Photographic Field Guide to Australian Frogs 9781486313259, 1486313256

Table of contents :
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Foreword
Contents
Acknowledgements
Introduction
Purpose and scope
Classification and names
Amphibians in Australia
Frog protection and legislation
Finding frogs
Hygiene
Morphology – physical features which aid identification
Distribution maps
Call
Frog identification and species profiles
Family LIMNODYNASTIDAE
Family MICROHYLIDAE
Family MYOBATRACHIDAE
Family PELODRYADIDAE
Family RANIDAE
Family BUFONIDAE
Glossary and abbreviations
References
Index

Citation preview

PHOTOGRAPHIC FIELD GUIDE TO AUSTRALIAN FROGS MARK G. SANDERS

PHOTOGRAPHIC FIELD GUIDE TO AUSTRALIAN FROGS MARK G. SANDERS

© Mark Sanders 2021 All rights reserved. Except under the conditions described in the Australian Copyright Act 1968 and subsequent amendments, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, duplicating or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. Contact CSIRO Publishing for all permission requests. The author asserts their moral rights, including the right to be identified as the author. A catalogue record for this book is available from the National Library of Australia. ISBN: 9781486313259 (pbk) ISBN: 9781486313266 (epdf) ISBN: 9781486313273 (epub) How to cite: Sanders MG (2021) Photographic Field Guide to Australian Frogs. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne. Published by: CSIRO Publishing Locked Bag 10 Clayton South VIC 3169 Australia Telephone: +61 3 9545 8400 Email: [email protected] Website: www.publish.csiro.au Front cover: (Top) Lytoria tyleri (photo by Mark Sanders); (Bottom, left to right) Litoria verreauxii alpine, Philoria pughi, Litoria revelata (photos by Mark Sanders). Back cover: (Top, left to right) Litoria gracilenta, Notaden bennettii, Litoria wilcoxii (photos by Mark Sanders). All photographs are by the author unless otherwise noted. Cover design by Cath Pirret Typeset by Envisage Information Technology Printed in China by Leo Paper Products Ltd CSIRO Publishing publishes and distributes scientific, technical and health science books, magazines and journals from Australia to a worldwide audience and conducts these activities autonomously from the research activities of the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO). The views expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily represent those of, and should not be attributed to, the publisher or CSIRO. The copyright owner shall not be liable for technical or other errors or omissions contained herein. The reader/user accepts all risks and responsibility for losses, damages, costs and other consequences resulting directly or indirectly from using this information. The paper this book is printed on is in accordance with the standa1rds of the Forest Stewardship Council ® and other controlled material. The FSC ® promotes environmentally responsible, socially beneficial and economically viable management of the world’s forests.

Feb21_01

Foreword

More than at any time in the past the amphibians of the world need our help. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature estimates that over one-third of all amphibians worldwide are threatened, up to 10% are critically endangered or endangered, and 120 are feared to have disappeared (presumed extinct) in the past 30 years. In Australia seven species disappeared in the past 30 years, another 30 are currently listed as threatened, and several species are down to the last handful of individuals in the wild. For the first time, there are several species that are reliant on captive colonies in zoos for their survival, and there is a short list that will join them in the near future. This is what biologists have termed the biodiversity crisis: the rapid extinction of species and the loss of many natural communities caused by the actions of man. The end of nature. It is under these circumstances that Australians must rapidly cherish the unique wildlife that shares this continent with us as home. In our national anthem we sing ‘Our land abounds in nature’s gifts. Of beauty rich and rare’, and unfortunately the ‘rare’ is taking on a new meaning. Australia is the world’s largest island continent, with an evolutionary history of ~38 million years in isolation without land bridges to other land masses, and thus it is home to a treasure trove of amazing animals and plants found only here. Our amphibians are a clear example of that. They comprise ~240 frog species, and the great majority (96%) are endemic (found only in Australia). The three families of frogs with the greatest number of species in Australia have called the continent home for a least 50 million years, and that is greater than five times longer than humans have existed. Their ancestry goes much further back to around 380 million years ago, when the first backboned animals conquered the land. How is it that we now reach a crisis in their survival? What is it in our make-up that

treats the rest of nature with such distain? Frogs have survived for millennia; they are superbly adapted to the streams, wetlands, ponds, swamps, habitats without standing water, and even the harshest deserts. Yet our actions to clear so much habitat, introduce predators and diseases, and pollute our water and soils bring them to extinction. We may have done this naively in the past, but we are now fully aware of the consequences. Surely we can share some of this planet with the biota that have made it their home for millions of years, not just for our sake – they have a right to be here. There is one principal of ecology that is unquestioned: life is connected, and all life is part of the food web. There is nothing that we eat that has not come from another plant or animal, and we rely on the same clean water that the frogs do. As we destroy nature, we are destroying our own future. Jean Piaget, the great educational philosopher, reminds us that ‘What we see changes what we know. What we know changes what we see.’ So it is incredibly timely that a carefully researched and superbly presented, comprehensive field guide to all the frogs of Australia has been prepared by Mark Sanders. If we are to understand and save our natural heritage we must be able to see and identify it. Once we know the superb and subtle beauty of the frogs and their intricate connection with their habitat, we will be changed in what we know and what we can see. Mark Sanders has addressed how we can see in an exemplary fashion, with a lavishly illustrated and thoughtfully detailed account of all 240 frog species found in Australia. The text is informative and well organised, and presented in a field guide that will be a must for all those who are interested in Australian nature and the life of frogs. In November 2018, Mark Sanders came to visit me and my son, Stephen, while on one of his many trips searching for frogs so that he could take photos and record details of the frogs, their habitats and behaviour. It was during this visit that

iii

PH OTO GR APHIC FIELD GUIDE TO AUS T R ALIAN FRO GS

Mark showed me several plates of this book. I was immediately impressed by his deep knowledge of frogs’ natural history and keen eye for the features that distinguished and at the same time link species. It requires such a keen eye and field experience, the art of seeing and knowing, to be able to develop a user-friendly comprehensive field guide for frog identification. I was also amazed by the sheer extent of the observations that Mark had made. Australia is a large place, and to cover the entire frog fauna requires travelling thousands of kilometres from east to west and north to south, from alpine meadows to tropical rainforests, from desert sand dunes to meandering streams. This spoke to me of a field ecologist who knew from experience exactly what was important when communicating to others how to identify frogs and the sheer joy of doing that. I am sure it was a labour of love, because once you experience the songs of a frog chorus and their shy beauty, you too will be engaged.

iv

If we are to save nature we must become stewards of all life. In a fascinating way our government realised this when establishing ‘Landcare’ and ‘Caring for Country’, recognising that for environmental stewardship to be effective, all Australians must respect and protect our environment. This is not the job of a government department, greenies or some school teachers – it is the responsibility of all citizens. To achieve this we all must understand nature around us so that we can appreciate it. It is only then that we will value it and protect it. Maybe this field guide will contribute to that change. But certainly it will help us understand the frogs, since it provides the primary tool of natural history, and that is first to be able to identify the species. In turn this will increase our sheer amazement at their adaptations and beauty. Michael Mahony 21 October 2019

Contents

Forewordiii Acknowledgementsvi

INTRODUCTION1 Purpose and scope

1

Classification and names

1

Amphibians in Australia

1

Frog protection and legislation

2

Finding frogs

3

Hygiene3 Morphology – physical features which aid identification

3

Distribution maps

9

Call9

FROG IDENTIFICATION AND SPECIES PROFILES

12

Family LIMNODYNASTIDAE

17

Family MICROHYLIDAE

73

Family MYOBATRACHIDAE

106

Family PELODRYADIDAE

220

Family RANIDAE

350

Family BUFONIDAE

352

Glossary and abbreviations

355

References358 Index362

v

Acknowledgements

This book is the accumulation of many years work, indeed almost half a lifetime. The number of people who have encouraged, influenced and contributed are too numerous to mention. I am greatly indebted to you all. Special mention goes to the following with whom I have spent many enjoyable hours in the field searching for frogs: Ed Meyer, Harry Hines, Angus McNab, Anders Zimny, Stewart M ­ acdonald, Brad Douglas, Terry Reis, David Hunter, Rod Hobson, Stephen Mahony, George Madani, Tim Faulkner, Kat Lowe, Rob Morgan, Stefan Durtschi and Rod Patterson. I have learnt something from you all and hope to share more experiences together. The following have contributed to the content of this book, either knowingly or unknowingly, with expertise and information: Ed Meyer, Harry Hines, Angus McNab, Stephen Mahony, Grant Webster, Rod Hobson, Terry Reis, Kieran Aland, Eric ­Vanderduys, David Hunter, Marion Anstis, Glen Ingram, Kat Lowe, Conrad Hoskin and Rob Morgan. The following have read and made invaluable comments to this manuscript, either in part or in whole: Ed Meyer, Michael Mahony, Harry Hines, David Hunter, Scott Eipper, Mike Tyler, Stephen Mahony, Stewart Macdonald and Conrad Hoskin. Some of Australia’s best wildlife photographers have made available their photos to improve this book. Thanks to: Aaron Payne, Anders Zimny, Angus McNab, Brad Maryan, Brendan Schembri, Chris Jolly, Conrad Hoskin, Ed Meyer, Eric ­Vanderduys, Evan Pickett, George Madani, Gordon Grigg, Grant Webster, Hal Cogger, Harry Hines,

Henry Cook, Jono Hooper, Jordan Mulder, Jordan Vos, Kieran Aland, Marion Anstis, Martin Cohen, Matt ­Sumerville, Max Jackson, Michael Mahony, Michael McFadden, Mike Trenerry, Murray Lord, Nathan Litjens, Paul Doughty, Ray Lloyd, Renee Catullo, Ruchira Somaweera, Ryan Francis, Scott Eipper, Shane Black, Stephen Mahony, Stephen Richards, Stephen Zozaya, Steve Wilson, Stewart Macdonald, Tim Faulkner and Tony Robinson. Andrew Amey, Patrick Cooper and Jodi Rowley kindly allowed me to inspect specimens within their collections including priceless extinct species. Mike McFadden (Taronga Zoo), Michael Vella (Currumbin Wildlife Sanctuary) and Damian Goodall (Zoos Victoria) generously allowed me to access their quarantined frog breeding enclosures to photograph frogs under their care. Considering these include some of the rarest species on the planet it was a great privilege. I am especially grateful to my parents who have always been supportive. Many of the privileges I have come to enjoy, including lifestyle and vocation, are only possible by the sacrifices they have made. My lifelong friend and mentor Tom Wheller has also been influential in supporting my natural obsessions. However, I am most grateful to my wife. She has endured countless cold wet nights in far-flung locations, hordes of mosquitos, leaches, biting flies, cyclonic winds and lighting, hail, sleepless humid nights and innumerable hours of loneliness while I fed my insatiable ‘natural obsession’ or worked on this manuscript. This work is just as much a reflection of your forbearance and love as it is my achievement. Without you this book will have been a hollow accomplishment.

Introduction

Purpose and scope This book has been written with one goal in mind – to provide the enthusiast and professional with the necessary tools to identify adult frogs from across the A ­ ustralian continent. It draws on personal experience, extensive consultation and considerable research of primary literature. Unfortunately, due to space constraints, there is not scope in a guide such as this to provide a full reference list. Rather, the provided references allow readers to access seminal works leading to other papers of specific interest. With its strong focus on field identification of adult frogs, it does not attempt to provide a detailed description of breeding biology and lifecycle, or aid tadpole identification. These are covered in other publications (e.g. Anstis 2002, 2018). Mindful this work may be used by novices, the introduction provides an understanding of frog morphology and common characteristics used in identification. With this background the reader can use the information in the frog identification and species profile section to identify frogs. Of course, those already familiar with frogs may be able to skip the first section and progress immediately to the species descriptions. However, for those less experienced it may be best to start with the early chapters or risk becoming confused and overwhelmed by terminology.

Classification and names Taxonomy is the science of classification and attempts to bring order to the diversity of organisms that inhabit the earth. Using taxonomy, organisms are classified by arranging them into groups based on similar characteristics and shared evolutionary histories. In the biological system of taxonomy each group is called a taxon (pl. taxa) and given a Latin name. The most fundamental unit of classification is the species, which is named using the binomial nomenclature system. Under this system the name of each organism consists of two parts: the name assigned to the species and the genus to

which the species belongs. Thus, the green tree frog has the species name caerulea and belongs to the genus of tree frogs, Litoria. Accordingly, this species is named Litoria caerulea while the related Laughing Tree Frog is called Litoria tyleri. Names may be abbreviated by reducing the genera to its leader letter, L. caerulea for example. International codes of nomenclature dictate that no two species can possess the same name. Morphological patterns may further warrant separating a species into subgroups, referred to as subspecies. Each subspecies is given a three-part name, such as Limnodynastes dumerilii dumerilii, L. dumerilii grayi, etc. These may be shortened to L. d. dumerilii or L. d. grayi. Similarity between genera allow them to be grouped into families. Six families are recognised in Australia: Pelodryadidae (tree frogs and their allies), Limnodynastidae (foam-nesting ground frogs), Myobatrachidae (ground frogs), Microhylidae (narrow-mouthed frogs), Ranidae (true frogs) and Bufonidae (toads and allies). All six families are grouped together in the order Anura. In contrast to scientific names, there are no rules governing the use of common names and several common names can exist for the one species. Litoria rubella, for example, is known as the Little Red Tree Frog, Ruddy Tree Frog, Red Tree Frog or Desert Tree Frog. Further, two species can be known by the same common name – Whistling Tree Frog can refer to Litoria ewingii, L. paraewingi or L. verreauxii. Some species have no recognised common name. This can, and does, cause considerable confusion and this work has chosen to primarily refer to species by their scientific name though common names may also be provided.

Amphibians in Australia Of the five native Australian Anuran families, Pelodryadidae and Myobatrachidae are the most diverse, each representing ~36% of Australia’s frog fauna. Ranidae is the least well represented with only one species. 1

PH OTO GR APHIC FIELD GUIDE TO AUS T R ALIAN FRO GS

A male (left) and female (right) Smooth Newt (Lissotriton vulgaris). Both sexes are similar in size, measuring ~10 cm from head to tail. Nathan Litjens

A third exotic species, Duttaphrynes melanostictus (Asian Black-spined Toad), has been intercepted numerous times in Australia. Disturbingly this has included locations well away from established ports but fortunately, or perhaps luckily, it has not established. Like the Cane Toad it has enlarged parotoid glands containing lethal bufo-toxins and is deadly if ingested. Both these toads are distinctive, having a bony canthus which extends as a raised ridge around the base of the eye-bulge, a dry skin covered with irregularly sized warts, the eye-bulge is covered with raised warts/tubercles, and the eye-lid projects over the eye. Adult Asian Black-spined Toads are smaller (55–85 mm) than Cane Toads with black-tipped tubercles on the parotoid glands and black pigment along the upper lip, along the bony canthal ridge, and on the digit tips. Anyone who finds a frog matching these features should contact relevant state/territory authorities without hesitation.

Frog protection and legislation The Asian Black-spined Toad possess a significant threat to Australia should it become established. It is recognised from the Cane Toad by its black-spined dorsal texture and black pigment along the canthal ridge, upper lip and on the digit tips. Nathan Litjens

The arrival of Europeans has seen the introduction and establishment of a new frog family, the Bufonidae (Cane Toad), as well as an entire new order, the Caudata (Smooth Newt). Cane Toads were deliberately released in 1935 and, finding the Australian conditions favourable, have spread ­ throughout the north. Smooth Newts (­Lissotriton vulgaris) were once freely available as pets until restrictions on their sale were implemented in 1997; by 2010 the species was declared a ‘prohibited pest’. However, in 2011 the species was located outside of captivity for the first time, and, either by deliberate release or escape, has established at a small number of locations in south-east Melbourne. They are instantly recognisable and anyone finding a Smooth Newt should immediately report it to Agriculture ­Victoria (ph. 13 61 86).

2

Frogs are protected in most Australian states and territories and it is illegal to take frogs from the wild. Selected states may allow for nominal handling of wild frogs, but generally wild frogs should be left untouched. This is particularly true for species that can only be found by destructive searching, such as those which hide under thick debris/ vegetation or down burrows. Some species, such as members of Philoria and Pseudophryne, can have highly localised distributions, are restricted to specialised habitats and have suffered population declines. Disturbance of these species may place unwanted extinction pressure on a population. Those interested or enthusiastic about seeing ­Australian frogs would benefit from joining a local frog or naturalist group. These groups often include professionals with licences and the expertise to help beginners garner the skills necessary for accurate identification. The Field Guide to Frog Groups of ­Australia website (https://frogs.org.au/groups/) provides an excellent resource for those looking to join a local frog group.

I nt r o d u cti o n

Overarching the protection of all biodiversity in Australia, including frogs, is the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (the EPBC Act). Frog species listed under the EPBC Act are noted in this work.

Finding frogs Sometimes frogs can be easy to find – just flushing a toilet can be fruitful in some country locations! However, most species are difficult and observing the majority of Australia’s frogs takes dedication and effort. The first important factor in locating frogs is to consider climatic conditions. Some species, such as burrowing frogs, can be extremely common during rainfall but otherwise impossible to locate. Others may always be present but less active and therefore more difficult to detect outside rainfall. In the majority of cases the best climatic conditions coincide with spring, summer and/or autumn rainfall, though there are exceptions, including several Crinia and Pseudophryne which breed during winter. Many frogs hide in thick vegetation, under debris, or even down burrows. Finding a frog no bigger than the size of a fingernail in thick heath is no mean feat! To complicate things, some seem able to almost throw their voice, making it awkward to gain a distance fix. One trick to overcome these problems is to use a method called triangulation where two or more observers distribute themselves evenly around the frog (or at 90° with two observers) without disturbing it. Each observer indicates the direction the frog is calling from and where the directions intersect should approximate the frogs calling location. Another useful method uses a lowpowered head-torch positioned as close to the viewer’s eyes as possible. When illuminated, frog eyes will reflect light, revealing their location. High-­powered lights overwhelm eye-shine and are not suitable. It is an excellent method for finding frogs which call from exposed locations while on the ground or from vegetation (i.e. many Cyclorana or Litoria species).

Hygiene Research has implicated a water-borne fungus, Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (called ‘Chytrid

Fungus’), in the decline and extinction of numerous Australian frog species. This fungus, which attacks the frog’s skin, is spread by zoospores transported in water, on moist surfaces or in moist soils. It is potentially transported by amateur and professional froggers in their shoes and equipment. Some frog populations have a 100% mortality to the disease. Anyone searching for frogs should take some simple measures to reduce the spread of this disease: • All shoes, clothing and equipment should be thoroughly cleaned of mud and dirt before and following field activities. • Chytrid fungus is susceptible to desiccation and chemical treatment. Following field surveys, or before surveys, all equipment (particularly shoes) should be left in contact with a 3% bleach solution for at least 1 min (preferably 2 min), and where possible allowed to thoroughly dry. For this reason gum-boots and waders are best as they are easy to clean and dry much faster than walking boots. (For more information search for ‘Hygiene protocol for the control of disease in frogs’ in your web browser).

Morphology – physical features which aid identification Frogs come in many shapes and sizes and the presence, absence or combination of particular morphological (physical) features can aid identification. Size is one of the most obvious differences and is measured as the distance between the tip of the snout to the vent or cloaca (abbreviated as SV). However, while size is important and useful, observers must be aware that juvenile frogs can be substantially smaller than the adults, in some cases by more than 50%. Another useful measure expresses the length of the hind limb and is quantified by the length of the tibia (TL). This is measured as the distance between the outer edge of the knee to the outer edge of the heel, excluding any tubercles or skin flaps (see Fig.  1). Tibia length and SV can be combined as the TL/SV ratio. If a species has short legs then the TL/SV ratio is low, while the

3

PH OTO GR APHIC FIELD GUIDE TO AUS T R ALIAN FRO GS

Snout-vent Dorsolateral fold Supratympanic fold Eye bulge

Vertebral stripe

Canthus

Groin Interocular bar

Nostril Urostyle

Posterior thigh

Vent

Canthal stripe Subocular bar Tympanum

Tibia length (TL)

Nape bar Middorsal fold

Dorsolateral fold

Fig. 1.  External features and measurements of an adult frog. Lateral illustration by Melissa Christi. Dorsal illustration redrawn by Melissa Christi with permission, based on Watters JL, Cummings ST, Flanagan RL, Siler CD (2016) Review of morphometric measurements used in anuran species descriptions and recommendations for a standardized approach. Zootaxa 4072(4), 477–495.

TL/SV of long-limbed species is high. Species with high TL/SV ratios are typically strong jumpers. Head shape can be described when viewed from above (dorsal outline) or from the side (lateral or profile outline); see Fig. 2 for examples used in this work. This characteristic, for example, is useful for identifying Litoria olongburensis which has a comparatively longer and more pointed snout than the superficially similar Litoria fallax. The canthus (also called the canthal ridge or canthus rostralis) is the shape between the flat crown of the head and the side of the head in the region between the eye and the snout. In crosssection this can be rounded or angular (appearing like a ridge), and curved or straight when viewed from above (see Fig. 3). The eyes, which are large and very obvious on frogs, have distinctive pupil shapes. The most common variation relates to the axis along which the pupil restricts, either vertically or horizontally (Fig.  4). However, some have odd-shaped pupils, such as Uperoleia which have rhomboidal pupils. Pupil shape is best noted when the iris is nearly

4

fully closed since when it is wide open the pupil shape may be difficult to determine. Posterior to the eye is the tympanum, or external ear. The tympanum may be very large and obvious (e.g. Limnodynastes lignarius), or with a distinctive rim (called the annulus), or noticeable only as a smooth depression, or indistinct, or completely hidden. The tympanum colour can also vary between otherwise similar species. A fold of skin running along the upper margin of the tympanum is called the supratympanic fold and its presence or absence can be useful for identification. The texture of a frog’s skin (Fig.  5) can vary both between species and within a species. Recognising fine texture can sometimes be difficult in the field where moisture held on the surface can mask minor variations, making the skin look smoother than when dry. Despite many texts describing a frog’s skin as ‘smooth’ because it lacks larger tubercles, the dorsum of all Australian frogs has small glands or fine granules – truly smooth skin, if present, is usually restricted to the belly. In addition to granules and tubercles, ridges

I nt r o d u cti o n

Dorsal outline

Rounded

Pointed

Truncate

Profile outline

Rounded

Sloping

Bent

Truncate (vertical)

Acute

Fig. 2. Diagrammatic examples of frog head shapes. Illustration by Melissa Christi

Fig. 3.  Canthus shapes (left to right): rounded (L. caerulea), angular (L. dayi), curved (L. ewingii) and nearly straight (L. paraewingii)

Fig. 4.  Example pupil shapes (left to right): vertical (Neobatrachus pictus), round (Limnodynastes dumerilli), rhomboidal (Uperoleia borealis), horizontal (Litoria xanthomera)

or skin folds may be present. These can be short, rounded, elongated or angular. A pair of commonly observed folds are the dorsolateral folds, which extend from just behind the tympanum to around the groin and usually separates the dorsum from the upper flank. Sometimes the dorsolateral fold and the supratympanic fold

merge to stretch along the length of a frog’s body. Mid-dorsal folds are also common and run between the dorsolateral folds and the vertebral line (Fig. 1). All frogs have glands, which in some species are large and conspicuous. A frog has several glands spaced symmetrically around its body, each referred

5

PH OTO GR APHIC FIELD GUIDE TO AUS T R ALIAN FRO GS

Fig. 5.  Common skin texture descriptions used in this work: (top row) smooth, coarsely granular, finely granular and finely granular with prominent tubercles and rounded ridges; (bottom row) irregularly textured, irregularly tuberculate, spinose and large rounded glands

to individually (Fig. 6). The glands directly behind the head are parotoid glands, glands just in front of the groin are inguinal and the glands either side of the cloaca are coccygeal. Some species have a supralabial gland on the side of the head commencing on the upper lip just behind the jaw, while others may have a large gland on the upper surface of the calf called the tibial gland. Finally, a few species have the submandibular gland running around the edge of the lower jaw. Frogs have four fingers and five toes which for reference are numbered sequentially from the inside to the outside (Fig.  7). Many species have webbing between their toes and/or fingers and variation in the extent of webbing can aid identification. Several methods have been used to describe or depict the extent of webbing, but perhaps the most intuitive is a web diagram (Fig.  8). When interpreting web diagrams readers should be aware that the extent of webbing can vary slightly within a species. Further, many species have lateral fringes along the edge of their toes and it is necessary to create a somewhat arbitrary evaluation of where webbing ceases. Web diagrams may not therefore accurately reflect the subtle variation in all captured individuals. The structure of a frog’s palm and sole includes several raised tubercles, each with an individual

6

Paratoid

Inguinal

Coccygeal Femoral

Tibial

Fig. 6. Dermal glands and other notable external features

terminology for reference. Perhaps the most important for identification are the inner and outer ­metatarsal tubercules, which are located just below the first and fifth toes respectively. The distal (end),

I nt r o d u cti o n

Inner metatarsal tubercle I II

III

IV V Outer metatarsal tubercle

Subarticular tubercles

Fig. 7.  Plantar (sole of foot) structure of Uperoleia talpa (left) and Limnodynastes convexiusculus (right) with digit numbers indicated. Toe IV has (left to right) distal, medial and proximal tubercles, digits III and V have distal and proximal tubercles and toes I and II have a single tubercle

Fig. 8.  Web diagrams for Cyclorana alboguttata (left) and Litoria cyclorhyncha (right); solid circles represent subarticular tubercles, open circles represent digit discs. The solid line indicates the extent of webbing in a typical individual and the dashed line shows notable variations (if known)

medial (middle) and proximal (inside) tubercles of the digits are often used to describe the extent of webbing (noting that shorter digits lack medial tubercles). Male frogs may also have structures on their first fingers to aid in grasping females during copulation. These are called nuptial pads and can be unpigmented, keratinised and darkly pigmented (often black), glandular, or with clusters of sharp spines. In some species, such as Heleioporus australiacus, these have developed into conspicuous spines which not only aid mating but are also useful weapons in combat. Finally, while colour patterns can vary within a species, they are useful for identification if used

carefully. Typical colour patterns used in this work include (Fig. 9): • Spots – small to medium regular, roundish light or dark pigments • Blotches – medium to large irregular shaped dark or light markings • Ocelli – round spots with either a light centre and dark border (pale ocelli), or a dark centre with a pale border (dark ocelli) • Flecks – small to tiny light or dark pigments • Marbling – an irregular swirling mosaic of two or more colours • Streaks and stripes – relatively narrow stripes of light or dark pigment

7

PH OTO GR APHIC FIELD GUIDE TO AUS T R ALIAN FRO GS

Fig. 9.  Common pattern descriptions: (top row) spots, blotches, pale ocelli and flecks; (bottom row) marbling, a stripe, bands and a V-shape

• Bands or bars – broader stripes of pigment that may be arranged along the body (longitudinal bands) or across the body (transverse bars) • V-shape – a contrasting light or dark V-shaped pattern. Markings which have contrasting sharp edges may be described as ‘clearly defined’ to distinguish from ‘diffuse’ or ‘poorly defined’ markings which have a ‘fuzzy’ border. ‘Distinct’ markings are those which clearly contrast the background while ‘indistinct’ markings may be barely noticeable.

Rarely, individuals can display unusual patterns or colours. The ‘green’ of frogs is in fact a mix of colour produced by cells called iridophores (cells which reflect blue light) and xanthophores (cells which contain yellow pigment). If one of these cells is missing the frog will look either yellow (individuals missing iridophores) or blue (individuals missing xanthophores). Albino frogs lack all colour and have pink eyes. These ‘mistakes’ are rare in nature. They, and other rare ‘odd-balls’, do not warrant specific mention in this work. Many frogs change colour to match the predominant substrate on which they rest, or to

Normally green, this L. caerulea (left) lacks yellow pigment and so looks vivid blue, while this L. dayi (right) is just highly divergent. Colour extremes of this magnitude are rare in nature. Tony Robinson (L. caerulea); Shane Black (L. dayi)

8

I nt r o d u cti o n

When warm (i.e. during the day) or while perched on pale substrates, some species like L. rothii (left) and L. rubella (right) fade to a pale cream only to regain their typical darker colour when temperatures cool at night. Stewart Macdonald (L. rothii)

accommodate their environs. Temperature is an important influencing factor with individuals tending to be darker when temperatures are low or lighter when temperatures are high. In extreme cases these changes can be dramatic. Litoria rothii and L.  rubella, for example, can look pale cream during the day and turn a dark brown in the cool of night. Colour can also be used as a signal to conspecifics, as in L.  wilcoxii which is brown when non-­ breeding, has a yellow flush when breeding, and rapidly turns vivid yellow during amplexus. These types of changes are not errors and notes have been provided within the species descriptions for taxa that commonly exhibit pronounced variation.

Distribution maps Distributional data can be conveyed on maps in one of two ways, as either a shaded polygon or point-based data. While there are advantages and disadvantages to both, this work uses a point-based approach based on data gathered from the Atlas of Living Australia, with additional records from my own observations and other p ­ ublications/sources. Some filtering has occurred to remove obvious errors. While most field guides overlay distribution on a standard Australian map, this work provides maps at a local scale. Significant landmarks and/or cities have been included so readers can orientate the map in the broader Australian context. In some examples where distribution is particularly important for identification the map may include an adjacent species so the

reader can better understand how the range of each relates. Any distribution map is influenced by the accuracy of the data upon which it is based. In the case of frogs, several species are taxonomically uncertain or difficult to identify leading to misidentification and confusing their extent of occurrence. For some species this work may show records which are, in my opinion, likely to be misidentification or require validation. Caution should be applied to identifying a species occurring within an area of uncertainty. The above notwithstanding, frog distributions are relatively well understood and discoveries at considerable distance (>100 km) from known locations are uncommon. Readers should be cautious if they have identified a frog many hundreds of kilometres outside its range – this is often an indication of misidentification.

Call With a few exceptions frogs primarily communicate to each other by call, but calls can serve several functions. Most commonly heard are advertisement calls, which are used to attract a mate and simultaneously convey territorial information to nearby rivals. However, some species have developed more complex communication systems with separate calls to fulfil a variety of functions (reproductive, defensive and aggressive). Some have ‘diphasic’ calls – calls which have different sounding components, each serving a 9

PH OTO GR APHIC FIELD GUIDE TO AUS T R ALIAN FRO GS

different function. Litoria pearsoniana, for example, has a drawn out introductory note followed by two or three shorter notes. While both are usually appended into a single call, they may sometimes be produced independently. Many frogs can also produce a defensive call, usually when under threat of attack from a predator. Defensive calls are different from other calls as they are produced with an open mouth, and may be accompanied by ‘defence behaviours’, which can include exposing bright coloured patches (probably serving as a warning to predators they are distasteful or poisonous), actions to make the frog look bigger, or even an attempt to intimidate a predator. I can recall on several occasions being startled by Cyclorana novaehollandiae, which is capable of producing an incredibly loud, blood-curdling scream; this is sometimes accompanied by lunging at the threat. On one occasion an individual swallowed my outstretched middle finger up to the second knuckle! Reproductive calls are the most useful for taxonomic and field recognition because (i) they are (usually) the most frequent call and the easiest to

record and (ii)  they convey species-specific information in a mating context. Further, mating call differences between similar species are often greater in sympatry than allopatry (e.g. Littlejohn 1965; Hoskin et al. 2005) because of selection against costly mating mistakes. Recognising their importance in frog identification, reproductive calls are described in this work phonetically under each species description. However, describing a call is extremely difficult and limited by the written word. To aid identification field ecologists often carry frog call recordings on media devices such as mobile phones, allowing immediate comparison. All frog calls are produced by passing air between their vocal cords, thus sending vibrations through the air which are received by the ear and interpreted by the brain. These waves of sound can be graphically represented in an oscillogram, which plots the amplitude (the peak sound pressure or how ‘loud’ it sounds) against a unit of time (Figs 10 and 11). This allows call structure to be conveyed in a visual medium. Based on oscillograms an anuran vocalisation can be described as tonal, pulsed, or pulsatile

Fig. 10. Oscillograms (above) and sonograms (below) showing a ‘pulsed’ note (Uperoleia fusca), a ‘pulsatile’ note (Litoria chloris) and a ‘tonal’ note (Austrochaperina gracilipes)

10

I nt r o d u cti o n

(Köhler et al. 2017). Tonal calls have no discernible pulses but rather have a single frequency component at any instant of time. They are the least common type of anuran call in Australia and typically sound like a whistle. Pulsed calls have a series of clearly discernible energy bursts (pulses), separated by a period of reduced amplitude which is often, but not always, a period of silence. These calls are particularly common in Australian Limnodynastidae, Myobatrachidae and many Microhylidae species. Pulsatile calls have some structure but lack distinct intervals between energy peaks, hindering a clear count of note pulse (see Köhler et  al. 2017 for further details). Many Australian Pelodryadidae have pulsatile calls which to the human ear sound like a ‘noisy’ or ‘impure’ note. It is vitally important for all field ecologists, both amateur and professional alike, to be aware that frog calls are affected by several variables including body size, geographical location (the northern v. southern extent of a widely distributed species), seasonality, social context (the spatial location of conspecifics and interspecifics), calling site position and temperature. As an example, several Australian species deliberately use burrows as resonance chambers to amplify their call (e.g. ­Heleioporus) while others call from within burrows where they shelter (e.g. Philoria), but in doing so the chamber or burrow dimension

influences the call, making it sound deeper or higher in pitch. Most significant, however, is the effect of temperature, which influences call features directly linked to muscular contractions such as call rate (how quickly a call is repeated), note rate (how quickly notes within a call are repeated), pulse rate (how quickly pulses are repeated) and call duration (the length of call). Typically these characteristics have a negative correlation with temperature and may lower by as much as 40% as temperature varies by 10°C (Köhler et al. 2017). A frog which normally sounds like a raspy squelch might sound like a series of rapid clicks in colder weather (see Fig. 11). Fortunately most frog species will avoid calling in extreme conditions and their calls will remain relatively familiar to the human ear (Crinia signifera being one of the more notable exceptions). Further, temperature will influence all species in a relatively consistent manner, and on any single night a taxon which is recognised from co-­ occurring species by pulse repetition rate will remain recognisable. With experience, temporal variations from temperature can be accounted for and call remains a vital tool for frog identification. In some cases call is the only method for separating otherwise morphologically similar species (e.g. Litoria serrata v. L. myola).

Fig. 11. Oscillograms of Crinia signifera at ~19°C (left) and ~3°C (right). Under warm conditions the call of C. signifera sounds like a rattle, but under cold conditions like a series of distinct taps

11

Frog identification and species profiles

A dichotomous key is a tool that allows the user to identify items by a series of two-part steps (Fig. 12). In each step the user is presented with one of two options, and after selecting the most appropriate option is directed to the next step. Each time a choice is made items are eliminated until only one remains. Some dichotomous keys provide the user with only one character. This may be useful if the character is obvious and unmistakable, but can cause error if obscure. It also prevents using obvious features that, while unique to some, may not be universal to all members of the group. This work uses a series of features to overcome these drawbacks but requires the user to apply all the listed characters for identification. The keys attempt to place the most obvious and useful feature first, though this may not be universal to all individuals. Most members of a genus will have an overall similar appearance and identification to species may require comparison of subtle variation. ‘Jizz’  – an overall impression or appearance garnered from suitable differences in features such as size, shape, behaviour, habitats and voice – is often used in frog identification. Using dichotomous keys to describe ‘jizz’ is difficult and often over-

simplifies identification or requires prior experience. For frogs, dichotomous keys to species are problematic. However, while differences within a genus may be subtle, differences between genera are often obvious and measurable. Dichotomous keys to genus are more feasible. Mindful of the limitations described above, this work provides keys to allow the user to identify which genus their frog is likely to be. Species within the identified genus can now be compared by reviewing their description, call, distribution and habitat preference. This is aided by comparative text (‘similar species’) and a series of photos depicting variation and main points of difference. The above approach works well for most genera but some, such as Litoria, contain too many species­   – directly comparing 73 taxa would be time-consuming and cumbersome. Fortunately consistent differences within Litoria allow it to be broken into smaller groups. These groups are introduced here as morpho-functional groups and have keys for their identification and a discussion of the groups’ characteristics. However, unlike genera, morpho-functional groups do not suggest or reflect phylogenetic relationships.

Fig. 12.  The structure of a two-step dichotomous key. In this example each step has three character choices allowing the user to select the most obvious character or ensuring consistency in all characters

12

F r o g i d entificati o n an d species p r o files

Fig. 13.  How to identify adult frogs using this book

13

PH OTO GR APHIC FIELD GUIDE TO AUS T R ALIAN FRO GS

Hands and feet, clues to lifestyle and identity A frog’s fingers and toes can provide valuable insight into its lifestyle as well as aid identification. Enlarged terminal digit tips are an adaptation to arboreal or rock-inhabiting lifestyles and may be accompanied by extensive webbing. Terrestrial species have narrow or small digit tips and burrowing species have enlarged tubercles on the feet to aid digging. A few have spatula shaped fingers that allow them to swim, breaststroke style, through soft sand. Many adaptations have evolved independently across several groups, each with its own idiosyncrasies, and understanding these differences can assist in family recognition. a

b

Microhylidae • • • • •

c

d

•

Digits with slight to obviously expanded terminal tips Some with nearly round tips, but most with truncated tips (a) Subarticular tubercles usually less pronounced than Pelodryadidae Inner metatarsal tubercle small and inconspicuous No notch or crease on the upper digit surface separating the tip from the digit Terminal discs never with a circumarginal groove

Myobatrachidae • • •

Preserved specimen e

f

• •

Most without terminal digit swelling Taudactylus have slightly to moderately expanded wedgeshaped digit tips (b) Rheobatrachus have bulbous terminal digit tips (especially the toes) (c) Three species with spatula shaped fingers (d) Uperoleia is the only genera within the family to have enlarged inner metatarsal tubercles; these are about equal in size to the outer metatarsal tubercle (e)

Limnodynastidae

g

h

• • •

None with expanded terminal digits In some species females have slight to obvious flanges on finger II (f) and some males have nuptial spines (g) Many with enlarged, pale (l) or dark (h), inner metatarsal tubercles

Pelodryadidae • •

Preserved specimen i

j

• • •

k

l

• • •

Litoria have small (≤ digit width) to obvious (i) terminal discs Digit discs round, except four species which have weakly transverse oval discs Digit discs surrounded by a circumarginal groove (i) Cyclorana and L. dahlii lack terminal discs All species with a distinct notch (j) or crease (k) on the upper digit surface separating the tip from the digit (inconspicuous in L. dahlii) Cyclorana have pale enlarged inner metatarsal tubercles, never edged black (l) Cyclorana and L. dahlli with opposable thumbs (m) All Australian frogs with finger webbing are Pelodryadidae

Ranidae

m

n

• • •

14

Moderately expanded terminal digit tips Terminal swelling longitudinally elliptical, especially the toes which appear almost pointed (n) Terminal swelling with obvious lateral grooves (n)

F r o g i d entificati o n an d species p r o files

Key to families 1.

An obvious bony ridge between the eye and nostril (the canthus) extending around the base of the eye-bulge as a raised ridge (A); abundant irregularly sized tubercles on the eye-bulge (B); eye-lid obviously projecting over the eye (B)�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������Bufonidae (adults) (p. 352)



Canthus rounded to angular, but without a raised and bony ridge; no obvious ridge running around the base of the eye-bulge; no tubercles on the eye-bulge, or if present few in number and small ����������������������������������������������������2

2.

Fingers and toes with elongate oval terminal discs, appearing pointed on the toes (see image n on p. 14) ; vocal sac obviously bilobed and extending from either side of the neck; obvious dorsolateral folds (C) and toes fully webbed (webbing reaching the terminal discs on all digits except toe IV, D)��������������������������������������� Ranidae (p. 350)

Digits without terminal expansion, or if present not elongate oval; vocal sac, if present, not distinctly bilobed (may be weakly bilobed) and extending from under the chin; dorsolateral folds absent, or if present toes not fully webbed������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������3

A

B

C

D

3.

Fingers with a notch or crease delineating the digit tip (see image j & k on p. 14), if absent thumb opposable to the remaining fingers (see image m on p. 14); fingers with or without webbing; toes with obvious webbing; belly obviously granular��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������Pelodryadidae (p. 220)



No obvious notch or crease near the digit tip and thumb not opposable; fingers never with webbing; toes with or without webbing; belly smooth to granular��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������4

4.

Toes with obvious to slightly wider terminal tips����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������5



Toes without wider terminal tips������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������7

5.

Toes fully webbed (F); fingers conical in shape, especially the thumb (G)����������������� Myobatrachidae (part) (p. 106)



Toes with at most distinct fringing, but not webbed; fingers cylindrical��������������������������������������������������������������������������������6

6.

Legs with faint to conspicuous transverse bars (H); always associated with streams or waterways; terminal finger expansion, if present, wedge-shaped (see image b on p. 14)����������������������������������������� Myobatrachidae (part) (p. 106)



Legs without transverse bars; not associated with surface water; terminal digit expansion, if present round (not pictured) or truncate (see image a on p. 14)����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� Microhylidae (p. 73)



E

F

G

H

7.

Size 30 mm and inner metatarsal well developed (images h and l on p. 14)��������������������������������������������������������������� ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� Myobatrachidae (part) (p. 106)



Inner metatarsal small, or if well-developed adult size 35 mm SV), scarlet red in the groin and inner calf, a smooth belly (v. granular to weakly granular) and males have an enlarged head (obviously wider than the body). Paracrinia haswelli (p. 158) can have scarlet red patches on the legs similar to Adelotus but may be recognised by their clearly defined dark lateral head-stripe which extends behind the eye to at least the arm, lacking dark transverse finger and leg/toe barring, and a silver upper iris contrasting a dark lower iris (v. alternating dark and light areas around the pupil in Adelotus). Key features of Adelotus Species

Key features

Adelotus brevis

•  Dorsum with scattered to abundant irregularly sized tubercles (A), rarely skin folds •  Dark butterfly-shaped marking between behind the eyes, extending onto the nape •  An obscure to distinct oblique bar on the anterior dorsum above the groin (A) •  Belly boldly patterned with large white blotches/marbling on a black to dark slate-grey background, each blotch dark-bordered (but not obvious on a black background); throat dark with at most light spots or flecks (B) •  Dark transverse bars on the fingers, legs and toes •  Groin, calf and behind the knee with distinctive red markings •  Adult males with large shovel-shaped heads, as wide or wider than the body, and cartilaginous tusks protruding from the lower jaw (C) •  Iris typically with alternative areas of dark and lighter shading (D)

A

B

C

D

Handled under permit Harry Hines

21

PH OTO GR APHIC FIELD GUIDE TO AUS T R ALIAN FRO GS

Adelotus brevis (Tusked Frog)

" Mackay !! ! !

! ♂ to 45 mm; ♀ to 40 mm. Shape: males with a large shovel! QLD ! !!! shaped head. Dorsum covered with irregularly sized tubercles. ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Pattern: dull brown or grey-brown with distinct to obscure ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!! ! ! ! ! " !! !! ! ! ! irregular darker markings including a ‘butterfly’-shaped !! Brisbane !! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!! !! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! !!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! marking between the eyes bordered interiorly by a paler-brown !! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! !!! !! ! ! ! (rarely red-brown) triangular marking extending to the snout ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! tip, and a distinct to obscure dark oblique patch above the groin; ! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! NSW ! ! ! !! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! usually a dark lateral stripe from behind the eye to near the !! " Sydney !! corner of the mouth; uncommonly a pale vertebral stripe. A glandular series of pale tubercles is present near the corner of the mouth. Most with a dark subocular bar extending to the upper lip. Tympanum hidden. Limbs with dark blotches which tend to form transverse bars at least on the upper leg, toes and fingers. Groin, calf, and behind the knee with distinctive bright red markings. Posterior thigh typically unremarkable but sometimes infused with red. Ventral surface smooth; belly with moderate to large irregular and black-bordered white patches or marbling on a black, navy blue or dark slate-grey background; throat grey with at most scattered light flecking. The iris of most have alternating radial dark and areas around a weakly elliptical pupil. Fingers and toes unwebbed and without fringes. HABITAT: Slow-moving pools of streams and static bodies (e.g. dams) in rainforest, sclerophyll forest and vine thicket. Most common near permanent water with emergent vegetation or in-stream debris. CALL: Either a two-syllabled ‘p-duk’ or less frequently a single ‘duk’; sometimes individuals may include additional notes ‘p-duk-duk’. Also a short territorial trill of sharp notes. Most active Oct–Feb, but often heard in adjacent months. SIMILAR SPECIES: Recognised from all sympatric frogs by the disproportionately large head (males), distinctive white blotched/marbled belly, red markings in the groin and calf (but absent from the armpit), a dark butterfly-shaped marking on the head, and an iris with alternating light and dark regions (though infrequently absent). NOTES: Coastal forests and adjacent ranges from Shoalwater Bay (Qld) to Moss Vale (NSW); isolated populations at Clarke Range, Blackdown Tableland and Carnarvon Gorge. Not known from Fraser, North Stradbroke or Morton islands.

22

Male, Conondale Qld

Female, Mount Nebo Qld Harry Hines

Male, Olney NSW

Male, Conondale Qld

Family L I M N O D Y N A S T I D A E

Genus Heleioporus (Hooting Frogs) Six species with five found in southern WA and one in south-east Australia. All call from burrows which act as resonance chambers, amplifying their call and compensating for their reduced vocal sac (Bailey and Roberts 1981). Fertilised eggs are deposited at the end of the burrow in foam masses. Embryos develop within the foam mass and hatch when the burrow is flooded by seasonal rains. Embryonic development can be delayed until rainfall floods the burrow. Unlike other burrowing Limnodynastids, Heleioporus do not form cocoons.

Similar genera/morpho-functional groups Only Neobatrachus and Mixophyes have vertical pupils akin to Heleioporus, though some Limnodynastes can have weakly vertical pupils. Neobatrachus have nuptial pads (v. nuptial spines in most Heleioporus) and most have dark inner metatarsal tubercles (except N.  ­albipes and N. pelobatoides). All but one Heleioporus have small skin flaps or papillae on the lower anterior eyelid, a feature absent in Neobatrachus. Mixophyes have broad flatter heads and a less globular body shape, extensive toe webbing, and obvious dark leg banding. Mixophyes also occur in rainforest (v. dry vegetation) and most are geographically separated from Heleioporus. The Limnodynastes dorsalis group has swollen tibia glands and most species have round to rhomboidal pupils (some with weakly vertical pupils; see image III on p. 32). Key features of Heleioporus Species

Key features

Heleioporus australiacus H. albopunctatus H. barycragus H. eyrei H. inornatus H. psammophilus

•  Moderate to large fat, globular frogs with short legs •  A deep head, short blunt snout, and bulging eyes •  Pupil distinctly vertical when constricted (A–B) •  Most with papillae (A) or a small skin flap (B) near the anterior corner of the eye; present or absent in one species •  The males of four species have enlarged forearms and obvious nuptial spines on one or more fingers (C); one species may or may not have nuptial spines subject to geographical location •  Palms often with scattered (D) to dense (E) round tubercles •  A large, pale, shovel-shaped inner metatarsal tubercles (F) •  Dorsum irregularly textured or spinose, but lacking larger tubercles or ridges; some have globular or pale-tipped tubercles along the flanks •  All have a distinctive wail or hooting call

A

B

C

D

Preserved specimen E

F

23

PH OTO GR APHIC FIELD GUIDE TO AUS T R ALIAN FRO GS

Heleioporus albopunctatus (Western Spotted Frog)

!! ! ! !! ! !! ! !!!! ! !! ! ! ! !!! ! !!! !!!! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! !!!!! ! ! !! ! !! ! !!! !! !! !! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !!! !!!! ! ! !! !!!!! !! Perth!!! ! ! !!! !! ! ! ! ! !! !!!!! !!!!!!!! ! ! !! !!!! ! !! !!!! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! !

♂ to 79 mm; ♀ to 100 mm. Shape: a moderately large groundWA dwelling frog with a deep head, short snout, and short limbs. Dorsum irregularly textured but lacking raised tubercles or ridges. Pattern: shades of dark brown, sometimes tinged purple, with scattered well-defined (rarely poorly defined) cream or pale-yellow spots, usually numbering between 30 and 70 and between 2 and 5 mm in diameter; spots extend onto the flanks ! !! and legs. A pale vertical stripe on the snout extends to between the nostrils and eyes, a second occurs beneath the anterior margin of the eye running obliquely to the upper lip, and some have a third pale stripe below the posterior margin of the eye running towards the corner of the mouth. A single tiny papilla near the anterior corner of the eye present or absent. Pupil vertical. Tympanum hidden. Posterior thighs without distinctive pigment or pattern but contrasted by pale pigment around the cloaca. Ventral surfaces smooth; cream with a dusty brown throat. Males with a large dark spine and one or two smaller spines on finger I; spines may also be present on finger II and occasionally finger III. Fingers unwebbed; toes basally webbed; large pale inner metatarsal tubercle on the foot. HABITAT: Waterbodies on clay and sandy soils, including artificial waters. Individuals congregate around ponds during breeding, but appear nomadic at other times. CALL: A short high-pitched ‘coo-coo’; each note lasting ~250 ms and repeated ~70 times a minute. Calls Mar–Apr, initiated by the onset of seasonal rainfall. SIMILAR SPECIES: With their abundant pale spots most H. albopunctatus are unlikely to be mistaken for other frogs in WA; however, some juveniles can have elongate and/or ill-defined spots. These individuals may require close examination for any papillae/skin flaps on the anterior margin of lower eyelid (usually absent in H. albopunctatus but present in H. eyrei and H. psammophis). NOTES: The wheatbelt and adjacent goldfields of WA; from Kalbarri to near Midland, but absent south of Midland into the south-west corner; east from Cranbrook to Coomalbidgup in the south. Extends inland to Pigeon Rocks (near Mt Geraldine) and Yellowdine. Bush et al. (2010) suggests possible hybridisation with H. eyrei in the Darling Range with hybrids having a call resembling a choking cat. "

24

Badgingarra WA

Geraldton WA

Nuptial spines, Perth WA Stephen Mahony

Anterior eye papillae, Kalbarri WA

Family L I M N O D Y N A S T I D A E

Heleioporus australiacus (Giant Burrowing Frog)

!!! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! " Newcastle

! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ♂ to 78 mm; ♀ to 97 mm. Shape: a large robust terrestrial spe! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! " Sydney NSW !!! !!!! cies; mature males with enlarged forearms. Dorsum spinose ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! !! ! becoming globular on the flanks. Pattern: uniform dark choco! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! late brown, or brown with indistinct darker patterning/spots. ! Flanks pale blue, infrequently cream. Scattered cream and/or !! ! !!! ! ! yellow globular tubercles on the flanks and around the vent, often Vic !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! !! ! !! ! tipped with a fine black spine. A series of yellow glandular tuber! Melbourne !! ! ! " ! cles past the corner of the mouth to near the forearm. Tympa!! ! num depression large, rim usually obscure but may be obvious. Limbs often with small yellow spots on the upper segments; tibia glands may be swollen. Ventral surfaces smooth, males sometimes with small black spines on throat; belly cream or pale blue, throat may have a light brown dusting. Small divided flap in the anterior corner of eye. Pupil distinctly vertical. Fingers unwebbed; a series of black spines on fingers I, II, and usually III, the largest spine (finger I) may be 5 mm in length. Toes with basal webbing; large pale inner metatarsal tubercle on the foot. HABITAT: Northern populations are predominantly associated with heath, while in the south individuals can found in heath, dry forest and rarely wet forest. Adults spend most of their time (>95%) a considerable distance from water and seem to avoid riparian areas even though these hold breeding sites. During the day adults shelter down single or multi-use burrows, but can sometimes be located under leaf litter or logs. Radio-tracking studies have shown that these frogs have exclusive non-breeding territories ranging between 420 and 580 m2. CALL: A soft, resonant, low pitched owl-like ‘ou-ou-ou’. Each note lasts ~500 ms and is repeated 18–24 times a minute. SIMILAR SPECIES: Largely unmistakable within its range, but probably most similar to Limnodynastes dumerilli (p. 38) from which it is recognised by its vertical pupil (v. weakly horizontal to round), spinose skin, yellow glandular tubercles on the flanks, and males have enlarged nuptial spines (v. nuptial pads). NOTES: Coast and ranges from Singleton south to the central highlands in the vicinity of Walhalla (Vic). Possibly a break in occurrence between Jervis bay and Narooma, separating the species into northern and southern populations. No records more than 100 km from the coast. Peak activity occurs on still nights when conditions exceeding 5 mm of rainfall, 60% humidity and 8°C. Genuinely rare. Vulnerable (EPBC Act).

Vincentia NSW

Patonga NSW

Nuptial spines, Patonga NSW

Anterior eye papillae, Patonga NSW

25

PH OTO GR APHIC FIELD GUIDE TO AUS T R ALIAN FRO GS

Heleioporus barycragus (Hooting Frog) ! !

! ! !! ! ! ! ♂ to 83 mm; ♀ to 86 mm. Shape: a large robust species, mature ! !! !! ! ! !! !! ! ! Perth ! ! !!! ! ! ! WA ! males with enlarged forearms. Dorsum spinose, rapidly transi! ! tioning to globular flanks. Pattern: uniform dark brown, never ! ! ! ! !! with a pale vertebral line. Snout tip with a poorly defined verti! ! ! ! cal yellow bar. A horizontal glandular yellow stripe along the !! upper lip from below the eye, past the corner of the mouth, to near the forearm. Yellow spots often present immediately below the eye. Tympanum readily discernible but the tympanic rim may be obscure or poorly defined. Flanks with yellow-capped warts up to 2 mm in diameter; minute black spines sometimes present at the centre of each wart, but absent from the throat and back. Limbs similar colour to dorsum, usually with denser yellow pigmentation on the forearm and foot. Two rows of papillae in the anterior corner of the eye. Pupil distinctly vertical. Ventral surfaces smooth; white and purple, flushed with yellow; throat pigmented with areas of yellow. Fingers unwebbed; males with a large, black, nuptial spine on the first finger which can be almost 4 mm long; second and occasionally the third fingers with a series of smaller spines. Toes with basal webbing; large pale inner metatarsal tubercle on the foot. HABITAT: Occurs in forest on predominantly rocky substrates. Similar to other WA Heleioporus, burrows are constructed in autumn before the onset of winter heavy rainfall in red clay or lateritic soils on the banks of ephemeral watercourses, which carry rapidly flowing water during rainfall; occasionally found in sandy swamps. Burrows are typically constructed in vertical banks on a horizontal plane. CALL: A low-pitched owl-like hoot lasting ~420 ms and repeated at a rate of ~34 hoots per minute. Calls most prolifically Mar–Apr. SIMILAR SPECIES: Distinguished from all similar ­Heleioporus in WA by its yellow warty flanks and the presence of a glandular yellow stripe near the corner of the mouth (if present cream in sympatric Heleioporus). Distinguished from Neobatrachus species by its pale inner metatarsal tubercle (except N. albipes and N.  pelobatoides), yellow warty flanks, enlarged forearms (males) and nuptial spines (males only). Inexperienced observers should also consider Limnodynastes dorsalis (p. 37). NOTES: Restricted to the Darling Range and foothills east of Perth; north from Darkan to Bullsbrook, and east to Northam including Dryandra NP. "

Female, Perth Hills WA Angus McNab

Male, Perth Hills WA Stephen Mahony

Nuptial spines, Perth WA Stephen Mahony

Anterior eye papillae, Perth WA Jordan Vos/Aaron Payne

26

Family L I M N O D Y N A S T I D A E

Heleioporus eyrei (Moaning Frog)

! ! !! !! !!

! ! ! ♂ to 66 mm; ♀ to 63 mm. Shape: a medium-sized ground-dwelling ! !! !!! ! !! ! frog with a spinose dorsum. Pattern: pale brown, light grey, cream ! ! !!! ! !!! ! ! !! WA ! ! !!!!! ! ! ! ! ! or occasionally pale yellow with irregular and often poorly defined !!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! dark brown marbling; never a pale vertebral stripe. Snout tip with a ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! Perth ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! vertical pale or yellow bar, often expanding between the eyes to ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! form a triangular patch. Many with an obscure and poorly defined !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! !!! ! ! !! !! !! dark lateral head-stripe from the snout to the eye. An obscure to ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!! !!!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! !! ! !! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! !!! !! obvious dark subocular bar or patch below the eye, rarely absent. Tympanum indistinct. Parotoid region usually with a beige, yellow, or orange wash, sometimes extending to the mid-body. A series of pale glandular tubercles near the corner of the mouth. Dorsum and ventral patterns merge evenly over the flanks; flanks often dotted with white. Ventral surfaces smooth; belly off white, throat of breeding males often washed brown or grey. A divided flap or one to two papillae present along the anterior margin of the lower eyelid. Pupil distinctly vertical. Fingers unwebbed; adult males without nuptial spines; toes basally webbed; foot with a large pale inner metatarsal tubercle. HABITAT: Swampy habitats on coarse or fine grain sandy soils. CALL: A long, low, rising moan, each lasting ~1 s and repeated ~11 times per minute. Call similar to H. barycragus but longer and rising in pitch; notably different from the shorter and rapidly repeated notes of H. inornatus and H. psammophilus. Calls predominantly Mar–May. SIMILAR SPECIES: Heleioporus inornatus and H. psammophilus. From H. inornatus (p. 28) it can be recognised by its smaller and less obvious pre-orbital flap/papillae, males lack dark nuptial spines (present in H. inornatus), and usually a yellow wash in the parotoid region (though sometimes absent); eggs of gravid females appear white when viewed through the belly, compared to yellowish in H. inornatus. Separated from H. psammophilus (p. 29) when north of Pinjarra by the lack of nuptial spines and frequently a yellow wash in the parotoid region. South of Pinjarra H. psammophilus can also lack nuptial spines, and while some H. eyrei can be recognised by yellow around the parotoid region, reliable identification is only by call. Inexperienced observers should also consider sympatric Neobatrachus species. NOTES: Coastal and subcoastal region of south-­ western WA from Geraldton to Cape Arid; inland to Marchagee, Corrigin and Jerramungup; also Rottnest and Bald islands. "

Christmas Tree Well WA

Cheyne Beach WA

Perry Lakes WA

Anterior eye papillae, Walpole and Perry Lakes WA 27

PH OTO GR APHIC FIELD GUIDE TO AUS T R ALIAN FRO GS

Heleioporus inornatus (Whooping Frog)

!!

! !! ! ♂ to 64 mm; ♀ to 73 mm. Dorsum spinose; tubercles on the ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Perth !! ! ! ! ! ! ! flanks often with a fine white spot but never >1 mm in diameter. !!! ! ! ! ! ! !! !!! ! WA ! Pattern: uniform dark brown, sometimes with a ruddy hue, with !! !! !! !! or without indistinct paler marbling which is often more obvious ! !! ! !! !! on the flanks; uncommonly contrasting pale/dark marbling; ! ! never a pale vertebral stripe. A series of glandular pale tubercles ! ! ! ! near the corner of the mouth. An indistinct vertical stripe can be present on the snout. Tympanum indistinct, marked by a !! !! ! region of smooth skin. A flap of skin consisting of at least two papillae present in the anterior corner of the eye. Pupil vertical. Ventral surfaces smooth; cream or with a pale pink flush. Mature males with a large (~2 mm) black nuptial spine on finger I, and sometimes a second smaller spine. Fingers unwebbed; toes basally webbed; foot with a large pale inner metatarsal tubercle. HABITAT: A variety of vegetation types on sandy or peaty soils. CALL: A loud ‘woopwoop …’, each note lasting ~70 ms and repeated ~150 times per minute. Notably different to the ‘trilling’ notes of H. psammophis. Calls predominantly Mar–May. SIMILAR SPECIES: Most similar to H. eyrei (p. 27) and H. psammophilus (p. 29). Unpatterned individuals recognisable from both species, but patterned individuals best separated by call or the presence of a flap with at least two papillae in the anterior corner of the eye (at most a fold, or one or two isolated papillae, in H. eyrei and H. psammophilus). Further recognised from H. eyrei by the presence of nuptial spines (v. absent), lacking a yellow wash on the parotoid region (v.  usually present) and the eggs of gravid females appear yellowish through the belly skin (v. white). Males south of Carbanup recognised from H. psammophilus by their nuptial spines, but H. psammophilus can also have nuptial spines further north. Generally H. inornatus is larger than H. eyrei and H. psammophilus and the marbling, if present, is usually brown rather than grey. Inexperienced observers should also consider sympatric Neobatrachus species. NOTES: Restricted to south-west WA along the Darling Range from Chidlow south to the Margaret River region. A seemingly separate population along the south coast from near Walpole to Albany. Often found coexisting with H. eyrei and H. psammophilus. Overlaps with H. barycragus but typically located in different habitats. Largely separated from H. albopunctatus but some potential for overlap in the far north and west. "

Male, Christmas Tree Well WA George Madani

Male, Perth Hills WA Stephen Mahony

Nuptial spines, Perth Hills WA Stephen Mahony

Anterior eye papillae, Perth Hilles WA Stephen Mahony

28

Family L I M N O D Y N A S T I D A E

Heleioporus psammophilus (Sand Frog)

!

♂ to 62 mm; ♀ to 60 mm. Shape: a medium-sized robust ! ! ground-dwelling frog with spinose dorsum. Pattern: usually ! ! !! WA ! grey or cream, sometimes pale brown, and rarely pale yellow! !! ! ! ! ! brown, with darker chocolate brown marbling; never a pale verte! ! !!! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! bral stripe. Dorsum and ventral patterns merge evenly over the Perth! ! ! ! ! ! !!! ! ! flanks. Snout with a pale vertical stripe which bifurcates near the ! !! !! ! ! !! nostrils and continues to the base of the eyes. Most with a dark ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! head-stripe from the snout to the anterior eye. Commonly a dark ! ! ! !! !! ! !! ! !! !! ! ! vertical bar or patch below the eye. A series of small pale glandular tubercles present near the corner of the mouth. Tympanum indistinct or a smooth depression. A low serrated ridge, usually with two or more papillae, along the anterior margin of the lower eyelid. Pupil distinctly vertical. Ventral surfaces smooth and off-white. Mature males north of Pinjarra with one large, occasionally a second, and rarely a third smaller, black nuptial spine on finger I; spines usually absent south of ­Carbanup. Fingers unwebbed; toes basally webbed; large pale inner metatarsal tubercle present. HABITAT: Swamps and wetlands on fine-grained sands and sandy clays. CALL: A series of short ‘cricket’-like notes, each consists of three pulses, lasts ~80 ms, and is repeated at a rate of ~300 notes minute–1. Call most similar to H. inornatus which sounds deeper, does not ‘trill’, and is repeated more slowly. Call higher pitched and faster than all other Heleioporus. Calls predominantly Mar–May. SIMILAR SPECIES: Heleioporus eyrei (p. 27) and H. inornatus (p. 28). Mature males north of Pinjarra distinguished from H. eyrei by the presence of nuptial spines (H. ­psammophilus south of Pinjarra can lack nuptial spines) and the lack of yellow pigment in the parotoid region (usually, but not always, present in H. eyrei); call may be the only reliable method of identification south of Pinjarra. Recognised from H. ­inornatus by call and possessing two or more papillae jointed into a serrated flap on the anterior corner of the eye (v. one or two isolated papillae in H. inornatus); usually smaller than H. inornatus and marbling more often grey/ cream (v. no marbling or, if present, commonly brown marbling), although these features are not definitive. NOTES: Coast and subcoastal regions from Kalbarri to Busselton; inland to Coorow and Dongolocking; along the south coast from Windy H ­ arbour to Jerramungup. Often coexisting with H. eyrei and H. ­inornatus but usually found in different habitat to H. barycragus. Rare or absent on the Perth coastal plain. "

Male, Christmas Tree Well WA Brad Maryan

Female, Cheyne Beach WA

Nuptial Spines, Perth Hills WA Stephen Mahony

Anterior eye papillae, Cheyne Beach WA

29

PH OTO GR APHIC FIELD GUIDE TO AUS T R ALIAN FRO GS

Genus Lechriodus (Black-soled Frog)

Represented by only one species in Australia, Lechriodus fletcheri, which is separated by ~2000  km from its nearest congener in New Guinea. Despite occurring in rainforests and adjacent wet sclerophyll forests where water is common, Lechriodus fletcheri breeds in highly ephemeral puddles and the embryos/­ tadpoles develop extremely rapidly. If water levels drop quickly they can turn cannibalistic to aid rapid development (Anstis 2018).

Similar genera/morpho-functional groups Within its rainforests habitats confusion is likely only with Mixophyes from which they can be recognised by their rough dorsal texture with narrow ridges, horizontally elliptical pupil (v. vertical), contrasting dark palms and soles of the feet, reduced toe webbing (basal webbing v. webbed to at least the medial subarticular tubercle on toe IV in Mixophyes) and posterior thigh pattern (never dark with fine pale flecks in sympatric Mixophyes). While adult Mixophyes are much larger than Lechriodus fletcheri, subadult Mixophyes can be smaller. Size is not a good identification feature unless the animal being identified is quite large. Key features of Lechriodus Species

Key features

Lechriodus fletcheri

•  A  dorsolaterally compressed body shape •  C  anthus angular (A) the supratympanic fold raised forming an angular transition between the head/dorsum and face/anterior flanks (A) •  D  orsum finely granular to spinose (especially on the face and flanks) forming a ‘sandpaper’ appearance and feel (A), with several fine longitudinal folds and two obvious elongate tubercles in the scapular region (B) •  When constricted the lower iris is divided by a fine dark vertical line (C); pupil horizontally elliptical (C) •  Legs with faint to distinct dark leg bands •  A dark lateral head-stripe extends to behind the eye and curves around the upper portion of the tympanic depression (A) •  T he palms and soles of the feet have extensive black pigment which strongly contrasts the surrounding surface (D)

A

30

B

C

D

Family L I M N O D Y N A S T I D A E

Lechriodus fletcheri (Black-soled Frog, Sandpaper Frog)

QLD

"Brisbane ! ! !!! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! !! !! !! ! ! !! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! "Sydney

♂ to 50 mm; ♀ to 58 mm. Shape: a medium-sized terrestrial frog with a shallow body/head, long legs, and angular canthus; an overall ‘compressed’ appearance. Dorsum finely granular with narrow skin folds including two short, prominent folds NSW above the shoulders; often finely spinose on the face and anterior flanks; an overall ‘sandpaper’ appearance. Pattern: dorsum chocolate brown, light brown, grey, dull yellow to brick red, with or without distinct to indistinct darker markings which often includes a dark V shape above the shoulders. An angular supratympanic ridge from behind the eye, over the tympanum, to mid-flank and bordered below by a dark lateral stripe, which curves around the front and rear of the tympanum, and extends forward of the eye to near the nostril; this dark stripe may be broken and sometime absent in front of the eye. Tympanic depression smooth; rim not raised. Legs with faint to distinct dark transverse bars. Posterior thigh black with abundant tiny pale flecks. When strongly contracted the lower iris is divided by a narrow vertical line. Pupil horizontally ellipse. Ventral surfaces smooth; belly and throat off-white. The palms and soles of the feet heavily pigmented with black (see image D on preceding page). Fingers unwebbed; toes with at most basal webbing. HABITAT: Adults gather at temporary pools during heavy rainfall in rainforest, wet sclerophyll forests or sometimes montane heath. Difficult to locate outside of heavy rainfall. CALL: A guttural harsh ‘gar-r-r-up’ lasting ~1 s. Males typically call while floating, but may call from banks. Most active during heavy rainfall Sep–Feb. SIMILAR SPECIES: Recognised from Adelotus brevis (p. 22) by its plain off-white belly (v. bold white botching or marbling), and lacking red pigment in the groin and on the calf. Smaller than fully grown sympatric Mixophyes species (p. 145), with a horizontal pupil (vertical in Mixophyes), different posterior thigh pattern, reduced toe webbing (extensive webbed in Mixophyes), spinose skin, a more dorsolaterally compressed body with skin folds and lacking dark triangular markings below the nostrils. NOTES: South from Mistake Mountains/Main Range (south-east Qld) to Gosford. Most common in mountainous regions.

Diamond Flat NSW

Main Range Qld

Main Range Qld

Moogem NSW

31

PH OTO GR APHIC FIELD GUIDE TO AUS T R ALIAN FRO GS

Genus Limnodynastes (Marsh Frogs) Limnodynastes are native to Australia, New Guinea and islands of the Torres Strait. The genus includes 11 Australian species which are all ground-dwelling and inhabit boggy marshes; one species is associated with massive sandstone outcrops in northern Australia. Four species (of the L. dorsalis group) burrow beneath the surface to avoid desiccation and extend into arid regions.

Key identification features Limnodynastes are characterised by: • An obvious glandular streak from the corner of the mouth to above the forearm (I–II), except in one species which has a large tympanum • Ventral surface smooth; belly white, throat with or without dark variegations or a dirty yellow wash • Unwebbed fingers (IV) • Round to weakly rhomboidal pupils (I–II), though some can have weakly vertical pupils (III) (especially L. dorsalis and L. interioris) • An indistinct tympanum which is at most visible as a smooth depression, except one species which has a very large, obvious tympanum • Irregular, round-edged, dark blotches or elongated stripes in many species, though the dorsal pattern can be indistinct to largely absent (especially in the L. dorsalis group) • Tibia glands in all, though these are only enlarged and noticeable in four species (the L. dorsalis group) • Broad flanges along one or more fingers in breeding females.

Similar genera/morpho-functional groups Some members of the L. peronii group are superficially similar to Adelotus but lack the distinctive belly pattern and extensive red pigment in the groin/calf. Members of the L. dorsalis group may appear similar to Heleioporus and possibly ­Neobatrachus. However, the L. dorsalis group has swollen tibia glands, do not have a skin flap or papillae in the anterior corner of the eye (present in all Heleioporus except one), and breeding males have nuptial pads rather than spines (all Heleioporus have spines except one species, with spines sometimes absent in a second). Heleioporus also have distinctly vertical pupils (v. at most weakly vertical), a more irregular dorsal surface (often spinose, especially laterally), deeper heads and shorter snouts giving the frog a ‘rounder’ body shape. Neobatrachus are also rounder-looking frogs, have distinctly vertical pupils, and are usually smaller in size. There are subtle differences in the palm surfaces, with H ­ eleioporus often (not always) having scattered to abundant round tubercles across palm, and both Heleioporus and Neobatrachus usually have a less distinctive outer metacarpal tubercle. Heleioporus australiacus and H. barycragus are exceptions: both frequently have obvious outer metacarpal tubercles. I

II

III

IV

Limnodynastes have a glandular streak near the corner of the mouth and most have a round to rhomboidal pupil (I–II); the weakly vertical pupil of L. interioris (III); a typical palm of the L. dorsalis group, lacking scattered tubercles and with a distinctively grooved outer metacarpal tubercle (IV)

32

Family L I M N O D Y N A S T I D A E

Morpho-functional groups of Limnodynastes Species/Group

Key features

Limnodynastes dorsalis (p. 37) L. dumerilli (p. 38) L. interioris (p. 42) L. terraereginae (p. 47)

•  Large (to 88 mm) fossorial frogs with large heads and stocky bodies; legs short (A–E) •  A pale cream, yellow or orange glandular streak from below the eye, past the corner of the mouth, to near the forearm •  Tympanum indistinct; at most an obvious smooth depression •  A large conspicuous oval gland on the tibia surface (F) •  Fingers unwebbed (H); breeding females with broad flanges on one or more fingers •  Large, shovel-shaped inner metatarsal tubercle, greater in length than toe I (G) •  A conspicuous and deeply divided outer metacarpal tubercle on the palm (H)

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

Limnodynastes peronii (p. 44) L. convexiusculus (p. 35) L. depressus (p. 36) L. fletcheri (p. 41) L. salmini (p. 45) L. tasmaniensis (p. 46)

•  Medium-sized (to 76 mm) ground-dwelling frogs (I–M) •  Five patterned with brown to khaki blotches (I–J, L–M), one with elongate light and brown stripes (K) •  A narrow glandular cream, pink or salmon streak from below the eye past the corner of the mouth •  Fingers unwebbed; breeding females with broad fringes on one or more fingers •  Toes with at most basal webbing and lacking fringes (N) •  The small to moderately sized pale inner metatarsal tubercle is round, shorter in length than toe I (N)

I

J

M

N

K

L

33

PH OTO GR APHIC FIELD GUIDE TO AUS T R ALIAN FRO GS

Species/Group

Key features

Limnodynastes lignarius (p. 43)

•  A medium-sized (to 62 mm) ground-dwelling frog associated with large sandstone formations in northern NT and WA •  Skin granular; breeding males with minute black spines particularly on the limbs, face, snout, flanks, posterior abdomen and eye-bulges •  Pupil weakly vertical (Q) •  Tympanum about as larger or larger than eye diameter (Q) •  Fingers without webbing; males with dark sharp spines on each thumb (R) •  Toes with, at most, a trace of webbing and lacking fringes •  Pale inner metatarsal tubercle moderately developed but shorter in length than toe I (S)

O

S

34

P

Q

R

Family L I M N O D Y N A S T I D A E

Limnodynastes convexiusculus (Marbled Marsh Frog)

! ! !

! ! ♂ to 58 mm; ♀ to 61 mm. Shape: a moderately sized ground! !!! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !!! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! !! !! ! ! !! !! !!! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! dwelling frog. Dorsum with broad low rounded warts and ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!! !! !! ! !!!!!! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! elongated ridges. Pattern: light grey, brown, or olive with ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! large, clearly defined, regular patches of dark khaki or olive! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! green; pattern usually includes (i) a pair of elongate dark ! !! ! ! patches above the eye to the shoulders, (ii) a pale triangular ! ! ! ! ! region, with a small dark centre, on the anterior head, (iii) a !! ! ! dark lateral head-stripe from near the snout tip, through the eye, to expand and surround the indistinct tympanum, and (iv) a large dark subocular patch. Legs often with transverse dark bars. A pale cream or yellow glandular stripe near the corner of the mouth to the base of the forearm. Tympanic region depressed but tympanic rim indistinct. Posterior thigh and groin dark with irregular pale to yellowish spots or blotches. Ventral surfaces smooth, off-white; throat of breeding males with poorly defined dark reticulations. Fingers unwebbed; subarticular tubercles large and prominent. Toes unwebbed; feet with a large inner metatarsal tubercle and poorly developed, or absent, outer metatarsal tubercle. HABITAT: Temporary waters including dams, swamps, wetlands, slow-flowing creeks and roadside ditches. Most common in dense sedge or emergent grass. CALL: A loud nasal ‘honk’ repeated about twice per second. Calls Oct–Mar, sometimes extending into Apr. SIMILAR SPECIES: Limnodynastes depressus (p. 36), L. fletcheri (p. 41), and L. tasmaniensis (p. 46) from which it is recognised by its larger size, more prominent subarticular tubercles, more abundant and broader dorsal tubercles­/ridges, different posterior thigh pattern (dark with small pale blotches v. pale or yellowish with large dark blotches/patterns), and poorly defined dark reticulations/marbling on the throat of breeding males (v. plain or with a yellow wash but lacking dark markings). Call distinctly different to rapid ‘machine-gun’ rattle of L. depressus and some L. tasmaniensis. First finger with an elongate first metacarpal (shorter in L.  ­depressus and L. tasmaniensis). See also L.  salmini. NOTES: Northern Australia to Wunaamin-Miliwundi (King Leopold) Ranges, Kununurra, Timber Creek and ­Mataranka in WA and NT, and from Kowanyama and Agnes Waters in Qld, but uncommon and isolated in the Gulf of Carpentaria; also Groote Eylandt and Melville Island.

Gunyarra NSW

Prosellite Hills Qld

Toomulla Qld

Toomulla Qld

35

PH OTO GR APHIC FIELD GUIDE TO AUS T R ALIAN FRO GS

Limnodynastes depressus (Flat-headed Marsh Frog) Darwin ♂ to 54 mm; ♀ to 50 mm. Shape: a medium-sized terrestrial frog with a distinctly flattened head and widely separated pro! truding eyes; mature males with enlarged forearms. Dorsum NT !! smooth to weakly granular (usually appearing smooth when wet). Pattern: light brown with irregular and non-symmetrical ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! darker brown or khaki blotches, usually including a large dark " Timber Creek ! !! ! !! ! ! ! Kununurra !! ! patch between the eyes. An indistinct to obvious dark band ! WA runs from near the snout tip, through the nostrils and eye, ! encasing the tympanic region, to near the forearm. Forearms usually with less dark pigment than dorsum; lower legs regularly with three large dark patches. Tympanic region depressed but rim indistinct. Dorsal and ventral patterns merge evenly over the undifferentiated flanks. A pale glandular ridge runs from below the posterior margin of the eye past the corner of the mouth to near the forearm. Groin and posterior thigh with patches of colour similar to the dorsum or on a purple-brown background. Ventral surfaces smooth; uniformly cream. Fingers and toes unwebbed; moderately developed inner metatarsal tubercle, outer metatarsal tubercle absent. HABITAT: Swamps, billabongs and flooded channels containing static water in woodlands, grasslands and similar open country. CALL: A rapid series of seven notes resembling L. tasmaniensis. Males call from concealed locations amongst thick grass and debris, or from burrows. Most active Nov–Mar. SIMILAR SPECIES: While similar in general appearance to L. tasmaniensis and L. fletcheri, these species are thousands of kilometres to the south-east. Possibly confused with the larger L. convexiusculus (p. 35) which has a deeper head (v.  flattened), more prominent subarticular tubercles, and irregular dorsal surface with broad low warts or elongated ridges; the darker markings of L. convexiusculus also typically more regular and rounder and male L. convexiusculus have dark reticulations on the throat (absent in L. depressus). NOTES: North-west WA around Kununurra and Lissadell Station extending into western NT around Keep and Victoria River (Bradshaw Country); scattered records in the Daly River catchment (NT). Originally described from a single specimen collecting in 1972 from near the Argyle Homestead before its inundation by Lake Argyle. Thought to be extinct for over two decades, in part due populations near Kununurra being mistakenly identified as L. tasmaniensis. "

"

36

Legume Station NT

Legume Station NT

Legume Station NT

Legume Station NT

Family L I M N O D Y N A S T I D A E

Limnodynastes dorsalis (Western Pobblebonk)

Kalbarri ! !!!! "

! !! ♂ to 64 mm; ♀ to 73 mm. Shape: a robust ground-dwelling ! ! WA ! ! !!! ! ! species with a deep head and rounded snout. Dorsum with low ! !! !! !! !! small warts, larger warts, and sometimes low elongate ridges. !! ! ! ! !! !! !! ! " Kalgoorlie Pattern: tan, light brown, or grey with large irregular dark ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! patches of green (usually decreasing in size towards the flank) ! ! !!!!! ! Perth! ! !!!! !! ! ! !! ! ! !!! ! ! ! ! !!! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! and a pale vertebral stripe from snout to vent; most with large ! !!!!! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! !!!!! ! !!!! near-symmetrical dark marking on either side of the vertebral !! ! !!!! ! ! ! ! !! !!!! !"!! ! ! Esperance ! ! ! !! !!!! !! !! ! !! stripe between the eyes. A dark lateral head-stripe runs from ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! !!!! ! !! ! ! !! snout tip to near the forearm, enclosing the nostrils, passing through the eye, and surrounding the indistinct tympanum. A pale glandular ridge runs from below the eye to near the base of the forearm. A large swollen tibial gland is present on lower legs. Groin dark with large crimson blotches. Posterior thigh dark with paler brown or red patches. Inner calves, and sometimes the upper surfaces of the feet, with obvious red/crimson patches. Ventral surfaces smooth; usually cream but can be flushed with yellow (rarely dusky). Fingers unwebbed; toes slightly webbed and with fringes; foot with a very large pale inner metatarsal tubercle. HABITAT: Found in a variety of locations including forests, swamps and grasslands. Particularly associated with permanent waters, including artificial waterbodies. Burrows during warm dry months to avoid desiccation. CALL: A single loud ‘bonk’ repeated slowly. Males call from concealed locations in water. The call of one male triggers surrounding males, producing noise somewhat reminiscent of a banjo. Calling occurs predominantly Jun–Nov. SIMILAR SPECIES: Once familiar this species is unlikely to be confused with any other frog in south-western Australian. No other frog in the region has large tibia glands or a well-developed glandular ridge near the corner of the mouth. The combination of size, dorsal stripe, red in the groin and limited webbing of the feet also separates this species from all WA frogs. NOTES: South-western WA from the Kalbarri region to almost Balladonia; inland to ­Bodallin, Norseman and Dalwallinu. "

Stirling Ranges WA

Dryandra WA

Jandakot WA

Dryandra WA

37

PH OTO GR APHIC FIELD GUIDE TO AUS T R ALIAN FRO GS

Limnodynastes dumerilli (Eastern Pobblebonk)

! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! !! ! !! !! !!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !!! !! ! ! !!! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! !! ! !! !! !!! !!! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!!! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! !! ! !!!! ! !! ! ! ! !!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !!! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! !! !! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! !! !! !! !! ! ! ! ! !!! ! !! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!! !! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! !!!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! !!! !! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! !!! ! ! ! !! !! !! !! ! !! ! !!!! ! !! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! !! !! ! !!! !! !! !! !!! !! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !!! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !!! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! !! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! !!!! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! !! !! ! !!! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! !!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! !! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! L. d. fryi !! !! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! !! ! !! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! !! !!! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !!! !! !! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! !! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! !!! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! !!! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! L. d. insularis ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! L. d. variegatus ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !!! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! L. d. grayi ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! !!! ! !!! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

The Eastern Pobblebonk varies considerably in size and colour, but consistent differences have led to the recognition of five subspecies. Interbreeding between subspecies is common, making identification to subspecies problematic. ! Shape: all L.  dumerilli subspecies are large stocky ground! dwelling frogs with a deep head. The snout is rounded from ! above and round to weakly bent in profile. The limbs are ! short. The dorsum is with or without scattered to abundant ! L. d. dumerilii low rounded tubercles which sometimes align to form irregular rows or low ridges. Pattern: a broad distinct to indistinct, clearly defined dark lateral head-stripe runs from at least the nostrils to above the forearm. The tympanum is indistinct. A conspicuous cream, yellow or sometimes salmon glandular ridge runs from below the eye to above the forearm. All subspecies have a prominent tibial gland on each leg. The groin and posterior thighs are dark with cream or pale blue flecks to spots/blotches (less common). Fingers unwebbed; toes with obvious to inconspicuous basal webbing and some fringing; a large pale inner metatarsal tubercle is present on each foot. HABITAT: A variety of waterbodies including ephemeral ponds, dams, roadside ditches, permanent swamps and flowing or static streams in grassland, woodland, sclerophyll forest, and heaths. CALL: A single explosive ‘bonk’ repeated continuously; all subspecies sound similar except L. d. fryi, which has a deeper note. Males may call synchronously, with a lead male initiating the call of surrounding males. Notes deeper than L. ­terraereginae, but not as deep and more explosive than L. interioris. Can be heard throughout the year with peak activity Sep–Mar but may be more restricted (Dec–Jan) at higher altitudes (>900 m) or in the south (i.e. southern Vic, SA and Tas). SIMILAR SPECIES: Similar to L. i­nterioris (p. 42) and L. ­terraereginae (p. 47). Recognised from L. interioris by its reduced toe webbing and patterned ventral surfaces (v. relatively uniform cream/yellow). The tibial gland of L. interioris also tends to be uniform copper-brown (v. patterned with indistinct to distinct darker pigment) and they have a comparatively shorter foot (mean FL/SV 0.58 v. 0.65 in L. dumerilli). Limnodynastes terraereginae can be recognised by its scarlet-red markings in the groin and posterior thigh. Neobatrachus sudellae (p. 55) is a smaller frog (to 55 mm) with a shorter snout that is rounded to truncate in profile, has a vertical pupil, and lacks a swollen tibial gland. Recognised from H. australiacus (p. 25) by its weakly horizontal to round pupil (v. distinctly vertical) and lacking spinose skin, yellow glandular tubercles on the flanks, or enlarged nuptial spines. NOTES: Limnodynastes d. dumerilli: Kangaroo Island and southern Mt Lofty Ranges, through the Subspecies of L. dumerilli and their identification characteristics Subspecies

Size (mm)

Toe webbing

Colour/pattern

L. d. dumerilli

52–73

¼

No vertebral stripe. Dorsum indistinct light and dark browns. Ventral pattern moderately distinct, belly often with a yellow flush and mottled with grey

L. d. fryi

75–83

¼

Vertebral stripe fine and faint, or absent. Dorsum pattern indistinct light and dark browns tending to a blue wash on the flanks. Ventral pattern moderately distinct, belly yellowish with blueish mottling/reticulation

L. d. grayi

45–60

Basal

Vertebral stripe. Dorsum pattern moderately distinct, light brown with finely dissecting dark brown marbling. Ventral pattern moderately distinct, belly mottled with grey

L. d. insularis

45–62

Basal

Vertebral stripe. Dorsum pattern very distinct, contrasting pale brown and longitudinal chocolate patches. Ventral pattern moderately distinct, lower flanks and belly often with a blue wash and mottled with grey

L. d. variegatus

53–65

Basal

Vertebral stripe incomplete or absent. Dorsum pattern sharp to moderately contrasting, dark blotches not arranged in a longitudinal pattern. Ventral surfaces bold, belly patterned with black

38

Family L I M N O D Y N A S T I D A E

1/4 toe webbing of L. d. dumerilli

Basal webbing of L. d. grayi

L. d. dumerilli, Towarri NSW

L. d. dumerilli, Towarri NSW

L. d. fryi, Cooleman NSW

L. d. fryi, Cooleman NSW

L. d. grayi, Sassafras NSW

L. d. grayi, Vincentia NSW

39

PH OTO GR APHIC FIELD GUIDE TO AUS T R ALIAN FRO GS

L. d. insularis, Cape Conran Vic

L. d. insularis, Cape Conran Vic

L. d. variegatus, Heywood Vic

L. d. variegatus, Anglesea Vic

Murray Valley region of SA, northern Vic, along the Great Dividing Range and western slopes to south-east Qld as far north as Crows Nest; overlaps with L. interioris and L. terraereginae. L. d. fryi: Thredbo, Wollondilly and other tributaries of the Snowy River ~800 m ASL. L. d. grayi: coastal NSW from Nambucca River to Jervis Bay. L. d. insularis: central and eastern Vic south of the Great Dividing Range to the extreme south-east of NSW; also the islands of Flinders, Cape Barren and Tasmania. L. d. variegatus: south-eastern SA, south-western Vic and King Island. All subspecies except L. d. grayi are relatively widespread and common. Hybrids with L. interioris are known from a narrow (30–90 km wide) crescent-shaped region stretching through Mulwala, Koorilla, ­Carabost, Bowning, and to the near east of Blayney (central NSW) (Martin 1972).

40

Family L I M N O D Y N A S T I D A E

Limnodynastes fletcheri (Barking Marsh Frog)

!! ! ! !!! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!!! ! ! !! ! !! ! !!! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! !!!! ! !!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !!! !! !! !! !!! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! !! !! !! ! ! !! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! !!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! !! !! ! !!!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!! ! !!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! !

♂ to 46 mm; ♀ to 55 mm. A ground-dwelling species with a slightly granular dorsum with tubercles and short low ridges; forearms of breeding males stocky. Pattern: pale grey to olivebrown with irregular dark green blotches, usually including a large butterfly-shaped dark patch between the eyes, a dark patch below the eye, and a dark lateral head-band from snout to forearm. Posterior eyelids commonly with, but can be without, a red wash. Pale vertebral stripe uncommon. Tympanum indistinct and barely discernible. A glandular pale cream (infrequently salmon) stripe from below the eye to just beyond the mouth. Posterior thigh and groin unremarkable, sometimes with a yellow wash. Ventral surfaces smooth; off-white, throat often with a brown wash. Fingers unwebbed; first metacarpal of finger I elongated. Toes slightly webbed; inner metatarsal tubercle of foot small; outer metatarsal tubercle present, though poorly developed. HABITAT: A variety of habitats including artificial and modified waterbodies such as roadside ditches, dams, swamps, slowflowing or static rivers, and billabongs within grasslands, woodlands, and eucalypt forests. CALL: A single loud grating bark-like ‘rok’ or ‘rarrk’ repeated every 5–10 s. Each note lower in pitch, more guttural and grating, repeated more frequently, and of longer duration than L. convexiusculus. Each note less explosive and longer than southern L.  tasmaniensis. Can be heard throughout the year but calls most consistently during the warmer months (Oct–Apr). SIMILAR SPECIES: Best recognised from L. tasmaniensis (p. 46) by call, though an elongate first metacarpal of finger I is usually discernible by the position of the first subarticular tubercle on the digit (i.e. positioned on distal half v. on the proximal half of the digit). Other less reliable differences include the lack of a vertebral strip (present or absent in both, but uncommon in L. fletcheri), rusty red patches behind the eyes (present or absent in both, but uncommon in L. tasmaniensis), large stocky forearms in some breeding male L. fletcheri, and finger I longer than II (v. II > I, a feature difficult to use in the field). Smaller than Limnodynastes convexiusculus (37–55 v. 39–61 mm), with smooth skin (i.e. lacking large low warts and ridges), more irregular dark blotching, and an outer metatarsal tubercle (v. poorly developed or absent in L. ­convexiusculus). NOTES: Central and southern Qld through central NSW into south-eastern SA. Largely associated with the Murray–Darling river system and its tributaries.

Male, Bracker SF Qld

Female, Morven Qld

Female, Inglewood Qld

Palm of hand, note position of joint, Inglewood Qld

41

PH OTO GR APHIC FIELD GUIDE TO AUS T R ALIAN FRO GS

Limnodynastes interioris (Giant Pobblebonk) !

!Cobar ♂ to 90 mm; ♀ to 88 mm. Dorsal surface finely granular, with ! NSW ! !! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! scattered low warts. ­Pattern: coppery brown to brown, nearly !! !!! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! immaculate or with scattered irregular dark blotches which, when !! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !!! ! !!! ! !! ! present, often includes a longitudinal series in line with the eyes; ! ! !! ! !!! ! ! !! ! Sydney ! ! ! !!! !! ! !!!! !! !! ! !! ! ! some with a paler brown to orange-brown irregular dorsolateral ! !!!! ! !!! Balranald ! ! !" Boorowa ! !! ! !! ! ! !!!! !!! !! ! ! !!!! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! region. A black lateral head-stripe from the snout tip, through the ! ! !!!! ! !!! !!! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! nostril and eye, enclosing the indistinct tympanum, and continu! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! Vic ing onto the flanks where it breaks and is infused with white blotches. A glandular salmon-orange stripe from below the eye to near the forearm. An enlarged uniform copper-orange tibia gland on the lower leg. Upper foot surface black with a coppery-brown trailing edge extending along the fifth toe. Groin and posterior thigh black with pale spots or flecks. Pupil usually weakly vertical when contracted. Ventral surfaces smooth; belly and throat yellow or salmon-orange, infrequently cream, with limited or no black pigment; underside of legs dark fleshy purple to black with pale spots. Fingers unwebbed; toes with obvious webbing and fringes; large shovel-shaped pale inner metatarsal tubercle. HABITAT: Swamps, dams and slow-flowing creeks in open grassland, woodlands, mallee or shrublands. Adults burrow into loose soil during dry periods. CALL: An explosive ‘bonk’, deeper and more guttural than others in the L. dorsalis group. Males call from concealed locations amongst floating and emergent vegetation, or from within burrows and overhangs along creek banks. Typically most active during the warmer months of the year (Sep–May) but can be heard at other times in response to heavy rainfall. SIMILAR SPECIES: Limnodynastes dumerilli (p. 38) and L. ­terraereginae (p. 47). Larger than both, with more extensive foot webbing, a uniform copperybrown tibial gland (v. mottled with pigment), often a weakly vertical pupil (v. usually round; compare p. 32 image III and Fig. 4 on p. 5), and deeper call. Compared to L. dumerilli the belly and throat of L. interioris is usually yellower (though sometimes cream) with less dark pigment, and the foot and toes are comparatively broader and shorter. Lacks the red groin of L. terraereginae. NOTES: Largely confined to the Riverina district of central NSW; from near Cobar and Nyngan south to the Murray River and adjacent Vic floodplains; from near Wellington, Cowra and Boorowa west to Balranald and Yathong NR. Narrow overlap and hybrid zone with L. dumerilli (see p. 40). Overlaps with L. ­terraereginae in central NSW between Coonabarabran and Eugowra. Uncommon outside of rainfall. "

"

"

42

Conargo NSW

Pretty Pine NSW

Conargo Qld

Sole of foot, note webbing and fringes, Bimbi NSW

Family L I M N O D Y N A S T I D A E

Limnodynastes lignarius (Woodworker Frog) ! ♂ to 62 mm; ♀ to 61 mm. Shape: a medium-sized terrestrial ! !! ! Darwin ! ! ! ! ! ! ! rock-inhabiting frog with a broad flat head and body; breeding ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! males with stocky forearms. Dorsum weakly granular (may ! !!!!!! ! ! appear smooth) to distinctly granular; breeding males with !!! ! ! ! ! ! !!!! !! !! minute black spines, particularly on the limbs, face, snout, !!! ! ! !! ! !! !!!! flanks, posterior dorsum, and above the eyes. Pattern: distinct !! to indistinct dark reddish-brown spots or blotches, sometimes WA NT marbling, on a paler brown or cream; occasionally flecked with silver or gold; pattern may be obscure in very dark individuals; no dark lateral head-stripe or pale vertebral stripe. Dorsal and ventral patterns grade rapidly on the flanks. Tympanum very large and distinct, diameter  ≥ the eye. A pale glandular streak runs from below the eye to near the forearm. The groin and posterior thigh are unpatterned or with at most a few scattered paler spots. Blotching on the upper leg may take on a yellow flush. Ventral surfaces smooth; cream or off-white; breeding males often with dark purple-brown pigment on the throat and under the forearms extending onto the skin around the arm insertion. Fingers long and unwebbed, toes with a trace of webbing. During breeding males have a cluster of tiny black spines on swollen joint of finger I (see p. 34, image R). HABITAT: Associated with large sandstone formations where it can be found under boulders on rock plateaus and escarpments, or amongst rubble at the foot of scree slopes. CALL: A soft, short tap repeated ~1 or 2 times/s. Males typically call from within cracks, crevices or from under rock, sometimes while in the open. Most commonly heard during the wet season (Dec–Apr), but may be heard in other months in response to rainfall. SIMILAR SPECIES: Probably most similar to L. convexiusculus (p. 35) and L. depressus (p. 36). From both it can be recognised by its dorsal colour and pattern (indistinct darker blotches of brown v. green), plain unmarked groin and posterior thigh, a large and distinctive tympanum (approximately equal in size to the eye), and a flap with papillae at the anterior corner of the eye. NOTES: Northern WA and NT from Mt Hart and Lake Argyle in WA though to Nabarlek in the Arnhem Land escarpment, NT. Individuals from the southern Kimberley Ranges to Kununurra appear paler, have more contrasting and clearly defined dorsal patterns, less distinctly granular skin, and breeding males may lack a dark throat. "

Female, south of Wyndham WA

Female, Baroalba NT

Male, Muirella Park NT

Male, northern NT

43

PH OTO GR APHIC FIELD GUIDE TO AUS T R ALIAN FRO GS

Limnodynastes peronii (Striped Marsh Frog)

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !!!! !! ! ! !!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !!! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! !! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! !! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !!!!! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! !! !! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! !! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! !! !! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! !! !! ! !! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !

♂ to 64 mm; ♀ to 58 mm. Ground-dwelling. Shape: a roundly pointed snout from above and sloping in profile; breeding male forearm thick and muscular. Dorsum smooth with tiny pores and low rounded warts or longitudinal ridges, particularly along the dorsolateral region and associated with dark pigment. Pattern: pale brown with four longitudinally arranged dark brown stripes running the length of the dorsum; paired dark paravertebral stripes separated by a pale (sometimes yellowish) vertebral stripe (rarely absent or reduced), and a more irregular dark stripe from behind the eyes to near the groin; other dark blotches commonly present on the upper flank. A dark lateral head-stripe runs from snout, past the eye, through the indistinct or hidden tympanum, to near the forearm. A pale, sometimes yellowish, glandular streak from below the eye to near the forearm. Flanks often with smaller dark blotches. Posterior thigh and groin pale brown, sometimes with a yellow flush, and poorly defined dark brown or plumb-brown marbling, sometimes dominated by dark colour. Ventral surfaces smooth; off-white and often with a few brown flecks; throat of breeding males tinged yellow-brown. Fingers unwebbed; first metacarpal of finger I elongated. Toes with at most a trace of webbing; a round inner but no outer metatarsal tubercle. Some individuals, particularly juveniles, with reddish longitudinal stripes. HABITAT: Grasslands, pasture, shrublands, heath and forests, but less common in rainforest, where individuals inhabit streams, roadside ditches, dams, ephemeral pools, and suburban ponds; particularly permanent water with dense grass or reeds. CALL: A regular explosive ‘toc’ repeated at intervals of 2–5 s. Calls throughout the year, peaking Sep–Apr. SIMILAR SPECIES: Superficially similar Limnodynastes salmini (p. 45) and Litoria nasuta (p. 320). Limnodynastes salmini is larger, with rounded dark dorsal markings and salmon dorsolateral stripes. Litoria nasuta has expanded terminal finger discs, a more obvious pale-rimmed tympanum, and extensive toe webbing. NOTES: Eastern Australia from near Kingston and Bordertown SA, through Vic, NSW and Qld to near Cooktown; more prevalent east of the Great Dividing Range; absent from Morton Island; present on King Island and in northern Tasmania at elevations below 600  m. Abundant and common throughout its mainland range, but rare and difficult to find in Tasmania.

44

Female, Kirrama Qld

Male, Budderoo NSW

Male, Sheepstation Creek NSW

Female, Karrawatha Qld

Family L I M N O D Y N A S T I D A E

Limnodynastes salmini (Salmon-striped Marsh Frog)

!! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!!! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !!! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !!! !!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!!! ! !! !! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!! "Brisbane ! !! !!! !! ! ! ! !!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! !!! ! ! !!! ! ! !!! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !!!!!!! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! !!! !! !! ! !!! !!!! ! !! !! !! ! ! Sydney ! ! !

♂ to 66 mm; ♀ to 76 mm (occasionally ~80 mm). Dorsum smooth to feebly granular with low round warts or ridges that are typically associated with dark markings. Pattern: grey, light brown, or sometimes coppery-orange, variably patterned with elongate, irregular or rounded darker brown to chocolate blotches; pattern almost always includes a dark butterflyshaped mark between the eyes, a salmon or orange-pink stripe running obliquely from the shoulder to near the groin, and a similarly coloured vertebral stripe (may be reduced to the posterior dorsum in some). Legs and upper forearms often flushed salmon. A dark brown lateral head-stripe from near the snout tip, past the eye, to near the forearm. Tympanum at most a smooth depression; no discernible tympanic rim. A glandular pale salmon stripe from below the posterior margin of the eye to near the forearm. Posterior thigh and groin black to dark purple with abundant to sparse pale spots. Ventral surfaces smooth and off-white; throat of breeding males dusted grey; underside of limbs plumb. Fingers and toes unwebbed; feet with an elongate inner, but no outer, metatarsal tubercle. When agitated adults produce a sticky white skin excretion. HABITAT: Associated with grasslands, shrublands, woodlands and pasture where adults aggregate around temporary water including roadside ditches, dams, and slowflowing streams. Often observed in modified landscapes. Difficult to locate during dry conditions. CALL: A hollow sounding ‘wok’ repeated at 1–3 s intervals. The slightly longer note of L. fletcheri sounds raspier. The call of L. convexiusculus is higher pitched and repeated more frequently. Callings predominantly in spring and summer (Sep–Mar), but can be heard calling on most months except the cooler winter period. SIMILAR SPECIES: Superficially similar to L. fletcher (p. 41), L. peronii (p. 44) and L. tasmaniensis (p. 46). From L. fletcheri and L. tasmaniensis it can be recognised by its browner dark dorsal markings (v. green) and longitudinal salmon/ orange stripes. Recognised from L. peronii by its shorter dark dorsal markings which do not run the length of the dorsum and the presence of salmon/orange stripes. NOTES: From Goolgowi, Mirrool and Wilcannia to subcoastal NSW near Tabbimoble and Casino; extending north in Qld to near Mackay and inland to Emerald, Womalilla and St George. Predominantly west of the ranges until near Brisbane. "

Blackwater Qld

Blackwater Qld

St George Qld

Southwood Qld

45

PH OTO GR APHIC FIELD GUIDE TO AUS T R ALIAN FRO GS

Limnodynastes tasmaniensis (Spotted Marsh Frog)

!

!

! ! ! ! ! !! ♂ to 47 mm; ♀ to 48 mm. Ground-dwelling with a feebly gran! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! !!!! ! !! ular dorsum with or without scattered low round tubercles or !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! !! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !!! !! ! !!! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! short ridges. Pattern: fawn, olive-, pale, or grey-brown with ! !! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!! ! ! irregular to circular dark green patches; consistently a butterfly! ! ! !! !! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !!! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! !!! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! !! !! ! !! !!! !! ! ! !! !! ! !! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! !!! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! !! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! !! ! shaped dark marking between the eyes; frequently a cream, ! !! !!! ! !! !! ! ! !! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! !!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! !!! ! ! !! ! ! !!! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!! !! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! !! !! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! yellow to reddish vertebral stripe, but may be poorly defined or ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!! !! !! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! !!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !!! !! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! !!! ! !! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! !! !! ! !! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! !! !! ! !! ! absent; posterior eyelids occasionally tinted red. A dark green ! ! !! ! !! ! !! ! !! ! !!! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! !! ! ! !! ! !! ! !! !! !! ! !! !! !!! ! !! !!! ! !! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !!! ! ! !! !! ! !!! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! lateral head-stripe from the snout tip, past the eye, enclosing the ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! !! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! indistinct tympanum, to near the forearm. A pale glandular ! stripe from below the eye and to near the forearm. Posterior thigh and groin similar colour and pattern to the dorsum, often flushed yellow. Ventral surfaces smooth and offwhite; throat of breeding males dusty yellow; undersides of limbs pinkish. Fingers unwebbed; first metacarpal of finger I not elongated; toes with at most basal webbing; a small inner, and usually minute outer (though often absent), metatarsal tubercle. HABITAT: Permanent to ephemeral waters including creeks, dams, ponds, roadside ditches and billabongs in dry vegetation (uncommon in rainforests). Abundant in waters with dense emergent grass or sedge. CALL: Three call races: (i) an explosive machine gun-like series of clicks ‘br-d-d-d-d-d-d’ (north and east of Stanhope Vic), (ii) a short explosive ‘tok’ repeated regularly (south and west of Castlemaine Vic, with isolated populations in southern NSW and eastern Vic), and (iii) a deeper (lower dominant frequency) gun-like call from the west. Hybridisation between the call races common in areas of contact. Can be heard calling throughout the year, particularly at higher latitudes. SIMILAR SPECIES: Difficult to recognise from L. fletcheri (p. 41) without call; in some the first joint on finger I is visible and located less than half-way along the finger (v. on the distal half in L. fletcheri); other less reliable features include a vertebral stripe (present or absent in both, but rare in L. fletcheri), the lack of red patches above the eye (present or absent in both, but uncommon in L. tasmaniensis), and finger I shorter than finger II (v. I > II); breeding male L. fletcheri have stockier forearms. Smaller than L.  ­convexiusculus (32–48 v. 39–61 mm) (p. 35) with smoother skin (i.e. warts and ridges, if present, smaller). NOTES: Throughout Qld, NSW, and Vic to western SA; south of Port Douglas; west to Kurumba, Julia Creek, Sandringham, Macumba and Ceduna; also eastern Tasmania, North ­Stradbroke, Kangaroo and Flinders islands but absent from King, Fraser and Morton islands.

46

Kangaroo Island SA

Lake Broadwater Qld

Bimbi NSW

Palm of hand, note position of joint, Bowenville Qld

Family L I M N O D Y N A S T I D A E

Limnodynastes terraereginae (Scarlet-sided Pobblebonk)

! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !!!! !! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! !! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! !! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! !!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! !!! !! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! !! ! ! !! !

♂ to 76 mm; ♀ to 79 mm. Shape: a large ground-dwelling frog with short powerful legs. Dorsum finely granular (may appear smooth when wet), sometimes with small tubercles. Pattern: shades of brown with or without irregular darker markings; sometimes almost black; some with a narrow cream, yellow, or orange vertebral stripe. A dark chocolate head-stripe from the snout, through the nostrils and eye, enclosing the indistinct tympanum, to near the forearm where it may continue onto the flanks as a series of black markings. A glandular cream, yellow, or orange streak from below the eye to beyond the corner of the mouth. Posterior thigh and groin purple to black with small pale spots and larger scarlet patches; scarlet markings infrequently absent or reduced; orange/yellow pigment often extends from the groin obliquely towards the eye as a broad diffuse region along the flanks. A distinctly swollen tibial gland on the leg which is usually not distinctively coloured. Ventral surfaces smooth; immaculate off-white or with a yellow-flush; throat of breeding males dusty. Fingers unwebbed; toes with at most a trace of webbing and lacking fringes; inner metatarsal tubercle large, pale, and shovel-shaped. HABITAT: Grasslands, pasture, woodlands, shrublands and forest; breeding occurs in ephemeral or permanent waterbodies including dams, roadside ditches, swamps, billabongs and slow-flowing streams. CALL: A loud explosive ‘bok’, higher pitched and less guttural than L. dumerilli and L. interioris. Males call while floating in vegetation and debris, or from concealed cavities on the banks. Most commonly heard during the wetter warmer months (Sep–May). SIMILAR SPECIES: From L. dumerilli (p. 38) it can be recognised by scarlet markings in the groin and posterior thigh (though rarely absent), its immaculate belly (v. mottled), and lacking toe fringes. Limnodynastes interioris (p. 42) lacks scarlet markings in the groin, and has a distinctively coloured tibia gland and more extensive toe webbing with fringes. NOTES: South from CYP to Nana Glen, NSW and then inland through central western NSW to near Forbes, Blackbraes NR, Chesteron Range and Pilliga Scrub. Overlaps with L.  d.  ­dumerilli in north-eastern NSW and south-eastern Qld. Narrowly overlaps with L. interioris between Coonabarabran and Eugowra. Often abundant in modified landscapes. A burrowing species difficult to locate outside of heavy rainfall, but frequently found away from surface water.

Burton Downs Qld

Caloundra Qld

North Stradbroke Island Qld

Sole of foot, note reduced webbing and no toe fringes, Eudlo Qld 47

PH OTO GR APHIC FIELD GUIDE TO AUS T R ALIAN FRO GS

Genus Neobatrachus (Desert Frogs) Neobatrachus includes nine medium-sized ground-dwelling frogs that are well adapted to, and most common in, arid environs. All burrow below the surface to avoid desiccation and are often ubiquitous after flooding rains. Seven species are found in the western parts of the continent, with two in the eastern states. Unlike other Limnodynastes the group does not lay eggs in a floating foam mass. Rather, eggs are laid in broad floating clumps that quickly sink, or are attached to submerged vegetation singularly or in clumps (Anstis 2018). Unlike most vertebrates, which have two pairs of chromosomes, some species are tetraploid having four pairs of chromosomes.

Similar genera/morpho-functional groups Most similar to Platyplectrum from which they are best recognised by their distinctly vertical pupil (v. horizontal) and an obscure subarticular tubercle under the first toe (large and obvious in Platyplectrum). Further, all have a black or brown inner metatarsal tubercle (v. pale in Platyplectrum), except N. albipes which is restricted to southern WA. In many Neobatrachus the iris is uniform with little or no distinction between the upper and lower iris while the iris of Platyplectrum is regularly bicoloured. Most Platyplectrum have a large, pale, butterfly-shaped marking behind the eyes which is absent in Neobatrachus, though this feature is only useful when present as plain-patterned Platyplectrum can also lack the marking. Some species of Heleioporus could also cause confusion, but most have several unique features including male nuptial spines (v. leathery pads in Neobatrachus), a skin flap or papillae in the anterior corner of the eye, and pale inner metatarsal tubercles. A more detailed discussion of the differences between the two genera is provided on p. 23. While somewhat similar in shape and size Notaden have distinctive body patterns, a down-turned mouth, and a pale inner metatarsal tubercle. Finally, some Cyclorana (particularly the C. brevipes group, p. 229) may cause initial confusion but are recognised by their comparatively longer snout, a pale inner metatarsal tubercle, horizontal pupil, more obvious tympanum, and a notch near the terminal tip of the fingers when viewed in profile. Key features of Neobatrachus Species

Key Features

Neobatrachus albipes N. aquilonius N. fulvus N. kunapalari N. pelobatoides N. pictus N. sudellae N. sutor N. wilsmorei

•  Medium-sized (≥63 mm) fossorial (burrowing) frogs with broad heads, short snouts, short limbs, and stout round bodies •  Pupil distinctly vertical (A–B); iris may be subtly bicoloured (A), but is typically uniformly coloured (B) and without a dark horizontal region separating the upper and lower iris (a horizontal dark region may be present in the anterior iris) •  Large inner metatarsal tubercle which is black (C) or brown (D) in most species (pale in one species) •  Fingers unwebbed; toes at least ½ webbed in most, two species may be ~1⁄3 webbed •  Predominantly found in arid regions, particularly those with sandy substrates

A

48

B

C

D

Family L I M N O D Y N A S T I D A E

Neobatrachus albipes (White-footed Desert Frog) ♂ to 46 mm; ♀ to 43 mm. Dorsum weakly granular; eyelids ! ! ! and lower legs spinose in breeding males. Pattern: brown, grey, !! ! ! or greenish with irregular and poorly defined dark markings; Perth ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! vertebral stripe usually absent (present in ~15% of specimens); ! ! ! ! a pale vertical bar is present on the snout and bordered either !! ! ! !! ! !!! !!! ! ! ! ! !! !!! side by dark pigment which extending through the nostrils to ! !! ! !!!! !!! WA !!!! !! the eyes; commonly a black interocular V-shaped marking ! ! !! bordered anteriorly by a contrasting white or cream (rarely light brown) patch which may be divided. Tympanum at most a smooth depression. Ventral surfaces smooth and creamywhite. Pupil vertical; iris silver; anterior iris pigment frequently broken by a dark horizontal bar or region (dark bar sometimes obscure or infrequently absent). ­Fingers unwebbed; toes extensively webbed, webbing reaching the digit tip on all but toe IV; breeding males with nuptial pads on the fingers I and II, and on finger III in ~15% of specimens; upper foot surface typically white, sometimes brown; inner metatarsal tubercle white or pale brown, sometimes edged with brown but never black. A diploid species. HABITAT: Temporary water in open vegetation including grazing land. CALL: A long trill lasting ~850 ms at a frequency of ~1200 Hz. Calls most often Sep–May. SIMILAR SPECIES: Neobatrachus kunapalari (p. 52), N. pelobatoides (p. 53) and N. sutor (p. 56) from which it may be recognised by the contrasting pale and dark interocular bar/blotch, and many have a dark horizontal bar dividing the anterior iris (v. absent or typically narrower and less distinctive in similar taxa). All Neobatrachus except N. pelobatoides have a dark brown to black inner metatarsal tubercle (v. white or at most edged light brown in N. albipes). Recognised from N. pelobatoides by its white upper feet, usually lacking a prominent vertebral stripe (but present in ~15% of specimens), possessing extensive dark nuptial pads in breeding males, and having a poorly defined dark dorsal pattern (v. clearly defined patches and/or blotches). Neobatrachus pelobatoides and N. sutor lack spinose tubercles above the eyes. Call distinctive. NOTES: From Wyalkatchem, Quairading, Dongalocking and the Stirling Ranges to Coolgardie and Cape Arid. "

Ravensthorpe WA

Hopetoun WA Stephen Mahony

Mettler Lake WA Stewart Macdonald

Sole of foot, Lake Mettler WA Stewart Macdonald

49

PH OTO GR APHIC FIELD GUIDE TO AUS T R ALIAN FRO GS

Neobatrachus aquilonius (Northern Desert Frog) ! ! ♂ to 54 mm; ♀ to 59 mm. Dorsum granular with fine black ! !! ! !! !! ! spine-tipped tubercles above the eyes in breeding males. Pat! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! tern: light to dark brown with irregular mustard-yellow or ! ! !! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! !! ! greenish blotches, with or without a vertebral stripe. Skin ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! around the eye usually yellow and frequently a narrow yellow ! !! ! horizontal streak located immediately below and extending ! ! !! ! slightly forward from the eye. Tympanum at most a smooth ! Neobatrachus aquilonius depression. Posterior thigh and groin plumb to burgundy! Neobatrachus aquilonius/sudellae? brown and without obvious pattern; skin extends from the body across to the knee. Pupil vertical. Ventral surfaces smooth and off-white, underside of limbs plum. Fingers unwebbed; toes ~1/2 webbed; inner metatarsal tubercle edged black. A tetraploid species. HABITAT: Dry sparsely vegetated land, particularly areas dominated by spinifex. CALL: A soft, low, trill lasting ~650 ms, consisting of ~11 pulses at 1400–1700 Hz. Call distinctly different from the single note calls of N. sutor and N. wilsmorei. Trill shorter than N. pelobatoides (~0.5–0.7 v. 2–3 s). Neobatrachus kunapalari has more pulses (~19), repeated more rapidly, at a lower frequency (~1100 Hz). Call indistinguishable from N. sudellae. SIMILAR SPECIES: Larger than N. fulvus (48–59 v. 38–48 mm) (p. 51) and sometimes with a vertebral stripe (rare in N.  fulvus). Only reliably distinguished from N. kunapalari (p. 52) by call, though N. kunapalari is usually duller (v. brighter yellow or greenish) and the skin between the side of the body and knee is usually less extensive. Reportedly larger than N. sudellae (48–59 v. 41–51 mm) with a shorter foot (FL/SV 0.33–0.4 v. 0.38–0.44) though identification unreliable. Neobatrachus sutor (p. 56) is smaller (34–51 mm) with a distinctive call. See also N. wilsmorei, Platyplectrum spenceri and Cyclorana maini, the latter two having a horizontal pupil and pale inner metatarsal tubercles. NOTES: The taxonomy of N. aquilonius is uncertain. Chromosome evidence suggests it is a synonym of N. sudellae, while mitochondrial DNA provides support for the species but indicates it is restricted to north-west. If valid, N. aquilonius and N. sudellae may overlap or abut somewhere between the Tanami Desert and the north-west coast. Believed to be geographically separated from N. fulvus.

50

Intee Station WA Jordan Vos

Port Hedland WA Henry Cook

Port Hedland WA Stewart Macdonald

Port Hedland WA Michael Mahony

Family L I M N O D Y N A S T I D A E

Neobatrachus fulvus (Tawny Desert Frog) " Exmouth !

! ! ! ♂ to 42 mm; ♀ to 48 mm. Shape: a round, globose grounddwelling frog with short limbs. Dorsum finely granular; dark ! brown with poorly defined and irregular yellow blotches or ! WA variegations, sometimes tending orange anteriorly; many indi! ! !! viduals have a pale marking or bar on the dorsum immediately ! ! ! ! behind the eyes and bordered anteriorly with a darker interoc! ! ! ! ular dark bar or patch; pale vertebral stripe rare. Tympanum ! ! indistinct. A short row of pale glandular tubercles near the "Hamelin Pool corner of the mouth. Dorsum and ventral colours merge gradually over the flanks. Posterior thigh and groin not distinctively marked. The skin of the body extends to the knee so the groin is not distinct. Pupil distinctly vertical. Ventral surfaces smooth; cream except for diffuse light brown markings around the throat and jaw. Fingers unwebbed, breeding males with nuptial pads on finger I and II; toes ~1/2 webbed with an angular, non-symmetrical, prominent black-capped inner metatarsal tubercle. A diploid species. HABITAT: Aggregates in sparsely vegetated acaciadominated communities on sandy brown loams, claypans or red soils. CALL: A repeated trill lasting ~750 ms and consisting of 13–14 pulses at a frequency of ~1500 Hz. Call unlike the tapping of N. sutor, but only subtly different from N. aquilonius. Calls Dec–Mar, sometimes extending into May. SIMILAR SPECIES: Neobatrachus aquilonius (p. 50) and N. sutor (p. 56). While N. fulvus is smaller than N. aquilonius (38–48 v. 48–59 mm), other defining features are lacking and identification is best by geographical location. The similar N. sutor can only be reliably separated by call, but generally has a dorsal pattern dominated by yellow with smaller dark spots or blotches (v. much larger dark patches to predominantly brown in N. fulvus), and a shorter and less robust inner metatarsal tubercle. Distinguishable from the superficially similar Cyclorana maini and Platyplectrum spenceri by its vertical pupil and dark inner metatarsal tubercle. NOTES: Western WA from Exmouth south to Wooramel Roadhouse, predominantly coastal but possibly extending inland to Gascoyne Junction. Distribution overlaps with N. sutor and N. wilsmorei. Not currently though to overlap with N. aquilonius but further taxonomic resolution of N. aquilonius is required to fully understand its distributuion (see N. aquilionius description).

Wooramel Station WA Stephen Zozaya

Exmouth WA Michael Mahony

Vlamingh Head WA Brad Maryan

Subadult, Wooramel River WA Ray Lloyd

51

PH OTO GR APHIC FIELD GUIDE TO AUS T R ALIAN FRO GS

Neobatrachus kunapalari (Wheatbelt Desert Frog) WA ♂ to 58 mm; ♀ to 59 mm. Dorsum granular; males may be finely !!! ! ! !! ! ! spinose, particularly on the head, shoulders and above the eyes. ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! !!! ! ! Pattern: light yellow-grey, yellow-orange or dull bronze with !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! !! !!! clearly defined irregular dark patches, occasionally with a lighter ! !! ! ! ! ! !! !!!! !! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! centre; sometimes a dark bark between eyes; pale vertebral line !! !! !! !! ! ! !! !!! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! !!! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! Perth !! ! present or absent. Tympanum discernible as a smooth depres!! !! ! ! !!! ! ! !!! ! ! ! ! !!! ! ! sion. A short row of pale, glandular tubercles near the corner of !!! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !!!! !!! the mouth, sometimes forming a narrow ridge. Posterior thigh and groin burgundy or plumb with or without smudges of dorsal pigment; skin extending only slightly from side of body to encompass groin. Ventral surfaces smooth. Pupil vertical. Fingers unwebbed; nuptial pads on finger I and II of breeding males, present or absent on finger III; toes ~1/2 webbed with a prominent black-capped inner metatarsal tubercle. A tetraploid species. HABITAT: Dry open vegetation, particularly areas dominated by acacia. Found in ephemeral waters, usually on impervious soils where pooling waters have an opaque milky appearance. CALL: A long (~1 s) trill consisting of 11–28 pulses at ~1200 Hz. Sympatric N. sudellae are slightly higher in pitch (~1500 Hz). The pulses of N. albipes are less noticeable (higher pulse rate). Neobatrachus pelobatoides has a lower and more drawn-out call. The single note of N. sutor and N. wilsmorei is distinctly different. Frequently heard calling Jan–Apr. SIMILAR SPECIES: Neobatrachus albipes (p. 49) has a pale inner metatarsal tubercle (infrequently edge brown but never black), white pigment on the upper surface of the foot (v. brown or flesh-coloured), and a white interocular bar. Larger than N. pelobatoides (48–59 v. 36–45 mm) with more extensive foot webbing, a dark inner metatarsal tubercle (v. pale), typically smaller dark markings on the dorsum, and a shorter call. Confusion likely with N. sudellae (p. 55) which has less toe webbing and skin extends from the knee across the groin to the side of the body. Neobatrachus sutor (p. 56) reliably recognised only by call; less reliable is toe webbing (N. sutor >1/2 v. ~1/2 webbed), the extent of body skin over the groin (extending to the knee in N. sutor), and finely spinose skin on the head and shoulders (only in some breeding male N. kunapalari). See also N. wilsmorei, Cyclorana maini and Platyplectrum spenceri, the latter two having horizontal pupils and pale inner metatarsal tubercles. NOTES: South of Kalbarri and Wiluna, and east from Quairading and Pingrup to the Nullabor. "

Butchers Creek WA

Murrin Murrin WA

Defensive posture, Northampton WA

Sole of foot, Murrin Murrin WA

Stephen Zozaya

52

Family L I M N O D Y N A S T I D A E

Neobatrachus pelobatoides (Humming Desert Frog) ! ! ♂ to 45 mm; ♀ to 44 mm. Shape: a small–medium ground! !!! ! WA ! dwelling frog with a rotund appearance, but less globose than !! ! ! !!!! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! other Neobatrachus. Dorsum covered with small evenly sized !! ! !! !!!! ! ! !! ! ! tubercles. Pattern: yellow-grey, yellow-brown or greenish with ! !! ! ! ! !! !!! ! variable patches of irregular, distinct and sharply defined dark !!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! !! ! ! !!! ! ! ! !! ! Perth!! ! ! brown or green patches (rarely diffuse and indistinct), often ! ! !!!!! ! ! ! !! ! !!! !! with dark borders and consistently including a dark interocular !! ! ! ! bar; usually some indication of a pale, sometimes red, narrow ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! vertebral stripe (absent in 10–20% of individuals). Tympanum marked with a smooth depression, tympanic rim usually obscure but noticeable on some individuals. A large dark patch is regularly present below the anterior corner of the eye. A row of pale glandular tubercles near the corner of the mouth. Dorsal and ventral patterns merge evenly over the flanks. Posterior thigh and groin with a plum wash and little pattern. Skin of body not extending to the leg or knee. Ventral surfaces smooth and off-white. Pupil distinctly vertical. Fingers without webbing; nuptial pads on finger I and II of breeding males, extending onto finger III in ~90% of individuals; toes ~1/3 webbed; inner metatarsal tubercle pale or light brown. A diploid species. HABITAT: Typically open dry vegetation, also heath, on clay or loam soils. Often located near granite outcrops and farm dams. CALL: A soft long (2–3 s) trill consisting of 40–90 pulses, longer in duration and lower in frequency (~800–1000 Hz) than other trilling Neobatrachus. Difficult to hear from a long distance. Most active Apr–Jul after flooding rains. SIMILAR SPECIES: Distinguished from other Neobatrachus species by call, reduced toe webbing and, with the exception of N. albipes, a pale or light brown metatarsal tubercle (v. black). Neobatrachus albipes (p. 49) can be separated based the presence of white pigment on the upper surfaces of the foot (v. no pigment making the foot look flesh-coloured in N. pelobatoides), usually lacking a vertebral stipe (but note exceptions), and having a pale interocular bar or marking between the eyes (v. indistinct or absent in N.  pelobatoides), and usually not having nuptial pads on the third finger of breeding males (present in only ~15% of N. albipes). NOTES: The south-western region of WA, except for the high rainfall areas of the south-west; south of Zuytdorp NR to Mt Wells, Beaufort River and Stirling Ranges; inland to Ningham Station, Coolgardie and Israelite Bay. "

Perth WA Grant Webster

Cockleshell Gully WA

Geraldton WA

Sole of foot, Geraldton WA

53

PH OTO GR APHIC FIELD GUIDE TO AUS T R ALIAN FRO GS

Neobatrachus pictus (Painted Desert Frog)

SA

!

!

! ♂ to 58 mm; ♀ to 55 mm. Shape: a globose ground-dwelling NSW ! ! ! !! !!! ! ! ! frog. Dorsum covered with small tubercles; breeding males ! !! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! !!! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! often spinose, particularly on the head and shoulders. Variable ! ! ! ! !!! ! ! !!!! !! ! ! ! !! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! in colour and pattern; golden yellow, pale brown, or grey with !! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !!! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!! ! ! !! !! ! distinct to poorly defined dark chocolate or olive markings; ! !!!! ! ! !! !!! !!!!!! !!! ! !! ! !! ! !! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! !!!! ! ! !!! snout tip with a pale vertical stripe which often extends onto ! ! ! !!! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Vic !!!! ! ! ! the head, or along the dorsum in some. Tympanum indistinct ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! !!! or a smooth depression. A large dark patch regularly present ! !!! ! on the upper lip below the anterior corner of the eye. A row of pale glandular tubercles is present near the corner of the mouth. Dorsal and ventral patterns merge evenly over the flanks. Posterior thigh and groin plumb, usually without distinct marking. Skin of body does not extend to the leg or knee. Ventral surfaces smooth and off-white. Pupil distinctly vertical. Fingers without webbing; nuptial pads on finger I and II of breeding males; toes extensively webbed; inner metatarsal tubercle tipped black. A diploid species. HABITAT: Aggregates around a variety of waterbodies including pools, roadside ditches, static sections of creeks, billabongs, flooded claypans and farm dams in a variety of vegetation including grasslands, mallee, woodland and pasture. CALL: A long trill; typically each trill is longer (approximately >1 v. half-webbed; inner metatarsal tubercle tipped black. A tetraploid species. HABITAT: Arid eucalypt woodland, acacia shrubland, grassland, and spinifex on clay, loam or sand substrates. Found in ephemeral water including roadside ditches, farm dams and near-static creeks. CALL: A short high-pitched trill. Calls while floating in water at any time of year but peaks in the warmer months following heavy rainfall. Trills shorter with fewer pulses and at a higher frequency than N. pelobatoides, and have fewer pulses and a higher frequency than N. kunapalari. The call of N. pictus is shorter (approx 1 s), with fewer pulses (~10–20 v. ~20–40) and at a higher frequency (~1400–1600 v. ~1200–1400 Hz), though differences can be difficult to detect in the field. Call largely indistinguishable from N. aquilonius. SIMILAR SPECIES: Neobatrachus aquilonius (p. 50), N. kunapalari (p. 52), N. pelobatoides (p. 53), N. pictus (p. 54), and N. sutor (p. 56). Separated from N. kunapalari by its extensive toe webbing and extensive loose skin from the side of body to the knee. Easily recognised from N. pelobatoides by call, extensive toe webbing, extensive skin webbing across the groin, and dorsal pattern. Only reliably distinquished from N. sutor by call. Distinquished from N. pictus by its extensive skin membrane across the groin and call. Diagnosis from N. ­aquilonius difficult, see description (p. 50) for details. See also Cyclorana maini and Platyplectrum species. NOTES: From the eastern slopes of GDR to Menzies WA and north into the Tanami Desert; north and west extent masked by confusion with N. aquilonius, but likely to extend further north than currently recognised (see p. 50).

Wangaratta Vic

Bimbi NSW

Bimbi NSW

Sole of foot, Lake Broadwater Qld

55

PH OTO GR APHIC FIELD GUIDE TO AUS T R ALIAN FRO GS

Neobatrachus sutor (Shoemaker Desert Frog) ! ! ♂ to 45 mm; ♀ to 51 mm. A medium-sized, round, ground!! !! ! !! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! dwelling frog. Dorsum weakly granular, may appear smooth ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !!!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! !! ! when wet, but lacking small black spines. Pattern: yellow, tan or ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! dull red, with irregular darker brown markings including a ! !! !! !! ! !!! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! dark intraocular bar; narrow pale vertebral stripe sometimes ! !! ! !! !!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! present. A weak row of pale globular tubercles near the corner ! !!!! !!! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! of the mouth. Tympanum indistinct or a smooth depression. !! ! Dorsal and ventral patterns merge evenly over the flanks. Posterior thigh and groin plumb, with small indistinct paler brown blotches. Skin extending over the groin from the side of the body to the knee. Ventral surfaces smooth and off-white; males with a weakly bilobed vocal sac. Pupil vertical. Fingers unwebbed; toes fully webbed; inner metatarsal tubercle tipped black. A diploid species. HABITAT: Open dry vegetation on clay, loam or sandy soils. Adults aggregate in temporary ephemeral water including roadside ditches or static pools in creeks. CALL: A single ‘click’ or ‘tap’ repeated 2–3 times/s. Call similar to N. wilsmorei but repeated more rapidly (v. once every 2–3 s). Dissimilar to the trill of other Neobatrachus. Most frequently heard calling Jan–Apr. SIMILAR SPECIES: Difficult to identify from sympatric Neobatrachus without call. General dorsal pattern and colour, particularly the presence of a pale interocular bar and a pale inner metatarsal tubercle, distinguishes N. albipes (p. 49). Recognised from N. pelobatoides (p. 53) by its extensive toe webbing, black inner metatarsal tubercle (v. at most brown), and pattern (darker brown markings typically smaller and not dark-edged). Neobatrachus fulvus (p. 51) usually has larger dark patches. Sometimes recognised from N. kunapalari (p. 52) by more extensive toe webbing (~1/2 webbed in N. kunapalari), more extensive skin webbing across the groin (extending to the knee), and breeding males lack small black spines on the back (v. often present). Only reliably distinguished from N. ­aquilonius (p. 50) and N. sudellae (p. 55) by call. See also N. wilsmorei, Cyclorana maini and Platyplectrum spenceri, the latter two having horizontal pupils and pale inner metatarsal tubercles. NOTES: Dry inland areas of WA and central NT; south from North West Cape, Munjina, Cotton Creek (WA) and Redbank Gorge (NT); east from Gnaraloo, Galena, Dalwallinu, and Quairading (WA); north from Oak Valley (SA), Fraser Range, and Lake Magenta (WA); inland to Alice Springs (NT).

56

Butcher Creek WA

Murrin Murrin WA

Wheatbelt WA Stephen Mahony

Wheatbelt WA Stephen Mahony

Family L I M N O D Y N A S T I D A E

Neobatrachus wilsmorei (Goldfields Desert Frog)

Exmouth"

♂ to 61 mm; ♀ to 63 mm. The largest Neobatrachus. Dorsum !!! WA ! ! weakly to distinctly granular. Pattern: dark chocolate or ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! purple-brown, rarely pale brown, with a series of longitudi! ! ! ! ! ! ! nal yellow stripes including a narrow vertebral stripe com!! ! !! ! ! ! ! mencing near the nostrils, and two diverging lines on each ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! side of the body from behind the eye, one running towards the ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! groin, and the second towards the vent. Tympanum indis! !! tinct. A row of slightly enlarged small tubercles usually prePerth sent near the corner of the mouth. Upper lip white. Posterior thigh and groin plum-brown and largely without pattern. Dorsal and ventral surfaces separated by a broad, poorly defined upper lateral yellow stripe or series of blotches, often bordered below by a narrower region of brown which transitions to ventral colour on the lower flank. Ventral surfaces smooth; off-white or with faint pink flush. Pupil vertical. Fingers without webbing; toes with ~2/3 webbing; inner metatarsal tubercle black. A diploid species. HABITAT: Dry inland habitats, aggregating around natural and artificial ephemeral waterbodies including static stream ponds and farm dams. CALL: A single sharp ‘tok’ repeated on average once every 2–3 s. Similar to N. sutor but repeated less frequently. Call quite dissimilar to the trill of other Neobatrachus. Calls predominantly Dec– Mar. SIMILAR SPECIES: Sympatric Neobatrachus species, but relatively easy to recognise based on its distinctive dorsal markings (with yellow stripes), call (which is only similar to N. sutor) and larger size. NOTES: Western Australia extending from the west coast inland to Lake Nabberu, Banjawarn and Kalgoorlie, south to Lake Moore and Geraldton, and north to Warroora. Distribution overlaps with all other Neobatrachus except N. albipes and N. pictus. While relatively common they are usually found in lower numbers than other Neobatrachus. "

Lake Carey WA

Windarra WA

Kalbarri WA Stephen Mahony

Kalbarri WA Stephen Mahony

57

PH OTO GR APHIC FIELD GUIDE TO AUS T R ALIAN FRO GS

Genus Notaden (Spadefoots) Notaden includes four distinctively patterned round, ‘golf-ball’-shaped frogs. They are typically found in arid to semi-arid areas, though two species occur throughout northern Australia in dry tropical woodlands. All have a rough skin that is covered with large, often glandular-like, round tubercles. They are thought to feed extensively on ants or termites. When agitated they exude a thick white skin excretion that becomes extremely sticky.

Similar genera/morpho-functional groups Notaden are probably most likely to be confused with Neobatrachus, which are also round-bodied frogs of similar size. They are, however, recognisable by their down-curved mouth (‘frown’), horizontal pupils (v. distinctly vertical), a warty skin and, with the exception of N. melanoscaphus, have pale inner metatarsal tubercles (v. brown or black). The only Neobatrachus with pale inner metatarsal tubercles (N. albipes) is geographically separated from all Notaden species. The two Platyplectrum species are smaller, do not have a down-curved mouth, and have a different dorsal texture (when present tubercles are smaller, irregular in size, and more scattered) which can include short ridges or skin folds (Notaden do not have skin folds). Their dorsal patterns are also quite different. Often coexisting with Notaden are members of the Cyclorana brevipes group, which have a different dorsal texture (skin folds present or absent and tubercles, if present, are irregular in shape v. large and round), a distinctive notch near the end of the fingers when viewed in profile, longer snouts, and do not have a down-turned mouth (i.e. a frown). They also have distinctly different dorsal patterns. Key features of Notaden Species

Key features

Notaden bennetti N. melanoscaphus N. nichollsi N. weigeli

•  Medium-sized (≤80 mm) fossorial (burrowing) frogs with broad heads, a very short snout, short limbs, and stout round bodies •  The dorsal surface is densely covered with large, round, tubercles which are often coloured •  The mouth is down-curved, especially at the edges (A–B) •  The lower lip may project slightly beyond the upper (B) •  The skin extends from the body across the groin to the knee (C) •  The inner metatarsal tubercle is large and pale (three species) or black (one species, C) •  Pupil horizontal •  Each species has distinctive dorsal colours and patterns •  When agitated they can exude a thick white excretion from across its dorsum that becomes extremely sticky (D)

A

58

B

C

D

Family L I M N O D Y N A S T I D A E

Notaden bennettii (Holy Cross Spadefoot)

! !!!

!

!! ! ♂ to 63 mm; ♀ to 68 mm. Shape: a medium-sized globose frog ! !!!! QLD ! with a blunt snout and widely separated eyes. Dorsum granu! ! lar with small low tubercles and large black glandular warts. !! ! ! !! ! ! !! Pattern: bright yellow or mustard, with a series of red and black ! !!! "Brisbane ! !! ! ! ! ! !!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! blotches over olive-green or olive-brown forming a rough cross! !! ! !! ! ! SA ! ! !!! ! !! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! !!! !! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! shaped pattern; a T-shaped yellow patch is present between the !! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !!! NSW ! !! eyes and is bordered anteriorly by darker pigments extending !! ! ! ! !! ! Sydney ! to the upper lip; dark pigment also below the eye; larger indi!!!! ! !! viduals often drab. A short series of pale glandular tubercles present near the corner of the mouth. Tympanum hidden. Posterior thigh and groin dull olive-green/brown, with at most a few scattered small red spots and dark blotches. Skin extending from the body to enclose the knee. Ventral surfaces smooth; white with large black blotches on the throat, chest, limbs and often the lateral regions of the belly; throat often with a smoky wash. Pupil horizontal. Fingers unwebbed; toes short, ~1/3 webbed with broad lateral fringes; large pale inner metatarsal tubercle. HABITAT: Eucalypt and cypress woodlands, acacia shrubland, spinifex or grassland including modified grazing land. Most commonly associated with dark clays. Adults aggregate around temporary water including roadside ditches, gilgais and flooded claypans. CALL: A loud rising ‘whoop’ repeated regularly and audible over a large distance. Most active during heavy rainfall Oct–Mar, but individuals can often be found into May. SIMILAR SPECIES: Body shape similar to other Notaden and Neobatrachus, though this species has an unmistakable dorsal colour and pattern, and dark spots on the throat and upper chest. NOTES: Inland Qld and NSW; north to near Hughenden, east to Moranbah, Dalby, Narrabri and Forbes; south to Wagga Wagga, Urana and Conargo; west to Hay, Nocoleche NR, Lake Wyara and near Idialia NP. Only observed after heavy rainfall, remaining buried for large periods of the year. Thought to feed almost exclusively on ants and termites. "

Carathool NSW

Glenmorgan Qld

Glenmorgan Qld

Currawinya Qld

59

PH OTO GR APHIC FIELD GUIDE TO AUS T R ALIAN FRO GS

Notaden melanoscaphus (Northern Spadefoot) !

! ! ♂ to 54 mm; ♀ to 49 mm (occasionally larger to almost 60 ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! !! ! mm). Shape: a medium-sized ground-dwelling frog with a !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! globular body shape and blunt snout. Dorsum rough with vari! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! !!! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ably sized warts and tubercles; larger warts often pale or ! ! !!! ! !!! ! flushed with red/pink, particularly along the central dorsum. ! ! Pattern: brown to grey with six large darker brown or grey WA NT QLD patches including a single Y-shaped patch between the eyes, two large circular or rounded triangular markings in the scapular region, a single elongate central vertebral patch, and two patches on the lower abdomen near the pelvic region; other smaller dark, circular patches usually present, particularly along the flanks; some individuals (particularly when young) have yellow along the vertebral region which extends forward to the snout tip. Snout typically with two vertical dark bands below the nasals, separated by a pale mid-rostral streak; a dark marking is also regularly present below the eye. Upper surface of limbs with dark transverse blotches. Colour and pattern obscure or significantly faded in older adults, usually bright and distinctive when freshly immerged or in juveniles. Tympanum hidden. Posterior thigh unpatterned. Ventral surfaces smooth and off-white; breeding males with grey wash on the throat. Skin extending from the side of the body to enclose the knee. Pupil horizontal. Fingers unwebbed. Toes poorly webbed with narrow lateral fringes; large, black inner metatarsal tubercle. HABITAT: Arid habitats including sparsely timbered savannah dominated by eucalypts, Melaleuca, spinifex and grasses. Associated with both clay and sandy soils. CALL: A loud repeated ‘whoop’. Males call while floating in water. Most active Dec–Mar. SIMILAR SPECIES: A combination of its black metatarsal tubercle, dorsum pattern, down-swept mouth (frown) and body shape should distinguish this from all other frog species. Globular body shape superficially similar to other Notaden, Platyplectrum and Neobatrachus. NOTES: West from the Kimberley region (near Adcock River and Mornington Station, WA) through northern Australia to Cape York Peninsula (near Cobalt Gorge and Lakefield, Qld). An apparently isolated population occurs to the immediate north of Townsville.

60

Lagoon Creek Qld

Legume Station NT

Mary River NT

Sole of foot, note black metatarsal tubercle, Mary River NT

Family L I M N O D Y N A S T I D A E

Notaden nichollsi (Desert Spadefoot) ♂ to 42–63 mm; ♀ to 67 mm. Shape: a medium ground! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! dwelling frog with a globose body shape, widely separated eyes, ! ! ! !! !! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !!! ! ! and blunt snout. Dorsum rough, covered with raised warts of ! !!! !! !! !!!! ! !!! !! ! !! ! !! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! !!! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! varying size. Pattern: grey, light brown, or olive with large ! ! !!! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! black spots (typically associated with warts) and irregular red!! ! ! !!! !!! !! ! !!! ! orange markings; small white-capped warts scattered along ! ! ! flanks. Two to three obscure dark bars on the face, one from below the nasal to the upper lip (separated by an obscure pale mid-rostral streak), a second below the eye extending onto the lower lip, and some individuals with a third near the corner of the mouth. Tympanum hidden. Black pigment greatly reduced on exposed surfaces of the limbs. Posterior thigh unpatterned. Ventral surfaces smooth and off-white; throat of breeding males often flushed grey. Skin extending from the side of the body to enclose the knee. Pupil horizontal. Fingers unwebbed; toes with basal to almost half-webbing and broad lateral fringes; large, pale inner metatarsal tubercle. HABITAT: Very open arid habitats, particularly areas with low-lying clay pans surrounded by sand-dunes. Known to burrowing within sand to depths greater than 1 m. CALL: Similar to other Notaden (and unique to this genus): a loud repeated ‘wooop’. Males call while floating in water. Most active Dec–Mar, but may be heard during other months after heavy rain. SIMILAR SPECIES: Body shape and colour should distinguish this species from all other ­Australian frogs. Body shape similar to other Notaden, some Neobatrachus, and Platyplectrum. NOTES: Arid regions from WA to south-west Qld excluding the northern extent of WA and NT; south to Barradale, Lake Yeo (WA) and Everard (SA); north to Derby (WA) and Buchanan Hwy (NT); east to near Windorah (Qld).

Derby WA

Ethabuka Qld

Canning Stock Route WA

Ethabuka Qld

61

PH OTO GR APHIC FIELD GUIDE TO AUS T R ALIAN FRO GS

Notaden weigeli (Weigel’s Spadefoot)

!

♂ to 79 mm; ♀ to 80 mm. Shape: a medium-sized, globular, !! ! !! ground-dwelling frog with a very blunt snout; limbs (both fore! arms and legs) longer than other Notaden. Dorsum covered ! ! " Drysdale River ! with small regular­-​sized tubercles, many tipped with fine black ! ! spines; snout and face less tubular. Pattern: fawn to orange! ! red, often with obscure grey-green regions; covered with small bright orange or rusty red spots associated with tubercles; tuberWA cles sometimes with pale tips, especially on lateral surfaces. "Broome Face, snout and subocular region grey with fine cream flecks or spots; no indication of a pale streak on the snout or head. Lips cream or pink, usually with obscure dark markings. Limbs dark grey with cream spots or flecks. Tympanum hidden. Skin extending from the side of the body to enclose the knee. Posterior thigh unpatterned. Ventral surfaces smooth; greyish, males with a diffusely mottled brown throat. Face, ventral and lower lateral surfaces along with the legs and arms can be predominantly bluish in subadults or juveniles. Pupil horizontal. Fingers unwebbed, palm surfaces with large sharply defined tubercles proximally; toes with basal webbing; a large pale inner metatarsal tubercle. HABITAT: Low open woodland with shrubs, grasses and forbs (including areas of Spinifex) on rugged sandstone. CALL: A loud ‘wooop’ similar to other Notaden species and unique to frogs within the northern Kimberley. Most active Oct–Mar following rainfall. SIMILAR SPECIES: Within its range this species is easily distinguished from other frogs by its body shape and dorsal pattern. NOTES: Restricted to the Kimberley region of northern WA, south to the Artesian Range and Prince Regent River NR, inland to Mount Elizabeth Station and Manning Gorge; also Bigge and Augustus islands. Distribution does not overlap with other Notaden.

62

Doongan Station WA George Madani

Mitchell Plateau WA Marion Anstis

Subadult, Manning Gorge WA Tim Faulkner

Theda Station WA Stephen Zozaya

Family L I M N O D Y N A S T I D A E

Genus Philoria (Mountain Frogs) Six species associated with seeps and bogs adjacent to mountain streams. Males typically call from burrows during the early or late daylight hours, but can call throughout the day in overcast low-light conditions. One species, P. frosti, tends to call throughout the middle of the day. Species identification can be difficult, though most have non-overlapping ranges and this is often the best guide to identification. All Philoria except P. loveridgei lay small foamy egg-masses in shallow cavities in moist or water-logged depressions. The tadpoles remain in shallow water and can develop to metamorphosis without feeding, though most feed on silt and detritus. Development in Philoria loveridgei is different, with embryos developing in broken-down egg capsules rather than in water. The tadpoles remain in the nest and a large yolk-mass sustains the tadpoles throughout development (Anstis 2018).

Similar genera/morpho-functional groups Philoria are unlikely to be confused with other frogs within their mountain habitats. Key features of Philoria Species

Key features

Philoria frosti P. kundagungan P. loveridgei P. pughi P. richmondensis P. sphagnicola

•  Small (to 55 mm, most ≤ 37 mm) terrestrial frogs inhabiting rainforests and wet sclerophyll forests in mountainous regions from north-east NSW/south-east Qld (five species) and Vic (one species) •  Tympanum indistinct •  Ventral surfaces smooth; cream, yellow to orange, occasionally with brown/maroon pigments or blotches especially on the throat (E–F) •  Fingers unwebbed; breeding females with broad flanges on the first finger and/or second finger (G) •  Toes without webbing or fringes; small inner but no outer metatarsal tubercle (H) •  Call soft; a low guttural ‘ork’ or a slow pulsed creak

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

63

PH OTO GR APHIC FIELD GUIDE TO AUS T R ALIAN FRO GS

Philoria frosti (Baw Baw Mountain Frog) ♂ to 46 mm; ♀ to 55 mm. Dorsum with small, usually dark! ! " Melbourne tipped tubercles, particularly around the rump or flanks. !! ! ! !! " Rawson Pattern: dark shades of brown to grey-brown, sometimes yellow- or plump-brown, and usually broken by poorly defined Vic yellow pigment which, when present, is more abundant on the head and nape; yellow pigment typically more extensive in females. The smooth parotoid glands are large, obvious and uniform dark brown. Tympanum hidden. Limbs similar to dorsum, often paler laterally. Groin and posterior thigh dark, or a cream to dull yellow and often with indistinct dark smudges; some with an orange tinge on the distal posterior thigh. Ventral surfaces smooth; belly a dirty cream to dull pale yellow with or without indistinct and poorly defined darker smudges, particularly laterally; throat usually with at least some distinct dark brown markings, tending to almost uniform dark brown in males. Tympanum hidden. Fingers and toes unwebbed; fingers I and II predominantly cream to yellow. Juveniles/ subadults lighter than adults, dirty grey to yellow brown and often with indistinct darker markings that includes a lateral head-stripe which can extend along the upper flanks and two short oblique bars above the groin. HABITAT: Subalpine heathland and woodland, montane riparian thickets, and cool temperate rainforest or wet forest vegetation. Found in high moisture gullies, depressions, seepage and drainage lines when breeding but may occupy nearby terrestrial habitats during non-breeding season sheltering under vegetation, rocks, logs, debris and in soil cavities which maintain high water content. CALL: A slow repeated grating ‘crock’; also a ‘growl’. Activity largely restricted to about six weeks in Sept–Oct, though some may continue to call until Jan. SIMILAR SPECIES: Size, colour and enlarged dark-coloured parotoid glands distinguish this from all other frog species within their range. NOTES: Known from a 135 km2 area above 900 m on the Baw Baw plateau (Vic). The species has suffered sudden and catastrophic declines and it is now absent from historical locations in the drier north-eastern Baw Baw plateau. Remaining populations are restricted to the western and central areas of the plateau, an area of ~80 km2. It is estimated that remaining frogs represent about 2% of the population compared to that in 1985. Currently subject to captive breeding efforts. Critically Endangered (EPBC Act).

64

Mount Baw Baw Vic

Mount Baw Baw Vic

Subadult, Mount Baw Baw Vic

Mount Baw Baw Vic

Family L I M N O D Y N A S T I D A E

Philoria kundagungan (Yellow-bellied Mountain Frog)

"Brisbane

QLD

n are Cl

To olo om

Ck

♂ to 30 mm; ♀ to 26 mm. Shape: a small, plump ground! !! dwelling frog. Dorsum finely textured and appearing smooth ! ! ! Warwick ! ! ! ! ! " when moist; lacking larger tubercles. Pattern: sexes similar; ! ! !! ! !! ! colour variable, typically dark variations of red, orange, yellow, ! ! reddish-brown, purple-brown, grey-brown to nearly black, rarely with obscure darker patches which may form an Ric hm "Ballina on inverted V on the lower back. Often an obscure, faint dark dR NSW lateral head-stripe running from the nostrils, past the eye, and curving down to near the forearm. Tympanum indistinct. Lips yellow. Exposed surfaces of limbs similar colour to dorsum, or more frequently darker; yellow around the base of the arm; fingers and feet often mottled with yellow. Ventral surfaces smooth; uniform bright yellow, though sometimes dull yellow, with darker patchers posteriorly; throat yellow, with or without diffuse red pigments. Groin bright yellow; posterior thigh similar colour to leg and without pattern. Pupil horizontal; pale sky-blue lining present below the eyelids. Fingers and toes unwebbed. HABITAT: Waterlogged soils of creek beds, creek banks, or soaks in rainforest and Antarctic Beech forest. CALL: A single repeated slow guttural ‘ooor’ or ‘ork’ lasting 120–170 ms; sometimes a drawn-out growl which may be territorial in function. Call similar to other Philoria except P. sphagnicola, which has a longer and more distinctively pulsed call. Often calls during the day, particularly in low-light conditions such as heavily overcast days or late afternoons. Males call from water-filled cavities between late Aug and mid-Feb, peaking in Nov to early Dec. Easily imitated to elicit a response. SIMILAR SPECIES: The dorsal and ventral colouration should distinguish this species from all other frogs found around the NSW and Qld border. NOTES: Above 550 m from the Mistake Mountains (Qld) to Beaury SF, ~15 km south of the NSW/Qld border; east as far as Mount Barney. Most populations confined to national parks or state forests. Separated from P. richmondensis by Tooloom Creek, a tributary of the Clarence River; P. loveridgei is found east of Mount Lindsay Highway. While currently recognised as P.  ­kundagungan, eastern populations (e.g. Mt Barney) appear genetically distinct and may represent a separate species. ce

R

Main Range Qld

Main Range Qld

Main Range Qld

Main Range Qld

65

PH OTO GR APHIC FIELD GUIDE TO AUS T R ALIAN FRO GS

Philoria loveridgei (Masked Mountain Frog)

"Brisbane

To olo om

Ck

♂ to 30 mm; ♀ to 32 mm. Dorsum finely textured but appearing QLD smooth when wet; sometimes a few small low tubercles and/or skin folds including one from behind each eye to above the groin. Pattern: ! !!! ! " Warwick ! ! ! !! light grey, light brown, fawn, reddish-brown or dark chocolate ! !! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! brown and either patternless or with poorly defined to distinct !! ! !! ! dark markings which frequently aggregate to form a large dark Ric region on the posterior abdomen. A broad dark lateral head-stripe hm "Ballina on dR is present from the snout tip, past the eye, and curving down to NSW near the arm; the lower edge is poorly defined while the upper edge sharply contrasting the dorsum or is narrowly pale edged. Tympanum indistinct. The lower mid-flanks have a large distinct to indistinct elongate dark patch, which in some may extend along the lower flanks to almost the armpit. Exposed surfaces of limbs similar colour to dorsum. Groin usually similar colour to belly, or with a yellow or orangered flush. Posterior thigh unremarkable, similar to upper leg colour, sometimes with a narrow series of fine pale flecks curving down from above the urostyle to the lower posterior thigh. Ventral surfaces smooth; usually cream or light to moderately dark grey (rarely pale dirty yellow); breeding males often have a brown throat extending to the upper chest and some have a brown band across the belly. Pupil horizontal; pale sky-blue lining present below the eyelids. Fingers and toes unwebbed. HABITAT: Antarctic Beech forests, wet sclerophyll forests, and rainforests above 750 m where it inhabits boggy moist locations under rocks, logs, and down burrows along streams or seeps. CALL: A single repeated guttural ‘ooor’ or ‘ork’ lasting ~140 ms; sometimes a drawn-out growl. Predominantly crepuscular, but may call during the day in overcast weather. Similar to other east Australian Philoria except P. sphagnicola, which has a longer and more distinctively pulsed call. Most commonly heard calling Nov–Feb, but may call earlier (Sep–Oct) under suitable conditions. SIMILAR SPECIES: Distinguished from P. kundagungan (p. 65) by its pale ventral colour (v. yellow) and broad head-stripe (v. absent or obscure and narrow). Identified from P. richmondensis (p. 68) by geographical location, possessing a black flank patch, and lacking an oblique dark bar from the groin to the midline. NOTES: Mountain ranges near the NSW/Qld border including the Border Ranges, Lamington, Mt Warning and Nightcap NPs. Separated from P. richmondensis by the Richmond River; P. kundagungan is west of the Mount Lindsay Highway. n are Cl

ce

R

66

Main Range Qld

Springbrook Qld Harry Hines

Main Range Qld

Main Range Qld

Family L I M N O D Y N A S T I D A E

Philoria pughi (Pugh’s Mountain Frog)

"Warwick

n are Cl

♂ to 30 mm; ♀ to 30 mm. Dorsum finely textured but appears QLD smooth when wet; sometimes narrow raised ridges along the Ric dorsum from behind the eyes, and along the dorsolateral "Ballina hm ! on region. Pattern: brightly yellow to yellow-orange, or sometimes ! d !! R ! ! tan to bronze, with irregular and diffuse darker maroon red !! ! !!! !! (rarely brown) markings concentrated on the lower abdomen, ! !!! NSW ! !! !! sometime extending to between the shoulders. Limbs dark ! ! ! ! maroon to almost black. A lateral black head-stripe from the Mann R snout, through the nostrils and eye, to the base of the forearm. Tympanum indistinct. Males usually have a dark elongated patch along the flanks, and infrequently two oblique patches from above the groin to near the mid-line; these dark patches are usually indistinct or absent in females. Skin around the vent black, often extending onto the proximal posterior thigh. Ventral surfaces smooth; yellow or cream (uncommon), sometimes with red pigments; ventral limb surfaces red, or yellow with numerous red markings. Pupil horizontal; pale sky-blue lining present below the eyelids. Fingers and toes unwebbed. HABITAT: Above 600 m in Antarctic Beech, subtropical and temperate rainforests. Individuals hide in shallow burrows, or under moss and debris, in wet locations along permanent streams or soaks; also found in wet sclerophyll forests where rock outcrops or cliffs hold surface moisture. Most locations include fewer than six calling adults. CALL: A deep (~570 Hz) single repeated guttural ‘ooor’ or ‘ork’ lasting ~120 ms; also sometimes a longer drown-out growl, which may have a territorial function. Call similar to other eastern Philoria, except P. sphagnicola which has a longer and more distinctively pulsed call. Most active Oct–Dec. SIMILAR SPECIES: Recognised from P. sphagnicola (p. 69) by call, (usually) brighter dorsal colouration, usually lacking two oblique bars from the groin to mid-dorsum, smaller size (25–30 v. 24–37 mm), and males lack a well-developed nuptial pad on the first finger. Geographically separated from other Philoria. NOTES: Confined to ranges between the Clarence and Mann rivers (e.g. Gibraltar Range, Girard, Ewingar, and Spirabo SF and Gibraltar Range and Washpool NP, possibly also at Gangai SF). Separated from P.  ­richmondensis by the Clarence River. Known populations occur north of P. sphagnicola though individuals around the Mann River should be treated with caution. ce

R

Spiribo NSW

Gibraltar Range NSW

Spiribo NSW

Gibraltar Range NSW

67

PH OTO GR APHIC FIELD GUIDE TO AUS T R ALIAN FRO GS

Philoria richmondensis (Richmond Mountain Frog)

To olo om

Ck

QLD ♂ to 28 mm; ♀ to 27 mm. Dorsum finely textured, often appearing smooth when wet, with at most a few scattered low Warwick " tubercles. Pattern: usually bronze or brown, less commonly orange, often with dark marks or dark flecks; most have a dark !! ! !! ! ! oblique bar from the groin towards the mid-dorsum, occasion! !! ! R ally joining to form a V shape. Upper surfaces of limbs similar "Ballina ich mo colour to dorsum. A black lateral head-stripe from the snout, nd R passing through the eye, to the base of the forearm. Often a NSW series of poorly defined white glandular dots from the corner of the mouth to the forearm. Tympanum indistinct. Flanks similar colour to dorsum, rapidly merging to ventral pigment on the lower flanks and infrequently with a dark patch near the groin. Ventral surfaces smooth; bright to dull yellow, usually without extensive dark pigment but some have irregular dark reddish-brown patches; underside of limbs dark reddish-brown with or without lighter yellow pigment. Pupil horizontal; pale sky-blue lining present below the eyelids. Fingers and toes unwebbed. HABITAT: Rainforests and wet sclerophyll forests where they occur in shallow burrows, under debris, or in deep leaf litter with high moisture levels along stream edges or soaks. CALL: A deep single repeated slow guttural ‘ooor’ or ‘ork’ lasting ~100 ms. Similar to other eastern Philoria except P. sphagnicola which has a longer and more distinctively pulsed call. Typically calls earlier in the year (peaking late Sept and Oct) than other eastern Philoria. SIMILAR SPECIES: Geographically separated from other Philoria. Recognised from P. loveridgei (p. 66) by (usually) lacking an obvious dark posterior flank patch (v. usually present), the presence of a dark oblique bar from the groin towards the midline, and a series of white dots near the corner of the mouth (usually absent or less well defined in P. loveridgei). Philoria kundagungan (p. 65) has a less distinct and more poorly defined lateral head-stripe, and lacks an oblique dark marking from the groin to the mid-dorsum (v. ­usually present in P. richmondensis). NOTES: Restricted to ranges between the Richmond River and Bruxner Highway including Richmond Range, and Yabbra and Toonumbah NPs. Known populations appear to be small. Separated from P. sphagnicola by the Richmond River, from P. pughi by the Clarence River, and from P. kundagungan by Tooloom Creek. n are Cl

ce

R

68

Richmond Range NSW

Richmond Range NSW

Richmond Range NSW

Richmond Range NSW

Family L I M N O D Y N A S T I D A E

Philoria sphagnicola (Sphagnum Mountain Frog)

Mann R

Glen Innes ♂ to 35 mm; ♀ to 37 mm. Dorsum finely textured, but appear! ! ing smooth when wet, with scattered low round tubercles and ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! !! ! !!!! !! !! !! !!" !! ! sometimes a low ridge from behind the eye to near the hip. !! ! ! ! ! !!! Coffs Harbour ! !!! ! !! NSW !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! Pattern: shades of cream, yellow, orange, red, to nearly black, ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! usually with poorly defined irregular darker spots or patches; Walcha ! !! commonly a dark bar from near the groin obliquely across the ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !!! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !!! ! !!! !! ! back, which may merge to form a V shape (but absent in ~30% !! !! of individuals); rare individuals are dark with a broad cream ! !! ! !! vertebral band. A dark lateral head-stripe runs from the nostril, through the eye, to the forearm. Tympanum indistinct. Posterior flanks usually with large black patches. Ventral surfaces smooth; shades of white, yellow, orange to red, often with dark brown or black flecking, particularly around the throat in breeding males. Pupil horizontal; pale sky-blue lining present below the eyelids. Fingers and toes unwebbed; breeding males with a spinose nuptial pad stretching along the length of finger I. HABITAT: Rainforest, Antarctic Beech forest and wet eucalypt forest. Mostly at high altitudes but known from 300 m near Wauchope and C ­ owarral and as low as 100 m in the Bellingen Valley and near Elands. Frogs burrow into loose, moist soils beneath rocks, logs and leaf litter in soaks or seepages. Sometimes located in cracks and fissures behind or beside waterfalls. CALL: A deep drawn-out throaty ‘c-c-c-c-rrrr’ lasting ~400 ms. Call approximately four times longer and more distinctly pulsed than other eastern Philoria. Males call from burrows, which usually contain water, around dusk and dawn or during overcast conditions at temperatures of 15–18°C. Calling most prolifically Oct–Dec in the north and Oct–Jan in the mid-north coastal ranges. SIMILAR SPECIES: Geographically separated from all Philoria, though P. pughi approaches the northern limit of P. sphagnicola around the Mann River; from P. pughi (p. 67) it is best recognised by call, but other physical differences include larger size (24–37 v. 25–30 mm in P. pughi), often two oblique dark bars on lower dorsum sometimes joining to form a V-shaped marking, typically a duller dorsum (with exceptions), and males have a long spinose nuptial pad on finger I. NOTES: North-eastern NSW from Romornie NP and east of Glen Innes to the Comboyne Plateau. Populations around Elands appear to be genetically distinct (Knowles et al. 2004). "

"

Jeolga NSW

Jeolga NSW

Jeolga NSW

Jeolga NSW

69

PH OTO GR APHIC FIELD GUIDE TO AUS T R ALIAN FRO GS

Genus Platyplectrum (Burrowing Frogs) Platyplectrum includes two species which are extremely abundant and widespread throughout much of Australia. Both burrow during dry periods, but are quick to emerge following rainfall. While the extent of foot-webbing has been historically used to for species recognition, this feature may not be reliable and many records of P. spenceri in the east could be misidentifications. Species boundaries within the genus is currently under investigation. Both are extremely variable in colour and pattern, especially P. ornatum.

Similar genera/morpho-functional groups Once you are familiar with them, Platyplectrum are unlikely to be mistaken with other frog groups or genera, but they do superficially share a round body shape with Heleioporus, Neobatrachus and Notaden. They could also perhaps be mistaken for members of the Cyclorana brevipes group. From Heleioporus the two Platyplectrum species can be recognised by their horizontal pupil, nearly always having dark horizontal leg bands; males have nuptial pads rather than nuptial spines (present in many Heleioporus) and also lack papillae or skin flaps on the anterior corner of the eye (present in most Heleioporus). Distribution is also valuable, as overlap between the two groups is minor. Platyplectrum are probably most likely to be misidentified as Neobatrachus, which have distinctly vertical pupils, black or brown inner metatarsal tubercles (except one Neobatrachus which has white tubercles), and an obscure subarticular tubercle on toe I (v. large and obvious in Platyplectrum). Breeding males of several Neobatrachus can have spinose skin, especially above the eye-bulges (never spinose in Platyplectrum). While not always reliable, there are also differences in iris colour with Platyplectrum often having a more distinctly bicoloured iris (gold above, silver below) and a dark/dull region near the corner of the pupil separating the upper and lower iris (v. uniformly bright in Neobatrachus except N. albipes, which may have a dark region in the anterior iris). While similar in shape, confusion is probably unlikely with Notaden, which have brightly coloured and distinctive dorsal patterns, a shorter snout, down-turned mouth, and shorter legs with skin extending from the body across the groin to the knee. Species within the Cyclorana brevipes group have distinct tympana and a longer, more pointed snout, and the patterning on the legs rarely resembles dark transverse bands. Key features of Platyplectrum Species

Key features

Platyplectrum ornatum P. spenceri

•  Medium-sized (≤51 mm) fossorial (burrowing) frogs with a squat body, short blunt snout (A) and short limbs; ball-shaped frogs (B) •  Pupil horizontal or rhomboidal (A, C); iris usually gold above and silver below with a narrow to moderately wide vertical bar dividing the lower iris (C) •  Tympanum hidden or indistinct •  Fingers unwebbed; breeding females with broad flanges on one or more inner fingers •  Toes at least 1/4 webbed and with distinctive fringes •  Large pale inner metatarsal tubercle (D) •  First toe short with a large subarticular tubercle (D)

A

70

B

C

D

Family L I M N O D Y N A S T I D A E

Platyplectrum ornatum (Ornate Burrowing Frog)

! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! !!!!! ! ! !!!!! !! ! ! ! ! !! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! !!!!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! !! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!! ! ! ! !! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! !! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !

♂ to 44 mm; ♀ to 50 mm. Shape: a medium-sized terrestrial frog with short legs, blunt snout, bulging eyes, and a round ‘golf-ball’ appearance. Dorsum with low round tubercles often forming short ridges, particularly in the scapular region. Pattern: highly variable; commonly three variants: (i) cream, yellow, ash or sandy brown with an intricate pattern of irregular darker markings and a large paler butterfly-shaped blotch behind the eyes; (ii) pattern reduced or absent, usually shades of red; (iii) pattern complex or reduced but with a broad pale vertebral stripe, usually at its broadest on the head though some have a large scapular patch. A dark lateral head-stripe from the snout to the eye and sometimes extending onto the anterior flanks, and a dark vertical subocular bar. Tympanum hidden. Limbs with transverse dark blotches. Groin and posterior thigh dark plumb to orange, usually immaculate but sometimes with irregular faint dark spotting. Ventral surfaces smooth and off-white. Fingers unwebbed; toes ≤1/4 webbed and broad fringing to at least the medial subarticular tubercle of toe IV; large pale inner metatarsal tubercle. HABITAT: A variety of dry habitats, particularly sand-dominated substrates. CALL: A nasal ‘unk’ repeated about once per second. Calling peaks Oct–Mar, but individuals may often be found at the surface during rainfall throughout the year. SIMILAR SPECIES: Platyplectrum spenceri (p. 72) from which it is recognised by its reduced toe webbing (≤1/4 v. >1/2 webbed) but more extensive fringing (obvious to at least the distal subarticular tubercle on toe IV); the pattern of P. spenceri is also more consistent – unmarked (plain) individuals or those with a pale vertebral stripe are rare. Somewhat similar to Neobatrachus sudellae (p. 55) which has a vertical pupil and dark inner metatarsal tubercles. See also Notaden species, Cyclorana brevipes and C. longipes. NOTES: From Broome across northern NT (south to Humbert River and Djumbarana Claypan), throughout northern and eastern Qld (inland to Amaroo, Windorah and C­unnamulla) to near Sydney (inland to Warrumbungle Range); absent from Fraser, Morton and North Stradbroke islands.

Coppabella Qld

Lagoon Creek Qld

Yappa River Station Qld

Karawatha Qld

71

PH OTO GR APHIC FIELD GUIDE TO AUS T R ALIAN FRO GS

Platyplectrum spenceri (Spencer’s Burrowing Frog) ♂ to 51 mm; ♀ to 51 mm. Shape: a medium-sized terrestrial ! ! !! ! !!! ! frog with short legs, bulging eyes, blunt snout and overall ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!! ! ! ! ! !!! ! !! round appearance. Dorsum covered with small round tuber! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! !!! ! !! !! !! !! !!!! ! ! !! !! !! !! ! ! ! cles, which may be finely spinose. Pattern variable; cream, ! !! ! ! !! !! ! !! !! !!!! ! ! ! ! !!! ! ! !!!!! ! tan, light rusty brown or slaty grey with irregular dark brown !!! ! !! !! or green patches; reduced pattern rare and never with an obvi!! ous pale vertebral stripe. Most with a dark lateral head-stripe from the snout to the eye, and sometimes extending behind the eye to the tympanic region. Many with a pale vertical streak on the snout tip and most with a large pale patch behind the eyes. Dark subocular bar present or absent. Tympanum hidden. Legs usually with two or three transverse dark patches, but reduced or obscure in some. Groin and posterior thigh unremarkable. Ventral surfaces smooth and off-white. Pupil rhomboidal, or weakly horizontal. Fingers unwebbed. Toe webbing >1/2 but obvious fringing only to the medial subarticular tubercle of toe IV. HABITAT: A variety of habitats, particularly claypans or areas with high sand-content. CALL: A series of short, low-pitched notes repeated rapidly ‘wuk-wuk-wuk-wuk-wuk …’. Most commonly heard during warm wet months (Oct–Mar). SIMILAR SPECIES: Most similar to P. ornatum (p. 71) from which it can be recognised by its more extensive toe webbing (>1/2 v. ≤1/4 webbed) but reduced toe fringing (obvious to the medial subarticular tubercle on toe IV); the dorsal pattern of P. spenceri also more consistent with unmarked (plain) individuals rare and never a pale vertebral stripe. Superficially similar to Neobatrachus species which, in areas of sympatry, have vertical pupils when dilated, darkly pigmented inner metatarsal tubercles, and less obvious metatarsal tubercles (especially on toe I). Cyclorana maini (p. 237) has a more pointed snout, obvious tympanum and much longer first toe. NOTES: Current records suggest this species may have two separate populations: one from western WA and the other from central Australia. In WA it can be found south from Port Headland to near Kookynie, and inland to Menzies and Minilya stations, and Rundall River NP. In central Australia records occur east from near the NT border to Ethabuka Station (western Qld), south to ~27° (northern SA) and north to the Barkly Highway. Scattered records further north (i.e. around Katherine) of unknown certainty and in south-western Qld near Thargomindah and Currawinya.

72

Ellery Creek NT

Kings Canyon NT

Port Hedland WA

Port Hedland WA

Family MICROHYLIDAE

Microhylids, commonly known as narrow-mouthed frogs, are distributed throughout tropical and warm temperate regions of the world, predominantly between the tropics of Capricorn and Cancer. The family is extremely diverse with the largest number of frog genera (61) and more than 580 species. Microhylids are small to medium-sized frogs – greater than 80% are smaller than 50  mm – and include Australia’s smallest frogs with the adults of several species growing no larger than 11 mm. In Australia Microhylids are restricted to the north, with 22 species in Queensland and one in the Northern Territory (Fig. 15). Highest diversity can be found in the WT where 14 species occur (11 Cophixalus and three Austrochaperina). All ­Australian species inhabit rainforest except two, which can also be found in monsoonal forest or wet gullies in eucalypt forest. Five are rock-­dwelling and found in large boulder fields. All Australian Microhylids are terrestrial breeders, laying large unpigmented eggs in sheltered locations away from free-standing water. The larva subsists on stored egg-yolk, growing and metamorphosing inside the egg to emerge as small, but fully developed adult frogs (Anstis 2018).

Fig. 15.  Microhylid species richness across Australia. Coloured scale indicates the number of species occurring in a 10 × 10 km cell Source: Cogger (2018)

Approximately 50% of the world’s Microhylids have this type of development. While direct development negates the need to find surface water, the large yolk requirement restricts the number of eggs a female frog can produce at any one time. Development away from water has its advantages but the production of fewer eggs increases the risk of catastrophic clutch loss, and to increase survival success clutches are usually guarded by males (Simon 1983). Within rainforests, Microhylids are likely to be mistaken only for Litoria or Taudactylus. Litoria have expanded terminal finger discs but have a notch or crease near the end of the digit (delineating the end of the internal bone structure) and have obvious toe webbing. Microhylids are further distinguished from Litoria by their smooth belly (v. distinctly granular) and some have clearly truncated terminal discs (round or at most elliptical in Litoria); they usually lack brightly pigmented and patterned posterior thighs (though several boulder-­ field Cophixalus can have bright orange thighs and some Litoria can also lack distinctive thighs), do not have webbing or fringing on the toes (present in most Litoria), and lack tubercles on the palm of the hand and fingers. Taudactylus have distinctive dark transverse barring across the legs and both Litoria and Taudactylus are associated with free-standing water (including rapid-flowing streams). ­Australian Microhylids which can occur in dry habitats (e.g. Austrochaperina adelphe and A. gracilipes) could be confused with Crinia but can be separated by a number of characters (see p. 76). Being restricted to high-altitude rainforest makes several species susceptible to climate change. Modelling has shown that C. concinnus may be vulnerable to climate increases of as little as 1°C (Williams and Hilbert 2006), and by 2035 might experience temperatures outside their preferred thermal conditions (Merino-Viteri 2018). Similar concerns are held for C. aenigma, C. australis and C. hosmeri, and some of these species may disappear within our lifetime. 73

PH OTO GR APHIC FIELD GUIDE TO AUS T R ALIAN FRO GS

Key identification features of Microhylidae Key features •  Fingers and toes without webbing or fringes •  Finger tips slightly to distinctly expanded but lacking a circumarginal groove, or a small crease or notch delimiting the digit tip; expanded tips may be nearly round to distinctly truncate; subarticular tubercles low and indistinct •  Small to medium-sized frogs with a maximum size to 53 mm •  Breeding males without obvious, dark, thickened or spinose nuptial pads •  All inhabit rainforests or boulder mountains; two can also occur in dry woodlands •  Restricted to northern Qld (north of Mt Elliot) except one, which is found in northern NT •  Posterior thighs usually without bright distinctive pattern; flushed orange in some boulder-field species •  Dorsum with at most short ridges but never long skin folds; never large dermal glands •  Usually found independent of free-standing water •  Terrestrial or arboreal in habit •  Most similar to Pelodryadidae from which they can be recognised by the lack of toe webbing, round to truncate terminal finger discs (v. round or horizontally elliptical in Pelodryadidae; see p. 14), less obvious subarticular tubercles, smooth bellies, and distribution

800

Carbine

1000

C. monticola

1200

Thornton

Bartle Frere/Bellenden Ker

C. neglectus

Altitude (m ASL)

1400

Carbine

Carbine/Thornton/Finnigan

1600

C. concinnus

Mt Elliot

C. mcdonaldi

1800

600 400

C. hosmeri

C. aenigma

A. robusta

C. ornatus

C. hinchinbrookensis

C. exiguus

C. australis

A. fryi

C. bombiens (Windsor)

A. pluvialis

C. infacetus

0

C. bombiens (nth WT)

200

Fig. 16.  Altitudinal range and location is useful for identifying rainforest Microhylidae of the WT, Qld. Graded bars indicate those species which become less abundant below or above a particular altitude. Species restricted to individual mountain-tops are indicated

74

Fam i ly M I C R O H YLI D A E

Key to Microhylid morpho-functional groups Two genera are recognised in Australian Microhylid frogs, but six morpho-functional groups can be differentiated based on morphology, habits and geographical location. Hoskin (2008) provides a key to individual species. 1.

Finger discs distinctly expanded (~2× digit width) and more truncate than round (A–B)����������������������������������������������� 2



Finger discs not, or at most moderately (1100 m ASL on Thornton Peak; call a rapid series of notes sounding like a trill ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� Cophixalus concinnus (C. neglectus group, p. 84)



Ventral surfaces without red/orange blotches and dark stippling or, if present, not restricted to the throat/chest (F); solid pale/yellow spots located on the dorsum above the groin (the lumbar area) and bordered posteriorly by dark pigment (G–H); location not >1100 m on Thornton Peak; call a short ‘beep’����������������������������������������������������������������� ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������Cophixalus ornatus group (p. 84)

4. Length of first finger ≥ half the length of finger II (I–J); call a high-pitched tonal whistle (insect-like ‘pips’); males always call from concealed terrestrial locations ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������5 Length of first finger ≤ half the length of finger II (C–D, K–L); call a series of taps, a buzz, or trill; males call from terrestrial or elevated locations ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������6 E

F

G

H

J

K

L

Conrad Hoskin

I

5.

Found north of Cooktown or in the NT; SV 21 mm; only in rainforest ������������������������������ Austrochaperina robusta group (p. 77)

6.

Adult size 0.43). Dorsum with small, low glands but lacking distinct tubercles; may appear smooth when wet. Pattern: brown, grey-brown or red-brown NT with or without indistinct darker markings; some with scattered small pale spots; sometimes a pale vertebral line. A dark lateral head-stripe from the snout tip, through the nostrils, extends onto the upper flank where it breaks into blotches or fades, upper margin is moderately well defined and separates the flank for the dorsum, the lower margin is poorly defined and merges evenly onto the paler lower flanks which may have small blue-grey flecks. Tympanum hidden. Posterior thigh and groin grey with at most scattered small white spots. Ventral surfaces smooth; grey to pinkish-grey with low contrasting white spots or blotches. Fingers and toes unwebbed and without fringes; small terminal digit discs only slightly wider than the digits. HABITAT: Monsoonal forest and Melaleuca wetlands, also in drier vegetation on sandstone plateaus near small streams. CALL: An ongoing series of repeated high-pitched tonal whistles or ‘peeps’ repeated at a rate of ~40 every 10 s, at a dominant frequency of ~3.8 kHz (3.75–4.4 kHz). Most active Oct–Jan. SIMILAR SPECIES: Smaller than most NT frogs. Like Crinia bilingua (p. 118) and C. remota (p. 128) from which it can be recognised by the lack of dark transverse leg banding, lacking a series of glandular white spots near the corner of the mouth, possessing a smooth belly (v. weakly granular) and a smoother dorsum (v. usually with tubercles and/or ridges); C. bilingua has toe fringes. All sympatric Uperoleia have a rough dorsum with obvious dermal glands (particularly parotoid glands), orange/red patches on the posterior thigh, and a different ventral pattern. NOTES: Northern NT south to 13°30′; most records from Melville Island, Litchfield, Kakadu and Garig Gunak Barlu NPs but possibly under-represented in Arnhem Land due to lack of survey. "

78

Nourlangie NT

Litchfield NT Jordan Mulder

Adelaide River NT Stephen Zozaya

Berry Springs NT Stewart Macdonald

Fam i ly M I C R O H YLI D A E

Austrochaperina fryi (Peeping Whistling Frog)

" Cooktown

♂ to 30 mm; ♀ to 35 mm. Shape: a small terrestrial frog with a short-broad head and squat, rotund appearance. Dorsum finely textured but lacking obvious tubercles; some with a slightly raised vertebral line; usually appearing smooth when QLD wet. Pattern: typically shades of brown, sometimes grey, and infrequently orange or yellowish, peppered densely or sparsely Cairns " with indistinct to distinct small darker markings; uncommonly a pale vertebral stripe. A dark region spans along the side of the head from the snout to near the tympanum, and in paler individuals sharply contrasts the dorsal surface; dark region may be faint in some. Dorsal and ventral patterns merge evenly over the flanks without distinct separation. Tympanum indistinct or at most a small smooth depression. A poorly developed supratympanic fold runs from behind the eye to near the forearm. Posterior thigh and groin similarly patterned to the flanks and unremarkable. Ventral surfaces smooth; cream or with an orange to yellow wash; some with light grey or brown markings, especially under the throat. Fingers and toes unwebbed and without fringes; fingers with slightly expanded terminal discs, toes with noticeably expanded discs; finger I ~½ the length of finger II. HABITAT: Rainforest and adjacent wet sclerophyll forests at altitudes of 20–1340 m; males call from hidden locations under leaf litter, rocks, logs and other debris away from surface water. CALL: A series of ~14 rapidly repeated (~5 notes/s) high-pitched (2.95 kHz) whistles/chirps; each series lasts 2–4 s. Calling is most prolific during the spring and summer wet season. Call dissimilar to A. robusta which has a series of double-noted whistles. SIMILAR SPECIES: From A. pluvialis (p. 81) it can be recognised by the lack of a pale streak running from the snout tip along the canthus and over the eye, and call. Most similar to A. robusta (p. 82) from which it can only be recognised on the basis of call and geographical location (noting a small area of overlap). NOTES: Restricted to the northern WT from Big Tableland (Helenvale/Rossville) south to the northern Atherton Tablelands around Lake Barrine and Danbulla. Distribution broadly overlaps with A. pluvialis, and narrowly with A. robusta south of the Mt Edith/Mt Haig (Danbulla SF) area (Lamb Range); clearing on the Atherton Tablelands has largely isolated the two species (e.g. A. fryi at Lake Barrine and C. robusta at Lake Echam).

Dinden Qld

Black Mountain Rd Qld

Jullaten Qld

Danbulla Qld

79

PH OTO GR APHIC FIELD GUIDE TO AUS T R ALIAN FRO GS

Austrochaperina gracilipes (Northern Whistling Frog) ♂ and ♀ to 20 mm. Shape: a small terrestrial frog with a moderately pointed snout; legs long compared to most Austrochaperina (TL/SV >0.43). Dorsum finely textured with small, low glands but lacking larger tubercles and may appear smooth when wet. Weipa Pattern: brown, red-brown, to grey with irregular, scattered, distinct to indistinct, darker pigment which often includes irregular mid-dorsal bands from above the groin to the shoulders; some with scattered pale spots; with or without a pale vertebral QLD " Cooktown line. A dark lateral region along the side of the head from the snout tip, through the nostrils, and extending onto the upper flank where it breaks and fades above the forearm; the upper margin is moderately well defined, the lower margin is poorly defined. Dorsal and ventral patterns merge evenly over the mid and posterior flanks without clear separation. Tympanum hidden. Groin and posterior thigh flushed orange, plain or with some darker pigment. Ventral surface smooth; blotched with dark and light grey; underside of limbs flushed orange. Fingers and toes unwebbed and without fringes; fingers and toes with slightly expanded terminal discs. HABITAT: Monsoonal forest, vine scrubs, rainforests, riparian vegetation and extending into dry eucalypt forests. CALL: An ongoing series of repeated high-pitched (~3.8 kHz) tonal whistle or ‘peep’ notes repeated at a rate of ~15 every 10 s. Most active Nov–Mar. SIMILAR SPECIES: Recognised from Cophixalus crepitans (p. 90) and C. peninsularis (p. 101) by its more pointed snout/head, dorsal pattern (never gaining transverse dark V- or W-shaped markings), and a more poorly defined but more extensive black region along the side of the head, and a well-developed and longer first finger (~½ length of finger II v. a short snub and 4 distinct dark transverse bars) NOTE: There is no single defining feature to separate Myobatrachidae from the Limnodynastidae; inexperienced observers should also consider reviewing Limnodynastidae.

107

PH OTO GR APHIC FIELD GUIDE TO AUS T R ALIAN FRO GS

Key to Myobatrachidae morpho-functional groups Myobatrachidae consists of 13 genera. Crinia nimbus has several distinct features and is ­treated separately from other members of its genus in the key below. 1.

Fingers short and stubby, finger IV reduced to a broad round nub and obviously shorter than finger I (A–B); body broad and distinctly globular; head small, less than half the body width; skin extending from the side of the body to the leg enclosing the groin and masking the knee (C)�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������2



Fingers long and cylindrical, finger IV as long or longer than finger I; body at most chubby; head at most slightly narrower than body; skin may stretch across the groin but the knee is distinct������������������������������������������������������������������3

2.

Belly with dark spots or large blotches (D); eyes normal, snout short but broadly pointed; restricted to between Kalbarri and Edel Land WA; small adult size (26–39 mm)�������������������������������������������������������� Genus Arenophryne (p. 111)



Belly without dark pigment, at most fine dark flecks; eyes small and snout blunt; found in south-west WA from Kalbarri south; medium adult size (26–51 mm, most >40 mm)�����������������������������������������Genus Myobatrachus (p. 155) A

B

C

D

3.

Pupil distinctly vertical when contracted (E–F); tympanum large and obvious (F); a well-defined and distinct dark lateral head-stripe commences as a large triangular either side of the snout tip (F)�������� Genus Mixophyes (p. 145)



Pupil not distinctly vertical when contracted; tympanum hidden or indistinct; dark lateral head-stripe absent, indistinct or distinct, but if present never starting as a large triangle either side of the snout tip��������������������������������4

4.

Belly and under the legs bright sky-blue broken by a dark blue reticulum (G); throat, upper chest, hands, feet and toes bright orange (G); ventral surfaces smooth������������������������������������������� Spicospina flammocaerulea (pp. 178–179)



Belly and under the legs not as above; throat and upper chest not orange (may be yellow), or if present orange pigment restricted to near the arm insertion (H); hands and toes never with orange pigment; ventral surface granular to smooth��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������5

5.

Obvious yellow to orange (rarely red) spots or patches in the groin, on the chest (pectoral region), on the lower belly, the inner calf, and on the inner foot (H); ventral surfaces distinctly granular (H); found only in southern WA ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������Metacrinia nichollsi (pp. 143–144)



No obvious yellow/orange markings in the above locations (but may have a yellow ventral wash or yellow throat); ventral surfaces granular to smooth ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������6 E

F

G

H

6.

A subtle (I) to obvious angular transition or skin fold (J) between the dorsum and flanks, usually sharply demarcating contrasting dorsal and flank colours (I); finger I and toe I reduced to a short nub