Pioneers of Freedom: An Account of the Icelanders and the Icelandic Free State, 874-1262

Table of contents :
I. 800; 930; 1930
II. Origins; Land and People
III. The National Government
IV. The Local Government
V. Law and Justice
VI. The Pagan System
VII. Superstition, Sorcery and Witchcraft
VIII. Christianity and the Church
IX. Poetry and Saga
X. Commerce and Navigation
XI. Servants and Slaves
XII. Food, Feasts and Social Life; Sports
XIII. Children and Education
XIV. Property Rights of Women — a Comparison
XV. Marriage, Home Life and Death
APPENDIX
A. Houses and Buildings
B. Wearing Apparel
C. Occupations
D. Bibliography
Index

Citation preview

PIONEERS of

FREEDOM

SVEINBJORN JOHNSON

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

30 - 14677

An Account

of

the

PIONEERS of FREEDOM Icelanders

and the Icelandic Free State

-

874 1262 BY

SVEINBJORN

Massachusetts

,

Boston

JOHNSON

THE STRATFORD Publishers

COMPANY

COPYRIGHT

—

THE STRATFORD

— BY COMPANY

1930

Publishers PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

PRINTED BY , MASS. THE ALPINE PRESS. INC., BOSTON

73314100

10266

ondon

ce

The

Icelandic

settlement was history a protest against all the ordinary success commonplaces the world in

-

of

ful

and remains

.”

“

William Paton Ker

47

hordarson

puchase

Iceland and the Humanities

Jan

To W WHO

,

MY WIFE IN

DT SPITE

WITH

OF RATHER INTIMATE

CERTAIN

VIKING

ACQUAINTANCE

TRAITS, HAS GEN

EROUSLY HELPED WITH INVALUABLE COUNSEL

AND SYMPATHY

Introduction June, 1930 , the thousandth anniversary of the founding of the Althing , or Parliament , of Iceland , will be celebrated by appropriate exercises on the ancient site where that body regularly convened for ap proximately nine hundred years . Official invitations from

I

N

the Icelandic Government to participate have been sent a. to and accepted by the governments of the principal na , including tions of the world the United States . This event has roused wide interest in the people who founded the Icelandic Commonwealth in the tenth cen tury , one of whose citizens , Leif Eiriksson , was the first white discoverer of America . It seems appropriate to give the English reader an opportunity to become ac quainted with the people and with the governmental institutions which they founded and maintained intact for over three centuries . While the rest of Europe was largely in the grip of absolute power and centralized monarchies , Iceland maintained a government strikingly free and responsive to the popular will. Without a king

or emperor , with no one in whom was lodged a preroga tive corresponding to that of the kingship , this isolated

island was perfecting popular institutions while most of contemporary Europe was drifting towards despotism . Under the influence of civil and political liberty there flourished a legal system which in excellence rivaled that of Rome; and during the same period a literature blos somed which has been said to contain some of the finest creations of the human mind . I have also been moved to attempt a task in a sense

INTRODUCTION outside my profession by impatience

in

the presence

of

indifference , or inadvertent misinformation con cerning the Vikings , their modes of life , their character smug

their philosophy . They were neither saints nor devils ; they were human beings whose character was harsh and unlovely in some , and calculated to inspire respect in other of its aspects . I have endeavored to set and

down the facts from which my conclusions are drawn . The special pleader , whether , in law or in letters , is a dangerous phenomenon ; yet the temptation to become a hero worshiper is sometimes almost irresistible . This I have tried to avoid . Bias in a historian is as bad for his tory as the mixing of editorial notions with the current news is for the forming of sound public opinion . The unwary reader , in either case , absorbs prejudice when he innocently thinks he is reading an honest record of facts . A recent example of scholarly error in this regard lies on my desk . In the History of the Pictish Nation , pub lished in 1918 , Archibald B . Scott describes the Vikings as savages of the " most unrestrained type " ; says that as soldiers they were no match " for the agile and nimble witted Celts — Picts , Britons , or Scots " ; and intimates that the fact that the Picts mutilated the dead bodies of their enemies was due to the example set by the Vikings . Being nimble of wit, it was an easy matter for them to imitate the Norsemen in this dainty detail of savage warfare . Seemingly , the pupils were apt. It is unfortunate that a very interesting and scholarly

contribution should , in spots , be marred by feeling which obviously has had but little intimate association with cer tain historical facts , or the truly historical spirit . That the Vikings were guilty of mutilation in sporadic in stances

, no honest person

doubts or denies ; but

it

is

iii

INTRODUCTION .

of

do

-

to

in

a

of

a

equally certain that mutilation was not usual and ordi nary characteristic their style warfare From time Norway proscribing the immemorial there was law practice evidence that the Vikings had been known

proof that

of

.

of

or

a

to

of

be

of or

of

the customary

If

demned

the best

also

by

it,

the practice was con sentiment the period question given people the answer the whether savage upon shall called civilized turns the presence

but

St .

Shall we characterize the entire ay France unrestrained sav as

population

"

.

1572

of

3

,

and October

Catholic

be

24

,

,

.

in

a

in

of

to

;

by

.

of

to

of

I

,

war

in

evidence instances mutilation time fear we shall have revise the commonly accepted definitions these terms The Massacre Bartholomew was sanctioned the French king and Pope Gregory the Thirteenth ordered bonfires kindled and medal struck manifestation his approval About fifty thousand people France were killed and some fearfully mutilated between August absence

I I

in

by

in

century

of

ninth

.

or

eighth

—

—

of

in

or

, by

,

so

no

;

” ?

"

,

,

in

.

of ,

by

” ?

ages The Scottish Covenanters were hunted like wild beasts and killed the hundreds the killers sometimes playing football with the heads the victims Shall we say that the Scotch and others who joined the enter prise were unrestrained savages answer that all savage but such acts are unspeakably insist that they are less because committed Frenchmen the six Englishmen century teenth Scotchmen and the seventeenth century than when perpetrated by the Vik ings who had never heard Christianity the

at

is

of

,

a

.

of

,

a

In

is

is

.

It

demonstrable fact that certain amount mutilation and more often than not has been the inevitable concomitant war War the business killing those days the killing was done short range

INTRODUCTION in hand to hand encounters . There was no long range, dispassionate execution . When the passions have been

that one man wilfully runs his sword or spear through another , intelligent men are not sur prised if , before the attendant fury has subsided , the quivering body of the fallen foe be slashed and cut need lessly . Mutilation , moreover , is an individual act which the best discipline cannot wholly stamp out or prevent . Nor is it historically true , as is intimated by . Scott , Vikings that the "massacred " defenseless men and de crepit persons of either They fought fiercely and they cheerfully killed every form battle but disdained sufficiently

excited

so

of

in

, sex .

Mr

.

meanness and cowardice

in

us ,

,

by

;

of

,

the Red conquered

",

of

"

. . .

a

,

as

”

"

of

,

In

839 the author tells the Vikings appeared routing the local sovereign and the centre Pictland establishing themselves masters 866 Olaf the Viking was king Fair Dublin and laid waste the country whole the Picts while his son Thors

Ross and northern half Alba and Haldane was victorious over northern England The Vikings extended their power far and wide When we recall that they came from their northern homes rude vessels over hundreds miles un charted seas and yet fought and conquered the Picts say that man for man their native heaths the Vikings were match for the former assertion eyes and blink which makes credulity itself rub questioning astonishment To characterize their war with the natives mur history butchery der and the like does not alter thinking clarity conduce the subject The plain

,

Caithness

.

of

an

or

,

.

,

on

of

",

.

the period

in

was war war the modes usual and cus The fact that Christians were the

,

that in

is

truth tomary

it

to

", "

as "

.

in

its

is

”

"

no

,

to

on

,

in

,

of

.

,

of

tein

INTRODUCTION unfortunate victims of defeat was an incident merely , but has little bearing on the point . Christians were ready to bear arms against the unconverted and slay them with extravagant abandon when baptism was refused . The score is quite even ; every cruelty of the Viking marauders can be matched by an atrocity committed in the name of religion by others whose descendants now preen them selves as the sons of civilized and cultivated ancestors . It is not necessary to condone anything from that rough and bloody age , but the interests of accurate historical writing demand that we bear in mind that the Christian label , in that period , was no guaranty of kindness , humanity , or justice . It has been my object in writing the following chap ters to put before the reader , in brief review , the charac ter of the country and of the people , the nature of the government and the public institutions under which the people lived , the general features of their legal system , their social and economic circumstances, and their reli gious , political and home life during the period of the Icelandic Commonwealth . The time covered is compara

tively short , namely : from the settlement of the island , in 874 , until the time when the country united with Norway, in 1262 -64 , less than four hundred years . The period is relatively brief, when we think of the vast expanse of human history , but it is twice as long as the existence of the American Government , as organized at the present time, and longer , indeed , than this continent has been settled by white men . During the régime of the Commonwealth there were put to trial legal and govern mental principles in some respects almost identical with certain

theories which underlie our

system

ment collapsed because of elementary

. The govern

defects, and the

INTRODUCTION principal cause of failure is of interest today because it was that very spirit of lawlessness which President Hoover justly deprecates in our own country . The story of this experiment in liberty, carried on in far off Iceland ,

its

has elements of interest to every person who cares to know something about the stages through which human society has passed in supposed progress towards bet

.

things

ter

My

interest the ordinary delve into technical and controversial matters That work would interest the legal scholar and the historian human institutions series lectures delivered about

has

;

to

of

.

by

,

of

,

all

a

be of of

,

,

is

by

. . he

.

to

,

I

,

,

of

to

be

to

.

I

,

ago

note

of a

of

-

years

in

the Icelandic language Jon Jonsson who had conducted ex subsidy from the government tensive research under chapters Iceland the basis several but not this book shall not quarrel with any critic who may point out that any merit my book has should disposed credited this scholar rather than me There are chapters and parts chapters dealing with subjects accept full responsibility does not mention for which five

historian

,

twenty

A

.

to

of

be

or

I

been

intention

to

no

object

sole

reader had complicated

;

all

I

's

in

to

acknowledge my indebtedness Cornell University who read

,

Hermansson

to

privilege

of

a

is

.

.

Dr

H

It

.

lectures

as

,

of

in

.

.

am

,

of

of , in

I I

Ices not touched many sources Jonsson have course read the Sagas they were the de my youth and they have furnished satisfying light fully satisfied that the con thrills later years clusions are sound and may be supported upon reasonable and satisfactory grounds The drawings the book are made from the originals reproduced Thorarinn Thorlaksson Jonsson have consulted

ten

vii

Head

, of

Larson

the University

of ,

.

M

. L .

Dr of

,

four

History

of

two Department

to

chapters

to

INTRODUCTION

the

Illinois who

,

at

.

, ,

,

T

,

.

,

to

C

,

,

read chapters five eleven twelve thirteen fourteen and appendix and Dr George Flom Professor of Scandinavian Languages and English Philology the read

chapters six

. ,

Illinois who

,

of

University

seven and

.

in

all

,

eight distinguished scholars this field Their sug gestions and criticisms have been very helpful

, ,

CHAMPAIGN January

ILLINOIS

1930

. .

. .

.

. .

. .

1 4 36

73

. . . .

.

. .

.

.

.

.

.

.

. . . . . .

161 177

246 258 274

Comparison 290

a

Women

Home Life and Death

. . .

,

Marriage

of

Property Rights

.

XIV

.

;

Feasts and Social Life Sports

—

Food

.

Servants and Slaves

.

Commerce and Navigation

Children and Education

. .

. . . . .

. . . . . . . .

Poetry and Saga

XIII

XV

.

.

. .

.

and the Church

.

Christianity

Witchcraft

Sorcery

. .

,

Superstition

. . and . . . . . . .

System

.

.

XII

The Pagan

.

X XI . .

IX . .

VIII

Law and Justice

,

.

IV

.

V

VI . .

VII

Local Government

The

125 93

. . . . . . . .

The National Government

;

III

.

Origins Land and People

229 206

;

1930

.

;

930

II .

I.

800

Contents

298

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

. ix

.

.

. . . . . . . . . . .

.

Index

323

328 332

.

Bibliography

. . . . . .

.

. C

Occupations

. . . . . . .

A

B

Wearing Apparel

.

Houses and Buildings

D

APPENDIX

347 353

List of Illustrations American Representatives

Millennial

.

.

OPPOSITE PAGE

the Icelandic

to

.

.

.

xli

.

.

.

2

Westmen Island . . . . . . . . . King Christian X and Queen of Denmark at Thingvellir . . . . . . . . . . Almannagja , Plains of Althing . . . . .

.

.

12

.

.

36

. .

. .

.

Leithend Leif Eiricsson Memorial Figure Leif Eiricsson

of

.

·· . ·· . · . .

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

. . of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . Home Gunnar

. . . . . .

OF

270 290 336

·· .• •. · • ..

PAGE

.

. . . .

134

.

.

.

. .

130

.

. .

.

.

.

. .

.

.

.

. .

·· .. .. . . . ·

55 126

231

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . .

.

. .

.

. . . . . . . . . .

. .

.

. .

.

of

Parlor Earliest Type House Home Plan Later Saga Age

,

234

DRAWINGS

.. ..

.

.

.

.

.

. . . . . .

Floor Plan

of .

.

Ship

Spear

of Axe .

Types Types

of of

.

Thingvellir Environs Logretta Type Sword

.

of

LIST

170 226

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Icelandic Costume Sheep

. .

.

Icelandic Wrestling Siglufjordur

8

48

Reykjavik

. . .

· ·

The Outlaws . . . Grund in Eyjafjordur .

. . .

206

.

2

.

. . . . . . .. . . .

.

Johannes Johannesson , President , Icelandic Millennial Committee . . . . . White River : Water and Glacier . . .

. .

.

. .

.

265 324 326

MARI

American Representatives to Icelandic Millennial , 1930 1. Senator

Peter Norbeck , Chairman ; 2. Congressman 0 . B . Burtness ; 3. 0 . P. B. Jacobson ; 4. Sveinbjorn Johnson ; 5. Fred H . Fljozdal .

PIONEERS of FREEDOM CHAPTER 800

Tis the

; 930 ;

I

1930

; the scene is the German Forest at Two men , famous in history , “ take to

year 799

Paderborn . the woods ,” put their heads together and concoct a plan destined to shape the course of European civilization for a thousand years . In this sylvan retreat Charlemagne and Pope Leo III , in a few hours ' time, settled a problem which has confounded legal and political philosophers in modern times. From thence

on the sanction

of

law —

that

which obedience on the part of the indi nothing vidual — was more or less than the will of God , through made known the Head of the Church at Rome quality

impels

and by him communicated to the rulers in the state , from Emperor down . With benefit of clergy a partnership be tween the sacred and the secular authority was born , with the latter as the junior member in the enterprise. From this morganatic mesalliance of religion and politics came

the principle that the papal interpretation of the divine mandates must be executed exactly as given to the civil power . Upon the consummation of this scheme, shortly , legitimate place to take the law became in origin and in fallible

in

content

.

On Christmas day of the year 800 day

of the

new

year

Carolus achieved

– in

his

—

actually the first

the Apostolic Church at Rome, long cherished ambition , and ,

PIONEERS “

crowned

spiracy

of God , " officially

— an

FREEDOM

OF

entered that sanctified

con

soon to be followed throughout by necessary implication excluded the

example

Europe

— which common man from participation in the government , or any of the processes of lawmaking .

It

is

the year 930

; the scene is

a

beautiful plain in

in

Ice

. The actors are men , and sons of men , who had fled from Norway , Ireland , Scotland and from Normandy,

land

silent submission to the principle of to rule , and the superhuman origin and consequent infallibility of all civil law . They are planning and perfecting a legal system whose sanction shall be the general feeling that truth , justice , and the na rather than

the absolute

bow

in

right of kings

tional consciousness concerning both , are the true foun which flows the great stream of human law . It is June , 1929 ; the scene is the Congress of the United States at Washington , and the actors are the law makers of America , representing and speaking for the American people in making the law for the first great ex periment in republican government in modern times . This august body have just passed a resolution requesting the President " to accept the invitation of the Legislative As tain from

sembly

of Iceland

of America take part in anniversary

to

to the Government of the United States appoint official representatives . . . to

. . . the celebration

of the one thousandth

of the Althing . . . and to procure a suit able statue or other memorial of Leif Ericsson , " and thus in 1930 honor a pioneer of freedom in the first years of the tenth century

.

pays

reasonable respects

and to

thus justly

is

substance

its

origin constitutional

,

its

national consciousness that

its

The American Republic , itself a recent pioneer in po litical liberty , where, in theory , the sanction of law is the

Johannes Johannesson

, President

Icelandic Millennial Celebration Committee

800

;

930

;

1930

human

freedom

.

nium

of

from a

.

doctrine that law derived sanction participates fitly same source America

in

its

Iceland . With the rise of the Commonwealth and the founding of the Althing , or Parliament , in 930 , there be gan in this misnamed island of the far North a Golden Age of literary , political and legal development upon the exactly

the

real millen

CHAPTER II Origins

; Land

and People

| NTOLD centuries ago , before man appeared upon

the scene, a wide stretch of land lay across the lantic , connecting Scotland and Greenland with

At

fir

the American continent . In the mild climate of the polar regions beautiful forests clothed hill and dale in garments of tropical splendor . Omnifarious and balsam over spread

,

the land

and parasitic vines

.

trunks with treacherous bcauty

the

tree

Enormous pines here and like giants doing sentinel

mountain vomiting fire

to a

a

mo

order quake

,

in

;

.

a

patience ment Centuries may pay toll symmetry elegance enrobe her and but

in

is

not easily under

destroyed in

New

only

a

life appears

of be

.

stood

smaller brethren But Nature to

duty

, .

for

,

there rose high above the weald

covered

in

,

of

all

.

,

on

;

in

.

,

a

and their place are ugliness and ruin depths now and Fires lingered the subterranean great eruptions place spreading then took devastation every hand Ashes and burning embers fell upon the for storm

,

.

,

of ,

ests until was aflame and lakes lava rested like shrouds upon the face Nature The ocean itself yielded

,

,

its

,

n .

of

of

.

;

to

the mighty forces bottom rose and old coast lines During were obliterated these cataclysmic events under the devastating influence of fire and flood immense fragments land were loosened from their ancient con

,

,

In

.

,

nection and sunk into the sea time when these proc eșses had run their ruinous course the island now called

ORIGINS ; LAND AND PEOPLE was left standing alone

Iceland

in

a

trackless wilderness

of brine .

Iceland is , in fact , but a continuation of the British ridge Isles ; it is the high point of the same submarine which lies from the southeast to the northwest across the North Atlantic Ocean . The actual depth of the sea over this elevation is about 1, 500 to 2 ,000 feet , whereas on either side soundings indicate a depth of approximately 12 ,000 feet. Geologists are of the opinion that Greenland Isles were connected by land in the Ceno Age zoic . Fossils of the same tertiary origin are found in , Iceland Greenland , Scotland , and the Faroe Islands . The preserved are associated deposits in which these relics with great strata of volcanic rocks As result of up

miles

larger

during the tertiary period Indiana nearly 000 square

,

than

,

probably

40 ,

,

island

,

this

early ages

an

heavals

in

.

a

lie

and the British

,

in

,

Scotland

of

the climate and temperature by

correct knowledge

of

A

coast

.

of

on

tic ,

,

in

,

,

,

,

of

in

,

extent with area greater than the combined areas Massachusetts Rhode Island Connecticut Maryland Vermont and Delaware the largest Eu rope after Great Britain remained isolated the Atlan about 450 miles from Cape Wrath the northwest

at

In as

,

.

,

,

of

can best

of be

specific comparisons the Report Annual the Smithsonian Institution 1906 page 275 we find the climate Iceland described fol

Iceland

gained

call

to

is

it

as

rational call this island Iceland sheet measuring several hundred to

as

is

It :

an

"

lows

,

of

its

a

,

its

24

a

.

,

-

in

33

.

,

,

66

, is

thousand square miles Greenland Iceland not bleak arctic re gion embedded thick ribbed ice though northmost Rifstangi projects about mile north peninsula the Arctic Circle Situate between 63 degrees minutes and degrees minutes north latitude yet thermic ice

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM is such , owing to the Gulf Stream , that the mean temperature of themonth of January at Stykkisholm , on the west coast of Iceland , is 34 . 5 degrees F . higher than it should be in that latitude . It is surprising that January at Reykjavik is milder by 112 degrees than at Milano , North Italy , or one degree F . milder than at Munich on 48 degrees 9 minutes north latitude , i. e ., 312 degrees far ther south than London (51 degrees 33 minutes north latitude ) , while the mean annual for the same place is but one degree less than at St. Johns , 16 degrees farther south , namely , 391/2 degrees F ., or as much as that of parts of Asia situate over 17 degrees ( over 1, 000 miles ) farther south . Grimsey , North Iceland cut two degrees halves the Arctic Circle warmer January than Stockholm The coolness the summer however reduces the annual mean The mean tempera July Reykjavik degrees only ture summer degrees The sea round the south west and east coasts Iceland never less than 41 degrees while drifting down polar the north coast the nearness every four from Greenland occasionally five years temperature causes fall temperate will thus seen that Iceland has mate while the clearness its atmosphere rivals that Italy medium matchless purity this combination sea and mountain has been well called and most bracing and exhilarating like drinking champagne English traveler says her book Iceland freer any part Europe and from microbes than the air according the researches of Dr Brown the average contain more blood Icelander does hemoglobin than that Europe other inhabitants in

in

. ,

,

ofof cli

it

is

It

is

,

',

of

."

of

the

.

set

in

creation

.

of

in

of

all

;

in

The climate became the flora and fauna of the country gradu ally disappeared until living things were extinct Per haps the seeds life lay dormant the cold endless a

continent steadily colder

,

, ,

.

,

.

L

.

an

on

W

of

of

.

on

' ,

of

After Iceland was detached from the mainland new age

an

a

',

—

in

to

an

of

, on

F

or

ice

of

,

air

A

of

of

“

. , It '

be

.

in

a

(

., ,

,

F

.

53

is

is

of

F

2

59 .

). . at

of

.

,

of F

5

, off

,

.

by

is

anomaly

ORIGINS ; LAND AND PEOPLE

7

winter ; perhaps they drifted in from other lands, carried by ocean currents , or by birds . The country was an ice mountain , resembling an enormous iceberg anchored in mid -ocean . In this condition the island remained for ages until gradually another era opened . ice

The climate changed again ; the gigantic

,

,

,

In

.

.

of

cli

its

of

it

in

more attractive

prospective settlers

.

seem

to

would

in

.

.

D

.

,

of

to

its

a

its

,

,

, , , A is .

,

. ,

of

a

of

of

is ,

It

of

,

of

a

all ,

in

of

;

.

;

in

,

in

of

.

by

in

to

.

,

.

as

.

,

,

,

mountains their gleaming peaks piercing the sky melted before the warming sun and life was born anew Conditions were not the same before the Ice Age Where formerly trop ical trees had flourished now nothing but grass coarse shrubs and rowan trees grew time the new vegetation responding the change climate and environment at tained substantial growth As ages rolled the land was garments green clothed and luxuriant vegetation gravel Grass covered the hills and flourishing birches bright spread their branches over the mountain sides and into the valleys while the interior ice hills lifted their scintillating heads into the clouds Now and again the land trembled and there were rumblings and reverbera tions the bowels numerous volcanoes Then followed stillness over deathlike but for the murmur the running brooks Such was Ice forest and the babble land for unnumbered centuries until man came the part century latter the ninth course unfortunate that the island bears the name Iceland Indeed there but one other example grievous misnomer Greenland owes the fact such that name gives false impression respecting mate and character the shrewd foresight Eric the development Red who with the instinct the modern agent called the country Greenland the hope that

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM Pope 's impatient exclamation " Wits, just like fools , at war about a name , Have full as oft no meaning , or the same its

but the manner

in

wisdom

,

grain

by

its

may not be without

of

"

an

,

a

,

a

,

.

in

a

—

is

it

,

on

it

of

.

in

in

is

chilly misnomer which Iceland came interest ing study human the part which lawless chance plays affairs The first discoverers the island were leaving for Norway without giving name when they suddenly no falling ticed snow the mountains whereupon they promptly named Swede called Gar Snowland Later dar there little village the Icelandic settlement

of

,

he

,

, . it

on

's

.

.

or

,

Snowland Gardarsholm He had but took with him three crows useful the doves Noah Being un to

, he

, .

after

he

go

as

,

course

left the Faroes loosed the ship but the straight course for the island Floki had set third struck many maraud out find This battle scarred veteran ing expedition became fishing absorbed that for got about harvesting hay for his stock As result all his animals perished during the winter He went northward to

succession returned

a

.

the

Here was his inspiration

fjords blocked with Floki named the

.

.

of

the island and found one

arctic

ice

on

.

,

he

a

of

in

-

so

.

to

a

in

Two

.

where

crow

a

certain

of

,

proved

which

to as

in

search

compass

of

,

A

Norway no

a

on

.

,

of

, its

,

in

of

.

a

as

—

in

North Dakota by that name had mother some renown seeress Acting her advice Gardar set forth search Snowland Presently found the island wintered and returned the next year with glowing accounts attractions From then was called Gardarsholm which means Gardar island great Viking named Floki Valgardsson sailed from

Iceland and the appellation has stuck for nearly eleven hundred years This dyspeptic old warrior then Norway with turned most dour report concerning a

to

.

re

,

country

White

River

Water

Glacier

Jokull

) (

,

and

ORIGINS; LAND AND PEOPLE Iceland between lected

9

. The responsibility for the name must be divided the fish and the polar ice , for had Floki not neg to provide for his stock , he would probably not

be

for

to

grateful to Floki, after

all

have been soured by the winter hardships . One of Floki's shipmates had a different impression . He reported that every blade of grass was bedewed with butter . Thus the island narrowly escaped being named Butterland . The people have an excellent reason to be a

.

be

to

set

of

.

, of

in

of

of

is

,

called Butterlander just plain Icelander The settlement Iceland was mainly the result of the Norway under the leadership revolution Harald the Norway people Fairhaired Movement the towards less romantic than

even

of

, ,

in

.

its

,

,

of ,

of

of

,

. or

of

a

of

to

of

,

of

.

of in

the west had earlier but the real impetus came from the campaigns this young prince At the time the ad vent this ambitious and able monarch Norway like England prior the victories Alfred the Great was petty kingdoms each principality being collection dependent neighbor Over them and separate from were rulers who more less successfully imitated the kings The backbone strut and pomp the country

on

-

,

to

.

of

,

yeoman farm however was the numerous middle class ers They were independent heads families who lived the allodial land which belonged the family and from man man They were largely supreme the jurisdiction the family estate The wealthy and more powerful among them frequently set themselves equals minor kings for often the latter had little superiority beyond the royal title After the mid claim

.

of

Great

the

North

took

,

however the fair haired Harald

it

the

of ,

the ninth century

of ,

Alfred

,

the

- .

,

of

as

dle

of

to

up

.

to

descended

within

into

his head

.

to

Norway and consoli subjugate the entire population date the small kingdoms under his personal rule

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

10

Until the advent of Harald ,

the king was lord of the ; people only he was not overlord of the soil . The land was possessed by free odalsmen who held it in allodial

some extent inalienable , a condition resulting succession through three or more genera , uninterrupted possession for at least thirty years, tions or according to the evidence of early Scandinavian The tenure —

to

unbroken

, .

law

from

,

of

or

of

an to of

. of

as

's

,

Scandinavian holders of the odal allodial lands re attempt garded Harald make himself lord the soil

;

an

,

accomplish

its

in

,

like expedients

to

is

and resorts

to

,

to

as

,

so

,

channels

it

in

all

,

, at

.

of

of

of

it

,

In

a

,

of

as

well the people act the greatest usurpation tyranny light customary and the law was act disregard confiscation the ancient laws their King Harald did Scandinavian forbears The policy parallel points perhaps feudal the situation not England after the conquest yet possessed resem striking blances indicate that human nature very much the same thinks grasping for power like

understood

the

character

his

people

,

If

Harald

of

.

ends the world over

no

be

he

of

in

byto

,

to

conquering Norway

. or

he

to

.

to

-l

he

in to

,

a

fair damsel

to

the refusal wed him until he was king over all unify Norway was long and Resistance his efforts strug severe but the end won From 860 872 gled with liberty oving yeomen who preferred exile

of

manlike resolution

of

,

,

of

.

.

re in

of

.

a

.

,

he

which doubtless did must credited with ordi nary courage The Scandinavians of his age did not enjoy reputation for meekness They were not the habit quietly submitting while another despoiled them their ancient hereditary rights They did not supinely yield this instance They rebelled vigorously against and sisted energetically the ambitious schemes this young legend was moved man who according the states

ORIGINS ; LAND AND PEOPLE

11

; and it turned out, too often , that submission and surrender meant death , or worse . The victory of Harald resulted in fundamental changes . Not only was there a new ruler , but there was death to

submission

substituted for the old order a new relationship between the king and his subjects . The power of the monarchy

to irresistible proportions, and the yeomen were forced to accept such terms as the king chose to offer . The conditions were not mild or the terms easy . It was not enough that the independence of the old kingdoms was extinguished ; subservient earls and lords took the grew

kings ; and Harald repudiated the allodial rights of the yeomen by demanding rent and fees from all landowners , based upon the holding or control of the land . He virtually set himself up as a universal land owner and landlord , entitled to collect such charges from Plainly this was his tenants as he saw blow the

at

a

,

had

constituted

been

prior

to

society

it

foundations

as fit .

of

of petty

places

the

North

,

the most authentic stories

the

. all

is

,

it

Snorri said that this king was very severe his relations with the wealthy yeomen and those from whom resistance rebellion might feared put joining These recalcitrants the choice his complying with most bur court leaving the country be

of

of

,

, or

he

to or

in

Heimskringla

of

one

of

of

In

.

the consolidation

; .

, to

us

of

,

.

;

as

,

by

.

;

,

.

,

if

they remained densome conditions The same historian says that King Harald appropri ated all the land both occupied and unoccupied and even claimed the sea and waters The yeomen were regarded they owed him complete allegiance him tenants Heimskringla The author tells that these oppressive measures forced many leave the country New settle ments were accordingly formed elsewhere Iceland was

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

12 discovered

; and this

and settled

remote

island , a lone

lost continent , became the abiding place

re

of

, ,

of

.

of

its

mainder of a of liberty in last stand against the encroachments cen tralized and arbitrary power This brief sketch the situation created through the

, of

.

to

is

.

a

is to

,

do

to -

of

of

activities Harald the Fairhaired suggests the charac ter the people who left Norway and became the pioneer inhabitants They were principally Iceland yeomen well and those whom the king suspected disposition say rebel against his authority That historically the assertion accurate that those who fled

of

of

to So

.

it

in

to

of

;

.

, of of

-

from Norway were the most energetic and high spirited They were not only men element the population noble birth means and material substance they were liberty who could not brook the idea genuine lovers living political subserviency many left any king expedient the country that Harald deemed check the

of an

.

,

.

in

.

to

of

,

to

be

by

.

to

is

of

an

by

imposing emigration tax That this was act futility rather obvious from the chronicles the period Those who had decided leave Norway were not deterred fiat assessments The Vikings like some capable business men today were not without skill frus trating the efforts the state tax them flood

,

.

,

.

the Atlantic Ocean

of

in

,

,

in to

on

it

at

its

of

emigration started from Norway When the stream did not first set course the direction Iceland but towards other places with which the Scandinavians Viking excursions They went had become acquainted N ormandy Ireland Scotland and the adjacent islands Those who left

Norway

knew

that

on

,

,

in

in

,

of

,

at

had

gained

a

many places foothold upheaval forag before the home and that Vikings ing expeditions had frequently touched upon the shores Ireland and Scotland leaving terror and destruction their countrymen

Here some Irish were killed Ireland were called Westmen

.

,

,

Literally the Westmen Island the British Isles especially

the settlement period Men from Of southwest coast Iceland

.

.

of

in

.

,

ORIGINS ; LAND AND PEOPLE their path . The emigrants

from

13

Norway, accordingly , set

sail for Ireland and Scotland where they pillaged and plundered after the manner of the sea rovers of other years. Most of these countries were so near Norway that an occasional journey back to the land of their nativity to

harass King Harald and his subjects was a convenient and soul -satisfying possibility . Reprisals against Norway be came so frequent and annoying that Harald was forced to act . He organized an expedition against the marauders , sending his fleet west over the Atlantic where he subju gated some of the islands and drove out the Vikings . From their island homes they fled and sought refuge with Thorstein the Red who had conquered a part of Scotland . The reign of this bold and blond Scandinavian was short lived ; the Scotch betrayed and killed him about the year 888 . Thereafter the Vikings had no place where they could live in peace and security during such intervals as they might desire respite from warlike pursuits . It must

be admitted that they soon wore out their welcome where they visited in the Viking Age . Their name was anath ema ; princes and people alike feared their dauntless spirit . In steadily increasing numbers they directed their course towards Iceland . So general was the exodus that large communities were built up in a few months or a few seasons . Settlers came directly from Norway and from the islands from which they had been driven as a result of the naval demonstration of King Harald . The period of the settlement of Iceland comes to an end about the year 930 . Many of the original settlers had lived for years on some of the British Isles , or on the islands not far from the British coast . They had had ex tensive business and social relations with the Celts , with

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

14

the people

of

Scotland

, and with the English . These con

tacts were of mutual advantage and educational value ; intermarriages took place , cementing frequently friendships and uniting families in the strongest of all

and

bonds . It is , therefore , an authenticated fact that the pio neers of Iceland were not all of purely Scandinavian stock ; there was a considerable admixture of Celtic , , Scotch and other blood . Of course the main stream came from

Norway .

It is impossible to estimate with accuracy what percent of the original settlers were not of Norwegian origin . Some authorities maintain that forty per cent were of other than Scandinavian stock . This would seem to be ex age

cessive , but

of

it is established beyond controversy that many

the pioneers were

from Ireland and Scotland without any mixture of Scandinavian blood ; that others who were of purely Norwegian stock brought with them as their

wives women of Scotch and Celtic birth ; and that men of the latter races , who served as slaves in their households , became permanent residents , but were freed after the island had become settled , and remained influential and respected citizens of the new republic . A glow of real romance is sometimes given the Sagas in the love affair of an Irish princess and a Scandinavian warrior , in one family in Iceland having been instance a distinguished founded as a result . Such , in brief outline , is the story of the settlement of

Iceland

. It

less accurate

is conservative than

to

say

the information

that the sources are no we have concerning the

history of many other European countries during the same period . Often much that passes for history is mainly conjecture ; not so here . The salient facts may be verified in nearly every important detail . The history is interest

ORIGINS ; LAND AND ing for another reason lives love

of

. It

PEOPLE of

is the story

people in whose

a

and manly independence

freedom

15

were

domi

or

rendering service private homes but

it, of

lip

nating motives . Liberty has been worshiped the world over from the earliest times ; yet , too often , men have been inclined to sacrifice freedom when difficulties and oppressive power pressed on the other side . The pioneers of Iceland revered liberty , not only by byin

of

.

To

fat in

a

to

,

,

the security secret chambers fighting for and when fighting by moving became hopeless from the ancient homesteads new and theretofore unknown quarter the world where they could maintain their personal and political dependence them lean liberty seemed better than

.

slavery

in

of

of

;

as

a

be

to

of

One the primary motives the first settlers America was establish their homes where the con science would free the pioneers Iceland wanted and place where the individual could be wholly free found

of

,

,,

,

a

of

,

.

of

over which

in

in

in

in

,

.

It

,

at

up

.

to

is

a

in

. of

restraints

no he

were imposed with his own recog consent the interest the society which essentially nized himself member There differ willing early ence These Scandinavian settlers were everything which give that time time wao was most highly prized patrimony and allodial lands relatives and their allodial native country itself was Iceland where liberty made untry itself its last stand against arbitrary power the countries of the far North On this isolated island the only spot hundreds miles remaining from vast stretch land for such

save

the ocean waves had rolled

for

unnumbered

of

of

a

.

a

,

of

Republic these pioneers freedom established and preserved their own liberty At this outpost Euro pean civilization blossomed finely organized system ages

PIONEERS

16

law and government, and is just beginning to have a

OF FREEDOM literature of which the world

a

real appreciation . Norway from to Iceland meant a radi cal change for those who came . This was true in even a The migration

greater degree

in

the case of the settlers who came from

Scotland and Ireland , and

from

life ,

the smaller islands in the the whole , was , perhaps ,

western Atlantic where on more pleasing to the senses . The Scandinavian character is founded on a strong base of seriousness . The poets of the time frequently gave expression to the solemn senti ments which the pioneers felt when they thought upon the possible consequences of the step they had taken . The

.

It in,

, .

is

of as it

,

,

,

a

as

, to

all

crude vessels , the stretches of uncharted seas , the enor mous difficulties of navigation , the severing of ancient ties , were calculated sober the most intrepid Viking many respects The island was then now justly described land marvels was mild and se vere kind and harsh grossly large and delicately en chanting all depending upon the standpoint from which

in

in

is

.

.

it

by It

was viewed not remarkable that various tales were brought back travelers who visited the island those early days There are numerous instances the Sagas

Norway visited the island

,

from

or

-

where well known men

to

, ,

,

,

In

,

;

de

,

of

;

,

.

of

of

during after the period settlement only return with the most diverse and discrepant views concerning the character the country one instance for example three distinguished men who visited the island together disagreed strikingly one reported very unfavorably an Coverley other with the judicial caution Sir Roger

.

;

said that the country had many good and many bad points while the third found that Iceland was flowing with milk and honey As time passed and the settlers became partly estab

ORIGINS ; LAND AND PEOPLE

17

lished and had , in somemeasure , overcome natural disad vantages , the reports of travelers became more uniformly flattering. Indeed , many , perhaps most , felt that the coun try was a rather desirable place in which to make a home . example , one Saga tells about two citizens of Norway resolved to go to Iceland because they had heard

For who

many complimentary accounts ; that it would not be nec essary to purchase stock ; and that there was an abund ance of fish . They went to the island and , according to the Sagas , lived in comfort and well -being . Another group prominent Norwegians assigned as their reason for going the fact that stock could range in the open win ter that fish were abundant waters and that the luxuriant forests were free from the oppressive claims kings and robbers The histories point clearly the fact that the island many advantages was deemed have that prominent to

so

to

.

of

,

,

in

all

all

of

Norway were

persuaded

to

be

al

of

is

of

In

it

.

it

to

.

.

an

on

,

an

it

In

in

sell fine estates and addition should mentioned that the seal important element and the fact fisheries constituted that the whale was occasionally found stranded the coast was inducement The problem food was ways present and often serious When leviathan was found meant much the people ordinary times and under normal conditions

.

families move

should

be

It

observed

of

it,

,

all

a

,

Norway the population important changes that have

.

elements

of

most enterprising

the people combined into drew irresistibly the best and the

of

political independence powerful magnet which

of

of

.

on

to

of

in

possession adequate evident that the settlers were resources meet the demands the simple life that age The wealth available land and sea the freedom with which persons could avail themselves and the

PIONEERS

18

OF FREEDOM

taken place in Iceland during the thousand years between

the end

of

the settlement period and the present time. true that the country is , in substantial particu

While it is lars , the same as during the period of settlement , changes

of more than passing importance have occurred . The climate is doubtless but little different, and the conditions of growth are practically identical . At the present time there are spots, probably large areas, which are naked , wind -swept , gravel -covered dunes and lava beds, where forests and luxuriant meadows flourished . historical sources, notably the Islendingabok mention forests lying between the mountains shore . Landnamabok points to the same

The earliest

, specifically

and the sea fact . These the history of

books are the most dependable sources of the period . Other authorities , however , dependable in the main , although they may not be as worthy of credit , clearly show that the island was , in part, covered with trees which had attained a fair growth . Let no one suppose that the lot of the pioneers of Ice land and their descendants was uniformly pleasant and devoid of hardship . Wealth and prosperity did not always the island ;

and life was not sustained without alert industry . The pioneers suffered priva tions no less distressing than did their ancestors in other ages , or their descendants in the conquest of remote frontiers . The Sagas mention hard times and famine, particularly during the latter part of the tenth century . The country then suffered extremely from severe and protracted cold weather ; the sea became inaccessible to the fishermen , and the ocean ceased yielding the valuable food on which the natives depended in normal times . In the first year of the reign of Earl Hakon in Norway , beginning about 965 , a fierce winter , probably the hardest

blossom

on

steady and

ORIGINS ; LAND AND PEOPLE

19

to in

,

of

picture

of

of

a

is

.

-

,

by

of

.

of

fit

in Icelandic history , held the island in an icy grip . The people were forced to eat creatures never before or since considered for human consumption save the exigency Many imminent starvation starved death while others driven the instinct self preservation became thieves and highwaymen and were convicted and executed fleeting glimpse This merely the darker side the

in

a

so

of

to

in

to

the population due determine with certainty

the end the settlement estimate may hazarded with some approximates accuracy believed

be

the island

It

an

,

no

not

of

the population period although

increase possible

at

.

It

there was little immigration

is

or ,

,

to

.

to

it

,

us

is

enough remind Icelandic life but that not all was sunshine and ease According authentic accounts Iceland was settled long period years sixty for thereafter that about early

is

, .

Al

It to

,

is

It

of

so

,

,

in

,

.

.

of

to

it

to

,

on

an

.

,

,

of

.

to

in

:

in

by

is

.

as

at

,

it

assurance that that the population about the year 1100 was about sev enty thousand This figure arrived the historian Jonsson follows There were 1100 four thousand pay the duty bound five hundred sixty who were thing tax This public exaction was based upon the valua property and corresponded roughly tion the tax Norway later when the island had united with was not onerous charge and bore rather lightly the people largely for the reason that those alone were required pay who chose not attend the sessions the Althing poor persons exempted Certain were from the tax very probable therefore that the great majority the calculating this public charge yeomen were counted that those who did not pay probably would not exceed

,

;

or

a

of

to

or

.

to

thousand According the census later years usually eight persons there were seven home family whereas the Sagas indicate that during the period two

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

20

in a home was fre large , justifying an estimate of approxi persons each domestic the average

of settlement the number of persons

es

,

were retainers servants the householder fam

.

's

members

to

,

these

,

course

of

,

.

Of

and not

ily

,

and slaves

all

ten

quently

mately tablishment

on

very

a

,

in

,

Norway When the settlers left their allodial lands long where their ancestors had lived for time they usu

.

or

,

,

to

he

a

of

.

by

in

of

.

to

-

ally took with them the high seat posts from their former homes These timbers were akin heirlooms relics Sometimes they were elaborately carved with the images gods held particularly high esteem the family prospective settler came within sight When Iceland

of

.

.

be

to

of

or

cast the timbers overboard and committed them the fortune the gods determine where the home should built Wherever the timbers touched shore immigrant there the fixed his new abode The timbers care

a

be

,

in

is

of

a

of

as

-

.

,

, of or

in a

, or

of

-

side

each

.

,

in

or

the temple

or

on

the high seat the house that part the house where the gods were worshiped The temple altar might part separate the house structure The custom of removing the high seat posts and using part significant again them the family dwelling

were set down

to

back

the old

,

settled

the settlements

ownership

there was grew dis

and possession

.

but

its ;

abundant choice land putes arose concerning

as

of

.

home While the island was but sparsely

go

wish

to

,

of

a

,

homesickness

or

a

of

attacks

.

in

of

is

by

.

something far different than mere superstitious awe transplanting this virtually The true meaning that part dwelling sacred the ancient the family was rooted permanently and fixed anew adopted country the The practice imparted feeling permanence and resisted

The

ORIGINS ; LAND AND PEOPLE

21

later comers justly felt and freely said that the early ar rivals had appropriated unreasonably large tracts . As a result , an agreement was eventually reached to the effect

of land of

that no person should claim ownership greater area than he could cover by fires in

of his

a

day with the

a

. The fires should be built while the sun was still in the east , and they must not burn longer shipmates

governed

not out of

but

sun was

of land

the west

different rule right

dywoman Her

for

by

the selection

in

until the

fore

the

sight of the first , and A

then

on

fire was built in

.

another ,

.

thus

. First one

a

noon ,

in

than until evening

set

help

a

,

or

of

as of

to

in

,

,

of

of

was something sacred about fire many people ancient times and taking possession was method

as

.

first settlers large estates

is

it

.

at

in

to

an

of

,

in

,

was the case with probable that this one time general There are instances where the method by fire was used attempt appropriate land already the posses

of

in

.

,

in

, ,

;

the land was the use fire Some the most distinguished among the the island thus possessed themselves seems that with the Scandinavians there

of

.

by

possession

It

taking

above stated

of

It

.

lines

land otherwise landmarks stakes were tracing the help and trees were marked doubtless true that the most common way

is

,

erected

of , ,

boundaries

,

respect was limited the distance which heifer two years old could cover the Spring between sunsets Sometimes mountains creeks and rivers formed the

this

by a

of

a

,

a

a

In

,

,

to

-

, .

another one the Sagas we are told that well known man after certain family had been killed burning repaired the place kindled fire with still burning brand from the home and proclaimed himself sion

was

the land

customary

.

of

The

inference

and permissible

seems warranted to

that

it

the owner

appropriate

un

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

22

occupied land

this manner , although

in

it

was vacant

from

transient causes . Many of the original settlers took immense areas . Some seized the equivalent of several townships and claimed it as their own . Most of the leaders had large numbers of retainers and took with them from Norway twenty or thirty free men , in addition to the members of their own families

. Of

course , some who

came with

owners of the vessel were independent heads and took land in their own name upon arriving

of in

the

families Iceland ,

while others were adherents or followers of the pro moter of the enterprise. It resulted that large means were necessary to maintain the household . Indeed , it was com

his

mon that the leading settlers simultaneously maintained several establishments in different locations on their es , , father of the great poet example Skallagrim tates . For Egil , had his main abode at Borg , where he himself lived ; to

, of

in

, a

to

in

of

the main residence

.

,

in

,

.

a

the owner The latter was sort castle from lord supervised and controlled some degree upon the estate

of

were subordinate

of to

establishments

.

be

.

of

,

.

to

Large numbers

.

the estate livestock were kept order fur sheep nish food families and retainers Cattle and ranged over hill and dale and their produce constituted the main source the food supply Owners had houses built near the mountains and adjoining the places where the stock could fed most advantageously Yet all the to

the owner

of

dependence

to

sea

to

. of

of

to

or

of

.

property but he had numerous other houses upon Some these outlying houses were placed with respect the convenience access the other resources outlying inland rivers The homes were the imme persons occupying diate charge certain relation

which the his agents

ORIGINS ; LAND AND PEOPLE

23

point

they

claimed

In

of

use

.

not make very intensive

could

all

From what has been said concerning the quantity of land taken by the original settlers , it is obvious that they

it

of

dis

of

.

of

by

.

,

of

was distributed among friends fact much and followers who had come with the leaders from the mother country The Sagas contain many instances which illustrate how tracts were parceled among retainers and shipmates certain expeditions Further the heads

,

.

article impart

of

ap

an

.

that

order

exchange

to an

,

in

while

in

,

once

trivial value was given

It

a

accordingly

,

pears

gift for fear that the giver might recant a

a

land

in

as

.

in

of

is

to

a

to

;

of

, ,

the family and relatives near and more members and the appropriated land were beneficiaries tant portion later those who arrived was sold sometimes nothing There indicate that those who received any land the foregoing modes were not the absolute owners Occasionally cautious person would not accept

proof that something

to

.

of if

of

.

to

of

binding legality the transaction This precau disputes grew tion was wise because sometimes out such gifts The law was that the donee was unable furnish

aspect

of

,

be

,

.

,

or ,

gests the principle

A

.

In

,

.

,

by

on

to

or

or

in

in

,

the former

to

value had been delivered the danger stood serious difficulty afterwards case the giver his representatives chose challenge undo the transfer this respect the law gift now differed from modern rules the subject delivery adays completed cannot ordinarily retrieved and the act revoked And yet the situation sug

donor

,

,

to

of

a

,

in

of

a

as

of

,

on

of

.

or

,

of

no

.

of

,

of

quid pro quo consideration conveyancing the modern law contracts and Originally there were distinctions class the island Although many the pioneers were royal born scions the aristocracy their native country and consequence people subject had number their

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

24

control , they became merely influential yeomen in Iceland . Others , who settled at or about the time, were , in law , equally free and independent as those who were of high rank under the ancient régime . It happened , of course , often that the former were as wealthy and came from scarcely less distinguished families . The independent , freeholding yeomen were the back

it

by

a

of ,

of

,

to

.

in

.

a

in

, or

,

of

a

as

,

.

of

,

to

be

its

bone of the nation , as they are to this day . But within their ranks there gradually appeared a new class , a spe cies of tenant, who , without means to acquire land in own name had content with holding under some kind tenure from another While these tenants were they were really free and independent matter law large step lower the social scale than the owners proprietors They were less influential and had less pres tige They were not the state than the freeholders eligible except certain offices the unanimous vote of all the residents the law requiring the ownership cer

as

,

of

situation

.

economic

of

on

,

,

is

it

In

. .

a

.

as

property qualification This disability amount appears somewhat inconsistent with the assertion that reality they were independent not insofar civil rights were concerned Their political rights however their account were apparently somewhat restricted tain

.

;

.

, ,

.

of

is

more When the estate was divided upon the the owner the oldest son received the home the younger children descended the personal

,

.

of or

stead

,

death

to

thirty

.

It

of

of

as

to

in of a

of

The Sagas often speak leased lands and tenants Elaborate provisions the laws Iceland this period point the existence numerous tenant class seems probable that their numbers increased time passed Such the history most civilized communities Land owners are mentioned who had many tenants sometimes

ORIGINS ; LAND AND PEOPLE

25

of

.

in

of

,

. of ,

It

instance

, ,

each

, at

,

in

of

the main

in

of

depended

,

the tenancy

a

of

,

In

to

few

property and the real property held by tenants . Although reference is frequently made to this condition , there are but clues the actual status the tenant the state Gragas the great lawbook there are general provi sions concerning the letting land some which are appears that the terms still part the law Iceland

of

,

by

; to

it .

of

to

to

in

of

,

.

is

in

,

an

at

,

It

.

,

,

to

,

,

in

its

of or

a

In

in

.

of

,

of

or

.

by is

It

of

upon the agreement any rate the parties clear that no dues exactions were fixed law and collected from tenants with the single exception the stipulated respect rent the land this the tenants the Ice landic yeomen were much better situation than their brethren other countries who under the feudal system analogues were under obligation meet all sorts dues and personal duties which became more onerous and irksome with the years has sometimes been said that the fact that the island comparison with has been sparsely settled least impediment other small European countries was progress Possibly there some truth the assertion nevertheless there are certain obvious compensations density This very absence the population made impossible abject reduce the tenants the condition servitude and dispirited meekness into which the peasant

of

.

of

of

population other European countries sank during the corresponding period This class the population Ice a

of

to

es

in

as no

,

no

be

.

on

It

.

of ,

in

,

,

to

.

,

-

or

of

military land never became victims the harsh rule large measure semi military caste due the char acter of the country and the distribution the people hereditary over extensive areas There were vast Eng oppress the common man tates was the case land and the continent supposed that the landlord had should not

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

26

upon his tenant , beyond the payment of rent , claim merely because the law of the land did not prescribe per sonal duties or obligations . The Sagas mention , as a mat ter of course , the fact that landlords called upon their tenants to assist in various undertakings and enterprises, sometimes industrial , sometimes of a warlike character . It is not proper to regard these instances as exceptions . Even if they be so considered , exceptions sometimes are the germs out of which a custom grows , and custom is the parent , or precursor , of the law . Indeed , there are in from which the inference is fair that landlords arrogant were and exacting in their relations with ten ants ; that they gave them peremptory instructions how to manage the business , often virtually taking charge them

stances

system , the landowner sometimes de , hay right manded the to cut and to determine how much stock should be slaughtered for the winter . Superficially viewed , such interference appears without justification or

selves

. Under this

defense

, and

quite inconsistent with the notion that

ants were free men

ten

.

is remembered that the tenants were accus call upon the landlord for aid in case of need , it becomes easier to justify the interest taken by the latter in themanner in which the tenant conducted his business . Many an American banker has quite as boldly told his debtor -farmer how to farm without the excuse that if a crash came he owed a duty of support . The landlord was under certain legal duties to help his tenants in case they

When

tomed

it

to

his

his

did not have sufficient fodder for their stock . The law provided that if a tenant were insolvent , or so situated

If

.

to

to

,

yeoman land that he had to break up household lord was bound see that he had sufficient means exist until the time for moving came the landowner failed

ORIGINS ; LAND AND PEOPLE to a fine . The

Sagas mention compelled incidents where the owner was to look after the dependents of his tenants , when the latter had left his creditor 's land , or had obtained employment elsewhere . In view of this obligation it is not surprising that the land lord claimed the right to have some voice in the business . The inference is amply justified that tenants felt quite free in

this regard

27

he was subject

to call upon the landlord for assistance in most any imag inable difficulty , with a clear expectation that the appeal would not be in vain . Although the tenant class may not have been economi

its

free - no tenant class is , was , or ever will be — members enjoyed equal rights before the law this re parity with freeholders Otherwise spect they were their economic dependence was scarcely more pronounced many than that tenant farmer America today That the standing and prestige the tenants the social In

. .

of

to in

of

.

in

a

a

of

on

cally

,

In

.

to

,

of be

if

—

of

is

is

,

or

as

,

of

"

.

in

of is

.

to

; it it

so

;

.

a

to

of

,

by in

,

of

's

in

,

,

-

of

.

,

,

in

by

,

of

.

It

to

in

,

it

be

life the community bore some relation their eco deny nomic circumstances would useless all always civilized countries this has doubtless the main been true has never been wholly possible divorce the influence and standing man from his material situation Bellamy save the ideal circumstances pictured Looking Backward and later but less convincingly King Gillette safety razor fame the People Cor poration Even the hardheaded descendants the Vik ings had this common failing mankind that must perhaps the unconscious tribute called fault which Property ownership has usually been failure success prestige and power one the avenues was Ice wer land during the Commonwealth The The other alternative alth envy which that inglorious sentiment the base timent though poses passes for much not all that reform

28

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM , but which is , in truth ,

progressivism complex In

running

a

snarling inferiority

.

amuck

like manner

a

fairly

clear -cut distinction

was made

between yeomen and cottagers . The yeomen were owners

of real and personal property , whereas the cottagers no land , but were , by sufferance

owned

, temporarily

in

thereof . The yeomen of Iceland , during this period , are , in most fundamental respects , comparable to the yeomen of England , or to the statesmen of West possession

.

of

off

moreland and Cumberland . Of course , the distinction was here based solely on the difference in economic conditions . The cottagers , for the most part, were ordinary laborers . They were men who did not milk their own cows, the implication of which is simply that they lived the sub stance and produce stock other than their own Their as

to

a

to

of

in

. of

of

.

so

in

in

or

.

livelihood was derived chiefly from day labor and fishing They were not qualified jurors judges and serve that respect were class with those persons who poor that they were excused from paying the tax were collected from those who did not attend the Althing The payment that tax was one the main prerequisites the enjoyment full civil and political rights the Ice

a

. of

in

,

,

be

,

,

all respects en other citizens

.

of in

to

.

,

monwealth They were not considered titled the civil and political rights

status was fully attained

an

to

landic community There still remains considered another class persons perhaps not very large namely the freedmen Manumitted slaves had distinct standing the Com

,

,

the presence

of

.

in

was made publicly

or

freedom

,

of

of

,

,

by

's

Before the freedman offi cial proclamation the local Godi was essential for slaves like vagrants and paupers were without civil rights and beyond the pale the law The proclamation

wit

ORIGINS ; LAND AND PEOPLE , and a part of the ceremony was an announcement by the freedman that he desired to receive civil liberty , together with a solemn oath to obey the law . If any step was overlooked the candidate for full civil rights failed to pass from bondage to freedom . Once fully free, the former slave , or his legal representative , was entitled to compensation in case of injury or death upon the same

nesses

of

,

if

ex

-

,

no

.

;

his

terms as any other person . And yet the freedman was not wholly free . Hewas still subject to a certain dominion at the hands of former wholly example master the bond was not severed For the freedman had children the owner had the right

,

to

of

to

it

to

, or

;

in

inheritance and case the freedman dissipated his give attempted somebody else the old fortune master had the legal right declare the status lost and

,

it

.

its

;

,

so

of

in

.

,

of

an

in

,

;

in in

of .

to

in

,

to

if

;

,

be

to

of

.

a

-

re

the condition slave On the other hand obliged the former owner was take care the freed man should the latter become helpless and without descendants who could look after him and was his duty press the suit for damages the freedman was killed reciprocal obligations There were thus the potential compen control vested the master was not without sating advantages the other party The law laid upon they him certain obligations behalf the freedman might become onerous contingencies certain the equilibrium justice gave the old State groping for master some rights return Incidents recorded the Sagas show that freedmen establish

invited

feast and visit

. in

that they were

to

slaves

-

for

ex

in

,

,

;

in

attained positions influence the commu upon they and that occasion established close and advantageous friendships with the leaders the state Sometimes the most prominent men had such high regard frequently

nity

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

30

their homes and sent away laden with valuable gifts and tokens of esteem ; and the sons of freedmen , time and again , married into wealthy and powerful families . Few incidents in this period of Icelandic history point

more clearly

to the existence of a genuinely democratic spirit among the people than the attitude towards persons who had passed from slavery to freedom . Personal merit was truly the passport to public and private favor . Freed

slaves and their children found that the gate of opportu nity opened for them upon equal terms and with that ease which we like to think is characteristic of real democracy . Their former station was not an insurmountable barrier to advancement. A fourth class of person in the state consisted of paupers , vagrants and beggars . They , like the slaves , were without civil rights . Although four classes have been described , among

there were , in some instances , clear , in others, less perceptible , social distinctions , as well as some differences respecting legal rights and privileges , there was, in real ity

whom

of

.

,

to

,

of

, or

of no

,

its

with

a

,

was born free parents vagrant he stood upon plane

all others

.

of

a

beggar and was not complete legal equality

he

the citizen

or . a If

position

of

in

to

;

.

of

of

, , or

no

,

on

but one class the island namely the yeoman aristocracy comparable There was that other countries that period later centuries All free they born persons enjoyed equal rights before the law protection equally were entitled and discrimina tion that regard was permissible because the birth

,

, be .

.

or

,

,

in

is

Quite another matter the fact that not all men en joyed equal influence and prestige the state Persons equally were not then are not now and never will gifted Aggressiveness ability equally industrious

ORIGINS ; LAND AND PEOPLE honesty

, good

sense

31

, and judgment , coupled with material

wealth , as always in human history , were the lights in which walked men who attained power and public confi

It came to pass , accordingly , in later years , that the gradually rose to a position of influence and actual Godis power in the state , beyond that which belonged to any in dividual or group in the earlier years of settlement . The leadership of the Godis naturally resulted from the constitution of society during and after the settlement era . The settlers came in relatively small groups , some times only one family with a number of retainers or fol lowers coming in a vessel . Some man was the leader of each group , his position being due to native characteris tics , to the prominence of his family in Norway , or the country from which he came, or to his wealth . Upon ap propriating land in Iceland he proceeded to distribute it dence .

, his friends , and the members of his family . It was natural , in such circumstances, that all those who took up their abodes on the land which the leader had allotted to them should regard him with a certain respect not accorded other persons . In fact , that is exactly what happened . The leader of each small group of settlers in some instances became an unofficial prince to whom former retainers and followers , although nomi nally and actually independent , went for counsel and as among his followers

in times of need . important An circumstance in the rise of the class of Godis and the growth of their power was the early cus tom of providing a place in or near the home of the leader of a group of settlers for worship of the gods . This tem

sistance

ple (hof) , in time, became a common place of worship , to which the persons who lived upon the land , originally ap propriated by the owner of the temple , repaired for devo

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

a community

.

manner the temple place became something like meeting place

In this

center

,

of

tion and sacrifice

the

32

of ex

,

,

to

, ,

,

of

,

a

where assembled from time time sev eral persons from the vicinage all bent primarily upon worship but secondarily upon the social intercourse congregation

.

a

,

by

be

,

In

in

,

change news and gossip consultation and discussion problems normal growing society meetings disputes and controversies be these local tween individuals sometimes between families arose

of ,

to

be

of

. of

.

a

,

to

by

or

adjusted which had either resort the sword peaceful means Men gifted with the good sense the first settlers readily saw the need some sort tri

of

In

a

common concern were considered the place including the temple

.

where matters

all this the owner

of

In

ence

,

of

by

amicably settled bunals which differences could meetings time these became convenient and accepted adjusting disagreements means democratic confer

.

as

in

,

Godi comes

as

,

.

prominent position

a

occupied

a

Very soon the power owner was called Godi and his and influence such was described the Sagas Godord The term

necessarily

.

Althing and the Godord

the development

as

the

as ,

which

The outline

of

, of is , .

originated

in

precise manner

to

is

it

of

of

of

a

word which means deity and evidences worship the connections between the original purpose meetings and the later civil character the From the sources available concerning the early history impossible Iceland ascertain with certainty the from

suggested

plausible

in

,

The soundness only that there were two such Things

.

the conclusion

, or of or , .

,

,

General Parliament was established

no

is

,

,

in

,

,

view

as

however reasonable well dispute historical facts about which there Reliable sources mention for example only two Things local doubtless some respects before the Althing above

ORIGINS ; LAND AND PEOPLE

33

local parliaments , merely because no more are mentioned , serious doubt . The Sagas and source materials do not refer to these local Things except in connection with some event , or because of some special circumstances . There is no attempt to describe the devel is open

to

specifically

of

as

.

is

on

all

opment of government and the evolution of governmental theory ; we have that subject from incidental ref erences The source materials and Sagas were intended by

;

is

,

is

.

in

,

of

of

no

it

,

to

of

,

is

.

in

is

of

.

of

of

a

as

the authors narrations events they were intended history neither law nor civilization The infer justified that the mere fact ence silence not conclu sive that there were no other Things than those which are named The connection which the two Things are men highly tioned unusual and reference natural though merely incidental the main purpose the author Furthermore does not seem probable that for fifty years after the settlement gen the island there was eral meeting the people except two instances men

course

Inasmuch

be

must have been pub there were large the point where these highly improbable as

settled

.

licly and peaceably

,

,

general bloodshed which

of

.

to

to

to

in

.

so

many places thickly settled tioned The island was about the year 900 that the necessity for meetings con problems pressing sider common must have been too Disputes constantly threatened bring about resisted

of

is

,

it

to

in

regions remote from said have convened that settlers traveled such long distances when they could mo conveniently nvo ve organized local Things more have their settlements Things are

It .

own

is

as

,

in

of

,

to

, ,

of of in

,

seems entirely reasonable indeed the conclusion harmony with the trend events and the character the people that Things originated differ ent parts the island from time time local needs obviously

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

34

demanded . At each such parliament it is likely that men agreed upon certain fundamental rules of conduct and

general laws which should be obeyed . It is , moreover , al most certain that these rules and laws were not uniform throughout the island . This multiform arrangement suf ficed until, with the development of communities , and the

, intercommunity intercourse attention of thinking men the conflicts and difficulties resulting from want of uniformity . When law suits had to be prosecuted in remote districts , the incon venience coupled with the uncertainty of obtaining justice away from home were seen as powerful considerations in favor of a general parliament . The need for uniform increase

brought

in

population

to the

laws and a fixed governmental plan must have become apparent very early in the history of the settlement . That the foregoing conclusions have substantial foun

of the appear ance of the first compilation or code of laws for the island . A man by the name of UlAjot was , by common consent , instructed to introduce uniformity and harmony dation in fact is supported

by the incident

the legal system of the country . The account indicates that his main duty was rather to bring about uniformity into

than

to

himself

create or formulate new laws. In order to prepare for his task he spent three years in Norway .

When he returned the people of Iceland received the first compilation of laws which were accepted as binding throughout the entire island . This was known as the code of UlAjot ( about 927 ) . This compilation contained a po

litical code which constituted the foundation for the civil government of the island . These laws had been , to a great extent, in effect in a part of Norway , but additions , omissions and changes were made in conformity with new and different conditions . UlAjot ' s foster -brother made a

ORIGINS ; LAND AND PEOPLE

35

careful survey of the island before a suitable setting for Althing was found . Thus there was established , in 930 , the Icelandic Parliament or the Althing . The account concludes with this significant statement : " and all had one law in this country ." The implication is that before the compilation was formally adopted and the Althing estab lished , there was a certain diversity in the laws, as there was in early England and in Norway before the political consolidation was fully completed . With the founding of the parliament in 930 Iceland

self - governing and independent state . Here really begins the Golden Age in the history of the Ice landic people , a period of development , of prosperity and progress without a contemporaneous parallel in Europe . During the period the law grew and adapted itself to the needs of an expanding state ; courts and procedure took

became

a

forms ; the legislative and the judicial power in the state became separate and distinct functions of govern

fixed

ment . The state itself unfolded in a refined and compli cated development . With a single exception , due to the absence of executive power , the state was organized upon conceptions . In a theoretical basis suggesting modern

addition to this advance in civil government and in law , it must be noted , also , that a brilliant era in literature com menced . We are at the threshold of the period which gave the world the Eddas , the Sagas, the writings of Ari the Learned , and the histories of Snorri, without which this period in the North would be a bleak and barren Sahara , and an almost complete hiatus in Scandinavian history .

III

CHAPTER

exception

the rule universal until

,

to

is

CELAND

no

The National Government

is

,

it

a

a

A

.

,

he

he

himself has there sacrificed

Whoever

.

cattle which

of

be

to

,

;

on

to

in

on

or

lie

of

be

,

.

of

in

be

a

or

of

on

It

or a if

it,

“

.

of

.

a

,

recent times and civil government have partnership mutually advantageous found certain signifi The earliest known fragment Icelandic law pagan law that men should cant was the beginning ship not have the ocean with carved head beak upon the ship had such beak must removed upon coming sight ship shall not land Such approach land with gaping snouts lest the guardian spirits frightened thereby ring worth the country weighing two ounces shall every the altar ring temple every that Godi shall have his hand all Things all Things which himself shall call and the ring shall anointed with the red blood neat that religion

a

by

,

,

or

,

,

verdict

Al

this suit defend judge according

or

so

, or I

prosecute

at

all

in

am

”

.'

Thing

I

,

so

be

I

know

to

most right and most truthful and accordance with the law and lawful duties shall performed while this attendance me

what

be

to

bear witness

by in

me Freyr and Njordr and the

shall deliver

a

help

God that

I

to

'I

or

so

, ; :

lawful oath mighty

,

or

to

on

has any law business transact shall first make oath this ring and name two more witnesses and such per son shall say call witness that swear this ring

36

at

a

From the earliest times there was rather definite relationship between the temples and the men who

The King and Queen of Denmark and Iceland , taken at “ Thingvellir " ( Thing plains ) where the original Parliament or Althing of Iceland was organized in 930 and where the millennial celebration will take place .

THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT

37

tended the Thing , between

the sacred offices and the civil power . One clause , short but tremendously significant , in the laws, brought by UlAjot and accepted by the Althing , was that which established this general parliament . The Althing was at the very center of the government ; the core of the Althing was Logretta ; and the central figure of the latter and , therefore , of the entire governmental scheme , was the Godi. The Godis ( the Icelandic plural is Godar ) had a seat in parliament , as a matter of right, from the beginning . Aside from this fact , little is known ,

with certainty , concerning the organization of this unique national gathering and the manner in which it functioned . The last curtain has long since dropped upon these early scenes . No historian has been privileged to lift it that we might once more look upon the dramatic events which held the attention of the children of the Vikings . Distin guished scholars radically disagree , and it is only in broad fundamentals that conclusions may be confidently drawn . Whether the judicial and the legislative functions were separate from the beginning , is a controverted question . We do know that thirty -five years after Althing was founded such separation was definitely effected . The old texts specifically say that UlAjot followed , as a model , cer tain

laws

in

Norway (Gulathings Law ) , except for changes

by altered circumstances and essentially dif ferent local conditions . An inspection of the Norwegian source discloses the fact that the judicial and legislative powers were combined as one function in the same body , namely , the Logretta . The term Logretta is , therefore ,

necessitated

Norway , and , in the absence of circum from pointing to a contrary conclusion , it is probable stances giver that the law borrowed the function with the name. Had UlAjot departed in substance from this fundamental adopted

38

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM of the parent

and had the law judicial power , his from the hardly ignored torians would have overlooked or such a radical change . We have no definite information as to the number of the Godis who had a seat in the Logretta originally , or

about

system

separated

constitution

, of

its

characteristic making been

other respects

(

in

in

seat

.

,

of

impor curtailment upon the right this body opposition would have

a

been to

tant Godis

a

Had there

to

of

in

of

.

by

as

a

,

a

)

;

,

,

in

historians are however that all the temple chiefs Godis who had real following had seat this assembly and that their number was virtually the same that which probably later was fixed law That this was the case seems reasonable view the fact that the first com pilation laws was submitted the people for approval the opinion

of

encountered and acceptance the proposed system jeopardized the law giver and his supporters were practical politicians and there evidence that they improbable that they would deliberately stir were hostile feeling by proposing any real abridgment is

is

it

of

of

up

—

—

.

-

If

been

marks the beginning

the government

and distinct era the Icelandic Com

new

of

a

of

-

of

-

in

the evolution

.

or

founded

—

is

.

the rights and privileges the temple chiefs The likeli hood that there was little no change thirty five years after the Althing was The year 965

or

into

four

in

Quar Thing An each and four Things ,

, or

.

monwealth The country was then divided Quarters with three Things assemblies

each

.

in

, ,

a

on

but insisted

upon

one

of

,

a

.

to

the other side and vice versa

,

of

)

(

in

,

,

temple chiefs ter and three Godis exception was made one Quarter local assemblies were provided because the people could not otherwise agree One group one side parliament upon certain river did not want attend

,

,

Provision however was made that this Quarter greater proportionate representation

in

have

of

should

39

no

own

.

its

THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT

Logretta

an

National Parliament than

influential

less

the

some the other Quarters At the same time there was estab lished one parliament for each Quarter but this was shortly discontinued and replaced the Quarters court the Althing Of the true meaning and etymology the word Godi uncertainty thing there some One clear namely that acquired Iceland the term distinct significance during from

,

,

is

a

in

.

is

of

.

at

by

;

.

of

individual chief

in

Quarter was thereafter

the north

,

a

,

In

.

in

of

in

no

to

.

is

say than any the other Quarters That the twelve temple chiefs the northern Quarter had greater power than the nine temple chiefs each the consequence temple chief from other three Quarters

a

.

to

)

of

(

a

.

of

of

be

.

the Commonwealth Who the Godi was and what the jurisdiction the Godord can best answered by brief recapitulation historical facts When the first usually built they temple settlers took land hof people vicinage repaired which the the for worship

,

-

or

, or

a

,

plural Godord Godi When

Icelandic

)

Godords

(

,

.

of

of

a

,

of

,

a

,

.

a

community This place became center The man who built the temple called himself Godi hof godi which really meant temple priest temple chief simply pro prietor temple temple for small toll was exacted those who made use the place After this fashion many independent communities came into being called and the head man

.

a

was

,

In

.

-

as

,

in at

of

.

of

,

it

case in

in

the parliament was through founded 930 was the cooperative effort these local chiefs Later about 965 has been seen thirty nine the number Godords was fixed 1004 each

, ,

some new Godords were created circumstances which appear they did not have fully presently but more will

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

40

Logretta , though they elected judges to , the Fifth Court the highest court in the country . The power of the Godi was thus a mixture of the civil and the ecclesiastical . The fundamental change in the governmental scheme ,

representation

in

which occurred in 965 , grew out of a quarrel between two powerful men and their followers . Under the old system a suit sometimes had to be tried in a district where the influence of one of the parties was too powerful to enable justice to pursue the even tenor of her way . Such

a

case actually

arose

complications resulting ,

that the existing tice ,

it

,

and , because of the serious appeared to thoughtful men

order was defective at this point .

Jus

they saw , might be defeated when individuals were compelled to go before strange and distant Things , to vindicate their legal rights . As a consequence , later , the

Quarter Courts were established as a part of the Na tional Parliament . Under the new system suits in which both parties lived within the jurisdiction of the same local Thing , were brought locally ; but if they were from different local Things , but within the same Quarter , the jurisdiction was in the Quarter Thing . If the parties resided in different Quarters , then Althing , or the Su preme Court of the land , was the proper forum . There is here a distinct precedent for the American theory underlying the principle of federal jurisdiction citizenship . The rule was necessary in cases of diverse

Iceland when the independence of the judici ary was indeed precarious and the proceedings of courts might be disturbed by powerful chiefs, who , by force of arms, could confound justice with comparative impunity . and wise

in

It must be remembered that there was no real executive power in the Icelandic state . In the light of modern con

THE NATIONAL

GOVERNMENT

41

of

in

or

.

of

;

to

be

in

,

,

.

a

)

(

,

in

.

to

its

ditions , with courts and judges free to decide according to the law , the theory seems anachronistic , but in promote justice day the scheme was wisely calculated At the time when the change the judicial administra complete division of the tion was brought about 965 legislative from the judicial power was clearly effected Originally the lawmaking and the executive powers were per probably combined one body one group history governments sons such seems the all Precisely when the separation took place we may never to

to

no

an

, a

.

it

been

of

.

of

.

be

a

a

accomplished

.

not

they

Norway

of

In

,

settlers

the Sagas shows was characteristic the separation should concluded that made this period this division function had

of

every page

it

to

to

of

to

;

of

a

to

in

of

in

to

to

a

of

It

of

.

to

at

.

is

is

.

to

prior

it

suppose that There reason did not occur judicial 965 There distinct reference decisions the Althing prior this date although fre quently afterwards seems reasonable that after quarter experience century men more than objections began realize that there were serious keeping these functions united the same body The making law the short period during which the parliament sat each year was occupy sufficient task Logretta energies the time and the and must have appeared anomalous and unwise entrust the power interpreting and applying the law the body which had the power make With that good sense which nearly

know

to

,

in

,

of

,

.

-

be

to in

it

.

,

in

in

in

the political constitution and the law brought consequences of Iceland of about 965 led national importance When the new order went into operation was definitely laid down the law that membership thirty nine Godords should entitled Consequently the class Logretta Godis nine from The change

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM Quarter , except from the northern Quarter from which there were twelve , became a powerful influence in the government of the country . It is probable that the Godis were largely influential in bringing about the each

change

of

in

power

965 and that they sought to insure the retention in their hands indefinitely . In short, they were

in

of

.

in

to

aim

politicians who in modern times would have had them selves elected governors or United States senators . They made up the conservative political party whose was perpetual entrench themselves and their policies power implied understand The power the Godis rested ing between them and the men who attended the Althing

to

of

in

a

in

—

a

of

of

.

in

to

to

.

of

;

be

,

to

,

be

to

a

of

.

of

,

to

to

to

of at

it

,

.

of

a

in

on

to

, if

By

. .

of

,

or

jurisdictions Here we find the their Godords representative principle essence the mutual agree reciprocal obligation ment there was furnish support and protection case need The arrangement was voluntary both sides and was the power the people any time and dissolve the relation transfer themselves the jurisdiction another Godi cer tain limited sense the power elect another repre sentative The governmental structure was such nature that the position Godi was the highest station attained with the exception that the Law speaker later mentioned and his influence de pended upon his ability and the number his followers With the new law and the changes just described the old Godis sought save themselves from the disaster which they feared from the attempts of obstreperous upstarts power rise from

to

in

a

to

,

The Godis successfully fended approaching disaster the office was barren honor without the right participate the government which belonged the

for

THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT new

43

a

to

,

to

for

,

or

thirty -nine . The danger of and competing Godords entirely was lessened removed for there was little yeoman inducement men attach themselves

of

in

that there was

.

is

of It

tree with sedulous care inaccurate music Iceland this period the band wagon fell seductively upon

.

the plum

of

say

no

to

guarded

a

, ;

.

in

without substantial power the state These Icelandic politicians understood human nature with discernment rivaling that American statesmen they cultivated and

be

, ,

.

a

in

in

a

to

.

The siren notes cultivated ears These elder statesmen clearly foresaw dispense favors through that chief without power participation and influence the government would crying like voice the wilderness

:

-

of

of

temple

old

chiefs

.

,

Godis

or

in

( 3 )

of ;

( 2 )

;

of

in

the

( 1 )

cal control

cases

in in

judicial power

965 was really three fold venue the separation the legislative from the and the establishing the politi

The change

These

were the greatest importance and remained without substantial modifications for approximately three of

changes

.

centuries

to

ing the court

,

in

.

-

of

a

,

of

.

;

of

of

judicial reorganiza There was still present the need tion and the modifications 965 had not been univer sally acceptable About the year 1004 there was estab lished Fifth Court the Supreme Court the island consisting forty eight members At the same time participation twelve new Godis were admitted nam they nominated twelve judges

by

-

.

of

a

of

of

In

. of

of

in

,

.

in

.

six

;

for the new The remaining thirty were named the ancient Godis Except for this recognition con stituting the Supreme Court the new Godis were ex cluded from any share the government The explanation the changes 1004 has been controversy subject one the most famous the

trial tribunal

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

44

Sagas , the story

of Burnt Njal , it is

said that the reason bring was an ambition to about the alliance of powerful through marriage families . That a material modification was made in the government in order to further the mat rimonial aspirations of individuals is rather improbable . It is attributing an almost incredible influence to Njal,

wise and popular though he was, to suppose that these hard -headed , conservative men , representing every part the island , and not given to sanction changes in the government upon transient or frivolous grounds, would fundamentally alter the scheme of the state for personal

of

reasons system

this kind

. The obvious evils

and sufficient explanation . Up to 1004 the rule had !

ment could be pronounced concurred

unanimously

in

in

of the tribunal dissented ,

concurrence

in

sulted and no

the decision a

the existing

in

rational, sound

universal that no judg any court unless the judges

the decision . If any member or for any reason withheld his

of the majority ,

a

mistrial re

could be entered . serious defect . Over and over

conclusive

Manifestly , this was

a

been

judgment

again decisions were indefinitely postponed because of disagreements and failure to reach a unanimous judg ment. This was remedied when the Supreme Court was

. It was given jurisdiction in all cases in which decisions had not been reached , due to want of unanimity , and in all such matters a majority of the new court suf ficed to make final disposition of the controversy . Thus , people the were assured that final judgment would be pro It is true that other classes of nounced in every case . cases , to be mentioned later , were within the original established

of the Supreme Court , but, in the main , jurisdiction was over cases final judgment had which a

its

jurisdiction

in

B

of

of judicial administration afford

THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT

45

, and was probably conferred for the purpose of removing this serious defect in the old order . Nearly forty years before , the wise statesmen of the day had remedied faults which actual trial had brought into view ; more experience pointed to other errors which they set about to correct . The civil gov

not been pronounced

ernment was evolving out from

abstract

theory

.

of

national experience

, not

There were other causes which must be reckoned , per haps less obvious , but no less powerful . The fact that the twelve new Godis were given power to nominate twelve of the forty - eight members of the court does not fully explain the creation of these new offices , for , of course , the power to constitute the full court of forty -eight could have been lodged in the existing Godis with the require ment that they nominate twelve from each Quarter of the island . Neither is it reasonable that the ancient Godis created officers and potential rivals in power without considerations which must have pressed powerfully upon them

.

or

,

a

,

a a

be

in

or

,

The necessary result therefore would Christian from pagan politicians unless

,

separation

of

.

manner

,

in

;

its

its

The view has been advanced that the true explanation has some relation to the introduction of Christianity in the island , which took place shortly before this date . Obviously the ancient Godis , whose power was derived historically from the fact that they maintained quasi public places where the old deities could be worshiped , saw in Christianity a force calculated to undermine their political power . Christians would not have amicable rela power tions with paganism , or anything deriving prestige therefrom they pay temple nor would toll participate pagan feasts take oath the pagan

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

46

compromise or readjustment could be effected . That is to say , Christians would establish their own Thing which would have to be independent of pagan influences . In deed , after

the island was Christianized that extra -legal Things had begun

the date when

there are indications to appear . In addition , there was probably some under current of discontent due to the changes made in 965 and the virtual consolidation of political power in the hands of the class of Godis . Looking over the situation , apprais ing the possibilities , taking the popular pulse , to speak in the terms of contemporary political art, the Godis concluded that something must be done to appease the

,

of

feeling had run high and the peace the régime danger island was serious The old could not but have seen that the hour was imminent when they must decide between civil war and separation the two groups the one hand and material concessions the other the same time saving for themselves all 1000

on

,

,

that shrewd diplomacy

al

at

,

,

on

of

.

in

year

in

of

.

of

a

Its

malcontents . The Christian party was active and difficult to control . members were fighting for new religion and some prominent men were imbued with the first high fervor conversion At the meeting the parliament the

accomplish

. .

the crafty chiefs

It by is

.

;

of

.

,

by

The latter ternative was chosen Fortunately neither the pagan nor the Christian con science was wholly inflexible The pagans accepted bap tism and themselves assumed responsibility for the new faith and the syncretic complexion the new régime not did not deeply offend the pioneer missionaries could

to

themselves

as

preen

be

political control and also

to

retain

be

to

to

suggest that the Godis foresaw that fantastic suf fering themselves baptized they would able

THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT

47

of the new doctrine , should the time ever glory come when could be claimed on that score . It was good politics and a clever coup . The leaders of the new faction had to content themselves with comparatively little influence in the State ; they were permitted to estab lish new Godords , and when the Supreme Court was its

the promoters

.

is

is

It

in

of

.

all

.

founded they were given a voice in selecting members That was Otherwise they were still excluded from participation the government the country likely much more that this explanation correct than that the court was established

Godords

and the twelve new

two families

because

marriage

had

at of

plans

founded

,

is

to

in

of

in

to

.

of

,

of

,

to

.

in

The solution the very serious problem people highly which confronted the this great crisis complimentary judgment good the sense the sound the political acumen and restraint the leading men that critical hour They stood for law and order and yield were willing matters moment order view

.

,

in

of

.

to

or

,

by

in

maintain peace the land The historical evidence sug gests that the Christian politicians were either outwitted the pagans were cannily willing bide their time Norway collecting material for While UlAjot was

of

-

.

in

,

a

of

.

From

the

prepa

the amount

is

evident that neither time nor making the spot interesting and

it

labor this necessitated pains were spared attractive

part

of

, of

its

diverted from ancient channel government ration for the seat

a

. as

,

of

,

a

on

.

a

in

all

horseback meeting place

,

law

on

a

for Iceland his foster brother traveled over the country search suitable for the Althing After considering many points his choice fell upon spot Oxara small but approximately thirty miles from Reykja scenic stream vik the present capital the island This river was system

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

48

::

WW

6005

15

ENVIRONS OF THINGVELLIR The PLAINS OF ALTHING OR PARLIAMENT or hollow , called Almannagja . 2. Oxara - River .

1. A depression

3. Logretta .

4.

An

island formed course of river.

5 . Plains where

by changing

Althing sat .

6. Bridge . 7. Lava Bed . 8. Logberg , Rock now supposed .

15.

of

the Law , as

The booth of Njal. ( The black rectangular spaces are loca tions of various booths .)

THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT

of history the immortal Thingvellir , the Plains of the Thing , the heart of ancient history and Iceland , which will forever make tra into the view

its

comes

its

Here

49

,

of

.

on

of

.

of

.

as

in

of

It

.

.

of

,

-

a

spirit moving power ever stirring ditions throb with never dying triumphantly defying the ruthless death Thingvellir was wise edict Time itself The choice many standpoints from was conveniently accessible thickly from the most settled communities all parts easy the island Land was within pasture reach for use for the benefit those who attended the parliament This need was pressing because the members the Althing came horseback Ravines and water courses

,

in

of

.

.

is

by

sacred

Every

It

,

Tara

to

,

where early democ ground the Ice Icelandic tradition and ground hallowed

consecrated

of

Hill

landic

wings

eye

this ancient site

,

racy tried

met the

say

of

its

Needless

to

scenery

Icelandic

, is

,

of

in

to

.

,

;

on

bounded the place three sides and down the hollow where the Althing actually sat the climate was comfort able and the view ruggedly beautiful Tall and dignified mountains the distance lifted their summits the picturesque sky and some the most characteristics

in

to

,

in

,

.

is

,

a

,

in

is

on

of

.

of

or

.

,

it

.

of

,

.

a

,

of

is

.

,

of in

is

Icelandic foot memories and associations immortal law letters and song There one particular spot dear the heart literally every Icelander and that the Logberg Legislature translated the Rock Law where the con rocky ridge which resembles vened For centuries wedge between the two ravines has borne this suggestive name The exact location this historic spot still dispute although seems certain that the historic Log berg was not this ridge The place was the west side bank the river Logberg was the central point the Althing where liberty

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

50

were enacted some of the most solemn scenes . Here parliament was opened with pagan sacrificial rites , and from hence issued judicial decrees as well as legislation in later years . On state occasions the members paraded in

. Its

meetings were solemn and in glittering holiday attire . impressive degree the last From Logberg were an or

,

.

was

a

to

.

-

function

announce

to

His

speaker

the Law

that the assembled populace might hear the the land new laws passed proclaim lesa leaves proclaim compromise differences and the like No man

.

an,

or

,,

,

laws adjust was permitted

to

,

so

of ,

known publicly

as

of

on

be

,

to

;

;

in

to

;

to

nounced decisions and laws summons went forth indi appear penal judgments viduals law cases sentences were proclaimed and thence the presiding offi cer announced licenses make settlements agreements might days and which suits heard person At Logberg the seat honor was assigned

,

;

to

.

he

to

,

,

in

,

in

it

at

to

of his

at

a

;

of

to to

Logberg without the per take aducrences seat Speaker power mission the was admit men place the his discretion and course admitted pending litigation Admission all who were interested this sacred place was freely granted indeed we are upon occasion men who had some message they wanted get before the people obtained vantage permission address them from this point

,

that

of ,

to

to

,

,

,

told

which

a

.

di ,

-

of

to

speak apparently was not condi and that permission tioned upon the connection the subject matter with anything then pending before parliament For example father would announce that his daughter had been

attendance

,

of

,

a

.

large crowd

in

a

rule

,

a

as

,

was

a

;

a

;

a

a

a

to

of

or

,

to

vorced another would invite friends attend feast importance some occasion still another might king challenge issue duel and message from distant country might be delivered Undoubtedly there upon the

1 Almannagja

Thingvellir

Plains

the

of

,

the

,

at

Althing

THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT

51

, because the people were curious to see and hear what took place . There was always a possibility of dra sessions

approval

the crowd mani

sometimes

and

or

its

fested

disapproval

of

developments ;

matic

speech

and speaker

.

by noisy demonstrations

by

He held

its

office for three years

,

.

executive officer

.

-

The most powerful personage connected with the Al thing was the Law speaker He was presiding and and was as

to

of .

to

it

as

,

Without some

.

making known the law was writing had not been reduced expedient impossible was for the

some method

essential inasmuch people

immediately

of

announced

it

,

parliament Obviously

he

;

of

at of

.

to

,

.

fit

of of

;

be

as

Logretta he might chosen reelected often body this saw The main duties his office have been mentioned not the least important which was the duty proclaim publicly the law He was expected make public announcement all the laws the country dur ing his term and what was done each session

such

it .

to

,

,

,

,

to

by

in

,

a

an

in

,

.

be

,

of it

of

to

obey the law and therefore Were not impracticable because the ever magnifying curse multiplying statutes such plan modern times helpful Laws passed legislative would doubtless part today bodies are for the most unknown the through per people until they come contact with them know

of

a

is

of

of .

is

.

in a

a

;

to

of

as

be

.

no

he

experience sonal experience sometimes costly and disastrous The average citizen has means whereby may purchase informed the law even the help Only volumes statutes offers little few copies paradoxical country are printed This situation where one the maxims the courts that everybody In

.

do

,

to

.

of

in

to

is

presumed reality the presumption know the law operates lawyers favor and judges only These expects latter no one know the law for we not

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

52

supply the courts with aids at the hands of great lawyers , and with ponderous briefs , all to the end that they may

the law which the common man is presumed to know ? The only recourse for the ordinary man is to con sult an attorney who , if he does not know the law , has, at least, a copy within reach . This latter method was denied the people of Iceland during the Commonwealth . learn

situation , however , was quite adequately met through the Law -speaker and the regular and repeated proclamations of the rules within hearing of the people . The importance of the practice becomes still more obvious when we recall that the practice of law and the trial of lawsuits in Iceland were highly technical ; the

The

procedure , especially , was much involved , and it is re markable that the lawyers of the time, who conducted

lawsuits , could reproduce from memory an accurate state ment of the many technical rules from which no deviation in substance or phraseology was permitted . It was , there

privileged

its

,

in

If

.

its

fore, highly important that the Speaker clearly announce pro the law , not only substantive features but Speaker cedural rules the was doubt he was

in

.

was his duty

to

-

,

attorney general

the interval

give legal advice

of

.

to It at

a

He

of

sessions

or

between

,

counselor

's

people

of

all

-

of

.

in

of

to

in

call consultation five men who had the being learned the law The official duties the Law speaker were not dis Althing charged during the sessions was sort reputation

, ,

,

of

,

a

of

.

or

,

.

in

in

or

any citizen information the Commonwealth Althing whether consulted his home after parlia adjourned ment had His function this respect how prosecutor ever was that counselor only not that upon him either trial lawyer No citizen had claim and

THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT to settle his dispute or controversy .

act for

to

53

as his attorney

him

in

a

over the sessions of Log retta and had a seat on the central stage , or platform , with the Godis . As soon as a suit was decided by this body , it was duty immediately announce the result Logberg the hearing the assembled multitude him was lodged the executive power during the ses to

.

of

Althing but

, he

of

In

in

at

his

The Law - speaker presided

,

no

no

he

to

the state

.

the balance

in

to

,

an

a

,

In

.

sit ,

In

.

,

had executive power between that respect therefore and during the time greater power when parliament did not had ordinary than the citizen this manner these old states strong man occu men guarded against the danger that pying such advantageous position might arrogate himself power and influence which might tend disturb sions

sessions

the power the Law speaker was closely circumscribed his office was one the most coveted dis tinctions attainable the Icelandic Commonwealth The ability and selection was carefully made and only men high character were chosen Not only was the choice lim persons learned ited rule the law but family

,

in

to

,

a

as

,

.

,

of

.

in

,

of

-

of

Although

, by

a

of

in

be

,

, .

A

, .

as a

In

of

.

standing and prestige had practical weight The Sagas show that sometimes the office Law quarter speaker was held for century the same readily imagined his power man such cases can notwithstanding the legal limitations which have grew strong man been described the office could exercise be

-

,

of

as

,

,

.

to

.

.

of

great influence both between and during the sessions The case Skafti Thoroddsson may men years twenty tioned He held office for seven from 1004 1030 During his term many prominent and wealthy persons were found guilty of offenses such homicides

Althing

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

54

and assaults , and were outlawed

of

ingly

. Of

course

,

,

a

should be obeyed , and acted accord if a Speaker showed a disposition to him

to the influence

believed that law

. This fact is attributed powerful personality in the office . He

of

.

, ,

In

.

all of

.

At first

blush practice

may

. it

Althing

exchange

addition

the fines imposed

.

ing the sessions

one half -

a

common medium

he was entitled

of to

this time

,

at

of

.

,

.

at

of

of

to

,

was only

to it

.

there was a ready way to check His term three years and was always possible find someone able and willing succeed him The compensation the Speaker has some interesting homespun features His salary was fixed two yards yard being cloth the two feet wide This was paid him treasury from the the Logretta Homespun cloth was usurp power

dur

that still the

seem

in

no

its

him

of

to

It

.

in

of

,

-

.

to

a

of

,

,

,

in

is

it

in

to

.

is

to

a

of

.

It

of is he

to

of

a

to

in

of

a

dangerous and unwise law some our states allow the justice the peace part retain the fees and fines which collects Perhaps the decision the United States Supreme Court frowning upon the Ohio system will have salutary practice contrary spirit effect The the of American Anglo institutions and hostile the traditional belief judge must have pecuniary Saxon countries that any matter submitted terest him for decision When noted however that the Law speaker did not assess the fines but merely proclaimed the decrees the uncivil ized aspect the practice some our lower Ameri can courts was clearly absent was fitting that those who disobeyed the law should contribute the support this was

in

as

far

as

,

,

a

,

law is

for

—

, at

.

in

to

it

whose duty was instruct the people principles We have long believed the United States with unwarranted optimism least some laws are concerned that there connection between igno rance and disrespect and consequently turned

THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT

55

fines into the school fund . The old Icelandic and the American ideas are basically one . Perhaps the most important activity of the Althing was lawmaking . New laws were made by the body de SC scribed in the old texts as Logretta . This name is used to designate both the place where the men met and the com

LOGRETTA platform The middle was occupied by the Godis and the others by their advisers . The central space was reserved for those having business before the body .

mittee or division of the Althing which enacted the laws . It occupied a plain on the Oxara ( river ) . There were three grass - covered platforms, or natural benches , in concentric circles , each bench being so roomy that approx imately forty -eight men could be seated upon it . In the middle sat the thirty -nine Godis , with nine men addi

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

56

tional , making selected from

a

total of forty -eight . Three

each

were

men

of

the three Quarters to make up the

to

vote thereon when

. Each member had

the

took his seat two men

, as

take with

,

to

,

right

him

duce measures and

he

nine to balance , or offset, the three additional Godis from the north Quarter , of which something has been said before WOIC ,. The body of forty -eight was the very essence of Log retta ; in them was vested exclusively the right to intro

in

a

of , of

of

in

.

to

in

. of

a

by

.

-

,

.

a

-

to

.

in

,

advisers one sitting front and one behind him Thus one hundred forty four men were entitled seat place for the legislative body There was also reserved the Law speaker and for the bishops after the two bishoprics were established Centrally and inside the platform occupied the members was vacant space persons for the use interested matters pending platforms body before the Outside the the public assem Nobody permitted bled was stand the presence in

,

on

this assembly except those the outskirts the crowd and individuals who were concerned the business

or

at

Men who had business before the body were permitted engaged upon the affairs stand while speaking ,

to

.

the moment

,

,

,

old

In

,

its

of

.

of

or

,

at

as

,

of

on

,

of

on

.

in

.

of

a

.

In

,

to

occupy their hand but otherwise they were required seats restricted sense the Logretta was the legis lative body the nation The law book Gragas says that there men should correct the law and make new session for two weeks The Althing remained statutes and Logretta convened regularly the two Sundays Althing general day the the last the session and such intervals during the session the Speaker de the members might decide the majority sired procedure strange contrast with the technicalities

THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT

57

to

,

.

,

,

.

,

to

a

in

to

.

of in .

to

,

or

of

,

a

or

of

.

VIn

in

a

an

as

to

of

.

,

to

its

the system , flexibly , permitted citizens outside of membership informally require Logretta meet and transact business We see here clear proof that the gov ernment was responsive the interest the people and was regarded means rather than end itself making laws two methods were used The Speaker majority Logretta the members who occupied the proposed measures either for amend platform middle existing ments laws for new enactments Only those could propose legislation who had the right vote Thus the legislative power technically resided exclusively the Speaker and the Godis The very limited right non members initiate legislation might well have resulted antagonistic democracy condition had every

might

,

in

in

,

,

;

Godis were

with

conflict

of

the light

power

our knowledge

become selfish themselves more and more power we to

men

,

arrogate

in

of

of

the tendency to

to

and

in

abstractly and

Viewed respecting

the the people

in

the interests

.

of

aspects the interests

of

as

of

, .

a

influence from the outside been excluded from the legis comparatively small lative counsels The Godis were group men and their interests were necessarily not always the same those the public fact certain

that the legislative prerogative would not promote the gen purpose exercised with uniform being eral well outside influence had been wholly legislation only the most conservative type excluded to

no

of

all

If

.

, -

a

be

suppose

,

its on

but without the Logretta public con show that matters

.

of

the Sagas

,

,

sources not within

Instances

in

from

of ;

of

,

to

,

to

.

is

would have been enacted There reason believe however that this legislative body was unresponsive public opinion the pressure the contrary the law originated provisions contains evidence that some

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

58

cern were discussed at the Althing and the Logretta in the presence of all members , including the Godis. The greatest freedom was allowed individuals to express

of the people , and to debate vitally concerned . Frequent use was made of this privilege . No better , in deed , little other , opportunity , was afforded for discus sion of measures or proposals which might be calculated to promote the welfare of the country . It appears that this opportunity , thus freely afforded the citizens of the Commonwealth , was frequently used ; and the custom tended to develop a capacity for oratory of an effective , if not flamboyant , kind . There is occasional and striking themselves

problems

in

in

the presence

which

the people were

proof that the people appreciated highly , as men always have in all ages , the power of vigorous and eloquent speech . It is entirely probable that many of the provisions in the

laws of the Logretta originated

in

the public

forum

.

While the foregoing was most likely the method by which the popular will became effective through legisla

tion , there were other expedients . If men disagreed about the law they had a right to insist that this body con vene to consider the matter . It then became the duty of the contending parties to appear , explain all the circum

, advance their reasons, and then lay the subject controversy of before the Logretta . The decision ren dered served as a judgment in the case , but differed from the judgments of the courts in this : that no way was pro

stances

to execute such decrees in the manner in which the decisions of the law courts were enforced . The decision , however , became a precedent in the light of which future controversies , of a like nature , were adjudicated . It seems to have been a judgment with certain legislative features , and lawmaking with certain characteristics which belong

vided

THE NATIONAL

GOVERNMENT

59

a judicial decree . Possibly we have here rudiments of the time when the legislative and the judicial functions were united in this body . In Norway the Logretta had judicial power ; the name was borrowed from Norway ; it is not unlikely that we have here a survival of the old judicial function . At any rate , the official action taken became a sort of special law in the sense that it grew out of a specific instance , private in character . In a limited sense , it was a private law which in some circumstances might have a general operation . This method was probably resorted to when men de

to

an enactment in a matter which was not of such general importance as to warrant consideration before the mass the people The old laws contain many pro special visions which seemingly have originated out

of

,

, ,

.

of

its

sired

rather than from that legislative foresight anticipates which conditions and meets them advance specialized Some laws are indeed character suggest strongly that they originated this mode Much lawmaking the United States notwithstanding consti really special and tutional provisions the contrary legislation local constituent has mind some local

. to

as

.

be

in is

,

A

.

to

,

in

in

a

so

,

, of

in

circumstances

about which he thinks statute should con may have had trouble with neighbor He goes his legislator and induces him introduce bill general appear The legislative bill course must special likely ance though fact character in

is

.

. of in

It

. .

. a

to

be

,

is

, it of

of

,

in

to

a

he

; or

a

situation structed

of

.

of

so

by

or

no

of

in

to

in

that some parts the old laws the Commonwealth Iceland originated this mode Interested individuals Logretta arrange for the introduc induced friends tion the equivalent our modern legislative bill We have evidence that any legislation was proposed ambitiously point passed these elder statesmen

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

60

less as bills offered in our state legislatures regulating the length of hat pins in the days of the Duchess of Dev onshire style of hat ; the length of the skirt before that

article of apparel had well-nigh disappeared from the land ; or providing for the repeal of the unwritten law , a proposal which would have found neither friends nor

favor

in

homicides .

those vigorous days of violence and casual It is clear, in any event , that the public were

not excluded entirely from all influence in the delibera tions of the lawmaking body . It is not a figure of speech say

the Commonwealth

Logretta and

of

it differently , the

put

of

that the legislation

joint product

of

law

to

is the

the people ; that is , to high degree the its

a

in

of ill -

,

,

of

.

. of

was expression the popular will The system had checks and balances While the people did not possess power direct legislation with the possibilities considered might upon action which attend that method yet their

but precipitate action was pre

and

of

.

appear

they might

be

they absented themselves indeed might be divested

the rights and

to

a

.

in

Godi When measures were proposed Godis took time consider them and consult with their advisers After consideration and They did not vote consultation vote was taken commonly done our state legislative bodies they must of

privileges the Logretta

was regulated

members were required

to

of

its

the legislative branch

of

vote

fined

All

the body actually entrusted

the law

,

and

If .

strict rules , .

by

with the making The procedure

of

by

,

influence was steadily felt vented the conservatism

is

as

To

;

in

.

a

.

to

the

.

be

he in

,

.

a

.

perforce know what each measure was about vote was solemn and serious matter Every member rose his place and explained his attitude stating what thought should the law Thus did every man concerned

THE NATIONAL in

of

the making

61

GOVERNMENT

the law have

a

clear notion

of what

the

business was about .

, .

-

tie

There was no voting of the modern type , where mem bers of legislative bodies too often cast their votes upon measures without any real understanding of what they are doing . It would be a rare discovery now to find a person in such a complete state of insophistication as to think that he can get information about the law from the average legislator who has just returned from a ses sion at the capital . A majority vote was sufficient to pass a measure ; in case of a the Law speaker cast the deciding vote

When the

he

of

did

he

.

in

of

vote had been taken and the measure carried the members rose his place and stated anew what the law was which had just been adopted And this

one

,

.

to

laws which had

been

.

changes

old

,

new enactment adopted

sure that the public under proclaim publicly the

doubly

was required

or

the Speaker

stood

in

make

to

Finally

it

, if

he ;

in

the presence witnesses whom named for purpose their then manifested the other members the proposal clearly correctly assent and stated the

,

,

as

of

of

of

from

of

.

to

,

they

is

did know evident Sagas the where the common

it

That

a

of as

the law

the many incidents

in

content

of

,

. it

to

be

to

ing

,

of

a

,

as or of

the circumstances newspapers and

as

are recalled such the ab printing we know them any substitute even remotely suggesting disseminating information among either means impressed people the with the wisdom we are the bring expedients these Icelanders adopted means home the people knowledge the law they would expected obey Everything reasonably henceforth possible was done seems let the people know the When

sence today

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

62

accurately

man

learnedly

and

expounded

complicated

legal propositions . While the average man now has much greater general information

upon

of

larger variety

a

-rovers , it is certain that in knowledge of the current legal system the old Icelanders far surpassed the average college graduate subjects than these sons

of the old

sea

of today . If it appeared

did

that some new enactment which Log retta had adopted was inept , or one that the people

it

to

,

as

by

,

a

to

-

in

or

,

no

dissent the obnoxious enactment ceased exist Acquiescence disuse non enforcement for this

.

law

.

it

of

-

to

to

,

it

could

body

be

eliminated without putting the leg considering islative the trouble anew speaker proclaim Should the Law omit for three successive years when he stated the law the assembled Althing lawmaking body and silence the indicated

not want

.

is

It

,

to

in

In

nated

,

or to

or

of

in

,

.

or

,

its

,

In

to

a

period would bring about repeal lawmaking powers Logretta had addition quasi executive powers certain administrative granted privileges sued licenses and certain cases like compromising adjusting differences the privilege the right consolidate two local Things and hold meetings Things places other than those desig

of it

,

,

a

,

.

if

to

;

of

of

is

of

of

be

,

be

,

in

it

of

.

to

in

these matters however was not Logretta have the assent the members who attended the meeting but addition was essential that there no opposition outside the legal body for matter this sort might checked notwithstanding the assent the members such opposition developed popular conservatism Here another bit evidence depart from the existing the people were not inclined enough

the law

the presence

of

in

.

order upon any mere transient causes Perhaps one reason for this caution

THE NATIONAL the novel , very marked in

time,

63

the public proceedings of the

the fact that there was no real executive Icelandic Commonwealth and under the state constitution . Provision was adequately made for legislative and judicial functions ; but no provision ap pears for any adequate executive power . Herein lay the germ of the evil dissensions which , in later years , bathed the island in blood and ultimately brought about the over throw of the Republic . There was no responsible power whose primary duty it was to enforce the law and to see that law breakers were vigorously brought to justice . Every individual was an executive ; if the citizen did not

power

is

found

GOVERNMENT

in

in

the

take steps to see that the law was enforced , offenses against it were ignored . The pardoning power , therefore , was very sparingly exercised . If pardons had been freely granted in cases where , through individual initiative ,

criminals had been convicted , it would have added to the confusion and weakness resulting from the absence of a vigorous executive . Some conspicuous instances are cited in the Sagas illustrating the great difficulty in obtaining a pardon , even in cases which , to our view , appear

meritorious . It may well be wondered if the criminal law in the United States would not be better and more successfully enforced if the pardoning power as fully realized as did the old Icelanders that nearly every application for a pardon is potentially a blow at the law enforcing ma chinery in the State . These Vikings did not send flowers to a convicted rapist , a confessed sodomist , or a murderer , while under the inconvenience of a penal sentence . The other main function of the Althing , the judicial power , was reposed , after 965 , in distinct tribunals , the Quarter Courts . There were four of these courts , and

.

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

64

each was constituted anew every year . Each Godi had the power to name one man for the court , except for the court in the northern Quarter where the twelve Godis could appoint only nine members . There were nine mem bers of each Quarter Court. Litigants had the right to have their suits tried in the first instance in the Quarter Court , although it is probable that cases were first heard at the local or Spring Thing . If a case was not finally decided in the local Thing , a transfer of the action could

be had

to

the Quarter Court

.

that the Quarter Court , corresponding somewhat to the district or circuit courts common in the United States , consisting of one county or more counties than one , had both a quasi appellate and an original juris It thus appears

diction . It must not be understood that appeals , in the modern , technical sense , from one court to another , lay when there had been a decision - one decision disposed of a case forever . In many , if not in most instances , the case was taken directly to the Althing , when the parties resided in different quarters. The Logretta decided when a decision should be announced ; but the Speaker , where the contestants should be seated

; and it would

seem

that

that behalf depended upon the circum stances of each case . Sometimes there were noisy demonstrations in the presence of the court . When that occurred the parties had the right to demand of their Godis that three de fenders , or bailiffs be appointed , one for each local Thing within the Quarter , to guard against the intrusion of anything into the deliberations calculated to disturb the

the decision

in

balance of justice . The bailiffs drew a line or cut a ditch around the judgment seat within which no one was ad mitted who did not have some interest in the proceedings .

THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT

65

this precaution

sometimes proved inadequate to the tumultuous spirit of the people when important cases were on trial . Occasionally , it became necessary for the court to sit on the middle of a bridge under the protection of an armed guard at each approach . The qualifications of judges apparently were not very exacting . Any male person , twelve years of age or older , Even

hold

in

check

who understood fully the nature free and independent and had

of

an oath

domicile , was

fixed

a

, who was

legally qualified . Nothing was technically , as differenti actually , required as to learning in the law . from The Icelanders seem to have been as frankly indifferent

ated

this score as were over ninety -nine thousand out of a total of two hundred and seventeen thousand voters in Ohio in 1912 , who wanted a blacksmith , without any knowledge of the law , to member the Supreme Court that state As has been pointed out learning the law was gen fairly person reached man estate without eral and legal rules The evidence thorough grounding his tory supports the view that well qualified men judged

of

a

as

a

by

, do ; fill

of

,

.

of

's

in

,

no

,

in

.

of

sit

on

,

in

is

a

,

,

to

as

,

,

do .

to

.

be

to

the day were generally chosen responsible positions Ignorant figureheads would not the officer had the work himself and therefore qualified must He could not usual modern fairly skilled under governments turn the job over lings thus unwittingly putting barrier between himself the standards

the public interest The highest judicial tribunal the island was the presumably derived from the Fifth Court The name manner which the court was constituted Nine judges represent were nominated from each Quarter the ancient Godord Then the fifth part the court consisted to

of ,

.

.

in

.

is

on

.

to

and harm

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

66

of the twelve men who were named by the new Godis , for which provision was made about the year 1004 . Altogether , the court consisted of forty - eight judges . Not all the forty - eight sat in each case . Members who might be disqualified to serve on account of interest , rela tionship

,

or bias were eliminated

manner suggesting system . The judgment was actually pronounced by thirty was reject twelve the right and duty the parties the forty eight quasi appellate This court has been said had both original jurisdiction and that cases could be com in a

.

to

of

had

by

it is ,

taken

decision

transfer

from

reached

been

.

no

in

the court

tribunals when which failed

to

or

;

a

,

as

,

.

-

menced

of It

of jurors under the American

six

the challenge

other

All

suits

; it

in

of at

of

in

of

,

;

.

to

,

,

or

of

,

a

of

of

a

of

of

final decision the Quarter Courts for want sufficient vote came before this court like jurisdiction special including wise had class cases perjury false verdicts bribery and public disturbance contempt the Althing Due the importance the court the rules were more exacting two men pledged support person their sacred honor each who made a

tie

a

tie

,

in

of

a

In up

in

Fifth

Logretta deliberated

another court had reach verdict the decision Court sat the place where a

,

because

in

.

The

on

unable

was by lot

agree

.

been

to

was one which had come

or

;

if to

.

an

oath upon any matter this tribunal majority the judges sufficed decide and case fine was imposed but the case which the occurred

,

or

of

,

is

,

it

us ,

.

by

,

of

of

of

the place where Al the striking features One thing convened during the Commonwealth was the large temporary quarters sumptuous booths number which were maintained the Godis and other prominent They remind men rather remotely true the

THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT

67

headquarters " which political leaders , bosses and candidates set up at prominent hotels during the National Conventions of the major parties . The motives luxurious

"

were different . Then

it was that the chieftains and their friends and retainers might be comfortably housed dur ing the sessions of the Althing ; the purpose was utilita rian and in the interest of genuine hospitality . The booths

were constructed on the banks of the river on both sides with narrow alleys between ; sometimes they lay irregu larly , scattered upon the plain or on the hillside . Ruins still remain to testify to the existence of excel lent quarters for the accommodation of members and

old

attendants upon the sessions . But Time 's ruthless and irreverent hand has dealt severely with these " summer homes .” The river has undermined the foundations ; much soil has crumbled and been carried away ; and men in later centuries have impiously torn them down . Of the remnants still to be seen it is difficult to say which belong to the period of the Commonwealth , because the Althing convened on the same spot until the end of the eighteenth

.

,

,

of

the owners were ready

to

.

in

a

left without roof was not session When

,

turf and stone not un this day The booths were during the year and when the Althing

.

The walls were made

common building materials

to

.

booth

of

.

a

,

, ,

,

or

A

.

in

of

to

of

,

of

.

to

,

to

century . The booths were used from one century another with the result that some were changed and rebuilt from time time The plan the booths was very simple but sufficient meet the requirements the day The door was nor mally the middle the wall although sometimes near separate room was usually pro the end chamber p robably storing vided for the food travel equipment etc Sometimes kitchen was built apart from the main

oc

68

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

cupy their booths they spread a tent cloth over the walls inside were lined with woolen cloth .

them In

and

the bet

ter class of booths there was a platform in one end ; and , in some cases , a sort of high -seat , or throne . The high -seat was probably opposite the entrance . There were no beds , but men slept in sleeping garments along the walls with their feet towards the middle of the occasionally , but not often , fortified .

room

.

They were

The Sagas describe many of these summer quarters , identifying them with the owners by name . Evidently some were elaborate and well built , as prideful posses sions of the owners as are the lakeside cottage and the mountain lodge of many a city dweller in our country . The booths of the Godis were large because , under the law , each Godi must furnish quarters to the men attend ing the Althing from his jurisdiction . The right of the retainer in this regard was clear and binding . While only one -ninth of his men were required to attend the Thing with the Godi, yet the booth had to be of generous proportions to accommodate those who were obliged to attend . It appears , also , that prominent men , other than

Godis , maintained their own booths at the Althing ; the Sagas show that they often attended the sessions accom panied by several men , especially if they happened to be engaged in litigation . For example , Njal, one of the most famous men of his time, kept such quarters although he was not himself a Godi . In addition to the booths of the Godis and of promi nent yeomen who attended the Althing , there were smaller booths erected and maintained by workers , or persons who came in search of employment . These stood apart from the main group because the owners were deemed of little consequence in the social order .

THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT

69

The old law provided that booths should be locked during meal-times , and there was a rigid prohibition against giving vagrants food . If a vagrant approached a booth , begging for food , he must be forcibly and promptly ejected . Such a person had few rights and might be severely handled so long as he was not maimed . It is not strictly accurate to say that vagrants were entirely without rights , for if they were severely in

redress . On the whole , their lot was not enviable . There was but small disposi tion on the part of these Icelanders to pauperize their citizens through coddling generosity . The truly destitute jured

,

might be

they

entitled

to

were taken care of adequately in another manner . It possible provisions seems that these severe in the law were not always literally enforced because if they had

, vagrants would not have sporting

,

.

the sessions

Of course

involved

there was

which may have

week

summer

the

(

the eleventh the twenty fourth

, of

.

to

eighteenth

element

in

a

certain

led some come On Thursday

frequented did

as regularly as they seemingly

of

been

June

.

,

a

if

at

.

,

if

to

the Althing the latter de was determined by agreement local Thing those who would pay certain the proceeds

,

, .

by

or

should

go

Who

lot

a

his Godi

accompany

manded

or

to

to to

-

,

.

to

of

)

-

to

members were required be present for the opening the Althing The sessions lasted two weeks without interruption The speaker legal Law the Godis and those who had business appear they failed were obliged certain date and fine Every ninth yeoman was bound were subject

;

,

tax

a

,

it

,

,

.

a

to

of

it

,

ing of

to

go

at

the Spring not were obligated defray the maintenance and travel which were used expenses general those who went This tax was tax but was not onerous because for one thing was

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

70 in

the power

the Althing

of

everybody

escape the tax by attending

.

in person

the Sagas

From

to

we infer that large numbers of the

chose to attend rather than stay at home . This was natural, in the circumstances . The life of the indi vidual was intimately connected with the affairs of state . Every yeoman who attended might be called upon at any time to participate in public affairs , in the business of yeomen

, the

Quarter Court , or the Fifth Court . It was , essential that he take every opportunity to familiarize himself with the public business ; this he did by regularly attending the sessions of the Althing . It goes without saying that under this system the interest of the individual in government was keen and sustained ; feeling himself subject to call to the public service , he took pains to be prepared when the summons came. It was only by attending that he could learn the first hand should be noted that occasionally matters came Logretta

at

It

.

law

therefore

of

,

,

came

.

-

from mixed motives

whole

consequently and men curiosity and self interest

,

communities

of

groups

or

before the Althing which involved the interests

less momentous but none impelling the less which made the sessions the Althing people supposed attractive the should not that only the yeomen attended Upon occasion the Sagas indi cate the presence substantial proportion the popu including women and young persons At these lation meetings the national life exhibited itself most interesting attractive and complex aspects On the one government lawmaking hand was the serious business and judicial administration the other was the social intercourse with abụndant opportunities for enjoyment

be

its

. of

,

on

.

and pleasure afforded both young and old

There were

to

,

;

of

.

,

,

in

,

a

of

.

. It

to

,

of

,

There were other reasons

THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT

71

seen the great men and leaders of the island from every Quarter , and persons of note , known in all parts

be

the land because of exploits at home cause of ability , or hospitality . There prominent men who had been abroad ognition , or won renown in the service

or abroad , or came the

of

be sons of

rec of princes and of

and received

kings . And last , but not the least interesting , here were to be seen in a concentrated blaze of glory the beautiful accomplished and women of the land . The daughters of Godis , of powerful politicians , of judges and of law makers , decked in the regal splendor of the day, ap peared , as do the damsels of the twentieth century , who may be seen on gay parade on the beaches or on our Fifth Avenues . Many a young man lost his peace of mind on these occasions

.

During the two weeks that the Althing was in session night was day and day was night , because not only was merrymaking carried on into the wee small hours of the morning , but the serious business of the Althing was

conducted at night . The intervals of respite the public business , the people spent in pleasure and social gayety . Young men competed in athletic feats , while the older men arranged feasts for their friends . On Thursday , in the thirteenth week of summer , just two weeks after the opening , the Law -speaker announced

frequently from

an

sat

that the session was ended . Then the good days were over , and the serious business of making a living must be resumed . The yeoman stripped the booths and pre pared to leave for their homes ; the structures stood open and unoccupied ; and the place where the Althing had

of

of

in

,

.

its

on

entirely different appear was denuded and took ance The summer night again spread soft mantle over merrymaking and place Logretta and the noise

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

72 the voice

of

contention

in

the forum

came the soft mur.

mur of the falls . was monotonous , sometimes bleak and a session of the Althing was exhilarating an event. Its brief two weeks were like a meteoric flash of light in the somewhat dreary routine In

an

existence

of daily life .

which

hard ,

otherwise

This national gathering was the one event towards which young and old alike looked forward with pleasurable anticipation ; and the memories of these days lightened the sombre months which followed like the lingering glow of a brilliant illumination which has just disappeared beyond the hill .

CHAPTER IV

Local Government RAVELERS served

in

Iceland

the topography

, who of

have closely the country , have

ob no

ticed curious remains of structures long since razed , and in some instances completely buried . If the locations be carefully considered it will appear that the spots were chosen because of certain obvious advantages of location and natural beauty . Water , firewood , and pas

ture are conveniently tures were near the

; and where these struc there is usually a passably good

accessible sea

harbor , either close at hand , or within a short distance . It is not a mere coincidence , even in a country which Na ture has lavishly adorned with scenes of extraordinary charm , that the view is always interesting , and sometimes magnificent . These remains are what is left of the places where the citizens of the Commonwealth held their Spring Thing , or Court ; and disintegrated foundations or crumbled walls are all that remain of the booths occupied by the Godis and prominent men during the sessions .

After the changes of 965 there were thirteen local Spring Things , three in each Quarter , except in the north ern Quarter where there were four . The names of the Things , identified with the place where they convened , are frequently mentioned . From the description in the Sagas to reach fairly accurate conclusions concern ing their location . One of the best known was Hegranes Thing , in Skagafjord . A reference to major details con cerning this democratic assembly and the place of 73

its

it is possible

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

74

meetings , may be taken as a typical example of local governmental agencies .

of

this class

Thing convened on an island , or penin sula , formed by the branches of a river as they flowed to the sea . The island is approximately two miles long and from one -half to one mile wide. This was the meeting place of the men of Skagafjord , in northern Iceland . At The Hegranes

the northern end of the peninsula is a plain which skirts the eastern branch of the river , and on the northeast part of the island the Thing sat. From the meeting place a bench of land slopes towards the plain . There are signs that point to the existence , in early times,

harbor below , now obliterated by debris 10 and filled with silt deposited by the river . Along the river bank is the lowest row of booths reaching to a deep grass covered hollow , and there appear remains of about fifteen

of a

of

quarters . Then comes the second row these temporary little higher on the slope with about eleven booths ; and at last the topmost row with approximately twenty . Alto a

gether , we find here evidence of about fifty booths . The largest structures are seventy by thirty -one feet , and seventy -one by twenty -seven feet . There are also two circles , one about twenty -three feet

diameter from north to south , and ninety -four feet from east to west . The second circle more resembles an elevated stage . At the north and the south there seem to have been doors . There has been some controversy as to the true nature of these ruins , but the conclusion has been favored that this is a place analogous to that where Logretta sat at Althing . Of course , such a body did not exist in the local Things for the reason that they were without legislative power . The general appearance of in

75

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

of

, is

an

of

of

.

a

of

sat

IdIn judicial tribunal what remains indicates that here some kind This meeting place ancient Thing one the

, .

by

,

by

a

,

.

,

as

,

or off

a

or

in

lie

.

a

of

,

a

of

.

attractive spots the island From booths sometimes high upon the slope hill the river and the plain below point eye meet the The commands view the inlet whereas the opposite direction hills and mountains Spring Things had definitely cir While the local cumscribed jurisdiction they were not set territorial boundaries are our townships counties other politi cal subdivisions today The erroneous impression that there was definite territorial jurisdiction determined metes and bounds probably arose from the fact that

is

it

),

,

of

of

.

its

,

(S

.

,

such boundaries were drawn later after the island came yslur under foreign rule The present counties true follow quite closely the boundaries which were fixed independence when the country lost For example the Thing County Arnes became later Arnes The very nature the power the Godis shows that

,

to

, .

.

or

it

. .

a

resulted that Godi might have Thingmen throughout the Quarter The relation between Thingman was personal

It

a

,

of

by

to

to

,

his

to

establish the new connection was not neces change residence abandon his abode

he

that

on

of

,

to

to

is

;

in

of

,

he

in

order

sary

A

.

,

.

at

;

at

,

on

in

,

its

,

in

it

not confined within territorial limits Godord origin rested the voluntary agreement two parties the Godi the one hand and the individual liberty the other either party was terminate the arrangement will The individual who was party this agreement was called Thingman that he was mem ber the Thing the jurisdiction the Godi whom agreement was for the nonce attached the The Thingman had the right transfer another Godi but was

scattered

Godi

and

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

76

The Things were ,

, nothing but joint meetings , judicial and govern political three Godords for Thingmen of the three Godis who mental purposes . The had joined in a Thing were called pridjungsmenn ( liter in

reality

among

, for the reason that they partici proceedings upon a one - third basis . The three in the , , Godis or chiefs under the had equal rights and pre rogative powers the Thing they presided jointly and rule stood together when any opposition developed regard one from the outside was customary the ally

“

one -third men ' )

,

, it

to

,

of

proclaim

to

or

,

to

ing

,

ceremonial

of

to

It

being his duty an conduct the opening solemnly the sanctity the meet

head man leader nounce judgments and agreements a

three

as

.

a

,

as

in

; law ,

pated

the focal

point

the

National

of

As the Althing was

of

.

to

.

is

to

decrees There reason believe that the Godi whose lot this fell was the one living nearest the meeting place and announce

Gov

a

It

.

all

,

.

of

in

,

seat

the Althing

of

had

in

,

sided

to

The Godis who pre Logretta and were important cogs

definite relation a

a

in

in

,

of

.

,

in so

was the Spring Thing the axis civil admin representative the small community was assembly consisting members from three Godords The Thing had jurisdiction local matters and stood

ernment istration

session not less

in

be

.

Thing The former was required four days but not more than

to

a

in

,

.

a

of

.

lawmaking The justice and the general machinery government the Commonwealth presented unified and smoothly integrated whole The local Things fell into two divisions one being judi cial character while the other was really Debtors

.

an .

to

,

It

.

one week

,

,

all

,

considered jurisdiction pronounced judgments cases within the and arranged compromises When the business was fin ished the Thing came end After the adjournment than

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

of this

77

, the Debtors Thing convened . It sat one more than two days . Before this session obli

session

day , never

gations among men in the jurisdiction were adjusted and discharged . The Debtors Thing was really a sort of uni versal settlement , or pay day . Sometimes it convened at a

local Thing .

place other than the regular meeting of the

,

or

the controversies which arose within

came customarily

the jurisdiction

of

the three Godis To

it

each

.

named

of

by

six

The central body of the Spring Thing was the Thing judges sat twelve being Court . In this tribunal thirty -

,

to

in

.

at

,

it

If

. .

It

to

of

,

.

if

,

to

be

,

It

to

,

.

Godis was permissible however take directly Althing such cases the there decided the appropriate Quarter Court the parties chose The judges sat inside the judgment circle the arrangement be Althing ing similar Logretta that has sometimes been supposed that the local Thing possessed limited legislative powers that be true the Chiefs

,

as

at

of

no

a

,

a

,

in

.

of

in

a

or

.

a

,

of

.

;

be

.

by

go

of

.

It

to

fix

its

.

;

,

or

to

of

a

very restricted sphere The Things had the was within power frame rules concerning the conduct their own business probably also they made rules decisions con cerning certain local matters The Thing had the power prices within jurisdiction was always understood that the rules the Spring Thing must not confict with the laws the land adopted the Althing The central government was ad mittedly supreme there could conflict between local and national authority Beyond these purely local matters the legislative power the local Thing did not Althing least not after the was established and national government founded When controversy had been set judgment reached the Godi who had opened the tled Thing announced from the bench the result the hearing preparatory the people The local Thing was fact

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

78

assembly for the meeting of the Althing . It was attended by the ablest and most public - spirited men in the com munity ; and matters of public concern were freely , some times violently , debated . If it seemed desirable that the national legislature deal with a given problem , an under standing on the point was reached . There it was made

views and air opinions ; and if the old Icelanders were as fond of contentions as are some of their modern descendants , it is certain that the disputation was vigorously and warmly conducted . It can scarcely be doubted that some laws enacted by the Althing owe their origin to agitation begun at a local Thing . At this period in the history of the Commonwealth the government , in all branches was democratic the will the people

,

;

,

of

to exchange

is , its

possible

to

a

-

.

of

At

built upon much the same plan

.

and were

,

at

In

'

,

in

. of

.

in

.

to

In

of

.

,

that the men who were not officially connected with the government found ready means make itself effec tively known and felt procedure the Thing was structure and mode similar the Althing The prominent men maintained impressive state Some well known booths and lived history men the the island owned booths although they were not Godis These quarters were sometimes large affording accommodations for many men most respects these structures were like those the Althing

va

A

.

is

to a

at

.

in

up

,

or

of

by .

,

to

,

beggars and the Things were also the booths vagrants One interesting instance mentioned Hallbjorn wandered from place grant the name place with ten twelve men his train He set Thing each spring and invited beggars and his booth

.

,

a

at

of

to

seems

his

place their headquarters He make have possessed some the talent for leadership which won fame for General Coxy much later date

vagabonds

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

79

it does not appear that this prince of vagrants succeeded in perfecting any kind of organization among the Vikings of the open road . There were powerful dis couragements in the way . Capital was, as usual , safely entrenched , and , though the injunction had not been in vented , these Icelandic capitalists had their own effective method of dealing with individuals who thought they although

eat without working. The Things afforded an opportunity for the enterpris merchant leaders from every locality the juris duty diction were there While all Thingmen were persons mainly bound attend some came for the pur

,

to

.

in

in

as

,

ing

could

on

,

a

as

of

;

to

.

-

a

of

.

a

,

to

, ,

.

of

purchasing staple commodities Although the ses sion took place rule before merchant ships had begun arrive yet some traders had merchandise hand since the previous year and few energetic sailors may have arrived before the sessions closed They knew meeting and appreciated that the the time and place Thing was first class market The local Thing was very similar the Althing and pose

a

,

its

of

a

a

,

.

of

.

, It ,

if

,

it

in

of of

;

all

To

.

)

(

of

at

of

.

at

social life sessions followed the model the na meeting novelty change tional Life was vivid with and Thingvellir miniature the larger body which met plains Thing Thing the the the came the prominent yeomen within the jurisdiction and the young people both sexes found some not all of the college homecoming day thrills our modern was meeting place convenient and useful for the old and social event the first importance for the young There wrestling were entertainments and athletic contests

.

of

;

,

on

,

,

matches amusements and various trials skill Occasionally the other hand fiercer interests en grossed the attention swords flashed and the clash

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

80

contending arms sent echoes rolling among the hills . Hot blood and high spirits might refuse to abide the decision of the civil tribunals . In such circumstances an opponent might be kept from attending the Thing , or , if the contro versy had gone to judgment , the proceedings might be nullified by force . It is noticeable , however , that resort to violence as a substitute for the decisions of regularly con stituted bodies , is generally condemned in the Sagas, and it is said that the wisest men frowned upon such exhibi tions of lawlessness . Icelanders during the Commonwealth maintained three Things each year which were called " Skapthings ," meaning simply ordinary assemblies or meetings . The first , in seasonal order , was the Spring Thing , the second the Althing , and the third the Fall Thing or Leet . The last named Thing , or Leet, was required to be held at the sa vene same place as the Spring Thing ; but it might convene

.

,

its

, provided Logretta gave consent and spe cial reasons existed for departing from the regular rule From the fact that many such meeting places are men tioned we infer that permission was often requested and

elsewhere

The Leet convened not less than fourteen days after the dissolution the Althing but not later August Its sessions could never than the latter part exceed two days but must least extend through one

,

,

day

for the

a

national necessity

of ,

The Fall Thing was

a

.

full

.

at

of

of

.

easily obtained

substitute

to

to

Its

an

.

of of

and

en

popular other current means lightenment purpose primarily was give that part the population which could not attend the sessions opportunity become informed con the Althing press

the public questions which came before the national body and the events which had there taken cerning

LOCAL GOVERNMENT place

It

.

was believed essential

the

to

81

well being of the

commonwealth that every person have accurate knowl edge of the manner in which the public business was

transacted , and it was indispensable that the public should be correctly advised as to the law . The three Godis jointly

,

or

,

for all

conducted the Fall Thing ; the Godi , who , with certain ceremonial rites , formally opened the Thing , proclaimed all changes in or additions to the law which had been enacted during the session of the Althing just closed ; he privileges and the announced fines special leaves

.

,

or

,

.

of

,

of

holy days the next year These formal announcements way out the the forum was undoubtedly thrown open for the discussion local matters While the Fall Things Leets were essentially by

,

in

to

,

at

.

of

.

a

in

purpose from the sessions spring there different very similarity They was real were attended crowds men and women Some were there learn about public questions and occurrences the Althing while

of ,

or

,

up

a

to

its

as

,

of

of

a

to

as

to

in

.

It

in

of

.

to

.

.

of

of

simply the pursuit the motive others was curiosity pleasure Sports and games relieved the daily routine and the occasion was made festive like the meetings other Things Ball games were played and tournaments conducted The main object was maintain the interest keep the people own government and connection between the national government and the goes without saying that the practice was well citizens public affairs keep alive interest calculated well quicken sense individual responsibility for the

."

in

,

.

Much has heretofore been said the Godord Their position

power

of

"

a

;

conduct the public business and the State itself was thus steadily reminded that the collective business was thing apart from the citizen not wholly the Godis and their the Commonwealth

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

was

of the

greatest importance

; indeed , the governmental

scheme and the social structure

cannot be seen

its

82

in

true

in

law attached

clearly perceived before the plan

be

,

of the

of

of

the individuals who were

Godi must

each

to

.,

,

Thingmen

i.e .

an

light without appreciation the function these local chiefs The relation between the Godis and the

In

its

a

by

as

;

to

,

to

be

it

,

,

of

it

or

.

,

or

.

a

It

at

.

be

government can understood public The Godord had dual aspect was once governmental institution and personal property governmental character was the main central point political private system the national and local property was subject sale and transfer suc

of

in

in

to be

or

by

,

of

it

;

.

could

if

It

distributed among many persons but that was done was usually provided that some discharge individual the duties the Godi behalf performed all the others this obligation might cession

.

in ,

of

a

,

Court

of . to St

at

the

It

.”

an

like American ambassador James was considered more

,

ferred that the Godord ship

,

old

,

as

, .

is

It ,

“

,

It

of

,

agreement rotation different persons according The old tithe laws afford some evidence how the exempted Godord was considered was when the tithe was calculated because the law book Gragas pithily says power not property may be

,

,

as

a

mentioned

.

been

;

in

Logretta

and they

they

appointed

the

It

Things thus appears government the the of

a

members all the courts that they had favored place

seat

.

vote

at

of

alone had the power

Godi have a

the

;

of

were entitled

in the

chiefs

to

These

.

this tax public The duties

to

ment

of

to

,

as

;

of

an

liability than asset the incumbent from the material standpoint and while these sons the Vikings loved glory all men have loved the hollow bauble they did not attempt estimate its value basis for the pay

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

83

nation , inasmuch as they had both the legislative and judicial machinery largely under their control . Likewise , they had the power to appoint men to certain

tribunals , such as féránsdóm , or court of execution , held at the home of one who had been found guilty and sen

; and they were , ex -officio , foremen in certain other bodies , such as the “ Godar Court,” which each Godi organized by the appointment of eleven of his Thingmen , who , with him as the twelfth , rendered ver tenced

dicts , or judgments

,

certain

in

of

classes

of the Godi

cases .

local government was powerful. His jurisdiction was not territorially restricted , and , in consequence , a strong man could make his influ ence felt widely . It appears that a species of executive power was, by common consent , lodged in him , within The

influence

in

fairly well defined limitations . The Godi, for example , deemed it his duty to maintain peace in the community ,

peacable settlement

failed

. If

attempted

compromise

disagree to

Thingmen

or

ments arose among

he

his

and even to use force when persuasion

bring

in

,

,

It

.

rid

, at

a

.

he

,

if

,

of

a

,

quasi As the common peace realized that such dif ferences not promptly adjusted might mature into popular concep feuds and bloodshed was his duty

about keeper

to

of

to

the

part

the Godi

,

Thingmen

in

,

;

and the

tolerant

of

, on of

him

good naturedly

.

officiousness

required

of

the main

-

were on

,

indeed

,

,

pected

;

of

.

in

he

a

in

,

In in

.

,

,

least

to

the community robbers and bring thieves and remissness this regard was sure complaint and censure the main the Thingmen them responsible part selves demanded that the Godi take the local government and insisted that bestir himself their behalf There appears have been little popular jealousy his power the contrary much was ex tion

occasional

His power has

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

84 sometimes

likened

been

boss ; but he

that

to

of

political

the American

did not have so cohesive or so servile a fol lowing ; he had much less tempting material rewards with which to hold his retainers . The Godis owed certain duties with respect to business transactions with foreigners and those foreign merchants

their goods for sale in Iceland . The mer chants were not always willing to acknowledge any right in the local Godi in this regard ; but usually they had no

who offered

choice but

submit

to

if the

latter chose

to

exert his power

.

There are incidents which show that the Godi would forbid a foreign merchant to offer his merchandise , and , to some extent, dictate the terms on which it should be offered to his Thingmen . If the sources be historically

accurate they perhaps mean no more than that the Godi, by reason of his prestige , could , when he felt so inclined , exert power somewhat beyond the margin of the law ,

have managers have general

or

committee three community each

to

he

of ,

at

,

time

a

In

enforced

.

ity

author

no statute has been found which gave him the appears this regard which times in

for

at

in

.

the subject

by

law

.

on

accordance with

a

or

by

to

no

,

to

in

to

wardens was named power with respect merchandise offered from abroad the trade otherwise than one was permitted and place fixed approved the committee This was

For

,

attention

meeting

could

.

were called Matters

common

the

, ,

,

of

.

times were hard ters severe and famine and hardship impended when

be

.

needed example

win

sessions

concern were discussed

,

which

arranged

a

pressed

, If

at

.

,

to

In

addition the Things established law over which the three Godis jointly presided each Godi had conferences with his own Thingmen Such meetings were not always held fixed times some special business

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

85

and differences existing in the community were informally adjusted . was also customary for the Godis to ride

It

horseback throughout their jurisdiction - riding the cir cuit — to investigate the circumstances of their Thingmen . It was the duty of the Thingmen to furnish food and lodging to the visiting Godi. The burdens upon the

people , due to the billeting of a numerous entourage , were very substantial because the Godi sometimes trav eled with a large company . It was no simple matter , especially in hard times , to accommodate him and his party . An instance may be cited . One Godi is mentioned who traveled with thirty men and remained as long as seven days at the same home . Obviously this charge upon the hospitality of the Thingmen could have become intol

, but for the fact that the connection might be severed at will , and a Thingman , while he respected a Godi — so long as he continued respectable — did not fear him . From what has been said it is clear that the Godis had erable

wide powers and much influence , both at the Things and in the community between sessions . While occasionally a Godi became exacting and officious , it is likely that he was ordinarily a mild and accommodating individual in his relations with his Thingmen . The reason for this is not to be found in a lamblike disposition , rather in the

of

a

to

if

.

of

.

in

,

,

,

to

all ,

fact that self -interest suggested considerate treatment expedient chiefs these After course . most as the power owed all their and derived all their influence the latter left them their their Thingmen and from power dwindled and they dropped position com parative unimportance the state The system effectively secured the citizen against the designs selfish and being Thingmen arbitrary power from far were The

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

86

dependent

Godi

upon

or subservient

acted meanly

to

Thingmen

the

Godi. When

the

conferred in the interest of the victim . There were practical checks upon his power which prevented a consistent or contin uous course of oppression . The place of the Godord in the governmental scheme , appears essentially democratic character as well as perhaps most clearly the provision which the law sometimes

If

in

,

its

his

he

a

if

,

,

,

go

he

,

of

or

, "

or

",

-

-

he

“

,

or

—

—

it

a

If

. . -

-

"

,

to

it

or

,

ill

of , or

of of

.

to

made for the succession the incumbent was unable perform the duties his office either because went abroad because health and he was without son lawful age other close relatives within the Godord who could act for him was his duty have some one third man member the Godord per form the duties Beyond this jurisdiction could not for substitute the office was vacant either because the Godi had forfeited this might occur for very slight reasons because had died suddenly without liege leaving competent heirs the one third men to

,

so

It

lot . of

,

It

do

of

to

of

to

.

in

,

or

by

to

.

to

,

is ,

of

that the members the Godord were bound administer the office according their own pleasure Some perform individual was then usually designated the functions the selection was made was provided the law thus appears that the public Things had nothing with the office Godi but the members the Godord alone had the legal right

men

of

.

, an

In

.

at

of

a

of

in

it

vacancy from any cause There administer case was thus distinct sense local government manifested suggesting the smaller political subdivisions other principle countries later dates this there was

; of

.

of

an

,

germ

he

real democracy Whatever may have been the dignity and power the Godi was not officer the Icelandic republic active

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

87

civil officer during the Common the Law -speaker . He was elected by the Logretta and received compensation from the public . The position of Godi , on the contrary , was private and hereditary . The Godord was in the nature of freehold was only

there

wealth , namely ,

one

, owned by individuals and transferable by them at will. No compensation or salary from public sources was attached to it. The Godi, of course , received some income , but it was uncertain , indefinite , and in most, if

property

, wholly inadequate to meet the usual outlay . The principal source of revenue , prior to Christianity , was the temple toll , or fee. The Thingmen were required to pay this stipend when the not

all

in

cases

and necessary

Godi looked after the temple of the ancient gods ; the Godi, on the other hand , was obligated to supervise all sacrifices. The Thingmen were also required to pay their

fee when they did not attend the Althing ; but the majority of capable men probably attended , and ,

Godi

certain

a

moreover , the amount thus collected would be consumed by his Thingmen who attended , for it was the duty of the Godi to provide booths , booth room and maintenance for

.

them

to

no

or

,

in

to

of

.

in

no

if

of

;

on

or

,

if

no

.

a

of ;

a

,

entitled

of

him

a

formed

of

by

Godi was

for

to certain fees services per judicial character like inducting slave into the complete civil status freedman but legal these fees were small He was the heir for partner eigners they had relatives Iceland shipboard but the Godi was bound messmate represent the interests foreigners slain the island legal representatives qualified they had act This The

,

or

,

,

in

,

,

,

last named source income was uncertain and com paratively unimportant because most instances for eign merchants had partners messmates associates

88

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

with the result that the Godi did not inherit . Like a Dem ocratic chairmanship in Pennsylvania , the prerogative of the Godi was seldom profitable ; and , unlike the position of a Republican National Committeeman in North Caro lina or Mississippi , it was always honorable . Local government was a primary school in politics . In this scheme consideration should be given the small sub division , or governmental district , called a parish . The parish differed from the Godord and Thing in the funda

mental particular that the former was marked

by fixed

boundaries , somewhat after the fashion of the American township . The main reason for this distinction was the problem caused by persons who became public charges . A parish was legally constituted if there were twenty , or

more , freeholders resident therein , subject to the pay ment of the Althing fee . In each parish five freeholders made up the governing council, or body . They were

called Sóknarmenn ( literally , “ plaintiffs " ) , for the rea son that it was their duty to prosecute all cases against parish individuals within the who were delinquent in

financial matters . The principal duty of the parish committee or council , pertained to the care of paupers , a subject with which the law deals in much detail . The principle was that the next of kin were legally bound to take care of the destitute , the duty in this respect devolving on persons in the same order of relationship as that prescribed by the rule under which property descended to relatives the death of the owner . The primary heir owed primary obligation of support , and so on , depending the on the closeness of the kinship . These principles were

upon

applied . Children without sufficient means to take care of needy parents must arrange for their support

very rigidly

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

89

by other relatives , while the children themselves were apprenticed to such relatives in compensation . The status thus created was not that of a servant , but rather that of a slave . When the relationship was more distant than parent that of and child , the relatives were under a legal duty to maintain the dependents as best they could , but the obligation did not go to the extent of requiring that they virtually sell themselves into slavery . If a

freedman became destitute and had no children his for mer master was bound to provide for him . Obviously , these rules concerning paupers were calculated to and did lessen the public burdens due to destitution in the parish . It was only when a pauper was without relatives that he became a public charge . The scheme had little natural tendency to pauperize individuals , while at the same time, it made adequate and human provisions for the genuinely needy

.

Public charges were supported in different ways. The pauper might circulate through the parish , remaining a certain length of time with a family . Those with whom he was billeted were required by the law to support him in a style at least equal to that of their servants. Again , food might be given on certain holidays and during feast

for the need of the poor , one meal from . Then , there was a pauper 's tax, in the nature of a tithe, as a third mode of meeting the situa tion . The parish council had duties concerning the sup port of the poor analogous to those performed by the ing periods

each freeholder

commissioners , or the overseers of the poor in of our American States . The pauper tax was based property valuation .

county

many on

When a person was not a legal charge upon any parish on the island , the duty to care for him devolved upon the

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

90

. If a foreigner , without relatives in Ice , land became destitute, the Quarter where he lived was bound to maintain him ; and dependents or relatives of outlawed criminals , were , if needy , a charge upon the Commonwealth

Quarter. Poor persons of this class were permitted travel and beg ; they were licensed vagabonds , so

to

to

, but without legal rights . To provide support for destitute individuals has remained one of the principal

speak

functions of the Icelandic parish down to the present day . Another interesting , but long since abandoned , duty rested on the parish . This political subdivision was liable to compensate the people who lived therein for damages to their livestock

and to their homes . The rules concern

ing compensation

on

account of damage to livestock the stock

died from

owner lost one -fourth , or more , the loss . Within two weeks after the course the owner was required neighbors estimate the damage

were

disease and the

parish must pay the disease had run

its

If

of

carefully framed .

five his The owner was re quired exhibit the carcases and the skins the ani mals that had died and swear that his loss was equal excess that which his neighbors estimated

to

it

of

in

to of be .

or

,

to

to

of

.

to

,

to

summon

a

,

in

an

of

of

.

,

,

of

at

to

to

,

,

he

In

meeting addition had announce publicly the parish the extent his damage whereupon the freeholders were bound make him whole Obviously theory system the this was that every member the community should have refraining from interest

.

one per cent

could exceed

in

so

maximum

of

however

,

case

,

no

a

.

on

of

.

in

conduct which might result such costly calamity The amount of the damage was apportioned among the property ownership people the basis that the largest amounts The assessment wealthiest paid the less than

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

91

like scheme was in force relating to damage to houses and buildings by fire ; three classes of buildings were under this protection . One was the parlor or main living room , the other was the eldhús , or building where the fire was kept up , and the third , the stock room or larder , the place particularly where the women prepared A

If a man had both a fire house and a stofa , or living room (sometimes a " ladies ' ” room ) , he was re quired to elect those which he desired to be protected , the election to be made at a meeting in the spring . It was only the important buildings on the homestead that were insured by the community . If a church or a house of prayer was on the premises it might be counted as the fourth building for the purpose of this insurance plan . If the buildings protected were destroyed by fire , the procedure in assessing the damages and making compen

the food .

therefor was essentially the same as in case of livestock . Every man was entitled to have two fires , but after the second fire he became a bad risk and must carry his own insurance . They understood human nature . In every parish three meetings were held each year , the first at Lent , the second following the spring or local Thing , and the third in the fall . At these meetings parish sation

loss

of

.

, di of

.

,

a

to

to

A

.

he he

if if

,

which needed attention support pauper

freeholder could had some urgent matter was illegally required

called

or

a

meetings were sometimes special meeting demand a

of

,

, ,

.

by

or

if or

its

matters were discussed , licenses to build were granted , and the like. Each meeting formulated own rules procedure The council committee the parish rected the meetings and men did not attend either per proxy they were subject sonally fine Special

92

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

The parishes were self -governing and independent in the highest degree , having no connection with the gov ernment of the Commonwealth . The conclusion is irre sistible that the people were jealous of their liberty , never yielding any part of the right of local self-government , notwithstanding attempts of the Althing at certain usurpation . This political freedom explains, to some ex tent, the high level of culture and civilization during the period . Some day some psychologist may discover and explain the very close connection between political lib erty and mental alertness . Responsibility for the conduct of a government, be the division never so small , is the greatest and safest of intellectual stimulants . No people govern itself successfully without wakefulness understanding of human nature .

can

and

CHAPTER

V

Law and Justice Sir William Blackstone , “ is the ...ibodi ment of the moral sentiment of the people .” Cus tomary law is the mirror of the habits of thought , of the ethical development , and of the intellectual endow ments of a nation . It is the most veracious witness to the

TAW ,"

said

of culture which a people have attained , or to which it has aspired , at a given time; and collected codes are the distillate the reason and the conscience the age reconciling wherever possible abstract no

,

,

of

,

of

of

its

degree

,

of

.”

,

of

“

by

.

of

justice with the practical needs and daily concerns tions people the By justice shall our country be maintained and not lawlessness ruined Thus spoke Njal one the greatest lawyers Iceland and the Scandinavian North himself

of

or

.

of

a

)

in

(

later the year 1011 victim the very wantonness against which he had warned The essential point the a

,

.

,

,

in

its

.

,

as

, as

at

,

of

,

in

observation was one form another common adage throughout all the countries Scandinavia Scandina long history records have vians for the abstract any rate had high respect for law and for their con ceptions of legal justice From the earliest times they be

that law and respect for mandates were the first requisites permanent and successful civil society The Icelandic people during the period the Common their

con

,

their shields law

,

forms

of

most

upon

in

and justice under the

of

to

that

this maxim

of

,

law

engrave

93

,

because

right superior

to

had temporaries

wealth

a

,

of

.

of

lieved

the

PIONEERS

94

OF FREEDOM

competent students , then attained a higher development of in Iceland than in any other European country . The claim to superiority in the field of the law is start ling when we recall that this small nation lay on the very

of

judgment

degree

of the Arctic Circle , far beyond the outermost lanes of

rim

.

,

is

to

of

its

of

ordinary ocean travel , in a severe and uninspiring physical environment . That there should here have flowered a legal system without a parallel in the sound and states provisions for the needs manlike character of the legal history interesting time the student In

as of

.

a

no

;

in

of

.

When the circumstances are more closely examined the phenomenon sheds its superficial mystery other coun Europe towns and cities early became the focal tries points there was real sense national life Although

in

,

a

.

,

,

,

urban existence was not monotonous the attention men was concentrated largely upon the externals such com merce industry and trade After time the relation orig inally existing between the community and the yeomen

the various classes

led

of

terests

.

,

and the common people steadily widened

Divergent

the population

in

,

,

the country became less and less close and the gap be tween city life and country life between the chieftain class

away

other Iceland the Althing early the history the Com pulsating monwealth became the center of real national life At this annual gathering which the cream the population came the life the people unfolded

its

of

to

in

,

.

of ,

a

,

,

in

of

.

each

In

from

,

,

of

of

.

it,

of

of

,

of

.

most interesting and most glorious aspects While the so cial features the Althing were much interest the principal attraction from the very beginning was the legal and governmental questions Subjects discussion large import came before and the welfare the

AND JUSTICE

LAW

95

,

, ;

,

no

to

or

;

or

a

in

.

,

as

a

.

, as

its

main concern Living condi whole , was tions were virtually uniform throughout the island for has been said there was only one class namely the yeomanry Popular feeling and governmental purpose ran parallel course there were conflicting economic objectives terests divide disturb the general people

.

equanimity

,

is

;

a

in

a

It

it

all

in

,

,

or

a

.

at

in

of

The Althing was the axial point the Commonwealth and there little doubt approximately that times reflected the seasoned popular will was national institution much dif ferent and much more comprehensive and significant sense than the local Things Moots among peoples close contact with the people

in

in

to

; it

of

.

of

it

of

a

;

in

of

; . it It

,

of

a

It

.

of

Europe other parts had distinct place the na tional economy suggesting that the Olympic games brought the life Greece was unifying force gether individuals thoughtful argument stimulated and every direction and interest cultivated the feeling nationalism which ever since has been one of the conspicu ous characteristics the Icelandic people Observers

Early

in

of

,

a

is

at ,

,

it

be

a

the ancient Althing

.

sessions

of

,

by

.

If

a

,

have sometimes remarked that this branch Scandina vians exhibit cohesiveness race consciousness almost beyond comprehension that true habit long standing fostered glorious traditions the founda tions of which were laid deep and strong the annual the

Middle Ages the kingship developed

rap

in

,

.

in

of

;

in

northern Europe and under the protecting ægis royalty favored classes arose whose members enjoyed special privileges These grew arrogance avarice idly

a

a

of

.

of

in

power until they became the economic and political masters the common people Between them and the king there was the bond common interest and com and

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

96

its

at

a

a

of

all

mon purpose . They joined forces until , in a great portion of Europe , the people had been largely divested of their prerogatives became the civil and political rights ; and king comparatively small group with property

grew

in

enormous proportions

;

of

the centuries

to

by

course

,

of

.

,

of

.

head This tendency became especially marked after the consolidation the small kingships when large king doms and empires appeared The royal power the

.

of

, at

.

in

, of

.

be

sideration

of

of

wholesale the masses men were left out con ordinary men The interests and feelings safely despised could power the independence As the nobility advanced people gradually disappeared the Like the parasite

and

, ,

to

,

in

all

,

in

.

or

of

to

it

which thrives the cost the tree around whose trunk entwines itself the rising kingship especially after the decay sapped the national lower nobility had begun vitality With the loss participate denial the right government public interest the business died and the people sank into intellectual stagnation and moral

of

.

decline

-

of

,

in

After the establishment the consolidated monarchy Norway Iceland became the refuge liberty loving

,

,

of

,

,

.

of

attended

for the purpose

as

numbers

The Sagas show that large sessions the Althing not merely serving witnesses for others but

the stage the

the center

of

from

of

,

,

in

in

a

It

is

.

of

by

.

of In

of

that remote region the principles civil liberty equality before the law were vital forces for ages after both had been destroyed elsewhere the encroach higher aristocracy royal prerogative ment the and the special group true that men the Godis had the dominating influence the National Government and lawmaking yet the public was not excluded from actual influence and locally the people ruled without domination

men and

97

LAW AND JUSTICE

counsels

.

he might

to

found the best opportunity any time called upon take to

in

the citizen

be

,

learn the law

part

part

also

as at

take

to

Here

; ,

pared

its

rather , perhaps primarily , as spectators , and to make their sentiments known and felt . At the Althing matters of momentous and general concern might arise , and nearly every able -bodied person of consequence was pre

,

.

of

a

as or

,

a

of

a

we are

an

of

,

.

in

,

in

in

of

of

to

or

,

a

to

in

,

in

an

of as

jury inquest the proceedings member judge assistant Godi the Logretta and the Quarter Court the Fifth Court This ever present possibility call the public service exercised keeping enormous influence alive the interest the people the law and all governmental operations Still more important from the standpoint from which viewing

,

he

all

a

of

,

is

,

by

the constitution the Common being present could every wealth the fact that man upon have direct influence the members the lawmak now

a

of

.

to

at

,

.

to

of

,

of

.

in

on

if -

to

in

in

a

,

.

,

ing branch The citizen matters which felt personal concern had first class opportunity have law enacted the subject he attended and made his proper quarter wishes known the As has been pointed many provisions out doubtless the law owe their essen tials influence this sort The relations between the legislative body and the public was close and the Logretta was all times responsive the public will Sagas The contain conclusive evidence that the early

in

of

a

a

it

,

an

.

be

.

a

a

;

.

Icelanders were industrious and enthusiastic students the law To become thoroughly familiar with legal prin primary duty and ciples was kinsman who failed young relative was guilty this regard towards serious negligence Incidents and illustrations from the Sagas multiplied For example we find could said that certain young man lived with older citizen studying

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

98

. Njal ,

great lawyer and a wise statesman , took a Helgi Njalsson into his home and brother - in taught him law that the pupil became the greatest law a

so

of

law

law

yer

in

,

of

,

.

in

Iceland When the teacher was later burned his home with his family and retainers and the prosecution

generally

of in

.

so

as

, as

or

",

in

as "

of

no

or

.

no

in

esteemed

.

so

-

so

,

so

of

to

.

in

",

as "

.

of

,

as

.

as

in

,

as

in

of

.

,

at

the guilty men was conducted the Althing the pupil his legal skill About and after the year 1000 the sources Icelandic history mention many men who were famous for their learning the law Some are great trial lawyers and some described well legal science that judgments were deemed formed doubtful validity unless they had had some connection lawyers without peers with them Others are described legal strategists ranking and some third among the Frequently leaders the Icelandic bar individuals are great lawyers described wise the law specially gifted this field Enough has been said show the emphasis which was upon study laid the law No other field was seemingly important and learning science branch universally sought and cultivated and was pre eminence demonstrated

in

le . ,

,

of

gal lore

as

of

.

to

to

so

,

a

be

would

of

It

mistake attribute the general knowl nothing among the law marked the people more than the mere desire for learning On the contrary the controlling motive was most likely quite utilitarian The public opinion the time regarded proficiency edge

.

in

to

.

It

no

,

in

, of

a

in

an

in

in

as

young the education bearing man skill the arms Dur ing this period skill arms physical prowess endurance and courage were essentials without which man was properly equipped for life was equally necessary that every adult should know how wield legal weapons

essential athletics and

much

LAW

AND

JUSTICE

99

litigation which , in the ordinary lifetime, might arise at any moment . To lose a lawsuit was sometimes looked upon as scarcely less disgraceful to an individual and his family than to become guilty of unmanly conduct in battle . The family and the family honor were sometimes in volved in a legal controversy . It was the duty of the sur vivor to take legal notice of a homicide when the victim was a relative ; the living relatives of the murdered man owed a duty here which law and public opinion alike im posed upon them . It was considered inglorious in the ex

In

of to .

,

law

treme if a man took no steps to bring condign punishment , through the instrumentality of the upon the guilty this manner public sentiment gropingly endeavored to

.

it

to In

as

or

no

of

.

an

in

correct the defect the government due the absence executive power some situations was the legal duty the individual enforce public law special provision There was made for enforcing the legal judgments of the duly constituted tri law the

it

.

for

in

It

.

of

to

if

,

for example

of

, of

in

mean and contemptible citizens was every man the duty defend the honor insulting they became the victims female relatives

of

public opinion

as

to

to

it

,

if

they did not the law because least some upon themselves cases take set motion the ma chinery punish offenders they stood before the bar

,

spect

, at

to

re

.

a

so

In

far the law was carried into execution very real individual initiative There was pressure upon persons bring about obedience and bunals was upon

he

,

or

, . in

in

lived

.

he

where

a

as

a

.

conduct There was thus vital reason why every man must familiarize himself with the law Otherwise could not perform his duties citizen maintain his position the state and his prestige the community The Icelandic legal

system

was complicated

and techni

its

ment der

in

of .

or

a

in

of

punish and the imposition fine upon person some form the who made the blun action

,

cause

in

a

complexities was cal. To become well grounded in easy task the loss The slightest mistake might result

of no

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

100

in

;

of

his

It

.

was always assumed that the complainant was managing and conducting own lawsuit but there are instances the Sagas which show that there capable

party could assign his cause action another When this was done the law required something more than the mere designation

.

to

of

of

a

this rule and that

to

were exceptions

it

of men

learned

in

engage the services

as

to

important

as

,

on

.

of

of

in

as

.

to

to

to

on

of

;

in

an

agent the modern sense the person who desired that another prosecute his cause action must not only empower the transferee carry the litigation but he right assign must the and title the cause him The signee became the plaintiff his own right the sole owner the right action When important lawsuits were the calendar was the

.

,

cases

a

consummate

of

,

of

,

and artistic

justice

Njal

describes

this

skill

was

con

It

with

Burnt

peaceable

.

trial

failure

.

of

a

to

in

the dismissal the suit and resort arms The author the story

a

of

of

,

.

,

on

,

by

in

no

of

by a

.

in

of

to

at

his

,

just

for certain

of

today eminent members the bar are sought For example when the men who burned Njal and family were prosecuted the Althing the culprits transferred their defense entirely man who being one had the reputation the greatest lawyers legal battle Iceland There followed which tech nical rule was overlooked the defense marked the keenest insight into procedural and adjective law both sides The issue oscillated back and forth the advantage being first with one side and then with the other until the fatal error the counsel for the plaintiffs which resulted law

LAW

AND JUSTICE

101

the hearing of a multitude of men and women , for here was a lawsuit of unusual interest and importance . No mistake was overlooked , every advantage was promptly pressed to the limit . We see the tribunal and the witnesses , with such persons as had some direct connec tion with the suit . Round about them the author paints a word picture of the crowd eagerly watching and intently listening , now applauding one side, now the other. Seldom has a cause been tried in which a whole people ducted

in

was so much concerned and so deeply engrossed ; we are reminded of such causes célèbres as the trial of Queen Caroline , the impeachment of Warren Hastings , and the impeachment trial of President Andrew Johnson . As the case progresses feeling mounts ; the contestants become more animated , more bitter ; the public becomes agitated ; and the affair takes on the appearance of a contest of skill with the smartest contender drawing the applause of the spectators. The description of this interesting trial con vinces us that the populace attended the business at the Althing with real interest and followed every step with enthusiasm

. Legal trials and failures of jus

, such as this , could not but impress upon thorough understanding the necessity at

system

observers the legal

.

a

of

tice

of all

the utmost

to

of

It

.

.

It

be

of

in

to

in

to

to

.

by

of

,

-

in

a

of

.

It

say some would seem this point appropriate thing about the earliest known Icelandic laws The Ice Norway landic Commonwealth became dependency 1262 1264 from which date the original Icelandic legal system was gradually modified the infusion Norwegian law Long prior this date evidences de cay appear Icelandic lawmaking had begun would seem demonstrable that after 1180 the legislative power the Commonwealth was little account was

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

102

of Godis

be

a

,

a

in

of

.

to

its

about and after this date that internal feuds arose which ultimately led to the downfall of the Republic and af Norway begun filiation with The Godords had con centrated the hands few chiefs and small group

by

,

,

of

in

,

to

of

;

in

.

, of

so

powerful that they could defy the law became justice with im and ignore the customary processes punity Might exemplified the sword decided contro versies the courts fell into disuse and disrespect direct proportion the growth this arrogant spirit and that liberty the light which the nation had marched to .

,

wards the heights decayed and died

.

is

of

In

of

in

of

a

of

of

.

,

an

a

In

country without executive this condition re acted upon the legislative power with disastrous results strong executive power The evil effect the absence has seldom been more palpably demonstrated than when this point the history the Commonwealth reached legal clang justice the arms the voice law and was

is

a

,

,

of

.

as

is

to

.

to

,

of

of

,

of to

.

in

,

nated

to

of

The ancient law Iceland seems have origi the main prior 1180 conclusion which supported by the studies philologists who have criti cally examined the language the law The main por Gragas great tions the the law book Iceland were probably reduced writing not much later than 1150 The period from 1030 1120 sometimes described drowned

of ,

is

. , It

of

in

of

peace because there was then comparative the era quiet the island doubtless true that the legal sys rapidly during developed tem this age although the main

in

,

of

.

. It

;

in

of

principles the law are most likely earlier origin the century intervening the years 930 and 1030 unquestion ably witnessed the formulation the law essential crystallized outline then into definite rules and fixed formulas The Saga Age was many respects the Golden Age the Commonwealth the period during which the

AND JUSTICE

the

LAW

of

young nation blossomed

An examination the earliest laws force least part during the period the Commonwealth dis

, at

,

of

,

in

of

.

in

like flowers

spring

in

finest powers

103

fundamental characteristics One purpose which else must yield was the maintenance even balance between the rights individuals and of the rights society represented the central govern ment has not always been easy find the happy me theory dium but that such was the the lawmaking body by

; .

It

of to

,

as

of

of

to

an

of

.

certain all

closes

at

to

;

of

the expense the citizen government will be too weak

on

is ,

the other that the

on

at

,

be

.

or

of

.

of

-

of

.

in

of

of is

obvious The men responsible for the or ganization the Commonwealth realized the significance government grasp power the age old tendency the expense individual rights They seemed aware the evils resulting from error upon the one side upon the other There the one magnified hand the danger that the government will Iceland

and

in

to

,

is

,

of government

of

as

want

the evils

.

question

of

a

is

debatable

striking illustrations to

as

worse

the

result

.

excess

anarchy due

on

is

it

,

,

strong not because built the individual and popular liberty but rather when is

government of

A

ing from

of

,

consequences

is

.

of

are intolerable but which Perhaps history affords

ruins

,

,

of

, .

in

of

a

as

be

a

of

. , If

.

If

of

check the passions people tendency gain the the former the upper hand popular liberty will die and tyranny will be the final ex government pression the individual per contra be liberty organized accorded too generous measure destroyed Wherever the latter society will surely tendency gains dominant position the ultimate result irresponsible power the tyranny the many the chaos impulses unrestrained and uncontrolled Both states

hold

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

104

law , framed in the in terest of all persons alike and enforced by a central power responsible and responsive to an enlightened public will . On the other hand , the liberty which the individual de right does not imply that may mands as a

the possession

he

as

do

sense

of

of

consists

in

; it

pleases

he

his

it is grounded upon liberty under

security

at to

by

no

A

.

of

,

.

to

no

or

to

that his natural powers may be developed the utmost hampering impediments without fortuitous circum stances which have relation his natural capacity The happy medium between these extremes the founders the Icelandic Commonwealth sought but failed dis cover like attempt was made other nations and

in

in

at

a

at .

,

,

to

,

on

,

of

,

.

,

tions The individual overshadowed the state grew arrogance and became contemptuous the principles

in

—

of

,

—

a

to

.

,

in

in

of

;

of

,

of

.

in

,

of .

;

of

.

a

,

to

,

of

in

In

.

in

of

in

of

in

.

after this time with better success There were fundamental differences the primary principles and legislation the course the countries the Scandinavian North and Iceland The outcome was radically different the two regions the northern countries outside Iceland the aim least certain periods seems have been establish centralized gov strong executive This was achieved ernment with the expense the individual the scales tipped the other way Royalty rose prestige and power whereas the rights people the dwindled and disappeared The founders the Icelandic state the contrary securing were primarily concerned with the fullest carrying out measure freedom for the citizen but organized society was this purpose the interest one respect inadequately protected vital These statesmen provide for vigorous but responsible execu neglected tive while providing sufficiently when one considers the situation the people for legislative and judicial func

of

and decayed law

JUSTICE

AND

LAW

105

of the demands of public order. All government ; it exerted less and less control over persons ; and

a

.

, of

in

its

in the end the state fell a prey to internal lawlessness and external ambitions . The Icelandic Commonwealth and the Continental Congress are striking illustrations of the folly of hoping that organized society can maintain itself perpetually without efficient means of enforcing obedience binding law to the expression of will the form

of

of

,

,

an

is

It

true that the Commonwealth existed free and inde pendent without executive for approximately twice the span which measures the age the American Repub in

little

no

imposes

endure which

or

of

no

to

of

.

;

lic

decay and dissolution had set but the processes long before the structure collapsed The final catastrophe refusing was the logical and inevitable result take governmental scheme can long notice the fact that effective restraint upon

of

is

In

.

the passions some respects Icelandic law

ancient vintage and

,

.

of

,

a

in

in

the remote

,

,

of

in

Its

.

by

of

go

.

of

,

;

of

.

a

as as

principles is ,

upon

foundation The scheme

,

social and political having their history northern Europe large measure built around the family unit These early laws significantly regard the family the cornerstone the state and significantly also every socialist and communist who really understands his problem concentrates his fire upon the home and the sanc tity the marriage relationship The legislation the period does not beyond this conception concerning the importance central position the family the legal rests

of

of

.

homicide the very oldest

of

cases

one

in

on

,

a

of or

, of

in

fines

The chapter dealing with fines

is

heritance and the schedule

of

is

.

in

is

scheme evidenced the fact that five total thir teen chapters the Gragas deal more less with that subject This noticeably true the two chapters

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

106

of the law . There we find set forth in detail the amounts which those guilty of homicides were required to pay . The measure , or unit , of compensation , is the “ baug ” which , literally , means a ring . The explanation is that rings of silver were the oldest media of exchange in the sections

northern countries . The scale of fines is related exclu sively to the family and states with precision how much the guilty or his relatives must pay , and how much the relatives of the victim are entitled to receive. The family was divided into branches, one consisting of near , the other of distant relatives . One branch in cluded the father , son , brother , paternal grandfather , paternal grandson , maternal father and a daughter 's son , uncle on the father 's side ,

a nephew on the male side , , nephews german uncles and and cousins . The other branch consisted of persons more remotely related , like second and third cousins , and others . Relationship for an

this purpose appears never to have been reckoned beyond the fourth cousin . To travel so far on the trail of con sanguinity from the principals as to require the fourth cousin to compensate or entitle him to receive compensa tion is strong proof of the central position the family occupied in the scheme of things . There is here , of course , the germ of whatever logic there may be in the modern legal doctrine of respondeat superior . There is another consideration which has not received the attention it deserves . The inference is legitimate - it is amply supported in other ways — that the family con tinuity was regarded of the greatest importance . Iceland ers

frowned

emphatically

upon

any plan

calculated

to

,

in

,

, .

of

as

,

is

It

its

position the keystone the social structure not altogether improbable however that these rules carried thus far from the actors the tragedy were weaken

AND JUSTICE

LAW

107

partly inspired by a purpose to discourage homicides , to put a check upon violence , and to insure that in the mini mum number of instances would a killer go unwhipped by

. While the rules

justice

a

for the family ,

strong regard

to

a

certain

its

show

they likewise manifest a purpose to hold it degree of accountability for the conduct of

.

of

,

a

of

.

of

of

.

in

,

or

,

,

in

;

at

be

.

be

of

of

,

to

,

to

of

.

of

a

on

a

In

members State without real executive power this part the significance beyond mere sentimental re law takes gard for the ties responsi kindred The relaxation bility with respect the conduct members the family appears have come hand hand with the devel opment the state and the specialization function government from which distinguish modern systems good their ancient prototypes Whether this bad may any debatable rate the Icelanders whatever family cohesion and family their reason believed

excluded

,

is

,

the

from

right

receive

these is

a

in

or

to

be

.

be

inheritance Another reason may found the ordinarily fact that woman would unable en force collection take vigorous measures against the a

lege

seem

to

of

, ,

which

to

indicate that the law period when women were old perhaps dating back excluded from certain family rights and from the privi fines

fact would

was comparatively small Women

.

fine

entirely

to

,

were

,

the nearest relatives like father son gradation down until the fourth class

where the

reached

reckoning penalties there fines the largest amount be

to

or

by

payable

and brother

in

ing

to

of

.

accountability According the mode were four general classes of

inheritance detailed provisions gov property These rules are probably

of

on

the chapter

the descent

.

ern

of

In

.

offenders

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

108

much more recent origin than the provisions relating to fines in homicide cases . It is true that relatives succeeded to the property of the decedent by much the same mode of reckoning as fines were apportioned ; yet there was a difference . In the law of heirship women were capable of taking as heirs , notwithstanding a male might be living related to the decedent in the same degree as the female . The male was , of course , preferred when the relationship was the same, but the woman had rights which the law recognized . By will a daughter was sometimes treated equally with the sons in the distribution of the property . Of this we find an example in Islendinga Saga ( Story of the Icelanders ) , about 1222 , in the case

of Saemund Jons

of Oddi . Possibly the reason underlying this discrimi nation , under modern conditions without validity , lay in son

the fact that the male was supposedly better qualified to represent the family against outsiders in contests of every

sort, whether at arms or at law .

It was

also

plain

that

if

the female , the property was more liable to pass out of the family , through marriage . It seems that a member of the family , though entitled to take as an heir , might be deprived of the inheritance on account of mental incompetency . The explanation ( in the inheritance descended

Sturla

to

Saga , about 1165) is that

“

she was not deemed

have sense enough to give care to the property .” important that every precaution be taken to keep

to

It was every

in

in

be

all

kind of estate in the family . The relatives were legally bound to support an incompetent, so there was some jus tice in thus conserving her share of the estate . Marriage was , then as now , a matter which concerned the kindred , and it is emphasized in nearly northern and Icelandic history that there must substantial equal ity prestige and material circumstances between the

LAW AND JUSTICE

109

all

man and the woman about to contract a marriage . When members of different families intermarried , rights and obligations on both sides arose , because thereafter contro in

.

,

a

of

qualified

enter

to

deemed

,

man

as

young

a

of

an

.

in

versies were regarded as of common interest to mem bers Conduct might result fine which turn would obligation become remote relatives Hence relatives

mar

the to

of

—

of

It

.

in

of

,

on

;

,

,

of

to

go

in

ambassadors his behalf the rela tives the lady but they did not save rare occasions the lady herself was among the conditions the right legitimacy really inheritance children

ried state acted

,

in

of

—

of

by

.

a

,

,

of

that their mother had become engaged with the consent her relatives that adequate dower had been forthcom legal wedding had been held ing and that superior Sometimes want rank was balanced wealth and the match was deemed satisfactory such was the situation the story Gudmund the Rich about

,

,

of

a

. .

,

1187 when the match between Teit and Oddkatla was approved He came from better family but she was complete candor wealthier Except for the presence

characterized these Scandinavian matchmakers the Sagas contain numerous parallels themodern and com mon case the rich daughter and the pauper duke The chapter succession and inheritance reveals purpose against the secure the interest the family suggests survivals since the individual some respects prehistoric time when property ownership was the fam clan Relatives were given comprehensive powers supervision over the property the deceased the contrary owner disposed the rights the heirs managed that their legal rights such were endangered they could set aside the arrangement the next session the Althing Indeed the rights heirs a

as

of

of

If

.

of

,

.

of

,

at

,

,

of

,

as

to

it

it of

of

or so

.

ily

or

in

it

In

. to

on

.

of

to

,

which

fim

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

110

a

"

set

to

for

support

consideration

by

of to

his death

in

all his estate

at

a

to

If

.

,

of

a

, . or

of

They could procure judgment of fine ht against the owner asid obtain decree aside the tran set saction and have themselves declared custodians the declared property give man contracted with another the latter

went even further

,

in

could

,

if

,

life the heirs law set aside the agreement

a

or

on

kinsman was the down the

line an

of

,

to

a

man was killed his nearest heir legal plaintiff enforce redress and

so

If

.

of to

of

. as

of

.

or

,

at

some circum made without their knowledge consent The law watchfully regarded the against the right interests the family the indi vidual control property This seems lingering rudi prehistoric communism ment the former

stances

a

an

an

be

a

, ; or

,

of

a

.

as

its

to

a

as

of

.

relatives and heirs The homicide was considered offense against the family whole and consequently individually concern members and unit Origi nally the old Mosaic law eye for eye and tooth for tooth prevailed and revenge could lawfully

,

in

.

on

to

.

of

upon his relatives by the kins taken upon the offender men the victim Wise men soon discovered that this led serious difficulties for the reason that one homicide naturally brought another This resulted feuds

of

of

son

,

bastard

a

;

the same mother

a

a

;

,

, .

:

as

in

it

as

;

at

,

.

in

a

in

In

, or

of

in

of

,

to

generation which extended from generation the possi bilities which are not altogether unknown some parts popular American fiction the United States change came about and all homicides were time conformity with fixed rules and redressed the same time was laid down what persons were qualified com plainants competent the prosecution The order plaintiffs was follows son father and brother the having having deceased the same father brother

bastard brother

hay

LAW AND JUSTICE ing the same father , and

111

bastard brother having the same mother . After this order was exhausted , and if no one could qualify within the rules , the cause of action and the right to prosecute belonged to the nearest free -born relative living in the same country, capable of inheriting . It was considered a sacred duty not to permit a homi cide to pass unredressed . If relatives neglected to bring an offender to justice the obligation devolved upon society as such to see that some punishment was meted out. The a

procedure , however , differed radically from the modern procedure in criminal cases . Organized society did not prosecute the offender or set in motion the legal machin ery to bring about punishment ; on the contrary , any citi

as

in

,

,

of

of

of

-

is

It

.

.

in

it

or

,

to

by to

of

an

As

it

,

or

by

,

lic

zen , any member of society , who chose to do so , had the legal right to institute the necessary penal action . This principle of redress through any member of the State , when those who had the legal right, or owed a legal duty , had failed to act, was applied in several situations . If pub public duties such law was violated for example general law were neglected were imposed was the power machinery any individual set the motion strangers incentive action was provided that person who initiated the prosecution the plaintiff should receive one half the property the guilty pub party reasonably certain that no flagrant case

to

of

in

is

a

in

a

as

be

.

to

a

in

an

as

it

it

.

lic

Society misconduct escaped notice under this system penal thus made certain that the laws enforced was possible State without executive supply An instructive parallel this groping effort government deficiency the executive branch the through individual action found United States

at

,

is

.

in

,

in

Statute 1790 seemingly still force As well known the United States Government was not strong that

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

112

date . This act provided that any person who knew that a felony had been committed , but failed to report it, was himself guilty of a felony . The Central Government was weak and the lawmaking branch endeavored to remedy the situation by forcing the individual to carry a measure

of

personal responsibility

in connection with the enforce ment of the criminal laws . These ancient lawmakers felt that crime involves the public interest as well as the rights of individuals . Some criminal cases could not legally be settled by the individ

of

the Logretta after the proceedings had been commenced . Among these were homicides and certain offenses involving the relation of the sexes . If a plaintiff compromised a suit in this class , uals concerned

without the consent

after it had been commenced , he was liable to a fine , and any citizen had the legal right to initiate proceedings against him . They had fairly definite notions on the sub

of compromising felonies . All lawsuits were publicly heard ,

ject

and all pleadings were oral . Detailed and technical rules governed the pro

cedure , and the slightest departure was fatal to the cause . every stage and in nearly every detail of the proceed

a

homi

proclaim

It if

or

,

;

the part

of

In

.

to

witnesses and was guilty murder

of

lected this formality

of

the presence he

killing

in

the

on

required the support witnesses complainant of the and the defendant case report cide the perpetrator was required the law

,

of

ing

At

he neg

,

in

,

in

.

.

as ,

as

,

to

was the intent conceal the killing not the intent with which the act was done which stamped the offense murder As soon the relatives of the deceased heard of the homicide they immediately called five yeomen who lived nearest the place where the offense occurred and an nounced their presence before the third day after the

LAW

AND

JUSTICE

113

, what

had happened ; and they were required witnesses to the various wounds on the body of the victim . Thus we have a species of coroner 's inquest . Thereafter , the plaintiff summoned the killer , either at occurrence to call

the latter ' s home , or by a legal declaration of the crime at the session of the Althing. The indictment , or state ment of the charge against the offender, took place at the Althing by naming two , or more, witnesses thereto ; this practice suggests the modern requirement that indict

ments , or informations , shall be sworn documents . The plaintiff was required to repeat accurately a formula which may be somewhat loosely translated as follows : " I call witnesses to witness that I publicly accuse John

Doe that he assaulted A . S . and by the assault inflicted on A . S . wounds which proved fatal, at the place where A . S . was assaulted . I declare John Doe should be found guilty of this offense and condemned to become an outlaw whom no man may feed , ferry or give help . All his property I declare forfeited ; my interest I claim in his estate , or for that man who

is

prosecutor

of

the action

against

him

.

Then I claim half of what remains and the other half to the community to which the forfeited estate belongs by law . I proclaim this suit for trial in the Quarter where by

belongs ;

I proclaim

the prosecution for the summer and full A . S . Thus I proclaim accord ing to law , publicly at Logberg ." When the accused had been thus “ summoned " the plaintiff named witnesses and called upon the defendant to listen to their sworn statements and to the presentation of the facts . The plaintiff was required to take the juridi cal oath to the effect that he stated correctly the indict . law

it

forfeiture against

ment against the defendant , to say distinctly against whom he proceeded

,

on

what charge , and what penalty was de

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

114

manded . It will be observed that this oral statement ap proximates the requirements of modern law respecting the essential contents of an indictment or information , but without the prolixities of the more modern instruments . The name of the defendant and the nature of the crime charged must be unequivocally alleged .

The rule still obtains generally in the United States that the indictment, or information , is read to a defend ant, in open court , before he pleads, and a copy is de livered to him . That was precisely the old Icelandic procedure , except that no written copy of the indictment or information was delivered to the accused . The charge having been formally " read " to the de fendant , one of the witnesses summoned by the plaintiff in support of the statement of the charge was required to name publicly the witnesses and in his own statement he must use the identical language used by the plaintiff in the original summons ; then the witnesses named were re quired to manifest their assent. All must be supported by oath . This proceeding suggests the practice of endorsing

of the witnesses on the information , or indict modern criminal practice . If the enumeration as aforesaid was made without taking legal oath , the pro cedure was null and void . The next step was the delivery of the evidence . Accord . ing to old Icelandic law the means of proof were of three kinds, namely , witnesses , oath -helpers , and the verdict of the names

ment,

in

( sometimes , in small five ) from the neighborhood or of the court of twelve constituted through appointment of eleven yeomen to serve with the Godi as the twelfth member . Due to the presence and important position of the Godi , the verdict of the latter tribunal was sometimes called the " Godi the yeoman cases ,

's

court

of nine

yeomen

,

LAW AND JUSTICE

115

of

.

.

Its

's

a

in

its

verdict . ” This court dealt with a special class of cases , like witchcraft, theft , and where the injury or damage was consequential or intangible . Of these three methods , the verdict of the court of five appears to have been the one most popularly used . It is doubtful if this body and counterpart any European country function had yeomen unique This court was and deserves particular membership was recruited from the ranks attention

It

,

by

-

of

of

to

of

is

.

in

on

it

an

in

of ,

.

,

or

;

to

only those who were liable pay the the yeoman Thing tax fee were qualified Elaborate rules govern ing its procedure are found the old laws showing that important machinery cog justice was the has high authority that this body been asserted the pro totype Anglo Saxon jurisprudence having the jury English soil been transplanted the invasion of the

ex

to

it

to

all

.

end

yeo Ice

by

.

's

at

a

to

to

soon

of of

after the Commonwealth came system Sweden alone seems have developed comparable men courts that was those land land

an

in

to

.

no

,

.

is

,

Danes and the Norsemen who were kith and kin the space Icelanders There neither time nor examine this controverted question and upon the writer opinion This body ceased presses function Ice

All testimony was supported

to

to

a

a

on

a

—

of

.

a

as

A

.

of

, or

a

on

.

a

to

's of

of

of , of

of

or

of

.

or

,

,

-

,

of

.

an

oath This rule was whether the evidence was that witnesses oath helpers the verdict one the other the tribunals mentioned above After the introduction Christianity the oath was taken book cross according certain formula There was still third insuring the truthfulness testimony method sort person who pledged himself Quaker oath tell required upon the truth his honor citizen was not take either form oath The old Icelanders valued their inflexible

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

116

self-respect as highly as the welfare of their souls , or the good -will of their gods, and this peculiar type of pledge , unknown , it seems, outside of Iceland , attests the high re gard in which men held their honor. When the plaintiff , or prosecutor , had finished , the de fendant proceeded with his proof in the samemanner . He

had the choice of supporting his case by witnesses or by the verdict of yeomen . When the defense was completed the prosecutor in some cases, depending upon the nature of the defendant 's evidence , could offer additional testi mony and call new witnesses , the rebuttal of the modern system . When the proof was by verdict the parties had the opportunity to challenge the members of the body and to strike therefrom those who had been improperly ad

mitted , whereupon new yeomen were called . This pro cedure suggests the modern method of constituting the trial jury through challenges , peremptory and for cause . When the tribunal was complete it rendered judgment . Opportunity was given to renew the challenge if it ap peared that there was something questionable about the

,

which event other qualified men were drawn . When the tribunal had been properly constituted and no fáult could be legally found , the case was fully submitted . Before the judges entered upon their duties they were required to take an oath to render judgment in accordance with their understanding of the law . There upon two of the judges, one representing each side, an nounced publicly the main points in the case, one for the defendant . When these preliminaries were over, a vote was taken and the decision was announced by the spokes

men

man

If

chosen

in

of the victor .

the judges in the Quarter Court were unable to agree, the case might be transferred to the highest court

JUSTICE

AND

LAW

117

at the Althing , where the same rules concerning the oaths of the judges and the announcing of the principal points upon each side were followed substantially as below . The parties were required to eliminate by challenge twelve

-

a

,

of

six

of

,

of

,

of

.

in

,

of

in

a

, .

to

If

if

byby

six

men from the highest court , each side because judgment was invalid rendered more than thirty six challenge men either side neglected the forty eight the result was mistrial One the most famous lawsuits the Scandinavian North the trial the slay Njal Saga ers described the famous Burnt Njal

for this technical reason and resulted battle and the Althing 1012 the Supreme Court majority the Commonwealth the members sufficed

the

In

,

pre

penal

to

.

and

law

ties were recognized Sagas although the

in

, at

the punishments

Two classes according enforced

scribed

least

lot

of

in

There was not much variety during the Commonwealth

tie

there was

was reached

.

if

and

by

decision

a

of

.

in

at

a

,

certain cases

judgment

;

to

render

a

a

of

In

in

failed

bloodshed

, .

to

to

of

in

of

,

,

books mention one other homicide cases there was addition the penalty the requirement compensation the relatives the de .

ceased

of

of

of

be

by

,

-

to

of

Owing the archaic terminology and the difficulty translating certain penal terms into intelligible non tech nical English equivalents the scheme the criminal law may considering classes more easily understood

,

of

,

.

By

.

to

or ,

it

to

of

of

of ;

on

,

to

the divisions

,

than

.

penalties Convicted general according offenders fell into two classes the nature the crime and the consequent penalty namely those whom was inflicted the lesser and those who re put differently those ceived the greater penalty the lesser and those the greater guilt far the greater number belonged offenders the first group

convicts rather

' PIONEERS

118

OF FREEDOM

criminal in this class was banished from the island for three years , being required to leave within three years following his conviction — the old punishment of exile A

which was common until our jail system developed . It was his duty to request passage abroad during the first sum

.

a

to

or

,

he

a

.

If

,

, if

he

in

a

to

all

mer of at least three captains of seagoing vessels . If pecuniary fine declined passage they became liable He must proceed the same manner the following sum again mer and failed must make third attempt captain refused ship owner the third year take to

abroad the third year the owner became liable the same penalty wit the lesser outlawry During the three years grace allowed the convict might have way order find leave the country apart three homes and no two could far that he could not travel the distance one day Any one his in

of

.

arrow

's

distance

an

and the space within the

any direction therefrom were sanctuaries where lawfully violence could visited upon him He immunity joyed path between two like the road homes provided did not travel the road more than once month Sanctuary was likewise extended him the flight upon either side distance arrow the road

en

.

or

far

to

so

step

.

of

was his duty

to

the path

it

's

an

met men

he in

he

If

of

.

a

,

he

a

in

no

be

,

in

flight

of

,

homes

he

so

in

be

,

to

a

to

of

.

,

,

to

him

a

.

he

if

as

in

an

of

,

he

”

"

a

If

in

of

.

law

of

be

. he

—

he in

he

.

If

one side that could not touched with the point spear leaving the island within did not succeed three years after conviction was adjudged guilty the greater outlawry then became woodsman enjoyed the outlaw the woods he went abroad right sanctuary while he remained away After the three years other lands could return and his status then was the same he had never offended against the

JUSTICE

AND

LAW

119

, or

a

in

least not

ordinary

If,

.

terested

and with other

approval of disin

the

hand

the

offender

or

of in

,

the deceased persons

this

settled through com arrangement with the

,

the

relatives

might

bybe

fines

the form

,

, of ,

could

pensation

,

class publicly announced

on

.

of

,

notwithstanding that the deceased circumstances have been guilty no provocation Homicides

of

serious

in

particularly

,

as

regarded

at

a

or

.

of

of

.

,

,

its

of

its

The law based the penalty not merely upon the fact that an offense had been committed , but upon nature the manner commission and the circumstances thereof For example whether homicide was openly determining secretly committed was real importance guilt publicly degree reported the When the offender proclaimed that he had killed man his offense was not

not proclaim

it,

of

.

of it

, or

It

of

or

,

in

he

If

.

of of

,

passed

at

the slain

the first

unim

was commit the slayer

the second the third unless excused because the relatives man lived all these places failed

he

house

the fact

at

.

,

portant whereas the openness with which ted was all important was the duty announce

the Icelandic

the homicide was relatively

to

the motive

In

of

controlling importance

of

of

is

-

perpetrator system

.

of

;

in

,

concealed the homicide did admit the deed was considered murder and the penalty was the greater outlawry his offense was another and the really serious class crimes Here the oldest law decisively parts company with the Anglo Saxon theory murder where the motive the

.

a

in

of

,

,

would

of

be

;

he was guilty murder otherwise the act only manslaughter with the penalty fine keeping The cunning secrecy and cowardice involved the offense secret controlled the character the punish

this regard

murder

-

the same class with secret homicide

-

In

.

ment

were

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

120

,

,

other offenses involving treachery or breaches of faith such as slaying a person who had reposed confidence in the offender , the

killing of the master or mistress

by a

servant, killing of persons by burning the dwelling in which they lived , and the like . Especially is this attitude of hostility and contempt for crimes of cunning mani fested in the punishment for stealing . Stealing was consid

most contemptible and the meanest of crimes. For all of these the same penalty was prescribed , namely , ered the

.

the greater outlawry

The Icelandic word for the greater outlawry , the sec ond group of offenses mentioned above , literally trans lated , means taking to the woods. It is an expressive phrase — the modern slang expression is really forceful . The explanation lies in the fact that one guilty and sen outlawry had to leave the settle , refuge ment and find if at all , in the woods or in the wilderness . An outlaw of this class could not be fed , ferried or given aid or shelter of any sort . He was liter ally an outlaw , liable to be killed by any person , anywhere and at any time. Outlawry was, in most cases , for life, notwithstanding the assertion in one of the Sagas that the sentence of outlawry was for twenty years . There is noth ing in the law itself to indicate that the sentence might be for a period less than life . tenced to the greater

If

the outlaw

,

or woodsman , in spite

of all precautions

foreign

,

country

anyone

of

his

that might be taken against his leaving the island , escaped countrymen

of

,

;

's

a

,

,

in

,

by

of

in

at

or

ing

in

a

.

on

slay

a

legal right

him

a

to

had the part sight Indeed the sen prize upon the outlaw tence was head the prize offered was larger the cases men outlawed for homi Althing cides committed the for killing men burn their homes houses for murder and for to

AND JUSTICE

LAW

121

homicide committed by a slave upon his master . In none of these cases was there any hope for a pardon . Persons in the first group of offenders — those guilty of the lesser outlawry - could earn a pardon by killing one guilty of the greater outlawry , by making their peace with interested parties , or through a remission of the pen alty at the Logretta . This body , however , never pardoned over objection from any source . The commu sentence was usually limited ; it would there permissible after be to ferry the convict across rivers, or might certain places be designated as sanctuaries within which he could remain immune from attack . Full pardons an offender

of the

tation

,

all

were seldom granted . The greater outlawry was the severest punishment known to the law . It was, indeed , a sorry plight in which the person so sentenced found himself . His situation be came that of a wild beast with a bounty upon his head . He was more than a pariah ; he was beyond the pale of rights the law , outside all social relations , deprived of

, of a

;

.

to

a

or

of

a

to

in

of

.

it ; no

to

an

inducement offered every citizen run him down and kill him Noman could give him succor mat privation he might be ter what extreme was penal offense offer him drink water crust literally consigned bread The outlaw was the forests and with

of

.

a

be

to

. If

to

he

,

to

pro the mountains and the caves life was multiply longed was forced his crimes He became

to

in

,

re

as

,

or

a

,

.

of

in

ted

of

so

of to . a

of

,

a

,

be

of

a

,

thief robber and murderer all because the great instinct self preservation The committing these might contrary crimes his nature for often man who was adjudged guilty crime serious quire the imposition the extreme penalty had commit overpowering circumstances the offense the momentary impulses stress and storm

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

122

The outlaw himself might, ordinarily , be moved by generous and noble sentiments , and yet find himself in a situation which imposed on him the necessity to commit atrocious crimes , grossly repugnant to the essentials of

his character . No better illustration of criminal error in dealing with crime can be imagined . Here there was

clearly no desire to reform the guilty ; on the contrary , the inevitable consequence of punishment was greater de pravity and more crime on the part of the offender . If he succeeded in eluding the prize hunters , the degradation of the guilty plumbed the depths and his position on the planet was precisely that of the most ferocious of brutes . That a people who manifested positive genius in other

of the law , in poetry , and in letters , foster crime, is nothing less than astounding .

branches

should

thus

divesting the offender below the his property was confiscated level of a wild beast ; Confiscation followed conviction the lesser outlawry

The

law was not satisfied with

of all the rights of

citizen

and reducing him

of

.

all

a

as well

in

—

,

A

at its

in

in

in

.

of

of

.

of It

of

.

to

—

or

.

,

It

was not however confiscation the common ordinary sense court was convened the Feransdom execute this part the judgment met fourteen days from the conclusion the session the Althing guilt had been pronounced which the sentence The accord Godi appointed twelve men for this tribunal the case which ance with the request of the plaintiffs

all

a

,

of

.

The court announced the offender had been convicted judgment near the home the outlaw where there was neither field nor meadow and within the sanctuary of

to

his

in

of

.

be

.

to

-

shot

to

There were required convene who prop creditors the outlaw and there claimed just proportion erty was partitioned among them their claims against him This was really public adminis

bow

The Outlaws – After Sculpture by Einar Jonsson

LAW

JUSTICE

AND

123

tration of the estate of a citizen who was civilly dead . If anything was left after creditors had been paid and the Godi had received his fee , it was divided equally among themen of the Quarter (the public ) and the plaintiff .

It is

indubitably

imposed

often

ment,

true that

horrible sentence was not

this

. The more usual procedure was

settle

a

either through the good offices of neighbors , or on the suggestion of those entitled to the prosecution . In such an event compensation was made , forgiveness was

of

in

no

,

to

or no

in

It

is

. of

.

to

aid

sought, followed by a formal announcement that satisfac tory settlement had been reached , all in accordance with a technical formula prescribed for such cases . The for mula for settlements is very unique ; it is extremely old and has been reduced to a rhythmic meter as an the memory not remarkable that some parts old Icelandic rhyme The common law should have been preserved way man had find the law save the storehouse

no

he

,

no

of

,

. a

,

a

.

,

helpful mnemonic device No liar not strong memory was ever permanently suc lawyer Iceland ever rose the higher levels

mic meter was gifted with

or

,

no

's

;

his own another mind there were books there lawyers whom were written records there were rhyth could consult Consequently rhyme some sort

to

,

a

.

I

of

legal formula man forgot some part might disaster follow Where formalism

, If a

both fields

successful gentlemen

in

the only characteristic common

to

.

I

of

a

in

of

did

in

;

cessful legal excellence whose mind not retain rules and principles grip steel trust that have now stated

is

.

preserved

to

to

.

;

.

of

a

,

a

even word keep out was fetish men had have good memories trouble These Scandinavians had retentive minds that much clear from the poetry which has been faithfully

PIONEERS

124

One law

of

OF FREEDOM

the conspicuous

characteristics of the written

of Iceland during the Commonwealth is the precision

and clearness with which it is recorded . Expressions are seldom equivocal or obscure ; the sentences are short and simply constructed . These laws , as they have been preserved , are in striking contrast with the tautologous , ambiguous and often unintelligible language of modern gives statutes . Whereas today the legislature frequently phrases us the law full of words and of uncertain and in

is

a

in

of

.

is

in

,

its

definite meaning , the Icelandic law left little in doubt. Where the language is such that a question could possibly meaning the doubtful expression arise as to care fully defined There nothing comparable this old law ludicrous absurdity with the language recent American statute providing that when two trains ap an

of

,

,

as

,

to

or

,

,

at

an

proach intersection the same time each shall stop until the other has crossed with the provisions English act which gave half the penalty the informer transportation penalty but fixed the sole for fifteen

.

years

,

of

or

ex

.

in

,

or

.

.

in

,

The law also bears strong evidence of statesmanlike foresight most particulars All conceivable situations anticipated were and dealt with accordingly Not only principles does the law cover the main essential but ceptions and qualifications appear minute detail They almost literally provide for every imaginable emergency

.

contemporary systems

,

is

, In

in

,

,

its

of

of

in

in

,

a

on

,

it

of

,

of

.

,

of

.

variation circumstances The law from the period the Commonwealth among the fairest fruits of this old civilization com prehensiveness purpose clarity expression the justness its principles and the soundness clas par with the best and above most sification ranks

CHAPTER VI

IT

The Pagan

System

not until near the close of the eighth century that the inhabitants of the Scandinavian North appear is

upon

the scene

of

recorded

history . Thanks

to

the

brilliant work of the Scandinavian school of archeology - in the field of archeology the Scandinavians occupy a position of distinct leadership — we have , to some extent, been able to reconstruct the life of the people back to the beginning of the Bronze Age . Artifacts , fossil re mains ,

brooches , medallions ,

and

ornamentation

in

bronze , silver and gold , rivaling the most artistic cre ations of ancient Greece and Rome , point to the existence of a high degree of civilization in Scandinavia . For untold ages the people seem to have lived apart

from other nations and the material available is so frag mentary that the truly conservative historian , who re fuses to write human history in the unsatisfying and deceptive vocabulary of hypothesis and assumption , finds little beyond the testimony of archeology on which he feels he may confidently stand . About the opening of the

ninth century , however , they suddenly burst upon the stage . “ From her frozen loins ” the North poured forth

warlike people , as Milton puts it, “ a deluge on the South outh - god- like shapes and forms," as if some mighty goo convulsion had had released forces long imprisoned . Upon relea , " overflowed all countries far away,” Europe they came verflow danger like avenging furies , indifferent to land alike

sunshine 125

and

on

storm

.

careless

of

,

and sea

of

all

.

-

a

From

TYPE

SE

OF SWORD

FROM

THE

SAGA

AGE

ABS

126

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

THE PAGAN SYSTEM

127

this time forward we find the Scandinavians in every part and port of Europe having commerce and social relations with the peoples of the continent and interven ing islands . During the next two hundred years , from

A . D ., we have what historians are describe as the Viking Age . To this period origins the civilization of the North traces striking The most characteristics of the Scandinavians the Viking Age were unbounded energy like the rest youth less and untiring activity the resistless desire

to about 1000

800

to

.

,

that fame which broke and the spring

,

the breezes upon uncharted

of

.

of

they fared forth

win the

ice

and the resolution

not end with life As soon rigors winter were softened

to

accomplish

does

by as

to

of

,

of

its

accustomed

to

,

,

;

.

in

;

;

of

.

,

, ,

to

.

,

to

of

in

rude crafts seas and laid their course through the immense wastes unknown They steered towards the east waters and south Friesland France and Flanders and they veered westward towards England Scotland Ireland and the adjacent islands The Vikings approached the land that seemed most booty attractive and which held the greatest promise they burned property and they robbed and they killed spread destruction and terror generally their wake

of .

of .

.

in

of

all

of

to

of

to

.

to

Resistance meant death the men and slavery for power women and children No could withstand the intrepid invaders who were strangers alike fear and respect for the rights property and life Glory and the acquisition wealth were that mattered They played with life and they were contemptuous death The spirit the Vikings still ruled the bosom he

King Magnus the Barefoot when he answered his friends

.”

in

is

a

"

:

tle

exposed himself carelessly who protested that bat king kept rather than for long life For glory

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

128

When

Vikings had satisfied

the

their ambition

for

, when fall came and the forerunners of winter appeared , when increasingly agitated waves gave promise of the agonizing winter storms , they pointed their ves glory

towards home. Their breasts were agreeably stirred as the angry sea heaved and foamed , and powerful winds shook the vessel and strained the ropes . For them there was no danger on land ; no fear of death at sea . They sels

; to do battle with a human enemy , or with , natural forces was like wine that brought delicious in loved

struggle

toxication

to

the soul.

Arriving at home they unloaded , triumphantly exhibit ing cloths and carpets of marvelous beauty , jewels and

precious articles , the booty from

.

convents

seized from churches and They decked themselves in silks and robes

scarlet , adorned with priceless gems. Rings of purest gold upon their fingers, broad bands of gold on their arms, these conquering freebooters preened them selves before admiring women and envious youths . They

of richest

possessed

in

a

high

degree

that which

Solomon

said

is

the essential quality of all earthly things . On arriving home they prepared to spend the winter in - feasting and entertainment . They visited friends and organized feasts among their associates in piracy . When the fires glowed on the great hearths in the twilight and

of foaming mead and bubbling wines passed group to group , the rafters rang with laughter and hilarity while the heroes told of battles and feats of strength and courage witnessed during the expedition , poets composed and recited epics commemorating and great deeds . It is doubtless true, in the main , that the poetry and the horns

from

the Sagas from

the Scandinavian North owe their origin

THE PAGAN SYSTEM

129

the Viking Age . The period usually calls up a picture , largely inaccurate , of a race who fought and killed from avarice , or from pure lust for blood ; of men who would jugulate an enemy as cheerfully as they would jest with taught to see a crimson hue a friend . We have been tinging everything they touched . The facts and the ap pearances are against them , when superficially viewed ; to

,

to

a

,

of

so

,

in

,

as

.

,

fear marked

a

or

the emergence During these stormy new life and new civilization years the people for the first time history far knows came real contact with the refining influences remorse

engender

,

at

.

By

a

of

.

sea

wherever they set foot on land a trail of blood led hither and yon , and the glow of burning structures cast a somber and melancholy light upon the water as they steered from the scene of plunder into the open glori period And yet the age was not exclusively strange paradox this era fied robbery and murder noonday powerless alike inspire when death walked

in

in

;

.

.

as

;

.

of

,

of

.

,

as ,

to

some time later unite that which passes European civilization From these associa easily demon tions they learned many things some clearly doubtful value strated and others They were more than plunderers they were merchants well They traded with the people the intervals foraging expeditions They between were not just blood thirsty creatures seeking whom they could devour their which were

currently

, it

.

so

do

to

,

,

,

leaders the men who set the standards possessed ethical ideals from which they never deviated even when Courage and magnanimity seemed expedient

.

of

,

,

it

, at

is

It

in

of

loyalty and generosity were the essential commandments the moral philosophy the age true that first blush seems the Vikings were selfish and avaricious men subordinating the instincts

130

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

TYPES OF SPEAR A spear, a barbed spear , and a " pole staff , ” or heavy missile .

THE PAGAN SYSTEM

131

for fame or gain ; yet the real acquisition truth is that the of wealth was never the primary motive . Material wealth was to them a means to another and a much more important end , namely : the winning of followers and friends and living upon a humanity

the desire

to

glorious scale . They were not niggardly ; they were care less of expenditures ; they desired riches merely because it was, in their judgment and within their observation

,

experience

gaining prestige

the most certain and direct means of they lived . in the community in which

When

by the scalpel

and

dissected

that the motive

of philosophy it may be than that of the

no more beautiful

is

miser whose hoarding is an end in itself ; and yet can we detect in the fruits of successful Viking avarice something akin to the public spirited acquisitiveness that establishes peace with conscience by founding public libraries , with

of the generous donor conspicuously embla over the entrance ? Those years in the history of a nation which are described as epochal because they possess certain charac the name

zoned

.

to

,

,

,

,

ex

of

,

in

of

of

of

is

by

in

;

to

be

is

,

traced

of

it

in

some one particular source yet the history true that this period the main the Scandinavian North best explained the prin early Scandinavia mythology ciples the and necessarily that philosophy inhered life which

,

Viking Age must

to

?

this strange tree which bore such remarkable fruit say would bold possibly inaccurate that the be

It

to

do

,

old

teristics distinguishing them from other periods , always have some logical connection with or are the natural result of earlier conditions . This is true of the Viking Age . It was the necessary outgrowth of antecedents The question arises why the Viking Age and what the roots extend which furnished nourishment causes

132

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

traordinary

system

that no adequate

of worship . At any rate , it is certain or even approximately accurate under

standing of the time, and of the people who gave it char acter , can be reached without a correct interpretation of the essential elements of pagan worship .

, ,

.

in

at

,

it

,

an

,

would create

or

without rhyme on

,

elaborate sys reason and then build upon and their hopes after death with

and perception

telligence tem

to

is

no

,

,

or

is

ion

One of the principal sources of the mythology of Scandinavia is the Eddic poetry . The structure of pa ganism described therein — where we can be reasonably certain that we have the true as contrasted with the modified (under Christian influence ) mythology - is in many respects , so utterly fantastic as to justify the opin that the whole arrant nonsense without meaning Upon reflection significance recognizable purpose likely change however the student his mind and people gifted with conclude that least normal

,

,

.

of

;

,

in

of

,

their lives earth the full and unwavering confidence the most devout Christian philosopher Savages the lowest stages of culture have never done such things and no people who have made some intellectual and moral progress

. its

as

.

a

,

it,

,

,

or

it,

,

in

of

,

is

It

be

guilty would such inane and purposeless endeavor reasonably certain therefore that the Scandinavian system belief has rather underlying foundation ideas which have real ethical significance correctly analyzed when

's

In

,

lasting

glory

.

win

, ,

,

,

achieve and

to

the capacity

to

:

,

of

all

of

.

's

of

in

,

The Asas and belief them constituted the main structure the Viking faith the Scandinavian spiritual values the Asas were the embodiments scale qualities the which were esteemed above others namely courage fortitude intelligence magnanimity This

THE PAGAN SYSTEM

133

, like some other ancient religious régimes , notably that of Persia , is built upon the central principle that

system

of

a

a

to

of

a

of

,

,

is ,

.

of

It ,

.

of

,

in

is

It

ill .

there is an everlasting conflict in the world between light and darkness , heat and cold , good and was funda mental concept the North that ours world strife endless war between antagonistic ideals This world struggle however does not date back the origin disturbing all things rather the result

to

of

.

is

be

,

in

the original concord which existed the world and the condition which must fulfilled before the struggle can end that the pristine harmony shall be restored The Asas were believed be the upholders and defenders is

is

is

.

all

rogue the dispenser

if

slander

.

,

.

,

of

of

scion

the

into

the Edda giants and was therefore the ancient aristocracy sin

the race

of

right divine

to

Loki belonged a

by

,

according

to

the

among gods and men

Loki

taking

,

sly

,

their confidence

the conflict

of

of

There never would have

been any doubt about the outcome gods had not made the fatal blunder

of

the giants

.

banes personified

in

he

of

of

,

.

,

It

in

the good and noble the struggle against that which was mean contemptible and evil this fact which explains the constant warfare between them and the giants the latter being the incarnation evil and the fountainhead depravity Thor never completely happy save brandishing when his great hammer against the

,

no

of

,

,

,

-

in

.

of

"

sin

,

,

of

,

at

“

,

a

Through this mistake the gods established certain inter course with the giants and their shifty crew which brought into the world and all our woe and proved last the moving cause their downfall Perhaps this portion mythology Northern whose age man can tell proves that after all the forbears these blonde Nordics were merely mid Victorians who would not seem the least anachronistic when viewed against the back

OF FREEDOM

28

--

FROM

THE

SAGA

AGE

/

AXE

PIONEERS

OF TYPES

134

auli

THE PAGAN

SYSTEM

135

ground of the " mauve decades ," for did they not build a philosophy on the despised — by the smart and modern sophisticates - copy book maxim that one bad apple is a bad influence for the barrel ? The implication clearly is that there can be no traffic , no compromise with evil , a proposition which must seem amusing in a country gravely

the income from

tax from lawbreakers their illegal business

collects

based

of

no

.

a

,

that upon

its

certain

Scandinavians believed that there was choice there must be ceaseless conflict without retreat compromise the bitter end There could bar gaining ground Asgard genius middle This evil Loki became important personage the indispensable no

be

—

,

of

.

.

,

an

,

no

,

to

or

;

,

courses

of

of

.

, It

of

a

,

of

.

,

in

-

of

paganism Judas and set motion forces which ulti mately destroyed and through destruction and death re generated the world This scheme faith like another greater productive system and found useful and beneficent results the detested qualities avarice and treachery was through his contriving and his perfidy

of

:

in

.

to

no

,

, . ”

of

It

"

.

,

that Baldur the most beautiful and beloved the gods was foully killed Of this tragic incident the Edda says was the greatest misfortune that ever happened among gods and men Loki flows From the influence hypocrisy and evil deception ever widening streams longer able stem the tide until the gods are

of is

to

,

,

on

of

.

of

in

, . in

.

of

the story

!

decisive

in

in

is

a

battle between good and evi Ragnarok This described the focal point mythology Northern On the side Odin and the Asas fought all men who life had exhibited forti battle and who had come tude and high courage the end their days with reputations untarnished On The idea

—

,

.

,

,

the other side and with the forces evil the con trary fought all bad men Thus the battle rages good

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

136

in

on

,

; , is

all

.

,

in

,

of

of

of

,

by

.

at

, ill

Armageddon The good personified and meet Odin the leader supported the Asas and the men courage and noble qualities from earth the other side under the leadership Loki and evil personified the giants are assembled and deployed the ignoble great influences that men despise The wolf Fenris breaks

.

;

,

,

his bonds and walks free with gaping jaws the upper jaw touching the heavens and the lower the earth emit ting fire from eyes and nostrils and the Midgard serpent spews poison through the universe The monsters range

;

In

in

,

to

,

in

of

.

in

of

of .

themselves with Loki the ensuing conflict the heavens Muspell come forth Surtr rides split and the sons surging flames the midst gods The and the nobility earth who had died honorably battle march forth meet these armies

;

;

;

.

;

mortal combat Odin engages the wolf Fenris Thor attacks the Midgard serpent Freyr tries conclusions with Surtr Tyr fights the dog Garmr and Heimdall chooses is

,

in

.

of

by

,

.

,

,

,

.

is

Loki himself The outcome that the wolf swallows Odin but Vidar the silent Asa kills the wolf Thor victorious over the Midgard serpent but dies the wel poison emitted ter the monster Freyr kills Surtr do

,

all

he

.

the world

as

Tyr and Garmr both die also Loki and Heimdall Before dies Surtr scatters fire over and

while

.

is

consumed Then earth reappears from

,

.

a

.

of

made through

noble sacrifice was the world from

of

ill

of

good and the forces which the redemption bondage the evil was effectuated

tween

In

;

a

of

.

behold and

.

; to

the sea green and beauti Fields and meadows become fertile without seed new race human beings repopulates the globe Then follows the golden age the ancient harmony and balance have been reestablished the battle be

ful

THE PAGAN SYSTEM The system thus broadly that a sacrifice was essential

sketched in

137

shows

feeling

a

order to reestablish

the its

or

,

a

,

.

in

ill

ascendance of good over the world Finally there appears vague idea which may may not owe a

“

.

a

a

of

of

of

.

it

to

is

analyze this mythological system without the conviction that has many noble qualities Here was much material out which the spirit man could build solid foundations for life manliness and strength Faith and life philosophy must ultimately find

It

impossible

.”

,

to

:

he it

.

by

-

,

to

is

Supreme Christian influences that there Being whom even the Vala prophetess dares not mention name As the Vala puts Then comes the powerful judgment from above who rules over all origin

. if

and

of

in

.

is

of

of

,

to

condition

to

,

evil partly nullify the influence resulted that men were

of

this

, of

;

.

in

a

whose purpose was

forces darkness fundamental principle

,

rather than mere dependents the Asas the struggle of the latter against the personi

,

, in

partners A

some extent the destinies

it

from

associates

of

good

;

of

,

supernatural

fied

and

Life was beset with myriad creatures

of

.

nature

,

forces men

was entitled their protec The Asas controlled the seasons the

the gods

.

tion

of

and guidance

to

offshoot

,

human

, . of

,

of

it

It

,

,

of

.

a

belief built

of

faith

on

truth

a

;

basis

in

be

a

life must meet and blend enduring principles That the Scandinavians had distinct philosophy life the most casual student will not deny The attractiveness that philosophy when viewed the light modern standards another matter was believed that Odin and his brothers created Midgard Men were mankind and gave home course descendants the Asas but more important than genealogy the was the fact that throughout life the common

there

this pagan system

was the

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

138

exact antithesis of that which replaced it . It was not grounded on the doctrine of submission , humility and peace , but on resistance, haughtiness and strife . From the duty to put down

evil there was no escape with un men who fell on the field of battle in

sullied honor. All good repute were assured

; they became honorable recruits in the ranks of those who , when the last battle came, would fight on the side of the Asas , and , if need be, die with them . Possibly , for this reason , no death was more desirable than that by the sword , and no end more unbecoming a strong and coura

of an abode with the

gods

geous man than that from disease or old age. Indeed commonplace it was believed that he who died from disease

could not receive

a

place

in

the company

,

of the

. It was not uncommon for men deliberately to court death on the battlefield ; and a man of spirit and of true courage faced wounds and death itself without

mighty

Alinching .

One of the most illuminating

characteristics

of the

was the conception of life after death . It was believed that the translated warriors went forth in the morning , fought all day and at eventide those who had fallen were restored to celestial life . The future life to they thought them was a continuation of that of which most on earth , but it was more than mere aimless and system

fighting . They were training for the gigantic , struggle Ragnarok , when , from the universal death , there should come a universal regeneration . Even death useless

could bring no release

the duty to struggle against evil. That which seems a cruel and bloody proof reality powerful faith is in that these rough men vigor hated evil with a which death itself could not still . from

superficially

THE PAGAN SYSTEM

139

They visualized heaven as a place where the highest privilege was to continue the battle . It is possible that there may be an even deeper ex planation of the belief concerning the future life . Those who achieved Valhalla , the hall of heroes, due to courage

life and death in battle , could look forward to the glorious finale when they should take part with the gods in the universal conflict . It was , accordingly , considered a duty of man to do everything possible to increase the in

,

a place in Odin ' s godly against to the ranks evil . This sort of life philosophy necessarily exercised a pow erful influence upon the conduct of a serious -minded people ; but it was not calculated to make adherents peaceful discourage them from engaging bloody

army

of

those who qualified

having

hall , were

achieved

in

to

, or

its

join

to

dedicate

Odin

an

remain

to

of

.

in

to

a

of

in

, .

to

of or

a

on

by

by

.

to

a

; it

of

no

a

of

A

.

should

,

to

who

,

direct the eagle was cut upon slain Valhalla and sometimes prisoner the back war who was thus given Odin battle was mere struggle for the sake victory large immediate was sacrificial rite scale The gods were worshiped and them was ren killing and being killed dered esteem and adoration Viking priest high The considered himself the heathen worship He fought until death came himself his enemies the service the mighty Odin and the dead

the field

to

,

to

battle on

before

a

,

It

.

and fatal strife was customary

,

,

, is

of

.

,

to

of

a

. all

,

,

;

of at

a

of in

the faith which was real and impelling influence and before him times was the vision Ragnarok the last battle all melancholy hue over the This somber belief cast bloody and conduct the Vikings Much that which the pacific Christian utterly intolerable becomes un

his life

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

140

in

a

of

.

of

a

,

of

.

of

to

as

a

,

of

all

derstandable in the light of the ideal in the background . With the zealous abandon Christian martyr the Viking was ever ready offer himself sacrifice conformity with the fundamentals his faith For this reason the main purpose existence was strife and part and parcel of the act battle itself becomes really worship Such was the cornerstone life and faith

of

.

,

in

the period and the conduct the Vikings was essen tially consistent with the central principle The relationship between the worshipers and the Asas is

.

,

a

In

, .

in

of

,

as

,

,

in

as

,

in

,

In

. a

of

in

of is

a

.

,

so

called felt towards the Asas maintained resolutely There not present touch that humility and supine ized the attitude the peoples

,

well

duty

but these wor fear the conventional sense this respect others they strict personal independence the mythology the North

no

shipers

a

a

certain adoration and considered expedient respect and worship them

true offered the

; it

is

The Scandinavians

to

as

gods

,

.

with mankind

it

to

of

;

of

.

,

in

of

as

in

of

in

of

the mythology the world The reason found the dual character the gods sense they supernatural creatures universal rulers were regarded guardians and the responsible all good and noble things On the other hand they were not clothed perfection and immortality they were the garments subject the laws chance and death common is

unique

.

in

of

of

,

at

of

,

of

is

;

of

character most oriental coun tries nor there discernible from the evidence hand inferiority and weakness the sense which we are studying the system ever conscious ancient Greece fear which

,

of

or

,

of

;

of

.

in

of

The reason for this essential difference between the mythology the North and the East Greece lies the fact that the Scandinavians regarded them selves associates their gods the latter needed their

THE PAGAN SYSTEM all

.

,

courageous and Ragnarok To

a

assistance as they needed the help of capable men the universal contest in

141

the worshipers deemed themselves the their gods when they worshiped and offered they often demanded and usually expected sacrifices quid pro quo Of course they did not always ask for feeling demand return however this was due not humility but the contrary sprang from sense extent

as

,

the

.

,

of ;

,

to

,

, of

The feeling individual worth

personal independence

, of

as

to

.

abject petitioner Indi regarded the offerings

viduals according the Sagas friendly acts and again men are referred loving friends the Asas

so

of

a

, an

ally

of

the role

and hence scorned

consciousness that the one the gods themselves

of

a

independence

the oblation was

a

to

,

on

;

,

, of an

,

of

offering

,

.

a

,

of

pride

or

a

,

;

of

certain equals

so

,

dominated

,

the sense powerful among the Vikings was their feelings and sentiments that they be to

of

a

of

of

,

as

of

to

is

;

.

in

to

, ,

if

to

of

.

,

it

were not satisfied with anything less than competition may upon equal terms with their deities Truly said high according they them that set their ideals their lights and they did not hitch their chariots the keep abreast stars they sought the beings which they themselves considered the noblest and the most exalted the universe The practical consequences can unequivocally not be commended today yet faith which directly calculated develop some the more spec courage and independence tacular virtues such mind

find

no

and trimmers could

a

is

; , it

, it

sycophants

a

is

It

.

of

,

-

a

.

in

great hordes comfort

,

,

It

in

and conduct those who embrace not devoid namby pamby religion merit was not was reli gion which weaklings cowards hypocrites and all the

truism

that every nation and every age has its

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

142

of

of

of

.

of

to

of

its

own peculiar standards and that ethical ideals are definitely related the character and beliefs the people and the spirit the time The ethical motives the Viking Age are the direct outgrowth the relation

the

.

to

,

ship between the people and the Asas and the indi vidualistic philosophy which reference has been made

of or

be

of

times cannot understood cor without accurate understanding the popular faith certainly not when the reaction belief striking conduct was among the Scandi dignity navians There reserve and courage about the moral ideas period this There present also severe melancholy which imparts somber The mores

of

a

.

is

,

, of

it

of

air

of as

as

an

.

is

on

of

appraised

is ,

rectly

,

to

of

, it

to

on

,

of

to

a

in

is

It

.

as

it

,

to

countenance the whole and makes difficult for the wholly speak most unrestrained enthusiast possible beautiful the other hand discover humility and meekness two certain attractiveness qualities entirely alien the Icelanders the pagan

.

world

perior

a

to

to

or

,

of

.

It of

to

recourse

was unbecoming of

.

to

in

a

,

forces

not think

of It

which honorable men humble the spirit the presence the irresistible demands fate attempt avert the effect its decrees was more appropriate that the individual look all forms danger could

was

of

,

be

,

To

.

.

of

,

.

in

of

as

to

.

in

The first and foremost commandments the creed of the nation were courage and fortitude These qualities were deemed essential that vigorous and virile partici pation every man prep life which was the duty aration for the universal conflict after death To meet what befell without fear and without complaining was the best evidence the invincible spirit Cowardice and timidity were sins without forgiveness yield sur might notwithstanding render the contest with su

THE PAGAN SYSTEM without flinching ,

143

defy the gods them . selves . To bear and meet all with steadfast self genuine manhood control that was the hall mark Judge Lindsey with unheroic appeal surrender dominating position reasoning mind the the rule the baser impulses and the lower passions would have been heard with contempt by these stern apostles to

to

.

of

,

to

,

of no

.

,

by

anything

or

;

powering

of

was evidence weakness matter how over despair real man never showed fear no

self

over impressed

It

dominion

appear

a

of

of

,

of his -

,

to

all

even

a

the face

in

in

,

of

.

in

to

or

,

or

.

in

Nothing matter what the circumstances the story Sparta legendary superb indif historical excels pain danger the commonplace incidents ference life the Viking Age The feelings were always con conjecture they

did

in

the

joy and

not concern

the

un

of

To

.

of

in

be

relations with friends and

his

in

.

in

,

to

,

honest

to

of

a

no

to

In

up

them

.

the world could have share circumstances would man who strove live the ideals the times and the demands the age take advantage his kind attack another armed harm the weak and helpless were acts con temptible intellectually the last degree Man must in

world and

no

;

hope were personal matters

Sorrow

,

,

or

surmise

to

heart was left

and what was passing

.

and under control

cealed

dealing

with

,

of

us

.

,

,

no

.

or

a

;

enemies and never must confidence be violated whether with friend foe Once the pledge honor had going given Sagas been there was back The tell about incidents where enemies fought lost their weap

.

until one was down

"

:

he

.

,

in

if

,

,

in

,

.

I

;

I

awaited death while the many course not

There being

the victor Get calmly And other reclaimed his weapon Of most such instances when the

sword near the loser would say shall remain where

thy sword

am to ”

and then grappled

,

no

,

ons

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

144 vanquished

foe was

man of honor and prowess , the vic his sword and still finding an

a

him

his

tor, after recovering

,

,

to

counter

turn the other cheek

A

There was here

.

peace

to

of

the gospel

no be

,

-

the beneficiary

.

of

.

,

by

of

rewarded

part

, it be

It

to

a

.

,

tagonist waiting offered life with the result that lasting friendship followed was belittling not take revenge for every offense supposed because the one offended might lack courage and spirit On the contrary was assumed that every favor every act liberally good will must

.

,

,

of

In

;

,

"

,

:

,

.

a

;

of

.

in

of

,

of

-

at

of

.

be

of

greater contrast than appears between the cardinal points the old and new faith can scarcely conceived The central idea old Icelandic philosophy was the prin ciple that self respect must be maintained all costs This was the highest law the Alpha and Omega the rule life and conduct ancient Scandinavia The value good reputation was inestimable all else was evan escence and inutility one the old poems Havamal loosely translated we find this sentiment expressed Stock perishes relatives die man himself also dies but

,

;

voyage

fishing

sea

those who intended expedition

to to

.

in

to

wave and

;

,

wind

by

ruled

be made a

should

on

a

sacrifices on

go

him

Njordr who or

was

there

;

.

of .

in

.

.

,

of

.

of

."

good fame once obtained never dies The Asas governed the world and controlled the forces nature All men must obey the physical laws hence they sometimes needed the help the gods and sought through their favor sacrifices Odin was the most power things governed ful He all and his favorites were all power those brave men who fell battle Next him gods and men was Thor He was the strongest Then

Freyr and

;

.

Freyja were his children Freyr was accounted the noblest the gods he was master of sunshine and rain and of

of

THE PAGAN SYSTEM ' s productivity . To

145

was deemed expedient to bring sacrifices. Offerings to his sister were thought advisable in matters of love . Tyr was the boldest and the earth

bravest and to

of the Asas ; he

him

him

it

governed the destinies of battles ;

sacrifices were made by men before battles ,

These were most popular, the , handsomest and the most regularly worshiped of the deities . Originally Odin was first in public esteem . To him appeals were made for success in war because he had

or warlike expeditions .

over the dead on the battlefield . In very early times it seems that human offerings were made supreme authority

to him , particularly at certain annual sacrifices , in parts of Norway . But as the Viking Age advanced he lost standing with the people . Gradually Odin fades into the background

and

at last almost disappears as

an

actor

reappears , however , in another the role of Mars . character , namely ; as the god of poetry and the Runes . He knew all Runes and remained supreme over the secret in

He

He

and hidden forces of nature . seems to have become god of magic and an instructor in occult things . With

a

change Odin became more and more indistinct to spiritual the vision of the average man , a mythical being of whom men stood in awe somewhat akin to fear . As the worship of Odin declined that of Thor ad vanced ; the latter was closer to human life because he was more typical of the real nature of the Vikings . His main function , in the scheme of worship , was to crack the heads of the evil giants with his powerful this

. That was a duty easily understood , and , when avidly performed , it appealed to the bellicose instincts of that stirring age . Thor, in time, became the most popular of the gods ; the symbol of his mighty hammer was often hammer

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

146

a chain about the neck as a talisman . His popularity enormous is abundantly attested by the fact appears that his name in countless combinations of proper names . It was believed that a child on whom such

carried

on

name was bestowed would be a special favorite of the celestial chieftain . In extenuation let it be remembered that there was not a quadrennial presidential contest to furnish peripatetic heroes whose names could be inflicted

a

on helpless babes who had the misfortune

to be born They a . did the next best they knew , god for was not Thor the of thunder , of noise ? Scandinavian and oriental paganism have few things in common ; and in certain essentials are wholly dissimi

during

campaign

lar. The religions of Egypt as

of

and Assyria may be dismissed fundamentally different from those of the north Europe as to make comparison unprofitable . It is true , so

the people of Egypt recognized a future state of rewards and punishments , according to the deeds in the body , but polytheism and priestcraft soon degraded and de moralized the whole . The Egyptians were devout ; but they were superstitious and became the easy prey of corrupt and selfish priests . Believing in a future state ,

where expert bookkeepers kept all accounts , they were a peaceful and comparatively moral nation . Their religious system had the revolting features of the transmigration of souls and of animal worship . Certain deities took the

carnate form of an animal and so remained until the creature died . A conspicuous illustration is the so -called Apis Bull which held sway in a line of succession at Mem phis , or Osiris . These animals were constantly wor shiped by thousands , perhaps hundreds of thousands , during their lives and after death were deposited amidst

THE PAGAN SYSTEM

147

great ceremony and mourning in the monumental sar cophagi of Egypt . Among the Assyrians , Babylonians and Phænicians there was likewise a polytheistic system , although less complicated than that of Egypt. Approximately a score

deities are mentioned in the records of each nation , representing the sun , the stars and the moon as well as various others powers which were the repositories of the authority and oversight of the world . They received their commission from a mysterious Supreme Being . Some dwelled in heaven , some on earth , and some under the sea . It is supposed that originally the belief was monotheistic , but as time passed it was corrupted by superstitious no tions . The one god was lost and a large number of lesser

of

figures

took

his place . Here , as elsewhere , under poly

idolatry was the natural consequence . At first the images were symbols merely , but later they were wor shiped as the actual embodiment of supernatural power .

theism

to

an

is

is

a

it

is

; it

of ;

all

There was one form of religion in the East which system ; namely , reminds strongly of the Scandinavian paganism that of Persia . Persian has been described as among the purest and loftiest of non -Christian beliefs . In certain basic aspects it so resembles the religion of ancient Scandinavia as to suggest the possibility of rela tionship of common origin . True , the stages through mythological systems travel are much the same which but the feature which common the religions merely evolutionary Scandinavia and Persia not profoundly stage fundamental characteristic and

national ideals and character The physiography of the ancient home

Iceland

There were

Persia

the summers

; .

of

the Persians

in

of

to

that bears some resemblance temperature greater extremes

of

.

affected

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

148

by

,

of of

,

ice

were hot , and the winters extremely cold . In northern Iceland the winters were somewhat severe , whereas in the southern part of the island the climate was compara tively mild , owing to the influence of the Gulf Stream . A large part of the home of the Persians was an arid and forbidding waste ; while in other places the soil was pro ductive and highly fertile . In Iceland much of the interior plains was a bleak and barren tract of mountains and chilling blasts uninhabitable and unproductive swept a

,

, on

.

,

fit

;

,

strip Arctic winds around the island however was land for agriculture producing luscious grasses and vegetation

a

.

.

-

of

on

on

The Iranians settled the tract between the Suliman mountains and the Pamir steppe one side and the Mesopotamian valley the other They were branch the Iranian and Indo European race Of those who

. .

.

a

. ;

deserts and green fields mild climate and severe cold all were close and contrast

, ;

valleys

-

,

tains and charming

to

of

is

a

, of ,

of

,

,

of

, .

In

.

a

in

to

;

in

.

,

of

,

a

,

, of .

,

in

Iran the Persians are probably best known They were brave warlike and adventurous people comparatively high moral standards pastoral rather than nomadic and lovers horses and cattle They treated women with courtesy and their slaves with kind ness Their men were skillful riders and clever archers They possessed strong wills and imperious personalities They lived houses with windows and fireplaces and perpetual struggle with they were content engage forbidding climate and unfriendly natural forces character and ideals the similarity between the Persians and the settlers Iceland too striking be ignored Persia like Iceland was land contrasts and quick and unexpected death struggles extremes Useless wastes and productive plains snow capped moun settled

THE PAGAN SYSTEM

149

ing neighbors , constantly taxing the energies of the people in order to maintain life . Among the Persian people developed a most interest ing religion which has long been associated with the name of Zoroaster . Who he was is not definitely known ; doubt has even been expressed whether he ever lived . Some think him merely an ideal . He is supposed to have lived in Bactria , between the year 1000 and 1500 B . C . ; he is a figure of obscurity , almost of mysticism .

The Zend -Avesta , or the sacred books of the Persians ,

prayers and invocations addressed to Ormazd , supreme deity . Zend is the interpretation of Avesta . their part The oldest is in the form of poems — again suggest ing Scandinavia and the Eddic poetry — supposed to have been composed about the time of Moses and possibly by Zoroaster. Of course , the authorship , as in the case of contain

the Eddas, is unknown . The most striking feature of the ancient Persian reli gion is likewise the distinguishing element of Scandi navian paganism . Two principles , one good and one evil ,

,

, as . of

,

a

of

,

.

,

in

,

of

,

.

did

were constantly at war with one another ; both had a personal existence and were endowed with intelligence and consciousness . The powers of good had no control over the powers of evil ; the former could only hope to checkmate the latter . These perpetually warring deities were supported by a large number of subordinate spirits or minor gods who their bidding Originally mono theistic Persian religion later degenerated into poly nearly all systems theism the common fate The Supreme God the creator Iranians believed all things but worshiped him under symbols such the sun Their religion like that the Scandinavians was free from the degrading sacerdotalism which brought

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

150

other oriental systems to the dust . In the Persian beliefs , reminding us of Scandinavia , there were no doc trines ; there was merely the everlasting conflict between good and

ill .

again

.

of .

or

; of

of

they were conscious

,

,

a

a

conscious

of

-

and

,

Johnson ethical char high order Theirs was not merely acteristics wor ship figures Like the Scandinavians material forms they recognized the principles good and evil like them the

said

all pervading

Reverend Samuel purpose with

an

India has not defi

;

had

Persia that which

in

There existed nitely

the eternal conflict between

antagonistic elements

these

by

of

a

,

of

of

.

of

,

in

ill .

of ,

.

,

of

,

of

and like the ancient inhabitants Iceland and Norway the Persians were exalted the hope ultimate victory and the promise eternal progress The Scandinavians however had more dis tinct conception and visualized more clearly and defi nitely the crisis the struggle between good and The outcome that elemental conflict the old Ice landers clearly foresaw Out the chaos the eye faith a

universe wherein good remained trium and peace and harmony prevailed The Persians glimpsed but vaguely this consummation the Icelanders clearly distinctly and the hope saw real ization was the dominating and directing influence new

of

; .

in

,

it

old

of

its

discerned

phant

No

one can carefully

.

,

,

a

of of

.

of

of

study the foundation religious systems the Scandinavia and strong similarity ancient Iran without discovering ideals characteristics and philosophy their lives principles

of

its

in

'

of

.

of

.

In

.

of

military suc Persia suffered the fatal misfortune degeneracy cess wake followed and obscuration the ideals faith and conduct Wealth and prosperity destroyed the purity that faith which once had shaped their lives The conquering Persians put all their trust

THE PAGAN SYSTEM their mighty hosts and myriad armies ;

. they

151 abandoned

the stern reliance of their forbears upon individual disci pline and courage . The consequence was defeat and dis aster

Xerxes , at Arbela

under

, and the

supremacy

of

in

.

comparison

suggests itself

;

,

a

,

will triumph over evil

the end good Again

a

to

,

a

is

all

Alexander . In one fundamental respect the paganism of Persia and of Scandinavia , on the one hand , and Christianity , on the other , stand upon common ground . In three there promise that fundamental hope amounting this time with the

,

it be

of

.

in

or

,

on

at

of

,

famous and better known but much overrated mytholo gies Greece and Rome about the time when Christianity appeared the scene No comparison

.

or

,

of be

.

a

,

duties

.

attempted and powers deities will might Such discussion instructive but lies beyond our purpose The gods Greece were interesting and physically attractive They were not symbols ab

details

;

.

of .

at

.

;

their own particular worshipers The primary worship was beauty and strength The Greeks aspiration for Heaven and no fear Hell

of

no

;

,

.

in

,

of

in

sense

of

to

a

future responsibility for duty flesh and they were under righteousness and truth The Greeks serve the cause had little religious sense the true meaning the word did

They were without what they the

." /

of

. .

of

no of

had

"

object

”

of

"

a

of in

of

no

welfare

to

to

no

by

of

;

stract conceptions they were men and women possessing the passions and feelings mortals but distinguished immortality They from the latter the supreme gift tempt they were inter had desire the skies only pleasure enjoyment They had ested life and missionary spirit touch the which aims the ele vation mankind they were concerned only with the

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

152

as distinguished from mere wonder or admiration for the mysterious and beautiful in nature . The gods of Greece were powerless to secure happiness

future state . In point of fact there was little interest in or concern with the hereafter , immortality being largely a speculation of philosophy . Men lived in the present, not in the nebulous future , and the gods made no real attempt to persuade men to rise above the pleasur able demands of the passing hour . The system , as a whole , was an impersonation of natural forces , of legen in

a

dary heroes and of the mental faculties . In striking contrast with the gods of the Scandinavian pagan system , the deities of the Pantheon were immoral and unchaste . They had all the infirmities of mankind . Every major deity in the whole list of Grecian gods , with the significant dom

exception

, was immoral

of Athene , the

and erring

weakest of men . It is true

after

the

goddess

of wis

fashion

of the presided

that Hestia , who

over the hearth , represented the purity of home life , but she is vague and indefinite . Zeus himself , the king of the gods , was as majestically free from moral restraints as divine subjects . They were contemptible as , , worship impotent utterly good of for and useless the scheme of either life or death . The religion of the Greeks , so - called , was justly held contempt by men of philosophic minds ; players in the

were

his

objects in

in

theater ridiculed the follies and the immoralities of the gods to the delectation of the people , while the priests in

the temples performed obscene religious ceromonies for the propitiation of the same deified rascals . The system offered no hope of salvation . It did not elevate the mind ;

it

did not stimulate the ethical and the

character

moral side of

and virtue ; and it was not calculated

to

inspire

THE PAGAN SYSTEM to

lofty sentiments

of

tive kind . It seems a

, for

religion

a

even

primi

the roughest and most

misnomer ,

in

scheme regarded

a

153

fact ,

call this system as sacred in one place , to

but ridiculed for the amusement of the people at another , is not deserving of that name. It is no wonder that Chris its

,

,

.

of

,

,

in

of

of

promise with eternal life and future happiness made rapid headway the welter incon sistency absurdity and immorality which was the ancient religion Greece tianity

of

,

an

,

of

.

a

.

a

It

,

of

to

in

In

many respects vastly superior the Roman system that Greece we find abundance the unethical and the unchaste was state religion overladen with cosmopolitan capacity for ceremonial ritualism With readily assimilation the Romans embraced the deities

.

of

.

of

of

,

faith

,

true

conquered

it

purer and

they

.

The religion was was more practical than that Greece As pomp increased declined and the Romans religion the arch hypocrites matters

the countries which

of

family

as

the human

.

to

in

an

,

.

of

,

.

in

,

became the ancient world The followers Plato could not worship the absurd and immoral deities Rome Skepti grew apace until Lucretius could boldly declare that cism unmitigated curse belief the ancient gods had been

.

a

to

of

,

in

of

;

as

.

,

immoral

as

the Greeks although they more scrupulously observed all ceremonial rites they pleased The Greeks thought and acted the Romans had less intellectual independence than their brethren classical fame but they had reduced the practice pharisaism and hypocrisy fine art Women

The Romans were

;

.

,

of be

if

,

.

;

;

cruelty and slavery were were debased life was cheap universal and degrading practices were commonly pur gods they can sued The gods called had not the slightest influence upon the lives the Romans The

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

154

hypocrisy , meanness and debauchery while they were paying technical homage to their deities . There was nothing in the con fused mass of native and assimilated gods calculated to latter with

walked

complete

in

abandon

lift the vision of the citizen to a common ideal and a com mon purpose , or to impress upon his cruel heart the eter nal incompatibility of good and evil . Here there is a veritable Ginnungagap between the Roman and the Scan dinavian systems. Iceland was settled about the middle of the Viking Age . The mythology which has been described was then ascendant in Norway as a system of belief . Many pio neers were devout worshipers of the Asas and built places where periodical sacrifices were made . Some settlers had maintained similar shrines in Norway and brought sa cred mold as well as temple timbers from the motherland . Prominent

or leading men

dedicated

the land they took

to Thor. A plot of ground was sometimes assigned to the temple ; and , on occasion , neighbors left an interven ing stretch of land over which neither claimed rights of ownership or occupation and there built a house of wor ship . Many an edifice was consecrated to the Asas , and place names , here and there , attest the existence of an cient altars which the new faith rendered obsolete . In the vicinity of the temples there grew up informal congregations of devotees . The boundaries of the pagan parishes , if they may be so described , were indefinite and

without territorial fixation . In this respect they resembled the Godord and the Things . Persons who desired to wor

at these pagan centers paid a temple duty or tax , somewhat analogous to the church tax , or tithe , later exacted under the Christian system . After 965 the law required that there be three main temples in each Thing ;

ship

THE PAGAN SYSTEM

155

but every individual was free to erect a temple on his own place , or elsewhere , if he desired . It seems likely that many private places of worship were maintained . The shrines were sacred to the gods and profanation by the irreverent or the ruthless was punished with severity and dispatch

.

Learned historians agree that some of the pagan tem ples in Iceland were large and sumptuous structures. The need for generous accommodations becomes obvious when it is recalled that large numbers attended services at certain seasons . A brief description of one or two will give some idea of their dimensions. One , we are told , was 120 feet long and correspondingly wide ; another is said to have been at least 120 feet long and over 70 feet wide. It is possible that some statements in this regard are exaggerated , or historically inaccurate , but recent arche

ological researches have disclosed accurate information

concerning the actual size of some of the old places of worship . One ruin indicates a building 51 feet wide ; another , a temple of 72 feet by 26 feet ; and still another 95 feet by 23 feet wide . The conclusion is amply sup ported by indisputable evidence that the Vikings in Ice land held their gods in high esteem and erected costly dwellings for the symbolic figures of the gods to whom they rendered homage. the Sagas we read detailed descriptions of the sacred precincts . In one of them , Eyrbyggja , it is said that a certain temple was a great house ; that there were doors on the sides and near one end ; that within stood the high seat posts with nails projecting ; the nails were called regin -naglar , meaning literally the nails of the gods. Still farther within was the great sanctuary . Far ther back of or in the temple there was a building or In

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

156

somewhat similar to the place where the choir is in some churches ; there was a platform or ledge in the middle of the floor like an altar on which a ring lay ; on this ring and at this place formal oaths were taken carry the was the duty the Godi the temple ring public meetings all On the altar stood vessel

.

a

to

of

of of

by

.

at

It

of

all

room

as

,

age

figuratively

true

de

Some

,

,

.

of

,

exaggerated the temples though possibly glimpse the real situation We are told for silver and certain temple glittered that in

,

example

well

the golden

a

a

us

accounts

give

as

literally

of

scription

.

been sometimes characterized

a

as

.

of

in

of

.

to

,

in

of

,

in

of

a

. .

as

; it

a

it

in

and was flexible rod means which sacrificial blood was splashed was the blood animals that had been offered sacrifice Around the altar the images the gods were arranged The images were usually carved wood generally life size and clothed the ordinary garb human beings The figures were decorated according the keeping with tastes and resources individuals and the size and importance the temple This period has

of

The Vikings were fond ornaments and we may they decked sure that whenever they could afford their favored deities with regal elegance worship was through prayer and The method through promises pledges the gods The worshiper prostrated himself images either knelt before the before them The great historian Snorri certain place

in

.

a

at

temple

by

a

,

face down

,

or

.

to

or

of

.

it

be

.

gold

in

Heimskringla describes Norway and the festivities

.

in

all

.

at an

to

an

earl connection with the worship UICO ancient custom which required the yeomen the temple and bring the essentials which the festal occasion demanded At the feast men were conducted There was appear

THE PAGAN SYSTEM

157

entitled to liquor ; and various kinds of animals were killed , such as sheep , horses , and the like, the blood being used to anoint the altars , the ledges of the temple ,

or benches, where inside and out ;

the images stood , and , the walls , both even the yeomen themselves were sprin

kled with sacrificial blood . A utilitarian purpose was per mitted to creep in , some parts of the animals sacrificed being cooked and used as food by the worshipers . A fire was built in the middle of the room and large kettles

.

, .

to

to

devotion

re

,

of .

.

of

in

indicates that the forms the main unchanged

evidence in

able

no

is

of

,

in

of

.

of

for

,

to

,

of of

a

to

,

's

;

of

.

all

were hung over it . The man who was responsible for the feast must sanctify the goblet and the sacrificial food First came Odin toast drunk for victory and for the Njordr health the king then they drank toast Freyr and for peace and the fruits the earth There Bragi the god poetry Then fol after many drank lowed memorial cups friends and relatives especially origin for those noble While the description the historian relates this Norway there practice reason believe that there was any substantial departure from the ancient Iceland These Scandinavians rites among the settlers religion All the avail were conservative matters

to

an

a

of

,

of

in

,

as

as

a

,

-

)

(

at

.

of

of

.

A

,

of .

,

in

in

There were three principal sacrificial feasts Iceland year the fall the middle winter and dur ing the summer The fall worship took place just about beginning the winter and was sort welcome offering for peace and prosper that season well ity people must have been truly devout who could thus joyfully celebrate the coming few winter within worship miles the Arctic Circle The mid winter occurred the Yule feast later than Christmas time each

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

158

of the gods was sought for the fruitfulness of nature . The summer worship took place at the begin ning of summer and was also a feast of victory . During the festivals good cheer abounded . Food and drink were consumed in liberal quantities, while the supply lasted and there were relatives and gods to drink and the favor

toasts to . The Sagas tell us that much liquor was con grew sumed and disputations upon various subjects

heated and vigorous . Characteristically , we are told in some instances , the contention swirled around the propo sition as to who was the greatest or the noblest man in the community , or in the country . Solemn vows, after the manner of heathens, were taken at the festivals , and amusements of all kinds gave wings to lagging hours . Horses were offered as sacrifices , from which it would seem that horse meat was eaten during this period much

more generally than was true

in

later years.

The practice of human sacrifices never ob a foothold in Iceland . In spite of occasional inti mations in some of the Sagas, it is believed that no re liable evidence has been adduced to show that human beings were ever sacrificed in connection with religious ceremonies ; and if a case of such atrocity here and there making

tained

it is clear that it was severely condemned and the was regarded with general disfavor and con tempt. Nothing in the laws sanctioned human sacrifice .

occurs

offender

When we examine the oldest pagan laws in Iceland the provisions concerning the taking of oaths disclose the relative popularity of the different gods . Freyr , Njordr and Thor were apparently held in highest esteem and regarded potent were as the most of the Asas . This is especially said

true

of

the first and last named

, some settlers dedicated

land to

. As has

been

Thor and erected

THE PAGAN SYSTEM

159

his honor ; others offered sacrifices to him in the confident belief that he would bring them sacred pillars for a temple . These two gods were held in high favor by the pagan pioneers of Iceland . It appears cer temples

At

.

,

or

,

that the settlers who were believers according Freyr heathen custom worshiped either Thor tain

to

all

in

.

to

he

in

of

,

so

the time Iceland was settled Odin had far de Norway popularity among people clined the that any great extent We receive the was not worshiped

in

,

in

.

, or

,

by

.

of

a

.

of

in

.

to

of

a

in

in

,

,

to

offer sacrifices elves dwarfs ugly monsters imaginary and creatures who skulked the hills maintained timid tenancy the rocks Men even deified offering sac water and the other elements nature rifices them There was distinct recrudescence the superstitious awe which primitive ignorance has always held the unleashed forces the universe That to

began

.

its

,

to

its

a

in

,

of

,

of

impression from those Sagas which throw some light upon this part Icelandic history that before the period settlement was far advanced belief the Asas which powerful earlier times exercised influence the vigor Superstition had North had begun lose begun the insidious progress which gradually brought ascendancy over the ancient régime Individuals about

to

of

.

its

by

,

power and had been sapped the skies had lost parasitic growth sundry life essence the superstitions

of

peopled

its

to

,

an

of

to

engross the faith which was once sufficiently powerful attention entire people hold their minds and hearts steadfastly loyal noble gods with which they

. .

to

; of

of

to

satisfy the cravings The ancient deities had ceased the soul but whither turn had not yet been revealed The way the future missionary was being prepared worshipers When were disappointed their declining faith

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

160

was swept away , the temples were destroyed and the images of gods , whom their fathers had worshiped be , fore them were torn down . Occasionally we find a thoughtful person boldly voicing his disbelief in the old deities . Weakening of belief in the supernatural , agnosti cism

,

complete

even

, supplanted the old faith their own might. The old sys

atheism

tem

until men believed only

in

,

of ,

to

,

to

,

,

in

to

give comfort had lost the power the spirit due perhaps part the fact that the conditions life and the habits of thought through intercourse with alien

were imperceptibly changing paganism was sealed through the opera The doom tion natural laws long before was formally and legally set aside make room for Christianity We see partial explanation here least the remarkable headstrong people accepted Chris fact that and warlike tianity almost over night without the cruelty bloodshed progress and pathetic martyrdoms which marred

.

of

,

,

in

its

,

,

a

a

at

to

it

,

of

of

, .

,

peoples

its

at

in

to

of

it

to

,

of

,

of

.

of

other parts the world Anybody who has some under standing the Scandinavian character while fierc powerful pagan est under the influence the old order finds difficult realize that this people tamely sub Christianity upon them mitted the imposition the

in

to

in

props were decay something give

that something rived with the message the Christian religion

came when

the missionaries ar hope which and

to

it is

promise

of

;

.

of

;

of

a

solace

its

cause The old faith was dying ing the spirit man called for

.

;

.

to

a

it

,

A

. D .

year 1000 Had this been attempted three hundred years earlier there would have been bitter feuds and bloodshed for the Vikings felt strongly that the gods fight duty were their friends and that was their behalf They would have fought the bitter end such

CHAPTER VII Superstition T

is

a

mere

individual

,

truism is

Sorcery and Witchcraft to

say

that the religious life of the and many - sided aspect

the most complex

of his spiritual existence . To a great extent that life is individualistic ; that is , notwithstanding a man belongs to an established church , organized upon the basis of a distinctly creed defined , his inner life is likely to be cast in

mold largely of his own making . His conscience , for factual as well as grammatical reasons, says credo not credamus. It is comparatively easy to ascertain and under stand a national religion , or the formal dogmatism of a group , or denomination . By the same token , it is not diffi cult to grasp the essentials of Scandinavian paganism dur ing the reign of the Asas . A thousand years ago , no less than today — perhaps no more generally , either — a strong individualism character ized the religious life of the people . While in externals , a

in

to

everything open

to

certain deities in

eye men rendered homage yet everyone possessed , in

the naked common

,

his innermost being , his own pet collection

of beliefs , the explanations phenomena ories and of the of nature , all may lump conveniently of which we under the elusive term , superstition . The Icelanders have a more expressive word than “ su perstition " to describe this type of spiritual child . They call it hjatru , which literally means not standing above or upon , like our awkward Latin derivative , but alongside , or by the side. The Icelandic word does not carry an 161

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

162

implication that these bastard beliefs had , in any sense , superseded , or attained a position superior to that of, the accepted faith . On the contrary , they are supplementary , supplying the needs, real or fancied , which the commonly avowed faith failed to satisfy. These notions were like addenda to the main body of religious belief ; they were ,

, the annotations which each individual himself the privacy of his own thinking processes , to the system which was the general possession of the people . Thinking Scandinavians experienced the difficulties periods with which mankind has been faced history their religion their intelligence did not fully to speak

;

its

in

or

at

all

in

all

so

made ,

up

it

,

of

to

or

of

with finality explain the mysteries Nature and became necessary for the individual himself cast about accounting for means for that which his faith left ob

a

,

of

,

.

,

in

of

,

a

or of . It

resulted that there grew distinct body undergrowth supernat beliefs all sorts supernormal creatures some good and some evil ural with whom man might establish personal contacts and relationships scure

kind

be

more powerful

of

In

.

,

,

,

, ,

,

,

by

common

.

,

in

or

,

as

in

with other innumerable wights spirits who lived rocks waterfalls groves moun tains hills and valleys They called them dwarfs elves nymphs ogres and giants some respects these beings

,

The ancient Scandinavians peopled regarded nature

race races

.

of it of

as

va to

,

,

as

on

-

to

,

In

.

in

-

of

,

of

,

It

resulted

to

to

him

.

than man and could assistance that many persons secretly offered homage rocks waterfalls and the like with the object insuring thus the good will the beings supposed dwell them other instances elves and nymphs rious kinds were worshiped the supposition that was desirable have their good will well that the gods

were

,

SUPERSTITION

SORCERY

163

of being excellent artisans , such metals as iron , silver , and gold ; an , still current , dverghagur , or dvergur į

Dwarfs had the reputation particularly

in

to

to

,

,

.

.

, by

,

by

,

Elves

of

in

a

of

.,

etc

Icelandic idiom sinni list, which means that the person whom this applied possesses the skill dwarf harks back the days when belief that these little creatures lived rocks and caves was common Swords rings and articles or namentation made dwarfs were highly prized

it

,

on

,

,

,

.

,

as

.

to

or

fairies were placated various means and commonly they was believed that the whole were friendly human beings On the contrary ogres and giants were regarded enemies and classed with evil spirits Certain natural phenomena like eruptions slides

to

,

in

,

of

be

in

,

a

of

.

or

to

.

in

no

as

.

,

of

to

;

to

.

of

be

,

to

in

the water which brought terror men were believed the work these huge monsters That which men feared and distrusted was attributed malign influence and any natural disturbances which brought harm were supposed the work the larger creatures rather than the midgets who lived rivers exceptional waterfalls and rocks There were cases where wholly bad but giants were not regarded the main there was trust put them protectorate Certain spirits were believed exercise over communities families These were more potent and disturbances

of

or

to

a

in a

as

,

,

In

.

,

.

of

higher rank than the creatures which have been mentioned The tutelary deities the country powerful whole were deemed and dignified and faith provi early Icelandic law we find them was general approach land with gaping sion forbidding ship owners and

it

by

is

in

.

of

on

mouths snouts the prow the ship because was frighten images guardian believed that these would the deities the country The faith tutelaries further evidenced the folk

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

164

, ,

,

to

saw

tale in which we are told that when King Harald sent one of his spies in the form of a whale to make a report as a basis for an expedition against Iceland . When the sor cerer approached the land he his dismay that hills

. of ,

,

a

to

of

an

be

He made

by

,

.

byhe

and mountains were alive with strange beings large and attempted dragon met him small When land army accompanied worms insects and pests various kinds all of which breathed poison against him

he

it

at

.

.

ac

by

.

so

.

of

up

a

by

A

.

. of

a

it

so

of

a

to

,

of

a

to

second attempt land only met wings monstrous size and mien whose spread large valley great that reached across With were flocks smaller birds third time tried still huge and fero another point This time he was met cious bull which waded into the ocean bawling threaten Legions ingly lesser creatures brought the rear The sorcerer decided that the odds were against him he sought another landing place Here he was frustrated

bird was

an

,

sion

Iceland offered serious difficulties

.

of

an

.

in

,

by

,

an

enormous giant taller than the mountains who lesser giants approached him with iron staff his hand The emissary was now fully discouraged and returned with the disappointing report that inva companied

guardian

are sometimes mentioned families They became protec tors the family with which they were identified no really significant tion which evidences the belief that the welfare the family and the welfare the nation in

deities with prominent

,

,

of

up

of

.

is

It

a

of

connection

.

These

so

in

a

in

a

is

in

.

be

to

if

of

.

of

of

,

.

,

a

,

a

as

whole are bound common interest that one corresponding disintegration cannot decay without the other We may here have somewhat primitive strong convic patriotism germ form the There family tion that the welfare the must be preserved the best interests the country are maintained The

165

of

,

the parent

which has outlived

nationalism

SORCERY

the feeling family sentiment

of

all probability

in

is ,

idea

,

of

SUPERSTITION

the

.

solidarity

story

is

to

,

at

.

as

.

in

I

“

to

of

There

known men Iceland saw the other smile Upon inquiry answer was smile this that many and each creature prepares his baggage :

old

and

spread

well

two

They were lying abed when a

disappeared

these deities

extremely

Christianity began a

As soon

is

.

wholly pagan

spirits

as

tutelary

.

belief

in

The

one

the reason

the

hill now opens

,

of

It

.”

go

.

to

,

,

to

,

both small and shortly was thereafter King Olaf that Thangbrand the second missionary preach Christianity came There were spirits and supernormal creatures who

large and makes ready

.

is

a

,

is

in

,

of

at

, as

.

in

,

.

to

up

of

.

or

to

to

as

occupied the same relation the individual the pro tecting deities did the nation The former were called spiritual fetches wraiths Faith their existence shadows individuals has lingered Iceland virtually the present time Here again there distinct meaning The belief the notion the bottom

of

.

of

of

—

of

is

founded upon the conviction that the human soul dis tinctly individual another aspect the individualism which was one the fundamental concepts of early Scan dinavian philosophy The people Scandinavia thought

.

al

.

,

or

,

be

to

,

of

.

all

its

on

of

,

a

it ,

go

to

in

that the life the individual was dual character The accompany wraith which was supposed sometimes person was thought his soul Yet before though came alone the individual was not conscious part any that him had severed diplomatic relations and proceeding were own The owner the absent and to

,

.

-

an

as

of

.

,

wandering wraith outward appearances possessed all his faculties He could not even use these peregrina tions his inner self excuse for absent mindedness

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

166

The theory

of the independence of the soul from the the personality appears in many forms of expres sion and phrases in the language . Such forms as these are common in the old Icelandic and they persist in modern rest

of

My mind

of of

,

, in

as at it

.

an

to

.

be

—

of

,

—

.

,

a

of

"

.

,

It

"

etc

:

all

tells me so ” ; “ Mind tells me this was unequivocally believed that the soul was separable part the individual and could sometimes independently appear The myth and alone would Hugin thought and Odin and the crows and Munin memory again illustrates the divisibility the spiritual and material Mind and memory may severed from the person and become distinct beings wander where they throughout list the world The mind could assume times

.

of

.

to

a

,

to

it

to

dependent form and move from place place chose although the one belonged remained whom home personification Here we have the individual con thought imagination possess unlim sciousness that and spread their wings ited power

,

be ,

,

it as

in

he ,

it

.

,

.

,

,

of

or

The Sagas contain incidents where the spiritual ele shapes which sug ments of man appear disembodied gest the natural characteristics the owner such fox may explanation wolf bear etc Whatever the was believed that these wraiths followed men sometimes pre Perhaps more often than not the story goes ceded them that the disembodied spirit appeared before the man him self arrived with the result that was known by some in

at

,

-

.

of

of

the idea the independence the spirit and bility from the physical was paramount

its

,

in

.

by.

,

a

is

.

on

was the way There certain logic naturally thought precedes this because action least theoretically Sometimes the wraith and his owner would walk side side and men gifted with second sight could Always see both whatever form the wraith appeared one that

separa

SUPERSTITION , SORCERY

167

The Icelanders deemed it highly important to have the friendship and support of powerful fetches or wraiths be upon

to a high degree their success believed that King Olaf Trygg vason was under the guardianship of potent spirits of this type because of his prowess as a warrior . We are told sometimes that there was a struggle between a sorcerer and an individual of a family who was saved by protective cause in

war .

depended

them

It was

commonly

. Frequently , though not always , the deities were triumphant over witchcraft . The deities , family and indi vidual , guarded the household and the person , warded dangers and kept away evil spirits Ordinarily the protecting spirit kept faith with his ,

.

,

off

deities

a

he

on

its

a

.

,

of ,

a

In

.

in

if

a

do

to

of

in

to

a

,

is

of

;

to

it

the end but now and then withdrew its protec tion which evidence current conviction that spirit might justifiably desert proved man some trial disloyal highest contingency the his nature such the renegade betrayed the family honor violated the holy pledge loyalty high principles conduct and the family spirit could nothing but turn back him He had committed treason and become pariah among

ward

of .

be

and gods

men

in

,

.

,

in

as

,

to

.

.

so

of

—

not the Hell

in

of

the dead

as

or

—

,

interesting petual dusk

the gods

Others went the Chris surroundings where the were not nearly attractive Valhalla There was per and the existence was monotonous and

Hel the abode system

of

was the choice liquor

which tian

,

of

a

to

at

,

.

to

to

The fate men after death was not believed uni Some went Valhalla and dwelt with Odin agreeable surroundings fighting each day life but nightfall rose again with the difference that the dead They thereupon sat down feast with the Valkyries performing the office Ganymede distributing themead form

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

168

dreary . Still others went of Ægir , the god of the

and lived at Ranar

to

,

the halls

in

the bottom of the ocean . Still others suffered the great misfortune to be seized by probability befell only evil evil giants , a fate which , in wrong men and chronic doers the main the Icelanders believed that those who died battle went Valhalla

Hel

,

age

,

, ,

old

to to

sickness

from

and

.

to

,

Ranar life after death was somewhat shifting and uncertain The record justifies the inference opinion immortality was that the warp and woof enjoy that noble and courageous men were predestined the pleasures nothing life

to

of

to

to

as

of

.

those who were drowned The belief concerning

,

died

or

in In

-

those who

on

. all

sea

;

,

of

in

be

in

of

,

an

or

,

,

a

,

,

ended the life earth measure continuation on

after death had a

existence

and that the future life was

in

lieved

in is

it .

to

in

Valhalla while those who amounted who enjoyed evil reputation were regardless consigned Hel the manner which they may precise died The beliefs this behalf uncertain but clear that the Icelanders this age generally be

is

of

of

.

a

of

of

.

of

their earthly career The picture which the Icelanders drew Valhalla largely replica the form life which was deemed most heroic and attractive The belief that the fate to

,

,

,

,

in

,

to

who were

thought

have established

a

,

men

to

tion

connection with the foregoing reference the be the people concerning immortality we find men

of of

liefs

the giants against the gods

.

,

Hel fight with In

in

;

on

.

a

is

of

,

,

men after death was not uniform but depended some earthly extent upon their condition reflects the funda mental principle the belief the Asas namely that steady struggle between good and evil Noble there and brave men live with Odin and fight his side when the world battle begins evil men and useless who dwell

169

SUPERSTITION , SORCERY or

.

domicile after death near the places where they lived The in

It

.

to

.

to

in

home thus selected was usually hills mountains proximity the earthly dwellings resulted naturally that the descendants revered the places where their ances tors were supposed dwell Some believed that they

or

to

, .

it

, of

a

.

,

,

occupy hills and mountains where would after death their ancestors had established their ghostly residence lively imagination reported that these places Sometimes feasting had been had opened and wonderful sights seen and conversation heard Again was the custom probably distinguished with some men traceable this walk

in

, of

of

us

in

or

, in at , ,

of

the existence the validity

he

least

died

the soul least at

spiritualism

While a

, at .

in

form

of of of ,

convinced not only life after death but

book

disbeliever

of

its

merits

,

,

of

of

seemingly

the

of

commenced concerning

of a

he

published

the investigation

skeptic and

which

of

he

,

type hundreds

of

of

in

of

.

,

,

in

.

in

.

to

to

re

is

It

.

,

to

out upon hills towards the mountains when some difficult problem absorbed their minds keeping with the beliefs described that the people should have thought that the dead sometimes turned their earthly homes and made themselves visible relatives and friends The Sagas tell dead men who were seen again moving the flesh There are super great variety which parallel course instances aspect psychic normal the events which are related the journals concerning manifestations before after death The great French astronomer Flammarion spent more than forty years his long and interesting life collecting and verifying thousands incidents this belief

,

to

,

a

,

no

,

,

.

some the claims this cult The people Iceland during the pagan age and afterwards were equally con vinced and upon data less unreliable that the soul had separate existence that man had the capacity make

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

170

himself visible after death , and that the living could , in contingencies , establish communication with the dead . certain

The return of the dead was sometimes terrifying and disastrous . Their reason for returning to the land of the living could be evil or good . People frequently fled from their homes because of apparitions . It appears to have been the belief that men who were cursed with an evil dis position in life would , upon appearing after death , com

mit all sorts of misdeeds . Another peculiarity of this side of the spiritual life of the people was the notion that those who succeeded in “ killing " these apparitions — lay ing the ghost — were themselves always certain to come back after death and perhaps join the very spirits against whom they had fought . The ideas

of the Scandinavians

concerning

invisible

nature and the independent existence of the soul , were various and somewhat conflicting . They believed that

a

,

in

or

,

the beliefs

the super

of

normal creatures

common

to

One characteristic

in

.

or

at

a

,

,

,

its

it

of , of

,

to

.

to

ill ,

there were many creatures , some good and somebad , who were ever busy either for good or but whom man could not see They seem have believed that the soul the limita the laws narrow sense was not subject separate existence tions the body but that enjoying could after death move about freely near the place earthly corporeal domicile

a

.

it

in

,

to

in

in

nature and the existence the soul was the idea that the dead were much superior the living knowledge and understanding As wisdom consequence was deemed very important and very use be

of

,

, it

or

of

establish

.

or

connection communication with the with the spirits the dead This could ac through complished was believed the assistance to

ful dead

Grund

in

Eyjafjordur

SUPERSTITION , SORCERY

171

occult practices which were in the Sagas called seidr, or galdur , which freely translated mean , spells and witch

craft , or sorcery . The art of conjuring by spells and the practice of witch

craft appear in the Scandinavian chronicles originally as related to the poetic art and writing of Runes , and were attributed to Odin . In the poetry known as Havamal , Odin explains the origin of the Runes , but somewhat ob scurely . He tells us that he was voluntarily suspended from the branches of Yggdrasil and it was probably out of this symbolic hanging of the chief of the gods that the idea of the origin of the Runes grew and on which the belief of the Scandinavians in witchcraft was really based . Indeed , there is reason to believe that here it is intended to point out the innate relation between the spiritual and

.

of

in

.

separate and distinct Rune

Runes and was

,

was marked with letter

seed

,

the smallest

, or

its

,

mind

had

to

,

in

It

is

all

the natural , between the spirit of man and nature . The Runes , in this connection , signify merely the universal life things and the universal law , the innermost nature of intimated the poetry that originally everything the world from the loftiest thought the human

He who

he

in

in In

be

,

wit

can

,

.

-

-

to

as

the key achievement that the highest knowledge and understanding achieved only through self denial and self sacrifice ages have suggested

to

.”

is

,

“

,

,

to

,

of

.

in

,

,

,

, of

“

"

,

,

or

to

decipher these read who understood and recognize could the true letters understood the essen tial nature all things animate and inanimate and consequence acquired power over them Here we have symbolism from the ancient thought the North the principle which colleges and universities like inscribe Knowledge power over their portals namely ad philosophy dition we have the which successful men all able

Such

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

172

of Odin hanging in the great tree of Yggdrasil, and through that sacrifice and self -denial he

is the symbolism

of that knowledge which was the power over all things. The highway of sesame to learning thus leads through hardships , trials and suffering before the heights of full understanding can be attained . came

possession

into

open

The reward which was believed

await the searcher in the idea that highest knowledge highest power the is the . The method and practice of sorcery and witchcraft were highly difficult and technical ; and women appeared to possess a special skill in certain aspects of this inter esting business . They were well thought of and esteemed socially — these people in the North were not always suf to

after knowledge and truth is illustrated

ficiently civilized to know that their own salvation might be furthered by torturing them ; they found that out soon enough . Runes were both good and bad and , since spirits were both good and evil , the contacts with the spiritual

,

A

or be

in

. . is,

as

",

"

To

, or .

.

cir

world might result in one or the other, depending on cumstances and motives write the Runes cut them the expression required great skill and profound learning the occult seriously harmful even fatal mistake here might

in

veil which hides the future most not all ages been one

.

peer behind the

of To

to

.

in

,

in

or

,

be

ill

.

to

to

ill

of

sorcery could be practiced The art witchcraft bring injury order luck and men and animals Had not men believed that through black magic luck could directed against enemies witches would not have been England and America stoned Scandinavia burned From the earliest times mankind has been curious

foretell

,

in

of

In

, if

.

of

in

the lead occultism the Sagas individuals are oc foreseeing casionally mentioned who possessed the gift

events has ing objects

SUPERSTITION , SORCERY

173

future events . They were said to be pos gift sessed of the of prophecy , or foreknowledge . It seems and foretelling

that this power was considered a natural endowment, in some cases , and in others the result of knowledge of cer tain practices . If persons especially gifted were not avail able it was necessary to consult those skilled in magic , that is , the practitioner of witchcraft . In this manner , it was believed , communication with the spirits of the dead could be established

and information

obtained

concerning the future . Women appeared in

from

them

the rôle of seeresses more fre quently than men and were called Volur. was deemed

unbecoming

It

have much to do with this strange writing business . Skill in the of Runes , however , as here tofore described , was more particularly the possession of in men

to

men . Women sometimes traveled from place to place and told fortunes . While they appear to have been treated respectfully , they did not stand so high as those who re

mained at a fixed abode. We have very elaborate descrip tions of the manner in which fortunes were told . The practice was highly technical and , inasmuch as this is not intended as a manual for fortune -tellers , a description will not be included here . One method of establishing communication with the dead deserves more specific mention because it suggests the cult of modern spiritualism which has acquired promi nence and won some adherents in the world today . It has been suggested that spiritualism , and all that it implies , is of comparatively recent origin . It is not so . It is prob ably as old as humanity itself . The people of Scandinavia suggest a knew and practiced methods that strongly seance which 1930

might be conducted

. It is not

an

in the

year

ordinary witch ; it is not

of our Lord an

ordinary

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

174

is not an ordinary Vala , or fortune - teller , who is the central figure in this scene , but a historical person sorcerer

;

it

by the name of Thrandr . Nor is there a Fox or a Fish a heroine in the tale . A well-known local man and associates had not been heard from and fears were entertained con cerning their safety . Thrandr had framework or grill . He commanded

a

fire made with

a

the people present speak not to to him . After he had sat thus for a time a man appeared whose garments were wet ; the apparition was recognized as one of the missing men . The figure walked to the fire , reached out his hands , turned and dis appeared . Another member of the missing party was rec ognized . Shortly thereafter a third apparition came, all bloody , carrying his head in his hands . He was immedi ately recognized as of the missing . The figure hesitated a moment in the middle of the hall and then vanished . The story then tells us that Thrandr , quite after the fashion of the modern medium , stood up , sighed heavily and said : " Now you can see in what manner these men died .” It is evident that the people present and the chronicler be lieved that it was possible to bring spirits from the other world through the efforts of living persons. That appears to be among the essential theses of spiritualism .

,

Sir

Thrandr, therefore , should be assigned a niche in spir itualism 's hall of fame , with Arthur Conan Doyle

of

.

and other kindred souls

in

,

.

or

,

,

,

a

,

its

a

of

in

,

of

.

in

of

The history the decline witchcraft and sorcery Iceland parallels that other countries Originally while the people were wholly pagan the masters occult science high esteem whether men were held women The power communicating with the dead was considered supernatural endowment ground notion which held for generations after Christianity and indeed still holds

SUPERSTITION

,

SORCERY

175

,

it

It

.

,

a

.

in

its

many respectable quarters As time passed own person thus endowed used the was discovered thatmany gift for selfish evil and vindictive ends was not long

-

by it .

, or

do

with the black

.

to

of

'

at

of

.

of

law

a

to

of

self respect and high honor would have art those who practiced After time witchcraft and sorcery were proscribed The hero the Saga Grettir the Strong last through powers came his doom the witchcraft

before men nothing

The outcome and

a

outlaw

,

an

.

favor made

of

at

When demand was made for the reward the claimant was severely condemned and received very little support the Althing because witchcraft had come into general dis

the case was that the claimant was

all who prac

law was enacted that

.

in

its

.

be

ticed witchcraft banished This was the year 1032 As time passed the law against witchcraft was not per

to

,

It

.

.

of

to

in

to

of

an

or

a

,

in

to

all cases take course but the sorcerer was bag pulled seized over his head and he was stoned death and buried like infected animal some loath some creature far from the abodes men was essen getting rid tial observe great care these persons prevent the victim The bag was pulled over the head

mitted

because he did was believed that one aspect the legend the evil

-

of

it

would follow

of

harm

if

seeing anyone

,

from

in

,

-

a

a

.

-

a

a

In

.

eye one instance there was small opening the bag through which the victims could look out upon beautiful grass covered plain His evil glance denuded the ground like blast from blow torch and the spot remained bare

. in

,

in

,

,

In

.

,

of

,

to

up

,

it .

in

.

forever after Superstition and belief witchcraft gradually declined Civil and ecclesiastical law jointly trained their guns upon Yet the present time not only Iceland but superstition has other Christian countries the ghost never been wholly laid Iceland after the Reformation

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

176

superstitious beliefs took a new lease on life and enjoyed period of general recrudescence in a most virulent form . Religion alone has never been sufficiently powerful a

uproot it . There is only one force before which it yields, and that is enlightenment. There will always be superstitious beliefs in some form in the world for the simple reason that it is vain to hope that man will ever acquire complete knowledge and understanding of all things . There will be mysteries unsolved ; there will be to

and manifestations which cannot be wholly ex plained or understood ; and in the darkness of the un known and the mysterious the larvæ of superstition will germinate and grow . The most powerful ally of Chris tianity - as perchance also the greatest , if unconscious , foe, because the average man does not know how to make proper use of deductions and will science which explains the obscure boldly theorizes about that which cannot clear and steadily expands the horizon knowledge

.

is

be

of it

,

up

,

—

its

forces

CHAPTER VIII Christianity and the Church was during the Viking Age that the people of the | Scandinavian North first came in touch with Chris - tianity . The contact occurred during Viking expedi tions against other parts of Europe . There is little in the Sagas which indicates that the new faith made a distinct impression . The people had limited opportunity to be T

come familiar with the details of doctrines ; and their in terest was not in the salvation of their own souls . The accounts of their numerous expeditions are devoid of evi dence that the churches or monasteries were regarded

. The

great treasures housed in the holy powerfully drew more than the promise of eter They nal bliss . were rather consistent church goers , but sans welcome or invitation from the holy fathers abroad who , not without good cause , saw in them but indifferent with

reverence

buildings

material for sainthood . As time passed , and the relationship between the Vikings and the people of the rest of Europe became

more intimate and friendly , the Scandinavians gradually acquired a better understanding of the principles of Christianity . They became interested , not just mercenary , visitors at mass and were profoundly impressed by the mysteries and the magnificence which surrounded them . The churches were attractive . In every niche they saw the costly image of a saint ; and before the figures and the altar burned tapers, reminding the Vikings that the new faith was the light of the world . The rich vestments of 177

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

178

the priests and the strange charm of the choral services enhanced the impression . They were unaccustomed to

splendid solemnity

such

.

Incense

filled the sacred places

, simple though it may have

and music

;

, soothed their

been

restless spirits . Upon the serious minds of the Scandina vians, untutored in this sort of worship , the ceremony had a powerful and lasting effect . The language was strange ; the surroundings inscrutable and mystifying . The most unregenerate Viking could not but pause

, reverence . Many yielded

sanctified

awful, if un of the

in

the appeal

to

faith . This was particularly true of those who established themselves in Ireland , Scotland , England , and Normandy . As is well known , the stress of circumstances forced many of them to come to Iceland , whither they brought the new faith . When we examine more closely the essential character . istics of Scandinavian paganism and of Christianity , the two systems contending for supremacy in the north of Europe , we are impressed by striking contrasts and dis

,

essence

on

,

.

death

in

Christianity

a

Asas was ,

the

in

of

of

similarities . The faith gospel strife and

its

mystic rites and were baptized in the new

the con a

of

,

go

or

as

by

a

, ,

,

.

of

,

, of

of

in

part motivated the Asas was attain worldly fame that the

;

to

worshiper

militant ambition

of

of

;

no

of

no

.

or a

of

,

-

of

of

,

,

by

a

The life

a

peace and good will bore the message con demnation warfare and bloodshed and promise paganism accepted future life The doctrines the Vikings demanded that slight injury insult Christianity was built upon the unavenged unnoticed charity and cornerstone forbearance meekness

trary

, by

at

,

as

is

It

.

by

of

theoretical Christian was regulated the hope salva glory heavenly tion and not surprising that the Vikings first blush looked upon the new religion weak and unmanly

CHRISTIANITY

THE CHURCH

AND

179

and various acts of self -denial seemed useless and unreasonable . These warm blooded lovers of strife were fond of good things to eat and drink . It was an age when " life was life and men were men .” As is said in the Sagas , they demanded food with out argument or equivocation and scorned the abstinence of fasting days . They found it difficult to understand why the gods of the Christians should insist that healthy and comparison

with

their own . Fasting

hungry men voluntarily starve themselves . A prominent Icelander had been baptized

and ,

Norway ,

in

Iceland ,

his return to fasted for several days conformity requirements in with the supposed of the new faith . When the news of this heroic act of self -denial spread , men came from afar to gaze upon him . That any religion could cause a man in normal health to refrain from eating good food and from drinking good liquor , upon

all

In to

a marvel which attracted and held the attention of gaping and wondering crowds . Yet that they did abstain , in full keeping with themost exacting demands of the church , once they had put them selves in her keeping , is no cause wonder the

for

was

,

no

,

materialistic which cast obstacles Christianity Iceland One

of

,

so

.

,

to

of

.

a

of

-

or

of

.

historian who understands their true character principle they enforced rig matters conviction namby orous self discipline and self control With them pamby surrender any sort appetite matter how insistent when yielding was conscientiously unseemly was utterly contemptible There were still other reasons perhaps not quite

.

a

or

.

in

of

of

,

of

of

in

of

,

the way the spread outstanding the charac teristics the Scandinavian this period was loyalty Few offenses were considered more reprehensible and less deserving condonation than broken pledges fail

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

180 ure

any respect to keep

the faith towards one to whom unqualifiedly pledged . The Vikings considered the Asas their personal friends ; there was an intimate comradeship between the Scandinavians and their gods , sometimes approaching that feeling of good fellowship in

it had

we

been

find between

equals , which made

them

feel that it

would be tantamount to a breach of an obligation of honor to end the relationship . It is related in the Sagas that men of high standing , both in Norway and in Ice land , who had accepted the principles of the new faith could not bear to hear the ancient deities denounced . Underneath the devotion to the new system the fires of pagan affection glowed with quiet but insistent warmth . The Vikings formally laid aside their gods , but would not to be reviled . There was involved in the intro duction of the Christian and the extinction of the pagan faith a fundamental change in certain essentials of Scan dinavian nature . The faith in the Asas and the character of the people had developed in intimate association with

suffer them

their inner life . Not only had paganism shaped ideals and habits of thought , but the conduct of the people for un known ages , had been , to a great extent , influenced by be

liefs which they were suddenly asked to renounce.

There were other and countervailing facts which aided the spread of Christianity despite the conflict in principle between the old and the new . There were some things in common . The cardinal doctrine of the everlasting strug gle between

good and evil was common to pagan and Christian theology ; and the Christian conception of judg ment day had certain elements which suggested the an cient idea of Ragnarok . The miracles performed by Christ reminded of the tales about the marvels attributed to Thor ; and the prophecy that the former would crush

CHRISTIANITY AND THE CHURCH

181

the head of the serpent was , in some respects a counter part of the struggle between the latter and the Midgard serpent . The biblical story of the descent of Christ into hell recalled the incident of Thor 's visit to the home of

the evil giants . Indeed , there is some evidence that these Scandinavians were inclined to confuse the images and mingle the characters of Christ and of Thor . Both were the ideal of power , and the struggle between Christianity and paganism took on the aspect of a duel between the " White Christ ” and Thor of the Asas . Paganism was tolerant of witchcraft and of the numer ous progeny of superstition . The gods of ancient Scandi navia were not jealous gods. Few obstacles were put in the way of Christianity when force was not used or threatened in order to effect conversions . At this period in

Iceland there is abundant evidence of religious liberty and of toleration of differing views in matters of faith . Some times an obstinate Icelander would refuse to desert Thor , but, with a spiritual elasticity truly remarkable , he would add Christ to the complement of deities and do Him homage on equal terms with the mighty Thunderer . It was a matter of comparative indifference whether there was one god more or less ; a place for another could easily be found on the altar without embarrassment to worship ers or worshiped . Their natural hospitality rose superior figure to the to prejudice and readily admitted a new group of celestial friends . The spread of Christianity was made easier because of

which had already set in . The power of the ancient gods over the minds and hearts of the people was broken before the first missionary came. Faith and the spirit of religion had begun to decline ; the convictions of the Scandinavians upon the things of the the decline

in

paganism

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

182

spirit had been growing weaker , more indefinite and in distinct , year by year . The development of atheism had commenced . The Vikings were individualists , and were in clined to put the main reliance upon their own strength , or else to embrace crude superstitions , which changed from time to time and from place to place . The spiritual

to

led

life was in a state of Aux . This condition could not last long ; it was wholly unsat isfying . Superstitious beliefs , as a steady diet, fail to af ford that spiritual complaisance which man seeks through believe that faith in a supernatural being . We are in

a

to

.

be

It

.

a

a

of

,

to

in

of

a

of

,

of

.

To

a

of

vague consciousness higher power isolated instances what extent this was due contacts other lands can never known with the Christians stage Whether the restlessness the spirit was merely the progress the people from one plane of intellec another we cannot tell tual and moral development may have been manifestation dissatisfied and in there was

, ,

a

in

so

up

,

of

in

of

.

to

at

,

in

of

superstition like quiring soul groping the darkness bearing Athens dedication the altar which Paul found the unknown God Whatever the explanation the high standing evidence that men sources are rich the old gods and and intelligence had become weary with the rank superstitions which grew their more

of

of

.

place

,

of

of he

.

,

to

of

in

.

to

to

,

-

of a

,

great learning and good One Law speaker man the imminence death ordered character conscious reverently com carry him outside where his servant the care and mercy the Power which mended himself The record shows that this man had created the sun conformity with the first precepts and governed his life the Christian religion This inci the finest traditions the fact that there was before the first dent points

183

CHRISTIANITY AND THE CHURCH ,

.

,

made

been

the fact that the island was

to

Mention has

of

,

a

of

a

arrived

of

growing consciousness the de fects the old system and reaching towards something different something better and something higher

missionaries

of

,

;

, . if

of

,

some extent from Ireland Scotland and from the islands off the coast the British Isles Some these men were undoubtedly Christians others not Chris settled

.

It , is , or

of

,

of

In

.

,

in

tians had come contact with those who had embraced the faith some instances the Sagas specifically say that prominent such was the case mentioning the names among pioneers men the doubtless true that many

had come under the influ especially those who came

their vicinity

of ;

the islands

from

of

Isles

in

the British

from

or

of

the settlers were Christians that religious system

ence

,

of

no

or

,

,

and some followers the leading men especially those Celtic extraction were very likely Christians although

or

,

, , .

,

to

,

,

of

little

said

of

is

It

is

mention that fact some the leaders that although they had embraced the faith they nevertheless had dealings with Thor particularly when they went sea undertook there

if be

,

century

.

to

Paganism

sometimes been exist fact among the in

It

has

.

mained the dominant system serted that Christianity ceased

afterwards

as re

of

,

a

was but little felt for

al

,

.

,

a

”

“

of

a

to

an

a

.

.

of

a

an

of

its

,

in

;

to

,

In

.

some difficult tasks short Thor was still anchor windward they were not prepared throw the old over exchange for the new board entirely until the latter had been fully tried and merits proved We all know persons this cautious cast mind Many man who proudly exhibits belt with initialed buckle some prying reformer looked under his shirt would found wearing pair invisible suspenders While nominally Iceland was Christian country Christianity most from the beginning yet the influence

184

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

descendants

of

the first converts . The sons

the pioneers

of

erected pagan temples and continued

homage to

Christian

of

,

exception

,

by of

be

,

in

of

did

to render pagan gods . In comparatively few instances ity follow the line family tradition although this respect should made that part

the island

,

in

of

.

White Christ

had estab

”

the Asas was taboo after the

“

,

of

a

which for time was occupied the Irish Here the abiding place the Culdee fathers the ancient faith

decline more accurately Christianity vigorous take people growing steadily hold the minds the the tendency tercourse with other nations had reawaken sparks the which the conversion had kindled These em bers may have been almost smothered later years yet

in

,

of

;

in

.

a

on

a

to

of

,

the

the failure

of

,

speaking

to

Notwithstanding

or ,

.

lished his nominal reign

It

.

-

,

of

-

,

in

,

a

of

the citizens Iceland established connections with the leaders and the kings other countries where commercial relations were maintained upon substantial scale many cases that these half pagan half Chris resulted expediency tian men were baptized from motives

by

A

.

in

a

of

at

a

.

to

of

rather than conviction The story comes mind the complained bitterly Scandinavians who that certain baptismal ceremony the court continental Prince was the shabbiest which they had ever had the major rôle little baptism now and then was relished these .

business men

to

to

,

as

as

,

to

,

of

.

of

,

of

,

,

it

There are proofs that was believed advantageous purely from the commercial standpoint submit the baptism sacrament whatever may have been the true spiritual state the individual Two distinguished broth ers who joined the court Ethelstan the English King baptized appeared were because that be the prevailing among custom well merchants others who had rela

185

of

of

of

,

.

,

tions with Christian people The Sagas naïvely add stating the anticipated advantages baptism

way

by

CHRISTIANITY AND THE CHURCH

,

all ,

,

a

to

of

a

,

.

.

as

,

that they were freely received into the society Chris privately religious they tians but that entertained such they chose They were surprisingly modern convictions these newly converted Vikings These highly practical reasons for conversion may seem startling but after may they not evidence merely certain capacity for ad justment truly circumstances after the manner

or

,

of to

,

as

in

election

called

attend services politics shall

I

of

am

I

the

"

:

I

as

of

on

at

cellency had belonged the time inviting him him for the purpose regularly presume that now patronize have other churches

his

a

to

of

?

, of It

,

facile and modern American writer prohibitionist politician was not later than the year 1928 that the governor one the great states the American pastor of the church Union said when which his ex

is

of

to no

.” in

no

to

to

avoid losing business through religious

of

.

,

intercourse prejudice

or in

to

a

in

to

well There degree here certain pragmatism sense and superior accept that which actuated the Vikings Christianity order insure the success commercial

night shirt

to

as

so

as

is

It

not inconceivable that these business men the eleventh century might have gone far don mask .

to

in

of

it

is

,

be

,

,

of

to

to

it

,

to

-

to

win business even United States Sen gain votes ators are reported have done order may well Of course retorted that neither just nor accurate ascribe the rank and file Americans the standards some United States Senators but the point remains valid that throughout human history and

on

be

of

in

of ,

,

.

insecure

modern

the sovereignty

or

whether the senate principle has ever remained There has been change some which may

,

the farm

or

whether ancient

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

186

correctly described as progress , in a great many direc tions since the year 1000 ; but there has been no essential change in the ethical quality of the motives which actuate human conduct when self-interest is involved . There is no evidence in the Sagas that the men who accepted baptism for business reasons returned to their native country with a burning desire to convert their fel lowmen . It was not to be expected that they would ; on the contrary it was probably good business to neglect to men tion the conversion . The spread of Christianity has never received any real impetus from this sort of missionary zeal . No man would give himself over to the task of spreading the gospel in that day unless he felt a real con viction upon the subject and was prepared to accept mar

tyrdom

, if need be, as

a

consequence

. It

does not

seem

that

. Those who braved the haz ards of missionary enterprise were usually monks who trappings and temptations and had renounced life, perhaps looked upon suffering and death who the something cause desired therefore inter surprising that esting well Icelandic Viking who long pirate upon the high had and successful record seas should become the first effective missionary among these turbulent people The name this person was , ,

,

is ,

as an . a It

to

as

.

of

,

a

as

be

in

,

as

,

its

there were many so minded

in

a

. .

a

,

,

of

.

in

to

.

,

Thorvald the Widely Traveled Skaga distinguished family Thorvald belonged fjord northern Iceland His father and uncle were men substance one wealthy the other Godi He was

- .

fortune teller be

a

said that the boy was

to

. of

of

of

.

brother was the favorite prophesied that the future any than that his people

in

It ' is s

to

of

,

by

up

brought his father but without affection He seems Saturday children have been one that home His brighter

Through her advice he was

CHRISTIANITY

AND THE CHURCH

187

opportunity to go abroad . For his use he had the choice of three sums of money . The fortune - teller chose given

an

that one which had come because ,

to

the father

she said , " that

through

inheri

is untainted money " ; the , , thought other sums she had come through oppression or society , or avarice . As the president of a modern reform of an endowed university , the lady would have been a monumental failure and could not long have held her job . The boy went abroad and joined a Viking expedition with Svein Split- Beard , who became ruler of Denmark , tance

as

of

.

fine reputation

of

earned

a

which

him

but who , at this time, was estranged from his father Harald , the Danish King . Thorvald was with Svein for some years, their field of operations being the western Atlantic . He had not been long with Svein when the latter discovered the heroic mold in which this young Icelander was cast . He was strong and courageous ; he was quick and lucky in battle , high tempered , and generous to a fault ; and it was said that he had many other qualities

, of

of

,

of

,

to

to

to

,

is

It

.

a

,

to

he

of

.

in

in

,

a

as

of

of

,

to

,

he

, .

in

to

.

a

or

as

,

a

he

of of

as

in

Thorvald stood the forefront the men his time not only bold warrior but man Prisoners war returned their own people and the booty Viking expeditions devoted with the liberality Robin Hood tradition the ransom men who had been taken battle and the help those who suffered easy were want understand why he acquired name and fame which outlived him On one occasion he saved Svein and his friends from imprisonment due the long high esteem which Thorvald was held Svein high afterwards when had ascended the throne paid gifted with tribute the young Viking describing him

,

.

as ,

kings the courage the bravest Berserk philosopher and well mannered the wisest the wisdom

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

188

For many years Thorvald had unknowingly

and from

its

innate promptings lived in conformity with the fundamen tal teachings of the Christian religion , and doctrines

of

a

to

of

an

of

a

.

of

.

at

a

of

.

a

to

strong appeal person were calculated make his temperament and ideals He parted company with the stormy and future king Denmark after few years Separation romantic association was inevitable early date Svein was fierce and implacable disposi

,

,

,

,

.

he

.

buccaneer

Peace

he

of

,

from

to

the first was hostile the message the opposite Thorvald was the exact and traveled widely history does not record that the future missionary ever afterwards visited the royal

tion and Prince although

It

.

no

of

.

a

at

of

Thorvald

to

abandoned piracy went Ger through baptism embraced the Christian faith the hands certain bishop soon became evident expediency that his conversion was mere gesture When

many and

,

in

,

,

a

on

.

.

of

to

to

a

to

.

of

That boundless energy and thirst for glory which charac terized the best the Vikings was him turned into burning resolution people lead his into the light He persuaded the bishop accompany him Iceland missionary undertaking during the summer 981 The lived with Kodran Thor father whose family and retainers were baptized with the single exception son The following sum they mer built home which they lived four years From this place their headquarters they traveled dur ing the summer seasons preaching the faith although not striking Their missionary endeavors

,

.

.

,

,

as

,

a

in

a

of

's

,

,

winter the missionaries

.

first

vald

,

tion

with

in

,

.

,

a

.

of

were yet substantial success Many chiefs and heads prominent families accepted the faith especially the no they encountered but little opposi north Unfortunately the result that

they

underestimated

the tenacity

CHRISTIANITY

of paganism , even

AND THE CHURCH

189

old

of

,

of

,

,

of

at

.

of

of

,

its

moribund state and the very real They took affection the Icelanders for the Asas presenting their message the injudicious step the Althing the very citadel the Olympus the ancient gods where the great men and leaders the island as in

that

the

Althing the Godis bound with pa up

were

will be remembered

at

It

.

sembled

,

,

.

,

,

;

of

he to

.

in

To an of

be

in

so

control and their rule was that the latter could not overthrown without threatening perhaps destroying the power the for mer At the Althing Thorvald delivered oration urging his countrymen accept Christianity his pro found disappointment discovered that Thor still lived the hearts his people that his hammer though rusty from lessened use still imprisoned the mighty thunder ganism

up

.

,

in

of

of as

,

A

.

representative bolt the old régime stood his place and spoke against the missionary with such power ful eloquence that the story goes nobody took seri ously the preaching Thorvald to

of

of

as

.

,

an

, ,

of

.

of

,

as

by

a

.

It

lay the matter before the tactical blunder Althing The leaders were incensed this bold assault upon the foundations their political power well Missionary privately their faith endeavors while con ducted the chieftains might ignore but invasion the paganism they could not tolerate The repulse vihara

was

,

so

be

,

.

on

to

,

of

.

was merciless and incisive The missionaries escaped with out physical injury but certain adherents the pagan procured poets compose faith satirical verses lampoon ing the upstarts who dared wage war the Asa faith Of the foreigner they expected nothing better but that

so

.

,

,

of

.

,

graceless Thorvald their own countryman should was especially offensive Against the latter were directed angered the poisoned darts scornful insult He was

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

190

he killed the poets , a drastic method of trying a situation . While one may , on occasion , regret that this efficacious method of dealing with versifiers has gone out of fashion , yet , on the whole , it is for the best . Once in a century a good poet might be killed with the millions who are un by the satire that

handling

speakably

bad

.

Society now

finds

it

more civilized

to

per

mit the literary critics

to attend to the homicides in the It gives the critics pleasure ; inflicts no appre ciable cruelty upon the poets ; and leaves posterity the privilege of silently demonstrating that the critics were wrong . The failure at the Althing did not discourage Thorvald

name

of art.

and the bishop . They decided to try conclusions with the Asas at one of the local Things , selecting for this purpose the Thing at Hegranes . It was in the jurisdiction of this Thing that they had one of their most powerful support ers . The followers of Thor had been awakened to the danger in which their idols stood , and the missionaries did not receive a friendly hearing . They were shouted down

they attempted to speak and stones were hurled at by them the angry populace . Again they escaped with their skins , but to such an extent had opposition been aroused that the following year Thorvald and the good bishop were found guilty of an offense at the Althing and ordered to leave the country . They left in 986 , after hav Norway lived five years Iceland arriving the in

in

,

in

ing

when

.

fall

of

.

him

.

in

at

The man who had spoken against Thorvald the Al Norway that summer The missionary him promptly followed the pagan orator and killed This thing met

,

A

in

's

.

he

so

saving souls was not method the bishop code book left his fiery colleague and returned home man of

when measured

191

THE CHURCH

by

,

fine character

AND

the highest standards

of

CHRISTIANITY

his time endowed with the and energy which carry men heights the achievement Thorvald was cursed with the fierce and rebellious spirit his ances provocation he could not re tors which the face

,

of

,

in

,

of

,

of

to

,

courage

.

strain

a

by to

.

, of

he to

is

.

It

of or

he

of

He keenly felt the desertion his friend and became penitent wanderer upon the face the earth Like Ish place unable mael moved from place find peace likely that comfort was harassed the stings upbraided him conscience which probably for the ,

in

a

a

,

in

.

to

,

by

of

of

,

of

,

of

,

to

,

in

a

to

.

off

no

of

unavenged

.

go

's

vald must ever Although

,

his missionary enterprise purge Thor Viking soul the ancient philosophy that insult

for the good

of

-

,

in

.

of

his conduct He ended his days recluse and voluntary outcast from his own people monastery far Russia Thus passed out life the first real mis sionary Iceland man moved sincere faith mis guided his methods but loyal his ideals the end humility exemplified The spirit the character and conduct the lowly Nazarene did not until too late violence

the missionary

, ,

a

of

in

,

of

of

;

in

by

a

,

.

it

.

,

to

of

.

,

for

,

to

a

in

. .

,

labors the bishop and Thorvald terminated rather abruptly they were far from fruitless They had pursued the enterprise with ability and zeal Thorvald possessed some the qualities which missionary among the Icelanders were calculated make easy the path conversion He was strong cou rageous experienced and magnanimous individual but unfortunately the success his cause endowed full fiery energy measure with the and resistless his for bears While his quick and sensitive temper proved his undoing was hardly drawback the eyes his coun They were not meek trymen nature they respected

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

192

courage and spirit in whomsoever they dealt with . On the other hand , the influence of the new faith , founded , as it was , on the gospel of nonresistance and peace , was neces sarily weakened by the homicidal violence which was an incident of their attempt to implant it . Here the character of the bishop proved an excellent foil . His temperament was essentially different . He had his passions under con trol and firmly opposed his tumultuous associate . They excellent team , but the storms that raged in the bosom of Thorvald , when crossed by his foes, was beyond the power of the bishop to still .

made

an

The seed which they sowed , although at times seem ingly smothered by the brambles of paganism , remained alive to germinate and bring forth fruit decades after wards . Thorvald and the bishop had , in any event, been the first to make an open war upon paganism ; they had fired the first guns at the temples dedicated to Odin and his associates in Asgard . Henceforth it would be impos

sible

to

squelch completely

the questionings

of the spirit

their preaching had set afoot. the missionaries left , in 986 , efforts to Christian ize the island were not renewed until Olaf Tryggvason had become king of Norway . While Iceland was not sub ject to his jurisdiction , he determined to introduce Chris tianity in it and in all the islands and countries which had been settled by people from Norway . Among these , of course , Iceland was the most important and soon became the leading object of the royal missionary zeal . During the first year of his reign , in 996 , he sent a which

After

to the island . This man was a descendant of one of the well -known pioneer settlers and had been bap tized in Denmark . He adopted strenuous measures which , at that time, were better calculated to antagonize than to

missionary

CHRISTIANITY He rode

win the citizens.

following

,

AND THE CHURCH about

in state with

a

193

numerous

temples and the sacred places wher people ever the were unwilling to accept baptism . A Carry may Nation convert Kansas to temperance by such smashing

of that day , who were far specialists in intimidation , the the

means ; but with the Icelanders

for

choice subjects

from

policy proved injudicious and abortive . The next year after the arrival of the missionary

Norway , the Althing the gods

passed

or dealt with

a law

them

in

deprecating

a

spectful manner , should be guilty of

offense

and disre . This mis

of

an

of

the

from

that whoever injured

.

to

,

of

a

to

force

in

.

to

,

a

,

coerce conscience

and fetter the human

.

kind spirit

of

of of

,

in

by

.

of

to

as

.

, of

of

,

of

in

,

,

sionary had being the first victim doubtful honor the new law and he accordingly took his departure the year 997 unloved and unlamented anyone He had opposition and consolidated the strengthened the spirit paganism forces The citizens Iceland here un worthily fled legislation refuge reinforce the bigotry example demands and intolerance The set was Christianity itself followed conscientiously later years and other countries our own included Peoples who thought themselves vastly more civilized than the despise Scandinavians the Viking Age who affected them because their violence merely adopted different

A

.

to

of

be

to

to

, ,

A

if

a

of

,

to

a

of

.

.

in

a

to

,

,

King Olaf disappointed but not discouraged when his missionary returned and reported failure made prepara priest who belonged spread tions send his court king gospel severely the Iceland The should not too Viking possessed criticized for his choice the ideal virtues Christian missionary would have been diffi cult find even Olaf had been truly anxious enlist the services such man conscientious search would

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

194

doubtless have been rewarded in heaven , but to encounter such an individual in the flesh was about as probable as it is that any one now living will see a man named Olson elected leader of Tammany Hall . One is impressed that his majesty

considered

the task

of

converting

the

Ice

landers one of Herculean magnitude , when the character of the second missionary is examined . Undoubtedly they

hard lot, and strenuous measures were needed to start them on the way towards salvation . Many of them were not anxious to be saved in the Christian manner ; they were unimpressed by threats of Purgatory and unter rified by the most lurid descriptions of Hell . Thangbrand , the new missionary , came prepared to adopt heroic treatment . He had committed numerous were

a

homicides and had been compelled to leave Denmark be cause of gross misdemeanors . Thereafter , he had become a priest in a church which King Olaf of Norway had erected

. Here , however ,

the reverend gentleman

lived in

such state that the funds of the church were soon dissi pated . He was a resourceful individual and in order to replenish the treasury he had robbed , he organized forag ing expeditions against non -Christian peoples and main tained himself by the gold which he mercilessly extorted from

them

.

In

justice to King

Olaf it must

be said

that he

of these priestly methods and reprimanded severely . The holy father , however , won the favor forgiveness of his sovereign by undertaking the diffi

disapproved him

and

cult task of converting the Icelanders . The pious Olaf possibly felt that missionary service in Iceland was a real penance , a sufficient punishment for the most outrageous crimes ; at any rate , Thangbrand went . Thangbrand had not been long in Iceland before the men whose sympathies were Christian distrusted and the

CHRISTIANITY AND THE CHURCH pagans despised

him

. He would have

had it not

for

the timely assistance

of

a

severely

yeoman , his

been

suffered

195

a

.

.

of

,

,

, ,

be

to

it

on

.

who accepted baptism and received the rascal into home The next summer Thangbrand began his journey horseback and must said that he applied himself his task with characteristic vigor He was large vital man physically strong aggressive and unscrupulous but gifted with marvelous powers speech He proclaimed

of

in

to

. at

.”

he

"

in

the faith with the sword one hand and the cross the During message presented other the summer the Christianity the Althing and many are said have been converted While riding the circuit he baptized sev

a

,

,

at

of

in

to

.

of

eral leaders and the heads of powerful families who be came pillars the new religion Thangbrand however was unable control his predatory spirit and 999 was adjudged guilty homicide the Althing and forced

.

to

leave the country

un

by

of

;

of

he

of

to

its

of

;

.

in

's

a

-

a

,

In

of

corrupt character and spite Christian partial suc methods Thangbrand missionary tour was cess The explanation lies the fact that seeds sown taking others were root that paganism itself was dying satisfy the demands own incapacity the soul and that was the possessor the great gift elo When he reached Norway and reported his picture far from hopeful He seem presented ingly felt that much work would have done save the Icelanders from the Devil indeed the latter wanted disturbing element within his dominion such At this date Christianity had taken substantial hold the northern and southern portions the island im possible any accuracy state with the full extent which to

be

,

is

It

.

to

to

of

in

.

a

, if

to

.

a

he

.

to

quence

king

of

,

conversion had taken place because the Sagas mention merely the names the leading men who embraced the

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

196

faith . It is likely , however

,

that Christianity spread ex tensively among the common people who in this , as in other matters , were likely to follow quite readily in the

footsteps of the most prominent chieftains ; and it must be forgotten that the dogma of Christianity carried strongest appeal the common the mind and heart

of

.

this time

a

It

the

scale

at

in

the social and economic taken for granted that

be

may

the bosom

in

and found the least resistance

man

humblest

of

of

to

its

not

strong

which was that Thing

Althing

appeared

At

.

of

in

,

movement had set the result men were withdrawing from the pagan Godis and ranging themselves under the support the Christian chiefs

. it

;

in

;

of

be

in

a

no

in

it

that division sentiment longer could was steadily growing and that said that Christianity was found only isolated cases At this Althing there was severe and somewhat general criticism the pagan deities the Christians spoke against them 999

to

to

,

so

.

,

and there was division and debate among sections and groups over religion The following summer the year strong that they 1000 the Christian group had become organize and offer resistance hesitated no longer the an

.

in

offering

to

his purpose

go

from

to

arch

by

,

or

of ,

,

to

.

other party Norway with When Thangbrand returned un satisfactory report concerning his missionary efforts King Olaf threatened reprisals against some citizens Ice Norway temporarily domiciled land then visiting Two distinguished Icelanders dissuaded the zealous mon their country

.

Hjalti

to

did

June

)

in

(

annual session

to

Iceland the following summer Althing was due open

,

They went

about the time the

its

Skjeggjason

arriving

to

. .

of

that year and bring about the conversion the people Christianity They were Gizur the White and Hjalti

not

proceed

all

the

CHRISTIANITY

AND THE CHURCH

197

it

en to

all

way to the Althing , but stopped with twelve men at a point some miles distant , the reason being that he was an offender against the law and it was not permissible for him to visit parliament . A short distance from the Al thing his colleague established his headquarters at a stra tegic point . Highways radiated in directions from his camp and made accessible without coming very close the plains where the Althing assembled From campment they sent messengers Althing the

,

to

.

this inviting

.

by

of

a

of

.

,

,

to

.

in

to

Hjalti then friends and relatives meet conference came being unable contain himself longer and thus defied the disability which the law put upon him He was high spirit and great zeal The Christian adher man ents these two leaders had heard that their opponents

,

in

,

,

,

all

on

22

.

.

in

,

, if

to

necessary intended exclude them force from attending the session The pagan party was present large numbers fully prepared for any contingency These events took place June the year 1000 England saint and sinner alike was atremble when

.

an

a

.

of

in

to

to

with the fear that the world was about come end When the pagan group saw what the other side was doing they formed their forces warlike fashion and clash arms seemed imminent Fortunately there were among

Thoughtful

men

cloudless

sky

,

be

rose into

a

sun

of

June the

,

of

On the 23rd

both

next war

camps awaited the dawn with grave misgivings day would decide whether there should peace

.

reach

or for

easy

.

weapons within

in

.

,

to

-

of

the followers Thor sober minded men who earnestly desired avert hostilities and the consequent confusion Night came and both groups retired they foresaw

a

forces

on

.

a

smouldering passions and cast his beams upon scene lurking calamity and The Christians collected their river bank where divine services

were con

198

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM ,

felt himself

equal

the

to

pagan

; of of of a

of

their addresses that replying task

no

.

,

so

,

,

by

.

of

in

;

a

to

.

,

in

in

of

,

to

,

at

ducted the first Christian service held the Althing the spot hitherto sacred Frey Thor Odin and At the con body Logberg clusion the service they marched shining the procession were seven priests clothed burning incense The robes carrying crosses and vessels reputa two missionaries from King Olaf well known people great power among spoke tion the with before the impressive were assembly Indeed the Saga says that possible

be

,

in

,

,

is ,

It

.

,

a

;

.

,

to

an

;

on

.

in

a

a

to

or

by

; it

.

on

.

it

as

that this state ment reflects the bias Christian chronicler but may the force that their appeal was well nigh irre sistible Feeling ran high the more spirited the crowd both sides milled back and forth ready for the worst required The tension had reached the breaking point only some firebrand thrown into the assemblage struggle which Mirabeau Patrick Henry unloose would have brought widespread ruin and death its wake Each group seceded from the existing civil govern ment and from the law each group resolved the spot independent establish Commonwealth and each group felt and knew that such separation could mean nothing but conflict confusion and bloodshed course

a

, ,

of

of of

in

of

,

to

.

on

It

be

of

fairly denied that the conduct cannot the Chris mag They organized presumption tians bordered parade Logberg parliament very nificent the center priests clothed glowing robes under the leadership

,

,

in

.

a

in

,

of

,

an

a

,

.

of

of

a

carrying the cross Christianity and diffusing the incense was part the ceremony the new worship At Hjalti the head the procession marched man virtually Skeggjason who was outlaw who defiance stepped boldly for the civil law and ancient custom place where his presence was taboo ward and spoke

which

CHRISTIANITY

AND

THE CHURCH

199

There was much with which militant religious enthusi on either side would find it difficult to be reconciled . Christians , on the one hand , could not agree to worship idols , or to be wholly excluded from participation in the government . They would rather secede and form a new state than agree to the perpetuation of the existing order .

asm

On the other hand , the pagan Godis were equally deter mined to stand by their ancient gods and not surrender political power . They regarded the their long -cherished party Christian as a revolutionary organization and the

Christians themselves as upstarts . In the eyes of the old régime the Christians were guilty of violating the law of the land and by their own conduct were deemed to have put themselves outside the pale of civil law . Thus , it

seemed , an impasse had been reached ; the differences were fundamental ; both sides insisted that the conscience must be free ; and an adjustment appeared impossible . The Christian party withdrew ; the pagans assembled at another point . To all outward appearances civil war

was just around the corner . The Christians chose a new Law -speaker in the projected Christian Commonwealth , which they were ready to set up . They were serious and determined . The

man

new

. He immediately

Thorgeir wealth

,

,

Speaker was entered into

a

wise and temperate

an

arrangement with

the Law -speaker of the existing Common , although proclaim that the latter the law a pagan

and elected under the ancient régime. The responsibility was accepted and he forthwith repaired to his booth , retiring under a large robe which , so the story goes , he

June

,

24th

of

day

the

following

,

On

the

pulled over his head . He lay thus in detached and solemn meditation all day and the following night, without com municating with anyone . Thorgeir

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

200

threw aside the robe and summoned the populace to Log berg . He thereupon commenced the most important ora tion theretofore , or since , delivered on Icelandic soil . He lamented the fact that a division among the people and a break -up of the civil government impended unless men

counsel of wisdom and moderation to avert that fearful calamity . He pointed out that one law for the island was the only safeguard of peace and orderly prog ress . He urged upon his hearers that secession and the formation of two states would certainly lead to perpetual and bloody discord . He then said : “ It seems to be ad took

that at this juncture those who counsel extreme measures upon either side be not permitted to rule, but that we so compromise the matter in controversy that position and that each side shall not wholly surrender recognize the authority all of one system law and throughout prove custom Iceland will true that when

of ,

It

.

of

us

its

visable

.”

we sunder the law we end peace

so

,

horse meat

the old law

children

should stand

those who desired might continue the heathen gods privately but

His

counsel

pre

and baptism but and the eating

.

the exposing

to

concerning

of

all

.

should control throughout the island vailed that men accept Christianity

,

,

So

wise seemed his counsel effective was his presen tation that both sides agreed that one law and one custom

He advised

worship

Thor

of

that and

,

,

in

,

.

.

a

,

if

publicly done punish ment should follow Then there was universal baptism Althing adjourned Christianity and the Thus became the state religion but the main the conscience continued .

free

in

,

of

of

.

at

The foregoing briefly describes the events which took place thememorable session the Althing the year Christianity 1000 compromise and cer was the result

CHRISTIANITY

AND THE CHURCH

201

,

,

in

of

.

or

in

to

of

.

of

in

.

of

,

a

,

to

all

tain political considerations are rather obviously in the background . On both sides were conservative men who were anxious , above maintain peace and order and plan compromise The leaders therefore work out part prominent who had the most the settlement were men fine intelligence who sincerely deprecated violence There were passionate votaries the conflicting religions headlong camps zeal was indifferent whose both type consequences was the foreground This means

;

,

,

.

, it

to

on

,

or

of

.

; of

of

,

as

during the early hours the session but time passed they receded and the spirit compromise and accommo dation took their place The counsels moderate men grad agitators quieted the turbulent passions zealots ually withdrew were shoved aside and the more con servative and more intelligent men both sides came the front The threatened secession was foreseen destroy only would not divide the island the existing gov it

of of

an

,

of

so

, ,

in

in

.

a

,

ernment and introduce new political state but would tear asunder families and friendships history magnitude approaching Few incidents national proportions involving fundamental questions politics and religion afford striking illustration

of

a

in

is

.

of

the wisdom the ancients who counseled the supremacy of reason over the lower passions And this bit Ice landic history itself voluminous commentary upon

,

of in

or

of

. of

of a

be

as

.

the essential sobriety the Scandinavian character To describe this event merely evidence national phleg proof complacent ignorance matism would itself mean and patronizing soul The actors this stirring

,

,

O

of

"

:

to

of

of

of

,

drama were the men and the descendants men whose fierce and warlike spirit had inspired the people the British Isles and the mainland the European conti pray nent From the wrath the Norsemen Lord

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

202

deliver us !” They feared nothing loved nothing better than the music great compromise of the year 1000

on

earth

;

and

they

of clashing arms . The A . D . was not of the

kind that slothful cowards make ; it was an adjustment born of reason and good sense , affirming the divinely planned sovereignty of a rational mind over the passions fires flash but give no light . Although nominally the new system

whose in

the compromise

,

of faith triumphed

was far from uprooted .

yet paganism

The conditions upon which baptism was accepted by the pagan party were of such a character that , in one sense , the Christians won but a pyrrhic victory . The conversion

was merely a concession in the interest of peace . Little, or nothing , happened on that memorable June day to touch the hearts

of men

and

turn

to

them

Habits of thought and worship were altered . The Christians

had full

sincere repentance . scarcely affected , or

that their faith would grow and push out paganism . The progress was slow , so slow , indeed , that popular thinking was not purged of ancient characteristics until generations later The organization civil and political society con pagan foundation official positions and tinued upon government such stitutions the Godord the Thing legislative and the branch stood close and really funda mental relationship with the old faith There was little

, in

,

as

.

in

, ,

of

a

;

.

of

its

confidence

a

,

.

in

of

as

.

,

,

in

,

outward and visible change this respect notwithstand ing Christianity had been accepted and most customs and long practices although of pagan origin remained for time unchanged Feasts and festive occasions were observed about the same after Christianity before This was true particu larly the Yule feast and the celebration the begin

CHRISTIANITY AND THE CHURCH ning

203

of

summer . There was a superficial change in this that after paganism had legally ceased to exist men drank , for drink they must , to the honor of Christ, of the

Virgin stead

Mary, of

the Holy Ghost , and of the Saints , in , , thus honoring Thor and Frey . The formerly of as

the pagan temples and the Things , to which reference has been made , between the ceremonies of pagan sacrifice and the performance of gov ernmental functions , continued without essential modifi cation in any other respect than that a church structure and a church congregation took the place of the temple and the temple meetings under the old system . It was the privilege of any individual to erect a church relation between

intimate

is reason to believe that the prac maintaining private places of worship was common tice of throughout Iceland in this period , particularly by those who formerly had maintained a sort of public or quasi public temple . The pragmatic proponents of Christianity let it be known that an individual would have the right to dispose as many men in heaven as were able to find standing room in a church which had been built by him . Naturally , this inducement was a stimulus which brought on

his homestead . There

about the construction of private places of worship for public use by chiefs and by community leaders throughout the land . Here the influence of paganism is obvious . The vital importance , under the old system , in the

great conflict of Ragnarok , of having a large army of competent warriors , had long been felt and understood by the Scandinavians ; that a similar situation might exist in the Christian heaven helped the conscience to bridge the gap between the new and the old . The promise was a the transition smoother , with less

convictions

This bit

vio

prac

of

and established

.

of making

lence to

old

means

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

204

tical syncretism did no harm . To adapt to the new a principle which had been highly efficacious in holding men to the old religion was both expedient and wise . Indeed , it is obvious that in some respects themissionaries so taught the principles of Christianity as to make it appear that

the differences were more nominal than real ; that in fun damentals the change involved little more than a substi tution of the reign of Christ for the rule of Thor . It is impossible to read the story of the first years of Chris tianity in Iceland without the conviction that commend able tact and discretion were used by the early teachers , without which much of history would have been writ in

blood . When

an

individual erected

a

church upon his premises

he engaged someone to preach therein . Sometimes the owner himself undertook to perform the duties of the pastor 's office . Here , again , we are reminded of the Godi who presided over the ceremonies of pagan worship in the temple which he had built upon his own land . The old relation between religious ceremonies and governmental

activities was retained and the Godis remained , as they had been before , leaders in local politics and ministers of religion . The plan was not calculated to promote the cause of true faith . The church was, in reality , a national institution , a federal body, so to speak , and in organiza tion and polity was essentially different from the Chris tian church in other countries .

the most powerful reasons for the delay in the of Christianity was the shortage of ministers or priests qualified to disseminate its doctrines . Although there was perhaps an abundance of church structures , One

of

.

trained men were not available to their supervision concerning the observ There was

and

no

capable

pulpits

fill

spread

CHRISTIANITY

AND THE CHURCH

205

of Christianity , or, for generations, in church gov ernment or polity . While the annals of Iceland mention the names of several bishops of foreign birth or extrac tion , who officiated in the country now and then during the first part of the eleventh century , there is little evi dence that these foreign dignitaries established an inti mate spiritual relation with the people . It was not until 1056 , following the accession of Bishop Isleif , that any ance

serious steps were taken towards the formation government on the island .

of church

CHAPTER IX Poetry and Saga \ HE

high notes of Scandinavian genius are sounded the poetry of the Eddas. These poems, about thirty - five in number , deal partly with mythologi

in

cal and partly with heroic themes . The latter , in the main , are concerned with the Siegfried and the Theodoric leg ends . Prior to 1643 , when an Icelandic bishop came into

of

possession

teenth century

a

,

the latter part of the thir which were recorded poems and parts

vellum on

of poems which have Sæmund

the Learned

known . The vellum

is

from

since been known as the

, or Wise , this treasure

Snorri 's

and now ranks gems in the world

Prose Edda ,

was

of un

deposited

Copenhagen

literary

Edda

show

in the Royal Library at among the most precious

. Other

sources

, notably

that there were many poems

existence at one time , which

are not found in this col lection . It is on this bit of parchment that we find in scribed a portion of that which is now known as the Eddic poetry . Like the birthplace of Columbus , the date and author ship of the Eddas have been the subject of conflicting claims and theories . It appears most probable that the

in

poems were composed in the ninth and tenth centuries , but the parchment on which the major portion has been received is of a date near 1275 , and is a copy of an older manuscript which has been lost . Concerning the place of origin opinion has divided . One group has maintained that the poems probably originated in the Scandinavian 206

Reykjavik

POETRY AND SAGA

207

settlements in Scotland , England or the Orkneys ; others have thought that they were composed in Norway ; while a third group is convinced that they originated in Iceland . There is virtual unanimity that the Eddic poetry was first written and preserved in Iceland . It has been pointed out that during the tenth and eleventh centuries the Icelanders were much superior to other peoples of the same race in the field of poetry , and that they were without competitors insofar as serious attempts at versi fication were concerned . All the poetry , it must be noted , which has come to us from the Scandinavians of this era is founded upon an intimate understanding of the my

thology of the North and the authors , in order to write poetry , were obliged to become thoroughly familiar with

this ancient lore . Among the outstanding characteristics of the poetry are wealth of figures and imagery ; but here it was impos sible to excel without a profound knowledge of ancient learning and myths . To the modern reader the chief difficulty in reading the poetry with understanding lies in the abundance of allusions to mythological tales , without knowledge of which the whole is utterly unin a thorough telligible . There is real support for the contention that the poems are mainly of Icelandic origin because the Ice

landers , above all others , concerned themselves with a study of ancient myths . This fact alone may afford but slender props for the argument that the Eddic poetry was composed in Iceland ; yet , inasmuch as we are specu lating upon probabilities , the fact is not without signifi cance to the thoughtful investigator . Those who maintain that the Eddic poetry originated elsewhere should have the laboring oar, in view of undisputed historical facts ; in the language of the law , the intellectual habits and the

208

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

poetic tastes of the Icelanders of this day should give rise to a presumption that Iceland was the place of origin , a presumption not to be overthrown save by substantial , purely speculative , evidence . as distinguished from attempted Scholars have to show by minute analysis of expression the forms of in the poems, and by the terms , phrases they or used that must have originated in Nor way , possibly in Sweden , or in some other country . In this connection , however , sight must not be lost of the fact that in the period under consideration citizens of Iceland were as much at home in Norway as in their own coun try ; that the Sagas exhibit them as world travelers and frequent visitors and residents, for long periods , in Nor way and the Scandinavian countries ; and that there they were favorites at the courts of princes and of kings . Mere forms of expression and the language used in iso lated passages are of uncertain value as a basis for valid conclusions respecting origin . Be that as it may , and re gardless of the place where the poems originated , their interest in them , their devotion to them , their resolution to preserve them , give the Icelanders the paramount

right

to claim them as their spiritual possession . When the Eddic poetry reached Denmark and became known in other countries , it created a world sensation . All sorts of speculations and fanciful theories were ram

pant concerning their nature and origin . Some thought the poems the work of a contemporary of Moses , originally engraved on tablets , like the ten commandments ; others supernatural creature and supposed them to have been composed ages before the Trojan ; war and some pronounced Edda the oldest book in the world . Shortly there was a reaction ; the pæans of praise turned into laughter and ridicule . The poems were de attributed

them

to

a

POETRY AND SAGA nounced

as

a

mixture

of

209

pagan and Christian notions ,

a

Norse of heathenism and Christianity . It re mained for the Grimm brothers in Germany to under stand them correctly and to assign a proper place in the world of letters to the poetry of the Eddas . While we cannot be sure that the poems come to us in goulash

their original forms, yet it has been said by conservative and competent students that some of them excel in lofti ness of thought and in power of expression the best from the pens of Scandinavian poets down to the present time. Indeed

, it has

been

asserted

that no poetry , in any part greater heights in sweep literary art than some parts

of the world , has ever attained and depth of feeling and

of

the

Eddas.

The claims poetic

art,

are

in

for the Eddas as not , as sometimes

of ancient , made without

the high level supposed

regard to the great forward strides in other fields. As pointed out by the historian Jonsson , it is a debatable question whether advancement in the natural arts is con ducive to the development of poetic excellence . Poetry and art, in some respects , are at opposite poles . The formulas of experimental science are verified and they expand

with

, but art does not always . The latter is a gift of Na of divine growth , sometimes bearing the

each

generation

keep pace with this progress

ture, a seed most powerful fruit among ancient and uncultivated peoples , and in the soil of insophistication where ideals and ideas are simple and childlike , but the feelings clear and strong . In the infancy of nations the imagination is rich and lively , the feelings strongest and most diverse . The mind roams without restraint through the realms of space and time . Everything the eye sees becomes at once living literature , takes on the semblance of life and truth

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

210

matter how improbable , unscientific or unnatural it may be . The feelings and desires are varied and powerful , sometimes uncontrollable , but they have not yet lost the natural innocence and candor of youth . These are perhaps the primary conditions of real poetry . With such a people the true romance still lives ; and no

“

Who holds by Thee hath Heaven To guild his dross thereby ;

in

fee

And knowledge sure that he endure A

child

until he

die

. . . ."

,

compositions

of

a

to

lie

of

.

's

of

in

put

,

and the Odyssey Homer are justly greatest poetry Here the front rank the world also may the explanation the fact that some simple superior songs justly occupy place folk the elaborate

,

Eddas Beowulf

of

.

of

its

Language itself , in the childhood of the race , is perhaps best adapted to express simple and large themes ; it is rich in tuneful and descriptive phrases and devoid of meaning less , far -fetched , artificial, or weak images and ideals . There is a real explanation , could we but find and express it , for the fact that the ancient poetry of vanished nations is beautiful in thought and forceful in the simplicity of Perhaps these are some style the reasons why the

a

of

to

is

It

a

;

us

.

in

in

In

.

to

,

a

,

or

.

of

.

it

.

is

,

.

famed artists The Eddic poetry naturally falls into two divisions the Voluspa heroic and the mythological the outstanding By common consent poem has been considered the mas terpiece the Eddas not easy conceive powerful prelude nobler more more artistically per fect and magnificently conceived introduction than we have the poems which follow the Voluspa faith the Asas and its essential philosophy are pictured few powerful stanzas The poet steers his course high into the heavens and sweeps with him over land and sea he

POETRY AND SAGA

211

flashes before our vision the stream of events , and the in most secrets of existence are laid bare . From her sleep of death in the tomb , Odin awakens the Vala , and to him she yields her learning and her wisdom in the hearing of his subordinate and associate deities . She tells of the origin of the world , and of the changes which took place when Odin and his brothers appeared upon the scene and the work of creation commenced . Then arose a period of golden splendor , bright and beautiful in unbroken peace . The world was filled with quiet and happiness until the

of the maids from the home of the wicked giants introduced strife and homicides into the universal con cord . The gods themselves shed blood and broke faith . Innocence was banished , happiness disappeared , as per

coming

fection had fled from the Garden of Eden when Eve be came guilty of the “ first disobedience ." The very air was surcharged with cunning . Such is the condition when the Vala is summoned

from

her grave . She hesitates a moment , and then comes , like the voice of death itself , the reiterated question : " Do you know , or not ? ” She traces the lines of destiny and again and again there echoes the question with increasing em phasis and uncanny significance , as if to prepare and to impress her hearers concerning the fateful message which is to follow . The clouds contract gradually ; the shadows

ture

, and the Vala flashes before the eye

of

a

somber

the fate which awaits evil men on the " strand comes ,

death .” Then

for the last time,

the

deepen

pic

of

pregnant ques is

.

of

in

.

;

of

.

,

;

to

,

is

just before the prophecy tion uttered There still opportunity return the curtain which hides the future has not been lifted The trumpet sounds and we have the essence the message which she brought and then the prophecy Everything trembles the presence the

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

212

judgment ; Jotunheim

, and dwarfs groan

in their , , great Ragnarok rock -bound homes . At last the conflict , , struggle bursts the world is ablaze and the final between good and evil has begun . The song changes . The Vala takes another glimpse into the future , far off ; now the vision is brighter , less terrible . The work of creation anew begins , and she sees the earth again , this time rising from the sea , clothed in garments of green ; the sound of the waterfalls strikes upon the ear ; the eagle soars majestically over the mountains ; and the waters are stocked with innumerable creatures. A second and more magnificent golden age has come. In contrast with the evil persons who lived on forbidding Nastrond , she sees beautiful dwellings where good men abide . As a grand climax , the prophetess previsions indistinctly , as in a dream , the all- powerful Ruler of earth and heaven com

ing from

resounds

the firmament ,

but whose name she does not

mention . Such , in

brief and sketchy outline , is this extraordinary poem . The vision of Vala appears like the Northern Lights in the dark vault of heaven ; the glow uncon sciously penetrates and illumines every part

of the mind .

C .

There is cast over the poem an almost supernatural luminosity which charms and awes. It is one of the master creations of all time. The heroic portion of the Edda is quite fragmentary .

The nature of the various conceptions is not uniform ; nor are the poems of the same age or kind.Most of them are all

founded upon ancient tales which at one time were ably the common property of Germanic peoples

prob

,

,

,

is

, .

The principal body main identified with three families the Volsungs the Gjukungs and the Niflungs who are con nected through marriage and over whom there hovers

POETRY AND SAGA

213

fate which no human power can withstand or avert . Odin himself is in the background of the judgment that hangs over them . He occupies the dual rôle of pro tecting friend and destroyer of the family . He endows the constantly

a

heroes with the most attractive qualities and casts over them a glamour of glory ; and at the same time he is the primary cause of their sorrow and death . In part , it is the descendant of the Volsungs , Sigurd ,

the slayer of the serpent, and Helgi who are concerned with the poetic story . The tale of Helgi is of Scandinavian origin and is combined with the story of the Volsungs ; the account of Sigurd , on the other hand , is almost certainly

of German antecedents . In the North , however , the story

of Sigurd

has undergone

transformation

a

. As retold here

story

the theory

of

of

the

it is proper to describe it as Scandinavian , through the

in

the Valkyrie

of ,

a

,

O

of

to

of

.

a

of

in

on

, .

troduction into This principle imparts noble and elevated aspect which Sigurd the judgments some critics puts the story higher level excellence than the corresponding Germanic legends Among the characteristics paganism Scandinavian Valkyrie every was the belief that Odin sent the battle

at

of

of

in

In

.

.

,

;

of

of

victory and that they put the seal death and upon men They were supernatural beings goddesses unique war the heroic poetry this idea appears

field

,

in

a

is

a

of

on

as

,

,

of

at

it is ,

,

is

's

;

.

's

in

a

of

,

in

of

.

of

.

is

The goddess once the beloved the hero and the arbiter his fate The conception maiden be loved and loving the hero the earthly sense mingled with the idea goddess who becomes direct ing force the hero fate This ingredient the Val kyrie affection sublimates the relation between them the love of the goddess earth insofar she puts human form but the same time something vastly form

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

214

nobler than the earthly sentiment which goes by that name . The affection is pure and lofty as the heavens , exalted far above the selfish requirements of mortal hap piness , so strong and lasting that it transcends the bounds of death and the grave . According to Scandinavian philosophy the hero was under a high obligation which he keenly felt and earnestly

in

all

by is

"

to

of ;

if

of "

,

all

is

, in

Viking poets added the pure gold

of

.

,

a

in

at

,

,

of

; it

in

all

strove to discharge . His life was consecrated to the at taining of high ideals and to objectives worthier and more altruistic than personal happiness . This aim stood out against the sky when horizons were wiped out intimately death was connected with the very essence namely the conflict between good the pagan system and evil which persisted life and would last consume conflagration all universal The Greeks may have thought that love lord and the same but we may judge their my thology Virgil spoke sensual love this sentiment the

's

in

an

, .

It

-

so

's

—

in

of

—

by

.

an

it

,

as

of

to

the Valkyrie nature aspect divinely impressive This con ception pictured love the poets unparalleled mythologies called classical times the more sensuous keeping with life ideals was more was affec and imparted

, ,

to

to

; it

"

to

-

is

of

of "

.

-

,

in

a

an

; it

to

less

of

of

a

higher plane into lifted men atmos heat and more unselfish calm was kind love the warp and woof which self respect self discipline and self control No companionate slime bot right yield every tomed the false philosophy pointed sensual impulse muddied its crystal stream tion which

phere

."

son

,

of

,

"

,

's

,

the heavens strengthened the hero arm steeled his res just courage olution and made his not the brutal force of vulgar heroes but the firm resolve virtue and rea

POETRY

AND SAGA

215

of

of

at

.

,

its

The Valkyrie esteemed the fame and good name ofher lover more than fortune , more than life , indeed , more than the lives of both . The love of the Valkyrie is , in essential nature the purest and holiest affection There are grounds least plausible for the belief that this po

in

in

of

in

of

etic conception the North became the ideal love and poetry chivalry the age later centuries and

,

,

as it a

of

,

,

of

.

other climes Sigurd the Volsung and the The triangular story two women who loved him Gudrun and Brynhild illus striking con trates the principle and also presents is

.

as

of

it

both

of

.

for

,

in

to

.

in

no

is

,

of of

.

as

, of

,

of

be , ;

of

,

of as of

of

to

commonly trast this sordid geometric design drawn against the background domestic life The love genuine the former was that the wife and pure earthly love can that the latter was the affection the Valkyrie lofty noble and powerful beyond the measure mortal sentiment Beautiful was the devo tion husband and wife there doubt that the Sigurd Brynhild poet mind the the love between and had the strongest claim upon their destiny Foredoomed disappointment life became the agency death

,

,

;

up

in

,

as

;

,

.

,

,

him

.

She

fate which neither can control has was who infused into the spirit

,

The decree

been satisfied

.

a

as

.

or

from him

death

sigh

it of ;

entwined awakened

she must

She gives

her life Their fates she knows were Sigurdrifa the beginning she had Brynhild she consecrates him life

to

a

;

she

.

of

knows what without murmur

tate

do

is

of

of

.

,

,

of a

is

There contrast between the sorrow Gudrun the Brynhild the Valkyrie which further illus wife and trates this poetical idea Gudrun weeps bitterly after the fashion mortals who lament their dead but the sorrow Brynhild above the plaint tears She does not hesi

PIONEERS

216

OF FREEDOM

of heroism and brought him to a realization of the high character of his mission . His fate and hers mingle in a common stream which , in turn , loses itself in a common eternity

.

The Scandinavians of this period esteemed the art of poetry as the noblest gift of the gods to men . Odin him self spoke in verse , and his son , Bragi, was revered and worshiped as the god of poetry . In the Edda it is said of him that he is " wise ; he is endowed with skill in the use of words ; and he knows most of poetry ." We see here the qualities which were deemed essential in the poet of the first rank . Hemust have good natural gifts ; and he must have discerning intelligence . All these are comprehended the word , " wise ." Yet more was necessary . With wis must be power of speech , the gift of clothing thoughts and images in tasteful and attractive garments . Ability to write poetry is ranked with the rarest of gifts . The distinguished poet , Egil Skallagrimsson , calls

in

dom

it gift " without fault . ” The consideration shown the Ice landic poets by kings and princes in other lands is strong proof of the high position of the poetic art. A man , though he may have been unknown and without friends , if he had this gift , and some poems to recite , was received everywhere with courtesy and distinction . It was the one

la

to

be

,

Milton

.

of

a

,

of

in

reflect with

,

with

,

that he was born too late but let him comfort upon the fact that those days the poet life mediocre like that the wicked was some times cut short

,

ment

a

.

let

universal passport to the royal courts of the North . The poets were not only cordially received , but lavish presents were bestowed upon them ; indeed , it was beneath the dignity of kings to them depart without substantial re tempted wards Many modern versifier may

POETRY AND SAGA

217

The court poets were especially honored by the kings . some respects they occupied a higher position at the court than most other men ; they sat in a seat of honor in In

the royal hall ; and they were , on occasion , entrusted with important foreign missions . Harald the Fairhaired , ambi

,

,

of

of

to

.

all , at his

tious and warlike sovereign that he was, esteemed his poets above courtiers and assigned them the high seat The poets the court Olaf the Swedish king regularly required were attend the royal presence be as .

as

.

them

cleverest

it

for

the

, re

is

.

, of

not of

,

as

as

of

often plays

's

in

,

but only because they are Shakespeare characters

be

.

or

of

of

in

,

in

of

,

of

or

a

to

,

,

cause their bold and interesting verses The men were popular with the entire court well with the sover eign because they entertained the assemblage and were lively stanza into the midst discharge ever prepared commonplace Dignitaries toler dull conversation sharp they ated words from them and were often blunt kings The Sagas men and plain spoken the presence tion incidents where poets were spokesmen before the king public matters common concern One minded the position the court jesters old England

might

,

.

to

.

of

.

in

,

said without extravagance that they are the wisest fools Christendom Other reasons than love of art explain the royal toler poetry the ance and the royal favor Upon the wings kingly fame was carried from land land The ballads

, .

a

It

,

of

,

in

an

,

by

.

in

,

.

in

,

of

princes sang their praises recited the achievements quarters where otherwise and introduced their names they would have been unknown One poem famous the literature Scandinavia originated under dramatic circumstances was com pris Egil Skallagrimsson posed one night while oner with unsheathed sword hanging over his head

OD PIONEERS PIONEERS OD OF FREEDOM

218

This

is one of the most stirring songs ever com any language . Every cord is strained to the ut in most ; there is a crackling in every phrase . One can almost poem

posed

clash of arms and the roar of battle in every line . wonder that the next day , when the poet recited

hear the

It

is no

his

of

it

,

.

”

came some

written

ever

the

most

rugged

Scandinavian

a

,

verses

of

his mind

been

in

but from powerful and

“

of

a

as

.

,

;

he

,

of

his

royal the stanzas to the king and his assembled court , highness restored the poet his liberty and revoked the sen great tence death notwithstanding the author was est enemy but then was also the first poet the North Egil with characteristic humor described the Ugly may have gift pardon his own ugly head

.

tongue

of

battle

. he ,

sometimes

fighting

came out alive he Much Northern his —

and then

if

in

or

crusade

;

his

side with

him

side

by

his chief

on

.

of

.

of

.

at

We have reached the place where poetry and story telling meet The poets were once the repositories songs and the historians their times Usually the sub poetry was current events The poet accompanied ject

"

;

to

:

,

of

to

up

set

a

is

be

,

he

.

at

to

.

.

or

in

of

a

or

of

in

in

.

of

a

in

poem commemorated the events trustworthi tory was thus preserved The guarantee poems the were recited the fact that the ness lies presence men who had taken part multitude gross exag Errors witnessed the events described gerations would not have been tolerated One reason for accompany the chiefs was that they requiring the poets might see and more clearly describe the events which happened When Olaf the Swede formed his armies rampart shields and summoned Stiklastad telling You poets within saying remain them his y ou happen will see about see what and here shall

POETRY AND SAGA for yourselves , and about it later . "

219

you shall relate and compose poetry

From the latter part of the tenth century forward the gift of poetry appears to have been largely the property of the Icelanders . From then on the court poets, one after another , are of Icelandic birth . In some instances the gift seems to have run in families from generation to genera tion .

The subject -matter of poetry was neither complex nor . The themes were mostly historical or contempo rary . True lyric poetry was seldom composed . Of course , there is a play of feeling and imagination in isolated stan diverse

or in fragments of poems, but the contrary appears to have been the rule . Sometimes there occur fine descrip zas

tions of nature , but such are usually incidental to some historical subject which is " the central , unifying and illu minating " theme. Love , the age -old favorite , was seldom , if ever, the principal subject among the Icelandic poets . It is only in an occasional stanza, composed to an indi vidual of the fair sex , or about women , that the sentiment of love finds poetic expression . Sorrow is frequently a leading subject in the old Ice

landic poetry . Most conspicuous in this class is a poem by Egil Skallagrimsson . In this masterpiece sorrow is the theme. Every line , almost every clause , throbs with the

grief over the loss of his sons. It is marvelous production , suggesting , by contrast rather than similarity , Tennyson 's " In Memoriam .” The be reaved father is left alone , like an old and weather -beaten oak , bowed and almost broken in the whirlwind of the storm . As the poem progresses the spirit of courage and gradually recovers independence normal position intense and passionate

the

poet rises

in

the

,

the

end

until

,

supremacy

at

its

of

a

majesty

220

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

of power , which whelm

, and hurls

no adversity

defiance

manly self -reliance ,

can awe, and no grief

at the gods. It

ends on

a

over

note

of

keeping with the finest traditions of Viking courage and of Viking individualism . The state which grew up in Iceland following the set tlement period resulted in customs and institutions funda in

mentally different from those found in other parts of Europe , particularly under feudalism in France and England . Enough has been said to show that the settlers and their descendants were distinctly individualists . Obvi ously , it was impossible for the institution of feudalism to take root or thrive in a soil so impregnated with the senti ment of personal liberty . Certain physiographical fea tures precluded the rise of cities or urban centers . The

was substantial , but it was dependent voluntary allegiance of individuals and rested the entirely in customary law . The popular taste for social intercourse and for exchange of ideas was not to be thwarted by the fortuitous circumstances of geography or isolation . The Thing , especially the Althing , and foreign travel contributed liberally to the foundation upon which grew the great structure of the Saga and the custom of Saga telling . There was virtually no music or dancing , and almost nothing which can be described as drama during the period of the Commonwealth . The recitation of verses and the telling of stories were the leading , if not the only , power

of the Godis

upon

diversion , aside from athletic games and feats of skill and strength . The subject -matter of poetry and Saga was the achievements of families and of individuals , the prowess of certain Vikings , and the adventures which they experi lands and in distant seas . The early and type finest of the Saga is indicative of the fact that the

enced in foreign

POETRY AND SAGA

221

of that date , although they had strong religious feelings , preferred the truth to the frankly fictional or people

account.

mythological From

the

custom

were repeated

in

of itinerant

one

story -telling where tales

home after another , it resulted that in volume until they involved whole

the narratives grew groups , families , and the histories of certain sections , with details of names and incidents reaching back to the days of the settlement. The Saga originated as a historical

recital of events in the lives of persons who had actually lived . The Saga , therefore , constitutes the one reliable

source of the history of the island , of the names of the leading men of the period of settlement and afterwards , even of leading events in other countries , of the customs, social and political, and of the system of legal procedure

during the Commonwealth . and later reduced

to

If the Sagas

writing, this period

had not been told in

Northern his

tory would have been darkly and forbiddingly barren .

For generations before the Saga was reduced to writing manuscript in form it had been told again and again from memory . As time passed and one generation took the place of another , the characters and incidents multiplied . It thus comes to pass that some of the finest Sagas are written as they were spoken and possess none of the stilted or labored style of the story which is spun out of the imagination of the author and written by him . The style is simple and direct ; the sentences are remarkably short and clear ; and the words are chosen plicity and their fitness to convey an idea

for in

their sim the briefest

and clearest compass . Seldom is the thread of the narra tive interfered with to indulge in descriptions of natural scenery , nor are passages interspersed containing the com

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

222

of that which he is telling . The Saga has many serious defects when measured by the accepted standards of modern fiction . Today 's criteria judged are not a correct measure of merits must listening from the standpoint one who tale reading rather than one who book As indicated be

.

a

to

is

a

had been

it

written

during

told

of

many generations

as

the story

is

,

before

is

of

of

it

;

its

ment of the author upon any aspect

a

to

in

,

,

of

is

writing which really follows Ari the Learned the literary school which wrote the

,

reduced

who

to

.

in

it

.

-

is

of

,

in

, or

-

so

.

a

a

of

of .

of

.

The real authors the tale have purpose different from that of the writer the modern story They were concerned with keeping active the inter est listener rather than reader High authorities have distinguished the called heroic age the Saga Age Iceland from about 890 about 1030 from the succeeding period which marks the growth the Saga and which sometimes called the story telling age During the second period the Saga was gradually taking the form which later centuries found the manuscripts Then comes the third period when they were the founder

.

Sagas

complete

in

the Sagas can

be

of

No consideration

any

of

to

's

he

,

in

.

a

of

.

to

in

a

,

in

.

,

1118 was men Snorri says that Ari Iceland who wrote the Old Norse and

the island

,

in

was the first man

Godi

by

He was

the chiefs

of a

his adult life

tioned among

.

of

.

of

to

.

,

without some reference

to

the great historian Ari 1067 1148 He was called the Learned royal family Some and was descendant his although they ancestors were born Ireland died Ice land On his mother side traced his family Sidu Hall whom also three great Icelandic historians have traced their descent We know more his childhood than sense

who lived from

POETRY AND SAGA

223

,

Old Scandinavian language, histories relating to an cient and modern times . Ari is the author of Landnama bok , that is , the book of settlement ; Islendingabok , or the or

of the Icelanders, and he is also said to be the author , or the book of the kings . Up to this time Konungabok of it seems there were only Sagas , that is, oral narrations , whereas , after his time we begin to hear of " books ." The Greater Sagas are to be distinguished from the earlier historical-biographical material , such as we find in Landnamabok , Islendingabok and Konungabok . The

book

former are more romantic than the latter . The greatest of these is the story of Burnt Njal, composed between 1230 and 1280 , but by whom no one knows. In no other Saga do we find so clear a picture of the Icelandic legal

system in actual operation as in Njalssaga . It enjoys the unique distinction in the world 's literature of successfully commingling law and narration without detriment to either . Egilssaga — the hero or leading character is the great poet Egill Skallagrimsson - is a stirring story of adventure ; Laxdæla is the Saga of romance , par excel

a

is

,

a

to

;

beau

external nature matter often political and Eyrbyggia Saga the Greater Sagas must be

al in

.

story

In

ignored

relation the Sagas this group

”

in

of

tiful

in its

lence , and , as said by Edmund Gosse , is " extremely

),

in

.

(

is of

Grettissaga that Grettir the Strong there absent from this tale the harmony which characterizes the others Here the mythical and the his thought torical intermingle with resulting confusion

cluded though

form

.

The Lesser Sagas are interesting and valuable

.

,

The

ma brief

"

“

Gislasaga we meet the blue story the lifer whose

of

really

In

suffice

.

must

outlawry

a

devils

of

est mention

—

terial

upon social customs laws and manners

as

and

PIONEERS

sometimes

presented

by

in

problem

social

of

the

century and the manner

eleventh

dealt with

deals humor Iceland the which the old famílies

part

certain

in

; a

society

OF FREEDOM Bandamannasaga

outdoors in

prison is ously with

all

224

of

,

is

,

,

in

,

;

, .

,

of

a

as is ;

,

in

;

,

prim the nouveau riche Kormakssaga says Vigfusson style very itive and content ancient tale and one Gunnlaugs the most charming love stories that age saga Ormstungu There are others such Vatnsdæla Hensathorirssaga Floamannasaga and both ancient Fostbrædra Saga both dealing with Greenland and shipwrecks describing Vineland settlements and con with Nearly

nection

of

all

of

.

each

—

,

of

“

a

.

is

(

of

—

is

—

he

)

—

this literature save the first that and the last that Sturla Thordarsson 1215 anonymous Edmund Gosse 1284 conservative says that these unknown men deserve place when among of honor the best narrative writers who have ever

Ari

to

,

is ,

a

of

possession

it

in

of

to

.

of

a

or

."

, of

if

of

of

of

of

a

is

,

,

expression

“

of

to

been

of

It

."

reason

,

providence the will for some say her own endless generations admirers some the marvelous productions the you have the intelli human mind Read and enjoy my secret gence but the authorship that This not dissertation upon critical examina tion the Icelandic literature this period Nor can more than barely advert the great advantage the Sagas authors the had over contemporaries the

has

lived

obscure

vehicle

for

fitted in

,

lines

:

the famous

;

of

,

Those friends thou hast and their adoption tried thy soul with hoops them steel

Grapple

to

“

described

in

of

of

.

,

of

a

superbly

Njala vivid and clear narration For example clause three words pictures certain characteristics English letters Gunnar which the great Monarch

concise

POETRY AND SAGA But

Of

not dull

do each

Vinvandr

with entertainment comrade .”

thy palm

' d,

new -hatch

unfledged

tell

og vinfastr

225

us that this gentleman -

in

the best sense of that overworked word — was very par ticular as to whom he accepted as friends , but once having admitted a person to the rôle of friendship Gunnar did not desert him for light or transient reasons . The Ice

landic language has, at all times , possessed abundant wealth of root and stem to grow easily with the material , intellectual and moral advance of the people. Even the most recent discoveries and inventions are designated by words built from the inner resources of the language it self without the necessity of raiding the catacombs of dead tongues . In closing this

brief

sketch

concerning

ma

the source

—

the

countries

is

char —

in

cultivated readers

a

of

most

in

to

acter known

of

.

,

of

similar , temperaments , taken from the greatest Njala Sagas that Njala outstanding figure The the story

all

terial of the preceding chapters , the writer ventures to include two specimens of character delineation , involving men of fundamentally different, though in some respects

:

thus introduced

form

of

." .

He

solved

,

the

,

,

.

.

He

,

.

moral

of his

on

prob

of

Gunnar

.

arrests attention

different

In

but

classical type lapse whose fate

hero minus brings heavy

,

,

another man

of

-

Leith End we have

every

-

,

the same Saga

,

from

of

to

the portrait

He

consult him

a

,

,

of

long memory

all who came

Again type

a

endowed with

of

and

lems

,

in

a

.

of "

a

There was man named Njal was wealthy and fine presence No hair grew face was wise prophecy He was peerless lawyer and had the gift sagacious counsel kindly high minded modest gentle

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

226

who suffers himself to enter into the spirit of the story . When the author ushers him upon the stage he sketches his character in a few lines , and sadness to the reader

yet

clear is the delineation that Gunnar like a mountain peak above the foot-hills . so

stands out,

" There was a man named Gunnar , great in stature , who surpassed all in feats of arms. Ambidexterous in the use of sword and spear , he could wield the former so swiftly that three weapons seemed to flash at once . His aim with bow and arrow was unerring and beyond the skill of others . He could vault , without the use of a pole , and in full armor , the equivalent of his own height , and jump as far backwards as forwards . He swam like a seal and in no athletic game could anyone successfully compete with him . It was said that in his time he had no equal . He was handsome , with a fair complexion and rosy cheeks . His nose was straight , slightly upturned , his eyes were blue and keen , and his hair yellow and well kept. He excelled most men in politeness and courtesy . He was a stout man in all things, kindly , tolerant , self controlled , and quiet , steadfast in friendship , but dis criminating in the choice of friends ."

,

a

words that

the hero

,

distinct picture

of

of

the use

,

so

skillful

clause imprints

a

superbly

in

in

so

is

or

a

author phrase

.

in

by

six

In this masterpiece of the story -teller 's art over hundred individuals are mentioned name and scores of these are active characters the tale Descriptions of other figures the story are not detailed but the

of

.

to

on

,

hero actually lived through

to

at

,

to

or

our minds We follow Njal and Gunnar the end then turn back the word portrait the introduction and marvel its fidelity the life each the rascal

scene after scene

of triumph

.

in

but only the sense history have been such in

,

was anachronism all truly great figures

in

which

an

Njal

.

and tragedy

Leithend

;

the Home

Gunnar

Heroic

Figure

the

Story

of

in

,a

of

Burnt

Njal

POETRY AND SAGA peace in an era of strife , a firm processes and in the efficacy of

the law

of

men

.

differences between

The life

believer to

man

settle this extraordinary

silent but scathing regular and timidly

of

in

a

of its

He was

227

,

in

he

,

of

,

to

,

of

,

in

of

.

,

"

of

"

a

is

indictment the common soul who dares not lift his head above the passing crowd and inhale the free and purer air unfrequented altitudes Fearless dignified serenely confident the light clear moral perceptions and powerful intelligence held check the fierce spirits compelling countrymen his own sons and his lay aside tradition and adjust again and again them

man place

to

a

's of ,

of

in

of

he

as

in

leave his burning home

for

tooth

,

tooth

a

eye and

a

for

an

an

eye

generously

offered him life and safety because had avenge the impending cowardly murder perish with them He chose rather

he

when his enemies

,

,

he refused

to

tional mode

of

to

be

, of it,

;

?

.

of

a

,

in

.

,

a

of

.

,

he

.

to

savage violence their disputes without resort Although Njal never shed blood yet was hero his own and later generations That warlike people re doing spected and loved man whose only fear was fear wrong Few characters range the whole literature stand out such bold contrast against the background Njal part their age and are yet does Njal Saga Part his age Yes for although would never permit revenge for homicides taken the tradi

in

to

.

of

to

grown too old his own sons

.

the flames

of ,

,

.

we

as

on

this period thrived only

of

in

seems

,

. ,

chronicles

it

.

to

of

so

,

of

After the year 1000 the Icelanders were virtually alone among the people the North far know who history Of course gave serious attention the writing the Sagas and history are closely related The writing

Ice

of

of

is

poetry and landic soil The reciting historical tales among the oldest and the most popular pastimes the

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

228

,

by

,

a

.

of

,

if

he

,

.

of

,

at

all

Icelandic people. At feasts , at meetings of kinds and reciting poetry the Things variety was introduced and telling stories The entertainer told not only his own life not only from contemporary and earlier times poet he recited his domestic and foreign but was own poems and those others

talents for the the author

Norway

.

of

of

-

to

of

their

In

Many learned Icelanders devoted story telling recording the history

Snorri Sturlason Norway down history This work sixty 1177 the author having died 1241 the age poet and three years He was also critical scholar Of him historian the German authority Eugene Mogk has said His characters live speech and action before

,

these stands

"

he .

dramatic

the author

to

.

he

and

He was

sense

of

,

eyes

's

the reader Thucydides

in

"

:

in

a

,

a

in

a

.

of

a

is

.

,

as

at of

first rank

Heimskringla

excels even

the Younger Edda

of

,

in

of

a

,

in

,

of

A

.

of

a

of

a

,

of

in

gives brilliant analysis the ancient poetic comprehensive statement Scandinavia with the mythology nephew essentials the old Sturla Thor worthily maintained the literary fame darsson the writing Islendinga Saga family history Iceland which

art

descendants

to to

It

a

,

,

;

.

is

It

.

to

,

as

and for the world

in

live again the Northern

a

a

to

halls under the weird glow was they who preserved

and

.

;

and made them

it

thousand

Lights

was they whose genius wove incidents

song and Saga

of

that in

certain gether

it

,

.

to

to

,

in

,

,

to

,

in

.

the turbulent thirteenth century sug Enough has been said although mere outline gest why the ancient poems and Sagas have exercised and appre easy still exercise great influence Iceland people ciate their significance the Icelandic them perhaps more than other Scandinavians they carry powerful appeal They have right not yet successfully challenged claim the poetry their own seems

them

for their own

CHAPTER

X

Commerce and Navigation VROM

the earliest times Scandinavians were capa ble seamen and delighted in ocean travel . The sons

of Icelandic chieftains ,

some Norwegian kings , led maritime expeditions . Some trading venture and a Viking en even

took part in or times men went upon a terprise in alternate years . They

often

followed the coast lines or struck out across the water , carrying the prod country ucts of their own to be exchanged for commodi ties in other lands. These undertakings were necessarily conducted indiscriminately by individuals , for the reason open

that no merchant class had as yet appeared . While usu profitable , they always contained a sufficient admix

ally

of

for any loss standpoint from the commercial . Shortly after the discovery of Iceland the settlers established commercial relations with several places in Norway . Of these trading points Skiringssalr was the ture

romance

and adventure to make up

oldest . It was situated on the southern coast of Norway near the mouth of Oslo Fjord . During the latter part of the ninth century another such place came into existence called Tunsberg , which is still known by that name . The result was that the former disappeared and Tunsberg developed into a thriving business center . It happened to

be the home of

an uncle of Harald the Fairhaired . From this point commercial relations with Denmark and Ger many were established . In the eleventh century Bergen

and in the twelfth

Stavanger 229

grew

up

on

the

southwest

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

230

few

coast of Norway . Late in the tenth century Nidaros , founded by Olaf Tryggvason , appeared . Here this Chris tian but warlike monarch built a church and a royal residence . It became a Mecca of pilgrims, suffered the martyrdom of fires and of war , and then became Trond ma hjem , today a city of over 40 ,000 . In 1017 , Sarpborg ,

of

to

.

its

,

of

as

,

to

it it .

a

;

of

,

of

miles south the present capital appeared under protection the Olaf the Saint and about the middle of the eleventh century Oslo had become trading center Later the name was changed Christiania which Norway until recently when bore the capital retrieved ancient and historic name All these places were well known Icelandic traders during the period a

a

forty

17

that they were about feet long and or

estimated

approximately

50

in

ton ships

16

craft have

sea

.

of

in

in

.

in

settlement and later centuries The vessels most commonly used transoceanic comparison with the venture were mere play boats today Men skilled gigantic freighters and ocean liners

aft and

or

a

,

.

at

,

-

. .

to

,

feet thirty wide Ordinarily each boat carried from twenty They were clinker built with gunwale rising men prow towards the stern and and lowest nearest the water line the middle There were decks fore and

a

or

a

a

by

.

or

a

in

-

.

of

of

;

of

in

a

,

of

,

on

,

or

; it

-

.

at

a

the stern the ship was open and there the was without deck save for floor plank passageway bottom and there was narrow walk each side connecting the decks fore and aft The cargo the middle the vessel was usually protected covering hides The vessel was one masted and had groove but one square sail the mast moved track cabin

The mid section cargo was loaded

.

in

the keel the ship and could be lowered and laid flat On merchant vessels the mast was probably not lowered

ab ab c d

0 0 0 Bailing

..

Cabin

kept

cee

Rudder

Mast

between

Uprights

Walk

decks

. .. If h .

Decks

cargo was

.

rooms

Places where

SHIP

COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION 231

gd

.

g

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

232

in harbor. The rigging consisted the masthead . There was a hole in the masthead through which the rope played , the sail be ing fastened to the rope . Cords controlled the sail in such a way that it was possible to regulate it in accordance with

except when the ship was

of ropes

attached

to

ity

the wind . The sail was usually made of the staple , wadmal . Every vessel carried a pier or gang plank to enable people to embark and debark dry shod . This pier was made of large timbers with steps . At a time when harbor facilities were inadequate or wholly absent some such util It

.

.

in

, or

.

,

of

but the owners the ex That was apparently the near shipboard est approach social distinctions every vessel there were two rooms called bailing rooms fore and aft the cargo Here the water was bailed vessel leaked Originally pails were used and arranged way that when one came such the other went down This work was regarded strenuous and dis skin clothes

.

up

as

as

a

so

from

tar

,

the use

of .

waterproof

by

relieve

pumping methods were developed this drudgery Ships were usually ren

,

Later

to

. .

in

.

a

if

,

of

,

In

agreeable dered

.

on

.

the cabin

to

in

in

decks leather pedition lived

; -

or

on

,

it

,

A

.

a

of

ridge pole having been roof lengthwise covering laid the was thrown over thus affording protection against sun rain and wind The men the vessels slept under tent like covers below the

,

sembled the supports

,

on

,

,

,

to

, at

.

A

on

every ship was essential boat was carried was customary cover the vessel least while harbor There were pillars for this purpose sometimes elabo rately carved which when erected each gunwale re

and sometimes

they

.

as

of

is

,

in

, ;

were painted above the water line and variously deco rated some ornamentation was carved wood One England having vessel which traded described

COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION been elaborately decorated

down to the water line ;

the sail experienced

of ornamental art.

touch

a

233 even

The boats were used primarily in mercantile expedi tions, but occasionally also in Viking undertakings . The true Viking ship was differently constructed ; it was longer

and narrower , and lower in the gunwale , with a deck ex tending the full length of the vessel . It was equipped with

several pairs

of

oars , and shields were arranged on both

of the vessel . Otherwise , the plan Viking ship was very similar to that

sides about the middle

of construction of

of a merchant A

a

vessel .

good ship was greatly prized

, and

was regarded as

the most munificent of gifts . Its value was approximately that of a good Icelandic homestead . The Sagas mention instances where kings and princes presented well -known Icelanders with vessels , sometimes even including a cargo . In an age when gratitude was considered one of the hall marks of nobility and virtue , such generosity was never forgotten . King Harald gave Ingimund the Old a beauti ful vessel ; and Earl Hakon presented another Icelander equipped . It was a ship highly ornamented and completely sailing day one of the fastestvessels of the . speed of sailing craft we have little direct , but rather dependable inferential knowledge . It was Cape Stadt on the west reckoned that the voyage from , , Norway Cape coast of to Horn on the east coast of Ice

Of the

some

land ,

a

distance

days ,

of approximately of Olaf the Saint one Thorarinn Nefjolfsson sailed from Norway to Iceland , a distance of seven hundred and fifty miles, in eight days . At ninety - four miles per day , this voyage was regarded as

would

require

of about five hundred and sixty miles ,

seven

eighty miles per day .

an

unusual feat.

In

a

speed

the Saga

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

234

,

or

compass these intrepid seamen laid their course the stars remarkable how easily sail way they ors found from one harbor another and their success bespeaks close and intelligent observation the stars Certain men had the reputation never missing

.

of

a

of

,

to

.

is

It

by

Without map

.

,

,

an

re -

a

to

brings

crew

it

for

his voyage when

,

get together

,his

lumbus had

for

y

to

.

of

or

.

in

a

or

a

A

,

of

;

to

the objective they held their course directly their des long intervening tinations over stretches water voyage whether for vessel owner who had planned fixed indefinite destination never experienced any obtaining the necessary crew difficulty The Scandina vians were not afraid the sea the myriad creatures contained This naturally brings mind the trouble Co

he

,

, of

.

.

discovered America These old Vikings however were howe not handicapped like Columbus When the latter endeav

of

a

to

a

.

.

to

no

of

immortal leader

such impalpable

. .

the glory

its

adds

Leif Eiricsson had

no

-

dread

to

—

in

of

in

,

. ' of

's

of

off

,

of

sin

in

,

to

or

,

“

"

its

.

to

,

an

a

to

ored enlist seaman he had break down barrier prejudice and fear which current superstition had erected like unscalable wall around the intelligence the common man He had learned believe the most fearful things concerning the sea and denizens With mind impregnated with scientific error with crass super stition the individual whom Columbus sought interest his daring venture recoiled from the proposal with more enthusiasm than from incarnate itself The spur ambition absent with real faith strong enough ignorance and scientific nonsense beat the demons the sailor Columbus day saw nothing attractive the Captain expedition bold scheme The success the unreasoning spite of these most difficult of all obstacles foes

To

the

,

.

a

voyage was merely another adventure Scandinavians might The winds blow and monsters might show their

Description of Leif Eiricsson Memorial

is a in

a for

) .

of a .

(

.)

. (

in

-

is

)

on

(

of .

-

's

Model of the Leif Eiricsson Memorial , to stand on the Leif Eiricsson Memorial Drive , Chicago , Illinois . By Oskar J . W. Hansen , Sculptor , Chicago . Eiricsson was born in Iceland where he lived until he was sixteen years of age. This work has been pronounced by the Architectural Commission the Chicago World Fair 1933 among the most important designs produced for monument ninety high modern times The structure two feet Behind the main bautas semi circle seven smaller stones the manner hof sanctuary Reliefs and inscriptions appear the stately shafts See opposite page 244

all

235

COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION

him

be

.

to

on

of

?

a

in

,

he

if

.

it

to

of

,

of

.

a

,

of

or

in

of

's

,

to

in

,

menacing heads but no purpose for the sailor strength faith his own and the power his tutelary imagi gods was stronger than his fear intangible nary enemies He was still free human being themaster his environment confident his power deal with any emergency And failed and death claimed place what did matter He had earned Valhalla privilege fight and the the side the gods

of

if

.

on

of

of

to

of

in

of

,

in

a

in

of

of

of

of

It

may well doubted two more striking illustra the concrete effect error and the imagination upon human conduct can be found than the cases Leif Eiricsson and Christopher Columbus search crew The latter manfully struggling the blinding swirl of myriad fears and spite the aid unconditional man magistrates Spain dates from the sovereigns the tions

in

of ; of

.

of

or

,

of

of

of

of

,

well

as

as

,

for their own needs

,

merce with other countries

of

in

,

.

in

of

.

of

;

of

a

Christopher Columbus had made bond slave the mind the pagan faith the countrymen Leif Eiricsson left men the real sovereigns their own souls The more prominent the pioneer settlers Iceland owned the vessels which they came Consequently there many ships were available for commercial use and the sons followed the footsteps the fathers plying com

of

Europe

,

of

,

to

.

;

.

at

lem

;

,

to

to

press into the service Andalusian coast Columbus ships despair both and crews was almost driven the hunt for men who would share the hardships with him the former merely let his purpose be known and the prob was once solved The Icelanders had traveled much their intellectual horizons had been expanded and their minds had been liberated under the influence so cial intercourse and education They moved with the con fidence which true liberty engenders strangers alike gods The religion fear men devils the

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

236

for those of other settlers . The Icelanders carried their own supplies in Icelandic bottoms from other countries ; if foreign trading vessels came it was so seldom as to be neg ligible in the early years .

It was not long after the first settlement that foreign ships from various points to the south and from Norway began to bring goods to the island . Foreign commerce

was carried on mostly with the people of the Scandinavian countries , often called Westmen . Persons who plied trade between countries were described as merchants or sailing men and sometimes by other names . In time there grew up a separate class of merchants who adopted rules and regulations for their business , according to the gen eral custom and experience in the Middle Ages .

It was thought that a mercantile expedition afforded an opportunity to a young man which was desirable from every standpoint . There was only one other undertaking

might have been considered in a more favorable that was a Viking cruise . It is said in one of the Sagas that the former ventures were undertaken for im provement rather than for valor . This characterization suggests the relative standing in popular esteem of the trader and the Viking . Merchants who owned vessels engaged in foreign com merce were usually in personal command and were called which

light,

and

, or mates .

Sometimes two men owned a vessel partnership and divided the avails of the venture . The other men on the expedition might own an interest in the business and be partners in the undertaking among them selves . The latter were described as messmates . The relation among the partners and messmates was very close and somewhat peculiar . The ancient law points steersmen

in

to the conclusion

that the status carried with it some

of

COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION

237

of blood relationship , or affin example foreigner For died the service and had relative Iceland his partner became his heir partner his messmate became his heir and had his messmates were numerous then the one who most often had been his messmate inherited had neither partner nor messmate far food was concerned the steersman himself inherited his estate Similarly these persons the order named were proper parties initi ate and conduct legal proceedings case this foreigner in

he

to

by

in

,

in

,

.

,

,

as

as

a

a

.

If

,

,

if

.

,

If

a

,

,

no

he

in

no

if

.ity

the rights and obligations

or

a

, or

,

.

on

.

on

in

no

,

the expedition

,

While

.

another man the fare was entirely dry food already prepared because equipment for making fire sailing vessels When ships lay was carried harbor Originally prepared food was land vessel owners merchants did not have cooks but messmates agreed be tween themselves who should be responsible for the food on

had been killed

.

,

a

of

of

,

a

, , or

.

of

;

,

in

.

A

,

to

large kettle day and prepare the meals from day part vessel held common was the equipment the ship and the owners mates charged fee for the regularly employed use the utensils Later cookswere in

on

in

a

at

.

it

a

,

a

to

The men had common right drink the liquor board the vessel and covered container stood near the mast larger vats which was stored Sometimes liquor was from which smaller one the mast was replenished time time When vessel entered harbor was obligatory upon pay the riparian owner the proprietors the ship harbor toll for the latter owned the land down the large edge water The fee was not consisted

, ell

an

It

.

.

of of

or of

's

,

to

a

to

of

a

it

.

to

from

a

.

.

to

a

of

,

to

yarn wadmal some wool sufficient make six reels the pelt lamb Norwegian vessel owners were not required pay this duty There was certain reciprocity

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

238 between

Norway

Iceland in somematters

and

privileges

enjoyed

in

Norway not . Immediately

. Icelanders merchants

accorded

upon putting into countries , , plank , was put out and gang portable pier harbor the or the cargo carried off the ship . The owners and the crew sometimes erected tents or booths in which they lived .

for

customary

the Godis to

,

fix

a to inspect certain privileges

claim

was not considered wise

have any

the Godis they had no legal right

merchants until the claims .

Originally

deal to

these

had been satisfied

,

ings with

and

It

purchase

the price

.

to

,

to

vessel ,

of

visit the harbor after the arrival the cargo

be among the first

to

as

It was

of

other

to

from

legal

assessments rather than get into

of

these extra

-

esced

in

.

to

,

the claims they advanced but the Sagas show that they successfully arrogated themselves privileges which they positions claimed for their official The merchants acqui

tip

a

,

to

;

to

.

decidedly miserable for themerchant comply merchant rebelled and refused

In

in

,

it

it

life a

,

if

,

in

of

.

be

,

controversies with the local chiefs the outcome which certainly would almost unfavorable The exaction was the nature baksheesh un earned but was not paid these local dignitaries like certain hotel servants today had their power make one instance but the Godi

price different

than

a

In

No one

could

that fixed

purchase

at

.

Iceland

this service and from fixing prices which per

,

of

perform

custom

by

charge

a

or

sisted for centuries

in

mittee was constituted the practice grew the

to

.

a

to

,

at

,

of

.

to

by

forbidding anyone retaliated trade with him Al though the order was beyond his authority the threat the chief was least partly successful for the merchant was faced with condition which almost forced him abandon his stores and his vessel later years com

the commit

COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION

239

; this work had to be completed within two weeks after the ship had put into harbor.

tee

The commoditiesmost frequently brought to the island

from abroad were wood , corn , or certain kinds of grain , probably malt , tar , iron , copper kettles , weapons , orna ments , cloths , dress goods , and liquors of various kinds .

After the Godi, or the committee , had finished their

task

,

the work of retailing commenced , and yeomen came from far and near to trade . The ancient law provided that no yeoman should remain more than three consecutive nights with his horses at a trading place .

When the cargo had been disposed of the vessel was ; that is , it was hauled out of the water by means of chains and supported by earth and rock piled up on each side . The owners had the right to the services of such yeomen as were under duty to pay the Thing tax and their hired help to pull out the ship ; but the herder of the docked

was excepted . He must not be disturbed . If help was refused a fine might be imposed . If a man pulled with might three times all the chain when the owners were prepared had fulfilled his legal duty and could

,

he

on

his

sheep

Many took part

,

ri

;

.

,

on

,

of

.

a

in

fined

.

be

docking vessel the helping Ship women sometimes masters paid the riparian docking but the owner nine ells for the privilege parian owner the other hand stored the rigging free not

, of in of

,

it

of

.

or

If

.

of

in

.

,

to

a

,

When the cargo had been sold and the ship duly docked place spend the for the season the men looked for usually winter The owners wintered with the chiefs while the others found places with the ordinary yeomen the vicinity These boarders became close followers those with whom they lived and sometimes joined them reprisal anything remained adventures attack during cargo they disposed the the winter locally

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

240

or

in

distant places

. Sales

were

credit , and it was important

, more often

than

not, on

deal with reliable persons and to obtain the best terms . Sometimes individuals as sumed responsibility for the goods and then resold to others , while they themselves remained obligated to the merchants . The purchase price was paid in merchandise , wool, lambskins , skins , ropes , woven cloth , butter , tallow , and the like. When spring opened the merchants collected the goods to

for their commodities and transferred them to the vessel. It took a long time to prepare and load the ship . During this opera and wares which

tion

they had received

the owners lived in

It was

their

in

exchange

booths near the seacoast .

deemed unwise to load a ship so that more than parts three were under and two above the water ' s edge , the measurement being made on the middle of the vessel . When all preparations had been duly made the merchants took advantage of the first favorable wind and departed .

Merchants from the Scandinavian countries were well received in Iceland , and their dealings with the people were usually upon cordial and friendly terms. There were , of course , exceptions in the case of individuals whose temperamental or dispositional defects made them irritat ing customers . As a general rule , however , they were in

vited to the homes of the better people , and if they had established a reputation for generosity and liberality , were asked again and again . The strongest friendships the merchants and the native yeomen were the former sometimes rewarded their hosts with valuable gifts . Traders were desirable company for very good rea sons. They had traveled widely and could tell of many en tertaining experiences . The Icelanders were always inter between

formed , and

COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION

241

ested in foreign

anyone who visits had a travel and a the Sagas to

countries and welcomed to their homes had something to tell of other lands . These powerful influence in encouraging interest in desire to visit abroad . It is very common in

find statements that this or that young man had had an ambition from early youth to travel , and to win for himself such glory as was supposed to be the lot of those who were received favorably by foreign poten tates. It resulted often that the adult sons of the men with whom the visiting merchants made their homes accom panied the latter on their expeditions.

Most of

those who traveled abroad went from

mixed

motives. a fortune on a Viking expedi , , possible tion or the favor with fortune , of some foreign Usually prince . the wares which the young travelers took with them were sufficient for the passage and for their maintenance abroad . Of course , some went for purely They hoped to win

business reasons, although there may have been other motives underlying . Sometimes they purchased an interest in a vessel and became partners in the enterprise . Thus the merchandise they took with them became the capital

as their maintenance . Then , as they acquired expe rience and fortune , fame and acquaintance , they branched out and launched undertakings of their own , following the business many years . Names of individuals are men tioned who were notably successful in foreign commerce . When we consider the difficulties under which expeditions were conducted , it is surprising that in the age of settle ment and during the Saga period , there should have been as well

at least sixty men of such prominence in foreign trade that a record was made of the fact . Historians sometimes underestimate the extent to which intercourse has been maintained among nations not listed

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

242

withstanding they may have been separated by an ocean , or large bodies of water . In the Saga period Iceland was not an isolated country in any save the geographical sense . The sea was not a barrier ; it was merely an obstacle and , hence , a standing challenge to the responsive and leaping spirit of adventure . The people maintained uninterrupted contacts with parts of Scandinavia and other European countries .

No statistics are available as to the number of sailing craft at any particular time plying trade , but we have fu gitive bits of evidence suggesting that there were many . During the year 985 , when Eric the Red undertook the colonization of Greenland , twenty - five vessels left two points on the island for Greenland . Towards the end of the eleventh century , that is , about the year 1097 , it ap

of ,

of

its

as

pears that there were at least three hundred Icelanders living at Nidaros , the Trondhjem of today , one of the Norway commercial centers on the coast of . It throws an illuminating light upon the character of these Scandinavians that while the ambition to go abroad and engage in business was common , yet , very few , if any, made it their career . Only for a comparatively short time do we find the same men following the sea . The lure of power the wide waters lost middle age drew near to a

,

,

in

es

,

in

.

a

.

of

to

any rate

,

;

at ,

as

might bring wealth

a

,

in

to

on

.

of

in

of

,

to

,

and the love home and family the companionship friends and neighbors the desire become command ing figure the life the state all united break the spell The ultimate goal every healthy normal Ice lander was settle down homestead Iceland tablish himself the community and raise his family such dignity became one his station His travels They abroad were incidents means definite end they would bring

pres

COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION tige, perhaps glory

of and

; and

243

they satisfied the desire to learn

touch with the outside world . The experience in foreign countries was a treasury keep

in

on

which the Icelander ever afterwards drew drafts of anec dote and illustration which made him the center of social groups and put upon him the seal of a certain superiority he dearly loved . He was in a position somewhat similar or analogous to that of the college graduate many years ago — before college education became common , in at least one sense of the term — whose advantage conferred on him a distinct local prestige . No young man of spirit and of good family was satisfied to settle down without first going abroad . It was a part , perhaps the major part,

of

the education

been dissatisfied

youth

and ,

in

a

without which he would have measure , fitted for the com ill

of

.

to

of

;

no

to

by

in

; it

; it . It

of

be .

munity responsibility which he hoped would become his The educative influence these travels cannot doubted broadened the outlook made men more tol put erant them contact with other countries and taught them profit their experience Foreign travel and foreign contacts were their schools and their univer join the sities and man was deemed fully qualified a

of

Historians have

on

.

a

. of

ranks the substantial yeomen the age until he had civilizing and traveled This national ideal had liberal izing effect upon the entire population

,

,

admired the boldness their energy and their fortitude Even Archibald Scott historian the Pic tish Nation who writes with bias their favor says Vikings that the were the best sailors their time would not be generally regarded attractive proposal occasion

of

It

,

of

in

an

sailing

miles

boats of the the North At

of in

as

,

expedition

over hundreds

of ,

organize

they used

an

to

today

kind

.

.

,

no

.

B

,

'

,

the ancient Scandinavian seamen

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

244

lantic , without map or compass to guide the sailor . The fact that these ancient mariners sailed their vessels on all seas suggests that man has probably always been able to get along happily and passably well with that which he had . It is not possessions, but the capacity to enjoy them , to control and dominate environment , that brings happi ness . Improvements in ships now make ocean travel a luxury ;

easier ; it is less hazardous ; and possibly it is more tempting to the common run of persons. Yet, it may be doubted if the globe trotters of 1930 get more genuine

it

is

pleasure or more real zest from their travels than did these Icelanders of old . It was not just that they embarked upon known seas with definite destinations ; they rejoiced in the unknown

there might undiscov tirring ered countries new and soul adventures They discovered and colonized Greenland well known they discovered America and then made several trips back and forth without anything guide save the lie

waters , for behind the horizon

oral accounts

is

of it .

of

to

un Amer

They

, . or

those who had preceded them explore the new country Vinland

dertook although ica ,

of

,

to

;

,

as

-s

.

,

,

peoples

as

.

in

,

or

.

at

,

to

in

,

,

of

They took course nothing came with them livestock which was turned loose the wilder propagate themselves but with what results no ness one now can tell They failed successful American col courage onization but not from want of enterprise They fought and defeated the Indians battle and left

a

of

thrive

in

transplanted

to

where liberty might

be

try

.

no

;

in

of

by

.

to

consecrating testimonials their own dead their ad venturous spirit The discovery America the Icelanders was early made too the discoverers lived circumstances too propitious and happy There was need new coun

the

This figure of Leif Eiricsson , 17 feet high stands between the bautas (menhirs ) of the Memorial . The Memorial itself , when complete , will be 92 feet in height . (See opposite page 234. )

COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION

245

,

to

to

.

to

to

be

a

to

in

, ;

,

of

lic

free sunshine , away from the rough hand or the trampling foot of tyranny . The Icelanders had established a Repub their own where the individual was wholly free Norway under Harald they had fled from absolutism new and unsettled island resolved that hardship un preferred der freedom was ease and submission arbitrary power There was literally nothing draw

the new world from their own free country Ice They people happy land were and contented Five hundred years later when Columbus made his great exploration and discovery went forth from wholly different environment Conditions the Old World were moving towards that state restlessness and discontent which little more than one hundred years permanent later led the first white settlement the Western Hemisphere The existence new continent afforded the opportunity for escape which the op pressed peoples the Old World readily took advan

.

in

by

of

.

of a

of

'

to

a

of

.

in

a

he

.

a

,

to

them

,

it

-

a

.

.

in

in

in

of

of

.

's

,

The mariner astrolabe used Columbus made sailing the high seas less guess work than had been the days Leif Eiricsson and the Vikings The world which Eiricsson moved was not ready for another ad pioneering venture tage

; . a

of ;

in

of

a

a

,

in

of

in

Aside from the difference results there are interest ing parallels the careers these illustrious explorers hardy courageous and persistent individual Each was encouragement from sovereign deeply each received Christianity interested the spread and each was

.

of

. L . E .

—

a

Eiricsson

.

Leif

K

of

a

at

to

of

devout adherent the Holy Church Rome Had the genius and propensity organize and join not been born much later date we should probably have had flour Knights ishing order under the name the

CHAPTER

XI

the

Servants and Slaves

ALTHOUGH

,

on

few

,

or

,

.

to

;

,

;

,

.

of

is

,

in

.

to

.

-

A

in

,

of

powerful landed proprietors were unknown Iceland large house hold establishments were the rule instances come mind One man mentioned who had the average eighty freemen his service The father the poet Egil had never less than sixty capable men another Gudmund the Rich had about one hundred and twenty and others are said have had thirty When personal frays and homicides had occurred were anticipated feudalism

to

,

,

or

a

to

;

,

,

or

. he ,

on

.

by

,

of

“

"

,

,

.

as

-

to

,

or

,

, or

.

,

or

a

at

a

)

(

.

the number was even larger generic term used Homemen heimamenn was par persons legally describe all who were domiciled employed ticular home whether not On the other hand persons employed were called Hjon servants and the men particularly Huskarlar housemen akin Anglo they the Saxon ceorl and sometimes were de moving scribed simply workmen The regular fit during time was the seventh week summer four days were allowed Every man was required law have legal domicile before the last day and for failure

,

a

to

go

,

es

.

persons who had broken con They were open engagements

to

employment

.

of

caped misdemeanants tracts

be

,

of

, of

in

,

the

in

might

or

in

outlawed law not too rig Commonly enforced the servants were engaged fall although single men might from place employment Sometimes traveling place search workmen were not the highest type often being this regard

orously

246

SERVANTS AND SLAVES

247

as spies , or for other purposes of doubtful propriety or . There was no real shortage of labor at any during time the period of the Commonwealth . The common practice was to enter employment for the year , in consideration of a stipulated payment, or wage . there

are

detailed

employment and wages which ,

spects

provisions concerning not clear all re

are

in

In the

law

old

honesty

it

; of

a

to

,

. of .

of

.

to

Some refer later times The law fixed the com employees and the several classes was pay unlawful different scale The duties the employment were likewise prescribed

pensation

of

.

a

to

as

,

in

with minuteness and certain duties about the home called for specific treatment the law both kind work and the compensation The cowherd received certain

the shepherd another and the steward was awarded by law definite stipend per ten men the Carpenters bridge builders and men who household built booths at the Althing were privileged work by appears that this class the day the haying season a

specialized

which may account for

compared

.

with others

and highly necessary the discrimination

serv

in

,

ice

It

.

skilled laborers was favored

They performed

as

of

in

to

.

,

a

in

,

;

wage

their

.

behalf

a

of of

of

;

in

It

be in

be

to

.

.

in

of

in

as

to

as

of ,

of

an

There was elaborate scheme division labor the home especially the larger establishments The employment defined the nature contract the work fixing the wage well was the duty certain bring supplies man the food the home the winter taking care employed time he might the sheep

;

;

.

on

so

,

;

.

of

a

to

;

a

or

employed another might build wall stated time One looked after the cattle another took care the cows others tended the sheep still others did the carpenter work and On reading the stock

within

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

248

the Sagas one is impressed

with the fact that these house organizers holders were of ability and that there was little waste motion in carrying on the business of the largest ménage . As has been shown , laborers were classified according to their occupations . If a yeoman had more than one

establishment, a foreman — a yeoman — was in charge ; even the home place might be operated under the direc tion of such a person . With the foreman was also a fore woman . The foreman on the home place was usually called superintendent, suggesting the fact that the owner himself was

in

more direct control .

A

woman

so

employed

was mistress (matselja ) of the home place . The position was of this type of employee was responsible and independent . The superintendent or foreman was general overseer of the workers, and worked with them ; and he was expected to make sure that tools and equipment were kept in re pair . A skilled carpenter was deemed especially fitted

for

this position . Relatives and impecunious

connections

were often engaged as foremen , as were also individuals who had been brought up on the place . Loyalty and de pendability were regarded as essential virtues in the superintendent . The mistress presided over the pantry and the cook ing , apportioned the food and served it. Sometimes the

rule , supervised the housework in this as well as in other particulars . Where the family establishment was large a steward was employed . It was his duty to have provisions on hand at all times , to oversee the butchering operations , supervise the larder and provision house , and to allot the food for each meal. Perhaps more often than not the duties of

wife herself

did this work

;

and she, as

a

SERVANTS

SLAVES

249

steward and superintendent were performed person .

by the same

carpenter

A

tial

on every

standing .

All

AND

or capable mechanic was really an essen enjoyed high estate of any pretensions .

He

carpenter work was done in Iceland by native labor. Of course , there were casual employments in the field , but in the larger homes the carpenter was a permanent member of the regular staff . Men occasionally paid a daily wage . required The care of livestock the full time of many persons , and was considered of the utmost importance . Shepherds , tenders of cattle, and goatherds were a nu employed

for this kind of work were

merous class . A good sheep man was one who rose early in the morning and gave undivided attention to his task . Here loyalty to the master was at a high premium , for the tender of the flocks could render invaluable service to his employer as a spy on enemies , real or potential , and as a courier bringing reports of the movements of other men in and about the neighborhood . The position of herder , however , though important , was not considered

its

desirable ; there were certain social drawbacks and dis advantages . Frequent switches and exchanges were made . One man might look after the flock in spring and summer, while another had this duty in winter . Care of the barns was regarded as a menial task , scarcely suitable for freeborn persons . As time passed , labor somehow lost malodorous charac and the barnman social standing improved Milk

of

.

's

ter ,

this necessary

,

,

in

in

,

of

.

if

It ,

at

.

no

in

ing was also rather low employments the scale and persons freeborn had relish for this task Men regularly employed fixed wages were freeborn they were killed full compensation was exacted and morals law and the employer both was the duty

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM his

250

protect

no

to

of ,

,

,

.

to

a

of

to

to

of

,

.

in

.

of

.

of

their interests

be

to

servants against violence and look after unjust advantage the end that taken them This was done even when they had com mitted some wrong Of the operations this principle many Sagas there are illustrations the Servants were often young capable and energetic men yeomen forced sons seek employment because They were independent objected economic necessity tasks menial nature and left the employment rather than submit treatment which they regarded unbecom to

gentleman

They

.

a

ing

were sometimes

dismissed

from

.

or

as

born worker was not hard

of

.

so

, do

a

to

,

,

in

.

,

,

,

the service for obstreperous conduct for other cause On the whole however the relations between master and servant were pleasant and amicable The servants dined with their masters enjoyed equal rights with them many ways and contended with them spiritedly when ever they had mind The position the free and

he could

overcome

easily

his path

in

his condition

striking

be

.

from

their

a

rut

into

which

chanced

to

,

,

of

a

the little

it

but contentedly

in

,

a

at

.

its

to

;

was

a

obstacles

Mobility

of .

laid characteristic Icelandic labor during the Commonwealth the ambition and the opportunity graduate from wage worker into bet ter and more independent position distinguish this period and institutions There was none that dull jointless rigidity which makes somemodern European labor seem like dead least wholly inert body lying hopelessly such

,

of

,

,

.

,

Norway Ireland and Scotland part the establishment espe ,

in

old homes very useful

a

They were

of

,

of

.

a

to

of

born Reference has been made the fact that slavery sort existed during the Settlement Age Most the pioneers certainly all any consequence brought slaves

SERVANTS

251

there was a dearth of labor , and draft animals were not at first available . One settler, we are told , had no oxen , but ten slaves , brought from Ire land , pulled his plow in the spring when he was prepar ing the ground for the planting of barley . While little is cially

in

,

AND SLAVES

the beginning

as

this age ,

there are intima tions that such farming as there was was done under great difficulties. One can believe it . Ten Irishmen at the wrong end of a plow would not be likely to contribute much joy to the pursuit of agriculture at any time or place in the world' s history . said about the farm

The origin from

Norway

of is

problem

the slaves unknown

in

brought by . Individuals

the first settlers are mentioned

of

,

of of

in

.try

whose slaves came from Ireland and Scotland , many of the latter having been men of rank in their native coun One wealthy settler had four establishments dif ferent parts the island three which were entirely

,

.

of

six

,

the early

of

number

prisoners who

part

of

.

a

.

as

in

the fact that there was Viking expedition

been

on

was doubtless due

a

policemen

no police force Another had Scotland and brought back were held slaves During

to

to

in

on

a

of

.

of

in

the care slaves one slave superintendent having fourteen these involuntary servants under his control large number Another Icelander had slaves captured Viking expeditions Ireland whom are named graduate into first class That these Irishmen failed

the Saga

of

.

by

a

be

a

to

of

is

,

or

to

is

of

of

reason believe that the people Ice land augmented their labor supply through the acquisi purchase tion slaves abroad either through force distinguished story The told one man who had purchased princess slave woman who turned out

period there

a

in

,

.

of

a

of

.

,

Saga was the Irish blood One Irish slave named great deal cause trouble and bloodshed Slaves

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

252

are mentioned so frequently that we may safely conclude that they were a usual part of nearly every home . The number customarily held by a family cannot be ascer tained , except by inference . Mention is made of indi viduals who were considered merely good and substantial

yeomen , who had as many as eighteen men and chieftains held many more.

Of

slaves . Rich

yeo

who did not come from the British Isles known . The external appearance of a slave sel dom left doubt as to his true character . He was usually dark skinned and dark haired . The Icelanders of this age , and for a long time thereafter , had a distinct preju dice against dark hair and the complexion or coloring of the skin natural to Southern peoples . Such a complexion little

slaves

is

and such hair were deemed blemishes , among the women comparable in odium to the fleshy calves or bow legs of the modern girl, who , nevertheless , with hopeful courage , on keeping both these social errors prominently in Descriptions view . of slaves in some of the poetry of period unflattering . Wrinkled skin extremely the are , , knotty joints on the hands crooked and fleshy fingers ; a forbidding countenance , bent back and long heels , such are the repulsive particulars in the picture of aa si slave . Cure the Even worse was the opinion of of their mental and moral pinion qualities . In many respects their true character , in popular nany resne estimation , corresponded to the detailed and unattractive account of their physical features . They had a reputation for mean and skulking cowardice , and it was the com mon opinion that their intelligence was of a low order .

insists

.

course , it is possible that a few individuals gave an unjust character to the class ; indeed , it is not only prob

Of

able but it seems almost certain that such was the fact and that the involuntary servants thus described were a

SERVANTS

AND SLAVES

253

distinctly inferior grade of slaves. Yet , certain phrases linger , the meaning of which suggest that this opinion was very general.

a

of

its

The Icelandic word for slave has a much more compre impli hensive connotation than the English word , and disagreeable distinctly cations are and unfavorable

.

."

,

of

.

It

a

“

to

,

,

,

,

,

From this word thraell another term was thraelmenska which should logically correspond somewhat but does not the English word slavish The derivative from the Icelandic word for slave has different and much broader meaning describes qualities mind and character which were universally detested

,

character

created

a

,

is

."

as

as

an

.

,

as

in

,

in

a

kill

,

of

It In

. .

human was not considered revenge and when fire was slave

accounted to

were scarcely worth while

in

be

by

so

to

.

in

a

,

as

,

in

of

as

,

.

,

it

is

of

be

to

.

of

to

so

a

a

to to

to

,

of

an

as

they were cruel the less serious kind slaves took their heels and ran such terror inspire the contempt all who knew them Such cow utterly foreign ardice was the Scandinavian char acter that few instances this kind would sufficient powerful probably impression create Yet unfair regard the entire class slaves this light for we have seen and will presently appear there were many noble and able men among them who had come from more comfortable environment Ireland and Scotland foreign Persons who possessed characteristics highly prevailing opinion those most esteemed the contempt point could not but held fact slaves

.

cowards and affray even

,

were

In

the slaves cowardly

a

to

ill

is

It

"

of

,

to

a

to

person with possessing the attributes charge and put upon him stigma which the word implied was proverb the most odious kind There also the old only friend have slave The Sagas contain many illustrations which show that

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

254

applied to a family home women and slaves were always permitted to leave the building . To be killed by a slave was highly disgraceful to the deceased and his family . assigned

Slaves were

to the meanest

, most

disagreeable

him

and filthiest tasks , such as digging , cleaning barns , and the like. They wore the cheapest and coarsest kind of clothes, and they slept on a straw bed without bedding , except , perhaps, a sleeping garment or a rough robe, probably of fur . And when a yeoman found some task

,

job

of

or

a

to

a

,

,

,

of of

.

,

a

to

.

a

, .

to

;

he

of

, .

a

of

.

a

particularly mean and contemptible confronting slave was assigned the strange admixture The treatment slaves was inhumanity and kindness Under the law slave was out political society side the pale and without civil legal rights yet rights superior had certain those of others He had the right slay man who assaulted his wife although she was slave woman The law gave right which un the owner the right kill his slave fortunately was too often exercised Ordinary human

.

in

or

.

,

a

.

a

by

as

of

.

,

;

life was cheap that the slave was even cheaper Strangely the practice Alogging never existed Ice although the custom was common among other land nations under slavery Nor were they tortured Abuse torture this unfortunate creature was severely con public opinion demned not only inhuman but un strange and becoming freeman There was here seemingly inconsistent partnership between the mild and

and mean

and justly held

to

is

a

contempt

by

cowardly

,

,

weak

in

.

,

to

;

no

.

in

the fierce human character One explanation that held terrors for the Scandinavian mind inflict pain was cruel but cause death was much less odious thing While illustrations abound showing that slaves were

death

the

SERVANTS AND SLAVES

255

as

, in

.

in

,

of

,

,

,

,

society which debased them there are perhaps many instances which prove that they were strong heroic and devoted men not the inferiors free persons those qualities which were especially admired the Saga period Slave owners are mentioned whose slaves served

with admirable loyalty and devotion and the Saga writer gives them generous credit whenever due something Indeed some masters felt themselves sea deprive them happened of the services of certain

.

is

, if

to

,

at

it

,

them

to

of

,

of

.

of

up

to

of

of

be

in

by

.

's

In

.

slaves other instances slaves sacrificed themselves save the master life As further proof their fine qualities and the trust reposed them their masters mention should again made the practice con signing their care children tender years with the virtually bringing them duty Slaves thus honored

the home place

or

on

of

,

in

.

to

of

of

evidently enjoyed the confidence and affection their masters beyond that accorded ordinary free born serv high positions ants Sometimes they rose honor and responsibility often being put charge the work .

in

in

.

to

;

he

;

a

gave

to

,

somebody

him

be

his freedom

.

purchase

else

Obvi

amount rewarded him

earn such or

,

course

an

it

as -

was also the fine for killing accumu

had little opportunity to

unless

could

it

ously

liberty

by some means this amount could

, of

,

lated

If

slave

he he .

a

standard price

,

of

.

a

as

it

it

or

;

in

it

of

to

is

it

of

of

,

distant establishments When we many recall that them came from Ireland and Scot ability and character land and were men their old easy homes account for the cases where slaves courage and loyalty manifested commendable qualities possible for slave The law made attain freedom three ways he might purchase his liberty he could might receive through some work earn task and gift One and one half marks of silver was the

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

256

for some signal

service

.

Slaves

occasionally by performing

their

earned

freedom

tasks for their master . This might be done in odd times when the daily work had been done ; or the slave might undertake a spe cial job , sometimes of an unsavory character . By way of illustration , we find one purchasing his freedom by agree ing to kill his master ' s enemy . The practice of hiring assassins evidently did not originate with the modern some specified

gangster , although he has made it a fine art as well as a profitable business . The slave attempted the but due inferior technique failed and was himself killed Similar instances often occurred Another they would master blandly offered freedom his slaves burn certain family their home was not always however with such bloody tasks Liberty was given for con that freedom was purchased spicuous and long continued loyalty for acts courage and fortitude Bravery difficult circumstances if

.

,

of

or

.

in

,

.

,

It

a

in

to

.

,

to

,

.

,

job

metropolitan

A

.

to

,

he a

do

."

to

a

he

"

:

It

by

is

as

as

a

,

.

do

to

on

's

to

,

of

by

of

.

in

battle was sometimes rewarded with manumission One interesting instance liberation comes mind slave the name Atli undertook his own responsibility receive into his master home men who had been ship wrecked Upon being asked his master how dared thing the slave replied such will be remem long bered Iceland inhabited how great man thing must have been whose slave dared such permission gave liberty without his His master him his

a

an

, of of

a

—

.

.

a

distinguished home This man became and highly respected citizen One suspects him Celtic probably from cestry certain the neighborhood

and also

if ,

,

.

it

,

of of

in

castle not far from Cork Ireland Often likewise prisoners especially war were given their liberty they were noble family because was deemed alto

SERVANTS

AND SLAVES

gether

inappropriate

slaves .

In one instance many

that

such

men

should

257 be held

slaves were freed

for

as

this

lands, most of whom afterwards became prominent and useful members of the community . After Christianity was introduced owners on their death beds liberated their slaves , in the belief that the act would be pleasing in the sight of God . Thus the " institution ” gradually disappeared and the freedmen mingled with and were absorbed by the rest of the population . reason and given

XII

CHAPTER Food

-

,

Social Life ; Sports

Feasts and

\HE Icelandic people , during the Commonwealth , lived the simple life . The bulk of food stuffs was derived from the products of domestic farm hus

,

,

is

it

a

of

.

an

fish

;

-

is

It

on

its

by

and from the sea . The staples were meat of cattle and goats , mutton , pork , and fowl, together with products and milk and has always had im portant place the Icelandic menu probable that meat was more general article today for cattle and diet during this period than

bandry

in

, , .

other livestock were more numerous than now While the normal season for butchering was the fall yeomen

a

,

of

in

,

,

,

of

.

by

in

.

,

of

.

of

as

at

they needed meat for they such times present day lacked facilities for storing and preservation perishable food Fresh meat was seemingly steady diet without recorded indications detrimental effect upon the health large kettles the work being The meat was cooked healthy stock done both men and women The suet and some other parts the creature were packed the large intestine and when thoroughly cooked the dish butchered

of

a

their livestock

.

ucts

of

to

“

",

258

In

of of as

to

.

in

in

.

a

Norway this article was considered real delicacy great favor and enhanced the popularity diet was the Icelanders that country The Norwegians some facetiously times referred the men from Iceland Suetlanders bit humor which suggests the extent which the people maintained themselves from the prod

FOOD , FEASTS AND

Meat was pared

259

boiled rather than otherwise pre and steaks being unusual , except at

served

, broiled

SOCIAL LIFE

meats

, al there is little mention of them . It is doubtful if salt was available for the seasoning or preservation of . Smoked

great feasts

or cured meats were known

though

meat , because

that commodity was extremely scarce in Iceland . The meat of young horses was eaten in some places before Christianity was introduced . It is quite probable that at the pagan sacrificial ceremonies and feasts horse meat was ordinarily used . After Christianity

article of human diet and it has not that it was ever generally con among sumed the better classes . In addition , the meat and eggs of all kinds of fowl , tame and wild , were common . variety of chicken or grouse flourished wild ; these A were caught in nets and sometimes shot by devices in vented by ingenious youth . roducts was everywhere staple Milk , with it went out as

an

proven

a

was heated

when

dropping pieces

ice

of

it

was drunk

, byat

Fresh milk

Sometimes

of

of

a

by

practice

,

while warm served stones into the vessel containing the milk cooling drinks which the modern method

.

milking time inserting hot

,

food

.

article

of

its

-pby

definitely

been

into the liquid

. It

.

a

from

,

.

to

This article

diet

is

.”

curdled milk

of

;

,

,

"

as

but

by

cheese were manufactured

,

,

and

is

variation milk seems that butter was not ordinarily preserved the use of salt but when made faster than the daily con sumption was probably permitted sour Another dish skyr this word from milk sometimes was made called loosely inaccurately has been and translated into English Butter

still common

.

thin

that

it

was made

so

a

a

is

,

Sometimes

it

hand

.

always

on

in

,

,

very palatable food The and when properly made daily ration and large containers was skyr was kept

260

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

could be drunk , and differed in that respect from the kind made according to the modern method . Cheese was a daily food in ancient times and was shaped in molds of varying sizes . Sour whey was kept in large vessels and drunk to quench thirst ; it was also used as a preservative of certain sea foods , meats , and the like , which were kept in the liquid during the winter . The flavor was im proved by this method , and edibles thus preserved were considered wholesome and tasty . Near the coast sea food was the principal staple , and fish was eaten both fresh and dried , but seemingly never salted , or preserved by that means . Yeomen living far ther inland went during the fishing season on fish -drying expeditions , and it was common to find piles of dried fish in the storehouses of wealthy men . In the less well-to - do

homes , dried fish was used as a substitute for bread , be cause barley , or grain , out of which bread could be made, was scarce and very costly . Seal and parts of the whale were eaten , and , when well prepared , were considered good food . Whale steak recently has been advertised in the United States as a newly discovered food . Time is relative ; it was only one thousand years ago that the Icelanders knew that certain parts of the whale made a very satisfying food , and their ancestors undoubtedly had known it at least five hundred years earlier . The old law contained strict regulations concerning the right to whales which had drifted to the island , or had been found caught in ice floes from the north . The whale has always been a bone of contention , alike in theology

; but it

can be easily demonstrated that the Icelanders have swallowed many a whale , whereas the and economics

Jews have had great difficulty in proving their story con cerning the rôle of this creature in Hebrew history . The

FOOD

of

,

FEASTS AND SOCIAL LIFE

261

whale was hailed as a blessing in Iceland and often averted starvation and suffering dur ing seasons of prolonged and severe cold weather . Those who owned the carcass of the creature , according to the law , sold the edible portions to persons who came from discovery

stranded

a

far and near . There were certain kinds of sea weed , or sea plants , suitable for food and the old law permitted these to be collected and eaten , even when found on the premises of another , but it was not permissible otherwise to carry food away without leave . From rivers and other waters salmon and trout were caught and through that kind of fishing the stocks of food were regularly supplemented . Fishing in the rivers was circumscribed by strict regula tions . There was little or no exportation of marine products . There were comparatively few varieties of food ob tained directly from the soil . A kind of barley was raised to some extent, but to such a limited degree as to be suf ficient only for the barest needs of the home. It was originally ground by pounding with stones , but later in

hand mill . The remains of a grist -mill have been found in Iceland , but it may be questioned whether these ruins go back to the period of the Commonwealth . This kind of grain , and the flour made from it , was the outstanding article of import . Due to the high cost , use was re stricted the more prosperous and wealthy families From the meal species flat bread loaf was made coals Malt hot embers stone either beer was brewed from the grain for drinking purposes

, or , .

,

,

.

, , or or

in

or

a

,

on

a

of

to

its

a

,

of

by

.

to

,

to

but this drink again due the scarcity of grain was wealthy only available the Mead and wine were occa sionally brought vessels who had been the owners

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

262

at

of

a

in

all

abroad , but such liquor must have been rather uncommon during this period , being served only at great feasts or celebrations . The people of Iceland were temperate in use of food and drink . In the interest of historical ac curacy it should be noted that this moderation in the use of intoxicants was due less to self -discipline than to eco nomic circumstances . While the principal meals were being served there only family day were two a — the men the sat the dining hall with the possible exception Before they took their seats they washed their place prepared for that pur hands either outside pose the hall sometimes the women went among the men with water basins and towels especially feasts when guests were present Then the table was set and the food was served The table equipment was very simple even among the wealthy Sometimes the food was put upon the bare

,

in

table

a

at

or

.

,

.

.

,

at

, or

;

in

,

, .

slaves

without dishes but probably more often than not meat and the products meat were served dishes wooden platters On special occasions linen table

or

,

in

a

,

.

on

of

,

,

, ,

table

of

“

it

,

old

as

,

,

;

us

a

to

,

, or ,

.

.

,

or , of

part Neither knives nor forks were Every person the table service both male and female carried attached the belt about the neck knife dirk otherwise the fingers did duty when most proverb has Fingers now use forks for the cloth was used

. of

or

,

or

large container bowl where persons went for

,

a

,

in

the dining hall separate table a

and placed

on

brought into

,

in

.

of

,

or

in

."

were made before forks Porridge was furnished troughs with which went spoons many wooden horn and were thus served out the same bowl Milk and some its products were cups Beer and ale were distributed decorated bowls

FOOD

,

FEASTS AND SOCIAL

LIFE

263

their drink , according to their tastes. At feasts and cele brations liquor was offered to the guests individually in horns, or in vessels having a base , and each person , in

,

the horn until it was drained ; it was then refilled and the process repeated . These Icelanders turn

drank

from

were as optimistic and as naïvely unaware of germs as members of some church denominations are today when they dispense communion wine to a group of persons from

a

common

cup .

limited extent only , but when it was available in the homes of the wealthy , each guest was expected to drink according to his appetite , or Beer

was served

to

a

very

his capacity , rather , because the latter was likely to be exhausted before the former ; this was true, at least , at the evening meal. On such occasions and in such places men would remain at the table long after the food had been eaten . That this practice was rather uncommon in Iceland , except , perhaps , among the wealthy , is , of course , obvious from all the circumstances , some of which have been mentioned . Social life in Iceland appears to have been pleasant and varied . Engagements , weddings , wakes , or funeral feasts - at the latter the guests sometimes numbered as high as fourteen hundred people — and the like, gave occasion

for inviting neighbors and friends to spend several festive evenings . It was customary , among the better classes , to invite friends and relatives at least once during the win ter to a party and social gathering at home ; there was a certain reciprocity in the arrangement , and the gather ings rotated annually from place to place . It was pleasant , even

without

exchange

zest of illegality , to meet and over a glass of liquor . Such social the fall or during the winter and

the added

conversation

events took place in

264

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

probably owe their origin to the ancient pagan sacrifi cial rites conducted three times a year, in the fall, in the middle of winter , and during the summer . Guests were invited a long time in advance , the invitations being ex tended at the Spring Things , at the Althing , or at any other place where many happened to be assembled . Dis agreements and partisan strife at the Things naturally

afforded an excuse or occasion for such invitations , be cause men considered themselves indebted to those who had given them assistance or support . The most elaborate preparations were made ; animals

were slaughtered without stint, both sheep and cattle ; and liquor was dispensed with a liberal hand . Hospitality has always been accounted one of the characteristics of the Icelandic people, and during this age we find ample proof that it is not a recent acquisition . No pains and no expenses were spared in making the occasions enjoyable

; the

quality and the lavishness of the enter tainment were sometimes on a truly regal scale . As the day approached , curtains were hung in the homes , and to

the guests

rush or straw was spread on the floor . The long fires were kindled and the lamps lighted . The head of the

house and his sons received the guests , took their outer garments and their weapons, and conducted them to their seats . The custom of thus disarming guests is one which hosts , in some parts of the United States might profitably

adopt. their relation in the community . It was highly important that no mistake be made in placing a guest in strict accordance with the claims of his posi tion . The consequences of social errors here might be almost as disastrous as misplacing a foreign ambassador , Visitors were seated in accordance ship to the host and their standing

with

FOOD , FEASTS AND SOCIAL

LIFE

Tables

,

.

.

)

two

(

seats

-

High

.

Secret door into space be lining and wall tween Wall posts are designated

by

high

squares black the seat posts are shown round black spots

;

.

horns were filled

.

Long benches

hall

Serving table where large

vessel was kept and

-

.

)

.

end

of

at

benches

STOFA

by

of

in

-

-

the floor

Cross

. .

ff

Dais along the hall Cross dais the high part

of

.

cc dd

ii j

to

the Hearths according Gulathings law Nor way there were three hearths each dwelling

ggg hh

)

(

floor

.

FLOOR PLAN OF PARLOR .

Earth

(

a

b b b

a

100

265

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

266 a

Vice -President , or

Chief Justice of the Supreme Court out of the blunder feuds

a

States , because

of the United

, in time finding a climax in war and death . customary It was for the head of the house, when all the guests were seated , to stand up in his place and pledge peace and good will among those assembled , a wise pre

might

grow

caution

in

an age when

bird . After

the

meal ,

of

the dove

peace was

a

available , liquor was

when

restless served

,

.

see

and this was the most interesting part of the whole cele bration . Indeed , these occasions are interchangeably de scribed by the term drinking or feasting . First men drank in honor of the gods , of the saints , and of deceased rela tives ; then a general drinking bout might follow , two men contending to which one could consume more liquor without going under the table Sometimes the rule

In

.

to

becomes easy

this custom

, it

of

to

a

,

it

was adopted that each individual must drain the horn penalty was when was handed him and occasionally imposed for failure accomplish this feat the light

why

understand

Scotch

,

to

of

an

to

In

.

a

.

an

to

on

it

of

, as

a

It

.

of

hosts organized rebelled and drove the Norsemen out Scotland iniquity was neither social error nor become night intoxicated the advanced view the rules high testimonial the game would have been their endurance and capacity had these gentlemen been keep able even keel until morning The orgy con

,

in

,

of

of

.

,

a

tinued for week sometimes for two weeks when the chieftains and the leading men were sent home with good wishes and valuable gifts liquor was the main feature While the consumption the festivities there were many other ways which

-

of

.

the guests enjoyed themselves Animated conversations concerning the achievements and prowess well known

FOOD , FEASTS AND SOCIAL LIFE

267

, comparisons of the ability and skill of certain indi viduals , with heated debates on both sides , relieved the passing hours . Sometimes each guest selected a guest whose equal he deemed himself , or someone who was men

absent

;

thereupon

thus chosen . His including family achievements

,

others answered for the competitor claims to distinction were enumerated , connections, skill

the fiercest discussions feeling and feuds Again vows might taken

.

which

From

sometimes led

of

do

be

.

ill

this resulted to

athletics, prior

in

and qualities of character and mind

.

,

or , to

in

to

, ,

deeds skill and prowess but these were probably more common con nection with wakes and certain ceremonies according the pagan practice Sometimes men improvised poetry

,

,

verses and told stories either about others foreign parts All this con their own travels pleasure tributed the the occasion and here always the poets and story tellers were the chief enter tainers this respect feasts celebrations and social gatherings were among the most important elements the civilization the people

of

.

of

in

,

,

In

-

,

of

to

,

.

.

in

from

as

recited

.

;

or

of

is

.

,

,

to

of

a

;

to

,

no

to

-

of

During the long winter nights was born the art story telling and popular versification Something must pass be done the time and lessen the tedium there were newspapers which could occupy books magazines prevent that utter way must be found their attention liable the faculties which and paralyzing stagnation inactivity result from isolation and sheer loneliness

.

,

of

a

.

,

,

as

,

,

of

,

by

Various games skill were discovered and played The evenings were shortened kind comic play satiriz ing the Things the courts and the conduct and speech among the Greeks the pagan gods men but never

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

268

This occasioned much merriment and there is reason to believe that the work was skillfully done. Various indoor " skin games ” were popular among the Icelanders , but they were less commercial than certain games so described in expressive American slang. They afforded vigorous exercise , were comparatively free from risk of injury , and were lawful . One of such games re quired a

, four in the center . A raw

five

fifth in

players

corner

each

of

the room

and

hide or skin was rolled into

a

another , it being the intercept business of the man in the center to the slippery ball. If two caught it a fierce struggle ensued and the stronger recovered the prize . There was opportunity for

ball

and thrown from

one corner

to

of maneuvers . The and sometimes , when strong and spirited men played , the game became rough . A simpler game consisted of pulling a raw hide , but this

skill and adroitness exercise

was

in

the execution

very strenuous

was merely a test Chess , as then

of

strength

played

,

. differed

mentioned , being

amusements

radically

entirely

the

from

intel Icelandic pastimes . game of

a

lectual skill . It ranked high among the It was regarded as strong proof of intelligence to be a successful chess player . Chess appears to be of great an tiquity among the people of Europe; Voluspa tells us that it was played among the gods . The most common

type was played on a board divided into square blocks ; the pieces used were of glass, stone , bone , or made from

,

the game

, or

or

the dark

black is

and

,

attacked

The precise nature

of

,

pieces

defended

.

-

light colored pieces

.

its

teeth ; one-half were black and one -half were white . Among them was one piece , the king, about whom the game revolved ; he was central figure The white

not

FOOD , FEASTS AND SOCIAL LIFE known . Sometimes be named

a

a

piece had

a

'

269

long tail , when it would

tail piece .

of

chess have been found throughout Scandi navia in ancient burial places , which would indicate that the instruments of this game were interred with the dead , in common with other articles of great value. A set was found in some ruins in 1860, numbering twenty Pieces

four

pieces , some of bone and some of teeth

apparently

had been

red

and the other

; half of them half white . Some

pieces were rounded on top , and some had a long sharp point . With them was found a small cube and the figure

of

a

man

sometimes

in

of

bone . The ancient pieces of chess were costly material and were kept in bags em

bellished with gold rings . In the chess board was a ring , or rings , by which to hang it . Chess , as we know it today , did not become common in Iceland until the thir century

. The

game seems

to have come to the Scandinavian countries in the Middle Ages . A kind of backgammon (kvatra ) was also played and was prob ably of French origin .

teenth

Athletic games and outdoor sports were and always have been popular . In fact , they were deemed an essential part in the upbringing of the young . These competitive contests were calculated to stimulate the spirit , to culti

vate sociability , and to develop the capacity for social living . Such contests took place at feasts , or celebrations , at the Things , and at national gatherings . In addition , it was common for young men to organize their own

tournaments of skill during the fall and winter when the seasons of work were at an end . These events were really national athletic contests , and crowds were at

far and near , both to take part in and to games the . The place selected was usually hard ,

tracted from observe

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

270

level ground ,

or ice on rivers and bays. It seems probable playground that the was , wherever possible , in places where there was a slope from which spectators could view the contests . When the games were entirely local they were carried on from day to day while the weather permitted , the participants going home at night. When athletic contests of some magnitude were arranged , they did not , as a rule , last more than one day , possibly two days . On such occasions the yeomen , or the sons of the yeomen who sponsored the contest entertained the visiting contestants

and the visitors at their homes. To do this was considered a mark of great generosity because frequently the crowd temporary booths were was very large . Sometimes there for several days . Of the sports most interesting to the crowd , the lead were wrestling swimming and certain ball games Wrestling according the Icelandic mode national sport the style being distinguished and essentially dif any other part ferent from wrestling matches the wrestling tussling matches world The called ancient Scandinavia are course the parent the pres ent day Icelandic glima The fundamental difference be

,

is a

of

of

or

,

.

, of

-

so

.

in

of

,

,

to

.

,

ing

erected near the field and the visitors remained

other Scandinavian countries America and the Icelandic glima that the stronger former the man almost certain win whereas

,

will

skillful

be

,

agile

, al

to

and the more the stronger man

is

in

the latter the more though not necessarily

in

is

in

,

and

in

tween the tussles common

the

.

victor

.

;

,

on

,

a

.

Certain ball games were very popular The ground plain chosen was flat hard level and sometimes the games were played ice An umpire supervised the

Icelandic Wrestling

(Glima )

.. .

FOOD , FEASTS AND SOCIAL LIFE

271

game. When the contest was between communities two umpires were chosen , and the contestants arranged them selves in groups, or sides . Otherwise , the umpire himself matched

if

. When

he made the selections equals as nearly as possible and there was present some unusually strong man , he was the contestants

he endeavored

to match

excluded or was matched against two . When men dispositions appeared they of notoriously pugnacious part, permitted were not to take lest feuds or rows be precipitated . The contestants ranged themselves opposite each either

all

other , and two and two played . The ball was probably of wood and of a size so it could be conveniently held in the hand , and there was a bat to strike it with . Back of each side or player was a line , and the object was to deliver the ball over the adversary ' s line. These lines , in

.

in

he

.

in

he

do

in

it

,

,

,

of

—

, If

.

be

.

of

it

or

it

,

to

he

,

.

to

If

,

to

.

a

to

he

it

-

on

it

, it in

it,

. If

it

by

,

at

probability extended across the field each end The game was started throwing one contestant the ball into the air and striking with his bat failed striking across the line must run and endeavor put literally making over touchdown His oppo nent the contrary endeavored catch the ball and throw back he failed catch the ball ran after competition with his adversary and endeavored drive kick out bounds he succeeded had imagined this game sometimes won the game As may became rough and occasionally injuries resulted that respect not unlike the great American game football Of course the game was somewhat different when more than two played but what respect the records

.

a

.

to

a

.

not make clear Swimming was common sport Children were early taught popular pastime swim This exercise was

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

272

.

.

be

of

,

ing

among the women . Young men met and engaged in swim ming contests in rivers or lakes and at the Things and other gatherings . Near the hot springs were built bath pools the remains which may still seen Men went there daily for recreation and enjoyment From this has been concluded that the people the island were particular about bodily cleanliness and sanitary observed many the cardinal requirements living today and healthful advocated Swimming races and long distance swimming contests although few are specifi were seemingly not uncommon diving was ranked among the cally mentioned Skill finest accomplishments was this field that the warm competitions developed est One the famous incidents struggle between popular and this period such accomplished Icelander Kjartan Olafsson and King Olaf Norway This King was really the ideal Tryggvason hero the Viking Age notwithstanding he was Chris supernormal tian monarch He was deemed have luck

of

a

,

a

of

.

to

of

, .

of

,

a

is

of

.

of

.

in

It

.

in

;

.

as

of

of

it

and other evidence

,

him

,

.

all

contests

excelled

of

,

summer

although

.

arranged

.

at

in

sometimes

,

special

in

.

or

, of

of

to

.

sometimes

in

creatures and them their owners were inordinately proud Stallions were matched tournaments and great crowds gathered see the battle fights between wild horses The descriptions the sport suggest western United States that this old was thrilling and full action The contests were held certain local Things social gatherings late the

,

valuable

of

.

.

to

he

, ,

in

and

in

skill strength and athletic who competed with There still remain be mentioned the horse tourna ments The Icelanders loved horses and raised them with the greatest care Good horses were regarded the most battle prowess

tournaments were

FOOD , FEASTS AND SOCIAL LIFE

273

Owners of stallions , supposed to be capable fighters challenged others ; and sometimes there was a local Thing at which all eligible horses were brought together in a contest. The owners were then divided into groups , and group nominated each a judge . The tournaments were held on hard , level plains, and the spectators stood or sat

around the field while others remained on horseback , riding on the fringe of the crowd . The stallions were led

forward

,

and sometimes engaged contestants

there were two , or more ,

pairs

of at the same time. The horses rushed together , rose on their hind legs and bit and pawed each other with might and main . A man accompanied

horse , carrying a heavy staff with which he drove the horse and steadied him by pressing the staff on his back when he stood up against his antagonist . There were intervals of rest until the contest ended — like the brief moments of respite in the prize ring . The fight did not each

end

until either stallion

Sometimes

horses were

ran off the field , or was killed . evenly matched that no de so

a draw was declared . Occasionally quarrels resulted when fraud , trickery or sharp practice marred the exhibition . Pugilistic contests , in themodern sense , were unknown . There were possibly certain economic reasons why this sport had no chance in Iceland . In the early history of this game in England the men who took part believed that the best method of training for a championship con test consisted in consuming twenty - five glasses of whiskey

cision was possible and

daily

for thirty

days before the

deemed necessary

in

Ireland

bout. What quantity was

in

like

circumstances

the

records do not say. As has been seen , liquor was not easily obtained in Iceland during the Commonwealth , and the Icelanders would have been hopelessly handicapped in a

world 's championship

match

.

XIII

CHAPTER

Children and Education \HE home is the oldest prototype of organized so ciety ; in it we find the seed of ordered political life . We have grown accustomed to regard it as the cornerstone of the social system , and as a correct mirror of the current civilization . This view may have to be re

of the Russian experiment , but concern intelligent merits liberals are not prepared beyond concurring unproven Scotch verdict The acknowledged relation the home and master important starting point any study the child in

the light

.”

,

“

in

of

to

its

an

is

of

of

a

in

to

its

ing

go

vised

,

,

it

of

,

in

.

or

by

-n

of

of

or

an

at

to

,

, to

no

,

.

human progress Scandinavia during the pagan period appears have igh exception practice been the well universal one time another either sanctioning law toler ating the exposure infants Except Thebes where was offense against the law the practice infanticide

It

of

supposed reasons justify the outrage The

or

of

.

,

they could not think

of

;

Greeks feared overpopulation would not tolerate any system

to

the case

or of

state were invoked

,

reasons

, of .

by

,

of Greece

and Solon

In

,

by

,

.

was virtually universal among the Greeks was sup ported sometimes enjoined the ideal laws Plato Lycurgus and Aristotle and the actual legislation

opposite policy prevailed

.

Rome

an

In

.

of

,

of

;

birth control and under the leadership their philosophers and learned men the rearing helpless and deformed children was deemed both inexpedient and unwise 274

The practical

CHILDREN

AND EDUCATION

275

Romans encouraged the growth of population ; hence , again for reasons of state rather than from motives of humanity or tenderness , the exposure of infants was dis couraged

, at

by law

least

until the decadent days of the

Empire . Yet, even before the Empire , exposure was le gally permissible with the consent of five of the nearest relatives . Such was the attitude among the great nations of an tiquity renowned for their philosophy , their learning ,

in art , and the high level of their culture . The practice harks back to the time when the head of the house , or the family , had the power of life and death over the new -born babe . That the exposing of children was practiced in Iceland to some extent before Christianity was established is un

their excellence

true . It was indulged with

if without of powerful sanction customary untold ages the history the human even

,

in

going back

of

had the more

for

It

.

law

the tacit acquies

the express authority

law

of

cence

,

society

of

mistakably

be

,

it

it

,

In

,

a

or

in

an

of

.

of

, of of

war

to

,

of

to

.

by

ill

.

of

is

In

to

a

it

is

.

of

.

to

no

to

to

,

in

.

pointed out that the family justice Yet must practice seems have been limited the extremely poor large way who were encumbered with families and saw offspring maintain their short was the outgrowth economic necessity the very few instances where coupled reference made the atrocious custom there with either condemnation statement that expo public opinion sure was favored explain not The true historian seeks only extenu ate The age which we speak was harsh and some atmosphere respects devoid sentiment There was

. of to

of

to

.

,

,

challenge adverse and the feelings Every form the more tender senti courage ment was subordinated the demands The destruction

growth

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

276

, the maimed and the sick , were social impediments and there was no time or money , and but little inclination to preserve and protect them . Those only who were unable to meet the struggle for life were for death The attitude understandable although

is

it

,

, of

.

is

fit

weak and the incompetent

is

it

,

of

.

it

to

.

,

inhuman When however the exposure infants was practiced and sanctioned among the wealthy difficult reconcile with the fundamental human instinct of af fection for offspring

of

is

It

the conclusion Icelandic and other historians the practice received the unqualified condemnation men although sporadic instances occurred the Christianity With island shortly prior the adoption on

to

“

,

.

,

in

of

a

;

,

,

, "

,

,

,

I

,

in be

of ,

,

of

“

.

it

to

in

,

Christianity law religion and instinct stamp Christianity combined out The influence the protection infant life though very real may says Lecky and think often has been exaggerated powerful influ Iceland however Christianity exercised uprooting whatever vestiges ence this horribly inhu practice injunction man remained The attributed Barnabas Thou shalt not destroy the conceptions before of

the coming

.

to

of

,

all

that

brought forth

of

at

,

a

,

.

If

an

of

a

by

a

,

.

a

,

.

"

a

,

are

;

nor kill them after they are exposure and born was direct blow the practice infanticide Shortly after birth the child was sprinkled with water important and significant and given name This was possibly rite sort dedication the service was per person formed other than the father sacred bond was created between him and the child somewhat after they

It

.

of or

in

,

.

-

-

a

of

god father under the Christian system the fashion was assumed that between the two good will should there cele after prevail On such occasions originally feasts arranged although period brations were the the

CHILDREN AND EDUCATION

277

Commonwealth this custom had largely disappeared . The name given was usually that of a deceased relative , be cause in Scandinavia there was an old superstition which frowned upon bestowing the names of living persons upon infants . It was not alone respect for ancestors which dic tated this course ; it was, perhaps , as much the belief that the luck of the family would pass on with the name .

In early times the names were taken from various indi vidual characteristics of body , of mind , of personal ap pearance , of weapons , spirits , battles , victories , and the like . It was common practice , under the pagan régime , to identify sons and daughters with the gods and join two names in the hope of a long and fortunate life . The child was commonly identified with the father , although , in the case of a posthumous child , or if the mother remained for long a widow , the child took her name and would be de

of his mother , the suffix “ son ” being attached to her first name . It was not unusual to give a man an agnomen suggested by traits of character , appear ance , or occupation . Care was taken , however , not to ad dress him by this unofficial appellative , because , as often as not , the new name was uncomplimentary , and an inju dicious use of it might bring about an unpleasant situa scribed

as the

son

tion .

Christianity , baptism took the place of the sprinkling ancient with water . It seems that the pagan , method was as to externals , very similar to the Christian baptism . In the old Icelandic Christian law it is provided that the child shall be baptized forthwith after birth , if possible , and at the same time be given a name . If a priest were not available , a layman might perform the cere mony , but never the father himself , except in extreme

After

necessity

.

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

278

of bringing up chil kept dren . The child was in a cradle and nursed by the mother , under whose care and control it was during the years As soon first the child developed various Little

,

as

.

few

is known about the manner

,

.

,

or ,

.

of

,

a

,

of

,

it

of ;

playthings were given some who were child prodigies playthings given very unusual nature Tops were various kinds trinkets and the like constituted the prin cipal equipment the playroom the playground

of

-

as a

of

.

as

(

of

;

is

no

or

at

as

.

of

as

;

of

.

to

a

.

of

in

As the children grew older their games represented miniature the paramount interests their elders The play was preparation sort of for the career the grown expected child was follow The make believe activity childhood was the serious business which occupied the time and attention adults and the children played roughly earnestly and their seniors played the great game organized life There was directed play they played when and they wished There contrast the natural result the development urban .

a

,

he

ter what his aptitude importance

he

.

is

,

is

up

up )

in

grew

of ,

between the conditions under which children then and under which they grow now Today play supervised America and real program carefully study planned work and for the child No mat centers

to be , by

a

in

,

,

by

is

of

to

genius

of

Einstein

school

, it

to

he

goes

to

the

an

.

which

of

need

the state

in

and

of

,

.

is

it

if

—

to

a

in

,

,

of

or

-

no

a

of

,

if

has any has none what his interests may he re ceives standard form instruction according stand building ard methods standard school room constructed according standard plans and stand ardized teachers educated teach standardized grandly scornful methods Our system education of the individual child but magnificently concerned with the mass children Given the age the youngster calculate

does not exactly

CHILDREN AND EDUCATION

279

what he is studying or doing at any moment of the nor mal school day . There is a real advantage in this leveling system ; it dispenses with the necessity of sending complicated and pestiferous questionnaires in order to discover what is going on . In this age of standardization the scheme is ideal .

it

It

tends to make mediocrity

respectable

by making

. Under

our state compulsory system and with of population any other scheme than uniform mass instruction would probably involve a staggering and unbearable burden of public expenditures. The children of the Vikings were not so situated ; there were no public schools , and there were no cities ; the chil uniform

our congested

centers

dren followed their bent , whatever

it

might have been .

If

the boy wanted to pursue the then respectable profession of piracy , there was none to say him nay ; today if he re solves to go into the less romantic but more lucrative occupation of bootlegging , the attractions are almost , irresistible and once he is in , a convention of sociolo gists , psychologists , psychopaths, psychiatrists , psycho analysts , juvenile reformers , etc . , will listen to a learnedly unintelligible paper on what to do with him . It is said of King Olaf the Saint that while on a visit he and his mother strolled down to a small pond where his half-brothers were playing . Two of the boys had built large houses and storage places for grain ; and there were cattle and sheep in large numbers . This was their play . A short distance away a third brother , Harald , was play ing with shavings of wood which he floated on the water . The King inquired what this signified . The boy replied that they were his battleships . The King laughed and said : “ It may be, son , that you will command ships ." Then he inquired of another brother what he would like to have . He replied , " fields . " The King said : " How many fields

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

280

.”

ancestors

,

,

"

:

His

majesty

then

turned

to

your

semble

;

."

to

seem

“

The King then said You want large establishments therein you re

the land around the water

boys

of

of

go

“

to

“

.

So

.

to

? ”

"

,

“

."

he

.

in

all

would you have ? ” The boy replied , describing a large area of land where there were many homes , which grain The King then inquired he wanted seeded the third what would like best have The boy replied many Cows And how many asked the King boy they they said the that when drink would fill

of

played

“

.”

a

.

,

aims

dren

? ”

"

?

,

"

."

's

,

,

“

in

“

, "

So

"

.

.

"

,

the boy

to

What most would

“

:

Sery have many ants answered And how said the King many came the reply that one meal they would eat all my brother cows The King smiled and said Mother you are here raising king The proph ecy was fulfilled for Harald became king This incident illustrates how the aspirations and the Harald

you like

The education

,

a

was not found elsewhere several centuries thereafter the youth the Icelandic Common

.

in

which

of

then

or

like

the

Europe

,

, ,

agency

of for of a

;

up

a

of

to

,

of in

a

it

,

.

.

to

to

childhood gave character the games the chil They were free follow their inclinations without restraint from their elders This may have been important details yet all wrong and doubtless was hardy under there grew race and adventurous spirits who scrupulously adhered definite and strict generation of men who deliberately set code honor and organized free legislative and governmental

in

in

or in

to

it

,

is

a

.

by

as

of

, of

to

,

;

in

,

campus activities cramming wealth did not consist taught him his mind with facts think terms of dividualism the Russian school system teaches the child motivate conduct cooperatively the supposed groups Russia thinks she has pro needs masses and gressed whereas she has merely completed circle and

CHILDREN AND EDUCATION

281

to keep it closed . Russia , in thousand years — to prehistoric communism . The illiterate patience of peasant Russia , with no background save the harsh traditions of autoc experimenting anew with racy , is an ideal field dis require guaranty carded philosophy which seems

striving

desperately

now

1917 , leaped

back

few

as

,

a

mur

merciless and

cold blooded

,

existence

,

continued

a

of

to

a

for

a

.

derous despotism

of

of

atmosphere

naturally the the time According our approve the atmosphere developed

children

in

this system

to

Under

.

to

a

be

to

as

to

?

.

or

.

to

no

,

of

,

a

to

-

spirit cultivate militant self reliance There was course serious attempt check

tendency

A

"

a

it

of

it

,

a

in

"

:

,

to

no

.

or

in

it

so

,

—

, of

or

fit

or

-

;

is

or

we

the ideals cannot unqualifiedly plan the ideals but there not something said for plan expand want which leaves the child free its faculties whatever they may be best qualify for the environment which the adult must live There was little conscious effort made hinder this freedom The motto was Self must lead self and this principle upbringing was the cardinal the of child may have been but laissez faire scheme had natural lights

,

.

,

,

of

subdue the harsher instincts the child Hatred pug nacity the spirit of contest developed early and without in

,

.

a

,

.

,

it

restraint The warlike spirit when manifested itself child was welcomed and excited commendation rather than censure Often mothers whose husbands had been

of

,

in

of

,

to

. ,

or

feud

,

a

in

who had been insulted made direct ap revenge for their youthful sons The response was only too ready and sometimes under such prodding boys revenge for the twelve committed homicides slain peals

in

,

, of

.

a

or

a

relative father All the conversation they the record and achievements the men whose praise spoken names were most often the glory which death

heard

stirred unqualified admiration ;

of

do

or

had

to

envy

excited

all

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

282

war and the clash loyalty the great virtue the national ideal honor and truth was but infamously great From what has been said must not inferred that attempt was made cultivate the inner graces the Boys away mind were sent able and learned men for special instruction those fields where the rudiments appear Of the things ized knowledge had begun the

of

a

.

,

fighter who

of

of

on

.

to

in

of

.

to

no

to

it

be

.

of

to

of

with

lacked

arms And yet

,

no

.

,

.

to

of ,

It

.

of

be

as

,

in

so

to to

-s

in

,

.

of

be

,

of

.

no

,

in

.

in

a

in

.

It

to

It

by

as

of of

,

to

or

be

.

In

.

,

poetry

in

which most emphasis was placed we note first family history and skill the knowledge Runes all these fields the Sagas testify that the Viking showed uncommon ability and skill Two other fields must mentioned which have sports namely law and medicine relation war Knowledge and understanding the law was emphasized practically the most useful the intellectual pursuits was studied systematically and carefully well nigh everyone hope was utterly vain for any man take part profound knowledge public affairs without both substantive and procedural law Learning this field really daily every was essential life for man was his profession own lawyer There was the law and con there were no regular practitioners who could sulted concerning the legal rights individuals True the Law peaker might be consulted but the right this regard was restricted little value was obligatory upon every man know his legal rights and this way could he avoid serious duties because only

of

mind

no

.

trouble

of

of

,

,

to

.

of

to

profession While there was medicine much atten particularly study given the treat medical tion was Sagas ment wounds The mention men who appear

CHILDREN AND EDUCATION

283

have possessed superior knowledge in this field and who were sought from long distances because of their skill . The treatments were sometimes complicated , and themost serious wounds , like amputations of arms or legs , were successfully

treated sion for consulting

. Wounds were a

the most common occa medical man . There were, doubtless ,

diseases , but they are seldom mentioned . It is quite cer tain that they were not so numerous as they are today.

Disease , like industry and education , has become highly complex and thoroughly specialized in our modern civili zation . Youths were instructed early both in law and in the best methods of giving themselves and others emer

gency aid in case of injury . It was a highly practical age. The Saga accounts point to individual instances of re

precocity , boys of twelve being almost fully developed . Although a program of strenuous physical ex ercise might have a tendency to bring about this result , we

markable

are inclined to suspect the chronicler of excessive enthusi asm . When the poet Egil was twelve years of age he was said to have been bigger and stronger than most adults , and in games his superior could scarcely be found . Simi larly , many instances are mentioned of boys of twelve who were very strong , virtually grown , and capable of doing the work of much older men . The legal age was , at

one time, twelve , a corroborative circumstance , not espe cially curious , if the numerous stories of precocious youth be accepted as true . Later , the legal age was fixed at six teen

years in Iceland .

At sixteen

a

man was considered

on

all things . Snorri Godi, at the age of sixteen , charge took of his inheritance and the Godord and main

his own tained

in

both

successfully. This was true

mentioned in the Sagas . When children were brought

up

of

under

many

others

the parental

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

284

child was , at an early age, assigned to some par person ticular in the home to look after ( fostra , our word foster ). Sometimes this person was a manumitted slave who had been in the family for years and in whom there was the utmost confidence . The reader is reminded of the negro “ mammy " of the old South . Such persons , it seems , occupied a peculiar position of trust in the home, superior to that of the servants. It was the duty of this foster

roof each

person

to

teach the boy athletic feats and the

girl to work

with her hands . Indeed , this individual supervised the bringing up completely . It was , accordingly , deemed im portant that a servant of this type be of good family , in telligent , and as well informed as possible . The same rule prevailed when a child was brought up in another family with relatives or friends , a custom not uncommon during this period in Iceland . Sometimes the duty was assigned to old and trusted servants , or tenants , or lodgers . From this custom probably grew the feeling that one who fos tered a child for another was an inferior , although there are many instances where men of high dignity up the children of others without any resulting prestige

brought loss

of

.

child was occasionally , as too frequently has been the fact in the history of the human family , an innocent and unconscious instrument for the accomplishment of selfish A

and sinister purposes . Every parent was expected to and felt that he must support and assist the person who fos tered his child in all controversies , whether right or wrong , as well as the child itself when it grew up . The result was that unworthy men took advantage of this situ ation and offered distinguished persons and chieftains to assume responsibility for the bringing up or fostering of a child . In this manner the foster -parent bound the father

CHILDREN AND EDUCATION

285 a

of

in

of

of

,

if

, or ,

the affections and the expectation

foster

the

of

in

place

on

a

.

winning

in

ceed

parent

a

,

aid

to support him , and the former, assured of the respectable and powerful man felt certain security Similarly misbehavior there was the hope reward through inheritance otherwise the child should suc

,

.

or

-

,

,

.

of

be

up

to

,

on

.

to

,

on

,

of

,

the one side benefit the services the child the other The practice was not uniformly advantageous the child and was occasion productive disastrous results expected the greatest affection often grew As was between the foster parent and the child even supplant overshadowing the love for the natural parent ing from

-

.

he

in

if

all of

as

a

family were frequently treated Children thus taken into they were sons and daughters the foster parents through life Njal and were looked upon this light said he loved Hoskuld more than his own sons and that

,

-

up

not related

by

-

.

,

-

a

.

-

would rather have lost all his boys than this beloved foster son strong affection among foster children There was themselves the friendship sometimes lasting until death The well known term foster brothers applied originally

, of

(

.

in

it

-

as

to

of .

.

foster brothers were divisible into three

-

The duties

,

In

.

-

to

.

in

an

)

a

-

or so

at

no

-

,

-

a

to

together blood who grew with common foster parent and the foster brotherhood one time probably meant more than the bond friendship between persons raised Iceland however the term foster brothers foster brotherhood fost braedralag always signified different and more bind ing relationship Men this situation had taken oath binding themselves the closest association These men Icelandic oath brothers are sometimes referred history The relationship carried with certain distinct rights and duties children

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

286 classes .

First,

been brothers

they must regard

of

by the powerful significance

other as

if

they had

this is the Icelandic people was the most powerful unifying forces . A common fate , it was agreed , should

ship

of

of

the

bond

each

blood , that is , as if bound together of natural family relationship . The striking . Family and blood relation

among

of foster -brothers , and if one was killed the survivor must carry on the feud . Secondly , they must agree to hold property in common , that is, each owning

be the lot

one -half , if there were but two, and in proportion

if

there

were more than two . This element was important , par ticularly when the foster -brothers were Vikings or mer chants and ship owners . This partnership arrangement was adopted by the latter class of men without regard to the existence of a foster -brother relationship . The result was that the relation could not be terminated without the consent of both , a common term in the so -called partner ship agreement of Vikings and merchants . Occasionally , it seems, a foster -brother severed the connection , but only in most extraordinary circumstances and not without real regret and distress on both sides . Lastly , it was the duty of the survivor to avenge a fos ter-brother killed in battle . This was undoubtedly for a long time considered the main principle of the bond . The stipulation was taken seriously and never violated . Later , however , the obligation could be satisfied either through revenge or prosecution for the homicide in a court of law . Anciently the relation was deemed to create even stronger ties , and when one foster -brother died the other some times committed suicide, or had himself interred alive with the dead . A foster -brother had the right to demand assistance , from his associate both in financial matters and in per

CHILDREN AND EDUCATION

287

of

as

,

,

is

of

In

a

of

the heart

of

lies

,

,

.

this modern business organism

at

germ

of

of

,

as it

,

as

.

of

.

its -

of

.

-

of

an

is

to

of

a

by

-

or

,

,

to

,

in

.

to

in

,

in

his

sonal encounters . It seems likely that the survivor inher very ited from deceased associate the absence close relatives the same manner merchant partners inherited one from another According the Gulathing Laws Norway the surviving foster brother had right paid compensation the wergeld one who had notwithstanding killed his associate and this was true the legal heirs the dead foster brother were still alive aspect There this foster brotherhood which lawyers interest some features the scheme suggests the germ corporation the modern The guilds prototypes corporation are sometimes described of the later developed under the common law and with good deal Antedating the guilds however the truth

,

,

,

.

of

a

,

to

or

-

.

,

in

,

-

Viking Age

,

well known Scandinavia the Foster brothers though perhaps more often than not limited two four might and membership sometimes did contain nine persons the foster brotherhood

earlier

.

of

it

,

at

,

,

it

in

,

all

of

-

be

.

a

a

of on

-

a

of

of

a

When such was the case one member was foreman and sort chairman the whole group The business organi Jomsvikings zation the was really nothing more than large foster brotherhood scale and yet had some of the characteristics modern business corporation The foster brotherhood could not dissolved without parties the consent and this regard differed fundamentally from the partnership while suggesting the corporation where one member does not have the power

a

,

.

of

,

,

in

of

.

to

dissolve the association will Something has been said about the place foreign young men When full develop travel the education ment mentally and physically had been attained and young man had learned all the athletic feats and when

he

about

course that

,

matter

of

a

,

followed

,

twenty

it

the age

as

,

be

training therein available which would

of

all

had

at

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

288

if

,

to

A

.

go

should abroad seek fame experience and knowl edge man was considered imperfectly educated he

as

of

as

.

of

,

of

.

a

of

in

of

.

in

had not been elsewhere than Iceland Travel was the graduate course the education the young which put the ultimate stamp rounded educa tion upon the man Such was probably the fundamental purpose expeditions abroad well the Viking Usually objective the mercantile kind the was Nor

's

,

or

in

, .

.

in

at

,

of

as

-

.

,

or

of

of ,

of

.

to

,

,

as

.

as

as

.

of

,

at a

to

, ,

of

the hope being become member the King court because the royal court that time was the ac knowledged center courtesy and culture Sometimes Italy they went far and Constantinople Two probably years three abroad was the average although many remained longer Some won real distinction other countries yet the years came the pull the North proved irresistible and most them sooner later leading men went returned Iceland When the sons abroad foster brothers and friends often joined the party The more prosperous travelers might take with them servants the sons lesser men thus maintaining them keeping with their situation selves abroad home way

and instruction

,

, ,

education

of

received

.

in

as

,

is

It

.

of

Less specific accounts are available concerning the edu girls cation and upbringing certain however kept they that were not under lock and key was almost literally true some other countries during this period They played games among themselves and with boys and along with them both reading the Runes

, It

.

.

by

in

in

of

the art versification and appears that they were specially instructed medical art because nursing service was frequently performed them Women were particularly concerned with the prac

CHILDREN AND EDUCATION

289

of certain occult sciences , and the Sagas show that well informed in many matters . That they were regarded as independent and not the inferiors of men in intellectual gifts appears from the fact that the Saga writers depend upon them with as much confidence as upon men . tice

they were

Girls

concerned themselves mainly with domestic and household economy and various kinds of needlework . In

youth they enjoyed in most things the same freedom as men . They attended the Things ; they went to feasts and parties , to sports and tournaments , in common with the men ; they visited the seacoast when ships arrived , and patronized the bathing places as freely as their brothers . Upon their freedom little or no restrictions were placed ; like the boys and the young men , they were expected to develop self-reliance and independence of character and to be able to look after themselves . The Sagas contain many illustrations in proof of the assertion that the Ice landic women of this age were of a self -reliant character , independent and richly gifted with the intellectual quali ties which today the finest ladies like to claim for their sisters. By comparison with the lot of women elsewhere in this period the position of the women in Iceland was conspicuously advantageous .

CHAPTER XIV Property Rights of Women A

OMPARISONS

N

-

Comparison are said to

be odious ; yet, without

of values sound judgments cannot be formed . If we did not think that we knew some thing of heaven , and were living in an Arctic climate , a picture of the lower regions might not be wholly unat standard

a

tractive . A description of the condition of women in Iceland at this time becomes more definite if we put in juxtaposition with it a sketch of their situation else

,

to

complete

the

.

of it

,

in

man certain pictorial scenes namely delineation and make more intelligible society While the position woman

a

of

set

where . The comparison is not made with an invidious purpose ; the situation in other parts of Europe is III reason that we find the figure down for the same

a

of

is

.

a

In

of

is

,

it

of

In

,

it

.

is

in

of

is

,

of

some index quality merely the the civilization bit circumstantial evidence which has little value when con helpful with other facts given sidered alone but society the standing women has not always steadily improved and yet asserted that among the same people civilization was advancing the Homeric Age at

in

,

often

dogmatically asserted that 290

to

it

,

Again

is

.

to

is

of

.

;

to

women seem have been quite free the age they Pericles had become virtual slaves Still the latter stage Grecian development competent opinion not lacking the effect that national culture had made marked progress Chris

Siglufjordur

B

PROPERTY RIGHTS OF WOMEN

291

tianity belongs the major credit for the alleviation of the lot of womankind . We are naturally prejudiced in favor of the thesis , but, unfortunately , certain qualifica tions must be made before the claim can be admitted . When we recall what the learned Church Fathers , who shaped the destiny of and served as spokesmen for the Christian Church during the first three hundred years , said about women , we are not surprised to find that the influence of that organization was not powerfully exerted in her behalf . That the hostility of the Fathers was dic entirely by tated the consciousness of man ' s frailty in the face of her visible charms, explains, but does not alter , the historical fact that woman was looked upon with doubt and suspicion by the founders of the early Church , or that she was, in truth , regarded as a more or less nec essary a

evil because without her no one had discovered successful way to perpetuate the race of good men and

true . Clement of Alexandria told her that she must keep her shawlbefore her face when away from home ; Com modian said she must not be adorned ; Tertullian frankly commanded her to obliterate or conceal her " natural grace " as being " dangerous to the glance of the behold er ' s eyes " - weak and easily erring man being the " be holder " who must not be tempted . Cyprian condemned all

, in fact , all artificial aids to her natural attrac ; and Epiphanius clinches the matter by the

cosmetics tiveness sweeping

humorous pronouncement prone that the " race of women is to slip and is unstable and low in their thoughts . " The suspicion has gained ground , as the relations of the sexes have come under the microscopic eyes of Westermarck ( not to mention autobiographical material like Franklin 's, Cellini's, or and

unconsciously

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

292

Casanova 's ) that when

woman " slips " there is prob a man somewhere near , very near . By subjecting certain clews , like a bastard child , to severe logical analy . great sociological detectives since the days Tertul lian and Cyprian have boldly advanced the hypothesis contributing share that some man had the slip a

of

."

"

a

in

,

,

,

sis

ably

.

be ,

it

as

on

,

,

of

Early Christianity even the Christianity the Middle Ages did not see this clearly and insist upon social and legal justice for women even terms with the men may the fact remains that the Surprising

is

By

of

as

of

.

,

in

,

of

a

in

of

Iceland the settlement period enjoyed fuller measure social justice closely approximating equality with men than did their Christian sisters other civilized countries this notmeant that the Founder Christianity contemplated injustice and oppression

women

Sir

,

;

of

of

.

,

;

the proper heritage women but rather that the men who led the movement which He launched before His tragic death upon the cross misinterpreted and misunder Christianity diminished the legal privileges stood Him Henry Maine says the women Rome indeed

that Christian institutions are not likely

to in sex

.

's

."

of

"

on

by

to

restore liberty personal the them conferred the women rights middle Roman law The reclamation these own efforts How recent years has been through women on

of

.

's

,

no

"

,

he

,

—

"

's

of

—

, , .

? “

be

in

of

it

otherwise The sentence God this yours lives gateway this age You are the devil image Man You destroy God thundered the great ranging Church Father Tertullian himself and with spoke along hideous error the religion for which calamity Mohammed who said that there was side could

is

.”

sex

to

more hurtful man than woman With this savagely nothing com oriental attitude towards the there

PROPERTY RIGHTS OF WOMEN parable

the pagan

in

293

of ancient Scandinavia or

system

.

Iceland

Among the sources of the continent , approaching the Icelandic Saga as a picture of the times , is the collection of epic chronicles embraced under the description Chan sons de Geste , the warp and woof of the literature of France from the twelfth to the fifteenth century . The sub jects of these songs are historical facts. Perhaps the earli est is the Chanson de Roland , dating from the earlier

part of the twelfth century . Later epics , or chansons , are feudal picture

in

of

theme and give us an interesting and vivid life during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries . an

A

.

a

,

you wish

die

:

a

to

a

,

de

will

.” .

, if

wife

peer

I

,

Soon

a

“

In

.

of

as

,

to

of

,

,

or

or

,

of

.

,

its

, in essence was incompatible with independent womanhood The overlord had claims upon military service which including that his tenant conveniently normally discharge woman could not girl inheriting the land from her father must widow accept marriage according the dictates the over lord otherwise the latter would be deprived the rights which justice and customary law accorded him knight the chanson Chamoi Nimes king says Feudalism

will give you his land and his

them

, a

.

a

,

,

a

husband for her whereupon she thanked God and the nuptials were celebrated amid universal rejoicing Such docility among the Icelandic maidens

of

.

,

that he had

a

In

.

a

,

's

to

a

to

a

In

another chanson woman has lost her spouse whereupon her brother finds her another husband with the desired result that the fief passes man who inci dentally also receives wife still another chanson father sends his son duke with instruction that the former demand the duke daughter for wife The duke was accommodating called his daughter informed her

294

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

the better class would have been somewhat unusual . As appear, they were ordinarily consulted , presently

will

notwithstanding of the family .

the arrangements were made by the men

Under continental feudalism a woman owned neither her body nor real property which might be given her . She transfer her affections with a readiness which re the ladies of Homer ; but she was probably , on the whole , quite content. In this same period , in the beginnings of chivalry , the lady received blows from her could

minds us of

husband meekly and as a matter of course . In several of the chansons such incidents are recounted . The husband strikes his spouse in the face with his fist and she humbly thanks him and invites him to strike her again when his lordship has a mind to . Such was the attitude towards women of early , though , perhaps , not later , feudal chiv alry and chivalrous feudalism on the European continent. The chansons show the utter indifference of men to wards women ; the men , in this age of chivalry , really thought better of their steeds than of the ladies . We cannot blame the fair sex for organizing in the circum stances — a sort of League of Women Lovers , one sup poses . The ladies had a Code of Love , evolved in a Court of Love , which became a feature of certain parts of Provence .

" Marriage

The first clause in this strange code is : "US against loving ." The people is no good excuse

of Scandinavia knew nothing of this sex modernism of France of the twelfth century . America has learned of it lately through the doctrines of Bertrand Russell and Ben Lindsay of blessed judicial , if not literary , memory , to

the effect that marriage should be no impediment to in discriminate love . It is thus obviously wrong to describe some of our social chiropractors as radicals or inno

PROPERTY RIGHTS OF WOMEN

295

vators , but it is meet to sympathize with them as rather ordinary atavistic phenomena , lacking in real , though glorying in assumed , originality . When the status of the married woman in England of

period is considered , a fundamental points difference in of view at once obtrudes itself , a difference which has resulted in a divergent development of legal theory in Iceland and in England . The English wife could own no personal property ; it all belonged to her husband , including her clothes and her ornaments , the corresponding

who could sell it as and when he pleased . Man and wife could not own personal property in common . The wife could make no contracts save , upon the principles of agency , for certain necessities when previously authorized or later ratified by her husband . When an English woman married she lost all control over her real property . Her husband became a sort of guardian thereof , she having nothing to do with it while the marriage relation lasted . It is sometimes erroneously asserted that the husband owned the wife 's real property

as well as the chattels . His ownership , if ownership it can be called , was distinctly qualified ; he had full and com plete control of her freehold interests in land , but if he sold or conveyed them , she could recover the property from the transferee . Upon the death of the husband , the land went to the wife 's heirs when the wife had previously died . If the husband resorted to a collusive legal proceeding to deprive her of her interests in the

land , she was permitted to intervene, when she was sep arately examined in order to protect her rights . While , obviously , the husband ' s control over the wife ' s real property was much greater than in Iceland , it was by no means complete and unqualified ownership .

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

296

justice to a system which has as often been unjustly ignorantly and as justly and intelligently criticised , one is moved to call attention to certain compensating fea tures of the common law of England which was con temporaneous with the Icelandic Commonwealth . If the woman who married lost title to her chattels and control over realty , the man whom she married was held liable by the same legal system to pay her antenuptial debts , whether growing out of a wrong or otherwise ; and if after marriage she committed a wrong from which dam In

, her

husband was liable to pay . If she was , she was likewise immune from property unable to own ordinary the civil liabilities which attend upon full capac hold title and control the material goods this marriage was merger personalities the con world

-

.

,

or

when

the

, .

giving her the benefit reasonably

of

liberal

presumption

of

;

the courts were

in

a

a

on

of

of

a

to

,

to

or

one sided the advantages partnership all the male the When she committed larceny the judges soon certain crimes like burglary presume that the acts exhibited marked tendency were done under the dominating influence the husband and excuse her the ground coercion The man could plead clergy while woman could not since she might priest never become but because this very disability

of

sequences were not wholly

,

.

a

of

of

to

If

to

ity

ages resulted

circumstances

this wart

.

ranted

, by

,

principle

lived under the recognize the that legal system refused community ownership husband and wife to

law

,

common

of

Unfortunately for the women who

in

in

;

in

of

.

,

in

no

as

Norway and was done Iceland some other European countries Under this rigid English system new prop ideas concerning the rights married women relating agreements growth erty found and room for

The

Icelandic National

Costume

-

-

PROPERTY RIGHTS OF WOMEN ,

297

Iceland during this age , as we shall see , whereby the wife's interests could be fully pro tected no matter what happened , were , of course , im

to property

common

in

. It remained for the equity courts and equity , a separate from , though dependent upon , the com mon law , to span the gap which the English conscience practical administration saw between ideal justice and English law under the petrified rules and procedure possible

.

of

its

system

, as

if

,

.

of

's

to

,

to

a

,

,

to

in

of

of

to

, ,

of

,

of

,

it

True was not until the sixteenth and seventeenth cen turies that the immobile rules the common law govern ing the property rights the wife were really seen unfair and unjust married women but even belated wrong dawned upon the courts and the consciousness due acknowledgment that fact should be made Equity prenuptial began give effect courts limited way protect the wife proprietary interests contracts and through

a

of

,

of in

.

of

as

. ,

in

a

the right control over property during long step This has been justly hailed English emancipation the women Thus

her affianced the marriage

forward

as

The English equity courts permitted prenuptial agreement with through

.

Iceland retain

,

centuries the wife

to in

in

as

in

of

of

for

of .

the medium the trust The most approved methods the later English sys preserving independence tem the women after marriage property were well understood matters early and actual operation the tenth and eleventh

.

dred years earlier

an

six

in

of

,

,

,

the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the women England obtained the first taste but withal only incom plete enjoyment proprietary certain fundamental rights which her sisters Iceland had enjoyed hun

CHAPTER XV

Marriage , Home Life REEDOM principles

in

and Death

of initiative was one of the underlying bringing up the young . Yet , in one

respect , there was a very definite restriction upon liberty , namely , in matters of the affections . Engagement and marriage involved the family and were not deemed to be the exclusive concern of the principals themselves . It was considered reprehensible and improper for a man to pay court to a woman without the knowledge and per parents , or her relatives , and it was seldom exceptions — there were — that such a courtship ended in marriage . The result usually was to create an unfavor

mission

of her

of the girl, and to irritate or anger her rela tives. The latter sought to discourage the visits of the young man , first peaceably , but later , if persuasion failed , by strenuous and summary measures . Such a suitor might be prosecuted and convicted of an offense , even if he did nothing more serious than compose a love song to his fair able opinion

inamorata . was not freely disregarded . Elopements were neither convenient nor popular . The airplane , the auto mobile and the fast train — the great modern aids to law breakers and eloping couples — were non -existent. On the whole , it was wisest to conduct a courtship according to Custom

the rules . There were certain definite hazards connected with any other course . In this age Iceland was no place for . Lothario , or . Romeo ; the latter would have been saved the trouble and messiness of suicide .

Mr

Mr

298

-

MARRIAGE , HOME LIFE , DEATH

Marriage among was probably seldom rangement made in

299

the Icelandic people at this period founded upon love . It was an ar

view of economic and family con siderations , and the cohabitation as man and wife partook of the nature of an ordinary business partnership . The most important element , from the man ' s standpoint , was nobility of family and support of strong relatives . From the standpoint of the woman and her relatives it was essential that there be substantial equality , lest the alli ance involve a lowering of her dignity or status. When proposals were made in behalf of a man , the

greatest emphasis was placed upon the family . Some times , scarcely less importance was attached to the eco

nomic circumstances of the young man 's connections , and great wealth might, in fact , offset the want of blue blooded ancestry . Marriages were occasionally arranged upon the old principle of royal weddings in Europe , when alliances were sought between sovereigns wholly for rea sons of state . Love upon either side was a relatively unimportant consideration . Marriages of this kind in Iceland brought together great and powerful families , to both sides. marriage proposal was made in order to obtain the support of chieftains of strong families in existing or anticipated quarrels , or lawsuits ; and some times in order to end a feud and establish peace . While love was not a necessary element in marriage , yet we find many instances where there was, at the outset , real affection between the parties . Such cases are often

with the result that the union added prestige

Occasionally

a

mentioned and were not unusual. It was, of course , not uncommon that a careful investigation was made con cerning the maiden , a sort of requirement of satisfactory references before the

proposal came . As

a

rule

,

young men

300

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

followed the advice of their relatives in all matters , in this as well as in other things . This was natural since economic and family reasons were of the first importance . It appears that the suitor himself was often quite indif ferent and that his personal feelings or inclinations were secondary matters . Of course , it is sometimes said in the Sagas that it is desirable , perhaps diplomatic , that a young man should talk with a lady before the proposal is

made , but this appears to have been a concession of courtesy , but by no means necessary , or even usual . When such meetings took place and conversations were ex changed between the principals , the report usually is that the man was well pleased , or, at least , satisfied with the lady 's appearance, deportment and intelligence . The man voluntarily left all matters concerning the

proposal and the marriage largely in the hands of his relatives . Women , on the other hand , were , according to law , incapable themselves of contracting engagements of marriage and were obliged to accept the terms which the father or guardian arranged for them . The parent or guardian was free to consult or not, as he chose . We are told about instances where a father engaged his daughter to marry , without first having mentioned the matter to her , because he thought it time she married and believed he had found a suitable son - in -law . While this course had its advantages when a parent daughter had become an en cumbrance , there were certain possible complications and embarrassments in the offing . A woman of spirit often protested strongly that this conduct proved that her found that

a

marriageable

father did not love her , and the result was double -edged disaster , trouble at home and awkward explanations to a proud and sensitive family . It was , accordingly , the

-

-

-

MARRIAGE, HOME LIFE , DEATH

301

usual practice , dictated by prudence , to consult the lady, to talk the matter over with her and to endeavor to persuade her to enter willingly into the partnership . In few cases were young women of good family so little beloved by their parents and relatives , as to be forced into an unwilling alliance . Instances abound where they were consulted and their wishes deferred to , although the parent felt differently . Again and again a father or

to

at

,

of

on

, ,

,

ily

replies to a proposal that while he himself guardian approves , his daughter or his ward will never be given in marriage without her consent. When it had been decided that a certain lady was eligible for the honor of becoming a member of the fam through marriage relatives the man together with

as

of

of

to

,

to

;

to

it

.

a

or

.

as

,

be

.

it of

;

himself went horseback call the the intended Sometimes the party was large indeed was considered important that the group imposing and impressive possible Parties twelve twenty even men often went upon mission this kind There was another reason why numbers were de sirable was well have many witnesses the mar riage contract and especially the terms concerning the candidate

home

.

property The fundamental

"

a

.

in

or

,

a

A

or

by

,

to

pay The prospective bride was required agreement through agents fixed mutual

a

.

in

.”

to

,

a

,

.

of

to

in

the engagement marry was that which defined the financial obligations the high contracting parties significant clause and compound word suggests that matrimony was frankly had earlier ages been commercial transaction The terms brudkaup and kaupa konu mean literally purchase wife The amount which the prospective groom paid was definitely stipulated advance and was called mundr term

sum

also

intermedi

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

302

aries , called heimanfylgja , or the dowry which the bride brings from her home . A marriage which had been con summated without payment of at least a certain minimum by the husband , could be annulled , and the children of such a union were illegitimate .

On the wedding night the money or property became

own , and , according to the law , the income thereof was her separate property . In case of divorce the wife

for pel

's

of

the husband , the

wife could com make restitution of this sum as well as of the dowry which she had brought him , of which he had charge . The mundr, or property which the suitor agreed partnership , is funda to contribute to the marriage mentally different from the dowry , and is probably with the misconduct to

him

out a complete analogy in either ancient or modern law . Marriage contracts were , of course , far from uniform in their terms. The mundr might be real or personal property , or both . It was sometimes expressly agreed that

of the estate and be owner the whole , regardless of a possible separation in the future. Again , if the suitor was a man of quarrelsome disposition , unjust and overbearing in his dealings with others, the father of the girl might con sent to the marriage on the condition that the young man the woman have sole control

of

a

half interest

reform law

if

,

, render

with

a

in

all men their just dues, and obey the reservation of the right to void the marriage unto

any of these conditions be broken . This plan had the double merit of putting restraint upon the wild young

, a

to

.

a

of

all

man and of affording a legitimate avenue of escape for that misguided optimism which might lead a lady to undertake the most thankless , if not witless , of tasks reformation husband after the fact Sometimes the lady agreed wait for the suitor

.

a

or

abroad An

lasted three years

kind occasionally

this

he had obli ,

of

engagement

often made necessary when trip take had planned

to

,

definite period gated himself

303

MARRIAGE , HOME LIFE , DEATH

of

engagement

"

's

,

no

as

a

it

,

's

,

or

,

to

,

by up ,

)

an

(

.

"

an

,

.

or

this type was kept betrothal ceremony the lady being described promised spouse the man heitkona When all the terms had been arranged and agreement reached the man stood named wit nessses the engagement and sealed handshake legal representative with the lady parent guardian

more Again

open although there had been

.

a

a

in

accordance with fixed formula Thus had been com marriage pleted the betrothal ceremony without which

,

law

was celebrated within days

take place

.

the betrothal

short time thereafter

,

to

It

, ,

's

honor

to

riding over hill and plain

do

seen

to

could

be

.

a

by

,

to

.

,

of

"

.

to

, "

,

of

.

at

to on

of

or

, of

, ,

—

at

.

of

.

of

,

a

few

it

, .

a

,

few

in

a

—

weeks and occasion months Weddings were solemnized most fre quently the fall for then was most convenient preparations necessary very extensive some make the wedding times The was the home the bride some her relatives Upon occasion the very high honor was conferred the groom and his family permitting the nuptials take place his home parties The families both rode throughout the neighborhood far and near invite guests was right people attend the deemed desirable that the wedding feast consequently persons standing were sought out and asked On the appointed day the groom his family and his invitees rode the bride home where they were received her family and their invited guests At some weddings numerous and brilliant train ally

few

.

the same day

a

Usually

it

of

,

to

.

in

was not lawful Iceland The wedding must according the within twelve months from the date

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

304

the families and the principals . Weddings are described where the guests numbered from one hundred to nearly

two hundred persons. Guests were invited from remote regions , especially men of high standing or position in the country . Altogether , a wedding was a great event . come into notoriety

than now

, that

at least three

a

times

man was sure earthly in

, he

less

he

to

, no

true then

his

It was

,

,

,

less than

six

no

affianced her when there were

,

pledged

or

's

a

,

of

.

he

,

to

a

.

; To

,

career when was born when he married and when died this should be added under modern conditions fourth namely when obtains his first divorce According wedding was the law the time legally performed when the lady guardian had duly

the wedding ceremony and when the men public light groom bed with the bride went probability an The requirement last mentioned religious ceremonial swered the more formal court later date No other specific features the marriage Sagas rite are mentioned the law the

of

,

all

.

to

of

by

.

in

in

or

.

a

or

,

in

)

(

“ in

,

at

present

a

no at

In

,

, .

be

of

or

it six ,

of

in

a

in

of

a

,

is

it

recalled that marriages were arranged third persons and largely upon commercial basis some curiosity concerning the outcome naturally arises country where one marriage out every less ends spite divorce court the fact that rests upon

When

,

do

.

,

in

en

,

in

a

least theoretical foundation love there would surprise were the record Iceland where divorce was even easier than the United States and love did not preliminaries infinitely worse ter into the No statistics are available from the period of the Com

of

in

.

in

in

at

or

,

no

.

,

monwealth but the Sagas not indicate that divorces separa were scandalously frequent The percentage probably higher periods tions was than later Iceland the present time America The inference

MARRIAGE , HOME LIFE , DEATH

305

may be amply supported that real affection followed the passages abound where incidental mention is made of the fact that conjugal love of the finest type cast a glow of happiness over the relation of husband and wife . It is true that the Icelanders of this period did not carry their hearts upon their sleeves , and public demon strations of love were as uncommon as they would have been foreign to the Scandinavian nature . Public show of feelings was deemed a mark of weakness rather than of strength ; and , perhaps , they were aware that the " honey , " " darling ," and " love " of public address between the married are but “ the trappings and the suits " of love , and not the sentiment itself . Unfortunately , among the married , the vocabulary of the reception room and that of the privacy of homes are different things. Statements occur in the Sagas which show that the relations between married persons were congenial and affectionate in the highest degree. Again and again a

marriage, and

wife was

to her husband that she declined to any attempts leave him in circumstances . In the face of made by promise of wealth or threats of reprisal to win her away from her husband , she remained steadfastly loyal to the end . The wife sometimes followed her hus band in outlawry , in spite of attempts to dissuade her by relatives and friends ; and death itself could not part

them

so attached

,

. When

, although

Njal was

burned

his wife refused

to

leave

his enemies invited her to come safely from their burning home ; and , again , we are told , when a hus him

band had been slain the wife followed him shortly in death , the story saying that she died from grief. When we recall that these old Icelanders were wholly unaware of Dr. Fosdick 's great, but recent discovery to the effect that the trouble is not with marriage but with the people

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

306

of

and

the

who get married , we may be excused for marveling that they should get along even passably well. These Ice landers lived under many handicaps , when we think of our len our numerous advantages today. For example, the men

.

;

,

.

of

in

,

of

incapacity

or

In

.

to

;

to

in

,

,

her high position She engaged servants and common with her husband instructed them their punish and forgive their duties and she had the power shortcomings according their deserts the absence

.

symbol

of

to

.

in

,

of

in

of

.

philosophers promiscuity ders of marriages had not yet appeared The Icelandic housewife was independent and her place high honor Jointly with her hus the home one band she became the head the domestic establishment and the house her will was supreme She had complete supervision over the provisions and her keeping the keys were entrusted Indeed the bunch keys was the

her husband she was the responsible

head

and

,

the vessel

;

master

of

filling his place

of

,

peditions

as

,

on

.

or

,

of of

in

.

,

of

the home case need herself working with the servants The women the home husbanded the family resources with keen foresight when death other emer gency left them alone When the husband was disabled fishing ex from any cause the wife sometimes went

,

.

occasionally

as -

to

or

,

when the need arose she invoked the aid her friends avenge insult death These women were strong willed extremely energetic

of

,

of

.

,

on

in

of ,

.

.

as

—

in

,

—

-

a

more modern times weaker willed husband the titular ruler peace and Their influence was not always the side good will They engaged controversies stimulated and kept alive feuds and contrived homicides with all the violent energy the most vindictive Viking They were too often women fierce and warlike dispositions and individuals supplanting

MARRIAGE , HOME LIFE , DEATH

307

no false chivalry in the Sagas seeking to gloss part they played many tragedy Indeed over the regarded such women were with admiration elevated there

,

,

.

a

in

ill

is

,

,

, -

.

is

;

a

,

to

-

of

to

,

by

a

a

,

,

on

;

of ,

in

of

.

no

,

;

of

,

of at

.

as

,

to

a

a

in

a

,

to of

as

.

of

of

of

,

an

.

a

on

a

it

it

of

a

in

as in

.

In

an

by

above their more mild mannered sisters and were de expressive scribed but untranslatable word which implied that the individual was strikingly handsome and nobly virtuous one instance woman directed the home establishment the absence her husband and also took his place leader the community and said that when she conducted lawsuit was well done The traits described might easily take the most unlovely tendency forms There was towards harsh eclipsing ness the facets female character which evoke approbation from the present age Some the ready when their wills were women the Sagas were put period crossed human life were their men Instances occur which woman was responsible for vendetta planned and vendetta executed The wife Njal though highly esteemed had aversion blood shed and strife the wife Gunnar Leith End was part responsible for his death and the slayers least Bergthorshvol were egged Sage the commit dastardly arson and homicides including helpless women and child among the victims vindictive woman

of

."

,

of

to

in

of

;

,

of

.

be

.

of

,

so

a

"

,

who like Lady Macbeth was vexed because her husband thought brainsickly things Beyond doubt life with some these Icelandic women had certain elements risk for the husband There might well need for tact and diplomacy Fortu nately the Sagas show that the law compensation opportunely many men whose wives were functioned turbulent dispositions were themselves peaceably clined and permitted their fair Tisiphones rave while

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

308

tenor of their way . Njal, when his wife fumed ; when she instigated homicides he quietly paid the penal ties . The same is true of the hero Gunnar . His ungentle lady plotted deaths costly and embarrassing to her lord , but he paid the fines and settled with the interested parties they blandly pursued

the even

for example , always remained

upon

calm

terms. When she upbraided him for pay . , he answered that she would regulate

generous

ing uncomplainingly

her own conduct as she pleased , but “ I shall decide how the case is settled .” Occasionally , a husband would lose his temper and slap the vixen wife. When he had the misfortune to become guilty of this stupendous folly one of two things usually happened , either he died with his shoes on at the

was

disgrace

regarded

act

of to

the deepest

an

.

blows

,

take

was considered from anybody and

it

him

vorced

wife's relatives or friends , or his wife di

the

It

hands of

his life

the help which

,

in

might have saved

him

.

crisis

,

of

,

by

in

he

he

,

of

.

of

.

a

to

supreme cowardice strike woman Cases are men tioned wives who divorced their husbands because the latter had slapped them While the malevolent spouse the hero Gunnar did not divorce him she never forgot surprised her the slap administered when some refusing repaid petty larceny and she him the to

we are told her husband from

citizen

dissuaded

, of

of

.

occasion

different type

,

prominent

a

of

of

plentiful

,

The wife

one memorable

are

a

.

woman on

in

illustrations

of

tues

,

, To .

A

that age did not undertake chastise his wife Custom law and prudence alike condemned the act pass from the red side the ledger their vir wise man

of

.

a

an

punitive expedition against sending enemy with the result that friendship between them was reestablished and maintained ever more The Icelandic women this

MARRIAGE , HOME LIFE , DEATH

309

of

;

to

its

period were persons of strong character ; of great energy and resolution ; and if they hated royally they loved with the loyal devotion of the gods . To Olympus they would have brought a purer dignity than fabled glory ever knew and mates whose destiny was the battlefield good and evil would where the universal principles

,

"

a

, as

—

.

a

of

a

or

.

”

,

in

,

meet mortal combat they brought womanhood not impudent and mannish grown but true brave and virtuous Divorces were obtainable for reasons even less sub slap stantial than blow Mere incompatibility

of

on so

to

a

,

's

,

.

in

—

the American states was sufficient ground marriage occasionally and the ties were dissolved for that cause At other times when the lady consent the mar riage had not been previously obtained domestic life was inharmonious that legal separations followed almost some

to

the slightest offense

or

,

and

disagreement might infidelity

,

of

suspicions

avowed

is as

Accusations

or

it .

,

law

undo

.

of

.

the ceremony Divorces were had upon pretexts The mar the flimsiest and most frivolous riage knot was loosely tied according the old Icelandic the heels

when

,

a

is

it

,

In

of

of

by

a

,

in

by

in

.

in

in

as

as

of

.

of

,

in

,

,

many American states today without cause were when mental suffering caused thereby sufficient ground for divorce An examination the records our divorce courts discloses reasons for dissolving the marriage tenuous the rickety causes sometimes alleged the century tenth Iceland one case true sufficient ground was found humorous stanza composed and public recited the wife inspired the ardor the

. a

a

is

humor and with whom

it

sense

of

man without

a

,

of

in

glances her husband cast the direction another lady evidently soggy The husband cursed with the mind

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

310

grave hazard to attempt the facetious , deeming it unnec essary to put up with such captious criticism , announced that he was through .

Perhaps some long -nosed scholar , with stooped shoul ders and thick - lensed glasses , nine hundred years hence , rummaging through our court records and finding that in 1930 one of the reasons assigned for spiritual agony necessitating permanent separation , was failure on the

part of the husband to return a lead in a game of auction bridge , may also dubiously ponder our sense of values . Sometimes the wife divorced her husband if he misbe

,

;

for

haved in certain transactions , or failed to give sufficient support to her friends ; and in an isolated instance the clothes one spouse wore were deemed unbecoming by the separation this how other and constituted a cause

.

,

ever was seemingly unusual in

obtaining the divorce was very sim technicalities The spouse declared the bonds severed the presence witnesses and some cases the ground for the separation was stated Mar riage seems personal contract have been regarded and misconduct one party would release the other the story Burnt Njal there described more formal ceremony but divorces were infrequently obtained with lawyer such formalities that particular instance conducted the case and was very careful follow the procedure Here the lawyer ad most technical rules vised the wife who was his own daughter the in

.

of

,

.

go

to

to

,

,

.

of

to

a

In

.

,

a

is

of

In

a

by

to

as

.

in

,

The procedure

ple and free from

as

,

.

at

.

if

.

,

bedside with her followers there name witnesses and declare herself legally divorced from her husband He told her she followed his advice the separation would legal be She did advised and her father announced Althing that the couple had been divorced

MARRIAGE , HOME LIFE , DEATH

311

what has been said it may be supposed that di vorces were frequent since they were so easily obtainable . NIC would be con Yet , it is probable that such an inference From

trary

facts . There was one factor calculated to both parties a course of moderation , and that

the

to

suggest

to

of

to

in

,

as

as

a

,

.

,

by

,

in

,

.

by

,

-

,

a

be

,

,

by

It ,

.

a

-

-

of

.

to

its

was the marriage contract, and particularly terms with property According the old Icelandic reference law the husband owned two thirds the property both and the wife one third unless contract there was different arrangement seems probable however that when the agreement of marriage was made there was stipulation that the property should introduced owned jointly one half interest each The payment she received mundr was all prob ability ordinarily her own separate property special agreement For these reasons the wife was thoroughly property was concerned and this independent far powerful sedative fact proved circumstances when

's

the husband

temper

might otherwise have

been

inclined

do

to

to

)

.

A

on

(

,

or

of

failed

to

the husband

. If

amuck

,

to

treat his wife properly rights was inconsiderate her she might divorce him and demand her share of the common com munity property threat her part this usually had the desired effect and operated powerfully restrain run

,

an

ill -

tempered husband for most men row otherwise The wife was fully conscious the power gave spouse that her situation her over her and she did sparingly Under the Icelandic system not always use there was such thing economic dependence the part the wife Instances are given here and there on

,

,

as

.

of

no

.

it

,

.

of

galley way

, .

to

be

to

a

a

potential where threats were successfully used and Petruccio became mild mannered and tractable husband The wife was expected faithful her husband

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

312

while the law accorded him the right to harbor a concu bine , one or more , as he might choose . That the husband frequently took advantage of this legal privilege appears abundantly in the Sagas, and the fact seems not to have excited unfavorable comment. The Sagas show , as might

-l

in

as

.

,

,

at

a

is

in

in

.

a

at

his

be expected , that the concubine was not received with open arms by the wife. The disagreements were often so serious that the husband maintained extra egal affinity distant place There has doubtless been some progress the world this respect least when the matter viewed from certain standpoint Relatively concubinage may be commonly practiced the United

of

to

to

us

,

in

as

as

of

in

of

.

in

in

at

to

,

of

, of of it

.

? —

by

to

"

a

it

is

or

” —

is

,

in

,

to

States and Great Britain not mention other coun tries where even less improvements have been made but there shown decent respect the opinions man merely the warden endeavoring kind keep the liaison secret Leaving out view legalized concubinage the light the law and the Sagas both have come from this period seems fair conclude that moral they standards were approximately the same level England today The chaste char are America and keeping with the na acter the pagan deities was

,

of of

. P .

W

as

",

"

is

.

a

as

,

in

of

, .

,

tional ideal The Icelanders common with the rest were conscious sex but they looked upon something more than themselves sex impulse strut ting about They could be individualists and feel that nothing really valuable except the individual charac ter Ker says them without having heard

human kind

of

, -

. -

fig

a

,

on

of

a

in

is

of

or

,

"

“

a

-

of or

self expression the modern American phe nomenon whose highest concept man the sum the performer ideas evoked when the vaudeville stage writer the journals humor mentions leaf

MARRIAGE , HOME LIFE , DEATH

313

The literature of the period could be singularly frank in speaking of sex when naturally incidental to the prin cipal theme, and yet be free from the sex blather which

constitutes the literary staple of the news stands and some of the book stalls of 1930 . Man and woman derived mutual pleasure in association in accordance with the world -old promptings of love and life , but the predomi

nant national thought and things . Sex irregularities

ent day leaders

—

of

an

consciousness

obsolete

the movement

idea to

were

of other

pres liberate the sup among

the

Scandinavians discouraged by providing and enforcing severe penalties ; and yet they had a lively time although seemingly ignorant of the pressed

sex

ego

—

these

blunder their savage ancestors had made when they thought they had discovered that the welfare of the race was better served by controlled than by indiscriminate love . They still hugged the delusion that it was not en tirely

seemly that the sensual dominate the rational

in

human nature . The pagan gods, continent though they were , could walk among their Viking followers without offense or

embarrassment at what they saw ; whereas , in 1930 , the from Mars was heard to remark : “ If the angel , Gabriel shock -proofed and experienced in worldly things beyond most of his angelic associates , were sent on a tour of inspection of the news stands of America , he would be completely overcome , like a rat in a sewer , by the nau seating sex and love fumes before he could pass the first row of the fiction magazines ." As is still the fact when sex irregularities exist, the

Man

greatest

sufferers were

the concupiscent

union

.

the children who were born

of

of virtual

sex

If

the advocates

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

314

it

promiscuity could be made to see this , or would see perhaps they could see it more clearly if some magazines certain type of reader did not make a little blind commercially profitable - - in pathetic aspects ness right they would complete less clamorous for the disregard injunction the married the the sixth pathos figure commandment The bastard has been and tragedy Norse and Anglo Saxon jurisprudence Without the right inherit claim the protection parental the roof denied the natural affection which normal parent feels for his offspring he was looked down

of ,

"

of .

to

by

,

a

,

to

or

-

in

.

a

of

to

of “

be

its

a

all

and

be

or .

in

.

in

to

of

.

in

to

upon the very society which permitted him thus aberrantly brought into the world Such was his tragic superior gifts could position Iceland Fine character popular not elevate him the level esteem which children born lawful wedlock were normally held

.

.

,

,

Between parent and child there was scarcely without exception the deepest love This mutual affection was upon respect founded Father and mother early took

,

to

.

of

of

;

as

,

in

of

the development the boy extending him full independent confidence and trust they recognized him taking care and capable himself On the other hand the child respected his parents and willingly submitted

pride

.

,

to a

all

.

,

he a

, ,

of

followed his counsels that his sons might object and peaceable adjustments rows and

.

and

such counsels

yet

he

from

;

excluded them

,

of

to

Njal knew

compromises he

,

,

in

.

, of

Njal man who loved their authority The story things comes peace and order mind Although his sons were high spirited and sometimes quarreled Skarph among themselves they obeyed their father jedinn one typical Viking strong his sons was and highly regarded his father ever ready for the fray yet

knew

therefore that once

MARRIAGE , HOME LIFE , DEATH

315

he had agreed to a settlement , they would never break it . When the attack was made on his home there was dis agreement between him and his sons as to the method of defense . The bold and mighty Skarphjedinn wished to go out and fight in the open , saying that he did not want to be smothered unresisting in smoke and flames . The father objected , and when they demurred he said that they would overrule him now , although when they were young they had followed his advice . Thereupon , the boys

do as the father wished , and Skarphjedinn , while he believed his father was " fey , " did as he desired decided

to

and met death in the fire , rather than disobey . The out come was that all perished together . In that age , the feel ing between father and child was built on the enduring rock of mutual esteem . Fear had no part in it . · As has been said , the Icelanders were not sentimental persons , and yet the Sagas show that they mourned bit terly the loss of those they loved . Sometimes the cup of

was rendered more bitter because the father was to exact prompt and adequate revenge for the death of his offspring . The poet Egil was so overwhelmed with grief over the death of his son that he took to his bed with the intention of starving himself to death . This sorrow

unable

was not relieved until he had composed the fa

sorrow

mous Sonatorrek to which reference has been made . Another instance is mentioned where a father lost a son , emerging took to bed and grieved for three years

appears that

when

revenge had

of

reprisal re sometimes the grief

wine

,

his sorrow says that the

,

.

It

his youth

stored

in

a

to

.

a

of to

an

of

admixture real sense loss and wounded vanity due the injury the family honor implied the killing son

,

was

the shadow The Saga

.

taken

of

from

of

only been

,

his

poem

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

316

of father and son the marked fea respect tures were mutual and the duty which common ; , blood exacts whereas between mother and son there was a finer and much more tender sentiment. As always , the boy 's heart inclined toward the mother , and the Sagas contain numerous illustrations of this universal truth . When her son was killed his mother mourned him with a feeling which was a strange confusion of sorrow and a desire for revenge. Other ties and associations might be formed , but the love of mother and son persisted to In

the relationship

the end .

ancient times among the Scandi death was anticipated , to make ar rangements and give directions concerning the funeral . When Audur was old and expected to die she summoned her relatives to a splendid feast . When the celebration had continued for three nights she gave gifts to her guests , with counsels of wisdom . She then advised that the feast should continue three nights longer , saying that this second lap of celebration should be her wake . The following night she died and was buried at the place It was customary navian people, when

in

by her . When a man became sick at sea , he sometimes directed that a coffin be made and cast overboard , sending a mes sage to son that he should establish his home Ice land near the point where the coffin landed Another man might give instructions that be buried near in

up

or

to

he

.

in

his

designated

he

might look over the fields and the that enough having Another was considerate great been his lifetime favorite with the ladies certain district direct that he be buried named place because he deemed that more acceptable them Another ordered that buried the entrance his

a

in

.

to

in

be

he

to

a

at

to

,

a

in

.

,

,

the mountains valleys below

MARRIAGE , HOME LIFE , DEATH fire house wanted

going death

317

, standing upright in the door . He said that he

to be

on , an

.

in a position where he could see what was interesting illustration of curiosity outliving

approach

of ,

It

dead man

a

to

dence

."

“

to

is

old

Immediately after death , the relatives of the deceased approached the body and closed the eyes and nostrils . This was a rite of importance from more than one stand point . The nabjargir meaning liter Icelandic word ally help corpse the was deemed doubtful pru the

from

front for whose

been

to a

It as a

,

it

to

.

for granted

taken

eyes and nostrils

that whosoever closed the

one who had been slain

,

have

of

to

,

,

a

in

It

.

body this service had not been performed seems have been the custom when dead body was found sitting posture come upon from behind matter precaution appears perform of and then this last rite also

under

, it

a

all

, of

in

of

,

a

or

,

of

be

he

,

.

to

If

of

to

a

in

.

of

og revenge the duty fight When man was killed was the duty of slayer the cover the remains and forthwith give notice pro report the homicide the survivor failed guilty claim the slaying would murder more serious offense than slaying with subsequent notice although the circumstances the homicide were took

, , it of

In

of

.

to

of

of

.

other respects the same Here the ancient law Iceland parts company with the common law England where the intent the perpetrator the homicide gave charac ter the deed Iceland was the skulking conceal

be

.

of

ment the consummated act not the intent with which killing the was accomplished which made the offender guilty murder Behind this principle may have lain the

; or

by

to

of

in

be

be

necessity that the remains preserved the end that duly noted the wounds might witnesses there may the background the detestation the Viking

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

318

for every manifestation of meanness and cowardice . For , theft was considered among the most contempt ible of crimes because of the sneaking secrecy which ac companied the offense . A true man moved in the open light of day , walked upright, fully conscious of his superiority over the crea tures who crouched in the shadows and fearfully con cealed their depredations from the gaze of men . Much could be forgiven who was what seemed nothing could condone the actions the base hypocrite who

of

;

he

him

example

,

to

.

,

to

,

on

.

shawl about the head The burial the day which wakes for the dead

of ,

.

"

in

, ,

A

,

net

took place without delay sometimes Christianity the person died Prior

on

with

or

",

garments

a

.

in

of

of . .

,

for

,

.

to

wished seem what he was not When the last rites above described had been per formed the body was prepared burial These prep poor very simple arations were man could afford die Iceland this period The undertaker that suave ur courtly manners had not made bane but costly model body appearance good his The was bathed clothed

, .

were not unheard but afterwards they became com Occasionally mon the body was kept outside during the

or

of

.

night fully covered The preparation

to

is

in

;

in

,

to

to

.

in

in

,

of

.

no

the grave burial mound involved substantial labor While we have accurate descriptions justify the inference that themounds enough said the heathen age they were often very large and elab orately built Many men worked building the mound help and one instance sixty men came others much

,

.

of a

.

,

of

complete the work Sometimes labor was expended mound was built rock and earth and sometimes Weapons only earth and various articles were put into body including valuables which passed the tomb with the

MARRIAGE , HOME LIFE , DEATH

319

media of exchange . Favorite weapons were in occasionally useful tools ; they would be needed in Valhalla , as will be readily understood . Oc casionally a man was interred in a ship in the mound . “ Death shoes " were put on the feet for use in walking to Valhalla . The body usually lay prone, face up , although sometimes the dead were buried in a sitting posture . Rob bers were not honored by burial in mounds ; neither were those who practiced witchcraft . Their remains were dis posed of in remote places and crudely covered with earth current

as

cluded , as a rule , and

or

. Graves, in the sense in which we now use the , probably date no farther back than the introduction

stones

term

of Christianity , although in some of the Sagas .

We have

until he lay

the scene by

there are hints

followed the Viking from in state in his burial mound a

reference

to

the contrary

his crude cradle

. It is meet

to the common

custom

to end

which

laid

.

a

.

do

to

an

,

.

of

of It

of a

,

.

a

of

or

at

a

is

be

.

,

of

in

of

in

.

's

—

to

of

-

all

upon surviving and competent relatives what was virtu ally a moral duty to celebrate his passing by an appropri ate feast. Wine flowed freely , when obtainable , and joy was truly unconfined on those occasions. In one conspicu ous instance the invitation to such a feast was made pub licly at the Althing , and able bodied persons were bid welcome celebrate for two weeks the death Hoskuld Dala Koll son Nigh thousand guests came The largest feast ever held Iceland was that which the sons Hjalti held memory their father which about fourteen hundred people attended The enormous expense imagined and labor can well but this feature there Hospitality scarcely mention was godlike virtue was these feasts that men resolved deeds worth valor for the glory the family Thus the mem ory spur ancestral greatness became incentive

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

320

, and a progression of great point deeds commenced at the where the dead man stacked arms for the last time . One stanza in Havamal sketches , in a few bold and simple strokes , the character of the Scandinavians of this and an earlier age . Freely rendered it reads : " Silent and cautious a great man is ; gallant and cheerful until he dies .” Here the characteristics of the Icelandic people are vividly portrayed . Reserved and taciturn in daily life, fearless in the face of difficulties , quietly and hospitably cheerful in conversation among friends , such were the men to achieve and to accomplish

Norway who

settled Iceland and whose descendants later returned to win the favor of European kings. They knew how to live ; and they early learned the more difficult art of dying like men . For them death was not a dreaded mystery ; they looked the Grim Reaper in the eye without a quiver of regret or fear . " All that lives must die ” was their philosophy ; and beyond there awaited a more glori ous adventure than any life could hold . It has been aptly victory and said that Christianity robbed the grave of certainly sting death the cruder faith the Scan dinavians old taught them that only through glorious and honorable death could they achieve the highest honor good all enlistment the side the war against

of

in

on

of

;

of its

,

of

of

its

from

Their attitude towards life and death suggest Socrates the high point his exalted career before the Athe -

in

at

.

evil

be

as

slew

said

rather

“

he

:

, ,

be

in

of

warned that fate would overtake him revenge for the death Patroclus avenged of my enemy die next and

if he

in

",

"

.

as

.

in

nians his own defense To him death might well the greatest good the greatest evil Thetis despised danger comparison with disgrace and upon being

Hector Let me

than

abide

MARRIAGE, HOME LIFE , DEATH here

by

earth

.” Socrates

ships ,

321

of the this is a true saying ." The only fear that ever entered the great philos opher 's heart was " fear of doing an unrighteous or unholy thing ,” according to his lights. These ancient Scan the beaked

told

dinavians conceived

a

scorn

that they had

a

sition which the gods expected them Socrates , they felt that “ to desert . fear of death , or any other fear ," " denying the existence

Again , calling

to

and

burden

the Athenians that

of the gods ."

mind the words

“

mission in life , a po to hold ; and , like . . the post through

was

in

.

itself

an

act

of the Greek apostle

unselfish and unterrified virtue , to do something " com mon or mean in the hour of danger " in order to avert it ,

of

was ,

in

the view

of

the Vikings , the act

of

a

coward who

of

by

lay

was less than man . That the light in which they walked was not in all things the light of truth , it would be worse than folly to deny ; but a child of spirit , though on mis chief bent, when taught to his course the fixed

is

of

;

to

,

,

of

be

.

or ill .

or

,

rather than the shifting stars gives better promise true leadership and power than the sodden soul without capacity for good inclination Better aggressive and capable error than supine and indifferent truth The former may harnessed and become the power which progress the latter pushes onward the van hopeless unresponsive and like lead the electric touch

'

d

,

a

,

,

,

of

of

of

a

a

,

in

.

vitalized environment Far removed time temperament and distance poet Latin himself distinction Gabriele Annunzio thundering strikes note which must have sent echoes

,

of

in

,

a

in

.

down the corridors Valhalla He speaks the speech philosophy the Vala the the Vikings and lays bare the deepest vein the ancient Scandinavian character single sentence which might well have been composed

322

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

writer of the North . Let this renowned of the balmy southland , where the Vikings themselves were no strangers in the days of old , write the Finis to this story : " It is not necessary to live , but to carve our names be yond that point, this is necessary ."

by the ablest Saga son

APPENDIX

A

Houses and Buildings \HE people of Iceland readily adjusted themselves to their surroundings and built their homes from materials conveniently at hand . In Norway there had been an abundance of natural timber , and houses were built of the great pine, with roofs of turf or thatch . In Iceland , on the other hand , the timber supply was limited and the trees were not nearly so large as in the mother country . The settlers were , therefore , compelled to use other materials , such as turf or rock , both of which were obtainable in abundance . This was true of the homes of the humblest yeomen as well as the more sumptuous estab lishments of the wealthy chieftains . The heavy timbers for the larger buildings were brought from other coun

tries , mostly from Norway . Sometimes large timbers drifted in and were used in buildings . During this period the Icelanders went abroad frequently to obtain timbers. It was common that the kings or earls of Norway gave them license to cut trees for this purpose .

The plans of their homes were not elaborate , to begin with , although it was not long before the pioneer sim plicity disappeared . The earliest plans arranged the rooms or buildings in a row , rather than in a group with connecting doors and entrances . Externally the appear ance was that of one long structure , whereas it was in fact three or four buildings in one. After the year 1000 a

change took place . As the buildings multiplied , outside entrances increased in number , with resulting loss of heat 323

WILINI

Outside

entrances

room

a a abc

sitting

;;

sometimes

'

to stofa

a

from

s

foh

. ' .

men

A

distinguished

designate

pantry

bur

up

room

kept

chief

the fire was

eldhus

parlor

,)

.)(. ,. Antechambers

where

The

Larder

PROBABLY

or

used

.a

Skali

sitting room

PLAN

D

or

perhaps

1000

(

Stofa

HOUSE

OF

,. d

BEFORE

TYPE

,.

ladies

EARLIEST

HUN

324

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

as

HOUSES AND BUILDINGS

325

and comfort during cold weather . Then there grew up the practice of grouping the buildings around a central hall with one outside entrance — occasionally more than one -- the buildings opening on the hall . Following the year 1000 , it appears that separate sleeping quarters were commonly erected . This may have been done before , but only to a limited extent. In the

dormitories the floor was of earth , with elevated plat forms on each side along the walls which reached approx imately two -thirds the length of the building . The timber and the woodwork inside were often artistically carved , and , in some instances , in the pagan period , they had a significance in the worship somewhat similar to the tim bers which were brought from the old temples in Norway .

The bedrooms , or individual sleeping places , were parti off, sometimes curtains of rich materials being used . The beds were filled with hay or straw . Slaves, and persons of humble degree , slept in the beds without bed clothes, other than a robe , or, perhaps, skin sleeping gar ments . In one part or end of the dormitory were closed tioned

rooms

hall .

sometimes

—

ally more with

only one room

of these rooms there than one. The dormitory

In each a

bolt

on

which opened on the was one bed , occasion

—

door swung

on

hinges

the inside , or it might be furnished with

a

instead of a door . The head of the household and his favorite guests occupied these rooms. Windows, and curtain

sometimes secret exits , were provided . There might be second story , with a stairway communicating with it .

The

fire

house

,

so - called

turies , was used both

,

in

the ninth

and tenth

for cooking and for sleeping

a

cen

pur

period the houses were usually three , being the fire house one of them . The other two were " stofa " and " bur . " The fire house was built larger when

poses .

During this

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM WWWWWWWWW .

326

W

1

W

WWW

m

INTIMIDE 011

M

).

(

.

or

'

;

.

.

Smithy

Barn

. .

Privy

,

store

room

.

or .

yngja

).

(d

room

room

or

.

's

,

'

or A A

mm |

A

detached sleeping ladies bower

'

fire

parlor

Small

s

)

).

up

(

eldhus

the

Bathroom

n D q

where

.

room

was kept

, (

skali

stofa

pantry

storehouse

.

hall room

room

lady

.

.

's

g f

Chief

Larder

0

).

. .

-

Self closing door

Narrow

Ladies

,

'

or ,

.

's

to

.

(

or

antechamber

Hall

Men

i

of

Anteroom

porch

,

A

sort

h

e

d

C 6

or

,

a

, as

quarters Entrance men Chief entrance ornamented by brandar ships beaks the like Vestibule fordyri

k

IN

USUAL TYPE OF HOME PLAN THE LATTER PART OF THE SAGA AGE

HOUSES AND BUILDINGS

327

it was also to be used as a dormitory , and resembled the separate structures of later years . The “ stofa " was a sort of a sitting or living room , while the " bur ” was a pantry , larder , or place where food was prepared . It also meant a place where stores were

kept, later called

" skemma ."

On the larger estates and among the chieftains , the women had a house of their own in which they sat and worked during the day . These were usually excavations in the ground with low walls , situated on the south of the main buildings for protection against inclement north winds . This house was a popular place , with young men who had an eye for female beauty , and with other visitors of both sexes who found ample opportunity to exchange gossip and discuss the latest community news . The place served the useful purpose of a modern sewing circle where

met , talked , and , if they had time to spare , worked , at something useful or ornamental , or neither . Of course , many more buildings were constructed than have been described . The sources we have indicate that the settlers and their descendants lived in fairly comfort able and spacious homes ; and that they built substantial structures, suffering little or no hardships from cold women

weather during the winter months .

APPENDIX

B

Wearing Apparel VLOTHES ,

female clothing, may be a vanishing phenomena - like legs since the advent of the automobile . The people of Iceland , how ever , then , as now , were forced to give real thought to their clothes . The garments worn during the Common wealth did not differ materially from those which were especially

common in other countries . While the plan of government and society in Iceland differed essentially from that of the

rest of Europe, social life and intercourse being more pleasant and freer , the people of the Scandinavian North had a common style in wearing apparel and in weapons . Indeed , this generalization , in the main , may be extended to include the people of northern Europe . It would serve no useful purpose to go into detail in the usual garments worn by the people . That variety there was is clear , but the descriptions are sketchy and somewhat indefinite . Of domestic materials the skins of tame and wild animals were in common use , such as the skin or pelt of the goat , the calf , the seal , the lamb , the cat , and the fox . All were used for the manufacture of wearing apparel . The pelt of the domestic sheep was extensively exported to other countries for use in making clothes. A sheep ' s pelt , with heavy and curly wool , was highly prized . Some skins were used for lining outer gar describing

ments , while others were worn as throws , as furs are nowadays . The wadmal was woven cloth and was the most common material for clothing in Iceland , among rich and 328

WEARING APPAREL

329

.

or

ity

poor alike . The material was not uniform , either in qual color The poorer grades were sold for the manu

, .

of

by

.

of

by

of

clothing The better facture the cheaper grades quality was used the chieftains and men means

,

by

.

, of of

,

.

,

,

be

a

;

.

,

Some material was imported One kind rather common was red cloth also other woven materials which cannot distinctly pictured because the vague descriptions Silk was imported and used but course only the wealthy Occasionally cotton goods are mentioned but

or

,

.

in

of

.

,

by

-

.

so

seldom that we infer their use was uncommon Of the foreign made goods the scarlet cloth was the most popu lar but never worn except the chiefs the more prominent men variety There was plenty color Underclothing

.

of by

,

by

.

in to

of

;

he

a

of

of

It

,

.

in

of

,

it

dyed

as

of

,

a

or

a

,

.

,

, of

,

,

it

was white and the whiter the more was valued On the contrary the white wadmal for outer garments was con sidered unconventional and suitable only for wear slaves the lower grades servants and the poorest the common people Grey mixture white and black was common color for outer garments was yellowish brown and brown Wadmal intended for use the better classes was dyed various colors was felt that took the shine out man the better class wear clothes the standard colors should appear

,

.

It or

. .

it

,

gifts Red was

.

they received

as

red cloth which

,

ments

of

to

it

;

,

in

a

of

.

,

,

,

yellowish

,

,

cloth

as

his own kind such blue reddish yellow green brown brown leaf green dyes Grasses and herbs were used for seems likely that dark blue color was one the most popular Iceland indeed was suggested that dark blue be re garded the national color during this age Red was some times used but was considered foreign Icelanders who wearing gar had been visiting abroad sometimes took the

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

330

among the flashiest

considered steadily

of

colors and

to

wear it

of affectation and arrogance . It was cus wear a gown of one color and a cloak of an

smacked

tomary to

other . During this period the clothes worn by men and women were apparently very similar . It seems that the same style of garment might be worn indiscriminately by men or women and that no interest or comment would

be

caused

. While styles for men and women were not uni , the similarity was very marked . It was not until later centuries that substantial differences appeared . thereby

form

It must not be

supposed that no importance was attached

of the clothing other than the mere looks or appearance . For example , the shirts which men wore were not buttoned , but pulled over the head , after the style of some modern sweaters . However, this opening must not be too large ; that is , the shirt must not be cut too low , for if it was the wife thereby had a legal ground for divorce . Single women generally went bareheaded , with a band to the style

around the head which held the hair in position .Men also a band to keep the hair in place . It was usually of some choice material , sometimes ornamented in silver and gold ; and sometimes it was entirely of gold . Among the common people it was simpler , but the best material available was used . Married women wore distinct head gear which distinguished them from their unmarried sis ters . This difference , the meaning of which was obvious to

WO wore such

anyone versed in the customs of the country , may have dictated by counsels of wisdom for the protection of the male members of society . Certainly it tended to pro tect them against imposition at the hands of wily females who might be disposed to take advantage of that male

been

WEARING APPAREL weakness of which conscious

the Church

Fathers were

331 keenly

so

.

Golden hair and a fair skin were , by common consent , the outstanding attributes of beauty in both men and women . The great heroes or heroines were yellow -haired - as they seem nearly always to have been throughout the ages in other European countries .Men let their hair grow long

so

that it

down over the shoulders , while cut at a level with the eyebrows

fell

in

front

it was sometimes . Again , the hair was combed back from the forehead , in which po sition it was held by a headband . It was deemed more desirable to have straight than curly hair . The hair re ceived the best of care ; it was daily combed and fre quently shampooed always had

an

. The

abundance

times that , like Godiva

, most famed for beauty , bright of hair , so long some

women

's , it covered

the body .

APPENDIXC Occupations

NHE

a people is largely de geographical termined by climatic and conditions . In the warm islands of the South , Nature , with listless prodigality , showers upon men material goods suf ficient to maintain daily life and to satisfy the wants of existence . Little effort on their part is demanded . The soil produces freely without taxing energy in cultivation , and luscious fruits abound in pleasing variety .

In

principal occupation

the northern

countries

,

of

on

the other hand , where

summers are shorter and winters longer , nature seems less benign . With sternness of feature goes a severity of

character which seems harsh and ungenerous , for does she not put upon men the burden of earning a living through fierce and unremitting effort. Every part of the ground is important , and must be industriously cultivated . One is think that when the Lord ejected Adam and Eve from the Garden of Eden and said to them : " In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat thy bread ,” he anticipated that they would take up their abode in the cold and severe regions of the North . Whom the Lord loveth , He tempted

to

. He meant merely

to impress

upon

them that bread not purchased at the price of labor and sacrifice would be without blessing in their mouths. A strong case could be made for the thesis that the sunny southlands of the world tend to indolent slothfulness , a ready indul gence in the easy and effortless life . That there is a rela tion between climate and civilization has been proved by

chasteneth

332

OCCUPATIONS

333

“ The cold cli mate invigorates ," says Emerson , and Rousseau thinks that the " inhabitants of the North are more industrious than those of the South ” - probably from necessity . The severe winters , the constant toil, and the steady contest

the researches

with

of Ellsworth Huntington .

the relentless

forces

of nature tend

to

of men

tough and strong in physical fibre and and determined spirit .

breed

of

a

a

race

resolute

The climate and general physical conditions in Iceland today are very similar to those of the settlement period . In like manner the occupation of the people is very nearly what it was in that distant age. The main industries are fishing and farm husbandry . From this it should not be inferred that there has been no change in the relative standing or importance of these activities . Farm hus bandry , during the period of settlement and for genera tions thereafter , was by far the most important aspect of

national industry , and there was virtually no export of the products of marine

enterprise .

At

the present time this

and the fishing industry

situation is reversed the ratio of three to one , the value farm

of

exceeds , in

the products

of

the

.

It is interesting to note that in one respect Icelandic history differs essentially from that of countries where the principal occupation was farming . In the latter , agri culture has usually been the main reliance of the people .

In Iceland agriculture has never been of outstanding im portance . The reasons are not far to seek . The summer season is short , and climatic conditions , on the whole , are unfavorable to varied and profitable agricultural activity . Yet , notwithstanding the handicaps , the Icelanders of the period of the Commonwealth gave successful attention , on a large scale , to cultivation of the soil . This was espe

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

334

cially true

part of the island where the in the southern milder. The Sagas bear indubitable testimony fact that corn or barley - of what variety is not

climate

is

to the

produced . In the great classic , the

clear - was successfully

story

of Burnt Njal , among others , we

find this

proof. It

clear that this industry never attained substan tial proportions and that four or meal was one of the staples imported from other countries . It is fairly well known that Iceland is a mountainous country , the bulk of the interior consisting of ranges of and rock while the really habitable portion land around the coast countries such physical char production acteristics the livestock has been the prin cipal support usually the people There was pasture and luxuriant growth Iceland abundance

of

a

in

it

,

is ,

the foothills and

in

especially

on

of

as

of

In

. of

.

of

an

,

grass

,

of

rim

is

,

ice

is equally

the mountain

.

sides

The pioneers settled regions capitalizing

proximity

to

in

is

It

.

.

in

,

of

,

, of

of

to

In

.

in

is

.

It

to

,

at

.

of

of

,

to

the mountainous full the natural advantages probable that pasturing for the raising livestock was better and the grasses richer during the first genera tions settlement The island was wooded and livestock large both ranged free and winter and summer The island when discovered was uninhabited and the set bring from abroad the animals which after tlers had wards overran hill and dale mentioned some the Sagas that ships arrived loaded with live animals proportion doubtless for sale and propagation the population which grew rapidly the first years settle the

,

a

-

-

-

-

in

.

of

,

ment the number livestock was small but stock multi plied quickly under the influence free range and the excellent nourishment Nature afforded number The rapidity with which animals increased

OCCUPATIONS is astounding ,

but cattle and other domesticated

were

seemingly

which

decimate every variety

Illustrations pendability

335

free

from

the

of

devastating

stock at the present day .

of undeniable

are numerous in sources is said ,

. It

for

creatures pestilences de

, that two hogs were

example

missing for two years , but when found they had muliplied to thirty . In another case two hogs had been turned loose

until more than three years later hogs when . Another man lost nearly years grown colony which after two had into one hundred and twenty great num The Sagas show that men owned stock ten

and were not discovered

of

in

.

a

of

they had become sixty

rivaling the large ranch owners the Middle West the Meat and milk products were necessary and staple foods households were large

,

as

for

,

.

' 90 's

the

or

' 80 's

in

,

bers

,

,

,

a

Pork was considered deli food Among the Iceland

.

the island

cacy above many other kinds

of

part

.

every

of

in

.

in

,

,

of

of

.

to

numerous retainers were attached each family utility governed the choice The principle vari being hogs goats sheep eties the most common cattle large numbers and horses Goats and hogs were raised

of

,

it

all

in

a

as

by

,

a

as

.

of

no

or

.

.

a

It

,

on

a

,

,

,

ers this unlovely creature the pig never was victim theological prejudice for pork was listed the menu of the gods was truly divine dish Perhaps other animal was more highly prized ages better thought than the horse As was utility but companion and esteemed not only a

,

of

.

,

as

,

in

,

.

in

,

of

.

.

friend Individuals owned horses the hundreds and prized fine saddle horse was above rubies Anecdotes illus trative the loyalty affection and intelligence the horse we have without number They were used tour sports draft animals and for riding naments

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

336

Occasionally imported .

an animal

of unusual excellence had been

, was prob pastured than . Geese were and watched by herders , like livestock . The Sagas mention instances where yeomen owned large flocks of geese and goslings . The hero of Grettir the Strong was assigned the

of fowl, like

The raising

ably more common

geese and chickens

today

the geese , a job which he considered mean prowess for one of his and spirit . Likewise , chickens were common . One well -known character in the Sagas goes by the name of Chicken Thorir , because he was an itinerant vendor of chickens . There has been a change in the occupation of the peo ple since the period of the Commonwealth . Livestock was then a much more important industry than now , and every variety of the common domestic animal and fowl was raised by the pioneer settlers and their descendants . It may be doubted if the present population of Iceland is as successful in the farming industry as were their ancestors . task

of

tending

and farming naturally depend on soil re have declined , whereas reliance upon the the sea has increased far beyond the experi

Stock raising sources which

.

.

of

of

of

by

-d

.

a

in

of

of

lie

products of ence of the age of settlement . The reasons for the change near the surface The course events parallels the history other countries The forebears the present population Iceland were advantageous comparison situation with that their present ay descendants The land was more gener

which afforded some protec support the stock and enabled domestic animals themselves all seasons There was abundance labor nominal cost for slavery existed Iceland dur ing this period There was labor problem free labor

of

an

;

no

.

,

in

.

at

,

to

,

covered with forests

at

tion

to

ously

Sheep Raising

Leading

Industry

in

a

Is

Iceland

OCCUPATIONS

337

at low wages. However , by way of an offset advantages to these which the forefathers enjoyed , the Icelandic historian Jonsson says : " This is of much impor tance , and concerning it the Sagas and the old law bear could be had

abundant testimony , that our forefathers in that age were more energetic men , in most respects , than their descend ants in the twentienth century . We have, it is true , pro knowledge and understanding gressed immensely in during the last nine centuries . We know a great many things , and even concerning husbandry , of which our fore fathers knew nothing , but the one essential is forgotten

he

it

,

,

.

tion plans were made with

and the

irriga law

streams were dammed

In

The channels

of

.

it

.

of

a

or

,

,

or

a

to

of .

of

or

a

a

to

in

to

.”

as

to

do

,

did

and lost ; we do not know how to farm as well as they they did and we not know how work During the Saga period some attention was given irrigation order increase the productivity the soil body yeoman purchased Sometimes lake small neighbor the water from which water from diverted hay fields Again two his meadows more men appears that owned and irrigated plots together and plot ground was extremely valuable When fields such were thus jointly owned was arranged that one owner enjoyed the full fruits one year and the other the next

.

,

, . . of

,

in

as

.

to

.

as

in

at

.

of of

care and skill the old there are detailed provisions concerning irrigation and persons with respect thereto the rights and duties harvesting hay The this period took place today about the same season Two months were usu ally required complete the work Substantially the same implements were used and about the same manner except now course where machinery has replaced the to

in

of

curing and hauling hay old hand tools The methods we hay piled large piles dry were different The was

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

338

home on sleds, or on vehicles drawn by three , or more , yokes of draft animals were used . In contrast with the method of baling the hay by hand and the use of the horses to carry it home , which has generally prevailed up to the present time, it would and then hauled

oxen

.

Sometimes

of

as .

the year

,

fish in

be

We

this and were are told that in

seasons

.

all

of

at

it

.

to

a

unique reputation settlement the country enjoyed regard Every river was reputed filled with was reported abroad that whale and salmon abundant

on

or

by

in

.

in

of

.

of

ice

of

.

by.

,

in

the

seem that the former was more efficacious . If there was a long distance from the hay field to the home hay was sleighing stacked and hauled winter when was easier The settlers and their descendants used sleds drawn horses and other draft animals Sleighs were used for the transportation persons over the hard snow the rivers These vehicles were drawn horses and were covered for the comfort the passengers many years among For Iceland has been recognized the best fishing places the world Early the period

to

to

of

.

to

.

by

.

of

it

In

, .

.

of

.

was about

be

fishing expedition

to

When

a

.

island

organized

-

of

,

so

to

so

plentiful and the temptation some instances fish were strong that men neglected the hay harvest fish was with the result that livestock perished for want feed graphi following presents the winter This illustration cally the fateful struggle between fishing and farm husbandry Success the former brought the latter de cline this period farm husbandry was the main occupa tion whereas was mainly the yeomen near the seacoast attempted Exports fishing who marine products were 21 negligible What was not consumed the farmers near the coast was sold those living farther inland The most popular fishing places were the north and west the

OCCUPATIONS

339

strained

relations marred the associa by

.

disaster

to

luck tion

if ill

came from

or

distant places to join it , and sometimes during remained the Winter . They were usually single men from the interior , or from regions distant from the coast . Partnerships were formed , two usually associating themselves together in a boat . The vessels were small , carrying more than two men with two sets of oars . seldom The usual method of fishing was by hand lines . Women sometimes went fishing in the smaller boats . It was con sidered very important that there be the best and most harmonious feeling among those who went fishing , and it bring bad was deemed an omen and almost certain

men

,

.

.

of ,

readily

a

of of

be

of

so

of

,

,

Communication with the outside world save means was of course unknown Consequently good harbors were prime importance Riparian owners along land the coast improved harbors near their homes and cleared them obstructions that landing

of sailing vessels

.

,

so

.

,

at

.

effected This work must have been real magnitude times because large boats and ships good size were accommodated Embankments were con structed and the sides and ends buttressed and ballasted with rock Altogether the arrangements were made that one could embark and debark with comfort and con could

.

venience

pertaining the sea and the use collecting places eggs thereof were for for catching seal collecting caught jetsam and for Seals were nets and

,

for this

, or

line

rather

of

however

,

fishing

,

All

right the

all

.

their property a

free and open

at

front

of . , to at . a

in

fish

of

A

peculiar boat was necessary sometimes speared fishing Riparian owners land had the

kind

certain distance from depth from the coast

certain

to

.

in

,

to

Other conveniences

was

coast

line

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

340

a point where a seal net twenty mesh deep showed upper the side at ebb tide . It was permissible to hunt a certain kind of whale — possibly walrus , though the mean ing of the old Icelandic word is obscure - opposite an

beyond

other man ' s land , provided the riparian owner received one-half of the catch . From the skin of the whale good ropes were made . Of drift , or jetsam , both of fish and wood, the old set tlers made much use . In the old laws elaborate provisions are found concerning drift, which appear to have been necessary arose

because frequently

serious controversies over it each whaler having his

. Whales were harpooned ,

own harpoon and being entitled to a certain share of the creature as his reward . Then there were edible sea plants , or a certain kind of seaweed and kelp , contributed by the ocean . Salt making , or salt burning , was another industry . Fishing in the rivers for salmon and trout was more popular than fishing in the ocean . The law gave the ripa rian owner the right to fish in the river opposite his land . There were strict prohibitions concerning obstructions or dams in streams ; indeed , they were not permitted unless no individual

other than the one who built the dam was affected . There is some evidence that an attempt was made to stock waters with fish , but with what success is not clear, although in at least one instance a barren stream was completely and successfully stocked . The industries, other than farm husbandry to which

reference has been made , were rather simple during the period of the Commonwealth . It is asserted by the his torian Jonsson that the wool industry was at that time

much more generally

carried

on

wool was exported until it had cloth of some kind . There was

than today

.

Little or no

been manufactured a

certain

kind

of

into cloth

,

OCCUPATIONS

341

wadmal , which was the principal product of wool , and it was common through the Scandinavian North , being used for everyday clothes , and for tents and sails . A better quality was also made . The wadmal was manufactured from the wool as it came from the animal and was white , black or brown . Sometimes the cloth was dyed reddish brown , or in other colors , the dyes being made from moss and grasses found in the hills and mountains . Tents and sails were woven in variety , and with some artistic skill ; they were so highly prized as to be considered suitable gifts for princes and kings . Work in wood and metals was general . There is little

that useful articles manufactured from wood imported during this period . Certain weapons , such were , as swords were frequently imported . Iron was made from swamp ore . This was probably hematite . Some very evidence

skillful smiths and workers

, father of

in

iron are mentioned

in

the

the poet Egil , was an expert smith . Stones were used for anvils . One skillful artisan erected a bridge on his place from his home to the church . It was so constructed that bells , under the timbers which supported it, rang whenever anybody walked across it and ICS .. the tinkling could be heard for miles The remains of one of these famous smithies were dis covered during excavations in 1883. Ruins have been ex humed which show that a sort of rude smelting process was understood and in use by the Icelanders . The channel through which the liquid metal flowed into the main part

Sagas. Skallagrim

of the

smithy was found . The stones in the ruins bore evi dence of having been subjected to intense heat ; and large heaps or hills of coal ashes and slag were nearby . The site

was clearly that of a foundry , or something akin to a smelting establishment . Other ruins point to extensive

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

work

IS iron , and possibly other metals . There was

in

demand for this kind of work . Swords , spears and

real all

342

.

,

of

as

in

.

in

.

, ;

in

a

,

of

weapons made sorts iron and steel were popular Certain individuals enjoyed national reputation for skill this field and some were skillful carvers wood popu period gained well Indeed models from this have larity Scandinavian countries within recent times The

,

,

;

in

as

,

in

of

in

as

.

it

in

is

.

by

in

houses which the people lived were often embellished woodwork exquisitely carved Of work silver and gold less known although we practiced are assured that was The people were fond jewelry of decoration well dress and they de lighted ornaments silver gold and precious stones

in ,

,

,

in

,

in

of

,

in

.

,

,

in

,

and bracelets belts pendants and the like IIKC . The view has gained wide currency not only Iceland parts but other the world fact wherever any concerning formation this island exists that the Icelandic spent the major portion expeditions and homicides

; of

,

,

in

,

people during the Saga age piracy warlike their lives

major interests

.

of

of

a

is

or

at

of

in

or

,

in

or

,

that when they were not thus engaged they were feasting parading gorgeous raiment Things other meet ings indulging sports various kinds There superficial some justification for this opinion because reading the Sagas gives the impression that these were

It

to

.

is

in

.

in

the life the nation That this im erroneous and without foundation fact be comes obvious when the available sources are closely and carefully scrutinized would have been impossible for the Icelanders the

pression

or

to

,

,

in

at

,

organize their marine expeditions maintain them selves home and abroad the magnificent state which the Sagas describe without material resources but these

.

were not available save through hard work and sacrifice

OCCUPATIONS

343

Iceland was barren when settled , except for a certain fer tility in the soil around the coast . When the pioneers left Norway they came with little or no property . Their most valued possession , the family homestead , they , perforce , left behind . They took with them only the simplest things,

their

new

to

a

home

Many became

.

themselves

in

reestablish

,

,

.

fit

to of

bulky vessels were not for the transportation capital they they articles When arrived had little start with other than strength industry and determination

for the

in

,

of

In

,

in

,

,

is

it

.

of

he

of

It

as

if

no

.

to

,

,

,

in

in

us

,

is

.

be

a

in

,

it

comparatively wealthy but goes without saying that the circumstances which they lived substantial for tune could not accumulated without labor While the simple statements here and fact never emphasized amassing there convince that the men who succeeded property and becoming materially independent were those and those only who applied without stint organiz ing ability and steady labor the task Iceland this period man who came there with nothing could live and prosper was afraid hard work was true then as now that the successful men the leaders the people whom the community held highest the esteem were men who played hard when they determination and energy when work was the order the hour Many examples might Egil the poet was given The father distin large following guished yeoman family He had men a

of

of

a

.

of

.

.

be

of

played and worked with

energetically prosecuted every enterprise calculated augment his estate and add his fortune was nec essary have sufficient food supplies for his followers but neither could obtained without hard work He had several places establishments the land which he had pioneer settler organized fishing egg and taken every seal fishing expeditions and indeed made use

It

.

,

of

,

,

, he

;

,

a

as

or

on

.

be

,

to

to

to

and

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

344

possible opportunity to accumulate the material means necessary to comfortable living . He cultivated barley at different places ; and his livestock ranged in the hills and valleys . So vast was his estate and so varied the property interests involved that the whole could not be managed without the most careful supervision and the most indus trious efforts to capitalize fully the resources of nature and of labor at his command . He himself is described as

industrious and a steady worker . He built ships and worked in iron . His men sometimes complained that he rose too early in the morning to begin work . When his son became old enough he took charge of certain parts of the estate and labored as industriously as his father . The Sagas mention the names of individuals , able, re

spectable, and well - to -do , all of whom worked with steady and consistent energy ; and some of them worked with their own slaves and servants . They went in the fishing boats ; they insisted that men work from sunrise to sunset ; and some required their workmen to haul the hay in the night time when the moon was high . The hero of the story

of Burnt Njal, Gunnar , of Leith - end , himself worked

his

field

,

and Hoskuld

had been abroad

in

at sunrise the day

and killed . When the leader of the feud left home on the fateful day he gave instructions to men detail about the work they should his estate while he was gone The children the best people were assigned tasks for attacked

him

in

is

this

on

in

-

a

It

,

thereby

.

of

,

he he

a

feeling

early age

responsibility and industry told Gudmund the Rich well known person period that personally superintended the work

, of

cultivating

an

they were held accountable

which

at

of

.

on

do

ists who killed

his

he was

his

al

;

in

,

that

to

place and closely ob went from place served the manner which his men labored and that

estate

OCCUPATIONS though

for entertaining

he was famous

prominent men

and

345 the sons

maintained

sometimes

of

them

in

the a

, nevertheless these sons of the the noble were , on occasion , required to work

splendid

state

of

idleness

wealthy and just like others .

within and without the home . to do their share in keeping up establishment. They did such work as was at needed to be done . There was no sentiment the pioneers of either sex , whether wealthy or not , among the pioneers that labor was not a dignified and honorable thing . licnified and may conclusively noted that It be demonstrated the settlers that th of Iceland were neither lazy nor shiftless ; and that they did not spend most of their time in idleness , in playing

Women There was the family hand and

worked

both

no reluctance

all ,

games, or in organizing and conducting piratical expedi tions . Although they embraced the faith of the Asas and had known nothing of the civilizing touch of Christianity , the great law of life “ in the sweat of thy face shalt thou operated inexorably among eat bread ,” if you eat it at

They were neither ashamed nor reluctant bow that decree Their own welfare and that their chil dren depended upon the respect they showed Nature responds willingly the touch labor and the

it . of

worker hands

,

bread

ancient

.

.

a

to

,

of

,

in

,

,

in

it

The

of

.

stone

is

's

while the idler receives her poetry emphasizes the great respect the Scandinavians for labor They felt that royalty awak elevated man put upon him the mark independence ened him ambition and resolution things material and spiritual The learned his succeed a

reward

at

to

of

.

to

.

to

them

,

,

a

is

.”

in

"

torian Jonsson says that sloth idleness and shiftlessness Iceland than volcanic have laid waste more estates eruptions and earthquakes combined strong This statement for history shows that the island has suffered

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

346

greatly

fire and quake.

That he speaks the sentiment ancestry when he says that the funda mental requirement of prosperity is work , is clear to the reader of the Sagas . The primary conditions of progress and prosperity are intelligence , the will to work and a rec ognition of the true value of toil .

of his

from

Scandinavian

APPENDIX

D

Bibliography BELLOWS , HENRY . The Poetic Edda . BRAY , OLIVE . Elder or Poetic Edda ;

Pt. I . Mythological Poems. , Edda by Snorri Sturlason . Prose ARTHUR GILCHRIST. The BRODBUR CHRISTIE , JANE JOHNSTONE . The Advance of Woman . CLARKE , JAMES FREEMAN . Ten Great Religions . CONYBBARB , CHARLES AUGUSTUS VAN SITTART . Iceland . DAVIES , John LANGDON . A Short History of Women . FINSEN , VILHJALMUR . Gragas . Flom , GEORGE TOBIAS . Thrimskwitha , or the Fetching of the Ham mer ( of Thor ) . Translation , alliterative and metrical. Journal of American Folklore , XX , No. LXXIX . GJERSET , KNUT. History of Iceland . GROTE , GEORGE. A

,

History of Greece .

S . A History of English Law . WILLIAM HOMER . Iliad and Odyssey . HOVGAARD . The Voyages of the Norsemen to America . , The Character HUNTINGTON , ELLSWORTH . Civilization and Climate HOLDSWORTH

of Races . JOHNSON , REV . SAMUEL

. Oriental

Religions

.

China. India . Persia . Jonsson , Jon . Gullold Islendinga . KER , WILLIAM Paton . Selected Essays . KERSHAW , N . Stories of the Far Past . ( Translated

Old Ice

from

landic . )

, BJORN M . Um Kristnitokuna arid 1000 og Tildrog Hennar . PAYNE , GEORGE HENRY . The Child in Human Progress .

OLSEN

RAWLINSON , GEORGE. Ancient History . Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient World

347

.

.

.

Maspero

.

and Assyria

,

Babylonia

,

Syria

Oldtidentil Vore Dage People and Its Church Ancient Egypt History

.

,

.

B

Chaldea

, .

,

Egypt

,

, ,

of

SaYce

Aandsliv

The Pictish Nation ARCHIBALD HENRY The Religions

Scott ARCHIBALD

by G

C . Nordboernes

fra

,

ROSENBERG

.

of Its

History of Herodotus .

PIONEERS OF FREEDOM

348

.

to

.

,

,

,

Conquest

.

Islandica

.

.

F

English Dictionary

Powell Origines

,

.

Iceland

YORKE

-

and

and CLEASBY

.

GUDBRAND

Saga

.

Sturlunga

, , .

VIGFÚSSON vols

GUDBRAND GUDBRAND

, , ,

VIGFÚSSON

.

the Arab

Vigfússon

2

, .p .

Its

, Jón . Iceland ; History and Inhabitants United States Government Report Smithsonian Institution 1907 274 Vaux WILLIAM SANDYS WRIGHT Persia from the Earliest Period

STEFANSSON

.

,

.

.

,

,

.

,

.

Islendingabók Ara Prests ens Fróda Islands Lanadnámabók Heidarvigasögu Brot Agrip Vigastyrs Heidarviga og

at

og

,

.

.

1

.

,

.

.

,

.

,

.

,

Egils Saga Skallagrimssonar Finnur Jónsson Halle 1894 Flóamanna Saga Thorleifur Jónsson Reykjavik 1884 Gisla Saga Surrssonar Finnur Jónsson Halle 1903 Grettis Saga Asmundarsonar Gull Thóris Saga Thorleifur Jónsson Reykjavik 1878

Ljosvetninga

1829

.

,

Copenhagen

,

Saga

Svarfdaela

Saga

Vemundar Vigaglums

Saga Saga

, , , ,

.

2

,

.

Utgefnar Tilhlutun Hins Konugliga Norraena Fornfraeda Felags

Vigaskutu

,

.

M

.

S

. H .

,

of

.

.

by

.

.

.

III

. .

.

Hallfredar Saga Kormáks Saga Laxdaela Saga

by

published Reykjavik

.

, ,

, I, . . . II , .

,

or

,

unless otherwise indicated Valdimar Asmundarson Eyrbyggja Saga Eiriks Saga Rauda Finnboga Saga Flateyarbók Christiania Faereyinga Saga Gunnlaugs Saga Ormstungu

Sigurdur Kristjanson

are

.

lated from London 1888 The following Sagas

,

.

,

The story the Volsungs and Niblungs with certain Halliday Sparling Trans the Elder Edda Edited the Icelandic Eirikr Magnusson and William Morris

Saga

from

:

Volsunga

Laurence

1917

.

,

Larson songs

).

(

's

,

Norraena Fornfraeda Felags Copenhagen 1830 King Mirror Konungs Skuggsjá Translated

by

of

Vallaljóts Saga

BIBLIOGRAPHY Njáls

Saga

.

Reykdaela Saga . Vápnfirdinga Saga Vatnsdaela Saga . Viglundar Saga .

Thordar

Saga

.

Hraedu .

Thorfinns Saga Karlsefnis . Thorsteins Saga Sidu -Hallssonar . Thorsteins

Saga

Hvíta .

1

349 349

INDEX

Index Advisers in Logretta , 56 Aegir , 168 Age , Legal , 283 Alba , iv Alfred the Great , 9 Allodial Land , 10 Althing : i, 32, 35, 47 , 54, 56, 63 , 66 68 , 69- 72, 78, 94, 109, 189, 197 200, 220 A Social Gathering , 70-72 Established , 35 Sessions, 56, 69 -70 Site Located , 35, 47 America , Discovery of, 244- 245 Animals , Domestic , 334, 336 d'Annunzio , Gabriele , 321 Apis Bulls , 146 Apostolic Church at Rome, 1 Archeology , Scandinavian , 125 Area - Compared with Indiana , 5 Area of Iceland, 5 Armageddon , 136 Ari the Learned , 222- 223 , 224 Arnes Thing , 75 Aristotle , 274 Asas , 132- 133 , 135, 137, 144, 179- 180, 210 Asgard , 135 Assyria , 146 Astrolabe , Mariner' s, 245 Audur , 316 Backgammon, 269 Bailiffs , 64 Bailing Rooms on Ships , 232 Baksheesh, 238 Ball Games , 270- 271 Bandamannasaga, 224 Baptism, 184- 185, 277 Expediency of, 184- 185 Barley , 261 Barnmen , 249 Bastard , Legal Rights of , 314 Beauty , Attributes of Scandinavian , 331 Bedrooms, 325 Beds, 325 Beer, 263 Beggars , 30, 78 353

Beowulf , 210 Bergen, 229 Bergthorshval , 307 Booths , 66 -68 , 78 Borg , 22 Bragi , 157, 216 British Isles, 13 And Greenland , 5 And Iceland , 5 Britons , The, ii Bronze Age, 125 Brudkaup , 301 Brynhild , 215 Building Materials , 323 " Bur , " 325 , 326 Burial, 318-319 Burial Mounds , 318- 319 Burnt Njal , see Njal Butterland , 9 Caithness , iv Cape Horn , 233 Cape Stadt , 233 Cape Wrath , 5

Caroline , Queen, 101 Carpenters in Iceland, 247, 249 Casanova , 292 Causes Célèbres, 101 Cellini , 291 Celts , The, ii, 13 Ceorl , 246 Chamoi de Nimes , 293 Chanson de Roland , 293 Chansons de Geste , 293 Charlemagne , 1 Chess , 268 Children , Support of, 88 Chivalry : 215, 294 And Rights of Women , 294 Christian Things , 46 Christiania , 230 Christianity : Adopted at Althing in 1000, 197- 200 And Paganism , 178 And Rights of Women , 291, 292- 293 Christians , iv , v, 46 , 47 Church , Christian , 1

INDEX ,

Women

,

,

-

, ,

,

-

,

,

,

,

12

,

,

to

,

,

,

,

-

,

30

,

,

in

-

94

in , ,

,

83

63 ,

41 ,

,

80

Family

,

of

Position

106

137

,

-

, ,

,

, 2 ,

of ,

of ,

:

83

,

58

of ,

, , of

,

,

of

-

,

,

of 77 , ,

-

76

,

Faith and Philosophy

Fall Thing :

,

,

-

,

,

of

,

10

,

of

,

,

,

,

",

,

,,

,

18

,

,

2

:

,

-

,

:

,

44 70

, iii

-

, ,

,

,

Dala Hoskuld 319 Dancing 220 Dead Communication with 173 Death Attitude toward 320 Death Shoes 319 Debtors Thing Deceased Property 109 Declaratory Judgments Nature Defense Procedure 116 Denmark Commercial Relations with 229

"

2

91of

,

,

43

,

's

, 23

,

28

-

, ,

,

47

,

, , 2

, in

, , ,

,

88

64 , ,

,

,

of

,

3

,

,

in

,

,

,

,

of

'

s 63 , ,

39

,

,

,

,

,

,

in

of

,

-

,

, ,

,

of

-

:

,

of

:

:

,

,

,

233 Eddic Poetry 132 149 206 216 Eggs Collecting Sea 339 Egil Skallagrimsson 216 217 218 219 223 283 315 341 343 Egilssaga 223 Egypt 146 Einstein 278 Eiricsson Leif 234 235 245 Statue Eldhus Elves 162 163 Emerson 333 Emigration from Norway Employer Duty Protect Servants 249 250 Engagements Marriage 298 300 301 303 England Equity Courts 297 Feudal Rights Women 295 297 Training for Pugilistic Bouts 273 Epiphanius 291 Equality before the Law Equity and Equity Courts England 297 Eric the Red 242 England Ethelstan 184 Europe National Life Evil No Compromise with 134 135 Execution Executive Power Absence 63 Expeditions Viking 127 128 288 Exposure Infants 274 276 Eyrbyggja 155 Eyrbyggja Saga 223

, ,

,

34

-

,

of

,

,

,

,

Consideration for Transfer Constitution Changes 965 41 Constantinople 288 Contacts Icelanders with Europe 241 242 Contract Of Support 110 Of Marriage 301 302 303 311 Corporation Modern 287 Cottagers and Yeomen Cotton Goods 329 Council Parish Court See Fifth Court Of Love Feudal Women 294 Courts Yeomen 115 Quarter 116 Unanimous Decision Courtship 298 Covenanters Scottish Crime 111 112 Cyprian 291 292

,

,

, , iv Sir

40

,

5 , 6

,

,

: 4 ,

of of of

Earl Hakon

,

,

24 of ,

291 296

Climate Clothing Color 329 Materials 328 329 Code Law First Code Love Feudal Women 294 Clothing 329 Color Columbus 234 235 245 Norway 229 Commercial Centers England and Rights Common Law Women 296 297 Commonwealth Icelandic Compromise Christian and Pagan Concubinage Legalized 312 Outlawry Confiscation 122 Congress United States

Descent and Distribution , 107- 108 Divorce , 304, 308 , 309- 311 Docking of Ships, 239 Dormitories or Sleeping Quarters, 325 Dowry , 302, 311 Doyle , Arthur Conan 174 Drama 220 Dublin Dwarfs 162 163 Dyes 329

,

,

of , ,

of

,

in

,

Class Distinctions Europe Classes Clement Austria Clergy Pleading

95 23

,

-

,

Church Fathers and Rights 291 292 293 Citizenship Diversity

of

354

INDEX

of

, 36

,

42 , 84 85 45 ,

41 83 , ,

81 , ,

39 ,

83

,

:

, , 6437 , , 38 , , 75 ,

,

86 55 , 28 57 , 87 , , , , 6031

84 -

,

,

86

87

,

86

82 ,

75 ,

65 ,

42 ,

,

41 ,

39 ,

75

86 ,

39

,

,

45

31

32

,

:

,

39

,

,

,

35 ,

in

-

,

,

,

,

-

,

, , 82 ,

56

, 25 ,

57 58

:

,

,

,

, ism , :

,

,

, iii

,

,

,

, ,

,

,

7

, ,

,

of

,

, 4, , 7 5,

, ,

,

,

268 269

,

,

Succession Godords New Created Gods 140 181 Not Jealous 181 Golden Age 102 Good and Evil Conflict between 133 137 Struggle between Persian Pagan 148 149 Gosse Edmund 223 224 Government Responsiveness Theory 104 Gragas 102 105 120 121 Greater Outlawry Sagas Greater 223 Greece Infanticide 274 Rights Women 290 Greek Mythology 151 152 214 Greenland 224 244 Misnamed Gregory XIII Pope Grettir the Strong 223 336 Grettissaga 223 Grief 219 315 316 Grimm Brothers 209 Gudmund the Rich 109 344 Gudrun 215

,

,

81 ,

Godord 102 Jurisdiction Nature Organization

,

-

,

-

,

,

-

,

of , 3 29

,

283

220 222 238 239 Conference with Thingmen 85 Fees Not Officer Risc Godis Twelve New ,

,

,

90

-

,

,

,

, 70 71 ,

,

8

,

220

196

the

,

,

Court

,

,

-

,

,

,

of

,

28

,

,

,

21 ,

,

,

Games 278 280 288 Ganymede 167 Gardarsholm ,

Godar

Godi Snorri Godi

:

,

,

,

,

,

37

87

of

or

,

,

18

,

,

-

- ,

,

,

Gizur White Gjukungs 212 God Almighty

42 ,

of ,

90

,

,

On , ", 25 ff of , : .

hold 248 Forests Fosdick 305 Fostbraedra Saga 224 Fostbraedralag 285 287 Foster brotherhood 285 287 Fostering Children 282 284 287 Fostra 284 Foster brothers 285 287 288 Fox 174 Franklin 291 Freedmen And Former Master Freedom Millennium Freyja 144 Freyr 136 144 158 Funeral Feasts 319 Future Foretelling the 172

,

Commercial Relations , 229 Giantı , 162 Ginnungagap , 154 Gislasaga , 223

,

.

,

,

:

54 ,

70 ,

66

, , to , 40 43 , 43 ,

,

,

:

,

by ,

Fire House 325 Fish 174 Fishing 174 333 338 339 340 Flammarion 169 Floamannasaga 224 Flit 246 Food Board Merchant Ships 237 Foreigners Heirs Support Destitute Superintendent Foreman House

"

Garmr, 136 Germany : 188, 229

an

,

87

at

of

-

25 ,

,

, ,

83

,

-

,

, , 8

-

,

,

Responsibility 107 Farm Husbandry 333 338 Faroes Fasting 179 Althing Fee Non attendance Fenris 136 Féránsdóm Festivities Pagan 156 157 Feudal System Feudalism and Rights Women 293 294 Feuds 110 Fifth Court 65 139 Established Fight Duty 139 Fines 105 107 Classes 107 Fire Community Insurance against Loss

355

INDEX

,

,

,

by ,

,

2

90

,

, ,

,

,

,

, , , 2,

,

,

,

, , ,

of ,

Jetsam Collecting 339 340 Jewelry 342 101 Johnson President Andrew Johnson Samuel 150 Jomsvikings 287 ,

the

,

,

,

,

,

Jonsson Jon Historian 209 337 340 345 Jonsson Saemund 108 Jotunheim 212 Judas 135 Judges Decisions Qualifications 65 Judgment Day and Ragnarok 180 Judgments Declaratory

,

,

,

,

44

,

,

40

,

,

,

41

,

37

58

99

,

,

:

Enforcement

Judicial and Legislative Functions 41 Judicial Function Separated from Legislative Jurisdiction Affected Residence Of Courts 40 , by:

,

Age

7

Ice

167 Hensathorirssaga , 224 Herders of Livestock , 249 High - seat Posts, 20 Hill of Tara , 49 Hjalti Skeggjason , 196, 319 Hjon , 246 Hof , 31 Homemen , 246 Homer , 210 , 294 Homeric Age, 290 Homes , Plans of, 323 Homespun Cloth , 54 Homicide , 110, 111 , 317 Duty to Avenge , 111 Prosecution , 110 Rules Concerning, 110 Horse Tournaments , 272 Horseflesh , Eating of , 158 Hoskuld , 285 Hoskuld Dana , 319 Hugin , 166 Huntington , Ellsworth , 333 Huskarlar , 246

,

Hell,

114

Inheritance 107 Insurance Community Accepted Congressional Invitation Resolution Iranians 148 Ireland 273 Irrigation 337 Islendinga Saga 108 228 Islendingabok 223 Italy 288

,

Heimamenn , 246 Heimdall , 136 Heimskringla , 11, 156, 228 Heitkona , 303 Hel , 167 Helgi Njalsson , 213

Indictment and Information Infanticide 274 Ingimund the Old 233

,

Hard Times , 18 Hastings , Warren , 101 Havamal , 144 Hay, Harvesting of , 337-338 Headgear , 329 Hector , 320 Hegranes Thing , 73 , 74 , 190 Thorvald at 190, Heimanfylgja , 302

And Persia , 148, 149 Misnamed , 7, 8 Icelanders , Traits of Character , 143, 201-212 , 254, 315, 320- 321 Icelandic Law , Early , 101 Icelandic Philosophy , Central Idea of , 144 Images , 156 Immortality , 138 Imports , 239, 334 In Memoriam , 219 Indiana - Area Compared with Iceland ,

,

Hair , Color and Arrangement , 331 Haldane , iv Harbors , 339 Harald of Denmark , 187 Harald the Fairhaired , 9, 13, 217 , 229, 233, 245

Iceland : A Refuge , 11- 15

,

Guests, Seating of, 264- 265 Guilds , 287 Gulathings Law , 37, 287 Gunnar of Leith - end, 224- 226, 307, 308, 344 Gunnlaugssaga Ormstungu , 224

:

356

INDEX Jury , Prototype of , 115 Justice, 93

Insurance, 90 Raising , 334- 336 Living Room , 327

Kaupa Konu , 301 Ker, William Paton , ii, 312 “Knowledge is power, " 171 Koll , 319 Konungabok , 223 Kormakssaga , 224

Logretta : 37, 38, 39, 41, 51, 54- 56, 59, 62 , 70, 82, 112

, Lady ,

307

,

Sir

,

,

, -

-

2

at , 2

,

i,

,

, ,

,

,

,

,

95 in

,

,

-

,

,

84

-

,

-

,

of ,

, , ,

,

,

, ,

-

, ,

-

,

,

,

,

-

,

,

,

,

,

,

Manumission 255 257 79 Markets Marriage 108 298 308 Contract 301 302 303 311 Engagements 298 300 301 303 301 302 311 Portions Proposals 299 300 301 Qualifications for 299 300 Matselja 248 282 283 288 Medicine Study Memphis 146 Foreign 235 236 240 Merchants 241 Messmates Property Rights 236 237 Work 341 342 Metals Middle Ages Midgard 136 137 Milking 249 Millennial The American Representative

Milton

,

,

Moses

208

of ,

,

of

of

Moots Moral Ideas 142 Moral Standards 312

54 ,

,

,

of

,

,

, a

,

to of

,

216 Religion Shortage 204 Ministers Missionary Iceland New 193 Missionary Work 186 the Household 248 Mistress Mogk Eugene 228 Women 292 Mohammed and Rights Exchange Money Medium

,

Duties , 50- 55 Lawmaking , 55, 57-61 Lawsuits , Hearings on, 112 Laxdaela , 223 Leasing of Land , 24 Lecky, 276 Leet , 80 Legal Age , 283 Legal System, 94 Leo III , Pope, 1 Lesser Outlawry , 118 - 121 Lesser Sagas, 223, 224 Life after Death , 168 Lindsey, Judge Ben, 143, 294 Liquor , 266- 267, 273 Livestock :

Macbeth

Magnus the Barefoot King , 127 Henry 292 Maine,

—

First Code, 34 General Knowledge of , 62 , 65, 97 98, 282, 283 Language of, 124 Popular Interest in , 97-98 Source of in Iceland , 2 Study of, 282, 283 Technicalities , 52, 100 Theory of , 103 Uniformity in , 34 Law -speaker, 42 , 50- 55, 56, 64, 71 , 282 Compensation, 54

Love : Code of , 294 Court of , 294 Lucretius , 153 Lumber , Scarcity of, 323 Lycurgus , 274

,

247 -248

Administrative Function , 62 Advisers in, 56 Representation, 38, 39, 41 Loki, 133, 136

95

Division Labor in Labor Supply , 247, 251 , Land Boundaries of , 21 Landnamabok , 223 Land : Gift of, 23 Lease of , 24 Ownership , 23 Taking , 21 Transfer , 23 Landlord and Tenant , 26 Law : Announcing , 50- 52 Compiled , 34 Divine Origin , 1

of ,

Local Government , 88 Logberg , 49, 50

,

Home ,

357

,

,

,

,

,

iv

95

,

86

, 76 4 ,

,

,

One third men Origin Iceland Ornaments 342 Osiris 146 Oslo 230 Oslo Fjord 229 Outlawry 117 121 122 223 Confiscation 122 Kinds 117 119 Ownership Property Community 296 Oxara

,

in ,

,

55

,

,

of

-

of ,

,

,

,

47

,

,

of , 1

:

,

Forest

88 89

88 92 , of 39

,

,

,

ii,

, , iv

of ,

,

, 13 , , 12 14

,

of

,

for

of

,

90

,

,

-

-

-

88

146, of , -

,

,

,

,

,

,

of ,

87

, ,

36

,

,

,

,

,

,

, ,

,

, ,

in

,

,

,

, , 10

,

-

,

,

,

Legal Form 115 Oath brothers 285 Occult Sciences 289 Odalsmen Fee Oddkatla and Teit 109 Odin 135 136 137 139 144 145 146 159 168 211 213 216 Popularity Decline 159 Odyssey 210 Officers Governmental Ogres 162

,

,

a

ii

,

,

,

89 90

,

28

, ,

,

:

Oath Early

,

,

, ,

of

,

And Edda 132 Characteristics Scandinavian 213 Decline 159 160 Persian 147 Strife 138 Pantry 327 Pardon 121 Parish Supervisors Parliament Partnership Vikings and Merchants 286 287 Patroclus 320 Paupers Pericles 290 Persian Paganism 147 Petruccio 311 History Pictish Nation Pictland Picts The 243 Landing 232 Piers Pioneers Iceland Racial Origin Plains the Thing 49 Plato 153 274 Pleadings Rules 112 Poetry and Saga 128 Poetry Subject matter 219 220 Poets Respect Accorded 216 219 Polytheism Eastern 147 Poor Relief ,

,

13

229

9

34 ,

,

-

41 ,

,

34

9

11 ,

in ,

Paderborn Paganism

, , , ,

96 ,

101 102

,

Commercial Relations Emigration Law Unrest Nymphs 162

, of ,

,

,

,

,

,

,

,

, ,

, ,

ii

11 ,

,

Norsemen The Norway 229 288 Centralization Changes

13 ,

, 2 , , , 9 , 2

,

in

98

,

, , 36 , ,

,

,

,

93 ,

- , 68 , , ,

,

,

,

,

,

,

,

77

,

-

,

of

of ,

,

, of

,

317 Nails the Gods 155 Names Significance 277 Naming Children 276 277 Nastrand 212 National Government Supreme Nefjolfsson Thorarinn 233 Nidaros 230 242 Niflungs 212 Njal Burnt 100 117 223 225 226 227 285 305 307 308 310 314 315 334 344 Njala 224 225 226 Njalssaga 117 223 227 Njalsson Helgi 213 Njordr 144 157 158 Nobility Europe Normandy

,

Nabjargir

,

,

,

,

of -

,

,

132

-

,

of

, ,

,

Olson 194 Olympic Games Olympus 309

üü

, , iii

1912

Olaf Fair Olaf Saint King 230 233 279 Olaf the Swedish King 217 218

Munin , 166 Murder , 119- 120, 317 Music, 220 Mutilation , ii, Law Against Mythology 132 153 214 Ethical Significance Icelandic Greek 214 Roman 153

,

Election

,

thethe

Ohio Judicial

65

Moving Time, 246 Mundr , 301 , 302 , 311

of

INDEX

358

INDEX Population , 19 Prestige , Inequality in, 30 Price - fixing , 77, 238 -239 Property : Community Ownership , 296

Craft , Number of , 242 , Sailors, 234 - 235 243 Salt Making or Burning , 340 Sanctuary ( Hof ) , 31 Sarpborg , 230 , Scandinavian and Oriental Paganism 146 Scandinavian Character , Sobriety of, 201-202 , 125 Scandinavian Civilization Scotland , 2, 4 Scots, The, ii Scott, Archibald B., ü , 243 Sailing

Descent, 107 Proposals of Marriage, 299, 300, 301 Provence , 294 Public Charges , Support of , 89 Pugilism , 273 Punishment , 117 Purgatory , 194 Quaker's Oath , 115 , , , Quarter Courts , 39 63 -64 70 116 At Althing , 39 Quarters , 38, 39, 56 Division into, 38 Temple , or Sanctuary Chiefs , 39 Racial Origins , 13, 14 Ragnarok , 135, 138, 139, 141, 180, 212 Ranar , 168 Reformation , 175- 176 Regin - naglar , 155 Relatives : Duty in Homicide Cases, 111 Duty to Support , 89 Representative Principle , 42 Revenge , 144, 281 - 282 Reykjavik , 47 Rhyme , Law in , 123 Rings , 106 Riparian Owners , Rights of, 237, 239, 339, 340 Rome : Attitude toward Infanticide Hypocrisy , 153- 154 Mythology , 153 Rights of Women , 292 Ross , iv

359

,

274- 275

Rousseau , 333 , Runes , 145, 171 282 , Russell , Bertrand 294 Russia , 191, 274, 280 - 281 Thorvald Dies in, 191

Sacrifices, Human , 158 Saemund the Learned , 206 Saga Age , 102 Sagas, 33, 102, 217, 220 - 228, 233, 238 , 251 Greater , 223 Lesser, 223 - 224

Sea Food , 260 Seal , Catching of , 339 Seat of Government , 47 , 173 Seeresses Self - control, 143 Servants : , Classification of, 246 248-250 Rights of , 249 -250 , 254 Term of Employment , 247 When Engaged , 246 Settlement , 9 Sex Modernism , 294 Shakespeare, 217 Ship -Owners , Assessment of , 238 Sidu -Hall , 222 Siegfried Legends , 206 Sigurd , 213, 215 Sigurdrifa , 215 Skagafjord , 73, 74 Skallagrim , 22, 341 Skapthings , 80 Skarphjedinn , 314, 315 Skeggjason , Hjalti , 196, 319 " Skemma," 327 Skiringssalr , 229 Slavery , 250- 257 Slaves : From Norway, 250 Legal Rights , 254 Manumission , 255- 257 Qualities of Mind and Character , 252- 253, 254- 255 Scotch and Celtic , 14, 250 - 251, 253, 255 Treatment, 253 - 257 Smithsonian Institute , Report of , 5-6 Snorri Sturlason , 156, 206, 222 , 228, 283 , Snorri 's Prose Edda 206 Snowland , 8

INDEX ,Tas ,

360

Thing Tax 239 Thingmen

.

76 77 ,

-76 77

84 84

75 ,

73 ,

83 83 ,

od , 84

46 ,

38 ,

, ,

, -

,

,

,

,

,

, ,

,

,

,

-

8

321

,

,

-

,

,

,

,

,

,

,

,

13

,

13

, ,

,

,

,

12

,

,

,

13

,

,

, ii, ,

In

-

,

,

,

,

, 27 26

39

,

,

,

25 ,

24

-

,

31

,

23

,

,

, ,

,

,

,

,

,

of ,

Tara Hill Teit and Oddkatla 109 Temple Chief Temples 154 155 Tenant and Landlord Tenants Tennyson 219 Tertullian 291 292 Thangbrand 165 194 195 Thebes 274 Theodoric Legends 206 Thetis 320 321

,

49

,

,

Table Equipment 262 Tammany Hall 194

, ,

,

-

, ,

139 167 235 319 321 167 213 216 Vatnsdaela 224 Vehicles 338 Vessels Maritime 230 233 Vidar 136 Vigfusson 224 Viking Age 127 131 142 Ethical Motives 142 Vikings 127 142 143 177 182 And Churches 177 Creed 142 143 Scotland Indvidualism 182 Vinland 224 244 Virgil 214

, ,

Valhalla Valkyries

,

Vagrants Vala Prophetess 137 211 212 Valgardsson Floki ,

,

-

,

78

, 30 ,

28 ,

,

Decision

44

47

-

,

,

- -

of , , ,

, , ,

37 ,

of

Unanimity

,

,

,

34 ,

,

at

,

,

, , ,

,

UiAjot

,

iii

of ,

47

,

iv , , 53 13

,

,

28

,

,

43 ,

40 ,

, ,

,

,

-

,

,

,

79

,

,

76

76 75

,

's ,

,

,

,

, 5

, , "

,

-

33 ,

,

,

,

,

of ,

79 , 73 ,

,

,

, 19 -

of ,

, , , 91

",

-t

, 49

,

of ,

,

,

,

of

,

,

,

Court 82 Stiklastad 218 Stofa 325 326 Story elling 220 267 Sturla Saga 108 Sturla Thordarsson 224 228 Styles Clothing 329 Submarine Ridge Suetlanders 258 Superstition 161 Supreme Being 137 Supreme Court Surtr 136 Svein Split Beard 187 Sweden 115 Swimming 271

of

Thor 136 144 145 146 158 Thordarsson Sturla 224 228 Thorgeir 199 200 Thorir 336 Thoroddsson Skafti Thorstein the Red Thorvald the Widely Traveled 186 192 Thraell 253 Thraelmenska 253 Thrandr 174 Thucydides 228 Tournaments Horse 272 Toys 278 Travel Foreign 220 241 242 243 287 Trial Procedure 114 116 112 113 Trial Rules Trondhjem 230 242 Trojan War 208 Tryggvason King Olaf 167 192 230 Tunsberg 229 Tutelaries 163 164 Tyr 136 145

,

,

of

, ,

,

81

,

St . St .

32 , 80 , ,

79 , ,

,

",

"

:

Jurisdiction 75 Social Life Starvation Statesmen Westmoreland Stavanger 229 Day Massacre Bartholomew Steward 248 249 James American Ambassadorship

"

220

Thingvellir

194 Existence Independence 166 Speed Sailing Craft 233 Spells 171 Spies 247 249 Spiritualism 169 Sports Spring Things

"

79 79 ,

75 , 75

88

,

Conferences with Godi Things

,

,

,

,

,, , ; 1, , 5,

Social Life 263 Socrates 320 321 Sóknarmenn Solon 274 Son Suffix 277 Sonatorrek 315 Soul

INDEX of ,

,

,

,

of , in ,

,

,

,

in ,

,

, 9 of , , , 24 11

,

,

,

,

-

of ,

,

,

:

's

Zend Avesta 149 Zoroaster 149

,

-

of ,

of ,

290

151

Yeomen As Tenants Farmers Position Yeomen Courts 115 Yggdrasil 172 Younger Edda 228 Yule Feast 157

,

, ,

,

,

Greece Rights

Xerxes

-

,

-

,

:

,

,

,

,

,

17 ,

,

,

-

,

iii

Wadmal , 232, 237, 328, 329 , 341 Wages of Servants, 247 Wakes for the Dead , 318 Wardens , 84 Warfare , Style of , ii, Weddings 303 304 Wergeld 287 Westermarck 291 Westmen 236 Whale 260 261 340 Whiskey 273 Wights 162 Windows 325 Witchcraft 171 175 Law Against 175 Woman England Rights 295 297

,

Vows, 158

In In

292 Rome Rights Position Home 306 Rights and Christianity 291 292 293 Rights and Feudalism 291 292 293 Traits 306 309 Wood Work 341 342 Wool Industry 340 In

Volsungs , 212, 213 , 215 Voluspa , 210

361

89092544147

B89092544147A