Paul Among the Apocalypses?: An Evaluation of the “Apocalyptic Paul” in the Context of Jewish and Christian Apocalyptic Literature 9780567667304, 9780567667281, 9780567667298

Table of contents :
Cover
HalfTitle
Title
Copyright
Dedication
Contents
Acknowledgments
Abbreviations
Chapter 1
Perplexed by the "Apocalyptic Paul"?
1. Introduction
2. Paul and Apocalyptic in Recent Study
a. Albert Schweitzer
b. Rudolf Bultmann
c. Ernst Käsemann
d. J. Christiaan Beker
e. J. Louis Martyn
f. A "Union School"?
3. Prolegomena
a. Terminology
b. Methodology
c. Rationale: The Selection of Texts
4. The Structure of This Book
Chapter 2
Epistemology: Revelation and Wisdom
1. Introduction
2. Epistemological Dichotomies in the "Apocalyptic Paul"
a. Martyn: "Epistemology at the Turn of the Ages"
b. Campbell: Apocalyptic aganist Foundationalism
3. Epistemological Duality in Jewish Apocalyptic Literature
a. Wisdom Apocalyptic and Epistemological Compatibility
b. 4 Ezra and 2 Baruch??
c. 1 Enoch
d. Summary
4. Epistemological Duality in the Book of Revelation
a. The Revelation of Jesus Christ
b. Revelation "in the Spirit"
c. Revelation and Human Rationality
d. Summary
5. Implications for the Cosmology of the "Apocalyptic Paul"
a. Epistemology and Inaugurated Eschatology in 2 Corinthians 5:16
b. Revelation and Foundationalism in Romans 1:18–32
Chapter 3
Eschatology: "Irruption" and History
1. Introduction
2. Eschatological Dichotomies in the "Apocalyptic Paul"
a. Martyn: "What Time Is It?"
b. De Boer: The "Two Ages" in Pauline Apocalyptic
c. Gaventa: Maternity and Apocalyptic Expectation
d. Summary
3. Eschatological Duality in Jewish Apocalyptic Literature
a. 1 Enoch
b. 4 Ezra
c. 2 Baruch
d. Summary
4. Eschatological Duality in the Book of Revelation
a. The Woman with Child: An "Invasive" Christ-event? (Revelation 12)
b. "What Time Is It" in Revelation?
c. Summary
5. Implications for the Eschatology of the "Apocalyptic Paul"
a. Eschatological Dualism and the "Two Ages"
b. Maternity, History, and Apocalyptic in Romans 8:18–23
c. Redemptive History and the "Fullness of Time" in Galatians 4:4
d. Summary
Chapter 4
Cosmology: Heaven and Earth
1. Introduction
2. Cosmological Dichotomies in the "Apocalyptic Paul"
a. Gaventa: Cosmology and Soteriology
b. De Boer: The Two Ages as "Orbs of Power"
c. Martyn: Apocalypse as Invasion
d. Summary
3. Cosmological Duality in Jewish Apocalyptic Literature
a. 1 Enoch
b. 2 Baruch and 4 Ezra
4. Cosmological Duality in the Book of Revelation
a. An Open Door in Heaven (Revelation 4)
b. New Jerusalem, New Heaven, New Earth (Revelation 21)
c. Summary
5. Implications for the Cosmology of the "Apocalyptic Paul"
a. Paul's Heavenly Ascent in 2 Corinthians 12:2-4
b. Cosmology, Presence, and "Invasion" in Galatians 4 and 1 Corinthians 2
c. Cosmology and Covenant
d. Summary
Chapter 5
Soteriology: Deliverance and Justice
1. Introduction
2. Soteriological Dichotomies in the "Apocalyptic Paul"
a. Martyn: The Cross and Cosmic Warfare
b. De Boer: "Two Tracks" of Apocalyptic
c. Campbell: Apocalyptic Re-reading of justification
d. Summary
3. Soteriological Duality in Jewish Apocalyptic Literature
a. 1 Enoch
b. 2 Baruch
c. 4 Ezra
d. Conclusions
4. Soteriological Duality in the Book of Revelation
a. Messianic War and Final Assize
b. The New Exodus: Deliverance and Judgment
c. Conclusions
5. Implications for the Soteriology of the "Apocalyptic Paul"
a. "Cosmological" and "Forensic" Soteriology
b. Justification and Rectification
Chapter 6
Conclusions: Questioning the Dichotomies
1. Aims of This Book
2. Apocalyptic Epistemology
3. Apocalyptic Eschatology
4. Apocalyptic Soteriology
5. Apocalyptic Soteriology
Bibliography
Index of References
Index of Authors

Citation preview

LIBRARY OF NEW TESTAMENT STUDIES

562 Formerly Journal of the Study of the New Testament Supplement Series

Editor Chris Keith

Editorial Board Dale C. Allison, John M.G. Barclay, Lynn H. Cohick, R. Alan Culpepper, Craig A. Evans, Robert Fowler, Simon J. Gathercole, John S. Kloppenborg, Michael Labahn, Love L. Sechrest, Robert Wall, Steve Walton, Catrin H. Williams

PAUL AMONG THE APOCALYPSES?

An Evaluation of the “Apocalyptic Paul” in the Context of Jewish and Christian Apocalyptic Literature

J. P. Davies

Bloomsbury T&T Clark An imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc

Bloomsbury T&T Clark An imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc Imprint previously known as T&T Clark 50 Bedford Square London WC1B 3DP UK

1385 Broadway New York NY 10018 USA

www.bloomsbury.com BLOOMSBURY, T&T CLARK and the Diana logo are trademarks of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc

First published 2016 © J. P. Davies, 2016 J. P. Davies has asserted his right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, WREHLGHQWL¿HGDV$XWKRURIWKLVZRUN All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publishers. No responsibility for loss caused to any individual or organization acting on or refraining from action as a result of the material in this publication can be accepted by Bloomsbury or the author. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN:

HB: ePDF: ePub:

978-0-56766-728-1 978-0-56766-729-8 978-0-56766-952-0

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Davies, J. P., author. Title: Paul among the Apocalypses? : an evaluation of the Apocalyptic Paul in the context of Jewish and Christian Apocalyptic literature / by J.P. Davies. Description: New York : Bloomsbury, 2016. | Series: The Library of New Testament studies ; volume 562 | Includes bibliographical references and index. ,GHQWL¿HUV/&&1SULQW _/&&1HERRN _,6%1 KDUGEDFN _,6%1H3') _,6%1H3XE Subjects: LCSH: Apocalyptic literature--History and criticism. | Paul, the Apostle, Saint. | Bible--Criticism, interpretation, etc. &ODVVL¿FDWLRQ/&&%6'SULQW _/&&%6HERRN _''&GF /&UHFRUGDYDLODEOHDWKWWSOFFQORFJRY Series: Library of the New Testament Series, volume 562 7\SHVHWE\)RUWKFRPLQJ3XEOLFDWLRQVZZZIRUWKSXEFRP

For Becky, Pippa and Sam

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Acknowledgments Abbreviations

xi xiii

Chapter 1 3ൾඋඉඅൾඑൾൽൻඒඍඁൾ³$ඉඈർൺඅඒඉඍංർ3ൺඎඅ´" 1. Introduction 2. Paul and Apocalyptic in Recent Study D $OEHUW6FKZHLW]HU b. Rudolf Bultmann c. Ernst Käsemann d. J. Christiaan Beker e. J. Louis Martyn I $³8QLRQ6FKRRO´" 3. Prolegomena a. Terminology b. Methodology c. Rationale: The Selection of Texts  7KH6WUXFWXUHRI7KLV%RRN

 1 3  7 9 12 15  22 22 28 35 

Chapter 2 (ඉංඌඍൾආඈඅඈ඀ඒ5ൾඏൾඅൺඍංඈඇൺඇൽ:ංඌൽඈආ 1. Introduction  (SLVWHPRORJLFDO'LFKRWRPLHVLQWKH³$SRFDO\SWLF3DXO´ D 0DUW\Q³(SLVWHPRORJ\DWWKH7XUQRIWKH$JHV´ E &DPSEHOO$SRFDO\SWLFDJDLQVW)RXQGDWLRQDOLVP  (SLVWHPRORJLFDO'XDOLW\LQ-HZLVK$SRFDO\SWLF/LWHUDWXUH D :LVGRP$SRFDO\SWLFDQG(SLVWHPRORJLFDO&RPSDWLELOLW\ b. 4 Ezra and 2 Baruch c. 1 Enoch d. Summary  (SLVWHPRORJLFDO'XDOLW\LQWKH%RRNRI5HYHODWLRQ a. The Revelation of Jesus Christ E 5HYHODWLRQ³LQWKH6SLULW´ c. Revelation and Human Rationality d. Summary

 39       52 55  55  59 63

viii

Contents

 ,PSOLFDWLRQVIRUWKH(SLVWHPRORJ\RIWKH³$SRFDO\SWLF3DXO´ a. Epistemology and Inaugurated Eschatology in 2 Corinthians 5:16 b. Revelation and Foundationalism in Romans 1:18–32 Chapter 3 (ඌർඁൺඍඈඅඈ඀ඒ³,උඋඎඉඍංඈඇ´ൺඇൽ+ංඌඍඈඋඒ 1. Introduction  (VFKDWRORJLFDO'LFKRWRPLHVLQWKH³$SRFDO\SWLF3DXO´ D 0DUW\Q³:KDW7LPH,V,W"´ E 'H%RHU7KH³7ZR$JHV´LQ3DXOLQH$SRFDO\SWLF c. Gaventa: Maternity and Apocalyptic Expectation d. Summary 3. Eschatological Duality in Jewish Apocalyptic Literature a. 1 Enoch b. 4 Ezra c. 2 Baruch d. Summary  (VFKDWRORJLFDO'XDOLW\LQWKH%RRNRI5HYHODWLRQ D 7KH:RPDQZLWK&KLOG$Q³,QYDVLYH´&KULVWHYHQW" 5HYHODWLRQ  E ³:KDW7LPH,V,W´LQ5HYHODWLRQ" c. Summary  ,PSOLFDWLRQVIRUWKH(VFKDWRORJ\RIWKH³$SRFDO\SWLF3DXO´ D (VFKDWRORJLFDO'XDOLVPDQGWKH³7ZR$JHV´ b. Maternity, History, and Apocalyptic in Romans 8:18–23 F 5HGHPSWLYH+LVWRU\DQGWKH³)XOOQHVVRI7LPH´ LQ*DODWLDQV d. Summary &KDSWHU &ඈඌආඈඅඈ඀ඒ+ൾൺඏൾඇൺඇൽ(ൺඋඍඁ 1. Introduction  &RVPRORJLFDO'LFKRWRPLHVLQWKH³$SRFDO\SWLF3DXO´ D *DYHQWD&RVPRORJ\DQG6RWHULRORJ\ E 'H%RHU7KH7ZR$JHVDV³2UEVRI3RZHU´ c. Martyn: Apocalypse as Invasion d. Summary 3. Cosmological Duality in Jewish Apocalyptic Literature a. 1 Enoch b. 2 Baruch and 4 Ezra  &RVPRORJLFDO'XDOLW\LQWKH%RRNRI5HYHODWLRQ D $Q2SHQ'RRULQ+HDYHQ5HYHODWLRQ  E 1HZ-HUXVDOHP1HZ+HDYHQ1HZ(DUWK5HYHODWLRQ  F 6XPPDU\

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Contents

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Chapter 5 6ඈඍൾඋංඈඅඈ඀ඒ'ൾඅංඏൾඋൺඇർൾൺඇൽ-ඎඌඍංർൾ  ,QWURGXFWLRQ  6RWHULRORJLFDO'LFKRWRPLHVLQWKH³$SRFDO\SWLF3DXO´ a. Martyn: The Cross and Cosmic Warfare E 'H%RHU³7ZR7UDFNV´RI$SRFDO\SWLF F &DPSEHOO$SRFDO\SWLF5HUHDGLQJRI-XVWL¿FDWLRQ d. Summary 3. Soteriological Duality in Jewish Apocalyptic Literature a. 1 Enoch b. 2 Baruch c. 4 Ezra d. Conclusions  6RWHULRORJLFDO'XDOLW\LQWKH%RRNRI5HYHODWLRQ D 0HVVLDQLF:DUDQG)LQDO$VVL]H b. The New Exodus: Deliverance and Judgment c. Conclusions  ,PSOLFDWLRQVIRUWKH6RWHULRORJ\RIWKH³$SRFDO\SWLF3DXO´ D ³&RVPRORJLFDO´DQG³)RUHQVLF´6RWHULRORJ\ E -XVWL¿FDWLRQDQG5HFWL¿FDWLRQ

   150   156 157 158  167 173   178 185   

Chapter 6 &ඈඇർඅඎඌංඈඇඌ4ඎൾඌඍංඈඇංඇ඀ඍඁൾ'ංർඁඈඍඈආංൾඌ 1. Aims of This Book 2. Apocalyptic Epistemology 3. Apocalyptic Eschatology  $SRFDO\SWLF&RVPRORJ\ 5. Apocalyptic Soteriology

 198 199 200  202

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Index of References Index of Authors

212 218

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This monograph is a lightly-edited revision of my doctoral dissertation DW WKH 8QLYHUVLW\ RI 6W $QGUHZV 7KH ¿UVW GHEW RI WKDQNV LV WKHUHIRUH owed to my supervisor, Grant Macaskill, whose wisdom throughout that process was and remains invaluable. I had initially intended to work on 5HYHODWLRQ QRW 3DXO EXW KLV HDUO\ UHFRPPHQGDWLRQ WKDW , ³VWDUW RII E\ ORRNLQJDWZKDWWKHZRUGµDSRFDO\SWLF¶PHDQV´OHGWRP\LQWHUHVWLQWKH SUHVHQWWRSLF,WZDVDOLQHGHOLYHUHGDV,QRZUHDOLVHDOOWRRZHOO ZLWK characteristic dry Hebridean humour. During my time in St Andrews it was a great privilege to work as Research Assistant to Tom Wright, especially as he completed his major life’s work on Paul. I have learned a great deal IURP WKH PDQ\ FRQYHUVDWLRQV ZH KDYH KDG RQ ³DSRFDO\SWLF´ DQG PXFK else and I remain grateful for his advice and friendship. I am grateful, too, to the other faculty and staff of St Mary’s College, with whom I enjoyed many useful and encouraging discussions, gratitude which now extends to my new colleagues at Trinity College, who have warmly welcomed us to Bristol and with whom I have already enjoyed stimulating conversations, no doubt with more to come. It is a precious thing to have other scholars devote time and energy to one’s ideas, and I remain immensely thankful IRU P\ H[DPLQHUV 'DYLG 0RI¿WW DQG /RUHQ 6WXFNHQEUXFN IRU WKHLU invaluable comments on the thesis and for their encouragement to publish my work. In that endeavour I am grateful to all at Bloomsbury T&T Clark ZKRKDYHZRUNHGRQWKLVERRNSDUWLFXODUO\&KULV.HLWKZKR¿UVWLQYLWHG me to submit it to the Library of New Testament Studies. Finally, I owe an immeasurable debt of gratitude to my family, especially my wife Becky and our children, to whom this book is dedicated, and without whom it would never have been written.

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Bauer, W., F. W. Danker, W. F. Arndt, and F. W. Gingrich. Greek– English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature. 3d ed. Chicago, 1999 Coniectanea Biblica New Testament Series English translation Expository Times Forschungen zum Alten Testament Journal of Biblical Literature Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society Journal for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman Periods: Supplement Series Journal for the Study of the New Testament Journal for the Study of the New Testament: Supplement Series Library of New Testament Studies Septuagint Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation Series Scottish Journal of Theology Theological Dictionary of the New Testament. Edited by G. Kittel and G. Friedrich. Translated by G. W. Bromiley. 10 vols. Grand Rapids, ± Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament

Chapter 1 P ൾඋඉ අ ൾඑ ൾൽ ൻ ඒ ඍඁൾ  ³ $ ඉ ඈ ർ ൺ අඒ ඉ ඍ ං ർ P ൺඎඅ ´ " *

1. Introduction One of the most lively and enduring debates in New Testament studies is WKHTXHVWLRQRIWKHVLJQL¿FDQFHRI³DSRFDO\SWLF´WKRXJKWLQ3DXO7KLVKDV recently given birth to a group of scholars, with a common theological JHQHDORJ\ZKRVKDUHDFRQFHUQWRHPSKDVL]HWKH³DSRFDO\SWLF´QDWXUHRI 3DXO¶VJRVSHO/HDGLQJ¿JXUHVRIWKLVJURXSDUHJ. Louis Martyn, Martinus de Boer, Beverly Gaventa and Douglas Campbell. This movement has QRWEHHQUHFHLYHGZLWKRXWFULWLFLVPGUDZLQJ¿UHIURPYDULRXVTXDUWHUV However, what is often lacking, on both sides, is detailed engagement with the texts of the Jewish and Christian apocalypses. 7KLV ERRN DWWHPSWV WR HYDOXDWH WKH ³DSRFDO\SWLF 3DXO´ PRYHPHQW through an examination of its major theological moves in the light of the Jewish apocalypses 1 Enoch, 4 Ezra, 2 Baruch and the Christian book of 5HYHODWLRQ 3ODFLQJ 3DXO LQ WKLV OLWHUDU\ DQG KLVWRULFDO FRQWH[W FRQ¿UPV him as an apocalyptic thinker, while raising important questions about how this is construed in these recent approaches. Each chapter will address one of four interrelated themes: epistemology, eschatology, cosmology and soteriology.1 7KH VWXG\ VXJJHVWV WKDW WKH ³DSRFDO\SWLF 3DXO´ PRYHPHQW is characterized in each area by problematic dichotomies, strict dualisms ZKLFKXQQHFHVVDULO\VFUHHQRXWZKDW3DXO¶VDSRFDO\SWLFWKRXJKWDI¿UPV 7KHUH LV PXFK WR FRPPHQG WKH ³DSRFDO\SWLF 3DXO´ PRYHPHQW DQG PXFKRQZKLFKWKLVSURMHFWLVLQDJUHHPHQW7KHSUHVHQWGLVFXVVLRQDI¿UPV WKDWZHPXVWDSSURDFK3DXO¶VOHWWHUVZLWKUHFRJQLWLRQRIKLV³DSRFDO\SWLF´ way of thinking if the apostle is properly to be understood. Likewise, it DI¿UPVWKHLPSRUWDQFHRIVXFK³DSRFDO\SWLF´PRWLIVDVDQHSLVWHPRORJ\ RI UHYHDOHG NQRZOHGJH WKH HVFKDWRORJLFDO GRFWULQH RI ³WZR DJHV´ D * Sadly, the world of New Testament scholarship lost one of its great voices when J. Louis Martyn died in June 2015, aged 89, as this volume was in preparation. 1௒)RUWKHUDWLRQDOHEHKLQGP\XVHRIWKHVHFDWHJRULHVVHHEHORZ

2

Paul Among the Apocalypses

cosmology characterized by two realms, and a soteriology which emphaVL]HVGLYLQHYLFWRU\7KLVGLDORJXHZLWKWKHZRUNRIWKHPDMRU¿JXUHVLQ that movement, from whose work the present project has learned a great deal, should not therefore be seen as an attempt at a full-dress critique. +RZHYHULWLVWKHFRQYLFWLRQRIWKLVERRNWKDWHDFKRIWKRVHDI¿UPDWLRQV RI ³DSRFDO\SWLF´ WKHPHV LQ 3DXO KDV FRPH ZLWK D FRUUHVSRQGLQJ GHQLDO revelatory epistemology therefore not KXPDQ ZLVGRP ³DSRFDO\SWLF´ eschatology therefore not salvation history; a cosmology of invasion therefore not the unveiling of God’s abiding presence; a soteriology of deliverance therefore not IRUHQVLF MXVWL¿FDWLRQ2 It is at this point that concerns are raised, highlighting these potential false dichotomies in the ³DSRFDO\SWLF3DXO´ZKLFKUHVXOWIURPDIDLOXUHWRHQJDJHFORVHO\ZLWKWKH DSRFDO\SVHV,QDQXWVKHOORQHFRXOGVD\WKDWZKLOHWKLVFULWLTXHDI¿UPV ZKDW WKH\ DI¿UP LW PXVW DOVR TXHVWLRQ WKHLU GHQLDOV ,I WKH HPSKDVLV RI the present work seems to fall on the latter, it is, hopefully, the result of friendly critique and an attempt to honour this scholarship. As this book neared completion, I was given to proofread a partial draft of N. T. Wright’s volume Paul and his Recent Interpreters.3 Readers of both works will observe, as I did, an overlap in our arguments, the result of working closely together over several years and many stimulating conversations on these issues. I echo what he says in the preface to that volume: it is no longer clear to me which ideas were originally mine, which his, or which emerged from our conversations. Such shared ownership of ideas LI³RZQHUVKLS´LVHYHQWKHULJKWFDWHJRU\ZKHQWDONLQJDERXWLGHDV LVWR be expected, even celebrated, in a well-functioning research department. 5DWKHUWKDQJRWKURXJKWKHVRPHZKDWDUWL¿FLDOSURFHVVRILQVHUWLQJUHIHUences to Wright’s discussion at this late stage of writing, I offer here this comment by way of acknowledgment. While recognizing this shared ground between Wright’s work and the present discussion on the broader issues at stake in the contemporary ³DSRFDO\SWLF3DXO´WKLVSURMHFWKDVDWOHDVWWKUHHLPSRUWDQWGLVWLQFWLYHV 7KH ¿UVW LV WKDW LW DWWHPSWV WR SURYLGH GHWDLOHG H[HJHVLV RI WKH UHOHYDQW -HZLVK DQG &KULVWLDQ DSRFDO\SVHV IRU ZKLFK :ULJKW KDV UHSHDWHGO\ FDOOHG EXW ZKLFK KH KDV QRW SURYLGHG  DQG H[WHQGHG FRQVLGHUDWLRQ RI commentaries and research on these texts. Particularly conspicuous by its 2௒7KLVIRXUIROGWKHPDWLFDQDO\VLVLV,EHOLHYHDXVHIXOWRROIRUFXWWLQJDFURVVWKH cluster of issues raised by the work of these scholars and has led to the structure of the present argument, as I will explain further below. 3௒ 17:ULJKW Paul and his Recent Interpreters /RQGRQ 63&. 2015 7KH VHFWLRQLQTXHVWLRQZDV3DUW,,HQWLWOHG³5HHQWHU$SRFDO\SWLF´ ௒$VLVTXLWHQRUPDOLQIDFWLQUHVHDUFKSURMHFWVLQWKHVFLHQFHV

1. Perplexed by the “Apocalyptic Paul”?

3

absence in some discussions of New Testament apocalyptic is discussion of the book of Revelation, which therefore receives due attention at the heart of this book. The second is an engagement with important recent FRQWULEXWLRQVWRWKH³DSRFDO\SWLF3DXO´QRWGLVFXVVHGLQGHWDLOE\:ULJKW notably the work of Beverley Gaventa and recent collections of essays edited by her and others.57KLUGO\DQG¿QDOO\WKHSUHVHQWFRQWH[WDOORZV for an approach to the issues from multiple angles. Whereas Wright’s GLVFXVVLRQ LV IRFXVVHG ODUJHO\ RQ WKH TXHVWLRQ RI ³DSRFDO\SWLF YHUVXV VDOYDWLRQKLVWRU\´LQWKHFRQWH[WRIEURDGHUWKHRORJLFDOEDWWOHVWKHVSDFH afforded here allows discussion of this question alongside several other NH\WKHRORJLFDOIDXOWOLQHVHDFKLQHTXDOPHDVXUHOHDGLQJ,KRSH WRD PRUHWKRURXJKJRLQJDQGGHGLFDWHGHYDOXDWLRQRIWKH³DSRFDO\SWLF3DXO´ Thus, while the present project supports many of Wright’s conclusions, it also expands and deepens this important discussion. With these preliminary comments, we can now begin to trace some of the historical contours of what has become one of the hottest topics in Pauline study.6 2. Paul and Apocalyptic in Recent Study 5HFHQWVFKRODUVKLSZKLFKKDVGHVFULEHG3DXO¶VWKRXJKWDV³DSRFDO\SWLF´ is too massive to be easily summarized. Others have begun to detail this scholarship and have discovered that a whole book was needed.7 5௒(J-%'DYLVDQG'.+DULQNHGVApocalyptic and the Future of Theology: With and Beyond J. Louis Martyn(XJHQH&DVFDGH DQG%5*DYHQWDHG Apocalyptic Paul: Cosmos and Anthropos in Romans 5–8:DFR%D\ORU8QLYHUVLW\ 3UHVV  6௒:KHQ,¿UVWZURWHWKLVSUHSDUDWLRQVZHUHXQGHUZD\IRUDVWLPXODWLQJ¿YHKRXU VHVVLRQ RQ ³3DXO DQG WKH$SRFDO\SWLF ,PDJLQDWLRQ´ DW WKH  6RFLHW\ RI %LEOLFDO Literature annual meeting in San Diego, the proceedings of which are published as B. Blackwell, J. Goodrich and J. Maston, eds., Paul and the Apocalyptic Imagination 0LQQHDSROLV )RUWUHVV  7KH WKHPH RI DSRFDO\SWLF DOVR IHDWXUHG SURPLQHQWO\ in the recent conference on Galatians and Christian Theology at the University of St Andrews, published as M. W. Elliott et al., eds., Galatians and Christian Theology *UDQG 5DSLGV %DNHU   6HH HVSHFLDOO\ 5 $ +D\V¶ HVVD\ LQ WKDW YROXPH ³$SRFDO\SWLF3RLƝVLVLQ*DODWLDQV3DWHUQLW\3DVVLRQDQG3DUWLFLSDWLRQ´±  Another shorter piece, which appeared rather too late to be engaged with as closely as ,ZRXOGOLNHLV-$'XQQH³6XIIHULQJDQG&RYHQDQWDO+RSHLQ*DODWLDQV$&ULWLTXH RIWKHµ$SRFDO\SWLF5HDGLQJ¶DQGLWV3URSRQHQWV´SJT QR ± 7௒6HHHJ5%0DWORFNUnveiling the Apocalyptic Paul: Paul’s Interpreters and the Rhetoric of Criticism-6176XS6KHI¿HOG6KHI¿HOG$FDGHPLF  Matlock describes how his project, which had intended to do other things too, soon



Paul Among the Apocalypses

Nevertheless it is important that we begin with a sketch of the theological genealogy which lies behind the contemporary conversation about the ³DSRFDO\SWLF3DXO´WRZKLFKWKLVSURMHFWVHHNVWRFRQWULEXWH,QSURYLGLQJ such a sketch we must remain conscious of the necessary limits of the enterprise – we here follow one thread of the history of interpretation, EULHÀ\ DQG VHOHFWLYHO\ LQ RUGHU WR KLJKOLJKW VRPH RI WKH LPSRUWDQW emphases that have helped to shape the current discussion. But it is comforting to note that those others who have told the story of the development of this movement have done so by highlighting many of the same lines of thought.8 a. Albert Schweitzer 0RVW UHYLHZV RI WKH KLVWRU\ RI ³DSRFDO\SWLF´ LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ RI 3DXO DUH quick to point out that it is with the work of Albert Schweitzer that we PXVWVWDUWVLQFHKLVLVFODLPHGWREH³WKH¿UVWFRQVLVWHQWGHPRQVWUDWLRQRI 3DXO¶VLQGHEWHGQHVVWR-HZLVKDSRFDO\SWLFHVFKDWRORJ\´9 For Schweitzer, Pauline interpretation must operate by placing the thought of the apostle ZLWKLQ KLV -HZLVK FRQWH[W ³VLQFH 3DXO OLYHV LQ WKH FRQFHSWLRQV RI WKH dramatic world-view characteristic of the late-Jewish Eschatology, he is became consumed with the business of examining the history of interpretation of the ³DSRFDO\SWLF 3DXO´ SS ±  )RU RWKHU XVHIXO VXUYH\V RI ³DSRFDO\SWLF´ LQ 3DXO IURP6FKZHLW]HUWR0DUW\QVHH5(6WXUP³'H¿QLQJWKH:RUGµ$SRFDO\SWLF¶$ 3UREOHP LQ %LEOLFDO &ULWLFLVP´ LQ Apocalyptic and the New Testament: Essays in Honour of J. Louis MartynHG-/0DUWLQDQG0/6RDUGV6KHI¿HOG-627  M. C. de Boer, The Defeat of Death: Apocalyptic Eschatology in 1 Corinthians 15 and Romans 5-6176XS6KHI¿HOG-627 ±DQGVHHQRZDOVR3DUW,, of Wright, Paul and his Recent Interpreters. 8௒,WVKRXOGEHQRWHGIURPWKHRXWVHWWKDWWKHForschungsgeschichte offered below DGGUHVVHVRQO\RQHKDOIRIWKHVWRU\FKDUWLQJWKHGHYHORSPHQWRI³DSRFDO\SWLF´WKHPHV in recent Pauline scholarship. Running parallel to this account is a line of discussion on the Jewish and Christian apocalypses themselves which involves Klaus Koch, 3DXO+DQVRQ-RKQ&ROOLQV&KULVWRSKHU5RZODQG5LFKDUG%DXFNKDPDQGRWKHUVDQG of course commentators such as Michael Stone on 4 Ezra, and George Nickelsburg and Loren Stuckenbruck on 1 Enoch ,WVKRXOGDOVREHQRWHGKRZHYHUWKDWWKHOLQH of thought described in this chapter, from Schweitzer to Martyn and beyond, has largely developed without much engagement with that other conversation. Rather than include a second parallel literature review I will refer frequently to this work as my discussion develops, hoping to bring the two conversations together in fruitful, though often critical, dialogue. 9௒'H%RHUDefeat of Death, 23. We might, however, go back slightly further to -RKDQQHV:HLVVDQG:LOKHOP%RXVVHWVHHWKHEULHIGLVFXVVLRQLQ6WXUP³'H¿QLQJ WKH:RUGµ$SRFDO\SWLF¶´DQGFLWDWLRQVWKHUHLQ 

1. Perplexed by the “Apocalyptic Paul”?

5

E\FRQVHTXHQFHERXQGWRWKHORJLFRIWKDWYLHZ´10 What he thus sought to chart was the way in which a consistent application of this Weltanschauung might throw light on problem areas in Paul. He thus took up KLVSURJUDPPHRI³WKRURXJKJRLQJHVFKDWRORJ\´IRUZKLFKKHKDGDUJXHG in his earlier work on Jesus11 and which he now extended and applied to Paul. The close connections between the two works, despite their chronological separation due to illness and missionary travel, are pointed out by Schweitzer himself in the preface to The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle *LYHQ D FKRLFH EHWZHHQ ³HLWKHU D SXUHO\ HVFKDWRORJLFDO RU D SXUHO\+HOOHQLVWLFH[SODQDWLRQRI>3DXO¶V@WHDFKLQJ´6FKZHLW]HUVD\V³, take the former alternative throughout. It assumes the complete agreement RI WKH WHDFKLQJ RI 3DXO ZLWK WKDW RI -HVXV´12 7KXV KH SODFHV ³3DXO¶V P\VWLFDO GRFWULQH RI %HLQJLQ&KULVW´13 squarely within the context of WKHZRUOGYLHZRIZKDWKHFDOOHG ³ODWH-HZLVKHVFKDWRORJ\´UDWKHUWKDQ explaining it as the result of Hellenization. It is important to note that, in this later work on Paul, Schweitzer prefers to speak of Mystik or spätjüdischen Eschatologie rather than Apokalyptik when characterizing the heart of the apostle’s thought, but this must not be overplayed given Schweitzer’s clear conceptual connection between eschatology and apocalyptic. For Schweitzer, the GH¿QLQJ FKDUDFWHULVWLF RI ³DSRFDO\SWLF´ ZDV LWV LPPLQHQW HVFKDWRORJ\ and the distinctive character of Pauline mysticism is only understood in that Jewish apocalyptic context. The burden of Schweitzer’s main idea in Mysticism is thus to examine the characteristics of this Pauline mysticism against the backdrop of Jewish thought, highlighting three main features in the process: the place of angelic/cosmic powers, the imminent end of WKLVZRUOGDQGDUULYDORIWKHQH[WDQGDWWKHKHDUWRILWDOO WKHTXHVWLRQ RI UHGHPSWLRQ DV %HLQJLQ&KULVW 7KHVH WKUHH WKHPHV ZH PLJKW FDOO them cosmological, eschatological, and soteriological  DUH LQH[WULFDEO\ connected in Schweitzer’s thought. 10௒$6FKZHLW]HUThe Mysticism of Paul the Apostle/RQGRQ$ &%ODFN    ³'D 3DXOXV LQ GHQ 9RUVWHOOXQJHQ GHU GUDPDWLVFKHQ :HOWDQVFKDXXQJ GHU VSlWMGLVFKHQ(VFKDWRORJLHOHEWLVWHUGHUGDPLWJHJHEHQHQ/RJLNXQWHUZRUIHQ´ 11௒(JLQEine Skizze des Lebens Jesu7ELQJHQ0RKU DQGThe Quest of the Historical Jesus ൾඍ of Von Reimarus zu Wrede 7ELQJHQ0RKU 6HHWKH GLVFXVVLRQDQGUHIHUHQFHVLQ6WXUP³'H¿QLQJWKH:RUGµ$SRFDO\SWLF¶´ 12௒6FKZHLW]HUMysticism, viii. 13௒,ELGL[ ௒0DWORFNREVHUYHVWKDWWKHWHUP³YDQLVKHVFRPSOHWHO\´LQMystik but immediately cautions against pressing this terminological point too far. See Matlock, Unveiling the Apocalyptic PaulQ

6

Paul Among the Apocalypses

,WLVWKHODWWHUWKHP\VWLFDOGRFWULQHRI³%HLQJLQ&KULVW´ZKLFKLVWKH ³SULPH HQLJPD RI WKH 3DXOLQH WHDFKLQJ´15 and which forms the heart of 6FKZHLW]HU¶V DUJXPHQW WKH ³PDLQ FUDWHU´ ZLWKLQ ZKLFK WKH GRFWULQH RI MXVWL¿FDWLRQE\IDLWKLVPHUHO\DNebenkrater.16 Paul, for Schweitzer, disWLQJXLVKHVEHWZHHQ*RGP\VWLFLVPGottesmystik DQG&KULVWP\VWLFLVP Christusmystik DQGQHYHUFROODSVHVWKHODWWHULQWRWKHIRUPHU17 This, he DUJXHVLVJUHDWO\VLJQL¿FDQWIRU3DXOLQHWKHRORJ\DQGZKHQSODFHGLQWKH proper interpretative framework, offers a clue to the character of Paul’s mystical/apocalyptic thought. For Schweitzer, God-mysticism is not possible as long as the world is conditioned by the struggles of angelic SRZHUV2QO\RQFH&KULVWKDVDFKLHYHG¿QDOYLFWRU\RYHUWKRVHSRZHUV the last of which is death itself, will such union with God be possible. It is in union with Christ that the believer shares in this hope. The distinctive character of Pauline mysticism is, therefore, necessarily dramatic and eschatological: God-mysticism and Christ-mysticism are successive phases of this drama. As Schweitzer summarizes it: Being-in-God is for Paul impossible so long as the angelic beings still possess some kind of power over man. Once Christ has, in the progress of the Messianic Kingdom, overcome them and has destroyed death as the last enemy, He will +LPVHOIJLYHEDFN+LVQRZXQQHHGHGSRZHUWR*RG³LQRUGHUWKDW*RGPD\EH DOOLQDOO´&RU[Y± 7KHQRQO\ZLOOWKHUHEHDEHLQJLQ*RG Paul does thus recognize a God-mysticism [Gottesmystik]; but it is not in being contemporaneously with the Christ-mysticism [Christusmystik]. The presuppositions of his world-view make it impossible that they should co-exist, or that one should necessitate the other. They are chronologically successive, &KULVWP\VWLFLVPKROGLQJWKH¿HOGXQWLO*RGP\VWLFLVPEHFRPHVSRVVLEOH The peculiarity that the mysticism of Paul is only a mysticism of being-inChrist, and not a mysticism of being-in-God, has thus its foundation in the fact that it originally had its place in an eschatological world-view [einer eschatologischen Weltanschauung].18

Thus the mystical doctrine of Being-in-Christ, and redemption through participation in his death and resurrection, is inextricably connected to his eschatological and cosmological worldview. The eschaton has commenced in the death and resurrection of Christ and by sharing in that new creation through mystical union with Christ believers are caught up LQWKHSUHVHQWGUDPDWLF³VWUXJJOHZLWKDQJHOLFSRZHUV´19 characteristic of 15௒6FKZHLW]HUMysticism, 3. 16௒,ELG 17௒,ELG± 18௒,ELG± 19௒,ELG

1. Perplexed by the “Apocalyptic Paul”?

7

WKH WLPH EHIRUH WKH ¿QDO YLFWRU\ RI &KULVW DQG WKH HVWDEOLVKPHQW RI WKH 0HVVLDQLF NLQJGRP ³7KH UHGHPSWLRQ ZKLFK WKH EHOLHYHU H[SHULHQFHV´ 6FKZHLW]HUDUJXHV³LVWKHUHIRUHQRWDPHUHWUDQVDFWLRQDUUDQJHGEHWZHHQ himself, God, and Christ, but a world-event in which he has a share. It is impossible to form a right conception of the view of redemption held by the Early Christians without taking into account that it was cosmically FRQGLWLRQHG´20 This, for Schweitzer, is not a Paul of modern piety or of Hellenistic philosophy but the Paul of history, intelligible only within the context of the Jewish eschatological worldview. There are some important differences between Schweitzer’s emphases DQG ODWHU ³DSRFDO\SWLF´ LQWHUSUHWDWLRQV RI 3DXO21 But it is nevertheless fair to begin with him since, in tracing the cosmological, eschatological and soteriological contours of Pauline mysticism in the manner outlined above, he set the agenda for the development of those contours in subsequent discussion. b. Rudolf Bultmann Schweitzer’s focus on the hermeneutical imperative of the cosmic dimension of redemption in Paul received an almost immediate response IURP 5XGROI %XOWPDQQ ZKR ZDV DOUHDG\ LQÀXHQWLDO LQ *HUPDQ VFKROarship when Mysticism was published in 1931. Bultmann, like Schweitzer, DFNQRZOHGJHG WKDW WKH IUDPHZRUN RI -HVXV¶ DQG 3DXO¶V  WKRXJKW ZDV apocalyptic in character,22 something which was easily discerned by H[DPLQDWLRQRI³WKHP\WKLFDOYLHZRIWKHZRUOGZKLFKWKH1HZ7HVWDPHQW SUHVXSSRVHV´23 The language of a three-tiered cosmology, angelic and demonic powers, two eschatological aeons, the defeat of the powers in the death of Christ, and the coming resurrection of the dead are, for Bultmann, all the tell-tale signs of a worldview shaped by Jewish apocalypses. %XOWPDQQ¶VGHSDUWXUHIURP6FKZHLW]HU¶V³FRVPLFDOO\FRQGLWLRQHG´LQWHUpretation was his approach to interpreting this apocalyptic mythological language in the contemporary world. This, of course, is at the heart of his IDPRXVSURJUDPPHRI³GHP\WKRORJL]DWLRQ´VXPPDUL]HGDVIROORZV 20௒,ELG 21௒ ,QGHHG 0DWORFN DVNV ZKHWKHU VXFK LQWHUSUHWDWLRQV DUH JXLOW\ RI ³D FHUWDLQ KDVWHWRFODLP6FKZHLW]HUIRURQH¶VRZQ´0DWORFNUnveiling the Apocalyptic Paul,  0DWORFNKDVLQPLQGKHUHWKHUHFHSWLRQRI6FKZHLW]HUIRXQGLQ.lVHPDQQDQG Beker, to whom I will shortly turn. 22௒5%XOWPDQQTheology of the New Testament/RQGRQ6&0  23௒5%XOWPDQQKerygma and Myth1HZ7@KH GH¿QLWLRQ RI DSRFDO\SWLF HVFKDWRORJ\ LV SDUWO\ D PDWWHU RI VFKRODUO\ WUDGLWLRQ and convenience even though it is based, as it ought to be, upon the data of the available sources, namely, such books as Revelation, Daniel, 1 Enoch, 2 Baruch, and 4 Ezra.

De Boer thus expresses the commitment of the present project to anchor WKHGH¿QLWLRQRI3DXOLQH³DSRFDO\SWLF´LQWKH-HZLVKDQG&KULVWLDQWH[WV that bear this designation while also reminding us of the important legacies of Schweitzer, Käsemann, Beker and others. De Boer’s language of 3DXO¶V³FRQFHSWXDODI¿QLWLHV´ZLWKD-HZLVKDSRFDO\SWLF³PDWUL[´LVWREH welcomed in reaching towards precision in our characterization of Paul DVDQ³DSRFDO\SWLF´WKLQNHU³LQVRPHVHQVH´,WLVWKHUHKRZHYHUWKDWWKH question lies: in what sense, exactly? Perhaps better terminology can be IRXQGZKLFKDOORZVXVWRGURSVXFKYDJXHTXDOL¿HUV  “Worldview,” “Social Imaginary,” “Mode.” 2QHFDQGLGDWHLV³ZRUOG YLHZ´DWHUPZLWKDFRQVLGHUDEOHYLQWDJHWKRXJKQRWZLWKRXWSUREOHPV As we saw above, it was this concept which Schweitzer employed in his DSSURDFKZKHQKHDUJXHGWKDW³VLQFH3DXOOLYHVLQWKHFRQFHSWLRQVRIWKH dramatic world-view [der dramatischen Weltanschauung] characteristic of the late Jewish Eschatology, he is by consequence bound to the logic RIWKDWYLHZ´/LNHZLVHIRU%HNHU³WKHDSRFDO\SWLFZRUOGYLHZLVWKH IXQGDPHQWDOFDUULHURI3DXO¶VWKRXJKW´ ³:RUOGYLHZ´GHVLJQDWHVQRWWKDWZKLFKZHORRNat but what we look through, the unseen and generally unexamined pre-cognitive framework through which any given community approaches the world. This is not a question of a system of ideas but rather the deeper-level framework upon which such ideas are founded. Wright is well known for making ௒'H%RHU³3DXODQG$SRFDO\SWLF(VFKDWRORJ\´ ௒ 2Q ZKLFK VHH GH %RHU Defeat of Death &KDSWHU  0\ DI¿UPDWLRQ RI de Boer’s hermeneutical framework here is not to say, however, that I agree with the conclusions he reaches concerning the theological content of this apocalyptic ³PDWUL[´DVZLOOEHFRPHFOHDUDVP\DUJXPHQWXQIROGVLQWKHFKDSWHUVWKDWIROORZ ௒6FKZHLW]HUMysticism, 11. ௒%HNHUPaul the Apostle, 181. ௒&I17:ULJKWPaul and the Faithfulness of God/RQGRQ63&.  28. ௒ )RU DQ H[WHQVLYH GLVFXVVLRQ RI WKH WHUP DQG LWV KLVWRU\ LQ VFKRODUVKLS VHH D. K. Naugle, Worldview: The History of a Concept*UDQG5DSLGV(HUGPDQV 

1. Perplexed by the “Apocalyptic Paul”?

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H[WHQVLYHXVHRIWKHFRQFHSWLQKLVDWWHPSWVDWD³WKLFNGHVFULSWLRQ´RIWKH WKRXJKWRI¿UVWFHQWXU\-XGDLVPDQG&KULVWLDQLW\150 the historical Jesus151 and now Paul.152 Building on the earlier work of Clifford Geertz,153 Brian Walsh and Richard Middleton, Wright’s worldview model examines the interrelated stories, questions, symbols and praxis of a community for the tell-tale signs of that community’s conceptual presuppositions which generate their beliefs, intentions and actions. However, there are at least two potential problems with the notion RI ³ZRUOGYLHZ´7KH ¿UVW LV WKH GDQJHU RI WKH VLQJXODU 3XW VLPSO\ DQ\ attempt to discern theDSRFDO\SWLFZRUOGYLHZULVNVÀDWWHQLQJRXWWKHGLYHU sity of the apocalypses in the search for a monolithic construct. It must EH UHFRJQL]HG WKDW LQ WKH DGMHFWLYDO XVH RI ³DSRFDO\SWLF´ DV 0DFDVNLOO QRWHV³DVVXPHVDFRQVLVWHQF\LQWKHZRUOGYLHZWKDWOLHVEHKLQGWKHJHQUH D GDQJHURXV DVVXPSWLRQ WR PDNH´155 This challenge of balancing the singular and the plural applies to all these conceptual frameworks, and will remain in view throughout the present work. 7KHVHFRQGSUREOHPZLWK³ZRUOGYLHZ´LVWKHSRWHQWLDOIRUWKHWHUPWR privilege the sense of sight and imply an inappropriate rationalism. This is a problem highlighted by J. K. A. Smith when he expresses his concern WKDW ZRUOGYLHZ ³VWLOO UHWDLQV D SLFWXUH RI WKH KXPDQ SHUVRQ WKDW VLWXDWHV the center of gravity of human identity in the cognitive regions of the PLQGUDWKHUWKDQWKHDIIHFWLYHUHJLRQVRIWKHJXWKHDUWERG\´UHVXOWLQJLQ ³DQDUURZUHGXFWLRQLVWLFXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHKXPDQSHUVRQWKDWIDLOVWR appreciate the primarily affective, noncognitive way that we negotiate EHLQJLQWKHZRUOG´156 Wright takes Smith’s point, welcoming the focus 150௒:ULJKWThe New Testament People of God, 109–12, 122–6. 151௒17:ULJKWJesus and the Victory of God/RQGRQ63&. ± 152௒:ULJKWPaul and the Faithfulness of God±± 153௒&*HHUW]The Interpretation of Cultures1HZ*RG@´19DQGWKDWLWLVDPLVWDNHWRFRQFHLYHRI as supporting evidence for Heilsgeschichte. For Martyn the conclusion is clear: in contrast to the Teachers, who were arguing for a linear UHGHPSWLYHKLVWRULFDOPRGHO³3DXOGRHVQRWWKLQNRIDJUDGXDOPDWXUDWLRQ but rather of a punctiliar liberation, enacted by God in his own sovereign time. Stepping on the scene, that is to say, God has closed the enslaving SDUHQWKHVHVRIWKH/DZDWWKHWLPHFKRVHQE\KLPDORQH´20 Whether the implication that all redemption-historical approaches are characterized E\ ³JUDGXDO PDWXUDWLRQ´ LV D IDLU DVVHVVPHQW ZLOO EH H[SORUHG LQ GXH course. For now, we note that at the heart of the issue is an eschatological dichotomy, assumed by Martyn, between the linear and punctiliar. b. De Boer: The “Two Ages” in Pauline Apocalyptic 0DUWLQXV GH %RHU IROORZLQJ 0DUW\Q FRQVLGHUV *DO  ³WKH FHQWUDO WKHRORJLFDODQQRXQFHPHQWRIWKHOHWWHU´21 In his commentary he examines two possible ways of understanding the phrase Ìġ ÈÂŢÉÑĸ ÌÇı ÏÉŦÅÇÍ. 7KH¿UVWYLHZRSHUDWHVZLWKWKHPHWDSKRURIDZLOORUWHVWDPHQWDQGVR ³IXOOQHVV´LVOLNHQHGWRWKHPRPHQWVXFKDWHVWDPHQWFRPHVLQWRHIIHFW the second is a view of time which can be compared to a container that KDVEHHQ¿OOHG22 De Boer considers these two views complementary but emphatically rejects a third option: It would be wrong, however, to conclude that God’s action is somehow dependent on time, on the course of human history. That approach would lead to a futile endeavour to study the history of the Greco-Roman period, or of ,VUDHODURXQGWKHWLPHRI-HVXVLQRUGHUWRHVWDEOLVKWKHPDUNVRIWKDWIXOOQHVV« 7KH ³IXOOQHVV RI WLPH´ WKXV VLJQL¿HV D FOHDQ EUHDN ZLWK WKH SDVW DQG PD\ EH UHJDUGHGDVDQDSRFDO\SWLFDVVHUWLRQRQ3DXO¶VSDUWLWDQQRXQFHVWKHHQGRI³WKH SUHVHQWHYLODJH´ DQGWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWKH³QHZFUHDWLRQ´ 23 18௒,ELG 19௒,ELG 20௒,ELGFI± 21௒'H%RHUGalatians, 261. 22௒,ELG'H%RHUUHMHFWVDWKLUGRSWLRQPHQWLRQHGE\0DUW\QQDPHO\³WKH PRPHQWWKDWDFRQWUDFWKDVFRPHWRDQHQG´ 23௒,ELG±

3. Eschatology

77

+HUH LQ KLV DVVHUWLRQ RI ³D FOHDQ EUHDN ZLWK WKH SDVW´ WKHUH LV SHUKDSV an important difference between de Boer’s approach and that of Martyn, ZKRDVZHKDYHMXVWVHHQLVFDUHIXOWRH[FOXGHDVLPSOH³FOHDQEUHDN´ approach from the characterization of the two ages in favour of his PHWDSKRURI³LQYDVLRQ´ Nevertheless, the result is much the same: for de Boer and for Martyn what Paul is saying in his use of the phrase Ìġ ÈÂŢÉÑĸ ÌÇı ÏÉŦÅÇÍ is precisely not a redemptive-historical framework but the announcement of a radically different conception of time as a result of the irruptive sending of Christ into the world.25 De Boer, like Martyn, makes it clear that the presence of the motif of WKH ³WZR DJHV´ LV D FOHDU LQGLFDWLRQ RI WKH LQÀXHQFH RI 6HFRQG 7HPSOH Jewish apocalyptic literature on Paul, a point clearly stated in The Defeat of Death. While making his debt to Schweitzer, Käsemann, Martyn and %HNHU H[SOLFLW GH %RHU LQVLVWV WKDW KLV GHVFULSWLRQ RI 3DXO¶V ³FKULVWRORJLFDOO\ GHWHUPLQHG DSRFDO\SWLF HVFKDWRORJ\´ LV VR FDOOHG EHFDXVH LW LV FKDUDFWHUL]HG E\ ³FRQFHSWXDO DI¿QLWLHV EHWZHHQ 3DXO¶V HVFKDWRORJ\ DQG -HZLVK HVFKDWRORJLFDO H[SHFWDWLRQV WKDW DUH DOVR ODEHOOHG µDSRFDO\SWLF¶´ QDPHO\ ³WKH HVFKDWRORJLFDO GXDOLVP RI WKH WZR DJHV µWKLV DJH¶ DQG µWKH age to come’, which is the fundamental characteristic of all apocalyptic HVFKDWRORJ\´26 Likewise, de Boer makes plain the importance of grounding discussions of apocalyptic in Paul in the Jewish and Christian apocalyptic OLWHUDWXUHZKHQKHVD\VWKDW³DWZRDJHVGXDOLVPFKDUDFWHULVWLFRI-HZLVK DSRFDO\SWLFHVFKDWRORJ\XQGHUOLHV3DXO¶VWKRXJKW´ZKLFKLV DGLVWLQFWLYHIRUPRIHVFKDWRORJ\WHDFKLQJFRQFHUQLQJ³ODVWWKLQJV´ WKDWVFKRO ars have discerned not only in Paul’s letters but also in other ancient Jewish and Christian literature. Christian versions of apocalyptic eschatology, including WKDWRI3DXODUHGHHSO\LQGHEWHGWRRUDUHPRGL¿FDWLRQVRI-HZLVKDSRFDO\SWLF HVFKDWRORJ\«-HZLVKDSRFDO\SWLFHVFKDWRORJ\LQVKRUWZDVWKHPDWUL[ZLWKLQ which Christian apocalyptic eschatology, including that of Paul, arose and developed.27

'H %RHU EXLOGLQJ RQ LQVLJKWV JOHDQHG IURP 9LHOKDXHU +DQVRQ DQG Russell, states that the essential characteristic of the eschatology of Jewish apocalyptic literature, and which is presupposed by Schweitzer,

௒+HH[SOLFLWO\DUJXHVDJDLQVWD³FOHDQHQG´RIWKHSUHVHQWHYLODJHLQ0DUW\Q Galatians, 99. 25௒ 'H %RHU¶V LQVLVWHQFH RQ WKLV SRLQW KDV WR GR ZLWK WKH ZLGHU HVFKDWRORJLFDO DUJXPHQWVPDGHE\KLV³DSRFDO\SWLF´DSSURDFKWR3DXOWRZKLFK,ZLOOVKRUWO\UHWXUQ 26௒'H%RHUDefeat of Death, 7. 27௒'H%RHU³3DXODQG$SRFDO\SWLF(VFKDWRORJ\´±

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.lVHPDQQ%HNHUDQG0DUW\QLVDVWULFWHVFKDWRORJLFDOGXDOLVPRI³WZR DJHV´28 De Boer thus repeatedly insists on the methodology of evaluating Paul’s apocalyptic eschatology against the backdrop of this eschatological dualism in Jewish apocalyptic literature. $Q LPSRUWDQW DGGLWLRQDO DVSHFW RI GH %RHU¶V DSSURDFK WR WKH ³WZR DJHV´ LQ DSRFDO\SWLF WKRXJKW LV KLV DUJXPHQW WKDW WKH\ DUH QRW PHUHO\ eschatological but also cosmological categories. As he describes it, ³WKH FDWHJRULHV µWKLV DJH¶ DQG µWKH DJH WR FRPH¶ KDYH VSDWLDO DV ZHOO DV WHPSRUDODVSHFWV«7KHGXDOLVPRIWKHWZRDJHVFKDUDFWHULVWLFRIDSRFDlyptic eschatology is thus at once temporal and spatial.´29 I will return to the spatial aspect of de Boer’s thought in the following chapter. For the present discussion of eschatological dualism it is important to observe KRZ GH %RHU¶V VSDWLRWHPSRUDO DSSURDFK WR WKH ³WZR DJHV´ UHTXLUHV D PXWXDOO\ H[FOXVLYH UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ WKHP )RU GH %RHU WKH ³WZR DJHV´DUHQRWPHUHO\VXFFHVVLYHSHULRGVRIKLVWRU\EXWDUHFRQWUDVWLQJRUEV of power.307KLVOHDGVKLPIROORZLQJ0DUW\QWRWKHPRWLIRI³LQYDVLRQ´ in characterizing the relationship between the two ages.31 When applied to the question of time and history, this eschatological dualism results in WKHUHMHFWLRQRIUHGHPSWLYHKLVWRULFDOSDUDGLJPVH[HPSOL¿HGDERYHLQKLV H[HJHVLVRI*DO c. Gaventa: Maternity and Apocalyptic Expectation $WKLUGVFKRODUEXLOGLQJRQ0DUW\QDQGQRZRQHRIWKHOHDGLQJ¿JXUHV LQ WKH ³DSRFDO\SWLF3DXO´ PRYHPHQW LV %HYHUO\ *DYHQWD32 Reading the opening chapters of Our Mother Saint Paul, where Gaventa draws our attention to the maternal imagery employed by Paul in describing his apostolic ministry, one might be forgiven for asking what all this motherly ODQJXDJH KDV WR GR ZLWK WKH HDUWKVKDWWHULQJ WKHPHV RI ³DSRFDO\SWLF´ This question, and the false assumptions which underlie it, are emphatically answered by Gaventa in the second part of her book.33 After some initial reticence over the appropriateness of the term, Gaventa argues WKDW ³DSRFDO\SWLF´ LV WKH SURSHU IUDPHZRUN ZLWKLQ ZKLFK WR XQGHUVWDQG

28௒'H%RHUDefeat of Death, 22. 29௒ 'H %RHU ³3DXO DQG$SRFDO\SWLF (VFKDWRORJ\´  HPSKDVLV KLV  VHH WRR de Boer, Galatians± 30௒6HH0DUW\QGalatians, 261 n. 389. 31௒6HHWKHGLVFXVVLRQLQLELG 32௒6HHIRUH[DPSOHKHUUHFHQWHGLWHGYROXPH*DYHQWDApocalyptic Paul. 33௒6HHWKHLQWURGXFWLRQWR3DUW,,LQ*DYHQWDOur Mother Saint Paul, 79. ௒,ELG

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this maternal imagery, a framework which reveals that it is far from a FRV\SDVWRUDOPHWDSKRU7KHUHLVLQKHUZRUGV³DQHVWDEOLVKHGDVVRFLDWLRQ EHWZHHQ DSRFDO\SWLF H[SHFWDWLRQ DQG WKH DQJXLVK RI FKLOGELUWK´35 The recognition of this association, she insists, is more than an exercise in tracing the presence of parallel maternal metaphors, but is the recognition ³WKDW WKHVH PHWDSKRUV DUH VXEVWDQWLYHO\ FRQQHFWHG WR WKH DSRFDO\SWLF QDWXUHRI3DXO¶VWKHRORJ\´36 which, for Gaventa, means the conviction that in the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ, God has invaded the world as it is, thereby revealing the world’s utter distortion and foolishness, reclaiming the world, and inaugurating a battle that will doubtless FXOPLQDWHLQWKHWULXPSKRI*RGRYHUDOO*RG¶VHQHPLHVLQFOXGLQJWKHFDSWRUV 6LQDQG'HDWK 37

,Q DOO WKLV *DYHQWD IROORZV 0DUW\Q DQG EHKLQG KLP %HNHU DQG .lVHPDQQ 38 What continues to mark out Gaventa’s particular contribution to this conversation is her focus on Paul’s maternal imagery and WKHSODFLQJRIWKDWLPDJHU\LQLWV³DSRFDO\SWLF´FRQWH[W$EULHIRXWOLQHRI two such discussions is therefore fruitful. 5HÀHFWLRQRQ3DXO¶VXVHRIPDWHUQDOLPDJHU\EHJDQIRU*DYHQWDZLWK *DO  ZKLFK WKH උඌඏ WUDQVODWHV DV ³P\ OLWWOH FKLOGUHQ ZLWK ZKRP , DP DJDLQ LQ WUDYDLO XQWLO &KULVW EH IRUPHG LQ \RX´ 7KLV UDWKHU EODQG translation of the verb Ĵ»ţżÀÅ obscures what Gaventa rightly highlights: WKDW WKH ZRUG XVHG E\ 3DXO WR GHVFULEH KLV ³WUDYDLO´ IRU KLV FKXUFKHV UHIHUVWRWKHODERXUDQGSDLQWKDWDFFRPSDQLHVFKLOGELUWKUDWKHUWKDQWKH ordinary word ÌţÁ̼ÀÅ 7KXV3DXOFRQWLQXHVWKHLPDJHU\RI±FDVWLQJ himself in the role of an expectant mother who labours until Christ is formed in the Galatians. These labour pains are not simply an emotional picture of Paul’s maternal care for his Galatian churches and his earnest desire for their spiritual maturity. They perform a much more integral WKHRORJLFDO UROH EHLQJ IRU *DYHQWD D VLJQDO RI ³WKH DQJXLVK DQWLFLSDWHG LQDQDSRFDO\SWLFHUD´DPHWDSKRUHPSOR\HG³WRLGHQWLI\3DXO¶VDSRVWROLF ZRUN ZLWK WKH DSRFDO\SWLF H[SHFWDWLRQ RI WKH ZKROH FUHDWHG RUGHU´39 In support of this interpretation Gaventa examines a number of uses of Ĵ»ţżÀÅ in the New Testament, the Septuagint and Pseudepigrapha, all of

35௒,ELG 36௒,ELG 37௒,ELG 38௒6HHLELG 39௒,ELG

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which demonstrate the apocalyptic and corporate sense with which the word is employed. Paul, however, does not reserve this maternal imagery for discussions of his apostolic ministry. Turning to Rom 8:22, Gaventa observes how Paul DJDLQ HPSOR\V FKLOGELUWK LPDJHU\ Ĵ»ţżÀÅ DJDLQ  LQ GLVFXVVLQJ WKH UROH of the non-human created world in the apocalyptic eschatological drama. +HUH LW LV QRW 3DXO ZKR LV ODERXULQJ EXW WKH ZKROH RI FUHDWLRQ ÈÜʸ ÷ ÁÌţÊÀË ZKLFKJURDQVLQDQWLFLSDWLRQRIWKH³DSRFDO\SWLFUHYHODWLRQ´RIWKH VRQVRI*RGÒÈÇÁŠÂÍÐÀÅÌľÅÍĎľÅÌÇı¿¼Çı, Y . Gaventa highlights the DSRFDO\SWLFHSLVWHPRORJ\DWZRUNKHUHWKDW³WKLVDSRFDO\SVHLVQRWPHUHO\ a public discourse of something that has been kept secret; it is an event in which something happens that so radically disrupts the world as to be FDOOHGDQLQYDVLRQ´ %XW DJDLQ WKHUH DUH FRPSOLFDWLRQV WKH PRVW VLJQL¿FDQW RI ZKLFK IRU Gaventa, is that creation may be in labour pains, but there is no birth VFHQH7KH H[SHFWDWLRQ RI WKH DUULYDO RI D FKLOG LV WKZDUWHG ³:KDW LV LW that creation will bring to birth? Exactly nothing, because creation itself is captive to nothingness, to ‘futility.’ Creation itself cannot possibly JLYH ELUWK QRU GRHV WKH SDUWLFLSDWLRQ RI KXPDQLW\ PDNH D GLIIHUHQFH´ 7KXV *DYHQWD GH¿QHV WKH ERXQGDULHV RI 3DXO¶V ELUWKLQJ PHWDSKRU DQG eliminates as a possibility the involvement of the present creation in the eschatological birthing of a new world, something which is wholly God’s LQYDVLYHDFWDWKHRORJLFDOPRYHZKLFK³DUJXHVDJDLQVWDQ\HYROXWLRQDU\ UHDGLQJRIWKHSDVVDJH´ For Gaventa, this unilateral and invasive act of God, as we saw above, is at the heart of apocalyptic. What this means for apocalyptic eschatology, as understood by Gaventa, is that this world and its history have no role to play in bringing about the new creation. Thus some attempts at emphasizing the continuity between the history of Israel and the Christ-event have undermined, in her view, ௒6KHGLUHFWVWKHUHDGHULELG± WRWKHXVHRIWKH³ELUWKSDLQV´PHWDSKRU LQDSRFDO\SWLFFRQWH[WVLQDPRQJRWKHUV 0LF,VD±1 En.2 Bar. 56:6, 4 Ezra  0DWW  DQG 5HY  4 Ezra  ZLOO UHFHLYH DWWHQWLRQ LQ WKH next section of this chapter. 2 Bar. 56 will be discussed there, and again in Chapter 7KHODVWRIWKHVHWKHYLVLRQRIWKHZRPDQLQODERXULQ5HYWRJHWKHUZLWKLWV 2OG7HVWDPHQWUHVRQDQFHV ZLOOUHFHLYHLWVRZQDWWHQWLRQLQSDUWWKUHHRIWKHSUHVHQW chapter. ௒ ,ELG  GLUHFWLQJ WKH UHDGHU KHUH WR WKH FODVVLF VWDWHPHQW RI WKLV YLHZ LQ Martyn, Galatians  )RU DQ H[WHQGHG GLVFXVVLRQ RI WKLV ZRXOGEH ³DSRFDO\SWLF HSLVWHPRORJ\´VHH&KDSWHUDERYH ௒*DYHQWDOur Mother Saint Paul, 57. ௒,ELG

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WKH³DSRFDO\SWLF´WKHRORJ\RI3DXO¶VOHWWHUV which is best characterized E\³*RG¶VXQLODWHUDODFWLRQRILQWHUYHQWLRQLQWKHFURVVDQGUHVXUUHFWLRQ RI-HVXV&KULVW´ d. Summary 7KLVEULHIVXUYH\RIWKHFRQWULEXWLRQVWRGLVFXVVLRQRI3DXO¶V³DSRFDO\SWLF´ eschatology proffered by Martyn, de Boer and Gaventa has highlighted the following four characteristics. First, corresponding to the epistemological crisis seen in the previous chapter, there is an eschatological crisis brought about by the coming of Christ into the world, a crisis described XVLQJWKHDSRFDO\SWLFPRWLIVRID³WZRDJHV´GXDOLVP6HFRQGWKLVFULVLV LVEHVWGHVFULEHGXVLQJWKHODQJXDJHRI³LQYDVLRQ´DQG³ZDUIDUH´VLQFHWKH WZRDJHVDUHQRWVLPSO\³WHPSRUDO´EXWDOVR³VSDWLDO´FDWHJRULHVLQWKH VHQVH RI EHLQJ FRPSHWLQJ DQG PXWXDOO\ H[FOXVLYH ³RUEV RI SRZHU´ DQG WRWKLV*DYHQWDDGGVWKHLPDJHRIFKLOGELUWK 7KLUGWKLVPHDQVWKDWIRU WKH³DSRFDO\SWLF3DXO´DOO³OLQHDU´UHGHPSWLYHKLVWRULFDOSDUDGLJPVPXVW EHUHMHFWHGLQWKHOLJKWRIWKH³SXQFWLOLDU´DFWLRQRI*RGLQ&KULVWZKLFK UHSUHVHQWVD³FOHDQEUHDNZLWKWKHSDVW´ Each of these three motifs will be subject to critique in what follows. The basis for this critique, and the SRLQWRIVKDUHGPHWKRGRORJ\EHWZHHQWKHSUHVHQWSURMHFWDQGWKH³DSRFDO\SWLF3DXO´LVWKHIRXUWKFKDUDFWHULVWLFWKHLQVLVWHQFHWKDWWKHVHIHDWXUHV of Paul’s apocalyptic thought are discerned by comparison with the mode of eschatological thought in Second Temple Jewish apocalyptic literature. While acknowledging their indebtedness to Schweitzer, Käsemann, %HNHU DQG RWKHUV WKH DGYRFDWHV RI WKLV ³DSRFDO\SWLF´ DSSURDFK WR 3DXO nevertheless insist on some kind of historical basis for their arguments, grounded in the Second Temple Jewish and Christian apocalyptic texts. My questions are not, therefore, a tussle over the meaning of the word ³DSRFDO\SWLF´EXWTXHVWLRQVDERXWWKHIHDWXUHVDQGZRUOGYLHZRI6HFRQG Temple Jewish and Christian apocalypses, and of Paul’s thought as seen in relation to them. 3. Eschatological Duality in Jewish Apocalyptic Literature I have already noted the important contribution made by Christopher 5RZODQG LQ FKDOOHQJLQJ WKH DVVXPSWLRQ WKDW WKH GH¿QLQJ FKDUDFWHULVWLF RI DSRFDO\SWLF LV LWV HVFKDWRORJ\ ZKLFK KH DUJXHV LV ³QRW WKHLU PRVW ௒6HHLELGGLUHFWLQJKHUFULWLTXHWR³PDMRUYRLFHV´LQWKHJXLOGEXWQRWDW this point naming them. ௒,ELG ௒'H%RHUGalatians, 262.

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distinctive feature, nor does it deserve to become the focus of attention in the study of apocalyptic to the exclusion of the other secrets which WKHDSRFDO\SVHVFODLPWRUHYHDO´ In saying this he does not, however, deny the importance of eschatology as an apocalyptic theme. The motif RIWKH³WZRDJHV´LVDOPRVWXQLYHUVDOO\FLWHGDVRQHRIVHYHUDOLPSRUWDQW features of apocalyptic thought, and so it is important to establish how this is construed, and how it is not, in apocalyptic literature. In this connection there are at least two questions which much be DVNHGRIGH%RHU¶VDVVHUWLRQFLWHGDERYHWKDW³WKHHVFKDWRORJLFDOGXDOLVP RI WKH WZR DJHV«LV WKH IXQGDPHQWDO FKDUDFWHULVWLF RI DOO DSRFDO\SWLF HVFKDWRORJ\´7KH¿UVWLVZKHWKHUWKLVHVFKDWRORJLFDOPRWLILVDVXQLYHUsal and fundamental to apocalyptic thought as de Boer and many others assume. The second is how the two ages are to be related to one another, DQG ZKHWKHU WKLV UHODWLRQVKLS LV EHVW FKDUDFWHUL]HG E\ ³GXDOLVP´ RU DV 5RZODQGSXWVLW³UDGLFDOGLFKRWRP\´50 RULQVRPHRWKHUZD\ However, at the outset it is important to recognize an important TXDOL¿FDWLRQ WKDW WKH PRWLI RI WKH ³WZR DJHV´ LV QRW D WKHPH XQLTXH WR apocalyptic thought but is found widely in Second Temple Judaism. :ULJKWPDNHVWKLVSRLQWZKHQKHZULWHVWKDW³YLUWXDOO\DOO6HFRQG7HPSOH Jews, with the possible exception only of the aristocracy, believed that they were living in a ‘present age’ which was a time of sorrow and exile, and which would be succeeded by an ‘age to come’ in which wrongs ZRXOGEHULJKWHGDQG,VUDHO¶VJRGZRXOGVHWXSKLVNLQJGRP´51 An eschaWRORJLFDOGXDOLW\RI³WZRDJHV´FDQEHVHHQLQWKHSURSKHWLFOLWHUDWXUH52 as ZHOODVODWHUUDEELQLFUHÀHFWLRQRQWKH³ZRUOGWRFRPH´53 The presence RIWKH³WZRDJHV´PRWLIVKRXOGQRWWKHUHIRUHEHXVHGDVDOLWPXVWHVWIRU DSRFDO\SWLF $V 5RZODQG DQG 0RUUD\-RQHV DUJXH ³HYLGHQFH IURP WKH apocalypses themselves indicates that, apart from a handful of passages, their doctrine of the future hope seems to be pretty much the same as that IRXQGLQRWKHU-HZLVKVRXUFHV´ ௒5RZODQGOpen Heaven, 26. ௒'H%RHUDefeat of Death, 7. ௒,QDGGLWLRQWRWKHZRUNVGLVFXVVHGKHUHVHHDOVRWKHUHIHUHQFHVLQ6WXFNHQEUXFN ³2YHUODSSLQJ$JHV´±HVSQ,ZLOOUHWXUQWR6WXFNHQEUXFN¶VDUJXPHQW LQP\HYDOXDWLRQRIWKH³DSRFDO\SWLF3DXO´DWWKHHQGRIWKLVFKDSWHU 50௒5RZODQGOpen Heaven, 25. 51௒:ULJKWNew Testament and the People of God6HHQRZDOVRWKHVLPLODU discussion in Wright, Paul and the Faithfulness of God, 1059. 52௒,VD±0LF±=HFK 53௒m. Sanh. 10.1–2; m. Ab.  ௒5RZODQGDQG0RUUD\-RQHVMystery of God, 15.

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a. 1 Enoch  “Temporal Dualism” in the Book of the Watchers (1 Enoch 10). 1LFNHOVEXUJLQWURGXFHVWKH³GXDOLVPV´RI1 Enoch as follows: Several complementary kinds of dualism characterise 1 Enoch’s construction of reality, with its temporal and spatial dimensions and its populations of divine and human characters. The temporal axis divides sharply between the present time, which will end with the judgement, and a new age that follows. The DXWKRUVFRQWUDVWWKLVSUHVHQWWLPHZKLFKLVHYLORUGH¿FLHQWZLWKDIXWXUHWKDW will bring healing and renewal.55

This assessment would seem to support the common view of apocalyptic literature as characterized by a radically dualistic eschatology. As his remarks develop, however, Nickelsburg introduces the notions of salvation and revelation in 1 EnochDVD³UHVROXWLRQ´RU³EULGJLQJ´RILWVGXDOLVPV ³DOWKRXJK GH¿QLWLYH VDOYDWLRQ OLHV LQ WKH IXWXUH UHYHODWLRQ WUDQVPLWWHG now HIIHFWV D VLJQL¿FDQW UHVROXWLRQ RI WKH ERRN¶V WHPSRUDO VSDWLDO DQG RQWRORJLFDOGXDOLVP´56 This important insight is also the driving idea behind Macaskill’s examiQDWLRQRIWKHHVFKDWRORJLFDOVLJQL¿FDQFHRIUHYHDOHGZLVGRP2QHH[DPSOH from 1 En. 10 serves to demonstrate the eschatological framework: Then the Most High said, and the Great Holy One spoke. And he sent Sariel to the son of Lamech, saying, ³*RWR1RDKDQGVD\WRKLPLQP\QDPHµ+LGH\RXUVHOI¶ And reveal to him that the end is coming, that the whole earth will perish; And tell him that a deluge is about to come on the whole earth and destroy everything on the earth. Teach the righteous one what he should do, the son of Lamech how he may preserve himself alive and escape forever. From him a plant will be planted, $QG KLV VHHG ZLOO HQGXUH IRU DOO WKH JHQHUDWLRQV RI HWHUQLW\ $UDP ҵDODP ´ 1 En.±>WUDQV1LFNHOVEXUJ@

While the narrative framework here is the Noahic deluge, it is recognized by many commentators that what is in view is the future. Macaskill, following Nickelsburg and Hartman, argues that this is an example of Jewish exegetical strategies,57 and that this can be seen by examining the presence 55௒1LFNHOVEXUJ1 Enoch 1 56௒,ELG 57௒1LFNHOVEXUJ1 Enoch 1, 219–20/+DUWPDQ³$Q(DUO\([DPSOHRI-HZLVK ([HJHVLV(QRFK±´Neotestamentica ±± VXJJHVWV WKDWWKLVSDVVDJHPD\EH³WKHHDUOLHVWH[WUDELEOLFDOH[DPSOH´RIVXFKVWUDWHJLHV



Paul Among the Apocalypses

RI¿QDOMXGJPHQWWHUPLQRORJ\³,WLVFOHDU´0DFDVNLOOFRQFOXGHV³WKDWWKH MXGJHPHQWLQYLHZLVD¿QDORQH´:KLOHWKHSDVVDJHLV³WHFKQLFDOO\VHWLQ the Urzeit´DV0DFDVNLOOQRWHV³LWLVFOHDUWKDWWKHSULPHYDOLPDJHU\LV LQWHQGHGDVW\SRORJLFDOIRUHVFKDWRORJ\´58 $ORQJVLGH WKH ÀRRGMXGJPHQW LPDJHU\ D FOHDU HVFKDWRORJLFDO SLFWXUH appears in this text in the form of agricultural images, particularly the ³SODQW´RIY7KHLPDJHRISODQWLQJDQGIUXLWIXOQHVVLVH[SDQGHGODWHU in ch. 10: Destroy all perversity from the face of the earth; And let every wicked deed be gone; And let the plant of righteousness and truth appear, and it will become a blessing; DQG WKHGHHGVRIULJKWHRXVQHVVDQGWUXWKZLOOEHSODQWHGIRUHYHUZLWKMR\ And now all the righteous will escape, And they will live until they beget thousands, And all the days of their youth and their old age will be completed in peace. Then all the earth will be tilled in righteousness, $QG DOO RI LW ZLOO EH SODQWHG ZLWK WUHHV DQG ¿OOHG ZLWK EOHVVLQJ« 1 En. ±>WUDQV1LFNHOVEXUJ@

7KLV LPDJHU\ LV HYRFDWLYH ERWK RI 1RDK¶V VWDWXV DV ³WKH ¿UVW WR SODQW D YLQH\DUG´ *HQ   DQG WKH GHSLFWLRQ RI HVFKDWRORJLFDO IUXLWIXOQHVV in Isa 65. What is particularly interesting for the present discussion is WKDW WKH HVFKDWRORJLFDO ³SODQW RI ULJKWHRXVQHVV´ RI Y  LV SUH¿JXUHG LQ WKH UHIHUHQFHV WR WKH ³SODQW´ DQG µVHHG´ LQ WKH DQWHGLOXYLDQ VFHQH RI Y  7KDW LV WR VD\ WKH ³SODQW´ VWUDGGOHV WKH WZR HVFKDWRORJLFDO DJHV an interpretation further supported by the presence of the term ҵDODP at the end of that verse.59 ,QWHUSUHWLQJ WKH LPDJH RI WKH ³SODQW´ DV WKH chosen remnant community,60 Macaskill suggests that it is the revealing of wisdom to this chosen people which constitutes their eschatological blessing, and therefore establishes the remnant as an inaugurated eschatoORJLFDOFRPPXQLW\WKHSUHVHQW³VHHG´ZKLFKFRUUHVSRQGVWRWKH³SODQWRI ULJKWHRXVQHVV´LQWKHDJHWRFRPH6LPLODUO\1LFNHOVEXUJVXPPDUL]HVWKH Enochic eschatological framework as follows: 58௒0DFDVNLOORevealed Wisdom, 33. 59௒ 1LFNHOVEXUJ FRPPHQWLQJ RQ KLV WUDQVODWLRQ RI ҵDODP here, admits that the ZRUGLVSUREOHPDWLFVXJJHVWLQJ³HWHUQLW\´³DJH´DQG³ZRUOG´DVSRVVLELOLWLHV³1R (QJOLVKZRUG´KHVD\V³LQGLFDWHVWKHIDFWWKDWLQWKH*UHFR5RPDQSHULRGҵDODPis DFTXLULQJVSDWLDODVZHOODVWHPSRUDOFRQQHFWLRQV´*:(1LFNHOVEXUJDQG-& 9DQGHU.DP 1 Enoch: A New Translation >0LQQHDSROLV$XJVEXUJ )RUWUHVV @   60௒7KDWLVLQWKHWHUPVVXJJHVWHGE\WKHXVHRIWKH³SODQW´LPDJHU\LQ,VD

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the books of Enoch are a corpus of texts that guarantee future salvation on the basis of a present reality to which the seer had been privy and which he WKHQ UHYHDOHG 7KDW VHHU ± LQ WKH ERRN¶V ¿FWLRQ (QRFK RI ROG LQ UHDOLW\ WKH complement of authors who stand behind these texts – provides a bridge between opposing worlds, present and future, earthly and cosmic, human and GLYLQH« >7@KHVH UHYHODWLRQV DUH SURPXOJDWHG LQ D SUHVHQW WKDW VWDQGV RQ WKH WKUHVKROG RI WKH HQG WLPH )XQFWLRQDOO\ WKH\ DUH HVFKDWRORJLFDO UHYHODWLRQ« >7@KHDXWKRUV¶UHYHODWLRQVDUHWKHVDOYL¿FPHDQVE\ZKLFKWKHUHDGHUVEULGJH and overcome the dualisms that are the very nature of reality as they understand and experience it.61

Likewise, concluding his discussion of 1 Enoch, Macaskill argues WKDW³WKHHVFKDWRORJ\RIWKHWH[WLVEHVWXQGHUVWRRGDVµLQDXJXUDWHG¶DQG that the revealing of wisdom to a chosen minority or remnant is the key LQDXJXUDOHYHQW´62,QKLVXVHRIWKHFDWHJRU\³LQDXJXUDWHGHVFKDWRORJ\´ 0DFDVNLOO KDV LQ PLQG ³DQ HVFKDWRORJ\ WKDW FRQWDLQV ERWK UHDOLVHG DQG IXWXUHHOHPHQWV´63 Macaskill and Nickelsburg’s expositions of the eschatological role of revealed wisdom in 1 Enoch exemplify the interrelatedness of epistemology, eschatology and soteriology in discussions of apocalyptic ³GXDOLVPV´KHDVNV@KDVEHHQ VRZQEXWWKHKDUYHVWRILWKDVQRW\HWFRPH´Y 7KLVOHDGV(]UDWR WKH QDWXUDO TXHVWLRQ ³KRZ ORQJ"´ Y  82 In response, the archangel -HUHPLHOH[SODLQVWKDWDVZLWKDOOKDUYHVWVDWLPHRIJURZWKPXVW¿UVWWDNH SODFHEHIRUHWKHUHDSLQJFDQEHJLQ7KHWLPHVPXVWEH¿UVW³PHDVXUHG´E\ *RGXQWLOWKHLUQXPEHULV³IXO¿OOHG´YY± DQGRQO\WKHQZLOO*RG move to act and bring about the time of harvest and threshing. To explain further the relationship between this age and the age to come, there is then a switch of metaphors: cosmology below. There is also a connection here with de Boer’s analysis, discussed DERYHRIWKH³VSDWLDODVZHOODVWHPSRUDODVSHFWV´RIWKHWZRDJHVGH%RHU³3DXODQG $SRFDO\SWLF(VFKDWRORJ\´  79௒6WRQHFourth Ezra, 93. 80௒%DXFNKDP³$SRFDO\SVHV´ 81௒/RQJHQHFNHUEschatology and the Covenant, 61. 82௒2QZKLFKVHHIXUWKHUEHORZ

90

Paul Among the Apocalypses +HDQVZHUHGPHDQGVDLG³*RDQGDVNDZRPDQZKRLVZLWKFKLOGLIZKHQKHU nine months have been completed, her womb can keep the child within her any ORQJHU´[Ezra, of course, does not need to ask the question]  ³1RP\ORUG´,VDLG³LWFDQQRW´  +HVDLGWRPH³,Q+DGHVWKHFKDPEHUVRIWKHVRXOVDUHOLNHWKHZRPE)RU just as a woman who is in travail makes haste to escape the pangs of birth, so also do these places hasten to give back those things that were committed to them from the beginning. Then the things that you desire to see will be GLVFORVHGWR\RX´4 Ezra ±

The point being made is similar to the one made by the harvest metaphor: labour pains are a signal of the arrival of an end of an appointed span of WLPHDPDWXUDWLRQRIQLQHPRQWKVLQWKHFDVHRIKXPDQJHVWDWLRQ ZKLFK leads up to and anticipates, but does not condition, the birth event. There is, importantly, no radical separation between the pangs of birth and the DUULYDORIWKHFKLOGHYHQWKRXJKWKHELUWKHYHQWPD\EHGUDPDWLFHYHQLQ DVHQVH³XQH[SHFWHG´83 LQLWVQDWXUH  The Birth of Jacob and Esau, and “the Dividing of the Times” ((]UD 6:7–10). Further insights about 4 Ezra’s understanding of the relationship EHWZHHQWKHWZRDJHVFDQEHJDLQHGE\DFRQVLGHUDWLRQRIDQRWKHU³ELUWK VFHQH´&RQVLGHUWKHIROORZLQJNH\HVFKDWRORJLFDOSDVVDJH4 Ezra 6:7–10: , DQVZHUHG DQG VDLG ³:KDW ZLOO EH WKH GLYLGLQJ RI WKH WLPHV separatio temporum "2UZKHQZLOOEHWKHHQGRIWKH¿UVWDJH and the beginning of the DJHWKDWIROORZV"´  +H VDLG WR PH ³)URP $EUDKDP WR ,VDDF85 because from him were born Jacob and Esau, for Jacob’s hand held Esau’s heel from the beginning. For Esau LVWKHHQGRIWKLVDJH¿QLVVDHFXOL DQG-DFRELVWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWKHDJHWKDW follows. For the beginning of a man is his hand, and the end of a man is his heel, EHWZHHQWKHKHHODQGWKHKDQGVHHNIRUQRWKLQJHOVH(]UD´

83௒&I4 Ezra ,VD\³LQDVHQVH´EHFDXVHWKHSRLQWEHLQJPDGHLQ4 Ezra 5 is not that a coming reign was unanticipated but that the one who exercises that reign does not meet expectations. There is thus a continuity of this expectation while also VXUSULVLQJGLVFRQWLQXLW\LQWKHPDQQHURILWVIXO¿OPHQW ௒,WVKRXOGEHQRWHGWKDWWKH/DWLQGRHVQRWLQFOXGHWKHZRUGsaeculum here, and VRDQRWKHUSRVVLEOHWUDQVODWLRQZRXOGEH³WKH¿UVWWLPH«WKHWLPHWKDWIROORZV´WKH ZKROHYHUVHUHDGV³Et respondi et dixi: Quae erit separatio temporum, aut quando SULRULV ¿QLV DXW VHTXHQWLV LQLWLXP"´  6WRQH DJDLQ DUJXHV WKDW ³DJH´ DQG ³WLPH´ DUH KHUHV\QRQ\PRXVVHH6WRQHFourth EzraDQGIRRWQRWHV  85௒0HW]JHU¶VWUDQVODWLRQQRWHRQREVHUYHVWKDWVRPHDXWKRULWLHVUHDG³«WR $EUDKDP´DQLQWHUSUHWDWLRQSUHIHUUHGE\6WRQH

3. Eschatology

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Ezra’s question about the dividing of the times is answered by his DQJHOLF LQWHUORFXWRU ZLWK WKLV IDVFLQDWLQJ $EUDKDPLF ³DOOHJRU\´ QRWLQJ LPPHGLDWHO\ 6WRQH¶V REMHFWLRQ WR WKLV WHUP ³LW LV QRW DQ DOOHJRU\ XVLQJ the closeness of the grasping of the hand on the heel as a symbol of the succession of the two ages. It is an eschatological interpretation of the ELEOLFDOWH[WEDVHGOLNHWKH4XPUDQpesharim, on the idea that the biblical WH[WKDVDYHLOHGHVFKDWRORJLFDOPHDQLQJ´86 Whether allegory or pesher, the use made of the Gen 25:26 imagery is important for its eschatological implications, since the relationship between Jacob and Esau serves to illustrate the relationship between the two world-ages. 7ZR WKLQJV VKRXOG EH QRWHG 7KH ¿UVW LV WKDW WKLV SDVVDJH OLNH WKH VLPLODU PDWHULDO DW ± H[HPSOL¿HV WKH ZD\ LQ ZKLFK WKH WKHPH of the covenant runs as a thread through the whole of the apocalypse. The relationship between the two ages in 4 Ezra must be understood, therefore, within this covenant-historical framework,87 not a radical dualistic separation. While there is an important distinction to make between WKH³DJHRI-DFRE´DQGWKH³DJHRI(VDX´WKHUHLVDOVRJHQHDORJLFDODQG UHGHPSWLYHKLVWRULFDOFRQWLQXLW\$V&ROOLQVQRWHVGHVSLWHWKH³VKDUSQHVV RI WKH EUHDN EHWZHHQ WKLV ZRUOG DQG WKH ZRUOG WR FRPH´ (]UD¶V DSRFDO\SWLF HVFKDWRORJ\ LV IRFXVHG RQ ³WKH 'HXWHURQRPLF FRYHQDQW DQG WKH election of Israel. 4 Ezra does not deny that covenant but can only salvage LWE\EXWWUHVVLQJLWZLWKIXUWKHUUHYHODWLRQV´88 The second comment is that in highlighting the connection between the hand of Jacob and the heel of Esau, underlined by the angel’s closing LQVWUXFWLRQWR(]UDWR³VHHNQRWKLQJHOVH´EHWZHHQWKHWZR4 Ezra makes clear that the two ages should not be logically separated. The end of the ¿UVWFRPHVDWWKHVDPHWLPHDVWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWKHVHFRQGIRUWKHKDQG of Jacob comes out of the womb at the same time as the heel of Esau. The WZRDJHVWKXV³WRXFKRQHDQRWKHU´&RPPHQWLQJRQWKHSUHVHQFHRIWKH ³WZRDJHV´PRWLILQWKHDQJHO¶VUHSO\LQ4 Ezra &ROOLQVVD\VWKDW³WKHUH is no question here of an ultimate dualism. Yet the emphasis is on the 86௒6WRQHFourth Ezra, 161. 87௒ &I WKH DUJXPHQW PDGH E\ &ROOLQV DQG RWKHUV  WKDW ³2 Baruch envisages IXO¿OPHQW RI WKH FRYHQDQWDO SURPLVHV EXW in the process the covenantal people PXVW EH UHGH¿QHG´ &ROOLQV Apocalyptic Imagination  >HPSKDVLV PLQH@  7KDW there is a reworked understanding of the covenant people does not, of course, detract from the importance of the covenant as a framework for this apocalypse. 6HHDOVR5%DXFNKDP³7KH$SRFDO\SVHDVD&KULVWLDQ:DU6FUROO´LQThe Climax of Prophecy: Studies on the Book of Revelation (GLQEXUJK 7  7 &ODUN   169–70; Longenecker, Eschatology and the Covenant± 88௒&ROOLQVApocalyptic Imagination, 211.

92

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discontinuity between this age and the world to come. There is no smooth HYROXWLRQ IURP WKLV DJH WR WKH QH[W´89 The sharpness of the distinction between the two ages which is characteristic of 4 Ezra must be accounted for but not characterized as a strict dualism. c. 2 Baruch  Periodization of History in the Cloud-apocalypse (2 Baruch 53–74). One of the many similarities between 4 Ezra and its sister apocalypse is WKDWWKHODWWHUDOVRHPSOR\VWKHHVFKDWRORJLFDOPRWLIRIWKH³WZRDJHV´HJ ± +RZWKHPRWLIRSHUDWHVLQ2 Baruch is, however, rather different. While 4 Ezra emphasizes the discontinuity between the ³WZRDJHV´WKRXJKQRWDVZHKDYHMXVWVXJJHVWHGLQDUDGLFDOO\GXDOLVWLF ZD\ 2 Baruch does not.90 As with 4 Ezra, the covenant and redemption-historical framework of 2 Baruch is essential to the book’s eschatology. Arguably the most useful SDVVDJHLQWKLVFRQQHFWLRQLVWKH³DSRFDO\SVHRIWKHFORXG´LQFKV± arguably the climax of the book.91 The vision itself is brief enough to bear repetition in full: And I saw a vision. And behold, a cloud was coming up from the great sea. $QG , ZDV ORRNLQJ DW LW DQG EHKROG LW ZDV HQWLUHO\ ¿OOHG ZLWK EODFN ZDWHU and there were many colours in that water. And something like great lightning appeared at its top. And I saw that the cloud was rapidly passing in a quick run and covering the whole earth. And it happened after this that the cloud began to pour the water that it contained upon the earth. And I saw that the water which GHVFHQGHGIURPLWZDVQRWRIWKHVDPHOLNHQHVV)RUDW¿UVWLWZDVYHU\EODFN until a certain time. And then, I saw that the water became bright, but there was not much of it. And after this, I saw black water again, and after this bright again, and black again and bright again. This, now, happened twelve times, but the black were always more than the bright. And it happened at the end of the cloud that, behold, it poured black water and it was much darker than all WKHZDWHUWKDWKDGEHHQEHIRUH$QG¿UHZDVPLQJOHGZLWKLW$QGZKHUHWKDW water descended, it brought about devastation and destruction. And after this I saw how the lightning which I had seen at the top of the cloud seized it and pressed it down to the earth. That lightning shone much more, so that it lighted the whole earth and healed the regions where the last waters had descended and where it had brought about destruction. And it occupied the whole earth and took command of it. And after this I saw, behold, twelve rivers came from the sea and surrounded the lightning and became subject to it. And because of my IHDU,DZRNH2 Bar.± 89௒,ELG 90௒6HHLELG 91௒$VVXJJHVWHGE\+HQ]HJewish Apocalypticism, 266.

3. Eschatology

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In the subsequent angelic interpretation of this vision, twenty chapters in length, it is made clear that the sequence of bright and dark waters VLJQL¿HV³WKHFRXUVHRIWLPHVQDPHO\WKRVHZKLFKKDYHSDVVHGDQGWKRVH which in his world will come to pass, from the beginning of his creation XQWLO WKH HQG´ 2 Bar.  7KLV KLVWRULFDO UHYLHZ EHJLQV ZLWK WKH ¿UVW dark waters of Adam’s transgression and the corruption which followed, including untimely death, illness and labour pains.92 After this come $EUDKDPDQGKLVIDPLO\WKH¿UVWEULJKWZDWHUVRIWKHXQZULWWHQODZDQG the hope of judgment before black waters return again with the rebellion of the people and the Egyptian oppression. In this way the review of Israel’s history continues, outlined in the table below:93 Chapter

Waters Sequence

Signifying

56

EODFN

Adam

57

EULJKW

Abraham

58

EODFN

national rebellion, Egypt

59

EULJKW

Moses, Aaron, Miriam, Joshua

60

EODFN

works of the Amorites

61

EULJKW

David and Solomon

62

EODFN

Jeroboam and successive kings

63

EULJKW

Hezekiah

±

EODFN

Manesseh

66

EULJKW

Josiah

67

EODFN

Babylonian exile

68

EULJKW

Rebuilding of Zion

69–71

last black waters

³)LQDO-XGJPHQW´

±

last bright waters

Messianic Kingdom

$QLPSRUWDQWREVHUYDWLRQLVWKDWWKHNLQGRI³UHGHPSWLRQKLVWRU\´LQYROYHG in the cloud apocalypse, as in other apocalyptic historical reviews, is anything but a story of smooth evolution towards national and global bliss, containing as it does many moments of darkness. Nevertheless it is a VWRU\UHTXLULQJDIUDPHZRUNRI³FRQWLQXLW\´:ULJKWGLVFXVVLQJ-RVHSKXV¶ Jewish War, might well have been describing 2 Bar.±ZKHQKHVDLG ³ZKDWHYHU HOVH WKLV LV LW LV QRW µVDOYDWLRQKLVWRU\¶« ,W LV LI DQ\WKLQJ D ‘condemnation-history’, with the ‘salvation-historical’ narrative overcome

92௒2QZKLFKVHHWKHGLVFXVVLRQLQ&KDSWHU 93௒&IDOVRWKHVLPLODUVXPPDU\DQGWDEOHLQ+HQ]HJewish Apocalypticism, 273.



Paul Among the Apocalypses

by its shadow side. But it is still the great story of Israel coming at last to a long-delayed climaxDOEHLWDWHUULEOHDQGWUDJLFRQH´ However, the bright and dark waters are not the only meteorological features of this vision. In 53:8–12, lightning strikes and brings an end to the sequence. How, within this framework of covenant history, do we account for what appears to be E\ GH¿QLWLRQ a radically discontinuous HYHQW"7KHDQVZHUFRPHVLQYZKHUHWKHOLJKWQLQJLVGHVFULEHGDV³WKH OLJKWQLQJZKLFK,KDGVHHQDWWKHWRSRIWKHFORXG´95 The lightning, while not a natural consequence of the sequence of waters, was nevertheless there from the beginning: a symbol of the abiding divine presence through history. The lightning’s breaking into the history of the world may be dramatic, but that does not make it a symbol of total discontinuity from that history.  The cloud-apocalypse and the “two ages” (2 Baruch 74). This discussion of the interplay between eschatological continuity and disFRQWLQXLW\ OHDGV WR D UHODWHG TXHVWLRQ KRZ GRHV WKH PRWLI RI WKH ³WZR DJHV´RSHUDWHZLWKLQWKLVIUDPHZRUN"$VZHKDYHMXVWVHHQWKHSUHVHQFH of the lightning at the top of the cloud represents the permeation of the duality between this age and the age to come. Further evidence comes in FKZKHUH%DUXFKLVJLYHQWKHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRIWKHODVWEULJKWZDWHUV the Messianic Kingdom: And it will happen in those days that the reapers will not become tired, and the farmers will not wear themselves out, because the products of themselves will shoot out speedily, during the time that they work on them in full tranquillity. For that time is the end of that which is corruptible and the beginning of that which is incorruptible. Therefore, the things which were said before will happen in it. Therefore, it is far away from the evil things and near to those which do not die. Those are the last bright waters which have come after the last dark ZDWHUV2 Bar.±

The key phrase for the present discussion comes in the middle of the FKDSWHULQY³WKDWWLPHLVWKHHQG«and WKHEHJLQQLQJ´:HKDYHKHUH HQFDSVXODWHG LQ WKLV ³DQG´ WKH VDPH SKHQRPHQRQ REVHUYHG SUHYLRXVO\ in the Jacob/Esau image in 4 Ezra 6. In the time symbolized by the last bright waters, the present age of corruptibility and the incorruptible age to come meet and touch at the point which is both the end of the former ௒:ULJKWPaul and the Faithfulness of GodHPSKDVLVRULJLQDO +LVZRUGV FDQDOVREHDSSOLHGWR3DXODVZHZLOOVHHEHORZ6HHLELG±IRU2 Baruch  IRU3DXO  95௒&I2 Bar. 53:1.

3. Eschatology

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and the beginning of the latter. There is, to borrow language from 4 Ezra ³QRWKLQJHOVHEHWZHHQ´ In summarizing the thought of 2 Baruch, Collins brings together the WKHPHV RI WKH ³WZR DJHV´ WKH FRYHQDQW DQG UHGHPSWLRQ KLVWRU\ LQ WKH following helpful way: )LQDOO\WKHSURPLVHGVDOYDWLRQ¿QGVLWVIXO¿OPHQWQRWLQWKLVZRUOGEXWLQWKH world to come. Salvation lies not only in the future of the covenant people but also in the destiny of the individual. As in all the apocalypses, salvation is salvation out of this world. 2 BaruchFDQVD\OLNH3DXOWKDW³LIWKHUHZHUH WKLVOLIHRQO\ZKLFKEHORQJVWRDOOPHQQRWKLQJFRXOGEHPRUHELWWHUWKDQWKLV´  FI  &RU  S@ ,VXJJHVW that what is in view here is a tripartite temple ouranology with a glimpse into the holy of holies contained within the third space. ௒ 2U UDWKHU UHYHDOV WKDW WKH 7HPSOH LV KHDYHQVKDSHG 7KLV GLVWLQFWLRQ RI course, dissolves once understood. Rowland and Morray-Jones put it in a similar ZD\ FRQFHUQLQJ ,VDLDK¶V YLVLRQ LQ ,VD ± ZKLFK DORQJ ZLWK (]HN  LV D NH\ text in any discussion of heavenly ascent or merkavah YLVLRQ ³:KHWKHUWKHµKRXVH¶ into which he has been transported is the earthly temple or its celestial counterpart LVQRZKHUHVSHFL¿HG,WLVSHUKDSVGRXEWIXOZKHWKHUWKLVGLVWLQFWLRQZRXOGKDYHEHHQ YHU\PHDQLQJIXOWRWKHDXWKRU´5RZODQGDQG0RUUD\-RQHVMystery of God 



Paul Among the Apocalypses

is found the merkavah WKH FKDULRWWKURQH RI *RG corresponding to the holy of holies. The descriptions of the size of these concentric chambers defy the physics of this universe, with the innermost room being largest. These impossible dimensions are more than a mere fantastical element designed to produce a sense of otherworldliness. What Enoch’s description captures is something of the correspondence that exists in -HZLVKFRVPRORJ\EHWZHHQWKH³LQZDUG´MRXUQH\WKURXJKWKHFRQFHQWULF zones of purity of the earthly temple, centred upon the holy of holies, and WKH³RXWZDUG´MRXUQH\WKURXJKWKHKHDYHQVWRWKHWKURQHURRPRI*RG In the seven-tiered temple ouranologies of the later apocalypses, the correspondence between the Temple zones of purity and the tiers of heaven is made more explicit and more precise. What concerns us here is not, however, the speculation on the number of heavenly tiers and their precise relationship to the Temple zones of purity, but the cosmological VLJQL¿FDQFH RI WKH 7HPSOH DV the place where heaven and earth meet. Apocalyptic Temple-cosmologies reveal that heaven and earth are not entirely separate spheres but are joined at the holy of holies, which is the footstool in the throne-room of God and the dwelling place of his glory. $Q\ GLVFXVVLRQ RI -HZLVK FRVPRORJ\ ³DSRFDO\SWLF´ RU RWKHUZLVH  WKDW GRHV QRW WDNH LQWR DFFRXQW WKH FRVPRORJLFDO VLJQL¿FDQFH RI WKH7HPSOH is bound to be lacking, and risks being reduced to a non-Jewish and non-apocalyptic dualism, for it is in the Temple, and the Temple-shaped RXUDQRORJLHV RI DSRFDO\SWLF OLWHUDWXUH WKDW ZH ¿QG WKH PRVW VWULNLQJ examples of a cosmological duality characterized by the permeation of boundaries.

௒ &I WKH GLVFXVVLRQ RI KHDYHQ DV D GLIIHUHQW ³GLPHQVLRQ´ LQ $OH[DQGHU ³'XDOLVP RI +HDYHQ DQG (DUWK´ 6HH DOVR 1 7 :ULJKW Paul: Fresh Perspectives /RQGRQ63&.  ௒ &RPSDUH WRR WKH VKLIW LQ WKH GLUHFWLRQ RI WKH VSDWLDO PHWDSKRUV IRU HFVWDWLF merkavah-experience in the Hekhalot OLWHUDWXUHIURP³DVFHQW´WR³GHVFHQW´2QWKLV ³GLPHQVLRQDOVKLIW´VHH5RZODQGDQG0RUUD\-RQHVMystery of God±WKRXJK WKHZKROHFKDSWHULVLOOXPLQDWLQJ DQGDOVRLQFOXGLQJDGLVFXVVLRQRIWKHUHODWLRQVKLS between apocalyptic literature and the Hekhalot, J. R. Davila, Descenders to the Chariot: The People Behind the Hekhalot Literature/HLGHQ%ULOO  ௒(J2 En. 3–22 and the Testament of Levi. For the division of the Temple into seven zones of purity, see Josephus, War 1.26; ± For more discussion of this theme in 2 Enoch and the Testament of Levi, see Himmelfarb, Ascent to Heaven, 32–33KRZHYHUFRPSDUH&+7)OHWFKHU/RXLV³(QRFKDQGWKH1HZ3HUVSHFWLYH RQ$SRFDO\SWLF´ LQ New Perspectives on 2 Enoch: No Longer Slavonic Only, ed. $2UORYDQG*%RFFDFFLQL/HLGHQ%ULOO 131–2, for an interesting take on the temple-cosmological strategy of 2 Enoch.



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 Heavenly Ascent to the Merkavah (1 Enoch 14–15). At various points in the history of Israel, the Temple is rendered inaccessible through exile, desecration, or destruction. These events were not only a challenge for UHOLJLRXVSUDFWLFHDIIHFWLQJDZRUVKLSSHU¶VDFFHVVWRDGHTXDWHVDFUL¿FLDO cult and ceremony, but a worldview-crisis of cosmological proportions. What is to be done when access is denied to the holy of holies as the meeting-place of heaven and earth and the dwelling-place of the glory of God? A response to such cosmological crises found in many apocalyptic and mystical texts is the presence of a seer’s account of one or more heavenly ascents. These ascent accounts may be a later development in Jewish thought, EXWWKHLUURRWVUXQGHHS,VDLDK¶VYLVLRQLQFKDI¿UPVWKDWWKHKRO\RI holies is the meeting place of heaven and earth, but the exile prevents access to the Temple. The vision of the merkavah WKURQHFKDULRW  LQ (]HN  PDUNV ³WKH EHJLQQLQJ RI D WUHQG WR GLVVRFLDWH *RG¶V KHDYHQO\ DERGHIURPWKHWHPSOHLQ-HUXVDOHP´ The rationale for this dissociation is found in Ezek 8–11 and the vision of the departure of the presence and glory of God from the Temple. It is no coincidence that these two are the key Old Testament passages which provide the background for the developing tradition of apocalyptic heavenly ascent visions in the Second Temple period. The building of the Second Temple does little or nothing to repair the worldview-damage of the departure of the glory of God with its profound cosmological consequences. Himmelfarb summarizes the theological and worldview relationship between the Ezekelian narrative and Enoch’s heavenly ascent: The Second Temple is never able to emerge from the shadow of the disengagement of the glory of God. The ark and the cherubim are gone. In the SHULRG RI WKH 6HFRQG 7HPSOH XQGHU WKH LQÀXHQFH RI (]HNLHO WKRVH ZKR DUH unhappy with the behaviour of the people and especially its priests come to see the temple not as God’s proper dwelling, the place where heaven and earth meet, but rather as a mere copy of the true temple located in heaven. It is this desacralization of the earthly temple in favour of the heavenly that opens the way for Enoch’s ascent in the Book of the Watchers7KH¿UVWDVFHQWLQ-HZLVK literature is thus a journey to the true temple. ௒ 2QH DQVZHU JLYHQ LV WKDW WKH JORU\ WKH SUHVHQFH RI *RG DPRQJ KLV SHRSOH and the cosmological permeation of heaven and earth, continues to be available in the IRUPRI7RUDK7KLVFDQEHVHHQLQODWHU5DEELQLFUHÀHFWLRQRQ7RUDKZKLFKDVVHUWV WKDWZKHUHWZRRUWKUHHJDWKHUWRVWXG\7RUDKWKH6KHNLQDKUHVWVDPRQJWKHPm. Ab.  DQGWKDWWKHGLVFLSOLQHGVWXG\RIWKH/DZLVDNLQWRDSURFHVVRI7HPSOHEXLOGLQJ Lev. Rab. 7.2–3; cf. Beale, Temple  ௒+LPPHOIDUEAscent to Heaven, 11. ௒,ELG

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But, importantly, Jewish thought refuses to collapse at this point into cosmological dualism – the doctrine of creation requires that some permeation of the boundary of heaven and earth must be maintained, even if the Temple can no longer perform this function. This permeation is what is provided by the heavenly ascent tradition, which guarantees that, though the cosmological permeation of the holy of holies may have been lost when the glory of God departed, the seer can still pass through the boundary between heaven and earth and ascend to the presence of God. $VWKHHDUOLHVWH[DPSOHRIDQDSRFDO\SWLF³KHDYHQO\DVFHQW´LQ-HZLVK literature, 1 En.±LVDSDVVDJHRIJUHDWVLJQL¿FDQFHIRUDQ\GLVFXVVLRQ of apocalyptic cosmology, and merits the following substantial quotation: And behold I saw the clouds: And they were calling me in a vision; and the fogs were calling me; and the course of the stars and the lightnings were rushing me and causing me to desire; and in the vision, the winds were causing me WRÀ\DQGUXVKLQJPHKLJKXSLQWRKHDYHQ$QG,NHSWFRPLQJLQWRKHDYHQ  until I approached a wall which was built of white marble and surrounded by WRQJXHVRI¿UHDQGLWEHJDQWRIULJKWHQPH$QG,FDPHLQWRWKHWRQJXHVRI¿UH and drew near to a great house which was built of white marble, and the inner ZDOOV ZHUHOLNHPRVDLFVRIZKLWHPDUEOHWKHÀRRURIFU\VWDOWKHFHLOLQJOLNH WKHSDWKRIWKHVWDUVDQGOLJKWQLQJVEHWZHHQZKLFKVWRRG ¿HU\FKHUXELPDQG WKHLU KHDYHQ RI ZDWHU DQG ÀDPLQJ ¿UH VXUURXQGHG WKH ZDOOV  DQG LWV JDWHV ZHUHEXUQLQJZLWK¿UH$QG,HQWHUHGLQWRWKHKRXVHZKLFKZDVKRWOLNH¿UH DQG FROG OLNH LFH DQG WKHUH ZDV QRWKLQJ LQVLGH LW VR  IHDU FRYHUHG PH DQG trembling seized me. And as I shook and trembled, I fell upon my face and VDZDYLVLRQ$QGEHKROGWKHUHZDVDQRSHQLQJEHIRUHPHDQG DVHFRQGKRXVH ZKLFKLVJUHDWHUWKDQWKHIRUPHUDQGHYHU\WKLQJZDVEXLOWZLWKWRQJXHVRI¿UH $QGLQHYHU\UHVSHFWLWH[FHOOHGWKHRWKHU ±LQJORU\DQGJUHDWKRQRXU±WRWKH extent that it is impossible for me to recount to you concerning its glory and JUHDWQHVV$VIRULWVÀRRULWZDVRI¿UHDQGDERYHLWZDVOLJKWQLQJDQGWKHSDWK RIWKHVWDUVDQGDVIRUWKHFHLOLQJLWZDVÀDPLQJ¿UH$QG,REVHUYHGDQGVDZ inside it a lofty throne – its appearance was like crystal and its wheels like the VKLQLQJ VXQ DQG , KHDUG"  WKH YRLFH RI WKH FKHUXELP DQG IURP EHQHDWK WKH WKURQHZHUHLVVXLQJVWUHDPVRIÀDPLQJ¿UH,WZDVGLI¿FXOWWRORRNDWLW$QG WKH*UHDW*ORU\ZDVVLWWLQJXSRQLW«

௒2QWKHVLJQL¿FDQFHRIWKHGRFWULQHRIFUHDWLRQKHUHVHHHJ5:-HQVRQ ³2Q 'RJPDWLF6\VWHPDWLF $SSURSULDWLRQ RI 3DXO$FFRUGLQJWR0DUW\Q´ LQ 'DYLV and Harink, eds., Apocalyptic and the Future of Theology, 159, who says that the GRFWULQHRIFUHDWLRQLV³LQWKHZD\´RIDQ\ZRXOGEHGXDOLVWLFFRVPRORJ\,ZLOOUHWXUQ WR-HQVRQ¶VHVVD\WKRXJKQRWVSHFL¿FDOO\WRKLVDUJXPHQWVDERXWFUHDWLRQ DWWKHHQG of this chapter. ௒1 En.±



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Enoch’s account of his ascent to heaven is by no means the only such account in the apocalyptic literature. Such heavenly journeys are a major feature of the apocalypses and are greatly varied in their details. For example, as well as this commonly found tripartite view represented in 1 En.±ZH¿QGLQODWHUDSRFDO\SVHVWKDWKHDYHQLVGLYLGHGLQWR¿YH50 seven or more51 compartments. In discussing this development, Rowland QRWHV WKDW ³LPPHGLDWH DSSUHKHQVLRQ RI *RG EHFRPHV PRUH UHVWULFWHG LQ -HZLVK WKRXJKW´52 On the face of it, such complex ouranologies and extended accounts of ascents would suggest that later apocalyptic cosmology is characterized by an increasing transcendence and therefore a stricter dualism. As Rowland has said more recently, There was developing in ancient Judaism a more sophisticated cosmology in which God was believed to be enthroned in glory far above the heavens. Well before the beginning of the common era, if 1 En.LVDQ\WKLQJWRJRE\VRPH Jews had taken the step of establishing the merkava of Ezekiel in a heavenly palace which only the privileged seer could view. Such a cosmological development may hint at something also of their theology. God was transcendent in heaven; signs of the divine presence were indirect and not immediate.53

However, Rowland immediately cautions against overplaying this dualistic cosmology, citing evidence from Second Temple literature. Rowland’s DUJXPHQWVXJJHVWVWKDWDSRFDO\SWLFFRVPRORJLFDO³GXDOLVP´HYHQLQWKH more complex view of later apocalypses, is not best conceived as a strict dichotomy. For all the ouranological complexity of such accounts and the GLI¿FXOW\RIWKHVHHU¶VKHDYHQO\MRXUQH\LWPXVWEHUHPHPEHUHGWKDWWKH essential cosmology at work here is one where the boundary between the heavens and the earth remains permeable. If apocalyptic cosmology were characterized by a strict dualism, there would be no place for heavenly ascents. Later apocalypses certainly appear to increase the distance between the throne-room of God and the earthly realm, but at no time does access become impossible. ௒ 6HH 0 +LPPHOIDUE ³)URP 3URSKHF\ WR $SRFDO\SVH 7KH %RRN RI WKH :DWFKHUVDQG7RXUVRI+HDYHQ´LQJewish Spirituality: From the Bible through the Middle AgesHG$*UHHQ:RUOG6SLULWXDOLW\/RQGRQ5RXWOHGJH DQG UHIHUHQFHVLQQ6HHDOVR&ROOLQV³7RZDUGVWKH0RUSKRORJ\RID*HQUH´ 50௒(J*UHHN%DUXFK 51௒(J6ODYRQLF(QRFKZKLFKKDVWHQKHDYHQV 52௒ 5RZODQG Open Heaven, 81. Rowland goes on to draw attention to the remarkable simplicity of the cosmology of Revelation, given this context. I will draw RXWWKHVLJQL¿FDQFHRIWKLVWKHPHLQGHWDLOEHORZ 53௒5RZODQGDQG0RUUD\-RQHVMystery of God, 80.

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Paul Among the Apocalypses

b. 2 Baruch and 4 Ezra  “Not One World But Two” ((]UD7:47–50). In the previous chapter ZH H[SORUHG WKH HVFKDWRORJLFDO VLJQL¿FDQFH RI 4 Ezra’s statement that ³WKH0RVW+LJKKDVPDGHQRWRQHZRUOGEXWWZR´ QRWLQJ6WRQH¶V argument that the term saeculum LV³DQRXQPHDQLQJVRPHWKLQJEHWZHHQ ³WLPH´ ³DJH´ ³ZRUOGDJH´ DQG ³ZRUOG´ 7KHUH LV QR FOHDU H[WHUQDO indicator of which of these meanings may be most appropriate in any given context of 4 EzraRUHYHQZKHWKHUWKH\PD\EHWUXO\GLVWLQJXLVKHG´ A parallel discussion of this motif with cosmological themes in mind is therefore useful. Stone’s comments remind us that neat modern distinctions between horizontal and vertical are not always appropriate for ancient texts. 7KH SUHYLRXV VHFWLRQ FRQVLGHUHG WKH FRVPRORJLFDO VLJQL¿FDQFH RI WKH motif of heavenly ascent in the Book of the Watchers. It was noted that such ascents can be understood, in part, as a response to restricted access WRWKHHDUWKO\7HPSOHDVDUHVXOWRIH[LOHRUULWXDOGH¿OHPHQW2QHZRXOG assume, therefore, that the motif of heavenly ascent would grow in importance in the post-destruction apocalypses 4 Ezra and 2 Baruch. But this is not the case. One of the striking features of these apocalypses is their complete lack of any heavenly ascent or journey, raising the question of whether this represents evidence of a strict cosmological dualism. In the discussions that follow we will see that, despite the absence of heavenly ascents, 4 Ezra and 2 Baruch nevertheless resist dualism, expressing the interpenetration of heaven and earth in other ways. Before turning to that question, we begin with a return to the question of Temple cosmology.  Temple Cosmology (2 Baruch 3:4–4:7; 59:4–12). In the earlier discussion of 1 En.±ZHVDZWKDW-HZLVKWKRXJKWYLHZHGWKH7HPSOH not just as a place of worship but a location of profound cosmological VLJQL¿FDQFH DQ HDUWKO\ FRS\ RI WKH KHDYHQO\ UHDOP7UDFLQJ WKLV WKHPH WKURXJK%DUXFK¶VUHÀHFWLRQRQWKHGHVWUXFWLRQRIWKH7HPSOHLQWKHERRN¶V HDUO\FKDSWHUVKHOSVXVWRJUDVSWKLVFRVPRORJLFDOVLJQL¿FDQFH,QFK Baruch expresses his fear that the destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple jeopardizes not only the name of Israel and the preservation of the Law and the covenant, but is also a cosmological crisis:

௒ 6WRQH Fourth Ezra, 219. In translating the term, the choice between the two senses can only really be made according to immediate context. Stone cites WKHIROORZLQJDVLQVWDQFHVZKHUHWKHWHUPKDVDPRUHXQDPELJXRXV³VSDWLDO´VHQVH PHDQLQJ³ZRUOG´î 



Cosmology

129

But one thing I shall say in your presence, O Lord: Now, what will happen after these things? For if you destroy your city and deliver up your country to those who hate us, how will the name of Israel be remembered again? Or how shall we speak again about your glorious deeds? Or to whom again will that which is in your Law be explained? Or will the universe return to its nature and the world go back to its original silence"2 Bar. ±

For Baruch, since the temple is a microcosm, the threat of its destruction LV D WKUHDW WKDW LQYROYHV WKH HQWLUH XQLYHUVH ³%DUXFK IHDUV WKDW ZLWK the razing of the temple, cosmogony might again be reversed, chaos XQOHDVKHGDQGWKHZRUNRIFUHDWLRQXQGRQH´55 His subsequent realization WKDW³KHZKRJXDUGHGWKHKRXVHKDVOHIWLW´56 thus has a similar importance. The departure of the presence and glory of the Lord from the Temple is not only a portent of the coming destruction but an indication that the gateway of heaven and earth is no more. This potential cosmological crisis is the framing context for the Lord’s response: Is it not this building that is in your midst now; it is that which will be revealed, with me, that was already prepared from the moment that I decided to create Paradise. And I showed it to Adam before he sinned. But when he transgressed the commandment, it was taken away from him – as also Paradise. After these things I showed it to my servant Abraham in the night between the portions of the victims. And again I showed it also to Moses on Mount Sinai when I showed him the likeness of the tabernacle and all its vessels. Behold, now it is SUHVHUYHGZLWKPH±DVDOVR3DUDGLVH2 Bar. ±

We saw above, in reference to 1 En. ±WKDWWKH7HPSOHZDVXQGHUstood as being constructed according to plans revealed by God on Sinai. This Exodus theme also appears in 2 Bar. ZKLFKJRHVHYHQIXUWKHULQ locating the revelation of the shape of the Temple at various points in the covenant story. A similar Temple cosmology can be found in ch. 59, in the middle of 2 Baruch¶V³DSRFDO\SVHRIWKHFORXGV´ZKHUHWKHIRXUWKEULJKWZDWHUVDUH GHVFULEHGDVWKHUHYHODWLRQWR0RVHVRIDPRQJRWKHUWKLQJV ³WKHOLNHQHVV of Zion with its measurements which was to be made after the likeness of WKHSUHVHQWVDQFWXDU\´57$V5RZODQGDQG0RUUD\-RQHVDUJXH³DFFRUGLQJ 55௒+HQ]HJewish Apocalypticism, 77. 56௒2 Bar. 8:2, cf. 6:7. 57௒ 2 Bar.  2Q WKH UHVW RI WKH UHYHDOHG OLVW LQ WKLV FKDSWHU VHH DOVR 0 ( 6WRQH ³/LVWV RI7KLQJV 5HYHDOHG LQ WKH$SRFDO\SWLF /LWHUDWXUH´ LQ Magnalia Dei: The Mighty Acts of God: Essays on the Bible and Archaeology in Memory of G. Ernest Wright, ed. F. M. Cross et al. 1HZ