Policing Public Disorder 9781843926535, 1843926539

Table of contents :
Content: Cover
Policing Public Disorder
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
List of figures and tables
Acknowledgements
Introduction
A very familiar ring
The focus and structure of the book
1 Public order policing: theoretical approaches
Introduction
From escalated force to negotiated management
Preventative police policies
Contextual influences and pragmatic considerations
Explaining police conduct and its outcomes 'in the field'
The paramilitary policing debate
An explanatory model of differing styles of policing
Conclusions
2 Theories of public disorder
Introduction. Smelser's theory of collective behaviourHundley's model of the dynamics of 'ghetto riots'
Spiegel's stage theory of the riot process
British explanations of riot causality
The flashpoints model of public disorder
A Dutch model of the dynamics of disorder
The elaborated social identity model
Conclusions
3 The American urban riots, 1991-2001
Commodity riots
Communal rioting: the Crown Heights riot (New York City), August 1991
A hybrid example: the Los Angeles riot, April 1992
Conclusions
Introduction
4 The British urban riots, 1991-2001
Introduction. The 1991-92 riots on white, working-class housing estatesThe textile town riots of 2001: general background
The Oldham riot
The Burnley riot
Conclusions
5 Worldwide 'anti-globalisation' protest, post-Seattle
Introduction
The ironic effects of police tactics
Police use of strategic incapacitation
Tradition and inflexibility
The political context and other local contingencies
Policing on the basis of 'lessons learned'
The evolution of policing philosophies
Conclusions
6 The G8 Justice and Home Affairs Ministers' meeting in Sheffield, June 2005
Introduction. South Yorkshire Police: force purpose and valuesThe political context of the event
Police planning and preparation
Cultural influences on police strategy and tactics
Activities prior to and during the Tudor Square demonstration
The Cutlers' Hall protest and afterwards
The policing of the Scottish G8
Conclusions
7 English football fans abroad, 1990-2006
Introduction
Relevant theories of football hooliganism
The Italia 90 football World Cup tournament
The European Football Championships of 2000 in Belgium and the Netherlands (Euro 2000). The European Football Championships of 2004 in Portugal (Euro 2004)King's multivariate approach
Conclusions
8 Conclusions
Public disorder --
sans frontières
Theoretical foundations
The case studies
Policy implications
References
Index.

Citation preview

Theory and Practice

BU05QGZ

WILLAN PUBLISHING

David P. Waddington

Policing Public Disorder

Policing Public Disorder T h e o ry and P ractice

David P. W addington

W IL L A N PUBLISHING

P u b lis h e d b y W illa n P u b lis h in g C u lm c o t t H o u s e M ill S t r e e t , U ffc u lm e C u llo m p t o n , D e v o n E X 15 3A T, U K T e l: + 4 4 ( 0 ) 1 8 8 4 8 4 0 3 3 7 Fax: + 4 4 (0 )1 8 8 4 840251 e - m a il: i n f o @ w i l la n p u b l i s h i n g .c o .u k w e b s ite : w w w .w illa n p u b lis h in g .c o .u k P u b lis h e d s im u lt a n e o u s ly in th e U SA a n d C a n a d a b y W illa n P u b lis h in g c /o I S B S , 9 2 0 N E 5 8 th A v e , S u ite 3 0 0 , P o r t la n d , O r e g o n 9 7 2 1 3 - 3 7 8 6 , U SA T e l: + 0 0 1 ( 0 ) 5 0 3 2 8 7 3 0 9 3 , U SA Fax: + 0 0 1 (0 )5 0 3 280 8832 e - m a il: info(g>is b s .c o m w e b s it e : w w w .is b s .c o m © 2 0 0 7 D a v id W a d d in g t o n T h e r ig h ts o f D a v id W a d d in g to n to b e id e n tifie d a s th e a u t h o r o f th is b o o k h a v e b e e n a s s e r te d b y h im in a c c o r d a n c e w ith th e C o p y r ig h t , D e s ig n s a n d P a t e n t s A ct o f 198 8 . A ll r ig h ts r e s e r v e d ; n o p a rt o f th is p u b lic a tio n m a y b e r e p r o d u c e d , s to r e d in a r e tr ie v a l s y s te m , o r tr a n s m itte d in a n y fo rm o r b y a n y m e a n s , e le c tr o n ic , m e c h a n ic a l, p h o t o c o p y in g , r e c o r d in g o r o th e r w is e w it h o u t th e p r io r w it te n p e r m is s io n o f th e P u b lis h e r s o r a lic e n c e p e r m it t in g c o p y in g in th e U K is s u e d b y th e C o p y r ig h t L ic e n s in g A g e n c y L td , S a ffr o n H o u s e , 6 - 1 0 K irb y S t r e e t , L o n d o n E C 1 N S T S . F ir s t p u b lis h e d 2 0 0 7 H ard b ack I S B N : 9 7 8 -1 -8 4 3 9 2 -2 3 4 -6 P ap erb ack I S B N : 9 7 8 -1 -8 4 3 9 2 -2 3 3 -9 B r itis h L ib r a r y C a t a lo g u in g - in - P u b lic a t io n D a ta A c a ta lo g u e re c o rd fo r th is b o o k is a v a ila b le fro m th e B r itis h L ib r a ry

P r o je c t m a n a g e d b y D e e r P a rk P r o d u c t io n s , T a v is t o c k , D e v o n T y p e s e t b y K e s tr e l D a ta , E x e te r , D e v o n P r in te d a n d b o u n d b y T .J. I n t e r n a t i o n a l L td , P a d s t o w , C o r n w a ll

Contents

List of figures and tables

ix

Acknowledgements

xi

In tro d u ctio n A very fam iliar ring

1

2

1 1

T h e focus and stru ctu re o f the b o o k

5

P u b lic o rd er p o lic in g : th e o re tica l ap p ro ach es Intro d u ction

9 9

From escalated force to n eg otiated m an ag e m e n t P reven tativ e police policies C o n textu al in flu en ces and p ragm atic co n sid eratio n s E xplainin g police con d u ct and its ou tco m es 'in the field' The param ilitary p olicing d ebate An e xp lan ato ry m od el of d ifferin g styles of policing

10 12 17 22 27 30

C on clu sion s

34

T h e o rie s o f p u b lic d iso rd er In tro d u ction Sm elser's th eory of collective b eh av io u r

37 37 40

H u n d le y 's m od el of the d ynam ics o f 'g h e tto riots' Sp ieg el's stage th eo ry of th e riot process British exp lan atio n s of riot causality

42 44 46

Th e flashp oints m od el of pu blic d isord er A D u tch m od el of the d ynam ics of d iso rd er Th e elaborated social id en tity m od el

48 52 55

C on clu sion s

57

P olicing P ublic D is o rd e r

3

T h e A m e rica n u rb a n rio ts, 1 9 9 1 -2 0 0 1

60

In tro d u c tio n

60

C o m m o d ity riots

62

C o m m u n a l rio tin g : th e C ro w n H e ig h ts riot (N ew Y o rk C ity), A u g u st 1991

4

5

6

68

A h y b rid ex a m p le: th e L os A n g e le s riot, A pril 1992

74

C o n clu sio n s

84

T h e B ritis h u rb a n rio ts, 1 9 9 1 -2 0 0 1

87

In tro d u c tio n

87

T h e 1 9 9 1 -9 2 riots o n w h ite , w o rk in g -class h o u sin g e sta te s

89

T h e textile to w n riots o f 2001: g e n era l b a c k g ro u n d

91

T h e O ld h am riot

97

T h e B u rn le y rio t C o n clu sio n s

102 107

W o r ld w id e 'a n t i-g lo b a lis a tio n 'p r o te s t, p o s t-S e a ttle In tro d u c tio n

110 110

T h e iro n ic e ffe cts o f p o lice tactics

113

P olice u se o f strate g ic in c a p a cita tio n

118

T rad itio n and in flex ib ility

122

T h e political c o n te x t and o th e r local c o n tin g e n c ie s

123

P o licin g on th e b asis o f 'le ss o n s le a rn e d ' T h e e v o lu tio n o f p o lic in g p h ilo so p h ie s

130 134

C o n clu sio n s

137

T h e G 8 Ju s tic e and H o m e A ffa irs M in is te r s ' m e e tin g in S h e ffie ld , Ju n e 2005

139

In tro d u ctio n

139

S o u th Y o rk sh ire P olice: fo rce p u rp o se and v alu es

143

T h e political c o n te x t o f th e e v e n t P olice p la n n in g and p re p a ra tio n

145 148

C u ltu ral in flu e n c e s on p o lice strate g y and tactics

149

A ctiv ities p rio r to an d d u rin g th e T u d o r S q u are d e m o n s tra tio n

vi

151

T h e C u tle rs' H all p ro te st and a fte rw a rd s

156

T h e p o licin g o f the S co ttish G 8

159

C o n clu sio n s

161

C o n te n ts

7

E n g lish fo o tb a ll fa n s a b ro a d , 1 9 9 0 -2 0 0 6

165

In tro d u c tio n

165

R e le v a n t th e o rie s o f fo o tb all h o o lig an ism

167

T h e Italia 90 fo o tb all W o rld C u p to u rn a m e n t

174

T h e E u ro p e a n Fo o tb all C h a m p io n sh ip s o f 2000 in B elg iu m and th e N e th e rla n d s (E u ro 2000)

177

T h e E u ro p e a n Fo o tb all C h a m p io n sh ip s o f 2004 in P ortu g al (E uro 2004)

8

181

K in g 's m u ltiv ariate a p p ro a ch

183

C o n clu sio n s

185

C o n c lu s io n s

187

P u b lic d iso rd er - san s fro n tiè re s

187

T h e o re tica l fo u n d a tio n s T h e case stu d ies

190 195

P olicy im p lica tio n s

202

References Index

213 229

List of figures and tables

F ig u re 1.1

P olitical d e te rm in a n ts o f p o lice strate g y an d tactics

F ig u re 1.2

A d ap ted v e rsio n o f d ella P orta and R e iter's

E x p la n a to ry M o d e l o f D iffe re n t S ty le s o f P o licin g F ig u re 6.1

152

In te rp re tin g S o u th Y o rk sh ire P o lice 's h a n d lin g of

th e G 8 Ju s tice and H o m e A ffairs m in isterial m e e tin g in S h e ffie ld

T ab le 5.1

31

M ap o f S h e ffie ld city ce n tre sh o w in g lo ca tio n s of

m ain p ro te sts F ig u re 6.2

21

162

A sele ctiv e su m m ary o f m a jo r a n ti-g lo b alisatio n

p ro te sts, 1 9 9 9 -2 0 0 6

114

T ab le 6.1

L ist o f in te rv ie w re s p o n d e n ts

142

T ab le 8.1

P o licin g p u b lic o rd e r: facto rs co n d u civ e to v io le n t

c o n fro n ta tio n

204

A ckn o w le d g e m e n ts

T h is b o o k w o u ld n e v e r h av e b e e n w ritte n w ere it n o t fo r th e in ­ v a lu ab le h elp and e n c o u ra g e m e n t o f n u m e ro u s frie n d s, co lle a g u e s, o u tsid e ag e n cie s an d m e m b e rs o f m y fam ily. In M a rch 2005, I u n d e rw e n t h e a rt su rg e ry at S h e ffie ld 's N o rth e rn G e n era l H osp ital. T h e o p e ra tio n p ro v ed so su ccessfu l th at, w ithin th re e m o n th s, I w as ab le to p articip ate in an d o b se rv e a series o f p ro te sts a g a in st th e m e e tin g o f th e G 8 Ju stice an d H o m e A ffairs M in iste rs in S h e ffie ld city c en tre . I w ill fo re v e r be in d eb te d to th e fab u lo u s su rg ical team led by M r P ete r B raid le y an d th e d ed ica te d sta ff o f th e C h e ste rm a n w in g s o f th e h o sp ital. I h a v e th em to th a n k fo r p ro lo n g in g m y life an d m a k in g it p ossib le for m e to co n tin u e to w o rk on the ty p e o f p ro je c t yo u are h o ld in g in y o u r h an d s. C h a p te r 6 o f th is b o o k co m p rises a case stu d y of th e S h effield G 8 p ro te sts. As o n p re v io u s o ccasio n s, I am e x tre m e ly g ratefu l for th e co -o p e ra tio n o f local in stitu tio n s like S o u th Y o rk sh ire P o lice, S h effield C ity C o u n cil, B B C Look North and B B C R ad io S h e ffie ld , as w ell as th o se d e m o n stra to rs w h o also c o n se n te d to b e in te rv ie w e d . T h e e n c o u ra g e m e n t an d su p p o rt o f co lle ag u e s in th e D e p a rtm e n t o f C o m m u n ic a tio n S tu d ie s at S h e ffie ld H allam U n iv e rsity h av e also b e e n v ital to th e co m p le tio n o f this w ork. M y good frie n d s, M ike B e a k e n , K are n G ra in g e r, P e te r Jo n e s an d M artin Jo rd in , all acted as p a rticip a n t o b se rv e rs o n m y b e h a lf d u rin g th e G 8 d em o n stra tio n s. O th e rs , like C h as C ritc h e r and N oel W illiam s w ere kind e n o u g h to c o m m e n t on d raft c h a p te rs, w h ile all of the ab o v e, w ith th e ad d itio n o f B rian T w e e d a le , e n su re d th at m y sp irits seld o m sagged w hile I w as in the p ro ce ss o f w ritin g up th e se p ag es. C h as w as also xi

P olicing P ublic D is o rd e r

in s tru m e n ta l, a lo n g sid e S im e o n Y ates (H ead of th e C o m m u n ica tio n and C o m p u tin g R e sea rch C e n tre ) and O liv ia B a g u ste (H ead of H u m an R e so u rce s), in e n s u rin g th at I w as giv en su fficie n t stu d y le a v e in w h ich to c o m p le te th e b o o k . I am g ra tefu l to all th re e of them for th e ir g e n e ro sity an d k in d n ess. O th e r p e o p le h av e also assisted m e im m e n se ly . I h av e good reaso n to be th an k fu l to m y close frien d and co lle a g u e , P ro fe sso r M ike K in g o f the U n iv e rsity o f C e n tra l E n g la n d in B irm in g h a m . M ik e an d I h av e w o rk e d o n sev e ra l p ro je c ts to g e th e r in re c e n t y e a rs an d , as ev er, I o ccasio n ally tu rn e d to him fo r ad v ice an d re a ssu ra n c e . It w as M ike w h o set up th e m e e tin g b e tw e e n m e an d B rian W illan (at an In d ian re s ta u ra n t in P h ila d e lp h ia ) th at e v e n tu a lly re su lte d in ou r b o o k co n tract. I am g re a tly in d eb te d to B rian - an d th ree a n o n y m o u s re v ie w e rs o f m y b o o k p ro p o sal - fo r h a v in g sh o w n th e re q u isite faith in m y ability. A n o th e r good frie n d to w h o m I am m o st g ratefu l is P hil R o d d is o f People and Planet Communications w h o kin d ly d rew th e m ap for m e w h ich ap p e ars in C h a p te r 6. F in ally , an d m o st o f all, I w a n t to th a n k m y w ife, Jo a n n a , m y ch ild re n (Jo n -P au l, L au ra an d Jo se p h ) an d ste p d a u g h te rs (T a ra n e h , P arissa and Y asam in ) for all th e g o o d w ill th e y sh o w ed an d all th e sacrifices th e y m ad e w h ile I w as in th e p ro ce ss of w ritin g up this w o rk . Jo a n n a h e lp e d m e to d esig n an d p ro d u ce the fig u res and tables a p p e a rin g in the b o o k b u t h e r ov erall c o n trib u tio n h ard ly e n d e d th e re . H ers w as th e first face I saw w h e n I cam e ro u n d after m y o p e ra tio n - lo o k in g o u t for m e as usual and m a k in g m e feel extra glad to b e aliv e, as sh e c o n tin u e d to do for th e d u ra tio n o f this p ro je ct. David Waddington Sheffield, England

Introduction

A ve ry fa m ilia r ring At a p p ro x im a te ly 3.45 p .m . on W e d n e sd a y , 6 Ju ly 2 005, th e U n ited S ta tes P re sid e n t, G e o rg e W . B u sh , arriv ed at th e G le n e a g le s H o tel A u ch te ra rd e r, ju st o u tsid e o f E d in b u rg h , for th e a n n u a l G 8 (G ro u p of 8) su m m it m e e tin g o f th e p o litical lead ers of A m erica, C a n a d a , F ra n ce, G e rm a n y , G re a t B ritain , Italy , R u ssia an d S p ain . It w as also aro u n d this tim e th a t th e le a d in g section o f a 1 0 -th o u sa n d -stro n g an ti-G 8 p ro te st m a rch cam e to w ith in to u c h in g d istan ce o f a sectio n o f the 6 -fo o t-h ig h , 5 .5 -m ile -w id e p e rim e te r fe n ce (a m u ch -p u b licise d 'rin g of s te e l') sta n d in g b e tw e e n th e G 8 d e le g a te s an d th e o u tsid e w orld (A le x an d e r 2005). Fiv e ro w s o f p o lice in riot g ear w e re statio n e d b e h in d th e fe n c e , w ith a fu rth e r row o f m o u n te d o fficers p o sitio n e d at th eir back s. T h e o v errid in g m o o d o f th e m arch h ad so far b e e n p e a c e fu l, w ith its p o lice e sc o rt sh o w in g c o m m e n d a b le p a tie n ce and g o o d h u m o u r. S u d d e n ly , th o u g h , a sm all sectio n o f m a rch ers set a b o u t d ism a n tlin g the fe n ce and an g rily co n fro n te d th e p o lice (ibid.). M a rch o rg an ise rs fran tically a p p e a le d to th o se in v o lv ed to refrain fro m fu rth e r v io le n c e , w h ile stew a rd s u rg e n tly e x h o rted o th e r p a rticip a n ts to co n tin u e on th e ir w ay. M o st p e o p le h e e d e d th e latter d irectiv e b u t th e v io le n t m in o rity c o n tin u e d to th ro w o b je cts and try to b re ach th e b a rrica d e . Fifty m e tre s to th e rig h t o f th is fierce e n c o u n te r, th e secu rity fe n c in g stre tch e d out acro ss an o p e n field w ith o n ly to k e n sig ns o f p o lice p ro te ctio n . T h e o n ly th in g p re v e n tin g a ccess to this v ast e x p a n se o f land w as a 1-fo o t-h ig h b a rb e d w ire fe n c e , sk irtin g the 'o fficia l' ro u te o f th e m arch (ibid.). E m e rg in g fro m th e ce n tre o f th is m a y h e m , an A frican m an c a rry ­ in g a card b o ard co ffin (in p ro te st a g a in st th e alleg ed g e n o c id e o f i

P olicing P ublic D is o rd e r

5 m illio n C o n g o le se in R w an d a) g race fu lly step p e d o v er th e b arb e d w ire an d w a lk e d , u n o p p o se d , up to th e u n g u a rd ed p e rim e te r fe n c ­ ing. H e w as soo n jo in e d by som e 1,500 o th e r p e o p le . M e m b e rs o f this b re a k a w a y c o n tin g e n t th e n started p u llin g at a sectio n o f fe n c in g a d ja c e n t to a p ly w o o d -co v e re d w a tc h to w e r. A t first, the p o lice w ere stra n g e ly u n re sp o n siv e . W ith in te n m in u te s, h o w e v e r, th e field re se m b led a b a ttle zo n e an d th e re w e re cries o f d isb e lie f th a t this w as h a p p e n in g on S co ttish soil. As th e p o lice h o rse s o n th e far sid e o f th e cord o n m y ste rio u sly re tre a te d at 4.30 p m , an RA F C h in o o k h e lic o p te r a p p e a re d . It e x e c u te d tw o circu its b e fo re to u c h in g d o w n on th e field o n th e far sid e o f th e c o rd o n , y ard s from d em o n stra to rs. T h e d o ors flew o p e n and o u t p o u re d riot p o lice w h o ran to th e section o f th e fe n c e w h e re the d e m o n stra to rs w e re . T w o m in u te s later, p o lice and d ogs b e g a n ru n n in g a lo n g in sid e the fe n c e to w ard s th e d em o n stra to rs. A n o th e r C h in o o k scre a m e d in an d o fflo a d e d tro o p s, ju s t as an A rm y L y n x h e lic o p te r scream ed p ast, in an a tm o s p h e re m ore like B o sn ia th a n S co tlan d . T h e po lice h o rses re -a p p e a re d and c h a rg ed to w ard s p ro te sters. It em e rg e d th at p art o f the secu rity fe n c e had b e e n b re a c h e d by p ro te ste rs an d , w h ile n o n e see m e d to h a v e g ot in sid e , rio t p olice had ru n th ro u g h th e b re ach and w ere e n g a g e d in ru n n in g b a ttle s, w ith h u n d re d s of p ro te sters ru n n in g b a c k acro ss th e field s, (ibid.) A fter a b rie f p erio d o f c o n fro n ta tio n , p olice e q u ip p e d w ith b a to n s and ro u n d , p e rsp e x rio t sh ield s su cce e d ed in fo rm in g a re strictiv e arc aro u n d th e p ro te sters. M o u n te d p o lice w ere th e n d ep lo y ed to n u d g e th e p ro te ste rs b a ck o n to th e official ro u te o f the m arch . A few sto n e s, p lacard s an d sod s o f grass w e re d efia n tly th ro w n in the p o lic e 's d irectio n , th o u g h n o t su fficie n tly to p re v e n t them from re ­ e sta b lish in g co m p le te co n tro l (B lack et al. 2005). T h e e la b o ra te p o lice fo rtificatio n m e a su res u sed to p ro te c t and iso late th e G 8 v isitors to S co tlan d w ill h av e a v e ry fam iliar rin g to th o se o f us w ith k n o w le d g e o f p re c e d in g in te rn a tio n a l su m m it m e e tin g s. S u ch p e o p le are also u n lik ely to be sh o ck e d b y th e u n ­ co m p ro m isin g n a tu re o f the p o lice tactics u sed to o rg a n ise an d d isp erse the cro w d , sin ce th e se , too, w ere re m in is ce n t o f m e th o d s ap p lied at p re v io u s in te rn a tio n a l e v e n ts (d ella P orta et al. 2006). H o w e v e r, w h ilst it is in a rg u a b le th at, in the co u rse o f the last tw o to th re e d eca d e s, p u b lic o rd e r p o licin g in W e ste rn so cie tie s has b e co m e 2

In tro d u c tio n

c o n sid era b ly m o re m ilitarised (P. A. J. W a d d in g to n 2003), th ere is an o b v io u s d a n g e r o f c h a ra c te risin g it too stereo ty p ica lly . This p o ssib ility is illu strated by the fact th a t c o n sp icu o u s v ariatio n s w ere a p p a re n t, n o t o n ly in th e p o licin g o f su b sid iary G 8 m e e tin g s o ccu rrin g p rio r to G le n e a g le s in th e m a jo r E nglish cities of D erb y and S h e ffie ld , b u t also in E d in b u rg h itse lf in th e w e e k c o n ta in in g the S co ttish m e e tin g o f h e ad s o f g o v e rn m e n t. At the D e rb y m e e tin g o f G 8 E n v iro n m e n ta l M in iste rs in M arch 2005, p o lice d rew a sim ilar 'rin g o f stee l' a ro u n d the g o lf cou rse lo catio n w h e re th e m in isters w ere m e e tin g an d in v o k ed p u b lic o rd er leg islatio n to restrict p ro te sters to a sm all area o f th e city c e n tre , m iles o u t o f re a ch o f th e su m m it v e n u e . In S h e ffie ld , in Ju n e 2005, p o lice allo w ed a 1,0 0 0 -stro n g m a rch , d ays b e fo re th e m e e tin g o f G 8 Ju stice and H o m e A ffairs M in isters, to p ro c e e d , w ith o u t o b v io u s re s trictio n , th ro u g h th e city c e n tre . D u rin g th e actu al m e e tin g , th o u g h , p o lice en fo rce d a tw o -m ile exclu sio n zo n e aro u n d th e su b u rb an h o te l in w h ich fo rm al d iscu ssio n s w e re h eld . S o u th Y o rk sh ire P olice th e n in v o k e d p u b lic o rd e r le g islatio n to sev e re ly re strict th e size and lo catio n o f tw o fu rth e r p ro te sts c o in cid in g w ith civic re c e p tio n s for th e d e le g a te s an d th e ir e n to u ra g e s. T h o u g h th e p o licin g o f b o th th e se e v e n ts w as g e n era lly to le ra n t, p o lice u sed b a to n s, co rrallin g te ch n iq u e s an d sn a tch -sq u a d s to d isable u n sc h e d u le d m arch es. T h e 2005 S co ttish G 8 su m m it m e e tin g e n tailed a n u m b e r of q u alitativ e ly d iffe re n t p o licin g strate g ies. P rior to th e actu al su m m it perio d o f 6 - 8 Ju ly , the city o f E d in b u rg h h osted a 'M a k e P ov erty H isto ry ' (M P H ) m arch by 225,000 p e o p le from fam ilies, faith g ro u p s and c h a rita b le o rg a n isa tio n s across th e U K . T h e aim of the m arch w as to im p o se p re ssu re on th e e ig h t w orld lead ers to h elp ease T hird W orld d eb t, e ra d ica te p o v e rty in A frica an d arrest clim ate c h a n g e. F o llo w in g a p p e als by th e o rg a n ise rs, th e m a jo rity o f m a rch ers w o re w h ite c lo th in g w ith the aim of e n c irclin g the city w ith a 'w h ite b a n d ' to sim u late the sy m b o lic w ristb an d s w o rn in solid arity w ith th e M PH m o v e m e n t. G o rrin g e and R osie (2006) e m p h a sise th at, d esp ite g lo o m y and alarm ist p ress p re d ictio n s of m a y h e m an d v a n d a lism , the m arch p ro c e e d e d am id st a 'c a rn iv a l a tm o s p h e re ' an d o n ly o n e arrest w as m a d e d u rin g th e e n tire d ay. T h e solitary in c id e n t o f d iso rd er o ccu rred aro u n d 2.15 p .m . w h e n 200 o fficers in riot g e a r corralled a g ro u p o f 6 0 -7 0 p ro te ste rs in black c lo th in g (v ario u sly d escrib ed as fo re ig n a n a rch ists, m e m b e rs o f th e B lack B loc or Y B asta) in to B u ccle u ch S tre e t. P olice 's p o tte rs' had sh ad o w e d th e g ro u p w hich e v e n tu a lly a ttack e d a n e a rb y b ar. W aste b in s w ere o v ertu rn e d and 3

P olicing P ublic D is o rd e r

b o ttle s h u rle d at th e p o lice , w h e re u p o n 200 riot p o lice w ith sh o rt sh ield s im m e d ia tely arriv ed on th e sce n e . A cco rd in g to o n e team of re p o rte rs, 'T h e in c id e n t g av e an in sig h t in to th e p o lice p re p a ra tio n s. R e in fo rc e m e n ts w e re q u ick to d escen d o n the s ce n e , an d officers w h o ch a n g ed in to rio t g e a r to c o n fro n t th e rio ters im m e d ia tely c h a n g e d b a ck in to u n ifo rm o n ce th e fig h tin g w as o v er to calm th e situ a tio n ' (G ray et al. 2005). O n c e th e re in fo rc e m e n ts had b acked off, u n ifo rm e d co lle a g u e s m o v ed in to re m o v e p ro te ste rs' face m ask s, carry o u t b o d y sea rch es an d take d o w n e v e ry o n e 's p e rso n a l d etails. P eo p le w ere allo w ed to leave o n ly w h e n th e se fo rm alitie s had b e e n co n clu d e d (B B C N ew s 2005; D u n ca n 2005). T h e p e a cefu l n a tu re o f this e v e n t c o n tra ste d w ith th e d iso rd erly o u tco m e o f th e so-called 'C a rn iv a l for Fu ll E n jo y m e n t' p ro ce ssio n th ro u g h the city ce n tre on T u e sd a y , 4 Ju ly . T h is p ro te st reflected co lle ctiv e in d ig n a tio n re g a rd in g th e c o n trib u to ry role o f fin an cial in stitu tio n s in the g e n e ra tio n o f w orld p o v e rty and in d e b te d n e ss. T h e L o th ia n an d B o rd e rs P o lice, w h o h ad n o t b e e n in fo rm e d b e fo re ­ h an d o f th e m a rch e rs' in te n tio n s, re a cted to w h a t th e y p e rce iv e d as p o ssib le th re a ts to m a jo r city ce n tre fin a n cia l in stitu tio n s b y u sin g co rrallin g -in and sn a tch -sq u a d p ro c e d u re s to c o n ta in d em o n stra to rs (S e e n a n an d V id al 2005). A t o n e p o in t, d e m o n stra to rs w e re forced in to P rin cess S tre e t G a rd e n s w h e re th e y o v e rtu rn e d p ark b e n c h e s and u sed them o ffe n siv e ly ag ain st p o lice o fficers. P articip an ts and b y sta n d e rs ca u g h t up in th e c o n flict co m p la in e d a b o u t th e in ­ d iscrim in a te and o v erz e a lo u s n atu re o f p o lice tactics (ibid.). T h e d ay o f the h e a d s of state m e e tin g saw fu rth e r v io le n c e , n o t o n ly at th e su m m it v e n u e in G le n e a g le s, b u t also in E d in b u rg h city ce n tre and in o th e r S co ttish to w n s and cities, su ch as S tirlin g and B a n n o c k b u rn . D iso rd e r o ccu rre d in th e early m o rn in g at th e latter tw o lo ca tio n s w h e n p ro te sters sp illin g o u t o f n e a rb y 'e c o ca m p s' v a n d a lised cars and b u sin e ss p re m ise s. S o o n afte rw a rd s, T ay sid e P olice cited th e se e v e n ts as a b asis for callin g o ff the p lan n e d m arch at A u ch te ra rd e r. T h is w as th e first o f a series o f co n fu sin g m e ssag e s w h ich le ft w o u ld -b e p ro te ste rs u n ce rta in as to w h e th e r th e p ro te st w as b e in g allo w ed to p ro ce e d as sch e d u le d . M a rch o rg a n ise rs and c a m p a ig n in g jo u rn a lis ts later a ccu sed th e p o lice o f u sin g 'u n d e r ­ h an d ta ctics' to d isco u rag e p ro te sters from atte n d in g . A m o n g th e se a ccu sa tio n s w ere th a t p o lice had b o ard e d c o a ch e s in E d in b u rg h and G lasgo w to a n n o u n c e falsely th a t the p ro te s t had b een c a n ce lled ; a n d th at o ccu p a n ts o f v e h icle s en ro u te to A u ch te ra d e r had b een in fo rm e d by p olice th at th ey w ou ld e n c o u n te r im p assab le road b lo ck s or th a t th e y w o u ld n o t b e allo w ed in to A u c h te ra rd e r d ue 4

In tro d u c tio n

to th e v io le n ce th a t w as a lre ad y u n d e r w ay (G o rd o n an d D u n ca n 2005). T h e b re a c h in g o f th e fe n ce at A u c h te ra rd e r b ro u g h t a fu rth e r d iv ersity of p o lice tactics in to play. T e le v isio n n e w s b ro a d ca sts sh o w ed h o w , in th e initial p h a se s, p o lice o fficers fiercely lash ed p ro te sters a b o u t th e ir leg s to fo rce th em to re tre a t. S u b se q u e n tly , h o w e v e r, the p o lice assu m ed a far m o re to le ra n t attitu d e. P ictu res b ro a d ca st by Sky News Live sh o w e d a pair o f o fficers p a tie n tly liftin g an d carry in g o n e m ale p ro te ste r w h o w as stag in g a sit-d o w n p ro te st in d e fia n c e of th e ir o rd e r to m o v e b ack . T h e sta tio n 's 'o n -th e -s p o t re p o rte r' cle arly reg ard ed th e p o lice h a n d lin g o f this in c id e n t as part o f a g e n e ra l strateg y : I h av e to say th a t th e p o lice are b e in g v e ry restrain e d on this. T h e y 're g e n tly , g e n tly , e d g in g fo rw ard . W e h a v e see n a few in sta n ce s w h e re th e h o rse s h av e ch arg ed acro ss the field , b u t g e n era lly th e p o lice are a d v a n cin g an d th e n sto p p in g and le ttin g the p ro te sters m o v e b ack , and th e n a d v a n cin g . B u t th e p o lice are alw ay s m a k in g th a t m o v e m e n t fo rw ard an d th e p ro te sters are alw ay s in th at re v e rse d irection . (R e p o rte r, Sky News Live) Sky News's s u b se q u e n t live p ictu re s d e m o n stra te d th at, h av in g c leared th e field , p o lice o fficers th e n started to re aso n w ith th e crow d (an d , for th at m a tte r, m ed ia p e rs o n n e l), p e rsu a d in g them to follow th e n a rro w ro ad ru n n in g b e tw e e n th e g rasslan d an d local h o u se s, b a ck in to th e ce n tre of A u ch te ra rd e r.

T h e focus and s tru c tu re o f th e book As the ab o v e d iscu ssio n in d ica te s, the n a tu re o f c o n te m p o ra ry p u blic o rd e r p o licin g is too v ariab le an d co m p lica te d to lend itse lf to trite o r su p e rficial an aly sis. It is p re cise ly for this reaso n th at th is b o o k is d ed ica te d to th e carefu l and d isp a ssio n a te e x p la n a tio n o f the p ro ce sse s by w h ich th e p olice u n d e rsta n d an d react to in sta n ce s of p u b lic d iso rd er, o f v ariatio n s in p o lice tactics and stra te g ies, and o f th e p o ssib le w ay s th a t su ch in te rv e n tio n s (and « o n -in te rv e n tio n s) can serv e to e n h a n c e or, a lte rn a tiv e ly , a tte n u a te the p o te n tia l for co lle ctiv e v io le n ce . O n e le a d in g a ca d e m ic c o m m e n ta to r on p u b lic o rd e r p o licin g re c e n tly d isclosed h o w , 5

Policing Public D is o rd e r

In m y e xp erien ce, w h at police officers w an t from academ ic analysis is not a m an ual of how to fight battles on the streets they know th at w ell en ou g h . In stead , they w ant and n eed a w id er u n d erstan d in g of w hy d isord er eru p ts at all and w ith w h at con seq u en ces. F o rtu n ately , this is so m eth in g ab ou t w hich acad em ic research has m u ch to con trib u te. (P. A. J. W ad d in g ton 2003: 394) E vid en ce co m p reh en siv ely suggests that p olice officers of all ranks c on tin u e to subscribe to 'th e o rie s' of d isord er w hich path o lo gise the m otives and actions o f the crow d as fu n d am en tally irrational or p ron e to 'm an ip u latio n ' by ill-in ten tion ed ind ividu als or subgroups (R eich er et al. 2004; D. W ad d in g ton and K ing 2005). K ing and B rearley (1996: 99) sp eak for the o v erw h elm in g acad em ic con sen su s by in sistin g that, in o rd er to m ain tain credibility, public ord er th eo ry m u st recognise the u n d erly in g ratio n ality of the m ajority of crow d m em bers. 'F u rth er, th e d ynam ic p o ten tial of crow ds m u st be ackn o w led g ed and the possible im pact o f police and o th er action on this d ynam ic process ap p reciated in o rd er to arrive at a w orkable solu tion to the problem of con tro llin g public d isord er.' T h ese academ ic prin cip les are rigidly subscribed to in the first tw o ch ap ters of this book, w hich con stitu te its th eo retical fou n d ation. C h ap ter 1 focu ses on the w ide ran ge of political, institu tio n al, cultural and practical v ariables w hich help to d eterm in e police strategic and tactical ap p roach es to pu blic order. It also explores the possible w ays th at particular form s of police b eh av io u r m ay arouse or, p erh ap s, nu llify the p o ten tial for d isorder. T h ese th em es are fu rth er con sid ered in C h ap ter 2, w hich high ligh ts relev an t theories of public d isord er as a basis for co m p re h e n d in g the im p lications of p articular con texts and d ynam ics of p o lice -citiz en in teractio n for the instig ation and d ev elo p m en t of conflict. S u b seq u en t ch ap ters follow the p re ce d e n t set by m y earlier p u blications of using case stud ies of p articu lar ev en ts as m ech an ism s for the gradu al con stru ctio n of arg u m en t (e.g. D. W ad d in g ton 1987, 1992; D. W ad d in g ton et al. 1987, 1989). T hu s, C h ap ters 3 -7 each in corp o rate case stud ies o f salien t co n tem p o rary exam p les of public d isord er (occurring from 1991 to the p resen t day). T h e in ten d ed fu n ction of these cases is to illustrate and au g m en t the th eo retical bases establish ed in C h ap ters 1 and 2. To provide con tin u ity and focus of d iscu ssion, the exam p les are prim arily British or A m erican. As P. A. J. W ad d ing ton (op. cit.) p oints out, in Britain a shift has o ccurred in the last 15 years aw ay from pick et-lin e con fron tatio n s 6

In tro d u c tio n

associated w ith d e-in d u strialisatio n to political con flict in v olv in g e n ­ v iro n m en talist issues or o p p osition to 'g lo b alisation '. Sim ilarly, w hile the 'co m m u n ity d isord ers' o f the early and m id -1980s w ere typically w aged by the police and A frican-C aribb ean y o u th s, in the early 1990s it w as the turn of the p olice and w h ite, w o rkin g-class you th s, and in 2001, the police and A sian yo u th s after an initial in v o lv em en t by the Far R igh t (ibid.). A com m on featu re o f both eras is the o n g oin g problem of football h ooliganism - p erh ap s less so d om estically, but certain ly inv olv ing British fans travelling abroad (D u n n in g 2002; W illiam s 2002). In the U nited States of A m erica, sporadic riotin g occurred betw een 1991 and 2001 in m ajo r cities like W ash in g to n , D C, Los A ngeles, N ew Y o rk (tw ice) and C incinnati. T h ese con flicts reflected d eterio ratin g relation s betw een the police and a d iversity of A m erican eth n ic m inorities (G ilje 1995). N ot su rp risingly, given its status as the w orld 's ackn ow led g ed political (and econ om ic) 'su p e rp o w er', the U n ited States has also been at the ep icen tre o f anti-globalisation p rotests, in clu d in g those held in op p osition to the w ar again st Iraq. As N oakes and G illham (2006: 97) p o in t out, it w as the con fro n tatio n s b etw een police and d em o n strato rs at the 1999 W orld T rad e O rg a n i­ sation (W TO ) M inisterial C o n fe ren ce in Seattle w hich set a particular kind of b en ch m ark for su bsequ en t protests in o th er m ajor w orld cities: T h e W TO p ro testers' o p en in g -d ay victory, the scale and in ten sity of the clashes b etw een d em on strato rs and the Seattle p olice and the su b seq u en t political activism inspired by the W T O p rotests hav e m ad e Seattle a rich signifier for both activists and police. For political activists, it b ecam e an aspiration - a new standard for effectiv e protests against w hich d em on strato rs m easured their su bsequ en t efforts . . . E m b old ened by Seattle, a su bset of d em o n strators in each city insisted on th eir righ t to d isru pt these ev en ts, lead in g to rep eated clashes b etw een police and protesters. W ith the excep tio n o f C h ap ter 6, the rem ain in g ch ap ters of the bo o k use existing pu b licatio ns (prim arily acad em ic, th o u gh som e are official or jo u rn alistic) to analyse the p olicing of these con tem p orary form s of pu blic d isorder. T his reflects an acad em ic co m m itm en t to focu sing on p ractical in stan ces of public o rd er policing - as op p osed to d iscu ssing relev an t issues m erely in the abstract. T hu s, C h ap ters 3 and 4 focus on the policing o f the A m erican and British urban 7

Policing Public D is o rd e r

disord ers o f 1 9 9 1 -2 0 0 1 , resp ectiv ely . C h ap ter 5 con sid ers existing analyses of the police tactics and strategies used to con tro l anti-global protests around the w orld in the w ake of the 'B a ttle of S eattle'. The sixth ch ap ter of the b o o k rep resen ts so m eth in g o f a d ep artu re insofar as it sets ou t a case stud y, based on recen tly acquired d ata, o f the policing of the Ju n e 2005 G8 Ju stice and H o m e Affairs M in isters' m eetin g in Sheffield . T h e pu rp ose of this in -d ep th exam ple is to re-em p h asise th e im p o rtan ce and in terrelatio n sh ip of variables dis­ cussed in earlier chapters. C h ap ter 7 com p letes ou r em p h asis on relev an t case stud ies by focu sin g on the policing of English football fans trav elling to E u ro p ean d estin ation s in su p p o rt of the national team . The con clu d in g ch ap ter of the b o ok draw s to g e th e r those variables that are fu n d am en tal to our u n d erstan d in g the n atu re of the p olicing of pu blic o rd er ev en ts. T h ou gh by no m ean s in ten d ed as a m an u al or p rescrip tio n for effectiv e pu blic o rd er p olicing, the con clu sion also d w ells briefly on the policy im p lications of the p reced in g chapters. As R eich er et al. (op. cit.: 559) p o in t out, effectiv e (that is, trou ble-free) pu blic o rd er p olicing is b en eficial b o th to the police and the w ider society: A w hole career can be ru ined in the blin k of an eye. N ot surprisingly, th en , m an y police officers ap p roach crow ds with som e trep id ation. H o w ev er, w hilst it is p erfectly true that a riot can set back the relatio n sh ip betw een the police and a w hole com m u n ity, it is also true that effectiv e public ord er strategies can transform relatio n sh ip s for the better. In d eed , it m ay be that such strategies m ay be on e of the b est w ays in w hich one can begin to turn aro u nd a spiral of n eg ativ e in ter-relatio n sh ip s w ith m arginalised groups in society. In sh o rt, good pu blic o rd er p olicing can hav e an im pact w ay b eyo n d the crow d. Sensible policy reco m m en d atio n s are only as good as the th eo ry on w hich they are based . W ith this in m ind , w e turn, in the first in stan ce, to an outline of acad em ic exp lan atio n s of v ariations in police pu blic ord er tactics and strategies, and o f their p o ten tial to quell or con trib u te to con flag ratio n s o f disorder.

C h a p te r I

Public o rd er policing: theoretical approaches

In tro d u c tio n D esp ite obvious signs of a grow in g co m m itm en t b y public ord er police in W estern societies to so ften in g both th eir m eth od s and the im age they try to p ro ject of th em selv es to the p u blic, con sp icu ou s exam p les sporadically em erg e of their un failin g d eterm in ation to con tain and , if n ecessary, con fro n t d isaffected and d issen tin g section s of society (della Porta et al. 2006; Earl 2006). This ch ap ter sets o ut a n u m b er of th eo retical bases for in terp retin g con sisten cies and d iscrep an cies in styles of pu blic ord er policing, for e xp lain in g police choices o f strategy and tactics, and for u n d erstan d in g the n atu re and co n seq u en ces of police con d u ct in p o ten tially con flictu al situ ations. T h e ch ap ter begins by o u tlin in g and e xp lain in g the late-tw en tieth cen tu ry shift in d om in an t W estern public o rd er policing styles tow ard s n eg otiatio n and restraint. A seco n d , su p p lem en tary section th en d escribes the rep erto ire of p rev en tativ e m easu res used by police to o ffset possible con fron tatio n and reinforce their p erceived legitim acy. T h e third section of th e ch ap ter id en tifies som e of the m ain political, in stitu tio n al, cultural and p ragm atic d eterm in an ts of coerciv e police strategies and tactics th at d eviate from the co n tem p o rary norm . T h e fou rth section looks at possible reaso ns for, and co n seq u en ces of, aggressive police con d u ct w hile 'o u t in the field '. T his is follow ed by a b rief d iscu ssion of the arg u m en t that p aram ilitaristic police m eth od s are the best m ean s of en su rin g that police officers exercise requ isite stand ard s of d iscipline and restraint. The final section of the ch ap ter ou tlines a m od el of public o rd er policing that usefully draw s to g eth er elem en ts of the p re­ ced in g d iscu ssion, as w ell as h igh ligh tin g o th er relev an t factors 9

P olicing P ublic D is o rd e r

co n sid ere d n e c e ssa ry to e x p la in in g tactical an d strate g ic v ariatio n s and th e ir im p licatio n s for p o ssib le con flict.

F ro m escalated fo rce to n e g o tia te d m a n a g e m e n t T h e re is w id esp read a g re e m e n t a m o n g A m erican and E u ro p ean sch o lars th at th e last th re e d ecad e s h a v e see n a m a jo r tran sfo rm a tio n in th e d o m in a n t style o f p u b lic o rd e r p o licin g (e.g. d ella P orta and Filliu elle 2 004; M cP h ail et al. 1998; N o a k e s an d G illh am 2006; P. A. J. W a d d in g to n 2000a, 2003). T h e sem in a l stu d y o n this su b je c t is th at of M cP h ail et al. (op. cit.) w h o id e n tify an d exp lain th e w ay in w h ich A m erican p u blic o rd e r p o licin g has d e p a rte d fro m the u n co m p ro m is­ in g 'e sca la te d fo rce ' m o d el o f th e 1960s, to w ard s a so fte r and m ore to le ra n t 'n e g o tia te d m a n a g e m e n t' a p p ro a ch o f th e 1970s an d after. T h is sh ift has in v o lv ed a g re a te r re sp e ct for the 'rig h ts' of p ro te sters, a m o re to le ra n t a p p ro a ch to co m m u n ity d isru p tio n , clo se r c o m m u n i­ catio n and co -o p e ra tio n w ith the p u b lic, a re d u ce d te n d e n cy to m ak e arrests (p articu larly as a tactic o f first reso rt), an d a p p lica tio n o f o n ly th e m in im u m force req u ired in o rd e r to co n tro l a situ atio n . M cP h ail et al. attrib u te this tran sfo rm a tio n to th e criticism and d e -le g itim isa tio n o f th e e scalated fo rce a p p ro a c h b y sev eral g o v e rn m e n t-sp o n so re d c o m m issio n s set u p to lo ok in to th e urban u n re st o f th e 1960s an d th e u n iv e rsity cam p u s an d a n ti-w a r d isse n t o f th e late 1960s and early 1970s. C o n ce rn e d by th eir o w n a p p a re n t c ap acity to in fla m e cro w d s, p ro v o k e d iso rd er an d attract criticism , th e p o lice w e re p articu larly re c e p tiv e at this stage to th e p o ssib ility of u sin g a lte rn a tiv e s to th e p rin cip le o f o v e rw h e lm in g fo rce. S e n io r o fficers n o w co n sid e re d it sen sib le to slack en th e ir a u th o rity so as to in c re a se the p re d ictab ility o f p ro te st e v en ts and m in im ise th e risk of v io le n ce . T h u s, as N o a k e s et al. (2005: 239) p o in t ou t, P olice w o u ld u n d e r-e n fo rc e th e law an d n e g o tia te w ith p ro te st gro u p s p rio r to a d e m o n stra tio n in an e ffo rt to establish m u tu ally a g re ea b le te rm s and co n d itio n s u n d e r w h ich th e d e m o n stra tio n s w ou ld b e h e ld . To reach su ch an a g re e m e n t, po lice w o u ld h elp p ro te st g ro u p s cu t th ro u g h legal red tap e, p ro te ct p e rm it-h o ld in g p ro te st g ro u p s from c o u n te r­ d e m o n stra to rs and ig n o re m in o r v io latio n s o f th e law d u rin g d e m o n stra tio n s in e x c h a n g e for co m p ro m ise s from p ro te ste rs on the ro u te o f a p ro te st m arch or the lo catio n o f a rally.

10

Public o r d e r p olicin g : th e o re tic a l a pproaches

E u ro p e a n a ca d e m ics h av e co m m e n te d o n p aralle l tre n d s in th eir c o u n trie s to w ard s so fte r p o licin g styles. In th e O ld W o rld , 'D u rin g th e d eca d e s from th e 1950s to the 1990s, p ro te st c o n tro l ev olv ed to w ard s m o re flex ib le fo rm s b ased on a m o re lib eral u n d e rs ta n d in g o f d e m o n stra tio n rig h ts' (d ella P orta and F illieu lle 2004: 220). C h a n g e w as slo w -m o v in g in th e U n ited K in g d o m w h e re , o n ly a fte r b itte r in d u strial co n flict, n o tab ly w ith the m in e rs (in 1 9 8 4 -5 ), and the a n ti-p o ll tax d éb âcle (o f 1990), did th e p o licin g o f d isse n t settle in to a m o re c o n cilia to ry g ro o v e (D . W a d d in g to n 1998). K in g an d B re arley (1996) a ttrib u te th e 'd rift' to a m o re p aram ilitaristic style o f p o licin g in B rita in in th e p erio d from 1970 to 1990 to th e a ccu m u la te d 'le ss o n s ' learn e d as a c o n se q u e n c e o f k ey 'w a te rs h e d ' e v en ts. T h u s, for e x a m p le, th e p o lice d ecisio n to stre n g th e n th e ir 'm u tu a l aid ' cap acity and cre ate th e ir cen tral c o -o rd in a tin g ag e n cy , th e N atio n al R e p o rtin g C e n tre in S co tla n d Y ard , w as a c o n se q u e n c e o f th e ir o fficers b e in g o u tn u m b e red by th o u sa n d s o f 'fly in g p ick e ts' d u rin g the 1972 m in e rs' strik e. S im ilarly , th e B risto l rio t o f 1980 an d th e 'w a v e ' of u rb an d iso rd ers in 1981 led , n o t o n ly to im p ro v e m e n ts in p ro te ctiv e e q u ip m e n t, b u t also th e p u b lica tio n o f a se c re t A C P O (A sso ciatio n of C h ie f P olice O ffice rs) m a n u a l o n rio t-co n tro l te ch n iq u e s. K in g an d B re a rle y 's e x p la n a tio n of th e su b s e q u e n t re v e rsa l of this d o m in a n t o rie n ta tio n o f the B ritish p o lice b a ck to w ard s a m o re n e g o tia te d form o f m a n a g e m e n t has m u ch in co m m o n w ith c o n ­ clu sio n s d raw n b y th e ir A m erican c o u n te rp a rts. A m o n g th e lesso n s d raw n on th e b asis o f (say) th e s e t-p ie ce c o n fro n ta tio n s o f the m in e rs' strik e an d th e poll tax riot w as th a t e scalated d iso rd er re s u lt­ in g from u n co m p ro m isin g p olice tactics n o t o n ly e n d a n g e re d h u m a n lives, b u t w as also u n e co n o m ic a l in te rm s o f p o lice re so u rce s and d am ag in g to p o lice leg itim acy . F o r su ch re a so n s, th e 1990s saw a 'm o v e w ith in p u b lic o rd e r p o licin g to w ard s p re -e m p tiv e and p ro ­ activ e in v e stig a tio n an d p re d ictio n , w h ilst at th e sam e tim e d e v e lo p in g a m o re flexible (in term s o f d iffe re n t levels o f re sp o n se ), h ig h ly train ed an d m o b ile p u b lic o rd e r fo rce ' (ibid.: 100). As o n e of K in g and B re a rley 's re s p o n d e n ts p u t it, 'T h e im ag e is n o w o f a m ore c arin g cop on th e stre e t in v iew o f th e p u b lic, w ith re se rv es all to o led up an d read y to go in th e b a c k stre e ts' (q u o ted in ibid.: 78). E u ro p e a n an d A m erican sch o lars no w ag re e th at th is d riv e to re sto re , m a in ta in or, p re fe ra b ly , e n h a n c e th e le g itim acy , o f p olice and state alik e, lies at the ro o t o f m o re b e n ig n co n tro l tactics and strate g ies (d ella P orta an d Fillieu le, op. cit.; D. W a d d in g to n op. cit.). T h e fo llo w in g section giv es close co n sid era tio n to th e v arieg ated (and so m e tim e s c o n tro v ersia l) ty p es o f p re v e n ta tiv e m e a su res used

P olicing P ublic D is o rd e r

by th e p o lice b o th to a c h iev e th is p rim ary o b je ctiv e an d to o ffse t th e lik elih o o d o f c o n fro n ta tio n .

P re v e n ta tiv e police policies

An ov e rv ie w o f p r e v e n t a t i v e m e a s u re s

T h e B ritish ac a d e m ic , P ete r W a d d in g to n , m ak es th e p o in t th at, d esp ite th e fact th a t th e P u b lic O rd e r A ct 1986 g reatly e x p a n d e d th e p o lice p o w e rs to b a n m a rch e s a n d im p o se co n d itio n s on m a rch es and a sse m b lie s, co n sta b u la rie s th ro u g h o u t th e U n ited K in g d o m h av e seld om reso rte d to th is le g islatio n . W a d d in g to n a ttrib u te s this w id e ­ sp read re lu c ta n c e to the d ete rm in a tio n o f se n io r o fficers to avoid e n c o u n te rin g tw o h ig h ly u n d e sira b le fo rm s o f 'tro u b le ' (1998: 119). On the job trouble re fe rs to su ch p o te n tia l p ro b le m s as in ju ry , v io le n c e , in ju ry and d a m a g e to p ro p e rty , all o f w h ich m ay arise as a c o n se q u e n ce o f d o in g p o lice w o rk . In the job trouble allu d es to th e p o ssib le criticism ('fla k ' or 'fa llo u t') c o n se q u e n t o n c o n tro v ersia l p o lice actio n . T h is m ay take th e form o f in te rn a l criticism b y su p e rio r o fficers or e x te rn a l criticism (e.g. from the m e d ia, co u rts, p o litician s or a p u blic in q u iry ). G e n e ra lly sp e a k in g , 'C o n fro n ta tio n is, th e re fo re , a "re c ip e for tro u b le ": an a rrest for a m in o r o ffe n c e cou ld sp ark o ff a riot in w h ich d a m a g e and in ju ry resu lt an d an in q u iry th a t th re a te n s careers. H e n c e , c o n fro n ta tio n is a v o id e d ' (ibid.: 120). P olice re lu c ta n c e to in v o k e p u blic o rd er leg islatio n (see also B u rk e and Ja m e s 1998) reflects a n u m b e r o f p rag m atic ca lcu la tio n s, such as th e u n av ailab ility o f su fficie n t o fficers and the p o ssib ility th a t re s u lt­ in g co u rt cases m ig h t g e n e ra te p re c e d e n ts to p re v e n t its fu tu re a p p licatio n (P. A. J. W a d d in g to n 2003: 409). A n o th e r m a jo r reaso n is th at p o lice k n o w th at to in v o k e v ario u s sta tu te s w ou ld be to ru n the risk o f trou b le: W h e re a s th e law is c o n ce iv ed b y le g islato rs as a m e a n s of re so lv in g p ro b le m s, its e n fo rc e m e n t can actu ally cre a te g re a te r p ro b le m s fo r the police. T h e p o lice reg ard it as far e a sie r to h av e a cro w d assem b le at a k n o w n v e n u e an d tim e , e v en if it is p re d icte d to b e h o stile an d u n ru ly , th a n to h av e th e sam e p e o p le , or e v en a sig n ifican t m in o rity o f th e m , d isp ersed th ro u g h o u t cen tra l L o n d o n c re a tin g h av o c. B a n n in g a m arch is a re cip e fo r c re a tin g c o n fro n ta tio n an d b e in g seen to d o so. If the cro w d b e co m e d iso rd erly , th e p o lice w a n t su fficie n t 'in s u ra n c e ' 12

Public o rd e r policing: th e o re tic a l approaches

to d eal w ith it ad equ ately , but they seek to avoid alleg ations of p rov ocation. The crowd must be seen to relinquish public sympathy by their actions before the police can afford to take forceful action. (P. A. J. W ad d in g ton 1994a: 381, em ph asis ad ded ) T his o v erw h elm in g police d esire to avoid 'tro u b le ' also help s to explain w hy they are stau nchly com m itted to p re -e v e n t negotiation w ith rep resen tativ es o f pro test groups (P. A. J. W ad d in g ton 1994b, 1998). As a ru le, the police tend to assert con trol, n o t by in v o kin g legal p ow ers and reso rtin g to coercio n , b u t 'b y m o bilizing th eir social and o rg an ization al reso u rces' (1998: 120). W ad d in g ton explains how sen ior police d ep loy all m an n er of 'in teractio n al practices and ploys', and use their 'h o m e grou nd ad v an tag e' and 'm o n o p o ly o f exp ertise' reg ard ing , for exam p le, the m ost 'su itab le ' rou te for a m arch , to secure the com p lian ce of the e v en t organisers. T his p ro ced u re is by no m ean s au tom atically or u n iv ersally applied : the police will c o n ­ sider long and hard w h e th e r org anisers are suitably sin cere and capable of d eliv erin g their parts o f any bargain . W h ere police p e rce p ­ tions of o rg anisers are n eg ativ e, the form er will resort to h ard -faced 'in su ra n ce ' tactics - i.e. h av in g ad equ ate nu m bers of w ell-equ ip p ed officers in reserve. A ssum ing that n eg otiatio n s p roceed in good faith, the police will p ersev ere w ith the application of o th er p rev en tativ e m easu res: A ttem pts subtly to extend m axim um control ov er p rotest do not cease once prior arran g em en ts hav e b e e n m ad e. O n the day of any d em o n stratio n , sen ior officers seek to p erp etu ate a n o n con fro n tatio n al style by o v ertly d isp laying bo n h o m ie tow ard the o rg an izer and the protesters g en erally, k eep in g the police o ut of view of the p rotesters, and con tro llin g the progress of the m arch by the careful o rch estratio n of traffic flow arou nd it. Sen ior o fficers co m m an d in g the op eratio n often greet the o rg an izer of the m arch in full view of o th er pro testers: han d o u tstretch ed , they ad dress the org an izer by his or her first nam e from som e d istance aw ay, ad v an ce sm iling b road ly , and w arm ly shake the o rg an izer's han d . T h ey eagerly accep t any in v itation to brief m arsh als, n ot only to explain the resp ectiv e resp onsibilities of m arsh als and police, b u t also to em p h asize the collaborative relatio n sh ip they w ant to exist b etw een them . A ny action that th reaten s to disrupt the ap p earan ce of am icable relation s is stou tly rebu ffed , (ibid.: 122)

13

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C o rre sp o n d in g ly , sen io r o ffice rs striv e to o ffse t th e lik e lih o o d of c o n fro n ta tio n a l b e h a v io u r ste m m in g from th e ir ow n ran ks. O n e co m m o n strate g y th e y u se is to e n su re th e a p p o in tm e n t o f su itably reliab le in te rm e d ia te co m m a n d in g o fficers. M u c h a tte n tio n is th e n d ev o ted to g u a ra n te e in g th a t all secto ral c o m m a n d e rs sh are a co m m o n p e rsp e ctiv e re g a rd in g th e m a n a g e m e n t o f th e e v e n t in q u e stio n . A sim ilar a m o u n t o f e ffo rt is d ev o te d to e n s u rin g th at c o n sta b le s an d se rg e a n ts are th o ro u g h ly b rie fe d in term s o f w h a t is e x p e cte d o f th em . S e n io r o fficers w ill ca n d id ly c o n ce d e th at p art of th e fu n ctio n o f such ritu al is to e n a b le th em to 'c o v e r th e ir b a ck s' in th e e v e n t o f a n y c o n fro n ta tio n an d e n s u in g in q u iry (ibid.: 123). W a d d in g to n c o n ce d e s th a t, in th e fin al an aly sis, p re v e n ta tiv e stra te g ies are less co n ce rn e d w ith ac h ie v in g a g e n u in e p ro ce ss of 'g iv e and ta k e ' th an w ith e n s u rin g th a t th e p o lice a ch iev e th eir o b je ctiv e s via th e least c o n fro n ta tio n a l m e a n s at th e ir d isp osal. A cco rd in g ly , O n the face o f it, p u b lic o rd e r p o licin g in c o n te m p o ra ry B ritain re m a in s a triu m p h o f 'p o licin g b y c o n se n t'. H o w e v e r, po litical p ro te st is still larg ely c o n d u cte d on te rm s d e te rm in e d b y th e p o lice. In o th e r w o rd s, th e ir in te re sts are serv ed an d in d o in g so th e in te re sts o f p ro te sters are, at le ast, c o m p ro m ise d . P ro te st is e m ascu late d and in d u ced to co n fo rm to th e a v o id a n ce of tro u b le. In p o lice arg o t, p ro te st o rg an ise rs are 'h a d o v e r'. (P. A. J. W a d d in g to n 1994b: 1 9 7 -8 ) In te rv ie w s carried o u t b y K in g and B re a rley (1996) w ith sp ecialist p o lice p u b lic o rd e r o fficers con firm th a t th is e m p h a sis on p re v e n ta ­ tive p o lice m e a su res h ad b e co m e w id e sp re a d b y the m id -1990s. T h e ir re s p o n d e n ts a c k n o w le d g e th e im p o rta n ce o f d irect c o m m u n ica tio n w ith p ro te st o rg a n ise rs, in te llig e n c e an d e v id e n c e g a th e rin g , and re le v a n t tra in in g m e th o d s as w ays of a v o id in g c o n fro n ta tio n d u rin g d e m o n stra tio n s. F o r ex a m p le, p re -e v e n t tra in in g e n su re s th at officers are aw are o f a 'slid in g scale ' o f p o ssib le re sp o n se s to in c ip ie n t or o n g o in g d iso rd er as an altern a tiv e to 'p a n ic k y o v erk ill ta ctics' (ibid., 83). E ffectiv e p re -e v e n t in te llig e n c e g a th e rin g can also h elp sen io r o fficers to g au g e an a p p ro p ria te (an d co st-e ffe ctiv e ) lev el o f re sp o n se. F in ally , e v id e n c e g a th e rin g (e.g. th e u se of v id eo su rv e illa n ce team s) m e a n s th a t o fficers do n o t feel o b lig ed to re sp o n d to e v ery in c id e n t o ccu rrin g aro u n d th em . T h e y h a v e th e o p tio n to follow up an in ­ c id e n t afte rw a rd s, ra th e r th an a tte m p tin g an arrest th at cou ld p ro v e e sca la to ry (ibid.: 8 1 -8 3 ). 14

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At th e c o m m u n ity lev el, p o lice h a v e b e e n in c re a sin g ly c o n ce rn e d w ith th e ro u tin e m o n ito rin g o f 'te n s io n in d ic a to rs' as a w ay of an ticip a tin g an d o ffse ttin g d iso rd er b e fo re its actu al o cc u rre n c e (ibid.: 8 7 -9 2 ). T h e c o n c e p t w as im p o rte d fro m A m erica in th e 1980s, w h e re o rg a n isa tio n s like th e N atio n al In stitu te o f Ju stice m ain tain e d th a t c e rta in 'e a rly w a rn in g sig n s' o fte n g av e n o tice o f im p e n d in g d iso rd er. A m o n g such in d ica to rs w e re : in cre a se d in te rg ro u p co n flict; th e p h y sical an d v e rb al ab u se o f p o lice o ffice rs; attack s o n p o lice or fire v e h icle s; in cre a se d m ed ia co v e ra g e o f p o lice -re la te d in cid e n ts; and a d eclin e in p u b lic co -o p e ra tio n to w ard s th e p o lice (Field and S o u th g a te 1982: 25). In th e B ritish co n te x t, th is has in v o lv e d th e ro u tin e m o n ito rin g an d p ro ce ssin g o f a n y social, e co n o m ic, political and e n v iro n m e n ta l sig n s o f im p e n d in g d iso rd er. T h e s e are p assed on to 'in te llig e n c e o ffice rs' by su ch d iv erse sou rces as c o lle a g u e s on th e b e a t, n e ig h b o u rh o o d w a tch s ch e m e s, th e m ed ia an d p ressu re gro u p s. T h e A sso ciatio n o f C h ie f P olice O ffice rs is o fficially co m m itte d to m a in ta in in g the u se o f te n sio n in d ica to rs (A C P O 2000: 20). H er M a je sty 's In sp e c to ra te o f C o n sta b u la ry (H M IC ) h a v e ex p re sse d e n th u sia sm for such sch e m e s w ith o u t n e ce ssa rily b e in g im p re sse d by th e c u rre n t state o f th e art: E ffectiv e ten sio n in d ic a to r sy stem s are e sse n tial in p re d ictin g the p o ssib ility o f d iso rd er. T h e y allow fo rce s tim e to w o rk w ith th e ir p a rtn ers to m in im ise and m a n a g e th e risk o f d iso rd er. T h e In sp e c tio n saw a n u m b e r o f e x a m p les o f te n sio n in d ica to rs in fo rce s, b u t e a ch had its lim itatio n s and as su ch no o n e m o d el can b e c o n fid e n tly re c o m m e n d e d to forces. H er M a je sty 's In sp e c to r u rg es th e A C P O , th ro u g h th e P u blic O rd e r Su b C o m m ittee , to c o n tin u e to w o rk in this area to d ev e lo p a te n sio n in d ica to r sy stem th a t is up to d a te, an d in fo rm s d ecisio n m ak in g . (H M IC 1999: 62)

C o n t r o v e r s i a l p r e v e n t a t i v e m e a s u re s

T h e im p re ssio n ju st g iv e n o f se n io r p o lice w o rk in g in b e n ig n fash io n to p re v e n t p o ssib le c o n fro n ta tio n s w ith sectio n s o f th e p u b lic is c o u n te rb a la n c e d b y stu d ie s h ig h lig h tin g th e use o f e th ica lly m ore d u b io u s strate g ies. Ja m e s (2006) giv es p ro m in e n ce to th is th e m e by o u tlin in g th e d iv erse strate g ies u sed b y se n io r p o lice as a ltern a tiv e s to in v o k in g p u b lic o rd e r le g islatio n (th e P u b lic O rd e r A ct 1986 and th e P olice an d C rim in al Ju stice A ct 1994) to d ete r N ew A ge trav ellers 15

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from o cc u p y in g land w ith in th e ir areas. S o m e se n io r o fficers ch o o se to let th e trav e lle rs stay w h e re th e y h av e settle d . L ess to le ra n t fo rces e n d e a v o u r to avoid th e fin an cial an d p u b lic re la tio n s costs in c u rre d in m o u n tin g a d irect 'sh o w o f fo rc e ' b y e n g a g in g in stead in v ario u s fo rm s o f 'g u e rrilla tactics'. T h e se in clu d e p o licies of 'd is ru p tio n ' (e.g. o b ta in in g th e m ob ile te le p h o n e n u m b e rs of trav ellers and co n sta n tly callin g th em up to im p e d e co m m u n ica tio n b e tw e e n th e m ), 'd e sta b ilis a tio n ' (su ch as sp rin g in g d ru g raid s to e n g e n d e r a c o n sta n t fe a rfu ln e ss o f e n g a g in g in co u n te r-c u ltu ra l activ ities), 'sp a tia l e x c lu sio n ' (sim p ly m o v in g trav e lle rs on to th e n e x t co u n ty ), or 'b u n d in g ', w h e re the p o lice an d /o r la n d o w n e rs d en y access to land by (say) d ig g in g a d itch in fro n t o f it. S im ilar o b se rv a tio n s h av e b e e n m ad e in relatio n to e n v iro n m e n ta l p ro tests. S in ce th e 1990s, th e p o lice h av e b e e n co n fro n te d by an in c re a sin g ly s o p h istica te d an d 'p ro fe s sio n a lise d ' o p p o sitio n . T h e socalled Militant Environmental Activist (M EA ) (B u tto n et al. 2002) m ak es e x te n siv e use o f w e b site s, g u id a n ce m a n u a ls an d m ed ia m a n ip u ­ la tio n , u sin g th em a lo n g sid e su ch 'e c o ta g e ' activ itie s as sab otag in g p lan t an d e q u ip m e n t, sp ray in g g raffiti, tre e -sp ik in g an d in tim id a tin g p e rs o n n e l, in p u rsu it o f th e ir o b je ctiv e s. T ra d itio n a l p u blic o rd er stra te g ies h av e th e re fo re b e e n re n d e re d o b so le te . U n a b le to p re d ict h ow m a n y p ro te sters are lik ely to tu rn up at a n y g iv e n site, or the tactics th at th ey will e m p lo y on th eir arriv al, th e p o lice are activ ely p u rsu in g 'in te llig e n c e -le d ' stra te g ies in v o lv in g su rv e illa n ce o f k e y activ ists, m o n ito rin g c o m m u n ica tio n s, cu ltiv a tin g in fo rm a n ts and d e p lo y in g u n d e rc o v e r o fficers. A ny leg al in ju n c tio n s b ro u g h t ag ain st th e p ro te sters are u su ally e n fo rc e d d u rin g the n ig h t in o rd e r to catch th em u n a w a re an d avoid se t-p ie c e c o n fro n ta tio n s. H e re , as w ith th e N ew A ge trav e lle rs, an e le m e n t o f d isru p tio n h as b e e n in v o lv e d : in n o v a tiv e use h as b e e n m ad e o f law s to d e te r 's ta lk in g ' b y m e n and w o m e n , an d se c o n d a ry p ick e tin g b y trad e u n io n ists to d ilu te the p re s e n c e and reso lv e o f p ro te ste rs (ibid.). It is th e re fo re a p p a re n t th a t th e p o lice w ill e n g a g e in all m a n n e r of p re v e n ta tiv e m e a su res, of v a ry in g d eg re e s o f o v ertn e ss and leg ality , to o ffse t d irect c o n fro n ta tio n w ith th e p u blic. A v ariety o f au th o rs h a v e e m p h a sised th at th e p o lice c o m m itm e n t to n e g o tia te d m a n a g e ­ m e n t, far from b e in g m o n o lith ic and u n ch a n g in g , w ill v ary in relatio n to d iffe re n t situ atio n s and th e actors in v o lv ed in th em . T h e n e x t sectio n exp lo re s som e o f the m ain co n te x tu a l in flu e n c e s and p rag m atic c o n sid e ra tio n s im p in g in g on p o lice a ttitu d es, tactics and strateg ies.

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C o n te x tu a l influences and p ra g m a tic co n sideratio ns

Police i m p r e s s i o n s o f t h e p u b l i c

O n e cru cial criterio n in p o lice d e c isio n -m a k in g is th e e x te n t to w h ich p ro te ste rs h a v e b e co m e in stitu tio n a lise d as p art o f th e political m ain stre am (P. A. J. W a d d in g to n 1994b , 2003). N o a k e s et al. (2005: 2 4 7 -8 ) m ak e a u se fu l d istin ctio n in th is re g ard b e tw e e n contained and transgressive p ro tests. T h e fo rm e r ty p ically in v o lv e o rg an ise rs and p a rticip a n ts alre ad y fam iliar to th e p o lice. S u ch p e o p le can b e d e p e n d e d u p o n to n e g o tia te all asp ects o f the p ro p o se d d e m o n s tra ­ tion in a d v a n ce , e m p lo y p re d icta b le tactics, an d g e n era lly 'p o lice ' th e m se lv e s in w ay s th at d isco u ra g e c o n tra v e n tio n s o f p rio r a g re e ­ m en ts. P olice p e rc e p tio n s o f d e m o n stra to rs will be all the m o re fav o u rab le w h e re th e la tter are o ld er in y e ars, m id d le-class and su b scrib e to p o litical p o sitio n s th at are n o t 'd iffu se and a b stra ct' in n atu re . In c o n tra s t, tra n sg re ssiv e p ro te st g ro u p s are th o se w h o : are u n fa m ilia r to th e p o lice or h a v e estab lish ed a re p u ta tio n for d isru p tiv e b e h a v io u r; are u n ab le or u n w illin g to re a ch a g re e ­ m e n t w ith p olice p rio r to a d e m o n stra tio n ; e m p lo y in n o v a tiv e tactics th a t th e y d o n o t rev eal in ad v a n ce to p o lice ; or are d ee m e d lik ely to ch a lle n g e p olice c o n tro l o f p u b lic sp ace and e n g a g e in d irect action tactics. P olice also read certain ch a ra cteristics as p o ssib le in d ica tio n s o f tra n sg re ssiv e n e ss. 'B a d ' p ro te sters in clu d e : p ro fe ssio n a l p ro te sters; th o se see n as p u rsu in g a b stra ct, d iffu se or rad ical g oals; an d y o u n g p ro te sters, w h o are b e lie v e d to b e ill-in fo rm e d an d easily m a n ip u la ted by o th e rs, (ibid.: 248; see also E arl and S o u le 2006) A cco rd in g to N o ak es et al., th e n e g o tia te d m a n a g e m e n t style is lik ely to be ad o p ted in p ro te sts ch a ra cterise d b y 'c o n ta in e d c o n ­ te n tio n ', w h e re the p o lice an d p ro te st g ro u p s sh a re an e sta b lish ed re la tio n sh ip b ased on fam iliar ru les o f e n g a g e m e n t. In sim ilar v ein , P. A. J. W a d d in g to n (1994b : 175) ex p lain s h o w , in re c e n t y e ars, such o rg a n isa tio n s as th e T rad e s U n io n C o n g re ss (T U C ), N atio n al U n io n of S tu d e n ts (N U S) a n d th e C a m p a ig n fo r N u cle a r D isa rm a m e n t (C N D )led C am p aig n to S to p the W ar in th e G u lf all re ce iv e d co -o p e ra tio n an d re sp e ct from th e M e tro p o lita n P olice d u e to th e ir re a d in e ss to 'p la y the g a m e '. In co n tra st, m a n y n ew social m o v e m e n ts had n o t yet h ad an o p p o rtu n ity to form re cip ro cal re latio n s w ith th e p o lice 17

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h e n c e , as w e sh all see in C h a p te r 5, th e re exists a m u tu a l su sp icio n b e tw e e n th e m , m ark ed b y a stro n g p o te n tia l for d iso rd er.

P o l i t i c a l d e t e r m i n a n t s o f p o li c e s t r a t e g y a n d t a c t ic s

P olitical in flu e n c e is a seco n d im p o rta n t d e te rm in a n t o f p o lice p u blic o rd e r strate g y and tactics. P e te r W a d d in g to n ac k n o w le d g e s th at th e re are so m e c irc u m sta n ce s in w h ich th e p o lice feel u n d e r a p ro fe ssio n a l o b lig atio n to 'd ie in a d itc h ' - i.e. re so rt to firm and c o n fro n ta tio n a l m e a su res, re g ard le ss o f th e ir im p lica tio n s fo r e ith e r form o f tro u b le. S u ch circu m sta n ce s ty p ically in v o lv e e le m e n ts of im p licit o r exp licit p o litical p re ssu re w h ich act on th e p olice. O n an im p licit le v e l, this m ay b e re la te d to th e sy m b o lic sig n ifica n ce attach e d to p articu lar o ccasio n s, lo catio n s and p e rso n a litie s, o f w hich roy al c e re m o n ia ls, g o v e rn m e n t b u ild in g s, an d v isitin g fo reig n m o n a rch s or political d ig n itarie s are classic e x am p les: 'H e re , in -th e jo b tro u b le w ou ld b e e n o rm o u s if d iso rd er w as to eru p t. U n d er this p re ssu re , p olice feel co m p e lle d n o t o n ly to e n fo rce th e law rig o ro u sly , b u t also to take a ctio n w h ich is legally d u b io u s' (P. A. J. W a d d in g to n 1993a: 350). A lte rn ativ e ly , it m ay take th e form o f a m ore tan g ib le p o litical p re ssu re : B eh in d the p o lice are p o w e rfu l fo rces - g o v e rn m e n t, state in ­ stitu tio n s, p o w e rfu l e co n o m ic and social in stitu tio n s - all of w h ich h a v e a v e ste d in te re st in 'd ig g in g ' p ro v e rb ia l 'd itc h e s ' in w h ic h th e y w o u ld h a v e the p olice 'd ie '. T h e o rd e r th a t th e po lice are d u ty b o u n d to u p h o ld in e v ita b ly fav o u rs th o se p o w e rfu l in te re sts and so th e room to m a n o eu v re is lim ited . (P. A. J. W a d d in g to n 2003: 415) Je ffe rs o n an d G rim sh aw (1984) o ffe r a c o m p le m e n ta ry a c co u n t of th e in flu e n c e s s h a p in g p u b lic o rd e r strateg y . T h e y su g g e st th at ch ie f p o lice o fficers fo rm u la te th e ir p o licies w ith reg ard to th e v iew s o f th ree sig n ific a n t 'a u d ie n c e s ': legal audiences (th e co u rts, p o lice a u th o ritie s an d th e H o m e S e cre ta ry ); democratic audiences (p o litician s and th e co m m u n ity at larg e); an d occupational audiences (th eir im m e d ia te co lle a g u e s o f all ran k s an d th e w id e r p o lice co m m u n ity ). T h e m ass m e d ia are see n as p lay in g a cru cial role in arb itratin g b e tw e e n th e v iew s of th e d iffe rin g d em o cra tic a u d ie n ce s: T h e m ass m ed ia are p articu larly in flu e n tia l in this p ro ce ss of th e re p re s e n ta tio n o f in te re sts. T h e y are the m o st p o w e rfu l 18

Public o r d e r p olicin g : th e o re tic a l a pproaches

m e d ia to rs o f p u b lic o p in io n , in th e ir self-claim e d role o f 'p u b lic w a tc h d o g s'; th e y also p artly c o n stru c t it, g iv en th eir u n p a ra lle le d ability to d e te rm in e w h e th e r in te re sts are re c o n stru c te d in n e g a tiv e ('se ctio n a l' or 'p a rtis a n ') o r p o sitiv e ('u n iv e rsa l' or 'p u b lic ') term s. P u blic o p in io n , th e n , as re p re ­ sen te d in th e m e d ia , is a h ig h ly in flu e n tia l d e te rm in a n t o f a c h ie f c o n sta b le 's re sp o n se to d em o cra tic a u d ie n ce s, (ibid.: 8 6 -8 7 ) E ach of th ese a p p ro a c h e s stresses to so m e e x te n t th e im p o rta n ce of th e p olitical c o n te x t in in fo rm in g p o lice d e c isio n -m a k in g leading up to a p u blic o rd e r e v en t. In d e e d , tak e n to g e th e r, th e y p ro v id e a co m p re ­ h e n siv e o v erv iew o f th e p o litical facto rs im p in g in g on p o lice p olicy (see F ig u re 1.1). A re c e n t ex am p le o f th e w ay th at societal in flu e n c e in filtrate s this p ro ce ss c o n ce rn s th e e v e n ts o f S e p te m b e r 2000 in th e U K , w h e n B rita in e x p e rie n c e d a s u d d e n fu el crisis fo llo w in g a n a tio n w id e b lo ck a d e o f p e tro l re fin e rie s b y th o u sa n d s o f farm ers and road h au lie rs s e e th in g at th e g ro w in g levels o f fu e l d u ties. D o h e ry et al. (2003) sp e cu la te th at fu n d a m e n ta l to th e p ro te s te rs' su ccess in co m m ittin g th e N ew L a b o u r G o v e rn m e n t to d ea lin g w ith th eir d em a n d s w ere th e a ttitu d e s o f th e oil co m p a n ie s, th e p o lice and th e m ass m ed ia. T h e sy m p a th e tic o rie n ta tio n s o f th e se p artie s also h e lp e d to e n su re th a t the p o licin g o f th e m o v e m e n t w as far less re p ressiv e than it w as (say) d u rin g the m in e rs' strik e o f 1 9 8 4 -5 . T h e p o lice c o n trib u tio n to th is d eb a te w as e x e m p lified b y the co m m e n ts o f the p re s id e n t-e le ct o f the P olice S u p e rin te n d e n ts ' A sso ciatio n , w h o clearly saw th e p o lice u se o f le g islatio n as in a p p ro ­ priate: P olicin g b y c o n se n t is w h a t it is all ab o u t in B ritain . It w o u ld be a p p a llin g to go b a ck to th e w ay th in g s w ere d u rin g th e m in e rs' strik e. W e d o n 't w a n t to g e t in v o lv e d w ith th at ag ain . T h e g o v e rn m e n t in tro d u ce d law s to d elib e ra te ly take on the m in ers in an in d u strial d isp u te an d e v en th e n to o k n in e m o n th s [sic] to d e fe a t th em . T h is is n o t an in d u strial d isp u te in the sam e w ay. It is a d isp u te in v o lv in g an in d u stry b u t th e re are d iffe re n t p arties in v o lv e d so th o se p o w e rs c a n n o t be u sed . T h e g o v e rn m e n t and th e p o lice h av e to re sp e ct th e fact th a t th e se p ro te sts seem to h a v e w id e sp re a d p u blic su p p o rt, (q u o ted b y B a g g u le y 2000: 19) U ltim a te ly , h o w e v e r, th e g o v e rn m e n t to o k a h ard lin e ag ain st th e p ro te ste rs an d p o lice m e th o d s g rew c o rre sp o n d in g ly u n co m p ro ­ m isin g to w ard s th em (D o h e rty et al. 2003: 1 5 -1 6 ). 19

Policing Public D is o rd e r

O n - t h e - s p o t decisions

T h e p o lice's sen se of acco u n tability to d ifferen t au d ien ces also provid es a usefu l basis for e xp lain in g the on-the spot decisions m ad e by com m an d in g officers cau gh t up in the h eat of public o rd er even ts. C ron in and R eich er (2006) studied this p ro cess by en g ag in g M etrop o litan P olice Service officers of the ran k of ch ief in sp ecto r or com m an d er in a 'tab le top ' exercise requ iring them to m ake d ecisions on strategy, tactics and how to d ep loy resources w ith regard to a m arch and rally of 5,000 anti-Fascists in opposition to a British N ational Party (BN P) can d id ate in fo rth co m in g local election s. C ron in and R e ich er id en tify tw o form s of accou n tab ility im p ing in g on the d ecisio n -m ak in g process. External accountability reflects a gen eral co n cern w ith how au d ien ces o utsid e the police force - the w id er 'co m m u n ity ' - are likely to look up on police actions. This m igh t inclu d e political rep resen tativ es, d irect political p ressu re or, m ore o ften , 'fo rm al in v estigatory p ro ce d u re s', in clu d in g pu blic inquiries. Internal accountability refers to the view s of fellow officers. M ain tain in g a good rep u tatio n am o n g o n e 's p eer group of senior officers w as seen as 'critical both to social accep tan ce and to career ad v an ce m en t' (ibid.: 185). Also im p o rtan t, th o u gh , w ere assu m ptions reg ard in g the feelings of ran k-an d -file colleagues. Especially in situ ations of d anger, inv olv ing possible risk of in ju ry, T h e con cern of sen io r officers w as that, h o w ev er good the strategies th at th ey set, th eir ability to d eliv er these strategies d ep en d s up on the coo p eratio n of ju n io r officers. If ju n io r officers d isap p ro v e of com m an d d ecisions (w hich is particularly likely w h ere perm issive policing in creases the likelihood of in ju ries to front line officers), th en these officers can and do su bv ert the com m an d strategy, (ibid.: 186) C ron in and R eich er rep o rt that the am ou n t of w eig h t given to particu lar form s o f acco u n tability is likely to vary acco rd in g to the p hase reached in the occu rren ce of d isord er. T hu s, at the non-conflict phase of e v en ts, sen io r officers d isplayed a h eig h ten ed p reo ccu p a­ tion w ith the w ay that tactical in terv en tio n s m igh t be p erceiv ed by extern al au d ien ces, esp ecially as, 'T o in terv en e w here there is no vio lence can lead to accu sations b o th of d en y in g rights and of p ro­ vo kin g v io len ce' (ibid.). T h ere w as less of a co n cern at this stage of the p ro ceed in g s w ith the possible view s o f ju n io r officers. At the incipient phase, w here con flict ap p ears to be b rew in g , the d ifferen t

20

Public o r d e r policing: t h e o r e tic a l a p p ro a ch e s

forms of accountability were more in balance, frequently placing officers in tactical dilemmas: While it might be slightly harder for external audiences to hold commanders to account for provoking violence that has already started, they can still be held responsible for escalating a minor problem by intervening too early. On the other hand . . . their own junior officers may undermine command strategies if they do not intervene, (ibid.)

Dem ocratic audience: (national and local) G eneral public Interest groups Lobbyists Politicians T h e governm ent H o m e Office Foreign dignitaries

Police strategy and tactics

Figure 1.1

Political determ inants of police strategy and tactics

21

Policing Public D is o rd e r

O n e com m o n ly stated solu tion to this d ilem m a w as to have officers 'k itted up ' in riot gear but carefully d ep loy ed out of sight to avoid u n n ecessarily p rov okin g the crow d. By the tim e th at the conflict phase had b e e n reach ed , such a d ilem m a no lo n g er applied. S en ior officers g en erally assu m ed that n e ith e r extern al n or internal a u d ien ces w ere likely to criticise the police for in flam in g violence at this p h ase. R ath er, they w ere likely to criticise any failure to in te r­ v en e given the d angers to police and public alike. O n ce police com m an d ers hav e taken the im p ortan t d ecision to e n g age their ju n io r colleagu es in tactical in terv en tio n , the natu re of any su b seq u en t interactio n w ith the pu blic will have crucial im p lica­ tions for the instig ation and d ev e lo p m e n t of possible con fro n tatio n . T he follow ing section sets out som e possible exp lan ation s o f police con d u ct in the field and of its im p lications for public d isord er.

Explaining police conduct and its outcom es ‘in th e field ’

C u l t u r a l pre d isp o siti o n

O n e com m on w ay of con cep tu alisin g police actions is by inv oking the notion of the police o ccu p atio n al subcu ltu re or 'cop can teen cu ltu re', d efined by H old aw ay (1983: 2) as 'a resid ual core o f beliefs and valu es, of associated strategies and tactics relev an t to policing, [w hich] rem ains a principal guide to the d ay-to -d ay w ork o f the ran k-an d -file officer'. A dvocates of this ap p roach m ain tain that such core characteristics of the police occu p atio n al subcu ltu re as its in tern al solidarity, m achism o and actio n -o rien tatio n , its pragm atic ap p roach to gettin g the jo b d one, and its neg ativ e stereo ty p in g of d issen tin g groups (be th ey black yo u th s, m iners or political d em o n strato rs) are likely to play a p art in creatin g or exacerbatin g co n fro n tatio n (R ein er 1985). Police neg ativ ity is likely to be m ost k een ly d irected at those groups that resp ectab le section s of society h av e d esignated as police property. T his refers to those categ ories w hich are p eren n ially stigm atised as 'p ro b lem atic or d istastefu l' (in ­ clu d in g eth n ic m inorities, culturally d issen tin g you th s and politically radical org anisations). As R ein er points out, the w id er pu blic is gen erally disposed to give the police carte blanche to deal w ith their 'p ro p e rty ' as they see fit. C u ltu rally -m ed iated typ ifications of crow d o rd er situ atio ns and 're cip e s' of how b est to h an d le them are ap p aren t in in terv iew s w ith 22

Public o rd e r policing: th e o re tic a l approaches

lo w er-ran k in g E nglish Police Su p p ort U nit officers (Stott and R eich er 1998a) and en d o rsed by a q u estio n n aire surv ey of sim ilar p erso n n el em p lo yed in E nglish and S cottish forces (D ru ry et al. 2003). In each study, officers ad op ted the stan d p o in t that the m ajority of people p resen t in football crow ds and at d em o n stratio n s typically com prised o rd in ary, 're sp e cta b le ' p eople. This gen erally b en ig n im p ression w as heavily qualified by the b elief that such ind ividu als w ere likely to b eco m e irrational and v io len t on ce im m ersed in the crow d. At such tim es, the 'm in d lessn ess' of the m ajority m ad e them su scep tible to sin ister su gg estion and m an ip u latio n by the d ev iant few , seen to be ad ep t in the art of agitation. This p ercep tio n of the crow d as in ­ h eren tly v io len t and easily led u n d erp in s the d istrust and fear of ju n io r officers and helps to explain the related b eliefs that crow ds m u st be strictly con tro lled , rath er than b ein g left to their ow n d ev ices, and th at all in terv en tio n s should be u n com p rom isin g and d ecisive to p rev en t the 'c o n ta g io n ' from spreading. S to tt and R eich er (op. cit.) qualify their arg u m en t by insistin g that it is u n h elp fu l to assu m e that police view s o f crow d d iso rd er and its m an ag em en t are en tirely u n d ifferen tiated . T h ey em p h asise that sen io r com m an d ers are m ore likely to b alan ce the d angers co n ­ fro n tin g pu blic ord er police against the risk (say) of d en yin g fu n d am en tal civil liberties. O fte n , ran k-and -file colleagu es are exasp erated by their su p eriors' relu ctan ce to sanction in terv en tio n s against crow ds ap p aren tly actin g in total b reach of the law . O n e possible exp lan atio n is that ju n io r o fficers, b ein g literally on the front lin e, are the ones m ost liable to get hu rt in the e v en t of crow d d isorder.

E x p e r ie n ti a l, p r a c t i c a l a n d o rg a n is a tio n a l co n sid e ra ti o n s

S to tt and R eich er's stud y illustrates som e o f the practical problem s faced by ran k-an d -file officers w h e n d ealing w ith crow d disorders. For on e thing, the d ifficulty involved in d iscern in g precisely w ho am o n g a crow d o f sev eral h u n d red actually threw a brick or bottle often creates a te n d e n cy to treat all m em bers o f the crow d w ith sim ilar levels of hostility. P roblem s are exacerb ated by an o th er rou tin e feature of riot policing - the necessity to w ear ad equ ate pro tectio n : R iot gear consists of firep ro o f overalls, a visored h elm et and shield . B oth the visor and the shield are m ade from P erspex w hich is characteristically scratch ed and scu ffed from previous 23

P olicing P ublic D is o rd e r

use. L o o k in g th ro u g h th e v iso r a lo n e , b u t esp ecially w h e n th e sh ield is h eld up as w ell, o n e 's vision is b lu rred an d it is hard to m ak e o u t th e fe a tu re s o f in d iv id u al crow d m em b e rs. O n e is faced w ith a sea o f in d istin g u ish a b le faces an d id e n tify in g w h o did w h a t b e co m e s e v en m o re d ifficu lt. In o rd e r to o v erco m e su ch p ro b le m s, th e p olice do e m p lo y sp ecial su rv e illa n ce te c h ­ n iq u es. N o n e th e le s s, esp ecia lly for th o se o fficers d irectly facin g cro w d m e m b e rs, th e crow d is p e rce iv e d an d e x p e rie n c e d as an u n d iffe re n tia te d en tity , (ibid.: 521) T h e se p ro b le m s b e co m e c o m p o u n d e d w h e re v e r th e re is a tactical re q u ire m e n t to re m o v e a p a rticu la r th re a t in its e n tire ty (e.g. by d isp e rsin g a c ro w d , s h iftin g it en masse, or d iv id in g it up in to sm aller u n its). S u ch tactics are d ifficu lt to p u ll o ff w ith o u t tre a tin g th e crow d as an u n d iffe re n tia te d en tity . W h e n this h a p p e n s, p o lice ten d to ratio n alise th eir c o n d u ct on the g ro u n d s th at, 'O n b e in g told to d isp e rse , a n y w e ll-m e a n in g crow d m e m b e r w ou ld h a v e left. H e n c e, by the tim e the p olice in te rv e n e , a n y o n e w h o is still th ere m u st h a v e illeg itim ate m o tiv es and th e re fo re is a leg itim ate targ et of p o lice a c tio n ' (ibid.). F in ally , ju n io r o ffice rs p ro te st th a t th e y sim p ly do n o t h av e the n e ce ssa ry tim e or in fo rm a tio n at th e ir d isp o sal w ith w h ic h to m ak e d ecisio n s re g a rd in g the 'g u ilt' or 'in n o c e n c e ' of sp ecific in d iv id u als. 'If o fficers w ere to p au se and d e lib e ra te on w h at e ach in d iv id u al d ese rv e d w h ile s w e e p in g a stre e t, th e tactic w ou ld rap id ly grind to an in e ffe ctiv e h alt' (ibid.: 522). O th e r e x p e rie n tia l facto rs are h ig h lig h ted b y M arx (1970) in his c o m p re h e n siv e critiq u e o f th e p o licin g o f th e A m erican u rb an riots of th e 1960s. M arx arg u es th a t p articu lar fo rm s o f p o lice b e h a v io u r m ay h a v e the u n in te n d e d e ffe ct o f co n trib u tin g to d iso rd er, ra th e r th an stiflin g its d e v e lo p m e n t. T h u s, e v en at th e p re -rio t stag e, th e p olice are so m e tim e s g u ilty o f o v erd ra m a tisin g the situ atio n and n e e d le ssly d ra w in g large cro w d s by a rriv in g in g re a t n u m b e rs, th eir car lig hts fla sh in g an d siren s lo u d ly w ailin g . In v ariab ly , th e ir initial in stin c t is to fo rcib ly d isp erse the g a th e rin g c ro w d , e v en w h e re it m ig h t be m o re ad v isab le to allow th e p u b lic's u n d e rs ta n d ­ able cu rio sity to be satisfied . M arx b e lie v e s th at too m u ch prio r p la n n in g and p re p a ra tio n m ay w ell p ro v e d e trim e n ta l, by in d u cin g a p re m a tu re 'sie g e m e n ta lity ' a m o n g o fficers and c re a tin g a selffu lfillin g p ro p h e cy . A cco rd in g to M arx , o n ce d iso rd er is u n d e r w ay , sig n s o f p olice re tice n c e or w e a k n e ss m ay b e seized u p o n b y o p p o n e n ts :

24

Public o r d e r p olicin g : th e o re tic a l a pproaches

A n a d d itio n a l p ro b le m m ay e m e rg e if p o lice lack th e p o w e r to cle ar th e stre e t or, as in D e tro it, to c o n tro l it o n ce it has b e e n c le a re d . In N e w a rk a fte r an an g ry crow d p elted th e p o lice sta tio n w ith rocks, b o ttle s, an d a few fire b o m b s, p o lice m ad e sev eral so rties in to th e crow d u sin g th eir clu b s, and e ach tim e w ith d re w b a ck in to th e statio n . S u ch a seesaw m o tio n , in d e m o n s tra tin g p o lice in e ffe ctiv e n e s s and th e cro w d 's p arity w ith co n tro l o fficials, m ay h a v e e m b o ld e n e d rio ters, (ibid.: 38) A gain st th is, too much fo rce m ay h av e th e u n in te n d e d e ffe ct of 'c re a tin g m arty rs an d sy m b o lic in c id e n ts' w h ic h d raw o th e r p a r­ ticip an ts in d u e to a 'b y sta n d e r e ffe c t'. An ab so lu te failu re to n e g o tia te can h av e sim ilarly cata stro p h ic c o n se q u e n ce s - esp ecially w h e re th e re are sp ecific and w e ll-articu lated g rie v a n ce s (co n ce rn in g , fo r e x a m p le , a p a rticu la r in sta n ce of p o lice b ru ta lity ), w h e re th e re is a d eg re e o f o rg a n isa tio n a m o n g th e rio te rs, and w h e re p o te n tia l m e d iato rs an d /o r 'c o u n te r-r io te rs ' h a v e id e n tified th e m se lv e s. M arx sees a lack o f co -o rd in a tio n a m o n g u n its as esp ecia lly in im i­ cal to e ffe ctiv e riot co n tro l. O n e m a jo r p ro b lem c o n fro n tin g th e p o lice w as th a t the d ec e n tra lise d an d a u to n o m o u s n a tu re o f reg u lar p atro l p o licin g w as n o t tran sfe rab le to a situ atio n re q u irin g tigh t o rg a n isa tio n an d co -o rd in a tio n . F u rth e r, sp ecialist u n its d rafte d in to quell d iso rd er o fte n lack ed fam iliarity w ith th e local area and w ere n o t a ttu n e d to th e p articu lar sen sib ilitie s o f its p e o p le . C o m p o u n d in g all this w as the fact th a t com p licated and larg ely u n te ste d p ro ce d u re s fo r m o b ilisin g an d co -o rd in a tin g th e v ario u s co n tro l ag e n cie s o fte n m a lfu n ctio n e d : W h e re a s th e in ab ility to ad m it failu re , b u re a u c ra tic e n ta n g le ­ m e n ts, p e tty riv alries, and p o litical co n sid e ra tio n s all d elay ed th e callin g o u t of h ig h e r lev els o f fo rc e , th e lack o f prior p la n n in g and an u n cle a r ch ain o f co m m an d m e a n t fu rth e r d elay s o n ce o th e r co n tro l a g e n ts fin ally did arriv e o n th e scen e. L ocal, state, an d n a tio n a l gu ard u n its did n o t m e rg e easily. G u ard u n its, a ccu sto m e d to actin g in p atro ls, w e re fra g m e n te d an d g u a rd sm e n w ere iso lated from co m m a n d in g o ffice rs; p o lice, w h o w e re u su ally o rg a n iz ed as o n e - or tw o -m a n au to n o m o u s p atro l u n its, w e re to b e co m e d iscip lin ed m e m b e rs o f m ilitary u n its, re ly in g o n co m m a n d s from su p erio rs an d n o t on th eir o w n d iscre tio n . W h ile o fficers from d iffe re n t u n its w ere to g e th e r, th e y w ere o fte n re s p o n d in g to sep a ra te o rd ers, (ibid.: 46) 25

P olicing P ublic D is o rd e r

M arx o b se rv e d h o w , in som e in sta n ce s, se n io r o fficers fro ze d u e to th e p olitical e n o rm ity o f th e d ecisio n s th e y w ere req u ired to m ak e. D u rin g th e W atts (Los A n g eles) rio t o f 1965, for ex a m p le, c o m m a n d e rs w e re in a v irtu al state o f d en ia l, re su ltin g in the m isfee d in g o f in fo rm a tio n d o w n w a rd s: 'E a rly on th e third d ay of th e rio t, field fo rces k n e w th e situ atio n w as o u t o f co n tro l b u t th e d o w n to w n co m m an d p o st w as still op tim istic. T h is is th e classic p ro b lem o f in fo rm a tio n flow in a b u re a u c ra cy ' (ibid.: 47). T e ch n ica l p ro b lem s also had a tellin g effect. O fte n , p a rticu la r rad io fre q u e n cie s w e re o v ertaxed an d th e d iffe re n t ag e n cie s o f social c o n tro l (e.g. local p o lice, state tro o p e rs an d N a tio n a l G u ard ) w e re literally n o t on th e sam e w a v e le n g th an d th e re fo re u n a b le to co m m u n ica te w ith o n e a n o th e r. T h e e x te n t o f th e re su ltin g c o n fu sio n is illu strated by th e fact th a t p olice and g u a rd sm e n so m e tim e s o p e n e d fire o n o n e a n o th e r, e ach la b o u rin g u n d e r th e m isa p p re h e n sio n th a t th e y w ere b e in g targ eted b y sn ip ers. It w as also a p p a re n t to M arx h o w th e ab n o rm a l an d d iso rie n ta tin g n atu re o f th e situ atio n in w h ich o fficers fo u n d th e m se lv e s w as a k ey facto r in rio t d e v e lo p m e n t. T h e m ere fact o f b e in g re q u ire d to w o rk taxin g 12 -h o u r sh ifts, w ith th e d istra ctio n s and d isco m fo rt o f h u n g e r and u n ce rta in ty to c o n te n d w ith , w as d e m a n d in g in itself. P olice o fficers w e re o fte n fa z e d , as w ell, b y th e size an d sev e rity of the d iso rd er and foun d th e m se lv e s ru sh in g from p lace to p lace, fre q u e n tly in re sp o n se to d elib e ra te false alarm s: 'A s large n u m b e rs o f p e o p le ta u n te d , d efied , in su lted , and attack ed th em and th e y saw th eir fello w s in ju re d an d in som e cases k illed , p a tie n ce th in n e d an d a n g e r rose. R u m o rs a b o u t atro cities co m m itte d a g a in st th em th en sp re a d ' (ibid.: 49). T h e situ atio n w as th e n read y fo r e scalatio n as p rio rities like n o t lo sin g fa ce, a v o id in g h u m ilia tio n , tak in g co n tro l of 'tu rf' and e x a ctin g re v e n g e all e m e rg e d . S u ch c o n te x ts in v ariab ly p ro d u ce d w e a k e n e d or ru p tu red ch a in s o f co m m an d an d c o m ­ m u n ica tio n , and sen io r o fficers fo u n d th e ir c ap acity to e ffe ctiv ely c o n tro l th e ir m e n c o n sid era b ly u n d e rm in e d (ibid.). F in ally , M arx c o m m e n ts on th e lack o f in te rn a l and e x te rn a l a cco u n ta b ility a c tin g on o fficers in v o lv ed in th e riots. T h e costly and tim e -co n su m in g n atu re o f civil d a m a g e suits a g a in st the p o lice m ad e this an u n lik ely a v e n u e o f re d re ss fo r in d iv id u als on th e re c e iv in g en d o f p o lice atro cities. In so fa r as fo rm al m e c h a n ism s o f a c c o u n ta ­ bility w e re c o n ce rn e d , M arx n o tes th a t e v en th e n o w -d e fu n c t C iv ilian R ev iew B o ard s te n d e d to h av e no fo rm al p o w e rs o f e n fo rc e ­ m e n t and cou ld n o t in stig a te in q u irie s in to p o lice c o n d u ct. S im ilarly , p o lice in te rn a l rev iew p ro c e d u re s w e re n o t su fficie n tly in d e p e n d e n t 26

Public o r d e r p olicin g : th e o re tic a l a pproaches

to in sp ire p u b lic c o n fid e n c e or p o lice a p p re h e n sio n . T h u s, as M arx (ibid.: 54) p o in ts o u t, 'K n o w le d g e th at th e y are u n lik e ly to be s u b je c te d to p o st-rio t sa n ctio n in g m ay h av e le sse n e d re stra in ts on th e ir use o f v io le n c e .'

T h e p a ra m ilita ry policing d e b a te H ow to e n su re th a t p u blic o rd e r p o lice carry o u t th e ir re sp o n sib ilitie s w ith th e u tm o st d iscip lin e , p ro ficie n c y and re stra in t is th e re fo re an issu e o f g reat sig n ifica n ce . T h is m a tte r is ce n tra l to th e so-called p a ram ilitary p o licin g d eb a te . T h e s ta u n c h e s t a d v o ca te o f th e p a ra ­ m ilitary a p p ro a ch is P e te r W a d d in g to n (P. A. J. W a d d in g to n 1987, 1991, 1993a, 1994a an d b). W a d d in g to n u sefu lly ch a ra cterise s this style in term s o f its e m p h a sis o n : th e u se o f p ro te c tiv e sh ield s and c lo th in g by sp ecialist u n its, train ed in the u se o f squad fo rm atio n s an d c o n tro lle d fo rce; in te llig e n c e g a th e rin g , su rv e illa n ce an d p la n ­ n in g ; an d , cru cially , th e im p o sitio n o f d irect co m m an d an d co n tro l by im m e d ia te sen io r o fficers. W ith in th e m o d e rn p u blic o rd e r p o licin g h ie ra rch y , it is th e m o st se n io r o ffice r, th e 'G o ld ' c o m m a n d e r, w h o is re sp o n sib le fo r d e te rm in in g o v erall strateg y . F o rw ard g ro u n d c o m m a n d is u n d e rta k e n b y 'S ilv e r' w h o is c h a rg ed w ith th e actu al im p le m e n ta tio n o f su ch strateg y . H e or sh e is assisted in this task by 'B ro n z e ' c o m m a n d e rs, e ach o f w h o m has re sp o n sib ility for p articu lar u n its o p e ra tin g w ith in d esig n a te d p ie ce s o f te rrito ry (P. A. J. W a d d in g to n 1994b : 26). It is th u s e v id e n t th a t, 'In s te a d o f le av in g in d iv id u al o fficers to take u n co o rd in a te d actio n at th e ir o w n d iscre ­ tion , a p aram ilitaristic a p p ro a c h d ep lo y s sq u ad s o f o fficers u n d e r the d irectio n an d c o n tro l o f th e ir o w n su p e rio rs' (P. A. J. W a d d in g to n 1993b: 353). T h is e m p h a sis on cle a r lin es o f co m m a n d a n d e ffe ctiv e c o -o rd in a tion is reg ard ed by W a d d in g to n as th e key to e ra d ic a tin g in h e re n t te n d e n cie s fo r o fficers to 'lo se it' in th e h e a t o f th e b a ttle : P olicin g civil d iso rd er e n g e n d e rs fear, a n g e r an d fru stratio n a m o n g s t o fficers w h o are o fte n too close to th e a ctio n to u n d e r­ stan d w h a t is o ccu rrin g . T h e fe e lin g th a t o n e has lost co n tro l an d is at the m e rcy o f u n p re d ic ta b le e v e n ts o n ly h e ig h te n s an x iety . T h e o p p o rtu n ity to take fo rce fu l action allow s n o t o n ly fo r the e x p re ssio n o f th e se e m o tio n s, b u t is e x h ila ra tin g in its o w n righ t. F o r all th e se re a so n s, it is esse n tial th a t o fficers e n g a g e d in p u b lic-o rd e r situ atio n s are care fu lly su p erv ised and 27

Policing Public D is o rd e r

co n trolled , for in tern al con trols on b eh av iou r are un likely to prove reliable. (P. A. J. W ad d in g ton 1991: 137) W ad d in g ton m aintains that the trad itional, n on -p aram ilitary style of p olicing inv olv es the risk o f d isorgan ised forays by ind ividu al police officers actin g on their ow n d iscretion. Su ch actions o ften fail to d iscrim in ate b etw een the 'in n o c e n t' and 'g u ilty ', thus serving to u n d erm in e police au th o rity and p ro v o ke v io len t crow d reactions. He con sid ers it m ore ad visable to d ep loy w ell-train ed , effectiv ely led, param ilitaristic units, o p eratin g on th e basis o f sound intelligen ce and pre-form u lated strategy and tactics (P. A. J. W ad d in g ton 1993b: 366). 'R e al tim e' in tellig en ce is regard ed as im p erativ e, due to the fact that 'e v id e n ce g ath erers and in telligen ce cells, w ork in g in co ­ o rd in ation w ith arrest squads, target particu lar o ffen d ers in an u n ruly crow d and d irect officers selectiv ely to arrest those ind ividu als for w h ich ev id en ce exists' (ibid.: 3 5 6 -7 ). S en satio n s of in ju stice are th erefo re m inim ised. O th e r probable b en efits are: the u n likelihood that ad hoc actions u n d ertak en by officers, ind ividu ally or in groups, w ill cause p an ic and an g er am o n g civilians; and the fact that sen ior officers in charge of param ilitary units will be held d irectly accou n tab le for the actions of th eir su bo rd in ates (P. A. J. W ad d in g ton 2000a: 166). T h e case for avoiding the use of param ilitary m eth od s is robu stly argued by a n o th er British crim inologist, T o n y Je ffe rso n , w ho asserts that param ilitarism has an 'in h e re n t capacity to exacerbate v io len ce'. Jefferso n (1987: 5 1 -3 ; 1990: 8 4 -6 ) posits an 'id eal-ty p ical sequ en tial a cco u n t' of four d istin ct p hases in the cu stom ary p aram ilitary scenario. H e refers to these as: preparation, controlling space, controlling the crowd, and clearance. In the preparation (or 'stan d b y ') p h ase, ap p reh en siv e u n its of (m ostly m ale) police o fficers, all h arb ou rin g stro n g exp ectatio n s of trou ble, anxiou sly exch an g e 'd isp arag in g stories' ab ou t the en em y and trade 'p recu rso ry ju stificatio n s' for their fo rth co m in g in te r­ v en tion . In such a tense clim ate, the sight of arm oured police v ehicles and 'to o led u p ' riot p erso n n el e n h an ce s the possibility of a selffulfilling p ro p h ecy (Jefferso n 1987: 51). P relim inary attem p ts at controlling space - i.e. d em arcatin g those areas w h ere it is perm issible for the crow d to con greg ate - can be equally prov ocativ e, esp ecially w hen carried out w ith tru n ch eo n s draw n and shield s at the read y (Jefferso n 1990: 85). Jefferso n con ten d s that verbal or p hysical re talia­ tion by p ro testers will serve only to confirm the police anticipation of trou ble and rein force their read in ess for battle (ibid.). 28

Public o r d e r p olicin g : th e o re tic a l a pproaches

O n c e th e e v e n t is u n d e r w ay an d p o lice are e n g a g e d in controlling the crowd, th e re is e v ery p o ssib ility th a t o th e r e le m e n ts o f the p a ra ­ m ilitary a p p ro a ch w ill e x a ce rb a te existin g a n g e r and in d ig n a tio n . T h e sp e cta cle o f h o rse s, d og s an d o fficers in rio t g e a r is lik ely to turn p o lice in to the 'le g itim a te ' targ ets o f s to n e -th ro w e rs . S n a tc h -sq u a d s w ill in e v ita b ly in te rv e n e , th o u g h n o t in th e d iscip lin ed and restrain e d m a n n e r e n v isag ed by W a d d in g to n . T his is b e ca u se such u n its n o t o n ly h a v e th e law on th e ir sid e, b u t also p o ssess 'a c o n ­ c ep tio n o f su p p o rtiv e te a m w o rk a n d an o cc u p a tio n a l cu ltu re w h ich req u ires th a t th e m o st ag g ressiv e and b u ll-h e a d e d in d iv id u als b e su p p o rted in the field and d e fe n d e d in th e a fte rm a th , and an id e o lo g y o f th e d e m o n stra to r as v io le n t s u b -h u m a n u n d e s e rv in g of e ith e r re sp e ct or sy m p a th y ' (Je ffe rso n 1987: 52). T h e a tte m p te d re sto ra tio n o f o rd e r will re q u ire n o th in g less th an a 'm a ssiv e an d h ig h ly o p p re ssiv e p o lice p re s e n c e ' (Je ffe rso n 1990: 85). H av in g a ch iev ed this, the p o lice will th e n m ak e u p th eir m in d s as to w h e n th e p o in t o f th e p ro te st has p assed an d it is th e re fo re tim e to in stig ate the clearance p h ase . G iv en th eir e x istin g feelin g s o f in d ig n a ­ tion at th e w ay th ey h a v e b e e n tre a te d , som e d e m o n stra to rs m ay p ro v e re sista n t to p o lice o rd e rs. S u p e rio r fo rce w ill u n d o u b te d ly e n su re sh o rt-te rm su ccess for th e p o lice b u t th a t d o es n o t n e ce ssa rily p ro d u ce a co n clu sio n o f th e m a tte r. P ro te ste rs w ill re tu rn , m o re d ete rm in e d and b e tte r p re p a re d , on a su b s e q u e n t o ccasio n (Jefferso n 1987: 53). T h e d eg re e to w h ich p aram ilitarised p o licin g m e th o d s m ig h t serve to n u llify or p ro m o te e x istin g te n d e n cie s to v io le n ce m ay u ltim ate ly d ep en d o n v ario u s c o n tin g e n c ie s alre ad y h ig h lig h te d in this ch a p te r. It see m s re a so n a b le to su p p o se th at, in s itu a tio n s w h e re th e le g iti­ m acy o f p olice a ctio n s is re co g n ised b y a sizeab le m a jo rity o f the cro w d , d ecisiv e use o f re a so n a b le fo rce is u n lik e ly to be resisted by a n y o n e o th e r th a n a m isb e h a v in g m in o rity . S u ch u se o f fo rce w ill, in tu rn, be m o re re a so n a b ly ap p lied in circ u m sta n ce s w h e re th e p re ­ v ailin g clim ate o f p o litical o p in io n is sy m p a th e tic to th e cro w d and w h e re b rie fin g by sen io r o fficers e m p h a sise s th e n eed fo r to le ran ce and restrain t. A lte rn ativ e ly , p olitical clim ates a d v o c a tin g th e u n ­ c o m p ro m isin g p o licin g o f d isse n tin g g ro u p s (su ch as th at p re v a ilin g in th e 1 9 8 4 -5 m in e rs' strik e) w ill u n d o u b te d ly e n c o u ra g e th e ty p e of u n re stra in e d ag g re ssio n p re d icte d in Je ffe rs o n 's w o rst-ca se scen ario .

29

P olicing P ublic D is o rd e r

A n e x p la n a to ry m o d el o f d iffe rin g styles o f policing S e v e ra l a sp e cts o f th e ab o v e an aly ses h av e b e e n in c o rp o ra te d in to A Model for the Explanation of Protest Policing Styles, d ev e lo p e d b y th e Italian a ca d e m ic, D o n atella della P orta in c o n ju n ctio n w ith h e r co lle ag u e s (d ella P orta 1995, 1998; d ella P orta an d F illieu lle 2004; d ella P orta and R e iter 1998). T h e m o d el (see F ig u re 1.2) e n c o m p a sse s sev e ral v ariab les, in clu d in g : th e d o m in a n t legal fra m ew o rk ; in stitu tio n a l ch a ra cteristics o f th e p o lice; th e p re v ailin g p o lice an d societal cu ltu re s; g o v e rn m e n ta l an d o th e r po litical in flu e n c e s; p u b lic o p in io n and th e m ed ia; an d p o lic e -p ro te s te r in te r­ actio n . It serv es th e u sefu l fu n ctio n s o f re ite ra tin g and sh o w in g th e in te rre la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n v ariab les a lre a d y re fe rre d to in this c h a p te r, and o f in tro d u c in g im p o rta n t c o m p le m e n ta ry factors, h ith e rto u n m e n tio n e d . A m o n g the in stitu tio n a l facto rs th o u g h t re le v a n t to e x p la in in g p a rticu la r styles o f p ro te st p o licin g is th e legal framework in w h ich co n tro l strate g ies are im p le m e n te d . O f p a rticu la r im p o rta n ce are the constitutional rights of demonstrators (e.g. th e e x te n t to w h ich le g isla­ tion p e rm its th em to fre e ly asse m b le an d exp ress th e ir po litical p o in ts o f v iew ). For e x a m p le, d ella P orta an d R eiter (1998: 1 0 -1 1 ) p o in t o u t th at in Italy a b a tte ry of fascist law s re m a in e d on the sta tu te s u n til th e m id -1 9 5 0 s, re stra in in g the rig h t o f p ro te st and p e rm ittin g coerciv e in te rv e n tio n b y th e police. A seco n d m a jo r v ariab le is th a t o f p o lice o rg a n isa tio n a l stru ctu re. T h re e a sp e cts o f this (cen tra lisa tio n , a cco u n ta b ility to th e p u b lic, and m ilitarisatio n ) are cen tral to th e m o d el. Centralisation re fe rs to the d e g re e to w h ich co n tro l o v er th e p o lice is c en tra lly d irecte d by th e n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n t or is su b je c t to the d iscre tio n an d in flu e n c e of local p o lice c o m m a n d e rs an d /o r civ ilian au th o ritie s. Accountability to the public co n ce rn s the d eg re e to w h ic h p o lice o fficers can te c h ­ n ically be m ad e a n sw e ra b le for th e ir actio n s (e.g. b e ca u se of th e re q u ire m e n t to w e ar id e n tifica tio n n u m b e rs, b e ca u se th e ir actio n s are su b je c te d to a p ro cess o f in d e p e n d e n t re v ie w , or d u e to th e a v aila­ bility o f a ro b u st civ ilian co m p la in ts p ro c e d u re ). F in ally , militarisation o f th e p o lice re fe rs to th e e x te n t to w h ich th e p olice o p e ra te a c co rd ­ in g to m ilitary -sty le d iscip lin e or in liaison w ith th e arm y. As della P orta an d R e ite r exp lain , In g e n era l, a m ilitarily o rg an ized p o lice force is co n sid ere d to be m o re p ro n e to b ru tality sin ce it im p lies a h ie ra rch ica l o rg a n iz a ­ tion w ith 'b lin d ' o b e d ie n c e to o rd er. L o o k in g at th e e v o lu tio n of 30

Public o rd e r policing: theoretical approaches

A d a p t e d f r o m d e lla P o r ta and R e it e r ( 1 9 9 8 : 1 0 )

Figu re 1.2 A d a p ted v e rsio n of della Porta a n d R eiter's E x p la n a to ry M o d el of D iffe re n t Styles of P olicin g

31

Policing Public D is o rd e r

the B ritish p o lice, h o w ev er, several scholars n oted that m ilitarization, w ith its im plication of stricter con trol on rankand -file o fficers, could actually help p re v e n t bru tality, (ibid.: 11) In-bu ilt ten d en cies w ithin the police occupational culture to m achism o and suspicion m ay g en erate a pred isp osition to repressive beh av iou r, della Porta and R eiter reco gn ise th at the cu lture is fu n ctio n al to police w ork. In p articular, the need to m ake snap d ecisions alm ost inev itab ly en co u rag es the form u lation of shorth an d stereo ty p es and typ ifications of p rotest grou p s and situ ations likely to prove d an gero u s or trou blesom e. A ccord ingly, th ey provide g u id elin es for possible in terv en tio n s (ibid.: 14). A secon d asp ect of culture - this tim e, the w id er political culture of the host society - is fu n d am en tal to u n d erstan d in g lo n g stan d in g styles of p ro test policing. As della Porta (1995) points out, p rotest policing is v ery m u ch in flu en ced by n atio n al histo ry and trad ition. Fo r exam p le, the W orld W ar II fascist reg im es in Italy and G erm an y each left an 'in stitu tio n al and em o tio n al legacy' en co u rag in g the p olice to com e d ow n hard on public displays of p rotest, della Porta explains that such legacies are n ev er fixed or im m u table and th at 'trau m atic ev en ts can stim ulate learn in g p ro cesses'. M o reo v er, ch allen g ers to the political orth o d o xy m ay find th em selves and their m eth od s of p ro ­ testin g initially su b jected to rep ressiv e p olicing, b efo re th ey are gradu ally accepted into the m ainstream (ibid.: 74). A m ore co n tem p o rary political d eterm in an t of the n atu re of p rotest policing is the prev ailing configuration of power - chiefly, the in flu en ce w ield ed by the g o v ern m en t of the day. T h o u gh o sten sibly n eu tral, pro test policing is heav ily su b ject to go v ern m en t in flu en ce, della Porta and R eiter (1998: 15) explain that the m an ag e m e n t of d em o n stration s ten d s to be less rep ressiv e w h en left-w in g g o v e rn ­ m en ts hold office. H o w ever, this rule is by no m ean s hard and fast: 'th e L eft' m ay som etim es strive to ap p ease p ro p o n en ts of a 'law and o rd er' ap p roach or establish its cred en tials as the 'p arty that is fit to g ov ern '. Police policies, as w ell as the d irection given to them by g o v e rn ­ m en t, are fu rth er in flu en ced by the o p inions of o th e r parties, such as the p rotesters, their o p p o n en ts, and all m an n e r of o th e r political and in terest groups. T h ese o p in io n s are typically filtered thro u gh the m ass m ed ia. It is by such m ean s that 'civil rights coalition s' ad v o cat­ ing to lerant policing or, altern atively, 'law and o rd er coalitio n s' seek in g tou g h er police in terv en tio n s, attem p t to hold sw ay. The 32

Public o r d e r p olicin g : th e o re tic a l a pproaches

m ed ia acts as an arb itrato r in this d e b a te , 'p a rtly as a "sp o k e sp e rs o n " o f o n e o r th e o th e r coalitio n and p artly w ith th e ir o w n "a u to n o m o u s" lo g ic' (ibid.: 18). d ella P o rta 's (1998) in te rv ie w s w ith Italian p olice o fficers show how the la tter base th e ir ch o ice s o f tactics and strate g y on the a n ticip a te d p u b lic re actio n to th e ir policies. N e v e rth e le s s, p olice a ctio n s so m e tim e s d elib e ra te ly fly in the face o f d o m in a n t pu blic o p in io n : 'T h is is esp ecia lly tru e w h e n th e p olice e n jo y u n lim ited g o v e rn m e n t su p p o rt an d re ce iv e clear d irectiv e s, th a t is, if th e y kn ow th a t th e d ifficu lties o f the jo b , co n sid era b le if th e y h av e to su p p ress a large m in o rity , are o u tw e ig h e d b y th e p o ssib le tro u b le th at cou ld re su lt if th e y fail to follow th e g o v e rn m e n t's o rd e rs' (ibid.: 19). In d e e d , d ella P o rta m ak es th e related p o in t th a t, w h a te v e r th e actu al te n o r o f p o p u la r o p in io n m ay b e, th e Italian o fficers see th e m se lv e s as 'K in g 's p o lice ' - u ltim ate ly loyal to, and an sw e ra b le to , th e g o v e rn ­ m e n t o f the day. At th e m icro lev el o f an aly sis, d ella P o rta a n d R e ite r re fe r to the c o n te x t and n a tu re o f the in te ra c tio n b e tw e e n p o lice a n d p ro te sters as o th e r im p o rta n t v a ria b le s in flu e n c in g th e p o licin g o f p ro te st ev en ts. T h e y a rg u e , for e x a m p le, th a t th e p ro h ib itio n o f a d e m o n s tra ­ tion is o fte n a key facto r in e n c o u ra g in g s u b se q u e n t 'v io le n t d y n a m ic s' (ibid.: 20). M o re g e n e ra lly , th e y o b se rv e th at p o lice o fficers 'se e m to be e q u ip p e d w ith an e le p h a n t's m e m o ry ' in term s of a llo w in g a n y h isto ry o f p rev io u s in te ra c tio n w ith p ro te st g ro u p s to s h ap e c u rre n t strate g y and tactics (ibid .). M e m o rie s o f h a v in g com e o ff 's e co n d b e st' m ay ran k le a m o n g th e p o lice an d in v ite p ressu re from th eir d etracto rs: In d iv id u a l in c id e n ts m ay h a v e lo n g -te rm re p e rc u ssio n s on p o lice a ttitu d e s to w ard p ro test. If th e im ag e o f a 'w e a k ' p o lice esp ecia lly w h e n 'p r o m o te d ' b y p o litical e n tre p r e n e u rs - can p ro d u c e fear in th e p u b lic an d calls fo r m ore 'e ffe c tiv e ' re p ressio n , th e im p re ssio n o f h a v in g b e e n 'd e fe a te d ' w ill also h av e im p o rta n t c o n se q u e n ce s w ith in the p o lice. T h e se c o n ­ s e q u e n c e s go b e y o n d im m e d ia te re a ctio n s su ch as p ro m ises to take re v e n g e , and e x te n d to tactical and stru ctu ral ch a n g es. (ibid.: 21) In a tte stin g to th e sig n ifica n ce o f in te ra c tio n a l d y n am ics, the m o d el re a so n s th a t c o n flict e sca la tio n is in v ariab ly d u e to in d iscrim in a te or h e a v y -h a n d e d p o lice d isp ersal tactics. Su ch actio n s so m e tim e s resu lt from p ro b le m s in c o -o rd in a tin g d iffe re n t u n its o f o fficers, from 33

P olicing P ublic D is o rd e r

u n ce rta in c h a in s o f co m m a n d or lack o f clarity o f tactical o b je ctiv e s. T h e re is a fu rth e r risk in v o lv e d in in tro d u c in g officers from o u tsid e fo rces w h o do n o t sh are local sen sib ilities o r k n o w le d g e o f th e area. In cases w h e re p e a c efu l d e m o n stra tio n s h av e b e e n 'in filtra te d ' by sm aller, rad ical g ro u p s, p o lice tactics aim ed at n e u tralisin g th e activ ities o f th e v io le n t core m ay c o n tra v e n e th e righ ts o f th e m a jo rity and draw th em in to th e con flict. L o o k in g ah e ad to th e n e x t tim e th e p o lice an d p ro te ste rs m e e t, th e re is a d a n g e r th a t atro cities co m m itte d b y o n e sid e o r the o th e r this tim e m ay p ro d u ce a 're c ip ro ca l a d a p ta tio n ' o f th e ir tactics (d ella P o rta 1995). T h e ab o v e v ariab les form th e c o rn e rs to n e s o f w h a t d ella P o rta and R e iter (1998: 22) re fe r to as police knowledge - 'th a t is, th e p o lice 's p e rc e p tio n o f th e ir role an d o f th e e x te rn a l re ality '. T h is k n o w l­ ed g e fo rm s th e b asis on w h ich strate g y and tactics for d ea lin g w ith p a rticu la r p ro te st e v e n ts an d p a rticip a n ts are d e te rm in e d an d im ­ p le m e n te d .

Conclusions T h is c h a p te r has d e m o n stra te d h o w m e th o d s o f p o licin g p u b lic o rd er in W e ste rn d em o cra tic socie tie s h av e u n d e rg o n e a sig n ifican t tra n s­ fo rm a tio n in re c e n t y ears. In A m erica, th e U n ited K in g d o m and o th e r w e ste rn E u ro p e a n states, u n co m p ro m isin g p o lice tactics an d s tra te ­ gies for m a n a g in g p u blic o rd e r h av e g iv en w ay to a 'n e g o tia te d m a n a g e m e n t' sty le, e m p h a sisin g p re v e n tio n an d a c co m m o d a tio n , w hile re ta in in g a re a d in e ss to d eal re so lu tely w ith p o te n tia l or actu al d iso rd er (th e 'iro n fist in th e v e lv e t g lo v e '). A cad em ic th e o rists on b o th sid es o f th e A tlan tic in te rp re t this tran sfo rm a tio n as a m a n ife s ta ­ tion o f the p o lice d esire to re d u ce th e scale (and cost) o f re so u rce s req u ired fo r d e a lin g w ith larg e -scale d iso rd er, to e ra d ica te the risk of d a n g e r to th e m se lv e s an d o th e rs, to re sto re p u b lic c o n fid e n c e an d e n h a n c e th e ir ow n le g itim acy . O rd in a rily , th e p o lice w ill try to an ticip a te or o ffse t th e po ssib ility o f c o m m u n ity d iso rd er or v io le n t p ro te st b y v ario u s p re v e n ta tiv e m e a su res, su ch as: the u se o f te n sio n in d ica to rs an d o th e r fo rm s o f in te llig e n c e ; c o m m u n ica tio n , liaison and n e g o tia tio n w ith c o m ­ m u n ity re p re s e n ta tiv e s and d e m o n stra tio n o rg an ise rs; e n s u rin g th e care fu l sele ctio n o f c o m m a n d in g o fficers; p ro v id in g a d eq u a te tra in in g and b rie fin g for ju n io r o fficers; an d e m p lo y in g real-tim e e v id e n c e g a th e rin g . S o m e tim e s, th e p o lice w ill re so rt to m e th o d s of 34

Public o rd e r policing: th e o re tic a l approaches

qu estion able legality to harass or d estabilise groups in p referen ce to en g ag in g them in d irect con fro n tation . Stud ies rev iew ed in this ch ap ter em p h asise th at police tactics and strategies are politically co n tin g en t. T h e police are ap t to use m ore rep ressiv e and po ten tially escalatory tactics in situ ations inv olv ing transgressiv e (or 'b ad ') p rotesters. A co m p lem en tary exp lan atio n suggests that police d ecisio n -m ak in g is based on the likelihood of o n -th e -jo b or in -th e -jo b trouble accru ing as a result o f their actions. W hile gen erally averse to co n fro n tatio n , the police are prep ared to 'd ie in a d itch ' in situ ations w here they are exposed to im plicit or d irect form s of political p ressu re requ irin g them to deal u n co m ­ p rom isingly w ith the public. A slightly m ore exp an siv e variation on this ap p roach specifies that sen io r police are sen sitive to the p erceived w ish es of d ifferen t 'a u d ie n ce s', in clu d in g section s of the public, political and legal au th orities, and their ow n colleagues (all m ed iated via the m ass m ed ia), w h en form u latin g th eir policies. In terv iew s w ith frontline com m an d ers illustrate that o n -th e-sp ot d ecisions u n d ertak en prior to or in the heat o f con flict are likew ise based on gu essw ork reg ard in g the feelings of ju n io r officers and the possible reactions of su p erior o fficers, as w ell as the likelihood of official or in tern al 'in q u ests' into the event. C o n tin g en t factors of this n atu re w ill hav e a b earin g on the type of tactical in terv en tio n cho sen by the police. O n ce ju n io r officers have been called up on to act, their con d u ct is liable to be affected b y a variety of cultural, exp eriential and em otion al factors p red isp o sin g them to conflict. Stud ies suggest that particu lar aspects of the police o ccu p ation al cu lture (notably, its em p h asis on m achism o, solidarity, action and ch allen g e, and in h e re n t ten d en cy to see crow d s as volatile and in n eed of strict reg u latio n ) help to create a p red isp ositio n to v iolence. Such co n sid eration s are fu n d am en tal to the so-called p ara­ m ilitary policing d ebate. A dvocates of this ap p roach m aintain that it rep resen ts the surest w ay of en su rin g police d iscipline, the safety of the public and the legitim acy of the police. O p p o n en ts castigate it as in ten sely pro v o cativ e and rep ressiv e, a sure-fire w ay of h eig h te n in g the p o ten tial for conflict. della P orta's m od el of p ro test policing con solid ates and exten d s our kn o w led ge of the p olicing of public d iso rd er - in p articular, by p lacing m ore em ph asis on the im p o rtan ce of police accou n tability, of the d o m in an t political culture of the relev an t society, the p re­ v ailing con fig u ratio n o f p ow er b e tw e e n left and right, and the w ay that political d iscou rse, as m ed iated by the m ass m ed ia, shap es police policies tow ard s d issen tin g groups. T h e m od el's utility lies in 35

Policing Public D is o rd e r

its ability to h ig h lig h t the in terrelatio n sh ip b etw een exp lan atory variables. Such are the m ajor insights resid ing in the policing literatu re. In the follow ing ch ap ter, w e turn ou r atten tio n to theories of public d iso rd er per se in search o f co m p lem en tary w ays of u n d e r­ stan d in g p o licin g m eth od s and their con sequ en ces.

36

C h a p te r 2

Th eo ries o f public disorder

In tro d u c tio n T h is c h a p te r exp lo re s th e e x te n t to w h ich theories and models of public disorder (as o p p o se d to m o re fo cu sed e x p la n a tio n s o f p o lice co n d u ct) can e n a b le us, n o t o n ly to u n d e rsta n d th e ty p es o f co n te x ts and d y n am ics th a t give rise to c o n fro n ta tio n , b u t also to a p p recia te how p a rticu la r fo rm s o f p o licin g m ay h av e th e c ap acity to e n h a n c e or re d u ce its p o ssib le o ccu rre n ce . In c o m m e n tin g on the p o ssib le ca u ses o f th e B ritish in n e r-c ity riots o f 1985, B e n y o n (1987: 23) re m ark s how : It is n o tice a b le h o w fre q u e n tly p a th o lo g ica l la n g u a g e is u sed in d iscu ssio n s o f law an d o rd er. T h e re are 'o u tb r e a k s ' o f d iso rd er, an d 'e p id e m ic s ' o f crim e , and a 'crisis' can o ccu r if the 'c o n ta g io n ' sp re a d s too far . . . D iso rd e r is see n as a d isease of th e b o d y p o litic b u t, like so m a n y a ilm e n ts, it m ay be ra th e r e a sie r to re c o g n ise th an to cu re. To c o n tin u e th e m ed ical m e ta p h o r, d iag n o sis d e te rm in e s tre a tm e n t, b u t if th e c o n d itio n is n o t fully u n d e rsto o d th e re is a d a n g e r th a t the p re scrib e d re m ed ie s m e rely tre a t th e sy m p to m s o f th e d iso rd er, ra th e r th an c u rin g its cau ses. W e saw in th e p rev io u s c h a p te r h o w th e re a p p e a rs to b e a g e n era l te n d e n cy a m o n g p o lice o fficers to c o n ce iv e o f p u b lic d iso rd er as a b y -p ro d u ct o f th e h ig h ly co n ta g io u s state o f 'm in d le ss n e s s' s u p p o se d ly re su ltin g from im m e rsio n in a cro w d . P olice ra n k -a n d file re s p o n d e n ts in te rv ie w e d b y S to tt an d R e ich e r (1998) m a in ta in e d th a t d iso rd er w as d u e e ith e r to this p ro cess or to the M a ch ia v e llia n 37

Policing Public D is o rd e r

antics of rabb le-ro u sin g ind ividu als. Such 'lay th eo ries' o f crow d d isord er have their acad em ic co u n terp arts in the co n v erg en t trad itions of 'classical psycholog ical red u ctio n ism ' (R eich er et al. 2004; D. W ad d in g ton and K ing 2005) and 'm ob sociology' (S ch w ein g ru b er 2000). Each of th ese p ersp ectiv es attribu tes crow d v io len ce eith e r to the o n set of a p o ten tially d an gerou s 'm ob m en tality ', to the sinister m ach in atio n s of 'ag itato rs', or to the d ev ian t or crim inal ch arac­ teristics o f the 'riff-raff' w ho typ ically com e lo ok in g for trouble. The com m on sou rce of m ost o f these p ersp ectiv es is Le B on 's (1895) m ajo r w ork, The Crowd: a Study of the Popular M ind. This posits th at, w h e n ev e r p eople form to g e th e r in crow ds, th eir con sciou s p erso n alities au tom atically d isap p ear to be replaced by a sinister, uncivilised and po ten tially barbaric 'g rou p m ind '. T h e reaso ns for this are th reefo ld : first, the an o n y m ity d eriv in g from crow d m em b er­ ship sep arates ind ividu als from any p erso n al resp onsibility for their actions; seco n d ly , b ein g in crow ds m akes p eo p le less resistan t to 'h y p n o tic' p ow ers of su gg estio n that m ay com p el them to b eh av e in reckless and u n sav o u ry w ays; and finally, crow d b eh av iou r and the p o w erfu l em o tio n s it ev ok es tend to spread con tagiou sly , causing v irtually ev eryo n e p resen t to recklessly jo in in. R eich er (1987) speaks for cou n tless acad em ics in criticising the in h e re n t bias of any ap p roach that b oth discredits crow d d isord er as irrational and d isinvests it of any u n d erly in g m ean in g or ju stificatio n . H e fu rth er o bjects to the w ay in w hich th eo ries cast in the Le Bon trad ition absolve the police and o th er agen ts of con trol of any resp onsibility for the violence an d , th ere fo re , serve to ju stify rep ressiv e crow d con tro l m easu res. R e ich er and o th er au th ors, like Billig (1976), are righ tly cynical of th e u n d erly in g th eoretical p resu m p tio n that riotin g occurs becau se a m u ltitu d e o f p eople are coin cid en tally exp erien cin g a h e ig h ten ed state of arousal. Such a stan d p oin t d oes little to explain the d eg ree to w hich collective action is g en erally u n d erp in n ed by identifiable social aim s and involves scores o f p eo p le actin g in con cert. R eich er and his colleagues are equally scorn fu l of the 'ag itato r view ' of crow d b eh av io u r (R eich er et al. 2004), w hich sees crow d m em bers as ap t to be Ted astray' by u n scru p u lou s ind ividu als keen to take ad van tage of their tem p orary 'su g gestibility'. R eich er's (1984) ow n stud y of the St P au l's (Bristol) riot o f 1980 pow erfu lly d em o n strates that crow d p articip an ts are inv ariably u n resp o n siv e to the d irectives of ind ividu als n o t regarded as sharin g their aim s and ideals. Finally, it should also be noted that d oubts w ere cast on the v alid ity of the so-called riff-raff ap p roach by the K ern er C om m ission 38

T h e o rie s o f p ub lic d is o rd e r

o n th e 1960s A m erican u rb an riots. T h e co m m issio n d isco v e re d th at, far from b e in g 'c rim in a l ty p es, o v er activ e social d ev ia n ts, or riff­ ra ff - re c e n t m ig ran t m e m b e rs from an u n e d u ca te d u n d e rc la ss a lie n a te d from re sp o n sib le N e g ro e s [sic] and w ith o u t b ro ad social o r po litical c o n c e rn ' (K e rn e r 1968: 73), th e 'ty p ica l rio te r' w as e co n o m ica lly on a p ar w ith th e av e rag e n o n -rio te r, w as c o m ­ p arativ e ly b e tte r e d u c a te d , p o litically m o re a ctiv e, and in v ariab ly a life lo n g re s id e n t o f th e city. T h e co m m issio n e m p h a sise d th e m ore g e n e ra l p o in t th a t rio tin g is actu ally a m o re co m p lica te d social p h e n o m e n o n th a n lay th e o rie s giv e it c re d it for. In its v iew , u rb an d iso rd er w as in v ariab ly th e resu lt o f an in te ra ctio n b e tw e e n sev eral u n d e rly in g cau sal co n d itio n s, m o st n o tab ly : a lo n g s ta n d in g 're s e rv o ir o f g r ie v a n c e s' c o n ce rn in g p o lice h a ra ssm e n t, p o o r h o u sin g , and u n e m p lo y m e n t or u n d e r­ e m p lo y m e n t (i.e. p e o p le o cc u p y in g jo b s in c o m m e n s u ra te w ith th e ir skills or q u alificatio n s); fru stratio n d eriv in g from a p e rce iv e d in ab ility to ch a n g e m a tte rs via th e p o litical sy ste m ; an in c re a sin g ly te n se social a tm o s p h e re , in v o lv in g a se q u e n c e o f n e g a tiv e in c id e n ts b e tw e e n lo cal p e o p le an d th e p o lice; a n d fin ally , a trig g e rin g o r 'p re c ip ita tin g ' in c id e n t re p re s e n tin g th e 'fin a l stra w ' in the c o n te x t o f p o lic e c o m m u n ity relatio n s. It is th e re fo re a p p a re n t th at, in o rd e r to h av e cred ib ility , th e o rie s o f d iso rd er m u st be cap ab le o f in c o rp o ra tin g the full ra n g e o f v ariab les n e c e ssa ry to th e ex p la n a tio n o f a n y giv en c o n fro n ta tio n . M o re o v e r, th e y m u st striv e to m ak e ap p ro p ria te c o n ce p tu a l lin k ag es b e tw e e n th e re le v a n t c o n te x ts o f d iso rd er and th e ro le o f h u m a n a g e n cy (in clu d in g th at o f th e police). N o tw ith s ta n d in g its sim ilar te n d e n c y to see p u b lic d iso rd er as in h e re n tly p a th o lo g ica l, S m e lse r's (1962) Theory of Collective Behaviour th e o ry co n stitu te s a c o m p re h e n siv e an d im ag in ativ e a tte m p t to e lu cid a te th e co n te x ts an d d y n am ics o f d iso rd er and th e p o ssib le c o n trib u tio n o f p o lice stra te g y an d tactics. T h is g ro u n d b re a k in g so cio lo g ical ap p ro ach is re v ie w e d in th e first sectio n o f this ch a p te r. S u b s e q u e n t sectio n s ex p lo re th e n a tu re an d u tility o f o th e r m u lti­ v ariate a p p ro a c h e s a p p e a rin g in th e w ak e o f S m e lse r's m o d el. T h e se in clu d e a p air o f A m erican e x p la n a tio n s (H u n d le y 1968/1975; S p ieg el 1969) an d co rre sp o n d in g E u ro p e a n e x a m p les (O tte n et al. 2001; D. W a d d in g to n et al. 1989). W h ile u n d o u b te d ly in flu e n ce d by S m e lse r's a p p ro a c h , th e se m o d els striv e to a c ce n tu a te th e fu n d a m e n ta lly rational n a tu re o f cro w d d iso rd er and p lace s tro n g e r e m p h a sis on the p o lic e 's role in the c a u sa tio n o f v io le n c e . F in ally , co n sid e ra tio n is also giv en to th e so-called Elaborated Social Identity Model (E SIM ) (e.g. S to tt an d R e ich e r 1998), w h ich e sta b lish es a social p sy ch o lo g ica l basis 39

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for u n d e rs ta n d in g th e e n tre n c h e d fe e lin g s o f m u tu a l h o stility an d e sca la tin g v io le n ce c o n se q u e n t on p o lice p u blic o rd e r in te rv e n tio n s.

S m e ls e r’s th e o ry o f co llective b eh av io u r S m e lse r's T h e o ry o f C o llectiv e B eh a v io u r c o n stitu te s an a tte m p t to tra n scen d th e n a iv e ty o f trad itio n al p sy ch o lo g ica l an d socio lo g ical p e rsp e ctiv e s b y h ig h lig h tin g th e sig n ifica n ce o f th e c o n te x t o f crow d v io le n c e , as w ell as th e trig g e rin g (or p re cip itatin g ) in c id e n t or e v e n t re sp o n sib le fo r sp a rk in g it off. It is th e re fo re iro n ic th at th e th e o ry still m a n a g e s to d raw e x te n siv e ly o n the te n e ts o f m ob socio lo g y and classical p sy ch o lo g ica l re d u ctio n ism . T h e th e o ry is e n tire ly c o n siste n t, fo r e x a m p le, w ith th e riff-raff a p p ro a ch to rio tin g. Its u n d e rly in g p rem ise is th at 'h o s tile o u tb u rsts' are e sse n tia lly p a th o lo g ica l and ap t to in v o lv e 'd e v ia n t g ro u p s' i.e. th e p o o rly socialised and sectio n s o f so ciety u n d e rg o in g som e d istu rb in g form o f tra n sitio n in th e ir lives (e.g. a d o le s ce n ts , the u n e m p lo y e d or re c e n t m ig ran ts). T h e th e o ry id e n tifies six d e te rm in a n ts o f d iso rd er: structural conduciveness, structural strain, the growth and spread of a generalised hostile belief, precipitating factors, the mobilisation of participants for action, an d social control. T h e first of th ese, structural conduciveness, re fe rs to fe a tu re s o f a re le v a n t situ atio n w h ich m ig h t facilitate or, o th e rw ise , co n stra in an o u tb re a k o f d iso rd er. D iso rd e r is m o re lik ely to o ccu r w h e re: th e re is an a g e n cy p re s e n t on w h ich to atta ch b lam e fo r a tro u b lin g state of affairs; th e re is an a b sen ce o f o fficial c h a n n e ls fo r a d d re ssin g th e re le v a n t g rie v a n c e ; an d social co n d itio n s allow fo r th e ag g riev ed p e o p le to c o m m u n ica te an d act in c o n ce rt. T h e p re se n c e o f th ese stru ctu re s e n h a n c e s th e p o ssib ility th at co lle ctiv e fe e lin g s o f structural strain (i.e. fru stra tio n re su ltin g fro m a flo u tin g or tra n sg re ssio n o f the g ro u p 's rig h ts, or w h e n its e co n o m ic or social n e e d s h av e n o t b een m et) w ill c u lm in a te in d iso rd er. S m e lse r's th ird d e te rm in a n t, th e growth and spread of a generalised hostile belief, co n ce rn s th e p ro cess b y w h ich th e sou rce o f th e social strain is id e n tifie d , b lam e is a ssig n e d , and a su itab le cou rse o f action d ecid e d u p o n . D isp la y in g his o b v io u s d e fe re n ce to th e g ro u p m ind a p p ro a c h , S m e lse r ch a ra c terise s su ch h o stile n o tio n s as 'm a g ica l b e lie fs (w h ich ) d isto rt reality and "sh o rt-c irc u it" th e n o rm a l p ath s to th e am e lio ra tio n o f g rie v a n c e s' (S k o ln ick 1969: 253). H e fu rth e r in sists th at, in fo rm u la tin g th ese b e lie fs, cro w d s h av e a te n d e n cy to w ro n g ly sca p e g o a t p a rticu la r o u tg ro u p s (p rim arily , th e p o lice). 40

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W ith th e p o te n tia l fo r d iso rd er th u s e sta b lish ed , it now req u ires th e co m b in e d e ffe ct o f tw o o th e r p ro ce sse s - a precipitating factor and th e mobilisation of participants for action - fo r a h o stile o u tb u rst to o ccur. P re cip ita tin g facto rs are d efin e d b y S m e lse r as in c id e n ts, ru m o u rs or 's u d d e n th re a ts o r d e p riv a tio n s' w h ich serve to sh arp e n and e x a g g e ra te th e g e n era lised b elie f. T h e se are n o t su fficie n t in th e m se lv e s to cau se d iso rd er. In o rd e r for this to h a p p e n , p a rticip a n ts m u st b e su itab ly m o b ilised for actio n b y p ro ce sse s of le a d e rsh ip an d c o m m u n ica tio n a d v o c a tin g a g g re ssio n . H e re , crow d m e m b e rs are s u sce p tib le to the d elib e ra te or u n w ittin g in flu e n c e o f p ro m in e n t in d iv id u als o r re p re s e n ta tiv e s o f fo rm al in stitu tio n s (sh ad e s o f th e 'a g ita to r th e o ry ' o f d iso rd er). T h e d eg re e to w h ich th e re su ltin g d iso rd er c o n tin u e s to sp read is u ltim ate ly d e p e n d e n t on th e style o f social control exercised by the a u th o ritie s. S m e lse r (1962: 267) a d v o cate s th e p o lice u n d e rta k e th e fo llo w in g co u rse o f actio n : (a) P re v e n t c o m m u n ica tio n in g e n e ra l, so th a t b e lie fs c a n n o t be d isse m in a ted , (b) P re v e n t in te ra c tio n b e tw e e n le a d e rs and fo llo w e rs, so th a t m o b ilisatio n is d ifficu lt, (c) R efrain from tak in g a co n d itio n a l attitu d e to w ard s v io le n ce by b lu ffin g or v acillatin g in th e use o f the u ltim ate w e a p o n s o f force, (d) R efrain from e n te rin g th e issu es and co n tro v ersie s th a t m o v e the cro w d ; re m a in im p artial, u n y ie ld in g and fixed on th e p rin cip le o f m a in ­ ta in in g law and ord er. E lse w h e re , w e h av e raised a n u m b e r o f criticism s o f S m e lse r's th e o ry (D . W a d d in g to n 1992: 13; D. W a d d in g to n et al. 1989: 1 7 4 -1 7 7 ). T h e se in clu d e the o b je ctio n s th at: (i) it is ill-co n sid ered and d a n g e ro u s to c o n ce iv e o f society as an in te g ra te d w h o le , o f rio ters as 'd e v ia n ts ' an d of d iso rd er as irra tio n a l; (ii) th e th e o ry is in sen sitiv e to cu ltu ral d iffe re n c e s b e tw e e n civ ilian s and th e p o lice , as w ell as to h isto rica l re latio n s b e tw e e n th e m ; (iii) th e th e o ry te n d s to p o rtray th e p o lice as an u n w ittin g an d /o r sca p e g o a te d p arty to th e v io le n ce ; and (iv) th e re is a d a n g e r th a t u n co m p ro m isin g p o lice in te rv e n tio n s in th e m a n n e r p rescrib ed b y S m e lse r w ill o n ly serv e to escalate d iso rd er. S m e lse r's th e o ry w as fo rm u lated p rio r to th e 'lo n g h o t su m m e rs' of th e 1960s (a p p ro x im a te ly 1 9 6 4 -1 9 6 8 ) w h e n rio tin g p e re n n ia lly bro k e o ut in the A frican -A m erican c o m m u n itie s o f m a jo r A m erican cities. O th e r a ca d e m ics su b se q u e n tly e n jo y e d th e o b v io u s a d v a n ta g e of b e in g able to d raw on th e ir o w n o b se rv a tio n s an d K e rn e r's an alysis 41

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o f th e literally h u n d re d s o f riots b re a k in g o u t in this p erio d as th e b asis of th e o ry b u ild in g . W e n ow tu rn to tw o w e ll-k n o w n e x am p les o f this ty p e o f th e o re tica l d ev e lo p m e n t.

H u n d le y ’s m o d el of th e dynam ics o f ‘g h e tto rio ts ’ H u n d le y (1968/1975) b a sed his e x p la n a tio n o f riot d y n am ics on in te r­ v iew s w ith re sid e n ts o f fo u r A m erican cities (C h icag o , C le v ela n d , D e tro it and N e w ark ) w h o h ad e ith e r w itn e sse d rio tin g first-h a n d , or w h o w e re fam iliar w ith th e area p rio r to th e o u tb rea k . T h is d ata allo w ed him a n aly tically to d istin g u ish b e tw e e n th re e a sp e cts of rio tin g : (i) g e n e ra l p re c e d in g co n d itio n s; (ii) im m e d ia te or p ro x im ate co n d itio n s; and (iii) in te rn a l d y n am ics. L ik e S m e lse r, H u n d le y (1975: 2 2 9 -2 3 2 ) sp e cifie s a n u m b e r o f b a c k ­ grou n d c o n d itio n s see n as n e c e ss a ry for rio tin g to occu r. T h e se are th at: • p o te n tia l p a rticip a n ts m u st p e rce iv e th a t a crisis exists (th ey m u st su b je c tiv e ly e x p e rie n c e som e form o f in e q u ality , d iscrim in atio n or d ep riv a tio n ); • th e y m u st b e lie v e th a t le g itim ate c h a n n e ls fo r e x p re ssin g g rie v a n ce s are clo sed o ff to th em ; • th e y m u st sh are th e v iew th a t rio tin g is lik ely to p ro d u ce b e n e ficia l ch a n g e(s); • th e y m u st be in close e n o u g h p ro x im ity to each o th e r for co m m u n ica tio n to o ccu r; • th e re m u st h av e b e e n a su b stan tial b re a k d o w n in p o lic e co m m u n ity relatio n s (w ith th e p o lice b e in g p erce iv e d as b ru ta l, im p o lite or d isresp ectfu l). H u n d le y (ibid.: 232) also n o m in a te s fo u r im m e d ia te or 'p ro x im a te ' co n d itio n s co n sid ere d fu n d a m e n ta l to th e o u tb re a k o f rio tin g , n am ely : • the g e n e ra tio n of ru m o u r (th e 'c o m m u n ica tio n o f h o stility and d issa tisfa ctio n ') p ro p o sin g rio tin g as a p o ssib le so lu tio n to su ch sa lie n t g h e tto p ro b le m s as slum la n d lo rd s or p olice b ru tality ; • the o cc u rre n c e o f an e v e n t th a t ty p ifie s e n d u rin g g rie v an ce s: 'T h e sig n ifica n ce o f this e v e n t is th a t it im m e d ia te ly fo cu se s th e a tte n tio n o n an o v ert act o f su p p ressio n th at is m e t w ith 42

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o p e n h o stility n o t b e ca u se of th e act itself, b u t b e ca u se it is re p re s e n ta tiv e o f a lo n g h isto ry o f su ch acts' (ibid.: 2 3 2 -2 3 3 ) • th e g a th e rin g to g e th e r o f large n u m b e rs o f p e o p le aro u n d the e v e n t; and • c o m m u n ica tio n of p a rticu la r g rie v a n ce s a m o n g th e crow d (by in fo rm a l le a d e rs or th e 'm o st v e rb a l' sp e a k e rs p re se n t), le a d in g to an ag reed cou rse o f actio n . T h e a ctio n s of p o lice o fficers are th o u g h t to h av e a cru cial in flu ­ e n c e on th e w ay th a t co n flict su b se q u e n tly d ev e lo p s: In th e b e g in n in g stag es of rio t fo rm a tio n , th e p re se n c e or a b sen ce o f p o lice o fficers can h a v e v ario u s effects. In m o st in sta n ce s, th e v e ry p re s e n c e o f the p o lice cre a tes an e v e n t, p ro v id e s a p o in t o f fo cu s, an d d raw s p e o p le to g e th e r a m o n g w h o m ru m o u r can be easily tra n sm itte d . In o th e r cases, sen d in g too few o fficers to a sce n e resu lts in actio n s b e in g u n co n tro lle d b e ca u se n o t e n o u g h p o lic e m e n are av ailab le to b re a k th e d e v e lo p in g cro w d stru ctu re . W e su g g e st th a t if th e p olice activ ity is see n b y th e rio ters as le g itim a te, th e n th e p re se n c e o f sm all q u a n titie s o f p o lice will n o t p re c ip ita te a riot. H o w e v e r, e v en if th e orig in al p o lice activ ity is v ie w e d as le g itim a te, but th e p o lice m e n are o b se rv e d as b e in g ru d e , im p o lite , u n fa ir, or b ru ta l, th e n th e se activ ities can p re cip ita te a riot. It a p p e a rs th at the p o lice o ffice rs, in th eir a tte m p t to e n fo rc e a h ig h e r a u th o rity , are p e rce iv e d by g h e tto re sid e n ts m o re as a cau sal fa cto r th a n a d e te rre n t o f riot b e h a v io u r, (ibid.: 237) H u n d le y fu rth e r m a in ta in s th a t, in situ atio n s w h e re the p olice allow d ev ia n t b e h a v io u r to go u n p u n ish e d d ue to th e ir ow n in e ffe ctu a lity (e.g. b y h a lf-h e a rte d ly ch a sin g o ffe n d e rs o r le v e llin g v e rb al in su lts), th e se 'n o n -c o n tr o l' activ ities will serv e o n ly to e x a ce rb a te e x istin g h ostility. A to tal p o lice w ith d ra w a l w ill in v ariab ly escalate the situ atio n . In d e e d , su ch tactics are o n ly lik ely to su cce e d w h e re p olice c o n ta ct cred ib le co m m u n ity le a d e rs an d fu rn ish th em w ith m e a n in g ­ ful co n ce ssio n s to p u t to th e ir c o n stitu e n ts. T h e re are co m p e llin g sim ilarities b e tw e e n H u n d le y 's an alysis an d M a rx 's o b se rv a tio n s on the A m erican rio ts, in tro d u ce d in the p re v io u s c h a p te r. H o w e v e r, H u n d le y e n d o rse s S m e lse r's r e c o m m e n ­ d atio n th at th e p o lice m u st fo cu s on d iv id in g th e cro w d up in to sm aller u n its and p re v e n tin g c o m m u n ica tio n a m o n g the ag g riev ed . C e rta in ly , this is p re fe ra b le to m o u n tin g a m ilitary -sty le fro n tal 43

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attack . O n c e rio tin g is in full sw ay , th e b e st p o licy is for th e p o lice to call in e x te rn a l su p p o rt: 'A p art from th e sh e e r force o f n u m b e rs, callin g in th e n a tio n a l gu ard in d ica te s th e su ccess o f th e rio te rs, sin ce th e y h a v e b e a te n th e "b o y s in b lu e " ' (ibid.: 238).

S p ie g e l’s stage th e o ry o f th e rio t process S p ieg e l (1969) used su rv e y te ch n iq u e s and in te rv ie w s to o b tain th e v iew s o f w h ite an d b lack re sid e n ts o f th re e u n sp e cifie d cities in w h ic h rio tin g o ccu rre d . C e n tra l to S p ie g e l's a p p ro a ch is th e id ea th at riots (or h o stile o u tb u rsts) o cc u r in th e p re s e n c e o f a 'p re -e x is tin g h o stile b e lie f sy ste m '. S u ch b e lie fs relate to in s ta n ce s o f 'v a lu e c o n ­ flict', w h e re o n e sectio n of society is treated in a m a n n e r w h ich is 'b e y o n d th e p ale o f a c ce p te d n o rm s' (ibid.: 120). S p ieg e l cites th e e x a m p les o f p olice in civ ility and b ru tality to w ard s b la ck 'g h e tto ' re sid e n ts th a t are rarely d isp lay ed to w ard s w h ite s. T h e p ro b lem for th o se on the re c e iv in g e n d is th at su ch g rie v a n ce s are n o t o fte n b ro u g h t to th e a tte n tio n o f re le v a n t au th o ritie s. T h is is p artly b ecau se th e m ass m ed ia seld om ru n sto ries e x e m p lify in g or h ig h lig h tin g su ch p ro b le m s. A d d itio n ally , city a d m in istra to rs p re fe r to d eal o n ly w ith m o d e ra te (i.e. o u t-o f-to u c h an d in e ffe ctu a l) co m m u n ity re p re s e n ta tiv e s , te n d in g to d ism iss m o re d isse n tin g or m ilitan t sp o k e sp e rso n s as 'B la c k P o w er a g ita to rs'. W h e re p re c o n d itio n s o f this n a tu re exist - an d , esp ecially , w h e n re s e n tm e n t has b e e n stok ed up b y re c e n t ru m o u r - th e riot p ro cess is liable to be activ ate d . S p ieg e l id e n tifies fo u r stages o f rio tin g (th e precipitating incident, th e street confrontation, th e Roman holiday an d th e siege) b u t e m p h a sises th at th e m a jo rity o f co n flicts do n o t go b e y o n d th e en d o f stage tw o. T h e first o f th e sp ecified p h a se s is th a t o f th e precipitating incident: T h e h o stile b e lie f system is c o n n e c te d , o n th e o n e h a n d , w ith th e v alu e c o n flict an d , on the o th e r, w ith th e in c id e n t w h ich p re cip ita te s a riot. It e m b o d ie s th e v alu e co n flict, g iv in g it fo rm , s u b sta n ce an d e n e rg y . It sets th e stage for th e p re cip ita tin g in c id e n t w h ich th e n b e co m e s a co n cre te illu stratio n o f th e beliefs. A p o lice o ffice r sh o o tin g an d k illin g a y o u n g black su sp e cte d car th ie f (as in San F ran cisco in S e p te m b e r 1966) or b e a tin g an d b lo o d y in g a b la ck taxi d riv er (as in N e w a rk in Ju ly 1967) co n firm s an d d ram atize s the e x p e c ta tio n s in co rp o ra te d in to th e h o stile b e lie fs an d trig g ers th e u p risin g , (ibid.) 44

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T h e seco n d p h a se , the street confrontation, th e n fo llo w s as o th e r re sid e n ts 'sw a rm ' to th e in c id e n t an d a 'k e y n o tin g ' p ro ce ss rap id ly tak es p lace. R io t 'p r o m o te rs ' b e g in to articu late re s e n tm e n ts and re c o m m e n d c o u rse s o f a ctio n . A g ain st th is, o p p o n e n ts of con flict plead for te m p e rs to cool and for g re a te r co n sid era tio n to be sh o w n . At th is p o in t, th e cro w d b e co m e s a ffe cte d b y c o n ta g io n . T h e w ay in w hich city a d m in istra to rs re sp o n d is a k ey d e te rm in a n t o f fu tu re b e h a v io u r. W h e re re p re s e n ta tiv e s sh o w a g e n u in e re a d in e ss to listen to co m p la in ts an d p ro p o se cred ib le so lu tio n s, th ere is a c h a n c e that ho stilities w ill su b sid e. H o w e v e r, 'If th e y fail to sh o w up an d are re p re se n te d o n ly b y th e p o lice, w h o are alre ad y h e a v ily in v o lv ed in th e h o stile b e lie f sy stem , th e level o f ag itatio n te n d s to rise' (ibid.: 123). In d e e d , th e re is a d a n g e r th at p olice c o n d u ct in d isp e rsin g civ ilian s m ay add w e ig h t to calls for an in te n sifica tio n o f co n flict, th u s p ro p e llin g th e riot in to its n e x t p h ase (ibid.). In situ atio n s w h e re th e h o stile k e y n o tin g e x te n d s to fe v e r p itch , it is p ro b ab le th at th e riot p ro cess w ill take a 'q u a n tu m ju m p ' in to p h a se th re e , the Roman holiday. T y p ically at this stag e , the y o u n g e r m ales in th e cro w d re g ro u p aw a y from th e sce n e o f th e initial in c id e n t and b e g in h u rlin g p ro je c tile s at sy m b o lic targ ets (e.g. w h ite o w n e d sto res, cars d riv en b y w h ite civ ilian s or p o lice o fficers) w ith 'a n a n g ry in to x ica tio n in d istin g u ish a b le fro m g le e '. L aw e n fo rc e m e n t o fficers are tau n ted and ev ery su ccessfu l strik e by a th ro w n m issile is w ild ly c ele b ra te d . T h e cro w d is too excited to c o n te m p la te acts o f lo o tin g , th o u g h th e se soo n b e co m e e v id e n t at p h a se fo u r (ibid.: 1 2 3 -1 2 4 ). S p ieg e l c o n te n d s th a t w h e re R o m an h o lid a y b e h a v io u r is m e t by u n d e r- or o v er-co n tro l by th e p o lice, th e rio t w ill e n te r its fo u rth p h a se , a state o f siege (ibid.: 124). C u sto m arily , this w ill in v o lv e su m m o n in g in state tro o p e rs and th e N a tio n a l G u ard , e a ch o f w h o m is lik ely to b e su b je c te d to s n ip e r fire. A cu rfew w ill b e im p o sed b u t this will n o t stop g h e tto re sid e n ts from h u rlin g fire bom b s. E v e n tu a lly , th o u g h , 'T h e sieg e ru n s its co u rse , like a G re e k trag ed y , u n til b o th sid es tire o f this fru itless and d e v a sta tin g w ay o f so lv in g a co n flict' (ibid.: 124). O f p a ra m o u n t sig n ifica n ce are S p ie g e l's g e n e ra l co n clu sio n s re ­ g a rd in g th e p o lic e 's role in su p p ressin g or in fla m in g d iso rd er. T h e p o ssib ility o f e scalatio n is g re a te st w h e n the p o lice re sp o n se tak es th e form o f e ith e r u n d e r- or o v er-co n tro l. In the fo rm er case, p olice u n d e r-a c tiv ity sen d s o u t an in v ita tio n to w o u ld -b e rio ters to b e h a v e w ith im p u n ity . In the latter, th e law e n fo rc e m e n t ag e n cie s in te rv e n e too soon an d w ith 'c o u n te rp ro d u c tiv e b ru ta lity ': 45

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P olice an d state tro o p e rs are ru sh ed to th e sce n e an d b eg in to m a n h a n d le e v e ry o n e in sig h t. S in ce th e actio n is o u t of p ro p o rtio n to th e e v e n t, it g e n era tes an in te n s e re a ctio n . . . S h o rt o f th e use o f o v e rw h e lm in g fo rce , o v e rco n tro l u su ally lead s to in cre a se d v io le n ce . B lack p e o p le in th e g h e tto see the p o lice as v io le n t an d strik e b a ck w ith in c re a sin g in te n sity , (ibid.:

122) A cco rd in g to S p ieg e l, th e p o lice m u st e n d e a v o u r to strik e an e ffe ctiv e b a la n ce: th e y sh ou ld striv e to be firm b u t d iscrim in a tin g in th eir actio n s from th e o u tse t, m ak in g arrests se le ctiv e ly a n d w ith o u t u n ­ n e ce ssa ry use o f fo rce (ibid.). T h e se v iew s are, o f co u rse , h ig h ly c o n v e rg e n t w ith th o se o f M arx and H u n d le y .

B ritish ex p la n a tio n s of rio t causality T h e 'tin d e r an d sp ark ' m e ta p h o r fo r u n d e rs ta n d in g th e U S u rban d iso rd ers w as su b se q u e n tly b o rro w e d by B ritish th e o rists o f th e U K in n e r-c ity rio ts of 1981 and 1985 (see B e n y o n a n d S o lo m o s 1987 for an o v erv ie w o f th e se e v en ts). B e n y o n (1987: 33) d istin g u ish e s, for e x a m p le, b e tw e e n th e trigger e v e n t w h ich u su ally 'sp a rk e d o f f e ach rio t an d the b a c k g ro u n d social co n d itio n s w h ich p ro v id e d th e tinder for a m a jo r co n fla g ra tio n . In his w o rd s, 'T h e immediate précipitants or trigger events in e a ch case in v o lv ed p o lice o fficers and b la ck p e o p le ' (ibid .), w h e re a s th e tin d e r co m p rised five in te rre la te d facto rs, n a m e ly : racial d isa d v a n ta g e an d d iscrim in a tio n ; h ig h u n e m p lo y ­ m e n t; w id e sp re a d d ep riv a tio n ; p o litical exclu sio n and p o w e rle ss­ n e ss; an d m istru st of, an d h o stility to , th e p o lice , d u e to the a g g re s­ sive a p p licatio n o f 's to p -a n d -s e a rc h ' p ro c e d u re s, h a ra ssm e n t and ab u se (ibid.: 3 3 -3 4 ). B e n y o n 's 'fiv e co m m o n ch a ra cteristics' p ro v id e a u sefu l fo u n d a ­ tion fo r u n d e rs ta n d in g th e o rig in s o f d iso rd er. H o w e v e r, related B ritish stu d ie s also h ig h lig h t the im p o rta n ce o f o th e r v ariab le s, such as cu ltu ral d iffe re n c e s b e tw e e n th e p o lice and A frican -C arib b ean y o u th s , an id eo lo g ical clim ate e n c o u ra g in g h o stility b e tw e e n p olice and y o u th s, and the p a rticu la r d y n a m ics an d lo ca tio n s o f the daily in te ra c tio n s a c tin g as p re cu rso rs to th e riots. A lin k b e tw e e n u rb an d ep riv a tio n , black y o u th c o u n te r-c u ltu re , p o litical m a rg in a lisa tio n , racial d iscrim in a tio n an d th e typ e of m ilitaristic p o licin g u ltim a te ly h eld re sp o n sib le for th e rio tin g is p o sited b y L ea an d Y o u n g in th e ir m o d el of The Collapse of 46

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Consensus Policing (L ea an d Y o u n g 1982; L ea an d Y o u n g 1993; K in se y et al. 1986). L ea and Y o u n g take th e v iew th at th e relativ e d ep riv a tio n e x p e rie n c e d by s e c o n d -g e n e ra tio n A frica n -C a rib b e a n s in this c o u n try gav e rise to a 's tre e t c o u n te r c u ltu re ', w h e re th e 'p o sitiv e s earch for id e n tity and su rv ival in th e h arsh co n d itio n s o f th e in n e r city ' p ro d u ce d p ro cliv ities to w ard s stre e t ro b b e ry an d in te rp e rso n a l v io le n ce (Lea and Y o u n g 1982: 8 -9 ). T h e y arg u e th at this state of affairs w as u n lik ely to h av e m a te ria lise d h ad th e y o u th s n o t also lack ed 'a n y v iab le trad itio n o f e th n ic p o litics' th ro u g h w h ich to d e fe n d or fu rth e r th e ir in te re sts (ibid.: 15). A cco rd in g to L ea and Y o u n g , it w as th e soarin g crim e statistics in v o lv in g A frica n -C a rib b ea n y o u th , in c o n ju n c tio n w ith p re ju d icia l p o lice a ttitu d es, w h ich e n c o u ra g e d 'a n e x a g g e ra tio n of th e c o n trib u ­ tion o f b lack p e rso n s to th e actu al crim e ra te ' (ibid.: 9) an d led to the p o lice a d o p tin g to u g h , 'h ig h -p ro file s tra te g ie s ', p re d ica te d on clo ser c o m m u n ity su rv e illa n ce and ran d o m stop s and search es. T h e in ­ h e re n t d a n g e r o f su ch stra te g ies is that: O n c e p o lice actio n s b lu r th e d istin ctio n b e tw e e n su sp e ct and in n o c e n t, th e n the c o m m u n ity co m es to see a n y a tte m p t at an a rrest by o fficers as a sy m b o lic a tta ck on the co m m u n ity p e r se a n d , as a c o n se q u e n c e , th e p h e n o m e n o n o f co lle ctiv e resistan ce to th e a rrest of an in d iv id u al b e g in s to e m e rg e . A nd by this stag e, riot is on th e a g e n d a . E v en ts assu m e th e statu s o f a v iciou s circle o f cu m u lativ e ca u sa tio n . T h e d ete rio ra tio n in p o lic e co m m u n ity re la tio n s lead s to a d ry in g up o f in fo rm a tio n w h ich in tu rn fo rm s th e b a c k g ro u n d to the d e v e lo p m e n t o f ag g ressiv e 'm ilita ry ' p olicin g . T h is re in fo rc e s th e te n d e n cy o f th e c o m m u n ity to d ry up as an in fo rm a tio n sou rce an d th e g e n era l a lie n a tio n fu rth e r u n d e rm in e s th e basis o f c o n se n su s p o licin g , le a v in g m ilitary style actio n as th e o n ly v iab le strate g y av ailable to th e p o lice, (ibid.: 12) A sim ilar e x p la n a to ry a p p ro ach is set o u t by B ro g d e n et al. (1988), w h o also re co g n ise a logical c o n n e ctio n b e tw e e n e co n o m ic crisis an d an in c re a sin g 'su rv iv a l crim e ' a m o n g A frica n -C a rib b ea n y o u th . H o w e v e r, cru cial to th e ir e x p la n a tio n is th e id ea th a t a m ed ia-led 'm o ra l p an ic' serv ed to tran sfo rm the v ictim s o f re ce ssio n (black y o u th ) in to 'fo lk d ev ils' w a rra n tin g h a rsh e r an d m ore re p ressiv e p o liciiig . V e ry q u ick ly , th e p o lice an d y o u th s b e co m e m u tu ally re se n tfu l and d istru stfu l. A 'd e a d ly d y n a m ic' is set in m otion w h e re b y 'P o lic e e n te r e n c o u n te rs e x p e c tin g tro u b le an d act 47

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ag g re ssiv e ly to p re -e m p t it. B lack y o u th sim ilarly e x p e c t tro u b le an d cre ate the n e ce ssa ry ("d isre sp e c tfu l") m ind set to c o p e ' (ibid.: 141). K eith (1993: 17) takes issu e w ith 'le ft realist' a ca d e m ics like L ea an d Y o u n g fo r failin g to sh ow su fficie n t se n sitiv ity to re le v a n t g e o g ra p h ica l and h isto rical facto rs: 'L e ft R ealist e x p la n a tio n can only in c o rp o ra te p ro ce sse s w h ich take p lace at n o p lace, alw ays in the p re s e n t.' K e ith 's ow n e th n o g ra p h ic an alysis o f c o n flic t b e tw e e n th e p o lice an d m e m b e rs o f p re d o m in a n tly b la ck co m m u n itie s in B rix to n , H a ck n e y and N o ttin g Hill (all L o n d o n ) in 1981 fo cu ses on th e im p o rta n ce o f 'F ro n t L in es' in th e g e n esis o f d iso rd er. A cco rd in g to K e ith , th e se fro n t lin es, su ch as R ailto n R oad (B rix to n ), S a n d rin g h a m R oad (H ack n e y ) an d All S ain ts R o ad (N o ttin g H ill), are re g u la r m e e tin g p la ce s w h e re th e role and self-im ag e o f b lack p e o p le are 'a c te d , re -e n a c te d , d efin e d an d re -d e fin e d , e v ery d a y '; th e y are 'lo ca le s at w h ich re s e n tm e n t o f p o w e r re latio n s w as tra n sfo rm ed in to re sista n c e o f p o w e r re la tio n s' (ibid.: 159). C ru cial to K e ith 's an aly sis is th e d istin ctio n b e tw e e n metonymic (h isto rical) a n d syntagmatic (re latin g p rim arily to the p re se n t) w ays o f v ie w in g th e w o rld . F o r re sid e n ts o f b lack co m m u n itie s, a ttitu d es are in fo rm e d b y a lived e x p e rie n c e and fo lk lore s tre tch in g b ack p o ssib ly th ro u g h d eca d e s; w h e re a s as far as th e p o lice are c o n ­ c e rn e d , th e h isto rie s of p a rticu la r lo catio n s are o f little in te re st, and th e co m m u n itie s th e m se lv e s are stereo ty p e d as 'tro u b le s o m e ' or 'd a n g e r o u s '. K eith re je cts th o se d escrip tio n s o f th e riots w h ich regard th e im m e d ia te trig g er e v en ts as 'irre le v a n t or in c o n se q u e n tia l'. T h e im p o rta n ce o f th e trig g e rin g in c id e n t is th a t it is an act w h ic h is read sim ilarly b y a large n u m b e r o f p e o p le as sy m b o lic o f a w id e r h isto rical sta te o f affairs: 'T rig g e r e v e n ts are n o t e p ip h e n o m e n a l or in c id e n ta l to th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f v io le n ce . T h e y p ro v id e a k ey e le m e n t in th e sig n ificatio n o f a ctio n , th e m e a n in g of the riot set ag ain st its sp atial and social c o n te x t' (ibid.: 169). T a k e n c o lle ctiv ely , th e se a p p ro a c h e s id e n tify th e n a tu re and in te r­ re la te d n e ss o f n u m e ro u s v ariab les cru cial to u n d e rs ta n d in g th e B ritish riots. A m o re c o m p re h e n siv e a tte m p t to nail d o w n the typ e of v a ria b le s n e ce ssa ry to e x p lain , n o t o n ly in n e r-c ity riots, b u t e p iso d e s o f p u b lic d iso rd er m o re g e n e ra lly , w as u n d e rta k e n d u rin g th e 1980s by m y self an d co -w o rk e rs b ased in th e n o rth e rn E n g lish city of S h e ffie ld .

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T h e flashpoints m odel of public d isorder The m u ltivariate ap p roach es of A m erican theo rists like Sm elser and H u n d ley provided insp iration for our w o rk on the Flashpoints Model of Public Disorder, d ev elo p ed d u ring the 1980s and 1990s (see, for exam p le, D. W ad d in g ton 1987, 1992, 1996; D. W ad d in g ton et al. 1987; 1989). The m ain o b jectiv e of the m od el was to incorp orate relev an t variables into a gen eral fram ew ork for exp lain in g the circu m stan ces in w h ich d isord er is likely to b reak o u t or, altern atively, fail to ignite. A ccord ingly, the m od el em braces six in te rd ep en d e n t levels of analysis: structural, political/ideological, cultural, contextual, situational and interactional, ru n n in g from aspects of face-to-face in teractio n at the m icro core, th rou gh a series of m ore m acro con textu al factors. Th e structural level con cern s those typ es of m acro-sociological factors, such as m aterial inequ alities, political im p o ten ce and inferior life-ch an ces, w hich lie at the root of collective g riev an ces and re se n t­ m en ts in society. W e m ay also inclu d e here circu m stan ces giving rise to an 'id eo lo g ical alien ation from the state' - a p osition from w hich certain grou p s (e.g. p eace cam p aign ers or en v iro n m en tal activists) o b je ct to social issues on the basis of m oral p rinciple. L aten t social con flict is m ore likely to beco m e m an ifest w h ere the state ap p ears in d iffe re n t to such griev ances, forcin g the relev an t section of society to con clu d e th at th e y hav e no real stake in the existing social order. Th e d ep th of such d isaffection d ep en d s on activities occu rrin g at the political/ideological level of analysis. T his level refers to the w ay in w hich key political and ideological in stitu tion s (notably, p ro m in en t politicians, sen ior p olice, m em bers of the ju d iciary , the m ed ia and o th er o p in io n -sh ap ers) resp ond to the p olitically or culturally d issen tin g group (or groups) in qu estion . T h e d egree of legitim acy accord ed to the grou p 's d em an d s and strategies is crucial here. P rocesses of vilification and d en u n ciatio n will n o t only fuel their re se n tm e n t but are liable to en co u rag e police rep ression. Th e cultural level em p h asises the im p o rtan ce of the w ays of life and th o u g h t w hich groups d evelop on the basis of shared con d ition s and exp erien ces. It assu m es th at cu ltu res (or su bcultures) inform their m em b ers' d efin itio n s of th em selves and 'o u tsid e rs', in flu en ce their attitu d es to u sing v io len ce, and im bue them w ith kn ow led ge of the 'ru les' of in - and ou t-g rou p con d u ct relevan t to particular situ ations. T hu s, 'If the groups involved have d iffering or in ­ com p atible d efinitions of the situ atio n , ap p rop riate b eh av iou r, or 49

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le g itim ate rig h ts, th e n th e p o te n tia l fo r co n flict is in c re a se d ' (D. W a d d in g to n et al. 1989: 162). T h is is clearly o f re le v a n ce to e n c o u n te rs b e tw e e n p o lice officers and d isse n tin g sectio n s o f so cie ty (e.g. b lack y o u th s, p ick ets and d e m o n stra to rs), w h o p e rc e iv e e ach o th e r in te rm s o f fu n d a m e n ta lly n e g a tiv e ste re o ty p e s. T h is d a n g e r o f p ossible co n flict is e n h a n ce d iii th o se in sta n ce s w h e re p o lice o fficers from o u tsid e fo rces, p e rh ap s lack in g se n sitiv ity to local c u ltu re s, are d rafte d in o n a te m p o ra ry basis. T h o u g h co m p e tin g d e fin itio n s are u n d o u b te d ly p ro b le m a tic, c o n flict m ay still be av o id ed w h e re b o th p arties su b scrib e to a 'p a tte rn o f a c co m m o d a tio n ' w h ich sh o w s d u e re s p e ct fo r th e righ ts and o b je ctiv e s o f all co n ce rn e d an d sets up tacit n o rm s p re scrib in g a p p ro p ria te co n d u ct. T h e contextual level fo cu ses on th o se d y n a m ic c o m m u n ica tio n p ro ce sse s le a d in g up to an e v e n t w h ich m a y e n h a n c e its p o te n tia l for d iso rd er. T h e s e in clu d e : th e tran sm issio n o f ru m o u r, a h isto ry o f n e g a tiv e re la tio n s an d /o r re c e n t in c id e n ts b e tw e e n p o lice an d civ ilian s, c o n te n tio u s sta te m e n ts by the p a rtie s in v o lv e d , and m ed ia se n sitisa tio n . F a cto rs o f this n a tu re m ay lead to a d v a n ce p re p a ra tio n s on b o th sid es fo r a 'w o rs t p o ssib le sce n a rio '. T h e p o ssib ility o f a self-fu lfillin g p ro p h e cy m ay d im in ish d u e to th e m o d e ra tin g e ffe ct o f p re -e v e n t liaison , esp ecia lly w h e n it h e lp s to estab lish 'ru le s of a c co m m o d a tio n ' to the satisfactio n o f bo th sid es. T h e situational lev el refers to sp atial or social d e te rm in a n ts of o rd e r or d iso rd er. It starts by a c k n o w le d g in g th e p o ssib le sy m b o lic s ig n ifica n ce o f th e lo ca tio n o f p o lic e -c iv ilia n e n c o u n te rs. S u ch p laces m ay re p re s e n t cu ltu ral 't u r f to be d e fe n d e d b y d isa ffe cte d y o u th s, or 'n o -g o a re as' to b e re ca p tu re d b y th e police. T h e ir p h y sical co n fig u ra tio n s m ay len d th e m se lv e s to g re a te r or le sse r d e g re e s of p o lice su rv e illa n ce or th e e n tra p m e n t o f flee in g d em o n stra to rs. T h e y m ay c o n ta in p a rticu la r 'ta rg e ts of d e ris io n ', su ch as c o n tro v ersia l d ig n ita rie s or b u ild in g s, w h ich th e p o lice are d e te rm in e d to p ro tect. T h e o rg a n isa tio n and tactical d isp o sitio n s o f p o lice an d civ ilian s m ay also be k e y facto rs. D iso rd e r is less lik ely to o ccu r w h e re v e r th e la tter are self-m a n a g e d by stew a rd s an d th e ir o rg an ise rs d isav ow v io le n ce fo r th e d u ra tio n o f th e e v en t. L ik e w ise , o rd e r is m o re likely to be m a in ta in e d w h e re th e p o licin g is lo w -p ro file (or 's o ft h a t'), w ith rio t-clad re in fo rc e m e n t, d o g s and h o rse s k ep t d iscre etly o u t of v iew , and ju n io r ran k s are su p erv ised a c co rd in g to clear lin es of c o m ­ m u n ica tio n an d c o m m a n d . T w o fin al and re la te d v ariab les are the actu al and p e rceiv ed situ atio n al o b je ctiv e s e x istin g on b o th sid es. For e x a m p le, w h ile sen io r o fficers m ay c o n sid e r it n e c e ssa ry to k e e p 50

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pro testers w ell aw ay from a political v en u e, b o th for the safety of political rivals and in o rd er to m aintain the flow of ru sh -h o u r traffic, the d em o n strators m ay regard this as a cynical su p p ression of their 'd em o cratic right' of expression . Th e interactional level d eals, as its nam e suggests, w ith face-to -face activities b e tw e e n m em bers of the police and public: T h ese will vary in d eg rees of resp ect, co -o p eratio n , restrain t or pro v o cation . In high ly charg ed situ ations, a particu lar in cid en t (the th ro w in g of a brick, an arrest or police charg e) m ay spark off disord er. Su ch 'flash p o in ts' are in terp reted sym bolically as ind icatin g the u n d erly in g attitu d e of the o th er side. Im p o rtan t are inten sifiers - i.e. characteristics of the ind ividu als involved (w h eth er h ig h -ran k in g or from a 'v u ln e rab le ' categ o ry, such as a w om an , old p erson or child ), or the w ay in w hich they are p erp etrated (e.g. an esp ecially rough or d eg rad in g arrest). T h e con flict p rom oted by such actions m ay still not prove irrev ersible. Escalation m ay y et be p rev en ted by reactions ['p acifiers'] in d icatin g th at o th e r m em bers o f the group, esp ecially lead ers, regard the original action as out of line. (D. W ad d in g ton and C ritch er 2000: 106) As I hav e p rev iou sly pointed out (D. W ad d in g ton 1992: 20), such acco m p an y in g feelings and em o tio n s as 'p o w e r, liberatio n , elation and re v e n g e ' are best in terp reted w ith refe re n ce to variables existing at the p reced in g levels o f analysis, such as the particu lar griev ances affectin g the d issen tin g group, its m arginalisation from co n v en tion al politics and the history of its recen t en co u n te rs w ith th e police. M y colleagues and I have system atically applied the m o d el in en d eav o u rin g to explain nu m erou s pu blic o rd er ev en ts, som e in or arou nd S h effield , o th ers based abroad ; som e v io len t, o thers not (C ritch er 1996; K ing and W ad d ing ton 2005; D. W ad d ing ton 1987, 1992; D. W ad d in g ton et al. 1989). E lsew h ere, B ak er (1991) has used the m od el to explain p o lic e -p ick et relation s in an A ustralian ind ustrial d isp u te, S h ep tycki (2005) has applied it in a cross-cu ltu ral com p arison of v io len t political protests in C an ad a and Bolivia, and Lo Sh iu -h in g (2006) in a case stud y of the policing o f the antiW TO p rotests in H o ng K ong in 2005. W e th erefo re feel ju stified in claim ing to have devised an exp lan atory fram ew ork 'w h ich [is] flexible en o u g h to en co m p ass a v ariety of types o f d isord er w hile at the sam e tim e allow ing for the u n iq u en ess of each situ ation' (D. W ad d in g ton et al. 1987: 159). 51

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C riticism s o f th e m o d e l b y K eith (1993), O fte n et al. (2001) an d P. A. J. W a d d in g to n (1991, 1994b , 2000a, 2003), h av e b e e n d ealt w ith in p rev io u s p u b licatio n s (K in g an d W a d d in g to n 2005; D. W a d d in g to n 1996, 1998). S u ch o b je ctio n s fo cu s o n th e fact th at th e m o d e l te n d s to assu m e th at all riots are trig g ered by a sin gle fla sh p o in t w h e n , in fact, th e y are o fte n th e resu lt o f m o re th a n o n e m ain in cid e n t. P. A. J. W a d d in g to n has also ju stifia b ly arg u ed th a t som e rio ts c o m m e n c e in th e a b sen ce o f an id e n tifia b le fla sh p o in t, w h ile o th e rs flare up lo n g a fte r th e 'p re c ip ita tin g in c id e n t' h as first o ccu rre d , th u s re n d e rin g the n o tio n o f a 'fla s h p o in t' o f little c o n ce p tu a l v alu e. As I h a v e p re v io u sly stated in re sp o n se: It u ltim ate ly m ak es no d iffe re n c e w h e th e r 'th e final stra w ' in th e e v o lu tio n of a riot tak es th e form o f a h ig h ly e m o tiv e arrest w h ich in d u c es a sp o n ta n e o u s ly v io le n t re a ctio n . . . or in v o lv e s a less im m e d ia te, th o u g h e q u ally a ro u sin g , sy m b o lic e v e n t (e.g. th e sh o o tin g o f a b la ck w o m a n b y p o lice o fficers in B rix to n in 1985, or th e acq u ittal o f p olice o fficers in Los A n g e le s in 1992) w h ic h p ro v o k e s a co llectiv e e x p re ssio n o f in d ig n a tio n by p e o p le n o t in itially in close p ro x im ity to e ach o th e r. E ith e r w ay , the sig n ifica n ce of su ch p re cip ito u s d e v e lo p m e n ts lies in th eir c a p a city to cry stallise e n d u rin g sen sa tio n s o f in ju stice . (D. W a d d in g to n 1998: 387) N e v e rth e le ss, it is still acce p te d th a t th e re is a n eed for th e m o d e l to allow fo r su ch v a ria tio n s in the n a tu re o f p re c ip ita tin g in c id e n ts or e v e n ts, an d fo r p o ssib le tim e-lag s or 'lu lls' (H o ro w itz 2002) b e tw e e n th e trig g e r an d th e o n se t o f w id e r c o n fro n ta tio n . L ik e w ise , it is also im p o rta n t to assu m e th at th e re m ay b e sev e ra l fla sh p o in ts in the co u rse o f o n e p articu lar e v e n t, som e o f w h ich do n o t ig n ite, o th e rs of w h ich m ay in itially ig n ite o n ly to th e n die d o w n , an d o n e or m ore o f w h ich e x p lo d e so in te n se ly as to c o n su m e th e w h o le ev en t.

A D u tc h m o d el o f th e dynam ics of d is o rd e r A sp e cific criticism lev elled a g a in st th e fla sh p o in ts m o d el b y O fte n et al. (2001: 16fn ) is th a t it lacks a 'th o r o u g h tre a tm e n t o f th e im p o rta n t p h ase o f m o b ilisatio n and (self) o rg a n isa tio n o f crow d s (and p o lice )'. T h e se a u th o rs p u rp o rt to h a v e a d ap te d th e m o d el in o rd e r to re ctify th is s h o rtco m in g . In fact, as w e sh all see , th eir o w n fra m e w o rk o f an alysis h as m u ch in co m m o n w ith th e o th e r 52

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a p p r o a c h e s p re v io u sly re fe rre d to in this ch ap te r. T h e ir M odel of the Dynamics of Disorder is applied to tw o case studies: c ele bra tio n s by F e y e n o o r d fans of their t e a m 's success in w i n n i n g the D u tc h football c h a m p i o n s h i p (R o tte rd a m , 25 April 1999), a nd an e th n ic c o m m u n i t y d is o rd er (A m s te r d a m -W e st, 23 April 1998). Fo r the p u rp o se of illustration, w e focus o n the latter. This case s tu d y c en tre s on a police arrest o f three M o ro cc a n y o u th s in an i m p o v e ris h e d n e i g h b o u r h o o d w h ic h led to 'm ass iv e d isorders'. R u m o u r s that the officers h ad u sed u n n e c e s s a r y v io le n c e in m a k in g t h e s e arrests s w e p t th ro u g h th e n e i g h b o u r h o o d and led to local r e sid e n ts o c c u p y in g a cen trally located road r o u n d a b o u t in protest. F o llo w in g a brief s tando ff, police used fo rce to d isperse the p ro testers a n d c o n fro n ta tio n t h e n e n s u e d . O ft e n et al. m a k e the p o int th at 'O n e of the in trig u in g qu e stio n s, w h ic h c a u g h t the p o lic y m a k e rs ' and societal a tte n tion , is h o w such o utbu rsts of c o m m u n i t y d is co n te n t c an result from a s e e m in g ly i n n o c e n t in c id e n t in v o lv in g a few y o u t h s ' (ibid.: 24). T h e a u th o rs a d dress this qu e s tio n w ith re fe re n c e to six levels of analysis: incubation, tension, precipitating event, onset, adjustment and learning. T h e first of these (incubation) deals w ith factors co n trib u tin g to strain ed lo n g -te rm p o l ic e - c o m m u n it y relatio ns. O tte n an d his c olle ag u e s m a k e the po int that h e re w as a local c o m m u n i t y c o m p ris in g M o ro c c a n , T u rkish and S u r in a m e s e m ig ran ts a lo n gsid e a relativ ely e lderly i n d ig e n o u s D u tc h p o p u latio n . R e la tio n s b e t w e e n the police and e th n ic m in o rity y o u th s had pro g ressively d eterio rated d u e to c o n c e rn s o v er rising crim e statistics and c o m p la in ts b y the e lderly that th e y felt th re a t e n e d a nd in tim id a te d . Early in 1997, a special police s u p e rv iso r had b e e n a p p o in te d to restore law and order. Local police patrols w e r e d uly s te p p e d up an d civilian 'police o b se rv e rs ' d e p lo y e d as p art of a street surv eillance exercise. T h e i n e ffe ctiv e n es s of su c h m e a s u r e s placed yet m o r e pre ssu re o n the local m a y o r an d police to get a grip on the situation. T h e s e c o n d level is c o n c e r n e d w ith the w a y in w h ic h re c e n t in c id e n ts can p ro d u c e a gra d u al b u ild -u p of tension in relatio ns b e t w e e n the police and o n e or m o r e section s of the civilian p o p u la ­ tion. H e re , such a situ atio n arose w h e n the police im p l e m e n t e d a policy o f s yste m atically s to p p in g D u tc h - M o r o c c a n y o u th s on m o p e d s (m o to rised p e d al cycles). T h e n u m b e r of traffic v io lations rose a c co rd in g ly and scores of v e hicle s w e r e i m p o u n d e d . T h e y o u th s retaliated by su b je c tin g officers to v erb al ab use a n d h a r a s s m e n t - so m u ch so that police o b se rve rs w e re fo rb id d e n from e n t e rin g a central s h o p p in g mall to p ro te ct th e m fro m possible h a rm . T h e overall rise in 53

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te nsio n w a s e xe m p lified b y an in c id e n t at the b e g i n n in g of April in w h ic h a d r u n k e n y o u t h fell on his face d u rin g an a r g u m e n t w ith a fe m ale o b se r v e r a nd his inju ries w e re w idely in te rp re te d by his peers as e v id e n c e of police bru tality. T h e ke y precipitating event (d efined as an in c id e n t that fuels r e s e n t m e n t o n b o th sides a n d , p e rh a p s, in tro d u c e s a territorial d im e n sio n to the conflict) o ccu rre d on T h u rs d a y , 23 April in a local p la y g ro u n d w h e r e sev e ra l y o u th s w e r e g a th e re d a ro u n d a fire th e y h ad ju st ignited in a wire w a s teb a s k e t. In c on trast to m a n y of their c o n te m p o ra r ie s , th e s e y o u n g m e n e n jo y e d a local re p u ta tio n for good b e h a v io u r. T h e p ro b le m o ccu rre d w h e n the y o u t h s w e re a p p r o a c h e d by thre e police o b se rv e rs w h o w e re in the cou rse of d o in g their ro u nd s. O n e of the officers had ju st referred to a civilian c o u n t e r p a r t as 'a n idiot' w h e n the locally d ete ste d police superv iso r arrived b y m o to rc y c le a nd c o m m a n d e d the y o u th s to leave the area. W h e n o n e y o u n g m a n d efian tly stood his g r o u n d , h e was im m e d ia t e ly arrested. B y s t a n d e r s w e re quickly su c ke d into the struggle: an a n g ry cro w d of 4 0 -s tr o n g s u rr o u n d e d the s u p e rv iso r a nd his colleagues. This w as d u e to in d ig n a tio n c au s ed b y the fact that that the arres te e 's fa th e r had b e e n kicked in the s to m ach w hile tryin g to in te rv e n e . Each of the thre e o b se rve rs w as physically assau lted , at w h ic h p o int the s u p e rv iso r t h re a te n e d to d raw his firearm . W ith in two m in u te s, police re in f o rc e m e n t s arr ived and o rd er w as t e m p o rar ily restored. S everal of the y o u th s w e re h a n d c u f f e d and w hisked aw a y to the c o u n t y police office. O f t e n et al. d efin e the onset p h as e as that part o f the p ro c e e d in g s w h e r e c o m m u n ic a t io n occurs: in fo rm a tio n is d is se m in a te d and r u m o u r starts to circulate re su ltin g in the m o b ilisa tio n of the c row d. In this case, the pro cess inv o lv e d the c ro w d r e a c h in g an a g r e e m e n t to c o n v e r g e o n the n e a r b y police office. In clu d e d in their ran ks w e re a n u m b e r of elderly p ro te sters w h o re g ard e d the police action as un ju stified . T h e c ro w d n u m b e r w as also s w o llen (to an overall total of 'a few h u n d r e d ') by the sig ht and sou nd of an encircling h e lico p te r w h ic h d re w in m a n y curious b ysta nd ers. O n a rriv ing at the station, the c ro w d disco v ered that the p re m is e s w e re u n o cc u p ie d . T h e y also failed in their a tt e m p t to c o n ta ct the police b y p h o n e . T h u s t h w a r te d , th e y d ecided to o c c u p y a cen tral r o u n d a b o u t in a bid to in d u c e the police into e n t e r i n g neg otiatio ns. A traffic b o t t le n e c k th e n d e v e lo p e d an d m e m b e r s of n atio n al an d local m e d ia c o n v e r g e d on the scene. In the m e a n t im e , e xag ge ra te d r u m o u r s o f police atrocities b e g a n circulating. O n e sen io r police 54

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o fficer w as e v e n tu a lly d r a w n into discu ssio ns w ith s o m e of the older M o ro c c a n m e n . H o w e v e r , he s tead fastly re fu se d their d e m a n d s to set the priso ners free, e x p la in in g th at he had no w ay of g u a r a n t e e in g that the y o u th s w o u ld r e s p o n d to their p are n ts ' authority. T h e p e n u ltim a te , adjustment p h a s e o f the p r o c e e d in g s involv es a tte m p ts b y the auth o rities to reassert control. This particular stage was re ac h e d w h e n y o u th s started th r o w i n g rocks a n d , a fter several w a rn in g s , the police c h a rg e d in to successfu lly d isperse them . Finally, the learning p h a s e refers to the post-riot pro cess of reflection, ev alu a tio n and policy fo rm ula tio n. In the p re s e n t e x a m p le , this in v o lv ed an official in qu iry b y the Crisis R e s e a r c h C e n tr e , L eid en U nive rsity, w h ic h led to the i m p le m e n t a t io n of a raft of y o u th p r o g r a m m e s and a re v ie w o f police strate gy and tactics. O t t e n et al.'s a p p r o a c h places a similar e m p h a s is to the A m erican m o d e ls r e v ie w e d in this c h a p t e r o n the p o s t-fla s h p o in t m o b ilisatio n of the cro w d . This pro c e ss is fu rth e r dealt with by the final m o d e l to b e c o n sid e r e d in this c h a p te r, w h i c h fo cu se s on the w a y s in w h ic h the n a tu re of p o lic e - c it iz e n intera ctio n and their recipro cal i n t e r p r e ­ tations o f e a ch o th e r's b e h a v io u r h a s im plications for the escalatio n of disord er.

T h e e la b o ra te d social id e n tity m o d el T h e E la borated Social Id e n tity M o d e l (E SIM ) a s su m e s that the identities a n d n o rm s o f b e h a v io u rs th a t c ro w d m e m b e r s b rin g to a situ atio n are liable to be tra n s fo rm e d d u rin g in te rac tio n w ith an o u t-g ro u p (e.g. R e ic h e r 1996; R e ic h e r a n d Stott 1998). It stands to re as o n that, 'S in ce the o u t-g ro u p in q u e stio n is typically th e police, an y a d e q u a te e x p lan a tio n of c ro w d conflict m u st inclu d e n o t only the actio ns o f c ro w d p articipan ts th e m se lv e s , b u t also those of the police' (D ru ry et al. 2003: 1481). T h e E SIM m a in ta in s that, in c ro w d o rd e r situatio ns, the polic e are apt to in te rp re t the identities and actio ns of pa rticipan ts in w a y s that d iffer substantia lly from the c ro w d 's o w n re a d in g of itself an d its b e h a v io u r. F o r e x a m p le , w hile a b e n ig n ly in t e n d e d s it-d o w n protest m a y be re g a rd e d by those inv o lv ed as a p e rfectly legitim ate cou rse of a ctio n, the police are liable to in te rp re t it n e g a tiv e ly - as a po tential t h re a t to pu blic o rd e r - and act acco rd ingly. T h e n , O n c e conflict has b e g u n , the E SIM sugg ests that it can escalate th ro u g h the c h a n g e in the social locatio n of c ro w d m e m b e r s that 55

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c o m e s a b o u t t h ro u g h the o u t-g ro u p action. In the first place, w h e r e o u t-g ro u p actio n t o w ard in -g ro u p m e m b e r s is pe rce iv e d by the in -g r o u p as in d iscrim in a te, t h e n in-grou p m e m b e r s will c o m e to d efin e t h e m se lv e s as a c o m m o n social categ o ry s haring a c o m m o n relatio n ship of th re a t in relatio n to the o u t-g ro u p . This m a y m e a n that p re v io u s ly d isparate s u b g r o u p s and in d ividu als c o m e to see t h e m se lv e s in c re a sin g ly as a single ( s u p e ro rd in a te ) g ro u p or that an alre a d y existing single gro up m a y c o m e to see itself as in cre asin g ly h o m o g e n e o u s , (ibid.: 1481— 1482) R e ich er (1996) illustrates the im p o r t a n c e of social interactio n in the tra n s fo rm a tio n of identity, and its re sultin g im plications for social relatio ns, by fo cu sin g on the so-called Battle of W e stm in ste r, of 24 N o v e m b e r 1988, w h e n d e m o n s tra to rs o p p o s e d to the in tro d u c tio n of a n e w system of s t u d e n t loans e n g a g e d in v io le n t clashes with police in cen tral L o n d o n . This m a r ch h ad originally b e e n o rg an ise d by the N atio n al U n io n of S t u d e n t s (N U S ) to follow a ro u te from the U niversity of L o n d o n , across the T h a m e s via W a te rlo o B rid g e to a rally in M a r y H a r m o n d s w o r t h Park. H o w e v e r , a b r e a k a w a y section of m a r ch er s, in c lu d in g small n u m b e r s of the Socialist W o rk ers S t u d e n t S o cie ty (S W SS ), m o v e d off to w ard s W e s t m in s t e r B ridge (and t h e n c e to the Palace of W e stm in ste r), ta king the r e m a in d e r of the p ro ce ssion in its w ak e. A so-called sessional o rd e r p roh ib its d e m o n s t ra t io n s from o cc u r rin g w ith in o n e mile of the Pala ce of W e s t m in s t e r w hile P a rliam en t is sitting. It is usually a m a tte r of police dis cretio n as to w h e t h e r p e o p le are allo w ed to a p p r o a c h P a rlia m e n t in small gr oups. O n this o cca sio n, the C h ie f S u p e r i n t e n d e n t in ch a rg e felt that, alth o u g h the m a jo r ity of the m a r ch e r s w e re law -ab id ing, the S W S S was in t e n t on causin g trouble. T h e c o n tras tin g p e rc e p tio n s of e a ch g ro u p at this p o in t are f u n d a ­ m e n tal to e x p la in in g the re sultin g d isorder. T h e m a r ch e r s clearly believed that th e y had a 'r ig ht' to cross the brid ge an d , therefo re, re g a rd e d police a tte m p ts to o b stru c t th e m as illegitimate. Equally , the police o b je c te d that the s t u d e n ts h a d no right to be o n the brid ge and c o n sid er e d the ir p re s e n c e as illegitim ate. A 'p a tte rn of actio n and re a ctio n' w as t h e n g e n e r a te d : It w as b e c a u s e the police saw the s tu d e n t c ro w d as d a n g e ro u s th a t t h e y b lo ck ed off W e s t m in s t e r B ridge and s to p p e d a n y o n e cro ssing it. H e n c e the police n o t o nly held particular v ie w s of 56

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the c ro w d , th e y also had the p o w e r to act acco rd ingly. W h a t is m o r e, in u s in g this c oerciv e p o w e r , t h e y acted ind iscrim in a tely u p o n the d e m o n s t ra t io n as a w h o le . D e m o n s t ra t o rs w e re c o n ­ tained o n the b rid ge irrespective of their original affiliations o r in te n tio n s. W h e n police ho rses p u s h e d the cro w d back, stu d en ts w e re equ a lly liable to get s h o v ed aside or k n o c k e d o v er w h e t h e r th e y had s o u g h t c o n fro n ta tio n or not. T h e police tactics th e re fo re e n s u r e d th a t all d e m o n s tra to rs s h a re d the sa m e e xp e r ie n c e . . . the in d iscrim in a te n a tu re of the police tactics can b e used to explain h o w a f ra g m e n t e d mass of d e m o n s tra to rs c a m e to form a p s ycho log ically h o m o g e n e o u s cro w d . T h e fact th at the basis of their c o m m o n e x p e r ie n c e w as a d en ial of p e rc e iv e d rights explains w h y the m e m b e r s of this c ro w d w e re willing to e n t e r into conflict with the police. W h a t is m o re, in b e in g b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r as a c o m m o n c a te g o ry a n d in b e in g able to p r e s u p p o s e the s u p p o rt of o th e rs in the categ o ry , crow d m e m b e r s g ain e d the c o n f id e n c e to ch a lle n g e the police and try to b re a k their lines, (ibid.: 130) T o b e g in w ith, p articipan ts had re g ard e d t h e m se lv e s as an ag g re g ate o f small gr o u p s w h i c h w e r e easily d iffe re n tiate d from a militant m in o r ity w h o w e r e an tag o n is tic to w a rd s the police. H o w ­ ev er, fo llo w ing police i n te rv e n tio n , m o s t of the crow d saw t h e m ­ selves as a single social ca teg o ry, d istin gu ishab le n o w from a small m in o rity not opposed to the police. Variatio ns in p e o p le 's w illingn ess to e n g a g e in v io le n c e are e xp lain e d by R e ich e r via two im p o rta n t qualifications to his a rg u m e n t. First, h e a s su m e s th a t participan ts c o m m itte d to p rinciples of n o n - v io le n c e m a y h av e b e e n u n p re p a re d to re s p o n d in like m a n n e r to e x tre m e pro v o c atio n . S e co n d ly , in te r­ view s su g g e st that it w as tho se pa rticipan ts w h o r e c o g n is ed the futility o f s h o v in g against b e t t e r o rg a n ise d police lines w h o w e re disinclined to e n g a g e in c o n fro n ta tio n . 'E q u ally , the sh o v in g in cre a se d as the police w e r e m o v e d b a c k an d police lines s e e m e d v u ln e rab le . In o th e r w o rd s, conflict o n ly occurs w h e n it is s e e n as efficacio us' (ibid.: 129).

Conclusions By and large, the ab o v e re v ie w o f A m e rica n a nd British th e o ry le n d s w e ig h t to T aylo r's (1981: 171) o b se rv atio n that sin gle-factor, or 'u n iv a r ia te ', e x p la n a tio n s of public d is o rd er are n o t a d e q u a te to 57

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do ju stice to such a c o m p lic ate d social p h e n o m e n o n . T h e c o n te n ts of the c h a p t e r g e n e r a lly e n d o rs e his s t a n d p o in t that 'a distin ction m a y be m a d e b e t w e e n tw o typ es of cau s es of riots, n a m e ly , the lo n g ­ term p re c o n d itio n s a n d the m o r e specific accelerato rs or p ré cip itan ts' (ibid.). S m e lse r's sem in al T h e o r y o f C ollective B e h a v io u r e m p h a sis e d th at the im p o rt a n c e of such in c id e n ts lay in their p o w e r to crystallise hostile social beliefs re latin g to co n d itio n s of 'social strain'. S u b s e q u e n t A m e rica n a n d British theorists h a v e p laced greater e m p h a s is on the fact that fla sh p o in t e n c o u n t e r s invariably e xe m p lify p ro b le m a tic relatio ns b e t w e e n th e police and a re le v a n t section of society. T h e s e in c id e n ts tend to b e all the m o re in c e n d ia ry to the e x te n t that th e y inv o lv e police in te rv e n tio n s that are especially 'b ru ta l', 'im p o lite' or o th e rw is e 'g o against the pale' o f a cce p tab le b e h av iou r. W h a t this c h a p te r also ind icates is th at the n a tu re a n d im p ac t of the tri gg erin g in c id e n t im m e d ia te ly givin g rise to d iso rd er c a n n o t be entirely u n d e r s t o o d w i t h o u t d u e r e f e re n c e to a p o te n tia lly w id e ran g e of a c c o m p a n y i n g b a c k g r o u n d variables. A m e rican scholars, like S m e lse r, H u n d l e y an d Spieg el, h a v e e ach e m p h a s is e d the sig nific ance of su ch re le v a n t u n d e rly in g co n d itio n s as s u b je ctiv e d ep riv atio n , the a b s e n c e of social or political c h a n n e ls for re d re ss in g g rie v an c e s, and re c e n t histories of p o o r p o l ic e - c o m m u n it y relations. T h e s e factors are said to w o r k a lo n g s id e m o r e p ro x im ate variables, such as ru m o u r and situ ations w h ic h e n a b le requisite pro c e ss e s of c o m m u n ic a t io n and m o b ilisatio n to occur. C o m p le m e n t a r y th e o risin g b y British a c a d e m ic s also high ligh ts the sig nificance of d e p riv atio n , d iscrim in a tio n , d is a d v a n ta g e and political m arginalisation . T h e s e the o rie s and m o d e ls also reco gnise the im p o r t a n c e of e m e r g in g cou n te r-c u ltu r a l o p p o s itio n an d ideological p re ssu re s o n the police to tactically r e s p o n d in w ay s d e tr im e n ta l to the m a i n t e n a n c e of order. T h e Fla s h p o in ts M o d e l of Public D iso rd e r in particular has e n d e a v o u r e d to sy n th es ise these and o th e r variables, such as re le v an t c o m m u n i c a t i o n p ro c e sse s (e.g. ru m o u r , m e d ia sensitisation and the re c e n t histo ry of p o lic e -p u b lic relations), and situ ational factors, like the sym bolic a n d historical sig nific ance of the particular location. A m e rican m o d e ls of th e 1960s are in slight d i s a g r e e m e n t re g a rd in g the e ffect of specific police tactics fo llo w in g the im m e d ia t e p re c ip ita ­ tion of a riot. S m e lse r, H u n d l e y and S p ieg e l all c o n c lu d e that o u tb rea k s of d is o rd er a p p e a r to b e m o st e ffectiv ely q uelled b y firm b u t d is crim in atin g police in te rv e n tio n , aim e d at div iding up the pu blic into sm aller, m o r e m a n a g e a b le gro u p s, p re v e n t in g l e a d e r­ 58

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ship an d restricting the spread of c o m m u n ic a tio n . For Sm elser, this inv o lv e s ta k in g a no -h o ld s-b a rr ed attitu d e w it h o u t a n y signs of b luff or vacillation. T h e r e m a in i n g tw o theorists m a in tain that u n re str a in e d , h e a d -o n c h a rg e s inv a riab ly p ro v o k e hostile c o u n t e r ­ reactio ns, w hile h a lf-h e a rte d and u n d e rs ta ffe d in te rv e n tio n s can easily signal a lack of police con v iction . S m e lse r fu r th e r asserts that control is m o r e effectiv e w h e r e police officers refrain from e n t e rin g n e g o tia tio n s w ith the c ro w d , w h ile Sp ieg e l c o n t e n d s th at placato ry d iscu ssions are b e st carried out by civilian in te rm e d iarie s, p articularly w h e r e p o l ic e - c o m m u n it y relatio ns are at issue. E u r o p e a n theorists, like m y se lf and O f t e n et al., take the c o n ­ trastin g vie w th at the gr e a te r the police e m p h a s is on police n e g o tia tio n a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n w ith the c ro w d , the lesser are the c h a n c e s of v io le n c e escalatin g. T h e flashp o ints m o d e l a s su m e s that w ell-tim ed p acificatory ge stu re s b y the police can o fte n serve to repair b r e a k d o w n s in p o l ic e - p u b l i c relatio ns, prim arily by sig nalling the fo rm e r 's w illingn e ss to a c c o m m o d a t e the goals a n d va lu e s o f the cro w d . O f t e n et al. assert that the police's failure to c o m m u n i c a t e and e xplain their actions to c ro w d m e m b e r s , e sp ecia lly in w a y s that are s ensitive to cultural sensibilities, is o ften a m a jo r co n trib u tin g factor to the e scalatio n o f a riot. T h e E lab o rated Social Id e n tity M o d e l, fo rm u la ted b y R e ic h e r a nd his colleagues, is useful in s h o w i n g h o w , f o llo w ing police i n t e rv e n t io n s s een as u n ju s t an d /o r in d iscrim in ate, a w h o le sa le shift occurs in the social identity of the c ro w d , w h ic h not o nly e n h a n c e s solidarity against the police, b u t also im b u es those p re s e n t w ith the be lie f that th e y h a v e the collective c a p acity to stand up to the authorities. T h e co n clu s io n s d ra w n b o th in this c h a p t e r a n d its p re d e ce s so r p ro v id e te nta tive fo u n d a t io n s fo r u n d e r s t a n d i n g police b e h a v io u r a n d its c o n s e q u e n c e s in the c o n te x t of m a jo r public d isord ers of the p ast tw o d ecad e s. W ith these p re lim in a ry th e o re tica l ideas in m in d , w e n o w turn, in search of an e v en b e tte r u n d e r s t a n d in g , to o ur case s tud ies of m a jo r public d iso rd er in the 1990s and b e y o n d , startin g with the A m erican u rb an diso rd ers of 1 9 9 1 -2 0 0 1 .

59

C h a p te r 3

T h e A m erican urban riots,

1991-2001

In tro d u c tio n O n e of the m ain case stud ies in this c h a p te r is that of the in f a m o u s Los A n g e le s riot of April 1992. This d is o rd er closely follo w ed the acquittal b y an all-w h ite ju ry of a g ro u p of w h ite Los A n ge le s Police D e p a r t m e n t (LAPD) traffic cop s w h o had b e e n cov e rtly v id e o ta p e d w h ile in the pro c e ss o f b e a t in g up the A frican -A m e rican citizen, R o d n e y King. D u rin g three days of rioting, 52 p e o p le died and television a u d ie n c e s lo ok e d o n in ho rr o r as live fo o tag e s h o w e d w h ite m otorists b e in g d rag g e d from their v e hicle s b y blacks, and b e a t e n and stabb ed w ith the police a p p a r e n tly n o w h e r e to b e fo un d. T h e e x te n t an d s ev erity of this v io le n c e w as u n d o u b t e d l y e x c e p ­ tional. Yet, as Gale (1996: 2) p o in ts out, M a n y A m e rican s are sadly aw a re that the v io lence in Los A n g e le s in 1992 w as n o isolated incid ent. It w a s only the m o st sp e ctacu lar e v e n t in a lo n g time o f u r b a n riots that h av e e ru pted periodically d u rin g this c e n t u r y . . . O n e is hard p u t to n a m e a n o t h e r c o u n t r y in w h ic h u rb an interracia l m o b v io le n c e has b e e n such a re c u rr in g th e m e. T h e U n ited States h as e x p e r ie n c e d tw o c o n tra s tin g fo rm s o f u r b a n v io le n c e in the last 11 d eca d e s. Ja n o w it z (1969) he lp fu lly categ orises t h e s e diso rd ers into tw o c o n tra s tin g types. His communal riots are so called b e c a u se th e y typically inv o lv ed conflict b e t w e e n rival e th n ic gro u p s (no tab ly blacks an d w h ite s) o v e r c o n te ste d areas of territory. T h o u g h significant e xa m p le s of th e s e o cc u r re d at the turn of the tw e n tie th c e n t u r y an d as isolated e x a m p le s in the 1930s an d 1940s, 60

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th e y w e r e m o s t c o m m o n p la c e b e t w e e n 1915 a n d 1919. By con trast, commodity riots g e n era lly inv o lv e d attacks b y b lack g h e tto dw ellers on w h i t e -o w n e d p ro p e rtie s a n d s ym b o ls of pu blic auth o rity , no tably the police. This type of riotin g w as characteristic of the 'lo ng, ho t s u m m e r s ' of 1964 to 1968, in v o lv in g 500 such riots across the USA w h ic h a c c o u n t e d for o v e r 250 lives (Gilje 1996; G u rr 1989). S in ce 1990, there h av e b e e n four m a jo r e x a m p le s of c o m m o d it y rioting. T h e M o u n t P le as a n t (W a s h in g t o n , D C ) an d W a s h in g t o n H e ig h ts (N ew Y o r k City) riots of M a y 1991 and July 1992, r e s p e c ­ tively, w e re u n u s u a l insofa r as th e y inv o lv e d altercations b e t w e e n police officers a nd m e m b e r s of local Hispanic c o m m u n itie s . T h e St P e te rs b u r g h , Florida, riot of 1996 an d the C incinnati, O h io , d isord er of April 2001 c o n f o rm e d to a m o r e familiar p a tte rn , h a v in g b e e n triggered w h e n w h ite cops s h o t dead A frica n-A m e rica n s uspects of crimes. T h e tw o e x c e p tio n s to this fo rm o f riotin g are the C r o w n H e ig h ts (N e w Y o rk City) d is tu rb a n ce o f A u g u st 1991 and the Los A n g e le s riot itself. T h e f o rm er fits the p ro to typ ical definitio n of a c o m m o d it y riot, insofar as it c e n tre d o n a d isp u te b e t w e e n blacks and H asid ic Jew s. Police inactio n in the early p h a s e s of the riot s u b s e q u e n t ly p ro v o k e d fierce c o m p la in ts by the H asidic p o p u la tio n and d re w contrite reactio ns fro m city authorities. T h e Los A n g e le s riot con stitu te d s o m e t h i n g of a hybrid e x a m p le , b e in g stro ngly r e m in is c e n t of the 1980 M ia m i riot, w h ic h was sim ilarly p ro v o k e d b y the acquittal of police officers w h o had brutalised a b la ck m o to rist (P orter and D u n n 1994). Like the M ia m i riot, the LA riot also inv o lv e d s u s tain e d attacks o n n e i g h b o u r i n g e th n ic g ro u p s (in M iam i, it w as C u b a n expatriates a n d w hites; in LA, w hite s and K o re an s ) in a d ditio n to w id e s p re a d lo oting an d d ev as tatio n of p ro p e rty . A justifiable c o m p a ris o n m a y also be d ra w n b e t w e e n the C r o w n H e ig h ts and LA riots, in that th e y e a ch p ro v o k e d in te n s e criticisms of police inactio n and dis­ o rg an isatio n , later a c k n o w le d g e d in official re p o rts (G irgenti 1993; W e b s t e r 1992). T h e re m a in d e r of the c h a p t e r is d ev o te d to e x p lo rin g the le ssons of th e s e slightly c o n tras tin g typ es of d is o rd er for public o rd e r policing. To av oid w as tefu l d u p licatio n of d iscussion, o nly two of the fo u r c o m m o d it y riots are d iscu ssed in close detail, th e s e b e in g the W a s h i n g t o n and C in c in n ati riots, a b o u t w h ic h in fo rm a tio n is m o re plentifu l. A cad e m ic, journalistic and official a c co u n ts and analyses are u sed in all fo u r of the fo llo w in g case stud ies to explore the possible sig nific ance of police s tructures and o rg a n isatio n , p o l ic e c o m m u n i t y relatio ns, police tactics and strategies, an d w id e r 61

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socio-p olitical issues, in c lu d in g the role of the m ed ia. T h e c h a p te r resists the ob v io u s im p u ls e to ad d ress the riots in c h ro n o lo gica l order. T h e r e le v a n t literature on the c o m m o d it y riots focu ses prim arily on the p ro c e sse s building up to t h e m , w h ile stud ies o f the C r o w n H e ig h ts and Los A n ge le s d iso rd ers also c o n c e n t r a t e on police activities du rin g the riots. W e t h e re fo re b e g in b y fo cu sin g on the f o rm er categ o ry, startin g with the M o u n t P le as a n t con fro n tatio n .

C o m m o d ity rio ts

The M o u n t P le a s a n t Riot. W a s h i n g t o n , D C , M a y 1991

T h e in c id e n t that sp arke d tw o d a ys o f riotin g on S u n d a y , 5 M a y 1991 in the M o u n t P le a san t area of W a s h i n g t o n , D C in v o lv e d the s h o o tin g b y a b lack 'ro o k ie ' fe m ale police officer o f a y o u n g S a lv a d o ra n m ale w h o w as alle g ed ly resistin g arrest o n c h a rg es of public drinking. T h e p o lic e w o m a n m a in ta in e d th at the m a n h ad pulled a knife, m o m e n t s b e fo re she s h o t him in the chest. Civilian w itn e ss e s insisted th at the p ris o n e r w a s a lre ad y h a n d c u f f e d at the tim e of the s ho o tin g. E ither w ay , a c ro w d fo rm ed a ro u n d the in c id e n t and p ro c e e d e d to attack the police (The Economist 1991; Gilje 1996; U n ited S tates C o m m iss io n on Civil Rights 1993). F o llo w in g this in cid e n t, the police w e r e in stru cte d b y the city m ay o r, S h a r o n Pratt D ixo n , n o t to risk e sca latin g the situation b y m a k in g arrests. T h e m a y o r a d o p t e d a con ciliatory a p p r o a c h by m e e t i n g w ith re p r e s e n ta tiv e s of the M o u n t P le a san t H isp a n ic c o m m u n i t y a day later a nd a c k n o w l e d g in g that g rie v a n c e s against the city g o v e r n m e n t w e re w e ll-fo u n d e d . H o w e v e r , s o o n a fter this m e e tin g , d e m o n s tra to rs a ttack e d police vehicles and p e r s o n n e l and w e r e fired on w ith riot gas as sev eral h o u rs of v io le n c e u n fo ld e d . It w as n o t until m id n ig h t that the m a y o r finally declared a c urfew . O n the fo llo w in g e v e n in g , p e o p le living in the locality w e re re q u ire d to be in d oo rs b y 7 p.m. or risk b e in g arrested. This m e a s u r e p ro v e d effective, b rin g in g to an e n d a riot in w h ic h 230 p e o p le w e re arrested and 60 v e hicle s d a m a g e d or d es tro y ed ( D r u m m o n d Ayres Jn r 1991; The Economist 1991). In the w a k e of the riot, ju d g e m e n t s of the m a y o r's actions w e re d ivided b e t w e e n tho se w h o c o m m e n d e d her restraint in n o t e sc alat­ ing the d iso rd er and tho se w h o c o n d e m n e d he r for 'e n c o u r a g i n g ' the rioters b y a d o p t in g too p assive a p o stu re (The Economist 1991: 41). S u c h c o m m e n t a t o r s w e r e vir tually u n a n im o u s , th o u g h , in id e n tify ­ 62

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ing lo n g -te rm a n ta g o n is m b e t w e e n the police and local c o m m u n i t y as a p rim ary c ause of the riot. T h e M o u n t P le a s a n t area w as hea v ily p o p u la te d b y r e fu g e e s from El S a lv ad o r w h o h ad fled the civil w a r in their c o u n try in the early 1980s. M a n y of th e m had w o rk e d in the tertiary trade or c o n stru ctio n i n d u s try until a law w a s p a sse d in 1988 w h i c h p e n a lise d e m p lo y e rs for taking on 'illegal im m ig ra n ts ' b u t w h ic h pro v id ed an a m n e sty for a n y e m p l o y e e s hire d b e fo re 1982. As the m a jo r ity o f S a lv a d o ra n s h ad settled in the U SA after 1982, m o s t w e re s u d d e n l y forced out of the ir jobs. T h e re sultin g high level of u n e m p l o y m e n t w as cited as a p ro ba ble re a s o n for the g r o w in g t e n d e n c y of large n u m b e r s of S a lv a d o ra n m a le s to h a n g a ro u n d o n street c o r n e rs and in park s, d rin k in g b e e r and p ro v o k in g com p la in ts b y the police, trad ers and o th e r local re s id e n ts of d r u n k e n n e s s and o th e r fo rm s of anti-social b e h a v io u r: At th e s a m e time, M o u n t P le a san t was b e in g yu p p ifie d an d the n e w arrivals p u t pre ssu re on the police to 'c le a n up ' the area. A lrea d y d riv e n fro m n e w ly fash io n ab le A d a m s - M o r g a n (just d o w n the road) b y y u p p ifica tion , the H isp a n ics b e g a n to feel th at they w e re b e in g p u s h e d from M o u n t P le asa n t too. (The Economist 1991: 44) S a lv ad o ran a n d o th e r H is p a n ic re sid e n ts of M o u n t P le a s a n t c o m ­ plain ed of police h a r a s s m e n t and discrim in atio n. T h e y m a in ta in e d that H isp a n ics w e re f o re v e r b e in g s to p p e d to h a v e their im m ig ratio n p a p e rs c h e c k e d , or w e r e ro u tin e ly b e in g b o o k e d for m in o r traffic violations. O n e M e x ic a n - A m e ric a n q u o te d b y C a s t a n e d a and H e n d e r s o n (1991) c o m p la in e d that, 'If yo u lo o k S p a n ish or s p e ak S p a n ish , t h e y 'r e suspicious o f yo u .' This w as e c h o e d b y a H o n d u r a n c o n str u c tio n w o r k e r w h o told J o r d a n (1991): 'T h e police believ e w e 'r e all d u m b , illegal and d r u n k . . . T h e y d o n 't treat us as well as t h e y treat blacks. W e call th e m , t h e y c o m e tw o h o u rs later. If w e are s t a n d in g a ro u n d o n the streets, th e y tell us to m o v e on. T h e y d o n 't do th a t to blacks.' Cu ltu ral an d lin guistic d iffe re n c e s m a y also h a v e b e e n i n ­ s tru m en ta l in b rin g in g the conflict to the boil. H isp an ics com p la in e d that, in places like El S a lv a d o r, it w as c u s to m a ry for gro u p s of m ales to do their d rin k in g in pu blic w ith o u t fear of legal in te rv e n tio n . In c on trast, the police re g a rd e d the d rin k in g as a sou rce of street fights, litter and d o m e stic abuse (ibid.). T h e fact that the m ain g r o u p s of an tag o n is ts literally sp o ke tw o d iffe re n t la n g u a g e s w as also a crucial 63

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factor. T h e r e w e re no S p a n is h - s p e a k in g officers in v o lv e d in the original arrest and no o th e rs arr ived on the sce n e until an h o u r or m o r e had passed (C a s ta n e d a an d H e n d e r s o n 1991). T h e s e w e re a m o n g the m a in co n trib u tin g factors h ig h lig h ted in an official re p o rt of inquiry p u blish e d two years later: W itn e ss e s at the C o m m iss io n h e a r in g alleged in s tan ce s of police m is co n d u c t, in c lu d in g h a r a s s m e n t , racial a n d d e m e a n i n g la n g u a g e , excessiv e use of force, a nd the a b u s e of d iscretio nary arrest p o w e r against the L atin o c o m m u n ity . T e s t i m o n y also focu sed on the low n u m b e r of L a tin os and bilingual p e rs o n n e l in the M P D to c o m m u n i c a t e w ith a g r o w in g S p a n ish p o p u la ­ tion, and the i n a d e q u a c y of c u rr e n t police training and m o n it o rin g of police m is co n d u c t. (U nited S ta tes C o m m iss io n on Civil Rights 1993: 20) A n o t h e r p o lic e -civ ilia n e n c o u n t e r , this time in v o lv in g the arrest an d fatal s h o o tin g of a D o m i n i c a n -b o r n A m e rica n by an u n d e r c o v e r N Y P D narcotics a ge n t, w a s the catalyst for six days of riotin g in the W a s h i n g t o n H e ig h ts area of N e w Y o rk City, on 3 Ju n e 1992 (H evesi 1992; Katz 1993; M c G o w a n 1993). S u b s e q u e n t riots in Florida and O h i o w e r e e v e n m o r e r e m in is c e n t of the c o m m o d it y riots of the 1960s, insofar as th e y inv o lv e d A frican -A m e rican s and the police. R io tin g in St P e te rs b u r g h , Florida, o n 24 O c t o b e r 1996 fo llo w ed the s h o o tin g in broad d aylig ht of an 18-year-old A frican-A m erican, T y R o n M a r k L ew is, b y o n e of tw o w h ite police officers w h o h ad s to p p e d him at an in te rsec tio n , alleg ed ly for s p e e d i n g in a su sp e cte d stolen car (P ost an d Y o u n c e 1996). This w as the sixth in a series of s h o o tin g s of this n a tu re , the latest h a v in g p re d a t e d the riot by o n ly a w e e k (ibid.). T h e St P e te rs b u r g h d iso rd er was s u p e rs e d e d in scale by the C in c in n a ti riot of five years later w h i c h , as w e shall n o w see, w as similar in o th e r i m p o rta n t respects.

The C i n c i n n a t i ( O h i o ) r io t , A p r i l 2 0 0 1

T h e C in c in n ati, O h io , riot o f April 2001 w as A m e rica 's largest u rba n d is o rd er sin ce the Los A n ge le s conflict of 1992. T h e fo u r days of riotin g in the city's O v e r -t h e - R h i n e area follo w ed an in c id e n t o cc u r rin g a ro u n d 2.20 a.m. o n S atu rd ay , 7 April, w h e n a 19-year-old A frica n -A m e ric an m ale (T im o th y T h o m a s ) w as s h o t at close ran g e in the chest, h a v in g b e e n p u rsu e d d o w n an a lle y w ay b y a w hite C in c in n a ti polic e o fficer (P atro lm a n S t e p h e n Ro ach). T h e t e e n a g e r 64

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h ad b e e n w a n t e d o n 14 m is d e m e a n o u r c ou n ts, in c lu d in g 12 traffic violations. T h e s h o o tin g follo w ed a 10-m in u te c h a se in v o lv in g n ine o th e r officers. Initially, R o a c h had d e f e n d e d his actio n by claim ing that T h o m a s ha d g o n e for a g u n in his w aistb an d . S u b s e q u e n tly , he a d m itted th at he had s h o t T h o m a s by a cciden t, h a v in g b e e n startled b y his s u d d e n a p p e a r a n c e from ro u nd a corner. T h o m a s w as ru sh ed by a m b u la n c e to hospital w h e r e he died of his w o u n d s (Walsh 2001). G r o w in g c o m m u n i t y te n s io n p e a k e d on the fo llo w in g M o n d a y , 9 April, w h e n an g ry p ro testers, in c lu d in g T h o m a s 's m o t h e r , a s se m b le d ou tsid e City Hall to d e m a n d a public e xp la n a tio n of h e r s o n 's killing. C o u n c il m e m b e r s w e re p r e v e n t e d from le a v in g the bu ild in g for three ho u rs as the p ro te sters w aited in vain for an a n s w e r. L a ter that e v e n in g , h u n d r e d s of re sid e n ts a s se m b le d ou tsid e O v e r - t h e - R h i n e 's District 1 police station, w h e r e th e y w e re c o n fro n te d by a w aitin g line of police officers, s o m e on h o rs e b a c k , o th e rs in cruisers. P ro te st­ ers threw sto n e s and b ottles at the police and s m as h e d in the station's front door. T h e station flag w a s pulled fro m its m ast and r e h u n g u p sid e d o w n . A fter a p p r o x im a te ly o n e h o u r, police in riot ge a r o p e n e d fire w ith tear gas, b e a n b ags a n d r u b b e r bullets, a n d 10 arrests w e re m a d e ( M c D o n a ld 2001; W a lsh 2001). T h e fo llo w in g a f te rn o o n (10 April) saw a re s u m p t io n of v io le n c e w h e n a h ith e rto static d e m o n s t ra t io n b y 2 0 - 5 0 y o u n g b la ck m e n s u d d e n ly set off n o rth with police officers in tow. At a road i n ­ tersection , the p ro testers started th r o w i n g bo ttles an d ga r b a g e at the police, c au sin g the latter to b a ck off. S uch b e h a v io u r was re p e ate d at a n e a r b y set o f traffic lights. S e n s in g the police's re lu c ta n c e to in te rv e n e , parts of the c ro w d h e a d e d d o w n t o w n w h e r e they o v e r tu rn e d garba ge cans, v e n d o r s ' carts and n e w s p a p e r boxes. T h e y th e n set ab o u t s m a s h in g the w i n d o w s of b a n k s, re s tau ra n ts a n d bars and lo otin g stores ( C o n te 2001). A n u m b e r of w h ite m otorists w e re ha u le d from their cars and b e ate n . Police w ith lin ked arm s or on h o rs e b a c k used tear gas, bean bags and ru b b e r bullets to d isperse the rioters. Sixty-six p e o p le w e r e arrested (W alsh 2001). S p o rad ic in c id e n ts also b ro k e o u t o n the fo llo w in g n igh t, d u rin g w h ic h tim e a police c r a c k d o w n re sulted in 82 arrests. O n the fo llo w ­ in g m o r n in g , the local m a y o r a n n o u n c e d a city-w id e c u rfe w allo w in g on ly th o se p e o p le travelling to and from w o r k to use the streets b e t w e e n the ho u rs of 8 p.m . an d 6 a.m. (ibid.). T h e city w as placed u n d e r a state of e m e r g e n c y and 125 state tro o p e rs b r o u g h t in as ba c k -u p (W hite 2001a). N o fe w e r th a n 800 p e o p le w e r e arrested for vio lating c u rfe w c o n d itio n s (ibid.). F u r t h e r c o n tro v e r sy w as c aused on 14 April, the d ay of T i m o t h y 65

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T h o m a s 's fun era l, w h e n the police ge ared up for a possible c o n fr o n ­ tation by flying a h e lic o p te r o v e r h e a d and p o s itio n in g riot officers tw o b locks a w ay . A fter the service, a p ro c e ss io n of 30 m o u r n e r s m a r c h e d to L iberty and Elm Streets. Six m e m b e r s of the C in c in n ati S W A T team and an O h i o H ig h w a y Patrol officer soon a rriv ed, leaped out of their cruisers an d fired b e a n b a g a m m u n it i o n into a c ro w d of 20 pe ac efu l m arch ers. T w o ad ults and tw o c h ild re n w e re in ju re d in the process (Clark an d O 'K a i n 2001; H a rt 2001). T h e police later asserted that officers w e re r e s p o n d in g to in stru c tio n s to clear the streets o f a large c ro w d w h ic h w as b lo ck in g an intersection . Civilian e y e w it n e s s e s claim that the police pulled up an d , w i t h o u t a n y w a r n ­ ing, sin gled o u t b lack participa n ts as targets (E d w ar d s 2001; H art

2001). In o rd e r to fully u n d e rs t a n d the cau s es of this riot, w e m u st first c o n sid er the so c io -e c o n o m ic co n d itio n s a ffe cting C in cin n a ti's A frica n -A m e rican p o p u latio n and e xplo re their im p licatio n s for p o l ic e - c o m m u n it y relations. O f the city's 331,000 resid ents, ju s t o v er 40 p e r c e n t are A frican -A m e rica n (W alsh 2001). D isp r o p o rtio n a tely h igh n u m b e r s of blacks are c o n c e n t r a t e d w ith in the city's hig h ly im p o v e rish e d O v e r - t h e -R h i n e area (Lazare 2001). W h it e (2001b) m a k e s the p o in t that, at the tim e of the riot, av e ra g e in c o m e for the city as a w h o l e w a s $26,774, w hile that of O v e r - t h e -R h i n e w a s $8,600. H ig h u n e m p l o y m e n t , re su ltin g from the 'd ra m a tic loss' of m a n u fa c t u r in g jo bs, w as o cc u r rin g ju st w h e n th e b u d g e t for y o u th p r o g r a m m e s had b e e n slashed (W h ite 2001c). S y m p t o m a t ic of this g r o w in g p o v e rty w a s the fact th a t d rugrelated arrests in O v e r - t h e -R h i n e had av e ra g e d 2,300 p e r y e a r since 1995. T h e police re s p o n s e to g a t h e rin g public c o n c e r n a b o u t the proliferation of d rug ac tivity is in te rp re te d b y W h it e (2001b: 1 0 - 1 1 ) as ind icativ e o f a w id e r class conflict: T h e actions of the police c a n n o t be u n d e rs t o o d ou tsid e of u n d e r ­ s ta n d in g the fu n ctio n th e y serve in a city th at is so sh arp ly polarized b e t w e e n e c o n o m ic classes. Like e v er y o th e r A m erican city, C in c in n a ti in the 1990s has u n d e r g o n e a d e e p e n in g class division b e t w e e n the h a v e s and ha v e -n o ts . It is u n d e r these co n d itio n s that the police h a v e e m e r g e d as the c h ie f e n fo rc e rs of a social policy to m argin aliz e the p o o r a nd p ro tect the private pro p e r ty an d w e ll-b e in g of the affluent, (ibid.: 1 0 -1 1 ) This th e m e is re in fo rc e d by Cottle (2001) w h o c o m m e n t s on the pre-rio t pro liferatio n in O v e r - t h e -R h i n e o f n e w firms, particularly 66

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i n te rn e t c o m p a n ie s , k e e n to take a d v a n t a g e o f low rentals; of y o u n g p ro fe ssio nals and p ro p e r ty d e v e lo p e rs b u y i n g up the c h e a p b u t full of c h a ra c te r Victoria n h o u sin g w ithin easy c o m m u t in g distance of the city's cen tral b u s in e ss district; an d of the a c c o m p a n y i n g g r o w th of bars, re s tau ra n ts a nd nigh tclubs. This in cre a se d gen trification of the area had b e e n a c c o m p a n i e d b y a parallel tra n s fo rm a tio n of police activity: In O v e r -t h e - R h i n e , the increase in police p re s e n c e (and police vig ilance) in re c e n t years has b e e n dram atic. N o t o nly d o es the city put extra officers o n patrol d u rin g the e n t e r t a i n m e n t district's p e a k ho u rs, b u t m a n y o ff-d u ty officers m o o n lig h t as private security g u ard s for area bu sine sse s. F e w of the p atro l­ m e n c o m e from the n e i g h b o r h o o d , and critics c h a rg e that they are m o r e c o n c e rn e d w ith p ro te c tin g its (white) c lu b -h o p p e rs and h o u s e - re n o v a t o rs than its lo n g tim e (black) resid ents. In fact, ac c o rd in g to m a y of th o se old-tim ers, p ro te c tin g the n e w c o m e r s has led to in c re a se d police h a r a s s m e n t of b la ck yo u th. In a sen se th e n , C in c in n a ti's riots w e re e m b le m a tic of a n e w kind of racial conflict, b o rn o f c re e p in g prosperity, (ibid.: 2) W h it e (2001b) re p o rts that, in a d d itio n to b e in g hired in their o ff-d u ty capacity to guard p atro n s a nd their cars, the police carried o u t b lo ck -b y -b lo c k s w e e p s for d rug s a nd alcohol of a p a rt m e n t s o w n e d by b u s in e ss corp o ration s. T h e s e services w e re paid for at police o v er tim e rates. F o llo w in g su c h in c id e n ts as the ro b b e ry and killing of a y o u n g w h ite m u sician e m p lo y e d at a local n ig h tsp o t, the City ad m in istra to rs passed a 'd r a c o n ia n local o r d n a n c e ' giv in g the police 'a lm o s t u n fe tt e r e d d iscretion to b a n is h p e o p le ' w h o h a d b e e n arrested for d ru g -re late d o ffe n c es (Lazare 2001). A rrests for such o ffe n c es could lead to a p e rs o n 's exclu sio n from the area for a period of 90 days, and an actual c on v ictio n for o n e full year. B e tw e e n S e p t e m b e r 1996 and J a n u a r y 2000, o v e r 1,500 p e o p le w e re exclu d ed in this fa s h io n (W h ite 2001b). P o o r p o l ic e - c o m m u n it y relatio ns resultin g fro m th e s e policies w e re fu r th e r a g g rav ate d b y institutional pressu res: As in o t h e r cities, su c h as N e w Y ork, C in c in n a ti police officers are e x p e c te d to m a k e arrest goals or quotas. Police officers are also re w a rd e d for h igh v o lu m e s of arrests, w hile facing discipline for failing to a c h iev e an 'e x p e c t e d ' n u m b e r o f arrests. T h e en d result is that the police arrest m o r e lo w -in c o m e and 67

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m in o r ity p e rs o n s , w h o are less likely to fight the c h a rg es in court. (W h ite 2001b: 14) T h e p ro b le m - as identified b y a fo r m e r police officer, turne d H e ad of the c ity -sp o n so re d H u m a n Relatio ns C o m m iss io n - was that police officers te n d e d to cruise the area w ith m o r e c o n c e r n for c a tc h in g tro u b le m a k e rs than with b u ild in g positive re latio n ship s w ith its p e o p le . S u c h officers u sed a q u e s tio n ab le modus operandi: 'T h e y drive u p in their cars real fast, slam on the b reak s, an d see w h o runs . . . T h e o n e w h o ru ns m u st b e w a n t e d ' (quo ted b y Cottle 2001: 3). In the six ye ars le a d in g up to the d isord er, the C in c in n a ti police had killed 15 suspects, all of th e m black, in c lu d in g fo u r sin ce the p re v io u s N o v e m b e r . T h re e w e e k s b e fo re the riots to o k place, local civil liberties o rg an isatio n s jo in e d w ith the A m e rica n Civil Liberties U n io n (A CL U ) in filing a law suit th ro u g h the civil courts, alleg in g 30 years o f racial profilin g b y the C in c in n ati police (W h ite 2001c). As the legal d irecto r of the O h io A C L U h a s stated, m e a s u r e s like the d rug exclu sion w a r fo rm part o f 'a tapestry o f a b u s e s that has led to a culture of hostility b e t w e e n the A frica n -A m e rican c o m m u n i t y and the police. It's o n e m o r e w a y in w h ic h o v er-p o licin g has b r o u g h t the c o m m u n i t y to the b rin k ' (Cottle 2001: 4).

C o m m u n a l rio tin g : th e C ro w n H e ig h ts rio t (N e w Y o rk C ity ), A u g u s t 1991 T h e last sig nificant A m e rican e x a m p le of a c o m m u n a l riot to o k place in a m a jo r b o r o u g h of N e w Y o r k City in A u g u s t 1991.

A n o v e rv iew o f t h e r i o t

T h e C r o w n H e ig h ts area of cen tral B ro o k ly n is largely p o p u la te d by citizens o f A frica n -A m e rican an d A frican -C a rib b ea n heritage. Also re s id e n t in the area is a sm aller, th o u g h d e n s e ly p o p u la te d , c o m ­ m u n ity of m e m b e r s of the L u b av itch H asid im sect of O r t h o d o x Jew s. T h e fo u r days of riotin g in C r o w n H e ig h ts fro m 1 9 - 2 2 A ug ust 1991 reflected a m u tu al an im o s ity b e t w e e n b la ck and Je w ish resid ents, as well as p ro b le m atic relatio ns b e t w e e n e a c h of the rival e th n ic gro ups and the police. T h e fo llo w ing a c co u n t of the riot is largely b ased on an official re p o rt b y the S tate D irecto r of C rim in al Ju stice (G irgenti 1993), c o m p l e m e n t e d b y m o r e re c e n t a c a d e m ic analyses of e v en ts ( C o n a w a y 1999; S h ap iro 2002; S h a p iro 2006: esp. 3 6 -6 9 ). 68

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T h e trigger of the riot o cc u r re d at a p p r o x im a te ly 8.20 p.m. o n the e v e n in g of M o n d a y , 19 A ug ust 1991, w h e n the G r a n d R e b b e of the w o rld w id e c o m m u n i t y of C h a b a d L u b av itch , Rabbi M e n a c h e m S c h n e e r s o n , w as r e tu r n in g to his h e a d q u a rte r s, h a v in g ju st paid his w e e k ly visit to the graves of his wife and father-in-la w . As th e y d ro v e th ro u g h a traffic in te rsec tion , o n e o f three v e h icle s in the R abbi's m o to rc a d e (a station w a g o n ) collid ed with a n o t h e r car b e fo re v e er in g on to the s id e w a lk and strikin g d o w n two s ev e n -y e ar-o ld b lack c hild ren, G av in Cato a n d his cou sin , A ngela. S o m e b y s ta n d e rs later alleged that the traffic light w a s at red w h e n the station w a g o n e n te re d the inte rsection ( C o n a w a y 1999; G irg e n ti 1993). T h e car's d rive r an d its tw o p a s se n g e rs w e re instan tly s u rr o u n d e d b y a hostile c ro w d as tw o police officers (bo th m ale) also arr ived on the scene. T h e officers w e re soon jo in e d by tw o a m b u la n ce s , one b e lo n g in g to the city's E m e r g e n c y M e d ic a l Service (E M S) and the seco nd a H a t z o la h - s p o n s o re d vehicle w h ic h w as first to arrive on the sce n e b y sev eral m in u te s. B efo re lo n g, m e m b e r s o f the 150stro n g cro w d started to assault the three o c c u p a n ts of the station w a g o n , p r o m p t in g the police to radio to c olle ag u e s for assistance. T w o of the officers r e s p o n d in g to this call b u n d le d the thre e J e w s into the H a tz o la h a m b u la n c e and instructed the d river to r e m o v e them for their o w n safety. T h e a m b u la n c e hu rrie d ly d ro v e off to the city's M e t h o d is t H o spital w h e r e the station w a g o n 's d river w as given an a lco ho l b re a th test b y the police, the result of w h ic h w as negativ e. G av in C ato was taken by an E M S a m b u la n c e to K ing's C o u n t y H o spital b u t w a s p r o n o u n c e d d ead s o o n after his arrival. A ngela C ato w as ta k e n to the sam e hospital b y a third v e h icle and s u b s e q u e n tly surv ived he r injuries. A r u m o u r soo n spread that, in the co n fu s io n s u r r o u n d in g the ac cid e n t, G a v in C a to 's fa t h e r had b e e n p u s h e d o u t of the w a y by a police officer. A s e c o n d ru m o u r that the H a tz o la h a m b u la n c e crew had b y p a ss e d the critically inju red G avin to ad m in iste r tr e a t m e n t to their fellow J e w s - also rapidly c irculated the cro w d . F o llo w in g this, L u b a v it c h e r b y s ta n d e rs w e re angrily b o m b a r d e d with rocks. T h e cro w d w as too large for the 1 5 - 2 0 or so polic e officers to m a n a g e . In d e e d , their sen io r officer o rd e re d th e m to w i th d ra w for their o w n safety (G irg enti 1993: 6 1 - 6 2 ) . D u rin g the e n s u i n g ho u rs, Je w ish civilians w e re system atically assau lted an d their cars and h o u s e s vand alised . Y a n k e l R o s e n b a u m , a 29-ye a r-o ld visitin g rabbinical s t u d e n t from Australia, was s u rr o u n d e d a n d set u p o n b y 15 y o u th s. H e w a s sta bbed fo u r times and later died in hospital. H o w e v e r , w h e n police c o m m a n d e r s g a th e re d at 4 a.m. in the local 71st P re cin c t Statio n H o u s e to rev iew 69

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the situation, their general con sensu s of opinion was that this had be e n no th in g more than a s p o nta neo us eruptio n, quite c o m m o n for the area, 'that pro per tactics had b e e n e m p lo ye d ', and that the conflict would no w gradually wind d o w n (ibid.: 65). This was an over-optimistic prognosis. O n the following day, the City M ayo r and his staff m et up and decided on a strategy for dissem in atin g inform ation into the c om m u nity to cou nteract the spread of ru mour. Police twice interv ened that afternoon to separate rival d em onstratio ns by blacks and Jews. O n the second occasion, black dem onstrators b egan thro w ing bottles and stones at a 100strong detail of police, eventually forcing them to flee for cover. The C o m m a n d e r of the B rooklyn South Patrol B orough later explained that this had b e e n a deliberate act of restraint, designed to avoid exacerbating the situation. H o w ever, ju n io r officers com plain ed of having b e e n 'sitting ducks': only those colleagues standing in the front row of the detail had been equipped with protective shields and e v en they had b e e n forced to relin quish them w h e n e v e r they were m ore urgently n e e d ed elsew here (ibid.: 76). W e d n e s d a y afterno o n saw a resum ptio n of violence, inclu ding an attack on the Police Com m ission er's car, which forced him to take refuge alongside ju nio r colleagues in a school building. Follow in g this incident, the Co m m ission er con du cted a personal tour of the n e igh b ou rh o o d , an experie nce which finally persuaded him of the necessity of a tactical reorientation. This decision m a y also have been encouraged by gro w in g signs of frustration a m o n g rank-andfile officers aggrieved at the D e p artm e n t's failure to allow them to take a m ore proactive stance. O n Thu rsday morning, the Police Co m m ission er approv ed a revised strategy for dealing with the disturbances. The riot area was divided up into four zones, each u n d e r the c om m an d of a handpicked officer. Far greater nu m bers of officers w ere deployed than on previous e venin gs, m any of them in the form of mobile response teams. A ssembly laws w ere invoked to m ove on or disperse gath erin g crowds and m ore arrests w ere enforc ed that day than in the three preceding days pu t together. A ccord ing to Girgenti (ibid.: 105), 'T h e increased police presence and different tactics, coupled with a new get-tough approach, let area residents know that rioting and lawlessn ess would not be to le r a te d / The following m orning heralded an 'u n e asy calm' and, by Saturday, the violence had c o m ­ pletely subsided (ibid.: 106).

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The so u rc es o f c o m m u n i t y te n s io n

T h e G irg e n ti C o m m is s io n u n d e rlin e s the sig nificance of the r e s e n t ­ m e n t felt by b lack re s id e n ts to w a rd s their J e w ish n e ig h b o u rs and the police. Part of this r e s e n t m e n t c o n c e r n e d p e rc e p tio n s that the H asid ic c o m m u n i t y was o v e r -re p re s e n te d in the local polity and could t h e re fo re exercise u n fa ir political clout. A sec o n d sou rce of i n d ig n atio n related to c o m p e titio n o v e r local h o u sin g , w h ic h w as greatly in d e m a n d b y L u b a v itc h e rs , w h o - d u e to th e typically large size of their families an d religious con straints o n their use o f m o to r cars - w e re alw a ys on the l o o k o u t for large p ro p e rtie s w ithin w alk in g d istan ce of their s y n a g o g u e s . A cco rd iiig to G irg enti, m a n y b lack h o m e o w n e r s felt in tim id ate d and a n ta g o n is e d by 'u n solicite d , p e rs is te n t an d agg ressive c a m p a ig n s' b y their J e w is h n e ig h b o u rs to b uy up h o u s in g stock and 'd rive them out' of the c o m m u n i t y (ibid.: 45). A third m a jo r b o n e o f c o n t e n t io n related to b lack p e rc e p tio n s o f 'a co n sp ic u o u s patte rn of " p re fe re n tia l t r e a t m e n t" of the L u b a v itc h e rs b y the Police D e p a r t m e n t and the City' (ibid.). B la ck resid ents habitually o b je cte d to the in c o n v e n ie n c e c au sed by the police practices of closin g off streets and re -ro u tein g public transpo rt on Je w ish S a b b a th s and H o ly D ays, an d p ro v id in g a police e sc o rt of R e b b e S c h n e e r s o n o n his visits to the graves of relatives. Closely related w e re a ccu satio n s o f police 'd o u b le sta n d a r d s ' in their e n fo r c e ­ m e n t of the law. C r o w n H e ig h ts black s w o u ld o fte n refer to the stra n gu la tio n b y police officers in 1978 of a b lack civic le ad e r w h o w as try in g to in t e r v e n e d u rin g the arrest of his b r o t h e r for a m o to rin g offence. T h e y arg u e d tha t no L u b a v it c h e r w o u ld e v er hav e b e e n s u b je c te d to such a ho rrify in g o rd eal, and th at the i n c id e n t was 'i nd icative of the lim ited v alu e p laced on b lack lives' (ibid.: 46). T h e police w e r e also p a y in g close atte n tio n to activities in black n e i g h b o u r h o o d s fo llo w in g L u b a v itc h e r c o m p la in ts a b o u t g r o w in g levels of c rim e and d ru g use in the area. Prior to this, the L u b a v itc h e rs h a d info rm ally esta blish ed a civilian anti-crim e patrol. Critics alleged th at this w as 'little m o r e th a n a v ig ilante g ro u p set up to harass b la ck m e n ', a lth o u g h it was also a m a tte r of record that L u b a v itc h e rs had b e e n c a m p a i g n in g assidu o usly for in cre ase d police p ro te c tio n (ibid.). Blacks also o b je cte d to a n o t h e r in n o v a tio n by th e local H asidics - their decision to instigate a privately fu n d e d H a tz o la h v o lu n ta ry a m b u la n c e service. R e s e n t m e n t h e re focu sed on the be lie f that the service o p e ra te d exclu siv ely for the b e n e fit of the L u b a v itc h e rs and was i n d iffe re n t to the n e e d s of o th e r e th n ic groups.

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G iv e n th e s e b a c k g r o u n d c o n d itio n s, G irg e n ti is u n d o u b t e d l y ju sti­ fied in c o n c lu d in g that: T h e ac cid e n t of the e v e n in g of A ug ust 19, 1991, w as the catalyst for a d is tu rb a n ce largely b e ca u se it e p ito m ized m a n y of the p e rc e p tio n s p re -e xistin g in the b lack c o m m u n i t y a b o u t the Lu b a v itc h e rs , the police and the H atzo lo h a m b u la n c e service. T h e police esco rt w a s p e rc e iv e d by m a n y blacks as illustrative of the a c c o m m o d a t i o n that the Police D e p a r t m e n t a n d the City r o u tin e ly m a k e to the L u b av itche rs. T h a t police did no t arrest the H asid ic d rive r was re g a rd e d b y m a n y in th e b lack c o m m u n i t y as yet a n o t h e r applicatio n of a 'd o u b le s tan d ard ' in law e n f o r c e m e n t . Finally - w h a t m a n y that n ig h t fo un d m o s t o u tr a g e o u s - the first-res p o n d in g H atz o lo h a m b u la n c e w as ru m o u r e d to h a v e refu sed to treat the b la ck victim s in fa v o u r of the H asidic d river and his p as se n g e rs , (ibid.: 47)

A n a ly s in g t h e p o li c e re sp on se

T h e G irg e n ti R e p o rt is equally e m p h a t ic in c h arac teris in g the p o licing of the C r o w n H e ig h ts d iso rd er as 'i n a d e q u a t e ' (ibid.: 206). It states that officers re s p o n d in g to the v io le n c e e ru p tin g at the sce n e of the a c cid e n t w e r e too slow to p r e v e n t the spread o f the disord er. In d e e d , o v e r h a lf o f the 400 officers e v e n tu a lly d e p lo y e d to the in c id e n t did n o t arrive until after 11.30 p.m. Part of the rea so n for this d elay w a s a failure b y sen io r officers to activ ate the N Y P D Rapid M obilisation p ro c e d u re . This p ro c e d u re p ro v id e d for specific radio c o d e s to b e u sed to call in officers as a m a tte r of priority. H o w e v e r , s en io r officers e xp lain e d to G irg e n ti th at m o s t officers w e re eith er u n fam iliar w ith, or did n o t u n d e r s t a n d , the re le v a n t codes. It had b e e n 20 years sin ce the cod es had last b e e n used. In the a b s e n ce of a w e ll-d e fin e d and clearly articulated mission s t a te m e n t o u tlin in g N Y P D 's p h ilo s o p h y for m a n a g i n g pu blic dis­ ord er, the Field C o m m a n d e r o p e ra te d a c co rd in g to his p e rs o n al p red ilectio n for restraint and n o n - c o n fro n t a tio n . G irg e n ti arg u e s that the p ro b le m with this a p p r o a c h w as that it did n o t allow for a n y pro activ e step s that m ig h t h a v e b e e n taken. 'As a result, field su p e rv iso rs w e re e ith e r forced to im p ro v ise in o rd e r to deal with the specific p ro b le m s c o n fr o n t i n g th e m , or sim ply re m a in e d passive. T h e D e p a r t m e n t 's re s p o n s e w as, c o n se q u e n tly , u n c o o r d i n a t e d and i n ­ effectiv e' (ibid.: 207). It w as o n ly after the in tro d u c tio n of T h u rs d a y 's 72

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p ro activ e arrest policy that polic e tactics b e c a m e i m b u e d w ith a c o n f id e n c e and clarity of pu rp o se . C o m p o u n d i n g the p ro b le m s of p o o r c o m m u n ic a t io n and c o ­ o rd in a tio n w as the fact that re c e n t p e r s o n n e l c h a n g e s h a d placed t e m p o ra r y (and i n e x p e rie n c e d ) officers in crucial positions of auth ority. In particular, a n e w l y a p p o in t e d C h ie f of D e p a r t m e n t had n o t yet taken up his p o st fo llo w ing the re t ir e m e n t of his pre d e ce sso r. This left the C h ie f of D e te ctiv es to a s su m e interim responsibility as A cting Chief. T h e fact that the n e w C h ie f o f Patrol - an officer re s p o n s ib le for the first-line s u p e rv isio n o f o p e ra tio n s in C r o w n H e ig h ts - had also ju st b e e n a p p o in te d m e a n t that ke y officers w e re s erv in g in u n fa m iliar roles (the C h ie f of Patrol w as also un fam iliar w ith the area). As a result, 'T h e y w e re inclined to ac ce p t the in fo rm atio n and plans th e y re ceiv ed r a th e r th a n a d o p t in g m o r e assertive roles' (ibid.: 18). L ack of fe e d b ack, c o m m u n ic a t io n and c o -o rd in atio n m e a n t that, at crucial stages of the riot, the police u n d e r e s t im a t e d the e x te n t and s e rio u sn ess of the d is o rd er and the n e e d for an u r g e n t c h a n g e of strategy. T h e re p o rt m a in ta in s that a n y o n e of the sen io r tier of c o m m a n d i n g officers could h av e insisted on re g u lar p ro g re ss m e e t ­ ings bu t th at the ultim ate responsibility for calling th e m b e lo n g e d to the C o m m iss io n e r: After e ach of the first tw o nigh ts of riotin g, t h e re w as no m e e t i n g of the H e a d q u a rte rs E xecu tive S taff with [the Field C o m m a n d e r ] to critique h o w the police h a d h a n d le d the ev en ts. This kind of re v ie w in a s tructured s etting is an essential practice so tha t the police exe c u tiv e can o b tain the collective w isd o m of principal advisers. N e it h e r C o m m is s io n e r B r o w n n o r an y m e m b e r o f the E x e cu tiv e Staff a s se m b le d the D e p a r t m e n t 's m a n a g e m e n t team to e x a m in e this u r g e n t situatio n, rev iew police p e rf o rm a n c e , and d e t e r m i n e a p p r o p ria te police action. (ibid.: 254) O n a m o r e positive no te, the re p o rt praises the efforts of senio r police to 'listen to c o n ce rn s, calm the c o m m u n i t y , an d control r u m o rs ' (ibid.: 236). T h e s e inclu ded a ru m o u r that G av in C ato 's cou sin had also died as a result of the car a cciden t, b u t th at c o n ­ firm ation of this fatality w as b e in g w ith h e ld for fear o f a ro u sin g f u r th e r hostilities. T h e fact that such s p e cu la tio n 'built u p o n longp e rce iv e d inju stices' m a d e it all the m o r e difficult to dispel (ibid.).

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A h yb rid e x a m p le : th e Los A n g eles rio t, A p ril 1992 T h e C r o w n H e ig h ts riot w a s eclipsed in size an d sev erity less than o n e y e a r later b y the Los A n ge le s riot of April 1992.

Th e b a c k g r o u n d to th e r i o t

Aside fro m the 52 p e o p le killed d u rin g the LA d iso rd er, 2,383 p e o p le w e re re p o rte d i n ju r e d ; p ro p e r ty d a m a g e w as e stim a te d at up to $1 billion; and 9,456 p e o p le w e re arrested, of w h o m 37 per c e n t w e re L atin o, 30 p e r c en t w e r e b la ck an d the re m a in d e r w h ite or 'o t h e r s / u n k n o w n ' (D iPasquale an d G la e s er 1998; O liv e r et al. 1993). O liv e r et al. (op. cit.: 120) c haracterise the riot as a 're s p o n s e no t to single bu t ra th e r to re p e a te d acts o f w h a t is w id e ly p e rc e iv e d in the c o m m u n i t y to be b la tan t a b u s e o f p o w e r b y the police an d the crim inal-justice system m o r e ge n era lly'. H o w e v e r , they also trace a causal link to 'b ro a d e r e xte rn al forces', no tably the effect o f e c o n o m ic restructuring , financia l d is in v e s tm e n t and 'c o n s e r v a tiv e federal policies', w h ic h ac celerated n e i g h b o u r h o o d declin e, m arginalised e th n ic m in o r ity y o u th and b r o u g h t th e m into sharp conflict w ith the police. A cc o rd in g to these an d o t h e r a u th o rs, re c e ss io n a ry activity b e t w e e n 1978 and 1992 c reated th o u sa n d s of jo b losses in the auto, steel, ru b b e r an d electrical plants of Los A ngeles, p r o d u c in g a 50 per c en t u n e m p l o y m e n t rate a m o n g y o u n g b lack m ale s (ibid.-, see also Callin icos 1992; D avis 1988, 1992a,b,c; Gale 1996). W h ile u r b a n r e ­ d e v e l o p m e n t o ccurred in the relativ ely a fflu e n t areas of d o w n t o w n and w e stsid e LA, the far n e e d ie r S o u th C e n tral area w as o v er lo o k ed b y the p la n n in g age n cie s. C u tb ack s w e re also m a d e in the fu n d in g of c o m m u n i t y -b a s e d o rg an isatio n s (C B O s), d e s ig n e d to h elp dis­ a d v a n t a g e d and d isaffected y o u th s b a c k into the e c o n o m ic a n d social m a in s tre am s . F u rth e rm o re , in c re a sin g n u m b e r s o f m iddle-class blacks had m ig rate d to the m o r e a fflu e n t su b u r b a n areas of LA, le a v in g a void of political r e p r e s e n ta tio n (Davis 1988). T h e overall e ffect of these d e v e l o p m e n t s w as to create a s ub stantial re s id u u m of e th n ic m in o r ity y o u th , la ck in g gainfu l e m p l o y m e n t , political r e p r e s e n ta tio n or a stake in the social o rd e r - h e n c e the ir p ro p e n sity to join g a n g s e n g a g e d in d ru g traffickin g a n d o t h e r crim inal activities (O liv e r et al. op. cit.: 127 a n d 131). As O liv e r et al. and sev eral o t h e r a u th o rs (e.g. Callin icos 1992; Sears 1994) p o in t out, blacks and L a tin os w e re each resentful of a m o r e p r o s p e ro u s e th n ic m ino rity , the K o re a n c o m m u n i t y w ith in Los 74

T h e A m e ric a n urba n rio ts , 1991-2001

A ngeles. S in ce arriv ing in their t h o u s a n d s in the 1970s, K o re a n s had s ecured a firm to eho ld in A m e rica n society b y c re a tin g scores of small b u s in e ss e s. T h e practical s u p p o rt o f clo se-k nit families an d the p re s e n c e of 'K y e ' credit syste m s (set up b y establish ed A sian e n t r e ­ p re n e u rs ) gav e K o re an small traders a head start on their c o m p e tito rs in their a t te m p ts to establish c o m m e rc ia l roots in p o o re r, w o rk in g class areas (F ree r 1994). Cu ltu ral d iffe re n c e s b e t w e e n the K o re a n s a nd o th e r e th n ic m ino rities w e re chro nically p ro b le m atic. B la ck an d L atin o c u s to m e rs c o m p la in e d of the ru d e and dis respectful attitu d es d isplayed by K o re a n s h o p k e e p e rs . T h e y also o b je cte d to the fact that, un like the o n e - t im e J e w ish trad ers in the gh e tto , K o re a n s rarely e m p lo y e d local n o n - K o r e a n s (Davis 1992: 8; O liv e r et al. 1993: 132). Sears (1994: 244) po ints to the possibility that: 'U n d e r l y i n g m u c h of this con flict also w as black s' a n g e r a b o u t b e in g d e n ie d access to th e A m e rica n d re am ; o n c e again African A m e rica n s w e re b e in g passed by, as am b itio us m ig ran ts fro m m a n y la n d s a n d cultures fo u n d fertile e c o n o m ic g r o u n d in A m erica.' Also h igh ly sig nificant w as the pro liferatio n of ga n g -re la te d crack c oc ain e traffickin g a n d the m o ral p anic it in d u c e d . S trid e n t d e m a n d s for h a r d -n o s e d po licing to sort o u t the ga n g la n d turf wars w e re u n d e r p in n e d by a p reju dicial id e o lo g y asse rtin g that '" f a m ily failure" in the g h e tto , abe tte d by in d u lg e n t w elfarism and the d eclin e of p ate rn a l role m o d e ls , has c re a ted a feral p o p u la tio n of grave social m e n a c e ' (Davis 1988: 45). A cc o rd in g to Davis, a 'n u m b e r s g a m e ' was e n t e r e d into b y police, politicians a n d the m e d ia , w h i c h gradu ally e x a g g e ra te d the e x te n t of g a n g m e m b e r s h ip from 10,000 to 100,000. Public alarm re a c h e d fe v er pitch w h e n g a n g m e m b e r s acciden tally g u n n e d d o w n a Ja p a n e s e - A m e r ic a n w o m a n ca u g h t in the cross­ fire ou tsid e a th e a tre in the u p -m a r k e t W e s t w o o d Village. Local m e r c h a n t s a n d politicians c la m o u re d for the police to inv o ke c urfew s. O n l y the S o u t h e r n California c h a p t e r o f the A CLU p re s e n t e d the political case for the b la ck y o u th s b u t their v oice w as lost a m id st the outcry: W ith in w e e k s the L A P D , led b y its C R A S H division an d u n d e r the b a n n e r of O p e ra t io n H a m m e r , m o u n t e d full-scale retaliatory raids on the black c o m m u n ity . In April 1988, 1,000 extra cops w e re s e n t into S o u th C e n tral, and in a single n ig h t th e y r o u n d e d up 1,453 b lack an d Latin o teena gers. S in ce t h e n a state o f siege has persisted in S o uth C e n tral, w h e r e e ach n ig h t - and often d u rin g the d a y - a n y t e e n a g e r on the street is fair g a m e for an 75

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L A P D rou st, 'ja c k -u p ' or bust. A n a s to n is h in g total of m o r e than 50,000 y o u th s h a v e b e e n d e ta in e d in O p e r a t i o n H a m m e r 's o n g o in g m a n o e u v re s. (C o o p e r 1992: 15) This su staine d param ilitaristic in te rv e n tio n re sulted in the alie n atio n and r e s e n t m e n t of an entire g e n e r a tio n of e th n ic m in o rity yo u th. T h e u n c o m p r o m i s in g b ran d o f law e n f o r c e m e n t e n c o u ra g e d b y the L A P D C h ie f of Police, D ary l G ate s, w a s relativ ely u n a ffe cte d b y c o u n te rv a ilin g o p p o s itio n to his m e t h o d s . This w a s b e c a u s e a u n iq u e city c h a rte r d a tin g b a c k to the 1920s limited the c ap acity of the M a y o r of Los A n ge le s to fire his i n c u m b e n t c hief of police and thu s p laced G ate s in a sin gu la r position of a u t o n o m y (D. W a d d i n g t o n 1992: 196). P er ce p tio n s th at the L APD o p e ra te d as a 'l aw u n to t h e m se lv e s ' w e re p e r p e t u a t e d on 3 M a rc h 1991 w h e n a s p e e d i n g car d riv e n b y 25-year-old A frican -A m e rica n , R o d n e y K ing, w a s forc ed to stop after a pro tra cte d c h a se b y tw o C alifo rnia H ig h w a y Patrol officers. By the time the vehicle c a m e to rest, the arresting officers (actually, a h u s b a n d and wife) had b e e n jo i n e d by t h re e LA PD cruisers w h ile a police h e lic o p te r circled o v erh e a d . K ing's tw o p a s se n g e rs im m e d ia te ly o b e y e d polic e instructio n s by g e ttin g o u t of the v e h icle a n d lying on the g ro u n d . H o w e v e r , the driver's strange, u n c o -o p e ra tiv e b e h a v io u r (he is said to h a v e gyrated his b u tto c k s at the arresting fe m a le officer) su g g e ste d th a t h e m a y hav e b e e n d r u n k or ev en h av e ingested P C P ( p h e n cy clid in e ), a pain s u p p r e s s a n t w ith the p o te n tia l to i m b u e the use r w ith s u p e r h u m a n s trength . T e n ta tiv e a t te m p ts by officers to h a n d c u f f K in g and then debilitate him by firing taser darts all failed in their ob je ctiv es. King w as t h e n s u b je c te d to a su cce ssio n of m o r e t h a n 50 b a to n b lo w s an d assorted kicks and s to m p s that resulted in sev e re h e a d , leg and a b d o m in a l inju ries. U n b e k n o w n to the a t te n d in g officers, the w h o le in c id e n t was c a p tu re d o n v id e o ta p e by an a m a t e u r p h o t o g ra p h e r, G e o rg e Holliday. O n the fo llo w in g day, H o lliday to o k the tape to a local police station b u t the station d es k se r g e a n t e xp re sse d in d iffe r­ e nce. H olliday th e re fo re to o k the ta p e to a local T V station (KTLA) w h ic h b ro a d ca s t a 6 8 -s ec o n d s e g m e n t that s am e e v e n in g (Fu ku rai et al. 1994). In the fo llo w ing few w e e k s , a hig h ly re le v an t s e q u e n c e of e v en ts dram atically u n fo ld e d . First, on 14 M a rc h , an LAPD s e r g e a n t and thre e ju n io r officers w e re c h a rg e d w ith h a v in g u sed e xcessiv e force in a rresting R o d n e y K ing, and the se r g e a n t with h a v in g s u b m itte d false repo rts of the in c id e n t (Miller 2001). S o o n a fterw ard s, 76

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a 49 -ye ar-o ld K o re a n s h o p k e e p e r , Ja Du, s h o t d ea d a 15-year-old A frican -A m e rican girl, L atash a H arlin s, w h o m she a c cu se d of tryin g to sho plift a carto n of o ra n g e juice. M s D u 's v e rsio n of e v en ts w as co n trad ic te d b y the store's security v id e o w h i c h s h o w e d that the u n a r m e d girl had b e e n sho t in the b ac k of the head . C o n s e q u e n t ly , she w as c h arg ed w ith m u rd e r. Finally, on 1 April, M a y o r T o m Brad le y a tte m p te d to o ffset the possible i m p a c t of the K ing in c id e n t o n racial u n ity by a p p o in t in g a n i n d e p e n d e n t c o m m is sio n o n the Los A ngeles Police D e p a r t m e n t , u n d e r the p r o m in e n t legal atto rn e y , W a rr e n C h risto p he r. T h e o u t c o m e of e ach d e v e l o p m e n t w as hig h ly significant. O n 9 July 1991, the C h r is t o p h e r C o m m iss io n re le a se d its report. A m o n g its r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s w e re : that u n d iscip lin ed L A P D officers should be expelled from the d e p a r t m e n t , that gr e a te r civilian con tro l should b e exercised o v er the force, and that t h e re should b e a h e a v ier em p h a s is on c o m m u n i t y po licing m e th o d s . T h e re p o rt was also critical of C h ie f G a te s for e n c o u r a g in g a d e p a r t m e n t a l e th o s c ele b ra t­ in g the excessiv e use of force. T h e c o m m is sio n a d v o c a te d that the City C h a rte r be re d rafte d to limit police chiefs to no m o r e tha n two five-y ea r p e rio d s in office. G a te s re s p o n d e d to this in w ritin g to say th at he p la n n e d to retire in April 1992, t h o u g h he s u b s e q u e n tly a n n o u n c e d that h e m ig h t stay in post until later in the s u m m e r (C o o p e r and G old in 1992: 4 3 - 4 4 ; L o c h e r 2002: 111). In N o v e m b e r 1991, the trial o f M s D u to o k place and she w as giv en an u n e x p e c t e d ly le n ie n t s u s p e n d e d prison s e n te n ce . T h e case for her d e fe n c e w a s that the sho p h a d b e e n b u rg le d no fe w e r t h a n 39 times and that s h o p liftin g had b e e n a ch ro n ic p ro b le m . M o re o v e r , D u 's son, J o s e p h , had r e c e n tly b e e n assaulted b y g a n g m e m b e r s , w h o th r e a t e n e d to kill him sho uld h e dare to testify against th e m ( C a n n o n 1997: 117). L ater that m o n t h , the d e f e n c e team in the R o d n e y K in g case s u c c e e d e d in s e c u r in g a c h a n g e of v e n u e for the fo rth ­ c o m i n g trial. F o llo w in g a rg u m e n t s that n e g a tiv e pre-trial publicity w as likely to p re v e n t officers from re c e iv in g a fair h e arin g , the trial w as s w itched to the p r e d o m i n a n t l y w h ite , m iddle-class area o f Simi Valley. W ith the e x c e p tio n of o n e Latin o and o n e A m e rica n -Filip in o , the e v e n tu a l ju ry w a s all w h ite (Fu ku rai et al. 1994). T h e trial of th e four L A P D officers to o k place in the s p rin g o f 1991. C o m m e n t a t o r s g e n erally a c ce p t that the p ro s e cu tio n te am was guilty of c o m p l a c e n c y and th a t the case for the d e f e n c e was stro n g e r than e v e r y o n e realised (ibid.). At the tim e of his arrest, K in g w a s o n parole for ro b b in g a g e n eral p u rp o s e store and the alcohol levels in his b lood w e re in excess o f the legal limit. M o re o v e r , few p e o p le had 77

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realised that the v id e o transm itte d o n local radio w a s an edited v e rsio n of the H olliday re c o rd in g , w h ic h o m itted a blurry b u t crucial te n -s e c o n d o p e n i n g to the in c id e n t s h o w i n g K ing ch a rg in g at an arresting officer (C a n n o n 1997: 23). S o m e w h e r e b e t w e e n 3 o 'c lo c k and 3.15 p.m. on 29 April 1992, the K in g verdicts w e r e a n n o u n c e d : the d e f e n d a n ts w e re acquitted o n all c h arg es b a r o n e , w h ic h related to the e xcessiv e use of force by o n e of the a ccu sed . T h e L os A n ge le s riot of 1992 w as n o w o n ly m in u te s a w a y fro m igniting.

The r i o t pr oc es s

M o rriso n and L o w ry (1993: 36) m a k e the p o in t that 'D e m o g r a phically, S o u th C en tral Los A n g e le s w as ripe for civil d istu rb an ce : it co n ta in e d a critical m as s o f y o u n g m ale s w h o had no reg ular o cc u p a tio n , little rea so n to feel b o u n d b y social rules, and the physical e n e r g y n e e d e d to s to n e , loot, b u r n , an d ru n from the police.' T h e s e a u th o rs m a in tain that the first two re c o rd e d in c id e n ts of the riot o ccu rre d at H y d e P ark (ne ar C r e n s h a w B o u lev ard a nd F lo re n c e A v e n u e ) an d at the in te rs ec tio n of N o r m a n d i e an d Flo re nce . T h e f o rm er was lo gged at 3.43 p.m ., w h e n the police w e re in fo rm e d that bricks w e re b e in g th r o w n at p assin g vehicles. A w h ite p e d es tria n was b e a t e n up b e fo re the cro w d m o v e d off to a s h o p p i n g c en tre and started looting. T h e seco nd in c id e n t b ro k e o u t at 4.17 p.m . A n u m b e r o f c o m ­ m e n t a to r s (e.g. C a n n o n 1997; U s e e m 1997) h a v e identified it as the riot's 'fla sh p o in t' or 'cataly st' for the w id e r c on flag ra tio n that o ccurred . U se e m is correct to assert that, had the in c id e n t b e e n rapidly c o n ta in e d , the h ig h level of a n g e r p re v ailing in the e thnic m in o rity m a y w ell hav e e x p lo d e d into v io le n c e at s o m e o th e r lo cation. H e n o n e t h e le s s a c k n o w le d g e s that e v en ts at Flo re n c e and N o r m a n d i e con stitu te d the 'h e a r t o f the riot', and that o n e reaso n for its i n c e n d ia ry effect w as that h e re , 'p a r tic ip a n ts re fu se d to d isperse, in effect taking c on tro l of the area as their o w n . W h e n police arriv ed, th e g ro u p d ro v e the police out. In co n tra st, rioters/p rotestors at o th e r locations g e n erally fled after h a v in g c o m m itte d a crim e or after police e n t e r e d the area' (ibid.: 3 6 3 -3 6 4 ). It is t h e re fo re im p o rt a n t for us to u n d e r s t a n d the w a y in w h ic h e v e n ts d e v e lo p e d at this location. T h e fo llo w ing c o m m e n t a r y is b a s e d o n w h a t is arg u ab ly the m o s t e x h a u s tiv e an d co m p e llin g o v er v ie w an d analysis of the riot - b y C a n n o n (1997). C a n n o n 's a c c o u n t is b as ed o n in te rv ie w s w ith pro tag o nists, the find ings of the 78

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W e b s te r C o m m is s io n (W e b ste r 1992) a nd an in te rn ally p u b lish e d L A P D d eb rie fin g d o c u m e n t called 'A nalysis of the Los A nge le s Police D e p a r t m e n t 's P la n n in g , P r e p a r e d n e s s an d R e s p o n s e to th e 1992 Riot (The First Six H ours)'. C a n n o n m a k e s the p o in t that, w ithin five m in u t e s of the verdicts, c ro w d s of a n g ry p ro te sters w e r e m a k in g their feelings k n o w n at v arious locations t h r o u g h o u t Los A ngeles, in c lu d in g the 77th S treet D ivisio n polic e statio n at S o u th C e n tra l's 77th an d B r o a d w a y a nd the L ake V ie w T e rrac e site of the R o d n e y K in g b eatin g. In the vicinity of Flo re n c e an d N o r m a n d i e , g r o w in g tensio n w as m a n ife s te d in a proliferatio n of m i n o r incid ents. First, at a p p r o x im a te ly 4.1 7 p.m., five y o u n g black s ro b b e d b e e r from a K o re a n 'L iq u o r and Deli' store at F lo re n c e and D a lto n A v e n u e s, h a v in g hit the store o w n e r 's son on the h e a d w ith a bo ttle. O n e o f the p erp e tra to r s is said to h av e yelled 'T h is is for R o d n e y K ing!' ju st b e fo re the o w n e r activ ated a silent alarm b u tto n , d r a w in g officers b ased at the 77th S tre e t Divisio n police station to the crim e (ibid.: 281). T h e tw o A frica n -A m e rican officers w h o r e s p o n d e d to this ro b b e ry h ad ju s t fin ish e d i n te rv ie w in g the victim s and w e r e o n the p o in t of le a v in g the store w h e n t h e y w e re called to a d is tu rb a n ce a m e r e 100 y ard s a w a y at F lo re n c e an d Halldale. A small n u m b e r of o th e r officers, in c lu d in g fo ur serge ants, w e r e first to arriv e at this in cid e n t, w h e r e th e y d isco v e re d th at a b la ck y o u th w as u s in g a baseball ba t to c rush in the w in d s c re e n of a car o cc u p ie d b y tw o w hites. O n e of the s er g e a n ts b la m e d the s u d d e n arrival of a T V n e w s crew for tra n s ­ f o rm in g the m o o d o f the c ro w d . A s e c o n d m a in ta in e d : 'W e w e r e the frie nd ly n e i g h b o u r h o o d cops o n e m in u te , the n e x t m in u t e w e w e re l u n c h m eat. It d id n 't take a ge n iu s to figure o u t w e n e e d e d to do s o m e t h i n g . . . W e got out of t h e re ' (q u o te d in ibid.: 283). T w o o t h e r pairs of officers w e r e still in the pro c e ss o f r e s p o n d in g to the original call for assistan ce w h e n th e y d ro v e their two cars t h ro u g h the F l o r e n c e - N o r m a n d i e intersection . T h e s e officers s u d d e n ly c a m e u n d e r a s h o w e r of rocks and bottle s and instan tly s en t o u t a distress call. W ith in five m in u te s, th e y w e re jo in e d by 30 c olle ag u e s o c c u p y in g 18 patrol cars. T w o o f the n e w ly arriv ing officers im m e d ia t e ly set o ff in p u rsu it of o n e of the missile th ro w e rs, a 16-year-old b la ck y o u th w h o m th e y r e c o g n is ed as a local g a n g m e m b e r. T h e y c a p tu re d a nd h a n d c u f f e d the y o u th , fa c e -d o w n , b efo re placing him in a police vehicle. At this point, officers te ntative ly fo rm e d a 'skirm ish line' a ro u n d their cars b u t w e re soon in d a n g e r o f b e in g o v e r w h e l m e d by an i n c re asin g ly a n g r y cro w d. T h e Field C o m m a n d e r for F lo re n c e and 79

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N o r m a n d i e , L ie u t e n a n t M ic h a e l M o u lin , arr ived fro m the 7 7th S treet station to d isco v e r a situatio n of in te n s e p a n ic and alarm : T fo u n d utter c h ao s, a n in te rs ec tio n that w a s u n co n tr o lla b le,' he said afte rw ard . 'T h e officers w e re b e in g s u b je c te d to bricks, to h u g e pieces of c o n c r e te , to b o ard s, to flying o b je cts.' M o u lin kn e w h o w ill-equipped the officers w e re . 'M o s t o f the p o lic e m e n h a d no h elm ets. T h e y h ad n o b u lle tp ro o f vests, n o tear gas, no fa ce shield s . . . I th in k w e 'r e g o in g to h a v e to use d ea d ly force, w e cou ld h a v e a m assacre here. So I o rd e re d a p u l l o u t / (quoted in ibid.: 287) T h e re a fte r, the c ro w d turne d its atte n tio n to ro b b in g a n d be a tin g civilians. Cars c o n t a in in g b lack d rivers w e re a llo w e d th ro u g h the in te rsection w hile th o se c o n t a in in g w h ite s, Asians and L a tin os w e re no t spared. By 5.59 p.m . the re w e re re p o rts o f 500 m ale blacks th r o w i n g bo ttles at p a ssin g cars. B a ck at the divisional h e a d q u a rte r s, M o u lin and his station captain d e b a te d w h a t to do next. T h e latter insisted a fte rw a rd s that h e h a d c o m m a n d e d his colle agu e to return to the in te rs ec tio n w ith the aim of re s to rin g order. M o u lin con tra d icte d this, stating th at his orders h ad b e e n m e r e ly to go b a c k in an d 'a ssess the situ atio n' b efo re e stab lish in g an e m e r g e n c y c o m m a n d post at Fifty-fourth S tre e t and A rlin gto n A v e n u e (ibid.: 292). W h a t e v e r the tru th o f the m atter, D u rin g the forty-five m in u t e s after this retreat the L APD lost its c h a n c e to stop the riots in its tracks. As diso rd ers spread b e y o n d the F l o r e n c e - N o r m a n d i e flash point, isolated t e a m s of officers s k irm is h e d w ith rioters a nd two of th e m c o n d u c t e d an esp ecially bra v e rescu e, b u t the 7 7th S tre e t D ivisio n overall o p e ra te d w it h o u t effective dir ection an d h ad scant c o m ­ m u n ica tio n with un its ou tsid e the area, (ibid.: 293) B y n o w , the F l o r e n c e - N o r m a n d i e in te rsection w as c o m p le te ly u n d e r g a n g control. T e le v isio n n e w s h e lico pters h o v e re d o v e r h e a d , s e n d i n g live c o v e ra g e across the natio n. T h e s e b ro a d ca s ts w e r e s o m e ­ tim es a c c o m p a n ie d b y frenz ied c o m m e n t a r y a p p e a lin g for the police to 'd o s o m e t h in g ' to he lp the h apless vic tim s of the o n g o in g rebellion. This w as n e v e r m o r e a p p a r e n t than w h e n , at a p p r o x im a te ly a q u arter to s e v e n , an 1 8 -w h e e le d v e h icle , d riven b y 36-year-old O liv e r D e n n y , tentatively e n te re d the inte rsection to be in s ta n tly b o m b a r d e d b y rocks. W ith in m in u te s, D e n n y ha d b e e n 80

T h e A m e ric a n urba n rio ts , 1991-2001

d ra g g e d from his v ehicle an d kicke d and b e a t e n b y sev eral assailants (o ne o f w h o m u sed a claw h a m m e r , a n o t h e r a slab of con crete ) b efo re b e in g left b l e e d i n g an d u n c o n sc io u s in the road (ibid.: 305). This in c id e n t te m p o ra lly o v e r la p p e d w ith a s e c o n d c o n fro n ta tio n in w h ic h a c ro w d of 150 p ro te sters ru sh ed the city's m ain police h e a d q u a rte r s, the P a rk e r C en ter. A skirmish line w as set up to hold them at bay, w h ic h resulted in a 5 0 -m in u te standoff. H o w e v e r , at 7.30 p.m ., a section of the pro testers u p e n d e d an d set fire to a guard s hack located in the station car park . A q u a r te r of an h o u r later, the r e m a in d e r o f the c ro w d d e s c e n d e d o n a n e a rb y hotel an d p u t t h ro u g h its w in d o w s. Police s u c c e e d e d in p u s h in g the d e m o n s tra to rs a w a y from the station and hotel. T h e c ro w d t h e n b ro k e up and started to a tta ck and v an d a lise cars a nd b uilding s, in c lu d in g th o se of the Los Angeles Times and C rim in al Courts. By o rg an isin g th e m se lv e s into m o b ile units, the police re g a in e d con tro l of the area (ibid.: 3 1 4 - 1 5 ) . T h e police re s p o n s e had b e e n relativ ely effective; but, as C a n n o n e xplains, 's in ce the P a rk e r c o n fro n ta tio n c a m e o n the heels of the D e n n y assau lt a nd w as also w id e ly tele vised , it re in fo rc e d a p u blic im p re s sio n that Los A n g e le s w a s an u n d e f e n d e d city u n d e r s ie ge' (ibid.: 315).

U n d e r s t a n d i n g th e LA P D 's re sponse

Ironically, w hile millions o f A m e rica n s lo ok ed o n, horrified b y the live televised u n fo ld in g of e v e n ts at F lo re n c e and N o r m a n d i e , officers w e re gra du ally p o u rin g into a field c o m m a n d post e stab lish ed close by. I n d e e d , By m i d n i g h t as m a n y as 1,790 officers w e re sen t to assist at the 77th area. T h e s e w e re held in a b u s yard w ith o u t d e p lo y m e n t . T h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of this decisio n w e re far re a c h in g ; for n o t only w e r e these officers un av a ilab le to the 77th area, th e y had b e e n d ra ined from their sectors and these w e r e u n d e r m a n n e d w h ile their m a n p o w e r la n g u is h e d a w a itin g re d e p lo y m e n t . (Miller 2 001: 196) U se e m (1997: 365) c o n t e n d s th a t the L A P D 's tactical m a n u a l i n ­ c or p o ra te d a plan for d e alin g w ith the typ e o f in c id e n t o cc u r rin g at the crucial intersection . This p ro v id e d for officers from the city's élite M e tro p o lita n D ivisio n to arrive in tactical s u p p o rt e le m e n t s (TSEs) a n d b re a k up riotous b e h a v io u r into sm aller, m o r e m a n a g e a b le sectors of activity. T h e re a f te r, o rd in a ry u n if o r m e d patrol officers 81

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w e r e s u p p o s e d to fo rm co r d o n s a ro u n d e ach sector, th u s p r e v e n t i n g the in c id e n ts from s p re a d in g and agg regating . S evera l a u th o rs p o in t out that the L A P D com p le te ly failed to i m p l e m e n t this plan an d that its m o s t sen io r officers scarc ely e n g a g e d in a n y a d v a n c e training or p re p a r a tio n for the riot (C a n n o n 1997; M iller 2001; U s e e m 1997). A m a jo r re a s o n for this w as that a b r e a k d o w n in c o m m u n ic a t io n o cc u rre d b e t w e e n C h ie f G a te s and m a n y o f his sen io r officers, a nd b e t w e e n G a te s an d M a y o r B ra d le y, fo llo w in g in v e stigatio n s by the C h r is t o p h e r C o m m iss io n . A cco rd in g to the W e b s t e r C o m m iss io n o n the riot, 'F o r a lm o s t o n e y e a r b e fo re the 1992 civil d istu rb an ce , the top L A P D c o m m a n d e r s a p p e a r to hav e fu n ctio n e d w ith a serio usly im p aire d w o rk in g rela tio n ship c h ara c terize d b y p o o r or n o n - e x is t e n t c o m m u n i c a t i o n and little c o ­ o rd in a tio n of their re sp e ctiv e c o m m a n d s . This p ro lo n g ed period of in fig h tin g an d isolation s ev e re ly im p ac te d the L A P D 's c o m m a n d and con tro l' (quo ted in C a n n o n 1997: 275). W e e k ly m e e t in g s of e xe cu tive staff w e re c ancelled in the fo u r w e e k s le a d in g up to the d isord er (U se e m 1997). Also co n trib u tin g to this fo rc e -w id e co n d itio n of inertia w a s the ge n e r a l su p p o sitio n that, as the officers w e r e a lm ost certain to be foun d guilty, it w o u ld h av e b e e n w a stefu l of re so u rc e s to h a v e e n g a g e d in u n n e c e s s a r y fo rw ard p la n n i n g an d p re p aratio n ( C a n n o n 1997). O n e no tab le e x c e p tio n w as the a ttitu d e of the a ssistant c h ief in ch a rg e of o p e ra tio n s, R o b e rt V e r n o n , w h o w as e x t re m e ly aw a re of the strategic im p o rt a n c e of the élite M e tro p o lita n Division in the m a n a g e m e n t of an y riot. H e t h e re fo re in stru cte d the 'M e t r o ' to u p d a te its riot plans an d b ru sh u p its training a n d tactics in re ad in e ss for a 'm a jo r u n u s u a l o cc u r re n c e '. V e r n o n issued similar d ir ectives to the captain s o f all L A P D divisions, t h o u g h the m a jo r ity are said to h a v e igno red him (ibid.: 2 6 9 - 2 7 0 ). L ie u t e n a n t M ich a e l M o u lin , the Field C o m m a n d e r at F lo re n c e a nd N o r m a n d i e w as o n e of m a n y 77th S tre e t Divisio n officers w h o later c o m p la in e d that th e y had receiv ed no b riefin g or training for the possibility of d iso rd er (ibid.: 270; U se e m 1997: 369). W ith in the M e tro D ivisio n itself, c o m m a n d e r s tre ate d the possibility of d iso rd er far m o r e serio u sly than their c o u n t e rp a r t s e lse w h e re . M e tro p e rs o n n e l w e re p u t t h ro u g h in te n s iv e tra in in g at s ecret lo ca­ tions tw o w e e k s prior to the K in g verdict. In o rd e r to avoid cre a tin g a self-fulfilling p ro p h e sy , M e tro c o m m a n d e r s c o m m itte d their officers to m a k in g a d ecisive b u t w ell-d isciplined in te rv e n tio n at the first sign of a n y disord er. O n e particular l ie u te n a n t urged the L APD high c o m m a n d to d ep lo y M e t r o units in p e r s o n n e l carriers b e t w e e n 10 a.m. 82

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a n d 6 p.m. o n the d ay of the trial o u tc o m e . H e r e c o m m e n d e d that such officers be giv en p ro tectiv e c lo th in g a n d e q u ip p e d w ith AR-15 assault rifles ( C a n n o n 1997: 273). N e v e rth ele s s, the decisio n w as tak e n to d e p lo y the M e tro at night - in 's o ft patrol m o d e '. As a result, 76 of th e M e t ro 's 233 officers w e re n o t e v en o n d uty w h e n th e fla sh p o in t at F lo r e n c e - N o r m a n d ie o ccurred. M o s t of the re m a in d e r w e re d e p lo y e d fu rth e r afield, such as the San F e r n a n d o V alley or at the L A P D 's P ark e r C e n te r he a d q u a rte r s. C a n n o n m a k e s the p o in t that, h ad th e y b e e n m o r e sen sib ly d e p lo y e d , M e tro officers could h av e re s p o n d e d s p e ed ily to the in c id e n t in w h ic h the y o u th w as w ie ld in g a b aseb all bat, m a k in g it u n n e c e s s a r y to c o n t e m p la t e a n y form of retreat. A lternativ ely , 't h e y m ig h t h av e m o v e d b a c k to F lo re n c e a nd N o r m a n d i e after the original re tre at and d ispersed the g a n g m e m b e r s w h e n the m o b w as relativ ely small' (ibid.: 294). T h e overall lack o f p la n n i n g an d p re p aratio n p ro v e d eq ually d isastrou s in term s of its effect on police c o m m u n ic a t io n and c o ­ o rd in atio n . At the field c o m m a n d post estab lish ed b y L ie u t e n a n t M o u lin , the few e xisting t e le p h o n e lines w e re quickly o v er lo a d e d , w hile all but o n e of the cellular p h o n e s available requ ired re ch arg in g. Equally , t h e re w e re n o fax m a c h in e s , c o m p u te r s or p h o to c o p ie rs. This m e a n t that e ach time a c o m m a n d officer n e e d e d to talk to a colle a gu e , th e y w e r e fo rc e d to c on ta ct th e m in p e rs o n . W h e n M o u lin re q u es te d 100 h a n d -h e ld rad ios for use in outsid e v e hicles, he was told th at o n ly a m e r e s e v e n w e re on h a n d ( C a n n o n 1997: 310). A ke y c o n trib u tin g facto r was the lack of effectiv e leadership. W h ile the riot w as in pro g ress, 12 of the d e p a r t m e n t 's 18 area captain s w e r e a t t e n d in g a training course s o m e 60 miles aw ay . A 'tactical alert' re q u irin g all officers to re p o rt for d uty w as no t d eclared un til alm o st 7 p.m ., m e a n in g that h u n d r e d s of officers h ad g o n e h o m e by the tim e the riotin g b ro k e out. I n clu d e d a m o n g th e m w e re officers fro m the S o u th B u re a u w h o had b e e n trained to staff a c o m m a n d post. M o s t sig nificantly of all, C h ie f G ate s had left to w n at 6.30 p.m. to a tte n d a fu n d -ra is in g e v en t. T h u s , a c co rd in g to U s e e m , T h e swirl of political e v e n ts in a nd a ro u n d the LA PD d im in ish e d the a g e n c y 's c ap a city to re s p o n d e ffectiv ely to civil disorders. Specifically, the e v en ts th a t c om p rised the 'K in g incid e nt' re sulted in e n o r m o u s p re ssu re s on the d e p a r t m e n t , p u s h in g it in ju s t a b o u t e v ery d ir ection e x c e p t t o w ard riot p re p aratio n . T h e s e p re ssu re s could h a v e b e e n resisted, but the a g e n c y was internally divided and d istracted from its core task of the m a i n t e n a n c e of the pu blic ord er. T h u s, a lth o u g h an assistant 83

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chief recognized the need to prepare the d ep artm e n t for a riot he tho u g h t inevitable, he could not effect this age n cy wide. W h e n the riot broke out, the institutional core was hesitant. The d ep a rtm ent drifted through the first half dozen hours of the disturban ce, stum bling at Florence and N orm andie. (1997: 373) An eventual decision to call in the National Guard was taken by M ayor B rad le y in consultation with other LAPD senior officers at a time w h e n Ch ie f Gates was still airborne in an LAPD helicopter. It was only w h e n a dusk-to -daw n curfew was enforc ed by m e m b e rs of the California N ational Guard , federal troops, LAPD officers, and other state agencies that the riot was finally quelled (Schnaubelt 1997: 10).

Conclusions Four of the six m ajor A m erican riots occurring b e tw e e n 1991 and 2001 con form ed to Jano w itz's category of c o m m o d ity riots. Riots of this nature broke out in W ashingto n, DC, N ew York City, St P eters­ b urgh (Florida) and Cincinatti (Ohio). A fifth disturbance, in the Crow n Heights area of Bro oklyn, was in m an y ways the prototypical co m m u n ity riot. W h a t m ad e it s o m e w h a t unusual, though, was the fact that, In a typical riot, there is a tre m e n d o u s level of destru ction of physical objects such as stores, buildings and especially w ind ow s. In C row n Heights, such vandalism was relatively limited. Participants sou ght h u m a n targets for their attacks. The violence was not blind or ran dom : it was calculated and focused. (L ocher 2002: 92) T he C row n Heights riot was largely driven by inter-ethnic enm ity b e tw e e n local blacks and Hasidic Jews. Antagonism b e tw e e n rival ethnic groups (African-Americans and Koreans) was also an u n d e r­ lying issue in the Los Angeles riot. W hile this dim ension of the disord er is consistent with Jano w itz's definition of a c om m u nity riot, the arg uably m ore p ro m in e n t m atter of p o lic e -co m m u n ity relations imbued Los Angeles with an unusual, hybrid quality. Despite these differences of character, each of the riots m e n tio n e d in this chapter highlights the contribution of police structures and practices in the genesis of large-scale urban disorder. 84

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In e a ch of the cases c o n sid e r e d , c o m m u n i t y re lation s w e r e b ro u g h t to the boil b y specific police tactics d e s ig n e d to m a n a g e sections of the u r b a n poor. M o re accu rately , it w as in their h a n d lin g of the social s y m p t o m s or s id e -p ro d u c ts of d e p riv atio n a n d political m arginalisation (h e av y d rin k in g in M o u n t P le a s a n t and d ru g use in the o th e r locations) th at the police h e lp e d to g e n e r a t e the 'c u ltu res of hostility' that e v en tu a lly c u lm in ate d in v io lence. Political and d e p a r t m e n t a l p re ssu re s e n c o u r a g e d particular styles of p o licing that w e re inimical to a c h ie v in g respect, trust an d the c o n f id e n c e of the local c o m m u n itie s . 'R e s p e c t a b le ' a u d ie n ce s , ra n g in g from m iddle-class w h ite s and local re s ta u ran t o w n e r s to re p r e s e n ta tiv e s of b e le a g u e re d J e w is h e n c lav e s , urged the police to d eal u n c o m ­ p ro m is in g ly w ith the 'l aw less' in the ir midst. In the case of the C in cin n a ti riot at least, arrest q u o tas and 'c le a n -u p ' targets p ro v ided a d d e d in c en tiv e s for c la m p in g d o w n on the underclass. Such p re ssu re s gav e a hefty i m p e tu s to police strategies in v o lv ing racial profilin g and prior a s s u m p t io n s o f guilt. This t e n d e n c y w as c o m p o u n d e d by the a b s e n ce of police acco un tab ility, w h e t h e r this t o o k the fo rm of restricted civilian i n p u t (in Los A ngeles), a lack of p ro c e d u re s for m o n it o rin g police m is c o n d u c t (in W a s h i n g t o n ) , or c o n c e rn a b o u t the fact that privately e m p lo y e d , o ff-d u ty police officers in C in c in n ati w e re an s w e ra b le to no o n e b u t their em plo yers. In the M o u n t P le asa n t riot, linguistic and cultural d iffe re n c e s w e re ad ditio n al sou rces of agg rav a tio n . T h e re is c o m p e llin g e v id e n c e to s ugg est that, o v er time, section s of all these c o m m u n it ie s b e c a m e acutely aw are of a 'ta p e s try of ab uses'. A n im o s ity to w ard s the police gradu ally a c c u m u la te d ; and w h e r e e v id e n c e arose that the law w as n o t b e in g e v e n ly e n fo rc e d (as w ith b lack p e rc e p tio n s of the le n ie n cy a cco rd e d to Je w s a n d K o re a n s in B ro o k ly n and Los A ngeles, respectiv ely ), in te r-e th n ic hostility b e c a m e e n d e m ic. P o lice -c iv ilia n in te ra c tio n g a v e rise to 'flash p o in ts' w h e r e e v e r y ­ d ay e n c o u n t e r s sym bolically crystallised e n d u r i n g g r ie v a n c e s a gainst the police (and , in the case o f C r o w n H e ig h ts a n d L os A ngeles, rival e th n ic groups). O u r case s tu d y of Los A n g e le s ind icates that a c a d e m ic s w e re m isg u id e d in s u p p o s in g that t h e re w as an a b s e n ce of a specific trigg erin g incid ent. N e v e rt h e le s s , G ale (1996: 1 5 4 - 5 5 ) is ju stified in e m p h a s is in g th at collective m e m o r y had a significant part to play: Rioters h ad m a n y m o n t h s to absorb the b e a t in g incid ent. Yet e v en after a coo lin g -o ff pe rio d , the m o s t d ea d ly and m o st d estru ctiv e u rba n riot in m o d e r n tim es resulted. T h e 1980 M iam i 85

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a n d Los A n g e le s disasters d e m o n s t r a t e th at u r b a n in terracial m o b v io le n c e e ru p ts no t solely in re s p o n s e to im m e d ia te a n t a g o n iz in g e v en ts; it can h a p p e n e v en in the a fte rm a th of the o p p o rtu n ity for reflection, in v e stigatio n, a n d t h o u g h tfu l in t e r ­ action b e t w e e n races and classes. E ven with a year to cool in fla m e d passio ns, the p ro p e n sity to strike out w as too p o w e rfu l to be d en ie d . It m a y be precisely b e c a u se the trigg erin g in c id e n t con stitu te s the 'final straw ' th at conflicts re su ltin g from p e rc e iv e d police atrocities m a y be difficult to rev erse. T h e e v id e n c e of the M o u n t P le as an t a n d C r o w n H e ig h ts riots sugg ests that i n te rv e n tio n s by the polic e or city auth o rities, d es ig n e d to dispel r u m o u r a n d /o r a m e liora te k n o w n g r ie v an c e s are un likely to su cce e d in cases w h e r e trust has irrev o cably b r o k e n d o w n . L ik e w ise , the case studies o f M o u n t P leasant, C r o w n H e ig h ts and Los A n ge le s e n d o rs e assertions b y the likes of M arx , S m e lse r, H u n d l e y an d S pieg el that, w h e r e initial police re s p o n s e s to the riot are p e rc e iv e d as w e a k , slow or o th e rw ise ineffectu al, this will e m b o l d e n rioters and e n c o u r a g e an u n re str a in ed e xp re ss io n of their grie v ance s. T h e a p p a r e n t causes of the r e c e n t A m e rica n riots are ge n erally c o n sis te n t w ith the theo retical insig hts re v ie w e d in C h a p t e r 1 an d , especially, C h a p t e r 2. H o w e v e r , official repo rts on the C r o w n H e ig h ts and Los A n g e le s riots fu r th e r e n h a n c e o u r k n o w le d g e b y e m p h a s is in g the im p o rt a n c e of effectiv ely d is se m in ated police m ission s t a te m e n ts a n d d e p a r t m e n t a l plans for d e alin g w ith d isturb an ces. T h e a b s e n ce of, or failure to use, such g u idelin es in the se cases had d e v a s ta tin g re p e rc u ssio n s. In b o th instan ces, o rg an isatio n al flux in the b u ild -u p to the riots p ro v e d d e t r im e n t a l to p lan n in g , training and p re p a r a tio n , a n d , ultim ately, the clarity and con v ic tio n of o p e ra tio n a l c o m m a n d d u rin g the actual d isorders. T h e trick le -d o w n e ffect o f o rg an isatio n a l d isarray was felt at g ro u n d level w h e r e b e m u s e d and d em o ra lis e d officers u ltim ate ly c o m p la in e d of ind ecision and p o o r reso urces. Ironically, g u idelin es e m b e d d e d in N Y P D a n d L A P D d o c u m e n t a t i o n c o m p ris e d possible strategies for c o n ta in in g o u tb r ea k s o f d iso rd er o n a sectoral basis. In C r o w n H e ig hts, su ch an a p p r o a c h w a s e v e n tu a lly u sed to telling effect on the fourth n igh t of the riot. T h e a b s e n ce of su ch an a p p r o a c h in Los A ngeles m e a n t th a t it w as left to the c o m b in e d efforts of the N a tio n al G u a rd an d p e r m a n e n t a rm e d forc es to b e la te d ly quell a d iso rd er in w hich m o r e than 50 lives w e re lost.

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T h e British urban riots,

1991-2001

In tro d u c tio n T h e 11-year period from 1991 to 2001 saw a similar p atte rn of riotin g on the o p p o site side of the Atlantic to N o rth A m erica. A d e c a d e after the in n e r-c ity riots in places like Brixto n ( L o n d o n ), H a n d s w o r th (B irm in g h a m ), T o xte th (Liv erpool), M o ss Sid e ( M a n c h e s te r) and C h a p e lt o w n (Leeds) (see for e x a m p le B e n y o n and S o lo m o s 1987), Britain e x p e r ie n c e d r e n e w e d riotin g, th o u g h this time o n m ainly w h ite , w o rk in g-class h o u s in g e states scattered across E n g la n d and s o u th W ales. In the sp a ce of a sin gle fo rtn ig h t s p a n n i n g late A ug ust a n d early S e p t e m b e r 1991, t h e re w e r e riots in Cardiff, O xfo rd , B ir m in g h a m a n d S o u th Shields. N in e m o r e riots t h e n o cc u r re d in the t h r e e - m o n t h perio d from M a y to July 1992 in such w idely d ispersed t o w n s and cities as C o v e n t r y in the M id la n d s, S alford , B u r n le y and B lackb u rn in L an cash ire , and S t o c k to n - o n - T e e s in the n o rth -e a s t of the c o u n t r y (K ing and B re arley 1996; P o w e r and T u n stall 1997). U nlik e their p re d e c e s so rs of the early 1980s w h e r e saturatio n po licing an d polic e h a r a s s m e n t w e r e p rim ary issues of c o n te n tio n , the latest diso rd ers w e re triggered b y s u d d e n police in te rv e n tio n s (fo llo w ing lo n g perio ds of a p p a r e n t in d iffe re n c e and inaction) in re s p o n s e to g r o w in g public c o n c e rn o v er the theft of m o to r vehicles a n d /o r their use in c rim inal or im p ro v ise d 'leisure activities' (Lea 2004; D. W a d d i n g t o n 1992). A n o v er v ie w of these riots, a n d ex­ p lanatio n of the particular form s of po licing that gav e rise to t h e m , is p ro v id e d in the first section o f this c h a p te r, w h ic h uses stud ie s b y C a m p b e ll (1993) and P o w e r and Tun stall (1997) as its basis of analysis. T h e r e m a in d e r of the c h a p t e r is t h e n d ev o te d to an a ly s in g the 87

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po licing of the m o s t re c e n t British 'riot w a v e '. In the late spring an d s u m m e r o f 2001, the re w e r e riots in n o rth e rn P e n n i n e to w n s and cities o n c e r e n o w n e d as c en tre s of th e textiles trade. F o llo w in g m in o r d is tu rb a n ce s in B ra d fo rd (W est Y o rk shire) on 1 4 - 1 5 April, the re w e re m o r e serio us diso rd ers in O l d h a m (G re ate r M a n c h e ste r ) on 2 6 - 2 9 M a y , B u rn le y (L a ncashire) o n 2 3 - 2 5 J u n e , an d B rad fo rd again on July 7 - 9 . A n o t h e r small d is o rd er also b ro k e o u t in L ee d s (W e st Y o rk sh ire ) o n 5 Ju n e . As Kalra (2003: 145) p o in ts o u t in re lation to the thre e m o s t serious of the riots, T h o s e arrested w e re p re d o m in a n t ly age d 1 7 -2 6 , p re d o m in a n tly local a n d m a in ly of P akistani a n d B a n g la d e s h i heritage. T h e areas w h e r e the riots took place w e re also on the m a r g in s of, or o th e rw is e ne a r, areas o cc u p ie d b y Asian M uslim s. I n d e e d , e v en th o u g h the cau s es of the riots are m u ltiple, and the incursio n of Far R ig h t gro u p s has b e e n cited in all of the s u b s e q u e n t policy reports, u ltim ate ly the conflict in all three areas w as played out b e t w e e n p re d o m i n a n t l y Asian M u s lim y o u n g m e n an d local police. Clearly, the relatio n ship b e t w e e n the police and sections of the y o u n g m ale Asian M uslim p o p u la tio n is s o m e t h i n g that n e e d s to b e e xp lo re d further. In the w a k e of the riots, t h e re w as a p le th o ra of official inquiries into their cau satio n and possible re m ed ie s. T w o of these w e re prim arily local in their e m p h a sis : Clarke (2002) e x a m in e d the B u rn le y riot w hile Ritchie (2001) focu sed o n O l d h a m . T w o o th e rs (C an tle 2001; D e n h a m 2 002) had a m o r e ge n er a l orientatio n . Kalra and o th e r w riters (e.g. B a g g u le y an d H u s sa in 2003; Lea 2004) h a v e c o m m e n t e d on the t e n d e n c y of these re p o rts to hig h lig h t such factors as Asian 's elf-exclusio n ' fro m m a in s tre a m (w hite) society , an a b s e n ce of credible political le ad e rship and re p r e s e n t a t io n w ithin such c o m ­ m u n itie s , i n te rg e n e r a tio n a l conflict and g r o w in g y o u th crim inality as the u n d e rly in g sou rces o f the crisis. W h a t is a b s e n t fro m , or s u b o rd in a te d by, th e s e official a n alyse s is c o r r e s p o n d i n g d iscussion of the police role in the g e n e r a tio n of disord er. N e v e rth ele s s, this is h a n d s o m e l y c o m p e n s a t e d for by c o m p l e m e n t a r y , a nd s o m e tim e s c o m p e tin g , a c a d e m ic d isco u rse fo cu sin g on the c o n trib u to ry effect of police policy prio r to and d u rin g the riots. As a n e c e ss a ry p re lu d e to o u r d iscussion, the sec o n d section of the c h a p t e r sets o u t the social c o n te x t of the riots by fo cu sin g on the re le v a n t u n d e rly in g c o n d itio n s g iv in g rise to y o u th d isaffectio n and 88

T h e B ritish urban rio ts , 1991-2001

hostility in their relatio ns w ith the police. This pa rt of the d iscussion inclu d es a brief analysis o f an early m an ife s ta tio n of the g r o w in g p ro b le m - the B rad fo rd riot of 1995. It also b e g in s to e x a m in e the w a y that the m ass m e d ia, in c o n ju n c t i o n w ith s en io r police, h e lp e d to create a stereo ty pically ne g ativ e im p re s sio n of Asian y o u th w h ic h attracted th e u n h e a l th y a tte n tio n o f the F a r R igh t and so crea ted a high ly com b u stib le a tm o s p h e re . T h e third section elabo rates on this th e m e b y s h o w in g h o w O l d h a m police's particular m e t h o d of i n ­ te rp re tin g and d is se m in a tin g crim e figures o n 'racist in c id e n ts' m a d e a significant con trib u tio n to the e v e n tu a l riot. A fo u rth section th e n fo cu se s on the m isgu id ed polic e tactics a n d strategy e m p lo y e d d u rin g the B u rn le y riot w h ic h w e re p re d icate d on an equally d a n g e ro u s and m is le a d in g in t e rp re tatio n of the activities of Asian yo u th. T h e c h a p t e r exclu d es an y m e n tio n o f the m o s t re c e n t n o t e ­ w o r t h y riot o cc u r rin g in G r e a t Britain - the Lozells R o a d d iso rd er in B ir m in g h a m in N o v e m b e r 2005. B y all a c co u n ts, this was a classic in s ta n ce of a 'c o m m u n i t y riot' b e t w e e n A frica n -C a rib b ea n and Asian y o u th s , w h ic h fo llo w e d r u m o u r s that a y o u n g b lack w o m a n had b e e n 'g a n g -r a p e d ' b y c u s to m e rs in an A s ia n - o w n e d h aird re s se r's and b e a u t y salon (V u llia m y 2005). N e w s p a p e r repo rts scarcely m e n tio n an y possible police i n v o lv e m e n t in the riot. In the a b s e n ce (at the time of w riting) of jo u rna listic, a c a d e m ic or official a c co u n ts of police activity, the re is n o p o in t in m a k in g f u rth e r r e f e re n c e to this e v en t.

T h e 1 9 9 1 -9 2 rio ts on w h ite , w orking -class housing estates T h e locations in w hich the y o u th riots of 1991 and 1992 to o k place are characterise d b y P o w e r and T un stall (1997) as 's tig m atise d ' council h o u sin g estates e x p e r ie n c in g c o m m o n p ro b le m s in the form of political a nd phy sical ne g le c t, low in c o m e s , high w elfare d e p e n d e n c y , p o o r jo b p ro s p e cts a n d low e d u c a tio n a l a tta in m e n t, esp ecially a m o n g boys. M o r e th a n 50 p e r c e n t of families living on these estates w e r e h e a d e d b y a single p a re n t and t h e re h ad b e e n a g r o w in g t e n d e n c y for older re sid e n ts to m igrate o u t of the areas c o n ce rn e d . B o th P o w e r and Tun stall and C am p b e ll (1993) r e c o m m e n d that we focus on the variatio ns in the w ay s that y o u n g m e n a nd w o m e n r e s p o n d e d to the effects of e c o n o m ic crisis, as these are fu n d a m e n t a l to h e lp in g us to explain the disorders. T h e s e a u th o rs e m p h a sis e that y o u n g w o m e n did n o t play a n y d ir ect part in the riotin g - o t h e r than to a tt e m p t to restrain their m e n f o l k and d e t e r th e m from attack ing 89

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local buildings. P ow er and Tunstall attribute this n o n -in v o lv e m e n t to the greater likelihood that the girls would do better at school and be m ore successful in land in g jobs. T he high rate of teenage p regnancies also provided y o u n g m oth ers with a sense of purpose and esteem not available to their male counterparts. The lives of y o u n g men seem ed rudderless in com parison: T h e y felt they had n o thing and w ere going n o w h ere . T h e y were very far from any form al jo b market. T he y w ere alienated from training, m aybe through fear of further failure. T he y were often hostile to adults, m aybe through fear of or an expectatio n of rejection. These attitudes led them to reje ct authority, (ibid.: 43) Campbell extends this arg u m en t to suggest that m u ch of the criminal activity predatin g the riots, notably the theft and public flaunting of m otor cars, symbolised a masculin e reassertion of power, status and dom inatio n of com m u n ity space to c om p e n sate them for the loss of o ccupatio nal identity and wage status once conferred on them in times of full em plo ym ent. A ppearances of masculin e potency and self-sufficiency w ere further sustained by drug-dealin g, s h o p ­ lifting and burgling within their o w n com m u nity, and m eting out reprisals on any o ne daring to inform the police. Campbell and P ow er and Tunstall all agree that police inaction in dealing with the y o u ths also played a central role in the genesis of disorder. Police officers in these areas w ere exasperated and dismayed by their limited po w ers to bring the you ths to book. Local in formation had dried up and, far from b e in g a deterrent, the prospect of court appearan ces was w elco m ed by the you ths as offering o pportunities to flaunt and e n h a n ce their notoriety. The police presence was therefore alien and sporadic - 'n ot close e n o u g h to the com m u n ity or p e rm a n e n t en o u g h within it' (P ow er and Tunstall 1997: 45). C o nsequently , crime and disord er tended to 'rum ble on' indefinitely until finally reaching fever pitch, at which point police in riot gear w aded in with o v erw h e lm in g force: In areas w h e re cars w ere stolen and driven d angerou sly around estates, buildings were set on fire, drugs w ere peddled and small groups of yo u n g m e n w ere out of control, tension be tw e e n older residents and gr oups of law-breaking youths built up to a point w here eventually residents d em an d e d police action to suppress behaviou r they them selves could not control. In the 13 areas, incidents m o u nted to a point of extrem e conflict 90

T h e B ritish urban rio ts , 1991-2001

w ith in the c o m m u n i t y o v er b e h a v io u r s ta n d a rd s an d e x p e c t a ­ tions, w h ic h t h e n triggered police in te rv e n tio n . It w a s scarc ely s u rp risin g that the police, a t t e m p t in g to in t e r v e n e in an already lo n g - r u n n in g situatio n of d isord er, failed to im p o s e their a u th o rity w it h o u t a struggle. Police a t te m p ts to re-establish c on tro l o v e r an are a w e re o fte n s e e n b y y o u n g p e o p le as a ch a lle n g e to fight back, (ibid.: 1 5 - 1 6 ) This w as an e x a m p le , par excellence, of 'to o little po licing follo w ed by too m u c h p o licing' (ibid.: 45). E scala tion w as n o w inev itab le for, as C a m p b e ll (ibid.: 193) points o ut, the police a n d the y o u th s w e r e two rival cultures that 'n e e d e d e a ch o th e r' to e n d o rs e their a v o w e d ly m a s c u lin e self-im agery.

T h e te x tile to w n rio ts o f 2 0 0 1 : g e n e ra l b ack g ro u n d

Social c o n d i t i o n s

T h e origins o f the social c o n d itio n s g iv in g rise to the c o n fro n ta tio n s in B rad fo r d , O l d h a m a n d B u rn le y are e xp la in e d b y K u n d n a n i (2001). H e c o m m e n t s on the cruel iro n y of the fact that m ig r a n t labour b r o u g h t o v er from P akistan and B a n g la d e s h in the 1960s and 1970s to w o r k the u n d e s ir a b le n ig h t shifts of the textile trades had p ro g re ssive ly b e c o m e r e d u n d a n t d u e to c apitalism 's p r e f e r e n c e for e m p lo y in g c h e a p e r la b o u r b a c k in their c ou n trie s of origin. As K u n d n a n i pu ts it, 'T h e w o r k o n c e d o n e c h e a p ly by B a n g la d e s h i w o rk e rs in the n o rth of E n g la n d could n o w b e d o n e e v e n m o r e c h e a p ly b y B a n g la d e s h i w o rk e rs in B a n g la d e s h ' (ibid.: 106). By such m e a n s w e re lo w -paid local e c o n o m ie s t ran s fo rm ed at a stroke into sev e re ly im p o v e rish e d c o m m u n it ie s - a m o n g the 20 m o s t d ep rived areas in the U n ited K in g d o m . O n top of this, s eg re g a tio n ist policies, first e n c o u r a g e d d e c a d e s earlier by th e racist pra ctices of estate a g e n cie s and local au th o rity h o u s in g d e p a r t m e n t s , w e re giv en fresh im p e tu s b y 'w h it e flight' out of n e i g h b o u r h o o d s associated w ith the d y in g textile trad e and into the o u tly in g suburbs. T o o in tim id a te d b y the p ro s p e ct of m a k in g sim ilar m o v e s on to the p r e d o m in a n t ly w h ite s u b u r b an estates, Asian re sid e n ts sim p ly s tayed put, th e u p s h o t b e in g th at 'T h e g e o g r a p h y of the b alk an is ed n o r t h e r n to w n s b e c a m e a c h e ss b o a rd of m u tu a lly exclu siv e areas' (ibid.: 107). 91

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A m in (2002, 2003) explains h o w t h e s e c o n d itio n s of p o v e rty and s eg re g a tio n gave rise to a c c o m p a n y i n g in te r-e th n ic anim osities. M u tu a l r e s e n t m e n t festered as A sians c o m p la in e d of p ro -w h ite d iscrim in atio n in e m p l o y m e n t and h o u sin g , w hile w h ite s d ev e lo p e d 'a l a n g u a g e of v ic t im h o o d ' based on p e rc e p tio n s o f p referential w elfare and r e g e n e ra tio n s p e n d in g on Asian areas (Amin 2002: 965). M o st serio usly affected by d e-ind ustrialisa tio n w e re the c oh o rts of relativ ely un skilled and un qu a lifie d y o u n g A sian m ales. This section of the British Asian p o p u la tio n felt p ro fo u n d ly a gg rieved to w ard s the elders o f th e c o m m u n itie s , w h o m th e y re g a rd e d as s u b s e r v ie n t to w h ite society and o u t of to uch w ith their o w n (Ja n -K ah n 2003). G e n e r a lly s p e a k in g , Asian y o u th o f the 1990s w as u n w illin g to a c ce p t the d es ig n a tio n of s eco nd -class citizenship con fe rre d on prev io us g e n eratio n s: W h e n racists c a m e to their to w n s lo o k in g for a fight, th e y w ould m e e t v io le n c e w ith v io lence. A nd w ith the c o n tin u in g failure of the police to tackle racist gan gs, v io le n t c o n fro n ta tio n s b e t w e e n g ro u p s of w h ite s an d Asians b e c a m e m o r e c o m m o n . Inevitably, w h e n the police did arrive to b r e a k up a m e le e , it w as the y o u n g Asians w h o b o re the b r u n t of police h e a v y - h a n d e d n e s s . As such, Asian areas b e c a m e in c re asin g ly ta rg eted by the police as th e y d ecided that gan g s of Asian y o u th s w e re g e ttin g o u t of han d. T h e real crim e p ro b le m s faced b y Asian c o m m u n it ie s - n o t o nly racist in cu rsio n s bu t the g r o w in g e p id e m ic of hero in ab u s e w e r e igno red . A m o n g y o u n g Asians, the re grew a h a tre d of a police force that left them v u ln e ra b le to racism, on the o n e h a n d , a n d , o n the o th e r, crim inalised th e m for d e f e n d i n g t h e m se lv e s . ( K u n d n a n i 2001: 108)

A foreru nner: the 1995 B radford riot

S tro n g ly ind ic ativ e of the incre asing ly trou bled relatio ns b e t w e e n m ale Asian y o u th s and the police w a s the riotin g that b ro k e out in the W e s t Y o rk sh ire city of B rad fo rd in the s u m m e r of 1995. It is in fo rm ativ e to c o n sid e r the details o f this riot, as d isclosed b y the i n d e p e n d e n t Brad ford C o m m iss io n (1996). T h e im m e d ia t e trigger for this d is o rd er w as an in c id e n t c o m ­ m e n c i n g at a p p r o x im a te ly 9.25 p.m . o n Frid ay, 9 J u n e 1995, w h e n two police officers d riving ro u n d the M a n n i n g h a m area of B ra d fo rd passed a gro up of e igh t Asian y o u t h s p la yin g football in the street. T h e officers m a in ta in e d that th e y a p p r o a c h e d the y o u th s b e ca u se 92

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s o m e of th e m h a d s w o rn in their direction. D u rin g the e n s u in g a r g u m e n t , fo u r y o u th s w e re arrested. A sister of tw o of these p riso ners cla im ed tha t police had p u s h e d h e r a n d struck h e r b a b y in the cou rse of m a k in g their arrests. A g r o w in g c ro w d of o n lo o k e rs w as instructed to 'g e t b a c k in d oo rs' or risk b e in g arrested. O n e w itne ss, a w h ite re sid e nt, c o m p la in e d th at the police's 'u n n e c e s s a rily agg ressive a ttitu d e' had g e n e r a t e d feelings of hostility a nd d efiance. W ith in 10 m in u te s, police re in f o r c e m e n t s - in c lu d in g a d o g h a n d l e r arr ived o n the s c e n e a n d w h is k e d the arrestees o ff to the n e a rb y C e n tr a l B rid e w e ll police station. Civilian r e s p o n d e n t s m ain tain e d th at an elderly m a n s t a n d in g in the d o o r w a y w as briefly th re a te n e d b y the police dog. T h e y also cla im ed tha t the police v e h icle s quickly left in c o n v o y , p re fe rr in g to d ep art b y d riving o v er a p a v e m e n t at the en d of a cul-de-sac, their tyres s q u e alin g in their haste to get away. T h e B rad fo rd C o m m iss io n 's re p o rt is h ig h ly critical o f the police's in te rv e n tio n , esp ecially b e cau se T h e re w as no d ifferentiation m a d e b e t w e e n curious local re sid e n ts w h o later b e c a m e pro testors, re sp o nsib le p e o p le trying to calm things d o w n , an d tro u b le -m ak e rs. All m e m b e r s of the public the re w e re treated w ith equal hostility an d c o n t e m p t b y the police. N o a tt e m p t w as m a d e to explain w h a t the police w e re d o ing , e v e n w h e n the arrests had b e e n ac co m p lish e d and all the activity of the o t h e r officers h ad c eased. E v e n the m a n n e r of exit, across the traffic barrier p a v e m e n t , was n ecessarily pro v o cativ e . T h e polic e s w e p t in, an d t h e n s w e p t out, h a v in g acted t h r o u g h o u t as t h o u g h the local resid ents w e re of no a c co u n t, an d in c ap ab le of u n d e r s t a n d i n g an e xp lan a tio n . (ibid.: 38: 4.8.17) C o m m u n it y r e s e n t m e n t w a s re in fo rc e d b y a rapidly s p re a d in g ru m o u r that the police 'a tta c k ' on the Asian w o m a n 's b a b y had resulted in its hospitalisatio n or e v e n d eath . T w o c o n tin g e n ts of local re sid e n ts - o n e , a g ro u p o f Asian y o u n g m e n d e m a n d in g the im m e d ia te release of their four p eers; the o th e r, older m e n c o n ­ cer n e d b y police c o n d u c t earlier that e v e n in g - c o n v e r g e d on L a w c r o f t H o u s e , a local police station clo ser in d istance th a n Cen tral Bridew ell. M e m b e r s of the older party w e re invited in for discussion. S h o rtly a fte rw ard s (b e tw e e n 10.30 p.m . a n d 10.45 p.m.), s ev e n m o r e arrests w e r e m a d e outsid e the station of p e o p le ac cu se d o f failing to re s p o n d to police instru ctio n s to d isperse (ibid.: 42: 4.10.7). A cc o rd in g to the C o m m iss io n , these arrests w e r e the 'c lin c h in g factor in u n iting 93

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y o u n g an d old in o p e n ly e x p r e ss in g a n g e r against the po lice' (ibid.: 42: 4.11.1). Rio tin g by local y o u th s spread from L a w c r o s s H o u s e to n e a rb y O a k L a n e , w h e r e fires w e r e lit in the road a n d a car s h o w ro o m attack ed. D iso rd e r c o n tin u e d until 4 a.m ., with local officers h a v in g b e e n jo in e d by re in f o r c e m e n t s fro m e l s e w h e re in W e st York shire. D u rin g the nigh t, y o u th and c o m m u n i t y re p r e s e n ta tiv e s and local politicians h e ld dis cu ssio ns w ith the police. T h e s e c o n t in u e d o n the fo llo w in g d a y w h e n a local M P , a city cou ncillo r a n d tw o y o u th re p r e s e n ta tiv e s e xp lo re d w ith police th e possibilities o f d ro p p in g all c h arg es aga inst their p riso n e rs of the pre v io u s day, s u s p e n d in g the tw o a rres tin g officers and a p o lo g isin g to th e sister of the arrested yo u th. F o llo w in g the b r e a k d o w n of these talks, 300 y o u th s already ga th e re d ou tsid e L aw cr o s s H o u s e started b re a k in g d o w n a n e a rb y wall and h u rlin g bricks at the police. R io tin g spread o n c e m o r e to O a k L a n e w h e r e y o u th s d re w a b arric ad e across the road. As officers an d police v e hicle s m o v e d slow ly in their d ir ection, the yo u th s th re w sto n e s and p e tro l b o m b s . D iso rd e r e v e n tu a lly e x t e n d e d into B rad fo rd city cen tre. At 12.45 a.m., the police s u c c e e d e d in setting up ro ad b lo cks a ro u n d the area, t h o u g h v io le n c e c o n t in u e d to flare up sporadically until 2 a.m. T h e C o m m iss io n c o n clu d e d th at 't h e diso rd ers to o k place again on the S a tu rd a y n ig h t b e c a u se the police w e re u n a b le to c o n v in c e the local re p r e s e n ta tiv e s th at their c o n c e rn s w e re u n d e rs t o o d and w o u ld b e tak e n serio usly . . . an d b e c a u se the police failed to relate to the ag g rie v e d re s id e n ts th e m se lv e s ' (ibid.: 58: 4.18.3). T h e police tactics d e p lo y e d w e re criticised as 'p r o v o c a tiv e ', 'im p e r s o n a l' and 'inflexible'. O u t s id e forc es w e re re g ard e d as h a v in g b e e n tense and u n fam iliar with the locality a nd its p e o p le . In c o n t e m p l a t in g possible le sso ns for the futu re, the C o m m iss io n c o n c e d e d : It is easy to b e wise after the e v en t. W e t h e re fo re do n o t criticise the decisions w h ic h led to the lack of a d e q u a te police d e p lo y ­ m e n t to p ro te c t the city c en tre , given the difficult situatio n the police faced. W e do, h o w e v e r , th in k that the v ulnerab ility o f the city c en tre , a nd the un p re d ic tab ility of v io le n t g a n g s and looters, sho uld b e specifically c o n sid er e d b y the police in the e v e n t of futu re threats of d isorders, particularly w h e n the build up of trouble ind icates that s o m e of the tro u b le -m a k e rs are no t v ery local, b u t from a w ide area of the city and b e y o n d , (ibid.: 62: 4.18.24) 94

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O n S u n d a y , 11 J u n e , the p o te n tial for fu r th e r d iso rd er w as a p p a r en t. H o w e v e r , local con tro l w a s n o w e n tru ste d to m o r e senio r police lea d e rsh ip ; dialo gu e b e t w e e n sen io r police and local re p r e ­ sen tativ es w as m o r e co n stru c tiv e , and officers patrolled the city in n o rm a l un ifo rm . A hostile cro w d of 600 ga th e re d ou tsid e L aw cro ft H o u se . O fficers w ith o u t riot gear (but still w e a rin g p ro tectiv e b o d y a rm o u r and b ra n d is h in g lo ng side b a to n s ) w e re d e p lo y e d in r e s p o n s e. R in g le a d e rs a d v o c a te d fu rth e r v io lence. H o w e v e r , a series of sp e ak e rs , in c lu d in g local cou ncillors a n d the B isho p o f B rad fo rd , s uccessfu lly ap p e a le d for f u rth e r discussion. T h e n , as m id n ig h t a p p r o a c h e d , eight m e m b e r s (four Asian a n d fo ur w hite) of the re c e n tly fo rm ed Interfaith W o m e n for P eace t u r n e d up at L aw croft H o u s e , b e a r in g c an d le s an d a m a k e sh ift b a n n e r p ro c la im in g 'P e a c e ', in U rd u, English and Arabic. A cc o rd in g to the C o m m iss io n , 'this v e ry public i n t e rv e n t io n w as particularly strik in g', m a r k in g a te rm inatio n of the d isord ers (ibid.: 63: 4.21.1). T h e C o m m is s io n identifies a n u m b e r of w a t e r s h e d e x p e r ie n c e s and e v en ts of the p r e c e d i n g 25 years w h ic h , in their vie w , h e lp e d to s h a p e Asian o rie nta tio n s to the police a nd o th e r sections o f w h ite society, and in flu e n c e d outsid e attitu d es and b e h a v io u r to w a rd s th e m . M e n t i o n is m a d e of such d e v e l o p m e n t s as: the an ti-racist riots in S o uthall, L o n d o n , of 1976 a nd 1981; the Ira n ian re v o lu tio n of 1979/80, the 'H o n e y f o r d affair' of the m id -19 80s, w h e r e c o m m e n t s by a B ra d fo r d -b a s e d h e a d te a ch e r lin ked p o o r e d u c a tio n a l sta n d a r d s to the high ratio of s ch o o lch ild re n from e th n ic m inorities; d e m o n s t r a ­ tions an d b o o k b u r n in g s in re s p o n s e to the pu b lica tio n of S a lm a n R u sh d ie 's Satanic Verses; and the G u lf W a r of the early 1990s. T h e re p o rt also refers to the e ffect of lo n g -te rm a n t a g o n is m s b e t w e e n K a sh m iri y o u th s an d the police (based o n 'i n a p p r o p ria te, unfair , or racist tr e a t m e n t by ind iv idu al officers ') in le n d in g c re d e n c e to ru m o u r s at the o u tse t of the riot a nd fuellin g in d ig n ation and a n g e r t h r o u g h o u t its d u ra tio n (ibid.: 158: 6.17.6). It is sceptical, th o u g h , of re p o rts o f e x te n s iv e d ru g -re late d g a n g activity a m o n g Asian y o u th s an d , in particular, the d e g re e to w h ic h it s u p p o s e d ly reflected a n im o s ity to w a rd s the w h ite c o m m u n i t y (ibid.: 104: 5.21.13).

The p o l i t i c a l a n d id e o l o g i c a l c o n t e x t

This final t h e m e is a d d r e s s e d by W e b s t e r (1997) w h o p re s e n ts e v id e n c e to s u g g e st t h a t a g r o w in g c o m m i t m e n t to self-d efe n ce a m o n g y o u n g Asians from the late 1980s to the m id -1 990 s w as 95

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m is co n s tru e d b y n e i g h b o u r i n g w h ite c o m m u n it ie s an d a uthorities, n o tab ly the police, as 'b lack racism on w hites'. A cc o rd in g to crim e statistics for K e ig h le y in W e s t Y o rk sh ire b e t w e e n 1988 and 1995, the f re q u e n c y of attacks b y w h ite s o n A sians d ec re a s e d w hile 'A sian on w h ite v io le n c e rose co r re sp o n d in g ly . W e b s te r in te rp re ts these trend s in term s o f a g r o w t h of in fo rm al vig ilantism by lo osely o rg anised Asian y o u th s , aim e d at d e te r rin g w h ite racism and c re a tin g 'safe areas' for A sian peo p le . In the m e a n t im e , h o w e v e r , se n io r police an d the m ass m e d ia w e re d e p ic tin g places like K e ig h le y , B rad fo rd and O l d h a m as no -g o areas, h e a v in g w ith territorial rivalries b e t w e e n d ru g traders and racial hostility to w ard s w hites. Fo r e x a m p le , a profile of B ra d fo rd 's M uslim c o m m u n i t y a p p e a r i n g o n B B C tele v isio n's Panorama p r o g r a m m e in 1993 p o rtra y e d th e m as 'a n " u n d e rc la s s in P u r d a h " , w h e r e d rug abu se an d crim e w as rife' (ibid.: 80). F o llo w in g the B rad fo rd d isorder, the C h ie f C o n sta b le of W e st Y o rk sh ire w as the latest in a lo ng line of sen io r police to allege that g r o w in g 'c rim inality ' a m o n g Asian y o u n g m e n w as d u e to the fact that th e y w e r e reb elling aga inst the a u th o rity of their p a re n ts an d c o m m u n i t y elders (ibid.: 67). T h u s , as W e b s t e r m aintains, A g r o w in g p e rc e p t io n b e g a n to b e s h a p e d in the m in d s of w h ite y o u n g s te rs , the police and local age n cie s, w h ic h associa ted Asian s elf-d efe n ce and territorialism w ith street diso rd er and crim inality th ro u g h w h ite p e rc e p tio n s of an Asian 'o ffe n s iv e ' an d e x p e r ie n c e s of b e in g atta ck e d b y Asians. W h ite territorialism i n a d v e rte n tly g e n e r a t e d th o se v e ry c o n d itio n s that w h ite s c o m p la in e d a b o u t to the stud y; th at attacks o n Asians ha d d e c lin e d and attacks o n w h ite s h a d in c re a se d , en a b lin g w h ite y o u n g p e o p le to p o rtra y racism as s o m e t h i n g th a t b lack p e o p le inflict o n w h ite s in the fo rm of v io le n t racism an d abuse aim ed at w hites, and th at Asians w e re a th re at to public o rd e r (their order). A fu rth e r c o n s e q u e n c e w as a g r o w in g p e rc e p tio n a m o n g the police and local a ge n cie s of Asian g an g s' in v o lv e ­ m e n t in d ru g use and crim inality, (ibid.: 76) R e g a r d in g this final point, A le x a n d e r (2004) also n o te s th at the focus of m o ral panics o v e r aspects of Asian life has shifted from issues a ro u n d arran g e d a n d /o r forced m arriages, d o m e stic v io lence an d a b s c o n d in g y o u n g w o m e n o n to that of the c rim inal an d vio lent 'A sian gan g'. T h e im plicatio ns o f this c h a n g e d ideological e m p h a sis for the w o r s e n i n g of p o l ic e - c o m m u n it y relatio ns th at cu lm in a te d in 96

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the d isord ers of 2001 are e xe m p lified b y the first of o u r e xam p les , th at of the O ld h a m riot.

T h e O ld h a m rio t

The b a c k g r o u n d to th e r i o t

T h e fla sh p o in t of the O l d h a m riot w as an in c id e n t o cc u rrin g on the e v e n in g of 26 M a y 2001 w h e n tw o Asian b ro th e rs , aged 14 and 11, w e re w a lk in g past a chip sho p situated o n the b o rd e rlin e of the R o u n d t h o r n a n d p r e d o m i n a n t l y Asian G lo d w ic k districts of the to w n. T h e fo llo w ing descriptio n of this in c id e n t and the w id e r re actio n it p ro v o k e d is b as ed on a div erse ran g e of s ou rc e s (e.g. A h m e d et al. 2001; C A R F 2001; K u n d n a n i 2003; Oldham Advertiser 2003; O l d h a m P artn e rs h ip B o a rd 2001). A cc o rd in g to these c o m m e n t a t o r s , trouble b ro k e o u t w h e n o n e of the b o y s w as stru c k on the leg b y a b rick d elib e rate ly aim e d at him b y a 16-year-old w h ite y o u th . T h e victim w as i m m e d ia te ly a c c o m p a n ie d by his 19-year-old b r o t h e r to a n e a rb y h o u s e w h ic h the p erp e tra to r w a s s een to h a v e e n te re d . O n e of the p e r m a n e n t o c c u p a n ts of the h o u se , a 36-year-o ld w h ite w o m a n , w as sitting talking to a g ro u p of visitin g friend s w h e n she h e a rd the Asian bro th e rs k n o c k in g on h e r door. Instan tly , she took e xce p tio n to their arrival an d b e c a m e racially ab usive to w a rd s t h e m . A small n u m b e r of o th e r Asian y o u th s t h e n a p p e a re d and also e n te re d the a r g u m e n t , w h e r e u p o n o n e of the w o m a n 's ho u se g u ests d ec id e d to call the police. Feeliiig that o t h e r m e a s u r e s w e r e also n e c e ss ary , the o c c u p a n t firstly p h o n e d up h e r m o t h e r an d t h e n h e r 25-ye a r-o ld bro th e r, in fo rm in g the latter, 'T h e r e 's s o m e trouble at the ho u se . S o m e Pakis h av e kicked the d o o r in' (q uo ted in Oldham Advertiser 2003). T h e w o m a n 's b r o t h e r h ad m o r e re a s o n s th a n n o rm a l for feeling in c e n se d b y n e w s of the 'a ttack' on his sister. At the tim e of re ce iv ing the call, h e was e n g a g e d in a d rin k in g s p re e in O l d h a m to w n centre. His 12 -s tro n g g ro u p of co-revellers in c lu d e d m e m b e r s of the rightw i n g British N atio n al Party (B N P ) an d of the politically similar C o m b a t 18 o rg a n isatio n w h o h a d travelled up from L o n d o n to join ran ks w ith the Fine Y o u n g C asuals, a ho o lig an 'c re w ' associa ted w ith O l d h a m A thletic FC. H a v in g b e e n alerted b y t e le p h o n e , the gro up sped off to o u te r G lo d w ic k in thre e taxis. T h e y arrived at aro u nd 8.10 p.m. an d instan tly set a b o u t s m a s h in g the w i n d o w s of Asian 97

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re s id e n c e s an d an A s ia n - o w n e d haird re sse r's . A m o n g th o se b e sie g e d in their h o m e s w as a 34-year-o ld p r e g n a n t w o m a n w h o w as s u b ­ s e q u e n tly tre a te d for shock. Police quickly arr ived on the sce n e a n d p ro m p tly arrested the m a jo r ity of the 10 or so w h ite o ffe n d ers. M e a n w h ile , Asian yo u th s p o u re d into th e area, r e s p o n d in g to r u m o u r s tha t the police w e re e ith e r u n w illin g or u n a b le to p r e v e n t o n g o i n g w hite atrocities. Asian a n g e r w as e x a c e rb a te d , first by the arrest of tw o of their n u m b e r , a n d th e n b y a police decisio n to th ro w a p ro te c tiv e c o r d o n a ro u n d a v a n -lo ad of w h ite prisoners. F in d in g t h e m se lv e s o u t n u m b e r e d , the police rapidly w i t h d r e w from the sce n e at a p p r o x im a te ly 8.45 p.m . By 10 p.m ., a 50 0 -s tr o n g cro w d of Asian y o u th s had fo rm ed in central G lo d w ic k , w h e r e t h e y th re w sto n e s at police a nd passing v ehicles. S tre e t barricades w e re erected and y o u th s hurled petrol b o m b s and o t h e r o b je cts at o p p o s in g police lines. Rio tin g c o n tin u e d until 5 a.m. the fo llo w ing m o r n in g . D u rin g this time, four public h o u s e s a nd the offices of the Oldham E vening Chronicle w e re attack ed and 32 police vehicles d a m a g e d . At the s u b s e q u e n t trial in M a n c h e s t e r o n 13 J u n e 2001 of n in e w h ite m e n and o n e w h ite w o m e n , e a ch c h arg ed w ith affray for the ir part in the O l d h a m riot, the J u d g e re m a rk e d that t h e re had b e e n 's im m e r i n g u n re st particularly a m o n g the Asian c o m m u n i t y ' in the b u ild -u p to the riot, and that 'It o n ly requ ired a sp a rk to ignite the fires that e n s u e d ' (K u n d n a n i 2003).

The c o n t e x t o f t h e r i o t

R a y and S m ith (2004) ask w h y it was the case that riotin g bro k e o u t in O l d h a m b u t no t in the o ste n sibly similar n e i g h b o u r i n g to w n of R o c h d a le , w h ic h is chara cterise d by similar d e g re e s of e thnic s eg re g atio n a n d d ep riv atio n , relative to o th e r parts o f G r e a te r M a n c h e ste r . For th e m , the a n s w e r to this q u e s tio n lies in the u n iq u e w a y in w h ic h local police a nd m e d ia b o t h c o m m e n t e d o n an d in te rp re te d a s u p p o s e d proliferation in the O l d h a m area of racist attacks by A sians on m e m b e r s of n e a rb y w h ite c o m m u n itie s . C rim e statistics an a ly s e d b y R ay and S m ith s ugg est that, sin ce 1994, the n u m b e r of in c id e n ts in v o lv in g w h ite victims of racial in c id e n ts had b e e n h ig h e r in the Q D ivisio n ( O ld h a m ) th a n in an y o th e r division of G r e a t e r M a n c h e s t e r Police. Fo r the y e a r 1 9 9 9 -2 0 0 0 , statistics s h o w e d that 52 per cen t of the 646 victim s of racial incid ents in the O l d h a m area w e re 'w h ite '. O f all of the w h ite victim s re co rd e d across G r e a t e r M a n c h e s t e r as a w h o l e , 38 p e r c e n t w e r e from 98

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O l d h a m . M o re o v e r , ju s t u n d e r half o f the A sian 's u s p e cts ' in v o lv e d in such in c id e n ts w e re said to h av e b e e n living in the to w n (ibid.: 687). N o t o n ly R a y a n d S m ith b u t o th e r c o m m e n t a t o r s also (e.g. A h m e d et al. 2001; Kalra 2003) h a v e arg u e d that it w as n o t the pub lication of these figures per se, b u t ra th e r the particular interpretation im p o s e d on th e m by police s p o k e s p e r s o n s and the m e d ia, th a t h e ig h te n e d the p o te n tial for rioting. In c o m m e n t i n g o n p re v io u s figures (released in 1998), p u rp o rtin g to s h o w a gr e a te r f re q u e n c y of attacks on w h ite s, the local C h ie f S u p e r i n t e n d e n t for Q Divisio n had m a i n ­ tained that: T h e r e 's e v id e n c e th at [Asian m ale yo u ths] are tryin g to create exclu siv e areas for th e m se lv e s . A n y o n e s e e m s to be a targ et if t h e y are w hite. It is a g r o w in g polarisation b e t w e e n s o m e s ec tion s of the Asian y o u th and w h ite y o u th o n the g r o u n d s of race, m a n if e s tin g itself in v io le n c e , p re d o m i n a n t l y Asian, (quo ted by A h m e d et al. 2001: 8) It w as a sim ilar story in J a n u a r y 2001 w h e n the police re leased figures s h o w i n g tha t 62 p e r c e n t o f racial in c id e n ts w e re 'A sian o n w h ite '. A special repo rt for the C h ie f C o n stab le of G re a ter M a n c h e s t e r e m p h a sis e d that these w e re part o f 'a n o n g o i n g trend in v o lv in g prim arily P akistani a nd B a n g la d e s h i t e e n a g e rs ' (ibid.). A press s t a te m e n t by the C h ie f S u p e r i n t e n d e n t of Q Division u n d e r ­ lin ed that 'g a n g s o f Asian y o u n g p e o p le w e r e c au sin g r e s e n t m e n t in the to w n ' (quo ted in Kalra 2003: 149). This p o lic e -sp o n so re d definitio n of the p ro b le m w as r e p r o d u c e d in local n e w s p a p e rs : D u rin g the 1990s, local m e d ia re p o rtin g in O l d h a m had e m p h a s iz e d the 'th r e a t' of Asian v io le n c e w ith h e a d lin e s such as 'R A C I S T A T T A C K S BY ASIAN G A N G S ' (Oldham Chronicle, 17 M arch 1998) and 'H U G E RISE IN R A C E A T T A C K S O N W H IT E M E N ' (31 Ja n u a r y 2001). T h e latter story re p e a te d a fre q u e n t th e m e that racist crim e in O l d h a m had r e a c h e d 'r e c o rd levels' w ith a m assiv e increase (to 60 p e rc e n t o f all incid ents) in vio lent attacks on w hites. T his, it suggests, reveals a 'w o r r y in g tre n d ' in su ch v io le n c e o v e r the past few m o n t h s , in w h ic h ga n g s of b e t w e e n five a n d 20 A sian y o u th s w o u ld target victims. (Ray and S m ith op. cit.: 691)

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R a y a n d S m ith a rg ue a la W e b s t e r (1997) that, in su c h a climate of accu sativ e police d e fin itio n -m a k in g and m e d ia re p o rtin g , Asians c a m e to see no p o in t in r e p o rt in g in c id e n ts to a police fo rce w h o s e m in d s alre a d y s e e m e d tightly m a d e up a gainst the m . F e e lin g s of d istrust and alie n atio n played a ke y pa rt in e n c o u r a g in g Asian y o u th vig ilantism as an altern ativ e to irresolu te police p ro te ctio n of Asian c o m m u n itie s . T h e u p s h o t was that: 'T h e re p e a te d re p r e s e n ta tio n of the se y o u n g m e n as a threat to social o rd e r an d in particular to in n o c e n t w h ite s p ro m o t e d fear, suspicion an d h a tre d a m o n g sections of the w h ite p o p u la tio n - a possibility no t lost on far right political gro u p s, w h o s e in te re st in O l d h a m lo n g p r e c e d e d the v io le n t conflicts of the sp rin g o f 20 01' (Ray and S m ith op. cit.: 693).

The b u i l d - u p to t h e r i o t

T h e relea se o f the crim e statistics in Ja n u a r y 2001 w a s later criticised b y th e official re p o rt on the O l d h a m riots as 'u n n e c e s s a r y , m is­ le ad in g , in v ie w of the difficulty w ith all such statistics, an d distinctly u n h e lp f u l in th o se circ u m s ta n ce s at th at tim e'. A cc o rd in g to the pa ne l, 'v e r y serio us co n sid er a tio n s h o u ld h av e b e e n giv e n to the im p a c t of re le asin g such figures b efo re it was d o n e and w e do no t b e lie v e that this w a s h a n d le d as carefully as it sho uld h av e b e e n ' (Ritch ie 2001: 43: 8.23). T h e re is no d o u b t that the p u blicatio n of th e figures g av e rise to a clim ate of te n s io n , hostility and m u tu al re c rim in a tio n in w h ic h the Far Right w as e x tre m e ly c on sp ic u o u s. O n 3 M a rc h , the B N P staged its a n n u a l n o r t h e r n rally in O ld h a m . A fterw ard s, the m a jo r ity o f its 150 -stro n g a u d ie n c e c o n g re g a t e d o u t ­ side O l d h a m police station to pro te s t against Asian attacks on w hites. L a ter that m o n t h , the N atio n al Fro n t a n n o u n c e d its i n te n tio n to m a r ch t h ro u g h O l d h a m o n 31 M a rc h . W id e s p re a d o p p o s itio n w as v o ice d by politicians, religious, trad e u n io n a n d c o m m u n i t y leaders and the police and the H o m e O ffice e v en tu ally b a n n e d the m arch (CA RF 2001). H o w e v e r , it w as s y m p t o m a t ic of g r o w in g m e d ia in te re st that the 19 April editio n of B B C Rad io 4's Today p r o g r a m m e in c lu d e d a re p o rt by its H o m e Affairs c o r r e s p o n d e n t, dis closing that local Asian y o u th s w e re tra n s fo rm in g their c o m m u n it ie s into 'n o -g o ' areas b e a rin g the w ritten w a r n in g 'W h it e s k e e p out' (ibid.). T h e radio re p o rt w a s 'v in d ic a te d ' sev eral days later w h e n a 76year-old w h ite w a r v e tera n w as attacked by a g ro u p of Asian yo u th s as he w alk e d t h ro u g h an ind ustria l estate on his w a y h o m e from a ru g b y m atch.

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His b a tte re d face a p p e a r e d o n the fro n t of the M a n c h e s t e r E v e n in g N e w s [of 23 April], and the story t h e n spread to all the n atio n al n e w s p a p e rs . In the Mail o n S u n d a y , his story w as told u n d e r the h e a d lin e 'W h it e s b e w a r e '. In the M irror, his face a p p e a re d u n d e r the h e a d lin e 'B e a t e n for b e in g w hite: O A P , 76, attack ed in Asian no -g o area'. M e d ia p u n d its b e g a n to s pecu la te on the a p p a r e n t tran s fo rm atio n of y o u n g Asian m ale s - from the ste r e o ty p e of h a r d -w o r k in g bo ys, w h o re s p e c te d their paren ts, to the n e w ste r e o ty p e of a n g ry , v io le n t thugs. (CA RF op. cit.: 3) T h e sig nificance attrib uted to the a ttack w as u n su stain a b le . T h e su gg e stio n th at the p e n s io n e r had b e e n assaulted for t re s p a ss in g into a no -g o area w as im p ro b a b le , since it had ta k e n place in W e s t w o o d , a district u n cla im e d by a n y te e n a g e gangs. I n d e e d , the elderly m a n 's o w n relativ es a p p e a re d in the n atio n a l press and o n te le vision to dispute that this w as a racist a ttack (V asagar and W ard 2001). N e v e rth e le s s , the a p p a r e n t th re a t p o s e d to O l d h a m 's A sians b y the Far R igh t c o n t in u e d to am plify. O n 24 April, The Times a n n o u n c e d th at the B N P le a d e r a im e d to c o n te st O l d h a m W e s t at the fo rt h ­ c o m i n g G e n e r a l E lectio n. T w o days later, the Oldham Chronicle disclosed th a t the N atio n a l F r o n t in t e n d e d to m a r ch th ro u g h the to w n c en tre o n S a tu rd a y , 5 M ay . E v e n ts took a sin ister turn o n 28 April w h e n the re was a football m atc h b e t w e e n O ld h a m Athletic and Sto k e City. In the p r e c e d in g w e e k , Asian trad ers h ad re ce iv e d t h r e a te n in g p h o n e calls a n d , in the hou rs prior to the actual kick-off, w h ite s u p p o rte rs ha d c h a n t e d racist slo g ans a n d in tim id ate d n o n ­ w h ite s in t o w n c en tre pubs. W ith the kick-o ff fast a p p r o a c h in g , the police e sco rted aw a y te am s u p p o rte rs t h ro u g h a p re d o m i n a n t l y Asian part of to w n. S e ctio n s of these s u p p o rte rs b ro k e a w a y and ra n a m o k , v a n d a lis in g b u sin e ss and re sid ential p ro p e rtie s (CA RF 2001 ). O n c e the g a m e was in pro g ress, m e m b e r s of the Asian c o m ­ m u n itie s c o n ta cte d the police to ask th e m to re -ro u te the s u p p o rte rs aw a y from the area after the final w histle. T h e police w e re u n ­ re s p o n s iv e to this requ est. C o n s e q u e n t ly , o n le a v in g th e g ro u n d , Sto ke s u p p o rte r s w e r e c o n f r o n t e d b y an a w a itin g line of Asian yo u th s w h o th re w s ton es and a petrol b o m b in their direction. D o g -h a n d le rs , police w ith t r u n c h e o n s d r a w n an d v a n dispersal tactics w e re all used to restore o rd e r (ibid.). A fterw ard s, it w as firmly b e lie v e d that N a tio n a l F r o n t s u p p o rte rs h a d u sed the g a m e as a p re te xt for m a r c h in g th ro u g h an Asian area. T h e re w as also a n g e r th at the police h ad p ro v id e d 'd e facto p ro te c tio n ' for su ch peo p le . As 101

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the O l d h a m Law C e n tr e (2001: 10) stated in its s u b m issio n to the Ritchie Inquiry : T h e A sian c o m m u n i t y in W e s t w o o d w e re g o in g ab o u t their n o rm al lawful b u sin e ss and there is no d o u b t that the re w ould n o t h av e b e e n a n y tro u ble on this day h ad th at c o m m u n i t y n o t b e e n attack ed an d incited by w h ite racist y o u th s. T h e y w e re the 'v ictim s' o f this o u tra ge a n d t h e y c a m e o u t o n to the streets to p ro te s t a nd to d e f e n d their c o m m u n ity . T h a t w as a perfectly p ro p e r th in g for th e m to do and y e t it a p p e a re d to th e m tha t the police, instead of p ro te c tin g their c o m m u n i t y from an attack, tu rn e d on that c o m m u n i t y and attack ed it. O n e w e e k later, on S a tu rd a y , 5 M ay, the N atio nal F r o n t t u rn e d o u t in O l d h a m , w ith s u p p o rte r s c arry ing placards b e a rin g the inju re d face of the 76-year-old p e n s io n e r. This time the police p re v e n te d m a r ch e r s fro m e n c r o a c h in g o n Asian areas b u t w e re criticised by the O l d h a m L a w C e n tr e for c o r d o n in g off an d c o n fin in g a rival g ro u p of d em o n s tra to rs. S u sp icio n s w e re aro u se d by th e fact th at s o m e police officers w o re h e lm e t s and visors, a n d o th e rs h a d fabric face m asks o v er their no s e s and m o u t h s (ibid.). For the n e x t thre e w e e k s , Far R igh t m e m b e r s c o n t in u e d to hold m e e t in g s in to w n -c e n t r e p u b s and to leaflet the s u r r o u n d in g streets. It w as d u rin g o n e such m e e tin g , in v o lv in g m e m b e r s of the B N P , C o m b a t 18 and the Fine Y o u n g C asuals in the B rita nnia p u b on L im e sid e , that o n e of the ind iv iduals p re s e n t receiv ed a fateful p h o n e call fro m his sister w h ic h set off the chain of e v e n ts th at c u lm in a te d in the O l d h a m riot.

T h e B u rn le y rio t

The b a c k g r o u n d to th e r i o t

O n e m o n t h after the O l d h a m riot, similar d is o rd er o ccurred in the L a n c a sh ire t o w n of B u rn le y , that has a total p o p u la tio n of a ro u n d 91,000, of w h ic h s o m e 5,000 (5.53 p e r cen t) are of e th n ic m ino rity heritage. Sixty p e r c e n t of the t o w n 's e th n ic m in o r ity c itiz enship are Pakistanis, w h o are m o stly settled in D a n e s h o u s e . S t o n e y h o l m e , on its w est, is the m a in location of B u rn le y 's B a n g la d e s h i c o m m u n i t y (ro u g h ly o n e -th ird the size of its P akistani c o u n te rp a r t), w hile D u k e Bar, to the east of D a n e s h o u s e , is h o m e to an in te g ra te d p o p u la tio n 102

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of e th n ic m ino rities an d w hites. T h e m a in in c id e n ts le a d in g up to the riots initially o cc u rre d in D a n e s h o u s e . H o w e v e r , s u b s e q u e n t c o n ­ fro ntatio n o ccurred across all t h re e localities (Clarke 2001). T h e official B u rn le y T a sk Force repo rt m a in ta in s that to label the d is o rd er as a 'ra c e riot' w o uld be to do local p e o p le a 'g ra v e dis­ service'. T h e re p o rt c on sid ers th at the e v e n t sho uld b e m o re ac cu rate ly described as 'a series of crim inal acts, p e rp e tra te d by a relativ ely small n u m b e r o f peo p le . C e rtainly racial in to le r a n ce played a sig nificant role in tho se d istu rb an ce s; the c o n fro n ta tio n s that took place w e re clearly identified as a gg re ssio n and v io le n c e b y b o th w h ite p e o p le an d th o se from the Asian H e rita g e c o m m u n it ie s ' (ibid.: 8). T h e m ain sou rce of this c o n clu s io n is the L a n c a sh ire C o n sta b u la ry s u b m is sio n to the official in qu iry (ibid., A p p e n d ix 10k), w h ic h h i g h ­ lights the p e rv a s iv e n e s s of d ru g d e a lin g and acquisitive crim e ( n o tab ly burglaries) as k e y facto rs in the riot, b u t c o r re s p o n d in g ly d e - e m p h a s is e s the sig nificance of interracial a n im o s ity and fear. K in g an d W a d d i n g t o n (2004) a rg u e that it w as p recisely this police m is in ter p re ta tio n of the co n te x t of the riot, their m iscalcu latio n of the m o o d o f local Asian c o m m u n it ie s , and the re su ltin g police m i s m a n a g e m e n t of racist m is c h ie f- m a k in g b y Far R igh t gro u p s that c o n trib u te d so heavily to the B u rn le y riot.

The o ff ic i a l n a r r a t iv e o f e ve nts

T h e police v e rsio n of the riot c on stitu te s the o nly official narrativ e of e v en ts. S tructurally, the narrativ e ad o pts a traditional 'riot curv e' f o rm a t o f d esc rip tio n an d an alysis, o u tlin in g the passa g e of the d is o rd er th ro u g h vario us p red icta ble stages: Normality-»- High T e n s io n -» D iso rd er-» D e -e sc ala tio n -» N o rm a lity (e.g. B e c k e t t 1992). T h e police c haracterise the pre -c o n flic t stage of N o rm ality in B u rn le y as o n e in w h ic h racism w as n o t a p ro b le m , an d w as certain ly less a p p a r e n t than in n e a rb y O ld h a m . T h e shift to the H ig h T e n s io n p h as e (usually d efin e d as a situatio n in w h ic h 'fe e ling s are r u n n i n g high ' and the possibility of d isord er starts to p re s e n t itself) w as m ark e d by a n u m b e r of key in c id e n ts o cc u rrin g in D a n e s h o u s e . T h e first of these is d escrib ed as a c o n ­ fro ntatio n o v er d rug s b e t w e e n w hite s and Asians (th o u g h it is no t m a d e a p p a r e n t w h e t h e r th e s e w e re rival e th n ic gro ups), in v o lv ing 'p u re ly in d iscrim in a te crim inal acts', such as d a m a g e to car and h o u s e w in d o w s. S o o n after, a travelling A sian taxi-cab w as similarly v an d a lised . W h e n the d river s tep p e d o u t to i n s p e ct the d a m a g e , he w as struck on the h e a d w ith a h a m m e r an d e v e n tu a lly ta k e n to 103

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hospital. T h e police s u b m issio n a c k n o w l e d g e s that 'T h e r e is no d o u b t th at this m a n w as sim ply in the w r o n g place at the w r o n g tim e and th at h e w as attack ed b e c a u se o f his e thnicity .' H o w e v e r , the re is no a tte m p t to link this attack w ith the prior in c id e n t (K ing and W a d d i n g t o n op. cit.: 125). T e n s io n c o n t in u e d to m o u n t on S a tu rd a y , fuelled b y r u m o u r s in Asian areas th at the taxi d river had died in hospital. T h e re was also s e e t h in g r e s e n t m e n t c au s ed b y the release w it h o u t ch arg e o f the p e o p le b eliev ed re s p o n s ib le for his inju ries. Police a tte m p ts to c o u n t e r such 'm is in f o rm a t io n ' via c o m m u n i t y con ta cts a n d the local m e d ia p ro v e d ineffectu al. L ater on S a tu rd a y e v e n in g , a rm e d Asian y o u th s attack ed the D u k e of Y o r k on C o ln e R o ad , D u k e Bar, an e s ta b lis h m e n t 'f r e q u e n t e d m a in ly b y the w h ite e le m e n t'. T h e ne x t section of the police s u bm issio n states th at tensio n c o n ­ tinued to rise on S u n d a y . A m idst fears of i m p e n d i n g trouble , the land lo rd of the D u k e of Y o r k closed his p u b early and its c u s to m e rs spilled o v er to the n e a rb y Baltic Fleet. T h e re , 's o m e t h i n g o f a siege m e n tality ' d e v e lo p e d , as a large c o n g re g a tio n o f w h ite m a le s ch a n te d racist an d football slogans, a n d v erbally ab u s e d Asian taxi d rivers as a p re lu d e to actually inflictin g d a m a g e o n their v e hicles. Taxi-cab radios soo n spread w o rd of these ev en ts. This ease o f c o m m u n i c a ­ tion, and the fact that the p u b w as so close to Asian a reas m e a n t that Asian y o u t h s w e re soon m o b ilised, arm e d w ith sw o rd s, m a c h e t e s an d clubs (ibid.: 126). B efo re the Asian y o u th s had time to arrive, 30 of the w hite m ales set off fro m the Baltic p u b an d h e a d e d off into D a n e s h o u s e . A sec o n d g ro u p (of u n sp e c ifie d size) m o v e d o ff in the o p p o site dir ection , s tre tch in g th e police reso urces. T h e first g ro u p w as in te rc e p te d by police. H o w e v e r , in tryin g to stee r th e m to w ard s the to w n c e n tre , the police o n ly s u c c e e d e d in b rin g in g the w h ite s into c o n fro n ta tio n with a larger g ro u p of s o m e 300 Asian males. T h e police sub m issio n re c o u n ts that, by f o rm in g a s a n d w ic h b e t w e e n the rival factions and d iv e rtin g th e m a w a y from e a ch o th e r, t h e y e ffectiv ely 'p r e v e n t e d a c o n fro n ta tio n that po tentially could h av e b e e n a b lo o d b a th ' (ibid.). N e v e rth e le s s, d iso rd er c o n tin u e d to escalate e ls e w h e r e as e a ch e th n ic gro up t u rn e d their a tte n tio n to attack in g rival resid ential areas, b u sin e sse s an d leisure v e n u e s . T h e police subm issio n m a k e s the implicit distin ction that, w h ile w h ite attacks on Asian p e rso n s and p ro p e r ty w e re d riven by malice, c o r r e s p o n d i n g Asian activities w e r e largely re tributiv e in n a tu re (ibid.). K ing and W a d d i n g t o n c h a racterise the police a c c o u n t as d a n g e r ­ o usly m islead in g: 104

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A cc o rd in g to this sta n d p o in t, the w h ite g ro u p in v o lv e d in the initial c o n fro n ta tio n u n d o u b t e d l y h a r b o u re d racist v iew s, but their d isp u te w as c o n c e n t r a t e d o n criminal, ra th e r th a n racial, issues. M o re o v e r , as in d ic ate d ab o v e, w hilst the subm issio n re p e a te d ly a c k n o w l e d g e s that s u b s e q u e n t collective v io lence b y w h ite s w as fuelled b y a c o m b in a t io n of d rin k and racist s e n tim e n ts, it chara cterise s c o r r e s p o n d i n g Asian v io lence as m o tiv ated b y crim inal revenge. V irtually ab s en t from this s u b ­ m ission is a n y re fe re n c e to the clim ate of racist hostility existing in the b u ild-u p to the B u rn le y riot and o f h o w this m ig h t help us to m e a n in g fu lly e xplain the b e h a v io u r of s o m e of the pro tag o nists, (ibid.: 127)

Police m i s c a l c u l a t i o n a n d m i s m a n a g e m e n t

K in g and W a d d i n g t o n a d d ress this latter issue b y re fe rrin g to e v id e n c e c o n ta in e d in o th e r s u b m issio n s to th e B u rn le y T ask Force, w h ic h s h o w s that 'a nti-A sian s e n t im e n t (and the fear and d e f e n s i v e ­ ness that it arou ses) had b e e n gra d u ally s tok ed up and b e c o m e m a n ife s t in the p re lu d e to the d isord er'. F o r e x a m p le , local politicians a n d local n e w s p a p e r s had c o n sta n tly fo cu se d o n the s u p p o s e d ly 'p r e fe r e n tia l t r e a tm e n t' b e in g allocated to p r e d o m in a n t ly Asian parts o f to w n in the form of cou ncil in v e s t m e n t . O n e I n d e p e n d e n t cou ncillo r ha d g o n e so far as to r e c o m m e n d the abolition of the t o w n 's E qual O p p o r t u n it ie s C o -o rd in a to r and its local au th o rity T ran slatio n Unit. B u rn le y 's in c re asin g ly rig h t-w in g sensibilities w e re re fle cte d in the B N P 's 21 p e r c en t s h a re of a re c e n t Local A u tho rity b y-e le ctio n con test. M o re o v e r , the B u rn le y B N P c a n d id a te 's 11.2 per c e n t share of th e vote in the last ge n er a l election r e p r e s e n te d the p arty 's sec o n d b e st a c h i e v e m e n t n a tio n w id e . P e r ce p tio n s of g r o w in g th re at a n d hostility to w a rd s B u rn le y 's Asian c o m m u n it ie s w e re reinforced by the g r o w in g in c id e n c e of attacks o n A sian taxi drivers and of the police's alle ged in d iffe re n c e to their plight. T h e d is b a n d m e n t o f the local R a ce E quality C o u ncil m e a n t the loss of a fo ru m for d iscu ssing po licing issues o f a racially s ensitive n a tu re (ibid.: 1 2 9 - 3 0 ) . E v e n such a b rie f re co nte xtualisatio n of the B u rn le y d iso rd er s u gg e sts th a t police in te rp re ta tio n s of a n d re a d in e ss for the d iso rd er w e r e f u n d a m e n t a ll y m is g u id e d . This flawed definitio n of the situation was the basis of an ill-chosen police policy for m a n a g in g the p re lu d e to the riot. K ing and W a d d i n g t o n 's analysis of police tactics and strategy is b as ed o n 38 w itn e ss s t a te m e n t s sig ned b y police officers o n d uty 105

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o n the m a in d a y of the riot, S u n d a y , 24 Ju n e . S t a t e m e n t s b y the tw o m o s t sen io r officers p re s e n t re veal that police stra te gy and tactics for h a n d lin g the b u ild-u p of w h ite p a tro n s ou tsid e the Baltic Fleet w e r e c o n sis te n t w ith c u s t o m a ry m e t h o d s for d ealin g w ith situatio ns of 'H ig h T e n s io n '. T h u s their o v er rid in g priority w as 'to p ro v id e a h ig h ly visible police p re s e n c e in the area a n d to reassu re the c o m m u n i t y , p r e v e n t d is o rd er and to e n s u re that if d iso rd er did b r e a k out, that there w as an early re s o lu tio n ' (ibid.: 131). T h e s e o bje ctiv e s w e re n o t secu re d . K in g an d W a d d i n g t o n m a k e the p o in t that, had the police b e e n m o r e sensitive to the p ro fo u n d dis quiet of the Asian c o m m u n it ie s and s tro n g re solu tion on their part n o t to yield to racist in tim id atio n , th e y m ig h t h av e dealt m o r e forcibly and in gr e a te r n u m b e r w ith tho se s ta n d in g outsid e the Baltic Fleet. It is e v id e n t from police s t a te m e n t s that, by 6.30 p .m ., the antics of the w h ite m ale s h ad g r o w n in c re asin g ly disorderly : N azi salu tes w e re used to gre et n e w arrivals and o n e y o u th had to be physically p re v e n t e d fro m t h ro w in g a bo ttle at the police (ibid.). T h e B ro n z e c o m m a n d e r arr ived on the sce n e in re s p o n s e to a re q u est by a n o t h e r police in s p e cto r w h o w as u n s u re h o w to h a n d le the wilfully u n ru ly y o u th s . B y this tim e, tw o Asian taxis h ad already b e e n d a m a g e d and a d river ha d su staine d a h a n d in ju ry. B ro n ze fo re saw a d a n g e r of e scalatin g the d isorder: 'T h e g ro u p ap p e a re d quite agitated an d , in m y o p in io n , such a large police p re s e n c e in o n e location was in d a n g e r of attractin g e v e n m o r e tro u b le m a k e rs to the area and i n fla m in g an alre ad y v ery tense situ atio n.' (ibid.). In o rd e r to av ert this possibility, h e re d e p lo y e d s o m e of his officers to o th e r lo cations. K in g a nd W a d d i n g t o n are a d a m a n t that the a d o p tio n of this policy in p re fe r e n c e to d e a lin g m o r e d ecisively w ith the v erbal an d phy sical ab u se of A sian taxi d rivers w as to tar the police strategy (in the e y e s of local Asians) as illegitim ate and partisan: To allow th e m to c o n t in u e with im p u n ity w as to u n d e r m i n e police credibility and s a n ctio n a c o n tin u a tio n of such b e h av iou r. P er h a p s m o r e im p o rtan tly , if police s pecu latio n is correct and c o m m e n t a r ie s w e re b e in g fed b a c k into Asian c o m m u n it ie s via taxi cab radios, th e n it w as inev itab le, in the c u rr e n t clim ate, that police inactio n w o uld b e in te rp re te d as 'y e t m o re e v id e n c e ' of police in d iffe re n c e to the plight of B u rn le y Asians. G iv e n their s u p e rio r n u m b e rs , it m a y w ell h a v e b e e n m o r e ad visab le for police officers to ro u n d up, or at least c o n ta in , the ro w d ier section of the w hite racists. In the m e a n t im e serials could h a v e b e e n d e s p a t c h e d into D a n e s h o u s e and S t o n e y h o l m e 106

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w h e r e , w ith the help of c o m m u n i t y m e d iato rs, Asian resid ents cou ld h a v e b e e n re a ssu re d th at the situatio n w a s u n d e r control. Certainly s o m e form of police reso lv e w as u r g e n tly requ ired . (ibid.: 132) As it w as, w ith their attitu d es e m b o l d e n e d , the y o u th s m a r c h e d off to w ard s D a n e s h o u s e . In co n tra s t to the L a n c a sh ire C o n sta b u la ry su b m issio n , in d iv id u a l s t a te m e n ts e m p h a sis e that the a t t e m p t e d police i n t e rv e n t io n w as painfu lly sham bo lic. O fficers re p o rt an e n d u r i n g state o f fear and p anic in the face of o v e r w h e l m i n g odds. C o m m u n ic a t i o n b e t w e e n units was vir tually im po ssible giv e n the din of the c ro w d and no ise of s w e rv in g traffic. An im p re s sio n is given of officers ac tin g p u re ly on im p u ls e , as w h e n an a rm o u re d police p e r s o n n e l carrier w as d riven into the c ro w d for the sole p u rp o s e of re s cu in g c olle ag u e s in distress. In short, 'O ffice rs lackin g the n e c e ss a ry e q u i p m e n t , n u m e ric a l stre n g th , le ad e rs h ip , tactical co -o r d in a tio n a nd a n y c o n f id e n c e that re in f o r c e m e n t s w e re close to ha n d w e re p a n ic k e d into h a s ty a n d h apless re treat' (ibid.: 135). K in g a nd W a d d i n g t o n c on trast this w ith the po lice's h a n d lin g of an a lm o s t identical situatio n, o n M o n d a y , 25 J u n e w h e n w h ite y o u th s a s se m b le d o n ce again at the fro nt of the Baltic Fleet. This time, the police took the d ecisive step of d isp e rsin g the potential t ro u b le ­ m a k e rs, b u t o nly after a d e q u a t e n u m b e r s of officers had b e g u n their tours of duty. T h e police t h e n a d d r es s ed t h e m se lv e s to the task of d isp e rsin g a similar g ro u p of Asian y o u th s that had b e e n g a t h e rin g in S t o n e y h o lm e . This part of the o p e ra tio n w a s m a d e easier b y the p re s e n c e of a substantial n u m b e r of w ell-briefed officers and the ability of sen io r officers to rea ssu re the c ro w d tha t th e w h ite racists no lo n g e r co n stitu te d a threat.

Conclusions In earlier pub lications, I e m p h a s is e d that the in n e r-city riots of the early 1980s re sulted from particular police w a y s of d ea lin g w ith a politically an d e thnica lly as sertive A f rica n -C arib b ean y o u t h c o u n t e r ­ c ulture, fusing e l e m e n t s of the J a m a ic a n -b a s e d Rastafarian and R u d e B o y styles (D. W a d d i n g t o n 1992, 2001). S e n io r police, politicians and the m e d ia seized u p o n p e tty -c rim in al activities o cc u r rin g o n the fring es of this culture to b ra n d an entire g e n e r a t io n of b la ck y o u th as m orally d e g e n e ra t e . S u c h vilification w a s used to ju stify saturatio n po licing m e t h o d s , in v o lv in g 's to p and search ' m e t h o d s w h ic h , 107

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in turn, a n ta g o n is e d local re sid e n ts an d created 'tin d e r bo x' c o m ­ m unitie s. T h e socio-political c o n d itio n s in w h ic h the diso rd ers of 1991 and 1992 took place w e re dissim ilar to this in o n e sig nificant re spect. As Lea (2004: 190) explains, W h e r e a s b lack y o u th in Brixton in 1981 could fo cus their a t t e n ­ tion o n the police as the i m m e d ia te v e h icle of their o p p re s sio n , w h ite y o u th in the d e c a y in g ind ustrial c o m m u n i t ie s in 1991 faced the u n m e d ia t e d irresponsib ility of global capital as it t u rn e d o n its heels and w e n t e ls e w h e r e in search of c h e a p labour. T o this th e y could o nly re a c t w ith a the atre of d estru ction. H e re , the p e rsiste n tly agg ressive m e t h o d s of policing b lack c o m ­ m u n itie s g av e w a y to 'a m o r e episo d ic r e g im e ' (ibid.) in w h ic h c o m m u n it ie s g e n erally d ev o id of a police p r e s e n c e w e re s u d d e n ly s u b je c te d to m assiv e 'c r a c k d o w n s ' as car crim e an d p e tty theft prolif­ e ra te d an d public c o n c e rn re a c h e d fe v er pitch. G lobal capital also 't u r n e d on its h e e ls' to the ob v io u s d e tr im e n t of British B a n g la d es h i and P akistani y o u th s left u n e m p l o y e d and socially e x c lu d ed in the f o r m e r textile t o w n s of n o r t h e r n E n g la n d at the start of the n e w m ille n n iu m . This kind of e c o n o m ic p lig ht was closely related to o th e r a spects of Asian e x p e r ie n c e , m o s t n o tab ly racial h a r a s s m e n t and the p e rc e iv e d in d iffe re n c e of the police to the safety of their c o m m u n itie s . S u c h c o n d itio n s b e c a m e the b re e d in g g ro u n d for a m o re assertive y o u th identity, c o m m itte d to d e f e n d in g Asian c o m m u n it ie s against the m alicio us th re a t of w h ite racists. U n f o rtu n a te ly , sen io r police officers h e lp e d p ro p a g a te th ro u g h the m e d ia a version of such c o m m u n it ie s as v ic e -rid d e n 'n o - g o ' areas, rid dled w ith racial hostility. A lm o st instan tly, this attracted the m is c h ie f- m a k in g and retribution of w h ite extrem ists. T h is pro cess is illustrated m o st starkly b y o u r e x a m p le of the O l d h a m riot w h e r e , a c co rd in g to Kalra (2003: 150), 't h e see d s o f the riots w e re fertilised and w a te re d b y th e re lease o f raw racial h a r a s s m e n t statistics in J a n u a r y 2001 that c o n ta in e d no m e n t io n of rates or a n alyse s of d iffe re n t typ es o f incid ent. T h e ir release a nd the s u b s e q u e n t press c o v e ra g e e n a b le d the cre a tio n of a w h ite v ic tim o lo g y th at was exploited by Far R igh t parties.' T h e t e n d e n c y of sen io r police to m is co n s tru e A sian vig ilantism as e v id e n c e of o u tr ig h t crim inality was fu r th e r e v id e n t in the b u ild-u p to the B u r n le y d isorder. T h e re , the police fra m in g of e v en ts le a d in g 108

T h e B ritish urban rio ts , 1991-2001

up to S u n d a y , 24 J u n e fatally d o w n p l a y e d Asian c o n c e r n a bo u t i m p e n d i n g Far R igh t attacks on their c o m m u n itie s . C o n s e q u e n t ly , w h e n rig h t-w in g tro u b le m a k e rs g a th e re d at a pu blic h o u s e o n the e d g e of an Asian area, the police w e r e tactically u n d e r s trength . T h e fateful decision by a B ro n ze c o m m a n d e r to w ith d ra w officers from a situ atio n of rising hostility signalled to A sians a n d w h ite s alike that police c o m m i t m e n t to d e f e n d i n g th e e th n ic m in o rity w a s i n a d e ­ q u ate ly resolu te. T h e re a s o n w h y this c h a p t e r has fo cu se d prim arily on e v en ts in O l d h a m and B u rn le y is that details of the p o licing of the B rad fo rd riot of 7 - 9 July re m a in s k e tch y b y c o m p a ris o n . W h a t w e already k n o w for sure is tha t the B rad fo rd d iso rd er also o cc u rre d in the c o n te x t of h e a v y c a m p a i g n in g b y the B N P , N F a n d C o m b a t 18. In d e e d , on the eve of the riot, the B N P na tio nal le a d e r ad d res s ed a m e e t i n g o n a p r e d o m i n a n t l y w h ite cou ncil estate. W h ile the c ou rse of e v e n ts th e re a fte r is d isputed (P ea rce and B ujra 2006), it is g e n erally a g r e ed th at trouble ignited in the city c e n tre , w h e r e a m ultiracial anti-fascist rally of several h u n d r e d p e o p le had ga th e re d a m id st r u m o u r s th at N a tio n a l F r o n t s u p p o rte r s w o u ld be m a r c h in g in B rad fo rd in d efia nce of a b a n (C. Allen 2003; B a g g u le y and H u ssain 2003; Carling et al. 2004; H u s sain and B a g g u le y 2005). Police in v o lv e m e n t fo llo w e d an in cid e n t in w h i c h w h ite y o u th s ( s uspected of b e in g N a tio n al Fro nt m e m b e rs) v erbally ab used and a tta ck e d an Asian m a n . O fficers tried to restore o rd e r b y p u s h in g the c ro w d o u t of the city c en tre into the p re d o m i n a n t l y Asian area of M a n n i n g h a m . T h e re , 4 0 0 - 5 0 0 A sian y o u t h s stood their g r o u n d and did battle w ith the police. It is possible that police w e r e h e e d in g the r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s of the 1995 re p o rt an d a v o id in g risk of d a m a g e to the city c en tre. W h a t e v e r their actual m o tiv es , r e s p o n d e n t s later justifie d their actio ns as a 'd e f e n c e of c o m m u n i t y ', p re d icate d o n the b e lie f that the police w e re 'u n w illin g , r a th e r tha n u n a b le ' to protect th e m (C. Allen op. cit.: 25). S u c h p e rc e p tio n s of police in d iffe re n c e or n e g le c t are the m ain d is tin g u is h in g fe atu re b e t w e e n the British d is tu rb an ce s and their A m e rica n c ou n te rp arts. U n lik e the A m e rica n riots of 1 9 9 1 - 2 0 0 1 (and, i n d e e d the British in n e r-c ity diso rd ers of the 1980s), the British conflicts of the past tw o d e c a d e s w e re less obvio u sly the c o n s e ­ q u e n c e s of su staine d saturatio n policing. R a th e r, in 1991 and 1992, they arose w h e n the police w e re p re s su re d into re c a p t u rin g c o m m u ­ nities th e y h a d lo n g ago c o n c e d e d to local y o u th ; and in 2001, they flared up b e c a u se the police w ro n g ly bra n d e d the victim s o f e n d e m ic racism as its m ain perpetrators. 109

C h a p te r 5

W o rld w id e ‘anti-globalisation’ protest, post-Seattle

In tro d u c tio n T h e late 1990s saw an u p su rg e of 'a n ti-glo ba lisatio n ' protest. It b e c a m e c o m m o n p la c e in this era for s u m m it m e e tin g s of m a jo r global and re g io n a l institutio ns - the W orld T ra d e O rg a n isa tio n (W T O ), the W o rld B a n k , the I n te rn a tio n a l M o n e t a r y F u n d (IMF), the G r o u p of 8 (G8), the U nited N atio n s (U N), the E u ro p e a n U n io n (EU) and o th e rs - to b e a c c o m p a n i e d b y mass street protests in v o lv in g a w id e ran g e of social m o v e m e n t s a nd n o n - g o v e r n m e n t a l o rg a n isa ­ tions (N G O s ) (H eld and M c G r e w 2002: 64). F r o m 1999 o n w a r d s , such o ccasio ns w e re s y n o n y m o u s w ith street c o n fro n ta tio n s inv o lv ing in c re asin g ly repressiv e fo rm s of po licing (B rooks 2004; della Porta et al. 2006; O 'N e ill 2004). It w o uld be d is in g e n u o u s to s u g g e st th at v io lence a c c o m p a n y i n g anti-globalisatio n pro test w as n o n - e x is t e n t until the turn of the tw e n tie th c en tu ry , as this w o u ld be to d e n y the o cc u r re n c e of riotin g in the 1980s d u rin g d e m o n s t ra t io n s in Third W o rld co u n trie s against the W orld B a n k and I M F (W alton 1987). N e v e rth e le s s, the late 1990s saw a re s u rg e n c e of such activity. O n e w e l l- d o c u m e n t e d e x a m p le w as the po licing of the Asia Pacific E c o n o m ic C o o p e ra tio n (APEC) S u m m it, staged in V a n c o u v e r in N o v e m b e r 1997, w h e n 3,000 d e m o n s t ra t o rs ga th e re d in c o n d e m n a t i o n of the p o o r h u m a n rights reco rds of s o m e d ele g ate natio ns, n o ta b ly C h in a and Ind o n e sia (Ericson a nd D o y le 1999). T h e Ro y al C a n a d ia n M o u n t e d Police (R C M P ) con tro v ersially erected a 10-fo ot w ire -fe n c in g p e rim e t e r to shield the m o t o rc a d e s tra n s p o rtin g the 18 In te rn a tio n a lly P ro te cte d P erso n s (IPPs) to and from the v e n u e . D u r in g a sit-d o w n pro test by d e m o n s tra to rs, police bicycles w e re u s e d as b a tte rin g ram s a n d the R C M P d is ch a rg e d p e p p e r spray (ibid.).

W o rld w id e 'a nti-g lob a lisa tio n' p ro te s t, post-S eattle

Far more significant in terms of the im petus given to further w orldw id e anti-globalisation protest was the spectacular violence acco m p a nying the 1999 W T O sum m it m e e tin g in Seattle in N o ve m b er/D e ce m be r. This event was attend ed , not only by President Bill Clinton and o ther world dignitaries, but also by tens of tho u sand s of anti-globalisation dem onstrators from over 1,200 separate organisations. The police were u n prepa red for the scale and intensity of the protest. O n the first day of the four-day summ it (scheduled for 30 N o v e m b er to 3 D ecem ber), a carnival-type spirit initially prevailed. H ow ever, trouble broke out at the ju nctio n of U nion and 6th Streets w h e re protesters prevented delegates from leaving their hotel: A pparently frustrated by their inability to guarantee delegates' access to the op e n in g cere m o ny , police used tear gas to clear a path for delegates for the o p e n in g session. Anarchist groups, w h o had a n n ou n c e d over protest electronic list servers their intentions to target d o w n to w n shops, did not use violence first. T he authorities b egan the cycle of violent confrontation, which escalated into w hat was essentially a police riot. (Smith 2001: 13; see also W o zn iak 2005) First off, police used p e p p e r spray and baton charg es in a bid to disperse the crowd. T hese m easures and the subsequ ent introduction of tear gas and ru bber bullets proved escalatory. W ith the a b a n d o n ­ m en t of the sum m it a grow in g possibility, the m ay o r of Seattle declared a state of e m ergency. A city-wide curfew was imposed involving 'n o-p rotest zones' around the sum m it com plex, and the W ashingto n N ational Guard and US Arm y were b ro u ght in to relieve the bele aguered local police (Brooks 2004). Follow in g the 'Battle of Seattle', anti-globalisation protest grew even m ore perv asive and policing m eth od s becam e correspondingly less perm issive (N oakes and Gillham 2006: 97). Security arrange ­ m ents for sub sequ ent sum m it m eetings in places like W ashingto n, DC and Prague (both in 2000) and Q u e b e c City, G o th en b u rg and Genoa (in 2001) were m u ch tighter and m ore repressive. In W a s h in g ­ ton, this involved a strictly enforced 'n o-p ro test zone'. In Prague, police allowed dem onstrators within 200 m etres of the conference centre before b o m b ard in g them with tear gas, water c an n o n s and concussion grenades. Seven m o n th s later, similar w e a p o n r y was used in Q u e b e c City, w here police also set up a three-m etre-hig h steel and concrete security fence. G o th en b u rg police w e n t one

P olicing P ublic D is o rd e r

step f u r th e r in J u n e 2001 w h e n th e y o p e n e d fire on d em o n s tra to rs, w o u n d i n g thre e p e o p le in the process. M o s t d ram atically o f all, at the 2001 G 8 m e e t i n g in G e n o a , the re w e re r u n n i n g b attles b e t w e e n p ro te sters an d the police an d carabinieri. D u r in g the w o rst v io le n c e in the history of the anti-globalisatio n protest, o n e participan t, Carlo Giuliani, w as s h o t d ead b y the police an d ru n o v e r b y an arm o u re d vehicle. S u b s e q u e n tly , the police carried o u t a re talia tory raid on a p ro te ster c a m p (K ing and W a d d i n g t o n 2005; O 'N e ill 2004). T h e tragic e v e n t in G e n o a a p p e a r e d to in d u c e a perio d of in tro ­ spectio n. W ith in days of the c o n fro n ta tio n , the C a n a d ia n g o v e r n m e n t a n n o u n c e d that th e fo llo w ing ye a r 's G 8 m e e t i n g w o uld be held in K a n an ask is, a re m o t e a n d e x tre m e ly inaccessible w in te r resort, h igh in the R o c k y M o u n ta in s . T erro rist attacks on the W orld T ra d e C e n tr e on 11 S e p t e m b e r 2001 also s e e m e d to d a m p e n p ro ­ testers' ap p e tite s for c o n fro n ta tio n bu t, c o n v er se ly , h e i g h te n e d the security c o n sc io u sn e ss of the a u th o ritie s (O 'N e ill 2004). In 2 0 0 2 - 2 0 0 3 , the anti-glo bal m o v e m e n t re fo c u s ed its e n e rg ie s o n o p p o s in g the w a r in Iraq (ibid.). H o w e v e r , the re w e r e v io le n t clashes b e t w e e n p ro testers an d polic e at G8 s u m m it m e e tin g s in Evian (S w itzerland ) and G le n e a g le s (Sco tland ) in 2003 and 2005 respectiv ely , and d u rin g the W T O m e e t i n g in H o n g K o n g , also in 2005. T ab le 5.1 (page 114) s u m m a rise s the m a in fo rm s of p o l ic e -p r o t e s t e r activities at the m a jo r anti-globalisatio n e v en ts from 1 9 9 9 -2 0 0 6 . O n e possible e x p lan a tio n for the ge n e r a lly u n c o m p r o m i s in g police strategies and tactics e m p lo y e d at the in te rn atio n a l s u m m its relates to the ob v io u s political pre ssu re o n the police to e n s u r e the safety of the h ig h - r a n k in g political d ele g atio n s p re s e n t on such o ccasio ns. This a r g u m e n t certain ly applies to the 1997 A P E C pro test w h e r e , a c c o rd ­ in g to Ericso n a n d D o y le (op. cit.), the re w e r e tw o m ain re a s o n s for the R C P M 's u n c o m p r o m i s in g a p p ro ac h . First, in te n s e political p re s ­ sure w as e xerted b y the I n d o n e s i a n g o v e r n m e n t to e n s u re that its d ele g a te s w e re shield e d from possible protest; and sec o n d ly , the travelling In d o n e s ia n police had notified the R C M P that t h e y w o uld no t refrain from s h o o tin g d e m o n s t ra t o rs in the face of a perceiv ed th re at to their ministers. T h o u g h u n d o u b t e d l y useful, this e xp la n a tio n is lim ited in its capacity to a c c o u n t for varia tio ns in the levels o f v io le n c e o cc u rrin g at sep ara te p ro test ev en ts. T h u s, in the p re s e n t c h a p te r a n d in C h a p t e r 6, w e e xplo re a w id e r ra n g e of variables capa ble of e x p la in ­ in g con tin u itie s a nd d is cre p a n c ie s in police tactics and strategies d u rin g anti-globalisatio n protest, and e x a m in e their c o n s e q u e n c e s for the m a i n t e n a n c e or b r e a k d o w n of pu blic ord er. T h e focus of the

W o rld w id e 'a nti-g lob a lisa tio n' p ro te s t, post-S eattle

current chapter is on theoretical insights to be gleaned from case studies ru nning from the Battle of Seattle in 1999 to the W T O protests in H o n g K ong in 2005. C h apter 6 comprises a c o m ­ plem enta ry case study of the policing of the G8 m eeting of Justice and H o m e Affairs ministers in Sheffield, England, in Jun e 2005. The e xtend ed nature of the Sheffield study allows for a more detailed, in -d epth appreciation of the factors un derly in g the police's tactical and strategic choices, and their implications for p o lice-pro tester relations. W e begin the p resent chapter with a case study of the Seattle débâcle of 1999. This initial exam ple highlights the possibility that particular forms of police e n g a g e m e n t with protesters m ay well have the u n in ten d e d , or 'ironic', effects of enco urag in g fu rther violence. S u b se q u e n t sections then use o ther p ro m in e n t exam ples of anti­ globalisation protest - though not in strictly chronological ord er to identify those factors responsible both for consistencies and differences of police styles. Thus, the second section will dem onstrate that W e ste rn police forces have followed a general te n d e n cy to resort to tactics of 'strategic incapacitation' (involving, for exam ple, restrictions on m o v e m e n t, mass arrests, the rem oval of ringleaders and the use of less-lethal w e a p o ns) with regard to transgressive groups of protesters. T he re m aining sections will then show how degrees of conform ity to or departure from this norm are explicable in term s of such variables as: the nature of policing traditions within the relevant society; the salient political con text and its interaction with o ther key institutional, cultural, contextual, situational and interactional factors; the 'lessons learned' by the police on the basis of previous confrontations; and finally, the idiosyncratic 'policing philosophies' subscribed to by individual forces.

T h e ironic effects o f police tactics To begin with, w e explore possible ways in which police tactics e m plo yed at anti-globalisation protests m a y contribute to the instiga­ tion and d ev e lo p m e n t of disorder. This requires a brief consideration of activities during the 1999 World Trade O rganisation m eeting in Seattle.

T a b l e 5.1

A selectiv e su m m a ry of m a jo r a n ti-g lo b alisatio n p ro te s ts, 1 9 9 9 -2 0 0 6

18 J u n e 1 9 9 9 , L o n d o n : A r o u n d 150 c iv ilian s are i n ju r e d d u r i n g a 'J1 8 ' o r 'C a r n i v a l A g a i n s t C a p it a l is m ' d e m o n s t r a t i o n a g a i n s t w o rld d e b t , th e a r m s t ra d e a n d o t h e r glo b a l issu e s. T h o u g h initia lly p e a c e f u l, the p r o t e s t b e c o m e s v io l e n t w h e n a m i n o r it y of d e m o n s t r a t o r s set o u t to a t t a c k th e L o n d o n I n t e r n a t i o n a l F i n a n c i a l F u t u r e s E x c h a n g e . A M c D o n a l d 's fa s t- fo o d r e s t a u r a n t o n C a n n o n S t r e e t is v a n d a li s e d and e x p e n s i v e cars are o v e r t u r n e d . M o u n t e d p o lic e u n its s u c c e e d in c o n t a i n i n g th e p r o t e s t e r s in T r a f a l g a r S q u a r e . 30 N o v e m b e r 1 9 9 9 , Sea t t l e : T e n s o f t h o u s a n d s o f d e m o n s t r a t o r s fro m 1,200 o r g a n i s a t i o n s c o n g r e g a t e to d e m a n d o f th e w h o l e s a l e re fo rm o f th e W o rld T r a d e O r g a n i s a t i o n . T h e sta rt o f th e W T O s u m m i t is d e l a y e d for six h o u r s b e f o r e th e police u s e p e p p e r s p r a y a n d tear g a s to d is p e r s e p r o t e s t e r s b l o c k i n g th e h i g h w a y s . T h e lo cal m a y o r d e c la r e s a S t a t e o f E m e r g e n c y a n d th e p o lice i m p o s e a strict c u r f e w , w h i c h t h e y t h e n e n f o r c e w ith th e h e lp o f th e N a t i o n a l G u a r d . 30 N o v e m b e r 1 9 9 9 , L o n d o n : O n th e s a m e n i g h t , d e m o n s t r a t o r s s h o w s o lid a r ity w ith th e S e a t tle p r o t e s t b y s t a g i n g a n i m p r o m p t u m a r c h a r o u n d c e n t r a l L o n d o n . A c r o w d o f a r o u n d 750 c o n g r e g a t e s at E u s t o n S t a t io n a n d e n g a g e s in v io l e n c e w ith p o lice officers. R io t p o lic e writh b a t o n s d r a w n e v e n t u a l ly s u c c e e d in d e b ilit a t in g the p ro t e s t e r s . 18 Apr i l 2 0 0 0 , W a s h i n g t o n , D C : P olice use billy c lu b s a n d t e ar gas to cle a r th e r o a d s o f p r o t e s t e r s a t t e m p t i n g to p r e v e n t a m e e t i n g o f th e I M F a n d W o r l d B a n k . 1 M a y 2 0 0 0 , L o n d o n : A n o t h e r 'C a r n i v a l A g a i n s t C a p it a l is m ' d e s c e n d s into v io l e n c e a f t e r s e v e ra l h o u r s o f p e a c e f u l p ro te s t. A n u m b e r of m o n u m e n t s are d e f a c e d and a M c D o n a l d ' s f a s t-f o o d r e s t a u r a n t is v a n d a li s e d . 2 6 S e p t e m b e r 2 0 0 0 , P r a g u e : F i f t e e n t h o u s a n d p e o p l e fro m 30 d if f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s a t t e n d th e 'F ir s t P a n E u r o p e a n p r o t e s t a g a i n s t g lo b al c a p it a l i s m '. T h e i r s ta te d o b je c t i v e is to fo rm a h u m a n c h a in a r o u n d th e f o r m e r c o m m u n i s t c e n t r e o f c u ltu re w h e r e the W o r l d B a n k m e e t i n g s are b e i n g h e ld . H o w e v e r , p o lic e o n l y a llo w d e m o n s t r a t o r s to w it h in 200 y a r d s o f th e c e n t r e b e f o r e b o m b a r d i n g th e m w ith t e ar gas, w a t e r c a n n o n s and con cu ssion g ren ades. 24 Apr i l 2 0 0 1 , Q u e b e c Ci t y: H u n d r e d s o f C a n a d i a n rio t p o lic e u s e t e ar gas, w a t e r c a n n o n s a n d r u b b e r b u lle t s to d e t e r p r o t e s t e r s a g a i n s t th e ' S u m m i t o f th e A m e r i c a s ' fro m t e a r i n g dow^n a s e c t io n o f s te e l a n d c o n c r e t e s e c u r it y f e n c in g d u b b e d th e 'W a l l of S h a m e ' . F o u r h u n d r e d p e o p l e are a r r e s t e d as th e p o lic e striv e to a v o id 'a n o t h e r S e a ttle '. 1 M a y 2 0 0 1 , L o n d o n : th e M e t r o p o l i t a n P olice S e r v ic e a p p l y a 'z e r o t o le r a n c e ' p o lic y to d e t a i n t h o u s a n d s of p r o t e s t e r s in th e O x f o r d C irc u s a re a o f c e n t r a l L o n d o n for e ig h t hours. 15 J u n e 2 0 0 1 , G o t h e n b u r g : F o r t y - t h r e e p e o p l e are a rr e s te d a n d t h r e e o t h e r s are w o u n d e d b y p o lic e g u n f i r e as 2 5 ,0 0 0 p r o t e s t e r s g a t h e r at th e EU s u m m i t m e e t i n g . 20 J ul y 2 0 0 1 , G e n o a : T h e w o r s t v io l e n c e in the h is to r y o f a n ti -c a p it a l is t p r o t e s t b re a k s o u t at th e G 8 s u m m i t m e e t i n g . An e i g h t - h o u r r u n n i n g b attle o c c u r s in w h i c h 93 are h u r t a n d o n e p r o t e s t e r , C arlo G i u lia n i, is s h o t d e a d a n d t h e n ru n o v e r b y a p o lice a r m o u r e d v e h i c l e . A f t e r w a r d s , Italian p o lic e c a rry o u t a b ru ta l raid o n a b u i l d i n g b e in g u s e d by th e G e n o a S o c ia l F o r u m . W alls o f t h e b u i l d i n g are s m e a r e d w ith b lo o d , p r o m p t i n g an in q u ir y b y A m n e s t y I n t e r n a t i o n a l .

I 14

2 9 -3 0 S e p t e m b e r 2 0 0 1 , W a s h in g to n , D C : L e ss th a n th re e w e e k s a fte r th e o c c u r re n c e o f 9 /1 1 , th re e a n ti-w a r/a n ti-c a p ita lis m d e m o n s tr a tio n s are h e ld in th e A m e rica n c a p ita l. P o lice u se p e p p e r sp ra y a n d d e te n tio n te c h n iq u e s (in c lu d in g m e ta llic b a rrie rs ) to c o n ta in m e m b e rs o f th e m o s t m ilita n t g ro u p o f p r o te s te r s , th e A n ti-C a p ita lis t C o n v e r g e n c e (A C C ), b u t d is p la y a m o re le n ie n t a ttitu d e to w a rd s th e re la tiv e ly m o re m o d e r a te I n te r n a tio n a l A ctio n C e n te r (IA C ) a n d Q u a k e r-le d W a s h in g to n P e a c e C e n te r . 1 M a y 2 0 0 2 , L o n d o n : Six th o u s a n d p e o p le g a th e r in T ra fa lg a r S q u a re . N o tw ith s ta n d in g th e fa ct th a t 5 ,0 0 0 p o lice are p la ce d on s ta n d b y , th e e v e n t is o v e r rid in g ly p e a c e fu l. A ro u n d 7 p .m ., p o lic e o ffic e rs p r e v e n t 2 0 0 d e m o n s tr a to r s from e n te r in g th e W e st E n d . T h e p o lic e th e n a d o p t th e c o n ta in m e n t s tra te g y o f s u r r o u n d in g an d d e ta in in g th e p r o te s te r s at th e ju n c tio n o f D e a n S tr e e t an d O ld C o m p to n S tre e t in S o h o in a re p e titio n o f th e ty p e o f ta c tic s u sed in th e p re v io u s y e a r. 2 6 - 2 7 Ju n e 2 0 0 2 , K a n a n a s k is (A lb e r ta , C a n a d a ): F o llo w in g th e p re v io u s y e a r 's v io le n c e in G e n o a , th e 2 0 0 2 G 8 s u m m it m e e tin g is h e ld in an iso la te d h o lid a y re s o rt, 60 m ile s w e s t o f C a lg a ry in th e R o c k y M o u n ta in s . A cce ss to th e m e e tin g is fu r th e r re s tric te d b y p o lic e a n d m ilita ry b lo c k a d e s . T h e sty le o f p o lic in g e m p lo y e d in p ro te s ts in m a jo r c itie s like C a lg a ry an d O tta w a is 's o ft h a t' and n o n -c o n fr o n ta tio n a l, e p ito m is e d b y o ffic e rs rid in g b ic y c le s r a th e r th a n h o rs e s . 27 S e p t e m b e r 2 0 0 2 , W a s h in g to n , D C : P o lice m a k e 50 0 a rr e s ts as a n ti-IM F s u p p o rte r s b lo c k a d e th e s tre e ts . A w ire p e r im e te r fe n c e is e re c te d a ro u n d th e h e a d q u a r te r s o f IM F an d W o rld B a n k . E xtra p o lice a re d ra fte d in fro m C h ic a g o a n d b u s e s are u sed to fe rry p ris o n e rs to o u tly in g d e te n tio n c e n tre s . 4 - 1 0 N o v e m b e r , 2 0 0 2 , F lo r e n c e : C lo se lia iso n b e tw e e n p o lic e and d e m o n s tr a tio n o rg a n is e rs h e lp s to e n s u re th a t th e in a u g u r a l m e e tin g o f th e E u ro p e a n S o c ia l F o ru m is a lm o s t e n tire ly d e v o id o f th e ty p e o f v io le n c e th a t c h a ra c te r is e d th e G e n o a G 8. 15 F e b r u a ry 2 0 0 3 , N e w Y o rk C ity : In c o n tr a s t to th e m o re p e rm is siv e a ttitu d e s s h o w n b y p o lice in m a jo r c itie s e ls e w h e r e in th e w o rld , th e N ew Y o rk P o lice D e p a r tm e n t (N Y P D ) a p p lie s an u n c o m p r o m is in g 'z e ro to le r a n c e ' p o lic y to c o n fin e an a n ti-w a r d e m o n s tr a tio n by o v e r 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 p e o p le to stric tly d e s ig n a te d 'p r o te s t p e n s '. O v e r 250 p e o p le a re a rr e s te d in th e c o u rs e o f th is o p e ra tio n . 2 J u n e , 2 0 0 3 , E v ia n , S w itz e r la n d : A th ird s u c c e s siv e n ig h t o f v io le n c e o c c u rs as S w iss p o lic e (an d r e in fo r c e m e n ts d ra fte d in from G e r m a n y ) u se w a te r c a n n o n s a n d b a to n c h a r g e s a g a in s t a c tiv ists e n g a g e d in s p o n ta n e o u s d e m o n s tr a tio n s a g a in s t th e G 8. 20 N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 3 , M ia m i: A m a rch in o p p o s itio n to th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f a F re e T ra d e A rea o f th e A m e ric a s is a g g re s s iv e ly d is p e rs e d b y p o lic e . 2 - 6 Ju ly 2 0 0 5 , E d in b u r g h : A M a k e P o v e rty H is to ry m a rch ta k in g p la ce in c e n tra l E d in b u rg h a few d a y s b e fo r e th e o p e n in g o f th e G 8 s u m m it m e e tin g p a s se s o ff w ith o u t a sin g le a rre s t. H o w e v e r , v io le n t c la s h e s b e tw e e n p o lic e an d p ro te s te r s o c c u r d u rin g G 8 w e e k , b o th in th e c ity c e n tre itse lf, an d o n th e p e rim e te r o f a fo rtifie d se c u rity z o n e s u r r o u n d in g th e m e e tin g v e n u e at n e a rb y G le n e a g le s . 17 D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 5 , H o n g K o n g : F iv e d a y s o f a n ti-W T O p ro te s t c o m e s to a h e a d w h e n h u n d r e d s o f d e m o n s tr a to r s - m a n y o f th em S o u th K o re a n fa rm e rs - c la sh w ith rio t p o lic e . S ix ty -s e v e n p o lice a n d 137 p r o te s te r s are re p o rte d in ju r e d . 1 5 - 1 7 Ju ly 2 0 0 6 , S t P e te r s b u r g , R u s s ia : P o lice ta k e p r e v e n ta tiv e m e a s u r e s to tu rn b ack o r d e ta in p ro te s te r s tra v e llin g to S t P e te rs b u r g . R e p re s s iv e m e a s u r e s are ta k e n to d e te r s tr e e t p ro te s ts. So urces: d ella P o rta e t al. 2 0 0 6 ; D o d so n 2 0 0 3 ; c o p ie s o f The G uardian an d Financial Times fro m 1 9 9 9 -2 0 0 6 .

Policing Public D is o rd e r

The B a ttl e o f S ea ttle

Th e 'B attle of S eattle' is d iscu ssed in close detail by G illham and M arx (2000) w ho d escribe their analysis as a 'case stud y for b etter u n d erstan d in g the ironies that often acco m p an y m ass d em o n stra­ tion s' (ibid.: 215). T h e p ro test occurred in the w eek follow ing T h an k sg iv in g - a trad itinally busy sh o p p in g period in A m erica. G illham and M arx explain how the initial trou ble trou ble w as activated at aro u nd 9 a.m ., o utsid e the S h erato n H otel, w here th e US S ecretary of State and o th e r im p o rtan t d elegates w ere staying. T h ere, police in full body arm ou r and gas m arks, said to hav e been 'o v erw h elm ed and frig h ten ed b y the n u m b er and p rep ared n ess of p ro testers' (ibid.: 217), used b aton s and p ep p er spray to disperse h u n d red s of p articip an ts in ten t on p rev en tin g W TO d elegates from leav in g the hotel. P rotesters w ho w ere alread y organised into scores of 'affin ity grou p s' o f 5 -1 0 p eople im m ed iately tigh ten ed their resistance by lin king their arm s and legs. T h o se at the fro n t d onned goggles and m ade v in egar-soaked face m asks ou t of b and anas. Th o u g h the police action enabled som e veh icles to leave the S h erato n , new s of the vio lence quickly reached pro testers elsew h ere in the locality and 'fly in g squad s' w ere h u rried ly d esp atch ed to the hotel to rein force the blockades. T h ese inclu ded m em b ers of the an arch ist 'B lack B loc', w ho not only used trash d u m p sters to bu ttress barricad es, bu t also set abo u t sp rayp ain tin g graffiti on su rrou n d in g property. Black Bloc m em b ers had agreed b efo reh an d w ith organisers that they w ould refrain from any 'p ro p erty tran sfo rm atio n ' on con d itio n th at the police did n o t eng age in vio lence (ibid.: 217). E ven ts outsid e th e S h erato n violated a prior ag re em e n t b etw een the police and d em o n strato rs, to their m u tu al ind ig n ation : O rg an izers had b e e n assu red at earlier protest m an ag em en t m eetin gs w ith p olice officials that n o n v io len t pro testers w ould be arrested en m ass [sic], lo n g b efo re the use of ch em ical irritants and o th er n o n leth al w eap o n s, should th at b ecom e necessary. Police, for th eir part, seem ed surprised and angered b ecau se protest lead ers had assured them that d em on strators w ould en g age in scripted civil d iso bed ien ce resu ltin g in arrest. T hu s, both police and activists believ ed that the o th e r side had ren eg ed on their prom ises, (ibid.: 21 7 -1 8 )

I 16

W o rld w id e 'a n ti-g lo b a lis a tio n ' p ro te s t, p o st-S e a ttle

V id eo e v id e n c e cited by G illh am an d M arx su g g ests th a t e x tre m e fo rm s o f d iso rd er, su ch as sm a sh in g w in d o w s, sp ra y in g g raffiti and h u rlin g o b je cts at th e p o lice, w ere a d irect c o n se q u e n ce o f th e p o lice d ecisio n to d isp e rse , ra th e r th a n a rrest, th e h ith e rto n o n -v io le n t activ ists o b stru c tin g th e stre ets an d e n tra n ce s to an d from th e h otel. In th e ir v iew , th e p iv otal e p iso d e o u tsid e th e S h e ra to n e x e m p lifies tw o im p o rta n t iro n ic e ffe cts of p olice actio n , w h ich th ey re fe r to as reciprocal and neutralisation an d escalation. In clu d e d in th e fo rm er c a te g o ry are m o v es b y o n e sid e th at p ro d u ce a c o u n te r-re a c tio n by th e o th e r. E xam p les of th is are th e d e fia n t re a ctio n s o f th e affin ity g ro u p s an d th e m o b ilisatio n o f fly in g sq u ad s in re sp o n se to p o lice d isp ersal tactics. E q u ally in e v id e n c e o u tsid e th e S h e ra to n w e re the e scalato ry e ffe cts o f p olice in te rv e n tio n w h ic h trig g ered an e v erin c re a sin g spiral o f c o n fro n ta tio n . F aced w ith th e g ro w in g d efia n ce and h o stility o f th o se in v o lv e d in th e b lo ck a d e s, p o lice o fficers fired ru b b e r b u lle ts, b e a n bags an d te a r gas in to th e cro w d , m a n y o f w h om re sp o n d e d in tu rn b y u sin g n e w s p a p e r d isp e n se r b o x e s, g rates (o rig in ally u sed to p ro te ct trees), h a m m e rs an d cro w b ars to sm ash in w in d o w s. G illh am and M arx e m p h a sise th a t th e d rift to w id e sp re a d c o n ­ fro n ta tio n w as u n d o u b te d ly e n c o u ra g e d by o th e r iro n ic e ffects o f p o lice actio n . O n e of th ese w as the so-called excitement e ffe ct, w h e re b y p ro te sters w e re a ttracted to th e m a jo r lo catio n s o f co n flict b y su ch sa lie n t stim u li as th e so u n d o f h e lic o p te rs, p o lice siren s and c o n cu ssio n g re n a d e s, or th e sig h t an d o d o u r o f te a r gas. A rgu ab ly o f g re a te r sig n ifican ce w as a non-enforcement e ffe ct w h e re p o lice u n d e r-e n fo r c e m e n t o f th e law serv ed to e m b o ld e n crow d m e m b e rs and e n c o u ra g e fu rth e r v io le n ce . O n e m a jo r e x am p le o f th is occu rred w h e n th e p o lice w ere fo rc e d , firstly in to a b a n d o n in g th e ir a tte m p ts at crow d d isp ersal, an d th e n in to re tre a tin g from c o n fro n ta tio n as stocks of c h e m ica l irritan ts b e ca m e sp e n t. G illh am and M arx re p o rt th at o fficers stoo d by h e lp lessly as p ro te ste rs v an d alised p ro p erty . A fterw ard s, th e y c o m p la in e d th at th e y had b e e n too far u n d e rsta ffe d and in tim id ate d by th e size and o rg an isatio n o f th e crow d to risk m ak in g arrests. T h e final tw o iro n ie s re fe rre d to by G illh am an d M arx are the so-called role reversal an d strange bedfellows e ffe cts. T h e fo rm er in v o lv es fo rm s o f b e h a v io u r b y p olice o fficers w h ich are of q u e stio n a b le leg ality and o fte n in v o lv e v io le n ce . In v ariab ly related to this is th e te n d e n c y for p ro te sters - p o ssib ly h a rb o u rin g d iffe rin g p h ilo so p h ie s and a ttitu d es to v io le n ce - to u n ite in th e face of a co m m o n e n e m y . T h e p o ssib le re le v a n ce o f th e se iro n ie s is

Policing Public D is o rd e r

en cap su lated in the a u th o rs' observatio n that, 'A s new s of police b eh av io r sp read , m any d em on strato rs felt an increased sen se of solidarity and a need to stand up to p olice efforts at con trol, beyo n d the original goal of p rotestin g against the W T O ' (ibid.: 223).

Police use of strateg ic incapacitation Tw o related articles by N oakes et al. (2005) and N oakes and G illham (2006) m aintain that the Seattle con fro n tatio n m arked the o n set of in n o v ativ e and arguably m ore rep ressiv e police policies for the h an d lin g of m ajor political d em o n stratio n s in N orth A m erica and w estern E urope. In co m m en tin g , not only on police con d u ct at S eattle, but also at su b seq u en t protests acco m p an y in g the IM F/W B m eetin g s in W ash in g to n , DC (April 2000) and the R epu blican N ational C o n v en tio n in P hilad elp hia (A ugust 2000), they argue that US police in creasin g ly drew on tactics and strategies ev id en tly in sp ired by the 'n ew p en o lo g y ' p ersp ectiv e on d ealing w ith offen d ers (N oakes et al. 2005).

The n e w pe nolo g y a p pro a ch

T h e new p en o lo g y p ersp ectiv e esch ew s all in terest in estab lish in g the u n d erly in g causes of crim e and con ceiv in g of possible w ays of reh ab ilitatin g o ffen d ers in favour of an em p h asis on p ro tectin g law -ab id ing section s o f the pu blic from form s of risk and in co n ­ v e n ien ce posed by the crim inal and un ruly. N oakes et al. argue that, in term s of pu blic o rd er policing, this has involved the introd u ctio n of in n o v ativ e tech n iq u es for d ealing w ith 'tran sg ressiv e' (u n co o p era­ tive and p o ten tially v iolent) as op p osed to 'c o n ta in e d ' (responsible and law -abid ing) p ro testers (see C h ap ter 1). T h ese au th o rs p o in t o ut that the anti-glob alisation m o v em en t's broad com p o sition al base has created in h e re n t divisions in term s of p referred strategic o b jectiv es and the tactical m ean s of achiev ing them . T h e obviou s p roblem s th at such characteristics pose for police p lan n in g are com p o u n d ed by the 'n o n -h iera rch ica l', 'lead erless' stru ctu res of the co n stitu e n t groups w hich m ake it d ifficult for sen ior o fficers to n eg otiate w ith pro testers or m ake them legally responsible or m orally accou n tab le for their actions (ibid.; see also Farnsw orth 2004). In the face of such u n certain ty , sen ior police are likely to o p t for the 'in su ra n ce ' of large nu m b ers of police p erso n n el and u n yield in g co n tain m e n t m easures.

W o rld w id e 'a nti-g lob a lisa tio n' p ro te s t, post-S eattle

N oakes et al. (2005) explain how the police w ill still en d eav o u r to forge p re-ev en t ag reem en ts w ith nation al and local rep resen tativ es of con tain ed p ro test groups. T h ey also tend to con d u ct im prom ptu neg otiation s aim ed at resolv ing tense situ ations d u ring m arch es, and ev en tolerate the activities of groups lackin g p rotest perm its. A gainst this, the police are apt to em p lo y alto g eth er m ore repressive m easures in relation to transgressiv e protesters. N oakes et al. have coined the term strategic incapacitation to refer to the police use of the follow ing tech n iq u es as an an tid ote to transgressiv e beh av iou r: • the d isru p tion of assem bly or con v erg en ce cen tres acting as the n erv e cen tres o f sp ecific p rotests; • the use of prior and 'real tim e' in tellig en ce and surv eillance to p red ict or m on ito r d em o n strato rs' b eh av io u r and d eterm in e levels of risk or d anger; • the rem oval by arrest of ring lead ers and o th er strategically im p ortan t pro testers; • the estab lish m en t of 'n o -p ro test' security zon es (often d efined by con crete or m etal barriers); • the m ass arrest and d ete n tio n of protesters w ith o u t m akin g ch arg es against them ; • use of less-lethal w eap o n s (e.g. p ep p er spray, tear gas, c o n ­ cussion gren ad es) to take or recap tu re public spaces, (ibid.: 241) To exem plify these m eth od s, N oakes et al. refer to th ree sep arate rallies on the them e of anti-m ilitarism that took place in W ash in g to n , DC on Satu rd ay, 29 and S u nd ay , 30 S ep tem b er 2001, less than three w eeks after the 9/11 atrocity. T h e y show how police tactics varied significantly acco rd in g to the d egree of tran sgressiv en ess ch arac­ terising the p ro test groups involved.

A n t i - w a r p r o te s ts in W a s h i n g to n . D C

Tw o of the three m arch es occurred on the Satu rd ay in qu estion , the o th er a day later. T h e first of these inv olv ed m em bers of the local A n ti-C apitalist C o n gress (A CC), the y o u n g est and m ost transgressive of the th ree groups of protesters. T h e ACC com prised an affiliation of an arch ist, com m u n ist and socialist groups and w as p erceiv ed by the M etrop o litan P olice for the D istrict of C olum bia (M PD C ) as politically akin to the noto rio u s Black Bloc. T h e police w ere steeled for possible con fro n tatio n d ue to the A C C 's un w illin gn ess to obtain a p erm it

P olicing P ublic D is o rd e r

for th e m arch . D o z e n s o f o fficers in full riot g e ar w e re in p o sitio n from th e o u tse t, w h ile m o st o f th e m a rch ers w o re b la ck c lo th in g and sp o rted b a n d a n a s across th e ir faces. N o a k e s et al. p o in t o u t th at th e M P D C e v e n tu a lly reso rte d to th ree fo rm s o f tactical in te rv e n tio n c o n sis te n t w ith th e strate g ic in c a p a cita tio n a p p ro a ch - n am e ly : use of le ss-le th a l w e a p o n s, th e p a rtitio n in g o f sp ace a n d th e re a rra n g e m e n t o f p ro te sters. At th e m id -p o in t o f th e m a rch , o fficers u sed p e p p e r sp ray to d isp e rse p ro te sters w h o h ad m o m e n ta rily su rro u n d e d an M P D C cru iser. A su b s e q u e n t c o n fro n ta tio n in the city p ark resu lted in th e p ro te sters b e in g corralled in to an im p ro v ised e n c lo su re , m ad e o u t o f p o rta b le m etallic b arrie rs, w h e re th e y w ere d eta in e d for ap p ro x im a te ly tw o h o u rs. P olice e v e n tu a lly a g re ed to re le ase th e p ro te sters - b u t o n ly if th e la tter first exp re sse d a w illin g n ess to jo in a seco n d m a rch , w h ich had ju s t g ot u n d e rw a y , in v o lv in g th e N ew Y o rk -b ase d In te rn a tio n a l A ction C e n tre (IA C). As A CC m e m b e rs m a rch ed u n d e r strict p olice su p e rv isio n to jo in th e IAC p ro te st, 'M P D C o fficers in full b o d y arm o u r lin ed b o th sid es o f th e ro u te, u sin g larg e sticks p ressed a g a in st th e b a ck of p ro te ste rs to e stab lish and m a in ta in th e b o u n d a rie s o f th e m arch . R e fu sin g exit from or e n try to th e b o d y o f d e m o n stra to rs, th e y p h y sically re b u ffe d any d e m o n stra to rs w h o ch a lle n g e d th ese b o u n d a rie s ' (ibid.: 244). T h e IAC m arch m ain ly com p rised a m ixtu re o f y o u n g an d m id d le aged w h ite s, alth o u g h th e re w as also a h ig h e r p e rc e n ta g e o f 'p e o p le o f co lo u r' th an on th e A CC p ro ce ssio n . H ere, too, th e p o lice m a in ­ tain ed a large an d v isible p re s e n c e . F aced w ith a less tran sg re ssiv e g ro u p o f p ro te ste rs, th e y w ere c o n te n t to m a in ta in a m o re re sp e ctfu l d ista n ce from the m a rch ers an d w ere visib ly 'm o re at e a se ' th an co lle ag u e s p a tro llin g th e A CC e v e n t (ibid.: 245). N o a k e s et al. m ak e th e in te re stin g p o in t th at, At first g la n ce , th e m e rg in g o f AAC and IAC d e m o n stra to rs seem s to m ak e little sen se b e ca u se p o lice risk ed c o n ta m in a tin g a c o n ta in e d d e m o n stra tio n w ith tran sg re ssiv e p ro te sters. B u t th e M P D C w as n o t a b o u t to le t th e A CC p ro te ste rs o u t o f th e m a k e sh ift corral to roam th e stre ets o f W a sh in g to n , p o te n tia lly c au sin g h av o c for th e p o lice in n u m e ro u s w ay s. In stead by m a rch in g th e A CC d e m o n stra to rs to th e IAC m arch th e y c o n ce n tra te d the v ast m a jo rity o f th e p ro te sters on th e stre ets of D C th at d ay in o n e p lace. T h is serv e d tw o p u rp o se s. First, it seem s lik ely the IAC w ou ld clo sely m o n ito r th e b e h a v io u r O f A CC activ ists in o rd e r to p re v e n t th em from ta k in g o v er th e 120

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rally and the m arch . T h e m arsh als h elp in g to self-police IAC d em o n strators w ould do the sam e w ith ACC m em bers. Seco n d , m ergin g the ACC w ith the IAC p olice w ere also reu n itin g the m ajority of M PD C officers assigned to protest d u ty that day in o n e place, (ibid.: 250) T h e police reserved th eir m ost len ien t and un o btru siv e control tactics for the last of the w e e k e n d 's m arch es, w h ich involved m em ­ bers of the W ash in gton P eace C e n te r (W PC ), a pacifist org anisation d eep ly rooted in Q u ak erism . T h ese d em on strato rs w ere relatively o lder and m ore m id dle-class than their co u n terp arts on the ACC and IAC p rotests. W h at is m ore, they boasted a long and co-o p erativ e relatio n sh ip w ith the M PD C . C o n seq u en tly , alth ou g h riot police w ere d ep loyed on the day, th ey w ere kep t d iscreetly ou t of sight, and the acco m p an y in g police escort w as extrem ely to k en in natu re.

The r o u ti n i s a ti o n o f p r o t e s t an d its con seq ue nc e

N oakes et al. ju stifiab ly m aintain th at m eth od s o f strategic in ­ cap acitatio n are likely to aggravate existing ten sio n s b e tw e e n police and p ro testers (ibid.: 251). This arg u m en t has been exten d ed by M itchell and S taeh eli (2005) w ho also p o in t to v iolen ce at the postSeattle protests in W ash in gton , as w ell as the anti-w ar d em o n stration in N ew Y o rk in Febru ary 2003 (see below for fu rth er d etails), as ev id en ce of a grow in g public backlash to police attem p ts to m an age and 'in co rp o rate ' dissent. M itch ell and S taeh eli en d o rse the view that the police con tin u e, w h erev er th ey can, to liaise w ith p ro test o rg anisers acco rd in g to th e p rinciples of n eg otiated m an ag em en t. A ccord ingly, 'M u ch o f the gro u n d w o rk for p rotest takes place in p re-p ro test m eetin gs b etw een p ro test org anizers, police rep resen tativ es and law yers for b o th sides, as th ey w ran gle o v er the w ays that perm its will be w ritten , and even the p lans to exceed or ignore aspects of the p erm it' (ibid.: 802). E ch oin g P. A. J. W ad d in g to n 's (1994) observation of British public o rd er police specialists (see C h ap ter 1), M itchell and S taeh eli m ain ­ tain that, invariably, A m erican police officers' 'g re a te r exp ertise and k n o w led ge of the ad v an tages and d isad v an tag es of p rotest sites' (ibid.: 806) allow s th em , not only to con tro l d em o n stratio n s on their term s, but also to insist on con tain m e n t practices (such as the use of p rotest p ens). T h e d an ger here is th at these tactics run the risk of nu llifying the political effectiv en ess of such d em o n stration s and p ro m o tin g an escalatory dialectic: 121

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Th is ro u tin iz a tio n o f p ro te st . . . has led to p ro te st b e co m in g p art o f th e 'w e ll-o ile d ' sy stem itself. A nd as m o re and m ore p e o p le h a v e b e co m e d issatisfied w ith th e w o rk in g s o f th e s y stem , as e x e m p lified in g ro w in g d isse n t to cap italist, co rp o ra te -le d g lo b alizatio n an d th e a n ti-w a r m o v e m e n t, p ro te ste rs h a v e b ro k e n o u t o f th e ro u tin e , an d e v en tu rn ed ag a in st th e ro u tin e itself. D isse n t has b e co m e re sista n ce , (ibid.: 810)

T ra d itio n and in fle x ib ility C o rre sp o n d in g E u ro p e an re se a rch has h ig h lig h ted sev eral o th e r v ariab le s, o v er and ab o v e p o lice p e rc e p tio n s of the tra n sg re ssiv e n e ss o f d e m o n stra to rs, to a c co u n t for th e d iscre p a n t styles o f p o licin g e m p lo y e d d u rin g a n ti-g lo b a lisa tio n p ro te st. O n e o b v io u s w ay of a cco u n tin g fo r such v ariatio n s is to co n sid e r th e e ffe c t o f d iscre p a n t n a tio n a l trad itio n s for th e h a n d lin g of p u b lic p ro test. T h e sig n ifica n ce o f this fa c to r is illu strate d w ith re fe re n c e to th e h a n d lin g b y S w e d ish p o lice o f th e E u ro p e an U nio n su m m it m e e tin g held in G o th e n b u rg in Ju n e 2001.

The E U s u m m i t m e e t i n g in G o t h e n b u r g

T h e strate g y e m p lo y e d by the S w e d ish p o lice w as c o n sis te n t w ith th eir lo n g sta n d in g trad itio n o f m a in ta in in g o rd e r b y d esig n a tin g p ro te sters to sp ecific 'te rrito ria l sp a ce s' or ag reed ro u tes o f d e m o n ­ stratio n s. F o rg ed in the d ays w h e n d isse n tin g g ro u p s w ere m o re easily id e n tifia b le to th e p o lice an d cou ld be re a so n a b ly relied on for th e ir c o -o p e ra tio n , this 'w a it-a n d -se e d efe n siv e p o stu re ' p rov ed a n a c h ro n istic in G o th e n b u rg w h e re T h e p o lice d o g g e d ly a tte m p te d to c o n tro l territo ries fo r p ro te st w ith th e ir d e p lo y m e n t o f p e rs o n n e l, riot fe n ce s and sh ip p in g c o n ta in e rs. H o w e v e r, p ro te st e ru p ted o u tsid e th e p o lice c o rd o n s in te rrito rie s o v er w h ich th e y held no or sorely in a d eq u a te co n tro l. T h e rig id ity o f th e ir territo rial strate g ies m ad e th em ill-p rep ared to d eal w ith th e flexib le and m o bile ex trate rrito rial tactics o f th e m ilitan t activ ists, (ibid.: 47)

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C o m p o u n d in g this p ro b lem for th e p o lice w as th at few o f the p o lice o fficers p re s e n t w ere a d e q u a te ly train e d or e q u ip p e d for p u b lic o rd e r d u ties. S tan d ard p o lice tra in in g in S w e d e n w as p rim arily d e sig n e d to en ab le o fficers to w o rk in d e p e n d e n tly in the a b sen ce o f clo se s u p e rv isio n , w h e re a s p u b lic o rd e r p o licin g n e ce ssita te d styles o f te a m w o rk an d d iscip lin e w h ich w e re alien to m o st ju n io r o fficers. F u rth e r d ifficu lties also aro se b e ca u se p o lice c o m m a n d e rs had n o t b e e n g iv en the a p p ro p ria te a u th o rity to re sp o n d in su itab ly e x te m p o rise d m a n n e r to th e u n p re d ic ta b le activ ities o f itin e ra n t g ro u p s o f activists. P e te rso n e m p h a sises th e c o n se q u e n ce s o f th e se facto rs b y d esc rib ­ in g e v e n ts on a m arch by 15,000 d e m o n stra to rs w h ich cu lm in ate d in the sh o o tin g o f th re e p articip an ts. H av in g a n ticip a te d th at all p ro te s t­ ers w ou ld stick to a p re scrib e d ro u te (in cu sto m a ry S w e d ish style), th e p olice h ad co rd o n ed o ff all sid e -stre e ts, as w ell as the c en tra lly lo cated squ are w h e re th e p ro ce ssio n w as d ue to te rm in a te . H o w e v e r, s en io r o fficers h ad n o t leg islate d fo r th e fact th at ro v in g g ro u p s (P ete rso n calls them 'p a c k s ') of the B lack B loc w ou ld a ttack iso lated u n its o f p o lice b ased in a n e a rb y park . T h u s, w h e n p o lice w ere h astily re d e p lo y e d from a sid e-ro ad to go to the aid o f b e le a g u e re d c o lle a g u e s, p atro l cars a n d v an s left u n a tte n d e d w ere d e m o lish e d by a n o th e r g ro u p o f a n a rch ists. T h e se lig h tn in g strik es b y a n arch ists e x te n d e d to a tta ck in g o n e p o lice u n it w ith to rn up c o b b le sto n es. It w as sh o rtly a fte r th is in c id e n t th a t th e p o lice w ere p a n ick e d in to o p e n in g fire on the activ ists (ibid.: 56).

T h e p o litic al c o n te x t and o th e r local contingencies W e shall soon see ho w n atio n al trad itio n o f p ro te st p o lic in g fe atu re s p ro m in e n tly in d ella P orta an d R e iter's (2006) a c co u n t o f th e in fa m o u s G e n o a p ro te st, w h ic h o ccu rre d o n ly a few w e e k s after th e e v e n ts in G o th e n b u rg . W h a t th e G e n o a case stu d y p o w e rfu lly rev eals is th a t an e m p h a sis on trad itio n can o n ly go so far to w ard s ex p la in in g the p recise c h a ra c te r o f p u b lic o rd er strate g ies and tactics and th e ir im p licatio n s fo r d iso rd er. In this s ectio n , w e fo cu s on p ro te st e v en ts in L o n d o n , G e n o a an d H o n g K o n g as w ay s of e m p h a sisin g th e im p o rta n ce of, in te rre la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n k ey p o litical, in stitu tio n a l, cu ltu ral and co n te x tu a l, situ atio n al and in te r­ ac tio n a l variab les.

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The L o n d o n M a y D a y p r o t e s t s

In C h a p te r 2, a n d in th e ab o v e re fe re n c e to th e re c e n t w o rk of M itch e ll an d S ta e h e li, d iscu ssio n fo cu sed o n th e v ario u s w ay s in w h ich p o lice o fficers e m p lo y e d c o m b in a tio n s o f su p e rio r k n o w le d g e , gu ile and v ario u s in te ra c tio n a l p lo y s to gain the c o -o p e ra tio n and co m p lia n ce o f p ro te st o rg a n ise rs as a p re req u isite to m a in ta in in g o rd er. It is im p o rta n t to e m p h a sise , h o w e v e r, th a t o n so m e o ccasio n s sen io r p o lice m ay w ell be eq u ally p ro activ e in e n s u rin g th a t an y ag g re ssiv e c o n d u ct e n g a g e d in by th eir o fficers w ill be p e rce iv e d as re a so n a b le an d ju stifie d , an d th a t it w ill take p lace in circu m sta n ce s as a d v a n ta g e o u s as p o ssib le to th e p o lice. T h is p o in t is e ffe ctiv ely illu strated w ith re fe re n c e to th e a n n u a l M ay D ay p ro te sts held in L o n d o n from th e late 1990s to 2005. T h e p o licin g o f th e se p ro te sts b e ca m e a m a jo r issu e in 2000 w h en som e 8,000 d e m o n stra to rs set o u t w ith th e in te n tio n o f stag in g a m ass 'G u e rrilla G a rd e n in g ' e v e n t, the m ain o b je ctiv e o f w h ic h w as to 're cla im th e s tre e ts ' by in se rtin g p lan ts an d seed s in th e ca p ita l's grass v erg es. F e a rin g a p o ssib le re p e titio n o f d iso rd ers in L o n d o n d u rin g th e 'J 18' (o r 'C a rn iv a l A gain st C a p ita lism '), w h e n th o u sa n d s o f p e o p le p ro te sted ag ain st w o rld d eb t, th e arm s trad e an d global fin an cial in stitu tio n s on 18 Ju n e 1999, an d a d e m o n stra tio n staged in solid arity w ith the S e a ttle p ro te st o n 30 N o v e m b e r o f th e sam e y e a r, the p o lice stag ed th eir b ig g e st p u b lic o rd e r o p e ra tio n for 30 y e a rs: 5,500 o fficers w ere d ep lo y ed w ith 900 m o re o n sta n d b y (The Guardian, 2 M ay 2000). B o th B loom (2003) and D o n so n et al. (2004) re p o rt th a t a g e n era lly p e a c efu l m arch su d d e n ly b e ca m e d iso rd erly w h e n an a ttack w as m o u n te d on a M cD o n a ld 's fast-fo o d re s ta u ra n t clo se to T rafalg ar S q u are. B lo o m e m p h a sise s th at, n o tw ith s ta n d in g th e fact th at M cD o n a ld 's o u tle ts are re g u la r targ ets for a n ti-g lo b a lisa tio n p ro ­ te ste rs, this p a rticu la r re sta u ra n t w as clo sed b u t n o t sh u tte re d an d its p re m ise s v irtu ally u n g u a rd ed at the tim e o f th e attack . H e and D o n so n et al. a sse rt th at p o lice d elib e ra te ly e x p o se d th e re sta u ra n t to th e m e rcy o f th e cro w d as p art o f a w e ll-c h o re o g ra p h e d c o n ta in ­ m e n t e xercise. O n c e th e d e m o n stra to rs had re sp o n d e d o n cu e by sm a sh in g in th e s h o p 's d o ors and p late-g lass w in d o w s, the p olice cou ld c o n fid e n tly ju stify th e ir re co u rse to h a rsh e r tactics. S u b s e q u e n t m ed ia co v e ra g e strid e n tly c o n d e m n e d the p ro te s te rs' b e h a v io u r - p articu larly th e w ay th at som e in d iv id u als had u sed sp ra y -p a in t to d efa ce th e C e n o ta p h an d a sta tu e o f W in sto n C h u rch ill, b e fo re fin ish in g o ff the la tte r w ith a 'M o h ica n h a ird o '

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m ad e o u t o f a s le n d e r p ie ce o f turf. D o n so n et al. are jo in e d by A tk in so n (2001) and U ite rm a rk (2004) in sh o w in g how p o lice sp o k e s ­ p e rso n s and p o litician s u sed su ch c o n d e m n a tio n as th e lau n ch p ad o f a m e d ia ca m p a ig n w h ich p o rtra y e d p ro te ste rs likely to be d e m o n s tra tin g on M ay D ay 2001 as a d a n g e ro u s th re a t to society . T h is ad v a n ce d é m o n isa tio n o f p ro te sters w as th e basis u sed for ju stify in g a s u b s e q u e n t p o licy o f zero to le ran ce . T h e strate g y e m p lo y e d by th e p o lice for h a n d lin g th e 2001 M ay D ay d e m o n stra tio n in v o lv ed a llo w in g p ro te sters to g a th e r in the b u sy O xfo rd S tre e t, a m id st stro n g e x p e c ta tio n s o f d iso rd er, and 'k e ttlin g ' (or co rrallin g ) th em in b e h in d p olice co rd o n s for a p eriod of six h ou rs. O n ly th o se p e o p le p re p a re d to v o lu n te e r th e ir n a m e s and a d d resses an d c o n se n t to h a v e th e ir p h o to g ra p h s ta k e n w e re allo w ed to leav e. A sim ilar c o n ta in m e n t strate g y w as u sed on M ay D ay 2002 to p re v e n t 200 d e m o n stra to rs from e n te rin g th e W e st E nd d u rin g the early e v e n in g , a fte r p o lice had allo w ed a p e a cefu l m arch by trad e u n io n ists an d a n ti-g lo b a lisa tio n p ro te ste rs to p ro ce e d e a rlie r in the d ay. In su b s e q u e n t y e ars, b o th the scale o f the a n n u a l M ay D ay p ro te sts a n d th e le v e ls o f v io le n c e asso ciate d w ith th em d im in ish e d su b stan tially . T h e im p o rta n ce o f th e p re v a ilin g po litical c o n te x t is fu rth e r e m p h a sised b y re c e n t case stu d ies o f c o n fro n ta tio n s in G e n o a (Italy) and H o n g K on g , b o th o f w h ich also illu strate th e in te rre la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n p olitical d e te rm in a n ts o f p u blic o rd e r p o licin g an d o th e r im p o rta n t c o n tin g e n t factors.

The G e n o a G 8 s u m m i t m e e t i n g

A cco rd in g to d ella P orta and R eiter, G e n o a m ark ed 'th e c u lm in a tio n o f th e escalatio n o f co e rciv e stra te g ies e m p lo y e d a g a in st th e m o v e ­ m e n t' (2006b: 19). In th e co u rse o f tw o d ays, o v er 1,000 civ ilian s w ere w o u n d e d as the Italian p o lice an d carabinieri la u n c h e d 6,200 tear gas g re n a d e s an d fired o ff 20 live a m m u n itio n ro u n d s. R e p e a te d ch a rg es w ere carried o u t b y p o lice , o fte n sp e a rh e a d ed b y h ig h -sp e e d arm o u re d v eh icle s. D u rin g o n e su ch c h a rg e, a carabinieri L and R ov er b e ca m e iso lated an d b e sie g e d b y p ro te sters. O n e o f th e carabinieri on bo ard o p e n e d fire on and killed a 2 3 -y e a r-o ld m ale d e m o n stra to r, C arlo G iu liani. T h e Italian g o v e rn m e n t u sed e x te n siv e b o rd e r c o n tro ls in ad v an ce o f th e G 8 su m m it to p re v e n t fo re ig n activ ists fro m e n te rin g the co u n try . From 1 1 -2 1 Ju ly , th e y su sp e n d e d the S ch e n g e n a g re e m e n t on th e fre e m o v e m e n t o f p e o p le w ith in th e E u ro p e a n U n io n 125

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and ad m in istered som e 140,000 b ord er checks. No few er th an 2,093 people w ere p roh ibited from en terin g the cou ntry , 298 of them alleged ly b elo n g in g to the B lack Bloc. T h e location of the sum m it m eetin g w as physically isolated by closing off access roads to the city and settin g up tw o p erim eter zo n es: a 'y ello w ' (buffer) zon e in w hich p eop le w ere allow ed restricted freed om to d em o n strate, and a fortified , 8 km p erim eter 're d ' zo n e, su rrou nd ed by tall barriers, w h ich d em o n strato rs w ere p roh ibited from en terin g . della Porta and R eiter h igh ligh t the e x p lan ato ry sig nificance o f the Italian political con text for our u n d erstan d in g of the overall style of policing. T h e h ard en ed police resp o n se tow ard s the pro testers w as greatly in flu en ced by p rev ailin g political op inion. Sen ior p oliticians, in clu d in g the Italian D ep u ty P rim e M inister, are said to have prim ed the police and pu blic into b eliev in g 'th a t ev ery street d em on stratio n w as by v io len t and subversive groups, and g u aran teed th at in the ev en t of clashes no resp onsibility w ould on any acco u n t be allotted by the g o v ern m en t to the forces o f o rd er' (ibid.: 28). This attitu d e reflected a lon g stan d in g refu sal by the Italian go v ern m en t and cen tre-rig h t m ajo rity (the 'law and ord er coalitio n ') to reco gn ise the legitim acy of the anti-global m ov em en t. Such a lack of political sym p athy w as also ev id e n t on the political cen tre-left (or 'civil liberties coalition '), w hich d ep arted from trad ition by not speaking out un equ ivo cally in favour of the anti-global m o v em en t. T h e police read in ess to ad o p t harsh ly rep ressiv e strategies w as fu rth er encou rag ed by o rg anisatio nal and cultural factors p re­ d isp osing them u n co n d itio n ally to o bey political d irectives, ev en of qu estio n able legality. E specially relev an t h ere w as the Italian p olice's e n d u rin g ad h e re n ce to the trad itional 'K in g 's p o lice' (police of the m o n arch ) m o d el of policing, inv olv ing u n w av erin g loyalty to the g o v ern m en t of the day. Follow in g unsu ccessfu l attem p ts at reform , the Italian state police rem ain h igh ly p aram ilitarised and resolu tely u n accou n table. At G en o a, special police units w ere d ep loy ed w hose con trol strategies had been d eveloped in o pposition to the M afia and football h oolig anism . P aradoxically, della Porta and R eiter q u estion the p rofessionalism of carabinieri and police m obile squad s at G en o a, each of w hich had high ratios of y o u n g (and in exp erien ced ) auxiliary 'd ra fte e s'. T h ey also rem ark on the probable effect of the 'lim ited tran sp aren cy ' of a police system of accou n tab ility in w hich 'id en tificatio n n u m bers are con cealed , com p lain t p roced u res are tortu o u s and p ow ers o f review exclu sively in tern al' (ibid.: 33). della Porta and R eiter m ake the po in t th at n eg ativ e police stereo ­ 126

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typ es o f th e d e m o n stra to rs as 'tro u b le m a k e rs ' w e re b ased o n th e tired im ag es o f the p rev io u s d e c a d e , ra th e r th a n co o l-h e a d e d a sse ss­ m e n ts o f th e ir c o n te m p o ra ry c h a ra c te r an d o b je ctiv e s. T h e n o v e l and d iv erse n a tu re o f the p a rticip a tin g g ro u p s, and u n p re d icta b ility of th eir p o ssib le 're p e r to ire s o f a c tio n ', also e n h a n ce d p o lice re a d in e ss fo r a p ro b ab le c o n fro n ta tio n . A fterw ard s, s p o k e sp e rso n s for d iffe re n t factio n s o f p ro te sters co m p lain e d th a t se n io r p o lice had b e e n slow or u n re sp o n siv e to th e ir atte m p ts at liaiso n , w h ile the la tter ex p la in e d the d ifficu lty th ey had e n c o u n te re d in try in g to a p p ro a ch som e 800 g ro u p s, th e m a jo rity lack in g fo rm al le ad e rsh ip . T h e p re s e n c e o f 'tin y b u t v ig o ro u s v io le n t frin g e s' le n t c re d e n c e to d ra m a tic asse rtio n s by th e civil se c re t serv ice o f th e d e m o n stra to rs' in te n tio n s. In th e w e e k p rio r to th e su m m it, p o lice o fficers w ere in fo rm e d by se n io r o fficers and read in the p ress th a t d e m o n stra to rs w o u ld b e arm ed w ith p isto ls an d w e re lik ely to b o m b a rd th em w ith b u rn in g car tyres, b lad d e rs full o f in fected b lood and b all-b e arin g s sm e are d w ith acid . P re -e v e n t p re p a ra tio n s b y th e secu rity fo rces clearly re co g n ised th e se p o ssib ilities. C o m m e n tin g o n th e train in g th a t h e an d co lle ag u e s had re c e iv e d , o n e p o lice o ffice r re v e a le d , 'T h e y ta u g h t us o n ly to re p ress, n o t to p re v e n t; th e n o -g lo b al m o v e ­ m e n t w as p re s e n te d to us as th e e n e m y , th e re w as no tra in in g ab o u t th e v ario u s co m p o n e n ts o f th e m o v e m e n t, no d istin ctio n b e tw e e n v io le n t and p e a cefu l g ro u p s' (qu o ted in ibid.: 31). As in th e A PE C su m m it o f 1997, th e s ta te 's d ecisio n to iso late th e d ig n ita rie s u n d o u b te d ly e n h a n ce d the lik elih o o d o f d iso rd er. T h e ch o ice o f this stra te g y e n a b le d th e Italian e sta b lish m e n t to 'a sse rt itself b e fo re in te rn a tio n a l p u b lic o p in io n as able to d isp lay its m o n o p o ly o f fo rce on its o w n te rrito ry ', b u t also had th e e ffe ct o f e n su rin g th a t 'D e fe n c e o f th e rig h t to d e m o n stra te [cam e] in to te n sio n w ith th e o b je ctiv e o f g u a ra n te e in g th e safety o f g u e st h ead s o f S tate or g o v e rn m e n t' (ibid.: 24). O n th e d ay o f the G 8 m e e tin g , the p h y sical as w ell as p sy ch o lo g ica l ro om to m a n o e u v re w as sev e re ly re stricte d b y th e fo rtificatio n o f th e su m m it. As della P o rta an d R eiter m a in ta in , such stra te g ies are in h e re n tly d a n g e ro u s in th at th ey h av e th e e ffe ct o f 'c o n c e n tra tin g p o lice effo rts on d e fe n d in g it, in cre a sin g ly re strictin g the p o ssib ilities o f p ro te st th at can b e p e a c efu l b u t v isible, an d in c re a sin g th e d istan ce b e tw e e n th e ru lers and th e p o p u la tio n ' (ibid.). A d d in g to th e p o te n tia l for d iso rd er w as th e p o o r co -o rd in a tio n an d lack o f e ffe ctiv e c o m m u n ica tio n b e tw e e n th e five sep a ra te (and in te n se ly riv alrou s) p o lice fo rces d ep lo y ed on th e d ay, and b e tw e e n th e p o lice and carabinieri. S e n io r p o lice o ffice rs, o ste n sib ly in 127

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co m m a n d o f u n its o f carabinieri, w e re req u ired by p ro to co l to c h a n n e l th e ir o rd ers th ro u g h carabinieri cap tain s. H o w e v e r, w h ile carabinieri o fficers w e re lin ked up to e a ch o th e r via a series o f th ro a t m icrop h o iie s, th e re w as no su ch m e ch a n ism c o n n e ctin g th e p o lice an d carabinieri. T h e sole e x ce p tio n s w ere a p air o f p o lice lin ks ru n n in g from th e ir h e a d q u a rte rs to carabinieri se n io r c o m m a n d . H o w e v e r, each o f th e se cu t o u t w h ile th e co n fro n ta tio n w as in p rog ress. T h e m ain v io le n ce o f the d ay a p p e a rs to h av e b e e n trig g ered b y a carabinieri c h a rg e in to a p a ra d e o f d e m o n stra to rs en ro u te to the su m m it lo catio n . S u b s e q u e n t p o lice a sse rtio n s th a t th e secu rity fo rces w ere re a c tin g to attack s b y d e m o n stra to rs w ere la ter d iscred ited b y a v id eo re c o rd in g o f th e p ro c e e d in g s. In d e e d , w ith th e e x ce p tio n of m in o r in sta n ce s o f v an d alism b y m e m b e rs o f th e B la ck B lo c, th e p a ra d e had b e e n c o n d u cte d in o rd erly fash io n . T h e e ffe c t of th e carabinieri in te rv e n tio n w as to in d u ce a c o m m itm e n t to 's e lf-d e fe n c e and solid arity ' o n the p a rt o f th e p ro te sters. As o n e Italian n e w s re p o rte r e x p la in e d , 'th e carabinieri ad v a n ce acco rd in g ly m e t w ith re sista n ce w h ic h , a p a rt from b e in g activ e, w as in e v ita b le : e ith e r you w ait for th e tru n c h e o n to hit yo u , or you d efe n d y o u rself. T h u s, b e fo re m y v e ry ey es, th e tw o or th re e th o u sa n d y o u n g p eo p le h e a d in g the m arch w ere co n v e rte d in to activ e , a n g ry c o m b a ta n ts ' (q u o ted in ibid.: 2 0 -2 1 ).

The Six th W T O m i n i s t e r i a l c o n fe re n c e in H o n g K on g

A sim ilar ra n g e o f p o litical, o rg a n isa tio n a l, cu ltu ral, co n te x tu a l and s itu a tio n a l v ariab les also co n trib u te d to th e v io le n ce th at m arre d th e p ro te sts a g a in st th e sixth m in isterial c o n fe re n c e o f th e W T O in H o n g K o n g in D e c e m b e r 2005. F o llo w in g sp o rad ic c o n fro n ta tio n s in th e p re c e d in g fo u r d ay s, th e w o rst o f th e d iso rd ers o ccu rred on 17 D e c e m b e r w h e n p o lice u sed te a r gas to re p e l a su cce ssio n o f attack s b y p ro te ste rs to p e n e tra te th eir lin es. A to tal o f 137 p e o p le w ere re p o rte d in ju re d in th e co n flict (67 o f th em p o lice). D u rin g th e fiv e -d a y p ro te st p e rio d , alm o st 1,000 p ro te sters w e re tak e n p riso n e r, o f w h o m th e v ast m a jo rity (alm o st 900) w ere S o u th K o rean farm ers a n g e re d b y the im p act o f W T O d ecisio n s on th e ir liv e lih o o d s (Lo S h iu -h in g 2006). P olice p re p a ra tio n s an d p la n n in g fo r th e e v e n t w ere b ased on 'k n o w le d g e ' d eriv in g from sev eral d iffe re n t sou rces. R e le v a n t 'le ss o n s ' o f p re c e d in g su m m it m e e tin g s w e re in flu e n tia l on th eir ap p ro a ch . E ag e r, for e x a m p le, n o t to b e o v e rw h e lm e d like th eir c o u n te rp a rts in S e a ttle , th e H o n g K o n g p o lice d ep lo y ed 9,000 128

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o ffice rs, th u s o u tn u m b e rin g th e p ro te sters b y 2,000. All effo rts w ere also d ev o te d to e n su rin g th at th e v ario u s p a rticip a tin g con tro l a g e n cie s w ere fully ag reed o n strate g ic p o licy an d , th e re fo re , u n ­ a ffe cte d b y th e kind o f 'in te rn a l fra g m e n ta tio n ' th at h ad h a m p e re d th e p o licin g o f S e a ttle (ibid.). T h e h ig h ly d istin ctiv e cu ltu re o f th e H o n g K o n g p o lice w as a n o th e r key in g re d ie n t. A cco rd in g to S h iu -h in g , th eirs is a cu ltu re 'c h a ra c te rise d b y e ffic ie n cy , stro n g d iscip lin e , re s p e ct for h ie ra rc h y an d o rd e r, d istru stfu l a ttitu d es to w ard s p ro te sto rs an d a re lativ e ly stro n g d isb e lie f in w e ste rn d em o cra tic v a lu e s' (ibid.: 153). P olice to le ra n ce o f v io le n t p ro te st had n o t b e e n too m u ch in e v id e n c e sin ce th e c o m m u n ist-le d riots a g a in st 'B ritis h im p e ria lism ' o f 1967 in w h ich 5,000 p e o p le w ere arreste d an d a fu rth e r 59 killed . E ch o in g p olice s e n tim e n ts exp re sse d in G e n o a , p o lice b ra n d e d local p ro te sters likely to b e a tte n d in g th e W T O as 'tro u b le m a k e rs ', sp o n so red b y fo reig n p olitical grou p s. E ven m o re su sp icio n w as lev elled at th e th o u sa n d s o f S o u th K o re a n farm ers also liable to be g a th e rin g . M a n y o f th ese h ad u n d e rta k e n m ilitary tra in in g w h ile serv in g as c o n scrip ts and w ere th e re fo re lo ok ed u p o n as a realistic th re a t to th e secu rity of W T O d ele g ate s. S u p e rs e d in g all th e se facto rs as a d e te rm in a n t o f th e p o lice 's strateg ic o rie n ta tio n w as th e p re v ailin g p o litical clim ate. S in ce the tra n sfe r o f H o n g K o n g 's so v e re ig n ty from th e U n ited K in gd o m to th e P e o p le 's R e p u b lic o f C h in a (P C R ) e ig h t y ears earlier, th e g o v e rn ­ m e n t o f the n e w ly fo rm ed H o n g K o n g S p ecial A d m in istrativ e R egion (H K SA R ) had b e e n d e sp e ra te to av o id a n y p o litical d e v e lo p m e n ts th a t cou ld b e seized u p o n b y the P C R 's cen tra l g o v e rn m e n t as g ro u n d s for re d u c in g th e isla n d 's p o litical a u to n o m y from th e C h in ese m ain lan d . T h u s, A gain st the b a ck g ro u n d o f m in im isin g th e lik elih o o d o f [PCR] in te rfe re n c e , the H K SA R p o lice w ere u n d e r tre m e n d o u s b u t h id d e n p re ssu re to e n su re th a t th e a n ti-W T O p ro te sts w o u ld by n o m e a n s tran sfo rm in to a crisis o f le g itim acy for the n ew a d m in istra tio n led b y C h ie f E xecu tiv e D o n ald T sa n g . . . In sh o rt, th e H o n g K o n g p o lice p e rce iv e d th e a n ti-W T O p ro te sts as a test o f its ability to co p e w ith in te rn a tio n a l an d local p ro testors, (ibid .: 144) N e v e rth e le s s, su ch p re ssu re to a d o p t a to u g h sta n ce ag ain st p ro ­ testers w as o ffse t by a co m p e tin g po litical p rio rity for the H K SA R g o v e rn m e n t to av oid u n n e ce ssa ry c o n fro n ta tio n . M in iste rs w ere 129

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aw are o f th e p o ssib ility th a t su ch v io le n c e w o u ld p lay in to th e h a n d s o f local p ro -d e m o c ra cy re fo rm ists w h o w ere in te n t on u n d e rm in in g th e leg itim acy o f th e ir reg im e. Th is b a la n ce o f p o litical d e te rm in a n ts in itially elicited a p olice strate g y b ased on e sta b lish in g ra p p o rt w ith th e p ro te ste rs and a tte m p tin g to a c co m m o d a te th e ir o b je ctiv e s. H o w e v e r, p o lice cau tio n also d ictated a p arallel c o m m itm e n t to k e e p in g activ ists u n d e r c o n sta n t su rv eillan ce. S u cce ssiv e c o n fro n ta tio n s in th e b u ild -u p to 17 D e c e m b e r e n su re d th a t p o lice to le ra n ce w as p ro g re ssiv e ly w ith ­ d raw n . U ltim a te ly , th e fact th a t th e m ain p ro te st lo catio n w as im b u ed w ith su ch g re a t political sig n ifica n ce p laced p o lice o fficers u n d e r a p o w e rfu l o b lig atio n to 'd ie in a d itc h ': C e n tral S q u a re , w h ich is b e sid e the C o n v e n tio n C e n tre and w as o ccu p ied b y so m e p ro te sto rs, w as se e n as th e fin al 't u r f or b attle -lin e th a t th e p o lice cou ld n o t c o n ce d e . In re sp o n se to the d a n g e r th a t p ro te sto rs m ig h t flo ck in to th e C o n v e n tio n C e n tre , th u s p o sin g g e n u in e secu rity risks to the W T O d e le g a te s, the p o lice d ecid e d to take stro n g actio n to w ard s th e p ro te sto rs by u sin g tear gas an d arrestin g th e m , (ibid.: 156) S h iu -h in g sp e cu late s th at th e fluid n a tu re o f pu blic o p in io n d u rin g th e p ro te st p eriod m ay h a v e had a co n sid era b le b e a rin g on the e v e n ts o f 17 D e cem b e r. In itially h o stile p u b lic p e rc e p tio n s of th e S o u th K o rean d e m o n stra to rs su p p o se d ly b e ca m e in cre a sin g ly sy m p a th e tic w ith e a ch d ay o f the p ro tests. T h is w as p o ssib ly related to su ch w ell-p u b licised in sta n ce s o f p o lice o v er-a g g re ssio n as w h e n th e y tu rn e d w a te r ca n n o n s on d e m o n stra to rs d u rin g a c o n fro n ta tio n o n 16 D e c e m b e r. As S h iu -h in g ex p lain s, this g ro w in g re co g n itio n by p ro te ste rs th at p u b lic su p p o rt w as o n th eir sid e in cre a se d th e p e rce iv e d le g itim a cy o f th e ir actio n s and e n c o u ra g e d th em in th eir c o n fro n ta tio n w ith th e police.

Policing on th e basis o f ‘lessons le a rn e d ’ Im p licit in th e ab o v e a n a ly se s o f G e n o a and H o n g K o n g is th e n o tio n , first raised in C h a p te r 1, th a t p u b lic o rd er p o licin g m e th o d s are ad ap tiv e to th e 'le ss o n s le a rn e d ' on th e basis o f p rev io u s e n c o u n te rs or th e v icario u s e x p e rie n c e o f c o n fro n ta tio n s in v o lv in g o th e r fo rces. T his te n d e n c y can b e illu strated w ith re fe re n c e to tw o e x am p les o ccu rrin g in th e w ak e o f th e G e n o a trag ed y : th e C an ad ian 130

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G 8 su m m it m e e tin g an d th e an ti-w a r rally in F lo re n ce o f Ju n e and N o v e m b e r 2 002, resp ectiv ely .

The C a n a d i a n G 8 s u m m i t

T w o related articles b y K in g an d W a d d in g to n (2005, 2006) a tte m p t to h ig h lig h t and a c co u n t for v ariatio n s in th e styles o f p o licin g ad o p ted b y C a n a d ia n p o lice in th e ir h a n d lin g o f tra n s n a tio n a l p ro tests o ccu rrin g fro m 1997 to 2002. T h e p rim ary foci o f th eir an alysis are the v io le n t d e m o n s tra tio n c o in cid in g w ith th e S u m m it o f th e A m ericas in Q u e b e c C ity in A pril 2001 an d the re la tiv e ly m o re p e a c e fu l p ro tests a cco m p a n y in g th e G 8 su m m it m e e tin g of o n e y e a r later. K in g an d W a d d in g to n d e m o n stra te h o w th e 'e x c lu sio n a ry fo rtre sso rie n te d ' style ad o p ted by the R oyal C a n a d ia n M o u n te d Police (R C M P ) and re g io n a l fo rces in Q u e b e c C ity w as sig n ifican tly in flu e n ce d by the n a tu re and o u tco m e s o f th e secu rity a rra n g e m e n ts im p le m e n te d at e a rlie r p ro te st e v en ts in C a n a d a , an d activ ities p re v io u sly tra n sp irin g in S e a ttle an d W a s h in g to n , D C . T h e th re e m e tre -h ig h , six -k ilo m etre s-lo n g secu rity p e rim e te r w as d efia n tly b e sie g e d b y a crow d of 7,000 p ro te sters (K in g an d W a d d in g to n 2005; M cN ally 2001). P olice reacted u n co m p ro m isin g ly by d isch a rg in g o v er 5,000 te a r gas c a n iste rs an d firin g 903 p lastic b u lle t ro u n d s in to the crow d (K in g and W a d d in g to n 2006). F o llo w in g th e v io le n ce in G e n o a an d th e '9 /1 1 ' te rro rist a tta ck on th e W orld T ra d e C e n tre in S e p te m b e r 2001, th e C a n a d ia n g o v e rn ­ m e n t d ecid e d to h o st th e Ju n e 2002 G 8 su m m it o u t of reach o f p ro te ste rs in th e re m o te , R o ck y M o u n ta in h o lid ay re so rt of K a n a n a sk is, A lberta. D e m o n stra to rs w ere fo rced to stage th eir p ro te sts in d istan t p laces like O tta w a , w h e re tw o sm all m a rch e s of aro u n d 3 -5 ,0 0 0 p e o p le o ccu rre d on 26 an d 27 Ju n e . O n ly five arrests w ere m ad e d u rin g th e tw o d ays o f p ro te st activ ity (K in g and W a d d in g to n 2005). C learly , this o u tc o m e w as stro n g ly related to the fact th at, u n lik e th e situ atio n in Q u e b e c C ity, th ere w as no g a th e rin g o f IP P s to ta rg e t sp ecifically . K in g a n d W a d d in g to n (ibid.) also o b se rv e th a t th e an a rch ist g ro u p s p re s e n t in large n u m b e rs in Q u e b e c C ity w ere n o t as stro n g ly re p re s e n te d in O tta w a . Ju s t as im p o rta n t a d istin g u ish in g fe a tu re , th o u g h , w as th e fact th at th e O tta w a P olice S erv ice (O P S ) ap p e are d to h av e 'le a rn e d the le sso n ' o f a d iso rd erly p ro te st m e e tin g o f the p re v io u s N o v e m b er, a fte r w h ic h th eir c o n d u ct w as ro u n d ly criticised by a local civil lib ertarian o rg an isatio n . T h e e v e n t in q u e stio n w as th e jo in t stag in g o f th e G 20/IM F and 131

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W o rld B a n k c o n fe re n c e s in O tta w a from 1 8 -2 0 N o v e m b e r 2001. F o llo w in g re so u n d in g c o m p la in ts of p olice h e a v y -h a n d e d n e s s, a C itiz e n 's P an e l on P o licin g an d C o m m u n ity (C P P C ) - su b seq u e n tly re n a m e d th e O tta w a W itn e ss G ro u p - p u b lish ed a rev iew w h ich w as critical of th e in tim id a to ry d e p lo y m e n t o f 'h a rd h at' p o lice officers (som e o f w h o m w ere a rm e d ), th e o v erz e a lo u s use o f sn a tch -sq u a d s and d o g -h a n d le rs, and u n n e ce s sa ry d e p lo y m e n t o f less-leth al w e a p o n s, su ch as te a rg a s, ru b b e r b u lle ts an d p e p p e r sp ray (K in g an d W a d d in g to n 2006). T h e C P P C p ro v o k ed an O P S in te rn a l o p e ra tio n s rev iew , w h ich th e n resu lted in th e p u b licatio n o f an 'A g e n d a for E x celle n c e for P o licin g M a jo r E v e n ts'. T h is d o cu m e n t stip u lated th e fo rc e 's c o m m itm e n t to: u p h o ld in g th e d em o cra tic rig h ts of in d iv id u als to p ro te st, stre n g th e n in g co m m u n ity p a rtn ersh ip s th ro u g h co m m u n ica tio n , co n su lta tio n and tra n sp a re n cy o f o p e ra tio n , and e n su rin g th e sa fety o f citize n s an d p o lice p e rso n n e l. In fu tu re, su ch o b je ctiv e s w ou ld be facilitated by a n e w ly estab lish ed M ajo r E v e n ts L iaison T eam (M E L T ) (ibid.). T h e p o lice w e re tru e to th eir w o rd s. K in g an d W a d d in g to n (2005, 2006) u se in sig h ts d ra w n from S. A llen (2003), as w e ll as th eir in te r­ v iew s and o th e r fo rm s of d o cu m e n ta tio n , to exp lain h o w , in th e b u ild -u p to th e O tta w a p ro te st, a jo in t R C M P /O P S M E L T e n te re d in to co n stru c tiv e p re -e v e n t d ialo g u e w ith lab o u r o rg a n isa tio n s p artly re sp o n sib le for o rg a n isin g the p la n n e d d e m o n stra tio n . W h e n sim ilar a p p ro a c h e s to a n ti-g lo b a lisa tio n g ro u p s w ere re b u ffe d , th e p o lice fell b a ck on h ig h -g ra d e in te llig e n c e co llated b y a sp ecially estab lish ed Jo in t In te llig e n c e G ro u p (JIG ), w h ic h track ed the m o v e m e n ts of k n o w n activ ists and k e p t tabs on v e h icle s c o n v e rg in g on the p ro test. O n th e d ay o f th e e v e n t, p h o to g ra p h s o f a n y o n e w ith a k n o w n crim in al reco rd w e re fed to o fficers o n the g ro u n d , a lo n g w ith sim ilar im ag es o f a n y o n e re q u irin g 'sp e cia l tre a tm e n t'. As p art o f th e ir 'iro n fist in a v e lv e t g lo v e ' a p p ro a c h (S. A llen , op. cit.), the m a jo rity of p o lice d o n n e d 's o ft h at' u n ifo rm s w ith tactical sq u ad s and v e h icle s k e p t on sta n d b y b u t o u t o f v iew o f p ro te sters. C am e ras on ro o fto p s, a h e lic o p te r and fix e d -w in g aircraft fed re a l­ tim e su rv e illa n ce fo o tag e to th e p o lice c en tra l co m m a n d lo cation . D e m o n stra to rs had a lre a d y b e e n g iv en a d v a n ce n o tice b y the p o lice o f a te m p o ra ry h o ld in g facility set up to d etain p ro te sters ca u g h t e n g a g in g in u n la w fu l d irect actio n . P ro te ste rs d ise m b a rk in g from th eir b u ses w ere im m e d ia tely e n c o u n te re d by o fficers clad in ja c k e ts m ark ed 'p o lice lia iso n ':

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A lth o u g h o u tw a rd ly frie n d ly , [th ese] o ffice rs p o in te d ly p h o to ­ g ra p h e d e ach n e w arriv al as an u n m ista k a b le s ta te m e n t o f th eir in te n tio n . F in ally , as p a rt o f a 's a tu ra tio n ' tactic, p la in clo th e s o fficers in filtrate d the c ro w d , p ro v id in g tactical in fo rm a tio n w h ile th e m arch w as in p ro g ress. U n ifo rm e d co lle ag u e s lined th e ro u te o f th e m a rch , som e o f th em o p e n ly p a ra d in g cam eras and th eir su rv e illan ce e q u ip m en t. A n y o n e seen m e ltin g aw ay fro m th e m a rch w as im m e d ia te ly fo llo w ed in o rd e r to th w a rt a n y p o ssib le in te n tio n to co m m it an act o f v an d alism . (K in g and W a d d in g to n 2006: 94) T h e O P S 's g re a te r c o m m itm e n t to o p e n n e s s and a c co u n ta b ility w as re fle cte d in th eir d ecisio n s to w e a r clearly v isible officer id e n tifica tio n n u m b e rs, and to c o -o p e ra te w ith civ ilian o b se rv e rs, w h o w ere allo w ed to m o n ito r th e ir actio n s from close v a n ta g e p o sitio n s. D e te rm in e d to a c co m m o d a te th e c ro w d 's o b je ctiv e s, p o lice o fficers also d ealt le n ie n tly w ith a v an cap ab le o f b ro a d ca stin g am p lified sou n d w h ich m e rg e d u n e x p e c te d ly in to o n e o f th e tw o m arch es. T h e p o lice w e re c o n ce rn e d a b o u t th e safety im p lica tio n s of th e v eh icle. H o w e v e r, ra th e r th an in sistin g on its o u trig h t rem o v al, th e y su cce ssfu lly p e rsu a d e d p ro te ste rs to re lo ca te th e v an w ith in a safer sectio n of the m arch (K in g an d W a d d in g to n 2005).

The a n t i - w a r p r o t e s t in Flo re n ce

F o r th e d e m o n stra tio n in o p p o sitio n to th e w ar in Iraq, held in F lo re n c e in N o v e m b e r 2002, Italian p o lice m a n a g e d to cu ltiv ate a far m o re h a rm o n io u s re la tio n sh ip w ith th e e stim a te d 500,000 p ro te sters th a n th e o n e w h ich h ad p rev ailed in G e n o a a y e a r e arlier, d ella P orta and R e iter (2006b ) a ck n o w le d g e th a t this relativ ely p e acefu l o u tco m e w as p artly d u e to th e n a tu re an d o b je ctiv e s o f th e p a rticip a n ts: in ad d itio n to h a v in g an u n d e rly in g an ti-w a r ra tio n a le , th e m arch w as o rg a n ise d b y 'm a in stre a m ' sectio n s o f th e E u ro p e a n le ft and trad e u n io n m o v e m e n t. P olice fears o f p ossib le v io le n ce w ere fu rth e r a ssu ag ed w h e n 'd is o b e d ie n t' g ro u p s sig n alled a m o re co n ciliato ry s ta n ce b y n o t w e a rin g th e ir u su al p ro te c tiv e g a rm e n ts. H o w e v e r, d ella P orta an d R e iter also m a in ta in th a t v ariou s a sp e cts o f the a u th o ritie s' c o n tro l stra te g y , b a sed o n th e lesso n s le a rn e d from G e n o a , h elp ed to e n su re a v io le n c e -fre e ev en t. In c o n tra s t to G e n o a , n e g o tia tio n s b e tw e e n th e d e m o n stra tio n o rg a n ise rs an d th e a u th o ritie s w e re e sta b lish ed sev e ra l m o n th s prio r to the e v e n t, w ith a tru sted lo cal p o litician actin g as in te rm e d iary . 133

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T h e se d iscu ssio n s h e lp e d to o v errid e th e p o te n tia lly d estru ctiv e e ffe cts o f a 'v iru le n t' c e n tre -rig h t an d m ed ia ca m p a ig n ag ain st th e p ro te st. M o re o v e r, in o rd e r to o ffse t th e 'a la rm is t' secre t service p ro g n o se s alre ad y circu la tin g th e p re ss, p o lice o fficers o n d u ty in F lo re n ce w ere requ ired to a tte n d a m o n th -lo n g p re p a ra to ry cou rse ru n b y so cio lo g ists an d p sy ch o lo g ists. O n th e d ay o f th e m arch , o p e ra tio n s w ere d irected by a local p o lice c h ie f (w h e re a s a n atio n al v ic e -ch ie f o f p o lice h ad b e e n p re s e n t in G e n o a ) an d o fficers a ssig n ed to th e m arch k e p t th e m se lv e s a re sp e ctfu l d istan ce from p articip an ts. T h e se tactics w ere c o n sis te n t w ith th e n o tice g iv en b y s e n io r p o lice to th e d e m o n s tra to rs' legal team o f th e ir 'in te n tio n to w ip e o u t th e im ag e o f G e n o a ' (ibid.: 39).

T h e ev o lu tio n o f policing philosophies T h e final case stu d y to be ex am in ed in this c h a p te r - th e N ew Y o rk an ti-w a r p ro te st o f F e b ru a ry 2003 - illu strates th e im p o rta n t p o in t th a t fo rce p rin cip le s o f p u b lic o rd e r p o licin g m ay b e tied , n o t m erely to le sso n s le a rn e d o n the basis of re c e n t p ro te st e n c o u n te rs , b u t to w id e r fo rce p h ilo so p h ie s p re scrib in g a g e n era l ap p ro ach to e v ery d a y p o licin g . As w e sh all see from this e x a m p le , su ch p h ilo so p h ie s are o fte n th e resu lt o f crises o f p olice le g itim acy w h ich o b lig e the re le v a n t p o lice fo rce to re -o rie n ta te its p a rticu la r styles o f o p e ratio n .

The a n t i - w a r p r o t e s t in N e w York C ity

C alled in o p p o sitio n to th e im p e n d in g w ar in Iraq, th e N ew Y o rk d e m o n stra tio n w as o n e o f m a n y p ro te sts tak in g p lace on 15 an d 16 F e b ru ary in m a jo r in te rn a tio n a l lo catio n s like L o n d o n , R o m e, Paris, S y d n e y and M o n tre a l, as w ell as in o th e r large A m e rican cities, su ch as L os A n g eles an d San F ran cisco . Y e t, o f all th ese large d e m o n stra tio n s, ty p ically in ex ce ss o f 100,000 p e o p le , o n ly th e o n e tak in g p lace in N ew Y o rk C ity w as n o tab ly co n fro n ta tio n a l, w ith th e p o lice p e rsiste n tly re so rtin g to fo rce (N Y C L U 2003). V itale (2005b) a rg u es th at th e e x c e p tio n a l n a tu re o f the v io le n ce o ccu rrin g in N ew Y o rk w as d u e , p rim arily , to th e N ew Y o rk C ity P olice D e p a rtm e n t's (N Y P D ) sin g u la r c o m m itm e n t to a zero tolerance a p p ro a ch to crow d m a n a g e m e n t (and for d ea lin g w ith crim in al activ ity m o re g e n erally ), b ased on th e 'b ro k e n w in d o w s' p h ilo so p h y o f policin g. In a slig h tly e a rlie r stu d y , V itale (2005a) ex p lain s ho w th e N Y P D 's g ro w in g a d h e re n c e in th e 1980s an d 1990s to th e z e ro to le ra n ce 134

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a p p ro a ch cou ld be traced b a c k to a 'crisis o f le g itim a cy ' in d u ced b y a n u m b e r o f civ ilian -led ca m p a ig n s fo r p o lice a ctio n a g a in st d ru g d ea le rs, s tre e t b e g g ars an d th e 's q u e e g e e m e n ' w h o leap ed o u t to w ash the w in d sc re e n s o f v e h icle s te m p o ra rily h a lte d at traffic lig h ts. S u ch lo b b y in g , an d th e e n d o rse m e n t it receiv ed from city p o litician s, p ro d u ce d a sh ift in p o lice p h ilo so p h y to w a rd s th e b ro k e n w in d o w s a p p ro a ch : T h e b ro k e n w in d o w s th e o ry arg u e s th a t lo w -le v e l crim e and d iso rd er, if le ft u n c h e c k e d , can lead to a clim ate o f law le ssn e ss, w h ic h in tu rn can resu lt in h ig h e r lev els o f serio u s crim e and e co n o m ic d o w n tu rn for local c o m m u n itie s. T h e so lu tio n is in cre a se d p o lice a tte n tio n to th e se m in o r crim es and d iso rd ers as a w ay o f re sto rin g a sen se o f sa fety and o rd e r, w h ich w ill allow re sid e n ts to re a sse rt co n tro l ov er th e ir n e ig h b o u rh o o d s, (ibid.:

101) T h e p se u d o n y m 'q u a lity o f life p o licin g ' is also ap p lied to this a p p ro a ch to d e n o te its fu n d a m e n ta l c o n ce rn w ith th e e lim in a tio n of v isible d iso rd ers an d th e e ra d ica tio n of e v ery d a y n u isa n ce . In N ew Y o rk C ity, th e p h ilo so p h y is m a n ife ste d in su ch tactics as: e n h a n ce d stop an d frisk p ro c e d u re s; th e g re a te r use o f civil e n fo rc e m e n t (e.g. clo sin g d o w n b u sin e sse s asso ciated w ith d ru g d ealin g ); the creatio n an d im p le m e n ta tio n o f n ew law s, ru les an d re g u la tio n s (e.g. to clam p d o w n on 'p a n h a n d lin g ' n e a r A TM m a ch in e s); and p ro activ e p o licin g m e th o d s - su ch as sa tu ra tin g a k n o w n p ro stitu tio n area. As V itale m ak e s cle a r, 'I t is o n ly w h e n a crisis o f le g itim acy e m e rg e s in c o m b in a tio n w ith calls fo r d o in g th in g s in a n ew w ay th a t th e p olice w ill re sp o n d . T h e d ep th an d le n g th o f th at re sp o n se w ill d ep en d in p a rt on th e lev el o f crisis an d th e p re ssu re th e y re ce iv e from elected o fficials' (ibid.: 122). T h e im p lica tio n s o f th is for p u b lic o rd e r p o licin g are th a t the N Y P D n ow ro u tin e ly assu m e s th a t all p ro te sters w ill: • n o t be allo w ed to 'd is ru p t' the life o f th e c o m m u n ity ; • stay c o n fin e d to p ro te st e n clo su res w ith fixed p o in ts o f e n try and d isp ersal; • b e su b d iv id e d in to sm aller, m o re m a n a g e a b le u n its; • be o u tn u m b e re d by p o lice o fficers; • find th e m se lv e s h arsh ly d ea lt w ith sh o u ld th e y d ep a rt from strictly p e rm itte d activ ities.

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T h is basic strate g ic o rie n ta tio n re q u ire s o fficers to re sp o n d , u n ­ c o m p ro m isin g ly and as fo rcib ly as is n e c e ssa ry , to m in o r v io latio n s of th e p rescrib ed p o lice ru les for th e c o n d u ct o f th e d e m o n stra tio n : U se o f fo rce in this style o f p o licin g is u n d e r th e d irect co m m an d o f h ig h -ra n k in g o ffice rs, le a v in g little ro o m fo r d iscre tio n at lo w er lev els o f su p e rv isio n . In d iv id u al o fficers are k ep t in lin e th ro u g h tra in in g an d th e p re s e n c e o f large n u m b e rs of su p e rv iso rs at all m ass m o b iliz a tio n s . . . N o th in g is left to c h a n ce as p o lice d ev elo p d e p lo y m e n t plan s. T h e tim in g an d cou rse o f all m o v e m e n ts of d e m o n stra to rs are c a re fu lly o rch e stra ted by p o lice; th e re is v ery little n e g o tia tio n w ith d e m o n stra to rs, e sp ecia lly at the last m in u te . T h is in clu d e s th e flow o f p e o p le in to and o u t o f d e m o n stra tio n areas th ro u g h th e u se o f e lab o rate sy stem s o f road an d sid e w alk clo su res. (V itale 2005b : 292) V itale ex p lain s th a t th e five c h a ra cteristic c o m p o n e n ts o f this a p p ro a c h , listed a b o v e, w e re e v id e n t in the p o licin g o f th e N ew Y o rk d e m o n stra tio n . T h e first o f th e se - an aversion to disruption - w as visib le in th e a u th o ritie s' refu sal to ag re e to th e o rg a n ise rs' re q u est to allow th e m arch to p ro ce e d th ro u g h M a n h a tta n , p ast th e UN bu ild in g . T h e seco n d c o m p o n e n t, controlled access, w as a p p a re n t in th e p o lice u se o f w o o d e n and m etal b arriers to form p ro te st p en s w h ich sep arate d the p ro te sters from th e p u blic. T h is tactic facilitated th e third p rin cip le - divide and conquer - in v o lv in g th e su b d iv isio n of th e crow d in to sm aller, m o re easily m a n a g e d (and clo sely su rv ey ed ) u n its. T h e fo u rth c o m p o n e n t, shock and awe, in v o lv ed o v e rw h e lm in g n u m e rica l su p erio rity . T h e N Y P D 's d e p lo y m e n t o f 4 ,000 o fficers far e x c e e d e d th e few h u n d re d ty p ically called u p o n in o th e r m a jo r US cities. F in ally , th e re w as an a c c e n t on zero tolerance, w ith th e p olice co m in g d o w n h ard on a n y o n e fo u n d o v e rste p p in g th e m ark. V itale e m p h a sise s th at th e v ast size o f th e crow d m ad e th e c o m ­ p licated sy stem o f c o n tro lle d access u n w o rk a b le . P eo p le p re v e n te d b y the sh e e r scale o f the p ro te st from e n te rin g th e p e n s fo u n d th e m se lv e s tre ate d h a rsh ly for u n w ittin g ly d efy in g th e p e rm it c o n d itio n s. E v id en ce co n ta in e d in a re p o rt by the N ew Y o rk C ivil L ib e rtie s U n io n (N Y C L U 2003) sh o w s h ow th e p o lice 's strict e n fo rc e m e n t o f th e ir ru les cre a ted ch ao s, co n fu sio n an d d isord er. D u rin g o n e in c id e n t, for ex a m p le, A p o lice o fficer w ith a b u llh o rn m a d e a n n o u n c e m e n ts for p e o p le to m o v e w e st o n 5 1 st S tre e t, b u t th o se a n n o u n c e m e n ts cou ld 136

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o n ly b e h e a rd by th o se clo se to th e o fficer. V id eo ta p e sh o w s th at a lin e o f p o lice o fficers th e n started fo rcin g th e m se lv e s forw ard w ith b a to n s o u ts tre tch e d , w ith th e m o u n te d o fficers co m in g b e h in d th e a d v a n cin g lin e of o fficers. B eca u se o f th e in te n se o v e rcro w d in g and th e sp eed w ith w h ich th e p o lice o fficers m o v e d , m a n y p e o p le w ere k n o ck ed d o w n , and in som e in sta n ce s w ere tram p led by th e p o lice ho rses. M an y p e o p le w ho fell w ere arreste d . In c erta in lo ca tio n s, p e o p le w h o had b e e n p u sh e d o u t o f th e stre e t o n to th e sid e w a lk an d w h o th en sto p p e d re tre a tin g w ere p e p p e r sp ray ed , (ibid.: 9) T h e N Y C L U receiv ed sco res o f co m p la in ts o f p o lice m isco n d u ct o ccu rrin g e v e n a fte r th e rally had e n d e d . D u e to in d ig n a tio n re su ltin g from th e fact th a t th e y had n o t b een allo w ed to v o ice th eir o p p o sitio n to th e w ar, g ro u p s o f p ro te ste rs d ecid e d to stag e an im p ro m p tu p ro te st in T im es S q u are. H o w e v e r, on re a c h in g 42nd S tre e t b e tw e e n B ro a d w a y an d S e v e n th A v e n u e , th e y fo u n d th eir p a th b lo ck ed b y a lin e o f w a itin g p o lice o fficers. A cco rd in g to o n e p ro te ste r, th e p o lice 'w e re o b v io u sly v e ry te n se an d frig h te n e d th e y see m e d o v erw h e lm e d and u n su re o f w h a t to d o ' (q u o ted in ibid.: 20). T h e p o lic e 's im m e d ia te re a ctio n w as to m ak e 'e x a m p le s' of p e o p le th ro u g h a rb itrary arrests. An alre ad y ten se situ atio n fu rth e r e scalated w h e n th e crow d su rg ed fo rw ard in re a ctio n to the ro u g h a rrest o f a y o u n g w o m a n b y fo u r or five o fficers. T h e p o lice re sp o n d e d b y u sin g te m p o ra ry b a rrica d e s to h em in th e cro w d close to su rro u n d in g bu ild in g s. M o re arrests an d m in o r in ju rie s w ere th e n su stain ed as the p o lice e v e n tu a lly cleared the sid ew alk . S u ch actio n s clearly lend c re d e n c e to M itch e ll an d S ta e h e li's (2005) asse rtio n th at o v erb e a rin g p o lice tactics th at see k to re strict or 'ro u tin is e ' d issen t h av e an in h e re n t p o te n tia l to b ack fire.

Conclusions T h e g ro w th o f a n ti-g lo b a lisa tio n p ro te st sin ce the late 1990s has b een a cco m p a n ied b y sp o rad ic c o n fro n ta tio n s b e tw e e n d e m o n stra to rs and p o lice fo rce s see m in g ly co m m itte d to m o re re p ressiv e fo rm s o f crow d c o n tro l. T h is te n d e n c y is u n d o u b te d ly d u e , in p art, to the e n h a n ce d sen se o f o b lig atio n actin g on the p o lice to g u aran te e th e sa fety an d p ro te ctio n b o th o f p re stig io u s su m m it v e n u e s an d th e in te rn a tio n a lly sig n ifica n t d ig n itaries a tte n d in g th em . V a ria tio n s in th e a m o u n t o f v io le n c e are in e v ita b ly related to th e p a rticu la r n atu re 137

Policing Public D is o rd e r

of the p olice tactics and strategy em p loyed . T h e stud y of the policing of the Seattle p ro test u n d ertak en by G illham and M arx clearly illustrates how police tactics are often ironic in th eir con seq u en ces. In o th er w ord s, th ey can u n w ittin g ly serve to escalate the con flict, not least by un ify in g and em b o ld en in g p rev iou sly d isparate groups of protesters. Case stud ies u n d ertak en by N oakes et al. (op. cit.) and N oakes and G illham (op. cit.) su ggest that th ere has b een a con sisten t trend , p o st-S eattle, for police in W estern d em ocracies to em b race strategic and tactical ap p roach es con sisten t w ith the 'n ew p en olo g y ' ph ilo so p h y of o rd er m an ag em en t. Specifically , this has involved a co m m itm en t to ap p lyin g ten ets of n eg otiated m an ag em en t in relation to con tain ed p ro testers, alongsid e tech n iq u es of strategic incap acitatio n d esigned to u n d erm in e the o b jectiv es and activities of transgressiv e groups of protesters. M itchell and S taeh eli con ten d that m ass p rotests have b eco m e so 'ro u tin ise d ' and 'n eu tralise d ' by the police as to re n d e r them virtually in effectu al. P rotest activists have beco m e co rresp on d in g ly resentfu l and d efian t - h en ce the increased p o ten tial for fu rth er v iolence. The relish and sev erity w ith w hich particu lar police forces have applied the princip les of strategic incap acitation is usually a function of the p resen ce or absen ce of o th er sig nificant variables. P ro m in en t am o n g these are: lo n g stan d in g p olicing trad itions th at m ay m od erate or en h an ce ten d e n cie s tow ard m ore p roactive and /or aggressive m od es of police in terv en tio n , the 'lesso n s' absorbed on the basis of previous public o rd er e v en ts, the en d u rin g 'm issio n s' or 'p h ilo so p h ie s' ad h ered to by ind ividu al forces, the prev ailing political con text, and the w ay th at sen io r p olice officers strategically 'm a n a g e ' bo th the pu blic ord er e n v iro n m en t and public im p ressions of the protesters. O u r case stu d ies su ggest th at th ese variables tend to fuse and in teract w ith n u m ero u s cu ltural, con textu al, situ atio n al and in teraction al factors to p rod u ce d isord erly or n o n -v io len t outcom es. This relation sh ip is explored in greater d ep th in the follow ing ch ap ter, w hich com p rises a case stud y o f the p ro test acco m p an yin g the m eetin g of the G8 Ju stice and H om e A ffairs m inisters in the m ajor E nglish city of Sh effield , Sou th Y ork sh ire, in Ju n e 2005.

138

C h a p te r 6

T h e G 8 Justice and H o m e Affairs M inisters’ m eeting in Sheffield, June 2005

In tro d u c tio n A side from th e a n n u a l M ay D ay p ro te sts re fe rre d to in th e p rev io u s ch a p te r, th e m o st sig n ifica n t e x a m p les o f a n ti-g lo b a lisa tio n p ro tests o ccu rrin g in th e U n ited K ingd o m in th e p o st-S e a ttle era w ere th o se acco m p a n y in g th e G 8 m in isteria l m e e tin g s h eld in D e rb y , S h e ffie ld and G le n e a g le s in M a rch , Ju n e an d Ju ly 2005, re sp e ctiv ely . This ch a p te r is ch iefly d ed ica te d to o u tlin in g an d an a ly sin g th e v ario u s in stitu tio n a l, cu ltu ral, p ractical, p ro fe ssio n a l and p o litical c o n ­ sid e ra tio n s a ffe ctin g S o u th Y o rk sh ire P o lice 's (S Y P 's) tactics and strate g y for m a n a g in g the S h e ffie ld m e e tin g , c o d e n a m e d 'O p e ra tio n O cta g o n '. T h e p rim ary aim o f the c h a p te r is to fu rth e r u n d e rlin e th e sig n ifican ce an d in te rre la tio n sh ip o f id eas in tro d u ce d e a rlie r b y v ie w in g them in the c o n te x t o f o n e p a rticu la r in sta n ce o f p o lice p u b lic o rd e r m a n a g e m e n t. W e saw in th e in tro d u c tio n to th is b o o k h o w the k in d s of fo rtificatio n an d exclu sio n strate g ies e m p lo y e d at p re v io u s tra n s­ n a tio n a l p ro tests w e re sim ilarly d ep lo y ed at the E n g lish and S co ttish G 8 m e e tin g s o f 2005. A t D erb y , for th e foru m o f G 8 E n v iro n m e n t and D e v e lo p m e n t M in iste rs, h eld o n 1 5 -1 9 M a rc h , D e rb y sh ire P olice in v ok ed S e ctio n 14 o f th e P u blic O rd e r A ct 1986 to lim it a d e m o n s tra tio n o n 17 M arch to a c o n fin e d area o f D e rb y M a rk e t P lace an d re strict th e n u m b e r o f p e o p le a tte n d in g to a m ax im u m of 3,000. T h e actu al p ro te s t b y som e 100 p e o p le o ccu rre d w ell o u t o f reach o f the in te rn a tio n a l d e le g a tio n , w h ich c o n v en e d at the M arrio tt B read sall P riory H o tel tw o m iles n o rth -e a s t o f th e city. T h e v e n u e w as e n circle d b y stee l b a rric a d e s th a t 'c u t acro ss th e [golf] fairw ay s' and a p ro te c tiv e cord o n o f 2,000 o fficers (B lack 2005). 139

P olicing P ublic D is o rd e r

S o u th Y o rk sh ire P olice fo rg ed a sim ilar 'rin g o f stee l' (W ap le 2005) and d rew a tw o -m ile 'e x c lu sio n z o n e ' aro u n d th e su b u rb an h o te l u sed as th e m ain v e n u e for th e m e e tin g o f th e G 8 Ju stice an d H o m e A ffairs M in isters in S h e ffie ld on 1 5 -1 7 Ju n e . H o w e v e r, th e p olice also sa n ctio n e d a series o f c ity -ce n tre p ro tests v ario u sly o rg an ised b y S h e ffie ld D isse n t (a n e tw o rk o f re sista n ce to th e G 8) and th e S h e ffie ld Stop th e W ar C o alitio n . T h is in clu d ed a c ity -ce n tre m arch of 1,000 p e o p le o n th e S a tu rd a y b e fo re th e m e e tin g (11 Ju n e ) an d a pair o f sm all, static d e m o n stra tio n s co in c id in g w ith civic re c e p tio n s for th e G 8 d ele g a tio n s on W e d n e sd a y , 15 Ju n e , an d T h u rsd a y , 16 Ju n e , at th e d o w n to w n lo ca tio n s o f th e W in te r G a rd e n s an d C u tle rs' H all, re sp e ctiv ely . T h e P u blic O rd e r A ct 1986 w as in v o k e d to lim it th e size o f the static a sse m b lie s to no m o re th a n 150 p e o p le an d to b a n all m a rch es fo r the d u ratio n o f th e m e e tin g . A co n tro v ersial fe atu re of W e d n e sd a y 's d e m o n stra tio n w as th e p lay in g o f th e S to ck sb rid g e B rass B and - p o sitio n e d m id w ay b e tw e e n th e d e m o n stra to rs and the d ro p p in g -o ff p o in t for th e v isitin g V IP s - w h ic h d ro w n e d o u t th e p ro te st ch a n tin g . O th e r fo rm s o f p ro te st, in c lu d in g a 'R ic e for D in n e r' m eal o rg an ise d b y M a k e P o v e rty H isto ry to c o in cid e w ith th e 'o fficia l' m eal in sid e the C u tle rs' H all an d h ig h lig h t th e d ie ta ry d eficie n cie s of th e w o rld 's p o o r - w ere allo w ed to p ro ceed w ith m in im al p olice su p e rv isio n . In d e e d , th e to n e o f p o lice m e th o d s for c o n tro llin g th e e v e n t from start to fin ish w as m a rk e d ly lo w -k e y . T h e th ree arrests o f W e d n e sd a y e v e n in g and th e sev e n o f th e fo llo w in g n ig h t all o ccu rre d som e d ista n ce aw a y fro m th e sch e d u le d p ro tests. W e d n e sd a y 's arrests fo llo w ed an a tte m p t by a sm all g ro u p of a n arch ists to b re a k th ro u g h a lin e o f p o lice p a tro llin g an acce ss road . O n th e fo llo w in g e v e n in g , p o lice re a cted to an im p ro m p tu m arch b y a sectio n o f p e o p le a tte n d in g th e R ice fo r D in n e r m eal by co rrallin g th em in to a sid e -stre e t for 2 - 3 h o u rs, d u rin g w h ich tim e 's n a tc h sq u ad s' m ad e o ccasio n al arrests. W e also le a rn e d from the In tro d u c tio n ho w th e p o lice m a n a g e ­ m e n t of th e S co ttish G 8 su m m it m e e tin g in and aro u n d E d in b u rg h in early Ju ly in c o rp o ra te d d iv erse tactical a p p ro a c h e s. T h e ro ck star, B ob G e ld o f, had called on o n e m illion p e o p le to d escen d on E d in b u rg h in th e G 8 w e e k to c am p aig n a g a in st g lob al p o v erty . T h e M ak e P o v e rty H isto ry m arch th ro u g h E d in b u rg h b y 250,0 0 0 p e o p le w as n o tab le for th e absence of d iso rd er - save for a h e a te d m o m e n t in w h ich 60 a n a rch ists w e re corralled in to a sid e -stre e t, th o u g h n o -o n e w as a rreste d . C o n fro n ta tio n s did o ccu r, h o w e v e r, on tw o s u b ­ se q u e n t, u n sc h e d u le d m a rch es th ro u g h th e ce n tre o f th e S co ttish 140

The G8 Justice and H o m e A ffairs M in iste rs’ m eetin g in Sheffield, June 2005

capital: first, a 'C arn iv al for Full E n jo y m e n t', inv olv ing protesters p erceiv ed to be th re ate n in g the city's financial in stitu tion s; and seco n d ly , an im prom ptu m arch by p ro testers exasp erated on learn in g that police w ere not allow ing them to travel by coach from E dinbu rgh to G len eag les. In the first in stan ce, the police b ro u gh t in 'iro n h orse' portable steel barriers to corral-in the crow d for several hou rs; and in the second , they briefly halted the m arch and threw a police cord on ro u n d the p articip an ts befo re allow ing it to con tin u e arou nd the city. M ajo r d isord er also broke out w h en p ro testers at G len eag les en co u n tered the m ain p erim eter fen ce and a break aw ay section of the m arch w as repelled by riot police arriv ing by h elico p ter to p re v e n t a breach from occurring. The policing of the Sheffield ev en t w as su bjected to rigorous scru tin y by m e and four colleagues actin g as p articip an t observers. T hirty-tw o in -d ep th in terv iew s w ere also u n d ertak en w ith various resp o n d en ts, in clu d in g sen ior p olice, m edia p erso n n el, a re p re ­ sen tativ e of Sh effield City C ou ncil, p rotest o rg anisers and a w ide cross-sectio n o f d em on strato rs (see Table 6.1 for a full list of re sp o n ­ d en ts). This data form s the basis of the fo llo w in g analysis o f the policing of this event. The analysis initially picks up on the im p o rtan t th em e high ligh ted by V itale (2005b) in the previous ch ap ter. T h u s the first section of the ch ap ter uses the con clu sion s draw n in a prev iou s stud y (M aw by 2002) in exp lication of the sin gular ev eryd ay p h ilo so p h y subscribed to by SYP. O nly by ap p reciatin g the significance and p erv asiv en ess of this p h ilo sop h y can w e fully u n d erstan d the fo rce's p referred style of m an agin g the Sheffield G8. T h e second section p rovid es a brief o verview of the forw ard p lan n in g en g aged in by the city cou ncil, and the p ro cesses of d elib eration and liaison o p eratin g b etw een the cou ncil, the police and p rotest organisers. T his is follow ed , in the third section , by a con sid eratio n of the p olice's prep aratio n s for the ev en t. Tw o fu rth er section s then discuss the im p lications of SY P 's strategy and tactics for p o lic e -p ro te ste r in teraction d u ring th e m ain pu blic protests o f the W ed n esd ay and T h u rsd ay ev en in gs. Thu s far, acad em ic analysis of the E d inbu rgh p rotests has been lim ited to a single stud y o f the M ake P ov erty H istory m arch (G orrin ge and Rosie 2006), m akin g it d ifficult to arrive at au th o ritativ e con clu sion s about the policing of the ev en t. N ev erth eless, the final section of this ch ap ter con tain s a sp ecu lativ e analysis o f co rresp o n d in g police tactics and strategy in Scotland .

141

P o lic in g P u b lic D is o r d e r

T ab le 6.1

L ist o f in terv iew resp on d en ts

T y p e of re s p o n d e n t(s)

M ale

F em ale

Total

S e n io r p o lice o fficers

2

-

2

Jo u rn a lists

3

-

3

S h e ffie ld C ity C o u n c illo r (E lected )

-

1

1

C ity C e n tre M a n a g e r, S h e ffie ld C ity

1

-

1

S h e ffie ld Sto p th e W ar C o alitio n

-

2

2

R ice for D in n e r/M a k e P o v e rty H isto ry

2

-

2

S tu d e n ts ' U n io n o fficers

1

1

2

A n arch ists

3

-

3

S o cia list W o rk e rs' P arty

1

1

2

S h e ffie ld R h y th m s o f R e sista n ce

1

-

1

C la n d e stin e In su rg e n t R e b e l C lo w n A rm y

-

1

1

O th e rs

8

4

12

TO TALS

22

10

32

(a) Official agencies

C o u n cil

(b) Protest organisers

(c) Protesters*

Note: "'In clu d es th re e p e o p le w h o w e re arrested d u rin g th e p ro te sts

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S o uth Y o rk s h ire Police: fo rce p urpo se and values Ju st as th e N ew Y o rk P olice D e p a rtm e n t o f th e 1990s u n d e rw e n t a crisis o f le g itim acy in its re la tio n s w ith th e local c itiz e n ry , S o u th Y o rk sh ire P olice also e x p e rie n c e d a loss o f p u blic c o n fid e n c e fo llo w ­ in g its c o n tro v ersia l in v o lv e m e n t in th e 1 9 8 4 -5 m in e rs' strik e an d its role in th e in fam o u s H illsb o ro u g h trag ed y o f 1989, in w h ich local o fficers w e re h eld re sp o n sib le fo r cre a tin g th e 'c ru s h ' w h ic h re su lte d in th e d ea th s o f d o z en s o f fo o tb all su p p o rte rs. T h e w ay in w h ic h the fo rce re sp o n d e d to this crisis, an d fo rm u lated a new s ta te m e n t of p u rp o se an d v alu e s in the p ro ce ss, is fu n d a m e n ta l to o u r u n d e r­ sta n d in g o f its h a n d lin g o f th e p ro te sts a c co m p a n y in g th e S h effield G8. As M aw b y (2002) ex p lain s, S o u th Y o rk sh ire w as o n e o f th e key b a ttle g ro u n d s o f th e m in e rs' strik e : b itte r c o n fro n ta tio n s o ccu rred at m in e rs' rallies in S h e ffie ld ; th ere w ere s e t-p ie ce b a ttle s b e tw e e n h u n d re d s o f p ick ets and p o lice d raw n from 11 fo rce s at O rg re a v e cok e w o rk s on th e ed g e o f th e city ; an d re sid e n ts o f S o u th Y o rk sh ire m in in g co m m u n itie s like M altb y an d G rim e th o rp e re a cted v io le n tly to in cu rsio n s b y m o bile p o lice u n its. T h e sen se o f a lie n a tio n fe lt across th e c o u n ty w as a c ce n tu a te d by th e th e n C h ie f C o n sta b le , P e te r W rig h t's, o u trig h t re sista n ce to atte m p ts b y his civ ilian P olice C o m m ittee to h a v e him so ften fo rce p o licy to w ard s the strik in g m in ers. F o llo w in g th e strik e, th e p o lic e 's critics saw th e m se lv e s v in d ica te d b y th e acq u ittal at S h e ffie ld C ro w n C o u rt o f 15 m en ch a rg ed w ith rio tin g at O rg re a v e . T h e H illsb o ro u g h tra g ed y h as had an eq u ally e n d u rin g and tra u m a tic e ffe ct on th e fo rc e 's im ag e and m o rale. T h is h a p p e n e d on 15 A pril 1989, w h e n S h e ffie ld W e d n e sd a y 's H illsb o ro u g h stad iu m w as th e v e n u e for an FA C u p sem i-fin al b e tw e e n L iv e rp o o l and N o ttin g h a m F o rest. L iv e rp o o l su p p o rte rs had b e e n allo cated the L ep p in g s L an e e n d -te rra c e s b u t, w ith th e k ick -o ff o n ly 10 m in u te s aw ay , a large n u m b e r o f th e ir su p p o rte rs had still n o t e n te re d th at p art o f the g ro u n d . At this p o in t, th e sen io r o ffice r p re s e n t tried to re lie v e th e b u ild -u p o f p re ssu re b y o rd e rin g th e o p e n in g o f a gate. T h e s u d d e n in flu x o f 2,000 p e o p le in to the stad iu m re su lte d in a m assiv e cru sh o f b o d ie s w h ich cau sed 96 d ea th s an d h u n d re d s m ore in ju ries. A s u b s e q u e n t ju d icia l in q u iry attrib u te d the trag ed y to a failu re of p o lice co n tro l. It accu se d th e m ain co m m a n d in g o fficer, C h ie f S u p e r­ in te n d e n t D avid D u ck en fie ld , n o t o n ly o f h a v in g 'fro z e n ' on th e d ay, b u t o f also h a v in g falsely re p o rte d to th e S e cre ta ry o f th e Fo o tb all 143

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A sso ciatio n th at th e ca ta stro p h e o ccu rre d b e ca u se L iv e rp o o l fan s h ad fo rced th e gate o p e n . D u ck en fie ld w as in sta n tly s u sp e n d e d . H is C h ie f C o n sta b le ap o lo g ise d on b e h a lf of SY P an d o ffered his re sig n a ­ tion , th o u g h this w as n o t a c ce p te d . D e sp ite su ch tacit a c ce p ta n c e of b la m e , v ario u s legal b o d ie s re fra in e d from tak in g a ctio n , e ith e r a g a in st th e fo rce or in d iv id u al o ffice rs, le a v in g relativ es of th e H illsb o ro u g h v ictim s to c o n tin u e th e ir cea se less cam p aig n for ju stice . A m a jo r tu rn in g p o in t w as re a c h e d w ith th e re sig n a tio n o f P ete r W rig h t in M ay 1990 and th e a p p o in tm e n t as his su cce sso r o f R ich ard W ells, an O x fo rd -e d u c a te d fo rm e r d e p u ty assistan t co m m issio n e r of th e M e tro p o lita n P olice w ith v aried e x p e rie n c e in m ed ia and c o m ­ m u n ity re la tio n s, tra in in g an d o p e ra tio n a l c o m m a n d . T h e re is no d o u b t th at 'W e lls to o k o v er a fo rce w h ic h w as b e le a g u e re d and d isp irited . T h e fo rce w as d em o ra liz e d as a re su lt o f a series o f e v en ts w h ich had d am ag ed its re p u ta tio n , c o n fid e n c e an d in te g rity ' (ibid.: 117). T h e C h a irp e rso n o f th e S o u th Y o rk sh ire P olice A u th o rity stated th at th e ir m ain p u rp o se in a p p o in tin g M r W ells w as to 'w in b a ck p u b lic s u p p o rt an d to re sto re c o n fid e n c e in th e p o lice ' (q u o ted in ibid.). W ells soo n set a b o u t th e task o f tra n sfo rm in g th e fo rce im ag e and id e n tity . F o llo w in g a w id e sp re a d co n su lta tio n e xercise in v o lv in g 250 c o m m u n ity g ro u p s an d all S o u th Y o rk sh ire P olice e m p lo y e e s, he p ro d u ce d a d o cu m e n t called Statement of Force Purpose and Values. As M aw b y exp lain s, T h e S ta te m e n t c o n ce rn s w h a t th e fo rce w ill do an d h ow it w ill c o n d u ct itself in th e d isch a rg e o f its d u ties. It e x h o rts sta ff to striv e to act w ith 'in te g r ity ' to be 'h o n e s t, co u rte o u s and tactfu l' an d to 'u se p e rsu a sio n , co m m o n sen se an d good h u m o u r'. It e m p h a siz e s also th a t sta ff sh o u ld d isp lay h o n e sty , h u m a n ity and c o m p a ssio n , be w illin g to liste n , to try n e w w ay s o f w o rk in g and to ad m it failings. It is, in su m , a s ta te m e n t w h ich bo th p ro v id es g u id a n ce to m e m b e rs o f S Y P and also giv es p e o p le e x p e c ta tio n s c o n c e rn in g ho w th ey w ill be treated in th eir d ealin g s w ith the force, (ibid.: 119) T h is an d sim ilar d o cu m e n ts p ro v id ed th e k e y n o te s for a n ew p h ilo so p h y of p o licin g . M a w b y illu strates how th is p h ilo so p h y w as m a n ife ste d in th e local p o licin g o f p u blic o rd e r. O n e e x am p le he p ro v id e s fo cu se s on a d e m o n s tra tio n called b y R eclaim th e S tre e ts (a coalition o f e n v iro n m e n ta list and a n a rch ist g ro u p s) in M ay 1997. A cco rd in g to h im , this in v o lv e d lo w -k e y an d tactfu l p o licin g , th e 144

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c o n se q u e n ce o f w h ic h w as th a t o n ly o n e d e m o n s tra to r w as a rreste d . M o st n o tab ly , in his b rie fin g o f th e 60 o fficers d e p lo y e d , th e G old c o m m a n d e r h ad u rged th em to act 'in a professional m anner in accordance with our statement of purpose and values' (q u o ted in ibid.: 160, e m p h a sis ad d e d ). T h is e x a m p le p ro v id e s a u sefu l fo u n d a tio n for u n d e rs ta n d in g th e re lativ e ly lib eral fo rce a ttitu d e to the p o licin g of p u b lic o rd er. As w e shall see from th e su b s e q u e n t co m m e n ts o f sen io r o ffice rs, th e p h ilo so p h y w as e v id e n t in a ttitu d es to the m a n a g e m e n t o f the G 8 m e e tin g . T h is will b e co m e e v id e n t as w e c o n tin u e o u r an aly sis o f th e e v e n t, sta rtin g w ith th e p o litical co n te x t in w h ich it o ccu rred .

T h e p o litic al c o n te x t o f th e e v e n t In S e p te m b e r 2004, S h e ffie ld C ity C o u n cil g ratefu lly acce p te d a H o m e O ffice in v itatio n to h o st th e m e e tin g of th e G 8 Ju stice and H o m e A ffairs M in iste rs, d u e to b e stag ed in Ju n e 2005. A su b ­ se q u e n t cou n cil p ress re le a se o f 24 Ja n u a ry 2005 e m p h a sised h o w this w as a h e a v e n -s e n t o p p o rtu n ity fo r th e city to p ro m o te itself to a w id e in te rn a tio n a l a u d ie n ce : H o stin g th e JH A G 8 su m m it w ill give S h e ffie ld th e o p p o rtu n ity to sh o w ca se itself to a g lo bal a u d ie n ce . M in iste rs, th e ir aid es an d th e w o rld 's m ed ia w ill b e able to see fo r th e m se lv e s th at S h e ffie ld is a city on th e up th at is at h o m e on th e in te rn a tio n a l stag e. As th e c o u n c il's C ity C e n tre M a n a g e r e x p la in e d in in te rv ie w , righ t from th e o u tse t, he and his d e p a rtm e n t exp lo red e v ery p o ssib le m e a n s of 's e llin g S h e ffie ld in te rn a tio n a lly ' as a w o rld -class c o n ­ fe re n c e , co m m e rcial and to u rist d estin a tio n . T h e c o u n c il's e v en tu al d ecisio n to e m p lo y p ro te st c o m p o u n d s re fle cte d th eir a tte m p t to strik e a b a la n ce b e tw e e n allo w in g a safe an d o rd erly e x p re ssio n of p ro te st w h ile sa fe g u a rd in g th e city 's w o rld -w id e re p u ta tio n . S u g g e s ­ tion s th a t th e h irin g o f a b rass b an d w as a cy n ical p lo y to d ro w n o u t th e n o ise o f p ro te sters g a th e re d in T u d o r S q u are on W e d n e sd a y , 15 Ju n e , w ere re p u d ia te d b y th e co u n cil o n th e g ro u n d s th a t this asp e ct o f th e e v e n in g 's e n te rta in m e n t had b e e n b o o k e d w ell b e fo re th ey h ad k n o w n w h e re th e p ro te ste rs w o u ld be assem b lin g . D u e to fears th at b o th S o u th Y o rk sh ire P olice an d S h e ffie ld C ity C o u n cil m ig h t w ell sacrifice the lo cal rig h t to p ro te st in o rd e r to 145

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g u a ra n te e th e secu rity o f in te rn a tio n a l d ele g a te s, b o th S h e ffie ld D isse n t and the S h e ffie ld Sto p th e W a r C o alitio n lo b b ied and ca m p a ig n ed assid u o u sly to e n su re th at th e p ro te st w o u ld u ltim ately b e allo w ed . It w as w ith this o b je ctiv e in m in d that o n e m e m b e r of D isse n t - an electe d c o u n cil re p re s e n ta tiv e of th e G re en P arty su b m itte d a m o tio n to a full co u n cil m e e tin g o f 1 Ju n e , o p p o sin g th e stag in g o f the G 8 in S h e ffie ld . T h e re su ltin g d eb a te in th e cou n cil ch a m b e rs w as w itn e sse d b y m e m b e rs o f th e S top th e W ar C o alitio n , som e o f w h o m su b m itte d an a n ti-G 8 p e titio n c o m p risin g 500 sig n atu res. P rio r to th e d eb a te , a co alitio n co m m itte e m e m b e r w as allo w ed to d eliv er a fiv e -m in u te sp e ech d e p lo rin g S h e ffie ld 's d ecisio n to h o st th e m e e tin g : T h e d iscu ssio n th e sp e ech g e n era ted in the co u n cil c h am b e rs lasted fo r tw o h o u rs, if n o t m o re. B u t also , w e g o t su ch good m ed ia co v e ra g e on ITV , C h a n n e l F o u r and lo cal p ress an d rad io th a t w e w e re able to e x e rt su b s e q u e n t le v e ra g e on th e p o lice. (S h e ffie ld Sto p the W ar C o a litio n m e m b e r, fem ale) R e p re s e n ta tiv e s o f th e tw o p rim ary p ro te st g ro u p s c o n tin u e d to e m p lo y th e m ed ia w ith a v iew to p re ssu risin g th e p o lice and city co u n cil in to allo w in g as o p e n an d e x te n siv e a fo rm o f p ro te st as p o ssib le. O n o n e o cca sio n , th e C h a irp e rso n o f th e S to p the W ar C o alitio n a p p e a re d in th e Yorkshire Post of 7 Ju n e 2004 ('P ro te sts R ow as S u m m it C o m es to C ity ') to o b je c t th at p o lice p lan s to forbid p ro te sters from g a th e rin g w ith in close p ro x im ity of th e m in isterial e n to u ra g e s: 'w o u ld be an ab u se o f o u r civil lib e rtie s, an d a g reat sh a m e in a city th a t h as a p rou d reco rd o f sta n d in g up fo r p e a c e and ju stice '. S h e an d h e r c o lle a g u e s w e re co n v in c e d th a t, bu t fo r th eir c a m p a ig n in g , th e p ro te sts w ou ld e ith e r h av e b e e n b a n n e d o u trig h t or, at le ast, su b je c te d to a m o re re p ressiv e form o f policin g: At first, I th in k th e p o lice w e re c o n ce rn e d a b o u t allo w in g any d e m o n stra tio n s at all. B u t as a re su lt o f the p e titio n in g , 'th e G 8 is n 't w e lco m e h e re ' g o t a lo t o f p ress and p u blic su p p o rt and w e w e re ab le to ap p ly th at p re ssu re a g a in st th e p o lice. P lu s, it w as su p p o rte d b y su ch a w id e ra n g e o f g ro u p s o f p e o p le , like th e G re e n s, th e M u slim A sso ciation o f G reat B rita in , C N D , o u rselv es and sev eral o th e rs, so it w as v ery d ifficu lt for th e p o lice to refu se th e d e m o n stra tio n . (S h effield Stop th e W ar C o alitio n m e m b e r, fem ale)

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D e sp ite this p u b lic p re ssu re , th e p o lice k e p t b o th th e o rg an ise rs and larg er g e n e ra l p u blic h a n g in g o n u n til th e last m in u te b e fo re fin ally s a n ctio n in g lim ited p ro te sts on th e W e d n e sd a y an d T h u rsd a y e v en in g s o f 15 an d 16 Ju n e . T h e p o lic e 's see m in g ly d ilato ry attitu d e w as w id ely in te rp re te d as a d e lib e ra te - alb eit u n ch a ra cte ristic s trate g y to d e te r p e o p le fro m a tte n d in g an d u n d e rm in e th e p ro te st's e ffe ctiv en e ss. P ositiv e re latio n s b e tw e e n se n io r m e m b e rs o f th e Stop th e W ar C o alitio n an d p o lice liaison o fficers had b e e n v e ry m u ch in e v id e n ce in p re c e d in g n e g o tia tio n s re g a rd in g an ti-w a r m a rch es in th e w ak e o f th e 9/11 atro city . O n this latest o cca sio n , th e p o lice e x p re sse d v e ry few o b je ctio n s to th e id e a o f a m arch b e in g stag ed on th e S a tu rd a y p rio r to th e m in isterial m e e tin g (11 Ju n e ). It w as in re la tio n to the p la n n e d p ro te sts of the following week th at th e y w ere re lu c ta n t to give th e ir ap p rov al. T h is w as a p p a re n t on F rid ay , 10 Ju n e , w h e n th e ch airp e rso n visited S h e ffie ld 's W e st B ar p o lice statio n to h an d in a re q u isite p ro ­ fo rm a a ffirm in g th e c o a litio n 's in te n tio n to stage a su cce ssio n of p ro te sts. S h e had sim p ly in te n d e d le a v in g the d o cu m e n t at the fro n t re c e p tio n d esk. H o w e v e r, tw o o fficers cam e d o w n from a n o th e r floo r and in sisted on h a v in g a 'q u ie t' d iscu ssio n w ith m e in th e corrid o r, w h e re th ey told m e 'o ff the re c o rd ' th at, w h ilst th e y 'd v ery m u ch like to su p p o rt o u r a p p lica tio n , th e y w ere p e ssim istic a b o u t its c h a n c e s o f b e in g ap p ro v e d o f b e ca u se th e d e m o n s tra tio n w as lik ely to b e 'h ija c k e d ' b y 'o u ts id e e le m e n ts' th a t th e p o lice w ere p articu larly c o n ce rn e d ab o u t. (C h a irp e rso n , S h e ffie ld S to p th e W a r C o alitio n , fem ale) At th e e le v e n th h o u r, she re ce iv e d co n firm a tio n from th e p o lice th at the p ro te sts cou ld go a h e a d , as re q u e ste d , b u t that th e y w o u ld be lim ited to a m ax im u m of 100 p a rticip a n ts. C o alitio n re p re se n ta tiv e s u rg e n tly ap p e a le d to the p o lice to lift th e stip u latio n th a t th e p ro tests be d esig n a te d to fixed lo ca tio n s and to w ith d ra w th eir re strictio n s on th e a m o u n t o f p e o p le th e y had said th e y w o u ld allow in. T h e y w ere esp ecially w o rried ab o u t the p ossib ility th at tro u b le m ig h t arise d ue to p ro te sters b e in g re fu se d access to th e p e n s an d h a v in g th e ir 'rig h t to p ro te st' d en ie d . In o rd e r to u n d e rsta n d th e p o lic e 's a p p a re n t re lu c ta n c e to h eed the C o a litio n 's ad v ice and g ra n t th em the kind of c o -o p e ra tio n th e y h ad re ce iv e d on e a rlie r o cca sio n s, it is n e c e ssa ry to ex am in e th e fo rm er's strate g ic th in k in g and p re p a ra tio n re g a rd in g th e ev en t. 147

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Police planning and p rep aratio n Police p rep aratio n s for 'O p e ra tio n O cta g o n ' to ok the form of m o n th ly m eetin g s in v o lv in g a sen io r Strategic G ro u p , con cern ed with overall policy, and of a sep arate group of B ro n ze com m an d ers resp onsible for p lan n in g the secu rity of sp ecific v en u es. H om e O ffice in terv en tion was m inim al but SY P 's final plans for secu rin g the ev en t w ere su b ject to the ap p rov al b o th of the M etro p o litan Police Serv ice's Special B ran ch and the in tern atio n al security services relev an t to each of the sum m it d elegates. Police in tellig en ce in the build -u p to the G8 w as largely prepared on the basis of scan n in g the in te rn e t sites of radical organisations. By the p olice's ow n ad m ission , this proved a relativ ely fruitless activity: The only th in g that w e knew for sure w as that there w ere going to be som e an arch ists com in g to Sheffield en rou te to E d inbu rgh . B u t after the Satu rd ay, p eo p le seem ed to be byp assin g Sheffield and going straig h t up to E d inbu rgh . W e m ad e it quite clear on the Satu rd ay that an y o n e arrested w ould be pro h ib ited from going up to Scotland . (B ronze com m an d er, SYP, m ale) In his d eterm in atio n to b alan ce the com p etin g and o ften co n ­ trad ictory n eed s and o b jectiv es of parties, like the sum m it d elegates, S h effield C ity C ou ncil, d iscrep an t groups of pro testers and their n o n -p ro te stin g fellow citizens, M ered y d d H u g h es, the C h ief C o n stab le of South Y o rk sh ire, d ecid ed to invoke Sectio n s 13, 14 and 14A of the Public O rd er Act 1986. T h ese section s au th orised M r H ughes, n o t only to ban m arch es for the d uration of the sum m it m eetin g , bu t also to restrict static assem blies to p rescribed v en u es, su b ject them to certain con d itio n s o f o ccu rren ce, and take ap p ro ­ p riate action against an y o n e tresp assin g on private p rop erty . U n d erly in g the C h ief C o n stab le's d ecision w as a p erceiv ed need to exercise caution in th e face of great un certain ty : I did take the o p p o rtu n ity to p rev en t m arch es at a certain tim e and place b ecau se I cou ld n 't sep arate sheep from goats in term s of those w ho w ere in ten t on d em o n stratin g law fully. I m ean we w ere going to get p eople d em o n stratin g w ho w ere Q u ak ers, w ho w anted to d em o n strate in groups of four or five, lighting cand les and h o ld in g b an n ers up. W e d id n 't w an t to see an y on e 148

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sto p p in g th e m from d o in g th at. I co m e from th a t b a ck g ro u n d of p ro te st trad itio n . B u t w h a t I d id n 't w a n t w as th e o p p o rtu n ity for a m arch to go so close to th e v e n u e th at p e o p le w ith in th at m arch cou ld th e n start th ro w in g rocks. I set o u t v e ry clearly in th e G old strate g y for S h e ffie ld th a t w e w o u ld facilitate th e law fu l b u sin e ss o f th e su m m it - th e y w ere e n title d to b e h e re and e n title d to h av e th eir m e e tin g in p e ace and q u iet; w e w ould facilitate the law fu l p ro te st, w ith th e e m p h a sis o n lawful; w e w o u ld try an d lo cate v e n u e s w h e re p e o p le cou ld m ak e th eir fe e lin g s k n o w n so th a t th e y w ere clo se e n o u g h to let p e o p le k n o w th e y w e re th e re an d p ro te stin g , b u t n o t so th e y cou ld c o m m it an y act o f v io le n ce . (C h ie f C o n sta b le o f S o u th Y o rk sh ire , m ale) To a ch iev e th e p re fe rre d 'to n e ' fo r th e p o licin g o f th e S h e ffie ld G 8, the C h ie f C o n sta b le in stig ated 'c a sc a d e b rie fin g s' w ith local and v isitin g co m m a n d in g o ffice rs, u n d e rlin in g th e n e e d to e x te n d a h u g e w e lco m e to a n y o n e in te n t on p e a cefu lly p ro te stin g . All co m m a n d e rs w ere th e n re q u ire d to w a tch a D V D on w h ic h M r H u g h e s e m p h a ­ sised p re cise ly ho w he w a n te d th e p ro te sts to b e p oliced . T h is is w h y , in fact, I d o n 't b e lie v e in h a v in g a n a tio n a l p u blic o rd e r p olice. I take th e d ecisio n s ab o u t p u b lic o rd e r in the G 8 in th e lig h t o f th e fact th a t I'm still g o in g to b e h e re th e d ay after. I'v e b e e n h ere th e y e a r b e fo re , so I'v e had tim e to m e e t the c o m m u n ity , talk to le a d e rs, g et to k n o w th e M P s a b it, g et to k n o w th e c o u n cillo rs, a p p e a r in fro n t o f th em an d tell them w h a t I'm g o n n a d o, an d m ak e m y d ecisio n s o n th e b asis o f v ery firm lo cal ro ots. Because we do rem ember the legends of the N U M dispute and the stories of the Metropolitan Police and we are all very anxious to put those legends to bed. (C h ie f C o n sta b le o f S o u th Y o rk sh ire , m ale, e m p h a sis ad d ed )

C u ltu ra l influences on police s tra te g y and tactics C u ltu ral d iffe re n c e s - b e tw e e n th e p o lice and p ro te ste rs, and w ithin each o f th e tw o p arties - fu rth e r h elp to exp lain a sp e cts o f th e p olice p la n n in g , b rie fin g an d b e h a v io u r. O p e ra tio n O cta g o n d rew on ap p ro x im a te ly 350 p u blic o rd er p e rso n n e l from th e S o u th Y o rk sh ire , W e st Y o rk sh ire , G re a te r M a n c h e ste r, L a n ca sh ire , N o rth u m b ria and D u rh a m co n sta b u la rie s. As a ru le, SY P o fficers w e re p o sitio n e d at 149

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th e d irect in te rfa c e w ith th e p u b lic, w h ile o th e r fo rce s assu m ed re sp o n sib ility fo r p o licin g th e m o re p e rip h e ra l activ ities. T h e B ro n z e c o m m a n d e r a c k n o w le d g e d in in te rv ie w th at p u blic o rd e r u n its o fte n w o rk e d a cco rd in g to a 'fo o tb a ll m e n ta lity ' b e ca u se co n tro llin g e v en ts on m atch d ays w as th e ir stap le activ ity . In th e co u rse o f his b rie fin g s to S Y P 's o w n o fficers, h e e m p h a sised the iie e d for a su b tler a p p ro a c h , w h ich w as sen sitiv e to th e fact th a t th ese w e re p rim arily lo cal p e o p le w h o th e o fficers m ig h t b e d ea lin g w ith in fu tu re , an d e x h ib ite d d u e re sp e ct fo r the p ro te st's cen tral th e m e of a n ti-p o v erty . So th a t w as th e te n o r o f th e b rief: o n ly re sp o n d and re a ct if you h a v e to and th a t w ill b e d ictated to b y th e P SU c o m m a n d e rs, th e serg e a n ts an d th e in sp e cto rs; no u n ila te ra l, sort o f 'I'm g o in g to arrest him b e ca u se h e 's u p se t m e .' In a n y ca se , th e y w ere th e m o re p ro fe ssio n a l o f m y p u blic o rd e r u n its; th e y can stand a ro u n d an d take th at sort o f stu ff all d ay. (B ro n ze c o m m a n d e r SY P , m ale) P olice ste re o ty p in g o f p a rticu la r g ro u p s o f p ro te sters in e v itab ly in flu e n c e d th e ir tactical o rie n ta tio n . S e n io r o fficers w ere w ary o f th e in te n tio n s o f a n a rch ist g ro u p s lik ely to b e p re s e n t b u t w e re esp ecia lly c o n ce rn e d b y th e p o ssib le an tics o f a g ro u p k n o w n as th e C la n d e stin e In su rg e n t R eb el C lo w n A rm y (C IR C A ), w h o se te n d e n cy to n o n -v io le n tly lam p o o n th o se in p o sitio n s o f a u th o rity w as p e rce iv e d as a p o te n tia lly em b a rra ssin g fo r su ch p ro m in e n t p artie s as th e m e e tin g d e le g a te s, th e H o m e S e cre ta ry , S h e ffie ld C ity C o u n cil and th e p o lice th e m se lv e s. A ctu al m e m b e rs o f th e se g ro u p s w ere sco rn fu l o f th e c h a ra c te risa tio n s an d assu m ed m o tiv es a ttrib u te d to th em by p o lice an d m ed ia. O n e C IR C A m e m b e r con fid e d th at sh e an d sev eral c o lle a g u e s, h ad o n ly 'jo in e d th e arm y ' o n e m o n th p re v io u sly and had sin ce receiv ed a m ere tw o d ay s' tra in in g in re le v a n t te ch n iq u e s. F ar from striv in g to p ro v o k e or in cite p e o p le in to v io le n ce , th e clo w n s' o b je ctiv e s w ere to e m p lo y h u m o u r to su b v e rsiv e e ffe ct w h ile de-fusing th e p o te n tia l fo r v io le n ce : O n c e y o u 'v e g o t y o u r clo w n u n ifo rm o n , it giv es y o u th at kind o f fre e d o m th a t yo u w o u ld n 't h av e n o rm a lly - to go up to p o lice and d u st d o w n th eir tru n c h e o n s an d g e n era lly in te ra c t in th at w ay. It h e lp s y o u , h o p e fu lly , to tu rn te n se situ atio n s in to so m e th in g a bit lig h ter. It's a bit like say in g , 'L o o k , th ey m ig h t w ell be p o lice an d th e y 'v e g ot th eir te a r gas an d tru n c h e o n s 150

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u p o n th e m ; w e m ig h t w e ll be no m a tch p h y sica lly , b u t th e y 're o n ly h u m a n and w e 'v e g o t to fin d d isa rm in g w ays of c h a lle n g in g th e ir a u th o rity an d th eir fu n ctio n for the state. (C IR C A m e m b e r, fem ale) R e s p o n d e n ts e m p h a sised th at o n e m a jo r re a so n w h y th e d e m o n s tra ­ tion w as larg ely free o f in c id e n t w as th at p a rticip a n ts g e n era lly su b scrib ed to p rin cip le s o f n o n -v io le n ce : T h e y 're n o t, th e m a jo rity o f th e m , lo o k in g fo r a figh t. T h e y are d e sp e ra te ly a n g ry a b o u t th e w ay in w h ich th e w o rld is b e in g ru n an d ho w th e c o n se q u e n ce s o f th a t are b e in g p layed d o w n , ig n o red or m a n ip u la ted o u t o f sight. T h e re isn 't really th e ap p e tite for p lay in g up to th e role o f the a n ta g o n istic, v io le n t a n a rch ists o f th e tabloid stereo ty p in g . (O rg a n ise r, R ice for D in n e r, m ale) As w e sh all n o w see, th e se cu ltu ral in g re d ie n ts in te ra c te d w ith th e in s titu tio n a l, p olitical an d co m m u n ica tiv e v ariab les also referred to ab o v e to e n c o u ra g e p a rticu la r fo rm s o f p o lic e -p ro te s te r in te ra c tio n . S u ch in te ra c tio n w as u n d e rp in n e d by a g e n era lly g oo d n a tu re d ra p p o rt b e tw e e n b o th sid es. T h is a sp e ct o f th e S h e ffie ld d e m o n stra tio n s is n o w an aly se d w ith p a rticu la r e m p h a sis on th e tw o m ain n ig h ts of p ro te st activ ity - W e d n e sd a y an d T h u rsd a y , 15 and 16 Ju n e , re sp e ctiv ely .

A c tiv itie s p rio r to and d u rin g th e T u d o r S q u a re d e m o n s tra tio n T h e S a tu rd a y b e fo re th e tw o m ain d e m o n stra tio n s (11 Ju n e ), th e Stop the W ar m arch took p lace in S h effield city c en tre . T h e m arch set off as p la n n e d fro m D e v o n sh ire G re e n (see F ig u re 6.1). In itially , th ere w ere aro u n d 4 0 0 -5 0 0 p a rtic ip a n ts, in c re a sin g to 1,000 as it d ev e lo p e d . T h e S to p th e W ar C o alitio n had a rran g ed for 25 of its o w n m e m b e rs to act as stew ard s. T h o se p re s e n t c o m m e n d e d the p o lice o n th e ir a ttitu d e, alb eit w ith o n e m in o r re se rv a tio n : T h e n o tab le th in g w as the a m o u n t o f v id e o in g by the police. T h a t w as v e ry in v asiv e co m p a re d to m o st m a rch es I'v e b e e n on. T h e y did it in pairs. T h e re w as u su ally a b lo k e w ith a b lu e tab ard a cco m p a n ied b y a n o th e r in a red tab ard w h o se jo b , I 151

Policing

Un

ho Cathedral

Public

Church Street

D is o r d e r

Cutlers Hall/

Theatres

Devonshire Green Key to Locations ©

Staring point of Saturday's marcii. and location of Thursday s Rice for Dinner meal

©

Scene of Thursday's official protest

(6 ) Location of Thursday s sit-down protest (? ) Scene of Wednesday s official protest ( 3 ) Scene of Wednesday's impromptu protest

(7 ) Site of Thursday's confrontation between police and marchers

( 4) Site of Wednesday's flashpoint incident

Figure 6.1

M ap of Sheffield city centre, show ing locations of m ain protests

T h e G8 Justice and H o m e A ffa irs M in is te rs ’ m e e tin g in S heffield, June 2005

su p p o se , w as to lo o k a fte r him . A nd th e y did th at rig h t th e w ay th ro u g h , I w o u ld say e v ery h u n d re d y ard s o f th e m arch . D e sp ite th a t, I saw p e o p le c h a ttin g and sm ilin g w ith th e p o lice. It w as all v e ry g o o d -n a tu re d . (P ro te ste r, m ale) In th e early m o rn in g o f W e d n e sd a y , 15 Ju n e , m e m b e rs o f R h y th m s o f R e sistan ce p e rfo rm e d th eir 'b a n n e r d ro p ' from a b rid ge o v e r­ lo o k in g th e b u sy S h e ffie ld P ark w ay . P olice lo ok ed o n am iab ly as som e p a rticip a n ts lo u d ly b e a t th eir d ru m s w h ile o th e rs d istribu ted le aflets a m o n g slo w -m o v in g ru sh -h o u r traffic. At th e o u tse t o f a C ritical M ass b icy cle p ro te st, stag ed la te r in th e a fte rn o o n , p olice u sed S e ctio n 12 o f th e P u b lic O rd e r A ct 1986 to p re v e n t p ro te sters on foot from jo in in g in th e p ro ce ssio n . O ffice rs e xp lain ed to the in d iv id u als c o n ce rn e d th at this w as to p re v e n t the p o ssib ility of accid e n ts and su b se q u e n tly re le ase d th em w ith o u t ch arg e. O th e r­ w ise, h e re , to o, p o lice k e p t a b e n ig n ey e on th e p ro c e e d in g s w h ile leaflets w e re h a n d e d ro u n d . F e e d b a ck on th e re m a in d e r o f the d a y 's activ ities su g g e sts th at, b y and larg e, the p o lice re m a in e d to le ra n t an d re stra in e d . L eaflets c ircu lated p rio r to W e d n e sd a y n ig h t's d e m o n stra tio n b y D isse n t and th e S to p th e W ar C o alitio n h ad asked p ro te ste rs to a sse m b le en masse at 5.30 p.m . on D e v o n sh ire G re e n . H o w e v e r, the air o f u n ce rta in ty and d is co u ra g e m e n t g e n e ra te d by th e p o lice stip u latio n th a t o n ly 100 p eo p le w ere to b e allo w ed in th e p ro te st co m p o u n d m e a n t th at p eo p le arriv ed in ran d o m fash io n and g rav itated to th e fro n t o f the T o w n H all, ju st o ff from T u d o r S q u are (F igu re 6.1). In clu d ed in this sp o n ta n e o u s g a th e rin g w ere m e m b e rs o f the S h e ffie ld So cialist C h o ir, R h y th m s o f R e sista n ce and C IRC A . O p p o site th e m , a lin e o f p o lice sp read out across S u rre y S treet. B eh in d th em w ere d ogs an d h o rse s; fu rth e r b a c k still w ere riot v ans. T h e 2 0 0 -3 0 0 d e m o n stra to rs o u tsid e th e T o w n H all w ere d o u b le the size o f th e p ro te s t in th e official c o m p o u n d , w h e re an o rg an ised c h a n t w as d ro w n e d ou t b y th e S to ck sb rid g e B rass B an d . T h e p olice w ere co n sid ere d by re s p o n d e n ts to h av e b e e n g e n era lly im p assiv e or 's to n y -fa c e d ' in th e ir d e te rm in a tio n n o t to be g o ad e d b y p ro te ste rs or allow th e m se lv e s to b e fazed b y th e m ild rid icu le d irecte d at them by th e h a lf-d o z e n m e m b e rs o f C IR C A (p ro te ster, fem ale). As p re d icte d b y th e o rg a n ise rs, the e v e n in g 's m ain v io le n ce o ccu rred o u tsid e o f th e p re scrib e d p ro te st areas and in v o lv ed p e o p le fru stra te d at b e in g d en ie d the rig h t to p ro test. T h e first m a jo r in c id e n t o ccu rred w h e n the p o lice arrested tw o m e m b e rs o f a g ro u p o f 1 5 -2 0 a n a rch ists w h o h ad u n su cce ssfu lly tried to p ie rce an o u te r 153

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rin g o f o fficers o n A ru n d e l G ate to th e n o rth o f th e o fficial p ro te st (F igu re 6.1). As o n e o f th em (a 31-y e ar-o ld m an ) e x p la in e d , 'W e n e v e r w e n t th e re to c o n fro n t th e p o lice. It w as sim p ly th a t th e p o lice w ere sto p p in g us from g e ttin g w h e re w e w a n te d to b e !' It w as n o t his arrest, h o w e v e r, b u t th a t o f his 16-y ear-o ld c o lle a g u e th a t trig g ered w id e r d isord er. Eye w itn e sse s o f this e v e n t referred to th e u n n e ce s sa ry 'b ru ta lity ' sh o w n b y o n e o f the fo u r arrestin g o fficers as he an d his co lle ag u e s (all alle g ed ly from G re a te r M a n c h e ste r) ro u g h ly o v e rp o w e re d th eir p riso n er. I saw 'e m g et him . H is m isfo rtu n e w as to g e t c a u g h t by the w ro n g co p p er. H e w as literally tw istin g his arm . It cou ld h av e b e e n a n y o f us really . E v e ry o n e w as say in g , 'G e t y o u r h a n d s o ff him ! H e 's o n ly six teen ! W h a t are yo u d o in g to h im ? W h a t's he d o n e ? ' I th in k p e o p le w e re extra pissed o ff b e ca u se h e 's o n ly a kid an d lo ok s e v ery in c h like a kid! T h e y h ad him p in n e d ag a in st this w all and th a t's w h e n th e c o p p e r p u lled o u t his b a to n . H e ju st went mad, y o u cou ld see it in his eyes. It w as a c o m p le te ab u se o f p o w er. E v en his p o lice c o lle a g u e s h ad to d rag him aw ay . H e hit m e on m y arm and crack ed a few o th e r p e o p le w ith his b a to n ; o n e gu y g o t sm ash e d in his fa ce; a n o th e r got th ro w n d o w n so m e stairs. (A n arch ist, m ale) By this tim e, th e a n a rch ist g ro u p had ju s t b een jo in e d on A ru n d el G ate b y m a n y of the 2 0 0 -3 0 0 d e m o n stra to rs w h o h ad o rig in ally g a th e re d o u tsid e the T o w n H all. T h e la tter w ere re s p o n d in g to a b o g u s ru m o u r th a t p olice had re le n te d an d w ere n o w allo w in g far m ore th a n 100 p e o p le in to th e p ro te st co m p o u n d . T h e se relativ ely n ew arriv als re g ard e d this latest in c id e n t as a m ark ed ch a n g e from th e g ru d g in g to le ra n ce p re v io u sly sh o w n b y th e p olice: It w as o n e o f th o se in c id e n ts like a sp ark w h ich p ro d u ce d a really n o tice a b le ch a n g e o f a tm o sp h e re . I n o ticed th at o n e o f the p o lice m e n w h o w ere arrestin g him h ad him in a hold and he w as actu ally told to le a v e it - h e w as actu a lly p u lled aw a y from th e a rrest by a n o th e r p o licem an . T h e y th e n fo rm ed a p o lice line to stop the p ro te sters from g e ttin g to this b oy. (S tu d e n t u n ion o fficer, m ale) T h e situ atio n e scalated w h e n th e p o lice m an w h o had ju st b een re stra in e d b y co lle ag u e s h it o u t, o n ce a g a in , at a 'slig h tly d ru n k e n 154

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e ld e rly m a n ' w h o had ap p ro a c h e d him to re m o n stra te ab o u t th e a rrest: I saw him take th e b a to n o u t a n d h it him straig h t in th e face w ith no w a rn in g or a n y th in g . It w as bru tal, it really w as. A nd as soo n as h e 'd d o n e th a t, his c o lle a g u e s n ex t to him p resu m ed th e re w as a re aso n for it and pu lled th eir b a to n s out. B u t th e y d id n 't actu ally use th em . T h e y h ad th e m p oised on th eir sh o u ld e rs, w h ich I'v e seen p o lice do b e fo re o n d em o n stra tio n s. T h e n , o f co u rse , it w as p a n d e m o n iu m b e ca u se w e ru sh ed in to h elp th is gu y b a ck to his fe e t an d th e sam e p o lice m a n ju st starte d hitting people. A nd o n c e he starte d th a t, it cre a ted a v icio u s circle w ith p e o p le ru n n in g in an d g e ttin g h it. T h e re w ere p ro te sters k ick in g b a ck at the p o lice at th at p o in t. It w as th e kind o f m ask ed p u n k s w h o w ere d o in g it. B u t w ith in five seco n d s, th e rio t p o lice cam e in. M o re im p o rta n tly , th at ag g re ssiv e c o p p e r had his b a to n ta k e n o ff him b y o n e o f his su p e rio rs w h ile he w as b e in g tak en o u t o f the firing lin e. T h e p o lice th e n p u t th eir lin es acro ss A ru n d el G ate a n d u sed th em to stop an y p ro te ste rs from g o in g fu rth e r fo rw ard . O n c e th e y re tre a te d b ack , th in g s coo led d o w n a lot. (S tu d e n t u n io n o fficer, m ale) A s ta n d -o ff b riefly e n su e d , a fte r w h ich the d e m o n stra to rs b a ck ­ track ed to w ard s the T o w n H all. T h e a ttitu d es o f so m e p ro te sters re m a in e d tetch y . H o w e v e r, th ere w as o n ly o n e fu rth e r in c id e n t o f n o te , w h e n a lo cal a ctiv ist o f som e n o to rie ty sp at at p olice o fficers from w h a t he w ro n g ly p re su m e d to b e th e secu rity of the cro w d . It w as the o n ly sp ittin g in c id e n t b u t it w as p articu larly d isg u stin g . I'v e n o t g o t m u ch tim e for this gu y an y w ay . E v ery tim e I go on a d e m o n stra tio n he see m s to be the gu y th a t gets stu ck in or ca u ses tro u b le . H e 's an a n a rch ist gu y. I saw a p olice s e rg e a n t, or w h a te v e r, p o in t him o u t to a n o th e r p o lic e m a n and th e y d o cu m e n te d it and to o k a p h o to . I re m e m b e r see in g him le a v in g a b o u t 8 or 9 o 'c lo c k w ith a cou p le o f frie n d s an d , from w h a t I'v e read , he w as arrested o n th e w ay h o m e. T h e y g o t him on his o w n ra th e r th a n a rre stin g him at th e tim e, w h ich w as p ro b a b ly the m o st sen sib le th in g to do. (P ro teste r, m ale)

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T h e C u tle rs ’ H a ll p ro te s t and a fte rw a rd s T h o se p e o p le in te n d in g to g a th e r in th e a ccre d ite d p ro te st c o m ­ p o u n d , o p p o site th e C u tle rs' H all on th e S h e ffie ld C a th ed ra l fo re co u rt (F igu re 6.1), fo u n d th a t th e m a jo rity o f o b v io u s access ro ad s w ere c o rd o n e d o ff b y p o lice. S e cu rity m e a su res d ictated th a t th e m ain p e d estria n th o ro u g h fa re , F arg ate , w as b arred from p u blic use. In d iv id u als k n o w le d g e a b le or fo rtu n a te e n o u g h to lo cate th e official e n try p o in t to th e re a r o f th e C a th e d ra l w ere a llo w ed in o n a first-co m e -first-se rv e d basis u n til th e p o lice -im p o se d lim it o f 100 p e o p le had b e e n re a ch e d . In th e c o m p o u n d , an eq u al n u m b e r of p o lice o fficers aw aited th e p ro te ste rs, fo rm in g tw o co rd o n s b e tw e e n them and the C u tle rs' H all. B ack o u tsid e the c o m p o u n d , 6 0 -7 0 d isg ru n tled late arriv als tried th e ir h a rd e st to d raw th o se o fficers m o n ito rin g th e e xclu sio n zo n e in to an a rg u m e n t a b o u t the w ay th e y felt the p o lice w ere d elib e ra te ly u n d e rm in in g th e p ro te st's e ffe ctiv e n e ss. T h e o fficers g o o d -n a tu re d ly fe n d e d o ff this criticism an d , e v e n tu a lly , th e se p ro te ste rs m o v ed o ff to th e R ice fo r D in n e r e v e n t at D e v o n sh ire G re en . T h e p re v ailin g m o o d at th e g re en w as c a rn iv a le sq u e . T h e 500 or so p e o p le p re s e n t lazed aro u n d o n grass v e rg e s, e a tin g th e ir rice m eals and liste n in g to s p e e c h e s an d m u sic, th e la tte r p ro v id ed b y th e S h e ffie ld So cialist C h o ir and R h y th m s o f R e sista n ce . A h a n d fu l o f local y o u th s p e r­ fo rm ed s k a te b o a rd in g stu n ts for th e e n te rta in m e n t o f o n lo o k e rs. For m u ch o f th e e v e n t's d u ra tio n , p olice o fficers m a in ta in e d a lo w -k ey p re se n c e . A sm all n u m b e r o f p o lice v an s w e re p ark e d up d iscre ete ly on th e p e rip h e ry , and pairs of p o lice o fficers m a in ta in e d a casu al in d iffe re n c e to th e p ro c e e d in g s. H o w e v e r, ju s t b e fo re d u sk, a g rou p o f 2 0 -3 0 y o u n g a n a rch ists m o v e d fro m w h e re th e y w ere sittin g an d fo rm ed a circle in th e m id d le o f th e road . A gas sto v e w as h astily asse m b le d an d th e y started to co o k a m eal. P olice n u m b e rs in cre a se d su b stan tially at this p o in t. O ffice rs b eg an d iv e rtin g traffic a n d , a lth o u g h th e y m a d e no a tte m p t to d isp erse th e g ro u p , th e ir v id eo su rv e illa n ce team co m m e n c e d reco rd in g . O n lo o k e rs th e n started to jo in th e a n a rch ists in th e road , e n c o u n te rin g n o o p p o sitio n b y fro m th e p o lice. A few m in u te s later, th e sit-d o w n p ro te ste rs rose b a c k to th e ir fe e t an d set off, m a rch in g as a grou p : T h e reaso n w e started m a rch in g an d e v e n w e n t in to th e road is b e ca u se w e w e re sat on D e v o n sh ire G re en an d th e re w as like a c h o ir an d this g u y g o in g on in his sp e e c h a b o u t ho w B ob G e ld o f 156

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h ad in sp ired h im , an d w e w ere scra tc h in g o u r h e a d s. I m e a n , th e y w ere sh o u tin g all th e se m e ssag e s to , lik e, a b u n ch o f skaters an d p e o p le w h o had a lre ad y m ad e th e ir m in d s up. So w h a t w as th e p o in t? Y o u 'v e g o t to tell th e av e rag e p e rso n w h o d o e s n 't h a v e a clu e w h a t the G 8 is all ab o u t. T h a t's w h e n w e w e n t in to th e ro ad a n d o n u p W e st S tre e t. (A n arch ist, m ale) T h e g ro u p o f m a rch ers n u m b e re d b e tw e e n 150 an d 200. A lth ou g h th e y in itially see m e d d estin e d for th e C u tle rs' H all, th e y su d d e n ly tried to give a c co m p a n y in g o fficers th e slip by tu rn in g o ff rig h t d o w n W estfie ld T e rra c e , a s id e -stre e t lin k in g W e st S tre e t to D iv isio n S tre e t (F igu re 6.1). A p o lice c o rd o n w as alre ad y ly in g in w ait. P olice officers c h arg ed th e p ro te sters from th e fro n t and rear o f the m arch and tightly h e m m e d th em in. A m o n g th o se n o w held cap tiv e w ere a h a n d fu l o f p ress and rad io jo u rn a lis ts, an d sev eral u n w ittin g b y ­ s ta n d e rs, in c lu d in g tw o lo cal u n iv e rsity le ctu re rs - a m ale E n g lish tu to r an d a fem ale H isto ry p ro fe sso r - w h o w ere b o th tre ate d ro u g h ly b y th e p o lice: W e g ot p u sh e d quite b ru tally . N o c o n sid e ra tio n for w h o you w e re or w h a t y o u w e re d o in g . W e w e re ju s t sta n d in g th e re . I m e a n , I w as a m id d le -a g e d lad y p ro fe sso r in a suit. They w ere big, h e av y , b u rly , like ru g b y p la y e rs, and th ey ju st p u sh e d us o v er th is low w all so th a t w e w ere flat o u t in th e se flo w er b ed s. T h e m o st te rrify in g th in g , th o u g h , w as th at, h a v in g d o n e this, th e y w o u ld n 't let us go p ast th e m . I d o n 't u su ally pu ll ran k b u t I said , 'N o w , lo o k h e re , I'm a p ro fe sso r o f h isto ry ,' to th e little b astard s. 'P le a s e let m e o u t!' I said , 'T h is is ab so lu te ly lu d icrou s! H av e you see n th e typ e o f p e o p le y o u 're im p riso n in g in h e re ? I m e a n , m o st o f th em are school pupils. A nd h av e you th o u g h t a b o u t w h o y o u 're p ro te c tin g ? A c o rru p t b u n c h o f w o rth le ss p o seu rs w h o are b u sy m u n c h in g on som e fre e b ie !' A fter ab o u t tw o m in u te s, th e y step p e d asid e to let [m y co lleag u e] an d I out. A nd as I w alk ed p ast th ese tw o C h in e s e p e o p le , I said , 'W h a t do you th in k a b o u t o u r d em o cra cy ? I'v e ju st b e e n b e a te n to th e floo r by our p o lice !' It re ally is so v io la tin g w h e n p e o p le ju s t treat you w ith su ch c o n te m p t. (P ro fesso r of H isto ry , fem ale) T h is a sso rtm e n t o f b o n a fid e p ro te sters, jo u rn a lis ts an d th o se u n fo rtu n a te to h av e b e e n in th e w ro n g p lace at th e w ro n g tim e w as d eta in e d fo r w ell o v er tw o h o u rs. T h e ir p re v a ilin g m oo d w as b u o y a n tly d e fia n t, as e m p h a sised b y th e c o n sta n t rh y th m s o f the 157

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d ru m s. H o w e v e r, p o lice sn a tch -sq u a d s to re in, w ith o u t w a rn in g , on sev eral o ccasio n s to re m o v e a to tal o f sev e n p riso n e rs (fo u r m en and th re e w o m e n ) from th e cro w d . In d e p e n d e n t o b se rv e rs, in c lu d in g an o n -th e -s p o t B B C R ad io S h e ffie ld re p o rte r, m a in ta in e d in in te rv ie w th a t n o n e o f th o se c o n ce rn e d w as d o in g a n y th in g su fficie n tly crim in al to w a rra n t b e in g a rreste d . T h e p o lice B ro n z e c o m m a n d e r in sisted th a t o fficers had acted on th e basis o f S p ecial B ran ch in te llig e n c e in re m o v in g the arreste e s, all o f w h o m w e re k n o w n a n a rch ist rin g le a d e rs. A n a rch ist re s p o n d e n ts c o u n te r-a rg u e d th at e ach a rrest had b e e n ra n d o m ly e x e c u te d : 'T h e y w ere ju s t clu tch in g at straw s, arrestin g a n y o n e th e y cou ld . N o b o d y did a n y th in g v io len t. W e w ere literally ju s t sh o u tin g , "W h o se streets? O u r s tre e ts !", " G e t a real jo b !" and "G o b a c k to M a n c h e ste r!" T h e age ran g e w as a b o u t 15 to 40. It w as a rig h t good a tm o s p h e re . E v e ry b o d y w as d a n cin g , la u g h in g an d c h e e rin g - e x ce p t th e fu ck in g p o lic e !' (A n arch ist, m ale). A cco rd in g to a se n io r m e m b e r o f R h y th m s o f R e sista n ce , the c o n cilia to ry a p p ro a ch a d o p ted b y S o u th Y o rk sh ire P olice w as cru cial to e n s u rin g an o rd e rly te rm in a tio n o f th e e v e n in g 's e v e n ts: A c o p p e r, a S o u th Y o rk sh ire in sp e cto r, cam e o v e r and ap o lo g ised an d said the h e a v y -h a n d e d n e s s had b e e n u n ­ n e c e ss a ry and ask ed us if w e w o u ld be w illin g to lead th e crow d b a ck to D e v o n sh ire G re en . W e told p e o p le b e h in d us th a t th at w as h a p p e n in g an d th e y ju s t c h e e re d an d tagg ed a lo n g b e h in d us. H ad th e y d o n e th at in the first p lace . . . You see, m o st p e o p le in th e p e n w ere ju s t p issed o ff from b e in g in th e re . T h e reaso n w e d ecid ed to c o -o p e ra te w as th a t it w as to tally o u t of c h a ra c te r b e ca u se m y sen se o f th e w h o le w e e k w as th a t th e y 'd d ecid ed n o t to h arass us, so lo n g as w e d id n 't b re a k th ro u g h th e ir lin es. Police o fficers su b se q u e n tly ad o p ted an u n e q u iv o ca lly c o ­ o p e ra tiv e m a n n e r d u rin g a F rid a y -m o rn in g d e m o n s tra tio n o u tsid e th e M arrio tt H o tel. H e re , a few m e m b e rs o f C IR C A and R h y th m s of R e sista n c e u n e x p e c te d ly a sse m b le d on a sm all ro u n d a b o u t o p p o site th e h o te l's e n tra n ce gates. F o llo w in g a b rie f b u rst o f d ru m m in g , p ro te sters c h e e k ily ap p ro a c h e d th e p o lice lin e (C IR C A m e m b e rs 'h id in g ' b e h in d th e ir fe a th e r d u sters), w h e re th e y w ere re ce iv e d w ith sm iles and w e lco m in g co n v ersa tio n . P ro te ste rs w ere su rp rised by th e e x te n t to w h ich th e y w e re p e rm itte d to stop p e o p le and talk to th em - in c lu d in g d ele g a te s an d th e ir sta ff - as th e y w ere e n te rin g th e h o tel. As traffic started to bu ild u p , th e p ro te sters w ere p o lite ly asked 158

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to re tu rn to th e ro u n d a b o u t, a re q u e st w h ic h th e y o b e y e d , c o n te n t in th e k n o w le d g e th a t th e y had b e e n allo w ed to m ak e th e ir p o in t. L a te r th a t m o rn in g , som e o f th e se p ro te sters jo in e d co lle ag u e s o u tsid e th e S o u th Y o rk sh ire P olice h e a d q u a rte rs to d e m o n stra te th eir solid arity w ith p e o p le arreste d in th e cou rse o f th e w e e k 's p ro te st. A h a n d fu l o f p a rticip a n ts d o n n e d 'G u a n ta n a m o B ay ' b o ile r suits and tap ed o v er th eir m o u th s in p ro te st at th e re strictio n s th at had b een im p o sed o n th e ir 'rig h ts' to d e m o n stra te . T h e se activ ities w ere v id e o ­ tap ed b y p o lice. O th e rw is e , as o n e in d iv id u al e x p la in e d , 'It w as all q u ite b e n ig n . O n e o f th e o fficers I w as c h a ttin g to w as p e rfe ctly p le a sa n t. In so fa r as w e told th em w h a t w e w ere th e re to d o, an d kep t to th a t o b je ctiv e , th e y w ere v ery , v ery to le ra n t' (p ro te ster, m ale).

T h e policing o f th e Sco ttish G8 T h e re are o b v io u s sim ilarities b e tw e e n th e p o lice m e a su res ad o p ted in S h e ffie ld and th e tactics used b y S co ttish p o lice in corrallin g in d e m o n stra to rs e m b a rk e d on th e tw o u n sc h e d u le d m arch es in E d in b u rg h city c e n tre . P olice tactics in E d in b u rg h u n d o u b te d ly re fle cte d a p e rce iv e d n e e d to 'ta k e o u t in s u ra n ce ' in circu m sta n ce s w h e re th e in te n tio n s o f p ro te sters w ere e ith e r d e lib e ra te ly w ith h e ld (as in the C arn iv al for Full E m p lo y m e n t) or too w e ak ly fo rm u lated fo r e v en its p a rticip a n ts to be sure o f (as in th e im p ro m p tu p ro te st d o w n P rin cess S tre e t fo llo w in g the c a n ce lla tio n o f c o a c h e s to A u ch te ra rd e r). As th e C h ie f C o n sta b le o f S o u th Y o rk sh ire e xp lain ed in in te rv ie w , sim ilarities b e tw e e n th e se tactics an d th o se e m p lo y e d to th w a rt th e s p o n ta n e o u s m arch by a n a rch ists in S h e ffie ld city c en tre w as n o t d u e to p rio r strateg ic p la n n in g . R a th e r, It co m es in b e ca u se w e n o w h a v e a n a tio n a l p u blic o rd e r tactics m an u al. W h e re v e r you are tra in e d , you are train ed to the sam e tactics an d sta n d a rd s; y o u r e q u ip m e n t sh o u ld lo ok th e sam e and so on . . . I t ' s a tra in in g fu n ctio n o f th e last 20 y ears in w h ich w e 'v e tried to s ta n d a rd ise train in g . T h e g re a te st e m p h a sis, th e g re a te st re a so n , is n o th in g so p h istica te d . I t ' s actu ally th a t, o n ce you e stab lish a set tra in in g lev el, if you d o n 't train to th at sta n d a rd an d s o m e o n e g e ts in ju re d , y o u 'll get a claim ag ain st y o u ! T h e re are m o re re a so n s th an ju s t o p e ra tio n a l e fficien cy for tra in in g in a p a rticu la r w ay. (C h ie f C o n stab le o f S o u th Y o rk sh ire , m ale)

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O n e d ecid e d ly m o re u n u su a l fe a tu re o f th e S co ttish o p e ra tio n w as th e o b v io u s d e te rm in a tio n sh o w n b y se n io r o fficers from th e L o th ian and B o rd e rs co n sta b u la ry n o t to allow th eir strate g y for th e M ake P o v e rty H isto ry m a rch to b e sw ay e d b y o u tla n d ish m ed ia fo re ca sts of A a n a rch ist-in sp ire d m a y h e m . G o rrin g e an d R o sie 's (2006) in te rv ie w s w ith h ig h -ra n k in g fo rce p e rso n n e l sh o w ho w th e p o lice b e ca m e ex a sp e ra te d by m ed ia fo recasts o f tro u b le on the m arch . As in S h e ffie ld , se n io r o fficers re co g n ised th at it w as p art o f th eir re sp o n sib ility to h elp to sh o w ca se th eir city in as fav o u rab le a lig h t as p ossible to an o n lo o k in g w orld a u d ie n ce . T h e y also k n ew th at it w as d o w n to th em to set an a p p ro p ria te to n e fo r th e p o licin g o f th e e n tire su m m it. T h e se w ere key facto rs in h e lp in g to e n su re the o rd erly n atu re o f th e m arch . In the a b sen ce of in te rv ie w m aterial w ith sen io r o fficers, it is o n ly p o ssib le to s p e cu la te on th e th in k in g b e h in d th e p olice tactics for d ea lin g w ith th e b re a k a w a y G le n e a g le s m arch ers w h o tried to p e n e tra te th e so -called rin g o f steel. It is p o ssib le , o f co u rse , th at th e su d d e n arriv al o f m o u n te d p o lice, sh o rt-sh ie ld u n its an d m o bile re in fo rc e m e n ts in C h in o o k h e lic o p te rs re p re se n te d a h astily im p ro v ised m e a su re to c o m p e n s a te for a lack o f p o lice p re p a ra tio n . G iv en th e p in p o in t n a tu re o f the re m a in in g p olice tactics, it seem s in c o n ce iv a b le th at this w as e v er th e case. An altern a tiv e p o ssib ility is th at, as w ith th e sieg e o f th e M cD o n a ld 's re sta u ra n t d u rin g th e M ay D ay p ro te st o f 2000, T ay sid e p o lice d elib e ra te ly p re se n te d th e p ro te sters w ith an a p p a re n tly v u ln e ra b le focal p o in t aro u n d w hich re su ltin g v io le n c e cou ld b e easily co n ta in e d . C o n trib u tio n s b y p a rticip a n ts in th e m arch to th e UK Indymedia w eb site re fle cte d a w id e sp re ad fe e lin g th a t th e p olice h ad , in d e e d , u sed a p o licy of e n tra p m e n t, d esig n e d to lu re p ro te ste rs aw ay from local h o u sin g an d in to a an o p e n field w h e re th e y cou ld be m ore e ffe ctiv e ly c o n tro lle d (U K Indymedia 2005). E arly e v e n in g n e w s re p o rts also talked o f th e su rp risin g ease w ith w h ich d em o n stra to rs m ad e th e ir w ay acro ss the field to th e p e rim e te r fe n ce : W ith o u t a sin gle p o lice o ffice r to stop th e m , h u n d re d s of p ro te ste rs stro d e o ff th e m arch ro u te, across a c o rn field , and rig h t up to th e p e rim e te r fe n ce o f G le n e a g le s. T h e m ajo rity sto o d , b e w ild e re d th e y 'd m ad e it this far. (M artin G e isle r, ITN early evening news) P olice are d o in g re m a rk a b ly little to try and stop th e p ro te sters w h o 'v e b ro k e n in to this field to try and g e t clo se r to G le n e a g le s 160

The G8 Justice and H o m e A ffairs M in iste rs’ m eetin g in Sheffield, June 2005

H otel, secu re in the k n ow led ge th ey probably c a n 't do m u ch d am age to an y th in g o th er than the crops here. (Sarah Sm ith, Channel Four early evening news) O th e r rep o rters em p h asised th at the police action was a ju stifiable counter response to h av in g b e e n ov erru n by protesters: T his is exactly w h at the police feared - that th ey w o u ld n 't be able to hold the line. T h e y 'v e had to break o ut of G len eag les, not ju st w ith d ogs, but w ith b aton s and w ith horses. (G avin H ew itt, BBC late evening news) W e hav e no gu aran teed w ay of kn ow in g for sure w h e th e r police tactics at G len eag les w ere p art of a p re-d eterm in ed strategy. N ev er­ theless, it is surely n o t b ein g too fancifu l to su ggest th at, as in the M ay Day pro test of 2000, w hen the M etrop olitan Police appeared d eliberately to expose a fast-food restau ran t to possible crow d v and alism , here too w as a case of the police settin g o ut to 'w in by ap p earin g to lose'.

Conclusions The p olicing of the Sheffield G8 len d s cred en ce to the claim s of P. A. J. W ad d in g ton (1998) that sen io r com m an d ers are g en u in ely com m itted to p ro tectin g, an d , ev en , facilitating, p ro test activities of a law -abid in g natu re. T h e strategy and tactics em p lo yed by South Y orkshire Police in this in stan ce w ere tightly u n d e rp in n e d by a p erm issive force p h ilosop h y reflectin g an en d u rin g d esire to recap tu re pu blic con fid en ce and re-establish their legitim acy after the setbacks of H illsborou gh and the m in ers' strike. T h e un d o u b ted p referen ce am o n g sen io r officers to sanction a slightly less regulated exp ression of local d issen t w as stym ied by cou n terv ailin g political and p ragm atic con sid erations. T h e prim ary political im p erativ e w as that of e n su rin g the safety of v isitin g d ignitaries. In this resp ect, the situ ation w as essen tially no d ifferen t to scores of prev iou s sim ilar situ ations obligin g the police to 'd ie in a d itch' (Ericson and D oyle 1999; K ing and W ad d in g ton 2005). A dding to this o bligation, here, was the p o lice's civic resp o n si­ bility to en su re that S h effield 's rep u tatio n and com m ercial p o ten tial w ere n o t u n d erm in ed by collectiv e vio lence. In an ticip atin g the ap p earan ce of transgressiv e grou p s, in clu d in g local anarchists and 161

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F ig u re 6 .2 In te r p r e tin g S o u th Y o rk sh ire P o lic e 's h a n d lin g o f th e G 8 Ju stice a n d H o m e A ffairs m in is te ria l m e e tin g in S h e ffie ld

162

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C IRCA , the police invoked the Public O rd er Act 1986 as a m ean s of restrictin g the less co-op erativ e d em o n strato rs' activities and san ctio n in g the possible use of tech n iq u es of strategic incap acitation . The cu stom ary co-op eration b e tw e e n police liaison officers and p ro test o rg anisers was corresp on d in g ly circu m scribed. It is en tirely con ceiv ab le th at the police ced ed g reater latitu d e to the pro testers due to the prim acy of a 'civil libertarian ' d iscourse (della Porta and R eiter 1998). A broad sp ectru m of local d em ocratic au d ien ces (Jefferson and G rim sh aw 1984) affiliated to the Stop the W ar C oalition w as able to lobby and g en erate m edia publicity in such a w ay as to legitim ise the p rotest as a gen u in e h u m an itarian gestu re, in k eep in g w ith the lo n g stan d in g 'trad itio n s of the city '. The local d im en sion to the p ro test w as given p ro m in en ce in the briefin gs of all ranks carried o ut by the C h ie f C on stable and his B ronze com m an d er. D u e em p h asis w as placed on th e n eg ativ e co n seq u en ces for lo n g ­ term p o lice -co m m u n ity relatio n s of any con flict that m igh t occur. The p olice's p erceiv ed co m m itm en t to facilitating law ful protest w as rew ard ed w h en m em bers of the sam ba band resp on d ed p ositiv ely to a requ est for their co -o p eratio n in h elp in g officers to escort those p rotesters bein g d etain ed on W estfield T errace back on to D ev o n sh ire G reen . C o n fro n tatio n w as th erefo re lim ited to tw o in stan ces of no te: first, w hen p olice officers activated a co n tin g en cy p lan , inv olv ing the corralling-in of p rotesters and use o f snatch -squ ad s, to stifle tran s­ gressive b eh av iou r; and seco n d ly , w hen v isitin g G reater M an ch ester officers resp on d ed ov er-zealo u sly w h en a h an d fu l of local anarchists attem p ted to b reach their lines. T h ree factors m ay each hav e had som e relevan ce h ere: (i) neg ativ e p olice stereo ty p in g of the anarchists m ay w ell hav e p rod u ced a m isread in g of their a tte n tio n s and resulted in tactical overkill; (ii) it seem s that the anarchists w ere reactin g to fru stration and in d ig n ation arising from p ercep tion s that the police w ere d eliberately 'n eu tralisin g ' the p ro test's effectiv en ess (M itchell and S taeh eli 2005); and (iii) the police officers involved w ere drafted in from o utsid e forces and m ay, th erefo re, have lacked co m m itm en t to m ain tain in g positive long-term relation s w ith the Sheffield public. O th e r form s of police b eh av iou r suggest an ov errid in g com m itm en t to SY P 's p rev ailin g force strategy. In both in stan ces of d isord er, police officers m ad e pacificatory gestu res to em p h asise that certain aspects of th eir co n d u ct w ere con sid ered reg rettable. E lsew h ere in the p roceed in g s the police also d elayed m akin g arrests in o rd er to avoid creatin g flashp oints for the w ider o ccu rren ce of violence. A d iagram m atic in terp retatio n of the natu re 163

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an d c o n se q u e n ce s o f S Y P 's p o licy fo r th e p o lic in g o f th e e v en t is giv en in Fig u re 6.2. O n e m o n th later, in and aro u n d E d in b u rg h , o fficers from th e L o th ia n an d B o rd e rs an d T ay sid e co n sta b u la rie s u sed a sim ilar ran g e o f in c a p a cita tio n te ch n iq u e s to c o n ta in u n sc h e d u le d activ ities by g ro u p s o f tra n sg re ssiv e an d /o r d isa ffe cte d p ro te sters. T h e se tactics w ere tak en to e x tre m e at G le n e a g le s w h e re the p o lice a p p a ren tly re so rte d to a p lo y re m in is ce n t o f th at used b y th e M e tro p o lita n P olice d u rin g th e 2000 M ay D ay m arch in L o n d o n . T h is in v o lv e d 'e n c o u r a g ­ in g ' m isb eh a v io u r b y g ro u p s o f p ro te ste rs in o rd e r to ju stify ag g re ssiv e p o lice in te rv e n tio n . B y an d larg e, h o w e v e r, S co ttish p o lice w e re co m m itte d to a lo w -k e y , to le ra n t modus operandi, see m in g ly in te n t on a v o id in g a n y form of c o n fro n ta tio n w h ich m ig h t p o rtray e ith e r th e m se lv e s or th e ir cap ital city in a n e g a tiv e lig h t. T h e p e a cefu l o u tco m e o f th e M ak e P o v e rty H isto ry m a rch , in p articu lar, is related to an u n u su al e x am p le o f the p o lice 's re so lu tio n not to allow th e m ­ selv es to be sw ay ed by m ed ia p ro g n o se s o f m a y h e m an d v io le n ce .

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C h a p te r 7

English football fans abroad,

1990-2006

In tro d u c tio n At the 2006 football W orld Cup to u rn a m e n t in G erm an y , a total of 711 travelling E nglish football su p p o rters w ere arrested , 510 of them d u ring a con fro n tatio n w ith rival G erm an follow ers in d o w n to w n S tu ttgart on 24 Ju n e. T h e in cid en t occurred as su p p o rters o f the host nation w ere d isp ersin g from a city -cen tre square, h av ing seen their team d efeat S w ed en , 2 -0 , on a specially erected giant television screen. E nglish fans had alread y g ath ered n earb y in read in ess for their team 's m atch against E cu ad or the follow ing day. T rou ble broke o ut w hen a group of G erm an s assem bled o utsid e a bar con tain in g E nglish su p p orters. C hairs and bo ttles w ere thro w n by rival fans before riot police m oved in to sep arate them (BBC N ew s 2006; Ingle 2006). D u rin g the 1990s and the early years o f the new m illen niu m , su p p orters of the E nglish n atio n al team had gained w orld w id e n o to riety for their hooligan beh av iou r. W ell-pu blicised clashes had o ccurred b etw een E ngland fans and the police and /or rival su p p orters d u ring the prelim in ary or final stages o f m ajor in te r­ nation al kn o ck ou t com p etitio n s betw een 1990 and 2004, in Italy (tw ice), S w ed en , H o llan d , F ran ce, B elgiu m and Portugal (D u n n in g et al. 2002; P en n a n t and N icholls 2006; P errym an 2002). A dd itionally, a 'frien d ly ' in tern atio n al b e tw e e n the R epu blic o f Irelan d and E ngland at D u b lin 's L an d sd ow n e Road in February 1995 had b een aban d on ed after 22 m in u tes w h en aw ay fans 'rio te d ' shortly after the Irish had taken a 1 -0 lead (L acey and B ow co tt 1995). At first sight, the in cid en t in S tu ttgart m ay w ell hav e looked like 'y e t a n o th er in stan ce' of the large-scale d isord ers inv olv ing 165

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fo llo w ers o f th e n a tio n a l team . Y e t this w as far fro m th e actu al tru th . W h a t m ad e th e S tu ttg a rt in c id e n t d iffe re n t from th o se o f th e p re v io u s d eca d e w as th at m o st o f th o se arreste d w ere d eta in e d as a precautionary m e a su re , w ith th e in te n tio n o f p re v e n tiiig w id e r d is­ o rd e r, and re le ase d w ith o u t ch arg e on th e fo llo w in g m o rn in g . M o re o v e r, e v en ts in S tu ttg a rt w ere g rossly u n ty p ica l o f th e o th e r­ w ise h a rm o n io u s and m u tu ally to le ra n t re la tio n sh ip e x istin g b e tw e e n E n g lish fan s an d th e G e rm a n p o lice (B BC N ew s 2006). Th is v iew w as e n d o rse d in the w ak e o f th e co m p e titio n b y th e E n glish F o o tb all A sso cia tio n 's C h ie f E x e cu tiv e , B rian B arw ick , w h o w h o le h e a rte d ly co m m e n d e d the b e h a v io u r o f th e e stim a te d 315,000 o f his c o m p a trio ts w h o had m ad e the trip to G e rm a n y (R u m sb y 2006). M r B arw ick re fle cte d th at this w as th e third in te rn a tio n a l to u rn a m e n t in a row (fo llo w in g th e 2002 W orld C u p in Ja p a n and K o re a , an d E u ro 2004 in P ortu g al) w h e re E n g la n d fan s had e arn e d such p la u d its - a m ark ed im p ro v e m e n t in b e h a v io u r w h ich he a ttrib u te d to th e im p le m e n ta tio n o f b a n n in g o rd e rs p re v e n tin g k n o w n h o o lig a n s from a tte n d in g su ch c o m p e titio n s (ibid.). Th is c h a p te r o u tlin e s th e m a rk e d ly c o n tra stin g a rg u m e n t - th at v ariatio n s in th e b e h a v io u r o f tra v e llin g E n g lan d fan s are m ore e ffe ctiv ely e x p lain ed in term s o f th e c h a n g in g co n te x ts an d d y n am ics o f th e re le v a n t p o licin g a rra n g e m e n ts. T h e c h a p te r b e g in s b y h ig h ­ lig h tin g th e p o ssib le u tility o f e x p la n a tio n s o f fo o tb all h o o lig an ism per se (as o p p o se d to p o lice -re la te d ap p ro a c h e s). P a rticu la r a tte n tio n is giv en to p e rtin e n t a n th ro p o lo g ica l and stru ctu ral/d isp o sitio n al a p p ro a ch e s. S u b s e q u e n t sectio n s th e n fo cu s, in tu rn , o n case stu d ies o f c o n fro n ta tio n s b e tw e e n E n g lan d fan s and th e p o lice d u rin g the Italian W orld C u p o f 1990, an d th e E u ro p e a n F o o tb all C h a m p io n ­ sh ip s o f 2000 an d 2004, to e m p h a sise the im p o rta n ce o f su ch k ey v a ria b le s as p o lice cu ltu re an d k n o w le d g e , th e role o f m ed ia and p o litical d isco u rse, and th e q u ality o f p o lic e -fa n in te ra c tio n in th e g e n esis o f d iso rd er. T h e final sectio n co n stitu te s a slig h t d ep a rtu re from o u r m ain fo cu s on th e p o licin g o f m a tc h e s b e tw e e n co m p e tin g fo o tb a llin g n atio n s. H e re , c o n ce n tra tio n is shifted on to a E u ro p e an club cu p tie b e tw e e n th e T u rk ish G a latasaray and E n g la n d 's M a n c h e ste r U n ited . T h e p u rp o se o f this d iscu ssio n is to fu rth e r u n d e rlin e th e im p o rta n ce o f th e in te rp la y b e tw e e n k ey co n te x tu a l and in te ra c tio n a l variables.

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R elevant th eo ries of fo otb all hooliganism W e begin our analysis of this area by co n sid erin g tw o con trastin g types of exp lan atio n of football hoolig anism that are each capable of im p rov ing our u n d e rstan d in g of con fro n tatio n s betw een the police and E nglish fans abroad . T h ese m ay be co n v en ien tly referred to as the anthropological and structural/dispositional ap p roaches.

A n th r o p o lo g i c a l ap pro a ches

The m ain an th rop o log ical p ersp ectiv e, M arsh et a l 's 'e th o g en ic' ap p roach , is pred icated on the idea th at d iso rd er is ru le-g ov ern ed and ritualised . Based on d irect observatio n o f crow d b eh av io u r at O xford U n ited 's ground in the m id -1970s, th ese au th o rs con ten d that m u ch of the aggressive b eh av io u r th at occurs is largely sym bolic a rep erto ire of ob scen e ch an ts and th re ate n in g or d en ig rato ry lan gu age or n o n -v erb al beh av iou r. R egu lar football h oolig ans tend to abide by a set of 'u n w ritte n rules' d eterm in in g w hen it is legitim ate to con fro n t an in d ividu al or group and w hen it is ap p rop riate to desist. Ironically, it is in those situ ations in w h ich activities of m ajor p ro tag o nists (inclu d ing the police) go beyon d the norm s of accep tab ility that violence is m ost p rev alent. T h ese gen eral con clu sio n s are su p p o rted by A rm stro ng 's tw oyear p articip an t observatio n stud y of a core group of 4 0 -5 0 'a rd e n t' Sheffield U nited hooligan su p p o rters, the 'B lad es B usin ess C rew ' (BBC ) (A rm strong 1998; A rm strong and H arris 1991). Like M arsh, A rm strong and H arris con ten d th at the violence associated w ith football m atch es is con sid erably exag g erated , both by jo u rn alists and academ ics: T h e w orst that can be said w as that m ost of these fans w ere w illing on occasions to get into relativ ely m inor physical conflict w ith rivals . . . U n fo rtu n ately , once started , m inor p hysical co n flict could escalate. For the m ost part, h o w ev er, it w as only relatively harm less con flict in w hich ind ividu als en g ag ed , and th at only occasionally. (A rm strong and H arris 1991: 455) O f particu lar relev an ce to the p resen t study is M arsh et al.'s observation th at police in terv en tio n at football gro u n d s is usually to lerated - and som etim es ev en w elco m ed - by hooligan su p p orters, since their p resen ce can often p rev en t a con fro n tatio n from going too far (op. cit.: 60 and 104). 'R eal v io len ce' (as op p osed to the m ore 167

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sy m b o lic an d re lativ e ly h arm less 'a g g ro ') is o n ly lik ely to o ccu r on th e rare o ccasio n s w h e n rival fan s or p olice o fficers d elib e ra te ly or u n w ittin g ly tra n sg re ss th e ru les o f d iso rd er. As p art of th e ir re se a rch , M arsh an d his co lle ag u e s sh o w e d a g ro u p o f O x fo rd fan s a v id e o ­ re c o rd in g o f an e n c o u n te r b e tw e e n p o lice and th e 'a w a y ' su p p o rte rs o f P ly m o u th A rgy le d u rin g th e h a lf-tim e b re a k in th e ir m a tch ag ain st C rystal P alace. W h a t b e g a n as a m isch ie v o u s d ecisio n b y tw o A rgyle fan s to ru n on to the p itch and start k ick in g a ball aro u n d in fro n t o f P alace fo llo w ers soon d ev e lo p e d in to a c o n fro n ta tio n b e tw e e n aw ay su p p o rte rs and th e p o lice. T h e first A rgyle fan w as stop p e d in his tracks w h e n a p o lice o ffice r p e rfo rm e d a fly in g ru g b y tackle. T h e seco n d p ro v ed m o re elu siv e an d su cce e d ed in m a k in g it b a ck into th e c h e e rin g ran k s o f aw ay fan s g a th e re d on the te rra ce . D e te rm in e d n o t to b e o u td o n e , a g ro u p o f ro u g h ly 20 p o lice o fficers su rg ed on to th e terrace in a bid to re trie v e th e fan w h o had ju s t elu d ed them . H o w e v e r, th e y w e re d riv e n b a ck b y o th e r su p p o rte rs. T h e p o lice re g ro u p e d an d , w ith the h elp o f re in fo rc e m e n ts , d ro v e b ack in to the cro w d . T h is tim e, th e y su c ce e d e d in arrestin g a n u m b e r o f fan s an d th e y m a in ta in e d th e ir p re se n c e (and a u th o rity ) fo r th e re m a in d e r of th e g am e (ibid.: 112). W h e n p ro ffe rin g th eir o w n in te rp re ta tio n o f this in c id e n t, O xfo rd fans p o in ted o u t th at, ev en th o u g h th e y u n d e rsto o d th at the p o lice h ad an o b lig atio n to re m o v e th e A rgyle su p p o rte rs w h o w ere k ick in g a ball a ro u n d , th e y w ere n o n e th e le s s c o n v in ce d th a t th e p o lice had 'to ta lly m ism a n a g e d th e w h o le affair. T h e y h ad m ad e u n w a rra n te d ch a rg es in to th e A rgyle crow d an d w ere se e n as p ro v o k in g fans b e y o n d re a so n a b le e n d u ra n c e ' (ibid.: 113). M arsh et al. can see how th e p o lice m ig h t w ell h av e ju stifie d th eir actio n s in te rm s of th eir legal o b lig atio n to a p p re h e n d su ch o b v io u s o ffe n d e rs. H o w e v e r, T h e p o in t w h ich arises o u t o f all this is th at fans h av e a clear id ea of h o w th e y th in k p o lice and o th e r o fficials at fo o tb all gam e s sh ou ld act - in o th e r w o rd s, th e y h a v e ru les for the actio n s o f o th e rs as w ell as th e m se lv e s and th e y are able to in te rp re t som e o f the a ctio n s on th e p a rt o f o fficials as b e in g in b re a ch o f p ro p riety . In th e sa m e w ay th a t kid s in classro om s hav e a clear idea o f w h a t are th e lim its o f le g itim ate actio n on th e p a rt o f te a ch e rs, fo o tb all fan s ap p e al to th e fact th a t th e po lice 'w e n t too far' or w e re 'm a k in g p e o p le a bit m ad for no re a so n ' in th eir e x p la n a tio n o f certain e v en ts. O n e m ig h t arg u e th a t th e se im p o sed lim its are u n re a so n a b le , b u t in th e 168

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e x p la n a tio n o f social a ctio n th e y fig u re v e ry p ro m in e n tly and m u st th e re fo re b e g iv en v e ry serio u s a tte n tio n , (ibid.) Im p licit su p p o rt fo r this a p p ro a c h is e v id e n t in th e a cco u n ts o f M a n c h e ste r U n ited fan s fo llo w in g th e ir team to th e aw ay ties of E u ro p e a n co m p e titio n s. S u ch a cco u n ts e m p h a sise th e a ro u sin g e ffe ct o f p e rc e p tio n s th a t p olice and stew ard s are 'ta k in g lib e rtie s' ag ain st U n ited su p p o rte rs (K in g 2001). In a slig h t v a ria tio n o n th e id eas of M arsh and his co -w o rk e rs, K in g m a in ta in s th at th ere are tacitly a g reed 'ru le s ' d e te rm in in g ho w 's ta tu s h o n o u r' can be w o n or lo st in th e c o n te x t o f fo o tb all h o o lig an ism . T h e re is no h o n o u r to b e g ain ed by, fo r e x a m p le, a tta ck in g a rival h o o lig an g ro u p th a t is sig n ifican tly o u tn u m b e re d , or p o lice or stew a rd s w h o are re a so n a b ly c o n d u ctin g th eir d u ties. C o n v e rse ly , h o n o u r is c o n fe rre d on h o o lig an g ro u p s w h o stand up fo r th e m se lv e s w h e n e v e r a u th o rity is e xercised in an u n su ita b ly d isre sp e ctfu l o r u n re a so n a b le m a n n e r. F u rth e r im p licit su p p o rt is c o n ta in e d in re c e n t w o rk b y F ro sd ick (2005), a p o lice o ffice r tu rn ed a ca d e m ic, w h o u sed a p a rticip a n t o b se rv a tio n a p p ro a c h to stu d y th e p o licin g o f th re e 'd e rb y ' m a tch e s (local riv alries) in v o lv in g tw o te a m s from th e so u th coast of E n g la n d , S o u th a m p to n ('T h e S a in ts') an d n e ig h b o u rin g P o rtsm o u th ('P o m p e y '), d u rin g th e 2 0 0 3 -4 seaso n . F ro sd ick re fe rs to sev e ral in c id e n ts in w h ich u n n e ce ssa rily ag g ressiv e b e h a v io u r by the p o lice h e ig h te n e d th e p o ssib ility of c o n fro n ta tio n . An e x a m p le o f this o ccu rred at the first o f the th ree m a tc h e s, a cup tie in D e c e m b e r 2003, at St M a ry 's S ta d iu m , S o u th a m p to n , w h e re F ro sd ick saw re a so n to b e critical o f th e p olice. T h e re le v a n t in c id e n t h a p p e n e d w h e n S o u th a m p to n sco red th e o p e n in g go al in a 2 - 0 w in. P o rtsm o u th s u p p o rte rs ru sh ed to w ard s a 's e g re g a tio n n e t', sp read acro ss eig h t row s o f sea tin g , w h ich sep a ra te d th e aw ay su p p o rte rs from the rest. At this, T h e stew a rd s re sp o n d e d w ell, s p re a d in g th e ir arm s w id e to m ak e th e m se lv e s b ig and to try and p re se rv e th e ir co rd o n . T h e p o lice w ere less e ffe ctiv e. S o m e ju st stoo d th e re an d did n o th in g . H o w e v e r, o n e p o lice o ffice r p u sh ed a S o u th a m p to n fan b ack w a rd s, se n d in g him an d a n u m b e r o f o th e r fan s sp raw lin g . T h is w as an in a p p ro p ria te re sp o n se b y a frig h ten e d y o u n g p o lice o fficer, (ibid.: 153)

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W illiam s (2002) is critical of an th ro p o lo g ists like M arsh and A rm strong on acco u n t of their failure to explain w hy it is only som e m en (and not w om en ) w ho en g age in v io len t b eh av iou r, w h y such con d u ct should be m ore com m on p lace am o n g som e section s of society and n o t o th ers, and w h y it varies in n atu re and p rev alen ce from one era to the next. W illiam s ack n o w led g es that there is c o n ­ sid erable d isag reem en t reg ard in g the d em o g rap h y of football hooliganism . H o w ev er, d espite b itter d isp u tes ov er the issue of the social m ake-up of core hooligans, m ost of the ev id en ce on hooligan offen d ers in E ngland . . . still seem s to su ggest that they are aged from their late teens throu gh to their 30s (thou gh som e hooligan 'le a d e rs' can be older); th at th ey are m ainly in m an u al or lo w er clerical occu p atio n s (or, to a lesser exten t, are u n em p loyed or w ork in g in the inform al or illegal 'g re y ' econ om y) and th at they com e m ainly from w orkin g-class b ackgro u n d s. Som e of those in v o lv ed , certain ly , are street sharp, have p erh ap s 'settled d o w n ' and are in 'g o o d ' jobs, (ibid.: 46) T h e fact that m ost h oolig ans com e from the w ork in g class is ackn o w led g ed by structural (or 'd isp o sitio n al') exp lan ation s, the two m ost in flu en tial of w h ich are the 'm agical recov ery of com m u n ity' and 'o rd ered seg m e n tatio n ' ap p roach es (see D. W ad d in g ton 1992, C h ap ter 6). T h e fo rm er is pred icated on the assu m p tion that the p o st-w ar d isintegration of w orkin g-class com m u n ities and a cco m ­ p an y in g loss of th eir erstw hile ind u strial b ase has involved a loss of id en tity and com m u n ality for you n g, low er-w o rkin g -class m ales. The solution ad op ted by these you ths has been to 're n eg o tia te their relation sh ip w ith the p aren t culture via a n ostalgic attach m e n t to a hooligan gro u p ' (H obbs and R obins 1991: 570). S een from this p ersp ectiv e, h oolig an groups serve the fu n ction s of 'su rro g ate com m u n ities' in w hich the trad itional m ale w o rkin g-class valu es of to u g h n ess, parochialism and solidarity can be 'm agically reco v ered ', d em o n strated and en d o rsed (Robins and C o h en 1978: 137). The ordered segmentation approach, d ev elop ed by Eric D u n n in g and his colleagu es at L eicester U niversity, argues that football hooligans are p red o m in an tly draw n from low er-w o rkin g -class h o u sin g estates w ith particularly tough and v io len t rep u tation s. This exp lan ation h igh ligh ts the ten d en cy for w orkin g-class gangs to com bine against

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c o m m o n e n e m ie s. T h u s, it is a ssu m e d th at g an g s ('s e g m e n ts') of w o rk in g -class c o m m u n itie s w h ich are u su ally in co n flict w ith e ach o th e r will n o n e th e le s s c o m b in e in th e n a m e o f th eir local football team to c o n fro n t th e th re a t p o sed b y o p p o sitio n su p p o rte rs. At the n e x t level u p , 'riv a l' n o rth e rn fan s (of, say, L iv e rp o o l and M a n c h e ste r U n ited ) w ill jo in fo rces ag ain st th e v isitin g su p p o rte rs o f a L o n d o n te a m , su ch as C h elsea. T h e lo gical c o n clu sio n o f th is p ro cess is th at, u ltim ate ly , fo o tb a ll h o o lig a n s fro m all o v er E n g lan d w ill fo rg e t an y p rio r a n im o sitie s an d fig h t, sid e b y sid e, 'o n b e h a lf o f th e n a tio n a l team (W illiam s et al. 1990). A cco rd in g to D u n n in g et al., th e ag g re ssiv e te n d e n cie s o f such y o u th s stem from th e c h a ra cteristic form o f socialisatio n th e y are ex p o se d to as y o u n g b o y s, a p ro cess w h ich th e y re fe r to as the sociogenesis of masculine aggression. H ere it is assu m e d th at in c o n tra st to th e ir m id d le -class p e e rs, lo w er-w o rk in g -cla ss m ales are rarely exp o sed to a p a re n ta l e m p h a sis on self-c o n tro l, b u t are m ore re g u larly s u b je c te d to p h y sical p u n ish m e n t an d th e re fo re see v io le n c e as m o re n o rm a tiv e . P lay te n d s to be ro u g h e r an d u n ­ su p e rv ise d , p ro v id in g a fu rth e r o p p o rtu n ity for u n re stra in e d ag g ressio n . D u n n in g p o in ts ou t th at lo w er-w o rk in g -cla ss m ales (C )o m e re g u larly in to co n flict w ith sim ilar g ro u p in g s from n e ig h b o u rin g co m m u n itie s and this re in fo rc e s b o th th eir in te rn a l so lid arity an d th e a g g re ssiv e n ess o f th eir d o m in a n t m ales. F u rth e r re in fo rc e m e n t o f a g g re ssiv e n ess co m e s from the a d u lt role m o d e ls av ailable in a lo w er w o rk in g class c o m m u n ity , ab o v e all from th e fact th at p re stig e is acco rd e d lo cally to m ales w h o can figh t. B eca u se it in v o lv e s th e c o n fe rra l o f p re stig e , fig h tin g b e co m e s asso ciated w ith the aro u sal o f self-lo v e and p le a su ra b le fee lin g s, in th a t w ay le a d in g su ch m ales to d ev e lo p a lo ve o f p h y sical c o n fro n ta tio n s an d activ e ly to see k th em out. (D u n n in g 1990: 76) T h e idea th at fo o tb all h o o lig an ism is a p re d o m in a n tly w o rk in g class activ ity is e m p h a tica lly re p u d ia te d b y A rm stro n g (1998). H e is ad a m a n t th a t th e h o o lig a n b e h a v io u r o f B B C m e m b e rs su g g e ste d 'n o co n scio u s n o tio n o f c re a tin g "re s is ta n c e " (real or sem io tic) to som e visio n o f h e g e m o n ic m o rality or lo st co m m u n ity ' (ibid.: 169). D e sp ite this a sse rtio n , A rm stro n g in fo rm s us th at th e m a jo rity o f the B lad es w ere e m p lo y e d in m a n u a l o cc u p a tio n s and th a t th e m id d le class and h ig h ly ed u cate d did n o t fe atu re sig n ifican tly a m o n g th e ir ran ks (ibid.: 150 and 151). In d e e d , A rm stro n g h in ts at a p o ssib le stru ctu ral 171

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exp lan atio n of the B B C 's v io len ce tow ard s rival fans by raising the possibility that, 'W ith the d eskilling of the w ork force and the en d in g of exclu sively m ale occu p atio n s the on e su rv iving facet of m asculine credibility that has com e d ow n to the cu rren t group of y ou n g m en is the ability to fight, and via that ability to hold a rep u tatio n ' (ibid.: 156). W ith the excep tion of the ord ered seg m en tatio n ap p roach , the above exp lan ation s exh ibit a com m o n failure to accou n t for the in ten sely natio nalistic and ch au v in istic co n d u ct of E nglish su p p o rters abroad . In d e e d , as P errym an (2002: 15) has observed , 'T h e curious bi-p o larity of E ngland fan s' culture is rarely com m en ted on. T h ey are hu ge in nu m ber, highly com m itted , yet con tain w ithin their ranks a bran d of th u g g ery that few o th er nation al team s' su p p o rt can m atch .' This issue is d ealt w ith specifically by T aylor (1989: 10 5 -6 ) w ho m aintains th at the m ain p erp etrato rs of such vio lence are an 'u p ­ w ardly m obile, in d ividu alistic fraction o f the (m ale) British w orkin g class', w h ich w as v irtually u n iqu e am o n g m an u al w orkers in p ro s­ p erin g am id st the T h atch erite re stru ctu rin g of British ind ustry: This fraction of the w o rk in g class (first sig hted , p erh ap s, in the lum p w orkers in the bu ild in g ind u stry and in L o n d o n 's D ockland s) has d one w ell b ecau se of its ability to m aster particu lar crafts and to m ove b etw een w ork sites. It has a certain sen se of resid ual solidarity, b orn of n eig h b ou rh o o d and g en d er, but it is gen erally in d ividu alistic, ch au v in istic and racist . . . It is this p articular fraction of the class, acco rd in g to m an y d ifferen t accou n ts, th at is m ost d eep ly attach ed to its read in g of the Sun n ew sp ap er and the Sunday Sport, and w hich w as m ost en th u siastically carried along by the jin g o istic nationalism that accom p an ied the Falkland s M alvinas war. W h atev er the origins of this b eh av iou r, th ere is a d an g er of w ro n g ­ fully assu m ing a u n iv ersal pred isp ositio n am o n g trav elling E nglish fans to en g age in violence. W eed (2001) in fers from press rep o rts of the h oolig an activities of E nglish fans in B elgiu m d u ring Euro 2000 that there w ere at least three categ o ries of su p p o rters: a sm all m inority (around 10 p er cent) w ho w ere o u trig h t trou blem ak ers or 'th u g s'; a second core group of resp ectable, law -ab id ing fans; and a third group of g o o d -h u m o u red but occasionally o bnoxious o thers w ho w ere likely to pile in d u ring aggressive en co u n ters. Such press ch aracterisation s id en tify a loud and , alleged ly, u n ap p ealin g culture, based on patriotism and pride in the co u n try 's ach iev em en ts, and 172

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m a n ife ste d in racial h a tre d , a n ti-Irish R e p u b lica n A rm y (IRA) s e n tim e n ts and in su lts h a rk in g b ack to th e S e co n d W o rld W ar. A m ore b e n ig n in te rp re ta tio n of su ch b e h a v io u r is set o u t by P arry an d M alco lm (2004), w h o re m a rk o n sim ilarities in th e co n d u ct of trav e llin g E nglish fo o tb all su p p o rte rs and th e b e h a v io u r o f the selfsty led 'B a rm y A rm y ' o f fan s a cco m p a n y in g th e n a tio n a l c rick e t team to p laces like A ustralia and th e W e st In d ies. P arry and M alcolm su b scrib e to an e x p la n a tio n o f th e e x u b e ra n t (but fu n d a m e n ta lly n o n -v io le n t) b e h a v io u r o f th e m a jo rity o f E n g lan d fo o tb all fans w h ich e m p h a sises th e cau sal e ffe ct o f th e re c e n t s h ift to w ard s a m ore a fflu e n t, m id d le-class sp e cta to rsh ip . H e n c e , it is a ssu m ed th at F o o tb all fan s w h o see th e m se lv e s as 'tra d itio n a l' or 'lo n g ­ s ta n d in g ' su p p o rte rs in c re a sin g ly d e fin e th e m se lv e s in co n tra d istin ctio n to th e so-called 'ca rd b o a rd c u t-o u t' sp e cta to rs (th o se su p p o rte rs p e rce iv e d as n e w -c o m e rs and larg ely m id d le class) w h o se re lativ e ly p acified s u p p o rt h as led to a ccu sa tio n s o f th em n o t 'g e ttin g b e h in d ' th e team . B a rm y A rm y m e m b e rs also d e fin e th e m se lv e s in o p p o sitio n to th e m o re re se rv ed sp e cta to rs, th o u g h in this c o n te x t it is th e y (th e B a rm y A rm y) w h o are th e n e w c o m e rs, an d th e 'tra d itio n a l' su p p o rte rs w h o ch a ra c teristica lly e x h ib it lo w er lev els o f e m o tio n a l d isp lay, (ibid.: 85) P arry and M alcolm su g g e st th at, in o rd e r to d istin g u ish th e m se lv e s fro m th eir less c o m m itte d m id d le -class c o u n te rp a rts, th e se trad itio n al fo o tb all su p p o rte rs h a v e e m b ra ce d an array o f c a rn iv a le sq u e d ev ice s, su ch as th e u se o f face p ain ts, fa n cy d ress an d in flatab le toys. T h is te n d e n c y h as c o a le sce d w ith o th e r cu ltu ral d e v e lo p m e n ts to help s h a p e th e c h a ra cteristic c o n d u ct of tra v e llin g E n glish fans. A m o n g th e se in n o v a tio n s are: th e g ro w th o f o rg an ised fo o tb all su p p o rte rs' clu bs and o rg a n isa tio n s, w h ich n o t o n ly facilitate trav el ab ro ad , bu t also activ ely p ro m o te lib eral a g e n d a s, su ch as a n ti-ra cism ; an d the rise of a 'N e w L a d d ism ', w h ich p ro m o tes an 'a s p ira tio n a l' lifesty le in c o rp o ra tin g trav el an d c o n su m p tio n , w h ile e m b ra cin g a 'c h e e k y , irre v e re n t h u m o u r, in w h ich sex ist an d co d e d -ra cist rem ark s are ra tio n a lise d as " e x c u s a b le "' (ibid.: 87). All o f th e se te n d e n cie s h av e c o m b in e d to p ro d u ce th e c h a ra cteristica lly b o iste ro u s, c o n su m e rist and fu n d a m e n ta lly irre v e re n t b e h a v io u r sy n o n y m o u s w ith su p p o rte rs o f th e n a tio n a l team s. T h e d istin ctio n b e tw e e n the cu ltu re o f n o n -v io le n t E n g lan d su p ­ p o rte rs and th a t o f th e h a rd e n e d h o o lig a n m in o rity is cru cially 173

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im p o rta n t. S to tt and P ea rso n (2006: 245) m ak e th e p o in t th at th e m a jo rity o f fan s arreste d at m a jo r o v erse a s co m p e titio n s in v ariab ly h av e had no p rio r in v o lv e m e n t in fo o tb a ll-re la ted d iso rd er. T h is fact a lo n e m ak es it d ifficu lt to su stain the ra th e r circu lar a rg u m e n t th a t th e se in d iv id u als are in v o lv ed in 'd iso rd e r' b e ca u se th e y are 'h o o lig a n s '. C o n v e rse ly , th e re h a v e also b e e n a n u m b e r o f larg e cro w d e v en ts in v o lv in g E n g lish fan s ab ro ad w h e re 'k n o w n h o o lig a n s' h av e b e e n p re s e n t b u t 'd iso rd e r' has n o t o ccu rre d . M o re o v e r, w h e n 'd is o rd e r' has o ccu rre d , th e idea th at it h as b e e n cau sed b y 'h o o lig a n s ' o ffe rs little th e o re tica l basis for u n d e rs ta n d in g th e targ ets o f co lle ctiv e v io le n ce , (ibid.) S to tt and P earso n are c o rre ct to e m p h a sise th a t w h a t is also req u ired is a c o m p le m e n ta ry a p p ro a c h , a d d re ssin g v a ria tio n s in th e c o n te x t and d y n a m ics o f d iso rd er. It is to e x p la n a tio n s o f this typ e th at we th e re fo re tu rn o u r a tte n tio n .

T h e Ita lia 90 fo o tb a ll W o rld C up to u r n a m e n t T h e E lab o rate d So cial Id e n tity M o d e l (E SIM ) re fe rre d to in C h a p te r 2 has b e e n e x te n siv e ly ap p lied in th e stu d y o f fo o tb all h o o lig an ism in v o lv in g E n g lan d su p p o rte rs trav ellin g ab ro ad (S to tt 2003; S to tt et al. 2006; S to tt et al. 2001; S to tt and R e ich e r 1998b). T h e se au th o rs h a v e re p e a te d ly ac k n o w le d g e d th e im p o rta n ce o f 'stru c tu ra l/ d isp o sitio n a l' a p p ro a c h e s ad d ressin g th e re a so n s w h y p articu lar in d iv id u als trav el to fo o tb all m a tch e s w ith th e in te n tio n o f fig h tin g w ith sim ilarly in clin e d o p p o sitio n su p p o rte rs (e.g. S to tt et al. 2001: 361; S to tt and R e ich e r 1998b: 3 5 4 -5 5 ). H o w e v e r, th e y sen sib ly in sist th a t, in situ atio n s w h e re co n flict e scalates to in v o lv e far g re a te r n u m b e rs o f s u p p o rte rs, th e u tility o f e x p la in in g ag g ressiv e c o n d u ct in term s o f th e v io le n t p re d isp o sitio n s o f th o se in v o lv e d is sig n ifica n tly w e a k e n e d . T h e y arg u e th at w h a t is req u ired in ste ad is a fo cu s on th e inter-group dynamics re le v a n t to a p a rticu la r situ atio n (S to tt an d R e ich e r op. cit.: 3 5 4 -3 5 5 ). S to tt an d R e ich er ap p ly th e E SIM a p p ro a ch in a p a rtic ip a n t o b se rv a tio n stu d y o f e v e n ts o ccu rrin g o n th e d ay o f a m a tch b e tw e e n E n g lan d and H o llan d d u rin g th e 1990 W orld C u p fo o tb all c h a m p io n ­ sh ip s in Italy in Ju n e 1990. In th e b u ild -u p to this c o m p e titio n , th e B ritish m ed ia had p re d icta b ly fo cu sed o n th e stro n g lik e lih o o d of trav e llin g E n g lish fan s e n g a g in g in p u b lic d iso rd er. T w o w e e k s prio r 174

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to th e c o m p e titio n , th e B ritish C h a n n e l F o u r tele v isio n statio n had d ed icated a 1 0 -m in u te n e w s item to th e s u b je c t o f E n g lan d fan s trav e llin g to Italy w ith th e in te n tio n of co m m ittin g v io len ce. T h is e x p e c ta tio n w as re in fo rc e d in b rie fin g s o f th e Italian p o lice b y S co tlan d Y a rd 's N atio n al F o otb all In te llig e n c e U n it, w h ile th e British M in iste r for S p o rt u rged his Italian c o u n te rp a rt to take u n ­ c o m p ro m isin g actio n a g a in st B ritish o ffe n d ers. As it tu rn ed ou t, th ere w as sp o rad ic v io le n ce in v o lv in g E n g lish fan s d u rin g th e first tw o w e e k s co m p risin g th e first ro u n d o f the co m p e titio n . T h e m ost serio u s c o n fro n ta tio n to o k p lace in th e im m e d ia te b u ild -u p to th e H o llan d gam e. T h is tro u b le o ccu rred in the cou rse o f a m arch by 2 ,0 0 0 -3 ,0 0 0 E n g lish fan s from th e ce n tre o f th e h o st city , C ag liari, up th e m ain stre e t to w ard s the stad iu m w h e re th e g am e w as sch e d u le d to be p lay ed . W h e n th e su p p o rte rs h ad trav elled tw o -th ird s o f th e d istan ce to the g ro u n d , th ere w as a b rie f s ta n d -o ff b e tw e e n them and aro u n d 40 riv al D u tch fan s. S o o n afte rw a rd s, the m a rch ers w e re c o n fro n te d b y 25 Italian rio t p o lice w ith b a to n s d raw n w h o h ad sp read th e m ­ selv es a n d tw o p e rs o n n e l carriers acro ss th e ro ad , b lo ck in g fu rth e r p ro g re ss to th e stad iu m . T h e m a rch ers in itially p u sh e d ag ain st the p o lice lin e, fo rcin g th em b a ck sev eral m etre s. A can o f soft d rin k w as th ro w n in the p ro cess. T h is p ro v ed to be an im p o rta n t tu rn in g po in t as, a lm o st in s ta n ta n e o u s ly , o fficers started strik in g ou t at a n y o n e w ith in reach (ibid.: 3 6 3 -3 6 4 ). T h o se at the fro n t o f th e m arch scatte re d o n to areas o f u n ­ d e v e lo p e d lan d w h ich y ield ed a h a n d y su p p ly o f re a d y -m a d e m issiles (e.g. brick s an d sto n e s) for th ro w in g at th e p o lice. A 's u b s ta n tia l p ro p o rtio n ' o f th e se fan s th e n ch arg ed th e p o lice, th ro w in g p ro je c tile s as th e y ran . P olice o fficers w ere fo rced to take re fu g e b e h in d th e ir v e h icle s, from w h e re th e y fired o ff tear gas c a n iste rs, a ffe ctin g all th e sp e cta to rs p re se n t. A fter a tw o- to th re e m in u te lull, a p o lice v e h icle d rov e in to the cro w d , b u t h u rrie d ly re tre a te d o n fin d in g itself b o m b a rd e d on all sid es. E v e n th e n o n ­ activ e m a jo rity w ith in th e cro w d ch e e re d lo u d ly at th is d ev e lo p m e n t. T h re e h u n d re d or so o f th e m a rch ers th e n set o ff ag ain fo r the stad iu m . H o w e v e r, th e y h ad n o t trav elled m o re th an 150 m e tre s w h e n th e y w e re c o n fro n te d by a seco n d g ro u p o f 20 riot police. F o llo w in g a ch arg e b y 50 o r so fan s, th e p o lice o n ce ag ain fired ro u n d s o f te a r gas. P olice re in fo rc e m e n ts th e n arriv ed and p ro ce e d e d to en circle th e e n tire cro w d . M a rc h e rs w e re in d iv id u ally search ed . T h o se w ith tick ets w ere esco rte d in to th e stad iu m , w h ile th o se w ith ­ o u t w ere ta k e n b a c k to th e city ce n tre an d d isp ersed . 175

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Early in their analysis, Sto tt and R eich er p o in t out that, on arriving in S ard in ia, the m ajority of su p p orters had d eclared th em selves opposed to vio lence and an tith etical to the sm all m ino rity of fans likely to be resp on sible for an y trouble that should occur. T h e Italian auth o rities did not seem capable of d istin gu ish in g the potential tro u b lem ak ers from the 'o rd in ary ' trav elling fans. In the w eeks prior to the ev en t, 'th e Italian m edia was p o rtray in g them as v io len t and u n iform ly d an g ero u s', such that, ev en from the ou tset, 'a fram in g of the E nglish fans as hostile and d an gero u s w as in p lace' (ibid.: 366). English fans to u ch in g d ow n on Italian soil w ere th o ro u g h ly search ed in an atm o sp h ere of suspicion and hostility. D ay -to -d ay activity w as closely m on ito red and fans w ere often su bjected to harassm ent: This inclu d ed g ath erin g to g eth er in bars, d rinking, sin ging and sh o u tin g - beh av iou rs rooted in a vision o f m asculinity th ro u gh w h ich the social id en tity of the 'E n g lan d fan ' was d efined and h en ce b eh av iou rs th at w ere seen as legitim ate if n o t n o rm ativ e in term s of that identity. O f cou rse, in relatin g the fan s' p ersp ectiv e it is im p o rtan t to avoid reifying or even rom anticising it. W h at the English su p p o rters ch aracterise as m ere high spirits m ay w ell be exp erien ced by others as o ffensive and intim id atory. C ertainly, the fan s' p ersp ectiv e w as not shared by the police and they w ere liable to in terv en e with force, (ibid.) O n on e occasio n , follow ing E n g lan d 's earlier gam e against the R epu blic of Irelan d , E ngland fans w ere tau n ted and attacked by local you th s, w hom th ey chased off in self-d efen ce. C o n seq u en tly , the Italian police aggressively bato n -ch arg ed the E nglish , in d iscrim in ­ ately b eatin g and in ju rin g several of them , w hile those resp onsib le for startin g the in cid en t m an aged to escap e, scot-free (ibid.: 367). As Stott and R eich er exp lain , accou n ts of such in cid en ts w ere soon w idely circu lated . 'T h u s, th rou gh a series of in teractio n s exp erien ced e ith e r d irectly or vicariously, w ider and w id er section s of England su p p orters cam e to view the police as p red isp osed to u n p rov oked acts of agg ression tow ard s th em ' (ibid.: 368). This history of in teractio n b e tw e e n the police and English su p p orters help ed to fram e their con trastin g in terp retatio n s of each o th e r's co n d u ct d u ring the m arch . T hu s, the police officer in com m an d o f o p eration s in Sard in ia w as ad am an t th at the reason w hy the m arch had su d d en ly com e to a halt w as becau se of the fan s' in ten tio n to com m it v iolence. H o w ever, from the com p etin g 176

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p e rs p e ctiv e o f th e E n g la n d fan s, th e c o n stru c tio n o f a p o lice co rd o n w as see n as 'u n w a rra n te d an d h e n c e e x e m p lify in g th e illeg itim ate n a tu re o f p o lice a c tio n ' (ibid.: 371). T h u s, as S to tt (2003: 642) p o in ts o u t in a s u b se q u e n t, th o u g h re la te d , article, C o n flict w as n o t se e n as h o o lig an ism b u t as a re a sse rtio n of rig h ts. M o re o v e r, th e (actu al or p e rce iv e d ) in d iscrim in a te n atu re o f p o lice h o stility to w ard s E n g la n d su p p o rte rs cre ated an in clu siv e social id e n tity th at in co rp o ra te d ra th e r than re je cted h o o lig an fan s (i.e. th o se p re p a re d to in itia te co n flict). T h is in ­ co rp o ra tio n led to in cre a se d e x p e c ta tio n s o f s u p p o rt th at e m p o w e re d h o o lig an fan s e n a b lin g th e m , an d in d ee d 'o rd in a ry ' E n g lan d fan s, to act a g g re ssiv e ly to w ard s th e p o lice d u rin g a cro w d ev en t. S to tt and R e ich e r (op. cit.: 373) c o n clu d e th eir article by d ecla rin g th a t it w o u ld b e ju s t as u n h e lp fu l to d ism iss 'p re d isp o s itio n a l' (or stru ctu ral) e x p la n a tio n s as it w ou ld be to focu s on th e in te r-g ro u p d y n am ics o f fo o tb a ll-re la ted d iso rd er. In th eir v ie w , 'T h e ch a lle n g e is to articu late issu es o f p rio r n o rm a tiv e c o m m itm e n t an d o f in te r­ g ro u p d y n a m ics in a co m m o n e x p la n a tio n ra th e r th an to c o u n te r-p o se th e m .'

T h e E u ro p e an F o o tb a ll C ham pio nship s o f 2 0 0 0 in B elg ium and th e N e th e rla n d s (E u ro 2 0 0 0 ) D u rin g th e E u ro 2000 fo o tb a ll to u rn a m e n t, stag ed jo in tly b y th e D u tch and B elg ian football a u th o ritie s in the Ju n e o f th a t y ear, 965 B ritish fan s w e re arreste d for th e ir p a rt in h o o lig an b e h a v io u r and 474 o f th o se d ep o rte d (S to tt 2003). In the m o st n o to rio u s o f the in c id e n ts in v o lv e d , o v er 200 E n g lish fan s w e re arreste d d u rin g a c o n fro n ta tio n w ith B elg ia n p o lice in th e c en tra l sq u are o f C h arlero i (W eed 2001). A fterw ard s, th e B ritish p ress u n iv e rsa lly c o n d e m n e d th e E n g lish fan s (B ish o p an d Ja w o rsk i 2003). T h e Sunday Express o f 18 Ju n e 2000 w as typ ical in h ig h lig h tin g ho w 'C h a rle ro i's m ain sq u are, th e P lace C h arles II, w h ich sh o u ld h av e b e e n th e ce n tre o f c e le b ra ­ tion , resem b led a b a ttle g ro u n d . M o re th an 200 E n glish y o b s attack ed G e rm a n riv als, h u rlin g ch airs an d sticks as th e y c h a rg e d ' (q u o ted by W eed 2001: 412). T h e B ritish P rim e M in iste r, T o n y B lair, p u b licly ap o lo g ised to his B elg ia n c o u n te rp a rt fo r th e b e h a v io u r o f his fellow 177

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cou n try m en , and there w as ev en talk for a w hile of UEFA expellin g England from the com p etition (ibid.). H o w ever, in the afterm ath of the co n fro n tatio n , a rival m ed ia view soon em erg ed , in sistin g that there had b e e n no p itch ed battle o f the kind portrayed by the m ed ia and th at the level of actual vio lence had b e e n co n sid erab ly o v erstated (P ou lson 2005: 34; W eed 2001: 413). In d eed , su bseq u en tly show n television p ictu res suggested that the v io len ce w as largely p erp etrated by the police, w ho later con ced ed that m an y o f the arrests had b een u n d ertak en on a p u rely p re v e n ta ­ tive basis (W eed 2001: 413). Several au th ors have since specu lated th at the violence occu rrin g in C h arleroi w as due to a com bin atio n of factors - notably, the attitu d es and tactics of the B elgian police, and a gen eral attitu d e of d isresp ect for the culture of travelling English football fans (C rabbe 2003; W eed 2001). Sto tt (2003) em p loyed a q u estion n aire su rv ey to explore the attitu d es tow ard s English and o th e r groups of su p p o rters harbou red by som e o f the 8,000 B elgian G en d arm erie officers on d uty at Euro 2000. T hirty-six officers com p leted the q u estio n n aire follow ing E n g lan d 's first-rou nd m atch es against P ortugal, G erm an y and R om ania. The stud y w as osten sibly d esigned to ascertain the exp ectatio n s that police officers had of E nglish fans prior to the to u rn am en t. Sto tt con ced es that the fact that the qu estion n aires w ere ad m inistered post hoc d oes raise the possibility th at 'R e sp o n se s to som e item s could clearly have been in flu en ced b y ev en ts and m ay actually hav e b een m ore re p resen tativ e of post e v en t ju stificatio n s' (ibid.: 647). H o w ev er, ev en allow ing for these lim itatio n s, the results show in terestin g v ariations in police p ercep tio n s. G en erally sp eaking, of the fan groups of all the 16 nations particip atin g in the com p etition , E n g lan d 's fans w ere perceiv ed as po sin g the h igh est th reat to public ord er. M ean scores on relev an t rating scales also rev ealed that officers calculated around half of E nglan d 's trav elling fans to be hoolig ans, exp ected a sim ilar p rop ortion to be actively look in g to incite v io len ce, and som e tw othirds o f all England fans to be v io len t at som e tim e in the com p etitio n . O fficers had fu rth er an ticip ated th at gam es in volving England w ere m ore likely to resu lt in d isord er than gam es in v o lv ­ ing o th er nations in their group. T h ere was a 'cle a r con sen su al exp ectatio n ' on the part of the G en d arm erie that trou ble w ould occur in the build-u p to, d u ring or after E n g lan d 's gam e against G erm any in C harleroi. Finally, in regard to in terp retatio n s of no rm ativ e beh av iou r, heav y con su m p tio n o f alcohol and 'b o istero u s' activity on the p art o f E nglish fans w ere far m ore likely to be p erceiv ed as a 178

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th re a t to p u b lic o rd e r th an w ere sim ilar form s o f c o n d u ct e n g a g e d in b y G e rm a n s or R o m a n ia n s. As S to tt (ibid.: 653) p o in ts o u t, 'S u c h re sp o n se s are c erta in ly c o n sis te n t w ith m e th o d s o f p o licin g in w h ich th e re lativ e ly in d iscrim in a te d isp ersal an d /o r arrests o f larg e g ro u p s o f b o iste ro u s E n g lan d fan s w ou ld be seen as a ratio n al tactical d e cisio n .' T h e s ig n ifica n ce o f p o licin g style is illu strated b y th e fact th at E n g la n d 's o p e n in g g am e , a 3 - 2 d e fe a t b y P ortu g al in H o lla n d , w as tro u b le -fre e . T h e a ttitu d e o f th e D u tch p o lice w as e x e m p lified b y the p re -to u rn a m e n t c o m m e n ts o f th e ir D ire cto r o f P olice In te llig e n ce w h o in d ic a te d : 'W e w a n t to m ak e a p o sitiv e co n trib u tio n to the festiv e n a tu re of su ch an e v en t. Y ou d o n 't do th a t by p o licin g too firm ly. So it's b a la n c in g b e tw e e n m a in te n a n c e o f p u b lic o rd e r and b e in g a real h o st to th e fa n s' (qu o ted by W eed 2001: 411). T h e c o n tra st b e tw e e n th is a ttitu d e and the co rre sp o n d in g sta n ce o f the B elg ian p o lice can be d iscern ed by b rie fly re c o u n tin g th e m ain e v en ts in C h arlero i. A cco rd in g to C rab b e (2003: 4 15), th e im m e d ia te b u ild -u p to th e E n g lan d v ersu s G e rm a n y m a tch in v o lv e d c o n fro n ta tio n s o n the s tre ets of B ru ssels b e tw e e n E n g lish su p p o rte rs and lo cal y o u th s. O n e d ay p rio r to th e g am e , th e B elg ian p o lice re so rte d to in d iscrim in a te m ass arrests to tid y up this p ro b le m . 'H o o lig a n ' stories m a d e the fro n t p ag es o f local and in te rn a tio n a l n e w sp a p e rs, and a ru m o u r sp read th a t an E n g lish fan h ad b e e n stabb ed b y a G e rm a n . F o r all th e h e ig h te n e d an ticip atio n o f v io le n ce , e v en ts on th e d ay o f th e m atch w ere su rp risin g ly sed ate . E n g la n d fan s s u n b a th e d , p la y e d fo o tb all an d so u g h t re lie f from th e in te n se su n sh in e by d a n c in g in a fo u n ta in . All w as p e a cefu l u n til tw o G e rm a n fan s w e re arreste d in a cafe/b ar, situ ated on th e m ain street c o n n e c tin g th e to w n sq u are to the stad iu m . E n g lan d fa n s, p ress jo u rn a lis ts and p h o to g ra p h e rs im m e d ia tely g rav itated to w ard s the in cid e n t: T h e y w ere qu ick ly follo w ed by an in c re a sin g ly an im ated v o y e u ristic crow d w h ich ad d e d to th e sen se o f d a n g e r as a p lastic g a rd e n ch air w as th ro w n in to th e air. A m ê lé e e n su e d , w ith m o re ch airs fly in g b a ck an d fo rth , w h ich a p p e a re d to last for no m o re th a n o n e m in u te an d resu lt in no visible in ju rie s, b u t w h ich p ro v id ed so m e h ig h ly p h o to g e n ic im ag es aro u n d w h ich th e w id e r d isco u rse of fo o tb all v io le n c e cou ld be d ep lo y ed . T h e d ram a, w h ich it has b e e n alleg ed w as itse lf s o m e th in g o f a set up b y th e B elg ian p o lice . . . soon en ab le d 179

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th o se sam e fo rces to m ob ilize th eir a rm o u ry in th e sh ap e of m o bile w a te r c a n n o n s , siren s an d tear gas w h ich sen t cro w d s of p e o p le sca tte rin g across th e stre ets a n d cen tra l sq u are, a d d in g to th e sp e ctacle , (ibid.: 416) C o m p la in ts b y m a n y o f th o se ca u g h t up in th e c o n fro n ta tio n th at th ey w ere n o n -h o o lig a n fan s u n w ittin g ly d raw n in by th e in ­ d iscrim in ate tactics o f th e B elg ia n p o lice w e re later g iv en c re d e n c e by a H o m e O ffice s ta te m e n t w h ich e m p h a sised th a t sco res o f th ose arreste d an d su b se q u e n tly d e p o rte d w ere k n o w n to h av e b e e n 'e n tire ly in n o c e n t'. T h is in clu d ed a p air o f A m erican to u rists w ith no c o n n e ctio n to th e to u rn a m e n t (ibid.: 413). S u ch in ju stice s w ere a c o n se q u e n ce o f th e B elg ia n p o lice 's p o licy o f 'a d m in istra tiv e d e te n tio n ', w h ich allo w ed th em in d iscrim in a tely to a rrest p e o p le in th e a b se n ce o f a n y crim in al o ffe n c e (P o u lto n 2005: 29). C rab b e see s this d e v e lo p m e n t as p ro o f th at 'E n g la n d s u p p o rte rs' re p u ta tio n is su ch th a t u p o n arriv in g o n fo re ig n soil th e y are o fte n treated w ith su sp icio n and in to le ra n ce , itse lf w h ip p e d up by local m ed ia scare sto rie s' (2003: 419). A sim ilar 'a m p lifica tio n sp iral' w as e v id e n t in th e m ed ia p re -c o v e ra g e o f th e 2 0 0 2 W o rld C u p to u rn a ­ m e n t in Ja p a n and K orea w h e re a tte n tio n w as c o n ce n tra te d on th e Ja p a n e s e p o lic e 's c o m m itm e n t to u sin g m artial arts, w a te r ca n n o n s and 'S p id e rm a n n e t g u n s' to rou n d up m isb e h a v in g fans (P ou lto n 2003: 24). U ltim ate ly , th o u g h , o n ly a m ere 13 o f th e estim ate d 8,000 E nglish fan s a tte n d in g the W o rld C u p w e re a rreste d . C rab b e (2003: 420) a ttrib u te s this o u tco m e to an 'im p o r ta n t cu ltu ral d im e n sio n '. In Ja p a n th e a b sen ce o f o b v io u s c e n tra l g a th e rin g p o in ts and b ars w ith th e c ap acity to ca ter for larg e g ro u p s in m o st o f th e h o st cities, as w ell as th e w id e sp re a d lo cal cele b ra tio n of th e p a g e a n try and n a tio n a l sy m b o lism o f th e fans th e m se lv e s, le ft little sp ace fo r th e fo rm s of cu ltu ral p ractice asso ciated w ith th e d isco u rse th ro u g h w h ich 'h o o lig a n is m ' is co n stitu te d . In d e e d , in a c o u n try o fte n seen as iso lated from th e W est, h ere w as a fascin atio n w ith th e e xo ticism o f th o se fo o tb all fan s that had trav elled to th e to u rn a m e n t w h ich see m e d to be m o st in te n s e ly an d w arm ly d irecte d to w ard s E n g la n d su p p o rte rs and th e p e rce iv e d e x u b e ra n c e o f th e ir style o f su p p o rt.

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T h e E u ro p e an F o o tb a ll C ham pio nship s of 2 0 0 4 in P o rtu g a l (E u ro 2 0 0 4 ) M o re re c e n t w o rk b y S to tt an d his co lle a g u e s (S tott et al. 2006) p ro v id e s fu rth e r e v id e n c e to su g g e st th at, w h e re o v erse as p olice o fficers are s u fficie n tly to le ra n t o f th e fan cu ltu re o f trav e llin g E n glish su p p o rte rs (n o tw ith s ta n d in g its fre q u en tly b o iste ro u s and jin g o istic n a tu re ), th e p o ssib ility o f v io le n c e w ill g re a tly b e red u ced . As p a rt o f th eir liaison w o rk w ith P o rtu g u e se p o lice , S to tt et al. w ere ab le to re c o m m e n d a 'm o d e l o f good p ra c tice ' to th e P olícia de S e g u ran za P ú blica (P SP ) to g u id e th em in th eir h a n d lin g o f E n g lan d su p p o rte rs at E uro 2000. T h e P SP has ju risd ic tio n o v er P o rtu g a l's city a reas an d , as su ch , w as re sp o n sib le fo r s u p e rv isin g all o f E n g la n d 's g am es. T h e p o licin g o f ru ral areas and sm all to w n s - in c lu d in g A lb u feira, w h ic h p layed h o st to E n g lish su p p o rte rs fo r a co u p le o f n ig h ts in Ju n e - w as th e re sp o n sib ility o f th e G u ard a N acio n al R e p u b lica n a (G N R ). T h e G N R did n o t in c o rp o ra te S to tt et al.'s p o licy re c o m m e n d a tio n s. In d e e d , th eirs w as a m u ch m o re 'h ig h p ro file' style o f cro w d m a n a g e m e n t. S to tt et al. u se p a rticip a n t o b se rv atio n d ata to h ig h lig h t th e d iffe re n c e s o f p olice style and th e ir im p licatio n s for h o o lig an activ ity . T h e stu d y sh o w s h o w the P S P 's g e n e ra lly to le ran t attitu d e to w ard s E n glish fans w as m an ife ste d in an o v erall re lu c ta n c e to in te rv e n e u n less a b so lu te ly n e ce ssa ry . P olice tactics w e re im ­ p le m e n te d a c co rd in g to the p rin cip le o f m in im u m fo rce and w ith a d eq u a te d iffe re n tia tio n b e tw e e n in n o c e n t an d gu ilty . S e n io r P SP o fficers re g u larly co n su lte d w ith th e ir E n g lish c o u n te rp a rts an d o ften h e e d e d th e ir ad v ice to re d u ce th e n u m b e rs o f o fficers d ep lo y ed to av oid ap p e a rin g too p ro v o cativ e . F a r fro m a u to m a tic a lly sid in g a g a in st th e E n g lish , th e P SP fre q u en tly sh ield e d th em from attack . F e e d b a ck fro m E n glish fan s re v e a le d th at th e P S P 's actio n s w ere w id ely re g a rd e d as le g itim ate. In te rv ie w e e s c o m m e n d e d the w ay th a t P SP tactics had see m e d d esig n e d to facilitate, ra th e r th a n stifle, th eir ad m itted ly b o iste ro u s b e h a v io u r. F u rth e rm o re , such tactics g a v e rise to a cu ltu re o f self-p o licin g w h ich p lay ed a k e y ro le in su p p ressin g p o te n tia l d iso rd er d u rin g th ree in c id e n ts w h ich failed to e scalate. T h is w as in stark co n tra st to e v en ts in A lbu feira o n 1 5 -1 6 Ju n e 2004. A first m a jo r in c id e n t o f d iso rd er o ccu rred on 15 Ju n e w h en p o lice in stru cte d the o w n e r o f a b a r on th e to w n 's m ain e n te rta in ­ m e n t strip to p re m a tu re ly close his p re m ise s. F o llo w in g the clo su re, sco res o f E n g lish fan s w ere fo rced o u t on to a d a n g e ro u sly b u sy 181

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ro a d w a y a n d , in th e e n su in g co m m o tio n , th e y b e ca m e em b ro ile d in sp o rad ic c o n fro n ta tio n s w ith G N R 'in te rv e n tio n sq u a d s'. T h is in c id e n t fram ed th e fo llo w in g n ig h t's activ ities. T h e se started at aro u n d 2 a.m . w h e n E n g lish fan s c o n g re g a tin g at the sam e b ar attack ed fo u r n o n -E n g lish m ales w h o had b een o b se rv e d v id e o ta p in g th e m . T h e E n g lish ag g re sso rs th e n th re w b e e r at o th e r cu sto m e rs and sp at u p o n th e o w n e r b e fo re sta rtin g to v a n d a lise th e p ro p e rty . T w o g ro u p s o f p olice c h a rg ed th e fans w ith th e ir b a to n s d raw n . A m o n g th o se b e a te n to th e g ro u n d by in te rv e n tio n sq u ad s w ere in n o c e n t b y sta n d e rs w h o h ad b e e n a p p e a lin g to th e ir fello w c o u n try m e n to en d th e ir v io le n t b e h a v io u r. So m e 20 m in u te s later, p o lice in riot g e ar th rew a co rd o n aro u n d 150 fan s in an a d ja c e n t b a r and m ad e sev eral arrests. F an s w h o had b e e n in v o lv ed in th e earlier v io le n t in c id e n t stood o u tsid e th e p olice co rd o n w h e re th e y th re w m issiles an d sh o u te d ab u se u n til a p o lice cav alry c h a rg e d isp ersed th e m . T h e situ atio n th e n stabilised and th e co rd o n w as relaxed . Ju s t b e fo re 3 a.m ., th o u g h , 20 G N R officers w alked to w ard s sta tio n a ry fan s and started to strik e th em w ith th eir b a to n s. F an s c o n tin u e d to sh o u t ab u se a n d th ro w m issiles at th e p o lice w h ile in th e p ro cess o f b e in g d isp ersed . In c o n tra s t to th e tactics o f th e P S P , th e G N R 's a ctio n s w ere p e rce iv e d b y E n g lan d fan s as h a v in g p re v e n te d them fro m e n g a g in g in th e ir cu sto m a ry e x u b e ra n t activ ities. T h is la tter p o licin g style e n c o u ra g e d m u tu al fe e lin g s o f d isre sp e ct ly in g at th e roo t of c o n ­ fro n ta tio n . T h e in te rv e n tio n o f p olice sq u ad s on the first n ig h t in A lb u feira w as w id e ly co n sid ere d to h a v e b e e n ex ce ssiv e an d u n ­ ju stifie d . T h e se in te rv e n tio n s also se t o ff ru m o u rs th at E n g la n d fans h ad b e e n ab u sed by p o lice (o n e o f th em g o in g so far as to alleg e th a t o n e of th e fan s h ad b e e n b e a te n to d ea th ). F an s th e re fo re re -g a th e re d d efia n tly an d , As co n flict escalated on th e seco n d e v e n in g , 'v io le n t' actio n s a g a in st th e p o lice cam e to b e d escrib ed b y som e p rev io u sly n o n -c o n fro n ta tio n a l E n g lan d fans as ap p ro p ria te . O n e E n glan d fan in te rv ie w e d d u rin g th e 'rio t' arg u ed th a t he h ad th ro w n a glass and a table at the G N R in o rd e r to p ro te c t h im se lf from a b a to n ch arg e, (ibid.: 16)

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K in g ’s m u ltiv a ria te a p p ro ac h T h e ab o v e case stu d ies im p licitly h ig h lig h t th e s ig n ifica n ce of id eo lo g ical, cu ltu ral an d in te ra c tio n a l facto rs in the ca u sa tio n of fo o tb a ll-re la ted d iso rd er. T h e w ay in w h ich th e se fe a tu re s tend to fu se and in te ra c t is b e tte r illu strated b y th e w o rk o f K in g (1995) w h ich fo cu ses, n o t on E n g lan d fans per se, b u t on th e e v en ts s u rro u n d in g a m a tch in a E u ro p e a n club co m p e titio n . In th e first w e e k o f N o v e m b er, 1993, M a n c h e ste r U n ited w e re d ue to p lay the T u rk ish clu b , G a latasaray , in th e aw ay leg o f a E u ro p e a n C u p tie. O n th e ev e of the m a tch , d istu rb a n ce s b ro k e o u t at the H o tel T am sa, in d o w n to w n Istan b u l. T h e se in v o lv ed local T u rk s and s ectio n s o f th e 16 0 -stro n g c o n tin g e n t o f U n ited su p p o rte rs stay in g at th e h o tel. K in g w as p re s e n t and w itn e sse d th e se e v en ts. H e u ses an ad ap te d v e rsio n o f the F la sh p o in ts M o d e l o f P u blic D iso rd e r, d iscu ssed in C h a p te r 2, to an aly se and exp lain the ep iso d e . R a th e r th a n e m p lo y in g th e six lev els o f th e m o d e l, he c o n d e n se s th e m in to th ree lev els o f an aly sis, re fe rre d to as 'h isto rica l b a c k g ro u n d ', 'le v e l of a c tu a liz a tio n ' an d 'le v e l o f in te ra c tio n '. At th e first o f th e se le v e ls, K in g fo cu ses on tw o im p o rta n t c o n ­ trib u to ry facto rs: the 'n a tio n a list and m a sc u lin ist' cu ltu re o f the M a n c h e ste r U n ited fan s, an d th e role o f th e T u rk ish state an d m ed ia in e n c o u ra g in g an an ti-W e ste rn clim ate in the b u ild -u p to th e m atch . K in g c o m m e n c e s his an aly sis b y h ig h lig h tin g th e w ay in w h ich E n glish fan s abroad h av e com m itte d th e m se lv e s to an 'im ag in e d n a tio n a l c o m m u n ity ' or cu ltu re o f fellow trav ellers. T h is h as b e e n c o n stru c te d an d su stain e d via th e use o f n u m e ro u s social d ev ice s, su ch as m ark in g o u t th e ir allo cated sectio n o f th e stad ia w ith U n ion Ja ck s an d C ross o f St G eo rg e flags, c h a n tin g p atrio tic an d x e n o p h o b ic slo g an s, an d p ro p a g a tin g p a rticu la r c o n ce p tio n s o f m ascu lin ity in fo o tb all so n g s, b o th to e m p h a sise th e ir o w n p o te n c y an d to h ig h lig h t th e sexu al in a d e q u a cy an d d ep ra v ity o f th e o p p o sitio n . A seco n d im p o rta n t c o m p o n e n t o f th e re le v a n t h isto rical b a c k ­ g ro u n d w as th e a n ti-W e ste rn fe rv o u r w h ip p e d up b y th e state and m ed ia. P re -m a tc h T u rk ish n e w sp a p e r ed ito rials d ep ic tin g E n glish su p p o rte rs as 'h o o lig a n s ' h e lp e d re in fo rce e x istin g p o litical b itte rn e ss re su ltin g from th e re c e n t re je c tio n of T u rk e y 's a p p lica tio n to jo in th e E u ro p e a n U n io n , from E u ro p e a n criticism o f th e c o u n try 's tre a tm e n t o f th e K u rd s, an d from 'th e p u ta tiv e fav o u ritism o f th e W e st to w ard s the M u slim Iraqi K u rd s in co n tra st to th eir iie g le c t of th e B o sn ia n M u slim s' (ibid.: 644). T h e d o m e stic cred ib ility o f th e T u rk ish g o v e rn ­ m e n t had also b e e n u n d e rm in e d b y its a p p a re n t in ab ility to cu rb a 183

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sp ate o f re c e n t attack s on T u rk ish g u e st w o rk e rs b y G e rm a n N eoF ascists. K in g th e re fo re sp e cu la te s th a t th e n e g a tiv e la b ellin g of U n ited fan s by th e m ed ia an d th e ir ag g re ssiv e tre a tm e n t at th e h an d s o f th e p olice 'c a n be see n as an a tte m p t b y th e state to reg ain cred ib ility by w h ip p in g up n a tio n a list p o p u list su p p o rt b e h in d its ac tio n s' (ibid.). T h e tra n sfo rm a tio n o f th e historical b a ck g ro u n d in to v io len ce o ccu rre d via th e in te rm e d ia te p ro ce ss o f 'a c tu a liz a tio n ', in w h ich th e n a tio n a listica lly m ascu lin e b e h a v io u r o f th e U n ited fan s su rfaced a lo n g sid e th e h o stile se n tim e n ts o f riv al T u rk ish an d th e ir p o lice fo rce. T h is w as p lay ed o u t in a b a r situ ated o n ly h a lf a m ile aw ay from th e H o tel T am sa. T h e re , so m e 50 or so M a n c u n ia n s started to sin g a re p e rto ire o f so n g s, co m m o n ly id e n tified w ith th e n a tio n a l team . T h e se in clu d e d th e n a tio n a l a n th em ('G o d S av e T h e Q u e e n '), 'N o S u rre n d e r to th e IR A ' an d 'E n g -g e r-la n d '. T h o u g h o ste n sib ly an e x p re ssio n o f E n g lish n e ss, th e y n o n e th e le s s 'e n c o u ra g e d a h o stile attitu d e to fo re ig n e rs g e n e ra lly ' (ibid.: 645). K in g c o n ce d e s th a t it is im p o ssib le to tell e x a ctly ho w rival T u rk ish fan s in te rp re te d the U n ited fa n s ' sin g in g . H o w e v e r, h e in te rp re ts th e fact th a t th e y g a th e re d o u tsid e th e b a r in su ch n u m b e rs as an in d ica tio n th at th e y h ad b e e n p rim ed b y h o stile sta te and m ed ia d isco u rses to reg ard th e sin g in g b y U n ited fan s as an a ffro n t to th e ir n a tio n a l ch a ra cter. T h e in te ra ctio n a l level w as re a ch e d w h e n , fo llo w in g 'in tim id a tio n ' b y th e T u rk s, som e fan s b e ca m e in v o lv e d in fig h tin g . K in g c o n fe sse s to b e in g u n su re as to p re cise ly w h e n v io le n ce actu ally b ro k e out. H o w e v e r, h e is c o n fid e n t th a t, 'In th a t m o m e n t o f a g g re ssio n an d re ta lia tio n , w h e re e v ery actio n o f th e o th e r g ro u p w as o v er-in v e ste d w ith m e a n in g , th e lev el of in te ra ctio n w as re a ch e d and a n e w selfp ro p e llin g d y n a m ic w as in itia te d ' (ibid.: 647). As p art of this d y n am ic, p o lice in te rv e n e d to b re a k up th e fig h tin g b e fo re e sco rtin g the U n ited fan s b a ck to th eir h o tel. E n ro u te, the E n g lish su p p o rte rs e n g a g e d in re p e a te d sk irm ish es w ith T u rkish rivals an d , at o n e p o in t, w e re b o m b a rd e d w ith p lastic and glass b o ttle s from su rro u n d in g flats. A ny U n ited fan s fo u n d lag g in g b e h in d w ere b a to n e d by the police. W ith th e U n ited fan s b a ck in th e ir h o te l, th ere w as a h a lf-h o u r lull in th e p ro ce e d in g s. H o stilities th e n re su m ed w h e n T u rk ish fans re g ro u p e d o u tsid e th e b u ild in g and started to b o m b a rd E n glish su p p o rte rs w ith bricks and b o ttles. T w o a tte m p ts to ch ase o ff th e T u rk s w e re th w a rted b y o th e r b a rra g e s o f m issiles. It w as o n ly after an h o u r and a h a lf o f co n fro n ta tio n th at th e rio t p o lice e v en tu a lly arriv ed , n o t o n ly to d isp e rse T u rk ish fan s, b u t also to a rrest U n ited 184

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follow ers - for, as K ing pu ts it, 'po litically sym bolic p u rp o ses' (ibid.: 649).

Conclusions A cadem ics gen erally agree th at fo otball-related d isord er is largely a w orkin g-class p h e n o m e n o n . D ifferen t theorists assert that the type of hooligan beh av io u r m an ifested in the E nglish football leagues is eith er the p rod u ct of w o rkin g-class socialisation p ractices, or rep resen ts an attem p t to m agically reco v er a lo n g-lo st sen se of co m ­ m u nity. C o m p lem en tary exp lan ation s have b een d ev elop ed to accou n t for the hooligan p ro p en sities of E nglish fans trav elling in su p p o rt of their club or national team s in o v erseas com p etitio n . O n e such exam ple p rop oses that the v iolen t con d u ct of h oolig an fans reflects the T h atch erite hed onism and chau v inistic ten d en cies of the 1980s and early 1990s. A n o th er th eo ry in terp rets th ese in tern atio n al rivalries as a h ig h er o rd er m an ifestatio n of the p ro p en sity of w orkin g-class lads to un ite in the face o f a com m on enem y . D espite som e d iscrep ancies of p ersp ectiv e, acad em ic and jou rn alistic com m en tato rs n o n eth eless con cu r th at it is only a sm all m inority of the ov erall travelling support that is inclined to pu rsu e v iolence. The bo istero u s and h igh -spirited b eh av iou r of o th er fans m ay seem obn o xio u s, in su ltin g and prov ocativ e to resid en ts of the host cou ntry. H ow ever, it is seldom ill-in ten tion ed . Statistical ev id en ce show s th at the m ajority of those arrested at m ajor in tern atio n al com p etition s tend n o t to be kn ow n hooligans. C on versely , th ere hav e b een com p etition s at w hich h u n d red s of 'reg u lar' ho o lig aiis hav e b e e n p re se n t w hich have n o t d eg en erated into v iolence. Stu d ies review ed in this ch ap ter strongly ind icate that, in ord er to u n d erstan d w h y h oo lig an b eh av iou r occurs, it is n ecessary to refer again to the type of con tin g e n cie s referred to earlier in the book. O n e obvious exam ple is the p resen ce or ab sen ce of political and m edia d iscou rse e n co u rag in g a political/ideological clim ate of neg ativ ity tow ard s the su p p orters. A d d itionally, 'p o lice k n o w led g e' b ased on the u n sav o u ry stereo ty p in g o f travelling fans m ay o p erate in con ju n ctio n w ith con textu al factors, such as a recen t history of p o lice -h o o lig a n co n fro n tatio n or m edia sen sitisation, and situ ational variables (e.g. the o v ert and con fro n tatio n al d ep lo y m en t of officers) to raise the p o ten tial for v iolence. Previous research suggests that, w hile m ost 'o rd in ary ' fans (and ev en m an y of th eir h oolig an cou n terp arts) often w elco m e the 185

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p o lic e 's p re s e n c e at or aro u n d fo o tb all m a tc h e s, tactical in te rv e n tio n s d ee m e d u n n e ce s sa ry or u n w a rra n te d are lik ely to be re sp o n d e d to ag g ressiv ely . E v en w h e re fan s n o t p re d isp o se d to v io le n c e are in v o lv e d , the u n ju stifia b le u se o f fo rce m ay e n h a n c e th e cro w d 's in ­ g ro u p so lid arity and g e n e ra te w id e sp re ad o p p o sitio n to th e police. S ocial p sy ch o lo g ica l re se a rch has d e m o n stra te d th a t, w h e re fo reig n p o lice h av e b een p rim ed to show a to le ra n t a ttitu d e to th e b o iste ro u s an d irre v e re n t cu ltu re o f E n g la n d su p p o rte rs, v io le n c e has b e e n m in im ised an d a te n d e n cy to w ard s self-p o licin g has e m e rg e d . W e shall soo n re tu rn to th e im p lica tio n s of th e se fin d in g s in o u r final c h a p te r, w h ich in clu d e s a series of re c o m m e n d a tio n s fo r b e st p ractice.

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Public d is o rd e r - sans fro n tiè re s Th is b o o k b e g an b y fo cu sin g on th e v io le n ce th at b ro k e o u t d u rin g th e a n ti-G 8 m arch at G le n e a g le s in Ju ly 2005. L ater th a t y e a r, w e saw am p le e v id e n c e th at p u b lic d iso rd er is n o t co n stra in e d b y c u ltu ra l or in te rn a tio n a l b o u n d a rie s w h e n u rb an rio tin g flared u p , firstly, in n e ig h b o u rin g F ra n c e , an d th e n in fara w a y A u stralia. As a p re lu d e to re v ie w in g the c o n te n ts o f p re v io u s c h a p te rs and b rin g in g to g e th e r th e ir p o licy im p lica tio n s, th e fo llo w in g co n clu sio n s are p re ce d e d by b rie f su m m a rie s o f the F ren ch and A u stralian riots w h ich help to re ite ra te this b o o k 's a b id in g th e m e: th a t p o lice m e th o d s im p le m e n te d , n o t o n ly d u rin g b u t also in th e b u ild -u p to d iso rd er, are p iv o tal to its in stig a tio n and d ev e lo p m e n t.

The F rench rio t s

T h e first of n u m e ro u s F re n ch riots o cc u p y in g a th re e -w e e k p erio d in O cto b e r/N o v e m b e r 2005 to o k p lace on 2 7 O cto b e r in the n o rth P arisian banlieue (su b u rb) o f C lich y -so u s-B o is w h e n tw o te e n a g e M u slim b o y s o f n o rth A frican h e rita g e w e re fatally e lec tro c u te d in a su b statio n w h ile flee in g from th e p o lice. T h e tw o y o u th s h ad b e co m e u n w ittin g ly in v o lv ed in a p o lice in v e stig a tio n o f a b re a k -in . It is n o t clear w h e th e r th e y w e re actu ally b e in g chased b y p o lice o fficers at the tim es o f th e ir d ea th s. N e v e rth e le ss, ru m o u rs th at th ey had b een p u rsu ed an d le ft to die soon circu lated the locality , p ro v o k in g v io le n t c o n fro n ta tio n b e tw e e n y o u th s and p o lice (D u v all Sm ith 2005). M o re rio tin g th e n fo llo w ed in n e ig h b o u rin g P arisian su b u rb s an d o th e r m a jo r F re n ch cities w ith sim ilar c o n ce n tra tio n s o f M u slim y o u th : 187

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th o u sa n d s o f y o u n g m e n b a ttle d w ith p o lice, set fire to local b u ild in g s and ig n ite d h u n d re d s o f m o to r v e h icle s (S ag e 2005). T h e u n d e rly in g cau ses o f th e F re n ch rio ts seem sim ilar in ch a ra c ter to th o se o f th e B ritish u rb an d iso rd ers o f 2001 - as well as th eir p re d e ce sso rs o f 1981. L ike th e B ritish A sians a rriv in g in th e textile areas of th e n o rth o f E n g la n d , th o u sa n d s o f A rabs an d n o rth A fricans from F ra n c e's fo reig n co lo n ie s w ere re cru ite d in th e p o st-w a r p eriod in to m e n ia l facto ry jo b s. S in ce th e n , th e w h o le sa le re lo ca tio n of F re n ch in d u stry abroad has b e q u e a th e d a leg acy o f h ig h y o u th u n e m p lo y m e n t an d an u n co m p ro m isin g p o licin g o f th e social m arg in s, w h ich has g rad u ally in te n sifie d sin ce th e m id -1970s in p arallel w ith th e s te re o ty p in g of M u slim y o u th as a p o ssib le terro rist th re a t (B on elli 2005). As M u rray (2006: 3 1 -3 2 ) exp lain s, Ju st as th e n o to rio u s 'su s' law s an d stop an d search m e th o d s of th e B ritish p o lice o u trag ed B rita in 's black c o m m u n itie s in the 1980s, re p e titiv e id e n tity ch e ck s o f F ra n c e 's e th n ic m in o rity y o u th s h a v e o n ly serv ed to fu rth e r a lie n a te an d a n ta g o n ise the v e ry p o o r p e o p le w h o se assimilation th e a u th o ritie s claim to d esire. V e rb a l in te ra c tio n b e tw e e n th e p o lice and n o n -w h ite y o u th s is o fte n in itiated by th e in e v ita b le 'sh o w m e y o u r p a p e rs, p le a se '. B u t w h ile 's u s ' w as e v e n tu a lly d iscre d ite d d u e to th e flim sy p re te x ts b e in g u sed to ap p ly it, an id e n tity c h e ck is ju st a n o th e r id e n tity ch eck . A n o th e r sp ecifically F re n ch issue co n ce rn s th e lan g u ag e e m p lo y e d by the p o lice. E v en the a u th o ritie s are no w a c k n o w le d g in g th a t th e n o t u n co m m o n po lice p ractice o f a d d ressin g n o n -w h ite y o u th s w ith th e c o n d e s c e n d in g 'tu' ra th e r th a n th e m ore re sp e ctfu l 'vous' u n d e r­ m in e s p o lic e -c o m m u n ity relatio n s. In A pril 2005, an A m n e sty In te rn a tk m a l re p o rt h ad sp o k e n o f the 'g e n e ra liz e d im p u n ity ' w ith w h ich F re n ch p o lice carried o u t id e n tity ch e ck s o n th e y o u th s in q u e stio n (B o u te ld ja 2005). F re n ch and B ritish c o m m e n ta to rs lin ked th e e x te n t and in te n sity o f the riots to a re c e n t p o lice cra ck d o w n on crim e in th e banlieues, an d on p ro v o cativ e co m m e n ts by the F re n ch M in iste r for the In te rio r, M r N icolas S ark o zy (B o n e lli 2006; F assin 2006; H a rd in g 2005). O n e o f S ark o z y 's first in itiativ es as m in ister had b e e n to d isb an d a sp e cial p o lice u n it set up in 1997 to fo rg e b e tte r re latio n s b e tw e e n th e m se lv e s an d the y o u th of the banlieues (G o d o y 2005). O n M o n d a y , 20 Ju n e , S a rk o z y v isited an estate to the n o rth o f P aris w h e re , o n e d ay p re v io u sly , an 11-y e ar-o ld b o y h ad b e e n ac cid e n ta lly sh o t d ead 188

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in cro ss-fire b e tw e e n riv al y o u th g an g s. S p e a k in g in re sp o n se , S a rk o z y h ad p led g ed th at: 'T h e lo u ts w ill d isap p e ar. W e w ill clean this e state w ith a K a rc h e r' (ibid.). T h is w as a re fe re n c e to a h ig h -p re ssu re h o se , u sed fo r c le a n in g grim e o ff cars or b u ild in g s. S ark o zy th en v isited a sim ilar e sta te in A rg en teu il on 25 O cto b e r, w h e re he w as b o m b a rd e d w ith sm all m issiles b y local y o u th s. T h e m in ister re sp o n d e d to this o rd eal b y p ro m isin g to rid su ch e sta te s o f th e 'racaille', o r ra b b le , in h a b itin g th e m (H e n ley 2005). T h e sem a n tic im p o rta n ce o f th e se w o rd s a p p e a re d n o t to h av e b e e n lost on M u slim y o u th s w h e n rio tin g b ro k e o u t tw o d ays later (Irelan d 2005). S a rk o z y 's p rim e m in isterial co lleag u e re sp o n d e d b y in v o k in g a 1955 cu rfew law , o rig in ally p assed to qu ell u n re st by A lg erian s at the h e ig h t of stru g g le for in d e p e n d e n ce . T h is p o licy re b o u n d e d on the a u th o ritie s by p ro v o k in g fu rth e r h o stilitie s (F ree d lan d 2005; H e n ley 2005).

The C r o n u l l a b e a c h r i o t

R ace re latio n s in v o lv in g M u slim y o u th s w e re also a ce n tra l fe a tu re of th e C ro n u lla riot in so u th S y d n e y , A u stralia, o n 11 D e cem b e r. As P o y n tin g (2006: 85) e x p lain s, th is d iso rd er in v o lv ed a v io le n t a ttack by 5 ,000 w h ite A u stralian s on y o u th s o f L e b a n e se h e rita g e w h o w ere in the v icin ity of th e local b e a ch . O n th e fo llo w in g d ay , y o u th s from the v ictim ised e th n ic m in o rity retaliated b y sm a sh in g cars and b e a tin g up w h ite p asse rs-b y . T h e in itia l attack s by w h ite s had fo llo w ed an in c id e n t o ccu rrin g sev eral d ays e a rlie r w h e n fou r L eb a n e se -A u stra lia n s a lle g ed ly laid in to th re e su rf lifesav ers. In the w e e k -lo n g h iatu s, tabloid n e w sp a p e rs and local 'ta lk b a ck ' rad io had w h ip p e d up an a n ti-'M id d le -E a ste rn ' h y ste ria , w h ile a local 's h o c k jo c k ' rad io p re s e n te r had g iv en his o n -air e n d o rse m e n t to a textm e ssa g in g ca m p a ig n callin g fo r a h u g e 're claim th e b e a ch ' rally th e fo llo w in g w e e k e n d . P o y n tin g (2006) e ch o e s H a rtley an d G re e n (2006) in e m p h a sisin g th e sy m b o lic s ig n ifica n ce o f th e b e a ch and its life gu ard s for w h ite A u stralian s. H e also id e n tifies th e im p o rta n ce o f th e grad u al co n stru c tio n sin ce th e m id -1990s o f a M u slim 'fo lk d ev il', d ep icted as 'b a c k w a rd , u n civ ilise d , irra tio n a l, v io le n t, crim in ally in clin e d , m iso g y n istic an d a terro rist th re a t' (ibid.: 8 8 -8 9 ). K abir (2006: 194) sim ilarly m a in ta in s th at calls for M u slim w o m en to be b a n n ed from w e a rin g th e chaddor (h e a d -to -to e clo ak ) in p u b lic, an d for M uslim girls to be fo rb id d e n from w e a rin g th e hijab (h e a d scarf) in p u blic sch o o ls, e a ch h e lp e d to fo ste r a 'clim a te o f a lie n a tio n an d e n m ity '. 189

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P olice sp o k e sp e rso n s u n d o u b te d ly co n trib u te d to su ch n e g a tiv ity b y p e re n n ia lly co m p la in in g a b o u t th e m isb eh a v io u r on S y d n e y b e a ch e s b y y o u th s o f 'M id d le E a ste rn a p p e a ra n c e ' (P o y n to n op. cit.: 8 7 -8 8 ). T h e se n tim e n ts o f lo cal c o m m a n d e rs in th e b u ild -u p to th e rio t w ere ex e m p lified by a local a ssistan t co m m issio n e r w h o , 're m a rk in g th a t h e grew up su rfin g in C ro n u lla , in stru cte d [Daily Telegraph] re a d e rs on w h a t w as the "A u stralian w ay " at th e b e a ch ; s o m e th in g the fro n t-p a g e h e a d lin e said h e v o w ed to d e fe n d ' (ibid.: 86). T e n m o n th s a fte r th e rio t, a re p o rt by a retired assistan t p o lice co m m issio n e r o f N ew S o u th W ales n o t o n ly criticised th e ro le s o f th e p rin t m ed ia and talk sh o w h o sts in stirrin g up local re s e n tm e n t b u t also b lam ed th e p o lice fo r u n d e re s tim a tin g th e d eg re e o f racial te n sio n e x istin g in th e b u ild -u p to th e riots an d o f re sp o n d in g in a d e q u a te ly to the e v en tu a l crisis. D e sp ite th e cle a r risk o f m a jo r d iso rd er in d icate d b y m ed ia c o m m e n ta rie s and th e v io le n t a tm o s p h e re p ro m o ted b y 270,0 0 0 s u b ­ scrip tio n s to th e te x t-m e ssa g in g ca m p a ig n (M ay n ard 2006), p o lice p la n n in g w as su p e rficial an d o n ly 4 7 rio t-tra in e d o fficers w ere e v e n tu a lly d ep lo y ed w ith an extra 52 on sta n d b y . T h e p o lice co m m a n d ce n tre set up at C ron u lla S u rf L ife S a v in g C lub w as in a d eq u a te ly re so u rce d fo r th e p u rp o se an d e v en lack ed a fu n ctio n in g te le p h o n e lin e. T h e re p o rt fu rth e r criticised sen io r p o lice fo r le av in g o p e ra tio n a l d ecisio n s to local and re g io n a l c o m m a n d e rs, ra th e r th an tre a tin g th e e v e n t as a n a tio n a l issu e re q u irin g th e su p e rv isio n of sp ecialist c o m m a n d e rs. A cco rd in g to its a u th o r, th e p o lice failed to in stitu te a 'm a jo r in c id e n t m a n a g e m e n t sy ste m '. T h e re su ltin g ch ain s o f co m m a n d w ere b lu rred an d u n ce rta in an d sp ecialist re sp o n se team s w e re n e v e r actu ally d ep lo y ed (C le n n e ll and D av is 2006). T h e F re n ch an d A u stralian rio ts are p o te n t re m in d e rs to W e ste rn socie tie s in g e n era l, an d to p o licy m ak ers esp ecia lly , of th e n e e d for an a d e q u a te u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e u n d e rly in g cau ses o f d iso rd er and th e p o lic e 's role in su b d u in g o r e n h a n c in g its p o te n tia l. B ea rin g th ese im p e ra tiv e s in m in d , th e c o n te n ts of p re v io u s ch a p te rs are n o w re v ie w e d as a basis fo r a d v o c a tin g a n u m b e r o f p o licy re c o m m e n d a ­ tions.

T h e o re tic a l fo un dation s W e saw in C h a p te r 1 h o w , in re c e n t d e c a d e s, p o lice fo rce s in W e ste rn d em o cra cie s h av e a b a n d o n e d th eir c o m m itm e n t to a relativ ely co e rciv e an d c o n fro n ta tio n a l escalated force c o n ce p tio n o f p u b lic o rd er 190

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po licin g in p referen ce o f a softer negotiated management ap p roach , d esigned to restore and en h an ce their p erceiv ed legitim acy. The resu ltin g em ph asis on p rev en tativ e tech n iq u es - of liaison and n eg otiatio n and the use of in telligen ce and ten sio n ind icators to p red ict and ho p efu lly offset d isord er - has been com p lem en ted by a gen erally m ore to leran t style of p olicing pu blic order. W h erev er possible, the rights of civilians are u p h eld , m inor law -b reaking is to lerated , and few er arrests occur. This is not to p reten d th at the police coerciv e cap acity has b e e n ab an d o n ed en tirely. The iron fist is still likely to be revealed - and used , if n eed be - in situ ations inv olv ing transgressiv e (as o pposed to co n tain ed ) pro testers and w ithin political clim ates of op in io n w hich vilify culturally or politically d issen tin g grou p s, their goals and their m ean s of ach iev in g them . G en erally sp eakin g, the police will 'd ie in a d itch' to protect the in tegrity of p erso n s, locations, bu ild ing s or m o n u m en ts, and cerem o n ial occasions w h ere, for them to do o th erw ise, w ould run the risk of in cu rrin g sev ere in -th e-jo b trou ble. P olice policy will be su b jected to the m ore explicit in flu en ce exerted by relev an t legal, d em ocratic and o ccu p ation al aud iences. T h e p ow er to ind uce particu lar form s of police strategy and tactics is, of cou rse, u n equally d istributed and tend s to resid e w ith g o v ern m en t and o th e r statesponsored institutions. T h at said, the m ass m edia plays a highly in flu en tial role in assessing - if n ot alw ays d isp assio n ately - the relative m erits of co m p etin g sh ad es o f ideological o pinion. Th e 'h u m a n e lem e n t' in h e re n t in public ord er policing provides a fu rth er basis for u n d erstan d in g police b eh av iou r and its c o n ­ sequ en ces. Stu d ies o f police ran k-an d -file em p h asise th at officers ten d to subscribe to a 'p ath o lo g ical' view of crow d beh av iou r w hich sees the resp ectab le m ajority as pron e to 'm an ip u latio n ' by a d ev iant and sin ister m inority , in ten t on 'h ija ck in g ' p o lice -co m m u n ity or p o lic e -p ro te ste r relation s. Logic th erefo re d ictates that all crow ds m u st be strictly m arsh alled to p re v e n t the spread of con tagiou sly im pu lsive and hostile behav iou r. T heorists m aintain that practical p roblem s con fro n tin g p olice low er ranks (the in ability to see p erfectly w ell thro u gh a visored h elm et and shield , and the im ­ possibility of d eterm in in g w ith infallible accu racy w hich ones w ithin the crow d w ere resp onsible for th row in g ston es) can u n in ten tio n ally p ro m ote disorder. R esearch by the A m erican sociologist, G ary M arx, on the A m erican urban d isord ers of the 1960s h igh ligh ts the possible con tribu tion of police tactics to the instig atio n and d ev elo p m en t of rioting. 191

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A cco rd in g to M arx , rio tin g is o fte n the o u tc o m e o f ill-ch o se n or in e ffe ctu a l p o lice tactics, su ch as: d ra w in g larg e, h o stile cro w d s on to th e sce n e b e ca u se of th e o ste n ta tio u s a n d o v er-d ra m a tic m a n n e r of th eir arriv al; s h o w in g in itial re tice n c e in the face o f o v e rw h e lm in g o p p o sitio n ; m a k in g p re m a tu re atte m p ts at d isp e rsal;, and failin g to e n te r in to p re -e m p tiv e n e g o tia tio n s, e v en w h e re th e cro w d has a w e ll-fo u n d e d g rie v a n ce and cred ib le c o m m u n ity re p re s e n ta tiv e s are av ailab le. M a rx 's stu d y is o f a d d itio n a l u tility in h e lp in g to iso late o th e r p o licin g v ariab les co n d u civ e to p u blic d iso rd er. In so m e cases, th e se are in stitu tio n a l (su ch as b u re a u c ra tic m a lfu n ctio n w ith in p o lice fo rces, th e p re se n c e o f d ec e n tra lise d u n its lack in g req u isite o rg a n isa tio n , an d an a b sen ce of fo rm al a c co u n ta b ility ), or cu ltu ral (th e fact th a t o fficers b ro u g h t in from o u tsid e the area m ay be u n fam iliar w ith lo cal m o res an d sen sib ilitie s, or are m o re used to w o rk in g in o n e s and tw o s than in riot squ ad s). In ad d itio n , tech n ical p ro b le m s su ch as b re a k d o w n s o f rad io c o m m u n ica tio n can h a m p e r tactical co -o rd in a tio n . F in ally , the fact th at o fficers are o n ly h u m an m e a n s th a t a sp e cts o f ju d g e m e n t an d m o tiv a tio n are a ffe cte d by su ch co n d itio n s as h u n g e r, tire d n ess or e x h a u stio n , or th e d esire to avoid a loss o f face, e x a ct re v e n g e or sim p ly to d e m o n s tra te th eir efficacy . T h e ad o p tio n o f in cre a sin g ly p aram ilitarised tactics and stra te g ies b y W e ste rn p o lice fo rce s sin ce th e late tw e n tie th c e n tu ry h as b ro u g h t w ith it w ays o f e n s u rin g th at o fficers are a d eq u a te ly d iscip lin ed and w ell co -o rd in a te d , an d th a t th e m ach o an d a c tio n -o rie n te d cu ltu re of ju n io r ran ks is held in ch e ck . In certa in c irc u m sta n ce s, th o u g h , such m e th o d s can p ro v e in te n se ly p ro v o ca tiv e and also b rin g o u t th e w o rst e x ce sse s o f th e p o lice o cc u p a tio n a l cu ltu re. T h is m ilitarisatio n o f th e p o lice is o n e o f an array o f facto rs in c o rp o ra te d by d ella P orta's m o d e l o f p ro te st p o licin g . T h is m o d e l is u n iq u e in e m p h a sisin g th e sig n ifican ce o f n u m e ro u s in stitu tio n a l fa cto rs, n o ta b ly th e o v e ra rc h in g legal fra m ew o rk (in clu d in g , for e x a m p le, the p e rm issiv e n e ss o f p u b lic o rd er leg islatio n ) an d th e p o lice o rg a n isa tio n a l stru ctu re (i.e. th e e x te n t o f its c en tra lisa tio n , a c co u n ta b ility and m ilitarisatio n ). A sp ects of cu ltu re are in co rp o ra te d in th e m o d el. T h is in clu d e s th e p o lice o cc u p a tio n a l cu ltu re and th e p a rticu la r p o licin g cu ltu re o f th e h o st so ciety (e.g. w h e th e r liberal or a u th o rita ria n ). T h e m o d e l sh are s w ith th e co n ce p t o f p olice a u d ie n ce s an e m p h a sis o n id e o lo g ical fo rces, h ig h lig h tin g th e p o ssib le s ig n ifica n ce o f the c u rre n t co n fig u ra tio n of p o w e r (th e n a tu re an d e x te n t o f g o v e rn m e n t in flu e n c e ) an d th e 192

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o p in io n s o f o th e r p arties (n o tab ly , sectio n s o f th e 'civ il rig h ts' and 'law an d o rd e r' co alitio n s). T h e m o d el has a fu rth e r h isto rical d im e n sio n , in so far as it assu m es th a t p re v io u s e n c o u n te rs b e tw e e n p o lice an d p ro te ste rs m ay w ell h av e left a le g a cy o f sco res to be settle d . F in ally , th e re are th e in te ra ctio n a l d y n am ics o f th e situ atio n : w h e th e r local or u n fam iliar o fficers are in v o lv e d ; th e e x te n t to w h ich p o lice tactics a d eq u a te ly d iffe re n tia te b e tw e e n g u ilty and in n o c e n t; an d the d eg re e to w h ic h lin es o f c o m m u n ica tio n an d co m m an d fu n ctio n e ffe ctiv ely . Id eas fe a tu rin g in th e p o licin g lite ra tu re are o ccasio n ally d u p licated an d , s o m e tim e s, co m p le m e n te d and e n h a n c e d b y m ore g e n e ra l th e o rie s and m o d e ls o f p u blic d iso rd er. In C h a p te r 2, w e saw h o w 'n a ïv e ', sin g le-fa c to r e x p la n a tio n s, b a sed on the G ro u p M ind a p p ro ach o f L eB o n or th e 'a g ita to r v ie w ' o f co n flict, h a v e larg ely b e e n d iscre d ite d in fa v o u r o f m u ltiv ariate m o d els of rio tin g . T h e e arlie st and m o st in flu e n tia l o f th ese is S m e lse r's T h e o ry o f C o llectiv e B e h a v io u r w h ich e sta b lish es th e im p o rta n ce o f a trig g e rin g or p re c ip ita tin g in c id e n t in cry stallisin g c o lle ctiv ely h eld g rie v a n ce s (e le m e n ts o f social strain ). T h is an d s u b se q u e n t a p p ro a c h e s b ased on a n a ly se s o f the 1960s A m erican u rb an riots (by H u n d le y an d S p ieg el) e m p h a sise th e im p o rta n ce o f su ch c o n te x tu a l facto rs as th e p re se n ce o r a b sen ce o f c h a n n e ls for e x p re ssin g g rie v a n ce s an d the facilitatin g e ffe ct o f the p re s e n c e and c o n v e rg e n c e o f large n u m b e rs o f p e o p le . T h e y also fo cu s o n th e role o f le a d e rsh ip an d in te ra c tiv e c o m ­ m u n ica tio n in th e m o b ilisatio n o f rio to u s b e h a v io u r. W h e re th e se m o d e ls do v a ry is in th e d e g re e to w h ic h th e y reg ard p a rticu la r fo rm s of p o licin g as re sp o n sib le fo r th e in stig a tio n and e scalatio n o f con flict. T h u s, a cco rd in g to S m e lse r, rio tin g is less likely to d ev e lo p in s itu a tio n s w h e re th e p o lice act d ecisiv ely to p re v e n t c o m m u n ica tio n an d in te ra c tio n , re frain from b lu ffin g or v acillatin g an d av o id b e co m in g e m b ro ile d in a n y d iscu ssio n o f u n d e rly in g g rie v an ce s. H u n d le y e m p h a sises th a t, as lo n g as p o lice in te rv e n tio n s are w id e ly se e n as le g itim ate and are d ev o id o f ru d e n e ss, im p o lite ­ n ess or b ru ta lity , th e y are u n lik e ly to cau se a riot. L ike S m e lse r, he a d v o ca te s th a t th e p o lice d iv id e up th e crow d and p re v e n t c o m ­ m u n ica tio n , an d re c o m m e n d s th a t w ith d ra w a l tactics sh o u ld o n ly o ccu r in s itu a tio n s w h e re th e p o lice h av e a lre a d y c o n ta cte d cred ib le c o m m u n ity lead ers. S p ieg el calls for an in te rm e d ia te ap p ro ach b e tw e e n u n d e r- an d o v e r-e n fo rc e m e n t. T actics o f u n d e r-c o n tro l are lik ely to h a v e a lib e ra tin g an d e m p o w e rin g e ffe ct o n th o se p re s e n t, le a d in g to an 'e fflo r e sc e n c e ' o f lo o tin g , w h ile o v e r-th e -to p in te rv e n tio n s th a t are o u t o f all p ro p o rtio n to th e serio u sn ess o f the 193

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initial flash p o in t w ill prove escalatory u n less en tered into w ith an ov erw h elm in g show of force. T h e Flash p oin ts M od el of Public D isord er sees police activities con trib u tin g to d isord er at five of its six stipu lated levels of analysis. T his can p oten tially h ap p en , for exam p le, w here sen io r officers con tribu te to a n eg ativ e clim ate o f op in ion (political/ideological level); w here the cu lture of low er-ran k s p red isp o ses them to conflict (cultural); w h ere th ere has b een no liaison or n e g otiatio n w ith pro test o rg anisers or com m u n ity lead ers, or there is a neg ativ e history o f p o lice-civ ilian en co u n te rs (con textu al); w h ere they perceiv e territory as tu rf to be w on back or retain ed , and are dep lo y ed in th re ate n in g or prov ocativ e fo rm atio n s (situ ational); and w h en th e y m ake esp ecially rou gh or d eg rad in g arrests that em p h asise their u n w illin gn ess to accom m od ate the values and in terests of the policed (in teractional). O tte n et al. reiterate m an y of the featu res o f p olicing high ligh ted in the flash p o in ts m od el. T h ey em p h asise the significance o f an in cu b a­ tion p h ase inv olv ing a festerin g social problem such as d eterio ratin g relation s b etw een the police and you ths from an eth n ic m inority. T h ey also ap p reciate the significance of a con cen trated rise in tension (e.g. w here the possibility of con flict reach es boiling po in t due to an in crease in em otive in cid en ts or grow th in com plain ts. T h ese auth ors fu rth er u n d erlin e how con flict will escalate w hen police m obilisation b ey o n d the triggerin g in cid e n t is h u rried , u n coo rd in ated and u n ­ restrain ed , and w hen th eir d ep artu re is sud den and leaves no place for exp lain in g their tactics to the com m u n ity th rou gh accred ited rep resen tativ es. A fu rth er in sig h t into the w ay in w hich police tactics m ay prove escalatory is provided by the E laborated Social Id en tity M odel (ESIM ). This m od el m aintains th at any police action perceiv ed as u n ju stified and illegitim ate will hav e the effect of in d u cin g solidarity and opposition based on a ren ew ed sen se of shared social identity. Such o p p o sitio n will be all the m ore resolu te in situ ations w ere the police are p erceiv ed as nu m erically or tactically vulnerable. T h eo retical ap p roach es - both to pu blic ord er policing and to crow d d isord er, per se - u n d o u b ted ly prov id e a solid basis for u n d e r­ stan d in g the n atu re and co n seq u en ces o f police actions. C h ap ters 3 -7 of the b oo k outlined a succession of case stud ies w ith the o b jectiv es of u n e arth in g insig hts capable of en d o rsin g , com p le m e n tin g and e n h an cin g existing theory. T h e follow ing section reiterates the m ain lessons yielded by these chapters.

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T h e case studies

U r b a n d is o r d e r

In C h a p te r 3, w e saw ho w p u b lic o rd e r p o licin g in th e U n ited S tates is in sep a ra b le from w id e r class an d e th n ic co n flicts. T h is w as m ad e a p p a re n t by o u r tw o e x a m p les o f A m erican c o m m o d ity riots. In the M o u n t P le a sa n t (W a sh in g to n , D C ) riot o f 1991, p o lice w e re re a c tin g to p re ssu re im p o sed on th em b y 'y u p p ie s' an d local trad ers to 'c le a n u p ' th e stre ets of o u t-o f-w o rk S a lv a d o ra n s e n g a g e d in b e e r-d rin k in g oil s tre et co rn e rs an d p u blic parks. P olice p o licy w as carried out am id st claim s o f h a ra ssm e n t, d iscrim in atio n an d in civ ilities alleg ed ly p e rp e tra te d b y n o n -S p a n is h -s p e a k in g o fficers. T h e sh o o tin g of a re s id e n t H isp an ic by an in e x p e rie n c e d o ffice r p ro v ed to be the fin al straw . T h e local m ay o r w as later criticised for o rd e rin g the po lice to hold o ff in th e early stag es o f the riot and tellin g co m m u n ity re p re s e n ta tiv e s th a t th e ir g rie v a n ce s w e re w e ll-fo u n d e d . O fficial in v e stig a to rs n o te d th a t th ere w as no m e ch a n ism for m o n ito rin g p o lice m isco n d u ct. T en y ears later, in C in cin n a ti, O h io , d ru g tra d in g and th e p re se n ce o f g ro w in g n u m b e rs o f d o w n tro d d e n A frican -A m e rican s in the re c e n tly g e n trifie d O v e r-th e -R h in e area p ro v o k e d co m p lain ts to th e p o lice by w h ite re sid e n ts and b u sin e ss o w n e rs and n ig h t club p ro p rie to rs. E n h a n ce d p o lice p re s e n c e (bo th o fficially , an d in the form o f o fficers d o u b lin g up as p riv ate secu rity g u ard s) created in te n se h o stility w ith in th e lo cal co m m u n ity . A D ra c o n ia n local o rd n a n c e e ffe ctiv ely e x clu d in g d ru g o ffe n d e rs from th e area w as z e a lo u sly e n fo rc e d by p o lice o fficers also co m m itte d to ac h iev in g a rrest qu otas. P ro ce sse s o f racial p ro filin g an d p o lice h a ra ssm e n t w ere rife, w ith p o lice tactics p re d ica te d on th e a ssu m p tio n th at a n y o n e ru n n in g aw a y fro m a s cre e c h in g p atro l car w as b o u n d to be h id in g s o m e th in g . D ru g u se a m o n g b lack re sid e n ts w as a p ro b lem in B ro o k ly n 's C ro w n H e ig h ts are a , w h e re lo cal A frican -A m erican s and A frican C a rib b e a n s n o t o n ly o b je cte d to th e re p ressiv e p o licin g o f th e ir co m m u n ity , b u t also felt th a t the p o lice an d o th e r a u th o ritie s w ere gu ilty o f g iv in g p re fe re n tia l tre a tm e n t to local Je w s. As in M o u n t P le a sa n t, th e p olice w ere accu sed o f n o t h a v in g acted w ith su fficie n t reso lv e in th e ir atte m p ts to qu ell th e con flict. A lth ou g h a R apid M o b ilisatio n p ro c e d u re w as a lre a d y e sta b lish ed for p rio ritisin g p olice calls for a ssista n ce , th is w as n e v e r activ ated d u e to fears th a t too few o fficers u n d e rsto o d th e re le v a n t co d es. Field c o m m a n d e rs ru ed 195

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th e a b sen ce o f a tan g ib le fo rce p h ilo so p h y fo r h a n d lin g larg e-scale d iso rd er and w e re fo rce d , e ith e r in to lo o k in g on p assiv ely and w a itin g for th e rio tin g to blow itse lf o u t, or in to c o n co c tin g an im p ro v ise d a n d h a p h a z a rd re sp o n se. R e c e n t n e w a p p o in tm e n ts and p e rso n n e l c h a n g e s had m e a n t th a t m a n y sen io r o fficers w ere p laced in u n fa m ilia r roles an d e n v iro n m e n ts. S u ch co m m a n d e rs w ere te n ta tiv e and in d ecisiv e, to the d e trim e n t of c o m m u n ica tio n an d c o -o rd in a tio n . T h e m o st m o m e n to u s A m erican d iso rd er o f the last c en tu ry , th e Los A n g eles riot o f 1992, o ccu rred on th e h e e ls o f a p o lice crack d o w n in d u c ed b y a m o ral p an ic c o n c e rn in g 'd ru g w ars' b e tw e e n rival gan gs. W e a k fo rm al a cco u n ta b ility s tru ctu re s allo w ed th e c h ie f o f p o lice a re lativ e ly free h an d w ith w h ich to ste e r th e to u g h -m in d e d b ran d of p o licin g trad itio n ally ch a m p io n e d by his fo rce. T h is had g e n e ra te d an in te n se ly h o stile an d m istru stfu l re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n th e p o lice and e th n ic m in o rity y o u th s, for w h o m th e acq u ittal o f p o lice o fficers seen o n tap e b e a tin g th e b la ck m an R o d n e y K in g w as th e fin al straw . T h e e ru p tio n o f v io le n ce c o n se q u e n t on th e K in g v e rd ict soon sh o w e d th e L A P D to be ill-e q u ip p e d , o u tn u m b e re d an d ill-p re p ared for th e rio t's in itial fla sh p o in t in S o u th C e n tra l. T h e ir h ap less re tre a t from a h o stile cro w d e m b o ld e n e d th e in itial m iscre an ts and se t th e to iie fo r th e re m a in d e r o f th e riot. M u ch o f th e b la m e fo r th is has b een attrib u ted to th e fact th at, fo llo w in g official criticism o f th e ch ief b y an official re p o rt on th e K in g b e a tin g , L A P D 's sen io r o ffice r had b ro k en o ff c o n ta ct an d co n su lta tio n w ith sen io r staff. T h e re w as also a w id e sp re a d fe e lin g th a t, as th e d e fe n d a n ts w e re b o u n d to be sen t d o w n , it w o u ld h a v e b e e n w astefu l o f re so u rc e s to h av e p re p a re d too m e ticu lo u sly an d e x p e n siv ely for a riot. T h e a cclaim ed LA PD M e tro p o lita n D iv isio n fa st-re sp o n se u n its w ere e x ce p tio n a l in h a v in g b e e n p u t th ro u g h p re -rio t re fre sh e r train in g in an ticip a tio n o f a p o ssib le riot. An LA PD te ch n ica l m an u al actu ally p ro v id ed a plan for re s p o n d in g to an in c id e n t o f this kin d . A M etro se n io r c o m m a n d e r had sp e cifically re q u este d th at his u n its be d ep lo y ed th ro u g h o u t S o u th C e n tral to p ro je c t a w ell-d iscip lin e d b u t h ig h -p ro file d e te rre n t to d iso rd er. H e had also w a n te d his officers to be su p p lied w ith p ro te c tiv e c lo th in g and v isible w e a p o n ry as sy m b o lic d e te rre n ts to riotin g. T h e se req u ests w e re tu rn e d d o w n . In the p re v a ilin g a tm o s p h e re o f c o n fu sio n , field c o m m a n d e rs had good reaso n to b e m o a n th e ir lack o f tra in in g or p re p a ra tio n . C o m m u n ity a lie n a tio n , in c o n ju n ctio n w ith the id e o lo g ical v ilifica­ tion o f e th n ic m in o rity y o u th , w as also at th e ro ot o f th e B ritish urban d iso rd ers o f th e 1990s an d 2 001, and o f th e F re n ch an d A ustralian 196

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riots o f 2005. In 1991 an d 1992, c a r-re la te d crim es a m o n g d isaffe cte d y o u th s o n w h ite , w o rk in g -cla ss B ritish h o u sin g estate s e v en tu a lly attracted th e a tte n tio n o f rio t p o lice re sp o n d in g , at last, to risin g crim e statistics an d h o w ls of p ro te st b y local re sid e n ts. P rio r to in te rv e n in g , th e p o lice had b e e n c o n sp icu o u s by th eir a b sen ce in th e se w a stela n d s o f in d u stria l d eclin e and local a u th o rity in d iffe r­ e n ce . T h e ir su d d e n in v o lv e m e n t p ro v ed in c e n d ia ry - a classic case of 'to o little p o licin g fo llo w ed b y too m u ch '. T h e 1995 B rad fo rd riot w as the e arlie st p ro d u c t o f th e g ro w in g im p o v e rish m e n t an d m a rg in a lisa tio n o f A sian y o u th . In ad d itio n to th e g ro w in g tid e of Isla m a p h o b ia th re a te n in g th eir secu rity , A sian c o m m u n itie s in cities like B rad fo rd w ere b e in g stig m atised by sen io r p o lice as h o tb e d s o f d ru g trad in g w h e re y o u th s w ere b e y o n d the c o n tro l o f e ld e rs an d h o stile to w h ite society . T h e risin g te n d e n cy for A sian y o u th s to re sp o n d to racist attack s w as b e in g m ista k e n ly con stru e d as A sian racism to w ard s w h ites. In an a tm o sp h e re of m u tu a l m istru st an d c o n te m p t, p o lice re a cted to alleg ed v e rb al abu se b y so m e A sian y o u th s p lay in g fo o tb all in th e stre e t w ith o u t d uly d is tin g u ish in g b e tw e e n th e actu al o ffe n d e rs an d casu al b y stan d e rs. A n o fficial re p o rt fo u n d th at o fficers tre a te d all co n ce rn e d w ith equ al m e a su res o f c o n te m p t an d in civ ility , as if re sid e n ts w ere in ca p a b le of u n d e rs ta n d in g w h a t w as g o in g o n b e fo re th em . E v en th e h u rrie d n a tu re o f th eir exit w as co n sid ered in h e re n tly p ro v o ca tiv e , w h ile the e sca la tio n o f th e riot see m e d tied to th e p o lic e 's failu re to c o n v in ce co m m u n ity re p re s e n ta tiv e s th a t th eir c o n ce rn s had b e e n n o ted and u n d e rsto o d . T h e 2001 riots resu lted from sim ilar p o lice m isin te rp re ta tio n s of th e m o tiv es an d b e h a v io u r o f A sian y o u th . In O ld h a m , se n io r p olice sp o n so red a p a rticu la r in te rp re ta tio n o f statistics on racist attack s w h ich u n ju stifia b ly accu sed local A sians o f w a n to n ag g ressio n to w ard s w h ite s, aim ed at d e lib e ra te ly c re a tin g 'n o -g o a re a s' in w h ich d ru g -d e a lin g cou ld flou rish u n ch e c k e d . T h e re su ltin g a tte n tio n and m isch ie f-m a k in g d ev o te d to A sian c o m m u n itie s b y e le m e n ts o f the F ar R ig h t p ro v id ed the im m e d ia te b a ck d ro p to th e riots. A sim ilar m iscalcu latio n o ccu rre d in B u rn le y w h e re defensive activ ities b y A sian y o u th w ere sim ilarly c a stig a te d as e v id e n c e o f crim in al activ ity ('tu rf w a rs' c o n n e cte d to d ru g trad in g ). In th is c o n te x t, p o lice h e sita n cy in d ea lin g ap p ro p ria te ly w ith w h ite racists m e n a cin g ly g a th e re d o n the ed g e o f the A sian co m m u n itie s p ro v o k e d a d e te rm in e d c o u n te r­ re a ctio n b y A sian y o u th . P olice in ab ility to a p p re c ia te th e d im e n sio n o f th e p e rce iv e d th re a t p o sed b y th e B N P led to th em b e in g n u m e ric a lly u n d e r-s tre n g th an d in ca p a b le o f c o m in g b e tw e e n the 197

Policing Public D is o rd e r

rival factions. T he sham bolic n atu re o f their ev en tu al in terv en tio n was m arked by poor co m m u n icatio n , p anic and e v en tu al retreat. T h ese ev en ts reso n ate w ith those of the C ron ulla beach riot, referred to above. T h ere, too, n eg ativ e police in terp retatio n s of the c h aracter and alleged beh av iou rs of local M uslim you th form ed part of the p rocess of ideological 'd é m o n isa tio n ' w hich resu lted in w hite vigilantism on a m ass scale, for w hich the police w ere strategically and tactically u n p rep ared . The Fren ch riots of on e m on th earlier w ere likew ise p resaged by the lo n g stan d in g vilification and crim inalisation of M uslim you th. A corresp on d in g in ten sification of police stop and search tactics, in co rp o ratin g blatan t displays of d isresp ect, then b ro u g h t the suburbs to boiling point. In this respect, the d isord ers arguably had m ore in com m on w ith the British d isord ers of 1981 and the A m erican 'co m m u n al riots' ad d ressed in C h ap ter 3 than the English 'textile to w n ' riots of 2001.

A n ti - g lo b a l i s a t io n p r o t e s t

T h e ch aracter of pu blic o rd er policing in W estern d em ocratic societies has b een rad ically tran sfo rm ed by the recen t p roliferation of anti-globalisation p rotest. W orld sum m it m eetin gs place a huge political onu s on the police to 'd ie in a d itch ' in o rd er to g u aran tee the security, n o t only of the v en u es in w hich they are taking p lace, but also the In tern atio n ally P rotected P ersons atten d in g them . Senior officers are now forced to con ten d w ith the possibilities that the no n -h ierarch ical and 'le ad e rle ss' stru ctu res of p ro test m o v em en ts w ill m ake liaison a practical im possibility, w hile the sh eer diversity of their p ro test rep erto ires will m ake it exceed in g ly d ifficult to pred ict their tactical in ten tio n s. As p art of a g en eral resp o nse to these ch an g es, the police have con tin u ed to o p erate accord ing to the ten ets o f n eg otiated m an ag e­ m en t - en d eav o u rin g to liaise and co -o p erate with 'c o n ta in e d ' section s o f the p rotest m o v em en t w h ich hav e retain ed a w illingn ess to share inform ation and co-op erate. This ap p roach is invariably co m p lem en ted by tactics and strategies of strategic incap acitatio n (e.g. block in g p ro testers' m o v em en ts; en fo rcin g ban s, curfew s and n o -p rotest zon es; m ak in g p re-em p tiv e arrests and d ep loy in g lessleth al w eap o n s) in relation to transgressiv e groups of protesters. The greater the perceiv ed tran sgressiv en ess of the pro testers, the less com p rom isin g is th e p olice's resp o n se. W hile the police have b eco m e in creasin g ly ad ep t at p rev en tin g the 'h ija ck in g ' of d em o n stratio n s via d irect actio n, the long-term effect of their 'ro u tin isatio n ' strategies 198

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has b een to arou se ang er and fru stratio n am on g activists kn o w in g that the effectiv en ess o f their p rotest has been u n d erm in ed . T h e em p h asis on strategic in cap acitatio n is exem plified by the case of the infam o u s G en o a G8 sum m it m eetin g of 2001, w h en Italian police applied strict b o rd er con trols and , m ore locally, perim eter zo n es as restrictive con trol m easu res. E xtensiv e fortification structures becam e a sym bolic as well as physical targ et for the p rotesters. T h e u n com p rom isin g attitu d es of the police and carabinieri are partly explicable in term s of a p rev ailing political clim ate of opinion in w hich sen io r Italian politicians and the 'law and o rd er' coalition refu sed to en d orse the valu es and o b jectiv es of the p ro test m o v em en t and urged the police to deal reso lu tely w ith any m iscond uct. Su ch m essages reinforced the police co m m itm en t to their trad itional 'K in g 's po lice' modus operandi, pred icated on in ten se loyalty to the presid ing g o v ern m en t. A sim ilar obligation to deal reso lu tely w ith d em on strato rs w as placed on H o n g K ong police in ad v an ce of the 2005 W TO m inisterial co n feren ce. In this in stan ce, sen io r police w ere aw are that the p erceiv ed inability of their officers to cop e w ith large-scale d om estic and in tern atio n al d issid en ce w ould attract criticism of their regim e by the on lo o k in g C h in ese m ainland go v ern m en t. Su ch an ou tcom e m igh t w ell be the p recu rso r to a d isin v estm en t of local political au to n om y and con trol. Initially, police reactions to pu blic displays of u n ru liness w ere soften ed by a com p etin g priority n ot to lend cred en ce to the claim s o f pro-reform activists by b eh av in g too aggressively. H o w ever, as p ro testers ad o p ted an in creasin g ly co n ­ fro n tation al o rien tatio n , the su p ersed in g political im p erativ e - of capably su p p ressin g the d issid ents - im m ed iately held sway. A n o th er m ajor problem en co u n tered by p ro testers in G en oa w as that th ere w ere few form al restrain ts actin g on the police. For on e thing , m ost officers had their p erso nal id en tification nu m bers con cealed and could not, th erefo re, be m ad e acco u n table for their actions. L ikew ise, the p olice and pu blic w ere equally aw are that, given the toothless n atu re of civilian com p lain ts p ro ced u res, officers w ere un likely to be d iscip lined , or ev en rep rim an d ed , for u n ­ accep table con d u ct on their part. Police culture also created a pred isp o sitio n to v io len ce, insofar as public d iso rd er units w ere heavily p aram ilitarised , and m ore used to d ealing w ith M afia gangs and football hooligans. N egative stereo ty p es of the p ro testers and feelings of hostility and suspicion tow ard s them w ere rein fo rced by the p olice's in ability to p red ict w h at sort of tactics d em on strato rs w ere likely to em ploy. 199

P olicing P ublic D is o rd e r

P oo r p o lice liaison w ith p ro te ste rs w as attrib u te d b y th e fo rm e r to th e fact th a t o rg an ise rs w e re too elu siv e to b e c o n ta cte d . In th e a b sen ce o f co n cre te in fo rm a tio n re g a rd in g th e p ro te s te rs' in te n tio n s, state in te llig e n c e a g e n cie s p re d icte d th at d e m o n stra to rs w ou ld e n g a g e in u n re stra in e d atro cities. P olice tra in in g w as th u s p re d icate d o n th e p ro sp e ct of v io le n t c o n fro n ta tio n . T h e h ig h ly c o n tra stin g o rg a n isa tio n and co m m an d s tru ctu re s o f p o lice and carabinieri cre a ted p o o r c o m m u n ica tio n an d c o o rd in a tio n b e tw e e n th em . T h e ra n d o m , in d iscrim in a te an d ag g re ssiv e tactics e m p lo y e d on the g ro u n d p ro d u ce d in te n s e re sista n ce an d solid arity . T h e b itte r c o n fro n ta tio n o ccu rrin g d u rin g th e in fa m o u s b a ttle of S e a ttle fu rth e r e lu cid a te s th e v ario u s w ay s in w h ich p o lice tactics can p ro d u ce a n u m b e r of u n in te n d e d c o n se q u e n ce s (or 'iro n ie s') in th eir d ealin g s w ith p ro te sters. W h a t h a p p e n e d at S e attle u n d e rlin e s th e im p licit m e ssag e o f o th e r case stu d ies, like G e n o a - th a t p olice actio n s often d raw to g e th e r 'stra n g e b e d fe llo w s' (i.e. u n ify id e o lo g i­ cally d iscre p a n t sectio n s o f th e cro w d ). O th e r p o lice tactics at th e S e a ttle p ro te st serv ed o n ly to in d u ce re ta lia to ry o r e sca la to ry re ­ sp o n se s by p ro te sters. C o n v e rse ly , in sta n ce s o f p olice h e sita n cy an d in d ecisiv en e ss had th e e ffe ct o f e m p o w e rin g an d e n c o u ra g in g th eir ad v ersaries. O th e r case stu d ies re fe rre d to in C h a p te r 5 sh ow h o w p a tte rn s of trad itio n and c h a n g e are fu n d a m e n ta l to e x p la in in g p o lice tactical and strate g ic o rie n ta tio n . At G o th e n b u rg in 2 001, th e in e ffe ctu a l n atu re of p o lice tactics and stra te g y w as d ue to th e p o lice 's a d h e re n c e to tra d itio n a l m e th o d s b a sed o n th e c o n ta in m e n t o f static form s of p ro te st, w h ic h w ere c erta in ly no m a tch fo r th e 'h it an d ru n ' tactics ad o p ted b y a n a rch ist g ro u p s u n w illin g to follow th e p rescrib ed ro u te o f the m a rch an d asse m b le in d e sig n a te d p ro te st areas. T w o o th e r e x a m p les from th e fo llo w in g y ear fu rth e r e m p h a sise th at p olice styles o fte n e v o lv e as a resu lt o f lesso n s learn e d on th e basis o f p re v io u s e n c o u n te rs. T h e re lativ e ly 's o ft h at' a p p ro a ch ad o p ted b y th e C a n a d ia n p o lice at the G 8 rally in O ttaw a h ig h lig h ted th e ir se n sitiv ity to p u blic criticism o f th e ir tactics d u rin g p re v io u s su m m it m e e tin g s - in O tta w a , m o n th s earlier, and Q u e b e c C ity in 2001. T h e Italian p o lice also d isp lay ed a m o re to le ra n t and co -o p e ra tiv e o rie n ta tio n to w a rd s a n ti-w a r p ro te ste rs in F lo re n ce , fo llo w in g p u b lic o u tra g e re g a rd in g th e ir tactics at G en o a. F e a tu re d case stu d ie s o f th e N ew Y o rk an ti-w a r p ro te st o f 2003 an d th e S h e ffie ld G 8 H o m e A ffairs an d Ju s tice M in iste rs' m e e tin g of tw o y ears la ter su g g e st th a t the g e n eral p h ilo so p h ie s of p o licin g su b scrib ed to b y in d iv id u al fo rce s w ill h a v e an im p o rta n t in flu e n c e 200

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o n th e ir stra te g ies an d tactics. In th e fo rm er ca se , the fo rce c o m m it­ m e n t to a 'B ro k e n w in d o w s'/'z e ro to le ra n ce ' m o d e o f p o licin g led to th e e x tre m e c o n fu sio n an d p ro v o ca tio n o f d e m o n stra to rs w ho v io le n tly e x p re sse d th eir co rre sp o n d in g in d ig n a tio n . B y co n tra st, th e a d o p tio n o f a m ore b e n ig n and to le ra n t p h ilo so p h y by S o u th Y o rk sh ire P olice had a m o d e ra tin g e ffe ct on p o lic e -p ro te s te r re latio n s d u rin g th e S h e ffie ld G 8. In S h e ffie ld , th e p o lice c o m m itm e n t to e ra d ica tin g th e u n w a n te d leg acies o f th e m in e rs' strik e an d H illsb o ro u g h trag ed y w as a k ey d e te rm in a n t o f th e ir ap p ro ach . T h e p o lice 's h a n d s w ere tied , to a large e x te n t, b y th e n e e d to p ro te ct th e v isitin g IP P s an d th e o v e r­ rid in g p o litical o b je ctiv e o f 's h o w c a sin g ' S h e ffie ld to a w o rld -w id e au d ie n ce . H o w e v e r, sen io r o fficers w ere e q u ally re sp o n siv e to the o b je ctiv e s o f local p ro te ste rs p e rce iv e d to be d ed icated to a w o rth y an d u n se lfish p o litical cau se. In th e fin al an aly sis, th e p o lice w ere gu ilty o f o v e rd ra m a tisin g th eir im p re ssio n s o f th e tran sg ressiv e g ro u p s in v o lv e d . C o n ta in m e n t p ro c e d u re s w ere th e re fo re b ro u g h t in to re strict th e size and lo ca tio n o f th e m ain p ro te sts. H o w e v e r, p re -b rie fin g s e n su re d th at P S U s w ere co m m itte d to to le ra n t in te ra c ­ tion w ith p ro te sters. T h e tw o re lativ e ly m in o r in c id e n ts th at did o ccu r w ere th e re su lt o f p o lice o v er-ca u tio n an d th e in v o lv e m e n t of o u tsid e o fficers. O th e r B ritish case stu d ie s o f tra n sn a tio n a l p ro te st d escrib e a d ialectical re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n th e p olice an d p u b lic o p in io n . In the b u ild -u p to th e M ay D ay p ro te st o f 2001, s e n io r p o lice p ro activ e ly g e n e ra te d n e g a tiv e ch a ra c te risa tio n s o f the p ro te sters an d th eir s u p p o se d in te n tio n s as ju stific a to ry ra tio n a le s for re p ressiv e p o licin g m easu res. It has also b e e n su g g e ste d th a t, at th e M ay D ay p ro te st of o n e y e a r earlier, th e M e tro p o lita n P olice S e rv ice p u lled o ff an eq u ally p ro activ e p lo y - by d elib e ra te ly e x p o sin g a local M cD o n a ld 's fast-fo o d re sta u ra n t to v an d alism b y p ro te sters in o rd e r to: (a) c o n ce n tra te th e v io le n ce to a sm all and m a n a g e a b le area; and (b) e n su re th a t p u b lic sy m p a th y w as rig h t b e h in d th e police. E v e n ts at th e G le n e a g le s G 8 su m m it m e e tin g also su g g e st th at the re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n th e m e d ia-le d v ilificatio n o f p ro te ste rs and th e co rre sp o n d in g p o lice tactics an d strate g y is h ig h ly n e g o tia te d . B o th fo r th e M ak e P o v e rty H isto ry m arch an d th e m ain m arch in A u c h te ra rd e r, p o lice w e re scep tical o f alarm ist m ed ia p re d ictio n s a n d , in d e e d , so u g h t to assu ag e p u b lic a n x ie ty by a p p o in tin g sp e cialist co m m u n ica tio n s p e rs o n n e l to th e task. T h a t said , th ere are g ro u n d s for sp e cu la tin g th at th e a p p a re n t v u ln e ra b ility o f the p ro te c tiv e fe n c in g aro u n d G le n e a g le s m ay h av e re p re s e n te d a 201

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re im p le m e n ta tio n o f th e 'w in n in g b y a p p e a rin g to lo se ' scen ario p re v io u sly d ep lo y ed at th e 2000 M ay D ay rally.

F o o t b a l l h o o l i g a n is m

R e sea rch on fo o tb all h o o lig a n ism in v o lv in g E n g lish su p p o rte rs ab ro ad su g g e sts th a t p olice p e rc e p tio n s of, an d co rre sp o n d in g re a c tio n s to, the fan s are k e y to e x p la in in g th e o cc u rre n c e of la rg e -sca le d iso rd er. T h e re is g ro w in g a ca d e m ic a g re e m e n t th a t, in ad d itio n to h a rd e n e d h o o lig a n s and 'o rd in a ry s u p p o rte rs', the fa n -b a se also in clu d e s a su b sta n tia l c o n tin g e n t w h ich em b ra ce s a n a tio n a listic and la d d ish /m a scu lin e cu ltu re , ste re o ty p e d by fo reig n p o lice as o ffe n siv e , th re a te n in g an d a g g re ssiv e ly v o latile. In situ atio n s w h e re n e g a tiv e p o lice im p re ssio n s o f the fan s are h a rd e n e d b y h o stile m ed ia and p olitical d isco u rse, and fu rth e r re ­ in fo rced by a b u ild -u p of n e g a tiv e in c id e n ts a lo n g th e w ay , v io le n ce alm o st in e v ita b ly arises. P olice tra n sg re ssio n s of th e 'u n w ritte n ru les' g o v e rn in g p e r­ m issible or le g itim ate in te rv e n tio n on th e ir p a rt n o t o n ly serv e to solid ify the self-c o n fe sse d h o o lig a n s, b u t also e n h a n c e th e collectiv e o u trag e an d sen se o f 'c o m m o n fa te ' o f th o se b y sta n d e rs o ffe n d e d by th e a p p a re n tly in d iscrim in a te n a tu re o f th e c h o se n cro w d c o n tro l m a n o eu v re s. By c o n tra st, crow d d iso rd er has b e e n less p re v a le n t d u rin g c o m p e titio n s w h e re th e p o lice h a v e b e e n p e rm issiv e o f th e cu ltu ral n o rm s o f trav e llin g E n glish s u p p o rte rs, and w h e n th eir in te rv e n tio n s h a v e b e e n m o re ju d icio u sly im p le m e n te d . By co m b in in g th e m ain co n clu sio n s o f th e th e o ry -b a se d an d case stu d y ch a p te rs o f this b o o k , it is p o ssib le to arriv e at th e list of p o lic e -re le v a n t facto rs asso ciate d w ith th e in stig a tio n an d d e v e lo p ­ m e n t o f d iso rd er a p p e a rin g in T ab le 8.1. S u ch facto rs p ro v id e c o rre sp o n d in g ly u sefu l p o in te rs to th e ty p e o f p o lice tactics and stra te g ies req u ired to e n su re th e p re se rv a tio n and m a in te n a n c e of p u b lic o rd e r. It is on th e se m atte rs o f p o licy th a t w e lastly fo cu s ou r a tte n tio n .

Policy im p licatio n s T h e th e o re tica l and case stu d y ch a p te rs o f th is b o o k su g g e st th a t certa in p o licy in te rv e n tio n s are req u ired on th e p a rt o f th e p o lice and o th e r im p o rta n t so cie ta l in stitu tio n s in o rd e r to o ffse t th e possibility 202

C onclusions

of futu re exam p les of m ajor public d isorder. As I p o in ted out in an earlier p u blication, P oliticians need to be resp onsiv e to the m aterial and cultural d ep rivatio ns exp erien ced by sp ecific section s o f society , notably w orkin g-class you ths. Society need s to en su re ad eq u ate rep re­ sen tatio n to those cu rren tly excluded or alienated from its political institutions. M edia p ractitioners m u st recogn ize that, in v ilifying d issen tin g groups and system atically ig n o rin g or m is­ rep resen tin g their griev ances, th ey are p ro m o tin g the potential for d isord er. (D W ad d in g ton 1992: 215) S en ior police officers can also play a cen tral part in en su rin g that m acro sociological variables of this natu re are geared tow ard s the ach iev e m e n t o f public harm o n y . O n e of the m ajo r lessons of the M ake P ov erty H istory m arch throu gh E dinbu rgh in July 2005 is th at it can u n d o u b ted ly be in e v ery o n e 's in terests for the police to keep the alarm ist pred ictio n s of local and nation al m edia in sensible p ro p ortio n . G iven w h at w e have also learn ed ab ou t the w ays in w hich statem en ts by police sp o kesp erso n s con trib u ted to the su b seq u en t d isord ers in places like O ld h am and S yd n ey, it w ould seem ad visable for h ig h -ran k in g officers to refrain from publicly castigating d issen tin g groups and their ob jectiv es. R ather than p atro n isin g or rep ressin g the alien ated , im p ov erished and d isaffected , sen ior police should be actin g as ad vocates on their b eh alf - giving cred en ce to the th eoretical lin k b e tw e e n p ov erty, social exclu sion, crim e and d isorder. O tten et al. (2001) are am o n g o th er acad em ics ad v o catin g a m ore socially sen sitive role for the police. T h e y reco m m en d , for exam p le, that D u tch police officers should strive to red u ce the alien atio n and d isaffection of D utchM o ro ccan you th s by lobbying on their b eh alf for greater political rep resen tation , special you th em p lo y m en t prog ram m es and w ider leisure facilities. O n e of the principal lessons of our m ain em pirical case study, co n cern in g the policing of the m eetin g in Sheffield of the G8 M inisters o f Ju stice and H om e A ffairs, is th at o p eratio n s of this m ag n itu d e are m ore likely to rem ain peacefu l w h ere local (rather than cen tral) con trol is exercised w ith due regard for the w ish es and sen sibilities of the local pop u lation. T h e relative tranqu illity of this occasion, com p ared to (say) the con flict occu rrin g at the 2003 anti-w ar p ro test in N ew Y ork, or in the 1992 Los A ngeles riot, show s the obvious b en efits of to leran t ev eryd ay policing p h ilo sop h ies 203

T a b l e 8.1

Policing public order: factors con du cive to vio len t con frontation

Political/ideological 1 A hard -lin e g o v ern m en t w illing to sanction police repression 2 Explicit pressu re on the police (from go v ern m en t and o th er p oliticians, interest groups, general public, the m edia, police p ersonnel) to apply u n com p rom isin g tactics and strategies 3 An absen ce of cou nterv ailing appeals for restraint from the 'civil rights coalition' 4 Im plicit political pressure on the police to 'die in a d itch' in d efen ce of im p ortan t sym bolic targets (e.g. IPPs, n ational m on u m en ts) or occasions of national significance (e.g. royal cerem onials) 5 Police im p lem entation of non -p erm issive public ord er legislation Institutional 1 C entralised rath er than local con trol over police operations 2 W eak or n o n -ex isten t form al accoun tability m ech an ism s restrainin g police b ehav iou r 3 D isorganised and /or m alfu n ctio n in g police bu reau cracy and d ecision-m aking procedu res 4 An ab sen ce, or lack of kn ow led ge of, force plans of action for d ealing w ith public order 5 A gen eral police m ission or 'p h ilo so p h y ' of 'zero tolerance' 6 A police tradition of servitude to local or national g o v ern m en t (the 'K ing's police' m odel) 7 A lack of up -to-d ate training in tolerant crow d control m eth od s Cultural 1 O fficers from outsid e the locality w ho are u n fam iliar w ith local custom s and sensibilities, and do not hav e a full com m itm en t to m aintaining good long-term relations w ith the public 2 Special units subscribing to norm s of con frontation 3 N ovice, inexp erienced or u n trained officers 4 P red o m in an tly m ale p erso n n el w hose core values of m achism o, solidarity, action and con trol are given free rein in param ilitary units 5 M istru st and stereoty p ing of section s of the public due to their age, class, transgressiveness and organisation (e.g. h etero gen eo u s, n o n-h ierarch ical, leaderless, non-in stitu tion alised , hav ing v iolent or unp red ictable 'rep erto ires of action') 6 An u n w illin gness to accom m od ate the values and o bjectiv es of relevan t sections of the public 7 A reg io nal or national political tradition of into lerance and repression Contextual 1 A history of previous incid ents or neg ativ e en cou n ters (w ith possible scores to settle) 2 A history of rou tinisin g and n eu tralisin g protest in such a w ay as to enhan ce political resen tm en t and ind ignation 3 N o n -existen t, partial or bogu s neg otiation, liaison and co-operation with public rep resentatives 4 A recen t b uild-u p of police activity (e.g. a 'crack d o w n ' on local crim e) 5 An absen ce of (or lack o f faith in) any prior agreem ents or con tin g en cy plans form ulated w ith public rep resentatives

6 Prior intelligence suggesting the need for a resolu te police response or the 'in su ran ce ' of 'to o led -u p ' rein fo rcem en ts 7 P re-even t training in read in ess for con fro n tation rath er than peace 8 P rovocative or th reaten in g statem ents by sen ior officers in the build-up to a public ord er even t 9 O v erreaction to provocative m essages by public rep resentatives and m edia sen sitisation in the build-up to an ev en t 10 Inad equ ate pre-briefing of officers, directing them to avoid con fro n tation and facilitate the o bjectiv es of the public Situational 1 D ifficulties in d ictating the layout of the ev en t, lim iting the crow d's m o v em en ts and m aintaining effective surveillance 2 O fficers d ep loyed in high -profile and p rovocative form ations (with rein forcem en ts, w eap onry, dogs, horses, etc. all on public display) 3 D ep lo ym en t of officers from a variety of d ifferent forces, lead ing to poor coord ination and blurred lines of com m and 4 N o 'situ atio n al a d ju stm en t' involving new ly arrived officers 5 An absen ce of trusted and reliable self-stew arding 6 Police d efinitions of public b eh av iou r as sinister, illegitim ate or ill-intention ed 7 Public p erception s of the police role as illegitim ate and /or im partial 8 A strategic intention by the police to engage in con fro n tatio n (e.g. to clear an area or 'w in by ap p earin g to lose') 9 A sym bolically significant location (e.g. a 'fro n t lin e' to be d efen d ed by a com m u n ity or su b culture, or 'n o-g o area' to be retaken by the police) Interactional 1 Su d d en or ov erd ram atic police interv en tion s w'hich suggest 'ov erkill' and /or draw o th er p eople to the scene 2 In su fficien t police to lerance and resp ect for public b eh av iou r and objectives (non-facilitativ e policing) 3 U nclear com m u nication to public of police instruction s or w arn in gs 4 Police tactics that d ep art from norm ative exp ectation s or prior agreem en ts, and w hich p rev en t protesters from achiev ing their objectives 5 Police tactics w hich are ind iscrim in ate, bru tal or otherw ise unfair, and w hich have the effect of in d u cin g crow d solidarity against them 6 D ispersal tactics by the police that serve only to spread the crowd geog rap hically and m ake its activities m ore unp red ictable and less easy to con trol 7 Police in v o lv em en t in in cid en ts inv olv ing intensifiers (e.g. a particularly p ro m in en t or vulnerable p erson, or an esp ecially rough or d egrad in g arrest) 8 A failure to engage in (or a rejection of) o p portu nities to arbitrate or negotiate a red u ction of hostilities, esp ecially w h en credible rep resentatives are present and issues do not seem intractable 9 Police in terv en tion s that look w eak, ineffectu al or u n d er-staffed , and w hich th erefo re serve to em p ow er and encou rag e the crow d 10 Police affected by poor physical con dition (e.g. tiredness) or p sychological state (e.g. fear, panic, d eterm ination to exact rev en ge, not to lose face or d efend repu tation) 11 Police ju d g em en t im paired by defective eq u ip m en t (e.g. scratched h elm et visor) or inability to pick m iscrean ts out of large crow d

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or 'm is sio n s ', clearly p re scrib e d d e c isio n -m a k in g p ro c e d u re s an d p lan s o f a ctio n , an d the u p -to -d a te train in g o f o fficers. C h ie f p o lice o fficers sh o u ld d e v o te th e m se lv e s to e n su rin g th a t su ch p ro c e d u re s and m e c h a n ism s are firm ly in p lace an d sy ste m atically re fre sh e d . W e ste rn so cie tie s also n e e d to co n sid e r w h e th e r fo rm al sy ste m s of p o lice m o n ito rin g an d a c co u n ta b ility are cu rre n tly a d e q u a te fo r th eir p u rp o se s (see D. W a d d in g to n [1992] for a fu ller d iscu ssion of this d eb a te ). N u m ero u s o f o u r case stu d ie s, ra n g in g fro m G e n o a to Los A n g eles, in d ica te a p o sitiv e co rre la tio n b e tw e e n p u blic d iso rd er and an a b se n ce o f civ ilian d irectio n or fo rm al re stra in t on p o lice b e h a v io u r. In ad d itio n to p ro p o se d c h a n g e s at th e political and in s titu tio n a l le v e ls, p o lice sh o u ld also co n sid e r w ay s o f c h a n g in g th e ir a ttitu d es and b e h a v io u r to sectio n s o f th e g e n era l p u b lic in such a w ay as to le sse n th e lik elih o o d o f d iso rd er. F o r e x a m p le, O tte n et al. m a in ta in th at train in g sch e m e s sh ou ld be in stig ate d w ith a view to se n sitisin g ra n k -a n d -file o fficers to re le v a n t cu ltu ral d iffe re n c e s b e tw e e n th e m ­ selv es an d e th n ic m in o ritie s. T h e n e e d fo r su ch p re p a ra tio n is e x e m p lified b y th e 'w a s te b a sk e t in c id e n t' in v o lv in g the p o lice an d M o ro ccan y o u th s, re fe rre d to in C h a p te r 2. O tte n et al. re ck o n th at, in th is case, th e p o lice w e re too in se n sitiv e to cu ltu ral d iv ersity : 'T h e fa th e rs o f M o ro cca n y o u th s, fo r in s ta n ce , did n o t u n d e rsta n d w h y th e p o lice failed to n e g o tia te w ith th em w h en th e ir ch ild re n violated th e law , as is [the] cu stom in M o ro cc o ' (ibid.: 33). A cco rd in g to O tte n and his c o -w o rk e rs, this raisin g o f cu ltu ral a w a re n ess sh o u ld b e u n d e rta k e n in c o n ju n c tio n w ith tra in in g to e n su re th at p o lice tactical in te rv e n tio n s do n o t b a ck fire in e scalato ry m a n n e r. T h e y criticise th e D u tch p o lice in th e ex am p le ju s t re fe rre d to fo r h a v in g a d o p ted a 'n o -n o n s e n s e ' p o licy o f s to p p in g all y o u th s on su sp icio n o f traffic v io latio n s in the b u ild -u p to th e co n fro n ta tio n th at o ccu rre d . T h is cru d e , in d iscrim in a te p ractice w as o n e o f th e m ain cau ses of p o lic e -c o m m u n ity te n sio n . O tte n et al. m ain tain th at se n io r o fficers w ou ld h av e b e e n b e tte r ad v ised to h av e co n su lte d w e ll-in fo rm e d c o m m u n ity m e m b e rs to ta rg et sp e cific g ro u p s or in d iv id u als, ra th e r th a n re so rtin g to su ch p ro v o ca tiv e satu ratio n m e asu res. F u rth e r tra in in g m ig h t also h a v e e n su re d th a t th e 'fla sh p o in t' in c id e n t w as h a n d le d m o re sy m p a th e tica lly . As O tte n et al. ex p la in , W h e n p o lice p e rso n n e l are n o t ta u g h t to re co g n iz e th e d iffe re n c e s b e tw e e n sim p le ro u tin e s itu a tio n s and p o te n tia l in fla m m a b le fla sh p o in ts, m istak es are q u ick ly m ad e. T h e 206

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'w a s te b a sk e t' in c id e n t cou ld h av e b e e n d efu se d b y the p o lice at e v e ry step o f th e e scalatio n p ro ce ss: th e in itial a p p ro a ch b y th e p o lice (d e m a n d in g a n sw e rs, b e in g a ccu sa tiv e), th e se n d in g off, th e im m e d ia te th re a t o f a b o o k in g an d th e actu a l b o o k in g and a rrest o f th e kid. A co n tro v ersial arrest by th e p o lice sh o u ld be fo llo w ed b y an e x p la n a tio n o f th e ratio n ale fo r p o lice b e h av io r. In M o ro ccan cu ltu re , it is it is cu sto m for p a re n ts to be con su lted b y th e p o lice on th e n a tu re of th e arrest an d th e p u n ish m e n t n e e d e d . . . In ste a d o f e x p la in in g b e h a v io r, e v e ry p o lice o fficer w e n t b a c k to th e ir statio n , (ibid.: 34) T h e b la ta n t in sen sitiv ity u n d e rp in n in g th e e n tire p o lice re sp o n se w as critical to w h a t fo llo w ed . T h e ir tactical m o b ilisatio n w as 'q u ick , m assiv e [and ] u n c o o rd in a te d ', w h ile th eir d e p a rtu re w as all too su d d e n (ibid.: 42). A fterw ard s, th e p o lice m ad e th e e q u ally cru cial m istak e of failin g to c o n ta ct and d e -b rie f c o m m u n ity le ad ers. For O tte n et al., th e lesso n s o f th e in c id e n t are clear: id eally , p o lice in te rv e n tio n s sh o u ld a p p e a r co m p o sed an d av o id im p re ssio n s of overkill. O n c e th e in te rv e n tio n is o v er, th e p o lice sh o u ld m a in ta in a p re c a u tio n a ry p re se n c e w h ile se n io r o fficers see k o u t co m m u n ity re p re s e n ta tiv e s in o rd e r to exp lain and ju stify th eir actio n s. T rain e d p o lice n e g o tia to rs sh o u ld also liaise w ith lo cal a u th o ritie s in a bid to p acify and a p p e ase the c o m m u n ity . S h o u ld all else fail, u se of force sh o u ld b e m e a su red an d con tro lle d . S im ilar re c o m m e n d a tio n s h av e b een p ro ffe re d by tw o o th e r D u tch acad e m ics, S to l an d B erv o e ts (2002), w h o c o lla b o ra te d w ith p olice d e p a rtm e n ts in A m sterd am , U tre ch t an d G o u d a in a jo in t effo rt to im p ro v e re latio n s b e tw e e n p o lice an d D u tc h -M o ro c ca n y o u th s. B ase d p rim arily on in te rv ie w s w ith th o se o fficers co n sid ere d m o st a d ep t in th e ir h a n d lin g o f y o u th s, Stol an d B erv o e ts e m p h a sise the n e e d for in d iv id u al o fficers to g et to k n ow lo cal y o u th s p e rso n a lly on the basis o f reg u lar in te ra c tio n . H o w e v e r, th e y also e m p h a sise th a t it is im p e ra tiv e fo r th e p o lice to d ev e lo p social n e tw o rk s aro u n d the y o u th s w h ich utilise fam ily, y o u th w o rk ers and m e m b e rs o f local m o sq u es as w ay s o f in flu e n c in g th e y o u n g m e n 's b e h a v io u r. S to l an d B erv o e ts stress th e n e e d for ap p ro p ria te sta n d a rd s o f 'd e c e n c y ' d u rin g p o lic e -y o u th in te ra ctio n s. In p articu lar, th ey ad v o ca te th a t y o u th s sh o u ld b e ap p ro a c h e d p o lite ly and w ith o u t u n n e ce ssa ry a b ru p tn e ss o r o b v io u s p re su m p tio n o f guilt. S u ch e n c o u n te rs sh o u ld also be a d e q u a te ly co g n isa n t o f cu ltu ral d iffe re n c e s b e tw e e n th e p o lice and M o ro ccan y o u th s:

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D u tch p e o p le are ra th e r d irect in th e ir w a y of co m m u n ica tin g . W ith o u t a n y in tro d u c tio n th e y rev eal th e re a so n for co m in g ('W h a t's g o in g on h e re ? '). M o ro cc a n s, o n th e o th e r h a n d , are less d irect. T h e y p re fe r som e sm all talk b e fo re g e ttin g to th e actu al s u b je ct. T h e re fo re , in th e e y e s o f M o ro cc a n s, th e d irect D u tch ap p ro a ch is ra th e r b lu n t an d ru d e. G o o d p o lic e m e n b e a r this in m in d , and are su ccessfu l in th e ir a p p ro a ch , (ibid.: 198) T a k e n to g e th e r, th e se stu d ies a d v o ca te a g e n era l style o f p o licin g b ased on re g u la r c o n ta ct an d co m m u n ica tio n w ith th e co m m u n ity . T h is v iew is ce rta in ly e n d o rse d b y P o w er a n d T u n sta ll w h o se w o rk sh o w e d h ow su d d e n , h ig h -p ro file p o lice in te rv e n tio n s re su lte d in th e h e a d -o n c o n fro n ta tio n s w ith w h ite y o u th s o n co u n cil e sta te s, re fe rre d to in C h a p te r 4. As P o w er and T u n stall (1997: 5 7 -5 8 ) e x p lain , It is c h e a p e r to h av e re g u la r p o licin g at the fro n t lin e th a t cuts crim e an d d iso rd er th a n c o n tin u o u s an d in a d e q u a te in te r­ v e n tio n s to q u ell d iso rd er. E x tre m e su p p ressio n su ch as cu rfew s is costly , sh o rt term and u n e q u a l, th o u g h it m ay be e ffe ctiv e in e x tre m e c o n d itio n s. A co m p le te re ap p raisal of core p o licin g m e th o d s is n e e d e d stre ssin g v isibility , co n ta ct, clarity and p ro a ctiv e p olicin g . T h e d iv isio n b e tw e e n 'c o m m u n ity p o licin g ' an d 'n o rm a l p o licin g ' sh o u ld go. T h e ty p e o f re c o m m e n d a tio n s d ee m e d m o st ap p ro p ria te for a v o id in g c o m m u n ity d iso rd ers are arg u ab ly ju st as ap p licab le to th e p o licin g o f cro w d s a tte n d in g p ro te st or sp o rtin g e v en ts. S u ch p rin cip les h a v e re c e n tly b e e n exp lo re d b y R e ich e r et al. (2004) w h o urge th e p o lice to follow a g e n e ra l a p p ro a c h w h ich av o id s tre a tin g 'th e c ro w d ' as an u n d iffe re n tia te d w h o le an d to refrain from tactical in te rv e n tio n s th at fail to d iffe re n tia te b e tw e e n 'g u ilty ' an d 'in n o c e n t'. T h e y m ain tain th a t p o lice actio n s u n d e rta k e n w ith o u t sen sitiv ity to th e aims of the crowd ru n the risk o f a lie n a tin g p a rticip a n ts and in c re a sin g th e ir re a d in e ss to re taliate : 'W h a t is m o re, in this co n te x t, it m ak e s sen se to g ro u p to g e th e r w ith th e s tro n g e st, th e m e a n e st, th e m o st e x p e rie n c e d p e o p le . T h o se w h o o n e w o u ld o rd in arily do m o st to avoid b e co m e th e m o st v alu ab le allies o n ce crow d m e m b e rs p e rce iv e th e ir situ atio n as o n e o f " s e lf-d e fe n c e "' (ibid.: 564). As a g e n era l strate g y for c o u n te ra c tin g this p o ssib ility , R e ich e r et al. ad v o c a te an interactive a p p ro a ch to crow d m a n a g e m e n t w h ich n o t o n ly h elp s to p ro m o te rap p ort, b u t w h ich also e n a b le s the p o lice to d istin g u ish b e tw e e n th o se h a rb o u rin g m alicio u s in te n t and 208

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th o se n o t. T h e y o u tlin e a n u m b e r o f p re scrip tio n s fo r e ffe ctiv e p o licin g . S u ch g u id e lin es p in p o in t the n e e d for th e p olice to e n g a g e in ap p ro p ria te education, facilitation, communication an d differentiation. In term s o f e d u c a tio n , R e ich e r et al. m ak e the p o in t th at, in re ce n t y e ars, p o lice p re p a ra tio n for p u b lic o rd e r e v e n ts has p rim arily b e e n c o n ce rn e d w ith am assin g crim in al in te llig e n c e , p in p o in tin g v io le n t in d iv id u als an d se c o n d -g u e ssin g th e ir sin iste r in te n tio n s. T h e au th o rs re c o m m e n d th at re le v a n t p o lice d e p a rtm e n ts sh o u ld d ev o te sim ilar lev els o f e n e rg y to e d u c a tin g th e m se lv e s in term s o f th e social id e n titie s o f g ro u p s th e y are lik ely to com e in to c o n ta ct w ith. By p ro b in g in to su ch issu es as th e g ro u p 's p rio r h isto ry o f in te ra c tio n w ith the p o lice, th eir likely ste re o ty p e s o f p o lice o fficers and a n y ­ th in g o f p articu lar sy m b o lic s ig n ifica n ce (e.g. d ates or p laces), it im p ro v e s the p o lic e 's c h a n c e s o f p re d ictin g im p o rta n t m atte rs like 'w h a t th e aim s o f th e g ro u p s are, w h e th e r an d h o w to su p p o rt th e m , th e fo rm s o f p o lice actio n th at m ig h t a n ta g o n ise th em and m ak e th em m o re sy m p a th e tic to v io le n t e le m e n ts in th e c ro w d ' (ibid.: 566). C lo sely related to this is the n e e d for p o lice p la n n in g and o rg a n isa ­ tion to striv e to facilitate th e c ro w d 's le g itim a te o b je ctiv e s: If th e re is som e re aso n w h y th e y c a n n o t be m e t in the w ay th at o rg an ise rs re q u est it is e sse n tia l n o t sim p ly to giv e a n e g a tiv e re s p o n s e , b u t to be p o sitiv e and cre a tiv e in fin d in g a ltern a tiv e w ay s o f m e e tin g (and b e in g see n to m eet) th e u n d e rly in g aim s. If the d a n g e r o f v io le n ce or th e actu al o cc u rre n c e of v io len ce fo rce s th e p o lice to im p o se lim its on th e c ro w d , it is esp ecially im p o rta n t to m ak e clear w h y it has b e e n n e c e ssa ry to im p o se th e se lim its an d to p ro v id e altern a tiv e m ean s by w h ich le g itim a te aim s can b e m et. (ibid.: 567) T h e a c h ie v e m e n t o f this o b je ctiv e m ay re q u ire e ffe ctiv e c o m m u n ica tio n b e tw e e n th e p o lice and 'c re d ib le ' (i.e. tru sted and re sp e cte d , as o p p o se d to m e rely 's e lf-a p p o in te d ') re p re se n ta tiv e s o f th e crow d (ibid.). In ste ad o f a p p ro a c h in g su ch in d iv id u als to p lay the tra d itio n a l role o f 'c o m m u n ity m e d ia to rs' o n ce v io le n ce has b ro k en o u t, the e m p h a sis sh ou ld be on co n ta ctin g th em p ro activ e ly to e x p lo re w ay s o f facilitatin g le g itim a te aim s and w o rk in g o u t p o ssib le c o n tin g e n c y p lan s fo r an y u n sc h e d u le d o cc u rre n c e o f d iso rd er (ibid.: 5 6 7 -5 6 8 ). C o rre sp o n d in g ly , th e p o lice cou ld e m p lo y the p rin t and b ro a d ca st m e d ia , w eb sites or leaflets as w ay s o f c o m m u n ica tin g , not o n ly essen tial in fo rm a tio n a b o u t a rra n g e m e n ts for an e v e n t, b u t also o f th e ir re sp e ct for th e aim s o f th e cro w d . T h e re is also a w id e ran g e 209

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o f v isu al an d so u n d te ch n o lo g ie s (e.g. large L E D scre e n s m o u n te d on tru ck s or h e lic o p te rs, an d m o bile lo u d sp e a k ers) th a t can p o te n tia lly be e m p lo y e d to k e e p cro w d m e m b e rs in fo rm e d o f p olice activ itie s in w ay s th a t p re v e n t m isin te rp re ta tio n an d e n h a n c e th e ir p erce iv e d le g itim acy (ibid.: 568). F in ally , th e p o lice sh o u ld re je c t th e tra d itio n a l n o tio n th at, o n ce v io le n ce is u n d e r w ay , everyone is fair g am e by striv in g to d iffe re n tia te b e tw e e n th o se w h o are cu lp ab le an d th o se w h o are n o t. R e ich e r et al. c a u tio n th at: 'I t is p re cise ly w h e n so m e crow d m e m b e rs start to b e co m e h o stile th a t it b e co m e s im p o rta n t to treat th e g e n e ra lity o f crow d m e m b e rs in a frie n d ly w ay. It is p re cise ly in o rd e r to stop th e v io le n ce o f th e few th a t o n e m u st be p erm issiv e to w ard s th e m a n y ' (ibid.: 568). T h is p rin cip le is e sp ecia lly ap p licab le to p o lice tactics in v o lv in g 's w e e p in g th e s tre e t' or 'c o n ta in in g ' (corrallin g -in ) sectio n s o f th e cro w d . H ere th e c h a lle n g e for th e p o lice is to d e te rm in e 'H o w th e n can o n e u se c o m m u n ica tio n , sele ctiv e filters an d stag g e re d d isp ersal to m ak e th e tactic m o re sele c tiv e ?' (ibid.: 569). A n o tab le e x e m p la r o f th is typ e o f p o licin g a p p ro a ch is o u tlin e d b y V e n o and V e n o (1993). T h e ir case stu d y is c o n ce rn e d w ith th e a n n u a l A u stralian m o to rcy cle G ran d Prix held at B a th u rst, N ew S o u th W ales, from 1939 to 1987, w h ic h h ad c o n sta n tly b e e n m arred by te n sio n s b e tw e e n m o to rcy cle e n th u sia sts and th e p olice, m a n ife ste d in v an d alism an d o ccasio n al riots. B y th e m id -1980s, p o lice w ere re so rtin g to rigid con tro l m e a su res in c lu d in g in cre ase d n u m b e rs of u n ifo rm e d o fficers an d th e p re se n c e o f riot squad s. M o to rcy clists en ro u te to the G ran d Prix w ere fre q u e n tly in te rc e p te d by p o lice , sea rch ed b y o fficers w ith b a to n s d raw n and g iv en traffic cita tio n s. T h is e m p h a sis o n tig h te r secu rity led to d rastically re d u ce d a tte n d a n c e s at th e m e e tin g an d an e v en tu a l d ecisio n in 1988 to re lo ca te th e race to P hillip Islan d , V icto ria. B ased on a d v ice o ffered to th em by V e n o and V e n o , V icto ria P olice ad o p ted a strate g y o f c o -o p e ra tio n and facilitatio n w ith th e m o to r­ cycle fratern ity . C e n tral to this ap p ro ach w as a m o to rcy cle rally e n a b lin g 10,000 b ik e rs to p ro c e e d , u n d e r p o lice e sco rt, from cen tral M e lb o u rn e in to th eir ca m p in g are as at P hillip Islan d . A lon g the w ay, th e p o lice blo ck ed o ff in te rs e c tio n s, g iv in g the m o to rcy clists p rio rity , in an a tte m p t to g e n e ra te tru st an d re sp e ct. P olice th e n d rew b ack from c o n tro llin g the cam p -site s, p re fe rrin g to h elp set up a m arsh al sy stem w h e re b y th e rid ers p o liced th e m se lv e s. F in ally , p o lice p u blic re latio n s p e rso n n e l and e v e n t o rg a n ise rs u sed sp e cialist m ed ia p u b licatio n s to p ro m o te th e G ran d Prix as a p e a c e fu l, fa m ily -o rie n te d 210

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ev en t in the hop e of attractin g a w id er d em o grap h ic spectru m of sp ectato rs and g en eratin g a n o n -v io len t ethos. V eno and V en o report a co rresp o n d in g d eclin e in tension b etw een the police and bikers, and ab sen ce of public disorder. O u r ow n policy su gg estion s (e.g. D. W ad d in g ton and C ritcher 2000: 116 -1 1 7 ) are equally co n sisten t w ith the princip les o utlined by R eich er and his colleagu es. W e also ad vo cate a n eed for police training to ad dress (and h o p efu lly m o d erate) the m ach o orien tatio n to action , ch allen g e, co n fron tatio n and con trol in h e re n t in the police o ccu p atio n al cu ltu re. In selectin g the officers for duty at d em o n stratio n s or on p icket lin es, sen io r com m an d ers should v eer tow ard s local p erso n n el w ho are likely to be m ore attu n ed to the cultural sen sibilities of the crow d, and be m ore con cern ed about the long-term im p lications of police co n d u ct for p o lice -co m m u n ity relation s. Sim ilar th o u g h t should also be d ev oted to d ep lo y in g fem ale officers w hose p resen ce has b een sh o w n to have a calm in g effect on the situ ation (H eid en so h n 1994). R eich er et al.'s em p h asis on facilitation and com m u n ication is m irrored in ou r reco m m en d atio n that police officers en g ag e, as helpfully and co-o p erativ ely as possible, in neg otiation and liaison w ith ev en t o rg anisers in ord er to form u late a tacit 'co n tra ct w ith the crow d '. This process is bou n d to affect w h at w e refer to as the situational level. T hu s, as w e have em p h asised elsew h ere: If m utual o b jectiv es are establish ed b efo reh an d , suspicion of each o th e r's m otiv es is less likely. T h e police should actively en co u rag e the use of stew ards, form al sp eech es and e n te rta in ­ m en t and p erm it n o n -v io len t sym bolic exp ressio n s of grievance. It is also preferab le to police d em o n stration s and picket lines by d ep lo y in g sm all groups of 'trad itio n ally ' d ressed police officers in a lo w -key m an n e r w ith rein fo rcem en ts kep t out of sight. C lear lines of police com m u n icatio n and com m an d are im p erative. 'Situ atio n ally ad ju ste d ' o fficers, fam iliar w ith the m ood of the crow d, are less volatile than loosely briefed Police S u p p ort U nits arriv ing cold at the scene. N ecessary police surv eillance should be as low -key as possible. T rad itionally un ifo rm ed officers com m u n icatin g on tw o-w ay radios are less th reaten in g than h elico p ters flying loud ly ov erh ead . (D. W ad d in g ton and C ritch er 2000: 117) Su ch, th en , are the reco m m en d atio n s o f 'iv ory tow er acad em ics'. The public o rd er police are entitled to m aintain th at theirs is a

P olicing P ublic D is o rd e r

g e n era lly th a n k le ss an d u n e n v ia b le task, d e m a n d in g q u ick th in k in g and g re a t co u ra g e all th e w h ile. T h e y m ig h t fu rth e r o b je ct - w ith sim ilar ju stific a tio n - th at th e ir effo rts o n ly ty p ically g e t n o ticed w h e n , in th eir p a rla iic e , 'th e w h e e l co m es o ff' (P. A. J. W a d d in g to n 1994) and th eir co n tro l strate g ies and tactics are b ro u g h t in to d isre p u te . T his b o o k h as in d ica te d th e v a rie ty o f w ay s in w h ich form s o f p o lice rh eto ric and c o n d u ct h av e the p o te n tia l to ru p tu re th e p u b lic o rd e r th e y h a v e a m o ral o b lig atio n to u p h o ld . It has also re c o m m e n d e d a ra n g e o f p o licies d e sig n e d to re d u ce the ab ra siv e n e ss o f p o lic e -p u b lic in te ra ctio n and gain le g itim acy and c o n se n t for th e p o lic e 's role and o b je ctiv e s. T h e sta n d a rd s o f p ro ­ fession alism an d im p artiality im p licitly b e in g asked o f p o lice c o m m a n d e rs and th e ir ra n k -a n d -file co lle ag u e s m ay strik e th em as u n re a so n a b ly high and o v e r-d e m a n d in g . H o w e v e r, it is u n ­ q u e stio n a b ly in th e in te re sts o f p u blic p e a ce an d w id e r social h a rm o n y th at th e p o lice m u st striv e so assid u o u sly to ach iev e th em .

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W illiam s, J., D u n n in g , E. and M u rp hy, P. (1990) Hooligans Abroad: The Behaviour of English Fans at Continental Matches. L ond on : R ou tled ge and K egan Paul. (Second edition.) W ozniak, J. (2005) 'W in n in g the Battle of Seattle: state response to perceived crisis', Illness, Crisis and Loss, 13 (2): 129-145.

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A dded to a page n u m b er ' f d en o tes a figure a n d 't ' d en o tes a table. accoun tability 20-2, 26-7, 30, 126, 196 A CPO see A ssociation of C h ief Police O fficers acquisitive crim e 103 actualisation level, football hooliganism 184 ad ju stm en t phase, public d isord er 55 A frican-C aribbean s 47, 68-70 A genda for E xcellence for Policing M ajo r Even ts 132 aggression, m asculin e 171 'ag itator v iew ' crow d beh av iou r 38, 41, 193 A lbufeira 181-2 A m erican urban riots 6 0 -8 6 ,1 9 5 -6 com m od ity riots 62-8 com m u nal riots 68-73 d ynam ics of ghetto riots 42-4 hybrid exam ple, Los A ngeles 74-84, 196 typical rioters, 1960s 39 am p lification spiral, football hooliganism 180 anarchists, Sheffield anti-globalisation protest 153-5 an o n y m ity, crow d m em bersh ip 38

anth rop olog ical approaches, football hooliganism 167-9 A nti-C apitalist C ongress 119-21 anti-globalisation protests 110-38 policing 1-5 on the basis of 'lessons learn ed ' 130-4 ironic effects of tactics 113-18 p hilosoph ies 134-7 strategic incapacitation 118-22, 198-9 tradition and inflexibility 122-3 con clu sions 198-202 political con text and o th er local con tin gen cies 123-30 sum m ary of m ajor 114-15t see also Sheffield G8 m eeting anti-w ar protests Florence 133-4 New Y ork City 134-7, 200 W ashington, DC 119-21 Asia Pacific E conom ic C ooperation (APEC) sum m it 110, 112 Asian you ths, British urban riots 87-109 A ssociation of C h ie f Police O fficers (A CPO ) 15 A u chterard er protest 4, 5, 201 2 29

P o lic in g P u b lic D is o r d e r

a u d ie n ce s, p olice p o licy 18-19, 21f, 35 A ustralia, C ron u lla B each riot 189-90 av ersio n to d isru p tio n 136 B arm y A rm y 173 Barvvick, B rian 166 B a th u rst m o tor cy cle G ran d Prix 210 B attle o f S eattle 114t, 116-18, 200 B attle o f W e stm in ste r 56-7 B elg iu m , E u ro (2000) 172-3, 177-80 B lack B loc 3, 1 1 6 ,1 1 9 , 123, 126 B lad es B u sin ess C rew 167, 171 B lair, T o n y 177 B N P see B ritish N atio n al P arty b o rd e r con tro ls 125-6 B rad ford C o m m ission 93, 94, 95 B rad fo rd riot (1995) 92-5, 197 B rad ley , M ay o r 82, 84 B ristol riot 11 B ritish N a tio n a l P arty (B N P ) 97, 100, 101, 109 B ritish u rb an riots (1991-2001) 87-109 B u rn le y riot 102-7 o fficial an aly se s 88 O ld h am rio t 9 7 -1 0 2 ,1 9 7 textile to w n riots 91-7 o n w h ite , w o rk in g -class h o u sin g estate s 89-91 b ro k en w in d o w s th e o ry 135, 201 B u rn ley riot b ack g ro u n d to 102-3 o fficial n arrativ e o f e v en ts 103-5 p o lice m iscalcu latio n and m ism a n a g e m e n t 1 0 5 -7 ,1 9 7 B u rn ley T ask Fo rce rep o rt 103 b y sta n d e r e ffe ct 25 C am p aig n for N u clear D isa rm a m e n t (C N D ) 17 C am p aig n to S to p th e W ar in th e G u lf 17 carabinieri 1 1 2 ,1 2 5 , 1 2 6 ,1 2 7 , 128, 199 C arn iv al A g ain st C ap italism 114t, 124 230

C arn iv al fo r Full E n jo y m e n t 4, 141 carn iv alesq u e d ev ices, fo otball su p p o rte rs 173 c ascad e b rie fin g s 149 C ato , A ngela 69 C ato , G av in 69 c en tralisatio n , p o licin g style 30 C h arlero i 177, 178 C h risto p h e r C o m m ission 77, 82 C in cin n ati (O h io ) riot (2001) 61, 64-8, 85, 195 C IRC A see C la n d e stin e In su rg e n t R eb el C lo w n A rm y C itiz en 's P an el o n P olicin g and C o m m u n ity (C P P C ) 132 civil d am ag e suits 26 'civ il lib e rtarian ' d isco u rse 163 C ivilian R ev iew B o ard s 26 C la n d e stin e In su rg e n t R eb el C lo w n A rm y (C IRC A ) 150-1, 1 5 3 ,1 5 8 class co n flict 66-7 classical p sy ch o lo g ica l red u ctio n ism 38 cle aran ce , p aram ilitary scen ario 29 C lich y -so u s-B o is 187-8 co -o rd in a tio n , p o lice ' lack of 25, 73 The Collapse of Consensus Policing 46-7 c ollectiv e b e h a v io u r 39, 40-2, 193 c ollectiv e m em o ry 85-6 C o m b at 18 97, 109 c o m m o d ity riots 61, 62-8 c o m m u n a l riots 60-1, 68-73 c om m u n icatio n b e tw e e n p o lice an d crow d re p rese n ta tiv e s 209 w ith crow d m em b ers 209-10 p o lice' lack o f 73, 8 2 ,1 2 7 co m m u n ities m o n ito rin g of 'te n s io n in d icato rs' 15 see also p o lice -co m m u n ity re latio n s c o m m u n ity alie n a tio n 196 c o m m u n ity re s e n tm e n t 92, 93 c o m m u n ity ten sio n s 65, 71-2, 85

In d e x

con flict escalation 33-4, 55-6, 154-5, 193 con flict phase, accou n tab ility 22 con fro n tatio n , police avoid ance 12-14 con sen t, policing by 1 4 ,1 9 con stitutional rights of d em onstrators, policing style 30 con tain ed protests 17 con textual factors policing 17-22 public d isord er 50 v iolen t co n fro n tatio n s 204-5t control agen cies, m alfu n ctio n in g of 25 police tactics 11 see also bo rd er con trols; o ver-control; social control; u n der-control controlled access 136 con trolling the crow d 29 con trollin g space 28 cop can teen culture 22 corralling tactics 3 ,1 2 0 , 125, 210 co u n ter culture 46, 47 crim inal activity, pred atin g British riots 90 crim inality, alleged , A sian youths 96 'crisis of legitim acy ', and zero tolerance 135 Critical M ass bicycle p rotest 153 Cronulla Beach riot 1 8 9 -9 0 ,1 9 8 crow d behav iou r, police' pathological view of 191 crow d m an agem en t, interactive ap proach 208-9 crow d m em bers com m u nication w ith 209-10 police percep tio n s of 23 crow d ord er situ ations, culturally-m ed iated typ ifications 22-3 crow d rep resentatives,

com m u n icatio n betw een police and 209 The Crowd: a Study of the Popular M ind 38 Crow n H eights riot (1991) 61, 84, 195 overview 68-70 police response 72-3 sources of com m u nity tension 71-2 cultural aw aren ess 206 cultural factors public d isord er 49-50, 63-4, 75, 192 vio len t con fron tatio n s 204t cultural 'tu rf' 50 culture English football fans bi-polarity of 172 nationalist and m asculin ist 183 n on -v iolen t v. hardened h oolig ans 173-4 police con d u ct 22-3, 32, 35, 192 H ong K ong 129 South Y orkshire Police 149-51 see also street cou n ter culture cultures of hostility 85 C u tlers' Hall p rotest 156-9 d ecentralisation, patrol policing 25 d em ocratic aud iences, police policies 18, 19, 21f d em ograp hy, football hooliganism 170 d em onstrators n egative stereoty p es of 127 rights, and policing style 30 d en ial of d isord er 26 d ep rivation 46, 47, 58, 85 see also poverty D erby G8 m eeting 3, 139 'die in a d itch' situ ations 18, 35, 130, 191 d iscrim in ation, racial 46, 63, 92 d isord er phase, police version, B u rn ley riot 104 dispersal tactics 24 231

P o lic in g P u b lic D is o r d e r

d ispositional ap p roaches, football hooliganism 170-4 divide and con qu er 136 drug activity 66, 75, 85, 95, 96, 103, 195 Du, Ja 77 D u cken field, D avid 143-4 D utch m odel of the d ynam ics of d isord er 52-5 D utch police, policy of stop p in g all you ths 206 econ om ic crisis, survival crim e 47-8 E d inbu rgh , M ake P overty H istory m arch 3 - 4 , 115t, 1 4 0 ,1 6 0 , 164, 201, 203 ed u cation , police p rep aration, public ev en ts 209 elaborated social id entity m odel 39-40, 55-7, 174-7, 194 em otional legacy, policing style 32 English Football A ssociation 166 E nglish football fans see football hooliganism en trap m en t, policy o f 160 en v iron m en tal protests, policing of 16 episodic policing 108 'escalated force' m odel, d ep arture from 10-12 escalation of conflict 33-4, 55-6, 117, 15 4 -5 ,1 9 3 ethnic m inority youths urban riots 53-5, 74, 75-6, 188-9, 196-7 see also A frican-C aribbean s; Asian you ths; in ter-eth n ic anim osity ethnic politics, lack of 47, 58 eth n og rap h ic analysis, public d isord er 48 eth o g en ic ap p roach , football hooliganism 167-9 Euro (2000) B elgium and N eth erlan d s 172-3, 177-80 2 32

Euro (2004) P ortugal 181-2 Evian G8 sum m it 112, 115t excitem en t effect 117 exclusion zones 3, 9 9 ,1 0 0 , 140 experiential con sid eration s, police con d u ct 23-7 explanatory m od el, policing styles 30-4 extern al accou n tability 20, 26-7 Far Right 101, 103, 197 'final straw ', ev olu tion of riotin g 39, 52, 86 Fine Y oun g C asuals 97-8 flashp oints, urban riots 85, 97 flashp oints m odel, public disorder 49-52, 5 8 ,1 8 3 , 194 Florence E uropean Social Forum m eeting 115t, 133-4 Floren ce-N o rm an d ie intersection , Los A ngeles riot 78, 79-81, 83 folk devils 4 7 ,1 8 9 football hoolig anism , English fans 165-86 1990 W orld Cup, Italy 174-7 2006 W orld Cup, G erm any 165-6 Euro 2000, Belgium and N eth erlan d s 177-80 Euro 2004, Portugal 181-2 K ing's m u ltivariate ap proach 183-4 n otoriety 165 relevan t theories 167-74 anth rop olog ical approaches 167-9 structural/d ispositional ap p roach es 170-4 forceful action, effects o f excessive 25 fortification structures 1, 2, 3, 110, 111, 140, 199 French urban riots 187-9 front lines, genesis of d isord er 48

In d e x

gang w arfare 75 G ates, D aryl 76, 77, 82, 83, 84 G eld of, Bob 140 G en oa G8 sum m it 1 1 2 ,114t, 123, 1 2 5 -8 ,1 9 9 G erm any , W orld Cup (2006) 165-6 ghetto riots, d ynam ics of 42-4 G irgenti C om m ission 71, 72-3 G iuliani, Carlo 112 G leneag les, anti-globalisation protest 1-2, 112, 160-1, 164,

201-2 global capital 91, 108 G lod w ick 98 G N R see G uarda N acional Republicana Gold com m an d ers 27 G o th en bu rg sum m it 111-12, U 4 t, 122-3, 200 G rand Prix, B athurst 210 group m ind 38, 40, 193 'g row th and spread of a generalised h ostile belief' 40 G uarda N acional R epu blicana (G N R) 1 8 1 ,1 8 2 'G uerrilla G ard en in g ' ev en t 124 guerrilla tactics 16 guilt, prior assu m ptions of 85 h arassm ent see police harassm ent; racial h arassm ent H arlins, Latasha 77 H asid ic-A frican-C aribbean co n ten tion , Crow n H eights riot 61, 68-70, 71-2 H er M ajesty 's Insp ectorate of C on stabulary 15 high tension phase, police version, B urn ley riot 103-4 h igh-profile strategies 47 H illsborough traged y 143-4 H ispanic po p u latio n , M ount P leasant riot 63-4 historical backgrou nd , football hooliganism 183-4

historical legacy, p rotest policing 32 H olliday, G eorg e 76 H ong K ong police 128-9 H ong K ong W TO sum m it 1 1 2 ,115t, 128-30, 199 host political culture, policing style 32 hostile beliefs, public d isord er 40, 44, 45 h ou sing estates, British urban riots 89-91 H ughes, M eredydd 148-9 h u m an elem en t, public order p olicing 1 9 1 ,1 9 2 H u n d ley's m odel of the dynam ics of gh etto riots 42-4 hy p notic pow ers of suggestion, crow d m em bers' lessened resistance to 38 id entity checks, French ethnic m inority you ths 188 ideological con text, British textile tow n riots 95-7 ideological factors public d isord er 49, 192-3 v iolent co n fro n tation s 204t in the jo b trou ble' 12, 18,1 9 1 in cip ien t phase, accoun tability

20-1 incubation phase, public d isord er 5 3 ,1 9 4 institutional factors p rotest policing 30, 32 public d isord er 192 vio len t con fron tatio n s 204t in tcllig cn cc-lcd policing 14, 16, 28, 148 in ter-eth n ic anim osity 61, 68-70, 74-5, 84, 92 interactional factors football hooliganism 184-5 protest policing 33-4 public d isord er 51, 193 v iolent co n fro n tation s 205t 233

P o lic in g P u b lic D is o r d e r

interactiv e ap p roach, crow d m an agem en t 208-9 Interfaith W om en for Peace 95 in tern al accoun tability 20, 26-7 Intern ation al A ction C en tre (IAC)

120-1 'iro n fist in a velvet glove' approach 132 Islam aphobia 197 isolation strategy, sum m it dignitaries 127 Italia 90 W orld Cup tou rn am en t 174-7 Italian m edia, portrayal of English football fans 176 Italian police 3 3 ,1 2 5 ,1 2 6 -7 , 127-8, 133-4, 176, 199 Jap an , W orld C up (2002) 166, 180 Jew ish -B lack con ten tio n , Crow n H eights riot 61, 68-70, 71-2 Join t Intelligence G roup (JIG) 132 K ananaskis G8 sum m it 1 1 2 ,115t, 131 K ashm iri you ths 95 K erner C om m ission 38-9 kettlin g (corralling) tactics 3, 120, 125, 210 King, R od n ey 76, 77 K orean com m u nity, Los A ngeles 74-5 LAPD see Los A ngeles Police D ep artm en t law and order, pathological langu age 37 Law croft H ouse 93-4, 95 lay theories, crow d d isord er 37-8 leadership, lack of 83-4 learn in g phase, public d isord er 55 left realist exp lanations, riots 48 legal au d iences, police policies 18, 21 f legal fram ew ork, policing style 30 2 34

'lesso n s learn ed ', policing on basis of 11, 1 2 8 ,1 3 0 -4 linguistic d ifferen ces, M oun t P leasant riot 63-4 L ond on anti-globalisation protests 114t, 115t, 124-5, 201 Los A ngeles Police D ep artm en t (LAPD) 60, 75-6, 77, 80, 81-4, 196 Los A ngeles riot (1992) 60, 61, 74-84, 196 background to 74-8 police response 81-4 riot process 78-81 low -profile strategies 50 L ozells Road d isord er 89 L ubavitch-A frican C aribbean co n ten tion , C row n H eights riot 61, 68-70, 71-2 'm agical recovery o f com m u nity' ap proach 170 M ajo r Even ts Liaison Team (M ELT) 132 M ake P overty H istory m arch 3-4, 115t, 140, 160, 164, 201, 203 M an ch ester U nited 169, 183-5 m arginalisation , political 46, 8 5 ,1 9 7 M arriott Breadsall Priory H otel 139 m asculine aggression 171 m asculine culture, English football fans 183, 202 M ay day protests 115t, 1 2 4 -5 ,1 6 4 , 201 m edia arbiter of d iffering dem ocratic au d iences 18-19, 32-3 build up to football hooliganism 1 8 0 ,1 8 5 portrayal of English football fans 176 M ELT see M ajor E ven ts Liaison Team m em ory, protest policing 33 m etony m ic view s of the w orld 48

In d e x

M etropolitan D ivision (LAPD) 81, 8 2 -3 ,1 9 6 M etropolitan Police 17, 2 0 ,1 6 1 , 164,

201 M iam i anti-globalisation protest (2003) 115t M iam i riot (1980) 61 m id dle-class sp ectatorship , football 173 m ilitant en v iro n m en tal activists 16 m ilitarisation 2-3, 30-2, 47, 192 see also param ilitary policing m ind lessness, d isord er as a result of 23, 37 m iners' strike, South Y orkshire 143 m ob sociology 38 m obilisation of participants, public d isord er 41 Model of the Dynamics of Disorder 52 A Model for the Explanation of Protest Policing Styles 30 m oral panics 47, 9 6 ,1 9 6 M oulin, M ichael 82, 83 M ou n t P leasant riot 61, 62-4, 8 5 ,1 9 5 M uslim s constructed as 'fo lk devils' 189 profiling, Bradford 96 see also Islam aphobia 'm u tu al aid' capacity 11 N ational Front 100, 102, 109 N ational R ep orting C en tre 11 N ational U nion of Stu d ents (N US) 17, 56 natio n alist culture, English football fans 183, 202 n egativity (police) 22, 126-7, 163, 190, 201 neg otiate, failure to 25 neg otiated m an agem en t 10-12, 17, 3 4 ,1 9 1 ,1 9 8 neg otiation, p re-ev en t 1 0 ,1 3 ,1 1 9 , 133-4, 211 n eu tralisation 3 4 ,1 1 7

N ew Age travellers, police strategies 15-16 N ew Laddism 173, 202 new p enology p erspective 118-19 N ew Y ork City, anti-w ar protest 115t, 134-7, 200 N ew Y ork Civil L iberties U nion (N YC LU ) 136-7 N ew Y ork Police D epartm ent (N YPD ) 7 2 -3 ,1 3 4 -7 'n o -g o ' areas 100 no -p rotest zones 111 n on -co n flict p hase of even ts, accoun tability 20 'n o n -co n tro l' activities, exacerbation of hostility 43, 61, 90, 195 n o n -en forcem en t effect 117 no n-p aram ilitary policing 28 norm ality phase, police version, Burnley riot 103 N YCLU see N ew York Civil Liberties U nion N YPD see N ew York Police D ep artm en t O ak L ane d isord er 94 occup ational au d iences, police policies 18, 21f occup ational culture, policing style 22, 32, 35, 192 O ldh am riot background to 97-8, 197 build-u p to 100-2 con text of 98-100 'o n the job trou ble' 12 o n -th e-sp o t d ecisions 20-2, 35 onset phase, public d isord er 54-5 O p eratio n O ctag o n 1 3 9 ,1 4 8 -9 ,1 4 9 O P S see O ttaw a Police Service 'ord ered seg m en tation ' ap proach 170-1 organisational con sid erations, police con d u ct 23-7 organisational structure, policing style 30-2 235

P o lic in g P u b lic D is o r d e r

organised football supporters' clubs 173 O ttaw a con feren ces 131-2, 200 O ttaw a Police Service (O PS) 131, 132, 133 O ttaw a W itness G roup 132 ov er-control 45, 193-4 O v er-th e-R h in e 65, 66-7, 195 O xford fans, Plym outh Argyle incid ent 168-9 param ilitary policing 11, 27-9, 76, 192 see also m ilitarisation pathological langu age, law and ord er 37 pathological view , crow d beh av iou r 191 patrol policing, decentralisation 25 philosoph ies of policing 134-7, 161,

200-1 p lanning need for 209 police' lack of 83 P lym outh Argyle in cid en t 168-9 police A m erican urban riots as con tribu ting factor 63-4 double standards 71 increasing p resence and vigilance 67, 195 resp o n ses 72-3, 75-6, 81-4, 86 anti-globalisation protests corralling tactics 1 2 0 ,1 2 5 fortification structures 110, 111 ironic effects of tactics 113-18 strategic incapacitation , use of 118-22, 198-9 trad ition and inflexibility 122-3 w eap o n ry and strategies 111-12, 1 1 6 ,1 2 8 -9 see also Sheffield G8 m eeting ap p o in tm en t of reliable com m an d ers 14 2 36

British urban riots antagonism b etw een youths and 95 inaction as gen esis of 90-1 official version of Burnley riot 103-5 responses 93, 94, 98, 105-7 com m u nication see com m u nication con d u ct cultural pred isposition 22-3 experiential and practical con sid erations 23-7 as con tribu tory factor in disorder 24-5, 43, 45, 63-4, 86, 154-5, 163, 191-2, 193-4, 195 high -profile strategies 47 hijacking of d em onstration s 198 identity checks, French ethnic m inority you ths 188 im pressions of the public 17-18 in terv en tio n at football m atches 167-9, 176-7, 178, 181, 182 low -profile strategies 50 p athological view , crow d beh av iou r 191 perception s of crow d m em bers 23 of English football fans 178-9, 185 p lan n in g 83, 209 training 14, 123, 127, 206, 211 see also G uarda N acional R epu blicana; H ong K ong police; Italian police; M etrop olitan Police; O ttaw a Police Service; Polícia de Segurança Pública; Royal C an ad ian M oun ted Police; South Y orkshire Police; Tayside Police police h arassm en t 35, 63, 87 police kn ow led ge 31 f, 34, 121, 128, 185

In d e x

police property 22 police-com m u n ity relations, deterioration and m ilitarised policing 47 and riotin g 39, 52, 63, 66, 67-8, 85, 86, 94 p olice-youth relations need for standards of d ecency in 207 and rioting 53-5, 95 Policia de Segurança Publica (PSP) 181 policing by con sen t 1 4 ,1 9 see also public ord er policing political ch an n els 47, 58 political contexts British textile tow n riots 95-7 Sheffield G8 m eeting 145-7 political factors policing styles 18-19, 21f, 29, 32, 1 2 6 ,1 2 9 -3 0 , 192-3 public d isord er 49 vio len t co n fro n tation s 204t political m arginalisation 46, 85, 197 P ortugal, Euro (2004) 181-2 poverty 66, 92 see also d ep rivation pow er con fig u rations, protest policing 32 practical con sid erations, police con d u ct 23-7 practical problem s, policing 191 Prague, anti-globalisation protest 114t Pratt D ixon, Sh aron 62 p re-em p tive policing 11 p re-ev en t intelligence 14 p re-ev en t neg otiation 1 0 ,1 3 ,1 1 9 , 133-4, 211 p re-ev en t training 14 precau tionary m easures, football hooliganism , S tu ttgart 166 p recip itating incid ents/ev ents 39,

41, 44, 46, 48, 54, 69, 85-6, 9 2 -3 ,1 9 3 prep aration, param ilitary scenario 28 prev entative m easures 34-5 controversial 15-16 overview of 12-15 pro-active policing 11, 124 prohibition of d em onstration s 33 protective equ ip m en t im p rov em en t in 11 see also riot gear protest p olicing, m od el of 30-4 p rotests, rou tinisation of 1 2 1 -2 ,1 9 8 -9 proxim ate con d itions, riotin g 42-3 PSP see Policia de Segurança Publica public accoun tability to 30 police im pressions of 17-18 public disorder reco m m en d ation s for avoid ing 208-9 theories of 37-59 public opinion and policing 19, 33 and public d isord er 130 Public O rd er Act (1986) 12, 139, 140, 148, 153, 163 public o rd er legislation, police' relu ctance to invoke 12-13 public o rd er policing case studies see A m erican urban riots; anti-globalisation p rotests; British urban riots; football hooliganism ; Sheffield G8 m eeting factors con du cive to violent con fron tatio n 204-5t m ilitarisation 2-3, 30-2, 4 7 ,1 9 2 policy im plications 202-12 theoretical ap p roaches 9-36, 190-5 quality of life policing 135-7 Q u eb ec City sum m it (2001) 111, 114t, 131 237

P o lic in g P u b lic D is o r d e r

race relations, and riotin g 87-109, 189-90 racial d iscrim in ation 46, 63, 92 racial h arassm ent 108 racial in cid en t statistics, p otential for riotin g 98-9 racial profiling 68, 85, 96, 195 Rapid M obilisation p ro ced u re 195 'real tim e' intelligence 28 'real v io len ce', at football m atches 167-8 reciprocal ad ap tation 34 reciprocal effects, police action 117 reciprocal relation s, w ith police 17-18 Reclaim the Streets d em onstration 144-5 repressive policing 32, 33, 35, 111, 119, 126 'reserv o ir of griev ances' riotin g as result of 39 reticen ce (police), and d isord er 24-5, 8 6 ,1 9 5 R h ythm s of R esistance 1 5 3 ,1 5 6 , 158 'R ice for D in n er' m eal p rotest 140, 156 riff-raff ap p roach , to riotin g 38-9, 40 'rin g of steel', d efen ces 1, 3, 140 riot d ev elo p m en t 26, 43, 4 5 ,1 9 3 -4 riot gear 23-4 riot p rocess, stage theory 44-6 riot prom oters 45 riots see urban riots Ritchie Inquiry 102 role reversal effect 117 R om an holid ay phase, riots 45 R osenbaum , Y ankel 69-70 rou tinisation of protests 1 2 1 -2 ,1 9 8 -9 Royal C an adian M ounted Police 110 ,1 3 1 ru le-g ov ern ed behav iou r, football hooliganism as 167, 168-9,

202 2 38

St P etersburg anti-globalisation p rotest (2006) 115t St P etersburgh riot, Florida 61, 64 Sarkozy, N icholas 188-9 scap eg oatin g 40 S ch en gen a g reem en t, su sp ension of 125-6 S ch n eerso n , Rabbi M enachem 69, 71 Scotland Yard, N ational R eporting C en tre 11 Seattle W TO sum m it 111, 112, 114t, 116-18, 200 sectoral com m an d ers, com m on p erspective am on gst 14 segregation 92 seg regationist policies, textile tow n riots 91 self-d efen ce 95-6, 128, 197 senior officers, ap p oin tm en t of reliable com m an d ers 14 Sheffield D issent 1 4 0 ,1 4 6 , 153 Sheffield G8 m eeting 3, 139-64,

200 C utlers Hall p rotest 156-9 policing p lan n in g and preparation 148-9 policy im plications 203-6 scrutiny of 141 tactics 140 see also South Y orkshire police political con text of ev en t 145-7 T ud or Square d em onstration 151-5 Sheffield Socialist C h oir 1 5 3 ,1 5 6 Sheffield Stop the W ar C oalition 140, 146, 151, 153, 163 shock and aw e, quality of life policing 136 siege phase, riots 45 Silver com m an d ers 27 situ ational factors public d isord er 26, 50-1, 211 vio lent con fro n tatio n s 205t 'slid in g scale' of responses, to disord er 14

In d e x

Sm elser's theory o f collective b ehav iou r 39, 40-2, 193 snatch -squ ad s 3 social con tro l, spread o f d isord er 41 social exclusion 108 socialisation, m asculin e aggression 171 societal in flu en ce, police policy 19 socio -eco n o m ic con d itions, and rioting 63, 66, 74, 89, 91-2, 108 socio-political con d ition s, and rioting 108 softer policing styles 1 1 ,1 9 1 South Y orkshire Police cultural influ ences 149-51 in terp retin g h an d lin g of Sheffield G8 162f pressure to p erm it Sheffield G8 protest 146-7 purpose and valu es 143-5 'ring of steel' d efen ce 140 stage theory, riot process 44-6 Statement of Force Purpose and Values 144 stereoty p ing 32, 4 8 ,1 2 6 -7 , 1 5 0 ,1 6 3 ,

201 stigm atisation, Asian com m u nities 197 Stocksbrid ge Brass Band 153 Stop the W ar Coalition (Sheffield) 1 4 0 ,1 4 6 , 1 5 1 ,1 5 3 , 163 'stran g e bed fellow s' effect 117 strategic incap acitation 118-22, 164, 198-9 street con frontation 45 street cou n ter culture 46, 47 structural ap p roaches, football hooliganism 170-4 structural con d u civ en ess, public d isord er 40 structural factors, public d isord er 49 structural strain, public d isord er 40 S tu ttgart incid ence 165-6 surrogate com m u n ities, football groups as 170

survival crim e, econ om ic crisis 47-8 'sw eep in g the streets' tactics 24,

210 sym bolic in flu en ce, police policy 18, 21 f syntagm atic view s of the world 48 T ayside Police 4 technical problem s, policing d isord er 26, 192 tension ind icators, m o n ito ring of 15 tension phase, public d isord er 53, 1 0 3 -4 ,1 9 4 territorialism 96 textile tow n riots (Britain, 2001) Bradford riot as fo reru n n er to 92-5 political and ideological context 95-7 social con d ition s 91-2 Theory of Collective Behaviour 39, 4 0 -2 ,1 9 3 T hom as, Tim othy 64-6 'tin d e r and spark' m etap h o r 46 T rad es U nion C on gress (TU C) 17 trad itional football supporters, carnivalesque d evices 173 training, police 14, 123, 127, 206, 211 transgressive protests 17, 3 5 ,1 1 9 trigger incid en ts/ev en ts 39, 41, 44, 46, 48, 54, 69, 85-6, 92-3, 193 T ud or Square d em onstration 151-5 tu rf w ars 75 Turkey, E uropean Cup tie (1993) 183-4 UK Indymedia 160 un der-con tro l 45, 193 u n em p lo y m en t 63, 66, 7 4 ,1 0 8 u n w ritten rules, football hooliganism 167, 168-9, 202 urban riots A m erica 60-86, 195-6 B ritain 87-109 British explanations of 46-8 France 187-9 2 39

P o lic in g P u b lic D is o r d e r

im p ro v em en t in protective equ ip m en t 11 see also riot d ev elo p m en t; riot gear; riot process; riot prom oters value conflict 44 V ern on, Robert 82 vigilantism 108-9 violence A m erican urban riots 60, 65, 80 anti-globalisation protests 110, 111, 128 at football m atches 1 6 7 -8 ,1 7 8 , 184 factors con du cive to 204-5t peop le's w illingness to en g age in 57 police culture 35, 199 proh ibition of d em onstration s 33 'w ait-an d -see' d efen siv e posture 122 W ash in gton , DC anti-globalisation protests 114t, 115t anti-w ar protests 119-21 n o -p rotest zone 111 W ashington H eights riots 61, 64 W ashington Peace C en ter (W PC) 121

2 40

w astebasket in cid en t 54-5, 206, 207 w eak accoun tability 196 w eakn ess (police), and public d isord er 24-5, 96 w eap onry, police 111, 116 W eb ster C om m ission 82 W ells, Richard 144 w hite flight 91 w hite victim statistics, po tential for rioting 98-9 w om en , n o n -in v olvem en t, British riots 89-90 w orking class activity, football hooliganism as 170-2, 185 W orld Cup (1990), Italy 174-7 W orld Cup (2002), Jap an 166, 180 W orld Cup (2006), G erm any 165-6 W PC see W ashington Peace C en ter W right, P eter 143, 144 Y Basta 3 you th riots, Britain (1991 and 1992) 87-109 you ths see ethnic-m inority youths; p o lice-youth interactions yu p p ification 63 zero tolerance 134-5, 136, 201