Patterns in Stonework: The Early Churches in Northern England: A further study in ecclesiastical geology Part B: The Counties of Northumberland, Nottinghamshire, Staffordshire, Westmorland and Yorkshire 9781407314938, 9781407323091

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Frontispiece
CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
ABSTRACT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
IMPORTANT NOTE AND RESULTING APOLOGIES
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION: PREFACE AND A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO THE TECHNIQUES OF ECCLESIASTICAL GEOLOGY AS APPLIED TO EARLY CHURCHES
CHAPTER TWO: THE EARLY CHURCHES OF NORTHUMBERLAND
CHAPTER THREE: THE EARLY CHURCHES OF NOTTINGHAMSHIRE
CHAPTER FOUR: THE EARLY CHURCHES OF STAFFORDSHIRE
CHAPTER FIVE: THE EARLY CHURCHES OF WESTMORLAND
CHAPTER SIX: THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE
CHAPTER SEVEN: ANALYSES AND DISCUSSION RELATED TO THIS VOLUME (PART B)
CHAPTER EIGHT: EARLY CHURCHES OF NORTHERN ENGLAND: ANALYSES AND DISCUSSION
GLOSSARY
APPENDIX 1: CHRONO-STRATIGRAPHIC TABLE
REFERENCES

Citation preview

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND - PART B

Professor John F. Potter was trained as a geologist at the Universities of Manchester and London. He was invited to view the geology of his first church over 40 years ago. This proved of such attraction and fascination that his subsequent ecclesiastical studies throughout the British Isles have provided much new information and produced more than 50 papers and monographs.

POTTER

________

2016

Consequential to this far-reaching study, in this specific monograph a variety of supplementary aspects of church construction are discussed. The details of 174 churches are analysed. Ten of these churches are designated Anglo-Saxon for the first time. It proved possible to determine the relative importance of the different building stones used; and to learn more about features like church security, cut backs, re-use of Roman masonry, and herringbone masonry.

BAR 624

In this study of the early ecclesiastical sites in Northern England the churches involved have been described in two volume parts. In Part A (BAR 617), those sites in the area of the pre-1974 counties of Cheshire, Cumberland, Derbyshire, Durham, Lancashire and Lincolnshire were covered. In this volume (Part B), the five counties of Northumberland, Nottinghamshire, Staffordshire, Westmorland and Yorkshire are examined.

Patterns in Stonework: The Early Churches in Northern England A further study in ecclesiastical geology Part B The Counties of Northumberland, Nottinghamshire, Staffordshire, Westmorland and Yorkshire

John F. Potter

BAR British Series 624 B A R

2016

Patterns in Stonework: The Early Churches in Northern England A further study in ecclesiastical geology Part B The Counties of Northumberland, Nottinghamshire, Staffordshire, Westmorland and Yorkshire

John F. Potter

BAR British Series 624 2016

First Published in 2016 by British Archaeological Reports Ltd United Kingdom BAR British Series 624 Patterns in Stonework: The Early Churches in Northern England. A further study in ecclesiastical geology Part B

© J F Potter 2016 The Author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher.

ISBN 9781407314938 paperback ISBN 9781407323091 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407314938 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Cover Image: The church of St Helen, Skipwith (SE 657 385) viewed from the south-east

All BAR titles are available from: British Archaeological Reports Ltd Oxford United Kingdom Phone +44 (0)1865 310431 Fax +44 (0)1865 316916 Email: [email protected] www.barpublishing.com

Frontispiece A simplified geological map of Britain and Ireland after the British Geological Survey. Published here by kind permission of the Natural Environmental Research Council.

CONTENTS CONTENTS...........................................................................................................................................................................v LIST OF TABLES ..............................................................................................................................................................viii LIST OF FIGURES ..............................................................................................................................................................ix ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................................................................xxxiv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .............................................................................................................................................xxxv IMPORTANT NOTE AND RESULTING APOLOGIES ...............................................................................................xxxvi CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION: PREFACE AND A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO THE TECHNIQUES OF ECCLESIASTICAL GEOLOGY AS APPLIED TO EARLY CHURCHES .........................................................................1 1.1 Preface .........................................................................................................................................................................1 1.2 Ecclesiastical Geology and its Applications ...............................................................................................................1 1.2.1 Identification of Different Rock Types in Buildings ...........................................................................................1 1.2.2 Identification of Different Rock Patterns in Buildings ........................................................................................4 a. Introduction..........................................................................................................................................................4 b. Patterned quoins ..................................................................................................................................................7 c. A stone nomenclature for arch jambs and pilasters .............................................................................................9 d. The need for a name and fashions in building ...................................................................................................10 1.3 Long recognised Anglo-Saxon features ....................................................................................................................12 1.3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................12 1.3.2 Double-splayed windows ..................................................................................................................................12 1.3.3 Megalithic quoin stones.....................................................................................................................................12 1.4 Recently recognised Anglo-Saxon features ..............................................................................................................12 1.4.1 Anglo-Saxon stone cut backs ............................................................................................................................12 1.4.2 Polychrome banding ..........................................................................................................................................12 1.4.3 Decoration in face-bedded stonework ...............................................................................................................12 1.5 Other features which may influence the appearance of Anglo-Saxon churches .......................................................14 1.6 Background and procedures to this study .................................................................................................................14 CHAPTER TWO: THE EARLY CHURCHES OF NORTHUMBERLAND .....................................................................16 2.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................................................................................16 2.2 Alnham, St Michael and All Angels, NT 991 110 .....................................................................................................16 2.3 Bolam, St Andrew, NZ 093 826 ................................................................................................................................20 2.4 Bywell, St Andrew NZ 048 615 ................................................................................................................................22 2.5 Bywell, St Peter, NZ 049 614 ...................................................................................................................................26 2.6 Chillingham, St Peter NU 063 259 ...........................................................................................................................28 2.7 Corbridge, St Andrew, NY 998 644 ..........................................................................................................................29 2.8 Ebbs Nook (dedication unknown), NU 239 286 .......................................................................................................32 2.9 Edlingham, St John the Baptist, NU 114 091 ...........................................................................................................32 2.10 Hartburn, St Andrew, NZ 090 161 ..........................................................................................................................33 2.11 Heddon-on-the-Wall, St Andrew, NZ 135 669 ........................................................................................................36 2.12 Hexham, St Andrew, NY 935 641 ...........................................................................................................................37 2.13 Ingram, St Michael and All Angels, NU 019 163 ...................................................................................................40 2.14 Lindisfarne (Holy Island), St Mary the Virgin, NU 125 418 ..................................................................................41 2.15 Longhoughton, St Peter and St Paul, NU 243 151..................................................................................................44 2.16 Old Bewick, Holy Trinity, NU 067 222 ..................................................................................................................47 2.17 Ovingham, St Mary the Virgin, NZ 085 637...........................................................................................................49 2.18 Stamfordham, St Mary the Virgin, NZ 076 720 ......................................................................................................51 2.19 Warden, St Michael and All Angels, NY 913 664...................................................................................................54 2.20 Whittingham, St Bartholomew, NU 066 119 ..........................................................................................................56 2.21 Woodhorn, St Mary the Virgin, NZ 301 888 ...........................................................................................................59

v

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

2.22 Brief notes on some of the other sites visited .........................................................................................................59 2.22.1 Alnwick, St Leonard Hospice, NU 187 144 ....................................................................................................59 2.22.2 Bamburgh, St Aidan, NU 178 349 ..................................................................................................................59 2.22.3 Bywell, site of chapel, NZ 052 618 .................................................................................................................60 2.22.4 Guyzance chapel, NU 208 032 ........................................................................................................................60 2.22.5 Haughton Castle chapel, NY 920 727 .............................................................................................................62 2.22.6 Lindisfarne, St Cuthbert’s chapel, NU 123 416 ..............................................................................................62 2.22.7 Newburn, St Michael and All Angels, NZ 167 654.........................................................................................63 2.22.8 Norham, St Cuthbert, NT 897 474 ..................................................................................................................64 2.22.9 Seaton Delaval, Our Lady, NZ 323 764 ..........................................................................................................66 2.22.10 Tynemouth Priory, NZ 375 694 .....................................................................................................................68 2.22.11 Wallsend, Holy Cross, NZ 305 673 ...............................................................................................................69 2.23 Other Northumberland church sites ........................................................................................................................70 CHAPTER THREE: THE EARLY CHURCHES OF NOTTINGHAMSHIRE ..................................................................72 3.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................................................................................72 3.2 Carlton-in-Lindrick, St John the Evangelist, SK 588 839 ........................................................................................73 3.3 East Bridgford, St Peter, SK 691 431........................................................................................................................75 3.4 Southwell Cathedral SK 702 537 ..............................................................................................................................77 3.5 South Wheatley, St Helen, SK 766 856 ....................................................................................................................79 CHAPTER FOUR: THE EARLY CHURCHES OF STAFFORDSHIRE ...........................................................................81 4.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................................................................................81 4.2 Ilam, Holy Cross, SK 133 507 ..................................................................................................................................81 4.3 Lichfield Cathedral, St Mary and St Chad, SK 116 097 ...........................................................................................83 4.4 Stafford, St Mary, SJ 921 232 ...................................................................................................................................84 4.5 Tamworth, St Editha, SK 206 041.............................................................................................................................85 CHAPTER FIVE: THE EARLY CHURCHES OF WESTMORLAND .............................................................................87 5.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................................................................................87 5.2 Appleby, St Michael Bongate, NY 688 199 ..............................................................................................................87 5.3 Crosby Garrett, St Andrew, NY 729 097 ..................................................................................................................89 5.4 Long Marton, St Margaret and St James, NY 666 240 .............................................................................................91 5.5 Morland, St Laurence, NY 598 225 ..........................................................................................................................95 5.6 Ormside (Great Ormside), St James, NY 701 176 ....................................................................................................98 5.7 Brief notes on other church sites visited .................................................................................................................100 5.7.1 Appleby, St Lawrence, NY 683 204 ................................................................................................................100 CHAPTER SIX: THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE ......................................................................................102 6.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................................102 6.2 Aldbrough, St Bartholomew, TA 244 387 (East Riding).........................................................................................102 6.3 Appleton-le-Street, All Saints, SE 733 736 (North Riding) ....................................................................................104 6.4 Bardsey, All Hallows, SE 366 432 (West Riding)...................................................................................................107 6.5 Bedale, St Gregory, SE 265 884 (North Riding) ..................................................................................................... 110 6.6 Bulmer, St Martin, SE 699 676 (North Riding) ...................................................................................................... 112 6.7 Burghwallis, St Helen, SE 537 120 (West Riding) ................................................................................................. 114 6.8 Collingham, St Oswald, SE 390 460 (West Riding) ............................................................................................... 117 6.9 Ellerburn, St Hilda, SE 842 842 (North Riding) ..................................................................................................... 119 6.10 Gilling West, St Agatha and St Oswin, NZ 182 052 (North Riding) ....................................................................123 6.11 Hackness, St Peter, SE 969 905 (North Riding)....................................................................................................125 6.12 Hauxwell, St Oswald, SE 166 932 (North Riding) ...............................................................................................127 6.13 Hornby, St Mary the Virgin, SE 222 937 (North Riding) .....................................................................................129 6.14 Hovingham, All Saints, SE 666 757 (North Riding).............................................................................................131 6.15 Kippax, St Mary, SE 417 303 (West Riding) ........................................................................................................134 6.16 Kirby Hill, All Saints, SE 393 686 (North Riding) ...............................................................................................137 6.17 Kirby Underdale, All Saints, SE 808 585 (East Riding) .......................................................................................140 6.18 Kirkdale, St Gregory, SE 677 857 (North Riding) ................................................................................................143 6.19 Kirk Hammerton, St John the Baptist, SE 465 555 (West Riding) .......................................................................145 6.20 Lastingham, St Mary, SE 728 904 (North Riding)................................................................................................150 6.21 Laughton-en-le-Morthen, All Saints, SK 517 882 (West Riding) .........................................................................151 vi

CONTENTS

6.22 Ledsham, All Saints, SE 456 297 (West Riding) ..................................................................................................153 6.23 Masham, St Mary the Virgin, SE 236 806 (North Riding) ...................................................................................157 6.24 Middleton-by-Pickering, St Mary the Virgin, SE 782 854 (North Riding)...........................................................159 6.25 Monk Fryston, St Wilfred of Ripon, SE 505 297 (West Riding) ..........................................................................162 6.26 Newton Kyme, St Andrew, SE 466 449 (North Riding) .......................................................................................164 6.27 Old Byland, All Saints, SE 551 859 (North Riding) .............................................................................................167 6.28 Otley, All Saints, SE 201 454 (West Riding) ........................................................................................................169 6.29 Ripon, St Peter, SE 313 711 (West Riding)...........................................................................................................171 6.30 Ryther (cum Ossendyke), All Saints, SE 555 394 (West Riding) .........................................................................173 6.31 Scrayingham, St Peter and St Paul, SE 730 604 (East Riding) .............................................................................175 6.32 Skipwith, St Helen, SE 657 385 (East Riding) .....................................................................................................178 6.33 Stonegrave, Holy Trinity, SE 655 778 (North Riding)..........................................................................................181 6.34 Terrington, All Saints, SE 671 707 (North Riding) ...............................................................................................183 6.35 Weaverthorpe, St Andrew, SE 966 710 (East Riding)...........................................................................................185 6.36 Wharram-le-Street, St Mary, SE 836 659 (East Riding) .......................................................................................186 6.37 York, St Mary Bishophill Junior, SE 600 505 (City of York) ...............................................................................190 6.38 Brief notes on some of the other sites visited .......................................................................................................192 6.38.1 Beverley Minster, St John the Evangelist, TA 038 392 (East Riding) ..........................................................192 6.38.2 Birkin, St Mary, SE 531 266 (West Riding) ..................................................................................................192 6.38.3 Bramham (cum Oglethorpe), All Saints, SE 427 430 (West Riding) ............................................................193 6.38.4 Easby, St Agnes, NL 185 003 (North Riding) ...............................................................................................194 6.38.5 Guiseley, St Oswald, King and Martyr, SE 194 421, (West Riding).............................................................197 6.38.6 Laxton, St John the Evangelist, SE 793 425 (East Riding) ...........................................................................198 6.38.7 Pateley Bridge, St Mary the Virgin, SE 164 656 (West Riding) ...................................................................199 6.38.8 Sand Hutton, St Leonard, SE 697 598 (North Riding)..................................................................................201 6.38.9 Whorlton-in-Cleveland, Holy Cross, SE 484 025 (North Riding) ................................................................202 6.38.10 York, St Cuthbert, SE 627 520 (City of York) .............................................................................................203 6.38.11 York, Cathedral Church of St Peter, SE 603 521 (City of York) .................................................................206 6.38.12 Other Yorkshire church sites .......................................................................................................................207 CHAPTER SEVEN: ANALYSES AND DISCUSSION RELATED TO THIS VOLUME (PART B) .............................208 7.1 A record of the Anglo-Saxon readable stonework evident over the five North of England counties in this volume ...........................................................................................................................................................................208 7.2 Interpretation ........................................................................................................................................................... 211 CHAPTER EIGHT: EARLY CHURCHES OF NORTHERN ENGLAND: ANALYSES AND DISCUSSION ..............212 8.1 Basics ......................................................................................................................................................................212 8.2 So what is new?.......................................................................................................................................................212 8.3 More on building stones ..........................................................................................................................................213 8.4 The use of cut backs ................................................................................................................................................214 8.5 Herringbone stone emplacement .............................................................................................................................214 8.6 Church security .......................................................................................................................................................215 8.7 High level doors ......................................................................................................................................................217 8.8 A word on Anglo-Saxon crypts ...............................................................................................................................217 8.9 Norman/Romanesque stonework patterns...............................................................................................................217 8.10 Not to be confused – the ‘Alternate’ style .............................................................................................................218 8.11 Summary ...............................................................................................................................................................219 GLOSSARY....................................................................................................................................................................... 220 APPENDIX 1: CHRONO-STRATIGRAPHIC TABLE ....................................................................................................223 REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................................................................224

vii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1 Items discussed in Monograph A to which refer for information ..........................................................................3 Table 1.2 Methods of determining the History and Background of Churches ......................................................................4 Table 1.3 Matters which might influence the interpretation of the age or appearance of a church already discussed elsewhere, such as in Monograph Part A ..............................................................................................................................................14 Table 7.1 A summary of the essential information discovered in Part B following an examination of the critical stonework and stonework bedding orientations .................................................................................................................................208 Table 8.1 Newly described churches in the North of England which appear to retain evidence of an Anglo-Saxon origin ...........................................................................................................................................................................212 Table 8.2 In search of quality stone: the use of quality stone for Anglo-Saxon churches in the North of England as determined by its use in quoins.............................................................................................................................................................213 Table 8.3 Certain additional examples of Anglo-Saxon cut backs observed as a result of this study. All localities cited are described from Monograph A ............................................................................................................................................214 Table 8.4 The occurrence and possible age of herringbone coursework in the early churches of the North of England ..215

viii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 A map of the solid geology of the Pennines and adjacent areas. This map is published here by kind permission of the Natural Environment Research Council and reproduced from the British Geological Survey’s 1:625000 geological map of the United Kingdom (Solid Edition)..........................................................................................................................2 Figure 1.2 The church of Tedstone Delamere (SO 695 585) in Herefordshire was probably built with its west end in its own quarry. See also the Yorkshire church of Kirby Underdale (Figure 6.100) ...........................................................................4 Figure 1.3 The south wall of Bettys Clyro, Radnorshire (SO 228 473) built in 1878. It can be described as rusticated, the stonework being ‘half-snecked’, with larger jumper stones inserted at intervals into the courses ........................................5 Figure 1.4 The west end of Hirnant church, Montgomery (SJ 020 229) was rebuilt in 1996. It provides a good example of ‘snecked’ work. Tufa reflects the weathering of the lime mortar (possibly also reacting with the chemistry of the stonework)..............................................................................................................................................................................5 Figure 1.5 The ‘Victorian’ stonework in a buttress at Llansilin church, Montgomery (SJ 209 282). The stones have sharp arrises, have been ornamented with a chisel, and possess feathered edges ...........................................................................5 Figure 1.6 Stone at Bettys Clyro church (SO 228 473) machine modified face and feathered edges ...................................6 Figure 1.7 This remote and ruined overgrown church site at Kirkforthar, Falkland (NO 298 048), in Fife, remarkably shows ‘Victorian’ stonework within the jambs of its west doorway.................................................................................................6 Figure 1.8 First recognised by Rickman (1836, 39-40), the church of St Bene’t, Cambridge (TL 449 583) was identified as Anglo-Saxon because of its long and short work. This work is well displayed on the jambs of its tower arch. The south jamb is viewed here from the east..........................................................................................................................................6 Figure 1.9 These quoin stones are classified according to their shape, as proposed by Gilbert (1946). This classification can only be applied to stones which approximate to a rectangular block in shape. His term ‘clasping’ referred to a stone that was of no great vertical thickness and square in cross section (which without removing the stone from the wall is impossible to assess) ....................................................................................................................................................................................7 Figure 1.10 The south-west nave quoin in the ruined Kirkton church, Burntisland, Fife (NT 232 864), is preserved in blocks of local calcareous sandstone which are set to side-alternate style of Gilbert (1946) ...........................................................7 Figure 1.11 The lowest stones in the north-west tower quoin at Barnack church, Northamptonshire (TF 079 050) are replacements set in face-alternate style of Gilbert (1946). Higher in the same quoin the stones are set to long and short style (Rickman, 1836) ....................................................................................................................................................................7 Figure 1.12 The quoin illustrated displays all possible orientations in which a stone may be positioned within the structure and is the annotation first proposed by Potter (2005b) to describe them. The notation (BVFR-BH-BVFL) refers to the bedding orientation in each stone and not to the stone shape ................................................................................................8 Figure 1.13 This stone in the north-east nave quoin of Llanfair-is-Gaer church in Wales (SH 502 660) is of a local Carboniferous sandstone with quartz pebble stringers. Viewed here from the north, the stringers run vertically through the sandstone to provide evidence that the stone is placed with its bedding face to the left, or BVFL.......................................8 Figure 1.14 Strethall church in Essex (TL 484 398) retains its excellent long and short nave quoins which are constructed of Barnack Stone. The first three stones in the north-west nave quoin possess bedding orientations set BVFL, BH, BVFL in Anglo-Saxon style ..............................................................................................................................................................9

ix

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 1.15 Lower Carboniferous Sandstone blocks are laid in side-alternate style in the north-west chancel quoin of the church of St Rule, in St Andrews, Fife (NO 515 167), The first five stones in the quoin rise; BH, BVFL, BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, in Anglo-Saxon style. For a full description of this church read Potter (2008c) .......................................................9 Figure 1.16 An arch, door or window jamb nomenclature proposed and used by the author to enable the stone orientations to be recorded (Potter 2005b). The terms Bedded Vertical Face Into the Arch (BVFIA) and Bedded Vertical Edge Into the Arch (BVEIA) now supplement Bedding Horizontal (BH) ................................................................................................10 Figure 1.17 Barnack church in Northamptonshire (TF 079 050) possesses in the south door of its tower only BH and BVFIA stones, an indication of its Anglo-Saxon construction date ....................................................................................10 Figure 1.18 Extraction of long stone blocks suitable for pilaster use from a quarry. The bedding plane (BP) provides a smoother surface for carving purposes ................................................................................................................................ 11 Figure 1.19 The typical stone settings for the pilaster-strip which is a feature evident in certain Anglo-Saxon churches. On this, the notation proposed and used by the present author (Potter 2005b) is shown. This notation (BVFB-BH-BVEB) permits the bedding orientations of the stones to be distinguished ..................................................................................... 11 Figure 1.20 Detail of lower portion of a pilaster on the north face of the tower at Barnack church (TF 079 050). Long BVEB and short BH stones are evident........................................................................................................................................... 11 Figure 1.21 Sketch of part of a typical Anglo-Saxon pilaster-strip in which the stones have been cut back to improve their decorative appearance, annotated with the terms proposed (Potter, 2000b) to describe the feature and subsequently used. The amount of cut back (on the right of the pilaster) of overlarge stones has been determined by the proud face width of the narrowest stone (in this instance the lowest stone shown). Clear evidence that this has been done for ornamental purposes ......................................................................................................................................................13 Figure 1.22 An example of cut backs on the early north-east chancel quoin at Wittering church (TF 056 020), Northamptonshire. The stones are cut back to the width of the lowest long stone on this east face ...................................13 Figure 1.23 A sketch of a possible view of Anglo-Saxon walling to illustrate some of the features which could be preserved. The sketch is both idealised and diagrammatic. The wall stones are shown to be placed in three different orientations in the walls; these are BH (standard horizontally placed stones), Bedded Vertically Face-Bedded (BVFB) and Bedded Vertically Edge-Bedded (BVEB). In a few instances these stones are placed to patterns or bands. Both the doorway and its arch stones show cut backs .....................................................................................................................................................................13 Figure 1.24 A sketch map of the County Boundaries of England and Wales as they were pre 1974 ..................................15 Figure 2.1 Geological map in colour of north-east England copied by kind permission of the University of Newcastle. The author is also indebted to those individuals who produced the original map ......................................................................17 Figure 2.2 Alnham, St Michael and All Angels church, (NT 991 110) viewed from the south-east. Picture by kind permission of Northumberland County Council ....................................................................................................................................18 Figure 2.3 A north aisle was attached to the nave of Alnham church in the 13th C and three of its four arcade arches, now blocked, are visible in this view (arrows) ............................................................................................................................18 Figure 2.4 The western arcade arch (with arrow) in Figure 2.3 is noticeably larger. It is possible that this was to incorporate a nave western extension, built at the same time as the aisle. Subsequent to the aisle’s removal and the arcade being infilled, a supportive buttress was erected and to its east a north doorway (arrow) created, which is now also infilled ..................19 Figure 2.5 The south-east nave quoin to Alnham church is constructed of large stones, but regrettably it is covered in lichen so that the stone bedding orientations are only poorly readable. What can be read suggests that it is possibly of AngloSaxon age. The later south transept (on the left) abuts the nave..........................................................................................19 Figure 2.6 In the porch at Alnham church the stoop resembles a portable font. The visible face, however, appears to be inscribed ?FSL XX suggesting that it is of fairly recent origin ...........................................................................................19 Figure 2.7 St Andrew, Bolam, (NZ 093 826) as seen from the south ..................................................................................20

x

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.8 The south-west tower quoin at Bolam church is constructed of large poorly shaped blocks of sandstone in which bedding orientation is set to Patterned, Anglo-Saxon style. The 5th 6th and 7th stones are shown and these are orientated BVFR, BVFL, BH ...............................................................................................................................................................20 Figure 2.9 The early ground floor windows in Bolam church tower have been externally blocked and replaced. From inside the tower the head of an original window is visible. This appears to possess a more marked splay than the more modern window. The early window in this south wall might, therefore, be double-splayed ...........................................................21 Figure 2.10 The early west ground floor window in Bolam tower, resembles that in the south wall when viewed from the interior. Taylor and Taylor (1965, 78) did not suggest that these windows were double-splayed .......................................21 Figure 2.11 The south-west nave quoin in Bolam church also reveals Anglo-Saxon orientated quoin stones. Stones 4, 5 and 6 are illustrated here and set BVFR, BVFR, BH. The west wall of the aisle abuts the quoin from the south (right) .........21 Figure 2.12 Internally, the lowest five stones of the south-east nave quoin of Bolam church are probably represented. They are covered in plaster and unreadable ..................................................................................................................................22 Figure 2.13 The north-east nave quoin at Bolam church (with arrow) is very heavily coated in lichen (appears white). It is also unusual in not rising to the full height of the nave north wall ......................................................................................22 Figure 2.14 Bolam church chancel arch viewed from the chancel. The stones immediately above the arch are cantilevered against the arch which suggests they have been cut through. Also at the top of the arch a half a dozen stones, possibly the upper part of voussoirs appear to suggest a once narrower arch .........................................................................................22 Figure 2.15 The south Norman door to St Andrew, Bolam church .....................................................................................23 Figure 2.16 Within the porch are a number of early stones, as this seen in the west wall. Ryder (2002) has described these stones; this as ‘a coped slab . with round-ended toggle’, which was placed as 12th C. A similar ornamented stone at Atcham church, Shropshire (SJ 541 092) has been described as Roman ..........................................................................................23 Figure 2.17 The church of St Andrew, Bywell (NZ 048 615) as viewed from the south ....................................................23 Figure 2.18 The detail of the lower portions of both the south-west portions of the tower and (the more distant) nave quoins of St Andrew, Bywell. The side of the south porch is also partially visible ........................................................................24 Figure 2.19 The west face of St Andrew, Bywell tower viewed from below. Showing clear bedding orientations, the sidealternate west tower quoin stones rise to the top of the level of the first floor window ......................................................24 Figure 2.20 Part of the south-west tower quoin of St Andrew church. The larger quoin stone with BH orientation is stone 5............................................................................................................................................................................................25 Figure 2.21 The base of the north-west tower quoin at St Andrew, Bywell, where (at stone 2 level) some joggling of stones is thought to indicate stone replacement ..............................................................................................................................25 Figure 2.22 The first floor window on the west face of St Andrew, Bywell, preserves its Anglo-Saxon character, as can be confirmed from the bedding orientations described in the text............................................................................................25 Figure 2.23 Outlined in strip work, and high in the south wall of the tower of St Andrew, Bywell, there is a round-headed doorway that once opened to space. Higher, the double-window, belfry is preserved, still showing some evidence of jamb stones orientated BVFIA......................................................................................................................................................25 Figure 2.24 Shows the north wall of the tower and the north-west nave quoin of St Andrew, Bywell church. A blocked doorway (arrow) exists below the western nave window on the north nave wall ...............................................................26 Figure 2.25 One of the many grave stones preserved at St Andrew, Bywell church ...........................................................26 Figure 2.26 Bywell, St Peter church (NZ 049 614) is here viewed from the north. The nave’s four high-level windows are clearly evident ......................................................................................................................................................................27

xi

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 2.27 The north chancel wall at St Peter, Bywell displays a blocked doorway (arrow) with Escomb jambs, rising typically BVFIA; BH; BVFIA. The outline of a roof above the doorway suggests that the door may have led to a porticus. The Patterned north-east nave quoin to the west of the doorway is largely obscured by the 15th C. north chapel ............27 Figure 2.28 The two westernmost windows in the north nave wall of St Peter, Bywell. The wider window to the west has been rebuilt, but the other three windows, seen in Figure 2.26, show some evidence of their early character in what can be observed in the bedding orientation of their jamb stones ....................................................................................................27 Figure 2.29 On the south chancel wall of St Peter, Bywell, and opposite the possible porticus doorway in the north wall, there is the outline of a further doorway. The east jamb of this doorway (arrow) is preserved to show Anglo-Saxon characteristics, with the possibility that this doorway also once led to a porticus ..............................................................28 Figure 2.30 St Peter, Chillingham church (NU 063 259) is here viewed from the west. Later buttresses obscure the western nave quoins ..........................................................................................................................................................................28 Figure 2.31 The north-west corner of the church at Chillingham has been rebuilt. The stones employed for this purpose are slightly larger and somewhat better shaped. Note the blocked 13th C. doorway in the north wall.....................................29 Figure 2.32 Chillingham church viewed from the south-east to show the south chapel .....................................................29 Figure 2.33 The elaborate tomb of Sir Ralph Grey and his wife. Built of local sandstone it was constructed in 1443 ......30 Figure 2.34 The Chillinham Grey tomb to show some of the elaborate carving .................................................................30 Figure 2.35 The church of St Andrew, Corbridge (NY 988 644) as viewed from the south ...............................................30 Figure 2.36 The west porch and doorway to Corbridge church seen from the south-west .................................................31 Figure 2.37 From inside the porch of Corbridge church the west wall may be examined, although the stonework proved regrettably unreadable. Note that the splay from the window above rests upon the inner arch of the doorway .................31 Figure 2.38 The tower arch of Corbridge church is certainly constructed mainly of ex-Roman stones. The period at which it might have been built within the church has yet to be deduced. If the stones could be examined when thoroughly cleaned, the answer should be readily available ................................................................................................................................31 Figure 2.39 The Ebb’s Nook site (NU 239 286) as viewed from the west end of the original excavation site ...................32 Figure 2.40 The church of St John the Baptist, Edlingham (NU 114 091) viewed from the south-west. Beyond the church it is possible to see part of the castle and the railway viaduct .............................................................................................32 Figure 2.41 The west nave doorway at Edlingham church now leads to the west tower that was built subsequently to the nave. Viewed from the nave the large squared stones that make the door jambs are set in Anglo- Saxon Patterned style (see text). The folding chair is 0.85m. long.................................................................................................................................33 Figure 2.42 In the south jamb of the west door to Edlingham church there is a deep hole to take a bar lock. This must predate the tower (which is probably late 13th C.), and would appear, from the manner in which it has been created in the jamb stone, to be Anglo-Saxon .....................................................................................................................................................33 Figure 2.43 The south nave doorway to the church also carries bar lock holes, this is in the east jamb. The doorway is of Norman age and it is enclosed by a barrel vaulted porch ....................................................................................................34 Figure 2.44 St Andrew church, Hartburn (NZ 090 161) viewed from the south- east; the impression of the earlier nave roof may be seen on the east wall of the tower ...........................................................................................................................34 Figure 2.45 View from the east of the nave of Hartburn church to show the blocked tower arch which is noticeably not central to the church. Higher, there is also a window and above it (not visible) a further blocked doorway arch ..............35 Figure 2.46 From somewhat closer, Hartburn church tower arch blocked wall can be seen to possess two doorways (both central to the church). The lower doorway is relatively modern .........................................................................................35

xii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.47 The nave south-east quoin at Hartburn church. Stones 2 to 9 rise: BVFR; BVFL; ?BVFR; BVFL; ?; BVFL; ?; BVFL; in Anglo-Saxon style ...............................................................................................................................................35 Figure 2.48 The same south-east quoin viewed from the south-east; stones 3 to 5 can be seen to have been tooled (see arrow) to look as though they were of smaller size, possibly to match the coursework of the nave faces (now hidden) ...36 Figure 2.49 Hartburn church north-east quoin also shows Anglo-Saxon Patterned Stonework ..........................................36 Figure 2.50 St Andrew, Heddon-on-the-Wall (NZ135 669) viewed from the south ...........................................................36 Figure 2.51 The south-east quoin to the nave at Heddon-on-the-Wall church has the chancel to the east (right) and the aisle wall to the south. Over the first metre the aisle is tied to the quoin and stones are disrupted. Above that the stones rise in Patterned style (see text) ......................................................................................................................................................37 Figure 2.52 This unusual blocked doorway occurs in the south wall of the chancel of Heddon-on-the-Wall church. The wall is thin, but from its stonework in courses, it appears to be Norman (note, to the right, the vertical stone in the sixth course in the wall is a feature of Norman work). The doorway jamb stones align with the wall courses and they also reveal no bedding orientation other than BH. This evidence suggests the whole doorway is Norman ..............................................37 Figure 2.53 In the north chancel wall, over the relatively modern doorway, a similar tympanum to that seen in the south wall is present. The doorway is kindly modelled by the church warden .............................................................................38 Figure 2.54 The side-alternate north-west quoin to the north aisle at Heddon- on-the-Wall church reveals its Victorian origins from the rusticated appearance of its stones ............................................................................................................38 Figure 2.55 Hexham, St Andrew (NY 935 641) is not strictly an Abbey, but it is a large building with a very significant history (see text). Here the church is viewed from the south...............................................................................................39 Figure 2.56 The crypt of Hexham church dates from the 7th C. This view of the crypt is taken from the east end of the barrel-roofed relic chamber, towards the west and the entrance staircase. The relics were probably viewed from a window (just out of picture) from a corridor on the north side .........................................................................................................39 Figure 2.57 Some of the Roman re-used carved stones which can be observed in the walls of Hexham crypt. Special oblique lighting has been used to try to penetrate the lime-plaster coatings to show that the stones display Roman decoration ....39 Figure 2.58 Roman tooling seen on the walls of Hexham crypt ..........................................................................................40 Figure 2.59 St Michael and All Angels Church, Ingram (NU 019 163) viewed from the south-west. The sturdy square unbuttressed tower looks of Norman character ...................................................................................................................40 Figure 2.60 Ingram church tower arch viewed from the east. Note the double row of voussoirs which are probably of two different periods ...................................................................................................................................................................40 Figure 2.61 The north jamb to the Ingram church tower arch viewed from the south-east, the jamb being three stones deep ......................................................................................................................................................................................41 Figure 2.62 St Mary the Virgin church, Lindisfarne (NU 125 418) may be seen here viewed from the south-east and behind the Lindisfarne ruined abbey ...............................................................................................................................................41 Figure 2.63 The north-east nave quoin to Lindisfarne church, showing tie stones from the north aisle (on the right) tied in at three levels. The details of the different stones’ bedding orientations are given in the text. ...........................................42 Figure 2.64 Detail of part of the north-east quoin shown in Figure 2.63. Stone 5 in the quoin is the grey stone just below the string level on the chancel wall ......................................................................................................................................42 Figure 2.65 This structure in Lindisfarne church occurs where the north end of the west wall meets the south end of the thinner north aisle wall, giving rise to a quoin-like structure, in which the one readable stone was set BVFL. If this interpretation is correct the early tower would have projected west beyond the west wall of the present church ..............43

xiii

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 2.66 The chancel arch of Lindisfarne church viewed from the nave can be seen cutting into an earlier round arch probably of Norman age ......................................................................................................................................................43 Figure 2.67 In the same arch at Lindisfarne, viewed here from the chancel, the detail above the south jamb indicates that the wall stones are in a cantilevered disposition. Could they possibly be resting on voussoirs? ........................................43 Figure 2.68 The doorway high above the chancel arch at Lindisfarne as seen from the chancel. The door jamb stones are large and may be observed to be through stones .................................................................................................................44 Figure 2.69 The doorway above Lindisfarne chancel arch viewed from nave. The bedding orientations of the stones are regrettably too high and dark to be read. The stones in the jambs give an Escomb style appearance.................................44 Figure 2.70 St Peter and St Paul, Longhoughton (NU 243 151) as seen from the south is illustrated in this sketch dated 1836......................................................................................................................................................................................44 Figure 2.71 Again viewed from the south, this modern picture of Longhoughton church can be compared with Figure 2.70. The two towers are of comparable height and a ground floor window has been added since 1836 ....................................44 Figure 2.72 The north wall of both part of the tower and the nave of Longhoughton church are illustrated. Viewed from the north-west, walling of different ages is shown. The rubble walling is in this instance probably medieval, that in the tower Romanesque and that higher in the nave Victorian. The lower part of a north nave doorway (arrow) can be seen............45 Figure 2.73 In the ground floor of the tower of Longhoughton church on the south, west and north walls are narrow windows. This is the window on the north wall. Romanesque in form, from the appearance of the stonework it is likely to be Victorian ..........................................................................................................................................................................45 Figure 2.74 Longhouhton church is here viewed from the south-east. The east wall of the tower carries the marks of a number of different nave roof levels ....................................................................................................................................46 Figure 2.75 The chancel arch at Longhoughton church viewed from the west. The weep of the chancel to the north is marked..................................................................................................................................................................................46 Figure 2.76 The same chancel arch viewed from the east. Note the hagioscope to the south of the arch. On the east face of the arch more stones appear to be original...........................................................................................................................47 Figure 2.77 The underside of the Longhoughton chancel arch, viewed from the east side to show the arch Romanesque structure................................................................................................................................................................................47 Figure 2.78 A view of the east end of the nave and the apsidal chancel of Holy Trinity church, Old Bewick (NU 067 222), from the north ......................................................................................................................................................................47 Figure 2.79 The inside of Old Bewick church as viewed from the nave towards the apsidal chancel sanctuary ...............48 Figure 2.80 The lower part of the north-west nave quoin at Old Bewick church. The lowest five stones above the plinth read: BH; BVFR; ?BH; BH; BVFL (oblique) .....................................................................................................................48 Figure 2.81 The south-west quoin at Old Bewick also shows Patterned characteristics. There is a sudden change in stone insertion style (to face-alternate) above stone 9 ..................................................................................................................48 Figure 2.82 The external view of the apse at Old Bewick as observed from the north-east. Note the bell-cote is placed at the east end of the nave, and the church, as is so frequently the case, is covered in lichen ................................................49 Figure 2.83 Ovingham church (NZ 085 637), viewed here from the south-west. The tall Anglo-Saxon tower is dominant in the view ................................................................................................................................................................................49 Figure 2.84 The present author points out the obvious BH quoin stone in the lower stones of the north-west quoin of the tower at Ovingham. The first six stones rise BH; BVFL; BH; BVFL; BVFR; BVFL ........................................................50 Figure 2.85 The double belfry window and surrounding strip-work in the south face of Ovingham church tower. Scrutiny of the stonework of these structures by means of binoculars indicates that all the stones used are either placed BVFIA or xiv

LIST OF FIGURES

BH, clear indication that they are of Patterned, Anglo-Saxon build. Below the belfry there is a doorway which opens into space.....................................................................................................................................................................................50 Figure 2.86 The north face of the tower at Ovingham church at belfry level, is similar to that in the south ......................50 Figure 2.87 As is Ovingham church west face belfry window ............................................................................................50 Figure 2.88 Below the west face belfry window at Ovingham church (Figure 2.87), this round-headed window lights the first floor. The jambs to this window are only created in BVFIA/BH stones, typical of Anglo-Saxon work......................51 Figure 2.89 The north-west nave quoin is barely visible for it is virtually hidden by the buttress which appears relatively modern (The nave quoin is seen and arrowed to the left of the buttress at a high level where the buttress is less pronounced). This quoin shows no bedding orientations other than BH and is not Anglo-Saxon ............................................................51 Figure 2.90 Viewed from the north-west St Mary the Virgin, Stamfordham (NZ 076 720) can be seen to stand above a lowlying area once thought to have been occupied by a lake ....................................................................................................52 Figure 2.91 Within Stamfordham church tower the faint outline of an Anglo-Saxon or early Norman round-headed west doorway exists (arrows) .......................................................................................................................................................52 Figure 2.92 The south wall of Stamfordham church tower displays lancet windows which although displaying 13th C. heads could have been modified from earlier Norman work. The base of the tower on this face shows Victorian rebuilding which may also be observed on the south aisle walls (right) ...............................................................................................52 Figure 2.93 Stamfordham church is viewed here from the north-east .................................................................................53 Figure 2.94 A view from the east towards the west nave doorway at Stamfordham church. Both arcades show evidence of Victorian reconstruction .......................................................................................................................................................53 Figure 2.95 The limited view (arrow) of the south-west nave quoin at Stamfordham, which reveals evidence of AngloSaxon stonework ..................................................................................................................................................................54 Figure 2.96 A view of Warden, St Michael and All Angels church (NY 913 664) from the west to show the tower, and below the belfry the single window in the west wall which is likely to be of Norman build ........................................................54 Figure 2.97 The lower portion of the south wall of the tower at Warden church. The stonework of the window suggests that it is Norman. In the foreground an early (probably 11th C.) cross head has been erected ..................................................55 Figure 2.98 The detail of the foot of the north-west nave quoin and its plinth at Warden church. The west wall of the tower is to the right ........................................................................................................................................................................55 Figure 2.99 St Bartholomew, Whittingham (NU 066 119) viewed for the west- south-west to display the south-west nave quoin of both the nave and tower .........................................................................................................................................56 Figure 2.100 The north-west quoin to the Whittingham church tower may be seen in this view from the north-west.......56 Figure 2.101 The north-west tower quoin at Whittingham church in this view is somewhat enlarged...............................56 Figure 2.102 The detail of stones 6 to 9 inclusive from the same north-west tower quoin (BH, BVFL, BH, BVFR) at Whittingham are now visible ...............................................................................................................................................57 Figure 2.103 The tower arch of Whittingham church viewed from the south-east .............................................................57 Figure 2.104 The lower stones from the south jamb (stones 1 to 6) of the Whittingham tower arch are here enlarged .....57 Figure 2.105 At Whittingham tower arch the north jamb stones (1 to 7) can be seen more clearly. ...................................58 Figure 2.106 St Mary the Virgin, Woodhorn (NZ 301 888) is viewed here from the south-east ........................................58 Figure 2.107 The lower portion of the south-west nave quoin of Woodhorn church viewed from the west.......................59 xv

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 2.108 The angle between the tower south wall and the aisle west wall at Woodhorn church in which the nave quoin is exposed .............................................................................................................................................................................59 Figure 2.109 The exterior of the north door of the ruined hospice chapel of St Leonard, Alnwick (NU 187 144) ............60 Figure 2.110 St Aidan Church, Bamburgh (NU 178 349). viewed from the south- east reveals nothing of its 7th C. foundation. The nave is of late 12th C. date, and appears to represent the earliest portion of the present church ..............60 Figure 2.111 The ruined Guyzance chapel (NU 208 032) occurs within an 18th C. walled graveyard. The chapel is here viewed from the south-west .................................................................................................................................................61 Figure 2.112 The south door to the chancel at Guyzance. Through the south door the blocked north door to the chancel may be viewed .............................................................................................................................................................................61 Figure 2.113 Haughton Castle chapel (NY 920 727) set in the grounds of the private castle is seen here from the west. The standing stonework reveals little evidence of the chapel’s date of construction .................................................................62 Figure 2.114 St Michael and All Angels, Newburn (NZ 167 654) in recent years suffered a serious fire. Now repaired it is seen here from the south ......................................................................................................................................................63 Figure 2.115 The west tower of Newburn church in which the stonework below the first string course, from the limited evidence available, is thought to be of Norman construction ..............................................................................................63 Figure 2.116 The blocked and modified west doorway to the west tower at Newburn, despite its megalithic jamb stones, provides no evidence from its stonework of a pre-Norman age ..........................................................................................64 Figure 2.117 A very thin strip of the south-east nave quoin (arrow) at Newburn church. This occurs between the south transept (left) and the chancel. It no longer aligns with the present termination of the east end of the nave which has recently been rebuilt. There are suggestions that it represents a portion of an Anglo-Saxon nave and this could be confirmed with cleaning of the stonework ....................................................................................................................................................64 Figure 2.118 A view of St Cuthbert church, Norham (NT 897 474) from the south. The church is largely built of a mixture of Norman and Victorian stonework ....................................................................................................................................65 Figure 2.119 The south nave wall at Norham church, although Norman in style, exhibits many of the characteristics of typical Victorian workmanship ............................................................................................................................................65 Figure 2.120 Rusticated and feathered stones in Norham church south nave wall .............................................................65 Figure 2.121 Seaton Delaval, church of Our Lady (NZ 323 764), is seen here from the south. The porch (left) was added in 1895. Note that the nave wall below the lancet windows is of a different, and less well coursed sandstone .....................66 Figure 2.122 The north-west view of Seaton Delaval church. A blocked window in the north nave wall (arrow), which some have suggested might be Anglo- Saxon, would appear to possess BH jambs .....................................................................66 Figure 2.123 Further detail of the south nave wall at Seaton Delaval church. With most of the church displaying characteristic Norman coursework it is tempting to suggest that the lower portion of the wall may be of Anglo-Saxon origin. Unfortunately, the southern nave quoins (all apparently BH) fail to support this view ...........................................67 Figure 2.124 The north-west nave quoin and the blocked window (arrow) seen in Figure 2.122 ......................................67 Figure 2.125 The site of Tynemouth priory (NZ 375 694) viewed from the south. The buildings seen here were originally built in the 13th C ................................................................................................................................................................68 Figure 2.126 The Tynemouth site viewed from the nave towards the east end of the chancel............................................68 Figure 2.127 This east-facing wall at Tynemouth priory (in the area of the north- east nave), possesses unusual course work. The majority of the stones are laid in orthodox BH style, but the third course is distinctively set edgewise and BV. This is not a style typically followed in any early period ................................................................................................................69

xvi

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.128 The ruins of Holy Cross church, Wallsend (NZ 305 673) are thought to preserve the remains of a church built in the mid-12th C. The ruins are viewed from the east end of the chancel..........................................................................69 Figure 2.129 Wallsend, Holy Cross ruins are seen here from the south-west. The porch area (foreground) was consolidated in 1909 .................................................................................................................................................................................70 Figure 2.130 The Norman south door to the ruins of Holy Cross church, Wallsend. The remains of the north doorway to the nave can be seen opposing the south entrance .....................................................................................................................70 Figure 2.131 A geological map of Northumberland (and part of Durham) indicating a number of the localities where churches have been described ..............................................................................................................................................71 Figure 3.1 Figure 2.20 from this Monograph Part A is shown here to illustrate the significance of different bed rocks on the creation and preservation of Anglo-Saxon buildings. Controlling factors, which include population numbers influenced in part by altitude (the 600ft.- 183m. contour) and rock suitability, are shown. Note: the area of soft and unsuitable Triassic rocks. ....................................................................................................................................................................................72 Figure 3.2 Southwell Minster, although as a building only dating from Romanesque times, preserves in the west wall of the north transept an ancient tympanum (now on the door to the stair turret). Centre and right is St Michael fighting with the dragon ..................................................................................................................................................................................72 Figure 3.3 Carlton-in-Lindrick church (SK 588 839) is here viewed from the north-east. The blocked north window in the north chancel wall is probably of Norman age ....................................................................................................................73 Figure 3.4 The tower of Carlton-in-Lindrick church, here viewed from the south, from where the different Permian Magnesian Limestone wall fabrics may be examined. Those in the lowest stage are thought to be Anglo- Saxon............73 Figure 3.5 The west face of the tower of Carlton-in-Lindrick church. The lower belfry window is too high to confirm the age of the stonework. The west doorway was transferred from the nave wall in 1831, which is thought to be about the date when the tower buttresses were built ...................................................................................................................................74 Figure 3.6 Carlton-in-Lindrick church from the south-east .................................................................................................74 Figure 3.7 The north-west nave quoin at Carlton-in-Lindrick. To the right the tower north wall shows a contact which reveals that the nave is the older. To the left the Norman north aisle west wall is shown ...................................................75 Figure 3.8 The original west nave doorway to Carlton-in-Lindrick church differs in the construction of its west (original exterior) and east faces. The west face still preserves its Anglo-Saxon features (see for instance the impost and how it is different from those in the east face .....................................................................................................................................75 Figure 3.9 The east face of the west nave doorway to Carlton-in-Lindrick church was modified in Romanesque times...75 Figure 3.10 The church of St Peter, East Bridgford (SK 691 431) is here viewed from the south-west .............................76 Figure 3.11 The west end of the south wall of the chancel of East Bridgford church. Both the west window and the door have been significantly altered. Measurements of the wall indicate that none of the wall fabric changes can be related to those made by Hill (1916)....................................................................................................................................................77 Figure 3.12 The interior of the south chancel wall seen in Figure 3.11. The west window (next to the chancel arch) was once a doorway, the external ‘doorway’, now blocked, was once taller, and above it is the trace of the head of a window not visible externally ............................................................................................................................................................77 Figure 3.13 East Bridgford church is considered to be Anglo-Saxon only on the merits of wall foundations below the present floors. However, these few stones have been regarded as representing the south-east nave quoin seen from the south-east from the exterior of the building (see text) .........................................................................................................77 Figure 3.14 Southwell minster (cathedral) (SK 702 537) viewed from the west to show its famous twin towers and its relatively modern ‘Perpendicular’ style west window .........................................................................................................78

xvii

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 3.15 Viewed from the north-west, the Southwell cathedral Norman central tower can be seen to be of the same lateral dimensions as each of the widths of the crossing arms, in Post-Conquest style ......................................................78 Figure 3.16 Southwell cathedral interior seen from the north-west end of the nave to show the Romanesque south nave wall.......................................................................................................................................................................................78 Figure 3.17 The remains of the church of St Helen at South Wheatley (SK 766 856) much of which was taken down in 1883. Viewed from the south-east they show the chancel arch and the tower ....................................................................79 Figure 3.18 The lower part of South Wheatley church tower viewed from the east. The tower arch appears to be of 14th C. age ........................................................................................................................................................................................79 Figure 3.19 The Norman chancel arch of South Wheatley church viewed from the west. Most of the chancel arch is constructed of Triassic fine grained green sandstone the jambs are built of a Middle Jurassic bioclastic oolitic limestone .......................................................................................................................................................................79 Figure 3.20 The chancel arch outer jamb stones at South Wheatley are large with just two stones for each jamb, set in Romanesque style BVEIA ...................................................................................................................................................80 Figure 4.1 The south side of the church of Holy Cross, Ilam (SK 133 507) is displayed in this view. In the foreground, the pointed stone is one of two ornamented Anglo-Saxon cross-shafts in the graveyard .........................................................81 Figure 4.2 A Norman cauldron-shaped font in Ilam church is interesting for its unusual carvings, described as ‘barbaric figures and beasts’ ................................................................................................................................................................82 Figure 4.3 A second carved panel from the Ilam church font ..............................................................................................82 Figure 4.4 The blocked doorway on the south nave wall to Ilam church. Windows cut the voussoirs of part of the doorway but the jamb stones are set to a Patterned Anglo-Saxon style..............................................................................................82 Figure 4.5 Lichfield Cathedral (SK 116 097) is built of Triassic Sherwood Sandstone and is viewed here from the northwest. It is the only cathedral in the United Kingdom with three spires ...............................................................................83 Figure 4.6 Lichfield Cathedral is viewed here from the south-east .....................................................................................83 Figure 4.7 The west end of the church of St Mary, Stafford (SJ 921 232). In the foreground the outline of the church of St Bertelin is marked out on the grass. This one-time Anglo-Saxon church was demolished in 1801, and its outline reexcavated in 1956. In 1801 the two churches had a shared communicating doorway ........................................................84 Figure 4.8 The outline of the plan of the church of St Bertelin, Stafford. Only a chancel and a nave were discovered in the 1954-1956 excavations ........................................................................................................................................................84 Figure 4.9 The plaque raised in 1956 describing the result of the excavation of St Bertelin church ..................................85 Figure 4.10 St Editha, Tamworth (SK 206 041) viewed from the south-east. With earlier churches destroyed, this is the fourth church constructed on the site ...................................................................................................................................85 Figure 4.11 Two building stones predominate in Tamworth church, red Triassic Sandstones and, as in the tower (left), greybuff-yellow Coal Measure Sandstones ................................................................................................................................86 Figure 4.12 The much-buttressed south walls of St Editha, Tamworth ...............................................................................86 Figure 4.13 ‘Victorian’ rustication markings on one of the buttresses displayed in Figure 4.12 ........................................86 Figure 5.1 St Michael Bongate church, Appleby (NY 688 199) viewed from the south-east .............................................87 Figure 5.2 Appleby, St Michael Bongate, seen here from the north-east, is now a private residence. The church is built of red Permian Penrith Sandstone ............................................................................................................................................88

xviii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 5.3 The north door to the nave of St Michael Bongate church seen from the exterior. The doorway has been blocked and filled in Victorian times with a small window. The outline of a hogback stone may be seen acting as the lintel ........88 Figure 5.4 An internal view of the upper portion of the north nave doorway at St Michael Bongate. Plait-work carving on the lintel stone which is an Anglo-Saxon hogback can be observed ...................................................................................89 Figure 5.5 The whole of the interior of the north nave doorway to Appleby church to enable the proportions to be observed ...............................................................................................................................................................................89 Figure 5.6 A view from the north-east of the church of St Andrew, Crosby Garrett (NY 729 097) ....................................90 Figure 5.7 A different perspective of Crosby Garrett church as seen in this instance from the south-east .........................90 Figure 5.8 Two different generations of chancel arch are present in this view of Crosby Garrett. Viewed from the east, above the existing pointed arch, much narrower and off-set to the left are the remnants of an earlier arch (arrow) which has typical Anglo-Saxon proportions .........................................................................................................................................91 Figure 5.9 This hagioscope at Crosby Garrett church was introduced when the chancel was lengthened in the 14th C. To obtain the best angle for vision purposes it actually cuts through both a little of the north-east nave quoin and the splay of a window ..............................................................................................................................................................................91 Figure 5.10 View of Long Marton church (NY 666 240) from the south-east ....................................................................92 Figure 5.11 From the north Long Marton church shows the north-west nave quoin, the short nave extension to the west which provided the lowest portion to stairs, and the west tower .........................................................................................92 Figure 5.12 The lower portion of the south-west nave quoin at Long Marton. The tower and its plinth (left) abut against the earlier nave and its plinth .....................................................................................................................................................93 Figure 5.13 Long Marton church north-east nave quoin appears over its highest stones to be in long and short style, but is far less convincing when interpretation from the stone orientation is read .........................................................................93 Figure 5.14 Difficult to take in gloom, this picture of Long Marton church south doorway is here viewed from inside the church...................................................................................................................................................................................93 Figure 5.15 The same south doorway at Long Marton viewed from the outside. Through the church the blocked north doorway is visible ................................................................................................................................................................93 Figure 5.16 In this oblique lighting something of the south doorway tympanum detail at Long Marton can be seen .......94 Figure 5.17 The west nave doorway at Long Marton church when viewed from the outside, that is from within the tower, also possesses a tympanum and the top two stones are sculptured in similar creatures to those in the south door tympanum. It has recently been proposed that this tympanum was discovered elsewhere when building work was undertaken on site in the 19th C .............................................................................................................................................................................94 Figure 5.18 Detail of Figure 5.17 under oblique light at Long Marton church ...................................................................94 Figure 5.19 At about table top height and this east side of the west door rebate, the hole for a bar lock is visible (arrow) on the south side of the door at Long Marton. It proves to be about 1.2m. deep and is presumed to be of Anglo-Saxon origin 94 Figure 5.20 A south chancel wall buttress at Long Marton church can be readily identified as of ‘Victorian’ origin by the rustication of certain stones .................................................................................................................................................95 Figure 5.21 St Laurence, Morland (NY 598 225) is viewed here from the west- south-west .............................................95 Figure 5.22 The tower of Morland church observed from the south. The south belfry windows, the string course and the tower south-west quoin can be seen.....................................................................................................................................96

xix

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 5.23 The west face of the Morland church tower, the face-alternate style of the north-west nave quoin should be noted together with its relationship with courses of stones on the wall face .......................................................................96 Figure 5.24 Morland church tower above its string course viewed from the south- east. Above the string no obvious break or breaks in the stonework detail could be observed ...........................................................................................................96 Figure 5.25 The ground floor, north window from inside the Morland church tower. Note that the window lacks internal splay .....................................................................................................................................................................................97 Figure 5.26 The east door to the tower at Morland church as viewed from the nave. From the tower the nave floor is reached by means of steps .................................................................................................................................................................97 Figure 5.27 From within the Morland church tower, a bar lock hole is visible in the north jamb (arrow), this inside in turn, the door and its rebate ..........................................................................................................................................................97 Figure 5.28 Between the south wall of the Morland church tower and the west wall of the south aisle is a short length of what might be the south- west nave quoin ...........................................................................................................................98 Figure 5.29 The south walls of Ormside church (NY 701 176) are present in this view ....................................................99 Figure 5.30 The south wall of the Ormside church nave is constructed of large cobbles obtained from a river bed. Walls of this type of construction are frequently of Anglo-Saxon age ..............................................................................................99 Figure 5.31 Wall cobbles have been displaced to insert this south nave doorway at Ormside church. BVEIA and BH orientated stones have been used to create the doorway. Together with this style of ornamentation other characteristics suggest that this doorway is of early Norman age .............................................................................................................100 Figure 5.32 The west face of the nave inside the Ormside church reveals little of the structure of the doorway because of plaster covering; therefore, the doorway cannot be readily dated. Note the higher blocked doorway ..............................100 Figure 5.33 At the north-west corner of the nave walling relationships are complicated. The nave wall is constructed of large cobbles as in the south nave wall. Immediately below the end of the roof the wall terminates with a quoin (follow the line of the arrow). This was originally side-alternate and Patterned but tied into it is a further wall, thought to be the one used to support the bell-cote. The north wall of the tower follows to the west .................................................................100 Figure 5.34 The tower of Ormside church taken to show the west wall windows. The tower has a saddle-back roof .....101 Figure 5.35 A view of Appleby, St Lawrence (NY 683 204) as it is approached from the south. The porch dates to the 13th C.................................................................................................................................................................................101 Figure 6.1 The church of St Bartholomew, Aldbrough (TA 244 387) in the East Riding of Yorkshire, as viewed from the south-east ...........................................................................................................................................................................102 Figure 6.2 Seen high in the east wall of the chancel of Aldbrough church is the remnant of the early chancel north-east quoin, The original quoin was built of Liassic muddy limestone (darker as viewed) and these stones preserve a Patterned style. The varied cobbles in the east walls of the chancel and north-east aisle are discussed in the church description...103 Figure 6.3 The inscribed Anglo-Saxon sundial at Aldbrough church as observed on the south wall of the south arcade. It provides a building date for the church of about (or prior to) 1060 ..................................................................................103 Figure 6.4 A sculptured monolithic head stone from an early narrow window on the south chancel wall of Aldbrough church. Its preservation in Middle Jurassic limestone at this site suggests that it is likely to be of Norman construction .................103 Figure 6.5 The Early English priest’s doorway in the chancel of Aldbrough church, ornamented with earlier Norman work in Middle Jurassic limestone..............................................................................................................................................104 Figure 6.6 All Saints church, Appleton-le-Street (SE 733 736) is seen here from the south .............................................104 Figure 6.7 The west tower of Appleton-le-Street church from the south-east. The south-west quoin and the blocked south doorway of the tower are of particular interest ..................................................................................................................105 xx

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 6.8 A closer view of the west tower at Appleton-le-Street. Note the early nave roof line on the east tower wall .105 Figure 6.9 The belfries seen on the west wall of the tower at Appleton-le-Street church. Described in the text, the higher apertures appear to be Norman in construction .................................................................................................................105 Figure 6.10 The blocked doorway on the south wall of Appleton-le-Street tower must have originally opened to space. Although Anglo-Saxon in appearance the jamb stones were unfortunately too high to be read .......................................105 Figure 6.11 Norman in appearance, the stonework on the jambs of Appleton-le- Street tower arch proved unreadable without cleaning. The arch is thought to have replaced a narrower Anglo-Saxon predecessor ........................................106 Figure 6.12 Viewed from the north the arrowed north-west nave quoin (the nearer quoin is of the north aisle) of Appletonle-Street church proves to be Anglo-Saxon. The north porch to the tower is on the right.................................................106 Figure 6.13 The face of BVFL stone 4 in the north-west nave quoin in Figure 6.12 proves to be littered with fossils which include small specimens of Ostrea spp ..............................................................................................................................106 Figure 6.14 A general view of the nave, chancel and arcades at Appleton-le-Street church as seen from the west..........106 Figure 6.15 This plaque on the north wall of the tower above the porch at Appleton- le-Street church is thought to date from the 13th C ...........................................................................................................................................................................107 Figure 6.16 All Hallows church, Bardsey (SE 366 432) is viewed here from the north-west. The west ends of the aisle walls align with that of the tower ................................................................................................................................................107 Figure 6.17 The importance of the lighting is well shown between this view and that of Figure 6.16. Here, the quoin stones and the arrowed roof line of the early west porch are visible at the base of the tower ......................................................108 Figure 6.18 The lowest five stones of the south-west quoin of the early porch at Bardsey are illustrated. The light is not suitable enough, however, to clearly display their orientations .........................................................................................108 Figure 6.19 The north-west tower quoin at Bardsey church displays Anglo-Saxon Patterned characteristics (see text for details). The tower west wall, however, has been rebuilt (note the joggling of the stonework against the quoin) and the window is a later insertion .................................................................................................................................................108 Figure 6.20 The south wall of Bardsey church tower showing windows at both belfry levels as well as a lower, single window. All readable window jambs appear to be set BH and no Anglo-Saxon characteristics are present ....................109 Figure 6.21 The north porch door to the church tower at Bardsey may have once provided entrance to a porticus. The equivalent south doorway can be seen through the north doorway. The north doorway reveals Patterned stonework but the window above has all jamb stones BH ..............................................................................................................................109 Figure 6.22 The north-west nave quoin at Bardsey (viewed from the north-west) is partially hidden by ladders, etc., but the large sandstone blocks, despite plaster cover, reveal Anglo-Saxon orientations ...............................................................109 Figure 6.23 The south-west nave quoin viewed from the south-west proved to be too plaster covered and poorly exposed to provide stone orientations ..............................................................................................................................................109 Figure 6.24 The south face of the Bardsey nave south-east quoin (arrow) can be seen from the south (Bingley) chapel. To its right (east) a low trefoiled lancet window on the south once external wall of the chancel built about 1325 permitted those unable to enter the church to participate in the Services and to receive the sacrament ..................................................... 110 Figure 6.25 Viewed from the south-east, the church of St Gregory, Bedale (SE 265 884) reveals nothing of its early origin .................................................................................................................................................................................. 110 Figure 6.26 Bedale church like so many in Yorkshire possesses a number of early sculptured stones. Anglo-Saxon knotwork is displayed on this block which lies in the south aisle...................................................................................................... 111 Figure 6.27 Within the vestry at Bedale church a trace of the original north-east quoin of the early nave can be identified, although it is covered in wall plaster ................................................................................................................................. 111 xxi

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 6.28 Above the ‘Victorian’ chancel arch at Bedale church is a doorway once used for communication between the higher levels of nave and chancel. Unfortunately, the jamb stone orientations could not be read .................................... 111 Figure 6.29 Figure 6.29 The narrow doorway between the tower and the upper levels of the south porch at Bedale church looks highly innocuous. That it hides a portcullis is certainly not obvious ....................................................................... 112 Figure 6.30 The groove (arrow) in which the portcullis once existed at Bedale church. In operation, the portcullis would have barred the access to the higher levels of the church .................................................................................................. 112 Figure 6.31 The bar lock hole in the east jamb of the doorway between the porch and the tower at Bedale church ........ 112 Figure 6.32 Bulmer church (SE 699 676) from the north; principally showing the nave. The blocked north door and the two blocked arcade arches to a one-time north chapel/aisle are also visible ............................................................................ 113 Figure 6.33 The western monosplay window on the south wall of the nave at Bulmer church. No bedding stone orientations on this window could be confirmed ................................................................................................................................... 113 Figure 6.34 The interior of one of the three remaining monosplay narrow windows at Bulmer church to show its one AngloSaxon feature described despite the presence of wall plaster ............................................................................................ 114 Figure 6.35 The north nave door to St Martin, Bulmer which is now blocked. None of the jamb stones proved readable... 114 Figure 6.36 A view of the north nave doorway at Bulmer church from the west- north-west, to also show the north nave wall..................................................................................................................................................................................... 114 Figure 6.37 St Helen, Burghwallis (SE 537 120) is here observed from the south. The east end of the chancel is excluded from the view ..................................................................................................................................................................... 115 Figure 6.38 Burgwallis church viewed from the north-east. A churchwarden kindly models outside the ‘Victorian’ vestry (chapel) constructed of Magnesian Limestone squared blocks ......................................................................................... 115 Figure 6.39 Showing the south face of Burghwallis chancel and the south-east nave quoin. Note the absence of the herringbone work at the east end of the chancel and the inference, therefore, that the chancel has been rebuilt and slightly extended at the east end, probably re-using the original quoin stones............................................................................... 116 Figure 6.40 Detail of the first six stones in the south-east nave quoin at Burghwallis church. Stones 1 and 5 are of sandstone (stone 5 unusually dark in colour) ..................................................................................................................................... 116 Figure 6.41 The south-west nave quoin at Burghwallis (to the left the tower, to the right the porch). Stone 7 is the top red sandstone and stone 1 has been repaired on the south face ............................................................................................... 117 Figure 6.42 St Oswald, Collingham (SE 390 460) is seen here from the south-east ......................................................... 118 Figure 6.43 A late evening view from the south-west of Collingham church ................................................................... 118 Figure 6.44 The first five stones seen in the south-west nave quoin of Collingham church. They rise; BVFL, BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, BVFL; although the last of these has been virtually replaced by a tie stone from the adjoining buttress on the right .................................................................................................................................................................................... 119 Figure 6.45 The lower portion of the south-east nave quoin (arrowed) at Collingham church. Abutting from the left is a Victorian buttress, to the right the wall of the chancel ...................................................................................................... 119 Figure 6.46 Viewed from the south, St Hilda, Ellerburn (SE 842 842), completed in Corallian, Upper Jurassic sandstone, with its high level nave windows, might be mistaken as a house ......................................................................................120 Figure 6.47 Ellerburn Church is here viewed from the south-east. The blocked priest’s door to the chancel can be seen ....120 Figure 6.48 From the north-west, the unattractive buttressed bell-cote and the relatively modern vestry to the church of St Hilda are visible .................................................................................................................................................................121

xxii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 6.49 The east end of the nave of Ellerburn church, viewed from the south, displays the trace of an arcade arch of a prior south chapel, a window now built into the blocked space. The ‘drip course’, inserted above the wall plinth noticeably terminates at this point. The south-east nave quoin has been rebuilt.................................................................................121 Figure 6.50 The south chancel wall at St Hilda church, Ellerburn ....................................................................................122 Figure 6.51 Detail of the lowest stones of the south-east chancel quoin at Ellerburn church. The plinth stones have what appears to be a later ‘drip course’ inserted above them. The quoin then rises in Anglo-Saxon Patterned style; BVFL, BVFR, BH, BH, BVFL ..................................................................................................................................................................122 Figure 6.52 The Ellerburn church reconstructed chancel arch as viewed from the west. The following figures show the early jamb details ........................................................................................................................................................................122 Figure 6.53 The details of the south jamb ornamentation to the chancel arch at Ellerburn church...................................122 Figure 6.54 The ornamentation to the north chancel arch jamb, seen from the south-west is similar to that in Figure 6.53 ..............................................................................................................................................................................122 Figure 6.55 Gilling West, church of St Agatha (NZ 182 052), is viewed here from the south-west .................................123 Figure 6.56 The north-west Anglo-Saxon tower quoin at Gilling West church. The first eight quoin stones are shown ..124 Figure 6.57 The south-west tower quoin at Gilling West also shows its Anglo- Saxon characteristics ............................124 Figure 6.58 The fragmentary south-east nave quoin at Gilling West church, partly covered in concrete, only a small part of the east quoin face is visible ..............................................................................................................................................124 Figure 6.59 St Peter, Hackness (SE 969 905) viewed here from the south-west...............................................................125 Figure 6.60 The interior of Hackness church viewed from the east to show the chancel arch and the tower arch beyond .... 126 Figure 6.61 The impost to the north jamb of Hackness church chancel arch has been dated to as early as 8th C. It may of course have been re-incorporated from elsewhere. Note the jamb stones are chamfered .................................................126 Figure 6.62 On the south wall of the chancel at Hackness church there are traces of two early blocked doorways, that to the west possesses jamb stones which indicates that it is probably Norman. A 15th C. date is normally given for the chancel. This portion of the walling looks older and it is perhaps appropriate to describe this length of wall as Norman.............126 Figure 6.63 Between the ornamental base to the tower and the south aisle it should be possible to just make out (arrow) a narrow piece of the Anglo-Saxon south-west nave quoin for Hackness church................................................................126 Figure 6.64 A view of St Oswald church, Hauxwell (SE 166 932) from the south- west .................................................127 Figure 6.65 Herringbone work on the south wall of the chancel of Hauxwell church and, partly in shadow, the south-east nave quoin. Note; the absence of the herringbone work in the upper portion of the chancel wall suggests that it has been rebuilt or raised ..................................................................................................................................................................128 Figure 6.66 Hauxwell church is here seen from the east-south-east. The somewhat bigger stones of the south-east quoin of the nave are visible.............................................................................................................................................................128 Figure 6.67 Hauxwell church possesses this unusual blocked nave north doorway. The lintel is created from an early decorated cross shaft ..........................................................................................................................................................129 Figure 6.68 Cutting the herringbone work at the east end of the north nave wall at Hauxwell the trace of at least one blocked doorway can be seen. Note that the herringbone decoration is also absent from the upper portion of this wall...............129 Figure 6.69 The church of St Mary the Virgin, Hornby (SE 222 937) as seen from the south .........................................129

xxiii

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 6.70 The south wall of the tower at Hornby church to show the south-west clasping buttress and the ‘Victorian’ south window .....................................................................................................................................................................130 Figure 6.71 The lower west wall of the Hornby tower, illustrating the west doorway and the clasping buttresses ..........130 Figure 6.72 The west belfry window in Hornby church tower. The jamb quoin stones are all apparently set BH ...........130 Figure 6.73 The Hornby tower west doorway viewed from the east and the interior proves to be tall and relatively narrow and of Anglo-Saxon shape. The jamb stones could not be read ........................................................................................131 Figure 6.74 The interior of the south doorway to the south aisle at Hornby church. The tall inner arch reflects an AngloSaxon shape but the jamb stones proved unreadable .........................................................................................................131 Figure 6.75 All Saints church, Hovingham (SE 666 757) is viewed here from the south-east .........................................132 Figure 6.76 Largish squared stones have been used to create the western quoins of Hovingham church. Here the first stage of the west wall of the tower reveals both western quoins, Note the cross above the doorway and to the right of the cross a window arch lintel in the quoin .........................................................................................................................................132 Figure 6.77 The stonework detail for the west doorway to the tower at Hovingham discloses how little of the doorway is original. Two Upper Jurassic rock types are involved, for instance, in the round angle shafts: that they are incorrectly orientated cannot be seen in the figure but it is obvious that they could be better colour co-ordinated ............................132 Figure 6.78 Viewed from the south-west the full height of the Hovingham tower is visible. High windows examined all tended to show alteration and repairs to make their date of first construction difficult to determine ................................133 Figure 6.79 The tower arch at Hovingham church seen from the south-east. The jamb stones tended to confirm its Norman construction ........................................................................................................................................................................133 Figure 6.80 A more distant view of the tower arch indicates that it has been cut straight through the west wall and could have possibly replaced an earlier smaller arch. Above the herringbone course a door exists somewhat off to the north (arrowed high right), which once permitted communication between the tower and nave at higher levels .....................133 Figure 6.81 As a reredos to the altar at Hovingham church stands this remarkable 9th C. carved panel, which initially was placed high in the south wall of the tower .........................................................................................................................134 Figure 6.82 A view of St Mary, Kippax (SE 417 303) from the south-east. The east wall of the tower displays evidence of a much higher, earlier nave roof line .................................................................................................................................134 Figure 6.83 A further view of the south side of Kippax church, the diagonal buttresses to the tower are very evident ...135 Figure 6.84 Herringbone work at Kippax church, showing the north-west nave quoin (left), the nave and the north tower, walls, all in Magnesian Limestone.....................................................................................................................................135 Figure 6.85 The south-west nave quoin to Kippax church. The lowest five stones are ‘Victorian’ cut dimension-stone replacements ......................................................................................................................................................................136 Figure 6.86 The south-east chancel quoin at Kippax church. The five stones shown are set to Patterned Anglo-Saxon style .............................................................................................................................................................................136 Figure 6.87 Little detail of the stonework of the tower arch at Kippax can be seen because of the thick wall plaster .....136 Figure 6.88 High on the north nave wall at Kippax church there are three partly modified Norman windows, this is the middle one. It appears to cut a part of the frame to an earlier window .............................................................................136 Figure 6.89 All Saints church, Kirby Hill (SE 393 686) seen from the south-west...........................................................137 Figure 6.90 Above the south porch at Kirby Hill church the early south-west quoin of the nave is visible. Just three whole stones, set BVFR, BVFL, BVFR can be seen....................................................................................................................138

xxiv

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 6.91 The rebuilt chancel of Kirby Hill church abuts the south-east nave quoin. The lowest stones of the nave quoin are shown rising; BH, BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, BVFL................................................................................138 Figure 6.92 The north-west nave quoin at Kirby Hill observed from the north aisle. The fire extinguisher is attached to the partially rebuilt quoin.........................................................................................................................................................138 Figure 6.93 The north-east nave quoin at Kirby Hill photographed from the north- west appears to be totally rebuilt ...139 Figure 6.94 The south-east chancel quoin at Kirby Hill is also set to the Patterned style. The lowest stones display; BH, BVFR, BH, BVFR, BH, BVFR, BVFL (with lewis hole), BH .........................................................................................139 Figure 6.95 Kirby Hill also has an Anglo-Saxon north-east chancel quoin here set against the north chapel. The stones seen rise; BH, ?, BVFL, BH, BVFL, BVFR, and from the dark sandstone, rebuilt wall above ................................................139 Figure 6.96 The south doorway to Kirby Hill church. This doorway has been built into an earlier doorway which was slightly more to the east. The position of the earlier ornamented impost is visible...........................................................139 Figure 6.97 Just to the east of the present doorway east jamb at Kirby Hill the jamb of an earlier doorway is visible, this is capped by the early ornamented impost (Figure 6.98) ......................................................................................................140 Figure 6.98 Detail of the early ornamented impost at Kirby Hill church. The decoration has been given a 9th C. date ..140 Figure 6.99 Although some voussoirs from the early south doorway at Kirby Hill are displayed on the external wall, these three voussoirs (arrowed) can be seen on the inside of the wall ........................................................................................140 Figure 6.100 Viewed from the south, All Saints church, Kirby Underdale (SE 808 585) is noticeably built, at its west tower end, into a depression. The depression in the ground could possibly have been created when extracting the stone to create the early church ..................................................................................................................................................................141 Figure 6.101 The detail of fragmentary ammonites in a block of muddy bioturbated oolitic limestone which occurs in the west wall of the vestry of Kirby Underdale church ...........................................................................................................141 Figure 6.101A provides an enlargement of an ammonite ..................................................................................................141 Figure 6.102 The Norman west doorway to the tower of Kirby Underdale church ..........................................................141 Figure 6.103 The tower arch to Kirby Underdale church is regarded as Norman .............................................................142 Figure 6.104 Viewed from the north-west the chancel arch at Kirby Underdale is believed to be Norman in age ..........142 Figure 6.105 Late Norman/Transitional arches of the north arcade can be seen to cut into earlier windows in the original north nave wall. This view is of Kirby Underdale church from the nave towards the north .............................................142 Figure 6.106 The lower portion of the Kirby Underdale tower, to show the north- west quoin and the west doorway ...142 Figure 6.107 Lichens on a quoin stone in the north aisle of Kirby Underdale church. Varieties of white, grey, green, yellow, red and orange lichen may be seen ....................................................................................................................................143 Figure 6.108 High above the tower arch an early doorway, now blocked, may be seen at Kirby Underdale. The jamb stones could not be read but their setting suggests that they may be Anglo-Saxon......................................................................143 Figure 6.109 The minster church of St Gregory, Kirkdale (SE 677 857) as observed from the south-west .....................143 Figure 6.110 The famous inscribed sundial which is dateable to about 1060 and occurs over the south door at Kirkdale church.................................................................................................................................................................................144 Figure 6.111 Detail of the Anglo-Saxon sundial at Kirkdale church. It is marked At 90 minute intervals .......................144 Figure 6.112 A sketch of Kirkdale church in 1821 by Rev. F.W.Powell prior to the building of the west tower in 1827. At the time, the west door was blocked and the west wall rendered ......................................................................................144 xxv

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 6.113 The Anglo-Saxon north-west nave quoin at Kirkdale church. The limestone blocks are picked out by white lichen and contrast with those of darker sandstone ...........................................................................................................144 Figure 6.114 Beneath the sundial at Kirkdale is the Norman south doorway which now provides the entrance to the church.................................................................................................................................................................................145 Figure 6.115 The inside of the nave west doorway at Kirkdale church viewed from the north-east. The detail of the visible south jamb is given in the text; the through stones are set to Anglo-Saxon style but other stones have been replaced, possibly in Norman times ..................................................................................................................................................145 Figure 6.116 Built into the east chancel wall of Kirkdale is this decorated sandstone, possibly part of an early crossshaft .............................................................................................................................................................................145 Figure 6.117 The church of St John the Baptist, Kirk Hammerton (SE 465 555) viewed from the south so that only the early buildings are visible, apart from (extreme right) the east end of the 19th C. chancel .......................................................146 Figure 6.118 The west tower of Kirk Hammerton church seen from the south- west. The tower is principally built of Carboniferous, Millstone Grit, some or all of which may be recycled from earlier Roman sites .....................................146 Figure 6.119 The lowest three stones (BVFR, BVFL, BVFR) seen in the south-west tower quoin at Kirk Hammerton church. Note that some adjustments (joggling) have been necessary to accommodate large stones inserted in the west face of the tower ........................................................................................................................................................................147 Figure 6.120 The lower part of the west face of the tower at Kirk Hammerton to illustrate the disturbance that has occurred in the walling about the west doorway ..............................................................................................................................147 Figure 6.121 The west doorway to the tower of Kirk Hammerton church ........................................................................147 Figure 6.122 The south belfry window in the tower of St John the Baptist church. In this, possibly only the imposts and the top jamb stones to west and east (set BVFIA) might be of Anglo-Saxon age ...................................................................148 Figure 6.123 The nave of Kirk Hammerton church preserves this south-east quoin, the orientation details of which are given in the text..................................................................................................................................................................148 Figure 6.124 Inside the church the lowest stones of the north-west nave quoin are visible (the second to the fourth stones particularly). Behind the quoin is the tower north wall .....................................................................................................148 Figure 6.125 The south doorway of the original nave to Kirk Hammerton church. The structure on the east side has been completely rebuilt and the most obvious Anglo-Saxon feature is evident in the BVFIA strip work on the west side ......149 Figure 6.126 The west jamb of the south nave doorway seen in Figure 6.125. Unfortunately these stones proved unreadable. The south-west nave quoin is also visible to its west ........................................................................................................149 Figure 6.127 The south jamb of the chancel arch as seen from the chancel of Kirk Hammerton church .........................149 Figure 6.128 The south-east chancel quoin at Kirk Hammerton and its first four stones (BH, BVFR, BVFL, BVFR) created in typical Anglo-Saxon style ..............................................................................................................................................149 Figure 6.129 The church of St Mary, Lastingham (SE 728 904) as observed from the south-west ..................................150 Figure 6.130 A general view of the chancel and apse of Lastingham church as viewed from the west ............................151 Figure 6.131 Lastingham church crypt as viewed from the entrance in the west ..............................................................151 Figure 6.132 The altar in the crypt at Lastingham church .................................................................................................151 Figure 6.133 Viewed from the south-east, All Saints church, Laughton-en-le- Morthen (SK 517 882) can be seen to be built of Permian Magnesian Limestone .....................................................................................................................................151

xxvi

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 6.134 The Laughton-en-le-Morthen porticus possessed an elaborate Anglo-Saxon doorway built of sandstone into which a medieval door, in Permian Magnesian Limestone was created............................................................................152 Figure 6.135 To the north of an earlier Anglo-Saxon west tower, Laughton-en-le-Morthen church is believed to have had a porch or porticus. The north-east quoin and north wall of this still survives, and here the north face of the quoin is visible, slightly overlapped by a relatively recent Magnesian Limestone buttress ........................................................................152 Figure 6.136 The elaborate head to the Laughton-en-le-Morthen Anglo-Saxon doorway in which the voussoirs, at three levels, were cut back for decorative purposes ...................................................................................................................153 Figure 6.137 A sketch of the Laughton-en-le-Morthen doorway on which the areas of decorative cut backs have been marked................................................................................................................................................................................153 Figure 6.138 Inside the porticus area of Laughton-en-le-Morthen church, few traces of the original work remain for the area has been converted. These door jambs might represent the interior of the medieval doorway .................................153 Figure 6.139 All Saints church, Ledsham (SE 456 297) is seen here from the south-east ................................................154 Figure 6.140 The south door to Ledsham church tower provides controversial arguments as to its date. The stonework BVFIA orientations provide definite evidence that it was built during the Anglo-Saxon period, but the spiral scroll work was apparently executed in the restorative work of 1871 ..................................................................................................155 Figure 6.141 Ledsham tower arch is viewed here from the nave. The window above is from the second floor of the original west porch into the nave. Unfortunately, the orientations of the window jamb stones proved impossible to read ...........155 Figure 6.142 Rising from above the flat roof of the Ledsham church boiler room the north-west nave quoin is evident (arrowed). To the left is the north aisle, and to the immediate right the boiler chimney ...................................................155 Figure 6.143 Above the north arcade to Ledsham church, fragments of early Anglo-Saxon windows may be seen. This, viewed from the nave, occurs above the first and second aches to the east. No stone orientations are discernible on the east jamb of this window arch...................................................................................................................................................156 Figure 6.144 The interior of the south wall of the nave and the south porticus at Ledsham church. Above the doorway, the outlining stones of a blocked problematical opening are visible. Questions to be answered are; is it from the second floor of the porticus? Is it a window, a door or part of the door below? And, how old is it? .....................................................156 Figure 6.145 The exterior of the doorway(s) shown in Figure 6.144. The questions posed might be partially answerable if the stone orientations could be read ...................................................................................................................................156 Figure 6.146 This unusual carved stone, thought to represent a Roman meat cleaver, occurs on the interior of the west nave wall of Ledsham church .....................................................................................................................................................157 Figure 6.147 St Mary the Virgin church, Masham (SE 236 806) is viewed here from the south ......................................157 Figure 6.148 Seen from the west Masham church tower, to as high as the third string course, is normally considered to be Romanesque .......................................................................................................................................................................158 Figure 6.149 The lower portion of a 9th C. round-shafted cross which may be observed just outside the porch to Masham church.................................................................................................................................................................................158 Figure 6.150 Part of the south-west nave quoin to Masham church is exposed. To the left, the south wall of the tower is shown, its sharp contact with the nave west wall revealing that it is younger than this nave wall. To the right, there is a chamfered extension to the nave wall, of uncertain age, before the south aisle west wall occurs ....................................158 Figure 6.151 The lower portion of Masham church north-west nave quoin. This quoin, to its north side, also displays an element of rebuilding prior to the construction of the present north aisle .........................................................................159 Figure 6.152 The south-east quoin to the nave of Masham church is also exposed. A number of tie stones created when the south aisle was built tend to disrupt the Anglo-Saxon quoin pattern .................................................................................159

xxvii

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 6.153 The west tower of Middleton-by-Pickering church (SE 782 854) is seen here from the south-west, The lower two-thirds of the tower possesses Anglo-Saxon Patterned quoins.....................................................................................159 Figure 6.154 The lowest six quoins stones exposed in Middleton-by-Pickering south-west quoin of the church tower are orientated BVFR, BVFL, BH, BVFL, BVFR, BH. The oblique markings on the lowest stone are caused by the bedding being slightly inclined to the vertical .................................................................................................................................160 Figure 6.155 Displayed are stones 1 (top only) to 5 of the north-west tower quoin at Middleton church. The bedding orientations of these stones are BVFL, BVFR, BH, BVFR, BVFL ..................................................................................160 Figure 6.156 The belfry of Middleton-by-Pickering church viewed from the south-east. The Anglo-Saxon quoins continue as high as the string course below the belfry. It is, therefore, possible to view the south-east quoin orientations. On the east tower wall an earlier high nave roof line can be seen ........................................................................................................160 Figure 6.157 Here the north-east higher tower quoin is shown to equate to the south-east in Figure 6.156.....................161 Figure 6.158 At the base of the west tower at Middleton church both the modified Anglo-Saxon doorway and the early cross above it are shown ....................................................................................................................................................161 Figure 6.159 The west doorway in Figure 6.158 preserves sufficient original Anglo-Saxon stonework to confirm the period of its construction...............................................................................................................................................................161 Figure 6.160 Between the north tower wall (right) and the north aisle at Middleton church two north-west nave quoins are preserved. The quoin adjacent to the tower wall pre-dates the building of the tower; that just under a metre away, still of Anglo-Saxon age, was erected subsequently .....................................................................................................................162 Figure 6.161 Monk Fryston, St Wilfred of Ripon church (SE 505 297) is built of Permian Magnesian limestone and here viewed from the south-east ................................................................................................................................................163 Figure 6.162 This sketch of Monk Fryston church from the south was probably undertaken about 1888. It is shown here by kind permission of the Lambeth Palace Library. Authors such as the Taylors (1965) were of the view that the lower tower belfry windows show Anglo- Saxon construction .............................................................................................................163 Figure 6.163 The lower belfry windows that are present in the east wall of the tower of Monk Fryston church are poorly visible above the tower arch ..............................................................................................................................................164 Figure 6.164 The tower arch of Monk Fryston church has been rebuilt and preserves no evidence of an earlier original opening...............................................................................................................................................................................164 Figure 6.165 Newton Kyme church (SE 466 449) as it appears when seen from the south..............................................165 Figure 6.166 A closer view of the east end of St Andrew, Newton Kyme church. The plinth below the eastern end of the chancel supports the suggestion that the chancel has been extended to the east. The small blocked window has jamb stones set BH.................................................................................................................................................................................165 Figure 6.167 The north-west nave quoin at Newton Kyme church viewed from the west. Much tied to the north aisle (see bottom stones), it possesses two Millstone Grit quoin stones, possible remnants from an early quoin ............................166 Figure 6.168 The gargoyles above the north-west quoin at Newton Kyme church...........................................................166 Figure 6.169 These BVFIA shafts on the western respond to the north arcade to the nave of Newton Kyme church, could indicate possibly an Anglo-Saxon date of construction .....................................................................................................166 Figure 6.170 Whereas these fragments of similar structures appear to have been attached to this respond on the arch between the chapel and the chancel at Newton Kyme church ...........................................................................................167 Figure 6.171 The porch and its tower which occurs on the south side of the nave to Old Byland, All Saints church (SE 551 859). The broad row of stones which extends to the left (west) and right of the springing of the door arch is ornamented with 12th C. Figures...........................................................................................................................................................167

xxviii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 6.172 The chancel arch to Old Byland church viewed from the west. Only the west face of the arch is ornamented ..................................................................................................................................................................168 Figure 6.173 Because the chancel to Old Byland church was extended towards the north, the east window of the chancel is not central. This modification is also visible within the church in Figure 6.172 ...............................................................168 Figure 6.174 Old Byland church is viewed here from the north-east ................................................................................168 Figure 6.175 Inverted, this inscribed Anglo-Saxon sandstone sundial is now placed on the east wall of the porch/tower at Old Byland .........................................................................................................................................................................169 Figure 6.176 The priest’s door on the south chancel wall at Old Byland has above it a narrower arch of voussoirs which appear to be the remnant of an earlier Anglo-Saxon doorway as is discussed in the text .................................................169 Figure 6.177 All Saints church, Otley (SE 201 454) is built of regular shaped and coursed blocks of Millstone Grit. The church is seen here from the north-east, with the north transept projecting from the main body of the church ...............170 Figure 6.178 The north-west nave quoin at Otley church, seen between the north aisle (left) and the tower (right). The tower’s added drip course turns north from the tower to enclose the lower part of the quoin. At the clerestory level the nave wall has been rebuilt and set-back .....................................................................................................................................170 Figure 6.179 The previous Figure viewed from the north to show the lined drainage trench which has also been built in front of the quoin ...............................................................................................................................................................170 Figure 6.180 Now viewed from the west the Otley church north-west quoin reveals the bedding orientations of the stones above the drip course .........................................................................................................................................................171 Figure 6.181 To the side of the Otley church tower an overturned cross shaft base can be seen. The cross shaft would have fitted into the hole ..............................................................................................................................................................171 Figure 6.182 The west face of Ripon cathedral (SE 313 711) beneath the crossing of which the remains of the early church of St Wilfred are believed to lie; of this, the crypt is visible .............................................................................................172 Figure 6.183 The crypt of the church of St Wilfred showing the main chamber within which relics were held, viewed from its entrance .........................................................................................................................................................................172 Figure 6.184 The Ripon crypt main chamber viewed from the west.................................................................................172 Figure 6.185 All Saints church, Ryther (SE 555 394) is viewed here from the south, to show in particular the south aisle .............................................................................................................................................................................173 Figure 6.186 Ryther church Anglo-Saxon chancel arch is seen from the west..................................................................174 Figure 6.187 Now observed from the east, the Anglo-Saxon chancel arch at Ryther reveals the differences between the imposts and between the first two voussoirs above the north and the south jambs. There is also the trace of an Anglo-Saxon cut back on the voussoirs ...................................................................................................................................................174 Figure 6.188 The north jamb to the Ryther chancel arch viewed from the south- west. The impost and the first two voussoirs are thought to have been replaced ......................................................................................................................................174 Figure 6.189 The south jamb to the same chancel arch viewed from the north- west. Also visible is the hagioscope from the south aisle and, standing vertically, an altar table ..............................................................................................................174 Figure 6.190 The south-east chancel quoin viewed from the east at Ryther church. The text explains why this quoin has been completely rebuilt ......................................................................................................................................................175 Figure 6.191 The same reconstructed south-east chancel quoin at Ryther now seen from the south. Quoin stones 1, 3, and 5 show lewis holes .............................................................................................................................................................175 Figure 6.192 The south walls of Scrayingham church (SE 730 604) display only the structures built in 1853................176 xxix

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 6.193 The north and west walls of the Scrayingham church are constructed of Millstone Grit apparently used originally in Roman buildings as indicated by the many stones which display lewis lifting holes. This example exhibited in the west wall ......................................................................................................................................................................176 Figure 6.194 Scrayingham church north nave wall, here viewed from the north- west, is built wholly of Upper Carboniferous, Millstone Grit .....................................................................................................................................................................176 Figure 6.195 The Scrayingham church north-west quoin which is constructed of large Millstone Grit quoin stones placed to Anglo-Saxon style ..........................................................................................................................................................177 Figure 6.196 Stones 3 to 5 of the Scrayingham church north-west quoin are set BVFL, BVFR, BVFL ..........................177 Figure 6.197 Scrayingham church north-east quoin is partly hidden by the drain pipe. Note the inclined roof marking top right ....................................................................................................................................................................................177 Figure 6.198 Two early blocked windows are visible on the north wall of the nave at Scrayingham church; this is the west window. The head is unusually created from three stones, the jamb stones show no typical Anglo-Saxon orientations and are lichen covered ..............................................................................................................................................................178 Figure 6.199 The blocked window at the east end of the north wall at Scrayingham. The three lintel stones are irregularly fitted to the jambs and evidence of Anglo-Saxon construction is absent ...........................................................................178 Figure 6.200 The church of St Helen, Skipwith (SE 657 385) is viewed here from the south-east ..................................179 Figure 6.201 Here the Skipwith church displays its tower as seen from the south-west ...................................................179 Figure 6.202 A closer view of the tower of Skipwith church tower in setting sunlight. The outer splays of the doublesplayed windows are shown well .......................................................................................................................................179 Figure 6.203 The tower arch at Skipwith church viewed from the south-east. The stonework suggests that much of the arch has been rebuilt ..................................................................................................................................................................180 Figure 6.204 Detail of the pilaster strips on the west side of the north jamb of Skipwith tower arch reveals their originality, in that they have a BVFIA setting ......................................................................................................................................180 Figure 6.205 High above the tower arch a blocked door from the upper floor of the first stage of Skipwith tower is evident. At that floor level, within the tower, a recess in the east wall is present; probably representing the position of an altar reredos or a rood as at certain other churches viewed by the author (Potter, 2006b, 201) ................................................181 Figure 6.206 Possible Anglo-Scandinavian early carvings on a stone within the wall on the inside of Skipwith tower ..181 Figure 6.207 Stonegrave church (SE 655 778) is viewed here from the south. All parts, but for the west tower, were rebuilt in 1863 ...............................................................................................................................................................................182 Figure 6.208 The lower portion of Stonegrave church west tower, showing the blocked west door and the western tower quoins. All stones in these features being orientated BH...................................................................................................182 Figure 6.209 The plastered walls of the western interior of Stonegrave church. The nave west door (now the tower arch), and the lower portion of a door from the tower to a chamber over the present nave, are seen here from the east............182 Figure 6.210 The west side of the west door to the nave at Stonegrave church. Regrettably it proved impossible to read the stonework orientations .......................................................................................................................................................183 Figure 6.211 Setting sun on the south-west corner of Terrington church (SE 671 707) emphasises the buttressed tower. It is said modern replacement sandstone in the tower came from Dunhouse Quarry, Co. Durham .........................................183 Figure 6.212 Herringbone work on the south nave wall of Terrington church. The wall is enclosed within the south chapel where illumination is restricted. The window is claimed to be original to the period of wall construction, although some possible stone joggling may be present .............................................................................................................................184

xxx

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 6.213 Figure 6.212 taken with flash photography and from a slightly different direction. The lintel to the monosplay window is built of what may be a large gravestone with ornamentation...........................................................................184 Figure 6.214 The same Terrington window viewed from the north of the original south nave wall to show its splay. There appear to have been some replacements to the visible stonework .....................................................................................184 Figure 6.215 Weaverthorpe church is viewed here from the south. Although most features of the west tower appear Romanesque, the external stair turret is much later in character and influences the position of the south belfry windows ......................................................................................................................................................................185 Figure 6.216 Invisible in the lighting available, the engraving on the sundial, set centrally in the tympanum above the early Norman south doorway at Weaverthorpe church, is thought to provide a date for the erection of the church (see text) ....185 Figure 6.217 The tower arch at Weaverthorpe is particularly tall but set into typical Norman walling. Above the arch a high level doorway can just be discerned ..................................................................................................................................186 Figure 6.218 The drum-shaped Norman font at Weaverthorpe church, set on a modern base, has interesting decoration....186 Figure 6.219 Wharram-le-Street church (SE 863 659) is here viewed from the south-west .............................................187 Figure 6.220 Evidence of Victorian (1862-1864) workmanship is seen in this south-east nave quoin stone with feathered edges at Wharram-le- Street church ...................................................................................................................................187 Figure 6.221 The west face of the tower at Wharram-le-Street showing the western Pattered quoins .............................187 Figure 6.222 The south face of Wharram-le-Street church tower. Note the pilasters which border the belfry windows..188 Figure 6.223 The west doorway to the tower of St Mary, Wharram-le-Street. The Anglo-Saxon characteristics of this doorway are described in the text ......................................................................................................................................188 Figure 6.224 The north impost to the west doorway of Wharram-le-Street tower displays a fragment (arrowed) of a fossil ammonite (Cardioceras sp.) ..............................................................................................................................................189 Figure 6.225 Wharram-le-Street tower south belfry windows are displayed. In these the encompassing pilaster strip has had its arching portion partly removed by the later parapet .....................................................................................................189 Figure 6.226 The narrow window providing light for the first floor from the south side of the tower at Wharram-le-Street. Although it proved impossible to read the stone orientations the window appears to be original to the wall (see text)...189 Figure 6.227 The tower arch in Wharram-le Street church viewed from the south-east. The decorative shafts are placed BVFIA................................................................................................................................................................................189 Figure 6.228 The south-west nave wall at Wharram-le-Street, when rebuilt in the mid-19th C., was erected inside the earlier nave wall so that the quoin stands slightly to the south of the nave wall. Some of the quoin stone bedding orientations can be read ................................................................................................................................................................................190 Figure 6.229 The church of St Mary Bishophill Junior, in York, (SE 600 505) is viewed here from the south-east ........190 Figure 6.230 The tower at Bishophill Junior church seen from the south .........................................................................191 Figure 6.231 The west face of the tower and its belfry windows at Bishophill Junior church. The arching stones and elsewhere have clearly been replaced in ‘Victorian’ work, but the outlining pilasters are clearly original and BVFIA ...191 Figure 6.232 Bishophill Junior church tower arch viewed from the east ..........................................................................191 Figure 6.233 The lower stones in the south jamb of the tower arch of the church viewed from the north-east. The arch is recessed and the lowest large inner arch stone is orientated BVFIA. The outer arch involves two stones for the same portion of the jamb .........................................................................................................................................................................192

xxxi

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 6.234 The higher stones in the north jamb of the tower arch of Bishophill Junior church viewed from the southeast. The stone below the top stone in the jamb is cut to cover both the inner and the outer arches. The same applies to the impost.................................................................................................................................................................................192 Figure 6.235 Beverley minster (TA 038 392) viewed from the south-west .......................................................................193 Figure 6.236 The length of Beverley minster seen from the west end of the nave............................................................193 Figure 6.237 Behind the high altar at Beverley, the reredos, known as the Percy canopy, and to the left of the high altar, the early abbot’s chair ..............................................................................................................................................................193 Figure 6.238 St Mary, Birkin (SE 531 266), here viewed from the south .........................................................................194 Figure 6.239 The rebuilt south Norman door at Birkin church now set into the 14th C. south aisle and within a 19th C. porch ..................................................................................................................................................................................194 Figure 6.240 All Saints church, Bramham (SE 427 430) is here viewed from the south. The nave is enclosed by later buildings.............................................................................................................................................................................195 Figure 6.241 The north-west tower to Bramham church may contain two BVFL stones in its Permian Magnesian Limestone quoin: the lowest stone, however, remains uncertain as to its orientation .........................................................................195 Figure 6.242 To show the setting of Easby Abbey and church (NZ 185 003) as viewed from the north-east ..................196 Figure 6.243 The central window in the 12th C. portion of the south wall of the Easby chancel, most of which has been repaired ..............................................................................................................................................................................196 Figure 6.244 The font at Easby church is claimed to date to about the year 1100 ............................................................196 Figure 6.245 This painting (of Adam and Eve) at Easby church to the north side of the altar possibly dates to about 1300, other earlier dates have also been suggested......................................................................................................................197 Figure 6.246 The 7th C. repaired and replica cross, discovered in fragments when Easby church was being repaired in 1932....................................................................................................................................................................................197 Figure 6.247 Guiseley church (SE 194 421) is here viewed from the south-east. The church has suffered in appearance from 19th-20th C. industrialisation.............................................................................................................................................197 Figure 6.248 ‘Victorian’ replaced stonework in the south aisle wall of Guiseley Church ................................................198 Figure 6.249 Laxton chapel (SE 793 425), of which today only the chancel survives. Here the east window of the chancel is visible .............................................................................................................................................................................198 Figure 6.250 A new wall and doorway fill the west wall of what remains of the early Laxton chapel .............................199 Figure 6.251 Outside the Laxton chapel west wall rests what appears to be an early font. Its detail suggests that it may be both old and doubtfully portable ........................................................................................................................................199 Figure 6.252 A view of Pateley Bridge church (SE 164 656) as seen from the south-west. Note the soil creep impact on the porch (now re-roofed), the seat benching is now at different heights. At roof level there are two roof contacts with the tower ..................................................................................................................................................................................200 Figure 6.253 A view from the north-west of Pateley Bridge interior nave/ aisle/stage area .............................................200 Figure 6.254 The interior of the south doorway at Pateley Bridge The base of the arcade north-west pillar lies on the floor .............................................................................................................................................................................201 Figure 6.255 The north wall doorway at Pateley Bridge church. Note the bar lock hole on the east jamb.......................201

xxxii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 6.256 The recently conserved site of the ruined Sand Hutton church (SE 697 598) as viewed from the southwest .............................................................................................................................................................................201 Figure 6.257 A further view of the ruined Sand Hutton church. In the immediate right foreground is the base of the early cross ...................................................................................................................................................................................201 Figure 6.258 The Perpendicular period window at Sand Hutton church ...........................................................................202 Figure 6.259 Walls created from boulders are evident in the south-east corner of the chancel of Sand Hutton church ...202 Figure 6.260 The exterior of the south doorway of Sand Hutton church clearly exhibits its Norman characteristics ......202 Figure 6.261 The same doorway viewed from the interior of Sand Hutton church. Through the doorway the end of the new church is visible .................................................................................................................................................................202 Figure 6.262 Holy Cross church, Whorlton-in-Cleveland (SE 484 025) here displays the west end of its blocked Norman chancel arch. To the south of the arch the low walling, over a small area, is constructed of boulders, a possible intimation of an earlier age ..................................................................................................................................................................203 Figure 6.263 The area once occupied by the north chapel to the chancel of Whorlton church. The chapel is thought to have been removed after the church failed to provide services. Further detail can be seen in the following two figures .........204 Figure 6.264 Covered on the north by a Victorian buttress (and cement elsewhere) the north-east nave quoin at Whorlton church proved impossible to decipher ...............................................................................................................................204 Figure 6.265 The outline of the infilled doorway to the north chapel in the north wall of Whorlton church....................204 Figure 6.266 St Cuthbert church, York (SE 627 520), viewed from the south-east to display the south wall which embraces both nave and chancel. Most of the features visible such as windows and buttresses have been created during ‘Victorian’ renovations .........................................................................................................................................................................205 Figure 6.267 Without scaling the wrought iron fencing it proved impossible to examine the east face of St Cuthbert, York. Trees and other vegetation obscured the detail of stonework orientations and compositions, as well as the original outlines of the earlier smaller chancel wall that once preceded the chancel built to replace (and incorporate) it in 1430 .............205 Figure 6.268 The magnificent west face of York cathedral church of St Peter (SE 603 521). The buildings above ground display work of only Gothic styles, ranging over the periods of about 1230 to 1472 .......................................................206 Figure 6.269 The view east from about mid-way down the nave of the cathedral church, towards the distant chancel. The 15th C. screen, depicting 15 early kings of England is noticeably slightly off-set to the south ........................................207 Figure 6.270 The transepts of the cathedral retain the earliest work visible above ground and this north transept window shown here dates from about 1260 ....................................................................................................................................207 Figure 8.1 The chancel arch at St John, Escomb, (NZ 189 301), County Durham discussed in Monograph A, Section 6.7, and unfortunately, in recent years given a heavy lime-wash. The stonework is difficult to see, but the arch, seen here from the west has imposts of different thicknesses. The south impost (right) has been cut back on the underside to negate the additional thickness and to make the chamfer look more like that on the north ...............................................................215 Figure 8.2 The interior of the north wall of the nave at Diddlebury church (SO 508 853) in Shropshire which is completed in herringbone coursework. This work has been completed meticulously, with individual pieces of the flaggy rock shaped into parallelograms to permit close fitting of the pieces ....................................................................................................216 Figure 8.3 The north door at Stragglethorpe church (SK 913 524), Lincolnshire. Seen from the inside the door is locked by means of a stout bar which fastens into holes in the wall to the west and east..................................................................216 Figure 8.4 A sketch of a typical Norman ashlar or well-squared and bonded wall with a broad shallow pilaster and a clasping quoin. Where they might have overlapped the proud faces, stones have, of necessity, been cut back. The vast majority of the stones in the wall and the structures will have been placed with their bedding orientation horizontal. Occasionally, where a shorter stone was required, it was cut, and an edge-bedded setting used (partly after Potter 2006c) .............................218 xxxiii

ABSTRACT

This work provides the second volume of two Monographs which attempt to provide a comprehensive study of the Ecclesiastical Geology of the Anglo-Saxon churches of the North of England. It follows the rapid survey of the ecclesiastical geology of the stonework of known Anglo-Saxon churches throughout England undertaken by the author a decade ago. From that brief study it proved possible to both understand and distinguish clearly obvious patterns in the use of the stonework. Furthermore, the use and value of specific rock types were determined and diagnostic features which could be used to identify buildings of the period were described. Subsequent, more widespread published studies, in Scotland, Ireland and Wales, expanded the English studies by revealing closely analogous examples of the same indicative features. Beyond the domain of the Anglo-Saxons but, of the same pre-Romanesque age, a widespread building fashion had been followed and to this the name ‘Patterned’ was applied. The current monographs introduce and summarize this work and give brief details of the specific features that are diagnostic of this period. Although a number of relatively minor regional studies have been undertaken by the author in England, nothing had until this time been attempted for the North of England. The present work takes the same form as those studies for both Ireland and Wales. It provides a comprehensive analysis to cover all the early churches over an area of eleven North of England counties. Too large to be bound within one volume, the churches in these counties have been described in two volume parts. In these, the (pre-1974) counties involved were, in the first monograph (Part A), in alphabetical order, Cheshire, Cumberland, Derbyshire, Durham, Lancashire and Lincolnshire, and in this, the second monograph (Part B), the counties covered were, Northumberland, Nottinghamshire, Staffordshire, Westmorland and Yorkshire. This widespread regional study further endorses the existence of those distinctive Patterned features in stonework fashions seen elsewhere. That building fashions changed in the past, if less dramatically, much as they do today, was further emphasised with stonework of Norman and later periods showing the same significant style changes as re-described here and noted in previous studies. This study, by county, drew attention to the dramatic differences that exist in the numbers of early churches that remain in existence today by geographical region. Counties such as Cheshire, Nottinghamshire and Staffordshire (where AngloSaxon church remains are negligible), contrast significantly with those such as Northumberland and Yorkshire. Two factors which probably controlled these numbers have been suggested. The first must relate to the size of the population at the time but more significantly the underlying rocks for the regions are different. Local rock types in the first group of counties are quite inappropriate for building purposes and certainly not sufficiently durable to last many centuries. Churches in these regions would have been frequently rebuilt. Consequential to this far-reaching study, in this specific monograph a variety of supplementary aspects of church construction are discussed. From the two Monographs, A and B, the details of 174 churches are analysed. Ten of these churches are designated Anglo-Saxon for the first time. It proved possible to determine the relative importance of the different building stones used, to learn more about features like church security, cut backs, re-use of Roman stones, and herringbone masonry.

xxxiv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study builds upon knowledge gained throughout the British Isles and accumulated over nearly 40 years. In these islands, until this series of studies commenced, the practices of ecclesiastical geology had not been applied successfully to early churches. This author’s first acknowledgements must, rightfully go to the very many friends, associates and professional archaeologists and geologists who have supported the author through their useful discussions, guidance and assistance over the years. Many could be named, but in a list some of those who rightfully should be included will surely be unintentionally overlooked. In limiting the record, therefore, to just one from the many persons in those early formative years, the friendship, understanding and encouragement offered by the late Dr Harold M. Taylor must not go unrecorded. With regard to this particular study, involving visits to churches throughout the North of England, the author wishes to express his grateful appreciation to The British Academy. The generous financial assistance received from The British Academy Research Grant helped to alleviate a considerable proportion of the expenditure related to the costs of both travel and subsistence. The staff of libraries always appear to be most generous in giving their assistance. On this occasion those at the Bodleian Library in the University of Oxford and the Library at the University of Reading, as well as my local Fleet Library, in Hampshire, deserve my grateful thanks. In work of this nature the author is indebted to both the Ordnance and, more especially, the Geological Survey; for the quality and availability of their maps proved invaluable. For their support in the preparation of Volume A my thanks go to David Davison and colleagues. The second part of this work, the current Volume B, was also published by BAR, British Archaeological Reports, of Oxford. The staff, and in particular Chris Myers, provided extensive support and assistance which greatly helped to simplify and ease its final production. In the North of England, many of those who kindly gave of their time and ideas were unknown by name. There were those who provided help in locating the more remote, ruined and overgrown church sites, farmers who moved animals to provide access, key holders and others. Inside ecclesiastical buildings, priests, church wardens, cleaners and church attendees were all keen to learn more and to provide information about their building, sometimes related to original research and ideas. Similar valuable assistance, help and guidance was kindly offered by Dr L. Siss. Amongst professional associates, discussions and correspondence with Professors J.R.L. Allen, FRS, P. Worsley and G. Astill were always of significance and value. Never to be forgotten is the support kindly provided by my loved ones; my always patient wife, my children and grandchildren, together with my friends. It is they that suffered the long intervals of my absence and lack of attention during the protracted periods of researching and compiling this work. SO MUCH ALWAYS IN MY THOUGHTS

xxxv

IMPORTANT NOTE AND RESULTING APOLOGIES

Much of this study relies on the ability to interpret geological features with which many readers will possibly be unfamiliar. My first apology must go to those who possess this knowledge, where in the text they find explanations of less familiar or difficult geological matters being over-simplified and on occasions repeated. A glossary of technical terms will hopefully assist readers. Building stones throughout the British Isles are most commonly quarried or obtained from rocks which were originally deposited as sediments in water, and in particular, the sea. Such sedimentary rocks, as sands, sandstones, mudstones, limestones, etc; when deposited, are frequently layered, preserving slight variations in their composition and character. This layering, typically described as bedding or stratification, although generally visible in a cliff or quarry on a macroscopic scale, is normally present also on a microscopic scale. It may, therefore, be visible in a block of rock incorporated as a building stone within, for instance, an early church. In the fabric of long-standing buildings, bedding of this nature is often most clearly observed by means of a magnifying glass. Although at the time of first emplacement in a building, bedding may have been unmistakably evident, lichen and grime tend to eventually obscure its presence. That is, when the rock was fresh the bedding would have been clearly visible. In certain rock types other than sediments a similar lineation or planar development may be created by processes such as heat or pressure. These processes will be referred to in more detail within this work. The orientation of rock bedding or lamination within church wall fabrics and structures appears to have been significant to the fraternity of early stonemasons and its interpretation provides evidence of past building styles. Unfortunately, it proves difficult to portray stone bedding orientations by means of photographs – each stone would have to be seen in its magnified image as originally interpreted by the author. To illustrate different, adjoining stone, bedding orientations which might portray a pattern, requiring a necessity to display a number of stone blocks in a single photograph proves difficult. An apology, is, therefore, offered. While figure captions in this work may detail the presence of certain stone orientations they may not always be very clearly apparent within the limiting size of the photograph. It is to also to be hoped that readers will recognise that were it possible to view the photographs of the building structures in colour their detail would be more evident. Indeed, the most productive way to observe many of the features would be to visit the locality in person. Finally, an apology should be offered to those who are acquainted with the author’s previous works and, in particular, with earlier comparable Monographs (Potter, 2009c; 2013a). Chapters 1 in this volume and Chapters 1 and 2 in Monograph A, draw heavily on the early explanatory chapters in those Monographs for the same descriptive detail is necessary. John F. Potter is an Emeritus Research Professor in Geology and Archaeology, and may be contacted at his home address: Foxwood, Heath Lane, Ewshott, Farnham, Surrey GU10 5AW. (e-mail: [email protected])

xxxvi

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION: PREFACE AND A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO THE TECHNIQUES OF ECCLESIASTICAL GEOLOGY AS APPLIED TO EARLY CHURCHES 1.1 Preface

2010b; 2010c; 2011a; 2011c; 2011d; 2012a; 2012b; 2013b; 2013c; 2013d), each supporting the widespread occurrence of Anglo-Saxon stonework styles.

This monograph forms the second part of a two-part study on the Ecclesiastical Geology of the Early Churches of Northern England. It, therefore, examines the five (pre1974) counties of Northumberland, Nottinghamshire, Staffordshire, Westmorland and Yorkshire, involving a wide range of geological influences (Figure 1.1). In total, the full study covered eleven (pre-1974) counties in Northern England, which, for convenience of compilation, were treated alphabetically. Part A included both a moderately comprehensive introduction to the techniques involved, and the information revealed which related to the six counties of Cheshire, Cumberland, Derbyshire, Durham, Lancashire and Lincolnshire. This study has now been published as British Archaeological Report (British Series) No 617.

1.2 Ecclesiastical Geology and its Applications Two quite different aspects of geology may be used to investigate the structure and stonework of churches. These are: A. The correct geological identification of the stone employed and its likely approximate geographical source, and B. The recognition of the different methods of stone working used over time by various stone masons in the building of churches, and the resulting different styles of insertion of this stone in church walls and structures.

It is accepted that certain readers will possess interests only related to one county or region, possibly only one church, and the bulk of this chapter will be devoted to providing a brief description, largely by means of figures, of the basic methods involved in this study of the stonework as it relates to early churches. For information, a summary of the subjects covered, by title, in the first two introductory chapters of Part A is provided as Table 1.1.

Use of either of these geological applications can help to illustrate significant variations in church construction and structures through time. The correct distinction of their changes can permit the identification of different periods of church building or subsequent structural modification or repair. The use of these geological methods to distinguish the complexities of buildings and their age can now effectively supplement those non-geological techniques which have been used in the past (Table 1.2).

That the stonework within church walls and structural features (such as quoins, arch jambs and pilasters) was indicative by its method of use (and in particular by its orientation) of different periods of workmanship, was first fully appreciated by the present author in 2005. At that time, a rapid survey of the known early churches of England (based on the work of Taylor and Taylor, 1965), together with a simple explanation, was published by the author (Potter, 2005b). Subsequently, two extensive surveys, of the early churches of Ireland (Potter, 2009c) and of Wales (Potter, 2013a), in monograph form, have been undertaken. Provided in their introductions, there are in depth explanations regarding the stonework styles adopted by stonemasons and the reasons for these styles. Individual topics have also been analysed and described elsewhere. The subjects of both ecclesiastical stone cut backs (Potter, 2006c) and decorative Anglo-Saxon wall fabrics (Potter, 2009c) have been covered in this way. Finally, various local or regional church studies have been published (Potter, 2005a; 2005d; 2005f; 2006a; 2006b; 2006d; 2007a; 2007b; 2008b; 2008c; 2009a; 2009b; 2010a,

1.2.1 Identification of Different Rock Types in Buildings Different rock types possess very marked dissimilarities in their properties, factors clearly appreciated by the various stone masons through the ages, but unfortunately not always fully understood by church historians or archaeologists. These variations provide marked differences in factors such as strength, durability, ease of working, susceptibility to weathering, hardness, chemical reaction, colour and colour variation with time, likely shape and size of worked block, appearance, potential wall structure, ability to resist or attract lichen and similar growth, etc. Even to an experienced geologist, a rock placed for perhaps a millennium in a wall, typically covered with grime and lichen, may prove difficult, or sometimes impossible, to identify. In a church wall, the rock cannot (and should not) be broken to reveal a fresh 1

Figure 1.1 A map of the solid geology of the Pennines and adjacent areas. This map is published here by kind permission of the Natural Environment Research Council and reproduced from the British Geological Survey’s 1:625000 geological map of the United Kingdom (Solid Edition).

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

2

INTRODUCTION

Table 1.1 Titles of topics covered in some detail in Part A of this work 1. Established procedures in the study of ecclesiastical buildings – current techniques for determining the historical background of churches. 2. Ecclesiastical Geology – new approaches to historical dating of ecclesiastical buildings. – rock identification and geographical source. – converting rocks to stones suitable for architectural building requirements: orientations, patterns and masonry details. 3. Fundamental Geology – improvements in the ability to work building stones over time. – identification of ecclesiastical stone types and stone characteristics. 4. The fashion for lime-based external renders - do they provide any protection? – was there render on early churches? 5. The need for a name and fashions in building. 6. Masonry detail and stonework in early ecclesiastical architecture in the British Isles – employing rock planar structures. – patterns in early stonework. – the new stone nomenclature applied to quoins, arch jambs and pilasters. 7. Geological controls on the occurrence of architectural and stonework features which may be observed in churches constructed in the Anglo-Saxon period or in comparable times outside England. – long recognised Anglo-Saxon features. – double-splayed windows. – long and short quoins and Escomb style arches. – megalithic quoins. – plinths and string courses. – wall thickness. – other long recognised structures. – recently recognised Anglo-Saxon features. – Anglo-Saxon stone cut backs. – polychrome banding. – decoration in face-bedded stonework. 8. Further developments related to the current studies in the North of England – the variable abundance and distribution of Anglo-Saxon churches. – variations in Norman period stonework throughout England. – the Anglo-Saxon narrow window. – churches with crypts. 9. The identification of ‘Victorian’ stonework and the importance of its recognition. 10. Background and procedures to this study – previous country-wide reviews of the stonework of early churches.

surface, and a high-powered magnifying lens becomes a critical tool.

from afar. The earliest walls of churches are typically built of stone extracted from a very close proximity (Figure 1.2). Unfortunately, quarry sites rarely remain identifiable for much more than a century (thanks to weathering, backfill, etc.), and modern working quarries should not be cited as a source for the rock in an old wall; although the rock source may have been near to the modern site. Different rock types are limited to specific geographical areas. It is necessary, therefore, to possess a familiarity with each rock type in an area of investigation, together with its known distribution.

Relating the rocks found in a building to the propinquity of their original quarried sources can prove of significant importance in dating the building. The Romans, with a reasonable network of roads, occasionally used these to transport stone moderate distances, but, in general, only with improvements in means of bulk transport (as via stream/river, canal, train and ship) will the stone be gathered 3

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

The earliest builders in stone tended to use cobbles and boulders for building purposes if they were locally readily available. This restricted the amount of shaping and working of stone required, but when placed in walls, often involved the use of rather more mortar. Sources for such stones were typically river courses inland and, in coastal areas, beaches and sea cliffs. Examples of such use from beach areas are described in Potter (2005d; 2005e). The subject is discussed more extensively in Potter (2009c).

Table 1.2 Methods of determining the history and background of churches 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Use of available architectural evidence – windows, doors, etc. Use of archaeological evidence – site investigation for dateable objects Documentary historical evidence Use of structural cross-cutting relationships Use of evidence from the geological building fabrics Interpretation of the different stonework patterns employed by masons over time, including stone orientations, cut backs, etc.

Experience shows that in many long-standing churches, deciphering the complexities of the different ages of rebuilt walls requires the necessity for stone by stone individual identification. An example of such an undertaking is given in section 5.4 of Part A of this work, where the chancel walls for Repton church (SK 303 272) in Derbyshire were treated in this way with interesting results (Figure 5.14, monograph Part A).

Improvements in the methods of working stone for use in buildings were also made over time; the most significant of these occurring in recent centuries, with the use of supplementary power sources (water, steam, electricity) for the practices of cutting, shaping and sawing stones. It proves particularly important to be able to identify the results of these processes (See Figures 1.3, 1.4, 1.5 and 1.6, each selected from Wales), for many church walls and buildings have been extensively modified during this period. A great deal of this work was undertaken during Victorian church modernisation. That this statement widely applies may be noted from the example shown in Figure 1.7.

1.2.2 Identification of Different Rock Patterns in Buildings a. Introduction Sedimentary rocks were often originally formed in water. Sandstones and limestones, for example, typically display in their structure evidence of changing environments related to factors such as currents, deposition rates and water depth. These and other processes tend to impose a

Figure 1.2 The church of Tedstone Delamere (SO 695 585) in Herefordshire was probably built with its west end in its own quarry. See also the Yorkshire church of Kirby Underdale (Figure 6.100). 4

INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.3 The south wall of Bettys Clyro, Radnorshire (SO 228 473) built in 1878. It can be described as rusticated, the stonework being ‘half-snecked’, with larger jumper stones inserted at intervals into the courses.

Figure 1.4 The west end of Hirnant church, Montgomery (SJ 020 229) was rebuilt in 1996. It provides a good example of ‘snecked’ work. Tufa reflects the weathering of the lime mortar (possibly also reacting with the chemistry of the stonework). stratigraphical layering or bedding on the rock; to create planar surfaces that represent changes or pauses in the sedimentation pattern. At the time of deposition these layers tend to be approximately horizontal. To the stonemason or archaeologist these bedding planes offer a means of

Figure 1.5 The ‘Victorian’ stonework in a buttress at Llansilin church, Montgomery (SJ 209 282). The stones have sharp arrises, have been ornamented with a chisel, and possess feathered edges. determining the orientation of each collected or hewn block of stone. To masons the information is critical for it determines the direction or plane (the bedding plane) along which a stone can best be split. It is important additionally to those persons intent on carving rocks; for each bedding 5

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Recent excursions with those interested in discovering more about the topic of ecclesiastical geology have brought certain matters relating to the geology of building stones, to this author’s attention. These require levels of explanation. Rock terminology is often complex or unfortunately confusing – particularly where the names were first established in the foundation years of geology. The word ‘grit’ is a typical example. As a term it should be applied to a relatively coarse sand/sandstone in which the grains are angular (as in a ‘road grit’). Regrettably, we find terms such as the ‘Birdsall Calcareous Grit’ for a rock Member in the Upper Jurassic of Yorkshire! Also, it must be stated that, particularly in conditions of shallow water deposition, as occurred in the Jurassic rocks of England, changing environments could have frequently reproduced similar depositional situations over time and could create identical (or nearly identical) macroscopic rock units. Note that the problems of distinction may be alleviated if life forms such as fossils can be extracted and identified, or heavy mineral analyses of the rocks undertaken. Without such facilities two rock types may be virtually indistinguishable, even if the depositional age of the rocks may be over tens of millions of years apart. Obviously rock specimens cannot be removed from church walls in order to undertake the above type of analyses. Nor can thin sections of rock be cut, which is another technique used to identify rocks.

Figure 1.6 Stone at Bettys Clyro church (SO 228 473) machine modified face and feathered edges.

Figure 1.7 This remote and ruined overgrown church site at Kirkforthar, Falkland (NO 298 048), in Fife, remarkably shows ‘Victorian’ stonework within the jambs of its west doorway. plane generally marks a surface of equal rock quality; that is, one suitable for carving. Just as the planar layering in rock is known to offer assistance for those breaking or splitting the rock, masons through the ages have recognised that to carry the weight of a building the planar surfaces are best placed horizontally. Stones placed in this attitude are both stronger and also less susceptible to weathering. This knowledge is reflected in most rock built structures, including those built today. It is, therefore, important to realise that if wall features show evidence of having been built with the rock planar surfaces (bedding planes) vertical, there must have been some motivation for the use of this unusual rock attitude. In the North of England the rock types exposed at the surface, and therefore available for building purposes, are most commonly sediments which were originally water deposited. Small amounts of igneous rocks, created from an original molten state, such as the Whin Sill, do occur, but because of the complexities of their use they were normally rejected for church building purposes.

Figure 1.8 First recognised by Rickman (1836, 39-40), the church of St Bene’t, Cambridge (TL 449 583) was identified as Anglo-Saxon because of its long and short work. This work is well displayed on the jambs of its tower arch. The south jamb is viewed here from the east. 6

INTRODUCTION

quoin stone shapes. Regrettably, this terminology is only applicable to rectangular blocks of stone and his notation tends to be confusing, for almost interchangeable terms ‘face’, ‘end’ and ‘side’ are used, each for two surfaces of a block of stone. Sometimes incorrectly used, two of his terms, however, ‘side-alternate’ and ‘face-alternate’, for the structure of certain quoins have been widely adopted (Figures 1.10 and 1.11).

b. Patterned quoins In 1836, Rickman noted ‘a peculiar sort of quoining… consisting of a long stone set at the corner and a short one laying on it, and bonding one way or both into the wall’. This type of stonework, which he perceived might occur in both quoins and arch jambs, he described as ‘long and short work’. He recognised this work as being characteristic of Anglo-Saxon churches (Figure 1.8). Since that date, subsequent early church studies by a wide range of authors have utilised the long and short characteristics to identify numerous churches as of this early age. In particular, Micklethwaite (1896; 1898), Brown (1903; 1925), Clapham (1930) and Taylor and Taylor (1965) and Taylor (1978) are prominent contributors in this respect. An elaboration to the nomenclature related to quoin stones was offered by Gilbert (1946); and is illustrated in Figure 1.9. In this he applied a terminology to individual

Figure 1.10 The south-west nave quoin in the ruined Kirkton church, Burntisland, Fife (NT 232 864), is preserved in blocks of local calcareous sandstone which are set to sidealternate style of Gilbert (1946).

Figure 1.9 These quoin stones are classified according to their shape, as proposed by Gilbert (1946). This classification can only be applied to stones which approximate to a rectangular block in shape. His term ‘clasping’ referred to a stone that was of no great vertical thickness and square in cross section (which without removing the stone from the wall is impossible to assess).

Figure 1.11 The lowest stones in the north-west tower quoin at Barnack church, Northamptonshire (TF 079 050) are replacements set in face-alternate style of Gilbert (1946). Higher in the same quoin the stones are set to long and short style (Rickman, 1836). 7

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Closer examination of Anglo-Saxon church quoin stones by the present author revealed that their shape was simply a reflection of the orientation of the planar structure (the bedding planes) of the stones. Excluding instances of stones being inverted or revolved about a vertical axis, there are just three ways or orientations in which the bedding planes of a sediment (or the lamination or lineation of other rocks) may be placed in a wall or quoin. Typically, the rock is placed with its bedding horizontal, BH. In this position, as described above, the rock is best able to withstand either the pressures in the wall or the processes of water penetration and weathering. The sediment then lies in the same attitude as it was originally deposited. Stones may be orientated instead to place the bedding planes vertical, a technique apparently valued by the Anglo-Saxons for use in quoins for decorative reasons. In this case, when the quoin is viewed, the face of the bedding (the bedding plane) will be directed to the right (Bedding Vertical Face Right, or BVFR), or to the left (Bedding Vertical Face Left, or BVFL), as illustrated in Figure 1.12. This nomenclature can be applied to quoin stones of any age or shape subject to the stones preserving a visible lamination.

A rapid assessment of those churches throughout England (Potter, 2005b) which were believed to portray AngloSaxon workmanship (as described by Taylor and Taylor, 1965), revealed the importance of quoin stones with vertical orientation. They could occur as part of a pattern in quoins where the stones could be of any shape, and style of stone insertion was clearly undertaken for a reason. Only in geographical regions where there was a shortfall of useable natural stone (such as where quoins are of flint cobbles which possess no internal lamination) was the feature absent. That the Anglo-Saxon masons were aware of the characteristics of the stone which they used to obtain vertical orientated patterns was also recognizable. In the south of England they found the compacted shelly rock types, such as Quarr Stone from the Isle of Wight and Barnack Stone from near Peterborough, particularly suitable. Interestingly, both these important quarrying sites became monastically controlled, and the rocks, thanks to their included fossil shells, provided a very visible lineation. Where these two strong and resilient rock types were too distant for use, as in the North of England, quartzrich pebbly sandstones, as those found in the Carboniferous sandstones were used frequently. The pebbly stringers in these or other sandstones help to display the rock orientation (Figure 1.13). The BVFR-BH-BVFL notation can be used for any stonework orientation requirement. Figure 1.14, displays the first three stones in a long and short quoin at Strethall, in Essex (TL 484 398), whereas in Figure 1.15 the picture provides a notation for the side-alternate quoin at St Rule, St Andrew (NO 514 166). Both quoins reveal their AngloSaxon character. What can be appreciated is that the results and readability relate to the difference in magnification between the two pictures; Strethall, viewing just three stones, is more magnified, and much easier to read.

Figure 1.13 This stone in the north-east nave quoin of Llanfair-is-Gaer church in Wales (SH 502 660) is of a local Carboniferous sandstone with quartz pebble stringers. Viewed here from the north, the stringers run vertically through the sandstone to provide evidence that the stone is placed with its bedding face to the left, or BVFL.

Figure 1.12 The quoin illustrated displays all possible orientations in which a stone may be positioned within the structure and is the annotation first proposed by Potter (2005b) to describe them. The notation (BVFRBH-BVFL) refers to the bedding orientation in each stone and not to the stone shape. 8

INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.14 Strethall church in Essex (TL 484 398) retains its excellent long and short nave quoins which are constructed of Barnack Stone. The first three stones in the north-west nave quoin possess bedding orientations set BVFL, BH, BVFL in Anglo-Saxon style.

Figure 1.15 Lower Carboniferous Sandstone blocks are laid in side-alternate style in the north-west chancel quoin of the church of St Rule, in St Andrews, Fife (NO 515 167), The first five stones in the quoin rise; BH, BVFL, BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, in Anglo-Saxon style. For a full description of this church read Potter (2008c).

c. A stone nomenclature for arch jambs and pilasters process of carving stone is simplified by undertaking the carving on a uniform, equally resistant surface. A bedding plane provides such a surface, whereas at an angle to the bedding plane the edges of different qualities or hardness’s of surfaces will be encountered (Figure 1.18). Carvings and inscriptions on standing and similar stones are likely to be created on bedding plane surfaces. This same practice tends to occur in churches. Masons of the Anglo-Saxon period displayed carvings on the faces of stones fronting onto the arch, in Ireland, frequently on the lintel stone. Norman (Romanesque) masons carved BVEIA stones, in order that the stone could face outwards and thus the approaching person. This is very typically seen in the Romanesque ornamented doorway. Monograph Part A offers the reasons why this should be the case.

As a result of the fairly comprehensive examination of the Anglo-Saxon churches that were visible in England (Potter, 2005b), it became evident that vertical stone emplacement was present in vertical structures other than quoins. Brown (1925) had drawn attention to the important role that long and short stones afforded in the jambs of doorways and described the resulting structure as an Escomb style arch (refer to section 6.7 in monograph Part A). Vertically bedded stones played an important decorative role in the jambs of both windows and arches (and also in pilasters, if they were present). New simple descriptive nomenclatures would be necessary if these were to be described (Figures 1.16 and 1.17). Horizontally bedded (BH) stones helped to tie the jambs of the doorway or arch into the adjoining walls, just as those BH stones in a wall corner quoin assisted in linking the quoin to the walls. The vertically bedded stones in an arch jamb could be emplaced either with the bedding plane or face into the arch (Bedding Vertical Face Into the Arch or BVFIA), or with the bedding laminations parallel to the vertical joints on the inside of the jamb wall (Bedding Vertical Edge Into the Arch or BVEIA). The BVEIA option has yet to be seen in arch jambs of AngloSaxon or equivalent age. Wider studies in Scotland (Potter, 2006d; 2008c), and particularly in Ireland (Potter, 2009c), confirmed why this option should not be present. The

The nomenclature used to describe the long columns of stonework, known as pilasters or pilaster-strips, which stand proud of the walls of certain Anglo-Saxon churches, is shown in Figure 1.19. The elongated vertically orientated stones in pilasters, being long and thin, prove difficult to create, as shown in monograph Part A. The majority are built in either the resistant Quarr or Barnack stone, and they do not prove to be of concern in the churches in this volume, for the rock types locally available for use are unsuitable for such difficult work. The detail of a part of 9

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 1.16 An arch, door or window jamb nomenclature proposed and used by the author to enable the stone orientations to be recorded (Potter 2005b). The terms Bedded Vertical Face Into the Arch (BVFIA) and Bedded Vertical Edge Into the Arch (BVEIA) now supplement Bedding Horizontal (BH). a pilaster created at Barnack church is illustrated in Figure 1.20. d. The need for a name and fashions in building Both Scotland and Ireland remained beyond the influence or domination of the Anglo-Saxons. Following the present author’s studies in these countries it became obvious that aspects of the Anglo-Saxon styles of stonework were clearly present, although somewhat influenced by the lack of availability of the English rock types. These styles, occurring at much the same time as in England, were not then necessarily the result of Anglo-Saxon stimuli, but rather following a fashion in stonework: where, and possibly when, this fashion originated being as yet unknown (see Potter, 2009c, 182). It was, therefore, inappropriate to describe work in Scotland, Ireland, or indeed Wales, as Anglo-Saxon; a term for the common stonework fashion was required, and ‘Patterned’ was selected (Potter, 2009c; 2009d).

Figure 1.17 Barnack church in Northamptonshire (TF 079 050) possesses in the south door of its tower only BH and BVFIA stones, an indication of its Anglo-Saxon construction date. 10

INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.18 Extraction of long stone blocks suitable for pilaster use from a quarry. The bedding plane (BP) provides a smoother surface for carving purposes.

Figure 1.19 The typical stone settings for the pilaster-strip which is a feature evident in certain Anglo-Saxon churches. On this, the notation proposed and used by the present author (Potter 2005b) is shown. This notation (BVFB-BHBVEB) permits the bedding orientations of the stones to be distinguished.

Figure 1.20 Detail of lower portion of a pilaster on the north face of the tower at Barnack church (TF 079 050). Long BVEB and short BH stones are evident. 11

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

The Patterned style or fashion has then been used to describe those walls or churches, irrespective of size or status, where, in particular, the external faces or structures display or resemble the Anglo-Saxon features of stonework seen in England, this being especially in terms of the stone bedding or lineation which exhibits vertical orientation. This loose definition purposefully fails to restrict the fashion to a specific geographical region or currently define any precise period of time over which it may be recorded. Future studies may possibly delineate these as yet unknown parameters more accurately (see Potter, 2009c, 182).

1.3.3 Megalithic quoin stones Brown (1925) probably first applied the term ‘megalithic’ (meaning, with no precise definition, either ‘large’ or ‘very large’ in size), to the big stones in certain quoins which he regarded as distinctively Anglo-Saxon in south-east England. Large stones, either in quoins or wall faces, when they occur in the north of England, often show evidence of having been initially worked by the Romans. If such stones display features such as lifting points (‘lewis holes’), these can confirm their Roman use and their earlier bedding orientation in use (always BH). Frequently this reveals the re-orientation of the stone in its Anglo-Saxon use. Rather more information regarding megalithic stones is given in monograph Part A, section 2.2.2d.

1.3 Long recognised Anglo-Saxon features 1.3.1 Introduction Rickman (1836), Brown (1925) and Clapham (1930) each described a wide range of features in English churches which they claimed typified the Anglo-Saxon period of construction. Taylor and Taylor (1965, 1-15) further supplemented these lists. A few of these structures appear to be independent of local geology and rock variety. The absence of buttresses, the existence of tall, relatively narrow, doorways, the relative thinness of walls (implying quality cementing plaster) and the occasional unusual presence of multiple churches in an approximately west to east line, may be considered as examples. Virtually all other features might be regarded as ‘rock dependent’. Their distribution was reliant on the presence of rocks of the correct lithology, hardness, and character and, therefore, the features were only regional in distribution. Taylor (1978) was certainly partially aware of the influence of geology when he constructed distribution maps of features such as double-splayed windows (p. 841) or long and short quoins (p. 945). However, like certain church historians today (such as Ó Carragáin, 2005) he hankered after a human influence being the cause of the dramatic changes in the distribution of different constructional features (but see also Potter, 2009c).

1.4 Recently recognised Anglo-Saxon features Subsequent to the discovery of the importance of vertically orientated bedding in stone structures in Anglo-Saxon churches a number of further features indicative of the patterned period of craftsmanship have been noted in churches examined. Each of these features can be perceived to augment the patterning on the walls of an Anglo-Saxon church. 1.4.1 Anglo-Saxon stone cut backs In the course of these studies it became clear that in order to enhance the appearance of quoins and arch jamb stones, as well as pilaster-strips, all of which had vertically bedded stone orientations, the Anglo-Saxon masons chose to cut back stones to make them appear to be of equal and constant width (Potter, 2006c). It can be shown that this was executed most frequently after the structure had been built, and in vertical stone columns, with the aid of a chisel and plumb-bob. The width of the column has always been cut back to the width of the narrowest stone in the column (Figures 1.21and 1.22). Much more information on this topic is given in Potter (2006c and 2009c, 31-36).

The principal characteristics of Anglo-Saxon (Patterned) churches are briefly considered below. Those structures itemised tend to have been long regarded as providing infallible evidence of an Anglo-Saxon origin. Their geographical distribution can in most instances be attributed directly to the local geology.

1.4.2 Polychrome banding The use of differently coloured rock types in walls can introduce an element of colour banding in church walls. There is evidence that this type of patterning was moderately popular in churches of Anglo-Saxon/Patterned construction, where suitable rock types were local to the church (Potter, 2009c). This situation was more common in the south of England where superficial deposits provided a stone of contrasting colour to that of the local bedrock. Further information on horizontal colour banding of this nature can be found in Potter (2009c, 38 and 2009d).

1.3.2 Double-splayed windows Taylor (1978, 759) was in no doubt that double-splayed windows could be regarded as ‘the most reliable indication of Anglo-Saxon workmanship’ and that typically ‘the fabric is of rubble or of irregular large stones’. The distribution of these distinctive windows (Taylor, 1978, 841; Potter, 2009c, Fig. 2.74) in England is virtually confined to those geographical areas, as East Anglia and south-east England, where cobbles such as flints or Bunter quartzites can be readily field-picked. More detail concerning the construction of these windows is provided in monograph Part A, section 2.2.2a. Double-splayed windows are not common in the north of England.

1.4.3 Decoration in face-bedded stonework Certain Anglo-Saxon walls, such as those at both Escomb and Jarrow churches (see monograph Part A, sections 2.2.3c, 6.7 and 6.13) when sufficiently illuminated in good 12

INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.21 Sketch of part of a typical Anglo-Saxon pilaster-strip in which the stones have been cut back to improve their decorative appearance, annotated with the terms proposed (Potter, 2000b) to describe the feature and subsequently used. The amount of cut back (on the right of the pilaster) of overlarge stones has been determined by the proud face width of the narrowest stone (in this instance the lowest stone shown). Clear evidence that this has been done for ornamental purposes.

Figure 1.22 An example of cut backs on the early northeast chancel quoin at Wittering church (TF 056 020), Northamptonshire. The stones are cut back to the widrh of the lowest long stone on this east face.

Figure 1.23 A sketch of a possible view of Anglo-Saxon walling to illustrate some of the features which could be preserved. The sketch is both idealised and diagrammatic. The wall stones are shown to be placed in three different orientations in the walls; these are BH (standard horizontally placed stones), Bedded Vertically Face-Bedded (BVFB) and Bedded Vertically Edge-Bedded (BVEB). In a few instances these stones are placed to patterns or bands. Both the doorway and its arch stones show cut backs. 13

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

oblique sunlight, display wall stones exhibiting an element of pattern. Stone blocks in walls may be laid in three ways (Figure 1.23); bedded normally and horizontally (BH), face bedded (bedded vertically with bedding plane parallel to the wall face, FB), or edge bedded (bedded vertically with bedding plane perpendicular to the wall face, EB). The terminology used here is one used by modern stonemasons. For the first century subsequent to being laid to a pattern the stone orientations would have been distinctive, over time, however, the decoration would usually be lost to dirt, grime and lichen growth. More on this topic is available in monograph Part A, section 2.2.3c.

section 2.5). The studies in this part of the overall work followed the same practices, and they were again preceded by a detailed paper and map study. Again, the field studies involved an inordinate amount of time trying to obtain the keys for locked churches; on occasions they proved to be lost or unobtainable. Reference to earlier works is hopefully made simpler by locating the churches in accordance with their pre-1974 county boundaries and the same sketch map as provided in Part A indicates the approximate extent of these pre-1974 areas (Figure 1.24). The county of Yorkshire presents a particular problem for its division into Ridings (namely, prior to the 1974 changes, East, North and West, as well as the City of York) provides little resemblance to the Ridings and other divisions of the present time.

1.5 Other features which may influence the appearance of Anglo-Saxon churches

In this, Part B of the overall work, the counties of Northumberland, Nottinghamshire, Staffordshire, Westmorland and Yorkshire will each form a separate chapter.

It would be inappropriate to discuss in detail all of the wide variety of matters which might influence the interpretation or appearance of an Anglo-Saxon, or indeed any, church. Given below (Table 1.3) is a list of the most important of these, and the place(s) where they may have been discussed by either the present or other authors.

As in the previous works the Wentworth (1922) scale is used to classify the sizes of rock fragments. This scale is universally used and defines ‘boulders’ as possessing an intermediate axis length of greater than 256mm., ‘cobbles’ as being within the limits of 64 to 256mm., and ‘pebbles’ being smaller than 64mm. intermediate axis length.

1.6 Background and procedures to this study The details of the procedures adopted in this study have been fully outlined in Part A of this work (see Part A,

Table 1.3 Matters which might influence the interpretation of the age or the appearance of a church already discussed elsewhere, such as in Monograph Part A. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. l. m. n. o. p.

The Anglo-Saxon narrow window and keyhole windows – jamb stone orientation. This monograph Part A, section 2.3.3. Variable abundance and distribution of Anglo-Saxon churches. This monograph Part A, section 2.3.1. Wall thickness. Brown (1925, 23), Taylor and Taylor (1965, 12), Taylor (1978, 959), Potter (2013a, 34), this monograph Part A, section 2.2.2f. Plinths and string courses. Taylor and Taylor (1965, 13), Potter (2013a, 34), this monograph Part A, section 2.2.2e. Improvements in the ability to work building stones over time. Potter (1998), this monograph Part A, section 1.3.2. Working and shaping stones for quoins, pilasters and cut-backs. Potter (2009c, 31-36). Apses and round towers. Potter (1987; 2005a). The consecration of ecclesiastical sites. Potter (2009c, 9-11). The presence of fossils in stonework; encrusting and boring varieties. Potter (2009c, 14-18; 2013a, 20-26). Re-used and burnt stones. Potter (2009c, 13-14). Varieties in quoin stone style. Taylor and Taylor (1965, 6), Potter (2009c, 24-26). The case for no external render in Anglo-Saxon churches. Potter (2006c, 57-60; 2009c, 33-41, 2009d; 2013a, 1114, 31-32), this monograph Part A, sections 1.4 and 1.5. Lichens and other stonework contaminants. This monograph Part A, sections 1.3.3, 8.5 and 9.6. Details of ‘Victorian’ stonework. Potter (2013a, 46-51). This monograph Part A, section 2.4. Churches that weep. This monograph Part A, section 9.7. Possible variations in Patterned style over time. Potter (2009c, 43-45).

14

INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.24 A sketch map of the County Boundaries of England and Wales as they were pre 1974.

15

CHAPTER TWO THE EARLY CHURCHES OF NORTHUMBERLAND 2.1 Introduction

The geology of Northumberland (Figure 2.1) is such that Carboniferous rocks almost universally provide the building stones for the fabric of the early churches. These are principally of varied coarse- to fine-grained sandstones, which generally are of greys and creams when fresh, but on external church walls tend to be covered in lichens.

Northumberland is the northernmost county of both England and the early northern kingdom of Northumbria – the name derived from the Old English, meaning north of the (river) Humber. It had developed from two earlier powers; Deira in the south, centred on Yorkshire, and Bernicia in the north. Bamburgh provided the first centre of power to northern Northumbria, and this was the place where, from Canterbury, the first Christian mission of Paulinus came in the early 7th C. That which followed, was requested by King Oswald, and was led by Aidan from Iona in 634. It proved a more successful mission and was to become established on the island of Lindisfarne (Holy Island). From Lindisfarne, the Scottish cum Irish, Celtic culture was to mix with the influences that could be traced, via Canterbury in the south, to Rome. The culture was to create a legacy of priceless artistic objects for the period. In 685, Cuthbert became the Bishop of Lindisfarne. Much of his life was spent in contemplation and seclusion on one of the Farne Islands, and to this, his fame especially relates.

2.2 Alnham, St Michael and All Angels, NT 991 110 Alnham church is close to the source of the River Aln and on the edge of the Cheviots (Figure 2.2). In the past the church has been referred to by authors such as Dixon (1903, 40-50) and Dodds (1935, 560-563), and more recently, by Pevsner and Richmond (1957) and Grundy, et al. (2001, 128-129). Web site descriptions of the church appear under the English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID 236088) and by Ryder, under northumberlandnationalpark.org. uk. Taylor and Taylor (1965, 714) had only the following words to describe the site: ‘The church looks early, but is probably Norman rather than pre-Norman.’ Throughout the building, the stone incorporated into the church fabric appears to be of local Lower Carboniferous (Mississippian) sandstones.

In 793 Lindisfarne monastery was sacked in the first of the Danish raids on the coast of England. Not until 875 was the monastery finally abandoned. The monks were to ultimately settle (via Chester-le-Street) in Durham, where Cuthbert’s body is now buried. Northumberland and Northumbria were to suffer continued Danish raids over this period, but by the middle of the 10th C. those Danes who settled started to be converted to Christianity and their influence was such that Anglo-Scandinavian monuments began to appear throughout Northumbria.

The earliest record of Alnham church is in a charter of 1184 when the church and its tithes were transferred to Alnwick Abbey. There are indications that the church was restored at this time and dated restorations are known to have occurred in 1870 and in 1953. The early edition of Pevsner and Richmond (1957) suggested that the nave might preserve some Anglo-Saxon fabric and under the church details they indicated that there were ‘Saxon quoins at nave north-east and south-east corners’.

Taylor and Taylor (1965) believed that parts of the fabric of a number of churches in Northumberland, and in particular some proximate to the River Tyne (such as, Bywell, St Peter, Corbridge and Heddon-on-the Wall), might date to the 7th or 8th C. Such churches would pre-date the Danish invasions. Grundy et al. (2001) suggest that most of the other early churches

The church is today represented by a nave, chancel, north and south transepts and a south porch. A north aisle preceded the north transept and three infilled bays of the arcade to this aisle remain visible externally on the north nave wall (Figure 2.3), with traces internally of the fourth east bay evident in the approximate position of the transept. The arcade arches are two-centred and apparently of 13th C date. Unusually the western arch is much larger in size although of the same style. This was possibly to incorporate a western extension to the nave of the same period (Figure 2.4). The trace of a rectangular, infilled north door is visible to the east of the buttress within the western arch (see Figure 2.4).

‘probably date to the last century of the Anglo-Saxon period, when some degree of peace and prosperity returned after the Viking raiding and settlement’. (Grundy, et al., 2001, 49) However, they continue ‘…overall, around a third of the county’s medieval churches have fabric or features showing Saxon style or tradition, which must date them to before c. 1100.’ (Grundy, et al., 2001, 50)

There is evidence that the chancel has been significantly altered for its higher roof outline is revealed on the east nave wall and its extent to north and south suggests that the chancel was also once narrower. The north and 16

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF NORTHUMBERLAND

Figure 2.1 Geological map in colour of north-east England copied by kind permission of the University of Newcastle. The author is also indebted to those individuals who produced the original map.

17

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 2.2 Alnham, St Michael and All Angels church, (NT 991 110) viewed from the south-east. Picture by kind permission of Northumberland County Council.

Figure 2.3 A north aisle was attached to the nave of Alnham church in the 13th C and three of its four arcade arches, now blocked, are visible in this view (arrows). 18

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF NORTHUMBERLAND

south transepts show similarities in their structure, and both are later than the nave which they adjoin, with the north transept post-dating the aisle which it replaced. The

south nave wall is 0.91m. thick at the porch which has been dated ‘probably 16th, or early 17th C.’ by English Heritage. The foregoing brief description gives no intimation of any Anglo-Saxon work but it clearly indicates that the nave is the oldest portion of the church. The eastern nave quoins are constructed of large quoin stones which are set to a partially side-alternate style. Lichen cover makes both virtually unreadable without extensive cleaning. Of the two, the south-east quoin gives ‘suggestive’ orientations, to read from the lowest stone upwards: ?, ?, ?BVFR, ?, ?BVFR, BH, ?BVFL, ?BVFR, ?BH. Of the 9 stones, one only was readable with any certainty (see Figure 2.5).

Figure 2.4 The western arcade arch (with arrow) in Figure 2.3 is noticeably larger. It is possible that this was to incorporate a nave western extension, built at the same time as the aisle. Subsequent to the aisle’s removal and the arcade being infilled, a supportive buttress was erected and to its east a north doorway (arrow) created, which is now also infilled.

Placed in the porch, and acting as a stoop, is a small font (Figure 2.6). This closely resembles others observed and described by the present author (Potter, 2004c, 124-125; 2006a; 2010d, 240-243; 2013a, 281-283) as Anglo-Saxon and portable. In this instance, the face has been inscribed with three entwined capital letters and XX and one suspects it might be late medieval or even Victorian in age. The church at Cranwell (see monograph, Part A, section 8.18) holds a modern portable font of similar design. More modern aspects of Alnham church, as those undertaken in 1870, have been described by other authors.

Figure 2.5 The south-east nave quoin to Alnham church is constructed of large stones, but regrettably it is covered in lichen so that the stone bedding orientations are only poorly readable. What can be read suggests that it is possibly of Anglo-Saxon age. The later south transept (on the left) abuts the nave.

Figure 2.6 In the porch at Alnham church the stoop resembles a portable font. The visible face, however, appears to be inscribed ?FSL XX suggesting that it is of fairly recent origin. 19

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 2.7 St Andrew, Bolam, (NZ 093 826) as seen from the south. 2.3 Bolam, St Andrew, NZ 093 826 Now in a relatively isolated position, Bolam Church (Figure 2.7) in 1305 stood in a town with a castle, market, a green, and more than 200 houses. The church has been described by Hodges (1893), Pevsner and Richmond (1957, 101-102), Taylor and Taylor (1965, 78-9), Grundy et al. (2001, 195-196), and Briggs (1982). It is constructed from a yellowish, slightly micaceous sandstone from the Upper Carboniferous, Scottish Upper Limestone Group. Only the tower and parts of the nave preserve their AngloSaxon ancestry, much of the remainder of the church is Norman to Early English in style. The lower portions (to about 5m.) of the western quoins of the tower are created with large, generally side-alternately placed, roughly shaped blocks of sandstone. These are set with their bedding orientations in an Anglo-Saxon pattern: The north-west quoin stones read; BVFL (with bench mark); BVFR; BVFL; ?BH; BVFL; BVFR; BH; BH; BVFL (diagonal); five BH stones; ?BVFL. The south-west quoin stones read; BVFR; BVFL; BVFR; BVFL (oblique); BVFR; BVFL; BH; BH; most higher stones BH (see Figure 2.8). Figure 2.8 The south-west tower quoin at Bolam church is constructed of large poorly shaped blocks of sandstone in which bedding orientation is set to Patterned, Anglo-Saxon style. The 5th 6th and 7th stones are shown and these are orientated BVFR, BVFL, BH.

The tower has a square string-course just above mid-height and four floors internally. The double belfry windows are on the third floor of the tower and are present on each face. Some of the windows of the tower have been modified in 20

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF NORTHUMBERLAND

Norman and more recent times but the detail is difficult to assess from ground level. The windows on the ground floor and visible on the south and west walls appear to have been double-splayed originally (Figures 2.9 and 2.10). They are blocked externally and better seen internally. The windows

on the ground floor almost completely replacing these, Taylor and Taylor (1965, 78) regarded as Norman, but Grundy et al. (2001, 195-196) have dated them to c. 1762. The nave walls are thin and only about 0.7m thick and a square section string-course, which is probably of early construction, can be observed above the south arcade. Externally, one nave quoin reveals its origin, that at the south-west corner. The other exposed nave quoin at the north-east corner is heavily lichen covered but it appears to have been significantly rebuilt. The south-west nave quoin stones rise as follows: two stones uncertain; BVFL; BVFR; BVFR; BH; BVFR; BH; ?; BH; (Figure 2.11). Higher stones are probably modified or newer. The base of the south-east nave quoin can be viewed inside the church (Figure 2.12), but being plaster-covered the stones are currently impossible to read. The fifth stone (?above a plinth stone) is set back and is not original in this position. Externally, at the north-east corner of the nave, where lichen growth is abnormally thick to the extent that the outlines of individual stones are difficult to determine, the nave quoin above the height of the chancel eaves has been rebuilt (Figure 2.13). It is difficult to conjecture why this should have been done, but it would have reduced the weight on the chancel arch.

Figure 2.9 The early ground floor windows in Bolam church tower have been externally blocked and replaced. From inside the tower the head of an original window is visible. This appears to possess a more marked splay than the more modern window. The early window in this south wall might, therefore, be double-splayed.

Grundy et al. 2001, 196, suggest that the chancel was lengthened in the 13th century (with the removal of the

Figure 2.10 The early west ground floor window in Bolam tower, resembles that in the south wall when viewed from the interior. Taylor and Taylor (1965, 78) did not suggest that these windows were double-splayed.

Figure 2.11 The south-west nave quoin in Bolam church also reveals Anglo-Saxon orientated quoin stones. Stones 4, 5 and 6 are illustrated here and set BVFR, BVFR, BH. The west wall of the aisle abuts the quoin from the south (right). 21

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 2.12 Internally, the lowest five stones of the southeast nave quoin of Bolam church are probably represented. They are covered in plaster and unreadable.

Figure 2.13 The north-east nave quoin at Bolam church (with arrow) is very heavily coated in lichen (appears white). It is also unusual in not rising to the full height of the nave north wall.

sanctuary arch, the responds of which remain to the east of the chancel arch). From the occurrence of the cantilevered stones above the Norman chancel arch, the arch would appear to have been, in part, cut into an earlier wall (Figure 2.14). Careful scrutiny of this figure suggests, from what might be the tops of a few earlier voussoirs, that the present arch might have been preceded by a narrower and slightly taller earlier (?Anglo-Saxon) chancel arch. The south doorway is of Norman work (Figure 2.15) and in the porch (Figure 2.16) there are various carved stones (Ryder, 2002, 77-78). 2.4 Bywell, St Andrew NZ 048 615 Although there is hardly any village at Bywell, the locality, which is close to the north bank of the River Tyne, preserves two churches in close proximity, each retaining elements of their Anglo-Saxon origin. St Andrew’s served one of two adjoining Norman baronies (and presumably pre-Norman divisions of land), this one to the west at Styford. The church became redundant in 1973 and is now maintained by the Churches Conservation Trust. The church is constructed of a yellowish, coarse, partly recrystallised, sandstone, probably representative of the local Millstone Grit. It is situated in a circular churchyard, a feature thought to be indicative of an early origin. The church has been

Figure 2.14 Bolam church chancel arch viewed from the chancel. The stones immediately above the arch are cantilevered against the arch which suggests they have been cut through. Also at the top of the arch a half a dozen stones, possibly the upper part of voussoirs appear to suggest a once narrower arch. described by Featherstonhaugh (1859), Hodges (1893), Hodgson (1902a, 241-249), Brown (1925, 446), Holmes (1938), Gilbert (1946), Taylor and Taylor (1965, 121-2), Kerr and Kerr (1992, 25-26), Lilley (1996) and Grundy et al. (2001, 204-205). 22

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF NORTHUMBERLAND

Figure 2.15 The south Norman door to St Andrew, Bolam church. Figure 2.17 The church of St Andrew, Bywell (NZ 048 615) as viewed from the south.

Figure 2.16 Within the porch are a number of early stones, as this seen in the west wall. Ryder (2002) has described these stones; this as ‘a coped slab . with round-ended toggle’, which was placed as 12th C. A similar ornamented stone at Atcham church, Shropshire (SJ 541 092) has been described as Roman. Only the tower and the adjoining west nave wall remain of the Anglo-Saxon church (Figure 2.17). The main body of the church is of 13th century date and this was repaired and enlarged in 1870-73 (Lambeth Palace library, ICBS 07226). Four early quoins are visible and these reveal the following detail:

NW tower quoin

SW tower quoin

NW nave quoin

SW nave quoin

–

?

–

BVFL (diagonal)

BH

BH

BH

BVFL

BH

BVFL

?BVFR

BVFR

BVFL

BH?

?BVFL

BH

BH

BVFL

BVFL

BVFR

BVFL

BVFR

BH

BVFL

BVFR

BVFL

BH

BVFR

BVFL

BVFR

?BVFR

BVFL

?

BH

?BVFL

BVFR

BH (inverted) BVFR

BVFR

BVFL

BVFR

BVFL

?

BVFR

BVFL

BVFR

BVFR

BVFL

BH

BVFL

BVFL

BVFR

KEY: ? Uncertain direction. Figure 2.18 provides part of the detail of two of these quoins.

23

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 2.19 The west face of St Andrew, Bywell tower viewed from below. Showing clear bedding orientations, the side-alternate west tower quoin stones rise to the top of the level of the first floor window. Figure 2.18 The detail of the lower portions of both the south-west portions of the tower and (the more distant) nave quoins of St Andrew, Bywell. The side of the south porch is also partially visible.

is displayed in Figure 2.20 (and also Figure 2.18) where the central clearly BH stone is the 5th quoin stone from the base. At the base of the north-west tower quoin, Figure 2.21 displays joggled stones, indicating a past repair. As at Ovingham church nearby, the north face of the tower has no openings except at belfry level. There are two windows in the west wall, that on the ground floor being modern. The first floor window (Figure 2.22), with single stones for both sill and lintel, possesses Anglo-Saxon characteristics. Both jambs consist of four stones which, with powerful binoculars, can be seen to ascend on the north jamb BH; ?BVFIA; BH; BVFIA; and on the south jamb BVFIA; BV(direction uncertain); BH; ?. The south jamb stones, as noted by the Taylors (1965, 121) match the coursing of the wall, which at this level is at the earlier style of quoins.

Historically, the Bywell’s two churches create some confusion. The Peterborough Manuscript (Swanton, 2000, 59) records that Egbert, was consecrated as Bishop of Lindisfarne on the 11th June 803. At this date Lindisfarne had been sacked by the Danes, and (as noted by Gilbert, 1946, from Arnold, 1882, 52) Symeon of Durham recorded the year as 802 and the locality as Bywell. However, Gilbert (1946, 172-173) believed that the church of St Peter provided the site for the consecration. The Churches Conservation Trust (Lilley, 1996) make the claim for St Andrew. As noted by Gilbert (1946) the lower half of the tower at St Andrew possesses large, roughly-dressed quoin stones laid to a regular side-alternate style (Figure 2.19). Above this the insertion of the stones is more irregular. Some of the quoin stones are certainly originally of Roman origin for several display lewis holes. The vertically orientated quoin stones are still represented in the upper portion of the tower although a continuous description cannot be made, because at height the detail of many stones cannot be determined. Gilbert (1946, 165-166) believed the tower to be of two Anglo-Saxon ages. The south-west tower quoin

In the better illuminated south wall, the ground floor window resembles the early window in the first floor of the west wall. High in the south wall, again as at Ovingham, there is a round-headed doorway outlined in strip-work that once opened to space (Figure 2.23, and see Figure 2.17). The double-window belfry stage, with mid-wall shaft, is well described in Taylor and Taylor (1965, 121122), and is regarded as typically Northumbrian. The three circular openings (Figure 2.23) can be seen in each of the four tower faces, in the south wall each cut through the 24

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF NORTHUMBERLAND

Figure 2.20 Part of the south-west tower quoin of St Andrew church. The larger quoin stone with BH orientation is stone 5.

Figure 2.22 The first floor window on the west face of St Andrew, Bywell, preserves its Anglo-Saxon character, as can be confirmed from the bedding orientations described in the text.

Figure 2.21 The base of the north-west tower quoin at St Andrew, Bywell, where (at stone 2 level) some joggling of stones is thought to indicate stone replacement. centre of a stone. Even at a distance, two of the jamb stones to the belfry windows can be seen to be orientated BVFIA. The tower arch has been converted to one of 13th century style and lime-washed, but the stones in the south jamb can be faintly observed. There are two through stones on each jamb, one of which is emplaced BVFIA and another BH, but the tooling and lack of light makes reading bedding orientation difficult. Some of the other stones and the imposts and voussoirs are probably replacements since the Anglo-Saxon Period.

Figure 2.23 Outlined in strip work, and high in the south wall of the tower of St Andrew, Bywell, there is a roundheaded doorway that once opened to space. Higher, the double-window, belfry is preserved, still showing some evidence of jamb stones orientated BVFIA. 25

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 2.24 Shows the north wall of the tower and the northwest nave quoin of St Andrew, Bywell church. A blocked doorway (arrow) exists below the western nave window on the north nave wall. The western nave quoins enclose the eastern side of the tower (Figure 2.24 and see Figure 2.18). They rise higher than the eaves of the current nave roof, which in the past must have been of greater height. The full details of the stones of this mainly side-alternate quoin are given above. The nave north and south walls are only about 0.76m. thick, but unfortunately the eastern quoins are not exposed. Both to the north and south of the west end of the nave a doorway exists, that to the south via a porch (see Figure 2.17); that to the north now blocked (Figure 2.24). Figure 2.25 One of the many grave stones preserved at St Andrew, Bywell church.

St Andrew’s has a remarkable collection of early grave slabs and the Victorians chose to insert 18 of these into the external faces of the north walls of the church (some have subsequently been moved inside for protection). The design of the crosses on most of these slabs suggests that they date from the 1150-1250 period. The presence of shears on the slabs is a female emblem (Figure 2.25), for the medieval housewife often carried shears on her girdle.

Anglo-Saxon evidence is seen in the blocked doorway in the north chancel wall, where the jambs can clearly be observed to be constructed in Escomb style of BVFIA; BH; BVFIA stones. It is believed that this doorway provided an entrance to a chamber or porticus of which the trace of the roof line is faintly visible (Figure 2.27). Just west of this doorway the original north-east nave quoin can be perceived. Here the coarse sandstone blocks, probably from the Millstone Grit, rise: ?; BVFL; BVFR; BH; BVFR; BH; ?BVFR (part repaired); BVFL; higher uncertain. In this wall area many of the rocks have been burnt. Inside the church, the south-east nave quoin is now difficult to view because of its position in relation to the church organ.

2.5 Bywell, St Peter, NZ 049 614 In the middle ages the town of Bywell supported a population of about 500 persons and a thriving iron industry. St Peter’s is the larger of the two churches which provided for the religious needs of Bywell. Although the Anglo-Saxon characteristics of St Peter’s Church had been recognised earlier, it was not until 1946 that Gilbert drew full attention to these features. Hodges (1893), Hodgson (1902a, 102-117), Holmes (1938), Gilbert (1946; 1947), Taylor and Taylor (1965), Kerr and Kerr (1992, 25-26), Grundy et al. (2001, 205-206) and others have contributed to further publications on this Bywell church.

In the wall, partly above the north arcade, three early windows of the north wall of the nave are visible; the fourth window to the west is wider and has been rebuilt (Figures 2.26 and 2.28). The early windows have a limited number of stones in each jamb but these are too high to be given confidently a definite bedding orientation. The nave walls to north and south are thin (about 0.6m.), and the nave is long and was originally high, typical features of an Anglo-Saxon church. It is believed that Bishop Egbert was consecrated at the church in 802/803, and although others claim that the consecration was at St Andrew, St Peter with one or more porticus reflects the earlier Anglo-Saxon

St Peter’s has a 13th century church tower and chancel, and a later south aisle and north chapel. The older portions consist, therefore, of that part of the north nave wall that is not confined by the chapel and the west end of the chancel (Figure 2.26). Probably, the most distinctive external 26

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF NORTHUMBERLAND

Figure 2.26 Bywell, St Peter church (NZ 049 614) is here viewed from the north. The nave’s four high-level windows are clearly evident.

Figure 2.27 The north chancel wall at St Peter, Bywell displays a blocked doorway (arrow) with Escomb jambs, rising typically BVFIA; BH; BVFIA. The outline of a roof above the doorway suggests that the door may have led to a porticus. The Patterned north-east nave quoin to the west of the doorway is largely obscured by the 15th C. north chapel.

Figure 2.28 The two westernmost windows in the north nave wall of St Peter, Bywell. The wider window to the west has been rebuilt, but the other three windows, seen in Figure 2.26, show some evidence of their early character in what can be observed in the bedding orientation of their jamb stones. There is indeed the trace of a blocked doorway, or rather of its east jamb, in the south wall of the chancel, and this jamb (Figure 2.29), set on a BH plinth stone, is created in Anglo-Saxon style BVFIA; BH; BH.

Patterned building style of the two churches. Gilbert (1946) proposed that a south porticus probably once existed in the position where the south aisle now overlaps the chancel. 27

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

2.6 Chillingham, St Peter NU 063 259

The church consists of a nave and chancel, with chapels to north and south, the larger being to the south. There is a 19th C. south porch and an inaccessible crypt beneath the chancel. A single bell-cote, dated to1753, exists above the nave’s west end. The church is built on an inclined site, rising towards the east (Figure 2.30). Throughout, the stone used is of grey, cream and (slightly softer) yellow local sandstone, this from the (Dinantian) Lower Carboniferous, Mississippian System. Sandstone is also used for the roofing. The sandstone in the walls is roughly hewn into blocks and is laid in courses, with in some areas, the blocks being of larger size. The nave is thought to be 12th C., in keeping with the age of its south doorway. Areas involving the larger stonework tend to occur where the church has been affected by rebuilding, as where the western buttresses have obliterated the west nave quoins (Figure 2.31). This also applies where the south chapel walls have been modified (Figure 2.32).

On page 50, Grundy et al. (2001) write of Chillingham church that it possessed ‘massive rubble walling that contrasts with’ the well-squared 12th C. ashlar. Their full description of the church (p. 227) does not support this statement and nor does visual inspection. The English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (List No ID 237515) provides a further description of the church, but describes the oldest portions of the church as 12th C.

Figure 2.29 On the south chancel wall of St Peter, Bywell, and opposite the possible porticus doorway in the north wall, there is the outline of a further doorway. The east jamb of this doorway (arrow) is preserved to show Anglo-Saxon characteristics, with the possibility that this doorway also once led to a porticus.

Figure 2.30 St Peter, Chillingham church (NU 063 259) is here viewed from the west. Later buttresses obscure the western nave quoins. 28

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF NORTHUMBERLAND

Inside the church the south chapel contains a large altar tomb to Sir Ralph Grey and his wife. Dated 1443, it is remarkably and unusually carved in the local sandstone (Figures 2.33 and 2.34). This monument has been described in detail by Heslop and Harbottle (2000).

site of Corstopitum, where the Roman military road, Dere Street, once crossed the River Tyne. This stone is fairly coarse sandstone from the local Millstone Grit. Today, only the west face of the early porch is not enveloped in more recent church building. Taylor and Taylor (1965, 172-6), in their detailed analysis of the site, refer to the consecration of the Bishop of Mayo in 786 at the church when it was part of a monasterium (Arnold, 1885, 51). Others who have published on the site include Hodges (1893), Craster (1914, 178-219), Brown (1925, 142, 449), Clapham (1930), Parsons (1962, 171-184), Iley (1974), Grundy et al. (2001, 236-237) and Potter (2005a; 2009a).

2.7 Corbridge, St Andrew, NY 998 644 For most of its building stone, the early Corbridge church (Figure 2.35) appears to have utilised stone from the Roman

The western quoins to the porch (which are now enclosed in aisles, to now only reveal their western faces), have been arranged with the stonework in geometrically regular and patterned pairs between the north and south sides (Potter, 2005a): The north-west quoin rises; BH; BVFR*; BVFL; BVFR; BVFL; BVFR; ?; BVFR*; BH; BH*; BVFL; BH*; etc. The south-west quoin (see Figure 2.36); BH; BH; BVFR; BVFL*; BVFR; BH; BVFR; BVFL*; BVFR; BVFL*; etc. KEY: ? Direction uncertain. * Roman lewis or cramp holes visible Figure 2.31 The north-west corner of the church at Chillingham has been rebuilt. The stones employed for this purpose are slightly larger and somewhat better shaped. Note the blocked 13th C. doorway in the north wall.

It is thought that the porch was raised to tower height in late Anglo-Saxon times and it would be nice to see evidence of this in the stonework. Unfortunately, other than a gradual

Figure 2.32 Chillingham church viewed from the south-east to show the south chapel. 29

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

decrease in size of the quoin stones, a feature of most tower quoins with height, the stones are themselves too high to examine in detail. The original belfry windows, which may have assisted in any interpretation, were replaced in a restoration of 1729.

North jamb; BVFIA; BH; BVFIA (with mark of cramp); BVFIA. South jamb; BVFIA (with cramp mark); BH; ?; BVFIA.

The west doorway to the porch has been blocked and a modern three-light window inserted (Figure 2.36). The doorway has clearly suffered some modification. The jambs have been described as ‘Escomb’ style, but this applies only to the lowest three stones. Their respective orientations read:

New stones appear to have been inserted above the jambs and the doorway is completed in a double arch. The outer of these arches may be a relieving arch or the remnant from an earlier and taller arch. Taylor and Taylor (1965, 174-5) have discussed its occurrence in some detail. These relationships can be reviewed from inside the porch (Figure 2.37). Internally the arch jamb stones, thanks to

Figure 2.33 The elaborate tomb of Sir Ralph Grey and his wife. Built of local sandstone it was constructed in 1443.

Figure 2.34 The Chillinham Grey tomb to show some of the elaborate carving.

Figure 2.35 The church of St Andrew, Corbridge (NY 988 644) as viewed from the south. 30

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF NORTHUMBERLAND

Figure 2.37 From inside the porch of Corbridge church the west wall may be examined, although the stonework proved regrettably unreadable. Note that the splay from the window above rests upon the inner arch of the doorway.

Figure 2.36 The west porch and doorway to Corbridge church seen from the south-west. render coatings, prove to be unreadable. Above the arch is a round-headed window, the internal splay of which rests upon the inner arch of the doorway. Its jamb stones are also too high to be read, but its position and characteristics suggest it is of Anglo-Saxon workmanship. Inside the church, the tower arch (Figure 2.38) has been described as ‘noble’ (Taylor and Taylor 1965, 174). The stonework, however, is unusual. The impost on the north side is ornamented curiously, with what is believed to be Roman moulding, and the moulding on the south side is largely missing. With one exception, all the jamb stones are through stones, but although they are difficult to read in the poor light, it is clear that some stones are not orientated to standard Anglo-Saxon or Patterned style (but placed BVEIA). There could be three possible reasons. Remembering that the stones are probably all originally of Roman origin; a) the arch could be of Roman origin, removed from a Roman site and installed (at any early period) exactly as it had been in the Roman building; b) the Anglo-Saxon masons working with a collection of Roman stone did not bother to rotate the stones to Patterned style (as they did in the west quoins); c) the original Anglo-Saxon arch (built of Roman stones) has been modified at a later period. The commonly held view is a); that the arch was rebuilt directly from the Roman site. If, however, this was correct, all jamb stones should be placed BH and this is not the case, and later modification (view c), probably provides the correct answer. Only thorough cleaning could provide the full description of this structure.

Figure 2.38 The tower arch of Corbridge church is certainly constructed mainly of ex-Roman stones. The period at which it might have been built within the church has yet to be deduced. If the stones could be examined when thoroughly cleaned, the answer should be readily available. The comments in the previous paragraph lead automatically to a discussion on naming. Some authors claim that as the stones used were all recycled from a Roman site, the arch should be described as Roman. (This argument has been 31

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

applied also to the chancel arch at Escomb church and the crypt at Hexham). Having re-used materials for building myself I have always regarded the end product as of my creation. In the instance of recycling Roman stonework, the Anglo-Saxon masons chose to build in their own relatively complex style – thus, certainly in my view, in this instance, creating a subsequently modified Anglo-Saxon arch. There are major problems in describing the built item as dating from the age in which the stone was first used. Most churches, when rebuilt, rely heavily on the stone previously incorporated in the church building and the new construction is generally dependent on any stone that is re-useable. In the north wall of the nave it is possible to see the heads of two Anglo-Saxon windows above the arcade. It is also possible to lift trap doors to view the old wall foundations. The eastern nave quoins are hidden in plaster. From the southern gate to the churchyard, the east face of the tower can be examined to show its openings and the earlier height of the nave.

Figure 2.39 The Ebb’s Nook site (NU 239 286) as viewed from the west end of the original excavation site. of the two doorways on either side of the western end of the nave can be reconciled with any certainty to construction in the Anglo-Saxon period.

2.8 Ebbs Nook (dedication unknown), NU 239 286

2.9 Edlingham, St John the Baptist, NU 114 091

Taylor and Taylor (1965, 226-227) give their interpretation of this site as first described in 1854 by Way (1854, 410412). The site remains as when seen by the Taylors, covered by sand and turfed over (Figure 2.39). A further description of the original excavation is given in Bateson (1893, 320322). Although the site is supposed to be that of St Ebba’s chapel and founded about 660, only the original description

Taylor and Taylor (1965, 717-718) placed Edlingham church in a category described as ‘Churches with features which have been claimed as Anglo-Saxon but which we do not regard as sufficiently definite to justify their inclusion in the main text.’ They add, ‘the western quoins are

Figure 2.40 The church of St John the Baptist, Edlingham (NU 114 091) viewed from the south-west. Beyond the church it is possible to see part of the castle and the railway viaduct. 32

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF NORTHUMBERLAND

Figure 2.41 The west nave doorway at Edlingham church now leads to the west tower that was built subsequently to the nave. Viewed from the nave the large squared stones that make the door jambs are set in Anglo- Saxon Patterned style (see text). The folding chair is 0.85m. long. exceptionally massive.’ The church is described by Grundy et al. (2001, 263) and referred to in the English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID 236453). The church fabric is of local Lower Carboniferous (Mississippian) well-bedded sandstone. Figure 2.42 In the south jamb of the west door to Edlingham church there is a deep hole to take a bar lock. This must pre-date the tower (which is probably late 13th C.), and would appear, from the manner in which it has been created in the jamb stone, to be Anglo-Saxon.

The church is composed of the following components parts; a 14th C. west tower, a nave and a chancel, a north aisle with a modern vestry at its west end and a south porch (Figure 2.40). The oldest portion of this structure would appear to be the nave, this apparent from the detail of the original west door. Viewed best from the interior of the nave (Figure 2.41) the doorway is constructed from very large squared stones which are set to Anglo-Saxon quoin style, above the nave floor and a thick plinth which forms the sill.

(which mainly involves BH stones) has been reset. The south-east quoin commences with a ‘Norman’ clasping plinth, which includes one large stone 0.74m. in length. The barrel vaulted porch includes the nave south Norman doorway in which all readable stones are set BVEIA. This door was also closed by a bar lock (Figure 2.43). A splayed window above the west nave doorway has plastered jambs and cannot be read.

The south jamb reads: BVFL; BH (through stone); BVFL; BVFR (through stone) and two newer smaller stones. The north jamb (upon which the portable seat rests in the Figure): BVFR; BVFL; BVFR; BH and two newer smaller stones. A large flat lintel stone surmounts the doorway with its bedding orientated BVEIA. Above this lintel on the exterior of the door is a semi-circular tympanum (unfortunately in the dark). The whole would appear to be late Anglo-Saxon in age. Within the structure, the inner doorway jambs are set in typical Anglo-Saxon style, the south jamb stones reading BVFIA, BVFIA, BVFIA and the north jamb BVFIA, BVFIA, BVFIA, BH; with the lintel BVFIA. Within these jambs are bar lock holes (the deepest on the south side) which must have been created at the time when the doorway was constructed (Figure 2.42).

The tower quoin stones are laid on their faces and are set BH indicating that the tower is of post-Norman age (English Heritage proposes c. 1300). The top of the tower is set back, and on its east face the marking created by the once much steeper pitched nave roof reveals that this roof was higher than the set back of the tower. Aisle and chancel quoin stones are, where not obscured, set BH. 2.10 Hartburn, St Andrew, NZ 090 161 Hartburn church encompasses a west tower, a nave with aisles, a chancel and a south porch (Figure 2.44). Recently a modern block, providing kitchen and conveniences, has been added to the north of the tower. All buildings are constructed of yellowish sandstones from the Lower Carboniferous, Mississippian, rocks of the area. Grundy et al. (2001, 304-305) describe the church as having fragmentary Anglo-Saxon remains. The English Heritage

The first few stones of the southern quoins of the nave may well originally have been of the same early age. The southwest quoin commences BVFR; BVFL; BH. Above that, the slate inserts between the stones indicate the whole quoin 33

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

List of Listed Buildings (ID 238240) itemises only a ‘preConquest core’. The tower, which is in three stages, is thought to have been built in the early 13th C. Added later are the buttresses as well as, in the north-west corner, the stair turret. The tower arch has a round head, but is noticeably not central and has been blocked. Above this arch and central to it, there is a small first floor window (and difficult to see, a blocked arched doorway). The inference must be that tower and its tower arch were constructed before the arcades and aisles, which followed later in the same century (Figure 2.45). It has been suggested by certain authors that the arch was blocked to provide the tower with greater security. When completed the tower still required access. As to when this might have been done cannot be determined from the currently unreadable stonework. The blocking of the arch probably, from appearance, preceded the erection (Potter, 2013a, 434) of the external staircase to which the entrance is only from the interior (it proved impossible to gain access to the staircase). There are at present two further points of possible access, both central to the church (i.e. not to the arch), and these are in the blocked wall (Figure 2.46). They are the chamfered rectangular doorway which looks relatively modern, and above it the round-headed doorway which now serves as a window. To still provide an access to the tower this round-headed doorway must have been created immediately after the tower arch was closed. It could have then provided access by means of a

Figure 2.43 The south nave doorway to the church also carries bar lock holes, this is in the east jamb. The doorway is of Norman age and it is enclosed by a barrel vaulted porch.

Figure 2.44 St Andrew church, Hartburn (NZ 090 161) viewed from the south- east; the impression of the earlier nave roof may be seen on the east wall of the tower. 34

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF NORTHUMBERLAND

Figure 2.45 View from the east of the nave of Hartburn church to show the blocked tower arch which is noticeably not central to the church. Higher, there is also a window and above it (not visible) a further blocked doorway arch.

Figure 2.46 From somewhat closer, Hartburn church tower arch blocked wall can be seen to possess two doorways (both central to the church). The lower doorway is relatively modern.

short removable ladder to serve as a secure entrance. It may have then been used from late in the 13th C. until the new rectangular doorway was created. The eastern quoins of the nave are exposed and, particularly in the south-east, involve some large stones. The bedding orientations of these stones can be read to reveal a Patterned, Anglo-Saxon character, as follows: no plinth visible; ?; BVFR; BVFL; ?BVFR; BVFL; ?; BVFL; ?; BVFL; higher stones impossible to read (Figure 2.47). Stones 3 to 5 in the quoin have been tooled into divisions on the visible east face. This may have been done to match the coursework of the east walls of the south aisle which at the time were visible. The chancel with dissimilar coursework was not thought to have been added to the nave until the early 13th C. (Figure 2.48). The north-east quoin displays the following orientations: plinth missing; ?; BVFL; BVFR; BVFL; ?; BVFR; BVFL; remainder too high (Figure 2.49). The possible absence of BH tie stones in both quoins is unusual, but there can be no doubt about the Anglo-Saxon age for the quoins because they are both enclosed between 13th C. aisles and the chancel. In the later 13th C. the chancel was extended towards the east. The nave roof was once higher. This may be observed from the impression of the roof line on the tower (see Figure 2.44), the south nave wall level of the clerestory windows and the one time high doorway from the tower.

Figure 2.47 The nave south-east quoin at Hartburn church. Stones 2 to 9 rise: BVFR; BVFL; ?BVFR; BVFL; ?; BVFL; ?; BVFL; in Anglo-Saxon style. 35

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 2.48 The same south-east quoin viewed from the south-east; stones 3 to 5 can be seen to have been tooled (see arrow) to look as though they were of smaller size, possibly to match the coursework of the nave faces (now hidden).

Figure 2.49 Hartburn church north-east quoin also shows Anglo-Saxon Patterned Stonework.

Hodges (1893; 1924), Brown (1903; 1925, 458-459), Gilbert (1946, 174-176), Taylor and Taylor (1965, 292294) and Grundy et al. (2001, 310-311). The church (Figure 2.50) is constructed of local Upper Carboniferous, Pennsylvanian, Middle Coal Measures sandstones. These

2.11 Heddon-on-the-Wall, St Andrew, NZ 135 669 Heddon-on-the-Wall church has been studied by a number of authors, and in particular by; Bates (1886, 240-294),

Figure 2.50 St Andrew, Heddon-on-the-Wall (NZ135 669) viewed from the south. 36

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF NORTHUMBERLAND

Figure 2.51 The south-east quoin to the nave at Heddonon-the-Wall church has the chancel to the east (right) and the aisle wall to the south. Over the first metre the aisle is tied to the quoin and stones are disrupted. Above that the stones rise in Patterned style (see text).

Figure 2.52 This unusual blocked doorway occurs in the south wall of the chancel of Heddon-on-the-Wall church. The wall is thin, but from its stonework in courses, it appears to be Norman (note, to the right, the vertical stone in the sixth course in the wall is a feature of Norman work). The doorway jamb stones align with the wall courses and they also reveal no bedding orientation other than BH. This evidence suggests the whole doorway is Norman.

are noticeably better squared and coursed in the Norman walls. Both Norman (e.g. east end of chancel) and Early English (e.g. arcade) work occur in the church, and it is believed that an early, thin Anglo-Saxon nave wall is preserved above the south arcade. The south-east quoin of this wall is visible in the angle between the chancel and the south aisle (Figure 2.51). The appearance of this quoin has created some controversy as to its age. The quoin was first described by Knowles (in Bates, 1886). Subsequently, Hodges (1893; 1924) described the work as, ‘a good example of long-andshort work’ and of a comparable date to that at Escomb. Long and short quoins, however, are often thought to be a late development in the Anglo-Saxon period and, as there is some historic evidence for an early date (from Bede, who probably described the church locality as ‘Ad Muram’), controversy developed. Most recent authors would regard the work as not being of long and short style. The first metre of the quoin has certainly been rebuilt for it accepts tie stones from the later aisle. Above this, the stones are emplaced: BVFR; BVFL; ?BH; BVFL; ?BVFR; BH; ?; BH; BVFL; and the quoin is clearly of Anglo-Saxon origin.

like lintel or tympanum set in the well-coursed Norman walling. The church guide (Anon.) has proposed that the doorway is Anglo-Saxon, but the readable stones in the jambs to this doorway appear to be set BH. Internally this blocked doorway has been infilled with cut stone blocks created to match the Norman coursework. On the opposite wall to the south doorway there is a comparable door in the north wall, leading to the vestry and organ chamber (Figure 2.53). Although this doorway is probably Victorian, above it a similar ‘tympanum’ exists. A Norman window and a Celtic cross are also present in the external north chancel wall.

The walls of the chancel are also thin (about 0.8m), but no Anglo-Saxon features are directly evident. Over the south chancel doorway (Figure 2.52) is a large, millstone-

The site at Hexham was initially that of a 7th C. church founded by St Wilfred probably between 672 and 680. Although its presence was unknown until it was

Alterations to the church between 1841 and 1845 added a westerly extension to the nave. This is reflected in the Victorian stonework, as well seen in Figure 2.54, where the large side-alternate quoin stones (all with bedding orientation BH) show rusticated surfaces. 2.12 Hexham, St Andrew, NY 935 641

37

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 2.53 In the north chancel wall, over the relatively modern doorway, a similar tympanum to that seen in the south wall is present. The doorway is kindly modelled by the church warden.

Figure 2.54 The side-alternate north-west quoin to the north aisle at Heddon- on-the-Wall church reveals its Victorian origins from the rusticated appearance of its stones. Mississippian, yellowish, in some instances micaceous or coarse, sandstone.

rediscovered in 1726, the crypt and its detail provide an important link between the earliest structure and that of the present day. Hexham was the see of different bishops from 681 until 821. The early monastery and church were subsequently sacked and burnt by the Danes, most severely in 875. The early history of the site then remains unrecorded until the church was refounded as a part of the priory of the Augustinian canons in 1113, and rebuilt in the years which followed. Significant rebuilding has occurred in recent centuries; in particular involving the east end from18581860, and the nave from1907-1909 (Figure 2.55).

This brief résumé of the Hexham site could be extended into monograph proportions, but the work of various authors cited above would only be repeated. The objective of the current study is to examine and describe AngloSaxon craftsmanship, particularly where it, by its bedding orientations, can make the structure involved distinctive and clearly identifiable. In the standing church buildings various authors have itemised portions which they believed might be representative of the original Anglo-Saxon structure; each of these has been examined. Taylor and Taylor (1965, 300-301) referred to the lowest few stones in the west wall, the north side of the nave, a part of the nave floor, and additionally, the crypt and the apse (which may be seen only by means of a trap door in the chancel floor). They offered sound reasons as to why the apse was probably a separate apsidal chapel. Of the first three of these (i.e. excluding the crypt and the apse), Grundy et al. (2001, 319) write, ‘recent research suggests that these are largely post-Conquest’. Certainly, these areas and others examined by the present author failed to reveal any stonework that could be identified as obviously Anglo-Saxon.

Those who have subscribed to the history and interpretation of the structure of the church are numerous. They include; translations of works by Bede, Turner (1846, 239-242; 1847, 163-164), Raine (1864), Hodges and Savage (1907), Hodges and Gibson (1919; 1921), Brown (1925, 149-184), Collingwood (1925, 65-92; 1927, 22-23, 27-34), Colgrave (1927), Jones (1932-1934, 76), Clapham (1950, 1), Gilbert (1955, 311), Taylor (1959), Taylor and Taylor (1965, 297312), Grundy et al. (2001, 318-327), Bidwell (2010,45145) and others. It seems probable that, as is evident in the crypt, most of the earliest church created by Wilfred was built with building stones that had been previously used by the Romans. The major rebuilding period in Early English style subsequent to 1113 relied on local Lower Carboniferous,

Stonework in the crypt has largely, perhaps wholly, been re-used from an earlier Roman site (quite probably from that at Corbridge). Roman tooling, carving and inscriptions have been described by others and in particular by Bidwell 38

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF NORTHUMBERLAND

Figure 2.55 Hexham, St Andrew (NY 935 641) is not strictly an Abbey, but it is a large building with a very significant history (see text). Here the church is viewed from the south.

Figure 2.57 Some of the Roman re-used carved stones which can be observed in the walls of Hexham crypt. Special oblique lighting has been used to try to penetrate the lime-plaster coatings to show that the stones display Roman decoration. a. Plaster has been heavily applied to all surfaces. In the main relic chamber (with an east-west tunnel-vaulted ceiling, see Figure 2.56), Grundy et al. (2001, 324) describe the plaster as original and ‘as hard as concrete’. This offers a smooth surface in which individual stones are, on occasions, difficult to distinguish. Figure 2.56 The crypt of Hexham church dates from the 7th C. This view of the crypt is taken from the east end of the barrel-roofed relic chamber, towards the west and the entrance staircase. The relics were probably viewed from a window (just out of picture) from a corridor on the north side.

b. In the majority of the wall or quoin stones, rarely could the stone bedding orientation be observed. Nowhere could stones be distinguished showing bedding orientation other than BH. Carving and tooling of Roman origin (Figures 2.57 and 2.58) tends to be rather more obvious than bedding.

(2010, 45-145). In the stones utilised in the ceilings of the crypt, lewis and cramp holes are common. Critical or new observations that might be made must be confined to the following:

c. As observed by the author (Potter 2005b, 187), some of the monolithic stones used for arches between chambers (for example, at all three exits from the west vestibule, or at 39

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 2.58 Roman tooling seen on the walls of Hexham crypt. the west end of the north viewing corridor) have their arch limbs of different lengths. The inference must be that in Roman times the stones were used for some form of bridge structure. 2.13 Ingram, St Michael and All Angels, NU 019 163 The first external view of Ingram church suggests that all but the tower is of relatively recent (Victorian) build, for much of the stonework is of rusticated and snecked character. The square tower is of Norman appearance, although apparently it has been added to an earlier nave (Figure 2.59). The recent history of the church reveals that alterations have been numerous. As described by Grundy et al. (2001, 357-358); in the 18th and 19th centuries the original aisles (and a tower spire) were demolished. The aisles (and, slightly earlier the chancel) were rebuilt in 1879. The tower is also recorded as being rebuilt (Dodds, 1935, 463-470), but occurring over the period 1895 to 1908, the process involved underpinning the structure before rebuilding it using the same materials. As a result, the original Norman character still remains. The church is claimed to have been in ruins about 1600 as a result of Scottish raids.

Figure 2.59 St Michael and All Angels Church, Ingram (NU 019 163) viewed from the south-west. The sturdy square unbuttressed tower looks of Norman character.

Others describing the church include Wilson (1870, 9293) and Taylor and Taylor (1965, 333). A brief account of the church also appears in the English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID 237589) and on two web sites www. northumberlandnationalpark.org.uk one describing the exterior and the other the interior of the church, both by P. F. Ryder. The church is built of sandstone from the Lower Carboniferous, Mississippian.

Figure 2.60 Ingram church tower arch viewed from the east. Note the double row of voussoirs which are probably of two different periods. With so much rebuilding it is difficult to determine the true relationship, but Ryder suggested that the outer circle of voussoirs might have been ‘trimmed back’. The north jamb is three stones deep (Figure 2.61) and certainly not AngloSaxon in character, the majority of the stones being placed BH. There are thought to be two stones on the east face of the north jamb of the arch, however, set BVFIA (stones 2 and 4). The course work displayed in the tower walls is typically of well squared and coursed stones of Norman originality.

It seems that the lower part of the tower, including in part the tower arch, may preserve something of its originality (Figure 2.60). The lower part of the north jamb of the tower arch has its stones reddened by fire (there is also some reddening elsewhere). In the south jamb most of the stones and the impost appear to be new. The arch itself is constructed of two courses of voussoirs which are unrelated. Typically the inner circle would be the younger. 40

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF NORTHUMBERLAND

although modified, are a remnant from the 13th C. They show a larger of four arches at the eastern end indicating the position of original transepts to north and south. Evidence that the loss of the aisles and transepts occurred a long time before replacement aisles were constructed in 1879, may be seen by the presence of an incised sundial at the west respond to the south arch of the south arcade. There is part of a doubtful inverted sundial also on the south chancel wall as well as other carvings elsewhere. There are early roof lines of the nave to be seen on the east tower wall both inside and out, some indication of the care with which the tower was reconstructed during the late Victorian period. 2.14 Lindisfarne (Holy Island), St Mary the Virgin, NU 125 418 Despite its record of importance in early religious history, the island of Lindisfarne (Holy Island) preserves remarkably little which can be considered as Anglo-Saxon, other than carved stones of a wide variety, many of which can be seen in the museum near the Abbey. The Abbey itself appears to show no Anglo-Saxon workmanship (Figure 2.62). The principal treasures are the famous Lindisfarne Gospels (in the British Museum) and the coffin of St Cuthbert (in Durham Cathedral Library). The two principal figures in the island’s history are St Aidan, who founded a monastery on the island in the early 7th C., and St Cuthbert who became the Abbot in 685. The monastery was the scene of the first of the Danish raids on the coast of England in 793. Ultimately, the site was abandoned and finally the monastery settled in Durham in 995.

Figure 2.61 The north jamb to the Ingram church tower arch viewed from the south-east, the jamb being three stones deep. Little of the original nave walls can be seen. They are 0.650.66m. in thickness which caused the Taylors to suggest that the nave was originally Anglo-Saxon. The arcades,

Figure 2.62 St Mary the Virgin church, Lindisfarne (NU 125 418) may be seen here viewed from the south-east and behind the Lindisfarne ruined abbey. 41

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Very many authors have contributed to acquisition of background information with regard to the church. In recent years this has, amongst many, created a popular view that the church may well be built upon the site of the earliest monastery. Further, that this was to be subsequently modified to become an earlier and smaller church than that now seen. This view is based in part on a dowsing survey (Bailey et al. 1988). This earlier church outline provides for a nave based on the width of the current arcades, bordered by several porticus to north and south, and a chancel terminating in the east with an apsed sanctuary which commenced at the position of the current chancel arch.

clearly visible join against the nave, at the nave’s northeast quoin, which the Taylors agreed, did indicate that the nave was the earlier structure (Figure 2.63). From the ground the quoin stones read as follows: ? (lichen covered); ? (lichen covered tie stone; that is, set into aisle wall); BVFL; BVFL; (stone 5) BVFR; BH (possible original string-course stone); BH (tie stone); BH (tie stone); BVFL; ?; BH (either one broken or two stones); BVFR; ? (tie stone); BH (tie stone); BH (tie stone); BVFR; ?BVFL; BVFR (Figure 2.64). Although the quoin has been disrupted at three levels to tie the aisle to the nave it clearly has obvious Anglo-Saxon, Patterned characteristics. The sandstones are of variable colours (pale red, yellow and pale grey), but like the wall fabric they probably represent Lower Carboniferous, Mississippian, sandstones from the adjoining mainland.

The parish church of St Mary, extensively restored in 18601863, was reviewed by Brown (1925, 468) when he wrote ‘the parish church has at the north-east angle of the nave what looks like a long-and-short quoin’. Peers (1923-4) gave Brown an element of support when he suggested that the quoin was ‘somewhat like the work at Heddon-on-theWall’. Taylor and Taylor (1965, 398-9), having made this comparison more recently, concluded that the quoin was –‘probably not pre-Conquest’ (Figure 2.63). The present author (Potter, 2005a), following an examination of the quoin stonework, considered that the nave of this church, although much altered, did show something of its AngloSaxon origins.

There proves to be limited evidence (now recently covered with a newly built vestry) of the south-west nave quoin where the south aisle was likely to be younger (and of Early English age). Three quoin stones only remained, one BVFR, and two further just below the level of the chancel eaves, BH and BVFR. The north nave wall is relatively thin at 0.76m. The most westerly of its four arcade arches differs from those to the east, in being both narrower and of later 13th century style. Interpretations have varied as to why this should be so (Pevsner, 1957, 188; Blair, 1991; O’Sullivan and Young,

Much of the church is of Norman and Early English construction. The Norman north aisle makes a straight,

Figure 2.64 Detail of part of the north-east quoin shown in Figure 2.63. Stone 5 in the quoin is the grey stone just below the string level on the chancel wall.

Figure 2.63 The north-east nave quoin to Lindisfarne church, showing tie stones from the north aisle (on the right) tied in at three levels. The details of the different stones’ bedding orientations are given in the text. 42

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF NORTHUMBERLAND

Figure 2.66 The chancel arch of Lindisfarne church viewed from the nave can be seen cutting into an earlier round arch probably of Norman age.

Figure 2.65 This structure in Lindisfarne church occurs where the north end of the west wall meets the south end of the thinner north aisle wall, giving rise to a quoin-like structure, in which the one readable stone was set BVFL. If this interpretation is correct the early tower would have projected west beyond the west wall of the present church. 1995; Grundy et al. 2001, 338-339) but imply a shortening of the nave. Seen inside the church, an interesting quoin-like structure occurs at the west end of the north arcade, at the junction of the west walls of the nave and the north aisle. The nave west wall is slightly thicker than the more recent aisle’s west wall, a short north-east facing quoin occurs and, although difficult to decipher, in it at least one stone is placed BVFL. It may be tentatively suggested that this structure once served as the north-east quoin to an AngloSaxon tower (once set into an earlier nave) of which, above ground, no other trace remains (Figure 2.65). The present bell tower was built in 1723, so that any such early tower must have been removed before that date.

Figure 2.67 In the same arch at Lindisfarne, viewed here from the chancel, the detail above the south jamb indicates that the wall stones are in a cantilevered disposition. Could they possibly be resting on voussoirs? (Figure 2.67). High above the arch is a simple flat-headed doorway with Escomb style jambs (the lowest stone in the south jamb probably being orientated BVFIA). The doorway passes through the wall above the chancel arch and possesses a single flat lintel stone, and two (chancel side) or three (nave side) stones in its sill (Figures 2.68 and 2.69). This doorway provided Grundy et al. (2001, 338) with sufficient evidence to pronounce this portion of the church as Anglo-Saxon. Nave to chancel roof passages tend

Although the chancel is probably of early 13th century date, the wall into which the chancel arch is built appears to be much older (see Blair, 1991, 49). The arch is broad and pointed, but it is set into a wide semi-circular arch, possibly Norman in style (Figure 2.66). The use of cantilevered stones above the older arch is evidence that this round arch was preceded by a still earlier (?Anglo-Saxon) arch 43

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

The English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID 237039) provides a description of the church. Assuming the sketch is dated correctly, a statement by Grundy et al., that the top of the church tower was rebuilt following a fire, about 1840, to make the tower shorter, cannot be correct. The List description was that after the fire the upper part of the tower was remodelled. Some reddened stone is certainly visible. The building stones throughout the church are of Lower Carboniferous, Mississippian, sandstones. In walls, this stone occurs in large well-squared blocks in courses, in Norman style workmanship, where the occasional stone as ‘spacers’ may be introduced in BV fashion. Victorian rebuilding work, as in the Vestry, is created also in wellsquared stones and in courses. Older walling tends to be created in rubble. More than one sandstone source is used, a coarser red sandstone in the lower tower, and a grey sandstone generally for Victorian work. Figure 2.72, showing the north walls of both the tower and the nave, illustrates the various sandstones well. In the north

Figure 2.68 The doorway high above the chancel arch at Lindisfarne as seen from the chancel. The door jamb stones are large and may be observed to be through stones.

Figure 2.69 The doorway above Lindisfarne chancel arch viewed from nave. The bedding orientations of the stones are regrettably too high and dark to be read. The stones in the jambs give an Escomb style appearance.

Figure 2.70 St Peter and St Paul, Longhoughton (NU 243 151) as seen from the south is illustrated in this sketch dated 1836.

to be found in the earlier Anglo-Saxon churches such as Repton, in Derbyshire. If an alignment of the Abbey ruin, St Mary, and the chapel on St Cuthbert Isle is accepted, there is at Lindisfarne, as also at Canterbury and Repton, an east-west alignment of early churches. 2.15 Longhoughton, St Peter and St Paul, NU 243 151 Longhoughton church has received very limited attention with respect to its early history. Grundy et al. (2001, 383384) wrote only that, ‘the walls of the nave and the west part of the chancel are probably mid-11th C.’. Tate (1864) provides background information with regard to the church, and there exists a sketch of the church (Figure 2.70), viewed from the south, dated 1836. This may be compared with a modern view as shown in Figure 2.71. Lambeth Palace Library (ICBS Nos 02714 and 07551) advise of rebuilding programmes in 1840-1844 (largely involving removal of box pews and gallery) and in 1873-1874 (north nave roof rebuilt, new windows throughout, and vestry built).

Figure 2.71 Again viewed from the south, this modern picture of Longhoughton church can be compared with Figure 2.70. The two towers are of comparable height and a ground floor window has been added since 1836. 44

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF NORTHUMBERLAND

Figure 2.72 The north wall of both part of the tower and the nave of Longhoughton church are illustrated. Viewed from the north-west, walling of different ages is shown. The rubble walling is in this instance probably medieval, that in the tower Romanesque and that higher in the nave Victorian. The lower part of a north nave doorway (arrow) can be seen. nave wall, the base of a broad doorway is preserved in the rubble older wall. The jamb stones, surviving and readable, appear to be set BH. A ground floor narrow round-headed window is present in the tower’s north wall (Figure 2.73). Set in the red sandstone (but in appearance green as a result of lichen), in character the window is Norman, but in precision probably, in keeping with the 1873-1874 statement of intent (see above), it is Victorian. Only three jamb stones could be read, all BH. Similar windows are present on the south and west walls. That in the south wall is absent in Figure 2.70, and it must be concluded that the 1873 repairs and alterations on the tower were fairly extensive. The tower’s western side-alternate quoins, over their first stage, each contain a BVFL and a BVFR stone. The east tower wall presents a challenge in interpreting past higher roof lines, not all of which are shown in Figure 2.74. That the south aisle once had a higher roof is shown in a sketch of 1870 by F. R. Wilson. Certainly one of the roof lines is Figure 2.73 In the ground floor of the tower of Longhoughton church on the south, west and north walls are narrow windows. This is the window on the north wall. Romanesque in form, from the appearance of the stonework it is likely to be Victorian. 45

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 2.74 Longhouhton church is here viewed from the south-east. The east wall of the tower carries the marks of a number of different nave roof levels. that of a high roof which covered jointly both the nave and the aisle. The church nave was extended to the south with the construction of a three-bay arcade in the 1200-1250 period. The four original nave quoins are no longer visible but a large basal stone where the south-east quoin would have occurred is set BVFR. The south nave wall is only 0.65m. thick. Both are features which might tentatively suggest an Anglo-Saxon origin. The chancel arch (Figures 2.75 and 2.76) appears to have been rebuilt on its western face probably in the Victorian period but on the east face the stonework seems to possess more originality with two jamb stones set BVFIA on the south side and one on the north. The chancel and this arch are both affected by a marked weep to the north. The arch is thought to be Norman in style, reflecting when the arch may have been rebuilt (Figure 2.77). The hagioscope in the south portion of the chancel arch wall has an unusual alignment which suggests when it was in use, the altar was further to the west and towards the centre of the current chancel. The lower stonework in the exterior of the south chancel wall appears to indicate a Norman extension to the chancel. Figure 2.75 The chancel arch at Longhoughton church viewed from the west. The weep of the chancel to the north is marked.

Unfortunately, the evidence of an Anglo-Saxon origin for this church is anything but convincing. Were it possible 46

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF NORTHUMBERLAND

Figure 2.77 The underside of the Longhoughton chancel arch, viewed from the east side to show the arch Romanesque structure. to read the orientations of the stonework in the various structures more easily, the determination of their age would have been more discerning. 2.16 Old Bewick, Holy Trinity, NU 067 222 Old Bewick is a small church and it consisted of a nave and an apsidal chancel only (Figure 2.78). To the nave a south porch was added in the ‘Victorian’ period (much of its stonework has feathered edges) and, as recently as 2002,

Figure 2.76 The same chancel arch viewed from the east. Note the hagioscope to the south of the arch. On the east face of the arch more stones appear to be original.

Figure 2.78 A view of the east end of the nave and the apsidal chancel of Holy Trinity church, Old Bewick (NU 067 222), from the north. 47

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

a vestry was added to the north wall. A twin bell-cote rises above the east end of the nave. Grundy et al. (2001, 535) have written one of the few descriptions of the church in which they wrote, ‘the north wall has stonework which is distinctly Anglo-Saxon in character’. The church is built of Lower Carboniferous, Mississippian, greyish sandstone, some of which had been previously used in Roman buildings. A number of these stones preserve lewis holes. The interior of the church is, fortunately, free from plaster making the walls easier to study (Figure 2.79).

That the church was in existence in 1107 is recognised from a record stating it was given to Tynemouth Priory in that year by Queen Maud, on the death of her father. Certainly there is ample evidence of Norman workmanship, particularly internally. It has been stated that the church was a ruin in the 18th C. and it was restored in 1866-1867. In the vestry there is a record of a further restoration in 1695. Noticeably, the western nave quoin stones are placed sidealternately over their lower portion. When the detail of their bedding orientation is read they are clearly of AngloSaxon creation. The north-west nave quoin rises as follows (Figure 2.80): a bold, chamfered and weathered plinth BH; BVFR; ?BH; BH; BVFL (oblique); BVFR; all higher stones BH. The south-west nave quoin stones rise as follows (Figure 2.81): bold weathered chamfered plinth, unusually set BVFR; BH; BH; BVFL; all higher stones BH. Above stone 9 there is a change in style (and a slight break) and all higher stones are set face-alternately. The north-east nave quoin proved too lichen covered to read, but the south-east quoin provided: chamfered plinth; ?; BH; BVFR; BVFL; oblique; ?BVFL; wall divide and higher stones BH.

Figure 2.79 The inside of Old Bewick church as viewed from the nave towards the apsidal chancel sanctuary.

Figure 2.80 The lower part of the north-west nave quoin at Old Bewick church. The lowest five stones above the plinth read: BH; BVFR; ?BH; BH; BVFL (oblique).

Figure 2.81 The south-west quoin at Old Bewick also shows Patterned characteristics. There is a sudden change in stone insertion style (to face-alternate) above stone 9. 48

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF NORTHUMBERLAND

of the tower (of three floors) is divided from the upper by a simple square string course. The church has been described by Hodges (1893), Brown (1925, 474), Dodds (1926, 6171), Taylor and Taylor (1965, 478-9), Kerr and Kerr (1982, 26), Grundy et al. (2001, 538-539) and others. An English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID 239469) account of the church is given on the web. The church is geologically sited on the Upper Carboniferous, Pennsylvanian, Lower Coal Measures and its walls are constructed from fairly coarse, buff sandstones probably from these deposits. To the north and south of the tower are enclosing modern buildings; but the western tower quoins remain visible. The stone settings in the two quoins read as follows: North-west tower quoin: BH; BVFL (with bench mark); BH; BVFL; BVFR; BVFL; BVFR; ?; BH; BH; BH (with lewis hole?); BH (inverted); BVFR; BVFL; BVFR; BVFL; BVFR; BVFL; etc. (Figure 2.84 displays the lower part of this quoin, stones 1 to 6). South-west tower quoin: BVFL; BVFR; BVFL; BVFR; BH; BVFR; BVFL (with lewis hole?); diagonal; BH (diagonal); BVFL?; BH; BVFR; higher uncertain.

Figure 2.82 The external view of the apse at Old Bewick as observed from the north-east. Note the bell-cote is placed at the east end of the nave, and the church, as is so frequently the case, is covered in lichen. Internally, the north nave wall displays more irregular and less well-coursed stonework over perhaps the first five courses (see Figure 2.79) as indicated by Grundy et al. (2001). The Norman work, with well-squared blocks and distinctive course work is clearly distinguishable and the Romanesque chancel arch, as detailed by the same authors, is very noticeable. The Norman chancel terminated with an apse with three small monosplay windows: the apse being semi-circular inside and polygonal outside. In the 14th C., the east end was squared and provided with diagonal buttresses (Figure 2.82). The external walls of both the nave and the chancel have been raised quite significantly at a time of later reroofing (see Figure 2.78). 2.17 Ovingham, St Mary the Virgin, NZ 085 637 Ovingham is a large, much rebuilt church, close to the northern banks of the River Tyne. As with Escomb, Ovingham church is situated in a circular, central village, graveyard; a situation generally interpreted as indicative of an early origin. The tall, west tower is thought to be Anglo-Saxon apart from the parapet, and accordingly in each face of the tower, the belfry outlined in strip-work is thought to be of this age (Figure 2.83). The lower portion

Figure 2.83 Ovingham church (NZ 085 637), viewed here from the south-west. The tall Anglo-Saxon tower is dominant in the view. 49

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 2.84 The present author points out the obvious BH quoin stone in the lower stones of the north-west quoin of the tower at Ovingham. The first six stones rise BH; BVFL; BH; BVFL; BVFR; BVFL.

Figure 2.86 The north face of the tower at Ovingham church at belfry level, is similar to that in the south.

Figure 2.85 The double belfry window and surrounding strip-work in the south face of Ovingham church tower. Scrutiny of the stonework of these structures by means of binoculars indicates that all the stones used are either placed BVFIA or BH, clear indication that they are of Patterned, Anglo-Saxon build. Below the belfry there is a doorway which opens into space.

Figure 2.87 As is Ovingham church west face belfry window. The tower possesses various openings all of which are normally thought to be Anglo-Saxon. Each face can be viewed in turn to check the veracity of this view. In the upper stage above the square string-course, in each face of the tower, there is a double-belfry window with surrounding 50

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF NORTHUMBERLAND

Figure 2.89 The north-west nave quoin is barely visible for it is virtually hidden by the buttress which appears relatively modern (The nave quoin is seen and arrowed to the left of the buttress at a high level where the buttress is less pronounced). This quoin shows no bedding orientations other than BH and is not Anglo-Saxon.

Figure 2.88 Below the west face belfry window at Ovingham church (Figure 2.87), this round-headed window lights the first floor. The jambs to this window are only created in BVFIA/BH stones, typical of Anglo-Saxon work. strip-work. The stones in both the jambs and the vertical strip-work in each window appear to be set only BVFIA and BH in Patterned style. This is best seen, with the aid of binoculars, in the better lit south face of the tower (Figure 2.85), but as reduced in size here is impossible to show. Figures 2.86 and 2.87 show the corresponding views for the tower north and the west faces. Below the string-course, there are no openings in the north face, but the west face displays a round-headed window (which lights the first floor) with typical BVFIA/BH jambs (Figure 2.88). In the south face there is a window which appears similar in style and which lights the ground floor. All jamb stones are set BH, however, indicating either that the window has been rebuilt or that it is a newer introduction. A round-headed doorway (see Figure 2.85) occurs above this window, opening (from the second floor) into space as at St Andrew, Bywell and other well-known Anglo-Saxon churches such as Earls Barton in Northamptonshire. When viewed through binoculars its jambs appear to be set to AngloSaxon pattern, although the BVFIA stones are relatively small. On the east side of the tower, the ground floor tower arch has been cut away to permit an organ to be placed in the tower. At first floor level a doorway enters the upper levels of the nave and a further doorway on the next floor opens above the current nave roof.

west quoin can be seen to contain stones emplaced BVFR, BVFL and BH. It appears, therefore, that the west nave wall and the thin nave walls above their respective north and south aisles are also likely to be Anglo-Saxon. Elsewhere, the church preserves workmanship ranging from Norman through to Victorian fabric. A 13th century lancet window in the chancel for instance reveals that the overlapping south transept is of later build. 2.18 Stamfordham, St Mary the Virgin, NZ 076 720 The church at Stamfordham stands above a small bluff to the east of a low-lying area thought once to have been lake (Figure 2.90). As an historic church it has received very little study for in 1847 to 1851 it received an extensive rebuild (Lambeth Palace Library ICBS 03994), leaving the site somewhat barren of evidence. Both Pevsner and Richmond (1957, 292-294) and Grundy et al. (2001, 575576) in their descriptions of the church referred to a possible Anglo-Saxon quoin at the south-west corner of the nave. Otherwise, structural features which were not thought to be Victorian were principally believed to be 13th C. A web site description of the church is available under the English Heritage list of Listed Buildings (ID 238894). The grey or buff sandstones used in the church may all be classified as Upper Carboniferous, Pennsylvanian, Coal Measure Sandstones. A considerable amount of the rebuilding used the original stone from the earlier church.

On either side of the tower the upper portions of the western nave quoins are visible. Above the boiler facilities to the north of the tower, the north-west nave quoin, virtually hidden by a ‘Victorian’ buttress, appears to have been fairly recently rebuilt (Figure 2.89). The corresponding south51

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 2.90 Viewed from the north-west St Mary the Virgin, Stamfordham (NZ 076 720) can be seen to stand above a lowlying area once thought to have been occupied by a lake.

Figure 2.91 Within Stamfordham church tower the faint outline of an Anglo-Saxon or early Norman round-headed west doorway exists (arrows).

Figure 2.92 The south wall of Stamfordham church tower displays lancet windows which although displaying 13th C. heads could have been modified from earlier Norman work. The base of the tower on this face shows Victorian rebuilding which may also be observed on the south aisle walls (right). 52

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF NORTHUMBERLAND

Figure 2.93 Stamfordham church is viewed here from the north-east. Some of the tower of three stages has been rebuilt. Covering the central portion of the first two stages is a broad and heavy buttress. From the interior of the tower it is possible to see the outline of an original round-headed doorway, which is now blocked and both voussoirs and jambs are barely visible (Figure 2.91). It is hidden by the external buttress, and may be of either Anglo-Saxon or early Norman origin. Small 13th C. (possibly modified Norman) lancet windows remain in the walls of the lower stages of the tower (Figure 2.92). When the tower was built the west nave wall was incorporated to become the east tower wall. This wall was at the time strengthened with a further course of stone on its inner (west) face so that it is now 0.92m. thick. The doorway through the west nave wall must be a replacement for an earlier doorway. The nave of the church has aisles to north and south (Figures 2.93 and 2.94) and the nave walls which have been penetrated in the construction of the arcades (now largely rebuilt) are respectively 0.70m. and 0.72m. thick. The west walls of the two aisles just embrace the tower arch, the north aisle fully, the south very nearly. Figure 2.94 A view from the east towards the west nave doorway at Stamfordham church. Both arcades show evidence of Victorian reconstruction. 53

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

work in 1764-1765 certainly impacted on these areas and the battlemented uppermost belfry stage in the tower in grey squared sandstone probably reflects such work. Below this level, authors (including those listed above) have argued if none, all, or only part, of the tower is of Anglo-Saxon age. It was with regard to Warden church tower that Gilbert (1946) wrote: ‘The evidence of quoins in interpreting a church is of greater importance than perhaps hitherto has been conceded. There is no scientific terminology for dealing with quoins.’ Gilbert (1946, 159) As Gilbert himself discovered when he applied the scientific system which he created, one dependent on block shapes (see section 2.1.2b), it was not wholly successful, even when used at Warden. His system is impossible to apply also if the quoin stones are not block shaped. Gilbert noted that the western quoins in Warden church tower were a mixture of face- and side- alternate stonework. Applying a simple geological analysis to these quoins the results provide the following. The south-west tower quoin reads: 1. BVFR* (a re-used Roman stone that has a lewis hole on its south face and has been turned from its Roman position); 2. BVFL*; 3. Figure 2.95 The limited view (arrow) of the south-west nave quoin at Stamfordham, which reveals evidence of Anglo-Saxon stonework. The edge of the south-west nave quoin as a result, is just exposed between the aisle and the tower’s south wall (Figure 2.95). The lowest portion of this nave quoin is not visible but where the quoin stones may be noted they read: BVFL; BVFL; BH; BVFR; BH; BH; BVFL; BVFL; BVFR; BVFR (the highest stone remaining). This provides undoubted evidence that the nave is of an AngloSaxon, Patterned origin. 2.19 Warden, St Michael and All Angels, NY 913 664 Warden is a large cruciform church, represented by a nave and transepts which are essentially 13th C. and a Victorian chancel. At the west end of the nave there is plain unbuttressed tower, and to the south of the nave a porch (Figure 2.96). The church has been described by Hodges (1893, 65-68, 85), Brown (1903; 1925, 484), Gilbert (1946, 157-159), Taylor and Taylor (1965, 632-634), Grundy et al. (2001), Potter (2005a, 206) and Purves (2006, 67) as well as others. The church stands close to and west of the point where the North and South Tyne Rivers unite, a locality referred to by Bede as of reverence as early as the 8th C. The majority of the stonework in the church is of very local Pennsylvanian, Upper Carboniferous Sandstones, but the Millstone Grit, which also outcrops close by, is used more rarely.

Figure 2.96 A view of Warden, St Michael and All Angels church (NY 913 664) from the west to show the tower, and below the belfry the single window in the west wall which is likely to be of Norman build.

Attention must be applied to the church tower and nave in order to seek the earlier periods of construction. Rebuilding 54

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF NORTHUMBERLAND

BVFR*; 4. BH*; 5. BH; 6. BH; 7. BH; 8. BH; 9. BH; 10. ?; 11. BH; 12. BVFL*; 13. BH; 14. BH; etc. The north-west quoin reads: 1. BH* (with Roman cramp mark); 2. BVFR*(with Roman tooling); 3. BVFL*; 4. BVFR*; 5. BH; 6. BH; 7. BH; 8. BH; 9. BH; 10. BVFR*; 11. BH; 12. BH; etc. Stones asterisked thus* are placed side-alternately; if not asterisked they are face-alternately placed. The facealternate stones are all noticeably set BH. The Patterned (Anglo-Saxon) portions of the quoins are only the first 4 stones in each quoin. The face-alternate portions are, therefore, likely to be Norman (as found typically to be the case elsewhere). There is, however, much more to be observed. Between stones 3 and 4, 4 and 5, and 5 and 6 in the south-west, and 2 and 3 and 3 and 4 in the northwest quoin, small flat river pebbles in sandstone or black basalt or chert have been inserted. Insertions of this type (typically slate or tile) are used to re-balance large stone blocks when they have been re-positioned. Ascending the two quoins the number of side-alternate BVFR, BVFL, BH, stones decreases at the expense of BH face-alternate stones. It would appear that the original Anglo-Saxon tower was extensively rebuilt, and probably this occurred in the Norman period. One final wholly geological point can be made; BH stones 5, 6, 7, 8 in the south-west, and 8 in the north-west, quoin were inverted. Stone inversion in use is normally uncommon, it could result in increased weathering, and possibly the masons involved in this work were inexperienced. This level of detailed analysis has been offered here, in recognition that Warden church was where Gilbert first recognised the importance of the study of wall quoins.

Figure 2.97 The lower portion of the south wall of the tower at Warden church. The stonework of the window suggests that it is Norman. In the foreground an early (probably 11th C.) cross head has been erected.

Other elements of the tower have been discussed by both Gilbert (1946) and other authors. For the windows a Norman date tends to have been preferred. The single window on the west wall (see Figure 2.96) has its large arching head stone BVEIA but the jamb stones display no comparable settings, and externally the Norman date appears applicable. There are two slightly smaller windows on the south wall. The lower of these (Figure 2.97), again with BVEIA head stone, has three jamb stones on either side, and on the east side the lowest appears to be BVEIA (although most stones were unreadable or BH); suggesting Norman construction or rebuilding. The higher south wall window proved too difficult to read but it has only a single long jamb stone to either side. The trace of a blocked opening from the first floor of the tower to the upper nave, which is evident only on the east tower wall, fails to provide any confirming evidence from its jambs.

Figure 2.98 The detail of the foot of the north-west nave quoin and its plinth at Warden church. The west wall of the tower is to the right. the long top jamb stone on the north side also BVFIA, the stonework would suggest that the arch is certainly of Anglo-Saxon origin.

The tower arch proves to be more revealing. The analysis of the imposts caused the Taylors significant identification problems; however, much of their composition to both north and south appears to be of modern creation, with little original stonework. The south jamb proved to be readable, rising above the step, ?; BH; BVFIA; BH; BVFIA. With

The west end of the nave extends slightly beyond the tower to expose the north-west nave quoin (Figure 2.98). It has been suggested that the plinth to the original nave wall which carries the quoin could be Anglo-Saxon (Taylor and 55

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Taylor, 1965, 633), but nothing visible in the stonework confirms this suggestion. To the south of the tower (see Figure 2.97) a hammer-head cross-head, probably of 11th C. age, may be viewed.

The south-west quoin rises above a bevelled plinth as: ?; BVFL; ?(with bench mark on south face), BVFL*:

2.20 Whittingham, St Bartholomew, NU 066 119 It seems probable that some of the early history of Whittingham church is provided in the records of Symeon of Durham (Arnold, 1882, 68-69, 202-203; 1885, 114) from which an early 8th C. date may be appended to the church. The church now consists of a west tower, a nave with aisles, transepts, and a chancel with a vestry to the north. Much of the church carries evidence of the extensive rebuilding (some describe it as destruction) of 1840. The church throughout appears to be constructed of local, Lower Carboniferous, Mississippian, cream and yellowish sandstones. Those who have contributed to the history of the church, apart from Arnold, include Rickman (1836, 29-30; 1848), Hodges (1893. 63-85; 1928, 81-86), Brown (1925, 485486), Dodds (1935, 482-587), Honeyman (1935, 177-182), Taylor and Taylor (1965, 657-660), Grundy et al. (2001, 627-628), Potter (2005b, 206, 213) and others. Fortunately, the Gothic church was not completed in 1840 and significant parts of the church reveal their Anglo-Saxon origin. The lower portion of the tower reveals its Patterned character particularly in its western quoins (Figure 2.99). Figure 2.100 The north-west quoin to the Whittingham church tower may be seen in this view from the north-west.

Figure 2.99 St Bartholomew, Whittingham (NU 066 119) viewed for the west- south-west to display the south-west nave quoin of both the nave and tower.

Figure 2.101 The north-west tower quoin at Whittingham church in this view is somewhat enlarged. 56

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF NORTHUMBERLAND

BH; BVFL; BVFL;BVFR; BH; BVFL; BH; BVFR; BH (Diagonal); BH; BVFL; BH; to rebuilt quoin above. The north-west tower quoin (Figures 2.100 and 2.101) rises: bevelled plinth BH; BH; BVFR; BVFL; BVFR; BVFL; BH(stone 6); BVFL*; BH; BVFR (stone 9); BH; BVFL; BH; BH; BH; ?; BH; BVFR?; rebuilt above. The details of stones 6 to 9 are shown in Figure 2.102. As noted by the Taylors (1965), ascending these quoins there is a change in style (shown at the*) between what would be called side-alternate to long and short, possibly indicating two building periods. They also referred to the use of more than one short stone (only seen once in each quoin) as is sometimes evident in West Sussex churches (as at Greatham, TQ 043 160). All the tower windows have been rebuilt but the tower arch preserves its Anglo-Saxon features well (Figure 2.103). Parts of the arch have been renewed, but the stones in the jambs read as follows (read from the east): The south jamb (Figure 2.104) rises; chamfered plinth (east side shortened); BVFIA; BH (stone cracked); BVFIA (with knife sharpening grooves); BH; BVFIA, BVFIA (part replaced, east side BVEIA); BH; BVFIA (?new): BVFIA (new); impost (BH). Figure 2.103 The tower arch of Whittingham church viewed from the south-east.

Figure 2.102 The detail of stones 6 to 9 inclusive from the same north-west tower quoin (BH, BVFL, BH, BVFR) at Whittingham are now visible.

Figure 2.104 The lower stones from the south jamb (stones 1 to 6) of the Whittingham tower arch are here enlarged.

57

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

The north jamb (Figure 2.105) rises; chamfered plinth, east side shortened; BVFIA; BH; BVFIA; BH; BVFIA; ?; BVFIA, ?; impost (BH). All jamb stones were originally through stones, but the western side of many of the stones has been repaired. There are signs of a tower fire, with many burnt stones within the tower. The west quoins of the nave also reveal readable evidence of their Anglo-Saxon origin, in both instances they are adjoined by the later aisle. The south-west nave quoin reads: on chamfered plinth; BVFL; BVFR; BVFL; BVFR; BH; BVFL; BH; ?: BH; ?BVFL; replaced above by south aisle. The north-west nave quoin reads: plinth partly buried; BVFL; BVFR: BVFL; tie stone from north aisle; BVF?; BVFR; ?BVFL; BVFR; BVFL; BH; ?; BH; ?; replaced above with north aisle. The vestiges of the south-east nave quoin may be seen in the angle between the south transept and the chancel, and stones 6 to 10 may be read as; BH; BVFL; BH; BVFR; BH. The counterpart north-east nave quoin may be viewed in the vestry to which entry could not be gained. Other aspects of this church have been described by others.

Figure 2.105 At Whittingham tower arch the north jamb stones (1 to 7) can be seen more clearly.

Figure 2.106 St Mary the Virgin, Woodhorn (NZ 301 888) is viewed here from the south-east. 58

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF NORTHUMBERLAND

Figure 2.107 The lower portion of the south-west nave quoin of Woodhorn church viewed from the west.

Figure 2.108 The angle between the tower south wall and the aisle west wall at Woodhorn church in which the nave quoin is exposed.

2.21 Woodhorn, St Mary the Virgin, NZ 301 888 Inside, the church is known to possess two early windows which were cut when the Norman arcades were created through the earlier nave walls. These walls, according to the Taylors (1965, 682), were only 0.87m. thick. The windows are fairly complete (the better in the north arcade). They are single-splay, may be seen both inside and out (i.e. from the respective aisles) and reveal a portion of their jambs. Photographs taken from ground level by others fail to assist in determining their age.

Woodhorn Church consists of a west tower, a nave with 12th C. aisles, a chancel and a south porch. The church was extensively rebuilt in 1843 and made redundant in 1973. It has subsequently served as a museum, but at the time of visits no one could be found who held the key. Descriptions of, and details relating to, the church have appeared in the works of the following authors; Wilson (1870, 179-182), Anon. (1890-1895, xxxi), Taylor and Taylor (1965, 682683), Grundy et al. (2001, 633), Purves (2006) and others. A description of the church appears in the English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID 235903) web site. The church is built of local Upper Carboniferous, Pennsylvanian, Coal Measures sandstones.

2.22 Brief notes on some of the other sites visited 2.22.1 Alnwick, St Leonard Hospice, NU 187 144 The history of this building is poorly known. The hospice is generally thought to have been founded between 1193 and 1216 and to have been independent until it was annexed to Alnwick Abbey in 1376. Its exact whereabouts were lost until the foundations were rediscovered in the mid-19th C. Clearly rebuilt (apparently using original stones), the two fragmentary walls, which now partly exist, reveal nothing that appears to pre-date the 12th C (Figure 2.109).

With much of the exterior of the church built in Victorian times (Figure 2.106), only small portions of the church’s early heritage remain visible. Remnants of the early nave western quoins can be examined at the contacts with their respective aisles, the quoin to the south-west being the better preserved (Figures 2.107 and 2.108). This rises upon its plinth; BVFR; ?; 2 stones replacing one original; 4 probably reset BH stones: ?; 3 further BH stones; BVFR; above this the detail could not be determined. The northwest quoin provides little evidence, for the quoin is not fully aligned and has almost certainly been rebuilt. It contains two stones set BVFR in the lowest four.

2.22.2 Bamburgh, St Aidan, NU 178 349 St Aidan is claimed to have founded the first church on this site in 635 and, according to Bede, this church was built of wood. The earliest part of the current church is the nave which is probably of late 12th C age. The church is large and 59

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

currently includes a chancel (with 13th C. crypt beneath), both north and south transepts and aisles, and a 13th-14th C. tower which is enclosed by the aisles (Figure 2.110). The plinth to the north-east nave quoin is clasping in Norman style; but that to the south-east has been modified to become a buttress. The church is built mainly of local, moderately squared blocks of Lower Carboniferous sandstone. The church has been described by Grundy et.al. (2001), Purves (2006) and as a Grade 1 listed site in the English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID237851) web site. Taylor and Taylor (1965, 715) advised that they had been unable to find any pre-Conquest masonry in the church. 2.22.3 Bywell, site of chapel, NZ 052 618 The large scale Ordnance Survey maps indicate the site of a ruined chapel just to the south of Bywell road bridge over the River Tyne. The area of relatively thick overgrown woodland was scoured for a possible ruin. About 25m. from the river and 50m. from the road a ruined concrete building (probably dating from the 1939-1945 period) exists and inside several old gravestones are included. The site has been described as that of a ‘domestic chapel’. 2.22.4 Guyzance chapel, NU 208 032 Situated within a corner of an 18th C. walled graveyard, the site has been described locally as St Wilfred’s chapel

Figure 2.109 The exterior of the north door of the ruined hospice chapel of St Leonard, Alnwick (NU 187 144).

Figure 2.110 St Aidan Church, Bamburgh (NU 178 349). viewed from the south- east reveals nothing of its 7th C. foundation. The nave is of late 12th C. date, and appears to represent the earliest portion of the present church. 60

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF NORTHUMBERLAND

Figure 2.111 The ruined Guyzance chapel (NU 208 032) occurs within an 18th C. walled graveyard. The chapel is here viewed from the south-west. (Figure 2.111). Its origin is uncertain, but Grundy et al. have suggested that it might relate to Premonstratensian nunnery founded about 1147. The masonry of the earlier parts appears early 12th C in character and the site possibly fell into disuse in the early 18th C. The stone used throughout is a yellow-buff well-bedded sandstone (weathering grey in appearance largely as a result of lichen), probably from the local Upper Carboniferous, Pennsylvanian, Lower Coal Measures. The northern wall of the chapel also serves as the north wall of the graveyard. The nave has the remains of an arcade, with round piers, on its south side, and evidence of a narrow west window. The aisle and the south-west corner of the nave are missing, and there is no clear evidence of direct entry into the nave, unless it was by the south wall of the aisle. At the position of the north-west nave quoin, now absorbed into the graveyard wall, there are two BVFL stones, but their position in terms of the quoin is unclear. The chancel, of same width as the nave, appears to have been rebuilt possibly in the 14th C. The north walls of both nave and chancel (now in the graveyard wall) are tied into each other (all BH) on the external surface but the chancel has something of a straight join internally. Figure 2.112 The south door to the chancel at Guyzance. Through the south door the blocked north door to the chancel may be viewed.

In the chancel south wall the priest’s door, illustrated in Figure 2.112, has to its east the frame of a very large window which appears to be 14th C. in character. The 61

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

inside of the blocked door on the chancel north wall may be seen in Figure 2.112 (taken through the south doorway). Internally the north doorway, where jamb stones read BH, might be interpreted as early 13th C., but externally, where the pointed curved head is constructed of two stones, it might be as late as 15th C. In the interior walls of the chancel there are both a trefoiled piscina and a slate- lined aumbry.

east window (Figure 2.113). The English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID 239994) suggests that the chancel was probably rebuilt in the 17th C. No architectural detail is left within the walls. The cream (largely grey lichen covered) sandstone employed throughout the standing fabric is of Lower Carboniferous, Mississippian age. Walls are created in well squared and coursed stonework and built in Norman style with rubble infill between the outer and inner walls. This would suggest a building date before the earliest date recognised for the castle. The chapel is thought to have been largely demolished about 1816 (Grundy et al. 2001, 306-307).

There is no real evidence of any pre-Norman fabric visible in the Guyzance site. 2.22.5 Haughton Castle chapel, NY 920 727 Haughton Castle was thought to have been a tower house in the 13th C. The ruins of this chapel are set in the private castle grounds and occur about 150m. to the south-east of the castle.

2.22.6 Lindisfarne, St Cuthbert’s chapel, NU 123 416 Situated on a tidal island about 180m. from the shore, and to the south-west of the church of St Mary the Virgin (see section 2.14) there are the ruins of a chapel. The site is claimed to have been used by St Cuthbert when he first sought solitude when at Lindisfarne. The remains on the island are fragmentary but are believed to represent those of the foundations of a small medieval chapel (possibly of 13th C. date), and to its east, a smaller and earlier building which might possibly be related to St Cuthbert’s 7th C. cell (or was probably subsequently built on the site of the cell).

The chapel site was partly excavated in 1936 by Honeyman (in Dodds, 1940, 201-202). Part of the only original fabric standing (to just over a metre in height) may probably represent the south-east quoin of the nave and a short stretch of the adjoining south nave and chancel walls. If this is the correct identification, the south-east nave quoin possesses only BH jamb stones. The east chancel wall rises to its full height and retains the space for a moderately large

Figure 2.113 Haughton Castle chapel (NY 920 727) set in the grounds of the private castle is seen here from the west. The standing stonework reveals little evidence of the chapel’s date of construction. 62

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF NORTHUMBERLAND

Figure 2.114 St Michael and All Angels, Newburn (NZ 167 654) in recent years suffered a serious fire. Now repaired it is seen here from the south. All the stonework on the island is of the igneous black rock, dolerite. This was obtained from the adjacent Lindisfarne shore line where it forms a small but impressive intrusion. Although the dolerite possesses a crystalline lineation this is invisible to the naked eye, and the rock cannot be used for simple orientation purposes. Furthermore, the rocks on the island are often fragmentary and not situated in recognisable ecclesiastical structures. 2.22.7 Newburn, St Michael and All Angels, NZ 167 654 Newburn is now incorporated into the western suburbs of the District of Newcastle. In the past it was a place of some significance in its own right. It is a site of interest to railway buffs and has connections with several railway pioneers, including Stephenson. Something of the early history of the church is known, for in about 1067 it was burnt down and about this time Copsi, William the Conqueror’s appointee as Earl of Northumberland, was murdered near to the church. Regrettably, in 2006, there was a further fire at the church causing damage in excess of £2million. The damage mainly affected the older portions of the church, the tower and the nave. Only the exterior of the church could be examined (Figure 2.114). Figure 2.115 The west tower of Newburn church in which the stonework below the first string course, from the limited evidence available, is thought to be of Norman construction.

Grundy et al. (2001, 405-406) described the church prior to the 2006 fire. The west tower has clasping buttresses (Figure 2.115) which terminate at about half height, 63

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 2.116 The blocked and modified west doorway to the west tower at Newburn, despite its megalithic jamb stones, provides no evidence from its stonework of a preNorman age.

Figure 2.117 A very thin strip of the south-east nave quoin (arrow) at Newburn church. This occurs between the south transept (left) and the chancel. It no longer aligns with the present termination of the east end of the nave which has recently been rebuilt. There are suggestions that it represents a portion of an Anglo-Saxon nave and this could be confirmed with cleaning of the stonework.

probably just below the level where Norman work gives way to newer building. The church is constructed of cream to yellow Upper Carboniferous, Pennsylvanian, Upper Coal Measure sandstones. In the past industrial environment of Newcastle smoke and soot have coated many of the stones, so that they appear black, and without cleaning, prove impossible to read for bedding orientations. The narrow window in the west wall of the tower, below the first string course has been suggested as possibly Anglo-Saxon; it has 3 stones to each jamb, but of these only one could be read (as BH); insufficient to provide information as to determine the possible date of construction. The stonework of the tower, with its similar shaped fairly squared blocks, tends to suggest a Norman rather than Anglo-Saxon origin. At ground level (Figure 2.116) the blocked west doorway has been also regarded as Anglo-Saxon largely because of its megalithic jamb stones. The orientation of these stones could not be read. It should be noticed the some of the stones in the south jamb exhibit ‘joggling’ (cut to allow insertion). The arching voussoir stones are not in sympathy with the megalithic jamb stones. Could the whole have been constructed at the time of the 1827 rebuilding work? The window inserted into the blocked doorway is later of course.

nave exists (Figure 2.117). Unfortunately, these stones too are, because of soot coating, too difficult to read. (The first stone above the drip course of the transept east wall is set BVFR). They are also obscured somewhat by the drainpipe. Without knowing the recent history of the church, the thought is to disregard this structure for it does not align with the position of the roof. The roof and nave walls have been modified, however, with the rebuilding resulting from the 2006 fire. With cleaning, this quoin might possibly provide evidence as to whether any of the church Anglo-Saxon structure still survives. 2.22.8 Norham, St Cuthbert, NT 897 474 Although Arnold (1882, 52), recounting Symeon of Durham, states that Bishop Ecgred built a church at Norham in the 9th C., today the evidence of this church takes the form only of carved stones from that period. The church has been described by Hodges (1893, 84-85), Taylor and Taylor (1965, 462) and Grundy et al. (2001, 523-524). The current church was constructed about 1165 and the whole structure is still very Norman in appearance although much has been ‘Victorianised’ under the influence of rebuilding during 1837-1852 and 1883-1884 (Figure 2.118). The

At the junction of the chancel and the south transept, the thin strip of quoin stones of the south-east corner of the

64

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF NORTHUMBERLAND

Figure 2.118 A view of St Cuthbert church, Norham (NT 897 474) from the south. The church is largely built of a mixture of Norman and Victorian stonework.

Figure 2.119 The south nave wall at Norham church, although Norman in style, exhibits many of the characteristics of typical Victorian workmanship. west tower was constructed in 1837 and the south aisle in 1846. A full description of the church is given on the web site under the English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID 237935). Stone used in the Norman church is of cream-yellow sandstones from the Lower Carboniferous, Mississippian of the region. Figure 2.120 Rusticated and feathered stones in Norham church south nave wall.

The church, described as ‘a miniature Durham Cathedral’ by one author, provides an interesting exercise in 65

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

distinguishing Norman from ‘Victorian Romanesque’ work (Figures 2.119 and 2.120).

2.22.9 Seaton Delaval, Our Lady, NZ 323 764 Set in the grounds of Seaton Delaval Hall the building resembles a typical small Anglo-Saxon two-celled church.

Figure 2.121 Seaton Delaval, church of Our Lady (NZ 323 764), is seen here from the south. The porch (left) was added in 1895. Note that the nave wall below the lancet windows is of a different, and less well coursed sandstone.

Figure 2.122 The north-west view of Seaton Delaval church. A blocked window in the north nave wall (arrow), which some have suggested might be Anglo- Saxon, would appear to possess BH jambs. 66

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF NORTHUMBERLAND

Figure 2.123 Further detail of the south nave wall at Seaton Delaval church. With most of the church displaying characteristic Norman coursework it is tempting to suggest that the lower portion of the wall may be of Anglo-Saxon origin. Unfortunately, the southern nave quoins (all apparently BH) fail to support this view. To this a west porch was added in 1895. The 19th C. bellcote is situated on the east end of the nave. The major portion of the building is thought to have been erected in the first decade of the 12th C. (Figures 2.121 and 2.122). For most of its period of use the building served as a manorial private chapel to become the parish church only in 1891. The church has been described by Grundy et al. (2001, 560) and is included in the English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID 236043). The building stone is from the local Upper Carboniferous, Pennslylvanian, Upper Coal Measures sandstones. There are some suggestions that parts of the nave may be of an earlier Anglo-Saxon date. The south wall of the nave (Figure 2.123), for example, in its lower portion is created in a slightly different sandstone and is less well squared and for that reason less wellcoursed. The lower wall portion, therefore, might pre-date the Norman work above, but the southern quoins to the nave fail to support the age of the wall in that their stones are all laid BH. In the north nave wall, there is a blocked round-headed window (Figure 2.124) which Grundy et al. state is of ‘early appearance’ and ‘may in fact point to a date before the early 12th C.’. The headstone (lintel) is BVFIA, but again the jamb stones all appear to be BH. Within the west porch the west nave doorway is visible. Above the doorway the tympanum which carries a worn design which Grundy et al. suggest resembles the ‘Tree of Life’ seen at Croxdale (NZ 274 399) (see Monograph A, section 6.6) is thought to be early 12th C.

Figure 2.124 The north-west nave quoin and the blocked window (arrow) seen in Figure 2.122. 67

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

headland just north of the point where the River Tyne enters the sea. The promontory is established in rocks of uppermost Carboniferous, Pennsylvanian, Coal Measures

2.22.10 Tynemouth Priory, NZ 375 694 The priory ruins at Tynemouth stand on an impressive

Figure 2.125 The site of Tynemouth priory (NZ 375 694) viewed from the south. The buildings seen here were originally built in the 13th C.

Figure 2.126 The Tynemouth site viewed from the nave towards the east end of the chancel. 68

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF NORTHUMBERLAND

Many authors have contributed to descriptions of the site, including Gibson (1847, 112-115), Craster (1907, 34-147), Leyland and Sherlock (2000, 111-136) and Grundy et al. (2001, 590-593). A monastery is believed to have existed on the headland by the late 8th C. and was sacked by the Vikings on more than one occasion in the 9th C. The priory is claimed to have been the burial site of three early kings during this period. No trace, however, has as yet been discovered of an Anglo-Saxon church and the earliest built remains are thought to date to the late 11th C. Most of the standing remains were constructed in the 12th to 14th C. The monastery was dissolved in 1539 and the remains are protected by English Heritage.

sandstones which are overlain by softer yellow sandstones of Lower Permian age. Its significance as a promontory is, however, the result of a small Tertiary dolerite dyke which runs through the headland. The ruins are all constructed in the sandstones from the Coal Measures (Figures 2.125 and 2.126). A range of more modern buildings as well as the castle are also present on the site.

The face of just one east-facing wall at the nave end of the ruins is of unusual construction (Figure 2.127). Within the wall one course of stone has all stones placed edgewise (BV) resembling an Anglo-Saxon style; other aspects of this wall, however, suggest that it is probably of 13th C. date. 2.22.11 Wallsend, Holy Cross, NZ 305 673 The ruins of the Holy Cross church at Wallsend, Newcastle are believed to have been built in the mid-12th C. The roof was removed about 1797 and presumably the church was in use until about that time. Built of Upper Carboniferous, Pennsylvanian, Coal Measures sandstone the church shows

Figure 2.127 This east-facing wall at Tynemouth priory (in the area of the north- east nave), possesses unusual course work. The majority of the stones are laid in orthodox BH style, but the third course is distinctively set edgewise and BV. This is not a style typically followed in any early period.

Figure 2.128 The ruins of Holy Cross church, Wallsend (NZ 305 673) are thought to preserve the remains of a church built in the mid-12th C. The ruins are viewed from the east end of the chancel. 69

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 2.129 Wallsend, Holy Cross ruins are seen here from the south-west. The porch area (foreground) was consolidated in 1909. no clear evidence of work prior to the 12th C. The ruins, and particularly the porch, were consolidated in 1909. Contributions to the history of the site have been written by Knowles (1910), Richardson (1927), Dodds (1930) and Grundy et al. (2001, 605). A short account of the church is given on the English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID 303423) web site. The church possesses a simple structure of nave, chancel and south porch, with only the porch area standing to any height (Figures 2.128 and 2.129). The south nave doorway stonework reflects its Norman origin (Figure 2.130). The bases of two further doorways occur in the north wall of the nave, the easternmost of these doorways possibly serving the needs of the priest. Other unusual features of the ruined site are the very marked taper in the width of the building from west to east, the thinness of the wall containing the chancel arch (0.8m.) and an internal plinth to the north chancel wall. The width of the chancel arch was 1.95m. 2.23 Other Northumberland church sites Northumberland possesses a considerable number of ruined ecclesiastical sites which are indicated on Ordnance Survey maps. These were visited to investigate possible revealing stonework. Examples are the sites of Low Chibburn ruined chapel (NZ 265 965), Humbleton chapel site (NT 977 284) and the site of Dotland church (NY 923

Figure 2.130 The Norman south door to the ruins of Holy Cross church, Wallsend. The remains of the north doorway to the nave can be seen opposing the south entrance. 70

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF NORTHUMBERLAND

596). The state of these was variable; from impressions only of the church site, to the occasional remnant stone or large piles of stones, and in occasional instances sites with a few standing walls. None were suitable for providing clear age relationships or period of building and they are excluded from further analysis in this work.

Figure 2.131 A geological map of Northumberland (and part of Durham) indicating a number of the localities where churches have been described. 71

CHAPTER THREE THE EARLY CHURCHES OF NOTTINGHAMSHIRE 3.1 Introduction

in 678 and Mercian dominance was extended both over Northumbria and as far south as London and Essex.

The Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Mercia very approximately included within its northern boundary the 1974 counties of Cheshire, Derbyshire, Nottinghamshire and Staffordshire which are covered in this Monograph. The first two of these counties were discussed in the volume Part A. Mercia became a political force in the first half of the 7th C. when the pagan King Penda reigned. His second son Wulfhere, a Christian, extended Mercia’s powers. In turn, his successor Aethelred was triumphant at the battle of the River Trent

Mercia was the dominant power in England throughout the 8th C. With the accession of Aethelbald in 716, and Offa who succeeded him in 757, boundaries were established with the Welsh (respectively, Wat’s and Offa’s dykes). Offa, in particular, encouraged trade with powers beyond England, and he established Lichfield in Staffordshire as an archbishopric additional to Canterbury. He died in 796. With the Danish invasion in 865, Mercia as a kingdom became divided by the Danelaw boundary, with Danish Mercia in the north and east. Nottingham, as well as Derby, became principal towns in the Danish region. Much of Nottinghamshire resides upon the unsuitable building stone materials of the Triassic System, and just as the counties of Cheshire, Lancashire and Staffordshire, it retains only a limited number of Anglo-Saxon churches. Figure 3.1 is a copy of Figure 2.20 from this Monograph, Part A to show again for convenience the 1974 county boundaries, land over 183m. (600feet), and the area of Triassic rocks in England. The area has few churches. However, Nottinghamshire remains equally as wellendowed in carvings or engravings as counties not situated on the Triassic. The requirement for rock for this purpose was, in terms of quantity, limited. It could, therefore, be obtained from a distance. Carving such as the Anglo-Saxon tympanum at the Norman Southwell minster (Figure 3.2) and the cross of the same period of origin at Stapleford (SK 489 374) provide exemplars in Nottinghamshire.

Figure 3.1 Figure 2.20 from this Monograph Part A is shown here to illustrate the significance of different bed rocks on the creation and preservation of Anglo-Saxon buildings. Controlling factors, which include population numbers influenced in part by altitude (the 600ft.- 183m. contour) and rock suitability, are shown. Note: the area of soft and unsuitable Triassic rocks.

Figure 3.2 Southwell Minster, although as a building only dating from Romanesque times, preserves in the west wall of the north transept an ancient tympanum (now on the door to the stair turret). Centre and right is St Michael fighting with the dragon. 72

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF NOTTINGHAMSHIRE

Figure 3.3 Carlton-in-Lindrick church (SK 588 839) is here viewed from the north-east. The blocked north window in the north chancel wall is probably of Norman age. 3.2 Carlton-in-Lindrick, St John the Evangelist, SK 588 839 Towards the north-east corner of Nottinghamshire, Permian Magnesian Limestone provides the underlying rock type. Carlton-in-Lindrick church is situated just on the edge of this outcrop and the church is built almost entirely of this local rock. The church consists today of a buttressed west tower, a nave with later north and south aisles, a chancel with a north chapel and a south vestry (Figure 3.3). The style of use of the Permian building stone varies with the period of building as may be observed in Figure 3.4. In this figure, the south wall of the tower commences, just above the plinth at the base, with roughly squared small blocks of the limestone in courses, which continues to the (possibly square-sectioned) first string course. Some authors have noted that the limestone blocks gradually increase in size over this stage. Above the string the work changes principally to herringbone style to as far as the relatively modern string course. The buttresses rise to this height. Higher, the tower is constructed in well-shaped blocks and courses of the belfry section which, from evidence of the included bells, has been dated to the period 1417 to 1443. Authors referring to the tower, such as Taylor and Taylor (1965, 149-152), Pevsner and Williamson (1979, 92-93) and the English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID 241 376) web site; state that the buttresses were added to the tower at the same time as the addition of the Perpendicular belfry. Examination of this buttress stonework indicates

Figure 3.4 The tower of Carlton-in-Lindrick church, here viewed from the south, from where the different Permian Magnesian Limestone wall fabrics may be examined. Those in the lowest stage are thought to be Anglo- Saxon. 73

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

that these limestone blocks have been hand cut with a saw. The eastern buttresses on the tower have been built onto the nave side walls, and those on the west of the tower have been built from the ground with only a few tie stones. In 1835 a south arcade and aisle to the nave was built to match that in the north (built about 1160). At the time the Norman south nave door was removed and placed in the west tower wall (Figure 3.5). It should be noted that the external stonework of the south aisle is created in dimension stone and that the drip course for the aisle in style is much as that for the buttresses (see Figure 3.4). The south-west buttress also includes the tower staircase. Other authors referring to Carlton-in-Lindrick church include; Stayce (1869-1870, 165-169), Anon. (1891-1892, lxxii), Lynam (1904, 195-198), Hill (1916, 195-206), Dare (1951) and Kerr and Kerr (1982, 69-70). The church is listed in the Domesday records and the Anglo-Saxon elements of the church may now be considered. The tower reveals no quoin stones for they have been covered by the buttresses, although it does retain fragments of Roman tiles. The early belfry windows are only to be seen on the east and west tower walls (those originally in the north and south walls are now covered with clock faces). The Taylors made a case that they were Anglo-Saxon in form (Figure 3.6 and see Figure 3.5) but it proved impossible to confirm this from

Figure 3.5 The west face of the tower of Carlton-inLindrick church. The lower belfry window is too high to confirm the age of the stonework. The west doorway was transferred from the nave wall in 1831, which is thought to be about the date when the tower buttresses were built.

Figure 3.6 Carlton-in-Lindrick church from the south-east. 74

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF NOTTINGHAMSHIRE

Figure 3.7 The north-west nave quoin at Carlton-in-Lindrick. To the right the tower north wall shows a contact which reveals that the nave is the older. To the left the Norman north aisle west wall is shown.

Figure 3.8 The original west nave doorway to Carltonin-Lindrick church differs in the construction of its west (original exterior) and east faces. The west face still preserves its Anglo-Saxon features (see for instance the impost and how it is different from those in the east face.

the distant stonework. Lower windows in the tower are few in number and of more recent insertion. The nave western quoins remain visible. The north-west nave quoin (Figure 3.7) reads as follows; no visible plinth, ?, BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, BVFL, ?BVFR, higher stones uncertain. The south-west nave quoin again has no visible plinth, but then reads; BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, BVFL, but stones above tend to have a cement plaster cover. From the relationships between the nave and tower, the nave can be seen to be the older of the two (see Figure 3.7). The tower east wall is built upon the west wall of the nave. The chancel walls are built in the same style of stonework as the lower part of the tower but no windows or doors can be associated with a date earlier than Norman. The chancel arch is of ‘Victorian’ creation. The tower arch originally served as the west door to the nave. When examined, the west side of the arch (the original exterior) reveals some remnants of its Anglo-Saxon origin which are visible mainly in the south jamb. In this jamb (Figure 3.8) the impost is characteristic and the jamb created in two large and two small stones, all unfortunately currently unreadable as to orientation. On the east side, but upon the same early plinth, the doorway has been modified to a Norman style (Figure 3.9).

Figure 3.9 The east face of the west nave doorway to Carlton-in-Lindrick church was modified in Romanesque times. 3.3 East Bridgford, St Peter, SK 691 431 The foundations of East Bridgford church were first shown to be Anglo-Saxon following excavations in 1916; when they were described by Hill (1916, 195-206). Subsequent descriptions have been provided by Taylor and Taylor (1965, 98-100), and Pevsner and Williamson (1979, 11275

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Saxon origin. These measurements indicated the AngloSaxon chancel was originally about 4.88m. by 3.96m. in size. Further foundation studies revealed the dimensions of the early church nave and the likely position of the chancel arch. Hill proposed that the early church was cruciform in shape.

113), and referred to in the English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID 447908) web site. The church is sited on the Mercia Mudstone Group of the Triassic System and an unusual local lithology of these rocks, a harder sandstone known as the Skerry Sandstone, is used to construct most of the rubble walls. The quoins are generally constructed of the more massive Triassic, Sherwood Sandstone. Other rock types are used, generally for ‘modern’ ornamental work.

Fragments of the church detail seen in the foundations are thought to occur above the current church floor level externally in the south-east angle between the south chancel wall and the east wall of the south transept. Both these walls appear to be built of Triassic Skerry Sandstone. In the chancel wall at this west end, a window and a door exist, both are comprehensively altered (Figure 3.11). How extensive these alterations are, is revealed when the inside of the same stretch of wall is examined (Figure 3.12). It proved impossible to relate any of the wall structures to the foundation measurements of Hill (1916). A small projection from the base of the west end of the chancel wall has been suggested as being part of the early nave quoin (Figure 3.13). With the stones in this projection probably all being of Middle Jurassic limestone and with at least one stone being cut with a re-entrant angle the whole resembles a relatively modern corrective in-fill. If the proposal that it represented an original quoin was correct, the suggestion that a church

The church, mentioned in the Domesday records, is believed to have been entirely rebuilt in the 13th C. It has been much modified also by 19th C. rebuilding. It currently consists of a west tower, a transeptal aisled nave with a south porch, and a chancel (Figure 3.10). Recorded phases of rebuilding and restoration have been frequent. These include restorations in 1671, 1686, 1901, 1903 and 1914 and rebuilding of the tower in 1778 and for the organ in 1862. The studies of the foundations by Hill supported the presence of an earlier cruciform church, one in which the chancel had been extended to the east in stages. At a distance of about 3m. from the current chancel east wall, which is thought to be of Early English character, the foundations of a Norman wall extended across the width of the chancel. A further wall 2.75m. to the west of the Norman wall, and 0.9m. narrower, he regarded as of Anglo-

Figure 3.10 The church of St Peter, East Bridgford (SK 691 431) is here viewed from the south-west. 76

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF NOTTINGHAMSHIRE

Figure 3.11 The west end of the south wall of the chancel of East Bridgford church. Both the west window and the door have been significantly altered. Measurements of the wall indicate that none of the wall fabric changes can be related to those made by Hill (1916).

Figure 3.13 East Bridgford church is considered to be Anglo-Saxon only on the merits of wall foundations below the present floors. However, these few stones have been regarded as representing the south-east nave quoin seen from the south-east from the exterior of the building (see text). 3.4 Southwell Cathedral SK 702 537 In 1884 the status of Southwell minster was elevated to that of a cathedral. Although Southwell is situated very much upon the Triassic, this type of rock is rarely present in the building. The Romans had established a site close to that of the cathedral and the rocks in that site were of Permian Magnesian Limestone. The Roman site provided a quarry for early Southwell structures and the Normans also used the same rock type from much the same original geological locality. The Magnesian Limestone is still used today, the modern source, known as Mansfield White is about 20km. from Southwell and the source in Roman and Norman times would have been little closer. A wide range of authors have commented upon the cathedral’s structure and history including; Livett (1883), Dimock (1901) and Pevsner and Williamson (1979).

Figure 3.12 The interior of the south chancel wall seen in Figure 3.11. The west window (next to the chancel arch) was once a doorway, the external ‘doorway’, now blocked, was once taller, and above it is the trace of the head of a window not visible externally.

Of the early Anglo-Saxon collegiate church only one possible item remains and the cathedral today is dominated by the Norman cruciform structure. This involves the nave, transepts, central tower and twin west towers (Figures 3.14, 3.15 and 3.16). In 1234 the Norman east end to the church was replaced by a longer choir. Towards the end of the same century a Decorated, polygonal chapter house was commenced, its decoration, particularly of naturalistic foliage, is renowned.

crossing was associated with the transepts would require the transepts being built from an earlier nave. There are a large number of gravestones present in the graveyard some of which have been brought and used from Swithland in Charnwood Forest. 77

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

The only known item from the Anglo-Saxon period of the church is the tympanum built into a later door in the west wall in the early 12th C. north transept (see Figure 3.2). Thought to be of late Anglo-Saxon age, some have suggested that it may have been incorporated from an alternative site.

Figure 3.16 Southwell cathedral interior seen from the north-west end of the nave to show the Romanesque south nave wall.

Figure 3.14 Southwell minster (cathedral) (SK 702 537) viewed from the west to show its famous twin towers and its relatively modern ‘Perpendicular’ style west window.

Figure 3.15 Viewed from the north-west, the Southwell cathedral Norman central tower can be seen to be of the same lateral dimensions as each of the widths of the crossing arms, in Post-Conquest style. 78

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF NOTTINGHAMSHIRE

3.5 South Wheatley, St Helen, SK 766 856

and voussoirs, is constructed of the Triassic fine-grained sandstone: this probably influenced by the difficulties in bringing large quantities of stone for building purposes long distances.

The church at South Wheatley was closed in 1881 and much of it was taken down in 1883. Geologically situated on rocks of the Triassic, Mercia Mudstone Group, the parts of the church that remain standing are constructed of a fine, well-bedded greenish sandstone, one certainly extracted from the Triassic. It is possible that, as at Repton in Derbyshire (see section 5.4, Monograph A), the green sandstones were from a unit not too dissimilar from the ‘Waterstones’. For more ornamental work, a Middle Jurassic bioclastic and oolitic limestone, similar to Barnack Stone, was used. Pevsner and Williamson (1979, 334) provided a short description of this ruin, stating that it was of Norman origin as was evident from the chancel arch. At the time of this description the remains were overgrown, and the present author thought that the site called for investigation as some earlier remains might be present The site has now been subject to recent conservation (Figure 3.17) and the English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID 411344) web site provides a sound background to the detail of the ruins. Examination of the stonework of the remains of the standing church failed to reveal anything that was older than of the Norman period. The tower (Figure 3.18) appeared to be 14th C. and all quoin stones are set BH. Above the second stage, 15th C. belfry windows remain. Only a small remnant of the north nave wall remains, but an impression of the nave roof against the tower east wall suggests that the nave roof was very low. The chancel arch is 2.02m. wide and constructed of Middle Jurassic bioclastic oolite in its jambs (Figure 3.19). The outer west jamb faces are each of only two large stones which are placed in Norman BVEIA style. The inner colonettes are all set BH (Figure 3.20). The remainder of the chancel arch, including the imposts

Figure 3.18 The lower part of South Wheatley church tower viewed from the east. The tower arch appears to be of 14th C. age.

Figure 3.17 The remains of the church of St Helen at South Wheatley (SK 766 856) much of which was taken down in 1883. Viewed from the south-east they show the chancel arch and the tower.

Figure 3.19 The Norman chancel arch of South Wheatley church viewed from the west. Most of the chancel arch is constructed of Triassic fine grained green sandstone the jambs are built of a Middle Jurassic bioclastic oolitic limestone. 79

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 3.20 The chancel arch outer jamb stones at South Wheatley are large with just two stones for each jamb, set in Romanesque style BVEIA.

80

CHAPTER FOUR THE EARLY CHURCHES OF STAFFORDSHIRE 4.1 Introduction

region was of considerable significance within the Mercian kingdom and its development, particularly in the 7th and 8th centuries. Tamworth became the kingdom’s principal town and where Offa (possibly the Mercian kingdom’s most renowned ruler) established his palace. He ruled from 757 to 796. He also selected Lichfield as the Archbishop’s see for the kingdom. The town of Stafford probably became of importance after Ethelfieda fortified the town in 913.

Those counties of northern England which are adjacent to the geologically up-folded hill range of the Pennines possess very similar bedrock geology. Thus, Cheshire, Derbyshire, Nottinghamshire and Staffordshire, each contain large areas where Triassic rocks prevail. These Triassic rocks generally create quality fertile soils, but the rocks involved tend to be unsuitable for building purposes. Of the four counties, Staffordshire has, within its bounds, perhaps rather more areas where Upper Carboniferous sandstones outcrop to provide suitable building stone. Anglo-Saxon architectural remains within the county, however, are uncommon.

There are in Staffordshire, as elsewhere in Mercia, many examples of Anglo-Saxon sculpture and cross-shafts. The town of Leek for example has two interesting shafts, one of 10th and the other of 11th C., in the area of its church graveyard.

Some detail concerning the development of the ancient kingdom of Mercia has been provided in the introductions to the early churches of the counties of Cheshire, Derbyshire and Lancashire (respectively Chapters 3, 5 and 7) in this Monograph Part A, and Nottinghamshire in Chapter 3 of this Monograph (Part B). Staffordshire as a

4.2 Ilam, Holy Cross, SK 133 507 Situated to the north-east of the county, Ilam church is proximate to areas of Carboniferous rock, both limestones and younger sandstones, and it is just within the picturesque Manifold valley. Ignoring the 1831 much over-elaborated

Figure 4.1 The south side of the church of Holy Cross, Ilam (SK 133 507) is displayed in this view. In the foreground, the pointed stone is one of two ornamented Anglo-Saxon cross-shafts in the graveyard. 81

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 4.2 A Norman cauldron-shaped font in Ilam church is interesting for its unusual carvings, described as ‘barbaric figures and beasts’.

Figure 4.3 A second carved panel from the Ilam church font.

octagonal chapel; the church was extensively restored in 1855-1856. Not mentioned in Domesday records, the church is typically described as being of Norman origin, with additions dating to the 13th C. (such as the lower part of the tower), 1618 (when the chapel to St Bertram was built), and 17th C. and 19th C. Today the structure consists of a saddleback western tower, a nave with north aisle, and a chancel with north and south chapels (Figure 4.1). In the 1820’s the village was moved from the proximity of the church to permit improved views from the Hall. Brief descriptions of the church were given by Taylor and Taylor (1965, 719) and Pevsner (1974, 152-153) with the English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID 274471) web site providing a little more detail. These descriptions refer to two features which ‘might be’ considered Anglo-Saxon. The first is a cauldron shaped font which bears an ornament of ‘extremely barbaric figures and beasts’ (Pevsner, 1974, 153). Most authors conclude that the font is of Norman age (Figures 4.2 and 4.3). More customarily designated ‘probably Anglo-Saxon’ is the tall blocked doorway (Figure 4.4) which may be seen on the south nave wall. In a wall just 0.82m. thick, the doorway, constructed of Carboniferous, Millstone Grit sandstones, reveals bedding orientations in its jambs confirming its early age. The west jamb rises; BVFIA, BH, BVFIA, BH, to a BH impost. The east jamb; ?, BVFIA, BVFIA, BH. A ‘Victorian’ window cuts into and removes the eastern impost and voussoirs above. The rubble stonework around the doorway, mainly of Carboniferous Limestone retains an Anglo-Saxon character.

Figure 4.4 The blocked doorway on the south nave wall to Ilam church. Windows cut the voussoirs of part of the doorway but the jamb stones are set to a Patterned AngloSaxon style. 82

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF STAFFORDSHIRE

There are two stumps of Anglo-Saxon cross-shafts in the church graveyard, that shown in Figure 4.1. is tapering, and rectangular in section. 4.3 Lichfield Cathedral, St Mary and St Chad, SK 116 097 The history and description of Lichfield Cathedral has been covered by numerous authors. Probably the most comprehensive of these appears under Victoria County History (1990, 47-57). This work also lists other descriptions related to the site. Chad was established as Bishop in Lichfield in a church dedicated to St Mary; there Chad served from 669 until 672. In 700 his remains were transferred to a neighbouring church dedicated to St Peter. This may have been a wooden church, in 1085 rebuilt and probably incorporated within a Norman cathedral. The current building was built over the period 1195 to the 1330s in Gothic style. In turn, that building suffered greatly as a result of the Civil War over the period 16431646. There are no Anglo-Saxon known parts or features in the cathedral. The church is constructed of local Triassic, Sherwood Sandstone Group (Bromsgrove Sandstone Formation) red sandstones. Although this sandstone is superior to much Triassic rock for building purposes, Clifton-Taylor (1972, 125) describes Lichfield as ‘one of the most weatherworn and patched cathedral churches’ (Figures 4.5 and 4.6). In the Chapter house, on display are the St Chad

Figure 4.5 Lichfield Cathedral (SK 116 097) is built of Triassic Sherwood Sandstone and is viewed here from the north-west. It is the only cathedral in the United Kingdom with three spires.

Figure 4.6 Lichfield Cathedral is viewed here from the south-east. 83

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 4.7 The west end of the church of St Mary, Stafford (SJ 921 232). In the foreground the outline of the church of St Bertelin is marked out on the grass. This one-time Anglo-Saxon church was demolished in 1801, and its outline reexcavated in 1956. In 1801 the two churches had a shared communicating doorway. Gospels, which have been dated to about 730, as well as the ‘Lichfield Angel’, a carving dated to the late 8th C., and found in excavation work. 4.4 Stafford, St Mary, SJ 921 232 The church of St Mary in Stafford has been described by the following authors; Lucas (undated), Victoria County History (1970, 303-309; 1979), and Pevsner (1974, 240243), as well as many others. The Domesday records advise of the presence of a Collegiate church in Stafford. This Collegiate status was to exist at St Mary until 1548. The earliest parts of Stafford church, however, are not thought to date to earlier than the late 12th C. Either the Stafford church had a predecessor or the adjoining church, that of St Bertelin which was founded about 700, transferred its Collegiate status to St Mary when the new and much larger church of St Mary was built. The Anglo-Saxon church of St Bertelin was only small, simply a nave and chancel, and its chancel was attached to the west end of St Mary (Figure 4.7). This old church was knocked down in 1801 to create more room in the graveyard, and in 1954 the site was reexposed to now be marked out on the lawn (Figure 4.8). A new and quite separate church, dedicated to St Bertelin, was built elsewhere in Stafford in 1956.

Figure 4.8 The outline of the plan of the church of St Bertelin, Stafford. Only a chancel and a nave were discovered in the 1954-1956 excavations. The large church of St Mary, Stafford, is built mainly of the local Triassic rocks of the area, but the rebuilt west wall is of a slightly micaceous, fine-grained sandstone from the Carboniferous, Pennsylvanian, Coal Measure Sandstones. The earlier Anglo-Saxon church of St Bertelin when recorded in the 10th C., was recorded as being of wood, and the record (Figure 4.9) suggests that when excavated 84

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF STAFFORDSHIRE

in 1954 the walls were of a relatively coarse Coal Measure Sandstone (if the outlining stonework is from the church as indicated).

was presumably blocked in 1801. When it was first opened between the two churches has not been determined, but the connecting doorway is certainly not Anglo-Saxon.

Although there is no evidence of a linking doorway either on the external west wall of St Mary or in the record of the St Bertelin east wall; inside St Mary, the trace of a relatively modern blocked (and now partly built over) door remains at the west end of the south aisle. The doorway

4.5 Tamworth, St Editha, SK 206 041 This large parish church was first mentioned in 781 at a time when Offa had established his palace in the town. Descriptions of the church and its development have been given by Pace (undated), Palmer (1871), Victoria County History (1970, 309-315), and Pevsner (1974, 274-277). The English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID 386462) also gives a record of the church on its web site. The early Anglo-Saxon church was destroyed by the Danes in 874. The Danes ruined that church in 943. In turn, the church was re-founded by King Edgar about 963 and dedicated to his aunt Editha. In 1345, much of the town and the church were destroyed by fire and the building of a further church commenced in 1350 and was completed in 1369. Extensive restorations occurred in the 1850s and 1871. Today, Tamworth church consists of a dominant west tower, a nave with north and south aisles, transepts, chancel and annexes (Figure 4.10). Externally the rocks used to create the fabric for these various parts are either of Carboniferous, Coal Measure Sandstones or Lower

Figure 4.9 The plaque raised in 1956 describing the result of the excavation of St Bertelin church.

Figure 4.10 St Editha, Tamworth (SK 206 041) viewed from the south-east. With earlier churches destroyed, this is the fourth church constructed on the site. 85

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Triassic Sherwood Sandstones (Bromsgrove Sandstone Formation). Both can be sourced locally, the Triassic red sandstones being less suitable for building purposes. The 14th C. tower is mainly built of the Coal Measure grey sandstones (Figure 4.11) but much of the church exterior is of Victorian construction (Figures 4.12 and 4.13). The church has little evidence of its Anglo-Saxon origin. It appears to have had a crossing and a central tower but only the north and south crossing arches now remain and these are of Norman origin. Only the relationship between the crossing tower and the aisles at its corners reflects a probable Anglo-Saxon original form, for like Stow (see monograph A, section 8.45), the sides of the original central tower were each built slightly wider than the widths of the four arms of the crossing.

Figure 4.13 ‘Victorian’ rustication markings on one of the buttresses displayed in Figure 4.12.

The church has unusually, built into its west tower, a staircase that is of the form of a double helix.

Figure 4.11 Two building stones predominate in Tamworth church, red Triassic Sandstones and, as in the tower (left), grey-buff-yellow Coal Measure Sandstones.

Figure 4.12 The much-buttressed south walls of St Editha, Tamworth.

86

CHAPTER FIVE THE EARLY CHURCHES OF WESTMORLAND 5.1 Introduction

largely replaced by a crustal fracture, the Pennine Fault, to the east of which Carboniferous and older rocks are present. This fault makes a clearly visible escarpment on the eastern side of the valley. The valley floor is lined mainly with red Lower Permian sandstones (the Penrith Sandstone), although younger and higher Triassic rocks in the centre of the fold occur to the east side of the valley.

Prior to 1974 Westmorland and Cumberland were separate counties; today they are united under the title Cumbria, which approaches the approximate area of the combined earlier counties. The account relating to the churches of Cumberland appeared in this Monograph Part A, Chapter 4. A brief but all-embracing account of the two county areas when they jointly were encompassed in the Kingdom of Northumbria was given in Part A, section 4.1.

5.2 Appleby, St Michael Bongate, NY 688 199 The town of Appleby has moved to the area where the bridge crosses the river since the period when the church and the castle were first built. The church is now a private house. As a church the building consisted of a nave, with south aisle and south porch, transepts to the south and north (that to the north carried a tower built in 1885), and a chancel. The whole building is built of Permian, Penrith Sandstone (Figures 5.1 and 5.2). Those describing the church include; Curwen (1932), the Royal Commission for Historical Monuments (1936, 6-7), Taylor and Taylor (1965, 27) and Pevsner (1967, 218).

The area covered by the pre-1974 county Westmorland included much of the higher land of the English Lake District as well as on its north-east the area known as the Vale of Eden. Not surprisingly the mountainous area was both devoid of people and churches during Anglo-Saxon times and the churches of this age are confined to the Vale of Eden in which Penrith and Appleby are principal towns. The River Eden runs from SSE to NNW along a synclinal (down-folded) axis. On its eastern side the fold limb is

Figure 5.1 St Michael Bongate church, Appleby (NY 688 199) viewed from the south-east. 87

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 5.2 Appleby, St Michael Bongate, seen here from the north-east, is now a private residence. The church is built of red Permian Penrith Sandstone. There is an historical record stating that St Michael Bongate (together with the church of St Lawrence in the town centre – see section 5.7) was given to the convent of St Mary in York in 1088. At that time the church held collegiate status. From this background knowledge it may be inferred that these churches almost certainly had Anglo-Saxon origins. There is, however, little evidence that St Michael preserves much in its fabric that is not Victorian. The north doorway to the nave does reveal the only indication of an early origin. Viewed externally this doorway can be seen to have an Anglo-Saxon hogback gravestone as a lintel stone. The doorway has been modified extensively since the hogback was included. The structure was blocked and a small window inserted in Victorian times (Figure 5.3). More critically, few original jamb stones remain. On the west side the top three stones could be original, note the lack of perfect alignment of certain wall stones from the top in the jamb. Possibly stones two and three from the top of the east (left) jamb may also be original, but the creeper cover makes interpretation difficult. No jamb stones could be read for their orientations. Internally the plaited ornamentation of the hogback is obvious (Figure 5.4). The inner voussoirs to the semi-circular aperture do not relate to this gravestone, however, and they are difficult to date. Lower, the jamb stones appear to show an element of modification (Figure 5.5). Not previously noticed, this north door once was

Figure 5.3 The north door to the nave of St Michael Bongate church seen from the exterior. The doorway has been blocked and filled in Victorian times with a small window. The outline of a hogback stone may be seen acting as the lintel. 88

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF WESTMORLAND

1350. The Taylors (1965) thought the doorway to be early Norman in age and judged the north lower nave wall, from its inferior stonework, to be Anglo-Saxon. The bar locking system could, therefore, be Anglo-Saxon. Although all other quoins in the building have their stones uniformly BH, the quoin at the north-west nave corner has its stones set side-alternately. Built on a square plinth this quoin is extremely difficult to read (because of lichen cover) but it provides the following orientations; BVFR, BH, ?, ?, BVFR, ?, BH, BH. Without cleaning these stones, there is insufficient orientated stonework to give any answers as to the date of origin of the quoin. 5.3 Crosby Garrett, St Andrew, NY 729 097 Figure 5.4 An internal view of the upper portion of the north nave doorway at St Michael Bongate. Plait-work carving on the lintel stone which is an Anglo-Saxon hogback can be observed.

Crosby Garrett church has been described in the following documents; Curwen (1932, 110-114), the Royal Commission for Historical Monuments (1936), Taylor and Taylor (1965, 184-185) and Pevsner (1967, 242). The church is built of the red local Permian Penrith Sandstone, the rock on which it is built. Very close to the church site Lower Carboniferous sandstones form the bedrock and particularly in the chancel this is also used in the walls, together with some blocks of Carboniferous Limestone. The present church consists of a widened nave to which a Norman north aisle was added about 1175, as well as a south porch in 1662. The chancel was rebuilt in the 14th C. and a north chapel/vestry added to it in 1871. A small tower cum bell-cote, rebuilt in 1874, occurs above the west end of the nave (Figures 5.6 and 5.7). Unfortunately only one nave quoin still remains, that in the south-east with details as follows; upon a worn square plinth, BH, BH, BVFL, BH, BH, ?orientation (grey sandstone), with all remaining higher stones BH. Although the wall course work is somewhat imprecise, the quoin stones align with the course work, which suggests that the quoin is not Anglo-Saxon. The present pointed chancel arch when observed from the east reveals its stonework. Above the pointed arch, a narrower and higher, off-centre (to the south), earlier arch is poorly visible (partially due to many stones being green caused by damp) (Figure 5.8). The Taylors, who make some minor errors in their description, advise that this narrower arch would have been only about 1.5m. wide but nearly 4m. high, of very Anglo-Saxon proportions. On its west side the early chancel arch is not visible.

Figure 5.5 The whole of the interior of the north nave doorway to Appleby church to enable the proportions to be observed. secured with a bar lock. The hole to take the door bar on the east side is 1.32m. deep. The doorway is now only 0.95m. wide on the outside (but tapers to the top to 0.89m.), and it must be concluded that the doorway was probably once wider.

When the chancel was lengthened in the 14th C. it proved necessary to create a hagioscope from the Norman north aisle to the chancel (Figure 5.9). This hagioscope actually cuts through the north-east nave quoin as well as the internal splay of the larger chancel window. Two stones only of the quoin may be visible. On the south side of the chancel the extension of the chancel to the west (in the 14th C.), is marked by the change in the form and position of the plinth.

The author’s experience related to the bar locking of church doors suggests that it was a practice adopted in AngloSaxon times but more particularly in the period 1300 to

89

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 5.6 A view from the north-east of the church of St Andrew, Crosby Garrett (NY 729 097).

Figure 5.7 A different perspective of Crosby Garrett church as seen in this instance from the south-east. 90

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF WESTMORLAND

Royal Commission for Historical Monuments (1936, 167169), Taylor and Taylor (1965, 415-416), Pevsner (1967, 271), Potter (2005b, 202) and Hyde and Pevsner (2010, 499-500). A somewhat different, undated church guide entitled ‘Old Sandy’s Tale’ could be obtained within the church, and the English Heritage List of Listed Churches (ID 73183) provides a short web site account. The church site contains the following buildings, a west tower of early 12th C. date, built against an earlier nave which reveals a number of probable Anglo-Saxon parts, a chancel which was extended eastwards in the Norman period, a 15th C. south transept/chapel, a vestry to the north of the chancel and a south porch (Figures 5.10 and 5.11). Much of all four nave quoins is preserved. Taylor and Taylor (1965, 415) described these nave quoins as of ‘very large blocks laid in mixed side-alternate and face-alternate fashion’. Many of these stones can be read. The first nine stones read as follows: Stone 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Plinth

Figure 5.8 Two different generations of chancel arch are present in this view of Crosby Garrett. Viewed from the east, above the existing pointed arch, much narrower and off-set to the left are the remnants of an earlier arch (arrow) which has typical Anglo-Saxon proportions.

South-west BH BH BH BH BH BH ?BH BH BVFR Bold square

North-west Newer Newer ? BH BH BH BH BH BVFL Partial

South-east BH BVFR BVFL+ BH BH+ BVFL+ BVFL ?BVFL+ BH+ No plinth

North-east BVFL BH BVFL* BH ?BH BH BH BH ?BVFL Staircase

* Stone 7 on the north-east quoin shows a possible Roman lewis mark. + In the south-east quoin these stones displaced when aisle built and adjoined to nave. The lower portion of south-west nave quoin is shown in Figure 5.12. The tower and its plinth (left) clearly abut onto the earlier nave and its square plinth. The upper part of the north-east nave quoin is illustrated in Figure 5.13, and the north-west quoin in Figure 5.11. When viewed casually, the Anglo-Saxon appearance of the stone orientations is more compelling than the actual record would suggest. Certainly some of the stones have been replaced with later BH stones; elsewhere block shapes tend to indicate BVFR or BVFL, but were not reflected in the orientations. In 2005, the present author was unable to justify more than the eastern two quoins as Patterned.

Figure 5.9 This hagioscope at Crosby Garrett church was introduced when the chancel was lengthened in the 14th C. To obtain the best angle for vision purposes it actually cuts through both a little of the north-east nave quoin and the splay of a window. 5.4 Long Marton, St Margaret and St James, NY 666 240

The south doorway to the nave, although situated within a ‘Victorian’ porch today, is thought, from the state of its stonework, to have been protected earlier by a medieval porch. Internally this doorway reveals only its voussoirs (Figure 5.14), and externally plaster may cover critical

Also built of Permian Penrith Sandstone, Long Marton church has been described by; Curwen (1932, 167-174), 91

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 5.10 View of Long Marton church (NY 666 240) from the south-east.

Figure 5.11 From the north Long Marton church shows the north-west nave quoin, the short nave extension to the west which provided the lowest portion to stairs, and the west tower. 92

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF WESTMORLAND

Figure 5.12 The lower portion of the south-west nave quoin at Long Marton. The tower and its plinth (left) abut against the earlier nave and its plinth.

Figure 5.14 Difficult to take in gloom, this picture of Long Marton church south doorway is here viewed from inside the church.

Figure 5.15 The same south doorway at Long Marton viewed from the outside. Through the church the blocked north doorway is visible. detail. The west jamb could be read only in part, the top four stones possibly being BVFIA, BH, BH, BH. An unusual tympanum carved in very low relief (Figures 5.15 and 5.16), with dragon-like creatures, provides no definitive date for the doorway construction (but see paragraph below). The northern doorway to the nave, now blocked with two small windows of later insertion, is significantly different and Romanesque in form.

Figure 5.13 Long Marton church north-east nave quoin appears over its highest stones to be in long and short style, but is far less convincing when interpretation from the stone orientation is read.

At the west end of the nave a doorway, similar to that in the south wall, carries a tympanum on its external (west) 93

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 5.16 In this oblique lighting something of the south doorway tympanum detail at Long Marton can be seen.

Figure 5.18 Detail of Figure 5.17 under oblique light at Long Marton church.

Figure 5.17 The west nave doorway at Long Marton church when viewed from the outside, that is from within the tower, also possesses a tympanum and the top two stones are sculptured in similar creatures to those in the south door tympanum. It has recently been proposed that this tympanum was discovered elsewhere when building work was undertaken on site in the 19th C. surface. It is created from five stones (including the lintel), all of which are ornamented. The top two stones are again lightly depicted in a Scandinavian style of sculpture of unusual creatures (Figures 5.17 and 5.18). Some have suggested that these are somewhat earlier than late AngloSaxon and from elsewhere. The account provided by the English Heritage web site advises that ‘the west door’s tympanum’ was ‘discovered when access to the present gallery was constructed’ and it was then placed in its present position. The doorway is cut into the west wall which is 1.05m. thick and rebated for an inward opening door at 0.29m. from the exterior. Just inside the door there are protective bar lock holes, the south bar lock hole being 1.20m. deep (Figure 5.19). These were presumably created in Anglo-Saxon times to protect the church.

Figure 5.19 At about table top height and this east side of the west door rebate, the hole for a bar lock is visible (arrow) on the south side of the door at Long Marton. It proves to be about 1.2m. deep and is presumed to be of Anglo-Saxon origin.

There are two altered Norman windows on the north walls of the church. The first on the north wall of the nave, the 94

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF WESTMORLAND

in the buttresses (Figure 5.20) can be readily identified from the sawn and rusticated blocks of sandstone that have been used. 5.5 Morland, St Laurence, NY 598 225 Morland Church is constructed of the following constituent parts: a west tower generally considered to be the only portion of the church of Anglo-Saxon age; a 12th C. nave with north and south aisles (the north aisle rebuilt in the 18th C.), 13th C. transepts, a chancel (rebuilt in the 14th C. and before) with an 1896 vestry to the north, and a south porch (17th C.). The church was extensively restored over the period 1894-1897 as detailed in the Lambeth Palace Library (ICBS 09868) records. The church displays an unusual weep to the south: the tower, the nave west wall and the north aisle align, but the south aisle and the area to its east diverge to the south (Figure 5.21). The church is built of Permian red Penrith Sandstone although it is just sited on rocks of Carboniferous age.

Figure 5.20 A south chancel wall buttress at Long Marton church can be readily identified as of ‘Victorian’ origin by the rustication of certain stones. second, only visible internally, within the chancel/vestry wall where it is blocked. Further details of the church are described in the works of others. ‘Victorian’ work, as seen

Those who have described the church or its details include; Brown (1925, 472), Curwen (1932, 335-337), Royal

Figure 5.21 St Laurence, Morland (NY 598 225) is viewed here from the west- south-west. 95

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Commission for Historical Monuments (1936, 175-177), Taylor and Taylor (1965, 446-448), Pevsner (1967, 278279), Markham (1979; 2003) and Potter (2005b, 193, 203; 2009d, 45). The English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID 423202) provides a web site account.

probably split readily into blocks of different thicknesses (and sometimes different colours) over fairly wide areas, The tower walls tend to be banded (thick and thin) and thus appear to be ornamented (see Potter, 2009d, 45). Other aspects of the tower to consider are the belfry, the tower windows and the east door. Figure 5.24 shows the

Morland church tower has been claimed to be the only Anglo-Saxon tower in Westmorland, but, when examined in detail, its quoins fail to fully support this claim. The Taylors noted that the quoins were generally placed to a face-alternate pattern, a style which tends to mean that the quoin stones will lie BH and in accordance with wall course work. Brown (1925), therefore, took the wall fabric to be Norman. The tower western quoins provide the following stone orientations. The south-west quoin rises; BH, BH, BH, BH, BH, BVFR, BVFR, BVFR, then a thin BH stone and wall course. The BVFR quoin stones are side-alternate. The north-west quoin rises: BH, BH (oblique), BH, BH, BH, BVFL, BH, BH, BH(thin), BH, BH, BVFL, BH, BH. Figures 5.22 and 5.23 provide respectively a view of the south face and west face of the tower. The western quoins when viewed carefully tend, in a rough count, not to relate to an individual wall course in about 10 percent of the possible cases. Above the string course this no longer applies and all quoin stones appear BH. The inference appears to be that the lower part of the tower is probably late Anglo-Saxon, and the stone available for building

Figure 5.23 The west face of the Morland church tower, the face-alternate style of the north-west nave quoin should be noted together with its relationship with courses of stones on the wall face.

Figure 5.22 The tower of Morland church observed from the south. The south belfry windows, the string course and the tower south-west quoin can be seen.

Figure 5.24 Morland church tower above its string course viewed from the south- east. Above the string no obvious break or breaks in the stonework detail could be observed. 96

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF WESTMORLAND

upper portion of the tower (above the string course) viewed from the south-east. Taylor and Taylor (1965, 446-447) describe the belfry windows which follow immediately upon the string course and indicate that, in their judgement, these are of late Anglo-Saxon age. Always difficult to judge from ground level, this cannot be confirmed from the stonework orientations. A further difficulty occurs in the interpretation. The tower has been raised in height above the belfry windows (a date for this of 1588 has been mentioned). This is only one level at which the tower stonework appears to change in style. It also changes, for instance, at the string course where the stonework banding is lost.

0.5m. deep) occurs to the west of the door and its rebate (Figure 5.27). The tower is now locked from the nave. The Taylors, and others, have suggested that the tower was

The small windows in the tower faces have also been described by the Taylors. Those in the north and south walls have BH jambs, created directly from the wall coursework, certainly not typical Anglo-Saxon style (Figure 5.25). The Taylors omitted to give a view on the date of these windows. High in the east wall there is a blocked monosplay window, but in the dark within the tower it proved too difficult to examine. The east doorway to the tower when viewed from the nave is tall, and it stands on a thicker wall of about a metre in height (like a drip course), with steps down from the door to the floor of the nave (Figure 5.26). Seen from the nave the south jamb contains a BH and a BVFIA stone, with others unreadable (all surfaces were once plastered). Walls of the tower are about 1.4m. thick. Unusually the tower was defended from the inside for a bar lock hole (at least

Figure 5.26 The east door to the tower at Morland church as viewed from the nave. From the tower the nave floor is reached by means of steps.

Figure 5.27 From within the Morland church tower, a bar lock hole is visible in the north jamb (arrow), this inside in turn, the door and its rebate.

Figure 5.25 The ground floor, north window from inside the Morland church tower. Note that the window lacks internal splay. 97

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

was built was believed to be that of an early Viking burial site. The English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID 1288923) provides the customary web site account. The development of Ormside church appears to have been much as follows. Commencing with an Anglo-Saxon nave and chancel; in the 12th C., the west nave wall was altered to provide a bell-cote and the church was extended to provide a north aisle. The west tower was constructed about 1200 (Figure 5.29). Subsequently, the chancel was rebuilt, lengthened and widened to the south. In 1723, the north aisle was replaced by the Hilton Chapel, the whole building was restored in 1885-1886 and the tower reroofed in 1893. There is a north vestry and a south porch. The building is mainly of Permian Penrith Sandstone in which the Victorian restored areas may display snecked masonry. Figure 5.30 illustrates the south nave wall at Ormside church. It is constructed mainly of large cobbles, these from a source such as a river bed and created from both Penrith Sandstone and various Carboniferous sandstones. Cobble walls of this nature are frequently an indication of Anglo-Saxon work. Windows, as well as the south nave doorway towards the west of this wall, have been cut through the wall. The blocked, narrow south nave doorway (Figure 5.31) fortunately displays jamb orientations that can generally be read. The west jamb reads; ?, BH, BH(oblique), BVEIA, BH, BVEIA, ?, impost; and the east jamb, BH in all stones but the seventh which is BVEIA; indicating a Romanesque origin. The heavy lintel and the blank tympanum were both BVEIA, prepared for possible sculpture in Norman style.

Figure 5.28 Between the south wall of the Morland church tower and the west wall of the south aisle is a short length of what might be the south-west nave quoin. initially an independent structure, a defensive tower rather than serving a church, and the church was appropriately built to adjoin the tower at a later date. They proposed that there was a blocked window above this door rather than a blocked door. As a door the aperture would have been required to communicate with the higher nave loft area.

It seems likely, therefore, that the earliest church constructed largely of cobbles was Anglo-Saxon and that entrance was by a tall narrow doorway in the west nave wall. The walls which surround this west doorway have been plastered (Figure 5.32) and it proves impossible to confirm its possible Anglo-Saxon age. Higher in the same west wall a further door is also blocked: this must have provided communication between the nave higher level and the first stage of the tower.

The contact between the tower and the west end of the nave clearly reveals that the tower is the older. More especially the relationship with the north and south nave walls is not identical, so that the south nave wall quoin is left partially exposed to the south of the tower. About two metres of quoin are visible externally (Figure 5.28), but interpretation is difficult (with just one BVFR stone readable).

At the north-west corner of the nave a short stretch of cobbled Anglo-Saxon walling is preserved (Figure 5.33). Aligned with the west end of the nave roof, a column of large rectangular blocks indicates the presence of the original nave quoin, a further three squared blocks follow with another quoin before the tower wall is visible. This enables the early nave to be dated. From the ground the nave quoin rises; ?, BVFL, tie stone (BH oblique), BVFL, tie stone (BH), BH, ?BVFL, tie stone (?), ?BVFL (oblique), tie stone (?), ?, ?BVFL, tie stone (?), ?, roof eaves. The three or four further stones to the west of this quoin, looking rather like a buttress parallel to the wall would appear to represent the north end of the additional replacement west wall to support the bell-cote. This would explain the frequent tie stones. The tie stones have all been added by prising the BVFR stones from the nave wall in

In suggesting that the tower was originally apart from the church, the unusual aspects of the tower’s stonework can perhaps be more readily explained. 5.6 Ormside (Great Ormside), St James, NY 701 176 The work of Pevsner (1967, 281-282), in stating that certain portions of the church might be dated to the 11th C., drew the author’s attention to Ormside church. The Royal Commission for Historical Monuments (1936, 185-187) it was to be noted had suggested that certain nave walls were probably of that period. Curwen (1932, 189-194) stated that the earliest discovered historical record of the church was in 1287, but that the mound upon which the church 98

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF WESTMORLAND

Figure 5.29 The south walls of Ormside church (NY 701 176) are present in this view.

Figure 5.30 The south wall of the Ormside church nave is constructed of large cobbles obtained from a river bed. Walls of this type of construction are frequently of Anglo-Saxon age. 99

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 5.31 Wall cobbles have been displaced to insert this south nave doorway at Ormside church. BVEIA and BH orientated stones have been used to create the doorway. Together with this style of ornamentation other characteristics suggest that this doorway is of early Norman age.

Figure 5.33 At the north-west corner of the nave walling relationships are complicated. The nave wall is constructed of large cobbles as in the south nave wall. Immediately below the end of the roof the wall terminates with a quoin (follow the line of the arrow). This was originally sidealternate and Patterned but tied into it is a further wall, thought to be the one used to support the bell-cote. The north wall of the tower follows to the west. which the nave quoin was originally side-alternate and Patterned in Anglo-Saxon fashion. The quoin between the additional nave wall and the tower proved far more difficult to read although it certainly includes a number of BH stones. The west tower to Ormside church is thought, therefore, to have been built by the Normans. Their work of squared stones placed in regular courses is typical, and the older windows appear to be of that date. The tower’s floors were well lit by the windows placed in the west wall (Figure 5.34). Other aspects not relating to the older parts of this church have been well discussed by others. 5.7 Brief notes on other church sites visited Although several other ecclesiastical sites in Westmorland were visited, further comment on only one is necessary. 5.7.1 Appleby, St Lawrence, NY 683 204 Appleby town church is large and situated on the inside of a meander of the River Eden. Certain details of its history and structure are given by; Curwen (1932, 45-72), Pevsner (1974) and Hyde and Pevsner (2010, 104-105) and

Figure 5.32 The west face of the nave inside the Ormside church reveals little of the structure of the doorway because of plaster covering; therefore, the doorway cannot be readily dated. Note the higher blocked doorway. 100

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF WESTMORLAND

a short account is provided in the English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID 73615) web site. Curwen advises that together with St Michael Bongate (see section 5.2) ‘about 1088’ the church was ‘granted to Richard the abbot and to the convent of St Mary at York’, and that the grant was confirmed by Henry I. This statement suggests that the church had an Anglo-Saxon history. The church is built of Permian Penrith Sandstone. Its oldest fabric has been identified to be low in the tower (about 1150). Only the south-west quoin of the tower remains exposed, but in this all stones (but the seventh stone, probably BVFL) are set BH. The nave is enclosed in later structures (Figure 5.35). Damaged in the Border wars much of the church structure is of 14th and 15th C., with extensive rebuilding in 1655, and more recent restoration in 18611862 and in 1960. The church possesses a font created in Carboniferous, Frosterley ‘Marble’.

Figure 5.34 The tower of Ormside church taken to show the west wall windows. The tower has a saddle-back roof.

Figure 5.35 A view of Appleby, St Lawrence (NY 683 204) as it is approached from the south. The porch dates to the 13th C. 101

CHAPTER SIX THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE 6.1 Introduction

In the 9th C. the north-east of England was to be subjected to the attentions of the Vikings and subsequently the Danes. Initially in the form of raids to plunder, they gave way to raids by the Danes to capture and eventually settle larger tracts of land. York was captured in 875 and not released until a half of a century later. Those who settled, however, were to gradually adopt the Christian religion.

Northumbria developed from two distinct kingdoms which had prior to the 7th C., consisted of Bernicia in the north and Deira to the south. Traditonally, Deira was founded by King Aelle and had its principal centre in York. The first Christian mission to arrive from Canterbury was that of Paulinus, who was to become the first Bishop of York in 627. Its teachings followed those of Rome; they were Latin in character, and associated with orthodox practices and crafts. A rather more successful mission from Iona was to settle in Lindisfarne in 634, a few years later. This had origins in the west of Scotland and Ireland with a background of teachings established in the Celtic church with its crafts linked more to ancient British customs. Although the two cultures had significant artistic differences, in combining these, they jointly produced remarkable works of art particularly in sculpture, metalwork and manuscript illumination. The differences in religious practices and calendars proved to be more complex to reconcile. Easter, in particular, was celebrated on different dates in the year. Ultimately, the Celtic, Northumbrian following was obliged to alter its allegiance to the teachings of Rome, when, at Whitby Abbey, the Synod of 664 determined the successful unification of the two. Northumbria was then, and through the next two centuries, to become the most important kingdom in the British Isles.

Geographically, the size of the County of Yorkshire creates particular problems as to how to describe its early churches. The three Ridings (North, West and South) of today, fail to cover the whole county. They also fail to relate exactly to the Ridings (North, West and East) which existed prior to the 1974 boundary changes. The many sites involved will, therefore, be examined in alphabetical order with the pre 1974 county divisions provided in each instance. 6.2 Aldbrough, St Bartholomew, TA 244 387 (East Riding) Aldbrough church consists of a west tower, a nave which is continuous with its east chancel, north and south aisles and a south porch. The tower was restored in 1908-1909 and, with the exception of the tower and chancel, the church was repaired in 1720 and rebuilt in 1870-1871 (Figure 6.1). The following authors have described aspects of the church: Brooke (1782, 39-53), Poulson (1841, 6), Haigh

Figure 6.1 The church of St Bartholomew, Aldbrough (TA 244 387) in the East Riding of Yorkshire, as viewed from the south-east. 102

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

(1877-1878, 151-154), Twycross-Raines (1920), Green (1928, 511-512), Taylor and Taylor (1965, 20-21), Pevsner and Neave (1995, 263-264) and Allison et al. 2002). The English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID 166 464) provide web site details of the building. The church is within a circular churchyard.

confirmed when the north-east chancel quoin is examined. Only the top of the quoin remains (Figure 6.2), indeed only five original stones exist, but sufficient to suggest its Anglo-Saxon origin, these rise: BVFL, ?, replaced stone, BVFR, replaced stone, BVFR, BH, three new stones to eaves of nave. The original quoin stones are in muddy Liassic limestone (the newer stones are of Middle Jurassic oolite). The south-east chancel quoin appears to have been entirely rebuilt with all stones BH.

The stonework, in both the wall fabric and the structural elements of the church, provides an interesting, if complex, mix. The rebuilt Victorian areas utilise cut dimensionstone blocks of Middle Jurassic limestones, but much of the original wall fabric has been re-used and this largely involves water-worn cobbles. The cobbles are of mixed composition; some of local east Yorkshire origin, such as Chalk, Chalk with flint, various sandstones, ironstones, and Liassic muddy limestones (some with crinoidal and solitary coral fossil debris). The Liassic limestones also occur as hewn blocks. Less commonly the cobbles (involving materials such as vein quartz, basalt, rare granites, etc.) are likely to have arrived via the ballast from small ships.

For many, the sculptured/inscribed stones in the walls provide the greatest interest. Built into the spandrel between the two central arches of the south arcade is a circular sundial (Figure 6.3) around the circumference of which is an Anglo-Saxon inscription (commencing at four o’ clock). It reads, ‘Ulf had this church built for himself and for Gunwara’s soul’. It is known that in 1066, Ulf held Aldbrough (Allison et al., 2002). Above the window in the south chancel wall is a separate carved early monolithic window head (Figure 6.4). The origin of this stone is more

The nave and chancel are conspicuously of the same width. Together with the arcades (which had originally been built in the 12th C.), the nave and the chancel arch were all rebuilt in the 1870-1871 period. The plan must have been to rebuild the nave to be equal in width to the chancel, as suggested by Twycoss-Raines (1920). This may be

Figure 6.3 The inscribed Anglo-Saxon sundial at Aldbrough church as observed on the south wall of the south arcade. It provides a building date for the church of about (or prior to) 1060.

Figure 6.2 Seen high in the east wall of the chancel of Aldbrough church is the remnant of the early chancel north-east quoin, The original quoin was built of Liassic muddy limestone (darker as viewed) and these stones preserve a Patterned style. The varied cobbles in the east walls of the chancel and north-east aisle are discussed in the church description.

Figure 6.4 A sculptured monolithic head stone from an early narrow window on the south chancel wall of Aldbrough church. Its preservation in Middle Jurassic limestone at this site suggests that it is likely to be of Norman construction. 103

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Appleton-le-Street church consists of an early west tower, a nave with Early English aisles and a chancel, which was shortened in the 15th C. (Figure 6.6). Entrance is by means of a north porch to the tower. A description of the church also appears in the English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID 328 639) web site. The church is built mainly of local, higher rocks from the Upper Jurassic, Corallian, bioclastic and slightly oolitic grey limestones; worked according to period, as roughly dressed stone, or different qualities of roughly squared blocks. The western quoins of the tower are placed sidealternately (Figures 6.7 and 6.8) and display a moderately Anglo-Saxon pattern. The south-west tower quoin is set: above the plinth with a squared upper face, uncertain, BH, BH, BVFL, BH, BVFL, BH, BVFL, BH, BVFL.

Figure 6.5 The Early English priest’s doorway in the chancel of Aldbrough church, ornamented with earlier Norman work in Middle Jurassic limestone.

The north-west tower quoin is probably more modified: ?, BH, BH, BH, BVFL, BH, BH, BH, BH, BVFR.

probably Norman because the stone used for its creation is of Middle Jurassic oolite. The 13th-14th C. priest’s doorway (which the south aisle overlaps noticeably) in the south chancel wall has re-used Norman zigzag work in the same Jurassic limestone (Figure 6.5).

These descriptions take the quoins to about the height of the blocked doorway on the south tower wall (see Figure 6.8). Higher stones all appear to be BH (although many could not be read). The change to the fully Norman third stage of the tower is gradual although both string courses are of rectangular section (Figure 6.9). Unfortunately, the jamb stones to the blocked south doorway (three either side) could not be read, but both, in appearance and in opening to space (compare Ovingham, Bywell, St Andrew, etc.), the doorway suggests that it is of an Anglo-Saxon

6.3 Appleton-le-Street, All Saints, SE 733 736 (North Riding) Described by Hodges (1894, 200-201), Victoria County History (1914, 469), Taylor and Taylor (1965, 28-29), Pevsner (1966, 64), Potter (2005b, 196) and others;

Figure 6.6 All Saints church, Appleton-le-Street (SE 733 736) is seen here from the south. 104

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

origin (Figure 6.10). The tower arch is believed to have been widened and rebuilt under Norman influence (Figure 6.11).

Figure 6.7 The west tower of Appleton-le-Street church from the south-east. The south-west quoin and the blocked south doorway of the tower are of particular interest.

Figure 6.9 The belfries seen on the west wall of the tower at Appleton-le-Street church. Described in the text, the higher apertures appear to be Norman in construction.

Figure 6.10 The blocked doorway on the south wall of Appleton-le-Street tower must have originally opened to space. Although Anglo-Saxon in appearance the jamb stones were unfortunately too high to be read.

Figure 6.8 A closer view of the west tower at Appleton-leStreet. Note the early nave roof line on the east tower wall. 105

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 6.11 Norman in appearance, the stonework on the jambs of Appleton-le- Street tower arch proved unreadable without cleaning. The arch is thought to have replaced a narrower Anglo-Saxon predecessor.

Figure 6.13 The face of BVFL stone 4 in the north-west nave quoin in Figure 6.12 proves to be littered with fossils which include small specimens of Ostrea spp.

Figure 6.14 A general view of the nave, chancel and arcades at Appleton-le-Street church as seen from the west.

Figure 6.12 Viewed from the north the arrowed northwest nave quoin (the nearer quoin is of the north aisle) of Appleton-le-Street church proves to be Anglo-Saxon. The north porch to the tower is on the right.

The south-west nave quoin rises as follows: base obscured by later south aisle plinth stone to cover what appears to be two nave quoin stones, BVFR, BVFL (which passes behind the later tower wall), BVFR (long stone broken and join pointed), BH, two further stones difficult to read.

The church nave possesses a slight deformation from the rectangular, to resemble a parallelogram in shape. When the tower was built it incorporated the early west nave wall as its east wall, so that the deformation is repeated in the tower. The western ends of the nave may just be observed on either side of the tower. Typically, the nave has been thought to post-date the lower portion of the tower. However, the relationship of the nave quoins to the tower indicates that they were built prior to the erection of the tower.

The north-west nave quoin (Figure 6.12) basal stone has been replaced with several smaller stones, BH (oblique), BVFL (oblique), BVFL, BH, stones 6 to 8 unreadable, BVFR, stones 10 to the capping top unreadable. The surface detail of BVFL stone 4 is shown in Figure 6.13. 106

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

Figure 6.15 This plaque on the north wall of the tower above the porch at Appleton- le-Street church is thought to date from the 13th C.

Figure 6.16 All Hallows church, Bardsey (SE 366 432) is viewed here from the north-west. The west ends of the aisle walls align with that of the tower.

The view of the nave towards the chancel is displayed in Figure 6.14. The chancel was shortened in the 15th C. Externally; an early nave roof line can be seen to partially cover the opening on the east wall of the lower tower belfry. The plaque on the north wall of the tower above the porch (Figure 6.15) is thought to be 13th C. and of a seated Virgin Mary.

The west wall of the church, and in particular the tower, reveals interesting aspects of the construction of the tower. The stonework of the early Norman north aisle and the later Norman south aisle has not been tied into the tower. The west quoins of the tower are not, therefore, disrupted. Large squared Millstone Grit quoin stones rise above a largely hidden plinth (Figure 6.17):

6.4 Bardsey, All Hallows, SE 366 432 (West Riding) All Hallows, Bardsey, currently preserves a west tower, which is fully embraced by the north and south aisles of the nave, a chancel with north and south chapels, and a south porch leading from the south aisle (Figure 6.16). The north chapel was built in 1521 but today serves as the vestry and to house the organ. The church is constructed of reasonably squared and coursed blocks of Upper Carboniferous, Pennsylvanian, Millstone Grit and Coal Measure sandstones, both of which were probably originally quarried very locally. The Coal Measure sandstones tend to be less coarse and more variable in colour.

On the south side; BH, BVFL (with doubtful lewis hole), BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, ?BVFL, BVFR, ?BH; all above appear BH. The first four of these stones is shown in Figure 6.18. On the north side; BH, BVFL, BVFL, ?BH, BVFL, ?, BH, ?; all above appear to be BH (Figure 6.19). The stones in the lower portion of the tower quoins are placed side-alternately and show a clear (if difficult to read) Anglo-Saxon pattern. Taylor and Taylor (1965) followed Haigh (1846) to declare that the lower tower was originally a west porch. The line of the porch roof can be seen both internally and externally on the west tower wall (see Figure 6.17). The Taylors, however, then chose to date the lower tower Anglo-Saxon Period B and the upper portion, built above the porch, Period C. Subsequent authors have accepted these dates without question. The

The church has been described by the following persons: Haigh (1846, 428-443), Kirk (1937), Pevsner and Radcliffe (1959, 29), Taylor and Taylor (1965, 39-40), Carter (1976, 6), Linstrum (1978, 158), Potter (2005b, 106) and Leach and Pevsner (2009, 109-110) in addition to others. A web site carries the English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID 342 127) description. 107

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 6.19 The north-west tower quoin at Bardsey church displays Anglo-Saxon Patterned characteristics (see text for details). The tower west wall, however, has been rebuilt (note the joggling of the stonework against the quoin) and the window is a later insertion.

Figure 6.17 The importance of the lighting is well shown between this view and that of Figure 6.16. Here, the quoin stones and the arrowed roof line of the early west porch are visible at the base of the tower.

date of the porch may have been proposed to relate to comparable dates of similar porches at Corbridge and Monkwearmouth. The higher elements of the tower reveal little real stonework evidence that is earlier than Norman. The Taylors (1965, 40) proposed that the double belfry windows in the second and third stages in the south face of the tower, each with mid-wall shafts and through-stone slabs, were characteristically Anglo-Saxon (see Figure 6.20). Other windows in the tower they accepted were probably later modifications. Unfortunately, from ground level, no bedding orientations could be seen to confirm any pre-Romanesque work at these higher levels. Showing similarities with Monkwearmouth (see Monograph A, 6.14) the west porch at Bardsey may well have possessed a porticus to both north and south, because there are lateral doorways to the tower. The doorway to the north still reveals Anglo-Saxon stone orientations (Figure 6.21). From the north side the large BVEIA lintel stone rests on an east jamb which rises BH, BVFIA, and a pair of two further replacement stones; with the west jamb (all through stones) as BH, BH, BVFIA. Neither the doorway to the south of the porch nor the windows directly above these doorways show such features, all having been altered over time. Figure 6.18 The lowest five stones of the south-west quoin of the early porch at Bardsey are illustrated. The light is not suitable enough, however, to clearly display their orientations.

Within the church the western quoins to an AngloSaxon nave may be observed within the western ends of the respective aisles. That to the north-west is partially 108

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

Figure 6.20 The south wall of Bardsey church tower showing windows at both belfry levels as well as a lower, single window. All readable window jambs appear to be set BH and no Anglo-Saxon characteristics are present.

Figure 6.22 The north-west nave quoin at Bardsey (viewed from the north-west) is partially hidden by ladders, etc., but the large sandstone blocks, despite plaster cover, reveal Anglo-Saxon orientations.

Figure 6.21 The north porch door to the church tower at Bardsey may have once provided entrance to a porticus. The equivalent south doorway can be seen through the north doorway. The north doorway reveals Patterned stonework but the window above has all jamb stones BH.

Figure 6.23 The south-west nave quoin viewed from the south-west proved to be too plaster covered and poorly exposed to provide stone orientations.

109

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

obscured (Figure 6.22) but the large stones can be read as rising; BVFL, ?, BVFL, ?, BVFL, ?, BVFL. The south-west nave quoin (Figure 6.23) is also partially concealed and added wall plaster makes it difficult to read stone orientations. The south-east nave quoin is also partially visible (Figure 6.24) from the south (Bingley) chapel. None of these quoin stones proved readable. The once external, low south chancel trefoiled window to the right (east) was built about 1300-1325 when the chancel was widened. The church possesses a number of Norman features, including a rebuilt doorway in the south aisle. 6.5 Bedale, St Gregory, SE 265 884 (North Riding) Bedale church is constructed of Upper Carboniferous, Pennsylvanian, Coal Measure sandstones quarried from a locality that is not precisely known, a few kilometres to the west of the church. Recorded in 1086, the church consists of a west tower (early 14th C.), a late Anglo-Saxon nave and a chancel. To this an early 13th C. south arcade/ aisle was added and a slightly later north arcade/aisle. The aisles were subsequently extended to the east to create chapels to the chancel which was also rebuilt and extended. There is a crypt beneath the chancel. Extensive Victorian modifications make the dating of nearly all the structures difficult, with no two authors in agreement with regard to these dates (Figure 6.25). The main entry to the church is via a porch on the south side of the tower.

Figure 6.24 The south face of the Bardsey nave south-east quoin (arrow) can be seen from the south (Bingley) chapel. To its right (east) a low trefoiled lancet window on the south once external wall of the chancel built about 1325 permitted those unable to enter the church to participate in the Services and to receive the sacrament.

Figure 6.25 Viewed from the south-east, the church of St Gregory, Bedale (SE 265 884) reveals nothing of its early origin. 110

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

Those who have described the church include; McCall (1907, 74-105), Victoria County History (1914, 297-299), Morris (1920, 61-66), Taylor and Taylor (1965, 57) and Pevsner (1966, 74-76). Of these authors, only Taylor and Taylor advocated an Anglo-Saxon age for the nave and the original chancel. This they based on the style of the simple string courses which are visible from the south aisle, where they occur on the exterior of the original south walls. There are additionally a number of pre-Conquest carved stones held on the church site (Figure 6.26). Although the lower portions of the eastern nave quoins have been heavily plastered, that in the north-east, behind the organ, consisting of but a few megalithic stones can in part be read as BH, BVFL, BH; offering support for the construction of the nave to be of Anglo-Saxon age (Figure 6.27). The south wall of the nave is little more than 0.7m. thick. That the nave and chancel both once possessed roofs which were much higher is revealed by the roof lines which may be observed on both the east walls of the tower and the nave. Furthermore, above the ‘Victorian’ chancel arch there is a doorway which once provided a means of communication between the upper levels of the nave and the chancel (Figure 6.28). Regrettably, the jambs of this doorway were too high to read. Pevsner (1966, 75) refers to the south porch having an ‘uncommon arrangement’ to the tower. To the east side of the south entrance from the porch a small doorway from the tower provides an entrance to the higher levels of the tower (Figure 6.29). Examined carefully, and from the side as in Figure 6.30, the doorway possesses a groove. This groove was unrecognised in recent centuries until a portcullis fell from it. The portcullis was controlled from the upper level of the porch and in use it would have protected the upper levels of the tower, nave and chancel. It may be noted that this portcullis provided a second level of defence to the church. At both the main door (Figure 6.31) from the south porch and the west doorway into the church tower there were once bar locks, affording a first level of protection.

Figure 6.27 Within the vestry at Bedale church a trace of the original north-east quoin of the early nave can be identified, although it is covered in wall plaster.

Figure 6.26 Bedale church like so many in Yorkshire possesses a number of early sculptured stones. Anglo-Saxon knotwork is displayed on this block which lies in the south aisle.

Figure 6.28 Above the ‘Victorian’ chancel arch at Bedale church is a doorway once used for communication between the higher levels of nave and chancel. Unfortunately, the jamb stone orientations could not be read. 111

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 6.29 The narrow doorway between the tower and the upper levels of the south porch at Bedale church looks highly innocuous. That it hides a portcullis is certainly not obvious.

Figure 6.31 The bar lock hole in the east jamb of the doorway between the porch and the tower at Bedale church. These protective structures all appear to relate to a period of around the first quarter of the 14th C. 6.6 Bulmer, St Martin, SE 699 676 (North Riding) Authors in the last century who have described Bulmer church include Victoria County History (1923, 107-113), Taylor and Taylor (1965, 116-117), and Pevsner (1966, 92). A short description also occurs on the English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID 329 502) web site. All these draw attention to the walls of the nave being constructed largely in a herringbone style (Figure 6.32). All place the age of the building of the nave as 11th C. and of Saxo-Norman undifferentiated age. The elements of the church now consist of the west tower (of about 14th C. date, its parapet dated 1637), and an aisleless nave and a chancel (partially rebuilt in 1898). A relatively modern south porch encloses a Norman south nave door. There is evidence externally on the north wall that the nave at one time (probably about the 14th C.) had attached to it, a two bay aisle/chapel at its east end (see Figure 6.32). This was removed and the arches filled, during, or prior to, the 18th C.; as determined by the windows that partially replace the arches. The stones utilised for building the church have varied over the task and the time when required, but all have been extracted from either the local, Lower or Middle Jurassic. Quoin stones and squared stonework (as present in the relatively modern south and east chancel walls) are constructed of a shelly fragmental grey, occasionally oolitic, limestone from the Middle Jurassic. The brownish irregular pieces of elongate silty stone used in the

Figure 6.30 The groove (arrow) in which the portcullis once existed at Bedale church. In operation, the portcullis would have barred the access to the higher levels of the church. 112

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

Figure 6.32 Bulmer church (SE 699 676) from the north; principally showing the nave. The blocked north door and the two blocked arcade arches to a one-time north chapel/aisle are also visible. herringbone work resemble similar rocks from the Lower Jurassic, Middle Liassic ‘Cleveland Ironstone Formation’. The Taylors proposed that the nave had at one time been extended towards the east. No evidence of this could be observed. The external length of the nave is 16.2m. The original fenestration to the nave provided by the narrow monosplay windows, is of 11th C. pattern. These windows would have opposed each other on the opposite walls, as one pair still do today. The west of the three windows in the south nave wall is still present (Figure 6.33).The third eastern window, required to give approximately equally spaced windows (just over 4m. between) is missing to both north (there is here a possible trace) and south. The windows that remain, as explained by the Taylors, follow Anglo-Saxon practice and have their splays carried through the full thickness of the walls (Figure 6.34). In the instances where they were readable their jamb stones are placed BH (but see Monograph Part A. section, 2.3.3). It may be noted that the herringbone work is confined to the eastern twothirds of the nave; a variety of reasons might be proposed as to why this is the case. The south nave door has its quoin stones set to Norman pattern but the blocked north door (Figures 6.35 and 6.36) is of simpler form and is possibly earlier. The quoin stones, however, proved impossible to read. Only one of the nave quoins displayed any evidence of bedding orientations, that at the north-west corner, and even the lowest area of this was much replaced. There followed a few side-alternately

Figure 6.33 The western monosplay window on the south wall of the nave at Bulmer church. No bedding stone orientations on this window could be confirmed. 113

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 6.36 A view of the north nave doorway at Bulmer church from the west-north-west, to also show the north nave wall. placed stones, set: BH, ?, BVFR, BVFR, 3 ‘new’ stones, BH, but then impossible to read. Although the stonework in the nave could be interpreted as entirely of late AngloSaxon origin, and there is nothing to intimate that this was done under Norman influence, some cleaning of stonework would help to confirm this impression. Figure 6.34 The interior of one of the three remaining monosplay narrow windows at Bulmer church to show an Anglo-Saxon feature, its splay, despite the presence of wall plaster.

6.7 Burghwallis, St Helen, SE 537 120 (West Riding) Burghwallis church, like Bulmer, is built partially of herringbone style. At St Helen, both nave and chancel possess such walls. The rock types involved in the construction of the Burghwallis church are quite unlike those of Bulmer, for they, as at Bulmer, were obtained locally to the church. For herringbone work, Upper Permian flaggy dolomitic silty limestone typically white to cream in colour has normally been used, but there has been some inclusion of red sandstone lumps from the Lower Triassic Sherwood Sandstone Group. Quoin stones and larger stone blocks are generally of Permian Magnesian Limestone (which noticeably attracts lichens), but may include Sherwood Sandstone. The church consists of the west tower (of 12th-13th C.), both nave and chancel which prove to be Anglo-Saxon (Figure 6.37), a south porch (about 15th C., with ‘Victorian’ repairs) and a modern north chapel (19th C.) used as a vestry (Figure 6.38). Accounts related to the church have appeared in Pevsner and Radcliffe (1959, 150-151), Taylor and Taylor (1965, 119), Ryder (1982, 35-43) and Potter (2005b, 198). A further record is provided on the web site for the English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID 334931). It is of interest that Pevsner and Radcliffe (1959, 21) wrote; ‘Herringbone masonry is always considered a sign of Early Norman date’. This is a view which today may not be so dogmatically stated. Herringbone work is confined to both the nave and chancel, and all six quoins of these two buildings are created with large quoin stones set partially in side-alternate style. The bedding orientations in these stones show sufficient Patterned style to confirm their Anglo-Saxon age. Their

Figure 6.35 The north nave door to St Martin, Bulmer which is now blocked. None of the jamb stones proved readable. 114

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

Figure 6.37 St Helen, Burghwallis (SE 537 120) is here observed from the south. The east end of the chancel is excluded from the view.

Figure 6.38 Burgwallis church viewed from the north-east. A churchwarden kindly models outside the ‘Victorian’ vestry (chapel) constructed of Magnesian Limestone squared blocks. 115

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 6.39 Showing the south face of Burghwallis chancel and the south-east nave quoin. Note the absence of the herringbone work at the east end of the chancel and the inference, therefore, that the chancel has been rebuilt and slightly extended at the east end, probably re-using the original quoin stones. state of preservation varies as does the ability to read their orientations. The south-east nave quoin is perhaps the best preserved (Figures 6.39 and 6.40). It sits on the top of a flat BH plinth and rises: BVFL*, BVFR*,BVFL, BH, BVFL*, BVFR, BH* BH (diagonal)*,?*, BVFR*, BVFL, BH*, new stones in Magnesian Limestone. With no visible plinth the south-west nave quoin rises: Diagonal (with stone inset on south face), ?BVFR, ?, BH, BVFR, BVFL, BH*, BVFR, ?*, ?, ?, ?*, new stones (Figure 6.41). The north-east nave quoin has one face covered and is more difficult to read: there are only eight stones to the eaves of the chapel/vestry, two only in sandstone and only one possibly vertically bedded (BVFR). The north-west nave quoin provides: BVFR, BH*, BH*, BVFL, BH, all rebuilt above. The two BH* stones are possibly replacements. It seems likely that the east end of the chancel has been rebuilt and slightly extended (see Figure 6.39). The quoins stones have probably been reset.

Figure 6.40 Detail of the first six stones in the south-east nave quoin at Burghwallis church. Stones 1 and 5 are of sandstone (stone 5 unusually dark in colour). 116

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

embedded in a south wall. The crosses are today probably more famous archaeologically than the church in which they were discovered (Kerr and Kerr, 1982, 51-53). The details of the church, as well as the crosses, have been described by Pettigrew (1864, 308-314), Brown (1925, 449; 1937, 153-157), Collingwood (1927, 24-25), Morris (1934, 154-155), Taylor and Taylor (1965, 166-167), Potter (2005b, 199) and Leach and Pevsner (2009, 229-230). The church today consists of a west tower, a nave with north aisle and south porch, and a chancel with north vestry. The early alterations include the building of the arcade (probably about 1200) and aisle, and the lengthening of the chancel (in the late 13th C), but from the exterior it is the ‘Victorian’ alterations which are particularly obvious and the porch and the buttresses are of the 19th C. Furthermore, in addition to the 1840 rebuild, the church was also restored in 1870. The early stonework reflects the ‘Victorian’ building; with cut stone blocks, within an individual wall of similar, relatively small size stones (Figures 6.42 and 6.43). The stone used throughout the church is from the local Triassic, Sherwood Sandstone Group (previously known as the Bunter Sandstone). The sandstone, although typically in shades of red, also occurs as grey-green, white, yellow or cream according to the chemical state of its included iron.

Figure 6.41 The south-west nave quoin at Burghwallis (to the left the tower, to the right the porch). Stone 7 is the top red sandstone and stone 1 has been repaired on the south face.

Traces of original Anglo-Saxon origins have been recognised in the nave where the original north and south walls are thin. The north wall proves to be just 0.64m. thick. There are also vestiges in the external nave walls which are not ‘Victorian’. In particular, the southern two nave quoins have been described as Anglo-Saxon; interestingly, for Brown (1925, 449) because the quoin stones exhibited ‘very distinct long and short work’, and for the Taylors (1965, 167) because the stones showed ‘very clear side-alternate’ appearance. The south-west and south-east quoins in fact show neither form; but they do show an element of Patterned structure.

The details for the chancel were difficult to read: the southeast quoin preserved the top of its plinth which appeared to be followed by a replacement stone and a further nine larger stones in side-alternate style (two being BVFL and the top stone in sandstone). Above all quoin stones were small and in Magnesian Limestone. The north-east chancel quoin was very similar to that at the south-east corner. Asterisked stones above (*thus) were all in sandstone. All others are created in Permian Magnesian Limestone which varies in lithology, being oolitic or pellety, to very finegrained.

The south-west nave quoin is sandwiched between the tower and a slightly overlapping buttress (Figure 6.44) and it rises; BVFL, BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, BVFL, BH, BVFR. The buttress has been tied partially into the quoin at the level of the 5th stone and the last stone to which reference has been made.

The quoins, created in two contrasting rock types, are unusual. Certainly the higher stones all in Magnesian Limestone were later, but there is no real evidence of replacement of one necessarily with the other at lower levels. Both rock types are locally very accessible and they were used together in the walls. In the north nave wall for instance, there first is a course of red sandstone followed by about 2m. of herringbone work in limestone.

The south-east nave quoin occurs between a buttress and the chancel wall (Figure 6.45) and rises; BVFR (base unclear), BVFL (stone broken), BVFR, ?, ?BVFR, BVFL, ?, ?. The buttress is tied in to the quoin above the last stone, and some of the stones are covered in ‘cement’. More importantly, stones 1, 5 and 7 pass behind the chancel wall to indicate that the chancel is of a later date.

All other aspects of the description of this church have been well covered by other authors.

The quoin stones are somewhat larger in size than the wall stonework and they are varied and of different shapes. Only the bedding orientations of the stones can justifiably be used to identify the Anglo-Saxon construction in these quoins.

6.8 Collingham, St Oswald, SE 390 460 (West Riding) In 1840, Collingham church was being partially ‘rebuilt in Early English style’ when two crosses were discovered 117

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 6.42 St Oswald, Collingham (SE 390 460) is seen here from the south-east.

Figure 6.43 A late evening view from the south-west of Collingham church. 118

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

Figure 6.44 The first five stones seen in the south-west nave quoin of Collingham church. They rise; BVFL, BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, BVFL; although the last of these has been virtually replaced by a tie stone from the adjoining buttress on the right.

Figure 6.45 The lower portion of the south-east nave quoin (arrowed) at Collingham church. Abutting from the left is a Victorian buttress, to the right the wall of the chancel. the south-east chancel quoin are larger and contrast in appearance with the adjoining wall (Figure 6.50). They rest on a rectangular plinth above which a later ‘drip course’ has been inserted. (This ‘drip course’ continues around the church to stop, on the south wall, at the point where the south chapel once stood).

6.9 Ellerburn, St Hilda, SE 842 842 (North Riding) Situated in the Thornton le Dale valley, Ellerburn church, resembling Collingham, is well represented by 9th-10th C. Anglo-Saxon/Anglo-Danish sculptures, again in many instances originally found in the reconstruction of early walls. The church consists today of a nave and chancel, with restorations in 1904-1905 and 1911 creating both a north vestry and south porch (Figures 6.46 and 6.47). The ugly buttressed bell-cote was provided in the 19th C. (Figure 6.48). The fabric of the church has been described as early Norman. The church once had a south chapel to the south of the nave (Figure 6.49). Descriptions of the church appear in the Victoria County History (1923, 437-440) and Pevsner (1966, 158-159).

The south-east chancel quoin rises above the ‘drip course’: BVFL, BVFR, BH, BH, BVFL. Above a further three BH stones there are a BVFL and a BVFR as stones 9 and 10 (Figure 6.51). The north-east chancel quoin is similar, rising above the ‘drip course’; BVFR, BH, BH, BVFL, BVFR. Small stones above this may be of ‘Victorian’ insertion, for all the east face of the chancel appears to be completed in relatively modern stonework. . The chancel arch has been reconstructed (Figure 6.52), but its jambs and imposts could well be Anglo-Saxon for they carry carving such as incised spirals on their imposts (Figure 6.53). Unfortunately, the stones in the jambs proved unreadable. The carved impost stonework is probably again from the Upper Jurassic, but from the Corallian oolitic limestone whereas all other stone is sandstone (Figure 6.54).

The church is built of rock from its immediate locality, typically a cream to pale yellow, coarse sandstone which in the earlier walls is roughly squared and laid in moderate courses. The sandstone is described as the Lower Calcareous Grit, from the base of the Corallian, and it is of Upper Jurassic age. Scrutiny of the walls of Ellerburn church generally reveals nothing of pre-Romanesque age, the chancel quoins are, however, more revealing. The lowest five stones in

Pevsner (1966, 158) suggested that what remains of the blocked north nave doorway might be early. Viewed from

119

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 6.46 Viewed from the south, St Hilda, Ellerburn (SE 842 842), completed in Corallian, Upper Jurassic sandstone, with its high level nave windows, might be mistaken as a house.

Figure 6.47 Ellerburn Church is here viewed from the south-east. The blocked priest’s door to the chancel can be seen. 120

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

Figure 6.48 From the north-west, the unattractive buttressed bell-cote and the relatively modern vestry to the church of St Hilda are visible.

Figure 6.49 The east end of the nave of Ellerburn church, viewed from the south, displays the trace of an arcade arch of a prior south chapel, a window now built into the blocked space. The ‘drip course’, inserted above the wall plinth noticeably terminates at this point. The south-east nave quoin has been rebuilt. 121

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 6.50 The south chancel wall at St Hilda church, Ellerburn.

Figure 6.52 The Ellerburn church reconstructed chancel arch as viewed from the west. The following figures show the early jamb details.

Figure 6.53 The details of the south jamb ornamentation to the chancel arch at Ellerburn church.

Figure 6.51 Detail of the lowest stones of the south-east chancel quoin at Ellerburn church. The plinth stones have what appears to be a later ‘drip course’ inserted above them. The quoin then rises in Anglo-Saxon Patterned style; BVFL, BVFR, BH, BH, BVFL.

the exterior, the lowest east jamb stone above the sill is placed BVFIA, but apart from a couple of BH stones in the jambs the remainder could not be deciphered. There remain a number of interesting features related to the stone fabric in the church but no others point to its Anglo-Saxon origins.

Figure 6.54 The ornamentation to the north chancel arch jamb, seen from the south-west is similar to that in Figure 6.53. 122

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

6.10 Gilling West, St Agatha and St Oswin, NZ 182 052 (North Riding)

of the church appears to have been to St Peter which was still partly in use as recently as 1840. The additional dedication to St Oswin appears to be recent.

Gilling West church is generally believed to have been built initially in the 11th C. and to then have consisted of a west tower, nave and chancel. Today, the church is supplemented by south and north 14th C. aisles to the nave, and (at the north-east) a vestry of about the same age, a 19th C. south porch, and completed in 1844 (Lambeth Palace Library ICBS 00280), a second north aisle (Figure 6.55). The chancel has been subjected to various periods of alteration and in its early (Norman) history possessed a north chapel which is represented by a blocked 12th C. arch.

The oldest part of the church was recognised by Pevsner to be within the lower walls of the tower, where the quoin stones were large and irregular (Victoria County History). Scrutiny of these quoin stones reveals that regardless of shape they show a Patterned character. Only the western quoins may be examined. The north-west tower quoin rises without a visible plinth; ?BH, BVFL, BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, BVFL, BH (diagonal), BVFL, with a further 7 stones to the tower string course (which were too high to be read with certainty). Above the string all stones appeared to be BH. Figure 6.56 illustrates the first eight quoin stones.

Those contributing to the description of the church include; Victoria County History (1914, 78-84), Pevsner (1966, 169-170) and Laybourn (1996). The church was referred to in Domesday as in existence in 1086 and is associated with a collection of early sculptures. The name ‘Gilling’ has been linked with Bede’s Ingethlingum (Ingetilingum) where a monastery was founded in the mid-7th C.

The south-west tower quoin (Figure 6.57) has no visible plinth and rises: BH, BVFL, BVFR, BH, BVFR, BVFL, BH, BVFL, BH, BVFL, BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, ?BVFL, BH, tower first string course. All quoin stones above the string course appeared BH. Figure 6.57 shows the first seven quoin stones (the folder is 0.3m. long).

The older parts of the church are built of Lower Carboniferous (Mississippian),Yoredale Series sandstones which are local to the church. These tend to be slightly micaceous, buff to yellow sandstones. An earlier dedication

The Victoria County History account stated that the tower walls were only 0.71m.thick.

Figure 6.55 Gilling West, church of St Agatha (NZ 182 052), is viewed here from the south-west. 123

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

The Anglo-Saxon characteristics of the first stage of the tower would suggest that the nave could also be of this age. Only a trace of the south-east nave quoin is now visible (Figure 6.58). A portion of the east face of the quoin may be seen and this only over a few metres. The area which would have probably represented stones 1 and 2 is covered in concrete. Concrete partially covers stones 3 and 4 (which might be BVFL, BVFR respectively), stone 5 is BVFL, 6 uncertain and the rest are missing. At clerestory level the old quoin is no longer present. There is some suggestion that when the south aisle was built quoin stones were re-used from elsewhere, probably from the nave; for over the lowest portion of the aisle south quoins a few BVFR and BVFL stones occur and some of these appear to be re-used. The south-east chancel quoin also includes a few BVFR and BVFL stones. It is noticeable that the north chapel north wall east end is built of large squared stones in Norman style. Whether these stones were re-used from the earlier chapel of this age or represent a standing portion of that chapel incorporated into the 14th C. vestry which replaced it was uncertain. The second alternative would appear the more likely. Both the nave and chancel present evidence that they once had steeply inclined roofing from the marks which they have left on the respective east tower and nave walls. Figure 6.56 The north-west Anglo-Saxon tower quoin at Gilling West church. The first eight quoin stones are shown.

Figure 6.58 The fragmentary south-east nave quoin at Gilling West church, partly covered in concrete, only a small part of the east quoin face is visible.

Figure 6.57 The south-west tower quoin at Gilling West also shows its Anglo- Saxon characteristics. 124

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

6.11 Hackness, St Peter, SE 969 905 (North Riding)

Vestiges of two early nave windows can be seen above the south arcade arches represented by four and two stones respectively. The poor lighting and the height at which these were present made it impossible to read their bedding orientations.

The dedication of Hackness church is uncertain, and as recently as 1950 it was described as ‘variously known as St Peter, St Mary the Virgin and St Hilda’ (Lambeth Palace Library ICBS 12842). According to Bede, a monastery was established by Abbess Hilda of Whitby at Hackness in 680. The monastery and this church were still in existence in Hackness in c. 1160. Those who have discussed the history and structure of the church include; Anon. (18481849, 243-245), Victoria County History (1913, 107; 1923, 528-532), Bilson (1924, 406-407), Brown (1925, 204, 455), Clapham (1930, 50; 1948, 82), Pevsner (1966, 180), Taylor and Taylor (1965, 268-270), Winterbotham (1985) and Potter (2005b, 211). The church is further described on the English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID 327376) web site.

The tower arch is generally described as late 12th C. and the chancel arch admired as being 11th C. or earlier (Figure 6.60), and the oldest structure in the church. The north impost of the arch is carved on its soffit with both pattern and creatures (Figure 6.61) such that it was dated to the 8th C. by Brown (1925, 204). The arch jamb stones and voussoirs are all through stones. Taylor and Taylor (1965, 268) noted the tendency for the jambs to be in ‘Escomb’ style but that the stones had been chamfered. The south jamb rises; ?, BH, BVFIA, BH, BVFIA. The north jamb rises; BH, BVFIA, BH, BVFIA, with the ornamented impost above. Some problems exist in dating the arch as wholly Anglo-Saxon. Some of the stones have been repaired and the top stone in the south jamb probably replaced. The later 13th-14th C. chamfering of both AngloSaxon and Norman arch jamb stones is not unknown. The Anglo-Saxon style stonework would appear to confirm its age, but the absence of a complementary ornamented south impost would suggest that the north impost may be from some other earlier source.

With 15th, 17th and 19th C rebuilding and restorations, little is visible externally of the older aspects of this church (Figure 6.59). Much of the building is created in squared blocks of yellow sandstone, which was probably quarried from the Upper Jurassic, Corallian, Lower Calcareous Grit. Internally, 12th C. work is more obvious. The arcades are both of that period, with the south arcade being the older and cut through an original nave wall only 0.6m. thick.

Figure 6.59 St Peter, Hackness (SE 969 905) viewed here from the south-west. 125

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 6.60 The interior of Hackness church viewed from the east to show the chancel arch and the tower arch beyond.

Figure 6.62 On the south wall of the chancel at Hackness church there are traces of two early blocked doorways, that to the west possesses jamb stones which indicates that it is probably Norman. A 15th C. date is normally given for the chancel. This portion of the walling looks older and it is perhaps appropriate to describe this length of wall as Norman.

Figure 6.61 The impost to the north jamb of Hackness church chancel arch has been dated to as early as 8th C. It may of course have been re-incorporated from elsewhere. Note the jamb stones are chamfered. On the exterior of the south wall of the chancel a short stretch of wall could possibly be somewhat older than the 15th C. date normally ascribed to the chancel (Figure 6.62). There are traces of what might be two possible priest’s doors, that to the west possibly revealing jamb stones above the later chancel drip course. The BVEIA orientation of these would indicate a Norman age. Barely noticeable, traces of the western quoins of the nave are also visible between the tower and the respective aisles. The tower’s elaborate string/drip ornamentation at its base obscures the base of the nave quoins completely (Figure 6.63), but from the level of the top of this ornamentation the south-west quoin reads; BVFL, BVFL, BH, ?. BVFL, ?. BVFR, higher uncertain. In the instance of the north-west nave quoin, where the light was poor, only the first two BVFL stones could be read. Part of the north-east nave quoin is visible in the north aisle, but again it is unreadable.

Figure 6.63 Between the ornamental base to the tower and the south aisle it should be possible to just make out (arrow) a narrow piece of the Anglo-Saxon south-west nave quoin for Hackness church. In summary, there is sufficient evidence from the stonework to date the nave and, although the chancel arch has been somewhat altered, that too is of Anglo-Saxon age. 126

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

6.12 Hauxwell, St Oswald, SE 166 932 (North Riding)

the west end of the chancel was of the same building period as the nave and that the chancel was nearly doubled in length in the 13th C.

Dedicated to St Oswald, King of Northumbria (633-641), Hauxwell church is normally dated to the 11th C. The church was examined as a possibility existed that it might preserve earlier Anglo-Saxon origins. Descriptions of the church occur in the Victoria County History (1914, 245251) and Pevsner (1966, 182-183), and in a very readable church guide by Green (undated). The church possesses three principal component parts: the 13th C. tower, the nave, and a 13th C. or earlier chancel. The chancel arch is thought to be late 11th C. A north chapel was added in the 14th C. and the south porch is relatively modern. Higher levels of the tower were added about 1600 (Figures 6.64 and 6.65).

The possiblity that the only well-exposed nave quoin might reveal an early origin had to be considered.This was the south-east nave quoin (Figure 6.66, and see Figure 6.65). There all stones were larger but set BH. Some of the settings suggested they were replacement stones and it seems probable they were put in place no earlier than the 13th C. The south nave door is Romanesque (early 12th C.) but there is no opposing north doorway. There is, however, in the north nave wall a blocked narrow doorway somewhat closer to the west end of the nave which may be viewed from the exterior (Figure 6.67). This has as its lintel an early ornamented cross shaft, with unusually a half-round edge roll to its jambs and unfortunately its jamb stones are set BH. Pevsner (1966,183) proposed that it was assembled from 11th C. parts.

Rocks used in the fabric of the church were sourced from the Upper Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian) of the area of the church. These were either of Millstone Grit which provided grey and cream sandstones typically found in the newer elements of the church, or of a slightly softer yellowish sandstone, some slightly micaceous, which tended to have been used in the older parts of the church. The older walls were partially created with a herringbone finish which could be observed on either the north or south of the nave, and additionally on the west end of the south chancel wall. Its occurrence in the chancel prompts the suggestions that

The trace of a further early blocked doorway exists towards the east end of the north nave wall (Figure 6.68). As it cuts the herringbone work in the wall it must postdate the 11th C. As might be expected other modifications to the church fabric exist but none could be observed that might indicate that this church preserved any preRomanesque features.

Figure 6.64 A view of St Oswald church, Hauxwell (SE 166 932) from the south- west. 127

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 6.65 Herringbone work on the south wall of the chancel of Hauxwell church and, partly in shadow, the south-east nave quoin. Note; the absence of the herringbone work in the upper portion of the chancel wall suggests that it has been rebuilt or raised.

Figure 6.66 Hauxwell church is here seen from the east-south-east. The somewhat bigger stones of the south-east quoin of the nave are visible. 128

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

Figure 6.68 Cutting the herringbone work at the east end of the north nave wall at Hauxwell the trace of at least one blocked doorway can be seen. Note that the herringbone decoration is also absent from the upper portion of this wall. 6.13 Hornby, St Mary the Virgin, SE 222 937 (North Riding) Taylor and Taylor (1965,319-320) regarded Hornby church as in the possession of a Saxo-Norman tower. Different authors have offered other dates for the west tower as, for example, McCall (1910, 41-62) ‘early Norman’, Victoria County History (1914, 317-319) ‘about 1080’, Morris (1920, 189) ‘certainly Saxon’, and Pevsner (1966,191-

Figure 6.67 Hauxwell church possesses this unusual blocked nave north doorway. The lintel is created from an early decorated cross shaft.

Figure 6.69 The church of St Mary the Virgin, Hornby (SE 222 937) as seen from the south. 129

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

192) ‘probably early Norman’. Futher detail on the church appears on the English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID322425) web site.

inserted into the west wall (Figure 6.71). The jamb stones are all believed to be BH and the sill relatively modern. The Taylors (1965) noted these features and also that the buttresses were not bonded to the tower. The use of cobbles and boulders in wall construction is very much a feature of early Anglo-Saxon building and the suspicion must be that the lowest stage of the tower was of this age and that it was subequently partially modified in early Norman times.

The tower was built onto a nave. Both the nave and the chancel reflect a 12th C. age, but these may have been rebuilt. The north aisle was added before the south, for which a building date of 1410 is recorded. A chapel was created by an extension to the south aisle later in the 15th C. and the south porch and a modern vestry to the north of the chancel complete the building (Figure 6.69). The stonework is typically of poorly shaped blocks of sandstone from the local Upper Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian). In the lower part of the tower there is some use of river cobbles and boulders. Boulders in the south aisle walls are possibly reused from the original south nave wall. The more brightly coloured sandstones high in the clerestory are possibly from the Coal Measures rather than the Millstone Grit.

Higher in the tower only the square string courses and something of the fabric of the faces of the tower indicate possible Anglo-Saxon origins. The belfry windows appear to be represented by modified Norman work thoughout, the jamb stones are all BH and the double lintels and balusters are quite possibly ‘Victorian’ (Figure 6.72). At second tier level the single lights are constructed in BVEIA stones in Romanesque style, and in the ground floor (see Figure 6.70), the Taylors agree, the window construction is ‘Victorian’.

Rising in four stages, the highest level of the tower is of Perpendicular build; difficulties exist in providing the building date for the work below. Only the lowest stage of the tower is buttressed and the western angles are supported by Norman style clasping buttresses (Figure 6.70). These buttresses are completed in squared blocks of Millstone Grit and rest upon a worn single chamfered plinth, but away from their quoins they include occasional cobbles as seen in the tower. In the west face of the tower a rather unusual doorway with a large heavy lintel has been

Both the west tower door (Figure 6.73) and the south aisle door (Figure 6.74) reveal an earlier shape which when viewed from the interior possibly suggests that they may have once

Figure 6.71 The lower west wall of the Hornby tower, illustrating the west doorway and the clasping buttresses.

Figure 6.70 The south wall of the tower at Hornby church to show the south-west clasping buttress and the ‘Victorian’ south window.

Figure 6.72 The west belfry window in Hornby church tower. The jamb quoin stones are all apparently set BH. 130

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

Figure 6.73 The Hornby tower west doorway viewed from the east and the interior proves to be tall and relatively narrow and of Anglo-Saxon shape. The jamb stones could not be read.

Figure 6.74 The interior of the south doorway to the south aisle at Hornby church. The tall inner arch reflects an Anglo-Saxon shape but the jamb stones proved unreadable. (1966, 193-194), Taylor and Taylor (1965, 326-328), Kerr and Kerr (1982, 42-43), Senior (1990, 146-148) and Potter (2005b, 201), as well as others.

been Anglo-Saxon. If the south aisle was not completed until the early 15th C. the south nave doorway would have had to be of Anglo-Saxon shape at the time of transfer.

The tower western quoins are created in moderately large squared stones, partially to side-alternate style (Figure 6.76).

The remainder of the Hornby building has been described by other authors. What remains of the nave side walls are only 0.82m. thick, but no clear evidence of possible AngloSaxon origin could be observed. Only the fabric of the lower tower walls give a possible indication of a building of this early age.

The south-west quoin rises; ?BH, BH* (with bench mark), BH, BVFL, BVFR*, with higher stones too difficult to read. The north-west quoin; ?*, BVFR, BVFL, BVFR*, BVFL, BH, BVFR*, BH* (joggled stone), BH, higher stones difficult to read.

6.14 Hovingham, All Saints, SE 666 757 (North Riding) Hovingham church is built of the same yellow local sandstone as that seen at the not distant church of Ellerburn (see section 6.9), but the structures also include blocks of bioclastic and oolitic limestone. Both lithologies are present in the Corallian, Upper Jurassic rocks of the area. Much of the church, with the exception of the west tower, was rebuilt in 13th C. style in 1860. Today, the church consists of this Anglo-Saxon west tower (described as mid-11th C.), a nave with north and south aisles, chancel, south porch and north vestry/organ chamber (Figure 6.75). In some of the newly built Victorian portions of the church, older features have been included.

Where stones are asterisked they are constructed of Corallian limestone, other stones are sandstone (or too high to examine). At the height of the joggled stone in the northwest quoin large stones are carried across the west face as a course. There are a further four courses above this to the first square-sectioned string course, below which there is a course of herringbone work. This detail of the west face of the tower is provided because as Brown (1925, 460) posed, there are suggestions of reconstruction. Unquestionably, there are re-used stones in the tower walls including an early stone cross and several window head stones in the west face. The tower west door preserves little evidence of Anglo-Saxon workmanship and rebuilding has removed much that might have been Norman (Figure 6.77). The

The church history has been outlined by Victoria County History (1914, 505-511), Brown (1925, 460), Pevsner 131

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 6.75 All Saints church, Hovingham (SE 666 757) is viewed here from the south-east.

Figure 6.77 The stonework detail for the west doorway to the tower at Hovingham discloses how little of the doorway is original. Two Upper Jurassic rock types are involved, for instance, in the round angle shafts: that they are incorrectly orientated cannot be seen in the figure but it is obvious that they could be better colour co-ordinated.

Figure 6.76 Largish squared stones have been used to create the western quoins of Hovingham church. Here the first stage of the west wall of the tower reveals both western quoins, Note the cross above the doorway and to the right of the cross a window arch lintel in the quoin. 132

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

round angle-shafts for instance, on the north consist of two BH sandstones, and on the south a BH sandstone rests upon a BVFIA (that is, Anglo-Saxon style) limestone. Elsewhere, the stonework, where readable, shows no pattern and individual stones have been placed either BH or BVEIA. Other elements of the tower, such as the windows in the higher levels were examined with binoculars to find that most readable stones were placed BH (Figure 6.78). Experience of other churches nationally would suggest normally that Anglo-Saxon buildings would not have been created with stones of such contrasting characteristics and colour unless they were to a pattern. Without much more examination, it is only possible conjecture as to possible events. From its quoins the lowest stage of the tower was certainly erected in the Anglo-Saxon period, probably in the 11th C. by the number of included early items. It is possible that Romanesque modifications were made, and it is noticeable that the tower walls have been covered with plaster in the past. Rather more Norman characteristics are preserved in the stonework of the tower arch (Figure 6.79). Most of the jamb stones are placed BVEIA, although two stones are BVFIA, one being in limestone. Other features of the arch are well described by the Taylors (1965). High above the arch there is a doorway which once provided communication to higher levels of the nave (Figure 6.80). The detail of its

Figure 6.79 The tower arch at Hovingham church seen from the south-east. The jamb stones tended to confirm its Norman construction.

Figure 6.80 A more distant view of the tower arch indicates that it has been cut straight through the west wall and could have possibly replaced an earlier smaller arch. Above the herringbone course a door exists somewhat off to the north (arrowed high right), which once permitted communication between the tower and nave at higher levels.

Figure 6.78 Viewed from the south-west the full height of the Hovingham tower is visible. High windows examined all tended to show alteration and repairs to make their date of first construction difficult to determine. 133

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

6.15 Kippax, St Mary, SE 417 303 (West Riding) The church of St Mary, Kippax was one of a small number of Yorkshire churches which Taylor and Taylor (1965, 719) regarded as not containing features sufficiently definite for them to include in their main text of Anglo-Saxon ecclesiastical buildings. The church has been described by Leach and Pevsner (2009, 368-369). Web site accounts appear under the English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID 428628) and by D. Weldrake under www.archaeology. wyjs.org.uk/documents/archaeology/Kippax.

Figure 6.81 As a reredos to the altar at Hovingham church stands this remarkable 9th C. carved panel, which initially was placed high in the south wall of the tower.

The church, normally regarded as Norman, is built within an early castle bailey, and consists of a west tower, a nave, a chancel, a south porch and a large 19th C. vestry added to the north of the chancel (Figures 6.82 and 6.83). Domesday records reveal that at that time there were three churches in the Kippax domain, one presumably St Mary. The older walls of the tower, nave and chancel are typically completed to a herringbone style where the roughly shaped lumps of stone used are of Permian Magnesian Limestone where the lithologies used ranged from oolitic to muddy bioclastic dolomitic limestone (Figure 6.84). Similar rock is used for larger blocks, as in quoins, where occasional Upper Carboniferous, Coal Measure sandstones were also used. The stonework in the vestry is of sandstone and is worked in typical ‘Victorian’ style.

structure and stonework could not be seen but its central line is off-set to the north of the central line of the tower arch and the church. The tower is off-set to the nave and as a result the northwest nave quoin is visible beside the north wall of the tower. In appearance this nave quoin is similar to those in the tower but regrettably over its short exposed length only one calcareous BVFL stone could be read. Of a number of carved stones retrieved from the walls of the tower, the most remarkable is now used as a small reredos behind the altar in the south aisle (Figure 6.81) where it is less susceptible to weathering. This stone of eight panels is normally regarded as being of 9th C. date.

Figure 6.82 A view of St Mary, Kippax (SE 417 303) from the south-east. The east wall of the tower displays evidence of a much higher, earlier nave roof line. 134

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

Figure 6.83 A further view of the south side of Kippax church, the diagonal buttresses to the tower are very evident. more recent) sandstone dimension-stones with feathered edges, to be followed by what probably represents original limestone blocks set BH, BH, BH, BVFR, and all higher stones BH (Figure 6.85). The south-east nave quoin is more convincing, it rises above a worn plinth; BVFL, BVFR, BVFL, BH, BVFR, BH, with all higher stones BH. All stones are of limestone. The north-west nave quoin commences with two replacement sandstones and follows in limestone blocks set BH, BH, BH, BVFR, ?BVFL, and again, all higher stones BH.

Figure 6.84 Herringbone work at Kippax church, showing the north-west nave quoin (left), the nave and the north tower, walls, all in Magnesian Limestone.

The north-east nave quoin provides; ?, ?BVFL, BVFR, BVFL, stone 5 BVFL, stone 6 BH, Stone 7 ?, BVFL, BVFR, BH, where stones 5 to 7 inclusive are of sandstone and presumably replacements.

The quoins of both the nave and the chancel are built of poorly shaped but roughly equal-sized blocks of Magnesian Limestone except in instances where they have been replaced. They do, however, give evidence of AngloSaxon workmanship.

The chancel reveals similar quoin patterning in Permian Magnesian Limestone rock, but the quoin stones are better-shaped (Figure 6.86), the south-east quoin rising; BH, BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, BVFL, three new stones, BH, BVFR and above all BH.

The south-west nave quoin has at its base a relatively modern protective course of shaped stones, and the first five quoin stones are replacement ‘Victorian’ (possibly

The north-east chancel quoin commences with eight new stones; these followed by BH, BVFR, BH with BH stones above. 135

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 6.85 The south-west nave quoin to Kippax church. The lowest five stones are ‘Victorian’ cut dimension-stone replacements.

Figure 6.87 Little detail of the stonework of the tower arch at Kippax can be seen because of the thick wall plaster.

Figure 6.88 High on the north nave wall at Kippax church there are three partly modified Norman windows, this is the middle one. It appears to cut a part of the frame to an earlier window.

Figure 6.86 The south-east chancel quoin at Kippax church. The five stones shown are set to Patterned Anglo-Saxon style. The church is known to have been modified under periods of recent restoration as in 1875-1876, 1893 and when the nave roof was rebuilt in 1950. The tower quoins are completely hidden by its diagonal buttresses (see Figure

6.83), and the belfry stage was built in 1430. The east wall of the tower reveals that the nave roof once extended to a much higher level. The present author was advised that 136

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

from the tower there remains a high-level doorway which now overlooks the present nave roof. In the past this presumably entered the higher roof levels. The tower arch (Figure 6.87), like other structures internally, is covered in thick wall plaster which makes interpretation difficult.

6.16 Kirby Hill, All Saints, SE 393 686 (North Riding)

The church is believed to have originally been made up of just a nave and chancel to which a western tower was added. The west tower was rebuilt in 1870. A north aisle was originally added about 1160, but has been renewed, and a north chapel added in the 13th C. The chancel has been both lengthened to the east and widened to the south, probably in the 15th C. The south porch is modern (Figure 6.89). The building materials used for the walls are variable in accordance with when the walls were built. The north aisle is principally of Upper Carboniferous cream Coal Measures sandstone; the porch includes additionally Permian Magnesian Limestone and red Upper Carboniferous sandstones. Older walls include Millstone Grit with Coal Measure sandstones and the quoins are typically of Millstone Grit. The better shaped blocks used in the quoins occasionally display lewis holes and they were presumably transported, originally by the Romans, from the west and the Millstone Grit outcrops.

Kirby Hill was formerly known as Kirby-on-the-Moor. All Saints church has been described by Rowe (1869-1870, 239-243), Victoria County History (1914, 370-373{under the name Kirkby}), Stapleton (1923), Brown (1925, 463), Clapham (1930, 49 {under the name Kirkby}), Taylor and Taylor (1965. 354-356), Pevsner (1966, 210) and Potter (2005b, 201).

The tower rests on a bold repaired and chamfered square plinth which might relate to the original tower, but the western visible tower quoins are all set BH. At rebuilding the original stones were re-used and a large, possibly exRoman, stone is used at the foot of the south-west quoin. The south porch encloses the south-west nave quoin, a portion of which may be seen above the porch roof

On the north nave wall there are three high round-arched lancets which are thought to be Norman in structure. Figure 6.88 shows the central window which can be seen to cut the herringbone work and part of the frame of a slightly lower window. Windows of varying dates have been described by others. The nave walls are tall in early style but relatively thick at 0.91m. Fragments of Anglo-Saxon cross shafts have been discovered at the Kippax site. In summary, the stonework evidence in particular suggests that both the present nave and chancel were constructed in late preRomanesque times.

Figure 6.89 All Saints church, Kirby Hill (SE 393 686) seen from the south-west. 137

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 6.90 Above the south porch at Kirby Hill church the early south-west quoin of the nave is visible. Just three whole stones, set BVFR, BVFL, BVFR can be seen.

Figure 6.91 The rebuilt chancel of Kirby Hill church abuts the south-east nave quoin. The lowest stones of the nave quoin are shown rising; BH, BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, BVFL.

(Figure 6.90), where the quoins rise; ?, BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, BVFL (top of quoin). The south-east nave quoin (Figure 6.91), against which the chancel now abuts, rises; BH (top only), BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, ?. Most of these quoin stones are placed side-alternately. Two further nave quoins can be observed inside the church. The north-west nave quoin (Figure 6.92) can be observed from the north aisle. Above a square plinth it rises; BVFR, ?BVFL*, BVFR, small infills, BH, ?*, BVFL*, BVFR, BVFL. Those stones asterisked (thus*) have been partially replaced by Permian Magnesian Limestone. The final nave quoin, that at the north-east corner (Figure 6.93), has been rebuilt with new stones, although it is possible that these are in part reworked original stones. The eastern chancel quoins also appear to be original although the east wall and window are of 15th C. build. The south-east chancel quoin (Figure 6.94) rises; BH, BVFR, BH, BVFR, BH, BVFR, BVFL (with Roman lewis hole), BH. The larger stones then give way to BH smaller stones. The north-east chancel quoin provides; BH, ?, BVFL, BH, BVFL, BVFR, ?, with smaller BH stones above (Figure 6.95).

Figure 6.92 The north-west nave quoin at Kirby Hill observed from the north aisle. The fire extinguisher is attached to the partially rebuilt quoin.

Other features of this church are well described by other authors. Most of them dwell upon the south doorway 138

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

Figure 6.93 The north-east nave quoin at Kirby Hill photographed from the north-west appears to be totally rebuilt.

Figure 6.95 Kirby Hill also has an Anglo-Saxon north-east chancel quoin here set against the north chapel. The stones seen rise; BH, ?, BVFL, BH, BVFL, BVFR, and from the dark sandstone, rebuilt wall above.

Figure 6.94 The south-east chancel quoin at Kirby Hill is also set to the Patterned style. The lowest stones display; BH, BVFR, BH, BVFR, BH, BVFR, BVFL (with lewis hole), BH.

Figure 6.96 The south doorway to Kirby Hill church. This doorway has been built into an earlier doorway which was slightly more to the east. The position of the earlier ornamented impost is visible. 139

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 6.99 Although some voussoirs from the early south doorway at Kirby Hill are displayed on the external wall, these three voussoirs (arrowed) can be seen on the inside of the wall. 6.17 Kirby Underdale, All Saints, SE 808 585 (East Riding) Pevsner and Neave (1995, 581-582) describe Kirby Underdale church as ‘a most interesting church, starting c.1100 as an aisleless building with a west tower’. The nave is now aisled; the chancel has a north organ loft and the church a south porch. A vestry was built to the south of the tower in 1828. Extensive building alterations occurred in 1870-1876 (Lambeth Palace Library ICBS 07124). Other references noting the church include Shepherd (1933), Taylor and Taylor (1965, 356-357) and Potter (2005b, 201).

Figure 6.97 Just to the east of the present doorway east jamb at Kirby Hill the jamb of an earlier doorway is visible, this is capped by the early ornamented impost (Figure 6.98).

Both the tower and the nave include wall areas completed in herringbone style. The principal rock used throughout the building is a pale, relatively soft, muddy limestone, but some oolitic limestones have also been used. The limestones contain both fragmentary ammonites and belemnites. Viewed from the south (Figure 6.100) the church gives the impression that the west end of the building may have been erected within its own quarry. The rocks in the immediate vicinity of the church are represented by a complex condensed succession ranging through the Liassic to the Cretaceous, Lower Chalk. In 2005, the present author on the evidence of fragmentary ammonites (Figure 6.101 and inset Figure 6.101A) identified the quoin stones in the tower as Lower Chalk; it is now suggested that they are more probably of Upper Jurassic, Corallian age. If the rock types or fossils could be sampled, identification would be more accurate.

Figure 6.98 Detail of the early ornamented impost at Kirby Hill church. The decoration has been given a 9th C. date. (Figure 6.96) and the earlier opening beside it which is thought to have had built into it an impost that is decorated with a vine scroll which has been dated to the 9th C. The east jamb of the earlier door is still visible (Figure 6.97). The third stone below the impost is placed BVFIA but other stones could not be read. The impost can still be admired within the wall (Figure 6.98). Both on the exterior and the interior walls of the doorway some of the voussoirs to the earlier doorway are visible. The internal wall surface is shown (Figure 6.99). The inner doorway is chamfered and has been described as Late Norman in age.

Norman workmanship is present in various structures seen in the church such as in the tower west doorway (Figure 6.102), the tower arch (Figure 6.103) and the chancel arch (Figure 6.104). The aisles are probably late Norman and the upper portions of four earlier windows (Figure 6.105) have been cut through by their arcades (two to the north and two to the south). The original nave walls are only 0.74m. thick and there is, therefore, a strong suggestion that the nave walls are Anglo-Saxon in origin. The arcade 140

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

Figure 6.100 Viewed from the south, All Saints church, Kirby Underdale (SE 808 585) is noticeably built, at its west tower end, into a depression. The depression in the ground could possibly have been created when extracting the stone to create the early church.

Figure 6.101 The detail of fragmentary ammonites in a block of muddy bioturbated oolitic limestone which occurs in the west wall of the vestry of Kirby Underdale church.

Figure 6.102 The Norman west doorway to the tower of Kirby Underdale church. arches also cut the herringbone work on the early walls. There are regrettably no jambs available to visibly confirm this age. The only trace of a nave quoin is evident at the

Figure 6.101A provides an enlargement of an ammonite. 141

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 6.105 Late Norman/Transitional arches of the north arcade can be seen to cut into earlier windows in the original north nave wall. This view is of Kirby Underdale church from the nave towards the north.

Figure 6.103 The tower arch to Kirby Underdale church is regarded as Norman.

Figure 6.106 The lower portion of the Kirby Underdale tower, to show the north- west quoin and the west doorway. north-west corner of the nave. There, about six stones of fine sandy limestone occur high in the quoin. These are probably representative of the quoin, but they all prove too high to read their individual orientation. The side walls of the tower prove to have been built against the nave, indicating that the tower is the younger. However, the side-alternate west quoins of the tower reveal some evidence of Anglo-Saxon structure. The muddy limestone proves difficult to read, but the south-west quoin reads; ?, BVFR, BH (repaired), BH, BVFL (repaired), ?, ?, ?, BVFL; and the north-west quoin; first stone new, BVFR, BH (repaired), BH, ?BVFL, BH, ?BH, ?BVFL, BVFL, ?BH (Figure 6.106). Higher these quoins appear to show no pattern. If the stones could be efficiently cleaned the evidence would, one suspects, be very much more convincing. Figure 6.107, of a quoin stone to the north aisle reveals the extent of the lichen cover. High above the tower arch the outline of a blocked doorway can be seen from the nave (Figure 6.108). This door once provided communication between the higher levels of the tower and nave. The jamb stones are in semi-Escomb style but from ground level regrettably impossible to confirm as of pre-Romanesque age.

Figure 6.104 Viewed from the north-west the chancel arch at Kirby Underdale is believed to be Norman in age. 142

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

Figure 6.107 Lichens on a quoin stone in the north aisle of Kirby Underdale church. Varieties of white, grey, green, yellow, red and orange lichen may be seen.

Figure 6.108 High above the tower arch an early doorway, now blocked, may be seen at Kirby Underdale. The jamb stones could not be read but their setting suggests that they may be Anglo-Saxon.

6.18 Kirkdale, St Gregory, SE 677 857 (North Riding)

(1928,506-507), Clapham (1930, 103), Taylor and Taylor (1965, 357-361), Pevsner (1966, 216-217), Kerr and Kerr (1982, 39-40), Fernie (1983, 138, 159, 177) and Potter (2005b, 212). The sundial inscription includes reference to Tostig, who was Earl of Northumbria (1055-1065) and to King Edward. Tostig was brother to King Harold who succeeded Edward. A date of about 1060 can be given to the inscription (Figures 6.110 and 6.111). The engraving also advises that the church was rebuilt at that time.

Kirkdale church (Figure 6.109) possesses an element of tangible history related to its preserved inscribed and dated sundial and this, in particular, has resulted in it being the subject of interest and discussion by numerous authors. The following persons have contributed to the church (minster) history and might be mentioned: Brooke (1779, 188-205), Rickman (1836, 26-46), Rowe (1873-1874, 208), Tudor (1876), Frank (1885, 135-143), Hodges (1894, 193-205), Powell (1909), Victoria County History (1914, 517523), Morris (1920, 222-226), Brown (1925, 463), Green

The church and its quoin stones are built of Upper Jurassic, Corallian limestone with occasional replacements of

Figure 6.109 The minster church of St Gregory, Kirkdale (SE 677 857) as observed from the south-west. 143

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 6.110 The famous inscribed sundial which is dateable to about 1060 and occurs over the south door at Kirkdale church.

Figure 6.112 A sketch of Kirkdale church in 1821 by Rev. F.W.Powell prior to the building of the west tower in 1827. At the time, the west door was blocked and the west wall rendered.

Figure 6.111 Detail of the Anglo-Saxon sundial at Kirkdale church. It is marked At 90 minute intervals. sandstone. The nave of the present church is thought to be all that survives from the Anglo-Saxon building. About 1200 the north arcade was built. The aisle was extended to the east, to form a north chapel in the 13th C., when the chancel was also widened and extended to the east. The chancel was further rebuilt in 1881. The unusually small west tower was erected in 1827 (see Figure 6.109 and compare with Figure 6.112), when the gallery was enlarged (Lambeth Palace Library ICBS 00842). The western quoins of the early nave, with casual examination, have been regarded as of Anglo-Saxon origin. Their age has almost been dismissed, with comments such as, ‘The quoins of the western angles of the nave have been left undisturbed and are a good example of the later long and short work’ (Victoria County History, 1914, 521), or from the Taylors (1965, 359), ‘their western quoins are built in side-alternate fashion, of stones much larger than the average …. in the walling’. The north-west quoin (Figure 6.113) proves to be neither of these two styles. These quoin stones rise with no plinth; ? (lichen covered), BH, BVFL, ?(stone 4, large sandstone) with no further stones readable. Of these higher stones, 5, 8, and 14 proved to be sandstone.

Figure 6.113 The Anglo-Saxon north-west nave quoin at Kirkdale church. The limestone blocks are picked out by white lichen and contrast with those of darker sandstone. sandstone, 7 BH and limestone. All readable stones above are BH. These western quoins have clearly been much altered and the sandstones appear to be replacement stones.

The south-west quoin is no more positive; the first 3 stones unreadable, 4 (BVFL and limestone), 5 and 6 BH and

The south nave doorway (Figure 6.114), over which the sundial has been placed, is a 12th C. insertion. The original 144

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

Figure 6.116 Built into the east chancel wall of Kirkdale is this decorated sandstone, possibly part of an early cross-shaft. Anglo-Saxon doorway to the nave was in the west wall, it is of limestone and it now serves as a tower arch. Viewed from the inside (from the east) the doorway looks characteristically Anglo-Saxon, but when the stonework is examined alterations prove to be common (Figure 6.115). In the south jamb there are seven stones between the lowest stone, which is utilised as a step, and the impost; the through stones, that is, stones 1 ?, 2 BVFIA, 4 BVFIA, 6 BVFIA(most of) and 7 ?BH; are in Anglo-Saxon style. The eastern side of stones 3 and 5 has been replaced. In the north jamb the situation is similar; where stones are not through the thickness of the arch they have been repaired and replacement stones have been inserted with the incorrect orientation. It can also be suggested that the repairs were undertaken during Norman times for they follow the BVEIA pattern. There are also a few more modern alterations.

Figure 6.114 Beneath the sundial at Kirkdale is the Norman south doorway which now provides the entrance to the church.

The significant level of damage or alteration that is seen in both the west nave quoins and the western doorway suggests that they were originally constructed prior to the re-building of about 1060. The numerous remnants of early sculpture (Figure 6.116) that are to be found on the site further support this suggestion. 6.19 Kirk Hammerton, St John the Baptist, SE 465 555 (West Riding) Kirk Hammerton church has been described by a relatively large number of authors. These include: Haigh (1845, 428), Micklethwaite (1896, 321), Thompson (1909, 114-115), Henley (1911), Brown (1925, 462-463), Newell (1938), Taylor and Taylor (1965, 361-364), Morris (1976, 95-103), Potter (2005b, 201, 212) and Leach and Pevsner (2009, 374-375), as well as others. An account of the details of the church is also given on the English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID 330646) web site.

Figure 6.115 The inside of the nave west doorway at Kirkdale church viewed from the north-east. The detail of the visible south jamb is given in the text; the through stones are set to Anglo-Saxon style but other stones have been replaced, possibly in Norman times.

Although the north sides of the nave and chancel have been removed in rebuilding, it is generally recognised 145

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 6.117 The church of St John the Baptist, Kirk Hammerton (SE 465 555) viewed from the south so that only the early buildings are visible, apart from (extreme right) the east end of the 19th C. chancel. that much of the tower, nave and chancel of what was the original Anglo-Saxon church has been preserved. 19th C. extensions to the north side of the church, to enlarge the accommodation, commenced in 1834-1835 (Lambeth Palace Library ICBS 01730). This work continued in 1890-1891, so that today a new large nave with north aisle and chancel stand to the north of the old church and are linked by an arcade. Carboniferous sandstones are used as the principal rock types in the church (Figure 6.117). An observation, also made by others, is that the west tower (Fig 6.118) to the church shows a resemblance to the comparable towers of Lincolnshire. It is built of large, moderately squared blocks of Carboniferous, Pennsylvanian, Millstone Grit. The lower stones of the south-west quoin stand on a modified double square plinth. They can be read as follows; BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, ?BH, ?BVFL (diagonal), BH (diagonal), higher stones were not wholly clear (Figure 6.119). The north-west quoin follows a modified plinth, BVFR (with possible filled lewis hole), ?BV, BVFR, BVFL, BVFL and difficult then to read. When the lower face of the tower is viewed together with the west doorway (Figure 6.120), the evidence suggests that much modification has occurred. Certain stones in the quoins have joggled relationships, and the coursework that is well developed above the door fails to exist in the lower area. This is most easily explained by proposing that the doorway and the wall around it have at some time been altered.

Figure 6.118 The west tower of Kirk Hammerton church seen from the south- west. The tower is principally built of Carboniferous, Millstone Grit, some or all of which may be recycled from earlier Roman sites.

The evidence from the stonework of the west doorway reveals that it has indeed been drastically altered (Figure 146

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

6.121). The arch of two square orders of 9 and 6 voussoirs is distorted and contains some replaced stones. To the north of the door none of the stones are set to Anglo-Saxon style, for most the orientation is Norman. Even the shaft is set BVEIA, its upper portion in dark red Coal Measure sandstone is broken and with quite unlike ornamentation to that in the south shaft (which is set BVFIA). Neither of the angle-shafts rests on a base and they stand directly on the plinth. To the south of the door the detail is little better, and the adjoining wall is mainly built of Coal Measure sandstones. Internally, the west doorway is heavily plastered. When higher levels of the tower stonework are examined some of the structural features are probably built of Permian Magnesian Limestone rather than Millstone Grit. The square string course just below the belfry windows appears to have been replaced partly by Magnesian Limestone. The south belfry window is illustrated (Figure 6.122). In this the central supporting baluster appears to be ‘new’ and of two pieces and, like the window heads, constructed of limestone. The jamb stones, treated as three on either side, are of sandstone, but, from the bottom, thought to be in each case BVEIA, BVEIA, BVFIA. Other windows in the tower are equally as replaced. Figure 6.119 The lowest three stones (BVFR, BVFL, BVFR) seen in the south-west tower quoin at Kirk Hammerton church. Note that some adjustments (joggling) have been necessary to accommodate large stones inserted in the west face of the tower.

The tower arch shows no better evidence of original AngloSaxon work. Viewed more easily from the nave, only one stone in each jamb is set BVFIA, and several stones can be identified as Norman replacements. Above the arch the Taylors (1965, 364) advised there is a rectangular high,

Figure 6.120 The lower part of the west face of the tower at Kirk Hammerton to illustrate the disturbance that has occurred in the walling about the west doorway.

Figure 6.121 The west doorway to the tower of Kirk Hammerton church.

147

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 6.122 The south belfry window in the tower of St John the Baptist church. In this, possibly only the imposts and the top jamb stones to west and east (set BVFIA) might be of Anglo-Saxon age.

Figure 6.124 Inside the church the lowest stones of the north-west nave quoin are visible (the second to the fourth stones particularly). Behind the quoin is the tower north wall. For the south-west quoin, which rests on a worn square plinth which probably passes behind the double tower plinth; ?, BVFR, BVFL (some joggled work), BVFR, but all uncertain as the light on the day poor. The south-east quoin, has only a single worn plinth stone visible (Figure 6.123) and above; ? (later mortar infills), BVFL, BVFR, BH (small), BVFL, BVFR, ?BVFR, a further six stones which could possibly be new. The north-west nave quoin may be seen internally and no plinth is visible (Figure 6.124); ?, BVFL (possible plugged lewis hole), BVFR, BVFL, BH, ?, stones above possibly new and unreadable. The north-east nave quoin reveals a plinth and rises; ?, ?BVFR, ?BVFL, BVFL, with new or unreadable stones above. A Roman lewis hole is present in the third of these stones.

Figure 6.123 The nave of Kirk Hammerton church preserves this south-east quoin, the orientation details of which are given in the text.

Where the nave and tower adjoin their relationships change part way up the tower. In the lower part of the tower the nave appears to be the older, higher the reverse is true.

blocked rectangular doorway, which served to once provide communication with the higher levels of the nave roof. In summary, the church tower, Anglo-Saxon at its base, has been extensively modified both in Romanesque and later times. All surfaces were once covered in plaster of which remnants remain.

The nave’s south wall is only about 0.67m. thick and in it the south door has been interpreted as being of AngloSaxon age (Figure 6.125). This doorway is known to have been repaired in the 1890 phase of rebuilding. The rebuilt area visibly involved the whole of the east side. The three

The nave of the church still has its four quoins exposed and each confirms a Patterned Anglo-Saxon origin. Details are: 148

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

Figure 6.125 The south doorway of the original nave to Kirk Hammerton church. The structure on the east side has been completely rebuilt and the most obvious Anglo-Saxon feature is evident in the BVFIA strip work on the west side.

Figure 6.127 The south jamb of the chancel arch as seen from the chancel of Kirk Hammerton church.

Figure 6.126 The west jamb of the south nave doorway seen in Figure 6.125. Unfortunately these stones proved unreadable. The south-west nave quoin is also visible to its west.

Figure 6.128 The south-east chancel quoin at Kirk Hammerton and its first four stones (BH, BVFR, BVFL, BVFR) created in typical Anglo-Saxon style.

149

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

large west jamb stones, much covered with render, are each BH and may be early replacements. Beyond the jamb, however, in the west square string course four BVFIA, Anglo-Saxon orientated stones are present. That on the western side is shown (Figure 6.126), but with partial plaster cover none of the stones could be read.

period it is believed that the crypt was built under the apse and presbytery, and that the foundations of a tower were erected at the west end of the church. Further building to the church occurred in the 13th and 14th centuries. The church was restored in 1879 and today the church consists of tower, nave and chancel (with crypt beneath the chancel and its apse), a 13th C. north aisle, a 14th C. south aisle (partially used as an organ chamber) and a modern south porch (Figure 6.129).

The chancel arch, as elsewhere, has been subjected to modification with the north jamb largely rebuilt. The south jamb as seen from the chancel (Figure 6.127) is also difficult to interpret. The lowest stones in the south-east chancel quoin did provide some evidence of its AngloSaxon origin (Figure 6.128). The quoin stands on a broad plinth to rise in sandstones; BH, BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, BVFL,?BVFR and then higher stones uncertain.

The church is, therefore, Norman and later in its creation. Accounts of the building and its history are given in Rowe (1873-1874, 202-210), Hodges (1894, 193-205), Wall (1894), Victoria County History (1914, 526-528), Taylor and Taylor (1965, 372-373) and Pevsner (1966, 224226) plus many others. A web site describing the church is given in the English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID 328931). The building stone used throughout most of the structure is a yellow-cream medium to coarse grained sandstone from the Middle Jurassic.

Other features of Kirk Hammerton church are best described by Taylor and Taylor (1965) but it is evident that over the ages much of the early detail of the church has been altered. It remains difficult to determine if, as these authors suggested, the tower was a later Anglo-Saxon addition to an earlier nave and chancel, or otherwise.

There are a variety of early sculptured stones in the church and especially in the crypt. Taylor and Taylor (1965, 373) referred to certain areas of the church fabric which might be recognised as of pre-Conquest date. They considered features such as the bulbous bases to the Norman columns in the crypt in this category, but neither stone orientation nor differences in rock type are present to assist in making any distinction. Throughout the church all readable quoin and jamb stones were orientated BH. The chancel and apse (Figure 6.130) as possibly part of the earliest

6.20 Lastingham, St Mary, SE 728 904 (North Riding) Bede in his Historia Ecclesiastica provides a description of the founding of a monastery by St Cedd for King Ethelwald, the king of Deira, at Lastingham in 654. Destroyed by the Danes in the 9th C., it was re-founded in 1078 by Stephen of Whitby, but then abandoned when the monks moved to York in about 1085. In that short

Figure 6.129 The church of St Mary, Lastingham (SE 728 904) as observed from the south-west. 150

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

Norman build were examined with particular care. Entry to the crypt was originally from the north (Figures 6.131 and 6.132). 6.21 Laughton-en-le-Morthen, All Saints, SK 517 882 (West Riding) Incorporating a motte and bailey in its churchyard the current Laughton-en-le-Morthen church is thought to be the third on this site. The earliest record of a church at this locality is in the reign of Ethelred (866-871). The region was important, but it seems possible that the church may have been destroyed during or after Earl Edwin’s failed rebellion against William the Conqueror (1069-1070), for it was rebuilt about 1190 when a north aisle was added. It was rebuilt again in 1377 and restored in 1895-1896. The current tower and magnificent spire date to the 14th C. (Figure 6.133). Only one part of the original clearly identifiable AngloSaxon church remains, this occurring to the north of the tower and to the west of the north aisle. It is believed to represent an original porticus. A number of authors have contributed to the detail and history of the church: Rickman (1836, 26-46), Stayce (1874, 397-405), Hills (1874,406-413), Rigby (1904, 189-194), Lynam (1904, 195-198), Brown (1925, 463), Pevsner and Radcliffe (1959, 300-301), Taylor and Taylor (1965, 373-376), Ryder (1982, 71-83), and Potter (2005b, 202, 212; 2006c,

Figure 6.130 A general view of the chancel and apse of Lastingham church as viewed from the west.

Figure 6.131 Lastingham church crypt as viewed from the entrance in the west.

Figure 6.133 Viewed from the south-east, All Saints church, Laughton-en-le- Morthen (SK 517 882) can be seen to be built of Permian Magnesian Limestone.

Figure 6.132 The altar in the crypt at Lastingham church. 151

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

quoin, with the east face covered by the added Magnesian Limestone buttress (Figure 6.135). The quoin is built upon a large double squared-section plinth which runs across the whole of the north face of the porticus, upon this rest two similar pedestal stones (which are placed diagonally and BVFL respectively). Above this the quoin stones rise in long and short style; BVFR, BH, BVFR, BH, BVFR, BH, BVFR. Unfortunately, the north-west quoin is hidden behind a further buttress to the west.

57-80), as well as others. An English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID 335984) web site also provides a description of the church. Two rock types are utilised in the church fabric: a redbrown coarse sandstone in the older areas which was probably extracted from the local Upper Carboniferous, Pennsylvanian, Coal Measures and white Permian Magnesian Limestone elsewhere. The sandstone has been named ‘Rotherham Red’ after a modern quarried stone, presumably in the belief that the stone was obtained from that quarry, but a millennium ago that precise rock source would have been most unlikely.

The Anglo-Saxon doorway exhibits a number of distinctive stylistic features which reflect the period of its construction and are worthy of highlighting. The strip-work, as should be expected, faces into the arch (BVFIA) and is all completed in the sandstone. The strip-work arch consists of nine stones and these are cut back on both sides in nearly all instances to the wall face, to create the same strip width as the strip-work to west and east. This can only have been done for decorative reasons (Figures 6.136 and 137). The areas of decorative cut back are displayed on Figure 6.137. Cut backs are also to be seen on the inner side of the inside arch of eleven voussoirs, created in order to make this inner arch appear to be of a standard width. The emphasis with which cut backs were undertaken is unusual for it has resulted in the two arched sets of voussoirs having separate centres. In medieval times, when Permian Magnesian

Although the north-east quoin to the porticus is visible, only the north and west walls are preserved to delineate its size. Centrally on the north sandstone wall is an early doorway outlined in strip-work which rises from bold square bases via similar bold imposts to a round arched hood-mould constructed of voussoirs showing cut backs. In medieval times the Anglo-Saxon doorway was cut into and altered and a new door, erected in Permian Magnesian Limestone was inserted in its place (Figure 6.134). Describing first the northern corners to the porticus, that at the north-east displays only the north face of the

Figure 6.134 The Laughton-en-le-Morthen porticus possessed an elaborate Anglo-Saxon doorway built of sandstone into which a medieval door, in Permian Magnesian Limestone was created.

Figure 6.135 To the north of an earlier Anglo-Saxon west tower, Laughton-en-le-Morthen church is believed to have had a porch or porticus. The north-east quoin and north wall of this still survives, and here the north face of the quoin is visible, slightly overlapped by a relatively recent Magnesian Limestone buttress. 152

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

Figure 6.136 The elaborate head to the Laughton-en-leMorthen Anglo-Saxon doorway in which the voussoirs, at three levels, were cut back for decorative purposes.

Figure 6.138 Inside the porticus area of Laughton-en-leMorthen church, few traces of the original work remain for the area has been converted. These door jambs might represent the interior of the medieval doorway. the jambs of a doorway, these only 1.02m. apart, slightly less than the span of the jambs of the external medieval doorway (Figure 6.138). There is also an area of sandstone walling in the east wall of the chancel which is likely to represent re-used stone. 6.22 Ledsham, All Saints, SE 456 297 (West Riding) Claimed by some to be the oldest church in use in Yorkshire, Ledsham church has been studied or considered by the following authors; Taylor (1875), Browne (1886b), Glynne (1916-1917, 206), Brown (1925, 464), Pevsner and Radcliffe (1959, 302-303), Taylor (1959, 144-152), Taylor and Taylor (1965, 378-384), Kerr and Kerr (1982, 53-54), Fernie (1983, 56, 177), and Potter (2005b, 192, 202, 212) as well as others. The Taylors summarize the early history of the church as follows: the early church in sandstone of only a nave and chancel, this followed by a two-storey west porch (to later become the lowest portion of the tower), to this a south porticus (and possibly a north to match) was added to the nave. Subsequent to the Norman Conquest, the porch was raised in height to become the tower and from that time the church gradually assumed much of its present appearance. The nave was extended to the east to rebuild the chancel in the 13th C. To this extension a northern chapel was added in the 14th C., and a broad north aisle was added to the nave in the 15th C. More recently, the church was restored in 1871 (Figure 6.139).

Figure 6.137 A sketch of the Laughton-en-le-Morthen doorway on which the areas of decorative cut backs have been marked. Limestone was in favour for building, as has been stated, a smaller doorway was inserted into the structure. Taylor and Taylor (1965, 375) described evidence of the porticus and its doorway that was visible from within the church. The area has now been converted to a kitchen and ancillary rooms. All that can be observed today are 153

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 6.139 All Saints church, Ledsham (SE 456 297) is seen here from the south-east. illustrate how quoins which have been altered may be easily identified.

Both sandstone and dolomitic limestone rock types have been used in the construction of the church. The brownish sandstone as seen in the older south and west walls of the nave is probably Upper Carboniferous, Pennsylvanian, Coal Measures Sandstone. The same type of sandstone was used in ‘Victorian’ restoration work. Also used are softer reddish sandstones from the Triassic Sherwood Sandstone Group (Bunter). The Permian Magnesian Limestone was used from Post-Conquest times, as may be observed on the belfry stage of the tower where the Norman well-squared course work can be seen.

In the lower south tower wall there are two small windows, one above the other, recognised as remnants from the two floors of the Anglo-Saxon original west porch. It proved impossible to read the disposition of all the stones of these windows and in neither could any BVFIA stones be identified. The door to the south wall of the tower, however, more successfully portrays its Anglo-Saxon origins (Figure 6.140). The door is surrounded with ornamented stripwork and the vertical stones are all placed BVFIA. The door jambs rise on the west side; plinth, BH, BVFIA, BH, BVFIA, and on the east: ?, BVFIA, BH, BVFIA (oblique). The imposts are ornamented and unusually terminate at the strip-work. The elaborate, if weathered, vine-scroll ornament to the strip-work has created something of a problem. Glynne (1916-1917, 206) on a visit to the site in 1862 referred only to ‘rude sculpture’ as then present. It seems probable that the elaborate ornamentation was added in the restorations of 1871. Some additional Victorian modifications are certainly present, such as the tiles added to the inside face of the doorway. The arch from the tower to the nave, with no through stones, is Norman (Figure 6.141). The window in the east tower wall above this arch is from the second floor of the early west porch, but no stones were sufficiently readable, to confirm its age.

In the lower part of the tower the stonework of the walls differs from that above, so that the extent of the height of the original west porch may be extrapolated. The tower quoins, however, have been much altered and they do not clearly distinguish this change. The south-west tower quoin is Patterned as far as stone 9, but above cannot be easily read. It rises; ?, BVFL (in Permian Magnesian Limestone and presumably replaced), BVFR, BVFL (oblique), BVFR, BH, ?, BVFL, BVFR. The northwest quoin, however, has been completely replaced for it rises (from just above the steps to the boiler!); ?(cement covered), BH, BVFR (but a large portion of the stone replaced), 4 stones replaced with Magnesian Limestone blocks, 4 replaced sandstone blocks all BH, and apparently all BH above. This detail is given to 154

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

The western nave quoins again provide something of a true picture of their age from the bedding orientations of their stonework. The south-west nave quoin displays; ?, ? (replacement in fine sandstone), BVFL (replacement in Permian calcareous cemented sandstone), BVFR (again an early replacement as stone below, but with joggling at edge), BVFL, BVFR, BH, higher stones unreadable. And the north-west quoin; BVFL, BVFR (early replacement calcareous sandstone), BH, BH, BVFL, BH, BVFL, ? (Magnesian limestone, replacement), BVFL, ?, next two stones cement covered (Figure 6.142). The south face of the south-east nave quoin is also visible but tie stones with the adjoining later chancel disrupt its sequence; the lowest two stones are new, above them, BVFL, ?, BVFL, two tie stones, BH, tie, BH, tie; barely enough to confirm an Anglo-Saxon original construction. The south nave wall and the porticus are well illustrated in Taylor and Taylor (1965, Figure 171), as again, is the north wall of the nave in their Figure 172. In the south wall, traces of three (of the possible four) windows thought to be of Anglo-Saxon origin by the Taylors can be seen outside and two of these inside the wall. Above the north arcade the north nave wall, which is just 0.63m. thick, reveals fragments of four more comparable windows (Figure 6.143). In none of these nave windows were the

Figure 6.140 The south door to Ledsham church tower provides controversial arguments as to its date. The stonework BVFIA orientations provide definite evidence that it was built during the Anglo-Saxon period, but the spiral scroll work was apparently executed in the restorative work of 1871.

Figure 6.141 Ledsham tower arch is viewed here from the nave. The window above is from the second floor of the original west porch into the nave. Unfortunately, the orientations of the window jamb stones proved impossible to read.

Figure 6.142 Rising from above the flat roof of the Ledsham church boiler room the north-west nave quoin is evident (arrowed). To the left is the north aisle, and to the immediate right the boiler chimney.

155

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

stonework details discernible although in several instances the odd replacement stone was apparent. BH stones were particularly abundant in the jambs (in all the ‘Anglo-Saxon’ windows viewed at Ledsham) and it seems likely that all were constructed to the narrow window style referred to more fully in Monograph Part A Section 2.3.3. The south porticus is definitely later than the nave for no wall bonding is detectible. The visible south doorway was constructed in 1871 and above it is what looks like a further doorway to the second floor of the porticus (Figures 6.144 and 6.145). The Taylors have postulated that the two doorways are probably a single very tall narrow doorway (perhaps used in procession and to carry a tall cross). Unfortunately, the stonework for the higher portion could not be read and the wall between the two doorways has been replaced. The upper doorway is approximately only 0.6m. wide. Unanswered questions remain: the date of construction of the porticus is unknown (other than that it is younger than the nave). The side-alternate jamb stones of the southern quoins to the porch contain some stones orientated BV that is witness to an Anglo-Saxon origin. The porch south-west quoin; as BVFR, BH*, BVFR*, BH*, BVFR, BH, BH; and the south-east quoin as BH, BH, BH*, BVFL, BVFR*, BVFL (sandy limestone), ?BVFR, BH, BH. The stones asterisked have been extensively repaired with small fragmentary tiles and cement, presumably in ‘Victorian’ times (?1871). When the porticus was changed to become a south porch remains undated. With careful

Figure 6.144 The interior of the south wall of the nave and the south porticus at Ledsham church. Above the doorway, the outlining stones of a blocked problematical opening are visible. Questions to be answered are; is it from the second floor of the porticus? Is it a window, a door or part of the door below? And, how old is it?

Figure 6.143 Above the north arcade to Ledsham church, fragments of early Anglo-Saxon windows may be seen. This, viewed from the nave, occurs above the first and second aches to the east. No stone orientations are discernible on the east jamb of this window arch.

Figure 6.145 The exterior of the doorway(s) shown in Figure 6.144. The questions posed might be partially answerable if the stone orientations could be read.

156

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

6.146), which may be seen on the inside of the west nave wall just to the north of the tower arch. That the cleaver has been carved across the grain of the sandstone is unusual and indicative that it is unlikely to be of Anglo-Saxon origin. 6.23 Masham, St Mary the Virgin, SE 236 806 (North Riding) Masham church was referred to in the 1086 Domesday records, but as viewed today from the south it gives the appearance of a wholly Victorian structure (Figure 6.147). Indeed, the lower portion of the west tower is normally regarded as Norman (Figure 6.148). At their contact the Norman tower can be seen to have been built against the earlier nave, which subsequently acquired transepts and then, to north and south, aisles of 14th -15th C. date, which absorbed the transepts. The chancel is believed to have been rebuilt about the 15th C. when the north chapel was created. All have undergone modifications during recent centuries, including the spire which was rebuilt in 1855.

Figure 6.146 This unusual carved stone, thought to represent a Roman meat cleaver, occurs on the interior of the west nave wall of Ledsham church. stone cleaning and detailed examination, further details related to this church should become available.

The church has been described by Victoria County History (1914, 323-332), Pevsner (1966, 240-242), Taylor and Taylor (1965, 734, as an addendum), Carter (1976) and Kerr and Kerr (1982, 51) as well as others. Of these cited authors only the Taylors noted the Anglo-Saxon features of the nave, but the broken 9th C. cross shaft in the graveyard

As with so many Yorkshire churches there are a number of interesting carved stones included within the church walls. The most unusual is perhaps that of a cleaver, which has been suggested as originally from a Roman altar (Figure

Figure 6.147 St Mary the Virgin church, Masham (SE 236 806) is viewed here from the south. 157

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 6.148 Seen from the west Masham church tower, to as high as the third string course, is normally considered to be Romanesque.

Figure 6.149 The lower portion of a 9th C. round-shafted cross which may be observed just outside the porch to Masham church.

(Figure 6.149) is referred to by all authors. Within the church brown varying to grey sandstones are used for its construction, these probably all obtained from the local Upper Carboniferous, Pennsylvanian, Millstone Grit. The stones in the west tower quoins are all BH, but the west nave quoins clearly display their pre-Romanesque origins. The south-west nave quoin is created in fairly well squared stones set mainly to side-alternate fashion, which without an obvious plinth rise; ?, BH, BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, BH, BH (small), BVFL, BVFR, BVFL, ?, ?, BH and then modern stones at aisle roof level (Figure 6.150). The north-west nave quoin, with again no visible plinth is less informative; ?, ?, BVFL, BH, BVFL,BVFR, all others too difficult to read (Figure 6.151). In both of these quoin areas the tower walls sharply abut the nave wall. The south-east nave quoin is also exposed and after the trace of plinth reads; ?, ?, BVFL, BH, tie stone from later south aisle, BH, BVFL, BVFR, three tie stones, followed by some unreadable stones (Figure 6.152). The east nave wall appears to be earlier than the chancel wall. Figure 6.150 Part of the south-west nave quoin to Masham church is exposed. To the left, the south wall of the tower is shown, its sharp contact with the nave west wall revealing that it is younger than this nave wall. To the right, there is a chamfered extension to the nave wall, of uncertain age, before the south aisle west wall occurs.

Taylor and Taylor also draw attention to the square-section string course which can be seen from the north aisle and which is still apparent above the north arcade on the outside of the original nave wall. Towards the west end of the string a small amount of ornamentation is evident. The wall itself is of typical Anglo-Saxon thickness at 0.63m. 158

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

6.24 Middleton-by-Pickering, St Mary the Virgin, SE 782 854 (North Riding) Interests in Middleton-by-Pickering church have been shown by the following authors; Victoria County History (1923, 458-459), Brown (1925, 470), Collingwood (1927, 110), Grove and Illingworth (1949), Taylor and Taylor (1965, 418-424), Kerr and Kerr (1982, 40-41) and Potter (2005b, 203, 212), as well as others. The church underwent rebuilding and repairs, including enlargement to the chancel, during 1882-1886 (Lambeth Palace Library ICBS 09613). The church today consists of the following component parts; a west tower, the nave with aisles to north and south, the chancel and a south porch. The lower part of the tower and the nave are pre-Romanesque in origin. Throughout the church the use of brown-yellowgrey, medium-grained sandstone is particularly common; this rock type is representative of the local Upper Jurassic, Corallian sandstones of the area. Later used and replacement rock types include a harder and a finer-grained sandstone and calcareous sandstones both of which are probably also Upper Jurassic in age.

Figure 6.151 The lower portion of Masham church north-west nave quoin. This quoin, to its north side, also displays an element of rebuilding prior to the construction of the present north aisle.

The lower western quoins, to about two-thirds of the height of the tower (Fig 6.153), show Patterned characteristics in largish stones set to a mix of side-alternate and long and short stones. The Corallian sandstone in the walls clearly breaks naturally into convenient flat slabs controlled by the rock bedding. Neither of the western quoins shows evidence of a plinth.

Figure 6.152 The south-east quoin to the nave of Masham church is also exposed. A number of tie stones created when the south aisle was built tend to disrupt the AngloSaxon quoin pattern.

Figure 6.153 The west tower of Middleton-by-Pickering church (SE 782 854) is seen here from the south-west, The lower two-thirds of the tower possesses Anglo-Saxon Patterned quoins. 159

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

The south-west tower quoin rises; BVFR, BVFL, BH, BVFL, BVFR, BH, BVFL, BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, BVFL, BH, BVFL, BH, ? (lichen cover), ?BVFL, BVFR, BVFL, ?, BH, BVFL, BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, ?, ?, BVFL, squaresection string course above which the stones of the Early English belfry are all set BH (Figure 6.154). Over this remarkable height of readable stones the face-alternate BH stones are ‘short’ in long and short terminology. The north-west quoin, without the same level of illumination, could only be read over the lower portion of the tower; BVFL, BVFR, BH, BVFR, BVFL, BH, BVFR, BVFL, BH, BVFL, BVFR (Figure 6.155). Normally the eastern quoin stones of a tower fail to exhibit their early appearance, either because the quoins are obscured or because at the level in question the tower is more recently built. The large quoin stones on the two eastern tower quoins at Middleton-by-Pickering could be read with the use of binoculars The south-east quoin (Figure 6.156) above nave roof level displayed; BVFL, BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, BVFL, thin infill, below the string course. Figure 6.155 Displayed are stones 1 (top only) to 5 of the north-west tower quoin at Middleton church. The bedding orientations of these stones are BVFL, BVFR, BH, BVFR, BVFL.

In Figure 6.157, the stones in the north-east quoin rise; BVFR, BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, BVFL, ?, BH (thin).

Figure 6.156 The belfry of Middleton-by-Pickering church viewed from the south-east. The Anglo-Saxon quoins continue as high as the string course below the belfry. It is, therefore, possible to view the south-east quoin orientations. On the east tower wall an earlier high nave roof line can be seen.

Figure 6.154 The lowest six quoins stones exposed in Middleton-by-Pickering south-west quoin of the church tower are orientated BVFR, BVFL, BH, BVFL, BVFR, BH. The oblique markings on the lowest stone are caused by the bedding being slightly inclined to the vertical.

160

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

Figure 6.157 Here the north-east higher tower quoin is shown to equate to the south-east in Figure 6.156.

Figure 6.158 At the base of the west tower at Middleton church both the modified Anglo-Saxon doorway and the early cross above it are shown.

In Figure 6.156 the line of a once higher nave roof has left its impression. The west wall of the tower preserves the now blocked western doorway above which is an Anglian cross (Figure 6.158). A similar cross was seen at Hovingham church (see Section 6.14), and a mid- 9th C. date has been assigned to both of these. The Taylors provided a detailed description of the doorway in order to support their belief that it was of Anglo-Saxon origin; at the same time decrying ‘the cruel defacement’ which it had suffered by the insertion of the window (Figure 6.159), which is set in concrete. As it happens, the stone orientations both in the jambs and the pilaster work are such that all stones are set BVFIA, to immediately determine an AngloSaxon origin. Other features in the tower must be mentioned briefly. The tower’s south face supports two windows, of these two, only the window in the second stage possesses BVFIA stones in its jambs. Inside the church the tower arch has been rebuilt, but high above it there is a relatively modern window which once may have occupied the position of an early door. The orientations in the nave western quoins are particularly interesting, for there are two nave quoins on either side of the tower. These represent the quoins of two different width naves. The quoins of the earliest nave show that this nave is only slightly wider than the tower, and the stones are, as a result, more difficult to read. When the nave was increased

Figure 6.159 The west doorway in Figure 6.158 preserves sufficient original Anglo-Saxon stonework to confirm the period of its construction. 161

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

in width, the western wall of the nave was extended to north and south.

BVFR, BVFL, BH, with smaller, difficult to read stones above (Figure 6.160).

Examining the earlier of the south-west nave quoins first, this is flush with the south tower wall, and stands upon a double-plinth. It contains no unusually large stones to rise; BH, ?, BVFR, BH, BH, ?, ?, BH, BVFR, with three further stones unreadable.

The south-west later second nave quoin, stands on a double plinth, and commences with a BVFL in replacement bioclastic limestone, the second stone of the same material is BVFR, followed by sandstones BVFL, BVFR, BH, ?, ?BH, the remainder small and unreadable.

The equivalent north-west nave quoin stands on a plinth which passes under the tower; it also narrows up the wall so that by stone 9 nothing remains visible. Only the second stone could be read, BVFL. The fourth stone area provides a tie stone for the wider nave west wall which was to follow (Figure 6.160).

The Taylors interpreted the pre-Romanesque relationships between the tower and the nave as follows. The first structure to be built in their belief was the early narrow nave; this was followed with the lower portion of the tower slightly narrower than the early nave and built flush with the nave wall (with no evidence of bonding). The second nave to follow was about 1.2m. wider on each side than the tower. They supported these stages in the church building with evidence from the various plinths, but without exposing the plinths in full again such confirmation could not be undertaken. The north wall of the early narrower nave at its western end must have been inclined to the south prior to the building of the tower, for this is required to explain the gradual depletion of the earlier north-west nave quoin with height which is evident. This in turn suggests a longish period between the first nave’s erection and that of the tower, sufficient to permit the necessary settlement.

The later nave walls and quoins were built just outside those constructed earlier (possibly to leave the early nave intact until it was complete). These nave walls were those that would eventually carry the arcades; that to the north Romanesque, that to the south a little later. The north-west second nave quoin is constructed of larger stones (in appearance similar to those in the tower quoin stones) over its lower portion. Without any evidence of a plinth it commences with 4 relatively thin replacement stones, and follows with BVFR, BH, BVFR, ?BVFL,

In the north aisle, as well as elsewhere, in Middleton church there are a number of interesting carved AngloDanish wheel-head crosses which were removed from the lower tower walls in 1948. 6.25 Monk Fryston, St Wilfred of Ripon, SE 505 297 (West Riding) Following their examinations of the tower at Monk Fryston church, and particularly its four belfry openings, authors such as Brown (1925, 470), Pevsner and Radcliffe (1959, 371-372) and Taylor and Taylor (1965, 431-432) believed that the tower was built within the Anglo-Saxon times. The web site for the English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID 326097 – listed 1967) reports only unspecified ‘AngloSaxon origins’. The church is built of local Permian Magnesian Limestone and possesses the following structure; the west tower, an aisled nave with north and south porches, and a chancel with an aisle to the south (Figure 6.161). The Lambeth Palace Library records (ICBS 01233 and 09301) suggest elements of rebuilding took place in 1830 and 1888-1889 (Figure 6.162). The tower possesses belfry windows at two different levels. The case for giving this church an Anglo-Saxon construction date rests on the lower belfry windows (those lower than the current nave roof line). None of these belfry windows proved sufficiently illuminated or clear from ground level to be identified from their stonework as of this age. The east belfry window is just visible high above the tower arch in Figure 6.163. Some of the stones

Figure 6.160 Between the north tower wall (right) and the north aisle at Middleton church two north-west nave quoins are preserved. The quoin adjacent to the tower wall pre-dates the building of the tower; that just under a metre away, still of Anglo-Saxon age, was erected subsequently. 162

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

Figure 6.161 Monk Fryston, St Wilfred of Ripon church (SE 505 297) is built of Permian Magnesian limestone and here viewed from the south-east.

Figure 6.162 This sketch of Monk Fryston church from the south was probably undertaken about 1888. It is shown here by kind permission of the Lambeth Palace Library. Authors such as the Taylors (1965) were of the view that the lower tower belfry windows show Anglo- Saxon construction. 163

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 6.163 The lower belfry windows that are present in the east wall of the tower of Monk Fryston church are poorly visible above the tower arch.

Figure 6.164 The tower arch of Monk Fryston church has been rebuilt and preserves no evidence of an earlier original opening.

in the window structures externally had been replaced. Unfortunately, the tower quoins are all but covered by diagonal buttresses and the few stones visible above these could be read only with difficulty. Those stones viewed with binoculars at the north-west corner all appeared BH.

otherwise been discussed by; Bruce (1846), Morris (1911) and Kirk (1953) and appears in the English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID 325 988) web site. The church consists currently of a west tower, the nave with a north aisle and a south porch, and an extended chancel with a north chapel (Figure 6.165). It is a small church built of cream-white, Permian Magnesian Limestone, a stone which when used in such large quantities of squared stones does not auger well for an Anglo-Saxon age. The stone has been worked as moderately small, squared, variably sized blocks or as more equally sized larger, and therefore, better coursed blocks. The second format is the later, and has been used both in the higher levels of the tower and the nave, in the nave possibly with a rebuilding of the roof.

There is no more than a possible outline of a west doorway in the tower. A window in the south tower wall preserves nothing that suggests an Anglo-Saxon origin. The tower arch has been rebuilt (Figure 6.164) and the nave quoins lost with the building of the aisles. Above the aisles the BH quoin stones were presumably related to the later clerestory. The church retains its hagioscopes to north and south and these suggest that the aisles were once narrower. The early nave walls above the arcades are only 0.82m. thick.

Figure 6.166 examines the east end of the church more closely. The plinth below the eastern chancel south wall reveals that the chancel extension to the east was apparently, from the window architecture, built in the 13th C. The western portion of the visible chancel was, therefore, the earlier. The north chancel wall is similarly established, for a hagioscope exists from the east wall of the north chapel to the chancel. The hagioscope is thought to have been created in the 13th C. The blocked slit window above the priest’s doorway in the south chancel wall (see Figure 6.166), in which the quoin stones all appear BH, cannot be dated as early as Anglo-Saxon, unless it has been rebuilt.

It proved impossible to confirm, from the currently visible stonework, if Monk Fryston church preserved any AngloSaxon features. 6.26 Newton Kyme, St Andrew, SE 466 449 (North Riding) Leach and Pevsner (2009, 605-606) write of Newton Kyme church, ‘One little window in the chancel south wall, and a collection of reused responds and imposts supporting the arch between the north chapel and the chancel, and the west respond of the aisle arcade look late Saxon.’ Upon this comment the church was viewed. The church has 164

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

Figure 6.165 Newton Kyme church (SE 466 449) as it appears when seen from the south.

Figure 6.166 A closer view of the east end of St Andrew, Newton Kyme church. The plinth below the eastern end of the chancel supports the suggestion that the chancel has been extended to the east. The small blocked window has jamb stones set BH. 165

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 6.168 The gargoyles above the north-west quoin at Newton Kyme church.

Figure 6.167 The north-west nave quoin at Newton Kyme church viewed from the west. Much tied to the north aisle (see bottom stones), it possesses two Millstone Grit quoin stones, possible remnants from an early quoin. All the visible stones in the quoins throughout the church, with the exception of the north-west nave quoin, are orientated BH and of orthodox 12th C. and later construction. Figure 6.167 illustrates this quoin. Some of the construction of the quoin was disrupted when the north aisle was tied into it (as is evident in the first five stones). There are certain features of interest. The plinth is of two stones, the upper course chamfered, but the lower is of square section. The lower plinth turns the corner to pass along the north wall of the nave and is original to the early nave. The stones above the double plinth rise; ?BVFR ?Millstone Grit), BH, BH, BH, BVFL, the sixth stone is constructed of Millstone Grit ?BH, above this the wall is much altered. Towards the top it is replaced by interesting gargoyles (Figure 6.168).

Figure 6.169 These BVFIA shafts on the western respond to the north arcade to the nave of Newton Kyme church, could indicate possibly an Anglo-Saxon date of construction.

At the west end of the nave the respond to the north arcade is ornamented with two BVFIA shafts (Figure 6.169), as referred to (above) by Leach and Pevsner (2009). The feature could be late Anglo-Saxon in age, but whether this is part of the respond or placed there from elsewhere cannot be seen because of the covering wall plaster. If it is part of an early respond (an argument, perhaps supported by the adjacent Millstone Grit quoin stones) it would seem probable that an arcade was built earlier than generally believed. However, the fragments of similar structures which appear to have been built into the east respond of the

arch between the chancel and its chapel (Figure 6.170) fail to offer such support. Although the nave walls are thin, and tentative arguments may be made from the limited evidence examined above, for the church to have Anglo-Saxon origins, no clear visible stonework is available in the church to support such an early building date.

166

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

remain central to the Norman chancel arch (Figure 6.172), nearer to the south wall of the chancel (Figure 6.173). No evidence of the original north-east chancel quoin remains, but the outline of the earlier chancel roof is visible on the east nave wall (Figure 6.174). The enlargement of the chancel possibly occurred in the late 14th or 15th C. when a new east window was inserted. At that time, from the position of its pattern, the sanctuary floor was tiled. Much of the stonework and other evidence that might be used for dating in Old Byland church prove to be both controversial and contradictory. In the lower portion of the south porch and the south chancel wall, the stonework is of larger and partially squared, coursed rubble and it is presumably of earlier date than the wall above (see Figure 6.171). The ‘Norman style’ arch to the doorway to the porch could well be ‘Victorian’ or 1909 in date and replaced, whilst the large sandstone oblong blocks set to right and left of the springing to the arch have 12th C. animal carvings on their surface. The tower, rising from the porch, is younger and contains bells dated 1672. Inserted in the east wall of the tower is a weathered sandstone, inscribed and inverted Anglo-Saxon sundial (Figure 6.175). Presumably from this Old Byland site, it would originally have been placed in a south-facing wall of a stone (and not a wooden) church. Figure 6.170 Whereas these fragments of similar structures appear to have been attached to this respond on the arch between the chapel and the chancel at Newton Kyme church. 6.27 Old Byland, All Saints, SE 551 859 (North Riding) Taylor and Taylor (1965, 716) list Old Byland church as one in which the features are ‘not sufficiently definite to justify their inclusion in the main text’. The Domesday record advises of the presence of a church, but the Victoria County History (1913, 12) interpretation also advises that the church was built of wood. The more recent Victoria County History (1923, 2-5) record makes no reference to this wooden structure. A description of the church appears in Pevsner (1966, 275-276) and in the English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID 328510) web site. The small church consists of a nave and chancel only; together with these there is a south porch which rises to a tower (Figure 6.171). The church walls are constructed of a rubble of small, bedding controlled blocks, of local Upper Jurassic, Corallian, occasionally pinkish, grey to cream oolitic limestone. Quoin stones of larger squared blocks of brown and cream-brown fine sandstone, also from the Upper Jurassic, are set to side-alternate style. The church was extensively restored in 1909, with many windows being replaced at that time. The church was, however, abandoned in the 1970’s, to be restored again in 1981. Figure 6.171 The porch and its tower which occurs on the south side of the nave to Old Byland, All Saints church (SE 551 859). The broad row of stones which extends to the left (west) and right of the springing of the door arch is ornamented with 12th C. Figures.

Possibly the most unusual feature of this church is the manner in which the chancel had been enlarged, by extending it towards the north and beyond the north wall of the nave. This places the east window and the altar, which 167

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 6.172 The chancel arch to Old Byland church viewed from the west. Only the west face of the arch is ornamented.

Figure 6.173 Because the chancel to Old Byland church was extended towards the north, the east window of the chancel is not central. This modification is also visible within the church in Figure 6.172.

Figure 6.174 Old Byland church is viewed here from the north-east. 168

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

placed to spread weight as would occur in a relieving arch. If this interpretation is correct, something of the original Anglo-Saxon church may be preserved in these lower walls of the south chancel and nave walls.

In the south chancel wall there is a blocked priest’s doorway. The doorway, with chamfered BH jambs and three-centred head (Figure 6.176) is possibly of the 15th C. It has been very carefully set into the older surrounding walling. Immediately above the doorway is a circular ‘Tredington arch’ of voussoirs apparently built for a slightly narrower and higher Anglo-Saxon doorway (see Taylor and Taylor, 1965, 623-626, for explanation). The voussoirs are not

All six major quoins, although constructed with sidealternate large sandstone blocks, have these set BH (there is one BVFL block in each of the south-east nave and the north-east chancel quoins). An oblique row of similar sandstone blocks runs partly up the wall on opposing sides of the nave. For these no explanation, other than that they were for ornamental purposes, can be offered. 6.28 Otley, All Saints, SE 201 454 (West Riding) The earliest datable portions of Otley Church are stated by nearly all authors to be of Norman age, but all suggest that the site was that of a place of worship in pre-Conquest times for the various carved stones and crosses held in the church are of significant importance. The fragments of two early cross-shafts (probably of 8th and 9th C. dates) have been particularly admired. Otley was the centre of an estate of the Archbishop of York about this time. Only Leach and Pevsner (2009, 614-617) refer to the possibility of AngloSaxon work being retained in the nave, and the present author’s examination of the site stems from this suggestion.

Figure 6.175 Inverted, this inscribed Anglo-Saxon sandstone sundial is now placed on the east wall of the porch/ tower at Old Byland.

Currently the church structure consists of a west tower, a nave with aisles, shallow transepts to north and south, a chancel and a south porch (Figure 6.177). Alterations and restorations occurred in 1832-1836 (Lambeth Palace Library ICBS 01445), 1851 and 1867. The building is constructed of (often soot coated) yellow to grey coarse sandstone from the local Upper Carboniferous, Pennsylvanian, Millstone Grit. The older walls, such as those in the older Norman parts of the chancel use this stone in well squared and coursed style. ‘Victorian’ work, often in dimension-stones, is not unlike the Norman work. A late Norman doorway has been re-set into the north aisle, this has been somewhat modified by ‘Victorian’ workmanship. The church nave walls can only be seen externally to the immediate north and south of the west tower and possibly internally above the arcades where they are covered in wall plaster. The quoin to the south of the tower has all its stones set BH (and is presumably rebuilt). The north-west nave quoin differs. A lined drainage trench, and the tower drip course, both cover the lower part of the exposure of the north-west quoin, so that the bottom 7 or 8 stones cannot be seen (Figures 6.178 and 6.179). The north aisle (left in Figure 6.180) abuts against the quoin with no tie stones. The course work of the tower has been built to replace the first two or three stones on the west nave wall before the quoin; so that the stonework courses in the tower north wall continue onto the west nave wall. Prior to joining the north-west nave quoin some untidy joggling of stones was necessary. Above the tower drip course the north-west nave quoin can be observed rising as follows: first stone (or is it two stones) ?, BVFL, BVFR, BVFL (oblique), BH, BVFL. Above this the stones are placed BH as they are

Figure 6.176 The priest’s door on the south chancel wall at Old Byland has above it a narrower arch of voussoirs which appear to be the remnant of an earlier Anglo-Saxon doorway as is discussed in the text. 169

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 6.177 All Saints church, Otley (SE 201 454) is built of regular shaped and coursed blocks of Millstone Grit. The church is seen here from the north-east, with the north transept projecting from the main body of the church.

Figure 6.178 The north-west nave quoin at Otley church, seen between the north aisle (left) and the tower (right). The tower’s added drip course turns north from the tower to enclose the lower part of the quoin. At the clerestory level the nave wall has been rebuilt and set-back.

Figure 6.179 The previous Figure viewed from the north to show the lined drainage trench which has also been built in front of the quoin.

170

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

Figure 6.180 Now viewed from the west the Otley church north-west quoin reveals the bedding orientations of the stones above the drip course.

Figure 6.181 To the side of the Otley church tower an overturned cross shaft base can be seen. The cross shaft would have fitted into the hole.

then aligned with, and become part of, the tower course work that is present on the west nave wall. It is unfortunate that the lower part of the quoin has been covered, but what remains is sufficient to confirm an Anglo-Saxon origin for this church.

(1859-1860, 63-96), Taylor and Taylor (1965) and Leach and Pevsner (2009, 641-642); and for the crypt in Walbran (1846, 339-354), Micklethwaite (1882, 347-354; 1892, 191196; 1896, 293-351) and Collingwood (1915, 233-235). In 1931, excavations in the cathedral exposed remnants of St Wilfred’s church beneath the crossing, which are described in Peers (1931, 113-122) and Jones (1932-1934, 74-76). With the exception of a loose column fragment these are no longer exposed.

Beside the north wall of the church tower is this unusual view of an upturned cross-shaft base (Figure 6.181). The bedding in the sandstone is more apparent than the decoration and obliquely BV to the shaft (the folder is 0.3m. long).

The last extensive restoration of Ripon cathedral was by G.G. Scott in the 1860-1870 period when the west face was created (Figure 6.182). The cathedral is built mainly of Permian oolitic limestone, one which unusually grades intermittently into muddy limestone, but there is some use of Upper Carboniferous sandstone. These rocks would not be expected in the Anglo-Saxon crypt. However, it proved impossible to identify the crypt rocks for they are covered in thick layers of plaster and limewash. Only where there were features such as worn steps in the crypt could the stone be identified, and this then appeared to be of Upper Carboniferous, Pennsylvanian Millstone Grit, and was obtained probably from a proximate source.

6.29 Ripon, St Peter, SE 313 711 (West Riding) Within the cathedral at Ripon is the crypt of the early church of St Wilfred which probably dates to the mid-670 period. The records of Bede describe how the sub-King of Deira, Alchfrith installed Wilfred as abbot of Ripon and how Wilfred was buried near the church altar there in 709. The destruction of the church by King Eadred is described in the Anglo-Saxon chronicles under the year 948 (Swanton, 2000, 112). More extensive accounts of the history of St Wilfred’s church can be read in; Colgrave (1927), Taylor and Taylor (1965, 516-518) and Leach and Pevsner (2009, 637-666).

The crypt displays none of the re-used rocks from an earlier Roman origin as Hexham does because they were removed for display purposes. It is also stated that the floor was once created of opus signinum (Leach and Pevsner, 2009, 642), although precisely what this statement means, or what the

The crypt at the church is very similar in layout to that of Wilfred’s church at Hexham (see section 2.12). Details of St Wilfred’s Ripon church are presented by Walbran 171

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 6.182 The west face of Ripon cathedral (SE 313 711) beneath the crossing of which the remains of the early church of St Wilfred are believed to lie; of this, the crypt is visible.

Figure 6.183 The crypt of the church of St Wilfred showing the main chamber within which relics were held, viewed from its entrance.

Figure 6.184 The Ripon crypt main chamber viewed from the west.

172

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

material was, remains unclear. The main chamber to the crypt is shown in Figures 6.183 and 6.184. No upstanding walls or quoins are present in which bedding orientations are displayed.

Only the two northern original nave quoins to the church remain for examination and both show Patterned characteristics despite some later alterations. The north-west nave quoin rises as; BVFL, BH, BVFL, BVFR, BH (diagonal), BVFR, BVFL, BVFR (with lewis hole, west face), BVFL, BH, ?, ?, ?, ?, four new stones to eaves.

6.30 Ryther (cum Ossendyke), All Saints, SE 555 394 (West Riding) This small simple church tends to be given, with a degree of uncertainty, a late Saxon-early Norman date. Ryther church consists of a nave with weather-boarded bell turret, a chancel, a south aisle and south porch (Figure 6.185). The walls are constructed mainly of Permian Magnesian Limestone, but of a variety that proves to be generally oolitic; whilst the structural features, such as quoins, are completed in sandstone from the Upper Carboniferous, Millstone Grit.

The north-east nave quoin displays significant alterations; the first two stones stand out from the north face (with stone 2 chamfered) to jointly form a drip course, the next three stones (BVFL, BVFR, BVFL) are likely to have been original but have been reused. Quoin stones above this tend to be BH. To the west of the brick chimney on the north nave wall it can be seen that the east end of the wall has been set back about 0.12m., confirming that the wall has been rebuilt.

Those who have described details of the church include; Speight (1902, 77-83), Morris (1932, 433-435), Pevsner and Radcliffe (1959, 425-426), Taylor and Taylor (1965, 526-528) and Potter (2005b, 204, 212). The web site for the English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID 326424) also provides further information. The church underwent some restorations in 1773, the chancel was rebuilt in 1843 (indicated by its wall plaque), and alterations and additions in 1897-1901 (Lambeth Palace Library ICBS 09976) included the bell turret, the south porch and the east window.

The lowest stone in the south-west nave quoin is also preserved and is orientated BVFR. The chancel arch preserves characteristic Anglo-Saxon features (Figures 6.186 and 6.187). Both jambs rise in Escomb style, BH, BVFIA, BH, BVFIA, BH; with all stones fully through the 0.68m. thick wall. The north jamb (Figure 6.188) has its impost and the first two voussoirs above it replaced. The south jamb (Figure 6.189) shows lewis holes in two of its jamb stones, yet again indicating

Figure 6.185 All Saints church, Ryther (SE 555 394) is viewed here from the south, to show in particular the south aisle. 173

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 6.186 Ryther church Anglo-Saxon chancel arch is seen from the west.

Figure 6.188 The north jamb to the Ryther chancel arch viewed from the south- west. The impost and the first two voussoirs are thought to have been replaced.

Figure 6.187 Now observed from the east, the AngloSaxon chancel arch at Ryther reveals the differences between the imposts and between the first two voussoirs above the north and the south jambs. There is also the trace of an Anglo-Saxon cut back on the voussoirs. that the Millstone Grit blocks were probably quarried from an earlier Roman site. The eastern quoins to the chancel look to be impressively Patterned, but the first problem in accepting this interpretation is that both stand on a relatively modern chamfered plinth. Figures 6.190 and 6.191 show the detail of the lowest stones of the south-east chancel quoin, first viewed from the east and then from the south.

Figure 6.189 The south jamb to the same chancel arch viewed from the north-west. Also visible is the hagioscope from the south aisle and, standing vertically, an altar table. 174

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

Figure 6.190 The south-east chancel quoin viewed from the east at Ryther church. The text explains why this quoin has been completely rebuilt.

Figure 6.191 The same reconstructed south-east chancel quoin at Ryther now seen from the south. Quoin stones 1, 3, and 5 show lewis holes.

The south-east chancel quoin can be seen to rise above the plinth; BVFL, BH, BVFL, BVFR. BVFL, BH, BVFL (oblique),?BH, BVFL, ?, and 4 newer stones to eaves. The first, third and fifth stones exhibit lewis holes. Viewed from the east (Figure 6.190) the first five stones are shown. Note that the adjoining inserted wall stones have had to be joggled to fit the available space. Figure 6.191 views the same quoin from the south and the first six stones, and in this instance a clear break has occurred between the rebuilt quoin and the south wall.

rebuilt walls. Inside the church as many as five stone altar slabs can be seen (see Figure 6.189), and the south aisle, south 13th C. door was once secured with a bar lock. 6.31 Scrayingham, St Peter and St Paul, SE 730 604 (East Riding) Pevsner and Neave (1995, 673) described Scrayingham church as ‘Largely a rebuilding of 1853 …. but the north wall is old and has a blocked doorway with foliated capitals, probably 14th C., and a blocked Norman window.’ The English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID 328804) web site is no more forthcoming. Ryder (2009, 35-39) redescribed the church and declared that many features on the north wall of the church were of Anglo-Saxon origin.

The north-east chancel quoin is similar and from the new plinth upwards shows; BVFR, ?BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, BVFL, BVFR (with lewis hole), BVFL, BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, and 4 newer stones. All show evidence of rebuilding. This probably occurred in early Victorian years. It seems likely that prior to that date the same quoin stones were in use in original Anglo-Saxon quoins (and, of course, prior to that in a Roman structure).

Today, the Scrayingham church consists of a nave with a west bell-cote, a rebuilt south aisle with a porch, and a chancel with a small vestry to its north (Figure 6.192). Suitable building stones are not to be found in the immediate vicinity of the church, for the site is situated upon the Triassic sandstone-marl sequence. The older rocks of the north walls of the church are of Upper Carboniferous, Millstone Grit; these originally extracted from the Pennine area some 30km. to the west. That the Romans could be accredited with most of this transport, prior to use in the church, is evident from the many lewis holes seen in the stones (Figure 6.193). For their AngloSaxon use in the church a local Roman site must have

In the south wall of the chancel the priest’s door is an odd mix. Its arch is regarded by most as Norman but both it and the imposts are of Magnesian Limestone, The jambs are sandstone and could be of much modified Anglo-Saxon work, They are chamfered, slightly Escomb styled, but of mixed stone orientation (out of 7 stones in total; 3 stones BH, 2 BVEIA, 1 BVFIA and 1 uncertain). One stone again carried a lewis hole of Roman origin. The church has various pieces of earlier stonework included within its 175

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 6.192 The south walls of Scrayingham church (SE 730 604) display only the structures built in 1853.

Figure 6.193 The north and west walls of the Scrayingham church are constructed of Millstone Grit apparently used originally in Roman buildings as indicated by the many stones which display lewis lifting holes. This example exhibited in the west wall.

Figure 6.194 Scrayingham church north nave wall, here viewed from the north- west, is built wholly of Upper Carboniferous, Millstone Grit. 176

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

provided the stone source (Figure 6.194). For the Victorian work in dimension-stone blocks, a cream, fine grained sandstone was used, this probably from the Upper Jurassic, Corallian rocks to the east. The north-west nave quoin provides the most convincing, if limited, Patterned Anglo-Saxon work (Figures 6.195 and 6.196). The quoin rises above the top of an underlying stone; BH, BH, BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, BVFL, with the succeeding 8 stones BH. The higher portion of the quoin has been rebuilt and some joggling of wall stones is visible beside and above stone 6 (Figure 6.196). The north-east nave quoin is very much hidden beneath a drain-pipe, but what can be read provides: top only of stone, broken stone (BH), BH, BH, ?BVFL. BVFR, BVFL, ?BVFR, BVFL, BH, 4 more stones unreadable (Figure 6.197). Above, and to the west of the quoin, there is the mark created by a steeply inclined roof line. This Ryder (2009, 36-37) suggests might be part of the roof of an early porticus, occupying a position much as one at Escomb church (see Monograph A, section 6.7). With no supporting evidence from either quoins or doorways, this proposal is difficult to justify. Similar markings created by other leanto buildings are remarkably common on church walls. In the north nave wall there are, additionally, three tall lancet windows constructed in 1853 and a blocked 14th C. doorway. There are also the remnants of two blocked

Figure 6.196 Stones 3 to 5 of the Scrayingham church north-west quoin are set BVFL, BVFR, BVFL.

Figure 6.195 The Scrayingham church north-west quoin which is constructed of large Millstone Grit quoin stones placed to Anglo-Saxon style.

Figure 6.197 Scrayingham church north-east quoin is partly hidden by the drain pipe. Note the inclined roof marking top right. 177

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 6.198 Two early blocked windows are visible on the north wall of the nave at Scrayingham church; this is the west window. The head is unusually created from three stones, the jamb stones show no typical AngloSaxon orientations and are lichen covered.

Figure 6.199 The blocked window at the east end of the north wall at Scrayingham. The three lintel stones are irregularly fitted to the jambs and evidence of AngloSaxon construction is absent. The English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID 326321) web site provides further particulars.

early windows. These are presumed to be of the same age and Ryder has proposed that they are Anglo-Saxon. Figure 6.198 displays the westerly example. Very unusually its semi-circular head appears to be created from three stones. It is also cut by the wall stone above, which is presumably younger. Heavily coated in lichen, nothing of the stonework detail can be determined. The more easterly blocked window (Figure 6.199) again has three stones making its lintel, but these stones do not fit comfortably to the jamb stones and modifications have been undertaken at some stage. Again, lichen is present to the extent that the stonework detail cannot be read. It is difficult to justify an Anglo-Saxon age for either window, and Pevsner and Neave (1995), observing only one of the two, described it as Norman. Most of the northern walls of the church once carried plaster as may be observed from the evidence of both hammered wall surfaces (to carry plaster) and actual patches of still adhering plaster.

Early in its history Skipwith church was believed by some to have consisted of just a nave and chancel, with a west porch. It now involves a west tower thought to have been constructed over the porch, an extended nave, with aisles to north and south (of late 12th – early 13th C.), and a rebuilt (in the 13th C.) chancel (Figures 6.200 and 6.201). The south porch was restored in 1876-1877 during a period of similar work throughout the church. The earliest historical evidence of the church relates to when the church was given to the Bishop of Durham by the king in 1084. Upper Carboniferous Millstone Grit provides the principal building stone but there is some later use of Permian Magnesian Limestone. The tower is differently constructed at three (or possibly four) levels (Figures 6.201 and 6.202). In the lowest level the walls are constructed of roughly squared coursed blocks, the quoin stones being somewhat larger. The western tower quoins display clear Patterned orientations. The southwest quoin rests on a double plinth of a squared section below one of chamfered form, to then rise; BH, BVFR (in fine silty Magnesian Limestone), BH (with bench mark), BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, BVFL(in Magnesian limestone), BH, BVFR, BH, BVFR, followed by replaced stones to the first string course.

6.32 Skipwith, St Helen, SE 657 385 (East Riding) The Anglo-Saxon character of Skipwith church was first recognised by Phillips in 1853 (84, 202), subsequent descriptions have followed, and those of Brown (1925, 478-479), Taylor and Taylor (1965, 550-554), Victoria County History (1976, 89-101), Pevsner and Neave (1995, 687-688) and Potter (2005b, 205), should be mentioned. 178

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

Figure 6.200 The church of St Helen, Skipwith (SE 657 385) is viewed here from the south-east.

Figure 6.201 Here the Skipwith church displays its tower as seen from the south-west.

Figure 6.202 A closer view of the tower of Skipwith church tower in setting sunlight. The outer splays of the double-splayed windows are shown well. 179

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

The north-west quoin commences with a plinth of three levels, a flat stone below the other two seen below the south-west quoin, to follow with; BH, BVFL, BH (slightly oblique, in silty Magnesian Limestone), BVFL, BVFR, BVFL, BVFR (with Lewis hole), BH, BH, BVFL, BVFR, , BH, BH, BH, BVFL, and 9 new stones to the first string course. Typically the quoin stones described in these western quoins are made of Carboniferous sandstone. About four similarly Patterned stones could also be seen in the south-east quoin above the roof of the south aisle. Slightly above the level where the western quoins change in character the walls display a level of banding between sandstones and Magnesian Limestone, and above the banding (seen particularly on the west and south tower faces), the wall fabric involves smaller stones than those at a lower level. The second phase of tower building continues to the second string course above which, in the 15th C., a belfry was added. The small windows between the second and third strings may be all that remains of what were once earlier (now partially blocked) belfry windows.

Figure 6.203 The tower arch at Skipwith church viewed from the south-east. The stonework suggests that much of the arch has been rebuilt.

The windows in the tower were examined by the Taylors in 1965, when they were clearly able to gain access to inspect them in some detail. These occur on both the ground and an upper floor in the first stage of the tower (that is to just below the clock level), and all but the ground floor west wall window they suggested were double-splayed. The deep external splay can certainly be confirmed. Taylor and Taylor, having inspected the windows, made a case for the ground floor to be older than the upper floor in the tower first stage and, as a result, proposed that the ground floor was originally an early porch (upon which the rest of the tower was built subsequently). This argument ignores the similarity of the structure of the quoins over the first stage. In accepting the idea of an early porch, the Taylors proposed that it might have been constructed as early as 950 or before. Pevsner and Neave (1995, 687) offered the view that the tower construction was over ‘two consecutive periods’ being completed in the 11th C., and they chose to ignore the existence of an earlier porch. Despite the quoin similarities; in favour of the Taylor’s view, the wall fabric over the first stage does change slightly above the ground floor windows in that the stonework is smaller and contains more Magnesian Limestone.

Figure 6.204 Detail of the pilaster strips on the west side of the north jamb of Skipwith tower arch reveals their originality, in that they have a BVFIA setting.

Pevsner and Neave described the tower arch as ‘patternbook Saxon’ (Figure 6.203), although the stonework suggests it has been significantly rebuilt. Exemplifying this statement, most of the jamb stones are not through stones and no stones could be read in an orientation other than BH. The pilaster strips surrounding the tower arch, in contrast, were wholly Anglo-Saxon and typically of BVFIA stones (Figure 6.204). The blocked doorway above the tower arch, from the upper floor of the first stage of the tower stonework (Figure 6.205), unfortunately proved too high to be read. Pevsner and Neave (1995, 687) suggested that this doorway probably led to a wooden gallery, but it

seems more probable that, as in other churches, it led to high nave roof space. There remained a difficulty in attempting to read the stonework either high in the tower or in any windows above the tower ground floor. The quoin stones above the level of the first string course could only be interpreted as BH, or more frequently, as unreadable. The ground floor tower windows appeared to have all jamb stones 180

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

string course as being of simple square section (inferring that it was probably of Anglo-Saxon age), it appears from ground level to have been chamfered on the underside. In summary, there appears to be no firm evidence that either the tower was built upon an earlier porch, or that, when it was first raised to a higher belfry level, the work was undertaken prior to the Conquest (although it is very likely). The nave walls are only about 0.85m. thick, but further evidence that their earlier western portion might be AngloSaxon is missing. An interesting carved stone (Figure 6.206) low inside the tower walls has been described as Anglo-Scandinavian and of 9th to 11th C. age. 6.33 Stonegrave, Holy Trinity, SE 655 778 (North Riding) As described by Taylor and Taylor (1965, 577-578), ‘there is little visible externally that is not modern’ for the church was heavily restored, with the exception of the west tower, in 1863. The aisled nave, chancel and south porch have all been completed in an oolitic limestone of rusticated and cut blocks from the Middle Jurassic (Figure 6.207). Other descriptions of the church, and its possible predecessor, worthy of record include; Hodges (1894, 199-200), Victoria County History (1914, 561-566), Whitlock (1955, 764) and Pevsner (1966, 359-360). The church also appears under the English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID 329611) web site descriptions.

Figure 6.205 High above the tower arch a blocked door from the upper floor of the first stage of Skipwith tower is evident. At that floor level, within the tower, a recess in the east wall is present; probably representing the position of an altar reredos or a rood as at certain other churches viewed by the author (Potter, 2006b, 201).

The unbuttressed west tower is created mainly from bioclastic oolitic limestone and the quoins stones from calcareous sandstones; both are from the Upper Jurassic, Corallian rocks of the immediate area. The walls are of moderately shaped blocks laid in rough coursework and the quoins are in face-alternate (with some side-alternate) slightly larger blocks. Taylor and Taylor (1965, 577) suggested that the west tower, its west doorway and a window in the second stage of the south wall were either Norman or late-Saxon in character. Pevsner (1966, 359) described all as 12th C. Figure 6.208 provides an illustration of the lower part of the west face of the tower and the blocked west door jambs. Both in the west quoins and the door jambs all stones were placed BH. Similarly, all jamb stones to the south wall window were placed BH. It proved impossible to determine the presence of any pre-Conquest workmanship on the external faces of the tower.

Figure 6.206 Possible Anglo-Scandinavian early carvings on a stone within the wall on the inside of Skipwith tower.

Internally, the church shows much more of its original character. The arcades are clearly Norman and the west door to the nave, which is likely to be earlier than the tower, is displayed in Figure 6.209. Little of the stonework of the west door (tower arch) can be determined thanks to internal plaster. From the west the door shows no evidence of Anglo-Saxon work (Figure 6.210), but it may of course have been modified at the time of the addition of the tower. The Taylors correctly indicated that the tower appears to have been built over the west wall of the earlier nave

BH. Indeed, there remains no evidence above the level of the Patterned western tower quoins of any higher AngloSaxon workmanship. Harold Taylor permitted to, and able to, access internally the belfry levels of the tower, could only comment (1965, 550) that, ‘The vestiges are, however, insufficiently well-defined to justify a confident assertion .…’. Although he described (above the clock) the first 181

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 6.207 Stonegrave church (SE 655 778) is viewed here from the south. All parts, but for the west tower, were rebuilt in 1863.

Figure 6.208 The lower portion of Stonegrave church west tower, showing the blocked west door and the western tower quoins. All stones in these features being orientated BH. (and that the tower side walls are butted against, and not bonded with, the nave). The west nave wall may have been thickened (to about 1.10m.) to take, when it was built, the additional weight of the tower. A similar action is known to have been taken in relation to the church at Stamfordham in Northumberland (see Section 2.18). The north and south nave walls at Stonegrave are about 0.87m. thick. It is therefore clear that, as might be expected, the Stonegrave nave was built before its Norman tower. The fact that the two Norman arcades cut through the nave walls also supports this view. No other evidence of the age of the nave is evident. However, the 1863 rebuilding did reveal four standing crosses from within the walls, one of these being a

Figure 6.209 The plastered walls of the western interior of Stonegrave church. The nave west door (now the tower arch), and the lower portion of a door from the tower to a chamber over the present nave, are seen here from the east. 182

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

10th C. cross with a wheel-head. High above the tower arch there is evidence of a blocked doorway (Figure 6.209). It is historically recorded that an ecclesiastical site was present in Stonegrave as early as 757, this from evidence given in a letter from the Pope to Eadberht, the King of Northumbria. The site of this early church is unknown. A gravestone referring to the 14th C. occurs on the floor of the church near to the south door. It is mentioned because it is made of Viviparus limestone, ‘Purbeck Marble’, and is remarkable for being so distant from its source in the south of England (see Potter, 2004a). 6.34 Terrington, All Saints, SE 671 707 (North Riding) The church of All Saints, Terrington was considered by Taylor and Taylor (1965, 608-609) to be of Anglo-Saxon construction, because they recognised that two Norman arches of different sizes (and in their belief, dates) had been cut through the north nave wall of the church. Other authors discussing the church include Morris (1920, 374), Victoria County History (1923, 205-206) and Pevsner (1966, 364). The English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID 329548) web site also refers to the church. The principal rock type used in the church walls is a variably oolitic limestone from the Upper Jurassic, Corallian, obtained from a short distance to the north of the Vale of Pickering in which the church stands. The church now consists of a buttressed west tower, a nave with a

Figure 6.210 The west side of the west door to the nave at Stonegrave church. Regrettably it proved impossible to read the stonework orientations.

Figure 6.211 Setting sun on the south-west corner of Terrington church (SE 671 707) emphasises the buttressed tower. It is said modern replacement sandstone in the tower came from Dunhouse Quarry, Co. Durham. 183

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 6.212 Herringbone work on the south nave wall of Terrington church. The wall is enclosed within the south chapel where illumination is restricted. The window is claimed to be original to the period of wall construction, although some possible stone joggling may be present.

Figure 6.213 Figure 6.212 taken with flash photography and from a slightly different direction. The lintel to the monosplay window is built of what may be a large gravestone with ornamentation.

Norman north aisle, a chancel, and a south porch. In the 14th C. a south chantry chapel was opened, but this fell into disuse and was removed at the time of the Dissolution. In 1868 the present south chapel was built in much the same position as the earlier chantry chapel (Figure 6.211). When the chantry chapel was built on the south nave wall in the 14th C, the external wall of this part of the nave appears to have been left unplastered. It remains in this state inside the new south chapel, so that the original external herringbone walling of the church is visible. The style, colour and rock sizes involved in this herringbone work are not unlike those at Bulmer church nearby (see section 6.6) and the rock might well be the same brownish Liassic oolite (but could possibly be of Middle Jurassic origin) (Figure 6.212). The original nave wall in this area had a small deeply monosplayed window which was reopened in 1868. The window has a slight chamfer on the exterior and the lintel is thought to have been created from part of an ornamented gravestone. Figure 6.213 shows the window taken by flashlight in the hope that the ornament might be clearly revealed, and Figure 6.214 displays the internal view of the same window showing a considerable level of repair. None of the external jamb stones display a BVFIA orientation, but this requirement for an AngloSaxon origin is not thought to be essential in such a narrow window (see section 1.5a and more especially Part A, section 2.3.3).

Figure 6.214 The same Terrington window viewed from the north of the original south nave wall to show its splay. There appear to have been some replacements to the visible stonework. 184

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

Figure 6.215 Weaverthorpe church is viewed here from the south. Although most features of the west tower appear Romanesque, the external stair turret is much later in character and influences the position of the south belfry windows. With no orientated stonework to examine at Terrington church, it proves impossible to determine the age of the walls of this church any more accurately than the pronunciation given by the Taylors, that the south nave wall is possibly late Saxon. 6.35 Weaverthorpe, St Andrew, SE 966 710 (East Riding) The church at Weaverthorpe consists only of the west tower, a nave with a south porch and a chancel (Figure 6.215). Within the porch and over the Norman south door a sundial is evident and this unusually is divided into 30 minute interval markings (Figure 6.216). The sundial is additionally supposed to bare an inscription ‘Herbertus Wintonie hoc monasterium fecit’. Bilson (1922) interpreted this to refer to Herbert, the Chamberlain to King Henry I, and in so doing dated the church to the second decade of the 12th C. Further details on the church have been recorded in both Taylor and Taylor (1965, 642) and Pevsner and Neave (1995, 738-739). Again, the English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID 329471) provides a web site account of the church. The bed rock for the church is Cretaceous Chalk and the interior of the church is lined throughout with cut squared blocks of what looks superficially like this material built to Norman style (Figure 6.217). Most of the exterior is to the same style but completed in a Jurassic, fine calcareous sandstone probably from the Corallian. Careful examination of the internal walls shows that these are of

Figure 6.216 Invisible in the lighting available, the engraving on the sundial, set centrally in the tympanum above the early Norman south doorway at Weaverthorpe church, is thought to provide a date for the erection of the church (see text). 185

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 6.217 The tower arch at Weaverthorpe is particularly tall but set into typical Norman walling. Above the arch a high level doorway can just be discerned.

Figure 6.218 The drum-shaped Norman font at Weaverthorpe church, set on a modern base, has interesting decoration.

the same Corallian rock but heavily coated in white plaster. This rock has had to be carried some distance, which made in this instance its exact origin more difficult to determine, as well as to indicate that the construction was unlikely to be Anglo-Saxon. Major rebuilding occurred to the church in the 1870-1872 period, and at this time the north wall was dismantled and rebuilt.

to the east of the porch, was also included in this Victorian rebuilding (Figure 6.220). Neither of the rock types which outcrop adjacent to the church proves suitable for building purposes. The rocks for the tower external walls are normally made of a cream coloured calcareous sandstone (occasionally with fossil debris) of Upper Jurassic, Corallian age. The rock used for the Victorian rebuilding, a yellowish sandstone with carbonaceous debris is probably from a similar horizon, but from further afield.

A number of features of the church tend to have been created in an Anglo-Saxon architectural style; the tall tower arch (see Figure 6.217), the belfry windows and the thin walls (about 0.71m. thick) being examples, causing the Taylors (1965) to propose that the church was built at a Post-Conquest time, ‘but with some surviving Anglo-Saxon traditions’. There is no evidence of Anglo-Saxon stonework orientations to be seen throughout the church. The Norman drum-shaped font (which stands on a modern base) has interesting patterned ornamentation (Figure 6.218).

Those describing the oldest part of the church, the tower, include; Anon. (1861, cxvi), Collingwood (1915, 260), Bilson (1923, 55-72), Brown (1925, 485), Green (1928, 504), Taylor and Taylor (1965, 647-653), Fernie (1983, 177; 1986, 404-405), Gem (1988, 21-30), Pevsner and Neave (1995,749), Cambridge (1998, 141-160) and Potter (2008c, 214-219). Authors discussing the Wharram-le-Street tower were principally in debate as to whether the tower was AngloSaxon, Norman or a mixture of the two. The discussions are lengthy, but the presence of Anglo-Saxon work was indicated by the present author in 2008c. The western quoins of the tower show Patterned stone orientation as high as can be seen clearly. The north-west tower quoin is set on a square plinth and rises; BVFL, BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, ?BVFL, BVFR, BH (Figure 6.221).

6.36 Wharram-le-Street, St Mary, SE 836 659 (East Riding) The village and church of Wharram-le-Street occur on the spring-line between the Cretaceous Chalk and the Jurassic Kimmeridge Clay beneath. The church consists of a west tower, which provides the most interesting part of the building, and a nave. A 14th C. a north aisle was added in two parts (see arcade). The west end of the aisle was rebuilt in the 19th C. There is also a 19th C. south porch and a chancel of 1862-1864 (Figure 6.219). The south nave wall,

The south-west tower quoin is similar, following again a square plinth; BVFR, BVFL, stone replaced for Bench 186

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

Figure 6.219 Wharram-le-Street church (SE 863 659) is here viewed from the south-west.

Figure 6.220 Evidence of Victorian (1862-1864) workmanship is seen in this south-east nave quoin stone with feathered edges at Wharram-le- Street church. Mark purposes, BVFL, BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, BH. Both quoins appear similar in form. Between both the quoins and the coursework of their adjoining walls there is element of joggling which suggests that the walls are earlier than some of the quoin stones (Figure 6.222). The blocked and modified west doorway to the tower, the present author found difficult to view in 2005, when the lighting was poor. Looking again in April 2014, the

Figure 6.221 The west face of the tower at Wharram-leStreet showing the western Pattered quoins. 187

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 6.222 The south face of Wharram-le-Street church tower. Note the pilasters which border the belfry windows. difficult to read stonework appears to show Anglo-Saxon characteristics (Figure 6.223). The square plinth of the west wall ceases to the north and south immediately prior to the doorway with the wall stones acting like quoins that have been cut back to allow space for the independent nookshafts. The course work of the walls has, therefore, not been disrupted. The orientation of the stones in these jambs rises alternately BVFL, BVFR, although not all of the six stones could be read. The nook-shafts are independent of the outer door frame and are each in two pieces apart from their bases and capitals, and in three of the four possible instances set BVFIA in Anglo-Saxon style (the fourth had a cover of later plaster). Above the imposts the Taylors (Figure 332, p. 649) described the doorway, but it remains, in this area, difficult to know how much their interpretation was influenced by the insertion of the recent window. The north impost to the doorway has been broken to reveal a fossil ammonite (Cardioceras sp.) in the stonework (Figure 6.224). High in the tower, the structures have been so much weathered and altered that it is difficult to read any detail from the stonework or its orientations (Figure 6.225). The south face belfry shown is particularly complex. The various windows below belfry level are again difficult to read. The window in the south wall, which provides light to the first floor, has a single lintel stone out of which the head has been cut, and jambs which, from shape alone, would suggest a BVFIA orientation (Figure 6.226). Its

Figure 6.223 The west doorway to the tower of St Mary, Wharram-le-Street. The Anglo-Saxon characteristics of this doorway are described in the text. 188

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

Figure 6.224 The north impost to the west doorway of Wharram-le-Street tower displays a fragment (arrowed) of a fossil ammonite (Cardioceras sp.).

Figure 6.226 The narrow window providing light for the first floor from the south side of the tower at Wharram-le-Street. Although it proved impossible to read the stone orientations the window appears to be original to the wall (see text).

Figure 6.225 Wharram-le-Street tower south belfry windows are displayed. In these the encompassing pilaster strip has had its arching portion partly removed by the later parapet.

Figure 6.227 The tower arch in Wharram-le Street church viewed from the south-east. The decorative shafts are placed BVFIA.

originality in the wall surrounding it is indicated by the lack of disturbance to the wall coursework.

If the western quoins of the nave are examined they too show Patterned orientations. The north-west nave quoin has the west wall of the north aisle abutting it, and the first five stones are replacements and appear to be tie stones; these are followed by BVFR, a part replacement stone for the stone above, and then BVFR, BVFR (with a fossil belemnite), with higher stones unreadable. The south-west nave quoin preserves rather more evidence and can be read as follows; no plinth visible, ?, ?, ?, BVFR, BVFL,

The tower arch exhibits its Anglo-Saxon construction only in its BVFIA nook-shafts; modern plaster covers most other aspects of its structure (Figure 6.227). In summary, although the detail of many parts of the tower cannot be seen or studied, where the evidence is present it always points to the tower being of late Anglo-Saxon creation. 189

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Stocker (1987, 84-146) and Potter (2005b, 207). The English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID 462792) web site also describes the church. Externally, the north-west tower quoin is difficult to access, but it rises BH (in Magnesian Limestone), BVFR, BVFL (Lewis hole north side), BVFR, ?, ?, ?BVFL, BH, BH, higher stones difficult to read. The north-east quoin has as its second stone a very large stone set BVFR with a Lewis hole, but no other low stones could be read. Viewed from the south-east over the nave roof the same quoin was, for a period, visible with the correct lighting. In the vicinity of the second string the quoin stones rose in Patterned style as follows; BH, BVFR, BH, BH, chamfered string, ?BVFL, BVFL, BVFR, etc., all in sandstone (see Figure 6.229). Generally the tower quoin stones tend to be laid in face-alternate fashion more frequently than sidealternate. Viewing the south, west and east tower faces in particular, the style of the stonework differs between the two stages of the tower. In the lower stage, the use of Permian Magnesian Limestone is relatively common, and it is frequently laid as bands between the sandstone. In the belfry stage sandstone predominates (see Figures 6.229, 6.230 and 231). Smaller pieces of the limestone appear in herringbone style high in the first stage and above the early nave roof line on the east wall. Low in the tower walls there are occasional broken fragments of re-used Roman tiles.

Figure 6.228 The south-west nave wall at Wharram-leStreet, when rebuilt in the mid-19th C., was erected inside the earlier nave wall so that the quoin stands slightly to the south of the nave wall. Some of the quoin stone bedding orientations can be read. BVFR, BVFL, BVFR, the remainder too difficult to be read satisfactorily (Figure 6.228). The south-east quoin to the nave has been described (see Figure 6.220) and the north-east, in contact with the north aisle, provides no information. 6.37 York, St Mary Bishophill Junior, SE 600 505 (City of York) St Mary Bishophill Junior is the only church today, present in the city of York, which is believed to still exhibit visual evidence of its Anglo-Saxon origin. The church consists of a west tower, a nave with aisles and a chancel with a north chapel, and of these the tower provides the greatest interest (Figure 6.229). Two rock types are used in the construction of the church, a buff-yellow sandstone from the Upper Carboniferous, Pennsylvanian, Coal Measures and Permian Magnesian Limestone. Pevsner and Neave (1995, 171) stated that a fabric survey of the tower, which was undertaken in 1980, indicated that this was largely of re-used Roman material. This would possibly account for the two materials being used in the same structures together. Others who have described the church include; Anon. (1842, 190-192), Hodges (1894,202-205), Brown (1925, 489), Taylor and Taylor (1965, 697-699), Briden and

Figure 6.229 The church of St Mary Bishophill Junior, in York, (SE 600 505) is viewed here from the south-east. 190

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

Figure 6.231 The west face of the tower and its belfry windows at Bishophill Junior church. The arching stones and elsewhere have clearly been replaced in ‘Victorian’ work, but the outlining pilasters are clearly original and BVFIA.

Figure 6.230 The tower at Bishophill Junior church seen from the south. Taylor and Taylor (1965, 697-698) confidently argued that the double belfry windows were of Anglo-Saxon construction, but this could not be confirmed by means of the stonework, which proved impossible to read. However, they also noted the that the windows possessed outlining pilasters (Figure 6.231), a feature of a small group of Anglo-Saxon churches which include Bywell, St Andrew (see Figure 2.23), Ovingham (see Figure 2.85) and Wharram-le-Street (see Figure 6.225). Some of the pilaster stones could be seen to be placed BVFIA. Inside the church, the tower arch (Figure 6.232) possesses many Anglo-Saxon features well described by others. The arch is recessed and the jambs are in some instances created in one large stone and in other instances from two stones, one for the outer and one for the inner of the two orders. The stones for the inner order are larger. For many of the stones in these jambs their bedding orientation can be determined, unfortunately they prove difficult to describe in writing and only a three-dimensional labelled diagram would probably suffice to give the necessary detail. In summary, of the stones which could be read, all were either BVFIA or BH (Figures 6.233 and 6.234). The jambs are mainly of sandstone and a few small stones may be

Figure 6.232 Bishophill Junior church tower arch viewed from the east. replacements. The arch was created to be of three layers in thickness, normally a feature seen in much smaller arches, as at the Heysham churches (see Monograph A, sections 7.2 and 7.3). The church was restored in 1860-1862 (Lambeth Palace Library ICBS 05601) and again in 1906. Restored walls are completed in dimension stone blocks of Permian Magnesian Limestone. It is probable that the arcades were 191

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 6.233 The lower stones in the south jamb of the tower arch of the church viewed from the north-east. The arch is recessed and the lowest large inner arch stone is orientated BVFIA. The outer arch involves two stones for the same portion of the jamb.

Figure 6.234 The higher stones in the north jamb of the tower arch of Bishophill Junior church viewed from the south-east. The stone below the top stone in the jamb is cut to cover both the inner and the outer arches. The same applies to the impost.

cut through the original nave walls. Certainly the walls are thin, the south wall only 0.62m. and the north 0.82m. It has been suggested that the tower may have once served as the nave of an Anglo-Saxon church much as has been shown was the case for Barton-upon-Humber church (see Monograph A, section 8.5) but the evidence is minimal for this suggestion.

6.38.2 Birkin, St Mary, SE 531 266 (West Riding) Birkin church was described by Pevsner and Radcliffe (1959, 104-105) as ‘a complete Norman village church’ and on the strength of this was selected as being possibly one that might preserve remnants of Anglo-Saxon origins. The church consists of a west tower, a nave with an added 14th C south aisle and a chancel with an apse (Figure 6.238). A description of the church appears on the English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID326057) web site.

6.38 Brief notes on some of the other sites visited 6.38.1 Beverley Minster, St John the Evangelist, TA 038 392 (East Riding)

The church, in Norman style, is constructed of well-squared and coursed blocks of Permian Magnesian Limestone and many structural features, such as the tower and the chancel arch, reflect their age of construction. The original Norman church possessed doors to north and south of the nave and in the chancel a priest’s door. With the building of the south aisle the Norman south door was moved to the aisle (Figure 6.239). The top of the tower, above the string course, was built later than the lower and in Perpendicular style.

The earliest records of Beverley extend back to its founding by St John of Beverley who was buried in the church after his death in 721 (Figure 6.235). The structure was seriously damaged by fire in 1188, but the central tower, subsequently erected, collapsed about 1213. Reconstruction commenced at the east end of the church about 1220, continued in Decorated style for the area of the crossing and central tower, and was completed 1380 to 1420 for the nave, in Perpendicular style (Figure 6.236).

Various parts of the stonework of the church have received repairs over time, but none revealed any work that predated those of Norman construction. The north-east nave quoin unusually includes two quoin stones, possibly related to repair orientated BVFL and BVFR (stones 4 and 5), in a quoin where all others were clearly BH.

Fragmentary pieces of Norman masonry were viewed, but there is no evidence in the church of anything of AngloSaxon origin with the exception of a stone Abbot’s chair (Frith Chair) similar to that at Hexham (Figure 6.237). 192

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

Figure 6.235 Beverley minster (TA 038 392) viewed from the south-west.

Figure 6.237 Behind the high altar at Beverley, the reredos, known as the Percy canopy, and to the left of the high altar, the early abbot’s chair. 6.38.3 Bramham (cum Oglethorpe), All Saints, SE 427 430 (West Riding) The described features of Bramham church called for it to be investigated. As a large church situated in an oval churchyard with a claimed origin in 915, that was listed in the Domesday records and described by Leach and Pevsner (2009, 205) with the words ‘Anglo-Saxon fabric is largely hidden in the nave walls’, some evidence of this origin was

Figure 6.236 The length of Beverley minster seen from the west end of the nave. 193

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 6.238 St Mary, Birkin (SE 531 266), here viewed from the south. nave to the surrounding portions of the church fails to leave any of the external nave walls exposed. Extensive church restorations occurred in 1853 and to the tower belfry in 1874. Figure 6.241 provides an illustration of the lower part of the north-west tower quoin where, above a chamfered plinth, the quoin stones rise; ?BVFL, BH, BH, BH, BVFL. There is also one vertically orientated quoin stone within the first few stones of the south-west nave quoin. They provide insufficient evidence to suggest that these are either intentionally inserted in this manner or re-used stones. There is the trace of an old door in the north aisle wall, and it is just possible that this represents an early nave doorway that was moved at the time of erection of the 12th C. north aisle, for in each jamb one stone reads BVFIA. No other readable stones could be observed in this doorway.

Figure 6.239 The rebuilt south Norman door at Birkin church now set into the 14th C. south aisle and within a 19th C. porch.

6.38.4 Easby, St Agnes, NL 185 003 (North Riding) expected. Quite the same claim for an early origin fails to appear in the English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID 342215) web site record.

St Agnes church is situated within Easby Abbey precincts, and generally interpreted as of being about the same date. It is known that land was granted for the building of a Premonstratensian Order abbey in 1152. The abbey is now a ruin having been dissolved in 1536 (Figure 6.242). There are suggestions that a community of priests may have been present on the site as early as Anglo-Saxon times, however, subsequent to the site visit no evidence of church building from that period could be observed.

The church is built of Permian Magnesian Limestone but also includes some Upper Carboniferous, Pennsylvanian, sandstones. Currently it consists of a nave with aisles, the north of 12th C. and the south 13th C., a 13th C. chancel, a 12th C. tower; as well as a south porch and eastern annexes of more recent age (Figure 6.240). The relationship of the 194

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

Figure 6.240 All Saints church, Bramham (SE 427 430) is here viewed from the south. The nave is enclosed by later buildings. Those who have described the site include Victoria County History (1914, 51-64) and Pevsner (1966, 146-147), whilst the English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID 322107) provides a useful web site account. Still functional, the church is constructed of Carboniferous, Pennsylvanian, Coal Measures Sandstones throughout, these being often yellow and grey in colour but in places possibly burnt red by fire. The earliest portion of the church surviving would appear to be the (probable) original south chancel wall at its west end; for this chancel wall still remains inset to the nave south wall unlike that on the north. In the 12th C. the church initially consisted of a nave and chancel. These were extended to west and east respectively, the nave probably first, but followed after with the chancel, which as can be seen was also widened to the north. Late in the 13th C. a chapel was built to the south, to be lengthened subsequently to the west to create an aisle. A 14th C. north transept now fulfils the role of organ chamber. The chancel arch is Victorian. Possible points where early stonework might be visible, such as the south-east nave quoin, failed to reveal evidence of an early origin. Some round headed modified Norman windows occur in the chancel walls (Figure 6.243) and the church font is also Norman (Figure 6.244). The church is also renowned for the quality of its wall paintings (Figure 6.245). During rebuilding in 1932 fragments of a 7th C.

Figure 6.241 The north-west tower to Bramham church may contain two BVFL stones in its Permian Magnesian Limestone quoin: the lowest stone, however, remains uncertain as to its orientation. 195

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 6.242 To show the setting of Easby Abbey and church (NZ 185 003) as viewed from the north-east.

Figure 6.243 The central window in the 12th C. portion of the south wall of the Easby chancel, most of which has been repaired.

Figure 6.244 The font at Easby church is claimed to date to about the year 1100.

196

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

cross were found (Figure 6.246), a replica of which can now be seen in the chancel. 6.38.5 Guiseley, St Oswald, King and Martyr, SE 194 421, (West Riding) Guiseley church is constructed of Upper Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian) sandstones obtained from the proximity of the church; these are currently much blackened with soot and grime (Figure 6.247). Recent descriptions of

Figure 6.245 This painting (of Adam and Eve) at Easby church to the north side of the altar possibly dates to about 1300, other earlier dates have also been suggested.

Figure 6.246 The 7th C. repaired and replica cross, discovered in fragments when Easby church was being repaired in 1932.

Figure 6.247 Guiseley church (SE 194 421) is here viewed from the south-east. The church has suffered in appearance from 19th-20th C. industrialisation. 197

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

the church have been provided by Rawnsley and Dobson (1964) and Leach and Pevsner (2009, 292-293), with a brief web site account appearing under the English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID342299).

Victorian and further work to the nave and chancel was undertaken early in the 20th C. (Figure 2.248). As with so many Yorkshire churches, Anglo-Saxon remains of cross shafts are preserved on the site. Leach and Pevsner (2009, 292) suggest that the south arcade wall may be earlier than 1150 in age. At the east end of the Norman arcade, which penetrates the nave wall, larger stones at the base of the corner might indicate this earlier record, but stone orientations proved currently unreadable.

The church is normally described as being first built about 1150, when only a nave and chancel was created. Subsequent extensions and rebuilding occurred with the provision of a Norman south aisle and south door, a south transept of 13th C. and Perpendicular west tower and north arcade. The north side of the church was rebuilt to provide a new nave in 1841 (Lambeth Palace Library ICBS 07472) – a date listed by Pevsner as 1866, which included the provision of a west gallery. The chancel arch is also

6.38.6 Laxton, St John the Evangelist, SE 793 425 (East Riding) The locality of Laxton was referred to in the 1086 Domesday records; although no reference was made to a church, a priest was recorded. At that time the area of Laxton formed part of the Bishop of Durham’s lands. In 1330 there is record of Laxton having its own priest, but only with an endowment in 1409 is a place of worship recorded, as a chapel. A new church was built on the opposite side of the road (to the north side) in1625 and consecrated to St Peter. This new church was rebuilt in 1875-1876. Without the provision of this knowledge the site was visited to examine what remained of the early chapel shown on some maps as a ruin. Mention of the early chapel site has been made by Pevsner and Neave (1995, 594) and Butler (2012) and a brief account also occurs on the English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID 165015). Situated in the original graveyard only the chancel of the chapel still remains and the building is maintained (Figure 6.249). When the new church was

Figure 6.248 ‘Victorian’ replaced stonework in the south aisle wall of Guiseley Church.

Figure 6.249 Laxton chapel (SE 793 425), of which today only the chancel survives. Here the east window of the chancel is visible. 198

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

rebuilt in 1875-1876 a plan of the old chapel was included in the documents provided to the Lambeth Palace Library (ICBS 07876). This showed that the old chapel building had a west tower as well as a nave (presumably at that time in ruins). The walls are constructed of a rubble of cream, in parts oolitic Middle Jurassic limestone. The original priest’s door has been blocked and the east window, which Pevsner and Neave describe as 14th C. has been much repaired. Outside the west wall of the building (Figure 6.250) there rests what appears to be an early (possibly Anglo-Saxon) font. It is much covered in lichen and moss but was once probably regarded as portable (Figure 6.251).

added in 1691 and the internal staircase in its south-west corner possibly slightly later (Figure 6.252). The site is roofless outside of the tower and the walls and ground floor plan are both unusual and difficult to extrapolate. A roughly square area, all on one level, represents both the nave and full length north and south aisles (Figure 6.253). The outline of the roof as shown on the tower east wall, shows a roof falling to both north and south, broken at a positon that would normally be in the position of the arcades (i.e. just outside the tower north and south walls). The floor plan, however, shows the very short stubs of the arcade pillars well outside (north and south) of the normal position so that the nave area is unusually wide, and the aisle areas relatively narrow. The base of the three pillars matches to north and south in shape being square, round (?Norman) and square.

6.38.7 Pateley Bridge, St Mary the Virgin, SE 164 656 (West Riding) Pateley Bridge ruined church is constructed with Upper Carboniferous, Pennsylvanian, sandstones, most identified rocks being of Millstone Grit. In places the stonework in the walls is well-squared. The church remains have been described by Pevsner and Radcliffe (1959, 624) and a brief account of the ruin is provided on the English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID 331321). The church was closed 1826-1827 when a new church was built in the town. The churchyard is still maintained.

The chapel/church site is steeply inclined and it is clear that it suffered from soil creep from the north-east (see Figure 6.252). Instead of the customary chancel a raised platform (requiring three steps to ascend) completes the east end of the church and extends to the north into a short alcove. This raised portion to the church would appear to have been added to the east end of the church in Georgian or Victorian times from the stonework, perhaps replacing a small central chancel. The influence of the soil drift is still present for outside the east window the soil rises to just below the window sill. Projecting from the front of the stage area is what is presumed to be a pulpit in stone.

The earliest record of the site is of the presence of a chapel in 1320. The three stage tower was probably

The central area has three doors to the exterior; the south door possibly 13th-14th C. with a seated porch, falls away from the south aisle so that a step down to the outside occurs within the aisle (Figure 6.254). This door has bar lock holes to west and east. The north doorway is of the same appearance (but not opposite) again with bar lock holes, that to the east is deep (Figure 6.255). Finally the priest’s doorway has been modified to now have a square head, but is again with bar lock holes.

Figure 6.250 A new wall and doorway fill the west wall of what remains of the early Laxton chapel.

Figure 6.251 Outside the Laxton chapel west wall rests what appears to be an early font. Its detail suggests that it may be both old and doubtfully portable. 199

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 6.252 A view of Pateley Bridge church (SE 164 656) as seen from the south-west. Note the soil creep impact on the porch (now re-roofed), the seat benching is now at different heights. At roof level there are two roof contacts with the tower.

Figure 6.253 A view from the north-west of Pateley Bridge interior nave/aisle/stage area. 200

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

Figure 6.256 The recently conserved site of the ruined Sand Hutton church (SE 697 598) as viewed from the south-west.

Figure 6.254 The interior of the south doorway at Pateley Bridge The base of the arcade north-west pillar lies on the floor.

Figure 6.257 A further view of the ruined Sand Hutton church. In the immediate right foreground is the base of the early cross. 6.38.8 Sand Hutton, St Leonard, SE 697 598 (North Riding) The ruined church of St Leonard, Sand Hutton, remains in the churchyard of St Mary, the church that was built to replace it in 1840-1842 (Figures 6.256 and 6.257). The ruins and their history have been described by authors such as Victoria County History (1923, 91-98) and Pevsner (1966, 317). A brief description is also offered in the English Heritage List of Listed Buildings (ID 329485) web site. The early walls on the ruined site are created with cobbles of fine grained sandstone and quartzite (Figures 6.258 and 6.259), they are widely spaced within the wall mortar and the remnant walls constructed of them are thin, ranging from 0.80 to 0.87m. These features suggest an AngloSaxon origin. The earliest reference to a chapel at Sand Hutton is 1351, but the south doorway (Figures 6.260 and 6.261) is of obvious Norman build (and includes BH and a few BVEIA stones in its structure). The cobbles were presumably collected from rivers, but those near to Sand

Figure 6.255 The north wall doorway at Pateley Bridge church. Note the bar lock hole on the east jamb. 201

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 6.258 The Perpendicular period window at Sand Hutton church.

Figure 6.260 The exterior of the south doorway of Sand Hutton church clearly exhibits its Norman characteristics.

Figure 6.259 Walls created from boulders are evident in the south-east corner of the chancel of Sand Hutton church. Hutton (like the River Derwent) drain south from the escarpment of the Howardian Hills where quartzites are absent from the Jurassic succession. It is likely that the cobbles were first transported by ice from the Pennines from the harder Upper Carboniferous rocks to the northwest and were initially deposited as a boulder clay (till). The south-east walling preserves both a priest’s door and in its vicinity three different sun- dials. The font, created in Upper Carboniferous sandstone is preserved on the site and the Norman doorway is largely created in Permian Magnesian Limestone. Other walls relate to Victorian repairs both in brick and stone. The whole site received a programme of conservation in 2014. 6.38.9 Whorlton-in-Cleveland, Holy Cross, SE 484 025 (North Riding) Both Whorlton castle and the church are now in ruins. They appear to date from the 12th C., with the church being abandoned in 1875 for a new parish church at Swainby. References to the church have been made in the Victoria County History (1923, 309-319), Pevsner (1966, 400-401)

Figure 6.261 The same doorway viewed from the interior of Sand Hutton church. Through the doorway the end of the new church is visible. 202

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

Figure 6.262 Holy Cross church, Whorlton-in-Cleveland (SE 484 025) here displays the west end of its blocked Norman chancel arch. To the south of the arch the low walling, over a small area, is constructed of boulders, a possible intimation of an earlier age. and Vyner (1999). Prior to the Reformation the church was recorded as the Church of the Holy Rood. An 11th C. grave slab has been recorded from the site.

Areas in which visible pre-Romanesque walls or structures might occur are restricted to the nave. At the eastern responds to the two arcades the nave walls are thin (only 0.74m). The trace of an original nave quoin may be preserved beneath a buttress (erected as recently as 1891) at the north-east nave corner. What might once have been a quoin is now, however, largely an area coated in cement and plaster (Figure 6.264). And within the church the chancel arch wall from the west, particularly low and to the south side is partially constructed with boulders See Figure 6.262). None of these features is within themselves sufficient evidence of pre-Norman a character. An early blocked doorway to the north chapel from the chancel could not be dated (Figure 6.265).

The church ruins are built largely of coarse yellowish sandstone probably from the local Middle Jurassic sequence, but some fragmentary blocks of Triassic sandstone are also present. Represented by the nave and chancel, little else of the early church structure stands. The chancel arch between them still retains sufficient detail to be identified as Norman, but in recent centuries it has been blocked and provided with a door to make the chancel self-contained (Figure 6.262). Over the arch a high level doorway has been constructed to provide communication at this level (possibly in the 14th C.). Aisles were once present to the north and south of the nave, now indicated by their arcades, both of about 12th C. date, the north the earlier. By the 14th C. the south aisle had been removed to be replaced partially by the south tower. The nave was extended to the west probably replacing an original west tower about this time (possibly the north aisle was also then removed).

6.38.10 York, St Cuthbert, SE 627 520 (City of York) St Cuthbert is referred to in the Domesday records, and it stands to the north-east of the early walled city, just inside the walls and close to the Foss and the streets of Jewbury and Peasholme Green. References to the church have been made by Taylor and Taylor (1965, 697), RCHME (1981, 12-15) and Pevsner and Neave (1995, 165) as well as others.

At the east end of the church the chancel was lengthened in the 13th C. and a chapel constructed to the north side (Figure 6.263). The chapel is said to have been pulled down in 1877. Today, only the tower and the chancel retain their rooves. There is a significant amount of Victorian modification to the whole church structure.

The church consists of a nave and chancel, which are now structurally undivided (Figure 6.266), a west tower, a south porch, and at the north-west end of the church, a largely 203

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Figure 6.263 The area once occupied by the north chapel to the chancel of Whorlton church. The chapel is thought to have been removed after the church failed to provide services. Further detail can be seen in the following two figures.

Figure 6.264 Covered on the north by a Victorian buttress (and cement elsewhere) the north-east nave quoin at Whorlton church proved impossible to decipher.

brick built vestry. In 1430 the church was extensively rebuilt, and at that time it seems the nave, chancel and possible lateral buildings were all enclosed within the one outer structure visible today. This building is constructed of Permian Magnesian Limestone transported from the west. Viewed from the east, the church exterior reveals the outline of the earlier chancel, its central line being off-set to the south of the chancel and building of today. This is revealed particularly by the trace of the earlier roof line as related to the present roof. The trace of both the early chancel roof line and the early chancel north-east quoin are perceptible, but the quoin stones prove difficult to examine (Figure 6.267). These may be in part replaced, although two stones appear to have their bedding orientated vertically. The quoin stones could not be examined closely, they seem to be of Millstone Grit and RCHME (1981) indicated that they are probably of re-used Roman origin. The southern buttress on the east wall appears to cover and post-date the position of the early chancel south-east quoin. The east wall to the south of this buttress contains a number of blocks of Millstone Grit. Modifications to the church are known to have occurred in 1843, 1864, 1889, 1911-1912, and internally more recently. More extensive accounts of the church appear elsewhere. The interpretation of the structural features on

Figure 6.265 The outline of the infilled doorway to the north chapel in the north wall of Whorlton church. 204

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

Figure 6.266 St Cuthbert church, York (SE 627 520), viewed from the south-east to display the south wall which embraces both nave and chancel. Most of the features visible such as windows and buttresses have been created during ‘Victorian’ renovations.

Figure 6.267 Without scaling the wrought iron fencing it proved impossible to examine the east face of St Cuthbert, York. Trees and other vegetation obscured the detail of stonework orientations and compositions, as well as the original outlines of the earlier smaller chancel wall that once preceded the chancel built to replace (and incorporate) it in 1430. 205

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

the east chancel wall proves critical if the characteristics of the pre-1430 are to be determined.

1069. The first Norman creation (by Archbishop Thomas of Bayeux, 1070-1100) was built on the present site and parts of its foundations were first discovered (after a fire), by Browne in 1929 (Browne, 1847). Although part of the remains of a Roman barracks (the basilica) have been discovered, nothing of ecclesiastical subsequent preRomanesque date within the fixed foundations can as of yet be confirmed, and nothing of Romanesque date appears to occur above ground level.

6.38.11 York, Cathedral Church of St Peter, SE 603 521 (City of York) It is probably fitting to conclude the description of early Yorkshire churches with a brief detail of its cathedral. Certainly photographically the Gothic western aspect of York cathedral (Figure 6.268) is truly magnificent. The history of the building and the details concerning its development are moderately well known. Taylor and Taylor (1965, 700-709), amongst very many others, provide their customary succinct account of the known information at their time of publication. The first stone church was completed by Oswald, king of Northumbria about 641. This church was successively improved but burnt down in

The problems of required formal permission and assistance, accessibility and time required to complete a detailed study were such that only a brief review of the undercroft and foundation areas of the cathedral was undertaken by the present author. Nothing within the underground wall structure of the building was seen to suggest that measurable Anglo-Saxon remains were present.

Figure 6.268 The magnificent west face of York cathedral church of St Peter (SE 603 521). The buildings above ground display work of only Gothic styles, ranging over the periods of about 1230 to 1472. 206

THE EARLY CHURCHES OF YORKSHIRE

Figure 6.269 The view east from about mid-way down the nave of the cathedral church, towards the distant chancel. The 15th C. screen, depicting 15 early kings of England is noticeably slightly off-set to the south.

Figure 6.270 The transepts of the cathedral retain the earliest work visible above ground and this north transept window shown here dates from about 1260.

The glory of the cathedral may largely be observed in those features built in the period 1220 to 1470. These may conveniently be divided by period; the Early English transepts (see Figure 6.270); the nave and chapter house (of Decorated style of between 1280 and 1350); and the Perpendicular, quire and chancel. Figure 6.269 shows the nave and the view towards the east and Figure 6.270 the earliest complete window (c. 1260) which is present in the north transept. 6.38.12 Other Yorkshire church sites In excess of 30 further Yorkshire church sites were examined during this study, many were in ruins. None of these provided direct evidence of an Anglo-Saxon origin. In the city of York, for example, the church of Holy Trinity at Goodramgate (SE 605 522), now under the protection of the Churches Conservation Trust, reveals nothing to confirm or suggest such an early age. The tower of St Lawrence (SE 612 513), from which the church was dismantled in1881, possesses some Norman, but nothing that might indicate earlier work. Some sites visited, such as that of Whitby abbey (NZ 903 112), now only preserve buildings of Post-Conquest date. In this instance, the remains of the earlier 7th C. abbey were observed only when revealed by past excavations. They are no longer exposed.

207

CHAPTER SEVEN ANALYSES AND DISCUSSION RELATED TO THIS VOLUME (PART B)

7.1 A record of the Anglo-Saxon readable stonework evident over the five North of England counties in this volume

of examination, the third group to be studied consisted of ruined church remains on sites discovered following the scrutiny of maps. A small number of churches were viewed following recommendations. Of this total selection some 40 to 50 proved to be not worthy of description, they are mentioned only occasionally in this analysis and do not appear in Table 7.1.

This work analyses the details of the visible early stonework examined over the north of England. 79 churches were listed (of 81examined and discussed) in Part A, Table 10.1. A further 93 church sites examined and discussed in this volume (Part B) are reviewed briefly in Table 7.1.

Table 7.1 requires some explanation which is given below:1. The terms Patterned and Anglo-Saxon are used as equivalent alternatives for the same style of work or period of time. 2. The information offered in abbreviated form should not be cited without reference to the text from which it originated in this volume. 3. The Table makes no attempt to quote information relating to other periods of stonework orientation. That is, Roman, Norman, medieval, ‘Victorian’ and modern works displaying bedding orientations are omitted from the Table. 4. Detailed findings involving only a few stones are not generally included.

Much the same preamble is required for the details in this volume as for those given in Part A. Again, the churches are arranged in alphabetical order by the (pre1974) counties, their selection having been made on the recognition or belief that they should, or might, contain Anglo-Saxon work in their fabric. The majority had already been considered by other authors and thought to be of pre-Romanesque build. Certain other churches were selected for examination following the reading of their descriptions made by other authors: a church was selected when, from the description, there seemed a possibility that part of the fabric might be sufficiently old. To be worthy

Table 7.1 A summary of the essential information discovered in Part B following an examination of the critical stonework and stonework bedding orientations Church Locality Alnham Bolam Bywell, St Andrew Bywell, St Peter Chillingham Corbridge Ebbs Nook Edlingham Hartburn Heddon-on-the-Wall Hexham Ingram

Details East nave quoins, heavy lichen cover but probably Anglo-Saxon Lower tower west quoins Patterned. South-west lower nave quoin also. Possible voussoirs of earlier chancel arch Tower west quoins and nave west quoins are Anglo-Saxon. Tower windows first floor west wall; ground floor, high opening south wall. Some belfry windows Anglo-Saxon Blocked (porticus?) doorway in north chancel wall, north-east nave quoin, east jamb of further blocked (porticus?) doorway south chancel wall No Anglo-Saxon work visible North-west and south west quoins to early porch, and the lower portions of the porch doorway of Patterned style. (Tower arch modified) No dateable stonework visible West nave doorway, parts of the south-west nave quoin, Anglo-Saxon Eastern quoins of the nave show Patterned Anglo-Saxon form South-east nave quoin Anglo-Saxon Early crypt mainly constructed of Roman stone. No orientated Anglo-Saxon stonework visible elsewhere Fragmentary doubtful evidence only 208

ANALYSES AND DISCUSSION RELATED TO THIS VOLUME (PART B)

Lindisfarne Longhoughton Old Bewick Ovingham Stamfordham Warden Whittingham

Woodhorn Newburn Northumberland Carlton-in-Lindrick East Bridgford Southwell Cathedral South Wheatley Ilam Lichfield Cathedral Stafford Tamworth Appleby, St Michael Crosby Garrett Long Marton Morland

Ormside

Appleby, St Lawrence Aldbrough Appleton-le-Street Bardsey

Bedale Bulmer Burghwallis

North-east quoin to nave and south-west nave quoin (recently built over), Anglo-Saxon. Above chancel arch earlier arch and high level doorway Fragmentary doubtful evidence only Nave, north-west, south-west and south-east quoins are Patterned over lower portions Western tower quoins, tower belfry and certain other windows show Patterned style. South-west nave quoin also Anglo-Saxon South-west nave quoin Anglo-Saxon Lower portions of south-west and north-west nave quoins Anglo-Saxon. Also tower arch south jamb but whole is modified Tower south-west, north-west lower portions of quoins Patterned, but rebuilt above. Tower arch north and south jambs but modified elsewhere. Nave quoins (north-east not seen) also Anglo-Saxon South-west nave quoin remnants only of Anglo-Saxon age Possible orientated stonework unable to read Ten further churches have been described (see Section 2.22) but fail to display evidence of Anglo-Saxon stonework North-west and south-west nave quoins both partially to Patterned style and older than the tower. South jamb of west nave door (now the tower arch) reveals Anglo-Saxon origin Nothing to confirm observations made regarding the foundations stated a century ago and no longer visible No evidence from stonework orientations or structures confirming Anglo-Saxon creations Ruin created 1883, with no stonework evidence earlier than Norman South nave doorway has Anglo-Saxon stone orientations in its jambs There are no known Anglo-Saxon parts or features visible Only the outline of the earlier St Bertelin church is evident providing no suggestion of Anglo-Saxon origin No evidence of Anglo-Saxon stone bedding orientations. The tower crossing relationships with its four arms suggests an early age North nave doorway reveals some indications from its stonework of Anglo-Saxon origin. North-west nave quoin provides doubtful detail Evidence of narrower earlier chancel arch prior to current arch, but of uncertain age All four nave quoins show traces of Patterned character, better preserved in the eastern quoins Lowest part of tower, as west quoins, part Patterned; low wall faces to tower also banded. Much of high tower difficult to assess. From east face and doorway to tower evidence suggests that the tower was originally an independent structure South nave wall of cobbles cut by Norman south door confirmed by Norman stone orientations. Stonework and stone orientations prove north-west nave corner and quoin Anglo-Saxon Possible historical evidence only North-east chancel quoin (upper-part) Anglo-Saxon. Inscription dated Tower west quoins at lower levels Patterned. ‘Open to space’ south nave tower doorway. Nave pre-dates tower, with west nave quoins Patterned West tower quoins (low) are side-alternate and Patterned, originally as a porch (with roof and certainly a north porticus from early north doorway) to nave. No evidence of tower (above) being other than of Norman origin but belfry not examined. Partially obscured west nave quoins Anglo- Saxon Lower portions of much obscured eastern nave quoins suggest Anglo- Saxon The poorly displayed north-west nave quoin probably Anglo-Saxon. Nave built to AngloSaxon style of lay-out Both nave and chancel quoins of Anglo-Saxon stone orientation, although chancel quoins part replaced

209

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Collingham Ellerburn Gilling West Hackness Hauxwell Hornby Hovingham Kippax

Kirby Hill Kirby Underdale Kirkdale

Kirk Hammerton

Lastingham Laughton-en-le-Morthen

Ledsham

Masham Middleton-by-Pickering

Monk Fryston Newton Kyme Old Byland

Otley Ripon Ryther

Scrayingham

South-west and south-east nave quoins show Patterned orientations The eastern chancel quoins partially in Patterned style. Ornamented chancel arch jambs and imposts but orientations unreadable West tower quoins (to as high as the string course) clearly Patterned. South-east nave quoin (where preserved) Anglo-Saxon Chancel arch from analysis only partially Anglo-Saxon. South-west nave quoin, where visible, Anglo-Saxon No reliable Anglo-Saxon stonework seen The cobbles in the fabric of the lower tower walls suggest early origins Western tower quoins show Anglo-Saxon orientations over readable lower portions The lower parts of the eastern nave quoins, as well as those in the north- west nave and the south-east chancel, clearly reveal a Patterned character. Many of the stones used in the quoins are of irregular shape Three nave quoins (not the north-east) and the lower portion of the two chancel quoins each show Anglo-Saxon characteristics The western tower quoins over their lower portion are of Anglo-Saxon structure. Thin herringbone walling of the nave cut by Norman arcades An early sundial inscription advises that the church was rebuilt about 1060. The western nave quoins (described by others as Anglo-Saxon) have been extensively altered. The tower arch (the original south nave doorway), although repaired in Norman (and modern) times, preserves stonework of Anglo-Saxon character The western tower quoins show Patterned character, but high up are difficult to read. Most tower features have been extensively modified in Romanesque times. The lower portion of all four nave quoins is also Patterned. Part way up the tower the relationships change and the nave becomes the younger. The chancel south-east quoin (low) is Patterned The church has a long history, but visible stonework appears to extend only back to the Early Norman period Anglo-Saxon features are confined only to the early remnants of the area of the original church porticus. The north-east quoin is of Patterned style. The Anglo-Saxon doorway exhibits excellent distinctive features; strip- work, ornamental cut backs, etc. Internally much recently lost to rebuilding South-west nave quoin Patterned to stone 9, north-west altered. South door tower has all stones to Anglo-Saxon orientation. Western nave quoins, part replaced but Patterned. South porticus (later than nave), its southern quoins Patterned but ‘Victorian’ modifications West tower quoins Norman and later orientations but west nave quoins Anglo-Saxon as is south-east nave quoin West tower quoins to two-thirds height, Patterned. Eastern tower quoins above nave roof also Patterned. Tower west doorway, jambs and pilaster work Anglo-Saxon, as is south face second stage window. Two nave quoins either side of tower (outer set younger carry arcades) in variable quality Patterned work. Settlement indicates longish period between first nave erection and that of the tower Lower level belfry windows too high to confirm Anglo-Saxon character – certainly some replacement No clear visible stonework evidence to support an early building date Remnant ‘Tredington arch’ over south chancel doorway could point to the lower south nave/chancel walls being Anglo-Saxon. All six major quoins although ‘side-alternate’ are not set other than BH (so not Anglo-Saxon) North-west nave quoin, where exposed, Patterned Early historic record and crypt but no stonework or orientation studies possible Original north-west nave quoin Patterned, north-east similar but much altered. Jambs to chancel arch indicate Anglo-Saxon. East chancel quoins rebuilt (?’Victorian’), earlier Anglo-Saxon using Roman material, as is south chancel doorway North-west (up to stone 7) and north-east (similar) nave quoins Anglo-Saxon 210

ANALYSES AND DISCUSSION RELATED TO THIS VOLUME (PART B)

Skipwith Stonegrave Terrington Weaverthorpe Wharram-le-Street

York, Bishophill Beverley Birkin Bramham Easby Guisley Laxton Pateley Bridge Sand Hutton Whorlton-in-Cleveland York, St Cuthbert York, Cathedral

Lowest level of west tower quoins Patterned. Some banding of tower walls. Tower arch stonework significantly rebuilt. No firm evidence that tower was built on an earlier porch No orientated stonework evidence No orientated stonework evidence No Anglo-Saxon stonework orientations West tower quoins Patterned to as high as can clearly be seen from the ground. West doorway in Anglo-Saxon style, tower arch evidence limited. Pilasters on belfry windows. West quoins of nave also Patterned where readable Tower north-west and north-east quoins Patterned in part. Belfry windows too high to detail but with outlining pilasters. Unusual tower arch Anglo-Saxon Early known history but no fixed Anglo-Saxon stonework No evidence of Anglo-Saxon stonework No orientated stonework evidence No evidence of Anglo-Saxon orientated stonework No readable orientated Anglo-Saxon stonework No evidence of Anglo-Saxon orientated stonework. Possible early font No evidence of Anglo-Saxon stonework. An unusual ruin Early walls of cobbles, but no orientated Anglo-Saxon stonework Small wall areas of cobbles, no orientated Anglo-Saxon stonework East end of church reveals trace of early chancel north-east quoin, but quoin stones currently unreadable Foundations reveal nothing of orientated Anglo-Saxon stonework

7.2 Interpretation

and the particulars of features such as stonework bedding orientation.

This Table, and the information from which it is derived, should make readers aware, how much or how little, of the fabric of any individual church remains from the date of its original construction. It further emphasises the extent of the fabric where stone bedding orientations have yet to be interpreted. Quoins, walls and structures frequently prove unreadable. They may be covered by later structures, plasters, cements, etc., or affected by the results of centuries of various forms of deterioration. Alternatively, they may be too high to be clearly seen. It is perhaps more appropriate to consider the exceptional number of quoins and structures which still remain visible. These continue to be set to the specific orientations used by the Anglo-Saxon masons, after at least, for most, about a thousand years has passed since their date of construction.

With the details and statistics of all 174 churches examined now available, the elements and achievements of the studies covering the eleven counties, can now be fully analysed. This analysis follows in the next Chapter.

It should be restated that the detail of a very large amount of stonework in ecclesiastical buildings proves impossible to examine. When the stone is high up in a building this is understandable, but so much stonework, either internally or externally, is hidden by plaster, lime-wash, dirt, lichen or other growths. In very many instances this tends to obscure the individual’s ability to obtain an appreciation of the texture and bedding detail of the rocks used. Often, it is impossible even to identify the rocks involved. Future instances of churches being cleaned or repaired at height, especially when by means of scaffolding, should always be attended by those who can both identify the rock types used, and have the ability to record the manner of their use

211

CHAPTER EIGHT EARLY CHURCHES OF NORTHERN ENGLAND: ANALYSES AND DISCUSSION

8.1 Basics

not previously been described, These are listed in Table 8.1.

There will be some, and in particular those who approach an early church structure, who from experience will immediately pronounce ‘Oh that is Norman’ or ‘AngloSaxon’ or whatever. An authoritative pronouncement is rarely questioned. They might well argue that the type of detailed analysis given in these volumes is too laborious, too protracted and time-consuming. The analysis requires detailed information which, for a number of reasons, may not be readably available and unable to provide a definitive answer. Tables 10.1 (Monograph A) and 7.1 (Chapter 7) give the much-shortened information discovered for each of the 174 churches reviewed in the overall study. In this Chapter these details will be combined and certain issues reconsidered to establish appropriate important conclusions and generalities.

Remarkably, as many as ten churches can now be credited to the list of known Anglo-Saxon churches in the North of England. In all but two of these cases other authors have inferred that earlier work than that described might possibly be present. This to some extent was to be expected for the churches examined were pre-selected by others, as from the Buildings of England Series (Pevsner) or specific works (such as Taylor and Taylor, 1965). It is possible other churches should be added to this list. For instance, in Yorkshire an example as to whether a particular church should or should not be selected is provided by Kippax church. The Taylors advised there was insufficient evidence for this church to be given an Anglo-Saxon appendage. Since that time, others (for a variety of reasons) have indicated that this church might well have an AngloSaxon origin (a view supported by its limited Patterned stonework). Similar alternative arguments exist concerning Old Byland church.

8.2 So what is new? Those critical of the method will be the first to ask ‘So what in real terms have you discovered?’ Fortunately, it is now possible to confirm the presence of a number of Anglo-Saxon churches in the North of England that have

Most ecclesiastical sites that might have been chosen to be removed from this study were self-selecting; they were

Table 8.1 Newly described churches in the North of England which appear to retain evidence of an Anglo-Saxon origin Locality Aston-on-Trent (Derbyshire) Croxdale Chapel (Durham) Haughton-le-Skerne (Durham) Heighington (Durham)

Grid Reference SK 414 294

Where Particularly Evident Nave northern quoins

Notes See Taylor and Taylor (1965, 714-715)

NZ 274 399

East jamb, north door

Evidence rather limited

NZ 307 158

South-east nave quoin

NZ 249 224

Edlingham (Northumberland) Old Bewick (Northumberland) Stamfordham (Northumberland) Ilam (Staffordshire) Ormside (Westmorland) Otley (Yorkshire)

NU 114 091

East end south aisle, south-east quoin West nave door

Evidence strong. See Taylor and Taylor (1965, 719) Anglo-Saxon porticus

NU 067 222

Nave quoins

See Grundy et al. (2001, 535)

NZ 076 720

South-west nave quoin

See Grundy et al. (2001, 575-576)

SK 133 507 NY 701 176

South nave infilled doorway North-west nave quoin

See Taylor and Taylor (1965, 719) See Pevsner (1967, 281-282)

SE 201 454

North-west nave quoin

See Leach and Pevsner (2009, 614-617)

212

See Taylor and Taylor (1965, 717-718)

EARLY CHURCHES OF NORTHERN ENGLAND: ANALYSES AND DISCUSSION

clearly not Anglo-Saxon and, therefore, not examined. Those referred to were unusual, such as the church at Pateley Bridge or the peculiar building containing gravestones at Bywell. This left 56 further sites in which the fabric failed to reveal any, sufficient, or full evidence of Anglo-Saxon workmanship. 34 of these could be classified as historic sites with a well-recorded history. In each of these, the evidence indicated they had been developed, re-modelled and rebuilt beyond recognition; they involved establishments such as cathedrals. Only 7 sites were acknowledged as not being sufficiently old, all being Norman; these sites had been examined generally ‘on recommendation’. Remaining, were just 7 churches which exhibited some Anglo-Saxon features and a further 15 where their study would have been enhanced with the presence of some stonework with specifically orientated bedding. In most of these cases the cleaning of this stonework would have provided a more complete identification.

than one Anglo-Saxon building period). The more prolific of the two was selected. The Table reveals that the variety of rock types used in the Anglo-Saxon churches was regional. The Carboniferous sandstones were clearly the most popular (47 per cent of the total), partly influenced by their wider geographical distribution. They were in more instances also quarried and transported from further afield. This statement is, however, significantly influenced by the many occasions where the stone had been transported from its initial quarry by the Romans to create an earlier structure that became a proximate stone source for an Anglo-Saxon church. In a further 25 per cent of the instances, but entirely in Lincolnshire, the Anglo-Saxon stone of choice was Middle Jurassic Limestone. The absence of the most geographically widespread rocks in the North of England, those from the Triassic, has already been discussed (Monograph A, Section 2.3.1 and Monograph B, Section 3.1). Whether the Anglo-Saxon masons chose not to use it because they were aware that it was frequently unsuitable for building purposes, or they used it and its life-span as a result of deterioration was such that the churches constructed had to be replaced, cannot be determined. Probably, the latter action led to the former. What is noticeable is that the Permian Magnesian Limestone and to a lesser degree the oolitic varieties of the Middle Jurassic Limestones were to be extensively used by the Normans (and later masons), but not to the same extent by the Anglo-Saxons. Clearly, the Anglo-Saxon builders were looking for more than superior quality building stone. The additional requirement for these early builders was a stone which showed marked bedding planes for ornamental purposes. The Carboniferous Sandstones (especially if they had clear pebbly stringers) and the Middle Jurassic Limestones (when they included bedding planes clearly marked by fossil debris) were paramount to their selection.

8.3 More on building stones Throughout this work the importance of stone recognition has been emphasised. The Anglo-Saxon masons and builders were skilled with their use of stone and wherever possible they used stone of quality that was in close proximity. Within this work the subject of stone selection has already been discussed in Monograph A, Sections 1.2, 1.3, 5.4 and 2.3.1 and in Monograph B, Sections 1.2 and 3.1. The specific importance of certain stones may be ascertained by examining which particular stones were put to use for the work of greatest significance in the AngloSaxon churches. Wherever possible in this study, therefore, the churches were assessed to determine the popularity of stone use in the church quoins. To be considered, the quoins had to retain their Patterned orientations and to have been used fairly extensively throughout the church. In only 64 churches was sufficient stonework remaining that could be regarded as having withstood this test of time, and these are tabulated in Table 8.2. In a small number of churches (such as Barton-on-Humber) two different rock types shared the possibility of selection (conceivably an indication of more

The influence that the Romans had on Anglo-Saxon buildings and stone use was undoubtedly significant. Traces

Table 8.2 In search of quality stone: the use of quality stone for Anglo-Saxon churches in the North of England as determined by its use in quoins County

Derbyshire1 Durham Lancashire Lincolnshire Northumberland Yorkshire2 TOTAL

Lower Carboniferous Sandstone 4 4

Upper Carboniferous Sandstone 2 8 2 2 5 7 26

Permian Magnesian Limestone 1 2*

Middle Jurassic Limestone 16 16

Derbyshire has one church using a local variety of Triassic sandstone. Yorkshire has one church using a local variety of Triassic sandstone and another using Liassic rock. Nottinghamshire one church with Permian Magnesian Limestone. In Westmorland, Permian Penrith Sandstone is used in two churches. 1 2 *

213

Upper Jurassic Sandstone 3 3

Jurassic/Cretaceous Ironstones 8 8

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Table 8.3 Certain additional examples of Anglo-Saxon cut backs observed as a result of this study. All localities cited are described in Monograph A Locality

Dedication & Grid Reference St John NZ 189 302

Position

Stone Type

Notes

Chancel ArchSouth side,impost

Heysham (Lancashire) Coleby (Lincolnshire)

St Peter SD 410 616

Brown (1925, 140) thought Roman but other stones rotated Possibly executed offsite Jamb stones See Figure 8.91

Great Hale (Lincolnshire)

St John the Baptist TF 148 428

Middle Jurassic limestone

See Figures 8.131 and 8.132

Lusby (Lincolnshire)

St Peter TF 340 679

Carboniferous Sandstone

Figure 8.207

Springthorpe (Lincolnshire)

Sts Lawrence and George SK 875 897

West DoorwayInternal tympanum TowerSouth keyhole window TowerSouth and West wall windows Chancel ArchWest wall, north side decoration TowerWest doorway, tympanum

Upper Carboniferous Sandstone. Re-used Roman, plastered Upper Carboniferous Millstone Grit Middle Jurassic Inferior Oolite

Middle Jurassic Oolitic limestone

See Figure 8.253

Escomb (Durham)

All Saints SK 975 606

of Roman building materials, as measured by features such as Lewis and cramp holes, specific stonework such as petit appareil, inscribed stones, etc. were observed in 27 sites (about 20 per cent of those churches where Anglo-Saxon workmanship was seen to be present). Geographically these were relatively evenly distributed.

hidden by the coatings of lime-wash added to the arch in relatively recent years. It has previously gone unnoticed although included in a sketch of the arch by Brown (1925, 54, Figure 30). The south impost stone is thicker than that to the north and it has been cut back to allow the chamfer to equate in appearance with that on the north (Figure 8.1).

8.4 The use of cut backs

For those who might not yet be convinced that the purpose of cut backs was to improve ornamental appearances, the cut backs involving arch structures such as those at Stow (Monograph A, Section 8.45, Figure 8.266 – as seen in the west doorway of the north transept), and Laughton-en-leMorthen (Monograph B, Section 6.21, Figures 6.136 and 6.137 – as seen in the north doorway), provide emphatic evidence.

In 2006, the present author (Potter, 2006c) published a detailed account of the methods of construction and the true purpose of certain features observed in Anglo-Saxon churches and known as ‘cut backs’. First described by Rickman (1836, 88), Brown (1903, 88) suggested that these were ‘plaster stops’. The 2006 paper made a number of critical points. Two of these were that there was no evidence of Anglo-Saxon churches ever being externally covered with plaster and, if there had been, the depth of the stop would not have achieved a complete plaster cover for the stones of the wall faces. Various other arguments to indicate that the cut backs were not used to frame a plaster cover are given in Potter (2006c, 65), as are diagrams to illustrate the complexity of cut back construction. The evidence clearly shows that the practice was undertaken for decorative reasons. It helped to present a uniformity of width to (mainly) vertical successions of proud stones. In most instances the stones were cut back after being set into the wall and the amount of cut back was determined by the narrowest proud stone in the feature.

8.5 Herringbone stone emplacement Walls produced to herringbone style, where stones are laid in walls obliquely and alternately in rows in opposite directions to create an interesting decorative pattern, occur in a number of early North of England churches (Table 8.4). Wherever they are recorded their presence poses questions. These may be grouped into two broad categories: is this a building style of a particular period? And; is the style undertaken for any particular reason other than decoration? Early authors, on balance, tended to believe that this type of wall patterning was a feature of Anglo-Saxon churches, but in 1925, Brown, following an inspection of a number of church sites, declared that the work could be dated to the period of Norman masons. This view was in vogue until questioned by Taylor and Taylor (1965, 12-13). Indeed, herringbone work can be observed in walls of any period from Roman (where it may be observed at Silchester) to the present day.

The present study has revealed a number of previously undescribed instances of decorative cut backs which are tabulated in Table 8.3. These instances, not noted by the author in previous studies, are in some instances difficult to see. The unusual example at Escomb church, which is evident on the south impost to the chancel arch, is partially 214

EARLY CHURCHES OF NORTHERN ENGLAND: ANALYSES AND DISCUSSION

The second question as to why the technique should be utilised was answered by the Taylors (1965, 13) as ‘a convenient method of producing a wall with courses of constant height even when the stones are of varying thickness’. If this was entirely correct, in using more mortar, its use might be moderated. When the herringbone stonework normally employed is considered, whatever the geological age, it tends to be argillaceous (of very fine grain size), that is, in descriptive terms, it tends to be flaggy, breaking into pieces with splintered or tapered ends. Typically, walls of stone need to be shaped like books; their bedding (BH) has minor joints which squareoff the ends. It would have been (and still is) difficult to maintain horizontal courses with irregular flaggy stones. Herringbone coursework tends to be found in areas where the local building stone is flaggy in character. In the examples seen and figured in this work (as at Marton, Figure 8.212, Monograph A) this is evident. An example of herringbone work which extends beyond this explanation is presented in Figure 8.2. It occurs at Diddlebury, in Shropshire (SO 508 853). The rock has the correct flaggy character, but each piece has been carefully trimmed to the shape of a parallelogram (by the AngloSaxon masons) so that all pieces interlock and mortar use is minimal (noticeably for an internal wall surface). The same technique has been partially employed at Marton church.

Figure 8.1 The chancel arch at St John, Escomb, (NZ 189 301), County Durham discussed in Monograph A, Section 6.7, and unfortunately, in recent years given a heavy limewash. The stonework is difficult to see, but the arch, seen here from the west has imposts of different thicknesses. The south impost (right) has been cut back on the underside to negate the additional thickness and to make the chamfer look more like that on the north.

8.6 Church security This important topic, one of great significance, has been discussed by the present author both within this Monograph (both Parts A and B) and elsewhere. The subject was

Table 8.4 The occurrence and possible age of herringbone coursework in the early churches of the North of England Locality Monkwearmouth (Durham) Seaham (Durham) Broughton (Lincolnshire) Colsterworth (Lincolnshire) Marton (Lincolnshire) Springthorpe (Lincolnshire) Bulmer (Yorkshire) Burghwallis (Yorkshire) Hauxwell (Yorkshire)

Grid ref. NZ 402 577

Occurrence West nave wall, Limited

Estimated age Anglo-Saxon

NZ 422 505 SE 960 086 SK 930 241

North nave wall, Limited Mid-tower band Nave wall, Over arcade

Anglo-Saxon Uncertain, probably medieval Probably Anglo-Saxon

SK 840 817 SK 875 897

Anglo-Saxon Probably Anglo-Saxon

Hovingham (Yorkshire) Kippax (Yorkshire) Kirby Underdale (Yorkshire) Terrington (Yorkshire) York-Bishophill Junior (Yorkshire)

SE 666 757 SE 417 303 SE 808 585

Tower, Extensive and elsewhere Tower, First metre north and south walls North nave Nave and chancel Nave (north and south), chancel (south wall) Tower, Low Nave, chancel, tower, All low Tower and nave

SE 671 707 SE 600 505

South nave wall Tower

Possibly Anglo-Saxon Uncertain, medieval/Anglo-Saxon

SE 699 676 SE 537 120 SE 166 932

215

Possibly Anglo-Saxon Unknown, possibly Anglo-Saxon ?11th C. ?Anglo-Saxon Anglo-Saxon Probably Anglo-Saxon

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

both exit and entry. That keys were readily available to the wealthy is clear from gravestones, typically dated to about the 15th C. Keys were certainly known much earlier but they were uncommon. King Henry VIII is known to have been always accompanied by a door key locking system which was fitted for his privacy. Evidence of remnant bar locking systems was noted at 19 of the church sites which were examined in the North of England. At Edlingham (NH 114 091) in Northumberland (see Section 2.9, Monograph A), two separate systems exist in the nave west and south doorways which are likely to be of different ages. It is possible to attempt to date the ages of the bar lock holes (for many of the deeper examples appear to have been created when the wall was constructed). With no claim for great accuracy, the present author suggests that the dates at which the bar-locking systems were installed can be suggested as Anglo-Saxon (at four sites – including all three noted in Westmorland), the period late 12th C. to 1400 (twelve sites), and ‘medieval’ (at four sites). A number of churches retained bar locking evidence on more than one door: Pateley Bridge (3, see Section 6.39.6), Haughton-le-Skerne (Section 6.11, Monograph A), Thurlby (Section 8.49, Monograph A), and Edlingham, each with two systems. At Bedale church (Section 6.5, Monograph B), again with two systems, that related to the west doorway is supported by a near invisible portcullis system. At Morland church (Section 5.5, Monograph B) the bar lock occurs on the church tower which appears

Figure 8.2 The interior of the north wall of the nave at Diddlebury church (SO 508 853) in Shropshire which is completed in herringbone coursework. This work has been completed meticulously, with individual pieces of the flaggy rock shaped into parallelograms to permit close fitting of the pieces. examined at length in Potter (2009c, Chapters 6 and 7 and elsewhere) where, in Ireland, it embraced the structure and reasons for both churches with antae, and round towers. Some reference to the subject as it related to Scotland appeared in (Potter 2006d) and the security of Welsh churches was discussed in Potter (2013a, in Chapter 7 and elsewhere). In almost all of these instances it is evident that securing the churches from unwanted external entry, is only part of the issue. Very frequently the buildings were used for the defence of people and property. In the North of England and elsewhere, this involved not just the clergy but local inhabitants. In many North of England early churches entry was typically prevented by means of thick wooden doors barricaded by an interior bar locking system. This amounted to a long length of solid wood about 0.10 to 0.12m in cross section which ran across the back of the door, and which was held in position by a hole in the wall on either side of the door. On occasions there were two bars of this nature, one towards the top, the other towards the bottom. This (or these) left the door immovable between the door rebate and the bar. To open the door the bar was slid into one of the wall holes which was deep enough to accommodate the full length of the bar. With the invention of simple, cheap and effective mechanical key locking systems the bar locks tended to fall into disuse and the holes for the bar were often filled and forgotten. An example that is still in place at Stragglethorpe church (SK 913 524), in Lincolnshire, is illustrated in Figure 8.3. The door illustrated must be of relatively modern reconstruction. According to the number of doors, each door would have been similarly protected in times of potential danger or need for security. It is clear that those involved in security by this means remained within the church.

Figure 8.3 The north door at Stragglethorpe church (SK 913 524), Lincolnshire. Seen from the inside the door is locked by means of a stout bar which fastens into holes in the wall to the west and east.

What regrettably cannot be determined is the date from which each church acquired a key locking system to permit 216

EARLY CHURCHES OF NORTHERN ENGLAND: ANALYSES AND DISCUSSION

to have originally been defensive and independent of the main body of the church.

le-Street (Section 6.3), occurs in the south wall of these churches. Similar examples are known from outside the study region, such as that at Earls Barton church (SP 852 638), Northamptonshire. These doorways, which open into space, are obviously not defensive or created to provide security. They show no evidence of wear related to use and are south facing. Of many suggestions as to their purpose the most likely must be that they were used to exhibit religious relics. Their situation might alternatively indicate that they were used to preach from, but this probably would have been too dangerous. There probably were occasions when large, heavy items (such as bells) may have been required high in the tower and an aperture of this nature might have assisted movement, but the always south-facing position tends to suggest this was not the reason for their presence.

That, in the past, churches were defended against assailants is supported by evidence of features such as knife and arrow sharpening, seen internally. In Ireland, lower accessible windows were typically sufficiently narrow to prevent human entry, and this may account for the many instances of narrow, slit windows in early North of England churches. 8.7 High level doors Many of the churches examined in this work showed, from the marks left on the east tower or east nave wall, clear evidence that the roof lines of both their nave and chancel were previously much higher. That the roof which existed was used, can frequently be observed from doorways, now often infilled, high above the tower arch; this would have permitted access to the roof space, which existed above the nave, from the tower. Less frequently, similar doorway communication may be seen above the chancel arch, and, where transepts are present, above the transept arches. Access to this roof space was normally only via the tower, initially by ladders, and in more recent instances by staircase.

It was initially believed that the matters regarding church security introduced both here and in Section 9.5 of Monograph A as well as elsewhere, could be fully summarised and analysed at this point in this work. This task now seems so large and important the present author believes it will be better served as a separate paper or Monograph, which he will attempt to complete in the near future. 8.8 A word on Anglo-Saxon crypts

In this North of England study high level doorways were perceived in 32 churches (about 20 per cent of all the churches examined – some of which, as ruins, preserved nothing at roof level). This is a very much higher figure than apparent in comparable figures for the south of England. The space could have been used for religious purposes, for storage, or for accommodation (probably only temporary). An example of probable religious use occurs in Kent at West Peckham church (TQ 644 526) – see Potter (2006b, 199-201). In the present study it appears the area involved was used when possibly the church and the community were in need of protection.

Having committed a promise to try to provide a summary of the collective similarities of Anglo-Saxon crypts towards the end of Monograph A, the additional evidence gained in this volume B, proved only minimal. Only Ripon could be added to those crypts viewed which were of AngloSaxon age. Lastingham disclosed details only of Norman fabric. It would be inappropriate and unwise to make generalisations on the features of Anglo-Saxon crypts based on the minutiae of just three crypts, and a country wide examination is required of all that are known – some of these unfortunately being difficult to view.

The period of possible use of the roof spaces cannot be determined, in most instances, with any accuracy; but are probably distributed much as follows: Anglo-Saxon (14), c. 1350 (6), medieval (8), ? 18th C. (1), and unknown (3). The Anglo-Saxon figure is the most reliable as it is determined on the structure of the communicating doorways, all 14 are believed to possess appropriately patterned jambs.

The commonalities of the three crypts examined, suggest that stones used in the construction were laid BVFO to expose a smooth flat surface into the crypt – to reveal relics to best advantage. Ornamented Roman stones were also used, but being of Roman origin these were probably placed BH; plaster making this virtually impossible to confirm. In each of the three crypts examined the inward facing walls were heavily coated in lime-plaster, and it is possible that this coating was first applied by the Anglo-Saxons. No evidence of Patterned quoins (as BVFL-BH-BVFR) was apparent. The display of the relics was obviously placed of foremost importance, with no distractions.

There would appear to have been a relationship between church security and the availability of church roof space. Five of the churches examined were present in both lists. Pittington (see Section 6.16), Coleby (Section 8.15), Little Bytham (Section 8.35) and Thurlby (Section 8.49), all four in Monograph A; and Bedale (Section 6.5), in Monograph B, provided both security and roof space.

8.9 Norman/Romanesque stonework patterns Strongly influenced by the Norman Conquest, fashions in building over much of England were to change suddenly; although in mainland Europe and south-east England the new fashions had probably preceded 1066. The new styles, encouraged by the Normans in order to develop their

One type of very distinctive high level doorway, seen only in three churches from Monograph B of this study, and present at Bywell, St Andrew (Section 2.4), Ovingham (Section 2.17), and now blocked at Appleton217

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

influence, have been discussed in the earlier monographs by the author (Potter, 2009c and 2013a) and as well as at various places throughout the current works.

c) Complex Patterned stonework of the Anglo-Saxon masons for quoins and jambs was discontinued. This was replaced by more immediately obvious carved stonework on face-bedded stones at easily observed places such as doorways. d) Door, arch and window jambs stones were, therefore, set BH and BVEIA, or were face bedded. The tympanum, ideally suited to be carved on its face became popular. e) Errors in decorative stonework, certainly internally, and some suggest externally, were covered with plaster. f) Wall stonework with shaped blocks or ashlar stone was better coursed and used almost throughout stones were laid BH. However, the Norman mason was not averse to placing the final stone in a course BV and edge-bedded (rather than breaking across bedding planes of a block to achieve a smaller size). This is well-illustrated in those Irish round towers of Romanesque form which because of their taper require a different number of stones for each course over their height. g) In keeping with the desire to look stronger both broad pilaster/buttresses and clasping quoins were introduced by the Normans (See Figure 8.4), and in both, Norman style cut backs are frequently evident (and are quite unlike Anglo-Saxon cut backs).

Norman stonemasons in England were guided by certain requirements, those newly in control of the estates needed to display their authority, power and skills: modified and new places for worship were established as quickly as possible, in order to assist this process. The new building styles reflect these requirements, and in particular features such as wall thickness and ornamentation changed. The present work concentrates on Anglo-Saxon workmanship, but throughout the work it has proved necessary to distinguish the styles which were developed by the Normans to replace the Anglo-Saxon. The principal features of the Norman work are listed below. a) Walls were constructed to outwardly look stronger and of superior build. They were thicker, created with wellfaced stone on inner and outer surfaces, but infilled with rubble. Between the faces, the rubble was often deficient in mortar and instances occur where it was completely absent. Once the facing stone was lost the rubble could fall away. The high quality superior mortar of the Anglo-Saxon walls (permitting strong and thin walls) was no longer used. b) More frequently somewhat softer and easier to work and shape stone was employed by the Normans. In the North of England rocks such as the Permian Magnesian Limestone became more commonly used. The white appearance of both this rock and the oolitic varieties of Middle Jurassic Limestone was probably more favourable to the Normans (possibly because they more closely resembled the French Caen Stone).

8.10 Not to be confused – the ‘Alternate’ style Described in Potter (2013a, 426-428), and commented on when in this work discussing St Firmin church, Thurlby (Monograph A, Section 8.49), a relatively modern style of patterning quoins, resembling Anglo-Saxon side-alternate work, should be mentioned. It is well-illustrated in Figure 8.299 in Monograph A. The pattern consists only of BVFR and BVFL alternating stones (with BH stones typically

Figure 8.4 A sketch of a typical Norman ashlar or well-squared and bonded wall with a broad shallow pilaster and a clasping quoin. Where they might have overlapped the proud faces, stones have, of necessity, been cut back. The vast majority of the stones in the wall and the structures will have been placed with their bedding orientation horizontal. Occasionally, where a shorter stone was required, it was cut, and an edge-bedded setting used (partly after Potter 2006c). 218

EARLY CHURCHES OF NORTHERN ENGLAND: ANALYSES AND DISCUSSION

absent). Observed by the author throughout the British Isles it appears to have been first used about 1550 and up to ‘Victorian’ times. For want of a name the present author has called it ‘Alternate’ style. More typically since the Victorian period, the ‘style’ has been used as a form of ‘rustication’ where the structure, alternating left and right, has been made out of varieties of cast stone (with no stratification), more customarily for expensive large properties. 8.11 Summary In attempting to bring this work to a conclusion, the author is aware that certain elements of early church construction and stonework analysis remain (in these two Monographs) untouched. Generally, these have been discussed in previous works of this nature, such as in Potter (2009c) and Potter (2013a), and there remains little more to add. Attempts to distinguish changes in stonework use or patterns accurately, over the 600 years or more period of Anglo-Saxon construction, continue to provide no real answers. Although individual churches described in this work, as for example the church at St Peter-at-Gowts in Lincoln (see Section 8.34, Monograph A), indicate a prior use of side-alternate over long and short quoins, this sequence does not appear to apply elsewhere. This order of use was discussed in Potter (2009c, Section 2.9) and although, since that time, many more churches have been scrutinized, no definitive sequence has resulted. It would appear likely that whether a quoin was fashioned to side-alternate or the long and short style, may well have been dependant on nothing more than the way the rocks in use were jointed (and particularly, the frequency and development of the secondary joint system at right angles to the bedding planes). When, for example, the church quoins are considered in the Northamptonshire area, where quality Barnack Stone was utilised, the quoins all appear to be set in long and short style, Where the local rocks tend to be less suitably jointed, as for instance in much of Wales, side-alternate style is much more dominant. As suggested in Potter (2013a); ‘It may be necessary to search further afield, and towards the home of Christianity in the Middle-East to discover the earliest traces of Patterned stone emplacement.’ Potter (2013a, 439) There remain other matters, also referred to in Potter (2009c and 2013a) such as the conservation and preservation of early churches, where standardised procedures urgently need to be established.

219

GLOSSARY

Largely intended for use by archaeologists and church historians, this glossary almost entirely consists of simple definitions of geological words. Included also, there are a number of archaeological terms of which geologists may be unaware. Geological terms used in this work which relate to units of rock are placed according to their age in the stratigraphical column provided at the end of this glossary (Appendix 1).

CHERT: microcrystalline silica; in sedimentary rocks it may be chemically precipitated to form thin seams or nodules. Flint is a distinctive variety of chert which occurs in the Chalk. CLEAVAGE: in rocks. Cleavage in a rock creates a tendency for the rock to break along thin, parallel, and closely spaced, layers. The layers, known as the cleavage, are generally imparted as a result of pressure during metamorphism and normally involve some degree of mineral recrystallisation.

AMMONITE: the ammonites were a, now extinct, fossil group of molluscs, typified by a planar coiled chambered shell. They were abundant especially in the Jurassic seas.

CRAMP: the Romans held large hewn building stones together with metal clamps; in shape like a large staple, the ends of which were fastened into a hole in each stone in which typically molten lead was poured and set. Cramps tended to be used in the horizontal plane as in the deck of a bridge.

ANDESITE (andesitic): a volcanic rock similar to basalt in appearance, but containing rather more silica, therefore, generally containing a little free quartz and K feldspar. ARKOSE (arkosic): a sandstone containing more than 25 per cent of feldspar, arkosic with a lower percentage.

CROW-STEPPED: squared stones set like steps up the edge of a gable or gateway.

ARRIS: the sharp, generally straight, edge between two planar worked stone surfaces; and a term used particularly when working stone.

DIMENSION STONE: stonework cut into neat rectangular blocks by means of a saw.

ASHLAR: squared hewn stone or stones, or masonry constructed of such stones. The shape of such blocks is often determined by its jointing or incipient jointing. It should be noted that rock that has been sawn into blocks is better called dimension-stone. Definitions for ‘Ashlar’ are very varied; Salter (1994) for instance offered ‘Masonry of blocks with even faces and square edges.’

DIORITE: cooled at depth, coarse-grained igneous rock, intermediate in composition between granite and gabbro, containing up to 10 per cent quartz. DOLERITE (doleritic): the medium-grained, chemically equivalent igneous rock to the basalt – gabbro composition range.

BASALT (basaltic): a volcanic (or extrusive) igneous rock or lava, which is fine-grained and dark in colour. With only about 50 per cent by weight of their composition as silica, basalt lavas are as a result less viscous than many other volcanic rocks. Basalt is chemically the equivalent to the more slowly cooled gabbro.

ERRATIC: a rock carried by ice from its original source, hence glacial erratic. FACIES: the features that sum up the environmental conditions and formation of a particular rock. In sedimentary rocks, for instance, at the same time at a coastal margin; beach, shallow water, and deeper water deposits might be created – each a different facies.

BEDROCK: the solid rock underlying the much more recently formed, and typically unconsolidated, superficial deposits.

FELDSPAR (also written felspar): the most common mineral group found in igneous rocks. Variable in composition, feldspars occur in different varieties from K, Al silicate (found in granites) to Ca, Al silicate (found in basalts). There are other varieties such as Na, Al silicate.

BIOCLASTIC: a clastic rock is one consisting of fragments (typically a sediment); in a bioclastic rock the fragments are of fragmentary, or sometimes whole, fossils. CALCRETE: a sediment, typically sandstone, which has been cemented and indurated by percolating calcium carbonate rich waters, normally under past arid conditions.

FERRUGINOUS: iron rich, as applied to sediments probably inclusive of iron oxides and hydrated iron oxides.

220

GLOSSARY

FISSILE (fissility): easily broken or split into thin layers. In a rock this is normally due to the rock possessing a marked cleavage.

MASSIVE bedding: where the beds in a sedimentary rock remain homogeneous over a considerable thickness (typically several metres) and stratification or bedding is apparently absent. As opposed to thinly bedded.

FLUVIOGLACIAL: created by melt waters from glaciers. METAMORPHIC: a rock formed under the influence of a considerable amount of heat and/or pressure, typically with some resultant mineral recrystallisation.

GABBRO (gabbroic): An igneous rock which cooled at depth in the manner of granite, but of relatively low silica content and a chemical composition like basalt.

MICA (micaceous): a common platey mineral found in igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. In the last two rock types it normally occurs as white mica, a K, Al silicate.

GLAUCONITE (glauconitic): a greenish complex silicate mineral that is often found in sedimentary rocks that have been deposited in shallow marine conditions. The mineral tends to impart a green colour on the sediment.

MICRITIC: from Micro, thus meaning very small, particularly used for sedimentary rock fragments.

GNEISS: a coarse grained, generally banded, metamorphic rock formed as a result of very extensive heat and pressure.

OOLITIC: a rock composed of millions of ooliths (literally, ‘egg’ ‘stone’); such as an oolitic limestone, where the ooliths are largely composed of calcium carbonate. Ooliths in a limestone are created by the deposition of Ca CO3 on wave disturbed, and therefore moving, minute particles in a shallow sea. An oolite being a rock consisting of ooliths.

GRANITE (granitic): A common coarse-grained igneous rock cooled at depth of light colour. Rich in siliceous minerals it possesses at least 20 per cent of free quartz. GRANODIORITE: A course-grained igneous rock similar to granite but containing less free quartz.

PAN: (in particular iron pan) a layer of hydrated iron oxides/iron oxides which may develop approximately at the level of the surface of the water table in permeable rocks like gravel or sand due to a degree of evaporation.

GREYWACKE: an unsorted, rapidly deposited, sedimentary rock of mixed mineralogical and textural composition. HAEMATITE: also spelt hematite, iron oxide, Fe2 O3.

PISOLITIC: on occasions ooliths grew to a large size (to as large as peas), in large numbers to then create a rock known as a Pisolite; hence pisolitic limestone.

HOODMOULD: projecting moulding above an arch or lintel to throw off water.

POLYGENETIC: of many origins: thus a polygenetic conglomerate contains of pebbles from a number of sources.

IGNEOUS: a rock solidified from a molten, or partially molten, state. IMPOST: larger stone at the base of the springing of an arch, with one on either side of the arch at the top of each jamb.

PORPHYRY (porphyritic): an igneous rock containing larger crystals (often called phenocrysts) in a finer-grained matrix. If the larger crystals can be easily identified they may be named (thus; quartz-porphyry or feldsparporphyry).

JOGGLED: stones fitted into a wall and partially interlocked in such a way (joggled joints) as to prevent them sliding at least in one direction.

PORTICUS: Although from Latin used also as plural noun. A small room or rooms leading off the main west-east axis of the church, often used for burials of distinguished persons in pre-Conquest churches.

LEWIS HOLE: created in large building stones by the Romans for lifting purposes. Found typically central to the largest block surface to create balance when lifting. Similar in appearance to the cramp hole which tends to be near the edge of a surface.

PYROCLASTIC: rock fragments deposited after volcanic eruptions, which tend to vary in size according to the violence and their proximity to the source of the eruption.

LITHOLOGY: the appearance, grain size and composition of a particular rock; generally with reference only to sedimentary rocks.

QUARTZITE (quartzitic): a sandstone with a silica cement. A sarsen is a variety of quartzite. Quartzites may be formed by the metamorphism of sandstone.

LONDON BASIN: the downfolded (that is, synclinal) structure created between the Chalk of the Chilterns and the North Downs. Rocks inside and lining the Basin are all more recent in age geologically than the Chalk.

RHYOLITE (rhyolitic): an igneous volcanic rock with a composition comparable to that of granite and containing about 70 per cent of siliceous minerals. The high silica

221

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

content helps to make the lava viscous so that rhyolites tend to create explosive and violent eruptions.

Warwickshire, has been regarded by many authors as being of Anglo-Saxon origin.

SARSEN: a silicified sand or silcrete, probably formed at the surface or slightly below the surface, of sand deposits, under certain climatic conditions. Following extensive weathering these may be found as large irregular boulders (sarsens) in superficial deposits.

TUFA: a rock of cavernous, precipitated calcium carbonate. Tufa is relatively light in weight, and normally soft when first precipitated so that it can be readily be cut or sawn into blocks. In England it was worked extensively by the Romans as a building stone. The rock hardens on exposure, when it is better described as travertine.

SCHIST: a relatively medium grained metamorphic rock in which the intense heat and pressure develops a mineral foliation or schistosity. See mica schist.

TURBIDITE: a sediment laid by turbidity currents: typically the uneven flow of such currents creates minor irregularities in the depositional layers of a sediment.

SEPTARIA (septarian nodules): in certain clay deposits (such as the London Clay), calcium carbonate (sometimes iron rich) concretions may have been formed, normally of cobble size, but occasionally up to 2m. across. In these concretions irregular polygonal dehydration cracks (septaria) may be present.

VOUSSOIR: individual stone creating an arch, typically wedge-shaped.

SHAFT: a vertical member of round or polygonal section associated with a column or the sides of an archway. SILCRETE: surface or very near to surface deposit rich in silica particularly formed in warm to subtropical climates. See also sarsen. SLUMP STRUCTURE: a structure that is produced by down-slope movement of freshly deposited sediment beneath water (as the ocean). This movement, particularly in fine-grained sediments, produces structures that may subsequently be identifiable both within and at the bottom of the sediment. SOFFIT: the underside of an arch. SPECULAR: of flat, tabular flakes, resembling mica. SPHERULITIC: small spherical silicious radiating crystalline concretions found normally in rocks of rhyolitic composition. STRIAE: sub-parallel striations created on rock surfaces when rocks grind passed others when they are held within a moving glacier. These are typically seen on glacial erratics or the bedrocks once beneath a glacier. SUPERFICIAL: typically unconsolidated, surface deposits of recent geological age, such as river gravel or blown sand. THINLY BEDDED: as opposed to massively bedded. Sedimentary rocks which exhibit frequent minor changes in lithology, typically displayed as layers of bedding. TRAVERTINE: see Tufa. TREDINGTON ARCH: a round archway in which the voussoirs are not regularly placed but wedged in irregularly at the top. This type of archway, as seen at Tredington, 222

APPENDIX 1 CHRONO-STRATIGRAPHIC TABLE

CHRONO-STRATIGRAPHIC UNITS

ERA Cainozoic

Mesozoic

APPROX. AGE ROCK UNIT EXPLOITED (MILLIONS OF YEARS)

SYSTEM Quaternary

SERIES Holocene and (2) Pleistocene

Palaeogene

Eocene

40

Cretaceous

Upper Lower (South of England) (North of England)

85 110

Jurassic

Triassic

Palaeozoic Permian

Upper

145 130 135 145 155

Middle

170

Lower

195

Upper and Middle Lower

230

Middle and Lower

275

Carboniferous Upper (Pennsylvanian) (Mississippian) Lower Devonian Lower

Ferruginously cemented sands and gravels Bunter Quartzites as derived cobbles Travertine Sarsen (silcrete) Quarr Stone (from the Isle of Wight) Septarian nodules from the London Clay Chalk, and source of flints Upper Greensand – Hythe Beds – includes Pulborough Stone – Viviparus Limestone (‘Purbeck Marble’) – Tealby Sandstone – Claxby Ironstone – Spilsby Sandstone Corallian Group includes Coralline Oolite Formation includes – Malton Oolite – Birdsall Calcareous Grit Lower Calcareous Grit Formation Inferior Oolite Group includes Lincolnshire Limestone Formation includes – A wide variety of oolitic limestones, some of which contain shelly debris, such as: Ancaster Stone Barnack Stone Greetwell Stone Northampton(shire) Sand Lias Group includes – Frodingham Ironstone (Cleveland Ironstone Series) – Blue Lias Formation (with muddy limestones) Mercia Mudstone Group (Keuper Marl) (Waterstones – locally near base) Sherwood Sandstone Group (Bunter Sandstone) (St Bees Sandstone – a variety in Cumbria) – Magnesian Limestone Wetherby Member within Lower portion – Lower Permian Sandstone (Penrith Sandstone Formation – west of the Pennines) – Coal Measure Sandstones (Pennant, Welsh variety) – Namurian Millstone Grit – Carboniferous Limestone (Frosterley, variety) – Old Red Sandstone

245

305 310 345 410

223

REFERENCES

Aird, R.A. 1913. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle, 3rd Ser,. 6, 23 (figures) and 59-71 (meeting details). Allen, J.R.L. 2007. Late churches and chapels in Berkshire: a geologocal perspective from the late eighteenth century to the First World War. British Archaeological Reports, British Series No. 432, BAR Publishing, Oxford. Allen, J.R.L. 2013. The Masonry Defences of Roman Silchester (Calleva Atrebatum), North Hampshire. Building materials, building styles and building programme. British Archaeological Reports, British Series No. 580, BAR Publishing, Oxford. Allen, J.R.L. 2014. Whetstones from Roman Silchester (Calleva Atrebatum), North Hampshire. Character, manufacture, provenance and use. Putting an edge on it. British Archaeological Reports, British Series No. 597, BAR Publishing, Oxford. Allison, K.J., Baggs, A.P., Cooper, T.C., Davidson-Cragoe, C., and Walker, J. 2002. Middle Division, Aldbrough. 5-27. In: Victoria County History, 2002. A History of the County of York East Riding, 7, London. Ambrose, T. 1979. Anglo-Saxon Churches in Lincolnshire. A Guide. Lincoln. Andrew, W. 1836. A History of Winterton and the adjoining villages, (reprinted 1973). Hull. Anon. 1842. Anglo-Saxon Church. The Ecclesiologist, 1, 190-192. Anon. 1844. Saxon Churches. The Ecclesiologist, 3, 138139. Anon. 1848-1849. The ecclesiology of Scarborough. The Ecclesiologist, 9, 243-245. Anon. 1859-1860. Report. Associated Architectural Societies Reports and Papers, 5, i-xxv, lxi-lxxvii. Anon. 1861-1862. Report. Associated Architectural Societies Reports and Papers, 6, i--xlii, xci-cviii, cxvi. Anon. 1863-1864. Report. Associated Architectural Societies Reports and Papers, 7, i-xix, lxxv-xcii. Anon. 1867-1868. Report. Associated Architectural Societies Reports and Papers, 9, i-xxi, lxxv-lxxxiii. Anon. 1871-1872. Report. Associated Architectural Societies Reports and Papers, 11, i-xviii, lxxiii-lxxxvi. Anon. 1873-1874. Report. Associated Architectural Societies reports and Papers, 12, i-xiii, lxi-lxviii. Anon. 1875-1876. Report. Associated Architectural Societies Reports and Papers, 13, i-xviii, lvii-lxvii. Anon. 1877-1888. Report. Associated Architectural Societies Reports and Papers. 14, i-xvii, lxxi-lxxvii. Anon. 1883-1884. Report. Associated Architectural Societies Reports and Papers, 17, i-vii, lvii-lxvii.

Anon. 1887-1888. Report. Associated Architectural Societies Reports and Papers, 19, i-xvii, lvii-lxvii. Anon. 1889-1890. Report. Associated Architectural Societies Reports and Papers, 20, i-xxvi, lxiii-lxxxviii. Anon. 1890-1895. Editorial. Transactions of the Architectural and Archaeological Societies of Durham and Northumberland, 4, xxxi. Anon. 1891-1892. Report. Associated Architectural Societies Reports and Papers, 21, i-xxvi, lxvii-lxxvii. Anon. 1895-1896. Report. Associated Architectural Societies Reports and Papers, 23, i-xiv, lix-lxxi. Anon. 1897-1898. Report. Associated Architectural Societies Reports and Papers, 24, lxxiv. Anon. 1903-1904. Report. Associated Architectural Societies Reports and Papers, 27, i-xiv, lxi-lxxii. Anon. 1905-1906. Report. Associated Architectural Societies Reports and Papers, 28, x-xii. Anon. 1907-1907. Report. Associated Architectural Societies Reports and Papers, 29, i-xiii, lxiii-xcii. Anon. 1909. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting 23rd July to 31st July 1909. Archaeological Journal, 66, 343-399. Anon. 1913-1914. Churches etc visited by the Society from Bourne on June 30th and July 1st 1914. Associated Architectural Societies Reports and Papers. 32, 319340. Anon. 1928. Visit to Lancaster and Heysham. Transactions of the Lancashire and Cheshire Antiquarian Society, 45, 192-193. Anon. 1981. Our Anglo-Saxon Heritage. Treasure beyond Measure. The Churches of Lincolnshire – their architecture, details and fittings. LOCT, Lincoln. Arnold, T. (ed.) 1882. Symeon of Durham. Historia Dunelm Ecclesiae. Rolls Series, 75, 1, London. Arnold, T. (ed.) 1885. Symeon of Durham. Hist. Regum. Rolls Series, 75, 11, London. Arnold, A. and Howard, R. 2010. St Firmin Church, Thurlby, Lincolnshire: tree-ring analyses of timbers of the bell-frame and tower. Research Department Report 72-2010, English Heritage. Ashpitel, A. 1852. Repton Church and Priory. Journal of the British Archaeological Association, 7, 263-283. Atkinson, G. 1850-1851. On the restoration in progress at Stow Church, Linconshire. Associated Architectural Societies Reports and Papers, 1, 315-326. Atkinson, G. 1859-1860. On Saxon Architecture, and the Early Churches in the neighbourhood of Grimsby. Associated Architectural Societies Reports and Papers, 5, 23-33. Atkinson, G. 1863. Saxon churches: stone or wood. Gentleman’s Magazine, 1, 755-762.

224

REFERENCES

Badham, S. 2007. The use of sedimentary ‘marbles’ for church monuments in Pre-Reformation England. Church Archaeology, 11, 1-18. Bailey, R.N., Cambridge, E. and Briggs, H.D. 1988. Dowsing and Church Archaeology. Wimborne. Barmby, J. 1880-1889. Pittington and its church with three illustrations. Transactions of the Architectural and Archaeological Society of Durham and Northumberland, 3, 1-32. Bassett, S. 1989. Lincoln and the Anglo-Saxon see of Lindsey. Anglo-Saxon England, 18, 1-32. Bates, C. J. 1886. ‘Heddon-on-the-Wall: the church and parish’, Archaeologia Aeliana, 2nd Ser., 11, 240-294. Bateson, E. (ed.) 1893. History of Northumberland, 1, 320322. Biddle, M. 1986. Martin Biddle. Current Archaeology, 100. 138-141. Biddle, M. and Biddle, B.K. 1985. The Repton Stone. Anglo-Saxon England, 14, 233-292. Bidwell, P. 2010. A survey of the Anglo-Saxon crypt at Hexham and its reused Roman stonework. Archaeologia Aeliana, 5th Ser., 39, 45-145. Bigsby, R. 1854. Historical and Topographic description of Repton in the county of Derbyshire. Woodfall and Kinder, London. Bilson, J. 1922. Weaverthorpe Church and its builder. Archaeologia, 72, 51-70. Bilson, J. 1923. Wharram-le-Street church, Yorkshire, and St Rule’s church, St Andrews. Archaeologia, 73, 55-72. Bilson, J. 1924. Hackness Church. Archaeological Journal, 27, 406-407. Birch, S. 1993. A Guide to the Churches of the Haverstoe Deanery. Grimsby. Blagg, T.F.C. 1976. Tools and techniques of the Roman stonemason in Britain. Britannia, 7, 152-172. Blair, J. (ed.) 1988. Minsters and Parish Churches – the local church in transition: 950-1200. Monograph of the Oxford University Committee for Archaeology. Blair, J. 1991. The Early Churches at Lindisfarne, Archaeologia Aeliana, 5th Ser., 19, 47-53. Bloxham, M.H. 1836. The Principles of Gothic Architecture elucidated by question and answer, (2nd ed.). London. Bloxham, M.H. 1843. The Principles of Gothic Architecture elucidated by question and answer, (5th ed.). London. Bloxham, M.H. 1849. The Principles of Gothic Architecture elucidated by question and answer, (9th ed.). London. Blunt, W.O. 1884. A thousand years of the church at Chester-le-Street. Wells, Gardener, Dalton & Co., London. Boyle, J.R. 1885. On the monastery and church of St. Paul, Jarrow, Archaeologia Aeliana, 2nd Ser., 10, 195-219. Boyle, J.R. 1886. On the monastery and church of St. Peter, Monkwearmouth, Archaeologia Aeliana, 2nd Ser., 11, 33-51. Boyle, J.R. 1892. The County of Durham. London. Briden, C.M. and Stocker, D.A. 1987. The tower of the church of St Mary Bishophill Junior. 84-146. In: P. Wenham et al. (eds) 1987. St Mary Bishophill Junior and St Mary Castlegate, The Archaeology of York 8/2, London Council for British Archaeology

Briggs, G.W.D. 1982. The Church of St. Andrew, Bolam, Archaeologia Aeliana, 5th Ser., 10, 125-141. Britton, J. 1826. Architectural Antiquities of Great Britain, 5. London. Brock, E.P.L. 1890. The Churches of the City of Lincoln. Journal of the British Archaeological Association, 46, 17-28. Brook-Taylor, H.C. (undated). All Saints, Bakewell (church guide). Gloucester. Brooke, J.C. 1779. Archaeologia, 5, 188. Brooke, J.C. 1782. Archaeologia, 6. 39-53. Brown, G.B. 1903. The Arts in early England: Ecclesiastical Architecture in England from the conversion of the Saxons to the Norman Conquest. John Murray, London. Brown, G.B. 1906. Notes on the Early History of Bartonon-Humber, Vol. I. London. Brown, G.B. 1925. The Arts in early England. Anglo-Saxon Architecture. John Murray, London. Brown, G.B. 1937. The Arts in early England, 6, II, AngloSaxon Sculpture. London. Browne, G.F. 1886a. On inscriptions at Jarrow and Monkwearmouth. Archaeologia Aeliana, 2nd Ser., 11, 27-32. Browne, G.F. 1886b. Notes on the remains of the original church of St Peter at Monkwearmouth. Cambridge. Browne, G. F. 1887. Pre-Norman sculptured stones in Lancashire. Transactions of the Lancashire and Cheshire Antiquarian Society, 5, 1-18. Bruce, W.D. 1845. An account of the Parish of Newton Kyme in the County of York. The Topographer and Genealogist, 1. Brunskill, R.W. 1978. Illustrated Handbook of Vernacular Architecture. Faber and Faber Ltd., London. Bryant, G.F. 1981. The Early History of Barton-onHumber. Barton-on-Humber. Bryant, G.F. 1984. Medieval Churches of Barton on Humber. Barton-on-Humber. Bryant, G.F. 1994. The Early History of Barton-onHumber, (2nd ed.). Barton-on-Humber. Butler, S, 2012. Howden, a pictorial history. Chappelows, Goole. Cambridge, E. 1998. Early Romanesque Architecture in North East England: a style and its patrons, 141-160. In: D. Rollason, M. Harvey and M. Prestwich, (eds). 1988. Anglo-Norman Durham: 1093-1193. Boydell and Brewer. Carter, R.A. 1976. A Visitor’s Guide to Yorkshire Churches. Historic Churches Preservation Trust, London. Clapham, A.W. 1930. English Romanesque architecture before the Conquest. Clarendon Press, Oxford. Clapham, A.W. 1946a. Stow. Archaeological Journal, 103, 168-169. Clapham, A.W. 1946b. Barton-on-Humber, St Peter. Archaeological Journal, 103, 179-181. Clapham, A.W. 1948. Hackness, the church and preConquest crosses. Archaeological Journal, 105, 82. Clapham, A.W. 1950. Two carved stones from Monkwearmouth. Archaeologia Aeliana, 4th Ser., 28, 1-6. Clemoes, P. and Hughes, K. (eds). 1971. England before the Conquest. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 225

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Clifton-Taylor, A. 1972. The Pattern of English Building. Faber and Faber, London. Colgrave, B. 1927. The Life of Bishop Wilfred by Eddius Stephanus. 36, 46. Cambridge Colgrave, B. 1946-1947. St Peter’s Church, Monkwearmouth. Transactions of the Architectural and Archaeological Society of Durham and Northumberland, 10 (2), 179-194. Collingwood, W. G. 1915. Anglian and Anglo-Danish sculptures in the West Riding. Yorkshire Archaeological Journal, 23, 129-299. Collingwood, W.G. 1925. Early carved stones at Hexham. Archaeologia Aeliana, 4th Ser., 1, 65-92. Collingwood, W.G. 1927. Northumbrian Crosses. London. Cox, J.C. 1877. Notes on the churches of Derbyshire, 3. ??? Cox, J.C. 1886. Note on the restoration of Repton Church. Journal of the Derbyshire Archaeological and Natural History Society, 8, 231-236. Cox, J.C. 1912. Discoveries at Repton priory and church. Journal of the Derbyshire Archaeological and Natural History Society, 34, 75-78. Cox, J.C. 1913. A note on discoveries at Repton priory and church. Journal of the Derbyshire Archaeological and Natural History Society, 35, 245-246. Cox, J.C. 1916. The Little Guides: Lincolnshire, (1st ed.). London. Cox, J.C. 1924. The Little Guides: Lincolnshire, (2nd ed. revised by A.H.Thompson). London. Cramp, R. 1984. The Corpus of Anglo-Saxon Stone Sculpture: County Durham and Northumberland. Vol. 1. British Academy, Oxford. Cramp, R. 1999. A General Introduction to the Corpus of Anglo-Saxon Stone Sculpture: Grammar of AngloSaxon Ornament. British Academy, Oxford. Cramp, R. 2005. Wearmouth and Jarrow Monastic Sites. 1, English Heritage, Swindon. Cramp, R. 2006. Wearmouth and Jarrow Monastic Sites. 2, English Heritage, Swindon. Craster, H.H.E. (ed.) 1907. A History of Northumberland, 8, 131-204. Andrew Reid Ltd, Newcastle. Craster, H.E.E. (ed.) 1914. A History of Northumberland, 10, 178-219. Andrew Reid Ltd, Newcastle. Cruden, S. 1986. Scottish Medieval Architecture. J.Donald, Edinburgh. Curwen, J.F. 1932. The later records relating to North Westmorland or the Barony of Appleby, T. Wilson and Son, Kendal. Dare, P. 1951. The church of St John the Evangelist, Carlton-in-Lindrick. 2nd ed., Worksop. Dimock, A. 1901. The cathedral church of Southwell: a description of its fabric and a brief history of the episcopal see. G. Bell, London. Dixon, D.D. 1903. Upper Coquetdale, Northumberland: its history, traditions, folklore and scenery. Classic reprint series, Forgotten Books. Dodds, M.H. (ed.) 1926. A History of Northumberland, 12, 61-71. Andrew Reid Ltd, Newcastle. Dodds, M.H. (ed.) 1930. A History of Northumberland, 8. Andrew Reid Ltd, Newcastle.

Dodds, M.H. (ed.) 1935. A History of Northumberland, 14, 463-470, 482-587, 560-563. Andrew Reid Ltd, Newcastle. Dodds, M.H. (ed.) 1940. A History of Northumberland, 15, 201-202. Andrew Reid Ltd, Newcastle. Dudley, H.E. 1931. The history and antiquities of Scunthorpe and Frodingham District. Scunthorpe. English Heritage, 2007. St Peter’s Church, Barton-uponHumber. English Heritage. London. Evans, D.S. (ed. and trans.) 1990. A medieval Prince of Wales, the life of Gruffud ap Cynan. Llanerch, Felinfach. Evans, F. and Evans, J. 1999. Some early sundials of Northumbria. Bulletin of the British Sundial Society, 11, 100-103. Everson, P.L., Taylor, C.C., and Dunn, C.J. 1991. Change and Continuity. Rural Settlement in North-West Lincolnshire. London. Everson, P. and Stocker, D. 1999. Corpus of Anglo-Saxon Sculpture, Vol. V. Lincolnshire. Oxford. Fairhead, R. 2004. St Mary’s Church, Wilsford. Wilsford. (Church Guide). Fallow, T.M.(ed,) 1909. Memorials of Old Yorkshire. London. Fawcett, R. 2002. Scottish medieval architecture: architecture and furnishings. Tempus, Stroud. Featherstonhaugh, W. 1859. Saxon sculpture at St. Andrew’s, Bywell. Archaeologia Aeliana, 2nd Ser., 3, 33-35. Fernie, E.C. 1983. The Architecture of the Anglo-Saxons. Batsford, London. Fernie, E.C. 1986. Early Church Architecture in Scotland. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, 116, 393-411. Fisher, E.A. 1959. An Introduction to Anglo-Saxon Architecture and Sculpture. London. Fisher, E.A. 1962. The Greater Anglo-Saxon Churches – An Architectural-Historical Study. London. Fisher, E.A. 1963. Some little known towered Anglo-Saxon Churches in Lincolnshire. Lincolnshire Architectural and Archaeological Society Reports and Papers. 10 (1), 12-23. Fisher, E.A. 1969. Anglo-Saxon Towers. An Architectural and Historical Study. Newton Abbot. Fletcher, A.W. 1951. The south transept of Repton church. Journal of the Derbyshire Archaeological and Natural History Society, 24, 82-83. Fletcher, E.G.M. and Jackson, E.D.C. 1945. “Long and short” quoins and pilaster strips in Saxon churches. Journal of the British Archaeological Association, 3rd Ser., 9, 12-29. Fordyce, W. 1857. The History and Antiquities of the County Palatine of Durham. Vol. 1, 403-404. Fowler, C.H. 1877-1878. Glentworth Church. Associated Architectural Societies Reports and Papers, 14, 57-60. Fowler, J.T. 1887-1888. Notes on All Saints, Winterton. Associated Architectural Societies Reports and Papers, 19, 363-375. Fowler, J.T. 1904. Discovery of a primitive nave at Winterton. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of London, 2nd Series, 20, 20-24. 226

REFERENCES

Frank, G. 1888. Ryedale and North Yorkshire Antiquities, 135-143. York. Freeman, E.A. 1849. A History of Architecture. London. Freeman, E.A. 1876. The Norman Conquest. London. Freeman, E.A. 1883. English Towns and Districts. London. Gem, R.D.H. 1984. L’architecture pré-romane et romane en Angleterre, problèmes d’origine et de chronologie. Bulletin Monumental, 142, 233-272. Gem, R.D.H. 1988. The English Parish Church in the eleventh and early 12th centuries, 21-30. In: Blair, J. (ed.) 1988. Minsters and Parish churches – the local church in transition: 950-1200. Monograph of the Oxford University Committee for Archaeology. Gem, R.D.H. 1991. Tenth-century Architecture in England. Settimane di studio del Centro Italiano di studi sull’alto medioevo, 38, 820-836. Gibbons, G.S. (ed.) 1936. Diary of visits to churches in Lincolnshire [in 1848], by J.L. Ffytche of Thorpe Hall, Elkington. Lincolnshire Notes and Queries, 24/191, 3946. Gibson, W.S. 1847. The history of the monastery at Tynemouth. Vol 2, 111-125. Gilbert, E. 1946. New views on Warden, Bywell and Heddon-on-the-Wall Churches. Archaeologia Aeliana, 4th Ser., 24, 157-162. Gilbert, E. 1947. Anglian remains at St Peter’s, Monkwearmouth. Archaeologia Aeliana, 4th Ser., 25, 140-178. Gilbert, E. 1948. Anglo-Saxon work at Billingham. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle, 4th Ser., 11, 195-204. Gilbert, E. 1955. The Anglian remains at Jarrow Church, Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle, 5th Ser., 1, 311-333. Gilbert, E. 1964. Some problems of early Northumbrian architecture. Archaeologia Aeliana, 4th Ser., 42, 65-83. Gilmour, B.J.J. and Stocker, D.A. 1986. The church and cemetery of St Mark’s Lincoln. The Archaeology of Lincoln Volume 13/1, London. Glynne, S. 1916-1917. Ledsham Church. Yorkshire Archaeological Journal, 24, 206. Gough, R. 1806. Britannia: or, a chorographical description, by William Camden. Translated from the edition published in MDCVII Enlarged by latest discoveries. 4 Volumes (2nd ed.). London. Gouldsmith, H. 1929. St Andrew, Haughton-le-Skerne. Dresser & Sons, Darlington. Green, A.R. 1928. Anglo-Saxon sundials. Antiquaries Journal, 8, 489-516. Green, V.H.H. (undated). Saint Oswald’s Church, Hauxwell. (Privately published), Darlington. Grove, A. and Illingworth, P.A. 1949. Middleton Church. Bradford. Grundy, J., McCombie, G., Ryder, P., Welfare, H. and Pevsner, N. 2001. The Buildings of England: Northumberland. Penguin Books, London. Haigh, D.H. 1845. Monasteries at Wearmouth and Jarrow. Transactions of the British Archaeological Association, Winchester.

Haigh, D.H. 1846. The ancient Saxon monastery at Repton, Derbyshire. Transactions of the Archaeological Association, Winchester. 1845. (London, 1846, 448451). Haigh, D.H. 1877-1878. Yorkshire Archaeological Journal. 5, 151-154. Hall, J. 1918-25. The dates of the monastic remains at St. Peter’s Church, Monkwearmouth. Antiquities of Sunderland, 18, 36-62. Hall, J.G. 1890. Notes of Lincolnshire . . . Some Villages in the Division of Lindsey. Hull. Hammersley, J. 1975. Historical Sketch of the church of St Mary-le-Wigford with St Mark, Lincoln. (Church Guide). Harbison, P. 1992. Guide to national and historical monuments of Ireland. Gill and Macmillan, Dublin. Harding, N.S. (ed.) 1937. Bonney’s Church Notes, being notes on the churches in the Archdeaconry of Lincoln, 1845-1848 by the Venerable H.K. Bonney. Lincoln. Harding, N.S. (ed.) 1940. A Stow Visitation, being notes on the churches in the Archdeaconry of Stow by the Venerable W.B.Stonehouse. Lincoln. Hare, M. and Hamlin, A. 1986. The study of early church architecture in Ireland: an Anglo-Saxon viewpoint. In: L.A.S. Butler and R.K.Morris (eds) The Anglo-Saxon church: papers on history, architecture and archaeology in honour of Dr H M Taylor. CBA Research Report 60. Hartwell, C. and Pevsner, N. 2009. The Buildings of England. Lancashire: North. Yale University Press, London. Hartwell, C., Hyde. M. and Pevsner, N. 2004. The Buildings of England. Lancashire: Manchester and the SouthEast. Yale University Press, London. Hartwell, C., Hyde, M., Hubbard, E. and Pevsner, N. 2011. The Buildings of England: Cheshire. Yale University Press, London. Hawkes, C.F.C. 1946. Anglian and Anglo-Danish Lincolnshire. Archaeological Journal, 103, 92. Henley, E. 1911. The Church of St John the Baptist, Kirk Hammerton, York. London. Heslop, D. and Harbottle, B. Chillingham Church: the South Chapel and the Grey Tomb. Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle upon Tyne. Hill, A.duB. 1916. Pre-Norman churches and monuments of Nottinghamshire. Archaeological Journal, 73, 195206. Hill, J.W.F. 1938. Sir George Heneage’s Estate Book,1625. Lincolnshire Architectural and Archaeological Society Reports, 1 (1). 35-84. Hill, R.M.T. 1948. The Rolls and Register of Bishop Oliver Sutton, 1280-1299. Vol. I, Lincoln Record Society, 39. Lincoln. Hills, G.M. 1874. Examples of ancient earthworks. Journal of the British Archaeological Association, 30, 406-413. Hinton, D.A. 2002. Debate: the dating of ferruginouslycemented gravel as building material. Landscape History, 24, 121-122. Hipkins, F.C. 1894. Repton: Village, Abbey, Church, Priory and School. Derby and London.

227

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Hipkins, F.C. 1901. A note on discoveries made at Repton priory and church. Journal of the Derbyshire Archaeological and Natural History Society, 23, 105107. HMSO. 1990. Churches in Retirement: a Gazetteer. London. Hodges, C.C. 1893. The pre-Conquest churches of Northumbria. Reliquary, n.s. 7, 65-85. Hodges, C.C. 1893-1894. Escomb church, Durham. Illustrated Archaeologist, 1, 235-236. Hodges, C.C. 1894. The pre-Conquest churches of Northumbria. Reliquary, n.s. 8, 65-83, 193-205. Hodges, C.C. 1924. Heddon-on-the-Wall Church. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle, 4th Ser., 1, 273-279. Hodges, C.C. 1928. The church of St Bartholomew, Whittingham. Archaeologia Aeliana, 4th Ser., 5, 81-86. Hodges, C.C. and Gibson, J. 1919. Hexham and its Abbey. Hexham. Hodges, C.C. and Gibson, J. 1921. A Guide to the Priory church of St Andrew at Hexham. (2nd ed.), Hexham. Hodges, C.C. and Savage, E.S. 1907. A Record of all Works Connected with Hexham Abbey. Hexham. Hodgkin, J.E. 1913. Durham. Methuen & Co. (Little Guide Series). Hodgson, J.F. 1870. Aycliffe Church. Transactions of the Architectural and Archaeological Society of Durham and Northumberland. 3, 49-74. Hodgson, J.F. 1880-1889. Staindrop Church with three illustrations. Transactions of the Architectural and Archaeological Society of Durham and Northumberland, 3, 75-110. Hodgson, J.F. (ed.) 1902a. A History of Northumberland, 6, 102-117, 241-249. Andrew Reid Ltd, Newcastle. Hodgson, J.F. 1902b. On ‘Low side windows’. Archaeologia Aeliana, 2nd Ser., 23, 213-214. Hodgson, J.F. 1905. Church of St Michael Heighington. Transactions of the Architectural and Archaeological Society of Durham and Northumberland, 5, 1-24. Hodgson, J.F. 1906-1911. The churches of Escomb, Jarrow, and Monkwearmouth. Transactions of the Architectural and Archaeological Society of Durham and Northumberland. 6, 109-187. Hodgson, J.F. 1912. Aycliffe Church revisited; some further notes and illustrations. Transactions of the Architectural and Archaeological Society of Durham and Northumberland. 6, 1-12. Hodgson, J.F. 1934-1936. Some Architectural notes on the parish church at Pittington. Transactions of the Architectural and Archaeological Society of Durham and Northumberland, 7, 13-24. Holmes, R.E. 1938. Bywell and its twin churches. 5th ed., Hexham. Honeyman, H.L. 1935. Some early masonry in Northumberland. Archaeologia Aeliana, 4th Ser. 12, 158-186. Honeyman, H.L. 1940. Hooppell, R.E. 1879. On a perfect Saxon church at Escomb in the County of Durham. Journal of the British Archaeological Association, 35, 380-384.

Horsley, J. 1732. Britannia romana: or, the Roman Antiquities of Britain…., London. Hübner, A.E. 1873. Corpus Inscriptionun Latinarum, VII, Inscriptiones Britanniae Latinae, Berlin. Hubner, A.E. 1876. Inscriptiones Britanniae Christianae, Berlin and London. Hughes, P. 1993. The need for old buildings to ‘breathe’, Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings: Information Sheet 4. Reprinted from SPAB News, Spring, 1986. Hutchinson, W. 1787. History of Durham. 2, 313-317, 475476. Newcastle. Hutchinson, W. 1794. The History and Antiquities of the County Palatine of Durham, 3, 178, 248-249. Hutton, G. and Cook, O. 1979. English Parish Churches. Thames and Hudson, New York. Iley, W. 1974. The stones of St. Andrew, Corbridge, Archaeologia Aeliana, 5th Ser.. 2, 201-211. Irvine, J.T. 1883. The crypt beneath the chancel of Repton church. Journal of the Derbyshire Archaeological and Natural History Society, 5, 165-172. Irvine, J.T. 1891. Barholme Church, Lincolnshire. Journal of the British Archaeological Association, 47, 308-312. Irvine, J.T. 1892. Notes on discoveries made in the nave and aisles of Repton church during the recent restoration. Journal of the Derbyshire Archaeological and Natural History Society, 14, 158-160. Irvine, J.T. 1894. Plans of discoveries lately made in the nave of Repton church. Journal of the British Archaeological Association, 50, 248-250. Jackson, E.D.C. and Fletcher, E.G.M. 1949. Further notes on “long” and “short” quoins in Saxon churches. Journal of the British Archaeological Association, 3rd Ser., 12, 1-18. Johnson, R.J. 1866. St Peter’s, Monkwearmouth. Ecclesiologist, 27, 141-144. Jones, W.T. 1932-1934. Recent discoveries at Ripon cathedral. Yorkshire Archaeological Journal, 31, 76. Kerr, N. and Kerr, M. 1982. A guide to Anglo-Saxon Architecture. Granada Publishing, St Albans. Ketteringham, J.R. (ed.) 2000. Lincolnshire Bells and Bellfounders. Lincoln. Keyser, C.E. 1913. Notes on the churches of Little Bytham and Egleton. Journal of the British Archaeological Association, 2nd Series, 19, 45-54. Keyser, C.E. 1921-1922. The Church of St Michael and All Angels, Sragglethorpe. Associated Architectural Societies Reports and Papers, 36, 42-46. Kirk, G.E. 1937. All Hallows’ Church, Bardsey. Leeds. Kirk, G.E. 1953. St Andrew’s Church, Newton Kyme. Jowbit and Sowry Ltd, Leeds. Klukas, A.W. 1984. The Architectural Implications of the Decreta Lanfranci. Anglo-Norman Studies, 6, 136-171. Knowles,W,H. 1896-1905. Sockburn Church. Transactions of the Architectural and Archaeological Society of Durham and Northumberland, 5, 99-120. Knowles, W.H. 1910. The church of the Holy Cross, Wallsend, Northumberland. Archaeologia Aeliana, 3rd Ser., 6, 191. 228

REFERENCES

Micklethwaite, J.T. 1898. Some further notes on Saxon churches: being the address at the opening of the architectural section of the Lancaster meeting. Archaeological Journal, 55, 340-349. Milburn, W. and Milburn, T.R. 1918-1925. St. Peter’s Church, Monkwearmouth. Notes on the work of repairing the tower and west wall, Antiquities of Sunderland, 18, 63-74. Monson, J. (ed,) 1936. Lincolnshire Church Notes made by William John Monson FSA, afterwards sixth Lord Monson of Burton 1828-1840. Lincoln Record Society, 31. Lincoln. Morris, J.E. 1911. The West Riding of Yorkshire. 1st ed. Little Guide, Methuen, London. Morris, J.E. 1920. The North Riding of \Yorkshire. 2nd ed. Little Guide, Methuen, London. Morris, J.E. 1932. The West Riding of Yorkshire. 3rd ed. Little Guide, Methuen, London. Morris, R. 1976. Kirk Hammerton Church: the tower and the fabric of Millstone Grit. Archaeological Journal, 133, 95-103. Newell, C.S. 1938. The story of Kirk Hammerton Parish Church. Leeds. Noble, M. 1987. Thurlby – an ordinary Village. Bourne. Ó Carragáin. T. 2005. Habitual masonry styles and the local organisation of church building in early medieval Ireland. Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, 105C, 99-149. Okasha, E. 1971. Hand-list of Anglo-Saxon Non-runic Inscriptions. Cambridge. O’Sullivan, D. and Young, R. 1995 Book of Lindisfarne Holy Island. Batsford/English Heritage, London. Pace, G.G. (undated). The Collegiate and Parish church of St, Editha, Tamworth: a walk-round guide. Tamworth. Palmer, C.F.R. 1871. History and antiquities of the Collegiate church of Tamworth. Tamworth. Parker, J.H. 1895. An Introduction to Gothic Architecture, (11th ed.). Oxford. Parsons, D. 1962. The west tower of St Andrew’s Church, Corbridge. Archaeologia Aeliana, 4th Ser., 40, 171-184. Parsons, D. (ed.) 1990. Stone: Quarrying and building in England, AD 431525. Philimore with The Royal Archaeological Institute, London. Pearson, A. and Potter, J.F. 2002. Church building fabrics on Romney Marsh and the marshland fringe: a geological perspective. Landscape History, 24, 89-110. Peers, C.R. 1923-4. The inscribed and sculptured stones of Lindisfarne. Archaeologia, 74, 255-270. Peers, C.R. 1931. Recent discoveries in the minsters of Ripon and York. Antiquaries Journal, 11, 113-122. Pettigrew, T.J. 1864. The monumental crosses at Ilkley and Collingham. Journal of the British Archaeological Association, 20, 308-314. Pevsner, N. 1966. The Buildings of England Yorkshire The North Riding. Penguin, Harmondsworth. Pevsner, N. 1967. The Buildings of England, Cumberland and Westmorland. Penguin, Harmondsworth. Pevsner, N. (and Richmond, I.A). 1957. The Buildings of England: Northumberland. Penguin, Harmondsworth.

Laybourn, K. 1996. The Parish Church of Gilling West, North Yorkshire. (privately printed). Leach, P. and Pevsner, N. 2009. The Buildings of England: Yorkshire West Riding Leeds, Bradford and the North. Yale University Press, London. Lewis, S. 1833. A Topographical Dictionary of England: with historical and statistical descriptions (2nd ed.). S. Lewis, London. Leyland, M. and Sherlock, D. 2000. The conservation and study of the eastern arm of Tynemouth Priory Church. Archaeologia Aeliana, 5th Ser., 28, 111-136. Lilley, B. 1996 St Andrew’s Church, Bywell, Northumberland. Churches Conservation Trust, London. Linstrum, D.1978. West Yorkshire Architects and Architecture. Lund Humphries, London. Lipscombe, H.C. 1887. Staindrop church. Journal of the British Archaeological Association, 43, 138-144. Livett, G.M. 1883. A guide to Southwell Minster, with a history of the College of Secular Canons. J. Whittinham, Southwell. Livett, G.M. 1913, Notes on Barholm Church, Lincolnshire. Associated Architectural Societies Reports and Papers, 32, 341-350. Longstaffe, W.H.D. 1855, Norton church. Archaeological Journal, 12, 141-152. Longstaffe, W.H.D. 1880. Escomb church. Archaeologia Aeliana, 2nd Ser., 8, 281-286. Lowe, F.P. 1850-1851. On churches in the Neighbourhood of Louth. Associated Architectural Societies Reports and Papers, 1, 134-143. Lucas, A. Undated. The History of a Stafford Church. Lynam, C. 1887. Escomb church, Bishop Auckland. Journal of the British Archaeological Association, 43, 44-46. Lynam, C. 1904. Laughton-en-le-Morthen. Journal of the British Archaeological Association, 2nd Ser., 10, 195198. Lysons, D. and Lysons, S. 1817. Magna Britannia, 5, Derbyshire. London. Macdonald, A. 1929. A short history of Repton. London. McCall, H. B. 1907. The Early History of Bedale. London. McCall, H.B. 1910. Richmondshire Churches. London. Major, K. (ed.) 1940. The Registrum Antiquissimum of the Cathedral Church of Lincoln, Vol. 5. Lincoln Record Society, 34, Lincoln. Markham, G.W. 1979. The story of the Parish Church of St Laurence, Morland. Markham, G.W. 2003. The Story of the Christian Church in Morland. Reeds, Penrith. Mee, A. 1949. The King’s England, Lincolnshire – a County of Infinite Charm. London. Micklethwaite, J.T. 1882. On the crypts at Hexham and Ripon. Archaeological Journal, 39, 347-354. Micklethwaite, J.T. 1892. The Saxon crypt of Ripon minster. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of London, 14, 191-196. Micklethwaite, J.T. 1896. Something about Anglo-Saxon church building, Archaeological Journal, 53, 293-351.

229

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Potter, J.F. 2003a. Continuing the debate on ferruginouslycemented gravel churches. Landscape History, 25, 7982. Potter, J.F. 2003b. Geology of Essex churches – All Saints, Messing visited on a GA field meeting. Magazine of the Geologists’ Association, 2 (3), 6. Potter, J.F. 2004a. Viviparus limestone (‘Purbeck Marble’) – a key to financially well-endowed churches in the London Basin. Church Archaeology, 5-6, 80-91 and 2005, 7, 8 and 9, 192. Potter, J.F. 2004b. Suffolk’s Crag churches: with observations on other Crag building structures. Proceedings of the Suffolk Institute of Archaeology and History, 40, 399-413. Potter, J.F. 2005a. A geological review of some early Essex church quoins. Essex Archaeology and History, 36, 99109. Potter, J.F. 2005b. No stone unturned – a re-assessment of Anglo-Saxon long-and-short quoins and associated structures. Archaeological Journal, 162, 177-214. Potter, J.F. 2005d. Field Meeting: Romney Marsh – its churches and geology, 22 May 2004. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association, 116, 161-175. Potter, J.F. 2005e. Some observations on Orford Castle. Orford & District Local History Bulletin, 4, 4-8. Potter, J.F. 2005f. A geological review of some early Borderland churches. Transactions of the Shropshire Archaeological and Historical Society, 80, 1-16. Potter, J.F. 2006a. A geological review of some Hampshire Anglo-Saxon churches. Proceedings of the Hampshire Field Club and Archaeological Society, 61, 134-152. Potter, J.F. 2006b. Anglo-Saxon building techniques: quoins of twelve Kentish churches reviewed. Archaeologia Cantiana, 126, 185-218. Potter, J.F. 2006c. An analysis of ecclesiastical stone cut backs. Church Archaeology, 10, 57-80. Potter, J.F. 2006d. Stone emplacement in early Scottish Churches: evidence of Early Christian craftsmanship. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, 136, 227-236. Potter, J.F. 2007a. A day visiting churches: the geology of some West Surrey churches: 12th May 2007. Magazine of the Geologists’ Association, 6 (3), 14-15. Potter, J.F. 2007b. A review of some early West Sussex churches. Sussex Archaeological Collections, 145, 8196. Potter, J.F. 2008a. The medieval town wall of Great Yarmouth, Norfolk; a geological perlustration. British Archaeological Reports, British Series No. 461, BAR Publishing, Oxford. Potter, J.F. 2008b. Looking at Jurassic churches – Saturday June 7 2008 (Part 1). Magazine of the Geologists’ Association, 7 (4), 16-17. Potter, J.F. 2008c. Early stone emplacement in three Scottish ecclesiastical monuments. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, 138, 205-222. Potter, J.F. 2009a. Looking at Jurassic churches – Saturday June 7 2008 (Part 2). Magazine of the Geologists’ Association, 8 (1), 15-16.

Pevsner, N. and Harris, J. 1964. The Buildings of England Lincolnshire, (1st ed.). Penguin, Harmondsworth. Pevsner, N. and Harris, J. 1989. The Buildings of England Lincolnshire, (2nd ed. revised by M. Antram). Penguin, Harmondsworth. Pevsner, N. and Hubbard, E. 1971. The Buildings of England Cheshire, (1st ed.). Penguin, Harmondsworth. Pevsner, N. and Neave, D. 1995. The Buildings of England Yorkshire: York and the East Riding, (2nd ed.). Penguin, Harmondsworth. Pevsner, N. and Radcliffe, E. 1959. The Buildings of England Yorkshire: The West Riding. Penguin, Harmondsworth. Pevsner, N. and Williamson, E. 1953. The Buildings of England, County Durham. Penguin, Harmondsworth. Pevsner, N. and Williamson, E. 1978. The Buildings of England: Derbyshire. Penguin, Harmondsworth. Pevsner, N. and Williamson, E. 1979. The Buildings of England, Nottinghamshire. Penguin, Harmondsworth. Pevsner, N. and Willamson, E. 1983. 2nd ed. (revised). The Buildings of England, County Durham. Penguin, Harmondsworth. Phillips, J. 1853. Rivers, mountains, and sea coast of Yorkshire. London. Playford, J. 2006 (revised). A Brief History and Guide to All Saints Church, Harmston. Melton Printers, Lincoln. (Church Guide). Plumptre, F.C. 1847. The parish church of Bakewell in Derbyshire. Archaeological Journal, 4, 37-58. Pocock, M. and Wheeler, H. 1971. Excavations at Escomb Church, County Durham, 1968. Journal of the British Archaeological Association, 3rd Ser., 34, 11-29. Pollard, R. and Pevsner, N. 2006. The Buildings of England. Lancashire: Liverpool and the South-West. Yale University Press, London. Potter, J.F. 1987. Geological traces of Saxon churches in the London Basin. Geology Today, September-October, 164-168. Potter, J.F. 1998. The distribution of silcretes in the churches of the London Basin. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association, 109, 289-304. Potter, J.F. 1999. The geology of London Basin churches: the Palaeogene rocks. Tertiary Research, 19, 117-138. Potter, J.F. 2000a. The occurrence of travertine in the churches of the London Basin. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association, 111, 55-70. Potter, J.F. 2000b. More about Tertiary churches: the London Clay septaria. Tertiary Research, 20, 59-63. Potter, J.F. 2000c. Protecting the last millennium. The Environmentalist, 20, 87-91. Potter, J.F. 2001a. The London basin’s gravel churches: indications of geology, medieval history and geographical distribution. Landscape History, 23, 5-26. Potter, J.F. 2001b. The occurrence of Roman brick and tile in churches of the London Basin. Britannia, 32, 119142. Potter, J.F. 2002. The distribution of Bunter quartzites in the London Basin as portrayed by their abundance in church fabrics. Tertiary Research, 21, 155-170.

230

REFERENCES

Potter, J. F. 2009b. A famous village cross, five churches and ‘Hills and Holes’. Magazine of the Geologists’ Association, 8 (4), 7-8. Potter, J.F. 2009c. Patterns in Stonework: the Early Church in Britain and Ireland: an Introduction to Ecclesiastical Geology. British Archaeological Reports, British Series No. 496, BAR Publishing, Oxford. Potter, J.F. 2009d. Decorative Anglo-Saxon wall fabrics: a pattern in stonework. Church Archaeology, 13, 41-51. Potter, J.F. 2010a. Early churches and fossils of the Welsh Borderland, 8th and 9th May 2010, Part I, Magazine of the Geologists’ Association, 9 (3), 15-16. Potter, J.F. 2010b. A geological review of some early churches in the Northamptonshire area. Northamptonshire Archaeology, 36, 113-131. Potter, J.F. 2010c. Early churches and fossils of the Welsh Borderland, 8th and 9th May 2010, Part II, Magazine of the Geologists’ Association, 9 (4), 11-12. Potter, J.F. 2011a. Ecclesiastical Geology (Learning about churches from their stonework), Monkwearmouth Lecture, 23rd July 2011. Potter, J.F. 2011b. Geology and Churches in North East England. 28th to 31st May 2011 – Part One. Magazine of the Geologists’ Association, 10 (4), 28-29. Potter, J.F. 2011c. Porth Clew Chapel, Freshwater East, Pembrokeshire: traces of pre-Romanesque (Patterned) origin. Archaeology in Wales, 50, 45-50. Potter, J.F. 2011d. Patterns in Stonework and Early Irish Churches. Journal of Medieval Archaeology. Web Site. Potter, J.F. 2012a. Ecclesiastical Geology (Learning about Churches from their Stonework). Booklet, Monkwearmouth Lecture, Monkwearmouth. Potter, J.F. 2012b. Geology and Churches in North-East England. 28th to 31st May 2011 – Part 2. Magazine of the Geologists’ Association, 11 (1), 24-25. Potter, J.F. 2013a. Searching for Early Welsh Churches: a study in Ecclesiastical Geology. British Archaeological Reports, British Series, No. 578, BAR Publishing, Oxford. Potter, J.F. 2013b. Field Meeting Report: The Geology of some West London Churches, 22nd September 2012. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association, 124, 10111019. Potter, J.F. 2013c. Geology and Churches in Pembrokeshire, 10th -13th June 2013, Part 1. Magazine of the Geologists’ Association, 12 (3), 15-16. Potter, J.F. 2013d. Geology and Churches in Pembrokeshire, 10th-13th June 2013, Part 2. Magazine of the Geologists’ Association, 12 (4), 18-20. Poulson, G. 1841. History of Holderness, 6. Hull. Powell, F.W. 1909. A short account of St Gregory’s Minster, Kirkdale. Leeds. Pritchard, A. 2009. The origins of ecclesiastical stone architecture in Wales, 245-264. In: N. Edwards (ed.). The Archaeology of the Early Medieval Celtic Churches. Maney Publishing, Leeds. Purves, G. 2006. Churches of Newcastle and Northumberland. Tempus, Stroud. Radford, C.A.R. 1946. A lost inscription of pre-Danish age from Caistor. Archaeological Journal, 103, 95-99. 231

Radford, C.A.R. 1954a. St Paul’s Church, Jarrow. Archaeological Journal, 3, 203-205. Radford, C.A.R. 1954b. Trial excavations at Jarrow. Archaeological Journal, 3, 205-9. Radford, C.A.R. 1954c. St Peter’s Church, Monkwearmouth. Archaeological Journal, 3, 209-211. Raine, J. 1864. The Priory of Hexham, I, The Historians and Annals of the House. Surtees Society Publication, 44, Durham. Rawnsley, R.G. and Dobson, A. 1964. A history of the church of Saint Oswald, Guiseley. Keighley Printers. Read, R. 2013. All Saints’ Parish Church, Aston-on-Trent, Derbyshire. Church History, a closer look. (Church Guide). Aston-on-Trent Local History Group. Richards, C. 1999. The Eleventh- and Twelfth-century Parish Church in Lincolnshire: Architecture, Wealth and Patronage. Unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Nottingham. Richards, R, 1947. Old Cheshire churches. Batsford, London. Richardson, W. 1927. History of the parish of Wallsend. 110-122. Northumberland Press. Rickman, T. 1817. An attempt to discriminate the styles of English Architecture from the Conquest to the Reformation. Longman. London. Rickman, T. 1836. Further observations on the ecclesiastical architecture of France and England. Archaeologia, 26, 26-46. Rickman, T. 1848. An attempt to discriminate the styles of architecture in England, (5th ed.). London. Rigby, T. 1904. Laughton-en-le-Morthen church. Journal of the British Archaeological Association, 2nd Ser., 10, 189-194. Rigold, S.E. 1977. Romanesque Bases in South-east of the Limestone Belt, 99-137. In: M.R. Apted, R. GilyardBeer and A.D. Saunders (eds) Ancient Monuments and their Interpretation. Essays presented to A.J. Taylor. London. Rodwell, K.A. and Rodwell, W.J. 1976. The investigation of churches in use: a problem in rescue archaeology, 13. In: P. Addyman and R. Morris (eds), The Archaeological Study of Churches. The Council for British Archaeology Research Report. Rodwell,W. and Rodwell, K. 1980. St Peter, Barton-uponHumber. Bulletin of the Council for British Archaeology Churches Committee, 13, 6-9. Rodwell, W. and Rodwell, K. 1981. Barton-upon-Humber. Current Archaeology, 78, 209-215. Rodwell, W. and Rodwell, K. 1982. St Peter’s Church, Barton-upon-Humber: Excavation and Structural Study. Antiquaries Journal, 62 (2), 283-231. Rodwell, W.J. 1998. Holy Trinity Church, Bradwell-juxtaCoggeshall: a survey of the fabric and appraisal of the Norman brickwork. Essex Archaeology and History, 29, 59-114. Rodwell, W.J. 2011. St Peter’s, Barton-upon-Humber. I. Oxbow Books, Oxford. Rollason, D., Harvey, M. and Prestwich, M. (eds) 1998. Anglo-Norman Durham: 1093-1193. Boydell and Brewer.

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Romans, T. and Radford, C.A.R. 1954. Staindrop church. Archaeological Journal, 111, 214-217. Rose, R. 1976. Brief Notes on the Church of Hale Magna and its Registers. (Church Guide). Rowe, G. 1869-1870. On the Saxon church of All Saints, Kirby Hill. Associated Architectural Societies Reports and Papers, 10, 239-243. Rowe, G. 1873-1874. On the churches of Kirkdale and Lastingham. Associated Architectural Societies Reports and Papers, 202-210. Rowley, T. 1977. English Heritage Book of Norman England. Batsford, London. Royal Commission for Historical Monuments. 1936. Westmorland. London. Royal Commission for Historical Monuments in England (RCHME). 1981. An inventory of the historical monuments in the City of York, Central. Vol. 5. HMSO, London. Russell, P. (ed. and trans.) 2005. Vita Griffini Filii Conani: the Medieval Life of Gruffudd ap Cynan. Univerdity of Wales, Cardiff. Ryder, P. 1982. Saxon Churches in South Yorkshire. County Archaeological Monograph, 2. Barnsley. Ryder, P. 2002. Medieval cross slab grave covers in Northumberland, 2: Newcastle and South East Northumberland. Archaeologia Aeliana, 30, 75-137. Salter, H.E. 1907. The Cartulary of Eynsham, x-xi. Oxford. Salter, M. 1994. The old parish churches of south-west Wales. Folly Publications, Malvern. Salter, M. 1995. The old parish churches of Cheshire. Folly Publications, Malvern. Salzman, L.F. 1967. Building in England down to 1540. Clarendon Press, Oxford. Savage, H.E. 1900. Jarrow church and monastery. Archaeologia Aeliana, 2nd Ser., 22, 30-60. Sawyer, P. 2003. Anglo-Saxon Lincolnshire (History of Lincolnshire III). Oxbow Books, Oxford. Schaffer, R.J. 1932. The weathering of natural building stones. Department of Science and Industrial Research, Building Research Special Report No. 18. HMSO, London Selkirk,R. 2000. Chester-le-Street and its place in History. Casdec, Birtley, Durham. Sellwood, B.W. 1984. The rock types represented in the town wall of Silchester, 224-231. In: Silchester. Excavations on the defences 1974-80. Britannia Monograph Series 5, Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies, London. Senior, J.R. 1990. Hildenley Limestone: a fine quality dimensional and artefact stone from Yorkshire, 146168. In: D. Parsons, (ed.) 1990. Stone: quarrying and building in England AD 43-1525. Philimore, Chichester. Shapland, M.G. 2007. The Tower at Broughton. AngloSaxon Survey and interpretation of the eleventhcentury tower-nave at St Mary’s Church, Broughton, Lincolnshire. MA Thesis, University of York. Shepherd, W.R. 1933. All Saints Church, Kirby Underdale. Batley.

Sills, J. 1982. St Peter’s Church, Holton-le-Clay, Lincolnshire. Lincolnshire History and Archaeology, 17, 29-42. Speight, H. 1902. Lower Wharfedale. Lndon. Stapleton, H. 1923. The church of All Saints, Kirby-on-theMoor, Leeds. Stayce, J. 1869-1870. On certain very early remains in the church of Carlton-in-Lindrick. Associated Architectural Societies Reports and Papers, 10, 165-169. Stayce, J. 1874. Laughton-en-le-Morthen. Journal of the British Archaeological Association, 30, 403-405. Stenton, F. M. 1947. Anglo-Saxon England, (2nd ed.). Oxford. Stocker, D.A. 1982. Lincoln, St Benedict’s Church Tower. Lincolnshire History and Archaeology, 17, 82-83. Stocker, D.A. 1997b. ‘Also a soldier . . .’ Evidence for a Mithraeum in Lincoln? Lincolnshire History and Archaeology, 32, 21-24. Stocker, D.A. 1998. A hitherto unidentified image of the Mithraic god Arimanius at Lincoln? Britannia, 29, 359363. Stocker, D.A. 2000. Monuments and Merchants; irregularities in the distribution of stone sculpture in Lincolnshire and Yorkshire in the Tenth century, 179212. In: D. Hadley and J.Richards (eds) Cultures in Contact: Scandinavian Settlement in England in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries. Turnhout. Stocker, D.A. and Everson, P. 1990. Rubbish Recyled: a Study of the Re-Use of Stone in Lincolnshire, 83-101. In: D. Parsons (ed.) Stone: quarrying and building in England AD 431525. Philimore with The Royal Archaeological Institute, London. Stocker, D. and Everson, P, 2006. Summoning St Michael: Early Romanesque Towers in Lincolnshire. Oxbow Books, Oxford. Strickland, E.A. 1983. St. Mary’s Church, Broughton, Lincolnshire. (Church Guide). The Church Publishers, Ramsgate. Stukeley, W. 1724. Itinarium Curiosum. Or, an account of the antiquitys and remarkable curiositys in nature or art, observ’d in travels thro’ Great Britain. Centuria I. London. Surtees, R. 1816. The History and Antiquities of the County Palatine of Durham, 1, 116. Surtees, R. 1823. The History and Antiquities of the County Palatine of Durham, 3, 75-84, 152-167, 303-324, 336349. Surtees, R. 1840. The History and Antiquities of the County Palatine of Durham (ed. J. Raine), 4. Sutton, A.F. 1899-1900. A Description of the Churches visited in the excursion from Gainsborough, July 5th and 6th 1899. Associated Architectural Societies Reports and Papers, 25, 121-137. Sutton, A.F. 1903-1904. A Description of the Churches visited from Sleaford, June 30th and July 1st 1903. Associated Architectural Societies Reports and Papers, 27, 92-111. Sutton, A.F. 1905-1906. Report on churches visited from Brigg, June 20th and 21st 1905. Associated Architectural Societies Reports and Papers, 28, vi-xvii.

232

REFERENCES

Taylor, J. and Taylor H.M. 1966. Architectural Sculpture in Pre-Norman England. Journal of the British Archaeological Association, 3rd Series, 29, 3-51. Taylor, H.M. and Taylor, J. 1965. Anglo-Saxon Architecture. Vols. 1 and 2. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Taylor, R.V, 1875. Ecclesiae Leodienses. London. Thompson, A.H. 1907-1908. Pre-Conquest Church towers in North Lincolnshire. Associated Architectural Societies Reports and Papers. 29, 43-71. Thompson, A.H. 1909. The village churches of Yorkshire, 106-164. In: T.M.Fallow (ed.) Memorials of Old Yorkshire. London. Thompson, A.H. 1911a. Saxon Churches in Lincolnshire, 53-80. In: E.M. Sympson (ed.) Memorials of Old Lincolnshire. London. Thompson, A.H. 1911b. The Ground Plan of the English Parish Church. Cambridge. Thompson, A.H. 1946. The churches of St Mary-leWigford, St Benedict, and St Peter-at-Gowts, Lincoln. Archaeological Journal, 103, 162-166. Thompson, J. 1961. Bakewell Church. Archaeological Journal, 118, 218-219. Thorold, H, 1989. Lincolnshire Churches Revisited. Wilton. Trollope, E. 1861-1862. Notes on Market Rasen, and places in its vicinity visited by the Society in 1862. Associated Architectural Societies Reports and Papers, 6, 139-175. Trollope, E. 1865-1866b. Notes on Gainsborough and other Places in its vicinity, visited by the Society on 31st May and 1st June, 1866. Associated Architectural Societies Reports and Papers, 8, 213-254. Trollope, E. 1867-1868. Notes on the Churches visited by the Society, June 19th and 20th. 1867. Associated Architectural Societies Reports and Papers, 9, 1-37. Trollope, E. 1872. Sleaford and the Wapentakes of Flaxwell and Aswardhurn. (reprinted 1999). Sleaford. Trollope, E. 1875-1876a Notes on the churches etc. visited by the Society from Grantham on the 16th and 17th June 1875. Associated Architectural Societies Reports and Papers, 13, 1-28. Trollope, E. 1877-1878. The Churches of Great Grimsby and other Parishes visited by the Society on the 18th and 19th June 1878. Associated Architectural Societies Reports and Papers, 14, 151-166. Trollope, E. 1881-1882. The Report [Notes on churches visited by the Society]. Associated Architectural Societies Reports and Papers, 16, vi-xv. Trollope, E. 1885-1886. The Report [Notes on churches visited by the Society]. Associated Architectural Societies Reports and Papers, 18, lxvi-lxxiii. Trollope, E. and Trollope, A. 1860. Contributions to the history of Britain under the Romans. Roman inscriptions and sepulchral remains in Lincoln. Archaeological Journal, 17, 1-21. Trunble, M. 2012. Thurlby, Lincolnshire. (Church Guide). Tudor, C.L.R. 1876. A brief description of Kirkdale Church. London. Tupling, G. H. 1948. The pre-Conquest and Norman churches of Lancashire. Transactions of the Lancashire and Cheshire Antiquarian Society, 60, 1-28.

Sutton, A.F. 1907-1908. A Description of the Churches Visited by the Excursion from Grimsby, June 18th and 19th 1907. Associated Architectural Societies Reports and Papers, 29, 71-90. Swanton, M. 2000. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles. Phoenix Press, London. Sympson, E.M. 1905-1906. Where was Sidnacester? Associated Architectural Societies Reports and Papers, 28, 87-94. Sympson, E.M. 1906. Lincoln. London. Sympson, E.M. (ed.) 1911. Memorials of Old Lincolnshire. London. Tann, G., and Field, N. 2003. St Martin’s Church, Waithe, Lincs: archaeological desk-based appraisal. Unpublished Lindsey Archaeological Services Report, 665. Tate, G.F.S. 1864. The Vill, manor and church of Longhoughton, Northumberland. Reprinted from the Alnwick Mercury. British Museum, Historical Print Edition. Taylor, H.M. 1959. Some Little-Known Aspects of English Pre-Conquest Churches, 137-158. In: P. Clemoes (ed.) The Anglo-Saxons. Studies in some Aspects of their History and Culture presented to Bruce Dickins. Cambridge. Taylor, H.M. 1961. English Architecture in the time of Bede. Rector of Jarrow, Jarrow. Taylor, H.M. 1968. Belfry towers in Anglo-Saxon England. North Staffordshire Journal of Field Studies, 8, 11-18. Taylor, H.M. 1970. The origin, purpose and date of pilasterstrips in Anglo-Saxon England. North Staffordshire Journal of Field Studies, 10, 21-48. Taylor, H.M. 1971. Repton Reconsidered, 351-389. In: P. Clemoes and K. Hughes (eds) England before the Conquest. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Taylor, H.M. 1974. Anglo-Saxon Architecture in Lincolnshire. Archaeological Journal, 131, 293-298. Taylor, H.M. 1977. Repton Studies 1: The Anglo-Saxon Crypt 1974-76. Cambrige. Taylor, H.M. 1978. Anglo-Saxon Architecture, Vol. 3. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Taylor, H.M. 1979a. Repton Studies 2: The Anglo-Saxon crypt and church. Fengraphic, Cambridge. Taylor, H.M. 1979b. St Wystan’s Church, Repton. A guide and history. Simpson and Sons, Derby. Taylor, H.M. 1983. Repton Studies 3: Post-Conquest Development of the Anglo-Saxon Church. Fengraphic, Cambridge. Taylor, H.M. 1987. St Wystan’s Church, Repton. Derbyshire. Archaeological Journal, 144, 205-245. Taylor, H.M. 1989. St Wystan’s Church, Repton. A guide and history. Tatler and Son, Derby. Taylor, H.M. 1991. Was there ever a west doorway at St Peter’s Church, Barton-on-Humber, 9-10. In: D. Tyszka, K.Miller and G.F. Bryant (eds) Land, People and Landscapes. Essays on the history of the Lincolnshire region written in honour of Rex C. Russell. Lincoln. Taylor, J. and Taylor, H.M. 1961. Problems of the dating of pre-Conquest Churches. North Staffordshire Journal of Field Studies. 1, 58-76. 233

PATTERNS IN STONEWORK: THE EARLY CHURCHES IN NORTHERN ENGLAND PART B

Turner, T.H. 1846. Observations on the crypt of Hexham church. Archaeological Journal, 2, 239-242. Turner, T.H, 1847. (Editorial), Saxon Period, Archaeological Journal, 3, 163-164. Twycross-Raines, G.F. 1920. Transactions of the East Riding Antiquarian Society, 23, 28. Varah, W.E. 1936. The Notable Churches of Barton-onHumber. Barton-on-Humber. Venables, E. 1887-1888. A List and Brief Description of the Churches of Lincoln previous to the period of the Reformation. Associated Architectural Societies Reports and Papers, 19, 326-354. Venables, E. 1890, Remarks on Mr Brock’s article. Journal of the British Archaeological Association, 46, 25-28. Victoria County History, County of Durham, 1905. Vol. 5, 235-238. London. Victoria County History, Lincolnshire, 1906. Vol. 2. London. Victoria County History, County of Yorkshire.1913. Vol. 3, 107. London. Victoria County History, County of Lancashire, 1914. Vol. 8. London. Victoria County History, York, North Riding, 1914. Vol. 1, 78-84, 245-251, 297-299, 449-454-469, 505-511, 563566. London. Victoria County History, A History of the County of York North Riding. 1923. Vol. 2, 91-98, 309-319, 437-440, 528-532. London. Victoria County History, County of Durham. 1928. Vol. 3. 195-203, 247-254, 259-261, 318-320. London. Victoria County History, A History of the County of Stafford. 1970. Vol. 3. London. Victoria County History, A History of the County of York East Riding. 1976. Vol. 3. 89-101. London. Victoria County History, A History of the County of Stafford. 1979. Vol. 4. London. Victoria County History. A History of the County of Stafford: Lichfield. 1990. Vol.14. 47-57. London. Victoria County History, A History of the County of York East Riding. 2002. Vol. 7, London. Vyner, B. 1999. Whorlton Holy Cross church, Swainby, North Yorkshire. Yorkshire Archaeological Journal, 71. Walbran, R.J. 1846. On a crypt at Ripon cathedral. Transactions of the Archaeological Association, Winchester, 1845. (London, 1846, 339-354). Walbran, R.J. 1859-1860. St Wilfred and the Saxon church of Ripon. Associated Architectural Societies Reports, 5, 63-96. Wall, J.C. 1894. The Monastic Church of Lastingham. York. Ward, G. 1932. The list of Saxon churches in the Textus Roffensis. Archaeologia Cantiana, 44, 39-59. Watson, C.E. 1901. A History of Clee and the Thorpes of Clee. Grimsby. Wenham, L.P., Hall, R.A., Briden, C.M. and Stocker, D.A. 1987. St Mary Bishophill Junior and St Mary Castlegate. Council for British Archaeolgy, London. Wentworth, C.K. 1922. A scale of grade and class terms for clastic sediments. The Journal of Geology, 80, 279-284.

Whellan, W. 1894. History, Topography and Directory of Durham. Whitlock, D. 1955. English Historical Documents, I, c. 500 to 1042. In: D.C.Douglas (gen. ed.), London. Wilson, F.R. 1870. Churches of the Archdeaconry of Lindisfarne. 92-93 and 179-182. Newcastle. Winterbotham, J.J. 1985. Hackness in the Middle Ages, 2nd ed. (pamphlet). Wordsworth, J. 1879-1880. Anglo-Saxon dedicatory inscription on the tower of St Mary-le-Wigford church in Lincoln. Associated Architectural Societies Reports and Papers, 15, 16-17. Wright, R.P. 1970. A fourth-century Roman inscription from the Saxon church at Escomb, County Durham. Archaeologia Aeliana, 4th ser., 48, 45-49.

234