Peace Pedagogies in Bosnia and Herzegovina: Theory and Practice in Formal Education 303126245X, 9783031262456

Table of contents :
Acknowledgements
Opening Editorial: Exploring the Landscape of Peace Pedagogy in BiH
Part I: Peace Pedagogies, Concepts and Contexts
Part II Peacebuilding Through Teacher Education
Part III: Peacebuilding Through Curriculum and Pedagogy
Part IV: Partnerships for Peace Learning
References
Contents
Part I: Peace Pedagogies, Concepts and Contexts
Chapter 1: Peace Pedagogies: A Review of Key Theories and Approaches
Introduction to Peace and Peacebuilding
Peace and Peacebuilding in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Peace Education: The ‘What’ and ‘Why’ of Peace Teaching
A Brief History of Peace Education
Approaches to Peace Learning in Formal Education
Peace Methodology for Teachers
Peace Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Peace Pedagogy: The ‘How’ and ‘Why’ of Peace Education
Pedagogical Terminology in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bringing Pedagogy into Classroom
Pedagogy, Andragogy and Theories of Learning
Peace Pedagogy Today
Different Pedagogies for Different Purposes
Peace Pedagogies and Peace Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Conclusions
Take-Away Messages
References
Chapter 2: Education as a Victim and Accomplice of Conflict: Historical Perspectives and Possible Ways of Strengthening Peace Pedagogy in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Introduction
How BiH Education Is a Victim and Accomplice of Conflict
Historical and Cultural Influences on BiH Education
How Can BiH Education Contribute More Constructively to Peacebuilding?
Recommendations
Handle Ethnic Affiliation Sensitively?
Promote Conscientization
Desegregate Education, Desegregate Whole Society
Strengthen the Role of Education Research and Call upon Educational Experts
Reclaim ‘Odgoj’ in BiH Education
Train Teachers in Critical Thinking, Intercultural Learning and Dealing with the Past
Take-Away Messages
References
Chapter 3: Approaches to Peace Education and Institutionalization of Peace Values in Formal Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Peace Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Initiatives to Introduce Peace Education Values Through Non-formal Approaches
Integration of Peace Education Values in BiH Formal Education
Institutionalization of Peace Education and Peace Education Policy in BiH
Conclusion
Take-Away Messages
References
Recommended Readings
Part II: Peacebuilding Through Teacher Education
Chapter 4: Preparing Future Teachers to Educate for Democracy and Human Rights: The Western Balkans Approach
Introduction
Teacher Education in Western Balkans and Bosnia and Herzegovina
Project “Preparing Future Teachers: Educating for Democracy and Human Rights”
Increasing the Teaching Practice and New Semester Courses
The Role of Mentoring
Effects of Covid 19 on the Project Activities
BiH Universities and Democracy Pedagogies
Conclusion
Take-Away Messages
Sources for Peace Pedagogies
References
Chapter 5: Integrating Critical and Intercultural Pedagogies in Teacher Education and Language Didactics
Introduction
Intercultural Education and Learning to Live Together in Bosnia and Herzegovina
The Role of Pedagogy in Intercultural Learning in Higher Education
Defining Intercultural Competences
Critical Approaches and Strategies for Teaching Intercultural Learning
Intercultural Pedagogy in Teacher Education Program at the University of Sarajevo
Conclusion
Take-Away Messages
References
Chapter 6: Fostering Inner, Interpersonal and Intergroup Peace Through a Gestalt Psychology Approach in Adult Education
Peace, War and Restlessness in Human Development
Peace Education as Adult Education
Gestalt Psychotherapy and Peace Education with Adults
Theory and Practice of Experiential and Transformative Learning in Adult Education and Peace Education
From Inner to Interpersonal and Intergroup Peace: Working with Shadow
Lessons Learned on Adult Education and Gestalt Psychotherapy as a Necessity in Teachers’ Peace Education
Take-Away Messages
Resources for Further Reading
References
Chapter 7: Teacher Identity as a Barrier and Bridge to Peace Pedagogies
Introduction
Theorising Teacher Identity
Mapping Teachers’ Identities
Identity Work
Teacher Values, Beliefs and Agency
Teacher Identities and Emotions in Conflict and Peacebuilding Contexts
Researching Teachers’ Identities and Roles in Peacebuilding: The Case of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Vignette 1: Milena
Vignette 2: Senada
Vignette 3: Bojana
Vignette 4: Jadranka
Teachers’ Identities and Peace Pedagogies
The Role of Identity in Teaching Controversial Issues
Teachers’ Roles in Reproducing Conflict Regimes
Strategies for Developing Teacher Identity: The Role of Teacher Educators
Conclusions
Take-Away Messages
References
Part III: Peacebuilding Through Curriculum and Pedagogy
Chapter 8: Peace in History Education of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Introduction
Remarks on the Educational System of Bosnia and Herzegovina and History Teaching
European and BiH Policy Frameworks for Peacebuilding Through History Education
History in Primary Education Policy and Textbooks
History in Secondary Education Curricula and Textbooks
History in Higher Education Curricula
Conclusions
Reflections on History Teaching in Practice and Alternative Voices as Vision for Peace
Take-Away Messages
Sources
References
Chapter 9: Teacher Reflections on Peacebuilding Through Mother Tongue Language and Literature Education
Introduction
My Orientation as a Teacher
Educating for a Peaceful and Intercultural Society: Some Peace Pedagogy Approaches and Methods
Nurturing Dialogue and Debate
Stimulating Critical Thinking Through Comparative Literature
Researching Global Issues Through Contemporary Literature
Exploring Multiple Perspectives on the Past and the Present Through Classical Works
Analysing Sensitive Topics Through Extended Essays
Drawing on Personal Emotions and Attitudes in Learning
Exploring Personal and Social Identities
Respecting each Other and Learning to Live Together
A Review of Peace Pedagogy Approaches
Responses of My Students and Community to Peace Education
Conclusion
Take-Away Messages
Resources
Chapter 10: Drama-Based Pedagogy: Theatre for Social Change in Classroom
Introduction
Educational Drama, Applied Drama or Theatre in Education (TiE)
The Need for Change and the Theatre of the Oppressed – Forum Theatre
The Power of TiE in Classrooms – The Importance of Innovative Approaches, Teacher Identity and the Role of Drama Educator
The Plays and their Pedagogical Implications
Conclusion: Contribution of Applied Theatre to Peace Pedagogies
Take-Away Messages
References
Additional Online Sources
Chapter 11: Peace-Based Education in Early Post-War Bosnia and Herzegovina: Insights from the Education for Peace Program (2000–2013)
Introduction
The Role of Education in Peacebuilding
Introducing Education for Peace in the Early Post-War Context
Distinguishing Features of the Education for Peace Approach
A Whole-Community Approach
Engaging Teachers and School Staff in a Reflective Process Before Introducing Teaching Techniques
Exploring Worldview Assumptions & Fostering a Peace-Oriented Worldview
Exploring Broader Peace-Oriented Concepts in every Subject of Study
Exploring the Nature and Dynamics of Unity in Diversity
Operationalizing Whole Community Engagement
Consultative Mechanisms with Teachers, School Administrators and Education Officials
Viewing Teachers as Collaborators during the in-Service Training and Support
Inclusively Engaging Schools and Education Authorities Representing Diverse BiH Groups
A Sustained Mechanism of Mutual Support Rather than Isolated and Short-Lived Events
Combining Theory and Practice: Training, On-going Input & Intergroup Contact
Echoes on Impacts
Conclusions and Recommendations
Take-Away Messages
References
Chapter 12: Peace Pedagogy in Intercultural and Interreligious Learning: Insights from the ETOS Initiative and SAPERE BiH Program (2014–2020)
Introduction
Theoretical Underpinnings for Peace Education
Research Design
Examples of Peace Pedagogy in School
Building and Practicing Intercultural and Interreligious Competences
Collaborative Peace Efforts and Bridging the Secular-Religious Divide
Philosophizing Together about Belief, Freedom and Truth
Personal and Societal Transformation
Challenges and Recommendation for Peace Education
Conclusion
Take-Away Messages
References
Chapter 13: Evaluating Intercultural Sensitivity among High School and University Students
Introduction
The Concepts of Culture and Intercultural Sensitivity
Research Design
Methodological Framework
Data Analysis
Results for United World College
Results for University student’s Population
Preliminary Discussion
Female, Urban and Well-Read Students Score higher on Intercultural Sensitivity Scales
Additional Data
Conclusion and Recommendations
Take-Away Messages
Key Resources
References
Part IV: Partnerships for Peace Learning
Chapter 14: Applied Learning for Peace: Experiential Pedagogies, Teacher Practice and Engagement in Higher Education
Introduction
Education for Peacebuilding and Citizenship
The Role of Higher Education and Student Community Engagement
Developing the University’s ‘Third Mission’
Student Community Engagement at the University of Mostar (2006–2008)
The Birth of Peace Education Hub at the University of Sarajevo (2018–2020)
Conclusion: Universities as Networks and Sites for Action
Take-Away Messages
References
Chapter 15: Promoting Peace and Intercultural Understanding Through Sustained Partnership: The American-Bosnian Collaboration Project
Introduction: A Brief History of the ABC Project
Evolution of the BiH and the US Contexts
Incorporating New Components (2010–2022)
Embracing Cross-Cultural Teaching
The Role of Reflection in Development of ABC Curriculum
Remote Learning during the Pandemic
Incorporating Action Research into Language and Culture Teaching
Findings from ABC Project Research
Concluding Reflections
Take-Away Messages
References
Closing Editorial: Peace Learning and Peace Action in Formal Education in BiH: From Romanticised Ideal to Orienting Paradigm and Achievable Objective
Review of the Key Contributions of This Volume
Listening to Diverse Voices, Holding Space for Dialogue
Promoting Systemic Change and Transversal Peace Pedagogies
Providing Evidence-Based Case Studies and Good Practices
Understanding Plurilingual and Intercultural Approaches to Peace Pedagogy
Some Themes for Further Consideration
Addressing the Gap Between Formal and Non-formal Education Initiatives
Equipping and Enabling Teachers to Teach Controversial Issues
The Limits of Tolerance
Reclaiming “Odgoj/Vaspitanje”: Pursuing Humanistic Values and Character Development in Education
Raising ‘Quality Education’ to Peacebuilding Standards
Recommendations for Policymakers, Teacher Education Programmes and Schools
Empowering Teachers and Youth to Exercise Peacebuilding Agency
Recognizing the Inadequacy of Old Models of Peace Education for the Youth of Today
Advocating for Systemic Integration of Peace Learning
Final Words

Citation preview

Larisa Kasumagić-Kafedžić Sara Clarke-Habibi   Editors

Peace Pedagogies in Bosnia and Herzegovina Theory and Practice in Formal Education

Peace Pedagogies in Bosnia and Herzegovina

Larisa Kasumagić-Kafedžić • Sara Clarke-Habibi Editors

Peace Pedagogies in Bosnia and Herzegovina Theory and Practice in Formal Education

Editors Larisa Kasumagić-Kafedžić University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Philosophy, English Department Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Sara Clarke-Habibi Georg Arnhold Program on Education for Sustainable Peace Georg Eckert Institute | Leibniz Institute for Educational Media Braunschweig, Germany

ISBN 978-3-031-26245-6    ISBN 978-3-031-26246-3 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26246-3 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Dedicated to all teachers and educators across Bosnia and Herzegovina who are daily at the forefront of actively working for peace.

Acknowledgements

The realisation of this book project would not have been possible without the friendship and collaboration of my co-editor, Dr. Sara Clarke-Habibi. I am deeply indebted to you, dearest Sara, for your knowledge, patience, expertise and support over the past three years which enabled me to persevere in my own deeply rooted ethical vocation of peace education and to re-discover the source of my motivation in the midst of the pandemic and some of the most challenging days shaping the global crisis. My deepest gratitude goes to Dr. Juliet Millican, from the Institute of Development Studies (Brighton, UK), who initiated the international research collaboration ‘Pedagogies for peacebuilding’ (2018–2020) between the University of Kigali (Rwanda), Sussex University (UK), Los Andes University (Bogota, Colombia) and the University of Sarajevo (BiH), which explored the role of peace pedagogies and higher education in peacebuilding and resistance. Participating as a researcher in this project served as a source of inspiration for the book. My deepest gratitude also extends to professor emeritus Dr. Adila Pašalić-Kreso, who inspired my interest in the field of intercultural education and who provided important suggestions in the preparation of this book. Special thanks go to my colleagues from the English Department of the University of Sarajevo, professor Selma Đuliman and lecturer Stephen Hefford, for their diligent proofreading of the manuscript. I am also thankful to Astrid Noordermeer, associate editor from Springer, for her support throughout different stages of the book development. Additionally, I would like to acknowledge the contribution of all anonymous reviewers who helped us sharpen our ideas and immerse ourselves more critically with some sensitive issues that have been integral to this project. Special gratitude also goes to my family, in particular, to my late father Ferid, my mother Amina and my sisters Amela and Lejla, whose emotional support, the values they infused in our family and their belief in me have continuously nurtured my spirits and motivation in this process. Lastly, I would be remiss in not mentioning my children, Isak and Dunja, whose childhood and love have kept me dedicated to peace values, and my husband Muhamed, whose patience and practical and emotional support throughout this journey have enriched this project with love and enabled the completion of this book. Larisa Kasumagić-Kafedžić vii

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Acknowledgements

I am deeply grateful to my co-editor, Associate Professor Larisa KasumagićKafedžić, for this wonderful collaboration. Our friendship, which started over 10 years ago, blossomed throughout the preparation of this volume. It was a joy to work with you, dearest Larisa, on this creative journey! I am profoundly indebted to my late professor and mentor, Dr. H.B. Danesh, for initiating me into the lifelong path of education for peace. It was with Dr. Danesh that I journeyed to Bosnia and Herzegovina after the war to work with schools, and from him that I learned about the deep psychological and spiritual dimensions of human development, conflict and trauma, healing and transformation. I am also indebted to Professor emeritus Madeleine Arnot, for training me as a sociologist of education, for honing my skills as a researcher and writer and for her invaluable advice on this book project. I wish to express my thanks to the Georg Arnhold Program at the Georg Eckert Institute in Germany for awarding me the 2021 Senior Fellowship on Education for Sustainable Peace, which enabled me to focus on my research and bring this publication into being. Special thanks also go to the anonymous reviewers of the volume whose constructive criticism, feedback and encouragement enriched our engagement with this project. I wish to thank my family, in particular my mother, Dr. Elaine McCreary, and my sister, Joanna Clarke, for their expert advice, editing help and moral support of my research, as well as to my husband and children for their encouragement. Last, but certainly not least, this volume would not exist without the incredible courage and engagement of the teachers and educators across Bosnia and Herzegovina, many of whom I had the honour of collaborating with and observing in action. I wish to express my profound admiration for their perseverance in raising new generations to be good humans, engaged citizens and active peacebuilders, and I hope that they will feel proud to see their work celebrated in this volume. Sara Clarke-Habibi

Opening Editorial: Exploring the Landscape of Peace Pedagogy in BiH

It has been 25 years since the Dayton Peace Agreement was signed, ending the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH). Since then, the country and its education system have remained divided along ethnopolitical lines (Pašalić-Kreso et  al., 2006; Pašalić-Kreso, 2009; OSCE, 2018). While scholars have extensively commented on the country’s political fragmentation and (dis)engagement with peacebuilding, including in the education sector (Perry, 2013; Komatsu, 2014), there has not yet appeared a comprehensive and reflective analysis of the development and application of peace pedagogies in BiH formal education over the past two decades from a professional perspective. The literature in this area has so far been piecemeal, reflecting, on the one hand, the manifold challenges and obstacles resulting from the war-induced ruptures, deep fragmentation and ethnic divisiveness of the country’s multiple education systems (Lanahan, 2016; Torsti, 2009) and, on the other hand, the efforts by civil society actors to foster changes in education through the non-­ formal training of teachers (Clarke-Habibi, 2017). Neither have explored the development of Bosnian approaches to peace education and peace pedagogies, nor whether and how such approaches could be more substantially and sustainably integrated into formal education policy and practice. A particular gap in the research which this volume seeks to address concerns the country’s teacher education policies, curricula and practices (Pašalić-Kreso, 2009; Kasumagić-Kafedžić, 2018). While there have been propositions for how the BiH education system needs to change in order to better reflect the values of a peaceful and democratic society (Council of Europe, 2016; Clark, 2010; Perry, 2013) and to improve the quality of teacher education generally (European Commission, 2013), lacking is a framework for how to shift teacher education programs and practices such that the needs of teachers for peacebuilding competences can be met within a system that is still deeply affected by the consequences of divisive ethnonationalist politics and narratives. The driving force for this book is our acute awareness that the need for such reflection is more urgent than ever, and that we as teacher educators and peace education scholars and practitioners have a responsibility to equip new generations of teachers and students with the vision, language, skills and tools

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necessary to actively engage themselves and others in building an open, intercultural and inclusive society. This co-edited volume Peace Pedagogies in Bosnia and Herzegovina: Theory and Practice in Formal Education provides a case study of how peace education and peace pedagogies have developed in BiH over the past two decades and what position they presently occupy within the formal education field. Through chapter contributions from both national and international researchers and practitioners, the volume offers interdisciplinary perspectives on educating for peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It addresses a range of theories, contexts, pedagogies and practices in formal education settings (schools and universities), including classroom curriculum-­based and extracurricular non-formal learning with students that link the learning environment to the community through such practices as student-led research, dialogue and civic engagement. Particular emphasis is placed on initial teacher education and continued professional development of teachers in social sciences and humanities; subject areas that easily allow the integration of peace pedagogies in their curriculum. However, illustrative examples from other curricular subjects are also highlighted.1 In BiH, there remains a tension over where peace ‘belongs’ in higher education. Traditionally, ‘peace studies’ are housed within the Faculty of Political Science, and anything related to education is housed within the Faculty of Pedagogy. This book argues that peace is necessarily an interdisciplinary field and that teaching in every department and discipline has implications for conflict and peace dynamics in society. One of the aims of this volume is thus to underscore the importance of examining the pedagogical dimensions of teaching generally, and in particular to help bring clarity to the range of peace pedagogical frameworks that educators and actors in related fields can draw upon for this purpose. Our argument is that peace pedagogy has transversal value: it can be incorporated into the full spectrum of subject areas across the curriculum at all levels of education and it has already been experimented with by educators in both entities and all cantons of the country. At the same time, the volume explores how the specific and still evolving historical-­social-cultural-structural context of BiH nuances how educators select, interpret and innovate approaches to peace pedagogy. It does so by addressing the fragmented political, institutional and policy structures of the BiH educational system and the uniqueness, challenges and contradictions that this context presents for peace educators. Chapter 2 of this volume provides a detailed overview of the fragmented political organisation of the country into two entities, 10 cantons and 1 district, each with their own educational structures and policies. We feel it important to underscore, however, that the political fragmentation of the country does not automatically generate entity-specific approaches to peace education or peace pedagogy. There are, rather, a diversity of approaches and practices across the  Formal ‘teacher education programs’ are defined as formal initial teacher qualification degrees delivered by university faculties of pedagogy, while ‘teacher professional development programs’ take a variety of forms ranging from Ministry accredited training workshops to non-formal, non-­ accredited NGO-led training workshops. 1

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country. While some readers may be interested in comparing policy frameworks across entities and cantons in order to explore the policy constraints and opportunities for peacebuilding through education, such an approach is not the focus of this volume, which is dedicated to teacher practices. Nonetheless, the contributions to this volume acknowledge the political structures and challenges of the BiH educational landscape, and educators in both entities and various cantons refer to their own contexts and the unique institutional, cultural and political challenges they face in the classroom. Other chapters provide empirical insights from multiple locations and practices across the entities. Cross-reading and analysis of the different contributions that we have intentionally gathered will provide the reader with many opportunities for comparative insights that the reader is seeking. In this way, the book carefully avoids presenting BiH as either a unitary entity or a polarised society and does not overgeneralise findings or conclusions based on single cases. Each of the empirical chapters is explicit about the context in which the research was conducted, the methods that were used to arrive at findings and how the conclusions pertain to the participants that were involved. The book thereby provides a broad and rich analysis of specific pedagogical practices of potential comparative value for education policymakers and practitioners both within BiH and in other conflict-­ affected and divided societies. Taken together, the contributions to this volume demonstrate why and how the grammars of peace in BiH are still in a state of flux and negotiation, and what the implications are for classroom practice and pedagogy. Chapter contributors address the historical context of education and pedagogy in BiH, including how the pre-war political and pedagogical grammar of ‘bratstvo i jedinstvo’ was reframed and reinterpreted in discourses of ‘coexistence and tolerance’ and was confronted by tensions between collectivistic versus individualistic notions of identity and community in the post-war transitional society. Teacher identities and intergenerational perspectives on the educational project of peace are examined by contributors who have lived through and researched the former Yugoslavian education system and the post-war educational reform process. It will be argued that citizens of BiH continue to experience forms of ‘identity crisis’ as layered (pre-, during- and post-war) generational perspectives, with their ethnoterritorial, ideological and experiential nuances, interacting on a daily basis in educational settings. Chapters explore the potential and the challenges of developing cross-border pedagogical initiatives, recognising that the histories and destinies of neighbouring countries in the Western Balkans are intertwined and that collaboration between communities within and beyond BiH remains a priority for sustainable peacebuilding. However, while ‘inter-ethnic’ or cross-community interactions often lie at the heart of peace education initiatives, this volume is careful not to blindly reproduce rigid ethnonational categories and labels that local actors often feel are imposed upon them. We consciously and intentionally avoid labelling the contributions of the authors as ‘Bosniak, Croat, Serb’ or ‘FBiH’ and ‘RS’ as we recognise these labels as political-ideological categories rather than empirically grounded and nuanced lenses on the field of peace education and peace pedagogy as practised by

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professional educators. Drawing on valuable theoretical contributions from other scholars in the field, we problematise the ethnicised tokenistic approach that many international actors and civil society organisations have insisted upon, which have had both positive and negative impacts upon the peacebuilding process in BiH. Chapter contributors have been invited to unpack the idea of ‘community’ as understood in relation to the particular interventions and studies they conducted, in an effort to encourage researchers and practitioners to reflect critically upon the assumptions that often underpin and are written into who is included in and who is excluded from a given educational initiative. Our book helps to piece together a common understanding of the threads that have been woven by various actors in BiH over the past two decades, providing an integrative vision that brings all the parts together. In this regard, we are doing some sort of ‘educational archaeology’. Our book consciously and deliberately moves beyond oft-repeated discourses concerning ‘three separate curricula’ and ‘segregated schooling’ in BiH that have so far dominated research on education in the country, in order to provide a more nuanced picture and analysis of schooling contexts and practices. We achieve this through highlighting local voices, initiatives and practices and by illustrating good examples of how classrooms are being connected to communities, teacher education programs and the continued professional development of teachers. Our aim is to bring greater attention to these ‘inside voices’, to the educators living in these challenging community contexts before, during and after peace education initiatives and undertaking this educational work. While we cannot represent all voices and perspectives within BiH in this single volume, examples are selected from multiple localities across Federation BiH and Republika Srpska that provide insight into structural and perspectival diversities between and within ethnonational communities, enabling the comparative analyses that justify our decision to call the book Peace Pedagogies in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Every chapter demonstrates how teachers are facilitating a social shift within their spaces of authority and agency that goes beyond exclusivist ethnopolitical narratives that permeate existing curricula and pedagogical approaches. Our goal is to help raise awareness of the importance of listening to and learning from local educators and strengthening mechanisms for formal teacher training, support and policy making. As co-editors, we acknowledge that many of the epistemologies and pedagogies promoted in BiH are deeply rooted in imposed Western concepts of postwar reconstruction and education. Rather than taking these constructs as ‘natural’ or ‘given’, the contributions to this volume engage critically with the terminologies of peace. Chapters seek to reclaim indigenous educational values and traditions in BiH as a valuable contribution to peace pedagogy, including the notions of multiculturalism and ‘odgoj’, that focusses on educating the soul and character of the person, even before ‘obrazovanje’, which focusses on educating the mind. Some of these educational traditions have been lost in post-war decades and even more so in the COVID-19 pandemic period. With the dominance of computer-mediated approaches in education and the fallout of the pandemic, we anticipate that reclaiming the human and relational dimensions of education will be a challenge in the coming years. Thus, in contextualising these terms and these values, we hope to recentre the

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relational dimensions of education in BiH and to push back against the dominant Western technocratic approach to peacebuilding language. The decolonisation of education generally and of peace education in particular is gaining in importance around the world and its potential value and risks in the BiH context are also examined in this volume. Our argument will be that decolonising perspectives can add value to the work of educators and teachers in BiH. However, in the post-war politically charged environment, we also acknowledge that calls for decolonisation can be (and are being) misused by some political communities to reject in their entirety ‘other’ perspectives, whether international or domestic, in order to remain ‘ethnically pure’. Thus, while problematising the imposition of Western notions of peace and peacebuilding, we will also problematise the apotheosis of the indigenisation of knowledge to the exclusion of multiperspectival dialogue, without which we do not believe that either BiH or the world can create or sustain peace. Some of the issues and tensions at the heart of this debate that we will touch upon include those of identity, power and equity in processes of knowledge production. Contributions to the volume are organised in four parts as follows:

Part I: Peace Pedagogies, Concepts and Contexts In Chap. 1, Larisa Kasumagić-Kafedžić and Sara Clarke-Habibi provide an overview of the international development of peace pedagogies and their contextualisation in Bosnia and Herzegovina, nuancing key terms and articulating key questions that will be further explored throughout subsequent chapters. In Chap. 2, Adila Pašalić-Kreso analyses current issues and problems within the BiH education system and policy context, advocating for a more active and systematic strengthening of peace pedagogies in order to tap more effectively into the potential of education as a medium of reconciliation. In Chap. 3, Eleonora Emkić provides an overview of the vast range of international and local initiatives that emerged in the post-war period with the aim of integrating peace values and peace education into the BiH education system through formal and non-formal practices.

Part II Peacebuilding Through Teacher Education In Chap. 4, Bojana Dujković-Blagojević leads us through the experience of Western Balkan countries that have been making important steps to modernise curricula for school education, discussing the specific role of future teachers’ education and the importance of networking in the areas of human rights, democracy and peace. In Chap. 5, Larisa Kasumagić-Kafedžić explores the unique opportunities that teachers have to become critical researchers, reflective practitioners and cultural

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mediators in foreign language classrooms, highlighting the particular value of integrating critical and intercultural pedagogies in teacher education. In Chap. 6, Mirjana Mavrak introduces a Gestalt psychology approach in adult education as a pathway to inner, interpersonal and intergroup peace which can also be seen as a process of self-awareness in the overall approach to adult education and teacher training. In Chap. 7, Sara Clarke-Habibi unpacks the notion of teacher identity and its role in the context of post-conflict peace education practice, using narrative analysis of interviews with teachers in Sarajevo, Mostar and Banja Luka to explore the challenges and transformations that teachers associate with educating for peace in contemporary BiH.

Part III: Peacebuilding Through Curriculum and Pedagogy In Chap. 8, Melisa Forić-Plasto and Bojana Dujković-Blagojević review some of the key challenges and opportunities for promoting peace pedagogies through history education in Bosnia and Herzegovina, presenting analyses of curricula, textbooks and examples from teaching practices. In Chap. 9, Branka Ljubojević offers a rich exploration of her classroom peacebuilding practices, drawing on her experiences with teaching in both the national curriculum and the International Baccalaureate program, highlighting how language and literature education can equip young people to develop multiple and critical perspectives on issues in society and their own role as social actors. In Chap. 10, Ida Karahasanović-Avdibegović presents practical methods for engaging students in transformative drama-based peace pedagogies in the classroom, drawing on the theories of Paolo Freire and Augusto Boal. Reflecting on the experience of two student productions which were performed in segregated schools throughout BiH, she explores the role of theatre in fostering social change. In Chap. 11, Naghmeh Sobhani provides a rich case study of the Education for Peace (EFP) project that collaborated with more than 100 schools and all 9 Pedagogical Institutes across BiH during the 2000–2012 period with the aim of incorporating peace pedagogies and themes into all curriculum subject areas. In Chap. 12, Zilka Spahić Šiljak and Melika Šahinović offer another rich case study of the ETOS Initiative and SAPERE BiH program which introduced ethical reflections using intercultural pedagogy, competences and methods in 250 schools from 5 cantons across BiH during the 2014–2020 period. In Chap. 13, Haris Cerić, Amel Alić and Sedin Habibović report on an empirical evaluation of intercultural sensitivity among highschool students in Mostar and university students in Zenica and Sarajevo, revealing important implications for the success of peace pedagogies in BiH.

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Part IV: Partnerships for Peace Learning In Chap. 14, Juliet Milican and Larisa Kasumagić-Kafedžić explore the potential for experiential, community-based education in Bosnian universities (Mostar and Sarajevo) aimed at learning about peace, citizenship, democracy and difference, demonstrating the potential of community engagement in nurturing the agency of prospective teachers to foster a culture of peace. In Chap. 15, Larisa Kasumagić-Kafedžić, Paula M. Pickering and Ethan Brown highlight the unique characteristics of the 23-year-long American-Bosnian Collaboration (ABC) project which combines non-formal education with inter-­ institutional, intercultural, intergenerational, school-community and student-­ researcher collaboration to promote a culture of peace and intercultural understanding among Bosnian youth. In the closing editorial, we as co-editors reflect in a meta-analytical manner on the contributions and issues raised in this volume and point to some directions for further research, practice and policy development. Synergies, tensions and innovations in peace pedagogical practice and research are highlighted. We appreciate each of the contributions that have been made by our colleagues, all the while recognising that they represent different perspectives that may or may not fully align with our own. Nevertheless, these perspectives are important reflections on BiH society and educational practice today, and it is in the spirit of dialogue and mutual learning that we bring them together in this volume. University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina Georg Eckert Institute Braunschweig, Germany

Larisa Kasumagić-Kafedžić

Sara Clarke-Habibi

References Clark, J.  N. (2010). Education in Bosnia-Hercegovina: The case for root-and-branch reform. Journal of Human Rights, 9(3), 344–362. https://doi.org/10.1080/14754835.2010.501269 Council of Europe (2016). Competences for democratic culture- Living together as equals in culturally diverse democratic societies. European Commission. (2013). Teacher education and training in the Western Balkans: Report on Bosnia and Herzegovina. Luxembourg. Kasumagic- Kafedzic, L. (2018). Social and moral responsibilities of foreign language teachers in post conflict, fragile and fragmented Bosnia and Herzegovina. In J. Milican (Ed.), Universities and conflict: The role of higher education in peacebuilding and resistance. Routledge studies in peace and conflict resolution. Komatsu, T. (2014). Does decentralisation enhance a school’s role of promoting social cohesion? Bosnian school leaders’ perceptions of school governance. International Review of Education, 60, 7–31. UNESCO Institute of Lifelong Learning, Springer. Kreso, P.  A. (2009) The war and post-war impact on the educational system of Bosnia and Herzegovina.In Living together: Education and intercultural dialogue. Springer.

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Kreso, P.  A., Muratović, H., Jusović, R.  R., Trbić, Dž. (2006) National report  - Bosnia and Herzegovina. In The prospects of teacher education in South-East Europe. Pedagoška fakulteta. Lanahan, B. (2016). Post-conflict education for democracy and reform: Bosnian education in the Post-War era, 1995-2015. Springer. Perry, V. (2013). Classroom battlegrounds for hearts and minds: Efforts to reform and transform education in post-war Bosnia and Herzegovina. In O. Listhaug & S. P. Ramet (Eds.), Bosnia-­ Herzegovina since Dayton: Civic and uncivic values (pp. 225–246). Longo Editore. Torsti, P. (2009). Segregated education and texts: A challenge to peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina. International Journal on World Peace, 26(2), 65–82.

Contents

Part I Peace Pedagogies, Concepts and Contexts 1

 Peace Pedagogies: A Review of Key Theories and Approaches ����������    3 Larisa Kasumagić-Kafedžić and Sara Clarke-Habibi

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Education as a Victim and Accomplice of Conflict: Historical Perspectives and Possible Ways of Strengthening Peace Pedagogy in Bosnia and Herzegovina������������������������������������������   43 Adila Pašalić-Kreso

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Approaches to Peace Education and Institutionalization of Peace Values in Formal Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina������   65 Eleonora Emkić

Part II Peacebuilding Through Teacher Education 4

Preparing Future Teachers to Educate for Democracy and Human Rights: The Western Balkans Approach��������������������������   81 Bojana Dujković-Blagojević

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Integrating Critical and Intercultural Pedagogies in Teacher Education and Language Didactics ������������������������������������   99 Larisa Kasumagić-Kafedžić

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Fostering Inner, Interpersonal and Intergroup Peace Through a Gestalt Psychology Approach in Adult Education ������������  115 Mirjana Mavrak

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 Teacher Identity as a Barrier and Bridge to Peace Pedagogies ����������  137 Sara Clarke-Habibi

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Contents

Part III Peacebuilding Through Curriculum and Pedagogy 8

 Peace in History Education of Bosnia and Herzegovina����������������������  163 Melisa Forić Plasto and Bojana Dujković Blagojević

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Teacher Reflections on Peacebuilding Through Mother Tongue Language and Literature Education������������������������������������������������������  187 Branka Ljubojević

10 Drama-Based  Pedagogy: Theatre for Social Change in Classroom ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  207 Ida Karahasanović-Avdibegović 11 Peace-Based  Education in Early Post-War Bosnia and Herzegovina: Insights from the Education for Peace Program (2000–2013)������������������������������������������������������������������������������  227 Naghmeh Sobhani 12 Peace  Pedagogy in Intercultural and Interreligious Learning: Insights from the ETOS Initiative and SAPERE BiH Program (2014–2020)������������������������������������������������������������������������������  247 Zilka Spahić Šiljak and Melika Šahinović 13 Evaluating  Intercultural Sensitivity among High School and University Students��������������������������������������������������������������������������  267 Haris Cerić, Amel Alić, and Sedin Habibović Part IV Partnerships for Peace Learning 14 Applied  Learning for Peace: Experiential Pedagogies, Teacher Practice and Engagement in Higher Education ��������������������  291 Juliet Millican and Larisa Kasumagić-Kafedžić 15 Promoting  Peace and Intercultural Understanding Through Sustained Partnership: The American-Bosnian Collaboration Project������������������������������������������������������������������������������  315 Larisa Kasumagić-Kafedžić, Paula M. Pickering, and Ethan Brown Closing Editorial: Peace Learning and Peace Action in Formal Education in BiH: From Romanticised Ideal to Orienting Paradigm and Achievable Objective����������������������������������������  333

Part I

Peace Pedagogies, Concepts and Contexts

Chapter 1

Peace Pedagogies: A Review of Key Theories and Approaches Larisa Kasumagić-Kafedžić and Sara Clarke-Habibi

Abstract  This chapter introduces the notion of peace pedagogy and its evolution and diversification in comparative education contexts as a framework for teaching about and for peace. We explore the notion of pedagogy as both the “how” and the “why” of teaching, in contrast to the “what” of curriculum. Adopting an intercultural perspective, the chapter explores the important linguistic nuances and distinctions between specific terms such as ‘pedagogy’, ‘methodology’, ‘education’, ‘didactics’, and ‘teaching practices’ in English and BiH languages, and the resulting implications for how peace education is conceptualized and practised in the BiH educational context versus other contexts in Europe and North America. Pedagogy is brought forward as the ethos of teaching, defining its core aims and foundations in theories of learning and change, which shape the methods that are considered most effective in leading towards desired learning goals. The chapter thus clearly distinguishes between “peace education” and “peace pedagogy” and summarizes contemporary approaches in peace pedagogical theory, including critical pedagogy, intercultural pedagogy, feminist pedagogy, arts-based pedagogy, participatory pedagogy, inclusive pedagogy, reflective and democratic pedagogy, social justice pedagogy, nonviolence pedagogy, healing and reconciliation pedagogies. The chapter concludes with questions about the application of these different pedagogical orientations to the post-war educational context in BiH. Keywords  Peace pedagogy · Peace education · Theories of learning and change · Approaches to peace learning · Comparative education

L. Kasumagić-Kafedžić (*) University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Philosophy, English Department, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] S. Clarke-Habibi Georg Arnhold Program on Education for Sustainable Peace, Georg Eckert Institute, Braunschweig, Germany e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 L. Kasumagić-Kafedžić, S. Clarke-Habibi (eds.), Peace Pedagogies in Bosnia and Herzegovina, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26246-3_1

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Introduction to Peace and Peacebuilding Peace is an ancient, humanistic and universal aspiration which has both inspired and confounded human minds, histories and systems. Some of the earliest written records and legacies that cultivate, nurture and teach the ethics of peace and recommend the ways for achieving peace within oneself and with others come from the world’s religions that follow the teachings and wisdom of prophets like Moses, Krishna, Buddha, Lao Tzu, Jesus Christ, Muhammad, and, most recently, Baha’u’llah. Each of them has specific scriptures that promote the importance of peace in everyday life and that emphasise the values of embracing the diversity of the human race. Such religious teachings have paved the way for the vision of a more peaceful world and they continue to guide communities to strive towards the goal of nurturing peace. While these visions offer inspiration, they are also met with doubt and scepticism. The concern is that a romanticized portrayal of peace can obscure and neglect the historical legacies of violence and injustice which continue to shape barriers to peace, including various forms of prejudice, discrimination, harm, exclusion, injustice and denial throughout the world. Palaima argues that peace is an illusion, a mere period between wars when groups are actually preparing for the next war (Salomon & Cairns, 2010: 1). Nevertheless, the search for peace continues, as does the search for effective ways to implement peace education. Distinguished researchers and scholars have dedicated their lives over the past seven decades in search for best ways to implement peace, and the efforts continue with strong commitment and dedication of peace activists, peace educators and researchers around the globe. In the process, our understanding of “peace” has evolved. In his 1963 Letter from a Birmingham Jail, Martin Luther King Jr. first articulated the notions of “negative peace” as “the absence of tension” and “positive peace” as “the presence of justice” and as “a substantive peace, in which all men will respect the dignity and worth of human personality” (King Jr., 1992). Sociologist Johan Galtung elaborated on these concepts in 1969 and 1990, defining “negative peace” as the absence of direct violence, and “positive peace” as the absence of direct and indirect (structural and culture) violence, as evidenced by the presence of social justice, equity and harmonious social relationships. A sociological perspective tends to neglect the equally important psychological and spiritual dimensions of ‘inner peace’ which, in contexts affected by violence, play an important role in fostering conflict transformation, healing, peacebuilding and reconciliation. Clarke-Habibi (2018) has defined “inner peace” as “a state of psychological or spiritual well-being, despite the presence of stressors, resulting from integrative self-reflection within a mature framework of ethical values”. Together, positive peace and inner peace represent a fuller understanding of the collective and individual dimensions of peace and related processes of conflict transformation and reconciliation. While the structural analysis of notions of positive and negative peace is one of the unifying concepts in the field of peace education, other central elements include

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the beliefs that: (1) the process of education can impart in all students social “goods”, in this case, the skills and values needed for peace and social justice; and (2) once given the relevant information and experience, individual students can be agents in promoting local, national and international peace (Bajaj, 2008: 2). In her book Education and Peace, Maria Montessori spoke of the importance of having peace as a goal in education: “Peace is a goal that can only be attained through common accord, and the means to achieve this unity for peace are twofold: first, an immediate effort to resolve conflicts without recourse to violence – in other words, to prevent war – and second, a long term effort to establish a lasting peace among men (p. 27; in Duckworth, 2008: 34). She also wrote that “the questions of peace cannot be discussed properly from a merely negative point of view… in the narrow sense of avoiding war… Inherent in the very meaning of the word peace is the positive notion of constructive social reform” (Montessori, 1949: xi), which indicates that the approach to peacebuilding and peace education has to be proactive with a strong emphasis on acting for social change, and the methods teachers use need to be mirrored in the values that they advocate for through the curriculum. “Peacebuilding” refers to a wide range of strategies, actions and processes designed to strengthen ‘constituencies for peace’ and support structural changes aimed at longer-term peace, justice and reconciliation (van Brabant, 2010: 2). Such strategies range from support to psychosocial recovery, to cross-sectoral confidence and trust-building, to economic and political reform, to the promotion of transitional justice and longer-term reconciliation (Hamber & Kelly, 2005). Education is a necessary pillar of peacebuilding. As peacebuilding also entails the active furthering of social justice, peace education must also prepare students for this task (Duckworth, 2008: 34). Peacebuilding naturally intersects with the competency domains of intercultural dialogue, democracy, human rights, social justice, and historical justice  (Bajaj, 2008; Hantzopoulos & Bajaj, 2021) . This is why many different names are given to peace education interventions (e.g. Education for Human Rights & Democracy, Civic Education, Education for Multiculturalism, Education for Social Justice, Education for Inclusion, etc). Part of the reason why approaches to peacebuilding are so broad is because different disciplines (first philosophy, then political science, then environmental studies, then social psychology, more recently sociology, cultural studies, critical education research, peace linguistics, and returning again to psychology) have, over the past 60 years, shaped the evolution of conflict and peacebuilding theories, priorities, research and practices. Each discipline – speaking from its particular focus and respective order of magnitude – has redefined the aims of peacebuilding, highlighting unique challenges and opportunities for this work which scholars and practitioners are still learning how to combine in context-relevant and interdisciplinary ways. Too often, different disciplinary perspectives are often put in a competitive relation, each pointing to the limitations of the other in a way that delegitimizes their contribution. Interdisciplinarity is needed, as Hajir et al. (2021: 6) observe,

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L. Kasumagić-Kafedžić and S. Clarke-Habibi The theories of change that stem from these diverse disciplinary starting points differ, unsurprisingly, because the locus of intervention differs. While sociologists focus at the level of social structures (rules, systems, orders, institutions, policies, regimes, practices, etc.), psychologists focus at the level of intrapersonal processes, thoughts and emotions, and social-psychologists focus at the level of group processes, identities, attitudes and interactions with other groups and structures in society. Economists, political scientists, human geographers and disciplines beyond the social sciences likewise bring unique perspectives. A pressing challenge, then, in complex fields of inquiry and intervention involving human wellbeing in contexts of violent conflict, is to honour the distinctive purposes and worth of different disciplinary perspectives on the field…. Neither a psychological nor a sociological perspective on complex human crises would be fully adequate or responsive in itself; therefore, greater interdisciplinary respect and collaboration has to be promoted, so that the multidimensionality and interrelationships of human experiences and needs can be properly understood.

Rather than an ‘either/or’ approach, we argue that a ‘both/and’ approach is needed. Each discipline offers valuable perspectives that must be brought together in order to understand the human experience fully.

Peace and Peacebuilding in Bosnia and Herzegovina In Bosnia and Herzegovina, the notions of ‘peace’ and ‘peacebuilding’ carry a range of positive and negative connotations resulting from the country’s unique pre- and post-war experiences. On the one hand, any average citizen will say they prefer peace over war and will argue that BiH has been an example of multiculturalism and intercultural peace throughout history – indeed that peace is in the historical DNA of the BiH people. On the other hand, in the current social and political climate, many BiH citizens feel that the country is stuck in a form of “frozen peace” or in the state of “peace as war” (Pehar, 2019), that further encourages the war-oriented narratives and deepens the divisions. Indeed, an understanding of the concepts of peace and peacebuilding cannot be abstracted from the social and institutional challenges that have stemmed from the complexities of the Dayton Peace Agreement, BiH’s de facto constitution, which institutionalised ethnic segregation while mandating BiH authorities and citizens to create a common unified state. The significant role of the international community in shaping BiH’s Dayton Agreement and its post-war reconstruction and reform processes has also tainted the terms ‘peace’ and ‘peacebuilding’. While conscious of the need for international support during and following the war, many BiH citizens have also felt frustration and disagreement with the attitudes, approaches and behaviours of international organisations and actors claiming to help the country build peace. The meanings and implications of these concepts have thus been contested by local actors and communities. Critics of the international community have argued that the liberal peace agenda and its associated terms are foreign impositions. While those who favour peacebuilding feel that international interventions have fallen far short of promised outcomes, creating of BiH a hollow state which is neither at war nor at

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peace. The notion of ‘peace’ in BiH is thus often associated with false promises or naive aspirations that have led to great disappointments in the post-war period. Indeed, the contradictions inherent in the Dayton Agreement are still acutely felt. More than two decades after the war, the peace on paper and in peace agreement has yet to translate into peace that is integral to everyday life. Bosnia and Herzegovina remains a deeply divided and fragmented society. The resurfacing of nationalistic tensions in BiH after 25 years of post-war peacebuilding raises considerable concern. One ongoing tension concerns the question of who is responsible for bringing peace into being in the country. Broadly speaking, politicians and international actors are still regarded as responsible for leading peace processes and are often blamed for their failure to do so. Many people do not regard peacebuilding as a shared responsibility in which all citizens have a part to play. Another tension lies in the perception that ‘peace’ and by extension ‘peace education’ requires people to simply ‘forgive and forget’; that building a better future necessitates historical amnesia. Reactions against this tension have led to the entrenchment of narratives about historical victimhood among each of the ethnopolitical communities, reinforcing another great hurdle in the peacebuilding process. These tensions cannot be neglected in our exploration of peace pedagogies as they necessarily enter the classroom via the assumptions, opinions, assertions and hesitations voiced by both students and teachers. For educators engaged in community building processes, there is a sense of both urgency and responsibility to do more and better. Questions thus remain about the meanings and implications of “peace” in BiH and similarly divided societies. Some of the questions that we intend to explore within and beyond this volume regarding ‘peace’ and ‘peacebuilding’ include: • What should ‘peace’ in BiH look like? • How to educate so that every citizen feels responsible for promoting, building and maintaining peace in their society? • How to prepare teachers to address the controversies that are associated with BiH’s challenging but necessary peacebuilding processes? • How to move perceptions of ‘peace’ from a naive and romanticised ideal to an orienting paradigm/worldview, as well as a practical and achievable objective? • How to connect peace learning with peace action? • How to connect classrooms with communities and community leaders, so that learning leads to real-world community dialogue and transformation?

Peace Education: The ‘What’ and ‘Why’ of Peace Teaching Peace education is an umbrella term that refers to the “what” and “why” of peace teaching. It informs the contents of peace curricula and defines to a certain extent the expected cognitive and social competences to be acquired in the process of peace learning.

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Broadly speaking, the aim of peace education is to equip individuals and communities with the knowledge, values, attitudes and skills needed to collaborate on resolving challenges constructively and to build more inclusive, just and sustainable societies. In communities emerging from histories of mass violence, peace education also aims to lay the foundations for healing from historical harms, ensuring their non-repetition, restoring trust among former enemies and building a stronger basis for a shared future. Peace education is inherently multidisciplinary, drawing upon such fields as philosophy, education, history, sociology, psychology, literature and more to probe the nature and the origins of conflicts and to explore strategies and solutions for dealing with them. This can make finding a ‘home’ for peace education difficult, especially in higher education institutions which still maintain disciplinary silos. Sharing of experience, reflection and dialogue across disciplines is needed in order to gain holistic understandings of the requirements and implications of peace in all sectors of society. Approaching peace education as a traversal lens with applicability in all disciplines, including but not limited to ‘educational sciences’, is thus needed. ‘Peace education’ is one aspect of the wider project of ‘peacebuilding through education’, which recognizes that structural issues of educational governance, access, quality and provision also play a significant role in shaping peace and conflict dynamics (Novelli et al., 2015; Smith, 2010). This wider approach recognizes that it is not only what happens in the classroom that is important to peacebuilding, but what happens throughout the education system. Therefore, not only classrooms but entire educational systems need to be engaged in processes of change. Later in this chapter the link between peacebuilding through education and critical peace pedagogies will be discussed.

A Brief History of Peace Education Peace education has evolved rapidly over the past century in response to international and national conflict contexts (Burns & Aspeslagh, 1996). One of the first Europeans who used the written word to embrace peace education was Comenius, a Czech educator who, in the seventeenth century, saw that the road to peace was through universally shared knowledge (Salomon & Cairns, 2010: 12). It was only in the post-WWII period, however, that the “science of peace” began to develop in earnest to counteract the science of war that has produced so much mass killing (Harris & Morrison, 2013). The first college-level peace studies program was established in 1948 at Manchester College in Indiana, USA. Today, hundreds of university-level programmes and degrees related to peace research and peace education can be found around the world. There have been at least seven main influences on the development of contemporary peace education theory and practice: (1) World Wars (in particular, the Holocaust) and the human rights movement that followed (1940s–1960s); (2) Ghandian non-violence movement (1920s–1940s) and the civil rights movement

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(1950s–1960s); (3) liberation theology and Freirian critical pedagogy (1960s–1970s); (4) environmental movement (1960s–1970s); (5) alternative conflict resolution and (peer) mediation movement (1980s–1990s); (6) mental health and social healing movement that has gathered momentum since the devastating genocides and wars of the 1990s and 2000s, and most recently, (7) critical race theory and the decolonial movement. Each of these influences represent a shift in consciousness and praxis in response to particular challenges affecting the social and structural life of a particular region or the world context at that time, which have later been adopted into social change processes globally. Wintersteiner (2008: 4–5) explores how this evolution of discourses on peace education has essentially revolved around three basic questions and their implications: 1. What is peace? (By extension, what are the causes of human aggression, violence and war? What conditions enable peace? How can cycles of violence be broken? How can conflicts be transformed?) 2. What is the role of peace education in wider peacebuilding strategies? (What are the opportunities and limits of peace education in  formal and non-formal education settings?) 3. What should be the contents and methods of peace education? (How to address ‘big’ questions’ about violence and peace with children and young people? How can peace education contribute to the emancipation and empowerment of learners? How to establish a balance between the content-­oriented and learnercentred approaches?) To these three, we would add a fourth key question which shapes ongoing reflections on the nature and purpose of peace education: 4. What stage of conflict is the context experiencing and how can education best respond to the form(s) of conflict and violence that are present? To possess contextual relevance, peace education has to be adapted to the particular forms and effects of conflict that predominate in the local and national environment. In other words, while theoretical considerations of peace education have expanded over decades in the academic world, these contributions have emerged from the situated perspectives of peace actors. While the foundations of peace may have a broad applicability, certain issues and concerns will have priority over others in a given context and at a given moment. E.g., psychosocial concerns may be a priority in the immediate wake of violence, critical media literacy and critical citizenship may take priority in another phase, etc. What we learn from this short history is that peace education has evolved considerably from its early focus on “education for international understanding” in the postWW2 and later Cold War period. It has also evolved from its intermediate focus on the techniques of interpersonal conflict resolution and empathy, to look more systematically at the cultural and structural roots of conflict, violence and injustice (Galtung, 1990) that underpin the reproduction of these social ills from one generation to the next. On the significance of the ‘cultural turn’ in peace education discourse, Wintersteiner argues that it was necessary after recognizing that the creation

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of a culture of peace ultimately requires “changes in the cultural behaviours, deeply rooted ideologies and ways of thinking and acting” that perpetuate conflict and injustice. This, he asserts, is the true task of education. To this end, UNESCO championed the decade of ‘education for a culture of peace’ in the early 2000s, reaffirming the preamble of its constitution, “Since wars begin in the minds of men, it is in the minds of men that the defences of peace must be constructed”. Owing to this internationally promoted campaign, peace education found its way into schools and non-formal education settings around the world. In more recent years, peace education has been further influenced by both social and psychological responses to the wars and genocides of the 1990s and 2000s. While sociological perspectives on peace and conflict transformation continue to dominate peace education discourse, psychological and psychosocial perspectives have received an increased attention as Western neoliberal intervention schemes have in many societies confronted and ultimately failed in the face of long-term intergenerational effects of widespread displacement, trauma, psychosocial ill-­ health on personal and national narratives. While consensus remains elusive, the ‘mental and social health turn’ continues to gain importance in research and policy circles, not least because of the prolonged Syrian war and the consequences of the Covid-19 global pandemic on wellbeing in both stable and conflict-affected societies. Unfortunately, rather than conceptualising generational strategies for healing the deep wounds of violent conflict, widespread human rights abuses, social fragility and entrenched conflict narratives, international actors have preferred to focus on short-term, superficial models of emergency intervention which, time will invariably show, are inadequate to the needs of sustainable peacebuilding. While many of the “culture of peace” programmes during this period glossed over deep social injustices with slogans of tolerance and understanding, others turned to advocacy and social action in the spirit of critical pedagogy. As German peace educators Nicklas and Ostermann (1974) argued: One cannot be educated for peace: peace is a condition attainable only through social action. A capacity for peace action may perhaps be gained through the educational process.

To this end, some scholars regard the culture change as too intangible a target for peace education, arguing that attitudinal changes must be accompanied by policy changes if they have any hope of sustainability. From this perspective, the objective of peace education ought to be a shift in policies and practices towards an increased social justice. Advancing the notion of “critical peacebuilding through education” – a broad concept encompassing not only classrooms but entire education systems – Novelli et  al. (2019) offer the “4Rs” framework for sustainable peacebuilding which links together the work of Nancy Fraser (1995, 2005) on social justice, of Johan Galtung (1969, 1990) on positive peace, and John-Paul Lederach (1995, 1997) on conflict transformation. The 4Rs framework argues that four key conflict transformations are necessary to produce sustainable peace: redistribution (addressing inequities), recognition (respecting diversity), representation (encouraging participation), and reconciliation (dealing with injustices and legacies of conflict). In this view, it is insufficient to focus simply on classroom teaching and learning.

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Rather, it is necessary to look holistically at the education system and education sector using a critical conflict-sensitive lens and to make changes not only to curricula and instruction, but also to education governance, institutional cultures and policies. Interestingly, the Covid-19 pandemic has lent impetus to the search for positive peace. As in all sectors, discourses on peace education have also taken a deeper look at the gross inequalities, power imbalances and social polarisation that characterise global dynamics at present. Increased awareness of these enormous challenges lends an urgent moral imperative to finding ways to reduce barriers to equality, inclusion and justice. A critical perspective thus imposes itself in every peace educational context. Latest trends in the evolution of peace education discourse draw inspiration from critical race theory. Scholars like Hajir and Kester (2020) promote the notion of ‘post-critical peace education’ as a move towards decolonizing the disproportionately Western epistemologies (ways of knowing) upon which peace education practice has so far been built. In particular, they critique the convenience of blaming ‘structural violence’ as the root cause of social ills over taking responsibility for the action where it belongs: at the level of the individual, however socially positioned they may be, but especially among those who are ‘privileged’. Drawing on Boler (1999) and Zembylas (2015), they thus argue that educating for sustainable peace necessitates the adoption of ‘pedagogies of discomfort’ which challenge our cherished beliefs and assumptions about the world, creating a certain uneasiness as the necessary starting point for rethinking our place, our privilege and our responsibility in the world and in relation to others.

Approaches to Peace Learning in Formal Education Despite the significant developments in the conceptualisation and reach of peace education over the twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, it has not substantially taken hold in formal school systems around the world. Some countries, like Kenya1 have integrated peace education into formal education policy and teacher education practice. But such approaches remain rare. While peace education resources are readily available in almost all languages, a more systematic support to the education and training of teachers and for the mainstreaming of peace education in policy and curricula are needed for lasting effects to be visible in education. Attempts were made in the 1980s and 1990s to establish a common curriculum for peace education centred on components that reflected the field’s historical evolution. Toolkits and guides would point to the historic roots of international education, enumerate human rights conventions, highlight the urgency of planetary thinking  Peace Education Program in Kenya: https://www.peace-ed-campaign.org/the-peace-educationprogramme-in-kenya/ For other examples of policy integration of peace education, see: https:// www.peace-ed-campaign.org/category/categories/policy/ 1

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and environmental issues, articulate definitions of direct, cultural and structural violence, underscore the importance of breaking down prejudices and stereotypes, and offer ideas on teaching skills for non-violence, conflict resolution, and social activism (Harris, 2008: 19). But such efforts have also been resisted, for two main reasons. First, diverse worldviews, disciplines, theories and principles have shaped peace education discourse, leading to varied approaches over time. Second, the diverse contexts in which peace education programs are designed and the diverse forms of conflict, violence and injustice that are manifested in these contexts require tailored approaches to peace education. As peace education is highly dependent on the context and culture in which it is implemented, it has proven crucial to identify the specific educational needs of the population and to tailor the approaches, lessons and units to suit educators’ own contexts, experiences, capacity and confidence in dealing with certain aspects of peace learning (TWB Peace Education Program). Israeli educator Bar-Tal (2002) points to the realities of myriad differences which could be found in specific cultural milieus, the origins of the conflict and the important contribution of the educators: “Even though their objectives may be similar, each society will set up a different form of peace education that is dependent upon the issues at large, conditions, and culture, as well as views and creativity of the educators” (p. 35). In consequence, a rich diversity of peace education programs has been developed and promoted in various contexts. A shared feature of all these programs is their values-informed educational approach that aims to transform attitudes and behaviours in order to further the betterment of society. There are many different approaches to peace education and they take on different forms and shapes due to the variety of differences in contexts, cultures and conflicts (see Diagram 1.1).

Diagram 1.1  Educational movements sharing peace education aims

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While these different approaches are bountiful, there is also a tendency to regard practically anything and everything as “peace education”. Salomon (2002) points out the danger of this lack of disciplinary rigour and the need to professionalize the field. Indeed, professional standards, methods and tools for peace education must be created. Further, the associated competencies needed by peace educators must be defined and formally incorporated into teacher education programs if there is hope to support the effective integration of peace education across education systems. In this effort, it is important to distinguish between the symptoms and the root causes of violence in a given society when choosing the most suitable educational response. Haris suggests that each form of violence requires a unique form of peace education. He cites, for example, the distinct needs associated with peace education: in contexts of intense conflicts (focussing on demystifying enemy images and urging combatants to withdraw from warlike behaviours); in regions of interethnic tensions (focussing on multiculturalism and awareness of the suffering of various groups, promoting empathy and reducing hostilities); in areas free from collective physical violence (focussing on the causes of oppression within the society, the causes of domestic and civil violence, and initiating engagement with global issues such as environmental sustainability, nonviolence, poverty) (Harris, 2010: 15). Below are three illustrative cases of diversity of peace education approaches in relation to the unique features of the conflict context: Example 1: Storytelling and Multiple Narratives in Conflict Situations (Dan Bar-On, 2010) In this program, life stories are used as a means of creating collective identity and facilitating dialogue between groups. The program is based on the premise that life stories provide us with an opportunity to create a coherent self-presentation … and repeated tellings of our story allow us to introduce coherence into our constructed life stories even if it did not previously exist, as this is essentially the implicit demand placed on us by our social system (Bar-On, 2006; Linde 1993; in Bar-On 2010).

For the Jewish and Palestinian students who participated in this program, the process of facing their past and working through their traumatic memories was primarily related to acknowledging and listening to the stories of the Other and developing an ability to integrate these “foreign” elements of the stories into their own stories, with which they felt more comfortable with. Essentially, storytelling is used as a “method of encounter, interaction, and intervention for groups engaged in working through intractable conflicts as a transformative process” (Bar-On, 2010). The value of multiple storytellings, not only for nurturing empathy but even more so for challenging our assumptions that are so often built upon “a single narrative”/“a single story”, has been elaborated upon by activists of post-colonial epistemologies as well (Adichie, 2009).

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Example 2: Building a Shared Future from a Divided Past: Promoting Peace Through Education in Northern Ireland (Gallagher, 2010) This program is situated in the context of Northern Ireland that has been a society “marked by a deep fissure between its two main communities who are divided on the basis of religious, national and political identity” (Gallagher, 2010). As the education system in Northern Ireland greatly reflects the wider divisions and fragmentation in the society with two parallel school systems that are segregated on the basis of religion (for Protestant and Catholic children) the initiatives to introduce a promotion of shared future and the educational policy which aims to challenge the institutional barriers that have divided children and youth is at the heart of different actions and education activities. Such initiatives illustrate the positive potential of education and they exemplify the attempts of educators who provide their contribution for the common good of all children. Those stories also stand in defence of the importance of promoting peace, understanding and reconciliation in whatever educational spaces are available for educators despite all structural, political and institutional constraints. Example 3: Unity-Based Peace Education Program: Education for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Danesh, 2006, 2008, 2010) In Bosnia and Herzegovina, given the deep population-wide social and psychological wounds resulting from the war, as well as the continued post-war challenges, an Education for Peace (EFP) Program was introduced to schools beginning in 2000 which emphasized fostering a culture of peace and the culture of healing within and between communities. Employing a whole-school approach and by involving all participating actors in the educational activities, the EFP program focused on nurturing unity-based worldviews within and among participating schools. Long-term engagement with EFP over the course of 12 years provided compelling evidence that Education for Peace could have transformative effects in communities. It can therefore provide a good example for university teacher programs and schools of how to integrate peace education across both the formal curriculum and extra-­ curricular activities, as well as throughout the school institutional culture (or ‘hidden’ curriculum).

Peace Methodology for Teachers Such variation in peace education approaches can be demonstrated through the clearly stated decisions that need to be made when designing a peace education program. Diagram 1.2 below provides a form of generic “map” which demonstrates the different stages and steps to be analysed and reflected upon when considering possibilities of using specific peace education approaches or when designing a new approach that is context specific. While peace education programs have their own distinctive methodologies in context-specific environments, it is the teacher’s role to consider the intersections of

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Diagram 1.2  Decisions to be made in the process of designing peace education approach

those strategies when choosing their particular approach to peace education and peace methodology. In the diagram above, teachers are invited to think strategically about different stages of planning and evaluating their contexts when designing their own unique approach to peace education. These should mirror the social, cultural and historical context of their educational institution, be tied to their subject and topic, and reflect the teacher’s own conceptualization of peace and peace pedagogy. Such considerations will greatly inform the decisions to be made in the classroom. With peace pedagogical lenses the teacher would further identify the learning goals and outcomes that correspond to underlying theories of learning. This would then be followed by a selection of appropriate learning strategies and methods. After teaching one unit/module or series of sessions, the teacher would be invited to critically evaluate using assessment tools upon the realisation of the learning outcomes and teaching goals. It is the cyclic nature of the process of peace methodology that allows for critical evaluations, interventions and adjustments in the planning process, that enable teachers to be autonomous, reflective and responsive in different stages of designing their peace education approach.

Peace Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina In Bosnia and Herzegovina, peace education has been a site of experimentation over the past 25 years, some key examples of which, such as the EFP program mentioned above, are presented in this volume. The majority of these initiatives have taken the form of non-formal or co-curricular projects and programs often, though not exclusively, initiated by outside actors. Despite the great value of these peace education initiatives, few have been integrated into the BiH formal education system. Part of the problem stems from the fragmentation of the BiH political and educational landscape which has made it

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difficult to move forward policy changes in a consistent way across the country. Another part of the problem lies in the lack of consensus on where peace education belongs: both in relation to the curriculum itself and in relation to its home within university faculties. Should peace education be taught as a distinct subject or should it be integrated in a transversal fashion? Should peace education have its home in the Faculty of Pedagogy or should it be regarded as an interdisciplinary field? ‘Peace studies’ has traditionally been housed within the Faculty of Political Science, but here almost no attention is given to educational or pedagogical approaches to conflict and peace dynamics. One of our key arguments with this volume regards the importance of examining the pedagogical dimensions of how peace and conflict studies are taught, regardless of the department or discipline within which it is explored. One of the aims of this volume is precisely to help bring clarity to pedagogical frameworks that educators and actors in various fields can draw upon. Questions thus remain about the nature, purpose, methods and impacts of peace education in BiH. Some of the questions we intend to explore within and beyond this volume include: • What are some examples of peace education good practices in BiH that have been initiated in policy, curriculum, teacher education and classrooms? • How can institutional frameworks for the integration of peace education and peace pedagogy be improved and sustained in BiH formal education? • What peace education topics and methods are of particular relevance and value in the BiH historical, social, political and educational context? • What curricular integration model (e.g. disciplinary, separate topic, transversal, etc.) is best adapted and effective in the BiH context? • What systemic model of integration (i.e. from primary, through secondary, university and professional training) will provide the most coherent progression and consolidation of peace learning and skills development in the BiH context?

Peace Pedagogy: The ‘How’ and ‘Why’ of Peace Education Although the terms “peace education” and “peace pedagogy” are sometimes used interchangeably, distinctions between them are important. While “peace education” broadly refers to the “what” of peace curricula, “peace pedagogy” answers the question of “how” to go about peace teaching. Knox (2011) explains, In peace education, how we teach is just as important as what we teach. Pedagogy is thus the lens through which the peace education approach is regarded and also the form that the educational processes then takes, that is the teaching strategies, approaches and methods that are employed by peace educators. In every educational setting, peace educators should consider the content, structure, and form of what they are teaching. The pedagogical principles of peace education can be used in any area of teaching. The form of peace education includes pedagogy, but is also more than just the teaching methods used. It also includes elements such as the student-teacher relationship and communication style.

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UNESCO’s International Institute for Education Planning (IIEP) defines pedagogy as the “interactions between teachers, students, the learning environment and the learning tasks. This broad term includes how teachers and students relate together as well as the instructional approaches implemented in the classroom. Pedagogical approaches are often placed on a spectrum from teacher-centred to learner-centred pedagogy; though these two approaches may seem contradictory, they can often complement each other in the realisation of educational goals  – for example, a teacher-centred approach may be useful to introduce a new theme, while a learner-­ centred approach may be necessary to allow students to explore these ideas and develop a deeper understanding.”2 In a nutshell, pedagogy represents an ethos of teaching that encompasses the educator’s core instructional aims and foundational assumptions and theories regarding learning and change that subsequently determines which methods of teaching will be selected as most effective in leading towards the desired learning goals.

Pedagogical Terminology in Bosnia and Herzegovina When framing the content and purposes of this volume, we became aware of the fact that “pedagogy” has different meanings in different educational traditions. Adopting an intercultural perspective, we felt important to explore the linguistic nuances and distinctions between specific terms such ‘pedagogy’, ‘methodology’, ‘education’, didactics’, and ‘teaching practices’ in English and BiH languages, and the resulting implications for how peace education is conceptualized and practised in the BiH educational context versus other contexts in Europe and North America. In English, didactics3 (“didaktika” in the BiH context) is synonymous with teaching and instruction for any given field of study; it is usually teacher-oriented as it involves the reflections of gained teaching experience or a lack of such, and revisions of key theories of learning and teaching that are behind the science of instruction and which need to be considered when thinking through the foundational principles and different stages that are involved in the act of teaching a particular subject or a field of study. However, a didactic approach involves a very systematic, carefully chosen and well-rounded and informed approach to teaching. Pedagogy, on the other hand, focuses more on strategies, methods and various techniques that are closely related to teaching and instruction, and is usually learner-oriented and learner-centred as the decisions made by the teacher need to be directed towards catering for the educational needs of their students. This notion of pedagogy is most closely related to the BiH tradition of “metodika”. “Pedagogija” is more related to  https://learningportal.iiep.unesco.org/en  Didactics could be translated as “didaktika” (the science of teaching and instruction) and pedagogy is more related to “metodika” (the practical realisation of teaching strategies and practices) in the context of BiH educational tradition. 2 3

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the term “education science” or “pedagogical science” that is concerned with different aspects of the theory and practice of education, including “odgoj i obrazovanje,” in which “odgoj” is primarily concerned with infusing good virtues and humanistic values in the character of young children. To clarify further, both “odgoj” and “vaspitanje” are used in the Bosnian/ Croatian/Serbian language to refer to this important aspect of education in the BiH context. They both refer to values and character development that is systematically integrated into the curriculum and pedagogy in any subject. In literature that uses the translation from Bosnian to English the term “odgoj” is sometimes translated as “upbringing” to denote the process of shaping the child’s behaviour and cultivating humanistic and positive values. While this translation also captures the meaning of the term, in the context of education, schooling and curriculum, a more appropriate translation of “odgoj/vaspitanje” would be “values and character education”. In the Bosnian educational tradition “odgoj” has been at the forefront of educational paradigms and one of the primary goals of the curriculum. The most important responsibility of school was to systematically work through on supporting children and youth to fully develop their humanistic values and their human potential and to successfully overcome different stages of development and crises that define one person’s road to mature adulthood. The humanistic values associated with understanding the evolution of human beings were at the heart of strategies, methods and approaches used to successfully apply “odgoj” in daily teaching practices. Different domains of “odgoj” that overlap with the principles of peace education and peace pedagogy could be found in those areas that are defined as “social education” (socijalni odgoj) or “humanistic education” (humanistički odgoj) as they refer to “Education for living in a community” (Odgoj za život u zajednici), “Education for humane relations between sexes” (Odgoj za humane odnose među spolovima), “Education for nonviolent conflict resolution” (Odgoj za nenasilno rješavanje konflikata), “Education for peace” (Odgoj za mir, or Mirotvorni odgoj), or “Education for human rights” (Odgoj za ljudska prava) within the “Humanistic education” that some authors in the region (Bognar, 1999) define under the field “Metodika odgoja” that could be closely related to “pedagogy of values and character development”. ‘Odgoj’ as a practice went beyond school. Everyone in the community and extended family was responsible for ‘odgoj’, that is, for the character development of children. With the adoption of a culture of educational testing modelled upon Western, individualistic, competitive, competency-based, labour market-oriented reform frameworks, the value placed on ‘odgoj’ and its position in the BiH education system has been diminished. Indeed, since the post-war period in Bosnia and Herzegovina, education has mirrored the hidden curricula of the leading political narratives and educational policies that reflected deeply seated divisions in the society. The emphasis on “odgoj” has been marginalised and more preoccupation with knowledge of the “national group of subjects” (including History, Mother Tongue Language, and Religious Education), evaluation and testing, have taken over the curriculum and school realities.

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Bringing Pedagogy into Classroom Knox (2011) observes that while many teachers do not have control over curriculum content and the institutional structures in which they teach, they do have control over how they teach. She thus advises, If you find it difficult to integrate peace education content into your classroom, you can start with the form – the how of teaching – which can be applied to any educational setting, any subject or discipline.

She cites the work of Virginia Cawagas (2007) who has identified four key pedagogical principles in peace education that can be integrated into various educational settings: 1. Holism: Demonstrating that all issues are interrelated, multidimensional, and dynamic. Holism stands in sharp contrast to the fragmented way in which school subjects are often taught. A holistic vision allows us to see the complex relationships of different issues. A holistic vision involves looking at the temporal (past, present, future, and how they interrelate) and spatial dimensions (from micro to macro, and across sectors of society) of an issue. 2. Values formation: Cawagas writes, “Realizing that all knowledge is never free of values, educating for a culture of peace needs to be explicit about its preferred values such as compassion, justice, equity, gender-fairness, caring for life, sharing, reconciliation, integrity, hope and non-violence” (p. 302). Peace education involves teaching for these values in all educational interventions. 3. Dialogue: According to Cawagas, “a dialogical approach cultivates a more horizontal teacher-learner relationship in which both dialogically educate and learn from each other” (p.  303). Dialogue is a key component of peace education pedagogy. 4. Critical empowerment: Cawagas writes that “in critical empowerment, learners engage in a personal struggle to develop a critical consciousness that actively seeks to transform the realities of a culture of war and violence into a culture of peace and non-violence” (p. 304). Thus, through critical empowerment, learners develop a deeper understanding of problems, and are also empowered to take action to solve these problems. Critical empowerment also requires an understanding of power; in a system of inequitable power relations, empowerment involves reconstructing this system to one of more equitable, horizontal relations.

Pedagogy, Andragogy and Theories of Learning As teacher education is a process of adult learning, some may argue that the term ‘pedagogy’ (from the Greek for ‘leading the child’) only refers to what teachers do in classrooms with young people and that the term ‘andragogy’ (from the Greek for

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‘leading the man’) better represents how teachers themselves should be supported in their initial formation and professional development. Malcolm Knowles (1995, 1996) provided “the most articulate expression and understanding of andragogy from the American perspective” (Henschke, 2008). In brief, he outlined a learning theory based upon adults and their desire to become and/or to express themselves as capable human beings. This learning theory has six components: (a) Adults need to know a reason for learning that makes sense to them; (b) They have a deep need to be self-directing and take responsibility for themselves; (c) Adults enter a learning activity with a quality and volume of experience that is a resource for their own and others’ learning; (d) They are ready to learn when they experience a need to know, or be able to do, something to perform more effectively in some aspect of their life; (e) Adults’ orientation to learning is around life situations that are task, issue, or problem centered, for which they seek solutions; and, (f) Adults are motivated much more internally than externally. To best enable adult learning, Knowles (1995) proposed an eight-component design process, starting with: (a) Preparing the learners for the program; (b) Setting a climate that is conducive to learning [physically comfortable and inviting; and psychologically mutually respectful, collaborative, mutually trustful, supportive, open and authentic, pleasurable and human]; (c) Involving learners in mutual planning; (d) Involving learners in diagnosing their learning needs; (e) Involving learners in forming their learning objectives; (f) Involving learners in designing learning plans; (g) Helping learners carry out their learning plans; and, (h) Involving learners in evaluating their learning outcomes. This approach to learning shifts the role of the teacher educator from authoritative knowledge source to that of learning facilitator. As Henschke (2008) explains, Knowles (1990) indicated the crucial importance of equality, openness, democracy, realness, genuineness, prizing, acceptance, and empathic understanding on the part of the andragogue. The andragogical teacher/facilitator accepts each participant (student) as a person of worth, respects his feelings and ideas, and seeks to build relationships of mutual trust and exposes his/her own feelings regarding the relationship between the teacher and adult learner.

One of the causes of confusion and debate regarding the applicability of various ‘peace pedagogies’ is the fact that the field of peace education has not clearly articulated how adult learning “is in many ways different from the pedagogy of children’s schooling and upbringing” (Henschke, 2008: 147). Adults can quickly become bored or feel patronised if taught using methods designed for children. Children can feel quickly confused or overwhelmed if taught using methods designed for adults. Yet, no field of ‘peace andragogy’ exists. Meanwhile, literature in the field of ‘peace pedagogy’ refers to all levels of education, from primary to tertiary and beyond.

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In this volume, we do not make rigid distinctions between ‘peace pedagogy’ and ‘peace andragogy’. However, we do acknowledge that learning theories underlie each peace pedagogy and that, in order for peace education to be effective, the approach adopted in any classroom has to be suited to the developmental maturity and experience of the learner. For this reason, we provide a brief summary of different learning theories below (Table 1.1) that teachers typically use in their work and we discuss their implications for teacher education. We also acknowledge that as educational systems and pedagogical theories evolve, we increasingly see principles derived from adult learning theory becoming integrated into learning strategies used with adolescents and youth. Teachers of peace education sometimes explicitly and sometimes implicitly use one or several of these different theoretical and methodological approaches. For example, a teacher may use the “world cafe” method as a cooperative learning strategy to facilitate reflection and critical analysis of nonviolence concepts and how they relate to specific subject areas. Such methods are rooted in social and constructivist theories of learning, but the learning outcome is also framed within the understanding of the principles of transformative learning and critical learning theories. What often happens in real-world practice is that several of these theoretical and methodological approaches flow into one another and are used simultaneously. Using the language education field as an example, Kumaravadivelu (2001) argues that we now operate in a “post-method era” in which educators are no longer strictly bound to use only one approach. This opens up the teaching process to greater creativity. Nevertheless, knowing which learning theory one is applying remains essential to ensuring coherence in the subsequent selection of methods, outcomes and evaluation indicators.

Peace Pedagogy Today Internationally, peace pedagogies have evolved and diversified over the past 60 years as a set of frameworks for teaching about and for peace in response to shifting notions of the foundations and pre-requisites of a peaceful society. Several forms of peace pedagogy can currently be found in the literature. Though not exhaustive, we present in Table 1.2 below an illustrative selection of peace pedagogies with their associated educational aims, theories of change, instructional methods and desired learning outcomes in the form of peace competences:

Different Pedagogies for Different Purposes While this plethora of pedagogies is inspiring, it is also important to understand that: (a) there is no ‘one-size-fits-all’ approach for every peace education classroom; (b) the outcomes of these different pedagogical orientations can also be at odds.

Stimuli in external environment

Locus of control

Social roles Mentoring

Socialization

Models and guides new roles and behaviour

Interaction of person, behavior and environment Model new roles and behaviour

Fundamental change, transformative process, social change, real-world practice Internal change resulting in action

Adult, transformative and critical learning Knowles, Mezirow, Freire

Facilitates reflection and critical analysis

Reflective learning Self/directed learning Transformative change Acting towards social Perspective change transformation Reflective practice

Experiential learning

Facilitates and negotiates meaning with learner

Internal construction of reality by individual Construct knowledge Transformation and social change

Constructivist Candy, Dewey, Lave, Piaget, Rogoff, von Glasersfeld, Vygotsky Interaction with and Construction of observation others meaning from in a social context experience

Social learning Bandura, Rotther

Adapted from “Five orientations of learning” (Merriam & Caffarella, 1999: 264, with addition of the sixth column)

Self-directed learning

Andragogy

Cognitive development

Structures content of learning activity

Become self-actualize, autonomous Facilitates development of whole person

Affective and cognitive needs

Personal act to fulfil potential

Develop capacity and skills to learn better

Internal mental process (including insight, information processing, memory, perception) Internal cognitive structuring

Cognitivist Humanist Ausubel, Bruner, Cagne, Maslow, Rogers Koffka, Kohler, Lewin, Piaget

Competency- based Intelligence, learning, and memory as function education of age Skill development Learning how to learn and training

Produce behavioural change in desired direction Teacher’s role Arranges environment to elicit desired response Manifestation in Behavioural adult learning objectives

Purpose of education

Locus of learning

Behaviorist Guthrie, Hull, Pavlov, Skinner, Thorndike, Tolman, Watson View of the Change in learning process behaviour

Aspect Learning theorists

Table 1.1  Selected learning theories

22 L. Kasumagić-Kafedžić and S. Clarke-Habibi

Non-violence pedagogy

Developing intercultural sensitivity, and awareness, resolving problems from the perspective of cultural differences.

Intercultural pedagogy

Alvino E. Fantini

Milton Bennett

(continued)

Kingian philosophy of nonviolence

Facilitator, mentor, guide, NVC (nonviolent communication) participant

Engaging students’ inner Role plays work, creating safe and brave spaces for learning, Visualisation The purpose of nonviolent creating opportunities for Simulation communication is to help all experiential learning and involved to sharpen their awareness of language so that relationships with the other, raising the they can express what really matters to them, and also hear awareness of the what really matters to others. It classroom relational dynamics, transforming involves empathic commu­ nication whereby we can attune power relations. ourselves to both our own and other people’s real needs (Rosenberg, 2003, 2015).

Peace is not a passive term. Peace is an active struggle to combat social and economic injustices.

Games

Intercultural autobiographies

Developing intercultural sensitivity, developing intercultural communicative competences.

Coaching

Group activities

Role plays

Simulations

Instructional strategies and methods (examples)

Use of literature

Cultural mediator

Not the ‘sage on the stage’ but the ‘guide on the side’

Teachers’ role

Darla Deardorff

Recognizes the categorization processes related to the formation of stereotypes and prejudices.

Desired learning outcomes/ competences

Fred Dervin

Michael Bayram

Henry Giroux

Main contributors

Nonviolence is a positive force that Mahatma Gandhi cultivates loving relational dynamics in which violence does Martin Luther King Jr. not have a place (Bolliger & Wang, Marshall Rosenberg 2013)

Developing flexibility and adaptability in intercultural communication.

Cultivating intercultural attitudes (open mindedness, tolerance, respect, empathy) towards other cultures.

Aims and concepts

Approach

Table 1.2  Selected peace pedagogies

Aims and concepts

Dewey’s three democratic dispositions: all human beings are morally equal, we are all capable of intelligent and well-informed opinions, and we can solve any problem if we work collaboratively, (MacMath, 2008)

Approach

Democratic pedagogy

Table 1.2 (continued)

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

John Holt

Ivan Illich

John Dewey

Main contributors Democratic pedagogy aims for decentralisation of education in general. Democratic education also points to the empowerment of students to exercise autonomy, independence of thinking in learning and selfdetermination regarding students’ choices about learning. It is based on intrinsic motivation principles (Sheryl, 2008).

Desired learning outcomes/ competences

Teachers create space for introducing controversial topics and building interactions between different views.

Teachers support students to gain content knowledge about certain issues, they invite them to appreciate multiple viewpoints, and teach them how to build consensus.

To frame opportunities for debate, meaningful discussion, and consensus-building

Teachers’ role

Debates

Structured academic controversy

Civic engagement

Experiential learning

Socratic circles

Project-based learning

Self-directed learning

Self-assessment

Play

Study groups

Instructional strategies and methods (examples)

Aims and concepts

Involves the process of continuous critical reflection to foster self-learning.

Approach

Reflective pedagogy

Stephen Brookfield

Graham Gibbs

Donald Shön

David Kolb

Main contributors “The purpose of reflection is to learn from experiences… struggles, dilemmas, uncertainties, or breakthroughs.” (Amulya, 2004)

Desired learning outcomes/ competences

Teachers as reflective practitioners- constantly research their assumptions by seeing practice through four complementary lenses: the lens of their autobiography as learners of reflective practice, the lens of other learners’ eyes, the lens of colleagues’ experiences, and the lens of theoretical, philosophical and research literature (Brookfield, 1998)

Facilitators of meaning-making.

Teachers’ role

(continued)

Action research in classroom teaching

Portfolios

Discussion and dialogue

Self-monitoring and self-regulation

Critical reflections

Reflective practices

Instructional strategies and methods (examples)

Aims and concepts

Learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience. (Kolb, 1984, p. 38).

Approach

Experiential pedagogy

Table 1.2 (continued)

David Kolb

John Dewy

Main contributors As experiential pedagogy is based on constructivism, its main goal is to build understanding through the process of experience, inquiry and reflection.

Desired learning outcomes/ competences

Creation of praxis among learners

Challenge is to step back from the directive role to the facilitative role

Transitioning from content transmission to focusing on the process of learning, teamwork and development

Observation of learners

Participation as learners

Teachers’ role

Action-oriented projects

Project-based and task-based learning

Inquiry-based practices, learning cycles

Reflective observation

Active experimentation

Abstract conceptualization

Concrete experience

Instructional strategies and methods (examples)

Prioritising local knowledge

Arts-based pedagogy

Drama-based pedagogy (DBP) uses active and dramatic approaches to engage students in academic, affective and aesthetic learning through dialogic meaning-making in all areas of the curriculum (Dawson & Lee, 2018).

To turn spectators (or passive oppressed people) into actors (or fighters against oppression).

Arts as methods

Self-reflexivity

Importance of physical space to connect

Aims and concepts

Approach

Bridget Kiger Lee

Kathryn Dawson

Augusto Boal

Main contributors Teachers create space for the learners to make their thinking, reflection and learning strategies visible in different stages of the learning process.

Teachers’ role

Supporting learners to develop the inquiry-based approach to learning in order to make meaningful decisions in their daily lives.

Supporting students in the process of moving from the passive to engaged and active roles.

Integrating artistic expressions Nonlinear, intuitive, of learning and discovery with humanistic and holistic approach to teaching. the affective domains of learning into teacher development.

To engage students in learning through holistic and aesthetic approaches with the use of artistic expression to explore the issues of power, identity, injustice, inequality Robyn (2021).

Desired learning outcomes/ competences

(continued)

Drama-based instruction and activities across the curriculum

Traditional culture and arts

Music and sound in conflict transformation

Museum artefacts

Community theatre

Theatre of the oppressed

Theatre games

Drama in education

Theatre in education

Instructional strategies and methods (examples)

Aims and concepts

Participatory pedagogy aims to promote the ideals of equity, equality and co-agency with the aim of modelling this effectively within our classrooms so that it reflects and spreads across the school community and wider society (Simpson, 2018).

Approach

Participatory pedagogy

Table 1.2 (continued)

John Dewey

Paolo Freire

Betty Reardon

Main contributors An educator is a practitioner and at the same time a theorist whose primary orientation in teaching is learning while creating possibilities for others to learn.

Teachers’ role

Inquiry-based learning

Dialogue and problem- posing learning

Inclusive, highly interactive climate

Instructional strategies and methods (examples)

Research and reflection The participatory pedagogy relationship between teacher Participatory action research and pupil also requires some recognition from pupils themselves of their own The most fundamental capacity to participate and their aspect of the education responsibility to engage and learning process is the seriously (Simpson, 2018). role of the teacher as learner and the view of learning as a lifelong process of experience reflected upon and integrated into new learning in an organic, cyclical mode, a mode that is conscious of the relations between the inner experience and the outer realities (Reardon, 1998, p. 47).

For both Dewey and Freire, the main goal of education is to “attain socially just and democratic citizenry” (Breuing, 2011, cited in Simpson, 2018).

Desired learning outcomes/ competences

Inclusive pedagogy is a student-centered approach to teaching that focuses on the classroom diversity, learning styles, and abilities of all the learners. Inclusive pedagogy invites us to consider our choices around both the content we teach and the means through which we deliver it.

Inclusive pedagogy

Universal design for learning (UDL) is a teaching approach that works to accommodate the needs and abilities of all learners and eliminates unnecessary hurdles in the learning process. (Center for Teaching Innovation, Cornell University)

Universal Design for Learning (UDL) https://udlguidelines.cast. org/

Aims and concepts

Approach

Lani Florian

Mel Ainscow

Antony Booth

Main contributors Learning outcomes are improved for everyone when teachers attend to student differences and take deliberate steps to ensure that all students, across differences in academic and social background as well as physical and cognitive abilities, feel welcomed, valued, challenged, and supported in their academic work.

Desired learning outcomes/ competences Social identities of both student and teacher have a direct impact on the learning experience. Self-awareness is therefore an important point of entry into inclusive pedagogical practice. Instructors and students work together to create a supportive and open environment that fosters social justice and allows each individual to be fully present and feel equally valued.

Teachers’ role

(continued)

Promoting understanding across languages

Cooperative learning strategies

Using multiple media for presentation

Inviting/researching multiple perspectives

Removing barriers to participation

Instructional strategies and methods (examples)

Providing students with necessary knowledge, skills, and attitudes to formulate critical and analytical thought and to develop and nurture values to critically engage and work towards transformation and change in their local community and society.

Critical pedagogy

Also called:  Social justice pedagogies  Pedagogies of resistance

Aims and concepts

Approach

Table 1.2 (continued)

Monisha Bajaj

Mario Novelli, Alan Smith and Mieke Cardozo-Lopez

Nancy Fraser

Henry Giroux

Lourdes Diaz Soto

Christoph Wulf

Ira Shor

Betty Reardon

Paulo Friere

Main contributors Critical and analytic reflection and inquiry aids in “the discernment of power, an understanding and critique of the functioning of social institutions, knowledge and analysis of the structural dimensions of social life, and the impact of power, institutions, and structures on the quality of life” (Reardon & Snauwaert 2011, p. 3).

Desired learning outcomes/ competences

Critical discourse analysis

Critical (media) literacy

Community empowerment projects

Reflective learning strategies

Peer led techniques

Instructional strategies and methods (examples)

Critical educators attempt Teaching controversial and sensitive to demonstrate the issues inherent multi-sided nature of all situations, narratives, explanations, and truths. If students realize critical consciousness, then both sides should be examined (Giroux, 1989, p. 138–141).

Teachers are conscious of the political nature of social issues and critically address them by examining their underlying power dynamics (Freire, 1998).

Teachers’ role

Aims and concepts

“Authentic dialogue calls for the recognition that our identities and differences are not ontological categories but relational constructions within the colonial matrix of power” (Baker, 2012)

“Social justice necessarily requires cognitive justice, while cognitive justice requires dialogue.” (Baker, 2012)

Decolonial work aims to disrupt, problematize, challenge, and transform ongoing colonial oppression by taking up issues of race, critiquing the shortfalls of empirical sciences and colonial education models, and advocating for a resurgence in indigenous knowledges and epistemologies from the global south.

Decolonial pedagogy Emancipatory praxis and criticism of citizenship in education. It involves knowledge, experiences, feelings, and diverse bodies and cultures that break with the hegemonic white-western-male paradigm and ethnocentric views (IGI global)

Approach Walter Mignolo

Michael Baker

Main contributors

Teachers’ role

Helping students to ‘unlearn’, to question imposed narratives and epistemological Decolonial education therefore hierarchies. involves opening up the “How can teachers learn possibilities of teaching and learning subaltern knowledge to teach beyond the distorted cultural/ positioned on the margins or historical imaginary? borders of modernity. Decoloniality is an epistemic, What kinds of worldviews could schools ethical, political and promote along with what pedagogical project that kinds of epistemologies? involves both the denaturalization of the modern How can different and incompatible knowledge civilizational cosmology and traditions be joined the inclusion of non-modern together in the classroom systems and principles of for learning about the knowledge and categories of world, oneself, and thought (Baker, 2012). others?” (Baker, 2012) Decolonial education, according to Walter Mignolo, is an expression of the changing geopolitics of knowledge whereby the modern epistemological framework for knowing and understanding the world is no longer interpreted as universal and unbound by geohistorical and bio-graphical contexts. “I think therefore I am” becomes “I am where I think” in the body and geo-politics of the modern world system (Adapted from Baker, 2012, “Decolonial Education: Meanings, Contexts, and Possibilities’”).

Decolonial education involves learning to unlearn in order to relearn (Tlostanova & Mignolo, 2012).

Desired learning outcomes/ competences

Pluriversal education

(continued)

Listening to silenced histories

Re-embodiment and relocation of thought

Plurality and intercultural dialogue

Instructional strategies and methods (examples)

‘Engaged pedagogy’ problematizes bell hooks the division of the public and private in the role of the professor, and somewhat, the student to make a case for ‘self-actualization’ or well-being of the teacher so as to be able to teach in a manner that empowers students.

Feminist/engaged pedagogy

Main contributors

Aims and concepts

Approach

Table 1.2 (continued)

The mission of engaged pedagogy is to encourage students (and teachers) to self-actualise, to connect ‘the will to know with the will to become’.

Desired learning outcomes/ competences The role of the teacher is as a healer of the uninformed spirit; engaged pedagogy brings in narratives and personal experiences of both the teacher and students to decenter the teacher as the all-knowing, silent interrogator; embracing the challenge of self-actualization, which in turn is central to making their teaching a site of resistance (hooks, 1994, p. 21).

Teachers’ role

Resistance and transformative social engagement

Debate

Critical and reflective practice

Listening/sharing circles

Instructional strategies and methods (examples)

A form of social-political education that connects historical didactics with social and civic education.

Pedagogy of remembrance

The aim is to actively acquaint students with causes and effects of historical events, and, based on this knowledge, to responsibly create the future. The aim is also to critically and reflectively explore links between history, memory (individual/collective, unofficial/ official), commemoration, identity, and notions of an ideal/preferred society. Includes critical reflection on cultures of memory, policies toward the past from national and international perspectives, and what is included/excluded from school curricula.

Aims and concepts

Approach Tomasz Kranz

Hanns-Fred Rathenow

Main contributors

Formation of an open, intercultural identity.

Rejection of prejudices and stereotypes.

Critical analysis of received historical narratives.

Ensuring a combination of cognitive, affective, and pragmatic learning.

Debates

(continued)

Creative expression of confrontation with the past and associated feelings

Oral history methods/interviews with historical witnesses

Independent research & reporting

Engagement with historical media (artefacts, newspapers, photos, film, etc.)

Introducing procedures of historical research and principles of historical think-ing.

Awareness of key historical events, their precursors and legacies. Development of empathy, tolerance, and respect for experiences of people living in the past and today. Enabling access to a wide Recognition of one’s own range of materials and prejudices. Promotion of sources. dialogue between generations and nations. Supporting students as co-creators of historical knowledge through promotion of independent research, collaboration, critical reflection, sharing of views.

Visits to museums and sites of memory, with attention also to both cognitive and emotional aspects

Instructional strategies and methods (examples)

Fostering an active learning attitude, curiosity and critical thinking.

Teachers’ role

Familiarity with procedures of historical research and principles of historical thinking.

Desired learning outcomes/ competences

The aim of a pedagogy of healing is to address the psychological, social, moral/spiritual and structural wounds and legacies of collective trauma, in order to advance processes of resilience, peacebuilding and reconciliation. It begins with understanding the causes and effects of violence in human life and society, and then examines how t o create the integrative psychological and social conditions for post-traumatic growth, healing, constructive remembrance, justice and reconciliation.

Pedagogies of healing and reconciliation

Reconciliation pedagogy weaves place-based learning with critical pedagogy, remembrance, dialogue and social justice. It engages openly with emotions and identities linked to historical trauma, promotes empathy and witnessing, and engages in social praxis to (re)build relationships focused on repairing and preventing harms. Praxis-led reconciliation pedagogy aims at promoting change at the personal, community and political level.

The aim of reconciliation pedagogy is to bear witness to histories of violence and oppression, and to acquire a sense of personal and collective agency and responsibility towards repairing and rebuilding connections among divided groups and societies.

Aims and concepts

Approach

Table 1.2 (continued)

Yvonne Pratt & Patricia Danyluk (Canada)

Zvi Bekerman (Israel)

Michalinos Zembylas (Cyprus)

Jody Wilson-Raybauld (Canada)

H.B. Danesh (Bosnia & Herzegovina)

Main contributors

Shared ownership for remembering difficult histories within a narrative framework that focuses on the lessons which have been learned and on the moral and political commitments that are required to ensure a just and unified future.

Awareness of individual, collective and intergenerational wounds; how they shape worldviews, identities and social interactions; how to break cycles of violence and promote processes of healing and health, as a foundational for peacebuilding and reconciliation.

Desired learning outcomes/ competences

Dialogue & Advocacy

Oral history

Active and compassionate listening

Psychoeducation Historical witnessing

Instructional strategies and methods (examples)

To underscore our shared humanity and destiny, and thus the importance of caring for one another’s wellbeing and contributing to healing and justice.

To emphasize the power of choice in writing histories of the future.

Place-based learning To create space for listening to and expressing Community engagement emotions that link Critically reflexive practice historical harms with identities.

To help frame painful historical events and relations within a dynamic, moral, and agentic narrative.

Teachers’ role

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It is not given that each of these pedagogical strategies leads to the same understanding or vision of “peace”. One must therefore always ask, “What kind of peace pedagogy, for what kind of peace?” Some peace pedagogies are based on the assumption that to arrive at peace, it is necessary to first pass through conflict and contention, to expose and dissect the difference; thus, confrontation and debate are built into the pedagogical process. While other approaches assume that to arrive at peace, it is necessary to find points of connection, to integrate different perspectives into a common framework and narrative; thus, the search for transversal themes and the translation of otherness into ‘us-ness’ are built into the pedagogical process. The advantages and risks of certain approaches in terms of dealing with the past, for example, raise questions regarding the sensitivities and controversies associated with addressing difficult histories that have yet to be fully integrated into educational policies and practices as a result of either ongoing debate about the facts or a culture of avoidance and possibly denial. Two pedagogical strategies can be found in this respect which reflect either direct or indirect engagement with the controversy: (a) Direct/proximal approaches to controversial issues and difficult histories engage openly with local/national ‘place-based knowledge’. In BiH, this could represent, for example, direct examination of the BiH war and resulting social tensions, use of oral history methods within the family/community, exercising with students the competences needed to face, acknowledge and address the stories and legacies of intergroup violence. So far the direct approach is still limited and tentative in BiH formal education settings because of a lack of consensus on how to represent the 1990s war and its after-effects. (b) Indirect/distal approaches to controversial issues and difficult histories look indirectly at issues within the domestic society by studying similar problems in foreign societies. Drawing on international examples which remain at a comfortable distance can provide a gateway for reflecting indirectly on issues ‘at home’ that remain too sensitive to approach officially. For example, study of the Holocaust, apart from having value in and of itself, offers an opportunity to reflect indirectly on escalation of ‘othering’ and discrimination to the point of genocide, as well as the moral choices that ordinary people face in the context of extraordinary violence. Such indirect methods for gradually/gently approaching sensitive issues in BiH society remain the main approach for now within BiH formal education settings, second only to complete avoidance of difficult topics. American educator and philosopher Nel Noddings (1984) introduced one of the first comprehensive theories of care where she argued that caring is the foundation of morality, where relationships are seen as ontologically basic to our humanity, and in which identity is defined by the series of relationships that a child would have with other children and adults in their surroundings. Based on this educational philosophy, teachers would place a special emphasis on educating children to know how to care for one another, shifting thereby attention to the relational aspects of teaching and educating the whole child.

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Brazilian educator Paolo Freire (1968/1970) critiqued the common association of schools with mere technical training, rote memorization and passive knowledge reproduction which he called a “banking model of education” geared towards the reproduction of oppression, inequality and injustice in society. Freire argued for a problem-posing education that leads to dialogue and ‘conscientisation’, an awakening to the sources of oppression, and then to ‘praxis’, a critical engagement with the world in order to transform it. His ideas have inspired new lines of thinking about education and pedagogy that foreground possibilities for social change. As articulated in “Pedagogy of the Heart” (1997) he underscores that such transformative action requires “technical, scientific, and professional development as much as it does dreams and utopia” (p. 43). In “Pedagogy of the Oppressed” (1970), his proposal of a “theory of dialogic action” brings in a critical vision and a strong dedication and commitment for progressive ideas which are rooted in dialogic proposals to live with what is different, what is unknown, to live within a pluralistic world, with ethical responsibility to condemn manipulation and social injustice, and to continuously defend a universal human ethic that is also closely tied to teacher’s training. As he says: “The education of the teacher should be so ethically grounded that any gap between professional and ethical formation is to be deplored” (Pedagogy of Freedom, p. 24). Newer generations of educational theorists are adding to this repertoire of values-­ based pedagogies of relevance to the processing and transformation of conflict, harm, inequality and injustice and the consolidation of the foundations, knowledge, values, skills and behaviours of peace. Such peace pedagogies include, among others, pedagogies of love (hooks, Freire), as well as pedagogies of unknowing, of silence, of discomfort, of forgiveness and of reconciliation (Bekerman & Zembylas, 2011; Zembylas, 2007, 2012, 2015).

 eace Pedagogies and Peace Education in Bosnia P and Herzegovina In Bosnia and Herzegovina, several of the peace pedagogies mentioned above have been used within formal and non-formal educational contexts, but to different degrees and with different outcomes. As chapters in this volume will demonstrate, peace pedagogy remains a relatively new practice in BiH that has yet to be mainstreamed throughout the education system. At the same time, several important experiments with peace education (and by extension peace pedagogy) have been conducted with the participation of vast numbers of schools over the past two decades. These experiences have lent impetus to the development of new teacher education practices, both in the classroom and in pre-service training and in-service professional development, which merit consolidation and institutionalisation.

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Still, many of the advances in pedagogy that the field has nurtured have been largely ignored in formal education. Questions thus remain about the application of these different peace pedagogies in the BiH post-war educational context and their efficacy in terms of advancing the process of peacebuilding within and beyond the classroom. Some of the questions that we intend to explore in this volume include: • How to promote peace pedagogies in BiH schools and faculties? • How to equip future teachers with the knowledge and skills to integrate peace pedagogies into their teaching practices across the curriculum? • What role can school administrators and managers play in supporting the creation of learning communities within the school to encourage and support teachers in their experimentation with peace pedagogies? • How can peace methodologies and practices be infused into the school’s institutional and management culture? • Are there any risks involved in using specific peace pedagogies and peace approaches? • How can teachers be supported and adequately prepared to balance between their courage and will to integrate peace pedagogy and their concern to contain the risks of sensitive topics and controversies that are often tied to peace learning?

Conclusions This chapter aimed to provide an overview of the ongoing evolution of peace education theory and practice, and to offer initial insights into the specificities of education, peace education and peace pedagogies in the BiH educational context. We have articulated several lines of inquiry which the chapters of this volume will further develop. We hope it is already clear that peace pedagogy has had a place in BiH educational traditions through values learning and character development and it must reclaim and advance that position in the formal education system of today, both for the benefit of present and future generations of students and teachers, and for the advancement of educational practice as a whole. At the same time, the absence of systemic models of integration of peace education and peace pedagogy through all levels of formal and non-formal education indicates a slow progression of the institutional responses to building coherent and effective consolidation of peace learning, peace values and peace skills developments in the BiH context. Such practice is largely determined by complex political structures and a lack of vision for the whole education system that could be used as a transformative force to reform the educational practices in all levels of learning and teaching. The peace that is discussed in peace agreements and various peace initiatives in Bosnia and Herzegovina has not been fully translated into the daily lives of BiH citizens, BiH students and BiH educators, and it has not framed the philosophy of education since the educational system in BiH remains a mirror of a deeply divided society to the present day.

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Professionalisation of the field of peace education in Bosnia and Herzegovina must be initiated within formal education and the establishment of the associated competencies of peace educators must be framed in order to nurture the principles of effective and holistic peace education that could then be translated across different disciplines and fields of study. As this chapter indicated, education for sustainable peace requires educators to adopt “pedagogies of discomfort” which challenge our cherished and sometimes cemented beliefs and assumptions about the world, and it could be seen as the necessary starting point for peace educators in Bosnia and Herzegovina to revisit, redefine and reflect upon. Peace teachers continuously oscillate between their civic courage, on the one hand, by trying to respond to certain uneasiness in the classrooms as the necessary starting point in the process of change, and their own critical self-reflection of their authority, their fears, their concerns, their autonomy, their courage, their freedom, and their moral and social responsibility in relation to the world, their community, and the children they teach. The creation of those small in-roads in Bosnia and Herzegovina, of sometimes conflicting roles of teachers, within the formal education system, could be seen as the foundation stone for building a more systematic and institutionalised framework for peace education and peace pedagogy and those teachers who use their classrooms as spaces of opportunities to integrate peace pedagogy are illustrated throughout this volume. Their voices are crucial in recognizing that there is never a single story about any teacher experience, so the richness of the multi-layered dimensions of teachers’ struggles and insights is also crucial in understanding the “danger of a single story” within the practice of peace pedagogy in BiH. As education scholars we hope never to cease to integrate pedagogies of hope and heart in our classrooms, in our daily reflections and in our scholarly research and writing. “A scholar who cherishes the love of comfort is not fit to be deemed a scholar” (Confucius, The Analects, Ch. 14), and we hope we will continue to be brave to leave our own comfort zones as we grapple to contribute in framing the peace education as a mainstream approach to teaching and learning in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Take-Away Messages • Sharing of experience, reflection and dialogue across disciplines is needed in order to gain holistic understandings of the requirements and implications of peace in all sectors of society. Approaching peace education as a traversal lens with applicability in all disciplines, including but not limited to ‘educational sciences’, is thus needed. • Professionalisation of the field of peace education in Bosnia and Herzegovina must be initiated within formal education and the establishment of the associated competencies of peace educators must be framed in order to nurture the principles of effective and holistic peace education.

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• Peace pedagogy has had a place in BiH educational traditions through values learning and character development and it must reclaim and advance that position in the formal education system of today, both for the benefit of present and future generations of students and teachers, and for the advancement of educational practice as a whole. • While peace education programs have their own distinctive methodologies in context-specific environments, it is the teacher’s role to consider the intersections of those strategies when choosing their particular approach to peace education and peace methodology. • While peace education resources are readily available in almost all languages, a more systematic support to the education and training of teachers and for the mainstreaming of peace education in policy and curricula are needed for lasting effects to be visible in education.

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Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development (Vol. 1). Prentice-Hall. Kumaradivelu, B. (2001). Toward a postmethod pedagogy. TESOL Quarterly. Lederach, J. P. (1995). Conflict transformation in protracted internal conflicts: The case for a comprehensive framework. In Conflict transformation (pp. 201–222). Lederach, J. P. (1997). Sustainable reconciliation in divided societies. USIP. MacMath, S. (2008). Implementing a democratic pedagogy in the classroom: Putting Dewey into practice. Canadian Journal for New Scholars in Education, 1(1). Merriam, S. B., & Caffarella, R. (1999). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (2nd ed.). Jossey-Bass. Montessori, M. (1949). Education and peace. Henry Regerny. Nicklas, H., & Ostermann, Ä. (1974). Reflections on a curriculum of peace education. In C. Wulf (Ed.), Handbook on peace education (pp. 173–184). International Peace Research Association, Education Committee. Noddings, N. (1984). Caring: A feminine approach to ethics and moral education. University of California Press. Novelli, M., Lopes Cardozo, M., & Smith, A. (2015). A theoretical framework for analysing the contribution of education to sustainable peacebuilding: 4Rs in conflict-affected contexts. University Of Amsterdam, Available online: http://learningforpeace.unicef.org/partners/ research-­consortium/research-­outputs. Novelli, M., Lopes Cardozo, M., & Smith, A. (2019). The ‘4 Rs’ as a tool for critical policy analysis of the education sector in conflict affected states. Education and Conflict Review, 2, 70–75. Pehar, D. (2019). Peace as War. Central European University. Reardon, K.  M. (1998). Participatory action research as service learning. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 1998, 57–64. Reardon, B., & Snauwaert, D. T. (2011). Reflective pedagogy, cosmopolitanism, and critical peace education for political efficacy: A discussion of Betty a. Reardon’s assessment of the field. Journal of Peace Education and Social Justice, 5(1). Robyn, G.-L. (2021). Transforming conflict and displacement through arts and humanities: a research report by PRAXIS. Arts and humanities for global development. University of Leeds. Rosenberg, M. (2003). Life-enriching education: NVC helps schools improve performance, reduce conflict and enhance relationships. PuddleDancer Press. Rosenberg, M. (2015). Nonviolent communication: A language of life (3rd ed.). PuddleDancer Press. Salomon, G., & Cairns, E. (2010). Handbook on peace education. Psychology Press, Taylor & Francis Group. Sheryl, M. M. (2008). Implementing a democratic pedagogy in the classroom: Putting Dewey into practice. Canadian Journal for New Scholars in Education, 1(1). Simpson, J. (2018). Participatory pedagogy in practice: Using effective participatory pedagogy in classroom practice to enhance pupil voice and educational engagement. Global Learning Programme Innovation Fund Research Series Paper 5. England. Smith, A. (2010). The influence of education on conflict and peace building, background. Paper prepared for the Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2011, The Hidden Crisis: Armed conflict and education, Paris: UNESCO. Salomon, G. (2002). The nature of peace education: Not all programs are created equal. Peace education: The concept, principles, and practices around the world, 3–13. Tlostanova, M., & Mignolo, W. (2012). Learning to unlearn: Decolonial reflection from Eurasia and the Americas. Ohio State University Press. Van Brabant, K. (2010). Peacebuilding how? Broad local ownership. International Peace Alliance. Wintersteiner, W. (2008). Traditions and transitions: A European perspective on peace education. In IPRA conference 2008, Leuven, Belgium. Zembylas, M. (2007). Five pedagogies, a thousand possibilities: Struggling for hope and transformation in education. Brill.

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Zembylas, M. (2012). Critical emotional praxis: Rethinking teaching and learning about trauma and reconciliation in schools. In Critical peace education (pp. 101–114). Springer. Zembylas, M. (2015). ‘Pedagogy of discomfort’ and its ethical implications: The tensions of ethical violence in social justice education. Ethics and Education, 10(2), 163–174. Larisa Kasumagić-Kafedžić is Associate Professor at the University of Sarajevo’s Faculty of Philosophy, Department of English Language and Literature. Her peacebuilding engagement began during the war in BiH when she co-founded the organization Sezam (1994–1995) and worked on child war trauma, peace education and nonviolent communication with teachers and schools in conflict-affected communities. She is a 2003–2004 Cornell University Hubert Humphrey Fellow Alumni. She holds an MPS in International Development and Education from Cornell University and a Ph.D. in English Language Pedagogy and Intercultural Education from the University of Sarajevo. Her teaching, writing and research interests focus on intercultural, critical and peace pedagogies in teacher education and language and culture didactics. She is the founder and president of the Peace Education Hub, established in 2020 at the University of Sarajevo. She is a visiting associate professor at Cornell University, in residence during the 2022–2023 academic year as a Fulbright Visiting Scholar Fellow, where she will be lecturing and conducting research on “Teachers as Agents of Change: Education for Peace and Social Responsibility”  

Sara Clarke-Habibi was the 2021 Georg Arnold Senior Fellow on Education for Sustainable Peace at the Georg Eckert Institute in Braunschweig, Germany, during the preparation of this volume. She currently works at the United Nations Institute for Training and Research, Division for Peace. Her peacebuilding work in Bosnia and Herzegovina began in 2000 when she collaborated closely with post-war primary and secondary schools teachers and students on psychosocial recovery, peacebuilding and reconciliation. She has since worked as a peacebuilding consultant with the United Nations, RYCO, GIZ, and ForumZFD for countries across the Western Balkans 6, the Middle East, Southeast Asia and Africa. She earned an MPhil and PhD in Education from the University of Cambridge, as a Gates Cambridge Scholar. Her research and teaching explore interactions between conflict, identity, violence, trauma, healing, justice and peacebuilding through education. She is the author of numerous scientific articles and four comprehensive manuals on peacebuilding through education in formal and non-formal settings.  

Chapter 2

Education as a Victim and Accomplice of Conflict: Historical Perspectives and Possible Ways of Strengthening Peace Pedagogy in Bosnia and Herzegovina Adila Pašalić-Kreso

Abstract  This paper analyzes and discusses current issues and problems of the education system and educational policy in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the possibilities of solving many challenges and problems by strengthening peace pedagogy. After reviewing the actual situation, which is still burdened by the consequences of the 1992–1995 war and the overemphasized decentralization of the education system, applying the provisions of the Dayton Peace Agreement, we try to find opportunities to strengthen quality youth education through comprehensive peace education of the pre-service (future) and in-service (actual) teachers. Well-designed contents of Peace Pedagogy, based on contemporary education theories, European values and positive cultural and historical heritage of BiH, will create greater opportunities for peace pedagogy and the building of a culture of peace and thus education would become a true mediator of reconciliation. Keywords  Educational policy · Teacher education · Cultural and historical heritage · Culture of peace · Reconciliation

Introduction In Bosnia and Herzegovina, the 1990s war turned a unified education system into three separate systems overnight, depending on the ethnic affiliation of the army that controlled the territory. Education divided in that way continued its activities in

A. Pašalić-Kreso (*) Professor Emerita, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 L. Kasumagić-Kafedžić, S. Clarke-Habibi (eds.), Peace Pedagogies in Bosnia and Herzegovina, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26246-3_2

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peace too, aimed at strengthening the division of socio-political system.1 In consequence, the social being and awareness of youth have been formed over the past 25 years on the basis of a shattered, exclusive and segregated reality, falsely presented as a necessity but which, in reality, hinders BiH society from opening up new perspectives or making progress. More than ever, it is essential that the government of BiH and its educational experts collaborate to launch more substantive changes in the education system. Our students lack quality and functional knowledge based on contemporary ethical postulates, with the ability of free and creative thinking (APOSO, 2018). The ultimate goal of such changes should be total democratization of education with respect for the right of each and every individual to quality education, without divisions, segregation, discrimination, with a constant dedication to achieving top quality both among students and teachers. The culture of peace and non-violence makes the essence of the fundamental human rights which are based on: social justice, democracy, literacy, respect and dignity for all, international solidarity, respect for the right to work and respect for labour rights and fundamental working standards, the rights of children, equality between men and women, respect for cultural identity and diversity, indigenous people and minority rights, preservation of natural environment and many other issues. Ethno-national, religious, regional or other affiliation of students should be less important, as is proclaimed in a broader international context. In this transformation, education for peace has an extremely important role for the culture of peace as a topic and activity which will pervade the entire society and all its segments. To achieve that, there has to be a firm decision made by all of the social forces which are ready to have a long-term view of the progress of society and education.2 Generally speaking, this is what is implied in developed democratic countries under the terms “education for democracy, civic education, education for tolerance, intercultural education, education for understanding and human rights and accepting of the other and different, all of which together represent in some way the components for creating the culture of peace.” (Ardizzone, 2002:22)

 The Dayton Peace Agreement brought peace, but at the same time formalised the war-achieved ethnic domination over certain territories (parts) of BiH, thus enabling divisions in the education system and later some official forms such as: ‘National groups of educational subjects’ and unofficial ones such as ‘two schools under one roof’. 2  In 1974, UNESCO member states adopted the Recommendation on Education for International Understanding, Cooperation, Peace and Education on Human Rights and Freedoms, which covers all phases and forms of education and reaffirms the responsibility of member states to provide education for all, to promote justice, freedom, human rights and peace. The United Nations General Assembly proclaimed the first decade of the twenty-first century and the third millennium, the years 2001 to 2010, the International Decade for a Culture of Peace and Non-Violence for the Children of the World. This followed resolutions on the International Year for the Culture of Peace and the International Day of Peace. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Decade_for_a_Culture_of_Peace_ and_Non-Violence_for_the_Children_of_the_World 1

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In the field of peace studies, it is common to distinguish between at least two types of peace. Negative peace refers to the elimination of war, armed conflict and all other forms of direct violence and conflicts. It cannot bring peace in the long run unless it turns into positive peace. Positive peace refers to elimination of all structural and cultural obstacles to establishing true peace, justice, equality, democracy and prevention of structural violence such as disenfranchisement, exploitation, racism, poverty, etc. (Reardon, 1988; in Ardizzone, 2002). To move BiH society from negative to positive peace, many more activities and joint efforts are needed. This type of social change does not take place “overnight”, and thus systematic and sustained efforts are needed. Authors Bush and Saltarelli, who have studied education in post-conflict societies, start from the claim that “In many conflicts in the world, education is a part of the problem, and not a solution, because it serves to divide and antagonize groups both intentionally and unintentionally.” (2000:33)

Others who investigate the relationships between education and conflict and post-­ conflict societies confirm this view (Davies, 2004; Gallagher, 2004; Hawarylenko, 2010). Education for peace is not a panacea, a general cure for everything. Education for peace cannot solve all problems in a society (poverty, employment, housing, political and legal discrimination, social exclusion, etc.). Indeed, education can play both a negative and a positive role in such contexts. The negative role of education manifests itself both as a victim and as an accomplice to the conflict. In the positive role, education operates as a medium for reconciliation (Bush & Saltarelli, 2000).

How BiH Education Is a Victim and Accomplice of Conflict In the course of the past war in BiH, in addition to ethnic cleansing, almost all school facilities were destroyed and could not be used for regular classes. A number of both teachers and students got killed. Although held during the war, classes were conducted under the supervision of the ideological-political and military structure, strictly divided on ethnic grounds, with shortened curricula and lessons, and most often at facilities intended for some other purposes. Such a situation inevitably led to the strengthening of nationalist divisions among the three, subsequently constitutionally recognized peoples on the one hand and to the nationalist appropriation of education, negligence towards other peoples and minorities, socially excluded categories, as well as children with disabilities, and a rise in illiteracy on the other hand. Due to insufficient investment in education after the war, in addition to scarce instructional tools, there was a lack of teacher training in new teaching methods and contemporary forms for increasing efficacy in both teaching and learning. Setting schools into an exclusively ethnic framework led to selecting teachers of the same ethnic affiliation, even when their teaching competencies were rather lacking.

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Since the war, attempts to discuss, identify and select possible progressive steps forward for education in BiH towards a culture of peace, supporting the attitudes, values and efforts of international authorities and organizations and learning from the experience of others, were often left without the desired result. Politicians and education policy leaders in BiH have often demonstrated little interest in substantive changes. The status quo of interethnic division with intolerance appears to have suited them perfectly. For almost two decades, education in BiH has drawn the attention of several education policy analysts (Bray, Berman, Perry, Greenberg, Lehnan), researchers of post-conflict societies (Davis, Bush and Saltarelli, Gallagher, Hawrylenko), comparativists (Majhanovich, Fox, Bray, Masemann), economics experts, sociologists, journalists etc., much more than the local ones. They have seen the problem in the fragmentation (not decentralization) of the education system and ethnic isolation in smaller communities, frequent staff incompetence of both teachers and policy makers, the forced need for language separation, but pointed out that there are some Ministries and some experts in Pedagogical Institutes who promote integrative, intercultural and peace-oriented approaches to education especially in the bigger cities in BiH (Sarajevo, Tuzla) or in Brčko district. Many studies on BiH education often indicate in their conclusions the lack of positive prospects for such a system in BiH, presenting different proposals, suggestions and solutions for its improvement (e.g. Greenberg, 2004; Pitkanen, 2008; Emkic, 2018). Unfortunately, the research results and proposals for changes to BiH education from a number of authors and researchers remain unknown to a wider pedagogical audience and other actors in the field of education, the same as to the education policy makers in BiH. This is due to insufficient interest in the pedagogical research published in foreign languages about us on the one hand, and to the rejection and disrespect for the validity of their results and proposals on the other. Also, until today, the BiH authorities have not organized any scientific and professional research on their own education system. All the information has come to us from foreign and NGO research. Invoking the need to strengthen national identity and awareness of ethnic and religious affiliation, the most diverse pieces of evidence have been misused to argue that the peoples in BiH cannot live together. Lacking a united vision for the country inevitably led to a disunity of education goals and a powerful reversal of the former value system3 in SRBiH (Socialistic Republic BiH). Education in Dayton BiH offers youth today segregation based on ethnic affiliation (“two schools under one roof”, “separation of children based on national group of subjects and language affiliation”), discrimination (“lack of care in some areas for minority and socially excluded groups and children with disabilities”), antagonism and nationalist puritanism (based on the following rhetoric: “my religion, my culture, my language are better than yours”), lack of patriotism towards the country of BiH as a whole (tendencies  Belonging to the state of BiH nowadays is less important than belonging to an ethnic and (or) religious group; another believer of the same faith from another state is regarded as more important than one’s nearest neighbour. Knowledge, truth, justice, honesty, responsibility lose their values before easy money, riches and dreams about an easy life. 3

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of creating ethnically homogenous regions which “deserve patriotic feelings” and not the state), offensive titles of education institutions which offend the feelings of “the others”,4 “increase in expensive private schooling” in one of the poorest countries in Europe and “unacceptable rhetoric”5 for the state and the society as a whole. Nowadays, diametrically opposed education outcomes may be observed in BiH schools. In reference to the development of positive feelings towards one’s homeland and all individuals and cultures which make the BiH community, that is either suppressed or neglected or is overly accentuated, depending on the ethnonationalist foundation of the school curriculum implemented in classes. The ethnic capsulation of the school curricula and school exclusivity do not encourage young people to have a critical view of the world around them, their history and culture or to engage in dialogue with others under the skilful guidance of their teachers. The stronger the ethno-national identity of the students from the categories of so-called constituent peoples, the greater the chances of accepting or playing the role of membership of the neighbouring countries. According to Bush & Saltarelli’s above-mentioned classification (2000), the education system of the Dayton BiH, having been a victim of conflicts, still has a role as an accomplice in the segregation and discrimination of youth. The role of an accomplice makes it the most expensive education system in Europe today, which leads to significant stagnation in overall social and economic trends, even regression, as confirmed by comparative data from 2009 and 2019. The expenses for education as a portion of GDP are double that of the average in Europe, and significantly higher than the expenses in the transition countries of Southeast Europe. According to World Bank information (Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2019),6 this has unfortunately not led to an increase in the quality of education. A number of ministries, ministers and accompanying administrations, two managements under one roof, printing of a number of ethnically coloured/refurbished textbooks etc. make the BiH education system one of the most expensive in Europe, which could hardly be supported even by a significantly more developed and richer country than BiH.  The interest in improving the quality of education has been left behind (Diagram 2.1). The complexity of jurisdictions and management systems aggravates the decision-­making in the field of education, particularly in the Federation of BiH,7 so that sluggishness in accepting the proposed changes, lack of understanding and delays in decision-making are the most common features of the administrative and management system of education. Sluggishness is particularly emphasized in cases  For example, Fascist names from World War II or Hague convicts for 1990s crimes.  For example, hate speech or pejorative names for members of other nations, revival of war trauma or that BiH has no future etc. 6  http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/121621571233909890/pdf/Bosnia-andHerzegovina-Review-of-Efficiency-of-Services-in-Pre-University-Education-Phase-IStocktaking.pdf 7  In accordance with the Constitution and statutory provisions, education is governed by two entities, ten cantons and the Brčko District, which is a total of 13 administrative units (ministries) at lower levels, and no administrative body (ministry) at the state level. 4 5

Diagram 2.1  Structure of the education system in Bosnia and Herzegovina. (Source: OSCE BiH, 2007)

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where there are violations of constitutional, international or EU conventions and provisions referring to evident forms of discrimination or violations of provisions of the Convention on the Rights of the Child8; even when courts rule that a school practice is contrary to the constitution, the practice does not change and hardly ever is anyone held accountable. Why does the situation in education remain as it is? Many analysts of our social reality believe that it is a persistent attempt to achieve “in a peaceful manner” the unattained objectives of the war. Therefore, the problem is that BiH is still in the state of negative peace and that it takes much more effort to attain a positive peace through education and all the progressive forces of society (Ardizzone, 2002).

Historical and Cultural Influences on BiH Education After World War II, Bosnia and Herzegovina9 underwent significant economic and scientific growth and development, as well as a constant increase in the number of people with university education. It hosted the Fourteenth Winter Olympic Games, had a record of achievements in many sports, and its writers, artists, actors and cultural workers received highly recognized awards in different places. A study conducted by UNDP in 1998 records, among other things, the following: “Before the (1992–95) war, Bosnia and Herzegovina was, according to all indicators, a relatively developed European country whose 4.4 million inhabitants generated a GDP per capita of approximately USD 2400. The infrastructure and capacity of public services, particularly health care, education, social protection and culture, were well developed.“10 However, during the dissolution of Yugoslavia, the referendum in favour of BiH’s independence provoked an aggression against its people and pretensions to its territory, which started one of the bloodiest conflicts in Europe after World War II and set the country’s progress back by decades. The Dayton Peace Accords (December 1995) and Annex IV which represents the Constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina11 ended the war and BiH was declared a state of three equal constituent peoples (Bosniaks, Croats and Serbs). It was administratively divided into two entities (the Federation of BiH and the Republika Srpska). Today, BiH is a state with 13 constitutions, in which 13 assemblies adopt laws, while bylaws are adopted by close to 200 governments and ministries. The entire apparatus makes this country very expensive and inefficient with a  Constitution of BiH, Article II, Item 4 or Annex I Item 12 and Item 14; Convention on the Rights of the Child, UN 1989, articles 27, 28 and 29. 9  For more see ANUBiH publication: 75.godišnjica Prvog zasjedanja ZAVNOBiH-a: Povijesna utemeljenost obnovljene državnosti Bosne i Hercegovine u 20. i 21. stoljeću, Sarajevo, 2019. 10  UNDP, Human Development Report, Bosnia and Herzegovina, 1998, pp.  17. https://www.ba. undp.org/content/bosnia_and_herzegovina/en/home/library/nhdr/nhdr-1998.html 11  For more see: http://www.ohr.int/dayton-peace-agreement/annex-4/ 8

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bureaucratized system of government. Consequently, among other things, such a structure has led to divisions in the education system and to the creation of different forms of antagonisms. Nowadays, Bosnia and Herzegovina is known as a post-conflict and transitional society which continues to struggle with the legacies of war and destruction. Why is its recovery so slow? Why are there not more significant and greater steps forward in the renewal and rebuilding of this transitional society, as is the case with some other post-conflict countries, or even countries in the region? Theorists and analysts of these and similar social systems maintain that, in addition to a range of other circumstances, one of the leading causes is precisely the education system, which is still unable to recover from the “virus of division” (Pašalić-Kreso, 2004). This is due not only to its fragmented administrative organization, but also to the effects of poor-quality education.12 The dominance of political parties based on strictly ethnic grounds keeps people believing that they are well as long as they are surrounded “by their own kind” and as long as “there is no shooting”, which demotivates members of all three peoples from any change in the status quo and produces ‘yes-men’ through passivization. This is taking place on all three sides of the constituent peoples. Humanistic and democratic values in the full sense of the word have been suppressed, despite featuring regularly in daily political rhetoric. Contrary to considerable efforts made by non-governmental organizations right after the war to quickly reconcile a complex diverse national culture with the assistance of formal, non-formal and informal education, the opposite processes took place. The phenomenon which Freud called narcissism of small differences acted in the direction of underlining and emphasizing cultural differences at the expense of similarities which, up to that point, resulted naturally from mixed neighbouring cultures. Instead of an integrating multicultural identity, segregation grew stronger. It is typical of other Balkan countries, where the creation of nationalist states brought to the forefront the idea of a primordial unity of blood and soil. What was up to that point a common fatherland, origin, language etc. became the grounds for separation and ethnonationalism (B.  Stojković in Semprini, 1999:156). Complementary cultures, which enriched and ennobled one another for a long time, were separated, giving way to a monovalent cultural reduction, and over time, to intolerance, particularly among pupils. Due to all of the above challenges, contradictions and constant tendencies of setting a limit to the three constituent peoples, three tribal identities, without recognizing the complex social identity which is related to belonging to a wider social community, such as belonging to a country, a percentage of the citizens of BiH and an increasing percentage of young people have been pushed into the category of those belonging nowhere or the so-called others. The Constitution of BiH does not recognize their social (group) identity, a consequence of which is that they are marginalized and deprivileged, as, among other things, they cannot be elected to public

12

 The most recent PISA research results about student achievement in BiH schools. (See: https://aposo.gov.ba/hr/pisa2018-izvjesce-za-bosnu-i-hercegovinu/

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offices, a blatant example being the Sejdić – Finci case (one is a Roma, the other a Jew). It is similar with some BiH Croats of Catholic origin (so-called Bosnian Croats) and Serbs of Orthodox origin (Bosnian Serbs), who, knowing that their families have lived in the territory of BiH for centuries, do not wish the religious and national to be the only attributes of their identity. They recognize their social identity in the broader context in BiH, its rich tradition and culture. They feel and acknowledge that they cannot be some imaginary pure Croats and pure Serbs, the same as is the case with BiH Muslims, Bosniaks, after they have lived for centuries in the multicultural context which has enriched them and inevitably made them different from Croats from Croatia, Serbs from Serbia and Muslims from any other Muslim country. Centuries of common living have made an effect and any violent chiseling to obtain a pure tribal representative, i.e. ethno-national archetype13 is a painful and dishonorable process which makes young generations in BiH deeply unhappy. Bosnia and Herzegovina may never be the same multicultural state as it was prior to the war. It is also hard to believe that, in the short-term at least, it will become like Switzerland or Belgium any time soon, as promised by our politicians. In Switzerland, no citizen will say that they are French or German because their native language is French or German. Everyone will be proud to say they are Swiss, the same as a person from the southern parts who speaks Italian. Unfortunately, it is not the case in BiH. Somehow, there seems to be an intention to forget, forcibly in war and through education in peace, those centuries long values that embellished Bosnia and were the essence of its culture of tolerance and coexistence. On this point, research has shown that education in BiH continues to encourage segregation and divisions in society through the textbooks used for teaching. Instead of providing knowledge to students and skills required to live in a pluralist society (such as tolerance, intercultural dialogue and respect for human rights), textbooks of the “national group of subjects” contribute to creating intolerance towards others and serve as an instrument for dividing students on ethnic grounds. The results also indicate that the textbooks mainly fail to support an individualised approach to teaching or develop critical thinking among students (Trbić & Kojić Hasanagić, 2007; Soldo et al., 2017). For example, textbooks suggest that students in Bosnia and Herzegovina should learn that “the Roma are nomads who are involved in small trade, collecting waste and music”; that “Serbs and Montenegrins like to wage wars”; that “the religious and ethnic affiliation is the same”; that “all immigrants in Europe are Muslims”; that “Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Balkans are synonyms for underdevelopment, stagnation, instability and conflicts”; that “little girls are beautiful, kind and honourable, and women are primarily mothers” (Soldo et al., 2017). These and many other similar claims intended for non-critical and rote learning may be found in the textbooks for the national group of subjects for the sixth through ninth grade of primary school.  The definition of nation by American politologist Karl Wolfgang Deutsch is rather admonishing: “A nation is a group of people united by a mistaken view about the past and a hatred of their neighbours.” For more see: http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/kdeutsch.html 13

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We mentioned several times that the phenomenon of “two schools under one roof” (Trkulja, 2017) which still exists in 54 cases in BiH (OSCE, 2018) is considered as a sort of apartheid in our education and it particularly “flourishes” in the Central Bosnia and Herzegovina-Neretva Canton; one school building, two administrations, two different school names in celebration of the “national heroes”, students separated in two shifts or using two different entrances to ensure there is no contact with students of the other ethnicity and the teaching implemented under different curricula (Madacki & Karamehić, 2012). Examples such as these indicate that not only are they far from the European and international education standards, which is confirmed by the OSCE Mission in BiH in a recent document (2018:24–29), but they have as a rule lower passing rate and generally lower education achievement than the non-divided schools (Radić & Kabil, 2009). The outcome of these structural challenges is that there is a kind of indoctrination at schools, an enclosing into your own culture, your world, your tribe, a kind of capsulization and shutting down of the horizons so that one would not see further than the first glade and where nothing or very little is learned about others who live in the same country.14 As an illustration we mention a statement by the Ministry of Education in one BiH canton aimed at preventing the implementation of the decision to ban segregation in schools and to preserve the system of two schools under one roof who said that “it is not possible to mix pears and apples,” referring to students Croats and Bosniaks.15 One does not have to be a political analyst to conclude that all of this is quite evidently happening for the purpose of achieving the unimplemented war goals which strived from the very beginning for the dissolution of BiH. “It has become forgotten that nationalist chauvinism has never created anything great. Nationalist chauvinism led people and countries into disasters. We are all witnesses that countries built on chauvinism collapse and their people suffer disasters.”16 The way in which education is organized in BiH and the way in which students are educated and schooled, the direction of our education outcomes can definitely affect the survival of a country. The OSCE tells us that BiH will be as stable as its education will allow it.17

 There is a rather interesting recent study edited by Cvitković I. (2020) Koliko se poznajemo published by ANUBiH, which revealed an utter lack of knowledge about others, conducted among the students of theological studies, most often future religious teachers. The study conducted by Pehlić, I. (2019) Socijalna distanca među mladima is also indicative, providing the basis for the social reconstruction programs. 15  Statement by Minister Greta Kuna recorded on 29 August 2007 before the start of the new school year. That was said in 2007, but there are no significant changes to date. Even the rebellion of high school students in Jajce in 2016 and 2017 did not bring significant changes. (See OSCE, 2018). 16  A statement by a people’s representative at the session of ZAVNOBiH on 26 April 1945. 17  In 2002, OSCE offered an excellent document entitled Education Reform in BiH, which was signed by 10 cantonal ministers, 2 entity ministers and a representative of the Brčko District, but ideas from this document have only been partially accepted. http://www.oscebih.org/ 14

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A bright spot and a glimmer of hope appeared in the fall of 2016 when high school students in Jajce demonstrated against divisions in high schools. They came out with the slogans “They make us hate each other”, “Segregation is a bad investment”, “We will not go into national pens”, etc. They received great support from the OSCE and other international and even domestic institutions, but unfortunately the flames of Jajce high school students have not yet spread to other schools in BiH. Representatives of the ministries convince them that it is a long process and that “two schools under one roof” cannot be abolished so easily. The flame is smouldering in some other environments, but the strong extinguishing forces do not allow it to ignite. It is surprising that parents and other adults have been watching this in silence for 25 years, accepting the emigration of their own children instead of taking action to stop the divisions in education, the uninational and capsulized schools in which the staff are members of one ethnic group, starting from the principal to the cleaning lady, to stop the printing of low-quality textbooks radiating if not with hatred then with humiliation and neglect of the other, to ban school segregation, and to finally stop the discussions about those same topics and social issues that had formed the basis for initiation of violent conflicts a quarter of a century ago. Unfortunately, it is very difficult to find parents, teachers, professors, academic citizens who are independent in their careers, prestige, family standards, and other benefits from political parties and leaders (a phenomenon in social relationships known as clientelism). When all the above facts are taken into account, based on a significant number of research findings, it is quite evident that the present limitations on the peacebuilding role of education is largely attributable to hard-line factors of obstruction in BiH education policy, which hardly allow education to take the third role, that of the promoter or mediator of reconciliation. A number of attempts and activities by NGOs, civil society organisations and other international education programs to promote contact have focused on preparing and strengthening BiH education to assume the role of mediator for reconciliation, reducing tensions and hatred, but have not yielded the tremendous results that were hoped for. Is it sufficient to enable young people to meet, associate, study, go to school together? Allport used the term “contact hypotheses” to confirm that contact among the members of conflicting groups improves positive relations between them and reduces prejudice. It was traditionally believed that cognitive processes – getting to know and learning more about people – are the foundation of positive intergroup contacts. However, recent studies (Pettigrew & Tropp, 2005; Zembylas, 2016; Davies, 2004) indicate that emotions are a crucial component of racist behaviour and that measuring affectivity is a much greater predictor of behaviour towards minority groups than the sphere of the cognitive. However, the centrifugal force of separatist ideologies and politics appears to have, unfortunately, remained stronger than the professional ethics of educators and other actors in the education system who are committed to rebuilding a united BiH.

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Nowadays, a small number of BiH students are introduced to the true values of their country, (homeland),18 and accordingly develop patriotic feelings even less. There is no building of love towards one’s own country; for more than two decades patriotism is not taught because it does not serve the politics of separation, division and antagonistic opposition. The wealth and diversity of BiH history, cultures and languages is vast and by learning about and respecting the values of its cultures and traditions, young people can learn a lot about each other and from each other. They should have an opportunity to do so.

 ow Can BiH Education Contribute More Constructively H to Peacebuilding? Peace education is a relatively new education concept; it is a process and a goal that needs to be based on extensive knowledge, reflections and pedagogic activities in order to have an effect on raising awareness of individuals, communities and mankind as a whole.19 Peace pedagogy includes education for peace, education about peace and education in peace. It is quite clear that building positive peace is focused on the elimination of all structural and cultural obstacles to peace, which opens up prospects for building and adopting the culture of peace. Only in such conditions can education become the key to progress streamlined in the right direction as metaphorically advocated by Robinson (2016).20 In the meantime, we may try to look for it and find it in our past through the culture of remembrance, when there was more mutual respect and understanding. One narrative from the Socialist past that can be especially helpful for young people in BiH concerns the history of good relations between peoples that predominated prior to the war. In Bosnia people had good neighbourly relations, with a great deal of empathy and respect. Religion was never a reason for people not to meet, visit each other, associate, resolve problems in life and share sorrow and joy. Everyone spoke one (or the same) language. That was particularly emphasized in the times of Socialist Bosnia.21 People of all religions and ethnicities lived in the  For eg. beautiful landscape, clear rivers, clean mountain air and forests and many historical and cultural sights, etc. 19  UN Declaration on the culture of peace (1999); In addition to a number of declarations, recommendations and other documents, UN and UNESCO proclaimed 2000 the International Year of Peace, and in Resolution 53/25 they proclaimed the period of 2001–2010 the International decade of the culture of peace and non-violence against children worldwide. (http://undocs.org/ en/A/55/377) That is how Education for Peace has become the world project. 20  If education is the key to individual and social success we must not forget that the key can be turned to two opposite sides. Thus, the key can also lock the progress of both the individual and society. What if that is the case with BiH education? 21  In order to present nowadays the socialist times to young people in an objective way, we can use the notes and information published by foreigners about us, in our or foreign media, or by athletes 18

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same hallways, enrolled children in the same schools and classes, worked in the same companies, visited the same places, participated together in the same social activities, community services, got married regardless of differences in religion or ethnicity,22 and truly lived multiculturalism in brotherhood and unity.23 Bosnia and Herzegovina was known for its hospitality even further than the Balkan region. Boghumils settled in BiH in the early Middle Ages after a number of persecutions, then it became the homeland of Jews expelled from Spain 500 years ago, and (in the late 19th and early twentieth century) many experts (from Austria, Hungary, Slovenia and other European countries) founded families, companies or created in the field of art, culture, science and education and stayed in BiH. Bosnia and Herzegovina was always regarded as the arms of a mother who always received everyone and in all circumstances, be it favourable or difficult. Nowadays, careful observers of the geographic position of BiH, and experts in BiH culture and tradition see this country not only as arms but as a giant heart. In the period between 1970s and the war, BiH had the largest economic growth compared to other republics; it had great music, film and other artistic achievements recognized and appreciated far beyond the borders of our country. Writer Ivo Andrić, the only Yugoslav Nobel Prize winner is from Travnik, and two Oscar winning film directors Danis Tanović, and Dušan Vukotić, at the time of the award a Croat national, with the origin from BiH. Nowadays, many facts that young people should know about their country remain unknown to them. Maybe some of these facts and considerations might be a foundation for building the culture of peace. It is a heart-shaped country, in which there is still a great deal of hatred. It is a country where there is a threat that centrifugal forces will prevail, which might lead to its dissolution. It is a fragile and breakable country, whose people were not named after it. It is a country which has a melody for its national anthem but no lyrics. It is a country which has three languages, although everyone speaks the same. It is a country in which the last name Hrvat (Croat) is the last name of only Bosniak families, and the last name Bošnjak (Bosniak) and Bosanac (Bosnian) is the last name of only Croat families. It is a country in which members of all three peoples can have identical last names. It is a country with three histories, although its people experienced identical historical events. It is a country with three national curricula and no fourth or common curricula for those with multiple identities, those who do not want to be classified into a monoethnic tribal identity. It is a country where love can overcome hatred and

and visitors during the Winter Olympic Games. There were good and bad pictures. Many tourist guides with statistical indicators have been published for the Olympics in order to bring BiH as close as possible to the world. Many families in Sarajevo then hosted foreigners in their homes. There are records about that as well. Students can explore the socialist past on their own or interview adults about how life was then and discuss it in the classroom. 22  It is estimated that there were about 20% so-called “mixed marriages” in BiH. 23  However, when ethno-political parties were announced, many rushed to embrace such categorization. That has trapped many citizens until the present day and their opposition to such a system would cost them dearly (they would lose their job, privileges, party support, even be exposed to vengeance by the party, etc.).

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centripetal forces overcome all threats of division, it is a country where young people can do anything if they break away from “poisonous” interpretations of the past and continue to fight for a common education based on contemporary European values that are not significantly different from those from the SRBiH.24

Recommendations Every post-conflict society is regularly challenged by an arduous and long lasting process of rebuilding trust, mutual respect and understanding. It is not said in vain that “It is easier to reconstruct war-torn bridges and roads than to reconstruct and strengthen a torn tissue of the society itself”. We have to be taught about it. Edgar Morin (2002:103) says that education for human understanding is in the centre of education for the future equally at the planetary and individual level. Without a well designed education, without accepting the concept of peace pedagogy, it is impossible to surpass numerous cultural and other obstacles in understanding others; without education it is difficult to reach the point when “one mindset understands another mindset” (p.  106). The issue of understanding has become important for all human beings. That is why it has to be in the centre of education for the future. Morin sees (p. 82) the future of the world is in the concentric connection of our family, regional, national, European homelands and in their integration in a specific global homeland, similar to the ecology of human development constructed much earlier by Bronfenbrenner (1979). This may be the best way to understand and preserve the human being, all other beings on the planet and the natural environment. Education and a well-structured peace education can in the long run lead to the creation of young people who think independently, search for the truth, approach problems creatively and who build a culture of peace and work persistently to preserve peace. Without that, we might apply Robinson’s logic (2016) and have the key of BiH education systems turned in the wrong direction, soon to be followed by Freire’s (1993) conceptions of the future oppressed citizens as educational outcomes. In the following section, several recommendations are proposed in accordance with the principles that should be taken into account in order to strengthen peace education.

Handle Ethnic Affiliation Sensitively? The UNICEF, 2009 Report: Divided Schools in BiH cautions that “Feelings of ethnic affiliation and identity are certainly positive feelings. They need not be suppressed, however, in multiethnic communities they should be approached carefully.

24

 Socialist Republic Bosnia and Herzegovina.

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Those feelings must not be manipulated, particularly when they involve children” (p. 16). It is this very kind of carefulness that remains unknown to BiH education policy but also to international experts, some of whom “assisted” in organising our education system divided in multiple layers. Students from BiH schools are less likely to resolve their own dilemmas on their own, searching for the clear answers to questions: Am I really like the other ones, from the other side of the fence, or am I really that much different from others in my neighbourhood and my closest surroundings? Do I have to have only one identity: ethnic, religious or language, which dominates all other identities or can I have multi-layered, complex identities and be both a member of my people and a member of my country at the same time? In his excellent autobiographical book In the Name of Identity, Amin Maalouf (2002:24) says: “Every man, without exception, is endowed with complex identity. You would only need to ask him a few questions and the forgotten crashes, unknown pathways would come out and it would be clear that he is a complex, unique, irreplaceable person.” The same viewpoint has been presented by J. Banks in several of his works (written in 1990’s). He even schematically presents many identities, dividing them into those we cannot choose and those we have an effect on or which we choose ourselves.25

Promote Conscientization We live now days in BiH close to an atmosphere described in Pedagogy of the Oppressed (1993) by Paulo Freire, a Brazilian educator and philosopher, when the system of domination in social relations creates a culture of silence that instils negative, silent and repressed self-image with the oppressed (25–35). Therefore, he advocates for the process of conscientization, which implies the development of consciousness of the ability to change reality. Freire (2002) points to the need to have a well designed education which would liberate an individual from the authoritarianism and such cultural imposition in which he is defined what to see and how to see it, and in which he does not dare or does not know how to think or act as a free and independent citizen. He believes that it suits the establishment for the people to be passive and not active participants in the society. That is why he recommends an education system which liberates a student, i.e. such an education in which a student critically examines, thinks and makes his own decisions about numerous issues related to work and life, culture, religion and knowledge. This concept is perceiving a man as a being that is constantly changing, creating and transforming the world around him, and while changing the world around him, he changes himself (Freire, 2002). These and many other messages stemming from Freire’s work tell us that in order to change the world around us, we must have a

 Similar logic could be found in books and papers prepared for training and practical work with young people by Cushner (2009). 25

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goal, we must cognitively design those changes, we must be emotionally attached to the world around us, the world we want to change and we must be willing to do so. Education in BiH ready to gradually build a culture of peace can hardly find better guiding ideas than these.

Desegregate Education, Desegregate Whole Society Experts in pedagogy and other social sciences warned that divided education would lead to the division of the country in the long run. Separate can never be equal was decisive argument by American senator Thurgood Marshall in the famous Brown vs. Board of Education case in 1954, when racial segregation was finally abolished in public schools in the USA. In our country, there is yet no judge who would use the appropriate argumentation with the assistance of education professionals to refute the legalisation of the “national group of subjects” in schools and the phenomenon of “two schools under one roof”, whose existence is still defended by minor ethnic and language differences.26 As a first step, in monoethnic and isolated communities some form of intercultural program should be introduced, through other subjects or as an individual subject, which would assist in teaching students as much as possible how to get to know, cooperate and communicate with other citizens of the same homeland – to transfer gradually from ethnocentrism to ethnorelativism. The second step would be to enable all the students to attend joint classes (Trkulja, 2017:30) and wherever possible, to work on introducing them to one another, bringing them closer together and to build mutual understanding. The so-called national group of subjects may occasionally divide students for a class or two a day, but it is important that students develop the feeling of belonging to one joint class, as is a common practice in many other countries, even in our country in the Brčko District. Equality and national identity is achieved everywhere if it is incorporated into education goals. Older BH citizens had exceptional advantages enriched by unique education and multilingual and multi-alphabetic education. In BiH, Serbo-Croatian/ Croatian-Serbian language was spoken and studied in schools, using both alphabets (Cyrillic and Latin) equally and studying literature from the entire language environment in parallel. This “linguistic unity” had remarkable advantages that were broken by forced ethnic divisions. Today, many foreigners who know our language claim, along with many domestic language experts, that it is a single language with several dialects and that the reasons for separating students and young people are meaningless. As a prerequisite for good understanding and respect for others in BiH, it was always necessary to know more languages or dialects. Most probably the proverb:

 Let us imagine that in the so-called two schools under one roof one entrance is for white children and another entrance is for coloured children, what would such education be called? Racist. 26

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“The more languages you know, the more people you are worth”, came from that. Meanwhile, the sharpness of the ethno-national division of schools and education can be gradually reduced by incorporating into the curricula as much information as possible about other inhabitants of the common country, their ethnic, cultural, linguistic specifics, as well as religious characteristics and customs.

 trengthen the Role of Education Research and Call upon S Educational Experts Peace education in BiH needs much more studies and pilot projects to build a model specific for our conditions, but subject to constant upgrading. Such studies are valuable for peace education researchers but also for practitioners and decision-makers who dispute the scientific nature of pedagogy and the expert capital of educational researchers. It would be interesting to know how much young people know each other in the field of cultural specifics, arts, customs, etc. or how and why animosities arise and how to overcome them. Or do we need the truth about everything from our beautiful but also painful history and what it can bring us. Little engagement with such studies, however, is currently found in contemporary BiH society, nor are domestic researchers encouraged to engage in such discussions. With the goal of introducing progressive changes in BiH education, it is necessary in the first place to gather experts – educators interested in conducting research and studying our education system(s). Based on the research results only experts can design an education strategy in BiH which is achievable, define the principles of its implementation and set the goals that will truly lead to positive peace and build the culture of peace. So far many foreign experts and researchers have expressed interest in studying the BiH education system. They critically considered the fragmentation of the system, the division of schools and students, ethno-linguistic segregation, intolerance among young people, etc. Some of them suggested very concrete changes but there was no interest so far in considering their findings in a wider pedagogical audience or accepting some of them. The most important among them is that peace pedagogy has a chance to operate within the system as it is and not to wait for external structural changes (like unified administration, unified curriculum, multilinguistic common schools etc.)

Reclaim ‘Odgoj’ in BiH Education The focus of each pedagogical study and planning should be the human being, an individual who needs to be provided the best education and enabled to attain a successful development by creating a favourable education environment so that he or

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she could offer in return their own maximum in the development of the society.27 In reference to that, it would be very important to rekindle the discussions about the science of pedagogy, of ‘odgoj’ (character education) and the desirable education goals. Pedagogy as a science has been marginalised in our country in the post-war period. As a scientific thought process founded in evidence-based theories that function as a guiding idea for understanding human beings and the essence of their development and formation, as well as the development of society as a whole, it almost no longer exists. Partially accepted and even more poorly understood theoretical pedagogical concepts from the countries of (so-called) developed democracy and emphasised market economy have been reduced in our country to pragmatic and ideological goals, in the service of education of “man for the market needs” with certain competencies and education outcomes. As there is no pedagogy, there is no man, no human being, in the essential sense and understanding of the term; there are only goods for the labour market stuffed with the required knowledge. Schooling which dominantly aims at forming a member of a constituent people, whatever is the meaning of that, for sure is very far from the modern educational and ‘odgoj’ values.

 rain Teachers in Critical Thinking, Intercultural Learning T and Dealing with the Past Teachers have not been trained to engage in discussions that lead to critical thinking and the analysis of the relationships in a multicultural and multi-confessional society. BiH teachers are not prepared for their formal education, they are not qualified in that regard to talk about and teach the students different cultures which have existed in BiH for centuries, even their own. Such content is not contained in the curriculum of their teaching profession. They can know about their own and other cultures only to the extent that any better educated citizen of BiH might know, but they are not qualified to teach that. The teachers cannot give the students what they themselves do not have. This is why it is not rarely the case that teachers themselves contribute with their ignorant interpretations of multiculturalism in BiH more to the development of

 At the time of socialism, both in our country and in other socialist countries, Marxist pedagogy was developed, discussions were led about the fundamental concepts and processes, desirable education goals, about a human being which needs to be formed for the society based on Marxist philosophy, about the circumstances which need to be created to achieve the desired goals and results, about the uniformity of education effects, family, school and society as a whole, about the necessary scientific research for improvement of the theory and practice, etc. Care was taken about who could be an educator, a teacher, or a professor, and within the potentials of the society itself, those professions were respected and valued. 27

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prejudices and stereotypes than to the development of understanding and respect for others and the different. If students are presented by their teachers and educators with only partial knowledge, or with only what they are supposed to know about their own culture only, or with a position that moral is only what is in the spirit of their religion and culture and that they can only keep company with their own, then it is quite clear that the students will be hindered and restricted in their development, and the valuable development periods will be missed. Intercultural dimension of forming an educator implies that already in the course of their studies, and later, over the course of their lives, they learn how to live with others, as only such learning will enable them to learn and learn to be (according to Delors, 1998:102–108). The path we need to take to achieve that goal was described by J. F. Kennedy in his address to the UN as far back as 1963: “Peace is a daily, a weekly, a monthly process, gradually changing opinions, slowly eroding old barriers, quietly building structures“ (J. F. Kennedy, Address to the UN, 1963).

While quick results in BiH may be elusive, progress is at least visible and on this basis, we can continue to build.

Take-Away Messages • Peace pedagogy must become a general social movement direction and goal. • We have to develop a very detailed plan today and dedicate ourselves through all social areas so that we can reap the fruits in future. • It is necessary to listen to the pulsation of the society and all its segments. Society and education are inextricably linked and it takes a long time to transform society itself through education. • Science offers us results of new research, good practice of many developed countries and the various declarations who oblige us as well. • We need a firm commitment and responsibility of us adults as parents, teachers, politicians and all those who work with young people and educate them that on behalf of their future we will work to transform education by integrating peace values and developing peace pedagogy.

References APOSO BiH. (2018). Međunarodna istraživanja: PISA, TIMSS, PILS. Agency for pre-primary, primary and secondary education. Reports for BiH from international studies. https://aposo. gov.ba/en/izvjesca-­za-­bih-­u-­medunarodnim-­istrazivanjima/ Ardizzone, L. (2002). Towards global understanding; the transformative role of peace education. Current Issues in Comparative Education (CICE), 4(2). Teachers College, Columbia University. New york.

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Bosna & Hercegovina. (2019). Pregled efikasnosti usluga u pred-univerzitetskom obrazovanju Faza I: Pregled stanja, Avgust/kolovoz 2019.godine, World Bank (Review of the efficiency of services in pre-university education Phase I: Review of the situation, August 2019). Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Harvard University Press. Bush, K. D., & Saltarelli, D. (2000). The two faces of education in ethnic conflict. UNICEF. Davies, L. (2004). Conflict and education: Complexity and chaos. Routledge. Delors, J. (1998). Učenje blago u nama. EDUCA. Emkic, E. (2018). Reconciliation and education in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Springer. Freire, P. (2002). Pedagogija obespravljenih. Odraz (Održivi razvoj zajednice). Gallagher, T. (2004). Education in divided societies. Palgrave Macmillan. Greenberg, R. D. (2004). Language and identity in the Balkans. Oxford University Press. Hawarylenko, J. (2010). Education in post-conflict societies. Athabasca University. Maalouf, A. (2002). Ubilački identiteti: Nasilje i potreba za pripadnošću (Les identities meurtrieres). Laguna. Madacki, S., & Karamehić, M. (Eds.). (2012). Dvije škole pod jednim krovom: Studija o segregaciji u obrazovanju (Two schools under one roof: A study on segregation in education). Centar za ljudska prava Univerziteta u Sarajevu. Morin, E. (2002). Odgoj za budućnost (Education for the future). EDUCA. OSCE. (2007). Tailoring catchment areas: School catchment areas in Bosnia and Herzegovina, A Status report by the OSCE Mission to Bosnia and Herzegovina. OSCE. OSCE. (2018). Dvije škole pod jednim krovom, Najočitiji primjer diskriminacije u obrazovanju u Bosni i Hercegovini (Two schools under one roof, The most obvious example of discrimination in education in Bosnia and Herzegovina). Organizacija za sigurnost i saradnju u Evropi: Misija u Bosni I Hercegovini OSCE. Pašalić-Kreso, A. (2004). The virus of division: Its permutations and persistence in the education sector. In C. Solioz & T. K. Vogel (Eds.), Dayton and beyond: Perspectives on the future of Bosnia and Herzegovina. NOMOS. Pettigrew, T. F., & Tropp, L. R. (2005). Relationships between intergroup contact and prejudice among minority and majority status groups. Psychological Science, 16. Pitkanen, K. (2008). Institutional and capacity building of Bosnia and Herzegovina education system. Final documents Book 1. EU-ICBE/University of Jyväskylä. Radić, N., & Kabil, S. (Eds.). (2009). Podijeljene škole u Bosni i Hercegovini (Divided schools in Bosnia and Herzegovina). Unicef Sarajevo. Robinson, K. (2016). Creative schools: The grassroots revolution That’s transforming education. TED Paperback. Semprini, A. (1999). Multikulturalizam, Beograd. Clio Soldo, A., et al. (2017). Obrazovanje u Bosni i Hercegovini: Čemu (ne) učimo djecu?: Analiza sadržaja nacionalne grupe predmeta u osnovnim školama (Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina: What do we (not) teach children ?). Mas Media; FOD BiH. Trbić, D., & Kojić Hasanagić, S. (2007). Obrazovanje u Bosni i Hercegovini: Čemu učimo djecu? (Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina: What do we teach children?). FOD BiH. Trkulja, A. (2017). Dvije škole pod jednim krovom u Bosni i Hercegovini: (Ne)razumijevanje problema i moguća rješenja (Two schools under one roof in Bosnia and Herzegovina: (Mis)understanding of the problem and possible solutions), Analitika. UNICEF (United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund). (2009). Podijeljene škole u Bosni i Hercegovini. (Divided schools in Bosnia and Herzegovina).UNICEF BiH. Zembylas, M. (2016). Peace education in a conflict-affected society. Cambridge University Press. Adila Pašalić Kreso is Professor Emerita of Comparative and International Education at the University of Sarajevo. She specializes in Intercultural and Family Education, which she researches both in her own country and cross-culturally. She completed her studies and advanced training in  

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Sarajevo, Belgrade, Paris, Mannheim, and was an education consultant at CERI – OECD. Professor Pašalić- Kreso was among the first in BiH to research and write about student inequality in the education system. She was a guest lecturer at many universities across Europe (Finland, Spain, France, Holland, Malta, Italy) and the USA (Michigan, Ohio, Florida, Pennsylvania, New York, Washington). She was the president of the Organizing Committee of the XIII World Congress of Comparative Education Societies in Sarajevo, held in September 2007. Since 2008, professor Pašalić-Kreso has been a member and from 2014–2020 vice-president of the Academy of Sciences and Arts of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Chapter 3

Approaches to Peace Education and Institutionalization of Peace Values in Formal Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina Eleonora Emkić

Abstract  In conflict and post-conflict countries where civilians have been on different sides during the war, and, where civilians have been both victims and perpetrators of violence, consequences like fear, broken trust, social and political division, can be found the most challenging obstacles to peace building. Suffering from post-­ traumatic syndrome, losing trust in people who were close to them, people are afraid to open up, afraid to speak and share their experience of war, which makes them vulnerable and open to manipulation and politicization. Peace education is widely regarded as very useful for (re)building peace in post-­ conflict environments by reducing economic, social, and ethnic polarisation and creating conditions for sustainable peace and a culture of dialogue rather than violence (Buckland, Reshaping the future education and postconflict reconstruction. The World Bank, 2005; Samaroo, Building sustainable peace: exploring the utility of education. Dalhousie University; Bajaj and Chiu, Peace Change 34(4):441–455, 2009. Immediately after the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH), many international and local stakeholders realized that education could be an important tool for restoring broken relationships and re-establishing positive and patriotic feelings amongst BiH citizens. Peace education is not integrated in the curriculum of the formal education system, nor institutionalized in the formal education system in BiH. This chapter provides an overview of different approaches and initiatives that have aimed to integrate peace values into the education system broadly and peace education specifically through non- formal and formal education. Keywords  Post-conflict education · Peace education · Integration of peace education · Institutionalization of peace education · Non-formal and formal education

E. Emkić (*) Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 L. Kasumagić-Kafedžić, S. Clarke-Habibi (eds.), Peace Pedagogies in Bosnia and Herzegovina, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26246-3_3

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Peace Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina The manner in which education was delivered during and immediately after the war in BiH supported the conflicting agendas of the three “constituent peoples” by stereotyping and promoting divisive histories. Intolerance towards other nationalities was displayed through curricula, national subjects, textbooks and teaching approaches (Buckland, 2005; Torsti, 2009; Buyukcanga, 2011; Ellison & Smith, 2013). Exploring how education can contribute to the creation of sustainable peace, some scholars claim that textbook reform, education reform as well as peace education can contribute to increasing tolerance and bringing peace to the country (Weinstein et al., 2007; Buyukcanga, 2011; Bajaj & Chiu, 2009). Peace education is not integrated, nor institutionalized in the formal education system in BIH. However, peace education has been implemented through project activities of different local and international organisations. Moreover, through joint collaboration with local authorities, international stakeholders contributed to education reform, teacher training, as well as textbook and curriculum revision. In the following section, I present some of the peace education initiatives implemented in the non-formal education sector.

I nitiatives to Introduce Peace Education Values Through Non-formal Approaches While the focus of the present volume is formal education, more peace education initiatives have taken place in BiH in the non-formal education domain. This chapter thus begins with an overview of key non-formal approaches that have been implemented in the post-war period. Immediately after the war, different local and international organizations focused their work on transforming relationships in the post-war society of BiH by building up an environment for interethnic respect and collaboration between diverse groups of youth, their parents, teachers, community leaders and other important stakeholders in the community. There have been different projects that used a non-formal education approach to initiate interethnic dialogue, inclusion and social healing through numerous activities like theatre, arts and crafts, youth clubs, youth camps, peer group support, students exchanges and reconciliation and peace education training. Moreover, since these activities appeared to be effective in bringing young people together and creating social cohesion amongst youth, similar trainings were delivered to the wider community of parents, teachers, and community leaders. Common among their varied goals was the aim to develop social cohesion in BiH society, to help young people to become agents of change in their society, to improve cross-entity cooperation between educational institutions, to contribute to the healing process in BiH.

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In 2003, NGO CIVITAS implemented a project called ‘Project Citizen’/‘I am a citizen’. The project aimed to encourage students to learn how to monitor and influence public policy. Since the program began in 1996, more than 200,000 junior and senior high school students in BiH have participated in the project (Center for Civic Education, 2004). Through the project, the participants were encouraged to make changes in their community and solve community problems. As an outcome, the project helped students to become responsible and informed young people who are tailoring their future. Students have managed to initiate the adoption and amendment of laws about youth at all levels of government; introduced inclusive education in schools; built school playgrounds, sports halls and youth centres; and conducted a series of humanitarian and environmental activities in their local communities. More than 79% of students participating in Project Citizen presented their projects in a competition before a panel of judges. The competition also increased knowledge about local government, political tolerance of ideas and support for the rule of law. Seventy-five percent of students went beyond the program requirements and attempted to implement their proposed policies. The 30% of students who were successful in getting their policies adopted increased their support for the rule of law (Center for Civic Education, 2004). Another example of an organisation whose work was focused on peace education is Nansen Dialogue Centre, Bosnia and Herzegovina (NDC). They implemented a project called ‘Peace education/prevention and conflict management’ that was active in primary schools from 2010 to 2013. The programme was based on knowledge transfer to teachers/professors, and from teachers to students as final beneficiaries. Once a month, 50 teachers organised and implemented a workshop on peace education and conflict prevention issues. Around 1000 students were involved in this programme from all over BiH. During the final stage of the programme, Peer Mediator Clubs were opened. The aim of opening Peer Mediator Clubs was to improve and develop cross-entity cooperation (NDC, 2010). Another well-known project in BiH that promoted peace education is called Education for Peace run by the International Education for Peace Institute (EFP-­ International). The project started in June 2000 by launching a two-year pilot project in Education for Peace in three primary and three secondary schools in BiH. The project involved more than 400 teachers and school staff, 6000 students and their parents/guardians (Danesh, 2005). It had the support of education ministries, municipal leaders and international authorities. The primary aim of the project was to create a culture of peace, a culture of healing, and a culture of excellence among the participating schools from three different entities. The pilot programme yielded significant positive results and proved that, despite division and segregation within the education sector, peace education programmes in Bosnia and Herzegovina can gain the recognition and endorsement of all participating school communities, the BiH Ministry of Foreign Affairs, all 13 BiH Ministries of Education and 8 Pedagogical Institutes, as well as the International Community in BiH, including the Office of the High Representative (OHR) and the Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) (Danesh, 2005). The BiH government subsequently invited EFP-International to create a strategy for the introduction of its

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programmes into all schools in the country. By 2006, the EFP Program had been implemented in 112 schools with approximately 80,000 students; 5000 teachers, school staff and administrators; and thousands of parents/guardians (Danesh, 2005). As an outcome of the training, the project came up with a curriculum for teachers on peace education. The project was run at state level and involved many exchanges between the three entities. However, due to lack of financial support, or because the project was not established from the beginning as a long-term or sustainable project, it was not continued. Personally, I think that this project has contributed to promote the joint work of teachers from all three entities. Unfortunately, the project is completed and has never continued.1 The project called Education of Peace brought all education staff and students from all three entities together. The project was supposed to be continued. The Ministries took responsibility for continuing it, but after the organisation that ran the project left the country there was no continuation. We all enjoyed participating in the project.2

An organization that focused its work on cross-border cooperation through the Balkans is called The Centre for Nonviolent Action (CNA). CNA started its work in Sarajevo in 1997, and in 2001 it opened its second office in Belgrade, Serbia. CNA’s peacebuilding work aims “to contribute to building fair and just societies”. Through training in nonviolence and conflict transformation, support for peacebuilders, and publishing and film production, CNA tried to reach its aim to contribute to building fair and just societies. Besides teachers who were just one of the participants of their activities, CNA used to work with journalists, activists, social workers, youth workers, and political party activists, with a specific focus on rural areas (Fisher & Zimina, 2018). The above mentioned examples show that, although peace education is not part of the formal education system, peace education values are introduced to the wider community, but also, through collaboration with educational authorities and the mentioned organizations who conducted their peace education activities in  local primary and secondary schools.

I ntegration of Peace Education Values in BiH Formal Education As has been shown under the previous heading, peace education in BiH has been introduced through different non-formal education activities in BiH schools and in the wider community. Peace education is not institutionalized and integrated in the

 Interview conducted with: Ms.Mira Grbic, Adviser for secondary education, Republic Pedagogical Institute, Republika Srpska. Date of interview: 10 April 2013. Time of interview: 12:00p.m Interview is taken from the book Emkic (2018). 2  Interview conducted with Ms.Dina Borovina, Executive Director, Ministry for education, science and youth of Canton Sarajevo. Educational and Pedagogical Institute of Sarajevo Canton. Date of interview: 1 April 2013. Time of interview: 10:30  a.m.  Interview is taken from the book Emkic (2018). 1

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formal education system in BiH, however, under this heading we will discuss some activities that have already been done in the formal education system and that can lead to easier integration of peace education in the future in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Before we start with the overview of initiatives that can be considered as introducing peace elements into the formal education system in BiH, it would be useful to explain the different approaches to institutionalization of peace education, as well as the importance of a peace education policy. Realising that education plays a critical role in shaping the world’s view of human rights and diversity, the international community in Bosnia and Herzegovina (especially the OSCE, UNDP, Open Society Foundation, COE and others) have initiated different activities from the immediate post-war years until today, ranging from designing policies for curriculum reform, textbook reform to developing the skills of education professionals. While there have been numerous attempts and approaches to address the ethnic segregation within BiH education and to change hatred-spreading education, and while there have been many attempts to contribute to the creation of an education system that can promote tolerance and social cohesion within BiH, still, it is hard to find any official comprehensive example of peace education being incorporated in the formal education system in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Different scholars agree that peace education can be introduced as a separate subject in schools, but it is more important, as Weston et al. (2003) explain, to have peace education spread across the curriculum or to have peace education as a wholeschool approach. The whole-school approach is important because it assures that by having peace values and messages in various aspects of schools and communities the intended peace education learning will be sustainable. The whole school approach engages all the learning areas, all the members of the school community and wider community. It also includes other aspects of school life such as teaching practices, teaching methods, student activities, administrative policies, school structure and relationships, as well as different social initiatives with the wider community. The Miriam College in Philippines developed seven components of the whole school approaches that have been accepted by the school in the Philippines: peace oriented curriculum content, cooperative/dialogic teaching-­learning methods, cocurricular program, peace-related materials, enrichment program for staff on peace and conflict resolution, participative structure and caring relationship and peace action/activities of social concerns (Castro & Galace 2008). Scholars give different priorities to different approaches. However, the review of peace education literature reveals that the integration of peace education in school curricula has been done on a case-by-case basis, without employing a universal strategy, since each society will set up a different form of peace education that depends upon the culture, as well as the views and creativity of the educators (Salamon & Nevo, 2002). The most systematic and lasting approach to peace education is to involve whole educational institutions and the wider community in the process of integration and institutionalisation of peace education (Keating & Knight, 2004). The process of institutionalization of peace education in the school system is dependent on a number of constraints such as wrong perceptions of the discipline (Peace education), lack of instructional materials and qualified manpower for its pedagogy.

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In the case of Sri Lanka, institutionalisation of peace education came from the top-level leadership and included several steps: 1. Creation of a special unit for peace education within the government that should be in charge of coordinating institutionalisation and integration of peace education. 2. Creation of a peace education policy that would regulate the process of integrating peace education. 3. Capacity building of employees in educational institutions in the field of peace education (Ministry of Education Sri Lanka, 2008; ELSA, 2012). A very important step in the institutionalization of peace education is adopting a peace education policy. Not many countries in the world have a peace education policy, however, those who have, have explained that the policy provides an institutional framework for coordination, management, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of peace education in the formal education system. Moreover, a peace education policy provides guidelines for inter-sectoral collaboration and partnership building with other stakeholders to promote peace and harmonious coexistence in the society through learning institutions. For example, the peace education policy in Kenya has objectives to: provide a framework for effective implementation of peace education in the education sector, to provide guidelines for mainstreaming peace education into curricula at all levels, to propose strategies for enhancing proactive measures for conflict prevention and mitigation, to provide a framework for coordination, collaboration, partnerships and networking among players in peace building through education, and, to facilitate regular research and promote evidence-based monitoring and evaluation of peace education initiatives in the sector (Ministry of Education Sciences and Technology, 2014). In Sri Lanka, for example, the peace education policy is called the policy on social cohesion and peace education (SCPE) and has five objectives: to generate innovative strategies which build on existing provision; to provide coherence across the various organisations and activities involved; to provide coverage and avoid gaps; to avoid unnecessary duplication; to ensure sustainability. The policy is centred in the Social Cohesion and Peace Education Unit (SCPEU) of the Ministry of Education (Ministry of Education Sri Lanka, 2008). Talking about changes that should be made to the curricula in primary and secondary schools in BiH, the interviewed interlocutors for the book “Reconciliation and Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina, from Segregation to Sustainable Peace” explained that students are overloaded with different and sometimes opposing messages, especially in national subjects. Due to this fact, it is suggested that messages in these subjects should be harmonised and regulated through a peace education policy and that common messages should emphasise equality, justice and peace. They further understand that the creation and enforcement of an education policy and especially a peace education policy would contribute to determining the goal, objectives and values of education in BiH. A peace education policy would help to create synergy among all players and stakeholders in the education sector in

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BiH. However, due to the lack of a central governing body, implementation of policies and strategies has always been seen as one of the main obstacles in BiH, interviewed stakeholders take the stand that a peace education policy would provide broad guidelines for the coordination and implementation of peace education initiatives within the country.

I nstitutionalization of Peace Education and Peace Education Policy in BiH BiH always had an inspiration to make the education system inclusive and adjustable to all children. In 1992 BiH signed an International Pact on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR). According to this Pact the education system has to be available, acceptable and adjustable to each and every pupil. In 1993 BiH joined the International Convention on abolishing racial discrimination (ICERD) and ratified Children Rights Convection (CRC) that defines the rights of each and every child on education and in education. The curriculum in the formal education system in Bosnia and Herzegovina during and after the war infused segregation and division with few shared values. The huge differences among the three major ethnic groups in BiH was especially emphasized in national subjects like History, Geography, Mother Language and Religious Education. Most messages that inspire segregation and division without any shared values come from national subjects that emphasise that huge differences among the three major ethnic groups have a long history in BiH. One stakeholder explained that “we have the problem that we all want to integrate into Europe and segregate within BiH”.3 Teaching national subjects (history, geography, religion and language) in the post-conflict area can be one of the riskiest and the most challenging endeavours. At the same time, if the teacher is properly trained and skilled enough to manage and lead dialogue about sensitive topics, the discussion can lead to reconciliation, tolerance and peacebuilding. However, teachers in Bosnia and Herzegovina tend to be trained in old-fashioned methodologies and in most cases are simply not trained to stimulate critical thinking among students or teach them to undertake research. Some of the teachers in Bosnia and Herzegovina think that the issue of the Balkan wars in BiH is not properly discussed with students, such as the causes of the First World War in Sarajevo when the assassination happened. It is often alleged that teachers in BiH are not skilled enough to lead open discussions about war matters or historical, religious and all other sensitive topics.

 Interview conducted with Ms. Rahela Dzindic, Former Executive Director of NGO CIVITAS. Date of interview: 3 April 2013. Time of interview: 5:00  p.m.  Interview is taken from the book Emkic (2018). 3

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An analysis conducted by BIRN in 2020, history textbooks used for 14–15-year-­ olds in the two entities of Bosnia and Herzegovina and in Serbia, shows that they generally take a different approach to the 1990s Bosnian conflict, focusing on war victims from their own ethnic group and their own perspective, while avoiding discussion and ignoring victims from other ethnic groups. The same research showed that the major events and personalities of the Bosnian war – the siege of Sarajevo, ethnic cleansing, the Srebrenica genocide and the roles of Bosnian Serb political and military leaders Radovan Karadzic and Ratko Mladic  – are presented differently in the different textbooks used in each place (Obrenovic, 2020). Similar to History, as professor Turcalo explained, “geography is largely used to create a “socio-spatial awareness” to reflect the dominant view of Bosnia and Herzegovina in areas where certain textbooks are used, and helps to build an image of an ethnic group/nation about itself and its position within the state. “Because it uses a combination of visual and verbal representations of the state, geography offers geo-political representations that stabilize faster than history or language” (Turcalo, 2016, p. 255). In geography textbooks in Republika Srpska, for example, Republika Srpska is called a state, while Bosnia and Herzegovina is named as a union of entities. (Turcalo, 2016). In 2002, BiH joined the European Council and became obliged to respect European standards of protecting and promoting human rights that include rights on education. In August 2003, an important step in moving from three opposing, segregating curricula towards a more shared system of values was done by the creation of Common Core Curricula (CCC). Evidently, compared to what the education system looked like before and after education reform, it can be said that the CCC has been a step forward in unifying education and reconciling certain attitudes in the education system in BiH. Although many people argue that the CCC did not make any revolutionary steps, still the creation of the CCC provided opportunities for education stakeholders to sit together and discuss shared values common to all students in BiH. Another important aspect in introducing peace values in the formal education curriculum is the introduction of the subjects Democracy and Human Rights for secondary schools and Democracy and Civil Freedom in 1996 as extracurricular subjects or as a part of other subjects. The main goal of having these subjects in the formal education system is to develop skills and knowledge necessary for living in a democratic society. Students are introduced to the ideas and concepts on which democratic society is based. In 2000 the Declaration conference of the Ministry of Education stated that the subject of Democracy and Human rights should be introduced in all schools in BiH.  This resulted with the decision in 2001/2002 when Democracy and Human Rights as a school subject was introduced in 64 school classes in Republika Srpska, Brcko District and cantons that have been conducting teaching in Bosnian language. In cantons that have been conducting their teaching in Croatian language, these themes are performed as a special unit in the school subject Politics and Management with variation in the number of classes depending on the type of the school. This was done by the European Council, US Embassy Sarajevo, and CIVITAS Network of educators. Civitas conducted training for 37,170 teachers in using new interactive methods for working on some basic

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concepts of a democratic society. Civitas in cooperation with educational institutions and the European Council has developed a programme of giving certificates to high school and elementary school teachers in teaching democracy and human rights. The programme is coordinated with the Bologna standards for professional development. (Ministry of Civil Affairs, 2017). In 1999 cantons introduced the subject Civic Education in the eighth grade of primary school (Ministry of Civil Affairs, 2017). Through different subjects such as Human Rights, Democracy and Civic Education, students certainly become familiar with peace values and life in a multicultural environment. In 2018 primary schools in BiH introduced a subject called Society/Culture/Religion. It is taught from the first to the ninth grade of primary school, 1 h a week, with a total 35 h a year. This is an alternative subject, created for students who do not attend Religious Education classes. The goal of this subject is to introduce pupils with the basic rules of ethics, democracies, children’s rights, values of a democratic society, different cultures, religions, and, to prepare young people for life in a multicultural society (to develop their moral, social and civic competencies). The topics covered in the subject contribute to development of personal, cultural and national identity, while, at the same time developing sensitivity for others and the entire living environment (Vajzovic & Hibert, 2021). Integrating elements of peace education into formal education in Bosnia and Herzegovina has never been done, but many international organizations have been involved in different activities like curricula revision, textbook revision and the development of teaching manuals for teachers, as well as different kinds of research in order to make the formal education system more tolerant, inclusive and sustainable. Moreover, the work of these kinds of organisations is complex and is spread on several levels, from the level of the community and schools to the higher policy-­ makers’ level. They have tried to explore the gaps that need to be improved and gauge how to improve communication between those very different levels of ministries and lower levels. They conduct research on textbooks, curricula, teachers’ skills and knowledge, and parents’ attitudes. Some of these organisations are Open Society Foundation, CIVITAS, OSCE, the Council of Europe. It is important to mention that these organizations do not work specifically on introduction of peace education in the formal curricula; instead, with their work they are contributing to the development of textbooks, curricula and teacher’s approaches that will be based on peace values. For example, the first analysis of textbooks was conducted by the Open Society Fund BH and PROMENTE Social Research in 2007. The aim was to establish and define the basic principles and values the education system promoted on the example of the national group of subjects. The results showed that education, through its content and structure, encourages segregation and division within the BiH society. Even more, the textbooks served as an instrument for the separation of students on an ethnic basis and did not support an individualised approach in teaching, critical thinking or research. The OSCE Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina has actively supported primary and secondary school curricular reform since 2002, the efforts of the Mission and partner institutions have succeeded in supporting history textbook reform, including

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the removal of offensive and hate speech, the introduction of reform, including elements of diversity and tolerance, to textbooks and curricula, and the organization of training for textbook authors, reviewers and teachers. To move forward on this issue the Mission together with a group of local experts developed “Guidelines for Textbook Writing and Evaluation of History Textbooks for Primary and Secondary Schools in BiH”. As a result of the joint work of the Council of Europe and the OSCE Mission effort, a Teacher Manual on contemporary history teaching in schools was developed. The Mission further implemented the project History for the Future – Towards Reconciliation through Education. The aim of the project was to establish common principles, outcomes and standards for teaching history for the whole country to ensure a common base of knowledge, culture and values for all students. The Council of Europe started a new project in May 2019 called “Quality education for all” within the framework of the second phase of the “European Union – Council of Europe Horizontal Facility for Western Balkans and Turkey (HF)”. The main partners of the project were the Ministry of Civil Affairs of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and all relevant entity and cantonal ministries of education. The project is implemented through a period of 36 months. The purpose of the Project is to foster a quality education for all by promoting inclusion and solutions to address discrimination in the education system and in this way contribute to an inclusive, peaceful and democratic society with engaged citizens in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In particular, it aims to promote the benefits of multi-ethnic and democratic schools for quality education through strengthening the capacities of pilot schools to promote a democratic school culture. It is built along three main lines of action: 1. Enhancing common understanding among relevant authorities and educators of how to develop a democratic school culture. 2. Targeted capacity building of main providers (Ministries of Education, Pedagogical Institutes and CSOs) and including more structured and continuous coordination. 3. Awareness-raising of school directors, teachers, students, parents, civil servants and the public at large on the benefits of a multi-ethnic and democratic school for quality education. (Council of Europe, 2021). As Brcko District has special political status within Bosnia and Herzegovina, the educational institutions have tried to contribute to the reconciliation process and peacebuilding process by bringing innovation to the education system of Brcko District. In 2010, the subject called Life Skills and Attitudes was introduced in primary schools in Brcko District, mainly to offer an alternative class for those children who did not want to attend classes in religion. The subject is taught just in Brcko district in multi ethnic schools. At the beginning, when the subject was introduced in schools, religious leaders expressed strong resistance toward the subject, explaining that schools do not have qualified teachers to teach the subject. The aim of the subject Life Skills and Attitudes is to prepare students to understand and accept different cultures and moral and religious values. Teachers of this subject are teachers of democracy and human rights, local languages and history teachers (Nestorovic, 2009).

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Conclusion Similar to other post-conflict countries, the education system in Bosnia and Herzegovina can be seen as part of the problem, but also as part of the solution too. Education reform has aimed at bringing unification among the ethnically divided parallel systems within the country that has been neglected for many years. As a result, division among schools and more widely in BiH society has increased. Lack of local ownership over harmonisation of curricula, as well as lack of a coordination body in the process of education reform, caused several obstacles during the early post-war period of reconstruction and reform. Harmonisation of core curricula in non-contentious subjects, such as science, went smoothly. However, the national subjects like History, Geography, Mother Language and Religion are still subjects that have been sending opposite messages. Certain achievements have been made in introducing peace values into the formal education system, as well as introducing peace values in the wider community. Different international organizations like OSCE, COE, NDC, Civitas and CNA have introduced peace education through non formal projects. Collaboration between international and local policy actors resulted in education reform, teacher training, creation of new textbooks and curricula. Owing to these kinds of different initiatives education became more inclusive, more accessible to minority groups, more open to the community by involving parent and student councils in the work of schools, and some elements of peace values were introduced to students through subjects like Democracy, Human Rights, Civic Education, Society- Culture -Religion and the subject called Life Skills. Although peace education has not been formally integrated into the education system of Bosnia and Herzegovina, most students, parents, teachers, and school managers have received at least the basic information about peace education through a variety of trainings organized by different local and international organizations. Such training boosted their knowledge and skills and enabled them to stimulate dialogue and critical thinking among students. The institutionalization of peace education necessarily takes time and entails several steps like developing a peace education policy and building professional capacities. Education reform in BiH has not managed to eliminate nationalistic ideology and rhetoric that was interwoven through curricula and textbooks, therefore more work is needed in order to mainstream peace values throughout the education system so that it can become a more effective agent for social cohesion. The presence of new subjects like Democracy and Human Rights, Civic Education and Life Skills can help young people to develop critical thinking skills and the capacity for constructive dialogue, but there is still concern that teachers are not skilled enough to deliver the class when they have to deal with sensitive topics. In order to incorporate a multidimensional perspective of the peacebuilding process, different actors at different levels in BiH should be involved in the process of integration and institutionalization of peace education in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Besides primary and secondary education, higher education institutions also play a huge role in this process. Further research on the role of universities in promoting peace education in BiH is needed, including integrating peace education into the

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curricula of these institutions and launching new undergraduate and postgraduate programmes that specialise in peace education Emkic (2018).

Take-Away Messages • Peace education is not yet integrated and institutionalized in the formal education system in Bosnia and Herzegovina. • In post-war Bosnia and Herzegovina, different educational approaches to bringing peace values into the formal education system and the wider community have been implemented by local and international organizations. • Although peace education is not institutionalized, and recognition of the importance of peace education in the formal education system in different parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina is different, a great number of educators who have participated in peace education training find it a very useful and important experience. • Peace education in Bosnia and Herzegovina is conducted on a project basis and peace values are introduced to the formal education system through subjects like Human Rights, Democracy and Civic Education, Life Skills and Attitudes and a subject called Society- Culture- Religion. However, there are no organizations or institutions in Bosnia and Herzegovina that have peace education and development of peace education as the main field of their work. • It is not possible to integrate and institutionalize peace education in the formal education system in BiH without having educated experts in peace education. It is strongly recommended that peace education should be introduced as a special subject or as a special department for peace education especially in social science universities and universities that specialise in the education of future teachers.

References Bajaj, M., & Chiu, B. (2009). Education for sustainable development as peace education. Peace and Change, 34(4), 441–455. Bretherton, D., Weston. J., & Zbar, J. (2003). Peace education curriculum Development in Postconflict context: Sierra Leone. Prospects, 33(2), 219–230. Retrieved from https://www. researchgate.net/publication/226788486_Peace_education_in_a_postconflict_environment_ the_case_of_Sierra_Leone Buckland, P. (2005). Reshaping the future education and postconflict reconstruction. The World Bank. Buyukcanga, N. (2011). The role of education in peace and conflict in Bosnia-Herzegovina: A comparative study of three schools. (Master’s Thesis). Semantic Scholar. Castro, L. N., & Galace, J. N. (2008). Peace education, a pathway to a culture of peace. The centre for peace education. Miriam College. Center for Civic Education. (2004). A Programmatic evaluation of civitas, an international civic education exchange program 2002–2003. California. Council of Europe. (2021). Quality education for all. Council of Europe. Danesh, H.  B. (2005). Education for peace reader, education for peace integrative curriculum series. EFP Press Victoria.

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Ellison, S.  C., & Smith, A. (2013). Education and internally displaced persons, education as humanitarian response. Bloomsbury Publishing. ELSA. (2012). Peace education in Mindanao schools and communities. IYF, Education, Peace and Tolerance, Vulnerable Youth in 2011. Emkic, E. (2018). Reconciliation and education in Bosnia and Herzegovina, from segregation to sustainable peace. Springer, The Anthropocene: Politik-Economics-Society-Science. Fisher, S., & Zimina, L. (2018). Centre for nonviolent action. Principles and Funding. Retrieved from https://www.irenees.net/bdf_fiche-­acteurs-­418_en.html Keating, T., & Knight, A. W. (2004). Building sustainable peace. United Nations University Press. Ministry of Civil Affairs. (2017). Progress report on the implementation of the third phase of the world programme for human rights education. Ministry of Education and Technology. (2014). Education sector policy on peace education. Ministry of Education Sri Lanka. (2008). National policy and a comprehensive framework of actions on education for social cohesion and peace (Sri Lanka), UNESCO International Institute for Education Planning. NDC. (2010). Peace education/prevention and conflict management. NDC Sarajevo. Nestorovic, R. (2009). Životne Vještine i Stavovi. Education Department Pedagogical Institute. Obrenovic, M., (2020), Bosnian, Serbian school books teach rival versions of history. BIRN. Salomon, G., & Nevo, B. (2002). Peace education: The concept, principles, and practices around the world. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Torsti, P. (2009). Segregated education and texts: A challenge to peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina. International Journal on World Peace, 26(2), 65–82. Turcalo, S., (2016). Geopolitičko Kodiranje Bosne i Hercegovine u Obrazovnom Sistemu. Fakultet Politickih Nauka Univerziteta u Sarajevu. Vajzović. E., & Hibert. M. (2021). Odrastanje učenja: Drustvo, Kultura, Religija u Digitalnom Dobu. Institut za Društvena Istraživanja Fakulteta Politickih Nauka Univerziteta u Sarajevu. Weinstein, M., Freedman, W.  S., & Houghson, H. (2007). School voices: Challenges facing education systems after identity-based conflicts. Education, Citizenship and Social Justice, 2(41), 41–71.

Recommended Readings Fischer, M. (2007). The need for multi-dimensional youth work: Education, interethnic. Ian, H. (2013). Peace education from grassroots. A volume in the series: Peace Education. Laura L. Finley (Ed.), Barry University. Robin Cooper, Nova Southeastern University. IAP. Networking and Income Generation. (2009). In Martina Fischer (Ed.), Peacebuilding and civil society in Bosnia-Herzegovina – Ten years after dayton (2nd ed., pp. 233–255). Lit-Verlag. Eleonora Emkić  has built her career in a variety of roles mostly in nongovernmental, humanitarian, and academic sector. She has developed a broad structural and critical view over the years as the international educator who has been trained in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Sweden, France, and Malaysia, and who has lived and worked in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Malaysia, Ukraine and Iraq. Eleonora earned her Ph.D. in Political Sciences, Peace and Conflict from the University Sains Malaysia. She earned her Master’s Degree in Management in International Business from Grenoble Graduate School of Business, France, and International Course in Conflict Resolution and Mediation, from the Law Faculty of Erasmus University Rotterdam. She is the author of the book Reconciliation and Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina: From Segregation to Positive Sustainable Peace (2018, Springer). She currently works as a Project Manager in forum ZFD in Erbil, Iraq.

Part II

Peacebuilding Through Teacher Education

Chapter 4

Preparing Future Teachers to Educate for Democracy and Human Rights: The Western Balkans Approach Bojana Dujković-Blagojević

Abstract  Education is one of the main pillars of society. What is good education and what results it should bring is an open question in every society, especially in transitional ones, where different concepts and ideas are merging. Very often the prevailing opinion in public discourse is that the ‘old one’ was much better than the one we have today. Western Balkans countries have been making important steps to modernize curricula for school education in line with European standards and approaches. Sometimes it seems that these societies are facing constant and never-­ ending reforms in education. In this paper the focus is on the role of future teachers’ education (how the future teachers are prepared for the teaching career), the importance of networking and a connection to themes of human rights, democracy and peace, which present important relevance in the teaching contexts of today’s world. Keywords  Teacher education · Student teachers · Practice-oriented teaching · Teacher development · Democracy and human rights education

Introduction The quality of teacher education is a prerequisite for the quality of education provided to young people (UN Agenda 2030/SDGs). All Western Balkans1 countries have made important steps to modernize their curricula for school education, in line with European standards and approaches. Reforms are seen in the institutional and  Western Balkans countries considered within the project are: Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, North Macedonia, Montenegro, Kosovo* and Serbia. *This name does not prejudicate the status, in accordance with UNSC Resolution 1244 and the Opinion of the International Court of Justice regarding the Declaration of independence of Kosovo. 1

B. Dujković-Blagojević (*) European Wergeland Centre (EWC), Oslo, Norway e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 L. Kasumagić-Kafedžić, S. Clarke-Habibi (eds.), Peace Pedagogies in Bosnia and Herzegovina, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26246-3_4

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legislative framework. Parts of those reforms are reflected in the number of strategies, plans and projects.2 All these countries are participating in OECD PISA research and other international research with an aim to improve education. A change in the learning and teaching culture of teacher education institutions is needed, including changes in the methodology for teacher education, in the design and content of university courses, as well as in ongoing teacher training. Different researchers point out that in the Western Balkans countries the emphasis on theory in teacher education still predominates over the acquisition of practical teaching competences. There has been a persistent gap between theory and practice in teacher training, partly caused by limited traditions of partnerships between teacher education institutions and schools.3 The transition from a traditional education approach to a modern competence-­ oriented system also impacts how teachers work in schools, and how future teachers are trained. A pre-service training is provided to teachers-to-be students before they have undertaken any teaching, eventually leading to a qualification to teach. The common approach for most of the countries is to require that a teacher holds a high level of education. In Western Balkans countries it is mandatory for a teacher to have at least a bachelor’s degree, though master’s degrees are increasingly required to teach certain subjects or grades. ‘Other common approaches used to develop and validate the competences of new teachers include raising the quality of initial teacher education programs, requiring ITE graduates to pass a certification examination and/or implementing compulsory probationary periods. Examples of these types of quality assurance mechanisms are present in the Western Balkans. However, in many parts of the region, teacher certification and qualification requirements are not applied with sufficient rigour and consistency to improve teaching and learning outcomes’.4 The pandemic of COVID-19 has significantly influenced the education sector. Practically, within a week, all educators in every segment of education were forced to change and adapt to online teaching. This was very challenging and caused numerous discussions, especially on social networks. Following media outlets,

 Most of the countries have introduced new content to the school curriculum and are developing child-friendly school environments; Increasing teachers’ qualifications and enhancing their skills in applying diverse learning and teaching methods and techniques to promote a child-centred approach to teaching, inclusiveness, equality, and diversity; Improving preparation of pre-­ university teachers by enhancing professional practice, introducing cross-curricular and subject integration competence, and boosting research activity; Establishing demand-driven in-service teacher training and introducing an accreditation system for teacher training programs; Improving the social and financial status of teachers; Reducing the practice of shift teaching in schools and addressing the lack of qualified teaching staff in rural areas; Increasing the use of ICT in teaching and learning. 3  Skikkos, H, 2013, Teacher Education and Training in the Western Balkans, Final synthesis report, Directorate-General of Education and Culture European Commission, https://era.ideasoneurope. eu/2013/12/20/teacher-education-and-training-in-the-western-balkans-is-it-in-line-with-the-­ times-is-it-effective/ (2021.02.16). 4  OECD (2020), Education in the Western Balkans: Findings from PISA, PISA, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/764847ff-en (2021, 09.15). 2

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portals, social networks, an impression was made that almost everyone, at least in Bosnia and Herzegovina, is an educational expert and has something to advise on how to organize teaching and learning processes in completely changed circumstances. The fact that classrooms, which are, in a way, a secret space shared by pupils and teachers, were fully exposed by moving online, was a striking reality. In these changed circumstances, some of the teachers adapted very fast and provided good input to pupils, while the others continued to work (or pretend) like everything was normal, providing lectures ex cathedra without any adaptations made for pupils on the other side of the screen. This chapter will illustrate the experiences of the project that was aimed at fostering cooperation between teacher education (universities) in the region. It also provided a contribution towards developing and delivering innovative teacher training modules and courses for citizenship and human rights which reflect a practice-­ oriented teacher education approach. Special focus has been placed on fostering inclusive cooperation between schools and mentor teachers from one side, and teacher education programs from the other side in the process of educating future teachers and their preparation for a future teaching career. The chapter will also elaborate how the COVID-19 pandemic has influenced and changed the way the project works by moving the activities to the online space and what limitations and challenges the project has faced in this process.

 eacher Education in Western Balkans and Bosnia T and Herzegovina Initial teacher education is often directly organized into two cycles, Bachelor and Master (Albania, Kosovo and Serbia). In most countries, the Bachelor qualification has been extended to 4 years, though in Bosnia and Herzegovina there are some variations. In some countries there are examples of transition arrangements for existing teachers who need to obtain additional credits in pedagogical-­psychological-­ didactical competences. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, requirements for entering the teaching profession are high and generally aligned with other European countries. Preschool, primary, and secondary education teachers are required to complete the first cycle of higher education, 180 or 240 ECTS credits, to gain access to the teaching profession. According to the Constitution, the field of education, hence, the initial teacher training, is under the jurisdiction of entities and cantons. In the country, there is no centralized and uniformed system of quality control for teacher training. Initial teacher education is provided by faculties, and due to the high degree of autonomy and decentralization, curricula content varies greatly. Although admission requirements to the teaching profession vary, many cantons also require the candidates to successfully pass a professional examination upon the completion of the program and/or

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receive a certificate on ability to work with children. However, the quality of these professional exams is unknown.5 A special segment in initial teacher education is the level of practice work during the training. Future teachers’ practice in schools is not unified and fully developed. Most of the practice work is not fully regulated and differs from university to university (sometimes even from two departments at the same university) and in most cases is based on personal relations with teacher mentors and school directors.6 The importance of a mentoring system is not recognized. Collaboration between teacher students and teacher mentors is not very frequent. Activities that promote practice work in schools or observing classes to improve effectiveness of teaching are not widely practised in BiH. On average, teacher students in BiH have 2 classes to perform teaching in classrooms during initial teacher education.7 Democratic Education, as a school subject in primary and secondary education, was introduced almost two decades ago. Since then, teachers from various disciplines have been educated to teach Democratic Education. They were trained through training and seminars provided by non-governmental organizations, approved and recognized by the educational authorities in the country. The reduced number of enrolled students in primary and secondary education in BiH is causing a lack of available positions for teachers and more frequently a reduced level of work engagement for many teachers. Most of the teachers who completed the additional certification for democratic education highlighted that this was needed to enable 100% work engagement in their schools. The potential and the need for a separate pre-service study program for democratic and human rights education is not recognized.

 roject “Preparing Future Teachers: Educating P for Democracy and Human Rights” The European Wergeland Centre (EWC) is a resource centre on education for intercultural understanding, human rights, and democratic citizenship. The work of the EWC builds on Council of Europe recommendations and policies, such as the Charter on Education for Democratic Citizenship and Human Rights Education,

 World bank group; Bosnia and Herzegovina Review of Efficiency of Services in Pre-University Education August 2019 https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/719981571233699712/pdf/ Bosnia-and-Herzegovina-Review-of-Efficiency-of-Services-in-Pre-University-Education-Phase-­ I-­Stocktaking.pdf (2021, 09. 14). 6  Information based on interviews with several schoolteachers and university professors in Banja Luka, Mostar and Sarajevo. 7  Survey conducted within the project ‘Preparing future teachers: Educating for Democracy and Human Rights’. 61 teacher students from University of Banja Luka, Sarajevo and Mostar participated. The survey was conducted in the period of academic 2020/21. 5

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which was developed to make sure that the values of human rights, democracy and the rule of law are promoted in and through education. EWC’s main aim is to strengthen the capacity of individuals, educational institutions, and educational systems to build and sustain a culture of democracy and human rights. The EWC’s project “Preparing future teachers: Educating for democracy and human rights”8 has as its focus the improvement of the quality of teacher education in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo*, Montenegro, North Macedonia and Serbia, in line with efforts to improve education, emphasizing inclusiveness and democratic competences. The main aim is to develop and integrate new teacher education modules with a focus on practice-oriented teaching promoting citizenship, democracy, and human rights. This regional project provides support for higher education institutions and universities in six countries that are interested in modernizing their teacher education modules, with an aim to improve the quality of teacher education for future teachers in the region. An important element in this segment is teaching skills among the teacher education students. Learning how to teach is an important element of the education of future teachers. Schools are the places where that should take place and where teacher students can face all aspects of their future career requirements. It is not a secret that partnership between schools and teaching education universities/institutes is limited in the region, or, at least, not fully institutionalized. Numerous reasons cause that. The responsibility and potential role of schools in the process of pre-service training is not recognized. Schools are not seen as an element of great importance in pre-service training. “Teaching practice is uneven across the region and in some cases barely in existence”.9 The main problem with pre-service education is its still predominantly subject-based orientation. Development of specific skills and competences is not fully in focus and this is “echoed by teachers, parents and community members, highlighting the rigidity of teacher-training faculties”.10 With that in mind, when planning the project, EWC with its partners set the focus on improving collaboration between the schools and teacher training institutes/faculties. In all Western Balkans’ countries student teachers are required to undertake a classroom practice before graduation. This is the form of cooperation between schools and teacher training institutes that is mostly in use in the region. However, this form of cooperation is rather formal. Within the project the question was raised on how we can increase the supply of qualified educational staff in teacher education institutions that have a focus on practice-oriented teaching that promotes democracy and human rights. The project implemented by European Wergeland Centre (EWC) is focusing on improvement of teacher education for future teachers, bearing in mind that the research by the European Commission has pointed out that, besides the ‘evidence of modernization in initial teacher education programs and the Bologna process gradually reforming

 The project is supported by the Norwegian Ministry of foreign affairs (RER  – 19/0009). The project officially started in December 2018 and ended in March 2022. 9  Skikkos, H, 2013, 33. 10  Ibid 34. 8

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the curricula (…) a key development is in the extension of studies towards master’s qualification, although this initiative is not usually directed towards the practical skills required for modern teaching methods, teaching practice is uneven across the region and in some cases barely in existence’. One of the main aims of EWC is to strengthen the capacity of individuals, educational institutions and educational systems to build and sustain a culture of democracy and human rights. Within the project Preparing Future Teachers EWC has focused on pre-service teacher education. The project is implemented by the EWC in close partnership with education institutions from the region11 whose representatives are participating in the Steering Group Committee, a body responsible for planning and approving implementation activities. Project partners are mainly institutions responsible for shaping educational policies, development, advisory work, and research in preschool, primary and secondary education at the national level. They are responsible for monitoring, ensuring the quality and development of education systems in the respective countries. The main target group in the project are university professors/lecturers at the public universities across the region, who are responsible for educating teacher education students. In the early stage of the project, a network of 12 participating universities/faculties12 was established. The project managed to gather very dedicated professionals ready to share their knowledge and expertise and willing to take an active role in shaping and improving the education of future teachers. These universities nominated 36 professors/lecturers to actively participate in project activities. Some of them have been approached directly, knowing their field of interest and project-based experience. Some were targeted by project partners and network members. All of them had to be lecturers or education staff actively involved in teacher training at higher education institutions and universities. The key criteria for selection were:

 The project partners are: In Albania, Agency for Quality Assurance in Pre-University Education, in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Foundation Education in Action, in North Macedonia Bureau for Development of Education, in Montenegro the Bureau for Education Services, in Kosovo Kosovo Education Centre (KEC) and in The Republic of Serbia Institute for Improvement of Education of the Republic of Serbia. 12  In the university network are the following: Albania: University of Elbasan (Alexander Xhuvani)  – Faculty of Educational Sciences; University of Durres (Aleksander Moisiu) – Faculty of Education Montenegro: University of Montenegro – Faculty of Philosophy and Faculty of Philology Serbia: University of Belgrade – Faculty of Teacher Education; University of Niš – Faculty of Philosophy North Macedonia: University of Ss Cyril and Methodius Skopje–Faculty of Pedagogy and Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics Kosovo*: University of Pristina (Hasan Pristina) – Faculty of Education Bosnia and Herzegovina: University of Sarajevo  – Faculty of Philosophy; University of Mostar  – Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences  – Political sciences Department and Philosophy Department; University of Banja Luka – Faculty of Philosophy. 11

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• Occupation at a higher education institution/university where teachers are trained. • Strong motivation to work with citizenship and human rights education. • Interest in innovative and practice-oriented teaching approaches. • Willingness to act as a multiplier in their institution and beyond. • Good command of English. Innovation in teacher education and inclusion of new topics and approaches is very much needed across the region. Innovation is always complex and requires a great level of analysis, needs assessments and careful planning. In a rapidly changing world, education must provide the know-how to develop skills, competences, values and knowledge for the twenty-first century. This might be highlighted from different perspectives. A common problem in pre-service education in the Western Balkans is the low level of practice work conducted in schools by teacher-students. Numerous reasons are behind this problem – cooperation between schools and universities is not fully institutionalized, nor is the role of mentor teachers in schools fully recognized as one of great importance. The problem of financing a mentoring system has not yet been solved. In some countries, mentors receive a small honorarium paid by faculties. The situation differs not only from country to country, but sometimes within the same university. In most countries, mentors do not receive any compensation for the additional work they do with teacher-students, so their engagement depends on personal connections with university professors and their personal willingness to do that additional work. That was the main reason why improving the practice work by teacher-students was seen as very important. Indeed, over a 4 to 5-year period of pre-service training, the number of classes observed or conducted by teacher-students in schools is still very limited.

Increasing the Teaching Practice and New Semester Courses In order to provide input to this selected problem, an agreement within the project was established with university professors/lecturers, specifying that practice work by teacher-students must be highlighted in semester courses/modules. Each university team agreed to develop new courses, or adapt the existing semester course with minimum 20% of practice teaching by teacher students. The responses by university teams were highly professional. The project aimed to support the development of 12 new or adapted modules, with concrete innovation in teaching methods and integration of democratic competences, different hands-on activities, and a concrete increase in the level of teaching practice work by teacher students. As a result of highly dedicated professional work by the university teams, 15 one-semester courses/modules were implemented in the academic year 2020/21 (Chart 4.1).13  Semester module Education for democratic citizenship at the Faculty of Education in Pristina is developed and accredited for new Primary education program and will be implemented in academic 2021/22. 13

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Chart 4.1  Number of semester modules per country developed

Newly developed or adapted courses were part of the official program at each of the participating universities/faculties, and a number of students were enrolled14 and took part in every segment of the course. Among 15 semester modules that were tested, two were prepared and implemented at the MA level of teacher education (in Serbia), while others were at the BA level. Some of the courses were elective courses, while others were obligatory courses for teacher students. Diversification by the subject areas was considered an element of great importance for the project, and this diversity was encouraged in the selection process. Among twelve participating universities in the network, we have a great variety of study groups. Bearing in mind that the focus of the project is on practice-oriented teaching that promotes democracy and human rights, we were expecting challenges in integrating democracy in some disciplines like chemistry, mathematics, or visual art subject areas. The final selection of proposed modules targets MA and BA students in different subjects and study areas. Chart 4.2 illustrates the range that was achieved (Chart 4.3). One module was recognized as a good open resource- Democracy Through Visual Art Education, comprised of a semester module and session plans for pre-­ service training of future teachers, prepared by Rolf Gollob and Maja Raunik Kirkov.15 This semester module was developed and tested at the University of Skopje, Faculty of Pedagogy in 2020, and focused on three important issues. How

 In total, 232 teacher students at 5 universities were taking the courses.  https://theewc.org/resources/democracy-through-visual-art-education-semester-module-and-­ session-plans-for-pre-service-training-of-future-teachers/ (2021.03.11). 14

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MA programs Psychology teachers English language teachers Geography teachers History teachers Civic education teachers Pedagogy Elementary education program / classroom... 0

0.5

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Chart 4.2  MA level target subject groups and study areas

BA programs Chemistry teachers Visual arts teachers Mathematics teachers Serbian language Montenegrin language English language teachers Sociology Pedagogy Elementary education program / classroom teachers Pre-elementary education program 0

0.5

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1.5

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Chart 4.3  BA level target subject groups and study areas

can approaches and contents of democracy education and consideration of the newly developed Council of Europe Approach to Fostering a Culture of Democracy (RFCDC) be incorporated into teacher education? How can we incorporate the urgently needed practical orientation of teacher training, and how can university teaching, in its form and approach, become a good (methodological) example for future teachers?16 This was the first university module that integrated academic subject content (Visual Art Education with Didactics) and democracy content. Additionally, several more project modules were further developed and published online:

 Gollob, R, M.  Raunik Kirkov, 2021, Democracy Through Visual Art Education. Semester Module and Session Plans for pre-service training of future teachers, Oslo, Zurich, 4. 16

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• Democracy through Didactics of Teaching Mathematics by Vesna Makasevska.17 This module integrates teaching democracy in mathematics education that supports the learning process and provides an environment where students can not only gain knowledge of mathematical content, but also methodical and decision-­ making competencies and skills for implementation of democratic thinking and behavior. • Culture of Democracy through the Culture of Speech and its Didactics for Preschool Educators by Lulzim Ademi.18 This module is intended to transfer the contents of the course Methodology of educational work in speech culture with which students will gain knowledge and skills that will allow them to successfully hold activities in the field of language in preschool institutions and in parallel to introduce appropriate key competencies of democratic education. • Culture of Democracy Through the Didactics of Chemistry by Marina Stojanovska.19 This publication contains the semester plan of a training module for pre-­service teachers as well as the detailed planning of all 12 semester units (session plans). This module is intended for primary and secondary school teachers through a combination of pedagogical-content knowledge and democracy. The module included specific chemistry content and attempted to integrate democratic principles and values into the education of future teachers. • HRE/EDC Competencies and Future Teachers by Lindita Lutaj, Elda Tartari and Enkelejda Cenaj.20 This module focuses on basic principles of HRE/EDC, and helps students to understand the importance of having human rights education and democratic citizenship education as well as understand the importance of good pedagogy in the learning process. One segment is dedicated to the role of educational institutions in installing a democratic culture for students, giving them contemporary models to live in a democracy. • Culture of Democracy Through the Visual Art Preschool Education by Maja Raunik Kirkov and Rolf Gollob.21 The module is aimed at students, future teachers, to provide them with didactic strategies that implement contemporary cultural values and decision-making skills for implementation of democratic thinking and behavior to real life by its integration into visual art education for preschoolers. • Democratic Culture and Peace Pedagogy in Teacher Education, by Larisa Kasumagić- Kafedžić, Emina Dedić Bukvić, Melisa Forić Plasto22 from the

 https://theewc.org/resources/democracy-through-didactics-of-teaching-mathematics/  https://theewc.org/resources/culture-of-democracy-through-the-culture-of-speech-and-itsdidactics-for-preschool-educators/ 19  https://theewc.org/resources/culture-of-democracy-through-the-didactics-of-chemistry/ 20  https://theewc.org/resources/kompetencat-e-ednj-eqd-dhe-mesuesit-e-se-ardhmes/ 21  https://theewc.org/resources/culture-of-democracy-through-the-visual-art-preschool-education/ 22  https://theewc.org/resources/democratic-culture-and-peace-pedagogy-in-teacher-educationpractice-examples-from-virtual-classrooms/ 17

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Peace Education Hub of the Faculty of Philosophy in Sarajevo. The following modules were developed in the course: Identity and Symbols, Prejudices and Stereotypes, Cultural Diversity and Intercultural Learning, Teaching Controversial Issues, Children’s Rights and Inclusive Education. • More modules were developed by the end of the project.

The Role of Mentoring “A crucial factor of successful practical training are experienced teachers who support the trainees as mentors”.23 Enhancing and strengthening cooperation between schools and teacher education institutes and universities was considered an important part of the project. By setting up a network of schools, the project enabled experienced teacher mentors to collaborate actively with university lecturers and to support teacher students by providing them with an opportunity to try out and improve their teaching competences as teachers in the classrooms (Image 4.1). What was signalled by lecturers at the very beginning of the project was the fact that working with mentors can be very challenging. The questions were raised: What is the mentoring process and what should be the role of mentors?, which was a challenge for both sides  – lecturers and mentors. Cooperation among them in some of the countries in the region was based on personal connections and friendship. The organization of the practice work by the students was based mostly on personal organizational capacities of lecturers. On the other hand, mentors were faced with challenges due to the lack of clear instructions of what is expected from them and how to support the teacher students. That was an unexpected challenge for the project and indicated that a more systematized approach to mentoring is also needed. In response, an adapted approach with a solution was developed. The main expert in the project took on an assignment to write a Manual for mentors of teacher students. This publication was developed in close cooperation with lecturers from the region.24 Additionally, one important element – training for school mentors – had to be organized online. To some extent it was challenging to organize teacher mentors and establish a good level of cooperation with them, having in mind that we have not

 Gollob, R, 2020, Experts for Learning in practice. A Manual for Mentors of Teacher students. Oslo, Zurich. The European Wergeland Centre (EWC) in cooperation with Department IPE  – Zurich University of Teacher Education. https://theewc.org/resources/experts-for-learning-in-practice-amanual-for-mentors-of-teacher-students/ (2021.02.18). 24  The focus group was established very early and experienced professionals and lecturers from Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Kosovo* and Albania provided valuable input, securing that Manual is reflecting on real needs and implementation models in the region of Western Balkans. 23

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Image 4.1  Western Balkans University and school network

met each other face-to-face. In that sense, university teams provided great support and guidance to mentors. The training was organized in two cycles (in the fall of 2020 and in February 2021). The main reason for that timing was the semester testing term module at the participating universities. The training was conducted in three sessions and simultaneously translated into local languages. One of them wrote in the evaluation report that ‘Participation in the training was very important for me because I have learned that mentors should always be a support, in both good and difficult situations, as well as that mentors should instruct and not criticize a teacher student’. Another wrote, ‘The biggest challenge for me was to prove to myself and to show that I am capable of passing on my teaching experience to teacher students and to point to the mistakes and challenges I was facing, so they do not repeat it’.

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Effects of Covid 19 on the Project Activities The project was heavily affected by COVID-19 in 2020 and 2021. Teaching practice is key to the project outcome of ‘improved skills’ and it was difficult to compensate when schools were closed. That was the main challenge and open question on how to organize school practice under changed circumstances. All face-to-face activities planned for 2020 were replaced with a series of webinars and online workshops. It proved important to keep the network ‘alive’, hence the focus was to provide the support on a regular basis and via online sources. University teams from Belgrade, Nis, Banja Luka, Skopje (Faculty of Pedagogy with three different modules), Skopje (Natural Sciences and Mathematics) and Durres, decided to finalize their modules and start with implementation in the first semester of 2020/2021. The practice work by the teacher students remained an open issue throughout the whole testing process. In some countries, schools were open and practice work by teacher students was enabled to a certain extent (Banja Luka and Belgrade), in other countries only online work was possible (North Macedonia). Setting up a school network and organizing training for school mentors in an online mode was a great challenge. The national networks of practice schools with mentors played a significant role in the project. All new teacher education modules emphasized practice-oriented teaching and the goal is that all students get to spend at least 20% of the course practicing teaching in real-life classrooms. The pandemic has decreased the value and importance of school practice. Not all selected schools were able to host a teacher student, due to restrictions. In some countries schools were working in a blended learning format, while in some other places classes were reduced with consideration of visiting teacher students. Covid 19 affected the project plan. To continue with the activities, it was decided that the focus should be shifted to the evidence of active learning in the semester modules and session plans developed by the university teams and lecturers. This became a bit more relevant in the changed teaching and learning environment because the issues of active learning need to be visible through evidence in the planning papers and in the pre- and post-survey for the teacher students, which was organized by the lecturers. Where visiting schools was not possible due to restrictions caused by the pandemic, the lecturers opened mock-teaching elements to a large extent. Teacher mentors visited mock-teaching classes, provided input and gave advice. Teacher students reported in the surveys that the experience of the teacher mentors in the process of developing session plans and input received was helping them. Chart 4.4 shows the ratio between practice work in school and mock teaching. The survey of teacher students was conducted at the beginning and at the end of one semester course. One of the questions was Did you conduct classes (practice) through simulation (in front of colleagues, not at school) during your studies? Only 41% had the possibility to practise teaching in front of their colleagues before taking part in the project. Upon finalization of the course, almost 80% of targeted teacher students experienced mock teaching. The average number of mock classes

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Chart 4.4  Teacher mentors in their reports highlighting the model of conducting practical work with teacher students

conducted per student was 3 in five countries involved in the project. Significant progress is also seen in increasing the percentage of students who had practice work in school (observing classes and practice teaching). On the other hand, the pandemic opened the issue of online teaching. Not only teachers, but also lecturers, had to switch from traditional teaching to online. Instead of practising work conducted by teacher students, more attention was given to the integration of all learners into the learning process. The teacher students in Skopje of the Faculty of Pedagogy were focused on experience and reflected on the active use of Bloom’s taxonomy and then applied it themselves. A similar process was organized in other participating teacher training institutes/faculties.

BiH Universities and Democracy Pedagogies The universities of Banja Luka, Mostar and Sarajevo are three teacher education institutions from Bosnia and Herzegovina involved in the project. Two of them are participating in the project with a one-semester module and one of them (Banja Luka) with a two-semester module. The University of Banja Luka, Faculty of Philosophy, implemented a semester module Education for Democracy and Methods of Education for Democracy at the Department for Teacher education in the third year of studies. Within this semester course, the following topics were given the most importance: Understanding democracy and human rights; Teaching democracy and human rights; Pupils’

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participation in school policies; Tools for teaching and learning democracy and human rights. Methods used throughout the course were: lecture, discussion, debate, small group learning, teamwork, role playing, small group research work, problem solving. This was a mandatory course, and by analyzing the results of the survey conducted at the beginning and at the end of semester, it was obvious that teacher students reported they felt more confident in their own teaching skills. The course was performed in a blended learning format where students visited schools and conducted teaching practice at two primary schools in Banja Luka. At the University of Sarajevo, the Peace Education Hub created a training course Democratic culture and peace pedagogy in teacher education for students enrolled in the final year at the Departments of English Language, the Department of Pedagogy, and the Department of History Teaching. This was created as a supplementary training course for prospective teachers who have already gained necessary pedagogical and subject knowledge and competencies for teaching their subjects within their home departments, but with this training they also had the opportunity to develop their competences for democratic culture and have them integrated in each of their disciplines by being actively engaged with the contents and teaching practice through a detailed integrative and interdisciplinary approach. The goal was to promote the values of democratic and peace culture in their future teaching practice. The course was performed in a blended learning format and students visited schools and conducted teaching practice in two secondary schools in Sarajevo. The Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences of the University of Mostar implemented a one semester course Education for democratic culture and human rights as a joint elective course. This module encompassed a series of topics, all dealing with EDC/HRE. The main goals were to familiarize future teachers with basic concepts inside the area of EDC/HRE, with a large emphasis on practical work. A greater emphasis was on learning by doing as opposed to classical modes of teaching. The key concepts explored were types of democracy, types of political culture, human rights with a large emphasis on rights of children, political participation, intercultural understanding, and media literacy. The target groups are master level students trained to be future subject teachers in various fields (English language, German language, Croatian language, History, Philosophy and Psychology). The following methods were used: model teaching, group and individual work, mock teaching, and practical student work in schools. In total, 61 teacher students participated in the courses.25 According to the survey, there was an improvement in every aspect of practice teaching and pedagogies of democracy and human rights. When asked about the abilities for creating democratic culture in schools there is an improvement. Practising teaching was of great importance within all three faculties. The most appreciated element in the project was also the opportunity to develop practical teaching skills through teaching practice in schools.

25

 40 in Banja Luka, 15 in Sarajevo and 6 in Mostar.

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Conclusion After finalization of all activities and external evaluation we will be able to conclude what results were achieved and to measure success. However, the fact is that cooperation among higher education institutions (pre-service teacher training institutes) in Western Balkans countries has been established, experiences shared and future collaboration is promising. The school network, with dedicated teacher mentors, is vibrant. What was unexpected is the relatively small groups of teacher students at some faculties/study groups. This is not the case only for one country. This is one of the results of the depopulation in the Western Balkan countries, and on the other hand the low rate of interest of young people for a teaching career. Even though relatively small numbers of teacher students participated, it is promising that there is an interest among these students in democracy and human rights education. New courses/ modules have been created and tested in real academic settings. All newly developed courses are in the process of accreditation or are already accredited (Nis and Pristina) which promises that the new generation of students will be able to benefit from them. The connection between pre-service and in-service teaching education has been created by organizing training for teacher mentors. Also, faculties participating in the project are taking steps in developing the courses and providing the trainings for in-service education.26 The project is creating a resource that might be useful for pre-service education. Every module/course that was developed or tested integrated the Reference Framework on Competences for Democratic Culture into pre-service training. Six one-semester courses/modules that were publicized are learning examples for other teacher education institutions.

Take-Away Messages • Regional cooperation is a cornerstone for reconciliation and sustainable peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Western Balkans. • Peace education is equally important in every area, big or small, urban or rural. • Connecting professionals and sharing best practices in education in general, as well as the peace and human rights education approach will influence the community of learners to provide better education in our region.

 University of Nis, Faculty of Philosophy in Nis, course ‘Democratic communication in teaching’ developed within the project, edited according to the needs of in-service education and it is implemented all over Serbia as regular improvement of teachers and educational staff in primary education. This activity is supported by the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Serbia and Institute for Improvement of Education of the Republic of Serbia. 26

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• Developing joint teaching and learning materials in education in multinational and multicultural teams is making the region better connected and ready to face the challenges in education. • Enabling functional networks of educators in peace and human rights education as spaces where it is ‘free to speak, safe to learn’ is important for further promotion of peace education in Bosnia and Herzegovina. • Enabling integration of peace education and human rights education into a curriculum (at all levels of education) as a crosscutting theme is important and peace educators should advocate for it and provide decision makers in education with relevant research results and results made so far. • Pre-service and in-service teacher training with a focus on peace pedagogies and human rights education must be seen as a long-lasting process that will bear results after years of continuous work. It is a long process and pedagogues in peace education must be aware of that. Only hard work, regardless of obstacles, will bring results.

Sources for Peace Pedagogies Reference Framework on Competences for Democratic Culture (RFCDC). https://www.coe.int/en/ web/reference-­framework-­of-­competences-­for-­democratic-­culture/home Living democracy. https://theewc.org/resources/living-­in-­democracy/ Guide on human rights education curriculum development. Furthering SDG target 4.7. in Primary and secondary schools. Danish Institute for human rights.

References Gollob, R. (2020). Experts for learning in practice. A manual for mentors of teacher students. The European Wergeland Centre (EWC) in cooperation with Department IPE – Zurich University of Teacher Education. https://theewc.org/resources/experts-­for-­learning-­in-­practice-­a-­manual-­ for-­mentors-­of-­teacher-­students/. (2021.02.18). Gollob, R, & Kirkov, M. R. (2021). Democracy Through Visual Art Education. Semester Module and Session Plans for pre-service training of future teachers. https://theewc.org/resources/ democracy-­through-­visual-­art-­education-­semester-­module-­and-­session-­plans-­for-­pre-­service-­ training-­of-­future-­teachers/. (2021.03.11). Living democracy. https://theewc.org/resources/living-­in-­democracy/. (2021.02.26). Skikkos, H (2013). Teacher education and training in the Western Balkans, final synthesis report, Directorate-General of Education and Culture European Commission. https://era.ideasoneurope.eu/2013/12/20/teacher-­education-­and-­training-­in-­the-­western-­balkans-­is-­it-­in-­line-­with-­ the-­times-­is-­it-­effective/. (2021.02.16.)

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Bojana Dujković-Blagojević is regional project coordinator for the European Wergeland Centre (EWC) project “Preparing future teachers in the Western Balkans: Educating for Democracy & Human Rights”. She is responsible for project activities in 6 countries of the Western Balkans region. She has long standing experience in education as a teacher and in-service trainer. Before joining EWC, Bojana was engaged in various history education projects and initiatives in the Western Balkans. She writes and edits teaching materials, specializing in sensitive and controversial issues related to the history of former Yugoslavia in the twentieth century. Bojana holds a Masters in History from Banja Luka University.  

Chapter 5

Integrating Critical and Intercultural Pedagogies in Teacher Education and Language Didactics Larisa Kasumagić-Kafedžić

Abstract  The teaching and learning of languages have an important part to play in the development of an interdisciplinary approach to a positive culture of intercultural understanding and peace building in the societies and educational systems affected by the history of conflict. Post-conflict fragility in Bosnia and Herzegovina is deeply shaped by a societal effort to continuously try to rebuild itself socially, politically and economically. While critical approaches to learning about language and culture by themselves do not necessarily reduce or remove stereotypes and prejudices, when accompanied and shaped by other well-conceived educational theories and clearly articulated educational goals, values and experiences they can play a transformative role in nurturing intercultural understanding and peace values. This paper will illustrate the application of new educational paradigms in the teacher education curriculum and classroom teaching at the University of Sarajevo through specific intercultural contents, model lessons and learning outcomes, grounded in critical pedagogy theories, transformative learning principles and humanistic beliefs. The paper will provide a platform to discuss specific challenges, difficulties and rewards of incorporating a critical intercultural approach in foreign language and culture pedagogy in higher education generally, and teacher education practice and curriculum in particular. Keywords  Intercultural education · Intercultural competence · Critical pedagogy · Transformative learning · Peacebuilding in language education

L. Kasumagić-Kafedžić (*) University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Philosophy, English Department, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 L. Kasumagić-Kafedžić, S. Clarke-Habibi (eds.), Peace Pedagogies in Bosnia and Herzegovina, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26246-3_5

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Introduction There is no single model of how universities should promote a culture of intercultural understanding, social responsibility, peace building and resistance, just as there is no single model of how to integrate critical approaches in higher education to explore historical and contemporary contexts and power relations, which are some of the fundamental pillars of intercultural learning. Intercultural themes and the intercultural turn in foreign language pedagogies were introduced by Michael Byram in his seminal work on intercultural competence (1997), which was followed by numerous studies that researched the role of identity, context, intercultural adaptation, global citizenship education, and the ever changing roles of language and culture teachers in response to the challenges and demands of educational reforms. As teacher educators for language and intercultural pedagogy in higher education, we face an important task in addressing the changing political landscape which has taken global dimensions exacerbated by the pandemic: from the emergence of greater authoritarian states and polarised societies, to the politics of populism, technocratic education, alienation and social isolation, and the resurgence of violence and discriminatory behaviours in vulnerable communities. Foreign language pedagogy and teacher education programs, with their focus on intercultural understanding and communication across different cultures, languages and backgrounds, open up possibilities for university programs to explore how intercultural learning and critical pedagogies could be integrated into teacher training curriculum and practice teaching. Universities have the potential to impact positively on local society, contributing to social change, consciousness and action, enhancing the local economy and improving the areas of social life. While Davies argues (2011: 46) that education’s positive impact on fragility and building resilience is mostly indirect, it is significant in the long-term. A resilient or robust educational system will be able to build citizen resilience through literacy, livelihood preparation, health and cultural change in areas such as nonviolence and gender equity. Teacher training, according to Davies (2011: 46) is one of the underpinnings of the resilience of the educational system. The main goal of this paper is to illustrate the ways in which teacher education programs of the English Department of the Faculty of Philosophy at the University of Sarajevo is preparing prospective teachers of foreign language and culture to deal with differences, live peacefully and constructively in a deeply divided and fragmented society of Bosnia and Herzegovina, that is still healing from the most devastating war of the 1990s.

I ntercultural Education and Learning to Live Together in Bosnia and Herzegovina Intercultural education for the twenty-first century is best envisioned as applied social science promoting intercultural dialogue and understanding between cultures and civilizations, as well as supporting the development of democratic values in

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multicultural societies. High mobility, changes on a global scale, and cultural hybridization of the societies result in the fact that issues of migration, social and cultural change and inter-group and intercultural relations become fundamentally important for the discipline thus forming the conceptual frameworks that integrate some key concepts that are integral to language education. The basic tasks for Intercultural Education may be defined by the following concepts (Bleszynska, 2008): • Intercultural dialogue, co-existence and competencies: Development of competencies allowing for the understanding of other cultures and the harmonious coexistence and cooperation among their representatives. • Adaptation, acculturation and integration: Activities supporting integration processes of immigrants into host societies. • Social justice, human rights and combating racial/ethnic prejudice: Shaping of attitudes of equality and respect for culturally diverse people. • Civic society, transnational communities and social cohesion: Development of civic attitudes, trans-cultural bonds and social capital or the ability to manage one’s sense of belonging and participation in a diaspora society. The agenda of intercultural education, as articulated above, is about socialising new generations to live in a diverse, pluralistic, interdependent world. Socialization is the process by which people acquire the necessary knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, and behaviours that are critical in the social environments of schools and learning. Teachers today are entering an increasingly interconnected society, which pushes them to develop intercultural competences so they not only understand the complexity of teaching within the political and social contexts of local and global problems, but that they also work on supporting the children they teach to develop the ability to collaborate with others in the search for possible solutions. The Delors Report to UNESCO (1996; in Huber, 2012:33) identified a number of key priorities for the future of education: learning to live together; learning to know; learning to do; learning to be. Among these priorities learning to live together was the “centre of attention” (p.  18) towards the end of the twentieth century. It remains a key priority for the deeply fragmented Bosnian educational system which remains steeped in a political climate of ethnic divisions that actively seeks to deepen the animosity between ethnic groups. Learning to live together comprises “developing an understanding of other people and an appreciation of interdependence (…) in a spirit of respect for the values of pluralism, mutual understanding, peace and cultural diversity. In short, the learner needs to acquire knowledge, skills and values that contribute to a spirit of solidarity and co-operation among diverse individuals and groups in society” (UNESCO, 2007: 20; in Huber, 2012:33). Some of the common elements of intercultural competencies include respect, self-­ awareness/identity, seeing from other perspectives/worldviews, listening, adaptation, relationship building, and cultural humility (UNESCO, 2013:24). Most social and educational goals (inclusion, solidarity, interaction, community building, joint responsibility, participatory management, global awareness) cannot be achieved by isolated individuals, but only through learning to live together. Through the joint development of knowledge, deliberative reasoning, common projects and collective

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problem solving, the learning takes place not only in the minds of individual learners but also in their social and cultural environment. (Council of Europe, 2003:42). While BiH was for centuries a multicultural society, the ethnopolitical interests that fuelled the war resulted in a fragmentation of the state and the education system along mono-ethnic lines. Under the governance of the Ministry of Civil Affairs of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the BiH education system is divided among two entities (Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska), ten cantons, and a separate administrative and organizational unit, Brčko District. These 13 subsystems make the administrative structure of the education sector in BiH very complicated. These structural complexities have hindered post-war education reforms intended to facilitate the establishment of an open, diverse and democratic society. The research project, “Education in BH: What Do We (Not) Teach Children” (Soldo et al., 2017), for example, examined education policies, methodology and practice as reflected in school textbooks. Through content analysis of 2688 lessons in 68 textbooks from the “national group of subjects” (history, geography, language and literature, religious education) the study aimed to evaluate the results of primary education reforms. The findings clearly indicated that “despite declarative advocacy, the drafting of strategic documents and legislation, no essential change in the concept and approach to education was materialized in new textbooks (…) and they do not affirm the values of democratic society, active citizenship and social involvement, nor do they sufficiently instigate the development of critical thinking, creativity and active learning. The situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina is interpreted from an ethnocentric point of view where the primacy rests on one’s own ethnic group, while global occurrences are perceived from a Eurocentric perspective where Europe is ‘the cultural, industrial and civilization centre of the world,’ and topics such as colonisation, the division of goods and natural resources, poverty and population migrations are rarely problematized and contextualized” (Soldo et al., 2017: 61–62). An analysis of the curricula implemented in the 2018–2019 academic year at university programs for education of future teachers in Bosnia and Herzegovina found vast differences in teaching intercultural content, and they all indicate that intercultural elements are insufficiently represented. This calls for a reconceptualization of the curricula and invites the need for having systematic intercultural education of teachers (Beljanski & Dedić- Bukvić, 2020). These analyses are reflective of the dominant pedagogical approaches in majority of formal educational settings in Bosnia and Herzegovina which are greatly politicized, based on rote memorization, information transferring, inviting for conformism, without any systemic and strategic intent to enable students to be actively and critically involved in the construction of their knowledge. On the other hand, such research results should stimulate university institutions to initiate and develop more critical approaches in the design of pre-service teacher education programs that would enable student teachers to learn and develop from the perspective of active roles and through the process of transformation of their values, beliefs, and attitudes.

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 he Role of Pedagogy in Intercultural Learning T in Higher Education Within the teacher education programs founded on pedagogical work with adult learners, teacher educators should be mindful of taking the learning needs of their students into account as the ultimate target in the development of their curriculum and in the preparation of their modules, lessons and contents. Even though these student-teachers may be preparing to work with children and adolescents, still the education of these teachers must resonate with the characteristics of adult learners. Different pedagogical theories and educational philosophies have underpinned the development of intercultural learning and its application in classrooms and curriculum. Mezirow’s Transformative Learning Theory (2003, 1978) emphasizes knowledge that is seen as a product of self–awareness generated by critical reflection and critical self–reflection. Critical reflection in a foundational perspective is “the means by which we work through beliefs and assumptions, assessing their validity in the light of new experiences or knowledge, considering their sources, and examining underlying premises” (Cranton, 2002: 65 cited in Kovačević, 2021: 51). Building on the work of Mezirow, Cranton (2002: 66  cited in Kovačević, 2021) explains that critical reflection is the means by which adult learners arrive at transformation. Seven facets underpin the context for this transformative work with adult learners to take place: 1. an activating event that typically exposes a discrepancy between what a person has always assumed to be true and what has just been experienced, heard, or read; 2. articulating assumptions, that is, recognizing underlying assumptions that have been uncritically assimilated and are largely unconscious; 3. critical self-reflection, which is questioning and examining assumptions in terms of where they came from, the consequences of holding them, and why they are important; 4. being open to alternative viewpoints; 5. engaging in discourse, where evidence is weighed, arguments assessed, alternative perspectives explored, and knowledge constructed by consensus; 6. revising assumptions and perspectives to make them more open and better justified; 7. acting on revisions, behaving, talking, and thinking in a way that is congruent with transformed assumptions or perspectives (cited in Kovačević, 2021: 51). Some authors suggest that the primary aim of intercultural education is to enable every child to play a fully participatory role in the society (Wereszczyńska, 2018; as cited in Beljanski & Dedić- Bukvić, 2020), to ensure sustainable social cohesion, sustainable social and cultural capital development, and well-being especially for vulnerable individuals and groups (Sorkos & Hajisoteriou, 2020; as cited in Beljanski, Dedić- Bukvić, 2020). While these goals may be too burdensome for one educational system or school to implement it is important that the main values of intercultural education are seen as essential components in the process of enabling

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students to become more active in the construction of their knowledge, skills, and values, and in the process of creating brave and safe pedagogical spaces for the desired transformation that would enable students to be more self-reflective and understanding of differences, human dignity and human rights. The potential of intercultural education is particularly favourable to these outcomes the more that critical and transformative approaches to intercultural learning are incorporated into the design and delivery of higher education. Critical pedagogy is fundamentally an educational philosophy which encourages educators to take teaching as a dynamic process of co-constructing knowledge with learners and applying it to transformation of society, not merely delivering a present body of ‘hard’ knowledge, and information, in a rote-learning mode (Freire, 1974, 1995, 1998; Giroux, 1992, 1997; in Byram & Feng, 2004). Critical pedagogy, also called engaged pedagogy, emphasizes Freire’s notion of “praxis”—action and reflection upon the world in order to change it. Critical pedagogists argue that students should not be treated as passive consumers but as co-constructors of knowledge who engage in creative cultural development (Byram & Feng, 2004:158). Phipps and Guilherme (2004:1) connect critical pedagogy to the political dimensions of language and intercultural communication. For them, critical pedagogy signifies a commitment to educational work which is never neutral about feeding the conformity that serves the “machine of global capitalism”. It is rather about “hope, politics, power and practicality” and should be seen as a key contributor in “addressing radical concerns, the abuses of power in intercultural contexts, in the acquisition of languages and in their circulation”. In today’s world Intercultural Education is regarded as a constructive pedagogical response to the resurgence of violence in a context of globalisation and the corresponding convergence of different religions, cultures, languages, customs, norms, and ways of thinking and living. The adoption of more holistic and humanistic pedagogical paradigms can be seen as emerging within new developments in education which are also challenging a strong political influence in some educational policies, so that the previous and traditional paradigms that perceived migration, environmental catastrophes, forcible displacement and growing up in a multicultural space as risk factors, are gradually being replaced by more inclusive policies and curricula.

Defining Intercultural Competences The teacher is an essential link in the development of intercultural competences in young people. Intercultural competence can be conceived as one of the long-term goals of intercultural education, if not its primary objective (Cushner & Mahon, 2009: 312). Loner and Hayes (2004) regard intercultural competence as a multifaceted concept involving aspects of emotional, contextual and interpersonal

5  Integrating Critical and Intercultural Pedagogies in Teacher Education and… transcultural communication cross-cultural communication* cross-cultural awareness global competitive intelligence global competence cross-cultural adaptation effective intergroup communication international competence

international communication intercultural interaction intercultural sensitivity* intercultural cooperation cultural sensitivity cultural competence

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ethnorelativity biculturalism multiculturalism* plurilingualism*

communicative competence*

Fig. 5.1  Alternative terms for intercultural communicative competence. (Adapted from Fantini, 2006, cited in Sinicrope et al., 2007)

intelligence which combine to form “a person who is emotionally caring yet controlled, sensitive to interpersonal dynamics, and genuinely perceptive when in complex and highly interactive situations” (p. 92). Although the broad range of theories and models provides language educators with a variety of approaches to understanding and defining intercultural competence, it also makes the task more complex for educators trying to communicate and define these ideas in a systematic and pedagogically relevant way. Figure 5.1 presents 19 terms that are found in the literature as ways of discussing intercultural competence. The most frequently used terms are marked with an asterisk. Though often used interchangeably, each alternative term implies certain nuances that are often only implicitly addressed in the research. (Sinicrope et al., 2007). A range of definitions, theories, and models have served as the basis for different approaches to defining intercultural competence. Deardorff (2020: 5) summarizes some of the most essential approaches to understanding intercultural competencies, which could be seen from the perspective of “communication and behaviour that is both effective and appropriate when interacting across differences” (Deardorff, 2009). Intercultural competence (in Deardorff, 2009) may also be viewed from the perspective of developmental stages (King and Baxter-Magolda, M. Bennett), the role of language (Byram), the importance of identity (Y. Y. Kim, Nwosu), and the role of mindfulness (Ting-Toomey) and motivation (Ting-Toomey, Gudykunst). Deardorff (2020) summarizes the existing approaches into a more comprehensive definition of intercultural competencies. Drawing inspiration from critical perspectives on power relations, she argues that intercultural competences are in essence “about improving human interactions across difference, whether within a society (differences due to age, gender, religion, socio-economic status, political affiliation, ethnicity, and so on) or across borders” (p. 5). By gaining intercultural competence, people are enabled to act as ‘mediators’ among people of different cultures, and to interpret and explain different perspectives, thus making encounters with people from other cultural orientations a source of personal development and enrichment as others’ perspectives become integrated into their own sense of self. (Barrett et al., 2013).

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 ritical Approaches and Strategies for Teaching C Intercultural Learning Intercultural learning can be developed and incorporated in formal educational settings through specialized thematic courses, or specific units, modules and lessons that are focused on particular aspects of intercultural competences. The use of intercultural learning tools and activities in formal learning contexts should be seen as a continuous and developmentally linked process of learning since preparing students to fully develop all values, skills, attitudes and knowledge needed for intercultural competence, would require continuity and time. Different kinds of intercultural training tools that are used in a variety of settings can include simulations, role plays, case studies, group activities, online tools, and coaching, all of which involve communication in some way. Most of these tools have been generated from Western paradigms and may not be contextually appropriate in non-Western settings (Deardroff, 2020:7). Regardless of the methods and tools used to develop intercultural competencies, critical reflection is a crucial part of the development process. Critical reflection involves critical thinking and it includes three dimensions: (a) making meaning of one’s experience through descriptive, analytical, and critical considerations, which (b) can be communicated in a number of ways, such as in written form, orally, or as an artistic expression, and (c) then taking action based on one’s reflection (Deardroff, 2020: 9). Table 5.1 presents some of the pros and cons of each tool mentioned above. The list is not exhaustive of all advantages and disadvantages but could be used for evaluating and integrating an appropriate selection in teacher education.

I ntercultural Pedagogy in Teacher Education Program at the University of Sarajevo The program at the English Department of the Faculty of Philosophy of the University of Sarajevo went through curricular changes in 2008 as a part of the Bologna reforms, during which a new Master’s program in teacher education was established and new foreign language pedagogy courses were introduced. The new program aimed more strategically towards introducing comprehensive and coherent pedagogical approaches for teaching adult learners, monitoring and guiding students in pedagogical research and accentuating language and culture pedagogy, by giving greater importance to teaching practice and applied learning over educational theories and rote memorization. Some of the courses in teacher education integrated the principle of “learning to live together” as one of the learning outcomes set up for the student teachers that requires the development of knowledge about the socio-cultural backgrounds of the learners involved, but also the development of knowledge, values and skills for intercultural dialogue, and negotiating otherness and difference. Social

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Table 5.1  Pros and Cons of intercultural training tools (Deardorff, 2020:8) Types of intercultural training tools Simulations of intercultural encounters

Role plays

Case studies

Group activities (games, discussions, structured learning exercises) Online tools

Coaching

Pros Involves experiential learning, allows participants to experience differences and practice intercultural (IC) skills in a safe setting Involves experiential learning, allows participants to practice IC skills in a safe setting, provides a mechanism for generating feedback on communication/ behaviour

Cons Usually takes significant time; requires extensive debriefing from knowledgeable facilitators; may require particular materials, props, outfits, or space; Requires participants to “perform” in front of others, requires careful development and selection of scenarios, requires thorough debriefing, requires a trained facilitator Provides concrete examples for Requires careful development/ discussion, engages participants selection/wording of case studies, through exploration of solutions focuses primarily on the cognitive level of intercultural competencies (ICC) development Can focus on particular aspects of May require particular materials and ICC, engages in face-to-face space, requires skilled facilitator, interaction, allows for guidance and needs to match activity with feedback from trained facilitator participants’ learning styles Does not need to be in a formal learning setting, often utilizes self-directed learning, is continuously available Allows for tailored feedback on strengths and areas of continued intercultural growth

There may be limited access to the internet/computer; they have limited face-to- face contact; there is usually no guidance available; they are dependent on individual motivation Requires a trained coach with a strong intercultural background; there are limited availability of such coaches;

psychologists have researched this theme and described a number of competencies and attitudes that are essential for negotiating identity in society. Intercultural learning provides a means for further developing these themes through application of the following principles: empathy, role distancing, relinquishing centre stage, tolerance of ambiguity, awareness of self and representation of identity, emotional openness, multiperspectivity, language competence (Huber, 2012: 36–38). Phipps and Gulherme (2004:3–5) ascribe a rich potential to language/culture educators by virtue of being ideally positioned to foster reflection, dissent, difference, dialogue, empowerment, action and hope (Table 5.2). They argue that for new energy to come into the world several things are necessary, and these are not things that can be learned and applied, they rise up out of different circumstances of poverty and plenty and they take different forms according to the paradoxes and complexities of every circumstance that is to be challenged (Phipps & Gulherme, 2004), which is

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why integrating those elements into the teacher education curriculum is an essential component of the curriculum development. Table 5.2 summarizes the intercultural principles and pedagogies for language/ culture educators which underpinned the development of the course “Interculturalism in English language education” at the Teacher Education Program of the English Department in Sarajevo (previously entitled Latest trends in foreign language teaching). These principles represent the foundation of all modules and lessons that are shaping the activities in this university teacher development course. Each of the intercultural principles illustrated in the table can be pedagogized with different learning and teaching concepts and applied through specific modules, lessons and projects presented in the table. For example, empathy can be pedagogized through reflection, hope, empowerment, dialogue, but the elements of this principle could also be found in all other pedagogic principles illustrated in the table. The activities represented in the Table  5.2 provide opportunities for student teachers of language and culture to continuously work on developing their attitudes of openness and curiosity, their skills of adapting their ways of thinking to the situation or specific context, and their awareness and understanding of one’s own and other people’s assumptions, preconceptions, stereotypes, and prejudices. The student teachers of the teacher education program in this course are also actively participating in intercultural encounters with students and professors from far-away places like Japan: Intercultural learning project, Connecting Stories and Sharing Bosnian and Japanese Cultures, Peace and Conflict in Japan and Bosnia, Fostering Empathy through Collaborative Learning, 1 with Sophia University in Tokyo, as well as with Toyo Eiwa University, or USA: American and Bosnian Collaboration ABC Project with the College of William and Mary, 2 Intercultural learning project with the University of James Madison, Storytelling for Intercultural Learning and Reconciliation through Art: Empowering Youth and Building Collective Consciousness in Post-conflict Societies,3 or the Netherlands: Intercultural collaborative projects with the University of Windesheim. The main goal of these projects is to enable the University of Sarajevo students to broaden their horizons by immersing their knowledge and experiences into a much broader and more complex outside world in order to create an even greater understanding of the similarities of the political structures and the misuses of power and privilege. At the same time the students are encouraged to reflect on the universality of human behaviours in any politically divided and conflict affected society, while seeing the absurdity of divisive politics in a geographically small place like BiH. Through these projects they see the potential of individual choices and individual decisions in different places around the world. Such projects also enable students to enrich their understanding of other cultures, they offer student-teachers of language new views

 https://www.sophia.ac.jp/static/sophiamagazine/vol_12/html5.html#page=11  https://wmbosniaproject.wordpress.com/, https://peacehub.ba/abc-project-american-bosniancollaboration/ 3  With the use of https://narrative4.com/ 1 2

(continued)

Table 5.2  Integration of key intercultural learning principles and critical pedagogies in teacher education course “Interculturalism in English language/culture didactics” Pedagogic principles for language/culture educators (Phipps & Modules, lessons and intercultural Intercultural principle (Huber, 2012: 36–38) Guilherme, 2004:3–5) learning tools and activities Modules: Reflection: This strategy has been too often neglected in the Role distance and decentring imply another change of History of intercultural communication study of culture and cultural difference as well as in the perspective: The “view from outside” upon our own world. This helps us to realise that not all people share our view of development of intercultural awareness; it has been replaced by Culture and the primary socialization process the memorisation and interpretation of facts and by cultural our own world and, as a consequence, may have opinions Language and identity generalisations or even stereotyping. about us which to us appear as stereotypes or prejudice. Decentring can be understood as the ability to step outside of Dissent is another element that has been put forward by critical Language, culture, power Ethnocentrism and othering pedagogues and which may change the perspective towards one’s own frame of reference. Language and intercultural conflicts intercultural interaction since the latter has often erroneously Relinquishing Centre stage: In a multicultural group there established intercultural consensus and harmony as its only goal. Global citizenship, peace and will always be participants who try to dominate and others who assume a wait-and-see attitude (because they are shy or Competencies for intercultural interaction entail the capacity to intercultural pedagogy Practical lessons/projects: deal critically and successfully with dissent and even conflict they do not feel accepted). Intercultural education tries to develop a balance between these extremes: Every participant through critical cultural awareness towards the self and the other Identity charts Prejudice and stereotypes should “stay in the circle”, but some should “move closer to and through honest and balanced negotiation. Teaching controversial issues Difference is intrinsic to the world of multiculturalism and the centre”, while others should learn to step back from a Developing and assessing intercultural interculturality. Henry Giroux introduced an important dominant position. competences Tolerance of ambiguity: It is sometimes hard to bear the fact dimension, that is cultural, social and political, to critical Socially responsible classrooms pedagogy through the notion of a ‘border pedagogy’. This idea that “others are different from us” or that one is unable to Arts and ICC is fundamental for a critical pedagogy of, for example, foreign give definite answers. One of the major aims of the language/culture education and of intercultural interaction in that Integrating global education into intercultural approach, therefore, is the development of language/culture teaching it re-defines its nature, its content and its process. It rejects its strategies for negotiating ambiguity and coming to terms traditional elitism and reliance on linguistic and cultural canons with otherness and difference. and standards, by allowing in difference and by breaking down social barriers and preconceived notions about the ‘inferior’ or ‘superior’ other.

Intercultural principle (Huber, 2012: 36–38) Awareness of self and representation of identity: Implies a heightened awareness in learners of the socio-cultural foundations of their own world that influence their world view (traditions, values, judgements), regulate their daily life (routines, rituals, life style), shape their mentality and attitudes, and their ability to relate this self-awareness to others. It also implies the ability to present this identity to others. Emotional openness: One of the prerequisites of intercultural education is openness and a readiness to relate to others in the multicultural group. In a multicultural setting some participants may withdraw and only “come out” if they feel that they are accepted and received with warmth. Intercultural education seeks to develop tolerance, respect and trust in the group Multiperspectivity: In a multicultural learning environment it is essential that students learn to take into account all perspectives and listen to contrasting opinions when dealing with different issues. Multiperspectivity is closely related to centring/decentring. Language competence: It is obvious that in the concept of intercultural education language clearly plays a prominent role. Here we first refer to the language of the learners’ own cultural background (their “mother tongue”) which contributes to shaping their identity. Its further development must not be overlooked or neglected, since it is the basis and anchorage ground of plurilingual competences

Table 5.2 (continued) Pedagogic principles for language/culture educators (Phipps & Guilherme, 2004:3–5) Dialogue is another fundamental element for critical pedagogy that obviously brings in enormous potential for language and intercultural communication. Critical dialogue, considered as the nexus between critical reflection and critical action, embodies the praxis of a corpus of knowledge/performance composed by critical cultural awareness and critical intercultural communication/ interaction, which is of utmost importance in the theory and practice of language/culture education. Empowerment of both teachers and students happens through the practice of critical reflection and critical dialogue and the recognition of difference and dissent and is expressed through the validation of their voices. Action and hope are essential for inciting learning in the direction of supporting our students to be more proactive and hopeful in the demanding and challenging environments of today’s world.

Modules, lessons and intercultural learning tools and activities Intercultural tools and activities Role plays Case studies Pair and group activities (cooperative strategies) Critical reflections Poster presentations Online tools Mentoring Intercultural autobiographies Activities emphasizing multiple perspectives Drama-based activities Children’s and youth literature in developing ICC and social responsibility Use of poetry, film, texts Still images

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of the world and they stimulate and inspire imagination and hope, so much needed in BiH of today. The course activities, modules and units, along with the possibilities for experiential encounters initiated through this course and developed under the umbrella of various intercultural collaborative projects require interculturally competent communication with high levels of cultural awareness and sensitivity, willingness to engage with “otherness” and readiness to express one’s views, opinions and comments in a respectful manner. The emphasis on reflection and teacher research, which are important pillars of this course, encourages future teachers to become more willing to confront and engage with difficult questions surrounding the issues of injustice, power, identity, the issues and concerns about their classrooms and their teaching, their beliefs and attitudes about themselves and their students. They start to perceive their teaching intercultural competences more as a learning process rather than a classroom performance, and they begin to document their intercultural learning experiences as artefacts of what is happening in the classroom or as stories of intercultural learning, without ascribing positive and negative evaluations to this process of learning and development.

Conclusion Developing intercultural sensitivity and competence is not achieved in the cognitive-­ only approach to learning that is common in most classrooms today (Cushner & Mahon, 2009). Affective domains of learning, enabling students with possibilities for critical reflection, and the emphasis on experience, are crucial elements in understanding how culture learning develops and how student teachers develop their intercultural communicative competences. It is only through impactful experiences, where people are challenged to make sense of their new environment and accommodate differences, that they ultimately gain more sophisticated knowledge about other people, gain new insights into themselves, and develop a feeling of being at home in a new context (Cushner & Mahon, 2009). The conditions for the effective functioning of contemporary teacher education programs in BiH are reflective of multiple issues in the development of teachers’ intercultural competences and in societies affected by conflict. The basics of intercultural education should become a mandatory element of teacher training and professional development of teachers. University teacher education programs that are founded on intercultural pedagogy need to provide students with rich content rooted in both local and international contexts, rigorous contents for critical analysis and with a stimulating learning environment that can broaden teachers’ understanding, their skills and ability to think, perceive, reflect, communicate and socialize in culturally different and unique ways. The activities and lessons need to nurture multi perspectives, including critical perspectives on historical and contemporary power relations and

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epistemologies, and they need to emphasize values education that should be the foundation stone for the development of teacher competences and teachers’ civic / peacebuilding agency. As much as universities and their teacher education programs would like to operate “neutrally”, they cannot separate and distance themselves from the issues in local communities (Millican, 2017). Knowledge and pedagogies used in classrooms are never neutral; both action and inaction have political implications by having the potential to either aggravate or mediate social tensions and inequalities. It is within the responsibility of higher education institutions who educate teachers to challenge their learners towards social transformation and to move not just their intellects, but also their hearts, their souls and their endeavours into personal and social acts of transformation and change” (Kasumagic-Kafedzic, 2017). The role of university programs that educate future generations of teachers should bring in the awareness of their moral and social responsibilities to educate the next generation of citizens with broader moral responsibilities to their societal, environmental, community and global lives and futures.

Take-Away Messages • Affective domains of learning, enabling students with possibilities for critical reflection, and the emphasis on experience, are crucial elements in understanding how culture learning develops and how student teachers develop their intercultural communicative competences. • The university teachers should never cease to see their classrooms as the most radical spaces of possibility in the academy. • It is within the responsibility of higher education institutions who educate teachers to challenge their learners towards social transformation and to move not just their intellects, but also their hearts, their souls and their endeavours into personal and social acts of transformation and change. • In societies affected by conflict the basics of intercultural education should become a mandatory element of teacher training and professional development of teachers. • Intercultural education could be seen as an essential component in the process of enabling students to be more active in the construction of their knowledge, skills, and values, and in the process of creating brave and safe pedagogical spaces for the desired transformation that would enable students to be more self-reflective and understanding of differences, human dignity and human rights.

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References Barrett, M., Byram, M., Lázár, I., Mompoint-Gaillard, P., & Philippou, S. (2013). Developing intercultural competence through education. Council of Europe. Beljanski, M., & Dedić-Bukvić, E. (2020). Comparative overview of the presence of intercultural education of teacher trainees in Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies, 7(3), 1–16. Bleszynska, K. (2008). Constructing intercultural education. Intercultural Education, 19(6), 537–545. Byram, M. (1997). Teaching and assessing intercultural communicative competence. Multilingual Matters. Byram, M., & Feng, A. (2004). Culture and language learning: Teaching, research and scholarship. Language Teaching, 37, 149–168. Council of Europe. (2003, November 10–12). Intercultural education: Managing diversity, strengthening democracy, standing conference of European ministers of education, Athens. Cushner, K., & Mahon, J. (2009). Intercultural competence in teacher education. In D. Deardorf (Ed.), The sage handbook of intercultural competence (pp. 304–320). Sage. Davies, L. (2011). Can education interrupt fragility? Toward the resilient citizen and the adaptable state. In Educating children in conflict zones: Research, policy, and practice for systemic change – A tribute to Jackie Kirk. Teachers College Press. Deardorff, D. K. (Ed.). (2009). The Sage handbook of intercultural competence. Sage. Deardorff, D. (2020). Manual for developing intercultural competences. Story circles. Huber, J. (Ed.). (2012). Intercultural competence for all: Preparation for living in a heterogeneous world. Council of Europe Pestalozzi Series No.2. Kasumagić-Kafedžić, L. (2017). Social and moral responsibilities of foreign language teachers in post conflict, fragile and fragmented Bosnia and Herzegovina. In J. Milican (Ed.), Universities and conflict: The role of higher education in peacebuilding and resistance (Series: Routledge studies in peace and conflict resolution). Routledge. Kovačević, E. (2021). Teaching adult language learners: Enhancing personal methodologies. International University of Sarajevo. Lonner, W.  J., & Hayes, S.  A. (2004). Understanding the cognitive and social aspects of intercultural competence. In R. J. Sternberg & E. L. Grigorenko (Eds.), Culture and competence: Contexts of life success (pp. 89–110). American Psychological Association. Mezirow, J. (1978). Perspective transformation Adult Education, 28(2), 100–110. Mezirow, J. (2003). Transformative Learning as Discourse. Journal of Transformative Education, 1(1), 58–63. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541344603252172 Millican, J. (Ed.). (2017). Universities and conflict: The role of higher education in peacebuilding and resistance (Routledge studies in peace and conflict resolution). Routledge. Phipps, A., & Guilherme, M. (Eds.). (2004). Critical pedagogy: A political approaches to language and intercultural communication. Multilingual Matters. Sinicrope, C., Norris, J., & Watanabe, Y. (2007). Understanding and assessing intercultural competence: A summary of theory, research, and practice (technical report for the foreign language program evaluation project). Second Language Studies, 26(1), 1–58. Soldo, A., Trbić, Dž., Husremović, Dž., Veličković, N., Čelebičić, I., & Ibrahimović, N. (2017). Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina: What do we (not) teach children? Content analysis of textbooks of the National Group of subjects in primary schools. ProMENTE, Social Research. Open Society Fund Bosnia and Herzegovina. UNESCO, J. Delores. (1996). Learning: the treasure within; report to UNESCO of the International Commission on Education for the Twenty-first Century. UNESCO (2007), UNESCO Guidelines on Intercultural Education, Paris. UNESCO. (2013). Intercultural competences: Conceptual and operational frameworks. Intersectoral platform for a culture of peace and non-violence. Bureau for Strategic Planning.

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Larisa Kasumagić-Kafedžić is Associate Professor at the University of Sarajevo’s Faculty of Philosophy, Department of English Language and Literature. Her peacebuilding engagement began during the war in BiH when she co-founded the organization Sezam (1994–1995) and worked on child war trauma, peace education and nonviolent communication with teachers and schools in conflict-affected communities. She is a 2003–2004 Cornell University Hubert Humphrey Fellow Alumni. She holds an MPS in International Development and Education from Cornell University and a Ph.D. in English Language Pedagogy and Intercultural Education from the University of Sarajevo. Her teaching, writing and research interests focus on intercultural, critical and peace pedagogies in teacher education and language and culture didactics. She is the founder and president of the Peace Education Hub, established in 2020 at the University of Sarajevo. She is a visiting associate professor at Cornell University, in residence during the 2022–2023 academic year as a Fulbright Visiting Scholar Fellow, where she will be lecturing and conducting research on “Teachers as Agents of Change: Education for Peace and Social Responsibility”.  

Chapter 6

Fostering Inner, Interpersonal and Intergroup Peace Through a Gestalt Psychology Approach in Adult Education Mirjana Mavrak

Abstract  Peace education has a rich tradition in history. It has long been an important part of general education, formal schooling and informal learning. The main promoter of peace education is the educator who, as any human being, has shadow and brightness in their behavior. Educators educate on diversities which are not just the matter of linear differences among personalities and cultures living together at the same time and place, but also a matter of inner diversities which one should tolerate. Self-recognition and self-respect are connected with tolerance of the personal shadows that every human being has as their own “dark side”. Denial of an inner shadow is a serious obstacle in communication with others no matter the context – private, professional, ethnic, cultural, or religious. This paper discusses the gestalt approach to adult education and psychotherapy as a process which must not be neglected as part of peace education. Education of educators as an adult education process which is based in self-awareness promoted by the gestalt approach is discussed with respect to deepening inner peace with an aim of fostering interpersonal and intergroup peace. Keywords  Adult education · Dialogue · Holistic approach · Self-awareness · Inner peace

Peace, War and Restlessness in Human Development War and peace are two sides of the same continuum which define each other in a constant exchange in history. In his study on thanatology (Morin, 1981) speaking about the anthropology of death, Morin introduced research data of Iakov

M. Mavrak (*) Faculty of Philosophy, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 L. Kasumagić-Kafedžić, S. Clarke-Habibi (eds.), Peace Pedagogies in Bosnia and Herzegovina, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26246-3_6

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Aleksandrovich Novikow1 on the historical reciprocity of years that humans had spent in war and peace during a span of 3357 years (1496 BCE–1861 CE). War had been seen among tribes, clans and nations for a period of 3130 years while peace had been preserved only for 227 years. It seems, as the conclusion, that the reciprocity between war and peace is 13:1 or 1 year of peace for 13 years of war (Morin, 1981:50). These data problematize human nature: wishing for peace, humans always provoke new war. In that sense, among scientists and artists the question appears on the purposefulness of human efforts to provide peace in personal communication as a guarantee of war prevention. Long before Novikow’s research (1911) or the time of Morin’s publication of his book The Man and the Death (1981), education for peace had been mentioned in the seventeenth century in Comenius’ papers on education (Salmon & Cairns, 2014:12). Although peace was always an important issue of survival and prosperity, it was also obvious that without tensions there was no development – “rest in peace” has the meaning of death. Exchanging peace and restlessness in the development span, a person learns about life, world and self, walking from one concept to another in a never-ending story of growth. However, there is an undoubted difference between war and restlessness discourse although both can be considered as the opposite to peace. Education devoted to teaching on this difference could be considered as peace education. Education for peace, however, is not a romantic picture of ideal life without tensions but a living process of coping with external differences in inner conflicts. Education remains a powerful tool for promoting peace values and war concepts, peaceful conflict resolution or competitive concepts of the winner. Both discourses are present nowadays just as they were in the past. Education still has been an important peace factor in a reality full of disagreements while the educator remains a concept-promotor. In his book on communication in education, Pavao Brajša introduced the idea of pupils who follow the teacher rather than the concept itself (Brajša, 1993). Therefore, the importance of the teacher and their values is not negotiable. The teacher educates by their words and actions. If an action glorifies only winners in academic achievements (the teacher asks while the pupil runs for the correct answer – the behavior pattern of the cognitive school model), the action is most particular in education functioning. It neglects empathy, support and cooperation as important peace values necessary for human coexistence. Human potential to accompany another human being without competition is genetically provided but could be supported and developed by an indirect model (reflective thinking, tolerance, ethno-empathy, human rights, conflict resolution) and a direct model of peace education (conflict and peace process, presentation of the rival, history of conflict and new affect and emotions derived from this process) (Salmon & Cairns, 2014:27–34).

 IA.  A. Novikow (1911), War and its Alleged Benefits, New  York: Henry Holt and Company, Internet Archive https://archive.org/details/waranditsallege00novigoog/page/n4/mode/2up 1

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The teacher as a promoter of peace education has to live by peace values – otherwise their teaching will be incongruent and dissonant. Authentic teaching on peace belongs to a teacher who has previously internalized peace values. Internalization is not a decision to intellectually replace one concept with another but rather acceptance of values incorporated in the concept. It means: readiness to promote the concept and fight for its values. The educator has not just been educated in peace education but has to live through the transformation in personal growth. That is a step forward from experiential to transformative learning. In the contemporary world of speed, this transformation needs time. Peace education is an important issue in a hectic everyday life. As general education has a direct connection to schooling, the concept of formal peace education is often connected with curricula. Those who argue for peace education as a curricular subject offer different concepts such as that peace education is a pervading process implicated in each academic subject and comprehensive human communication or that of peace education as a personified unique subject with its own special syllabus. This is, however, an issue which could be left to the scientific hands of Pedagogy or Didactics. This paper wants to promote a connection between the science and art of adult education and psychotherapy learning in a gestalt approach with the peace education of educators. The educator in this manner is any teacher, caregiver, parent or foster-parent dealing in their work with children or adults, youngsters or the elderly. Therefore, the term pedagogy will be avoided. Pedagogy has often been treated as a science which should help adults in raising children by focusing on child psychology, a child centred teaching approach, understanding of a child’s behavior, forgetting to help adults to deal with their inner being – peace pedagogy is not an exception. As I consider myself an active participant in peace education but not an expert in that field, instead of leading the reader to a proper reference for this claim I would rather offer an active analysis of personal experience: whenever I was invited as an educator to research my inner being the education cycle was considered psychological. At the same time all programs were developed as an adult learning cycle without mentioning andragogy as an educational science which supports adults’ growth as a necessity in raising children. The education of educators is an andragogy topic dealing with teachers’ professional development. Peace pedagogy is not possible without a teacher or caregiver who has reached inner peace. Inner peace is the forerunner in the struggle for interpersonal and intergroup peace. Therefore, having in mind a gestalt approach in adult education and psychotherapy as tools for inner peace achievement, this paper raises three main issues: 1. Peace education, adult education and gestalt psychotherapy share the same principles and the same values overlapping in a never-ending process of human change through learning. 2. Reaching inner peace is a long-term process. Adult caregivers, teachers, therapists, school counsellors all have to be aware of this life-long learning process in their personal and the pupils’ Self.

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3. The Gestalt approach with its comprehensive and creative use of art in psychotherapy and adult education (education of educators) provides visualization of personal change in time making teachers aware that they might be just one trigger of pupils’ change in time. What they do today in their classroom will be visible in time to come  – even if they cannot witness short-term change in their pupils, they build the space for future child development with future teachers and caregivers.

Peace Education as Adult Education Among a colorful range of adult education fields, peace education has been recognized as an important subject. It can be treated at least in two manners: 1. As an independent process of nourishing knowledge, skills and attitudes which are necessary to reach and maintain a peace culture, and 2. As a transversal process which resonates with all adult education fields and which can bring value to any education subject (vocational, professional education, education for family life, cultural and political education, etc.). Either way of picturing peace education would need similar tools for action and offer almost identical outcomes (Oxford, 2013; Puljiz & Živčić, 2009). Peace education and adult education share their goals in: • • • •

Self-understanding and understanding of the other Preparation of citizens for a tough and insecure time of survival Enhancing personal independence and responsibilities Increasing ability for peaceful conflict resolution.

Peace education has been connected to teaching and learning non-violent behavior, fair-play, cooperation, mutual respect among people and consideration of diversities. In a world full of tensions, peace education is not negotiable – it should, and often is, part of school curricula and national strategies for future community development. Although education as well as peace education are not enough to concord ongoing tensions in different societies, it is a necessary condition for the achievement of any idea of a better world for future generations. If peace education is education grounded in free will and non-violent teaching, two thirds of willingly present participants in peace education will accept an active declaration on its values, but not necessarily practical engagement in the peace process. Teaching peace education cannot be the forcing of peace education principles but rather the education of critical thinking and free will to reach for change.

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Curious to hear how a group of Adult Education students would brain-storm on peace education during their regular adult education exercises, I invited them2 to recall and name at least one word connected to their concept of peace education. Out of 53 students who showed their presence in an on-line teaching process, 35 actively engaged giving 38 answers. They were not forced to be part of the process – they freely decided to do the task. It was a small approval of the “one-third rule” in education mentioned above – without compulsion, two thirds of participants will accept the challenge of contribution to the learning and teaching process – one third is a group of active participants, another third is a group which is active and engaged, but the last third gathers those who are just passive observers (Mavrak, 2018). Through this informal survey of what students associate with the notion of peace education, a majority associated it with the development of mutual respect, understanding and empathy while only three associated peace education with calmness, cease-fire or learning to end direct violence. Accordingly, peace education was most often associated with values of respect, love and tolerance which exist in relation to another person – all three can be given or received in an act of exchange with another human being. This exchange is communication in a human relationship which can be loud and silent. The silence as a path to peace which appeared in several answers could be interpreted in different manners in this context: as the ability to listen and postpone reaction or as a wish to remain in a comfort-zone. Assumption of different interpretations is an additional communication skill which appeared in further group conversation. The discussion led to a conclusion that we have peace education issues in our genes as humans but not necessarily developed. Communication skills could be learned, but first one should decide on a personal willingness to internalize a new behavior which requires self-knowledge and change. Students’ reflections did not mirror the complete range of associations from the literature on peace education like living in diversities, learning to think critically on social problems, learning to cooperate, etc., but what they did reflect was the importance of the Other and the Communication, two extremely important issues in adult education as well as in psychotherapy  – both duties request humbleness in work with people. The decision to learn humbleness is connected with the achievement of a fluency in peace language (since language is the main tool in communication), but the very beginning of this process lies in the person’s inner being, in readiness to face a personal lack of (peace language) knowledge. Such awareness can give rise to different emotions which are not always pleasant and therefore often not supported and nourished (anger, hatred, jealousy, depression, mourning, wickedness, etc.). Instead of avoiding unpleasant feelings, peace education, considered as adult education combined with psychotherapy, can for example, facilitate the facing of one’s aggressiveness which has both destructive and creative potential. This necessity of adults’ being self-aware in the process of peace education brings the discussion to a

 University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Philosophy, Department of Education, B.A. study, Adult Education, Spring semester 2021. 2

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connection between adult education, psychotherapy and peace education in the never-­ending human need for change. In its essence, adult education seems paradoxical: it starts with an attitude about the human ability to learn and change no matter how old the human being is, yet images of adults have often been pictured in traditionally defined age and social roles containing prejudice of adult’s incapability to change. One of the well-known adages in my homeland says: “You can’t teach an old dog new tricks”.3 Practically it states that adults, as already used to their way of thinking and doing, would prefer to stay close to their habits, refusing any change, rather than learning anything new. Discussion over this thesis is fortunately much overcome today. Since the 1960s, adult education has been confirmed by many originators and historians of andragogy in the Balkan region and worldwide (Mavrak, 2018). Today we know that life without change is impossible no matter how old a person is. Therefore, adult education cannot be avoided as an essential process which leads a person to a better quality of life. What remains open to reflection and debate are the priorities in an adult’s process of change. Since the establishment of psychology, the psychology of external control proclaimed that a human being has wishes and dreams, concepts of ego-ideal or concepts of an ideal world developed by something or somebody outside of the person (Glasser, 2000). That becomes the motif for learning, searching for something better, the motif for progress. Accordingly, an educational motif is the result of a desired image of one’s personal role or abilities in addition to what the person already possesses. In this regard, everything is connected with one’s good will to seek out knowledge. In this search, the teacher is a crucial good-will-builder in pupils’ motivation, no matter the pupils’ age. But is it so simple – or is it even possible to control a pupil’s life and development in this old-fashioned didactic manner? In contrast, the psychology of internal control (Glasser, 2000) argues that a person’s decision and acceptance of learning for change is a matter of inner human needs and as long as one is not aware of this inner being, it would be impossible to achieve real learning and change. With these lenses, working on someone’s inner change is a prerequisite to achieving socially defined goals and desired ideals. If a goal has been proclaimed important just for social utilization reasons, adult education becomes no more than a tool for pursuing socially approved achievements and external rewards (diploma), without true inner change or development. In effect, external achievements would simply reward narcissism in a person. Each educator should question personal devotion to success comparing it to unavoidable professional narcissism. Narcissism demands an applause from others – as the story goes, Narcisse was in love with his own image, not the real self. A pool of water gave him this perfect but imaginary reflection. In education, external applause and recognition for achievements can be powerful seducers for teachers and learners, such that a person

 In the local language of my community the original version would be “Star se konj ne sedla” or “It is impossible to saddle an old horse”. 3

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easily becomes addicted to the admiration and recognition which others provide. Arguably, however, education, teaching and learning connected with external rewards alone does not have a healing function aimed at true inner change. A teacher who denies his or her own narcissism at the same time denies personal shadows and therefore is at risk of not transmitting real peace education values to an educator. The teacher has to make a huge step forward from the imaginary reflection which is rewarded by social applause to honest self-analysis notifying changes and time scope of changes. That is also a step-out from the traditional picture of mighty education to contemporary education based on professional supervision and psychotherapy as a path to inner peace. The Gestalt approach, as one among many creative possibilities walking along the path, provides different stories on personal change (Bucay, 2014) – the narrative in this paper is one of these stories.

Gestalt Psychotherapy and Peace Education with Adults The Gestalt approach in psychotherapy, among the well-known schools of psychology, has relevance to almost every corner of human life, not just psycho-therapeutic work. Adult education is not an exception. Any psychotherapy has its basis in learning processes, and education can have therapeutic impacts. Although sciences such as psychology and andragogy insist on a disciplinary approach to human behavior,4 the praxeology of teaching adults, counselling and psychotherapy reveal many similarities among these fields. The main difference between adult education and therapeutic work is in the traditional image of the teacher who is supposed to control the learning process through pre-defined time and content. In this image, based on so-called educational optimism (a belief that the right method will produce whatever you want in another human being), the teacher is powerful and responsible for learning outcomes. This tradition has its roots in a banking model of education (Paulo Freire, 2000) where the achievements measured by tests are the main indicators of success. ‘Leading the child’ is the main teacher’s task hence the child presumably has little or no previous knowledge to acquire a particular understanding or skill. The non-traditional image of the teacher (Kulić & Dsepotović, 2001; Mavrak, 2018), however, is more andragogical and very close to the role of therapist or counsellor: the teacher is merely a facilitator in the learning process, while the adult learner takes responsibility for his/her engagement. The adult learner is no longer simply an obedient participant in the educational process, but a responsible actor who can listen to his/her own personal needs, prior knowledge and experience, speak them aloud and appeal to the facilitator to get what is necessary for the achievement of his/her learning goals.

 I.e., psychotherapy belongs to psychology and education to science of education (educology).

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A Gestalt psychotherapist embodies this facilitating role too. His/her duty is not to help a person become what s/he is not (that is, to teach and counsel the individual how to reach their ego-ideal), but rather to help the person face what s/he is as a whole. The adult educator and the Gestalt psychotherapist therefore have the same task: to reveal what is unknown, to face the shame, anger or hatred for discovering gaps in knowledge or abilities and integrating the dark and bright side of one’s personality into a unique entirety. The philosophy of adult education as a profession is grounded in existentialism, human rights, respect and inclusiveness (Mavrak, 2018) and therefore, arguably, should insist on the importance of each educator understanding how to work with the personal shadow and brightness in order to ensure that teaching enables the process of the participants’ personal change. Explaining the theory of peace education and peace language, Rebecca L. Oxford (2013) says that peace is often recognized as harmony. Harmony levels are individual, interpersonal, intergroup and global. Achievement of peace is possible only through active and constructive work to create harmony among diversities (Oxford, 2013:4; Kasumagić-Kafedžić, 2019:32). This work does not apply just to diversities in participant groups led by an adult educator, but in the first place to educators themselves. The challenge is to create harmony among inner differences and diversities. This is the place where peace pedagogy has been transformed into adult education and andragogy. It seems that most of peace philosophy lies in the concept of harmony and dialogue. Communication for peace is extremely demanding and has its complexity. Tolerance in living together with others begins with tolerance of personal shadows, which is more difficult than tolerance of others. Tolerance of self is covered by an inner psychological dynamism which helps a person survive and therefore is difficult to concord. It is an art to learn how to deal with it. Dialogue, which is preferable in human communication to monologue, frames an attitude of humility towards contact with self, people and nature (Buber, 1977; Kasumagić-Kafedžić, 2019). Teachers and caregivers at all education levels should be aware that experiential and transformative learning nourished by a gestalt approach is the mutual field of peace education and adult education.

 heory and Practice of Experiential and Transformative T Learning in Adult Education and Peace Education Adult education and gestalt psychotherapy share a lot of general didactic principles for working with individuals and groups. The science of didactics that regulates the area of education praxeology dates back to Wolfgang Radke (1571–1635) and John Amos Comenius (1592–1670) who each claimed that knowledge starts from observing phenomena while the origin of cognition lies in experience used to define concepts, principles and theories (Mavrak, 2018). This orientation has never been

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abandoned and experiential learning has been adopted as one of the main modes of adult education. Every experiential learning, however, is not automatically transformative learning. According to David Kolb and Malcolm Knowles, the learning process starts and ends in concrete experience developing its elements through the reflexive learning circle (according to Knowles, 1998). Peace education for adults as well as psychotherapy in gestalt approach is of the same nature. The human need for peace, inner or social, is of doubtless value for each human being – even in the middle of war, the one who leads troops would claim the same. An adult student who decides to learn peace language looks at his/her concrete reality in accordance with his/her own roles, registers his/her feelings and reactions to that reality and then verbalizes or expresses that experience in a unique way. Arguably, this experience should not be evaluated as the first step to self-knowledge. It belongs to one’s personal phenomenology and esthetics. However, this non-­ judgmental approach may need evaluation in the process of self-development and interpersonal relationships. Therefore, it is important to include sophisticated question-­sharing in this relation. The gestalt approach based in Buberian philosophy (Buber, 1977; Eisenstadt, 1992) of human understanding rather than explaining behavior suggests the replacement of the question “why is it like that for you” with the questions “what is it to you” or “how it happens in your case”. A response to a why-question often consists of a justification and possible arguing or searching for an excuse considering one’s personal attitude. This can stop the process of learning although the why-question is mostly welcome in scientific research. In the art of human relations, it has a completely different connotation. Experience of peace or conflict through questions of what (is peace/conflict for you) and how (does peace/ conflict happen, exist, get preserved or broken in your experience) is important in education or psychotherapy and refers to the inner being of the person learning about peace behavior, peace language or peace education. Gestalt and andragogical approaches in work with adults also foster reflexive observation. It is the path which leads a person from I-level of experience to social-­ level of sharing personal images and thoughts on surroundings. Individuals and groups are invited to describe what they have noticed concerning peace or conflict, what has been done in reality to promote peace keeping and how they feel about it. A person may have negative feelings about peace education reflecting his/her disappointment in social legacies or political structures of conflict, sharing personal acceptance of learned helplessness. The adult educator as well as the therapist play the “role of box” as he/she summarizes what individuals have said, without looking back and evaluating, but with the attention of an active listener who stores observations, and then reflecting on a theoretical approach at the next stage. The next stage is conceptualizing. The educator’s role here becomes dominant by formulating abstractions and generalizations which can clarify, approve or disapprove individual views. The concepts are analyzed, the educator and participants can discuss and negotiate conceptual meanings or harmonize their interpretations. The ruling paradigm of the presented concept of peace education does not necessarily correspond with the one which comes from personal experience. In this phase of

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learning, individuals practise their ability to process information and respect different views, experimenting or actively recognizing even the concept that they disapprove of. Staying with that is the gestalt therapy technique which insists on making unpleasant experiences even stronger, with the aim of overcoming or controlling them, and it is welcome in this phase of learning. Making an effort to see standard memorized images from another corner means giving the space for diversity to become part of personal acknowledgement. The fourth phase of experiential learning is testing the concept in a new context. This phase needs time and patience. This testing means active mental experimentation and willingness to change behavior. It is an adventure in the learning process, all the more because one can never know the outcome. The individual goes back to his/her experience and his/her living context (concrete reality, the beginning of the circle), checking personal thoughts, feelings and actions, now with the new concept. The circle of experiential learning becomes transformative learning if a person changes behavior due to the new content which has been internalized. The substance of experiential learning lies in personal understanding which has the tendency to be transformed. However, the person can decide that the content is irrelevant for his/her life and therefore stay attached to previous knowledge and behavior. What happens however, even without behavior change, is that the content is not the same anymore because the person has been changed in time, in the space of the learning journey. Practical reflections on this journey in the context of peace education are depicted in Image 6.1. During 1994–1995, in the middle of war activities in Bosnia and Herzegovina, cantonal ministries of education and UNICEF BiH supported a range of seminars on war trauma with different groups of educators. In one of the educational cycles participants were teachers from two sides of the conflict. It was in the place named Visoko where Bosniaks and Croats recently had left behind war-conflict. The arms 1.Concrete experience: The first seminar on war trauma in B & H, supportedby UNICEF B&H, took place in Visoko, in February 1995. Teachers, previously regrouted as soldiers on different sides in conflict, remembered theri personal experience of fear in the situation of battle. What happened, where was it, what did they experienced at the moment of an armed conflict?

Transformation: The exercisse is like a new peace langugae that we can teach in school.

4.Testing new concept, implications: if fear has been provoked by the lack of structure in unknown situation, is it possible to control my fear now, knowing that I share fear essence with others? Educator suggested that images of the fear should be pictured again, but now using black-and-white technique and structured shapes like circles, lines, dots, etc.

Understanding: We share the same painful experience

5. Concrete experience: how do I feel now, after sharing my story and re-drawing my first image of fear? 2. Reflexive observations: They listened to each other stories and than have been told to draw the image of their biggest fear using colored pencils. They exchange personal interpretations in pairs.

3. conceptualization: Educator collected different interpretations translating them into the theory of trauma psychology, explaining mutual human reactions in situation of threatening. The awareness that fear strokes us no matter on side of conflict to which we belong stressed human essence in each participant supporting empathy.

Image 6.1  David Kolb – the experimental learning cycle considering peace education, and Đapić & Filipović. Art-workshop in healing war trauma

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had been silenced but people lived in distrust and social distance. Education on war trauma was a kind of peace education for healing – starting from the personal experience of mutual conflict, through storytelling united with creative drawing, with conceptualizing mutual human reactions to fear to concept testing within reality, here and now, participants reported on a personal change of understanding both sides in conflict. The experiential learning circle finally led to behavior transformation in some of the participants. It would be naïve to think that education permanently changed all participants but it was obvious that the process of change began due to education and experience of exchange. This is an example of overlapping the theory and practice of experiential peace language learning in adult education which can picture the path to interpersonal and intergroup peace. Reaching real change however does not mean replacing one concept with another. It is rather a recognition of differences in self-development over time. Education in a group could be the starting point in decision making to invest in further self-development but the real possibility to act toward interpersonal and intergroup peace starts with individual work on the personal shadow. The narrative which follows is a case study of one educator who was honestly committed to invest time, money and knowledge in her professional and personal development. The case will illustrate how change can be slow but precious in line of 20  years of self-­ education investment. It brought inner peace to the teacher responsible for the education of university students. Only inner peace as an authentic part of her behavior put her in the role of a teacher who became more competent in conflict resolution in the classroom, among small students’ groups and interpersonally.

 rom Inner to Interpersonal and Intergroup Peace: Working F with Shadow The gestalt approach in adult education provides awareness that every educator must be educated to teach self-change by introspection and work on inner shadows. Otherwise, education becomes more like preaching, a sermon to be followed without criticism and often without true devotion. The adult educator dealing with peace is invited to call upon participants’ expressions and to check the language which has been used among group members. His/her inner peace and language in his/her communication with the self and with others is an important space for professional action. Meditation and contemplation are tools for achieving inner peace but a gestalt approach to personal development through psychotherapy and education reaches for inner deepening, not necessarily connected to religious adherence. Although meditation is rooted in the Vedic tradition of India for example, it overcomes any religious concept. While meditation can help here-and-now to overcome overwhelming restlessness or disturbing inner content, contemplation means the act of comprehensive and long-lasting looking at something with an aim to understand it properly. As the context of phenomena differs in time, contemplation on the

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phenomenon cannot be ended once forever. The gestalt approach in the peace education of adults directs the educator to the same goal of reaching peace but with the tools of patience and forbearance. Peace in the heart (Oxford, 2013:14) as the very basis of global peace could be achieved in the never-ending process of gathering new information on the self, issues connected with obstacles across the lifespan. Making decisions that aim for change will be obligatory for an educator. Inner peace is the result of mental transformation. The adult educator as an individual becomes aware of personal needs and starts the search for satisfaction, increasing awareness that this process asks for assertive and not just calm and romantic behavior which will be harmless to others. That means the necessity to integrate the dark and bright side of one’s personality in order to act as a better person. Denial of the shadow in our deepest level of personality leads us not just toward problems in communication with others or the sense of loneliness in everyday life, but all the more so, toward harm that we can provoke in others, especially from the powerful position of group leader, teacher, or educator. In the case of Nina N. (female, age 50), an educator with long professional experience, this process of working toward an inner peace is illustrated using creative techniques. The case is the result of long-term research as part of continuing professional engagement with Nina and it represents another illustration of the time needed for personal change. In her teaching job as an adult educator, Nina was very competent in information transfer, concept interpretation, and conflict resolution, as long as she was connected with the student/participant group. In communicating with her colleagues and family, however, she needed healing. Problems escalated over time and at the moment of her seeking psychotherapy, she was unhappy with her marriage, workplace and health. The range of drawings created by Nina and depicted below shows the healing process resulting from Nina’s decision to change. Making this decision itself took years of struggle being suppressed with different ego-defences. She first met the topic of the inner shadow in a peace education course in 1995, shortly after the war in her country. Participants were citizens of countries involved in the recent war. Nina, with her deep understanding of peace philosophy and with already assimilated language of peace, was an ideal student who truly deserved a certificate for her group work achievements. But what she carried with herself from this experience was the image of her shadow which was the expression of sorrow and rage (Image 6.2). Back to the classroom, in her further work she was still very good but it was like scuba diving without oxygen – she needed a lot of energy and skills to stay mentally fit in social relationships. In her thirties it was possible. However, as a long-term matter, it was becoming more and more difficult, provoking dissatisfaction. A teacher who does not live according to teaching lessons is not a role model for students. Teaching language is impossible if you do not speak the language. Teaching happiness is impossible without inner happiness. Teaching peace is impossible without inner peace. The diploma says that you are competent for something in a socio-educational context but is it not enough for truly stable work in interaction with self and others.

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Image 6.2  Nina’s Shadow, 1995. In peer discussion Nina was focused on blue faces in the middle of the drawing. She stressed that coping with sadness and tears was not so difficult as coping with anger and rage. That was frightening for her. She claimed that the angry face below is a dangerous one for her. The peer reflection she got was: look at the teeth of an angry face – they are not dangerous at all – that face says “I am angry, stay away” but its teeth are completely harmless – nobody takes that face seriously – and what about the face circling two blue faces? Nina, in her early 30 s at that time, left education with an opportunity for insight but without an honest decision to change in order to help herself

In years to come, denial made Nina incapable of taking a step forward in reaching her inner peace. During the next two decades she continued to show excellent teaching skills but with a feeling of unhappiness in relations with her husband and colleagues. Her educational style was admired among adults that she taught but

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none of them looked to her as a model for personal development. In other words – her peace language was praised but not copied by students most probably because she was not an example of a satisfied person. It had been reflected in personal and professional roles. As her son grew up, new issues became unbearable, because he also refused to cooperate with the unhappy mother at the divorce gate. In the process of divorce, she had chosen sorrow instead of anger which often stopped creative functioning provoking exhaustion. Back to her work, in a situation of implicit professional mobbing Nina accepted withdrawal instead of an open fight for herself. Having in mind the peace education romantic concept, she avoided being the project leader or even to participate in some activities which required contact and discussion with management. Speaking about students and her mentoring role, more than a decade after her shadow-­ drawing, she got a message from her doctoral candidate who openly had told her that he did not believe her warning to hurry up with completing his dissertation before her career transition. In other words, the angry face with the blunt teeth said: “I will go away no matter your dissertation, it lasts too long and I will not wait for you anymore. Soon you will be in need of a new mentor”. Of course, nobody believed the angry words spoken out of a mouth with blunt teeth. “You will not leave me with this unfinished job”, the candidate said, “you are too harmless and too nice to do so.” In other words, Nina was not authentic and congruent in her behavior and at the same time she was not aware of this. Nevertheless, at that time Nina N., now in her 50 s, was still functioning in her everyday work while an invisible lack of inner peace worked at destroying her soul and body. Sleeping problems, lack of concentration, weight loss, withdrawal from social contacts and loneliness were another polarity to her external actions. Something that she had not given up was belief in education as a tool for change. In March 2014, as part of the exercises in education she drew a picture of her inner being. Image 6.3 vividly shows what it looked like for Nina’s inner self-esteem. Thanks to this new work on herself, Nina was able to face a near failure that happened a month later and that could happen in any professional span. It required her to normalize mistakes that can happen in teaching, i.e., to become aware of obvious guilt projections on herself, participants, circumstances, organizers of education, etc. She managed to stay on her feet arguing for personal and professional integrity, refusing to promise that “mistake will not happen next time”. She transferred “guilt” and “mistake” to the concept of responsibility in which a teacher should have been ready to look non-judgmentally upon the teaching process, understanding it for better future work. Thanks to her new insights, she managed to connect the concept of type-two-sovereignty in adult education (Shultz von Thun, 2001) which says that the teacher’s profession is not free of falls.5 Facing her teaching role she said no to the professional group who proclaimed teacher’s infallibility.  Shultz von Thun compares two possible professional roles of a doctor who can be a surgeon and manager of a surgical department. In the surgeon role (knowledge of the human body, surgical intervention) he must act without mistake. In that case he deals with a body and illness as an object. 5

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Image 6.3  Nina – on myself, March 2014. Nearly 20 years after facing her shadow, Nina became part of a new educational group. This time, education consisted of lecturing, group work and individual work with a therapist. At the beginning of this process Nina’s drawing on her inner being was in achromatic tone, black with just two thin brown lines in the upper-left part of the drawing. The name of the drawing was “silence without smell and taste”. She expressed a deep need to feel nothing and to be left in darkness without any expectations from surrounding. Among all different crayons she could have used for this expression, black was the only one recognized as appropriate. The group and her therapist supported Nina’s need for “black and nothing” explaining polarity confluency-isolation in the process of normalizing every feeling that human beings can have, integrating it into Nina’s self-perception

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Image 6.4  Nina’s polarity rage-tenderness in February 2015. After 6 months of intensive training on emotional language and integration of all parts of suffering self, Nina was ready to face her own aggressive side, gradually leaving the victim position in relation with others. Group education stressed the energy coming from rage and possibility of control coming from tenderness

The blue angry face from the 1995 shadow was radically transformed in February 2015 and furthermore in June 2015. Images 6.4 and 6.5–6.6 depict this vividly. A rage-tenderness polarity (Image 6.4) showed more determined black crayon strokes representing rage with a lot of thorn shapes which were transformed into an angry face a few months later at an individual therapy session (Images 6.5–6.6). The last drawing after a year of intensive training with the gestalt approach in psychotherapy and adult education showed the final integration of the bright and dark sides in Nina’s personality (Image 6.7). That was the place from which it was possible to step forward in reaching inner peace as a prerequisite of interpersonal and intergroup peace. As an adult educator and often group leader, Nina met many different conflict situations in which she managed to use peace language with more authenticity than back in 1995–2015. Her personal experience of separation and But, in manager-role he deals with his colleagues as subjects equal to himself in their thoughts, wishes, attitudes, concepts so that wrong actions, harms and conflicts are unavoidable. Teacher is not just an expert but a classroom manager too. Therefore type-one-sovereignty – infallibility – is not possible. Teacher has to accept this concept in order to be a better performer of his duty. Without contemplation on his professional role and inner peace, the teacher cannot fight his narcissism.

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Images 6.5–6.6  Nina’s polarity rage-tenderness in June 2015. Further work on anger and rage made integration possible. Inner peace is not the construct of a happy face and colorful smile but the unique awareness of gentleness and aggressive potential in the same person. Being able to control one another means being able to keep an inner peace

reunion with important others in family and professional groups brought her to the recognition of the human need to work sometimes at a distance from people and concepts that were traditionally introjected – the distance which provides a better overview of the situation and possibilities. That experience also gave Nina new perspectives on group peace and she subsequently invited her students to increase the level of their awareness when their shadows become an issue in relationships. Nina’s story illustrates at least two issues important for peace education teachers: 1. The wish to be an excellent teacher is not enough for the achievement of this goal. Having a certificate for competent work is just a green card for entering the professional field which is complicated and consists of many entrances: peace education is one of them, adult education is another, as well as psychotherapy and many others. Pre-service teacher education as formal education cannot provide all skills and therefore each teacher is responsible for personal in-service education. 2. Transformative learning needs time, sometimes even decades to reach the goal. The learning outcome is not just an issue of ability to learn but of a decision to change. The change should have a deep meaning for the carrier, not for people from surroundings. The peace education teacher should be aware that transformation of students begins with the visible transformation of the teacher and his or her adult acceptance that a person can always act better. The main value in this process is Time. Instead of the promise that the learning concept is going to be learned in the short period of a school class, semester or year, the teacher should fight for pupils’ achievements in the time to come. Even if a teacher cannot witness the change of a pupil, the teacher paves the way to the change.

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Image 6.7  Nina – On Myself, September 2015. Nina’s inner peace is not any more just black silence without smell and taste but colourful whirlpool with diversity In Nina’s perception, the colours have meaning as follows: Dark green stars – insights, new knowledge Light green – new and great things which have been met Yellow – the light in old concepts, new sensations Red – passion, belonging to the group and education process Black – pain, suffering, what still makes her life miserable, what is difficult Grey – doubts: “am I a social hybrid?” Blue – individual therapy sessions Compared with the shadow back in 1995, Nina developed her personal and professional skills. She did not sleep in denial any more, proving herself strong to cope with inconveniences (grandiosity) but she was able to accept pain and happiness, passion and doubts, old and new concepts (walk with polarities)

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 essons Learned on Adult Education and Gestalt L Psychotherapy as a Necessity in Teachers’ Peace Education Psychotherapy is a kind of adult education and vice versa, adult education has a therapeutic impact, but only if the facilitators of this overlapping process of learning, teaching and therapy are well-educated from both sides: psychotherapy and andragogy. Sharing mutual goals, psychotherapy and adult education can equally support peace language proficiency at the personal and group levels. The teacher should not forget that underneath the work with children lies a request to work with an adult-self as the necessary basis for any work with another human being. Andragogy and psychotherapy should be the part of any peace education circle or they need to accompany peace education as a separate education framework, yet with the same inner-peace goal. Therapeutic work on increasing self-awareness (body, thoughts, emotions, actions) gives a person permission to accept the entire self with its shadow and brightness. This helps to decrease projections of shadows on others. Searching for the personal shadow is a teacher’s never-ending search which cannot be given up in any circumstances. In peace education, intergroup peace or global peace can be reached only if peace actors possess inner peace. Inner peace is the outcome of learning about personal needs, and clarifying how it helps to meet the needs of another human being. The teacher as a peace actor therefore must constantly work on his or her inner peace. Human contact is metaphorically pictured by a super-summative equation where 1 + 1 = 3 instead of 2: in a relationship one has to take care of personal needs, partner’s needs and the relation with a partner. Human contact has its shadow and brightness. Assimilation of the two allows non-judgmental understanding of individual and social totality. Experiencing personal strength to face inner shadows, a person learns new means of self-support instead of depending upon winning the conflict, blaming others for personal pain or playing the victim in order to get external approval of belonging. These goals are mutual to therapeutic and educational work. In the case of peace education, it means to use the method of cooperation with its complexity, consisting of active listening, honest self-expression and assertive skills. Sensitivity to surroundings is crucial for peace keeping. That does not mean conflict avoidance but rather good sense around recognizing the point of conflict escalation or the resource for conflict resolution. One’s personal ability to interpret other people’s behavior must be completed with questions for checking the correct meaning of that interpretation – otherwise a faulty interpretation of communication could be a conflict trigger. Being aware of personal strengths and weaknesses to act as a moderator in conflict, to stay with the opponent or to postpone the final decisions, giving the agreement additional time for negotiations, means to respect the social and physical distance that one takes in order to provide protection in both directions: for one self and for the other. Peace education is education about responsibility. Learning how to take responsibility for personal behavior is one of the therapeutic goals too. It leads to

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understanding that You cannot be responsible for My sorrow, love, jealousy, fear, for My speech or My punch. Another human being is just the part of the social field according to which a person makes decisions while choosing the solutions rests in the hands of the decision maker. Responsibility for choices is also a mutual goal in psychotherapy, adult education and peace education. Gestalt psychotherapy supports the creative potential in every person. Crises that a person experiences become a field for creative adjustment. Peace education also works in this direction – conflict is a crisis that can stimulate development. Fantasy and imagination, fairy-tales and poems, shapes, colors and smells, music and dance are all tools for experiencing exchange and better interpersonal and intergroup understanding. Peace education teachers should reach for psychotherapy not because they have psychological issues to resolve but because it gives new perspective to learn and teach inner, interpersonal and intergroup peace. The language of peace that we use today is most often our family language. The love and care that we experienced once in our childhood stays as an introjection which can help us to live peacefully with others but which can also provide obstacles to a peaceful life within ourselves. The self is a lonely rider seeking contact with the goal of reaching full identity. Care for self in adulthood is something that we learn later in life because the messages that we received in childhood about fighting child egocentrism sometimes led to complete alienation from personal nature and human needs. Suppressing this nature, consisting of nice and unpleasant elements, leads to bad relations with the self which lead to bad interpersonal relations. Interpersonal care has to be balanced and mutual if it is mature. Reciprocity in giving and receiving can be established only if two persons are ready and skillful to share personal needs. Respect for human needs and emotions (Gordon & Burch, 1974; Gordon, 2000; Glasser, 2000; Juul & Jensen, 2002) is definitely part of peace language. That is the crucial point in dialogue as the apex of human communication. Intergroup peace is a new dimension which blooms out of inner and interpersonal peace. Ethnic groups, gender groups and groups of sexual orientation, professional and cultural groups, different age groups – all of them exist because a sense of identity and belonging is one of the basic human needs for survival. Although each group is self-considered as distinctive for its many attributes, living together with other distinctive groups is an existential question. Violence which is often explained as heroism in defending the self from the other, does not work for the benefit of peace. Inner peace which can be reached through integration of the personal shadows and polarities that live in each of us is also a path to understanding the difference between heroism and humanity. Marko Miljanov, Montenegrin tribe-­ chief and writer (1833–1901), explained this difference in a simple manner: “Heroism is defending myself from the other. Humanism is defending the other from myself” (Karanović, 1979:76). Peace education is not just a lesson on heroism fighting for social justice but also a lesson on humanity which consists of a personal wish to protect others from myself. The language of art, even if it praises war, is a tool for learning the language of peace.

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Awareness of human power protects humans from abusing the power, leading them to humanity. More power means more responsibility in protecting others from myself. Facing our shadows, reaching for more education and individual work on the self is the process of personal growth. Reaching inner peace is certainly one of the paths to assimilate interpersonal and intergroup peace language.

Take-Away Messages • Peace pedagogy cannot complete its goals with the sole use of pedagogical philosophy and child-centred educational tools. Adult education is a necessary part of peace education and requires following of andragogical principles in work with educators. Peace education in BiH should consider adults, teachers and care-givers as the main target group in education efforts, at least not less important than child target groups. • The gestalt approach paves many creative pathways in peace education especially if adult education is combined with psychotherapy. Both pre-service and in-service teacher education should not neglect the need for andragogical and gestalt psychotherapy topics. • Consideration of the teacher as one element and not as the only responsible subject in the peace building process is important for teachers’ well-being. However, that subject has responsibility for personal investment in professional growth. • Teaching is not an infallible profession. It has shadows and brightness. Teaching teachers to assimilate these polarities in the self means giving the opportunity for better teaching skills. • The learning outcome in peace learning is the change of behavior. Cognitive assimilation of the peace concept does not guarantee authentic change. Real change happens in time. Sometimes it means decades of patient work on ourselves. Teachers in BiH and elsewhere should not diminish the importance of time in peace building. Even if they cannot, in the short-term, measure the result of their devoted work toward peace, they are doing an important mission in pupils’ long-term development.

Resources for Further Reading Glasser, W. M. D. (1998). Choice theory – A new psychology of personal freedom. William Glasser and HarperCollins Publishers. https://blindhypnosis.com/choice-­theory-­a-­new-­psychology-­of-­ personal-­freedom-­pdf.html Nystul, M. S. (1993). The art and science of counseling and psychotherapy. MacMillan. Yontef, G. M. (1993). Awareness, dialogue and process: essays on gestalt therapy. The Gestalt Journal Press.

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References Brajša, P. (1993). Pedagoška komunikologija. Školske novine. Buber, M. (1977). Ja i Ti. Izdavačko preduzeće “Rad”. Bucay, J. (2014). Ispričat ću ti priču. Fraktura. Eisenstadt, S. N. (Ed.). (1992). Martin Bubber: On intersubjectivity and cultural creativity. The University of Chicago Press. Freire, P. (2000). Pedagogy of the oppressed. Bloomsbury Academic. Glasser, W. (2000). Teorija izbora. Alinea. Gordon, T. (2000). Parent effectiveness training: The proven program for raising responsible children. Harmony. Gordon, T., & Burch, N. (1974). T.E.T., Teacher effectiveness training. P. H. Wyden. Juul, J., & Jensen, H. (2002). Od poslušnosti do odgovornosti. Pelago. Karanović, M. M. (1979). Izbor misli: 365 aforizama. ROZID – Otokar Keršovani. Kasumagić-Kafedžić, L. (2019). Učiti zajedno i učiti živjeti zajedno: Interkulturalnost u savremenoj nastavi engleskog jezika. Dobra knjiga. Knowles, M. S. (1998). The adult learner. Butterworth-Heinemann Publications. Kulić, R., & Dsepotović, M. (2001). Uvod u andragogiju. Svet knjige. Mavrak, M. (2018). Legal socialization program: Adult education manual. PH International B & H. Moren Morin, E. (1981). Čovek i smrt. Beogradski izdavačko-grafički zavod. Oxford, R. L. (2013). The language of peace: communicating to create harmony. University of Maryland:Information Age Publishing. Pastuović, N. (1999). Edukologija – Integrativna znanost o sustavu cjeloživotnog obrazovanja i odgoja. Znamen. Puljiz, I., & Živčić, M. (2009). Međunarodne organizacije o obrazovanju odraslih. Agencija za obrazovanje odraslih. Salmon, G., & Cairns, E. (Eds.). (2014). Handbook on peace education. Psychology Press/Taylor & Francis Group. Shultz von Thun, F., Ruppel, J., & Roswitha, S. (2001). Kako međusobno razgovaramo: Psihologija komunikacije za rukovoditelje. Erudita. Mirjana Mavrak  is full Professor of Educational Sciences at the University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Philosophy. Her professional interest has been devoted to educational work with different target groups: adults in helping professions, teachers, parents and medical staff in communication with children. Throughout her 32 years of academic career, she also worked in psychosocial and educational programs in crisis intervention. In addition to her university degrees, she is a trained psychotherapist in the Gestalt tradition. Theoretical foundations of her practice include Bronfenbrenner’s ecological approach to human development, Vygotsky’s theory of human potentials, Glasser’s theory of choice, Pearl’s gestalt approach in therapeutic work and Knowles school of adult education. She was invited to speak in many public, private and non-governmental institutions in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Western Balkans, Europe and the UN. She is the author of 2 books and 3 professional manuals. She is most proud of her work with students and community.

Chapter 7

Teacher Identity as a Barrier and Bridge to Peace Pedagogies Sara Clarke-Habibi

Abstract This chapter explores teacher identity as a pedagogical resource and challenge in the post-conflict classroom. The chapter starts by unpacking the notion of teacher identity into three interrelated dimensions: the personal, the professional and the political. Using narrative analysis, it then discusses findings from interviews conducted in Sarajevo, Mostar and Banja Luka during the 2012–2015 period which explore the aspirations, challenges and transformations that teachers, school directors, pedagogical advisors and faculty professors associate with the effort to educate for peace within Bosnia and Herzegovina’s current social-political climate, more than two decades after the war. The chapter explores the multiplicity of roles that teachers play in the postconflict classroom, and argues that teachers can have difficulty engaging effectively with peace pedagogies because of their own conflict-­affected past. It also demonstrates that when teachers develop their identities intentionally, they become more comfortable, confident and effective in guiding students to engage in peace pedagogies at a deeper, more humane and more self-­responsible level. The chapter concludes with suggestions on how teachers can use their own identity work as a pedagogical resource and offers ideas on how to support teachers in their identity formation and role as peace educators. Keywords  Teacher identity · Peacebuilding · Post-conflict classroom · Narrative analysis · Peace educators

Introduction Faculties, schools and classrooms in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) today are a meeting-point of pre-war and post-war generations whose formative social-political life experiences have differed significantly. Older teachers were raised and S. Clarke-Habibi (*) Georg Arnhold Program on Education for Sustainable Peace, Georg Eckert Institute, Braunschweig, Germany e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 L. Kasumagić-Kafedžić, S. Clarke-Habibi (eds.), Peace Pedagogies in Bosnia and Herzegovina, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26246-3_7

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professionally trained in the stable, ethnically integrated system of the former Yugoslavia. Mid-career teachers grew up amidst the insecurity and devastation of the 1990s war, beginning their careers in the ethnically divided, heavily politicized, ‘transitional’ post-war educational system. Younger teachers and all students today belong to the post-war/post-memory generations for whom both the former Yugoslavia and the war exist somewhere in ‘the past’, having experienced in their place the everyday norm of living and learning in a divided society. Such an account is, of course, simplistic. Experiences of the war and the post-­ war period have varied widely on the basis of locality, political orientation, socio-­ economic situation,  family values and individual circumstances. As for teachers, their personal and professional identities are likewise shaped by a host of factors. Yet teachers in societies emerging from recent conflict often have conflict histories and experiences (whether as victims, witnesses, perpetrators or some combination of these) and may carry with them prejudices and biases against others who have different social identities (Sayed & Novelli, 2016: 81). And so these distinctive generational perspectives are not insignificant in shaping how teachers view themselves and their roles in building peace in BiH today. The issue of teacher identity is an important and largely neglected one in the field of peace education. Peace education curricula typically focus on peace values, ideals, historical movements and skills, sometimes intentionally offering a space for students to reflect on their identities and values, but almost never explicitly offering such a space for teachers. At least in terms of published manuals and guides on peace education, very rarely is there an explicit attempt to engage with or take into account the individual personhood of the teacher, their own lived experiences of conflict, violence, war and oppression, or the mixed feelings they may have towards peacebuilding and reconciliation in their own society. This is especially problematic when politicians have left the historical record of past conflict unsettled, when there is ambiguity concerning the moral orientation of the society and when daily life remains divided along ethnopolitical and class lines (Clarke-Habibi, 2018). Gaps in the literature on teachers’ roles and participation in peace education initiatives feed into a number of common and unfounded assumptions: “that prescribed peace education curricula translate neatly into taught curricula; that professional teachers function as abstracted conduits of peacebuilding, uninfluenced by their own conflict-affected pasts or the prevailing collective narratives; and that post-conflict peace educators are at ease with visions of a reconciled future in their own violence-affected society” (Clarke-Habibi, 2018: 3). Given the ongoing political tensions in BiH and the highly politicized character of the education system, the issue of teacher identity therefore raises a number of questions for peace learning that this chapter aims to explore: • How do BiH teachers’ identities mediate their peacebuilding approaches and practices in the classroom? • Can teachers ever be ‘neutral’ in teaching about sensitive histories and peace principles? • Does a teacher’s social identity necessarily lead to teaching bias?

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• When is it appropriate for teachers to share their own experiences and views of the war past and its legacies with students? • How can teachers’ identities be leveraged as a pedagogical resource for peacebuilding in BiH’s post-war classrooms? As this chapter will demonstrate, teachers’ identities play an important role in framing spaces for learning and reflection on both past and present tensions in BiH society and for pursuing opportunities for peacebuilding among new generations. Teacher identity formation should therefore be given more attention in teacher education and professional development programmes that aim to foster increased engagement with peace learning and peace pedagogies.

Theorising Teacher Identity Identity is a social construct that functions as an interface between us and the world. As MacLure (1993: 311) describes it, identity is a ‘resource that people use to explain, justify and make sense of themselves in relation to others and to the world at large’. To ask, “What is my identity, where does it come from and how does it shape my teaching and my peacebuilding practice?” is to tap into even more basic questions such as, “Who am I?”, “What have I experienced?”, “What values do I cherish?”, and “What do I see as my role and my purpose?” Often, before answering such questions in an interview setting, teachers will first seek clarification on what can be at times a point of identity or values contradiction: “What do you mean: me personally? or me as a teaching professional?” When referring to “professional identity,” teachers often relate their identity to the particular institution or subject area in which they teach. They also often refer to the purpose, character and significance that they attribute to their work (which sometimes contrasts with the  views of colleagues, parents or policy discourses). They also refer to the personal attributes and qualities that they aim to bring to what they are doing. Teacher identity is multifaceted and dynamic, shifting in response to the complex and changing demands of the educational environment in its social and political context. Sachs (2005) reflects on the centrality of teachers’ identities to their work, as well as the identity negotiations that teachers often must engage in amidst contrasting influences: “Teacher professional identity stands at the core of the teaching profession. It provides a framework for teachers to construct their own ideas of ‘how to be’, ‘how to act’ and ‘how to understand’ their work and their place in society. Importantly, teacher identity is not something that is fixed, nor is it imposed; rather it is negotiated through experience and the sense that is made of that experience.” (Sachs, 2005: 15 in Beauchamp & Thomas, 2009)

Identity is always contextual and it has both personal, social and political dimensions. Teacher identity ‘shifts over time under the influence of a range of factors’ both internal and external to the individual and the institutional space (Beauchamp & Thomas, 2009: 177). When the society in which teachers have been

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professionally trained and subsequently employed has been radically altered because of war and post-war dynamics, and the values of the new political order have given rise to polarities, contestation and debate, the internal and external factors that shape teacher professional identity take on particular significance. Thus, as Sayed & Novelli (2016: 50) argue, if we wish to understand and engage with teachers’ identities, we must begin by “locat[ing] our understanding of teachers within complex local and national histories.” Education in many post-conflict settings is a politically sensitive issue. How educational contents and narratives are framed, how educational resources are created and distributed, how school administration and teaching are conducted, can each contribute to either peace or conflict dynamics. This is certainly the case in post-war Bosnia and Herzegovina. Educational systems, particularly when segregated along ethno-political lines, play a significant role in perpetuating divisions and conflict (Bush & Saltarelli, 2000). “In divided states…education is an important vehicle whereby conflicting sides legitimate their positions” (Davies, 2004). Yet education is among the most important and most powerful means to effect the necessary transformation in societal consciousness, values and purpose that peace building requires. Recognizing that teachers are the ultimate mediators between any educational content and actual classroom practice, we cannot speak of peace education or peace pedagogy in abstraction from teachers and their identities. “The personal involvement required by teaching…leads to the ‘unavoidable interrelationships between professional and personal identities’ (Day et  al., 2006: 602)” (Beauchamp & Thomas, 2009: 179). The teacher-self interacts not only with the school but with the society, in particular with respect to conflict narratives and the teacher’s personal and professional positioning towards and experience of that conflict. How teachers, themselves, wrestle with their own commitments to the conflict and to peace ultimately influences generations of students. It is for this reason that doing “identity work” with teachers as part of their preparation for teaching generally, and for peace education and peace pedagogy in particular, is especially important. As Hammerness, Darling-Hammond & Bransford (2005: 383–384) argue: “Developing an identity as a teacher is an important part of securing teachers’ commitment to their work and adherence to professional norms…The identities teachers develop shape their dispositions, where they play their effort, whether and how they seek out professional development opportunities, and what obligations they see as intrinsic to their role.”

Mapping Teachers’ Identities So how can we reflect upon teacher identity and become more intentional about its influence on teaching practice? Mockler (2011) offers a fascinating model which explores how the personal, professional and political dimensions of teacher’s identities intertwine and influence one another in the constitution and development of teachers’ lives and work (see Fig. 7.1).

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Fig. 7.1  Formation and mediation of teacher professional identity (Mockler, 2011)

She begins by locating the teacher at the centre of three intersecting domains: personal experience, professional context and the external political environment. The first domain of teachers’ personal experience is related in particular to those aspects of their personal lives that are framed by intersectionalities of class, race/ ethnicity and gender. In the context of BiH, geographic locality during the war and post-war years, family values, experiences and personal worldviews are important here as well. The second domain, teachers’ professional context, relates to their career histories, experiences within particular school communities and institutions, professional development opportunities and networks. “The school environment, the nature of the learner population, the impact of colleagues and of school administrators can all be influential in shaping a… teacher identity” (Beauchamp & Thomas, 2009: 184). The third domain, the external political environment, refers to the discourses and attitudes to which teachers are exposed through government policies and media which reflect the prevailing political climate surrounding education, its function, character and purpose. Mockler (2011: 522) explains that it is “at the confluence of these three dimensions [where] lies each individual’s ‘unique embodiment’ of what it is to ‘be’ a teacher (Clandinin et al., 2006: 9).” Where these domains overlap, Mockler proposes that there are opportunities: for personal/social development; for professional learning; and for activism.

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However, opportunities are only that: whether a teacher uses these opportunities or not is a matter of personal choice above all, and to a certain extent of institutional support. When seized, these opportunities lead to different forms of growth: to enhanced self-knowledge and capacity for reflection; to changes in teaching practice; and to greater political/civic engagement both within and beyond the classroom.

Identity Work Mockler underscores that what constitutes “identity work” for teachers is precisely pursuing growth and development in these arenas of personal, professional and civic life. While we might imagine that teachers’ identities unfold progressively and naturally throughout their careers, the process of identity work is neither linear nor guaranteed. When cultivated intentionally, teachers’ “professional identity comprises the notion of agency, or the active pursuit of professional development and learning in accordance with a teacher’s goals” (Beijaard et al., 2004 in Beauchamp & Thomas, 2009: 177). Teacher identity is thus both a product and a process of reflecting on the “complex interplay of personal, professional and political dimensions of teachers’ lives…within and through which significant aspects of their work is constituted” (Mockler, 2011: 518, 520). Another observation is that identity is not formed once and forever; rather it is revisited throughout life. Teachers are, indeed, ‘constantly reinventing themselves’ (Mitchell & Weber, 1999) both by choice and by necessity, and sometimes in disjointed and unforeseen ways. This can lead teachers to feel tensions at various stages in their careers between what Lauriala and Kukkonen (2005) call the three dimensions of the self: • The ‘actual’ self (who and how the teacher actually is in the present), • The ‘ought’ self (who and how the teacher is expected or obliged to be in the eyes of society, including as defined within institutional frameworks and standards), and • The ‘ideal’ self (who and how the teacher would like to be when they are their ‘best’ teacher self). These multiple ‘teacher selves’ (Freese, 2006: 100) are connected not only to the professional dimensions of subject matter, pedagogy and didactic knowledge (Beijaard et  al., 2000), but also to the personal dimensions that shape teachers’ motivations: their values, relationships, memories, emotions and visions for the future and their own legacy, which contribute to processes of meaning-making and agency as a teacher.

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Teacher Values, Beliefs and Agency Teachers’ personal and professional identities intersect with the social and moral values they cherish, as well as their beliefs about the role(s) they are intended to play in school and in society and the relative (peacebuilding) agency they believe they can exercise in their professional context. Teachers’ peacebuilding agency in (post)conflict settings refers to “their capacity to influence their conflict-driven surroundings. It is their ability to think, feel and act in order to foster ‘values and attitudes that offer a basis for transforming conflict’” (Sayed & Novelli, 2016: 36). While education is often presented as a panacea for the world’s problems, there is nothing automatic about gaining a ‘peace dividend’ from investments in education. Education and teachers can contribute to the reproduction of both peace and conflict: “Teachers can act as both the agents of change, for example, by promoting harmony between pupils including respect, justice and inclusiveness, and the agents of conflict, for example, in the way teachers use pedagogy and curricula to perpetuate inequity and conflict between opposing ethnic, religious or socio-economic groups. The lines between the two are not always clear and the same teacher may play out both roles simultaneously in different moments and contexts.” (Sayed & Novelli, 2016: 36)

For Bar-Tal (2002) therefore, the alignment between a teacher’s personal qualities, values and teaching practice is crucial to the success of peace education: “The success of peace education is more dependent on the views, motivations, and abilities of teachers than traditional subjects are. Firstly, because it refers mainly to the acquisition of values, attitudes, skills, and behavioral tendencies by pupils. This means that the teachers, who teach peace education must themselves be in line with its objectives. Teachers who carry out peace education have to cherish its values, hold comparable attitudes and exhibit similar behavioral tendencies. This precondition is problematic since most teachers do not enter the teaching profession because they hold peace education objectives; some may even have opinions, which contradict the values of peace education… In effect, peace education mobilizes pupils and teachers to take part in a campaign for change. They are to carry the banner for an alternative vision in society to counteract the beliefs, attitudes and actions, which contradict the objectives of peace education.”

Teachers who engage in peace education and peace pedagogies do well therefore to reflect upon the following questions: Teachers’ Personal and professional identities Personal and educational values Roles/pedagogies/ approaches to teaching

Associated Key Questions Who am I? What have I experienced? What is important to me? What kind of world do I want to live in? What are my values? What do I believe about how learning happens? What is my role in enabling learning to occur? What methods do I believe are most effective? By virtue of being ‘teacher,’ what other roles am I called upon to play? (continued)

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S. Clarke-Habibi Associated Key Questions How much power and possibility do I have to turn ideas into action, to reach goals and to transform my context? How much power and possibility do I have to positively influence my conflict-affected surroundings and to promote peacebuilding?

Such reflections tie teachers’ work to the social and moral purposes of education. Mockler (2011) explains that “the dimension of teacher identity that relates to ‘moral purpose’ links “what I do” with “why I’m here” (Day, 2004; Fullan, 2002). Mockler warns that “there is no automatic link, however, between the desire to ‘do good’ and ‘make a difference in the lives of students’ (Fullan, 2002: 14) and the [actual] quality of teacher’s professional practice” (2011: 522–523).

 eacher Identities and Emotions in Conflict T and Peacebuilding Contexts According to Mockler (2011: 522), certain “events, occurrences or experiences which take place within an individual domain function as ‘identity anchors’”, providing a “touchstone” and “frame of reference for professional practice within a particular temporal and spatial context”. For the purposes of this chapter and the research which underpins it, the frame of reference focused on here is the 1990s BiH war and its legacies in the context of ongoing peacebuilding efforts in the country. Identity remains a sensitive issue in the Bosnian educational context which still bears the scars of conflict and war. Engagement with the subject of the war and its legacies can still evoke difficult emotions for teachers who belong to the survivor generations, and thus influence their readiness to discuss these themes in meaningful ways with students. Researching along similar lines in the divided Cypriot context, Zembylas et  al. (2011) have examined the question of how “teachers’ perceptions of reconciliation relate to their emotional readiness to promote peaceful coexistence and reconciliation through educational efforts, particularly when a conflict is still unresolved”. In the early post-war years in BiH, it was not uncommon for teachers to express emotions about the war in the classroom, with students who had likewise lived through the war. But as BiH moves further away from that tragic period, this is less the case, in part because of a desire to approach such topics with more “professionalism” and in part because of a desire to avoid such topics entirely due to their emotional discomfort. Affective domains of learning are broadly marginalized in the BiH patriarchal culture and mainstream educational system, especially at higher levels, where emotions tend to be associated with the qualities of sensitivity and weakness, in opposition to the qualities of intellectual strength and rigour that are more highly valued in the domain of knowledge formation. More particularly, the perception that emotions are subjective and that the war and its legacies are political

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topics to be avoided in schools, falsely renders the expression of memories and emotions in the classroom equivalent to expressing ‘mere opinions’, in opposition to the perceived prerequisites of objectivity and neutrality for addressing such themes. Emotions are increasingly regulated, indeed marginalized, since they are regarded as inherently political. Many teachers feel they must hide their emotions, and are afraid of opening up conversations that will elicit emotions from students. Zembylas speaks of “emotional regimes” which shape what can be expressed in the post-conflict classroom. “The emotions teachers experience, and in some cases are encouraged or forbidden to experience in particular contexts, may ‘expand or limit possibilities’ in teaching” about contested histories (Zembylas, 2003: 122 in Beauchamp & Thomas, 2009: 180). Being socially constructed, however, these emotional regimes are also in continuous renegotiation and that which is considered legitimate knowledge, a legitimate perspective, and legitimate matter for discussion in an educational setting shifts over time. As the societal and educational context in BiH shifts, so too do the possibilities for teachers and students to engage with their emotions in the learning process about the drivers of conflict and peace in their society. These epistemological and affective negotiations are necessary in the pursuit of an open, inclusive, critical and just society. Memory pedagogies that leverage memory sites and commemorative days to raise awareness of histories of human suffering and resilience are one example of a particularly powerful method for exploring the emotions and the values that such chapters in human experience evoke and for reflecting on our role in creating a better society and a better humanity.

 esearching Teachers’ Identities and Roles in Peacebuilding: R The Case of Bosnia and Herzegovina In the context of education research, teacher identity can be used as ‘an analytical lens through which to examine aspects of teaching’ (Beauchamp & Thomas, 2009: 175), in particular teachers’ motivations and aspirations, perceived role(s) in the classroom, the institution and the wider society, as well as their resulting choice of methods of interaction with students. Personal storytelling is an important part of “doing identity work,” both at the individual and collective level (Watson, 2006: 525) and thus offers a methodological entry point for research. Researchers can explore the narratives that teachers create ‘to explain themselves and their teaching lives’ (see Connelly & Clandinin, 1999; Sfard & Prusak, 2005), as well as the metaphors that teachers choose to guide or symbolize their understanding of their role (Hunt, 2006; Leavy et al., 2007). Wishing to explore the interaction between teachers’ identities and their peacebuilding engagement as part of a wider study on the role of education in post-­conflict peacebuilding, I undertook interviews in BiH over the 2012–2015 period with 45 teachers. The interviewees included men and women, aged 25–60 years, of various subject fields and various BiH ethnicities living in Sarajevo, Mostar, Zenica and

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Banja Luka. Defining ‘teacher’ broadly to include individuals who are professionally trained educators and currently employed within the education sector, the interviewees included secondary school teachers, school directors, pedagogical advisors, educational policymakers within the Ministries of Education and teacher educators at university faculties. For this study, I conducted interviews with teachers and educators within BiH secondary schools, Pedagogical Institutes, Ministries of Education, and university faculties. The perspectives that I sought to explore in this research were: • What peacebuilding role do BiH teachers see for themselves, if any, and how do they strive to put it into action? • To what extent do teachers’ expectations of themselves match up with those of others (in particular, Ministries of Education, Pedagogical Institutes, parents and the wider society)? • What role(s) do teachers actually play in the post-conflict classroom? Questions that I posed to the interviewees elicited the stories of their educational and professional trajectories, their views of the role of education in BiH’s past and present peacebuilding challenges, their personal and professional orientations to classroom pedagogy and methodology, and how they approach sensitive topics in the classroom. Each of these lines of inquiry yielded reflections on the part of teachers about their identities, about what they value, about how they see their role in the classroom, about how they attempt to integrate peace pedagogies into their teaching work, and about the challenges they sometimes face in the external environment and within themselves. The interviews were recorded and transcribed. I then analysed them thematically, paying special attention to instances when identity statements were made explicitly through such formulations as: “I am”, “We are” “My/our role is”, “As a teacher/ professional, I…” “As a woman/parent, I…”, “As a Serb/Bosniak/Croat/mixed ethnicity person”, “I try/prefer/choose/believe”, etc. While the findings that I report below are a synthesis of the self-expressions I heard across all of the interviews, I share here a few fuller vignettes of teachers whose contrasting narratives offered particularly emblematic insights.1

Vignette 1: Milena I met Milena at the Ministry of Education of Republika Srpska (RS) in Banja Luka. Milena held a high-level position in secondary education policy. Already in the later stages of her career, Milena had significant experience as a pedagogical advisor and policymaker. Milena self-identified as a Serb, married to a Serb, though she was extensively engaged with international people and ideas through her involvement in

 Pseudonyms are used throughout the chapter

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international networks and foreign language education. Her children had married non-Serbs and her grandchildren were of mixed ethnicity. These diverse affiliations attracted sanctions from the Serb community during the war. After the war, she worked as a translator on human rights cases in which she witnessed evidence of atrocities committed against (primarily Muslim) civilians by (primarily) Serb militaries. In her personal and professional lives, Milena found ways to promote tolerance and broader perspectives. She acknowledged regretfully that in post-war RS, the equal treatment of children from different ethnicities represented “a break from the law”. She felt strongly about the need to promote professional integrity, human rights and justice in education, and out of personal interest she participated in Education for Peace training. But in interview her identity narratives shifted sometimes suddenly and uncomfortably, together with her values frameworks, as she wove between her individual/personal identity (“I Milena”), her collective belonging (“we Serbs”), and her professional role/obligations in the public school system (“the law”). In her own words, she struggled with the notion of identity: “In socialism we did not have that individual identity. I still struggle to develop my individual identity. But the group identity was very strong.”

In her view, the formal education system did not facilitate independent reflection on questions of identity. She characterized the RS school system as “based much more on control than on the development of potential” and warned that “questions are not always welcomed”. In her view, the control-based climate of ‘don’t ask, don’t tell’ reflected a lack of readiness and preparedness among Serbs to talk deeply about the war or indeed any of the social conflicts in BiH: “We are not yet able to deal with conflicts…We haven’t developed that skill amongst ‘us’ as a community, as a people…to confront ideas in a peaceful manner…We confront energies, and that just creates a clash…”

Even at a personal level, her rational understanding and her emotional preparedness were at odds. Invoking her “huge experience” working with the UN, she stated “the fact is that the Muslims suffered most…not only direct violence…[but  also] so much humiliation.” And yet, she didn’t want to hear or discuss the legacies of these issues further because it made her feel accused and defensive: “I say to my friends: Don’t speak about that all the time – it makes me feel terrible! Then I might fight with you.”

Fully recognizing the contradiction, she believed that peace education should help people learn “how to talk about things that we are sensitive about, without confronting energies.” In her view, “So long as we all behave self-protectively, like ‘I won’t touch this because then I might experience that,’” there would be limited advancements towards substantive peace between RS and the rest of BiH. She believed that learning to discuss difficult and sensitive topics in society is only a first step upon which, eventually, the past could actually be addressed. Speaking as a collectivity (possibly as a Serb, possibly as a BiH citizen) she reasoned:

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“Discussing the past should come in the end, after we develop other needed skills and when we reconcile a bit, when we heal our emotions and when we reach the level where we can talk about what each of us has experienced and suffered.”

She believed that pre-service training of teachers in peace education would help them “develop their professional integrity and include the principles and concepts of peace” in their teaching practices.

Vignette 2: Senada I met Senada at the Pedagogical Institute of Zenica-Doboj Canton in Zenica. A specialist in English language, she taught as a secondary school teacher for many years and was now working as an expert pedagogical advisor. For almost a decade, Senada’s “day job” was working with the UN Refugee Agency, dealing with Zenica’s 30,000 refugees. Senada’s humanitarian experience gave her a unique perspective on larger policy and human rights issues in BiH.  Her “night shift” was working as a teacher. She participated actively in Education for Peace both as a teacher and later as a regional coordinator. Senada described herself as the child of a “mixed marriage” and as living in a mixed marriage. Senada was disgusted by the ethnic categories that came to define BiH society, to the extent that she was loath even to speak of them: “(Prior to the war) I had no clue who was who, whether it was a ‘B’ or ‘S’ or ‘C’!2 …If I had power, I would invent a new name for our languages – it could be ‘Senada’s language’ – anything but three different names.”

On educating for peace, Senada admitted to feeling both hope and despair: she saw many hurdles in the current political environment, but also felt there is no future for BiH without peace. For her, the country’s past and future presented an emotional and practical quandary with no simple solution. She was very concerned about the need for justice for past wrongdoings in BiH. To counteract widespread feelings of powerlessness, Senada actively promoted supplementary trainings on prejudice reduction, social justice, critical peace pedagogies and inclusion methodology focused on removing barriers to equitable participation and recognition. She was confident that teachers who adjust their understanding, methodology and practice can “build up and have more power” to effect change in society. In this way, Senada sought to activate the “silent majority” and secure a peaceful future for BiH as a multiethnic society. With support from her director and colleagues, all 99 schools in her canton became engaged in peace education training and implementation in a cross-curricular manner. She advised teachers to build peace pedagogies into their work “step-by-step”, encouraging them to “Try to introduce even one concept and you will see how ‘windows open’…and then cooperate, get together, exchange ideas.” She herself had  Meaning Bosniak, Serb or Croat.

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experienced how peace pedagogies gave her an opportunity to reflect on her sense of self and purpose: “I appreciate Education for Peace because…you start to re-­ think your own beliefs, values, behaviour, attitudes and everything.” In this spirit, she advised teachers that the key to good peace education is authenticity: “If you want to do Education for Peace, do it because you love it, you like it, you want to do it. Do it with pleasure, do it with enthusiasm, and do it with your hearts. Don’t do it if you’re going to just do it and get rid of it. It sends a completely wrong message, it’s counter-­ productive. So it has to be slowly, it has to be with feelings, and it takes time.”

Vignette 3: Bojana I met Bojana, a teacher of sociology and ‘politics, democracy and human rights’ at a Croat economics school in Mostar. Bojana identified herself as having graduated from the “previous system” under the former Yugoslavia, later receiving quality professional development trainings from international organizations and NGOs. “My colleagues and I who deal with Politics, Economy, and Democracy, have been through many educational programmes immediately after the war: debate clubs and the like with Civitas, Council of Europe and Nansen Dialogue Centre. That was the real education and opportunity to speak and to listen.”

These trainings gave her professional currency, leading to employment with these organizations and securing her teaching positions at multiple schools using different curriculums: the Bosniak curriculum and the Croatian curriculum. These contrasting experiences gave her an acute awareness of the challenges remaining in BiH society: “When you work in two curriculums, you become aware of the differences and the difficulties.” Her own hybrid identity and family composition also fed her criticality and motivated her to take up research: “My background and the personal lives of me and my children are not unimportant. I am an atheist by conviction even though I come from Orthodox family. I married a Bosniak, I have three girls who are atheists. They attended schools with Croatian curriculum and are now studying in Sarajevo. My personal life gives enough reason to do research.”

Indeed, she was taking courses at university and assisting her professor to research BiH history education policy and textbooks used in the country’s different ethnic communities. Another influence on her professional identity and mission were certain negative experiences. She spoke of feeling ‘devastated’ when one of her students singled her out because of her ethnicity and values: “I’m always trying to make life easier for my children and others. Yet, at the graduation party, a student came to me and told me: ‘You’re wonderful, but you don’t belong here…’ We talk a lot about democracy, tolerance, compromise … I try to model that in the classroom as well, and I am available for anything, even for students’ personal problems… It is devastating when you’re really trying (and something like that happens).”

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She regarded her student’s behaviour as symptomatic of lingering prejudice and discrimination in BiH society which will take time to shift. She also associated it with generational shifts in mentality, in which younger generations of students, parents and teachers have become more individualistic compared with previous generations that were more concerned with the common good. Rather than being defeated by this painful experience, however, it motivated her to raise her students’ consciousness of “what common values are” and “that they should take precedence over private interest.” She felt responsible and well-positioned to cultivate the values of a more inclusive society. Building on her self-knowledge and professional development experience, she had the self-confidence and resilience to push for change at the institutional level. “At the meetings of the Teaching Council, we regularly have topics for professional development. I try to always include one such topic in the meeting and I speak to my colleagues of different ages.”

She would like more teachers to benefit, as she did, from professional development training that would help them overcome the fear of engaging critically and constructively in educational and social change.

Vignette 4: Jadranka I met Jadranka, a young history teacher at a Croat gymnasium in Mostar. She was 9 years old when the war started. Her family escaped to Croatia and returned after the war ended when she was 13. At the University of Zagreb, she studied history and now teaches at two grammar schools: one public, one private. Jadranka was conscious of the controversial nature of history education. Although 20 years after the war, her public gymnasium was still using ‘old’ and ‘problematic’ textbooks from Croatia that did not reference Bosnia and Herzegovina as a country. She tried to compensate for them by being more creative in class: researching other sources and online videos to share with students, and collaborating with colleagues on interdisciplinary projects, like having students create “tourism guides of history”. Some good practice ideas came from her private school teaching, where newer and more student-friendly textbooks were used and where she had more flexibility to innovate. She too had participated in Civitas seminars and other contact-based activities sponsored by international organizations and NGOs. These offered valuable opportunities for professional development, intergroup networking, and community service. Nevertheless, she found it a challenge to approach sensitive topics in class, such as the 1992–1995 BiH war which is acknowledged in the 4th year curriculum. The required textbook content is minimal, in her words: “Nothing too much, nothing too provocative”. A moratorium had prevented teaching about the war for over a decade;

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but now, she said, it was “perfectly normal” and she tried to allow students to discuss it freely. “I’m trying to be a modern teacher, so my classroom is not always quiet. Not always strict or formal. I believe my class should educate the person, so I let them speak freely, to express themselves.”

She also tried to supplement the minimum content with more sources and varied perspectives. “Maybe they are controversial, but again, it is nice for them to hear both sides of the story, even the most unbelievable sometimes. Then we can discuss about it and realize that the truth is not black and white, it’s mostly grey.”

She hoped her students would learn to ‘seek for truth’ themselves, not just accept everything they hear. When opportunities allowed, she also encouraged students to research not only BiH’s war, but also other conflicts and genocides in modern history that could help shed light on the struggles BiH society faced. But despite her efforts, some of her students regarded what they learned with suspicion, considering what they heard at home as more truthful. Still relatively inexperienced and with limited pre-service practice and in-service mentoring, she struggled at times to put her values and vision into action. She admitted it was painful for her when students (all born after the war) asked her probing questions about the war that evoked memories of what she and her family lived through. “For me it’s really hard to teach about that. I don’t feel comfortable. I remember everything, so it’s hard. The students were born after the war. They don’t remember anything, they don’t know anything, so they start asking questions. ‘Oh, teacher…’ And then you have to think about it before you answer. It’s not easy…”

In such moments, her inclination was to simply shut the discussion down. To go further, she knew she needed to work through her own identity and emotions in relation to the topic, as well as gain more practical training and didactic support.

Teachers’ Identities and Peace Pedagogies The preceding vignettes provide insight into the range of personal, professional and social-political factors that contributed to the identity formation and the peace pedagogical experiments of these and other BiH teachers. At the level of personal/social development, many teachers engaged in processes of self-reflection and self-development which led towards greater self-­ awareness and self-knowledge, even if part of that included awareness of one’s own fears and limitations. For most teachers, personal struggle and self-development emerged as an important component of their peace learning and peacebuilding agency. Demonstrating an ability to step back and observe their own behaviours, emotions, biases and roles, they were able: (1) to assess what was holding them

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back from bolder peacebuilding engagement; (2) to reframe negative perspectives and limiting beliefs in terms of opportunities, a moral responsibility to act, and the value of touching individual hearts and minds; and thus (3) to motivate themselves to persist in their efforts despite the personal and structural difficulties; and (4) to find new ways to engage with not only students but also colleagues. Teachers’ identities were also changed through their experiences of educating for peace, particularly when the pedagogical strategies they adopted offered opportunities for deep reflection, worldview expansion and values transformation. A deeply “human” endeavour, they described educating for peace as a process that both necessitates and cultivates teachers’ personal qualities, including “first, love”, but also: a willingness to learn and to think differently, including awareness of one’s own worldview and the importance of consciously (re)orienting it towards enabling peace. Connected with this is a willingness to resolving one’s own struggles with the past in order not to block other’s process of search and development towards peace; bringing “soul” into the teaching process (Clarke-Habibi, 2018). Professional learning was equally important to the identity development and peace pedagogies of these teachers. Continued professional development played a vital role in enhancing teachers’ capacities, methods and courage to tackle the more complex dimensions of peace pedagogy in the classroom, such as critical and constructive engagement with controversial issues. NGOs reportedly had a huge role in empowering teachers in the post-war period when formal education structures were both unequipped and unwilling to build teachers’ professional competences to deal with critical social topics like democracy, human rights, and dealing with the past. These trainings led to improvements in practice by exposing teachers to such strategies as debate, student research, bringing supplementary resources into the classroom and presenting diverse perspectives on curriculum topics. Colleagues also played an important role, not just in terms of offering solidarity and a sense of common purpose regarding the socially transformative purposes of education, but also in practical terms like sharing lesson ideas, resources and techniques. Indeed, “most of the teachers felt that through their peace learning they acquired perspectives and skills that enhanced their educational practices. The notion that prescribed curricula could be re-framed and enriched through a peacebuilding lens was, for some, a revelation” (Clarke-Habibi, 2018, p. 13). Nevertheless, some teachers also struggled to align their professional identities with their institutional mandates. Conflicts sometimes arose between their personal values and their professional obligations, such as not having time or permission to teach what/how they wanted or feeling obliged to teach (especially historical) content they didn’t agree with. Fear of pushback from chauvinistic education authorities, families and even students, as well as not knowing how to handle being asked provocative and insensitive questions by students, presented further professional identity challenges that affected teachers’ engagement with peace pedagogies. What became clear is that the more support teachers received in terms of training, network-building and collaboration, the more confidently they overcame their

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timidity and avoidance of peace pedagogies and moved towards conscious classroom engagement and even activism. Like Senada and Bojana, other teachers and school directors I interviewed were actively working to change educational policy as well as their institutional environment and their teaching approaches to enable more space for critical pedagogies and peace values. Indeed, at the level of civic engagement, a growing number of teachers became activists for peace pedagogies in BiH, demonstrating the value of critical and socially-engaged learning through exposing their students to real-world issues and giving them opportunities and tools to tackle them reflectively and creatively  – whether through multiperspectival research, critical reading of texts (including textbooks), site visits, film-making, theatre, service learning, debate, extended essays or other means. Teachers’ personal histories often provided the motivation for their educational visions and activism, particularly among teachers who came from mixed-ethnicity families, who lived through the war, and/or who had received training and support from international NGOS and local civil society organizations. Not all, but several teachers were open with students about how their identity was a driving force for their peace pedagogical work.

The Role of Identity in Teaching Controversial Issues Many factors influenced teachers’ level of comfort or discomfort to explore particular social issues or use particular methods in the classroom. Certain teachers considered it taboo to explore contemporary challenges in BiH society and their interactions with legacies from the war with students. To open such topics was to face a threat: either of sanctions from the educational authorities and parents, or of disrupting the delicate social order that prevails in BiH on the basis of a de facto don’t ask, don’t tell policy in many schools. A few exceptional teachers faced this threat with a sense of confidence that it is precisely through encountering, researching, reflecting upon, and discussing the difficult experiences of the past that young generations can gain clarity on the necessary personal and societal values and priorities needed to go forward in a better way and become equipped as positive agents of history rather than its victims. However, the majority of teachers, while committed to the values of peace, continued to avoid these topics because their unresolved personal and professional identity challenges made them uncomfortable with using certain pedagogical methods. For such teachers, engaging in identity work could help to resolve these challenges and enable them to better align their pedagogical strategies with their values frameworks and transformative educational goals. According to Kitson and McCully (2005), teachers often adopt one of three positions in relation to addressing difficult and sensitive topics in history and social studies classrooms:

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As Maric & Jovanovic (2017: 32) explain: some teachers avoid any controversies or issues that might spark fierce discussion and emotional reactions in the classroom; some address controversies only in carefully contained and impersonal ways; and others embrace the social role of history, seizing opportunities to link past and present, to tackle difficult topics and thereby to enable students to become critical and engaged citizens. For Sayed & Novelli (2016: 18) substantive, socially just peacebuilding necessitates this kind of deeper and more critical classroom engagement: “A social justice approach requires more than contact… Strong forms of peacebuilding and social cohesion…must be founded on approaches that do not deny the past, and which do not practice a ‘politics of avoidance’ that precludes discussion of group and individual investments in systems of privilege.”

Teacher education in BiH continues to offer limited capacity-building around classroom strategies for dealing with sensitive and controversial issues. Curricula, textbooks, and even civil society projects intended to support peacebuilding in BiH, tend to avoid connecting BiH’s past and present in meaningful ways, despite the fact that ongoing tensions in present-day society such as interreligious prejudice, economic injustices, and poor environmental governance can all be mapped onto the country’s unresolved legacies of intergroup conflict. Unsurprisingly, the majority of teachers report not feeling “ready” to deal with sensitive topics. A common reflex is thus to contain rather than engage students in exploring the social, political and personal dimensions of controversial issues. Teachers even report a reluctance to confront prejudice, discrimination and misinformation that they witness within and outside the classroom. Such a culture of avoidance invariably leads to discrepancies between the formal and informal dimensions of learning (i.e. taught vs. hidden curricula) which lead young people to regard the education they are receiving as both untrustworthy and irrelevant (Clarke-Habibi, 2017). Becoming skilled in a range of methods that align well with peace pedagogies proved to be key to enabling teachers to pursue peace learning in the classroom. Methods with transversal value include multiperspectival research, debate, dialogue, policy analysis and advocacy, historical research, memory pedagogies, and visual/arts and media-based methods. Admittedly, not all teachers have equal access to professional development training in these methods. Also, not all teachers are equally comfortable using these methods because of the additional effort and

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fluidity that they introduce into the teaching process. But they can be used with highly creative and impactful results. For example, a Sociology teacher in Sarajevo understood that the ‘ex-cathedra’ approach to lecturing students is inadequate to the task of transforming BiH society. He thus assigned his students a film-making project in which they were required to interview people on an issue of social concern and build a well-considered argument about it. In another example, the Croat history teacher recognized that her personal discomfort with remembering the war limited her professional engagement with this unit in her textbook. She found that by adopting distal, indirect and multiperspectival teaching strategies she was enabled to pursue some of the educational and peacebuilding goals she had set and to fulfil her personal and professional values while managing her own emotions.

Teachers’ Roles in Reproducing Conflict Regimes Despite the many positive examples identified in this research, it is important to acknowledge that teachers play a range of roles in the classroom and community, only some of which serve the goals of peacebuilding. By commission and omission, teachers can contradict the ethical and educational values that they cherish. One underlying reason is that many teachers lack critical self-awareness and self-positioning within BiH’s politicized educational system. Teachers who are trained and employed within the country are always, to some extent, a product of the received views and ideologies of the social-political environment and institutions in which their personal and professional orientations have been formed. It can be very challenging for teachers to recognize how they may be contributing to the social-­ political divisions that they themselves critique. Indeed, teachers are rarely conscious of their role in reproducing the prevailing conflict regime, even when claiming to resist it. In BiH, this is especially true in the area of ‘national subjects’ where the sources and contents of literature, religion and history classes are defined within a particular ethnicity’s nation-building logic and narrative. Teachers may enthusiastically support reading lists and assignments without questioning how they nourish chauvinistic and discriminatory attitudes among young people. The problem is not unique to BiH: it is a universal challenge in education systems around the world which have not yet adopted a transparent, critical, reconciliation-­oriented and accountable approach towards their own sensitive and contested histories. The highest levels of policy are implicated, but so too are teachers. Until teachers ask themselves, “How am I participating in the reproduction of narratives that ignore, deny, minimize, justify, or dismiss violations committed in my country and possibly by my community/ancestors/government against the dignity, security, recognition and/or rights of others?”, they cannot model for students what critical historical awareness, self-awareness, self-positioning, ethical concern, moral courage, or peacebuilding really mean. Mockler (2011: 518) invites teachers to regularly reexamine the “big idea” of “what education is or can be and the practical expression of this through teachers’

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day to day work”, as a means for “articulating and maintaining congruence” between the teacher’s personal and professional values, moral purpose, and practice. However, Biesta et al. (2015) warn that mismatches between “teachers’ individuals beliefs and values” and the “wider institutional discourses and cultures” in which they operate can impede the development of teacher agency. “A clear and robust professional vision of the purposes of education” is therefore needed in order to create the sense of common mission and shared ownership needed to align institutional development and teachers’ values, skills and opportunities for agency. In the BiH context, this points to the vital role of school directors and pedagogues (not to mention the role of policymakers and teacher educators) in orienting the school mission and culture towards peacebuilding values  and practices. Unless developed within schools from the bottom up and with strong support from school management, the  individual stories of teachers highlighted in this chapter could remain isolated instances, and such  brave and daring teachers burnt out and depleted of hope.

 trategies for Developing Teacher Identity: The Role S of Teacher Educators As Beauchamp & Thomas (2009: 176) argue, “identity development in pre-service teachers cannot be taken for granted”. Institutions responsible for teacher education and training would do well to integrate identity work into their programs, for example by combining: 1. Structured Exposure: daring teachers to step out of their comfort zone 2. Self-Reflection: daring teachers to encounter and challenge their true self 3. Dialogue: daring teachers to question assumptions through active listening to, learning from and sharing with others Regarding exposure, “Moore et  al. (2004) emphasize the importance of placing [future teachers] in teaching contexts that provoke tensions to challenge their identities, and thus allow for questioning of themselves and their beliefs” (Beauchamp & Thomas, 2009: 185). In general terms, this strategy can involve spending a period of time working with populations one would otherwise not be exposed to, such as students from diverse, minority and/or marginalized communities. It can also involve visiting sites of memory with others and discussing contended histories as a means to reflect on their own perspectives, assumptions and biases, values and emotions, and to exercise the capacity for dialogue prior to taking up their professional role and responsibility in raising human beings and future citizens. Teachers, like students, may have unconscious biases founded in their own identities and life experiences. What teachers can learn to develop in themselves and in their students is an awareness of the danger of biases and the ability to question whether a particular perspective, statement or conclusion discounts the possibility of other perspectives.

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Teachers can demonstrate intellectual humility, openness and a curiosity to learn new things that will encourage students to do likewise. Regarding reflection, Jay (2003) argues it is “the very core of effective teaching”, not least in terms of a teacher’s sense of identity and mission. “Reflection is a key means by which teachers can become more in tune with their sense of self and with a deep understanding of how this self fits into a larger context which involves others” (Beauchamp & Thomas, 2009: 182; see also Larrivée, 2000). Yet, “rarely are teachers offered even a very basic set of conceptual tools to use as a scaffold for effective reflective practice” (Mockler, 2011: 524). By building in opportunities for reflective essays, journaling, and sharing, teacher education programs can help teachers reflect on their experiences, beliefs, values, identities, challenges and aims – particularly when the teacher educator ensures that there is no expectation to provide a “right answer” and clarifies that what is valued is the reflection itself, not the particular views that are expressed. “In terms of identity, reflection in the ethical domain may draw on a teacher’s values about what is good”: for themselves, for their students, for society (Luttenberg & Bergen, 2008 in Beauchamp & Thomas, 2009). Scaffolding interactions and exercises which have “the power to confront teachers’ ideas about themselves and their profession… [can] provoke transformation in their thinking…in formative ways” (Beauchamp & Thomas, 2009: 182). Through combining exposure to “as wide a range as possible of situations in which teachers can interact and develop and become aware of their possible identities (Coldron & Smith, 1999)”, with thoughtfully constructed opportunities for self-confrontation (Moore et al., 2004), reflection and dialogue, teacher educators can stimulate identity work that stimulates personal, professional and civic learning. As teachers become more aware and proactive in the development of their own identities, they are better able to help their students to do so as well. Some additional strategies for identity exploration and development that teachers can use include: • Identity mapping – starting with free association of one’s qualities, attributes and social roles and then discussing of the personal, social and political influences that have shaped those aspects of the self; • Show and tell – sharing a personal photo or artefact and discussing it with the class or preparing a short essay about it; • Testimony – inviting guests into the classroom to speak about their life experience and having students reflect on it in writing or through discussion. A variation on this approach is known as ‘living libraries’. Inviting witnesses of sensitive periods of history to share memories of their experience requires careful preparation and debriefing, but as work with Holocaust survivors demonstrates, the educational benefits can be significant  – bringing history alive, increasing empathy for others’ experiences, offering students a rare opportunity to ask questions about topics which may otherwise be avoided. The opportunity to see a period of history through the eyes of another person can also enable the teacher and students to reflect on their own experiences, identity and choices.

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What, if any, teachers share from their own life experience, when they should share it and how can only be decided by the teacher. A lot will depend upon the relationship the teacher has created with students and whether such sharing is appropriate to the topic at hand. Under the right conditions, students may appreciate understanding something of the personhood of their teacher, or at least hearing about some dimension of the past or some aspect of the world that remains otherwise mysterious to younger generations. In this regard, teachers’ identities may be leveraged as a pedagogical resource for peacebuilding in BiH’s post-war classrooms through such simple acts as sharing and comparing life experiences with students. Simply ‘lecturing’ students, particularly on sensitive and ethical issues, may be less effective than inviting dialogue, asking open questions and demonstrating active listening.

Conclusions The aim of the chapter was to provoke a critical reflection on the nature of teachers’ personal and professional identities and their inseparability from their classroom peacebuilding practice. Through the experience of teachers in Bosnia and Herzegovina, we have seen that identity can present both a barrier and a bridge to peace pedagogy. Teacher education and training for peacebuilding and peace education should integrate reflection on this dimension and its influence on teachers’ willingness and competence to engage in particular forms of peace pedagogy.

Take-Away Messages • Teachers’ personal and professional identities are inseparable from each other and they mediate their peacebuilding approaches and practices in the classroom. • The messages that teachers send about identity have a pedagogical significance. How explicit or avoidant teachers are in their discussion of these topics, shapes what students come to understand to be acceptable or unacceptable in identity discourses and formation. • Teacher education and training should integrate reflection on the personal, professional and political dimensions of identity and their influence on teachers’ readiness to engage in peace pedagogies. • Teacher “identity work” can lead to increased self-knowledge and capacity for reflection, improvements in teaching practice, and greater civic engagement within and beyond the profession. • Teachers’ own identity reflections can be an asset in the classroom, offering a model for young people to develop their self-definitions and agency in the world.

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Part III

Peacebuilding Through Curriculum and Pedagogy

Chapter 8

Peace in History Education of Bosnia and Herzegovina Melisa Forić Plasto and Bojana Dujković Blagojević

Abstract  In multicultural societies such as Bosnia and Herzegovina, it is necessary to learn how to live together in peace with respect, tolerance and mutual understanding for all cultural differences and practices. History education is a good medium to teach students about such examples from the past. Use of multi-perspective approaches also helps to distinguish topics and develop skills of respect, understanding and tolerance. History, as a school subject, is a part of the core national curriculum and as such has particular importance for all three ethnic groups in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Teaching history in Bosnia and Herzegovina, especially after the war of 1992–1995, became a very complex issue. There are three national curricula for history education existing in parallel, with different and sometimes opposite and exclusive narratives about the shared past. This article discusses the following key questions: To what extent does the BiH school system promote the values of peace through the history curriculum at all stages of education – primary, secondary and university level? Does it exist at all in the curriculum? Given that the content of history as a school subject tends to be dominated by political and military history, stories about the wars and war strategies, the chapter also raises the question of how these topics can be used in a way to promote peace, and why this is important for post-conflict societies. The chapter is based on the analysis of curricula, textbooks and examples from teaching practices, and offers some guidelines as recommendations. In a country that is desperately in need of peace, we aim to strengthen peacebuilding through education. Keywords  Peace · History education · Curricula · History textbooks · Formal education

M. F. Plasto (*) Faculty of Philosophy, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina e-mail: [email protected] B. D. Blagojević European Wergeland Centre (EWC), Oslo, Norway e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 L. Kasumagić-Kafedžić, S. Clarke-Habibi (eds.), Peace Pedagogies in Bosnia and Herzegovina, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26246-3_8

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Introduction The beginning of the twenty-first century was marked by reform processes in the field of education in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) based on a series of global strategic documents from UNESCO and the Council of Europe. Peace, as a universal value, has a prominent place in all these documents in accordance with the right to peace as one of the basic human rights. However, history teaching, in its content, teaches about wars to a significant extent. The past is often explained in a simplified form as a shift in the periods of war and peace. The extent to which these contents are used to emphasize the value of peace and build a positive attitude about the importance of maintaining peace, fostering non-violence and resolving potential conflicts through non-violence, is a key issue we want to address in this chapter. History education has an important role to play in connecting the past and the future. Peace has a significant place in this role to promote understanding of lessons from the past, with a view to preventing future wars and advancing peace and reconciliation (Bentrovato & Schultze, 2016:15) This is especially important for a country where wars marked the entire twentieth century. Three great wars–the First World War (1914–1918), the Second World War (1941–1945) and the War of the 1990s (1992–1995) – shaped the culture of remembrance in this region, but also the attitude of society towards peace. The reform processes in modern Bosnia and Herzegovina that started from 1998 were harmonized with those at the European and world level, although with unequal dynamics resulting from the country’s unique post-conflict structural organization and conditions. Through all implemented education reform efforts, a discursive emphasis was placed on the necessary contribution of education to peace and reconciliation in Bosnia and Herzegovina. For these reasons, this paper aims to see the extent to which the value of peace appears as part of history education and whether it is promoted as a necessary factor for survival in this region. Education policy documents in Bosnia and Herzegovina were used for the analysis, as well as curricula and textbooks for history in primary and secondary education, and curricula for studying history at higher education institutions.

 emarks on the Educational System of Bosnia R and Herzegovina and History Teaching The education system in Bosnia and Herzegovina as we know it today is the result of the political situation determined and regulated by the 1995 Dayton Agreement. The system reflects the administrative organization of the state and its division into two entities – the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (comprising 10 cantons) and Republika Srpska, plus the independent Brčko District. At each of these levels, there is a competent Ministry of Education that prescribes and implements laws in the field of education, i.e. that defines curricula and approves textbooks for all

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subjects of primary and secondary education. The fact that there are altogether thirteen education authorities/ministries within Bosnia and Herzegovina (Framework Law, 2003)1 is complex in itself, but there is a further internal division into three national systems based on ethnic identity and on the right to organize and teach in the language of the constituent peoples. This results in the existence of curricula in Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian language (Framework Law, 2003), which respectively focus on the language, history and religion of the associated ethnic group.2 In the Republika Srpska, there is one curriculum issued by the relevant ministry. In the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, each canton has its own curriculum, and in some cantons where we have cases of teaching in both Croatian and Bosnian, two curricula are in use. The most absurd result of such a system in the mentioned municipalities is the existence of the phenomenon of “two schools under one roof”, with different entrances and classes that begin at different hours of the day in areas inhabited by Bosniaks and Croats (Torsti, 2003, OSCE report). The paradox of this decentralization of the education system comes to the fore through textbook policy, because, as mentioned earlier, the cantons and counties are the ones who create and adopt curricula, while the process of publishing, evaluating and approving textbooks used in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina is under the authority of the Federal Ministry of Education and Science. Rated and published textbooks are additionally approved by the cantonal Ministries. Thus, there are cases where textbooks written according to a framework curriculum do not fully correspond to the current curriculum in the cantons, so, teachers must resort to combining several textbooks. Textbooks according to the Croatian curriculum are evaluated and approved by the Pedagogical Institute, i.e. the competent authority in counties with a Croatian majority. The fact that at the state level there is no Ministry of Education, but its competencies are within the responsibility of the Ministry of Civil Affairs, speaks volumes in  Framework Law on Primary and Secondary Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Okvirni zakon o osnovnom i srednjem obrazovanju u Bosni i Hercegovini (2003), Službeni glasnik BiH br. 18/03), Article 1 lists the Authorities responsible for organizing the education system in the Brčko District of BiH, Republika Srpska, the Federation of BiH and counties, in accordance with the Constitution (hereinafter: competent education authorities), institutions which are registered under the applicable laws in Bosnia and Herzegovina for the provision of services in the field of preschool, primary and secondary education and adult education (hereinafter: schools), and other professional institutions in the field of education, are obliged to apply and respect principles and norms established by this law and provide education under equal conditions for all students. All the above levels have full competencies, except for the Federal Ministry of Education and Science, which is responsible for coordinating the planning of activities of cantonal ministries in terms of administrative, professional and other tasks determined by the law on the Federation’s competencies in education and science. 2  Framework Law on Primary and Secondary Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Art. 7. This division has its deep roots during the 1992–1995 war, and the mentioned systems have continued to live legally and in peace until today, in the territories where the mentioned national groups are in the majority. Their common characteristic is a distinct monoperspectivity and mutual exclusivity. Education is seen as a means by which three different national histories, languages and cultures will be created, and not as a means by which a common state identity will be developed. 1

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favour of full decentralization of the education system. Since 2008, the Agency for Preschool, Primary and Secondary Education (APOSO) with its headquarters in Mostar and two regional offices in Sarajevo and Banja Luka, has been instituted at the level of state institutions of Bosnia and Herzegovina, with the aim of establishing “common standards of knowledge and evaluation of achieved results; curricula in preschool, primary and secondary education and for other professional activities in the field of knowledge standards and quality assessment determined by special laws and other regulations”.3 Despite the decentralization that originates from the period of war, there were some results accomplished during reform processes at the state level in regard to educational laws and policies (Martić & Tutnjević 2018; Dimou, 2015; Pingel, 2009; Karge & Batarilo, 2009). There are several framework laws adopted by the Parliamentary Assembly of Bosnia and Herzegovina regarding pre-school,4 elementary and secondary5 and higher education.6 Noticeably, higher education was not part of the wider reforms where organizations such as the Council of Europe, UNESCO or OSCE mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina participated. Education authorities of all above mentioned levels are also in charge of higher education in regard to ensuring the legal background for higher education institutions, in terms of development and implementation of the laws. However, universities and higher education institutions are still quite independent in creating their own programs. There is also the Agency for Development of Higher Education and Quality Assurance at state level.7 With regard to the country’s EU integration processes, further strategic documents were also adopted by the Parliamentary Assembly of Bosnia and Herzegovina.8

 For more details see web page of the Agency: www.aposo.gov.ba  Okvirni zakon o predškolskom odgoju i obrazovanju u Bosni i Hercegovini. Službeni glasnik BiH br. 88/07. 5  Okvirni zakon o osnovnom i srednjem obrazovanju u Bosni i Hercegovini, Službeni glasnik BiH br. 18/03; Okvirni zakon o srednjem stručnom obrazovanju u Bosni i Hercegovini, Službeni glasnik BiH br. 63/08. 6  Okvirni zakon o visokom obrazovanju u Bosni i Hercegovini, Službeni glasnik BiH br. 59/07. 7  For more details see web page of the Agency http://hea.gov.ba/ 8  Okvir za visokoškolske kvalifikacije u Bosni i Hercegovini; Provođenje Okvira za kvalifikacije za visoko obrazovanje u Bosni i Hercegovini; Standardi i smjernice za osiguranje kvaliteta u visokom obrazovanju u Bosni i Hercegovini; Preporuke za implementaciju osiguranja kvaliteta u visokom obrazovanju u Bosni i Hercegovini; Državni akcioni plan za priznavanje kvalifikacija u Bosni i Hercegovini; Model Dodatka diplomi za Bosnu i Hercegovinu; Priručnik za korisnike modela Dodatka diplomi za Bosnu i Hercegovinu. (“Službeni glasnik BiH”, broj 13/08; Strateška platforma razvoja obrazovanja odraslih u kontekstu cjeloživotnog učenja u Bosni i Hercegovini, za period 2014–2020; Osnove kvalifikacijskog okvira u Bosni i Hercegovini; Strateški pravci razvoja obrazovanja u Bosni i Hercegovini sa planom implementacije 2008.-2015; Strategija učenja o poduzetništvu u obrazovnim sistemima u Bosni i Hercegovini u periodu 2012.  – 2015. godina (sa akcionim planom implementacije); Prioriteti za razvoj visokog obrazovanja u Bosni i Hercegovini, za period 2016–2026. All documents available at: http://www.mcp.gov.ba/Content/Read/obrazovanje-dokumenti 3 4

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History as a school subject has a significant place in the primary and secondary education system. In addition to mother tongue, geography and religious education, history is marked as a so-called national subject, and thus its role in shaping and preserving national and cultural identity is further underlined in the goals defined in the curriculum. History is included as part of the Common Core Curriculum and as such is of particular importance for all three ethnic groups in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Also different names are used for this subject in three language variants – Bosnian (historija), Serb (istorija) and Croatian (povijest). History curricula and textbooks for primary and secondary education in Bosnia and Herzegovina have gone through a thorny path since 1992. Even during the period of war 1992–1995  in parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina where Croats and Serbs were the majority people, authorities responsible for education simply appropriated curricula from Serbia and Croatia and used them respectively (Karge & Batarilo, 2008a, b; Radušić, 2009, 2015). Textbooks were, as well, imported from Serbia9 and Croatia.10 This practice lasted until 2000 when it was decided that textbooks for the so-called national group of subjects will no longer be imported from Croatia and Serbia, but rather be published within BiH using BiH as the country of reference. Hence, textbooks somewhat adjusted for the BiH market started to be published in Banja Luka, East Sarajevo, Grude and/or Mostar (Katz, 2015; Forić Plasto, 2019). From the 1994/1995 school year until 1998, textbooks issued by the Ministry of Education, Science, Culture and Sports of the former Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina were actively used in localities with a Bosniak majority, until the international community in Bosnia and Herzegovina, through the Office of the High Representative, the OSCE Mission and the Council of Europe, began intensive work on reforming the teaching of national subjects, especially history.11

 The first textbooks imported into the Republika Srpska, and reworked specifically for BiH, appeared on the market in 1997. The supplement for the history textbook (twentieth century history textbook for the 8th grade, by Ranko Pejić) was a supplement to the textbook imported from Belgrade. This Appendix was used in schools in the Republika Srpska for the next two school years, including the 1999/2000. Most history textbooks in use in the Republika Srpska, since 2000, have been published in BiH (in the Republika Srpska), although their content did not automatically reflect the history of Bosnia and Herzegovina. A large number of these same textbooks, imported from Belgrade, were printed as a publication by a publishing house in East Sarajevo. Some history textbooks were also written and published in the Republika Srpska, and the content usually did not differ much from textbooks written in Belgrade (Karge & Batarilo, 2008b: 15). 10  Until 2000, the Mostar-based Croatian authorities approved Zagreb editions of textbooks, without any adjustment to the conditions in BiH.  The adaptation of textbooks to the conditions of Bosnia and Herzegovina began in 2001, when the name of the Herzegovinian co-author was added to the name of the author from Zagreb, and the textbooks were published in Mostar. Additional content, related to the history of Bosnia and Herzegovina, was insignificant. The last textbook, which was slightly modified in terms of the circumstances in Bosnia and Herzegovina, was a 2003 textbook for the 8th grade of primary school. In 2006, the first history textbooks written by Croatian authors (from Herzegovina) appeared on the textbook market in BiH. Adapted versions of Zagreb editions of textbooks published in Mostar were also in use (Karge & Batarilo, 2008b: 16). 11  Here we can mention the work of the Commision for textbook revision on removing the offensive content in the textbooks (see: Pingel, 2009; Torsti, 2003; Karge & Batarilo, 2008a, b, 2009). 9

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Significant moments in the process of harmonization of education systems especially for history teaching were the adoption of the Framework Law on Primary and Secondary Education (2003), the Common Core Curriculum (2003 and 2015)12 and the Guidelines for the Development and Evaluation of History and Geography Textbooks in Bosnia and Herzegovina (2007).13 Since these documents should be the basis for educational laws and policies regarding history education, we analyze relevant parts of their contents in order to see whether “peace” as a universal value within education is accorded importance.

 uropean and BiH Policy Frameworks for Peacebuilding E Through History Education History and history teaching have been a focus for the Council of Europe’s work on education since its inception. The organization recognized the importance of history as a basis for the education of citizens and the role it can play in bridging differences and bringing people together by establishing mutual understanding and confidence between the peoples of Europe. As stated in the document Recommendations on History Teaching in the twenty-first century (2001): “History teaching in democratic Europe should: occupy a vital place in the training of responsible and active It is also important to point out on the Recommendation 1454 (2000) on Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina (April 2000), by which Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe advocated the temporary suspension of teaching of the 1992–1995 period in BiH, until historians in BiH – with the support of international experts – establish a common approach to the study of this period in schools (Karge & Batarilo, 2008b: 11; Pingel, 2009: 270–273). 12  Common core curricula in Bosnia and Herzegovina; A common core curriculum is binding on both entities, all cantons and the Brcko District of BiH, and was formulated at a meeting of all education ministers, chaired by representatives of the international community, in August 2003. The Conference of Ministers of Education in BiH met three times, in the period from April to June 2003, compared all curricula and singled out what they had in common. The common core of history curricula is almost exclusively limited to international events and leaves the history of the people of BiH entirely to the curricula of the cantons and entities (Pingel, 2009; Karge & Batarilo, 2008b). A significant improvement was made with the new edition of Common Core Curricula for history in 2015 where the traditional content based approach was changed to a curriculum based on learning outcomes. In the years that followed, all ministry levels in Bosnia and Herzegovina implemented the learning outcomes defined by Common Core Curriculum with more or less success (Black et al., 2020). 13  Smjernice za pisanje i ocjenu udžbenika povijesti za osnovne i srednje škole u Bosni i Hercegovini (SG BiH 05/07). Document was signed in 2006 by all Ministers of Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina. This document defines the standards for writing, drafting and evaluating textbooks in Bosnia and Herzegovina in accordance with the Framework Law on Primary and Secondary Education in BiH, the recommendations of the Memorandum of Understanding, the Council of Europe recommendations on teaching twenty-first century history, and UNESCO recommendations. The document has become a mandatory document for all textbook authors since 2007, but unfortunately, the implementation of its provisions mostly referred to those technical standards in the preparation of textbooks.

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citizens and in the developing of respect for all kinds of differences, based on an understanding of national identity and on principles of tolerance; be a decisive factor in reconciliation, recognition, understanding and mutual trust between peoples; play a vital role in promotion of fundamental values, such as tolerance, mutual understanding, human rights and democracy; (…) be an instrument for the prevention of crimes against humanity” (Council of Europe, Rec 2001). Most of the legal and strategic documents for history education in Bosnia and Herzegovina, respectively the Common Core Curricula (2003, 2016) and Guidelines for History Textbook Writing (2007) are based on this and other strategic documents of the Council of Europe and UNESCO, such as: History teaching in conflict and post-­ conflict areas (Rec 1880–2009), Intercultural dialogue and the image of the other in history teaching (Rec 6-2011), For the promotion of a culture of democracy and human rights through teacher education (Rec 1849–2008). Even though the commission that created the Common Core Curriculum for History based on learning outcomes (CCC) consulted above mentioned documents, in the CCC we cannot find direct mention of peace. The formulation which can be related to the above mentioned goals of history teaching is: “The student’s acquired knowledge, abilities and values help them to understand and accept cultural, religious, national, racial, social, sexual, gender and other differences, and to actively and responsibly participate in social life (...) The development of meta-concepts represents a great contribution to education by developing tolerance for diversity, multiperspectivity, openness, critical thinking and understanding of the context” (Common Core Curriculum 2016, by APOSO). However, within the learning outcomes and indicators, we can recognize the methodological concepts proposed by the 2001 and 2009 Council of Europe Recommendations focused mainly on development of critical thinking, using different sources and applying a multiperspective approach in history teaching. Article 2.2. of the 2007 Guidelines for History Textbook Writing states that “textbooks should be scientifically based, objective and focused to create mutual understanding, reconciliation and peace in BiH”. Also we can find a lot of recommendations for using a multiperspective approach, as a key to developing tolerance among students. Development of critical and independent thinking, interactive learning and comparative approaches to historical sources should, according to the document, be promoted through textbooks. What we find important is the article that mentions “language used in the textbooks should be free of the terms or definitions that lead to the hate and creation of the image of an enemy, especially speaking about the neighboring countries” (Art.2.10). These recommendations have served as our criteria in this analysis of history teaching curricula at all levels of education in Bosnia and Herzegovina. We wanted to see to what extent they are included in curricula as a part of the defining purpose, aims and outcomes of history teaching, didactical approaches, or selection of topics that would promote the value of peace. The analysis was based on the history curricula currently in use in primary and secondary schools, bearing in mind that the reform agendas are best read in them. An analysis of current history curricula at universities in Bosnia and Herzegovina was also performed, with special reference to the initial

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education of future teachers. In the analysis of curricula, the emphasis was on the terms peace, tolerance, intercultural dialogue, reconciliation, but also on didactic strategies that promote a multiperspective approach and critical thinking and the development of competencies for a democratic society. Particular attention in this case is paid to the educational goals and learning outcomes. The second part of the analysis referred to textbooks used in primary and secondary schools with the aim of analyzing how wars are handled and the extent to which the value of peace is underlined. We have tried to find some examples that best illustrate the attitude towards peace which the textbook seeks to convey. The last part analyzes alternative approaches to this topic initiated by professional teachers’ associations, and offers concrete examples from teaching practice that teachers shared with each other as a kind of recommendation on how peace content should be integrated into history teaching.

History in Primary Education Policy and Textbooks Since primary education is mandatory in Bosnia and Herzegovina, it was part of all reform processes, especially in terms of the processes of harmonization of curricula, textbook revision and analyses especially related to history as a national subject. There are 13 history curricula14 in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and it is not easy to have access to these documents, since some of them are not published on web sites of the ministries or pedagogical institutes. The main characteristic is that they are diverse, not just in content and structure, but also in their approach to national history. Modernization and implementation of the learning outcomes for history education were not performed to the same degree at all administrative levels of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The implementation of the new CCC and the adaptation of those curricula requires structured guidance aligned with other important documents relating to history teaching such as key competences and life skills (Identifikacija ključnih kompetencija i životnih vještina u BiH, 2011; Zajednička jezgra nastavnih planova i programa za društveno-humanističko područje definirano na ishodima učenja, 2015; Black et al., 2020), which have been adopted over the years in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Analyzing the curricula we were able to access,15 our general

 Even though curriculum represents the comprehensive document based on the learning outcomes and competences, the term curriculum is often used as a translation of documents called the “plan and program” of the school subject, which is developed for each class and content area. In Bosnia and Herzegovina there is still no example of real curriculum. 15  Analyzed curricula are Curriculum of: Republic of Srpska (issued in 2014, 9th grade in 2018), Curriculum in Croatian Language – used in Herzegovina Neretva Canton, Central Bosnia Canton, Livno Canton, West Herzegovina Canton and Posavina canton (issued in 2009), Curriculum for Sarajevo canton (issued in 2018), Curriculum for Una-Sana canton (issued in 2009, 9th grade in 2018), Curriculum for Zenica canton (issued in 2018), Curriculum for Tuzla canton (issued in 2012, 9th grade in 2018), Curriculum for Herzegovina Neretva canton –Bosnian language (issued in 2016), Curriculum for Central Bosnia canton – Bosnian language (issued in 2014); Curriculum for Brčko district (issue date not specified); Curriculum for Goražde canton (issued in 2012). 14

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conclusions are that they are still content-based rather than outcomes-based. Learning outcomes are incorporated into already existing programs rather than having the subject matter content revised to meet desired outcomes. Only some of them emphasize the importance of developing skills and adopting values alongside knowledge, together with didactical instructions for values-oriented learning activities (see for example, Zenica curriculum and, to some extent, Croatian curriculum and Tuzla curriculum). In the introduction of each grade in the Republika Srpska curriculum, within the general and specific aims there is only one example that could serve the promotion of peace: “Fostering respect for other cultures, religions and communities.” This formulation is presented in the introduction part for each grade (NPP RS, 2014, 2018). However, more specific values related to peace, and the contribution to peace of history teaching, are not mentioned at all. In the Croatian curriculum some of the goals of history as a school subject are that students “become aware of universal values as a pillar of modern society” and “preparation for living in pluralistic and democratic societies” (NPP Croatian language, 2009: 387–400). In this curriculum, the promotion of peace, non-violence and human values is presented more within the subject of Education for human rights and democratic citizenship (NPP Croatian language, 2009: 24). In the history curriculum used in Tuzla canton there are good examples that implicate a focus on universal values of peace, tolerance and cultural diversity presented in the section on values, attitudes and behaviors where it mentions as a goal: “Developing positive attitudes towards other cultures; Development of skills of empathy, tolerance, etc.” (NPP Tuzla, 2012). The best examples can be found in the history curriculum of Zenica canton. In the introduction (“Why we teach history”) these statements are presented: “History is a subject which explains terminology from social theory – e.g. the state, democracy; history is a subject which should educate for democracy, peace and tolerance; history is a subject which should provide elementary political literature and culture; history teaching prepares students for responsible participation in democratic society; history teaching develops tolerance and democratic mindedness; history teaching contributes towards respect of individual, civic, religious and other rights” (NPP Zenica, 2018). It is also emphasized that “by studying history, students develop a spirit of tolerance and a democratic right to diversity of opinion, as well as the desire to arrive at an objective view of the past based on available facts” (NPP Zenica, 2018). Common across all analyzed curricula is that thematic units related to war and peace are presented neutrally, in the sense of presenting the past without any critical judgement. Themes are simply listed without learning outcomes related to the content of war or emphasis on the impact or consequences of war. Nevertheless, pedagogical strategies such as the use and analysis of historical sources, multiperspectivity in approaching topics, interactive and project-based teaching, debates and active discussions are mentioned in all documents within the guidelines for teaching. Although most textbooks were published before the adoption of the CCC, in the period from 2009 to 2012 in Bosnian language, in 2014 in Serbian language, and between 2012 and 2014  in Croatian language, the contents are in line with the

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current curriculum. The new textbook for the ninth grade in Republika Srpska was published in 2018 in accordance with the new curriculum. All mentioned textbooks were subject to analysis in the project “Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina: What do we (not) teach children? Content Analysis of Textbooks of the National Group of Subjects in Primary Schools” conducted by the Open Society Fund BiH and proMENTE Social Research, and funded by the Open Society Education Support Program.16 The aim of the project analysis was to examine to what extent the textbooks of the national group of subjects are in accordance with the contemporary pedagogic principles of interculturalism, universal values and human rights, integrated learning and teaching, and development of critical thinking (Soldo et  al., 2017). In history textbooks that were part of the analysis, peace was one of the universal values subject to examination and, together with solidarity and love, was seldom recognized (Soldo et al., 2017). Arguably, there are numerous opportunities for the affirmation of universal values that these key educational documents have missed. In lessons which deal with the topics of conquest and conquest policies, the opportunity to explain and point out why achieving and maintaining peace is important was often not used (Šabotić & Čehajić, 2012, in Soldo et  al., 2017). The negative consequences of wars are rather stated through references to destruction, the number of casualties, the destruction of property and cultural heritage. However, no opinion on war as a way of solving conflict is presented. For example: “The two alliances were enemies in many ways, and the conflicting interests could not be solved politically. It was obvious that a war was bound to break out. However, the issue of the cause of war remained” (Bekavac et al., 2012, according to Soldo et al., 2017). Furthermore, the consequences of war and casualties are often presented through de-personalized statistical data, so that students are not given the opportunity to develop empathy for the stress and suffering which war brought upon individuals, families and communities similar to their own. For example, the textbooks offer no historical sources that bring personal stories or experiences of war, illustrations of everyday life in war time, oral history or testimonies. Similarly, wars, their consequences and peace agreements are most often presented from the perspective of political and state interests, rather than from the perspective of individuals who were engaged in or affected by those processes. War, resistance and armed struggle for autonomy or independence are not presented as undesirable phenomena; rather war is presented as legitimate if it is in defence of

 This was the second project of the textbook analysis made 10 years after the first conducted by the Open Society Fund BH and proMENTE Social Research in 2007 aimed at establishing and defining the basic principles and values the education system promoted on the example of the national group of subjects. The results showed that education, through its content and structure, encourages segregation and division within the BH society. Instead of securing knowledge and skills necessary for a life in a plural society, the textbooks contribute to the creation of antagonism and serve as an instrument for the separation of students on an ethnic basis. The results also showed that textbooks did not support an individualised approach in teaching, critical thinking or research (Trbić, 2007). 16

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one’s territory and people, and if it leads to freedom. This is especially the case in examples of content concerning the 1992–1995 war. Textbooks for the final grades of elementary school largely present monoperspectival approaches to topics concerning national history.17 In addition, themes relating to the past war are heavily politicized. What characterizes the analyzed content is a selective presentation of facts, emphasizing one’s own people, usually as the victim, and minimizing or completely ignoring the victims of other peoples. The mention of guilty individuals from one’s own people is avoided. That a human/personalized perspective is almost completely invisible in the textbooks is a matter of significant concern. War as a phenomenon that completely dehumanizes society is not portrayed. Nor are the values of peace, freedom and cooperation found in the content (Forić Plasto, 2019, 2020). Presented in this way, history textbook contents imply that war is an inevitable phenomenon, a means of expanding state territories and achieving political goals, and that war is an integral part of life. Peace as a value is completely neglected in the content as well as in the learning activities presented in the textbooks.

History in Secondary Education Curricula and Textbooks For the purposes of this study, only history curricula for gymnasiums were analyzed. Vocational school curricula are largely inaccessible via Internet search and history is in any case taught for only one or two years. The main characteristic of all analyzed curricula is that they significantly lag behind primary school programs, both in terms of date of issue and use, as well as in terms of concept and content. Most history curricula at the gymnasium level were issued before 2015, when the CCC document was newly presented. As such, the revised learning outcomes have not been integrated into these curricula. Even those issued after 2015, such as the curriculum in Sarajevo Canton (2018), provide only generalized learning outcomes for defined areas. In fact, the CCC has not yet defined outcome indicators for each grade of high school. The best example of compliance with CCC outcomes is the Herzegovina-Neretva Canton curriculum where Bloom’s taxonomy is applied in detail to all key areas of learning. Unfortunately, in terms of topics and their distribution, it is equal to those presented in the curriculum for primary school. There is also variation between cantons in terms of curricular inclusion of history. In some

 In this regard we emphasize that term national history is differently interpreted for different parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina and it is related to the national constituent groups: Croats, Serbs and Bosniaks. in parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina with a Croatian majority, as well as in Republika Srpska, national history was interpreted as the history of the Croatian or Serb people, adjusted to the contents from the neighboring countries Serbia and Croatia, whereas Bosnia and Herzegovina was barely mentioned. In Bosnian textbooks, national history is presented as the history of the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, although with some emphasis on history of Bosniak people (Forić Plasto, 2020a; Radušić, 2009). 17

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cantons, history is an obligatory subject across all four years of schooling, while in others (e.g. Sarajevo and Zenica), it is only obligatory in the first two years, after which elective classes in history are offered. In the search for peace and related universal values, significantly fewer examples are found in history curricula at the secondary school level. Rare and valuable instances are found most often in the introductory preamble to the curriculum where the goals of the history subject are defined. For the RS curriculum, we find again “fostering of democratic behavior and national tolerance” in the introduction for every grade. Several positive objectives are given in the Croatian-language history curriculum: “To be aware of others, relations between people and the world; To develop skills and abilities for taking on roles and responsibilities in the personal, family and public spheres, especially advocacy for democratic development of society; To develop critical understanding of one’s own impact in society; To develop self-confidence, abilities and identity toward the individual and common good; To develop communication and social skills for intercultural competences for better understanding and acceptance of others no matter their gender, cultural, social, racial, religious, national and ethnic background” (NPP Croatian, 2013). These examples represent a great foundation for building conditions for peace, but authors do not use the opportunity to emphasize it throughout the document. Good formulations are found in documents from Zenica canton as a part of didactic instructions: The history program for gymnasium is based on the science of history from which it derives contents by which the humanistic function of science is realized - the spread of historical knowledge as the goal of education, on the one hand, and the development of scientifically based historical awareness and historical opinions as a humanistic goal, on the other hand. In that context, it is necessary to teach about the past in continuity, with the emphasis on universal educational principles defined by UNESCO, which read as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Knowledge and respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms; Nurturing solidarity, tolerance and conflict resolution through non-violence; Recognition of the right to diversity of opinion and belief; Fight against prejudice and all forms of discrimination; Positive reaction of individuals to changes in the environment; Cultivating critical thinking, which includes media, cultural and political literacy; Developing sensitivity to environmental problems. (NPP Zenica)

The document itself contains guidelines for using historical sources in the classroom in a multiperspective way, stimulating project oriented teaching, debates and discussions, along with the development of critical thinking as a key to forming historical consciousness and historical thinking that leads to equality of people, democracy, religious freedoms and freedom of worldview. It is unfortunate, however, that these guidelines are not better linked structurally with the prescribed contents in the teaching program. As in primary education, history curricula in secondary schools are based on the principle of knowledge, while skills and attitudes remain almost invisible. The variations from canton to canton, the obsolescence of curricular documents, the superficial engagement with which they are developed may be related to the fact that secondary education in Bosnia and Herzegovina is not mandatory (Framework Law, Article 17). Perhaps this explains, at least in part, why reform processes,

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improvements and analyses of high school curricula and accompanying textbooks have not been implemented to the same extent as for primary schools. Regarding high school history textbooks, the content and order of topics is almost identical to those in primary school. In most cases even the authors of the textbooks are the same. The contents of the lessons are somewhat more extensive, with additional historical sources included at some points, and slight differences in the formulation of questions and tasks. What is noticeable is that questions and activities are mostly directed to reproduction of the content (Who, When and Where) and not to functional knowledge. The value of peace can be read only between the lines on the horrors and casualties of wars, especially the Second World War which is, in the case of textbooks from RS, particularly focused on the experience of the Serbian people: e.g., “Victims were buried in collective graves, thrown in the Sava river or burned in the crematoria… From the territory of NDH (The Independent State of Croatia) during the war in different camps around 800.000 men, women and children were killed, and 4/5 of them were Serbs” (Živković & Stanojlović, 2016:126). Similar approaches can be found in the textbooks in Bosnian and Croatian language. Peace and peacekeeping are only mentioned in the context of the establishment and engagement of the UN, but it is not promoted as a value: “UN is an international organization intended to maintain peace and security in the world (…) The UN has an important role especially in peace keeping” (Hadžiabdić et al., 2007:150; Akmadža et al., 2014:152). Even though in some textbooks parts of the UN Charter that refer to peace are integrated, there are no questions for the analysis that would emphasize the value of peace (Akmadža et al., 2014:153). This confirms, as far as the representation of values is concerned, that the situation is exactly the same in primary and secondary school textbooks across the education system of BiH.

History in Higher Education Curricula Today there are 32 accredited public and private universities and higher education institutions in Bosnia and Herzegovina.18 A study program of history exists at six of them: University of Sarajevo (Faculty of Philosophy, Department of History), University of Eastern Sarajevo (Faculty of Philosophy, Department for History and Archaeology), University of Banja Luka (Faculty of Philosophy, Department of History), University of Tuzla (Faculty of Philosophy, Department of History), University Džemal Bijedić Mostar (Faculty of Humanities), University of Mostar (Faculty of Philosophy). Analyzing the curricula of the study programs, we see that there are diversities in how national history is presented, similar to those evidenced in primary and secondary education. However, our analysis was more focused on the term of ‘peace’ and its promotion as a universal human value.

 Information found at the website of the Agency for Development of Higher Education and Quality Assurance, http://hea.gov.ba/akreditacija_vsu/Default.aspx, 10. 4. 2021. 18

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The analysis of curricula was done on the basis of documents available on the websites of the mentioned universities and faculties.19 Unfortunately, the data are not uniform because in some places complete study curricula are available, while in others only course syllabi were available which do not offer enough information about the general and specific educational goals and contents. The fragmentation of the education system also produces significant differences in the structure of studies, as well as the duration of the first and second degree cycles. Thus, at the universities of Sarajevo and Mostar, the study of history was organized in two cycles, the first lasting three and the second lasting two years. While at the Universities of Tuzla, Banja Luka, East Sarajevo, and Džemal Bijedić University in Mostar, the pre-Bologna concept of a four-year undergraduate in the first cycle and a one-year master’s degree in the second cycle was retained. Furthermore, programs in Banja Luka and Sarajevo emphasize the orientation of the study program to the teaching profession, while the others are oriented towards history research. The general aims and outcomes of the history curriculum at the University of Sarajevo are mostly focused on the skills and competencies of those who complete their studies, while the outcomes related to knowledge are defined in relation to goals for each topic of study. In particular, it can be noted that these outcomes are in line with the document of the Framework for Higher Education Qualifications in Bosnia and Herzegovina.20 From the universal values mentioned in a number of specific outcomes, we recognize the methodological settings of multiperspectival interpretations of historical events based on diverse historical sources, the application of critical thinking and problem solving, as well as consideration of differences in gender, ethnic, cultural, religious and other perspectives (NPP FF Historija, 2019). The value of peace is nowhere explicitly mentioned. Among the subjects in the study, we would point to the course “Teaching history and multicultural societies” (NPP FF Historija, 2019) which aims to enable students to understand the values of multicultural societies in a global context and to develop competencies that can promote the values of multicultural societies through history teaching. This is a positive example of pointing to universal values in the initial training of students as future history teachers; however it is, regretfully, almost the only one. The study program for history at the Faculty of Philosophy, University of Banja Luka for undergraduate and master studies was adopted in 2015.21 In the general part, among the stated goals and outcomes, history skills and competencies are  University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Philosophy: http://ff.unsa.ba/index.php/bs/; University of Banja Luka, Faculty of Philosophy: https://ff.unibl.org/; University of Mostar, https://www.sum. ba/fakultet/ff/o-nama-ff; University of East Sarajevo: https://www.ues.rs.ba/filozofski-fakultet/; University of Tuzla, Faculty of Philosophy http://ff.unitz.ba/, http://www.untz.ba/; University Džemal Bijedić Mostar, Faculty of Humanities https://www.unmo.ba/, https://fhn.unmo.ba/ 20  Okvir za visokoškolske kvalifikacije u Bosni i Hercegovin, http://www.hea.gov.ba/Dokumenti/ bolonja_bih/?id=441 21  Elaborat o relicenciranju prvog ciklusa studija istorije, Univerzitet Banja Luka, Filozofski fakultet, Odsjek za istoriju, Banja Luka 2015; Elaborat o pokretanju master studija (drugog ciklusa studija) na studijskom programu za istoriju, Univerzitet Banja Luka, Filozofski fakultet, Odsjek za istoriju, Banja Luka 2015; https://ff.unibl.org/studij/istorija 19

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clearly outlined, while in the programs for each subject, the learning outcomes are mainly related to the content of the subject, i.e. historical knowledge rather than values or skills. The development of critical thinking and mastery of the methodology of working with historical sources is mentioned. These elements can be connected with proposed methodological models that can contribute to peace pedagogy. However, we did not find examples of universal values such as peace, tolerance, cultural diversity, etc. within the content of the analyzed subjects. Exactly the same case is found with the study program of History and Archaeology at the University of East Sarajevo, where only the executive program in the form of a syllabus was available for the analysis.22 The study program at the University of Mostar provides only general information on enrollment requirements, general outcomes, total number of ECTS credits and their distribution by semesters. Detailed descriptions of each individual subject course can be read through the curriculum, but without the possibility to identify the importance of the value of peace (NPP FF Povijest, 2018).23 The same conclusions can be reached in a review of the programs for history studies at the University of Tuzla24 and University Džemal Bijedić in Mostar.25 From the available information on the number of classes and hours for teaching practice in schools, it appears that student teachers in these programs are receiving comprehensive theoretical preparation and subject knowledge, but limited practical school experience. For example at the University in Banja Luka, the courses for Methodology of history teaching over two semesters have 5  +  4 ECTS with 20 classes of visiting primary and secondary schools. The subject courses at the University of Sarajevo have 54 ECTS in total for 10 semesters with 20 classes of visiting schools and 6 classes of student’s teaching practice. At Mostar University there are 7 + 6 ECTS for courses over two semesters but the number of visiting and practicing classes in schools is not indicated.26 Research conducted by the European  Information available at: https://ff.ues.rs.ba/o-studijskom-programu-istorija-i-arheologija/  Nastavni program studija povijesti, Filozofski fakultet Sveučilišta u Mostaru, Mostar 2018. https://ff.sum.ba/sites/default/files/slike-staticke-stranice/NASTAVNI%20PROGRAM%20 POV.pdf 24  Nastavni program prvog ciklusa studija historije, Univerzitet u Tuzli, 2015. http://www.untz.ba/ index.php?page=studijski-prog-i-ciklusa; Nastavni program drugog ciklusa studija historije, Univerzitet u Tuzli http://www.untz.ba/index.php?page=studijski-prog-ii-ciklusa. Within the second cycle of studies, specialist directions are available for the study of the History of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the study of the History of the Ancient and Middle Ages and the History of the Early modern and contemporary history. 25  Nastavni plan i program, Odsjek za historiju, Fakultet humanističkih nauka, Univerzitet Džemal Bijedić, Mostar 2015. available at: https://fhn.unmo.ba/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/nastavniplan-i-program-historija.pdf 26  Besides knowledge of their subject, trainee teachers need to acquire professional skills. Their professional training includes both theoretical studies (the educational theory of teaching, psychology, etc.) and practical training in schools – the observation of teaching in practice and, possibly, some time spent assuming direct responsibility for it. Most countries specify a minimum period for professional training. The average duration is 60 ECTS credits, corresponding to around a year of full time training (Teaching Profession in Europe, 2015:32–36). 22 23

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Commission in 2013 for Western Balkans (Skikkos, 2013) has pointed out that initial teacher education programs urgently need to strengthen sustainable teaching practice through programs and more school-based visits during the training period. Other gaps in future teacher preparations include: increased student-centered learning and competence-based teaching, innovations and ICT skills, intercultural education, inclusive education and education of children with special education needs (Skikkos, 2013: 9–10). Orientation to skills, values and attitudes is still not recognized and fully integrated in the analyzed documents of the BiH higher education system(s). Programs are more knowledge-based and much less skills-oriented. Most of the courses of history studies contain the lists of themes e.g. Europe before WWI, Fascist movements in Europe, April War 1941, and similar, in which we could not clearly read outcomes apart from knowledge. We believe that there is huge potential for pointing out and promoting universal values in all thematic areas of individual history courses, but it has not been highlighted anywhere. The educational component of building attitudes towards universal human values, primarily peace, is completely omitted. The general impression is that only the traditional content and knowledge-based model of study fits into the new Bologna framework and that the modernization of higher education curricula in the methodological sense is advancing more slowly than at the primary and secondary school levels (Lanahan, 2017:105–110).

Conclusions Looking into three stages of history education in Bosnia and Herzegovina we could see that it continues to be oriented primarily to three dominant national narratives and that the contested histories they are producing are deeply rooted since the 1990s. History education is a subject that shapes three national histories, languages and cultures, rather than creating a platform for building a common and multi-layered state identity or belonging (Bentrovato & Schulze, 2016; Ognjenović & Jozelić, 2020). Looking at the processes of educational reform in this post-conflict society that were initiated and guided with the expertise of the Council of Europe, UNESCO and other relevant international institutions, one would expect better implementation of recommendations and greater emphasis on peace and reconciliation in regards to history education. However, according to our analysis, recommendations from the European level are only partly integrated into the framework policy documents, and almost entirely lacking in curricula and textbooks. Concepts and approaches related to peace and peace pedagogy can be found in very few cases in primary education documents, mainly in history curricula among the learning outcomes and aims. This, at least, is a significant step forward in modernizing the process of history teaching and the engagement of the relevant authorities regarding these should be acknowledged. On the other hand, reform to history teaching in secondary education is less advanced. Even though there is enormous potential to expand history content and include active and multiperspective pedagogical

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strategies as a means for promoting values of peace, we could not find any concrete examples of intercultural dialogue in the curricula or textbooks. Analysis of curricula from the history degree programs in Bosnia and Herzegovina suggests that reform processes have barely touched higher education. Traditional knowledge-based approaches are dominant in the initial education of future history teachers in which teaching practice in schools and development of teaching skills are way behind other parts of Europe. Our conclusion is that these three stages of history education have not been linked and that reform processes have not been coordinated well enough. All participants in this chain have to be aware of the power that history teaching can have as a tool to support peace and reconciliation in conflict and post-conflict areas. This potential, however, can only be realised if multiperspective approaches are used in teaching “to assist and encourage students to respect diversity and cultural difference (…) rather than conventional teaching which can reinforce the more negative aspects of nationalism” (CoE Rec, 2009).

 eflections on History Teaching in Practice and Alternative R Voices as Vision for Peace Aware that educational policies in Bosnia and Herzegovina are shaped by dominant political discourses, there is nonetheless value in looking at different initiatives by educators in formal and nonformal education who are aware of their role and responsibility as history educators, and who have already embraced the idea of peace pedagogy as a part of their teaching practice (Kasumagić-Kafedžić, 2019). Teachers are the ones who with their creativity and dedication to their profession often go beyond the prescribed programs to elaborate contents and point to positive examples. From 2018 to 2020, the Association of History Teachers and Professors EUROCLIO-HIP Bosnia and Herzegovina implemented the project “Alternative Curriculum for History in Bosnia and Herzegovina – Contribution to the Promotion of Humanism in History Teaching and Dealing with Controversies in Bosnia and Herzegovina”. As part of this project, they developed an alternative history curriculum model based on universal human rights and civilizational values, including a teacher’s manual with model lessons dedicated to universal values in the study of the past (Beštić Bronza et al., 2019; Veladžić et al., 2021). This project tried to initiate positive changes in history curricula in primary schools and create an educational model that would help education policymakers in Bosnia and Herzegovina by demonstrating how to innovate and modernize history teaching, with a focus on the development of critical thinking, respect for universal human rights and the promotion of universal human values. The approach is based on research of existing curricula in Bosnia and Herzegovina, examples of curricula from other European countries, a wide range of consultations with history teachers and professors in primary and secondary schools, history students and other interested representatives of civil society.

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For the purposes of this project, a questionnaire was created specifically to collect information from experience and practice related to teaching about universal values in the teaching of history. The results of the poll conducted among primary and secondary school teachers in Bosnia and Herzegovina showed that teachers are aware of the limitations of official curricula, but that universal values are promoted through their teaching practice. The examples of peace given by teachers were interesting. Topics that they cited in which peace can be promoted included: integration processes in Europe, League of Nations, Nelson Mandela and his activities, Olympic Games in Ancient Greece, Peace Treaties, Non-Aligned Movement, Crusades, World War I, International Crises, United Nations, Cold War, etc. Some of the teachers had interesting comments: The value of promoting peace fits into modern theories about the purpose of education and should be represented in as much content as possible. The promotion of the blessings that peace brings can best be realized through the reflection on war. Students should be shown what war means, especially from the examples of everyday life in wartime circumstances, in order to better experience the personalization of the past. With careful pedagogical approaches, peace can be promoted in this way through teaching content that treats any of the conflicts (...) Peace can be promoted in all periods of history and in all areas from 6th to 9th grade, which I teach. From ancient times to modern times. From wars in ancient civilizations to the present day. The most difficult period is the period of the last war in our region.27

The majority of survey respondents (81%) agreed that the study of wars related to national history is dominated by monoperspectivity, selective presentation of facts, relativization of crimes against other peoples and victimization of one’s own people. They further agreed that this approach only strengthens interethnic hatred, limiting the space for peace pedagogy and dealing with the past through multiperspective and constructive remembrance approaches, which are very desirable in the study of controversial and sensitive topics. In the Alternative Curriculum for History in Bosnia and Herzegovina there are a lot of themes and examples from history that emphasize the role and value of peace, solidarity, equality, cooperation and freedom, with comprehensive outcomes and proposed activities for classes. Some of the themes directly related to peace include: Causes of wars, Consequences of wars, Olympic games and spirit of peace, Through dialogue to peace: wars and peace treaties in Europe in early modern age; Through dialogue and cooperation to European peace, political balance and division spheres of interest; New (better) world of peace; Culture of dialogue, reconciliation, cooperation, and respect (Beštić Bronza et al., 2019; Veladžić et al., 2021). This alternative approach is accompanied with the manual for teachers “Univerzalne vrijednosti iz prošlosti za društvo budućnosti - Universal values from the past for the future society” published in 2021 (Veladžić et al., 2021) in which concrete examples of workshops on universal values are presented. For example, the workshop on “War and Peace” aims to introduce students to the basic concepts  Questionnaire for history teachers within the project Alternative Curriculum (2018), unpublished material. 27

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related to war, and highlight everything that war as a conflict of two or more sides carries, using examples from ancient times: the war campaigns of Ramses II, the Siege of Jerusalem, Greek-Persian wars, Peloponnesian war, Punic wars, Illyrian wars. Peace as the antipode of war is also questioned through the topic, and concepts related to peace that promote it as a value are emphasized. Students are introduced to descriptions of wars from the period of the ancient times on the basis of historical sources and pictorial material related to the above descriptions of wars. Answering key questions such as, “What is war and what are its consequences?” What does peace bring to man and society?” open the possibility of directly comparing war and peace and independently drawing conclusions by students (Veladžić et al., 2021: 13–21). In order to move closer to the recommendations for history education at the global and European levels28 deeper integration of these documents into educational policies is needed at all three levels of education, along with more systematic conceptual and practice-based training of teachers. Universities are educating teachers who will be on assignment in classrooms tomorrow. If well equipped, they will have the opportunity to implement the ideas of peace, respect, tolerance, equality, non-­ discrimination, and cooperation as positive human values on which rests a positive environment for all humankind. Examples from history can give us such lessons, we just need to make better use of them. We need an approach to history which is no longer used as a weapon but rather as a tool for building multiperspectival narratives. Lessons from the past should not be a source of conflict but rather an important component of attempts to reconcile divided societies. We desperately need them in our post-conflict society for the brighter future of our children.

Take-Away Messages • Even though history education can be an excellent medium for promoting peace, this value is almost invisible in contemporary BiH curricula and textbooks. • History education at all three stages – primary, secondary and higher education – needs to be linked better and equally exposed to the reforming process.  We stress the following recommendations: Council of Europe (Rec1283-1996), History and history teaching in Europe; Council of Europe (Rec 15-2001), History teaching in twenty-first-century Europe; Council of Europe (Rec 6-2011), Intercultural dialogue and the image of the other in history teaching; Council of Europe (Rec 7-2010), Charter on education for Democratic Citizenship and Human Rights Education; Council of Europe (Rec 1880-2009), History teaching in conflict and post-conflict areas; Council of Europe, (Rec 1849–2008), For the promotion of a culture of democracy and human rights through teacher education; Education for twenty-first century (2016), Recommendations on fostering human rights through deconstruction of stereotypes; UNESCO (2017), Education about the Holocaust and preventing genocide; UNESCO, Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner (2013) Historical and memorial narratives in divided societies: history textbooks, memorials and museums; Making sense of the past that refuses to pass. Recommendations for responsible teaching of the wars in Yugoslavia and its successor states; 28

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• Ideas and experiences from teaching practice could offer more concrete proposals that could be integrated in the educational policies. • Multiperspective approaches and use of original sources can contribute to better understanding contested narratives in post-conflict societies.

Sources Common Core for Curricula. (2016). Zajedničke jezgre nastavnih planova i programa za historiju definirane na ishodima učenja, Službeni glasnik BiH br. 3/16. Council of Europe. (2001). Council of Europe (Rec 15-2001), History teaching in twenty-first-­ century Europe. https://search.coe.int/cm/Pages/result_details.aspx?ObjectId=09000016805 e2c31 Council of Europe. (2008). Council of Europe, (Rec 1849-2008), For the promotion of a culture of democracy and human rights through teacher education. https://pace.coe.int/en/files/17686 Council of Europe. (2009). Council of Europe (Rec 1880-2009), History teaching in conflict and post-conflict areas. https://assembly.coe.int/nw/xml/XRef/Xref-­XML2HTML-­EN. asp?fileid=17765&lang=en Council of Europe. (2010). Council of Europe (Rec 7-2010), Charter on education for Democratic Citizenship and Human Rights Education. https://www.coe.int/en/web/edc/ charter-­on-­education-­for-­democratic-­citizenship-­and-­human-­rights-­education Council of Europe. (2011). Council of Europe (Rec 6-2011), Intercultural dialogue and the image of the other in history teaching. https://search.coe.int/cm/Pages/result_details.aspx?ObjectI d=09000016805cc8e1 EUROCLIO. (2016). Education for 21st Century, Recommendations on fostering human rights through deconstruction of stereotypes in education, culture and media. https://www.euroclio. eu/2016/06/30/education-­21st-­century-­publishes-­recommendations-­human-­rights-­education/ EUROCLIO. (2018). Making sense of the past that refuses to pass. Recommendations for responsible teaching of the wars in Yugoslavia and its successor states. Policy paper. http://www. devedesete.net/policy-­paper/ European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice. (2015). The teaching profession in Europe: Practices, perceptions, and policies. Eurydice report. Publications Office of the European Union. Framework Law. (2003). Okvirni zakon o osnovnom i srednjem obrazovanju, Službeni glasnik BiH 18/03. Framework Law on Primary and Secondary Education. Guidelines for textbook writing. (2007). Smjernice za pisanje i ocjenu udžbenika povijesti za osnovne i srednje škole u Bosni i Hercegovini, Službeni glasnik BiH 05/07. UNESCO. (2013). Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner (2013) Historical and memorial narratives in divided societies: History textbooks, memorials and museums. https://www. ohchr.org/EN/Issues/CulturalRights/Pages/HistoricalMemorialNarratives.aspx UNESCO. (2017). Education about the Holocaust and preventing genocide. https://unesdoc. unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000248071_eng

References Akmadža, M., Jareb, M., & Radelić, Z. (2014). Povijest 4, udžbenik za 4. razred gimnazije. Bekavac, S., Jareb, M., & Rozić, M. (2012). Povijest 8, udžbenik za 8. Razred Bentrovato, D., & Schulze, M. (2016). Teaching about a violent past:Revisiting the role of history education in conflict and peace In D. Bentrovato, K. V. Korostelina, & M. Schulze (Eds.) History can bite history education in divided and postwar societies, Eckert. Die Schriftenreihe Studien des Georg-Eckert-Instituts zur internationalen Bildungsmedienforschung Band 141. V & R Academic.

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Beštić Bronza, S., Dujković Blagojević, B., Forić Plasto, M., Hašimbegović, E., Jusić-Dučić, S., Kasumović, F., Naletilić, M., Radušić, E., & Veladžić, E. (2019). Alternativni kurikulum za historiju/istoriju/povijest u Bosni i Hercegovini: doprinos promoviranju humanizma u nastavi historije i suočavanju s bosanskohercegovačkim kontroverzama. Udruženje nastavnika i profesora historije/istorije/povijesti Bosne i Hercegovine, EUROCLIO HIP BiH. Black, L., Dujković Blagojević, B., & Forić, M. (2020). Results of mapping and recommendations for aligning history curricula in Bosnia and Herzegovina with the common core curriculum, the policy recommendations and roadmap on quality education in multi-ethnic societies and the Council of Europe’s reference framework of competences for democratic culture. Council of Europe. Dimou, A. (2015). Udžbenici istorije u jugoistočnoj Evropi: suočavanje sa izazovima 21. veka. In M. Toma (Ed.), Udžbenici istorije u post-konfliktnim društvima: Obrazovanje za pomirenje?, Forum za tranzicionu pravdu, 5 (pp. 34–43). Beograd. Forić Plasto, M. (2019). Podijeljena prošlost za podijeljenu budućnost!? Rat 1992-1995. u aktuelnim bosanskohercegovačkim udžbenicima Historije. Radovi FF (Historija, Historija umjetnosti, Arheologija), 6, 231–257. Forić Plasto, M. (2020a). Historiografija o Bosni i Hercegovini u bosansko-hercegovačkim udžbenicima historije (2000-2017). In Z. Šehić (Ed.), Prilozi o historiografiji Bosne i Hercegovine: (2001-2017). Posebna izdanja ANUBIH, knj. 187. Odjeljenje humanističkih nauka, knj. 47/2 Akademija nauka i umjetnosti Bosne i Hercegovine, Sarajevo 2020 (pp. 277–300). Forić Plasto, M. (2020b). Divided past for divided future? Journal of the Faculty of Philosophy in Sarajevo (History, History of Art, Archeology), 7(2), 295–321. Hadžiabdić, H., Dervišagić, E., Mulić, A., & Mehić, V. (2007). Historija, Istorija, Povijest, 4, Udžbenik za 4. Razred gimnazije, Tuzla: Bosanska knjiga. Karge, H., & Batarilo, K. (2008a). Reforma nastave historije u Bosni i Hercegovini Modernizacija udžbenika historije u BiH: od uklanjanja uvredljivog sadržaja iz udžbenika u toku 1999. godine do nove generacije udžbenika u školskoj 2007./2008. godini. Georg Eckert Institut. Karge, H., & Batarilo, K. (2008b). Historija 20. stoljeća u udžbenicima Bosne i Hercegovine: Analiza udžbenika historije za završne razrede osnovne škole. OSCE misija u Bosni i Hercegovini. Karge, H., Batarilo, K. (2009). Guidelines guiding history textbook production? Norms and practices of history textbook policy in Bosnia and Hercegovina, In: A. Dimou (Ed.), In Transition and the politics of history education in Southeastern Europe. Die Schriftenreihe Studien des Georg-Eckert-Instituts zur internationalen Bildungsmedienforschung, Bd. 124 (pp. 307–356). V & R Unipress. Kasumagić-Kafedžić, L. (2019). Creating active culture of memories through invigorating teachers: Encouraging the young through critical pedagogy and peace education, in MemorInmotion, pedagogical tool on culture of remembrance. Manual Forum Ziviler Friedensdienst e.V. (forumZFD), 2019 (second supplemented edition). Katz, V. (2015). Analiza udžbenika historije u Bosni i Hercegovini (8. i 9. razred osnovne škole, 4. razred gimnazije i 1. i 2. razred stručnih škola). In Udžbenici istorije u post-konfliktnim društvima: Obrazovanje za pomirenje? (pp. 52–63). Forum za tranzicionu pravdu, 5, Fond za humanitarno pravo. Ključne kompetencije i životne vještine u Bosni i Hercegovini. (2011). Sarajevo Lanahan, B. (2017). Post-conflict education for democracy and reform. Bosnian education in the post-war era 1995–2015 Palgrave studies in global citizenship education and democracy. Martić, M., & Tutnjević, S. (2018). Problem naučenog neučenja, Analitički osvrt na kritične faktore osnovnog i srednjeg obrazovanja. Friedrich Ebert Stiftung. Nastavni plan i program Odsjek za historiju Fakultet humanističkih nauka Univerzitet Džemal Bijedić Mostar. (2015). Available at: https://fhn.unmo.ba/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/nastavni-plan-i-program-historija.pdf. Nastavni program studija povijesti Filozofski fakultet Sveučilišta u Mostaru Mostar. (2018). https:// ff.sum.ba/sites/default/files/slike-staticke-stranice/NASTAVNI%20PROGRAM%20POV.pdf

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Nastavni plan i program studija historije Filozofski fakultet Univerziteta u Sarajevu Sarajevo. (2019). https://www.ff.unsa.ba/files/trajno/npp_2019/NPP-Historija-2019-2020-TK1.pdf NPP, R. S. (2014). Nastavni plan i program za osnovno obrazovanje i vaspitanje. Ministarstvo prosvjete I kulture Republike Srpske. NPP, R. S. (2018). Nastavni program za predmet istorija, Ministarstvo prosvjete i kulture Republike Srpske. NPP Croatian. (2013). Nastavni plan i program na hrvatskome jeziku za devetogodišnje osnovne škole u Bosni i Hercegovini za Hercegbosansku Županiju, Ministarstvo znanosti, prosvjete, kulture i športa Hercegbosanske Županije. NPP Kanton Sarajevo. (2018). Nastavni plan i program za predmet historija za osnovne škole, Ministarstvo za obrazovanje, nauku i mlade Kantona. NPP Tuzla. (2012). Nastavni plan i program za osnovne škole, Ministarstvo obrazovanja, nauke, kulture i sporta, Tuzla kanton. NPP Zenica. (2018). Historija, Nastavni plan i okvorni program za osnovnu školu, Ministarstvo za obrazovanje, nauku, kulturu i sport, Zeničko-dobojski kanton. Ognjenović, G., & Jozelić, J. (Eds.). (2020). Nationhood and politicization of history in school textbooks (Identity, the curriculum and educational media). Palgrave Macmillan. OSCE Report – Two schools under one roof. The most visible discrimination in education in Bosnia and Herzegovina. OSCE report. https://www.osce.org/files/f/documents/7/8/468255.pdf Pingel, F. (2009). From ownership to intervention – Or vice versa? Textbook revision in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In A.  Dimou (Ed.), Transition‹ and the politics of history education in Southeastern Europe (Ed. ), Eckert. Die Schriftenreihe Studien des Georg-Eckert-Instituts zur internationalen Bildungsmedienforschung, Bd. 124. (pp. 251–306). V & R unipress. Radušić, E. (2009). Teaching history in Bosnia and Herzegovina with a comment to the significance of teaching plan and program and their characteristics. History Curricula Analysis, EUROCLIO/EUROCLIO-HIP 2009. http://cliohipbih.ba/materijali/topic/bridging-­histories-­2/ Radušić, E. (ur.) (2015). Zloupotreba istorije u procesima koji su doveli do posljednjeg rata u BiH: Okvir za promjenu paradigme u izučavanju istorije u bosanskohercegovačkim skolama. EUROCLIO HIP BiH. Šabotić, I., & Čehajić, M. (2012). Historija 9, udžbenik za deveti razred devetogodišnje osnovne škole. Nam, Vrijeme. Skikkos, H. (2013). Teacher education and training in the Western Balkans. Final synthesis report, Directorate-General of Education and Culture European Commission. https://era.ideasoneurope.eu/2013/12/20/teacher-­education-­and-­training-­in-­the-­western-­balkans-­is-­it-­in-­line-­with-­ the-­times-­is-­it-­effective/ Soldo, A., Salibašić, A., Marshall, A., Šabotić, D., Radušić, E., Bičo, F., Forić, M., Ibrahimović, N., Hadžiabdić, N., Veličković, N., Buljević, S., Popov-Momčinović, Z., & Smajić, Z. (2017). Obrazovanje u BiH: čemu (ne) učimo djecu? : analiza sadržaja udžbenika nacionalne grupe predmeta u osnovnim školama, Sarajevo: Mas media. Fond otvoreno društvo Bosna i Hercegovina. Torsti, P. (2003). Divergent stories, convergent attitudes. In A study on the presence of history, history textbooks and the thinking of youth in post-war Bosnia and Herzegovina. Helsinki. Trbić, Dž (ur.) (2007). Čemu učimo djecu?: obrazovanje u Bosni i Hercegovini: analiza sadržaja udžbenika nacionalne grupe predmeta, Fond otvoreno društvo, Promente: Sarajevo: Fond otvoreno društvo Bosna i Hercegovina. Veladžić, E., Beštić Bronza, S., Dujković Blagojević, B., Forić Plasto, M., Hašimbegović, E., Jusić-Dučić, S., Naletilić, M., Kasumović, F., & Radušić, E. (2021). Univerzalne vrijednosti iz prošlosti za društvo budućnosti : alternativni kurikulum za historiju/istoriju/povijest u Bosni i Hercegovini: doprinos promoviranju humanizma u nastavi historije i suočavanju s bosanskohercegovačkim kontroverzama: priručnik za nastavnike / Edin Veladžić (ur.). Udruženje nastavnika i profesora historije/istorije/povijesti Bosne i Hercegovine EUROCLIO HIP BiH. Živković, D., & Stanojlović B. (2016). Istorija za 3.razred gimnazije prirodno-matematičkog i 4.razred gimnazije opšteg i društveno-jezičkog smjera, Istočno Novo Sarajevo, Zavod za udžbenike i nastavna sredstva.

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Melisa Forić Plasto works as a senior teaching assistant in the History Department at the Faculty of Philosophy, University of Sarajevo. Since 2003, she has been a member of BiH History Teachers’ Association (EUROCLIO-HIP BIH), and is currently the Association’s President. She has authored and co-authored several history textbooks for elementary and secondary schools, and co-authored additional teaching materials. She actively participated in several international projects dedicated to history education, culture of remembrance, and peace education in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the region. Her research interests focus on teaching methods in history teaching and history teacher education, contemporary history of Bosnia and Herzegovina, culture of memory, educational policy, textbooks and peace education.  

Bojana Dujković Blagojević is regional project coordinator for the European Wergeland Centre (EWC) project “Preparing future teachers in the Western Balkans: Educating for Democracy & Human Rights”. She is responsible for project activities in six countries of the Western Balkans region. She has long standing experience in education as a teacher and in-service trainer. Before joining EWC, Bojana was engaged in various history education projects and initiatives in the Western Balkans. She writes and edits teaching materials, specializing in sensitive and controversial issues related to the history of former Yugoslavia in the twentieth century. Bojana holds a Masters in History from Banja Luka University.  

Chapter 9

Teacher Reflections on Peacebuilding Through Mother Tongue Language and Literature Education Branka Ljubojević

Abstract  Written from the perspective of a teacher from Bosnia and Herzegovina Serbian language and literature living in Banja Luka, this chapter presents her experience using peace pedagogies over the past 20 years. Drawing on her experience with teaching Serbian language and literature in both the national and the International Baccalaureate program, as well as her experience teaching debate, she highlights how literature can be an ideal means through which to equip young people to explore multiple perspectives and to think critically about issues in society and their own role as social actors. Through practice-based examples, student reflection, feedback, and professional reflection on practice, the chapter encourages teachers to overcome their doubts and insecurities regarding the opportunities for and the importance of pursuing peace education as a tool for building a better society in BiH. The chapter illustrates some good practices such as comparative literary analysis, research and debate that offer opportunities for critical thinking, argumentation and a culture of dialogue in the classroom. Keywords  Serbian language and literature · Debate in teaching · Critical thinking · Student reflections · Comparative literary analysis

Introduction As peace and peacebuilding education are the most important and probably the most used expressions in the last 20 years, I admit that I am afraid to mention them again, in case you will not read the text I wrote about their importance and about the beauty and hope I have encountered in the last 11 years. Education has always been and will always be the inner picture of the society it is settled in or, if you are fortunate enough to live in an inventive society, the future picture of the society you would like to live in. B. Ljubojević (*) Gimnazija, Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 L. Kasumagić-Kafedžić, S. Clarke-Habibi (eds.), Peace Pedagogies in Bosnia and Herzegovina, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26246-3_9

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Some societies use educational systems to prove who was right/better/best, while other societies use it to show how good/smart/interesting/happy societies can be and what we can learn from each other to become better versions of ourselves. Indeed, the best way to believe you are good enough is to help all of those around you to become better. Are we doing this in BiH? Not at all. We are trying very hard to do everything in the opposite way. That is why we greatly need to be brave, hard-­ working and very loud if we hope to change even one class or one student. And when I say WE, I think of the still young generations of teachers who remember all of the three periods of times, pre-war, war and post-war, and who know what it all looked like. Dear colleagues, we are those who are changing the most important worlds in the universe – the inner worlds of our students.

My Orientation as a Teacher I never wanted to be a teacher. It looked very boring to repeat the same thing year after year. However, I always wanted to read books, to talk about them, to discuss writers’ choices and the moral decisions of their characters. It looked like real life where we can repeat the scenes as many times as we want and change perspectives to find out the real truth, or the truth that looks the best for us. After I finished my university education, I became aware that I could use my biggest love to show people how they can learn in and from books; how they can change perspectives and every time understand and see the world in a different way; how they can discuss their opinions without forcing someone to have the same opinion about the same book or scene or character. During the 20 years of my working experience, I have been doing many different jobs: teaching English in both public and private primary schools, teaching the Serbian language in primary schools, being a librarian and student service officer at university, teaching Serbian language and literature in grammar high schools as a mother tongue and main subject, and teaching debate as an extracurricular activity. After these 20 years of experience, I can say that literature and debate are the most important things in my professional life and whatever happens in the future, I will never give up those two things. In every school and every place I have worked, I was considered one of the most enthusiastic (in Bosnia the word for this is „the craziest“) workers. What is the reason for this? I deeply believe it is the love, the hope and the faith that knowledge, good will and hard work can change the world. And there is nothing bigger and more important than helping young people to be aware of this and to believe in this. Through all these years I was not afraid of changing jobs, but also not afraid of changing cities and places of working and living and that is how I worked in Banja Luka, Derventa and Brčko District. Very often my choices looked like adventures, especially to my parents, but also to my friends who got used to growing up and living in the same place where they were born, or working even in the same factory or school until retirement. This was not my cup of tea. And now I can surely say that

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this was one of the most important things I have done in my professional life: every step I made led me to another one which was closer to my dream job: working with great, smart and enthusiastic young people ready to change the world. Of course, I have to mention the most important place that changed me forever. That was Brčko District and working at Gimnazija „Vaso Pelagić“ as a teacher of Serbian Language and Literature. It was also the place where I encountered debate, the most valuable teaching method and activity that can be used everywhere, both in schools and in everyday lives. Brčko District was created to be a „mini BiH“, but it is not as successful as it should be. Rather, it is a region where you and your attitudes are challenged every day. It is the place where I learned to love my own, but also to respect and appreciate others’ habits and beliefs. For sure I can say that if there hadn’t been Brčko in my life, I would not be the same person and, what is more important, I would never have become the teacher I am now. Presently I am working at Gimnazija Banja Luka, one of the biggest and surely the best schools in Republika Srpska. I graduated from this school in 1998, writing my graduation work in Sociology with the title „Islam as a monotheistic religion“. I got the best mark, (5), for my work and I was very proud, although most of the people from my surroundings thought I was crazy, and that I would have problems. I did not. I just wanted to find out more about an interesting religion and culture and I did it. When I write and think about that now, I can only say that we all have our destiny in our characters. Mine was to challenge the rules and cross the borders, and I am still doing it. Gimnazija Banja Luka is the only public grammar school in the city with 4 different departments of the national curriculum (general, mathematical, IT, and social sciences and languages), plus the International Baccalaureate Diploma Program, the only international program in the educational system of Republika Srpska. We have 46 classes and more than 1200 students who are taught by 110 teachers. Established in 1895, the school has a very long and rich history, more than 40 extracurricular activities, five annual events (ProgrameRSijada, BaLMUN, New Year’s debate tournament, Week of Arts and Academy of Saint Sava), great success in different areas of both national and international competitions, and many alumni in well-known universities all around the world (Yale, Harvard, Edinburgh, Bocconi, Vienna, etc.). It is impossible to write it all, so I am going to stop here. As a teacher and debate coach I have been working here for 11 years, and I have also been the IB Diploma Programme coordinator  for 3 years. I feel this school spirit as my own and I hope it will stay like this forever because the only way you can be a good and loved teacher is if you feel and believe everything you teach to your students. For the last 7 years I have been teaching the IB curriculum for “Language A: Literature  – Serbian” and the national curriculum for “Serbian Language and Literature”. My students are mostly very good academically and this makes a very particular working atmosphere in the classroom. I would emphasise that we have pretty big classes, 30+ students, which is one of the biggest challenges we have. It is very complicated to work with those big groups of students, especially if you want and need to speak to them individually, to give them space to think and talk, to

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discuss all their questions and dilemmas. Classes are 45 min long and Serbian is usually 3–4 classes a week, which is also a big problem. The national curriculum includes both national, regional and international literature, language writing and speaking rules, grammar, and the culture of speech. Even if you are not well informed about what all these things mean, you can see that it is too much. At the moment we are waiting for the Ministry of Education and Culture of Republika Srpska to finish the reform process. Our suggestions as teachers were aimed at separating the two subjects, literature and language, which would give us all more time to work in the way our students want. One of my suggestions was to form debate as a distinct subject so students learn it as a part of their curriculum. In support of this suggestion I created back in 2012 the school’s Debating Club. Since then about 200 students have actively participated, most of them for 3 or 4 years. The biggest challenges in our educational environment are connected with financial issues, but also with political attitudes towards education. A society which does not consider education as its most important asset does not have a bright future. BiH society, no matter which entity or educational system we speak about, does not think in this way and that is why we can afford 23 cars for three members of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina, but not even one state debate competition. The biggest strength of our educational system is the people, both students and teachers, who work very hard to achieve a lot in a seriously damaged society. Those resources will not last forever if they are not nurtured. We are nearing the last chance for us to fix the education system before we no longer have anyone who is interested in doing that.

 ducating for a Peaceful and Intercultural Society: Some E Peace Pedagogy Approaches and Methods The perspective you have towards society and the world around you is something you need to learn in your earliest childhood, at home, from your parents. Of course, schools are also important, as is your environment, but the seed is planted in your home. There are many things we can learn in our lives, but being a teacher and even more being a teacher of peace values and intercultural learning is something you need to feel and to believe in. Of course, learning and practicing is very important, but if you do not believe and feel it, there is little possibility to reach it. Although I was old enough to see, feel and understand a lot of things during the war in ex-Yugoslavia, I did not change the attitude my parents gave me: the only distinction we should make between people is on whether they are good or bad. That is the only thing that counts–not their culture, nationality or religious belief. This distinction stands in contrast to the more problematic separation that people tend to make in BiH society based on traditional beliefs that “my nation is good and others are bad”. There are no good or bad cultures/religions/nations. There are just good and bad individuals, persons, nothing else and nothing more.

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Nurturing Dialogue and Debate Bosnian society was seriously damaged after the war, during the 90 s and the first decade of the new millennium. Political parties today seem to want to maintain BiH society in that confused situation full of fear and distrust. The only ones who have systematically tried to work on promoting peaceful education and an intercultural society have been NGOs, mostly financed by international organisations. One of those organisations was the Centre of Cultivating Dialogue from Sarajevo, an organisation established in 1997 which aimed to teach and spread debate in BiH and other ex-Yu republics. In 2010, I was chosen to learn and teach debate in Gimnazija „Vaso Pelagić“ Brčko, which was the most important thing that happened in my career. Before that I had done a lot of workshops and joint projects with SIDA as a representative of the Academy of Arts from Banja Luka, along with 5 other academies from the region. I also participated in different political education programs, where I was chosen as a representative of left-oriented political parties. Being an English teacher put me in the position of reading a lot and learning from different international mentors while cooperating with colleagues from all over BiH. All of these things helped me, but entering the world of debate changed my life forever because that was the only space in the whole of Bosnia and Herzegovina where you could see teachers and students from all over the country working together, learning together, living together for 5–6 days in different parts of the country. During these seminars in Sarajevo, Tuzla, Banja Luka, Mostar and debating camps we had in Neum and Jahorina, the only thing that was important was who had a better argument. These activities also gave us a chance to share experiences and ideas with colleagues. We all understood that problems are the same in every part of the country and agreed that it is sad that we need USAID, EU, SIDA and other foreign organisations to help us speak to each other and show our students that human beings are the same, that our cultures are very similar, our language is the same (just with different names), that our problems and joys are the same. During the last 11 years, I have participated in many different debating competitions, seminars and camps in BiH, but also in Serbia, Croatia, Montenegro, Slovenia, Romania, and Czech Republic. All of these activities were manifestations where we were able to see different cultures and habits and learn to respect and understand others in the same way that we expect them to respect and understand us. I also participated in IDEA’s (International Debate Education Association) annual conference as the representative of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 2019 where I met many colleagues from all over the world who had a lot of experiences incorporating debate and peace education in their educational programs. It is always helpful to know that someone has trod all these paths before you. Participation in the Youth Leadership Programme in 2014 gave me a chance to visit the USA, in particular Seattle, as a city representative of tolerance and differences. I cannot forget that one of the biggest impressions of BiH students was the fact that they were all together  – 12 students from Sarajevo and 6 students from Banja Luka. It is ironic, but we had to travel to the west coast of the USA to be together. As we say here, if it wasn’t tragic, it would be ridiculous.

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The last, but surely the best education from this area was the RYCO project we started in Tirana in the beginning of 2020 and finished in May 2021 online. More than 20 teachers from the WB6 (Western Balkans Six) participated in the creation of a handbook for peace education, sharing their experiences and ideas, their problems and happiness. This was the most useful seminar I have ever had thanks to our mentor, but also to all participants who were mostly well prepared and ready to listen and to share. Collecting different experiences, I have been thinking and trying to implement them into my regular classes of literature and, of course, into debate as an extracurricular activity with my students. Most of the resources I have found online, but I have also found some very useful books and workshop materials during these visits and activities. The most useful methods I have collected and applied in my teaching process are debate, simulation of different situations, and creative re-writing or improvement of different works and role plays. One of the best points of debating is that you can not choose the side you will represent and often you have to fight against your own beliefs and attitudes to develop your arguments. This is also the case with role plays and simulations. Only then and there you can understand another person’s life and opinion and try to feel it and to tolerate it in your real life.

Stimulating Critical Thinking Through Comparative Literature Meeting debate and starting to understand the problems in BiH society, I have also understood that literature, as my main subject, is an excellent tool for teaching kids to think critically and to be tolerant of others. When I was at the faculty, I had a course entitled “Comparative Literature” and its curriculum consisted of different writers from the region. One of the advantages I had is that I belonged to the generation who had old professors, widely educated in Yugoslavia and all over the world, so their interpretations of literature, both world and Serbian literature, was totally different from the paradigm we tend to see today in media and political speeches. This was the thing from my formal education that helped me the most prepare myself for the job I do. At the moment we have different curriculums in the BiH educational systems depending on where one teaches, but the thing that is recommended to all of us is to work on different examples of literature from the region.1 The curriculum for Serbian Language and Literature is issued by the Pedagogical Institute of Republika Srpska2 and in there we are provided a list of all of the works and areas we have to work on. There are some examples from Croatian literature like Ivan Goran Kovačić, Miroslav Krleža, Ivan Gundulić, Vladan Desnica, but that is all. There was a

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specific joint list of works and writers for all the languages, which I used to have in Brčko District, but I do not use it any more. My opinion is that reading any literary work can be good both for us and for students, regardless of who wrote it. I hope we will have much more freedom in the future programme so we could include some modern and contemporary writers from Croatia and from the Federation of BiH. Serbian language and literature is the first and, I would say, the most important and the longest studied subject in the RS educational system, the same as any other mother tongue. Its structure is very broad and complicated, as I have already mentioned. It consists of four different parts: literature, grammar, communication, and writing and speaking rules. In comprehensive grammar schools, where I teach, this subject is taught in 4 classes per week. In the area of grammar, we study rules, reasons and ways of creating words, sentences and their meaning. In the area of communication (written and spoken) it is most important to learn how to use your language in the best possible way, to make your communication pleasant, correct and rich enough to show your thoughts and emotions in the right way. In the area of literature, we study both Serbian and world literature based on historical perspective and chronology, reading the most important classical works from these literary traditions. This part of the subject covers 60% of teaching time, although we all do it more. The problem with this curriculum is that students read a lot of old and very old literary works, but almost nothing from their own time, nothing contemporary. This problem was addressed a few years ago when we got 2 or 3 literary works from more recent times, such as George Orwell, Umberto Eco, Borislav Pekić, Goran Petrovic, Harper Lee, etc. Those changes were made in 2018 and can be checked for the third grade.3 On the web site of the Pedagogical Institute of Republika Srpska there is an old and new curriculum which can be compared. Two or three contemporary works per year is not a lot, but it is more than we used to have and very useful. I think the most important part of this subject is reading, analysing and understanding the texts. We all know that PISA results for students from BiH, who participated for the first time in 2018, were very low, almost the worst in Europe.4 The lowest scores were obtained in relation to reading and understanding texts. Our students (and many others in our society) do not know how to read texts, how to decide what is said between the lines, how to analyse the content and understand the writer’s message. The only subject in Republika Srpska that can help them do something about this is popularly called Serbian. At the same time, the most interesting part of this subject is learning about human lives: different cultures, places, and people. Their life situations and choices always offer fruitful discussions, for meeting students in their own worlds, for helping them to meet each other, and for learning to convince the ones around you of the truth you have discovered. Such classes are my greatest motivation for teaching. I enjoy them the most and so do my students.

 https://www.rpz-rs.org/sajt/doc/file/web_portal/05/5.4/NPP%20za%20III%20razred%20gimnazije.pdf 4  https://aposo.gov.ba/sadrzaj/uploads/PISA-2019-izvje%C5%A1%C4%87e-za-BiH.pdf 3

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Researching Global Issues Through Contemporary Literature I try to use the Common Core curriculum to teach peace values and intergroup reconciliation as much as possible, but also use the flexibility of both the national and IB programs to include contemporary works which are connected with our own lives and our specific regional and national situation. Within the International Baccalaureate Diploma Program, we choose literary works together with our students within certain criteria (foreign and domestic literature, different genres, different regions, continents and cultures). This programme affords teachers much more freedom in choosing literary texts than the national programme, but we still have to prepare our students for specific exams. One of the specific exam parts is the oral part where students research and think about a global issue they are interested in. They are expected to find out writers’ attitudes and thoughts on this issue in their works. I find it significant that the BiH war and the position of the human being during the war was one of the most interesting global topics for my students this year. The works selected made them think, research, discuss and feel these topics. Challenges of historical misapprehension are always welcome if you work with teenagers because it is in their nature to attack or doubt traditional values and beliefs. This global topic analysis is something that I have started to use also in the national programme because our teenagers today are much more aware of reality and they need literature to help them understand it. The percentage of students who read and understand literature in the first place as a work of art was always small and these days, it seems, even smaller. I do not find it problematic or tragic. It is just the spirit of the times and we need to respect it and we need to try to make the best of that reality. Peace values and intercultural learning are inseparable parts of almost every subject, but especially of Serbian language and literature, of every mother tongue and literature subject. It is impossible to read, analyse and discuss either world or national literature without having these questions and topics at the forefront. Using literature to meet different cultures, regions, nationalities, but also to find similarities between all human beings and their lives is a great way to teach peace values and intercultural learning. During the last 10 years I have been using literature as a tool for educating intellectual, self-confident and tolerant young people as my first priority, and literary genres and stylistic characteristics as my second priority. Why? It is much more important to educate every young person for peace values, intercultural peacebuilding, tolerance and dialogue than to teach them figures, literary periods or biographies of writers. Only a few of our students will deal with literature in the future, but all of them will deal with life, other people and themselves. That is why it is more important to use literature for teaching „life” (that is what all literary works teach us in one word) than for teaching figures and writers’ choices.

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 xploring Multiple Perspectives on the Past and the Present E Through Classical Works All of the things I have mentioned can be easily connected with the prescribed curriculum because every classical literary work (from Shakespeare’s „Hamlet“ to Dostoevsky’s „Crime and Punishment“) is rich and possible to read in many different ways and from many perspectives. That is why we call them classics and that is why they have been prescribed in different curriculums for hundreds of years. Serbian literature is very rich with „war novels“ (to be expected because of the history of wars in the Balkans). I find that it is very important to show my students different possibilities for reading such works. Also, one of the biggest characteristics of our domestic literature is cultural diversity in the Balkans and different treatments and situations during historical periods. It is very important to give students an approach based on peace values because these topics can always be misused. For example, there is a novel from twentieth century Serbian literature written by Danko Popovic, called „The Book of Milutin“. This novel is prescribed in the RS curriculum for 4th grade grammar school. The story is set in the context of the Serbo-­ Bulgaria war and focuses on the personal tragedy of Milutin. After that war, Milutin is taken or sent to both world wars without knowing why. War makes him lose everything, including his only son. His biggest impression of war is that there is no reason why people should kill each other. In communist critiques, this book was represented as a chauvinistic novel because the story was told by a Serbian man giving his own experience from the perspective of Serbian nation and culture. I suggested to my students that there is another way to read this novel. If it is read and analysed carefully, it is possible to see no greater humanist and anti-war person than Milutin. To my eyes, that is the real point of this novel. Replace the First World War or the Second World War with any war in the whole world, and Serbian people with any other people and Milutin with Jack or Otto or Ali, you will have the same idea in the end: war is the worst choice the human race can make in any time and in any place. Students must understand that different historical times value different beliefs. Politics in Yugoslavia decided to denounce this book as wrong and this writer as unwanted. This book is not welcome in any time if you watch the way the governments look at it. Why? Because it is not celebrating the sacrifice of human lives for any possible reason; it is not accepting killing and destroying people’s homes as a solution for any problem; it is not presenting governments as an a priori smart and humane group that works in the best interest of their nation. That is why Milutin is telling a very important story to all of us. Every artistic work can be used and misused, interpreted and misinterpreted, and that is why the education and careful selection of teachers, especially on these kinds of subjects, is even more important than educating students. If you educate the teacher well, being sure he or she is

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presenting peace, not war, you can be sure that the change you are making to the world is done. To conclude with an example: my view is that in the novel “The Book of Milutin” the major point is not that Milutin was Serbian. The major point about this novel was that Milutin was a man, a human being, who suffered a lot because of the wrong decisions and expectations of three different governments he had through his life. Humanity before Nationality is the point. Now we are here to try to think of it in a different way and to show the biggest peace value of this novel: there is nothing that can legitimize war because human lives are the most important and the most valuable things in the world. When I say “we”, most of all I think of language and literature teachers, but also of all teachers in general. Of course, we can not fight parents’ attitudes, but we need to offer students a new possible perspective. All of the teachers in my school explain this novel in the same or a very similar way. This is not, probably, what the present leaders in BiH would like, but it is up to us which literary and theoretical elements we would emphasize. While we are not free to change the prescribed curriculum reading list, we are free enough to choose our point of view and to give our students the possibility to look at it differently than maybe their parents would.

Analysing Sensitive Topics Through Extended Essays One of the latest projects I worked on with my IB students was their Extended Essays. Two of my students decided to research the influence of war and the inhumanity that goes with it in their comparative essays. As anti-war narrative is one of my favourite motifs in literature and a topic I have been thinking and writing about for many years, this was probably my influence too, but we should not forget the place and the surroundings those kids are living in. They are like sponges: even though we do not think they listen and hear, see and understand, they do. The first student chose to compare „The Lord of the Flies“ by William Golding and „The Cannon was Hot“ by Vladimir Kecmanović. Comparing these two novels we have tried to understand how war has influenced human beings and society. It was very challenging working on the novel by Kecmanović because it is based on the story of the latest war in Sarajevo. This book was not in the curriculum and is not approved by the Ministry. We worked on it in the IB programme where we have the chance to choose works on our own, especially for the final extended essay. The novel is extremely new and given the controversial topics it addresses, you can understand the challenge of attempting to research it. I suggested it to the student, but just for reading, not as an obligation for the comparative element. The student liked it and on her own suggested the comparison with The Lord of Flies. The strongest connection she found was this war influence and that was the way we chose it. The process of studying these works was difficult, but the outcome was excellent in the end. After many discussions, and after searching for different interpretations and reactions in newspaper articles, media interviews and critiques, we concluded that „if you want to stay a decent human being, you need to be ethical in every decision you

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make“. Some of the questions and topics for research that this student raised were facts about the war in Sarajevo and BiH; the influence of the majority on personal decisions; how a human being can be changed or influenced by tragedy or hard life situations, and more. I tried to let her find out on her own, using her parents, literature, research projects, and diverse sources. The student was really happy to see that no matter which period the novel belongs to or which nationality the writer comes from, war and unethical decisions were represented as bad decisions that lead to bad consequences. The message of these novels was the same: (1) war should not be an excuse for crimes, bad decisions or unethical actions; (2) the influence of others can be dangerous if we are not informed about the facts; (3) tragedy can make people insensitive, angry and eager for revenge. This book is the story of “both sides” living in the same way but in different times. A second student did his essay on Kazuo Ishiguro’s „Never Let Me Go“ compared with Danko Popovic’s „The Book of Milutin“. The process of choosing these novels started with the student’s wish to work on Ishiguro’s novel and the topic of humanity. He wanted me to suggest something from Serbian literature (the essay has to be done on comparative literature) and I suggested this one since it is included in the national curriculum. He found it interesting to search for humanity in periods and situations that are not human at all and to see in which way and with what success do people stay or become human. The most interesting thing about this work was the personal story of the student and his family. They were disappointed with my suggestion of the second book because in their family they regarded this book as not welcome. They thought it was chauvinistic and did not want to have it or to give it to their son to read. After reading a few articles that the student found during his own research and several chapters of the novel which we read together, my student decided to read the whole novel. After he read it, he discussed it with his parents and both of them read the novel again, changing their perspective. In his viva voce, the oral part of this essay exam, he explained that this was the best and the biggest discovery he had during his high school, but also something he brought to his family. The final conclusion this boy made in his Extended Essay was: „Regardless of cultural differences, as well as differences in historical context, Kazuo Ishiguro and Danko Popovic proved that the motif of humanity is universal and showed that the fight against difficult circumstances is not so important as much as the way a person treats himself and others, and the way he uses the time that was given to him.“ If this conclusion is not the whole point of education, I am not sure I know what is.

Drawing on Personal Emotions and Attitudes in Learning During these classes I mostly use discussions and, of course, debate. Students are obliged to read books, to undertake research connected with their topics, and then to present to the class what they have found. Using their personal emotions and attitudes is also one of my favourite and most successful methods. For example, when

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we work on a novel, the first question for every student is to tell us what was the most interesting part or topic for him/her and why, and whether there is anything unclear or different from their own opinion or traditional way of thinking and living. This is always the best part of the discussion because typically they try to convince others that their perspective is the only right one, and this is the time when you as a teacher, who wants to show them different perspectives and possibilities, can do your job. The key pedagogical principles I try to respect are freedom of thought and freedom of speech, respect for each other, a culture of dialogue, questioning and challenging but not forcing, and sound argumentation based on ideas, not based on aggression. Should the discussion end on a „one sided picture“, I as teacher need to be prepared to ask totally different questions, to provoke different perspectives. Developing multiperspectivity is another strategy which comes from the previous one. When students hear different attitudes and perspectives presented and explained by their colleagues, it challenges them to evaluate their own perspectives and opinions. From discussions they have we usually take motions for the debate that we organise in the 2nd or 3rd class. Most of the motions are based on major moral, cultural and philosophical questions, important for all human beings in every historical period (e.g. Is Anna Karenina guilty for her tragedy? Was Winston Smith right when he decided to fight the system? Did Raskolnikov have another choice?). This is the most appreciated activity among all of my past generations of students.

Exploring Personal and Social Identities One of my favourite parts of our national curriculum is Laza Lazarevic’s novel called „Švabica“ („The German Girl“). In this novel, which is assigned in the 2nd year, students can see a lot of things concerning personal and national identity; patriarchal and western cultures. A young man from Serbia, named Mišo, decides to give up his biggest love just because she has a different nationality, culture and religion. He suffers and his destroyed life is a great example for all of these teenagers. The best thing is that this story was written in the nineteenth century. Even in that time, when nationalities were created, well-educated people knew that these kinds of decisions would be bad. I use this story to start an identity workshop, using the RYCO handbook which contains a lesson of identity with its questions and definitions. This was one of the most interesting sessions with my class, but the time available did not let us work in the way we planned to. I was really surprised that students did not know anything about their identities – what they are made of, what is personal and what is group/national identity; which one is more important for them. The first step was to retell the story of Mišo and to explain the sources of his tragic life at the end of the story. Students recognised that his wrong decisions at one moment of his life destroyed the possibility of happiness. The second step for the

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students was to recognise elements of personal and national identity in this story and to try to explain what they are made of. Some of the questions I gave them were: what is personal identity made of, what is national identity made of, where do we get personal identity from, how do we get national identity, which one is more important for you? The third step in this activity was to think about moving “Švabica” from the nineteenth to the twenty-first century. This was the moment when the atmosphere in the classroom became a little bit tough. When they understood that they could easily be in Mišo’s situation, they became very serious and a little bit worried. After they concluded that there are similar situations today, and that today we do not have to go to Germany to have this identity “problem”, we discussed their own decisions. The answers were different, various, and some of them are probably just declarative, but the biggest benefit was to make them understand what those types of identities are made of, what they can do for us or against us, and to make them think a little bit of the circumstances and consequences of their own choices. They use the word identity, but they do not understand it in the right way. And that is not the situation only with this word. It is one of the main characteristics of these generations – they look like they know a lot, but it is just superficial. If you scratch just a little bit, you will see they do not understand many things at all. If you ask me, this is the biggest problem of the ex-Yu societies in these technologically and globalised modern times. Too much information, very easy to get, but even easier to lose, made our young people dependent on their devices and their fast and usually very superficial information. Just as they use devices for information, they use them also for other people’s conclusions and connections. They do not try to draw their own conclusions, to build a new value, based on their own thinking and connecting facts. What is the reason for all of this, except availability, popularity and affordability of this kind of living and thinking? A wrong and destroyed value system. If the world around them does not show them the appreciation of the right things like learning, real knowledge, personal conclusions and moral decision making, they will never learn it from theory. Students, like all kids, do not learn from stories. They learn from examples. If you tell them that it is wrong to cheat and use internet sources instead of reading the book on their own, and then you give them some exercises and questions taken from the internet source, they will not listen to your words but your works. In that case you will get all the same answers and essays taken from some internet page. The same with values. If the most popular, the most rich and appreciated persons in society are criminal, immoral persons, people who are not educated, the message that kids receive is that it is good to be like that and even worse. In that situation teachers and their idealistic stories about right decisions and moral deeds appear to young people as fairy tales whose characters they make fun of. That is why I think peace education in Bosnia and Herzegovina is so important, because it is vital for students to become well-educated young people who want to meet and understand both the world and themselves.

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Respecting each Other and Learning to Live Together I would like to emphasize that we need to give students possibilities but not to force them to think the way we think is right. Even those who are very closed or conservative are free to stay like that as long as their opinions do not insult anyone and they support it with valid argumentation. The path from a hard one-sided perspective to multiperspectivity can be long and full of stones and holes. One of the strategies that can be used, when encountering students who are very closed or conservative, is to invite them to reflect on the soundness of their arguments and to remind them that insults to others have no place in the classroom. If we are patient and persistent enough, if we have a strategy, good tools and will, the path can be followed and finished in a successful way. The problem in this region starts not because of different opinions and attitudes, but because of trying very hard to force others to think the same way we do. I encourage my students to listen, try to understand and to respect the independence of the other person. Pushing people to think the same doesn’t work, because it is impossible to get it. Show them respect for their opinion and explain your own perspective with arguments and good will. One day you will see them feel it and change their attitudes and the way they treat others. The most important literary fragment from Serbian literature that describes this region is from the beginning of Ivo Andrić’s novel „The Bridge over the Drina“ where he speaks about children in Višegrad who think totally differently about the steps in the stone. As Andrić puts it, „no one has changed his or her opinion or convinced others in the truthfulness of their thoughts, but this did not stop them from playing and enjoying life together“. If every one of my students were to remember only this part of the novel, I would be happy till the end of my career. This novel is planned for the third grade and it is the most important literary work for these kinds of stories and educational lessons. In every chapter, in every page you can find something that tells you to love a human being, not to judge him. Andric has given us so many examples of the bad decisions of those who decided to hate instead of to love that we have to be totally crazy to do the same. There are some special stories in this novel that offer examples of an individual or a group going against the established social norm in order to defend what is best for humanity: the story about Alihodža fighting against the Austrian Empire and being saved by the Austrian soldier; the story about the big flood when all the people, no matter their religion or nationality, were together and were helping each other; the story about Abidaga and Arifbeg, as an example of the bad and good based on personal, not national identity, etc. Andric’s novel was published in 1945, written during the Second World War, a period when hatred was widespread in the Balkans, especially in ex-Yugoslavia. This book is the most important story of this region, and we can learn a lot from it. I choose to learn how to love, understand and respect others, and I have been trying very hard for more than 20 years to teach that to my students.

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A Review of Peace Pedagogy Approaches The following table summarises the key peace pedagogy approaches that I have found most useful in my teaching of language and literature. I mention the competence that I aim to develop in my students, the peace principle that it operationalises, the activities I use to exercise that competence with students, and the role that I adopt as teacher in order to support that learning objective (Table 9.1).

 esponses of My Students and Community R to Peace Education In all of the schools where I have worked, I have been one of my students’ favourite teachers and that is my biggest reward. While there have been different students in my classes, including children with complicated family stories, I learned that if you respect them, they will respect you; if you talk to them from the depth of your heart, they will believe you. There are many parts of our students’ lives we cannot influence or change, but we can show them different perspectives, positive thoughts and good will, and then let them decide. And if your stories are continuously bright, that light of your heart will affect them for sure. From the kind of activities I’ve described above, I have understood that these generations really want to talk about serious problems in the society of Bosnia and Herzegovina, including both historical things and current problems. They have many questions and they need answers. They also need the space and time to develop and share their own opinions. During these classes we usually stay even after the bell formally finishes the class as there is never enough time for them to say what they have on their minds. Most of the time they are worried about their own future, thinking of going out of the country and asking things about some important political decisions. These topics are very sensitive and, in some way, dangerous because politics is forbidden in schools. Sometimes or most of the time it is very hard to resist the questions and comments they make no matter whether you ask or not. I remember I was ashamed once when my 3rd grade students went to protests and asked me to go with them. I was so sad and felt ashamed I wasn’t brave enough to go. It was a student protest against some governmental decisions. This situation is the symbol of what the government thinks about teachers: they gave us kids to teach subjects, but not to teach them lives, attitudes and perspectives. I do not know what to tell you about this rule. Maybe politics should not be at schools (certainly not political or party activities), but if we look back, teacher, good teachers were always in front of their students trying to lead and to protect them at the same time. What about me? I just put my head down and blushed. I know I disappointed them and I still feel really bad.

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Table 9.1  Summary of peace pedagogy approaches in teaching language & literature Targeted Competence Critical thinking

Associated Peace Principle Ability to think independently and to participate in a culture of dialogue Ability to approach controversial and sensitive issues from different points of view/holistically

Activities that exercise that competence Debate

Teacher’s Role in supporting the activity Creating challenging topics and respectful atmosphere Asking probing and perspective-shifting questions Multi-­ Debate Monitoring for bias and perspectivity Drawing on alternative stimulate reflection from other sources of information/ points of view through key media questions Creating a ‘safe’ and ‘brave’ space for students to express themselves and listen to others Critical Ability to seek for Researching critiques Finding and offering a (media) and recognize truth of literary works controversial work to study, literacy Comparing different guiding students to research sources and analyses different perspectives on the Exercising the ability controversy, to assess those to question and rethink perspectives, and to articulate assumptions, to their values and conclusions. research, fact-check, compare and assess provided information Empathy Ability to see and to Extended essays Creating a peaceful and safe feel the world from Dialogue environment for participants the perspective of to express themselves another Creating opportunities to listen deeply to others Role-modelling active listening and empathy Personal and Ability to Identity-mapping Posing challenging questions social identities differentiate yourself Personal reflection about self and belonging, from the group you Dialogue sameness and difference, belong to conformity and originality, inherited and chosen attributes and roles Intercultural Applying respect and Field visits/excursions Taking risks to encounter the understanding tolerance ‘other’ and to question the definition of ‘otherness’ Respect for Applying respect and Different literature Modelling respect for diversity tolerance researching diversity Learning from Finding and Novels and stories with Modelling optimism, hope the past understanding bright examples of good resilience and perseverance examples relations and connections

Yet, it is very hard not to touch on some of these topics during these classes. Fortunately, I did not have any bad comments from my students’ parents and most of them were happy to have these interesting topics at school. And I really try very

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hard not to give my personal opinion but to ask questions, give different points of view and challenge them to think faster and braver. If we talk about colleagues, it is important to know that language and literature teachers are very self-oriented, and they do not share a lot outside of their class. Some of my close colleagues support me and my methods, but I am not sure about the school community at all. As political figures are very close to the school, we have to be very careful with these topics. I can just say that the understanding and support I have received from the school pedagogue, psychologist and social worker are very important to me. They work directly with students, so they know much more about our classes than we think. I am sure they would react if something was wrong, but until now they have supported my methods. If we talk about the debate club, I had support from all of my principals, and nobody has ever stopped us from debating any topic we choose. They were not with us very often, but whenever they were, they were pleased with what they heard and saw. Some of the topics we have discussed are: the freedom of media in BiH, priorities of educational systems in BiH, BiH entering NATO, negative voices in elections, hate speech in BiH media, etc. Some of the topics were given by the projects we were debating for, but most of them were created by me and my older debaters. The biggest challenge concerning debate was that this was not an activity organised by the pedagogical institute of RS and the results students won were not treated in the same way. Fighting verbally was one of my favourite parts, but nothing has changed. They do not find debate important enough to become a respective part of the competition calendar. Some colleagues have not been happy with debating students because they noticed those students are much more self-confident, open and ask for explanations in other classes, not simply accepting whatever the teacher says. I generally ignore these kinds of comments unless my students are affected, in which case I talk to the principal or I ask those colleagues about their comments publicly, during teachers’ meetings. Most of them become ashamed and others just go their own way. One of the most recent experiences I had with the public, mostly through the media, was in the beginning of 2020. Working on Orhan Pamuk’s novel „My Name is Red,“ I decided to organise a visit for one of my classes to the Ferhadija mosque in Banja Luka. For me it was normal and easy to go there with my students and to hear something about the Islamic paintings, to have a lecture from the guide about their practices and beliefs. I knew this would be strange for many people because nobody does it and none of my 3rd grade students have ever been there before, but I did not expect the media to represent that excursion in the way they did. I was really sad when I saw that my class was represented as a seventh world miracle, as some kind of political UFO. My principal did not react, but some of my „caring colleagues“ did by saying „you do not need to do that kind of thing“. But I just say, I do. And my students do too. The article which was published in one of the newspapers in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina totally misunderstood the point of the excursion also, connecting it with everyday politics and politicians, their own fights with them, and using my class as a weapon to fight them. Not even once did they mention the novel I worked on, the goal of our visit and it looked like I took

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school kids to promote some political attitudes, which was not the truth at all and which I would never do. I respect the institution I work for and all the laws that are given by the state and the country. It could cause a lot of problems both for me, my students and my school. If you ask me, it would be totally normal if teachers do these things in every school and every town in Bosnia and Herzegovina. If this is the case, then my visit to Ferhadija would have never been a sensation. So, dear colleagues, help me not to be a sensation. If we, as a younger generation of teachers who experienced all three periods of times, pre-war, war and post-war, and who know what things were like, do not make peace between these generations, I really do not know who will. Politicians won’t for sure. I am very happy to start this kind of education with my students and I notice they are much more tolerant, respectful and interested in different stories and cultures. This is my biggest reward and there is no payment that can change this. The fact that they are coming back to me as friends after 5, 10, 15 years with nice memories is the only evaluation I believe in. There is no greater judge than they are. And they are the only ones that count. In the future I am planning to work more on peace education workshops with my class, but also with my debating club. I hope to have the chance to go out of the classroom and show them those stories and situations in reality.

Conclusion Peacebuilding education is not only necessary in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It should be part of every educational system in the world because of globalization processes and the great influence we all have on each other. There is no point in teaching peace only here if big countries teach war. And of course, there is no point teaching peace in closed communities. We need to practise peace the same as any other activity or skill you want to learn. If we don’t start to travel, to visit each other, to organize school exchanges, this will stay just on paper and that is not the point. As a state, at the moment, we do not give peace education enough space and care and it has to be changed yesterday if we want to have a tomorrow. A recommendation for my colleagues who teach language and literature: Use the best tool we have as much as you can: literature. The languages we speak give us the chance to read everything we want without translation. Isn’t that richness? Use contemporary, young and living writers who can give you and your students fresh stories about our present and near past. In that way you will be much closer and much more interesting to your students. Show them another perspective and you will see another world in them. And for those who are responsible for teacher education: Try to choose the best not the worst students for the educational system; choose by character and love, not just by marks; pay them better and they will work better. And the most important:

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Let us work together and exchange experiences, visit each other. We won’t disappear, we will double.

Take-Away Messages • Only a good person can be a good teacher. • If you believe what you are talking about, everyone will believe you. • Smart and well-educated people are always a challenge for the government without solutions. • Literature is always a good escape room. Use it until the world becomes your world. • Knowledge is the only true and great power human beings can gain. Gain it!

Resources https://unoy.org/downloads/youth4peace-­training-­toolkit/ http://www.schoolme.education/landing/assets/unicef/unicef.pdf http://www.ckdbih.com/dokumenti/brosura%20debata%20orudje%20znanja.pdf Branka Ljubojević is a teacher of Serbian language and literature at Gimnazija Banja Luka. She studied Serbian language and literature at the University of Banja Luka, followed by a Master’s degree in Literature, with a primary focus on depictions of war in literature. Branka has been working for 20  years as an English teacher, librarian, Serbian language and literature teacher, International Baccalaureate Diploma Program coordinator, and international project coordinator. She was recognized as one of the “best 10 teachers in BiH” in 2020.  

Chapter 10

Drama-Based Pedagogy: Theatre for Social Change in Classroom Ida Karahasanović-Avdibegović

Abstract  This chapter focuses on methods of personal experience in drama in education that enable imagining other, more liberating worlds. It demonstrates that working with the ‘what if’ gesture opens up the possibility of teaching through art and expressing the value of the student participation in the learning process. The chapter analyses two plays as examples of how the role of drama remains an inspiring source to address questions regarding social change and transformation. In describing these two complementary works, weaving along the theories of Paolo Freire and Augusto Boal, our role as educators is redefined and our capacity to move beyond the imaginable is changed. This change is strongly associated with the realisation of the individual through enjoyment, self-expression and self-discovery. It changes attitudes, hearts, minds and ways of seeing the world. Students embark on a journey full of introspection, evaluation and interrogation. Working with this ‘extra dimension’ involves keeping multiple aspects of education in mind–the visual, emotional, cognitive, intentional and accidental–weighing up the possibilities that these different aspects might offer. To present these various aspects of theatre in the classroom, two different plays will be included: Things I Want to Say But Never Will, realised through a survey with students in school and consequently made into a play; and a play about bullying, Before the Bell, produced by Beat by Beat Press and performed in six segregated schools throughout Bosnia and Herzegovina. This chapter which is based upon empirical research done in schools while using drama as a tool for democracy and transformation offers, I hope, an answer to the often-heard plea, ‘Be the change you want to see in the world’. Accordingly, the change starts within ourselves, followed by the need to inspire, enlighten and provoke seekers to explore meaning and to transform. Keywords  Drama pedagogy · Peace education · Liberation · Theatre in education · Social change

I. Karahasanović-Avdibegović (*) University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 L. Kasumagić-Kafedžić, S. Clarke-Habibi (eds.), Peace Pedagogies in Bosnia and Herzegovina, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26246-3_10

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Introduction “Theatre is a form of knowledge: it should and can also be a means of transforming society. Theatre can help us build our future, rather than just waiting for it.” Augusto Boal

This paper attempts to provide a vision for the teaching of English language and peace pedagogies through drama in schools. Drama-based pedagogy engages students and teachers in an embodied process which is change-oriented and is therefore a contribution to peace education. Through drama pedagogy, social challenges like oppression, violent behaviour, intercultural awareness, social change and justice can be explored, understood and improved. It also enables participants to gain more universal knowledge for conflict solving, liberation and safer living. Working with educational theatre and drama (ETD) coincides with the universal competences of what is to be human and how to locate ourselves and each other in a society worth living in. Being practically involved in drama enables us to get to grips with a deeper understanding of our specific places and roles in the world. By this, the links between drama-based pedagogy and social change are proven to be beyond separation. Social change is only possible through action, and drama-based pedagogy is an action-oriented methodology for teaching the concept of peace across the curriculum. They are both entwined to a degree that the role of one pushes the boundaries of the other and offers a progressive insight into the actual context of the twenty-first century classroom. Drama in education focuses on collaborative and interdisciplinary project-based learning, thereby exploring to a certain degree civic awareness as the creative work includes imagination, creativity and social consciousness. Drama in its essence is a role-taking activity that allows its participants to behave differently, to empathise with others and to reconsider various points of views, contexts, social dimensions and interpersonal relationships. It becomes an inviting activity for everyone. Through drama and acting, students reimagine what is possible and what someone else’s reality is, engaging with the most pressing social issues through their artistic involvement in specific contexts. The emphasis is not merely on the script, but on daily activities such as empathy, speech, observation and improvisation. Students occupy a space and find themselves in a dynamic community exploring the intersections of inventing, acting, directing, writing, managing and creative technology. The process embraces an authenticity of expression and creation of benefit for the community. It also proposes a new dialogic quality of cooperative sentiments that inspire learning and participating in a competitive academic process. Opposed to traditional schooling where acquiring knowledge is linear, where facts are not intended to be questioned, in the drama classroom learning happens collaboratively between the teacher and the student. Meaning is negotiated, not prescribed. It doesn’t limit one to verbal or written expression like traditional classroom activities do, but rather ensures that the bodily voice is also heard and expressed as part of cultivating in students the capacity for personal and collective

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transformation. Theatre in school has proven to be an effective way of communicating a lived experience. The students’ experiences and lives are the basis of their creative projects and are crucial in the co-production of both knowledge and awareness of the socio-historical context it is set in. In this way, students/actors recreate the experiences of people involved so that spectators can experience it as well. The reflexive nature of theatre in education represents an attempt to feel the new generations and connect with the essence of what they are experiencing while strengthening the bonds of community. As we experiment with these methodologies, we begin to develop ways of comprehending the world and the self, enabling students to critically engage with the world around them. As global educators we have a life-long responsibility to challenge the power and the pedagogies that reproduce inequities in education. In this context, art and theatre best communicate approaches that can de-link education from dominant notions and reorient it to inclusive opportunities. While there are many inspirations for educational theatre practices, we will consider the ones strongly connected to peace education and transformative community social action. The famous Brazilian educator Paolo Freire developed the idea of critical pedagogy that has become central in the effort to engage students in developing the ability to think critically and analytically in order to end the distorted reality of human suffering. Critical pedagogy enables students to enter a space of critical observation and understanding. This space allows us to discover that there are many truths, and what one person holds as real and honest may not be true for another. Research has confirmed the effectiveness of drama and theatre in educational contexts involving students physically, cognitively and emotionally.1 Critical pedagogy initiates teachers into involving students in theatre techniques that are strongly empowering; teaching them to identify, analyze, and challenge issues such as oppression and disempowerment through being active rather than passive. It invites us to explore social concepts within typical power relationships, ultimately seeing things as they are in the real world and considering how to transform oppression into a site of resistance. The key in this process is engaging with Bahktin’s concept of dialogism and heteroglossia2 which underline the presence of multiple  Several authors have been identified to be involved in drama in education and applied theatre in an international setting. They opened up spaces for teachers’ practices and hindered theatrical strategies used as methodologies for teaching and learning across curriculum. Specifically, leaders such as Dorothy Heathcote and Gavin Bolton in the 1970s engaged in drama in classrooms and their work was expanded into applied drama. Bolton was directly inspired by the methods of Heathcote, nevertheless invented a new form of theatre in education known as “contextual drama”. Other significant ideas of Theatre in Education can be traced in the work of Harriet Finlay -Johnson, Caldwell Cook, Peter Slade, Brian Way and Christine Redington. They made it possible to incorporate the value of drama within the education system and within the school’s curriculum. The book Key Concepts in Theatre/Drama Education was published in 2011, edited by Shifra Schonmann, as an impressive volume to convey a potentially powerful role of drama in education. 2  Marvin A. Carlson, Theories of the Theatre: A Historical and Critical Survey from the Greeks to the Present, Cornell University Press, 1984, New York, p. 509. 1

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perspectives through exploring “contrasting voices typical of the theatre experience”.3 The teacher’s role in this process is to reinforce a perspective of altruism and social justice, to try and awaken the imagination that can lead to catharsis in terms of emotions, psychological clarification, uplifting experiences and moral obligation among the students. Through the lens of critical and engaged pedagogy, the students’ possibility for agency, for their writing of the world, is empowered regardless of their social location. This chapter provides a glimpse into the context of educational drama and theatre methods, many reasons for integrating drama into academic curricula, and the benefits of doing so. It may serve as an inspiration to educators who are not drama or theatre specialists, and may serve to introduce paradigms and merits of Theatre in Education (TiE) and the Theatre of the Oppressed. In the drama practices described in this chapter, the role of the teacher becomes one of guided intervention in the practical activity of the classroom. The teacher has minimum didactic input, but instead challenges the learning as the process progresses. The chapter bases its reflections on two plays performed by adolescents from Druga gimnazija Sarajevo in 2019 and 2020 in theatres in Sarajevo and in marginalised schools around Bosnia and Herzegovina.4 My specific role in this process was to create a space for an alternative vision, aiming at new perspectives as a direct response to the limited structure of formal education in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The question was how to create this in the service of education? How to unlock the imaginative potency of theatre in education? Theatre of the oppressed practitioner is never just an observer nor a preacher. Having the workshops implemented in schools with a particular group of students who wanted to give theatre a try was one of the most progressive pieces of work of my teacher’s life. Never had my input, or my attention and emotions for the students, been more concentrated on each and every one of my students. One of the main initiatives to organize these workshops starts with the notion of social transformation in the direction of liberating the students for the future. It enables students to participate, conscious of their condition as spectators by being involved in direct action taking. How theatre of the oppressed delves into this is by understanding reality and transforming it to our liking. The experience of participating in this interdisciplinary classroom approach offered occasions for research and deeper insight into considerably more than teaching and performance styles, resonating with a deeper holistic connection that became a physical and emotional experience. What proved to be the biggest success are the choices of the plays because they

 Ibid.  The project was initiated by the EU info centre (EUIC) for the human rights campaign EU4 Rights 2019/2020, a project founded by the European Union in Bosnia and Herzegovina. There were six different cities included in the theatre production of the play “Before the Bell’‘: Sarajevo, Mostar, Banja Luka, Stolac, Travnik, Donji i Gornji Vakuf, Teočak. The play was translated into Bosnian and adapted for the cultural context of the country based on the sentiment of the multicultural society. The play is about signalling the importance of the effects of bullying, raising consciousness and broadening the perception of power. 3 4

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really mattered to the students. Success occurs only when it is in the best interest of everyone involved in terms of listening with objectivity and acceptance. For bell hooks (1994), holistic education, such as what drama pedagogy can offer, has the potential for an enormous impact on students and on society if teachers prepare themselves in the right way. Comparing it to mindfulness, she argues that “teachers must be actively committed to a process of self-actualization that promotes their own well-being if they are to teach in a manner that empowers students”.5 This brings a completely new perspective from which the role of the teacher can take many forms in the methodology of the twenty-first century classroom. In practice, such an approach involves ongoing research into the combination of drama techniques and peer teaching in a school setting, aimed at empowering students to participate by taking control of their own creativity and managing various important social issues in their environment. One of the most important connections to the environment and the social realm are the potential uses of theatre in peace education. Arts can be applied as a tool to promote peace pedagogy focussed on nonviolent communication models. Drama and theatre in education, combined with the peace theories and critical pedagogy of Paolo Freire and Augusto Boal, the founder of the Theatre of the Oppressed in Brazil, can be used to promote conflict resolution and reconciliation. Both of these seemingly disparate threads were connected and woven together in a series of alternative educational and political visions. During the first World Congress of Arts Education, UNESCO (2006) announced that arts would be a Priority Area within Education.6 New visions and reforms all around the world started negotiating the implementation and goals of this development in educational systems. If not in Bosnia and Herzegovina, then in many parts of the world, the interest in the importance of arts and their relationship to education subsequently increased significantly. Being an English teacher with a high intercultural awareness I brought this subject matter into my research and it has permanently changed my views on contemporary language teaching. Drama is deliberately broad in scope, respecting traditional forms but also embracing new and diverse methods in terms of community projects, lifelong learning and imagination as one of the most important concepts in educational vision. Understanding this is helpful to teachers for a number of reasons. First of all, both the teacher and the students learn from projects. They discover the potential of theatre in different settings of education, activism, service and conflict management. Teachers learn how to be facilitators who hand over creativity to the students and trust in the knowledge that what they create will be adapted and changed until it reaches a point of insight and meaning. Teachers become more humane and able to wield a democratic authority so as to nourish the process of pedagogy. This is closely connected to the roots of the Theatre of the Oppressed Methodology, marking the beginning of a teacher/ facilitator who has the authority to lead, but not to radically impose his/her ideas on  bell hooks, Teaching to Transgress: Education as the Practice of Freedom, Routledge, New York, 1994. p. 15. 6  Mike Fleming, Liora Bresler, and John O’Toole, The Routledge International Handbook of the Arts and Education, Routledge, London and New York, 2015. 5

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the participants. In this way, students became actively engaged as the subjects in the learning process but simultaneously be challenged to think critically highlighting the importance of both. Letting go of control on both sides of the teacher-student relationship and thereby entering a space of trust, exploration and respect, becomes an aligned process that opens up spaces never previously imagined. Additionally, treating each student as an individual and distinct, enhances participation in a non-­ authoritative way. In this context, letting go and building trust becomes a necessary part of the process, and proves to be one of the most difficult aspects of it as well. This includes feedback, risk-taking, questioning and responses after every session since they are very important for the effectiveness of the final play. In the process, students acquire a new understanding of applied theatre and its use as a means of social change in various contexts. “The theatre itself is not revolutionary, it is a rehearsal for a revolution.”7

 ducational Drama, Applied Drama or Theatre E in Education (TiE) The practice of applied drama or theatre in education is usually connected with participants who are not skilled in theatre arts and are not professional actors. Taking part in applied drama means taking part in a social intervention using strategies like teacher-in-role, an approach initiated by Dorothy Heathcote who has become a remarkable contributor to our understanding of drama in education. It is structured entirely differently from classical theatre; its essential characteristic is not that of the final performance but rather the process of experiencing in an explored dramatic situation. Process drama, educational drama and theatre in education are all parts of applied drama which has become a growing trend since the beginning of the twentieth century, especially in the work of Heathcote, who places the child at the centre of learning in order to come to terms with their own selves and the world.8 Her vision of education was drawn from the arts, literature and life. She pointed this out in her writings: The difference may be that we create a race of teachers who are unafraid to make relationship with classes, who are unafraid to admit that they do not know, who never stop seeking to learn more about the dynamics of teaching; who bring all of themselves to school and demand that their classes do the same; who can actually change their modes of work to suit the needs of their classes at any time so that learning is kept meaningful, who like to get on with the people they teach because they are tired today, so their classes can take some responsibility. It is surely with trying a different way.9

 Boal, Augusto, Theatre of the Oppressed, Pluto Press, London, 1979.  Roger Wooster, Contemporary Theatre in Education, The University of Chicago Press, 2007. 9  Johnson L., and O’Neill., (eds) Dorothy Heathcote; Collected Writings on Education and Drama, London, Hutchinson, 1984, p. 40. 7 8

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Educational drama which involves active participation of children, in or out of role, in improvised drama activities in which images and ideas are explored at their own level, and simulation which involves highly structured role-play and decision-­ making exercises within simulated ‘real-life’ situations10 are two related terms that are essentially connected; each folding in the teacher’s intentions with students’ intentions and thereby significantly interweaving the educational value of theatre. Theatre in Education was a movement initiated in Britain in the 1960s in direct response to the educational reforms that were happening around the country in both theatre/arts and school curricula. Later it emerged in other countries as an important experience for children to help them understand and operate in the world they live in. Theatre has subsequently become a very powerful instrument in educational processes in the twenty-first century: “The field of drama, as we know it from the beginning of last century and until today, is first and foremost connected to a student-­ activated pedagogy with an inextricable foundation in progressive pedagogy”.11 Theatre in education (TiE) differs from the traditional role that classical theatre plays in terms of structured elements and workshops, usually ‘devised’12 and researched by the instructor/teacher around an idea of interest to the school or the community and to their own lives. TiE is a genre that promotes theatre as a subgenre in education, seeking to clarify the effects of drama on the community and personal growth. At various points in history, it has been demonstrated that theatre was considered an important element in education. Various studies found connections between theatre and pedagogy and this connection has led to many breakthroughs in methodologies that encourage participation. Contemporary drama educators mediate a climate in which learning happens best through creativity-based settings. Drama in education empowers and shows the enormous potential teachers possess. All of it begs the question of what we can do to make this world a better place. As Gavin Bolton stated his aims on drama in education, the aims are multidimensional: “to help students understand themselves and the world they live in; to know how and when to adapt to the world; to gain understanding of and satisfaction from the medium of drama.”13 The ethics of applied theatre, especially in education, aim to ensure a safe learning environment for everyone. This is why in the process of creating a play, the group connects and reflects through games and exercises that later result in the play  Tony Jackson, Learning Through Theatre: New Perspectives on Theatre in Education, Routledge: London and New York, 1993, p. 12. 11  Schonmann, Shifra, Key Concepts in Theatre/Drama Education, University of Haifa, Israel, Rotterdam, Sense Publishers, 2011, p. 32. 12  ‘Devising’ is a term used by Dorothy Heathcote who developed theories and practices related to the uses of drama in education. She explored the value of drama in the classroom, and initiated many theories to develop these ideas further into dramatic activities. See for further information: Betty Jane Wagner, Dorothy Heathcote Drama as a Learning Media, National Education Association of the United States, 1976. 13  Nellie McCaslin, Creative Drama in the Classroom and Beyond, New York University, 2006. Retrieved from the World Wide Web: https://www.academia.edu/5488200/Creative_Drama_ in_the_Classroom_and_Beyond 10

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itself. Participants become active protagonists of the dramatic action which prepares them to become active protagonists of their lives.

 he Need for Change and the Theatre of the Oppressed – T Forum Theatre ‘Liberation is a praxis: The action and reflection of men and women upon their world in order to transform it’14

Many important concepts underpinning Theatre of the Oppressed emerged from philosophies that underlie important social movements related to empowerment work in the fight against oppression and social injustice. Among the most important is the radical critical pedagogy introduced by Paolo Freire. Freire regarded education as the basis of freedom–freedom from the culture of silence and oppression, freedom to live and express oneself against the prevailing traditional systems that often seek to reinforce that oppression. Freire recognized that individuals and communities needed to become the agents of their own liberation. In this connection, empowerment comes from realising that “Liberation is not a gift, not a self-­ achievement, but a mutual process.”15 Radical pedagogy challenges teachers to enter a space of dialogue and partnership with mutual respect for each other. The practice is very similar to what Theatre of the Oppressed does–it gets teachers involved in problem resolving, without being the solution to the problem. Based on these assumptions, Freire developed a process through which the oppressed, who are “being for others”, become“ being for themselves”. Although originating in the 1960s and 70s, Theatre of the Oppressed is equally relevant today. It needs to be here and now. Especially in times like the present, when humanity is facing enormous crises, Theatre of the Oppressed can play an important role in helping us to transform our own feelings of oppression. It provides a degree of intimacy and engagement of the audience on a physical, intellectual and emotional level. It is all about how we approach ideas, movement and what we want to say. One might feel lucky when there is a space and a platform offered to share ideas about freedom in education and to realise them. Theatre of the Oppressed uses a wide range of methods as important artistic tools against oppression all over the world. The basic idea is that the audience is challenged to identify with the characters, especially getting into the shoes of the oppressed, who are the protagonists. The play is performed once and stops at the moment of greatest crisis. The audience is then instructed to watch the play again, yet this time they are asked to participate and step into the role of the protagonist by stopping the play at times when needed to prevent the crisis from happening. This  Paolo Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed, The Continuum International Publishing Group Inc., New York, 1970. 15  Ibid, p. 43. 14

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usually does not take longer than 45 min. The audience can become involved by clapping with their hands at a particular scene and playing it again with their own ideas. The belief is that by practising this kind of agency fictionally, the audience learns to be empowered to stand up for themselves in reality. Theatre of the Oppressed has a strong social and political background. Augusto Boal, the Brazilian theatre director who founded the method over 40 years ago, was inspired by many theorists and activists, especially by Paulo Freire’s work Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Originally, Boal used his method to work with peasants and workers in Brazil, aiming to empower them to fight against inequality and oppression in society. The techniques, influential as they may be in revolutionizing participants’ experience of social relationships, point to a complex, interdisciplinary, multi-vocal body of philosophical knowledge that encompasses, among other things, carnival and circus, the Brazilian theatrical avant-garde of the mid-twentieth century, the influences of political theorists such as Hegel and of aesthetic theorists such as Aristotle. Boal’s work has spread to modularity that allows people around the globe who share the Theatre of the Oppressed vocabulary and repertoire an opportunity to meet and dialogue across differences. “His teachings are complex expositions as much as they are embodied theatre games and exercises. His wisdom comes to us through the written word with all its incumbent abstraction as much as it does through the body with all its incumbent intuitive ties. Simply put, Augusto Boal is a theorist as much as he is a practitioner, and his work is, in fact, a demonstration of the false divide between theory and practice that has plagued so many social movements, artistic communities, and interdisciplinary endeavors. Strangely, however, TO is both under-theorized and insufficiently contextualized within a broader domain of companion theories and practices.”16

A lot of the issues raised in Theatre of the Oppressed might be sensitive for youth. The fact that they can experience what happens and have the chance to try various fictitious solutions might help in tackling the subject more easily. Not only does it happen easily, but research demonstrates that the brain reacts in the same way whether a person is taking part in a play or actually living it for real. The brain stores that experience as a real-life experience, as if the action already happened in real life. As Heathcote puts it, “dramatic work is first of all a social art” and teachers are made during encounters with their students and the interaction that happens during this process.17 One truly becomes a teacher when the mutual inquiry happens from both sides, the teacher and the student. According to Freirean pedagogy, the emphasis is on the ongoing dialogue – the teacher is not only there to transmit knowledge but to make necessary engagement. Theatre of the Oppressed breaks all walls, of time, space, race, faith and nationalities. It brings about a change, something that already exists in all of us – people’s humanity towards each other.

 Jan Cohen Cruz and Mady Shutzman, A Boal Companion: Dialogues on Theatre and Cultural Politics, Routledge, New York and London, 2006, p. 1. 17  Dorothy Heathcote, Collected Writings on Education and Drama, Northwestern University Press, Illinois, 1991, p. 196. 16

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Forum theatre is a related technique mainly used in educational settings with no outside audience, where the participants work with conflict issues. Boal created this technique in an effort to break down the ‘invisible fourth wall’18 between the actors and the audience. The main goal is that audience/participants don’t only watch, but become active members of the play, or what Boal calls the ‘spect-actor’. Spect-­ actors work together on various plans towards resolutions of actual conflicts through dramatic interventions. Forum helps by using theatrical devices which establish dialogue among all participating in the play and enable them to try solving community problems. To devise a forum play, participants start by discussing a conflict, or to be more precise, a situation in which oppression is taking place. Within the context of the play, the play usually ends where the conflict starts, and the audience has a chance to rehearse this, making clear who the oppressor and who the oppressed is. In this creative process, key moments of potential intervention happen and by entering the stage, participants try to change the outcome of the scenario. Discussing issues of oppression also helps them to visualise achieving peace. The play is usually played twice, the first time until the climax of the conflict, the second time with the help of the Joker.19 The play is performed and stopped by the audience at moments of conflict or where the participants assume a different scenario could change the outcome of the conflict. The joker asks prompting questions to help the audience consider the conflict from various perspectives and encourages members of the audience to come on stage and replace actors and act out their own visions of the resolutions for the conflict. This form of theatre has a unique language that makes it capable of dealing with many obstacles together with the audience in a very effective and immediate way. It also serves as a window to create significant and objective change in the here and now. It is always about the present moment which makes it a holistic experience. Forum is not about changing others, it is about changing ourselves. Boal explained that we cannot expect to change the behaviour of the oppressor, therefore it is tricky to get into the role of one, since it can be very controversial, and since it can reinforce oppressive behaviour, or become too “magical” in its solutions. Boal  Historically the fourth wall divided the actor from the spectator. In Boal’s practical work, participants have the opportunity to practice ways of organizing a strike, or of standing up to their employers or family members. For further information see Frances Babage’s Routledge Performance Practitioners: Augusto Boal, Routledge, New York, 2005, p. 62. 19  A mediator or a teacher usually takes the role of the Joker who rules the Forum for participants, facilitates interventions, builds trust between actors and audience, and finally closes the performance. The joker may also warm up the audience before the intervention by doing a game or an exercise. He/she is in control of everything that happens during the performance and provides an overview of the Forum Theatre. Following the rules and the play, he/she can ask various questions like “What are the causes of this conflict?”, “Could this conflict be prevented and how?”, “Who was the protagonist, who was the antagonist, and who were bystanders?” This ensures that everyone understands what took place and is reminded of the story. The joker builds a dialogue with the audience through prompting questions regarding changes on different levels. A joker should never provide his opinion, nor be judgmental. If there are lots of ideas, the joker can queue the interventions up on the side of the stage so they are ready to go and try a new intervention when the last has finished. Jokers must be flexible in every way, kind of a diplomat, sensitive to how the audience feels, especially the intimidation of coming onstage. 18

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believed we need to strive to find solutions around the oppressor, which is why he only sanctioned the replacement of the protagonist, as we can only expect to change ourselves. Another technique involves stopping the action and asking the characters for hidden thoughts. The audience or the joker can stop the action. Imagining oneself in the position of someone else is considered supportive and creates a positive attitude towards problem solving by focusing on individual agency and self-­ empowerment. For these and many other reasons, the Theatre of the Oppressed methodology serves very well in an educational setting since it highlights hope and positive change that originates from within.

 he Power of TiE in Classrooms – The Importance T of Innovative Approaches, Teacher Identity and the Role of Drama Educator “I don’t have a name for what I do. As a person it seems to me, I simply stand midway between all that has happened before I arrived and what is now. What I do in this moment obviously shapes up some part of what is to come. Everything that has happened before me I have something in common with, and this is my secret for finding material for drama.”20 Dorothy Heathcote

It is interesting to note that drama came to me as if in a dream. Adjusting myself to the needs of students brought another identity to my English classroom. In order to preserve their interest in school, let alone the subject they teach, teachers need to move out of their centre and their comfort zone and try to do different things. One must try to see the here and now with the eyes of the students. This enables teachers to have new perceptions and to move beyond the common, which in turn is rewarding. Teachers must be forward thinking and visionary. The two plays mentioned in this chapter were prepared within an extracurricular class on drama in English language and as part of an International Baccalaureate Diploma Program, namely CAS (Creativity, Activity, Service).21 It enables students to learn through personal and interpersonal experience including skills like collaboration, problem solving and decision making. This can draw both, teacher and students, into an experience of participation in creative activities that serve their local and global communities while at the same time discovering their fullest potential and the power of the individual. One of the pillars of CAS activity is based on experiential learning opportunities, and one of its central pillars is to educate the whole person by being in touch with the realities being studied.22 Experiential learning, in  Betty Jane Wagner, Drama as Learning Medium, National Education Association of the United States, 1976. 21  http://bci.ucdsb.on.ca/UserFiles/Servers/Server_135803/File/Curriculum/Program%20Infor mation/International%20Baccalaureate%20(IB)%20Program/WHATYOUNEEDTOKNO WABOUTCAS.pdf 22  David, A. Kolb, Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development, Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 2015. 20

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the sense of cultivating creative direct action, direct dialogue about the most critical issues of our time, lies at the core of learning and educating for the twenty-­first century. David A. Kolb,23 whose own innovative practice has been such an inspiration to teachers throughout the world, offers an initiation to these and similar practices. He reminds teachers that learning and development take place as a transaction between a person and their environment. Integrating experiential learning into the classroom transforms education. By expanding their interests, working in groups and creating one whole, experiential learning through theatre, ultimately serves each individual to learn something new about themselves. This is a wonderful platform for recognizing the importance of drama in schools and the acknowledgment of considerable differences between theatre and educational theatre. Drama in education mainly focuses on developing personalities, building skills such as confidence, empathy, sensibility towards community, and with students becoming aware of themselves and their responsibility to become active members of the society (Photo 10.1). The plays remain in my consciousness as significant learning experiences and open up a path of opportunities that I gained as a result of the change that happened within myself. If we let our imagination flow freely accompanied by experience from participation in a project, we naturally create a change in ourselves and the community. These plays were not just performed by students, they engaged me although not in the strict sense. I gained my greatest learning through physical and emotional involvement. Such involvement in drama activities allows me a space for reflection and inner awareness, along with a deliberate shift in my career, opening a thorough understanding of the potential called theatre. We cannot be citizens of the world, let alone teachers and parents, if we don’t engage with the problems of societal shifts and changes, its potential and limits. Therefore, re-examining the notions of what we can do for future generations is a must.

The Plays and their Pedagogical Implications The first play performed, and later nominated for the Juventa Theatre Youth Festival24 was Things I want To Say But Never Will, inspired by the original text What I Want to Say but Never Will written by Alan Haehnel.25 It found both receptivity and active involvement of students, school and community resources in the  Ibid.  https://juventafest.ba/en/7-juventafest-drugi-dan-things-i-want-to-say-but-never-will/ 25  The play is based on students’ responses around the USA offering teenagers’ thoughts on various subjects. The same survey was done at Druga gimnazija Sarajevo with students answering these questions in the most intimate way, and then turning it into a play. The play had elements of singing and dance, dialogues, monologues that included very sensitive topics that reexamined various relationships that unfolded and brought a new perspective from which the audience members viewed the subject matter sharply into focus. 23 24

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Photo 10.1  Scene from the rehearsal of the play Things I want to Say But Never Will premiered in Sartr, Sarajevo

education of young people. It was also premiered as a youth play in the community, at the Sarajevo War Theatre (SARTR).26 The money raised from tickets sales was donated to a safe house.27 The idea to donate came from the students, since the making of the play gave them an emotional response to do something for the oppressed in their own community. The play in this context clarified the real drama of socialjustice work. The play was initiated by a creative process of the teacher who wanted to understand what her students were going through. The adventure was about the deep self which is the composer in all of us. Being able to see this and encounter it at the same moment is the first principle of change. This is the place where theatre for social change entails more than the spontaneity and creativity, but captures the originality of the moment, namely, time, space and reality – the pedagogy of the moment. Stepping into this project with our feet on the ground we initiated a school survey asking three questions: What do you want to say? Who do you want to say it to? Why don’t you say it? The survey was initiated by a 3-min performance which circulated among classes and inspired students to answer these three basic questions. The performance was

 https://www.klix.ba/magazin/kultura/ucenici-druge-gimnazije-teatarskim-projektomporucuju-nasa-duznost-je-da-budemo-ljudi/190531131 27  https://www.klix.ba/magazin/kultura/ucenici-druge-gimnazije-humanitarnom-predstavomsakupili-1-000-km-i-donirali-sigurnoj-kuci/190613054 26

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Photo 10.2  Scene from the 3-min flashmob performed in classrooms in the school

conducted by students coming into classrooms where a lesson was going on. Participants would walk inside the class in silence, having their mouth covered with white tape, with one word written on it, spoken to them, sometime during their lifetime (for example, nerd, idiot, cheater, slut, chub, faggot, etc.) (Photo 10.2). The performance is reminiscent of a flash mob conducted for educational purposes in classrooms. The play that resulted from the project was performed in the theatre as an interactive technique called Forum Theatre, which is used all over the world for community building and organising for direct social change. To devise this theatre play, students started discussing answers written in the survey. Within the context of our regular drama meetings students shared scenarios related to moments in which they were able to relate to the answers. After listening to their stories, students selected the stories and rehearsed them, making clear who is the oppressor and the oppressed. During the rehearsal process we built a circle of trust. Participants and the facilitator came together three times a week to take the space to enact a different part of themselves through games for actors and non-actors. By applying this method in the ESOL context, language learning became a means to participate in shaping culture and our community. So the drama workshops were twofold. In the first parts of the workshops, the teacher was the facilitator of the process in initiating various games to help students find a different way to connect to language and their bodies. We did a lot of games and image techniques that all used a very intense method called The Rainbow of Desire28 – the set of techniques

 Augusto Boal, The Rainbow of Desire: The Boal Method of Theatre and Therapy, Routledge, New York, 1995. 28

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connected to the aesthetics and the Image Theatre.29 An image is like a frozen moment in your life. The image should reveal one’s emotions and thoughts, seeing what we look at. One of the games that students can use is The Mirror Game supporting the trust exercise and silent communication helps improve collaborative physical improvisation. The students work in pairs, facing each other and mirroring each other’s body movements. It encourages people to feel acknowledged and open up to each other. It somehow centres students to become conscious about the importance of their bodies and enables them to try and dream again. Part of image theatre is forming statues; the teacher forms groups of four or a whole group activity, and asks them to form a statue of a feeling or an abstract noun. For example, the facilitator can say a word that might seem interesting to form an image from, like ‘happiness’, ‘family’, ‘theatre’, ‘mother’, etc. Forming a statue means that students freeze in a position and create an image of the feeling or a given situation. The aim is to learn about different points of view, experiences and emotions we all encountered through one word. Each student gets a moment of attention and each of them gains an insight in how one can express oneself without words using body language. Each participant considers in his own mind how he or she connects the word to the bodily representation of it. It is the body that moves drama forward, or as Schonmann (2011) explains: “it is the bodily experience of the human being that is the basis for making meaning of the world and it is through conscious cognitive processes that understanding is constructed”.30 In this process students create their own experiences in relation to the subject matter content. First the self, then the collective participation determines the level of the meaning through aesthetic focus. Together they also discover the effects of the image in the whole group representation and collaboration of the senses to form one image. They learn to read each other’s body language with a special sensibility, and often even without being aware of doing so. Later in the activity, statues formed undergo dynamisation31 on three  Image theatre is one of the most important techniques explained in the tree of the Theatre of the Oppressed used to encourage participants to rediscover their own experiences by using images, dynamisation and transformation. The focus is on non-verbal communication inclusively regardless of language levels. It is a language in its own right. All oppression involves the body – the body holds the experiences of its oppression like fear, trauma, depression, neglect, and the possibility of these to become reflected in our everyday situation can not be avoided. This can lead to shut one down and affect aliveness and creativity making one mechanised and unwilling to interact. Many theorists therefore claim that theatre of the oppressed is a liberating tool for unlocking our potentials and finding an inner awareness in the personal and interpersonal. See for elaborated research on the importance of image theatre and its effects in applied theatre in Warren Linds and Elinor Vettraino’s chapter Playing in a House of Mirrors: Applied Theatre as a Reflective Practice, Sense Publishers, Rotterdam, 2015. Retrieved from the World Wide Web: https://opus.lib.uts.edu. au/bitstream/10453/122600/4/Playing-in-a-house-of-mirrors.pdf 30  Schonmann, Shifra, Key Concepts in Theatre/Drama Education, University of Haifa, Israel, Rotterdam, Sense Publishers, 2011, p. 33. 31  An important principle of the theatre of the oppressed where an image is brought to life and thereby changes into a new reality in which participants are its creators. See further information in Frances Babbage Augusto Boal: Routledge Performance Practitioners, Routledge, New  York, 2004, p. 126. 29

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levels; movement, sound/voice and action. This is how a play can be devised using the feelings, the body, and later on words and dialogues. There are many possible variations to explore on the different levels of expression. The purpose is always to open up new ways for interaction and there is no correct interpretation or expression. This is one of the major pillars of the theatre of the oppressed in practice. Each stage becomes an opportunity to find out more about the initial idea being expressed. There were classmates, teachers, parents, brothers and sisters, friends, community members in the audience aware that the acting was part of everyone’s lives. We brought one of the most important ideas to life – the problems we are surrounded with, and the oppression anyone is experiencing can and will be investigated by drama. Forum theatre explores the possibility of transformation, shifting its audience from spectators (objects) into actors (subjects) in their own lives and making them aware of the consequences of oppression. There were dialogues between mother and daughter, father and daughter, brother and sister, teacher and student which highlighted the importance of theatre not as a spectacle but as a learning process that evokes critical thinking. Performances that include issue-based plays should be announced to the audience in order for them to understand and be part of the process. This in turn informs and enriches the process. During the play, members of the audience encountered various situations involving oppression that actors were unable to overcome. Then they had a chance to discuss the central characters’ strategy for trying to talk about the problem, resolving it from multiple perspectives and searching for various solutions. Involving both sides in the process brings the solutions forward in the best interest of all parties involved. The chief method of drama in education is exactly this kind of intervention, how we look into ourselves and how we relate to our students. The second play performed in six segregated schools in Bosnia and Herzegovina was Before the Bell. The play was translated and adapted into the Bosnian language from English. Bosnia and Herzegovina has a recent history of education that has been violated because of the “two schools under one roof”32 in both entities since the beginning of the war in the 1990s. We decided to perform the play about a bullying incident that occurs in school with the hope of raising awareness of the need to promote respect, tolerance and fundamental freedoms. The characters in the play were given multi-ethnic names, portraying problems within a family that are not dealt with and are later on reflected in school, showing the similarities each teenager is facing, no matter their religious or national differences. We chose to perform in seven different cities, namely Travnik, Banja Luka, Donji and Gornji Vakuf, Stolac, Teočak and Mostar, and finally in Sarajevo in Kamerni Teatar which was unfortunately stopped with the spread of Covid19. The play was performed as a participatory forum theatre play. It involved the creation of a realistic play in three scenes, with the shift in time. The first scene took place before the lesson began. During this time, many events that happened within one single family led to a rising tension in which two bullies confront and physically

32

 See for further information on the term https://www.osce.org/files/f/documents/3/8/404990.pdf

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Photo 10.3  Scene from the forum play “Before the Bell” performed in Mostar’s highschool

assault another boy. What is different and important within this play is the victim’s point of view. The second scene is a time shift when we see the same period before the lessons start from the perspective of the bullies (Photo 10.3). Then the play starts again with the complex visions and various factors that had led to violence in school, and the role that bystanders play in these situations. Through the shift in perspective, we are able to see various points of views and manifest stages of conflict or bullying situations, rather than presenting only a single story. A forum play is usually stopped at the moment of conflict. In this case the end of the play is when two bullies physically attack the boy. The students who witnessed the play could intervene. What was interesting is the fact that they went to a separate school in the same building, but through this play, came together and tried to find solutions for their problems. This was a nice peace-building training. It encouraged them to take on the role of any character involved in the play. The participants were given an opportunity to demonstrate in practice their understanding of the conflict and its consequences presented in the play, and thereby use that knowledge to explore their ability to effectively manage a range of these issues. A number of students in all of the schools reacted to it in a very engaging and positive way. The responses of the students brought subsequent insights into the learning process and my own teaching, on a personal and a professional level. It emerged as an important legacy, intrinsic to the understanding of the community and the youth, often taken away and not represented in the traditional way of teaching. The broad scope of benefits for participants doing these methods of theatre of the oppressed are described in the literature as: gaining more social and emotional awareness,

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recognizing empathy, allowing change in habitual patterns of behavior, increased self-esteem, establishing active involvement in society, and building trust and community between one another. All of these benefits were demonstrated in our visits to schools and motivated them to manage conflict and bullying in their lives and proceed with projects like this. The process of applied theatre is a risky one, it can be really hard, but very rewarding in the end. It makes ordinary things significant. Work needs to be flexible, allowing students to approach the work in a disciplined yet intuitive way. In the beginning of the process of creating a performance the team should be carefully constructed and it has to be trusted. The circle of trust is of crucial significance. Every project is different and should be treated accordingly since our perception is in flux and we all interpret things differently.

 onclusion: Contribution of Applied Theatre C to Peace Pedagogies This overview of the practice of teaching drama in schools will hopefully offer some understanding of the complexities that make up the field of innovative teachers. It introduces an awareness of how drama in education is a particularly rewarding experience in which one can practise and grow. The creative process of the plays, including writing, producing, and promoting theatre in education in Bosnia and Herzegovina today, constitutes an important part of peace pedagogy practices, both through the Theatre of the Oppressed techniques and its diverse input in revolutionizing teaching through theatre workshops, and the sense of agency it allows – not only to participants, but to the members of the community. Critical arts such as Theatre of the Oppressed allow young people to actualize the capacity for freedom and action that is within us all. This is accomplished through the platform of extra-­ curricular classes of theatre which exercise one’s involvement through inclusion, through questioning of dominant ideologies and by promoting self-worth and respect. Hopefully, this research will bring about a recognition of the place of drama in education, in particular, in formal educational settings. Having considered Boal’s saying that theatre is ‘a human language’33 suitable for use for different groups of people and ages, it is fair to say that applied theatre can be used to give an opportunity to engage in one kind of learning experience of exploring, reflecting, and discussing jointly on various topics. It is worth noting that drama in education offers a potential revolutionary action, exploring an engaged, social and artistic phenomenon that helps teachers build more sustainable and peaceful communities. Applying theatre in classrooms is a process in which the educator becomes a facilitator and a student becomes an active

 Boal, Augusto, Games for Actors and non-Actors, (2nd ed.) (A.  Jackson, Trans.), London: Routledge, 2002. 33

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participant or in Boal’s terms a spectactor in shaping the platform of learning. The learning setting is transformed and new ways are initiated to adapt to crises and challenges of the world. My hope is that this overview of practical experiences in drama based activities will stand as a useful background for the theatre in education that we now begin to examine in terms of peace pedagogies and socially oriented activities. This has proved to be a multifaceted field and all of us who engage in it have a responsibility of sharing it, not just to those practitioners who come after us, but for those who initiated and inspired the work that was created.

Take-Away Messages • Including arts and theatre in formal education enables the imagining of new futures and supports young people in being able to move beyond their own social, cultural and relational worlds. In this way, youth are engaged in a process beyond the homogeneous teaching and learning which builds their capacity to act as makers of critically transformative practices. • Theatre enables teachers and students to enter a space of dialogue which helps develop a free exchange with each other in order to participate in human society as equal, to respect differences and be respected. • Theatre in education serves as the foreground to a new form of pedagogy, where education is a platform blended with art-making and becoming democratized. • Always move from power over to power with and power within.34 • Involve students physically, cognitively and emotionally to experience transformation of the mind.

References Babbage, F., & Boal, A. (2004). Routledge performance practitioners. Routledge. Boal, A. (1979). Theatre of the oppressed. Pluto Press. Boal, A. (1995). The rainbow of desire: The Boal method of theatre and therapy. Routledge. Boal, A. (2002) Games for actors and non-actors (2nd ed.) (A. Jackson, Trans.). Routledge. Carlson, M. A. (1984). Theories of the theatre: A historical and critical survey from the Greeks to the present. Cornell University Press. Cruz, C., & Shutzman, M. (2006). A boal companion: Dialogues on theatre and cultural politics. Routledge. Freire, P. (1970). The pedagogy of the oppressed. The Continuum International Publishing Group Inc. hooks, b. (1994). Teaching to Transgress: Education as the Practice of Freedom. Routledge.

 Freire, Paolo, Pedagogy of the Oppressed, The Continuum International Publishing Group, Inc., New York, 1970. 34

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Kolb, D., & Learning, E. (2015). Experience as the source of Learning and development. Pearson Education, Inc. Schonmann, S. (2011). Key concepts in theatre/Drama education. University of Haifa/Sense Publishers. Wooster, R. (2007). Contemporary theatre in education. Intellect.

Additional Online Sources https://www.salto-­youth.net/tools/toy/reference/theatre-­of-­the-­oppressed-­in-­digital-­space.7487/ https://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1010&context=cie_capstones https://ptoweb.org/resources/educational-­videos/ https://nothingneverhappens.org/theater-­of-­the-­oppressed/embodiedpedagogyonline/ https://www.unicef.org/kyrgyzstan/media/1816/file/Forum%20Theater%20Manual.pdf%20.pdf https://www.belgrade.co.uk/theatre-­in-­education-­tie/ http://www.artsprofessional.co.uk/magazine/282/article/much-­more-­drama-­appreciation https://botw.org.uk/Arts/Performing_Arts/Theatre/Theatre_in_Education/ Ida Karahasanović-Avdibegović is an English language teacher, drama and theatre pedagogue. She earned her MA in Applied Drama at the Academy of Arts in Novi Sad, Serbia. She is also a PhD candidate in literature at the Faculty of Philosophy at the University of Sarajevo. For over ten years, she has worked with high schools in Sarajevo, offering drama as an extra-curricular activity and initiating plays that have premiered in the Sartr and Pozorište Mladih theatres. With the EU Infocentre, she directed the forum theatre play Before the Bell that was performed in six marginalized cities in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In 2020, she founded the association ReACT, facilitating workshops for youth on drama, Forum Theatre. She was a Fulbright Scholar in 2019/2020 at Kent State University, Ohio for Teaching Excellence and Media Literacy. She directed the movie “Voices of the Youth 25 Years after Dayton”.  

Chapter 11

Peace-Based Education in Early Post-War Bosnia and Herzegovina: Insights from the Education for Peace Program (2000–2013) Naghmeh Sobhani

Abstract This chapter presents the Education for Peace (EFP) program, Obrazovanje za mir, an integrative peace-oriented pedagogical approach introduced at the cross-curricular level in schools in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH). During the 2000–2013 period, this program was applied in both entities, all cantons and the Brčko District. The EFP approach explored concepts and values within subject-­ specific curriculum content, and trained teachers in a process-oriented methodology for classroom instruction founded on personal and critical reflection on the dynamics of a culture of peace. The chapter provides an overview of the practical scope and depth of the EFP approach within the formal education system of BiH.  It assesses the opportunities and challenges that were faced in the process of adopting a common peace-oriented pedagogical framework within existing educational practices across three ethno-linguistic curricula. The chapter then highlights lessons learned regarding good practices for how to integrate this common peacebuilding framework across subject curricula, including: (a) use of a ‘backwards design’ understanding-oriented lesson planning tool to connect to essential questions and peace competencies; (b) implementation of an inclusive, collaborative and applied in-service teacher training approach, recognizing the strengths and limitations of peace pedagogy and differentiated learning objectives and opportunities at the primary and secondary school levels; (c) adoption of a reflective practice among teachers and school leaders throughout the teaching and learning environment. This practice is characterized by a conscious exploration of human reality, the inherent value and uniqueness of each human being, the need to recognize humanity’s interconnectedness, and the destructive impact of unexamined polarizing ‘us’ and ‘them’ worldview assumptions and narratives. Finally, the chapter will highlight some broader insights that can be drawn from the EFP experience for both pre-service and in-service teacher training in BiH and beyond. N. Sobhani (*) Peacebuilding and Collaborative Diplomacy (P & CD), Brussels, Belgium e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 L. Kasumagić-Kafedžić, S. Clarke-Habibi (eds.), Peace Pedagogies in Bosnia and Herzegovina, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26246-3_11

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Keywords  Education for peace · Cross-curricular approach · Integrative pedagogical approach · Peacebuilding framework · Backwards design

Introduction The case of the original Education for Peace (EFP) program in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH)—implemented by EFP-International and EFP-Balkans with financial and in-kind contributions between 2000–2013—merits attention. Achieving unprecedented local and national engagement, commitment and inter-­ ethnic collaboration, the program received approval for formal adoption across the country’s educational system. The roll out initially involved a whole-school intensive modality where EFP faculty collaborated onsite daily with teams of local teachers in each of three primary and three secondary ‘Gymnasia’ pilot schools, representing all ‘constituent’ ethnoreligious peoples—Bosniak, Serb and Croat—in BiH. The program was extended to two Gymnasia in Mostar, one each in East and West Mostar, and four primary schools in East Sarajevo, Mostar, Oštra Luka and Doboj. The roll-out model then shifted to a less intensive approach involving selected teachers in 100 secondary schools in 60 localities—across all 10 Cantons, the Republika Srpska and the Brčko District—trained as onsite EFP faculty to facilitate implementation in each of the schools. By February 2005, EFP-Balkans received a mandate from the BiH Ministry of Civil Affairs, the 13 Ministries of Education, and 9 Pedagogical Institutes to formally introduce the EFP program as an integral part of its education reform. To this end, EFP-Balkans held planning sessions and joint training seminars with all the staff—advisors, inspectors, and administrators—of the Pedagogical Institutes (PI). EFP-Balkans brought together all PI staff for the first time since the war. By 2010, 11 Regional EFP Training Seminars were held involving a delegation of educators from 750 primary and secondary schools. Between January–May 2011, Pedagogical Institutes and Education Ministries organized a total of 161 EFP Teacher Training Workshops for representative schools in all 10 cantons, both entities and the Brčko District. During a joint EFP Rectors’ Forum in October 2009 involving the public Universities of Sarajevo, Banja Luka, Tuzla, Zenica, Bihać, and Mostar (East and West), a collaboration was launched to define an agreed-upon framework—through EFP joint seminars with selected professors and a 2nd joint rectors’ forum in 2012—for inclusion of EFP training of future teachers in the Pedagogical Group of Subjects. Further advances were not made given the closure of EFP’s operational presence due to funding constraints. From the launch of EFP to spearheading its expansion across every corner of BiH, I had the privilege of collaborating with countless local educators, students, school administrators, and educational authorities across the entire education system. I was deeply inspired by the profound insights, courage, and open reflections of educators and students as they shouldered the significant challenges faced in building a cohesive social fabric against the backdrop of their personal war experiences.

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Most literature on the BiH education sector leaves readers with a dim picture of a fragmented education system that reinforces societal divisions presenting obvious and ongoing challenges for state-wide peacebuilding initiatives. The experience of the EFP program offers a powerful example of how the outstanding contributions of pedagogical experts, teachers, and students can rebuild social cohesion at various levels and in different spaces. This chapter explores the theoretical framework and pedagogy deployed by the program to integrate peacebuilding into teacher professional development, classroom practice, and school community life. It is written from my perspective as the former country director of the program, and from ethnographic data gathered on the experience of the country wide implementation of EFP from 2000 to 2013 as part of doctoral research. This analysis draws on participant observation, interviews and informal conversations with individuals and groups from all identity groups; reports documenting developments over time; transcribed notes, official statements, written reflections, and project external evaluations; the work of an external researcher using the ‘most significant change’ methodology; and, a cross-sectional field study examining positive intergroup outcomes conducted by a research team at Columbia University Teachers College. Although my research was not designed as a comprehensive impact study, I have gathered and analyzed evaluative perspectives from program participants and have included sample data in this chapter. Most views cited are representative of what many expressed over the 13 years of EFP.

The Role of Education in Peacebuilding Given the immediate and long-term effects of violent conflict on individuals, communities, and institutions, a key challenge before peace practitioners is addressing the underlying causes of conflict. Conflicts are often rooted in underlying discriminatory cultural norms and structural injustices. As such, actions aimed at breaking cycles of violence and sustaining peace necessitates building capacity of individual stakeholders, communities, and institutions to address the factors that drive violent conflict and establish inclusive and consultative mechanisms, thereby contributing to horizontal and vertical social cohesion. As noted by the Council of Europe (2004), ‘social cohesion’ refers to the strengthening of bonds among diverse groups and “the capacity of a society to ensure the welfare of all its members, minimizing disparities and avoiding polarization.” Outside the home environment, the minds of each new generation are shaped by the learning space to which they are exposed daily. As stated in the UNESCO constitution (1999), “since wars begin in the minds of men, it is in the minds of men that the defenses of peace must be constructed”. Education plays a foundational role in addressing societal divisions. In their landmark study, however, Bush and Saltarelli (2000) found that education has ‘two faces.’ It can serve to deepen the divide within society through unequal access and embedding polarizing ‘us’ and ‘them’ rhetoric into classroom instruction and curriculum. It can also be a source of inclusive

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identity formation and cohesion by equipping young people to constructively engage. This chapter shows that educators can play a key role in empowering young people with the skills, knowledge, attitudes, and confidence to rebuild a unified and multi-­ethnic society. This requires a pedagogy aimed at activating a young person’s capacities to be a conscious inclusive being and social protagonist, rather than a passive recipient of information. Such a pedagogy has significant implications for how teachers engage in the classroom.

I ntroducing Education for Peace in the Early Post-War Context Five years had lapsed since the end of the war when the Education for Peace program began in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Although the process of physical reconstruction was underway, the emotional, psychological, ideological, and social wounds beneath the surface remained fresh. One participating primary school teacher, displaced from her hometown of Srebrenica after having lost all male members of her family and facing a classroom with students who survived a similar story, expressed: “How can we talk about peace when our students have suffered so much?”1

In another classroom, a young high school student whose father was in hiding sought by the Hague Tribunal, said: “We wish to become peace-builders, but what about our fathers?”

In Mostar, teachers and students experienced living in a city divided along ethnic lines. While no visible wall enforced this divide, it was simply a road that was not crossed by many. An ‘us’ and ‘them’ dichotomy was being taught to new generations growing up in the ashes of war. In these and other ways, the challenges of building peace were expressed.

Distinguishing Features of the Education for Peace Approach The program recognized that to rebuild peace, it was necessary to engage whole school communities in processes of healing, intergroup reconciliation, and a culture of peace. The aim being to integrate a peacebuilding process at the heart of the educational system in BiH, within the practice of teaching and learning. The animating vision was that educational institutions, as formal settings for nurturing, ‘odgoj,’  All participant reflections in this article are drawn from internal project transcript notes of seminars, workshops, meetings, events and individual interviews collected over time by EFP on-site faculty. 1

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and learning, ‘obrazovanje,’ should “challenge learners towards transformation” (Swee-Hin, 1997) and promote “qualitative values, attitudes, and behaviors of a culture of peace” (UNESCO, 2002). The long-term desired outcome being to raise young generations to complete their school journey as conscious builders of a cohesive, just and peaceful society. To achieve this, several features were consciously adopted that distinguished the program’s ‘peace-based’ educational approach from more common approaches to ‘peace education’ (Salomon & Cains, 2010). Five of these features are examined below.

A Whole-Community Approach Education for Peace was unique in both its scope and its approach. It actively involved thousands representing the grassroots and government, spread across the Federation of BiH, the Republika Srpska and the Brčko District. The program fostered universal participation amongst all members of a school community, from students and teachers to administrators and support staff. Building a culture of peace in a school environment necessitates everyone’s contribution, and is not restricted to the classroom space but also school hallways, in the school life, in relational and decision-making dimensions of a school and in the life of the students in their home and community. The nature of healing and reconciliation, particularly in the early stages of a peacebuilding process, is sensitive, requiring courage and resilience of all involved. Therefore, fostering a sense of mutual support and collective endeavor among a critical mass of individuals empowered to create change and overcome the fear and resistance they often face is necessary.

 ngaging Teachers and School Staff in a Reflective Process E Before Introducing Teaching Techniques The EFP approach to delivery of educational content was preceded by a reflective process before providing lesson planning tools and techniques. All school staff took part in a conceptual reflection on the human dynamics that shape a person’s life and relationships; and the applied principles that can nurture a culture of peace. Participants explored how our way of thinking informs how we engage with society. In a post-war environment characterized by a state of ‘negative peace’ (Galtung, 1964), in which social injustices are deeply experienced and government structures are weak, peace education programs that focus on awareness of structures related to democratic governance and human rights can heighten participants’ acute awareness of stark injustices, building further frustration and undermining hope. Experts (Parlevliet, 2002) have cautioned that:

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“Human rights education does not work in communities fraught with conflict—unless it is part of a comprehensive approach—and can be counterproductive and lead to greater conflict if people become aware of rights which are not realized…”

A legalistic approach to protecting minority rights, for example, is both necessary in responding to immediate effects, and insufficient as it addresses the proximate causes of the problem. Whereas sustained change involves recognizing and comprehensively re-examining the deeply-rooted discriminatory norms that lead to human rights abuses,2 a reflective process, such as the one included in the Education for Peace approach, involves the conscious exercise of critical thinking oriented towards re-defining one’s understanding of human reality to recognize the inherent uniqueness and equal worth of every person, and reframing the necessary guiding principles of human relationship. Initiating peacebuilding training through a process of critical reflection can help participants overcome ingrained barriers that would otherwise undermine such efforts. For example, participants entering the EFP program typically would say: “This is who we are. Conflict is part of our nature. Every 50 years we have a war!”

This assumption that one’s community will inevitably experience conflict colors one’s perception of the value of peacebuilding actions. A safe space in which to reflect on assumptions is therefore required. The experience of EFP in BiH demonstrates that initiating reconciliation within a climate immersed in a divisive rhetoric requires embedding a reflective process at every step. Experiences of violent conflict shake a person’s perception of the human condition. A reflective process serves initially to overcome disbelief in the possibility of sustaining peace by demystifying the notion of peace and exploring perspectives that can define a common vision for building a culture of peace, drawing on universal human experiences and capacities. For instance, the ability to build just and loving relationships. The concepts explored in the program reflect both the universal aspects and context-specific aspirations and concerns that emerge through reflection. This approach at the outset of the program was met with some resistance. Teachers, anticipating pre-packaged teaching tools, initially questioned the relevance of these broader discussions to classroom instruction. However, as the training process proceeded, participants began to appreciate that gaining peacebuilding competencies requires self-reflection on one’s own understanding of human orientations. Teachers’ perceptions can unconsciously be transferred to students and it can impact their willingness to rebuild conflicted relationships. As Ackerman (2002) describes that although ‘process’ is important in conflict resolution “there must be something of substance underlying the process; something to touch the soul after one admires the technique.”

 An extensive body of conflict analysis literature is available on proximate and root causes and the need to address the root causes of violence conflict to affect transformation. 2

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 xploring Worldview Assumptions & Fostering E a Peace-Oriented Worldview A key element of EFP’s curriculum explores the notion that social change begins at the level of worldview transformation.3 A peacebuilding process requires re-­ examining underlying worldview assumptions as individuals and communities— informed by various spheres of influence—that, often subconsciously, shape the paradigm of peace and that, unless re-evaluated, constrain the ability to affect social change. Human beings develop a ‘lens’ to view self, others, the world, and immediate surroundings. A ‘worldview’ consists of a perception of the nature of reality, human nature, the purpose of life, and the laws that govern all relationships. A worldview can be prone to conflict or peace. Therefore, every individual has to build the capacity to reflect on his/her own worldview and whether it fosters a cohesive and just society. What drives polarizing individual behavior, group dynamics, and divisive social policies are individual and collective discriminatory worldview assumptions. A worldview with an ‘us’ and ‘them’ orientation, often adopted unconsciously as part of long-standing conflict norms, translates into a polarizing societal dynamic. It perpetuates exclusion of the perceived ‘other’ from one’s social fabric. Fabricated stereotypes and myths further dehumanize the ‘other’. If a distinct identity group is seen as the ‘other,’ little concern is given to ensure their wellbeing. EFP’s core emphasis on worldview transformation seeks to foster a specific type of human development; what Cook-Greuter (2004) calls ‘vertical development’ in contrast to ‘lateral development.’ She elaborates that lateral development occurs through “schooling, training, self-directed and life-long learning, as well as simply through exposure to life.” Vertical development, which is much rarer and also conceptually linked to Mezirow’s (2000) notion of ‘transformative learning’, refers to changes in one’s interpretation of experiences and reality, to the effect of learning to ‘see the world through new eyes.’ Cook-Greuter further notes that “transformations of human consciousness or changes in our view of reality are more powerful than any amount of horizontal growth and learning.” As Sire (2004) puts it, a worldview is a “fundamental orientation of the heart” and not “just a set of basic concepts.” Constructive developmental theory and research stipulates that meaning-making is a critical aspect of human development with increasing complexity at different stages of life. Each human being constructs a conception of reality based on life experiences. Kegan (1982) elaborates: “…the activity of being human is the activity of meaning-making. There is no feeling, no experience, no thought, no perception independent of a meaning-making context in which it becomes a feeling, an experience, a thought, a perception, because we are the meaning-­ making context”

 For further elaboration on the concept of worldview as explored in the Education for Peace program, refer to the written materials on the website: www.efpinternational.org 3

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This process of meaning-making is the development of our consciousness or worldview. Our worldview is not innate but is subject to change and influence. Cook-­ Greuter (2004) finds that “development in its deepest meaning refers to transformations of consciousness.” Kegan (1982) noted that once the development psychologist William Perry said, “Organisms organize, and humans organize meaning.” This meaning-making process builds the frame of reference that informs our perception of all life experiences and translates them into certain attitudes, feelings, behaviors, and social action or inaction. In Serge Moscovici’s social representation theory (1973), we find another critical discussion on the process of worldview formation, namely that there can be collective and shared worldviews emerging within a community or group. A system of values, ideas and practices provides, among other functions, a “code for social exchange and a code for naming and classifying unambiguously the various aspects of their world and their individual and group history.” The EFP methodology centered on a reflective practice in classroom instruction in which worldview examination becomes a conscious activity. As one teacher in Sarajevo wrote: “The EFP project gives a chance to think and not just use empty words like simply saying ‘peace’… Peace and unity seem like a utopia, but in fact they are very, very important.”

At the heart of the program’s premise is shifting divisive constructs of human reality with new understandings, and thereby perceptions, that foster unity-in-diversity, inter-ethnic understanding, and recognition of the oneness of the human family. This process can be challenging when certain opposing concepts are socialized as norms in society. In one group discussion involving grade 10 and 10 students in Banja Luka, two students openly shared: “We were ‘seduced’ into believing certain ideas…. Before the war, we were told that those others were not humans, so you should know that this is not easy.”

After a year of participating in the program, an upper-level primary school student describes the impact of reflecting on her worldview and how it has been influenced (Close, 2005): “…The first and basic change is that I have started to have a different worldview. I think differently of every term that relates to peace… Before participating in this project, I had different opinions about other religions…. I formed that opinion because I was listening to people older than me. Participation in the project ‘Education for Peace’ gave me chances to form my own opinion. Since then, I have been trying to learn as much as possible about other religions, and I want to make friends with people of different religions.”

Acute life events, notably surviving a war, negatively impact people’s perception of themselves, each other, the world, and the essence of life. These altered perceptions and worldviews, at both the individual and collective level, can escalate a destructive and polarizing narrative. The EFP approach empowered participants with a worldview that is cognizant of human noble capacities to affect meaningful change. Participants often mentioned that it infused them with a sense of hope, inner peace, and healing. The conditions for this healing were consciously and systematically

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integrated into the program designed by Dr. H.B. Danesh, a psychiatrist and specialist in violence and violence-recovery. When entire communities have gone through a traumatic experience, this imprints deeply in the collective memory. What is needed is community-wide mechanisms for healing and reconciliation through collective worldview transformation that translates into action. A primary school teacher shared her experience of regaining faith and hope: “The war had a terrible influence on me and my family… I have lost faith in hope, and faith in people, people I knew disappointed me, and I become very careful and distrustful of strangers… Since participating in the EFP activities…, I have hope again and the feeling of hopelessness for my country and for the youth in my country is fading away.”

 xploring Broader Peace-Oriented Concepts in every Subject E of Study The Education for Peace methodology adopted an ‘understanding-oriented’ approach to the design of lesson plans across subject-specific curricula, which is formally known in the literature as ‘backwards design’ (Wiggins & McTighe, 1999).4 This approach to lesson planning differs from traditional approaches that focus on transfer of discrete knowledge and skills first and only at times, arriving at broader connective understandings. It begins by first focusing on broad connective concepts related to the dynamics of a culture of peace and using those to frame activities that lead towards discrete knowledge. In the classroom, peacebuilding concepts were explored in relation to curricular subject matter and students’ lives. As such, the EFP approach did not prescribe specific lessons. Rather, teachers would study a concept, for example, the notion of unity in diversity or the development of a peace-oriented worldview, and then connect it to existing topics in the official curriculum. Thus, a language teacher might engage students in analyzing worldview assumptions embedded in a particular poem depicting women and whether it is conducive to gender equality—an essential characteristic of a cohesive society. A maths teacher might explore the same concept by likening a worldview to the formulation of an equation in which the combination of different variables leads to a certain outcome, just as elements of a worldview, such as conceptions of the self, other, and the world, lead to specific actions that reflect these assumptions. A sports teacher might focus on the concept of unity-in-diversity by highlighting how a team is constituted by players of diverse strengths that must collaborate and foster team spirit to advance. While an informatics teacher might focus on how a computer requires diverse parts that are connected within one information system to remain operational. Through open houses and festivals, students shared their understanding and reflections of concepts explored through creative and subject-specific projects.

 Guidance on how to use this model, including templates and examples are available in English and BCS in the EFP Manual. 4

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Exploring the Nature and Dynamics of Unity in Diversity Another essential aspect of EFP’s core curriculum was engaging teachers and students in examining the concept of unity in diversity as it applies to each curriculum subject and every aspect of life. This exploration was not undertaken in an abstract or utopian way. Rather unity-in-diversity was conceptualized as a dynamic that sustains life, growth, and creativity, the lack of which hinders those conditions. Teachers investigated this hypothesis in every area of knowledge. For example, in a chemistry classroom, the dynamics of unity were likened to the constitution of water through the covalent bond of two diverse elements, hydrogen and oxygen. In physics, an atom was identified as the result of electrons and neutrons that merge. The more diverse the elements brought together, the more complex an object or system becomes. An example illustrating this principle was a healthy human body—a complex living system that is only possible by the united functioning of diverse components, organs and systems. An EFP-oriented classroom involved students actively examining these dynamics, with the help of their teacher, in every subject area. A primary school teacher and member of the EFP Onsite Faculty noted a great change could be felt in the school and classroom and described the process of EFP integration in the classroom (Close, 2005): “A very important part of the project is its method of implementation; it differs from the typical teaching methods. The students are given the chance to express their creativity, and to work independently. In every class, in the framework of the regular teaching subject, we could find examples of the principles of peace. Those examples, the students compare to examples from life itself. In that way, ideas of peace are always present in the classroom.”

When project participants were asked if any aspect of the EFP conceptual discussions stood out to them, unfailingly they referred to the concepts of unity in diversity and worldview. A high school student in Banja Luka noted: “Unity in diversity is something that must exist all around us, between us, and in nature… This project puts us in the position to use our will and best thoughts to make human life better.”

During an EFP joint training seminar of all the staff of the BiH Pedagogical Institutes, an advisor reflected: All aspects of Education for Peace and all the concepts are equally important and promote peace. Each of them complements the other and makes a natural and harmonious whole…. However, for me, the most interesting and important concept is the concept of unity, which is expressed as … ‘Unity in Diversity’. Why? The whole world is riddled with diversity and it cannot be eliminated or ignored. But this difference can be seen as an advantage, if that diversity represents a common path towards development, which is represented by unity.”

Exploring unity in diversity as an operating principle allowed participants representing all BiH communities to engage meaningfully within an EFP space where they felt their unique and diverse identities were appreciated and preserved while

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recognizing their interconnectedness as one human society. The written reflection of an EFP primary school student illustrates this understanding: Through participation in EFP, I respect people of other nationalities…. Before… I felt nothing but hatred for children and adults of [x BiH ethnic community] and [y BiH ethnic community). Now it is different, I feel understanding and respect for them… War… will not be repeated if we are all like brothers, rather than enemies.

The concept of ‘unity’ is seldom explored explicitly among conflict resolution and peace education theorists and practitioners. A prevailing insufficiently examined assumption is that conflict is necessary for progress and growth, confounding unity with uniformity or conformity, and concluding that unity in a society could result in its stagnation. When the concept of unity was first introduced in BiH, teachers often referred to the state of unity they lived in during Tito’s Yugoslavia. Although Yugoslavia’s slogan was ‘bratsvo i jedinstvo’—unity and brotherhood—that conception of unity could be equated more with sameness, a state in which human diversity remains visibly unexpressed. Understandably then, uniformity raises concerns. The only way to maintain uniformity among people has been to introduce control and force. This creates injustice as it disregards the right of every citizen to be unique and creative in their self-expression. The assumption that a state of unity does not allow creativity to thrive results from this conception of unity. Whereas unity is distinguished from uniformity. Unity is most naturally expressed in human diversity and in the context of a recognition of the interdependence and interconnectedness of human beings. There is a growing recognition that humanity shares many superordinate common goals that bring us together (Folger & Bush, 2014; Fisher et al., 1983; Lederach, 2003). While there are approaches that propose building unity in diversity by educating for ‘co-existence’, ‘tolerance’, ‘building bridges’ or ‘inter-ethnic bonds’, the definitions of these terms must likewise be considered carefully. For instance, what does ‘peaceful co-existence’ or ‘tolerance’ ask of participants? In a discussion with high school students in Sarajevo about the concept of unity, one student commented: “Yes, I know what this is all about! It means we need tolerance and democracy.”

To this point, she was asked to show what tolerance looks like, noting that the EFP approach involves not using words without carefully examining their meaning and implications. Tolerance could mean to someone: ‘Well, I tolerate you! I don’t necessarily like you! But I tolerate you.’ Using an analogy from biology, the conversation evolved into exploring whether different parts of the human body are operating in a state of tolerance, or going beyond that, namely actively functioning together as one human system. It became clear that while tolerance is a necessary step forward from violent conflict, a higher level of social interaction would be strengthening cohesive relationships. The discussion led to an exploration of the dynamics of unity in diversity.

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Operationalizing Whole Community Engagement At the level of process and approach, the EFP program adopted some operating principles that sustained a positive response among teachers, school officials and education officials, resulting in increasing trust and local ownership.

 onsultative Mechanisms with Teachers, School Administrators C and Education Officials Early on, the very notion of ‘Education for Peace’ was met with uncertainty, hesitation and for some, resentment. Negative experiences with other initiatives coming from ‘outside’ to ‘help’ deal with the aftermath of war contributed to these sentiments. Building a strong foundation for community engagement and establishing trust among the project team members and participants became a priority. What contributed to this process was adopting a consultative method of decision-­ making and establishing collaborative mechanisms at both the grassroots and government levels. Consultation became the key instrument for building strong partnerships with the local school communities, encouraging active participation of teachers, school administrators and educational authorities, and fostering ownership in the design, contextualization and roll-out of the curriculum framework and program. Groups of teachers representing each participating school community were a part of EFP’s onsite faculty. Through every phase, they consulted and responded to the complex challenges faced. An advisory group was formed, with local educators representing all BiH communities, to review the curriculum content. At every stage of implementation, a wide range of consultations were held. For instance, in one period, a series of consultations were rolled out with 100 directors in 60 localities across the country. Eventually, all 13 Ministries of Education in BiH and 9 Pedagogical Institutes became a part of an ongoing consultative mechanism, along with an ad-hoc advisory committee with appointed representatives from each institution, to provide input on the formal integration of the program. While the development field has noted participatory or people-centred approaches as essential to building confidence at the level of local engagement and ensuring applicability, projects tend to vary significantly in how they operationalize participation. Participation means “that all the groups of society (the whole) are able and invited to gather, to discuss and to exchange not only in policy making decisions but also in planning issues related to their daily life, needs and hope.” (Cabezudo & Haavelsrud, 2007) With a consultative approach, the EFP onsite team adopted a humble posture of learning and listening, working closely with teacher colleagues, all considered protagonists in a joint peacebuilding endeavor to optimize the wellbeing and education of all children.

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 iewing Teachers as Collaborators during the in-Service V Training and Support The same consultative approach was put in practice at the level of teacher training. A Senior Advisor at the BiH Federation Entity Ministry of Education and Science noted: “In our complex system, the education of teachers has been carried out in the best and most subtle way in the EFP program. I am certain that peace will be one of the key subjects of all professional development of teachers and others in the education community…”

Teachers were seen as collaborators and they explored, one-on-one and in smaller groups, how to apply peacebuilding-oriented key concepts to each subject area, drawing on their own knowledge of their subjects and context using the understanding-­oriented interactive lesson planning tool adapted from the ‘backwards design’ teaching and learning tool, noted earlier. While some teachers found the opportunity to create their own lesson plans empowering, others preferred a set of predefined subject-specific lesson plans to simply draw from and apply. One of the significant challenges faced was to shift the paradigm of classroom instruction from rote-learning and conveying information strictly bounded by a specific subject of study, to more process-oriented and critical thinking learning approaches that involve the exploration of interdisciplinary knowledge, insights and understanding. As teachers developed and shared their BiH and subject-specific lesson plans, their contributions expanded the body of BiH-specific materials that inspiration could be drawn from. Putting in place an ongoing process of consultation between teachers and the EFP Team in the development of EFP-oriented lesson plans cultivated a strong sense of ownership over the content. Two external evaluators noted (Brock-­ Utne & Greber, 2004): “The teachers interviewed mentioned first of all the opportunity to be trained by the EFP program through a new educational framework which offers new didactical possibilities: more interaction between students and teachers, an open forum for discussion between students and teachers, and the relief for students of not having a heavy memory load with drill exercises. They considered it as important to have a new learning environment and another learning experience due to EFP-lessons. To be a ‘peacemaker’ was declared as an important learning target by many teachers. Almost all students interviewed referred to the impact of EFP in positive terms. Some students mentioned that EFP had been used as a common topic to discuss with their parents…”

The Director of the Pedagogical Institute for the Republika Srpska shared the following reflections during a joint EFP training in 2009: The realization of the EFP program is much needed in BiH that is why we have ahead of us an important task. This task will entail changing the consciousness of all involved in the education community – no small task.… We have people here who are determined to realize the EFP program and we can influence this through our commitment and practice. This program must be a primary task not a secondary one…”

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I nclusively Engaging Schools and Education Authorities Representing Diverse BiH Groups Creating an inclusive process among all representative diverse communities is a core prerequisite to any effective peacebuilding effort. Applying this principle brought significant credibility to the program’s peacebuilding premise. When the laws that govern healthy relationships have been broken in a divided context, a process of sustained social recovery requires that all affected identity groups be included in a carefully accompanied process that considers the sensitivities of each. The inclusive mechanisms upstream, involving all BiH educational authorities, were also unprecedented. All 13 ministries of education and pedagogical institutions engaged in ongoing joint training and planning expressed trust and confidence in EFP’s inclusive operating mode. It was through the EFP inclusive mechanism, that the staff of all pedagogical institutions were brought together for the first time since the war. Educational authorities themselves commented on the significance of these initial steps across ethnic lines. At the grassroots, the program ensured inclusive participation of school communities representing all BiH identity groups and all geographic regions. As the memories and fears associated with the war were still fresh in the initial years, discussions related to peacebuilding were extremely sensitive and occurred within each community, as preparation for interactions among communities. Joint spaces for exchange and dialogue, through regional and national peace events, conferences as well as visits were then organized. One striking example in the pilot year involved delegations of students from one participating school visiting their counterparts in another community, across entity lines. At the time, students would often ask, in reference to their peers in schools in other parts of the country representing other ethnic groups: “Are ‘they’ really talking about peace too, as we are doing in this project?”

During the visit, they heard each other’s reflections on how to build a culture of peace. As they headed home after a day’s visit, initial feelings of uncertainty, and for some anxiety, had subsided, bringing in their stead a desire to meet again. One student said that as the journey began, she kept thinking: “Did his father kill my father?”

And as the day unfolded during the visit, she realized that they all shared a common vision and language about what it means to be a peacebuilder—‘mirotvorac’. They began to humanize each other, seeing one another not grouped as part of the ‘other’ but rather as unique human beings with common aspirations, concerns and needs. The wall that separated them based on group identity began to give way to a growing recognition of their commonness and uniqueness.

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 Sustained Mechanism of Mutual Support Rather than A Isolated and Short-Lived Events Empowering local capacities for peace requires a process-oriented effort that is sustained over time and not a short-lived activity. The peacebuilding process cannot effectively occur through one-off workshops or isolated events, without sustained mechanisms at the grassroots to support efforts to apply the insights gained with courage and resilience. Through adopting this approach, the EFP program centered on enabling transformation and instilling a sense of agency within students, teachers, caregivers, schools, and communities. According to Bush and Folgers (1994), empowerment refers to “the restoration to individuals of a sense of their own value and strength and their own capacity to handle life’s problems.” The EFP team fostered a sustained environment of encouragement, compassion and most importantly genuine love and service. This accompaniment sparked in the participants a greater degree of hope, trust, and willingness to engage authentically in peacebuilding. Some initially ridiculed EFP’s aim as being impossible and out of touch with reality, but as the process unfolded, saw its impact.

 ombining Theory and Practice: Training, On-going Input & C Intergroup Contact Combining theory and practice in a sustained process of peacebuilding enables participants to engage in continuous learning through testing assumptions in practice and gaining new understandings. The EFP approach combined training seminars and onsite teacher support at the community level, followed by in-classroom instruction and periodic inter-community contact through peace events held during a Peace Week scheduled in the school calendar. These three levels of input activities allowed individuals and groups to hold ongoing conversations and to reflect together on the dynamics of peacebuilding in theory and in practice. During the Peace Events organized within and between schools and at the regional and national level, every classroom shared their reflections on the dynamics of peace and their applicability in every subject of study, as in their own lives. This opportunity to be a powerful voice as young people coming together along identity lines, gave rise to increased motivation and hope as they saw themselves and their peers being protagonists in promoting a culture of peace. Spaces for inter-group contact provided a benchmark to gauge the level of willingness to actively participate in strengthening cohesive interaction among participating students, teachers, and school communities. One teacher and EFP team member in Mostar shared her encounter with a colleague after having participated in a first peace event that brought together young people from two BiH communities:

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“One teacher, who had previously been staunchly opposed to EFP throughout the semester and had actively encouraged the students not to participate…, broke down in tears and admitted to her fears about integration with the ‘other side.’ She pledged her support of the programme.”

Promoting interethnic understanding in a polarized social climate requires courage when facing both other communities and one’s own. To take such steps requires an ongoing process of reflection and preparation where peacebuilding intentions among all groups are cultivated. The following account from a high school teacher in Sarajevo describes returning from the first EFP National Peace Event which brought together delegations of Bosniak, Serb and Croat students, teachers, and parents. The event was hosted in Banja Luka. For many, this was their first visit across FBiH-RS entity lines since the war: “We were returning from the National Peace Event, and it was snowing so much that we were delayed by three hours. One of the radio stations in Sarajevo was anticipating our return that night to hear directly from students their impressions from this visit to Banja Luka. It was going to be an interview where people could call in and ask questions… One caller shouted out, ‘how could you go there for a National Peace Event. Don’t you know what happened here and what they did to our mothers and our children?’ I was so proud of my student’s response.”

Here was the Grade 11 student from Sarajevo’s response: “I said to this man that it is not up to us, as youth, to dwell and talk about what happened because none of the children had a say in it or actually took part in the war. We are doing this to say to people that we are all here and are going to do everything we can so that it never repeats again… I think that these presentations that we created and shared with each other are one of the best ways to go about starting to make a change.”

Echoes on Impacts The impact of the EFP process was captured in the observation of two external evaluators (Brock-Utne, 2004) following a series of interviews with students, teachers, administrators from participating schools and senior education officials, representing the diverse BiH communities: “… Several people said that in the education sector there was no other project like this. It has provided and continues to provide physical spaces and opportunities for people to meet, share their experiences and build up friendships. The project seems to have had—and still continues to have—a healing effect on a war-torn nation. One of the teachers said: ‘The biggest impact was on the psychological level. People got an opportunity to express their emotions. We need this type of therapy. It had to do with the atmosphere created….’ There seems to be little doubt that the project has had a great impact on many of the participants… The most important impact seems to have been on the personal level, the meeting of people across nationalities and languages. The evaluation team heard several touching stories from teachers about their own experiences and the experiences of parents and children gained especially during the pilot phase of the project.”

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In a statement from the Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs (BiH MFA, 2002) in support of formal integration of the program, it notes: “EFP has had a distinctly transformative effect on students, their parents and the teachers themselves. Indeed, the level of satisfaction with this program is considerable…”

From the many reflections of participants captured over time, it seems evident that the program’s conceptual content and process fostered authentic reflection and commitment to peacebuilding and provided a safe, inclusive and inviting space for diverse communities to take significant steps, often for the first time, and to engage authentically with each other. The conceptual framework empowered participants to reconcile barriers to reconciliation, both personal and collective, and consciously explore, and for many gradually adopt, a worldview that is conducive to healing, hope, and peacebuilding.

Conclusions and Recommendations Initiating a peacebuilding process comes with great responsibility and requires at a minimum, a consultative and inclusive approach that cultivates an environment of trust, a resource often depleted in a conflict-affected context. Further, to affect transformation it calls for the engagement of a critical mass, namely whole communities, and a sustained effort over time where theory is applied in practice to directly tackle the underlying worldview assumptions, at the individual and collective level, that drive a divided society. Both in its early post-war and wider pedagogical and methodological dimensions, the insights gained from the Education for Peace program can meaningfully inform transformative community learning processes, including the values and principles underpinning teacher’s instructional approach, the role of the classroom and school environment in raising children and young people to be active peacebuilders, and in the approach to teacher training.

Take-Away Messages • A teacher impacts their students’ worldview orientation and can assist them to adopt a peace-oriented worldview founded on cohesive rather than polarizing cultural norms. • Classroom instruction approaches need to foster a sense of agency within young people by adopting reflective, creative and understanding-oriented approaches to teaching and learning • Integrating broader society-building concepts across curricular content helps students apply every area of knowledge to their life • A teacher training process that is collaborative and consultative can be empowering, bring about change and foster creativity and ownership

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• Taking a whole-school community approach, where every member is viewed as a social protagonist, is essential in cultivating a culture of peace characterized by unity in diversity.

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Naghmeh Sobhani is an expert in peacebuilding programming and collaborative negotiation. Former Director of the Education for Peace Institute of the Balkans in Sarajevo, she spearheaded country-wide programmes in Bosnia and Herzegovina during the 2000–2013 period, achieving unprecedented joint collaboration since the end of the war between the country’s 13 Ministries of Education, Ministry of Civil Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and the international community. As a peacebuilding consultant for UNICEF-HQ, she co-developed UNICEF’s approach to conflict analysis, conflict sensitivity and peacebuilding programming, and co-­authored the associated guides, training and e-learning packages which have been implemented globally. As a trainer, she has conducted inter-agency workshops for the UN Resident Coordinator in Moldova and the Caribbean, and co-facilitated Collaborative Negotiation Skills workshops for the UN Secretariat staff in New York and Geneva. She is the founder of Peacebuilding and Collaborative Diplomacy (P & CD) Consulting in Brussels.  

Chapter 12

Peace Pedagogy in Intercultural and Interreligious Learning: Insights from the ETOS Initiative and SAPERE BiH Program (2014–2020) Zilka Spahić Šiljak and Melika Šahinović Abstract  Teaching is a complex contextualized process that has to be responsive to the needs of each individual and the community. It therefore should transcend mere dogmatic and prescriptive theoretical and pedagogical approaches. This paper discusses the development of peace pedagogy in Bosnian schools through strengthening intercultural competences, critical thinking and practicing caring relations. Primary and high school teachers who teach confessional religious education and other social science and humanity courses are trained for intercultural and multireligious competences to reach intercultural maturity which helps them transition from a monocultural to an ethnorelative model of thinking and behavior. In overcoming the secular-religious divide, balancing a dialectic relationship between teachers, students and the wider community is crucial. Only through collaborative efforts is it possible to cultivate an ethos of openness, tolerance, and solidarity towards different cultures and religions. Keywords  Peace pedagogy · Secular · Religious · Intercultural · Interreligious competences · Critical thinking

Introduction This paper discusses a peace pedagogy model that attempts to overcome the secular-­ religious divide in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) by bringing together teachers of confessional religious education and other subjects to collectively work on gaining Z. S. Šiljak (*) Faculty of Philosophy, University of Zenica, Zenica, Bosnia and Herzegovina e-mail: [email protected] M. Šahinović University gender resource center - UNIGeRC, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 L. Kasumagić-Kafedžić, S. Clarke-Habibi (eds.), Peace Pedagogies in Bosnia and Herzegovina, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26246-3_12

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and practicing intercultural and interreligious competences through the programs “ETOS (Ethics, Tolerance, Openness, Solidarity) Initiative”1 and “SAPERE BiH” (Society for the Advancement of Philosophical Enquiry and Reflection in Education)2 run by TPO Foundation3 from Sarajevo. The key competences teachers recognized as relevant for their work in comparative intercultural and interreligious learning and teaching are listening, communication, self-reflection and caring. They are prerequisites for moving from a monocultural perspective towards an ethnorelative perspective based on Bennett’s continuum (2017). Students learn how to move from the monocultural phase, in which a person denies, opposes and minimizes differences, towards acceptance, adaptation and integration of differences. This process is very painful and it is not easy to stop stereotyping. In order to confront stereotypes and biases about marginalized groups teachers organized direct encounters with minority representatives in the form of role-playing. Teachers employ peace pedagogy in intercultural and interreligious learning to advance their awareness and skills for dialogue across different identities. It helps them to be more open-minded, curious and ready to accept differences without prejudices and judgements. Both programs are implemented in public schools with the approval of cantonal ministries of education and pedagogical institutes and included over a thousand teachers from primary and high schools in five cantons. Through the program, the teachers were also given the opportunity to apply for ETOS schools4 where the candidates who displayed the most motivation and determination would pursue peacebuilding and intercultural activities for 5 years. The main argument of this paper is that peace pedagogy focused on intercultural and interreligious skills, critical thinking skills and practice, can help in transcending the monocultural model of thinking and behaving in the ethnically divided BiH schools. The first part of the paper briefly discusses theoretical approaches to peace education and intercultural competences and skills relevant for peace pedagogy. The second part describes the research methods and the third part offers examples of integration of peace pedagogy in Bosnian schools in the last decade and details the best practices for this type of process. Finally, the fourth part talks about current challenges in peace education and recommendations for future work.

 Through the ETOS initiative program TPO Foundation offers various types of educational content and didactic materials based on universal ethical values and respect for human rights and freedoms that can be integrated into all school subjects, especially social and humanistic subjects. More information available on: https://thinkerica.ba/en/etos-initiative/ 2  SAPERE BiH represents Philosophy for Children –P4C as an approach and method of learning and teaching that enhances thinking, communication skills, confidence and academic personality development. More information available on: https://thinkerica.ba/en/what-is-sapere-bh/ 3  TPO Foundation is a non-governmental organization in Sarajevo. More: www.tpo.ba and www. thinkerica.ba 4  More information about ETOS schools available on: https://thinkerica.ba/en/etos-initiative/ global-ethos-at-school/ethos-in-schools-in-bosnia-and-herzegovina/ 1

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These two projects are partially integrated in teaching in all cantons, while Sarajevo Canton became the first canton that officially added classes on ETOS values to their regular curriculum.5 In addition to this, both pedagogical institutes in Mostar that follow Bosnian and Croat Curricula also integrated this practice. In the divided education system, peace pedagogy can flourish only through collaborative learning and activities of all teachers, regardless of the subject they teach. Teachers from a variety of backgrounds, including social science, humanities, natural science and religious education work together to integrate ethical values and critical thinking methods in teaching, which is important for sustainability and building social cohesion in school communities. Religion is often designated as part of the problem and seldom as part of the solution. The fact is that in the post-socialist and post-war context of BiH and in the entire Balkans region “religion remained a powerful tool of ethnic, social and political mobilization of all three main ethnic/religious groups and one of the important channels to stretch their impact is religious confessional (teaching doctrines) education in public schools” (Spahić Šiljak, 2015a: 686). Confessional religious education was introduced during the war (Moe, 2008), for the four prevailing religious communities: Catholic, Orthodox Christian, Protestant and Islamic. In that way, “religious education was understood as a victory against atheist ideology of communism, but it also served as comfort and security in the wartime destruction” (Ibid: 1). Yet, religious education was not obligatory with the freedom of choice for students and parents to choose which religion to study or not to study the religion courses. Twenty-five years after the Dayton Peace Agreement, BiH remains an ethnically divided country with a very complex and disenfranchised administrative structure. It is split into two entities: Federation of BiH with ten cantons, Republic of Srpska, and Brčko District. A large majority of the population identifies as one of the three constituent ethnic groups: Bosniacs, Serbs or Croats, while a very small percentage fall into the category of Others, which includes ethnic and religious minorities such as Roma, Jews, Albanians. Most are still strongly attached to their ethnic and religious identities (Simović, 2020; Majstorović & Turjačanin, 2013; Abazović, 2012; Spahić Šiljak, 2020) and over 95% still choose confessional religious education in public schools (Alibašić, 2009). Keeping all this in mind, there should be a way to work not only across ethnic and religious differences, but also across secular-religious worldviews. As we live in a world of cartesian dualisms with many lines of division, it is important to explore secular religious dualism and ideological divisions that affect attempts to build a peaceful community and society. Secularists perceive religion as backwards, irrational and institutionalized while religious authorities describe secular people as godless, profane and self-centered (Willson, 2012). In order to overcome these dualisms and build peace in a post-war society such as BiH both secularism and religion  In 2016, the Ministry for Education, Science and Youth of Sarajevo Canton officially integrated programs of ETOS Initiative into school curricula for high schools. The programs include VII Global Ethic- a condition for creating a righteous world order and the survival of the human race. 5

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should step back and allow for some space in between in order to find a way to overcome these dichotomies and divisions. There is no single recipe for peace, nor a single solution for a problem, so both secularism and religion should open up and collaborate for the benefit of people without undermining the other. (Spahić Šiljak, 2015a). Many intercultural and peace education programs have been carried out in BiH, but secular and religious worldviews have rarely been coupled in teaching. The majority of the intercultural education programs organized under the auspices of international organizations have emphasized culture and intercultural dialogue, neglecting religion, which could be employed as a resource for peacebuilding. Churches and religious communities have also implemented a significant number of peace activities, but these have been mostly focused either on intrareligious, or interreligious understanding and learning. What these initiatives neglected to do was to bring together teachers of confessional religious education and teachers of social science and humanities to learn together, to listen to one another and work together for peace and mutual understanding. An Islamic education teacher from primary school in Tuzla who, among other religious studies teachers, participated in the ETOS program on global ethics in 2014 said the following: I learned so much, but the most valuable result of these seminars is that you managed to bring us together with other teachers and we do not often get a chance to attend seminars together. We sometimes feel like outcasts in the school and we do not have much meaningful interaction with other teachers. (TPO Evaluation record, 2014).

Although confessional religious education is part of the public school system and the majority of children and parents choose to participate, due to the ambiguous role of religion during and after the war, many teachers are not comfortable with confessional religious education. One of the reasons is probably the lack of cooperation and misunderstanding between religious studies teachers echoed within the classrooms instead of working together across disciplines. Each of them follows the curriculum and teaches in accordance with their own conscience and values, leaving children to grapple with the challenge of reconciling scientific and religious worldviews on their own. Of course, there are some difficult questions involved in bridging these worldviews, but there are also many important discussions that could benefit from an interdisciplinary approach in the spirit of dialogue and mutual respect. With the support of cantonal ministries of education and with the approval of the Islamic Community of BiH and the Catechetic Department of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Vrhbosna to include religious studies teachers, TPO Foundation educated more than a thousand teachers from five cantons in Federation of BiH and dozens from Republic of Srpska on their individual requests. Through seminars and trainings, teachers were introduced to new teaching methods that focus on intercultural and interreligious learning and exchange, as well as critical thinking.

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Theoretical Underpinnings for Peace Education Living in a more culturally diverse world requires communication and pedagogical competences to overcome the challenges of ignorance, narrow-mindedness and ethnocentrism. To be able to grasp and accept different cultures in the spirit of pluralism, one needs to learn more about other cultures, but also to develop sensitivity and skills that can help in communicating across differences. Good intent, will and readiness to communicate across differences can yield some positive results and help to a certain extent. It is important to note, however, as some authors remind us, “knowledge alone will not necessarily contribute to behavior change,” though it can “contribute to a nexus of influences” (Ellis & Warshel, 2010: 137). Practicing real-­ life skills through exchange accompanied with empathy, caring and direct examples of solidarity can help in making more profound changes on a personal and societal level. There should be a “transition between learning, reflection and action” (Harris & Morrison, 2013: 31). Peace education in various forms has been more prolific both in formal and informal education settings (Stephenson, 1989), offering intercultural and interreligious competences to educators, civil society activists and other stakeholders relevant to building cohesion and peace. Teachers as an important influence on early socialization play a critical role in cultivating a culture of peace. A wide variety of activities and approaches fall under the umbrella of peace education, and there is no single definition, but some authors, such as Harris and Morrison (2013) see it as the coupling of the philosophy of peace and the process of peace: The philosophy holds values such as trust, caring, empathy, love and a belief in the transformative power of nonviolence. The process involves the skill of problem-solving, and its inherent components of listening, dialoguing, and seeking mutually beneficial solutions. (p. 164).

When it comes to peace pedagogy, one needs to cultivate certain values but also to master skills that are important in communicating across differences. Teachers and schools can therefore help students with peace pedagogical approaches, but as examples from the Bosnian schools demonstrate, there should be a dialectic relationship between teachers, students and the wider community in transmitting the key ideas and values for peace and intercultural sensitivity (Spahić Šiljak & Šahinović, 2018). Although modern methods of teaching decenter the educational process, it is important that the teacher acts as a model of peace behavior, otherwise students will not relate to what they intend to communicate. Most of the peace programs developed in the Western world can be summarized in three dominant approaches and methods. Knowledge-based approaches that overlooked the fact that curriculum and teachers are not neutral (Clarke-Habibi, 2018a, b: 144–168), and that the hidden curriculum affects students, particularly minorities. Skills and attitudes approaches (Cremin, 1993) focus more on the learner’s skills and cultivation of tolerance, solidarity, empathy, conflict resolution skills and other practices that help the person to build peace and live peacefully alongside different cultures.

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Combining knowledge, skills, and attitudes is the third approach, which according to Betty Reardon (1988) is crucial for peace education. In her teaching practice, Reardon defined peace education as a process in which students learn how to be responsible individuals and citizens, emphasizing that everything in the world is interdependent and interconnected. Her approach resonates with John Dewey’s (1938) approach to informed and active citizens who can actively participate in democracy through inquiry and problem solving, which can lead to societal transformation. Reardon also reflects the spirit of Paulo Freire’s critical pedagogy (2006) who considered education as a tool to develop social consciousness and to further social justice. Freire (2000:34) reminded us that the process of education is never neutral. Freire also finds that in order to be able to elicit real-world change, educators should have the capacity to love (1996). Love, for him, is crucial to the pedagogy of liberation. In contrast to domination, love demonstrates courage and commitment to standing up for those who are oppressed, but as he warns, love should not be used as a pretext, otherwise true dialogue and peace cannot be reached. Nel Noddings (2008), however, warns us that adopting nice principles and values does necessarily lead to their translation into practice. Therefore, she proposes nurturing caring relations through continuous and unconditional dialogue that can prevent harm. Although some programs conceptualized and initiated by NGOs have been implemented in formal education, most of them left formal education programs void of any sustainable program, concept or policy that would enhance a vision in education that is geared more towards peace, reconciliation, democracy and healing (Danesh, 2010; Spahić Šiljak & Šahinović, 2018). The two projects ETOS Initiative and SAPERE BiH were designed to bring about change and a prerequisite for such change is the level of motivation on the teachers’ part, along with their faith in the purposefulness and meaning of peace pedagogy. Educators need to have faith in peace in order to be able to teach and practice it, otherwise teaching remains a performative act that cannot bring about the desired change in classrooms. This speaks to the importance of a pedagogy of love (Freire, 2000), as practice has shown that teachers also have to be ready to cross ethnic, religious, gender and other borders to be able to create a “safe space” for learning. Practicing peace pedagogy is not about concrete lessons or syllabus content, though some of the lessons have been integrated in school curricula. Its primary goal is in creating a classroom climate in which students are encouraged to speak freely, to question, collaborate and to care.

Research Design The research was conducted by the authors in the period between January and March 2021. Data was collected from six groups: four groups of educators, including primary and secondary school teachers, as well as university teachers, a fifth

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group comprised of representatives of cantonal ministries of education and pedagogical institutes, and a sixth group consisting of religious community representatives. The first group of educators are five high-school teachers who act as trainers for the ETOS program and have been involved in the implementation of the program since 2014; they also actively worked on integrating the program into their schools. The second group is composed of four teachers who are trainers for intercultural and interreligious competences, while the third group are four teachers of P4C critical thinking methods. The fourth educator group consists of two teachers from universities in Banja Luka and Tuzla who organized Socrates Cafes as part of SAPERE BiH program. Additional two interviews were conducted with pedagogical advisors in cantonal ministries in Sarajevo, Travnik and Tuzla who have been coordinating these programs for almost a decade and who could follow the program impact via school annual reports and via direct visits to schools. Two final interviews were conducted with representatives of the Catholic Church and the Islamic Community of BiH who are in charge of religious education in schools. The interviewed teachers work in Sarajevo, Ilijaš, Tuzla, Živinice, Zenica, Tešanj, Mostar, Konjic, Jablanica, Visoko, Fojnica, Bugojno and Travnik and Banja Luka. Teachers from Banja Luka participated individually, because the ministry authorities did not approve the request to include the schools in the program and therefore, they could only participate at their own initiative. The interviewed teachers teach social science and humanities: 6 philosophy, 3 confessional religious education, 2 culture of religion (non-confessional religious education), 3 civic education, 1 architecture. All the interviews were conducted via email due to Corona pandemic constraints. Due to increased workload brought on by the requirements of online teaching, the teachers requested to be able to do the interviews at their own pace. Initially, each of the teachers was contacted by phone with an explanation of the reasons for the interview, and the importance of getting the perspective of the educators themselves. All the interviewees signed consent forms and agreed to be mentioned with their full identity. In addition to this, we analyzed written evaluations conducted by TPO Foundation and external evaluations by independently-appointed evaluators.

Examples of Peace Pedagogy in School The peace pedagogy programs initiated by TPO Foundation included over one thousand teachers, and more than two hundred schools from five cantons, as well as over a dozen teachers from Republika Srpska who individually participated in the ETOS and SAPERE programs. Schools in Srednja Bosna Canton and Herzegovina-­ Neretva Canton operate with two official programs: Croatian and Bosnian and children are ethnically divided in these schools. Some of these schools function as

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two-schools-under-one-roof.6 These two programs helped bring together not only teachers but also students via extra-curricular activities. Teachers from participating cantons were selected by the respective Ministries of Education and most of them teach social science and humanities topics, including religious studies. Two to six teachers from each school participated in seminars and training. The teachers from Republika Srpska participated at their own initiative, and were therefore not systematically distributed in terms of geography and educational institutions. Training sessions were conducted by TPO staff and associates, namely university and secondary school teachers with relevant experience, and under supervision of trainers from abroad. After completion of the training and becoming equipped with relevant literature and didactic materials (posters, cards, books, comic book novels, video materials), the teachers worked with their students, integrated some of the contents of the global ethics training into their curriculum and put into practice the new methods of teaching.

 uilding and Practicing Intercultural B and Interreligious Competences In the ethnically divided BiH society with its complex education system and segregated schools, peace pedagogy is needed to heal the wounds and give hope for the future. ETOS initiative and SAPERE BiH program are both important for the BiH education system because they offer new approaches for intercultural and interreligious learning with P4C critical thinking methods of teaching. All the interviewed teachers unanimously agreed that the existing teaching system that mostly rests on gathering information, memorizing facts and repeating thoughts and ideas is severely lacking and leaves students unmotivated. A philosophy teacher from Sarajevo comments (Photo 12.1): Critical thinking skills help young people to analyze information, build their own opinions and cultivate ethical values. The inquiry community created by SAPERE BiH enables students to speak freely in the created safe space where plurality of opinions is cultivated and accepted. Learning in the community of inquiry students are encouraged to ask questions that enable personal maturation and cognition through continuous reflection of personal thoughts and attitudes directly in educational institutions. A student learns to understand logical connections between ideas, identify, find and evaluate arguments, discover inconsistencies and common errors in reasoning, solve problems, systematically identify the

 Two schools under one roof phenomenon still exists in the divided education of BiH. From 2006 when OSCE Mission in BiH supported the organization of these schools, 54 of them ended up operating as ‘two schools under one roof’ and most of them are located in Central Bosnia Canton, Travnik and Herzegovina Neretva Canton, Mostar. The intention was to encourage returning families with school-age children to areas in which their nation had become a ‘minority’ during the war, and instead of being transformed over time in one school, it remained as a guarantee of preserving ethnic identity of minorities. More on OSCE Mission in BiH web site: https://www.oscebih.org/ category/education (accessed on March 03, 2020). 6

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Photo 12.1  P4C Class on ethics of knowledge sharing, Second Gymnasium, Sarajevo r­ elevance and importance of ideas, think about the justification of one’s beliefs, values and actions.

Another example is addressing the gap between ethnic, religious and cultural differences for teachers and students to learn and grow together through art (Photo 12.2). The head of the Debate Section at the Institute for the Education of Persons with Mental and Physical Disabilities in Tuzla explains that “each class is organized as a workshop with ethical values themes. With this method I see a greater presence of conversations about emotions and empathy in the group.” This is an example of ethics of care with focus on needs of those who are marginalized (Noddings, 2008: 87–92). Referring to the centuries-long history of multiculturalism and interreligious coexistence in the region, an Islamic studies teacher from a high school in Tešanj emphasized how relevant ETOS initiative is for BiH and the Balkans region: “ETOS values can be accepted as a potential for healing after the war’s destruction. Members of different ethnic and religious groups in the region who stand for human dignity cannot deny the values, such as ethics, tolerance, coexistence, peace, mutual respect, ethnic and gender equality, social justice and non-violence”. These programs also promote plurality and inclusivity and they serve as webs of informal networks across a myriad of differences of opinions, beliefs, values and approaches. He adds that “If one wants to rebuild a society and build peace, he or she has to promote plurality of worldviews and perspectives and ETOS initiative provides a platform for that”. Both programs were universally recognized as solid foundations for institutionalization of the key principles of human rights, equality and freedom for all. As a civic education teacher from high school in Sarajevo explained: “School is one of the most relevant institutions that can instil

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Photo 12.2  Primary School Husino, Tuzla

intercultural and interreligious values and skills in young people, but also demonstrate how to live these values”. Training for trainers organized by TPO Foundation for primary and high-school teachers empowered them to transmit knowledge and skills to their colleagues and students with a focus on ‘4Cs thinking’: Critical, Creative, Collaborative and Caring (Lipman, 2003). Special emphasis is given to caring thinking that provides a “safe space” and freedom for each participant to learn and practice newly acquired skills. A philosophy teacher from the University of Banja Luka similarly to “safe spaces”, in which students can freely articulate their thoughts, but also accept the voices of other people, commented: “Students, whom I know from class, react by being more open, more confident, then they freely express their opinion and are active in the discussion. On the other hand, students, who are less self-confident, listen more to the discussion and participate less on their own.” Contrary to the classes, the teacher pays special importance to the informal dialogues at the universities, explaining the benefits of the “safe zone” that is usually created more easily in informal gatherings and communication. Above all, a teacher in a vocational Construction High School in Mostar summarized this aspect: “Empathy and caring for others enables transformation, from isolation to openness, from animosity to understanding, from ignorance to appreciation.” A religious studies teacher from the primary school in Zenica additionally explains caring thinking: “Caring thinking helped my students to better grapple with differences, particularly those that are opposite to their religious views”. A pedagogue from the primary school of Bugojno (Bosnian school placed in the same building with a Croatian school, specifically called “two schools under one roof”, finds benefits of ETOS Initiative and SAPERE BiH programs, because “these

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projects offer content, connections and joint activities of teachers and students that affirm values essential for building a society of trust, respect and unity.” Intercultural and interreligious competences are also important for students and through peace pedagogical approaches teachers train them first to build awareness about cultural and religious differences and then to understand why and how they can coexist. After that they are able to understand the concept of “thy neighbor” (bližnji), a biblical term widely accepted and combined with the local concept of komšiluk, neighborliness (Spahić Šiljak, 2015b). A philosophy teacher from Sarajevo employs peace pedagogy in her philosophy and sociology classes and encourages her students to become aware of interconnectedness and causal relations between everything that one does. For example, important dates were an instrument to emphasize peace pedagogy. The celebrations such as Earth Day, Europe Day, or Victory Day over fascism, forced teachers to get more involved, to help students write essays and implement activities, while they themselves rethought the importance of these topics and took steps to improve their own personalities. So, in sociology classes, for example, students will discuss issues of gender, role in society, tolerance or ecology and other topics that require critical thinking and building peace and tolerance in their thinking and acting. Moreover, peace pedagogy is specifically reflected in practical exercises, volunteering or school visits. For instance, the main purpose of visits to old people’s homes, organization of humanitarian actions, visits to refugee camps or schools and associations of children with special needs is to, as a high school teacher from Mostar emphasized: “feel the importance of peace pedagogy in its real meaning and shape”. Besides these visits, an excellent approach for enriching peace pedagogy is the teachers and students exchange, mostly between Croatian, Bosnian and Serb schools, where they break the stereotypes and become peace pedagogy advocates. Integration of the key universal values advocated through ETOS and SAPERE BiH and building competent teachers and students in formal education entail support from education institutions. One of the ETOS trainers from the Pedagogical Institute in Tuzla pointed out that both TPO Foundation’s programs promote interculturalism and interreligious understanding and therefore they are institutionally supported as adding relevant value to schools. For him “a competent teacher has to strengthen communication skills and intercultural competences, to learn about other religions and cultures and to know how to react adequately when he or she teaches in a multicultural environment.” Peace pedagogy content and methods are integrated in social science and humanities classes, including homeroom, because homeroom teachers have more opportunities to select a topic and discuss it outside the official curriculum. As most of the interviewed teachers noted, these programs are applicable to all subjects, and are valuable for extracurricular activities. Through ETOS initiative many schools organize specific activities on various occasions, such as International Day of Peace, Human Rights Day, 16 Days of Activism Campaign, and, most importantly, they include the entire local community in these activities, thus demonstrating their competences and skills for wider-reaching peacebuilding.

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One of the examples of applying critical thinking and ethical values in the real-­ world context students face on a daily basis comes from the Second Gymnasium in Sarajevo. The workshop “Shaping peace together”, organized by a sociology high school teacher, focused on the freedom of movement guaranteed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948). Through critical thinking methods of inquiry students discussed this right and its limitations, applying this broader discussion to the current immigrant crisis in BiH. Students practiced non-violence skills and, during the inquiry process, they learned what it takes to achieve social justice and freedom for all and how to deal with limitations encountered along this path.

 ollaborative Peace Efforts and Bridging C the Secular-Religious Divide Bridging the secular-religious divide is not easy. It is especially challenging in a society that has so many divisions. Through the two programs ETOS and SAPERE BiH, TPO Foundation managed to bring together teachers of religious education and other teachers of social science and humanities. Resentment and misunderstandings were encountered along the way, and not all issues could be fully resolved within the scope of the program, but most teachers expressed gratitude for the opportunity to learn from one another and to work together. One of the key goals is to combine collaborative experiential learning (Lipman, 2003; Hannam & Echeverria, 2009) in ways that directly affect the school community and local community. This approach has proven to be particularly important for improving competencies and skills of teachers and students.  Cerić et  al. (2020). The following examples demonstrate how teachers integrate peace pedagogy and bridge the secular-­religious divide while discussing very difficult and controversial themes.

Philosophizing Together about Belief, Freedom and Truth Example 1  Religious studies teachers and sociology and philosophy teachers approach differently the concepts of beliefs, transcendence and freedom. Confessional religious education in most of the cases offers recipes and dogmas but when applying SAPERE program with P4C method teaching it can be more interactive and productive. An Islamic studies teacher from Zenica who introduced the P4C method comments on change: “All teaching units in Islamic religious studies are designed as a process of asking questions without giving a final answer at the very beginning.” Teachers have limitations from the obligatory curriculum and the textbooks that are designed to teach students what to believe and not to question it. One of the questions they discussed in the classroom was what is faith? Is it personal conviction and individual perception of the transcendent reality or is it

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s­ omething one does, or is it enough just to pray and fulfil the prescribed duties? In a community of inquiry, students discover a plethora of thinking and the ways of being a believer and not to blindly follow the imposed sets of beliefs. What is crucial for that process is that students are engaged and with a pedagogy of love they experience liberation and acknowledgement. Example 2  A joint lecture of philosophy and religious study teachers in the Third Gymnasium of Sarajevo is another example of collaborative work across disciplines. Students critically examined the theme of belief and freedom, asking the following questions: How to believe and be free? Why do believers accept restrictions? Is freedom limitless? Should freedom of belief and freedom of disbelief be equally guaranteed? They took the example from the High Judicial and Prosecutorial Council of BiH that banned women with hijab to work in courts and judicial institutions in 2016, and critically examined whether the state has rights to limit freedom of belief of Muslim women and is it possible to reconcile the religious dress-code with secular state neutrality towards religion. Discussing these questions in the community of inquiry that is a “safe space” students seem more ready to accept different opinions and attitudes and understand the complexity of the secular-religious divide, as the interviewed teachers disclosed. Example 3  Through Socrates cafes organized in Sarajevo, Banja Luka, Tuzla, Zenica and Mostar students and university teachers learned the art of asking questions and how to reason using the maieutic method (Socrates technique of bringing forth new ideas by reasoning and dialogue). Philosophy and sociology teachers from Banja Luka describe Socrates cafe as “a place where lively intellectual discussion develops (...) with the primary aim to teach young people that in addition to their own, there are different views, values and attitudes that need to be understood and respected”. One of the themes that stirred emotions was “What color is truth?” Through philosophical reasoning and questioning students discussed how much individual perception shapes truth, is there one or more truths, is truth relative or not, what happens when one witnesses a particular event personally, do others have the right to question it? In this process, it is not important to reach the final answer, but as facilitators explained the goal is “to learn the art of reasoning and cultivate respect, caring and collaborative learning,” that lies at the core of SAPERE philosophy program and the peace pedagogical approach.

Personal and Societal Transformation Both programs are focused on personal and societal change and the former drives the latter. Each teacher and student who participated in the inquiry community and the promotion of universal ethical values had to first deal with their own prejudices and biases in order to be able to make the transformation from a monocultural to an ethnorelative perspective. Nel Noddings (2006) recommends for effective peace

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education to first understand ourselves to be able to understand others. This is exactly the reasoning reported by several teachers. The biggest transformation a teacher and a SAPERE trainer from the University of Zenica learned is to be caring and reflective, improving not only the teaching process, but also students’ interactions: “After implementing the method of critical thinking, students become more aware of their role in society, the importance of their own selves and identity in achieving both their goals and the common good. Participants in the philosophical enquiries become more open to the different, there is no fear that they will be belittled or ridiculed by their peers, everyone is equal, and everyone can contribute to the conversation. Students and teachers are more motivated to talk, to research, and to look for answers.” Additionally, the method enriches teamwork, as he further explains: “Critical thinking influences students and teachers to develop a sense of teamwork, mutual trust and to be more creative and caring towards interlocutors. Students and teachers learn through joint dialogic questioning, the teacher gives students the opportunity to decide and lead a conversation because the focus is on students and not teachers”. ETOS initiative program also contributed to the creation of an atmosphere of brotherhood and sisterhood that can bring back confidence among people. According to a Catholic religious studies teacher from Visoko this is crucial for human capital development (Putnam, 1993) along with offering pedagogical tools and methods that are rooted in the common spiritual legacy of all religious traditions. For him, the change ETOS Initiative brought to his students is understanding that “religion cannot go against other religions, otherwise it is a dark ideology.” Religious community representatives perceive the ETOS initiative as a framework that protects them from the “threats of assimilation.” According to the representative of the Islamic Community of BiH, it is important as people in BiH live in fear of losing their identities. He further elaborates that the ETOS initiative offers teachers and students a transformative potential in terms of acceptance of differences and helps them cultivate “a perspective where everyone feels safe and equally relevant notwithstanding his or her identity”. The interviewed teachers spoke about the transformation they experienced through the lens of their personal satisfaction and happiness because they improved themselves and got ready to make their community a better place for life. Several examples speak in favour of personal and societal transformation. The project “Differences enrich”, co-organized by Gymnasium Musa Ćazim Ćatić from Tešanj, High School Stjepan Radić from Usora, Islamic Community Tešanj, Parish St. Ante Padovanski from Usora, and NGO Sehara from Tešanj, was initiated to improve intercultural and interreligious understanding in their local communities. Teachers, students, parents and community representatives organized numerous encounters to present what Christian and Muslims have in common and how they can work together with other citizens in their community on peace and reconciliation. An Islamic study teacher from Tešanj led the project with his students and he reported that the community responded well and requested to continue with similar curricular and extracurricular activities. “When the community

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responded so positively, it means that we managed to make a step forward and away from isolation and ethnic divisions,” he concluded. Another example comes from Mostar from a vocational Construction High School. Through the project “The Day of the Planet Earth”, a group of high-school teachers organized tree planting and more sustainable waste management, which is a huge problem in this region. The students first learned and cultivated a consciousness of the importance of preserving the planet, and then they practiced it together with their teachers and other community members. For the International Day of Peace this same school organized a seven-day peace program exchange with teachers and students from Trebinje. Although schools operate in an ethnically homogenous environment and there is no official collaboration, teachers and students decided that the change should start with them and they made the first steps towards addressing this. In his evaluation of the ETOS initiative and the intercultural and interreligious competence education and activities, a sociology teacher from Tuzla noted a transformation among teachers, students, but also his local community: “I saw the transformation among some people, not only in terms of changes of their attitudes towards ethnic divisions in BiH, but changes in terms of the whole spectrum of identities in our society. I noticed different and more inclusive approaches towards marginalized groups. Teachers who built intercultural and interreligious skills helped their students to change their monocultural position towards their fellow students who are different”.

Challenges and Recommendation for Peace Education Every attempt to change the status quo and ethnic divisions in BiH faces resistance. These two projects, although successfully implemented in five cantons and in some schools of Republika Srpska, faced direct and indirect resistance: some cantonal governments and the Ministry of Education in Republika Srpska directly rejected the programs, while in five cantons their institutionalization is lacking. Most of the interviewed teachers reported how beneficial peace pedagogical approaches employed through these two programs are, but without institutionalization, namely integration of the contents within the mandatory curricula as an essential teaching competence, their impact will be greatly diminished. In each Canton, only a small percentage of the schools were part of training and program activities, while other schools and teachers remained excluded, because ministries of education did not want to officially integrate peace pedagogy methods in teaching on an institutional level. Another challenge is a possible lack of perseverance in intercultural and interreligious peace pedagogy on the part of the teachers. They may not be motivated enough, and sometimes cannot endure the pressure they suffer from the school management and other colleagues because they are standing for something which is not the official narrative of their ethnic group. An English language teacher who works

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in a multiethnic and multireligious school, the Franciscan Gymnasium in Visoko, reported that some teachers find peace pedagogy approaches and particularly P4C method quite demanding and that they instead choose the easy path of staying in their comfort zone. A frequent complaint from the teachers interviewed is that those who are pro-active and persistent in peace pedagogy do not have support from the school management and their work is not recognized and accepted. Therefore, as a philosophy teacher from Sarajevo pointed out, ministries of education should encourage all teachers to participate in professional education and training, and peace pedagogy should be part of the official professional education programs organized by pedagogical institutes in each canton.7 Without this, teachers who are dedicated to peace pedagogy face obstacles while they are attempting to pursue new methods of teaching. Challenges for peace pedagogy are sometimes related to the content of the curriculum. Sometimes a teacher can raise a controversial theme for inquiry and if the teachers and facilitators are not trained, sensitive or experienced enough in navigating the negative emotions that may arise as a result, the situation can get out of hand and become counterproductive. One of the examples from two-schools-under-oneroof in Travnik showed how sensitive teachers should be when they discuss the language. One of the teachers picked a provocative text by the Bosnian poet Martina Mlinarević Sopta and students discussed it. Everything was going smoothly until the moment when one of them commented that Croats in BiH will never speak Croatian like Croats in Croatia. The students handled the situation well at the moment, but once they got back home and talked to their parents, they felt that the selected text was a provocation, although it was chosen by the teacher of Croatian language. These kinds of examples demonstrate how peace pedagogy is sensitive work that entails alertness and proper communication in every moment, especially in ethnically divided schools where themes of language, religion and history can provoke undesired conflicts. Finally, an enormous challenge in the implementation of peace pedagogy, as the representative of the Pedagogical Institute in Tuzla explained, is the misuse of religion and culture to support stereotypes, prejudices and even violence against other people and groups. Sometimes it is done consciously and sometimes it is unconscious and stems from lack of knowledge and sensitivity. Additionally, the religious teacher from a Catholic gymnasium added that the challenge for all of us, and particularly for teachers is to preserve the cultural, historical and spiritual legacy of our religious communities from the deadly embrace of the nationalistic ideologies that use stereotypical images to dehumanize “the other.” Moreover, the religious representative of the Islamic community emphasized that there is a need to locate the sources of the aforementioned fear of losing one’s identity and then convince those who are afraid of losing their identities that these kinds of programs like ETOS and SAPERE BiH can only bring benefits, both at a theoretical and experiential level.  Pedagogical Institutes in each Canton have regular professional training for their teachers, but most of these trainings and seminars are held ex-cathedra and without peace pedagogy and critical thinking approaches. 7

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These programs emphasize what is in common and do not neglect or attempt to erase differences.

Conclusion Developing peace pedagogy in BiH schools through strengthening of intercultural competences and practicing peace skills demonstrates that despite ethnic and religious divisions it is possible to work across these differences and overcome the secular-religious divide. Peace pedagogy transforms teaching processes, individuals and communities through the development of a system of universal values, attitudes and behaviors and paves the way for coexistence with a plurality of ideas and worldviews. The two projects ETOS Initiative and SAPERE BiH created a safe space for learning and interaction in which teachers, students and communities use a variety of channels and strategies to bridge the gap between ethnic and religious divisions. Teachers of religious education and other teachers of social science and humanities are gathered to build peace in the school and local community.

Take-Away Messages In order to build an ethos of openness, tolerance and solidarity towards different cultures, religions and other identities: • Teachers and students need to build their competences and practise intercultural and interreligious skills in direct encounters. • Institutional support from ministries of education and religious communities is crucial to make these efforts viable and sustainable. • Peace pedagogy is not just another method of teaching. Educators need to have faith in peace to be able to teach and practise it, otherwise teaching remains a performative act that cannot bring about the desired change in classrooms. • In overcoming the secular-religious divide, especially in the ethnically divided society like BiH, it is crucial to bring religious studies and other social sciences and humanities to work together. • A genuine intercultural and interreligious learning occurs when a person is ready to listen and respect diverse and opposing worldviews and attitudes. • Critical thinking skills are crucial prerequisites for moving from monocultural towards ethnorelative perspective. For those who would like to learn more about intercultural and interreligious skills and critical thinking P4C methods, we recommend the two manuals from TPO Foundation website:

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1. P4C – Philosophy for children: Learning and Teaching Methods for Improving Critical Thinking. Manual for primary and high-school teachers, Level 1. 2020. 2. Handbook Strengthening Intercultural and Interreligious Competences, 2020

References Abazović, D. (2012). Bosanskohercegovački muslimani između sekularizacije i desekularizacije. Synopsis. Alibašić, A. (2009). Religija i školovanje u otvorenom društvu. Preispitivanje modela religijskog obrazovanja u BiH. Fond otvoreno društvo Sarajevo. Bennett, M. (2017). Developmental model of intercultural sensitivity intercultural communication training. Theories, issues, and concepts. Wiley. Cerić, E., Šahinović, M., & Fetahagić, S. (2020). P4C  – Philosophy for children: Learning and teaching methods for improving critical thinking. Manual for primary and high-school teachers, level 1. TPO Fondacija. http://www.tpo.ba/b/dokument/TPO%20Fondacija%20 Prirucnik%20Filozofija%20za%20djecu%20web.pdf Clarke-Habibi, S. (2018a). Cultural and educational exchange in post-war Bosnia and Herzegovina in Chuing. In P. Chou & J. Spangler (Eds.), Cultural and educational exchanges in rival states. Springer. Clarke-Habibi, S. (2018b). Teachers’ perspectives on educating for peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Journal of Peace Education, 15(2), 144–168. Cremin, P. (1993). Promoting education for peace. In P.  Cremin (Ed.), Education for peace. Educational Studies Association of Ireland and the Irish Peace Institute. Danesh, H. B. (2010). Unity-based peace education: Education for peace program in Bosnia and Herzegovina: A chronological case study. In G.  Salomon & E.  Cairns (Eds.), Handbook on peace education (pp. 253–268). Psychology Press. Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. McMillan. Ellis, D., & Warshel, Y. (2010). The contributions of communication and media studies to peace education. In G. Salomon & E. Cairns (Eds.), Handbook on peace education. Psychology Press. Freire, P. (1996). Letters to Christina: Reflections on my life and work. Routledge. Freire, P. (2000). Pedagogy of the oppressed. Continuum Publishing. Hannam, P., & Echeverria, E. (2009). Philosophy with teenagers: Nurturing a moral imagination for the 21st century. Continuum. Harris, I., & Morrison, M. L. (2013). Peace education (3d ed.). McFarland. Kindle Edition. Lipman, M. (2003). Thinking in education (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. Majstorović, D., & Turjačanin, V. (2013). Youth ethnic and National Identity in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In Social science approaches. Palgrave Macmillan. Moe, C. (2008). Images of the religious other. Discourse and distance in the Western Balkans. CEIR. Noddings, N. (2006). Critical lessons: What our schools should teach. Cambridge University Press. Noddings, N. (2008). Caring and peace education. In B. Monisha (Ed.), Encyclopaedia of peace education. IAP – Information Age Publishing. Kindle Edition. Putnam, R. (1993). Making democracy work: Civic traditions in modern Italy. Princeton University Press. Reardon, B. (Ed.). (1988). Educating for global responsibility: Teacher-designed curricula for peace education, K-12. Teachers College Press/Columbia University. Simović, M. (2020). Koliko se poznajemo. Akademija nauka i umjetnosti Bosne i Hercegovine, Odjeljenje društvenih nauka, knjiga 16, posebna izdanja, knjiga CXCV. Spahić Šiljak, Z. (2015a). Believers for social change: Bridging the secular religious divide in Bosnia and Herzegovina. International Relations and Diplomacy, 3(10), 681–690. https://doi. org/10.17265/2328-­2134/2015.10.002

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Spahić Šiljak, Z. (2015b). Merhametli peace is woman’s peace. In Y. Saikia & C. Haines (Eds.), Women and peace in the Islamic world: Gender, agency, and influence. I.B. Tauris. Spahić Šiljak, Z. (2020). Koliko se (ne)poznajemo toliko smo tolerantni? Muslimanke i muslimani o sebi i drugima u Bosni i Hercegovini. In M. Simović (Ed.), Koliko se poznajemo. Akademija nauka i umjetnosti Bosne i Hercegovine, Odjeljenje društvenih nauka knjiga 16, posebna izdanja, knjiga CXCV. Spahić Šiljak, Z., & Šahinović, M. (2018). Živi vrijednosti: Globalni etos u lokalnom kontekstu. TPO Fondacija. Stephenson, C. M. (1989). The evolution of peace studies. In D. C. Thomas & M. T. Klare (Eds.), Peace and world order studies (pp. 9–19). Westview Press. TPO Evaluation record, ETOS seminar in Tuzla, October 28, 2014. Willson, E. K. (2012). After secularism: Rethinking religion in global politics. Palgrave Macmillan. Zilka Spahić Šiljak is associate professor and lecturer at the Roehampton University in London and at the Faculty of Philosophy, University of Zenica. She holds a PhD in gender studies, an MA in human rights and a BA in religious studies. Her work explores the intersection of human rights, politics, religion, education and peace-building. She has more than 15 years’ experience in academic teaching and work in governmental and non-governmental sectors. Her publications include: The Balkans Labyrinth: Culture, Gender and Leadership (2021); Sociology of Gender: Feminist Critic (2019); The Bosnian Labyrinth: Culture, Gender and Leadership (2019); Living Values: Global Ethos in Local Context of BiH (2018); Shining Humanity: Life Stories of Women in BiH (2014); Contesting Female, Feminist and Muslim Identities: Post-socialist contexts in Bosnia i Herzegovina and Kosovo (2012); Women, Religion and Politics (2010); and Women Believers and Citizens (2009).  

Melika Šahinović, MA is an activist with 10 years’ working experience in the NGO sector. Melika is currently Program Coordinator at TPO Foundation. Her interests include formal and nonformal education, gender mainstreaming, youth leadership and personal and professional development. As a certified trainer in Philosophy for Children (P4C), Melika is leading the SAPERE BiH program on critical thinking with BiH teachers. Melika is a researcher, author and co-author of several publications about critical thinking as a methodology in teaching, about peer and gender-based violence in schools and gender equality in business and politics.  

Chapter 13

Evaluating Intercultural Sensitivity among High School and University Students Haris Cerić, Amel Alić, and Sedin Habibović

Abstract  As part of a broader study of lifestyles and social behavior that we conducted on a sample of high school (N = 124) and university (N = 457) students in Bosnia and Herzegovina in the period 2017–2018, we also examined the dimensions of intercultural sensitivity, using Bennet’s Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS) as our theoretical framework. Since this model treats different ways in which people react to cultural differences, it is necessary to consider the definition of culture itself. In our research, family background, perceptions of family relations, gender, demographic characteristics, preferred lifestyles, and level of empathy were shown to be important variable criteria for a higher level of intercultural sensitivity. The intention of this paper is to interpret the obtained data in the context of peace pedagogy, an important dimension of which is intercultural sensitivity, and to offer some suggestions for establishing curricula around this dimension in the field of peace pedagogy for BiH public high schools and faculties. Keywords  Intercultural sensitivity · High school students · University students · Peace pedagogy · Peace pedagogy strategies · Curricula

H. Cerić (*) Faculty of Political Sciences, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina e-mail: [email protected] A. Alić Faculty of Philosophy, University of Zenica, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina e-mail: [email protected] S. Habibović Association of EMDR Therapists of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 L. Kasumagić-Kafedžić, S. Clarke-Habibi (eds.), Peace Pedagogies in Bosnia and Herzegovina, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26246-3_13

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Introduction Peace pedagogy should strive to support education for civilized interpersonal relationships aimed at creating peace. Creating peace, according to Galtung (2009), means reducing and preventing violence, through the non-violent and creative transformation of conflict. In this sense, peace pedagogy could be defined as an interdisciplinary field in which pedagogy as a general science of education overlaps with peace studies. The point of overlap is the axiological dimension of both pedagogy and peace studies. Education is a value category and peace studies without a value dimension is not possible. A human is a values-oriented being; humans value everything around them. According to value criteria, humans evaluate, measure and direct their actions, contributing to currents in historical movement. According to these value criteria, good differs from evil, positive from negative, humane from inhumane – peace from violence. In Galtung’s (2009) view, when values are taken away, peace studies become merely the general study of society. Galtung (2009) believes that the bearers of peace strategies can be state and non-­ state systems. While both state and higher education are potential cultivators of a democratic society, in this paper we will primarily focus on the state educational system. Peace pedagogy is closely linked to and reflected in culturally sensitive pedagogy, intercultural pedagogy and critical pedagogy. Culturally sensitive pedagogy respects the student’s origin, language, tradition, ethnicity, culture and specific learning styles, and develops in children and young people respect and a positive attitude towards other ethnicities, their characteristics and cultures, trying in this way to overcome the existence of prejudices and stereotypes, which mostly affect the children of minority and vulnerable groups. Culturally responsive pedagogy includes teachers establishing a non-dominating and dialogic relationship with students, culturally responsive teaching, intentional learning with and from others, connectedness through relations of care (Schick, 2019). The following features of intercultural pedagogy also obviously correspond to the efforts of peace pedagogy: • preparing students for everyday encounters with differences, accepting differences as something natural, as well as finding a way to accept them; • preparing students to respond positively to diversity, understanding diversity as an opportunity to gain new experiences, not as a threat; • promoting understanding of social and educational issues related to cultural diversity; • developing the ability to think critically and recognize the right of others to possess a cultural identity; • developing communication skills; • acquiring knowledge and developing the ability to use knowledge about others; • developing social sensitivity and a sense of solving social problems; • developing the ability to collaborate in a multicultural environment (Daniels, 1999).

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Critical pedagogy, as understood by Giroux (2011), is aimed at transforming oppression, disenfranchisement, class struggle, racial and gender inequalities and injustices, through an active learning process that centres on the analysis of power relations, combined with oppositional and creative practices that lie at the foundation of critical citizenship, inclusive democracy and a global public sphere. Critical pedagogy does not consist of a homogeneous set of ideas. Rather, it has several variants: libertarian, radical, liberal, Marxist – each of which have their own specifics and fusions. Regardless of these differences, critical theorists are united in their goals to empower the powerless and to change current social inequalities and injustices. Therefore, critical pedagogy is not only focused on the critique of current social inequalities and injustices but is focused on transformative action. It is a pedagogy of training for transformation, rather than the simple reproduction of society. Peace education, as an academic field, intervention and teaching practice, has developed significantly over recent decades around the world, both in areas affected by war and post-war conflicts and in multicultural democracies seeking peaceful, non-violent and conciliatory solutions to various forms of conflict. Today’s Bosnia and Herzegovina, as a post-war and post-conflict society with all its transitional pains and accumulated social, economic and political problems, is one of the countries that needs programs and initiatives for peace education aimed at practices for promoting peace, non-violence and reconciliation. We believe that it is necessary to create a curriculum for peace education in all BiH schools and universities. This curriculum should be based on supporting the development of students’ knowledge, abilities, values and attitudes, and include several interrelated dimensions: cultural (intercultural sensitivity and intercultural communication at the local, national and international level), social (respect for human rights, individual and social responsibilities and social justice - encouraging cooperation, participation in public life) and axiological (peace as an essential value that is also a postulate for individual and social values such as freedom, justice, equality, education and the like, and the necessary foundation for the progress of individuals, groups of people, states and humanity as a whole). Although there are some school subjects in the Bosnian education system whose contents are complementary to the content of peace education (e.g., Education for Democracy/Civic Education), we believe that due to the particular conditions of BiH society (multiethnic, multi-confessional, post-war and post-conflict society) peace education should exist as a separate subject. Based on the results obtained in our previous research (Alić et al., 2015, 2018a, b, c), which treated intercultural sensitivity (in combination with some other variables) as one of the basic skills on which intercultural dialogue rests as a way to avoid violence by reconciling differences or quarrels, we will propose some elements of the future peace education curriculum in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

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The Concepts of Culture and Intercultural Sensitivity Within peace pedagogy, values education and character development are considered important means for building a culture of peace. One of the goals of peace education is to promote intercultural dialogue, in a way that avoids violence by improving multi-perspectival understanding, valuing differences and settling quarrels non-­ violently. In this sense, intercultural dialogue is understood as a step towards peace, as a strategy for reducing and avoiding violence, that is, the non-violent transformation of conflict. A prerequisite for intercultural dialogue is the development of intercultural sensitivity. Bennett (1993) and Bennett & Bennett (2003) present a developmental model of intercultural sensitivity that considers the stages of maturation which individuals and groups go through, moving away from an ethnocentric to an ethnorelativistic observation of differences. Such development implies a reduction of prejudice, discrimination and distance from others and an increase in metacognitive maturity in the observation of personal position, especially given the existence of otherness. The developmental model of intercultural sensitivity, according to Bennett, includes the following stages: Denial, Defense, Minimization, Acceptance, Adaptation, Integration. The first three stages represent the positions of ethnocentrism, and the remaining three the stages of ethnorelativism. Ethnocentric stages range from denying differences, through rejecting differences, to minimizing differences, while in the space of ethnorelativism a person is trained to accept differences, then adapts to differences and is finally able to integrate differences (Table 13.1). Table 13.1  Developmental model of intercultural sensitivity (adapted from: Bennett, 1993, and Bennett & Bennet, 2003) Ethnocentric stages 1 2 DENIAL The only possible understanding of reality, denial of otherness Isolation Separation

3

Ethnorelative stages 4 5

ACCEPTANCE Understanding of others in cultural context and not through one’s own optics Behavioral Depreciation Physical relativism universalism Superiority acceptance of Physical Change difference in towards the similarities and behavior universal needs opposite Value relativism Transcendental Feeling inferiority of universalism- all Acceptance of different value people are the one’ own same on the basis systems and exaggeration of spiritual and political of other culture DEFENSE Observed differences a threat, dichotomous thinking

MINIMIZATION Disguise through recognition of similarities

*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed) **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

ADAPTATION Conscious into stands of others, perception of different aspects Empathy Pluralism Internalization of several different world views

6 INTEGRATION Integration of different referential frames into a unique one

Contextual evaluation Estimation based on different referential frames Constructive marginality Intercultural mediation

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In this research, we mainly deal with national and ethnic cultures, as well as subcultures, with the aim of linking the existing level of intercultural sensitivity with possible directions for the development of peace education programs. Before turning the data, we will provide some theorising input on culture. We find the complexity of the concept of culture in a number of definitions. In sociological dictionaries, the notion of culture is often opposed to the notion of nature, whereby (some) sociologists represent culture as what people do by their actions, as distinct from nature, i.e. from what exists or arises without human interference. For Jenks  (1993), culture  reffers to “all which is symbolic: the learned… aspects of human society”. Haralambos and Holborn say that without a common culture, members of society would not be able to communicate and collaborate, and the result would be confusion and disorder. Therefore, culture has two essential qualities: first, it is learned, second, it is common. Without it, there would be no human society (Haralambos & Holborn, 2002: 3). Haralambos and Holborn (2002: 3) define culture simply and concisely as “the totality of a society’s way of life”. Arnold (1960, as cited in Haralambos & Holborn, 2002: 899) believes that culture is the “learning of perfection” , which leads subsequently to “harmonious perfection” that develops all our humanities, and “general perfection”, which develops all parts of our society. People become cultivated through the pursuit of perfection. Culture enables life to be organized and made successful and understandable through all stages of life and everyday life practice: giving birth, growing up, maintaining health, surviving, working, searching for meaning, dying. Thus, over time, culture becomes a “way of life”, shaping everyday practice, but it also represents a kind of network of systems of accumulated knowledge, values, customs, ways of behavior that all together have the task of resolving a key issue - the issue of individual and collective survival. This “way” or “blueprint of life” can be observed in the fine and nuanced layers of the life of a culture. Ensuring the continuity of a culture is achieved through the processes of cultural transmission: upbringing, education, socialization, and enculturation. In “simple” societies or “post-figurative cultures” (Mead, 1970), these processes take place exclusively within the framework of everyday life and work. Such traditional societies, in which little has changed over the generations, represent cultures in which the process of learning and transmission of cultural goods is unthinkable and impossible without the presence and support of the elderly. However, as Mead (1970) would describe, in configurative and prefigurative cultures, the processes of cultural transmission would become (and do become!) increasingly complex because cultural learning takes place almost entirely indirectly and depends on institutionalized mediators such as formal education or schooling (Ogbu, 1989). In modern societies and educational systems, with the already present complexity of cultural mediation, even more complex processes of meeting others and the necessity of learning about the cultures of others take place. In a rapidly changing world with more and more minority groups who as immigrants and “newcomers” do not have the opportunity to learn about their own culture (through the process of enculturation) in cultural mediators (schools), and dominant and majority cultures must learn more about others (minority and immigrant cultures), the challenge of cultural transmission and institutional mediation is becoming increasingly complex and multidimensional.

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Anthropologists of education, looking for alternative explanations for the academic and cultural failure of children of minority cultures, began to describe it with the term “cultural discontinuity” (Ogbu, 1989), through micro and macro analysis of the majority or dominant culture in relation to minority or subcultures present in Western societies. In effect, they criticized the reduction of culture to a list of material and social characteristics against which the dominant and minority cultures are compared, which led to the denial of cultural traditions in the process of teaching, learning and assessment. A subculture is a culture of a special group within a society, which differs from the general social (parent) culture by numerous special characteristics in the field of beliefs, norms, lifestyle, behaviour, and the creation and use of symbols. The symbolic aspect is especially important for the subculture, and its members are recognized by their special style of appearance, manner of dress, posture, music, dance, language (jargon, slang) and rituals (Mimica & Bogdanović, 2007: 426). Belonging or striving to belong to a certain subcultural group and sub-community greatly influences the choice of value orientations, i.e., lifestyles.

Research Design As part of a broader study of lifestyles and social behavior that we conducted on a sample of high school and university students in Bosnia and Herzegovina in the period 2017–2018 (Alić et al., 2015, 2018a, b, c), we also examined intercultural sensitivity. As a main instrument the research used the Scale of Intercultural Sensitivity, which consists of subscales on respect for cultural differences, intercultural engagement, intercultural confidence, intercultural attentiveness, and intercultural enjoyment. The research related to high school students was conducted at the United World College International School in Mostar (UWC). Since it is a rare opportunity for researchers from this region to study differences in behavior and attitudes between members of different cultures, we took the opportunity to compare a number of variables derived from the different cultural backgrounds of the students (n = 124) from 47 different countries across all continents, of which 39 students were from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Among the respondants, 75 identified as female and 45 as male, while two students reacted to the incompleteness of this question and identified as non-binary. The UWC Mostar respondents reported a total number of 34 languages as their mother tongues, with 55% actively using English or considering it their second mother tongue. The research related to university students included 457 students from the University of Sarajevo and the University of Zenica, with a total of 9 faculties represented, including students from technical, natural sciences, social and humanistic studies. At the University of Zenica, the research was conducted at the following faculties: Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Polytechnic Faculty, Faculty of Metallurgy and Materials Science, Faculty of Law, Faculty of Philosophy and

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Medical Faculty. At the University of Sarajevo: Faculty of Political Sciences and Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics. Respondents included 328 female students and 129 male students. The study implemented a non-experimental, transversal research design in which we relied on surveys using standardized evaluation scales. The study included both qualitative and quantitative analysis. In both research settings (high school and university), the students participated voluntarily. They filled out questionnaires in the presence of researchers (authors of this paper). Before completing the questionnaire, the purpose and goal of the research were explained to them. In our research, family background, parental patterns of behaviour, level of empathy, and locus of control were shown to be important variable criteria for a higher level of intercultural sensitivity. The intention of this paper is to interpret the obtained data in the context of peace pedagogy, whose important segment is intercultural sensitivity, and to offer some suggestions for establishing content (programs) in the field of peace pedagogy for high schools and faculties.

Methodological Framework To examine the level of intercultural sensitivity, we used the Intercultural Sensitivity Scale, which consists of the following subscales: Interaction Engagement, Respect for Cultural Differences, Interaction Confidence, Interaction Enjoyment, and Interaction Attentiveness (Fritz et al., 2002). The Cronbach Alpha coefficient for the Intercultural Sensitivity Scale in this research was 0.833. This scale with subscales proved to be highly reliable and allowed us to consider the level of intercultural sensitivity of respondents with respect to a number of other relevant criteria variables. It also fits into relevant theoretical concepts that explore the relationship of individuals and groups in contact with other cultures. Beside the Intercultural Sensitivity Scale, the following questionnaires were implemented in our research as well: • Questionnaire on general information about respondents; • Perception of family relations – KOBI scale of satisfaction (Vulić-Prtorić, 2000) consists of 11 items (Cronbach Alpha coefficient 0.823), and scale of perception of family relations with 25 items, where subjects evaluate emotional dimensions and control by mother and father. In this study the Cronbach Alpha coefficient for mothers’ emotional sensitivity was 0.771 and for fathers 0.795, for mothers’ control 0.898 and for the dimension of father’s control Cronbach Alpha was 0,967; • Empathy Scale (Baron-Cohen, 2012) – Cronbach Alpha coefficient 0.837; • The scale of externality (Bezinović, 1990) – Cronbach Alpha coefficient 0.833; • Social Distance Scale, adapted from Bogardus Social Distance Scale (Alić et al., 2015); • Lifestyle Preference Questionnaire - constructed as a five-step Likert type scale, which measures the intensity of the preference of ten lifestyles (Popadić; 1995;

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Luković & Čizmić, 2012; Mladenovska-Dimitrovska & Dimitrovski, 2015; Knežević, 2016) We calculated the correlation of the observed criterion variables by applying the Pearson correlation coefficient, since these are variables on an interval or ratio scale that are in a linear relationship. Using the Pearson correlation coefficient, possible correlations between the variables were examined: assessment of father’s and mother’s emotional dimensions, levels of social distance, empathy, intercultural sensitivity, and national dimensions of culture.

Data Analysis Results for United World College Using Hofstede’s (2001, 2005) dimensions of national cultures, we grouped students according to the established dimensions: Power Distance, Individualism vs Collectivism, Masculinity vs Femininity and Uncertainty Avoidance (see Table 13.2 Table 13.2  Hofstede’s cultural dimension model (2001, 2005) Cultural Dimension Power distance

Individualism vs collectivism

Masculinity vs femininity

Uncertainty avoidance

Definition Power distance is defined as a level of (non)equal allocation of power (within a family, school, organization etc.).

Examples Low: U.S. and Canada High: Japan, Singapore, and BiH Individualism vs collectivism is a dimension of culture Individualistic: U.S., Australia, and Great according to which we define relations between an individual and a community and it reflects the firmness Britain Collectivistic: of the social structure, development of the feeling of Singapore, Hong belonging to a community but also positioning one’s Kong, Mexico, and own destiny in reference to the community. BiH In cultures with dominant male values, primarily results, Masculinity: Japan, Austria, Italy, and money and aggressiveness (pugnacity) are values, unlike those with dominating female values where more BiH Femininity: Sweden, appreciation is shown towards the social status, Norway, development of appropriate relations and relationships Netherlands, and and the ability of compassion and forgiveness. BiH Low: Singapore, Uncertainty avoidance is a dimension which Hofstede Jamaica, and defined as a tendency to accept risk and the way in Denmark which members of a culture face uncertainties High: Greece, Portugal, Japan, and BiH

*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed) **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

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for definitions and example countries). Within the separate dimensions, comparisons were made regarding the level of expressed social distance towards others, the level of empathy, intercultural sensitivity, locus of control, and assessment of the dimensions of control and emotionality of parents. Using the t-test, differences between students were determined with respect to the considered variable criteria, while the Pearson correlation coefficient was used for variables that are in a linear relationship. If we explore Bosnia and Herzegovina’s culture through the lens of Hofstede’s cultural dimensions theory, it is possible to notice the following characteristics: it is a collectivist culture with both masculine and feminine values, but no clearly dominant cultural value; it scores very high on Uncertainty Avoidance, demonstrating that as a nation it seeks mechanisms to avoid ambiguity; it is a Long Term Orientation culture which is pragmatic in nature; and no clear preference between Indulgence and Restraint can be established.1 For this part of the analysis, we have used Hofstede’s model of the national dimension of cultures, by dividing the students based on their culture of origin, taking into account the categorization set up by Hofstede during his extensive research. Using Hofstede’s operationalization of national cultures, students from 47 countries encompassed by this research were grouped based on the predetermined dimensions: individualism- collectivism, power distance, avoiding uncertainty, avoidance and masculinity-femininity values, at the same time assuming that the potential differences could give additional insight into the scope of contact and impact. Table 13.3 shows an excerpt from the correlation matrix for the variables of the national dimension of culture and intercultural sensitivity. A statistically significant correlation between the level of social distance at the level of P