 2010, each House district contained approximately 711,000 people. 2. The internal organization of the House of Representatives consists of a leadership structure and a committee system. a. The leadership structure consists of a Speaker of the House, a majority leader, a majority whip, a minority leader, and a minority whip. i. The position of Speaker of the House is the only leadership position explicitly stated in the Constitution. The Speaker is elected by the majority party; presides over the House; is the principal leader of the majority party;

The Three Branches of the Federal Government (continued) and is third in line of succession to the presiThe President (the Executive Branch) dency (after the vice president). Election ii. The majority leader is elected by the majority 1. The president is elected every four years. The original party. The majority leader works closely with Constitution placed no limits on the number of terms a the Speaker on scheduling votes and helping to president could serve. However, the XXII Amendment formulate policy. (passed in 1947) limited the president to two terms. iii. The majority whip is elected by the majority 2. The president is not directly elected by the people. Instead, party and is responsible for party discipline, presidents are elected by an Electoral College. The Elecespecially keeping members in line on votes. toral College was the result of a compromise at the Coniv. The minority leader and minority whip perform the same functions listed previously but for stitutional Convention between delegates who wanted the the minority party. president to be elected by Congress and those who want3. Because the House is so large, before being brought to ed the president to be elected directly by the people. the full House for a vote, most of the work on legislation 3. Every four years voters go the polls to select a president. is done in specialized committees organized into funcHowever, they do not vote for the presidential candidates tional issue areas. As of 2017, there were 21 committees directly, in a popular vote. Instead, they vote to elect in the House: Agriculture; Appropriations; Armed Serpeople, known as “electors,” to the Electoral College. vices; Budget; Education and the Workforce; Energy and The Electoral College is made up of 538 electors who Commerce; Ethics; Financial Services; Foreign Affairs; cast their votes for president. The number of electors Homeland Security; House Administration; Intelligence; each state has is equal to the number of its senators plus Judiciary; Natural Resources; Oversight and Government the number of its representatives. The presidential canReform; Rules; Science, Space, and Technology; Small didate who receives a majority of electors (270) wins the Business; Transportation and Infrastructure; Veterans’ presidency. Because of how it is organized, it is possible Affairs; and Ways and Means. The most powerful of for a presidential candidate to win the popular vote but these committees are Rules; Ways and Means; and Aplose the electoral vote. This has occurred in five presipropriations. dential elections, including the election of President a. The Rules Committee plays a key role in shaping Donald J. Trump in 2016 and George W. Bush in 2000. the legislative process in the House. It does so by Organization of the Executive Branch setting rules that limit and organize debate on leg1. The executive branch is organized into four main parts: islation on the floor of the House. The Rules Comthe White House Office (WHO); the Executive Office mittee is closely linked to the Speaker and majority of the President (EOP); the White House Cabinet; and party leader and serves their interests in forwarding administrative agencies. a legislative agenda. 2. The White House Office is staffed by people directly b. The Ways and Means Committee oversees all hired by the president. They do not need to be confirmed federal taxation and revenue measures; Social Secuby the Senate. Among the major positions in the WHO rity, Medicare, welfare, and federal unemployment are Office of the Chief of Staff; Office of White House programs; and international trade regulations. Counsel; Office of Communications; Office of National c. The Appropriations Committee decides whether Security Advisor; Domestic Policy Council; and Office bills that require federal funding will be funded. of Political Affairs. The Senate 3. The Executive Office of the President is staffed by 1. The Senate is composed of 100 members, two from each people nominated by the president but confirmed by the state regardless of population. Each senator serves a term Senate. Some of the agencies in the EOP are the Naof six years. Senate elections are staggered so that every tional Security Agency; the Council of Economic Advitwo years one-third of senators stand for election. Originally, senators were elected by state legislatures. This sors; the Office of Management and Budget; the Office changed in 1913 with the Seventeenth Amendment that of National Drug Control Policy; and the Office of provided for the direct election of senators by the voters United States Trade Representative. of a state. 4. The White House Cabinet is composed of the heads of 2. Like the House, the internal organization of the Senate the major executive branch departments: Agriculture, consists of a leadership structure and a committee system. Commerce, Defense, Education, Energy, Health and a. The leadership structure consists of a majority leadHuman Resources, Homeland Security, Interior, Justice, er, a majority whip, a minority leader, and a minorLabor, State, Treasury, and Veterans Affairs. ity whip, which function in much the same way as 5. The executive branch includes more than sixty admintheir House counter parts. istrative agencies, including the Central Intelligence b. In addition to these positions, the Constitution Agency, the Environment Protection Agency, the Fedmakes the vice president of the United States the eral Communications Commission, the Federal Elections official president of the Senate. Although largely Commission, the Small Business Agency, and the Naa ceremonial role, in the case of a tie vote, the vice tional Transportation and Safety Board. president casts the deciding vote. 3. As of 2017, there were 20 committees in the Senate. Many of these committees have different names than those in the House; however, they are organized largely according to the same functional issues. EX: The Senate counterpart to the House Ways and Means Committee is the Senate Finance Committee. 4. Unlike the House, there is no Rules Committee in the Senate, which reflects that body’s small number and typically more genial relationships between members of the two different parties. Also, unlike the House, the Senate maintains a filibuster rule. This rule allows a single senator wishing to block a vote on legislation to hold the floor indefinitely, bringing all other work of the Senate to a halt. A three-fifths vote by the entire Senate is required to end a filibuster (a cloture vote).

The Supreme Court & Federal Court System (the Judicial Branch)

1. Article III of the Constitution creates a Supreme Court. However, the number of Supreme Court seats, as well as the organization of the federal judicial system, is determined by Congress. Since the enactment of the Federal Circuit Act of 1982, the Supreme Court has had 9 justices and the federal court system has consisted of 13 Federal Appellate Courts, 94 Federal District Courts, and many specialized courts, such as the Court of Military Appeals, the Court of Claims, and the Court of International Trade. a. The 94 district courts act as courts of original jurisdiction. This means that these courts must hear all cases that are federal in nature.

U.S. $6.95 Authors: Jeffrey Morton, PhD, Orin Kirshner, PhD NOTE TO STUDENT: This guide is intended for informational purposes only. Due to its condensed format, this guide cannot cover every aspect of the subject; rather, it is intended for use in conjunction with course work and assigned texts. BarCharts Publishing, Inc., its writers, editors, and design staff are not responsible or liable for the use or misuse of the information contained in this guide. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form, or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the publisher. Made in the USA ©2018 BarCharts Publishing, Inc. 0518

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b. The 13 federal appellate courts are appellate in jurisdiction. This means that they only hear cases that are on appeal from lower courts. These lower courts are the 94 district courts; the United States Court of Claims, and the Court of International Trade; and the 50 state supreme courts. Cases that are appealed from a state supreme court to a federal appellate court must involve some aspect of federal law. c. Regardless of where cases originate, the Supreme Court has the final word on the law. 2. All federal court judges are nominated by the president and confirmed by the Senate. They serve for life (or until removed by impeachment). 3. Within the Supreme Court, a chief justice is appointed by the president to oversee the administration of the court and its deliberations. 4. All cases brought before the Supreme Court or one of the thirteen federal appeals courts are decided by majority vote. 5. In no cases are the Supreme Court and federal appeals court required to hear cases on appeal. U.S. citizens have a right to be heard in a court of original jurisdiction and to appeal their case if they do not like the ruling.

HOW A BILL BECOMES A LAW About 25,000 bills are introduced in each term of Congress, but only 10% become law. The normal process for a bill to become a law is as follows: 1. A bill is drafted by members of Congress, the president, or outside groups. 2. The bill is introduced in the House by a Representative. 3. The Speaker of the House sends the bill to an appropriate committee. 4. The committee may kill the bill, amend the bill, or leave the bill in its original form. For a bill to get out of the committee, a majority of the committee’s members must vote in favor of its discharge. 5. The committee bill is sent to the Rules Committee, which decides the rules for debate and when the bill will come up for debate. (There is no equivalent to the Rules Committee in the Senate.) 6. Once the bill is discharged by the Rules Committee, the full House debates the bill according to the rules promulgated by the Committee. These rules may allow amendments to be made to the bill on the floor. 7. If a majority votes in favor of the bill, it goes to the Senate. 8. In the Senate, the bill is introduced by a senator. 9. The Senate majority leader sends the bill to an appropriate committee. 10. The committee process in the Senate is the same as for the House. If a majority of committee members vote for the bill, its goes to the whole Senate. 11. The majority leader decides when the whole Senate will consider the bill. 12. The bill is debated, and if necessary, amendments are made. If a majority in the Senate votes in favor of the bill, it is returned to the House. 13. If the House rejects any of the changes made by the Senate, it goes to a Conference Committee of members from both Houses. The purpose of the Conference Committee is to work out a bill that a majority in both Houses can agree to. 14. Once the Conference Committee finishes its work, the newly amended bill is sent back to the House and the Senate for a final vote. 15. If the bill receives majority support in both the House and the Senate, it is sent to the president. The president may sign (approve) the bill or veto (reject) it. 16. If the president vetoes the bill, it can still become law if two-thirds of the members of both Houses vote to override the veto.