Penn State Handbook for Commercial Mushroom Growers. A compendium of scientific and technical information useful to mushroom farmers

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Title Page (Page i)
Copyright (Page ii)
Table of Contents (Page iii)
Section 1 (Page vii)
Section 2 (Page 3)
Section 3 (Page 14)
Section 4 (Page 26)

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Penn State handbook for commercial mushroom growers : a compendium of scientific and technical information useful to mushroom farmers / science editor, Paul J. Wuest ; production editor, Glenn D. Bengtson. [University Park, PA] : Pennsylvania State University, College of Agriculture, c1982. https://hdl.handle.net/2027/uiug.30112020164825

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p

Penn State Handbook for Commercial Mushroom Growers A compendium of

scientific and technical information useful to mushroom farmers

Scientific

Editor : Paul J. Wuest

Production Editor : Glenn D. Bengtson

All

Copyright © 1982 by The Pennsylvania State University .

Rights Reserved

‫ا‬

)6 : ) ‫م‬

‫هت‬

.2 ...

Agrice

P38

PREFACE

vii

9

1986 ILLINOIS

Spawn and 14

ix

THE AUTHORS

Specific Nutrients Needed Mushrooms

by

UNIVERSITY

OF

MAY

Contents

0

AGRICULTURE LISRARÍ

Mesophilic Fungi Mushroom Compost and Their Metabolic Traits in

xi

FROM THE DEAN

,

I

,

,

DISEASES WEED MOLDS INDICATOR MOLDS AND ABNORMALITIES OF THE COMMERCIAL MUSHROOM

SECTION SCIENCE

Mushroom Diseases

23

Mummy Disease

24

Virus Disease

24

Nematodes

25

Truffle Disease

What Mushrooms Need

Mat and Confetti Diseases

Competitor

Bacterial Blotch Disease

II

I

3

22

3

22

5

21

Trichoderma Diseases

7

20

8

20

Hypomyces Mildew Disease

Indicator Fungi

of

Compost Chemistry and the Role Microorganisms

11

SOME BIOLOGICAL INDICATORS OF COMPOST QUALITY

11

25

Lipstick Mold

25

Cinnamon Brown Mold

26

Sepedonium Yellow Mold

26

12

Pythium Disease

27

12

Corticium Mold

27

-

Poor Quality Compost

Indicator Molds

Fungi and the Carbohydrate Component Compost

in

in

13

Fungi and Nitrogenous Components Compost

13

Improper Management Temperature

13

of

Anaerobiosis During Composting Compost

27

Ink Cap Fungi

27

Plaster Molds and Flour Molds

28

Olive Green Mold

30

Black Whisker Mold

30

Oedocephalum Mold

31

Ecological

iii

11

)

–

Composting Phase Succession II

Weed Molds

(M

, ;

,

I

Composting esophilic and Fungi Thermophilic Thermotolerant Fungi Actinomycetes and Bacteria Phase

13

or

/

Lignin Humus Complex

19 19

Mycogone Disease

Phase

19

Verticillium Disease

9

BIOCHEMICAL AND MYCOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF MUSHROOM COMPOSTING Phase

14

31

History

55

Stroma

31

Casing Materials

55

Weepers

32

Treatment

Flock , Hardcap , and Open Veil

32

Steam ,

Hollow Core and Brown Pith

33

Abnormalities

Purple Stem Color Plates

( to

follow page

34 )

SIGNIFICANT INSECT PESTS OF THE COMMERCIAL MUSHROOM

35

The Sciarid Fly

35

The Phorid Fly

38

The Cecid Fly

38

Pyemotid Mites

38

Heat Transfer, and Thermal Sensitivity

SPAWNING TO CASING IN COMMERCIAL MUSHROOM PRODUCTION

43

Spawn

43

Spawning

43

58

Soil Structure

59

Aerated

Steam

59

Using

Fumigant

60

a

60

Sanitation

INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT MUSHROOM FARMING

FOR

Pest Management

61 61

Pest Management

61

Key Pests in the PSU Mushroom IPM Project

62

Monitoring for Key Pests

62

Monitoring Pest Populations

62

Excluding Key Pests From the Crop Modifications ; Cultural Modifications )

63

( Physical

44

Sanitation

65

45

Integrating Pesticides into IPM

65

Sanitation

45

Use of Pesticides

65

)

Spawning SASing (

at

884

Methods Rates

Supplementation Spawn Growth

45 46

Compost Factors

46

Sanitation

47 )

Casing SACing (

at

Mushroom Cultivar Used

46

Supplementation

-

INFLUENCE OF CULTURAL PRACTICES ON MUSHROOM YIELD RESPONSE TO DELAYED RELEASE NUTRIENTS

48

Determining Pesticide Needs and Assessing Effectiveness

LA FRANCE DISEASE OF THE CULTIVATED MUSHROOM

Disease Symptoms

70

Disease Epidemiology

72

49

Compost Density

TECHNOLOGY

-

II

SECTION

50

During Spawn

Run

52

of

Time

69 69

49

normal Temperatures

66

First Occurrence and Symptoms

Spawning Rate

Below

Casing

52

Spawn Strains

52

SEASONAL VARIATIONS AND MUSHROOM GROWING

79

Seasonal Influences

79

Composting Through Casing

79

Tradeoffs

80

,

1,

MANIPULATING AND TREATING MUSHROOM CASING SELECTING

iv

41

56

Soil Properties and Steam Treatment

Steps in Integrated

SUPPLEMENTATION WITH VEGETABLE OILS BEFORE PHASE II OF COMPOSTING

56

of Casing

55

80

83

Phase II

85

87

PASTEURIZATION DURING THE MUSHROOM - GROWING CYCLE Heat Conduction and Treatment

Effectiveness

91

and

Usage

91

Pasteurization After Cropping

92

Farm Practices

Measuring and Controlling Temperature

96

Practical Scenarios

97

Monitoring the Farm Environment

106

Monitoring the Climate

107

Disease Monitoring

107

Immature Insect Monitoring

108

Adult Insect Monitoring

109

Grower / Growing Practice Monitoring

109

Determination of Economic Levels of Damage

110

Techniques and Tools to Manipulate Pest Populations

110

Broad Considerations of the Mushroom Farm Community

111

eggs larvae Appendix : Extraction of pupae and nematodes from mushroom by

,

95

105

Decision -Making Based on

92

MANAGING COMPOST DURING SPAWN RUN AND CROPPING

Acquiring Pest Information

fly

Its

105

90

Pasteurization of Casing with Steam Aerated Steam

ORGANIZING AND USING THE PENN STATE IPM APPROACH TO MUSHROOM PEST MANAGEMENT

90

II Composting

Phase

101

103

89

When Pasteurization is Used

Water , Temperature, and Cropping

SOME THOUGHTS ON CO , CONTROL IN MUSHROOM CULTURE

89

Systems

100

83

Phase I

SUGGESTIONS FOR PHASE II IN A STANDARD MUSHROOM HOUSE

100

,

A GROWER'S GUIDE FOR COMMERCIAL MUSHROOM COMPOST PREPARATION

How to Apply Enough Water Watering During the Crop

,

Pest Strategies

centrifuged

compost and casing soil sugar flotation method

97

Pennsylvania Mushroom Fly Monitor Records

Before First Break

97

Mushroom

Later Breaks

98

Usage Record

99

Casing

99

Watering

99 99

Sealed Casing and Scratching

99

Water

Watering Different Cultivars

-

Two Week Pesticide 115

117

GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS

119

BIBLIOGRAPHY

121

COMMENTS AND SUGGESTIONS

129

100 100

V

to

When

to

Apply Water

How

114

NEW INNOVATIONS FOR EFFICIENT MUSHROOM GROWING

"

HOW TO MANAGE THE WATERING OF MUSHROOM CROP

Farm

112

"

Pinning

A

At

During Spawn Run

a

97

1

1

Preface

by

of

By

is ,

.

lim

no

:

of

is

a

It is

.

of

by

in by

.

a

by

by

of

of

of

to

of

.

.

.

for

-

a

.

,

to

,

,

,

a

by

to

to

on

it

a

an

or

Its

.

in

.

-

,

to

is

to

.

or of

.

is a

to

,

a

or

,

in

be

.

be

,

,

be

evant

to

the scientific editor and topics that you consider rel

or by

be

to

It

.

a

You may notice that your handbook has some what unique paper was chosen with one thought provide guide mind used the farmer you have dirty hands spill some the farm a

of

an

.

of

of

a

of

is

1985. Please write

If

of at .

to

of

1984

provide information

.

,

be

.

to

.

,

.

as

or

,

an

.

culture

provide information commercial mushroom farmers Although the authors have covered subjects they consider important more comprehensive ref only erence will available when you the users tell what you think should added With your help additions the handbook could made available

to

,

,

,

supplied energy through compost Mushroom science has enabled farmers harvest least one pound mushrooms from each pound compost spawned This compares very favorably with the two pounds feed required for one pound chicken five pounds feed for one pound beef Such achievement supports the judgment that agri mushroom farming advanced form they must

to

re

a

of

.

,

,

chemical composition and favorable growing condi tions they derive their energy from the sun Whereas green plants are autotrophic mushrooms are hetero trophic are animals Because mushrooms cannot transform the sun's energy into energy for growth

and did Transferring knowledge was vital the evolution efficient mushroom farming No single reference textbook available farm practical questions ers who want answers swers those with far reaching consequences This step handbook that direction main purpose use force

.

of

,

,

a

be

to to

is

If

,

in

be

.

an

have made mushroom growing advanced form agriculture there harvest mushrooms green plants which manu must fed contrast facture their own food Although green plants quire fertilizers water soil certain texture and

producing favorable environment bountiful Progress was furthered crop those who had knowledge and passed those who wanted

:

a

of

phenom number six decades other contributions

vations along with pest control strategies provided .

art ,

an

is

science

it ,

In

.

the process

still

in

to

so

.

it

.

ena

in

Although making compost has quantified and explained

those who selected productive cul tures and supplied quality spawn and those who im plemented excellent management systems control watering and ventilation temperature These inno compost turners

to

.

it

in

of

differentiate from the standard compost made from horse manure

production systems that provided for highly efficient compost into mushrooms These sys conversions tems did not occur chance but choices made plateau farmers Mushroom farmers reached nurturing their crop when they understood how and why they could operate efficiently many dedicated peo The efforts and discoveries ple contributed the advancement mushroom farming There were the designers and builders

or

in

a

to

,

J.

to

The option use other materials was not available until 1946 when W. Sinden published paper which he described how make synthetic compost This compost was not truly synthetic that con sisted crushed corn cobs and hay blended with supplements Synthetic compost was named

Limiting Factors

.

to

).

a

of

.

is

is

of in

at

.

the prime compost many mushroom same material used 1982 farms an indication the cunning commercial mushroom farmers two centuries ago

manure

system governed

the matter how successful the harvest the crop sequence one aspect ited the most constraining factor the end the 1970s some mushroom farmers had devised balanced

Law

is

A. as

-

(

as

food base bisporus The bedded horse ingredient That the =

made Agaricus brunnescens first mushroom farmers used straw cultivate

involves more than making

biological

us

of

be

.

to

Early mushroom farmers

compost

at in

by

.

a

art

,

desired species appeared knew that compost had

farming

Mushroom

,

an a

its

beginnings few centuries ago mushroom From farming has been and science People ate mushrooms before that but they got them forag ing the countryside during times the year when the

vii

thing on a page , simply wipe it clean . You don't need to protect your book by keeping it on a bookshelf . Leave it at the farm and use it at the farm . That's what it was designed for.

Although the authors and editors will be recog nized as contributers , many other people who helped make the book possible deserve special recognition . If you ever meet Brenda Holcomb , Becky Peplinski , Jim McClure , Rae Chambers , Lesley Strother , Denise

Glen Goss , Paul Nel son , or John Skelly , convey to them your sentiments on the book . They , along with the Dean of the Col lege , Sam Smith , and a family farmer from West Grove , Charles C. Brosius , were instrumental in mak Hosterman

,

Evelyn Buckalew

ing this mushroom handbook

,

a

reality

.

Paul J. Wuest Professor

of Plant Pathology , Mushroom Specialist

1

1 1

1 1

July viii

1982

The Authors Cooperative Extension Service , Berks County Agricultural Center Herbert A. Wetzel

, Berks

Leesport,

,

PA 19533

County Extension Director

Department of Entomology , 106 Patterson Building , University Park ,1 PA 16802 Albert C. Napkil

, Graduate

Daniel L. Rinker ,

Graduate

Robert J. Snetsinger

Assistant Assistant

, Professor

of Entomology

Robert C. Tetrault, Associate Professor of Entomology Extension

Department of Plant Pathology , 211 Buckhout Laboratory , University Park , PA 16802 R. James Finley , Research Technologist

Cathy L. Harvey , Project Assistant ; on leave from Castle and Cooke , Inc. , Salem , Oregon C. Peter Romaine

,

Assistant Professor of Plant Pathology

Daniel J. Royse , Assistant

Professor

of Plant Pathology

Lee C. Schisler, Professor of Plant Pathology

Paul J. Wuest ,

Professor

of Plant Pathology

ix

From Dean Smith

at

Penn State .

tight budgets

.

I pledge to you that we will continue to serve the industry to the best of our abilities with the resources available to us . In turn , I would ask for your contin ued cooperation and support of industry these programs designed meet your needs Samuel H. Smith

xi

room Growers is one more example of this support and will be a helpful guide and resource for individ ual growers . Those of you who have been attending the Short Course , workshops , or Extension meetings and have worked with the faculty and staff members over the years are well aware of the contributions Penn State has made to the industry .

work

The close liaison between industry and the Univer sity is extremely important in times such as these when industry needs are great and research support for this university is threatened by inflated costs and

for

Mush

Extension

.

excellence . This Penn State Handbook for Commercial

At last count , we had twenty - two faculty and staff members from seven departments engaged in differ ent segments of mushroom research , education , and

to

Penn State has long recognized the importance of the mushroom industry in the agricultural economy of the Commonwealth . The University has provided substantial research and educational support through programs which are internationally recognized for

SECTION

I Science

Biochemical and Mycological Aspects

of Mushroom Composting Lee C. Schisler

4.0

0.24

Brewers Grains

2.50

2.50

4.0

0.10

Gypsum

1.25

1.25

0

Hay corn cob synthetic compost pile

.

NH NO

0.3

32.0

0.10

Potash

0.3

0.3

Gypsum

0.6

0.6

0

N

N

1.68

%

0.49

0.49 29.2

%

/

N

dry

=

wt

29.2

Hay corn cob hardwood bark synthetic

N

.

pile

content

15.0

12.8

2.0

0.26

Cobs

7.5

6.4

0.3

0.02

Hardwood bark

9.4

6.4

0.4

0.03

Chicken manure

3.8

2.4

4.0

0.09

NH.NO

0.2

0.2

32.0

0.06

Potash

0.3

0.3

Gypsum

0.6

0.6

3

1.58

N

0.46 29.1

%

N

%

=

ry

wt

/d

N

29.11

Ton

)

0

0

0

(

ton

0

)

(

(

ton

Hay

)

ton

( % )

·

Dry wt

Wet wt

Ingredients

46 /

of

in

as a

to

building the raw

compost

-

Table

,

in or

(

,

in

by

)

0.09

0.3

of

Phase

is

(

0.04

4.0

-

of or

a

in

,

,

.

blend

I

N 0.3

2.4

3.

a

or in

of

be

,

.

mixed

manure and synthetics are into what mushroom growers refer characterized

( % )

12.8

0

Chicken manure

3.8

0

15.0

.

" )

Various proportions

wt

0.26

).

,

as

organic fertilizers have been successfully introduced into the industry The following tables list four for mulas for typical composts used various parts North America today

.

(

(

Cobs

ton

2.0

0

,

(

12.8

content

covered

breakdown the raw ingredi drum done can also but commercial applications

a

is

.

device

I

here that

outside

such have been limited Horse manure has long been used the basic ingredient but substitutes called synthetics made from straw hay corn cobs other fibrous materials combined with organic and

"

ton

ton

15.0

I

;

performed

ents begins Phase composting

Dry

Hay

Ton

usually

it I is

area

Wet wt

Ingredients

)

Table

0.94

0.94 /59.75 = 1.57 % N

Ton N / dry wt = % N

PHASE Phase

0

59.75T

=

(

I

II

:

)

,

Chicken manure

6.00

0

a

pendent and interrelated processes Phase the out the cookout door composting process and Phase peak heat pasteurization process or

0.60

7.50

/

involving two interde

(ton )

(% ) 1.2

1 ,

no of .

organisms

(ton ) 50.00

2.

or

all

.

at

a

or

competitor

N content

80.00

compost

a

to

create

grow good crop provide time little

is

at

are

pile .

Dry wt

(ton )

Horse manure

At

.

its

composting

with sufficient nutrients mushrooms and the same nutrition for other fungi and procedure Composting

to to do

In

.

in

,

of

The objectives

Wet wt

Ingredients

compost

horse manure

)

Imbach , belongs to a group of plants called fungi the . These plants differ from green plants in they that lack chlorophyll and cannot use photosyn thesis in the manufacture of their own food . Conse quently , it becomes necessary to prepare a compost the same food to supply the mushroom with which upon compost foods contain must not time the compost grow fungi for mush suitable can other room growing other fungi either not grow comparison grow quite slowly the mushroom ( Lange )

Table 1. Straw -bedded

-

All commercial mushroom growing has depended on composted material. Although the time and nature of the composting has been modified , no one has been successful in eliminating this step from the prepara tion of a suitable medium for mushroom growing . Agaricus bisporus The cultivated mushroom ,

.

)

,

8.00

6.00

4.0

0.24

meal

2.00

2.00

6.7

0.13

Gypsum

0.65

0.65

0

,

,

be

to ( 50

as a

.

,

.

0.53

has been suggested that gypsum may also lower the pH and the NH3 content compost thereby bene fiting mushroom mycelial growth

1.52 % N

.

,

in

0.53 /34.9

is

to

Gypsum acts flocculating agent characteristics greasiness organic thereby preventing for colloids

0

34.9T %N

to

)

.

of

be

.

Cottonseed

Ton N /dry wt

,

Chicken manure

posts Inorganic sources may used with blends but the rate should calculated on only the syn thetic portion the blend Gypsum ton dry compost ingredients both manure added synthetic composts improve their physical and

It

0.04

lb /

0.6

of

6.25

75

7.00

to

Cottonseed hulls

to

0.12

be

22.00

be

( ton )

0.6

25

,

(% )

of

(ton ) 20.00

,

( ton )

Straw

lb /

N content

Dry wt

ni

age sludge dried blood are added Inorganic trogen sources such ammonium nitrate calcium cyanamide and urea may also used but their rate dry ton ingredi addition should not exceed only synthetic ents and should added com

pile .

as

Wet wt

Ingredients

compost

or

hulls synthetic

Table 4. Wheat straw -cottonseed

4

at

,

to

.

As

in

in

,

of

in °

45

at

C

to

of

As of

.

,

is

at

.

.

,

,

as

by

,

is

.

of

)

(

° F ).

in

to

C ,

of

°

80

up

to

,

,

a

.

is

It

.

it

C ,

°

in is

.

It

.

at at

.

,

,

,

of

of

-

by .

.

Another browning reaction

of at

)

(

,

the various compounds which have been iso lated These compounds exhibit increasing chemical complexity are degradation products either the tion

sugar

the

initial

carbohydrate

amine reaction

1

,

in

.

of

or

;

,

in

Maillard occurs this case the amino group proteins reacts with the amino acids peptides sugars Several stages hemiacetal hydroxyl group this reaction have been identified chiefly rela higher temperatures

of

,

from sugar anhydrides

-

,

,

,

,

,

,

as

(

% )

to

(

of

to

.

1

greater than percent raise the nitrogen content the compost the desired 1.5 1.7 level sup plements containing primarily organic nitrogen such poultry manure brewers grains cottonseed meal soybean meal cocoa bean hulls malt sprouts sew

one the reactions responsible for the darkening color the compost Dark colored polymerization dehydra products are formed consecutive steps tion and condensation with further loss water

or

. 2

To

is

of

,

a

of

nitrogen content Good quality hay may have percent but when mixed with corn cobs the total ni trogen content just slightly the bulk ingredients

proceeds most rapidly temperatures exceeding 100 will take place composting temperatures The higher the com posting temperature the more rapid the reaction

,

,

of

In

in

.

of

-

an

,

is

droppings and liquid waste which give the source average nitrogen con straw bedded horse manure percent synthetic compost tent 1.2 the case the protein the hay becomes the nitrogen source

Although caramelization

,

,

N

is

In

.

pH

of

is

at

be

am

.

substances later used the mushroom Gerrits sug gests nitrogen supplementation used until the filling monia content 0.4 percent and the com post 8.3 horse manure compost the

thereby concentrating the car from the carbohydrate saving bon and this valuable food for the mushroom

of

,

by

to

,

active fermentation and provide sufficient nitrogen shall discuss later carbohydrate combine with molecules form humic

Proteus

becomes

rise the temperature within the pile continues through the 60s 70s and the activities occurring within the pile change from largely biolog carbohydrates ical chemical Caramelization place process takes which eliminates water

or

to we to

as

of

to an

a

efficiently complete

leased this time urea bacteria such The and Aerobacter The pile Micrococcus alkaline

of

to

;

of

be

.

to

,

if

microorganisms supplements also need nitrogen grow and reproduce The nitrogen content they are the compost pile should 1.5 1.7 percent before the composting process begins this will assure that nitrogen the microbes have sufficient supply

the temperature increases the microbes reproduce and grow that love heat thermophiles and turn give off more heat Much the nitrogen present ammonified and much ammonia re 112

As

of

,

to

In

by .

ily

rect nutrient addition for consumption the mush carbohydrates supplied primar room addition the bulk compost ingredients and some the

sim

organic

acids Most the initial mesophilic organisms are growth capable temperatures exceeding

to

at

di a

by

,

in

is

of

.

of

the bulk compost ingredients and the supplements nutrients The addition this time directed therefore toward the feeding microbial population the compost rather than

are

of

supplied

compost

ucts the most easily attacked constituents ple carbohydrates which break down

to

by

.

is

,

iii )

oxygen and suitable temperature , ii ) moisture , available food Food for the microorganisms

iv )

i)

rises rapidly and the mass becomes slightly more acidic because the decomposition prod

temperature

.

croorganisms ( microbes ) . With the addition of water to the dry ingredients and the building of a pile , these microbes grow and reproduce . Their growth requires

Initially ingredients the compost pile are am bient temperature and are slightly acidic the multiply the digenous mesophilic organisms start

(

into piles . The piles are then periodically turned , watered , and formed . This mixing and water ing tends to equalize the environment so as to pro mote a uniform breakdown of the ingredients . Compost ingredients harbor a great number of mi

of

gredients

product . Dark - brown , insoluble polymeric com pounds are formed in the later stages . The first step ( which is usually colorless ?

;

of the glycosylamine The liberation of CO2 is a

in the reaction is the formation ).

characteristic of the sugar - amino acid reaction . The rate of reaction increases with increases in pH from 7 to 10 , the more marked browning occurring at pH 8 or above . The sugar -amine link is less susceptible to hydrolysis , thereby decreasing the availability of pro tein constituents , and the sugar residue becomes

cess , heat , excess ammonia , respired carbon dioxide , and respired and evaporated water are given off. The microbial thermogenesis follows a normal growth curve of thermophilic microflora as is shown in Fig ure 2 , borrowed from Tschierpe's paper published in Mushroom News . The similarity between the compost

more susceptible to dehydration . The total amount and extent of the specific browning reactions that occur is not known . Each time the pile is turned , bio logical activity is stimulated and the compost heats to levels higher than those of the preceding turn .

temperature curve and a typical bacterial growth curve is obvious . The rate of thermogenesis varies , depending on compost and environmental factors ,

Phase I is considered complete as soon as the raw ingredients have become pliable and are capable of holding water , the odor of ammonia is sharp , and the dark - brown color indicating caramelization and / or the browning reactions have occurred .

but peak rates can be 10 to 11 BTU per hour per lb dry matter ) of compost . The ammonia production curve from mushroom compost during Phase II , as shown in Figure 3 borrowed from Sager's data , was

PHASE

by the compost / temperature differ production during Phase ential and the ammonia can indicator the progress and termination Phase The activity the microflora generally clines after the first hours Phase Such

also similar in shape to the typical microbial popula tion curve . The heat generated by the microbial action air

i

control of Phase II composting . Available foods for microbes in the compost at filling , consisting of carbo hydrate and nitrogen foods , are utilized by the dy namic microbial populations , during Phase II , to pro duce microbial products at spawning which are ulti mately utilized by the mushroom . During the pro

a de of

ef

an

of

a

in

on

,

of

II .

of

60

to of

40

be

dominant

air

.

become

of

be

to

it

if

,

.

is

II

or

as

on in

.

of

be

normal population the thermophilic would have the particular flora The heating compost

surrounding causes cool drawn towards the heat and this action assures adequate air move oxygen content ment for microbial growth the adequate Pasteurization house Phase room

,

or

is at

,

.

which

trays are filled the compost be Once the house gins microbes Activi heat through the growth presented ties taking place this time can Figure borrowed from Sager's thesis which to

on

fect

expected

normal growth curve The temperature course the respiration rate and a

.

of

flora

be

can

of

be

II .

of of

to

is

.

of

following

temperature and

objectives

would

reduction

.

Through the proper manipulation ventilation these two primary realized

1 ,

at

Microbial foods filling

Microbial

1

{

Heat

{

{ {

products

spawning

1

by

the mushroom 1

range

1

temperature

Foods utilized

Microbial thermogenesis

microbial

Microbial

Respired

Respired and

carbon

evaporated

dioxide

water

nitrogen

Source

Sager

5

composting flow diagram

:

Phase

.

Figure

1.

foods II

of

composting in

|

The end products Phase

at

Microbial

Excess ammonia

{

1

carbohydrate foods Heat

I

į

)

(

it

so

:

II

Phase has two main purposes final conditioning compost becomes mushroom specific absence ammonia and readily available carbohydrates and necessary pasteurization free the Pasteurization insects compost and microbes undesirable

an

II

II

as evidenced

an

or

all

° F

of

be to

.

If

a

,

of

reproduce some harmful organisms may remain grow difficulty subsequently and These can cause the mushroom crop After hours 140 cool air introduced into the Phase room assure ade and quate oxygen cool compost below 140 produced help dissipate ammonia The ammonia from inorganic nitrogen sources from protein mol peptide linkages ecules amino acids united The .

Time

is in

to

culture

° F

to

° F,

iii )

i )

II

.

split into peptide fragments through individual amino acids providing im mediate liberation ammonia when another energy ,

of

of

)

a

If

.

is

of

.

an

,

an

as

,

is

of

4

Days

3

2

be

30

,

is

)

as

carbohydrate carbo available source such hydrate source acids and amino available not protein may produced part amides with the adequate being used energy source When carbohydrate present amount ammonia libera (

( 4

11

Phase days

during

hydrolysis

is

protein chain

Compost temperatures 40

).

(

50

by

or

.

is

,

ii )

° C 60

,

of

curve

bacteria

2

a

Growth

° F,

to

be

closed tightly allow the compost procedure heat the Either can produce the same result minimum 140 air and compost temper ature for hours the compost and other ex posed surfaces are not subjected temperature this completed and regime pasteurization will not 2

Lag phase

Logarithm

Exponential growth

to

air

of

house may

air .

cell count

Dying phase

to or to .

2

or of

a

° F

of

phase

be

Stationary

II .

Phase

of

be

accomplished toward the beginning Pasteurization requires air and compost hours temperature minimum for 140 introduced into the room house may Steam temperature raise the 140 the room

should

at

is

in

.

growth factor They include Actinomyces

Thermomon

.

),

,

Streptomyces encountered Fungi Humicola most fre (

10

-

to

,

.

be

of

or

If

.

-

a

PPM

Aspergillus and thermo tolerant mesophilic fungus fumigatus compost one were isolate from the on trays fungi and actinomycetes the surface beds would found Isolations from compost within the

1 )

(

by

.

)

.

or

mesophilic microflora Some spe the thermophilic cies especially certain Humicolas the most com monly encountered heat mold are especially adapted compost Humicola lanuginosa pro utilize starch

.

in

)

(

,

Phase

II

from compost during

to

:

.

3.

Ammonia production composting Source Sager FIGURE

of

,

.

),

as

(

,

,

80

hours

(

0

60

40

by

the thermophilic microflora Available and cel hemicellulose starches lipids fats energy foods for the microbial popula lulose serve tion Sugars are rather universally used most

used sugars

0

20

earlier and depicted the Phase that carbohydrate foods are also in

was mentioned schematic Fig

It

II

Pasteurization

.

is

to

is

.

or

tray would yield mostly actinomycetes bed The incorporated into microbial cells and ulti ammonia mately the mushroom available

Time

6

Mucor

,

Chaetomium

,

Torula

,

(

),

15

and Thermoactimomyces quently encountered

Ammonia

concentration

frequently

most

,

spora

a

in

as

is

of

(

microbial

)

to

best accomplished thermophilic heat loving organisms using organisms very efficient This group present compost the ammonia the nutrient

20

) (

ammonia

by

Conversion

of

is

protein

.

,

built into microbial protein

re

,

is

;

tion runs parallel with carbohydrate decomposition when carbohydrate excessive ammonia liberation protein nitrogen reduced since the once

is

:

.

II

peratures

Similarity bacterial growth activity and compost tem during Phase composting Source Tschierpe of

2.

FIGURE

substantial extracellular amylase Thermophilic well some mesophilic molds such pergillus fumigatus appear better utilize able .

,

,

re

.

It

20

60

40

of

10

80

100

120

Time hours (

is

and

during Phase

II

air

4.

compost

.

of

Typical temperatures FIGURE composting

C

°

)

-

(

45

55

Temperature

35

or be to is to

range

Air temperature

(

6

5

4

3

2

for

to

.

II

:

137

°

(

4

to

3

is

,

C )

°

60

reach

held for With sufficient compost differences .

by

to

(

to 58 °

F

air 6).

5.

of of

an

°

hours

temperatures

the temperature accomplish pasteurization

of

in

is

A

to

)

12

to

for

( 8

.

is

.

,

in

,

,

circulation the temperature and the air are minimal small amount fresh air introduced continuously The temperature then brought slowly hours the optimum

7

to

C )

25 °

(

F

77 °

to

be

,

10

.

5

. A

is

50 ° C )

to

2

(

of

°

F

conditioning level 122 CO concentra percent After maintained tion 1.5 days ammonia drops below ppm and the compost can cooled with fresh air for

Lignin Humus Complex Figure The right hand sector

in

.

'

of

7,

is

composting summarized adapted from one Gerrits papers

The discussion Figure

on

.

spawning

deals with the for lignin humus complexes

and

the total lignin remains 7

.

-

II,

Throughout Phases

7

rich

of

nitrogen

-

mation

I

.

controlling and programming devices composting Source Vedder

Phase

Vedder Fig When compost and

of -

on ,

.

to

system

/

is

.

,

a

in

The effects

automatic

.

be. or

in ,

,

.

-

,

-

,

heat the compost

II

FIGURE

is be

it

)

in

.

,

of

,

of

and steam intro the desired temperaure bulk system has been illu

closed fan switched

typical Phase

Days

in

,

of (

air

is

to is in

Compost temperature

be

.

in

of

.

° F ( 3 °

C )

-

aa

In

In

compost mass pasteurization filled uniformly and loosely into the tunnel Temperature probes are placed air and compost throughout the room The

A

86

140

with the standard bed system and higher dry weight potential filled into production beds

duced

95

strated

also good for mass pasteurization Apart from reduced wear buildings beds trays equipment pasteurization permits more and mass tensive use the growing rooms when compared

room

40

of

,

a

is

There

A

un

.

Tu

ta "

104

.

”

in

;

compost treatment oxygen can layer where reduced differential between in

side and surface temperatures the compost layer equipped need not differences bulkroom well more than 5.4 compost good for normal peak heating beds trays

72.5

113

30

,

a

in

and energy savings

II; .

needed

Pa

50

be

/

,

II

A

.

4.

II

“

or

Phase

During peak heating the required brought right into the compost IK

122

). in

**

Reported advantages include ease filling empty controlling and managing ing and spawning ease ,

ed IN

7

TUTE

131

5

net er

theory and principles can also applied pasteuriza pasteurization systems bulk Mass pasteurization tion bulk was first developed Italy and France and subsequently applied and fur ther refined the Netherlands Phase

bulk Peak heating mass pasteurization in

F

5 °

can

60

140

in

be of

,

temperature

by

like

dece

the compost

dropped

typical Phase pattern may for spawning Figure temperature pattern seen This time any pattern the grower chooses can now automat programmer and controller Fig ically controlled

in

DATE

75 ° F

si

.

z

,

temperature range giving the thermophiles time convert the ammonia Once the odor ammonia

gone

OF

per 24 faster than hours the desired

96

at

of

to

.

regulated

so

ventilation must no

135

cooling keep the rate hours This will assure least as

TA

and

115º

° F;

tween

be

at

.

II

in

an

.

of

II

Pasteurization

80

of

a

at

‫رمم‬

100

)

of

120

in

.

50

)F°(

temperature

Compost temperature

140

.

to

duced the raw materials The fatty acid composition also changes Linoleic acid content nearly doubles portion the linoleic least seems probable that biosyn remaining acid after Phase the result thermophiles thesis Oil supplementation com post before Phase results even higher level linoleic acid temperatures be The thermophiles grow best by

di ni

ei

fat

Quantitatively the content percent the original lipid

,

viridis about

in is

,

,

monospora

.

The test the Te 1 .

PETE

A Air

Temperature

as

As

.

(

to

be

to

cellulose than thermophilic actinomycetes Chaetom ium thermophile Humicola griseа Sporotrichum thermo phile and Torula thermophila show greater cellulolytic ability than do Micromonospora chalcea Streptomyces glaucus Thermoactinomyces violaceoruber and Thermo

,

TUH

,

nur che

)

molds

as

as

dcom

eginnie duces

COM FORTE TRATIE BLESSON

CONGO

SI

Compostrawmaterialsand supplements

Carbohydrates , incl Sugars Fats Hemicellulose Cellulose

Nitrogenouscompoundsincl. Proteins Aminoacids Urea Lignin

Microflora(thermophilic bacteriasuchas Bacillus, , Flavobacterium . Pseudomonas and Serratiasp., thermophilic fungisuchas Humicolaand Mucor sp., actinomycetes . mostlyStreptomyces sp.)

Microflora(plusurea , bacteriasuchas Proteus MicrococcusandAerobactersp.)

Lignin

N

N

CO но

Caramelization

Caramelized carbohydrates

P DO

by microflora C andN assimilation actinomycetes (thermophilic suchas Thermomonospora , Streptomyces , Thermoactinomyces sp., thermophilic fungisuchas Humicola , Torulasp., thermophile , Mucorpusillus, Chaetomonium , thermotolerant Stilbellathermophila mesophilessuchas Aspergillusfumigatus

Degradationproducts

0 0

N

Productsof intermediary NH + metabolism

Heat

Z

Microbes

D

N

O

N

N 21

N -richlignin humus complex

Compostfor mushroom

FIGURE 7. Schematic

summarization of mushroom composting .

6. Compost

and

during Phase

temperatures

com

.

posting

II

FIGURE

air

Source : Gerrits

.

of

Researchers have analyzed compost constituents dur ing various stages the mushroom crop cycle Ash content remains approximately the same throughout cropping The major part the lignin consumed is

of

of

its

What Mushrooms Need

.

of

a

-

,

to

.

of

be

.

,

portion essentially the same However the lignin disrupted via microbial degrada molecules may products tion Degradation various sizes are formed and these contribute the formation dark colored humic substances by reactions with ni

with length treatment Complex formation takes place more rapidly with increases temperature and ammonia concentration Some researchers have

summary enzymatic breakdown into the cell lignin and cellulose could follows Lignin and lignin complexes are broken down lignase phenolic compounds Further degradation laccase .

by

to

by

:

as

be

A

of

of

so

be

-

.

.

.

N

to

by

,

.

(

.

.

at

be

)

at

of

idly fruiting Cellulase which breaks the start down cellulose can detected throughout the same fruiting The changes period but increases sharply ,

to

to

,

if

to

us

Let now turn our attention what the mush room uses from the compost and see we can relate accomplish during this what we have attempted composting 8

yields quinones and aromatics which are more solu ble Cellulose broken down cellulases short chain oligosaccharides and disaccharides and eventu ally into glucose Extracellular laccase increases during spawn run and after casing but declines rap is

is

.

be

80 in

a

II

I

.

the lignin fraction

-

in

.

.

of in

of -

of

high proportion and compost the fixed the per humus lignin fraction the compost About cent the insoluble nitrogen could isolated from the total nitrogen

.

re

-

N

of

in

.

of

.

of

.

of

shown that during Phases

of

between spawning and the appearance the first pinheads Cellulose decreases rapidly when fruit bodies appear and enlarge The mushroom mycelium produces extra cellular enzymes which break down insoluble food particles that they can absorbed

N

trogenous compounds derived from protein and degradation Humic substances can react with con taining compounds low molecular weight The action with ammonia results the stable absorption nitrogen The content the complex increases

It

.

all

.

,

of

-

at

be

an

in

of

I

II

or

.

to

be

,

,

a

if

so

if

).

(

-s

;

as

.

a in

is

II .

In

as

an

or

I

in

II,

a

.sp

to

In

.

.

,

,

.

ar

to

as

to

,

.

I

of

,

as

.

of

II

or

of

,

,

-

fimicola was com composting mon years ago when the longer Phase rarely seen was routinely practiced today composting The farms following the short method .

white plaster mold seen most frequently today piluliferum

Bo

.

tryotrichum

is

;

it

of is

on

I

Scopulariopsis

II,

as

° F ).

at

of

).

(

The olivaceum Chaetomium Olive green mold presence sufficient oxy this mold indicates lack especially gen within the compost during Phase yet unknown higher temperatures The 145 (

lo

sugars and amino acids

in

.

,

,

to

,

the reaction between

are also cellulolytic

.

re

in

,

.

of

in

phenylalanine leucine isoleucine and valine most stimulating mushroom production Ear

,

lier

In

in

,

lial

are

rich

car

Sporobolomyces trichum piluliferum and Trichothecium these molds generally indi The presence mismanage cates over composting during Phase ment Phase such that the compost becomes alka line with residues amines Most these molds can carbohydrates utilize soluble carbon sources but roseum

of

As

.

is

is

have

can utilize cellulose

White plaster mold Several species are included lump growers tend under this general heading species This list these together without regard bitrarily will include Scopulariopsis Botryo fimicola

of

.

.

is of a

In

vitro studies

bohydrates Coprinus bon food source

-

be

to

,

.

protein

improper Phase tation Phase other words proper environmental conditions were not preventing maximum mi provided during Phase readily available car crobial utilization addition ,

,

by

-H

of

of

of

.

microbial

shown that the amino acids phenylalanine methio promoting myce nine and proline are most active growth the cultivated mushroom vivo sup plementation studies have suggested that proteins

present

..

a

of

to

by

an

of

,

80

,

-

in

cated

Coprinus fimetarius

-

of

a

1 : 1 .

of

,

)

in

of

.

ni

trogenous compounds become limiting discussed percent earlier about the total nitrogen the maining after composting apparently fixed probably humus lignin fractions The remainder

1 )

in

in of

.

as

.

.

It

tion between the nitrogen content the compost and yields increased both manure and synthetic com posts Supplementation studies during various stages mushroom cropping have shown that specific

Ink caps will grow compost free ammonia the This fungus nitrogen source usually utilizes free ammonia the ammonia comes from nitrogen over upplemen Ink caps

2 )

.

oil

it

by

is

(

lar

tiates this The remainder are probably complexed with humic substances lignin and protein positive correla has been shown that there

Indicator Fungi

Lets now briefly discuss some compost competitor they show up grower may indicator fungi that know why they are there and what must done avoid their showing up again

3 )

'

its

to

to

to

as

H

-

-6

from the compost appear intracellu thermophilic microflora within the cells lipids thermophilic fungi substan Fatty acid composition

or

A

.

to

)

In

the mushroom also provides necessary reducing power generate mannitol since synthesized mannitol the mushroom from fruc phosphate via mediated reduc NADP tose tion reaction The majority the lipids used the mushroom

.

Competitor

between the mushrooms lipid metabo fruiting mechanism has been established addition has been shown that the carbon units supplied supplementation the compost via are synthesize utilized structural lipids mushroom cell membranes biological The rapid production membrane material for expanding cells the devel oping sporophore requires generous supply lip proteins since the membranes have ids well lipid ratio protein compost Oxidation

NADP

-

,

a

.

relationship

(

room production

fatty acids

be

to

of

-

to

of

.

in

optimum environment Phase and that will enhance the ecological succession thermo philic microorganisms order for proper biological transformations occur during Phase are required produce selective medium for efficient mush supplemented

has been shown that lipids specifically the fatty acid linoleic are stimulatory mushroom production lism and

for the mush

conserved

a

to

os

of

19

is to

12

.

)

of

motic potential for increased water absorption the developing mushrooms expanding cells The mushroom utilizes lipids from the compost

therefore

room's later use may least part the reason for lower yielding anaerobic and low temperature Phase compost high temperature aerobic properly summary

In

to ,

.

in

(

at

provides substances for mannitol synthesis percent Mannitol comprises the dry weight thought the mushroom and provide the

cose

sugars and

I

,

ap

It

.

,

(

It

)

,

in

enzymes xylanase protease phosphatase laminarinase and have been detected has been suggested that the cellulase activity crease first flush breaking down cellulose into glu other

browning reactions , with subsequent formation of dark -colored humic substances , was discussed . It is of interest to note that valine is one of the most react ive with glucose under alkaline conditions and that leucine and phenylalanine react little or not at un der acidic conditions One could speculate that the failure these specific amino acids react with

to

changes

.

of

in

by

of

,

of

.

to

,

of

to

be

in

laccase and cellulase appear correlated with enlargement fruit bodies and not with their initia tion The enzyme switch appears occur only once i.e. during the maturation the first break pears that the breakdown products the lignins are utilized preference the mushroom mycelium carbohydrates before the start cropping No such

10

of

it

,

(

).

in

.

"

"

It 45 ° C )

in

54 ° ° C F

(

°

F is

,

,

at

its .

as

.

7 )

a

in

in

of

at

of

of

as

.

.

,

C )

40 °

° F (

to

,

to

,

,

as

,

is

in

.

of

of

to

in

of

in

of

of

do

,

of

to

.

in

of

to

in

increasing new

to

.

our quest increased yields Using nutritional criteria evaluate compost may provide valuable tool not only for tional supplementation but for predictability consistency yield potential ,

a

.

mension

di

,

for

could open

up

thereby

mass

a

mycelial

yield potential

,

increasing

mushroom

,

as

a

room mycelium the compost and expressing mush yield efficiency mycelial mass room relation investigating methods the compost The possibility

of

.

,

it

.

as

of

or

some other limiting factor arises residues ammonia and amines re nitrogen food source for this main and serve mold Since produces cellulase the cellulose acts the carbon source

II, II

during Phase during Phase

mushroom yield we shall the best job mushroom England composting Dr. David Wood the GCRI has recently done some interesting work on devel oping method predicting the dry weight mush room for maximization better position

.

If

of

.

in

of

ammonia and amines the compost insuf ficient available carbon sources remain for complete conversion above materials into microbial protein dues

As we continue learn more the exact changes taking place during mushroom composting and the specific vivo nutrient requirements the mush

in

this mold indicates resi

grow

organic materials the explanation for these black areas mushroom mycelium cannot grow elevated temperatures

of

II .

of

.

6 )

Presence

increase

growing

in of

available

can also

grisea fumigatus Penicillum Humicola Rhizopus stolonifer and Torula thermophila temperature when above 104

a

in

,

or

resulting

oxalicum

at

In

Generally indi during

supplementation

undercomposting Phase carbohydrate after Phase Oedocephalum

is

at

ignorum

.

compost ).

of

.

as

(l

5 )

Green mold Trichoderma cates inadequate nitrogen I

.

,

in

so

this type

pergillus

a

be

a

I.

of

or

.

of

,

to

compete

discussion

in

the compost the result

and

obviously therefore also the compost during the

indicator fungi requires least appearance mention the black areas the com post casing time These are areas which mush room mycelium apparently did not grow Recent studies suggest that the ability molds such As

be

carbohydrates condition may

spawning This undercomposting insufficient nitrogen supple mentation during Phase Excessive carbohydrate supplementation similar condition can produce compost mushroom mycelium will also this type Higher rapidly Doratomyces grow but not mixed spawning rates enable the mushroom myce lium

-

In

(

available

of at

residual

in

).

of

-

4 )

Sty Grey whisker mold Doratomyces microsporus this mold indicates The presence sanus stemonitis

112

indicates hot spots spawn growing period

ity

olivaceum

.

Chaetomium

can also result

ture for growth fairly well 130

of

in

room atmosphere

of II

.

the occurrence

or

for

in

much compaction , moisture , too thick a compost layer , or having the room or house air temperature above the compost temperature several hours sufficient oxygen the mushroom house Phase

Thielavia thermophila An indicator similar com post conditions Oedocephalum Thielavia thermophila optimum tempera different however that

A

compounds formed under these anaerobic conditions appear to be toxic to the mushroom but not so to C. olivaceum . Restriction of air flow and reduced oxy gen supply into the compost can occur because of too

qual nutri and

Some Biological Indicators of Compost Quality Cathy Harvey

and other essential nutrients becomes unavailable

nitrogen

,

AND BACTERIA by

,

the temperature climbs these mesophilic fungi populations and bacteria die out and are replaced thermophilic heat loving microorganisms Tem necessary for the thermo perature exceeding 112 .

,

to

grow and

as

philic bacteria actinomycetes and fungi Ammonifying bacteria such reproduce

Proteus

Micrococcus and Aerobacter utilize inorganic and or ganic nitrogen carbon and are accompanied 11

attack and a large portion of

THERMOPHILIC FUNGI ACTINOMYCETES

by

microbial

its

nitrogen compounds of low molecular weight into the lignin complex . The resultant product , the nitro gen -rich lignin - humus complex , is quite resistant to

and spore - producing bacteria metabolize available nutrients and contribute to the rise in compost tem perature .

)

coupled with the release of ammonia from urea and protein degradation along with heat released by mul tiple chemical reactions that occur at temperatures ex ceeding 140 ° F . This seems to favor the absorption of

Mucor, and even Doratomyces ( the Grey Whisker Mold fungus ) . Nonspore - producing

daria , Alternaria ,

,

nitrogen is bound to the lignin molecule are not com pletely known , but the reaction is favored by high temperatures ( above 140 ° F ) and high pH . More spe cifically , the incorporation of nitrogen may be favored by the partial breakdown ( by the microbes ) of lignin

form of heat . Fungi observed at this stage of com posting include species of Penicillium , Aspergillus , Sor

F is

As these substances form , reactions of great practical import occur . In Phase I , these reactions permit nitro gen to become an integral part of the lignin - humus complex . The mechanism or mechanisms by which

,

Composting

-

I

. Following the addition of water and in organic / organic supplements to the raw compost in gredients , storage fungi that survive long periods of drying start to grow rapidly and release energy in the

composting

°

Phase

,

(

bisporus nutrition .

high - quality compost is the result of an aerobic fermentation ( during Phase I ) involving the following organisms which precede the essential higher - temperature chemical reactions . First , the number of mesophilic and thermotolerant fungi and bacteria increase during the initial stages of outdoor

,

the

More specifically

.

two groups of compounds – one modified from original plant tissue and the other newly synthe sized by microorganisms - provide the basic frame work for the lignin - humus complex and for Agaricus these

MESOPHILIC AND THERMOTOLERANT FUNGI

,

The latter compounds are synthesized by thermo philic organisms and become a component of their cellular tissues . Although not clearly understood ,

ping cycle . A series of high temperature ( 140 ° F and higher ) reactions , which support growth of microor ganisms , reduces the reactivity of carbohydrates to enzymes of the compost microflora encountered later in cropping , and increases reactivity to specific en zymes produced by the mushroom mycelium .

As

pounds are rapidly depleted , yielding intermediate compounds at first , then simple products of microbial digestion . As decomposition occurs , two major or ganic substances of higher plant origin remain in the compost: resistant compounds ( such as oils , waxes , and lignin ) and newly synthesized compounds ( such as complex polysaccharides , proteins , and lipids ) .

Another reaction in Phase I composting is the for mation of carbohydrate compounds that are pro tected from microbial digestion and thus serve as a nutrient reserve for the mushroom during the crop

of

Good compost quality is the result of a biochemical process in which organic matter is consumed by gen erations of thermophilic bacteria , actinomycetes , and fungi . Easily decomposed carbon and nitrogen com

to

microbes .

competing

,

COMPOST CHEMISTRY AND THE ROLE OF MICROORGANISMS

or

to

at

° .F

.

of

is

of

° F .

°

;

in

-

at

.

at

of

of

of

.

of

,

in

of

F

-

,

-

as

°

,

.

to

is

in

,

of

of

in

is

-

of

a

,

in

of

)

a (

in

a

.

in

of

,

be

.

of

,

,

,

,

by

,

in

.

to

II

I

or

,

.

of "

("

to

,

)

in

,

,

,

of

in

.

Compost

imbalance in

.

I,

nutrient be

a

on the microbial During succession will discussed first Phase in organic nitrogen and nitrogen organic protein are utilizing carbohy compost microbes degraded products compost energy drates the sources degradation microbial include the ammonia re plus lated compounds amine amides ammonia compounds CO2 and H2O The ammonia evolved during Phase form major fraction the food base used the thermophilic microflora during Phase However when the nitrogen content Phase com of

The effect

-

.

By

,

as

-

)

,

,

of

II .

the Phase

I

of

carbohydrate

necessary

thermophiles

,

continued

growth

of

post exceeds the amount

II

.

,

degrade pure cellulose

Fungi and Nitrogenous Components

of

.

,

in

.

12

Streptomyces

.sp

of

,

post

during cropping

a

.

of

in ,

Malbranchea

sion tions favorable

(

a

)

of

and Talaromyces general show greater cellulo Thermophilic fungi lytic ability than actinomycetes However the most actinomycetes mushroom com common genera

,

thermophila

alters the sequence succes creating condi weed and indicator molds later on

.

to

-

.

(

thermophilic fungi that can util group complex only cellulose The second forms ize less ary cellulose degraders include the fungi Stilbella

particular

thermophilic microorganisms

I

assimilate carbon source substrates with de cellulase enzymes These fungi have the ability grade crystalline pure cellulose and must precede

Myriococcum

Phase

by

,

insolens

and

new nutrient substrates and consequently favor the growth different compost organisms Third recycling during improper temperature control

in

Torula

yield Second cultural practices that lead anaero biosis during Phase Phase cause the formation

,

ef

Thermophilic ,

.

H.

,

of

as

Humicola griseus

secondary

It

-

,

of

° F,

II .

of

60

populations occur

fungal

the compost for example alters sub and nitrogen thermophilic actinomycetes bac strate utilization creating surpluses that are utilized fungi teria and compost molds Such imbalances may reduce

II

of

in

.

,

is

,

As

number

or

that desired Many factors can cause shift the der succession but only three will discussed First an imbalance the relative amounts carbon

of

ni

of

as of a

A

.

;

of

H.

and Thermoascus The rate ammo rapid process nia conversion most and the most Phase hours ficient during the first the temperature falls below 128 the greatest Mucor

part

micro ecological the occurrence succession some regime other than

by

.

,

in

group trogen for use noncellu cell synthesis lolytic fungi assist the Actinomycetes the conver sion ammonia these include Humicola launginosa

and chemical

.

of

of

-

,

II

,

source

view poor compost

microbiologist's

consequence

,

am

in

,

in

be

no

.

actinomycetes

From

by

se

a

of

two genera

commonly found absorb ammonia

mi

lular structures members the thermophylic croflora form rich reserve for Agaricus

of

of

is

II

If

.

More specifically the micro ecological succession generations during Phase thermo consists philic actinomycetes and fungi Thermoactinomycetes

fungi such

pecially linoleic acid that stimulatory mushroom Polysaccharides and protein reproduction the cel

of

dur

completed

proper succession has occurred the compost monia and simple carbon compounds will have been longer present consumed and will the com post substrate

stellata

mi

POOR QUALITY COMPOST

and the result controlled ecological thermophilic microorganisms succession which lectively utilize the remaining unstable nitrogen com pounds and easily available carbohydrates the

and Thermomonospora

nutrient trans

below 112 and most the thermophilic perish leaving crobes residue their lipid protein membranes The membranes contain fatty acids es cools

for

is

-

good compost quality

of

Formation ing Phase

impor

Most

.

.

Ecological Succession

Composting

II

Phase

are the sites

a

mushroom growth

140

.

to

a

of

to

sential

and

port into the cell and the mechanism release Following depletion products toxic metabolism nutrient substrates the compost the compost by

,

of

.

° F,

and the other browning reactions es the formation substrate specific for

cell wall membranes

-

.

of

,

a

-

die out and the heat from chemical reactions causes caramelization

112

the cellular membranes tant fungi are most elastic high range temperature this they dissolve higher temperatures and become im permeable The cellular and cooler temperatures

to

to

of

is of

I

Phase time initial substrate conversions but the the succession and action more importantly pave the way for the microbes and thermophiles higher temperature chemical reactions When tem perature rises above 140 the thermophiles start

between

the lipid protein

,

,

S.

.

,

generate additional metabolic heat through aerobic respiration and nitrifying actinomycetes keep the other ammonia below levels toxic concentration members the compost microflora

temperatures

-

of

At in

.

,

complex for reaction with nitrogen the same time cellulolytic Streptomyces thermovulgarius and rectus

that these microorganisms are bio adapted the relatively high temperature Spores propagules environment these organ Enzymes are stable isms germinate above 112 interesting

logically

of

in of

,

,

fat ,

consuming Bacillus , Flavobacterium , Pseudomonas , and Serrata species of bacteria . This latter group attacks cellulose starch and the waxy cuticle the straw Bacteria also degrade parts the lignin the the molecular straw possibly opening some sites

1

heat - loving fungi and actinomycetes may perish be fore the conversion of ammonia to microbial protein has been completed . The result is the presence of amines , amides , and ammonia in the compost sub

trient substrates can be formed , and these may favor the growth of unwanted organisms . Anaerobic com post in Phase I is caused by a lack of oxygen during the composting process . Without oxygen , the carbon

strate – these substrates support the prolific growth of mesophilic compost fungi when the compost is cooled for spawning . These fungi include the White Plaster Mold fungi, Coprinus sp . , Oedocephalum sp . ,

dioxide and hydrogen form by - products of anaerobic respiration . Formation of these compounds causes a drop in pH and temperature ; both effects are detri mental to compost quality . The anaerobic environ ment reduces efficiency and may even prevent chem ical reactions that are necessary to incorporate nitrogen into the lignin complex ; nutrient supply be comes limited and yields are reduced .

a

its

of

,

is

II )

;

Compost Temperature in

”

Improper temperature control particu recycling during Phase can lead alteration the micro ecological succession during cook out The up

in

is

.

Improper Management

an

to

of

II

to

of

is

,

degradation clothing during World War also among the soft rotters wood utilizes portions the lignin molecule for growth it

of of

,

In

the reverse situation the carbohydrate content constituents may exceed the amount the ther nitrogen necessary for continued growth mophiles and may cause the Phase die microflora carbohydrates before conversion cell substances completed The result CO2 and H2O the presence the compost

spawn . This fungus is stimulated by anaerobic condi tions in Phase II but it can , also , be a serious competi tor for nutrients in mushroom compost . Strongly cell ulolytic Chaetomium ( famous for troublesome

.

Compost

lation of the growth of Chaetomium species by anaero bic compounds during Phase II . Unknown anaerobic substances and the accumulation of CO2 in Phase II rooms with less than 16 percent oxygen support Chae growth and inhibit colonization by the tomium

, “

Fungi and the Carbohydrate Component

of

infested areas . However , cellulose has also been re moved during Coprinus metabolism , and yield poten tial of the mushroom crop has been reduced .

cores of compost ricks , but metabolites produced by the anaerobes may favor mold growth later in crop ping . The only analogy that can be made is the stimu

to

.

and on mushroom growth is not well understood . Fungal molds do not usually grow in anaerobic

of

The growth of this indicator mold removes ammonia compounds toxic to spawn growth , and the spawn often recolonizes multiple cellulase enzyme system

has not received the attention placed on aerobic spe cies , and their influence on the compost microflora

of

Coprinus sp . is a coprophilous ( dung - loving ) fun gus that benefits from unconverted nitrogenous com pounds remaining in the compost after Phase II . It is similar to S. fimicola , in that the optimum pH for growth is around 8. Coprinus utilizes the ammonium ion directly and vigorously degrades cellulose by a

The most notable of these

II

during Phase II .

.

are the sulphur - producing bacteria . Unfortunately , the role of anaerobic microbes in mushroom growing

of

growth requirements , the appearance of Scopular iopsis sp . has been associated with alkaline compost containing residual amines not converted into protein

the absence of competition

-

ions as nitrogen sources . An alkaline pH ( between 7 and 8 ) favors nitrogen assimilation . Due to these

The anaerobic substrate during Phase I is not with out life . Organisms that require no oxygen flourish in

lar ,

and Thielavia thermophila (Sporotrichum ). One of the fungi in the White Plaster Mold group is Scopulariopsis fimicola . Some fungi in the genus Scopu lariopsis degrade starch , lipid , hemicellulose , and cel lulose as energy sources , and use glucoseamine , demethylmamine , methylamine , and ammonium

of

-

in

of

.

in

60

of

a

of

of

at

is

by

At

is a

II,1

"

.

,

,

re

.

a

in

a 5 °

.

of

of

13

ac en

is

to

'

in

-

,

'

to

Due the step wise reduction the amount sim ple carbon sources these born again microbes break get carbon apart proteinaceous compounds ergy The nitrogen released about ten times that .

nu

.

to

temperature rise

the microflora has been consumed temperature can cause this time even rise surgence the thermophilic species that were domi during nant the beginning the pasteurization cycle -

a

in

.

to

to

bohydrate

,

in

of

of

II

consequence

of

on

in

.

a

Cultural practices that lead anaerobiosis during compost quality New Phase are harmful or

Recycling

.

, for

is ,

as

.

,

.

Anaerobiosis During Composting

I

“

,

by

be

.

Adsorption these compounds creates stronger foothold for the mold organisms the com greater ability compete with spawn for post and space and nutrients during cropping

ecule

.

especially after the end during Phase the first hours This near the point which most the car

-

sugars and become quite visible the compost under fungi these conditions These also use lipids var ious forms and will use components the lignin mol

,

set causes an imbalance the relative amounts carbon and nitrogen the finished compost This supports the growth imbalance consequently var ious weed and indicator fungi

of

partially digested cellulose and hemicellulose starch These may certain mesophilic utilized fungi when the compost temperature reduced Fungi such spawning Aspergillus Trichoderma simple Penicillium and Doratomyces flourish

, on the other hand , creates surpluses of certain nutrients that encourage compost molds .

quality compost

MESOPHILIC FUNGI IN MUSHROOM COMPOST AND THEIR METABOLIC TRAITS

1 ).

of

for

.

to

by

)

is

of

.

(

Chaetomium are notorious cellulose This mold fungus with the possible excep Coprinus tion the most cellulolytic the fungi found mushroom compost also utilizes xylan phenoloxi degrade lignin and has the ability dase enzymes The Olive Green Mold caused by this .

SPECIFIC NUTRIENTS NEEDED BY SPAWN AND MUSHROOMS

Poor

2 ).

(

as

,

is

to

(

),

.

is

as

;

of

an

is

,

fat

,

,

,

,

-

on

.

of

,

in

of

as

an

.sp

of

It

.

II .

,

is

.

.sp

by

re

,

in

,

or

as

a

As

is

to

3 ).

a

,

its in

,

.sp ,

.

.

for

it a

to

Its

,

4 )

(

,

,

lig

of

in

.sp

It

is

.

to

in

of

be

.

to

is

,

. 5 ).

.

,

,

)

(

-

(

It

between wood rotting Brown Plaster Mold

basidiomycetes

and

.

-

tion

is a

it is

of

Some Papulaspora species are imperfect states bas idiomycetes possible that there and connec

Penicillia

Fig

6 )

be

to

bisporus

.

A.

of

a

.

highly nutritious

cop Plaster Mold fungus Fig This mold fungus rophilous dung loving and prefers wet alkaline conditions will utilize cellulose starch and lignin .

;

.

-

to

in

-

High quality compost provides substrate specific for the growth

similar

,

the

mycelium and transported cell wall the sites construction the developing mushroom Some pro tein and lignin compounds are still used lipid and lipid related sterols that regulate reproduction are transported throughout the mycelial network assimilated

the Brown Mold fungus Fig Coprinus enzyme terms degrades cellulose fat and producing ability why the two molds are some nin and this may compost poor quality times observed together Papulaspora byssina the Brown the name given Oedocephalum

(

to

by

are absorbed

of

(

glucans

)

.

,

,

to

di

-

.

to

-

at

is

of

.

glucose building blocks

-

growth son with nitrogen content will stimulate ability vigorous utilize lignin may make competitor with Agaricus food and space is

,

of

of

major

the first break the crop occurs and the cellulose

metabolic switch fraction the compost becomes the preferred energy source The lignin fraction this point relegated secondary status Alpha cellulose and hemicellulose polysaccharides then shorter are reduced and mono saccharides As the mushrooms enlarge

a

mushroom compost environment mentioned compari high percentage simple carbohydrates

,

.

During the maturation

14

named Stysanus

formerly

microsporus

commonly known Grey Black Whisker Mold Fig The fungus has versatile enzyme producing system and the well adapted

,

growth

Doratomyces stemonitis

.

of

by

for

,

these residues are enzymatically broken down the energy and mushroom mycelium and absorbed

spe

Coprinus utilized for growth strong competitive ability mushroom

are also

vealing beds

(

,

II

,

of

thermophiles along membranes residues Phase the polysaccharide slime surrounding many

with

lignin

of

-

-

.

by

is

Lignin phenoloxidase reduced pounds and then further degraded soluble prod protein Lipid cellular and cell wall ucts laccase

connection

ammonia

cifically residual ammonia after Phase This group fungi vigorously breaks down cellulose and culti vated commercially for straw degradation Lipids and its

in

fraction

the compost phenolic com

.

the cellulose by

to

preference

to to of

-

of

by

,

,

A.

bisporus removes nitrogen spawn run however lignin lignin degradation products rich and

indicator

is

.

During the

has been mentioned

-

,

in

the

pres

Coprinus

with Ink Cap fungi

,

by

its

life cycle evidenced compost extracts enzymes

of

ence

as ,

,

,

throughout

,

.

of

these major nutrients during production the mushroom crop Mushroom mycelium absorbs xylan phosphate protein and laminarin starch

zation

-

.

on

)

a

.

of

(

,

of

of of A.

needs

gus shows positive cellulase amylase and lipase ac respec degrading cellulose starch and tively will rapidly recolonize overly pasteurized casing soil and possibly feeds heat killed cells other members the soil microflora tivity

of

.

in

,

at

somewhat the the nutritional each Studies bisporus have revealed differential utili

.

is

,

rot

-

,

-

lose from woody tissue but vary considerably the which they attack these substrates relative rates Some basidiomycetes remove lignin much more rap

depending

poor compost quality the indicator mold will compete for the same nutrients the mushroom mycelium and thus undesirable Chromelosporium for fulva Peziza ostrachoderma merly named Ostrachoderma peziza many known growers The fun Cinnamon Brown Mold Fig fungus

clas Agaricus bisporus the commercial mushroom basidiomycetes The sified among the white white rot basidiomycetes utilize both lignin and cellu

idly than cellulose original amounts

in

species All species their degradation (

and

globosum

in

.

on

is

.

C.

C.

-

of

clude

production

enzyme

Chaetomium Fig olivaceum

It

.

recycling

available

compost invading fungi

of

of

a

for

by

is

nium ions use when the temperature Cap fungi benefit from

,

straws ammo unwanted mesophilic fungi spawning Ink reduced

Some information

of

to

on

solution the compost supply provides and

,

a

rise

for in

monia causes

pH

goes into

.

of

-

in

,

-

for

tually consumed by the microbes ; the excess is liber ated into the environment in the form of ammonia . At this time , the compost temperature is well be ammonia loving thermophilic acti low optimum nomycetes and relatively little carbohydrate remains support certainly not enough the compost organisms high populations these The excess am

are opportunistic fungi known for

coa

I

10μ

10u

Inflated branches

Spherical spores on pegs

Lemon shaped

-

to

.

on

;

on

to

or

woodwork

straws

each

stalk

,

in

.

of

-

to

.

on

Hyphae

microsporus

form upright stalks

feather like head dark spores Col resembling bristles onies grey black bears

a

,

;

end

3.

interwoven compost

compost

.

.

FIGURE

compost

in

on

terminal

Doratomyces

Conidio-

forming longated spherical swollen branches spores borne Colonies minute pegs white when young turning yellow gold at

branched

of

2.

casing

fulva

surface

,

.

-

;

.

Tufts bristles spherical fruiting structures lemon shaped spores are produced inside

Chromelosporium

phores grow upright ;

post

FIGURE

or

in -

.

the surface

of

burrs form

-e

Olive green straw comprotrude from the

Chaetomium olivaceum

of on

FIGURE

1.

spores

.

-

cinnamon brown with age

Chains

of

|

10μ

Oval spores

10u

spores

504

I

Inflated cell

.sp

or

; ,

,

of

,

,

,

.

-g

be on

,

brown

15

.

yellow

or .

-

aa

of

-

,

.

of

in

6.

of of

on

tuft

become

be

young

,

when

Conidiophores arise Penicillium singly from straws the compost from spawn grains Upper portion conidio forming brush like head phore branches branches bear groups flask shaped cells long chain spores each supporting Spores may spherical oval smooth warty depending species Colonies usually green but can blue reen white FIGURE

,

white mycelium brown with age

straws

a

.

Masses

or

.

,

to

.

,

byssina

,

mi-

.

.

borne

5.

.sp

spores

Papulaspora

spherical fruiting structures form compost Structures arise from .

oval

nute pegs Colonies silvery white when young turn light coffee brown with age

FIGURE in

end

Conidiophores casing Enlarged cell on

terminal

compost

or

on

Oedocephalum

,

at

FIGURE upright

4.

Flask shaped cells

Roughened spherical spores

Spores

Boo Segmented hyphae

10μ 10μ Rod shaped spores

form tufts . Conidiophores have branched side branches ; whorls of usually three flask - shaped cells bear compact clus spherical green ters of spores . Spores and minutely roughened Colonies white when young turn dark green with age .

,

,

areas

,

tip

at

on

FIGURE 9.Trichoderma viride . White mycelium may grow on compost or casing . Fruiting

[

Smooth oval spores

10u

.

-

.

FIGURE 8. Sporendonema purpurescens . Grows on compost or casing . Mycelium irregularly segment branched , branches into rodshaped spores . Colonies , white when young , usually turn pink with age .

or of

and

or

short

.

fimicola . Conidioirregularly branched . Flask - shaped cells scattered along hyphae ; each supports a chain of white spores . Spores narrowed slightly at each end , but distinctly flattened at the base ; characteristic rings folds are present spore bearing cell Colonies compost casing are usually snow white 7.

phores

,

Scopulariopsis

FIGURE

are

Rings

Spore chains

1/4

"

Inflated

tip

Flask shaped cells

.

in

8

microsporus

.

12.

sac

in

,

spore

sac

of

,

a

oil

.

in

,

.

spherical spores Colonies velvety green dark green and become almost black with

Diehliomyces

-

is

swollen and bears series shaped cells which support long chains

FIGURE

spores

Cream white mycelium aggregate into cot tony brain shaped fruiting bodies com post casing Smooth golden brown droplet spores each containing central groups eight inside the are produced or

of

.

flask

ConidioUpright

,

.

11.

terminal end

age

16

fumigatus

.

.

,

.

at

.

,

of

in

five

Aspergillus

phores arise singly from compost

,

cells

Spores are oval and smooth Colonies white first turn light green but never become dark green whorls

FIGURE

-

Grows

Similar arranged

to of

-

viride except flask shaped

to T. on

woodwork

.

,

,

koningii

.

Trichoderma

compost casing

are

FIGURE

or

10.

8

I

10M

re

af

be

in

.

fungi that have caused this condition are microsporus and Aspergillus fumigatus Fig

11 ).

,

(

.

Doratomyces

growing this mold shows the most selective enzyme abilities Species this genera utilize only certain degrade starch cellulolytic very but fats are not

If

car

.

to

in

Examples

8 )

(

of

,

is

.sp ,

of

.

.

.

on

be

by

It

post Rapid growth rates some compost fungi may generate enough metabolic heat kill the spawn this occurs the saprophytic fungi will then utilize bohydrates the cells the dead spawn mycelium

has been discussed This fungus overly composted manure thrives Sporendomena purpurescens the current name for Geotrichum the Lipstick Mold fungus Fig Among the weed fungi associated with mushroom

,

Mold fungi

of

ter

room - growing substrates and their ability to compete for cellulose , starch , fat, and lignin . Scopulariopsis fimicola ( Fig 7 ) , one of the White Plas

.

by

of

utilizes secondary products cellulose hydrolysis leased upon cellulose degradation other fungi directly must added that spawn may compost molds fected the growth the com

of

6

utilization of simple carbohydrates . Diverse enzyme production characterizes their adaptability to mush

of

in

12 ),

(

is

.

.

of

a

.

as

,

but

.

a

,

of

of

Its

Disease complex disrupts spawn protoplasm activity brings about brown discoloration the rhizo yield morphs and loss marked Other compost molds such the yellow molds

,

,

,

ley

(

.

13 ),

of

cel

.sp

of

.

10 )

(

does not attack pure cellulose

/

of

.

as

as

to 9 )

Fig

be

.

of

that disrupts Agaricus metabolism The toxin diffuses into the compost and inhibits spawn growth Fig Oidiodendron member the Vern Ast

inhabitants acid soils Trichoderma pure degrades Fig and has two cellulose viride hydrolyze the more simple products enzymes cellulose breakdown On the other hand Trichoderma koningii

in

.

.

by to

by

-

and

(

lulose

of

a

ap

up

in

is

,

as

in

of

the

vigorous degraders

,

is

It

.

environments will produce toxins that will dissolve mushroom cell walls Trichoderma Spot and Tricho derma Stipe are symptoms this host pathogen Fig Diehliomyces microsporus teraction the causal agent Truffle disease another toxin producer

Trichoderma species are well adapted substrates their diverse evidenced mushroom compost enzyme producing abilities and the observations most mushroom growers They are known outside

mushroom industry

to

,

,

.

do

,

,

.

in

pathogens Certain mold fungi considered may the mushroom excrete extracellular metabolite inhibitors that diffuse into the compost and inhibit acidic spawn growth Strains Trichoderma viride

possible that specific substrate requirements are reason for the common belief that the mold often pears when chicken manure making used the compost

10μ

roughened

spores

5р

|

Large

Connecting spores

10μ Swollen cells

2

Warty

of

Short chains

spores

.sp

to

,

of

at

on

-

Illustrations

the author

.

,

,

tan with age

.

.

on

or

,

15.

.

on

are

of

.

14.

.

are

Loosely branched Figure Sepedonium mycelium bear large spherical distinctly sculptured yellow brown spores ends compost are branches Colonies grow white when young and turn dull yellow

by

age

-

.

,

-

Branches

or .

on

upper portion branched segment into rod shaped rounded spores with connectives between light spores The slow growing colonies grey when young and darken slightly with

irregularly

Figure Chrysosporium luteum Irregularly compost Small branched mycelium grow oval spores borne irregularly swollen cells short chains two three spores may produced Colonies white when young turn yellow with age .

are

;

,

the base

be

Tree like conidi-

.sp

Oidiodendron

brown and warty

at

,

FIGURE ophores

13.

Secondary spores

.

1

17

Chrysosporium

luteum

( Mat

disease )

( Fig

14 ) ,

C. mer

darian ( Confetti ) , and Sepedonium sp . ( Fig 15 ) , are sus

pected of producing metabolically antagonistic sub stances . However , these and many other fungi have not been investigated in terms of their ability to pro duce these substances .

organisms

occurring

during compost processing

de

termines in large part the value of the compost for mushroom production . An alteration in the optimal activity can ecological succession of microbiological be caused by many factors and usually will favor the

composting

growth of detrimental competitor molds during crop ping . Knowledge of the interactions between biolog ical and chemical agents can aid the mushroom grower in refining cultural practices for the end result the yield potential of a mushroom of maximizing

compost

crop .

SUMMARY activity associated with mushroom can be monitored for an evaluation of quality . The micro - ecological succession of

The biological

18

Diseases , Weed Molds , Indicator Molds , and Abnormalities of the Commercial Mushroom C.L. Harvey , P.J. Wuest

and L.C. Schisler

In

5 ).

,

of

is of

.

,

in V.

of

,

-b

is

(

or

.

be .

A of

a

or

a

.

-

-

.

of

V.

by of

a

is

;

-

to

,

,

of

as

.

be

on

.

in be on

If

.

is

.

to

do

a

is

by

of

to

,

or

,

of

.

a

of

.

contamination

on

,

,

concentration can accumulate dropped mushrooms infested cas floors because ing and the like Mites and mushroom flies with spores adhering their legs and abdomen are vec ,

a

as

, is

do

source

High inoculum

of

.

,

3 )

or

,

(

.

ten

from

.

of

of

peeling back

other

to

to

,

of

or

Splitting occurs Fig

the infected stem and lesions may not develop This stipe blowout symptom stem splitting one that many mushroom growers not recognize con tilts

house flies are present they spread the pathogen than any dispersal agent Unwashed picking baskets epidemic can also farm where Verticillium

side mushroom probably more

of

)

(

of

.

.

to 2 )

to

(

Infection the stem stipe causes stop growing The noninfected cells infected cells elongate and the stem thus bends continue wards the site infection and the mushroom cap

they move throughout cropping area Splash dis persal fungal spores while watering use inade quately treated infested casing and inoculum the hands and tools mushroom pickers seem spread common routes which the pathogen

a

greyish the fun

infection sites insects air currents and These materials act carriers inoculum transported which can soil particles and water droplets Workers can further distribute the pathogen

a

a

of

develop evidence

ported

dust

,

at

of

on

is

which

common sign the disease fungicola are trans

as

.

At to

be to .

lesions

-

,

most cast

or

a

-

gal

.

of

,

at

sporulates bloom spores Fig

this

Mycelium and spores

be

(

–

.

of

,

,

a

,

If

.

the

button stage depressed necrotic tissue often devel ops the cap When the Verticillium fun the edge color

by

.

– en

is

as

be

as

)

(

pileus will brown leading diagnosis times Verticillium bacterial blotch develop portions will cause brownish cast confused with bacterial the cap and this too can

gus

.

in

in

.

A

tire bubble

the mushroom cap possible incorrect

infection occurs when mushrooms are

6 )

.

is

of

-

-

most

by

.

of

,

V.

1 ).

coalesce

rooms should Yield losses occur Pennsylvania dry bubble Fig growers call this symptom bubble puffball Infected mushroom pins develop into shapeless cap like malformation with stunted

stem ten indistinguishable from the mushroom dull grey white bloom the spores covers the en

verticillium spot the most common symptom Fig Cinnamon brown spots necrotic lesions develop on the mushroom cap These spots may large and coalesce the mushroom cap enlarges

blotch

)

of

to

is

Two major symptom groups are associated with fungicola fection by and the disease named ac superfi cordance with the nature the symptom cap cial infection the maturing mushroom

When lesions

characterized The second major symptom group puffball like masses where the developing mush -

to a

is

it

of

or is

specific time not restricted any specific type restricted casing material mushroom strain Significant yield present losses occur when this disease

room cap tissues accompanied the appearance fungicola spores and spore earing structures sporophore common when infection occurs early development mushroom

(

Its

,

Verticillium disease is the most significant fungal induced disease on the mushroom farms of North severity

(

a

as

a

Not known

nor

of

at

a

.

hairlip Fig depressed lesion which looks like fected cap tissue becomes dry and leathery and de greyish cast velops the pathogen colonizes the internal tissues Discoloration the internal mush

OUTDATED NAMES : Verticillium malthousei, Acrostalagmus fungicola , Cephalosporium constantinii

America . the year

is

,

Brown spot ,

4 )

(

of

to

.

of

,

of

COMMON NAMES : Verticillium disease Fungus spot , Dry bubble , La môle THE PATHOGEN : Verticillium fungicola

of

Verticillium Disease

A

longitudinal sequence Verticilliium infection streak from cap base stem Fig another symptom Verticillium disease and indicates pres sence stem infection An infection the edge the mushroom cap usually produces nongrowing

MUSHROOM DISEASES

PERFECT STAGE :

,

19

Verticillium spores and mycelium on the beds , and promptly remove and dispose of infected mushrooms from the growing room . If disease symptoms appear on first -break mush

mon name for the disease wet bubble relates the liquid on the surface amber droplets the bubble golf ball Wet bubbles range from one half the size

,

(

).8

,

to

,

-

a

of

.

of

of

,

(

9 ).

of

to

by

.

be

so

,

)

,

.

a

;

in

(

.

a

so as

do

a

on

.

in

or

,

,

in

or

to

,

of

,

is a

M.

of

.

,

,

in

air

a

in

of

be

of

,

,

in

,

or

in

air

occurs via spore dispersal currents water drop hangers plus other lets flies dirty picking baskets disseminating agents mentioned connection with

Verticillium

The appearance

Mycogone disease

on

first break

indicates the casing contained the pathogen be during the casing operation came contaminated delayed until second When disease occurrence crop third break later the the inoculum has or

bed surfaces and mushrooms

the wooden

perniciosa consists spores and Inoculum transported house into which can contaminated casing dust currents mushroom flies workers and equipment Once infected mush the pathogen rooms appear subsequent spread

of

cover

crevices

mycelium

.

all

Infection and disease can be prevented . Routine dusting with 15 % Zineb is one approach to protection of the mushrooms ; to be effective , the dust must

and

,

rooms arises from infection at the time of first break so maintaining a Verticillium - free crop requires action well in advance of symptom appearance . Verticillium spot will develop within 7 days following inoculation by flies or water droplets .

,

debris cracks bedboards

.

mize pathogen spread . One key to Verticillium control is recognition that 10 to 14 days will pass from time of infection before symptoms appear . Verticillium on third - break mush

dormancy field soil other fungi room parasite wild mushrooms and M. The fungus perniciosa live on mushroom has been reported in

( 15 %

rather

mush dust ) to mini

.

rooms with sodium hypochlorite

,

,

mushrooms are removed by a trashing crew than the pickers , or by dusting the infected

as

of

occurred at pin

ning ; inoculum may have blown in , been carried in by flies , or have come with the casing . The losses dur ing later breaks can be reduced if infected first - break

,

sign that inoculation

, it is a

large not get

,

rooms

grapefruit Dry bubbles Verticillium large dry bubbles range size between large grape Unlike wet bubbles pea and that dry bubbles not change from white the brown felty exterior size and color can accurate differ entiators between dry and wet bubble Mycogone perniciosa survives apart from the mush do to

mushroom flies, neutralize

to

brown color and cause the infected mushroom become tan colored Fig As the disease progresses drops containing liquid amber bacteria and spores Fig appear on the infected mushroom The com in

tors for the pathogen . Nonharvested mushrooms or portions of mushroom remaining on the casing ( " trash " ) are also reservoirs of inoculum . To minimize fungus , destroy the distribution of the Verticillium

or

is

,

by

,

air

,

or

,

,

12

is

for wet bubble

about

is

(

,

,

,

-

)

.

.

of

.

bit

a

development

symptom

days Disease control best accomplished through hygenic work practices also true for Verticillium trashing beds pasteurizing disease the casing washing picking baskets and hangers etc.

-

be

is

it

,

,

reducing the numbers Mycogone disease har vestable mushrooms can cause significant yield loss The disease can occur wherever mushrooms are grown but more easily managed than Verticil may lium and thus less threatening mal Mycogone infected become mushrooms ,

in

or

perniciosa

.

Hypomyces

or

,

dirty usually been introduced flies currents picking baskets hangers workers contaminated watering hoses The time between inoculation and

Mycogone perniciosa by

STAGE

:

PERFECT

:

THE PATHOGEN

Wet bubble

,

:

,

COMMON NAMES Mycogone disease môle

La

.

Mycogone Disease

,

,

:

:

Dactylium

dendroides

Cladobotryium PERFECT

,

:

,

OUTDATED NAMES Nectria albertinii Nectria rosella dendroides

STAGE

Hypomyces

rosellus

,

it

all

,

at .

as

a

as

a

at

It

.

be

at

Hypomyces disease occasionally occurs mush can viewed minor disease usually occurs infrequently few farms However room farms

of

a

,

of

.

it

at

may occur about the farms small number overnight develop same time Mildew can and spread great number making mushrooms them a

-

-

;

THE PATHOGEN

to

–

of

of

.

-

mildew Cobweb Soft

,

)

(

a

.

at

,

20

COMMON NAMES Dactylium mildew Soft decay

:

, a

an

M.

by

,

of

perniciosa apparently Infection mushrooms occurs when the mushroom initials pins begin form ing the casing surface Following infection the pathogenic fungus grows into and over the mush visible white and sometimes cot room producing tony felt textured mycelium Mycogone perniciosa pro spores duces two kinds the first are small like those Verticillium and produce the white felt tex tured mycelium the second are thick walled and

Hypomyces Mildew Disease ,

tis

-

of

or

7 ).

,

(

,

,

or

formed with swollen stipes reduced deformed puffball like caps undifferentiated masses sue Fig These mycelial masses become necrotic wet soft rot may follow and offensive odor may develop

un

as a

,

–

of

T.

in

by

at

a

),

(

12 ).

,

a

in

.

-

develops

-

that

le

).

.

.

a

.

the discolored tissue koningii pathogen causes mildew which usually appears during the later stages the picking cycle between third break and the end Trichoderma

of

of

,

18

to

is

,

.

.

a

sporulates

a

,

all

( 8

of

.

)

in

in

its

rooms , it spreads over the casing and infects path Patches mushrooms mildew inches diameter often appear and mushrooms within this circle are infected and unsaleable Such patches may appear throughout the growing room lacking discernable pattern Mildew mycelium

,

all

stage

reddish brown

dry sunken cap sions form the mushroom The lesions are usually deep and penetrate into the mushroom The fungus pathogen then grows into the dead tissue and (

rather

on pins , or on mushrooms at any in the crop . Once the fungus infects mush

spontaneously

room tissue Tissue death results mahogany brown discoloration along the stem stipe Noncoalescing on

first break

or appear

,

on

before

-

casing

barren

a

mycelium which spreads over casing and mushrooms alike within 12 hours . The pathogen may grow over

to

Dactylium dendroides , the fungal pathogen , devel a conspicuous cottony growth of wefting

ops into

Fig The mold growth starts from dead mushroom tissue but spreads rapidly over and onto

the Trichoderma species more evident than that sage green spores can viride but clusters served the surface the mushrooms When pres

.

of of

14 ).

of

a

a

, .

-

to

to

14

by

.

be

of

of

a

,

it

,

-

as

.

growth

mildew can

ef

spot and Trichoderma

be

Trichoderma

.

,,

such wooden surfaces untreated ladders and interior doors High humid .

favors

be

of

on

be

is

T.

(

.

;

and casing there are two species that lig farming Trichoderma viride affect mushroom

pears

bedboards

,

be

of

–

,

-

in

to 2

1

,

.

preferred food spores are the red Pygmy these mite and the presence the harvested mush mites reduces the quality rooms red pepper mites are present one can sure Trichoderma also present even though may not obvious Trichoderma green mold also ap pepper

,

in

fungi are extremely common soils and encountered during mushroom pro isolated Trichoderma can duction Many forms frequently .

or

or

,

at

,

-

in

lignorum

Hypocrea

Trichoderma

from compost

days

Trichoderma

If

Trichoderma

in

)

of

meal

green mold appressed the casing surface appear and turn bright green several days Spawn may eventually colonize such infested casing and produce delayed mushrooms but production will

its

:

PERFECT STAGE

bed

propen

will grow from compost infested areas into the cas ing Large diameter circular colonies feet

.

:

OUTDATED NAME

no

-

,

(

or

as

a

,

seed

)

koningii

in

on

-

is

)

T.

of (

in

is

).

(

.

cotton

(

:

,

,

:

,

NAMES Trichoderma spot Trichoderma blotch Trichoderma mildew Green mold Trichoderma viride Trichoderma THE PATHOGENS COMMON

under sup

ground SpawnMate Super Spawn not uniformly distributed spawning Once Trichoderma mold has colonized the compost soybeans

21

Diseases

ob

be

.

-

of of

is

.

or

of

on

,

T.

in

(

These fungi quickly colonize areas with carbohydrates

compost Some Trichoderma isolates have sity for colonizing supplements clod

ity

Trichoderma

.

to

4

3

by

at a

of

,

(

on

.

in

of

all

.

Fig 15,16 plemented

-

;

it

if

of

mold

it

is

at

.

be

,

is

of air

.

90

F

65 °

appears benzimidazole fungicides are not used too frequently Maintaining high sanitation on the farm and farm opera mildew tions may prevent the occurrence effective levels

de

sporulating Fig evident viride and other Trichoderma species indicator weed molds flourish the compost molds when carbohydrates are available when nitrogen supplemented compost with sufficient not mycelium Strains

.

as

in

of

,

,

and tempera Dactyl development factors ium Mildew disease When the relative humidity percent and temperatures exceed greater than Dactylium Mildew after casing the spread favored Disease control should focused the mil

inches per day

compost early ent the casing the cropping sequence koningii causes superficial purple brown spots first break mushrooms but the caps

of

,

–

.

,

of

-

or

.

so

H.

by

as

of

High humidity water condensation

ture are significant

dew when

,

,

,

mycelium

of

in or

,

be

present

.

,

can

of

the fungus patho any mushroom the vicinity parasitized farm Wild mushrooms rosellus will harbor the pathogen will field soil both are primary inoculum Inadequately pasteur sources spent compost ized casing soil can also harbor propagules the mildew fungus which act reser voirs for this pathogen

Inoculum spores

rate

Mushrooms overgrown this mildew quickly velop soft wet rot The white downy mycelium a

(

).

,

of

;

.

descriptive gen

live mushrooms

T.

.

ap de

.

,

or

a

a

to

or

appropriately called cobweb mildew soft decay mildew the latter two terms are the most

soft

13 )

been

It

the crop

to

initially diffuse colored grey becomes white moderately dense with age and sometimes develops yellow hue Infected mushrooms rosy red velop soft wet rot and pins and buttons often Fig 10,11 This disease has pear like balls cotton

are

:

pathogen the casing

.

is not controlled .

may appear dark green any time during crop produc tion Mushrooms areas occupied viride die and show signs the sporulating fungus the dark green mold Fig The fungus purportedly secretes toxin into the casing which kills the living mush norum mold

on

within a few days . Significant yield losses will result if the spread of dactylium mildew disease saleable

21

mize its occurrence

in overheated compost , but Truffle can also appear in composts that have been maintained at the ideal tem 74 ° to 76 ° F. perature for spawn growth Soil is the major source of D. microsporus , yet not soils contain this mushroom pathogen Contamina compost with soil harboring microsporus tion

-

all

fectively controlled with dithiocarbamate and ben zimidazole fungicides, but careful preparation of compost plus thorough farm sanitation should mini .

to

in

-

.hr

8

.

of

,

a

.

,

-

-

,

:

:

,

:

,

,

,

:

.sp ,

of

)

(

de - of

.sp

, a

to

,

19 ). at

(

,

C. to

at

or

C.

-

its

.

is

,

at

,

C. is

of C.

,

a

in

)

(

in

of

.

a

of

(

),

A

,

3

C. to

as 2

as

of

in

as

a

of of

as

.

,

as

-

is

or

to

a at

it 83 ° F )

(

is

,

,

/

be

Presence

,

).

of

be cir in

or to of

.

an

D.

of -

no

is

Sepedonium

Chrysosporium luteum

yel gris Mat disease Vert which corky mycelial layer develops low brown the inter face between compost and casing Fig Texture growth habit and color very similar luteum that mushroom spawn making luteum difficult detect during spawn run and even times up usually noticed after first break Mat disease luteum develops stroma like morphology the compost casing interface luteum binds when compost straws together over large areas which early may occur weeks after spawning closely related fungus merdarian M. sulphurea few weeks causes Confetti disease After spawn growth Confetti appears small individual spore laden colonies with diameter about 1/16 inch or yellow yellow green flecks mold the compost appear initially fungi Fig tufts small Both results

20

,

on

a

,

.

disease found only when the compost has overheated during the spawn growing period but this not question that Truffle has appeared true There

group which also includes

and Sporotrichum -

.

in

.

af

by

is

.

by

A

.

affected warm compost temperature encour ages the growth microsporus but will grow maintained even when compost temperature lower Some farmers consider Truffle be

group

to

to a

-

a

or

,

,

yellowish cast and die before infested area have reaching harvestable size The amount compost limited isolated fested the pathogen may tray can cular patches although entire bed

Myceliopthora fungi are the most The Chrysosporium devastating mushroom pathogens the yellow mold

(

.

(

of

to 6

3

.

of

fected compost and the compost appears soggy production sunken and abnormally dark brown drops sharply Mushrooms that form the edge

or

Chrysosporium merdarian Myceliopthora OUTDATED NAMES Myceliopthora lutea sulphurea Sporotrichum pannorum and Chrysosporium sulphurea IMPERFECT STAGE Thielavia Gymnoascus Arthroderma others suggested ;

of

.

of is

-

to

,

in D.

,

) as . it

18

or

or

1

in

to

in up

to in

–

1/4

-

or

by

(

of

)

brown mass dissolves into reddish brown ooze Spawn growth markedly inhibited the pres ence the Truffle fungus Spawn disappears

an

COMMON NAMES Mat disease Vert de gris Confetti THE PATHOGEN Chrysosporium luteum and

,

,

of

D.

,

or

.

-

.

weeks following formation

and mature the fruit body Spores are liberated from the closed fruit powdery body when the truffle disintegrates

F

any debris from

.

in

-

or

In

brain like fruiting bodies characteristic Truffle They may appear singly inch diam eter several aggregates may coalesce form larger fruiting bodies diameter Fruit inch ing bodies are located the compost on the casing ready for surface the time first second break creamy the fruit white color The harvest Fig body changes ages rusty white Spores asco spores microsporus form inside the fruit body voluted

°

to

Mat and Confetti Diseases

of

one week the wefts aggregate without definite pattern from tangled knots microsporus form hyphae Gradually the aggregates develop into con

75

.

-

-

.

5

,

to

is

or

F

wharves with concrete during this era Once these areas were covered with concrete sanitization was

thorough washing off reduced concrete slabs

.

be of tol

,

F of

°

.

-

to °

2

of

the 1930s and 1940s paving composting

grey white color spawn found growing appressed compost on the

22

is

D.

of

of

this disease the emphasis

on in

a

in

of

of of

,

its

.

-

17 )

;

it

(

sanitized wood

.

was reflected

sideboards the surface bed this fun compost Fig The creamy white color wefting growth habit contrasts with the gus with ,

in

in a

air

on

will grow

inadequately

pathogen The severity

or

,

-

.

of

vive peak heat during Phase Two composting and germinate when the spawn starts growing Wefts creamy white nonsporulating mycelium can rapidly grow either through the spaces between compost space straws into the between the compost and

growing only way rooms Once the disease occurs the elim pasteurize the compost and inate from farm higher for woodwork 160 Air drying woodwork for months may also eradicate the harbored

at a

- in

,

,

in

.

of it

to

crop failure when occurs commercial mushroom crop Spores this soil habiting fungus when present compost can sur

it .

microsporus

,

,

caused by Diehliomyces

will usually lead

of

is

microspora

Truffle disease

unpaved composting wharves Such soil found bales straw muddied during harvest trans storage Spores port the fungus are heat erant and can survive 180 for hours Inoculum mycelium and spores this pathogen can also ,

Truffle disease

the occurrence on

the usual cause

:

:

:

THE PATHOGENS OUTDATED NAME Pseudobalsamia IMPERFECT STAGE Not known

3

Truffle disease

microsporus

or in

Diehliomyces

or

:

,

COMMON NAMES False truffle

of

.

Truffle Disease

–

a

of in ,

-

.

of

at

in

.

a

is

air is

)

.

;

aa

–

to air

.

a

as

so

.

is

air ,

.

air air

,

en

so

;

,

.

'

the

-

tem

it

aa

a

to

is

. If -

forced ventilation heating coil after must pass through a

° F )

many

system

,

found

is in to

°

(

pipes

it

the

heating

air

perimeter

a

.

,

b )

,

(

through

growing rooms

In

,

the spots

to air

.

in .

-

a

on

favor the disease

if

3

2

or

-

conditions

and coalesce sometimes covering the entire mushroom cap Fig 22a Mushroom stems can also

coming from transpiration air cooled perature lower than desired and then reheated few degrees can hold more moisture and mushroom surfaces will dry This heating operation accom plished circulating hot water 110 120

.

a

).

(

to 21

,

no

,

on ,

–

. or

If 1

moisture

enlarge

vironmental and surface moisture conditions disease reproduc pathogens control requires inhibiting tion the mushroom surface Air will dry the mush room surfaces can hold the additional moisture

.

,

,

G

,

of

be

,

of

to

yellow grey watersoaked and grey Blotches usually appear when the mushrooms are the early button stage but can appear mushrooms any age harvested refrigerated mush even rooms mushrooms over wrapped with water tight film pear

–-

as

a

,

of or

if

do

of

or

is

superficial discoloration more than mm deep and the underlying mushroom tissue may ap

in

,

a

is

of

of .

,

that are pale yellow initially but which later become golden yellow rich chocolate brown Fig This

active mushroom growth transpiration

cool surface Slight fluctuations few temperature during cropping can cause the air vascillate between the saturation point and not being saturated even though the abso lute water vapor content remains constant Warm holds more water vapor than cool the temperature increases the air becomes less saturated with water vapor the inverse also true With Bacte strongly influenced by rial blotch disease being

it

on

Bacterial blotch may endemic mushroom farms damaging mushroom quality and posing potential yield loss Presence probable the disease the surfaces the mushrooms not dry following wa tering irrespective the season Pseudomonas fluorescens biotype the pathogen causes the formation lesions on mushroom tissue

room due produces degrees

by

Phytomonas

tolaasi

on

G

tolaasii

dis

by

a

.

or

or

on

a

the outer surface any stage both growth development mushroom Bacteria splashed onto mushroom surface will reproduce moist conditions such occur when water con denses remains on the mushroom surface for

,

Bacterium

be

,

tolassi

),

on

by

at

62

to

of

Bacterial blotch can develop cap stem

mushroom

air

:

OUTDATED NAMES Pseudomonas

,

P.

:

biotype

fluorescens

,

in

.

,

by

and mushroom flies and nematodes Recent observations suggest compost with moisture percent spawning precondi content less than tions mushrooms blotch infection

(

Bacterial spot THE PATHOGEN

of

(

on

of .

is ,

of

cedes disease occurrence Once the disease occurs splash blotch causing bacteria are spread persal during watering upon tools used pickers

number hours Condensation forms when satura present and warmer than ted with water vapor the cap surface The cap surface cooler than the sur rounding when water transpires from the mush

Brown blotch

,

:

,

COMMON NAMES Bacterial blotch

as

a

is

even after pasteurization Oc associated with the size the bacterial population the mushroom cap pileus rather than the population the casing which ex plains why prolonged wet period the cap pre most casing material currence disease

,

.

, 2

–

air

4

to

Bacterial Blotch Disease

or

or

.

air -

borne dust are the primary means

of

from spores by filtering particles larger than 3 mi crons from the the spores are unusually small by microns free

in

,

6

to

,

of If 4 or

Casing and

and trashers

include preventing field soil from washing onto the composting wharf , using clean baled straw or hay , pasteurizing the compost before it is emptied , and keeping the spawning area Disease - control methods

at

,

operation .

the

introducing the blotch pathogen into mushroom probably present house The bacterial pathogen

on

horse manure is used , pathogen - infested soil is carried in on straw bales , or pathogen -contaminated runoff water flows over a composting slab . The path ogen produces copious spores , which can be carried by air currents to soil - storage and cropping areas . Great masses of spores are released when the com post is broken up during the emptying ( dumping )

caps may crack radially

infected

mushroom expands

compost

contaminate

.

developed

a

may

crevices clusters mush wherever mushroom caps remain wet for longer after water has been hours very dry conditions occur after blotch has

.

spores

rooms period applied

near the edge

the contact points between

-

Chrysosporium

not completely pasteurized during Phase II , or they may contaminate casing soil . Buildup of these molds at a mushroom farm can also occur when infested

2

observed

mushroom caps two mushroom caps

,

postcrop sanitation can lead to a farm - wide problem if these pathogens are not eradicated between crops .

to 5

Typically spotting of

As aa rule , growers become aware of either fungus only after production decreases occur in scattered areas . A grower is well -advised after cropping to search through the compost in each growing room to determine if either fungus is present. Inadequate i

similarly

be blemished

or on

then change to a yel

,

.

at at is .

white hyphae in the compost

low color

has 23

bit

of

is

.

in

,

to .

ap

it

at

all

Mummy Disease '

'

, '

X -

,

,

La

La

It

.

a

of

of

to

.

of

of

or

,

all

of

a

of

,

its

of

of

of

.

,

.

is

La

;

.

a

in

in

,

in

,

as

as

,

In

of

)

(

.

be

.

;

-

an

.

be

in

of

,

) .

(

: i )

.

a

is

by

of

ii )

);

or

(

a

of

iv )

(

);

iii )

);

to

in

-

a

wet soft rot which causes the decompose few days Fig 26b dwarfing Fig 260 premature early maturation opening development the veil Fig 26d an mushroom

(

of

to

;

vii )

;

a

;

v vi ) )

a

elongated spindly stem with small cap formation gills mal thickened stem with thin flat cap completely absent and sym formed absence metry during development from pins mushrooms ,

-

are often off white

Cutting

or

).

Infected mushrooms tan color Fig 26f (

Fig 26e

ashen

in

a

.

.

of

to

on

be it is

is

on

.

a

in

,

,

of

to

in

,

on

to

;

dying followed

of

ex

or

.

-

in

)25 . .

,

a

is

of

(

At

24

Fruiting below fected areas appear normal Fig 26a symptom the casing surface common rapid Symptoms diseased mushrooms include

or

,

in

,

;

-

Mummy disease seems endemic certain farms which suggests growers can nurture their crops develop manner that seems allow this disease the vast majority farms however the disease appears without prediction Mummy can appear growing room where the crop coming quite strongly when this occurs not uncommon for the good even though there harvest from the room producing patches are bare the surface the bed

my

occur producing well defined barren areas the en tire casing surface may bare Mushrooms growing the perimeter barren spots have abnormal appearance although mushrooms growing unaf

).

as

,

if

as

,

a

,

.

mushrooms the mushrooms produced die are tremely abnormal appearance and texture An Mummy delay other symptom first break picking except delay but for the the mushrooms appear normal Fig Typical Mummy symptoms appear by second break

vigor Infected mycelium may appear normal color and density before casing but growth into the casing may restricted time the mushroom celium disappears dieback from the casing well the compost Suppression mushroom fruiting may

or

-

).

.

,

in be

tom development localized area radial spread begins and the disease eventually affects the entire production surface moving much one foot per day Infected areas produce few any saleable

Only the most consistent symptoms are described Numerous false symptoms exist France disease forthcoming section described more detail ,

,

(

,

is

,

spongy dry and leathery mummified The myce although lium also infected but appears normal rhizomorphs can Following coarse initial symp

type symptom manifesting presence the disease depends upon the strain mushroom involved and development the stage environmental condi tions and the pathogen's virulence and abundance

,

tis

.

,

.

(

in

at

,

colored

24 )

Fig infected mushrooms are slightly dis firm and moist first but then become tilted

The tissues

mushroom progressive and

,

.

in

as

of

frequently

size total suppression rapid dying mushrooms degeneration mycelium The

mushroom

fruiting

on

or ,

,

.

,

23 )

a

at

(

of

as

-

,

water soaked longitudinal streaks These streaks of ten terminate dark spots the mushroom cap sue and turn brown the disease progresses The caps infected mushrooms are often dwarfed and

duction

a

.

are characterized by having curved stems surrounded the base with crown overgrowth Internally the mycelium Fig mushroom stems often have colorless translucent

is a

saleable

a

fected with mushrooms Diseased mushrooms

Virus disease has been reported most places where commercial mushrooms are grown serious dis ease that can completely destroy crop Symptoms virus disease vary from modest re in

in

producing

stops

goutte

.

of

.

,

mummy

,

can cause significant yield losses commercial mushroom crops The effects the dis ease are devastating since mushroom mycelium ,

another species

Brown disease

COMMON NAMES France disease Dieback Watery stipe disease THE PATHOGEN Virus particles :

aeruginosa

Pseudomonas

:

,

Mummy disease caused

smells fresh and permits slow but steady drying of the casing . These observations are based on the expe riences of one author ( PJW ). Perhaps confirmation by

Virus Disease in or

by

Pseudomonas

surfaces in the growing room are at present only the means of preventing spread of the pathogen crop from to crop . Mummy seems to appear with less frequency in growing rooms where the air always

research will become available at some future time .

goutte and

: .sp

:

, '

La

COMMON NAMES Mummy disease THE PATHOGEN Pseudomonas aeruginosa

influenced by

wooden

,

have no effect

.

at ,

pears

to

at

be

of

at a

effect since the bacterial population reproduces rate that neutralizes the effect the oxidizing agent This helps explain why sodium hypochlorite seems very effective times while other times

be

the season of the year , or any obvious component of the mushroom - production system . Trenching the compost 8 feet in advance of symptomatic mush rooms often stops disease spread . Strict sanitation at spawning and casing plus post - crop pasteurization of

of

.

if

,

be

kept trol blotch providing the mushrooms can dry But the mushroom stays wet chlorine has little

This disease does not appear to

(

to

.

at

,

is

be

been cooled , so the cooling coils may need a more capacity than might expected This system dry ing energy intensive but essential when drying Adding sodium hypochlorite needed 150 ppm irrigating the crop will con chlorine water used

handling

irregular appearance and take result com post decomposition Infested areas enlarge the ne matodes migrate new feeding sites Since 1964 by

.sp

.

to

( be

)

found with high popula

saprophytic nematodes even though mush tions good such locations Pro room production may good duction may range from very poor ,

.

to

.

in

be

as

Saprophytic nematodes sometimes form into moist glistening swarms appearing upright cylindrical the aggregates swaying the surface and fro casing Such swarms can seen without magnifi of

is an

of be

by

If

.

in

as

to

45

to

;

,

on

to

in

-

in

of

on

,

.

on

on

.

,

in

,

,

,

on a

is

of

or

in

in II .

.

is

.

of

on

(

28 )

of

of

up

as a

a

,

an

in

5

or

4

.

of

.

,

as

of

-

.

to

–

in

,

COMMON NAMES Lipstick Red lipstick SCIENTIFIC NAME Sporendonema purpurescens NAME Geotrichum

candidum

Oosporum

.sp

OUTDATED

,

:

is

Lipstick Mold :

in

-

a

of

it

the surface

,

at

as

.

is

de medicinal odor turns black and Surfaces nematode infested areas sink

,

.

cast

WEED MOLDS

:

2

the

;

tectable

whitish

area feet diam lacking mushrooms Bacterial blotch has been associated with parasitic and with free liv ing nematodes the bacterial both are vectors Killing the nematodes wherever blotch pathogen control they over rop the only means the casing usually eter

,

to

in

spawning nematodes are present the compost spawn's mycelium will grow slowly and degener ate mushrooms will not form Mycelium affected completely destroyed and areas the compost de composes

This mold appears

is

is

an

of

.

of

at

the time third break with the develop nonproductive areas feet diameter 1

ment

of

noticed

,

a

in

is

.

tation procedures The primary symptom associated with the parasitic nematodes Aphelenchoides composticola and Ditylenchus degeneration myceliophagus the mushroom mycelium the compost Normally infestation

,

.

so

,

a

in

-

in

of

a

is

keystone wood mushroom farm hygiene sani failure nematodes suggests the presence

via the falling droplets nematode infestation sometimes accompanied the superficial sparse growth the fungus Arth parasite robotrys superba the nematode Fig

-c

the woodwork compost and of

in

Pasteurization

or

of

-

,

-

.

or

over cropped

of II if be

to

is

is

of

,

.

in

room

.

at

do

.sp )

.

(

by

-

growing

the

compost inadequately pasteurized during vive Saprophytic nematodes can multiply Phase ceil ings made ceiling insula wood concrete and ceiling tion Once infested water droplets condensing the ceiling will contain the nematode larvae their eggs and the crop becomes infested

A

is

,

,

)

-

(

.

,

saprophytic nematodes may produce Rhabditis products affect mushroom which adversely still spawn growth this but the extent proven One fact regarding nematodes certain present the compost they either survived Phase

noninfested from infested occurs Transportation clothing and hands work tools areas occurs ers and flies The nematodes will over crop adequately pasteurized wooden boards and may sur

by

.

a

of

of

of

nematodes possess needlelike mouth parts capable drawing out the contents mushroom cell The mouth the saprophytic nematode built for chewing Saprophytic free living nematodes ingest bacteria protozoa and fungal spores but not Large populations tack the mushroom mycelium

-

.

of

of

Parasitic and saprophytic species nematodes asso ciated with commercial mushroom growing are rou tine inhabitants most agricultural soils Parasitic

°

at

,

;

of

a

directing light angle cation beam the casing the motion the swarms what makes them obvious Eggs larvae and adults can serve inoculum Nematodes are transported the crop through infested compost peat moss and soil trans port dust particles and mushroom flies also ,

.sp

,

-

.

a

(

27 )

,

be

by

,

of

.

-

spawn run compost may

.

.,

,

:

COMMON NAMES Eelworms Cephalothecium disease THE PATHOGEN Aphelenchoides composticola Ditylenchus myceliophagus Rhabditis

pasteurization

ef a

at

to

.

by

Rhabditis have been repeatedly collected the authors during this same time period These too may associated with the spawn Fig disappearance and the breakdown compost into black soggy mass Normal looking

.

Nematodes

:

,

.

to

of

the genus level

Saprophytic nematodes

on

substantiated

periodically assessing the nematodes pres

to

remains

.

be

to

but this contention

,

a

for

zation of wood after the compost has been removed is essential . Poor - quality compost is suggested by some significant virus epidemic to be a precondition

vigilant

ent with identification

of

primarily transmitted to healthy mushroom myce lium via infected mushroom spores , as well as by in fected mushroom tissue or mycelium . Mushrooms should be picked before the veil opens ; this practice prevents liberation of mushroom spores that may carry virus particles . Infected myce lium harbored in the woodwork can survive post crop steaming and act as a transmitting agent of the pathogen to subsequent crop ( s ). Thorough pasteuri

forts the authors collect parasitic nematodes number North American mushroom farms have been unsuccessful Growers are advised remain

of

Several different virus particles recovered from in fected mushrooms and spawn have been character ized . The relationship between these virus particles and symptoms has not been established . Viruses are

to

.

as

of

as a

an

brown

to turn

causes infected mushrooms

rapidly .

on

generally

25

,

,

is on

,

.

at

.

as a

It

.

.

at

on

air -

.

,

of

,

(

C.

of

a

a

.

a

,

in

,

or

of

.

,

of

indicate

the inadequacy

of

of

of .

pasteurized and overly pasteurized casing Widespread Cinnamon infestations

sanitation

,

Sepedonium Yellow Mold COMMON NAME Yellow mold :

this color

genus confirmed

yellow mold differs from other molds sparce white mold the appearance

in of

Sepedonium

Ascomycete

no

STAGE

aa

or

as

PERFECT

of

to

on

large circular the compost

Sepedonium

chrysosporium ,

,

(

to

.

mon brown The mold first appears patches white aerial mycelium

color

cinna

SCIENTIFIC NAMES Sepedonium

:

peziza

)

fulva Ostrachoderma has been called Cinnamon Brown mold golden brown ranges from yellow gold

,sp

:

Peziza ostrachoderma

Chromelosporium

of

in

(

.

by

C.

of

,

of

31 ).

or

on

lets from wooden ceilings The spores the fungus easily are borne which facilitates contamination casing material and makes contami stock piles

by

Plicaria

.sp

:

.sp , :

STAGE

,

in

.

.

of

.

) (

Cinnamon Brown mold reflects spores mushroom farm around through open doors splash Inoculum can blow from floors during cleaning fall moisture drop

build

air -

peziza

OUTDATED NAMES Ostrachoderma Phymatotrichum

a

,

is

Widespread

.

ollare

its

Chromelosporium

.

10

.

a

,

a

is

on

at

C.

of

leathery texture and are usually dark brown color although chartreuse Peziza species have been observed

bery

Brown mold practices

fulva

to

or

,

,

or

.

As

to

.

a

30 )

to

on ,

)

of

,

fulva Several weeks after first appearance the mold fruiting struc and after the mold has disappeared tures the size and shape raisins may appear on the casing these are the sexual phases the fulva Pe Fig ziza ostrachoderma The structures have rub

of

:

SCIENTIFIC NAMES Chromelosporium

26

growth

nation possible

Cinnamon Brown ,

:

,

COMMON NAMES Brown mold mold

Although

the growing room the same suggesting time thus that borne spores landed the casing about the same time The high humidity following casing are ideal for temperatures and warm

in

a

is

its

,

of

.

Cinnamon Brown Mold

PERFECT

throughout much

.

to

4

° F )

.

(

F

-

°

awareness

most commonly known recolon overly pasteurized casing The mold will rap izer idly grow from infested compost areas into casing the casing and can become obvious will grow

The mold

of

to .

pasteurization temperature the Phase elimi hours seems for rather than 140 nate the mold problem when coupled with thorough not post crop sanitation The Lipstick fungus presence proven pathogen but the mushroom for sanitation indicates increased need the 150

II

Raising

its

a

of by

.

.

of

infesta the Lipstick fungus Confirming this route tion has not been accomplished Lipstick mold often extends An infestation through number crops after initial appearance

will

,

re up

-

is

to

;

in

to

be

is of

.

a

of

.

a

pickers Heavy infestations usually reflect build spores around mushroom farm The mold ported chicken ma associated with the use carry said nure the compost formula the litter

erly conditioned compost containing green mold often contain Cinnamon Brown mold

;

-

,

or

or

,

by

in

be

.

be

If ,

.

to

.

tioned compost Significant yield losses are associa ted with extensive compost infestations prior cas ing the mold does not become obvious until third experienced break little yield loss will Spores spent compost contaminated casing spread via air currents during watering can

tunistic and under certain conditions can rapidly spawn Areas grow into casing not colonized compost that overheated during spawn run coloni fulva and Cinnamon zation may bear colonies Brown mold has been observed growing undis spawning Improp tributed supplements added

or

in . in

.

a

is

of

S.

of

it

;

of

its

tell -

to dull orange or buff . However , with a peat - moss and limestone casing , the Lipstick fungus sometimes remains white and tale color does not develop Lipstick mold slow and restricted Growth mildew The does not spread outward like area purpurescens eventually fills white mycelium casing and can colonize well condi loose areas

granular appearance This mold days but usually disappears within Although not experimentally documented dense infestation may retard the crop especially first break slight yield reduction and cause fungus extremely common soil and flour The damp wood Chromelosporium fulva oppor ishes

up

balls on straws or casing . This form of the mold , if de veloping after casing , is easily misidentified as mush room spawn knitting into pins. As the spores of the Lipstick fungus mature , the color of the mold changes from white to pink, to cherry red , and then

Fig

ony develops grows rapidly

in

Lipstick mold is a fungus ( Sporendonema purpurescens ) that appears during spawn run or during mushroom production and grows either on compost or on cas ing , or on both ( Fig 29 ) . The organism first appears in spawned compost as a white crystalline -like mold , rather nondiscernable from spawn . Colonies may re semble frost on a windshield or small white cotton

Within few days spores form and changes light yellow the color from white light golden brown spores the mature the color golden brown deepens and the col cinnamon (

casing

Not confirmed

STAGE :

PERFECT

.

,

com

the

Corticium Mold

on

on

)

(

-

:

or

,

on

;

-

.

,

-

to

be

to

or

.

-

,

in

a

in is

,

-c

it

--

.

)

or

–

.

in

of

-

(

65 in

,

up

to

in

-

be of

to

is

20

10

to

40

as

high

percent have

to

,

3

2

to

in

(

.

It

)

,

or

.

or

Im

or

is

it a

if is

is

,

,

:

,

.sp

:

,

of -

-

is

or

of

Ozonium

,

Coprinus The appearance the Ink Cap fungi production crop spawn evidence during run

:

in

Rhacophyllus

IMPERFECT STAGE

,

of

Wild

.

is

.

to

it

a

-

,

a

to

is

mushrooms ,

. ,

or

of

for

no

is

,

,

air

on

a

,

is

,

a

-

At

a

Ink Cap Fungi

SCIENTIFIC NAMES Coprinus fimetarius Coprinus radiatus Coprinus

,

)

ter .

INDICATOR MOLDS COMMON NAMES Ink caps Ink weed

the sparsely growing delicate white mold Spawn growth compost normal adjacent affected areas and noninfested areas sup healthy mushrooms port normal crop

P.hynosporum

:

.

in

by

in

to 2

1

of

of

is

to

is

.

,

di

football shaped with the greatest diameter the cen the compost's surface only small digging into the inches black spot seen but compost the characteristic shape becomes apparent signs pest The compost contains pathogen except

it is

to

,

be

may noticed when mush develop rooms fail circular areas feet spawn ameter and there absence these af compost infested fected areas The mass the mold neither spherical nor oval but rather lensan in

compost

Infested

dur mushroom house before currents into ing the spawning operation whenever the grow opened ing room the outside environment good substrate for this properly cured compost mold but not known the mold itself the responsible for significant yield poor compost that reductions ,

P.

hynosporum

.

in

.

a

is

antagonistic potentially pathogenic fungus infrequently isolated from mush potential room compost The fungus has cause yield loss because spawn will not grow areas colo

by

an

Pythium hynosporum

of

:

is

:

(

SCIENTIFIC NAME Pythium hynosporum OUTDATED NAME Pythium artotrogus

nized by

cellulose common rotter nature Corticium sporulates dead tree limbs stored straw etc and profusely when the weather damp would seem spores the Corticium like pathogen are carried that

In

Pythium Disease

of

.

,

common and reductions been reported

as

of .

its

.

of

The occurrence the Corticium like fungus compost tends associated with overly com posted straws although overly wet compost does not development When the mold seem favor yield reductions widespread percent are ,

air

-e

.

is

to

boards and the infested compost concurrently On peat casing the mold appears granular like salt and develops small 1.5 inch diameter circles covering percent the casing some areas

,

is

of

an

to

.

of

running period filters essential High fficiency introducing are required reduce the possibility the mold into clean areas

in

,

or to

a

.

threat infestation Preventing spores from entering mushroom houses during spawning and the spawn

it

of

.

to

is

.

other factors spore populations will build yellow farm following the appearance monitoring temperature mold Strict and control dur adequate post ing compost pasteurization and eliminate the crop pasteurization are essential

identity not certain

)

to

of

;

not known

Sepedonium

on

due

Sepedonium

whether this

like

compost casing Corticium Mold found growing room This grey white the woodwork the wood the straws mold grows appressed engrained Although not fre appears wood quently encountered this mold once present will appear consecutive crops until post rop pasteuri zation eliminates from infested wooden surfaces

to

.

affect spawn the mold colonizes compost considered ideal Sepedonium for spawn growth Heavy infestations yellow mold are associated with poor yields but growth

SCIENTIFIC NAME Corticium

(

,

.

by

.

,

in

mushroom compost specimens Sepedonium seems The growth

up

air -

,

-

,

in

.

,

,

,

a

.sp

from the other significant compost yellow mold Chrysosporium The latter causes Mat and Con fetti diseases Smaller oval spores are produced the Sepedonium fungus but these are rarely observed ium

believed that borne spores contaminate spawning time post :

.

.

-

or

of

.

or

to

fungus may survive peak heat The obvious spores are spherical golden brown large and distinctly distinguishes spiny Sepedon characteristic which

mushroom production is also caused by other diseases and improper cultural practices , so when the symptom appears , other causes are sus pected at first. The compost is rarely investigated for the presence of the Pythium fungus. Moreover , mi croscopic examination and laboratory study are nec essary to identify a white compost mold as P. hynos porum . Although little information is available on the life history of this fungus and the mechanisms by which it spreads throughout a mushroom farm , it is Spotty

at

32 )

to to (

be

to

or

or

,

to

!

.sp

air

spent compost sticking with unpasteurized trays wooden boards Sepedonium are thick walled The obvious spores high heat and and resistant this spore form the riod

or

i

by

the compost during the spawn run Fig The sparce white mold turns dull yellow tan with age spores can spread Sepedonium the compost during the filling operation currents prior during the spawning operation spawn running pe

27

sidual

tions in such crops are probably influenced by grow ing conditions . Nevertheless , proper management during composting should minimize problems with

areas contain compost packed nonuniformly and too tightly during the filling operation

to

be

.

at

Phase convert

.

of

.

is

,

so

the ammonia into microbial protein some ammo nia left and this fosters Ink Cap development Lo calized occurrences Ink Caps suggest that these

-

of

Water related phenomena can favor the growth Ink Cap fungi Overly wet compost reduces the space space within compost and this can inhibit air ex change restricting compost aeration Surface com

if

,

.

,

)

air

ex

a

of

or

fill a

,

65 II .

)

(

to

or

at

-

of

of

in

II

an

-

.sp

.sp

of

of

an

.

as

.

°

,

96

to

72

of

in

II .

of

of

of

Coprinus The growth can also occur the re improper temperature management during sult Phase Areas the compost which the compost temperature did not remain within the range 115 135 from hours after pasteurization may Oppositely some com contain residual ammonia F

°

5

F to

3 °

as

as

–

–

posts that reheat recycle little near the end Phase will have additional ammonia pro duced via microbial ammonification nitrogen com pounds temperature low cooler than

-

air

A

.

to

In

.

in

.

in

,

on

to

-

of in an

1

–

° F

A

ex .

of

-

to

at

,

.

in

of

-

of at

be corrected

Plaster Molds and Flour Molds

.

com

need

.

a

,

.

a

is

a

on

,

to a

.

nus species have been isolated from mushroom post and unnamed species have been observed

–

,

a

is

a

by

.

larger species room crop Coprinus fimetarius characterized greyish thick hollow stem and scaley cap Coprinus radiatus the other hand smaller species with shorter thinner stem and very fragile pale brown yellow brown cap Other Copri

Locating the origin deciding Ink Caps can aid why the compost supports Ink Cap growth few scattered Ink Caps are little cause for concern and filling time may indicate compost nitrogen content near the recommended level 1.7 1.9 percent However bountiful flush Ink Caps suggests cessive ammonia spawning more than 700 ppm and evidence that certain aspects composting , a

of

.

by

.;

of

Coprinus formerly infested ance colonization compost mycelium mushroom then occurs Coprinus occur with the mush Several species

manage the internal compost maintained temperature can result ammonia ladened layer depth compost the surface 0.5 inch such instances Ink Caps can flourish the ammo nia remaining this surface layer

100

to

of -

a

to

sp

in

of of

in

.

a

in

be

is

It

of

.

is

unusual more common for the appear Cap ance Ink mushrooms one time phe growing nomenon room Exhaustion ammonia compounds the compost and subsequent reduc compost pH results tion the gradual disappear

is

,

in

,

but this

,

is

of

Coprinus cyclical like The fruiting process Agaricus and Ink Cap fungi may reappear flushes

at

.

of

II

at

of

)

-

(

.

exist

Coprinus

of

a

).

rhizomorph root like structure which extends into the the base the compost Mycelial proliferation stem can occur certain environmental conditions

percent content less than excessive may ventilation throughout extended Phase terfere with conversion ammonia into microbial protein Each these conditions may limit the growth thermophilic organisms and cause am monia residue which will precede the development

° F

(

of

34

-

is

to

of

,

air .

it expands and exposes the radiating spore - bearing gills . The cap opens , umbrella - like , releasing spores into the Once open the cap immediately begins autodigest and the ink black liquid characteristic autodigestion Fig this genus the end product long fibrous Certain Coprinus species develop

consistency post supersaturated with water similar mud wet clay can interfere with gas Conversely change during Phase low moisture

to

Vegetatively , Coprinus sp . produces a luxurious growth of white fine mycelium in or on the compost before or after spawning ( Fig 33 ) . Spherical white pin initials ( 1/16 inch diameter ) of an Ink Cap develop on the compost or in the vegetative mycelium within 3 to 4 days . Each pin develops into a mushroom with a narrow white stem and a scaley white to grey conical cap . The stem elongates within 12 hours into a nar row cylindrical hollow stalk which supports a delicate white to greyish - brown scaley cap . The cap remains intact on the stem until nearly mature , at which time

(

.

Ink Cap fungi .

ammonia spawning time thermophilic microflora may unable

all II

free ammonia in the compost . Free ammonia seems to be a growth requirement of this fungus . Variations in the frequency of appearance from year to year may reflect the abundance of Ink Caps in the straw , cobs , or hay used in compost production . Ink Cap popula

28

,

:

, ,

byssina

Chaetomium

piluliforum

),

S.

fimicola

Corticium

Thielavia

roseum

,

),

Myriococcum praecox PERFECT STAGES Dichotomyces

(

:

,

Trichothecium OUTDATED NAMES Monilia fimicola Oosporo

.sp ,

Papulaspora

Sporotrichum

.sp ,

piluliferum

,

:

Botryotrichum thermophila

B. :

re

Brown Plaster

SCIENTIFIC NAMES Scopulariopsis fimicola

(

to of

;

or

in

an

.

–

too much water which affects resiliency compost inorganic nitrogen added the Too much compost causes imbalance which can result

COMMON NAMES White Plaster Mold

Mold Flour Mold ,

II,

a

.

of

tion

I

of

;

II

of

,

to

or

,

of

,

at

of

during Ink Caps appear the end Phase spawn run after casing just prior harvest pe Generally riod the commercial mushroom wide spread infestation Coprinus may reflect poorly managed Phase composting too much breakdown raw materials during Phase composting addi

ů

( Sporotrichum ),

Hypomyces ( T.

:

IMPERFECT STAGES : Acremonium , Chrysosporium Myceliopthora , Sepedonium , Sporotrichum = Thielavia

roseum )

,

to salmon pink , and then to beige . White fluffy growth of T. thermophila may again appear on the spawned compost surface a a few days after spawning , but the salmon pink- to beige - colored mold grows

Plaster Molds and Flour Molds develop in mushroom compost when nitrogen sources from Phase I are not completely utilized by the microbes during Phase II and , in particular, when the nitrogen is not converted into microbial protein . Fungi that cause Flour Mold are not the same as those causing Plaster Mold , and

densely and rapidly through the compost , colonizing an area that may become as large as 5 feet in diame ter . Powdery masses of spores become airborne when the infested area is disturbed . Near the end of the crop cycle , areas infested by this mold usually contain

distinguished by differences in appear ance and color . However , it is generally believed that the same nutritional factors favor the growth of the two mold groups , so they will be discussed together . Several fungi have been associated with the White Plaster Mold condition ( Fig 35 ) . Scopulariopsis fimicola

phalum

foot or two in diameter , on the Prior to spawning , spores in

compost surface ( Fig 37 ).

to of

.

if all

,

B.

of in .sp

in

of T.

ies

of

re T.

of

or

of

,

.

a

to

of

if

,

.

As

in

° F, a

to

of T.

°

of

.

to

in

,

,

be

of

,

in

an

.

by

“

”

of

of

in

.

of

,

,

or

of

.

T.

in

is

.

of

,

de ro

“

or

,

do

,

of

a

be

It

.

on

a

is

in

.”

hot

fluffy white molds which initially light peach color and light rose pink color velop respectively .

-

a

as

seum appear

,

The Brown Plaster Mold fungus

Papulaspora

bys

As

in

.

or

to ,

,

to

in

or of

-

15

6

.

to

on

sina first appears the compost surface during the spawn run Patches diameter show inches plaster dense like white mold the fungus colony matures the center the the mold changes yellow from white orange tan then brown

rust Brown Plaster Mold colonies are not fluffy but grow above the compost and are often outlined actively growing outer fringe white myce lium Several colonies can coalesce form continu ,

ous coating over the surface damp bedboards After casing

a

of

to

to oval - shaped patches of

Sporotrichum and Trichothecium

the compost and the mold grows

up on

mold , a

Species

of

white

as circular-

spots

Flour Molds

not cause

,

fluffy

Other fungi also termed Plaster occur mushroom compost but

.

first observed

mold

bit

philic ( heat - loving ) and for this reason is unique among indicator molds . The mold grows rapidly and abundantly during the last days of Phase II , and is

thermophila Presence this plaster most often noticed during visual inspection may spawn growth development detected farms where compost temperature monitored great number locations daily

caused

a

The development of B. piluliferum in the compost is similar to S. fimicola , except that B. piluliferum colonies have a pearly glisten and the mycelium is creamy white to buff instead of snow white . Thielavia thermophilia ( Sporotrichum sp .) is thermo

the

restricted and has not been observed infesting entire tray compost Consequently high compost bed temperatures are only encountered these spots and monitoring during compost temperatures routine spawn run may not reveal the presence hot spots spots

as

leaving a white mold appressed to the compost sur face . In some cases , the White Plaster Mold grows from the infested area of the compost up through the casing where it resembles flecks of plaster or flour on the casing surface .

ammonification

However these areas vigorous spawn growth

support either ten fail high yields This white mold develops

a

tous aerial growth on the compost surface . Within a few days , the aerial hyphae aggregates on the com post surface and resembles plaster of paris . After spawning , the aerial growth completely disappears ,

the infested areas

an

pagules of the fungi, are used in an improperly cured support widespread compost . Conditions that growth of Plaster or Flour Molds will not support maximum yields of mushrooms . White Plaster Mold first appears , near the end of Phase II , as small irregular patches of white filamen

colonizes

compost has not occurred

.

tations of Papulaspora byssina ( Fig 36 ) . Scopulariopsis fimicola and P. byssina were common in the days of long composting methods and overly composted ma nure , but have been infrequently observed since the advent of short ( time) composting techniques . Other Plaster or Flour Molds will suddenly appear on a farm if raw compost ingredients , contaminated with pro

of

have been called Plaster or Flour Molds . Brown Plaster Mold has been used to describe infes roseum

,

pilu

up

the most familiar and Botryotrichum

liferum is the most recently recognized . Species of Sporotrichum , Thielavia thermophila , and Trichothecium

these Indeed mold and Coprinus growing compost close proximity conditions are conducive their growth High compost temperatures 120 105 thermophila sult the rapid growth infested the growth areas prohibit spawn growth thermophila slows the compost cools and spawn often

molds may

.

is probably

numerous small black spherical fruiting structures in addition to the fluffy beige form . These fruiting bod thermophila are the sexual stage Growth compost occurs this mold conditions similar piluliferum those that favor the growth Oedoce

by

they can be

|

the colony center start to mature and the fluffy tex ture of T. thermophila colonies takes on a granular flour - like appearance . Mold color changes from white

29

pigmented spherical structures ( bulbils ) on the com post straws or casing . The sporeless structures , bead like in appearance , are called " bulbils " and they are

interwoven with a fine network of white hyphae . A sample of the Brown Plaster Mold fungus rubbed be tween thumb and index finger feels waxy . It is currently thought that growth of Flour Molds by the presence of

unconverted ammonical compounds and amines in the mushroom compost . These conditions can exist when compost is too broken down or overly wet dur ing Phase I composting , and / or inadequately or im

Modi

Mold may significantly reduce spawn growth with a coincident reduction in mushroom yields . Olive Green Mold can be avoided by filling com post that is resilient when compressed and not overly broken down during Phase I. An adequate air ex change throughout the entire Phase II period is es sential to prevent compost from becoming anaerobic

few hours of too little sometimes enough Phase become anaerobic cause compost ventilation system should deliver com a

of

II

in

to

to

.

,

air

air or

-

,

hi -

,

of

.

of

be

at

or

is

,

a

to

of

air

II .

to

,

in

II .

air

Manipulating

tem

,

of

to

air a

to

Ink Caps

,

,

White Chaetomium another Chaetomium species can appear dense white cottony casing surface shortly after the casing has been applied Typically within several weeks sparce number burs will de

,

.

of

compost below the white mold White Chae tomium occurrence rather rare .

velop

.

Black Whisker Mold COMMON NAMES Black

Whisker Mold

Grey Wisker Mold

,

is

.

intake fans can

temperature maintain provides for differential between the compost and gas exchange from the compost the air and should minimize the occurrence Olive Green Mold and

or

of

.

temperature during Phase perature and volume

a

,

in

39 )

is

it

is

of

so

.

,sp

compost

avoided Proper dampers lou

the compost These procedures also enhance aero bic thermogenesis the compost which enables compost temperatures remain hotter than the air

during Phase

is

10

on

-

,

in

so

of

.

a

(

in

by

is

steam valves fresh speed exhaust vers doors and enough insure the availability

:

an

in

,

By

.

--

in

-

to

30

the Olive Green black compost

manipulation

oversaturation

filling time should

as a

.

,

of

.

of

38 ). on

-

is

(

a

or

isolated spots the affected compost Fig The compost will have musty odor Compost capable supporting the growth Chaetomium often does not support mushroom spawn growth common see Olive Green Mold black compost that not Compost that colonized mushroom spawn black and not colonized by spawn can contain many

with water

.

16

of

° F,

to in

of

spicuous greyish white fine mycelium the compost growth compost days fine aerial the surface spawning spawn Fig Frequently after initial growth delayed and reduced late spawn run fruiting structures that look like grey green cockle develop burs 1/16 inch diameter straws

the compost temperature Excessive compaction

in

II

II,

–

of

II,/

in

-

-

.

is

compounds produced anaerobic conditions These spawn growth but favor compounds are toxic growth Olive Green Mold The earliest signs the fungus consist incon

be

II

15

per compost throughout Phase varies from may proportion greater needed since cent but exchange heat and control outside air also used

,

in

,

,

.

in

°

6

F

.

,

,

of

the Olive Green Mold fungus are present straw soil and spent compost Heat tolerant they usually will survive 140 for hours However the only improperly managed appears compost mold especially where Phase during Phase ventilation oxygen inadequate less than Lack especially when compost tem percent Phase permits formation peratures are greater than 142

70

to

a

Trichocladium

air

a

to

air

8

of

IMPERFECT STAGES : Botryotrichum , Humicola , Papulaspora , Scopulariopsis , Thermomyces ,

fungi other than Chaetomium Mold not the exclusive colonizer

of

percent out post surface with minimum during pasteurization for compost filled side depth inches The proportion outside intro duced into room insure aerobic conditions the

olivaceum

Spores

ft A

/

/

1

SCIENTIFIC NAMES : Chaetomium globosum , Chaetomium

to ft

COMMON NAMES : Olive Green Mold

to

to

a

15 hr .

even

Olive Green Mold

is

.

fication of composting practices to improve com post quality usually reduces the occurrence of Flour and Plaster molds .

burs persist throughout a crop . Spawn usually grows into areas occupied by Chaetomium , although full spawn growth is delayed . Compost conditions con ducive to a wide - spread infestation of Olive Green

10

properly managed during the Phase II process

in contrast to the blue - green spore masses of Penicil lium mold or the forest - green Trichoderma molds . Once formed in the compost , Olive Green Mold

of

and Plaster Molds is stimulated

However , the spiny burs characteristic of Olive Green Mold are tell - tale and obvious even on compost colo nized by mushroom spawn . Numerous Chaetomium species are found in mushroom compost , but most common are C. oliva ceum and C. globosum . Characteristically , burs of these two species are olive green in infested compost ,

air

the casing and soon appears on the surface .

Usually white at first , the color changes to the typical brown with a white fringe . The fungus , P. byssina , is easily recognized by hand lens as a mass of darkly

.

through

Oedocephalum Mold COMMON NAME Brown mold

,

purpureofuscus,

:

SCIENTIFIC NAMES Oedocephalum

OUTDATED NAMES : Stysanus stemonitis PERFECT STAGES : Periconia and Cephalotrichum

in

as

.

a

II,

as

-

,

on

is

.

of

or

as

,

,

,

to

.

to

,

a

to a

,

41 ).

(

of

,

its

-

of

to

on

.

as

morphology

,

of

lens

a

.

its

a

of

,

a

hand

of

this fungus discernible consists an erect spore bearing structure with spherical cluster large spores top end Rubbing Oedocephalum spores between the thumb and index finger gives sensa The

through

in of

-

in

to

rubbing fine sand that experienced separates spores characteristic Oedocephalum from other white brown molds mushroom compost casing Spores Oedocephalum are common some mushroom composts but they dormant unless germinate and grow the environmental and duced nutritional conditions that encourage growth are not tion similar gritty This

.

lie

in

in

.sp

or

on

-

.sp

;

fully understood Growth Oedocephalum does not inhibit spawn growth but conditions favoring growth are not optimal for mushroom production

its

.

.

.

in of

the fungus ages and the spores

of

.

, by of

40 )

(

be

silvery brown mature

,

,

its

to

of

from sites infestation up through the casing and pin forma may appear the casing surface prior Oedocephalum tion The pearly white mycelium grows loosely over the surface but color changes

,

of

is

growth Fig when conditions favor Growth Aspergillis and Penicillium molds are also favored conditions conducive Doratomyces the growth fungi may present and these also the compost Doratomyces and the closely related Other species Trichurus spiralus have been isolated from compost

sparce growth over the com post surface dense coating on the compost straws Fig After casing Oedocephalum grows slowly

.

.

-

in

.

is

mold also seen spawn run Whether spores Black Whisker Mold survive peak heat not known but the mold will develop

phalum varies from

of

of

carbohy that the proportion high cellulose was too The compost that overheated during

,

conversely particularly

spawning After spawning the mold light light brown grey but changes dark tan fawn the spores mature The growth habit Oedoce

at

by

I,

of

a

in

.

of

or

,

quate drates

prior

light silvery grey surface during cool down

the compost

to

a

to

Its

.

or

in

pletely caramelized Phase and underheated the carbohydrates are thus form easily utilized the Black Whisker organism Presence Black Whisker Mold may also indicate that nitrogen supple mentation fresh compost ingredients was inade

The mold forms irregularly patches

.

be

.'

of

usually indicates

compost indicates that ammonia

.

,

.

of

'

to

be

,

has not been shown presence mushroom spawn that the straw has been incom

microsporus

1

and amines were not completely eliminated during Phase and are serving food for this organism

to

of ily

infested areas appear darker than usual because black powdery spores When dis turbed these spores are liberated and the compost smoking appears Doratomyces

.sp ,

Oedocephalum

-

serious competitor

Oedocephalum

fimetarium

Black Whisker Mold fungus in compost indicates an unbalanced nutritional base specifically , presence of certain carbohydrates – in the compost at spawning time. When Chaetomium Green Mold is present , Whisker Mold will also be present, since both are celluolytic – fungi that feed on cellulose . Black Whisker Mold , Doratomyces microsporus, grows rapidly through the compost at the end of Phase II or at the beginning of the spawn run . Heav

the masses

,sp

Trichusus spiralus

of

Stroma

an

ABNORMALITIES COMMON NAMES Stroma

,

,

:

of

.

a

of

or

of

on

.

a

in

on

a

be

or

of

be

on

or on

.

,

42 )

,

.

in

-

,

.

31

of

a

casing above patch compost borne stroma casing where stroma does not exist the compost pinning but casing develops Stroma advance rapidly putrifies once crop watering begins Mush in

so

,

many farms

.

unknown

at

of

.

of

assigned

on

.

Sensitive

or

sensitized workers should tasks elsewhere away from compost dumping Proper preparation compost precludes the development these molds these molds are

more intense

peeled from the surface compost casing can much like beefsteak can removed from charcoal grill Stroma form the compost small localized patches areas and the smaller can coalesce into larger areas Fig After casing stroma may form the .

: i )

;

aа

is

,

to

.

or v )

;

iv )

;

alternating nose bleed response transitory per chills The but son sensitive these spores becomes more sensitive with each exposure and the discomfort may become fever and

Sectoring

,

,

ii )

-

;

or

breathing difficulty

Sectors

Stroma are noticeable aggregations mushroom my spawned compost celium the surface the cas ing Discrete aerial patches white mycelium form dense tissue layer on the substrate surface Stroma

(

',

characterized asthma like symptoms including nasal throat irritation chest congestion

iii )

by

.

-

in

'

,

.

,

,

and Penicillium are copious numbers mold spores Air heavily ladened with spores from these fungi often erroneously called gas can induce dumping crew person acute allergy type response nel Workers may report respiratory troubles often

of

Aspergillis fungi which produce

Doratomyces

be

1

microsporus

stemonitis, Doratomyces

:

SCIENTIFIC NAMES : Doratomyces Doratomyces

,

or

is

of

of

by

.

a

to

,

-

a

-

64

of

is

–

.

be to

for

.

in

or

,

18

to

In to

.

12

,

'

of

in

to

a

;

.

on

be is

.

to

'

'

.

of

12

to

-

.

,

,

-

-

,

-

.

(

,

'

'.

to

),

a

-

)

to

:

,

,

,

:

of

.

a

is

,

be

.

.

al

be

,

;

in

,

,

of

de

be

,

,

-

at

,

as

or in

recognized velop singles clusters and can abnormal the pre button button and mature stages Symptomatic mushrooms may appear during the first break and diminish number later in

in

,

genetic

be

to

that causes mushrooms greater and certain strains have a

The mechanism flocked

.

in

.

in

or

they can increase number throughout the cropping cycle Flocked mushrooms are harvest quality able but lower

breaks

is

re -

to

,

,

,

a

be a

'

lacking The cap tissue may abnormally firm most brittle when broken Flocked mushrooms

.

be

is

.

'

on

a

Hardcap Hardgill Open Veil

physiologically induced malformation the mushroom's cap and gill tissue The cap opens pre maturely and the gills affected mushrooms are ru poorly developed dimentary and have little pig completely ment some cases the gills may Flock

,

' (

'

in

,

or

a '

or

'

.

'

,

a '

weepers

COMMON NAMES Flock

,

'

,

be

to

as '

a '

it

on

A

.

a

(

of a

is

.

'

of

,

,

.

.

are usually noticed since they are quite weeping mushroom can dissolve into Water collects the casing surface

putrid odor neath weeper and the area develops becoming stinker Growers have learned move weeping mushrooms from the bed surface and 32

of

of or

8

-

.

of

so

,

to

,

:

as

typically

.

or

44 ).

Weepers

unusual white foam

-

of

,

of

it .

-

weepers

cover the mushroom The weeper leaker and that droplets droplets the water remain the leaker actually falls mushroom while flows from weeper numerous

distinction between

being very prone the condition The old fashioned brown strains smooth surfaced brown cap pileus hefty mushroom with white stem stipe and have not been observed with sufficient frequency

Flock Hardcap and Open Veil

Leakers

exude considerable amounts water from the mush cap droplets room When small water exude from the cap the mushrooms are called leakers Fig stem droplets may These water few number and relatively isolated from each other they may sufficiently

Smooth white mushrooms seem have some sort protection against leakers and weepers Other ma jor types off white cream golden white are sus ceptible this malady with some off white strains

assess occurrence

:

Stinkers

are not the rule usually the occurrence weeper oddity and such instances does not seem yield adverse influence ,

is

or

-

to

,

.

in

, -

43 )

(

"

be

12

in of be

stroma

within inches the sideboard these epidem ics the weepers became stinkers and were suffi ciently numerous adversely affect yield Epidemics

--

.

an

be

.

on

a

,

"

to

mushrooms these areas removal matter for each farmer decide

become moisture

Weeper epidemics crop after crop have been reported The weeping mush rooms were positioned mostly next the sideboard

not

months

to

,

of

shallow cas

ing and has wefty grey white cream white ap Fig pearance consist contrast Stroma meaty tissue although some wefting mycelium may Large patches associated with stroma inches are often removed from the compost casing surfaces with the hope that the next growth spawn will normal and bear mushrooms Remov ing patches stroma does not insure growth

being

/

.

of .

in

at

A

to of

conditions

low

fosters weeper mushrooms prior and during first break Weeping mushrooms can rare and widely higher numbers scattered concentrated Usu ally single mushrooms are affected and clumps are

'

all

to of

is

to

,

or

spawn making the initial step few sectors will not affect yield adversely but the presence excessive stroma may reduce yield Stroma should not overgrowth confused with spawn the casing Spawn overgrowth related

Mushrooms described

but

percent coupled with high less than moisture casing where weepers are frequently seen The combination these two conditions often

compost

.

of these abnormalities , but specific rela tionships have not been elucidated . Even though these factors affect the appearance stroma and sec produce stroma tors the basic capacity for spawn sectors related the genetic makeup the

COMMON NAMES Weepers

trig

bacteria produces the

induce mushroom not but known

that are

,

.

Factors weeper

a

farm

appearance

abnormal environmental

perhaps mannitol

.

or at the

,

Production practices during cropping also affect the

isolate used

sugars foam

or

storage , transit

,

mechanisms not known

affected mushrooms apparently draw extraordinary amounts water from the compost and exude dissolved sugars Fermentation these

,

during preparation

rhizomorphs

–

disap

and tend to

,

Stroma and sectors are related to the genetic char acter of the spawn , but are sometimes induced if spawn is mishandled or exposed to harmful petro leum - based fumes or chemicals , or certain detergents

Weepers

all

.

in the compost and on the casing pear as the crop ages .

The physiological mechanism gering the weeper leaker syndrome of

that is distinctive

–

of spawn

an an

portion

a

of

sector is

when compared to the general appearance of spawn . A sector may be extra white , extra dense , or extraor dinarily fluffy, but it is always different when com pared to normal spawn growth . Sectors appear on or

as

A

remove associated rhizomorphs from the casing and the compost

but this is somewhat

,

unusual .

to

rooms can develop on stroma

in

of

,

of

;

if

in

be

It

.

in

or it

be

.

of

a

,

is

46 ).

) (

of

an or

in ,

.

to

15

of or

80 on

a

is

.

to

to

be

is

)

.

(

so

it

, a

is

,

,

:

is in

all

.

,

occurs

in

36 ° F )

it At

of

or

a

of

a

to

(

and

strains of

to

.

,

-

,

,

crop are most susceptible and most mushrooms from particular growing room are similarly affected enzyme Polyphenoloxidase later increases

.

in

,

break mushrooms and this enzyme influences pig ment formation Conditions that predispose mush phenomenon are unknown but the fre this rooms quency and amount water applied before harvest seem affect its occurrence ,

of

.

to

black than purple

,

a

closer

-smooth white off white cream and brown Gener ally mushrooms from third break the the end

.

by a

Storage

deep purple Cut stems the mushrooms develop color within few hours harvest after being overnight times the color cold storage

to

of

a

a

in of

,

Black Leg

.

it is

Burn

to

12

to

,

,

.

,

to

is

or

3

–

to

on ,

as

,

-

,

.

of

to

,

,

,

Slack Mushrooms Ltd. and SpawnMate Inc. made preparation this manuscript and these illustrations ,

possible

33

-

of

,

.

of

the mushroom stem

our thanks out each them Financial support from American Mushroom Institute Ben Mar Mush room Farms Inc. Oxford Royal Mushroom Products ,

cream strains

although off white

the and

of

to

afflict

illustrations were taken many cooperative mushroom growers go

farms

,

portion

Photographs used of

,

,

Brown

.

1

if :

Brown Pith

much more than other strains strains can have hollow core Symptoms these dis orders are not noticeable when the mushrooms are growing tissues involves since the abnormality the central

Purple Stem

COMMON NAMES

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Hollow Core

These two disorders seem

within

,

.

as

to

,

La

of

be

a

. It of ,

Core

NAMES

Purple Stem

,

,

be

it

to

by

'

of

be '

its

.

Hollow Core and Brown Pith COMMON

physiological rather

.

.

of

or

,

If or

.

open veil appears room Overall safe con clude that the mushroom has been under stress dur development

mentation and tissue collapse pathological condition than

,

of on

.

a

in

to

.

is

a

gill

.

.

18

symptom veil can France disease but other justify such diag symptoms must also present period nosis Open veil sometimes occurs when days water stress gener followed ous watering also occurs when fumes certain or ganic chemicals drift into growing are released

ing

and water stress but specifics are unknown Isola tions from the pigmented central tissue Brown Pith microorganisms have yielded seems the pig

an

.

of

,

on

.

,

is

break

,

45 )

30

to to

at

up

(

to

usually ephemeral existing during first alone Areas showing hardcap mushrooms first break produce neither numbers nor weight mushrooms equivalent normal crop Hardcap harvestable mushrooms means loss Open Veil the premature opening the veil with development that may may not normal Generally mushrooms with open veils plus abnor mal immature gill formation are referred gills are developed and pigmented but the flock veil breaks from the stem sooner than should this mushroom has open veil rather than the flock condi watering within tion Most cream strains react hours harvest their caps popping open and the term open best describes this strain trait Open drome

Pennsylvania producers report the prime time for appear early Spring and during the hollow core watering Fall The condition seems related

no

rela

to

.

as

in ,

be

to

disproportionately small

Hardcap mushrooms stem diameter Fig are usually restricted limited areas the casing although percent times the producing surface may have hardcapped mushrooms This syn tion

tendency for such mushrooms nonsaleable There third break second occur unexpectedly percent both and usually the harvest affected room will have the disorder ,

.

of

a

is

,

the cap tends

and

described for flock

.

or ,

as

,

,

cap and gills are

Hardcap

,

La

–

in

,

oil -

oil ,

certain diseases such France Brown Plaster Mold and Truffle induce flock symptoms Hardcap variation the flock syndrome With

Fig stipe When the bottoms the stems are trimmed after harvesting circular gap seen the center the stem This hole may extend the length may may that affected shorter the stipe tissue remains the hollowed area brown color presence such tissue renders the mushroom

a

Environmental

exhaust , smoke from No based paint fumes and certain anticor rosive chemicals steam boilers the presence of

(

.

- including diesel

to

develop the abnormality

to

a

tendency conditions 2 fuel

Significant Insect Pests of the Commercial Mushroom

fly

H.A.

Wetzel

P.J. Wuest

,

,

D.L. Rinker , and R.J. Finley

"

.

fly fly

“

of

Big

to

little flies sciarid while

to

and

,

,

in

to

is

it

by

,

"

"

" mushroom and mosquito are com monly used alike for cecid sciarid and phorid flies Pennsylvania Also many mushroom growers big rather common hear growers speak

The terms

is

"

Sciarid

fly fly

,

of

95

to

75

,

in

.

of

,

of

.

as

"

." "

,

little

"

"

"

used refer the often means the Dung flies are frequently misidentified phorid phorid flies and the size the adult cecid approxi phorid mates that the Sciarid and phorid flies are found together but except late summer one spe percent cies usually constitutes the total flies

adult

of

)

(

.

flies monitored

mushroom

Sep

,

,

Chester County PA mushroom houses from tember 1979 December 1980

these arthropod prerequisite

Phorid

to

a

Understanding the life cycles pests and the damage they cause

is of

.

to

in

percent

all

than

of

95

.

is

pests

be 1

Wing veination Fig the primary used for identifica different and can easily tion Scarid and phorid flies together represent more

population

the the

)

,

,

so

(

,

.

-

an

Knowing effective pest management program emerge when eggs are laid when larvae worms from the eggs when adults appear and forth plus relationship between temperature and the time ,

an

equally

Cecid

.

speyeri

.

is

to

throughout the life cycle

is

rare No pest likely management program achieve maximum effectiveness without integrating management tactics with biological phenomena effective

M.

pesticide that

is

.

a

;

insect's life cycle

A

to

in

is for

a

an

of

ses

of

development insect spends each stage ena pesticide applicator appropriate bles choose particular material each developmental stage pesticide usually effective only during certain pha

THE SCIARID FLY ,

2 )

in

of

H.

of

pygmaea

and cecid flies

.

,

phorid

Two

.

,

Wing veination FIGURE sciarid different cecid flies are represented of

de

frass

1.

addition

depositing

to

In

or

maturing mushrooms mushroom tissue and

,

stroying

.

of

,

mushrooms caps

Cecid

developing mycelium destroy pins and burrow tunnel into the stems and ,

feed

on

vae

at

,

in

(

,

Sciarid flies Lycoriella mali Fig have been the most devastating insect the Pennsylvania mushroom dustry 1979. Sciarid lar least since September

35

larvae may introduce decay - causing organ isms which make it necessary to trim and discard sec tions or whole mushrooms . sciarid

Adult ( winged ) sciarids consume minute quantities of water and other liquids , but do not feed on mush rooms . They can transport pyemotid ( pigmy ) mites , spores , possibly nematodes , mold and other pathogens . Sciarid eggs are laid singly or in groups ; 15 eggs in group is the maximum . At 65 °F , the incubation pe a riod is about 6 days . As the larvae hatch , they move

away from the hatching site to feed , and usually feed on mycelium . The larvae have mouth parts with which they " chew " on the mycelium . Larvae prefer to feed in moist areas and tend to move away from dry areas . They feed for approximately 18 days at 65 ° F , growing to about 6 mm ( 0.25 inch ) in length . They then go into a resting /developmental period called pupation . In the pupation stage , the " worms " may appear to be dead , but in fact they are undergoing changes within the larval skin . When it breaks out of its

Male sciarid

is

It

of

by

by

.

65

,

.

it

a

to

its

° F .

at

of

the sciarid

fly

is a

only

.

Adult and larval stage

of

2.

FIGURE

.

of

,

it a

,

,

movement employed larvae The pupal stage lasts days tendency for pupae way up There work towards the surface the casing As moves the

larva

6

Sciarid

a a

old larval skin the organism still looks like called worm different sort but pupa and the convulsive movements moves abdomen rather than the typical wormlike rhythmic

worm

its

.

at

a

is

fly ,

-

the pupal case breaks and the adult stage emerges winged wings are folded adult and first and extend part way along the abdomen The adult

if

Mating occurs almost immediately are disturbed after adult emergence The life span male adult days about while the female lives about days Flies either sex feed water and other liq uids and tend live little longer moist a

.

Larva

on

,

in

a

to

of

.

to

38

a

of

is 65 ° 35 F,

generation's exist the average length days This period ence time varies con Fig siderably with temperature and sex differences The variation can have dramatic effect on the generations per crop Fig number and the length effectively used for either time pesticides may 4 )

.

5b )

of

.

prefer darkened areas which may

be

light ,

Larvae tend 36

7 .)

of

Larval and adult reactions

to

different stages

of

(

( ° F )

affect

the

sex

and

to

fly .

3.

How temperature

of

a

in

by6.

is in

75

,

70

65 Temperature

the developing sciarid

Fig

single generation are The sequential life stages development Figure illustrated The rate temperature As temperature each stage affected development requires less increases each stage Fig time for completion

Egg 55

the adult stages

5a ,

the larval

(

10

or

of

be

(

of

.

a

3 )

(

20

At

q

Days

h a

environments

.

,

300

65 ° F

at

of

7

.

Pupa

10 is

of

.

Adult

40

FIGURE

to its

60

.

to

,

female

fly ,

=

-

.

30

wings are runs about and within minutes fully expanded While the adults prefer run rather wings are expanded and they they will than

male

fly

50r

4

02 UI6

10 1

SPAWNING

18 1 1

PINS

CASING

30

1

34

38

1

46 50 LLLLL

42

PICKING BEGINS Adult

AIR CASING

PUPAE

LARVAE

COMPOST

IST BROOD ADULTS

INVADING ADULTS LARVAE

PUPAE

IST BROOD ADULTS

INVADING ADULTS LARVAE

H

PUPAE Larva

55 ° F

IST BROOD ADULTS

INVADING ADULTS LARVAE

fly

at

.

Pupa

FIGURE

25

6.

.

of

PUPAE

development different temperatures Num generations per crop varies with temperature differences

FIGURE 4. Sciarid ber

Egg

1.00 mm

Life stages

the sciarid

.fly

65 ° F

++

IST BROOD ADULTS

INVADING ADULTS

70 ° F

26

22 1

of

75 ° F

14

20

22

16

-

15

50 10

10

Days

12

Adult

0

:

5

40

65

55

Pupa

75

70

30

drench

can

effective

when

larval stage

Days

an the

of

the

of

length

days

insecticide

.

.fly

How temperature affects sciarid Number

the female

be

of

FIGURE

5a .

:

( ° F )

Temperature

20

Larva

15 10

5

5

7

.

9

10

.fly

75

( °

affects the different stages

in

How temperature veloping female sciarid FIGURE

7.

be of

the

adult stage insecticide can

70

65

55

Temperature an of

the

of

.fly

5b .

the

de

killing adult flies

.

for

the

length FIGURE How temperature affects days when female sciarid Number useful

75

F )

70

65 Temperature

(° F )

55

0

0

Egg

37

In

.

.

of

fly

)

of

(

in

,

,

)

In

,

to

.

.

of

of

2

A

.

.

7

F in

°

90

-

or

-

to

80 °

at

)

( 2

is

.

or

on

.

.

.sp )

on

on

be

.

be

of

to

,

air

.

,

of

of

,

.

is

.

of

;

in

of

.

21

.

In At At

.

.

be

,

in

be

,

.

77 ° F

68

favorable environments the mite genera completed and will 4.8 and 3.9 respectively

at

tion days

.

in

24

of

an

.

of

otherwise

,

.

or

a

or

as

is

(

.

a

50 ° F

.

of

pygmaea

Myco

70 °

at

.

6

.

an

to -

-

)

(

F

in

.

13

,

In

75 °

by

quadratus and The life cycles these two species are identical Adult female mites lay eggs average masses eggs per with hours The about mass Eggs hatch into adults length the life cycle varies with temperature generation will completed each 7.6 days higher temperatures generation length decreases mesembrinae

88

8

12 ).

of

with larvae

Heteropeza

two species

yellow orange larvae white with a

,

yellow and

consists

,

,

philla speyeri

38

Fig

(

The Cecid

13 )

fly

THE CECID FLY

little food

The two most common mite species found Penn sylvania mushroom houses Pygmephorus are P.

be re

,

.

a

of

(

Fig

They eat weed

weed molds without weed molds there for the mites

to

;

.

-

° F .

65

at

20

,

bly with temperature

mushrooms

molds such Trichoderma which develop when poorly prepared Mites can transported compost species various flies currents tools and equipment from mushroom house mushroom house Proper preparation and pasteurization com post usually prevent the development large popu lations mites Properly prepared compost has few

5

be

-

F,

65 °

be

.

inch

not feed

.

in

.

"

"

,

-

to 14 At to -

,

in an

;

in

the larvae cycle will com days The pupal stage follows the about pupae appears whitish initially but quickly comes dark yellowish brown The pupal stage quires days Adult flies may live for about generation varies considera days but the length

pleted

Mites

in

.

in

3

,

.

of

3

to

2

or in

compost the casing The eggs hatch days and newly emerged larvae are nearly transparent and taper towards the head end With maturity they become whitish and are about 4.5 mm length end end about five and one half larvae

inch

Pyemotid mites are commonly called pigmy mites red pepper mites The mites cluster mushroom caps and also can casing found the

so

)

-

(

to

.

length Adult female phorids are about mm They lay smooth elongated ovoid eggs beneath the

end will equal

PYEMOTID MITES

do

of

).

eight larvae end

of

11 ).

(

,

(

Heteropeza

to

is a

.

.

of

to

;

to

Unspawned

compost and fully grown mature composts are not ovipositing egg laying female phorid attractive flies

equal

,

It

,

If

.

,

to

in

of of

room workers notice adult phorid flies during the day Mating because their daily flight schedules Fig commonly phorids outside found are swarms mushroom houses once mated the females are at actively tracted mushroom houses by the odor compost

.

on

in

of

pygmaea adult females are 1.5 mm long compost the mother larvae produces about seven days The larvae are white and larvae every days About will attain full size 2.8 mm

are usually most common late early present the flies summer and fall cropping light and swarm near windows and are attracted growing doors rooms and packing sheds dead phorid flies see thousands common sight on the floor beneath windows and near doors Mush

spawned

vae bearing more larvae Under certain conditions these paedogenetically produced larvae may revert the sexual type cycle Mycophilla speyeri adult females are 1.5 mm long

orange yellow and attain full Larvae are yellow days length size mm mm about one twelfth inch

.

is

,

Adult phorids

surface

.

,

(

,

in

in

.

,

be

(

,

10 ),

Megasellia halterata Fig general phorid more numerous than sciarids but flies cause less mushroom damage than sciarid flies How phorid feeding ever the total economic effect mycelium not really known

Phorid flies

growing mycelium

development Cecid flies have two types the sexual type the adult mates and the female lavs eggs which hatch into larvae The larvae grow and molt shed the skin several times become pupae and then adults reproducing the paedogenetic the sexually immature stage type repro larval duction the mother larvae bear larvae which increase size and without fertilization become mother lar

THE PHORID FLY may

mycelium

or

.

the air

Either can reduce crop yields when larvae feed on the

.

.

shows when the adult sciarid flies are

in

ure

9

it

fly

why they are seldom spotted on the casing surface . Adults , both male and female , also prefer a darkened area to an illuminated area ( Fig 8 ) . This adult re sponse may explain why the kind of light in a moni tor affects the number of adults attracted . Mushroom be growers generally don't see the adult sciarid Fig during cause the hours which flies are limited

Illuminated

20

(32 to 52 ft- candles )

of 10

number

2x

1x

Number

6

PM

Midnight

Flight pattern phorid flies Adult phorid flies are com monly observed during the daylight hours .

FIGURE

of

,

,

dark

.

prefer

Noon

AM

11.

Adult sciarid flies both male and female an illuminated area

a

Midnight

.

Female

6

1

5 0

Male

8.

to

FIGURE ened

-

caught

3x

adults

15

Relative

Nonilluminated

70

68 Adult

50

Days

3x 7

Pupa

45

40 30

24 Larva

20 1x

FIGURE

How temperature veloping phorid

affects the different stages

of

FIGURE

.fly

of

in

of

9.

of

Flight pattern FIGURE sciarid flies showing the relationship be tween the number adult sciarid flies the air and the time

75

65 Temperature

( ° F )

Midnight 12.

PM

Egg

55

13.

Noon

AM

6

6

Midnight

VI

10 0

Relative

number

caught

60

the

de

the cecid

.fly

Adult and pupa stages

of

the phorid

fly .

Adult and larval stage

of

FIGURE

10.

.

day

39

Supplementation with Vegetable Oils Before Phase II of Composting

in

,

oil -

be

In

II .

in

to

in to

Its

F

by

9 °

5 °

). an

,

,

a

(

toxic

and compost

within the compost areas undergoing the mushroom .

anaerobic fermentation

1

,

or

-

between

air

differential

provides for better ventilation thus reducing the possibility

be

turner This method proved insuring thorough mixing

oil an

it

of

be

temperature

to of

to

,

of

II .

to

in oil -

in

of

oil

of

supplementing mushroom com study the effects just prior post with vegetable Phase Crude cottonseed was sprayed onto the compost just passed into the mixing beater fore the compost oil

in

ap Jr ,

,

,

to

oil

A

.

to

the biological activity other Enhanced was evidenced marked increase FIRE FANG white flecking on supplemented compost Fig the straws the The increased biological activity requiring greater .

.

at

,

A

feasible Penn State Thomas Patton few years later pursue and the author decided detail this supplementation vegetable proach mush tests were performed series room compost

both composts supplemented compost had maintained lower than air temperature tures

containing the

,

that the idea may

increased thermogenesis maintain similar tempera temperature the room

addition resulted during Phase order

a

be

A

in

at

II

by

to

or

its

ble oils

1 )

of mushroom compost with vegeta prior to being filled into trays beds un composting was first tried dergo Phase Dr. J.W. Sinden and the author the Butler County Mush room Farm 1964. few preliminary tests showed Supplementation

in air to an

Lee C. Schisler

of

TREATED

ft2

lb /

-

supplementing compost with cotton seed

before

Phase

oil

1 .)

(

of

Effects tray

II .

ml

)

(

500

ft

Table

/4 1. -

of

.

of

.

of

.

to

efficient way throughout the the compost The compost was filled immediately after turning Yield increases resulted from the 0.4 addition the oil Table

Yield

None

2.71

Cottonseed oil

3.11

FIGURE

oil -

In

as

,

to

rapid reduction

.

in

hours before the same condition was nonsupplemented compost The

the

oil -

as

72

2 )

of

achieved

by

its

II

of

.

is

to

in

of

supplemented ammonia compost probably due increased usage the increased populations The reduction duration Phase saves valua in

and addition conserves dry weight and nutrients for the mushroom

ble time

.

in

to

quickly

in

to

15

a

II,

grower

.

room

of

,

to

of

adding vegetable oils compost The advantages prior percent increase Phase other than yield are considerable importance the mush

supplemented compost disappearance the the free ammonia seemed have occurred

,

of

in

..

be

.

is

by

or

II

of

to

.

in

II

Increased biological activity during Phase was also noted Whether the increase mushroom yield was due the buildup microbial protein the compost during Phase direct stimulation mushroom mycelial growth and fructification the oils not known Evidence would suggest that both factors may involved

1 .

( lb / ft ")

Supplementation

41

in

5

to

provide

to

a

(

two drums 110 adequate level an

)

(

to

oil

ft

.

II

of

)

4000

addition

.

of

-

is

as

of

in

is

,

for spawn growth

in

,

20

II

to to

of

prior 15

ble oils yields

.

in in

in

mushroom compost with vegeta Phase will increase mushroom primarily through percent creased microbial activity and thermogenesis during mycelium growth Phase Rate accelerated supplemented compost reducing the time required Supplementation by

.

II

,

Summary

II .

to

In

.

of

.

of

an

house seem

as it

,

-

a

,

be

of

.

or

of

to

on

in

pointed out however that both the should creased biological activity during Phase and the creased activity the mushroom mycelium during heat increase the spawn growing period create -

oil

-

in

of

(

A

”

.

“ ,

pests during spawn growth Any eral important savings time during this stage the production cy cle reduces the disease hazard It

.

single mushroom gal vegetable

provides in the grower year round basis addi creased production tion the mushroom beds are most vulnerable sev

42

plementation

The effects of various levels of addition prior Phase have not been determined For standard

growth was noted compost the nonsupplemented This reduction the spawn growing period reduced the dead time when the trays beds are not actu ally producing mushrooms the mushroom pro significant reduction such ducing cycle this economic importance

production during these two phases of the produc tion cycle . The grower must be able to cope with the additional heat to obtain the benefits of this oil sup

)

3

a

of

.

oil -s

3 )

of

Mycelial growth the mushroom was enhanced upplemented compost The treated compost the dense growth was thoroughly impregnated with mycelium days before similar mushroom

Spawning to Casing in Commercial Mushroom Production D. J. Royse

L. C. Schisler

,

,

and P. J. Wuest

SPAWN understand spawn , spawning , and spawn growth , the mushroom itself must be understood . Mushrooms are fruits of the fungus Agaricus bisporus , and consist of two main parts – the cap and the stem

To

( Fig 1 ) .

As the mushroom matures the cap opens and ( Fig 2 ) . Mushroom spores are

the gills are exposed

produced in the gills . Spores are microscopic spheres roughly comparable to the seeds of higher plants ( Fig 3 ) . These spores are produced in large numbers in the

A 3 -inch mushroom produces as many as 40 million spores an hour . Since spores germinate and grow into mycelium rather unpredictably , they are not used to ' seed ' mushroom compost . Spores will germinate and grow into thread -like mycelium , which is used by laboratories that produce spawn gills .

FIGURE

1. Cap and stem structure of the commercial

mushroom

.

commercially . In the spawn -production process , mycelium from the spores is placed onto steam - sterilized grain , and in time the mycelium completely grows through the grain . This grain /mycellium mixture is called spawn ,

and spawn is used to " seed " mushroom compost ( Fig Most spawn is made with mycelium from a stored culture , rather than mycelium whose parent was a spore . This is because each spore is likely to yield a performance would new cultivar ( strain ), and unpredictable The term cultivar describe used Spawn making cultivated variety asexual to

is

.

an

is

.

a be

its

4) .

so

is a

a

t

a

.

,

SPAWNING

a

cap

of

the

underside

of

Figure Gill structure open mushroom

the

If

.

II

of

be

,

a

a

to

it

at

-

is

in

)

is

by

1

(p

Phase the end after cool down ready for spawning the the compost spawn refrigerator time can gained stored moving warmer place the day before spawn eak heat

2.

Immediately

on

of

.

be

is

for

.

be

eye

"

"

an

to

of

propagation similar dicing potato planted Spawn making can rather complex task and not practicable the average purchased from mushroom grower Spawn may spawnmakers number commercial and most spawn mushroom farmers purchase from these sources

method

mature

43

,

a

5.

of

spawning machine showing tines that Underview through mix spawn broadcast the compost surface .

FIGURE

on

the commercial

.

or

of

-

to

of

of

to

,

at

is

of

in its

in

– --

.

is

,

a

,

(

a

6.

with one

two grains

,

per cubic inch

.

(

it

of

is

in

.

;

it

in

to

a

is

,

to

used

or

3

.

of

is

to

.

of

in

-

a -

a

in

-

as

is

-

in

-

b .

After the machine has passed through the compost tamped with device sim the beds the compost Figure ilar that shown There are several ad vantages mixed spawning reduces the spawn growing period and increases mushroom yield The spawn evenly distributed the compost impregnating depending on the amount spawn )

.

Spawn broadcast over the surface Ruffling being ma the bed and ruffled the compost nipulated into flat surfaced bed The depth ruf fling varies from fraction an inch inches of

.up

.

to

is

,

at

the mushroom industry

today

44

greater and greater extent the bed sys mixed throughout the compost usu specially designed machine Fig the tines

Spawn

of

-

of to

is

in

,

.

of

the bed the lower portion the grain lost the many farms broadcast

in

the compost

Also the nutritional value crop Although not used spawning still practiced

tem ally

is

re

, a

,

to

for

of

to

cess

panded by

in ,

Its

.

to

of

to

dry surface conditions and the time start due grow throughout the full quired mycelium compost and establish total colonization depth thereby allowing competitors more time gain ac

c .

.

to is

,

of

a .

broadcast over the surface grow into the compost Chief the beds and allowed advantages the broadcast method are convenience disadvantages labor saving and time saving drying conditions grains clude exposure slow

similar

This method eliminates most the disadvantages broadcast spawning except that the mushroom my celium must still grow down through the compost from wherever the deepest spawn grains happen end This method more widely used than broad cast spawning especially farms where mechanized spawning equipment not available Mixed spawning This method was first used growing and now the tray system use has ex .

of

Spawn

Used

5 ).

,

.

.

be

to

is

1.

Methods Broadcast

FIGURE material

ing done The mycelium will resume growing and time will be saved

Compost tamping device made aluminum tamp the compost after spawning

6.

grain

.

from sterilized

to

spawn prepared

in

Mushroom

seed mushroom compost

.

to

FIGURE used

rye

4.

.

structure

-

lining

spores borne on basidia mushroom

of

micrograph ( magnification 5000x ) of gill

3. Scanning electron

FIGURE

All

20 15 F

10

20 22 24 26 28 30 )

days

of

Relationship between the quantity spawn used and growth time required before casing .

the amount

of

7.

FIGURE

as

,

in

(

at

of

10 -

.

A

or

In /

-

,

at

to

,

,

at

in

of

or

of

-

.

-

oil

at

of

to

.

of

60

of

in

.

is in -

into

com

is

A

un

6

. In

,

to

4

.

be at -

-

a

,

be

-

at

,

to

or

,

of is

as )

to

( 5

4

a

applied should not inches 7.5 cm from the side boards this region normally not well through supplement exist mixed Where concentrations adjacent near the surface the sideboards ,

the most sanitary opera

)

.

the

,

at

.

,

,

by

supplement

as

bed system closer than

or

one

of

be

should

supplement

using delayed release sup plement successfully uniform through mixing per delayed release nutrient usually applied dry compost weight should not used cent performed less mechanical through mixing the

.

Sanitation

or

of

,

in

delayed release

The key factor

to

.

Incorporating post

-

to

to of

a

in in

2

,

ft ?

ft,

12

-

1

as

be

,

within

.

is

to

in

be

is 1

as

.

spawned compost can damage

encapsulating microdroplets vegetable protein coat that was denatured with formal dehyde Increases percent mushroom yields were obtained come

–-

of

to

of

of

by

is

.

Overheating

thereby reduc injure the mycelial fruiting capacity ing productivity delayed release nutrient supplementation 1976 developed was The disadvantages associated with noncomposted the supplementation nutrients spawning were largely over mushroom compost

of

of

ft

2

.

,

is

in

spawning However excessive heating and strong competitor molds stimulation the compost dras tically reduced the rate which supplements could used and concurrently their corresponding bene be fit .

of

as

at

.

is

7 );

-s

to

,

,

.

, is

Developing technique the early 1960s yield creases were observed when compost was supple lipid rich materials mented with protein and percent increase casing and later spawning crop yield was obtained when small amounts protein supplements were added the compost

In

is

of

,

of

as ft1 of

60

as

(

to

as

In

.

be

air is

con

SASing

SUPPLEMENTATION AT SPAWNING

-

in

a

in

.

for

is is

.

inants from less sanitary operations

3

in

is

of

.

-

in

a

at

.

as

of

If

when outside cool and readily available trol compost temperatures

,

to

of

be

a

of

,

be

.

in

,

mushroom growing Spawning tools bas thoroughly cleaned kets and equipment should water and disinfected before with strong stream the the first operation use Spawning should work day insure that the workers their outer gar ments and their shoes are free debris contam tions

.

.

,

,

-

.

.

a

with tendency towards excessive compost heating cooling equipment isn't available higher spawning year rates should used only during the time

Spawning

32

18

16

casing

(

.

Time

to 14

1

12

10

8

4

spawn

FT

6

5

spawned

25

,

as

,

.

,

-

is

its

35 30

.

its

-

80 ° F

at

is

to a

in

be

In

1

mushroom production and reduces the time needed especially true when this for spawn growth Fig mixed pawned The increased mush the spawn room yield due more efficient utilization com post nutrients which turn related more initial growing points and quicker colonization the com post well the nutrient value the spawn grain itself adding more spawn one effect adding more nutrient There are practical limits the spawn that may amount added and still get creased yields When spawn ruffled the maxi mum beneficial rate about unit per but high with mixed spawning rates unit per On the other hand have proven advantageous creased spawning rates are not without disadvan tages Increased heat generated during spawn growth and cooling equipment must cope able ,

?

40

2

to

.

a

,

by

.

its a

is

2.

Rates

practice spawning rates vary among commercial spawn mushroom farms The basic unit the quart since grain spawn was originally made quart sized milk bottles and bagged quart sized spawn units Though only small percentage quart sized units today spawning rates are made quarts per square feet still designated terms compost surface Some growers spawn rates low quart bed surface Others will each quart for each sur great spawn rate spawning Increasing face area the rate increases as

/ qt

Compost

.

an

,

.

In

a

of

be

of

;

so to is

,

supplemental themselves become nutrient Bed growers are using spawning machines more and more Growers without machines are encouraged hand using short handled pitch forks mix spawn disadvantages All Mixed spawning not without bed destined for mixed spawning the compost spawning time since must cooled below well mixed throughout the bed the spawn near cooler outer surface However mixed spawn ing recommended practice since the advantages disadvantages far outweigh

3.

1

,

is

to

.

of

grains become initial points growth The mycelium grow any great distance before the does not have compost completely colonized and this saves time Time not the only advantage uncased beds are open various kinds infestations during this pe spawn growth can riod shorter period important advantage addition the spawn grains

45

a

all

at

to

.

of

to

no

,

be

no

.

or

,

,

.

at

If

de

is

of

,

.

be

.

.

of be

.

.

in

;

of

of

an

by

by

no

.

(

N )

.

a

is

-

at

is

of

.

,

,

N

,

as

,

a

N

to

is

It

in

.

, ,

”

ei

.

of

to

In

.

is

,

,

“

,

a

in

be

.

as

or

of

II

to

20

to

15

a

of

at a is of a

of

oil

of

in

of

-

.

of

in

percent increase

by

II,

in

.

in

of

of

.

heat being given off the compost Increases mushroom yield associated with lipid additions are due combination more microbial protein pro direct stimulation and duced during Phase mushroom mycelial growth and fructification during a

II,

at

.

spawn run and production Supplementing compost with after the compost fully permeated has been with mushroom mycelium oil

,

no

or

of

,

be

to

pH There seems little correlation be tween compost pH subsequent mycelial growth and pH made ultimate yield Determinations the

–

a

to

.

,

,

–

2.

/ml lb

.

.

in

,

Compost Factors

.

can result

mushroom yield Oil addition also increases the bio more logical activity during Phase which results

a

a

is

.

A

and spawn makers can often pro vide helpful information this regard each cultivar used

posting

to

their inherent capacity

genetic charac slower growth This teristic associated with the particular mushroom grower must become familiar with cultivar used .

is

10

bisporus vary

in

or of A.

Mushroom Cultivar Used

the

Lipid content lipid compost The amount will affect both the rate and quantity spawn growth Data from supplementation mushroom stim compost experiments show that linoleic acid ulatory lipid Crude cottonseed oil added rate wet compost prior Phase com 4.

.

.

-

of

The length the spawn growing period can affect yield Many factors can determine the proper spawn growing period

1.

necessarily denote good compost summary spawn growth rate not necessarily related compost ther yield the nitrogen content a

a

as

SPAWN GROWTH

46

very slow spawn growth Generally speaking well composts with the spawn growth may slower high content but fills out becomes more dense grows Of course slow spawn growth does not .

.

C )

26 °

to

(

F

°

80

/

or

to

27 ° 78 ° C ) F (

74 °

of

Temperatures

may inhibit mycelial growth damage the fruiting capac

.

of

ity

hyphae

to

23 an °

.

,

in

to

.

,

higher than and cause injury and

greater the ammonia content provided there present the better the yield This correlation how ever does not necessarily hold true with rate spawn growth possible have very rapid compost with spawn growth content low

N

ad

be ,

In

.

of

,

of / or

in

spawn run Mushroom cultivars differ their response general spawn growth temperatures However growth tempera optimal rule most cultivars have

to

be

of

.

if

.

to

to

this way the that temperature increases will occur can air temperature volume the and air justed surge thereby advance the heat main taining optimum compost temperature levels during

Nitrogen content The nitrogen content should spawning There positive cor 2.0 2.5 percent relation between nitrogen content and yield The

of

be

nonsupplemented compost These events anticipated are controllable The grower must days after spawning able determine the number

termined modified Kjeldahl method Most peo ple can detect ammonia content about 0.1 per cent smell this level ammonia will severely excess restrict spawn growth Concentrations 0.2 percent usually kills the mycelium 3.

of be

by

.

48

air as

to as

The normal peak tem advanced perature during spawn run also may much hours and the response the compost delayed temperatures will when com lower

spawning time should less than 0.05 percent ammonia content exceeds this value mycelial growth compost retarded Ammonia content best

,

C )

5 °

above

Ammonia There appears direct correla tion between ammonia content subsequent mycelial growth and ultimate yield The ammonia content

as it

ad

-

.

( 2 °

F

8 °

to

3 °

to ,

on

in

to

,

a

of

.

may îise nonsupplemented compost temperatures

for rapid

a

a

is

-

a

at

to of

of

compost

mycelial activity releases more heat into the compost nonsupplemented com than mycelium growing the condition and post As result depending dissipate heat compost bed ability the compost

Cultivars

,

.

of

be

of

It

The spawning encour ages more vigorous mycelial growth This increased compost temperature

Anticipatory control supplement dition

ture range

6.0 after

.

be

It

.

a

.

in

supplement

the way

during

compost been un Composts have been found with rela successful tively high pH containing ammonia and sup porting good mycelial growth On the other hand composts with relatively low pH 6.7 containing considerable ammonia and supporting little spawn growth have been observed .

,

a

be

to

of

overemphasized bution the nutrients cannot that thorough and even mixing the supplement delayed release key factor successfully using

to

a

.

On tray lines with tipper mechanism the supple evenly applied after the compost has ment should applied dumped should from the tray been prior spawn This the application and mixing practice will assure more thorough and even distri

pared

time of spawning seem to be acceptable pH from 6.5 8.2 The compost pH spawning crop decreases from 7.5 cropping Attempts the correlate pH with spawn growth and ultimate yield have of

for airborne

source

nutrient

a

become

a

they may molds

an

=

:

.

ac

is

of

.

is

;

=

,

30

.

”

–

;

1.5

–

) -

pe

7.

Ventilation and environment humidity The venti lation requirements during the spawn growing riod are not fully understood No precise data exist

1.0

(

Growth

.

-

2.0

,

dry compost small mushrooms Also weepers mushrooms from which water ex udes occur with very dry compost

rooms

2.5

"

rate

mm day

40 3.5

=

) / (

an

effect but indirect one Example Too wet too little moisture for aerobic compost too dry thermophiles generally One direct effect which cepted that moisture can influence size mush

45

.

It is

of

on

the effect ventilation during spawn growth yield generally assumed that little mushroom oxygen required during spawn run Growers are

culti

.

no

growth rate

to is

on

compost temperature

30

25

keep the house shut tightly with advised venti except necessary lation that maintain desired Withholding compost temperature ventilation makes easier maintain high humidity and denies it

a

at

.

of is

to

of

re

)

(

.

up

.

to

,

on

,

,

95

as

at

be

is

possible

.

moisture

to

or

to

74 °

of

,

increased growth rate between 1000 and 5000 per ppm The humidity should maintained higher preserve compost cent R.H. much

to on

.

is

as

far

in

as

in

.

is

to

no

.

8.

in

Sanitation to

-

a

be

.

is

.

on

if

.

,

,

.

,

its

,

.

or

of

,

of

a

,

pe

.

,

,

in

,

.

be

of

ft

-

, a

.

In

of

the greater the total yield

course

,

and generally

Of

direct

and

given set summary conditions under spawn growth can affect both yield and pat yield general tern shorter spawn growing early breaks con riod means fewer pounds per sisting larger size However fewer mushrooms generally reduced The longer the total yield can period growing spawn the larger the early breaks

length

.

generally not

a

de

”

,

of

“

of in

spawn growth

is

on

.

sired range

the texture the compost may cooking out the com compost moisture outside the

surface provides ideal conditions for germination growth pathogens pests

,

or

.

on

properly

,

water depending

cause difficulty post This effect

be

,

,

.

,

do

a

.

or

percent for synthetic com nure compost post These ranges are generally accurate for opti mum spawn growth and assume resilient compost structure However exceptions occur where spawn growth and eventual yield will optimum too little outside the ranges given Too much water

of

at

of

70

to

75 65

65 be to at

–

6.

compost Moisture The moisture content spawning should percent for horse ma

-

.

of

°

F

to

compost temperatures rise above mycelial activity the rhythmic growth pattern

compost surfaces Covering beds with plastic not disadvantages without however Less evapora tive cooling occurs and keeping bed temperatures within the desired range during warmer weather may problem Also contaminants are present prior covering the moist environment the compost a

the during peak

In

of

this

of

78

i.e. the tendency

,

obvious considering

plastic film protect Beds may covered with compost surfaces from air borne contaminants and pests The film also prevents moisture losses from the

to be

of

of

.

,

rhythmic growth pattern

is

78

° F

°

to

a

or

rather than

76

76 ° F

4

of

so

be

a

85 ° F .

if

to

Salt concentration The concentration soluble salts the compost believed have effect spawn growth and eventual yield There appears be an adverse effect when salts are high the casing soil but not the compost known ,

° F,

is

of

.

to

.

°

F at

is 85

any time during spawn growth The mycelium not killed until temperatures reach 104 but growth severely restricted and permanent damage can done the fruiting mechanism the myce lium incubated above rhythmic pattern Mushroom mycelium exhibits compost temperatures should growth moni day tored more times One the merits maintaining compost temperatures between 74º and is be

levels about 10,000 ppm San laboratory mycelial Antonio studies growth suggests the optimum CO concentration for

doing

as

.

-

a

,

a

in

76 ° F

CO

increasing

,

for

on

is

8 )

(

in

taining bed temperatures within the range results more rapid growth rate and conse quently shorter spawn growing period Growers should not permit compost temperatures exceed

dicate certain levels carbon dioxide CO accumu lation enhance mycelial growth Long and Jacobs ported that mycelial growth rate increases with

.

by

II

.

–

of

of

to

74 °

is

the mycelium

of 78 ° F .

5.

The optimum temperature the the cultivated mushroom This finding based primarily the research Treschow Fig Practical experience compost shows that main with growing spawn Temperature

growth

mushroom pests the house time when the mycelium most vulnerable Some data in

access

an

a

in

be

,

.

of

oil

to

)

(

just before casing SACing results higher biolog partial utilization ical efficiency and more yield due during Phase the supplemented ther mophilic microbes However SACing poses practical problems which will presented later

to

.

a

to

.

8.

FIGURE Effect vated mushroom

of

Compost temperature

on

20 ( ° C )

5

10

of

15

.

0.5

47

48

or

A

or

a

.

If

,

be

in

be

in

to

,

,

.

is

)

it

is

,

an

.

be

.

of

in

.

air

in

in

far

,

-

27 ° , C )

)

(

to

°

F (

80

it is

as

as

to

by

,

”

set

,

.

,

,

.

to

air

a

in to

is

of

.

II

.

.

-

,

in

.

a

.

,

in

of

of

a

of

SACing yield obtainable the de border break nonfruiting my velopment thick overgrowth

.

by

in

be

,

of

.

is

which the the room spawned compost kept fruiting on casing atop Second the induction compost problem SAC'd can The casing layer limiting the increase plays an important role

production involves variety compost Production that selective for mushroom growth and which contains those nutritional substances necessary optimize yields step compost mushroom the first Care preparation during Phase will mini and Phase mize problems encountered during the spawn grow ing period from spawning time through casing Attention the environmental physical and nutri tional factors discussed will yield increased quantity harvested mushrooms and quality Successful mushroom interrelated factors

I

,

,

-

.

of

a

is

riod function mospheric conditions

SUMMARY

is

the time needed the spawn The spawn growing the compost the cultivar and

the compost

at peto

for

relationship

to

its

Certain problems, however , must be overcome at commercial operations before SACing can be rou tinely used . First , the mycelium must be grown through the compost thoroughly before it is dis turbed by the fragmentation which precedes SACing . The exact time for SACing cannot be specified due to

fully colonize

.

is

in

about the same level as that of nonsupplemented compost .

special back room designed espe handle the increased heat load generated the increased mycelial activity the SAC'd compost used some mushroom tray farms Most commer cial mushroom growing operations however are not handling facilities sufficient equipped with ex change the heat produced casing cially

to

,

rapidly changes the heat produced the tem high perature can rise rapidly above enough mycelial fruiting cause possible injury capacity Maximum thermogenesis heat production usually occurs between the third and fourth day after “

production ) of production falls rapidly to

pattern of mushroom

the supple compost produces mented heat amounts above that associated with mycelial activity undisturbed compost Unless the around the compost ex

Finally increased mycelial activity

of

( cyclic

fragmented and can then multiply

mushroom production Nematode infes especially troublesome problem tations can with this practice

A

occurs in the first 30 days of production ; this period roughly with the first three to four corresponds

post when advance

.

the compost for mushroom growing must be added when any of these supplements are used for SACing . The compost must be fragmented to insure a thor ough mixing of the supplement into the compost . supplemented Once the compost is at casing ( SAC'd ) , the compost is leveled , pressed , and cased . Most of the yield increase obtained by SACing

mushrooms . Thereafter

stroma casing

be

)

Increases in mushroom yields of 100 percent have been observed when soybean meal or cottonseed meal were added to fully colonized compost at the rate of 10 percent of the dry compost weight just prior to casing . One additional step to the preparation of

breaks

may occur when certain type used Third weed molds mites pathogens and nema present compost todes must not SAC'd present they will distributed throughout the com

celium depth

of (

re

to

SUPPLEMENTATION AT CASING ( SACing

a

,

can cause

at

period

of

too long a spawn - growing duction in yield .

Influence of Cultural Practices on Mushroom Yield Response to Delayed - Release Nutrients Lee C. Schisler

State University spawn strain 324 ( a light cream ) was used at a rate of 110 g per tray . After a 2 - week spawn - growing period with compost temperatures maintained between 74º and 78 ° F , the trays were cased with 1 to 1.25 inches of pas teurized top soil . Ambient air temperature was main

disadvantages microdroplets

level throughout the remainder cycle

for

or

.

1

of

F

at

61 °

to

18

to

15

in

of

cultural practice being investigated these general procedures were employed for each experiment

in

.

of

Weight and number and trimmed mushrooms harvested from each tray were recorded daily Except where the experimental design was modified for the .

.

.

was applied Seven flushes were harvested the day picking period All mushrooms were picked

,

60

by

be

days after the soil

.

at

by

of

of

Various researchers have shown that mushroom yields can increasing the amount increased spawn mixed into the compost Early experiments demonstrated that increasing the spawning rate

Mushrooms matured .

.

)

(

a

oil

of

of

percent stimulation increase mushroom yields yields during the first few flushes and beyond pro delayed nutrient release vides evidence

the production

.

by

.

of

,

:

at

,

encapsulating vegetable lipids within protein coat denatured with formaldehyde encapsulated microdroplets spawning can Use

approximately tained at 74 ° F week until the mycelium reached the casing's surface Air tempera ture was then reduced and maintained that

.

ad

in

at

.

are largely overcome

below , The Pennsylvania

56 -

,

at

.

,

at

-

or

of

Supplementation mushroom compost with protein lipid rich materials spawning casing and later has increased mushroom yields Biological and practical limitations often accompany supplement ditions these times commercial mushroom cul ture Disadvantages associated with adding noncom spawning include limited posted supplements nutrient addition and yield stimulation excessive heating and stimulation competitor molds These

.

of

12

g

,

,

at

2 -

48 -

at

.

48

,

of

50 ,1

of

a

at

,

.

of

in in

in

a

3.

in

on

ft

in at

ft ?

lb /

.

all

at

,

1

-

/

lb

-

A

1 ).

(

of

an

in in

.

no

ft '

lb /

in

,

specifically

yield with Table one can see slight increases creased spawning rates during the first three flushes approximately 0.6 with larger increases due supplementation the last four flushes In of

to

,

noted

month

supple increased spawning rates and mushroom yields are presented slight increase yield and There was

.

where

10

in

of

4

45

lb

to

40

.

ft

at

.

,

lb

1

of

at

,

lb

Except

approximately

with increased spawning rate Table five fold spawn caused approximate 0.25 crease yield Addition delayed release supple crease approximately ment however evoked yield spawning rates Looking increase in

of

in

-

a

commercial product Spawn Mate The nutrient was uniformly throughout the compost spawn per tray the rate area that con tained approximately wet compost 13

1

.

II,

-t

a 6 -

day low emperaure Phase were employed The delayed release nutrient this series tests was

dry weight

In

1 , 2,

.

I

7 -

to

6-

,

by

a

at

Normal composting procedures used the Mush day Phase followed room Research Center

mixed ing

Effects mentation Tables

,

of

investigate these factors

to

ments were designed

experi

2,

.

The following series

of

,

-

planted

Ag

,

or

of

-

to

of

aricus bisporus

three separate composts intervals of

delayed release nutrients include supple compost filled per mentation rate and dry weight tray area incubation temperature dur unit bed ing the spawn growing period and the strain

experiments dealing with spawning rate trays were spawned the rate 100 150 and 240 spawn per tray making trays per test total Half the trays spawned each rate were supple tray tests were performed on mented Three such .

of

-

.

-

at

spawning Other cultural delayed release nutrients practices which could affect mushroom yield re sponse

SPAWNING RATE

to

to

of

of

It

on at

of

creased the yield mushrooms from trays supple mented with readily available nutrients spawning compare the effects was interest mushroom yield increased spawning rates and the addition

49

increase resulted from increased spawning rates but increases of 0.3 to 0.4 lb / ft' occurred due to supple those of mentation . Results of this study confirm earlier workers who found that increased spawning rates increased yields of mushrooms. However , the increases are much greater from the addition of the delayed - release

nutrients

than

from

increased

spawning rates . Increased spawning rates do not in crease the yields of compost supplemented with de layed - release nutrients . This is in contrast to results reported

in the experiments of supplementation spawning with readily available nutrients .

1. Effects of spawning rate and supplementation with delayed - release nutrients on total mushroom yield . (lb ft of tray

Table

surface .)

Spawn rate ( g / 4- ft' tray )

Treatment

50

100

150

250

Nonsupplemented

3.034

( Ib / ft ) 3.06

(Ib / ft ) 3.08

(lb ft ) 3.23

Supplemented

4.00

4.04

4.09

4.18

( lb / ft )

Averages of three experiments .

at

2. Effects of spawning rate and supplementation with delayed - release nutrients on total mushroom yield (lb / ft of tray surface ) of the first three flushes . Table

COMPOST DENSITY preliminary test dealing with compost density trays each were supplementation rate , sets of and supplemented with 0.25 0.5 / 0.75 and 1.0 nutrient per tray approximately 2.5 1 percent 7.5 and compost respectively One the dry weight trays was spawned but not supplemented mak ing total trays the test the second third lb

5,

of

100

150

250

1.991

( lb /it ") 2.06

(Ib / ft ) 2.15

2.24

Supplemented

2.63

2.68

2.76

2.84

(lb / ft")

Spawn rate ( g /4-ft ? tray )

1.034

1.01

.93

Supplemented

1.37

1.35

1.34

supplementation

and approximately the nonsupplemented had returned As the supplementation level increased yields increased the largest was greater than 0.75

three experiments

)

1.00

1.34

Nonsupplemented

)

( lb / ft ?

-

.

-

Last

flushes

Total

,

es

ft )

lb /

1.65

1.00

2.65

1.69

1.07

2.76

1.73

1.18

2.91

1.98

1.20

3.18

(

( lb / ft ")

/

454

2.33

)g

341

nutrient tray 1.0

0.93

)g

lb (

/

nutrient tray 0.75

( lb / ft ) (

/

lb

227

(

0.5

1.40

)g

lb

114

nutrient tray

nutrient tray /

with the

the spawn growing room -

in

-

50

flushes

)g

to

10

,

-

day

0.25

lb (

is

It

.

of

In

.

overheated rather severely from day when mechanical difficulties occurred

air handling system

various

in

.

10 -

.

to

of

,

13 ,

but

response

Yield First

Treatments

4

,

ft

.

of

of

to

),

lb at

.

as

in

(

It

4 )

(

of

addition was the greatest level used not supplementation known whether additional levels would elicit additional yields the second experi ment temperatures during the spawn growing pe riod were kept under control during the first week

level

tray surface Mushroom yield release nutrient addition

delayed

to

Compost temperatures during the spawn growing percent period were relatively easy control The

levels

of 4.

Table

Yield increases were noted

in

the early appears that with supple well the later flushes mented compost filled into trays low compost den dry weight per sities the preliminary test 2.6 pro tray surface yield mushrooms increased supplement used portion the amount Table

3

;

as ft ?

lb /

,

1 °

C .

to

Averages

250

ft

( Ib / ft )

)

/ ft

( lb

150

.

a

)

of -

,

At

(

3 °

C

,

.

tial between the three rates

100

Nonsupplemented

of

,

5,

,

.

ing which began about the sixth day and reached peak about warmer than the check on the ninth day casing time compost temperature differen

50

Treatment

( lb

of

Table 3. Effects of spawning rate and supplementation with delayed - release nutrients on total mushroom yield ( lb/ ft of tray surface ) of the last four flushes .

( lb / ft )

7

of

ft

?,

lb

.

to

percent levels

ft )

Averages of three experiments .

-

and

However the 7.5 addition caused some heat

the check of

10

when compared

(lb

,

90

3,

,

60 ,

75 ,

–

at ,

of

50

Nonsupplemented

at

and fourth experiments trays were spawned three 1 compost densities per tray approx and dry weight per imately 4.5 5.5 and 6.5 and supplemented approximately percent 1 ! and compost the dry weight Observations during spawn growth the prelimi heating nary experiment showed that little occurred with the 2.5 percent delayed release nutrient addition ,

Spawn rate ( g/ 4-ft' tray ) Treatment

,

,

In

.

in

30

a

of

,

.

set

,

5,

,

,

,

of

six of

,

or

,

six

a

10 lb

In

tem

70

F

°

.

on

°

of

65

.

at

in

trays

7 .

as

as

all

at

casing showed good spawn growth Yield data are presented Table

Observations

,

in

,

.

,

on

.

at 7

percent Observations and supplemented cas ing showed better spawn growth the supple mented trays than on the checks However the deeper and more heavily supplemented trays which obviously overheated their centers did show

ments in the spawn - growing room , the compost perature and fell this treatment remained below day following spawning low the tenth in

per tray

lb

90

at .

at

trays filled

in

F

were recorded

°

of

95

in

pecially the trays the greater compost densities and the higher supplementation rates Temperatures

areas

.

of

)

ft

to

/

(

lb

on

).

( lb / ft )

5.27

5.79

5.39

5.01

5.68

5.93

6.31

6.49

5.38

6.96

7.01

7.15

7

( lb / ft )

wt )

3

( Ib / ft ? )

( 5 %

0

( lb )

4.66

90

dry

75

-4

. In

( lb / ft )

.

to

of

lb / ft

(

)

on

6.

-

of

els

90

6.55

6.35

F

61 °

wt ) 7

5.32

/ ft )

( lb / ft )

5.45

Ib

(

3

( lb / ft )

75

dry

( lb / ft ? )

0 ( lb / ft )

4.18

( 5 %

).

(

4.36

-4 ft

( )lb

Supplementation

ft )

Dry

60

5.05

5.95

6.35

6.35

6.47

7.03

7.60

8.25

.

experiment

in

to ;

as

of

)

tray surface three lev three compost densities

to

( lb / ft '

on

7.

-

of

els

Effect mushroom yield delayed release nutrient addition

Fourth experiment

).

( lb / ft )

( Ib / ft )

7

3 ( lb / ft )

wt )

0

60

4.35

3.55

4.23

4.63

4.46

75

5.44

4.64

4.94

5.42

5.86

90

6.53

5.73

6.07

6.48

6.72

-

( lb / ft ")

( 5 %

wt

dry

( Ib / ")ft

ft

Supplementation

( lb )

treatments

the rest

of

.

at in

,

-

lb

60

7

of

maintained

Dry

-

for

throughout the spawn growing period except trays containing wet compost supplemented percent level the nutrient addition While the am bient temperature

Wet wt per tray 4

to

all

and

79 ° F )

°

between

(

mum

72

in

.

of

in

in

.

Table (

.

,

in

of

of

a

3

a

of

a

of

a

at

.

Treatment not included

in

ft

/

compost density tion rate Trays filled 5.45 showed substantial increase the yield percent However result nutrient addition additional yield increases were not obtained with the supplementation and percent levels Yield from the nonsupplemented checks increased with proportion creased compost density increased dry weight compost Compost temperatures the spawn growing during experiment room the fourth were near opti 7

1 =

at

of

6 .

in

tray surface three lev three compost densities

5

at

in

as

(

-

is

in

lb

Wet wt per tray

wt

of

)

lb /

Effect mushroom yield delayed release nutrient addition

Third experiment

compost

at

.

experiment

in

to

-

in

,

90

(

as

.

Treatments not included

-

90

s =

of

1.

at

in

,

75

all

all

in

° F,

7 %

( lb / ft )"

of

7

,

at -

3

,

F

°

an 2.

81

in

lev

65

,

7

in

75

of

tray

produced increased yield with increased supplementation rates yield increases were approxi supplementa mately proportional the increase lb

three

three compost densities

Supplementation

ft-

Dry wt

corded the mid density trays 5.45 dry compost supplemented the higher supplementation rates and Yield data shown Table compost densities Trays spawned 4.36 and

ft ?

-

5.

(

3

of

?

5

.

°

1 ,

of

)

7 %

(

the greatest density

lb /

tray surface

,

of

Wet wt per tray

Table

compost temperatures trays filled below the lower densities were well below optimum for my celial growth Temperatures low were re

5

yield

mushroom

release nutrient addition

experiment

Second

.

,

5

70 2.

spawn between and treatments growing room No spawn growing However attempt was made keep the room No where temperatures rate the higher supplementation

6.55

Effect

delayed

a

a

at

in

in

.

ft

lb /

as of a

in

TABLE of

5.39

yield with per square foot showed increase creased supplementation rates The trays filled dry compost density showed substan 6.46 yield tial increase result the addition percent nutrient However additional yield increases percent levels were not obtained from the and supplementation Yield from the nonsupplemented checks increased with increased compost density the third experiment the two higher supplementa percent for each density tion rates and com spawn growing room No post were placed The nonsupplemented checks densities and the low percent est supplementation rate and compost per tray were placed spawn growing Compost temperatures were maintained room No

els

lb

of

5 .

an

a

at

is

in

in

spawn damage and molds the damaged presented Yield data Table dry compost density The trays filled

the treat 51

Trays spawned at dry -weight densities of 5.44 and lb / ft showed increased yields with increased supplementation rates . This was also true trays percent level filled the 4.35 rate except the

Table 8. Mushroom yield (lb /ft") from compost in trays placed at two temperatures during spawn growth .

7

at

,

-

at

lb

for

6.53

(

7 % )

At

in

5

at

of

of

level Yields the nonsupplemented checks proportion creased with increased compost density compost increased dry weight compost density- and supplementation rate experiments where the compost temperatures were

( lb /ft?)

( lb /ft )

Nonsupplemented

2.86

3.18

Supplemented

3.53

4.08 D. for

S.

L.

of

-

=

.

of

by

* =

-

(

)

growing period days

( lb / ft

6

13

( lb / ft )

on

-

half the trays containing supplemented and nonsupplemented compost were placed single spawn growing room with the ambient tempera ture controlled The remaining half the spawn growing room with trays were placed

( lb / ft)

.

9.

on

-

to

mushroom yield response

release nutrients

Nonsupplemented

2.37

3.11

Supplemented

3.42

4.03

in

to

-

to

time

delayed

)

-

of

casing

Treatment

experiments especially designed evaluate the fluence low spawn growing temperatures delayed release nutri mushroom yield response -

Effect

the addition

Spawn

BELOW NORMAL TEMPERATURES DURING SPAWN RUN In

Table

of of

or

-

.

.

to

at

all

to

°

F,

84 °

72

yield increases maintained between and were proportional increased supplementation rates densities used Compost temperatures above below this range during the spawn growth restrained delayed release nutrients yield response

Mushroom yields are averages two experiments Waller Duncan analysis variance procedure

0.05 0.19 the four values

.

-

In

all

.

of

to

in

.

during spawn growth 74°F

62°F

,

.

of

supple supplement addition the highest mentation level yield for these trays was slightly less trays supplemented percent than that the

Compost temperature Treatment

to

,

.

as

in

by

.

-

is

of

,

)

12

12

to

-

a

(

a

In

a a

(

(

),

–

of

.

)

-

(

in

of

an

(

),

a

-

of

of

.

.

a

,

,

12

.

of

in of

,

,

(

10 ).

of

),

11

in

(

-

of

as

as

the

light

in

a

of

,

no

by

on

.

?

ft

lb /

.

of

yield cream and white strains The increases brought supplementa from 0.57 0.73 signifi tion were significant However there was among any cant difference these increases for the significant strains tested So although there was ,

may shorten some other specific

post were significantly less than those to

13

-

approximately casing time

of

of

days

.

response

to

in

casing

as

of

of

.

obtained

yield irrespective

This suggests that growers

to

9 ).

?

ft

the time 52

were

days and after

in

,

of

spawn growth Increases lb /

1 (

trays were cased after

6

-

to

to

In

casing affected order test whether time delayed release nutri mushroom yield response

Table

the two strains the second experiment Table yields the brown and off white strains the nonsupplemented well the supplemented com .

.

TIME OF CASING

ents

the preliminary experiment the yield the brown strain mushrooms was lower than that the light cream Table However the increase yield supplementation result was similar for In of

be

),

it

of

in

in

supplemented

a

(

a

.

is

by

as

be by

It

.

)

of

(

at

the lower temperatures does suggest that per haps some biological phenomenon may also volved the release the nutrients

),

re at

of

,

at ,

74 ° F .

held the temperature range normal for mushroom mycelial growth has been suggested Carroll and Schisler 1976 that delayed release may effected developing the pH the compost lowered Although this test does not mushroom mycelium negate such hypothesis some stimulation did occur

study the influence preliminary experiment trays were strain and mushroom yield response spawned with The Pennsylvania State University's light cream and strain 345 were spawned with PSU 344 brown Half the compost spawned with each strain was supplemented second experi trays PSU 310 four strains each ment light cream snow white PSU 324 PSU 344 brown and PSU 348 off white were spawned Compost half the trays each strain was

as

a

° F,

62

at

?,

ft

lb /

,

supplementation when the compost was incubated The greater stimulation mushroom yield sulted therefore when compost temperatures were

SPAWN STRAINS

In

in

.

A

8 )

?,

ft F

,

(

lb / 62 °

Table substantial yield crease 0.67 resulted from supplementing the compost and subsequent incubation and greater yield increase 0.90 resulted from the

with

a

an

com

° C

at

74

?,

from

resulted

incubated

demand without adversely affecting yield response delayed release nutrient addition However total yield reduced supplemented the earlier casing nonsupplemented compost well

In

of

F .

0.3

lb / ft

,

A

in

of

temperature ambient yield slight increase nonsupplemented compost pared

a

74 ° -

a

air

in

F .

at

62 °

-

air in

,

ents

10.

increases

of

)

)

(

of

)

by

)

lb )

(

ft )

( lb / ft ) )

(

)

(

(

PSU 344

S.

Brown

348

(

-

Off white PSU

2.43

3.16

2.42

2.99

0.57

2.14

2.77

0.63

2.10

2.69

0.59

0.73

no

.

-

of

D. 0.19 Waller Duncan analysis variance procedure for yields for nonsupplemented and supplemented compost for

.

95

of

comparison significant differ means shows the yield increases resulting from supplementation percent confidence level various strains the

Scheffe's test ence between

at

.

,

PSU 324

PSU 310

Supplemented Increase ( lb /

Nonsupplemented

Light cream White

L.

1

of

to

by

.

Treatment Strain

of

re

or

.

of

-

of

of

( lb / ft ")

.

bisporus

A.

-

compost supplementation with delayed release yield various strains

mushroom

of

of

Effect

on

11.

nutrients

lb / ft ?

of to

in

.

13

or -

6

lb )

at , 1

in

in

of

Table

in

as

as

.

ft ?

lb /

cultivated mushroom tested responded the addi delayed release nutrients increasing yield tion Although yield level varied with the strain the mag response was constant nitude of

(

.95

)

of

at

,

of

.

of

as

-

,

84 ° F ;

great and increases 1.9 were ob tained Compost temperatures above below this range reduced yield responses the delayed yield approximately lease nutrients Increases were obtained from supplementation with delayed release nutrients whether trays were cased spawn growth All strains days after the 72º

.

.96

3.37

of

of

%

7

to .

up

3.97

early

The addition increased supple dry weight compost with mentation delayed release nutrients spawning resulted dry increased mushroom yield did increases compost The addition weight density increas ing amounts increased mush nutrients resulted room yields from both low and high dry weights composts provided compost temperatures during the spawn growing period were maintained between (

3.01 2.42

all

at

occurred

in

.

These

Supplemented Increase

of

in

(

)

of

Ib / ft ?

in

-

of

in

bisporus caused slight increases delayed release nutrients whereas the addition spawning resulted approximately substantial yield tray surface increases

spawning rates and late flushes

PSU 345

PSU 344

Agaricus mushroom yield

,

In

summary increasing the spawning rate

Brown

(

Light cream

SUMMARY

of A. on

-

a

a

of

( lb / ft ? )

Nonsupplemented

( lb / ft )

,

of

Treatment

Strain

( lb / ft )

-

in

.

in of

Preliminary experiment showing effect Table compost sup plementation with delayed release nutrients mushroom yield light cream and brown strain bisporus

.

a

en nu

in

,

of

a

as

in

yield among the various strains from difference nonsupplemented composts the increases yield supplementation with delayed release result trients were similar This was true both tests compassing Agaricus bisporus total five strains commonly used the commercial mushroom industry

53

1

Selecting , Manipulating , and Treating Mushroom Casing J. Wuest

Lee C. Schisler and Paul

be

is a

a

to

in

"

36

to

18 "

of

,

a

)

2

no

(

if

In

it

be

a

,

to

or

,

or

a

)

bit.

an

be

to

-

,

to

.

the extent required

and

,

as

-

its

.

Peat formed from sphag superior product for cas high water holding

of a

or

,

sphagnum hardwood num moss considered ing primarily because is

.

of

-

it

of

on

in

is

in

50

bogs and contains more than Peat moss found percent organic matter decayed plants the form Peat classified the basis the parent material from which reedsedge was derived such

capacity

.

gases between compost and

air ,

of

mushroom compost but not when peat moss used

is

,

.

or

is

-a

to

it

A

of

grouping granules soil particles into aggregates well ggregated soil desirable for casing because provide the physical condition optimum seems for

before the material becomes suffi ciently leached decomposed both useful casing Desirable weathered spent compost has dark rich loamy consistency and makes excellent casing material with good water holding capacity Depth the casing layer needs increased comparison with mineral soil when using spent

,

the arrangement

or

determined

by

is

Soil Structure and Field Management

exchange

usually required

Peat Moss

CASING MATERIALS Soil structure

Spent mushroom compost may converted cas ing material piled more than feet deep field where can decompose and weather for Pennsylvania period time months

,

a

,

of

as

-

well materials

.

to

as in

–

in

,

a

in

of

tering and ventilation during cropping treating and handling the alternative prior casing

1

Spent Compost

is

at or a in

or

.

of

has occurred less than decade and has required changes management procedures number wa

excessive

.

and

,

as

casing

so

,

As a rule , casing with mineral soil requires a layer to 1.5 inches in depth .

,

),

by a

of

to

use

today weathered spent compost used alone combination with peat moss soil for casing number farms The transition from clay loam soil

aggregates

soil

of

re

its

in

,

.

recycle spent compost

a is for

–

–-

of

(

to

-

to

began

destroys

discing should be avoided . Dry soil can also be dam aged by tillage , reducing aggregation . The optimum condition for working soil is when it is friable .

.

( field ) soil for casing . The soil had physical characteristics which allowed water to be ap plied lightly without causing the soil to seal . Good top soil became less available due to urbanization plus legislation making the decision to strip top soil beyond the authority of the owner of land . The con predictable venience of storing peat moss , sponse watering often resulting higher yields obtaining good top soil caused and the difficulty major shift from top soil peat moss field soil the mid 1970s During the 1970s number farmers

ers used mineral

chanically

as

selection and management of the casing material . A variety of materials may be used for casing . Until 10 years ago , most North American mushroom grow

Good soil structure is easily damaged and can be destroyed by mismanagement . Field soils to be used for casing should never be tilled or worked in any way when excessively wet . Discing , for example , me

,

rial cannot be overemphasized . The yield potential of any mushroom compost is largely dependent on the

to provide water - holding capacity . Casing soils from grass or legume sods are usually much more desira ble than soils that have been under intensive tillage . Highly tilled soils can be improved if sodded 2 years or longer prior to use for casing .

in

Casing to induce development of sporophores has been practiced since the 17th century . That mush room mycelium will not produce fruiting bodies in any quantity until cased with a suitable material is well known . The importance of obtaining a suitable casing mate

(

HISTORY

55

a

in

vault

introduced

.

is

is

2 )

into which steam

a

.

is

,

is

,

2 )

(

ro ce

Peat and ground limestone are placed into ment mixer Fig water added and the drum injected tated mix the peat and limestone Steam into this mixture tumbles or

3 )

(

.

is

or

as

.

Fig

(

storage bins

a

in

air

treated

is

of

of

,

At

-

on

.

,

,

in is

in

.

,

or

a

-

,

.

,

of

produces higher yields 212 diseases and can be done with other systems ° F

-

at a

of

have become popular because temperature below that

of

-

mushroom

-

the most efficient

pests from casing

means

of

eradicating

-

steam

-

Moist heat

is

,

Heat Transfer and Thermal Sensitivity

.

injected through the pipes

Steam

,

:

12

;

2

is

a

in

A

1 ).

The material

.

is

.

a

of

to

(

the floor Fig

,

re

on

If

five systems

,

,

.

.

of

using one

truck bed equipped with pipes piled atop the pipes depth inches feet steam outlets are about tarpaulin must cover the casing before steam apart

1 )

Steaming

by

treated

casing

vault some sort forced aerated steam system Additional information treatment systems included the section beginning on page 89 and the reference authored by Aldrich Wuest mixer

The three systems casing treatment flowing free steam reduces incidence more efficiency than

.

be

is

Casing

the majority

and McCurdy

,

,

,

a

is

bagged

at

is

to

pasteurize good reason the peat bags bog the however and the moss during pasteuriza transport storage main intact and necessary tion may not and this

present

.

ill

a

,

so

be

to is

,

to

trucks for movement

4 )

is

to

.

be

or

to

from areas far removed from mushroom farms but advised Soils from such areas can this practice expected contain pests which may damage the crop pasteurization becomes essential Sphagnum deep bog may contain nematodes peat moss from

Vapam Chloropicrin are Fumigants such added screened soil when the soil loaded into

5 )

for casing mushroom frequently and other pests harm contain insects beds pasteurized ful the mushroom and thus should peat pasteurize growers obtained soil do not Some

Materials otherwise suitable

a

Casing

with

is

placed into airtight room container through which aerated perforated floor Fig forced steam

4 )

TREATMENT OF CASING

an

.

.

as it

lime

of

40

pounds bale when mixed with water and stone will cover about 125 square feet

loaded into trays and stacked

to

at

ft3

6 -

.

1

is

to

so

;

is

of

to

,

peat preferred texture 2.5 inches this watering during the depth that amount shrinks pinning time 1.5 inches One compressed

Casing

3 )

1.5

its

In general , casing with peat requires a deeper layer than is needed with mineral soil . Depending upon

One com

Norgen

organa

Momen

.

56

for

the

on

,

in

the

casing was not uniformly loaded treatment and that this treatment system boiler the truck is

indication that The steam source

for

,

-

an

.

a

a

1.

Steam rising from this truck comes from blow out the soil was not covered with tarpaulin before steaming began right FIGURE

the

PA NORBANTOWN

61

.

for

top

I

,

of

di

the

FIGURE 2. A commercial concrete mixer converted to a soil - treat ment system . Truck -mounted , mixer delivers treated casing rectly the mushroom house reducing risk contamination to

#

it

be

as

used

transport auger

.

is

to

be

,

of .

a

to

in

.

the

or ,

the

is a

ing

4.

*

Stripping casing The process includes screen soil stripped soil adding fumigant and then moving into covering with tarp Soil storage building casing used normally stripped towards the end summer and enough brought last until the following summer

FIGURE

40

canvas tarp over truck bed also helps keep coming contaminated

An

to .

truck

without

clean plastic casing from

or

. theA

buckets

the

to

emptying fill

to

the

or

thein

a

on

the

.

,

is a

up

other unloading device permits casing workers standing

used

be

.

.

tractor

a

is

is

3.

of

perforated The floor this room metal plate through which aerated steam through forced soil Load readily accomplished with ing the room scoop mounted FIGURE

it is

to

5.

Thoroughly cleaned vehicles should FIGURE casing from the treatment site where

be

ME

57

system

Source Aldrich :

soil treatment

9

7. 8. 9.

of

.

on of

in

of

a

in

a

-

be

.

30

°

F

is

by

a

in

of

a

a

aa

,

is

-

be

If

.

aa

,

to

.

a

in

In or

a

of

.

Soil Properties and Steam Treatment at

.

,

in

or

to

.

as

be

.

at

be

.

to

of

casing requires careful The MOISTURE CONTENT of soil should the level considered optimum for casing when pasteurization occurs This means the moisture content should about the same that considered optimum for tillage Clay loam soil should crumbly the touch When friable and feel soft slightly compressed the hand the soil granules Efficient steam treatment tention several details

a

;

to

in

in

to

.

is

,

to

.

,

be it

.

to

plastic con should tend stick together Soil with allowing too moist Soil be molded for casing should moistened several days prior dry soils some pests will pasteurization When form resistant resting structures this state they are less susceptible heat than when they are actively growing addition dry soil particles are poor con ductors heat water improves conduction Thus

sistency

ficiency

,

,

.

water around soil particles will increase the steaming

ef a

film

.

so

,

A

.

soil becomes contaminated

;

pe

riod mushroom grower seldom encounters ideal temperatures conditions when treating casing 58

the pasteurized

In

of

)

minute

soil treatment box used the pasteurized emptied into clean truck for transport

mushroom house Placing pasteurized soil into dirty truck negates the effects pasteurization since

.

is

is

30 -

for

a

° F

at

.

to

-

Most mushroom pests are killed steam

140

soil must

of

or

.

(

;

to

on

to

of

The use heat eradicate pests from soil based usually their low tolerance heat this tolerance called the thermal death point killing temperature soil borne pests when exposed

depth

of

a

to

.

the mushroom

placing truck bed steam pipes nest box specifically constructed for soil treatment either case the soil should be filled uniform

of

of

ft ).?

/

lb

of

(

to

is

° F

These yield decreases occur because the steam ing releases harmful chemicals and the casing will post

contain factors toxic

plished

be

about

detrimental mushroom production Wuest between 0.2 and Schisler report yield decreases larger magnitude and 0.5 Yield decreases spent com have been observed with peat moss 212

recommendation for treating soils placed nest steam pipes 180 maintained for minutes Treating soil with free flowing steam can accom

.

of

sides

.

at or

,

of

-

-

and where the soil touches the truck bed Treating field soil with free flowing steam

floor

a

so

,

in

be

° F .

to

is

at is

steam and some heat lost during transport placed thermometer the coolest spot the mass and timing for pasteurization begins when this spot reaches 180 The coolest spots tend those most distant from the steam sources the top the soil

with perforated

times longer than the minimum required provide margin safety and used every cubic inch adequate kill soil The

a

a a ,

at

It is

° .F

at

,

,

of In

° F .

-

to

is

all

,

and the heat transfer process con tinues until the material 212 not possi flowing casing less than steam free with ble treat 212 actual practice however physical character istics the soil impede the routine movement

sure

Exhaust plenum

to

.

At

to

a

° F .

of

,

.

it

.

to

its ,

of

in

next cool particle

.

of

of

a

As

by

a

is to

steam diffuses through the material contacts cool particle the steam condenses and transfers portion any loca heat directly the particle tion the material heat transfer continues until the particle reaches 212 At this time temperature the condensation stops and the steam advances

Soil chamber

to

should

Supply plenum

be or

higher

treating mushroom casing with steam mon method perfo inject free flowing steam through nest given volume soil The rated pipes covered

an

of

Steam supply

)

(

air

Thermometer

-

4. 5.

mixing and condensate Steam trap bottom drain

6.

dust spot efficiency minimum with prefilter

injector

Steam

-

3.

(

atmospheric

)

%

—

Filter

95

1.

Motor and fan

2.

8

7

1

5

N

3

6

-

aerated steam

.

air ,

drawing of a forced -

FIGURE 6. Schematic

the

to

if

of

is

it

for

.

,

it

is

.

,

a

of

making

by

-

,

,

a

,

,

a

-

or

A

.

12

to

be 10

-

or

is

4

of

° F

of

° F .

at

to

to

.

a

be

Its

,

to

.

is

of

.

,

to

to

to

,

-

.

of

-

of

in

.

pasteurized

forcing

the pore spaces

Dis

out and

of it

replacing

it air

placing

push aerated steam

to by be

the desire

to

by

.

at aa

dictated

through the casing material

with aerated steam puts more the cas temperatures contact with pasteurizing much less time than would occur heat transfer and by

if

in

in

ing

(

an

in

.

to

steam movement occurred exclusively conduction particle The design factors which in from particle fluence this pasteurization system are numerous and Experiment Station bulletin are described Ald

1975 Rather than enumerating the specif forced aerated steam system realize that the system must balanced from the following per spectives steam flow pressure the forced uni formity casing both density and moisture characteristics the capacity and characteristics the ,

-

,

of

air ,

be

-

air

).

,

rich ics

of

in

the fan used

to

the air intake and

of

,

filter air

push the

its

facility will require

on

Every pasteurization

own

de

a

of

.

in

be

by is

in

,

to

,

casing and the sign predicated the choice amount treated one batch With vault sys tem fewer specifics are involved since the the casing sits room where the room temperature control at

-

-

.

of

led and heat transfer occurs exclusively conduc tion Use forced air aerated steam systems nu .

by a

a

merous mushroom farms verifies that benefits from system satisfy quite such few mushroom farmers

-

-

of

selection comments mushroom farmers who have installed and use forced air aerated steam sys

tems follows

.

the soil

,

resistance

in

residual

'

a

of

.

,

or

° F

at

is

.

of

of

vide

system assumes homogenous casing without lumps clods uniform moisture level Such uniformity

of

Ex

organic

ma

hours

move the casing into and out the vault The use forced air aerated steam treatment

:

.

iii )

;

is

i )

as

ii )

;

extended

for

disadvantages include treated one day before use the expenses incurred when constructing the trays and the vault the relatively long period time needed raise the soil the desired treatment tem perature and the labor and machines needed

of

a

,

in

60

° F

° F .

-

to

at

as is

,

of

.

is

treatment time

matter content the casing material increases An other consideration when weighing the advantages recognizing that many nonpatho aerated steam genic microorganisms remain and grow following treatment 160 lower and these bacteria and fungi compete with any pathogen accidentally intro duced into the casing after treatment Such residual pathogens and pro microflora hamper the growth

the casing

recommended for pasteurization when vault sys tem used This method assures uniform treatment with controlled conditions and permits soil

et

to of

° F

by ° F of

or is

of

.

be °

,

°,

.

°,

30

°

F

at

–

° F

no

higher The same 180 and true other steam air mixtures 170 160 150 140 for example Most mushroom pests will killed aerated steam 140 within minutes Lower treatment temper post steaming soil atures minimize the possibility experienced with treatment toxicity 212 temperatures above 160 posure for mineral soil significant dele more than minutes can result terious effect on soil chemistry and mushroom pro duction The likelihood toxic factors being present after treatment increases treatment temperature

raise and maintain the temperature terial 150 Maintenance 150

al .

air is of

is

or

at

-

.

,

the soil temperature reaches the temperature the mixture Thus steam air 180 will heat soil

formly heat these materials the desired tempera ture Live steam mixed with air enters the vault

a

-

to

.

be of

;

is

is

of

-

to

.

,

until

-

of

.

on

aa .

by

than steam alone When aerated steam introduced into cool soil condensation heat transfer occurs

vault

at

to

.

an

to

to

heat treating soil the use produced when aerated steam Aerated steam injected into free flowing steam line this causes the disperse steam vapor The dispersion steam vapor cooler air causes the steam air mixture

The newest method

years enclosure house for can filled with trays containing soil peat properly designed de spent compost and with livery and distribution system aerated steam can uni

growers

a

If

.

,

a

its

a

its

of

or

be

Aerated Steam

Techniques utilizing aerated steam treating cas ing have been used effectively some mushroom

is or

is

to

or

of

.

it

of

,

its

for

steaming . Clods or lumps of soil are usually com pressed ; porosity is reduced , and steam flows past them . The temperature within a clod may never reach that required to kill the pests within it , and the clod serves as a reservoir of pests . Steam - chemical combinations have been shown to be more effective than steam alone in destroying re sistant weed fungi and fungal pathogens . The injec tion of formaldehyde into free - flowing steam has been a practice used by a handful of growers three decades but routine use NOT RECOMMENDED be problems creates The procedure increases cause probability contamination after pasteurization the damage and soil structure soil chemistry cir grower cumstances otherwise warrant use should treat only small amount and assess the mag nitude detrimental effect The decision con procedure tinue switch alternative can thus based evidence rather than speculation

increased

possibility pathogen getting established much possible less likely Finally treat casing just before used this reduces the chance contami nation after pasteurization

.

Soil structure is significant in mushroom farming be cause movement of steam through casing is largely dependent on porosity . Any factor ( compaction , water ) that reduces porosity reduces the efficiency of

a

Structure

A

Soil

59

Fumigation has certain disadvantages and include :

of

to the pests

treatment and safety on the fumigant label . Chloro picrin ( tear gas ) and Vapam ( VPM ) ( sodium - methyl dithiocarbamate ) are the two fumigants registered for use with mushroom casing .

Fumigants should not

spent compost preferred

used

used with peat moss casing steam the

If

3 ) Fumigants require either a prolonged treatment or aeration time , or both , before treated soil may be safely applied to mushroom beds . Fumigant properties vary with each chemical and this underscores the need to follow the directions for

.

.

to

,

are highly toxic to man

is

fumigants

,

,

pest elimination

means

.

In general

.

2)

in regards

SANITATION Handling

casing and doing the casing job spawning second only far care as

are selective

as

Fumigants

traces

as

1)

killed .

the fumigant remain when the soil the compost raise the room temperature and withhold watering this will enhance the elimination general the higher the tempera the fumigant ture and the lighter the soil the shorter the period needed for aeration and the more critical the need cover the soil after treatment laid

is

ble salts , manganese , or ammonia to be released as can occur when casing is overexposed to steam .

The soil MUST BE THOROUGHLY AERATED following fumigation so traces the fumigant disappear be fore used for casing

c)

of

solu

should be in the range of 65 ° to .

be

Fumigation does not cause toxic amounts of

b ) Soil temperatures 75 ° F for best results

,

.

and at the

.

altered

be

not

,

are

,

3)

is

is

2 ) Soil structure

should be free of lumps or clods proper moisture content . a ) Soil

of to

quantities

are a practical means of treating large of soil in the field .

all

Fumigants

Soil conditions optimum for fumigating casing those judged optimum for use of soil as casing :

4)

.

1)

-

;

Soil fumigants are chemicals , usually liquids that va porize to a toxic gas which diffuses through soil and kills pests . Fumigants have advantages over steam in the treatment of casing . They include :

A

In

Fumigant

or two

week

of

a

hours

a

water seal or plastic cover placed over fumigated casing soil will prevent rapid dissipation of the fumi gant . Rapid diffusion of the fumigant often means an ineffective treatment because of the low concentra tion of toxic gas the fumigant . 3)

5 )

Using

11

I ."

in viable seeds germinating after the casing has been applied . results

of

can do the job in

a a

it is

When I steamed ground ( soil ) in

If

truck bed , it re quired one or two men and about 40 man hours , but with my aerated steam treatment bin one man "

on

can control the moisture content of my casing by

than are insects

more resistant to fumigants nematodes , and most weed seeds .

,

Growers sometimes assume that if weeds and nema todes are killed , the fungi will also have expired . This is not true . Proper treatment with aerated steam often

be

"' I

adjusting the length of the cool - down period . "

Fungi are generally

2)

d )

“ Bubble was a problem when I used tear gas ( chlo ropicrin ) for my ground ( soil ) , but now with aer ated steam my problem is about gone . "

should

pasteurization

60

,

,

be

.

is

to

,

.

of

.

,

of

of

a

of

.

as

,

,

or

casing

.

fumigation

of

.

or

a

1 ) Apply fumigants as the casing soil is being mixed or moved . This insures a uniform distribution of the

to

iphery of the diffusion pattern

In addition to the specific recommendations on a fumigant's label , there are a few general rules con cerning their use .

to

chemical to the soil . When a fumigant is injected into casing soil , the amount injected must be adequate to lethal at the concentraton per assure

avoid Casing contamination concerned tools soil tubs thoroughly buckets and equipment should washed with clean water then disinfested with steam chemicals before use Schedule casing the operation first work day and inspect the outer garments and shoes workers insure they are clean and free debris Clean hands including clean fingernails are also necessary Relaxing these strict effective rules can quickly neutralize the benefits

Integrated Pest Management for Mushroom Farming R. Snetsinger

Steps in Integrated

to

ef

iii )

,

,

v )

of

of

if

as

pest noth

manage the pests systematic Pest Management IPM predict and detection and analysis system used pest infestation while maxi minimize the extent mizing cultural practices known have negative a

to is

(

.

)

done Integrated

fluences

pest populations

Fig

.

in

Identification

,

monitored

-

a

А.

so

prediction loss and risk of

continuous system and evaluating the ,

and controlling pests

de re

IPM

for

cycle

is a

1.

,

IPM

Effective

identifying

sults

.

quality mushrooms

tecting .

,

of

to

be

,

all

in

to

a

.

a

duce the highest

FIGURE

.

,

of

in -

must be made

to

,

An Integrated

it is

as

population must be

decision

-

a

.

Pest Management sys these farmer's efforts identify how time money areas scheme pro and equipment can most efficiently used room quality

tem may complement ,

Pest

An action

for contaminant free foods and legislation which cleaner environment has resulted includes regulations governing the disposal farm waste Some waste may harbor crop pests farmers manage refuse from pest threat and environmental vantage while nurturing crops maximize mush concern

,

public's

.

in

of

,

a

in

is

.

or on

,

follow

Preventive cultural practices

up

for

,

of

Evaluation and

pesticides even though total reliance pests complete control not the final answer Pesticide costs have increased sharply the past signifi several years and pest control has become growing mushrooms The the cost cant expense ticides

of

key pest

-

as

of

as

-

in

.

of

to

produce measures are utilized mushrooms for processing well fresh market sales Production commercial mushrooms now pes and the foreseeable future requires the use

crop protection

( s )

,

,

.

,

)

determine the cost the crop value

of

:

(

20

in

mushrooms

an

by

$

duced

ing

compared

to

Pennsylvania was percent estimated value estimated large numbers mushroom 29.5 million due pests Mushroom pests include insects disease path ogens weed molds Numerous and nematodes commercial

management

of

to

re of

of

,

)

.

(

50

.

$

147.5

manipulating the data to

,

.

in

to

million Pennsylvania continues production percent dominate with the nation's total During this 1980-1981 crop year production was

1981

determining the most equates to yield losses , identifying techniques fective control strategy measuring the size useful the pest population in

11

3

,

to

,

by

/

lb

in

.

in

,

percent price for Pennsylvania had reached mushrooms produced during the 1977-1978 production year 72.3 cents but declined 1.2 7.3 and 6.4 percent for succes sive years 62.1 cents for the 1980-1981 crop year Pennsylvania growers Total sales value 1980

on

of

,

a

tion harvested mushrooms during the 1980-1981 season more than the preceding year Average

Pest Management

The steps in Integrated Pest Management may be outlined as follows : i ) identifying key pests , ii ) de termining the threshold where pest occurrence

is

mushroom produc record 237.5 million pounds

the leading state

in

Pennsylvania

,

MANAGEMENT

PEST

D.J. Royse , and R.C. Tetrault

,

1 ).

,

(

P.J. Wuest

iv )

,

to

Wetzel

to

H.A.

61

to

,

,

a

of

,

,

,

.

of

.

or

to

,

of

.

on

be

of

fre

be

of

so

to

its

be

.

,

a

of

if

be

.

,

or

is

fly

?

be

.

to a

in

-

.

3

or

1 ,

2,

.

a

in

,

of

on

to

on

.

to

-w

is

is

),

,

,

a

to

,

.

(

to

a

on

in

-

,

is a

2 )

its

) (

to .

in

be

.

an

.

is

at

a

the effective systems of

can make meaningful comparisons ness various insect management

.

.

to

-

(

G )

Pseudomonas fluorescens biotype bacteria induced disease which develops when dry after being mushroom caps are not induced watered On very rare occasions the disease can

change the insect management program Management strategies different farms can evaluated only common monitor used Growers using identical monitoring systems within area

if

.

of

in

of

is

.

Brown blotch

in

or is

de

of

,

a

if

.

of

70

,

as

a

to

.

of

of

quality Verti formed and thus penalized terms cillium fungicola the most frequently occurring and the commercial mush serious fungal pathogen room

of

in

on the clothing workers When present the sever yield loss trace disease may range from yield percent much the crop Even not reduced infected mushrooms are spotted as ity

of

.

on

,

in

by

,

be

it

;

in

on

a

(

is

is

.

)

or

;

so

(

);

or

spots form the spots coalesce the cap spot the entire cap discolored the stipe growing stem shatters The fungus usually enters room via casing that not adequately treated fested tools and picking instruments and dust particles flies and carried can also the air

,

on

,

.

of

ways

bubbles

a

light devices are used trap flies Sticky attract light bulb has been used for paper hung next years Mushroom Fly Monitor The Pennsylvania Fig simple PMFM low cost monitor wide use since introduction 1979. Insect control rec ommendations from The Pennsylvania State Univer sity are based data gathered using PMFM An ad hesive hold insects pressurized Tangle Trap Tanglefoot Co. Grand Rapids MI sprayed onto strips white freezer rap paper after the paper attached monitor Flies are attracted the black light and stick the adhesive contact Monitoring flies specific cropping days provides population size estimates and identification the growing room This information species present may aid estimating the population weeks hence and the potential damage from these insects evaluating the need These data may also assist

(

afflicts the crop

in

)

V.

(

fungicola

This fungal pathogen can infect young pins which then grow into blobs called dry

is

increasing decreasing the insect population and monitor can provide such data Monitoring also es tablishes for management which insects are present and when they appear used Various What monitoring system should

of

an

Verticillium disease

62

monitoring use flies The effectiveness insect manage ment measures can assessed when one knows

system

or

to

,

a

fly ,

.

DISEASES

array

Why should mushroom growers

.

of

fly

of

a

in

,

,

has not been extensive for

MUSHROOM FLIES

to

.

of

by

.

or

in

,

as fly

known the cecid few years

of

,

,

,

if

be

;

Mycophilla speyeri flies and Heteropeza way similar the afflict the crop but the occurrence these flies both

the

Monitoring Pest Populations

?

,

.

of

of

and causes internal browning the stem Crop loss can total infestations the sciarid are very high lesser infestations are costly because reduc yield quality tions

sciarid

in

a

.

Larvae

this insect feed the spawn and young pins and maturing mushrooms bore into the stems Their damage reduces yields stops mushroom growth

practices will combination most beneficial crop the consumer and the farmer of

(

composting

those elements the environment influencing their multiply and survive must ability monitored population size and quently routine estimates impact With such determined the crop can information managers can decide from the spectrum possible courses action what one practice

for

Lycoriella mali

),

fly

.

II

Phase

manage

pest

comparable rate Weather availability decrease feeding sites stage crop growth the pest life cycle natural enemies and other factors affect the growth pest populations Pest populations and and decline

,

to

a

a

of

the sciarid

on

is

A

),

to is

mushroom compost after the

it

,

(

,

it

in

is

.

,

is

at

a

,

is

to

a

as

more serious insect which attracted pasteurization stage

integrated

a

fly

fly ,

INSECTS

Cecid

essential

ment Pest populations are dynamic sometimes day and they may more than doubling less than

,

IPM Project

Megaselia halterata nuisance The phorid planted tracted mushroom houses when spawn important and thereafter This insect that acts fungal bac vector for mushroom pathogens terial and nematode and may cause brown spot develop where touches mushroom cap much

pygmaea

Monitoring

at

as a

to

all

farming

maintain

the PSU Mushroom

in

Key Pests

resources

.

greater use of viable business

Monitoring for Key Pests is

-

their specialty areas , leaving the farmer to integrate pest - control into a production system . Today , agri cultural scientists and educators must focus on the to tal situation with the farmer , and strive towards

cause the stipe of the mushroom to turn black and shatter , and the cap may also blacken . Most often , the mushroom cap becomes discolored with a non discrete brown - colored area .

.

Pest problems change with time . As they change , also change . Professional must IPM programs agriculturalists – entomologists , plant pathologists , and horticulturalists can no longer work within

Determining where to locate the monitor within a species room affects the proportion of different tracted the PMFM Sciarid flies can be numerous

B

at

to

A

.

to

fly

A

.

fly

,,

in

to

to

CE

fly

is

of

.

18

24

D

F

"

the center aisle facing the room One situation assesses the adult pinpoint where monitor will not provide data growing room Up eight moni flies are entering tors are needed when the source the flies ques a

"

BI

upstairs accurately

,

at

.

a

,

ward the wharf end while both sciarids and phorid flies enter room from the breezeway end PMFM located on the back wall the wharf end

or

at 2

1

be

,

to

,

.

.

fly

6 "

on

5

-

II

.

tioned Daily counts must made starting days before Phase cool down and continue for pin least days after spawning and preferably up formation Pesticide choice and application are based counts during this period

counting mushrooms Disease assessment consists affected Verticillium dry bubble spot bacterial blotch and calculating the percentage mush rooms infected selected locations Choosing the they represent what occurring choice cations easy sampling sites since neither disease not or

lo of oc of

all

of

(

is

is

)

.

is

a

at

curs randomly this time visual assessment suggested harvested mushrooms

The Pennsylvania Mushroom Fly Monitor

.

2.

.

,

WATT BLACKLIGHT TUBE FLUORESCENT LIGHT FIXTURE WIDE STRIP OF WHITE PAPER SPRAYED WITH TANGLEFOOT

;

15

"

F F D = = = 4 " 18 ",

6 " " X X 1 18 " " X X " " " 18 " X

BOTTOM BOARD 24 1/2 SIDE FLAPS 1/4 SPACERS 1/2 3/4 X1 5

C B A = ==

so

.

in

-E

FIGURE

)

,

AED

(

D

B

by

of

18 "

MUSHROOM DISEASES

The density

an

in

en

mushroom farms area may hance the pest population but building isolated mushroom farm will not insure the absence pests Some common sense ideas are quite effective for excluding pests

.

'

.

a

a

in

to

,

at

to

'

numerous Chester County PA mush room farms determined when monitor during the growing crop cycle and where locate PMFM Experiments

of

,

SYSTEM

of

A

FLY POPULATION MONITORING

an

Excluding Key Pests from the Crop IMPLEMENTING

air -

a

if

or

an

-

to

hr

to

hr

to to

8

no

at

° F

-

6

an

° F

will cause 1.5 inch urethane empty room get 150 for pasteurization and damage the

,

is

to

is

is

to

spawn growth The only caulking that nontoxic and known remain stable after repeated expo high temperature sures Vulkem Sealant Poly to

.

-

Adults initially invade mushroom grow cool down

II .

3.

entry Sciarid rooms during Phase

FIGURE ing

fly

.

the same level urethane

of

Larvae

for

treat

A

to

it .

a

-v

,

buckle

so

–

Invading Adults

a

by

.

in

-

.

use

to

160

Exterior

of

tion

used

be

Casing

Spawning

ure

urethane requires additional ultraviolet resistant coating minimize growing room deterioration Urethane used vapor barrier prevent steam should covered and water apor from penetrating further cau post crop pasteuriza tion with urethane relates thane

is

14

1

10

if

be

thane complies with underwriter's regulations higher insurance premium will required

,.

if

,

to

.

or

.

(

a

(

),

Growing rooms are not tight completely sealed and flies will enter room through the smallest crack crevice Seal the cracks with spray insulation ure caulking compound thane using ure Before using urethane check see )

,

a

air

F

tem

.

6 1

2

o

certainly before the

° F

to

°

is

-4

–

be

temperature about 112 perature cools 110

Physical Modifications

or

on

,

.

to

,

a

in to

.

° F (

3 )

-

II

,

Adult sciarid flies enter growing rooms during cool down when the air temperature drops Fig below 110 Adult phorid flies the other hand are attracted mushroom house when the spawn starts monitor the compost Thus run placed into growing rooms when the should Phase

I.

.

room

63

to 6

at

3

(

4

to be

be 3

-

;

-

at

to

'

fly

-

so

,

no

leaves

room

.

exclusion

to

)

,

in

by

compost not

cov

2

( 1

closed

to

60

building

,

clean

,

a

stored

in

.

° F

(

.

to

be

to

° F

,

at

soil must

.

dust free area may not require pasteurization before use However ASSESS peat moss for the PRESENCE nematodes before deciding that pasteurization not necessary Moisten the peat moss hold room tem ,

.

a

and level surface Mix spawning reduces the time days full spawn growth and increases yields Compacted compost makes temperature manage

,

.

;

,

18

to

14

a

in

)

(

to

an

as

be

.

)

(

be

,

'

CROPPING fly

if to

.

of

be

,

,

to

cease

remove diseased are trained pickers mushrooms before the touch them removal spreading the pathogen At reduces the likelihood two people

com

at

.

in

to

-

II

to

the

Inade or

be

fly

of

,

64

must

tention control must focus early pinning crop from Phase cool down quate control this time will severely reduce stroy the crop .

: i)

at

ii )

,

is

)

-

be ,

added weed mold free the supplement uniformly mixed throughout the compost must

protein

compost

–

supplement

spawning

(

exist before

be

both

iii )

lipid

or

or

Three constraints

a

ADDING SUPPLEMENTS AT SPAWNING

in .

;

to

one

or

.

all

a

(

),

ment more feasible during spawn run colonization and level compost surface makes uniformly distrib uted mushrooms on breaks more likely

and disease infestations will cause the production after third break Verticil lium infestations for example will cause this occur The effects Verticillium can minimized

Certain crop .

.

to

.

its

"

at

)

°

(

,

-

is

8

of

ft2

12

to

6

less one compost inches deep After unit per spawn mixing machine used compact the compost

.

F or

80

Mix spawn into cooled compost

at

is

.

moss

.

.

treating soil but should never used with peat Manipulating and Treating Selecting See Mushroom Casing for more details regarding the casing process ,

)

37 %

(

gal

or of

.

a

gal

of

;

of .

of

be

;

100

is

5

per

,

,

.

be

all

be

-p

or

spawning formaldehyde water the registered usage

days and assay for nematodes perature for dry bagged peat may only contain eggs and the pres eggs without larvae worms may result ence faulty conclusion Vapam VPM can steam used alternative for

be

during the sanitation must maintained operation their clothes and Workers shoes must clean and free debris spawning job day should the first the Tools and equip strong ment should cleaned with stream water spray with high ressure steam before use Dip day formaldehyde equipment before the with clean Strict

spawning

of

-

SPAWNING

a

in

in

.

in

of of

.

a

,

° F,

)

-

do

a

con

.

II,

ing Phase and the two disease pests are not casing time cern until

kill

covered with clean polyethylene film peat moss The number and kind nematodes varies with the location the peat bog Some peat sealed plastic bags and stored moss packaged or

in

II

,

is

.

a

PMFM since adult sciarid flies will enter the room Adult phorid flies generally not enter room dur

fumigated

the mushroom crop Most insects 140 for but higher temperatures 130 kill some pathogens After treat are required

pests harmful die min ment

pasteurized

or

Casing soil should

,

and

be

.

if

A

.

at

be

,

as

pesticide plastic such ered that the edges drench the edges may needed monitors indi cate flies are present CASING

by

air .

in

°

,

F

of

protects compost

film mil but eggs are laid

i.e.

room Exclude flies from the Phase room stalling 100 mesh screening and enter the room only when necessary During compost cool down when install between 112 and 110 the air temperature -

from infestation to

a

TEMPERATURES

temperatures and higher pasteurize 140 they destroy unwanted pests the compost

Air

.

do

I

II

CONTROL OF PHASE

)

scarid

Clear polyethylene

not become The pests discussed here generally problem during Phase composting operations

(

be ,

by

on

sciarid adults for mistakes

PLASTIC ON MUSHROOM BEDS

COMPOSTING

I

II .

or

in be

air

volume may

Cultural Modifications

PHASE

a

II

on

of

.

some adjustment

.

the fan required

in

by

, of so a

or

,

posting and fasten the screen with batten strips held tight with short nails staples Screening the take side fan will reduce the volume air moved

thoroughly the side boards this area cannot mixed with most present day equipment and be compost borne comes food for various airspawn molds Adding supplements into compost ing may enhance the composts attractiveness .

, etc.

all

,

-

A

takes ,

pin

controlled through

delayed release nutrient added percent any other material see the dry compost weight chapters authored distrib L.C. Schisler must inches uted the compost but not closer than of

nylon screen placed over fan in vents doors will keep flies out of a room if installed so flies cannot crawl under or around it . In screening before beginning Phase stall com 100 - mesh or finer

must

of

SCREENING

A

post temperature

ning

)

growing - room environments .

to

or

urethane No. 116. This caulking remains pliable after years of exposure

de

FOGGERS

Before removing the spent compost from rooms , wet the surface , walls , and woodwork and raise the air temperature to 140 ° F for at least 4 hours . Then pas

Fog applicators

teurize the emptied

both remain

in

),

(

a

.

in

or

a

to

or

.

)

(

-

.

in

pesticides into Dusters dispense dust formulations both fungicides and insecticides of

the steam

growing rooms

.

of

a

or

to .

is

A

for

are

.

-

or

-

a

or

-

be

.

be

or

air

,

in

A

is

is

.

-

a

a

To

(

or

at (

.

.

is

air

is

)

-

units must operate the sprayers rated PTO speed and yet constant ground speed

,

a

to

.

'

USE OF PESTICIDES tection Agency

by

to

by

.

of

.

on

,

,

is

in

of

and enforces state pesticide regulations

,

,

in

as

), a

of

(

itors

A

the

1976. Also the Depart Pennsyl Commonwealth Pesticide Control Act and pesticide pesticide inspector administers mon

amended

Agriculture

vania has spectors .

disperse

FIFRA

ment ,

,

a

.

-

,

used

to

the higher pressures

EPA

.

.

pesticide

to

'

to

'

relates

Act

,

.

-

.

)

to

,

as

(

of

water and concentrated insecticide The term low volume refers less water and air blast

wise indicated ister pesticides in

Air

air -

or

sprayers also known low volume concentrate sprayers spray exterior blast are also used walls and vegetation The air blast sprayer uses

the Environmental Pro

for nationwide use unless other reg the label States are allowed special The use needs local for provisions pesticides governed and monitored the Federal Insecticide Fungicide and Rodenticide (

dilute spray

AIR SPRAYERS

mixture

are registered

Pesticides

)

a

mixture

produce

a

to

.

ical the

,

Hydraulic sprayers spraying exterior used walls and attics and the soil and vegetation around farm Hydraulic sprayers use water and chem

,

of

.

.

in in

is

sprayer maintain

SPRAYERS

,

,

-

of

,

tractor equipped with pro powered enough available horsepower

have

a at

-

.

,

,

air

,

,

in

of

power spraying and dusting There are five types hydraulic equipment use on mushroom farms sprayers sprayers fog applicators aerosol gener ators and dusters HYDRAULIC

operating take shaft the correct speed generate the droplet size needed for uniform distribu velocity tion the correct essential -

Application Equipment

droplet distribution stream Calibration the part replacement nozzle the job whenever in stalled Another concern with air shear nozzles on mist sprayer that the fan engine Pto power .

on

.

.

A

of

equipment formulations and application different from that used outdoors equipment brief review characteristics follows

off )

do

To

.

.

for

and may lead hazardous and illegal pesticide purposes specified usage Use pesticides only the label Interior pesticide application may require

resistant nozzles those with ceramic hardened stainless steel orifices are preferred even though they are more expensive worn orifice yields an correct droplet both size and shape and this affects

A

ers ,

to to

.

on

to

user follow directions the pesticide container oth erwise risks injury the mushroom crop and work label

or

the

pesticides requires

a

in

.

.

of

Legal use

the

INTEGRATING PESTICIDES INTO IPM

usually favor low volume

Economic considerations

over dilute sprayers low volume sprayer will cover given time than sprayer designed more area compat calibrated for dilute sprays Nozzles must able with the air volume and speed the air stream anticipated dosages will not applied Wear

A

. ,

or

,

,

,

by

salting paving

sprayer calibra effective only when the details tion and maintenance are attended The operator's manual dealer will provide the necessary instruc tions Apply the recommended dosages for effective control insect pests disease causing organisms of

),

(

and garbage

Minimize dust around oiling driveways and directing vehicles away from growing rooms rubbish

the farm

Equipment

.

or

.

of

Good sanitation practices eliminate breeding and roosting sites neutralize de insects Remove caying organic matter stumps and trash stagnant

of

Calibration and Operation

SANITATION

water

no

.

a

to in

,

DUSTERS

-

killed

so keep Flies the

.

by

room will

,

.

be ,

the temperature reaches 100 ° F and higher cracks sealed and doors and vents closed

all

This practice eliminates pests harbored in crevices and woodwork , and is vital to effective pest manage ment . Flies in an infested room try to escape when

the air for considerable time allow adult insects make contact with the particles Pes ticides applied with such equipment have little residual action and are effective only when sus pended the air Ultra low volume Ulv equipment also included this category in

the boards laid out )

and aerosol generators are used for growing rooms This equipment thermal fog fine mist aerosol and

flies

is

( with

house

at 160 ° F for 6 hours . Inject formaldehyde ( 37 % ) into the steam line 30 minutes before the end of steaming .

control produces

of

CLEAN -UP FOLLOWING CROPPING

65

Before purchasing a pesticide for use at a mush room farm , be sure the product is approved for such usage . All formulations, even though chemically sim ilar , are not registered for use on mushrooms and

DETERMINING PESTICIDE NEEDS AND ASSESSING EFFECTIVENESS

without a mushroom - approved label , not legally be used .

the ECO NOMIC THRESHOLD varies with the stage the crop The ECONOMIC THRESHOLD also involves the crop loss anticipated when contrasted with the cost pesticide usage With many factors affecting the little wonder that ECONOMIC THRESHOLD there not constant and will vary from one season

in is a

of

of

of

an

at

.

to

an

to

,

is

it is

so

.

,

a

,

fly

)

on

an

4

to

.

or

4

to

of

to

a

in

or

)

in

if

to

.

( =

-

or

-

to or

,

or

of

a

be ,

,

a

.

in

on

.

be

-

flyat

,

4.

do

.

not

yet

.

Spawning

11

-11

9

-3

7

o

5

of

13

15

17

19

21

Pins

Casing Days

Pennsylvania Mushroom Fly Monitor action levels fly

.

4.

FIGURE

.

Adult sciarid counts determine the need growing room tions in a

a

.

a

.

rela

20

a

,

a

so

harvest time should damage

Action levels for phorid and cecid flies have been determined

,

,

is

first day after spawning

for

routine pesticide

in

.

in

the mushroom crop tively free sciarid

ap

,

is

a

to

be

-

PMFM through the twenty

will require more infor plus management skills

the immediate future data must collected and analyzed then placed into deci strat farmer can use such sion making system pest management The Penn State Mushroom egy developing such system IPM program

66

should used the room every day until casing These adult sciarid fly numbers are based on daily counts enumerated from the catch on PMFM and are not cumulative Action levels are graphically pres Figure ented When sciarid flies not appear

3

-

an .

pest management

mation than now available system not based effect

on

to

,

of

if

to

a

ity

pests needed before control measures are initiated ). The ECONOMIC THRESHOLD LEVEL usually occurs early in the crop , and is the point in time when preventive chemical controls should be applied . Both levels as sume that a mushroom grower is able to predict crop yields at any particular stage of production . This abil income from addi determine allows grower additional tional crop yields will offset the costs pesticide applications Unquestionably economic based integrated ap

after spawning when ten more flies are counted twenty first days after on any one the fifteenth fogspawning aerosol applied insecticide

of

rior walls at sun - up and sun -down so this is when to apply exterior insecticides for maximum effective ness . From another vantage , applying preventive sprays , fogs, or dusts before cropping begins can limit the increase in disease and insect populations during harvest . Both of these timing considerations have profound economic implications, but more spe cifics are not currently available . Additional economic data are needed before pesti cide - usage decisions can be made on a cost -benefit basis . These include i ) identifying an ECONOMIC IN JURY LEVEL ( the number of pests which , if not control led , will result in economic loss ) and , ii ) the ECO NOMIC THRESHOLD LEVEL ( the minimum number of

another

pesticide application Adult sciarid counts are the apply basis for determining and when insecti = growing room cide ACTION LEVEL order sustain increase the effect routine preventive days after sprays applied from days before spawning When eight more flies are counted from the fourth day after spawning the fifteenth day

in

may call for either smaller pesticide quantities or fewer applications, both of which will reduce the cost of pest management . Correct timing of applications is critical to pesticide performance . Flies alight on exte

and from one grower

Current data provide some definite information biology concerning the best time for based

(

Monitoring to estimate pest levels is one step in the direction of maximizing the return on pest -manage ment dollars . An integrated pest management system

other

a

1980 survey of 94 mushroom growers in Chester and Berks counties revealed an average cost for rou tine chemicals of $ 432.67 per double per crop . Costs reported by growers ranged from $ 23.85 to $ 1300.50 per double per crop .

Number insects per strip

A

plications Thus

growing

of

Economics of Pest Control

proach

The point which the number flies room justifies the use insecticide It

can

.

pesticide

.

a

insecticide applica

progress with this sort of cooperation , and the au thors thank generously those who have given themselves Thanks are also extended the Ameri can Mushroom

of

so

Institute

room Growers Association mitments this project

and the Canadian

Mush

for their continuing

com

*

A.

to

rent pest management practices .

their farms and reported their pest - control practices and costs , along with crop culture information and crop yields . The ipm program can continue to make

to

itoring the frequency and density of pest populations and the effects they cause are means by which a farmer can evaluate the effectiveness of his or her cur

The Penn State Mushroom IPM Program was devel oped through the cooperative efforts of Experiment Station scientists , Extension specialists , growers , and fieldmen . Mushroom growers provided access to

.

Effectiveness of insect management programs can be assessed via monitoring . Counts of adult insects from a PMFM provide a measure of a pest management pro gram's effectiveness . Inspecting , growing and har vested mushrooms also provides a basis for assessing the effectiveness of a pest management system . Mon

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

all

Assessing Effective Insecticide Usage Via Monitoring

.

D

1

67

|

1

La France Disease of the Cultivated Mushroom

on

.

La

its

La

by

It

La

it

a

.

.

to

,

be

in

of

if

to

–

an

a

of

of

A

.

on

of

,

a

1 .)

is

no of

,

–

.

La

the vigorous growth

cul

healthy

ture When such isolates were inoculated into spawn fruiting made from healthy cultures there was

on

no

,

a

by

,

In

.

.

.

a

by2 ).

(

of

an

is

;

in

-

)

(

of

of

chlorophyll production the plant loss certain portions the leaf tobacco mosaic example There are virus diseases the bacteria of

40 ;

mottling

or

.

as

as

on

.

of

in to

3 -

beds planted with the spawn Fig This implies that being the disease was caused virus Viruses animals and man The com cause many diseases green plants mon cold and polio are examples many diseases often characterized viruses cause of

,

a

.

It

.

in

comparable roughly the tomato These seeds huge numbers the gills spores are produced many one inch mushroom may produce hour Under natural conditions million spores grow into mycelium very spores germinate these poorly For this reason using spores seeds for planting mushroom beds directly not successful However we can stimulate spores the laboratory germinate and produce mycelium This mycel an

compared

.

)

,

(

–

).

(

such bacteria molds will grow out from the diseased mushroom tissue However when pieces tissue infected with France disease are plated weak when organisms are present Fig Growth

.

.

of

-

as

and spread

place some mycelium from the compost agar plates fected area see other organisms

in

,

of

just

opens and the previously hidden gills are exposed the gills that mushroom spores are produced function These are tiny microscopic spheres with

is

France disease was very infectious

of

"

, "

,

.

this fungus plant

tomatoes are fruits the tomato plant The mush parts room has two main the cap pileus and the stipe stem As the mushroom matures the cap

on

placed

.

a

is

DISEASED

.

in is

"

,

to

ium from the spores completely allowed

HEALTHY

as

,

.

“

Dr. James W. Sinden the France broth name France disease

rapidly through the beds and from house house organism isolated from infected tissue could No but isolates mushroom mycelium from infected agar beds grew very weakly standard proce a finding mushrooms disease the cause dure for

(

in -

,

a

of

is

.

mushrooms Mushrooms are the fruits

received

or

.

of

be

to

applied After casing soil the mycelium grows through this layer and then forms fruits i.e. stance

Hence

on

,

its

-

cottony like growth and feeds the compost energy thus obtains from the compost Mycelium can considered the vegetative part the fungus plant similar the roots and vine tomato for

ers

to

,

on

a

to

is to

,

.

in its

.

its

a

-

its

phyll in plant without chlorophyll tissues and energy cannot utilize from the sun manufacture supply own food Consequently compost made the mushroom with food The fungal mycelium

was first observed

mushroom farm operated

as

fungi . Fungi are similar in some respects to the higher green plants , but differ in many other respects . Per haps the biggest difference is the absence of chloro

1948.

is to

To understand La France disease , one should know a bit about what kind of creature the host mushroom is . The mushroom belongs to a group of plants called

by

Lee C. Schisler and C. Peter Romaine

sterilized grain and It in is

.

is

it is

start the crop cycle again

SPOROPHORE TISSUE CULTURES

.

to

then the beds

,

to

grow through the grain spawn spawn that planted called and

of

diseased

and healthy

.

1.

Cultures developing from tissue agar plates mushrooms FIGURE

on

in

in

,

ia's

of

Pennsylvan mushrooms appeared growing mushroom center Chester County

disease

,

)

A

FIRST OCCURRENCE AND SYMPTOMS

69

1

.

NORMAL SPAWN

DISEASED SPAWN

production from trays planted with healthy and diseased

FIGURE 2. Mushroom

spawn .

coast to coast and in Canada under the name of

X dis

ease . Confirmation of the infectious nature of the dis ease came from Beltsville and Penn State . Meanwhile workers at the Glasshouse Crops Research Institute in England reported finding three types of virus particles associated with diseased tissue . English

a new name , die -back , for the dis ease . Despite the diversity of names , die -back and La France are the same disease .

workers supplied

mushroom bed showing bare area with

no

3.

Portion mushrooms

Butler , PA by Dr. Dr. L.C. Schisler .

J.W. Sinden , Miss E.M. Sigel , and A technical presentation of the re

is published

in the journal Phytopathology The disease was first observed on occasional beds at the Butler County Mushroom Farm in May 1962 , but was given little concern as the sanitation measures used were thought adequate to keep known diseases under control search

.

FIGURE

of

The research discussed in this paper was con ducted at the Butler County Mushroom Farm , Inc. at

of

in

at

in

a

.

,

air

of

strike the fall 1962 the beds were covered with mature mushrooms shed ding spores and the the mine was reddish brown color The beds spawned this time were very poor broke deep and were severely infected ,

since then from

During the week

in

it

re

1960 and has been reported

in

It

.

to

DISEASE SYMPTOMS

).

on

.

,

,

or

,

,

,

,

(

a

in

70

in

States

.

to

or or

a

by

plant through the insects nematodes man plant parts for example spores After season two the disease disappeared from Chester County Meanwhile had been ob England many mushroom farms and served reappeared mains there this day the United

all

a

is

,

a

.

of

infecting case France disease virus fun gus The virus particles are submicroscopic but can multiply and spread within plant from plant

,

La

( 57 : 519-526 , 1967 ) .

FIGURE 4. Large bare area on bed from early inoculation .

At

.

in

.

of

.

a

to

with the virus Yield was reduced small fraction the normal amount The disease remained wide spread the mine that time the disease investiga .

tion began

or

The symptoms

.

on

.

fruit bodies

of

,

,

at

of of

of

.

of

or

it

,

FIGURE 5. Wet , brown

of

in or

infected when the virus got into the tray got spawning during spawn growth whether the new mushrooms after picking after casing began The amount virus particles and perhaps the relative abundance the several kinds virus came

rot

be of

is

.

at

.

,

to

-

,

is

of

.

is

at of

to

of

to

responses the mushroom vary according the variety mush Butler used rooms The golden white variety very much different The effect the disease the snow white variety which most mushroom growers the stage use Also symptoms vary according development when the tray inoculation That the disease

in

a

for

as

.

ex

is

to

of

an

of

of

.

.

or

in

be

symp particles present also may affect the type toms exhibited There may variation the viru activity lence the virus Such diversity the kind and intensity the symptoms one reason the failure associate several symptoms pression the same disease

,

or

71

virus infection

.

Distorted mushrooms due

to

FIGURE

6.

of

).

(

on

,

to

.

at

of

The figures illustrate some the symptom com plex Very early inoculation shortly after spawning causes complete failure fruit producing Fig 3,4 large bare areas the beds Later inocula the fruit tion can cause dying and wet brown rot

(

,

a

of

at

).

or

5 ),

in

or

(

all

stages Fig . bodies at the mushrooms may grow various distorted stunted shapes Fig 6,7 may appear The mushrooms normal one stage growth but within may change few hours and ap

.

is

).

(

of

,

,

ca

.

pear diseased Affected sporophores develop more rapidly than healthy ones mature earlier and are discharging spores even when they appear pable Fig 8,9 dead and discolored symptom constantly present Mycelium iso One .

is

to

of

in

a

.

of

as

,

is

in

on

lated from infected beds grows slowly and weakly generally brownish agar and color This weak growth serves help confirming doubtful cases the disease All we need do take some the

7. Stunted , distorted mushrooms as a result of virus

FIGURE

in

by

.

fection .

by

or

,

.

of

-

a

of

in

be

it

on

mycelium and put agar and observe the growth Diagnosis can actually taken one step further looking for the virus particles the mushroom with high powered microscope the aid other standard methods virus detection

in

of

.

the snow white varieties -

infection

;

their reaction

to

in

(

10 of )

in

to

of

Losses from the disease vary from total failure the yield and pro some reduction the crop nounced deterioration the keeping quality fected mushrooms Fig Varieties differ very much

all

,

.

.

virus infected mushrooms -

Premature opening

of

8.

FIGURE

.

of

be

,

,

it

.

show the most deterioration Immunity has not been although Thus has been reported observed known varieties can become diseased and La France overcome by planting another kind cannot spawn

DISEASE EPIDEMIOLOGY

,

to

pickers

.

flies

by ,

or

byof

, in

.

in

it

is

Determining how the disease spread and how gets into the mushroom mycelium have been major problems Most people the mushroom industry thought had that the disease was carried the form mycelium from infected beds the healthy beds

ii )

1 ),

of

9.

Apparently dead and discolored mushrooms capable FIGURE discharging spores

in a

or

a

,

14

1

to

of

.

a

in

of

.

appearance was present Spawn was made from each these three diseased cultures Each spawn was mixed throughout tray proportion with healthy spawn few

.

the weak appressed

,

all

In

(

12 ).

-g

iii )

of

(

11 ),

in

(

i)

:

-

Pure culture isolates were made by three methods Fig mycelial tissue cultures from sporophores rhizomorphs growing cultures from the compost Fig spore ermination cultures from and spores diseased mushrooms Fig cases

this diseased spawn were planted one tray the rest which was the center spawned with healthy spawn Regardless method of

.

of

,

a

in

of

of

grains spot

the particular diseased spawn used infection was evident and healthy mushrooms did not grow Fig Healthy trays were always planted for com parison ,

.

.

13 )

(

and

72

).

mushrooms

top

row

),

Diseased

(

10.

FIGURE

rooms bottom row (

.

of

was established

,

it

that cultures from spores compost which could transmit the disease trays had been planted with healthy spawn were inocu lated directly with diseased and healthy spores The Since

and

healthy mush

by

al a

,

or

by

by

,

CULTURES FROM HEALTHY RHIZOMORPHS

CULTURES FROM DISEASED RHIZOMORPHS

of

.

a

to

on

a

on

at

of

spores were inoculated into the trays mixing them compost spawning pouring into the time suspension onto single spot tray the lowing dry spores the tray surface fall directly from diseased mushroom Mixing spores with the spawned compost pro most severe infection and rarely did even diseased one appear such Trays inoculated with healthy spores produced healthy mushrooms Spot inoculation pro

duced

on

,

Mycelium cultures from rhizomorphs

.

11.

ap

FIGURE

of

development

of of

the stage

of

,

on

pended

de

of

.

in

.

in

;

area infection around the spot mush appeared this area Mushrooms that rooms peared the periphery were diseased Inoculation the spawned tray with spores from diseased mushrooms always produced diseased mushrooms but the severity the symptoms duced

the healthy .

)

8

to

,

.

on

6

(

of

at

in

mycelium inoculation the time the compost symptoms suppression fruiting The most severe days after occurred when inoculation was done spawning Spores deposited the casing layer after the trays were cased also caused infection with the

on

DISEASED SPORE GERMINATION

A

HEALTHY SPORE GERMINATION

.

by

9

England did

occurring when inoculation was days after casing research group suspending mush experiment

an

done

severity to 6 to

upof

peak in

en by

on

.

at

at

screening above the trays rooms various times after casing The experiments Butler were done an

.

in

suspending mushrooms wire hooks closed chamber above the bed surface An interesting

,

12.

to

in

in

of

to

be

.

in

,

to

,

.

,

as

he of

,

of

on in

.

of of

.

,

in

its

.

to

he

6

as

is

in

be

of

by

La

to

is

importance disease development yet Infected spores are the only method found for transmitting France disease from one va riety another Any control the disease gained changing from one variety tempo another will

virus but unclear

.

be

or

of

mush

his mushrooms the young closed condi bring the disease tion months was able completely under control Recent evidence suggests mycelium may carry In

of

,

)

in

(

ing

.

or

of

8

to

of

to

.

England and Australia are the only mushroom growing countries which the mushrooms are regu larly picked open mature with spores already being shed This practice explains why the disease more

the United States and Canada where

rooms are regularly picked when closed i.e. before the gills are exposed England had the One large mushroom grower disease severely and constantly two his three isolated farms When the importance spores the agent dissemination was learned started pick all

of

,

or

to

6

.

,

on

9

to

days after casing coincides with the time hyphal tips would when the maximum numbers growing the surface the compost the casing layer

ease

.

of

on

a

be

.

,

strains and between healthy hyphae and germ tubes infected spores The best time for inoculation the spores days after spawning and up the trays of

Spore germinations from healthy and diseased mush

frequently and constantly encountered these coun tries The tendency for diseased mushrooms ma ture earlier than healthy ones thereby making them unsalable causes them left on the beds dis charge spores This can result the spread the dis

,

ex

,

.

of

on

.

grow together tubes could seen anastomose always with the growing tips the healthy myce lium Such anastomoses were observed between germ tubes and hyphae different the same

6

rooms

.

spores into the healthy mycelium the following periment was performed Diseased spores were de posited agar plates the surface which healthy grain mushroom mycelium was growing from rye spawn These spores germinated and the germ

to

FIGURE

to

In

to be

or

to

,

so

.

,

mal Apparently mushrooms even though they pear normal can carry enough virus that open and shed spores the disease will allowed spread carried through the spores order find out how the virus moved from the

.

if ap

be

to

in

in

sidelight both locations was that some cases dis ease appeared under mushrooms thought nor

.

di

no

of

an

.

.

(

14 )

,

a

a

the

mushroom trays Fig

73

dé of thanthe rary may speras fan by ) The s

insted spores

.

longe

#ears makes thorough

a

varietyi made

SPOT INOCULATION

SUMMARY

2 sects ar was

s a

I la

Francei

WHITE

l

previously

kwasfoundthat

it

.

pickers

MIXED INOCULATION

CHECK

virus

al

.

get

they

mushroom spores

into

ng La

,

spawn growth bar

mushrooms

.

white strain

of

spawn

a

Trays planted with healthy and diseased

of

74

compost

spawning

.

the

healthy spores mixed

in

with diseased

or

Trays planted with healthy spawn

DISEASED SPORES

but

FIGURE

14.

HEALTHY SPORES

at

FIGURE

13.

they

get

b } If

France sym

onto

rary if

the disease

b)

If

they get onto the beds sometime after casing ,

as -

be

La

in

at at )

/

10

of

ft ?

in

4

).

.

in

controlling the disease formaldehyde also may aid will destroy virus infected mycelium persisting the bed boards well within the house

in

spores

cracks

or

-

break .

Steam the house before dumping the beds for hours and the empty house 160 for hours Using formaldehyde the steam steaming gal 8000 line during the last part 145

as

If

spawn

through spores 2

it is spread primarily by diseased

they get into beds at spawning or during growth , bare areas and mushrooms show ing La France symptoms will appear on the first

a)

have

°

It was found that mushroom spores .

Control : Keep

experiments

F F in

It was previously thought to have been spread by insects or pickers .

2)

3)

open mushrooms off the beds shown that normal appearing just dangerous obviously mushrooms can spreading diseased mushrooms France disease

5)

(

.

;

is a virus disease

°

La France

(

1)

.

in

SUMMARY

as

change to

.

The effects of the disease on the crop may vary from severe loss in yield to a slight reduction in yield , but it always brings a pronounced loss in the keeping quality of mushrooms . A reduction in mushroom size and an increase in number of culls are also effects of all

a

appear in the later breaks

4)

as

of spores by thorough disinfection when a new variety is made .

La France symptoms

crevices

.

infected spores remain within the environment of the farm . The longevity of mushroom spores ( more than 40 years ) makes it essential that the farm be free

75

SECTION

1

II Technology

1

Seasonal Variations and Mushroom Growing Paul J. Wuest

to

."

is

of to

is

;

,

or

fill

at to

9

a

11

of .

to

to

16

of

to

14

of

in

25

by of At air -

.

re

to

to

so

.

of

or

as

as

,

be

.

to

off -

or

a

-

.

,

higher during production yet fresh market quality

mushrooms

of

or

a

)

to

,

(

of

1800 ppm

solid

fre

Growers who provide mushrooms for processing display the same tendencies strain selec tion An alternative suggestion for either kind grower cooling ventilation system de install signed handle the hot humid air summer and provide cool air the growing mushrooms This can

of

in

quently

79

.

of

/

a

to

to

per

in

it

.

a

)

at

.

A

.

period

,

-

to

extended

level yield

to is

,

is

)

(

or

.

F

°

it is in

compost materials for

an

the

,

it

to

.

In

either instance the compost turned after preferably higher and this has heated 150 can take longer winter Besides the interval be pre condition tween turning common practice

winter

be at a

be

,

In

.

to

(

or

-

a

to

of

of

fresh market grow either white white strain year round However they may choose from availa heat ble spawn cultivars strains one more tolerant during spawn run and one which can tolerate CO2

.

in

5

to ,

3

of

2

1

or

to

is

-

a

in

.

,

at

to

is

It

-

common encounter least two different composting schedules during the year one for summer and one for winter The interval between days contrasted turns summer reduced turning schedule interval days with

Composting

is

-

.

14

to

"

bit :

of

a

of

compost was tightly packed since the compost tem perature more easily controlled during spawn run tightly packed when the compost spawn strain can Spawn influenced Selection year growers time Mushroom who sell the a

, ,

.

to

COMPOSTING THROUGH CASING

percent months was reduced much conditioning duce the demand for have bet the compost while the ter temperature control colonizing the compost The spawn was running spawning operation was often modified that the

of is

is

,

50

to -

30

to

.

-

so

,

,

a

control pests

farms where deep filling was compost filled warmer

post surface tamped routine the volume

.

to

,

,

.

a

and usually not quite wide ranging The seasons modify com then cause mushroom farmer posting practices watering and ventilating patterns

trend during the 1970s was com depth the out inches into beds composting set the second phase This original depth depth compost shrank inches the time spawning was completed and the com post

is

° .F

no

as

so

,

alike available for use during the same 24 hour period Spring February through mid April per time when the humidity ranges from cent and the temperature changes are less sudden

tioning

-

Filling

of

65

to

40 ° F

,

cent and the temperatures usually will vary from cooler than warmer than challenge Such conditions are mushroom growing long mushroom houses are sturdily built well insulated and have heating and air condi

chines

,

85

is

to

40

.

in

,

Between these extremes fall and spring have their unique characteristics Fall the Northeast often per muggy with humidities ranging from

problem Some composters have ma turners for each composting season turn specific times during the composting pro ers used both cess

usually not

-

.

3

or

2

25

a

of

air ,

.

or

higher during this time Winter miles per hour dry also time and the relative humidity may percent for remain below consecutive weeks

tween winter and summer composting the amount water that must added during the composting process challenge get summer can enough water into the compost the outset the process keep composting going winter this

,

to

is 20

10

at

to

all

cent . At the opposite end of the year , mid - winter , there are usually 6 weeks during which the thermom eter stays below the freezing mark and , further, it is gust not at uncommon for the winds

days Pre conditioning another way allowing the materials start heating and significant moist Another difference be

by

Summer is characterized by hot and humid days when temperatures equal or exceed 82 ° to 85 ° F with accompanying humidities ranging from 70 to 90 per

get

by

The weather of the North American continent is a challenge to anyone wishing to grow mushrooms .

and even the strategy used

haps saying 10

SEASONAL INFLUENCES

of

,

.

to )

,

-

only

usually

is (

most mushroom farmers used topsoil clay loam for casing Today such casing 60s

used

at a

to

.

in

15

,

-

of

.

,

be

an

expensive alternative considering the cost energy and equipment maintenance Casing The next phase the crop casing and crop management following casing has changed years During the middrastically late the last

.

of

a

in

,

-

of

-

is

15

10

percent the farms Now the coinmon peat moss mixed with low magnes casing material ium ground limestone although nearly one third the farms North America use third casing mater

of the drying should be changed , but farmers often solve the problem by using a greater depth of casing this practice may alleviate the symptom but it does not solve the problem . A clay -loam soil is the slowest

of the three materials in terms of drying rate , so it is not particularly prone to rapid drying . However , soil and the other two materials act as insulators when they are on top of the compost , and may cause a problem in controlling compost temperature , espe cially as casing depth is increased and the upper ore . half of the casing dries excessively , or both . Because

Weeds are kept down during the warm roto tilling few times and roto tilling manipulation physical only this material The the spent compost collected from the field pasteur ized and used for casing

system

-

a

of

"

.

"

is

A air

in

of

,

, a

by re

to air

of

to a

is or

it

,

is

by

in

to

be

,

of

b )

or

a )

:

–

to

is

,

be

to

.

at

,

-

of in

by

to

.

of

a

,

or -

to

of

.

or

,

,

of

of

.

a

,

.

in

,

,

an at

so

,

a

in

routinely followed until the first freezes

of

is

-

of

in

in

,

in

to of

winter

arrive

The changing seasons require modifications

all

SUMMARY in

.

or

vegetation doors and attics roofs lofts and pesticides Use these nonproducing areas seems growing room protecting the crop vital the first sign mild weather the early spring initiated and expanded pest management system .

in

to

is

-d

,

.

as

of

if

pests

concern extends beyond the walls since the milder weather the growing rooms means alternate breeding grounds are available out weather the area of

in

,

or

75

is

as

of

F .

to

a

of or ,

,

.

80

the weather

present irre composted selected Do that none not affect severity because pathogen and disease occurrence problem under any combi insect alike may become growing conditions This fact makes grow nation pest incidence year round and ers alert most preventing their becom farms pests are controlled ing established growing rooms During milder

of -

of

on

.

or

,

;

to

.

-

55 °

50 °

lower than casing top ressing the deeper layer applying spawning less compost Spent compost has casing peat during muggy some the same traits spent compost dries more quickly than weather but drying peat Thus the rate too great the cause

less tied

do

to .

is if

,

by

is

a

F

°

70

percent and the humidity night temperature goes no the time Such situation may require

the

PEST STRATEGIES

or

or

,

-

or

,

.

and

CO

sustained concentration practice increase While neither desirable many growers common situation faced Northeast today the

2,

at

.

is

or

is

by

a

,

higher

causing

.

.

of

is

.

-

is if

is

-

a

of

In

or in .

reaches concentration too high for pinning occur Such conditions occur rather commonly from late spring through fall when outside daytime tempera tures exceed

grower must choose between one two incomplete introducing solutions more fresh and not ducing the growing temperature due inadequate cooling capacity reducing the temperature decreasing the amount outside air introduced thus

are constant threat Pests seem spective year the material the time the casing the spawn cultivar planted mean not misinterpret this statement the listed mushroom farming elements

the room air

North

the incessant need for America conditioning during the summer the tradeoff

The pest situation

twice daily foggings with water gentle waterings using fog nozzle that produces mist The myce the surface fuzz lium certain spawns tends usually peat pins the rather than form This occurs when air conditioners are undersized unavailable muggy weather when air conditioners are not either situation the CO2 level

mushroom growing

consequence

.

as

,

.

,

,

a

,

ial

commonplace during the warmer months being forced into the room too much air creating too much turbulence the dew point tem excessively perature the the cooled when lowered air becomes reheated This situation should be modifying the ventilation system but remedied daily most often the symptom corrected

Another aspect

of

is

.

of

this ing are too numerous for detailed attention key point but are listed considerations few Sphagnum peat the most common casing mater today sphagnum peat very prone used Fine sealing watered too frequently over watered

use

TRADEOFFS

.

,

is

,

Each these casing materials has unique charac teristics and thus requires different management the seasons change Casing depths differ watering patterns change and each material requires distinc tive ventilation procedures With three materials and variables that affect cas four seasons the number

Drying

.

at

at 36 a

18

to

:

of

-

,

a

-

by

ft

,

to is

be

as

.

-

of

of a .

months months

the

of compost - temperature control and ease in manag ing the water content of the casing , only the winter months provide an ideal opportunity to manage casing without the addition forced air ventilation

ial

weathered spent compost Weathered spent the compost can follows described briefly placed compost spent fields crop into end depth weather for 2.5 and allowed

fac

. ů

ets of mushroom culture . How extensive the changes must be is somewhat dependent upon the ability of a mushroom grower to keep the number of variables to a minimum . Imposing greater crop - management con trol through the use of different machines , environ

mental - control systems , or understanding the biol ogy of mushroom - growing and supplying what is needed by using more or less air , heat , water , or pesticides can neutralize the potential impact of each

new season

.

81

A Grower's Guide for Commercial

Mushroom Compost Preparation Lee C. Schisler

All commercial mushroom growing

has depended on

composted material . The time and nature of the composting process has been modified , but no one has been successful in eliminating it from the prepa ration of a suitable medium for the mushroom bed . Our mushroom belongs to a group of plants called a

(% )

(ton )

80.00

50.00

1.2

0.60

Chicken manure

7.50

6.00

4.0

0.24

Brewers Grains

2.50

2.50

4.0

0.10

Gypsum

1.25

1.25

0

(ton )

Horse manure

(ton )

0

59.75T

Ton N /dry wt

%N

0.94 1.57 % N

0.94 /59.75

Wet wt

Dry wt (ton )

(% )

(ton )

15.0

12.8

2.0

0.26

Cobs

15.0

12.8

0.3

0.04

Chicken manure

3.8

2.4

4.0

0.09

NH.NO

0.3

0.3

32.0

0.10

Potash

0.3

0.3

Gypsum

0.6

0.6

0 0

,

it .

or

I,

II,

pasteurization

(ton )

Hay

0

.

no of

or

a

to

at

and Phase the cookout some growers call

N content

0

(

or

all

a

to

create

a

is

:

/

N

%

%

/d

a

1.68

Hay corn cob hardwood bark synthetic compost pile Dry

N

Wet wt

Ingredients

wt

.

-

-

Table

3.

of or

a

.

in

in

in

or

0.49

0.49 29.2

content

0.3

0.02

6.4

0.4

0.03

Chicken manure

3.8

2.4

4.0

0.09

NH.NO

0.2

0.2

32.0

0.06

Potash

0.3

0.3

Gypsum

0.6

0.6

0

0

0 0

N

1.58

%

N

%

Ton

wt

periodically

0.46

0.46 29.1 /

to 4 .

(

29.11

.

a

as

to

piles which are then

)

6.4

9.4

dry

ton

(

( % )

7.5

Hardwood bark

)

Cobs

)

0.26

(

2.0

/

is

by

of

1

in

North America today are enumerated Tables Various proportions manure and synthetics are mixed into what growers refer blend building the raw Phase characterized 1

12.8

N

in

of

.

ganic and inorganic fertilizers have been successfully introduced into the industry around the world Some typical formulae used various parts

into

ton

15.0

,

,

,

)

,

synthetic composts hay corn made from straw cobs and other fibrous materials combined with or

ingredients

ton

Hay

(

,

as

.

,

It

is

to

.

Ton

N

I is

I

usually conducted outside covered area This the activity which the raw ingredients begin break down can also occur drum composting device but commercial applications such have been limited Horse manure has long been used the basic ingredient but substitutes called

ry wt

=

29.2

PHASE

N

, ,

Ingredients

.

to

at

do

)

in

are therefore

as

process process

Table 2. Hay -corn cob synthetic compost pile .

compost

containing sufficient nutrients grow good crop mushrooms and the same time provide little nutrition for other fungi and competitor organisms Composting procedure involving two interde pendent processes Phase the outdoor composting

Phase

N content

In

,

.

.

composting

of

tives

-

Dry wt

,

compost that will supply our mushroom with food At the same time the compost must not contain compost foods upon which other fungi can grow suitable for mushroom growing other fungi with only few exceptions either not grow slowly objec comparison the mushroom The

Wet wt

Ingredients

its

the jungi . These plants differ from green plants in that they lack chlorophyll and cannot manufacture their own food . We consequently have to prepare a

Table 1. Straw -bedded horse manure compost pile .

83

N content

Wet wt

Dry wt

(ton )

(ton )

(% )

(ton )

22.00

20.00

0.6

0.12

Cottonseed hulls

7.00

6.25

0.6

0.04

Chicken manure

8.00

6.00

4.0

0.24

meal

2.00

2.00

6.7

0.13

Gypsum

0.65

0.65

0

and reducing pH and ammonia content . Growth of the microbes causes the temper the pile to increase . Microbes vary in their ada

heat , so their temperature requirements ar what specific . As the temperature increase that love heat ( thermophiles ) reproduce ar and in turn give off more heat . Much of the in the compost is ammonified , i.e. , much am

Cottonseed 0 0.53

34.9T 1.52 % N

0.53 /34.9

-

turned , watered , and formed . This mixing and water ing tends to equalize the environment so as to pro mote a uniform transformation of the ingredients . Compost ingredients harbor a great number of mi

With the addition of water to the dry ingredients and the building of a pile , these microbes grow and reproduce . Their growth requires (microbes ).

ii ) adequate moisture , suf available food The food supplied the bulk compost ingredients and the compost supplements nutrients The addition this time directed therefore toward the feeding microbial population the compost rather than direct nutrient addition for the mushroom addi .

of at

,

a

In

by

.

.

,

ni

,

Horse manure – Synthetic

1 . 1

be

-

NITROGEN CONTENT GUIDELINES

pe

to

be

b )

.

.

by to

.

up

or

.

at

,

as

as

During composting add much water without runoff first two turns Add only water during next turn turns wet dry Bring adequate desired water content ing just before filling MOISTURE CONTENT GUIDELINES in 75

to

or

70

the greener

the more moisture

it

thumb

is :

good rule the compost

be

at

filling should Moisture content Water should drip from compost squeezed

A

be is

WATERING PROCEDURES

-

-

;

or

blends with calculated only the syn on

be

III

,

of

of

,

addition but their rate ingredients and should composts

raw ingredient

spawning

IV .

as

,

,

,

,

.

be

to lb /

25

to

used

dry ton

synthetic added only blends the rate should ,

.

to

(

,

)

Inorganic nitrogen sources are added ammonium nitrate calcium cyanamide and

may also

limited

5.68 yd /ton

ingredient

.

,

To

of

1

of

% ),

to

,

as

-

urea

3.25 yd / ton raw

fr

content will increase throughout com and cookout and should 2.2 2.3

,

2

of

is

(

,

,

try

nitrogen

–

filling,

at

pile should Starting content percent before composting See Tables

.

aa is

just slightly greater than percent nitrogen compost raise the content the the de poul supplements sired level 1.5 1.7 such manure brewers grains cottonseed meal soy bean meal cocoa bean hulls malt sprouts sewage sludge and dried blood containing primarily organic

84

Calculating volume of compost weight of raw ingredients :

.

in

,

of

of

an

it

,

In

the nitrogen source Good quality hay may percent but when mixed have nitrogen content nitrogen with corn cobs the total content the bulk ingredients

an

I. WET - WEIGHT / VOLUME RELATIONSHIPS

of

the straw contains droppings and liquid waste giving average nitrogen content 1.2 percent synthetic compost the protein the case the

such

A few practical tips on Phase I compost composting process :

N

com

horse manure

post

hay

,

a

to

to

active fermentation

In

plete

.

an

of

to

be

of

content the compost pile before the composting be gins should 1.5 1.7 percent assure sufficient supply nitrogen for the microbes efficiently com

of each of these is present

Phase I composting is complete as soon as ingredients have become pliable , are capable ing water , and have become dark brown in co odor of ammonia is sharp .

of

to

supplied primarily carbohydrates tion the bulk microorganisms compost ingredients also need trogen for growth and reproduction The nitrogen

long as enough

will continue to heat .

to

a

in

,

is

.

of

by

,

is

iii )

,

iv )

i ) suitable temperature ficient oxygen and

color of the the compost . The microbes use readily available carbon , nitrogen , and oxy

,

croorganisms

-

N

%N

Ton N /dry wt

released by a group of bacteria at this time . temperature within the pile increases , a direc ical change caramelization takes place . It cess which eliminates water from carboh thereby concentrating this valuable food mushroom . It is responsible for the darke

II .

Straw

a )

Ingredients

thetic portion of the blend . Gypsum ( at the r to 75 lb / dry ton of compost ingredients ) is a manure and synthetic composts alike to their physical characteristics by preventing gr

compost pile .

hulls synthetic

Table 4. Wheat straw -cottonseed

more

can

.sp );

Thermoactinomyces

and

fungi

.sp );

Streptomyces

).

is

be

at

° F .

,

°

,

at be in a

24 to ,

as

F

°

5

tem

In

at

.

96

of

no

of

so

° F

to

to

is

to

.

.

be

.

72

to

a

,

.

:

in

be

II

At

is

°

F

75

to

be

° F .

to

°

of

,

of

of

it

.

depth

and

.

in

fill

,

it

be

.

or

,

or

be

to

both

in

II .

.

.

II

,

),

in or

in

houses without forced air ventilation

.

the range where

to

as

so

Phase avoid

.

of

)

4

(

)

Heat for pasteurization insect kill early perhaps days after filling second heating cycle the compost

4 )

micro

a

115

° F ).

135

°

grow best

(

3 )

Keep compost temperatures

organisms

to in

-

systems

in

as

(

is

.

of

at

to

an

open flame The higher times sustain filling time the compost the nitrogen content greater the ventilation required When the outside high temperature early fall more summer required for Phase ventilation standard double gen

(

in

,

uniformly

Insure adequate ventilation during Phase When doubt ventilate The air should have sufficient oxy

II

by

of

.

to

Attempt

compactness

to

,

° F

wetter the compost the more loosely filled into the beds The longer greener can firmed into the beds the compost the more The shorter

should

of

.

(

compost can allowed this point few practical order

is

i)

.

in

gone ammonia spawning for may Phase

1

in

air is

,

to

.

is

)

as a :

-

smell cool tips

all

,

in

,

,

be

to

to

is

II

to

ii )

is (

greater than per least hours within the de

this 135 115 sired temperature range able perature range the thermophiles should convert all the ammonia within hours Once the

up

to

all

°

F

of

If

,

.

,

to iii )

cooling

hours This will assure

on to

2

of

or ,

to

be

–

air . 2

in

accomplished Once pasteurization cool troduced into the Phase room assure adequate and attempt oxygen hold compost below 140 help dissipate ammonia Conversion ammonia microbial protein best accomplished thermo philic heat loving organisms This group organ using the ammonia present very efficient isms growth factor The thermophilic the compost group includes actinomycetes Thermomonospora

keep the rate

,

be

in

air

a

be

.air

to or

or

air

°

, to F

to

.

° F

of

.

II

be

.

II

or is

in

air

,

air to

heat through the growth of the microbes . The heating compost causes the surrounding cool drawn towards the heat and this action assures ade quate air movement for microbial growth provided within the the available sufficient oxygen mushroom house Phase room accomplished early Pasteurization should the operation requires Phase Pasteurization and compost temperatures minimum for 140 compost temperature hours Once the has.increased 140 steam may introduced into the room temperature house raise the the same point the room house may closed tightly allow the compost heat the Either procedure can pro temperature duce the same result hours 140 compost compost both and the and other exposed surfaces are not subjected this tempera complete ture regime pasteurization will not leaving some harmful organisms grow reproduce and subsequently cause difficulty the mushroom crop

converted Air introduced into the house room rate sufficient cool the compost this range Once the compost has cooled below 140 the amount ventilation must be regulated nia will

at

gins to

temperatures be These organisms grow best longer tween 115 and 135 The the compost can held within this range providing other factors are available sufficient quantities the faster the ammo or

has two main purposes – elimination of am pasteurization . Pasteurization is necessary to free the compost of undesirable microbes and in sects . Through the proper manipulation of tempera ture and ventilation , these two primary objectives can be realized . Once the house or trays are filled , the compost be

monia and

1 )

II

Phase

2 )

PHASE II

,

As

(

(

,

Humicola Torula Chaetomium Mucor and ther motolerant mesophilic fungi Aspergillus fumigatus incorporated this group grows the ammonia into microbial cells and ultimately becomes available the mushroom ,

the less water it

,

,

or more dense the compost

should have .

,

| shorter

85

II

Suggestions for Phase

in a Standard Mushroom House

in

or

1 °

in

(

of

on

,

4

up

I'd

,

in

I'd

ventilation

.

-

–

.

4 .

°

at

to

of

),

to

or

I'd 2

6 )

2 ° F ) (

–

sufficient

° F .

°

,

24

,

a

°

in

each hours and this will insure temperature range suitable for

microbes

compost

spawn

moisture

necessary

,

adjust

re -

,

cool

if

I'd

When ammonia has disappeared from compost

,

.

the growth

5

hours of

of

about

96

a

rate least

to

During the next several days gradually bring Cool 115 compost temperature down from 140

and

.

an

4

in

.

.

temperature through use ately 7 )

)

,

or

in

on )

steam immedi

a

in

II

a

.

to is

I

.

I

to

I

uncertain and varies from house house how would can give only general guidelines manage as

that

"

"

I'd

,

the procedure would follow for Phase standard mushroom house Ventilation one area

This

it .

to

° F .

,

° F

to

begin gen After compost reaches 1250 130 keep compost tempera erous ventilation enough ture cooler than 140

5 )

Summary is

in

air

so

I'd

flame

.

the house will support

a

-

.

as

as

to

ately after filling temperature and get com raise quickly post started possible have some ven enough tilation from the very beginning

is

so

in

12

.

fans Turn

for insect kill Turn live steam cool hours Then 140 for pre heatup level immedi back

heat

hold air temperature

air

4 )

,

be

(

to

both depth and compactness Compost should not stepped loosen where it's deep place inches one and inches forth other and

Turn on recirculation

post

at at

,

the more

greener the The longer into the beds I'd attempt .

. it it

fill

to to

firm

compost shows the first violent heat breaking compost temperature drops the first violent ammonia release has subsided usually days after filling depending com

8 )

as

)

oil

of

or

fill

I'd

3 )

the compost

wetter

to is ( 55 -

of

as

at

ft

(

of

.

The shorter loosely attempt more I'd attempt uniformly

.

oil

Add cottonseed the rate four compost drums per double 8,000 filled Method addition should be such throughout compost uniform distribution

2)

gal being insure

As soon

signs

air

Check compost as it is ready for filling . Moisture content should be between 70 and 75 percent . If less , adjust by watering . Water should drip from compost squeezed in the fist . Good rule of thumb : greener and coarser more H2O , shorter or denser – less H2O .

1)

as

Lee C. Schisler

87

Pasteurization During the Mushroom - growing Cycle

a

to

.

,

no

,

a

a

,

In

.

is

is a

.

a

of

.

es ,

of

,

is

in

a

,

no

an

.

is all

in

an of

a

a

-

to

.

is

of

to

,

to a

a

is

of

–

is

)

is

to

to

the temperature the exchanged steam latent heat from steam ob ject contacts this phenomenon called CONDEN SATION CONDUCTION the transfer heat through temperature difference with heat mov solid due ing from higher temperature region one lower temperature CONVECTION heat transfer through fluid due temperature difference heat a

).

for

. °

C if

of

all

in

.

to

a

preferred object

a

se or a

– .

(

is

to

,

),

(

as

or

-

,

,

of

,

is

-

,

room

pasteurization Steam heats

.

,

,

,

.

be

.

POSTCROP PASTEURIZATION When steamed off and the empty room trays beds walls and floors are pasteurized this practices quence steam referred sanitation ing before and after dumping EMPTYING OFF COOK OUT

with the things succumb long exposed

biological vacuum ence precludes the possibility The biological vacuum which exists after sterilization an unnatural condition and life forms luxuriate competition when they encounter substrate making mushroom spawn sterilized grain sential but other aspects mushroom farming

; (

,

,

-

a

is

sanitation

.

to

be

lethal When picking ceases postcrop implemented Compost casing and the pasteurized before removing spent room should materials This practice has different names STEAM proves

along

All living

temperature 100 enough time Once life forms are dead the me dium which they lived sterile contrast pasteurized medium sterile medium pas for pathogenic organisms but teurized medium has does contain innocuous microorganisms Their pres

it

-

be is

-

,

by

to

or

,

,

of

to

.

-

,

-

-

,

This process also called peak heat pasteurizing more than pasteurization since ammonia must eliminated from the compost before spawning Casing treatment refers the elimination undesirable insects fungi bacteria nematodes and viruses either via fumiga subjecting undesirable microflora and mic tion temperature time combination rofauna that

microorganisms

beneficial

harmful target organisms

is

or

.

cook out

or

is

supplemental heating

tral

In

is

II

by

.

iii )

There are three periods in the mushroom - production cycle when steam may or should be used to pasteur ize : i ) Phase II composting , ii ) treatment of casing , postcrop sanitation composting and Phase the managed composting process which ammonia dissipated and pests eliminated through natural

or

Paul J. Wuest

.

is

-

,

,

;

1

of

of

is

to

or

to

af

.

(

),

a

in

or of

to

a

is

/ b /

of

a

.

)

so

-

.

F of

°

it

is

,

or

, in

.

in

a

, of

or

be

to

,

is

.

neu

VAULT TREATMENT system consists room which containerized compost casing trays placed pasteurized beds buckets The or

in

by

.

be

to to

an

is

thus destroying

com

post peat moss any other material significantly fects how quickly heat accumulated and trans ferred ,

,

C )

°

of

(

°

F

as

as

is a

living organisms

,

eliminates

all

;

on be

depending much 120 48.0 the volume and temperature air used the mixture such mixture called AERATED STEAM pasteurization allowing Aerated steam aid temperature Sterilization controlled the steam lowered

gas

.

is

of

.

,

by

the mixture can

gas liquid dia involved liquid solid called SENSIBLE HEAT The moisture content

,

to

is

mixed with steam the temperature

(

at

– en

at

/

-

)kg

to

be

)

of

(

kg

? (

/

in

lb /

/ lb

).

° C

is

to

(

°

F

100

The specific heats and dry wood make both poor rather conductors heat dry soil dry peat and dry spent compost are also relatively poor conductors high specific heat heat Water has Btu good conductor contains heat and temperature sensible heat Heat transferred due change differences without the nature the me

A

vaporized

water and water vaporizes Heat must transferred convert water steam 970 Btu 244.42 cal 14.696 pressure 1.0332 cm² and this heat ergy released when the steam reverts water which occurs with condensation When cool air 212

of air

to

HEAT CONDUCTION AND TREATMENT SYSTEMS Steam

its

or

.

to

moves from warmer cooler areas Heat transfer occurs via conduction convection when the con ductor has heat transfer high SPECIFIC HEAT

89

to

,

in

,

,

as

as

,

.

in

or

or

a

or

.

be

-

by

a

-

in

or

a

in

60 °

,

of

air

is

of

a

.

ef at

C )

-

,

is

(

°

F

to

If

fly

-

a

30

,

45

,

a

in

?

F

°

45

!

?

to

,

.

,

°

F

at

of

° F

,

at

.

.

to

90

.

at

in

,

In

.

.

If

–

-

of

,

at

or

-

by

is

2

of

30

at of ,

to

be

-

an

-

is .

a

.

3

4

to at

or

do

on ,

be

be

at

80 or

to

,

an

-

.

,

,

hours figuring

to 3 ,

2 In

.

to

boiler for

5

ers rented

hours

to

to

all

at

.

of

3

to

2

°

to

were needed raise the compost from 130 up holding time Pas resulting 140 hours teurized compost was obtained with this system farms where fans were used mix the steam and room air in

of

a

of

prime tar

Consider

truck mounted steam boiler pasteurize the com post Truck mounted boilers are usually rated approximate steam output 100 horsepower with 2400 3000 pounds per hour respectively Farm ers who rent boilers tend monitor compost and air temperatures with milk thermometers 1981 farm a

is

fa .

a

by

a

,

.

the truffle fungus was

was not thorough

or

.

to

to

,

.

be

?

to

90

,

posting wharves

pasteurization

.

,

,

is

,

-

of

pasteurization cycle that vorable environment plus eliminates mushroom pests but not the number beneficial microorganisms What needs eliminated from the compost dur ing pasteurization Before the days concrete com

present

ing that most commercial sized rooms provide oppor tunities for the temperature lower than needed judicious safeguard additional minutes holding time Thus the recommendation hr thorough and 140 when temperature monitoring reliable Many farms not have monitoring systems depended that can and such farms the hold ing time should extended hours Many Pennsylvania mushroom farmers rent F

is

.

to

all

a

of

In

a

most efficiently accomplished when large popula deammonifying microorganisms are present tions High populations are encouraged providing

pasteurization can be assessed The effectiveness monitoring free living saprophytic nematodes spawning time before cool down any are

.

re

Reconditioning

the summa chemical and physical changes which compost that soft nongreasy with de sired odor and color and with heat molds present the low temperature system compost tempera tures are critically monitored and controlled insure efficient temperature range most conducive deammonification The deammonification process tion produce

occur

todes had disappeared

-

in

a

to

,

is

.

C )

63 °

(

°

F

of

at a

mini and compost temperatures are maintained Following pasteurization mum 145 this few de system compost temperature reduced permit deammonification grees each day and

minutes 140 were maintained and temperature control was totally reliable has demonstrated that pasteurization may not take place these instances large nematode populations re spawning time When the mained the compost holding time was extended minutes 140 pasteurization was accomplished The live nema

.

is

.

-

6 -

a

is by

In

to

by

,

to

a

to

the compost allowed move through normal heating and cooling cycle interrupted allow pas teurization occur heat from the compost contrast the high temperature system which characterized hour period during which air

holding times

a

,

In

.

is air

cess in this process , as practices vary among farmers . Notwithstanding the many variations , the conduct of the process normally falls into one of three general ized schemes : natural , low- , or high - temperature . These designations reflect the management of the compost and temperatures the natural system

°

write or speak of the Phase II process recog nize at least two steps : deammonification and pas teurization . No single technique is required for suc

of

All who

conditioning

search indicates that flies larvae most fungal pathogens and nematodes will die during min minutes be ade Shouldn't 140 ute exposure quate NO Experience few situations where ,

II Composting

° F,

Phase

2

WHEN PASTEURIZATION IS USED

re

.

,

to

air

et al . ( 1975 ) .

,

.

in

in ,

-

in

aerated - steam treatment system is covered in depth

by Aldrich

must be raised 140 and maintained for pasteurization least hours this done will be fective Remote temperature sensing probes posi verify tioned the and compost are needed temperatures have been maintained that desired showing that pasteurization has occurred Why does pasteurization require hours when .

density , total porosity , compression index , and par ticle - size distribution plus a few other physical char acteristics . How each affects treatment in a forced - air ,

directly duct installed ventilation pipe which fans circulate the room from into introduced how the steam room air Regardless compost and distributed temperature and alike permanently a

-

sible heat , or specific heat . Heat transfer occurs via condensation , conduction , or convection , and these processes are affected by the specific gravity , bulk

2

Heat energy involved in any of these processes falls the following categories latent heat , sen

into one of

viruses the compost the air Pasteurizing with added heat steam gener introducing free flowing begins ator aerated steam into room The steam can distributed via bacteria

.

and aerated steam is forced through the mass , the bulk compost or casing is being treated by a FORCED AIR , AERATED - STEAM system .

but today truffle disease tends prime pests rare The for elimination are insect lar vae the compost adult insects the room nema todes the compost well undesirable fungi get for elimination be

containers are then surrounded by free - flowing or aerated steam for treatment . When bulk quantities of compost or casing are placed in a treatment facility

infestation , and when treatment with free - flowing steam is compared with aerated steam , the free

ers used weathered spent compost for casing . Weathered spent compost and top soil alike will harbor mushroom pests , and peat moss is suspect . If the treatment (pasteurization ) temperature is too

that will germinate ( Table 3 ) . Percent germination of V. fungicola ( syn . malthousei) spores is influenced by the casing material and the length of treatment at 140 ° F ( Table 4 ) . Generally , as treatment time is in creased , the percentage of Verticillium spores that germinate also increases ( Table 4 ) . Germination dif

mushrooms ( Table 2 ) . However , the temperature at which soil is treated affects the percentage of spores

fers with each type of casing ( Table 4 ) 1, and the amount of disease appears to be related to the type of casing material used ( Table 5 ) .

The conclusion from these data is : TREATING CASING

a

,

or iv )

)

(

do

.

A

of

if

as

+12

)

12 (

at

or

2 (

)

(

)

° F

or

°

at

1.

of

Casing treated

with

infested

+2

.

3

was

and

° F

° F

209

casing

surface

.

0 of

ft

1.9

for

104

each

12

35

(

= 5 x

G. to ,

),

3

its

,

treatment temperature inocu diseased mushrooms when days before treated soil

to of

,

2.

casing 209

° F

temperature 180

of

Treatment 140

the time

2

( % )

( % ) 5

( % ) 4

) 0

/ 4

5,000

17

44

92

50,000

65

92

100

500,000

81

96

98

of

-

related

to

is

on

of

aerated steam treat disease are presented

(

or as

.

soil following

Spores

ft

G ,

.

Inoculum density

° F

at

.

casing

° F

,

of

of

.sp

30 ;

° F

were used

85

to

8

0

12

+

( to to % )

1 0 ( to to to % ) 10 7 3

)

(

),

(

15

T.

),

T.

,

at

to

F

mineral soil casing Verticillium incidence -

spores

The relationship between lum density and the percentage spores Verticillium were added use

, °

at

45

(

(

(

),

-

.

Data showing the influence 1.

+2

),

-

(

by

,

.sp

,

F

°

pathogen were eliminated from peat treatment 131 for 30 minutes of

-3

140

days

Table

aerated steam 140 the hardiness the two exceptions was such that minutes exposure destroy them The bacterial 130 was required blotch pathogen Pseudomonas flourescens biotype and the Pseudomonas species known the Mummy

in

,

minutes

perniciosa Chromelosporium Ostra Cinnamon brown mold viride and viride and Chromelo All fungi except were eliminated after minutes expo

to

.sp

V. 1 1 :

Time

infestation

-3

30

° C )

,

A.

),

A

).

(

M.

fungicola

ment Table

days before

percent mushrooms

.

(

° F

at

of

for

bisporus Geotrichum candidum Lipstick eliminated Mycogone perniciosa viride Trichoderma Wet bubble Green mold and Verticillium fungicola Spot and Dry bubble different aerated steam treatment system designed Aldrich and Nelson 1969 was used treat soil containing Dactylium dendroides mildew

sure

the pathogen days after casing of

,

-

in

on

fluence the crop assessed Treatment soil 130 54.5

spores

Occurrence Verticillium disease when soil treated 140 209

of

flowing an

by

of ,

° F

free

of se at

the use

infected

steam conducting 212 was evaluated extensive experiments ries which the thermal sensitivity the important pathogens was determined and its

sporium

steam at a lower temperature is effective in accom plishing the desired result.

in

to

An alternative

choderma

farms span the spectrum of casing materials and their treatment systems are quite varied ; this suggests

Table

Effectiveness and Usage of

Its

-

Aerated Steam

candidum

have treated their casing at 135 ° F for 2 hours have a decade . These

grown pest - free crops for almost

.

of

is

a

is

,

at

a

a

of

of

..

is

-

of

it .

peat moss not pasteurize experience peat decade indicates moss from some bogs free mushroom pathogens and saprophytic saprophytic nematodes When severe infestation appears peat pasteurized nematodes farm nematode assessment indicates that the peat moss the source the nematodes

General users

AT 140 ° F FOR 30 MINUTES IS ADVANTAGEOUS WHEN COMPARED TO TREATMENT AT HIGHER TEMPERATURES OR FOR LONGER PERIODS . Mushroom farmers who

a

in

a

in

or

iii )

high or if the treatment period is too long , harvest de lays and yield reductions occur . Today most casing is treated via one of the following methods : i ) steam dis tributed through pipes in a truck bed , ii ) aerated steam that surrounds trays of casing in special rooms ( vaults ) used exclusively for this purpose , aerated steam forced through the casing mixed with the fumigant casing rotating cement mixer field soil

a higher percentage of in fected mushrooms . Treating soil at 140 ° F is not a panacea for Verticillium control , since the amount of inoculum influences the percentage of diseased

flowing treatment permits

as

2.

Pasteurization of Casing with Steam Casing is any material used to top - dress the compost , and it is on casing that mushrooms form . Soil , usually a clay loam , was the principal casing material used until urbanization and soil conservation caused farm ers to look for some other material . About 1970 , a few mushroom growers started to use sphagnum peat mixed with limestone , and a small number of grow

91

is

is

an

-

,

is

is

,

it

a

and after dumping Why Steam heats compost more rapidly than heats wood the compost acts heat sink Thus steaming before dumping pasteur izes the compost but not the wood as

a

.

.

,

,

it

so

64.5

?

57.9

Control

.

209

If

.

23.1

be , or

180

eliminates pests harbored the wood farm plagued with Mummy LaFrance nematodes imperative that pasteurization done both before in

11.3

,

( % )

.

( ° F ) 140

of

this practice minimize chances contaminating younger crops other growing rooms pest infested growing room when compost from being removed empty room Also pasteurizing a

Germination

temperatures

The goal

in to

Treatment

Pasteurization After Cropping of

for

.

° F

or

°

°,

at

in

24

TABLE 3. Germination of Verticillium fungicola spores incubated hours soil treated 140 180 209 with aerated steam

material

30

90

240

( % ) 93

52

86

73

70

95

87

compost

a

of

.

,

-

to

.

or

,

II,

of

?

.

Spent

has replaced the low temperature system for Phase pasteur many farms Those farmers who failed ize empty growing rooms between crops often had severe nematode infestations appearing when first break pins were forming Where did the nematodes come from From inadequate pasteurization during casing Phase from inadequate pasteurization

II

72

-

29

at

Peat moss

( % )

Loam soil

( % )

oil

of

)

minutes

of

Treatment

(

Most mushroom growers use some form low system which maximizes the temperature Phase nutritional value the compost Since the cost fuel sky rocketed late the 1970s the natural system II

.

Casing

time

FARM PRACTICES

in

,

or

or

90 ,

30 ,

treated

° F

at

,

contact

in

of

Germination percentage Verticillium fungicola spores spent compost previously with loam soil peat moss 140 for 240 minutes

4.

Table

to

38 12

enough

is

of to or

it

. ° F

to

or

,

,

a

6

° F

at

150

or

,

is

,

If

.

for

,

to

,

In

.

.

a

air

to

of

-

,

3

or

2

dry thoroughly months many the pests were naturally eliminated Today's year around drying from being growing cycle prevents feasi ble alternative steam pasteurization .

0.89

4

air

6

Casing spent compost

:

0.64

thor

hold

for hours LaFrance Mummy nematodes are necessary between each problem this practice bygone years when boards were allowed crop

a 34

farm hygiene least once year for hours 160 at of

-

in

is

It

ing the air temperature 10

/

)

0.54

30

out

and the boards laid

the best interest oughly pasteurize the wood

minutes

(

new

)

liter 0.38

( g -

old

Casing soil :

92

,

,

is

to

.

all of

,

6 ).

is

(

II

Time

Density

-

3/4 ",

3/4 ",

Cypress wood unfinished

six

to

to

or

–

It

has been well moistened Material

Cypress wood unfinished

is

,

to

.

to

is

touch

takes much longer about five times longer spent compost for cypress heat than for soil heat Table For this reason the likelihood pasteurizing the internal portion the wood during Phase remote Considering factors seems pasteurize wood the best time when the beds trays are not filled with compost and the woodwork

– ° F,

145

° F .

steam

at

to

of

to

)

(

6.

Table Time minutes necessary increase the temperature using aerated four materials from room temperature 145

II

a

compost

?

moss

is

soil

,

Spent

.

Peat

to

14

29

21

,

II

to

,

26

209

temperatures

Loam

( % )

140

woodwork where the nematodes were able over crop How possible precise that The reason not Phase known but anyone who has entered room immediately after pasteurization knows that the com post cool handle yet the woodwork too hot

Treatment

( % )

( % )

.

° F

°

minutes

casing

?

in

from the infested bed boards the growing room Some cases were traced ineffective casing treat poor steam distribution during ment and some pasteurization but most came from infested Phase

( 0 ° F )

3

or

-

at

5.

Verticillium infected Table from three casing materials treated 140 209 days prior then infested with Verticillium spores

30

mushrooms harvested to for

of

Percentage

be is

60

to

45

,

° F .

4

° F

.

a

.

6

at

° F

almost anyone can pasteurization a

,

so

)

–

of

or

,

at

,

is

to

of

° F

.

,

-

is 2 or

a

in

if

,

a

in be

to

to

.

of

3

to

,

a

As

to

is of .

at

,

monitoring for pests axioms evaluate the effectiveness procedure

i

,

(

proce

By

for

.

temperature

compost

be ,

is a desired

woodwork Accurate dures except pasteurization monitoring temperatures during each pasteuriza pasteurization tion period the only way know guideline has occurred however shelf tray system the minimum time maintain 140 necessary With hours and times hours may casing when the coolest location forced air aer

growing room Wooden from shelves wooden trays and other wooden fixtures exposed least hours for steam 160 must unique and for this reason Each mushroom farm may necessitate modifying these temperatures the exposure holding time length the times and temperatures suggested are guidelines rather than spent

.

( 60 ° C )

all

Eliminating unwanted pests is called pasteurization , and it is a necessary part of compost preparation , cas ing treatment, and postcrop farm hygiene . Generally , 140 ° F

ated steam system reaches 140 minutes accomplish the goal Compost should adequate raised 140 and held for hours before removing -

SUMMARY

93

Managing Compost During Spawn Run and Cropping

so

-

80 ° F

of .

air

to

or

° F,

to

50

80 °

F .

to be

cool the com

If

the available compost maintain the .

in

or

60 °,

.

to

,

,

or

-

to

for

is

a

If

2

,

,

.

in

of

,

is

to

of

inches when pushed downward with the heel unlikely that compost tempera the hand then ture will maintained within the desired range packed tightly dur essential that the compost bed ing the spawning operation for the tighter the bed attempts adjust tempera the more effective will ture the compost This potential for greater control

of

.

.

to

be

,

be

It is

it

be

,

is

4

of

is

of

.

or

is

at

a

in

is

at

.

to

of

so

63

air ,

is

.

a

a

to

heat transfer through more dense material less dense material Another aspect heat that heat more easily transferred via compost with water than the temperature spawning unlikely percent less than water Temperatures compost controllable bed spawning can be controlled when the moisture higher Within this moisture percent cooling capacity for each 12.3 cubic range ton relates versus transfer

of

compost filled should handle the heat gener during spawn run supplements are added ated spawning more cooling capacity needed perhaps

at

,

is

If

yards

.

be

° F,

85

if

the cool air needed

68

ul to

.

-

as

optimum range

the

75º and

the proper range may not

1

If

.

a

in

a

as

° F .

83

is

it

air temperature may keep the

even

of

,

36 air

to

24

,

be

,

of

,

between

in

of

,

12

12

as

in

a

.

-

1

cooling necessary amount temperature available the second most important factors are the density and moisture content the compost mushroom bed the mushroom bed packed loosely i.e. the compost easily compresses

to

.

its

of

6

It

.

as

F in

°

is

a

be

8

to

in

a

of

or

even withstand these temperatures and are damaged the Thus for the compost temperature reaches important that com safety the mushroom crop

temperature

Sometimes post

,

a

at

air is at a

,

a a

If

.

°

5

for

withstanding temperatures high spawn higher cannot cultivars Other bit

rises no

.

, ,

.

in 8

,

is

,

its

,

on

to

to

.

of

capable

be

,

to

for

in

its

by

as

a

to

.

,

high compost temperature during the spawn grow ing period For example one strain spawn may

lowered

spawn growth

,

in

is

its

is

to

ex ,

In

.

of

If

be . ,

by

be

if

to

-

hr

maximum spawn growth and may timately result decrease mushroom quality Some mushroom cultivars will show tolerance

these factors Therefore

compost

growers know that each spawn has own rate growth and also own unique appearance during growth Further each spawn will cause the compost temperature increase certain time after spawn ing the time varies between days and de spawn used spawn strain the amount pending grower knows from experience and the compost growth spawn rate will increase the when the temperature should few degrees lowered rapid spawn growth prior not unusual dur ing the accelerated growth phase for compost tem peratures this hours little rise suit occurs the compost temperature will not able range

both have

the compost tem perature because the spawn grows much quicker rate and releases heat causing the compost tempera ture rise the room not cooled Experienced marked increase

temperature

that its

throughout the entire spawn grow

Some experienced mushroom growers seem per tempera plexed about the relationship between compost during temperature spawn growth ture and nothing temperature do with rate has little Air spawn growth mushroom quality but the compost temperature during spawn run can adversely affect to of

pe

in ,

° .F

of

At

75

° F .

at

,

.

will

there

managed

higher than ing period

to

80

between 75º and the com approximately post this the outset riod spawn grows slowly from each grain rather dependently other grains nutritious compost grow slowly spawn and texture seems the tremely fine not nutritious the the compost spawn will grow much more obvious and seem rapidly more reflected whiteness the com post The most common sequence compost colo spawn steady and perhaps slow nization days Thereafter spawn growth during the first

post

be

temperature

Spawn runs best

66

its

is usually spawned when

is

Compost

be

P.J. Wuest and D. J. Royse

95

air

is

it

of

of

ex

of an

of

by

.

is

a

is

.

,

,

,

,

–

is

in

a

.

In

a

air

of

or .air is

de

so

air

of

on

.

are

,

of

,

air

air .

to

be

as

as

air ;

on

)

(

.

is

is

at

,

as

is .

a

to

is

so

.

a

a

air

it,

pressure against the door when closing are simple adjustments which reduce the back pressure and per .

to

,

,

a

a

to

of

mit greater volumes move through room moving through room the greater the The more heat exchange and the more evaporation both phe nomena causing the compost temperatures de

frequency higher temperatures distribution spots are the majority warm then the tem perature should degree lowered two Con

dioxide CO2 content the room Carbon oxide enhances spawn growth and the use outside air will reduce the CO2 concentration Once the CO2 level lowered below 0.15 percent 1500 ppm

in

di

be ),

(

to

.

of

)

of

air .

a

.

(

of

.

a

.

.

to

Cooling ,

a

by

.

a

air

.

,

.

be

of

is

.

to

in

of

be

and

cooling compost moisture results surface drying The grower must de acceptable when adjusting cide how much drying through room The deci passing the volume tempered considering the conse sion should drying Before reviewing quences few conse drying realize that some water lost quences through evaporational cooling can replaced Re Evaporation but also leads

of of

).

,

occurs

Evaporation Relates

.

as

of

evaporation

,

,

dry

,

is

air

If

.

96

the

be

to

-

air

or

,

a

(

,

(

as

)

(

in

in

of

)

the compost

slowed The relationship spawn growth tween CO2 concentration and rate another consideration when planning strategy for compost temperature control during spawn run

spawn growth may

air

by

air

temperature causes the compost decrease when air exchanges the heat produced the compost latent heat well some the heat the compost materials specific heat Further the more air cooler drier than the room air moved through room the greater the amount heat removed from the room air and indirectly from to

Reducing the temperature

temperature

temperature

to

,

be a

new idea even though routinely used control compost

is

(

a

be

in

an

of

ume may

is

If

.

air

.

or 68 °

bit or

,

a

of

73 ° F ),

air

if

,

of

spots are cool the majority may the temperature increased the being volume air exhausted decreased either should cause increase the compost temperature adjusting compost temperature Control vol versely

is

.

bit of

be

a

of

or

on

to

or in

ture should sions on whether cool warm the air should based the average compost temperature and the

a

crease Flushing room with outside for compost temperature control will cause carbon reduction

be

be

air

of

,

for

-

be

of

to .

is

,

is

in

of

spawn growing different parts why tempera not the same and this measured numerous spots Deci

maximum output Opening exhaust cracking no there door few inches its

, a

in

on so

hr ,

6

to

F

2 °

1 °

or

4

,

a

or

in

is

work

dampers

rhythmic sequence with growth periods and rest periods each lasting the depending compost will heat cool the point the cycle when the temperature measured The rhythm the compost

air

8 -

to

Cooling

is

Spawn growing

volumes are needed control the compost temperature reducing the back pressure allows fan

greater

air

is

Related

the fan moves The output volume from other types fans reduced back pressure increases moving even though the fan the same speed and unchanged the electric consumption Thus when ,

.

a

be

to

a

to

to

.

is

a

-

to

of

a

at

be

a

6-

tronic thermometer équipped with inch probe should used monitor spawn run tempera day Such tures number sites twice device routinely monitored allows numerous spots preferable using which milk thermometer single location

or at

of

of

-

A

.

to

to 12

a

at

30

manager should spend every least minutes hours moving dairy thermometers from one spot another determine the range temperatures portable quick response elec within the compost

physical barriers that resist the they can force the considered act coun terforces that push against the These forces against the constitute back pressure and back pressure affects the output fans differently pending designed fan design Some fans air the volume that back pressure has little effect

floor which serve

of

,

.

in

, a

is

.

-

of

in

,

room houses two dairy thermometers the compost and left the same location throughout the duration the spawn running period When the grower can compost temperature rather uniform leave these thermometers one location However

,

In

?

-

measured

most mush are placed into

,

be

should compost temperature during the spawn growing period

Air

exhaust fan time the amount exiting The actual amount room can measured using anemometeric methods ventilation system equipped with fan that displaces energy air the air driven there the air Air pushed against the ducts walls doors ceiling and

dampers hausting

Where

air

-

to

through the managers move too little compost spawn running rooms good control temperature The relative amount air being moved noting the position exhaust can estimated be

MEASURING AND CONTROLLING TEMPERATURE

.

of

a

is

is ,

.

a

is

of

.

the brittleness

the compost compost the

cooling The greater another form the air volume moving through room and the drier the greater the total cooling effect on the com post With forced ventilation rather common

it

.

,

since the density

of

,

by

a

in

of

.

range

restricted

A

at

64

a

for

,

to

is

temperature

evaporation

for

yd

8.5

for

filling as much as 1 ton of cooling dry compost one below percent moisture will heat longer period than will more more rapidly and Dry compost packed tightly moist compost very manage maintaining desired difficult terms

–

to

If

76 F .

76 °

is

at

6

be

80 ° F .

1 °

F to

air

.

is

air

,

to or

F .

air

,

60 ° F

at

76 °

to

2 °

is

if

,

af

-

to

.

as

is to

°

° F

, 61

in

is

of

.

At

,

of

is

air

-

to

to

be

to

."

“

to

,

as

to

to

18

12

F

°

°

to

be

64

58

."

"

a

be

air in

a

is at

of

as

air .

,

air

in

in

be

on

,

.

at

or

a

,

or

to

to

62 ° F

68 °

or

in

air

is

.

air

to

to

of

,

to

.

of is

,

the strain form when the CO2 content between 750 and 1200 ppm The normal outdoor air ranges from 300 650 ppm bring room the amount outside air needed crop the desired CO2 level may vary from crop Determination the CO2 level best accomplished temper any event the with CO2 detector but ature when picking begins will approximate lower with the compost temperature the CO2 level

F .

at

re

.

is

depending

,

of

-

higher 2800 7500 ppm and may rooms that are tightly constructed where supplement was spawning casing Pins added the compost

,

a

between hours concurrently with induce pinning and they shocking events With

of

to

of

.

,

down sharply

refer these concurrent either procedure the growing room should smelling Carbon dioxide CO2 outdoor fresh during the later stages spawn levels the growing into the casing ususally concentration

air

is

It

,

be

.

to

of

is

,

brought perature must and for reducing the CO2 level

a

( 1

.

a

,

to

.

-

,

Once the spawn uniformly covers the casing surface fresh air must used reduce the CO2 content called form this induce pins the room air flushing There are people who think that tem

,

)

(

is

is

)

,

,

an

;

covering stricted from the compost when used The fundamental ideas for maintaining compost temperature have been described and these ideas are

Pinning

as

by

a

so

to

in

or

is

. "

"

in

in

use plastic sheets includes consideration factors other than water loss since virus infected mushroom spores egg laying insects and other pests are

fect and predict change

of

on

is

a

or ,

). ,

2

to

mils thickness inhibits evaporation and mini quite common mizes drying and this practice not unusual though find the plastic must re moved when the compost temperature starts rise often impossible with the since temperature control plastic place This practice removing the plastic provides insight into the amount heat dissipa Deciding whether ted via evaporational cooling

Two conditions apply

respectively then post temperatures are and manip control and has the ability the grower the goal desired This ulate compost temperature being able managed mushroom growing

of

.

by

of

to

to

is

Water moist travel into the cells the straw the pore spaces openings separated Several light waterings few hours will condition the compost water from heavier applications bound the compost rather than being free Unbound water free water undesirable hinders spawn growth and thus Covering spawned compost with plastic sheet

(

3

is

keep in mind that once compost dries , significantly reduced absorb water compost that sufficiently absorbed provide newly added water path which to

its

plying water ability

but the compost temperature has cooled either too much being introduced temperature the too low temperature The grower decides raise the keep the compost temperature between 75º and Temperatures should see hours checked after holding the air and com the compost still

to so

placement of water in the casing is easily done , but compost moisture can only be replaced at the com r . post surface , so there will be a net water loss when compost water evaporates . Adding water to compost may slow the crop and restrict mushroom improperly yields or reduce mushroom quality – the same result anticipated with overheating of compost during spawn run . Thus the advantage of maintaining desir able compost temperatures during spawn run can be lost if watering of the compost before casing is done improperly . Returning water to compost prior to casing requires one or two daily waterings using a misting nozzle . Compost drying can be minimized by thoroughly wetting floors and walls two or more times a day when the spawn is running . When ap *

a

to

or

It

to

at a to

quality mushroom Some strains

F

at

be

68 at 64 ° ° F .

to

is

The goal during the cooling period prior first break reduce the compost temperature rate as sure first break mushrooms are picked when the compost was once believed the com about high post had harvest cooler to

for

°

58

as

.

air

is

or on 66 ° F as

or

° F

64

the amount

;

of

related

to

in

.

,

(

of

)

-

F

66 °

at

is

the compost

is

is

on

12

to

air is

° F .

with the compost temperature Twelve hours later the air temperature

compost and first break picking begins this depends metabolic heat generated the amount the compost As explained earlier the heat left by

temperature about

60 ° F 9

in

Let assume that the heat has surged the com post between days after spawning and the 78

Iū

us

be

During Spawn Run

at

,

PRACTICAL SCENARIOS

68 °

at

to

do

.

is

not true first break but this produce higher quality tend mushrooms one compost temperature versus an quite adequate other but overall tem good quality mushrooms first break The when the low perature may ,

,

and

high

Before First Break

is -

air

,

temperature

ideal environment for

.

to

air so

compost

,

-

all

or

,

manage

provide moisture quality mushrooms

an

comes

to

,

is

by

air .

of

,

6

-

of

12

,

to

all

periods true for maximum heat production days after spawning the first few days after cas ing and the onset picking Compost temperature adjusting tempera controlled volume ture humidity three the challenge be

heat removed 97

,

air temperature but some composts are nutritionally spawn growth slows and little heat inadequate

is

so

via evaporation plus the heat exchanged between the compost and the air . Thus a grower concerned with rapid crop development while conserving energy , whether the energy is used to heat or to cool , must

air

,

.

of

As

is

.

air

in

an

,

.

in

to

.

air

is

or

,

air

.

in

a

,

,

volume and the air's moisture air temperature predictable content affect compost temperature all

-

for

.

or

they can calculate the average before deciding how ventilate and nurture the compost the crop

to so

.

of

as

An experienced

air

tempera grower may use during making gauge ture the decision stages the crop Knowledgable growers routinely spot throughout move thermometers from spot cropping temperatures measure the ranges way

of to

of

to

It or is

.

air

as

N

2 °

F

is

as

to

continue decline the crop ages unless the rate heat exchange reduced desirable maintain temperature compost the room more above the

,

.

,

hr )

to

24 -

(

12

may important but during harvest compost tem perature affects the crop much more than does temperature With experience growers learn that

to

.

)

to

,

temperature after first break since the crease the reduced compost temperature will decline due activity The compost temperature will metabolic

In

.

is

Compost temperature rather than temperature During the during spawn growing key the concern pin formation time temperature air

.

de

to

no ,

is

64 ° F .

air

be

is

By

.

,

a

is

crop managed properly compost tempera ture declines slowly between first and second break picked the compost the time the second break temperature may need There

(

SUMMARY

,

Later Breaks

98

there more evaporational cooling time the com predict post temperature will increase but the key compost temperature able growing insure that temperature throughout the crop remains above

be of

to

dur

.

-

the temperature desired

temperature increases the water the air can hold increases and

,

or

of

/

by

to

compost cools slowly ing first break picking

When

to air

-

F

°

a

-

)

,

air -

of

,

,

of

.

in

ble trait mushroom growing Experience with the the the bed moisture content strain compaction exchange phenomena and compost and casing other peculiarities each growing room allow practices management which the grower select

the amount is

68

to

°

66

(

"

"

,

,

at

during With the compost temperature providing picking factors and other ventilation first grow rapidly adequate are the mushroom will and push subsequent breaks keep coming desira

air to

the air

.

in

to

of

what self inhibiting

in

dioxide

air ,

monitor and control temperatures of the compost and addition the amount moisture and carbon

generated Excessive heat exchange may cause the same phenomenon identical temperature the temperature and the compost Increasing the induce the compost temperature upwards some

.

How to Manage the Watering of

Mushroom Crop

a

for

to

in

.

is

A

;

of

by

on

to

.

of

a

,

to

2

",

.

“ 1

, a

of

.

a

", 3 de "

,

of

to

4

,

of

is a

a of a

to

a

.

" 1 "

of

at

to

.

is

of

is

" 3 "

" 2 "

to

,

,

is

.

.

to

or

is on

is

at

in

to

at

it

,

it

so

.

of

or if if

for

by

.

ii is )

.

,

iii )

,

.

),

reduced

delayed

;

drastically

or

A

i )

of

production will

be

a

in

moved quickly enough over the casing surface the there not rhythmic and uniform and movement too much overlapping the watered area Once casing sealed becomes nonporous mushroom (

is

it

.

to

is

of

is

It

)

.

-

(

of

to

be

,

to

impor apply water Before discussing when applied and the mention how water should work habits the person applying water roseface water mush needed water break spray head desirable that the roseface produce room casing very fine stream water rather long high arc

tant

be

an

Water

is

Apply

is

to

How

dure dissipates the energy behind the water cing the water through arc like trajectory before the water falls gently onto the casing The most com mon failures during watering are the roseface not -

all

falls with too applied one time combination the two occurs The person doing the watering must invert the roseface that points and away from the casing rather than pointing directly the casing surface This proce at

than

be

.

to

an

as

rather

.

,

considered about watering inclusive watering schedule

Sealed Casing and Scratching Casing will seal the water falling much force too much water a

is i)

in

,

an

ii )

to

,

iii )

,

to

is

Watering the casing art that growers must judge when decide how much water water apply the water The needed and know how following comments are suggested factors

the left and

the final swipe made even closer the sideboard and Directing the water from the opposite direction the center the sideboard means that the person wa tering must move the spray head out assure that the water aimed the target area

up

be

is

WATERING

to

in

so

,

to

.

.

satisfactory crops

the rose moved from the right closer the sideboard and between

or

2

to

as

is

.

no

is

,

on

bring

cadence during watering tech manager can direct how much water

applied This means that during the count right starting water directed from left the center the bed Between the counts and

should " 1 , "

is

of

as

be

.

is

a

,

.

to

quate

gests that use nique whereby of

(

to

1

of

)

is

,

much use need there Further the deeper the casing the longer the interval between casing and picking More could said about casing but this general guideline ade

casing

a

f

a

depth measured after initial water has Normally casing adequate been applied 1.25 inches for most mushroom crops There are growers and much 1.75 farms where casing depth will usually found only where inches but such depth nothing peat moss the casing medium There layer casing deep herently wrong with but with

",

CASING

good management

a

be

.

2

about the casing layer are in order

,

statements

"

e

right and right face constantly from left left perhaps three passes per feet bed watering one person has half the width the surface Once veloped cadence movement pattern can followed for applying water Experience sug

in

1

quite acceptable for the task person applies water depends initial training and level supervision Some successful growers train watering personnel move the rose

How

is

* E

sealing the the initial waterings the potential casing thus minimized the water the force roseface with 750 1000 holes 0.01 inch diameter is

quality and speed of production are af fected by casing depth , moisture , and watering . The initial moisture content of casing , as well as how and when water is applied , affects the number of pins that form and the size and quality of the mushroom . Water and watering are frequently THE FACTORS that separate excellent growers from average growers , and ( as might be implied ) , can seem confusing if the overall goals of watering are not fully understood or implemented . Before getting into the watering , a few

Mushroom

for

Paul J. Wuest

99

different

Watering Different Cultivars a

of

of

withstanding heavy White mushrooms are capable pencil waterings when the pins are about the size a

at

of

.

in

)

(

Watering eraser approx 0.25 inch diameter cream cultivar the same rate will destroy most the pins Cream mushrooms must have pins that are

to

or

is

.

It

to

.

-

(

to to

is of

be

)

least twice that size about 0.5 inch before large quantities applied The rough white water can mushroom closer cream than white cultivars ap watering possible terms tolerance of

Scratching casing that contains spawn damages the mycelium , and this restricts the size of the devel oping mushrooms and may cause mushrooms to

.

.

belt - fed casing machine . Scratching is recommended by some growers ; others avoid the practice . A rule of thumb when scratching the casing is to restrict scratching to the depth where spawn has not grown .

for each cultivar

at

.

Some growers find it necessary to scratch the cas ing surface following initial applications of water be cause the casing is sealed . Sealing is common when peat is used , especially when the peat is applied by a

in

neither is desirable

When

How

.

a

ca

be at

of

.

of

as

a

is

to ,

,

is

to

;

of

it,

.

5

to

3

a

of

, to a

(

a

.

,

is

,

so

of

.

be

)

of

to

coarser

ap in

,

by

,

as ,

on

is

a

If

be

.

is

of to

to

,

a

,

a

at

The speed which crop grows i.e. the time inter val between breaks becomes decisive factor deciding when water and how much water ply The speed compost and the crop affected quickly temperatures coming break applied quickly and early perhaps water must early the last two picking days the previous of

it

a

.

no

a

to

,

a

be

may When break develops slowly then apply the water more slowly and over desirable longer period Under circumstances should cas break

by

is

an

it

re -

to

,

.

If

to

.

to

,

If

dry out completely ing allowed the casing be very comes dry the only way moisten casing with light repetitive waterings active spawn growth dries out the mycelium seems sur peat particles way that prevents water adsorption The casing has the appearance harboring grey mold but actually spawn Mushrooms growing on dry casing tend show

of

a

in

round the soil

to

.

is

it

,

They are light and pithy water stress symptoms spongy and the veils tend stretched The cap perpendicular appear bottoms stem since cap not fully rounded Mushrooms harvested from

the

to

.

be

to

.

.

is

with

even

Watering During the Crop

be

to

occur

or

" 1

, ",

2 “ 3

"

, "

“ 1

the initial buttons

.

"

,

-

of

on

-

likely

much less roseface

to

a

.

or

to

be

to

Once

thereafter during cropping

a

is

It

to

be

of

.

to

100

develop and roseface that provides 0.02 inch 1300 holes coarser water stream 1000 diameter can used The mushrooms and buttons break part the force the water and the extensive rhizomorph formation holds the casing sealing hours

)

is

is

.

be

it

of

be

to

be

is

" 1 " " 2 " " 3 "

at

of

.

an

apply when bringing much water first break something that has learned and it's usually

and thus becomes physically conditioned accept more water binding water usually requires

binds

as

.

to

is

;

.

it

,

of or

to

" 2 " _ " 3 "

applied the cadence increased from perhaps even the rose face does not but the movement pattern give change These numbers and dashes are used idea the speed which the arm the watering person moves Precisely when water and how

essential when applying more than one watering per day for the casing absorbs the first water and

.

–

or

or

up

so

to

a

or

In

a

in

,

,

light amount water during watering should

applied the day fast applied watering heavier can sealing the casing Delay much chance

be

be

a

.

to

as

it .

be

,

to

.

to

,

diately after casing and not during cropping watering suggested that this method tried and using throughout evaluated small area before an entire growing room may necessary After initial waterings water fog until pins appear Where such lightly mist

without

Water

second

-

to

is

If

.

its

no

it

,

it

bit ,

a

,

,

is in

A

to

day flood the casing after the water ab sorbed scratch the peat break the crust and re used imme the casing this method store texture

dence

is

.

up

.

it

so

to

,

,

will absorb water As the spawn enters the casing through the compost grows spawn from the The rapidly initially casing casing closer more dries the casing allowed the compost than elsewhere dry good ability will lose absorb water longer When this occurs will act water res ervoir mushrooms borne upon will soft and pithy and yields will reduced When too much stops water the casing spawn growth slows production spawn delays with resultant death apply initial water peat casing radical way

When the first water

.

at

as for as

as

to

,

to

,

at

is

It of is

it

is ,

its

to be it

all

.

-

.

it a

as

of

frequently the structure the casing permits days casing few until the contains much water can hold This volume water referred the holding capacity casing water essential that the receive the water can hold this time for the casing must always top that moist from bottom from surface where contacts the compost

Apply Enough

air

.

– –

as

of

,

or

,

or

is

applied immediately after casing Initial water least during the first second day after casing and applications additional water are continued

pins

(

to

Water

-

ply too much water too early with either the cream the rough white cultivar and thereby destroy the

all

form under the casing . Scratching works for some farmers and not for others , so scratching is not a prac tice recommended for mushroom operations

be

of

to

be

an

or

to a

.

at

all

,

in

a

at

no ,

of

be

.

at

or

.

At

far

on

off -

in

hr

24 -

,

or

be be

.

is

,

a

of

be a

to

of it

,

.

,

no

by

,

.

of

or

in

-

,

,

of

,

to

for

a

.

as

substitute

keen

a

,

is

.

to

in

be

,

a

.

If

.

here cannot

will record the changes along with information about how the mushrooms look before and after the water was applied Such reference can useful mak ing decisions about future crops .

to

re ,

as

-

,

-

a

If

at

so be

to

.

a

-

,

presented

sense observation and experience with how differ ent cultivars respond different watering patterns changed When watering pattern wise grower

F

t

of

many times

lines

of

A of

is

,

of

2

of

,

at or its as

.

“ 1 ” -“ 2 ” -" 3 "

.

in

is

to

;

a

i 11

needed the casing holding capacity mains moisture while the pins the first break mushrooms develop into buttons three

Overwatering can result pins and the death poorly mushrooms and underwatering poor waterings produce quality timed soft mush rooms Most growers learn through experience how water which roseface use and the frequency applications crop water the matures The guide small

a

to

“ 1 ", 2 ", “ 3 ”

its

.

a

in

aa

first break

waterings begins Morning and afternoon waterings are applied the cadence cream being grown water cultivar not applied this delay days will give the pins time time about pea After the initial first grow twice the size watering applied two break water will have

and the casing must moist but not wet This requirement can usually met watering fourth and subsequent breaks more fre quently than twice weekly preferably waiting until buttons have developed each successive break

.

air ;

60 ° 8 F

,

,

a

series

of

pencil eraser the first ,

a

size

of

,

:

to

,

is

;

is

to

.

to

,

If is

to

.

in

is

to

to

10

days and The compost has been cased for compost tem the air temperature has cooled going into the perature the lower 70s Fresh smell fresh the myce room causes the room air knitting together and pins are starting lium dry quick form the casing tends watering cadence prevent becoming needed overdry fogging the casing surface every second day and floors and walls should be an alternative soaked routinely minimize drying few days later when the pins white cultivar are about the

to

.

of

total picture

aa

make

dying pins especially with dead white and cream cultivars Many growers notice the abundance dead pins after second break and erroneously symptom think virus condition rather than water damage Less water needed with .

a

of

a

grower will see and what should developing will bring number

of to

bit

-

a

of –

55

4

–

or

or

a

a

,

a

crop factors together

to is

what

as

of

,

be A

scenario done

*

,

Temperature and Cropping

Water

If

.

in

of

of

.

to

-

-

.

;

.

be

up

to

,

is

a

a

by ),

by

8

it

.

heavier applications water can com mence These should continued until the casing again reaches good moisture level Repeated water ings during single day are better for the crop than single waterings successive days the same time too much water applied one time too period can result much water applied over buttons

a

;

in

-

of

of

10

if

-

by

or

)

Too much water applied cream off great number white cultivar this time will cause third break and dead pins depressed yields during fourth break production practically Once second break pins have matured into small vest

,

A .

10

of

to

of

,

8

.

as

bit

/ ft ?

lb

( : ·

(

break air temperatures cause the crop days quite short interval water must be added before the end the first break har

compost

.

to

.

for

bit

a

,

a

I

be

pected on second break , then water has replaced plus evaporation more This quan tity needed only for second break since subse quent breaks normally are not heavy gallon pounds the Im water weighs just more than pounds After cal perial gallon will weigh close culating the total pounds mushrooms harvested square feet times the total harvested area you can calculate the volume replacement water taking nine tenths this figure and dividing you're using Imperial gallons US gal is

&

0.9

-

lb of

*

.

may be used to determine this . are about 90 percent water , so a pound of harvested mushrooms per square foot of bed means that 0.9 lb of water has been removed from that same square foot. If an additional pound is ex

Mushrooms

on

A quasi -analytical rule

developing additional water may heavy break applied from the button stage the onset har vesting Watering should avoided during the har quality usually suffers vest period Second break pins form before first break mush applied rooms are harvested Water needs wards the end first break since the harvested mushrooms absorb much the water the casing

of

casing too dry during one stage of their development will have a good bit of casing attached to them ; this is especially true of first-break mushrooms . How much water should be added after first break ?

101

Some Thoughts on

CO , Control 2

in Mushroom Culture Lee C. Schisler

;

of

by

let

.

be

,

it

to

is

It

.

-

air

a

2

,

of

,

of

all

a

in

to

..

to

be

in

,

,

of

,

for

In

.

to

.

by

,

In

. A

)

(

air

ac

for

(

.

of

air

of

to

be

in -

an

re in

,

at

to

)

,

in

to

slightly ventilation can approximate 500 ppm increase ”

“

sizing mush levels which should assist rooms and facilitate picking This CO level should maintained throughout the remainder the pick ing period

CO

of

to

fresh

allowing

,

). .

.

to

be

adjusting

duced

.

of

in

an

to

of

be

(

CO

white strains this would

enlargement

,

.

.

be

,

of

This level CO should held constant until the enlargement mushrooms enter the rapid stage when caps reach 0.5 0.75 inch diameter The should then raised additional 500 ppm enhance enlargement the mushrooms For most

crease fresh introduction should follow thereby optimum pin reducing the CO level allow ning The proper CO level this point will vary cording the strain mushroom being grown After mushrooms begin enter their rapid stage

,

or

at

, I

I

-

.

or

2,

,

-

sup give you good figures for these Spawnmakers plying these strains generally have this information

higher CO2 levels 5000-15,000 ppm during spawn growth and immediately after casing sharp in

.

is

.

reducing the CO2 level with fresh White strains generally require 1000 ppm CO2 less whereas light cream strains will fruit 1500 ppm CO less As have had little experience with off white and old fashioned brown strains cannot

summary CO levels can mush controlled regulating ventilation room houses Ventilation procedures will vary from farm general farm however regulation ventilation should provide

.

in

air ,

.

or

,

,

,

of

the material used for casing depth the casing layer moisture content and temperature the mushroom house The house room then flushed

the stated levels will vary according the peculiar cultural properties you provide the crop

,

to

,

10

to for

on

6

is

of

CO2 levels should be maintained at between 5000 or 15,000 ppm during spawn growing , or that portion of the production cycle between casing and the ap pearance of mushroom mycelium on the casing layer . spawn The time normally required reach the days depending surface the casing from

the crop

After having said this me qualify stating that these levels especially those CO point inches above given for after casing are for the casing layer forced ventilation system important with good air distribution add that ,

ex

,

be based on their research and some practical periences of my own .

be

will

and maintaining that level until the end for light cream would 2000 ppm it

Many researchers have done extensive experiments with the effects of CO , ( carbon dioxide ) on mush room growth . The following generalities and remarks

1500 ppm

103

Organizing and Using the Penn State IPM Approach to Mushroom Pest Management

potential

on

.

of ,

,

to

is

of

of

a

to -

-

,

(

-

.

.

1

.

.

'

-

.

in

of

fly

on

,

.

-

–

or

.

on

.

A

. (

to

of

3, 4 ).

-

phorids move while sciarid movement

identification

with quick jerky movements

,

clue

to

,

:

also

a

ment

size alone Sciarid males are about the same adult phorid Fig Form adult move

less erratic

.

,

tion size

as by an

:

or

fly

of

G ,

,

,

,

"

."

or

,

have antennae that are easily seen Antennae the phorids are difficult caution identifica see

is

.

,

"

",

fly

or :

Wood the phorid little fly The disease pathogens are Verticillium fungicola Gams commonly speck and called Verticillium spot dry bubble Pseudomonas flourescens biotype the cause bacte rial blotch

in

two have been restricted pests and two disease pathogens The insect Lycoriella mali Fetch commonly pests are Sciaridae big called the sciarid and Phoridae Megaselia

is

to

Initially investigations

.

of to

.

a

;

ance

.

5 )

,

.

phorid pupae have cocoon like appear Both species pupate the compost stage The adult the two species differs several respects Female sciarid flies are larger and more rotund than the humpbacked adult phorid and

loosely

Consider the mushroom farm community

'

pest

control

to

tools

insect

|

As

.

-

on

to -

stem while phorid larvae remain the compost the two flies differ considerably The pupae Sciarid pupae have barely visible legs which hang of

.

and

.

4 )

Use IPM techniques populations

halterata

be

is

-

,

do

.

1

of

,

ture phorid larvae laid end end measure inch Sciarid larvae are often found inside the mushroom in

the actual

.

is

, (

.

-

span inch Phorid larvae are also whitish cover not have the black head Fig and segmental but Phorid larvae resemble the house fly maggot blunt one end and pointed the other Six ma a

or

on

.

/

,

,

,

3 )

based

the sciarid larvae becomes visible Phorid eggs are also whitish but oblong and concave Eggs either compost Fig are laid Sciarid larvae are whitish segmental and have black headed capsule Four larvae laid end end

on

include cli

to

-

Monitor the farm environment

mate disease immature insect and adult insect pop ulations and grower growing practices Make decisions damage levels

see the eggs time for hatch Sciarid eggs are whitish and oval approaches the distinctive black headed capsule

1 ).

an in

be

.

1 )

Acquire pest information

2 )

described

:

of

.

developed around this theme The Mushroom IPM program can terms the five steps involved

essential disease pathogens The two insect pests considered pass through four stages during their life cycles - egg larvae pupae and adult The latter three stages are easily recog required nized without lens but magnification

in

.

is

in

economically tolerable level ecologically accept able way The Penn State Mushroom IPM program

insects and the conditions which favor colonization and spread

a

as

an

to .

-

,

to

-e

,

agro

as

an

up

(

accurate managed

.

IPM ) ,

significant factors that make considers well cosystem acknowledges harmful manipu beneficial factors and determines how including pesticides An late the beneficial factors pest infestations program reduce should IPM

ment

based

knowledge about the organisms Knowing the biology and behavior

.

This concept, called Integrated Pest Manage

.

all

peared

management

pest

Effective

.

was accepted . Such a dependence on chemicals led to undesired side effects , and alternatives were sought . About 1970 , a new concept of pest control ap

ACQUIRING PEST INFORMATION

,

community initiated called the " Pesticide Age , " a time upon pesticides to produce crops agricultural

,

subsequent use of DDT and other

2 )

The discovery and pesticides by the what is commonly when dependence

I.

P.J. Wuest , R.J. Finley , D.L. Rinker , A. Napkil , D.J. Royse , R. Tetrault , and R.J. Snetsinger

105

to

an

a

few

is

;

;

-

;

-

time

longer for the phorid

the sciarid

longer

the phorid

.

Total generation

for

time

-d

);

.

Pupae development

longer

for

time

is

evelopment

longer for the sciarid is

2 )

Larvae

time

is

1 )

Egg development

3 ) mushroom

are repeated here

4 )

on

)

right

page 35

.

and phonial egg

(

left )

1. Sciarid egg (

mycelium

(

the Commercial Mushroom

generalizations

FIGURE

in

is

of

.

cant Insects

in

;

to

an

,

Besides knowing what flies are present growers should know something about the development time needed for insect evolve from one stage greatly other this varies with temperature for each Signifi Development insect described detail

patterns significant program Sciarids

Both species exhibit behavioral management

.

a

when devising

° F

,

to

.

on

as

as

air

II

enter the mushroom house during Phase cooldown temperature drops soon the below 110 and lay their eggs the unspawned compost

4

,

of es .

a

on to

to

,

of

.

lay

5

or

,

or

Phorids infest the house only after the beds trays have been spawned the greatest numbers entering days after spawning and lesser extent after casing Phorids eggs only spawned compost Lastly adults light both species are attracted

.

is

,

Verticillium disease has several recognizable dry An often encountered symptom pin the disrupted growth button into

-

"

blow out -

"

is

stem shatters

the

and

a

bit

a

or

grape

)

stipe stem the cap tilts (

is

a

.

-

,

of

a

bubble ball like mass generally the size larger Another common symptom ,

or

symptoms

of

mush

-

below

.

larva

)

and sciarid

(

)

(

above

.

2.

Phorid larva room mycelium FIGURE

on

.

teristics

by

,

pecially fluorescent black light with the exception light the sciarid adult male which not attracted Disease pathogens likewise have distinctive charac

.

or

a

in

.

.

.

of

be

,

a

.

and requirements designing and in

,

to

program

.

,

is

in

a

important

re

a

of

.

)

(

is

of

but one phase successful pest management control program Information garding when colonization occurs the size the ini ,

.fly

4.

behavior

THE FARM ENVIRONMENT

MONITORING -

106

on a

,

a

hr

.

or

.

12

to of

6

II .

management

Identifying pests Adult female phorid

a

on

It

of

Keeping the biology the pests mind

executing

FIGURE

,

by by

or

on

or

,

picker Usually the water hands tools spores are spread flies particularly the phorid Blotch caused bacteria on the mushroom cap often appears the sides and lower edges the mushrooms Typically blotch has bronze color but yellowish cast cap splitting the cap may signs the disease The pathogen needs wet cap for for disease occur is

.

right sciarid flies )

and female

(

left

)

Adult male

(

FIGURE

3.

.

of on

,

on

.

a

is

fly

A

it

of

in

of

a

as

be

on

(

5 ).

Many times the fungus pathogen can Fig seen fruiting infected tissue the cap where greyish hue appears less the infected area speck recognized form the disease called spot Spots develop when the pathogen infects single site the cap which develops into discrete splashed spot The pathogen arrives the cap slightly

hl. db

7

b

db

for

thermograph used

temperature

to

monitor compost

temperature

day period

.

continuously

.

of

,

to

in

of

understanding the rhythms aids insect and dis and pest movement from farm ease development farm Disease Monitoring of

or

as

.

-

a

in

a

of

beds

).

24

locations per standard growing room

(

at

is

of

Counting

total

all

.

,

The eight locations are equally divided between the four lower and four upper beds Occasionally growing room are assessed for dis mushrooms ease occurrence Such extensive assessments provide data the pattern disease spread throughout growing room a

areas

of

more prevalent

in

a

of

tends

be

Verticillium

to

at

of for

,

.

-d

,

dom

the

.

7 .)

(

to

DE

.

,

at

.

the

die E

counted

blotch are recorded mushrooms number eight somewhat ran done

Verticillium

of

.

6 )

to

(

a

.

,

In

addition outdoor climatological data are availa many ble from U.S.Weather Service offices located airports The Philadelphia International Airport and provide such data airport Dover south signifi eastern Pennsylvania Weather information cance includes wind direction and speed precipita tion and degree ay values Climate information

symptoms percentage

in

rela

.

and

growing room Fig tive humidity Thermo graphs are also used regularly record compost Thermograph devices are equipped temperature with remote sensors measure bed temperature continually throughout every day Fig

Disease monitoring begins with sampling the mush picking for rooms the beds on the heaviest day strip each flush Mushrooms foot wide across the bed are counted and inspected Those showing on

hygro

.

air

in to

is

monitored continuous use thermographs temperature measure

on

Climate

of

Monitoring the Climate by

hy

.

.

of

an

,

the future size and predictions tial population integral part any man the pest population are agement program Monitoring pest populations pro vides this information

.

on

is

as a

as

-

on a

( m )

or

on

( ov )

5b . .

FIGURE

for a 7 -

m

mating Sciarid flies ovipositing mush Verticillium infested mush room cap When these flies are vectors for the Verticillium fungus and the result rooms they act usually the symptom known spot FIGURE

in use in a mushroom house to and relative humidity continuously

air

OV

A hygrothermograph

.

a

monitor week

the

FIGURE 6.

A

The various symptoms of Verticillium disease : dry bubble ( db ) , spot (s), hairlip (hl ) , bubble (b ) .

FIGURE 5a .

107

dry

dry within watering hours cer tain beds areas beds repeatedly show high probably change blotch incidence there need circulation patterns within the room

Determine the potential threat very early the crop before

rou

As

in at ,

.

in

at

i)

iv )

;

at

;

iii )

:

.

of

;

ii )

.

is

or

,

in

"

or

at a

one

time

the crop

.

of

of

pest control

in at

.

at to

:

1 )

"

Evaluate the efficacy agement practices

pest

man

,

by , a

.

If

,

of

),

,

.

is

in

be

,

(

of

or

,

a

in to

a

of

fill

of

by

–-

,

in

.

a

or

and endboard

--

,

a

in

.

-

in -

of

,

5

percent areas represents about exposed compost yet the majority room generation the first emerges from house hatch these areas all

).

it

.

in

;

.

to

is

ft )

8

spawning machine compacted ing conveyors compost plus the compost This compacted layer side-

to

in

III

(

was

Raising endboards sideboard close door often layer compacted compost reveals contact with compost falling from the bedboards the result of

an

lating the Economic Threshold and Action Thresh maturing old when correlated with insect damage mushrooms See heading later this section

program

compost along the track alley exposed by the cracks between the sideboards and the bottom .

is

by

by

.

of

.

in

listed the Appendix Insects are counted micro scope and the number recorded species and stage development This information then permits calcu

tight

a

. – is

of

,

Fordyce and Cantello very more detailed account the procedure

of

At is

–

A

.

developed

by ,

.

,

process useful

or

is

sugar solution centrifuged added and the sample again The immature insects pupae larvae float on the sugar solution while the residue sinks This

IPM

few open cracks etc most the flies will enter through open doors and the greatest num eggs will ber laid the first and second sections the beds Egg laying most frequent house

or of

.

8 )

;

(

a

,

of

doors inward towards the center the room then placed into plastic bag and thoroughly mixed Fig Fifty grams are washed and centrifuged then

the mushroom

initial sampling locations for larvae were chosen random draw Intensive sampling several rooms proved the initial assumption invalid instead most lay eggs immediately upon entering flies begin

4

to

8

or

casing adjacent feet within the

to

4

it .

of

cessing Samples compost aisles are collected from beds

(

a

of

,

,

of

eggs larvae and pupae consists collecting the sample and pro process

--

-

step

of

Monitoring

the onset

assumed that flies entered the growing room and laid their eggs randomly throughout the room As such

in

Immature Insect Monitoring two

from

.

the crop

Relate the number larvae monitored adults future time

with the number

of

-

of

at

or

(

of )

to

dence loss

crop

the

casing time

.

in

or

at

,

least reduce the inci can eliminate the disease and prevent serious economic

treating

worms

2 )

.

Locating areas within each room where disease routinely occurs and treating removing the spot fected mushrooms the first sign disease

to

)

re

If

to

a

is

,

of

air -

,

.

4

to

or

,

of

be

by

.

.

in an

of

to

mushrooms

Forecasting

3

to

.

to

;

be

as

,

.

Stress can result from excessive

af pe

ing around the sideboards such occurs with rimeter steam pipes mushrooms most likely fected are those closest the steam pipes Another form moisture stress occurs when the casing mains wet over extended period Verticillium this condition flourish seems effectively controlled encouraging Blotch can

insect damage is another way to explain why intermittent counts of immature insects and tine counts adult insects are recommended sessment for immature insects should occur spawning pin set and before casing second break The monitoring schedule for adult sects outlined the next section To summarize monitoring for immature insect numbers allows one

moisture stress

in

an

)

(

.

be

Knowing where the first eggs are laid identifies tar get areas for pesticide usage Treatment might wa tering drenching insecticide into the compost .

of

contact with the endboards and the first two sections sideboard for each bed The insecticides malathion

,

at

to

.

12

to

or

be

a

or

if

at

label rates are most effective applied these areas day two before spawning applied spawning while Apex can these areas days later up to

and diazinon used

108

to

if

is

in

If

,

that

holes and cracks

be

for

is

.

be

requires

.

for

a

be

board drench

all

.

sampling

sample Collecting The sideboard has extraction the compost most likely infested available to

been raised

so

FIGURE

8.

,

.

is a

be

A

cautionary note needed this limited area procedural change from drenching drenched the entire bed surface there are open cracks walls and roof flies enter through these openings and the sideboard and lay eggs almost everywhere inadequate drench will Success with the side

open doors

the

If

entry

.

to restrict

to

fly

,

of

the flies enter through the doors

as

be

deposition sites and patterns can identified sessing larva and pupa numbers Once the locations where eggs have been laid are known insecticides can be targeted these areas important that each room assessed for tightness Egg laying patterns are quite likely vary from room room the same farm and cer tainly between farms This means that patterns need be

.

-

at

to for

If

.

,

fly

Adult

and periodically veri larva and pupa populations treatment sites must change

each room

,

to

identified fied by assessing the pattern changes

down , and remain operative at least through spawn run , and preferably through the entire cropping pe riod . Monitors positioned outside where flies normally roost and in the breezeway provide num of the " background " – naturally oc population level , and may measure the ef

bers reflective

-

curring

fectiveness of an outside control program . Accurate records of daily catches ( Fig 10 ) are needed to evalu ate present control programs and future strategies . Wetzel devised a logbook form for this purpose , and another for logging pesticide 115 ) . These can be duplicated

usage

( pages

if desired

114 and

.

.

be

.

,

."

"

to

is

It

to

,

i

.

-

ma

egg

by

plugged

jority

Monitoring

Insect

the paper

on

.

fly -

a

(

oper Pennsylvania Mushroom Fly Monitor PMFM infested house The black specks flies

one day within

.

,

ation

.

,

at

.

of

a

,1

of

FIGURE

A

.

,

be

;

in

of

1 )

Determination invasion sites Generally the wharf end room the upper level has consider ably more flies than does the breezeway end How

2 )

I

are

to

or

a

.

the species present Identification the room when species are known control measures can de signed more effectively

for 9.

at

is

an

.

as is

;

a

by

it

as

to

.

I

TIN

sticky surface tractant and water retain the several serves Monitoring flies insects adult purposes

) in

of

of

monitoring involves assessing The fourth type population levels the adult female sciarid and adult male and female phorid the adult male sciarid less easy rarely flies Monitoring monitor accom using plished fluorescent black light

,

an

13

breezeways often weather movement between rooms .

a

fly

severely cold bridge for

as in

,

of

,

.

if

of

fly

Grower Growing Practice Monitoring of

of

monitoring involves the grower and The final type growing practices This monitoring takes the form all

an

of

,

.

be

to

9 )

,

(

).

,

on

phases crop extensive questionnaire covering from composting through harvest and cleanup Questions address cultural and pesticide practices plus yield information Once significant

production .

in

for

,

al .

et

a

tion entitled Integrated Pest Management Mushroom page 61 The monitor Fig Farming should placed the wharf wall upper level prior cool

(

é

by

Currently the Penn State Mushroom IPM project monitor illustrated Wetzel the sec

uses

1

fly

are

it

.

the

in

fly

a

”

.

low during

hr

on

specks

daily count and recording essential management black The absence population was sticky paper suggests that period before the count was made aid

.

.

on

a

to

of

.

5 ) 1

Making

of

organisms with the poten Reveals the presence tial for biological control Phorids are being investi gated naturally occurring determine the effect population levels endoparasitic nematode

FIGURE

monitoring

the is the" to 24 -

.

be

,

aa

be

from management strategies and determine pesticide effectiveness and may tool through which indi vidual worker effectiveness can measured

10.

or

,

to -

in

,

- be to -

.

to -

,

to -

.

4 )

Evaluates present management programs Com parisons can made control strategies from room crop grower crop grower room season season Monitoring can eliminate the guesswork

/

1

,

.

1

.

it

)

Provides accurate schedule insect activity making easier select the optimum time for cor rective action Growers often say they have no flies until they apply casing Actually these flies are the first generation emerging and usually are not invad ing adults to

m

,

ever serve

cropping factors affecting pest management are iden 109

.

a

Fly fly

.

,

of

fly

,

in

it

is

.

to

Fly Exclusion The most effective way handle problem avoid the problem from the start proofing against invading adults solves the problem begins Cracks before walls around air condi tioners and pipes are usual routes initial inva (

11 )

sion Putting netting over doors Fig and limiting the amount traffic into room critical times can greatly reduce the possibility infestation Moni toring helps determine the tightness room and at

management

.

a

of

"

"

doorway

.

of

a

"

"

of

the effectiveness

:

of

on

.

Even if Economic Threshold levels cannot be com puted , Action Levels can be decided upon by pre vious experiences with pests . Action Levels refer to " doing something " when pest levels reach a prede termined size or incidence known to be deleterious to the crop Suggested Action Threshold levels adult flies the Penn State Mushroom Fly Monitor are

growers

of

pest population , the dollar return will not equal or ex ceed the dollar invested in pesticides or other man agement activity , and would not be cost effective .

available

.

Once monitoring techniques have been initiated and a farmer has confidence in the accuracy of the daily readings plus the compiled records , the next step is to make management decisions after considering the ec onomic feasibility of one or more management prac tices that are available . In other words , an Economic Threshold level must be determined . Below a certain

to

ily

The fourth procedure involved in the execution of Mushroom IPM is not actually a step , but rather the selection , integration , and implementation of several individual control techniques into a whole system . Some tools and techniques are well known and read

to

BASED

ON THE DETERMINATION OF ECONOMIC LEVELS OF DAMAGE

TO MANIPULATE PEST POPULATIONS

1 )

III . DECISION - MAKING

IV . TECHNIQUES AND TOOLS

.

tified , excerpts from the questionnaire will be pub lished as a checklist for a quality assurance system in crop and pest management .

on

or

,

is

cooler than day each before spawning

.

spawn run

.

-

of

the remainder

per day after casing

.

40

to

Thirty

for

4

2 )

Fifteen per day

3 )

to

one two flies days after spawning

° F

1 )

When growing room temperature

110

,

.

of

to

as

wide problem

a

in

at

flyas

in

as

.

fly

to

of

at

Threshold levels different stages the crop vary determine their own and growers are encouraged populations Economic Threshold levels Greater potentially dam later the cropping cycle are not production However aging earlier periods large populations one room may pose farm

,

-

;

-

is a

,

to

.

to

.

,

flies are mobile and can move other rooms Flies can also carry disease causing pathogens and mites from place place Both flies and especially the phorid are attracted Verticil fly lands on an infected lium infected mushrooms )

of

(

a

.

,

mushroom and thereafter vector transporter the pathogen Economic Thresholds for Verticillium and bacterial

110

11.

in

.

to

A

.

the

to

be

it

so

is

to

a

it

a

;

to

,

be theis the

a

A

-

is

the

.

of

stage

of

the harvesting

.

.

either disease early crop

in

of

to

olds for both diseases are known farmers who rec ognize the gravity even the slightest occurrence

door standard double mushroom house screened with fine mesh cloth prevents flies from entering Note also procedure used netting install narrow furring strip wrapped with the netting then and the screen are stapled doorway filled with door jamb How can fixed netting entered can't and this what directs the traffic one doorway hung pushed away provide where netting that can entry the room FIGURE

? It

to

.

,

be

defining the sessed then attention will directed Economic Threshold for each disease Action Thresh

to

.

be

as

a

in

to

.

is

partially due blotch have not been established This difficulty establishing routine representative sampling procedure Once disease can reliably

.

.

,

fly

of

is

at

of

.

of

-

in

.

to

of

or

be

.

off -

.

. ,

by

.

to

be

.

,

an

to

of

a

,

,

of

.

to

"

,

.

of

at

'

,

,

.

of

C.

of

A

,

be

used

.

is

warm

mush

.

"

from each extended permitted room farmers who their rooms research and development IPM

to

.

acknowledged us

gratefully of

thank you

is

PA

,

Square

of

.

,

fly

,

committee individuals from the industry provided direction for the project The assistance Dr. For Longwood Biological Laboratory dyce Kennett

Jr. ,

in

is

of

a

and

Funds for this project originated from the USDA IPM Project the American Mushroom Institute the Cana dian Mushroom Growers Association and the Agriculture College Penn State An advisory

,

of to

of

at

fly

of

.

to

.

be

,

“

4

-

be

to

air

,

,

be

,

more enlightened

Acknowledgments

" 1 /

.

F

°

as

by

a

.

a

of

day when peak restricted the time movement occurs inside growing room when adult flies are the target For maximum effectiveness larva applied when larvae are susceptible cides must Outside sprays are most effective when flies are rest ing swarming and roosting

Age

age more effective pest control Pesticide

for

of

at (

as

,

.

Insecticides have value when used the end crop þefore pasteurizing prevent move temperature ment between rooms when creased for pasteurization Application insecticides

should

to

of

in

to

be

-

.

.

as -

.

at

all by

of

hr )

Pesticide Use Pesticide usage might restricted level suggesting Threshold Economic the events damage will occur moni the use determined

6 )

V. BROAD CONSIDERATIONS OF THE MUSHROOM FARM COMMUNITY .

-

,

is

an

of

an

as

,

Finally consider the entire mushroom farm commu agro ecosystem nity An isolated farm has the quickly controlling pest problems but best chance mushroom farming not always isolated busi ness and some isolated farms have continuing pest .

a

,

,

at

-

.

,

Far too often the pest management prac another farm tices one farm affect pest problems probably has certain farm Each room block and problems of

|

is

as

.

)

5

Crop Termination Fly control the end the crop equally important that during cropping Treat steaming off 140 compost for ment houses stages kills flies well disease causing fungi and bacteria

tors

.

,

of

with precise record keeping can greatly improve present pest management programs Knowledge not eventually lost and then needs redis shared willingness covered Foresight cooperation and integrated accept new ideas will permit the use progression the management from pest and is

be

of

.

lot of

a

.

is is

if of

.

a

should

better management practices The sharing and con knowledge gained experience mostly years observation and experience coupled

solidation

of

.

of

,

be

or

fly damage Floors and breezeways regular basis cleaned on

The success IPM depends effective monitoring grower cooperation can only aid Second grower ,

con

else

somewhere

to

.

in fly

is

for

trol and for disease control Flies can breed the Re discarded mushrooms butts and fragments desirable Beds trash moval and prompt disposal especially should trashed there disease

occurring

phenomena

In Conclusion on

at

of

of

its

to

important

negated

to -

to

of

by

by

Good sanitation

.

4 )

Sanitation

the downwind the size increase background populations The wise pest management manager should aware his neighbor's practices anticipate and problems and adjust his programs expected problems from farm sources The most amplified effective management program can ,

.

a

.

temperatures reduces the possibility eco damage increasing the number days re complete one generation life cycle

2

warm nomic quired

producing

of

,

to

in

of

new generation Higher temperatures occur the compost during spawn run and after casing when compared the days harvest period Reducing the number

the direction peak periods the wind Wind carry some the flies downwind

-

.

(

°

F

into mature

evolve

of

fly

.

in

)

more time larvae need capable producing

adults

-

·

:

#

the

The fewer days lar optimum spawn running tem comparison with cooler temperatures run and casing 75

spawn

at -

3 )

Short

vae are kept perature

populations may vary

background and speed activity will

in

air

and

ade

insure

pests called the background population number These populations are specific for each farm and will crop and season vary from crop season Breeze way and outdoor monitors aid establishing the background levels insect populations One reason

an

.

for

monitored

Phase

to

Rooms should

bed temperatures throughout quate pasteurization

II

.

*

.

mold fungi

be

°

F

of

all

of

by

of Phase II . Compost temperatures in excess stages Temper 130 ° F for a few hours kill flies at teatures about 140 kill most disease and weed

2 ) Control

111

so

to

the the

cups

getting

,

in

.

lot for of

a

sample includes samples

two

25 g

into

If

.

50 g

a

sample

is

of

,

3

5 )

of

processing

break

it

moss

,

1 )

Sample preparation

Weigh out

avoid

Balance the centrifuge tubes contain the same minutes until volume then centrifuge for about the bottom concentrated most the particulate the tube

PROCEDURES

peat

to

.

.up

samples mixed

plastic

as

of

be

,

transferred Label the cups

short term storage -

for

stream water from two samples are being

If

.

,

Extraction of Fly Eggs , Larvae , Pupae , and from Mushroom Compost and Casing Soil by a Centrifuged - Sugar Flotation Method . Nematodes

into

more than 80 ml )

a

4 ) Tease the residue ( no centrifuge tubes using wash bottle more than sessed the residue can

all

APPENDIX

in

it .

.

,

mesh sieve Gently stir the sample while rinsing that nematodes and larvae will flush from

so

.

,

-

2 )

or

casing sample the kitchen Place the compost strainer and the 400 mesh sieve atop the plastic bucket Gently rinse the sample with water taking care that the rinse water passes through the 400

off

PIC

the side

.

the tube

.

of

sticking

to

6 )

Carefully pour water from each tube Rotating while pouring prevents floating particulate from

so

1

,

liquid

112

off

(

it

.

(

of

aa

to

a

-

on

)

or

sugar Pour the upper inch inch and half thoroughly clean reverse water onto one spot rinsed and washed 400 mesh sieve Top rinse the residue thoroughly with tap water and transfer it

into one location

.

,

to

-

to

a

3 )

Use slow stream water from the hose the wash bottle reverse flush the residue on the 400 push the residue mesh sieve and use the stream

9 )

of

.

tain the same amount minute

they all con then centrifuge for

their retainers of

Balance the tubes

in

8 )

.

it

so

.

to

g

to )

of

1

to

in

(

7 )

granulated Add the sugar solution 375 400 sugar dissolved liter water the tubes Use gently stir the residue the spatula that mixes throughout the sugar solution

common screen wire kitchen type -

Strainer

,

EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS REQUIRED

-

or oz ,

(

mesh

,

3 -

to

ft

to 6-

length

with faucet attachment

plastic

or

8 -

inch )

)

-

)

)

-t

g

-

50

400

granular

)

/

(

Sugar water solution 375 sugar liter

g

or

ml ,

binocular ype weighing samples to

balance

for

or

Scale

for nematodes

microscope

,

400 mesh

Dissecting

for centrifuge

(

,

plastic 40-

(

Tubes

simple table top model 80 -

Centrifuge machine

,

,

5 -

(

,

or

(

, 1 -

,

liter need one two plastic squeeze type one two mm grid etched on bottom Petri dishes Bottles

Sieve

.

on

.

for

metal

-

.

to

a

2 )

Select black stage and 40x 60x magnification the microscope Set the petri dish the stage

Bottles

,

or

,

,

to

-

or

.)

,

its

1)

,

Take a clean etched petri dish . ( If the dish is not etched , scratch a 5 -mm grid on outside bottom sur sharp face using dissecting needle razor blade pen knife Transfer the residue material from the plastic cup 400 mesh sieve the petri dish

Spatula

hose

,

Garden

,

Counting

2

)

400

-

same diameter

,

5 -

,

gal plastic Bucket nematode sieve

as

to

-

,

,

Timer kitchen type Cups disposable plastic Crayon felt tip marker label cups 8 -

contains larvae , eggs , pupae , nematodes ) into labeled plastic cups or a counting ( petri ) dish by reverse z 2 washing with the plastic squeeze bottle . 2

).

of

;

(

3 )

,

of

Using top lighting count the larvae and pupae each species sciarid larvae have distinguishing black phorid larvae are opaque Move the heads heads .

.

in

,

4 )

After counting clean the petri dish thoroughly avoid contamination future counts

to

.

petri dish under the lens until the entire sample has been counted Record counts for future reference

113

THEPENNSYL

STATE LVANIA

-

UNIVERSITY

(

Room No.

8

-

-6 -5

9

Number and Name of Flies

+

Date

+

Day

Day

PENNSYLVANIA MUSHROOM FLY MONITOR RECORDS

1886

Date

Number and Name of Flies

4

+10

-

-

Block No.

The Pennsylvania State University

+11

-2

+12

-1

+13

Spawning

+14

+1

+15

+2

+16

+3

+17

+4

+18

+5

+19

+6

+20

+7

+21

-

-3

SCIARID FLY WING

Record daily counts from the monitor for days thru +21 from spawning Note whether the flies are Cecid Phorid Sciarid

114

,

C )

=

.

=

S )

(

or

,

P )

helpful

insect identification

.

10X hand lens will

in

:

Note

A

(

be =

(

.

6

–

-

:

Instructions For Use

fly

PHORID FLY WING

CECID FLY WING

The Pennsylvania

STATE TE

—

Room No ..

MUSHROOM FARM Week Pesticide Usage Record Week

of

Week

of

-

2

1855

RSITY

-

THE

UNE

Block No.

State University

Sunday

Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

,

.

(

s )

.

of

(

s )

Record pesticide used formulation application and rate Also record any unusual situation (s )

:

Instructions For Use

( s ),

Saturday

115

Glossary of Technical Terms

in

is

by

;

–

a

of on

,

a

–

is

on

.

.

to

air

.

,

in

,

in

of

to

'

is '

be

a

to

is

is

be ex

;

be

.

an

to

.

,

is

to of

is

if

of

.

to

.

-

as

in a

i.e. ,

by

;

of

–

of

do

,

to

.

,

.

-

of

a

a

of

sul

calcium

for

of

)

. (

,

,

in is a is

-

naturally occurring mineral consisting

,

is

its

a

–

of

or

black organic constituent

of

mycelium the basic unit ;

singular strand

nutrients

.

a

dark brown containing valuable

the

fun

.

gal thallus

pest

to

infesta basic

.

and cultural methods

for

procedure is

systematic

the effect

of

–

)

(

,

,

tions Emphasis upon sanitation the IPM concept .

a a

INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT IPM evaluating and minimizing detecting

a

to

6-

,

, a

of or

as a

on a

for

in a

SUBSTANCE compost

of

soil

a

HUMIC

-

shelves

of

.

to

.

be a '

to

.

is a

flocculating agent fate Gypsum mushroom compost and conditioningʻ agent Gypsum such considered used compost becoming greasy reduce the tendency very undesirable condition

HYPHAE

is

:

.

of

–

in

to ,

.

GYPSUM

or

for

-

from out

or

,

is

,

to

beds

of

.

by

moved

.

,

which compost composting trays

Each peak harvest known break bloom the time when the first mushrooms

crop are harvested

network

, is

.

;

growing room

the standard

rhythmic pulse with peak mushrooms develop mature mushrooms available harvest

and first break

mycelium from the initial strand propagule and the germ tube develops turn develops and branches out into interconnected mycelial strands see THALLUS germ tube

fungal spore The spore into mycelium which .

to

in

is

used

cropping but be

is

of .

9 -

day cycle

flush

GERM TUBE

–

as of it

of

often

.

II

FIRST BREAK numbers

I

procedure

other

green plants Green plants are referred than that required autotrophic organisms since they can convert elemental material array into nutritious life sustaining substances a

-

of

for

at

is

ft ?

the

on

of

growing surface 8000 Pennsylvania mushroom farms

doors following Phase Phase composting

plants that lack chlorophyll the sub plants green Because the absence chlorophyll fungi convert elemental not have the capacity Fungi are thus called heter chemicals into complex life substances otrophic plants they must obtain food more complex form group

of

of

a

In

.

--

-

the pasteurization process the end fore the compost removed from the room

describe

FILLING

that makes

important since gases must develop into mushrooms

casing

a

.

its

by

is

a

.

compost prep North used

a

secular word for the second phase aration deammonification and pasteurization America Great Britain and on the continent

DOUBLE

large

stance

an

of

a

-

a

to

COOK OUT

FUNGI

-

in a

small particles

suspension and often ,

solution and

a

of

extremely

pos organic and inorganic substances mixture sessing nutrient quality unique from constituents Mushroom compost managing the degradation plant materials made plus nitrogenous substances and conditioning agent gypsum produce food selectively favorable the growth the com mercial mushroom

COMPOST

The friability spawn

change

exchanged

in as

of a

state intermediate between gelatinous consistency

a

composed

.

a

substance

gener easily crumbled Clay loam soil when very wet FRIABLE plowed otherwise the soil parti ally not friable and should not impervious clay that inhibits gas cles stick together form

.

to

an

)

to a

by

(

a

to

of

microorgranism degrade the ability break down cellulose less complex compound usually achieved organism's capacity produce the necessary enzyme COLLOID

many times higher than that occurring nature while pins will high concentration not form such CO2 Thus the room grown which the crop flushed with fresh reduce the CO2 concentration and induce pin formation

a

.

-

CELLULOLYTIC

exclusively vegetative green celium which like leaves plant rhizomorphs which are binding together mycelial strands and which pins form and the mushroom itself the fruit body Mycelial growth stimulated CO2 concentrations

-

to ,

18

to

,

–

in a

:

,

.

mushrooms develop The most commonly used materials ing are loamy top soil sphagnum peat mixed with limestone compost that has been placed field weather for months weathered spent compost

36 or

for

which cas

- are spawn growth when pins minute mushrooms form The mushroom consists three growth stages my

in

.

top dressing atop compost

on

used

-

as a

material

–

CASING

of

in

are

AGAR PLATE - a petri dish containing a substrate composed of nutri routinely ents plus a solidifying substance - agar . Such plates microorganisms used laboratories for the cultivation

time duced

;

ADSORPTION - a physical phenomenon in which a liquid is bound to a substance by electrical bonding . In soil , water can be adsorbed by each particle of soil .

reserved

for that

organic substance which complements the cellulosic Lignin breaks down during composting very

nutritious lignin humus -

form

a

of

.

to

an

.

mushroom growing this term

is

– in

.

a

a

of

1 FLUSHING

LIGNIN

components plant cells combine with humus complex to

the process whereby small particles are enjoined into larger masses chemical precipitant and cloud are exam ples flocculated particles FLOCCULATING

119

is

.

.

to a .

is

of

10

or

a

,

is

a

is

of

is

of

.

, to

of in

is

to

,

an of

a

to

of

of

on

a

the

at

.

at

in a

in

theis

if

)

. (

to

.

–

.

By

to a

is

17

to

10

.

is

to

for

.

is

,

,

,

of

,

on

in

.

.

.

,

of ,

be on

,

it

fungus Mushrooms are quite vis the gills spores produced via sex a

.

a

the fruit body ible sporophores and contain SPOROPHORE

soil conditioner

.

as a

material

in of

casing

or

used

, It is

.

,

of

compost which after harvesting SPENT COMPOST the crop has usually spread been removed from the growing house fields and left weather for some months after which can to

in ,

,

during

ual process

to

grow

at

organism

° an F .

of

–

ability

high tempera

(

see

tis

heat

.

production

of

generation

of

the

or

°

110 and 150

)

;

. (

or

cells

sue apart from the host organism the process artificial substrate see AGAR PLATE

small masses

is

of

cloning cultivation ;

–

TISSUE CULTURE an

,

. (

.

,

of ,

a )

,

or

THERMOGENESIS PEAK HEAT

on

an ,

care

is

If

not exercised the casing surface will seal and interfere with gas exchange

120

THERMOPHILIC tures between

–

of a

improve the tex applying water

-

some growers

in to

by

practice used extreme

MYCELLIUM

simple plant body not differentiated into roots fungi and algae see GERM TUBE Characteristic

leaves

.

to

a

casing

.

ture

of

SCRATCHING

if

be

a

is

of

is

in

way that the area filled with narrow streams tooled such experienced water much wider than would the face was the water outlet flat and perpendicular face

stems

)

is

A

so

.

,

-

a

.

a

to

the end the water into many small streams rather than one large gush roseface also water break but handcrafted and drilled the water must pass through extremely narrow holes Further the head rose scribe the device

THALLUS

,

de

use

-

of

on

term greenhouse operators fragment hose used

to

-

' is a

water break

'

ROSEFACE

–

.

,

in

.

on

is

is

the time beginning shortly after spawning which the mycelium the fungus colonizes the compost SPAWN RUN

.

,

cord

of

strand

an

a

visible

or

compacted mycelium which intermediate stage between mycelium and mushrooms and the structure which pins form Mycelium rhizomorphs shape and size and differ and mushrooms are distinctive their physiological characteristics RHIZOMORPH

of

Il .

of

)

. (

to

as

lead

collectively

.

,

,

–

immature mushrooms initially the diameter pencil arising from rhizomorphs Pins are sometimes pinheads see FLUSHING referred PINS

in a

)

-

(

see PEAK HEAT

-

;

in

making compost the second stage Phase encouraged and pasteurization must occur

deammonification

applying and mixing spawn with compost after Phase composting Mycelium completed and the grain spawn grows into and through the compost SPAWNING

is

° F .

as

as

,

sup

.

is '

aerated and

of

II

PROCESS

becomes

composting process

is

II,

PHASE

to

are

,

at

this time the compost turned plements added enhance

Sealed

grain sorghum rye wheat millet cooked with Mycelium water and chalk and sterilized added container grow days this concoction and allowed this time the fungal mycelium has totally impregnated the grain and this new product called spawn SPAWN

-

the ' so it

to

of

by

,

during which the materials are moistened alkaline conditions are stimulating the production ammonia and tem high peratures within the compost pile increase 180 Also

encouraged

few days before flushing

–

the composting process

surface

surface pore space the small spaces between soil particles casing rarely gives rise mushrooms see SCRATCHING

for

of

the component

COMPOSTING

ing

to

is

2

5,

,

.

,

.

to

18

I

PHASE

casing

applied casing will seal too much water one time particles such excessive watering permits the cas realign themselves pattern that drastically reduces the

reality

–

°F .

SEALING

II

is

–

-

a

after compost

spawn

see FLUSHING

or

110

composting there filled Phase time when the maximum amount microbial growth occurs and growth activity releases heat Thus compost will achieve peak heat after filling and this occurs between days and and lasts for 36 hr PEAK HEAT

growth

).

meso

(

be a

to

to

range of for

temperature

45 °

of a

,

at

a

it

in

.

to

thrives

if

phile

organ

especially

In

the ability

grow and thrive average and not high ranges ism fungus temperature Some mycologists consider

of

term referring

an

ecological

of

an

MESOPHILIC

to

.

.

all

tion of heat . When something is pasteurized there is always a microflora of neutral or beneficial organisms remaining , in contrast to sterilization , which destroys life forms

capacity within depth 0.5 0.75 inches effort restore texture the cas ing There scratching called finger scratching another form Finger scratching the gentle ruffling the casing surface em ployed there evidence sealed casing when the spawn very close days follow the surface and this done a week ing deep scratching Finger scratching and repositioning casing top over spawn growing the casing encourages uniform

if

– nem applica

commcr

I

some farms

to

PASTEURIZATION – selective elimination of unwanted pests atodes , insects , fungi , bacteria , and viruses – usually by

-

devastating condition

raise the moisture content the casing casing then scratch the casing few days to

at

practice

of It

undesirable and potentially its

the body (thallus ) of a fungus comprised of numerous hyphal strands , making the fungus a biological

.

MYCELIUM interconnected unit .

usually performed

“ New

Innovations For Efficient Mushroom Growing

"”

Lee C. Schisler

90 fill

(

.

a

to

US

at

ft-

)/

rebe

a

of a

7 -

.

A

a

2

to

1

in

air

for

.

a

for

(

° F .

II .

is

to

is

it .

to

is

II

II .

in

is

,

Mushroom

Science

).

,

described

1976

at

of

to 7

.

5

-

in

is

of

8 ft '

of

).

at

growing

°,

75

to to

times the closer ;

all

and

at

73

°

Maintain compost temperatures

79 . ° F

Spawn

the

Never allow compost temperatures exceed adequate Co level between 6000 Maintain during the spawn growing period and 12,000 ppm fully grown and ready for cas The compost should an

ing

days

.

.

14

to

12

in

be

)

-

(

2,

82

.

better ° F .

;

of

,

.

4 )

Casing Use the proper depth casing layer this depending upon casing varies the material being a

.

to

of

.

1

to

,

a

,

.

a

peat might require casing layer used For instance depth heavy clay soil might 1.75 inches whereas require only 0.75 inch inch depth Insure proper treatment the casing material eliminate pests

of

.

a

,

-

all

be

I

.

5 )

Watering single watering cannot describe method which will best for mushroom growing operations environmental conditions cultural prac -

by

I

75 % )

to

70

.

(

;

to

or

turns wet dry spots and bring the desired moisture content adequate watering just before filling Phase to

for

;

as

as

at

:

as

I

,

in

at

any time thus eliminating anaerobic areas the pile Insure proper moisture regulation during Phase possible without follows Add much water run off first two turns add only enough during the next turn

filled

required

duration

.

2 ) 3 )

"

° F ).

to

°

175

and

of

.

"

of

a

to as to

(

in

the compost piles 160 no leaching from the piles

be

obtained There should

so

I.

. of

be

level posting

7

6

to °

)

F

°

)

2

? '

at to

:

Use proper raw materials and supple nitrogen schedules achieve prior percent 1.5 the initiation com Proper composting temperatures should

Phase mentation

to

of

II .

b )

(

if

–

,

a

a

by

I

at

,

a

method

.

compost preparation

gallons

Spawning Use mixed spawning the proper rate adequate for area one unit spawn for each delayed release most operations Thoroughly mix supplement percent the rate the dry weight compost

.

Composting Follow the short composting

up

(

,

any

system

269-278

between

a )

of

a

=

.

of

to

'

,

,

a

methods

such

a

a

mush

IX :

of or

whether

in

does

the maximum

(

lb

=

/

/

Ib lb lb

/

let

is

'

How

110

compost

proper Phase The easiest and best way accom plish proper phase The Penn automate Facility State Mushroom Test Demonstration

excellent

and What new innovations should you adopt achieve desired rank These only you grower questions are the can answer reach few ways least To begin may suggest taking high rating primarily old new look

1 )

o

:

tions ratings

opinions

period

opinion However regard me ask the following two ques your farm rank the above

matter

,

of

less

dry compost

rate

proper temperature sequence Phase Follow during Phase Keep compost temperatures tween 140 and 115 Never allow recycling heating proper pasteuriza occur Provide tion 140 the and compost minimum days after filling day hours generally

poor

=

5

of

oil

add vegetable Imperial gallons 4000 depth inches

,

ing

average good

not you agree with my ratings even valid for evaluation

? '

I

room farm

yield

=

dry compost dry compost dry compost

is

this criterion

a

Whether

yield lb

more

yield yield

/

lb lb lb

0.5 0.7 0.9

or

or to to to

1.0

0.3 0.5 0.7

to 7 days , depending used . At tray or bed

should be completed in upon the raw ingredients

of

have been asked from time to time to rate commer mushroom growing , based on present - day knowledge , in terms of biological efficiency . In other words , how many pounds of mushrooms per pound dry weight of compost should a commercial farm ex pect to produce in a 35 - day pick with the knowledge and innovations available to us today ? My ratings in terms of lb yield per lb dry weight of compost are as follows : I

icial

117

-

fly

by

.

,

,

,

,

,

of

.

-

a

e )

in

of

on

in

.

I

a

on

-

on

in

:

of

/

or

.

and

materials

.

short term economic expediency -

3 )

be

better suited

mechanization

.

of

of

au

To accommodate handling

(

at

feasible and may

To accommodate the labor force

a

)

is

is

1976

)

,

269-278

the Penn State Mushroom Facility Mushroom Science

novations mushroom culture were based solely the following three reasons rather than the needs the mushroom 1 )

for

on

(

of

as to

.

IX :

described tomation Test Demonstration

immediately

Let me close with little philosophy have observed that severe difficulties are encountered mushroom growing when decisions the adoption new

2 )

of

to

.

,

to )

ppm depending again

strain en crop first break and the remainder ping Manual CO2 sampling and adjustment satisfactory but dampers control CO2 levels 1500-2000

largement

15 %

to

)

of

.

to

after 600-1200 ppm depending upon the strain spawn being used for proper pinning After pins are adjust CO2 level enlarge set and begin

,

.

by

to

.

(

,

to

Co

HTH powder

good Maintain control program follow ing current legal and recommended practices

.

of

in

of

.

,

-

Provide for relatively high 10,000 ppm levels 5000 until the mushroom mycelium reaches the surface the cas ing layer Reduce the CO2 level immediately there

6 )

with

Ventilation after casing

initial

a

d )

Employ good general sanitation and spot treat ment program Keep picking utensils clean always pick newest rooms first etc. Spot treat infection Mycogone Trichoderma etc. centers Verticilium

mediately its

after casing . Bring casing layer back up to water holding capacity just prior first break adequate waterings insure ade Between breaks quate buildup meet the the casing layer water the next flush water requirements

.

to

However , the following general procedures should be followed : insure adequate initial water buildup im

ac

a

c )

good zineb dusting program Maintain approved label instructions cording

As

tices , and other things vary from operation to opera tion , requiring modifications of the watering regime .

118

in

by

by

be

to

.

"

"

to

.

.

according

of

-

Maintain good benomyl program approved label instructions a

to b )

.

a )

never allow open

Efficient mushroom production can achieved taking new look old methods Steady progress has been and will continue be made mushroom production due the intelligent and practical appli cation sound research findings dedicated mush room growers at

Pick mushrooms closed mushrooms around the plant

Summary

a

fol

:

a

.

7 )

Cropping Practice good disease prevention lowing few simple rules

by

.

for some operations

.

,

et

,

,

26 .

.

p

In :

.

.

)

(

11 .

.

.

on

J.,

of

,

.

,

ed .

.

.pp

,

. )

la

a

mushroom

cul

des Revue

.

,

37 :

of

52

du

.

. (

of de

.pp of

to

,

of

.

,

an

of

.pp.

on

:

,

.

.pp

.

of

-

D.

A.

at

nutrient

.

,A

A.D. and L.C. SCHISLER 1976. Delayed release supplement for mushroom culture Applied and En .

:

CARROLL

,

Hyphomycetes from Soil 262 pp

.

Genera

.

The

of

1968.

MD William Wilkins Co.

destine compost

1973. Improving post composting mush spawning Master supplements Science for use room Thesis The Pennsylvania State University

CARROLL ,

.

,

G.L.

,

Baltimore

compost

Mycoflora

tined for the culture the commerical Mycologie 1-2 14-35 ,

of

Co.

pp 99-106 BARRON

1972. Mycoflora CALLEUX champignon ture couche

de

&

Freeman

Soils 8th

1970. The design development and con adiabatic calorimetric system measure the compost Science Thesis The Master

D.E.

Pennsylvania State University

de

,

.

London

Biological control

H.

CA

struction thermogenesis

R.

'

,

Growing

.pp

1974.

W. In :

.

R.J. Cook

San Francisco

:

to

.

.

Mushroom 122

,

,

Peter

.

,

,

.

,

and

Yaxley

,

.

Mushroom Growers

BUFFINGTON

,

,

.

.

,

.

&

White Plaster Mold

:

,

K.F.

,

N.C. 1974. The Nature and Properties New York NY Macmillan Publ Co. 639

BRADY

of

Annals

Sons

ATKINS F.C. 1974. Guide England Farber and Farber BAKER

A

.

BOTTRELL D.R. 1979 Integrated Pest Management Publication No 041-011-00049-1 Council Environmental Quality Washington DC Government Printing Office 120 ,

161-166

Association Midlands Group Publications borough England Stamford

plant pathogens

major sporocar mushroom Agaricus bisporus Agriculture paper The Pennsyl

96

Aphelenchoides

on

1946.

compendium

, .US

mushroom

the

mush

.pp

of

.

)

Lange Imbach Master vania State University

:

and

the cultivated

,

F.C.

,

:

ATKINS

Potter

Chap

The

1937.

the commercial

,

myceliophagous

,

J.E.C.

Chroncle

S.F. 1980.

,

BONIFACINO pic diseases

'

of

.

Gardeners

Oospora fimicola

mold

,

of

.

Some effects

1968.

ATKINS F.C. 1945. Verticillium Mushrooms Midlands Eng Group Publications Yaxley Peterborough Stamford land

P.H. Williams

1 and

86 of

in

181-182

.

33 :

of

.

12 ( 3 ):

(

of

.

Cali

.

Applied Biology

of

on

yield 61 :

of

and C.D. BLAKE

Ditylenchus

nematodes composticola

Plant Disease Reporter

.

N.P.

,

,

ARNOLD

de

.) (

on

). ]

,

fornia and their control

mushrooms

cultivated

white plaster

room beds

(

du

,

(

Diseases

1949.

,

,

in

les

C.

control

myceliopthora champignon ALLARD 1961. Sur couche Psalliota hortensis Cooke Facts concerning Myceli opthera found the mushroom commerce Psalliota hortensis Cooke Annals des Epiphytes 263-291

ARK P.A.

W.F. HARNETT

Soil ACS Monograph 126

.

3 :

BEWLEY

,

Mush

.pp

,

du . )

C.

,

. [

111-118

of

.

,

.

,

F.E. 1955. Chemistry Waverly Press Inc. 373 BEAR

cham

jaunes ALLARD 1956. Les moisissures pignon The yellow molds mushroom culture room Science

in

,

,

44 :

An

16 .

p

.

.

32

.

.

and

15 .

14 ,

News

11 ,

Mushroom

design

soil treatment

25 ( 7 ): 3, 6,

.

use

Aerated

1977.

9,

R.A.

,

ALDRICH

336

BEACH W.S. 1937b Control mushroom diseases and weed fungi Bulletin 351 Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment pp Station

.

Pennsylvania Agricultural Experi

.

.

800

W.S. 1937a Mushroom diseases Bulletin Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station BEACH

,

pp

36

air .

Bulletin

ment Station

dis

mushroom

certain

Pennsylvania Agricultural Experi

.

with

ex

of

1975. Heating soils , soil mixes , and soil substitutes

ment Station

investigation

204

the

G.H.

eases

of

, and

saturated

The relation

1971.

.

M.E. SCHROEDER , R.A. KEPPLER

,

,

R.A.

,

W.S. 1926 Bulletin

BEACH

,

ALDRICH , R.A. , P.J. Wuest , and J.A. McCurdy . 1974 . Treating soils , soil mixes or soil substitutes with aerated steam . Special Circular 187 , Pennsylvania Cooperative Extension Service . 14 pp . ALDRICH DIENER .

and C.L. FERGUS

mycelium tracellular amylase and time some therm ophilic and mesophilic Humicola species Mycopathologia Mycologia Applicata 131-141 .

53 :784-788 .

E.A.

BARNETT

In :

ated steam treatment mixes . Plant Disease Reporter

,

Equipment for aer of soil and soil

1969.

of small quantities

.

P.E. Nelson .

, and

,

ALDRICH , R.A.

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(

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,

.:

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,

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451-457

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253-254

.

Journal

74 :

.

growing media

and W. W. CANTELO 1981. Techniques stages Lycoriella mali from mushroom

of

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SCHISLER

for mushroom Pennsylvania State

52-59

Science

to

W. and

composting Mushroom

482

28

.

E.

,

SINDEN

J.

:

850

compost

.

Synthetic

1946.

at

SINDEN

growing Further studies Bulletin University Agricultural Experiment

,

Station

.pp

periment

.

.

in

15

oils

R. SNETSINGER , and V.

1981.

28

.

yield the cultivated Applied Microbiology 844

Stimulation

1967.

vegetable

.

mushroom

of

C. by

,

L.

SCHISLER

Schisler ,

Yield and casing experiments in the Penn State Mushroom Test Demonstration Facility - 10 year E.

.

at

.

,

,

ogy

57 of : a

,

,

,

L.C. J.W. SINDEN and E.M. Sigel 1967. Etiol symptomatology and epidemiology virus disease cultivated mushrooms Phytopathology 519-526

SCHISLER of

1063-1069

SCHROEDER , M. E. , L. C.

,

Botany

Nutrient supple Vegetable oils

casing .

Canadian Journal

1966.

.

J.

and W. SINDEN mushroom compost 44 :

mentation

of

,

SCHISLER

C.

5 : 150-164 .

of L.

Science

spawning . Mushroom

at

CROWLEY , and W. L. Barr . 1974. Automatic control of mushroom ventilation after casing and through production by sampling carbon dioxide . Mushroom Science 9 :269-278 .

W.

mentation of mushroom compost

SCHROEDER , M. E. ,1 L. C. SCHISLER , R. SNETSINGER , V. E.

Ex .

phore initiation in the cultivated mushroom . Doctor of Phi losophy Thesis . The Pennsylvania State University .

Station . 8 pp .

of

of sporo

SCHISLER , and R.

for

investigation

sity Agricultural Experiment

,

A physiological

SCHISLER , L.C. 1957.

diox mush

L.

!

ide stimulation of hyphal growth of the cultivated Science 8 :623-629 . room , Agaricus bisporus. Mushroom

721

in

pp .

327

sity . 132 pp .

J.

z

port 352 , Pennsylvania State University Agricultural Exper

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125

62 :

STOLLER

of H. J.

as

to

of

.

J.

,

.

.

.

.

,

)

for

(

.

in

in

. (

.

. )

M.

:

,

in

to

in

E.

in

.

.

,

J.

,

and

during

and laccase activities

of

mushroom Agaricus bisporus

the Jour

.

91 :

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, in

of

D.

.:

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,

T.

of

OSBORNE

and other volatiles

.

M.

.

of

,

In

M. ,

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M.

E. E.

WARD

ethylene

.

.

in

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.

-

B.

.

.

.

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.pp

.

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My

.

nov Annals

of

of

mushrooms

cultivated

.sp

A

.

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.

,

Botany

.

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Gar

United

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biomass composted wheat

of

method

solid substrate

Biotechnology Letters

the

.

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Observation

in

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255-260

.

A

SNETSINGER

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,

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1979.

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in a

,

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D.

Wood

Agaricus

mushroom beds

Pyemotid mites

Entomological News

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.

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-

.,

,

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of

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.

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.

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of

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63-72

.

1981.

Mushroom Science

11 ( 2 ):

FERMOR

.

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R.

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WICHT M.C.

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1974. Environmental factors and mush room growing Mushroom News 2-24 22 ( 8 ):

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H.J. 1958. Die bedentung des kohlendioxyds den kulturchampignon The significance carbon Philosophy Thesis oxide for mushroom culture Doctor University Berlin ,

W.M.

WARE

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in D.

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with mushroom culture

TSCHIERPE

fur

,

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1979.

420

cologia

.

studies

,

and C.L. FERGUS

zymes some fungi associated Mycologia 908-17

B.V.

K.S. and L.C. SCHISLER growth mycelium

WARDLE

Growing

Modern Mushroom

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on

of

N.

R.

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1977. Extracellular

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of

:

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,

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.

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R.N.

A. ,

83 :

1978.

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P.

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C.

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):

the cultivated

Danish Botanical Archives

11 ( 6

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1944.

Dansk Botanical Arkives

4 :

,

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,

Ar

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VAN DER VUET M. 1959. Some observations about diseases mushroom farms Holland Mushroom Science 484-487

by

cultivated

Danish Botanical

(

11 ( 1 ): .

of

The Verticillium diseases

1941.

Dansk Botanical Arkives

1-31

TSCHIERPE

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the cultivated nal General Microbiology

,

(

:

,

.

.

.

C.

,

mushrooms

TRIGIANO

of

to

)

:

,

life cycle

WRIGHT

Production

Agaricus bisporus

Composting

,

:

H.

G.

1950. Eelworms nema MITCHELL and Square PA Mushroom mushrooms Kennett

of

pests

TRESCHOW

)

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,

.

. 2

,

.

C.A.

,

as

)

,

.

(

their biology and con

insects

Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment

Growers Cooperative Association

126

TURNER

.

(

for

.

fur

).

.

to

Pennsylvania Coopera

.

,

,

1942. Mushroom

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Grow

Pennsylvania

1979.

pp

Service

C.A.

,

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Mushroom Pest Control

tive Extension

TRIGIANO

Enzyme activity

1977.

W.A. Hayes England University Aston compost

:

:

.

R.C.

TETRAULT

er's Guide

THOMAS

TURNER

,

,

.

[

als

Aceton acceptor

II .

)

.

a

CO2

1.

.

in I.

.

57 :

. ]

Archives Micro ein CO2 acceptor Ace Mikrobiologie Archives

58 339-356

THOMAS

TURNER 1974. Phenoloxidase activity relation Agari substrate and development stage the mushroom cus bisporus Transactions British Mycologoical Society 63 541

R.

.

Carboxylierungsreaktion

1967.

Der endogene CO2 acceptor Car Agaricus bisporus The endogenous

obxylation reaction CO2 acceptor Archives fur Mikrobiologie as

Bulletin

Association

.

BACHOFEN

392-405

553-592

.

.

,

R.

D. ,

:

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and

Agaricus bisporus

chives

Mushroom Science

.

.

Plicaria fulva growing '

,

,

in

227 553-561

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547

.

40 :

192-199

B.B. 1968. The brown mold mushroom beds Mushroom Growers

tone

1972. Ueber umweltfaktoren der cham Concerning environmental factors mush

.

of

.

,

,

,

Reporter

STOLLER

biology

.(

of

of

and for

R.E. West and J.F. BAILEY 1956. Control ling the mildew disease the cultivated mushroom Plant B.B.

STOLLER

TAST

H.J.

,

making composts Method U.S. Patent 2,723,493

1955.

.

,

B.

STOLLER

growing mushrooms

Disease

pignonkultur

TSCHIERPE B.

,

36

.

35

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.

'

,

of

B.B. 1952. Studies the function the casing mushroom beds Mushroom Growers Association Bulletin

STOLLER

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for 34 , for

on

18 :

composts

397-414

:

synthetic

Plant Physiology

.

of

Preparation

1943.

mushroom culture

.

,

B.

,

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46-48

H.J. and J.W. SINDEN 1964. Weitere unter uber die bedeutung von kohlendioxyd fur die fruktifikation des kulturchampignons Agaricus campestris

TSCHIERPE suchungen

,

.

room Journal

B.

,

Trichoderma and mushrooms Mush

1978.

5 :

R.G.

II

STEANE

8 :

1972. Microorganisms inhabiting mushroom during fermentation Mushroom Science 797-811

,

STANEK compost

and W. SINDEN 1962. Studies on the composition horse manure compost from beginning through mushroom cropping Phase related CO2 evaluation Mushroom Science 61-80 TSCHIERPE

.

of

.pp the

12 for

,

:

use

M.

.

,

SPAWN MATE , INC . 1979. Recommendations Spawn Mate San Jose CA Spawn Mate Inc.

Agaricus

1949. Red Geotrichum , a new invader of mush room beds . Darlington's Mushroom News 2 ( 1) :12-13 ; 2 (2) :20 * 21 .

Wood , F.C.

WOOD , F.C. 1957. Diseases 3

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mushrooms . Na

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WUEST , P. J.

1970.

The use of steam for phase II . Mushroom

WUEST , P.J. , K.F. BAKER , and W.S. CONWAY . 1970. Sensitiv

mushroom pathogens

to aerated steam . Phy

topathology 60 : 1274-1275 .

i

WUEST , P.J. , and R.K. MOORE . 1972. Additional data on the

R.C. TETRAULT . 1974. Growers ' guide to Pennsylvania Cooperative Extension

P.J. , H. Cole , JR . , and P.L. SANDERS

. 1974.

Toler

malthousei to benomyl . Phytopathology

64 : 331-334 .

WUEST , P.J. 1976. Facts and fables concerning spent post for casing , Mushroom News 24 ( 10 ) :8 , 16 , 18 .

com

WUEST , P.J. 1977. Managing air during phase II composting nemesis . Mushroom News 25 ( 1) :7 , 8 , 16 ,

20 .

thermal sensitivity of selected fungi associated with Agari

WUEST , P.J. , and C.L. HARVEY . 1980. The nature of disease

cus bisporus . Phytopathology 62 : 1470-1472 .

resistance

P.J. and L.C. SCHISLER . 1968. Effect of aerated and selected fumigant treatments of casing soil on mushroom production and microbial populations of the soil . Phytopathology 58 : 1073 . ( Abstr )

brunnescens

Wuest

,

.

system

YOUNG , W. L. 1971. Biochemical aspects of aerobic composting . Hercules Industrial Systems Department Report . Cumber land , MD : Allegany Ballistics Lab . 60 pp .

growing

mushroom

.

,

Progress Report 302 Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station ,

,

.

22 ( 11 ):

.

,

Wuest P.J. 1974. Knowing more about peat moss soil 6-14 spent compost for casing Mushroom News

Yoder , J. B. and J. W. SINDEN . 1953. Synthetic compost in America . Mushroom Science 2 : 133-139 .

or

ventilation

for

forced -

air

unitized

in strains of the cultivated mushroom , Agaricus Peck . Mushroom Science 10 ( 1) : 741-746 .

YODER , J. B. , J.W. SINDEN , and E. HAUSER . 1950. Experience with zinc ethylene bisdithiocarbamate as a fungicide in mushroom cultivation . Mushroom Science 1 :100-108 .

WUEST , P.J. , L.C. SCHISLER , and M.E. SCHROEDER . 1970. A

:

,

and the nematode

& steam

·

Wuest

, and

pest control .

ance of Verticillium

News 18 ( 9) :6-15 .

tity of selected

Wuest , P.J. mushroom Service .

127

1

1

Comments and Suggestions

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, PA 16802 .

129

or , be , to or as by

in

,

.

.

-

;

,

,

or or

,

as

,

.

by or

as sex , to

,

as ,

or

indirectly expressing any limitation specification discrimination race religion color national origin handicap age Vietnam era veteran status disabled provided except law Inquiries concerning this policy may directed the Affirmative Action Officer to

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The Pennsylvania State University , in compliance with federal and state laws and regulations governing affirmative action and non discrimination , does not discriminate in the recruitment , admis sion , and employment of students , faculty , and staff in the opera tion of any of educational programs and activities defined law Accordingly nothing this publication should viewed

Color Plates

The spores

a are

to

cap

.

the

the

on

of caps

.

or

"

on

,

as a "

surface

infected

the

.

,

2.

FIGURE Verticillium fungicola sporulating grev and often appear haze bloom

of

noninfected mushroom

the

spot occurs when flies or water droplets carrying spores of fungicola cap move from infected mushroom an

1. Verticillium pathogen Verticillium

FIGURE

1

be

b

a>

is

( a )

.

by

Infected mushroom discol stipe Some developing but

and shattered

.

.

the

curved

has

the

.

db )

fungicola

Verticillium

has

a

,

to

.

)

(

split shattered stipe extends cap where slight indention line with the splitting stipe Verticillium fungicela infection caused this

in A

4.

(

as

red

FIGURE

developed splitting

( b )

Stipe splitting ( blowout ) or stipe curvature induced with grey spores forming toward base Infected mushroom dry bubbles uns appear IGURE 3.

a

be

can

db

dry

.

on

the

FIGURE 5. Infection at the cap edge often results in formation of a sunken lesion , pathogen Verticillium which in time becomes brown (necrotic ) . Grey spores of fungicola form the necrotic tissue

a

of

.

,

6.

137.37 When Verticillium fungicela intes pins they develop into bubbles maturing muistroms have ruiter than mushrooms Caps brownish cast caused

wb

wb

That

appearance

of

Wet bubble

.

a

is

called

.

;

-

develop normally this ball like tissue infection was restricted

develop after

the

( a )

brown spores

,

-

grapefruit Usually thick walled

.

large

as

as

be

can (b ).

,

-

Wet bubbles thin walled spores

FIGURE grey

8.

b

(

to

wb )

7. Mushrooms infected by Mycogone perniciosa indicates wet bubbles normal mushrooms are next FIGURE

to

fail

wb

Dactylium dendroides

.

,

the pathogen

by

.

M.

,

the cottony growth habit

of

characterized

by

.

Mildew disease

is

FIGURE

fungicola

10.

Verticillium

-

,

the

FIGURE 9. Amber droplets may appear randomly on tissue infected by Mycogone perniciosa , thus name Wet bubble Tissue morphology and spore color especially thick walled brown spores distinguish perniciosa infection from that caused

enzymes

ex

by

are

digested

can

that inhibit mushroom develop fungus pathogen

toxin

.

excretes spores

the

.

and

Infected mushrooms

of a

casing

is

the

as

the

,

rot .

an

-

,

,

casing

in

,

Trichoderma viride grows through significant crop losses The green tinge

Green mold

ment resulting

grows radially from infected mushroom becoming soft and wet looking they

mildew

.

11.

Dactylium

the pathogen

in

FIGURE

by

creted

12.

FIGURE

on

the

13.

'.

of

of

. .

a

-

or

.

first break mushrooms

mushroom

caps are

in

.

-

of

Symptoms Trichoderma koningii may appear without mildew appearing Superficial purple brown spots Jicative the pathogen's presenet FIGURE

on on

14.

,

on

,

,

,

,

usually appears after FIGURE Trichoderma mildew Trichoderma koningii second break The pathogen first grows stumps and dead mushrooms then onto healthy mushrooms killing them with secreted toxin Tissue infected mushrooms turns brown and the discoloration occurs randomly either the cap the stipe

not

on

to

d

slowed

,

crop will

be

evde

the

breaking

of

The

;

is

probabiy below pł16 Trichoderma viride colonizing casing casing but this pathogen causes minor damage compart other green molds FIGURE

5.

16.

.

.

luxuriating during spawn run compost properly caused mainly inferior compost rather than green by

.sp

Trichoderma

be

15.

FIGURE

composted Crop loss will mold

.

area

barren cas

of

by

mycelium

characteristic

of

of

surrounded

area contains wefted clumps

an

of

.

-

bed ,

of

of

the

is a

it

the

are

,

this in

.

,

of

on

pathogen

.

Trufie

center

Truffle disease The pathogen Diehliomyces fine strand mycelium mushroom spawn

the

the

in

;

its

,

is

17.

compost sign dense mycelium forming knots apart from whiter than mushroom spawn dense texture sets

A

.ing

Fluffy

number Truffle fruit bodies ascocarps seen casing Compost below Truffle's ascocarp rarely forms

FIGURE the

18.

FIGURE microsporus

the

19.

descans

content

.

but the Confetti disease

pathogen

,

Vlat

',

in

,

as

is

production

,

a

its

full

for

be

the cessation

of

results

forms dense yellow masses scattered throughout

the

merdarian

in

a

.

Confetti disease

Chrysosporium

,

20.

Figure

so

is

pathogen Chrysosporium luteum forms dense almost corky mass between FIGURE Mat disease named because compost and casing Rarely can crop present harvested duration when Mat disease

.”

as "

cap

,

the

large portion

of

a

.

discoloration Bacterial blotch affects spot referred

blotch

to

and Bacterial

is

cap

or

dark brown

restricted

,

blotch causes golden times infection

is

it .

At

Bacterial

of

all 21.

not

but

FIGURE

).

P.

Bacterial

of

the cap appear blotch .

;

caused

by

of

mushroom caps indentations

the stem can also

be

.

.

the edges

of to

Bacterial blotch may restricted the small button stage Discoloration

22b at

FIGURE

occurs

be

syn :

FIGURE 22a. These blotched mushrooms exhibit an additional symptom — splitting of the cap . Mushrooms next to infected mushrooms are free of blotch . The pathogen is Pseudomonas flourescens biotype G ( tolaassi

when infection

CS og

stem

( og ). of

the

base

of

the

.

background The classic symptoms

overgrowth

at

mycelial

the

in

be

and

seen

a

a

basal overgrowth

can

of

,

( as tc )

die

in

( cs )

dwarfed and have

a

Mushrooms that

are

a

24.

FIGURE disease

to

Mummy disease causes mushrooms prematurely slightly resulting disease include curved stem tilted cap

FIGURE the

23.

tc

mycelium exhibit symptoms associated with Mummy

.

.

of

is a

A

a delayed first break Mummy disease characteristic the lower bed are delayed and may never reach harvestable size

FIGURE

on

25.

---

Mushrooms

for

;

,

.

soft

rot

with subsequent

-

mustasnonis

,

death

of

.

.

is a

cause premature

spindly with elongated stems some caps are disproportionately small the barren area the foreground Few mushrooms will develop after these first in

,

France

characteristic

can

.

FIGURE 26b

La

break mushrooms

Also there picked

are

.

the stem

are

26a . LaFrance -diseased mushrooms

diameter

of

FIGURE

LaFrance

with prematurely

opened

veils

( ov ).

mushrooms affected

by

strain

)

cultivar

(

Cream

-

26d

.

FIGURE

and

the

stems

,

the

for

,

-

dwarfed their caps disproportionately sized

.

are

26c .

These LaFrance diseased mushrooms prematurely stretched FIGURE

veils

dp

)

are

area are characteristic

symmetry

symptoms

of

of

dp

barren

and lack

),

pin

(

the

LaFrance

of

a

edge

of

-

(

-

an

,

These prematurely open ashen colored mushrooms occurs off white cultivar sirain in

at

duck

dis

.

a

of

(m ),

)

-

proportions Marshmallow like bases cultivar strain mushrooms (

.

as it

FIGURE ease

cream

26f .

in

FIGURE ease

-

26e

m

LaFrance dis

27.

of

is

.

of

a

.

of

saprophytic nematodes The presence associated with spawn disap pearing from the casing downward through the compost This divot compost was compost infested with saprophytic nematodes taken from bed FIGURE

paion

und

he

texiure

of

is a

on

.

texture

of

the

,

compost Initially .

or

on

casing color grows becomes granului ,

buff

in

to

hin

.

I

Lipstick mod

.

20.

!!!!!! Un

,

Pack

reú

.

the

FIGURE 28. Once a nematode population is quite large , a white mold , Arthrobotrys pathogen superba , may appear on casing This fungus feeds and nematodes

Lipstick may resemble

too

for

30.

.

stage

is

A

,

is a

,

.

It

leathery

of

,

size

-

, is is a

,

.

raisin

the name

as

.

the

)

of

stage Cinnamon Brown mold fungus Chromelosporium fulva days after the Cinnamon Brown mold disappears Pezziza ostrachoderma

sexual 14

31. The perfect that appears 7

FIGURE cocarp

to (

of

.

a

too

or

at

pasteurized Cinnamon Brown mold Chromelosporium fulva weed mold that develops when casing high temperature appears soon after casing and disappears before picking begins strong spawn growth this mold into casing limits the growth FIGURE

long

the perfect

32.

.

.

its

,

,

).

(

.

-

be

is

to

or

in

Sepedonium Yellow mold occurs rather randomly compost and color develops during after third break harvest When young pin point This mold quite restricted white and growth tends sporulates profusely Digging into compost infested with yellow mold releases huge spore clouds FIGURE

characteristic Sepedonium

,

.

compost containing ammonia Upon aggregation mold appears grey and sparse

this delicate mycelium

.

,

of

.

34.

thein

the

33.

Mycelium FIGURE Ink Cap fungi grows appears fluffy and dense Without aggregation

.

or

an

,

to

,

on

.

on

.

is

the

inky liquefy into Ink Cap mushrooms develop pins that grow quickly into mushrooms Then they begin casing before first break colored liquid from which common name taken Ink caps appear uncased compost later FIGURE

veriliud

distinguished from other indi

brown spores rubbed between

,

(

S );

( )B ;

.

) is

,

, is

Papuinspuna bussina

on

time harvest increases and Scopulariopsis fimicola and to

is

.

(

.

fingers feel waxy

identity

be

.

color

Its

,

Brown Plaster Mold by

36.

cator molds

(

T ).

O )

:

of

.

is

(

FICURE

,

on

35.

inadequately prepared compost Spawn growth FIGURE Plaster Molds develop slowed mushroom yield lowered The collection Plaster Molds includes Botryotrichum piluliferum present Trichotechium roseum The indicator mold Oedocephalum Brown Mold

the

37.

.

in

.

-

as a

F

°

to

,

is

)

com

the bottom

of

in

rough dense

the bed boairt

at

most obvious close

;

, in is

,

delicate and grey when grotin

ti

38.

FIGURE Olive Green Mold post The fungus Chutorum the compost .

)

1

,

(

A

unique Flour Plaster Mold FIGURE Thielavia thermophila shown surface borne mold This thermophilic fungus generates heat while growing and the compost temperature increases 115 localized spots

.

vigorous

are

grey Olive Green Mold fruit bodies look like cockleburs and usually healthy and spawn beneath the area infested Olive Green Mold is

.

The

by

39.

FIGURE green

.

It

, a

is

granular and feels like gritts

und nhen the spores

are

Oedocephalum Brown molt appears

thumb and forefinger

.

is

.

.

is

41.

FIGURE

if on

40.

growing from spawn grains Black Whisker Mold usually grows incompletely composted straw When growth spore cloud forms abundant compost distributed FIGURE

iubbed between

the

to

.

,

be

to

peeled mushroom mycelium dense enough casing Stroma may yield few mushrooms but or

in

one piece from the compost this general there are exceptions

rule

.

growth

of

Stroma

is a

42.

FIGURE away

are

for

or not

43.

to ,

of ,

.

;

be

.

of

a

Spawn overgrowth should unique mistaken stroma both Overgrowth indicates vegetative growth rather than continuation reversion rhizomorphs and mushrooms the development FIGURE

as

(

the

rudi

of

firm

cap tissue partial has abnormally disrroportionately small cap size for ,

,

of

This Hardcap mushroom development gills and

a

45. )

FIGURE mentary sten

,

in

,

,

the

.

as

the

in

be

,

,

.

are

well whole mushrooms condition occurs early the

.

or

remaining stems 44. This clump of mushrooms has been partially picked . Some of leaking water These mushrooms called leakers can Generally single clusters crop FIGURE

the

46. Hollow Core is normally found in cream and off - white cultivars , when the seasons change or watering patterns are modified . Affected mushrooms look nor

FIGURE

when growing . Absence of tissue trimmed . mal

is

not

seen

until mushroom stems

are

1

|

1

1

No

у

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