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Persian Religion in the Achaemenid Period
 9783447106474, 9783447195560

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Classica et Orientalia 16

CLeO

Wouter F. M. Henkelman, Céline Redard (Eds.)

Persian Religion in the Achaemenid Period La religion perse à l’époque achéménide

Harrassowitz This content downloaded from 195.201.206.121 on Sun, 19 Jul 2020 19:44:53 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

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Classica et Orientalia Herausgegeben von Reinhold Bichler, Bruno Jacobs, Giovanni B. Lanfranchi, Robert Rollinger, Kai Ruffing und Josef Wiesehöfer Band 16

2017 Harrassowitz Verlag . Wiesbaden

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Persian Religion in the Achaemenid Period La religion perse à l’époque achéménide Edited by Wouter F. M. Henkelman and Céline Redard

2017 Harrassowitz Verlag . Wiesbaden

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Cover Illustration: Pierre-Henri de Valenciennes (1750–1819), Alexander at the Tomb of Cyrus the Great, 1796, oil on canvas. The Art Institute of Chicago, IL, USA / Restricted gift of Mrs. Harold T. Martin / Bridgeman Images. Publication of this book was supported by a grant of the Collège de France.

Bibliografische Information der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in der Deutschen Nationalbibliografie; detaillierte bibliografische Daten sind im Internet über http://dnb.dnb.de abrufbar. Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de.

For further information about our publishing program consult our website http://www.harrassowitz-verlag.de © Otto Harrassowitz GmbH & Co. KG, Wiesbaden 2017 This work, including all of its parts, is protected by copyright. Any use beyond the limits of copyright law without the permission of the publisher is forbidden and subject to penalty. This applies particularly to reproductions, translations, microfilms and storage and processing in electronic systems. Printed on permanent/durable paper. Printing and binding: Hubert & Co., Göttingen Printed in Germany ISSN 2190-3638 ISBN 978-3-447-10647-4 eISBN 978-3-447-19556-0

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Contents Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Jean Kellens Les Achéménides entre textes et liturgie avestiques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Alberto Cantera La liturgie longue en langue avestique dans l’Iran occidental . . . . . . . . . . 21 Antonio Panaino Liturgies and Calendars in the Politico-Religious History of Pre-Achaemenian and Achaemenian Iran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

Jan Tavernier Religious aspects in the Aramaic texts from Bactria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Salvatore Gaspa State theology and royal ideology of the Neo-Assyrian Empire as a structuring model for the Achaemenid imperial religion . . . . . . . . . . 125

Mark B. Garrison Beyond Auramazdā and the Winged Symbol: Imagery of the Divine and Numinous at Persepolis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Bruno Jacobs Die ikonographische Angleichung von Gott und König in der achämenidischen Kunst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

Wouter F.M. Henkelman Humban & Auramazdā: royal gods in a Persian landscape . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 Gian Pietro Basello Of Gods and Men in the Persepolis Bronze Plaque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347

Pierfrancesco Callieri Achaemenid “ritual architecture” vs. “religious architecture”: Reflections on the elusive archaeological evidence of the religion of the Achaemenids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385 Claude Rapin Sanctuaires sogdiens et cultes avestiques de l’époque de Gava à l’époque hellénistique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417

Adriano V. Rossi « … how Median the Medes were » ? État d’une question longuement débattue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461

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Preface širini nappi ak sunki huttukni The international colloquium on Achaemenid religion, held at the Collège de France on November 17-18, 2013 on the initiative of Jean Kellens, bore the subtitle confrontation des sources. Intended to provoke a fundamental debate on the evidential basis, the call was both timely and appropriate in view of new archaeological and textual sources, not to mention recent progress in the analysis of the Avestan tradition. Nevertheless, the proceedings published hereafter do not so much represent a systematic comparison of corpora of sources, or opposing views as to which of these should have preference, but rather the search for common ground and the development of a synthetic model. The acceptance of a basic tenet – that the Achaemenid Iranian religious landscape was even more diverse than previously assumed – plays no small role in the discussions. Given this background, the editors have opted to baptise the present volume Persian Religion in the Achaemenid Period, hence devoted to the religious beliefs of the Achaemenid Persians and of those with whom they had close cultural ties. The title explicitly defines the volume’s focus as separate from the question of Achaemenid religious policy or that of local religions within the Achaemenid empire. Jean Kellens’ opening contribution sets the stage for studying Achaemenid religion within the wider frame of ancient Iranian religions, in particular with reference to the Avestan tradition. Stressing, not for the first time, the need to move away from the reductive binary question (‘were the Achaemenids Zoroastrians?’) and from the perception of ancient Zoroastrianism as a creedal faith, he proposes refocusing the debate on ritual behaviour. Alberto Cantera, in his contribution, places the long liturgy at the centre of the debate. He latter offers a detailed and critical survey of possible elements relating the Achaemenid and Avestan traditions. Both Kellens and Cantera undertake the comparison on the assumption that the Achaemenid form of mazdaism was shaped by its local cultural context. Antonio Panaino’s rich study on the date and especially the impact of calendric reforms similarly recognizes the importance of this setting. It argues for an understanding of the imperial framework as non-incidental to the creation and spread of the new calendar. Though Jan Tavernier offers a sobering note by calling into question the day names recently identified by Shaul Shaked in the fourth-century Bactrian Aramaic texts (as well as some purported Zoroastrian names and ritual terms), he simultaneously points

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Preface

out that the ‘Bēl’ mentioned in the corpus may simply be Bēl, hence evidencing empire-wide cultural contacts and heralding the post-Achaemenid Bactrian pantheon. Even if Bactrian ‘Bēl’ referred to Auramazdā, the substitution of the name would in itself be meaningful, in the same way that the replacement of ‘Auramazdā’ by ‘Bēl’ in the Babylonian display copy of the Bīsotūn inscription is significant. Especially the latter would have been difficult without a conception of Auramazdā as a royal god according to a model well-documented in Elam, Babylonia and particularly Assyria. Salvatore Gaspa charts the strong potential of this evidence for understanding Auramazdā’s role in the royal inscriptions. Wouter Henkelman offers a matching contribution from the perspective of the Persepolis Fortification archive. New textual evidence reveals that the so-called lan sacrifice could be performed for Napiriša, thereby confirming doubts on its (exclusive) connection to Auramazdā. The latter deity has a relatively modest position in terms of frequency or aggregate volume of his sacrifices, but does occur in institutional contexts that underline his closeness to the king and role in royal ideology. Mark Garrison’s treatment of the religious landscape of Achaemenid Pārsa, as reflected in the glyptic evidence from the same archive, shows a dazzling variety of divine and numinous figures and symbols which, as he concludes, is remarkably in synch with the evidence from the Elamite tablets. Furthermore, what Garrison prudently calls the winged symbol (with or without anthropomorphic figure set into it) forbids a straightforward reading as ‘Auramazdā’. At the same time, Garrison underlines the strong royal associations of the symbol. Bruno Jacobs offers an alternative but not necessarily contrastive treatment, focussing on the wilful physical similarity of the figure in the winged disk and the Persian king in Achaemenid royal art postdating Bīsotūn. His idea that it portrays Auramazdā as an ancestral or clan deity could help to explain why the deity was, on the one hand, of relatively modest importance in terms of sacrifices and, on the other, chosen as royal god and emblem of the empire. The rich cultural pallet that contributed to Achaemenid Persian religion is addressed in four final contributions. Gian Pietro Basello points to the Elamite gods in the Acropole Archive from Neo-Elamite Susa and to divine elements in the Persepolis Bronze Plaque, hence to religious systems that existed in southwestern Iran just a few generations before the emergence of empire. Pierfrancesco Callieri’s succinct survey of (purported) Achaemenid religious architecture and sacred places refers to the crucial new evidence from the cave sanctuary of Vešnaveh, which suggests long-term continui-

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ty of water-related sacrifices across a range of cultural boundaries. It also includes a synoptic description (with Alireza Askari Chaverdi) of the site of Tol-e Ājori, where a full-scale copy of the Babylonian Ištar Gate is currently being excavated: perhaps not a religious building in narrow sense, the structure with its bull and mušḫuššu friezes is certainly a reminder of Achaemenid perceptivity to Mesopotamian tradition and potentially an indicator of royal ritual inspired by Babylonian models. The volume’s penultimate contribution, by Claude Rapin, surveys the archaeological evidence from Achaemenid Sogdian sites. The platforms of Koktepe and the temples of Sangir Tepe and Kindyk Tepe, Rapin argues, belong to a mazdaic tradition that was instrumental in uniting various tribal groups. It is as yet unclear how this relates to Achaemenid heartland religion, though the hypothesised role of Auramazdā as ancestral deity (Jacobs) may be recalled here. At any rate, the dual use of open-air sanctuaries and built temples also existed in Pārsa, undoubtedly as a function of the complex of underlying traditions (Henkelman, Callieri, Garrison). From this perspective, it cannot surprise that Adriano Rossi, in a contribution on cultural diversity among the ‘Medes’, ends by pointing out the simultaneous occurrence of natural and built cultic environments. Publication of this volume has met with a number of difficulties, all of which we overcame by the grace of Auramazdā, by the generous support of the Collège de France, by the intercession of Jean Kellens and Bruno Jacobs, and by the efforts of our copy-editor, Marius König; to all we extend our warmest gratitude. Paris, November 2016, WH and CR

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/HV$FKpPpQLGHVHQWUHWH[WHVHWOLWXUJLHDYHVWLTXHV -HDQ.HOOHQV &ROOqJHGH)UDQFH   Nous savons aujourd’hui que la question du rapport des Achéménides à la religion véhiculée par l’AvestaQHSHXWrWUHSRVpHHQWHUPHVGHFRQYHUVLRQ La raison simple en est qu’il n’y a pas de zoroastrisme, c’estjGLUHXQHGRF WULQH SURSKpWLTXH HW LQQRYDQWH TXL DXUDLW VRLW UpIRUPp VRLW VXSSODQWp OD YLHLOOHUHOLJLRQLVVXHGXSDVVpLQGRLUDQLHQ /D FRQIURQWDWLon entre la religion achéménide et celle de l’Avesta est néanmoins une tâche qui s’impose à l’historien, non seulement parce qu’elles sont les deux seules expressions documentées de l’état religieux de l’Iran ancien, mais aussi parce que l’unique fait de l’histoire préVDVVDQLGH de l’Avesta que nous avons à constater est l’installation en Perse des oU JDQHVTXLRQWDVVXUpVDWUDQVPLVVLRQ &HWWHFRQIURQWDWLRQQpFHVVDLUHXQHIRLVGLVVLSpHODFKLPqUHGXSURVpO\ tisme zoroastrien, exige avant tout que l’on se représente bien ce qu’est l’Avesta. L’Avesta est la juxtaposition de deux liturgies, l’une longue et unitaire, l’autre rassemblant un certain nombre de rites mineurs. La lituU JLH ORQJXH HW XQLWDLUH HOOHmême composite, est l’assemblage délibéré et VLJQLILDQt de textes d’âge et de type rhétorique divers. Nous ne pouvons donc pas nous demander si les Achéménides ont connu l’Avesta, une nR tion qui est à leur époque un anachronisme strident, mais s’ils ont connu FHUWDLQV GH VHV WH[WHV FRQVWLWXWLIV HW VL RXL VL FHV WH[WHV pWDLHQW HQFRUH pSDUV RXGpMj DVVHPEOpVHQ XQH OLWXUJLH LGHQWLTXH RX DQDORJXH j FHOOH TXL QRXVHVWSDUYHQXH /HFRQVWDWGHGpSDUWHVWQpJDWLI$XFXQGRFXPHQWDFKpPpQLGHFRQQXQH IDLWODFLWDWLRQGLUHFWHd’un texte avestique FRQQX-HGLV©FRQQXªSDUFHTXH la documentation achéménide est ouverte et parce que l’Avesta n’est qu’une anthologie limitée, «GLUHFWH» parce qu’en dépit d’un titre abusif de 3URGV26NM UY¡–$YHVWDTXRWDWLRQVLQ2OG3HUVLDQ" S , il n’y a DXFXQHFLWDWLRQDYHVWLTXHGDQVODGRFXPHQWDWLRQDFKpPpQLGH'HX[W\SHV d’indices sont cependant proches de la citation.  L’Archive des Fortifications mentionne le culte de la déesse Ārmaiti Išpandaramattiš et celui des Frauua is Irdanapirrurtiš . Ce n’est pas la Srésence de ces deux divinités communes avec l’Avesta qui est signifL FDWLYH–il y en a d’autres –, mais l’intégration, dans le nom de la prH

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Jean Kellens

PLqUHGHODTXDOLILFDWLRQišpandaspǝṇWDHWGDQVFHOXLGHVVHFRQGHVGH ODGpWHUPLQDWLRQLUGDQDaša n m/DPrPHH[WHQVLRQRQRPDVWLTXHHVW usuelle dans l’Avesta récent, mais elle n’a pas une origine banale. Elle est la reproduction consciente et systématisée d’une terminologie que les exégètes ont repérée dans l’Avesta ancien, le Y37.3 haptahāWLTXH SRXUOHV)UDXXa is, les Y3 . , et Y . gāthiques pour Ārmaiti. Il est assez clair que l’importance accordée au Y37.3 est liée au fait que c’est la seule mention des Frauua is dans l’Avesta ancien et que les théolR giens de l’Avesta récent considéraient la combinaison des cultes aux eaux et aux Frauua is comme une caractéristique essentielle du Yasna Haptaŋhāiti (Vr 6. , Vr . , Y56. , Y63.3 . Par contre, la raison pour lD TXHOOHOH9ULQVLVWHVXUOHFDUDFWqUHspǝṇWDd’Ārmaiti n’est pas immp GLDWHPHQWDSSDUHQWH-Hne dispose que d’une conjecture personnelle les strophes gāthiques évoquées correspondent au moment où la libD tion de haoma confère à Ārmaiti, qui est aussi la terre, cette qualité SDUWLFXOLqUH  ,O\DDXVVLOHV©=LWDWQDPHQªRXQRPVGHFLWDWLRQ&HWWHSUDWLTXHFRX rante dans l’Avesta récent, consiste à extraire deux mots d’un texte GRQQp SRXU HQ IDLUH XQ QRP SURSUH 4XDWUH QRPV DFKpPpQLGHV VHP blent ainsi calqués sur un passage gāthique. Il s’agit, dans l’ordre aO phabétique, de Artax aça (Artaxerxès  ŠÀE@XUX~TXNDraš nikOiDWL, “inscrutable [hear]t, ingenious mind”; LELG>[[[QDU"E@LND $1ŠÁR DINGIRXOODPuLG>ša GIŠḪ85MEŠQDU"E@LNDṭqHQ šiQDXOLḫḫDDVVDDV, “(Even) a god does not comprehend [the … of] your [PDMHV@W\ O Aššur! 7KHPHDQLQJRI\RXUPD>MHVWLFGHVLJQV] is not understood.”

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theological development of the divine personality of Aššur and of the DGRSWLRQRIDWWULEXWHVRIRWKHUGHLWLHVZKLFKWRRNSODFHGXULQJWKH6DUJR QLGSHULRGThe inscrutability of the divine personality of Aššur has been H[SODLQHGE\3DUSRODDVGXHWRLWVFRPSRVLWHQDWXUHFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\KLV GLYLQH HPDQDWLRQV The conceptualization of the main god’s nature as a plurality of gods and the status of the other deities in terms of “aspects” or “powers” of the supreme god is peculiar to the henotheisWLF WHQGHQFLHV ZKLFK DOVR FKDUDFWHUL]H WKH ILJXUHV RI 0DUGXN DQG 1LQXUWD ,Q DOO OLNHOL hood, the theological tendency to see Aššur as the sole locus of divine SRZHU DQG DV WKH XQLW\ RI WKH ZKROH $VV\ULDQ SDQWKHRQ ZDV SUREDEO\ VWUHQJWKHQHG E\ KLV H[FOXVLYH UHODWLRQVKLS ZLWK WKHLQVWLWXWLRQ RI WKH $V V\ULDQNLQJVKLSDQGWKH$VV\ULDQVWDWH7KDWWKLVWHQGHQF\WRIRFXVRQWKH ILJXUHRIWKHKLJKJRGZDVDGLVWLQFWLYHWUDLWRIWKHLPSHULDOUHOLJLRQLVDOVR FOHDUO\HYLGHQWIURPDORRNDWRQHRIWKHtākultuWH[WVwhere Aššur occurs as repeating member of divine pairs, such as AššurDugul, Aššur$GDG AššurConqueror, AššurTiara, Aššur/DḫPXs, AššurJudges, AššurKurībuV AššurIštar and even AššurAššur.,WVHHPVWKDWLQWKHVHGLYLQHILJXUHVWKH divinity of Aššur UHSUHVHQWHG WKH XQLYHUVDOLW\ RI WKH GLYLQH QDWXUH ZKLOH the second deity (i.e., Adad, Tiara, Ištar, etc  LQGLFDWHG D VSHFLILF GLYLQH SHUVRQDOLW\ DQG IXQFWLRQ ZKLFK ZDV DW WKH VDPH WLPH GLIIHUHQW IURP Aššur, but also a particular form taken by him.7KHSKHQRPHQRQFDQDOVR be observed from the point of view of the identification equating Aššur ZLWKFHOHVWLDOERGLHV,QD1HR$VV\ULDQWH[WFRQFHUQLQJULWXDOSUDFWLFHVLQ

 6HHLQWKH(SLFRI&UHDWLRQ )RVWHU, p. 482) the description of Marduk as “prR found of wisdom, ingenious in perception” and of his heart as “so deep that none of the gods can comprehend it”. His epithet was “Lord of Wisdom”, which is also XVHGLQWKH3RHPRIWKH5LJKWHRXV6XIIHUHU VHH)RVWHUS   3DUSRODSAll the gods are emanated from Aššur, who is defined in the UR\DO GRFXPHQW 6$$  10 as “the selfFUHDWRU banû ramnīšu  WKH IDWKHU RI WKH*UHDW*RGVZKRVHILJXUHZDVH[DOWHGLQWKH$E\VVNLQJRIKHDYHQDQGHDUWK ORUGRIDOOWKHJRGVWKHSURJHQLWRURIWKH,JLJLDQGWKH$QXQQDNLWKHEXLOGHURIWKH URRIRIKHDYHQDQG WKH EDVHPHQWRIHDUWK WKHPDNHURIDOO WKHUHJLRQVOLYLQJLQ the [pur]e starlit heave[ns].” The composite nature of Aššur is witnessed by the 1HR$VV\ULDQSHUVRQDOQDPH*DEEXilāniAššur, see PNA 1/II, p. 414b: “All Gods are Aššur”.   6HH)RVWHUS 6\QFUHWLFK\PQWR0DUGXN DQG 6\QFUHWLFK\PQWR1LQ XUWD   0HQ]HO7LL[[  3RUWHUS

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State theology and royal ideology

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Assur, various stars are identified with AššurDQGDWWHVWWRWKHSURFHVVRI DVWUDOL]DWLRQDQGXQLYHUVDOL]DWLRQRIKLVGLYLQLW\7KLVSURFHVVZDVSUREDEO\ LQIOXHQFHG E\ WKH ULVH RI DVWURQRP\ DQG DVWURORJ\ LQ ILUVW PLOOHQQLXP 0HVRSRWDPLD2QHZRQGHUVZKHWKHUWKHVSUHDGRIWKH%DE\ORQLDQDVWURO RJ\LQDQFLHQW,UDQKDGDQDORJRXVHIIHFWVRQWKHFRQFHSWXDOL]DWLRQRIWKH GLYLQHQDWXUHRIWKH,UDQLDQJRGV $VGLVFXVVHGDERYHWKHZLVGRPZDVDSHFXOLDULW\RIWKH$VV\ULDQJRG $QG DV NQRZQ WKH FRQFHSW RI ZLVGRP DV D GLYLQH DWWULEXWH LV DOVR DW WKH basis of the characterization of Auramazdā, whose QDPHLQFOXGHVWKHZRUG

mazdā, “wisdom,” or *mazdāh, “wise.” The god Auramazdā is not in ZHVWHUQ ,UDQ DWWHVWHG EHIRUH WKH $FKDHPHQLG SHULRG 2Q WKH DXWKRULW\ RI +RPPHOWKHRFFXUUHQFHRIWKHJRG$VVDUDMazašLQWKHtākultuULWXDOWH[W LQ IDYRXU RI $VVXUEDQLSDO WK FHQWXU\ %&(  KDV EHHQ WDNHQ DV WKH SURRI WKDWKHZDVNQRZQLQSUH$FKDHPHQLGWLPHV,IWKLVLVUHDOO\WKHUHQGHU ing of the name of Auramazdā, this could be considered as another piece of  0HQ]HO  772 viii 55’58’ G6$*0(*$5 08/ šá G šúX  G aššur šúX  "    G 08/0Ô/0Ô/$1ŠÁR08/ŠUDUN $1ŠÁR 08/08 6Ì5KÈŠ '$  (1/Ì/$1ŠÁR MUL',/*É1 G šuEDW$1ŠÁR AGA—šá— DQX.,TUŠšá $1ŠÁRšúX, “Jupiter is the star of Sîn and SînLV Aššur. The Plough Star (Pleiades) is Aššur, the Yoke Star (Boötes) is Aššur, the +LWFKHGYoke Star (Draconis?) is Enlil (and) Aššur, the Field Star (Pegasus) is the Seat of Aššur, the TiaraRIAnu is the Seat of Aššur.”  7KHULVHRIDVWURQRP\DQGDVWURORJ\GLGQRWVHHPWRKDYHGHWHUPLQHGDSHUFHSWLRQ RIGLVWDQFHRIWKHJRGVIURPKXPDQV7KLVVFLHQWLILFDQGFXOWXUDOSURFHVVKDSSHQHG DWWKHH[SHQVHRIRWKHUGLYLQDWRU\WHFKQLTXHV6HH3RQJUDW]/HLVWHQES  7KHUHQDPLQJRIWKHSODQHWVZKLFKGDWHVEDFNWRWKH$FKDHPHQLGHUDDVVLJQVWKH names of Ōhrmazd to MardukJupiter, Warahrān to NergalMars, Anāhīd to Ištar Venus, and Tīr to Nabû0HUFXU\6HH*QROL  +RPPHOS  0HQ]HO725 ix 23’ GDVVDUD GPD]Dáš1RWHDOVRWKDWERWKWKHHOHPHQWVRI this theonym bear the determinative for “god.” Presumably, it was considered as a compound formed by two different divine names, as in the case of “AššurEnlil” LELGLYGaššur—G%() and “AdadLightning” (LELGYLL’ G,0—GELUTX   6HH HJ %R\FH  TXRWLQJ WKLV DWWHVWDWLRQ LQ WKH $VV\ULDQ WH[W HUURQHRXVO\ DWWULEXWHG WR WKH WK century BCE) as “the earliest reference to Ahura Mazdā in western Iran.” See also Sims:LOOLDPV  S  LQWHUSUHWLQJ WKH QDPH $VVDUD mazaš as referring to “the principal deity of the Iranians” and corresponding to Auramazdā. Also Stausberg 2003SETXRWHVWKH$VV\ULDQWH[WDQGWKHDW WHVWDWLRQRIWKHGLYLQHQDPHLQKLVLQWURGXFWLRQWRWKH$FKDHPHQLGUHOLJLRQ7KH PXFKTXRWHG$VV\ULDQWH[WZDVZULWWHQGXULQJWKH UHLJQRI$VVXUEDQLSDO DVZLW nessed by the name of the chief scribe Issāršumuēreš in the colophon of the taE OHW6HH0HQ]HO7[LL  DQGWKHGLVFXVVLRQLQ31$,SDVY,V sāršumuērešF

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Salvatore Gaspa

HYLGHQFHWKDWWKH$VV\ULDQVQRWRQO\NQHZ,UDQLDQUHOLJLRXVWUDGLWLRQVEXW WKDWDOVRDGHLW\RIDIDUDZD\UHJLRQLQWKH,UDQLDQDUHDZDVLQWHJUDOSDUW of the “theological mental map” of the Assyrians, who included this foreign JRG DPRQJ WKH YDULRXV GHLWLHV EOHVVLQJ $VVXUEDQLSDO 2QH ZRQGHUV KRZ HYHU ZK\ WKLV WKHRQ\P ZDV UHQGHUHG DV $VVDUDMazaš ,I ZH FRPSDUHWKH ODVW HOHPHQW RI WKH QDPHWR SHUVRQDO QDPHV ERUQHE\ ,UDQLDQ LQGLYLGXDOV DWWHVWHGLQWKH1HR$VV\ULDQWH[WVHJWKHRQHVRI,UDQLDQUXOHUVZKRSDLG WULEXWH WR6DUJRQ LQ WKH \HDUV  %&( ZH VHH WKDWWKH$VV\ULDQ UHQ GHULQJ RI WKH 2OG ,UDQLDQ *mazdā QDPHO\ LQ WKH QDPHV 0DVGDNNX 0DV WXNNX DQG 0DVGDLXNNX LV GLIIHUHQW IURP WKH GLYLQH QDPH RI $VVXUEDQL pal’s ritual text. Secondly, we may also note that both the elements of this WKHRQ\P EHDU Whe determinative for “god” (GDVVDUD GPD]Dáš  3UHVXPD EO\LWZDVFRQVLGHUHGDVDFRPSRXQGQDPHIRUPHGE\WZRGLIIHUHQWGLYLQH names, as in the case of “AššurEnlil”and “AdadLightning.”,WLVWHPSW LQJWR FRQVLGHUWKLVQDPHD UHQGHULQJ WKURXJK WKHPHGLDWLRQ RI DQRWKHU ODQJXDJH"  RI DQ $VDUXQDPH OLNH WKH RQHV PHQWLRQHG DV DSSHOODWLYHV RI 0DUGXN LQ WKH (SLF RI &UHDWLRQ 7KH SUREOHP RI WKH LGHQWLILFDWLRQ RI WKH GHLW\ $VVDUDMazaš FDQQRW EH VROYHG LQ WKH SUHVHQW FRQWULEXWLRQ EXW LW LV DOVR ZRUWK QRWLQJ WKH HQGLQJ LQ aš OLNH LQ WKH QDPHV ḪXPEDQnikaš ḪXPEDQḫaltašDQGKuraš To return to the theological characterization of Auramazdā, it is clear WKDW WKH GLYLQH SHUVRQDOLW\ RI WKH 0HVRSRWDPLDQ UR\DO JRGV PXVW KDYH represented a model for the definition of the figure of Auramazdā in the Achaemenid state theology. The figure of Aššur could have played a role in shaping the divine figure of Auramazdā as regards the universality of KLV GLYLQLW\ DQG IRU KLVVWULFWFRQQHFWLRQ ZLWK KLV KXPDQ UHSUHVHQWDWLYH WKH king) and the empire (seen as the expression of the king’s divine mandate). ,W LV UHDVRQDEOH WR WKLQN WKDW RWKHU WUDLWV RI WKHGLYLQHSHUVRQDOLW\ RI$X ramazdā were adopted from tKH(ODPLWHUR\DOLGHRORJ\DQGVWDWHWKHRORJ\ IRU LQVWDQFH WKH FRQFHSW RI NLWLQ, “divine protection,” which, as already REVHUYHG E\ +HQNHOPDQ ZDV HVSHFLDOO\ UHODWHG WR +XPEDQ LQ WKH 1HR       

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31$,,SE 31$,,SD 31$,,SE 0HQ]HO7LYGaššur—G%( 0HQ]HO725 vii 8’ G,0—GELUTX )RVWHUSOO $VDUL$VDUDOLP$VDUDOLPQXQQD  ,QDOOSUREDELOLW\KurašLVDQ(ODPLWHQDPHZKLFKZDVUHPRGHOHGE\WKH3HUVLDQV LQWRWKHIRUPKuruš6HH7DYHUQLHUSZLWKIXUWKHUOLWHUDWXUH

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ban’s figure as a royal god was the result of the Elamo$VV\ULDQ FXOWXUDO UHODWLRQVRIWKHODWH1HR$VV\ULDQWLPHV+XPEDQFRXOGKDYHDGRSWHGVRPH traits of Aššur. This is not surprising, since the Elamite god was equated ZLWK (QOLO LQ WKH 0HVRSRWDPLDQ WKHRORJLFDO WKRXJKW 7KH IDFW WKDW LQ D OLWHUDU\FRPSRVLWLRQRIWKHODWH1HR$VV\ULDQSHULRG+XPEDQLVPHQWLRQHG DVRQHRIWKHJRGVZKRSURWHFWWKHERG\RIWKHNLQJDQGKLVDUP\PD\EH FRQVLGHUHGDVDFOHDULQGLFDWLRQRIWKH$VV\ULDQUHVSHFWIXODWWLWXGHWRZDUGV WKH(ODPLWHGHLWLHVWKLVDWWLWXGHFRXOGKDYHEHHQIDYRXUHGE\WKHSUHVHQFH RI(ODPLWHSULQFHVDWWKH$VV\ULDQFRXUW $OWKRXJKWKHZRUVKLSRI+XPEDQFRQWLQXHGLQWKH$FKDHPHQLGLPSH ULDOUHOLJLRQWKHSUHURJDWLYHRIWKHNLWLQZDVDEVRUEHGE\WKHILJXUHRI$X ramazdā, as witnessed by the use of the term in the DaivāLQVFULSWLRQ This possible Elamite background of the royal role of Auramazdā, however, DSSHDUV WR KDYH EHHQ UHIRUPXODWHG LQ WKH $FKDHPHQLG UR\DO LGHRORJ\ WKURXJK D XQLYHUVDOLVWLF SHUVSHFtive. Auramazdā is not only a royal god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WRUV $FKDHPHQLGV FRXOG FHUWDLQO\ EHQHILW IURP WKH ORQJVWDQGLQJ VWDWH WUDGLWLRQRI(ODPEXWWKLVORFDOWUDGLWLRQDSSHDUVWRKDYHEHHQUHWKRXJKWLQ WKHOLJKWRIWKHH[SHULHQFHRIWKH$VV\ULDQSURYLQFLDOV\VWHPZKLFKKDGLWV URRWVLQWKH$VV\ULDQNLQJGRPRIWKHVHFRQGPLOOHQQLXP:KDWVHHPVWREH at work in the early Achaemenid religion concerning Auramazdā as a royal JRGUHFDOOVWKHSURFHVVRIDVVLPLODWLRQDQGUHIRUPXODWLRQRIGLIIHUHQWFRH[ LVWLQJERGLHVRIUHOLJLRXVWUDGLWLRQVZKLFKWRRNSODFHLQ$VV\ULDIURPWKH VHFRQGKDOIRIWKHVHFRQGPLOOHQQLXPRQZDUGVDQGZKLFKILQDOO\UHVXOWHG in the conceptualization of Aššur as universal god in the Sargonid age. The theological development of the role of Aššur over the other gods in WKHSRO\WKHLVWLFUHOLJLRQRI$VV\ULDPXVWEHVHHQDVWKHUHIOH[RIWKHGHYHO RSPHQWRIWKHFRQFHSWRI$VV\ULDQNLQJVKLSWRZDUGVWKHFRQFHSWRIXQLYHUVDO NLQJVKLSLQWKHFHQWXULHVRIDSH[RIWKHWHUULWRULDODQGSROLWLFDOH[SDQVLRQRI WKH $VV\ULDQ NLQJGRP 7KH SROLF\ RI SURYLQFLDOL]DWLRQ RI WKH FRQTXHUHG WHUULWRULHVZDVDFFRPSDQLHGE\DVWUHQJWKHQLQJRIWKHFHQWUDOUROHRIWKH temple of Aššur and of the cult of this god in the country. Accordingly, the centralized cult of Aššur and the importance of his shrine in the city reprH VHQWHGWKHFRPPXQDOLGHQWLW\RIWKHLPSHULDOVWUXFWXUHDQGLWVXQLYHUVDOLV tic policy. In other words, the god Aššur and its temple functioned as the K\SRVWDVLV RI WKH HPSLUH DQG RI LWV XQLYHUVDO PLVVLRQ  7KH WKHRORJLFDO transformation of Aššur from QXPHQORFLDQGSDWURQJRGRIWKHFLW\RI$VVXU RULJLQDOO\WKHJRGRI0RXQW(ELḫ WRWKHXQLYHUVDOJRGNLQJRIWKH/DQG RI$VVXUDQGSURWHFWRURIWKHHPSLUHPDGHKLPSHUIHFWO\ILWWRWKHKLVWRUL FDOVLWXDWLRQRI$VV\ULDLQWKHILUVWPLOOHQQLXPDVDPXOWLFXOWXUDOHPSLUHLQ FRQWLQXRXV WHUULWRULDO H[SDQVLRQ 7KH DQFLHQW WHUULWRULDO FRQQHFWLRQ ZLWK WKHFLW\RI$VVXUZDVQRWDEDQGRQHGLQWKLVWLPHEXWVLPSO\WUDQVIHUUHGWR WKHODUJHUscale perspective of the imperial territory. Aššur is inseparable IURPKLVFLW\EXWKHLVDOVRLQVHSDUDEOHIURPWKHLPSHULDOVWUXFWXUHLWVHOI 7KHWHUULWRULDOOLQNZLWKDVWDWHVWUXFWXUHZKRVHH[SDQGDEOHERUGHUVFRLQ cide with the world’s borders strengthens on theological grounds the nR WLRQ RI XQLYHUVDOLW\ RI WKH GLYLQH ILJXUH DQG RI WKH Ning’s mandate. The 6HH-XUVDS 0DQ\HOHPHQWVRIWKH6XPHUR%DE\ORQLDQWUDGLWLRQZHUHDGRSWHGE\WKH$VV\ULDQ theologians to redefine the divine figure of Aššur, such as the Ninurta theology DQGWKHZDUULRUFKDUDFWHUL]DWLRQRIWKHGLYLQLW\WKHP\WKRORJLFDOUROHRIWKHSUL PHYDOGHLW\$1ŠÁRDQGWKHGLYLQHVXSUHPDF\RI(QOLO See Liverani 1979, p. 301, who defines Aššur as the hypostasis of the Assyrian kinJ ship. Liverani’s approach is based on a cRQVLGHUDWLRQRIUHOLJLRQDVDQLQWHJUDOSDUW RIWKHSROLWLFDOVSKHUH 2QWKLVDVSHFWVHH0D\HUSII

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king’s imperial mission to enlarge the Assyrian state borders is explicitly expressed by Esarhaddon as strictly connected to the “father of the gods” in his royal inscriptions; he states that the god Aššur gave him “(the SRZHU  WR OHW FLWLHV  IDOO LQWR UXLQV DQG WR UH SRSXODWH WKHP DQG  WR enlarge the Assyrian territory,”while the other gods’ prerogatives have to do with physical qualities of the king’s person, his kingship, and his ZHDSRQV 7KH IDFW WKDW WKLV JRG ZDV QRW RULJLQDOO\ D GHXV SHUVRQD EXW D PRXQWDLQ DQG D FLW\ FRXOG KDYH IDFLOLWDWHG KLV WUDQVIRUPDWLRQ LQWR D universal god. In addition, the universal character of Aššur was not in coQ WUDVW ZLWK WKH H[LVWHQFH RI RWKHU JRGV ERWK WKH 0HVRSRWDPLDQ JRGV DQG WKHGHLWLHVRIRWKHUFRQTXHUHGFRXQWULHV 7KHHOHPHQWVPHQWLRQHGKHUHDERYHDOOWKHH[FOXVLYHUHODWLRQVKLSOLQN ing god and emperor, may also be recognized in the role of Auramazdā in WKH$FKDHPHQLGLPSHULDOUHOLJLRQ7KHFRQFHSWLRQGHVFULEHGDERYHFKDUDF WHUL]HVWKHYLVXDODQGWH[WXDOFRPPXQLFDWLRQRIWKH$VV\ULDQHPSLUHDQGLV SHFXOLDUWRWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIWKHDFFRXQWVRIWKHUR\DOGHHGVDVDJHQUH in Assyria. The Assyrian “historiographical” tradition emerges in the PRQXPHQWDO LQVFULSWLRQV RI 'DULXV ZKHUH QRW RQO\ WKH WLWXODU\ DQG WKH GLYLQHDIILOLDWLRQRIWKHHPSHURUDUHDFOHDUOHJDF\RIWKH$VV\ULDQLGHRORJ\ EXWDOVRWKHLQWHUQDOQDUUDWLYHVWUXFWXUHKDVLWVURRWVLQWKH$VV\ULDQKLVWR ULRJUDSKLFDOWUDGLWLRQ 7RXVH'XFKHVQHGuillemin’s words, “les inscriptions DFKpPpQLGHVVRQW sommaires.” :KLOH WKLV LV WUXH WKH DQDO\VLV RI WKHLU FRQFLVH QDUUDWLYH VWUXFWXUH DQG WKH QHWZRUN RI OLWHUDU\ PRWLI ZKLFK FKDUDFWHUL]HV WKHP shows that the “Assyrian model” of narrating the king’s deeds has been FRPSOHWHO\DEVRUEHGE\3HUVLDQV7KLVGRHVQRWPHDQWKDWRWKHUUHIHUHQFH PRGHOV IRU VKDSLQJ WKH ILJXUH RI WKH NLQJ IURP WKH %DE\ORQLDQ DQG WKH (ODPLWH UR\DO WUDGLWLRQV ZHUH DEVHQW LQ WKH $FKDHPHQLG LPSHULDO EDFN JURXQG%DE\ORQLDQFXOWXUHGHHSO\LQIOXHQFHG3HUVLDLQPDQ\VFKRODUO\DQG DUWILHOGVZKLOH(ODPLWHUR\DOWUDGLWLRQVZHUHDEVRUEHGE\3HUVLDQVDVZLW

5,1$3   LL  LDDši Gaššur $' ',1*,5MEŠ šuXGGXú ù šušuEX PLṣLU .85 aš šur.,UXXSSXšú úPDDOODDŠUXD 5,1$3LL /LYLQJVWRQHS 'XFKHVQH*XLOOHPLQS

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nessed, for instance, by the royal title of “king of Anšan”DQGE\WKHXVH RIWKH(ODPLWHUR\DOGUHVVE\&\UXV Other aspects of the divine personality of Auramazdā show that WKH SURFHVV RI DVVLPLODWLRQ RI 0HVRSRWDPLDQ VRXUFHV ZDV SHUYDVLYH ,Q WKH UKHWRULF DQG WKH QDUUDWLYH V\VWHP RI WKH $VV\ULDQ UR\DO LQVFULSWLRQV WKH DFWLRQVWDUWVZLWKWKHJRGVZKRVHHWKHGHHGVRIWKHHYLOGRHUV(VDUKDGGRQ IRU H[DPSOH VD\V WKDW WKH $VV\ULDQ JRGV VDZ LWWDṭlūma  WKH GHHGV RI WKH XVXUSHU ZKLFK KDG EHHQ GRQH ZURQJO\ DJDLQVW WKH GLYLQH ZLOO $QDOR gously, Darius says that Auramazdā saw (DYDLQD  WKH HDUWK LQ FRPPRWLRQ DQG WKDW FRQVHTXHQWO\ EHVWRZHG LW XSRQ KLP DQG PDGH KLP NLQJ 7KH $VV\ULDn motif of the king’s prayer to the god, following the description of D GLIILFXOW VLWXDWLRQ DQGSUHFHGLQJ WKH DFFRXQW RI WKH VXFFHVVIXO DFWLRQ RI WKHJRGVXSSRUWHGNLQJDQGWKHGHIHDWRIKLVHQHPLHVLVHTXDOO\XVHGE\ 'DULXVDIWHUWKHSUD\HUWR$XUDPD]Gā, the king receives the divine support and, under the god’s protection, he kills the PDJXV )URP WKH FRQFLVH phrasing of Bīsotūn inscription, it seems that the narrative solution in the Gaumāta’s episode is closer to the early Assyrian attestations of thH WRSRV WKDQ WR WKRVH RI WKH /DWH $VV\ULDQ SHULRG VLQFH GXULQJ WKH 6DUJRQLG DJH WKHUHLVWKHWHQGHQF\WRVSHFLI\WKHSXUSRVHRIWKHSUD\HUWRWKHJRG ,QFRPSDULVRQWRWKHUROHRIRWKHU1HDU(DVWHUQWUDGLWLRQV$VV\ULDQLQ IOXHQFHVHHPVWRKDYHEHHQPRUHVLJQLILFDQWLQWKHFRQFHSWXDOL]DWLRQDQG H[SUHVVLRQ YLD WH[WV DQG LPDJHV DV UHJDUGV WKH ILJXUH RI WKH HPSHURU KLV 7KLV WLWOH ZDV WKHQ DEDQGRQHG E\ 'DULXV ZKR SUHIHUUHG WR RULHQW KLV WLWXODU\ E\ IRFXVLQJ RQ WKH $FKDHPHQLG GHVFHQW DQG WKH ,UDQLDQ HWKQLFLW\ 6HH :DWHUV  S 5,1$3L '1D †  7KH %DE\ORQLDQ YHUVLRQ XVHV D GLIIHUHQW H[SUHVVLRQ VHH /HFRT  p. 220: “ces pays hostiles et mêlés les uns aux autres.” For a discussion on the “praying king” WRSRVLQWKH$VV\ULDQUR\DOLQVFULSWLRQVHH %DUXFKL8QQDS '%S, .HQWS 7KHDFWLRQRILQYRNLQJWKHJRGLVH[SUHVVHGLQWKH 3HUVLDQYHUVLRQE\WKHYHUEDYDK\D patiyāvahyaiy, “I invoked”), while in the Bab\ ORQLDQYHUVLRQZLWKWKHYHUEVṣXOO€ XṣDOOD, “I prayed”). For WKH%DE\ORQLDQYHUVLRQ see von Voigtlander 1978, p. 55: “Then I prayed to Ahura Mazda. Ahura Mazda VXSSRUWHGPH8QGHU WKHSURWHFWLRQRI$KXUD0D]GDRQWKH  WKday of Tashrītu, accompanied by a few nobles, I killed Gaumāta, the Magush.” Compare, for exaP SOHZLWK5,0$$100: “I prayed to Aššur and the Great Gods, my lords, and they gave me a straight answer, a firm ‘yes’. I left my army’s camp taking one WKLUG RI P\ EHVW FKDULRWU\ DQG  WKUHZ WKHP  LQWR EDWWOH DJDLQVW WKHP  WKH 4XWX ,SRXUHGRXWWKHOLYHVRIWKHLUH[WHQVLYHWURRSVOLNHZDWHUIURPWKHERUGHURI WKHODQG8UXDṭULWRWKHODQG.DWPXḫu.”

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GLYLQHLQVSLUHG PLVVLRQ WKH UHOLJLRXV FRQQRWDWLRQ RI WKH UXOLQJ RI WKH PXOWLFXOWXUDOLPSHULDOWHUULWRU\DQGODVWEXWQRWOHDVWWKHQDWXUHRIWKH HPSLUH DQGLWVH[SDQVLRQ DVDGLYLQHSURMHFW7KHVHDVSHFWVGLGQRWGHULYH from Babylonia or Elam. The “grammar” (or “syntax”) of imperialism is DEVHQW IURP1HR%DE\ORQLDQ UR\DO LQVFULSWLRQVZKLFK SHUSHWXDWH DQFLHQW 6XPHULDQ DQG %DE\ORQLDQ PRGHls in the description of the king’s deeds. 7KHUHDUHIHZH[FHSWLRQVVXFKDVWKHFDVHRI1HEXFKDGQH]]DUZKRGHOLE HUDWHO\WULHGWRGLVWDQFHKLPVHOIIURPWKHUKHWRULFRIWKH$VV\ULDQNLQJVE\ XVLQJ DUFKDLF UR\DO WLWOHV LQVSLUHG E\ WKH LQVFULSWLRQV RI ḪDPPXUDSL RI %DE\ORQ DQG 6DUJRQ RI $NNDG WR FUHDWH D JHQXLQHO\ %DE\ORQLDQ LPSHULDO LGHRORJ\ ,QVWHDG WKH $VV\ULDQ PRGHO DSSHDUV WR KDYH EHHQ LPLWDWHG E\ 1DERQLGXVZKRHPSOR\HG$VV\ULDQWLWOHVXVHGE\$VVXUEDQLSDO%XWWKHVH VROXWLRQV LQ %DE\ORQLDQ UR\DO UKHWRULF DUH QRW DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK D SROLWLFDO PHVVDJHRIZRUOGGRPLQLRQ 2Q WKH ZKROH 1HR%DE\ORQLDQ UR\DO LQVFULSWLRQV DUH %DE\ORQLDQ LQ FKDUDFWHUGHVSLWHDIHZHOHPHQWVDWWHVWLQJWKHXVHRI$VV\ULDQPRGHOV HV SHFLDOO\ LQ 1HR%DE\ORQLDQ LQVFULSWLRQV IURP +DUUān). 7KH EDFNJURXQG PD\QRWRQO\EHDGHOLEHUDWHSROLF\RIGLVWDQFHIURPWKH$VV\ULDQLPSHULDO LGHRORJ\EXWDOVRWKHGLIIHUHQWGHYHORSPHQWVRIWKHJHQUHRIWKHUR\DOLQ VFULSWLRQ LQ $VV\ULD DQG LQ %DE\ORQLD 7KHVDPH PD\ EHVWDWHG DV UHJDUGV WKHPRQXPHQWDODUWSURJUDPPHRIWKH1HR%DE\ORQLDQNLQJVLIZHDFFHSW WKDW WKH VFDUFH HYLGHQFH RI UR\DO UHSUHVHQWDWLRQV LQ WKH DUFKDHRORJLFDO UHFRUG LV DQ LQGLFDWLRQ RI WKH ODFN RI D FRKHUHQW DQG V\VWHPDWLF YLVXDO VWUDWHJ\ DW WKH VHUYLFH RI WKH 1HR%DE\ORQLDn royal ideology. The “graP mar” of imperialism that we may recognize in the Achaemenid royal iQ VFULSWLRQV DOWKRXJK YHU\ FRQFLVH LQ FRPSDULVRQ WR WKDW RI WKH $VV\ULDQ UR\DO LQVFULSWLRQV KDV LWV IRUHUXQQHU LQ WKH UKHWRULF RI WKH 1HR$VV\ULDQ kings’ texts. 1HR(ODPLWH UR\DO LQVFULSWLRQV E\ FRQWUDVW GR QRW FRQWDLQ GHWDLOVRQPLOLWDU\DFWLRQVDQGGRQRWIROORZWKHDQQDOLVWLFIRUPDWZKLFKLV W\SLFDO RI WKH $VV\ULDQ WUDGLWLRQ 0RVW RI WKHP DUH GHGLFDWRU\ LQ FKDUDF WHU The Bīsotūn inscription of Darius employVYDULRXVPRWLIVSHFXOLDUWR WKH $VV\ULDQ WUDGLWLRQ One of these is the motif of the one “chosen by 6HH6FKDXGLJSIRUWKH$VV\ULDQLVPVLQ1DERQLGXVLQVFULSWLRQV *DUULVRQS :DWHUVS6HH.|QLJDQG0DOEUDQ/DEDWS Apart from thematic motifs, the description of the king’s deeds in the Bīsotūn LQVFULSWLRQ DOVR VKRZV WKH XVH RI WKH FKURQRORJLFDO DUUDQJHPHQW RI WKH PLOLWDU\ HYHQWV LQ DFFRUGDQFH ZLWK WKH $VV\ULDQ KLVWRULRJUDSKLFDO WUDGLWLRQ 6HH IRU LQ

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the god.” Darius says that he was king by the favour of Auramazdā, and WKDWXSRQKLPWKHJRGEHVWRZHGWKHNLQJVKLS7KXV'DULXVEHFRPHVNLQJ EHFDXVH KH LV FRQVLGHUHG ILW IRU NLQJVKLS WR WKH H\HV RI WKH JRG DQG WKH NLQJVKLSLVDGLYLQHJLIWWKHVHLGHDVZHUHLQWHJUDOSDUWRIWKH$VV\ULDQ DQG 0HVRSRWDPLDQ  FRQFHSW RI NLQJVKLS ,WZDV E\WKHIDYRXU RIWKLV JRGWKDW WKH *UHDW .LQJ KHOG WKH NLQJGRP 7KDQNV WR GLYLQH IDYRXU WKH HQHP\ FRXQWULHV EHFDPH KLV YDVVDOV and obeyed the king’s law. 7KH LPSOLFD tion of being “chosen by the god” is that the god brings the king aid. 7KH$VV\ULDQFRQFHSWRIWKHNLQJDVDGLYLQHFUHDWLRQILQGVLWVH[SUHV VLRQ WKURXJK WKH PRWLI RI WKH H[FOXVLYH DIILOLDWLRQ RI 'DULXV DQG $X ramazdā, when he says in an inscription from Susa that “Auramazdā is mine, I am Auramazdā’s.” 7KH $VV\ULDQ NLQJV FOHDUO\ VWDWH LQ WKHLU LQ VFULSWLRQVWRKDYHEHHQFUHDWHGE\WKHJRGV(VDUKDGGRQIRUH[DPSOHGH scribes himself as a “creation of the god Aššur and of the goddess Mullissu.”$FFRUGLQJWR$VV\ULDQUR\DOLGHRORJ\WKHDVFHQWWRWKHWKURQH VWDQFH'%S, .HQW, p. 119): “This is what was done by me after that I became king” and DBS 9 LELG p. 134): “This is what I did in both the second and the third year.” For Darius’ motif of the battles fought “LQRQHDQGWKHVDPH year” (DBS,9,9,9>.HQWS@ ZKLFKIROORZVDQ$VV\ULDQ SDWWHUQ DQG ZKLFK LV SUHYLRXVO\ DWWHVWHG LQ 2OG $NNDGLDQ DQG 2OG %DE\ORQLDQ WLPHVVHH3DQDLQRSIQ 7KLV GRHV QRW PHDQ WKDW WKH $VV\ULDQ PRQXPHQWV ZHUH WKH RQO\ PRGHO IRU WKH Bīsotūn relief. Previous carved rock reliefs with inscriptions in the vicinity of BīsR tūn, at SarH 3ROe Zohāb, could have inspired Darius to carve his victory monX ment. Specific iconographical details (e.g., Darius’EHDUGDQGKDLUVW\OHWKHWRUVRRI WKHILJXUHLQWKHZLQJHGGLVNHWF KRZHYHUSRLQWDWWKH$VV\ULDQUR\DOLFRQRJUD SK\ HVSHFLDOO\RIWKHVHYHQWKFHQWXU\%&( DVDVLJQLILFDQWVRXUFHRILQVSLUDWLRQ '%S, .HQW, p. 119): “By the favour ofAuramazdā I am king; Auramazdā bestowed the kingship upon me” (vašnā Auramazdāha adam xšāyaθiya ami, AX ramazdā xšaçam manā frābara LELG† .HQW, p. 119): “Auramazdā bH stowed this kingdom upon me.” '%S,26 (Kent 19532, p. 119): “Auramazdā bore me aid until I got possession of this kingdom; by the favour of Auramazdā I hold this kingdom.”  '%S , .HQW , p. 119): “By the favour of Auramazdā they were my suE jects; to bore tribute to me” (vašnā Auramazdāha manā bandakā āhantā, manā bājim abarantā  '%S , .HQW , p. 119): “By the favour of Auramazdā these countries showed respect toward my law.” '%S ,, .HQW  S   DQG SDVVLP: “Auramazdā bore me aid” ($XUDPD] dāmai upastām abara  '6NS .HQWS  5,1$3LL

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KDGWRDFFRUGZLWKGLYLQHZLOO,QRUGHUWREHILWIRUNLQJVKLSWKHFDQGLGDWH WRWKHWKURQHKDGWREHHQGRZHGZLWKWKHSRZHUVRIWKHJRGVLQRUGHUWR PDLQWDLQ DQG FRQVROLGDWH WKH FRVPLF RUGHU ,Q WKH VWDWHPHQW PDGH E\ Darius, the king is not only saying that Auramazdā is his own god and that KH EHORQJVWR WKH JRG 7KHUH LV DOVR DQH[SOLFLW UHIHUHQFHWR $XUDPD]Gā’s elevation to the role of head of the pantheon and royal god as Darius’ creD tion. The hypostatization of Darius’ kingship takes place through the divine figure of Auramazdā, one of the many divine figures who populated the FRPSRVLWH(ODPR,UDQLDQSDQWKHRQRIWKH$FKDHPHQLGV 7KHPRWLIRIWKHNLQJUHFHLYLQJKLVSRZHUVIURPWKHJRGVLVDOVRWUDQV mitted to Achaemenid royal ideology. In the NaqšH 5RVWDP LQVFULSWLRQ 'DULXVVWDWHVWKDWKLVZLVGRPDQGDFWLYLW\DVZHOODVKLVSK\VLFDOVNLOOIXO QHVVHV ZHUH Eestowed upon him by Auramazdā. 7KLV LV UHPLQLVFHQW RI what we read in an Assurbanipal’s inscription, where the power of coP SUHKHQVLRQRIWKHNLQJGHULYHVIURP0DUGXNWKHZLVGRPIURP1DE€DQG WKHSK\VLFDOVWUHQJWKIURP1LQXUWDDQG1HUJDO7KHUHDUHDOVRRWKHULQ WHUHVWLQJ DQDORJLHV EHWZHHQ WKH SHUVRQDO TXDOLWLHV RI $VVXUEDQLSDO DQG Darius. The description of Darius’ military abilities in the NaqšH 5RVWDP LQVFULSWLRQ VHHPV WR PLUURU WKH UR\DO WUDLQLQJ RI $VVXUEDQLSDO LQ WKH LQ VFULSWLRQVZKHUHWKH$VV\ULDQNLQJVKRZVKLVXQULYDOOHGPDVWHULQJRILQWHO OHFWXDODQGSK\VLFDOVNLOOVRuling the Land of the god Aššur and expanG

'1EE  .HQW , p. 140): “(Auramazdā) who bestowed wisdom and activity upon Darius the King.” '1EE  .HQW , p. 140): “And the (physical) skillfulnesses which AX ramazdā has bestowed upon me and I have the strength to use them.” 6WUHFNSWH[W/L '1EEI .HQW, p. 140): “This indeed is my activity: inasmuch as my body has the strength, as battle fighter I am a good battle fighter” and 40 LELG): “TraineG DP , ERWK ZLWK KDQGV DQG ZLWK IHHW $V D KRUVHPDQ , DP D JRRG KRUVHPDQ $V D ERZPDQ,DPDJRRGERZPDQERWKDIRRWDQGRQKRUVHEDFN$VDVSHDUPDQ,DPD good spearman both afoot and on horseback.” See the passage referring to AssuU banipal’s military abilLWLHV LQ WKH / inscription: “This is what was done all of my GD\V , PRXQWHG P\ VWHHG , URGH MR\IXOO\ , ZHQW XS WR WKH KXQWLQJ  ORGJH "  , KHOGWKHERZ,OHWIO\WKHDUURZWKHVLJQRIP\YDORU,KXUOHGKHDY\ODQFHVOLNHD MDYHOLQ +ROGLQJ WKH UHLQV OLNH D GULYHU , PDGH WKH ZKHHOV JR URXQG , OHDUQHG WR KDQGOHWKHarītu DQGNDEDEXVKLHOGVOLNHDKHDY\armed bowman(?)” (translation aI WHU/XFNHQELOOS 7KHVDPHVNLOOVDUHVXPPDUL]HGLQWKH3ULVPLQVFULS WLRQV$DQG)VHH%RUJHUS3ULVP$L)L29: “I, Assurbanipal, laid KROG XSRQ WKH ZLVGRP RI 1DE€ SHQHWUDWHG LQWR DOO WKH LQWULFDFLHV  RI WKH DUW RI ZULWLQJDVSUDFWLFHGE\DOONLQGVRIFUDIWVPHQOHDUQHGKRZWRVKRRWZLWKWKHERZ

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LQJ LWV ERUGHUV PHDQW WR FRQVROLGDWH WKH ZRUOG RUGHU HVWDEOLVKHG E\ WKH JRGV$VV\ULDQUR\DOLQVFULSWLRQVSRUWUD\WKHPRQDUFKDVWKHRQHFKRVHQE\ the gods. Sargon was appointed to kingship by Aššur, (VDUKDGGRQ ZDV QDPHGIRUNLQJVKLSE\WKHJRGVZKHQKHZDVDFKLOG DQG$VVXUEDQLSDO states that he was still in his mother’s womb when Aššur and Sîn prR FODLPHGKLPIRUNLQJVKLS $VVXUEDQLSDODOVRFODLPVWKDWKLVNLQJVKLSZDVGHFUHHGE\JRGVWKURXJK RUDFOHVWas the favour of Auramazdā to the king analogously confirmed E\RUDFXODUSUDFWLFHV"7KHHSLVRGHGHVFULEHGE\+HURGRWXVLQKLV +LVWRULHV ,,, DVUHJDUGVWKHFKRLFHRI'DULXVWKURXJKKLSSRPDQWLFVDQGWKH VXGGHQWKXQGHUVKRZVWKDWWKHNLQJZDVFKRVHQE\DQRPHQDQGWKDWWKH JRGFRQILUPHGWKLVE\PHDQVRIKHDYHQO\VLJQV$WWKHHQGRIWKHSDVVDJH +HURGRWXV VD\V WKDW 'DULXV VHW XS D VWRQH PRQXPHQW ZLWK DQ LQVFULSWLRQ FRPPHPRUDWLQJ WKDW KH JDLQHG WKH 3HUVLDQ NLQJVKLS E\ PHDQV RI KLV horse’s excellence. ,W VHHPV WKDW WKH VRXUFH RI WKLV UHIHUHQFH LV WKH LQ scription on Rusâ’s equestrian statue that Sargon states to have found duU LQJWKH$VV\ULDQVDFNRIWKHWHPSOHRIḪDOGLLQ0XṣāṣLULQKLVHLJKWKFDP SDLJQ$FFRUGLQJWRWKLVLQVFULSWLRQ TXRWHGLQWKHWH[WRIWKHHLJKWKFDP SDLJQ DFFRXQW  WKH NLQJVKLS RYHU 8UDUṭXZDV REWDLQHG E\5XVkWKDQNV WR KLVWZRKRUVHVDQGKLVVLQJOHFKDULRWGULYHU1RWHWKDWWKHDVVRFLDWLRQRI KRUVHV DQG FKDULRWV LV XVHG E\ 'DULXV LQ WKH GHVFULSWLRQ RI WKH NLQJGRP granted to him by Auramazdā in two Susa inscriptions. $ UHODWHG SRLQW FRQFHUQV WKH VXGGHQ FHOHVWLDO SKHQRPHQRQ GHVFULEHG E\+HURGRWXVZKLFKFDQDJDLQEHFRQQHFWHGWRD0HVRSRWDPLDQVRXUFH,Q IDFWZHDWKHURPHQVRIWKHVHULHVEnūma Anu EnlilLQFOXGHGRPLQDFRQFHUQ LQJWKXQGHUVWRUPVDQGOLJKWQLQJIODVKHV,QWKH7DEOHWEHORQJLQJWRWKH group of the “Adad Tablets” of the series and originating from AssurbanL pal’s royal library in Nineveh, it is statedthat “If Adad thunders and lighW WRULGHKRUVHVDQGFKDULRWVWRKROGthe reins” (translation after Luckenbill 1927, p.   6HH2GHGS 2GHGS 2GHGS 2GHGS .XKUWS +GW,,,VHH.XKUWS 0D\HUSOLYLQD ANŠE.85.˹5$˺MEŠLDHQ /ÔGIŠ*,*,5LD /8*$/XW .85XUDUṭLLNšuGXTDWLEDULP('(1šúXQ '6SDQG'6V .HQWS 

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ning follows immediately, Adad will destroy the horses.”,WLVNQRZQWKDW WKHVHULHVEnūma Anu EnlilZKLFKRULJLQDWHGLQ%DE\ORQLDDQGWKHQSDVVHG WR $VV\ULD ZDV SRSXODU LQ WKH 1HR$VV\ULDQ SHULRG DV ZLWQHVVHG E\ WKH UHSRUWV RQ FHOHVWLDO SKHQRPHQD DQG E\ TXRWDWLRQV LQ OHWWHUV VHQW WR WKH NLQJV3HUKDSVWKHPHPRU\RIWKHVWULFWFRQQHFWLRQOLQNLQJKRUVHVFHOHV WLDOSKHQRPHQDDQGVXFFHVVIXONLQJLQWKH0HVRSRWDPLDQDVWURORJLFDOORUH is at the basis of Herodotus’ description of the Persian king’s successful ULGHDOWKRXJKWKH*UHHNVRXUFHVHHPWRGHVFULEHWKHVHHOHPHQWVDVSURSHU Iranian traditions. If Herodotus’ description of this episode is reliable, we PD\ VXJJHVW WKDWH[SHUWVLQ FHOHVWLDO RPLQD ZHUH FRQVXOWHGE\ 'DULXV DQG WKDWWKHVHVFKRODUVH[SODLQHGWKHSRVLWLYHVLJQLILFDQFHRIWKHSKHQRPHQRQ REVHUYHGGXULQJWKHULGHE\TXRWLQJWKHEnūma Anu Enlil VHULHV)RUH[SHUWV YHUVHG LQ WKH H[HJHVLV RI WKH FDQRQLFDO VHULHV DQG QR OHVV LPSRUWDQW RI PDWFKLQJWKHGLYLQHZLOOZLWh the king’s will, it must have been extremely HDV\WRH[SODLQWKDWWKHEDGRPHQDERXWWKHKRUVHV SOXUDO ZRXOGQRWKDYH concerned the king’s horse. In this contect it may be observed that in the GHVFULSWLRQ RI WKH HTXHVWULDQ FRPSHWLWLRQ WKH IRFXV LV RQO\ on the king’s KRUVHZKLFKZRQWKHULGHQRWRQWKHKRUVHVRIWKHRWKHUFDYDOU\PHQ WKH FRQVSLUDWRUV  The exclusive relationship with the god gives the king’s person divine DWWULEXWHV 7KH PRVW FKDUDFWHULVWLF RI WKHVH LV WKH GLYLQH UDGLDQFH 7KH SUHVHQFHRIDGLYLQHOLNHUDGLDQFHVXUURXQGLQJWKHSHUVRQRIWKH$VV\ULDQ NLQJH[SUHVVHGE\WKHWHUPPHODPPXDQGLWVV\QRQ\PVZDVDFKDUDFWHULV WLFHOHPHQWRIWKHLGHRORJ\RINLQJVKLSLQ$VV\ULD)LUVWRIDOOLWZDVDQDW WULEXWHRIGHLWLHV$VDSHFXOLDULW\RIWKHGLYLQHVSKHUHPHODPPXH[SUHVVHG VRYHUHLJQW\WKHSRVVHVVLRQRILWPDGHDJRGVXLWDEOHIRUWKHUROHRIVRYHU HLJQ RYHU RWKHU GHLWLHV $FFRUGLQJ WR $VV\ULDQ VWDWH UHOLJLRQ WKH *UHDW *RGV SODFHG WKH PHODPPX upon the king’s person: this idea that the king ZDV FORWKHG LQ PHODPPX SUREDEO\ GHYHORSHG XQGHU WKH LQIOXHQFH RI DQ investiture in which the king was ritually draped with a cloak at the Aššur 7HPSOHLQWKHKRO\FLW\RI$VVXULQWKLVFRQWH[WWKHUR\DOFORDNSUREDEO\ UHSUHVHQWHGWKHSK\VLFDOHYLGHQFHRIWKHGLYLQHUDGLDQFHFDOOHGPHODPPX $FFRUGLQJ WR D FXOWLF FRPPHQWDU\ WR WKH $VV\ULDQ UHOLJLRXV FDOHQGDU WKH Gehlken 2012, p. 61, l. 39’, DIŠ GIŠKUR GÙšú ŠUBPD 1,0*Ì5 ušWDTULE ANŠE.855$MEŠ G IŠKUR RALṣ [>   @[ $ FRQQHFWLRQ EHWZHHQ FHOHVWLDO SKHQRPHQD DQG KRUVHV LV H[ pressed in the following good omen: “If Adad thunders like a horse, that land will make progress” (LELGS7DEOHW  $VWHUSII $VWHUS

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WKday of Šabāṭu is the day when the king wears a crown. The coronation FHUHPRQ\LVFRPSDUHGYLDmythological imagery to the victory of Bēl over Anu; after assuming the kingship, Bēl (and the Assyrian king) bathes and SXWVRQWKHUR\DOGUHVV7KHFXVWRPRIGUHVVLQJWKHQHZNLQJLQWKHFRUR QDWLRQFHUHPRQ\SUREDEO\VXUYLYHGXQWLOWKH$FKDHPHQLGSHULRG3OXWDUFK $UW LQIRUPVXVDERXWWKHUR\DOLQYHVWLWXUHFHUHPRQ\RI$UWD[HU[HV ,,GXULQJWKHFHUHPRQ\ZKLFKWRRNSODFHLQWKHWHPSOHRIDZDUOLNHJRG GHVVDQGKDGWKHFKDUDFWHULVWLFRIDQLQLWLDWLRQHYHQWWKHFDQGLGDWHIRUWKH 3HUVLDQNLQJVKLSKDGWRVWULSKLPVHOIRIKLVRZQUREHDQGSXWRQWKDWZKLFK &\UXV,ZRUHEHIRUHKHZDVNLQJ,QWKLVSDVVDJHZHUHFRJQL]HVRPHHOH ments of the Assyrian coronation ritual. In the Aššur Temple, the candidate WRWKH$VV\ULDQšarrūtu KDGWRSODFHDGHFRUDWHGJDUPHQWSUHVXPDEO\WKH royal garment, at the feet of the god’s statue alongside a bowl of oil. 7KH UHJXODURIIHULQJVWREHSHUIRUPHGE\WKHNLQJFRPSULVHWKHSUHVHQWDWLRQRI VDFULILFLDODQLPDOVDQGVWRQHVWRWKHJRGVRI$VV\ULD3HUKDSVWKHVWRQH ZKLFKHDFKJRGUHFHLYHGLQWKH$VV\ULDQULWXDOLVSUREDEO\DQDORJRXVWRWKH “stone” mentioned by Pliny as the one which was “indispensable for the Magi at the installation of a king” (1+;;;9,,  7KHVH REVHUYDWLRQV OHDG XV WR D UHFRQVLGHUDWLRQ RI WKH LFRQRJUDSKLF PRWLIRIWKHZLQJHGVXQGLVNZKLFKRFFXUVLQUR\DOVFHQHVDERYHWKHILJXUH RIWKHNLQJERWKLQ$VV\ULDQDQGLQ$FKDHPHQLGDUW7KHH[DFWVLJQLILFDQFH RIWKLV$VV\ULDQV\PEROLVVWLOOGHEDWHGDQGLWLVQRWP\LQWHQWLRQWRUHYLHZ KHUHWKHFRSLRXVOLWHUDWXUHRQWKHVXEMHFWLWLVJHQHUDOO\LQWHUSUHWHGDV an image of Aššur, the supreme god of Assyria from which legitimacy to UXOH WKH FRXQWU\ GHVFHQGV WR KLV KXPDQ UHSUHVHQWDWLYH WKH NLQJ 7KH GL YLQH GLVNVKDSHG V\PERO ZKLFK LQ LWV EDVLF VWUXFWXUH LV FRPSRVHG E\ D ZLQJHGGLVNZLWKYROXWHIHDWKHUHGWDLODQGVWUHDPHUVLVRIWHQDVVRFLDWHG WR DQ DQWKURSRPRUSKLF LPDJH ULGLQJ RU HPHUJLQJ IURP  WKH GLVN 7KLV LPDJHFRQVWLWXWHGE\DEHDUGHGPDOHILJXUHZLWKWKHW\SLFDOGLYLQHKRUQHG 6$$>8@'.É0ša /8*$/$*$Ì/XEHOXP*ÔGDQXPLNNLVXP>D@˹x x˺ >[[@ /8*$/WXNLLLOTXX>$@MEŠLUPXNQDDOEDšú ˹LW˺W>DDObiš@ %ULDQWS Müller 1937, p. 8, l. i 35’ 1 7Ô*OXEDOWDDGLWDPOL>W@Hša išWXNDSpi ša Ï0(6LQD*Ï5 ',1*,5LšaNDQ 0OOHUSIIll. i 41’46’, ii 1ULLLLY$PRQJWKHYDULRXV deities mentioned in this text as beneficiaries of the offerings, we find Aššur, Šērū’a, Nusku, Kippatmāti, Enlil, Dagan, the “JudgesRIWKHDais,” Sîn, Šamaš, Ea, Ninurta, the “Deposed Gods,” and Mullissu. %ULDQWS 6HHWKHUHIHUHQFHVTXRWHGLQ+ROORZD\SDQGQQI

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WLDUD LV FRQVLGHUHG WR represent Aššur. The iconographic element always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īsotūn and Naqš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part of the artistic language of the Achaemenid empire’s artisans and prR PRWHG WKH FUHDWLRQ RI WKH ODUJHVFDOH PRQXPHQWDO DUW SURJUDPPH RI 'DULXV,QIDFWLWLVLQWHUHVWLQJWRREVHUYHWKDWWKHGLYLQHSUHVHQFHLQWKH Bīsotūn relief is represented with the winged disk of the god Aššur, not ZLWKRWKHUGLYLQHV\PEROVWKDW'DULXVFRXOGKDYHVHHQLQWKHYLFLQLW\RIKLV FDUYHGURFNPRQXPHQWVXFKDVWKHDVWUDOV\PEROUHSUHVHQWHGEHWZHHQWKH figure of King Annubanini and Ištar on the SarH3ROUHOLHIDWDURXQG kilometres to the west of Bīsotūn. (YLGHQWO\ DVWUDOL]DWLRQ ZDV QRW FRQ VLGered the more appropriate way to express the divinity of Auramazdā, although astral symbols are attested in Darius’ monuments. We may suS SRVHWKDWWKHFKRLFHRIWKHKDOIILJXUHLQWKHZLQJHGGLVNZDVSUREDEO\GXH WR WKH QHFHVVLW\ WR XQGHUOLQH WKH FRQFHSW RI WKH H[FOXVLYH NLQJJRG UHOD tionship of Darius’ royal ideology; presumably, the anthropomorphization of Auramazdā was considered the more appropriate means to express the GLYLQHVXSSRUWWRWKHNLQJDQGWKHSUR[LPLW\RIWKHNLQJWRWKHUR\DOJRG :HPD\DVNZKHWKHUWKLVFXOWXUDOWUDQVIHUIURP$VV\ULDWR3HUVLDZDV OLPLWHG WR WKH DUW ODQJXDJH RU ZKHWKHU LW DOVR FRQFHUQHG WKH WKHRORJLFDO FRQFHSWLRQ RI JRG ZKLFK ZDV DW WKH EDVH RI WKH $VV\ULDQ LFRQLF HOHPHQW 7KHTXHVWLRQLVVWLOORSHQ3HUVRQDOO\,WKLQNLWZRXOGEHUHGXFWLYHWRFRQ VLGHU WKH XVH RI FHUWDLQ $VV\ULDQ HOHPHQWV LQ WKH YLVXDO LPDJHU\ RI WKH *DUULVRQS %|UNHU.OlKQILJ

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$FKDHPHQLG UR\DO UHSUHVHQWDWLRQV VROHO\ DV D VW\OLVWLF FKRLFH RI DUWLVWV ZLWKRXW DQ\ UHODWLRQVKLS ZLWK WKH LGHRORJLFDO DQG UHOLJLRXV EDFNJURXQG ZKLFK IRUPHG WKH LPSHULDO FXOWXUH ,QVWHDG LW VHHPV PRUH SODXVLEOH WKDW WKH XVH RI WKH $VV\ULDQ ZLQJHG LFRQ DQG RI RWKHU HOHPHQWV  E\ $FKDHP HQLGV ZDV DFFRPSDQLHG E\ DQ ,UDQR0HVRSRWDPLDQ LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ RI WKH YLVXDO DQG FRQFHSWXDO HOHPHQWV RI WKH $VV\ULDQ LPSHULDO UHOLJLRQ )RU H[DPSOH LW LV UHDVRQDEOH WR WKLQN WKDW WKH ,UDQLDQ FRQFHSW RI WKH IDUQDK[YDUǝQDK RI WKH NLQJ ZKLFK LV QRW DWWHVWHG LQ WKH $FKDHPHQLG WH[WV DOWKRXJK VRPH VFKRODUV WHQG WR DWWULEXWH WKLV HOHPHQW WR WKH $FKDHPHQLG NLQJV PXVW KDYH EHHQ LQIOXHQFHG DW OHDVW LQ SDUW  E\ WKH 0HVRSRWDPLDQ FRQFHSW RI WKH PHODPPX %RWK WKH PHODPPX DQG WKH [YDUǝQDK KDYH WR GR ZLWK WKH OXPLQRXV DQG WULXPSKDQW DVSHFW RI WKH WKHRSKDQ\ DQG FRQVHTXHQWO\ DOVR ZLWK WKH DSSHDUDQFH RI WKH YLFWRULRXV NLQJ7KHSUR[LPLW\RINLQJDQGJRGDQGWKHGLYLQHPDQGDWHFKDUDFWHUL] LQJKLVUXOHDUHPDGHHYLGHQWE\WKHSUHVHQFHRIWKHZLQJHGGLVNLFRQDQG by the likeness of the divine figure in the disk and the king’s figure. In the $FKDHPHQLG UHSUHVHQWDWLRQV DV HJ LQ WKH URFN UHOLHIV DW Bīsotūn DQG NaqšH5RVWDP WKHV\PEROLVFRPPRQO\LQWHUSUHWHGDVWKHLPDJHRI$X ramazdā (also by the scholars following the ZoroastrianRULHQWHGLQWHUSUH WDWLRQ RUDVWKDWRIUR\DOIRUWXQHRUOXPLQRXVJORU\JLYHQE\WKHJRGWR WKHNLQJ,IWKHZLQJHGGLVNLVUHDOO\DYLVXDOUHQGHULQJRIWKH3HUVLDQJRG DQG WKH IDFW WKDW KH LV SRUWUD\HG ZLWK WKH 0HVRSRWDPLDQ KRUQHG WLDUD 6HH*QROLS *QROL  S  1RWH WKDW WKH 2OG ,UDQLDQ IRUP IDUQDK RFFXUV LQ ,UDQLDQ SHU VRQDO QDPHV DWWHVWHG LQ WKH 1HR$VV\ULDQ VRXUFHV $JQXSDUQX 31$ , S D “With the firegod’s splendour of fortune”); %DJDSDUQD LELG 1/II, p. 251a: “With the gods’ splendour of fortune”); Paranšaka LELG. 3/I, p. 988b: “RemePEHULQJ WKH splendour of fortune”);3DUQXD LELG. p. 989b: “Rich in splendour of fortune”); Šidir SDUQD LELG. 3/II, p. 1265b: “With shining splendour of fortune”). See also the name (SDUQD LELG,,SE 7KHVHDQWKURSRQ\PVPD\EHFRQVLGHUHGDVDQLPSRU WDQWSLHFHRIHYLGHQFHDERXWWKHUHOLJLRQRIWKH0HGHV 6HH:LHVHK|IHUSD *QROL VHHV LQ WKH UHODWLRQ EHWZHHQ OLJKW DQG WKH OLIH IRUFH DQG EHWZHHQ VSOHQGRU DQG NLQJVKLS D FRPPRQ WUDLW EHWZHHQ WKH 0HVRSRWDPLDQ PHODPPX DQG WKH [YDUǝQDK1HYHUWKHOHVVDGLUHFWLQIOXHQFHRIWKH0HVRSRWDPLDQFRQFHSWRQWKH,UD QLDQRQHLVQRWDFFHSWHGE\WKLVDXWKRU *QROL  6HHHJ6NM UY¡S )RU WKLV VHFRQG LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ VHH *QROL  DQG %RXFKDUODW  S  7KH VLJQLILFDQFHRIWKHV\PEROLQWKH$FKDHPHQLGUHOLJLRXVFRQWH[WLVVWLOODPDWWHURI GHEDWH KRZHYHU VHH *DUULVRQ WKLV YROXPH ZLWK SUHYLRXV OLWHUDWXUH RQ WKH VXE MHFW

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SRLQWVLQWKDWGLUHFWLRQ WKHQWKLVLVSHUKDSVWKHXQLTXHIRUPRIUHSUH VHQWDWLRQRIKLVGLYLQLW\LQWKHHDUO\$FKDHPHQLGSHULRG,QWHUHVWLQJO\WKLV is also the form of representation of Aššur, the supreme Assyrian god and LPDJHRIWKH*UHDW*RGVRI$VV\ULDZKRFRQVWDQWO\SURWHFWWKHNLQJGXULQJ WKHH[HUFLVHRIKLVUXOH7KLVLFRQRJUDSKLFHOHPHQWZDVSUREDEO\WUDQVPLW WHGIURP$VV\ULDWR3HUVLDDORQJZLWKRWKHUHOHPHQWVRIWKH$VV\ULDQLPSH ULDOLFRQRJUDSK\7KHLFRQLQLWVFRPSRVLWHVWUXFWXUHPDQLIHVWVWKHWKHR ORJLFDOFRQFHSWRIWKHKHDGRIWKHSDQWKHRQDVVXPWRWDORIWKHJRGVRULQ RWKHU ZRUGV RI WKH XQLWy of the Great Gods in Aššur. Reusing an iconR JUDSKLFDO PRWLI DOUHDG\ DWWHVWHG LQ 0LWWDQQLDQ DQG +LWWLWH DUW WKH $VV\U LDQVZHUHDEOHWRFRPPXQLFDWHWKHLUQRWLRQRINLQJVKLSLQDFFRUGDQFHZLWK WKHQHZLQWHUQDWLRQDOSROLWLFDODQGFXOWXUDOVFHQDULRLQFULWLFDOPRPHQWVRI their history. Through the “solarization” of the figure of the head of the SDQWKHRQ WKH $VV\ULDQ QRWLRQ RI GLYLQH DQG XQLYHUVDO NLQJVKLS ZDV DI ILUPHG LQ WKH UR\DO LFRQRJUDSK\ 7KH WKHRORJLFDO UHIRUP WDNLQJ SODFH GXULQJWKHUHLJQRI6HQQDFKHULEHQKDQFHGWKHFHQWUDOLW\RIWKH$VV\ULDQ JRGLQWKHUR\DOLGHRORJ\DQGLPSHULDOUHOLJLRQ7KHQHZWKHRORJ\XVHGWKH DVWUDOL]DWLRQRIWKHJRGDVDNH\FRQFHSWWRQHXWUDOL]HWKHWUDGLWLRQDOFXO WXUDOUROHRI%DE\ORQDQGWRWUDQVIHULWVUROHWR$VV\ULDDQGWRWKHKRO\FLW\ of Aššur. $OWKRXJK VRPH VFKRODUV WHQG WR LGHQWLI\ WKH GLYLQH EHDUGHG ILJXUH DV the sungod Šamaš,WKHJRGRIMXVWLFHLWVHHPVPRUHSODXVLEOHWRFRQQHFW On the headdress of the god portrayed in the Bīsotūn relief, see Westenholz 2000, S 123: “It is interesting to note that the Behistun relief in the only known $FKDHPHQLGPRQXPHQWZKHUH$KXUD0D]GDZHDUVWKLVSRORVcrown.” The horned tiara of the Bīsotūn god is a tall cylindrical headdress with an encircled star on the WRS3HUKDSVWKH$chaemenid artists were inspired by Sennacherib’s rock relief at 0DOWDLZKHUHWKHVDPHW\SRORJ\RIWLDUDLVGHSLFWHGLQWKHUHSUHVHQWDWLRQRIYDUL RXVGHLWLHV6HH%|UNHU.OlKQILJ $OOWKHVHHOHPHQWVZHUHXVHGWRFUHDWHZKDW*DUULVRQGHILQes as the “Court Style” RIWKH$FKDHPHQLGLFRQRJUDSK\6HH*DUULVRQWKLVYROXPH7KH$VV\ULDQWUDGLWLRQ VHHPVWRKDYHEHHQDWZRUNLQVKDSLQJLPSRUWDQWWUDLWVRIWKHUR\DOLPDJHU\RIWKH Teispid dynasty. The artistic connection between Assyria and Anšan, GLVFXVVHGE\ *DUULVRQDVUHJDUGVWKHVW\OHRIWKHVHDO3)6 SUREDEO\ZLWQHVVHVWRWKHULVH of a court style associated with the emerging political entity of Anšan/Fārs under WKH7HLVSLGV2QWKLVDVSHFWVHH*DUULVRQS 3DUSRODS 6HHWKHGLVFXVVLRQLQ3RQJUDW]/HLVWHQES &KDPD]DS 3RQJUDW]/HLVWHQES 6HHIRULQVWDQFH%ODFN *UHHQS

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WKLVV\PEROWRWKHJRGZKRLQWKH$VV\ULDQUR\DOLGHRORJ\DQGVWDWHUHOLJ LRQZDVFRQVLGHUHGDVWKHUHDONLQJRIWKHFRXQWU\DQGWKHFHOHVWLDOFRXQ terpart of the monarch. In fact, it was Aššur who was proclaimed king of the Land in the Assyrian coronation ritual, not Šamaš. Visual representD tions of the god Aššur in communication with thHNLQJZLWKRXWWKHZLQJHG disk suggest that the half bearded figure inside the disk is indeed Aššur.  $V DOUHDG\ REVHUYHG WKH LFRQ KDV D FRPSRVLWH VWUXFWXUH SUHVXPDEO\ EH FDXVHLWVHUYHGWRFRQYH\WKHLGHDRIWKHQDWXUHRIWKHVXSUHPHJRGDVVXP RIWKHJRds. The icon also includes the winged disk of Šamaš, the sungod, ZKLFKLQRWKHUUR\DOUHSUHVHQWDWLRQV DVHJLQWKH$VV\ULDQVWHODV LVGH SLFWHGDVDVHSDUDWHV\PERODORQJVLGHWKHDVWUDOL]HGLPDJHVRIRWKHU$VV\U LDQ GHLWLHV ,W LV ZRUWK QRWLQJ WKDW WKH ZLQJHG GLVN LV DFFRPSDQLHG E\ other divine symbols also in Darius’ representations. In the NaqšH5RVWDP WRPE UHOLHI IRU H[DPSOH WKH ZLQJHG GLVN LV DFFRPSDQLHG E\ WKH PRRQ V\PERO ZKLOH LQ WKH 7ULXPSKVWHOH IURP %DE\ORQ WKH UHPDLQV RI D VWDU VKDSHG V\PERO VXJJHVW WKDW D VHULHV RI GLYLQH LFRQV ZHUH UHSUHVHQWHG WKHUH7KHDVWUDOL]HGV\PEROVZHUHLQWHQGHGWRUHSUHVHQWWKHUR\DOJRGV VXSSRUWLQJWKHNLQJOLNHLQWKHFDVHRIWKHDVWUDOL]HGV\PEROVGHSLFWHGRQ WKHWRSRIWKH$VV\ULDQYLFWRU\VWHODV

6HH3RQJUDW]/HLVWHQESFRPPHQWLQJRQWKHUHSUHVHQWDtion of Aššur in the divine seal depicted in the loyalty oaths. For the divine seals in Esarhaddon’s Succession Treaty, which show the Assyrian king between Aššur and Mullissu as well as between Aššur and Ninurta, see SAA 2, p. 28, text no. 6. %|UNHU.OlKQILJV 6HLGOSILJ $SDUW IURP WKH ZLQJHG LFRQ WKH RWKHU V\PEROV DUH WKH PRRQ DQG WKH VWDU ,W LV SRVVLEOHWKDWDPRQJWKHUR\DOJRGVVXSSRUWLQJWKH3HUVLDQNLQJWKHUHZHUHGHLWLHV RIWKH(ODPLWHWUDGLWLRQRU,UDQLDQJRGVDVVLPLODWHGWRWKHP7KH(ODPLWHFRXQWHU parts of the Mesopotamian Sîn, Šamaš, and Ištar were, respectively, Napir, 1DKKXQWHDQG3LQLJLU6HH.RFKS)URPWKHWUDQVODWLRQVSURSRVHG LQ31$IRUWKH,UDQLDQQDPHV0LWDWWL(PNA 2/II, p. 757a: “Given by the Moongod”) DQG8DUGDWWL LELG. 3/II, p. 1354b: “Given by the Sungod”), attested in Neo$VV\ULDQ VRXUFHVLWVHHPVWKDWWKHVXQJRGDQGWKHPRRQJRGZHUHYHQHUDWHGE\WKHZHVWHUQ ,UDQLDQSHRSOHV7KHRWKHUJRGVVXSSRUWLQJ'DULXVDUHRQO\JHQHULFDOO\PHQWLRQHG LQKLVLQVFULSWLRQVVHH'%S,9,9 .HQW, p. 132): “Auramazdā bore aid and the other gods who are” and DSeS LELG, p. 142): “Me may Auramazdā tR JHWKHU ZLWK WKH JRGV protect.” One of the Persepolis inscriptions qualifies these GHLWLHVDVviθaibiš bagaibiš, “the gods of the royal house” –VHH'3GS LELG S 7KHIXQFWLRQRIWKHVHUR\DOJRGVLVFRPSDUDEOHWRWKDWRIWKH$VV\ULDQ ilāni rabûti

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,QDGGLWLRQWKHOLNHQHVVRIWKHJRGULGLQJWKHZLQJHGGLVNZLWKWKHILJ XUH RI WKH NLQJ ZKLFK FKDUDFWHUL]HV ERWK 1HR$VV\ULDQ DQG $FKDHPHQLG UHSUHVHQWDWLRQV LQPRQXPHQWDODVZHOODVLQPLQRUDUW DQGZKLFKLVQRW H[SODLQHGE\3HUVLDQVRXUFHVFDQEHH[SODLQHGLQOLJKWRIDNH\FRQFHSWRI WKH$VV\ULDQLPSHULDOUHOLJLRQWKHFRQFHSWRIWKHNLQJDVWKHSHUIHFWOLNH QHVVRUWKHYHU\LPDJHRIWKHJRG V 7KLVLGHDLVOLQNHGWRRWKHULPSRU WDQW$VV\ULDQFRQFHSWVFRQFHUQLQJWKHQDWXUHRIWKHKXPDQUXOHUQDPHO\ WKHFRQFHSWRIWKHNLQJDVDFUHDWLRQRIWKHJRGVDQGWKHRQHRIWKHNLQJDV the representative of the god Aššur.7KHIDFWWKDWDOVRLQWKH$FKDHPHQLG V\PERO WKH JRG LV SRUWUD\HG ZLWK WKH VDPH GUHVV DQG IUHTXHQWO\ PLUURUV WKH JHVWXUHV RI WKH NLQJ PD\ EH DQ LQGLFDWLRQ DOWKRXJK QRW FRQFOXVLYH WKDW WKH $VV\ULDQ FRQFHSW KDV EHHQ LQFRUSRUDWHG LQWR WKH $FKDHPHQLG VWDWHWKHRORJ\7KHIDFWWKDWNLQJDQGGLVNV\PEROL]HGJRGDUHGHSLFWHGLQ FRPPXQLFDWLRQ LQ ERWK $VV\ULDQ DQG $FKDHPHQLG UR\DO UHSUHVHQWDWLRQV HPSKDVL]HGE\WKHSUD\HUJHVWXUHRIWKHNLQJDQGWKHJUHHWLQJSRVWXUHRI WKHJRGWRZDUGWKHPRQDUFK VWUHVVHVWKHDXWKRULW\RIWKHJRGDVWKHVROH source of royal power and links the king’s claim to universal rule to the FRQFHSW RI XQLYHUVDOLW\ RI WKH JRG ,W LV PRUHRYHU SRVVLEOH WKDW WKH ZLQJHG LFRQ RI $VV\ULDQ RULJLQ LQ WKH $FKDHPHQLG DUW VHUYHG WR FRQYH\ VSHFLILFWUDLWVRIWKHVXSUHPH,UDQLDQJRGOLNHWKHFRQFHSWRINLWLQRULJL nally characterizing Humban and then transferred to Auramazdā. In this FRQQHFWLRQZHFDQQRWH[FOXGHWKDWWKH(ODPLWHFRQFHSWRINLWLQDVDGLYLQH SRZHU HPDQDWLQJ IURP WKH VXSUHPH JRG ZDV PHUJHG ZLWK WKH $VV\ULDQ FRQFHSWRIPHODPPXWKHGLYLQHUDGLDQFHRIJRGDQGNLQJLQWKH$FKDHP HQLGVWDWHWKHRORJ\2QHZRQGHUVZKHWKHUWKLVSRVVLEOH XQLILFDWLRQRIWKH 0HVRSRWDPLDQ ZLWK WKH (ODPLWH FRQFHSW PD\ H[SODLQ WKH PXOWLSOH PHDQ LQJVRIWKHWHUP[YDUǝQDKLQODWHUVRXUFHV To return to the other literary motifs of the Bīsotūn inscriptions remL QLVFHQW RI WKH $VV\ULDQ LPSHULDO UKHWRULF ZH PD\ PHQWLRQ WKH PRWLI RI GLYLQHVXSSRUWLQZDU,QKLVPRQXPHQWDOLQVFULSWLRQ'DULXVVD\VWKDWKH FURVVHGWKH7LJULVE\WKHIDYRXURIWKHJRG7KLVUHPLQGVXVRI6HQQDFK 6HHGarrison 2013, p. 581 on the NaqšH5RVWDPUHOLHIZKHUHWKHILJXUHVRIWKHNLQJ DQGWKHJRGDUHSRUWUD\HGDVJDUEHGLQWKHVDPHPDQQHU 6$$U6$$UU 6$$ 6HH3RQJUDW]/HLVWHQES 7KHSRVVLELOLW\WKDWWKHZLQJHGV\PEROLQWKH$FKDHPHQLGLPSHULDODUWUHSUHVHQWV WKHNLWLQLVVXJJHVWHGE\*DUULVRQ TXRWHGLQ+HQNHOPDQS  '%S, .HQW, p. 120): “The army of NidintuBēl held the Tigris; there it WRRN LWV VWDQG DQG RQ DFFRXQW RI WKH ZDWHUV WKH 7LJULV  ZDV XQIRUGDEOH 7KHUH

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erib’s difficult expedition along the Tigris and to the sea shore.7KHPRWLI RI WKH GLIILFXOW PDUFK HQFRXQWHUHG E\ WKH NLQJ LQ WKH FURVVLQJ RI WKH HQ emy’s country is another feature of the Assyrian royal inscriptions. 7KH favour of Auramazdā is fundamental also in the triumph over the enH PLHV DQG UHFDOOV DQDORJRXV H[SUHVVLRQV LQ WKH $VV\ULDQ UR\DO DFFRXQWV 7KH WUHDWPHQW RI WKH HQHP\ VKRZV WKH VDPH GHWDLOHG IRFXV RQ SK\VLFDO PXWLODWLRQVDQGRIWHFKQLTXHVRISXQLVKPHQWLQSXEOLFSODFHVIRXQGLQWKH $VV\ULDQ DQQDOV VXFK DV WKH FDVH RI WKH SXQLVKPHQW RI 3KUDRUWHV  DQG dLWDQWDKPD ,Q SDUWLFXODU WKLV VHFRQG HYHQW LV UHPLQLVFHQW RI WKH SXQ XSRQ VRPH RI  P\ DUP\ , VXSSRUWHG RQ LQIODWHG  VNLQV RWKHUV , PDGH FDPHO borne, for others I brought horses. Auramazdā bore me aid; by the favour of AX ramazdā we got across the Tigris.” It isLQWHUHVWLQJWRQRWHWKHXVHRILQIODWHGVNLQV by the Persian king’s troops to cross the Tigris. In the description of his attack DJDLQVW WKH FLWLHV RI /DT€ DQG 6Xḫu, AššurnaṣLUSDO VWDWHV WR KDYH FURVVHG WKH (X SKUDWHVE\PHDQVRIERDWDQGUDIWVRILQIODWHGJRDWVNLQV6HH5,0$$LLL  2,3)78. The difficult task to cross the Tigris occurs also in an Esarhaddon’s LQVFULSWLRQ6HH5,1$3L 6HHHJWKHWRSRVof the “difficult mountain path” in AššurnaṣLUSDOII’s annalLVWLF WH[W5,0$$L46: “I passed through difficult paths (and) rugged mouQ WDLQV ZKLFK ZHUH XQVXLWDEOH IRU FKDULRWU\ DQG WURRSV DQG  PDUFKHG WR WKH ODQG Tummu.” See also Sennacherib’s prism inscription RINAP 3/1, 22 iv 21 DERXW the king’scrossing of mounts Anara and Uppa: “I entered their narrow passes with great difficulty and ascended with a struggle the steep mountain peaks.” '%S,, .HQWS DQG SDVVLP, “By the favour of Auramazdā my

army smote that rebellious exceedingly”; LELG , .HQW  S   “There I smote that army of NidintuBēl exceedingly.” '%S,, .HQW , p. 124): “I cut off his nose and ears and tongue, and put RXWRQHH\HKHZDVNHSWERXQGDWP\SDODFHHQWUDQFHDOOWKHSHRSOHVDZKLP$I WHUZDUG,LPSDOHGKLPDW(FEDWDQDDQGWKHPHQZKRZHUHKLVIRUHPRVWIROORZHUV WKRVHDW(FEDWDQDZLWKLQWKHIRUWUHVV, IOD\HGDQG KXQJRXW WKHLUKLGHVVWXIIHG with straw).” On the detailed descriptions of the mutilations in Aššurnaṣirpal’s aQ nals, see, e.g., the case of the people of the city of Tēla in RIMA 2, A.0.101.1 i 117 118: “I captured many troops alive: from some I cut off their arms (and) hands; IURP RWKHUV , FXW RII WKHLU QRVHV HDUV DQG H[WUHPLWLHV , JRXJHG RXW WKH H\HV RI PDQ\WURRSV,PDGHRQHSLOHRIWKHOLYLQJ DQG RQHRIKHDGV,KXQJWKHLUKHDGV on trees around the city.” For the mutilations inflicted to the enemies in Assyria, VHH0LQXQQRS&OHarly, Darius’ inscriptions follow an Assyrian descriS WLYH SDWWHUQ DQG FRQVHTXHQWO\ WKHUH LV QR QHHG WR H[SODLQ WKH PXWLODWLRQV LQ flicted by Darius to his enemies as aimed at “faire subir aux méchants, dans cette vie, les traitements de l’enfer et de suppULPHUOHVIDFXOWpVGHSHUFHSWLRQHWGHPR bilité qui permettent de gagner l’audelà,” as stated in Kellens 2002, p. 443. '%S,, .HQW, p. 124): “I cut off both his nose and ears, and put out one H\HKHZDVNHSWERXQGDWP\SDODFHHQWUDQFHDOOWKHSHRSOHVDZKLP$IWHUZDUGV,

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ishment inflicted by AššurnaṣLUSDO,,WRDQHQHP\ZKRVHVNLQZDVKXQJWR WKHZDOOVRIWKHFLW\ The element of “moral judgement,” too, can be traced to Assyrian pR litical discourse. Darius’ inscriptions point at “falsehood” as the cause of UHEHOOLRQVLQWKHFRXQWU\7KLVKDVEHHQXVXDOO\LQWHUSUHWHGDVDQH[SUHV VLRQ RI WKH ašadruǰ ethical opposition which would have shaped Darius’ SROLWLFDO GLVFRXUVH DQG ZKLFK ZRXOG GHPRQVWUDWH WKDW KLV HWKLFV ZDV ZKROO\FRQVRQDQWZLWK=RURDVWULDQPRUDOWKHRORJ\+RZHYHUZHFDQQRW ignore that “moral judgement” was an integral part of the Assyrian impH ULDO UKHWRULF :LWKRXW UXOLQJ RXW WKH SRVVLELOLW\ WKDW DQ ,UDQLDQ UHOLJLRXV EDFNJURXQGZDVDWWKHEDVLVRIWKHXVHRIVXFKDQHWKLFDORSSRVLWLRQLWLV FOHDUWKDWWKHDGRSWLRQRIWKLVPRWLILQWKH$FKDHPHQLGUR\DOLQVFULSWLRQV ZDV SHUIHFWO\ LQ OLQH ZLWK WKH FRPPXQLFDWLRQ VWUDWHJ\ RI 'DULXV DQG LWV DGKHVLRQWRDQLPSHULDOYLVLRQRIXOWLPDWHO\$VV\ULDQRULJLQ 7KHLPPRUDODQGGLVloyal presentation of the enemy’s figure in the AV V\ULDQ UR\DO LQVFULSWLRQV VHUYHV WR FHOHEUDWH WKH UROH RI WKH NLQJ DV SLRXV DQGULJKWHRXV$QDORJRXVO\WKH$FKDHPHQLGNLQJLVSRUWUD\HGDVWKHLPDJH RI ULJKWHRXVQHVV KH LV QHLWKHU GLVOR\DO WR WKH JRG  QRU HYLOGRHU 7KH impaled him at Arbela.” The display of the enemy’s body or of parts of it belonged to the “strategia del terrore” of the Assyrian propaganda. See also Borger 1996, p. 3ULVP%YL DQG&YLL IRUWKHSODFLQJRIWKHFXWRIIKHDGRI7HXPPDQWKH (ODPLWHNLQJRQGLVSOD\EHIRUHWKHFLW\JDWHRIFHQWUDO1LQHYHKDFFRUGLQJWR$V surbanipal’s words, this was done in order to show the people the might of Aššur and Ištar. 5,0$$LDQGGXSOLFDWHV7KHDFWRIGUDSLQJWKHZDOOVRI$UEHODZLWK Būbu’s skin was adopted also in the case of the nobles of the city of Sūru. See LELG $L '%S ,9 .HQW , p. 131): “The Lie made them rebellious, so that these (men) deceived the people.” 6HH%R\FH 7ZR,UDQLDQQDPHVDWWHVWHGLQWKH1HR$VV\ULDQWH[WV$UWDVDUL 31$,SD “Characterized by the union with truth”) and $UWDVLUDUL LELG, p. 134b: “Marvellous by truth”), document the importance of the concept of truth in the OOG ,UDQLDQ WUDGLWLRQ 7KLV FRQFHSW KRZHYHU LV DOVR DW WKH EDVLV RI D JUHDW QXPEHU RI 1HR $VV\ULDQ WKHRSKRULF QDPHV HJ Aššurkēnu LELG., p. 191a: “Aššur is true”); Aššur NHWWXLUkP (ibid. p. 191b: “Aššur loves the truth”); AššurNHWWXXṣXU LELG.: “O Aššur, protect the truth!”); Kēnu0DUGXN(ibid. 2/I, p. 612b: “Marduk is true”); 1DE€NHWWX īde (ibid. 2/II, p. 840b: “Nabû knows the truth”); ŠamašNHWWXLGGLQD LELG ,, S 1203b: “Šamaš has given the truth”), to quote just a few examples. '%S ,9 .HQW , p. 132): “For this reason Auramazdā bore aid and the RWKHU JRGV ZKR DUH EHFDXVH , ZDV QRW KRVWLOH , ZDV QRW D OLHIROORZHU , ZDV QR HYLOGRHU QHLWKHU , QRU P\ IDPLO\ $FFRUGLQJ WR ULJKWHRXVQHVV , FRQGXFWHG P\

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$VV\ULDQ NLQJ LV GHSLFWHG LQ WKH QDUUDWLYHV RI WKH UR\DO LQVFULSWLRQV DV D ORYHURIWUXWKMXVWLFHDQGULJKWHRXVQHVVDQGDVWKHRQHZKRDEKRUVIDOVH KRRG HYLO LQMXVWLFH WUHDFKHU\ 6DUJRQ IRU H[DPSOH LV TXDOLILHG DV WKH ULJKWIXONLQJ“who speaks (only) the truth” (dābib damqāte 6HQQDFKHULE is described as the one “who loves the truth” (rā’im kināte  DQG DV WKH “guardian of truth” (nāṣLU NLWWL  ZKLOH 6vQšariškun is the one “who speaks truth and justice” (dābib kitti u mešāri (VDUKDGGRQLVUHSUHVHQWHG as the one who “loves truth and abhors treachery” (ša kittu irammuma ṣaliptu ikkibšu  ZKLOH 6vQšariškun as the one to which “lies are an abomination” (anzillašu surrāti $ERYHDOOWKLVIHDWXUHFKDUDFWHUL]HVWKH gods; Aššur and Marduk are said to abhor “treacherous talk” (nullāti  $OVR6DUJRQDSSHDUVLQKLVLQVFULSWLRQVDVWKHRQHZKRDEKRUVOLHVDQGHYLO GRLQJDQGIURPZKRVHPRXWKQRZRUGVEULQJLQJHYLODUHHPDQDWHG 7KHPRUDOFKDUDFWHUL]DWLRQRIWKHUHEHOOLRXVNLQJDVDVLQQHULVDSHFX OLDULW\ RI WKH UHOLJLRXVO\FRQQRWHG SROLWLFDO PHVVDJH RI WKH $VV\ULDQ UR\DO LQVFULSWLRQV DPRQJ WKH PDQ\ SHMRUDWLYH TXDOLILFDWLRQV RI WKH HQHPLHV RI the Assyrian king we find “sinner” (bēl arnibēl hīṭL “the one who speaks treachery” (dābib ṣDOLSWL and “(experienced in) evil gossip, slander, and lies” (lišān lemutti karṣi tašqirti The enemy’s action is interpreted as a sin DJDLQVWWKH$VV\ULDQJRG V 7KLVLVDQLPSRUWDQWSRLQWVLQFHUHIHUHQFHVWR self.” The concept LVDIILUPHGDOVRLQ'1ES LELG., p. 140): “I am not a friend to the PDQZKRLVD/LHfollower.” This notion was also an integral part of the Assyrian UR\DOLGHRORJ\DVZLWQHVVHGE\WKH1HR$VV\ULDQFRURQDWLRQK\PQ6$$ ZKLFKVSHFLILHVWKHGHstiny of the disloyal persons: “He who speaks with the king GLVOR\DOO\RUWUHDVRQDEO\–LIKHLVDQRWDEOHKHZLOOGLHDYLROHQWGHDWKLIKHLVD ULFK PDQ KH ZLOO EHFRPH SRRU +H ZKR LQ KLV KHDUW SORWV HYLO DJDLQVW WKH NLQJ – (UUDZLOOFDOOKLPWRDFFRXQWLQDERXWRISODJXH+HZKRLQKLVKHDUWXWWHUVLPSUR SULHWLHVDJDLQVWWKHNLQJ–KLVIRXQGDWLRQLV EXW ZLQGWKHKHPRIKLVJDUPHQWLV (but) litter.” 2GHGS 2GHGS7KHVDPHGHVFULSWLRQLVUHIHUUHGWR$VVXUEDQLSDOLQWKHOLWHUDU\ letter SAA 3, 25 i 8’. 5,1$3 2GHGS 2GHGS 2GHGS 5,1$3L 0D\HUSOL 2GHGS 2GHGS 2GHGS

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the immoral attitude of Darius’ HQHPLHVKDYHRIWHQEHHQLQWHUSUHWHGDVDQ H[SUHVVLRQRIWKHLUQRQ=RURDVWULDQDWWLWXGH DQGRIWKH=RURDVWULDQLVPRI Darius). Darius states that the enemies were “disloyal” (DULND  DQG WKDW “they did not worship Auramazdā” (āha utāšām Auramazdā naiy ayadi\D  Darius’ empire is the realization of the divine plan. Accordingly, every act DJDLQVWWKHNLQJLVDQDFWDJDLQVWKLVJRGIURPZKRPWKHNLQJVKLSGHULYHV 7KHGHVFULSWLRQRIWKHHQHP\RIWKH$VV\ULDQNLQJLQWKHUR\DOLQVFULSWLRQV XVHVWKHWRSRVRIWKHoffence against the gods to justify the Assyrian king’s LQWHUYHQWLRQIRUH[DPSOH6DQGDuarri is described as the one who “abaQ doned the gods” (ša ilāni umašširuma ZKLOH7HXPPDQLVSRUWUD\HGDVWKH one who “does not honor the gods” (lā mušāqir ilāni  Incidentally, the “immoral presentation” motif is also used by Tepti ḪXPEDQInšušinak LQ RQH RI KLV LQVFULSWLRQV WR GHVFULEH WKH SHRSOHV RI WZRFRQTXHUHGODQGV2QHZRQGHUVZKHWKHUWKLVLVDW\SLFDO(ODPLWHWUDLWRU DQRYHOW\LQWKHSROLWLFDOGLVFRXUVHRIWKH1HR(ODPLWHUR\DOLQVFULSWLRQV 7KH IUDJPHQWV RI $VV\ULDQ DQQDOV IRXQG LQ 6XVD SUREDEO\ VXJJHVW WKDW (ODPLWHV KDG DQ LQWHUHVW RQ $VV\ULDQ KLVWRULRJUDSKLFDO WH[WV DV SURSRVHG E\+HQNHOPDQ 7R FRPH WR $VV\ULD WKH DFWLRQV RI WKH NLQJ DUH GHVFULEHG DV D GLYLQH SXQLVKPHQW DJDLQVW WKH VLQQHUV ,Q WKH =LQoLUOL VWHOH FRPPHPRUDWLQJ WKH LQYDVLRQ RI (J\SW (VDUKDGGRQ VWDWHV WKDW WKH VXSUHPH $VV\ULDQ JRG HP SRZHUHGKLPWRORRWDQGSOXQGHUDQ\ODQGWKDWKDGFRPPLWWHGVLQFULPH RUQHJOLJHQFHDJDLQVWWKHJRGAššur.7KDW7UXWKDQG-XVWLFHZHUHVRPHRI WKHIXQGDPHQWDOYDOXHVLQWKH$VV\ULDQUR\DOLGHRORJ\LVDOVRHYLGHQWIURP the Middle Assyrian coronation ritual, where Aššur is seen as the god who gives the king “command and attention, obedience, truth and peace.” $QDORJRXVO\ D 1HR$VV\ULDQ K\PQ FRQFHUQLQJ WKH FRURQDWLRQ RI $VVXU banipal expresses the wish that “eloquence, understanding, truth and juV '%S9 .HQWS 1RWHWKDW.HQWWUDQVODWHVDULNDwith “faithless.” 5,1$3LLL %RUJHUS3ULVP%Y&YL )RU WKH SUREOHPV FRQFHUQLQJ WKH LGHQWLILFDWLRQ RI WKLV UXOHU ZLWK WKH NLQJ FDOOHG 7HXPPDQLQWKH$VV\ULDQVRXUFHVVHH:DWHUVSII 0DOEUDQ/DEDWSWH[WQR3: “J’ai terrassé le pays des Méchants et en ai accru l’Élam; j’ai terrassé le pays des Ennemis et j’ai reçu leur tribut.” +HQNHOPDQSIQ 5,1$3U 0OOHUSOOLL>T@DEDa šePDDPDJDUDNLLWWDVD>O@Lma aššur OLGGLQDNX

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tice could be given to the king as divine gift.”.LWWX, “Truth,” and Mīšāru “Justice,” DOVR RFFXU DV SHUVRQLILHG GHLWLHV LQ FXOWLF WH[WV FRQFHUQLQJ WKH tākultuULWXDO)URPWKHDVWURORJLFDOSRLQWRIYLHZIXOOPRRQRQWKH WK GD\RIWKHPRQWKPHDQWWKDWWUXWKZRXOGKDYHVSUHDGLQWKHODQG $OOWKH UKHWRULF RI WKH 6DUJRQLG NLQJV LV VKDSHG E\ WKH UHOLJLRXV GLPHQVLRQ LQ which the neglect of the god Aššur, as expressed by the enemy’s use of evil VSHHFK DLPHG DW LQVWLJDWLQJ KRVWLOLW\ DQG UHEHOOLRQ SOD\V D VLJQLILFDQW UROH 7KLVUKHWRULFRIWKHOLHLVDSSOLHGE\(VDUKDGGRQWRWKHFRQWH[WRIKLV DFFHVVLRQWRWKHWKURQHDQGQRWWRWKHJHQHUDOFRQWH[WRIUHEHOOLRQDVLQ WKHFDVHRI6DUJRQ7KHLUUHJXODUVXFFHVVLRQDQGWKHXVXUSDWLRQFKDUDF WHUL]LQJWKHDVFHQWRI'DULXVWRWKHWKURQHLVDSHUIHFWSDUDOOHOWRWKHFULWL cal situation of Esarhaddon’s succession. 7KH$ssyrian “rhetoric of lie” formed a significant part in the develoS PHQW RI WKH LGHD RI WKH H[FOXVLYLW\ DQG RI WKH XQLYHUVDOLW\ RI WKH NLQJ GRP UHODWHG JRG LQ WKH ILUVW PLOOHQQLXP %&( 7KLV SUREDEO\ UHSUH VHQWHG RQH RI WKH PHDQV WKURXJKZKLFK KHQRWKHLVWLF WHQGHQFLHV ZHUH DI ILUPHG LQ WKH UR\DO SROLWLFDO GLVFRXUVH GXULQJ WKH ILUVW PLOOHQQLXP ,Q OLJKWRIWKHH[WDQWHYLGHQFHWKHQWKHUHLVQRQHHGWRH[SODLQWKHXVHRIWKH “rhetoric of lie” by Darius as an expression of the ethical dualistic conceS WLRQ RI WKH $FKDHPHQLG NLQJ 2Q WKH FRQWUDU\ WKLV UHWKRULFDO DUJXPHQW VLPSO\ UHSUHVHQWV WKH ODWHU VWDJH RI DQ DQFLHQW 1HDU (DVWHUQ LGHRORJLFDO HOHPHQWZKLFKUHDFKHGLWVIXOOGHYHORSPHQWGXULQJWKH6DUJRQLGGRPLQLRQ DQGEHFDPHDQLQWHJUDOSDUWRIWKHLQWHOOHFWXDO NRLnē RIWKHUXOLQJHOLWHVLQ 6$$TDEXú šePX~NHW˹WL˺PHšáUX>Dna ši@ULNti lu šarNXšú 0HQ]HO  7 L  $QRWKHU GHLW\ PHQWLRQHG LQ WKLV WH[W ZDV FDOOHG “SonsRITruth” (LELGLG'808MEŠ—=,  6HHHJ6$$DQGSDVVLP 3RQJUDW]/HLVWHQS 3RQJUDW]/HLVWHQS 3RQJUDW] /HLVWHQ  S   1RWH DOVR WKH UHIHUHQFH WR GHVFHQW WHUULWRULDOLW\and eternal status of kingship both in Esarhaddon’s Zinçirli inscriS tion and in Darius’ Bīsotūn inscription (RINAP 4, 98 r. 1618: “royal descendant of the eternal line of Bēlbāni, son of Adasi, founder of the kingship of Assyria, ZKR>VH@SODFHRIXOWLPDte origin is Baltil [= Assur]” and Kent 1953, p. 116ff., “son of Hystaspes, grandson of Arsames, an Achaemenian … Teispes’ father was AchaemH nes … From long ago our family had been kings”). The genealogy of Darius follows WKH 0HVRSRWDPLDQ UR\DO WUDGLWLRQ and has nothing to do with the “rites d’hospitalité” suggested in Kellens 2002, p. 417. 6HHDOVR3RQJUDW]Leisten’s discussion about the “rhetoric of lie” in the theological GLVFRXUVHRIWKHSURSKHWVRIWKH2OG7HVWDPHQWLQ3RQJUDW]/HLVWHQS

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WKH SRVW$VV\ULDQ SHULRG LQ YDULRXV SROLWLFDO DQG FXOWXUDO UHDOLWLHV RI WKH DQFLHQW 1HDU (DVW 7KH WKHRORJL]DWLRQ RI WKH HYHQW RI WKH DVFHQW WR WKH throne, the enemy’s offenses against the king, and the imperial mission of WKHYLFWRULRXVDQGJRGLQVSLUHGNLQJZHUHFHUWDLQO\NQRZQWRWKHLQGLYLGX DOVZKRIRUPXODWHGWKHHDUO\$FKDHPHQLGUR\DOLGHRORJ\ )LQDOO\WKHDFWLRQRIWKHNLQJVXSSRUWHGE\WKHJRGSURGXFHV DNLQJ GRPRISHDFHDQGMXVWLFH7KLVPRWLIH[SUHVVHVWKHSRVLWLYHDVSHFWVRIWKH king’s action in the conquered territory. After military conquest, the eP SHURU UHVHWWOHV SHRSOH DQG FRQVROLGDWHV WKH FRXQWU\ HVWDEOLVKLQJ D NLQJ GRP RI SHDFH DQG MXVWLFH 3HRSOHV DUH UHVHWWOHG WR WKHLU SODFHV FLWLHV DQGVDQFWXDULHVDUHUHVWRUHG,QWKH$VV\ULDQUR\DOLQVFULSWLRQVWRRWKH LGHDRIWKHFRQVROLGDWLRQRIWKHFRXQWU\LVWKHUHVXOWRIWKHHVWDEOLVKPHQW RIWKHULJKWQHVVE\WKHNLQJZKRDIWHUGHIHDWLQJWKHHQHPLHVEHJLQVWKH ZRUNRIUHRUJDQL]DWLRQRIWKHODQGWKURXJKWKHUHVHWWOLQJRIVFDWWHUHGSHR SOH LQ WKHLU WHUULWRULHV Also the use of the direct speech in the Bīsotūn inscription, which introduces Darius’ statements DQG ZKLFK GRHV QRW VHHPWRKDYHEHHQERUURZHGIURP(ODPLWHUR\DOLQVFULSWLRQVLVDSHFXOLDU LW\RIWKH$VV\ULDQUR\DOUKHWRULFRIWKHODWH1HR$VV\ULDQSHULRG)RUH[ DPSOHWKHUHDUHPDQ\DWWHVWDWLRQVRILWVXVHLQWKHQDUUDWLYHVWUXFWXUHRI Esarhaddon’s royal inscriptions. $GLIIHUHQWRSLQLRQLVH[SUHVVHGE\*QROLZKRVHHVLQWKH0HVRSRWDPLDQGHPRQ RORJ\DSUHFXUVRURIWKH,UDQLDQUHOLJLRXVGXDOLVP6HH*QROLSI '6HS  .HQW , p. 142): “The following I brought about by the favour of Auramazdā, that the one does not smite the other at all, each one is in his place.” '%S, .HQW, p. 120): “I reestablished the people on its foundation, both in Persia and Media and the other provinces”. '%S, .HQW, p. 120): “I made thesanctuaries that Gaumāta the Magian destroyed” and, LELG., “I restored to the people the pastures and the herds, the household slaves and the houses that Gaumāta the Magian took away from them.” 6HHDOVR'6HS .HQW, p. 142): “A town by name .. LWV ZDOOIDOOHQIURP DJHEHIRUHWKLVXQUHSDLUHG–,EXLOWDQRWKHUZDOO WRVHUYH IURPWKDWWLPHLQWRWKH future”. 6HH2GHGSSIRUUHIHUHQFHV 7KH=RURDVWULDQoriented interpretation sees Darius’ statements as the announcH PHnt of praise of the god and his work in analogy with the Old Avestan “poet sacrificer’s oral announcement.” See Skjærvø 2013, p. 554. 5,1$3 L62 and duplicates: “Go! Do not hold back! We will go an kill your enemies!” Compare “Go forth, that rebHOOLRXVDUP\ZKLFKGRHVQRWFDOOLWVHOIPLQH that do thou smite!” of DBS,, .HQWS 6HH*HUDUGLS 260. Other examples may be found in Assurbanipal’s royal inscriptions. 6HH %DUXFKL8QQDS

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7KH OHJDF\ RI WKH $VV\ULDQ LPSHULDO FXOWXUH VXUYLYLQJ LQ ZHVWHUQ ,UDQ DOORZHG3HUVLDQVWRVKDSHDQLGHRORJ\RIXQLYHUVDOGRPLQLRQDQGDQLPSH ULDOUHOLJLRQLQWH[WVDQGYLVXDODUW*LYHQWKHFKDUDFWHURI$VV\ULDQLPSH ULDO UHOLJLRQ LW LV SRVVLEOH WKDW D KHQRWKHLVWLF IRUP RI VWDWH UHOLJLRQ ZDV absorbed by the Persian elite, who saw Auramazdā as WKH JRG RI WKHHP SLUHWKHGLYLQHSURWHFWRURIWKHHPSHURUDQGRIWKHVWDWH:HPD\VSHFX late that the knowledge of the divine figure of Aššur in the Iranian area was QRWRQO\WUDQVPLWWHGWKURXJK$VV\UR,UDQLDQGLUHFWLQWHUDFWLRQVGXULQJWKH $VV\ULDQGRPLQDQFHLQWKHDUHD2WKHUFKDQQHOVZHUHSUREDEO\DWZRUNLQ HJ %DE\ORQLD $IWHU WKH GRZQIDOO RI $VV\ULD %DE\ORQLD UHSUHVHQWHG DQ RWKHU LPSRUWDQW LQWHUPHGLDU\ RI $VV\ULDQ FXOWXUDO HOHPHQWV WRZDUGV 3HU VLDLWZDVGHHSO\LQYROYHGLQWKHSROLWLFDODIIDLUVRIWKHHPSLUHHYHQLILW ZDVQHYHUUHGXFHGLQWRDSURYLQFH,QSRVW$VV\ULDQWLPHVWKHPDLQSDUWRI the former Assyrian empire’s territory appears under the administrative FRQWURO RI WKH 1HR%DE\ORQLDQ VWDWH 7KH FRQWLQXLW\ RI WKH %DE\ORQLDQ VFKRODUO\ WUDGLWLRQV GXULQJ WKH 1HR%DE\ORQLDQ DQG $FKDHPHQLG SHULRG FRXOG KDYH IDFLOLWDWHG WKH ,UDQLDQ DVVLPLODWLRQ RI 0HVRSRWDPLDQ UHOLJLRXV FRQFHSWVLQ3HUVLD ,QWKHUHDOPRIUHOLJLRXVWUDGLWLRQVZHNQRZWKDW$VV\ULDQJRGVZHUH ZRUVKLSSHGLQ%DE\ORQLD\HWLQDOOOLNHOLKRRGRQO\E\WKH$VV\ULDQVOLYLQJ there. This is witnessed by the attestation of the cult of Aššur in the city of 8UXNDIWHUWKHFROODSVHRIWKH$VV\ULDQHPSLUHSUHFLVHO\DURXQGWKHPLG VL[WKFHQWXU\%&(6HYHUDO/DWH%DE\ORQLDQWH[WVGRFXPHQWWKHH[LVWHQFHRI a sanctuary dedicated to Aššur in Uruk. In this city, Aššur was equated ZLWK $QX 7KH UHDVRQV RI WKLV WKHRORJLFDO LGHQWLILFDWLRQ RI WKH VXSUHPH $VV\ULDQJRGZLWK$QXKDGSUREDEO\WKHLUURRWVDOVRLQWKHJRRGUHODWLRQ VKLSVOLQNLQJ8UXNZLWKWKH6DUJRQLGNLQJVZKRJUDQWHGSULYLOHJHVWRWKH FLW\OHDGHUVGXULQJWKH$VV\ULDQUXOH$OVRWKHVSHFLDOXQLYHUVDOFKDUDFWHU RI WKH WZR JRGV DQG WKH DQWDJRQLVP ZLWK WKH %DE\ORQLDQ JRGV (QOLO DQG 0DUGXNFRXOGKDYHSURPRWHGWKHDVVLPLODWLRQRIWKHVXSUHPH$VV\ULDQJRG WR$QXDid this theological assimilation of Aššur with Anu in 7WKWKFHQ WXULHV%&( ZKLFK ZDV SUREDEO\ DW WKHEDVLV RIWKH ULVH RIWKH JRG $QX LQ WKHWKFHQWXU\%&( KDYHDQLPSDFWRQWKHULVHDQGWKHRORJLFDOFKDUDFWHUL -XUVDS %HDXOLHXS %HDXOLHXSBeaulieu suggests that the Urukeans could have seen Aššur as DPDQLIHVWDWLRQRI$QX %HDXOLHXS %HDXOLHXS

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zation of Auramazdā DV UR\DO JRG DQG HVSHFLDOO\ DV XQLYHUVDO JRG LQ WKH $FKDHPHQLG LPSHULDO UHOLJLRQ" $Q DQVZHU WR WKLV TXHVWLRQ LV QRW HDV\ WR JLYH VLQFH ZH ZRXOG QHHG WR NQRZ WKH SRVVLEOH UROH DQG DFWLYLWLHV RI WKH %DE\ORQLDQ VFKRODUV DW WKH $FKDHPHQLG FRXUW +RZHYHU WKH IDFW WKDW scholarly texts attesting the equation of gods, such as the “Weidner God List,” continued to be copied until the Seleucid times VXJJHVWV D OLYLQJ %DE\ORQLDQWKHRORJLFDOWUDGLWLRQZLWKLQWKH$FKDHPHQLGSHULRG $QRWKHU LPSRUWDQW HOHPHQW RI WKH $VV\ULDQ LPSHULDO UHOLJLRQ PD\ EH FRPSDUHGZLWKWKH$FKDHPHQLGSUDFWLFHV7KHFXOWRIWKHUR\DODQFHVWRUV ZLWKRIIHULQJVSUHVHQWHGDWWKHUR\DOWRPEVLQWKHKRO\FLW\RI$VVXU ZKHUH NLQJV ZHUH HQWKURQHG  LV DWWHVWHG LQ WKH 6DUJRQLG DJH $PRQJ 1LQHYLWH DGPLQLVWUDWLYHWH[WVFRQFHUQLQJWKHGHOLYHU\RIRIIHULQJVIRUWKHVDQFWXDU\ of the national god Aššur,ZHDOVRILQGDGRFXPHQWLQGLFDWLQJVXFKIXQHU DU\VDFULILFHV$FFRUGLQJWRDWH[WIURP$VVXUFRQFHUQLQJWKHGLVWULEXWLRQ RIPHDWFXWVIURPRIIHULQJVDPRng its beneficiaries were the “House of the Many Kings” (bēt šarrāni ma’dūti) and the “mausoleum of Queen Ešarra ḫamāt” (NLPDḫEšarraḫamāt ZLIHRI(VDUKDGGRQ$QRWKHUDGPLQLVWUDWLYH GRFXPHQW IURP $VVXU VSHFLILHV WKDW $VVXUEDQLSDO ZDV UHVSRQVLEOH IRU WKH GHOLYHU\RIWKHIXQHUDU\RIIHULQJVIRUKHUWRPE7KHPDQDJHPHQWRIWKH offerings for the royal tombs was one of the king’s duties. Elamite tablets IURP3HUVHSROLVDOVRZLWQHVVWRWKHSUDFWLFHWRYHQHUDWHWKHGHDGNLQJVD GRFXPHQWDWWHVWVWRWKHGHOLYHU\RIUDWLRQVIRUWKHVWDIIWDNLQJFDUHRI+\V taspes’ tomb in Persepolis (499%&( ZKLOHDVHFRQGWH[WVKRZVWKDW VXSSOLHVRIPHDWZHUHSURYLGHGWRWKHWRPEVRI&DPE\VHVDQGWKHZRPDQ Upanduš/Phaidyme (503%&(  3HUVLDQIXQHUDU\VDFULILFHVDUHDOVRPHQWLRQHGE\*UHHNDXWKRUV$UULDQ $QDE9, PHQWLRQVWKHSUDFWLFHWRVDFULILFHRQHKRUVHSHUPRQWKIRU WKHUR\DOWRPERI&\UXV7KHVDPHDXWKRUVSHFLILHVWKDWWKLVPHDWRIIHULQJ )UDKPS 6$$OLVWVDPRQJYDULRXVLWHPVPHDWFXWVEHHUVRXSEUHDGVZHHWFRQIHF WLRQVDQGYHJHWDEOHV7KHVDPHIRRGVWXIIVDOVRFKDUDFWHUL]HGWKHRIIHULQJVIRUWKH Aššur Temple during the ŠabāṭXAddāru festive cycle in the holy city of Assur. 6$$The building of Ešarraḫamāt’s tomb is commemorated in Esarhaddon’s inscription RINAP 4, 2002:4’6’. 0HQ]HO7 3)11  6HH +HQNHOPDQ E S  7KH WH[W UHFRUGV  %$5 F  OL WUHV RIJUDLQ 3)11  6HH +HQNHOPDQ E S  7KH WH[W OLVWV  KHDGV RI VPDOO FDWWOH

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Salvatore Gaspa

FDPHIURPWKHNLQJGLUHFWO\7KHPHQWLRQRIKRUVHVDFULILFHVWDNLQJSODFH DURXQGWKHWRPERI&\UXVKDVEHHQFRQVLGHUHGDVDQDWWHVWDWLRQRIWKHZRU VKLSRI0LWKUD,QWHUHVWLQJO\KRZHYHULWKDVDSUHFXUVRULQWKH$VV\ULDQ UR\DOIXQHUDU\SUDFWLFHV,QDWH[WFRPPHPRUDWLQJDGHDGNLQJSUREDEO\WR LGHQWLI\ ZLWK (VDUKDGGRQ RU $VVXUEDQLSDO WKH OLVW RI IXQHUDU\ RIIHULQJV LQFOXGHV  KRUVHV  FDOYHV DQG  VKHHS $FFRUGLQJ WR WKH WH[W WKH horses were sacrificed to the god Šamaš and their carcasses buried.2WKHU DQDORJLHVUHODWHGWRWKHULWXDOSUDFWLFHVDWWKHUR\DOWRPEVLQ$VV\ULDDQG 3HUVLD FRQFHUQ WKH DWWHVWDWLRQ RI SURIHVVLRQDO ILJXUHV UHVSRQVLEOH IRU WKH NHHSLQJ RU JXDUGLQJ RI WKH PDXVROHXP 7KH 3HUVHSROLV WDEOHWV GRFXPHQW WKHSURIHVVLRQDOWLWOHRIWKHšumar nuškipSUREDEO\UHIHUULQJWRWKHNHHSHUV RIWKHUR\DOWRPE7KLVUHPLQGVXVRIWKHšaPXḫḫLbētšarrāni, “superiQ tendent of the royal tombs,” DQG RI DQDORJRXV TXDOLILFDWLRQV RI SHUVRQV UHODWHGWRWKHNHHSLQJRIWKHPDXVROHXPLQ$VVXULQWKH1HR$VV\ULDQSH ULRG 7KHFXOWRIWKHGHDGNLQJVLQWKHKRO\FLW\RI$VVXUZDVDQLQWHJUDOSDUW RIWKH$VV\ULDQLPSHULDOUHOLJLRQDQGFRXOGDOVRVKHGOLJKWRQWKH$FKDHP enid custom to lay the bodies of the kings in sepulchres (see the “Tomb of Cyrus” in Morgāb plain, southwest of Pasargadae, and the rockFDUYHG WRPEs of Darius I and his successors at NaqšH5RVWDP DIDFWWKDWZRXOG PLOLWDWHDJDLQVWWKHK\SRWKHVLVWKDWWKH$FKDHPHQLGVZHUH=RURDVWULDQLVWV 2WKHU DVSHFWV RI WKH $FKDHPHQLG LPSHULDO UHOLJLRQ VXFK DV DERYH DOO WKH FHQWUDOLW\ RI D QDWLRQDO WHPSOH LQ WKH UHOLJLRXV SROLWLFDO DGPLQLVWUD WLYH DQG VRFLRHFRQRPLF OLIH RI WKH FRXQWU\ DUH GLIILFXOW WR GHWHFW LQ WKH WH[WXDODQGDUFKDHRORJLFDOHYLGHQFHRI$FKDHPHQLG3HUVLD$WWKHSUHVHQW state of our knowledge, there is not a temple dedicated to the empire’s goG Auramazdā that can be compared to the national shrine of Aššur in Libbi +HQNHOPDQES Briant 2002, p. 94: “The only indication in favor of a privileged cult in honor of 0LWKUD LV WKH LQVWLWXWLRQ RI KRUVH VDFULILFHV DURXQG WKH WRPE RI &\UXV LQ,UDQLDQ WUadition, these sacrifices are often associated with the cult of Mithra.” Kwasman 2009, p. 115, K 6323+ ii 28’30’. .ZDVPDQS.LLLANŠE.85MEŠPD"0Ì.>85MEŠ@DGXXNP>D@ DQDTpEpU>L@DGGLQšúQXWL +HQNHOPDQES 'HOOHU)DOHV -DNRERost 1995, text no. 75 r.14; StAT 2, 243:4’. In other texts this RFFXSDWLRQLVNQRZQDVrab bēt šarrāni )RUWKHWLWOHRIšabētNLPDḫḫLVHH)DOHV -DNRE5RVWWH[WQRUDQG6W$7 HU,QDGGLWLRQVHH6W$7UZKHUHWKHVDPHSURIHVVLRQLVLQ GLFDWHGZLWKWKHDGMHFWLYHNLPDḫḫāiu

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State theology and royal ideology

171

āli as regards centralized cultic activities, royal rituals, and territorial ideQ WLW\To put it simply, no AuramazdāRULHQWHGVWDWHUHOLJLRQFDQEHPDWH rially detected in Pārsa or LQRWKHUVDWUDSLHV $WWKHPRPHQW$FKDHPHQLGUHOLJLRXVSUDFWLFHVILUVWDSSHDULQWKHDG PLQLVWUDWLYH VRXUFHV WKH\ DOUHDG\ VKRZ WKH UHVXOW RI DQ LQWHQVH DQGSUR ORQJHGLQWHUDFWLRQZLWK(ODPLWHFXOWXUHILJ@    D QXGH KHURLF ILJXUH QRW WKH NLQJ  ZKR DSSHDUV WR KDYH QXPLQRXV TXDOLWLHVLVRQFHGHSLFWHG WKH%DVVHWNLVFXOSWXUH    DUHOLJLRXVSURFHVVLRQLVRQFHGHSLFWHG 'LVNRI(QKHGXDQQD 

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

 /RXYUH 6%  %|UNHU.OlKQ  QR  PROG IUDJPHQW +DQVHQ  DQG LGHP SQR  %DVVHWNLVFXOSWXUH+DQVHQSILJ  )RUWKH'LVNRI(QKHGXDQQDVHHHJ:LQWHU  6HHHJ%RHKPHUS–$PLHW+DQVHQS–  $NNDGLDQUR\DOLQVFULSWLRQVZKLFKFRQVWLWXWHWKHEXONRIWKHFRUSXVRI$NNDGLDQ WH[WVSUHVHQWDSLFWXUHLQV\QFKZLWK$NNDGLDQJO\SWLFSUHVHUYLQJDZLGHDVVRUW PHQWRIGLYLQHQDPHV VHH)UD\QH >S–@RQWKHFRUSXVRI$NNDGLDQUR\DO LQVFULSWLRQV SUHVHUYHG ERWK RQ $NNDGLDQ PRQXPHQWV DQG 2OG %DE\ORQLDQ WDEOHW FRSLHV >6DPPHOWDIHOQ@ RI $NNDGLDQ LQVFULSWLRQV  %\ IDU DQG DZD\ WKH IRXU PRVW often mentioned deities in Akkadian royal inscriptions are Enlil, Šamaš, Ištar, and Ilaba. Perhaps to no surprise, the inscriptions of Narām6vQQDPHPRUHWKDQWZLFH DVPDQ\GHLWLHVWKDQWKHLQVFULSWLRQVRIDQ\RWKHU$NNDGLDQUXOHU

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188

Mark B. Garrison

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ranian “aS proach,” for lack of a better term, has traditionally treated the topic of the GLYLQHDQGQXPLQRXVLQWKH$FKDHPHQLGSHULRGDVDSKHQRPHQRQGLYRUFHG LQWLPHDQGVSDFHIURPWKH$VV\UR%DE\ORQLDQDQG(ODPLWHOHJDFLHV7KLV DSSURDFKPRUHRYHUIRUHJURXQGHGWKHZULWWHQZRUGSULQFLSDOO\WKDWSUH  7KH PDMRU DUFKLYHV LQFOXGH /HLWK   IRU VHDOV SUHVHUYHG RQ WKH EXOODH IURP :DGL'DOL\HKLQ6DPDULD*DUULVRQ 5RRW  IRUWKHILUVWYROXPHRIWKHSXEOL FDWLRQRIWKHVHDOVIURPWKH3HUVHSROLV)RUWLILFDWLRQDUFKLYH.DSWDQ  IRUWKH VHDOVSUHVHUYHGRQWKHEXOODHIURP'DVN\OHLRQ7KHVHDOVSUHVHUYHGRQWKHWDEOHWV from the business archive of the Murašû family at Nippur are still unpublished; the GLVVHUWDWLRQRI%UHJVWHLQ  LVDQLPSRUWDQWUHVRXUFHEXWLWFDQQRWVHUYHDVD VXEVWLWXWHIRUDGHILQLWLYHDFFRXQWLQJRIWKHPDWHULDO2QVHDOHGDUFKLYHVIURPWKH $FKDHPHQLGSHULRGVHH*DUULVRQ 5RRWS–*DUULVRQLQSUHVVLGHPLQ SUHVVLGHPLQSUHVV  7KLV GHVSLWH WKH IDFW WKDW 5RRW   ILUPO\ DQFKRUHG WKH YLVXDO H[SUHVVLRQ RI $FKDHPHQLG NLQJVKLS LQ DQ $VV\UR%DE\ORQLDQ DQG WR D OHVVHU GHJUHH (J\SWLDQ KHULWDJH  7KLVGLVMXQFWXUHZLWK$VV\UR%DE\ORQLDQDQG(ODPLWHFXOWXUHVLVSHUKDSVDQRWKHU UHDVRQZK\JO\SWLFIURP$FKDHPHQLG3HUVLDKDVQHYHUILJXUHGSURPLQHQWO\LQLQ YHVWLJDWLRQVRQ$FKDHPHQLGUHOLJLRQ,ZRXOGKLJKOLJKWLQWKLVFRQWH[WWKHREVHU YDWLRQVRIGH-RQJ DS– ZKRLGHQWLILHVWKHLPSRUWDQFHRIVLWXDWLQJWKH GDWDIURPWKH$FKDHPHQLGSHULRGZLWKLQLWVZHVWHUQ$VLDWLFKHULWDJHLH$VV\ULD %DE\ORQLDDQG(ODPfor, he notes, “it is all that we can do to counter the current trend of writing the history of Iran as something exclusively Iranian.” The glyptic IURPWKH)RUWLILFDWLRQDUFKLYHLVHORTXHQWWHVWLPRQ\WRWKHFULWLFDOLPSRUWDQFHRI WKHYLVXDOOHJDF\RI$VV\ULD%DE\ORQLDDQG(ODP VHHEHORZ 

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Beyond Auramazdā and the Winged Symbol

189

VHUYHG LQ $FKDHPHQLG LPSHULDO LQVFULSWLRQV DQG ODWHU $YHVWDQ DQG ,QGLF OLWHUDWXUHVUDWKHUWKDQWKHUHSUHVHQWDWLRQDOUHFRUGLQTXHVWLRQVLQYROYLQJ UHOLJLRQDQGUHOLJLRXVUHSUHVHQWDWLRQLQVRXWKZHVWHUQ,UDQLQWKH$FKDHP HQLGSHULRG 7KLUGO\ WKH $FKDHPHQLG LPSHULDO LQVFULSWLRQV DV UHDG WKURXJK WKH ,QGR,UDQLDQ SHUVSHFWLYH VHHPHG WR SURYLGH XQHTXLYRFDO JXLGHOLQHV IRU XQGHUVWDQGLQJ $FKDHPHQLG UHOLJLRXV LPDJHU\ WKH $FKDHPHQLGV ZRU shipped, almost exclusively, Auramazdā. This Auramazdā must surely be the same deity (Ahura Mazdā) known in later sources as the principal deity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araθuštra.0RUHUHFHQWO\PDQ\VFKRODUVKDYHIDYRUHGDOHVVULJLGUHDG ing, deploying the term “Mazdaism” to describe the Achaemenid religious milieu. Debates then proceed on the identification of “Zoroastrian” elH PHQWVZLWKLQWKLV0D]GHDQUHOLJLRQ :KLOH%R\FHZDVQRWDQDUWKLVWRULDQVKHRIWHQHQJDJHGZLWKWKHYLVXDO HYLGHQFHIURPWKH$FKDHPHQLGSHULRG+HUPDLQFRQFHUQZDVWRVRUWRXWLQ this visual evidence what she considered to represent “normative” ZoroaV WULDQ EHKDYLRU DV RSSRVHG WR ZKDW VKH FRQVLGHUHG WR UHSUHVHQW QRQ =RURDVWULDQEHKDYLRU 7KXVIRUH[DPSOHWKHVFHQHVRIDQDWWHQGDQWEH IRUH D VWHSSHG VWUXFWXUH RQ ZKLFK WKHUH ZDV D EXUQLQJ ILUH VHHQ SULQFL SDOO\ RQ VHDOVEXW DOVR LQD PRGLILHGIRUP RQ WKH WRPE UHOLHI RI 'DULXV DW NaqšH 5RVWDP ILJ   VKH LQWHUSUHWHG DV =RURDVWULDQ ILUH ZRUVKLS 7KH UHOLHIRQWKHWRPERI'DULXVZKLFKVKRZV'DULXVRQDSODWIRUPKHOGDORIW  On the “Avestan” perspective, see Garrison in press 1; de Jong 2010b, p. 537–  6HH HJ WKH GLYHUJHQFH RI RSLQLRQ DPRQJ %DVLURY  GH -RQJ D -DFREV .UH\HQEURHN6RXGDYDUDOOSXEOLVKHGLQWKHVDPHFRQIHUHQFHSUR FHHGLQJV  See, e.g., the excellent overview of Boyce’s career in de Blois (2008). Boyce dated =DUDθuštra’s life to the late 2QGPLOOHQQLXP%&(  &IWKHUHPDUNVRI'H-RQJES–  2QWKHVWHSSHGVWUXFWXUHZLWKILUHVHHWKHFRPPHQWVEHORZ

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190

Mark B. Garrison

E\ SHUVRQLILFDWLRQV RI WKH VXEMHFW ODQGV RI WKH HPSLUH VWDQGLQJ EHIRUH D VWHSSHGVWUXFWXUHRQZKLFKWKHUHLVDODUJHILUHKHOGSDUWLFXODULPSRUWDQFH for her. Here Boyce saw “the earliest known representation of the fire KROGHUZLWKEXUQLQJILUHZKLFKZDVWREHWKHPRVWJHQHUDOO\XVHG=RURDV trian symbol down the ages.”,QFRQWUDVWDSDUWLFXODUO\SURYRFDWLYHVHDO SUHVHUYHGLQLPSUHVVLRQVIURP WKH7UHDVXU\DW3HUVHSROLV376 ZKLFK VKRZV WZR DWWHQGDQWV IODQNLQJ D VWHSSHG VWUXFWXUH RQ ZKLFK WKHUH LV D EXUQLQJ ILUH DQG D PRUWDU DQG SHVWOH UHVWLQJ RQ WKH WRS RI DQ HODERUDWH WDEOHVKHUHMHFWHGDVHYLGHQFHIRUWKH=RURDVWULDQ KDRPDFHUHPRQ\VLQFH WKH DWWHQGDQWV ZHUH VWDQGLQJ UDWKHU WKDQ VHDWHG WKH DWWHQGDQW DW ULJKW  KHOG ZKDWVKHWRRNWREH WKHEDUHVPDQLQWKHZURQJKDQG ULJKWUDWKHU than left), and the staff held by the same figure was “not part of known Zoroastrian priestly equipment.”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– %&( 6HDOV occur on the Elamite documents and the uninscribed “labels” from the DUFKLYH7KH3HUVHSROLV)RUWLILFDWLRQDUFKLYHZDVH[FDYDWHGLQLQWZR  Boyce 1982, p. 113. She added that the fire at NaqšH 5RVWDP ZDV SUREDEO\ WKH personal “ruler” fire of Darius, established when he became king. The issue of d\ QDVWLFDQGPRUHJHQHUDOO\VDFUHGILUHVLVRIFRXUVHPXFKGLVFXVVHG6HH*DUULVRQ LQSUHVV IRUVHOHFWUHIHUHQFHV1RWHDOVRUHFHQWO\GH-RQJ ES– RQ G\QDVWLFILUHV  %R\FH  S  6KH VWDWHG WKDW LQ FRQWHPSRUDU\ =RURDVWULDQLVP DWWHQGDQWV ZKR SDUWLFLSDWH LQ WKH FUXVKLQJ RI WKH KDRPD DUH UHTXLUHG WR VLW FURVVOHJJHG RQ WKHJURXQG  7KHWZR3HUVHSROLWDQDUFKLYHVVKDUHPXOWLSOHIHDWXUHVLQFOXGLQJVRPHGRFXPHQW W\SHVDQGWDEOHWIRUPDWVDKDQGIXORIRIILFLDOVDQGVHDOVRFFXULQERWKWKH)RUWLIL FDWLRQDQG7UHDVXU\DUFKLYHV *DUULVRQLQSUHVV +HQNHOPDQ LQSUHVV VXJJHVWV that the Treasury archive is a “branch of administration parallel, or perhaps suE ordinated,” to that documented by the Fortification archive.  7KH WH[WV DQG VHDOV SUHVHUYHG DV LPSUHVVLRQV RQ WKH FOD\ GRFXPHQWV IURP WKH 7UHDVXU\ DUFKLYH DUH ZHOO NQRZQ WKH WH[WV KDYLQJ EHHQ SXEOLVKHG E\ &DPHURQ  WKHVHDOVE\6FKPLGW  )RUFRUULJHQGDDQGFROODWLRQVRIWKH texts, see Hallock 1960; Arfa’i 2008; Jones & Yie 2012.

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Beyond Auramazdā and the Winged Symbol

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FKDPEHUVRIWKHQRUWKHUQIRUWLILFDWLRQZDOODW3HUVHSROLV KHQFHLWVQDPH  7KHDUFKLYHFRQFHUQVDVWDWHDJHQF\WKDWPDQDJHGLQDUHJLRQFHQWHUHGRQ 3HUVHSROLV WKH FROOHFWLRQ VWRUDJH WD[DWLRQ DQG GLVEXUVHPHQW RI ORFDOO\ SURGXFHG FRPPRGLWLHV FHUHDOV ZLQH EHHU RLO KRQH\ IUXLW SRXOWU\ DQG OLYHVWRFN  WKDW ZHUH VXEVHTXHQWO\ GLVWULEXWHG DV VXEVLVWHQFH UDWLRQV RU “salary” to members of the royal family, the imperial elite, administrative RIILFLDOVUHOLJLRXVRIILFLDOV DQGGHLWLHV WUDYHOOHUVRQWKHUR\DOURDGVDJUL FXOWXUDOZRUNHUVFUDIWVPHQDQGOLYHVWRFN'DWHIRUPXODHLQWKH(ODPLWH DQG$UDPDLFGRFXPHQWVGDWHWKHDUFKLYHWRWKHPLGGOH\HDUVRIWKHUHLJQ RI'DULXV,VSHFLILFDOO\–%&($OOWKUHHGRFXPHQWW\SHVLQWKH)RUWL ILFDWLRQDUFKLYH(ODPLWH$UDPDLFDQGXQLQVFULEHGFDUU\VHDOV $SSUR[LPDWHO\  GLVWLQFW DQG OHJLEOH VHDOV KDYH EHHQ LGHQWLILHG WR GDWH RQ WKH GRFXPHQWV IURP WKH )RUWLILFDWLRQ DUFKLYH VRPH  RQ GRFX PHQWV IURP WKH 7UHDVXU\ DUFKLYH 7KH DPRXQW RI YLVXDO LPDJHU\ SUH  +DOORFN    SXEOLVKHG D VDPSOH RI WKH (ODPLWH GRFXPHQWV *DUULVRQ DQG 5RRW  KDYHSXEOLVKHGWKHILUVWRIWKUHHYROXPHVFRQFHUQLQJWKHVHDOVWKDWRF FXURQWKHWDEOHWVSXEOLVKHGE\+DOORFN$QLQWHUQDWLRQDOWHDPXQGHUWKHGLUHFWLRQ RI 0: 6WROSHU FXUUHQWO\ LV VWXG\LQJ WKH XQSXEOLVKHG GRFXPHQWV (ODPLWH $UD PDLFDQGXQLQVFULEHGIURPWKHDUFKLYH)RULQWURGXFWLRQVDQGRUVXUYH\VRIWKH )RUWLILFDWLRQ DUFKLYH VHH +DOORFN  S – LGHP  LGHP  DQG LGHP  +LQ]  DQG LGHP  /HZLV  S – LGHP  S – LGHP  DQG LGHP  'DQGDPDHY  /XNRQLQ  S – .RFK  DQG LGHP  S – :LHVHK|IHU  S – – *DUULVRQ  5RRW  S – %ULDQWS––.XKUWDS– VHOHFWWH[WVZLWKFRPPHQ WDU\ +HQNHOPDQS–%ULDQW+HQNHOPDQ 6WROSHU  $]]RQLHWDO LQSUHVV*DUULVRQLQSUHVVLGHPLQSUHVVLGHPLQSUHVV7KHUHDUHLQDGGLWLRQD VXEVWDQWLDO QXPEHU RI VWXGLHV GHYRWHG WR VSHFLDOL]HG WRSLFV RQ WKH DUFKLYH VHH +HQNHOPDQ SQ DQG$]]RQLHWDO LQSUHVV IRUDVDPSOHRIWKHVFKRO DUO\OLWHUDWXUH$QRWKHULPSRUWDQWGHSRVLWRIVHDOHGDGPLQLVWUDWLYHGRFXPHQWVEXW XQLQVFULEHGZDVIRXQGE\7DGMYLGLLQLQKLVH[FDYDWLRQVRQWKHPRXQWDLQIRU tification on the Šāhi Kūh that overlooks the Takht (Tadjvidi 1970, LGHP  S – *DUULVRQ  5RRW  S  +HQNHOPDQ -RQHV  6WROSHU  S – 5DKLPLIDU5D]PMRXS*DUULVRQLQSUHVV LGHPLQSUHVV 7KHDV VHPEODJHFRQVLVWVRIVRPHVL[W\XQLQVFULEHGVHDOHGFOD\GRFXPHQWVDQGWKUHHDF WXDO F\OLQGHU VHDOV 7KHUH DUH DW OHDVW HLJKW GLVWLQFW VHDOV SUHVHUYHG RQ WKH FOD\ documents, one of which also occurs on “labels” from the Treasury archive, PTS 28 6FKPLGWSOQR 7DGMYLGLSILJV–5DKLPLIDUSO 7DOOLVSQR7XSOLQLQSUHVV   6HDOLQJSURWRFROVLQWKH)RUWLILFDWLRQDUFKLYHDUHGLVFXVVHGLQGHWDLOLQ*DUULVRQLQ SUHVV  0DQ\ WKRXVDQGV RI GRFXPHQWV IURP WKH )RUWLILFDWLRQ DUFKLYH UHPDLQ XQVWXGLHG DQGPDQ\WKRXVDQGVRIIUDJPHQWVRIWDEOHWVUHPDLQLQVWRUDJH,HVWLPDWHWKDWWKH WRWDO QXPEHU RI GLVWLQFW DQG OHJLEOH VHDOV WKDW ZLOO HYHQWXDOO\ EH GRFXPHQWHG LQ

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Henkelman.indb 201

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18.01.17 19:32

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Henkelman.indb 202

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203

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WDOIDFHKRUVHVKROGDORIWDZLQJHGULQJLQGLVNEHORZWKHZLQJHGULQJLQ GLVN D EXOOPDQ KROGV DORIW WKH SDUWLDO ILJXUH LQ D FLUFOH ,Q DOO WKUHH LQ VWDQFHVWKHFLUFXODUGHYLFHLVWKLFNHQLQLWVORZHUVHFWLRQ\LHOGLQJDFUHV FHQWOLNHDSSHDUDQFH 7KHWKUHHVHDOV376 ILJ 376DQG376ZRXOGVHHPWREHDW RGGV ZLWK WZR RI WKH PRVW FRPPRQ DOWKRXJK FRQWUDGLFWRU\  UHDGLQJV RI $FKDHPHQLGUHOLJLRXVLPDJHU\QDPHO\WKDW WKH3HUVLDQVGLGQRWZRUVKLS GHLWLHV LQ KXPDQ IRUP WKH +HURGRWHDQ SHUVSHFWLYH  DQG   WKH ZLQJHG symbol (in all of its manifestations) is Auramazdā (the Zoroastrian perspeF WLYH  6FKPLGW  S     ZKR HQWKXVLDVWLFDOO\ DGRSWHG D =RURDV WULDQSHUVSHFWLYHLQKLVUHDGLQJRIUHOLJLRXVLPDJHU\LQWKHJO\SWLFIURPWKH 7UHDVXU\DUFKLYHJORVVHGRYHUWKHFRQXQGUXPSRVHGE\WKHSDLULQJRIWKH WZR HQWLWLHV ZLQJHG V\PERO DQG SDUWLDO ILJXUH LQ D FLUFOH XQGHUVWDQGLQJ WKHP DSSDUHQWO\ DV VLPSO\ GLIIHUHQW UHSUHVHQWDWLRQV RI WKH VDPH GHLW\ “The god’s effigy is shown apart from the winged symbol” on PTS 16, PTS DQG376 'HWDLOVRIWKHILJXUHVLQWKHFLUFXODUGHYLFHVDUHLQWHUHVWLQJ7KHRQHRQ 376  ILJ   LV EHDUGHG DQG ZHDUV D 3HUVLDQ FRXUW UREH DQG GHQWDWH FURZQKHH[WHQGVRQHKDQGFXSSHGXSZDUGEHIRUHKLVIDFHZKLOHKHKROGV DWULOREHGIORZHULQKLVRWKHUKDQG,QWKHVHGHWDLOVKHLVDQH[DFWGXSOLFDWH RI WKH WZR DWWHQGDQWV 7KH ILJXUH LQ WKH FLUFXODU GHYLFH RQ 376  LV EHDUGHGDQGZHDUVD3HUVLDQFRXUWUREHDQGGHQWDWHFURZQKHH[WHQGVRQH KDQGKHOGIODWXSZDUGEHIRUHKLVIDFHZKLOHKHKROGVDWULOREHGIORZHULQ KLVRWKHUKDQG$JDLQLQWKHVHGHWDLOVWKHILJXUHLQWKHFLUFXODUGHYLFHLVDQ H[DFWGXSOLFDWHRIWKHDWWHQGDQWV7KHILJXUHLQWKHFLUFXODUGHYLFHRQ376 LVYHU\IDLQW6Fhmidt (1957, p. 25) could read only a “squared tiara.”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205

WDQJO\SWLF$V0RRUH\ S– DQGPDQ\RWKHUVKDYHQRWHGWKH FUHVFHQW LQVFULEHG ZLWKLQ D GLVN DQG WKH VLPSOH FUHVFHQW KDYH LQ $VV\ULD DQG%DE\ORQLDDQH[FHSWLRQDOO\ORQJDQGZHOOGRFXPHQWHGDVVRFLDWLRQZLWK WKHOXQDUGHLW\6v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uramazdā was the supreme deity (witness the royal inscriptions) for iQ habitants of southwestern Iran in the Achaemenid period… the Achaemenids were Zoroastrian… DQG WKXV LW LV inconceivable that any deity other than Auramazdā can be GHSLFWHGLQ$FKDHPHQLGDUW 7KHUHIRUH WKH ILJXUH LQ WKH ZLQJHG ULQJGLVN ZKLFK LV WKH PRVW FRPPRQO\ RFFXUULQJ divine representation in Achaemenid monumental art, must be Auramazdā; HYHQLIDGHLW\LVUHSUHVHQWHGLQDIRUPHJWKHSDUWLDOILJXUHLQWKHFLUFXODU GHYLFH RWKHU WKDQ WKH ZLQJHG V\PERO WKLV UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ PXVW QHYHUWKH less, still be Auramazdā; DQGHYHQLIPXOWLSOHGLYLQHUHSUHVHQWDWLRQVRFFXULQRQHDQGWKHVDPHVFHQH LQ$FKDHPHQLGDUWWKHVHUHSUHVHQWDWLRQVPXVWQHYHUWKHOHVVVWLOODOOEH$X ramazdā.  $OWKRXJKPRVWFRPPHQWDWRUVKDYHLQIDFWH[SODLQHGWKHYDULRXVPDQLIHVWDWLRQVRI D FUHVFHQW LQ $FKDHPHQLG DUW DV D =RURDVWULDQ V\PERO 6HH HJ %R\FH  S – ZKREHOLHYHGWKDW$FKDHPHQLG=RURDVWULDQLVPZDVDQLFRQLFDQGUHDGWKH RFFXUUHQFHRIWKHFUHVFHQWLQVFULEHGLQDGLVNRQWKHIDFDGHVRIWKHUR\DOWRPEUH liefs at NaqšH5RVWDPDV\HWDQRWKHUDVSHFWRIWKHUR\DO[YarǝnahEDVHGXSRQWKH $YHVWDQ DQG ODWHU VRXUFHV &I 0RRUH\  S   DQG .DQWRU  S –  both of whom read it as the god Auramazdā. Calmeyer’s (1975, p. 236) suggestion that the crescent inscribed within a disk on Darius’ relief “might have been there EHFDXVHWKHNLQJZDVWKHLU>the moon’s and sun’s; MBG] brother” has found, as far as I FDQWHOOQRIROORZLQJ6HHDOVRWKHGLVFXVVLRQEHORZ  :KDWIROORZVLVREYLRXVO\DKLJKO\UHGXFWLYHVXPPDU\  1RWH DOVRKRZHYHUWKHFRPPHQWVEHORZ Q FRQFHUQLQJWKRVHDGYRFDWLQJDQ DQLFRQLF=RURDVWULDQLVP

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1RWH WKH FRPPHQWV RI +HOHQH .DQWRU  S   DQ H[FHSWLRQDOO\ ZHOO UHVSHFWHGVFKRODURIWKHDUWVRIDQFLHQW:HVWHUQ$VLDGLVFXVVLQJWKHSDUWLDO ILJXUHHQFORVHGLQDFLUFXODUGHYLFHDQGWKHSDUWLDOILJXUHLQDFUHVFHQW “However, although they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circumscribed bust.”

7KLV=RURDVWULDQUHDGLQJHIIHFWLYHO\HUDVHVDQ\SRVVLELOLW\RIWKHH[LVWHQFH of the depiction of any deity other than Auramazdā. In essence, all divine representation becomes Auramazdā, even when those representations are UDGLFDOO\GLIIHUHQWLQIRUPDQGVHPDQWLFFRQWHQW 2I FRXUVH WKH (ODPLWH WH[WV IURP WKH )RUWLILFDWLRQ DUFKLYH SUHVHQW D PDVVLYH GDWD VHW WKDW GRFXPHQWV DQ H[WHQVLYH GRVVLHU RI GHLWLHV ZRU VKLSSHGLQWKHUHJLRQRI3HUVHSROLVDWWKHWLPHRI'DULXV +HQNHOPDQ  One certainly can understand Kantor’s perspective, wrLWLQJDVVKHGLGEH IRUH+DOORFNKDGSXEOLVKHGKLV2,3YROXPH%DVHGXSRQKHUVFKRODUO\DX thority, however, Kantor’s views continue to be cited in the scholarly liW HUDWXUHIRUFRQILUPDWLRQRIWKH=RURDVWULDQUHDGLQJRIWKHILJXUHLQFLUFXODU GHYLFH 6HHPLQJO\FORVHO\UHODWHGWRWKHSDUWLDOILJXUHHQFORVHGLQDFLUFOHDQG SHUKDSVHYHQUHSUHVHQWLQJWKHVDPHGLYLQHHQWLW\LVWKHSDUWLDOILJXUHWKDW  2QH VKRXOG QRWH WKDW WKHUH LV DQ DOWHUQDWH $YHVWDQ=RURDVWULDQ UHDGLQJ WKDW DU JXHVMXst the opposite, that there could be no images of Auramazdā in Achaemenid DUW VLQFH =RURDVWULDQLVP LV VWULFWO\ DQLFRQLF VR HJ 6KDKED]L  LGHP  -DP]DGHKS%R\FHS––QRWHDOVRWKHGLVFXVVLRQ RI/HFRT   $OWKRXJK.DQWRUZRUNHGLQWKHVDPHEXLOGLQJZLWK+DOORFNIRUGHFDGHVDQGHYHQ DWRQHSRLQWKDGWDNHQRQWKHLGHDRISXEOLVKLQJWKHJO\SWLFIURPWKH)RUWLILFDWLRQ DUFKLYHPDNLQJDVHWRILPDJHQRWHERRNVXVLQJSKRWRJUDSKVRILPSUHVVLRQVRIWKH VHDOVWDNHQE\WKH:3$SURMHFWGXULQJWKHV RQWKHVHSKRWRJUDSKVVHH*DUUL VRQ 5RRWS   See, e.g., Moorey (1978, p. 18), writing a decade after the appearance of Hallock’s 2,3YROXPH0HUULOOHHVS–

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207

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bull’s head, the archerFUHDWXUHDQGWKHVFHQHLQZKLFKLWLVVHWDVVXPHV UR\DO RYHUWRQHV 7KH ERZ DQG TXLYHU ILJXUH SURPLQHQWO\ DV PDUNHUV RI ERWK WKH NLQJ DQG 3HUVLDQ HOLWH LQ PRQXPHQWDO UHOLHI /DUJH SDQHOHG LQ VFULSWLRQVDUHIHDWXUHVRIERWKPRQXPHQWDOUHOLHIDQGWKHUR\DOQDPHVHDOV IURP 3HUVHSROLV The bull’s head and general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bull’s head and general/VKDSHGIRUPRIWKHFUHDWXUHZRXOGFRQYH\LGHDV DVVRFLDWHGZLWKGLYLQHDVFHQVLRQDQGRQHPD\DVVXPHP\WKRORJLFDOQDU UDWLYHV  3HUVLDQFRXUWUREHLVKRZHYHUWKHRQO\JDUPHQWZRUQE\WKHNLQJLQ$FKDHPHQLG monumental relief. The exception may be the relief at Bīsotūn where one could SHUKDSVFRQVLGHUWKHJDUPHQWZRUQE\WKHNLQJDVVRPHWKLQJGLIIHUHQWIURPWKH FDQRQLFDO3HUVLDQFRXUWUREH RUVLPSO\DGLIIHUHQWUHQGHULQJRILW   6HHWKHGLVFXVVLRQLQ*DUULVRQD  See Garrison 2011a for the potential divine semantics of the depiction of “asceQ sion” in Achaemenid art.  6HH WKH YDULRXV GLFWLRQDU\ HQWULHV LQ %ODFN  *UHHQ   DV ZHOO DV WKH UHFHQW DQDO\WLFDODUWLFOHVE\%UHQLTXHW S– DQG6FXUORFN    )RUFRPSRVLWHFDSLWDOVDW3HUVHSROLVVHHWKHGLVFXVVLRQVLQ*DUULVRQDLQSUHVV 

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:RUOGDQG%H\RQG 2ULHQWDO,QVWLWXWH6HPLQDUV &KLFDJR8QLYHUVLW\RI&KL FDJR3UHVVS– )UD\QH'6DUJRQLFDQG*XWLDQ3HULRGV %&  7KH5R\DO,QVFULSWLRQVRI 0HVRSRWDPLD(DUO\3HULRGV 7RURQWR8QLYHUVLW\RI7RURQWR3UHVV *DUULVRQ0%7KHSeals of Ašbazana (Aspathines)LQ0%URVLXV $.XKUW HGG 6WXGLHVLQ3HUVLDQ+LVWRU\(VVD\VLQ0HPRU\RI'DYLG0/HZLV $FKDHP HQLG +LVWRU\   /HLGHQ 1HGHUODQGV ,QVWLWXXW YRRU KHW 1DELMH 2RVWHQ S – *DUULVRQ0%$FKDHPHQLG,FRQRJUDSK\DV(YLGHQFHGE\*O\SWLF$UW6XEMHFW 0DWWHU 6RFLDO )XQFWLRQ $XGLHQFH DQG 'LIIXVLRQ LQ & 8HKOLQJHU HG  ,P DJHV DV 0HGLD 6RXUFHV IRU WKH &XOWXUDO +LVWRU\ RI WKH 1HDU (DVW DQG WKH (DVWHUQ 0HGLWHUUDQHDQ VW0LOOHQQLXP%&(  2UELV%LEOLFXVHW2ULHQWDOLV )ULERXUJ 9DQGHQKRHFN 5XSUHFKWS– Garrison, M.B. 2006, The ‘Late NeoElamite’ GlypWLF6W\OH$3HUVSHFWLYHIURP)DUV %XOOHWLQRIWKH$VLDQ,QVWLWXWHS– *DUULVRQ 0% D $UFKHUV DW 3HUVHSROLV 7KH (PHUJHQFH RI 5R\DO ,GHRORJ\ DW WKH+HDUWRIWKH(PSLUHLQ-&XUWLV 6W-RKQ6LPSVRQ HGG 7KH:RUOGRI $FKDHPHQLG 3HUVLD +LVWRU\ $UW DQG 6RFLHW\ LQ ,UDQ DQG WKH $QFLHQW 1HDU (DVW /RQGRQ,%7DXULVS– *DUULVRQ0%E7KH+HURLF(QFRXQWHULQWKH9LVXDO$UWVRI$QFLHQW,UDTDQG ,UDQF–%&LQ'%&RXQWV %$UQROG HGG 7KH0DVWHURI$QLPDOV LQ2OG:RUOG,FRQRJUDSK\ $UFKDHROLQJXD %XGDSHVW$UFKDHROLQJXD)RXQ GDWLRQS– *DUULVRQ 0% D By the Favor of Auramazdā .LQJVKLS DQG WKH 'LYLQH LQ WKH (DUO\ $FKDHPHQLG 3HULRG LQ 33 ,RVVLI $' &KDQNRZVNL  && /RUEHU HGG 0RUHWKDQ0HQ/HVVWKDQ*RGV6WXGLHVRQ5R\DO&XOWDQG,PSHULDO:RUVKLS 6WXGLD+HOOHQLVWLFD /HXYHQ3HWHUVS– Garrison, M.B. 2011b, The Seal of ‘Kuraš the Anzanite, Son of Šešpeš’ (Teispes), PFS   6XVD – Anšan – 3HUVHSROLV LQ - ÉOYDUH]0RQ  0 % *DUULVRQ HGG  (ODPDQG3HUVLD:LQRQD/DNH(LVHQEUDXQVS– Garrison, M.B. 2012, Les arts visuels du début de l’ère achéménide ontLOV représenté l’autel du feuHWOHIHXVDFUp]RURDVWULHQV"5HOLJLRQV +LVWRLUH S– *DUULVRQ 0%  5R\DO $FKDHPHQLG ,FRQRJUDSK\ LQ '7 3RWWV HG  2[IRUG +DQGERRNRI,UDQLDQ$UFKDHRORJ\2[IRUG2[IRUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVVS– *DUULVRQ0%D7KH5R\DO1DPH6HDOVRI'DULXV,LQ:)0+HQNHOPDQ&- -RQHV &:RRG HGG ([WUDFWLRQDQG&RQWURO6WXGLHVLQ+RQRURI0DWWKHZ: 6WROSHU 6WXGLHV LQ $QFLHQW 2ULHQWDO &LYLOL]DWLRQV   &KLFDJR 7KH 2ULHQWDO ,QVWLWXWHRIWKH8QLYHUVLW\RI&KLFDJRS– *DUULVRQ0%E*O\SWLF6WXGLHVDV$UW+LVWRU\LQ%%URZQ 0+)HOGPDQ HGG +DQGERRNRI$QFLHQW1HDU(DVWHUQ$UW%HUOLQ:DOWHUGH*UX\WHU

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/LQHV  RIWKHWH[WFRQFHUQUDWLRQVIRUJURXSVWUDYHOOLQJRQDVHFWLRQ RIWKHURDGQHWZRUN$part from the mention of Mataš (Māda0HGLD DQG Akbaddana (Hagmatāna/Ecbatana; see $SSHQGL[  WKH UHIHUHQFH WR WUDYHO authorisations from Mitarna (Hydarnes, in Media), Mišdašba (Hystaspes, in Media) and Parnakka (in Pārsa) make it clear that the route coQFHUQHGZDV WKDWEHWZHHQ 0HGLD DQGWKH$FKDHPHQLG KHDUWODQG ,W ZDVSDUW RI RQH RI WKHPDLQDUWHULHVRIWKHHPSLUHGHVFHQGLQJIURPWKH&DVSLDQUHJLRQFRQ WLQXLQJ YLD Hagmatāna and Kabaš/*Gaba (Esfahān RU Ābādeh UHJLRQ  WR central Pārsa, and leading furthHUVRXWKWR7DPXNNDQ 7DXND(Borāzǧān region) and presumably the Būšehr peninsula. /LQH   VWDWHV WKH QDPH RI WKH ORFDWLRQ RI WKH FHQWUDO VWRUDJH IURP ZKLFKWKHEDUOH\IRUWKHYDULRXVDOORFDWLRQVZDVLVVXHG$Q]DPDQQDNND,WV ORFDWLRQRQWKHURDGWR0HGLDLVFRQILUPHGE\DQRWKHUXQSXEOLVKHGMRXUQDO 11ZKLFKOLVWVZLQHDOORFDWLRQVIRUYDULRXVWUDYHOSDUWLHVDQGLVFHQ WUHG RQ WKH VDPH WRZQ &ROORFDWLRQV ZLWK RWKHU WRSRQ\PV IXUWKHUPRUH DVVLJQ$Q]DPDQQDNNDWRDJURXSRIWRZQVQRUWKRIWKHFRUHWHUULWRU\RIWKH institutional economy, stretching to the Esfahān region or, perhaps more likely, somewhat to the south of it, in the area north of Ābādeh (KD baš/Γάβαι/*Gaba; cf. the district Γάβηνη). The internal cohesion of this ‘northern cluster’ and its FRQQHFWLRQWRWKHURDGWR0HGLDDUHLQGLVSXWDEOH but its status (an administrative region, like the Fahliyān and Persepolis UHJLRQV" DQGPRUHSUHFLVHJHRJUDSKLFDOGHILQLWLRQUHPDLQXQGHWHUPLQHG 

6HH+HQNHOPDQEIRUWKHQRUWKVRXWKURXWHZLWKUHIHUHQFHWRSHUWLQHQW3)$ texts. On Mitarna, Midašba and Parnakka see the notes to Fort. 1316LQ$SSHQ GL[  7KHQDPHLVWKHHODPRJUDSKRI2OG,UDQLDQ KDQMDPDQDND, “gathering place” (+LQ] SI7DYHUQLHUDSI>@   2QH RI WKH HQLJPDWLF aspects of the ‘northern cluster’ is that it is almost exclX VLYHO\ NQRZQ IURP MRXUQDOV DQG DFFRXQWV WKH UHOHYDQW WRSRQ\PV RFFXU UDUHO\ LQ WKHH[WDQWPHPRUDQGD)RUPRGHUQXVHUVRIWKHPDWHULDOWKLVXQH[SODLQHGFLUFXP VWDQFHKDVWKHGLVDGYDQWDJHRIQRWEHLQJDEOHWRVWXG\WKHVHDOLQJSDWWHUQVDVVRFL DWHGZLWKORFDOWUDQVDFWLRQVIRUWKHVHZRXOGRQO\EHYLVLEOHRQWKHORFDOO\GUDIWHG WRQJXHVKDSHGWDEOHWV DQGQRWRQWKHVHDOHGDQGXQVHDOHGMRXUQDOVDQGDFFRXQWV GUDIWHGDW3HUVHSROLV 0RVWSUREOHPDWLFDOLQWKLVFRQWH[WLVWKHLQDELOLW\WRLGHQWLI\ VHDOVUHSUHVHQWLQJDUHJLRQDOFRPSHWHQFHfor the ‘northern cluster.’ In the case of

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277

$Q]DPDQQDNNDZDVQRWRQO\DVWRSRQWKHUR\DOURDGLWZDVDOVRYLVLWHG by the royal court and was the scene of the King’s Dinner in at least two GLIIHUHQW \HDUV ,W SURGXFHG EDUOH\ ZLQH DSSOHV DQG YDULRXV RWKHU IUXLWV One text refers to the town’s granary and identifies the local halmarraš DV WKHSODFHZKHUHWKHDFFRXQWZDVGUDZQXS7KRXJKWKLVODVWWHUPOLWHUDOO\ means “fortress, fortified area,” such facilities served, in the daily practice RIWKH3HUVHSROLVHFRQRP\DVSODFHVIRUVWRUDJHDQGDGPLQLVWUDWLRQ:LWK LW DQG ZLWK WKH RWKHU HOHPHQWV MXVW PHQWLRQHG $Q]DPDQQDNND PD\ EH GHVFULEHG DV D UHJXODU WRZQ LQ WKH LQVWLWXWLRQDO ODQGVFDSH SUREDEO\ WKH FHQWUH RI DVPDOO GLVWULFWDQG FHUWDLQO\ IXOO\ LQWHJUDWHG LQ WKH RYHUDOO DG PLQLVWUDWLYHV\VWHP Is there a possibility that Anzamannakka, or indeed the ‘norWKHUQFOXV ter’ as a whole, once lay within a Neo(ODPLWH FXOWXUDO RUELW \HW EH\RQG WKHWHUULWRULDOOLPLWVRIWKHDFWXDO(ODPLWHVWDWH "7RSRVHWKHTXHVWLRQLVWR compare two unknowns: neither the nature and limits of the ‘northern





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WKHPXFKbetter known Fahliyān, Kāmfīrūz and Persepolis regions, suchVHDOVKDYH EHHQHVVHQWLDOLQGHILQLQJDUHJLRQDOQHWZRUNRIWRZQVVXSSOLHUVDQGUDWLRQRIIL FHUV 2Q WKH QRUWKHUQ FOXVWHU VHH SURYLVLRQDOO\ +DOORFN  S  +HQNHOPDQ DSZLWKQLGHPES+HQNHOPDQ 6WROSHUS I  On Anzamanakka and the ‘northern cluster’ see Henkelman 2008a, p. 119. &RPPRGLWLHV ZHUH VRPHWLPHV WUDQVSRUWHG EHWZHHQ VWRUHKRXVHV JHQHUDO RSLQLRQ KROGVWKDWWKHGLVWDQFHVEHWZHHQWKHVHPXVWKDYHEHHQUHODWLYHO\VKRUW6XFKDQG RWKHU FRQQHFWLRQs suggest proximity between Anzamanakka and Harrinziš, Hištiya(nuš), Kumiššan, Kutima, Šimparran, Uyakka, but also Parnuttiš (Fahliyān). 6HH1111111111)RUW WUDQVSRUWVWR$ 11DQG11 MRXUQDODQGDFFRXQWFHQWUHGRQ$ 9DUL RXVLQGLYLGXDOVPHQWLRQHGLQ)RUWDOVRSoint to the ‘northern cluster’– VHHQRWHVLQ$SSHQGL[. The connection with the road from Pārsa to Media excludes D ORFDWLRQ VRXWKHDVW RI 7DNKWe ǦamšīG IRU $Q]DPDQQDNND DV SURSRVHG E\ .RFK SLGHPSIQQILGHPS )RU RFFXUUHQFHV RI $Q]DPDQQDNND ZLWK LQGLFDWLRQ RI WKH YDULRXV VSHOOLQJV VHH DOVR Vallat 1993, p.14 (read ‘Anzamankaš’ [=Anzamannakka] for ‘Anzamankar’). King’s dinner 3)   KHDG RI FDWWOH 'DU  3)  LGHP LGHP  11  OZLQHLGHP 3) OEDUOH\'DU $GGSHUKDSV)RUW (flour for the king’s table at […]akka). 6HH+HQNHOPDQDHVSSQ )UXLW 3)  ODEHO  DQG 11  DFFRXQW  halmarraš PHQWLRQHG LQ 3)  ZKLFK DOVR LPSOLHV D JUDQDU\ E\ UHIHUHQFH WR DQ ambarabarraš  hāmbarabara “storehouse manager” (TaverQLHU D S  >@  UHVSRQVLEOH IRU EDUOH\ 7KLVRIILFLDOZDVLQYROYHGLQH[FKDQJLQJEDUOH\IRUDMHQQHWGHVFULEHGDVPDNXUWL\D LH K XYDJṛG\D, lit. “(animal raised) in the own house” (Tavernier 2007a, S [4.4.6.4]), hence “from a private farm.” For halmarraš FRPSDUHDOVROO  LQ)RUW ZLWKWKHQRWHVLQ$SSHQGL[

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cluster,’ nor the limitV RI (ODPLWH FXOWXUDO LQIOXHQFH LQ SUH$FKDHPHQLG Fārs can be defined with any degree of precision. The late Neo(ODPLWH DGGLWLRQV WR WKH  RSHQDLU URFNsanctuaries of Kūle Farah and ŠekaftH Salmān (Īzeh), and even Naqše Rostam (Marv Dašt) are importanWKLQWVDV LVWKHHYLGHQFHIRU1HRElamite occupation levels at sites in the Mamasanī area (western Fārs) and NeoElamite additions to the nearby Kūrāngūn monument. To this, finds from the Yāsūǧ region (Kohgīlūyeh wa Bōyer $KPDG  DQG SHUKDSV 7DOOH 0DOīān/Anšan (central Fārs) may be added. 6XFK LQGLFDWLRQV LPSRUWDQW DV WKH\ DUH UHPDLQ DV \HW WRR KDSKD]DUG WR DOORZIRUDUHOLDEOHPDS1HYHUWKHOHVV,YHQWXUHWKHRSLQLRQWKDWWKHDUHD between central Fārs and the Esfahān or Ābādeh UHJLRQLVQRWYHU\OLNHO\WR KDYHEHHQ H[SRVHG WRSURIRXQG (ODPLWH FXOWXUDO LQIOXHQFH DW OHDVWQRW LQ WKHFHQWXULHVGLUHFWO\SUHFHGLQJWKHULVHRIWKH3HUVLDQHPSLUH :KDWWKHQWRWKLQNRIWKHFXOWLFDFWLYLW\DWRULQWKHLPPHGLDWHYLFLQ LW\RI$Q]DPDQQDNND"/LQH RIWKHDERYHWH[WPHQWLRQVDSHUVRQZLWKD apparently Iranian name (Amraš) and designation (makuš FI 2OG 3HUVLDQ maguš) receiving barley for an offering to Napiriša, the “Great God” who KDGEHHQLPSRUWDQWLQ(ODPVLQFHDWOHDVWWKHHDUO\6XNNDOPDḫSHULRG$QG WKLVLVQRWDOOWKHIROORZLQJOLQHVGRFXPHQWDUHFHLSWRIEDUOH\E\DQRIILFL DQWZLWKWKH(ODPLWHGHVLJQDWLRQšatin FXOWLFH[SHUW IRUVDFULILFHVIRU WKH  Mišebaka (“All Gods”) and at/for the sacred mountain Parmabba.)LQDOO\ OLQHV IVWDWHWKDWDQhaturmakša ātṛvaxša, lit. “he who pokes the fire”) received, on royal orders, grain for Uramasda, Napiriša and Adad ",QWKLV 



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The question of “the limits of Anšan” has often been raised, but never given more WKDQ D WHQWDWLYH DQVZHU 2Q WKH SUREOHP VHH PRVW UHFHQWO\ 3RWWV  )RU 1HR (ODPLWH ,, RFFXSDWLRQDW7DSSHK1ūUāEāG H[FDYDWLRQV DQGRWKHUVLWHV VXUYH\  LQWKH0DPDVDQīUHJLRQVHHHVS0F&DOOZLWKUHIHUHQFHV*UDYHVGDWHGWRWKH 1HR(ODPLWHSHULRGIURPWKHYLOODJHRI/DPDNPQRUWKZHVWRIMiššumanya@ )RUW FI11IZLWK=DQDQD.XQ WDUUXš )RUWDQG)RUW FI3)I11IZLWK5DšQX PDWWLš1XNšDPDQD    ‘Northern cluster’: 11 0DVdakuš 11 $NNXUQD 11  5DšQXPDWWLš  11  (\DQD  11  =DUQDPL\D )RUW QHDU 'D]]DUDNND  )RUW I 0DNXUED  )RUW      $Q ]DPDQQDNND )RUW101:1f. (Šimparran?), Fort. 1411 $NNXUQD )RUW I DW RU QHDU .XPLššDQ  )RUW   $NNXUQD RU 7DSSXšQD  FI +HQNHOPDQRSFLWS   8QNQRZQDIILOLDWLRQ3))RUWI

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+HLGHPDULH .RFK WR WKH UHJLRQ VRXWKZHVW RI 7DNKWe Ǧamšīd is mainly EDVHGRQWKHXVHRIDQDFFRXQWLQJVHDO 3)6 ZKLFKKRZHYHUUHSUH VHQWHG D VXSUDUHJLRQDO FRPSHWHQFH DQG KDV WKHUHIRUH OLPLWHG GLDJQRVWLF YDOXH 1HYHUWKHOHVV WKH UHPDUNV E\ WKH VDPH VFKRODU RQ WKH H[WHQW RI Napiriša’s cult in the Achaemenid period remain SHUWLQHQW WR RXU GLVFXV VLRQLIRQO\IRUKLJKOLJKWLQJDPRUHJHQHUDOFXUUHQWLQVWXGLHVRQ$FKDHP HQLG3HUVLDQUHOLJLRQ Observing that Napiriša received worship in an area not known to have EHHQ (ODPLWH RU XQGHU VWURQJ (ODPLWH LQIOXHQFH .RFK FRQFOXGHG WKDW LWV FXOWXUDOFRQWH[WPXVWKDYHEHHQWKDWRIDQLVRODWHGFRPPXQLW\ Because of the Persian king’s tolerance, Elamite and Babylonian gods rH FHLYHGUDWLRQVIRURIIHULQJVWRR+RZHYHUWKH\ZHUHYHQHUDWHGRQO\E\WKH (ODPLWHV7KHUHIRUHWKH\ZHUHIRXQGPDLQO\LQWKH(O\PDLVDQGLQVRPHLVR ODWHGSODFHVLQWKH3HUVLDQKHDUWODQG :HVKRXOGEHDULQPLQGWKDW(ODPLWHV OLYHGDOORYHUWKHFRXQWU\  (…) Napirisha, the “Great God,” rival of Khumban [VLF@ ZDV YHQHUDWHG LQ WKUHH SODFHVLQWKH(O\PDLVDQGLQIRXUSODFHVLQWKHGLVWULFWVRXWKZHVWRI3HUVHSR OLVZKLFKPXVWKDYHEHHQDQHQFODYHRIKLVZRUVKLSSHUV

Not only was Napiriša’s cult in Pārsa a matter of isolated communities: it was also in decline as a result of his ancient association with Inšušinak. 7KLVGHLW\ZDVRQWKHRQHKDQGFRPSOHWHO\LJQRUHGE\WKH$FKDHPHQLGV  6HH.RFKS WKHVHDOVPHQWLRQHGRQSDUHDOODFFRXQWLQJVHDOV  LGHPS6HDO3)6 XVHGE\DQDFFRXQWLQJRIILFHSURGXFLQJMRXU QDOVDQGDFFRXQWVDW7DNKWe ǦamšīGRFFXUVZLWKDJUHDWUDQJHRIWRSRQ\PV,WLV WUXH WKDW the ‘northern cluster’ is well represented among these, but so is the ‘southern cluster’ and other regions are not absent either (on the striking seal iP DJH VHH *DUULVRQ  S I  ILJ  LGHP WKLV YROXPH  7KH LGHQWLILFDWLRQ RI Kabaš as Γάβαι/*GDED +HQNHOPDQ E  ZKLFK FODULILHG PDWWHUV VLJQLILFDQWO\ KDG QRW EHHQ PDGH DW WKH WLPH .RFK ZDV ZULWLQJ EXW WKH MRXUQDOV UHIHUULQJ WR WUDYHOOHUVRQWKHURDGEHWZHHQ0HGLDDQG3āUVDZHUHDYDLODEOHWRKHUDQGDUHDF WXDOO\FLWHGDVHYLGHQFHRQWKHVDWUDSRI0HGLDLQDQRWKHUSXEOLFDWLRQ .RFK SUHIHUULQJWR111111 7KHUHVKHDOVRUHFRJQL]HVWKDW .DEDšZDVVLWXDWHGQRUWKRI3HUVHSROLV RSFLWSI>FRQWUDGLFWLQJ LELGS @ DQLQVLJKWWKDWGLVSURYHVKHUWKLQNLQJDERXWWKHJHRJUDSKLFDOGLVWULEXWLRQRI YDULRXVVDFULILFHVLQ3)$ VWLOOUHSHDWHGLQLGHPSHVSS   .RFKSIVHHDOVRLGHPSLGHPSDQGLGHPS   $QDQDFKURQLVWLFWHUPE\ZKLFK.RFKUHfers to the FārsKhūzestān border region roughly what is called here (after Hallock) the ‘FahliyāQUHJLRQ’

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DQGKDGRQWKHRWKHUORVWDOOLQIOXHQFHZLWKWKHUHPDLQLQJ(ODPLWHVDVKH KDGIDLOHGWRSURWHFWWKHPIURPHQHP\LQYDVLRQ ,WLVQRWWKHUHFRQVWUXFWLRQRIWKHKLVWRULFDOFRQWH[WWKDWPDWWHUVPRVW KHUH –it rests on a misconception of Inšušinak’s earlier status – EXW UDWKHUWKHLQQXHQGRRIVRFLDODQGFXOWXUDOH[FOXVLRQRQO\(ODPLWHVYHQHU ate Elamite gods, and the places in Pārsa proper where the cults of their DQFLHQWJRGVOLQJHUDUHLVRODWHGWKH\DUHSDJDQHQFODYHVLQDQHZ$FKDHP HQLG KHDUWODQG 7KRXJK RQFH LQIOXHQWLDO WKLV SHUVSHFWLYH FDQQRW DQ\ ORQJHU EH UHJDUGHG DV D PDLQ FXUUHQW LQ UHVHDUFK RQ 3HUVLDQ UHOLJLRQ$O WKRXJKVRPHZRXOGVWLOOSLFWXUHWKH=RURDVWULDQWUDGLWLRQRIDURXQG%& DV D FUHHGDO IDLWK WKDW DSSHDOHG WR ZHVWHUQ ,UDQLDQV DQG ZDV ZLOOLQJ DQG

 See Koch 1995, p. 1963, “7KHSRZHUDQGLPSRUWDQFHRIWKHJRG,QVKXVKLQDNIRUDOO LQKDELWDQWVRI(ODPIURPWKHPRVWKXPEOHXSWRWKHNLQJLVTXLWHFOHDUIURPWKH HDUOLHVW WLPHV RQZDUG 6R LW LV D VWULNLQJ IDFW WKDW KH GLVDSSHDUHG FRPSOHWHO\ LQ $FKDHPHQLGWLPHV,WLVXQGHUVWDQGDEOHKRZHYHUVLQFHDVSURWHFWRUDJDLQVWHQH PLHVIURPRXWVLGHKHKDGIDLOHG%DE\ORQLDQVDQGDERYHDOOWKH3HUVLDQVKDGJRW WHQWKHXSSHUKDQGDQGWKH(ODPLWHVKDGEHFRPHVXEMHFWVWRIRUHLJQHUV7KXVZLWK WKHGHFOLQHRIWKH(ODPLWHNLQJGRP,QVKXVKLQDNORVWDOORIKLVLQIOXHQFH” &RPSDUH LGHP 2011, p. 127, “Vielleicht wegen der Zugehörigkeit zu dieser Gotter7ULDV [Napiriša, Inšušinak, Kiririša; WH] mag Napirischa auch unter der Missachtung, die PDQLQDFKlPHQLGLVFKHU=HLWGHP*RWW,QVFKXVFKLQDNHQWJHJHQEUDFKWH]XOHLGHQ gehabt haben.” 6HH+HQNHOPDQDS  Inšušinak, as the DJHROGFLW\JRGRI6XVDSUREDEO\QHYHUZDVYHU\VWURQJO\UHSUH VHQWHGLQ WKHKLJKODQG LQWKH ILUVWSODFHDQGKLVDEVHQFHIURP3)$FDQWKHUHIRUH QRWEHH[SODLQHGIURPDORVVRIIDLWKRUIURPDUR\DOGHFLVLRQ SDFH+HUUHQVFKPLGW S 7KHZLOIXO V\QFUHWLVPRI,QšXšLQDNDQG1DSLULšDXQGHU8QWDš 1DSLULšDRUWKHVSUHDGRI,QšXšinak temples under Šilhak,QšXšLQDN,DUHLQVSLUHG SUHFLVHO\E\KLVUROHDVUR\DOJRGSDUH[FHOOHQFH,WZDVDOUHDG\LQWKH1HR(ODPLWH SHULRGKRZHYHUWKDW+XPEDQURVHLQSRSXODULW\DOVRLQWKLVUROH+LVDVFHQWIXU WKHUPRUHGLGQRWVWRSZLWKWKHHPHUJHQFHRIWKH3HUVLDQHPSLUH ZKLFKH[SODLQV ZK\KHZDVWKHPRVWYHQHUDWHGJRGLQ3)$ VHHEHORZ )LQDOO\WKHUHLVVLPSO\QR HYLGHQFHIURPZKLFKWRFRQFOXGHWKDW,QšXšLQDNZDVQHJOHFWHGVLQFHDSDUWIURPD few fragments, we do not have a ‘Susa Fortification Archive.’ Other sources offer JOLPSVHVRIWKHORFDOSDQWKHRQDQGVXJJHVWWKHFRQWLQXLW\RIWKHFXOWRINanāya$ %DE\ORQLDQ WDEOHW IURP 6XVD 6E   GDWHV WR DQ $UWD[HU[HV DQG PHQWLRQV RQH %DQGDNNX NXPDUX RI Nanāya WH[W DQG FRPPHQWDU\ -RDQQqV  S   7ROLQL,S,,SFRPSDUH9DOODWDQG+HQNHOPDQDS QQZLWKQ  7KHUHLVQR DSULRULUHDVRQWRH[FOXGHWKHVDPHIRU RWKHUSUH$FKDHPHQLGGHLWLHVVXFKDV,QšXšLQDN FI+HQNHOPDQ>IRUWKF@   For discussion of this Elamite ‘Bantustan’ perspective see +HQNHOPDQDS DQGSDVVLP

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able “to admit newcomers on a large scale,”,KDYHWKHLPSUHVVLRQWKDWD rejection of “la chimère du prosélytisme zoroastrien” (Kellens, this voO XPH LVWKHDVFHQGLQJYLHZ7KHWKHVLVRIFRQYHUJHQFHRUDFFXOWXUDWLRQRI (ODPLWHDQG,QGR,UDQLDQWUDGLWLRQVWRRVHHPVWREHLQFUHDVLQJO\DFFHSWHG (VSHFLDOO\ LQ LWV PRVW FUXGH DQG H[SOLFLW IRUP WKH GHHSURRWHG DQWLWKHWLF YLHZUHPDLQVQHYHUWKHOHVVRILQWHUHVWQRWRQO\EHFDXVHLW H[SRVHVDQXQ GHUFXUUHQWWKDWVWLOOOLQJHUV–DSRLQWWKDW,ZLOOEULHIO\DGGUHVVLQ†–EXW DOVREHFDXVHLWPD\VHUYHDVDFRQWUDVWWRUHODWHGVWDWHPHQWVDERXWWKHODQ VDFULILFH Sacrifices for ‘Uramasda’ (pronounced /ur(a)mast(a)/ or RU D PDVW D   DUH UHODWLYHO\ VSDUVH LQ WKH )RUWLILFDWLRQ DUFKLYH WKH DJ JUHJDWHYROXPHRIWKHFRPPRGLWLHVDOORFDWHGIRUWKHSXUSRVHLVRQO\DERXW D WKLUG RI WKDW IRU +XPEDQ HYHQ WKRXJK WKH ODWWHU LV RI (ODPLWH GHVFHQW For those who take the worship of Ahura Mazdā by itseOI DV DQ H[FOXVLYH KDOOPDUNRIWKH=RURDVWULDQWUDGLWLRQDQGIRUZKRPE\FRQVHTXHQFHWKH mere occurrence of the name of Auramazdā in the royal inscriptions serves DVDGHFLVLYHDUJXPHQWIRU$FKDHPHQLG=RURDVWULDQLVPWKH3)$ PDWHULDO FOHDUO\SRVHVDFKDOOHQJH7DNLQJWKHVDFULILFHNQRZQE\WKH(ODPLWHZRUG ODQ, “offering, oblation” as the (exclusive) rite for Uramasda/Auramazdā SURYLGHGDVROXWLRQZKLFKZDVDWOHDVWIRUPDOO\DGPLVVLEOHDVODQZDVKLWK HUWR QRW DWWHVWHG LQ FRQQHFWLRQ ZLWK DQ\ QDPHG GHLW\ $W WKH VDPH WLPH WKHUHZDVQRGLUHFWSRVLWLYHHYLGHQFHWRVXSSRUWLW,QIDFWWKHSULPHUHD VRQODQZDVVHOHFWHGZDVSUHFLVHO\EHFDXVHRILWVIUHTXHQF\LPSRUWDQFHDQG VSUHDG RYHU WKH HQWLUH WHUULWRU\ FRYHUHG E\ WKH 3HUVHSROLV )RUWLILFDWLRQ DUFKLYH–VXFKDVDFULILFHVLPSO\KDGWREHthe missing Auramazdā rite.  .UH\HQEURHNSFRPSDUHKRZHYHU LGHPZKHUHPRUHHPSKDVLVLV SXW RQ WKH IRUPDWLRQ RI ODWHU =RURDVWULDQLVP LQ $FKDHPHQLG 3HUVLD RQ WKH EDVLV “WKHLQWHUDFWLRQEHWZHHQWKHUHOLJLRXVWUDGLWLRQVRIWKH(ODPLWHV:HVWHUQ,UDQLDQ 0DJLDQVDQG=RURDVWULDQV” (p. 55).  )RUDUHFHQWGHIHQFHRIWKLVYLHZVHHHJ.UH\HQEURHNSDQGLGHP S 50, reacting specifically to Kuiper’s seminal paper (1976), which posited a SUH=RURDVWULDQ$KXUD0D]Gā,REVHUYHWKDW.UH\HQEURHNGRHVQRWGLVFXVVRQHRI Kuiper’s strongest points: that in Gathic use, the sequence Ahura MazdāLVH[FHS WLRQDO WKHQRUPLV0D]GāAhura or Ahura … Mazdā DQGWKDWWKH2OG3HUVLDQIRUP $ K XUDPD]GāFDQQRWHDVLO\EHUHFRQFLOHGZLWKWKLV QRWWRPHQWLRQWKHIDFWWKDW LWLVZLWKRQHH[FHSWLRQDOZD\VWUHDWHGDVDVLQJOHIRUP   .RFKSURFHHGLQJIURPHDUOLHUZRUNE\+LQ]ILUVWUHDFKHGWKHFRQFOXVLRQWKDW ODQ was “das offizielle Opfer für Ahuramazdā,” in the monograph based on her 1976 GLVVHUWDWLRQ S 6KHKDVUHSHDWHGKHUYLHZVLQPDQ\VXEVHTXHQWSXEOL FDWLRQVDPRQJWKHVHKHUSDSHURQWKHJHRJUDSKLFDOGLVWULEXWLRQRIODQLVWKH PRVW LPSRUWDQW 6HH +HQNHOPDQ D S  IRU DQ RYHUYLHZ WR ZKLFK QRZ

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WLQXLQJ 0LGGOH (ODPLWH VL\DQ, literally “(a place of) seeing,” and generally XVHGWRGHQRWH EXLOW WHPSOHV,Q3)$VXFKWHPSOHVRFFXUDIHZWLPHVLQ SXUHO\ DGPLQLVWUDWLYH FRQWH[W LOOXVWUDWLQJ WKHLU DJHROG UROH DV HFRQRPLF LQVWLWXWLRQV One of the places in the ‘northern cluster’ in which Napiriša was woU VKLSSHGLV=DUQDPL\D,QWKLVWRZQ ZKHUHWKHEDUOH\LQMRXUQDOHQWU\11  ZDV LVVXHG D makuš received barley for the rites of Napiriša, ODQ (the) Mišebaka, Zarnama ($1]DLUQDPD  DQG WKH VDFUHG PRXQWDLQ  %DWWL naša. Elsewhere, Zarnamiya RFFXUV DV WKH SODFH ZKHUH ODUJH DPRXQWV RI ZLQHDQGYLQHJDUZHUHSURGXFHGDQGVWRUHG OLQ'DU 9LQHJDU RU D FRPSDUDEOH ZLQH SURGXFW  LV DJDLQ PHQWLRQHG LQ 11  ILJ   D VKRUWILUVWSHUVRQQRWHSUHVXPDEO\E\DVXSSO\RUGHOLYHU\RIILFLDO,WGH VFULEHVDFTXLVLWLRQDQGGHOLYHU\DWD]L\DQ, “temple,” where it is to be added to the account of one Dadatukka of Zarnamiya (lit. “the Zarnamiyan”): 11 IRUPDWHOOLSVRLGZLWKRXWVWULQJKROHVXQVHDOHG  2EYHUVH   PDUULiš   SLLUVDDXLU©[ª  2Q ]L\DQ, “temple,” in 3)$ VHH +HQNHOPDQ D S  I &RPSDUH *DUUL son’s studies on religious architecture and sacred space in Persepolitan glyptic QRWQHFHVVDULO\UHSUHVHQWLQJ]L\DQRURQO\]L\DQEXWUHOHYDQWDVDZLGHUFRQWH[W  *DUULVRQSLGHPLGHP>IRUWKF@DQGLGHPWKLVYROXPH†  6DFULILFHVDW=DUQDPL\D11 VHH+HQNHOPDQDS /RFDWLRQLQWKH ‘northern cluster’: NN 2274 (LELGSIQ :LQHDFFRXQW11FRPSDUH WKH UHSRUW RQ D ZLQH ZLWKGUDZDO DW =DUQDPL\D LQ )RUW  6WROSHU>IRUWKF@ 7KHWRZQLVDOVRPHQWLRQHGLQ11DQG11 EDUOH\  =DUQDPL\D DOVRDSHUVRQDOQDPH WUDQVFULEHV2OG,UDQLDQ ]DUQDPL\DSUHYLRXVO\ LQWHUSUHWHG DV K\SHUFRULVWLFRQ RI ]DUQDPDQ L \D, “having a gold necklace” 6FKPLWWDSXG0D\UKRIHUSFI7DYHUQLHU DS>@S >@ ,QYLHZRIWKHWKHRQ\P=DUQDPD WKHJRGYHQHUDWHGDW=DUQDPL\D FIEHORZ ZKLFK,WDNHWRUHIOHFW ]DUQDYD“the golden,” *zDUQDPL\DLVSUREDEO\D VLPSOH–L\DH[WHQWLRQ DV*HUVKHYLWFKSDOUHDG\SURSRVHG   0DQXVFULSWHGLWLRQE\5LFKDUG7+DOORFNFROODWHG DQGWUDQVODWHG E\+HQNHOPDQ 7KHWH[WKDVEHHQSDUDSKUDVHGHDUOLHULQ+HQNHOPDQDSIDQGWUDQVODWHG DQGEULHIO\GLVFXVVHGE\7XSOLQS7KHVLJQIROORZLQJ LULQOORRNVOLNH 0(LWLVFOHDUO\RWLRVH7KHH[DFWPHDQLQJRISLU OO LV\HWWREHHVWDEOLVKHGEXW IURP DYDLODEOH 3FA contexts, it appears that it must mean something like “addL tion, extra,” sometimes “in addition” or “additionally, again.” See SURYLVLRQDOO\ +DOORFNSDQG+LQ] .RFKVYSLLU2QVDZXU, “vinegar,” see $SSHQ GL[ QRWH DG O  'DGDWXNND WKH QDPH PD\ DOVR RFFXU LQ 11  ZKHUH D +$/ ˹GDGD"x˺[…] is mentioned in connection with Zarnamiya.

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,WLVSRVVLEOHWKDW=DUQDPDWKHHODPRJUDSKRI ]DUQDYD, “the golden,” is an HSLWKHWUDWKHUWKDQDWKHRQ\PDOWKRXJKLWZRXOGEHXQSDUDOOHOHGDVVXFK LQ3)$$QGVLQFH(ODPLWHGRHVQRWPDUNIHPDOHJHQGHULQFDVHRIGHLWLHVLW LVFRQFHLYDEOHWKDWLWUHIHUVWRWhe goddess Anāhitā (itself originally an epL thet) in view of Hesychius’s Ζαρῆτις· Ἄρτεμις. Πέρσαι (/H[ TY  DQG Agathangelos’ “golden mother” and “goldenborn” as titles for Armenian $QDKLG +LVW   %H WKDW DV LW PD\ =DUQDPD RFFXUV DORQJVLGH WKH  Mišebaka, Napiriša and perhaps other deities, all tended to by the same  One may also think of the descriptions of Arǝduuī 6ūUā $QāKLWā LQ WKH Ābān Yašt [@ FDWWOH IRU YDULRXV ULWHV LQFOXGLQJ WKRVH IRU $GDG tikrakkaš DQG kušukum &DWWOH VODXJKWHUHG IRU VDFULILFH DUH UDUH LQ 3)$ –ORJLFDOO\ VR JLYHQ LWV YDOXH DQG WKH QXPEHU RI PRXWKVPHDWIURPDVLQJOHDQLPDOFRXOGVDWLVI\2QHDGXOWR[WRWDNHRQH H[DPSOH KDV D PHDW \LHOG RI  NJ HQRXJK WR VHUYH  7KDW WKHLQVWLWXWLRQDOKLHUDUFK\ZDVZLOOLQJWRPDNHVXFKDQLQYHVWPHQWLQ WKH  6HH+HQNHOPDQDSIHODERUDWLQJDQHDUOLHUVXJJHVWLRQE\6WROSHU E S 

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only a smaller group, mainly in the Fahliyān region, spokH(ODPLWHDVWKHLU PRWKHU WRQJXH 7KHUH LV WKHUHIRUH QR SRVVLELOLW\ WR GLVWDQFH WKH DUFKLYH from the ‘real’ Achaemenid perspective: if the texts are lopsided, this is RQO\VREHFDXVHRIWKHLULQVWLWXWLRQDOYLHZRQWKLQJVQRWEHFDXVHWKH\DSSO\ DQ(ODPLWHILOWHUWRWKHPHQWDOLWLHVRIWKH3HUVLDQKHDUWODQG 7KHVHFRQGDVVXPSWLRQLVWKDWWKHRSHUDWLRQVRIWKHLQVWLWXWLRQDOHFRQ RP\ ZHUH ILUVW DQG IRUHPRVW PRWLYDWHG E\ VWUDLJKWIRUZDUG HFRQRPLF LQ WHUHVWV7KHV\VWHPZDVQRWVHWXSWRSURPRWHD3HUVLDQZD\RIOLIHRUDQ $FKDHPHQLGYLVLRQRIWKHZRUOG–LWDFWXDOO\VHHPVWRKDYHEHHQLQKHULWHG IURPWKH1HR(ODPLWHVWDWH–EXWWRGHYHORSDQGPDQDJHWKHHFRQRP\RI WKHKHDUWODQG7KLVPHDQVWKDWHYHQFRPSOLFDWHGRUVHHPLQJO\HUUDWLFRS HUDWLRQVDUHOLNHO\WRKDYHKDGDUDWLRQDOEDVLV$FDVHLQSRLQWLVWKHSULQFL SOH RI LVVXLQJ JUDLQ RU ZLQH IRU WKH SXUSRVH RI DFTXLULQJ WKURXJK H[ FKDQJH DQLPDOV IRU UHOLJLRXV ULWHV , KDYH SUHYLRXVO\ DUJXHG WKDW WKLV UH IOHFWVDFDOFXODWHGVWUDWHJ\WRSUHVHUYHZKHQHYHUSRVVLEOe, the institution’s PDLQFDSLWDO DQLPDOV DQGWRWUDGHDZD\LWVVXUSOXVHVLQSHULVKDEOHFRP PRGLWLHV JUDLQ IUXLW ZLQH  7KH VHPLH[WHUQDO  WKLUG SDUWLHV LQYROYHG  6HH +HQNHOPDQ E S   ,W KDV RI FRXUVH ORQJ EHHQ NQRZQ WKDW $FKDHPHQLG(ODPLWHLVSHUYDGHGZLWKORDQZRUGVIURPYDULRXVZHVWHUQ2OG,UDQLDQ dialects (the unhelpful term ‘Median’ should be avoided in this context VHH5RVVL WKLVYROXPH EXWWKRVHFRXOGEHH[SODLQHGDVUHIOHFWLQJ(ODPLWHVFULEHVZRUNLQJLQ DQLUDQRSKRQHHQYLURQPHQW7KHLPSRVLWLRQRIPRUSKRORJLFDODQGV\QWDFWLFDOIHD WXUHV RI 2OG ,UDQLDQ DQG WKH RYHUDOO UHGXFWLRQ RI FRPSOH[LW\ SRLQW WR D UHYHUVH VLWXDWLRQ,UDQLDQVFRQVWUXFWLQJWKHLURZQYHUVLRQRI(ODPLWHWKHODQJXDJHRIZULW LQJLQWKHLUSDUWRIWKHZRUOG  6HH +HQNHOPDQ D RQ H[FKDQJH )RU DQLPDOV GLUHFWO\ DOORFDWHG VHH 5D]PMRX S+HQNHOPDQDSILGHPD

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Wouter F.M. Henkelman

SHUKDSVWULEDODJURSDVWRUDOLVWVFRXOGQRWDOZD\VVXSSO\DQLPDOVKRZHYHU 7KLV H[SODLQV ZK\ LQ VRPH SDUDOOHO FDVHV WKH DGPLQLVWUDWLRQ LVVXHG DQL PDOVIURPLWVRZQIORFNV VKHHSJRDWVLQWKHMRXUQDO11 LWDOVR VKRZVWKDWWKHUHZDVQRWDERRRQLVVXLQJVKHHSJRDWVDQGHYHQFDWWOHIRU VDFULILFLDOSXUSRVHV 7KH VLJQLILFDQFH RI WKH )RUWLILFDWLRQ PDWHULDO KDV QRW DOZD\V EHHQ HYDOXDWHGLQWKHWHUPVXVHGKHUHDQGWKLVLVDIRUWLRULWUXHIRUDQ\WH[WVUH ODWLQJ WR 3HUVLDQ UHOLJLRQ (DUOLHU YLHZV VRPH RI ZKLFK DUH QRZ VHHQ DV extreme, generally assumed a separation of Elamite and ‘Iranian’ cultural DQGFXOWLFVSKHUHV7KRXJKPRUHLQWULFDWHSHUVSHFWLYHVRQ3HUVLDQUHOLJLRQ DQG RQ 3HUVLDQ FXOWXUDO LGHQWLW\ KDYH EHHQ GHYHORSHG VLQFH WKH HDUOLHU RQHVUHPDLQRILQWHUHVW1RWRQO\GRWKH\UHIOHFWDUHPDUNDEOHHSLVRGHLQ WKH KLVWRU\ RI D GLVFLSOLQH WKDW LV JHQHUDOO\ QRW YHU\ VHOIDZDUH EXW DOVR EHFDXVH SUHFLVHO\ LQ WKHLU H[WUHPLW\ WKH\ VHUYH WR LGHQWLI\ D FRQFHSWXDO SUREOHPLQWKHRQgoing debates on the nature of ‘Persian religion.’ :DOWKHU +LQ] ZKRVH QDPH LV XQDYRLGDEOH LQ WKLV FRQWH[W RQFH HQ GHDYRXUHGWRWDFNOHWKHWKRUQ\SUREOHPRIWKHQDPHRI&\UXVDQDPHWKDW exists in two forms: Kuruš (Old Persian) and Kuraš (Elamite; also Akkadian). 2VWHQVLEO\ UHDOL]LQJ WKDW WKHUH DUH QR SKRQRORJLFDO RU PRUSKRORJLFDO JURXQGVIRUDQuš!ašGHYHORSPHQWLQ(ODPLWHDQGVWULYLQJWRSURWHFWWKH “Reichsgründer” from the horror of an Elamite name, he took –ZKDWHOVH WRGR"–UHFRXUVHLQDFRQVSLUDF\WKHRU\7KH(ODPLWHVFULEHVVR+LQ]GH liberately ‘misspelled’ Kuruš as Kuraš because the latter form meaQW LQKLV analysis) “he burned.” ,W FRXOG WKXV VHUYH DV D VHFUHW H[SUHVVLRQ RI WKHLU resentment against the Persian invaders: “Ihrem Groll über die persische (LQGULQJOLQJHPDFKWHQGLHHODPLVFKHQ6HNUHWlUHKHLPOLFKXQGXQDXIIlOOLJ /XIW HEHQ LQGHP VLH .XUXsh in einen Kurash verwandelten.” 5HDVRQV WR  6HH +LQ]  S I DQG FRPSDUH LGHP  S  $OWKRXJK WKHUH LV QR XQ equivocal evidence for “er verbrannte,” it is interesting that Hinz apparently reaO L]HG WKDW NXUDš FRXOG EH DQ DEEUHYLDWHG  (ODPLWH YHUEDO QDPH ,W VHHPV LQGHHG plausible that ‘Kuraš’ was the original form aQGWKDWLWZDV(ODPLWH)ULHGULFK&DUO $QGUHDVDQG*HRUJ+VLQJLQIDFWDOUHDG\DUJXHGVRRYHUDFHQWXU\DJR6HH+HQ NHOPDQ E S  DQG 7DYHUQLHU  S I ERWK ZLWK UHIHUHQFHV  $O WKRXJK6FKPLWWSUHWDLQVKLVSUHIHUHQFHIRUDFRQQHFWLRQZLWK9HG .XUXWKHUHDUHWKUHHVROLGDUJXPHQWVLQIDYRXURIWKH(ODPLWHHW\PRORJ\ (ODP LWH.XUDšLVDOUHDG\DWWHVWHGLQWKH8U,,,SHULRG LWKDVDVXLWDEOH(ODPLWHHW\PRO RJ\ .XU]QDPH, “[DN] bestowed care,” from the verbal root NXUD FRPSDUH HJ Šeraš, “[DN] commanded”); 3) it is D SULRUL PRUH OLNHO\ WKDW .XUDš ZDV WKH SULPXV DQGQRW.XUXš 6FKPLWWDUJXHVDJDLQVWWKLVODVWSRLQWVXJJHVWLQJWKDWRULJLQDO.X UXš ZDV DGDSWHG WR DQ H[LVWLQJ (ODPLWH QDPH .XUDš 7KLV DSSURDFK VHHPV WR DV

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IHHOUHVHQWIXOWKH(ODPLWHVFHUWDLQO\KDGLQSOHQW\$FFRUGLQJWRDQDUUDWLYH WKDW +LQ] GHYHORSHG VLQFH DW OHDVW WKH V DQG SDUWV RI ZKLFK KH H[ SRXQGHG DW YDULRXV RFFDVLRQV WKH KLVWRU\ RI WKH 3HUVLDQ KHDUWODQG FRP menced in the spring of 701 BCE. In that year, Achaemenes started a ‘Great Trek’ from the north to the barren land of Anšan, which he and his victorL RXV3HUVLDQVWRRNE\IRUFHIURPWKH(ODPLWHVLQDSUHILJXUDWLRQRIWKHDG YDQFHRIWKH7HXWRQLF.QLJKWVLQWR3UXVVLD7KHQHZO\JDLQHGYDOOH\VVRRQ EORRPHG ZLWKRXW SUHFHGHQW DQG EHFDPH SRSXORXV ZKLOH WKH GHIHDWHG (ODPLWHVZHUHUHGXFHGWRVHUYLQJWKHLUQHZPDVWHUVas “Hausdiener, GärW ner und Stallburschen,” their wives as “Ammen, Kinderfrauen, und .|FKLQnen.” Race, too, plays its role in this dark fantasy, for Hinz saw the (ODPLWHVDVEODFNDQG3HUVLDQVDVZKLWH VXPHDQ(ODPLWHXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHQDPHE\(ODPLWHVFULEHV[@

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 /LNH ODQ šip LV DQ (ODPLWH WHUP ZLWK DQ (ODPLWH SDVW ,W LV D URRW QRXQ RI šip/šep, “to vow,” and as such a cognate of the proper name Šešpeš 7HLVSHVFIQDERYH 7KHZRUGRFFXUVLQWKHLPSRUWDQW(ODPLWHYHUVLRQ RI;3KWKHVRFDOOHGDaivāLQVFULSWLRQRI;HU[HVGHPRQVWUDWLQJWKDWLWZDV VWLOODUHFRJQLVDEOHDQGSURGXFWLYHFRQFHSWDWWKLVWLPH0RUHRYHUWKHVDF ULILFLDO IHDVW UHIHUUHG WR E\ $FKDHPHQLG šip FDQ EH UHODWHG WR FRPSDUDEOH phenomena in the Elamite world, notably the feast once celebrated at KūlH )DUDh (Īzeh). As has been argued elsewhere, the ritual immorWDOL]HGRQWKH site’s rock reliefs had, in societal terms, the function of visualising and FRQILUPLQJVRFLDOERQGVDQGKLHUDUFKLHV,WLQYROYHGPRYLQJLQWRWKHJRUJH of KūlH)DUDKLQVROHPQSURFHVVLRQJDWKHULQJDURXQGWKHUXOHUUDLVHGRQD SODWIRUPVLQJLQJDQGPXVLFPDNLQJSUD\LQJVODXJKWHULQJDPXOWLWXGHRI DQLPDOVDQGSDUWLFLSDWLQJLQDJUDQGVDFULILFLDOEDQTXHW7KHFHQWUDOLW\RI WKHUXOHUDQGKLVODUJHVVHZHUHKLJKOLJKWHGWKURXJKRXWWKHULWXDODVWKH\ ZHUH LQ WKH $FKDHPHQLG IHDVW EXW PRVW LPSRUWDQWO\ D FRPSOHWH VRFLHW\ FHOHEUDWHG LWVHOI RQ D VWDJH FUHDWHG WR OLIW WKH PRPHQWDU\ RFFDVLRQ WR D WLPHOHVVOHYHOWKHFRPPXQLW\IRXQGLWVHOIVXUURXQGHGE\DQGUHIOHFWHGLQ  DQHWHUQDOVWRQHPLUURU  2QšipLQJHQHUDOLWV(ODPLWHSUHGHFHVVRU šXS DVZHOODVSDUDOOHOVZLWKWKHIHDVWRI KūlH)DUDKVHH+HQNHOPDQD&RPSDUHQRZ%DVHOORSRQ šLSLQ ;3K7KHHVWLPDWLRQRISDUWLFLSDQWVLQšipIHDVWVJLYHQDERYHFRUUHFWVWKDWRI+HQ NHOPDQ RF  7KH ILJXUHV IRU FDWWOH DUH FRQVHUYDWLYH LQ WKDW WKH\ DVVXPH WKDW “cattle” (*8' PHDQVDFRZZLWKDPHDW\LHOGRINJ,IWKHDQLPDOVZHUH R[HQZKLFKLVQRWXQOLNHO\WKLVVKRXOGEHNJ.RFKKDVUHSHDWHGO\DUJXHG WKDWWKHDQLPDOVGLUHFWO\DOORFDWHGIRUšipIHDVWVDQGRWKHUW\SHVRIVDFULILFHVDFWX DOO\ZHUHDNLQGRIERQXVUDWLRQVLVVXHGDWWKHRFFDVLRQRI\HWGLVFRQQHFWHGIURP VXFKFHOHEUDWLRQV VHHHJ.RFKSI 7KHSKUDVLQJRIWKHUHOHYDQWWH[WV

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7KHILOHRI$FKDHPHQLGšipFRQVLVWVRIDQXPEHURI3)$WH[WVDUFKDHR logical evidence (Pasargadae’s sacred precinct) and Greco5RPDQVRXUFHV (DFKRIWKHVHKDVLWVOLPLWDWLRQVPHDQLQJWKDWRXUSHUFHSWLRQRIWKHIHDVW UHPDLQV QHFHVVDULO\ LQFRPSOHWH )RU RQH WKH JUHDW SURFHVVLRQ WKDW SOD\V such a crucial role at KūlH )DUDK GRHV QRW DSSHDU LQ WKH $FKDHPHQLG VRXUFHV MXVW PHQWLRQHG $W WKH VDPH WLPH WKH $FKDHPHQLG UXOHUV DUH NQRZQWRKDYHRUFKHVWUDWHGSURFHVVLRQDOHQWULHVLQWRFLWLHVDUP\UHYLHZV HWF 0RUHRYHU LW KDV ORQJ EHHQ UHFRJQL]HG WKDW WKH (ODPLWH LFRQRJUDSKLF motif of ‘carrying a ruler on a platform’ was inherited in Persian culture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curs in KūlH)DUDKDVGRILUHERZOVRUDOWDUV,QIDFWZKDW*DUULVRQDSWO\ is unambiguous, however, and Koch’s solution moreover goes against scribal praF WLFH DQG EXUHDXFUDWLF ORJLF $OVR WKH IDFW WKDW WKH DQLPDOV ZHUH FRQVXPHG E\ workers (“Die Tiere sind also auIgegessen worden!”) does not DW DOO GLVFRQQHFW WKHPIURPWKHVDFULILFHPHQWLRQHG,WQHHGVQRWEHDUWLFXODWHGWKDWFRQVXPSWLRQ RI VDFULILFLDO FRPPRGLWLHV ZDV FRPPRQ LQ WKH HQWLUH DQFLHQW 1HDU (DVW :DVWLQJ PHDWZRXOGEHXQWKLQNDEOHLQYLUWXDOO\DQ\DQFLHQWVRFLHW\ EXWPRVWFHUWDLQO\LQ WKHLQVWLWXWLRQDOFRQWH[WZHDUHORRNLQJDW&RPSDUHWKHFRJHQWUHPDUNVRI3DQD ino on the sacrifices at Cyrus’s tomb (2005, modifying Briant’s interpretation RI $UU$QDE9, 2QWKHDFRXVWLFTXDOLWLHVRI.ūOH)DUDKDQGWKHUROHRIPXVLFLQ WKHFHOHEUDWLRQVVHHQRZ+HQNHOPDQ .KDNVDUIRUUHFHQWFRPPHQWVRQWKH SURFHVVLRQWDNLQJSODFHWKHUHVHHÉOYDUH]0RQDQG LGHP&RPSDUHDOVR 6DQFLVL:HHUGHQEXUJ  RQ $OH[DQGHU SDUDGLQJ &DUPDQLD DWRS D UDLVHG GDLV 3OXW$OH[ 2QWKHDaivāLQVFULSWLRQFIQEHORZ  *DUULVRQSLGHPLGHP>IRUWKF@DQGLGHPWKLVYROXPH†

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Wouter F.M. Henkelman

FDOOVWKHV\QWD[RIWKHSURFHVVLRQDOLPDJHU\HYRNHVLQVXFFLQFWIRUPWKH central dramatic act performed and immortalized at KūlH )DUDK 7KHUH RQHRIWKHERXOGHUV .),,, VKRZVWKHJUHDWSURFHVVLRQDGYDQFLQJWRZDUGV a sacred space (the ‘sacred circle’ in the middle of the site) where it comes WRDKDOWDQGLVJUHHWHGE\SULHVWVUHDG\WRVDFULILFHDODUJHIORFNRIDQLPDOV 7KHVODXJKWHULQJDQGGLVPHPEHULQJRIWKH VDFULILFLDOYLFWLPVLVVKRZQRQ VRPHRIWKHRWKHUUHOLHIV QRWDEO\.), DVLVWKHHQVXLQJULWXDOEDQTXHW .) 9  2QH DVSHFW RI šip LV DEVROXWHO\ FOHDU LW ZDV YHU\ PXFK D VWDWH DIIDLU hence regularly presided over by the crown’s highest representative iQ Pārsa (if not by the king himself) and taking place at royal residences and LQUR\DOSDUNV7KHULWHZDVDSODWIRUPIRUUR\DOLGHRORJ\EXWDOVRDYHU\ real cultic act, hence essential for our understanding of the king’s religion. 7KHVHREVHUYDWLRQVGHVHUYHHPSKDVLVDVWKH\RQFHPRUHKLJKOLJKWWKHIXOO VFRSHDQGUHOHYDQFHRIWKH)RUWLILFDWLRQDUFKLYHIDUIURPEHLQJOLPLWHGWR ‘the material side of things’ or being FXW RII IURP D PRUH K\SHUFXOWXUHG VWUDLQ RI VRFLHW\ LW WRXFKHV GLUHFWO\ RQ WKH UROH WKH 3HUVLDQ NLQJ DFWLYHO\ VRXJKW LQ WKH FXOWLF ODQGVFDSH DQG WKH VHOILPDJH KH ZDQWHG WR SURPRWH KHQFH RQ WKH ZD\ WKH $FKDHPHQLGV VKDSHG 3HUVLDQ UHOLJLRQ :LWK WKDW EDFNJURXQG LQ PLQG LW PD\ EH XVHIXO WR WXUQ WR DQRWKHU IHDVW VOLJKWO\ PRUHPRGHVWEXWVWLOORIFRQVLGHUDEOHLPSRUWDQFH,WLVNQRZQLQ(ODPLWHDV bakadauši(š) DQGbakadaušiyamIURP2OG,UDQLDQ bagadauçīš“(feast) of the offering for (a) god,” DQG EDJDGDXoL\D,“belonging to (the feast) of the oI fering for (a) god.”$VHOHFWQXPEHURIJRGVDSSHDUVDVEHQHILFLDU\RIWKLV ULWHVXFKDV8UDPDVGDLQ11 ILJ   

 )RUWKLVODVWDVSHFWFRPSDUHWKHIHOLFLWRXVSHUVSHFWLYHGHYHORSHGE\'H-RQJD RQWKHLPSDFWRIWKH$FKDHPHQLGV  Given the named beneficiaries, the interpretation “sacrificial feast to honour Baga” (Tavernier 2007a, p. 461 [4.4.22.4]) seems a bit misleading. The form with the L\DH[WHQVLRQTXDOLILHVWKHVDFULILFLDOFRPPRGLWLHVDVDSDLUWKHIRUPVDUHDQDOR JRXVWR daušam GDXoDDQGdaušiyam GDXoL\D FIQDERYH  6HHDOVR*HUVKHYLWFK DSXG+DOORFNS6FKPLWWSI+LQ]S.RFKS LGHPS+HQNHOPDQDSLGHPDSILGHP ES

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 7KH%DNDEDQDPHQWLRQHGKHUHRFFXUVLQIRXUPRUHWH[WVRQ bakadaušiyam 7ZR RI WKHVH FRQFHUQ nap šaš(š)ap, “the remaining/other gods.” The first 11 FRQWDLQVDIHZXQFODULWLHVZKLFKDUHQRZEDODQFHGE\DVHFRQG WH[W )RUW WKLVWLPHHQWLUHO\WUDQVSDUHQW  7KLVDQGWKHIROORZLQJWZRWH[WVDUHEDVHGRQPDQXVFULSWHGLWLRQVE\+DOORFN 11 11 DQG6WROSHU )RUW FROODWHGDQGWUDQVODWHGE\+HQNHOPDQ 7KHVHDOVKDYHEHHQLGHQWLILHGE\0DUN*DUULVRQDQG(ULQ'DO\&RQWUDU\WRZKDWLV VWDWHGLQ+HQNHOPDQDSWKHVHDOVRQWKHUHYHUVHVRI11DQG11 DUHDFWXDOO\QRWWKHVDPH  )RUWKHIRUP$1XUDPDVGDtaš ZLWKSKRQHWLFFRPSOHWHPHQW VHH+HQNHOPDQD S  2Q11VHH+HQNHOPDQDS,QWKLVWH[Wnap šaššaka UGVJQGFRQM RQN PD\EHDVLPSOLILFDWLRQRInap šaš(š)apUDWKHUWKDQDQHUURUVLQFHWKHVLQJX ODUIRUPLVHDVLHUWRUHFRJQLVHDVEHORQJLQJWRWKHVHFRQGFRQMXJDWLRQ$OVRLQ11 WKHYHUEDOIRUPukšumarišLIUHDGFRUUHFWO\FRQVWLWXWHVDKDSD[+LQ] .RFK  VY XNšuPDUL " iš(?) suggest “er zelebrierte, veranstaltete.” 2QH PLJKW FRPSDUHLNVLQDLQ(.,ZKLFKWKHVDPHVFKRODUV LELGVYLNVLQD WHQWDWLYHO\ interpret as “zur Einweihung.” See, however, +HQNHOPDQ D S  Q ZKHUHDGLIIHUHQWZRUGVHSDUDWLRQ LNVLQD LVSURSRVHG$FRQQHFWLRQZLWKšumar DZRUGFRQQHFWHGWRIXQHUDU\FXOWLVSHUKDSVQRWH[FOXGHGEXWFDQSUHVHQWO\QRW EHFRUURERUDWHG

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Wouter F.M. Henkelman

7KH H[SUHVVLRQ nap šaš(š)ap QDWXUDOO\ HYRNHV QDS GD\DS DSSD OLSULQD RI Bīsotūn, lit. “the other gods who belong to being.” There has been some FRQWURYHUV\ RYHU WKH SUHFLVH LPSOLFDWLRQV RI WKLV SUREOHPDWLF SKUDVH EXW WKH$NNDGLDQYHUVLRQPDNHVLWFOHDUWKDWNLQJ'DULXVLVUHIHUULQJWR DOOWKH gods apart from Auramazdā, hence my “the other gods who are” (GLH HV JLEW  :LWK WKLV LQ PLQG WKH nap šaš(š)ap, “the remaining/other gods,” SUHVXPDEO\UHIHUVWRDULWXDOJURXSLQJRIGHLWLHVZKRUHFHLYHGQRVHSDUDWH FXOW RU DW OHDVW QRW DW WKH VWDWHG ORFDWLRQ DQG WLPH  EXW ZHUH DFNQRZO HGJHGFROOHFWLYHO\7KHIRUPLQZKLFKWKLVKDSSHQHGZDVDbakadaušiyam  

 ,Q)RUW ˹$1˺šáWDQZLWKWKHGLYLQHGHWHUPLQDWLYHLVDUDUHYDULDQWRI UHJXODU +$/ šáWDQ DQG +$/ šáWLQ WKH RWKHU DWWHVWDWLRQV DUH 3)  $1šáWDQ  3)  $1šáWLQ  11 $1šáWDQ DQG)RUW $1šáWLQ 7KHJHQHUDOL]DWLRQ RI$1WRVXFKZRUGVDVWHPSOHVHDGD\PRQWK\HDU ODQHWFDQGHYHQGHVLJQD WLRQVRIFXOWLFSHUVRQQHO šDWLQKDWXUPDNšD XQGRXEWHGO\UHIOHFWVDW\SLFDO3HUVLDQ RXWORRNLQWXUQSRVVLEO\LQVSLUHGE\,QGR,UDQLDQWUDGLWLRQ  .HOOHQV DPRQJ RWKHUV DUJXHG WKDW WKH 2OG 3HUVLDQ aniyāha bagāha tayaiy hantiy '%S,9I LVQRWDQH[SUHVVLRQRIJHQHUDOLQFOXVLRQEXWDQHOOLSWLFDOOXVLRQWR “ceux qui ont été, qui sont et qui seront” (2012, p. 555), hence those who are chaU DFWHUL]HGE\DVSHFLDOW\SHRIEHLQJWKHHWHUQDORQHV FI+LQ]SZKRVHHV the phrase as an exclusion of the “Götzen, denen kein wahres, geistiges Sein eignet”). Whereas the Old Persian may perhaps formally allow such a reading (if RQHDFFHSWVWKHXQDWWUDFWLYHLGHDRIDQHOOLSVLV LWVKRXOGIRULWWREHYLDEOHDWWKH YHU\OHDVt not be contradicted by the other versions. In Elamite, the monument’s ILUVWODQJXDJHWKHUHLVDYDULDWLRQEHWZHHQDORQJDQGVKRUWYHUVLRQ,,,KDV $1QD DS GDD>LS DS@SD OuSULQD, “the other gods who belong to being,” which, like the 2OG3HUVLDQFDQWKHRUHWLFDOO\EHEHQWWRZDUGVHLWKHULQWHUSUHWDWLRQ EXWQRWHWKDW an existential “to be” is doubtful in Elamite). In III.79, $1QDDS DSSD GDDLEEH simply means “the other gods,” which strikes me as an argument against the ‘exiV tentialist’ reading.0RUHVLJQLILFDQWLVWKDWWKH(ODPLWHYHUVLRQLQERWKWKHVHSDV VDJHVEXWRQO\KHUH, describes Auramazdā as “the god of the Iranians,” which logL FDOO\PDNHVWKHQDSGD\DS DSSDOLSULQD), “the other gods (who are),” the (leading) GHLWLHVRIDOOWKHRWKHUQDWLRQV7KHGHFLVLYHDUJXPHQWKRZHYHUFRPHVIURPWKH $NNDGLDQ YHUVLRQ DV LW ODFRQLFDOO\ VXPPDUL]HV WKH FRQWHVWHG H[SUHVVLRQ ZLWK GLQJHUmešJDEEL, “all the gods” (DBEIWKHVHFRQGDWWHVWDWLRQOLVEURNHQ  7KHUH LV WKHUHIRUH QR PLVWDNH SRVVLEOH 'DULXV ZDQWV XV WR NQRZ WKDW QRW RQO\ Auramazdā, “the god of the Iranians,” but DOOWKHJRGVDVPDQ\DVWKHUHDUHDUH ZLWKKLP+HVD\VVRDWWKHYHU\HQGRIKLVLQVFULSWLRQDVWKHGXVWRIWKHPDQ\EDW WOHV LV VHWWOLQJ DQG WKH NLQJ OLIWV WKH DFFRXQW RI KLV EORRG\ H[SORLWV WR DQ D KLVWRULFDOXQLYHUVDOLVWOHYHO7KHLQGHQWHGSHUVSHFWLYHLVFU\VWDOFOHDUXQLILHGGL YLQHZLOODQGLPPRUWDOKDUPRQ\SUHFHGHDQGLQVSLUHWKHEOLVVIXORUGHULQDXJXUDW ed by Darius, the gods’ champion and victor.



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310

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Apart from Auramazdā and “the other gods,” four more beneficiaries of bakadaušiyam are attested: Mišdušiš, the month Sakurraziš, Pirdakamiya DQG+XPEDQ  WH[W

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311

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 &RPSDUH)RUWPHQWLRQHGLQQDERYHRQEDUOH\IRUYDULRXVVDFULILFHV which “the kurtašFRQVXPHDVrations.”  ,QWKHWDEOHEHORZWRSRQ\PVEHWZHHQSDUHQWKHVHVDUHQRWPHQWLRQHGLQWKHWH[W EXW VXSSOLHG IURP FRQWH[W 8QGHUOLQHG VHDO QXPEHUV UHIHU WR VHDOV LPSUHVVHG RQ WKHOHIWHGJHRIWKHWDEOHWKHQFHW\SLFDOO\EHORQJLQJWRWKHVXSSOLHU

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Wouter F.M. Henkelman

 The district centres Pirdatkaš, Umpuranuš, and Parmadan must have been UHODWLYHO\FORVHWRHDFKRWKHUWKHILUVWWZRDUHWREHORFDWHGLQWKHHDVWHUQ sector of the Fahliyān region, the third on the border RIRULQWKHFHQWUDO Kāmfīrūz region. Batrakataš/Pasargadae belonged, naturally, to the PersH SROLVUHJLRQ$OWRJHWKHUWKHHYLGHQFHVKRZVWKDW bakadaušiyamZDVFRQ FHQWUDWHGLQDIHZORFDOLWLHVWKHWZRPRVWLPSRUWDQWRQHVHDFKKDGDVLPL ODU PL[ RI GLYLQHEHQHILFLDULHV $VWULNLQJ IHDWXUH LQWKLV LV WKDW WKH šatinV VHUYLQJ+XPEDQDUHQRWWKHVDPHDVWKRVHVHUYLQJ8UDPDVGDDQGWKHRWKHU JRGVLQYROYHG6LQFHWKHUHLVDPSOHHYLGHQFHIRURIILFLDQWVWHQGLQJWRWKH FXOWVRIGHLWLHVRI,QGR,UDQLDQDQG(ODPLWHRULJLQDOLNHDQGPRUHVSHFLIL FDOO\ WR WKDW RI +XPEDQ DQG RWKHU JRGV LW ZRXOG EH XQZLVH WR SXW WRR PXFKZHLJKWRQWKLVFLUFXPVWDQFH3HUKDSVVLQFHbakadaušiyam ZDVDUHOD WLYHO\LPSRUWDQWULWHSRWHQWLDOO\LQYROYLQJPDQ\SDUWLFLSDQWVDORFDOGLYL VLRQ RI UHVSRQVLELOLWLHV ZDV UHTXLUHG QRW QHFHVVDU\ RU IHDVLEOH LQ RWKHU FDVHV  ,Q RWKHU ZRUGV LW LV RQO\ ORJLFDO WR DVVXPH WKDW WKH ULWHV IRU $X ramazdā, Humban, Adad, etc. each had their peculiarities and these diffeU HQFHVZLOOKDYHEHHQPRUHREYLRXVEHWZHHQJRGVRIGLIIHUHQWRULJLQVEXW WKLV ZDV QRW D UHDVRQ WR VWULFWO\ VHSDUDWH WKHLU FXOWV $OO WKHVH JRGV ZHUH 3HUVLDQJRGVZKRVHFXOWVZHUHVSRQVRUHGE\WKHKHDUWODQGDGPLQLVWUDWLRQ  )RU%DNXPLUDDQG.DUVDXNDJUDLQVXSSOLHUVLQWKHGLVWULFWRI3LUGDWNDšVHH*DUUL VRQ  +HQNHOPDQ >IRUWKF@ † )RU WKH ORFDWLRQ RI 3LUGDWNDš DQG LWV VDWHOOLWHV VXFKDV.DPXWNDPHDQG0XUXQEDUUDš LQWKHHDVWHUQVHFWRURIWKH)DKOL\āQUHJLRQ VHH+HQNHOPDQDSQI ZLWKUHIHUHQFHV )RUWKHJUDLQVXSSOLHU 0LUD\DXGD DQG WKH ZLQH VXSSOLHU 3DUVDXGD FROOHDJXHV LQ WKH GLVWULFW RI 8PSX UDQXš VHH *DUULVRQ  +HQNHOPDQ >IRUWKF@ † )RU WKH ORFDWLRQ RI 8PSXUDQXš DQG LWV VDWHOOLWHV VXFK DV 8UDWXNNDš  VHH +HQNHOPDQ D S  I  ZLWKUHIHUHQFHV )RU8šD\DDQG0XšNDZLQHVXSSOLHUVLQWKHGLVWULFWRI3DUPDGDQ (including the town of Kurra, perhaps Κόρρα in Ptol. *HRJU9, VHH+HQNHOPDQ RSFLW S   Q  Q  Q I ZLWK UHIHUHQFHV  $W %DWUD NDWDš %āθUDJDGā7DYHUQLHUDS>@ RXUIULHQG%DNDSDUQDDOVRRI ILFLDWHVLQDULWHFDOOHGDNULP HOVHZKHUHDNULš), which is “for the gods” (NN 2035). 7KH ULWH RFFXUV IRXU WLPHV PRUH LQ 3DVDUJDGDH 3)  3) I )RUW  )RUW WZLFHDW+LUDQ 11)RUW RQFHDW0DUDEEDš 0DUDSSL\Dš >+HQNHOPDQ  6WROSHU  S @ )RUW   DQG SHUKDSV RQFH DW 3āUVD )RUW   7KH PRVW LQWHUHVWLQJ FDVH DQ DNULš IRU 1DSLULšD )RUW LQYROYHV=LQLQLWKHšDWLQZKRZDVEDVHGLQWKH)DKOL\āQUHJLRQ DQGVDFULILFHVWRWKHVDPHJRGDWWZRRWKHURFFDVLRQV VHHQDERYH ,WLVQRWLP SRVVLEOHWKDWDNULšFRQVWLWXWHVDQHTXLYDOHQWWREDNDGDXšL\DPEXWVLQFHRWKHUNLQGV RIVDFULILFHVDUHSHUIRUPHGDW3DVDUJDGDHDVZHOOWKHUHLVQRGLUHFWLQGLFDWLRQIRU WKLV 0RUHRYHU WKH HW\PRORJ\ RI WKH ZRUG UHPDLQV XQFHUWDLQ 6HH +LQ]  S LGHPS+HQNHOPDQDSIQI

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313

QRGLVWLQFWUHOLJLRXVVSKHUHVFDQEHGLVFHUQHG,QWKHFDVHRIODUJHUVDFUL ILFHVGLIIHUHQWFXOWVFRXOGKRZHYHUEHDVVLJQHGWZRYDULRXVRIILFLDQWV 7KH GLYLQH EHQHILFLDULHV RI bakadaušiyam DUH FOHDUO\ D VHOHFW JURXS ,Q P\YLHZWKHFRPPRQGHQRPLQDWRUWKDWFRQQHFWVWKHPLVWKHLUDSWQHVVIRU ODUJHUIHVWLYHFRQWH[WVLQFRQQHFWLRQZLWKWKHSDUWLFLSDWLQJkurtaš DQGWKH SUREDEOH LGHRORJLFDO XQGHUWRQHV 7KLV LV SDUWLFXODUO\ FOHDU LQ WKH FDVH RI Auramazdā, Humban, Mišdušiš and Pirdakamiya. Not much can be said about “the other/remaining gods,” though it is not difficult to imagine $FKDHPHQLGXQLYHUVDOLVWLGHRORJ\XQGHUO\LQJWKHLUULWH FIDERYH 6DNXU raziš (Θāigraciš) is the name of the third month. Not so muFK WKHPRQWK LWVHOIEXWDIHVWLYDOWDNLQJSODFHDWWKLVWLPHPD\KDYHEHHQWKHUHDVRQIRU RUJDQL]LQJDbakadaušiyam Mišdušiš 0Lždušī“(she) who donates generously,” and Pirdakamiya, *Brtakām(i)ya “who fulfils wishes” occur exclusively in connection with bakadaušiyam %RWK KDYH QDPHV WKDW ILW WKH FRQWH[W DQG FRQQHFW WR D ZLGHU LGHRORJLFDO FXUUHQW YLVLEOH LQ 3)$ %RQXV JUDWXLWLHV ZHUH RI JUHDW LPSRUWDQFHLQWKHLQVWLWXWLRQDOHFRQRP\HYHQWRWKHH[WHQWWKDWLWZRXOG EHZURQJWRFRQVLGHUWKHPLUUHJXODUH[WUDV$SDUWIURPWKHIDPRXVPDWHU QLW\UHZDUGVDOVRNQRZQIURP*UHHNVRXUFHVWKHUHZDVDZKROHUDQJHRI extra and special rations for the institution’s dependent workers (kurtaš  /RFDO titikašbe, “supervisors, inspectors” (*didīka IURP dī, “to see,” with (ODPLWHSOXUDOHQGLQJ RUWLGGDKXWWLS“report makers” (the Elamite equivD OHQW DUHPHQWLRQHGLQWKLVFRQWH[WWKH\SUREDEO\NHSWGHWDLOHGQRWHVRQ WKHURVWHUVRIWKHLUZRUNHUV$VHULHVRIWHUPVLVXVHGIRUYDULRXVJUDWXLWLHV PRVWSURPLQHQWRIZKLFKLVkamakaš Nāmaka), usually translated as “bR  On Sakurraziš and other mRQWKQDPHVLQFXOWLFFRQWH[W VHH+HQNHOPDQD S I7KHLGHDRIDFRQQHFWLRQZLWKWKHVXPPHUVROVWLFHZKLFK,KDG FRQVLGHUHGDVSRVVLEOHKDVEHHQVKRZQWREHXQOLNHO\E\*ROHVWDQHK>IRUWKF@7KH QDPHRIWKHPRQWKΘāigrači, has been explained from *θigraND, “(festival) related to garlic” (Schmitt 2003, p. 36FI7DYHUQLHUDS>@>@I >@). A Zoroastrian “Feast of garlic” (Sīrsūr LVNQRZQIURPDOBīrūnīWHVWL PRQ\ FI &KULVWHQVHQ  S   /XERWVN\  S  DQG LGHP  S 4, argues for a Scythian origin of Θāigrači. Golestaneh RFH[SORUHVWKHVHYDUL RXVLQGLFDWLRQVDVZHOODVWKH3)$FRQWH[WVDQGDUULYHVDWDULWHPDUNLQJWKHEHJLQ QLQJRIVXPPHUDQGLQWHQGHGWRLPSORUHDSOXYLRXVDQGIHUWLOH\HDU  )RUWKHQDPHRI3LUGDNDPL\DDQGKLVUROHLQ3)$VHH+LQ]SLGHPS  .RFK  S I LGHP  S  LGHP  S  7DYHUQLHU D S  [4.1.1]; Henkelman 2008a, p. 382f., 533. For Mišdušiš see Gershevitch 1969, p. 174; LGHPDSXG+DOORFNS+LQ]S.RFKSI LGHPS I LGHP  S I 0D\UKRIHU  S I 7DYHUQLHU D S  >@ +HQNHOPDQDSQI*ROHVWDQHK>IRUWKF@

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nus,” but carrying the notion of “wish, desire” (kāma 7KHWHUPEHWUD\V DQLGHRORJLFDOIUDPHZRUNLQZKLFKWKH.LQJRI.LQJVLVWKHJUHDWEHQHIDFWRU ZKRVHJHQHURVLW\GHVFHQGVLQWRWKHORZHVWUDQNVDQGPRWLYDWHVSHRSOHWR H[HUW WKHPVHOYHV HYHQ PRUH 7KH UDUH PHDW UDWLRQV GLVWULEXWHG LQ WKH JUDQGVDFULILFLDOHYHQWVNQRZQDVšipKDYHDVLPLODUIXQFWLRQHVSHFLDOO\VR VLQFHWKHNLQJRUKLVUHSUHVHQWDWLYHLVSUHVLGLQJRYHU WKHVHRFFDVLRQV7KH JHQHURXV DPRXQWV GLVWULEXWHG GXULQJ bakadaušiyam UHIOHFW WKH VDPH DWWL WXGH ,W LV WKH 3)$ EDFNJURXQG WKDW H[SODLQV ZK\ 3LUGDNDPL\D LV 3LUGD kamiya, “who fulfils wishes” (cf. kāmaka WKHJRGVHHPVDOPRVWPDGHIRU WKH LQVWLWXWLRQDO FRQWH[W DQG DW DQ\ UDWH PXVW KDYHEHHQVHOHFWHG IRUWKH UROHKHFRXOGSOD\LQWKHUR\DOLGHRORJ\7KDWKHGRHVQRWRFFXUDQ\ZKHUH HOVH LQWKH =RURDVWULDQ RUZLGHU ,QGR,UDQLDQ WUDGLWLRQ LV QRW D JUHDW VXU SULVH As for Mišdušiš, there is formal parallel in Vedic mīḍKXṣī WKH IHPL QLQH IRUP RI WKH HSLWKHW mīḍKYiV, “genereous, bountiful,” used for Śiva Rudra, the latter’s sons (Maruts) and the consorts of all these. The only theonym built on the root is μοζδοοανο, a male Kushan god, “the Gracious One.” As for connections in the Zoroastrian tradition: there are noQH*HU shevitch, observing that Avestan goddess Aši bestows mižda, “reward,” DUJXHG IRU Mišdušiš WR EH WKH HSLWKHW RI WKLV JRGGHVV EXW WKH RSSRVLWH VHHPVWUXH WKHFRQFHSWRIUHZDUGLVFRPPRQSODFHLQWKH,QGR,UDQLDQ WUDGLWLRQ FIWKH9HGLFSDUDOOHO), 2) the supposed ‘epithet’ is not attested in WKH $YHVWD, and 3) the implied consistent use of an epithet instead of the deity’s name has no con rmed parallel in PFA. The connection with Aši is WHQXRXVDWEHVWDQGDQGVHHPVEDVHGRQWKHH[SHFWDWLRQWKDW3HUVLDQUHOLJ LRQPXVWEH=RURDVWULDQ RU$YHVWDQHWF  7KHFDVHRIMišdušišLVLOOXPLQDWLQJLQVHYHUDOZD\V)LUVWLWVKRZVWKDW DGRJPDWLFHPSKDVLVRQWKH=RURDVWULDQWUDGLWLRQRUWKHQRWLRQWKDWHYHU\ WKLQJ $FKDHPHQLG PXVW KDYH JRQH WKURXJK D =RURDVWULDQILOWHU LVVLPSO\  Hinz 1970, p. 436 translated the term as “Wunschkost,” which has been retained in WKH(ODPLVFKHV:|UWHUEXFKVYTDPDDNkaš +LQ] .RFKSFI7DYHUQLHU DS >@  2QWKLVDQGRWKHUERQXVHVVHH+DOORFNS.RFK S%URVLXVS*UHHNVRXUFHVRQ3HUVLDQUHZDUGVIRUKDYLQJ PDQ\  FKLOGUHQ +GW , 6WUDER ;9 DGRSWHG E\ $OH[DQGHU 3OXW 0RU %OHVVFOHDULQ&WHV)G†DQG3OXW$OH[FI%ULDQWSI WLWLNDšEH DQG WLGGDKXWWLS +LQ]  S  .RFK  S I 7DYHUQLHU D S I >@+HQNHOPDQDSIQ  11 GLVFORVHVWKDWWKHORIEDUOH\DUHIRUkurtašKHQFHDERXWOSHU SHUVRQ7KHVWDQGDUGPLQLPDODPRXQWIRUDQDGXOWPDQZDVOkurtašQRUPDOO\ JRWRQO\WZRWKLUGVRIWKLV OGD\ 

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LQDGHTXDWH DV DQ DQDO\WLFDO SHUVSHFWLYH 7KH ZLGHU ,QGR,UDQLDQ EDFN JURXQG \LHOGV LPSRUWDQWSDUDOOHOV ZKLFKGHVHUYH IXOO HPSKDVLV5HFHQWO\ *ROHVWDQHKKDVSRLQWHGRXWWKHVWURQJFRQQHFWLRQZLWKUDLQDQGIHUWLOLW\RI JRGVPDUNHGE\WKHHSLWKHW mīḍhvāṁV/mīḍKYiVDQGDUJXHGWKDWWKHFRQ WH[WLQZKLFKMišdušiš occurs in PFA allows for a similar understanding of KHUGLYLQHSHUVRQD%\FRPSDULVRQWHH[HJHWLFDOVWUHQJWKRIWKH$YHVWDDV LQYRNHGE\*HUVKHYLWFKDQGRWKHUVLVYHU\OLPLWHG7KHVHFRQGSRLQWLVWKDW DGHLW\OLNHMišdušiš cannot be understood without paying due attentionWR WKHLQVWLWXWLRQDOHPEHGGHGQHVVWKHZLGHUFRQWH[WRI(ODPLWHDQG0HVRSR WDPLDQ LQVWLWXWLRQDO KRXVHKROGV DQG WKH UDWLRQDOH RI WKHLU SURSHU FXOWLF SUDFWLFHV*LYHQWKHFRQWH[WVLQZKLFKWKHJHQHURXVJRGGHVVRFFXUVWKHUH LVQRGRXEWWKDWWKHLQVWLWXWLRQSOD\HGRXWWKHLGHRORJLFDOSRWHQWLDORIKHU FXOW ZKLOH DW WKH VDPH WLPH SURYLGLQJ D QHFHVVDU\ VWLPXOXV IRU LWV kurtaš SRSXODWLRQ 7KH WKLUG JRG XQGHU GLVFXVVLRQ +XPEDQ KDG DOZD\V EHHQ D GHLW\ RI VRPHLPSRUWDQFHLQ(ODPLWHFXOWXUHEXWKHURVHWRJUHDWHVWSURPLQHQFHLQ WKHFHQWXULHVSUHFHGLQJWKHHPHUJHQFHRIWKH3HUVLDQHPSLUH+LVSRSXODU LW\ FOHDUO\ FRQWLQXHG LQWR $FKDHPHQLG WLPHV MXGJLQJ IURP WKH DJJUHJDWH YROXPHRIVDFULILFLDOFRPPRGLWLHVDOORFDWHGIRUKLVFXOWXQPDWFKHGE\WKDW IRUDQ\RWKHUQDPHGGHLW\Humban’s role in bakadaušiyamFDQPRUHVSH  2Q WKH SXUSRUWHG FRQQHFWLRQ ZLWK $YHVWDQ Aši VHH *HUVKHYLWFK  S  DQG DSXGHallock 1969, p. 732. Schwarz goes as far as presenting Mišdušiš as “equivD lent to Avestan Ashi” and then counting this as “evidence for Zarathushtrianism in these texts” (1985, p. 686)ZKHUHDV3LUDUWILQGVHYLGHQFHLQWKHuse of the ‘epithet’ IRU D SRHWLF WUDGLWLRQ IURP DQ $FKDHPHQLGSHULRG $YHVWD GLIIHUHQW IURP RXUV SVHHDOVRLGHPSIIRUDQDWWHPSWWRVDYHWKHFRQQHFWLRQZLWK Aši ,WLVW\SLFDOIRUVXFKHVRWHULFDSSURDFKHVWKDWWKHHYLGHQWLDOFRQWH[W 3)$ LV IODWO\ LJQRUHG Contrast De Jong’s careful remarks (1997, p. 104f., “at mRVW WKH\ VKDUHG VRPH IXQFWLRQV DQG FKDUDFWHULVWLFV”  DQG Brosius’s observation that the SXUSRUWHGXVHRIDQHSLWKHWWRUHIHUWRDGHLW\LVXQSDUDOOHOHGLQ3)$ SI n.66). For Kushan μοζδοοανο, “the Gracious One,” see Sims:LOOLDPVIRUWKH 9HGLFSDUDOOHOVVHH:ULJKWDQGIRUWKHDSSOLFDWLRQWR3)$FRQWH[WV*ROHVWD QHK >IRUWKF@ &DOPH\HU  S I WHQWDWLYHO\ FRQQHFWHG 0LšGXšLš ZLWK WKH $WKHQDOLNHJRGGHVVYHQHUDWHGLQ3DVDUJDGDHDFFRUGLQJWR3OXWDUFK $UW EXW we simply lack evidence to assume that the ‘reward’ given by MišGXšLšFRXOGDOVR OLHLQWKHPLOLWDU\VSKHUH DV&DOPH\HUVHHPVWRLPSO\SUHVXPDEO\IROORZLQJ*HU VKHvitch’s suggestion). Also, although a EDNDGDXšL\DPLVDWWHVWHGDW3DVDUJDGDH 11  WKHUHLVWKXVIDUQRFRQQHFWLRQEHWZHHQ0LšGXšLšDQGWKHVLWH,QRWHLQSDVV ing Calmeyer’s intriguing suggestion (OF  WKDW WKH $WKHQDOLNH JRGGHVV RI 3DVDU JDGDH OLYHd on “RKQH (LJHQQDPHQ XQG VSH]LILVFKH /HJHQGH DOV 0DGDUH 6XOHLPDQ”  7KHIROORZLQJLVEDVHGRQP\PRUHGHWDLOHGVXUYH\LQ+HQNHOPDQDS

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FLILFDOO\ EHH[SODLQHGE\ UHIHUULQJWR KLVVWDWXV DV UR\DO JRG HVSHFLDOO\LQ WKH1HR(ODPLWHSHULRG7KLVLVIRULQVWDQFHYLVLEOHLQWKHWKHRSKRULFUR\DO names with ‘Humban’ (Umman, Huban), which are far more numerous in WKH 1HR(ODPLWH SHULRG %HFDXVH UR\DO QDPHV DUH PRUH OLNHO\ WR EH SUR JUDPPDWLF WKH RQRPDVWLF HYLGHQFH PD\ IRU RQFH EH WDNHQ WR LQGLFDWH D WUHQG 2OG(ODPLWH

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$OVR IURP WKH 1HR(ODPLWH SHULRG LV D ODWH 1HR(ODPLWH LQVFULSWLRQ E\ Hanni of Aiapir at Kūle Farah (Īzeh), invoking a list of deities, including Humban, “under whose NLWLQa king (stands).”7KHRWKHUJRGVPHQWLRQHG HDFK DUH DOVR DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK NLWLQ LH GLYLQH SRZHU DQG DXWKRULW\ DV LW PDQLIHVWVLWVHOILQWKHPRUDOZRUOGSDUWLFXODUO\DVLQVWUXPHQWLQWKHKDQGV RIDNLQJ,WLV+XPEDQKRZHYHUZKRVH NLWLQKDVDPRUHH[SOLFLWUHODWLRQ ZLWKNLQJVKLS(YLGHQWO\1HR(ODPLWH+XPEDn took the place that InšušL QDNDVDUR\DODQGLQGHHGLPSHULDOJRGKDGRFFXSLHGLQHDUOLHUDJHV7KLV DOVR H[SODLQV ZK\ WKH ILUVWPLOOHQQLXP FRPPHQWDULHV WR WKH %DE\ORQLDQ LQFDQWDWLRQVHULHVŠurpu HTXDWH+XPEDQZLWK(QOLOORUGRIWKHJRGVZKRVH DSSRLQWHHV$VV\ULDQNLQJVZHUH7KHDQDORJ\PD\DFWXDOO\JRGHHSHUWKDQ that, if the developing profile of Humban was informed by that of Aššur, as *DVSD WKLVYROXPH VXJJHVWV  (.,I $1KXEDQEŠŠANANLtin ir šàUDLUUDQDVHHLELGS6HHDOVR(., 75:5, where Humban is invoked as the “Great One of the Gods” (i.e. Greatest of *RGVrišar nappirra ZKRVHNLWLQLVVWURQJ  &RPPHQWDU\&OWRŠXUSX,, UHVWRUHGLQ&RPPHQWDU\%, UHDGV GḫXXPED G HQOtO, “Humban (equates) Enlil.” See, for the main text, Borger 2000, p. 32 (the diV WLQFWQDWXUHRI1DSLULšDLQ,,LVQRZXQDPELJXRXVSDFH+LQ] DQGIRUWKH FRPPHQWDULHV5HLQHUSI&RPSDUH+HQNHOPDQDS.RFK S%DVHOORS3. As Gaspa, this volume, points out, Humban’s role as UR\DOJRGLVDOVRERUQRXWE\KLVPHQWLRQDORQJVLGHODVD@DSDSSXNDGDD , DN DIŠ~EDOLLNPH]D˹XPma˺ zaXPLLQ $1XUDPDVGDQDDSSD DIŠNDP PDDGda ˹akNDDIŠma˺>NXiš@AŠ˹ul˺KLMEŠ DIŠQXNDPL , LQQLNX˹[x˺LU˹ra˺>¡¡¡@ (…) Thus, as (it had been) before as well, that which was robbed away "WKDW, VWHHUHGEDFN %\ WKHHII>RUWRI8UDPDV@GDWKLV LV ZKDW,GLG,H[HUWHG P\  SRZHUXQWLO,KDGSODQWHGRXU+RXVHRQLWVSODFH>VRD@V LWKDGEHHQ EHIRUH DV ZHOO $QG , H[HU>WHG@ P\  SRZHU VR  WKDW E\  WKH HIIRUW RI 8UDPDVGD Kammadda t[he magu]š (was) not a robber" RI RXU+RXVH

7KHHIIRUW RI WKH NLQJ LVH[SUHVVHGZLWK ]DPPD, “to exert,” a verbal base FRJQDWHWR]DXPLQ, “effort.” The Elamite of this paragUDSKWKXVYHU\H[SOLF LWO\ DQG LQWLPDWHO\ FRQQHFWV NLQJ DQG JRG LQ WKHLU MRLQW ODERXU WR UHVWRUH order. The ‘labour royal and divine,’ as the title of the Bīsotūn inscription FRXOG EH LQ D VHQVH FUHDWHV UXOHU DQG GHLW\7KHLU XQEUHDNDEOH DOOLDQFH LV ZKDWEest summarizes Auramazdā’s role in the foremost of all Achaemenid LQVFULSWLRQV If we are willing to accept Darius’s version of Auramazdā as a typical DQFLHQW QHDUHDVWHUQ UR\DO JRG ZKRVH QDPH FRXOG EH HIIRUWOHVVO\ VXEVWL tuted with that of Bēl(0DUGXN LQWKH$NNDGLDQGLVSOD\YHUVLRQRIWKHBīsR tūn LQVFULSWLRQHUHFWHGDW%DE\ORQZHDOVRVWDUWVHHLQJFOHDUHUZK\WKLQJV DUH DV WKH\ DUH LQ WKH )RUWLILFDWLRQ DUFKLYH Auramazdā, who, like Aššur, JUHZZLWKWKHHPHUJHQFHRIHPSLUHPD\KDYHEHHQRIFHQWUDOLPSRUWDQFH in the king’s ideology, but he was less so in the reality of the Achaemenid KHDUWODQG ,Q 3)$ KH LV D JRG RI PRGHVW LPSRUWDQFH QRW EHFDXVH WKH DU FKLYH UHIOHFWV WKHPDWHULDO VLGH RIWKLQJV DQ DFFXOWXUHG VWUDLQ RU KDG QRW EHHQ WRXFKHG E\ WKH HODWHG IDLWK RI WKH NLQJV EXW VLPSO\ EHFDXVH $X ramazdā lacked the kind of popularity that made Humban appear so SURPLQHQWO\ %RWK JRGV ZHUH PXFK UR\DO LQ WKH IXOO VHQVH RI WKH ZRUG +XPEDQZDVVRIURPDVWLOOYHU\SURGXFWLYH(ODPLWHSDVW –H[HPSOLILHGE\ ;Hrxes’ use of NLWLQWREDQWKHFXOWRIWKHdaivā–, Auramazdā as the chosen  ,Q,RQHZRXOG OLNHWRUHDG NX˹XWNjO˺LU˹UD˺EXWWKHWUDFHVRIWKHVHFRQGDQG WKLUG VLJQV DUH XQVXSSRUWLYH RI WKLV GHVLUH SHUKDSV UHDG NX˹ODND˺LU˹UD˺  7KH JHQHUDOVHQVHLVFOHDUKRZHYHUDOVRIURPWKHSDUDOOHOYHUVLRQV  ,Q;3KH;HU[HVGHFODUHVWKDWKHSXWKLV NLWHQRQWKHSODFHRIGDLYDZRUVKLS NLWHQXNNXDSSLGD), “lest the GDLYātheir sacrificial feast be celebrated!” +HQNHOPDQ

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champion of Darius’ dream. With “(she) who donates generously” and“(he) who fulfils wishes,” they were the most logical gods to be worshipped in WKH LGHRORJLFDOO\ FKDUJHGFRQWH[W RISXEOLFIHDVWLQJ WKH ULWH RI bakadaušL \DP%RWKZHUHDOVRYHU\PXFK3HUVLDQJRGVUHIHUULQJWRWKHFRQVWLWXHQW WUDGLWLRQVRI3HUVLDQFXOWXUHHDFKRIZKLFKKDGLWVRZQSODFHDQGLPSRU WDQFH$VZLWKWKHJHQHVLVRI$FKDHPHQLGDUWDQGDVVRRIWHQLQWKHORQJ DQG DW WLPHV ELWWHU KLVWRU\ RI ,UDQLDQQHVV LW ZDV FUHDWLYH V\QWKHVLV QRW UXSWXUHZKLFKSUHYDLOHG   





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D S I  In agreement with Garrison’s argument (2011) IRU WKH QXPLQRXV TXDOLW\RIWKHNLQJLQ$FKDHPHQLGLFRQRJUDSK\,ZRXOGQRZDUJXHWKDWWKHPDJL FDOXVHRINLWHQNLWLQ SXWWLQJTXLWHOLWHUDOO\DEDQRQWKHFXOWRIWKHGDLYā ZKLFK DJUHHVZLWKHDUOLHU1HR(ODPLWHXVHSRLQWVLQWKHVDPHGLUHFWLRQ7KHUHFHQWLGHD DJDLQE\*DUULVRQ >IRUWKF@IROORZHGE\+HQNHOPDQDSDQG5ROOLQJHU S WKDWNLWLQPD\KDYHLQIRUPHGWKH3HUVLDQXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHKDOI ILJXUH LQ WKH ZLQJHG GLVN DQG FRXOG KDYH LQIOXHQFHG WKH FRQFHSW RI IDUQDK $Y [Yarǝnah LVFDOOHGLQWRTXHVWLRQE\-DFREV WKLVYROXPH ZKRLQVWHDGDUJXHVIRU AuramazdāWKH$QFHVWRU FI Q DERYH  7KH WZR YLHZV DUH QRWPXWXDOO\ H[FOX VLYH LW ZRXOG VHHP DV RQH FRXOG DUJXH WKDW WKH VLJQLILFDQFH RI WKH $FKDHPHQLG ZLQJHG GLVN ZLWKRXW WKH DQWKURSRPRUSKLF ILJXUH  GUHZ QRW RQO\ RQ 0HVRSRWD PLDQEXWDOVR(ODPLWHFRQFHSWVRIQXPLQRVLW\DQGGLYLQHNLQJVKLS&RPSDUHDOVR *DVSDWKLVYROXPH [YDUǝQDKaPHODPPX   .HOOHQVWKLVYROXPHULJKWO\QRWHVWKDWLQP\WUHDWPHQWRI;3K,KDYHSDLG LQVXIILFLHQWDWWHQWLRQWRWKHWHFKQLFDOYRFDEXODU\LQWKH2OG3HUVLDQYHUVLRQ SDWL \D]ED\DP  , ZRXOG QHYHUWKHOHVV PDLQWDLQ WKDW WKH (ODPLWH SKUDVH VWDQGV RXW IRU WKH FODULW\ ZLWK ZKLFK LW HYRNHV WKH UR\DO LGHRORJ\ RI D SUH$FKDHPHQLG FXOWXUH 2WKHUZLVH,DJUHHFRPSOHWHO\ZLWKWKHLPSOLFDWLRQVRIKellens’UHPDUNYL]WKDWWKH (ODPLWH $NNDGLDQ DQG 2OG 3HUVLDQ WH[WV RI WKLV DQG RWKHU LQVFULSWLRQV HDFK KDYH WKHLURZQYRLFHWKDWWKH\DUHYHUVLRQV QRWWUDQVODWLRQV DQGWKDWWKH\RIWHQGRQRW H[SUHVVH[DFWO\WKHVDPHWKLQJ7KLVSRO\YDOHQFHZDVLQP\YLHZVRPHWKLQJWKDW WKH$FKDHPHQLGNLQJDQGWKHPDVWHUVRIWKHVFULEDOZRUNVKRSVGHVLUHGIRUWKHP H[SORULQJWKHULFKQHVVRIHDFKUHJLVWHUSUHYDLOHGRYHUDWWHPSWLQJDVODYLVK WUDQV SRVLWLRQ5R\DOLFRQRJUDSK\VKRXOGRIFRXUVHEHDGGHGWRWKLVSLFWXUHDV*DUULVRQ  S 61) argues, inscriptions and reliefs (Bīsotūn, Takhte Ǧamšīd, NaqšH 5RVWDP, etc.) have to be ‘read’ together. The result LVDXQLW\LQGLYHUVLW\DVLQDOO $FKDHPHQLGFXOWXUHWKHSDUDOOHOH[LVWHQFHRIPXWXDOO\XQWUDQVODWDEOHDQGDWWLPHV HYHQ VHHPLQJO\ FRQIOLFWLQJYLHZVLVQRWDSUREOHPEXWDQHVVHQWLDOSDUWRIKRZ UR\DOLGHRORJ\ZRUNHG FI*DUULVRQOF 

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$SSHQGL[)RUW  )RUW ILJV ZDVEURXJKWWRP\DWWHQWLRQE\0DWWKHZ6WROSHU GLUHFWRURIWKH3HUVHSROLV)RUWLILFDWLRQ$UFKLYH3URMHFW:KDWIROORZVLVP\ FROODWHGHGLWLRQEDVHGRQWKHGUDIWHGLWLRQ6WROSHUNLQGO\SURYLGHGWRPH 7KH WDEOHW LV LPSUHVVHG RQ WKH OHIWHGJH DQG WKH UHYHUVH ZLWK 3)6   SHUVFRPP7\WXVMikołajczak), a regular accounting seal.  2EYHUVH

                     

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XNNX: lit. “head,” with determinative ḪAL or SAL “(male/female) persons, people” VHH+LQ] .RFKTY DUDUHH[SUHVVLRQVHHPLQJO\FRQILQHGWRMRXUQDOVSHU taining to the ‘northern cluster,’ hence perhaps reflecting local scribal habit. CoP SDUH11DQG)RUWE $Q]DPDQQDNNDDVKHUH  11I .DEaš/Gabae; see Rollinger & Henkelman 2009, p. 334 11  0DU]LQD DOVRRQWKH URDGWR0HGLD  ,QROGHU 0HVRSRWDPLDQXVDJH rēšu “head,” could be used for “servant, slave” (CAD R s.v. rēšuFIVYrēšūtu  AŠ EDDNšuiš: sign Š8 ORRNV OLNH68 SHUKDSV ZULWWHQ RYHUHUDVXUH 3UHVXPDEO\ WKH QDPH WUDQVFULEHV *Bāxçiš (with ŠU for /çi/), lit. “Bactria” (Tavernier 2007a, p. 69 >@ 2Q%DFWULDQVLQ3)$VHHQRZ+HQNHOPDQ>IRUWKF@ Barša: Pārsa; the name is used, as so oftHQIRUERWKWKHVDWUDS\DQGLWVFHQWUDOUHVL dence (Περσέπολις = ‘PārsaWKHCity’ –VHH+HQNHOPDQ>IRUWKF@ 

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Wouter F.M. Henkelman 3DUQDNNDGLUHFWRURIWKH 3HUVHSROLV HFRQRP\DW WKH WLPHRI3)$KLVSRVLWLRQPD\ KDYHEHHQFRPSDUDEOHWRLIQRWHTXDOZLWKWKDWRIDVDWUDS VR+HQNHOPDQ>IRUWKF @  NXL]RQWKHULJKWHGJH taššup: in Bīsotūn, the term denotes both military troops (SDVVLP DQGSHRSOHKDYLQJ OLYHVWRFNGHSHQGHQW ZRUNHUV DQGSURSHUW\ '%H,WKH 2OG3HUVLDQHTXLYDOHQWLV kāra WKH %DE\ORQLDQ ūqu  6HHQ WKURXJK WKH OHQV RI WKH 3HUVHSROLV DGPLQLVWUDWLRQ KRZHYHU WKH taššup ZHUH LQ WKH ILUVW SODFH SHRSOH QRW GLUHFWO\ GHSHQGHQW RQ WKH FHQWUDOLVHGUHGLVWULEXWLRQDQGUDWLRQLQJV\VWHPDVWKHkurtašZHUH2QHPLJKWSUR YLVLRQDOO\ GHVFULEH WKHP DV DEOHERGLHG QRQGHSHQGHQW PHQ DQG WKHLU IDPLOLHV  QRWLQJWKDWWKHWHUPtaššup SUREDEO\FRXOGUHIHUWRDZKROHUDQJHRIVWDWXVHVLQFOXG ing that of “minor officials” (Hallock 1969, p. 44). As opposed to kurtaš3)$GRHVQRW XQDPELJXRXVO\  PHQWLRQ QRQ3HUVLDQ taššup 6HH %ULDQW  S I I ZLWK UHIHUHQFHV DQG6FKPLWW VXUYH\RISXEOLVKHGRFFXUUHQFHV  halmarraš nuškipZKHUHDVhalmarraš IRUWUHVVFLWDGHOIRUWLILHGDUHD SULPDULO\RFFXUV LQ 3)$ LQ LWV VXSSOHPHQWDU\ UROH DV VWRUDJH IDFLOLW\ DQG ZKHUHDV nuški KDV D ZLGH semantic scope (“protect, preserve, take care”), the V\QWDJPDhalmarraš nuškip SO  HVSHFLDOO\ LQ DSSRVLWLRQ WR taššup DERYH  SUREDEO\ GHQRWHV D PLOLWDU\ IXQFWLRQ hence “fortress guards” (cf. Hallock 1969, p. 688 s.v. halmarriš  7KH 2OG ,UDQLDQ HTXLYDOHQW LV IRXQG WUDQVFULEHG LQ (ODPLWH DV tiddabattiš(be) didāpatiš 7DYHUQLHU DS>@+HQNHOPDQDSIQ 2QdīdaDQGhalmarrišVHH QRZ5RVVL Memana: for more common Memaš (also Mayamiš; occurrences in Vallat 1993, p. 182 [‘Memašlu’ is probably to be read AŠPHmašOuSPD, “at Memaš”]); perhaps the lR FDWLRQRID ]L\DQ, “temple” (Henkelman 2008a, p. 548) and certainly a construction VLWH JLYHQ WKH SUHVHQFH RI /\FLDQ DQG SHUKDSV RWKHU VWRQHSROLVKHUV 7DYHUQLHU DS>@LGHPSI 3URVRSRJUDSKLFDQGVHDODQDO\VLVVKRZV FRQQHFWLRQVEHWZHHQ0HPDš and Tirazziš (Šīrāz), notably YLD3)6DQG3)6 DQGWKHILJXUHRI0DWHQDZKRUHFHLYHVUDWLRQVIRUkurtašDWERWKORFDWLRQV VHHDOVR .RFKSI  Akbaddana: Ecbatana/Hamadān (also l.11'). The form is unique, against Old Persian +DJmatāna '%S ,, I  (ODPLWH AŠDNPDGDQD '%H ,,  IRU 3)$ VHH EHORZ  DQG%DE\ORQLDQ$JDPDWDQX 9DOODWS7DYHUQLHUDS>@6FKPLWW SIVHH%URZQIRU$UDPDLFDQGRWKHUIRUPV 7KHFORVHVWSDUDOOHOLV Uemarkably, Ἀγβάτανα, the oldest form of the toponym in the mss. of Aeschylus’ 3HUVDH (Ἐκβάτανα is the result of popular etymology). Schmitt has explained this IRUPE\SRLQWLQJRXW WKDW JP FRXOGQRW KDYHEHHQUHQGHUHGGLIIHUHQWO\LQ*UHHN WKDQE\γβ 6FKPLWWSLGHPSI 7RP\NQRZOHGJHRQO\WKHDX dacious Hüsing posited an Iranian dialectal variant *Hagbātana XQGHUO\LQJ WKH *UHHNIRUP +VLQJFRO 1RWHWKDW(ODPLWHEDFDQUHQGHU2OG,UDQLDQS DQGEEXWGHILQLWHO\QRWP 7DYHUQLHUSI WKHIRUPDWWHVWHG in our text therefore seems to vindicate Hüsing. By contrast, (Bīt) Sagbat, the name RID0HGLDQWRZQLQ1HR$VV\ULDQWUDQVFULSWLRQLVSUREDEO\QRWUHOHYDQWKHUH SDFH 0HGYHGVND\DHVSSVHH=DGRN ,Q3)$GRFXPHQWVRQWUDYHOVWR and from the north, the name of Ecbatana is rare; Mataš (Māda0HGLD LVWKHFRP PRQ JHRJUDSKLFDO SRLQWHU LQ VXFK FRQWH[WV $SDUW IURP )RUW  WKH FLW\

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QDPHRFFXUVRQO\LQ3) AŠDJPDGDQDFROODWLRQ+DOORFN LQ11 >AŠ]˹DJ˺ PDGD˹QD˺), in NN 0454 (AŠDNPDG˹GD˺QDEH DQGLQ)RUW[I AŠDNPDGD QDiš  6HH VHH +HQNHOPDQ D S  ZLWK Q DQG LGHP >IRUWKF @ IRU FRP PHQWHGHGLWLRQVRI)RUW3)11DQG11   +LQGXNND +LQGXND 7DYHUQLHU D S  >@  SUREDEO\ QRW WKH KRPR nymic individual travelling between Kermān and Susa (see, e.g., PF 1377). Our HiQ GXNNDUHFHLYHVEDUOH\RQEHKDOIRIhalmarraš nuškip FRPLQJIURP(FEDWDQDLQFRP SDUDEOH VLWXDWLRQV WKLV XVXDOO\ PHDQV WKDW WKH UHFLSLHQW LV SDUW RI WKH WUDYHO FRP SDQ\ 7KH +LQGXNND PHQWLRQHG LQ 3)  KRZHYHU VXSSOLHV EDUOH\ WR halmarriš nuškipZKLFKFRXOGLQGLFDWHDQXQXVXDOVLWXDWLRQYL]DVXSSOLHUUHFHLYLQJDQGFDWHU ing for passing military. The grain supplier Hindukka in Šimpar(r)a(n) (also TiP parra) in the ‘northern cluster’ (PF 1960:25, PF 1961:29, NN 2478:1, NN 2490:37; cf. .RFKSI+HQNHOPDQDS PD\RUPD\QRWEHWKHVDPHSHU VRQ   Mitarna: Vidṛna+\GDUQHV +DOORFNS7DYHUQLHUDSI>@ >@ 6FKPLWW  S   UHJXODUO\ LVVXHV DXWKRULVDWLRQV IRU WUDYHOOHUV FRPLQJ IURP0HGLD VHHHJ11 ZKLFKQRUPDOO\ZRXOGLQGLFDWHWKDWKHZDVVD trap of that region. Note, however, that Mišdašba/Hystaspes also issued travel GRFXPHQWVIRUSHRSOHWUDYHOOLQJIURP0HGLD DVKHUHOO I 7KHUHODWLRQEHWZHHQ WKHWZRKDVQRWEHHQFODULILHG DV\HWQRUKDVWKHTXHVWLRQZKHWKHU0LWDUQDLVWKH VDPH DV Darius’s general in Media mentioned in Bīsotūn. See Hallock 1985, p. 591; .RFKS WKHPWQUʾ discussed by Azzoni & Dusinberre 2014, p. 7 is probD EO\DGLIIHUHQWLQGLYLGXDO    >QDNXL] ]t @SUHVXPDEO\RQULJKWHGJH   %DND]LUUXPDWKHQDPHRFFXUVWZLFHLQ11 OO DVWKDWRIVRPHRQHWUDQV porting grain to Harišna, for his own account (l.18, KLVX PDUULiš˹GD˺), and to Kutima for that of a colleague (l.18). Both places belong to the ‘northern cluster’ and OLHRQWKHURDGIrom Pārsa to Media (cf. Henkelman 2008a, p. 494 n.1147; LGHPE SLGHPDSQ 7KHWUDQVSRUWRIJUDLQSXWVWKLV%DND]LUUXPDLQWKH VXSSO\ VSKHUH LI KH LV WKH VDPH DV WKH %DND]LUUXPD UHFHLYLQJ IRU taššup FI O  DERYH KLVFDVHPLJKWSDUDOOHOWKDW+LQGXNND O    kanzabarrašbe JDQ]DEDUD, “treasurycarrier, treasurer” (cf. Tavernier 2007a, p. 422 >@ ZLWK(ODPLWHSOXUDOHQGLQJ*LYHQWKHSOXUDODQGWKHDSSRVLWLRQWRtaššup LW LV SHUKDSV EHWWHU LQ WKLV FDVH WR WUanslate “treasury transporter.” What exactly WKHLULPSOLHGWDVNZDVLVKDUGWRHVWDEOLVKZDVLWDUHJXODUWUDQVSRUWRIWULEXWHXQGHU WKHDXWKRULW\RI+\VWDVSHVRU–SRVVLEOHJLYHQWKHGDWH–ZDVLWUHODWHGWRWKHGLVVR lution of Hystaspes’s House (cf. belRZ "   >+$/PL@RQULJKWHGJH  I  Mišdašba: Vištāspa+\VWDVSHV 7DYHUQLHUDSI>@>@6FKPLWW S $OWKRXJKWKH QDPHZDV UHODWLYHO\FRPPRQWKHUHLVOLWWOHGRXEWWKDW the person referred to here was Darius’s fDWKHU5R\DOZRPHQ dukšišbe GDXJKWHUV of Hystaspes travel from Media to Pārsa in PFa 31:13 SUREDEO\ DOVR )RUW    HVWDEOLVKLQJDOLQNZLWK0HGLD+\VWDVSHVLVVXHVWUDYHODXWKRULVDWLRQVIRU WUDYHOV IURP 0HGLD LQ 11 I DQG I FRPSDUH DOVR 11   DQG LQ RXUWH[W11DQG)RUWVSHDNRIWKH šumar WRPERUIXQHUDU\PRQX ment) of Hystaspes at Pārsa, and PF 1596 of people attached his House (taššup

Henkelman.indb 323

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324

Wouter F.M. Henkelman

mišakašbeVDPHJURXSLQ3)D 6HHRQWKLVGRVVLHU+HQNHOPDQDHVSSI I+HQNHOPDQDSILGHPD7XSOLQS%HVVDF  %RXFKDUODW5ROOLQJHUHVSS*DVSD WKLVYROXPH -DFREV WKLVYRO ume). The important role of Nīrīz in the šumar GRVVLHULVGLVFXVVHGLQ+HQNHOPDQ  0LUL>IRUWKF@ ZLWKDGGLWLRQDOWH[WV    AŠEH\RQGWKLVWKHWH[WFRQWLQXHGRQGHVWUR\HGULJKWHGJH   ILUVWJDORYHUHUDVXUH   $1QDSDQQD WKH VSHOOLQJ LV LQIUHTXHQW EXW QRW XQSDUDOOHOHG VHH HJ 3)  3) 3) 6XUYH\LQ+HQNHOPDQDS   +$/˹DP˺UDiš FI +$/DPráš  PD LQ )RUW  DQ RIILFLDQW UHFHLYLQJ ZLQH IRU YDULRXVVDFULILFHVWKHVDPHWH[W DMRXUQDO PHQWLRQV$Q]DPDQDNND O &IDGO  EHORZ   ODQ IRU Napiriša: a possible second case is found in Fort. 0121ZKHUHO EDUOH\LVissued for offerings for the gods: 150 for Napiriša, for ODQ $1*$/MEŠQD $1OD DQQD); 120 for (the) Mišebaka, 120 for Išpandaramattiš. The reverse word order is a ELWVXUSULVLQJEXWWKHWRWDORIWKHDOORFDWLRQDQGWKHODFNRIDVHSDUDWHDPRXQWIRU ODQVKRZVthat the sacrifice was indeed for Napiriša. Fort. 1717WKHWKLUGFDVH reads […] ˹x˺ $1*$/MEŠ $1ODDQ˹QD˺ […]. Although this last instance has no preserved FRQWH[WLWVKRZVWKDWWKHZRUGLQJRI)RUWLVSUREDEO\QRWWKHUHVXOWRI DVFULEDOHUURU7KHUHLVDOVRDQDWWHVWDWLRQRIDQakrišcelebration for Napiriša (Fort.  VHHQDERYH     $1AN.GAL˹MEŠ˺ (also l.29'): for syllabic $1QDStULUšáLUUD DVHJ3) RU $1QDStU šáUD(as, e.g., PF 0354); if written logographically, the name of Napiriša is often aE EUHYLDWHG WR $1*$/MEŠ DV HJ 3)D  11   6HH IRU WKH YDULRXV VSHOOLQJV LQ $FKDHPHQLG(ODPLWH+HQNHOPDQDSQ1RWHWKDWWKHFROORFD tion of Napiriša and Auramazdā in l.29' definitively invalidates the old and unlikely idea that the “great god” in PFA is (must be!) an epithet for Auramazdā (like $1QDDS LUšáLUUD LQ WKH LQVFULSWLRQV  DV KDG SUHYLRXVO\ EHHQ VXJJHVWHG E\ +LQ]  S I  DQG UHWDNHQ E\ 6NM UY¡  S   &RPSDUH +HQNHOPDQ OF ZLWK IXUWKHU UHIHUHQFHV  DQG WKH UHFHQW GLVFXVVLRQ LQ %DVHOOR  S 84. On Napiriša see, DPRQJRWKHUV0LURVFKHGML.RFK9DOODWLGHPS*ULO ORW3RWWVLGHP+HQNHOPDQDS*DUULVRQ>IRUWKF@ Henkelman [forthc. 4]. I note in passing the name of AN.GAL, whose temple at Dēr RQ WKH (ODPLWH ERUGHU  $VVXUEDQLSDO UHEXLOW )UDKP  S   :KHUHDV WKH name, which appears to be an epithet of Dēr’s citygod Ištaran, can be read as Anu rabû, it is also true that the same Ištaran had close associations with the snakeJRG Niraḫ and was himself portrayed as sitting on a snakHWKURQH :RRGVHVSS  *LYHQWKHVHFRQQHFWLRQVDQGWKHHSLWKHWRQHZRQGHUVLIWKHUHLVVRPHLQWHU play with Elamite AN.GAL = Napiriša, wellNQRZQIRUKLVDVVRFLDWLRQZLWKVQDNHV FI QDERYH    >QD@RQWKHULJKWHGJH   +$/PLED˹x˺ND₄QRNQRZQšatin’s name fits the preserved signs.   šatin D FXOWLF H[SHUW UDWKHU WKDQ PRUH JHQHUDOO\ D SULHVW DQG DQ\KRZ PRUH QDU URZO\GHILQHGWKDQmaguš WKHWHUPRFFXUVDOUHDG\ DVšàWLšàWLQ LQ$NNDGLDQWH[WV from SukkalmaḫSHULRG 6XVD 6HH 7DYHUQLHU E S I +HQNHOPDQ D S

Henkelman.indb 324

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325

QQ ZLWKUHIHUHQFHV FRPSDUH6WHYHSRQWKH YHUEDOEDVHVDKWL   Miš(š)ebaka: *YLVDLEDJDRU visēbagā, “AllGods” (+LQ]S.RFKS Q LGHP  S  6FKPLWW  S  7DYHUQLHU D S  >@ $QDOWHUQDWLYHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQDV 0LoDEDJD, “God Mithra” (Gershevitch DSXG+DOORFNSQ)U\HSQ6FKZDU]S RUZRUVH VWLOO“Mithra and the Baga (Boyce 1982, p. 139) can not only be formally excluded (as WKHFRQVLVWHQWVSHOOLQJZLWKHLWKHUše RUšáDVKRZV EXWLVDOVREDVHGRQWKHZURQJ SUHPLVHV DV 6FKPLWW OF.) observes. It is uncertain whether ‘Mišebaka’ refers to a IL[HGJURXSRIGHLWLHVRUVLPSO\UHIHUVWRDOOJRGVYHQHUDWHGLQWKHKHDUWODQGRUHYHQ WKHHPSLUH,QFDVHRIDFORVHGJURXSZHDUHGHDOLQJLQWKHILUVWOLQHZLWKDQ,QGR ,UDQLDQ KHULWDJH UDWKHU WKDQ D FOHDU =RURDVWULDQ WUDGLWLRQ  DV WKH PXFK EHWWHU DWWHVWHGFDVHRI9HGLFvi ve devā VKRZV%XWUHJDUGOHVVWKHTXHVWLRQRILWVFRPSRVL WLRQZKLFKPXVWremain open for now, there is little doubt that Mišebaka was used E\WKH3)$VFULEHVDVDWHFKQLFDOWHUPGHQRWLQJDVSHFLILFULWH7KLVLVVKRZQE\LWV LQFOXVLRQLQOLVWVRIDOORFDWLRQVIRUYDULRXVULWHVDORQJVLGHPRXQWDLQDQGULYHUVDFUL ILFHVODQDQGRIIHULQJVIRUQDPHGGHLWLHV6HH.RFKS+HQNHOPDQD SQQQIQLGHP>IRUWKF@.QlSSHU S&DQWHUD WKLVYROXPH   I  0W3DUPDEEDWKLVSDUWLFXODU VDFUHG PRXQWDLQRFFXUVRQO\KHUHEXWPRXQWDLQVDV VXFK LQFOXGLQJD0W$ULDUDPQHV DUHUHJXODUO\WKHORFDWLRQDQGSHUKDSVREMHFWRI FXOWLF DFWLYLW\ LQ 3)$ ,Q PRVW FDVHV WKH GHWHUPLQative used is AŠ (marking places DQGVRPHWLPHV REMHFWV LQ$FKDHPHQLG(ODPLWH PRUHUDUHO\DVKHUH$1 IRUDQ\ WKLQJGLYLQHLQFOXGLQJWKHZRUGVIRUVHDWHPSOHGD\HWF 6HHGLVFXVVLRQLQ+HQ NHOPDQDSILGHP>IRUWKF@   6X]]DWKLVSHUVRQLVQRW\HWDWWHVWHGHOVHZKHUHLQ3)$  kurtaš gṛda, originally “domestic” (YHOVLP EXWLQ3)$XVHGLQWKHGHYHORSHGVHQVH of “dependent worker.” Non3HUVLDQV FRXOG EH ODEHOOHG DV VXFK WRR 7KHLU SUHFLVH VWDWXVLVGHEDWHG6HHHVSHFLDOO\%ULDQWSDQGIRUVXF FLQFWVXUYH\V+HQNHOPDQFDQGLGHPDSI   6$/GLJLWRYHUHUDVXUH   EDQDRYHUHUDVXUH  I  LUWLED bawiš WKHVH PHDVXUHV WKH ILUVW UHIOHFWLQJ ṛdbaDUWDEH 7DYHUQLHU D S I>@ WKHVHFRQGRIXQFHUWDLQHW\PRORJ\ %LYDUSFRPSDUHVWKH 6DVDQLDQpās DPRXQWWRDERXWDQGOUHVSHFWLYHO\7KH\UHSUHVHQWSRZHUVRIWKH WHUQDU\ VXEEDVH H[LVWLQJ DORQJVLGH WKH PDLQ GHFLPDO EDVH LQ ZKLFK $FKDHPHQLG OLTXLGPHDVXUHVDUHFRXQWHG WKHVHTXHQFHUXQVHWF 1RWDOOVFULEHVPDV WHUHG WKLV PRUH FRPSOLFDWHG V\VWHP SUREDEO\ RSHUDWHG ZLWK D FRXQWLQJERDUG  RXWVLGHMRXUQDOVDQGDFFRXQWVOLTXLGPHDVXUHLVQRUPDOO\FRXQWHGLQDSXUHO\GHFL PDOV\VWHP:KHQHYHUWKHPL[HGV\VWHPLVXVHGDVLQWKLVMRXUQDOQRWDWLRQLVW\SL cally elliptical (‘1 1 BAR 5 QA’ in l.21' reads as ‘1 (LUWLED) 1 BAR 5 QA’ = 45 l WKRXJKLW ZRXOG EH PRUH SUHFLVH WR VWDWHWKDW WKH SRZHU RI WKH VXE EDVH LV GHWHUPLQHG E\ SRVLWLRQ LQ WKH OHIW PDUJLQ  KHQFH DSSURDFKLQJ D SRVLWLRQDO V\VWHP QRWDWLRQ 6HH +DOORFNSI+HQNHOPDQ )ROPHU†   QDRYHUHUDVXUH       RYHUHUDVXUHRI

Henkelman.indb 325

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Henkelman.indb 326

Wouter F.M. Henkelman ˹xLS˺: the digit is either 2 or 3.    LSQDRYHUHUDVXUH Tarkawiš: *Dargāyuš (Tavernier 2007a, p. 168 [4.2.501]); probably the same official as the Tarkawiš receiving apples and grain for workers at or near Dazzarakka (PF I 11   FRPSDUH DOVR 11  >$NNXUQD@  7KLV WRZQ PD\ RQFH more be located in the ‘northern cluster’ (see Henkelman 2008a, p. 401, 414f., 426 n.980). Our Tarkawiš is unlikely to be the high official using seal PTS 01* in the 7UHDVXU\WDEOHWV RQZKRPVHH*DUULVRQSZLWKUHIHUHQFHV  KDOQXWLhaššira KDOQXW L  LV D QX H[WHQWLRQ RI KDO, “earth, clay” with suffixed W LQ animate gender marker, mostly for materials), lit. “belonging to clay, depending on clay,” here and elsewhere clearly “clay tablet” (not a kind of tax, SDFH *LRYLQD]]R SI ,QSDUDOOHOFRQWH[WVVRPHWLPHVKDO O DWhašširaLVIRXQGZLWKWKHVDPH PHDQLQJ IRU KDO O DW LQ D GHYHORSHG VHQVH IURP 0LGGOH (ODPLWH KDODW, “brickwork, PXGbrick”). See Hallock 1969, p. 39; Stolper 1978a (on QX +LQ] .RFKVYY KDODDWKDODDWLPPDHWF,QRWHLQSDVVLQJWKDW3LQDXOW S GLVFXVVHV (ODPLWH KDO DQG LWV GHULYDWLYHV  DV SRVVLEOH RULJLQ RI MKDU LQ D SRVWXODWHG ,QGR ,UDQLDQ %0$& ODQJXDJH )RU VXSSOHPHQWHG  haššira, “controller, auditor” coP SDUHWKH.$6.$/haširahašip, “roadinspector(s),” of NN 1219 and NN 2041:14 satišda+DOORFNWRRNVDWDQGVDWLto mean “food” and “to feed” (Hallock 1969, p. 751). .RFK  S  FI +LQ]  .RFK  VY VDDW) argued for “Zuteilung” and “zuteilen,” but this does not fit all contexts as well. See, e.g., PF 1793, a receipt for PHDW SRUWLRQV JLYHQ WR 31 DQG KLV FRPSDQLRQV ZKR DUH IHHGLQJ VDWLPDED  WKH KRUVHV DQG PXOHV RI WKH NLQJ DQG WKH SULQFHV +LQ]  .RFK  VY VDWLPDQED VHHP XQGHFLGHG  1RWH DOVR WKDW QG FRQMXJDWLRQ SO VDWLEED cannot mean “(ihnen) wurde zugeteilt,” but must be understood as, lit., “they were VDWLed,” hence “they were fed.” Barduma: *Bṛdava 7DYHUQLHU D S  >@  7KH QDPH RFFXUV RQO\ KHUH DQGLQ11ZKHUHD%DUGXPDLVLQYROYHG DVKHUGVPDQ" LQWKHWUDQVIHURI PDOHFDWWOHVHQWIURPE\,UGDWDNPDDQGHYHQWXDOO\JLYHQWRDQDJHQWRITXHHQ,U taštuna (one wonders whether the animals came from Irdatakma, satrap of GanG hāra [PF 1298, NN @DQGZHUHRIDVSHFLDOEUHHG :LWKWKHHYLGHQFHDWKDQGLWLV LPSRVVLEOHWRWHOOLIRXU%DUGXPDLVWKHVDPHLQGLYLGXDO ANŠE.KUR.RAMEŠAŠ.$6.$/MEŠQD: the description ‘horses of the road’ probably refers WRWKHVDPHRUFRPSDUDEOHDQLPDOVDVWKose who ‘beat the road’ (KASKALWXNNLSRU NXWWXNNLS>3)@ RUWKRVHEHORQJLQJWKHH[SUHVVVHUYLFH pirradazišQD 7KHGDLO\ UDWLRQRIOLVZLGHO\DWWHVWHGIRUKRUVHVLQFOXGLQJWKHIDVWUXQQLQJRQHV6HH*DE ULHOOL  HVS S  7XSOLQ  HVS S  $]]RQL  'XVLQEHUUH  HTXLGVLQWKH$UDPDLF)RUWLILFDWLRQWDEOHWV  >$1@RQULJKWHGJH 0(RYHUHUDVXUH PD˹DNND₄˺: in journals, the statement of a total ‘consumed’ is not normally directly IROORZHG E\ D SHUVRQDO QDPH DV KHUH ZKHUH ZH ILQG 'DWXNND DQG LQ O  ZKHUH Harmašba occurs in the same position. Harmašba furthermore appears in the role of VXSSOLHU NXUPDQ 31QD LQO ,VXVSHFWWKDW KHDFWHGDVPDLQVXSSOLHUZKHUHDV 'DWXNNDZDVKLVDGMXQFWRURWKHUZLVHUHVSRQVLEOHIRUDODUJHUSDUWRIWKHDOORFDWLRQV 7KHVFULEHZDQWHGWRPDNHFOHDUWKDW WZRRIILFLDOVLQVWHDGRIWKHXVXDOVLQJOHRQH

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Humban & Auramazdā

   

 

       

Henkelman.indb 327

327

ZHUHLQYROYHGDQGRUJDQLVHGWKHHQWULHVDFFRUGLQJO\OO  SHUWDLQWR'DWXNNDDQG DUHFORVHGRIIZLWKDVHFWLRQWRWDOIROORZHGE\WZRHQWULHV OO 29') on Harmašba, DJDLQFRQFOXGHGE\DSDUWLDOWRWDO7KHFDOFXODWLRQRIWKHJUDQGWRWDOVWDUWVDIWHUWKLV OO  and mentions both Harmbašba and Datukka.  LUWLED %$54$WKLVWRWDORIObarley “consumed” (PDNND DSSDUHQWO\ H[FOXGHVWKHLUWLED O VWRUHGDVVHHG O ,IVRWKHDOORFDWLRQVLQOO   VKRXOGKDYHDPRXQWHGWRLUWLED%$54$ O  Datukka: *Dātuka 7DYHUQLHUDS>@ SUREDEO\WKHVDPHDVWKHRIIL FLDO UHFHLYLQJ TXDQWLWLHV RI EDUOH\ DW $Q]DPDQ Q DN N D FI O  EHORZ  LQ 11 DQG11 SUREDEO\DOVR)RUW 7KHUHDUHPDQ\RWKHUDW WHVWDWLRQVRIWKHQDPHEXWPRVWRIWKHVHVHHPWRUHIHUWRGLIIHUHQWLQGLYLGXDOV Harmašba (also ll.30', 40', 42'): the only other attestations of the name are in NN 9, where an Harmašba receives wine to process fruit with at Turka(n), and, in YHU\VLPLODUFRQWH[WLQ)RUWI AŠWXUPDDQSHUKDSV AŠWXUNDDQLVPHQ WLRQHGLQO I 1RFRQQHFWLRQFDQSUHVHQWO\EHHVWDEOLVKHGEHWZHHQWKH VXSSOLHU and the ‘fruit processor.’  EDUUD[…]: probably an appellative; perhaps read +$/EDUUD˹EDUUD˺iš FI barabarraš

bārabara, “carrier, porter” in NN 0704:23, 26; Tavernier 2007a, p. 417 [4.4.7.17]). AŠ NXU˹ráš˺áš,WHQWDWLYHO\WDNHášas a phonetic completement to ˹ráš˺ (TUK); for the QDPHFRPSDUH.XUUD Q $OWHUQDWLYHO\UHDGAŠNXU˹WXN˺áš ˹+$/x˺GDUXišSHUKDSVFRPSDUH+$/]DDWDUULiš haturmakšaLQ3)I  haturmakša ātṛvaxša, lit. “he who pokes the fire” (Tavernier 2007a, p. 416 >@ $OWKRXJKWKHWLWOHH[LVWVLQWKH$YHVWD ātrǝuuaxšātrauuaxš WKHPHDQ LQJ LW KDV LQ WKDW FRQWH[W FDQQRW EH VWUDLJKWIRUZDUGO\ UHDG LQWR WKH $FKDHPHQLG VLWXDWLRQ,Q3)$WKHhaturmakša RFFXUVQRWRQO\DVRIILFLDQWEXWDOVRDVDGPLQLVWUD WLYHRIILFLDO DVPDOOQXPEHURILQGLYLGXDOVRFFXUVLQERWKFDSDFLWLHV %HFDXVHKHLV PRVWO\SHUIRUPLQJWKHODQVDFULILFHKHKDVEHHQLGHQWLILHGDVDQRIILFLDQWWHQGLQJWR “proper Zoroastrian rituals” and as “a Zoroastrian priest of eastern Iranian origin, ZKRPD\KDYHEHHQHQFRXUDJHGWRFRPHWRZHVWHUQ,UDQLQRUGHUWRUHFLWHWKHOLW XUJ\LQthe sacred language of Zoroastrianism” (Kreyenbroek 2010, p. 106; also LGHP  S   7KH DUJXPHQWV IRU WKLV DUH WKH SUHVXPHG VHPDQWLF HTXLYDOHQFH ZLWK $YHVWDQātrǝuuaxšDQGWKHSUHVXPHG=RURDVWULDQQDWXUHRIODQERWKRIZKLFKFDQ QRWEHGHPRQVWUDWHG0RUHRYHUDQhaturmakša PD\DOVRWHQGWRWKHFXOWVRI+DOPD Napiriša, (the) Mišebaka (cf. l.15' above), Išpandaramattiš, Šetrabattiš, Mt. HarrL PDUGDWXUUDDQG0W$ULDUDPQHV 11111111  ,QWKHPDMRULW\RIFDVHVKHLVRQHWKHVXSHUYLVLQJRIILFLDOVRIDVWRUHKRXVHVRUVWRUH KRXVHGLVWULFWDVVWDWHGLQWKHIRUPDOVXPPDU\RIMRXUQDOVDQGDFFRXQWV$SHUJKLV S IROORZLQJ+DOORFN S FRJHQWO\VXJJHVWHGWKDWLQVXFK FRQWH[WVhaturmakšaGRHVQRWLQGLFDWHIXQFWLRQEXWUDQN7KHSURSRVHGUROHLQDS SRUWLRQLQJFRPPRGLWLHV LVQRW ZLWKRXWGLIILFXOWLHVHLWKHUEXWLWLVFOHDUWKDW KDWXU makšaFDQQRWEHSURSHUO\XQGHUVWRRGZLWKRXWDV\VWHPDWLFDQDO\VLVRIZLGHUDGPLQ LVWUDWLYHDQGEXUHDXFUDWLF FRQWH[WV LQFOXGLQJWKH UHODWLRQWRWKH HWLUD RIILFLDOV ,Q WKHDEVHQFHRIWKDWVHH+LQ]SI.RFKSLGHPS LGHP  S  +DOORFN  S  5D]PMRX  S I  +HQNHOPDQ DSIQZLWKQQI.HOOHQVS

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1RJRGLVPHQWLRQHGLQWKHH[WDQWWH[WRI3%3WLOOOLQHRQWKHUHYHUVH ZKHUHWKHDERYHPHQWLRQHGFXOWLFDFWLYLW\FDOOHGšupLVPHQWLRQHG UHY 

,7,UDKDO8'PD $1šuLSVLUPD $1šášum $1QDStU_~UL>G@X>L@š Q>L] (Henkelman: ⌈GXišQL"⌉ 

2QWKH HVWDEOLVKHG GD\RIWKHPRQWK5DKDO may Šašum, my goddess, rH FHLYHDšupDVRIIHULQJUHFRPSHQVDWLRQ

7KH WUDQVOLWHUDWLRQ FROODWHG RQ 3%3 DQG WKH WUDQVODWLRQ SUHVHQWHG KHUH IROORZWKHRQHVSURSRVHGDQGFRPPHQWHGE\+HQNHOPDQH[FHSWIRUVRPH minor details. The addition of ‘established’ to explain the meaning of UD ‘day’ without a day number, is based on a suggestion by Giovinazzo. 7KHFRQWH[WLVGLIIHUHQWIURPWKHRFFXUUHQFHVRIšipLQWKH3HUVHSROLV)RUWL ILFDWLRQWDEOHWVZKHUHLWLVQHDUO\DOZD\VDWWHVWHGDVDQREMHFWRIWKHYHUE K XWD‘to make,’ but this may be due to the different textual genre. MorH RYHUWKHšipDWWHVWHGLQWKH3HUVHSROLV)RUWLILFDWLRQWDEOHWVLVQRWUHODWHGWR DVSHFLILHGJRGH[FHSWIRU=L]NXUDLQ3)11 In PBP, the cultic activity is connected to the rarely attested goddess Šašum or Šiašum, known since the late 3UGPLOOHQQLXP%&(ZKHQVKHLVPHQWLRQHG in the Narām6vQWUHDW\ (.,,,,DQG,; $1VLDšum 7KHIHPDOH FKDUDFWHURIWKLVGHLW\LVDVVXUHGE\WKHRQRPDVWLFVLQWKH$NNDGLDQWDEOHWV RI WKH ILUVW KDOI RI WKH QG PLOOHQQLXP %&( IURP 6XVD SiDUVLLDšu>XP@ ‘offspring of Šašum,’ 08186VLLDšuXPDPPD 08186šuLDšuXPDPPD ‘Šašum (is the) mother’).6KHLVQRWDWWHVWHGLQWKH3HUVHSROLVWDEOHWVQRU LQWKH$FURSROHWDEOHWVIURP6XVDEHLQJNQRZQRQO\IURPDEULFNLQVFULS WLRQIURP&KRJKD=DQELO 7= EHVLGHVWKHWUHDW\RI1DUDP6LQDQG3%3 Šašum is attested other three times on PBP (rev.13, reYDQGUHY DQG LQYRNHG DV QDSU XU ‘my god(dess)’ (except on rev.13). In lines rHY VKHKDVWKHREVFXUHWLWOHHOKDODHUD UHSHDWHGRQUHYVHHEHORZ DQG WKH TXDOLILFDWLRQ AŠN>p@VD>DW@LUUD, ‘of Kesat.’ This last epithet seems to

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 2QHFRXOGDGYDQFHWKHK\SRWKHVLVWKDWšup LVWKHQDPHRIWKHGD\EXWWKLVYHU\IRUPXOD

(with UD, ‘day,’ DQGZLWKRXW GD\QXPEHURUGD\QDPH LVODUJHO\DWWHVWHGLQWKH 6XVD $FURSROHWDEOHWV VHH%DVHOORS   7H[WSXEOLVKHGDOVRLQ+LQ]  6WHYHSDOVR.UHEHUQLN)RURWKHUDQWKURSRQ\PVZLWKDPPDDQGSDUVHH =DGRNSQRDQGSQRUHVSHFWLYHO\

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FRQILUP WKH FHQWUDOLW\ RI .HVDW DPRQJ WKH RWKHU WRSRQ\PV PHQWLRQHG LQ 3%3DQGLWVLPSRUWDQFHDOVRIURPDULWXDOSRLQWRIYLHZ 7KH 3%3 SDVVDJH PHQWLRQLQJ D šup VHHPV WR EH SDUW RI D QHZ WH[WXDO section where some items, among which one can find MUŠEN MEŠ, ‘bird’ UHY  7,MEŠ, ‘arrow’ (rev.12 and 13) and KÙ%$%%$5MEŠ, ‘silver’ (rev.13) VWDQG RXW 7KH VHFWLRQ LV DSSDUHQWO\ FRQFOXGHG E\ DQRWKHU RFFXUUHQFH RI WKHYHUEDOIRUPGXišQL tu.š.ni ‘may he receive’ (rev.14). Some elements UHPLQGWKH6XVD$FURSROHWDEOHWVZKHUHERZV GIŠ%$1MEŠ DQGUHODWHGLWHPV DUHUHFHLYHG tu.š E\DJRG 0'3VHHEHORZ†  7KHFRQFOXGLQJVHFWLRQSUREDEO\VWDUWVRQUHYZKHUHRQHFDQUHDG UHY 

KDDW _ ',1*,5*$/ $1>3Ì5" [[[@ DDN $1šášum elKDODH UD$1QDStU~ULna šáOL_PLW>D@NQL GIŠ

7KH SXQLVKLQJ  VWDII" of Napiriša, [Nahhunte" .] and Šašum of" (OKDODH P\ goddess, . may be placed (over him who …)

7ZRLQWHUSUHWDWLRQVKDYHEHHQSURSRVHGIRUKDWZKLFKLVNQRZQDOVRIURP VRPH 0LGGOH (ODPLWH UR\DO LQVFULSWLRQV ZKHUH LW UHSUHVHQWV WKH SXQLVK PHQWIRUWKHHYLOSHUSHWUDWHGDJDLQVWWKHEXLOGLQJRUWKHREMHFWGHGLFDWHG WRDJRGWKURXJKWKHLQVFULSWLRQLWVHOI VHHHJ(.,7= 7=LQ $NNDGLDQ DVDORDQIURP$NNDGLDQḫDWWX‘panic, fear,’RUIURP$NNDGLDQ ḫDṭṭX ‘sceptre, staff.’ 7KH ODWWHU FKRLFH KDV EHHQ SUHIHUUHG KHUH RQ WKH evidence of the preposed (wood) tool classifier GIŠ, attested only on PBP, even if elsewhere the meaning ‘terror’ is more fitting and finds parallels in ELEOLFDOWH[WVEHLQJDFRPPRQWURSHLQWKHDQFLHQW1HDU(DVW7KHSDUDOOHO ZLWK WKH FXUVH LQYRNLQJ WKH ḫDWWXP RI .XNNašur) of an Akkadian tablet IURP6XVD 0'3 GDWHGWRWKHILUVWKDOIRIWKHQGPLOOHQQLXP BCE and published by V. Scheil as a ‘charte royale,’ seems to be particularly ILWWLQJWR3%3WH[WXDOJHQUH,Q3%3WKHKDWIRUPXODSUREDEO\LQWURGXFHVDQ HODERUDWH FXUVH DJDLQVW ZKR ZLOO GDPDJH WKH WH[W RU ZLOO QRW UHVSHFW LWV VWDWHPHQWV 

 &$'ḪSVYḫDWWX$  &$'ḪSVYḫDṭṭXVHHHVSHFLDOO\SPHDQLQJE  6HH HJ *HQHVLV 35:5, ‘As they journeyed, a terror (ḥLWWk  IURP *RG IHOO XSRQ ʿDO  WKH cities all around them, so that no one pursued them’ (NRSV); also *HQHVLV UHIHUUHG to Noah and his offspring), ‘The fear and dread (ḥDṯ RI\RXVKDOOUHVWRQ ʿDO HYHU\DQL mal of the earth, ...’ (NRSV).

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 *RRGVIRUJRGVLQWKH6XVD$FURSROHWDEOHWV 7KH6XVD$FURSROHWDEOHWVGHDOWPDLQO\ZLWK PLOLWDU\" FORWKLQJ+RZHYHU WKHUHDUHDOVRWDEOHWVUHFRUGLQJWKHGHOLYHU\RIZHDSRQVDQGLQVRPHFDVHV WKHUHFHLYHULVQRWDSHUVRQEXWDJRG)RUH[DPSOHLQWKHILUVWWZRHQ WULHV RI 0'3   VRPH TXDQWLWLHV RI ERZV GIŠ%$1MEŠ  TXLYHUV DSWL  VKDIWV GIŠ*,MEŠ DQGDUURZKHDGV" VDK ZHUHUHFHLYHG WX) by the god Šazi, ZKRLVTXDOLILHGLQWZRGLIIHUHQWZD\VRQHIRUHDFKHQWU\            

> [ @GIŠ*,MEŠ >  @$1šáL]]t >  @EDUDGXiš >[GIŠ@%$1MEŠDSWLGIŠ%$1MEŠ VDDK$1šáL]]t AŠ  KDOLLNUDGXiš 

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0'3UHYDQGUHY $GRFXPHQWFRXOGKDYHHQWULHVUHODWHGERWKWRFORWKLQJ DQGZHDSRQVVXJJHVWLQJWKDW WKHYDULRXV NLQGVRIFORWKHVZHUHGHVLJQHGIRUPLOLWDU\ XVH 2QHRIWKHPDMRULQWHUSUHWDWLYHGLOHPPDVFRQFHUQLQJWKH6XVD$FURSROHWDEOHWVLVWKH QXPHULFDOYDOXHRIWKHYHUWLFDOZHGJHLIRQHFKRRVHVTXDQWLWLHVLQFUHDVHFRQVLGHUD EO\JLYLQJDGLIIHUHQWLGHDRIWKHVFRSHRIWKHDGPLQLVWUDWLRQDQGRIWKHSROLWLFDOLPSDFW RIWKHLQVWLWXWLRQWKDWLVVXHGWKHGRFXPHQWV HYHQLIWKHWLPHVSDQRIWKHFRUSXVLVDQ RWKHUXQNQRZQIDFWRU LIRQHFKRRVHVMXVWRQHRUWZRLWHPVRIVPDOOVL]HREMHFWVOLNH DUURZVRUDUURZKHDGVZHUHGHOLYHUHGDFFRUGLQJWRVRPHHQWULHVZKLFKGRHVQRWVWULNH DVYHU\OLNHO\6FKHLOFKRVHWRFRXQWHDFKYHUWLFDOZHGJHDVHYHQZKHQDVLQPRVWRI WKHRFFXUUHQFHVLWLVQRWIROORZHGE\DQDQJOHZHGJHEXWKHZDVZHOODZDUHRIWKHXQ FHUWDLQW\RIKLVFKRLFH 6FKHLOS -XVLIRY  PDGHWKHRSSRVLWHFKRLFH2QH RIWKHIHZWDEOHWVZKHUHWKHUHLVDXVHIXOVXP FRQWUDVW0'3ZKHUHWKHVXPFRXOG EHRUDOLNH LV0'3ZKLFKPDNHVFOHDUWKDWWKHYHUWLFDOZHGJHFRXQWVIRU XQIRUWXQDWHO\WKLVWH[WLVTXLWHGLIIHUHQWIURPWKHPDMRULW\RIWKHGRFXPHQWVDQGZHGR QRWNQRZLIZHFDQJHQHUDOL]HLWVHYLGHQFHRUQRW7KHUHDUHDIHZGRFXPHQWV DVHJ 0'3 ZKHUHWKHYHUWLFDOZHGJHFOHDUO\FRXQWVDVDVLWLVIROORZHGE\DZLQNHO KDNHQIRU7KHUHIRUHWKHUHLVSUREDEO\QRWDFRUSXVZLGHVROXWLRQWRWKHGLOHPPD ,QWKHWH[WVGLVFXVVHGKHUHLVWDNHQWREHWKHYDOXHIRUWKHYHUWLFDOZHGJHWKHWLQ\ TXDQWLWLHVRIVPDOOREMHFWVFDQEHSRVVLEO\H[SODLQHGE\VXSSRVLQJWKDWWKHVFULEHVZHUH FRXQWLQJSDFNDJHVKDYLQJDIL[HGQXPEHURILWHPVLQVLGHLQVWHDGRIVLQJOHLWHPV +LQ] .RFKSVYDSWLVHHDOVRLELGSVYKDSWHHDQGDSWLNXWLUD +LQ] .RFKSVYVDK>@ On the god ŠaziVHH=DGRNSQR 6FKHLOUHVWRUHGDQXQNQRZQTXDQWLW\DWWKLVSRLQWFRUUHVSRQGLQJWRDEUHDNLQWKHWH[W 7KLV UHVWRUDWLRQ VHHPV XQQHFHVVDU\ VLQFH LW ZRXOG HQWDLO D GRXEOH RFFXUUHQFH RI WKH VDPHLWHPLQWKHVDPHHQWU\&I0'3DSWLGIŠ%$>1MEŠ

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> x … @VKDIWV > … ]: the god Šazi > of …]pa received. [ERZV DQG TXLYHUVERZV DUURZKHDGV": the god Šazi  RI+DOLNUHFHLYHG

Šazi is QRWWKHRQO\JRGPHQWLRQHGRQ0'3DVDSSHDUVIURPWKHQH[W HQWU\LQWKHGRFXPHQW             

GIŠ%$1MEŠ>HUDVHG@ >HUDVHG@%(EŠŠANA $1ŠIMUTUD AŠ  EXSLODUDGXiš ERZ   the king of the god Šimut  RI3XSLODUHFHLYHG

The ‘king of Šimut of Pupila’ is mentioned in other two tablets in similar FRQWH[WV 0'3   DQG 3). Like Šazi, Šimut is qualified by a SODFHLQWKLVFDVH3XSLODDFLW\NQRZQDOVRIURPRWKHUVRXUFHV $IWHU VHYHUDO PRUH HQWULHV WKH WH[W FORVHV ZLWK D UHVXPSWLYH VHFWLRQ VWDWLQJ WKDW DOO WKH PDQXIDFWXUHG VWXII K XWXNL ZDV ZLWKGUDZQ  &RQVLGHULQJWKHRFFXUUHQFHVRIŠimut *1Uwithout a preceding EŠŠANA (see, e.g., MDP

DQGTXRWHGEHORZ %(EŠŠANA $1ŠIMUTUDGRHVQRWVHHPWREHDQDQWKURSRQ\P OLNHHJ %($1ŠIMUTEŠŠANA (MDP 9 23:8; also MDP 9 37 rev.4).6LPLODUO\WKHV\QWDJP %( EŠŠANA $1ŠIMUTLUUDAŠKDGDQXUD 0'35) could be translated as ‘the king of the god Šimut of Hatanu’ and not ‘(a man named) SunkiŠimut of Hatanu.’ The inteU pretation ‘the king (named) Šimut of Hatanu’ is equally unlikeO\  See Henkelman 2011b for exhaustive references on Šimut.  3XSLODRFFXUVDOVRLQWKHHQWULHVRIRWKHUWDEOHWV 0'3DQG DQGLQWKHFROR SKRQRIWDEOHWV 0'3DQG ZLWKDWRWDORIRFFXUUHQFHV LQ WKH $FURSROH WDEOHWV 3XSLOD ZDV DQ LPSRUWDQW FHQWUH EHLQJ PHQWLRQHG DV D UR\DO FLW\ 858/8*$/~WLšú RIWKHNLQJRI(ODP /8*$/.85(/$00$NL LQWKH$QQDOVRI $VVXUEDQLSDO %,:$$9 ),9WKFDPSDLJQ WRJHWKHUZLWK6XVD %,:$$9 ) ,9 .DELQDN SHUKDSV+DIW7DSSHK%,:$$9 ),9 DQGRWKHUFLWLHVWKDWZH VLWXDWHLQ6XVLDQD)URPDQ$VV\ULDQSHUVSHFWLYHDUR\DOFLW\LVWKHUHVLGHQFHRIDNLQJ in the sense of our ‘capital city’ ,NHGD   6HH%DVHOORS3RVVLEO\DYHUEDODGMHFWLYHRI K XWD‘to do, make’ (perhaps WREHUHDGDV K XWDNFRQVLGHULQJWKH&9&VLJQWXNDVLQGLIIHUHQWWRYRZHOTXDOLW\VHH %DVHOORSQDQGS RUDQRXQIURPDFRPSRXQGYHUEKDYLQJ WXNL(‘to cut, engrave’ in Hallock 1969, p. 763, s.v. WXNNLVHHDOVR*LRYLQD]]RS DV VHFRQGHOHPHQW

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K XPDND XQGHU WKH UHVSRQVLELOLW\ NXUPDQ RI .XWDNDND LQ WKH HVWDE OLVKHGGD\RIWKHQGPRQWKDW6XVD 0'3UHY  The god Šimut can be found in other similDUFRQWH[WVDVLQ0'3 ZKHUHWKHUHLVQRWDQH[SOLFLWPHQWLRQRIWKHUHODWHGNLQJ         UHY  UHY 

GIŠ%$1MEŠVDK $1 ŠIMUT AŠKDGDQXUDGXiš GIŠ%$1MEŠVDKGIŠ*,MEŠ $1 ŠIMUT AŠPDU]DDSSDQUDGXiš >@ VDKGIŠ*,MEŠ$1MÚŠ.LAM GXiš

        UHY  UHY 

ERZVDUURZKHDGV" WKe god Šimut of Hatanu received. ERZVDUURZKHDGV" DQG VKDIWV the god Šimut of Marzapan reFHLYHG  DUURZKHDGV"(and) shafts: the god Inšušinak received.

,QRWKHUWDEOHWVRQO\QDS‘god,’ is written and we do not know which god ZDVRULILWZDVDJHQHULFJRG 0'3 ]DEDUUXMEŠGIŠ*,MEŠ$1QDDSSLGXiš EURQ]HVKDIWVWKH*RGUHFHLYHG 0'3 >[@]DEDUUXMEŠ GIŠ*,MEŠ_ %(XQ"EDQ"PH"iš Dráš_KX>XWODNQD@KXPDND_ $1QD DSSLGXiš >[@EURQ]HVKDIWVZLWKGUDZQE\8PSDQmeš"FKLHIDGPLQLVWUDWRUWKH*RG UHFHLYHG 0'3UHY GIŠšuNXUUXXP%(LJLWHUL_GXiš$1QDDSSLQD VSHDUV,NLWHULUHFHLYHGIRUWKH*RG    

6HH%DVHOORS 6HH%DVHOORS†DOVR+HQNHOPDQSDQGILJ $VDOZD\VLQWKH$FURSROHWDEOHWVWKH\HDULVQRWLQGLFDWHG %DVHOORS  Following Henkelman 2008, p. 26, sub R (‘a designation that may literally mean “reprH sentative of the (royal) stores” ..., but that certainly implies a high administrative rank’).  /RDQIURP$NNDGLDQšukurrum‘spear.’

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366

Gian Pietro Basello

7KHVHHQWULHVWKHODVWRQHLQSDUWLFXODUSDUDOOHOLQVRPHZD\VWKH3HUVH SROLV)RUWLILFDWLRQWDEOHWVUHFRUGLQJFXOWLFDFWLYLWLHVHVSHFLDOO\WKHJURXSRI WH[WVZKHUHQDSQD‘for the god(s)’ is attested without the mention of a spH FLILFJRG$FFRUGLQJWR+HQNelman, ‘it seems that the scribes did not mean a specific group of gods when they wrote “for the gods,” they just used it as an expression for cultic purposes in general.’&RXOGWKLVLQWHUSUHWDWLRQEH DSSOLHG DOVRWR WKH DERYHTXRWHG HQWULHV IURPWKH $FURSROH WDEOHWV" 6KDOO ZHFRQVLGHUWKHOLVWHGZHDSRQVDVFXOWLFRIIHULQJV"8QOHVVRQHWKLQNVRID ULWXDOXVDJHRIWKHVHZHDSRQVOLNHWKHVSDGHRI1DEXIRXQGLQ&KRJKD=DQ ELO ZKLFKZDVQRWDWUXHXVDEOHVSDGH LWZRXOGEHTXLWHGLIILFXOWWRDQ VZHULQDSRVLWLYHZD\WRWKHODVWTXHVWLRQ6LQFHPDQ\VLPLODUDGPLQLVWUD WLYH RSHUDWLRQV LQ WKH 6XVD $FURSROH WDEOHWV GR QRW PHQWLRQ DQ\ JRG ZH are induced to consider these “offerings” for a god as goods given to the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endu, Ranhā).  /DPLVHHQpYLGHQFHGHVD[HVGHWRSRQ\PHVUqJOHOHSUREOqPHGHVGLV FRQWLQXLWpV TXL RQW SHUWXUEp OHV SUHPLqUHV UHFRQVWLWXWLRQV FDUWRJUD SKLTXHV '’autres variantes cartographiques ne sont cependant pas e[ FOXHV FDU OD VWUXFWXUH GH OD JpRJUDSKLH DYHVWLTXH QH SHXW rWUH YpULWDEOH ment comparée à celle de l’empire perse, quadripartite, reconstituée à trD YHUV OHV OLVWHV GH 'DULXV $ORUV TXH GDQV OD FDUWH DFKpPpQLGH OHV SD\V rayonnent en cercle sur 360 degrés autour des capitales de l’empire OH centre symbolique de l’$YHVWDl’Airyana Vaējah ne peut s’être présenté que FRPPHH[FHQWUpDXQRUGRXDXQRUGHVW jODGLIIpUHQFHGHVVFKpPDVGH*K *QROLHW0:LW]HOTXLRQWSODFp l’Airyana Vaējah au centre de la géogrD SKLHDYHVWLTXH 3DUUDSSRUWDXFDGUHJpRJUDSKLTXHUpHOFHVTXLQ]HUpJLRQV avestiques ne couvrent en effet qu’un quart du cercle à partir du lieu de l’IlluminatiRQGH=RURDVWUH ­ODGLIIpUHQFHGHODFDUWHDFKpPpQLGHOHVFKpPDGXWidēvdādSRXUUDLW en réalité avoir été plutôt tripartite (l’Airyana Vaējah constituant à la rL JXHXUOHTXDWULqPHpOpPHQWGHFHWHQVHPEOH  ILJ : par le fait qu’ils relq YHQW GH OD même zone géographique (le nord de l’Hindukush), les deux SUHPLHUV VHJPHQWV WRSRQ\PLTXHV ©*DYD HW 0HUYª SUHPLHU D[H GH OD UHFRQVWLWXWLRQ GH ) *UHQHW HW ©Bactriane, Nisāya et Hératª GHX[LqPH D[H  GHYUDLHQW SRXYRLU rWUH XQLV ERXW j ERXW HQ XQ VHXO D[H VHORQ l’exemple du tracé des cinq premiers pays –Gava, Merv, Bactriane, Nisāya,

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+pUDW  &HV FLQT SD\V IRUPHQW HQ HIIHW XQ HQVHPEOH RUJDQLTXH GDQV OD PHVXUHRNisāya (n° HVWFODLUHPHQWSRVLWLRQQpHHQIRQFWLRQGHWURLVGH ses voisins, puisqu’elle SUHQGSODFHHQWUHOD%DFWULDQHHW+pUDW QƒHWQƒ GX GHX[LqPH D[H GH OD UHFRQVWLWXWLRQ GH ) *UHQHW  WRXW HQ pWDQW pJDOH PHQWGpFULWHFRPPHVLWXpHVXUODURXWHHQWUHOD%DFWULDQH QƒGHX[LqPH D[H  HW 0HUY Qƒ SUHPLHU D[H  En présentant l’itinéUDLUH *DYD+pUDW sous la forme d’une ligne en zigzag où Nisāya se situerait graphiquement au centre d’un triangle «0HUY%DFWULDQH+pUDWª OHV DXWHXUV GH OD OLVWH montrent donc qu’ils connaissaient probablement la répartition spatiale de FHVFLQTSD\V$Yec ses cinq pays, cet alignement du nord de l’Hindukush FRQVWLWXHUDLW DLQVL OH SHQGDQW GHV GHX[ DXWUHV DOLJQHPHQWV GH FLQT SD\V l’un courant le long du flanc méridional de la même chaîne (n°jQƒ  l’autre chevauchant les premiers contreforts occidentaux de l’Himalaya QƒjQƒ  &HSHQGDQWOHVSD\VjODWrWHGHFHVWURLVD[HVQHVRQWSDVWRXVFRQWLJXV GHl’Airyana VaējahOHSOXVSURFKHVHUDLW5DJKDTXH)*UHQHWDLGHQWLILp DX %DGDNKVKDQ WDQGLV TXH OHV SD\V SODFpV HQ WrWH GHV GHX[ DXWUHV D[HV *DYDGDQVOH=HUDIVKDQHW9Dēkereta [Kaboul] au sud de l’Hindukush VRQW UHODWLYHPHQWSOXVpORLJQpVGXOLHXGH l’Illumination. Même s’ils se succq dent de manière correcte pour décrire l’ouest, le sud et l’est du monde avestique, les trois alignements ne rayonnent qu’imparfaitementODVHXOH certitude est que c’est vraisemblablement au sommet de la carte que se GUHVVDLWV\PEROLTXHPHQWl’Airyana Vaējah, région tout à la fois réelle (voir *UHQHWDS HWP\WKLTXH GHODPrPHPDQLqUHTXHGDQVODJpR graphie indienne Uttarakuru est à l’extrême nord, au sommet de la carte, HWGDQVOHVFDUWHVPpGLpYDOHVFLUFXODires orientées à l’est le Paradis est trD GLWLRQQHOOHPHQWFHQWUpYHUVODERUGXUHVXSpULHXUH  Il n’est ainsi pas exclu que la source du WidēvdādVHVRLWSOXW{WSUpVHQ tée, sur le plan graphique, sous la forme d’un catalogue de trois colonnes GHQRPVFKDSHDXtées par l’Airyana Vaējah, l’énumération des pays se faL VDQW GH KDXW HQ EDV HW GH JDXFKH j GURLWH (Q OLVDQW FHWWH JpRJUDSKLH  3URSRVpSDU *QROL  9RJHOVDQJ +XPEDFK HW:LW]HO GDQV

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$UPpQLHQQHTXLPHQWLRQQH ©1LVDPR\HQQH» à l’emplacement actuel de Ma\ PDQD*UHQHWDSQ  Comme l’a montré F. *UHQHW, il est peu probable que l’Airyana Vaējah VRLW j ORFDOLVHU DXVVL DX QRUG )HUJKDQD 'DUZD]  TXH OH SURSRVH SDU H[HPSOH 7R PDVFKHNS

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430

Claude Rapin

comme un schéma en colonnes, on peut ainsi éviter l’hypothèse d’une leF WXUH DQWLhoraire atypique. Dans ce cas, il n’est pas non pOXV QpFHVVDLUH d’identifier la succession des pays en fonction de routes fluviales ou teU UHVWUHVGLYHUJHDQWjSDUWLUGHl’Airyana Vaējah /DFDUWHGXMihr Yašt /D ORFDOLVDWLRQ GH *DYD GDQV OH FDGUH GH OD 6RJGLDQH HVW SUREOpPDWLTXH 6HORQ)*UHQHW, l’expression «*DYDOjRYLYHQWOHV6RJGLHQVª 7UHPEOD\ S XWLOLVpHGDQVOHWidēvdād SHUPHWGHSHQVHUTXHFHWWHUp JLRQHVWGLVWLQFWHGXcœur traditionnel de la Sogdiane, le moyen Zerafshan FRUUHVSRQGDQWjODSODLQHGH6DPDUNDQG C’est FHTXHODLVVHHQHIIHWDXVVLSHQVHUODIRUPXODWLRQDGRSWpHGDQVOD VHFRQGHLPSRUWDQWHPHQWLRQGHFHWWHUpJLRQFHOOHGX Mihr Yašt 9 H9,,,HVLqFOHV@ 6DLQW 3pWHUVERXUJ

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8VPDQRYD=, )LODQRYLFK0,$OWDU\RJQMDGUHYQHJR0HUYD /HVDXWHOVGXIHX de l’ancienne Merv), O’zbekiston Moddiy Madaniyati Tarixi  Istorija material’noj kul’tury UzbekistanaS 9RJHOVDQJ:7KHVL[WHHQODQGVRI9LGHYGDW $ LU\kQǝP9DrMDK DQGWKHKRPH ODQGRIWKH,UDQLDQV3HUVLFDS :LW]HO07KHKRPHRIWKH$U\DQVLQ$+LQW]H (7LFK\ HGG Anusantatyai. Festschrift f r ohanna Narten zum *HEXUWVWDJ'HWWHOEDFK5|OOS–

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454

Claude Rapin

1. Carte de l’Asie centrale (partie orientale) de la fin de l’époque achéménide à l’époque hellénistique (© Cl. Rapin).

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2. Plan du site de Koktepe. A : enceinte sacrée (phase Koktepe II). B : aire « palatiale » d’époque scythe/sogdienne et achéménide (phases Koktepe II-III). C et D : plateformes d’époque achéménide (phase Koktepe III). E : porte sud de la ville. F : casernes d’époque macédonienne-séleucide (phase Koktepe IV). P : plateforme-autel de l’enceinte sacrée (phase Koktepe II) (© V. Gomozov, Cl. Rapin, E. Kurkina, O. Zaitseva).

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Claude Rapin

3. Koktepe (Zerafshan) : plan de la porte de l’enceinte sacrée (Koktepe II) et de la plateforme sacrée d’époque achéménide (Koktepe III) (© Cl. Rapin, E. Kurkina). Détail : poids ansé utilisé dans le rituel de fondation de la plateforme sacrée.

4. Koktepe (Zerafshan) : fosses rituelles de fondation de la plateforme sacrée d’époque achéménide. (© Cl. Rapin, MAFOuz de Sogdiane).

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457

5. Géographie de l’Avesta (carte C. Rapin, modifiée d’après F. Grenet et F. Ory in Grenet 2005a, p. 44, fig. 5).

6. Géographie avestique d’après le Mihr Yašt (Yt10.14 ; dessin Cl. Rapin).

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458

Claude Rapin

7. Sangir-tepe (Kashka-darya) : plan du temple d’époque achéménide. (© Cl. Rapin, E. Kurkina, M. Khasanov, MAFOuz de Sogdiane).

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8. Kindyk-tepe (Surkhan-darya) : plan du temple d’époque achéménide, d’après Boroffka 2009, p. 141, fig. 1 ; Sverchkov & Boroffka 2009, p. 227 ; Grenet 2012, p. 31.

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460

Claude Rapin

9. Plans schématiques de temples : a : Temple de l’Oxus à Takht-i Sangin (Tadjikistan). b : Temple à redans d’Aï Khanoum (Afghanistan). c : Temple des Frataraka à Persépolis (Iran). d : Temple de Masjid-e Solaiman (Iran), à schéma « mésopotamien ». e : Temple de Bard-e Nechandeh (Iran), à schéma « mésopotamien ».

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©… how Median the Medes wereª"

État d’une question longuement débattue $GULDQR95RVVL 8QLYHUVLWpGH1DSOHV©L’Orientaleª   –,OVHUDLWGLIILFLOHGHWUDLWHUOD©TXHVWLRQPqGHªVDQVSDUWLUGX&ROORTXH de Padua de 2001. À cette occasion, la tâche de traiter l’aspect linguistique IXWFRQILpHj5GLJHU6FKPLWWVRXVOHWLWUH©'LH6SUDFKHGHU0HGHU–HLQH JURVVH8QEHNDQQWHª Pour l’RFFDVLRQ 6FKPLWW – qui avait déjà traité l’argument à plusieurs UHSULVHVVRXOHYDEHDXFRXSGHGRXWHVTXHMHUpVXPHUDLEULqYHPHQWLFL  Les dénominations ‘Mède’ et ‘Perse’ dans la tradition ancienne implL quent souvent une sorte de relation ‘paraV\QRnymique’ (PHKURGHUZH QLJHUJOHLFKEHGHXWHQG), et conséquemment l’apparition de l’un ou l’autre GHVGHX[WHUPHVHQFRQQHFWLRQDYHFXQDQWKURSRQ\PHQHSHUPHWSDV GHMXJHUVLXQWHODQWKURSRQ\PHDSSDUWLHQWjXQHODQJXHGpWHUPLQpH  OHV DQWKURSRQ\PHVWRSRQ\PHV DWWHVWpV GDQV OD GRFXPHQWDWLRQ DVV\ ULHQQH SUpVHQWHQW VRXYHQW XQH LQWHUSUpWDWLRQ GRXWHXVH SULQFLSDOH PHQW SRXU OD QDWXUH V\OODELTXH GHV JUDSKLHV DX[TXHOOHV LOV VRQW DGDS WpV  OD ODQJXH GHV LQVFULSWLRQV DFKpPpQLGHV HVW XQH .XQVWVSUDFKH TXL FRQ WLent des archaïsmes et des stratifications dialectales d’analyse diffL FLOH  les variantes graphiques d’anthroponymes dans les tablettes élamites (‘mède’ ~ ‘vieuxperse’, selon la tradition iranisante) n’ont pas de vD OHXUSUREDWRLUHFDUjODGLIIpUHQFHGHVLQVFULSWLRQVUR\DOHVGHODG\QDV

 6FKPLWW  6FKPLWWS­FHWHQGURLW QGHODPrPHSDJH 6FKPLWWSRXUDSSX\HU son raisonnement, cite Tuplin 1994, mais à vrai dire l’argument central de cette recherche (relative à l’emploi de ces dénominations dans la littératurH JUHFTXH FODVVLTXH HVWTXH©it would be misleading to suggest that ‘Mede’ was an unrestriF tedly available alternative for ‘Persian’ª 7XSOLQS   LELG  6FKPLWWS

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462

Adriano V. Rossi

tie achéménide, ce n’est que rarement que l’on peut prouver que les aO ORJUDSKHVGHVWDEOHWWHVVHUpIqUHQWDXPrPHLQGLYLGX

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« … how Median the Medes were » ?

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JURV») peut être considérée comme l’un des meilleurs jugements syQ thétiques sur l’entière question.   L’‘impulsion’ à l’usage de l’écriture cunéiforme ($QUHJXQJ]XP*HEUDXFK XQGJHJHEHQHQIDOOV]XU6FKDIIXQJ HLQHU6FKULIW –et l’expérience corrélD tive, indispensable pour la constitution d’archives écrites –VHUDLWVHORQ Schmitt un élément d’héritage mède (‘mèdoLUDQLHQ’ selon la terminR ORJLHTXHMHSURSRVH dans l’organisation de l’état achéménide, ce qui VHUDLWSURXYpSDUOHIDLWTXHODFUpDWLRQOLQJXLVWLTXHjODEDVHGXWHUPH YLHX[perse pour ‘écrire’ (nipišta VHUDLWXQHPSUXQWPqGHHQYLHX[ SHUVH FHX[TXLRQWLQYHQWpFHWWHWHFKQRORJLHHQDXUDLHQWLPDJLQpDXVVL la désignation correspondante). Mais la reconstruction d’une base *ni pai avec référence à l’écriture peut bien sûr démontrer qu’un peuple iranophone qui connaissait la technologie de l’écriture a produit à une FHUWDLQHpSRTXHXQHFHUWDLQHPpWDSKRUHVXUODEDVHGHVPDWpULHOVOLQ JXLVWLTXHVGRQWLOGLVSRVDLWPDLVULHQGHSOXVTXHFHODGHPrPHTXHOHV pW\PRORJLHVGHODWVFULEHUHet de gr. γραφεῖνQHGpPRQWUHQWULHQTXDQW à l’antiquité et la localisation des procédés d’écriture adoptés par les FXOWXUHV ODWLQRSKRQHV HW JUpFRSKRQHV TXL HPSOR\DLHQW FHV WHUPHV j l’époque classique. Même si l’on considère *nipai QRQVHXOHPHQWLUD QLHQPDLVVSpFLILTXHPHQWPqGRLUDQLHQ, on n’aura jamais de cette ét\ PRORJLHODSUHXYHTXHOHVFUpDWHXUVGHODWHFKQRORJie de l’écriture aS pliquée aux langues de l’Iran de nordRXHVW pWDLHQW GHV 0qGHV LUDQR SKRQHVDXVHQVHWKQROLQJXLVWLTXHGXWHUPH  Schmitt souligne que la Médie aurait profité d’une position particulière GDQVODKLpUDUFKLHSROLWLTXHDFKpPpQLGHHWFHODdériverait d’une supp ULRULWpFXOWXUHOOHjFDXVHGHODTXHOOHOHV0qGHVDXUDLHQWSURIRQGpPHQW LQIOXHQFp OHV 3HUVHV &RQVpTXHPPHQW FRPPH OHV HPSUXQWV OLQJXLV WLTXHV PHXYHQW GHV ODQJXHV SOXV SUHVWLJLHXVHV YHUV OHV ODQJXHV PRLQV SUHVWLJLHXVHV OHV HPSUXQWV GX QLYHDX VXSpULHXU GX OH[LTXH YLHX[  6FKPLWWS  Désormais, j’écrirai ici ‘mèdoiranien’ en me référant aux éléments que la majorité Ges auteurs appelle ‘mède’ (= mède de langue iranienne), pour les mêmes raisons SRXU OHVTXHOOHV .HOOHQV  S   VH UpIqUH j GHV ©3HUVHV LUDQLHQVª FI SDU exemple D′jakonov 1956, p. 373 ©LUDQVNLH PLGLMVNLH LPHQDª QRPV PqGHV LUD QLHQV   6FKPLWWS  6FKPLWWSGpMj0H\HUSYRLUFLGHVVRXV  L’ethnolinguistique moderne ne partage pas nécessairement cette affirmation, cf. 3RWWV  S  Q  LQ ILQH HW 5RVVL  FRO  ©% $UFKHU >@ HPSKDVLVHV

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perse (hiérarchies de l’état, termes militaires etc.) ne peuvent être que ‘mèdoLUDQLHQV’. Mais nonobstant l’affirmation d’Eduard MeyerTXHOHV Mèdes profiteraient d’une position particulière soit dans les listes dahyāvaVRLWGDQVODKLpUDUFKLHLPSpULDOHDFKpPpQLGHQRXVVDYRQVTXH la position de la Médie dans les listes varie considérablement, et il n’y a SDV GH FRQVHQVXV VXU OD YDOHXU GH FHWWH YDULDQFH -H SUpIqUH FRQFOXUH DYHF%ULDQWTXH©FHVOLVWHVQHSDUDLVVHQWGRQFSDVGHYRLUrWUHFRQVL dérées comme une image réaliste de l’état des possessions impérialesª  –'DQV OD UHFRQVWUXFWLRQ GH 6FKPLWW QRXV UHFRQQDLVVRQV EHDXFRXS d’arguments traditionnels de la discussion sur la ‘question mède’ à mi FKHPLQ HQWUH KLVWRLUH OLQJXLVWLTXH HW UHFRQVWUXFWLRQ HWKQRKLVWRULTXH HW SDUWLFXOLqUHPHQW OD SHUVLVWDQFH GH OD FRQYLFWLRQ qu’entre ethnicité et ODQJXHHWHQWUHSURFHVVXVRQRPDVWLTXHVHWKQLFLWpHWYDULDWLRQOLQJXLVWLTXH GRLWH[LVWHUXQHFRUUpODWLRQGLUHFWH Lors du ‘GershevitchDay’ de Ravenna (en 2003), j’évoquai l’atmosphère de l’Université de Londres au début des annéesTXDQGOHVVDYDQWVTXL travaillaient avec Henning étaient en train d’élaborer les implications de la notion de ‘linguistically Median’, considérée du point de vue de la dialectR ORJLHGHVODQJXHVLUDQLHQQHVPRGHUQHV +HQQLQJ OXLmême s’était profondpPHQW LQWpUHVVp DX[ GLDOHFWHV LUD QLHQVPRGHUQHV GX QRUGouest de l’Iran, et Ehsan Yarshater les étudia en KRZ VWURQJO\ PXOWLOLQJXDO DFTXLVLWLRQ LV FRQQQHFWHG WR QHFHVVLW\ >@ DQG YDULHW\ [...] more than to an abstract ‘prestige’ conceptª   0H\HUS©QHKPHQGLH0HGHU LP5HLFKGLHQlFKVWH6WHOOXQJQDFKGHQ Persern ein. ‘Persien, Medien unG GLH DQGHUHQ /änder’ nennt Darius sein Reich, ‘König von Persien und Medien’ heißt Xerxes in Babylonª 6HORQ 0H\HU ©OHEW >0HGLD@ZHLWHU>@XPJHZDQGHOWLQGDV3HUVHUUHLFK>@GHQ)HUQHUVWHKHQGHQNDP GLH LQQHUH 8PZlO]XQJ JHJHQEHU GHP )RUWEHVWHKHQ HLQHV PlFKWLJHQ LUDQLVFKHQ 5HLFKV NDXP ]XP %HZX‰WVHLQ GDKHU KDEHQ GLH *ULHFKHQ ZLH DQGHUH 9|ONHU GHQ 0HGHUQDPHQDXIGDV3HUVHUUHLFKEHUWUDJHQª 0H\HU S L’affirmation HVWsouvent répétée même aujourd’hui, FIHJ©,QWKH$FKDHPHQLGHPSLUH0HGLD UHWDLQHG LWV SUHYLOHJHG SRVLWLRQ RFFXS\LQJ WKH VHFRQG SODFH DIWHU 3HUVLD LWVHOIª 'DQGDPD\HY 0HGYHGVND\DS ©'DQVOHVOLVWHVLPSpULDOHVOHV0qGHV RX OD 0pGLH  VRQW WRXMRXUV QRPPpV HQ SUHPLqUH SRVLWLRQ VRLW HQ VHFRQGH DSUqV TXHOHV3HUVHVDLHQWpWpFLWpVª 7RXURYHWVS   %ULDQWS6XUOHVFRQWUDGLFWLRQVFRQWHQXHVGDQVOHVOLVWHVYRLU&DOPH\HU HWVXUOHVUHODWLRQVHQWUH0qGHVHW$FKpPpQLGHVOHVREVHUYDWLRQVGH.HO OHQVS  5RVVLSVV

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GpWDLOGDQVVDGLVVHUWDWLRQGRFWRUDOH&HGHUQLHUDIILUPDcontre l’usage de l’époque d’appeler ‘tati’ tous les dialectes iraniens du nordRXHVW – TX’ils étaient les vrais descendants des ‘Median dialects’ de l’époque (pré DFKp PpQLGH. Dans ses études successives, Yarshater a démontré qu’on avait supposé erronément que les dialectes iraniens d’Azerbaïdjan représeQ WDLHQW XQH LPPLJUDWLRQ UpFHQWH d’autres régions iranophones. Au coQ WUDLUH LOV pWDLHQW OHV GHVFHQGDQWV DXWKHQWLTXHV GHV GLDOHFWHV SDUOpV DX QRUGouest à l’époque ancienne  –,O\D*HUVKHYLWFKTXLpWDLWUDSSRUWHXUGRFWRUDOGH@HVWFRPPXQjSUHVTXHWRXVOHVGLDOHFWHVLUDQLHQVªSRXUODPrPHUDL VRQ ©LO HVW LPSRVVLEOH GH SURXYHU TXH IDUQDK VRLW XQ PRW RULJLQHOOHPHQW PqGHHWDIRUWLRULTXHFHVRLWXQPRWFRQWHQDQWXQHLVRJORVVHH[FOXVLYHPHQW PqGHª /D FRQFOXVLRQ GH *UDQWRYVNLM HVW VHPEODEOH©PQRJLH MDNRE\ ‘midijskie’ fonetičeskie čerty ne svojstvenny sovrHPHQQ\PGLDOHNWDPUDV SURVWUDQHQQ\P QD WHUULWRULL GUHYQHM 0LGLL ]DWR [DUDNWHUQ\ GOMD GLDOHNWRY )DUVD GUHYQHM3HUVLG\ ª(beaucoup de traits phonétiques ‘mèdes’ ne sont SDV SURSUHV DX[ GLDOHFWHV FRQWHPSRUDLQV TXL VRQW UpSDQGXV VXU OHV WHUUL toires de l’anFLHQQH0pGLHPDLVVRQWFDUDFWpULVWLTXHVSRXUOHVGLDOHFWHVGX Fârs [l’ancienne Perside]).  –7RXW FHOD QRXV UDPqQH DX[ LPSOLFDWLRQVH[WUDOLQJXLVWLTXHV GH OD TXHV WLRQ /H PRWLI SULQFLSDO SRXU OHTXHO QRXV DWWULEXRQV DX PqGRLUDQLHQ GHV PRWVTXLSRXUUDLHQt appartenir à n’importe quel dialecte iranien est qu’ils ©apparaissent dans des formules officielles, stéréotypées, qui [...] n’ont pu être empruntées par les Perses qu’aux Mèdesª  5pIpUHQFHVFKH]5RVVLS  6NM UY¡S WHUPHPLVHQJUDVSDUPHVVRLQV YRLUGpMj/HFRTD S©lorsque nous appelons mède un fait non perse, ce n’est presque jamais une FHUWLWXGHWRXWDXSOXVXQHIRUWHSUREDELOLWp: certains mots peuvent venir d’autres GLDOHFWHVGRQWQRXVLJQRURQVWRXWªHW$EDHYLGHP YRLUQQHWFL GHVVXV   *UDQWRYVNLMSSOXVDPSOHPHQWSVV  /HFRTS9RLUDXVVLLGHPS©Nous n’avons aucun moyen direct pour identifier l’origine de ce vocabulaire, mais nous savons qu’il appartient à une DXWUHODQJXHLUDQLHQQH2QSHXWOpJLWLPHPHQWVXSSRVHUTXHFHWWHODQJXHLUDQLHQQH GHYDLWDYRLUXQSUHVWLJHVXIILVDQWSRXUDPHQHUOHV3HUVHVjOXLIDLUHGHVHPSUXQWV /D ODQJXH PqGH HVW OD VHXOH GDQV FHWWH UpJLRQ TXL DLW SX H[HUFHU XQ WHO DVFHQ GDQWª

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(GXDUG0H\HUGDQVVD*HVFKLFKWHGHV$OWHUWXPVDMHWpOHVIRQGHPHQWVGH l’historiographie ancienne, à une époque où il y avait des difficultés à se GpEDUUDVVHUGXVWpUpRW\SHGHVTXDWUHUR\DXPHVGX/LYUHGH'DQLHO  27). L’aversion de Meyer pour l’idée de la ‘succeV sion des empires’ est manLIHVWH VXUWRXW GDQV OHV SDJHV ILQDOHV GH l’introduction méthodologique à sa *HVFKLFKWH Mais malgré l’autorité de Meyer, l’idée de la ‘succession des empires’ est restée bien active dans l’historiographie du dixQHXYLqPH VLqFOH HW RQ HQ GpFRXYUH HQFRUH OHV traces aujourd’hui. C’est àUDLVRQTXH-RVHI:LHVHK|IHUDVRXOLJQpOHSHUVLV WDQW SUpMugé qui consiste à attribuer l’idée d’une succession d’empires mondiaux (Assyrie, Médie, Perse) à la vision achéménide ‘officielle’ de l’histoire du monde et à la npFHVVLWpTXHFHWWHG\QDVWLHDXUDLWHXGHVHMXVWL fier en tant qu’héritier légitime des ‘empires’ qui la précédaient 0DULR /LYHUDQLpFULWjFHSURSRV (YHQ EHIRUH WKH UHGLVFRYHU\ EHJLQQLQJ LQ WKH PLGQLQHWHHQWK FHQWXU\  RI WKH $VV\ULDQ DQG %DE\ORQLDQ HPSLUHV DWWHQWLYH WUDYHOHUV LQ WKH 1HDU (DVW KDGEHHQLPSUHVVHGE\WKHYLVLEOHUXLQVRIODUJHFLWLHVDQGPDJQLILFHQWPR QXPHQWV SODFHG ZLWKLQ D GHVHUWHG DQG GHFD\HG ODQGVFDSH 0HGLWDWLRQV RQ DQFLHQWUXLQV–WKHLURULJLQWKHLUQDWXUHWKHLUPHVVDJH–EHFDPHDQLPSRU WDQW IDFWRU LQ VKDSLQJ SKLORVRSKLHV RI KLVWRU\ LQ WKH HLJKWHHQWK DQG QLQH WHHQWKFHQWXULHV0RVWRIWKHWUDYHOHUVZHUHFRQWHQWZLWKDGRSWLQJWKHDQ cient explanation purveyed by the Bible: namely that god’s will had wrecked WKHDQFLHQWHPSLUHVRI$VV\ULDDQG%DE\ORQLDLQYHQJHDQFHIRUWKHLURSSUHV sion of Israel […]. The idea of a "structurDORUQDWXUDOVHTXHQFHRIHPSLUHV –ZLWKHDFKRQHDULVLQJIURPWKHUXLQVRILWVSUHGHFHVVRU–ZDVDOVRDYDLODEOH LQWKHERRNRI'DQLHORULQLWVUHZRUNLQJE\ODWHUFODVVLFDOKLVWRULDQV 

(W GX PRPHQW TXH VHORQ OHV VRXUFHV JUHFTXHV HW OD %LEOH OHV 3HUVHV DX raient hérité des Mèdes état, religion et culture, voilà qu’on a dû imaginer un état mède symétrique à l’état achéménide, et justifier avec des argX PHQWVWRXMRXUVFKDQJHDQWVOHVODFXQHVGHODGRFXPHQWDWLRQOHKDVDUGGHV  0H\HU  S  ©,P $OWHUWXP VHOEVW KDW GLHVH $XIIDVVXQJ YLHOIDFKH MD VRJDUYRUZLHJHQGH9HUWUHWXQJJHIXQGHQ6FKRQGHU$QRUGQXQJ+HURGRWVOLHJWVLH ]X *UXQGH V\VWHPDWLVFKHU WULWW VLH GDQQ YRU DOOHP EHL (SKRURV 3RO\ELRV 3RVLGRQLRVKHUYRU>@(EHQVRKDWHVLQGHU1HX]HLWDXFKQDFKGHPGDVEHUOLHIHUWH 6FKHPD GHU &KURQLNHQ XQG GHU YLHU :HOWUHLFKH 'DQLHOV DEJHVWUHLIW ZDU DQ GHQ GHUDUWLJHQ9HUVXFKHQQLFKWJHIHKOWª  :LHVHK|IHUSS9RLUUpFHPPHQW=RXUQDW]LS  ©7KHWKUHHNLQJGRPVHTXHQFHDVD3HUVLDQVFKHPHª   /LYHUDQLS

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GpFRXYHUWHV DUFKpRORJLTXHV H[SOLTXHUDLW OD TXDVLWRWDOH DEVHQFH GH SDODLV HW WHPSOHV"  PqGHV GH OD FDSLWDOH HW DLOOHXUV OD VXSHUVWUDWLILFDWLRQ d’Ecbatane ancienne par Hamadan moderne aurait causé la disparitionGH OD FDSLWDOH PqGH; on n’aurait pas trouvé de documentation écrite pURYH nant des archives de l’état mède, soit parce que détruite avec les palais, soit parce que, avant Darius, l’écriture n’existait pas encoreHWFHWHUD  –-H QH YHX[ SDV LFL UHSUHQGUH HQ VRXVœuvre la question des ‘palais mèdes’ et de la prétendue ‘archéologie des Mèdes’, qui reste en tout cas une question des plus élusives de l’Iran de l’âge du fer+HXUHXVHPHQWWDQGLV qu’il y a trente ans seulement les positions ‘minimalistes’ quant à l’existence d’un véritable ‘état mède’ dans la phase du fer I,,DXQRUGRXHVW de l’Iran –EDVpHVRXQRQVXUOHVVXSSRVpVHPSUXQWVPqGHVGHWHUPHVLQVWL WXWLRQQHOVGDQVOHVLQVFULSWLRQVYLHX[SHUVHVpWDLHQWSOXW{WLVROpHVDSUqV les conférences de Groningen, sous l’impulsion méritoire de Heleen SancL VL:HHUGHQEXUJQRXVDYRQVDVVLVWpjXQHFURLVVDQFHSURJUHVVLYHGHVPD QLIHVWDWLRQVFULWLTXHV, et la discussion a commencé à s’affranchir des aQ FLHQVSUpMXJpVTXLQHUHPRQWHQWULHQPRLQVqu’à Hérodote et à la Bible.  L’activité archéologique dans le centre de la Médie KLVWRULTXHDpWpSDU WLFXOLqUHPHQWLQWHQVLYHjSDUWLUGHVDQQpHVDYHFOHVIRXLOOHVGH*RGLQ Tepe, Tepe Nuše Jān et Tepe Bābā Jān.  À Tepe Nuše Jān, on a retrouvé le plus important ensemble attribué à la ‘période mède’ dans les Zagros centraux. David 6WURQDFK HW 0LFKDHO 5RDI ont plusieurs fois confirmé qu’ils avaient choisi le site justement SRXUpWDEOLUXQHFRUUpODWLRQHQWUHOHVPDLJUHVLQIRUPDWLRQVGLVSRQLEOHVDX milieu des années 1970 et les données qu’aurait pû fournir une fouille bien  *HQLWR0XVFDUHOOD  5RVVL  S  VV  VV *HQLWR  SOXV UpFHPPHQW j FRQVXOWHU SRXU l’histoire de la question) LGHP5RVVL  6DQFLVL:HHUGHQEXUJ PDLVFI/LYHUDQLSQ©7KHFULWLFLVP E\6DQFLVL:HHUGHQEXUJVHHPVXQFRQYLQFLQJWRPHª   +HOP%URZQ LGHP LGHP 0DOHN]DGHK.LHQDVW 5ROOLQJHULGHPLGHP0HGYHGVND\D,PDQSRXU/LYH UDQL  LGHP  :LHVHK|IHU  +HQNHOPDQ  5ROOLQJHU j SDUDvWUH 2Q HVW SOXW{W pWRQné par la pointilleuse défense des positions de D′jakonov 1956 sur l’envergure de grande puissance de l’‘état’ des Mèdes dans la longue 3UHGLVORYLHTXH 657R[WDVHYHW9$-DNREVRQRQWIDLWSUpFpGHUjODQRXYHOOHpGLWLRQUXVVH 6DQNW 3HWHUEXUJ   GH ,VWRULMD 0LGLL, où l’on est frappé par le fait que Sancisi :HHUGHQEXUJHW5ROOLQJHUVRQWSUpVHQWpVFRPPHGHVH[WUpPLVWHVLVROpV  6WURQDFK 5RDIS

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ORFDOLVpH HW ELHQ VWUDWLILpH GDQV OH FHQWUH GH OD 0pGLH KLVWRULTXH 0DLV TXDQGTXDUDQWHDQVDSUqVOHVGHX[VDYDQWVRQWHVVD\pXQHpYDOXDWLRQGH ce qu’ils avaient découvert en relation avec la reconstruction historique de OD 0pGLH GX SUHPLHU PLOOpQDLUH DYDQW QRWUH qUH LOV RQW KRQQrWHPHQW UH connu que, même si l’on désirerait  WR>@DVVRFLDWHWKHPDMRUEXLOGLQJHYHQWVDW7HSH1XVKL-DQZLWKHYHQWVLQ 0HGLDQKLVWRU\WROLQNWKHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRIWKHVLWH>@ZLWKDSRVVLEOHXQL ILFDWLRQRI0HGLDRUWRFRQQHFWWKHODWHUFORVXUHRILQGLYLGXDOEXLOGLQJVZLWK an eventual centralisation of authority in the Median capital, Ecbatana […] WKH WUXWK >@ LV KRZHYHU WKDW WKH GDWH DQG HYHQ WKH KLVWRULFLW\ RI VXFK ‘events’ is still in dispute

/HSOXVDQFLHQGHVEkWLPHQWVjNuše Jān «PD\ZHOOKDYHWDNHQSODFHLQWKH WKFHQWXU\ %&ª les dates du début de l’abandon se situent probablement HQWUHODVHFRQGHPRLWLpGX9,,,HVLqFOHHWOHGpEXWGX9,HDYDQWQRWUHqUH ©WKH GXUDWLRQ RI WKH )LOOLQJ DQG LWV FKURQRORJLFDO UHODWLRQVKLS ZLWK Cyaxares’ successful campaigns in Assyria remain matters for debateª ©>W@KH PDLQ SDUW RI WKH 6TXDWWHU 2FFXSDWLRQ VHHPV WR GDWH WR WKH SRVW $VV\ULDQDQGSUH$FKDHPHQLGSHULRG>@ZLWKWKHHQGRIWKH6TXDWWHU2F FXSDWLRQSRVVLEO\FRLQFLGLQJ>…] with the incorporation of Media into the 3HUVLDQNLQJGRPLQWKHPLGWKFHQWXU\ª 6WURQDFKRoaf ne semblent pas attacher trop d’importance au fait que la ‘Squatter Occupation’ à Nuše Jān coïncide avec la période qui est génp ralement attribuée à l’apogée du ‘Median Empire’, observation qui  KDVEHHQXVHGWRDUJXHDJDLQVWWKHH[LVWHQFHRIDXQLWHG0HGLDQVWDWHDWWKLV SHULRG /LYHUDQL GHVSLWHWKHIDFWWKDWLWLVRIWHQLQDSSURSULDWHWRJHQH ralise from a single excavation and that the major ‘Median’ buildings both at *RGLQ7HSHDQGDW7HSH2]EDNLVHHPWRKDYHEHHQLQXVHDWWKLVWLPH

/DGRFXPHQWDWLRQKLVWRULTXHDMRXWHQWOHVGHX[VDYDQWV VXSSRUWVWKHYLHZWKDWD0HGLDQVWDWHH[HUWHGLQIOXHQFHIURP&HQWUDO$QDWR OLDWRQRUWKHDVW,UDQLQWKHILUVWKDOIRIWKHWKFHQWXU\ %&>@$PRQJVWVXFK LQGLFDWLRQVZHZRXOGQRWHWKHIDPLOLDULW\RI*UHHNV-HZVDQG(J\SWLDQVZLWK WKH0HGHVZKLFKZRXOGEHXQOLNHO\LIWKH\ZHUHQRWLPSRUWDQWDFWRUVRQWKH SROLWLFDOVWDJHEHIRUHWKHULVHRIWKH3HUVLDQVDQGWKHIDFWWKDW&\UXVDIWHUKLV GHIHDWRIWKH0HGHVZDVLQDSRVLWLRQWRDWWDFN/\GLDZLWKRXWDSSDUHQWO\KD  6WURQDFK 5RDIS  6WURQDFK 5RDIS

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YLQJ WR VSHQG WLPH VXEGXLQJ LQGHSHQGHQW VWDWHV EHWZHHQ FHQWUDO ZHVWHUQ ,UDQDQGZHVWHUQ$QDWROLD

0DLV FRPPH OH GLW ELHQ /LYHUDQL OH FDGUH GH UpIpUHQFH TXH GRQQHQW OHV IRXLOOHV HQ Médie ne s’accorde pas avec la reconstruction de l’état mède IRQGpVXUOHVKLVWRULHQVFODVVLTXHV ,WVHHPVFOHDUWKDWWKH%DE\ORQLDQLQIRUPDWLRQRQ0HGLDFDQEHUHDGDVUHIH UHQFHWRDVWDWH QRWWRVD\DQHPSLUH RQO\LIZHUHDGLWRQWKHJXLGHOLQHVRI WKH FODVVLFDO VRXUFHV %XW LI ZH DUH DEOH WR IRUJHW IRU D PRPHQW VXFK D SUH FRQFHLYHG RSLQLRQ WKH %DE\ORQLDQ VRXUFHV FDQ PXFK EHWWHU GHVFULEH WKH LPDJHRIDGHVWUXFWLYHDQGDQXQWDPDEOHIRUFHZLWKDUDWKHUORRVHXQLI\LQJ OHDGHUVKLS

(QFRUH XQH IRLV GRQF DYHF XQ UDLVRQQHPHQW FLUFXODLUH RQ LQWHUSUqWH l’évidence archéologique justement à travers les mêmes sources écrites – pOXVLYHV – pour lesquelles l’archéologie serait le seul moyen de confirmD WLRQ  –J’ai rappelé ailleurs TXH OD Up LQWURGXFWLRQ GDQV OH GLVFRXUV LUDQROR JLTXH de la ‘langue mède’ considérée comme une langue réelle que l’on SRXYDLWFRQIURQWHUDX[DXWUHVODQJXHVLUDQLHQQHV –IXWVXJJpUpHSDU%HQ veniste, sous l’influence des récentes LQWHUSUpWDWLRQV GHV SDVVDJHV GHV FKURQLTXHV QpRDVV\ULHQQHV GDQV OHVTXHOOHV 0DGD WRSRQ\PH HWKQRQ\PH    

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HW pSLWKqWH HWKQRtribal) paraissait s’adapter parfaitement au rôle provL dentiel qu’Hérodote et la Bible avaient assigné aux Mèdes.  Une série d’éléments soutenait apparemment une reconstruction hiV WRULTXHdans laquelle ‘Mèdes’ et Perses étaient des IndoHXURSpHQV GXIDLW TXHEHDXFRXSGHOHXUVDQWKURSRQ\PHVpWDLHQWLQGRHXURSpHQV SUREDEOH PHQWpWDEOLVVXUOHSODWHDXLUDQLHQYHUVODSUHPLqUHPRLWLpGXSUHPLHUPLO OpQDLUH DY QRWUH qUH &HWWH GDWDWLRQ pWDLW QpFHVVDLUH SRXU VLWXHU l’iranisation du plateau dans le cadre chronologique des migrations indo européennes tel qu’il était conçu dans les années 1930, c’estjGLUH j l’époque de l’irruption sur la scène de la linguistique indoHXURSpHQQHGH ODGRFXPHQWDWLRn ‘aryenne’ de Mitanni: à l’époque, on imaginait une mL JUDWLRQVXUODURXWH&DXFDVXV–,UDQQRUGRFFLGHQWDOMXVWHPHQWjWUDYHUVOD 0pGLHFHTXLH[SOLTXHOHVSULQFLSHVLQVSLUDWHXUVGHVIRXLOOHVGH*KLUVKPDQ j7HSH6LDONHWVRQLQWHUSUpWDWLRQGHV&LPHWLqUHV$HW% /H IDLW TXH OHV SOXV DQFLHQV GRFXPHQWV QpRDVV\ULHQV PHQWLRQQDLHQW VHXOHPHQW GHV SHXSOHV0DGD HW GHV UpJLRQV0DGD HW QRQ SDV GHV SHXSOHV Pā a HW GHV UpJLRQVPā a VHPEODLW FRQFRUGHU DYHF OHV GRQQpHV GH l’historiographie grecque qui projetaient un pouvoir mède en forme d’état sur la période précédant immédiatement l’établissement de l’état achémp nide. Les Assyriens auraient connu d’abord le complexe ethnoOLQJXLVWLTXH ‘mède’ (TXRLTXHFHWHUPHFRPSUHQQH HWVHXOHPHQWSOXVWDUGjSDUWLUGX DYQqOHVSUpFXUVHXUVGHV3HUVHVDFKpPpQLGHV  6XU0LWDQQLFIGpMj0H\HUS 1DFKVFKULIW, qu’il avait justement ajouté pour rectifier la datation qu’il avait donnée dans l’article du peuplement du nord RXHVW GH l’Iran © VR P|FKWH LFK HV GRFK QLFKW PHKU DOV VR VLFKHU KLQVWHOOHQ ZLH REHQ6GD‰VLHKLHUOlQJHUH=HLWJHVHVVHQKDEHQPVVHQªLELGS 6XUFHV TXHVWLRQVYRLUUpFHPPHQW)XVVPDQSHWQVHORQ'LDNRQRIIS  © WKH SRVVLEility cannot be excluded that the ‘Mitannian Aryans’ themselves were those ‘Western’ Iranian tribesª  &I*KLUVKPDQSVV5HPDUTXHVFULWLTXHVFKH]%ULDQWS  ,O\DPDLQWHQDQWXQFHUWDLQFRQVHQVXV V€UHPHQWSOXVJUDQGSDUUDSSRUWDXPR PHQW R pFULYDLW %ULDQW  S  ©/D SUpVHQFH GH SOXVLHXUV SD\V GH ©3HUVHª 3DUVXDK 3DUVXPDVK  DX QRUG HW DX VXG GX =DJURV j GLIIpUHQWHV pSRTXHV IDLW SUR blème, mais aucune des solutions proposées ne fait l’unanimitéª VXUOHIDLWTXHOD SOXVDQFLHQQHPHQWLRQGHPā aGDQVOHVWH[WHVDVV\ULHQVHVWFHOOHGHODKXLWLqPH FDPSDJQHGH6HQQDFKHULE©NXU3DUVXaš, which is juxtaposed with Anšan in the aF count of Sennacherib’s eighth campaign (691 B.C.), is the earliest mention of Persis VHH'LDNRQRII DQGKDVQRWKLQJWRGRZLWK3DUVXDLQWKH=DJURVª=DGRN SQ6XUODSUpWHQGXHVRXPLVVLRQGHV3HUVHVDX[0qGHVYRLU:DWHUV :LHVHK|IHUS ©7KHWHPSRUDU\GHSHQGHQF\RIWKH3HUVLDQVRQWKH 0HGLDQVZKLFKKDVEHHQSURSRXQGHGE\*UHHNWUDGLWLRQ +HURGRWXV LVQRW

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Le dilemme sur l’invention du cunéiforme vieuxSHUVH KpULWDJHPqGH" FUpDWLRQDFKpPpQLGH" QDvWjSHXSUqVGHVPrPHVJpQpUDWLRQVGHVDYDQWV DFWLYHVGDQVODSUHPLqUHPRLWLpGX;;HVLqFOHVLOHV$VV\ULHQVDYDLHQWUHQ contré les Mèdes les premiers, l’hypothétique écriture mède (les Mèdes devaient bien sûr en avoir une, en tant que bâtisseurs de ‘grands états bX reaucratiques’  VHUDLW VDQV GRXWH LQVSLUpH GX FXQpLIRUPH DVV\ULHQ HW VHXOHPHQWDGDSWpHHQVXLWHjODIL[DWLRQGXYLHX[SHUVH  –I.M. D′jakonov, qui vers la moitié du XXHVLqFOHpWXGLDjQRXYHDXWRXWH ODGRFXPHQWDWLRQGLVSRQLEOHVXUODTXHVWLRQPqGHDYDLWSOXVLHXUVIRLVPLV en garde sur l’usage de données archéologiques pour les recRQVWUXFWLRQV HWKQRWULEDOHV 7RXWHIRLV7&OHVODQJXHVQRQLUDQLHQQHVGHOD0pGLHQRXVOHVDSSHOOHURQVSRXUOHVGLVWLQ guer, ‘caspiennes’]).  &I5RVVLSVV  'LDNRQRIIS©&RXOGLWQRWEHSUHVXPHGWKDWLQVSLWHRIDOO0HGLDQWULEHV VSHDNLQJ,UDQLDQRQO\RQHWUDFHGLWVRULJLQWRWKHLPPLJUDQW$U\DZKLOHWKHUHVW ZHUH UHJDUGHG DV EHLQJ DXWRFKWKRQRXV HYHQ WKRXJKIURP WLPH LPPHPRULDO WKH\ KDGORVWWKHLURULJLQDOODQJXDJHDQGKDGDPDOJDPDWHGZLWKWKH$U\D"ª WHUPHPLV en italique par D′jakonov).  3DUSROD

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HQ FRPPXQDXWpV PXOWLOLQJXHV DYHF OHV KDELWDQWV RULJLQDLUHV QRQ LUDQRSKRQHV pWDLHQWSHXWrWUH–HQSDUWLHDXPRLQV–GHVSDUODQWVGXPq GRLUDQLHQHQWUDLQ GHSUHQGUH OHSRXYRLU GDQV OHV WHUULWRLUHV GHV VLWHVGH SHXSOHPHQW DX[TXHOV VHPEOHQW VH UpIpUHU OHV WRSRQ\PHV QRQLQGR européens des régions de la Médie historique dont l’onomastique est anD O\VpHSDUZadok. Zadok souligne aussi que le pourcentage d’anthroponymes attribuables à l’iranien dans la documentation assyrienne dans la période Tu’il examine est relativement haut dans la Médie orientale, et décroît à l’ouest jusqu’à devenir négligeable vers Ellipi; on pourrait en conclure qu’à cette époque l’iranisation linguistique de la Médie (orientale), au moins celle qu’on peut déduire des nRPV SURSUHV HW GH OLHX pWDLW GpMj SOXW{W avancée, mais l’on peut exclure que ces phénomènes pouvaient être peU FHSWLEOHVSDUOHVREVHUYDWHXUVDVV\ULHQV  –D′jakonov affirme que dans la recherche des présomptions sur les FUR\DQFHVUHOLJLHXVHVdans l’,UDQGXQRUGRXHVWDXSUHPLHUPLOOpQDLUHDY Qq RQGRLWVHOLPLWHU j   GHV QRWLFHV GLUHFWHV FRQWHQXHV GDQV OHVWH[WHV DVV\ULHQV   GHV pOpPHQWV LFRQRJUDSKLTXHV GLUHFWV RX LQGLUHFWV   GHV pOpPHQWV WKpRSKRUHVLGpRORJLTXHV FRQWHQXV GDQV OHV QRPV SURSUHV $X jourd’hui nous pouvons peutrWUH DXMRXWHU   TXHOTXHV UHQVHLJQHPHQWV XOWpULHXUV SURYHQDQW GH OD UHFKHUFKH DUFKpRORJLTXH DYHF WRXWHV OHV SUX GHQFHVTXLpPDQHQW–comme l’a dit tout récemment StronachGX©ODFN RI FHUWDLQW\ LQ RXU NQRZOHGJH RI WKH ORFDWLRQ RI DQFLHQW 0HGLDª 'DQV OD VXLWHRQDERUGHUDEULqYHPHQWODTXHVWLRQVRXVOHVWURLVDVSHFWVHQSDUWDQW d’une thèse découlant de tout ce qu’on a dit jusqu’ici, c’estjGLUH TXH  5HOLJLL0LGLL0DJLest le titre du §3 du chapitre VI dans D′jakonov 1956, p. 371 6RFLHW\FXOWXUHDQGUHOLJLRQRI0HGLDest le titre du §3 dans D′jakonov 1985, p. 139 où à la p. 139 on trouve l’affirmation suivante©7KHPRVWLQWHUHVWLQJDQGFRQWUR YHUVLDOFXOWXUDODQGKLVWRULFDO SUREOHPWXUQLQJRQ0HGLDLVWKDWRILWV UHOLJLRQ RU UHOLJLRQVª WHUPHVPLVHQJUDVSDUPHVVRLQV /DVHXOHDXWUHpWXGHH[SOLFLWHPHQW dédiée à la religiosité ‘mède’ (qu’on entend comme mèdoLUDQLHQQH HVWOHFKDSLWUH 7KHSUH=RURDVWULDQ5HOLJLRQRIWKH0HGHVDQG3HUVLDQV %R\FHS TXLVH WHUPLQHSDUODVXJJHVWLRQVXLYDQWH©The surviving evidence […] suggests that the UHOLJLRQRIWKHDQFLHQW0HGHVDQG3HUVLDQVZDVHVVHQWLDOO\WKHVDPHDVWKDWRIWKH ancient ‘Avestan’ peopleª S 'DQGDPD\HY/XNRQLQS ,†(7KH FXOWXUH RI WKH 0HGHV  FRQWLHQW TXHOTXHV annotations d’iconographie religieuse bD sées sur l’approche de l’‘art des Mèdes’ tel qu’il prévalait dans les années 1980.  ©SRVREVWYHQQ\PLPHQDP» (dans les noms propres) D′jakonov 1956, p. 371, «LQ SHUVRQDOQDPHVª'LDNRQRIIS WHUPHVPLVHQJUDVSDUPHVVRLQV   6WURQDFKS

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FRPPH OHV WHUULWRLUHV VRXV GLVFXVVLRQ pWDLHQW SHXSOpV DX SUHPLHU PLOOp naire av. n.è. d’une manière multiethnique et multilingue, il faut toujours DGPHWWUH OD FRH[LVWHQFH GH GLIIpUHQWHV FUR\DQFHV UHOLJLHXVHV HW PDUFKHU VXUVHVWUDFHV  –Les textes assyriens, d’une manière générale, fournissent surtout une GRFXPHQWDWLRQ H VLOHQWLR FRPPH OH UHPDUTXH 5DGQHU ©WKH $VV\ULDQ VRXUFHVDUHH[WUHPHO\VLOHQWRQWKHUHOLJLRXVEHOLHIVRIWKH0HGHVDQGRWKHU =DJURV SHRSOHVª; on remarquera que l’aUJXPHQW H VLOHQWLR D pWp XWLOLVp pour renforcer l’idée d’une appartenence à la «FRPPRQ,QGR,UDQLDQWUD GLWLRQ» comme l’a fait par exemple Boyce; mais, si l’on considère la Grande Médie dans toute son extension, il n’est pas correct de dire qu’on QH PHQWLRQQH SDV GX WRXW OD FDSWXUH GH VWDWXHV GLYLQHV FI $QQDOHV GH Šamšī$GDG9HLLOO©>0XWDUULṣAššur$95@DINGIR.MEŠšunu >…] išlulaª  5DGQHU VH FDUDFWpULVH SDU XQH LQVLVWDQFH SDUWLFXOLqUH VXU l’‘identité religieuse mède’ («LWLVSRVVLEO\UHOLJLRQWKDWFUHDWHVWKH0HGLDQ LGHQWLW\ª), et il y a en effet quelques traits que l’on peut essayer de rH FRQVWUXLUHPrPHVLVRQHQWKRXVLDVPHDSSDUDvWSDUIRLVH[DJpUp 6L[VWqOHV UR\DOHV IXUHQW pULJpHV GDQV OHV WHUULWRLUHV RULHQWDX[ SDU 7LJODWSLOHVHU ,,,H (Šibara, Tikrakka, BītIštar, Ariarma, ‘Pays des coquelets’ et ŠilḫD]L  WURLV DXPRLQVSDU6DUJRQ,,HHWF6LFHVVWqOHV GRQWGHX[VRQWSHXWrWUHFRQVHU YpHV  TXL UHSUpVHQWDLHQW SUREDEOHPHQW OH URL WRXUQp j GURLWH GDQV OD W\SLTXH DWWLWXGH GH SULqUH QRXV GLVHQW SHX SOXV VLJQLILFDWLYHV QRXV VHP  5DGQHUDS  %R\FHS©7KH0HGHVDQGWKH3HUVLDQVFDQEHVXSSRVHGWRKDYHLQKHULWHG WKH FRPPRQ ,QGR,UDQLDQ WUDGLWLRQ RI ZRUVKLSSLQJ LQ WKH RSHQ DLU RU DW WKH KHDUWKILUHZLWKRXWWHPSOHVLPDJHVRUDOWDUVDQGWKHVXSSRVLWLRQUHFHLYHVQHJD WLYHFRQILUPDWLRQ IURPWKHIDFWWKDWWKH$VV\ULDQVLQUHFRUGLQJWKHLUFDPSDLJQV QHYHU OLVW VSRLOV IURP 0HGLDQ WHPSOHV RU UHFRUG GHVWUR\LQJ RU FDUU\LQJ RII WKH VWDWXHVRI0HGLDQJRGVª WHUPHVPLVHQJUDVSDUPHVVRLQV   Cf. déjà D′jakonov 1956, p. 371, n. 2, où un passage analogue (ll. 39GpWpULRUp  GHV$QQDOHVGH7LJODWSLOHVHU,,,HHVWFLWp  Radner 2003a, p. 64, peu de pages après l’interrogation méthodologique qui rend extrêmement suspect l’emploi de sources assyriennes pour notre thèse ©LW LV unknown how exactly the designation ‘Median’ for regions and peoples is used in WKH $VV\ULDQ VRXUFHV LV LW HWKQLF OLQJXLVWLF UHOLJLRXV HFRQRPLF RU SROLWLFDO"ª LELGS   5DGQHU E S  ©7LJODWKpileser III […] gives D FRQVLGHUDEOHDPRXQWRI LQ IRUPDWLRQDERXWKLVUHOLJLRXVDFWLYLWLHVLQWKHDUHD>VFLOGDQVOH=DJURV$95WHU PHVPLVHQJUDVSDUPHVVRLQV@ª  5DGQHUES

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blent les allusions à l’installation de l’«arme divine d’Aššurª GIŠNDNNL Aššu  GDQV OHV GLIIpUHQWHV ORFDOLWpV GH OD UpJLRQ PqGH VRLW SDU 7LJODW SLOHVHU ,,,H VRLW SDUWLFXOLqUHPHQW SDU 6DUJRQ ,,H FDr dans ce cas l’«DUPH divine d’AššurªpULJpHjḪDUḫDUHVWH[SOLFLWHPHQWJORVpHDQD',1*,5WLšú XQ, c’estjGLUH©FRPPHOHXUGLYLQLWpªHWSHXWSDUFRQVpTXHQWVHUDSSRU ter à l’installation d’un nouveau culte qui supplante le culte local préexiV WDQWGRQWjYUDLGLUHQRXVQHVDYRQVULHQGHSUpFLV8QHYpULWDEOHRIILFLDOL VDWLRQ RX HQ WRXW FDV RIILFLDOLVDWLRQ GH OD FRSDUWLFLSDWLRQ UR\DOH  d’un culte local ‘mède’ est celle relative à une action rituelle du roi à BītIštar VXU ODTXHOOH RQ D OH UHQVHLJQHPHQW VXLYDQW GDQV XQH LQVFULSWLRQ DQQDOLV tique écrite sur l’un des orthostates du Palais de TiglatSLOHVHUj.DOḫX $W WKDW WLPH , PDGH D SRLQWHG LURQ DUURZ PXOPXOOX SDU]LOOL ]DTWX  7KHUHX pon, I inscribed the mighty deeds of Aššur my lord and set it uSLQIURQWRI the “water hole” (namba’u, “seep, water hole”, see CAD N/1 223 VY) of Bīt Ištar

$YHFXQHFHUWDLQHYUDLVHPEODQFH5DGQHUFRQIURQWHOH PXOPXOOXGH7LJODW SLOHVHU j OD SODTXH GH EURQ]H UHSUpVHQWDQW HW PHQWLRQQDQW  XQ FHUWDLQ Šilisruḫ QRP qui n’est ni indoeuropéen ni sémitique) du chef (ou ‘roi’) mède de BītIštar, qu’on peut dater entre 835 et 739 av. n.è., et elle conclut que la combinaison de la mention d’une source où se font les rites des soX verains assyriens avec un chef/souverain ‘mède’ qui accomplit des actes rituels pourrait se référer à un sanctuaire des eaux dédié à Ištar dans une manifestation locale ‘mède’ de la divinité  –/HVpOpPHQWVLFRQRJUDSKLTXHVVRQWDVVH]UpGXLWVHWSDVPRLQVLQFHU WDLQV LOV VH UDPqQHQW HVVHQWLHOOHPHQW DX[ LFRQRJUDSKLHV GHV EURQ]HV GX Luristan, particulièrement les ‘idoles’, connexes à un ‘sanctuaire’ et «DV

 ,ELGSur l’«arme divine d’AššurªRQSHXWYRLU+ROORZD\SDUWLFXOLqUHPHQWS   ©There are no parallels for this practice in the Assyrian texts otherwise […] and 7LJODWKSLOHVHU’s dedication would hence seem more likely to be a tribute paid to ORFDOWUDGLWLRQVª 5DGQHUES   5DGQHUES  ,ELGS  Pour un exemple de l’extrême difficulté dans l’emploi d’éléments iconographiques pour l’identifLFDWLRQGHWUDLWVFXOWXUHOVRQSHXWYRLUODUpFHQWHUHFRQVLGpUDWLRQGX problème de l’armement et de l’habillement prétendu ‘mède’ (Potts 2014, p. 69 

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VXPHG WR EH UHODWHG WR ,UDQLDQ UHOLJLRXV EHOLHI DQG SUDFWLFHª HW GDQV OD UpJLRQ GHV 0DQQpHQV, à des images d’êtres fantastiques sur des REMHFWV PpWDOOLTXHV GH =LZL\HK TXL SHXYHQW UDSSHOHU GHV HPSORLV DQDORJLTXHV d’objects semblables représentés sur les basUHOLHIV DVV\ULHQV FRQWHPSR UDLQV  UHSUpVHQWDQW GHV ULWXHOV HIIHFWXpV SDU GHV rWUHV P\WKRORJLTXHV D′jakonov les considère comme les antécédents des êtres ‘daeviques’ des EDVUHOLHIV DFKpPpQLGHV HQ LQGLTXDQW OHV WUDLWV FRPPXQV DYHF l’iconographie religieuse hurrite et syrienne L’identification que Bivar fait du geste défini ‘Mithraic hold’ dans TXHOTXHV LFRQRJUDSKLHV GH SURYHQDQFH XUDUWpRPpGRpODPLWH HQ WDQW qu’élément ‘médomithriaque’, qui demeurerait dans les images succeV sives d’époque achéménide, ne semble pas avoir été à l’origine de grands LQWpUrWV; l’attribution à l’antiquité ‘mède’ du culte mithriaque est soutenue SDU%LYDUDXVVLVXUGHVEDVHVOLQJXLVWLTXHVVHORQODYLVLRQGHVWUDLWVOLQJXLV tiques ‘médoiraniens’ ici critiquée   0XVFDUHOODS©7KHIUHTXHQF\DQGYDULHW\RIDSSDUHQWFXOWREMHFWVGH SRVLWHGLQEXULDOVDQGIRXQGLQWKHVDQFWXDU\DW6XUNK'XPVHHPWRUHIOHFWDYLJ RURXVVSLULWXDOOLIH(VSHFLDOO\WKHVWUDQJHGHPRQVDQGDQLPDOVGHSLFWHGRQSODTXHV DQGTXLYHUVFUHDWXUHVWKDWVHHPWREHLQYROYHGLQFXOWLFDFWLYLWLHVKDYHEHHQDV VXPHG WR EH UHODWHG WR ,UDQLDQ UHOLJLRXV EHOLHI DQG SUDFWLFHª &I DXVVL 2YHUODHW ©7KHLGROVREYLRXVO\KDGDUHOLJLRXVVLJQLILFDQFHª Avec les doutes d’attribution géographique sur lesquels cf. Calmeyer 1987, p. 567  2QSHXWYRLUSRXUOHGpEDWVXUOHVGLIILFXOWpVdans l’emploi de tels matériels Genito S 'LDNRQRIIS©We shall find them later symbolyzing the ‘dēvas’ on the UHOLHIVRI$FKDHPHQLGNLQJVª &I%LYDUSDUWLFXOLqUHPHQWS &I%LYDUS©0RUHLQIHUHQWLDOQRGRXEWDUHRWKHULQGLFDWLRQVRI0HGLDQ UHOLJLRQ 7KH K\SRWKHVLV WKDW WKH 0LWKUDLVP RI 5RPDQ WLPHV FRXOG KDYH GHULYHG IURPWKH0HGHVLVKDUGO\QHZ,WVPRVWREYLRXVHYLGHQFHFRPHVIURPWKHQDPHRI WKH GHLW\ KLPVHOI ,W LV JHQHUDOO\ DVVXPHG WKDW LWV SUHYDOHQW IRUP 0LWKUD DQG LQ /DWLQ 0LWKUDV H[HPSOLILHV WKH 0HGLDQ GLDOHFW RI :HVWHUQ 2OG ,UDQLDQ %UDQGHQ VWHLQDQG0D\UKRIHUSS DQGWKDWWKHIRUP0LoDIRXQGLQVRPHFRP SRXQGHGSHUVRQDOQDPHVUHSUHVHQWVWKHGLDOHFWRI)DUVWKDWLVWRVD\2OG3HUVLDQ :HVKDOOVHHODWHUWKDWxšaθUDSDWLDQHSLWKHWRI$SROORDWWHVWHGLQWKH$UDPDLFYHU VLRQRIWKHWULOLQJXDOLQVFULSWLRQRI3L[RGDUXVIURP;DQWKRVLQ/\FLDDOVRH[HPSOL ILHVWKLVW\SLFDOO\0HGLDQIHDWXUH:HVKDOODUJXHODWHUWKDWWKLVHSLWKHWZLWKVLPL ODU0HGLDQSKRQHWLFVKDGDQLPSRUWDQWOLQNZLWK0LWKUDLVPDQGLVDQRWKHULQGL FDWLRQRILWV0HGLDQFRQQHFWLRQVª

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–Les conclusions de l’analyse anthroponymique (207 noms) et topon\ PLTXH QRPV GHOD©0HGLDDQGDGMDFHQWUHJLRQVªFRQGXLWHSDU=DGRN VRQW GRQQpHV HQ SRXUFHQWDJH; l’analyse, selon son auteur, «OHDYHV QR GRXEW WKDW *UHDWHU 0HGLD XQGHUZHQW D SURFHVV RI ,UDQL]DWLRQ GXULQJ WKH $VV\ULDQ SHULRGª (Q YDOHXU DEVROXH WRXWHIRLV OD TXDQWLWp JOREDOH GH QRPV GRQW RQ GLVSRVH QH SHUPHW SDV GH IDLUH IDFH DX[ REMHFWLRQV VXU l’exiguïté de valeur probatoire déjà formulées par D′jakonovPrPHVLOHV DQDO\VHVpW\PRORJLTXHVGH6FKPLWWHW=DGRNTXLGLYHUJHQWDXPRLQVGDQV un quart des cas, concordent dans l’attribution de l’iranicité linguistique GDQVSUHVTXHODPRLWLpGXWRWDOGHVDQWKURSRQ\PHV3DUPLHX[QRXVDYRQV GHV pOpPHQWV WKpRSKRUHV WHOV TXH $JQL $JQLfa nā IRQFWLRQQDLUH d’Assurbanipal, 650DYQq  ṚWD  ṚWDVDUDbēlāliGH3DGGLUD DYQq ṚWD ī a, l’un des ‘rois’ de Nairi, Šamši$GDG9 ṚWXNāna SqUH GX bēlāli GH 8ULDNND 6DUJRQ ,,  $KXUD $KXUDfa nā "  bēlāli PqGHGH.DLWDQXDYQq  0D]GDbēlāli PqGHGH.LQJDUDNX DYQqbēlāli PqGHGH$QGLUSDWLDQXDYQqbēlāli PqGHGH$UD tisti/Aratišta, 716 DY Qq  bēlāli mède de Aratisti/Aratišta, 713 av. Qq  0LθUD 0LθUDNDbēlāli PqGHGH8SDULDDYQq  7DQGLV TXH GpMj DX 9,,,H VLqFOH DY Qq XQH SHWLWH TXDQWLWp GH QRPV d’inspiration mazdéenne ne peut pas être niée parmi les grands commis de l’organisation de l’état, desquels souvent on précise l’appartenance ‘mède’, XQH YDOHXU SUREDWRLUH QRQ LQIpULHXUH GRLW rWUH UHFRQQXH SDUPL OHV TXHOTXHVuns qu’on a essayé d’identifier, à des noms tels que %XUEXUD]X  bēlāli de BītIštar, 714 av. n.è., 2. seigneur du pays d’Uratis[…], 716 av. n.è.,  bēlāli de Ginkir, 716 av. n.è., cf. Buriyaš, dieu cassite des SKpQRPqQHV DWPRVSKpULTXHV ḪXPEr bēlāli mède de BītZualzaš, 714 av. n.è., 2. indL =DGRNS 'LDNRQRIIS©WKHQXPEHURIFOHDUO\,UDQLDQQDPHVRI0HGHVWKDWKDYH FRPHGRZQWRXVGRHVQRWH[FHHGDIHZGR]HQVRWKDWWKHVHFRQFOXVLRQVH[VLOHQWLR FDQQRWEHWDNHQDVYHU\UHOLDEOHª On cite ici seulement les noms dont l’interprétation est la plus vraisemblable, VXLYDQW j SHX SUqV OD SURVRSRJUDSKLH HW OHV pW\PRORJLHV GH 6FKPLWW  TYY SRXUOHVWUDQVFULSWLRQVFXQpLIRUPHVDVV\ULHQQHVGHVQRPV " PDUTXHOHVpW\PR ORJLHVGRXWHXVHVGDQVODYLVLRQGH6FKPLWWTXLFLWHHWGLVFXWHOHVK\SRWKqVHVGH=D GRN Dans ce qui suit, ‘mède’ marque les précisions ethno/toponyPLTXHV SRQFWXHOOHV H[SOLFLWHPHQWGRQQpHVGDQVOHVGRFXPHQWVDVV\ULHQV Si l’on accepte l’étymologie, on doit conséquemment corriger Boyce 1982, p. 15 ©1R0LWKUDQDPHVDSSHDUDPRQJWKHIHZ,UDQLDQRQHVSUHVHUYHGLQWKH$VV\ULDQ UHFRUGVª

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« … how Median the Medes were » ?

485

vidu mentionné dans un fragment de lettre, 3. père d’un individu non spp FLILpHQFRQWH[WHDVWURORJLTXHLQGLYLGXQRQLGHQWLILDEOHPHQWLRQQpGDQV XQ GRFXPHQW DJUDLUH GH 1LQLYH FI WKpRQ\PH pODPLWH +XPEDQ  Teušpa URLV GHV &LPPpULHQV  DY Qq FI "  GLHX KXUULWH GH OD WHPSrWH Teššup). On a conséquemment des traces –QXPpULTXHPHQWSDVLQIpULHXUHV GHEHDXFRXSjFHOOHVLUDQRPD]GpHQQHVd’onomastique théophore qui se réfèrent à d’autUHVFUR\DQFHVUHOLJLHXVHVGRQWOHQRPEUHSRXUUDLWDXJPHQ ter à mesure que l’on avance avec l’identification de la quantité considp rable d’anthroponymes (une moitié à peu près de l’ensemble maintenant disponible) que l’on ne peut en aucune manière reconduire à l’iranicité OLQJXLVWLTXH  –0DOJUp OD UpFHQWH DIILUPDWLRQ GH 6WURQDFK VHORQ ODTXHOOH ©WKH WZR PRVW SRWHQW UHIOHFWLRQV RI D 0HGLDQ SUHVHQFH FRQVLVW RI D QRZ ZHOO established range of pottery […] and certain rather specific architectural IRUPVª, ce qui a plus frappé l’imagination des savants est le ‘temple ceQ tral’de Nuše Jān avec la structure presque universellement attribuée à la fonctionnalité religieuse, son ‘autel du feu’HWOHVSURFpGXUHVSDUWLFX lières de scellement qu’on a attribuéesà une certaine phase d’occupation GXOLHX ILQ9,,HVLqFOHDYQq SUREDEOHPHQWXQHSURFpGXUHGHGpVDFUDOLVD tion d’origine mésopotamienne 0DU\ %R\FH DYDLW UHFRPPDQGp GqV OHV premières nouvelles de la découverte, la prudence à l’égard de l’attributioQ de fonctions précises aux éléments particuliers du complexe de Nuše Jān […] a massive altar, made of mudEULFN ILQHO\ SODVWHUHG DERXW ZDLVWKLJK ZLWKDIRXUVWHSSHGWRS,QWKLVZDVDVKDOORZERZOZKLFKKDGWUDFHVRIEXU Sur l’interprétation traditionnelle des noms théophores de la région ‘mède’ voir DXVVL%R\FHS 6WURQDFKS 5RRWS©,DPFRQWHQWZLWKFDOOLQJLWDWHPSOH,FRQWLQXHWRSXWTXRWHV DURXQGLWª $X[SUREOpPDWLTXHVparticulières du complexe de Nuše Jān se superpose la confX sion, parmi les savants, à propos des “fireholders” (“more accurate […] designD tion” proposée par Mary Boyce mais non reçue par la communauté scientifique, cf. *DUULVRQ  S   2Q SHXW YRLU DXVVL GDQV XQH YLVLRQ GLIIpUHQWH HQWUDvQDQW d’(improbables) connotations mithriaques ©7KH VLQJOH SX]]OLQJ H[DPSOH DW 1XVKL -DQ VXJJHVWV WKDW WKH\ KDG VRPH W\SH RI HQFORVHG WHPSOH FXOW LQYROYLQJ DOVRWKHXVHRIZKDWPLJKWLQYHU\EURDGWHUPVEHFDOOHGDILUHDOWDUª %LYDU S  &I6WURQDFK 5RDIS5RRWSHWQ%DOOSVV &DQHSDSHWQ

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486

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même si plus tard elle l’avait consideré comme l’un –OHSOXVLPSRUWDQW – GHV FDV GDQV OHVTXHOV ©DOLHQ REVHUYDQFHV ZHUH LQWURGXFHG WR WKH 0HGHV and Persians […] probably tKURXJKLQWHUPDUULDJHVª Malgré cela, le complexe et l’autel de Nuše Jān sont devenus, à cause de leur découverte tout au début de la nouvelle vague de l’‘archéologie mède’ et en vertu de leur considérable état de conservation, paradigmD tiques, et c’est justement en s’orientant sur eux que Majidzadeh, le fouiO OHXUGH7HSH2]EDNLDLGHQWLILpGDQVODVDOOHFHQWUDOH [P XQHSOD WHIRUPHUHFWDQJXODLUH [PVXUPGHKDXWHXU FRQVLGpUpHjVRQ tour comme un ‘autel’ &HWWHSLqFHTXLHVWODSOXVSHWLWHSRXUUDLWDYRLUUHYrWXXQFDUDFWqUHUHOLJLHX[ Tous ses murs sont recouverts d’un enduit (.kJHO GHFRXOHXURFUHTXLIXWUH fait à neuf reprises. Le sol est recouvert d’un produit de type ciment de coX %R\FHS2QUHPDUTXHUDTXH%RXFKDUODWDYDLWDXGpEXWGHVDQQpHV GHVLGpHVSOXVDXGDFLHXVHVGDQVVHVSURSRV: « [i]l est étrange […] de constater que FHPRQXPHQWRULJLQDOHVWOHVHXOSRXUOHVpSRTXHVPqGHHWSHUVHTXLVRLW DVVXUp PHQW XQ WHPSOH GX IHXª %RXFKDUODW  S  WHUPH PLV HQ LWDOLTXH SDU PHV VRLQV  %R\FHSFIDXVVLLELG©)RUHLJQQREOHZRPHQPXVWKDYHEURXJKWWKHLU RZQ EHOLHIV DQG ZD\V – SRVVLELO\ HYHQ WKHLU RZQ SULHVWV – LQWR ,UDQLDQ IDPLOLHV DQGWKLVPD\H[SODLQWKHGLVFRYHU\RIDQDOWDULQWKHROGHVWEXLOGLQJDW7HSH1XVKL -DQª 0DMLG]DGHK  S   +XII  S  Q  UDSSRUWH OD YLVLRQ GX IRXLOOHXU ©the largest hall […] which is regarded as an altarª HWREVHUYH LELGS Q ©The “altar” at Tepe Ozbaki has no similarities with that in the central WHPSOHRI1XVKL-DQªHQDMRXWDQW©>L@WZRXOG EHUHPDUNDEOHKRZHYHU WRILQG UHOLJLRXVHOHPHQWVLQ0HGLDQSDODWLDOEXLOGLQJVª2QUHPDUTXHUDLQFLGHPPHQWTXH les murs de la chambre centrale, qui “pourrait avoir revêtu un caractère religieux” VHORQ 0DMLG]DGHK HW OD SODWHforme rectangulaire sont recouverts d’un enduit de couleur ocre (refait à plusieurs reprises) et ne sont pas “paited white” comme le GLW+XIISQ

Henkelman.indb 486

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Matthew Canepa n’hésite pas à inclure les structures du complexe de NušH Jān parmi «>W@KHILUVWWHPSOHVWKDWDSSHDULQDUHJLRQDQGLQDWLPHSHULRG VHFXUHO\ LQKDELWHG E\ ,UDQLDQV DQG WKXV OLNHO\ EXLOW DQG XVHG E\ ,UD QLDQVªPrPHVLVRQWUDLWHPHQWVHWHUPLQHSDUXQHDIILUPDWLRQSOXVSUX GHQWH VHORQ ODTXHOOH ©the temples at Tepe Nuše Jān clearly show that VRPH 0HGHV DGRSWHG DUFKLWHFWXUH IRU FXOWLF SXUSRVHV DQG WKLV PD\ KDYH KDG VRPH UHODWLRQVKLS WR ,UDQLDQ UHOLJLRVLW\ª 7RXWHIRLV 0DUJDUHW &RRO 5RRW QRXV UDSSHOOH TXH ©>V@HDOV RQ WDEOHWV RI WKH 3HUVHSROLV )RUWLILFDWLRQ DUFKLYHQRZSURYLGHDEXQGDQWHYLGHQFHIRUUHSUHVHQWDWLRQVRIILUHFRQQHF WHGZLWKWKHEXUQLQJRIDQLPDOVDFULILFHVDVZHOODVIRUWKHZRUVKLSRIILUH LWVHOIª HW QRXV LQYLWH FRQVpTXHPPHQW j UpIOpFKLU VXU OD SRVVLELOLWp TXH dans la ‘mède’ Nuše Jān on puisse documenter «WKHVDPHGXDOLW\RIFXV WRP DURXQG ILUHª $XWDQW OHV GRQQpHV DUFKpRORJLTXHV TXH OHV GRQQpHV SKLORORJLTXHVSRXVVHQWYHUVXQHLQWHUSUpWDWLRQGHVGRQQpHVVHORQODTXHOOH FHWWH GXDOLWp TXL VXSSRVH OD GLIIXVLRQ GH VDFULILFHV DQLPDX[ VRLW GDQV OH Fārs soit dans les régions contigües des Zagros même avDQW OD SpULRGH DFKpPpQLGH GRLW rWUH FRQVLGpUpH FRPPH OD QRUPH SOXW{W TXH FRPPH l’exception. 0DMLG]DGHKS &DQHSDSWHUPHVPLVHQJUDVSDUPHVVRLQV &DQHSDSWHUPHVPLVHQJUDVSDUPHVVRLQVSur l’idée originelle que le temple central de Nuše Jān soit un temple du feu, qu’il soit spécifiquement zR roastrien et que la révolte de Gaumāta, fondée sur un «political ‘MedianQDWLRQD list’ (or at least tribal) elementªVHUDLWFRPPpPRUpHSDUVHVV\PSDWKLVDQWVjWUD YHUV OH ©LQILOO DQG EORFNLQJ RI D PRQXPHQW EXLOW LQ PHPRU\ RI D PDUW\UHG OHD GHUªRQSHXWYRLU%DOOS 5RRWSQ2QWURXYHUDGHVUHPDUTXHVUpSpWpHVGDQVODPrPHGLUHF WLRQ GDQV OHV RXYUDJHV GH +HQNHOPDQ j SDUWLU GH +HQNHOPDQ  S   †† LGHPS † HWF 5RRWS 6HORQXQHORJLTXHGHSDUWDJHFXOWXUHOHWUHOLJLHX[DQWLWKpWLTXHjFHOOHTXLFRQoRLW GHV vOHV GDQV OHVTXHOOHV ©WKH 0DJL DQGSHUKDSVWKH0HGHVLQ JHQHUDO WHQGHG WR FRQILQHWKHPVHOYHVLQFHUWDLQWRZQVDQGYLOODJHVLQWKHFHQWUHRIWKHHPSLUHªFI +DQGOH\6FKDFKOHUS WHUPHVPLVHQJUDVSDUPHVVRLQV ; selon l’auteur, OHODQpWDLWHIIHFWXp©VROHO\E\WKHGHVLUHRIWKH0HGLDQZRUVKLSSHUVZKRWRRNSDUW RUDWWHQGHGDQGQRWDWWKHEHKHVWRIWKHVWDWHª LELGS 6XUODTXHVWLRQTXL implique l’interprétation du rôle cultuel des ma ušGHVWDEOHWWHVpODPLWHVGH3HUVp SROLV YRLU OHV FULWLTXHV GH +HQNHOPDQ OOFF GDQV OD QRWH  FLGHVVXV HW LELG S

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,O\DDQVVHXOHPHQW0DU\%R\FHSURSRVDLWGHUpVRXGUHODGLIILFLOH question du signifié religieux du complexe de Nuše Jān en y voyant l’activité d’un chef mèdHTXLFRPPH6DORPRQEkWLVVDLWGHVDXWHOVSRXUVHV femmes étrangères, à tel point l’‘iranicité religieuse’ se démontrait selon %R\FH PrPHDX[9,,,9,,Hsiècles av. n. è.) seulement si l’on pouvait proX ver l’installation d’un culte du feu. Aujourd’hui la variété d’attestations entre ‘espace cultuel’ et ‘espace palatial’, «EXLOW ODQGVFDSHV ª HW ©QDWXUDO ODQGVFDSHVª GDQV OD SUDWLTXH UHOLJLHXVH GHV WHUULWRLUHV GH OD *UDQGH 0pGLH SUpDFKpPpQLGH VHPEOH Wp moigner en faveur d’un parfait pendant religieux à la pluralité d’identité des peuplements ‘mèdes’ qu’on vient de discuter.  

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