Pedagogical and Research Perspectives on Language Education 9798886978414

Table of contents :
Contents
Preface
Chapter 1
Teachers’ Views on the Challenges Faced in the Non-Formal Context of Teaching Greek as a Second Language to Refugees/Migrants
Abstract
Introduction
Literature Review
Research on Challenges L2 Teachers Face
Research on Teachers’ Suggestions to Improve L2 Learning
Method
Research Aims and Questions
The Educational Context
The Educational Environment
The Research Participants
Adult Migrant Students
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Results
Challenges Mentioned by L2 Teachers
L2 Teachers’ Suggestions to Improve Migrant Language Education
Discussion
Conclusion
References
Biographical Sketches
Chapter 2
Translanguaging: From Second Language Acquisition Theories to Teaching Practices
Abstract
Introduction
Translanguaging: An Alternative Approach to EFL Pedagogy
Developing a Framework of Using Translanguaging in EFL Reading Classes
Developing Content Schemata Translanguaging Activities
Teachers’ Role
Applying Translanguaging through Teachers’ Transformative Learning
Adopting Reflective Teaching to Promote Translanguaging
Conclusion
References
Biographical Sketch
Chapter 3
EFL Reading Comprehension Competence of Primary School Learners in Germany: The Role of English Programmes and Language Background
Abstract
Introduction
Literature Review: Theoretical and Empirical Background
English Programmes in German Primary Schools
About (FL) Reading Comprehension
Previous Research
Research Design
Research Question
Setting and Participants
Research Instruments
Results
EFL Reading Comprehension Competence and English Programme
EFL Reading Comprehension Competence and Language Background
EFL Reading Comprehension Competence, Language Background and EFL Programme
Regression Analysis
Discussion
Conclusion
References
Biographical Sketches
Chapter 4
Writing in the Primary English Classroom: A Design-Based Research Study
Abstract
Introduction
Background
Methodology
Design-Based Research
Educational Design: The Writing Lessons
Data Collection Instruments
Findings and Observations
Learner Motivation
Language Competence
Materials
Teaching Techniques and Teacher Knowledge
Conclusion
References
Biographical Sketch
Chapter 5
Conflict Resolution: A Key Skill in Intercultural (Business) Negotiation
Abstract
Introduction
Why Do We Need to Build Conflict Resolution Skills?
Conflict: Definitions, Types and Characteristics
Definitions of Conflict
Characteristics of Conflict
Types of Conflict
Intercultural Conflict Styles
The Study
Rationale
Needs Analysis
Building Conflict Resolution Skills in Business Students
Results and Discussions
Conclusion
References
Biographical Sketch
Chapter 6
Reflection, Professional Development and Underlying Psychological Dimensions of Teaching
Abstract
Introduction
Teaching and Professional Development
Professional Growth and Practitioner Inquiry
Classroom Management
The Study
Participants
Materials and Procedure
Results
Post-Lesson Self-Evaluation Forms/Reflective Journals
Time Management
Classroom Atmosphere: Student Engagement
Teaching Experience: Affective Domain
Focus on the Students
Classroom Management
Lesson Planning and Delivery
Suggestions for Improvement
Conclusion
References
Biographical Sketch
Chapter 7
Regional Tendencies of Primary School Teacher Training in the Benelux Countries
Abstract
Introduction
The Notion of Tendency in the Scientific Discourse
Pre-Service Primary School Teacher Training in the Benelux Countries
Methods
Results
State Regulation of the Network of Pedagogical Higher Education Institutions
Ensuring Partnership between Higher Education Institutions and Employers
Introducing Mechanisms for Selecting Motivated Persons to Work as Primary School Teachers
Providing Primary School Teachers with State Social Guarantees
Discussion
Conclusion
References
Biographical Sketches
Chapter 8
Digital and Multimedia Technologies in Teaching Foreign Languages to Students of Pedagogical Specialties
Abstract
Introduction
The Use of Digital and Multimedia Technologies for Training Future Preschool and Primary School Teachers
The Project
Terminological Keys
Multimedia and Digital Technologies in the Foreign Language Learning Daily Practice
Method
Audio Books of StoryNory and LibriVox Websites
Video Series Vocabulary: Storytime of YouTube Channel, BBC Learning English
A Flashcards Tool: Quizlet
A Text-to-Speech Program: Natural Reader
A Voice Recording: Vocaroo
Findings
Participants
Discussion
Limitations
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
Appendix А
QUESTIONNAIRE
Determination of Self-Reflective Evaluations Regarding the Experimental Results
Appendix B
QUESTIONNAIRE
Determination of Self-Reflective Evaluations Regarding the Experimental Results
References
Chapter 9
Childhood-Focused Language Training for Learners in Occupational Safety and Health Interventions of Low-Income Countries: A Systematic Critical Review
Abstract
Introduction
Review Methods
Results and Discussions
Best Practicable Approaches for OSH Training Programmes
Public Health Campaigns/Social Marketing Programmes
Train-the-Trainer Programmes
Health Training Programmes
Direct Training
Participatory Methods Successfully Used by OSH Trainers
Small Group Activity Method
Risk Mapping
Body Mapping
Storytelling
Storytelling Using Graphic Materials
Simulations
Role Plays
Computer-Based Instruction
Quizzes and Games
Arts-Based Approaches
KAP on OSH Trainings among Learners in School
Occupational Health and Safety among Learners in School
Training in OSH among Learners in Schools
Emergency Preparedness and Response among Learners in Schools
Inclusive Education and OSH
Mainstreaming OSH into Education
Disabilities and OSH
Health Interventions
Findings
Conclusion
References
Biographical Sketch
Chapter 10
Using ‘TikTok’ as a Mobile Assisted Language Learning (MALL) Application to Examine the Potential Effects on Greek EFL Learners’ Listening and Speaking Skills
Abstract
Introduction
Research Design
Methodology
How Can TikTok Become a Research Tool?
Selecting Study Participants
Site Selection
Research Tools
Listening Tests
Speaking Tests
Questionnaires
Results
General Information about the Research Sample
Overall Findings
Prior to Watching the Videos on TikTok
First Questionnaire
First Listening Test
First Speaking Test
After Watching the Videos on TikTok
Second Listening Test
Second Speaking Test
Second Questionnaire
TikTok Habits during the Research
Feedback on Speaking and Listening Tests
Impact of the Study
Interpretations and Implications of the Research Findings
The Impact of TikTok on Greek Teenagers Learning English as a Foreign Language
The Effect of TikTok on Speaking Skills
The Effect of TikTok on Listening Skills
The Effect of TikTok as a Learning Tool on Teenagers
Participants’ Attitude Regarding the Research
The Impact of the Study on Teenagers’ TikTok Habits
Suggestions for Improvement
Conclusion
References
Biographical Sketches
Index
About the Editors
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Languages and Linguistics

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Languages and Linguistics Sociolinguistics: Past, Present and Future Perspectives Marcus K. Jakobsen (Editor) 2022. ISBN: 979-8-88697-018-0 (Softcover) 2022. ISBN: 979-8-88697-026-5 (eBook) Exploring Alternative Assessment Techniques in Language Classrooms Alexandra Anastasiadou, PhD, Georgia Karountzou, PhD, Konstantina Iliopoulou, PhD, Vasilios Zorbas, EdD (Editors) 2022. ISBN: 978-1-68507-034-2 (Softcover) 2022. ISBN: 979-8-88697-003-6 (eBook) International Current Trends in Applied Linguistics and Pedagogy Isaak Papadopoulos, Sorina Chiper, PhD (Editors) 2022. ISBN: 978-1-68507-758-7 (Hardcover) 2022. ISBN: 978-1-68507-879-9 (eBook) Loaded Language and the Dilemma of Journalism Alexandra Kitty 2022. ISBN: 978-1-68507-707-5 (Hardcover) 2022. ISBN: 978-1-68507-792-1 (eBook) The Emergence of Grammars. A Closer Look at Dialects between Phonology and Morphosyntax Michela Russo (Editor) 2021. ISBN: 978-1-53619-888-1 (Hardcover) 2021. ISBN: 978-1-68507-022-9 (eBook)

More information about this series can be found at https://novapublishers.com/product-category/series/languages-and-linguistics/

Isaak Papadopoulos and Elena Papadopoulou Editors

Pedagogical and Research Perspectives on Language Education

Copyright © 2023 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. DOI: https://doi.org/10.52305/YZWI6174. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic, magnetic, tape, mechanical photocopying, recording or otherwise without the written permission of the Publisher. We have partnered with Copyright Clearance Center to make it easy for you to obtain permissions to reuse content from this publication. Please visit copyright.com and search by Title, ISBN, or ISSN. For further questions about using the service on copyright.com, please contact: Copyright Clearance Center Fax: +1-(978) 750-4470

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NOTICE TO THE READER The Publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this book but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained in this book. The Publisher shall not be liable for any special, consequential, or exemplary damages resulting, in whole or in part, from the readers’ use of, or reliance upon, this material. Any parts of this book based on government reports are so indicated and copyright is claimed for those parts to the extent applicable to compilations of such works. Independent verification should be sought for any data, advice or recommendations contained in this book. In addition, no responsibility is assumed by the Publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property arising from any methods, products, instructions, ideas or otherwise contained in this publication. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information with regards to the subject matter covered herein. It is sold with the clear understanding that the Publisher is not engaged in rendering legal or any other professional services. If legal or any other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent person should be sought. FROM A DECLARATION OF PARTICIPANTS JOINTLY ADOPTED BY A COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION AND A COMMITTEE OF PUBLISHERS.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data ISBN: 979-8-88697-841-4

Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. † New York

Contents

Preface

.......................................................................................... vii

Chapter 1

Teachers’ Views on the Challenges Faced in the Non-Formal Context of Teaching Greek as a Second Language to Refugees/Migrants ..................1 Evgenia Berdesi and Polyxeni Manoli

Chapter 2

Translanguaging: From Second Language Acquisition Theories to Teaching Practices ..................19 Vasiliki Lismani

Chapter 3

EFL Reading Comprehension Competence of Primary School Learners in Germany: The Role of English Programmes and Language Background .............................................31 Karoline Wirbatz and Julia Reckermann

Chapter 4

Writing in the Primary English Classroom: A Design-Based Research Study.....................................49 Anne Schrader

Chapter 5

Conflict Resolution: A Key Skill in Intercultural (Business) Negotiation..........................65 Oana Ursu

Chapter 6

Reflection, Professional Development and Underlying Psychological Dimensions of Teaching .......................................................................81 Sviatlana Karpava

Chapter 7

Regional Tendencies of Primary School Teacher Training in the Benelux Countries ...............................107 Tetiana Holovatenko and Olga Kotenko

vi

Contents

Chapter 8

Digital and Multimedia Technologies in Teaching Foreign Languages to Students of Pedagogical Specialties .............................................125 Natalia Kosharna, Lada Petryk, Angelika Solomakha, Olga Sytnyk and Olga Loboda

Chapter 9

Childhood-Focused Language Training for Learners in Occupational Safety and Health Interventions of Low-Income Countries: A Systematic Critical Review ....................153 Reginald Dennis Gwisai

Chapter 10

Using ‘TikTok’ as a Mobile Assisted Language Learning (MALL) Application to Examine the Potential Effects on Greek EFL Learners’ Listening and Speaking Skills .......................................177 Theodoros Michos and Vasilios Zorbas

Index

.........................................................................................207

About the Editors ......................................................................................215

Preface

Language education, an integral component of pedagogical methods has received great attention within the research and teaching arena. This focus reflects an intense emphasis on the investigation of current pedagogical frameworks. Alternative teaching approaches and methods, teaching strategies and students’ needs, are only a few of the factors which seem to intensify the need for further – or even better – continuous exploration of the language education context in the 21st century. With the addition of multilingualism and multiculturalism, a discussion on modern research and studies is deemed mandatory and is considered to be of major importance. This book offers a descriptive account of studies designed and implemented to shed light into the current situation of language education in various national contexts. In particular, the contributors of this book report and reflect on classroom practices, discuss challenges of applications in diverse contexts based on multimodal activities and provide perspectives from different angles on the above-mentioned issues. Chapter 1 entitled, “Teachers’ Views on the Challenges Faced in the NonFormal Context of Teaching Greek as a Second Language to Refuges/ Migrants,” authored by Evgenia Berdesi and Polyxeni Manoli, aims at making the teachers’ voice heard with regard to the challenges they confronted and the suggestions for improving second language (L2) teaching to adult migrants/refugees in non-formal educational settings. The researchers conducted qualitative research through the implementation of semi-structured interviews among a group of 17 Greek teachers employed by NGOs and volunteer organizations; that are involved in L2 learning to adult refugees/migrants. In the second chapter entitled, “Translanguaging: From Second Language Acquisition Theories to Teaching Practices”, Vasiliki Lismani discusses the role of translanguaging as a pedagogical approach that values learners’ full linguistic repertoire (L1, L2) and contributes to their development as emergent bilinguals against the almost unattainable native-speaker model. According to

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the author, translanguaging is considered to be an approach, which facilitates learners’ activation of preexisting content schemata and smoothly connects their background knowledge to teaching material. The third chapter, “EFL Reading Comprehension Competence of Primary School Learners in Germany: The Role of English Programme and Language Background” by Karoline Wirbatz and Julia Reckermann places special emphasis on the variables of the EFL programme and language background. This is achieved through an empirical study. Through the processing of the data, it was revealed that more extensive English programmes should be supported in view of learners’ competences and that there seem to be no disadvantages for learners of multilingual backgrounds in such programmes; at least as far as EFL reading comprehension is concerned. Moreover, Anne Schrader in Chapter 4, “Writing in the Primary English Classroom: A Design-Based Research Study,” reports on insights from a Design-Based Research (DBR) study on teaching writing skills to young beginners; that of the 3rd grade EFL classroom in Germany. By employing qualitative research by collecting data through video-recordings, lesson observations, learner writing samples, and teacher interviews, it was revealed that students were highly motivated throughout the lessons and did not seem to be overtaxed by the literacy-enhanced lessons. Chapter 5 entitled, “Conflict Resolution: A Key Skill in Intercultural (Business) Negotiation”, Oana Ursu investigates the building of conflict resolution skills in business students. In this attempt, she carried out an analysis on a sample of 30 undergraduate students at the Faculty of Economics and Business Administration during the second semester of the academic year of 2020-2021. Through this study, it was revealed that the activities enabled students to acknowledge their general and specific conflict style, enhanced their awareness regarding cultural difference and improved their conflict management skills. Furthermore, Sviatlana Karpava in Chapter 6, “Reflection, Professional Development and Underlying Psychological Dimensions of Teaching,” investigates the issues of pre-service teachers’ beliefs, attitudes, motivation, engagement, emotions, psychological challenges and collaboration in a teaching practice course. The author involved 50 undergraduate university students studying to become future EFL teachers. Participants were invited to keep reflective journals and to write entries regarding various issues concerning teaching and learning, teaching practicum and peer observations. Tetiana Holovatenko and Olga Kotenko in Chapter 7, “Regional Tendencies of Primary School Teacher Training in the Benelux Countries,”

Preface

ix

made a significant contribution by attempting to systematize and outline the Belgian, Dutch and Luxembourgish legislative framework. To this end, they conducted a teacher training in 5 higher educational institutions based in Flanders, Wallonia, and German-speaking community of Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg; which became the basis of identifying and grouping tendencies. In Chapter 8, “Digital and Multimedia Technologies in Teaching Foreign Languages to Students of Pedagogical Specialties”, Natalia Kosharna, Lada Petryk, Angelika Solomakha, Olga Sytnyk and Olga Loboda outline a study on digital and multimedia technologies applied in teaching foreign languages to students of pedagogical specialties. The purpose of the research is to investigate the didactic possibilities of using digital and multimedia tools for learning a foreign language (using the example of English) in order to improve the linguistic (philological) and communicative competences of studentsfuture teachers of a foreign language for preschool and primary school children. Chapter 9 entitled, “Childhood-Focused Language Training for Learners in Occupational Safety and Health Interventions of Low-Income Countries: A Systematic Critical Review”, by Reginald Dennis Gwisai aims to identify the common risks and challenges of interpreting urban and rural school settings in low-income countries. It sought to establish the enabling strategies available in creating a sense of safety and emergency preparedness and response to any OSH related challenges during the course of their studies, while travelling to and from school and the impact the interventions have on the homes where they reside. The final chapter, “Using 'TikTok' as a Mobile Assisted Language Learning (MALL) Application to Examine the Potential Effects on Greek EFL Learners’ Listening and Speaking Skills,” authored by Theodoros Michos and Vasilios Zorbas, analyses the potential benefits of TikTok as a pedagogical tool to enhance participants’ speaking and listening skills. This qualitative study examines the influence of TikTok as a Mobile Assisted Language Learning (MALL) tool on Greek teenagers at B2 level. The interpretation of the findings presents the general impact of TikTok videos on Greek teenagers and its potential effect on their speaking and listening skills. Participants’ attitudes regarding the study and the use of TikTok as a means of instruction are also explored. Finally, certain conclusions and suggestions are made about the use of TikTok in education as a supplementary medium of language acquisition.

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Consequently, through the careful consideration of the above-mentioned chapters and the studies presented in each chapter, this book aspires to delve into major aspects of language education and their examination from different perspectives and angles.

Chapter 1

Teachers’ Views on the Challenges Faced in the Non-Formal Context of Teaching Greek as a Second Language to Refugees/Migrants Evgenia Berdesi1,* and Polyxeni Manoli2,† 1 Deparment

of Humanities, Hellenic Open University, Patras, Greece 2 Department Educational Sciences and Early Childhood Education, University of Patras, Patras, Greece

Abstract The worldwide migration waves of the recent decade have led to social changes and population heterogeneity inevitably affecting the field of education, as an increasingly vast number of people seek instruction in the host language challenging teachers and making their work even more demanding. In Greece, besides the governmental initiatives, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have orchestrated Greek language courses to facilitate migrants’ communication and help them achieve their academic and professional goals. In this context, the aim of the study was to make teachers’ voices heard regarding the challenges they confronted and the suggestions for improving second language (L2) teaching to adult migrants/refugees in non-formal educational settings. The qualitative research was conducted using semi-structured interviews among a group of 17 Greek teachers * †

Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected]. Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected].

In: Pedagogical and Research Perspectives on Language Education Editors: Isaak Papadopoulos and Elena Papadopoulou ISBN: 979-8-88697-841-4 © 2023 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

2

Evgenia Berdesi and Polyxeni Manoli employed by NGOs and volunteer organizations and involved in L2 learning to adult refugees/migrants. The results of the study indicated that teachers, though highly qualified, faced a number of challenges regarding their students’ linguistic, cultural, educational and socioeconomic background. Simultaneously, according to teachers’ suggestions, they needed to receive interculturally oriented training aiming to help them manage classroom diversity, identify and meet students’ needs through the use of proper plurilingual and multi/intercultural practices and materials. Overall, the findings of the study pointed to the line of research highlighting the need for teacher education and state initiative for adopting a holistic approach to refugee language education to facilitate their social and linguistic integration in the Greek context.

Keywords: refugee language education, Greek as a second language, adult learning, plurilingual and multi/intercultural practices, refugee crisis

Introduction During the last few years, Greece has been the host country for migrants1 originating mainly from the Arabic world causing cultural and linguistic diversity, which inevitably affected the field of education. According to the Operational Portal (2019), roughly 1.244.000 refugees have arrived in Greece from 2014 to 2019 the majority of whom mainly originate from Afghanistan, Syria, Congo and Iraq, which is 10.9% of the total population of the country. Since the host language knowledge seems to be a prerequisite for migrants’ social integration and professional development (e.g., Krumm & Plutzar, 2016), besides the governmental initiatives, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), universities and municipalities have orchestrated Greek language courses for migrants with a legal status in an attempt to facilitate second language learning (L2) and communication. However, since adult migrant education is not incorporated into a general state policy but it is generally fragmented and project-restricted, governmental projects lacked sustainability (Kantzou, Manoli, Mouti, & Papadopoulou, 2017; Leivaditi, Papatzani, Ilias, & Petracou, 2020). 1

In this study, the term migrant is used to refer to any population being in transit regardless of their legal status (immigrant, refugee, asylum seeker). As the focus lies on the challenges faced in non-formal educational settings, a distinction of the legal status does not affect the aims of the study.

Teachers’ Views on the Challenges Faced in the Non-Formal Context ...

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Undoubtedly, in these highly diverse educational settings, L2 teachers face many challenges that are mainly associated with their students’ different socio-cultural and linguistic backgrounds (Beacco, Krumm, & Little, 2017). In fact, in countries, such as Greece, many teachers either lacked training or had minimal experience in teaching migrants (e.g., Kantzou et al., 2017; Koehler, 2017; Simopoulos, 2014). Considering the recent refugee crisis in 2015 and the lack of relevant studies on L2 teaching, especially in non-formal settings, since there is some research on L2 in formal educational settings (e.g., Gravani, Hatzopoulos, & Chinas, 2019; Manoli, Mouti & Kantzou, 2021; Vopi, 2018), the study aims to make teachers’ voices heard regarding the challenges they confront and their suggestions for improving L2 teaching to adult migrants in non-formal educational settings.

Literature Review Research on Challenges L2 Teachers Face More often than not, L2 educators find teaching in linguistically and culturally heterogeneous classrooms challenging and demanding, as they feel unprepared academically or professionally (e.g., Kantzou et al., 2017; Manoli, Berdesi, Kiamili, & Vyzovitou, 2019). In particular, Kantzou et al., (2017) exploring teaching practices used to teach migrants in formal and non-formal contexts throughout Greece showed that students’ different personal, sociocultural and educational backgrounds affected language acquisition. Moreover, Manoli et al., (2019), exploring teaching practices, materials, and classroom climate in non-formal L2 classes in Greece, highlighted that heterogeneity in the students’ language level challenged made the lwhole learning procedure demanding. Furthermore, student illiteracy seemed to be another major problem in the L2 classroom. For example, Benseman (2014), analyzing the learning needs of adult refugees with low language and literacy skills in non-formal settings in New Zealand, mentioned challenges regarding literacy skill acquisition, such as spelling, retaining new knowledge and understanding vocabulary. Moreover, Florou (2019), investigating L2 instructors’ perceptions on adult migrant social integration in Thessaly, Greece, found that migrant language problems affected L2 learning. Additionally, according to the literature, low rates of students’ social integration and increased psychological pressure seemed to pose further

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Evgenia Berdesi and Polyxeni Manoli

challenges in L2 learning. For example, Major, Wilkinson, Langat, and Santoro (2013) focusing on the challenges in education faced by young Sudanese migrants in regional and rural Australia revealed that low first language (L1) literacy and lack of L2 knowledge combined with local negative stereotypes and bias towards migrant students hindered their social integration and decreased their learning motivation, which was also verified by Florou (2019). Simultaneously, there was a consensus among scholars and researchers that lack of training in the field of adult migrant education seemed to be a major challenge for educators. For instance, Al Hariri (2018) exploring the challenges faced by Syrian refugees in learning English in non-formal educational settings in Ohio, USA highlighted that many volunteers involved in refugee education lacked professional training. Similarly, Simopoulos (2014) researching adult language instructors’ intercultural competence in Greece concluded that instructors used a rather monocultural approach to teach Greek as a L2 using frontal teaching practices; thus, students’ cultural identities failed to be considered in the lesson, which contributed to their motivation decrease. Lack of appropriate instructional materials, curricula and guidelines seemed to be some of the challenges faced in L2 teaching, as teachers were often made to produce their own teaching material, which was a quite demanding and time-consuming procedure (Kantzou et al., 2017; Simopoulos, 2014).

Research on Teachers’ Suggestions to Improve L2 Learning Research on L2 teaching in non-formal educational settings seems to provide a series of suggestions to teachers and education stakeholders to deal with adult refugee education challenges. In particular, Hebestreit (2016), investigating refugee adult language learning in Kassel, Germany, in a regional educational center, and Al Hariri (2018) revealed that L2 learning should be linked to the labor market of the host society (e.g., internships). As student illiteracy has already been highlighted as a major problem (e.g., Benseman, 2014; Kantzou et al., 2017; Manoli et al., 2019), scholars and researchers seemed to unanimously agreed that there was an increased need for teachers’ ongoing professional development on educating adults who have limited formal schooling though the use of proper teaching materials. For example, Burgoyne and Hull (2007), who explored classroom management strategies to address the needs of Sudanese refugee learners in Australia,

Teachers’ Views on the Challenges Faced in the Non-Formal Context ...

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underscored that people with limited formal education needed to be introduced to meaningful and coherent written texts considering learners’ needs. Finally, recasting the curricula and the teaching methodologies so that adult migrant identities would be considered in the target language practices was regarded as a prerequisite for successful learning outcomes (e.g., Benseman, 2014; Kantzou et al., 2017; Simopoulos, 2014).

Method Research Aims and Questions The main aim of the study was to voice L2 educators’ thoughts and allow them to express their views on the challenges they faced during adult refugee teaching in non-formal educational settings, such as NGOs, camps and volunteer organizations. Moreover, teachers’ suggestions on improvements in the field of L2 teaching could be enlightening for the stakeholders and policy makers. In this context, the study was based on the following research questions: • •

What were the challenges L2 teachers faced during adult migrant instruction in non-formal educational settings? What can be done to further improve refugee education?

The Educational Context The Educational Environment 17 teachers were interviewed offering Greek lessons in volunteer organizations and NGOs. In particular, nine volunteer teachers were working in a volunteer organization, which defended migrants’/refugees’ rights funded by charities and volunteer work and located in Patras, Greece. The teachers offered 45-minute lessons twice per week to adult migrants of any status with minimal teaching material and proper infrastructure. Additionally, three teachers participated in L2 lessons in a volunteer organization located in Athens, which offered, among other activities, Greek language lessons to migrants/refugees of any status. The rest five teachers were employed by NGOs teaching at the premises of these organizations, while three of them

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were teaching at refugee camps. Being employed in these NGOs entailed teaching claimed migrants in small groups, whereas teaching in refugee camps implied addressing crowded classes of migrants of any status. The teachers worked full-time from 18 to 22 teaching hours per week. Table 1. Information about L2 teachers Sex

Employment status

16/17: 9/17: Female Volunteer org., Patras 1/17: Male

3/17: Volunteer org., Athens

5/17: Employed by NGO’s, Athens

Academic background

FL Skills

12/17: BA in Language Learning (Greek philology, primary school education) 5/17: BA in other fields (Nursery studies, Pharmaceutical Agriculture, Architecture, Business Administration) 11/17: MA relevant to 1st degree

17/17: English

Gen. Teach. Teach. Exper. Exper. in GSL/Adult migrants 7/17: 1/17: 10+ years 10+ years

3/17: Basic Farsi

3/17: 6-10 years

4/17: 6-10 years

9/17: Other foreign languages (Italian, Spanish, French)

6/17: 1-5 years

7/17: 1-5 years

1/17: 0-1 year

5/17: 0-1 year

7/17: Studies on Adult Ed. 6/17: Studies on Intercult. Ed. 3/17: Cert. knowledge of GSL

Age

7/17: 24-34 years old 6/17: 35-45 years old

3/17: 45-58 years old

The Research Participants To start with, 16 out of 17 teachers, who participated voluntarily in this study, were female, while there was only a male teacher. Their age varied ranging from 24 to 58 (38 years old on average). All teachers were highly qualified in terms of their academic background. Namely, 12 held a BA relevant to language teaching, while the other five had BA degrees in other fields, such as Nursery Studies, Architecture, Agriculture, Pharmaceutical, Business Administration. Moreover, eleven had a MA degree relevant to their BA. Seven teachers had attended seminars on adult education, whereas six on intercultural education. However, only three out of the 17 teachers had

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certified knowledge of teaching Greek as a L2. All of them could speak English, the majority of them could speak an additional foreign language, such as French, Italian or Spanish, while three of them could speak some basic Arabic. Regarding their teaching experience, these teachers had 13 years of general teaching experience on average. However, their teaching experience in teaching Greek as a L2 and in teaching adult migrants, particularly, was quite limited to four-five years approximately. In fact, five teachers were novices with less than a year of experience in the field of teaching Greek as a L2 to adult migrants (see Table 1).

Adult Migrant Students According to teachers’ words, most students who were participating in the Greek lessons were usually males ranging from late teens to past retirement (see Table 2 below). As described by their teachers, they mainly originated from strife-torn Eastern countries, such as Syria, Iran, Iraq, Pakistan and Afghanistan, while some others from countries of Africa, such as Congo, Ethiopia, Somalia and Sudan. According to the teachers, there was a high percentage of people who were illiterate or with a disrupted educational background either due to their poor socioeconomic context or their constant transit and relocation. There were cases of students with an unidentified schooling background, as the lack of a mediation language impeded communication and identification of their level of education. Furthermore, their language skills varied, as some of them could speak some Basic English or French, especially those originating from French ex-colonies. The students’ time in the host country, also, varied ranging from a couple of months to years and, therefore, there was a significant disparity in their Greek language level.

Data Collection The collection of data was based on the 17 teacher semi-structured interviews, which were conducted in an anonymous way to abide by the research ethics. Namely, all the teachers were interviewed through phone or social network applications, such as Viber, Messenger and Skype after having signed a consent form, which was sent to them via email. Moreover, an interview guide was prepared by the researchers in advance focusing on the instructional practices and materials teachers used, the challenges they faced while teaching in these educational settings and their suggestions in terms of refugee language education, as this study was part of broader research. The semi-structured

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Evgenia Berdesi and Polyxeni Manoli

interviews were conducted in Greek and lasted from 30 to 50 minutes, while all teachers seemed interested and willing to answer all questions. Table 2. Information about adult migrant students Sex

Age

Male 10/17: (majority)/ 18-35 female years

4/17: Various ages

3/17: 35-70 years

Country

Edu. background

Language skills

Afghanistan, Syria, Pakistan, Iran, Kurdish, Iraq, Palestinian territories, Jordan, Kuwait, Ethiopia, Morocco, Algeria, Sudan, Somalia, Congo, Eritrea, Kashmir, India, Bangladesh,

7/17: Illiterate

7/17: Basic English skills

Bulgaria

5/17: 5/17: Low educated Other language skills (e.g., French) 2/17: Without 3/17: being No precisely language defined skills 2/17: 2/17: Greek Secondary oral skills education 1/17: Tertiary education

Years in Greece

L2 teaching/hours per week 7/17: 7/17: A couple 2 hours per of months week to years

4/17: 1-3 years

7/14: No data provided

4/17: No data provided

2/7: 3 or more per week

2/17: 1/17: 10+ years 1 hour per week

It is worth mentioning that initially the research was planned to be conducted in Patras the winter semester of 2020 using ten teacher interviews and equal class observations. However, because of the Coronavirus pandemic measures imposed, classroom observations were cancelled and the number of the interviewees was increased.

Data Analysis The data were analyzed using a qualitative, inductive, thematic analysis method (Bryman, 2016). Firstly, the data were phone-recorded and then transcribed verbatim. Secondly, careful and repeated reading of the transcriptions, keeping notes and highlighting points related to research questions led to a profound understanding of the data. Then, the data were

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codified through QDA2 software to facilitate the coding process. Then, the initial codes and themes were redefined and reorganized according to the research aims and questions.

Results Challenges Mentioned by L2 Teachers According to the findings of the study, students’ illiteracy played a pivotal role in L2 learning. Namely, most teachers reported that one of the major problems faced was students’ illiteracy, which was difficult to overpass. Indicatively, a teacher mentioned: T10: The ones who have not attended school, have not developed a metalinguistic awareness mechanism or any other strategy to know “how to learn,” so writing in a foreign language is very challenging for some of them and even impossible to acquire for some others.

As a result, heterogeneity in these classes was the rule and not the exception making teacher work even more demanding, as most teachers stated that their classes consisted of students with different language levels not only in the L2 but also in their L1. T8: You can’t group these students just taking into account their first language because even in this case each and everyone has their different background.

Moreover, the lack of a common/mediation language in these classrooms was mentioned as a challenge by a few teachers. For instance: T9: The lack of a mediation language is a great challenge. Sometimes I try to explain some basic things in English and they still do not understand.

Similarly, the study revealed that students’ prior learning experience seemed to pose great challenges for L2 learning. For example, many teachers mentioned that whenever they were applying an educational game or more 2

QDA is a computer-assisted qualitative analysis software, which facilitates organizing textual data) (https://provalisresearch.com/products/qualitative-data-analysis-software/).

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learner-centered methods, such as group work, the lesson ended up in too much noise and disobedience or even some students chose to leave the classroom, because they were used to more traditional ways of teaching. For example: T12: […] or if you use educational games, they might leave because they think that you fool around. They value school only if they read, write and listen to a strict teacher. This assumption is highly associated with their prior learning experience.

Simultaneously, it was found that disrupted attendance seemed to be another factor that perpetuated learning difficulties, which, if combined with student constant new arrivals and lack of time for self-studying made the whole learning and teaching situation even more demanding. According to a teacher’s words: T2: Not everyone works at home as much as they are supposed to and this is a deterrent to keep on with the lesson.

Additionally, the results of the study indicated that things were even worse for females, who had family obligations, which deterred them from dedicating time to L2 learning. For example: T4: They’ve got kids, they are not alone, they have to fit lots of stuff in their everyday routines, so studying or doing homework comes always second.

However, the study revealed that most teachers highlighted that adult migrant students were living in extreme poverty who were struggling to survive in the host country and make ends meet; thus, language skills, though important for their social integration and professional development, were often neglected. A teacher explained: T5: I am in the classroom trying to explain noun declinations, I can see water on the floor, and I notice that my student’s shoes are full of water, as he has been trying to catch some fish because he had nothing to eat… NOTHING! How can this person concentrate on the lesson?

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Moreover, according to the teachers’ words, their bad psychology and post-traumatic stress seemed to be another deterrent for the students’ concentration and progress in class. For instance: T7: …when he comes into the class, shows me his veins, and says that he will cut them out because he can’t live like this anymore, how can I support him?

Furthermore, most teachers mentioned the lack of proper training in the field or the theoretical basis of the seminars they had already attended, highlighting that they needed training oriented to teaching practice. According to teachers’ words: T12: I think I need some more training on the needs of this audience, more practical things, such as teaching techniques, to teach them better.

Another challenge mentioned by these teachers had to do with the material preparation, because the proposed teaching material was not appropriate for their students’ needs, which made them prepare their own teaching material, a rather pressing and time-consuming procedure by all accounts. T11: I need to prepare the material, to read books…to search on internet sites, to test it…it is not that difficult to do so but it is time-consuming to organize it.

Finally, the findings of the study indicated that five teachers referred to class management issues. They mentioned that their cordial relationship with their students was sometimes defied either because of students’ aggressive behavior or their romantic feelings towards the teachers. T5: It is very challenging to keep the balance between the student and the teacher relationship. Some of them feel lonely and when they come to a place where they are treated equally they sometimes want to have an intimate relationship by starting flirting, offering presents to you…

L2 Teachers’ Suggestions to Improve Migrant Language Education The study revealed that these teachers applied a number of strategies to overcome the problems of student illiteracy and heterogeneity. Namely, they

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mentioned that besides the revision activities and repetition, they often applied differentiated teaching and allocated extra time to some students to do the tasks trying, simultaneously, to encourage student participation in the lesson. According to the teachers’ words: T4: I usually assign another task to the advanced students while I am giving detailed feedback to the beginners. It is like having two different lessons within the same lesson.

Moreover, it was found that in the attempt to cope with the lack of a common language of communication in these multicultural classes teachers used mediation either by professional interpreters, when available, or by more advanced students and promoted the use of all available languages in the classroom, where English had a leading role, to facilitate communication. Additionally, they often resorted to the use of body language, mimicry and technology to convey meaning. Indicatively, a teacher mentioned: T9: The other day we were trying to find a word for an organ of the human body, I think it was the liver…they were pointing to me but I couldn’t understand.

At the same time, when the teachers were asked to propose solutions to improve adult migrants’ language learning, ten teachers highlighted that it was imperative migrant education be part of formal education, as adequate Greek language proficiency is a prerequisite for their social integration and employment, and asserted that there should be an organized, formal institution that should undertake adult migrant language learning. For instance: T16: Above all, there should be some kind of education because so far there is not any…especially for the adults there is not anything else apart from the non-formal education and 40 minutes per week is not enough.

Furthermore, teachers highlighted the demand for a specific curriculum and proper teaching material addressing adult migrant needs. Teachers mentioned: T16: It is very important to have a specific curriculum […]. It would be a guide for educators.

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T14: Relevant material should be produced after needs analysis and research conducted by educators who have already been in this field for many years.

Another suggestion had to do with teacher training to render them able to teach adult migrant populations. For example: T1: Teacher training is needed. The specialized teachers or educators need to be in charge of these courses as they are the ones who know more.

Last but not least, the teachers agreed that language education for adult migrants was only a part of the wider problem of migration; they highlighted that unless a holistic approach was followed entailing improvement of migrant living conditions and promotion of social integration, then it would be highly unlikely to offer the proper language education to this vulnerable group. T10: In an ideal world if there were a holistic approach to each one of them [migrants], then this would make a big difference for them.

Discussion The aim of the study was to explore the challenges L2 teachers confront and their suggestions for improving adult refugee education in non-formal settings. The findings of the study indicated that these teachers did their best to create a warm and welcoming atmosphere trying to strike a balance between discipline and permissiveness, using humor and showing compassion to encourage this vulnerable group to attend the lessons and overcome bad psychology. In terms of the challenges, it was revealed that adult migrant students’ illiteracy and different L2 levels seemed to hinder L2 instruction, which concurred with prior research (Benseman, 2014; Florou, 2019; Kantzou et al., 2017; Manoli et al., 2019). Namely, illiterate students seemed to lack not only metalinguistic knowledge and conceptual development skills but also basic literacy skills (for example, using a pen, establishing routines). Moreover, the study indicated that disrupted attendance and negligence did not only impede students’ progress but also made teachers constantly change the aims of their lessons, which was confirmed by previous research as well (Florou, 2019). Furthermore, the study revealed that migrant students’ adverse financial state prevented them from concentration on L2 learning, which has already

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been confirmed by previous research (Al Hariri, 2018). As these teachers affirmed, most students lived in destitute struggling to meet their basic needs, while health problems were a common issue since they were living in the streets, tents or camps with little hygiene or food supplies, which made it difficult for them to focus on L2 learning. Simultaneously, migrant students’ bad psychology was equally appraised as a main factor affecting L2 learning progress. Namely, most students were suffering from post-traumatic stress, such as corporal and sexual abuse, starvation, imprisonment and loss of members of the family. All these experiences in combination with their legal state and their anticipation to be under protection, asylum or reconnection with their families, deteriorated their present psychological state (Benseman, 2014; Burgoyne & Hull, 2007; Major et al., 2013). Simultaneously, most of the participants highlighted the need to receive training in refugee education in order to get both theoretical and practical knowledge, which concurred with previous studies, as these teachers have been trained to teach native students in state schools (Al Hariri, 2018; Kantzou et al., 2017; Manoli et al., 2019). In terms of the teaching materials, most teachers reported that there was a lack of proper materials considering this vulnerable population’s needs, as most of the existing one was either demanding or old-fashioned, which aligned with previous studies (Kantzou et al., 2017). In this way, teachers mentioned that they usually prepared their material, which was a challenging and time-consuming procedure. What teachers also seemed to highlight was the lack of a curriculum setting the general principles and aims, which would help them organize their teaching procedure better. As far as teachers’ suggestions were concerned, the findings indicated that they regarded migrant education as part of a wider policy that should adopt a holistic approach to cover migrants’ basic needs including education, which agreed with prior research (Hebestreit, 2016). Simultaneously, according to the findings of the study, teachers unanimously supported that adult migrant education should be among the provisions of the national educational system highlighting the need for founding formal, educational institutions with an adult migrant focused curriculum offering free educational courses to migrants of any legal status, which was also proposed by recent research (Al Hariri, 2018; Florou, 2019). According to teachers, these institutions needed to be manned with highly qualified staff experienced in providing inter/ multicultural teaching to manage diversity and address the migrant population’s needs (Burgoyne & Hull, 2007; Kantzou et al., 2017).

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Conclusion Adult migrant education is generally fragmented and project-restricted (Kantzou et al., 2017; Leivaditi et al., 2020) failing to satisfy the current demands. In this context, ad hoc, non-formal initiatives by NGOs and volunteer organizations promote L2 education to adult migrants in urban regions and refugee camps to meet these demands. However, as indicated above, specific problems, such as student illiteracy, linguistic and cultural diversity and class absenteeism in conjunction with the lack of teacher training seem to be common in L2 learning. Overall, there seems to be a consensus among teachers for a holistic approach towards the host language learning, which needs to be officially implemented aspiring long-term results.

References Al Hariri, B. (2018). Teaching ESL to Syrian Refugees: Problems and Challenges (Master’s thesis, University of Toledo). Retrieved from https://etd.ohiolink.edu/!etd.send_fi le?accession=toledo1525277691339487&disposition=inline. Beacco, J. C., Krumm, H. J., & Little, D. (2017). Introduction. In J. C. Beacco, H. J. Krumm, D. Little, & P. Thalgott (Eds.), The Linguistic Integration of Adult Migrants. Some Lessons from Research (pp. 1-5). Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter. Benseman, J. (2014). Adult refugee learners with limited literacy: Needs and effective responses. Refuge: Canada’s Journal on Refugees, 30(1), 93-103. doi: https://doi. org/10.25071/1920-7336.38606. Bryman, A. (2016). Social Research Methods (5th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Burgoyne, U., & Hull, O. (2007). Classroom management strategies to address the needs of Sudanese refugee learners. Retrieved from NCVER website: www.ncver.edu.au/ research-and-statistics/publications/all-publications/classroom-management-strategie s-to-address-the-needs-of-sudanese-refugee-learners. Florou, I. (2019). Diapolitismiki ekpaideysi kai koinoniki entaksi ton enilikon metanaston kai prosfygon. Antilipseis ekpaideuton ton metanaston kai prosfygon apo to diamerisma tis Thessalias/[Η διαπολιτισμική εκπαίδευσηκαι κοινωνική ένταξη των μεταναστών και προσφύγων από το διαμέρισμα της Θεσσαλίας] [The intercultural education and social integration of immigrants and refugees from the department of Thessaly. Master’s thesis]. Retrieved from https://apothesis.eap.gr/handle/repo/427 13. Gravani, M. N., Hatzopoulos, P., & Chinas, C. (2019). Adult education and migration in Cyprus: A critical analysis. Journal of Adult and Continuing Education, 1-21. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/1477971419832896. Hebestreit, S. (2016). Education for displaced people – National and international perspectives. In M. Klingenberg & S. Rex (Eds.), Refugees: A Challenge for Adult

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Education (pp. 96-101). Retrieved from https://www.dvv-international.de/fileadmin/ files/Inhalte_Bilder_und_Dokumente/Materialien/IPE/IPE_76_EN_web.pdf. Kantzou, V., Manoli, P., Mouti, A., & Papadopoulou, M. (2017). Language education for refugees and migrants: Multiple case studies from the Greek context. Διάλογοι! Θεωρία και πράξη στις επιστήμες αγωγής και εκπαίδευσης, 3, 18-34. doi: https://doi. org/10.12681/dial.15000. Koehler, C. (2017). Continuity of learning for newly arrived refugee children in Europe. Retrieved from NESET ii website: https://nesetweb.eu/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/ Continuity-of-learning-for-newly-arrived-refugee-children-in-Europe.pdf. Krumm, H. J., & Plutzar, V. (2016). Tailoring language provision and requirements to the needs and capacities of adult migrants. Retrieved from Conseil del’ Europe website: www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Source/KrummPlutzarMigrants_EN.doc. Leivaditi, N., Papatzani, E., Ilias, A., & Petracou, E. (2020). Integration: Policy, Practices and Experiences. Greece Country report. Retrieved from RESPOND Working Papers, Global Migration: Consequences and Responses (#770564, Horizon2020) Report Series, University of the Aegean. website: https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/20327 53.html. Major, J., Wilkinson, J., Langat, K., & Santoro, N. (2013). Sudanese young people of refugee background in rural and regional Australia: Social capital and education success. Australian and International Journal of Rural Education, 23(3), 95-105. Retrieved from https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/143864192.pdf. Manoli, P., Berdesi, E., Kiamili, D., & Vyzovitou, E. (2019). Teaching Practices, Materials, and Classroom Climate in L2 Classes Offered to Adult Refugees and Migrants in Greece. The International Journal of Learner Diversity and Identities, 26(1), 21-35. doi: https://doi.org/10.18848/2327-0128/cgp/v26i01/21-35. Manoli, P., Mouti, A., & Kantzou, V., (2021). Children with a Refugee and Migrant Background in the Greek Formal Education: A Study of Language Support Classes. Multilingual Academic Journal of Education and Social Sciences, 9(1), 1–15. Operational Portal. (2019, October 13). Situation Mediterranean situation. Retrieved January 16, 2021, from https://data2.unhcr.org/en/situations/mediterranean/location/ 5179. Simopoulos, G. (2014). Diapolitismiki ikanotita tou ekpaideuti enilikon. Mia ereuna sto pedio tis didaskalias tis ellinikis os deuteris glossas [Η διαπολιτισμική ικανότητα του εκπαιδευτή ενηλίκων Μια έρευνα στο πεδίο της διδασκαλίας της ελληνικής ως δεύτερης γλώσσας] [The intercultural competence of the teacher of adults A research in the field of teaching Greek as a second language Doctoral dissertation, University of Patras, Greece]. Retrieved from https://nemertes.library.upatras.gr/jspui/handle/10889/7953. Vopi, K. (2018). Challenges teachers face in schools where refugee/migrant students are hosted; the cases of RFRE/reception classes (Master’s thesis, Hellenic Open University, Patras, Greece). Retrieved from https://apothesis.eap.gr/handle/repo/414 83.

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Biographical Sketches Evgenia Berdesi Evgenia Berdesi holds a MA degree from the Programme “Language Education for Refugees and Migrants” of the Hellenic Open University and another one in Adult Learning and Global Change of the Linköping University, Sweden. Her research and teaching interests focus on language teaching to adult learners and intercultural education.

Polyxeni Manoli Polyxeni Manoli is an assistant professor at the Department of Educational Sciences and Early Childhood Education, University of Patras. Her research interests focus on: language education for refugees and socially vulnerable population, sociolinguistic approach to the multilingual education, language teaching in preschool education, multiliteracies, multimodal texts, designing educational material, teachers’ training in multilingual education.

Chapter 2

Translanguaging: From Second Language Acquisition Theories to Teaching Practices Vasiliki Lismani* Department of Applied Linguistics, Hellenic American University, Athens, Greece

Abstract Despite years of criticism about the negative effects of native language (L1) interference in second language (L2) acquisition, the targeted use of learners’ L1 can be conducive to target language learning process. Drawing from relevant theories and empirical studies about the role of L1 in developing L2 skills, this chapter, discusses the role of translanguaging as a pedagogical approach that values learners’ full linguistic repertoire (L1, L2) and contributes to their development as emergent bilinguals (Kley & García, 2019, p. 70) against the almost unattainable native-speaker model. Therefore, it is suggested that a translanguaging approach can help teachers and students address the use of L1 not as evidence of a deficit in the process of L2 acquisition but as a contributor factor in order to “create a learning space where language skills are viewed primarily as communicative competences” (Nagy, 2018, p. 50). More specifically, translanguaging is viewed as an approach that can help learners activate their preexisting content schemata and smoothly link their background knowledge with new material. It is further suggested that this change in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) education cannot happen unless teachers transform their attitude towards EFL pedagogy. *

Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected].

In: Pedagogical and Research Perspectives on Language Education Editors: Isaak Papadopoulos and Elena Papadopoulou ISBN: 979-8-88697-841-4 © 2023 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

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Keywords: second language acquisition, L1 interference, translanguaging, schemata activation, teachers’ attitudes

Introduction In the 1950s, the application of behavioral psychology in the field of second language acquisition (SLA) led to the audio-lingual method (VanPatten & Williams, 2014). Additionally, influenced by structuralism, language was seen as a set of building blocks ranging from the simplest ones to more complicated sentence structures (VanPatten & Williams, 2014) with no relevance to context or content (Lin, 2013, as cited in Kley & García, 2019) and with the view of language as a predefined set of rules with no relevance to practices or communicative events (Pennycook, 2010, as cited in Kley & García, 2019). Within these approaches, students were exposed to the target language, constantly imitating models of correct usage and receiving immediate feedback. Based on these, L1 “must be overcome in the process of acquiring a second language” (Kley & García, 2019, p. 19) as difficulties in SLA can be attributed to transfer which occurs when learners use their L1 in their effort to produce L2. Pan and Pan (2009) point out that the exclusion of L1 from EFL classes has found many advocates which have supported that the more the learners are exposed to the target language, the higher the level of proficiency they achieve. Thus “using L1 in the classroom deprives students of that valuable input” (Pan & Pan, 2009, p. 88) with possible negative effects be taken for granted. The aforementioned situation has gradually led to an oxymoron well described by Kley and García (2019) who indicate that although “the focus of classrooms labeled English as a Second Language (ESL), English to Speakers of Other languages (ESOL), or English as a New Language (ENL) is English, these spaces are undeniably multilingual” (p. 69) with the use of learners’ L1 being limited or strictly prohibited. Despite this multilingual dimension, when students enter their L2 classes “their home language practices are often disregarded and even perceived as a problem or challenge to overcome” (Ruíz, 1984, as cited in Kley & García, 2019, p. 69). Under these circumstances, long standing perceptions have been feeding policy makers’, educators’ and learners’ attitudes for years resulting in EFL pedagogy pursuing the so-called native speaker model overlooking the variety of ways English is utilized by people who theoretically fall into but in practice not always fit in the native speaker category (Kley & García, 2019).

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Additionally, it could be claimed that along with pedagogical implications of expelling L1 from L2 classes, there have been some social parametres too as the native English speaker is pictured as a “white, middle-upper class monolingual individual” (Kley & García, 2019, p. 69). In other words, to a great extent, the language is used as a means of social status and authority of one group over the other(s). While the idea of transferring L1 qualities into the process of SLA received connotations inadequacy under the influence of behaviorism and audiolingualism, different theories provided extra evidence to the beneficial impact of L1 in L2 learning. Cummins’s (1979) Linguistic Interdependence Theory is based on the idea that the linguistic systems one has acquired do not exist in isolation. Cummins’s interest expands into practical implications of this developmental interrelationship and more specifically, how and to what extent it influences bilingual students’ cognitive and academic progress. Moving a step further, he constructed the Developmental Interdependence Hypothesis according to which “the level of L2 competence which a bilingual child attains is partially a function of the type of competence the child has developed in L1 at the time when intensive exposure to L2 begins” (Cummins, 1979, p. 233). Cook (1991) who introduced the term multi-competence, claims that bilingualism activates “the whole mind of the speaker, not simply their first language (L1) or their second” (Cook, 1991 in Cook, 2016, para. 2) and firmly states that hard as someone might try to operate as a native speaker of another language, by default they can never become one. Accordingly, the view of L2 learners as “emergent bilinguals” (Kley & García, 2019, p. 70), instead of trying to achieve the unrealistic goal of the native speaker model, has gradually gained ground.

Translanguaging: An Alternative Approach to EFL Pedagogy Translanguaging originally emerged to cater for the demands of bilingual and ESL education. Williams (1994, as cited in Lee, 2021; Kley & Garcia, 2019; Yang & Peng, 2019; Conteh, 2018; Wei, 2018; Nagy, 2018; García & Lin, 2016; García & Wei, 2015) coined the Welsh term, trawsieithu, later translated into translanguaging by Baker (2001, as cited in Yang &Peng, 2019; Lee, 2021). The term was used to describe a strategy observed in Wales where, in an attempt to revitalize the Welsh language through formal education, both English and Welsh were in use during the same session (Yang & Peng, 2019). Therefore, according to Baker, translanguaging can be conceptualized as “the

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process of making meaning, shaping experiences, gaining and understanding knowledge through the use of two languages” (Yang & Peng, 2019, p. 1149; Nagy, 2018, p. 42). Translanguaging sees languages as something overlapping (Nagy, 2018) and provides a framework of when, where, why and with whom to use the one or the other linguistic feature so as to perform in accordance with the social norms (Kley & García, 2019, p. 73). Lewis et al., (2012, cited in Garcia & Lin, 2016) indicates the reinforcing power of translanguaging when two or more languages are utilized to support students’ understanding and performance. Thus, it can be proposed that translanguaging can be beneficial not only to bilingual education but equally to EFL pedagogy which is related to languages being taught in an educational context but not spoken within the community serving purposes (mostly educational, professional) that go beyond daily communication within the members of the community. Therefore, translanguaging can be considered an essential attribute to the contemporary L2 pedagogy resolving many of the issues related to L1/L2 debate which have beset L2 education both in terms of practices and attitudes. It comes to show in practice that the benefits of L1 and L2 (or L3, L4…) coexisting in the learners’ minds are multidimensional. First of all, such constant unobstructed linguistic interaction allows learners to utilize the whole range of their linguistic repertoire making learning more meaningful and students feel more confident. It also re-conceptualizes the general purpose of L2 education which should be viewed as to developing and empowering learners’ bi-/multilingual identity instead of transforming them into monolinguals or at least attempting to reach the native speakers’ standards. Translanguaging is a paradigm and approach sets the identity of L2 learners’ and the role of L2 teachers’ on new bases.

Developing a Framework of Using Translanguaging in EFL Reading Classes The following part of this chapter attempts to present how translanguaging can be mostly beneficial for the EFL learners concerning content schemata activation in reading classes. In order to incorporating a translanguaging approach to activate and develop content schemata, teachers should design a specific framework according to which: 1. Translanguaging activities are designed to serve to support and maximize students’ engagement and comprehension. Although EFL

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teachers have to focus on accuracy (especially in exam preparation classes), they should equally work with students “to explore concepts, add to their knowledge, make connections between ideas and to help them make their voices heard by others” (What is translanguaging?, 2016, para. 4). In this view, teachers should not provide students with ready-to-use solutions to ease any difficulty related to L2 learning. By no means does translanguaging suggest eliminating focus language activities in which students have to contribute exclusively in L2 (Hamman, Beck & Donaldson, 2018). It rather proposes that, translanguaging in schemata activation activities should be viewed as a practice that allows teachers to encourage their students to enrich L2 learning retrieving information in L1 (for example, discuss and survey a topic in L1 as a pre-reading activity), and then read about it in L2 (while-reading stage). 2. Translanguaging promotes interaction and inclusion. EFL classes (like all educational settings) can be very diverse environments. Differences related to students’ family, social and educational backgrounds can influence their level of textual understanding, despite their language proficiency. Additionally, although EFL classes are supposed to include students of the same level, fluctuations in their performance are still evident. In this case, educators should remember that low L2 proficiency students might be well knowledgeable about a wide range of topics, but held back by linguistic barriers and obstacles that should be overcome. Allocating translanguaging activities that are designed for groups/pairs (rather than asking students to work independently), can help all learners be successful and useful (Celic & Seltzer, 2013). Therefore, translanguaging can narrow possible discrepancies creating inclusive educational environments where each student has each own opportunities to get involved and contribute to the lesson leveraging their L1 linguistic background.

Developing Content Schemata Translanguaging Activities As already mentioned, translanguaging can be beneficial to L2 students of different levels of proficiency. Although it could be originally asserted that it is mostly useful for less advanced L2 learners who need their L1 to scaffold their understanding, there are reasons to support more advanced L2 learners’

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involvement in translanguaging activities as well. In practice, it can be claimed that there is a greater need to translanguage at higher levels since it is at this turning point that EFL teachers are usually stricter against the use of L1 either because they overestimate their students’ L2 knowledge or because they are so worried about preparing them for high stake examinations that they take the absolute use of L2 for granted. Two possible scenarios might take place during a reading lesson: 1. The students might already have the relevant background knowledge which can express in L1, but still lack the necessary L2 proficiency to comprehend specific topic related texts or more academic or scientific topics (due to specific discourse restrictions related to academic papers or the extensive use of jargon relevant to a specific scientific field). In such cases, they can be encouraged to contribute to the introductory pre-reading stage of the lesson using their L1 in order to discuss the topic. 2. The students might be independent or proficient L2 users in general but lack the necessary content background even in L1 (because of their age, their social and educational background or their general interests). Although the former condition seems to be more probable in L2 learning, the latter can also be the case in B2 to C2 (Council of Europe, 2021) level classes due to the fact that the average age of students has plummeted while the expectations from these students (concerning the textual content) often remain beyond their age and their knowledge about the world. Practices such as providing students with the necessary background knowledge through less demanding texts or simplifying/adapting authentic resources, a complete list of the new vocabulary translated in their L1 or even the exact text fully translated in L1 can have instant results but do not actually help students increase their content schemata in depth. In addition, such approaches neither cultivate students’ critical thinking nor help them become autonomous learners and definitely do not serve emergent bilingualism. On the contrary, encouraging them to do their own research on the topic allowing the use of L1 sources in order to gain better understanding can ease their stress and enhance their confidence. Comparing L1 to L2 texts can help make connections between the texts and predict the meaning of unknown words while enriching subject knowledge in both languages. In any case, engaging students with pre-reading content schemata activities while encouraged to

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translanguage involves the subject matter being fully “processed and digested” (Baker, 2011, as cited in Nagy, 2018, p. 46) in order for the textual understanding to be maximized. Translanguaging practices can successfully be implemented to increase learners’ connection and involvement to the text even with proficient user of both L1 and L2. For example, teaching proficient (C1/C2) young adult Greek students analyzing a text about the importance of studying history, it is proposed to build on their L1 educational background as Greek high school students are taught about Thucydides and his idea about the importance of studying History (as described in the introduction of his History of the Peloponnesian War). In this case, it is considered mostly relevant and appropriate for the students to be given an excerpt from the original ancient Greek text and compare it with quotes of other historians about the importance of History. In this activity, students use their Greek linguistic repertoire to the fullest as they draw from their knowledge of ancient Greek as well. Equally importantly, it becomes evident that developing and functioning as emergent bilinguals is a lifelong process that happens in a continuum. It also shows the obvious that any linguistic knowledge can be employed to enrich the learning process as linguistic systems do not exist in isolation but they are in a constant flow and mode of interaction.

Teachers’ Role Applying Translanguaging through Teachers’ Transformative Learning García, Johnson, and Seltzer (2017, as cited in Kleyn & García, 2019) indicate that the implementation of translanguaging educational practices is related to three components: stance, design, and shifts which are closely affected by EFL educators’ perceptions towards their profession and their role in general. Educator’s stance “refers to their beliefs and ideologies” (Kleyn & García, 2019, p. 73) which determine whether and to what extent EFL practitioners are willing to acknowledge their students’ capacity and value as emergent bilinguals instead of struggling to raise their students to the unattainable level of native speakers’ proficiency. Next, educators should proceed towards meaningful changes which will put students in the core of the learning process and ensure that any pedagogical decision “stems from the speaker up and not

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from the language down” (Kleyn & García, 2019, p. 73). Finally, following suit with ideologies and decision towards meaningful transformations, EFL practitioners are expected to adjust their practices and re-design their relevant material in order to address their emergent bilingual readers’ needs. Allowing EFL students to trategically incorporate L1 in order to build their content schemata respects students’ right to draw from any linguistic resource available in order to meet the goals and aims of the lesson and increase textual understanding. Despite its necessity, the much-needed transformation is not a simple process. Mezirow (1978 as cited in Sifakis, 2007) first coined the theory of transformative learning (Richards & Lockhart, 2013; Sifakis, 2007; Gravett, 2004) which starts with the individuals (teachers) becoming aware of their current perspectives and attitudes (stance) and their results. Subsequently, it involves the decision to abandon the older idea or practice in favor of a new one that in turn will cause a change of action (Gravett, 2004). However, if transformation is to be initiated, it needs more than making educators aware of a problem and be presented with a solution. On the contrary, it requires people to be convinced that there is, indeed, a need for the transformation which means willingness and determination to reflect on old knowledge and practices using analytical reasoning and unlearn if they are proven ineffective (Gravett, 2004).

Adopting Reflective Teaching to Promote Translanguaging Even if it stems from conscious well-established decisions, the coveted shift towards emergent bilingualism cannot be expected to take place overnight. In order to incorporate new approaches, it is suggested that educators should adopt a reflective approach towards their methods. Richards and Lockhart (2013) define reflective approach to teaching as the process through which “teachers collect data about teaching, examine their attitudes, beliefs, assumptions, and teaching practices, and use the information obtained as a basis for critical reflection about teaching” (Richards & Lockhart, 2013, p. 1). Teachers are encouraged to examine the long standing traditional practices that would exclude their students’ L1 from their classes and reevaluate whether such approaches have actually been beneficial for all their students and succeeded in serving the purpose of establishing a solid basis for textual understanding and students’ engagement with the text. With this regard, teaching is a cognitive process in the sense that from the wide range of

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alternative approaches available, teachers choose “the ones they think are best suited to a particular goal” (Richards & Lockhart, 2013, p.78).

Conclusion The aim of this chapter was to explore the capacity of translanguaging as an approach conducive to EFL learning. Appreciating learners’ linguistic and cultural background, translanguaging provides L2 readers with authentic L1 material to make comparisons and reach meaningful results and conclusions in L2. In practice though, the theoretical evident and revitalizing approach of translanguaging crashes on long standing fossilized perceptions about the nature of EFL classes and teachers’ role. This inevitably leads to the crucial question about what should be done to actually see a wind of change in EFL pedagogy. The answer to this question lies to the need for general transformation of the prevailing attitudes towards the EFL pedagogy. Such transformation will eventually appreciate learners as emergent bilinguals. It is clear that unless educators (and other stakeholders) are willing to see the value of such transformation, the shift to translanguaging is doomed to fail. To conclude, strategically introducing translanguaging strategies can be the turning point to bring about a general transformation in EFL pedagogy creating a highly inclusive environment and offering ample opportunities both for students and teachers to demonstrate their learning and teaching capacities to the fullest. According to Kley & García (2019): Competent English speakers will result when the TESOL field sees students not as “second language” learners and speakers, but when they are allowed from the very beginning to use all their language repertoire to make meaning of the new features, and when they are evaluated not on how these new features are used in comparison with monolingual speakers, but on how these new features are used competently to make meaning […] (p. 79)

References Celic, C., Seltzer, K. (2019). Translanguaging: A CUNY-NYSIEB Guide for Educators. https://www.cuny-nysieb.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Translanguaging-GuideMarch-2013.pdf. Conteh, J. (2018). Translanguaging. ELT Journal, 72(4), 445 –447. http://doi.org/10.1093/ elt/ccy034.

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Cook, V. (2016). Premises of Multi-competence. http://www.viviancook.uk/Writings/ Papers/MCentry.htm Council of Europe (2021). The CEFR Levels. https://www.coe.int/en/web/common-eu ropean-framework-reference-languages/level-descriptions. Cummins, J. (1979). Linguistic interdependence and the educational development of bilingual children. Review of Educational Research, 49(2), 222-251. EAL Journal. What is translanguaging? (2016, July 26). EAL Journal. Retrieved December 12, 2020. https://ealjournal.org/2016/07/26/what-is-translanguaging/. García, O., & Lin, A. M. Y. (2016). Translanguaging in bilingual education. In O. García, A. M. Y. Lin, & S. May (Eds.), Bilingual and Multilingual Education (Encyclopedia of Language and Education), pp. 117-130. Switzerland: Springer. García, O., & Wei, L. (2015), Translanguaging, bilingualism and, bilingual education. In: W. E. Wright, S., Boun, O. García (Eds.), The Handbook of Bilingual and Multilingual Education, pp. 223-240. Wiley Blackwell. Gravett, S. (2004). Action research and transformative learning in teaching development. Educational Action Research, 12(2), 259-272. Hamman, L., Beck, E., Donaldson, A. (2018, September 10). A pedagogy of translanguaging. Language Magazine. https://www.languagemagazine.com/2018/09/ 10/a-pedagogy-of-translanguaging/. Hoadley, C. (2012). What is a community of practice and how can we support it? In: S. Land, D. Jonassen (Eds.), Theoretical Foundations of Learning Environments (2nd ed., pp. 287-300). Kleyn, T., García, O. (2019). Translanguaging as an act of transformation. In: L. D. de Oliveira (Ed.). The Handbook of TESOL in K – 12 (pp. 69–82). John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Lee, E. (2021). Translingualism in the teaching of English. In: P. Vinogradova, & J. K. Shin (Eds.), Contemporary Foundations for Teaching English as an Additional Language, pp.121-130. Routledge. Nagao, A. (2018). Can the EFL Classroom Be Considered a Community of Practice? IAFOR Journal of Language Learning, 4(1), 93-108. https://doi.org/10.22492/ijll. 4.1.06. Nagy, T. (2018). On translanguaging and its role in foreign language teaching. Acta Universitatis Sapientiae, Philologica, 10(2), 41–53. https://doi.org/10.2478/ausp2018-0012. Pan, Y., Pan, Y. (2010). The use of L1 in the foreign language classroom. Colombia Applied Linguistics Journal, 12(2), 87 – 96. Richards, J. C., & Lockhart, C. (2013). Reflective Teaching in Second Language Classrooms. Cambridge University Press. Sifakis, N. (2007). The education of teachers of English as a lingua franca: A transformative perspective. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 17(3), 355-375. VanPatten, B., Williams, J. (2014). Early theories in SLA. In: B. VanPatten & J. Williams (Eds.), Theories in Second Language Acquisition: An Introduction (2nd ed., pp. 17 – 33). Routledge. Wei, L. (2018). Translanguaging as a practical theory of language. Applied Linguistics, 39(1), 9–30. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amx044.

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Yang, Y., Peng, Q. (2019). Translanguaging: A new paradigm in applied linguistics. Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, 329. 4th International Conference on Contemporary Education, Social Sciences and Humanities (ICCESSH 2019). 1149-1153 http://doi.org/10.2991/iccessh-19.2015. 255.

Biographical Sketch Vasiliki Lismani Vasiliki Lismani (BA in Greek Language and Literature, MA in Special Education, MA in Applied Linguistics/TESOL) is a Greek language and an English as a Foreign Language teacher and researcher. Her interest focuses on teaching practices and the role of students’ L1 in teaching and learning English as a foreign language.

Chapter 3

EFL Reading Comprehension Competence of Primary School Learners in Germany: The Role of English Programmes and Language Background Karoline Wirbatz1,* and Julia Reckermann2 1 Institute

of English and American Studies, Goethe-University Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany 2 English Department, University of Muenster, Muenster, Germany

Abstract In this chapter, the findings of an empirical study dealing with the reading comprehension competence in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) of primary school Year 3 children in Germany are presented. The study focused on the variables EFL programme and language background. The results show that there is a correlation between the EFL programme and the learners’ reading comprehension competence. That is, the more extensive the EFL programme of a school, the better the reading comprehension competence in English. The second variable, a mono- or multilingual background, does not correlate with EFL reading comprehension. Yet, other factors such as gender and age, seem to have an impact on the results instead. The core findings indicate that more extensive English programmes should be supported in view of learners’ competences and that there seem

*

Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected].

In: Pedagogical and Research Perspectives on Language Education Editors: Isaak Papadopoulos and Elena Papadopoulou ISBN: 979-8-88697-841-4 © 2023 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

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Karoline Wirbatz and Julia Reckermann to be no disadvantages for learners of multilingual backgrounds in such programmes regarding EFL reading comprehension.

Keywords: reading comprehension, primary school, CLIL, learner variables

Introduction English as a foreign language (EFL) is an integral part of German primary schools today. In addition to regular English classes, the use of English in other subjects, usually referred to as bilingual teaching or content and language integrated learning (CLIL), has found its way into primary schools in Germany. In fact, the number of primary schools offering CLIL programmes has tripled from 2003 to 2014 (FMKS e.V., 2014). The advantage of bilingual programmes, for example, regarding learners’ motivation or learning outcomes, has been empirically grounded (e.g., Burmeister & Piske, 2008). However, only little research has been conducted concerning the impact of different variables on students’ achievement (Steinlen, 2018). For instance, researchers are discussing controversially whether and to what extent the variable ‘language background’ is associated with students’ foreign-language achievement (e.g., Wilden & Porsch, 2015; Steinlen, 2018). Particularly the argument that multilingual students should first learn German properly before participating in English programmes bestrides public debates (Wode, 2009; Steinlen, 2018). Moreover, only a few studies have investigated learners’ written EFL competences, since reading and writing are only ascribed a supportive function in primary school foreign language (FL) teaching (Elsner, 2010). The empirical study outlined in this chapter examined a possible connection between the variables ‘English programme’ and ‘language background’ regarding Year 3 learners’ EFL reading comprehension competence. In total, n = 123 students from five primary schools in Germany participated in this study, who took part in three different English programmes: (1) regular English classes with 2 lessons per week (non-CLIL group); (2) extensive English classes with three lessons of English per week (English+ group); (3) bilingual classes with seven hours of subject teaching in English or German-English per week plus three lessons of regular English classes (CLIL group). The learners’ EFL reading comprehension competence was obtained via a written reading test.

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The aim of this study is to uncover a possible connection between EFL reading comprehension competences and the variables ‘English programme’ as well as ‘language background’. Considering that reading comprehension is a complex construct influenced in many different ways, further background variables were taken into consideration as well.

Literature Review: Theoretical and Empirical Background English Programmes in German Primary Schools After lengthy debates, the subject English1 became a fixed component in the curricula of all German federal states in 2006 (Schmid-Schönbein, 2008). Early FL learning, usually being taught two lessons per week, begins in either Year 1 or Year 3. In the federal state where this study took place, English lessons started in the second term of Year 1 with 2 lessons per week. In addition, many schools offer more extensive English programmes, e.g., after-school activities in English, an increased number of teaching hours or an earlier starting point. Those extensive English programmes can also take the form of using a FL as the medium of instruction in other subjects. In Germany, the latter is known as bilingual (subject) teaching2, where, generally speaking, one or more subjects are completely, or at least partially, taught in the FL; the latter mostly being English (Copland & Garton, 2014). A common criticism regarding bilingual (primary) schools is that they are ‘elite schools’ attended by a body of carefully pre-selected learners (Breidbach & Viebrock, 2012). For this reason, empirical studies should consider and statistically control for background variables of the participating pupils.

About (FL) Reading Comprehension The present study focuses on reading comprehension, which constitutes an essential part of reading competences. Further components of reading competences, such as reading aloud, reading rate, reading strategies or literary

1 2

Schools in the Rhine-area teach French instead of English. For a more precise differentiation between the terms bilingual (subject) teaching [In German, bilingualer Sachfachunterricht], Content and Language Integrated Learning [CLIL] and Immersion, see Reckermann (2018).

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competences were not considered. Reading comprehension means that the reader actively engages with a written text in order to decode its content and information by means of complex processes of meaning making (Steck, 2009). The understanding of reading comprehension within the scope of this study is subject to the model of FL reading comprehension from Diehr & Frisch (2010), which Reckermann (2018) has supplemented by components from Ehlers (2007) and Westphal Irwin (2007); see Figure 1.

Figure 1. The process of FL reading comprehension (Source: Reckermann [2018: 106]; largely based on Diehr & Frisch [2010]; supplemented by components from Ehlers [2007] and Westphal Irwin [2007]).

According to this model, reading comprehension is understood as the mental representation of a text as a result of parallel processes at the word, sentence and text level (Reckermann, 2018). These processes are in continuous interaction with the reader’s mental lexicon, world knowledge, reading strategies and his/her general text knowledge. They are influenced by the reader’s individual reading aim and reading motivation, his/her (selective) attention as well as the sociocultural reading context. The present study examines the variable ‘English programme’, which, looking at the model in Figure 1, could influence the learners’ FL reading comprehension at various points. Possibly, an increase in English input, e.g., via bilingual programmes, is related to a greater mental lexicon in the FL (Couve de Murville, Kersten, Maier, Ponto & Weitz, 2016 for empirical

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evidence). For this reason, learners could possess more lexical knowledge that positively supports the reading process. Furthermore, such learners could have developed more advanced FL reading strategies, since they may have gotten more FL reading practice due to more teaching time. In turn, this might also positively influence their general text knowledge, as they might have encountered a larger variety of FL texts. Also, learners taking part in bilingual programmes might have a greater thematic (word) knowledge, since they intensively dealt with content in bilingual subject teaching. Albeit that these suggestions are of purely speculative nature, it remains imminent that learners’ EFL reading comprehension competences may be influenced positively in more extensive or bilingual FL programmes. The second variable, language background, is represented in the abovementioned model through the mental lexicon. The mental lexicon of multilingual learners contains at least one further language in addition to the school language (German) and the FL (English). It is not possible, however, to predict in how far this possibly influences EFL reading comprehension. One should first and foremost examine whether a mono- or multilingual background stands in relation to the English reading competences at all.

Previous Research Various studies have shown that primary school learners enrolled in bilingual English programmes in Germany perform better than learners attending regular schools concerning EFL competences in general as well as concerning EFL reading competences (e.g., Piske, 2006, 2015; Piske & Burmeister, 2008; Zaunbauer, Gebauer & Möller, 2012). Studies in other European countries have come to similar results (Pérez-Cañado, 2012). The connection between the learners’ EFL proficiency in general and their language background3 in regular schools was investigated for primary school learners in a number of studies. These studies have come to differing results regarding the learners’ proficiency in English (see Keßler & Paulick, 2010 for an overview). The multilingual learners performed better than their monolingual peers in Rymarczyk’s (2010) study on EFL reading and writing competences, whereas they performed worse in studies conducted by May 3

This paper clearly differentiates between the terminology ‘language background/ multilingualism’ and ‘migration background’, since a migration background does not presuppose multilingualism and vice versa (also see Wilden & Porsch [2015]; Hopp, Kieseier, Vogelbacher & Thoma [2018]).

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(2006) and Elsner (2007) on listening comprehension competence. Results of studies explicitly carried out on mono- and multilingual primary school learners’ EFL reading comprehension are also inconsistent. Multilingual students achieved better EFL reading comprehension results than their monolingual peers in Keßler & Paulick’s (2010) study, whereby Wilden & Porsch (2015) results show the opposite. Paulick & Groot-Wilken (2009), in turn, could not establish a difference between the two groups. Numerous reasons are given attempting to explain these inconsistencies. First and foremost, the often-reported overlap of a multilingual background with a lower socio-economic status (SES) and the fact that the school language, German, does often not coincide with the multilingual children’s first language are mentioned (e.g., Keßler & Paulick, 2010). More recent studies, for instance Wilden & Porsch (2015) and Hopp et al., (2018), show that when controlling for various cognitive and family factors (e.g., SES), the variable ‘multilingualism’ does not seem to be of importance. In the context of bilingual primary schools, very few studies have hitherto dealt with the differences between mono- and multilingual learners’ FL reading comprehension. Steinlen & Piske (2013, 2014, 2016) and Steinlen (2016) could not ascertain a relationship between EFL reading comprehension and the learners’ language background. In Steinlen’s (2018) large-scale study (n = 370) multilingual children in the CLIL programme obtained better result in the reading test than their monolingual peers, whereas in the non-CLIL programme the monolingual children’s results were better. Research on the relationship between multilingualism and further variables, such as gender and social background, has only been conducted marginally in Germany. Hopp et al., (2018) have so far been the only researchers to investigate this in the context of regular primary schools. The findings show that the variable ‘language background’, whilst cognitive and social factors are statistically controlled for, does not have any effect on the students’ FL vocabulary and grammar development. No research has been done on reading comprehension. The correlation between language background and further variables in the context of bilingual primary schools has only been examined in the studies from Steinlen & Piske (2016) as well as Steinlen (2018). Steinlen & Piske (2016) were able to show that there are no differences between mono- and multilingual learners’ EFL vocabulary as well as reading comprehension when both groups possess comparable cognitive competences and are comparable in social variables such as self-estimated wealth and parental education. Steinlen (2018) did also not find a connection between EFL competences in

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general, nor reading comprehension in particular, and the interaction between multilingualism, gender and social background.

Research Design Research Question This study aimed to answer the following research questions: (1) To what extent does the EFL reading comprehension competence of third graders attending different EFL programmes differ? (2) What role does the variable language background play regarding the learners’ EFL reading comprehension competence? (3) Which variables are most important with regards to young learners’ EFL reading comprehension competence? Table 1. Background information

Gender Age Language background

Migration background SES

Non-CLIL (n = 31) Female: n = 17 Male: n = 14 M = 9 years 3 months (SD = 6.6 months) Monolingual: n = 10 Multilingual: n = 21 No: n = 7 Yes: n = 24 M = 4.38 (SD = 1.85)

English+ (n = 49) Female: n = 24 Male: n = 25 M = 9 years 0 months (SD = 4.10 months) Monolingual: n = 26 Multilingual: n = 23 No: n = 25 Yes: n = 24 M = 5.48 (SD = 2.21) [3 children did not answer]

CLIL (n = 43) Female: n = 18 Male: n = 25 M = 8 years 10 months (SD = 3.5 months) Monolingual: n = 28 Multilingual: n = 15 No: n = 25 Yes: n = 18 M = 5.57 (SD = 1.82) [7 children did not answer]

Setting and Participants The study was carried out in five primary schools, three of them with a bilingual or more extensive English programme. The schools followed different English programmes as outlined in Section 1, so that learners from

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eleven different classes could be divided into the three groups with a total of n = 123 learners, see Table 1. Table 1 shows that the distribution of female and male learners within the groups is similar. In regards to gender, the differences between the three groups are not statistically significant (F(2, 120) = 0.616, p = .542)4 . For the other four variables, a statistically significant difference between the groups can be determined (age: F(2, 119) = 6.590, p = .002**; language background: F(2, 120) = 4.077, p = .019*; migration background: F(2, 120) = 5.239, p = .007**; SES: F(2, 110) = 3.153, p = .047*). It appears that the CLIL group is at an advantage, since the learners are younger, have the highest average SES and fewer of them have a migrant or multilingual background. This advantage might have an influence on their EFL reading comprehension results, which will be considered in the analysis and interpretation of the data.

Research Instruments The data for this study were collected via a questionnaire and an EFL reading comprehension test. The questionnaire was filled in by the learners and collected data on the variables FL programme, language background, gender, age, migration background and SES5. The ‘Cambridge young learners English movers’ test’s reading and writing part (YLE-test; University of Cambridge, 2014) was used to determine the learners’ EFL reading comprehension competence at word, sentence and text level. For reasons of feasibility and practicality, only a sample paper of this test was used. To avoid difficulties with the English task instructions, a German translation of the instructions was added. The scoring of the test was based on the official scoring rubric of the sample YLE-test (max. score 40 points), with one slight modification regarding the spelling of words: In accordance with the curriculum (MSW NRW, 2008: 82), incorrectly spelled words that were still recognisable were taken as correct. This was also done to not test the learners’ writing and spelling competences, but to focus on the content of their answers and thus their reading comprehension abilities.

4 5

Low significance* p < .05; significant** p