Pashas, Begs, and Effendis: A Historical Dictionary of Titles and Terms in the Ottoman Empire 9781463229894

Citation preview

Pashas, Begs, and Effendis

Analecta Isisiana: Ottoman and Turkish Studies

A co-publication with The Isis Press, Istanbul, the series consists of collections of thematic essays focused on specific themes of Ottoman and Turkish studies. These scholarly volumes address important issues throughout Turkish history, offering in a single volume the accumulated insights of a single author over a career of research on the subject.

Pashas, Begs, and Effendis

A Historical Dictionary of Titles and Terms in the Ottoman Empire

Gustav Bayerle

The Isis Press, Istanbul

preSS 2011

Gorgias Press LLC, 954 River Road, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA www.gorgiaspress.com Copyright© 2011 by The Isis Press, Istanbul Originally published in 1997 All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise without the prior written permission of The Isis Press, Istanbul. 2011

ISBN 978-1-61143-109-4

Reprinted from the 1997 Istanbul edition.

Printed in the United States of America

FOREWORD

The compilation of the present glossary of Ottoman historical terms took many years. I began to collect them while still a student, since their definitions in Redhouse1 were imprecise, at times even misleading. During those years my three-by-five cards with references were handy for tests and exams. Eventually I began teaching, and instead of answering the questions on tests I had to put them together ; my yellowing batch of cards still served me well. As years went by the collection continued to grow. I copied glossaries from studies of my colleagues, appropriated felicitous phrases and scores of good definitions from the footnotes of scholarly monographs. Titles were culled from published Ottoman documents, terms copied from encyclopedias. Without the arrival of the computer age this dictionary would be still just cards in a box. 1 got my first computer in 1983 and soon the cards were turned into files. The definitions were endlessly reedited and supplemented ; whenever it was feasible sources were attributed, their actual use in archival documents were noted. The history of the Ottoman Empire encompasses more than 600 years. In such a long span, terms and institutions evolved and fell into disuse, their functions altered; I endeavored to record these changes in the individual entries. Throughout the centuries the English rendering of Ottoman terms created problems to contemporary writers, and numerous variants exist ; some of the early ones can be practically unrecognizable2 to the untrained readers. For this reason I decided to observe a version of the traditional transliteration system of Ottomanists as listed in the inside cover of the International Journal of Middle Eastl Studies. Following that tradition I render words of Arabic and Persian origins rather closely but, only the consonants are marked in words of Turkish origin. Whenever in doubt I also consulted the New Redhouse Turkish-English Dictionary3 since its system of indicating vowels in remarkably consistent. For students who do not know Turkish such fine distinctions might be irrelevant, 'Sir James W. Redhouse, A Turkish and English Lexicon (Constantinople, 1921). E.g. "caddeelescheer" for kafi'l- 'asker, "supreme justice," in Rycaut, p. 45, or "chiachia" for kahya, "steward, deputy," colloquial variant of kelffiida in Rycaut, p. 14. Istanbul, 1968. 2

VI

GUSTAV

BAYERLE

but for specialists inexact rendering can be a source of irritation and possible misinterpretation. Entries are often concluded with abbreviated citations in parentheses. Some of the forty-three cited works are encyclopedias, others are reference works, studies on aspects of Ottoman history, published contemporary Ottoman discourses, or collections of archival documents. Accordingly, the citations can indicate quotation of original occurrences, more thorough treatments of the subjects, or list of additional readings. I consulted two of these works with particular frequency; the Encyclopaedia of Islam: New Edition4, a still unfinished international product of two generations of specialists on all aspects of Islamic cultures, the authoritative work of reference of nearly 10,000 pages, and the handbook of Yilmaz Oztuna 5 , a 1,200-page work on Ottoman institutions throughout the centuries. The two Turkish dictionaires of historical terms, those of Mehmet Zeki Pakahn 6 and of Midhat Sertoglu 7 were always next to my computer. I would not venture to compete with the works of these two venerated scholars except that their dictionaries are of use only for those students who can read Turkish. I have also included some titles, terms and geographic names missing from their compilations. I gratefully acknowledge my debt to the authors of the above cited works, especially to Halil tnalcik, the internationally acclaimed doyen of Ottoman studies and author of a number of insightful entries in EI2. I am particularly grateful to two of my friends and colleagues, Alan W. Fisher and Cornell H. Fleischer. They kindly consented to read the manuscript at various stages of writing and offered numerous improvements as well as encouragement. I am also thankful to Karin Ford, administrative assistant in the Department of Central Eurasian Studies, Indiana University, who proofread the manuscripts and made several corrections. Thanks are also due to the copy editor for the Isis Press who spotted several questionable definitions. He and the helpfulness of the Isis Press made the tedious task of the final preparation of the manuscript a pleasant experience. I would like to dedicate this modest dictionary to the students I have taught at Indiana University for thirty years. Their interest in Ottoman history and their questions on terms and institutions were the inspiration for the published version of the present work.

4

8 vols. (London and Leiden, 1960-1995), = El2. Devleller ve hdnedanlar: Turkiye, 1074-1990 [States and Dynasties: Turkey, 1074-1990], Vol. ii (Ankara, 1989). Osmanh tank deyimleri ve lerimleri sezlUjjU [Dictionary of Ottoman Historical Phrases and Technical Terms], 3 vols. (Istanbul. 1946). 7Osmanh tarih lilgati [Ottoman Historical Dictonary], enlarged second edition, (Istanbul, 1986). 5

A

' ABD "Slave", more particularly male slave. Other words of Arabic origin used for slaves were £ulám (pi. gúmán), "slave boy"; esir (pi. lisera), "captive slave"; ffádim (pi. fjuddam), "[slave] eunuch"; cartye, "female slave, concubine"; and Ifala'ik, "female slave." Bende was the Persian term for slave. In addition the Turkish words kul and kdle were also used for male slaves. ABDÁL i. A dervish who believes in the doctrine that faith alone, not adherence to traditional doctrines and rituals, is necessary for salvation. ii. The fifth degree in the hierarchy of süfi saints who participate in the preservation of the universe. iii. In colloquial Turkish abdál assumed a pejorative meaning of "simpleton" or "fool". ABDEST Ritual washing of the face, hands, and feet before praying. 'ABDU 'LLAH "God's slave," popular Islamic name, also used by Muslim converts as surrogate for the name of their non-Muslim fathers as. e.g. Mehmed bin 'Abdu 'Hah. 'ACEM Persia, also any foreign region. ' ACEMIOCAGI The 'aceml corps; the Istanbul ocak was quartered in 31 odas built in the reign of Mehemmed II (1451-1481). Each oda had a bólük-ba§i except the oda of the Istanbul agasi that had nine bdliik-bafis under a ba$ bolttk-baji. The officiers of the 'acemi corps comprised the Istanbul agasi, "the Agha of Istanbul," his kethüdá, the favuf, afgi-bafi, the kethiida a¡$iba¡i, the baf-bólük-bafi, the 39 bdlük-ba¡ts, and the two kapucis (Kavánin: 19b-20b). 'ACEMl OGLAN "Foreign boy", boy of Christian parents conscripted for service in one of the ¡fapu kult units. The boys were selected through the devfirme levy system from rural Balkan communities or from captives. The most suitable of the boys were taken to the Palace schools, the rest

GUSTAV

2

BAYERLE

were sent to Turkish farmsteads to learn Turkish and the tenets of Islam while doing physical labor. After some years they were recalled to serve in the 'acemi corps in Gelibdli, Edirne, and Istanbul. In the reign of Suleiman I (1520-1566) 4, 000 'acemi onions worked in Istanbul; by the beginning of the 17th century their number increased to 8,000. After the establishment of the Istanbul ocak the Gelibdli ocak lost its earlier importance and had only 400-500 boys. The corps formed the reserve pool of the Janissary corps and in the meantime were utilized to perform manual labor in public construction works — the torba, "bag", service. In addition to carrying building material the torba included transportation of firewood for the palace and service as crew for 72 cargo boats. Vacancies in the Janissary corps were traditionally filled from the 'acemi reserves. By the late 16th century sons of Janissaries also gained the right to join the corps. Eventually the majority of new recruits came from these kul oghs and after a few generations the devfirme system of recruitment was gradually abandoned (Kavdnin: 19b-20b, R268a ; E12, i: 206-20). ' A D A L E T MEYDANI "Court of Justice, "variant for the Divan meydam of the Topkapi Palace. 'ADALET-NAME "Justice-writ," an edict of the sultan forbidding some specified abuses of Ottoman authorities. Local kadis were held responsible for upholding adalet-names. ADLi

"The Just," epithet for Mahmud II (1808-1839).

AGA "Agha, master, elder", title given to senior officers or officials in the military and in the Topkapi Palace, especially i. The black eunuchs of the harem, and the white eunuchs of the Enderun of the Topkapi Palace; ii. The pages of the Privy Ward of the Topkapi Palace; iii. The commanders of the Janissary Corps and the Cavalry Troops of the Porte. iv. In the 19th century the term agha was popularly used for illiterate officers while literate officers were addressed as efendi (Ef1, i: 246-247). AGA BOLUGt

The first boluk of a gdniillii cema 'at in garrisons.

AGA BOLUKLERl The "bolUks of the Agha." i. The 61 boliiks added to the 100 cema'at ortalari of the Janissary Corps by Sultan Selirn I (1512-1520) constituting the 1st to 61st odas of the Janissary Corps with 50 soldiers per boluk. These companies were commanded by the boliik-bafts under the direct supervision of the Agha of the Janissaries. These boliiks were established at the time when the new

P A S H A S , B E G S , AND E F E N D I S

3

agha was promoted from the palace kuls and the segban-baft lost its right of succession. The Agha needed his own personal troops to counterbalance the 34 segban bdliiks. The sultan himself was nominally enrolled in the 1st btiliik. The rest of the 100 cema'ats were commanded by yaya-bafis (Kavanin: 85b-86b). ii. The 9 'acemi boliiks in the oda of the Agha of Istanbul. The other 30 odas had one boltik per oda (Kavanin: 19b). AGA £IRAGI The "agha's apprentice", non-devfirme Muslim recruits taken directly in the personal retinue of the Agha of the Janissaries without prior service in the 'acemi corps. This practice was first noted in the reign of Murad HI (1574-1595) ('Aziz: 6; Sertoglu : 6). AGA DlVANI The Council of the Agha of the Janissaries was formed by the six ocak aghas: the Agha of the Janissaries, the kul kethiidasi, the segbanba§i, the zagarci-ba}i, the samsunct-bafi, and the furnact-bafi, as well as the beytii'l-malgt, the kethiida yen, the yeniferi kdtibi, the baygavu^, the muhtir aga, and the ta'lim-haneci. AGA IMAMI The imam of the Janissary Corps with the rank of yaya-ba$i (Kavanin : R 267b). AGA KAPUSI The "Agha's Gate". The residence and office of the Agha of the Janissaries mentioned for the first time in the 17th century. It was located in the vicinity of the Siileymaniye complex. After the destruction of the Janissary corps in 1826 the building complex was given to the §eyhu 7iIslam to be his official residence known as the bab-i fetva or bdb-i mefifyat. Presently the building complex houses the offices of the Mufti of Istanbul. AGA PA§A From mid-17th century on the Agha of the Janissaries received the rank of vezir and was known informally as aga pafa (Sertoglu : 366). AGAYAN-I RiKAB-I HUMAYON "Aghas of the imperial stirrup," also known as iizengi agalart, since they accompanied the sultan on public processions marching next to the stirrups of his horse. The aghas of this group were ranked according to seniority as the Agha of the Janissaries, the mir- 'alem, the two mir-ahurs, the kapualar kethiidasi, the favuf-ba$t, the fakirci-bafi, the (agnigir-bafi, and the boliik aghas. All these personally assisted the sultan in mounting his horse ( T K ; El2, viii: 528529). AGHA OF ISTANBUL In Turkish Istanbul agasi, the commander of the 'acemi corps in Istanbul.

4

GUSTAV

BAYERLE

AGHA OF THE JANISSARIES In Turkish yenigerì a&ast, the commander of the Janissary corps, senior of all ilzengi aghas (TK). ' A H D - N À M E "Letter of agreement", treaty of truce and amity between the Ottoman Empire and a non-Muslim state; especially a formal unilateral proclamation of grants of specified privileges to foreign states in order to advance international trade or for political considerations. Bayezid I (13891402) granted the first 'ahd-nàmes to Ragusa and Genoa. In 1454 Venice was granted the right of paying only two percent customs duties and of having a permanent representative in Istanbul. In 1536 France received similar rights for entering into a formal anti-Habsburg alliance with the Ottoman Empire. AHI

"Generous", a member of the quasi-religious urban ahi association of craftsmen and merchants in Anatolian cities based on futuvvet principles in the late Seljuk and early Ottoman periods. At the collapse of Seljuk power after 1243, ahi organizations assumed authority in several Anatolian towns. By the 15th century a f f i organizations faded into obscurity although some ahi traditions survived in the Ottoman guilds (El2, i: 321323).

AK AGA "White agha", also known as ak hadim, "white eunuch", one of the white eunuchs serving in the Enderun of the Topkapi Palace under the general supervision of the Bàbii 's-sa'ade agasi, also known as Kapu agasi, and his three senior aghas, the hass oda-bafi, hazinedar-ba$i, and kilarci-baii. They constituted the permanent staff of Enderun and were responsible for the training and discipline of the pages in the five odas. In Selim I's reign (1512-1520) their number was raised to 40. In the 18th century the silàhdàr became the senior officer of Enderun (EI2, ii: 1088). AK BAYRAK Also beyaz sancak, the "white banner", the great white banner of the Janissary Corps. In processions it was carried in front of the Agha of the Janissaries. A K £ A Also akfe, "whitish", Ottoman monetary unit, the standard Ottoman silver coin known as asper in Europe. Its silver content had gradually fallen from 1.1 gr in 1444 to 0.3 gr in 1622. By that time French écus, Spanish regales, Dutch riksdalers and German thalers invaded the Levant. In the 18th century the akga lost so much of its value that the guruf, "piaster," became the standard Ottoman monatery unit in imitation of the German thaler with 50 percent silver content. In time the guruj too became adulterated (EI2, ii: 118-119). AK-DENlZ "White Sea", the Mediterranean Sea.

P A S H A S , B E G S , AND E F E N D I S

5

AKINCI "Raider", volunteer cavalry of semi-nomadic Turkoman tribesmen and non-Turkish Muslim and Byzantine adventurers in the era of early Ottoman history who raided enemy territory for booty. The first Ottoman sultans succeeded in melding akinci propensity for looting and plundering with the religious fervor of ghazi ideology. The akinciSgdzi warriors constituted the main striking force in the expansion of the state. With the formation of a feudal sipaki cavalry and a slave Janissary infantry in the late 14th century, professional soldiers took over the role of the akincis who were gradually reduced to fulfilling auxiliary tasks as irregular cavalry. They remained useful in the Balkans where the seriars could count on thousands of volunteers to join the regular forces in campaigns against the Hungarians, Wallachians, or the Habsburgs in the 16th century. Those akmcis who distinguished themselves in battle could gain sipáhi status in the timár army (EI2, i: 340). ' ALÀMET-Ì SERIFE The "Noble Sign", one of the epithets for the tugra. ALAY i. A military unit of varied size from a few hundred to a few thousand men. ii. Public ceremonial procession of the Ottoman court on bayrams, "festivals"; be$ik alayi on the occasion of the birth of a prince; geliti alayi on the occasion of the wedding of a princess; kadir alayi on the occasion of the 27th of the month of Ramatati, when the first àyet of the Koran was revealed ; kihf alayi, the ceremonial girding of the sword of 'Osman I (1300-1324) at the accession of a new sultan; mevlid alayi on the occasion of the Prophet's birth; siinnet alayi on the occasion of the ceremonial transport of the vàlide sultan from the Old Palace to the Topkapi Palace at accessions (EI2, vi: 858-865). iii. A regiment in the 'Asàkir-i niiàmiye-i ¡ahane, "the Regular Imperial Army," organized in 1841. Each regiment under the command of the mir-alay had three battalions. ALAY BEGt Also mir-alay, "troop commander", the deputy officer of the sancak begi responsible for marshaling the sipàhis of a sancak (Sertoglu: 14). ALAY QAVUSI i. One of the messengers who carried the commands of the serdàr in battle. is. One of the marshals who cleared the route for processions in Istanbul. ALAY-IHÜMÁYÜN The sultan's public departure from and return to Istanbul usually in connection with a military campaign.

6

GUSTAV

BAYERLE

ALAY KO§Kl A pavilion in the Topkapi Palace incorporated in the outside wall from which the sultans viewed parades. It was built in the reign of Murad ED (1574-1595). ALAY M E Y D A N I The "Court of Processions", the First Court of the Topkapi Palace between the Bab-1 hiimayun, the "Imperial Gate", and Orta kapu, the "Middle Gate". Because of the proximity of the Hagia Sophia the two gates could not be aligned. This court lodged the Darii 't-tarb-i biruni, the "Outer Mint"; the Cebe-hane-i 'amire, "Armory", in the former Church of St. Irene; the Kulle-i kagid emini, "Tower of the Paper Commissioner", where decrees on petititons were handed out; an 'acemioglan dormitory for 120 boys employed to do menial chores in the Palace, a timar-ffdne, "infirmary" for if oglans; anbar-i hime, a huge wood storehouse for wood; kar-hanes, "workshops"; other anbars and utilitarian buildings; and the notorious cellad ta$i, "executioner's stone", also known as seng-i 'ibret "stone of admonition". The palace waterworks were also located here. A Jurun-i nan-i hass, "imperial bakery", was built next to the waterworks in 1616. On special occasions this court served as assembling point for processions and also as a waiting area. Dignitaries invited to attend a divan meeting in the Second Court, left their horses and attendants here (Necipoglu: 40-50). 'ALEM "Standar, banner", in Arabic, synonymous with Zi'va; in Turkish with bayrak and sancak. The terms 'alem and bayrak maintained their original meanings while liva and sancak eventually signified "under the standard," i.e. a military unit; extending that definition it came to denote an area controlled by a military unit, i.e. an administrative district (El2, i: 394). 'ALEMDAR

"Standard-bearer", synonymous with bayrakdar.

'ALEM MEHTERLERl

Also tabl-hane, or mehter-hane,

"military band".

' A L E V l A "follower of "All", who acknowledged 'All as the successor of Muhammad to the Caliphate. Some of them in Turkoman areas accepted extreme Shi'ism with a political messianism mingled with shamanistic and Christian beliefs. The kmlba§ in 16th-century Anatolia constituted one of the 'Alevi religious-political movements. Many 'Alevi ideas were closely related to Bekta§i doctrines but unlike them the 'Alevis did not organize an established order but rather retained the character of folk religion surviving in villages in eastern Anatolia. Together with the closely related taljtacis their number in modern Turkey is estimated as being several million (§apolyo: 254-287). 'ALÌM, pi. 'ulema

A "scholar", graduate of a medrese.

P A S H A S , B E G S , AND E F E N D I S

7

AL-i 'OSMÂN The "House of 'Osman", the Ottoman dynasty. ALP "Hero", title and also a proper name among various Turkic tribal groups since ancient times. In some Turkic dialects it occurs in compound titles such as alp gâzi, alp han, or alp tegin. ALTI BÔLÙK The "six [cavalry] troops [of the Porte]", also known as the kapu-kuh sipâhisi, the troops of the kapu-kuh cavalry in Istanbul: i. The sipâhi troops — in 1573 2,210 sipàhis, in 1609 7,805, in 1631 7,000; ii. The silâhdâr troops — in 1573 2,127 silâhdàrs, in 1609 7,283, in 1631 2,000; iii. The £urebà-i yemin, the "Right Wing of the ùarïb Troops" — in 1573 406 garibs, in 1609 928, in 1631 900 ; iv. The gurebà-i yesàt, the "Left Wing of the Garib troops" — in 1573 407 garibs, in 1609 975, in 1631 905; v. The 'ulufeciyân-i yemin, the "Right Wing of the 'Uliifeci Troops" — in 1573 400 'ulufecis, in 1609 2,055, in 1631 2,000, and ; vi. The 'ulûfeciyàn-i yesâr, the "Left Wing of the 'Ulufeci Troops" — in 1573 407 'ulùfecis, in 1609 1,423, in 1631 1,400. The first two troops were known as yukart bolukler, "the [two] upper troops", the last four as bolukât-i erba'a, "the four troops". In 1527 the alti bôliik numbered 5,088 soldiers, in 1573 5,957 soldiers, in 1609, 20,869 soldiers, in 1631, 14,205 soldiers (Kôçï Beg: 26-27, 41-42; 'Ayn 'All: 91; Barkan: 300). ALTIN YOL The "Golden Path", the covered corridor that connected the sultan's Privy Chamber with the Harem. AMEDl Or amedci, one of the assistants of the re'isii '1-kuttàb; the Chief of the Amedi Bureau, one of the bureaus of the Imperial Council established around 1777 for processing all written transactions of the re'îsii 'l-kiittàb. He was present at the meetings of the re'isii 'l-kiittàb with foreign ambassadors and kept the minutes. The amedi kalemi kept minutes of the Council of Ministers and endorsed the title documents for timàrs and ze'amets for a fee. In the post-Taniimât period, i.e. after 1877, the amedci was one of the five principal officers of the Sublime Porte until the reorganization of the administration in 1908 {EI2, i: 433). 'ÂMÎL, pl. 'ummàl

"Custodian, agent", especially a tax-collector.

ANADOLU Modern Turkish for Anatoli, "Anatolia".

GUSTAV

8

BAYERLE

ANATOLI i. Anatolia, Asia Minor, the Asiatic part of Modern Turkey. ii. Anatoli vilayeti, was made a province in 1393 in western Asia Minor with the seat of the province in Kutahya. In 1609 the province had 7,311 kihf units, 195 of which were ze'amet estates; with 9,700 cebelii retainers it provided for 17,000 soldiers from the following 14 sancaks: Kutahya, Teke, Aydin, Mente§e, Sarufoan, Karasi, Hamid, Kara-hijar-i Sahib. Ankara, Kangiri, Boli, Kastamonl, Sultan-ofii, and $tfdavendig&r. In addititon the province had 26,500 mttsellem subjects who provided for 6,900 ejkinci auxiliaries. According to Kdf i Beg in 1640 the Anatolian province had 7,300 kihf properties, 95 of which were ze 'amet estates providing 15,000 soldiers on campaigns ('Ayn 'Ali: 43-45; Unat: 449; Birken: 115-121). ANATOLIA

Anatoli in English.

ANATOLI BEGLERBEGtSt The Governor General of the province of Anatolia. Unlike the Governor General of the Rumelia, he was not a permanent member of the Imperial Council. For a list of the beglerbegis of Anatolia see Oztuna: 1097-1100. ANATOLI DEFTERDARI The defterdar of Anatolia, established around 1480 as a separate branch of Department of Finance. He was under the general supervision of the ba§-defterdar and was also a member of the divan-i hiimayun. ANATOLI KAZl-'ASKERI The supreme judge in the Province of Anatolia, the junior of the two kazi-'askers, a permanent member of the Imperial Council. ANBARCI Mate on cargo-boats. A kalyon, "galleon", usually had 10 to 20 anbarc is. 'ARAB "Arab", in Ottoman usage it generally signified a Bedouin or a Negro. Ak 'Arab, an Arab who settled in a town or a city. 'ARABACI "Wagon driver", serving in one of the following groups : i. A wagon driver in the Imperial Stables under the supervision of the mar-ahur-i sani; ii. A member of the artillery auxiliary corps whose duty it was to transport the cannons 'ARAB VE 'ACEM DEFTERDARI The defterdar of the eastern regions conquered by Selim I (1512-1520) residing in Aleppo. Toward the end of

P A S H A S , B E G S , AND E F E N D I S

9

Suleiman I's reign (1520-1566) his office was subdivided and was attached to the relevant provinces. 'ARAKQfN Or 'arakiye, a soft skullcap worn under the turban. ARAZI PI. of art, "land, territory". ARNAVUD "Albania, Albanian". ARPA EMINI The intendant of the stable accounts (Unat: 469). ARPALIK "For barley", large dirlik estates granted to high ranking officials who were retired or were temporarily out of office. Occasionally arpalik was also granted as a supplement to salaries. In the 1630s K091 Beg complained that the practice of assigning numerous timar holdings as arpaliks put the military preparedness of the Empire into jeopardy (Murphey: 552). ARZ, pi. arat.i Land, territory. 'ARZ Petititon. Until the mid-16th century senior Ottoman officials, including the vezirs, katl- 'asken, defterdars, the kapu agasi and his four senior aghas, had the privilege of submitting petitions to the sultan in person. Following the reign of Suleiman I (1520-1566) sultans became increasingly isolated from the affairs of the state. Even the grand vezir had to contact him in writing by submitting tethifes, "abstracts", on problems that required the personal decision of the sultan. 'ARZ AGALARI Those ak agas who were permitted to present petitions directly to the sultan: the Babtt 's-sa'ade agasi, the kass oda-bafi, the kilarci-ba§ 1, and the saray agasi. The exact number and position of the 'an agas changed numerous times in the post-Suleimanic era. 'ARZ KAPUSI The "Gate of Petitions", a variant for Babu 's-sa'ade beyond which the 'Art odasi was erected. 'ARZ ODASI The "Ward of Petitions", is situated just inside Enderun at the BabU 's-sa'ade. In this building, constructed around 1478, Mehemmed II accepted petitions from the vezirs, the two kdti-'askers, and the defterdars four times a week in the last years of his life. Foreign ambassadors who were given imperial audience were also received in the 'Art odasi. The kiosk, surrounded by a colonnade with broad overhanging eaves, was rebuilt by Suleiman I in 1528. The audience chamber had an ornate fireplace and

10

GUSTAV

BAYERLE

ambassadors described the huge gold throne in the corner surmounted by a canopy. In audiences the sultan sat immobile without uttering a word or even looking at the foreign dignitaries. At the right side low benches were placed for the vezirs who were allowed to sit during deliberations; though after 1650 pashas refused to sit in the sultan's presence. Through a large latticed window the sultan could see gifts of foreign rulers displayed outside, in wartime, spoils of war and cut-off heads of the enemy. Those with whom the sultan was displeased could be executed outside under the vestibule of the Third Gate. On special occasions a special throne was placed in front of the kiosk and the sultan sitting there received homage from the dignitaries of his empire (Necipoglu: 96-110). ARZ-I HARACIYE Agricultural land in the possession of unbelievers at the time of conquest on which harac had to be paid. ARZ-I MEMLEKET Also arz-miri, agricultural land in possession of the state but given to the re'aya for cultivation. On such land, both '6§r and harac (as gift akcasi) had to be paid. Houses, gardens, orchards, and movable property were in private possession but the agricultural land was possessed by the re 'aya as a loan. As long as they cultivated the land no one was to interfere with it and their sons inherited the same right but if they died without sons, the right of use was assigned to someone else. Provinces of Anatolia and Rumelia were all arz-i memleket ($eyhii 'l-islam Ebu' ssu'ud as quoted in Barnes: 36-37). ARZ-I '0§RlYE Agricultural land in the possession of a Muslim. They had to pay 'dfr, "tithe", to the poor and it was not canonically lawful to give arz-i 'o}riye land to a sipahi or someone else. Hicaz and Basra were arazi-i 'dfriye (§eyhii 'l-islam Ebu 's-su'ud as quoted in Bames: 33). 'ASAKIR PI. of 'asker, "soldier". ' ASAKIR-i MANSURE-I MUHAMMEDIYE The "Victorious Army of the Muslims", the name given to the Westernized army Mahmud II organized following the destruction of the Janissary Corps in 1826. 'ASAKIR-i NiZAMIYE-i §AHANE The "Standing Imperial Army," the name for the Ottoman armed forces after its reorganization in 1841. Its five major units were stationed in Istanbul, Uskiidar, Monastir, Sivas, and Damascus each lead by a miifir, field marshal, under the general command of the ser'asker. In 1848 the armed forces were supplemented by a sixth unit based in Baghdad.

PASHAS, BEGS, AND EFENDIS

11

'ASES-BA§I Chief of the night patrols of Istanbul, traditionally the bdlukba$i of the 28th bOlttk of the Janissary Corps. He was also the superintendent of the public prisons of Istanbul (Kavanin: 94a-94b; El2, i:687). ASITANE-i SA'ADET The "Threshold of Felicity", synonymous with Bdb-i 'ali, the Sublime Porte. ASITANE-i SALTANAT-A§IYAN The "Threshold of the Abode of the Sultanate", epithet for the Sublime Porte. 'ASKER, pi. 'asakir

"Soldier".

'ASKERI Or 'askeriye, the military-administrative establishment, including the seyfiye, the kalemiye, and the 'ulema. They all received state stipends and were exempt from taxation. All grants and privileges of the 'askeri were tied to the person of the reigning sovereign and had to be renewed at accession time by the new sultan. ASPER The European name for ak$a, the standard silver coin in the Ottoman Empire until the 18th century. A§£I "Cook", also an official in a Janissary oda. He was responsible for the provisions of his unit and he also carried out the corporal punishment of delinquent soldiers in his unit (Rycaut: 195). A§£I-BA§I Chief of the boliik-bafis of the 'acemi corps under the kethiida of the Agha of Istanbul (Kavanin: 20a). A§£I DEDE Senior dervish in the Mevleviye order. 'AijIK "Lover", especially in the mystical sense; a wandering poet-minstrel who recites at public gatherings. Their repertoire used to include religious songs, heroic epics, and love poems. They were more numerous in the past but the tradition of 'a$ik recitals is still alive in the Turkish countryside. ' A§URE The 10th of the month of Muharrem. i. A major festival among §Vi Muslims mourning the death of Hiiseyin, son of 'All, who died on Muharrem 10,61 H. in Kerbela. The ta'ziye, "passion play", is often recited on this occasion and violent emotions of atonement are publicly displayed by the believers. ii. A sweet soup prepared with ritual ingredients for this occasion.

12

GUSTAV

B A Y E R L E

ATABBG A prince's tutor in the Seljuk state. Some Ottoman sources used the term atabeg for its Ottoman equivalent. Ma, interchangeably. 'ATEBE-i 'ALIYE-i 0$MANiYE The "Sublime Ottoman Threshold", or 'Atebe-i seniye, the "Exalted Threshold", also 'Atebe-i 'ulya, the "Loftiest Threshold", were all synonymous with Bab-i 'ali, the Sublime Porte. ATMACACI "Falconer", see doganci. AT MEYDANI The "Hippodrome", the former Byzantine stadium for chariot races situated between the Blue Mosque and the Palace of Ibrahim Pasha. In Ottoman times it was also utilized for sport competitions and spectacles. AV ACJALARI The "aghas of the hunt", the qakira-ba§t, the ¡ahinci-ba}i, the atmacaci-bafi, and the av afcasi (Unat: 461). 'AVARIZ-1 DIVANIYE Levy for extraordinary expenses for campaign. By the 17th century 'avariz became a regular, fixed contribution levied by the state on re'aya households. AVCI

"Huntsman". i. Segban in the 33rd boliik of the segban cema'at of the Janissary corps. They continued to accompany the sultan in his hunts as avcis under the command of their qorbact, the avci-bafi. In campaigns this boliik remained home and for this reason it was a very popular unit (Kavanin • 81b). ii. Epithet for Mehmed IV (1648-1687).

AYAK DlVANI Emergency divan on foot, the gathering of the Divan during military campaigns or in times of discontent by the request of the sultan or the grand vezir to resolve special problems (Sertoglu: 25). A'YAN "Notables", wealthy individuals given semi-official governmental status in the 18th century for serving as intermediaries between the government and the tax-paying subjects. Already in the 16th century miiltezim contractors paid a fixed sum for the right of collecting revenues from hass-i hiimayun domains on behalf of the treasury. By the 18th century a 'yarn leased iltizdm and mukata 'a revenues for life as malikane tax-farms. A 'yans were appointed by the provincial governors upon payment of the a'ydniye fee. In 1807 an assembly of a'yans gained limited quasi-constitutional rights in a contract with the sultan known as sened-i ittifak. Mahmud II (1808-1839) reluctantly ratified it but gradually succeeded in restoring autocratic authority (El2, i: 798). AYET, pi. ayat

Verse in the Koran.

PASHAS, BEGS, AND EFENDIS

13

'AYN "Eye", especially "evil eye". In Islamic lore the harmful effects of an envious glance have been almost universally believed ever since pre-Islamic times. Even today this superstition is prevalent in Turkey. According to this belief blue eyes are especially capable of having evil effects. Old, unmarried, or sterile women are particularly suspected of having "evil eyes". Pregnancy, childbirth, marriage, and other celebrations of all kinds are primarily vulnerable to evil eye. The veiled face is protected, as well as people wearing special amulets. The sign of a spread-out hand can also protect objects (EI2, i: 786). 'AZAB Or 'azeb, "unmarried". i. An auxiliary soldier on garrison duty. The 'azabs were employed as bridge builders, sappers, armorers, and the like. ii. 'Azabs were also employed as marines (Eft, i: 807).

B BAB "Gate, unit, chapter". BABA "Father", honorific for elder men. The head of a bektáfi tekke also had the title baba Masters of some guilds were addressed as babas. BÁB-I 'ÁLÍ Also Asitáne-i saltanat-afiyán, the "Threshold of the Abode of the Sultanate", 'Atebe-i seniye, the "Exalted Threshold", Dergah-i mu'allá, the "Exalted Porte", and Siidde-i sa'ádet, the "Threshold of Felicity" — the Sublime Porte. i. The seat of government; in the Classical Period (1453-1699) the Topkapi Palace where the sultan and the Diván-i hümayün resided. ii. Since important transactions were deliberated more and more in the private residence of the grand vezir's ikindi diván (named so because the council met there after the official diván ended by the time of the early afternoon ikindi prayer) after 1718, the term Báb-i 'all came to designate the grand vezir's residence. It was also known as pafa kapusi or bab-i asafi and it took over all but the ceremonial functions of the imperial council. In 1844 a new Báb-i 'alt was established as the administrative center of the government with basic changes in the traditional system. It also housed Dáhiliye Nezáreti, the "Department of Interior", formerly the office of the kethiida beg, the Háriciye Nezáreti, the "Department of Foreign Affairs", and — after 1867 — the $ürá-yt devlet, the "Council of State", formerly the offices of the re'isü 'i-kiittab.

PASHAS, BEGS, AND EFENDIS

13

'AYN "Eye", especially "evil eye". In Islamic lore the harmful effects of an envious glance have been almost universally believed ever since pre-Islamic times. Even today this superstition is prevalent in Turkey. According to this belief blue eyes are especially capable of having evil effects. Old, unmarried, or sterile women are particularly suspected of having "evil eyes". Pregnancy, childbirth, marriage, and other celebrations of all kinds are primarily vulnerable to evil eye. The veiled face is protected, as well as people wearing special amulets. The sign of a spread-out hand can also protect objects (EI2, i: 786). 'AZAB Or 'azeb, "unmarried". i. An auxiliary soldier on garrison duty. The 'azabs were employed as bridge builders, sappers, armorers, and the like. ii. 'Azabs were also employed as marines (Eft, i: 807).

B BAB "Gate, unit, chapter". BABA "Father", honorific for elder men. The head of a bektáfi tekke also had the title baba Masters of some guilds were addressed as babas. BÁB-I 'ÁLÍ Also Asitáne-i saltanat-afiyán, the "Threshold of the Abode of the Sultanate", 'Atebe-i seniye, the "Exalted Threshold", Dergah-i mu'allá, the "Exalted Porte", and Siidde-i sa'ádet, the "Threshold of Felicity" — the Sublime Porte. i. The seat of government; in the Classical Period (1453-1699) the Topkapi Palace where the sultan and the Diván-i hümayün resided. ii. Since important transactions were deliberated more and more in the private residence of the grand vezir's ikindi diván (named so because the council met there after the official diván ended by the time of the early afternoon ikindi prayer) after 1718, the term Báb-i 'all came to designate the grand vezir's residence. It was also known as pafa kapusi or bab-i asafi and it took over all but the ceremonial functions of the imperial council. In 1844 a new Báb-i 'alt was established as the administrative center of the government with basic changes in the traditional system. It also housed Dáhiliye Nezáreti, the "Department of Interior", formerly the office of the kethiida beg, the Háriciye Nezáreti, the "Department of Foreign Affairs", and — after 1867 — the $ürá-yt devlet, the "Council of State", formerly the offices of the re'isü 'i-kiittab.

GUSTAV

14

BAYERLE

iii. In the 16th and 17th centuries the B&btt 's-sa'dde of the Topkapi Palace was occasionally referred to as Bab-t 'ali (El2, i: 836). BAB-I ASAFl The "Gate of Asaph, i.e. the Grand Vezir's Gate (from Asaph, the famed grand vezir of Solomon)", the grand vezir's residence also known as Bab-i 'ali. BAB-I DEFTERI defterdar.

The offices of finances under the supervision of the bag-

BAB-I FETVA The "Porte for Fetva", also known as Bab-t mefihat-i islamiye after 1826.

mefihat

or

BAB-I HUMAYUN The Imperial Gate", the main gate of the Topkapi Palace completed in 1478. The two-storied building had rooms for the kapuct guards and was also utilized for storing temporary public treasury prior to their transfer to the Second Court, and financial records. Confusingly in the 16th and 17th centuries, the Babii 's-sa'dde was on occasion also referred to as Bab-i humayun (Necipoglu: 32-40, 88-90). BAB-I ME§IHAT Also Bab-i fetva, the Office of the $eyf}u-l'islam. Prior to 1826 feyfyti 'l-islams had no formal office; they issued documents from their private residences. After the destruction of the Janissaries in 1826 the Aga kapusi serving as the residence of the Agha of the Janissaries, was transferred to the ¡eyhit 'l-islam as his permanent residence. Conveniently the building was situated near the Siileymaniye Mosque. In 1924 the Office of the ?eyhu 'l-islam was replaced by the Department of Religious Affairs in Ankara and Bab-i mefityat became the Office of the Mufti of Istanbul (EI2- i: 837-838). BAB-I SER-'ASKER Also Ser-'asker kapusi, the office complex of the general staff of the army after 1826. It was formally transformed to Harbiye neiareti, "Ministry of War", in 1908. BABU 'S-SA'ADE The "Gate of Felicity", the gate that connected Enderun, "the Inner Section", with Birun, the "Outer Section", of Topkapi Palace. At various times this gate was also referred to as Bab-i 'ali, the "Sublime Porte", Bab-i humayun, the "Imperial Gate", and Art. kapusi, the "Gate of Petitions" (Necipoglu: 88-90). BABU 'S-SA'ADE AGASI The "Agha of the Gate of Felicity", also known as kapu agasi. With the rank of vezir, he was the commander of the ak agas, the white eunuchs including those in the personal quarters of the sultan under the oda-hap, in the imperial treasury under the hazinedar-bap, in

PASHAS, BEGS, AND EFENDIS

15

the kitchen under the ktterci-ba§i, and the rest of the white eunuchs in the Enderun wards under the saray-i 'amire agasi. Sitting at the Gate of Felicity he was the sole mediator between the sultan and the outside world. Until 1582, the babii 's-sa'ade a&asi was also the superior officer of the darli 's-sa'ade agasi of the black eunuchs. By that time the Imperial Harem had grown in importance in the affairs of the empire and its senior officer, the Chief of the Black Eunuchs, that is the darii s-sa'ade agasi gained the upper hand and became the supervisor of the kapu agasi. According to Fatih's TK these senior officers, especially the kapu agasi and the oda-basi were privileged to present petitions to the sultan in person. In 1704 most of his powers were transferred to the silahdar (Sertoglu: 10-11; EI2, iv: 570-571). BABU 'S-SELAM The "Gate of Peace", als known as Orta kapu, the "Middle Gate", the second gate of the Topkapi Palace providing entrance to the Divan meydani. BACALU§KA Probably from the European basilisk, a large cannon capable of shooting projectiles up to 200 pounds. BAGDAD VE REVAN KO§Ki The Baghdad and Revan pavilions of the Topkapi Palace, built in the late 1630s to commemorate the victories of Murad IV at Baghdad and Erivan. These two pavilions are located in the fourth court. BAGDAD VILAYETi Suleiman I conquered the region in 1534 and made it a beglerbeglik. The province was not partitioned into sipahi estates but rather paid an annual tax in a lump sum. It was guarded by 8,000 Janissaries in fortresses, 4,000 Bagdad kuli, and 3,000 Pa$a kuti. The Province of Bagdad was restructured several times; a kanun-name from Suleiman I's reign (1520-1566) listed the following sancaks: Bagdad, Hilla, Rumahiya, Cevazir, Mendeli-fin, Dakuk, Kerkiik, Ercij, Bargiri, Van, 'Ana, Hit, Musul (became a vilayet after 1580), and Erbil. For a list of the beglerbegis of Bagdad from 1534 to 1831 see Oztuna: 1109-1111. In 1917 the British occupied Bagdad (Unat: 466; Birken: 217-225; Akgundiiz, v: 161-237). BAHRiYE "Navy", though the Ottoman fleet was known as humayun (EI2, i: 947-948).

donanma-i

BAHRiYE AZABLARI A division of the Marine corps of the Ottoman Empire including sailors and dockyard workers in 17 bSlUks under the jurisdiction of re'ises.

16

GUSTAV

BAYERLE

BAILO Or balyos, the resident representative of Venice at the Sublime Porte. BAKLAVA ALAYI The "Baklava Procession". On the 15th of Ramazan the Janissaries were invited to pay respect to the Holy Relics of the Prophet housed in the Topkapi Palace. Afterwards baklava pastry baked in the Imperial Kitchens were distributed to them in front of the Orta kapu, the "Middle Gate". BALTACI Also teberddr, "halberdier". In early times the baltacis were probably employed as vanguards to the Janissaries; in the 15th century, they became the palace guards. Similarly to the Janissary Corps their ranks were filled with soldiers serving in the 'acemi ocagi. Those guarding the Topkapi Palace were called zMttflii baltacis. Some of them were standing behind the sultan on public occasions, others guarded the Prophet's standard and filled other, sometimes menial positions. After a certain length of service they were promoted to the Cavalry of the Porte. BALYEMEZ "Doesn't eat honey", name of a popular large-caliber cannon employed on a large scale by Mehemmed II for the siege of Constantinople in 1453. The technology of casting large cannons evolved in Europe and even the name balyemez came either from the German Faule Metze or from the Italian pallamezza. BALYOS From Italian bailo; the Turkish name for the Venetian ambassador to the Sublime Porte. His permanent residence was in Pera from 1454 to the fall of the Republic in 1797 (£/2, i: 1008). BAR£A From Italian bargia, a small Mediterranean galleon used primarily as a cargo ship (Imber: 278). BARUD-yANE Gunpowder-mill. BASRA VILAYETi This fertile region in southeast Iraq was taken in the 1530s by Suleiman I who made it a vilayet administered by mostly local emirs under the supervision of Bagdad beglerbegisi who oftentimes was also given the position of Basra beglerbegisi. In 1552 Basra had the following sancaks: Basra, Garraf, Zekiye, Kurna, Sereg, Sadr-i Siiveyb, Muharreri, Kap&n, and Katif. In 1914 the British occupied Basra (Birken: 226-230; Akgunduz, v: 241-261). BA§ BOLUK-BA§I 'acemi corps.

The senior bOliik-bafi in the Janissary corps and in the

BA§-BUG "Military commander", especially a leader of rural Turkoman irregulars.

P A S H A S , BEGS, AND EFENDIS

17

BA§-CAVU§ The bdlUk-baji of the 330 favufes of the 5th bdlUk of the Janissary Corps with special authority as the provost to the Agha of the Janissaries. He was the eighth most senior officer of the corps and a member of the Yeftigeri divani (Kavanin: 90b-91a). BA§-DEFTERDÀR The "chief comptroller". His department was divided around 1480 to the Rumelian and Anatolian divisions. The baf-defterdàr took over the Rumelian branch as Rum-ìli defterdàrt, the senior officer of finances, and the Anatoli defterdàrt worked under his supervision. From Suleiman I's reign (1520-1566) on, the title jikk-i evvel defterdàrt, "the defterdàr of the first branch", also appears in official documents as a synonym for Rum ili defterdàrt, i.e. for the baf-defterdar. The two other defterdàrt who assisted him were the Anàtòli defterdàrt and the ftkk-t sani defterdàrt, the defterdàr of the second branch", in charge of the revenues and expenditures in and around Istanbul. As the head of the Department of Finance the baf-defterdar authorized all the debits and expenses of the treasury and he had the right of issuing financial "buyuruldt" edicts with tugra, "the sultan's cipher". The bafdefterdàr was also entrusted with the hiring and dismissing of all the scribes at the Bàb-t defteri. For a list of the ba}-defterdàrs from 1453 to 1838 see Òztuna: 1039-1044 (Pakalin, iii: 352) BA§-HÀSEKI The senior of the hàseki aghas of the Janissary corps. When promoted he became the turnact baft. Baf-hàfeki was a title also given to the commander of the bostanct hasekis. (Sertoglu: 36). BA§I BOZUK "Leaderless", irregular auxiliary volunteer in the Crimean War. Due to their lack of discipline the baft-bozuk troops were abolished in 1877. BA§-KADIN "Senior lady", title given to the first kadin of the sultan, usually the mother of his first son. BA§-KAPUCI-BA§I The senior of the nine kapuct-ba$ts supervision of the mir-'alem (Òzcan, 31).

under the

BA§MAKLIK "Slipper-money", ze 'àmet estates assigned to the vàlide sultan, princesses, kadtns, and hasekis of the Harem for providing cash for their personal needs in the 16th and 17th centuries (EI2, i: 1079-1080). BA§-MEHTER The major-domo of the Agha of the Janissaries.

18

GUSTAV

BAYERLE

BA§-MUHASEBE A finance bureau created in the 17th century to control and audit all the expenditures of the Imperial Council. Its chief, the ba§muhasebeci, oversaw the accounts of Rumelia and the cizye accounts (Unat: 461). BA§-ODA

The oda of the yenigeri

kethiidasi.

B A § ODA-BA§I The senior oda-bafi Janissary Corps.

in the bdluks

of the Agha of the

B A § - R U Z N A M f ECi Also biiyiik ruznamgeci or ruznamge-i evvel, "the senior accountant", the director of the register of daily financial transactions at the Hazine-i 'amire, "Imperial Treasury", under the supervision of the baj-defterdar. He was assisted in his work by the ruznamge-i sanl (Akgiindiiz, i: 323). B A§TARDA From Italian bastarda, the basic Ottoman warship; a heavy galley with 26 or more oars at each side. It had 150 oarsmen and 60 marines. Because of the oars it could fire only from the prow while galleons could fire broadsides. Yet galleys were light and maneuverable (Imber: 214). BA§-TERCUMAN

The senior interpreter of the Imperial Council.

BA§~VEKlL "Prime minister", title for the grand vezir in 1838 used intermittently throughout the century but the traditional sadr-o'iam remained the prevailing title till the end of the Empire. BA§-YAZICI Also yehigeri efendisi, or yenigeri katibi, title of the senior scribe of the Janissary Corps. In early times they were appointed from among the Janissaries but by the end of the 16th century they usually came from the personnel of the Finance Bureau. BATTANCI "Felt-maker", especially the Jewish artisans around Salonika who prepared the felt used for making Janissary uniforms. BAYRAK

Banner, military unit. The terms sancak and 'alem were also used.

BAYRAKDAR Also 'alemdar, "standard-bearer". Each military unit of the Ottoman aimed forces had a officially designated bayrakdar. In sipahi units the alay begi was the standard-bearer of the sancak. The sultan's standardbearer was one of the iizengi agas, called the mir-'alem. B AYR AM Religious festival. Muslims celebrate two bay rams: the 'Idii 7Azha, also known a s Kurban Bayrami, the "Festival of Sacrifice", or

P A S H A S , B E G S , AND EFENDIS

19

Btiyiik Bay ram, the "Great Festival", is celebrated on the 10th of the month of Zi 'l-hicce; the 'Idii 'l-fitr, the "Festival of Ending Ramazan", also known as §eker Bayrami, "Festival of Sweets", or KUgUk Bayram, the "Lesser Festival", a three-day festival, is celebrated at the beginning days of the month of fevval, marking the end of the month of Ramaian. B AYRAMIYE A sufi dervish order founded by Hacci Bayrfim-i Veli at Ankara in the 14th century as an offspring of the Halvetiye. After HSci Bayram's death the order divided into Bayramiye-i §emsiye under Ak §emsii'd-din and Melamiye-i Bayramiye under 'Omer Dede of Bursa. In the 17th century a third branch emerged, the Cetvetiye under 'Aziz Mahmud Hiida'L They asserted that all acts are the manifestations of God's attributes and that all things are the manifestations of a'yan-i 'ilmiye, "proof of ultimate reality", which exists in God. Therefore they studied the manifestations of God's attributes in order to deduce the essence of God. The disciples believed that their spiritual leader, the kutb, "pole", was cognizant of divine secrets and was entitled to absolute obedience. The Ottoman state was suspicious of the Safavid leanings of Bayramis and periodically persecuted them {EI2- i: 1137). BAZDAR Also fakirci, "falconer". BEG

"Commander, beg", the Turkish equivalent of the Arabic emir, or mirliva. It was pronounced bey by the 17th century. i. In pre-Ottoman times the title was used for the sovereigns of Turkic principalities in the Islamic world. In the young Ottoman state the title denoted tribal leaders and high functionaries. ii. By Mehemmed II's reign (1451-1481) the tide beg was used for the military-administrative heads of sancaks (also known as livas) and their tlmar cavalry, "sipahi", units. iii. Eventually beg became a courtesy title almost like the English "mister" used for officers of the military and, in the 20th century, for practically everyone worthy of respect, as beyefendi.

BEGLERBEGl Also emirii 'l-ttmera or mir-miran, "beg of the begs, emir of the emirs", a governor general. In the 14th century there was only one beglerbegi in the Ottoman state, a title for the commander-in-chief of the Ottoman army. In the 15th century there were two beglerbegis, one for Rumelia and one for Anatolia. All the begs of the sancaks of the realm reported to these two commanders general. In the 16th century, as the Empire expanded, numerous new provinces were created; by the end of that centvry the Empire consisted of about 30 vilayets, "provinces", with a corresponding number of beglerbegis. With the various reorganizations, the number of provinces fluctuated as did the number of sancaks belonging to

20

GUSTAV

BAYERLE

them. The Beglerbegi of Rumelia was the senior governor general who received a seat in the diván in Suleiman I's reign (1520-1566). Beglerbegis were titled pashas and those in senior posts were often granted the rank of vezir. In the 18th century the administrative aspect of the position became predominant and the title váli, "governor", was often preferred to beglerbegi although valí became the official designation only in 1864 (EI2, i: 115960) BEGLERBEGlLlK

Also vilayet, a "province", governed by a beglerbegi.

B E G L t K ^ l Or beylikfi, the "Chief of the Diván Bureau", the central bureau of the Imperial Council maintaining records and preparing all of the edicts, decrees, and international correspondence. He was senior to all the scribes of the diván and worked under the direct supervision of the re'isii 'l-küttáb {El2, ii: 338). BEK£t

i. Night watchman. ii. 19th-century term for a guard of the Sacred Banner. iii. The 19th bolUk of the Janissary Corps was also called bek(i.

BEKTÁ§ÍYE A heterodox Muslim brotherhood with strong fi'i connections, named after Háci Bekta§ Veli who lived in 13th-century Anatolia. Háci Bekta§ was probably a disciple of Baba íshák and the order originated from his disciples. In general they substituted formal Muslim ritual with popular mysticism, absorbing various elements of popular local religions and believing in the miraculous powers of their saints, and in reincarnation. They were tolerant toward other religions, permitted wine drinking, and allowed women to go unveiled in public. In their doctrine 'Ali, Allah, and Muhammad were united in a holy trinity. The order was headed by the qelebi, a monastery by a baba. They wore a white cap with four or twelve folds. In the 15th century the Bektáfi order gained exclusive authority in the Janissary corps; all the Janissaries were also bektáfi lay brothers. Corollary to the destruction of the Janissaries in 1826 the Bektáfi order was also persecuted but had a modest revival at the end of the century only to be abolished with the rest of the orders in 1925. Some of the units converted to a clandestine existence and several monasteries survived in Albania. Óztürk estimates that in Turkey today the Bektafi order has up to three million adherents (El2, i: 1162-1164; Óztürk: 83). BENDE "Slave". The term was also used as a polite expression meaning" a most obedient servant [of yours]."

P A S H A S , BEGS, AND EFENDIS

21

BERÄT An imperial deed of grant, a writ for an appointment to an office. Timär estates over 3000 akgas and ze '¿¡met estates w o e always granted by beräts (EI2, i: 1170-1171). BERÄTLI A "berat-holder". Although anybody who had a berät in his possession was "berätli" in the 18th century, the term came to signify a Christian or Jewish subject of the sultan in the service of a foreign consulate in the Ottoman Empire. The berät assured a protected status to its holder. By the end of the 18th century foreign embassies issued thousands of beräts to non-Muslim merchants, elevating them to the status of consular agents, in effect granting them the privileged status of a foreign merchants (EI2, i: 1171). BESMELE Casual abbreviation of the invocation Bismi 'llähi 'r-rahmani 'rraftim, "In the name of God, the All-Passionate and All-Merciful", the beginning line of the Koran. BE§lK ALAYI Festivities at the birth of an infant to the sultan, also known as velädet-i hämäyün. BE§LÜ "Pertaining to five", auxiliary soldiers in garrisons. The name stemmed from the method by which they were recruted; originally every five households of a village were obliged to provide for one beflii. BEVVÄB Also kapuci, "guard". BEVVÄBBÄN-I DERGÄH-I ÄU The guards of the Bäb-i hUmäyün and Orta kapu gates of the Topkapi Palace. In 1573 their cemä'at was reported as having 357 men; in 1631 their number rose to 1,832. According to KÖ91 Beg, in 1640, 400 kapucts guarded the Imperial Gate and 2,000 the Middle Gate. In addition to their guard duties they were also employed to deliver messages to beglerbegis ('Ayn 'Ali: 93; K091 Beg: 27-42; Unat: 459). BEY The post-16th-century pronunciation of beg. BEYAZ SANCAK The "White Banner", variant of ak bayrak, the great white banner of the Janissary corps. B E Y L t K 0 KALEMI Or beglikgi kalemi, the central chancery office of the Imperial Divan. See under beglikfi. BEYTÜ 'L-MÄL "Treasury", in Ottoman legal practice beytü 'l-mäl comprised certain revenues belonging to the public treasury: property of missing persons, unclaimed inheritances, runaway slaves, and stray cattle. After

22

GUSTAV

BAYERLE

being held for a period of time the estate became the property of the treasury {El2, i: 1147-1148). BEYTÜ 'L-MÁLCÍ One of the (orbacis in the 'acemt corps responsible for the collection of properties of deceased 'acemis, for the treasury (Kavánin: 32a). BEZtRGAN "Merchant", especially a Christian or Jewish merchant. Bl'AT "Paying homage", the formal acknowledgement of a new sultan at accession time by the high officials of the administration and the 'ulemá. BIQAKLI "With dagger", senior pages in the three higher odas of the Ende run of the Topkapi Palace who were entitled to wear daggers. BlD'AT "Innovation", practice contrary to Muslim tradition, therefore disapproved. In spite of the normally negative implication Muslim legal practice also acknowledged the existence of bid'at-i hasane, "useful innovation" (Pakalin, i: 231-233). BÍÑ-BA§I "Commander of a thousand [men]", a military title given to heads of battalions of Western-style armies from the end of the 18th century on. BtRGENDE From Italian briganlino, a two-masted ship. BÍRÜN The "Outer Section". The state offices at the atay meydani, and the Diván meydani of the Topkapi Palace were collectively called Birün, in contrast to Enderiin, the "Inside section", that housed the private quarters of the sultan. BtRÜN HALKI Officials whose bureaus were located in the Birún section of the Topkapi Palace including the offices of imperial physician, surgeon, astrologer, hoca, imam, the aghas of the stirrup and the standing army, the miiteferrikas, the halberdiers, artists and artisans (Sertoglu: 53). BlSMt 'LLÁHÍ R-RAHMANÍ R-RAHÍM "In the name of God, the AllPassionate and All-Merciful", the beginning line of the Koran. Traditional Muslim texts universally began with this invocation. In less formal writings the formula is sometimes abridged as Hiive (He, i.e. God), or simply H. BlTl In the 14th and 15th centuries bid was used to designate a written decree issued by the sultan.

PASHAS, BEGS, AND EFENDIS

23

BOGDÀN Moldavia, an autonomous principality of the Ottoman Empire from 145S until 1858. The full independence of Rumania, including Wallachia and Moldavia, was granted only at the Congress of Berlin in 1878, albeit without Bessarabia which was ceded to the Russians. BOSNA VÌLÀYETÌ By 1448 Balkan Peninsula was under uncontested Ottoman rule and its vassal states were annexed in an unhurried, deliberate manner. Bosnia was made a province only in 1580 with Sarày-Bòsna (today's Sarajevo) as its seat. In 1609 the province had 389 kilig units; with cebelii retainers, it provided for 3,000 soldiers from the following sancaks: Bósna, Kilis, Hersek, Pojega, Izvornik, Za^ana or Palerai Rahovica, and Kirka. In 1640 the province of Bosna had eight sancaks with 330 sipahis. For a list of the beglerbegis of B6sna from 1436 to 1878 see Òztuna: 1103-1106. At the Congress of Berlin in 1878 the region was attached to the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy ('Ayn 'Ali: 48; Unat: 463-464; Birken: 44-47). BOSTANCI "Gardener", the personnel in the bostanci corps. This corps, recruited from the 'acemis, formed the training pool of the Janissary corps while performing manual labor in the imperial gardens. They formed two ocaks, the gilmàn-i bagge-i hàssa with 20 boliiks for manual duties in the vegetable gardens of the Topkapi Palace and the gilmàn-i bóstàmyàn with 25 btìliik for doing chores in other imperial gardens. In the 18th century bostanci troops were used in campaigns for fighting. In 1826 bostancis were incorporated into the newly formed army of Mahmud II, the asakir-i mansure {EI2, i: 1277-1278). BOSTANCI-BA§I The "commander of the bostanci corps". He was one of those officials who were close to the sultan; whenever the sultan left Topkapi Palace, the bostanci-baf i held his stirrup. He was the only official in the Topkapi Palace who was permitted to grow a beard. He was promoted from one of the bostancis within the ocak (EI2, i: 1278-1279). BOSTÀNCI-yÀSEKI A group of about 500 bostancis who looked after the palace gardens and served as escorts of the imperial caique on the Bosphorus. One of them, known as vezir karakulagi, delivered the correspondance between the sultan and the grand vezir. BO§NÀK "Bosnian". BÒLÙK A military unit varying in size from 20 to 200 men. A Janissary boliik had about 100 soldiers. Among the 'acemi oglans, "trainees of Christian origin", the Gelibolu ocak of 400 men were in 10 boliiks headed by gorbagis.

24

GUSTAV

BAYERLE

i. The six mounted troops of the kapu-kuii cavalry, the Cavalry Troops of the Porte were titled boliiks. These boliiks were commanded by the bdliik agasis. One of these bdlttks could be divided into numerous small b&liiks. ii. In 1451 the segban companies were integrated into the Janissary Corps and formed the 65th cema'at of the Corps making it much larger than any of the other cema'ats. Because of its size this company was partitioned into 34 boliiks each of which was approximately the size of an average cema'at. These boliiks were commanded by the bdliik-ba}is and the 65th cemd 'at by the segban-baft. iii. The 61 companies that were added to the Janissary Corps by Sultan Selim I were also titled boliiks. BOLUKAT-I ERBA'A The "four troops": the two orta bdlUkler, the "middle troops", i.e. the 'ulufeciyan-i yemin and the ulufeciyan-i yesar, and the two a§agi bolUkler, the "two lower troops", i.e. the fcureba'-i yemin and the gureba'-i yesar, of the alti bdliik Cavalry of the Porte. BOLUK-BA§I Also ser-boliik, the commander of a bdliik, especially those in the Cavalry of the Porte, the segban companies, the 61 boliiks of the Agha of the Janissary Corps (actually only 60 bdliik-bafts, because the 1st bdliik was directly commanded by the kethiida beg), and the 39 cema'ats of the 'acemi corps. The rest of the boliiks had yaya-bafts as their commanders. The senior of the boliik-baps carried the title ba} boliik-ba§i. The boliikba§is were mounted and had iron maces (Kavanin: 94b-95a). BOLUK-I DER The "company of the gate", the novice pages in the btiyiik and kiigiik odas of the Enderun whose dormitories flanked the Babii 's-sa'Me. They were supervised by the Kapu agasi. BOLUK HALKI The six cavalry troops of kapu-kuh army, the Cavalry of the Porte. In 1609 they numbered 20,869 soldiers ('Ayn 'All: 90-91). BUCAK Southern Bessarabia. BUDIN Or Budun, the seat of the Ottoman Province of Budin from 1541 until 16B6; the Hungarian Buda, capital of the medieval Hungarian Kingdom, the west side of modern Budapest. BUDIN ViLAYETt The Province of Budin, formed in 1541 when Suleiman I occupied Buda, capital of Hungary, to prevent a Habsburg takeover. West and North Hungary remained under the control of the Habsburgs who, until 1606, paid an annual tax of 30,000 golden florins to the Sublime Porte for the privilege; central Hungary was made the Ottoman province of Budin

PASHAS, BEGS, AND EFENDIS

25

with 18 sancaks; and eastern Hungary, i.e. Transylvania was left to the infant son of King John as a vassal principality known as Erdel. In 1609 the province of Budín had 2,722 tiZrf units. At the end of the 16th century the Province of Budín had 18 sanéales: Budín, Pe^üy, Kanija, Semendire, ístdlni Belgrád, Esternón, Segedin, §imon{5rna, Sirem, Koppan, Filek, Seksár, Mohái;, Sé?en, Novígrád, Sigetvár, and §olnik with 2,700 sipáhis. In 1668 22,100 soldiers were stationed in the province. For a list of the beglerbegis of Budín from 1541 to 1686 see óztuna: 1106-1108. After the disastrous second siege of Vienna in 1683 Habsburg and allied European forces initiated a counterattack and Budín fell in 1686. Aside from the Province of Jimigvar, the Ottoman Empire was compelled to acknowledge Habsburg suzerainty over all of Hungary, in the Treaty of Carlowitz of 1699 ('Ayn 'All: 48; Unat: 464; Rycaut: 180). BÜLÁK PRESS Bülák, originally a town next to Cairo, is now a quarter of greater Cairo. It became famous in 19th-century Ottoman history for its printing houses which published Ottoman Turkish and Arabic works from 1822 on. The works printed in Bülák had powerful effects on the cultural awakening of the Ottoman Empire. BUYURULDI Or buyruldi, an edict of the grand vezir, defterdár, or beglerbegi. Usually the order was authenticated by a penfe, the tugra-like signature of the issuer. BÜYÜK BAYRAM The "Great Festival", or 'Idü 'l-Athá, also known as Kurbán Bayrami, the "Festival of Sacrifice"; celebrated on the 10th of the month of Zi 'l-hicc.e. BÜYÜK MÍR-AHÜR Also mir-ahür-i ewel, also known as istabl-i 'ámire miidiri, "the "First Agha of the Imperial Stable". BÜYÜK ODA One of the dormitories for novice pages of Enderun built in the Third Court of the Palace next to Bábü 's-sa-'ade. In the 17th century pages were selected for the Topkapi Palace from the küfiik oda, and from the preparatory schools of Galata-saráyi and íbráhim Pa§a-saráyi. BÜYÜK RÜZNÁMQECÍ Also ba¡-rüznámfeci or rüznámge-i evvel, "the senior accountant" at the Házine-i 'ámire. BÜYÜK TEZKÍRECi Also te¡kire-i evvel, the "senior secretary", the first secretary of the grand vezir. He attended meetings of the Imperial Divan at the side of the grand vezir to take notes and provide him with pertinent documents. He had a deputy, the küfiik te^kireci.

26

GUSTAV

BAYERLE c

CAVALRY OF THE PORTE kapu-kuh sipahisi.

In Turkish the alti bdluk troops, also known as

CAMI' A mosque in which Friday prayers are performed. CAN-BAZ "Daredevil", acrobat. i. Rope-dancers, tumblers and tricksters who provided popular entertainment at festivities. ii. Auxiliary troops from nomadic tribes who served for the duration of a campaign. Their ocak consisted of 10 can-bazati companies. The can-baz. troops were disbanded by the end of the 16th centuiy. CAR!YE "Female slave", concubine. In the Harem they were the household domestics: cariyes performed the menial tasks of the Harem with the lowest status of all the women and with the average daily stipend of six akgas. CEBECl "Armorer", responsible for the manufacture, maintenance and transport of weapons of the kapu kuh for campaigns including armor, swords, guns, bullets, and gunpowder (Unat: 457), CEBECi-B A§I The "head-armorer", commander of the cebeci cema 'an of 86 odas led by gorbacis The cema'at had 625 men in 1573, 5,730 in 1609, grew to 5,978 in 1631. According to Ko$i Beg by 1640 their number was increased to 8,000 men ('Ayn 'All: 90; Kcxji Beg: 27-42; Unat: 457). CEBELU "Armor bearer", an armed retainer equipped by his sipahi with a lance, a bow and arrows, a sword, and a shield. Timor and ze 'amet holders were obliged to equip a set number of cebeliis for campaigns. Most of these cebelus were of slave origin (El2, ii: 528-529). CELALI Rebels in Anatolia in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. A deepening financial crisis forced the government to introduce extraordinary taxes with disastrous results in the countryside. Peasants left their land and escaped to the cities; many others lost their livelihood and turned to brigandage. During the Hungarian campaigns of 1595-1605 the rebellion became widespread. Kara Yazici (d. 1603) a su-baf i of Malatya at that time who had just lost his position, joined the rebels and became one of their leaders in Karaman territory with 20,000 horsemen at his disposal. He defeated several armies sent against him from Istanbul. When he died, his

P A S H A S , B E G S , AND E F E N D I S

27

brother, Deli Hasan, took his place but the movement tapered off; yet the Ottoman state was not able to completely recover from its weakened position {El2, iv: 594-595). CELEB i. A cattle drover. ii. An 'aceml ofclan, "trainee of Christian origin", who served in the palaces of Edirne, Galata and Ibrahim Pasha. CELLAD TA§I "Executioner's Stone", the stone placed in the Alay meydatu of the Topkapi Palace and used for public beheadings. C E M A ' A T ORTASI Company, the basic military unit of the first 100 companies of the Janissary Corps. They were also known as cema'at, or simply orta. They were commanded by yaya-ba$is. The 65th cema'at consisted of 34 segban bdliiks. CEMAZl'U 'L-AHIR The sixth month of the Muslim year. CEMAZPU 'L-EVVEL The fifth month of the Muslim year. CERAHOR A member of an auxiliary corps chiefly recruited from Christians for engineering works: repair of fortress walls, bridge buildings, road repair and the like. CERRAH-B A§I The "Chief Surgeon" of the Topkapi Palace. CEZA'IR-i BAHR-I SEFID VILAYETt The "Province of the Islands of the Aegean Archipelago". Established in the 16th century this province was under the intendancy of the kapudan pa§a of the Ottoman navy. In 1609 the province had 1,618 /ci/if units, 126 of which were ze 'amet estates; with cebelii retainers it provided for 4,500 soldiers from the following sancaks: GeliboII, Agrib&z, Inebaljti (Lepanto), Karli-Ili, Midilli (Mytilene), Negropont, Koca-ili, Sigla ve Sigacik, Rodos, Biga, and Mesestre. In the 19th and early 20th centuries the islands were lost one after the other but the province was formally dissolved only in 1913. For a list of the beglerbegis of Ceza'ir from 1525 to 1830 see Oztuna: 1137-1140 ('Ayn 'Ali: 49; Birken: 101-108). CEZA'IR-i (jARB Algiers. In 1533 Suleiman I made it a beglerbeglik with Admiral Hayrii 'd-din Pasha as it first governor general. By the end of the 16th century Algiers became increasingly independent from the central government although formally it remained Ottoman until it was conquered by the French in 1830 (EI2, ii: 722-723).

28

GUSTAV

BAYERLE

CÍHÁD Military action for the sake of Islam, cihad is a religious duty for able-bodied male Muslims. It is an act of devotion opening one of the gates to Paradise (EI2, ii: 583-540). C Í Z Y E Islamic head-tax levied on non-Muslims, a material proof of their protected limmi status. The Ottomans often used the term ffarac in place of cizye. In newly conquered territories they even adopted pre-Ottoman local taxes as cizye; e.g. in Hungary they called the head-tax resm-filori equating it with the traditional Hungarian forint add, "florin-tax". The cizye was collected directly for the state treasury as listed in the defter-i cizye-i gebrán, the "cizye account of the unbelievers". An equivalent amount was to b e given to the holders of timárs as ispence (resm-i kapu in conquered

Hungary) as listed in the defter-i mufaffal, "comprehensive account". The basic cizye amounted to 50 akfas annually but due to inflation this amount was raised several times. Certain local officials and the poor were exempt from cizye (EI2, ii: 562-566). C U M ' A DÍVÁNI there.

The "Friday Council", also known as huzür muráfa'asi. See

CÜCE "Dwarf', jester who entertained the sultan and other courtiers in the Topkapi Palace. CÜLÜS BAH§Í§Í "Accession bonus", money distributed at the accession of the sultan to the throne. Everyone on state salary was entitled to a set amount: in the 16th century the grand vezir received up to 30,000 akfas, Janissaries 2,000 akfas each, members of the Cavalry of the Porte 1,000 akfas. In the 17th-18th centuries imperial accessions put serious burden on the state treasury which had to use emergency measures to amass the funds. Non-delivery was unthinkable since it would have resulted in public riots. C Ü L Ü S - I H Ü M Á Y Ü N The "imperial accession", the ceremonial accession of the sultan to the throne. First, the new sultan received the bi'at, "oath of fealty", from the dignitaries of the state while sitting in front of the Bábü 's-sa'ádet. In mosques the new sultan's name was included in the hiitbe. The cülüs bah§ifi, the traditional "accession gratuity", was distributed to the soldiers. The diván-i hümayün was assembled for announcing new appointments and ordering the minting of new coinage in the name of the new sultan. A few days later the sultan led a procession to Eyüb to the tiirbe of Ebü Eyyiibii '1-Ansari where, usually by the jeyhü 'l-islám, he was girded with the sword of the Prophet Muhammad or with the sword of 'Osman I (1300-1324) (Inalcik: 61-62).

P A S H A S , B E G S , AND E F E N D I S

29

£ADIR MEHTERl Also f}ayme-zen, "tent pitcher". They were responsible for pitching the imperial tents for the sultan on campaigns. Between campaigns the tents were kept in storage next to Ibrahim Pafa-sardyt. The tent pitchers, 229 men in 1573, 715 in 1631, were organized in two boliiks with two sets of tents. One of the boliiks marched ahead to pitch tents for the next halting place. According to K091 Beg in 1640 their number reached 2,000 men (Kogi Beg: 27-42; Unat: 458). £AKIRCI "Falconer"; see doganci. CAKIRCI-BA§I "Chief falconer", one of the aghas in the agayan-i rik&b-i humayun, the commander of the three doganci companies of the Birun (Gibb, i: 347; Sertoglu: 69). CAMA§lR-BA§I

See saray kethiidasi.

QARHACI Vanguard force employed during military campaigns. On major offensives the Ottomans had 400-500 farhaci cavalry (Sertoliu: 70). QAR§AMBA DlvANI "Wednesday Council". Every Wednesday the grand vezir held a divan meeting in the presence of the kadis from Istanbul, Galata, Eyiib and Uskiidar to have hearings on petitions (Sertoglu: 70). QA§NIGlR "Butler, [imperial] foodtaster", mentioned already in Fatih's TK as one of the aghas in the afcayan-i rikab-i humayun. At that time there were 12 butlers. According to £09! Beg in 1640 40 (a$nigin were appointed to personally carry and serve the sultan's dishes from the kitchen to his quarters (Unat: 458; EI2, ii: 15). CA§NIGlR USTA The sultan's butler in the Harem. £AVU§ "Marshal, messenger" a military grade of soldiers of diverse duties. i. The (avufes of the divan served as escorts in offical ceremonies as well as personal escorts for ambassadors, as messengers, diplomatic envoys, and, when needed, executioners of high officials condemned to death, f a v u j e s were recruited from the 'acemi corps. The 290 favufes of the divan in 1573 grew to 932 by 1631, but lowered to 600 in 1640 (Koii Beg: 27-42; Unat: 458). ii. The 5th boliik of the Janissary Corps had 33 qavu$e,s who carried the orders of the commanders to the troop officers during battle and

GUSTAV

30

BAYERLE

performed various services as marshals. They were selected from the veterans of the corps. The 'acemi corps had its own gavu§es. iii. After 1826 this army rank corresponded to that of a sergeant in European armies. ?AVU§ÀN-Ì DERGÀH-I 'ÀLÌ The (avufes of the divan. See, favuf i. CAVU§-BA§I The "commander of the favufes of the divan". He was present in divan meetings in readiness and was in charge of the protocol. It was stated in Fàtih's TK that his rank was junior to the aghas of the six cavalry troops of the Porte. He was one of the aghas in the agayàn-i rikàb-i humayun and always carried a silver staff, the symbol of his authority, to render physical punishment. The position was abolished in 1836 (Sertoglu, 71). CELEBl "Cultured, urbane", a title of respect. i. Up to the 15th century qelebi was the title of the sultan's sons. ii. The heads of the Bektàfi and Mevlevi dervish orders were also known as gelebis. iii. From the 17th century on the term designated men of letters, indicating respect. QERl-BA§I "Troop commander", an officer in the sipàhì commanding a subdivision of a provincial sancak company. QERKES

regiment

"Circassian".

CIKMA "Leaving", graduation ceremony for pages in the preparatory schools of Galata-sarayi, Ibrahim Pafa-saràyi and in the Enderun, the best were chosen for a higher grade dormitory, the rest were given positions outside Enderun. See also gilman-i enderuni. Q1LDIR VÌLÀYETÌ Province in northeast Anatolia. The first Ottoman beglerbegi is listed as serving from 1581. In 1609 the province had 656 kilif units, 97 of which were z.e'amet estates; with cebelti retainers it provided for 1,800 soldiers from the following 11 sancaks: £ildir, Olti, partus, Ardanuc, Ardahàn, Bezek, Hacrek, Pòsthò, MàhciI, Care, Penbek, and Benek ('Ayn 'Ali: 58-59; Birken: 154-160). CIPLAK "Naked", auxiliary to the Janissary Corps and the navy named (iplak for being naked from the waist up while performing certain duties. ÇÎFT "Pair [of oxen]", see çiftlik.

PASHAS, BEGS, AND EFENDIS

31

£iFT BOZAN RESMl Tax collected on abandoned farmsteads by the timdr holders from the peasants who had abandoned them. CfiFTLlK i. The basic land-unit of 60 to ISO dffnUms, i.e. 60.000 to 150,000 sq. meters, a unit considered capable of providing the livelihood of a family with a pair of oxen and was made the foundation for the banc agricultural tax, die (ift resmi. This tax was included in the tim&r revenues of the sipdhi holders. ii. Timars were granted as (iftliks to state officials and the military. These (iftliks were personal estates and could incorporate several hamlets. In frontier provinces a percentage of the timars were assigned to garrison troops who received the cash equivalent of the timdr revenues in lump sum in lieu of salary. In the late 16th and early 17th centuries, because of overtaxation and inadequate protection from brigandage, a large number of timdr lands were abandoned by the peasants and were taken over as (iftliks by the Janissary and the a 'ydns. Through administrative abuse mukifa 'a lands could also be turned to (iftliks by their tax-farmers. The economic power of the a'yan class in the 18th century rested on the possession of private (iftlik estates. The a'ydns (aghas, derebeys, local officials) were able to hold on to their (iftliks well into the 20th century (El2, ii: 32-33). QlFT RESMl The basic Ottoman tax in former Byzantine lands. It was paid by re'aya who possessed a (ift. In non-Byzantine territories the corresponding tax was called ispence. The (ift resmi was designed as cash substitute for various feudal services. Originally its rate amounted to 22 aspers but in time various higher rates were applied. The tax was included in the tim&r revenue. CflLE Forty days of solitude as a component of the initiation ritual of some dovish orders. glNGENE Also kiptl, "Gypsy". COKADAR Variant of (uffddar. £ORBACI i. The commander of a bdlilk of the 'acemi oglans, also known as bdlttk-ba§i; (orbaci was also the rank of the yaya-baps of the Janissary Corps. ii. In the 19th century this term was also used for village notables, and as a mode of address for Christians. fORBAYI l£MEK "Soap consumption". On the four annual paydays, prior to the distribution of salaries, the kapu kuli corps were served soup prepared

32

GUSTAV

BAYERLE

in the kitchens of the Topkapi Palace. Refusal to eat it by turning the full cauldrons over was the traditional sign of dissatisfaction leading to open defiance and rebellion. Conversely, eating the soup signalled harmonious relations between the corps and the government. The term kazan kaldirmak, "overturning die cauldron", refers to this act of defiance (Sertoglu: 77/. QUHADAR Or (okadar, one of the five zUlUflu agas of the Ha?f oda of the Topkapi Palace in charge of the sultan's outer garments.

D DAHIL "Interior", the 50-akfa medreses for graduates of haric colleges. Graduates of the ibtida-i dahil schools could enter one of the Sahn-i semdn medreses for completion of their studies in jurisprudence, Koranic exegesis, theology, rhetoric, and specialized training. Suleiman I (15201566) created a still higher grade of graduate education in founding the four Siileymaniye 60-akfa medreses. DAMAD "Son-in-law", especially the son-in-law of the sultan. The marriage institution was routinely used by the sultans to strengthen the patron-client relationship between the Ottoman dynasty and the main office-holders of the Empire. The grand vezirs and vezirs were natural choices for this honor, but examples exist for kapudan pashas, aghas of the Janissaries, and others. Those so honored had the sobriquet ddmad attached to their names and they were expected to divorce from their wives married previously (El2, ii: 103). DANl§MEND Advanced student in the medrese often employed as associate instructor. DARB-yANE "Mint", also written as tarb-hane. DARU '1-FUNUN "University", particularly the university in Istanbul that officially opened in 1900, although it already gave lessons in 1846, 1869, 1870-1871, and 1874-1881. In 1933 it took the name Istanbul Oniversitesi, the University of Istanbul (Heper: 189). DARU 'L-HADlS Medrese founded by Murad II (1421-1451) in Edirne to provide education in hadis, "tradition", an account of what Muhammad said or did as handed down by his companions.

32

GUSTAV

BAYERLE

in the kitchens of the Topkapi Palace. Refusal to eat it by turning the full cauldrons over was the traditional sign of dissatisfaction leading to open defiance and rebellion. Conversely, eating the soup signalled harmonious relations between the corps and the government. The term kazan kaldirmak, "overturning die cauldron", refers to this act of defiance (Sertoglu: 77/. QUHADAR Or (okadar, one of the five zUlUflu agas of the Ha?f oda of the Topkapi Palace in charge of the sultan's outer garments.

D DAHIL "Interior", the 50-akfa medreses for graduates of haric colleges. Graduates of the ibtida-i dahil schools could enter one of the Sahn-i semdn medreses for completion of their studies in jurisprudence, Koranic exegesis, theology, rhetoric, and specialized training. Suleiman I (15201566) created a still higher grade of graduate education in founding the four Siileymaniye 60-akfa medreses. DAMAD "Son-in-law", especially the son-in-law of the sultan. The marriage institution was routinely used by the sultans to strengthen the patron-client relationship between the Ottoman dynasty and the main office-holders of the Empire. The grand vezirs and vezirs were natural choices for this honor, but examples exist for kapudan pashas, aghas of the Janissaries, and others. Those so honored had the sobriquet ddmad attached to their names and they were expected to divorce from their wives married previously (El2, ii: 103). DANl§MEND Advanced student in the medrese often employed as associate instructor. DARB-yANE "Mint", also written as tarb-hane. DARU '1-FUNUN "University", particularly the university in Istanbul that officially opened in 1900, although it already gave lessons in 1846, 1869, 1870-1871, and 1874-1881. In 1933 it took the name Istanbul Oniversitesi, the University of Istanbul (Heper: 189). DARU 'L-HADlS Medrese founded by Murad II (1421-1451) in Edirne to provide education in hadis, "tradition", an account of what Muhammad said or did as handed down by his companions.

P A S H A S , BEGS, AND EFENDIS

33

DÀRU 'L-HARB The "abode of war", non-Muslim regions where people did not acknowledge the superiority of Islam by paying tribute to a Muslim ruler. It was considered a region for military actions since cihàd waged against the unbelievers was a test of sincerity for the believers (El2, ii: 126).

DÀRÙ 'L-HÌLÀFE The "Abode of the Caliphate", epithet for Constantinople in the 19th and early 20th centuries. DÀRÙ 'L-ÌSLÀM Territory where the law of Islam prevails. DÀRU 'S-SA'ÀDE The "Abode of Felicity", the Third Court of the Topkapi Palace beyond the Bàbii 's-sa 'òde, the "Gate of Felicity", and Enderim, the "Inner Section", of the sultan's residence. The Third Court was the sultan's private household with his personal servants and their dormitories, his wives, concubines and children in the Harem. It also served as a school for the slave elite eventually promoted to leading administrative posts. Just beyond the gate, 'Art odasi, the "Ward of Petitions", was erected, with the Privy Chamber located at the far left corner and the Treasury-Bath complex at the far right corner of the court. A walled hanging garden supplemented the residence. In Mehemmed II's reign (1451-1481), the Harem, "Women's Quarters", was a minor addition at the left side. It grew to a major complex only under Suleiman I (1520-1566). and his successors; in fact his son, Selim II (1566-1574), preferred to live in the Privy Chamber of the Harem. His successors retreated into even greater seclusion surrounded by women and black eunuchs during most of their lives (Necipoglu: 91-158). In the 17th century, darti 's-sa'àde in the registers referred to the household staff of the Harem, women whose status was above the household domestic càriyes. In a register from 1600 the personnel of dàrii 's-sa'àde were supervised by the kethìidà (fàtua with 150 akfas of stipend and ten other individuals with 40 akfas of daily stipends. By 1640 this group numbered 102 women with stipends ranging from 200 to 15 akfas, indicating a well-defined functional hierarchy of administrative/supervisory officials including the mistresses of the treasury, laundry, bath, coffee, and the like. lkbàh also belonged to this group with 40 akfas of daily stipends. In the lower ranks were wet nurses for the younger princes, càriyes of older princes, and women assigned to the senior black eunuchs. DÀRU 'S-SA'ÀDE ACASI The "Agha of the Abode of Felicity', also known as kizlar agasi, or Harem agasr, the chief of the black eunuchs of the Imperial Harem, the chief assistant of the vàlide sultan. In the 17th century the darti 's-sa'àde agasi became the inspector of the imperial vaktfo in order to end the abuse of the individual nàtin. The effect was

34

GUSTAV

BAYERLE

institutionalized corruption; when a miitevelli office became vacant, the darii 's-sa'ade agasi auctioned the post taking fifty percent of the price as fees for his personal expenses known as fizme bahasi, "boot expense". He also took all increases of the vakif revenue. In 1909 the position was officially abolished, albeit black eunuchs continued to be the supervisors of the Harem till 1922. For a list of the darii 's-sa'ade aghas from 1582 to 1909 see Oztuna: 930-931. DARU 'S-SALTANAT The "Abode of the Sultanate", epithet for Istanbul. DARU 'T-TIBA'ATi 'L-'AMIRE The Imperial Printing House founded by Selim III (1789-1807) in Uskiidar. It moved to Kaptcm-pafa hamami and, in 1863, to a place just behind the Mosque of Ayasofya where the Milli Egitim Matbaasi, the "Printing House of National Education", stands today (Sertoglu: 80). DAVUL-BAZ Drummer. DAYE HATON "Wet nurse", particularly the sultan's wet nurse. Sometimes the young prince continued his association with his former daye even after his accession to the throne. She kept her high status in the Harem and was usually married off a high-ranking state official (Peirce: 531). DEDE

"Grandfather". i. When the term dede follows a personal name it designates a fully initiated member of the Mevleviye order. ii. In popular usage the title also indicated respect for shamans, healers and wise elders in general.

DEFTERDAR "Keeper of the register", the director of finances, member of the divan ranking immediately after the grand vezir and the two kati- 'askers. In Fatih's reign his office was divided into those of Rumelia and Anatolia; Rum-lli defterdan being the senior to Anafoli defterdan. In the 16th century several additional financial bureau chiefs carried the title and Rumili defterdan became known as baydefterdar (Unat: 454; El2, ii: 83). DEFTER EMlNI "Superintendent of the [cadastral] register", the chief of the defter-hane, "Office of Cadastral Registers", where the registers of fyass, ze'amet, and timar assignments were kept (Pakalin, i: 418-9; Akgiinduz, i: 322). DEFTER-I HAkANI "Imperial register", the collection of tahrir registers including the defter-i mufassah, "detailed registers"; defter-i icmals,

35

P A S H A S , B E G S , AND E F E N D I S "concise registers"; defter-i derdests, "hand lists": and defter-i "registers of changes in timar assignments".

ruz-namfes,

DEFTER-i ICMAL "Concise register", a listing of the ha?s, ze'amet, and timar holdings of a district. Each entry gives the holder's name and position and an inventory of the settlements under his jurisdiction together with their annual income. DEFTER KETflUDASI The comptroller of the ze'amet supervisor of the timar defterdan.

registers and

DEFTER-i MUFASSAL A detailed survey of all the settlements of a district. The surveys were authenticated by the tugra of the reigning sultan and they usually began with the kanun-name of the district. Following the regulations the scribe listed the towns and villages of the district. Each entry provided the name of the settlement and the names of tax-paying subjects. The concluding part of an entry stated the number of household tax units of the settlement and enumerated the individual taxes, tithes and fees that comprised the expected annual income. Defter-i mufassals were drawn of newly conquered territories immediately after securing their defense in order to allocate their resources and to signify their incorporation to the Empire. Periodically the Sublime Porte ordered the preparation of new district surveys to adjust to demographic changes: also, at times of imperial accessions, new surveys were needed to revalidate possession rights to timar properties. DEFTER-I RUZ-NAM^E A register of changes in timar assignments as original holders moved, died, or were dispossessed. In addition, a summary of the title deed of the new owner was either copied or glued over the original entry in the defter-i icmal. DELl "Mad, brave". i. Light mounted retainers in the service of begs and pashas stationed in the European frontier zone. They wore skins of wild animals and feathers for decoration. In the 16th century they spread to Anatolia in the retinue of vezirs and other dignitaries. They formed bayraks of 50 to 60 men under deli-ba$is. According to Rycaut, Mehmed Koprili had 2,000 Bosnian and Albanian delis as his bodyguard and these delis were the main reason for the failure of mounting conspiracies against him. Unemployed delis terrorized the Anatolian contryside in the 18th century. Mahmud II (1808-1839) finally succeeded in eliminating deli brigandry (Rycaut: 202; El2, ii: 201-202). ii. Epithet for Ibrahim I (1640-1648).

36

GUSTAV

BAYERLE

DERBENDCl "Guardian of a pass", who maintained security at mountain passes, fords, and bridges. DERE-BEGl "Lord of the valley", provincial magnate in the 18th and 19th centuries dominating large areas with virtual autonomy. In wartime they served in the Ottoman armed forces as commanders of their armed retainers. The central government tolerated them as an alternative to anarchy. At the beginning of the 19th century they gained considerable political power. Mahmud II understood the dangers of decentralization and replaced them with officials from Istanbul (EI2, ii: 206-208). DERGAH Dervish convent, usually with a tomb of a Muslim saint attached to it. DERGAH-I 'ADALET-PENAH The "Court, Shelter of Justice", epithet for the Sublime Porte. DERGAH-I 'ALl The "Exalted Porte", synonymous with Bab-t 'all, the Sublime Porte. DERGAH-I MU'ALLA The "Exalted Porte", synonymous with Bab-i 'all, the Sublime Porte. DER-SA'ADET From Der i sa'adet, the "Gate of Felicity", epithet for Kostantiniye, the modern Istanbul. DERS VEKILI The lecturer for the ¡eyhii 'l-islam who was ex officio a professor in the Bayezid medrese but spent little time with actual teaching and needed the ders vekili to substitute for him. DERVISH In Turkish dervif, an initiated member of a sufi order. DERYA BEGl "Sea commander", a sancak begi in a vilayet consisting of a group of ports and islands, the Ceza'ir-i bahr-i sefid, the "Islands of the Aegean Archipelago". The administration of this vilayet was entrusted to the kapudan pasha. The derya begis were to provide auxiliary ships to the main fleet (EI2, ii: 165). DEVECt Also sarban, "camel driver", belonging to one of the following two groups: i. One of the keepers of the 1,000 pack camels at the Imperial Stables. ii. The 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 46th, and 95th cema'ats of the Janissary Corps. In 1596 their number was increased, adding the 39th and

P A S H A S , BEGS, AND EFENDIS

37

87th cema'ats. The devecis were responsible for the camels of the supply train for combat troops on campaigns (Kavanin: lOOa-lOla). DEVLET "Power, dynasty, state, nation". DEVLET-i 'ALIYE-i '0§MANIYE The "Sublime Ottoman State", the selfdesignation of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century. In earlier times the term Memalik-i mahruse, the "Protected Realms", was used. DEV§lRME "Collection", periodic levy of Christian boys intended for the Janissary Corps and Palace service. Devgirme began in the reign in Murad I (1362-1389) but in the early years the term referred to the collection of onefifth of the captives for training purposes. Beginning in the 15th century authorized Janissary officers selected suitable, i.e. healthy and illiterate, children from Balkan villages at regular intervals. Care was taken to exclude lads who were married, knew Turkish, or were Muslims. The children of Bosnian converts had special permission to be included in the devfirme if they were otherwise qualified. The boys were taken at first to Edirne and after the conquest to Istanbul for inspection and further selection; the best of them were taken as pages for Palace education and court service as ig oglans ; the rest were sent to Anatolian farms to work and to learn Turkish and the tenets of Islam. After a period of time they were recalled to fill vacancies in the 'acemi oglan corps. They did assorted menial labor while serving reserves for the Janissary Corps. As vacancies occurred they were placed in the ranks of the Janissaries. By the end of the 16th century sons of Janissaries were permitted to join the corps. Within a few decades the sons gained exclusive right to fill vacancies and the need for maintaining the devfirme faded (EI2, ii: 210213). DlL

"Tongue", a prisoner of war captured to provide information concerning the enemy.

DtL OGLANLARI "Jeunes de langues". European pages at the foreign embassies in Constantinople with the mission to learn Ottoman Turkish. After some years they were usually employed as interpreters in their respective countries. DILStZ "Mute", employed in the Enderun of the Topkapi Palace for confidential services. Several of the mutes were the personal entertainers and companions of the sultan as his musahibs, "courtiers". DtRHEM "Drachma", a standard unit of weight, 1/400 of an okka, 3.207 gr.

38

GUSTAV

B A Y E R LB

DlRLÍK "Subsistence", a stipend or grant of timár considered to be of sufficient size for sustenance. DÍRLÍK $ÁHÍBÍ "Possessor of subsistence", salaried or timar holding officials of the Ottoman armed forces: the Janissaries, müteferrikas, gavufes, za'tms, and sipáhis (Ulufay: 189). DfVÁN i. "Council", especially the Diván-1 httmáyün, the Imperial Council of the sultan; the Afca diváni, the Council of the Janissary Corps; and the Cum'a diváni, the Council of the káti 'askers. ii. the collected works of Muslim poets are also known as divans. DÍVÁN HACELERÍ Also (facegán-t diván-i hümáy&n, the "senior scribes of the imperial chancery ". DlVÁN-HÁNE A building in the second court of the Palace known as Divan meydáni. The meeting chamber of the Diván-ffáne has a kubbe, "domed ceiling", and those vezirs who attended the diván meetings were called kubbe vezirleri to differentiate them from vezirs who resided in the provinces. The office of the grand vezir and those of other vezirs adjoined the Diván-háne. DlVÁN-I AHKÁM-I 'ADLÍYE Council of Judicial Ordinances. In 1867 the Meclis-i válá was divided into a legislative council, the $ürá-yi Devlet, "Council of the State", and a judicial council, the Diván-1 ahlcám-i 'adliye. The council acted as a secular supreme court. DÍVÁN-IHÜMÁYÜN The Ottoman Imperial Council, the advisory cabinet of vezirs of the sultan. Mehemmed I (1413-1421) regularly presided over a council of vezirs. His grandson, Mehemmed II (1451-1481), let the grand vezir chair the diván while he was observing the proceedings unseen behind a latticed window. The diván met four times a week, Saturday, Sunday, Monday, and Tuesday, to make decisions concerning incoming requests, petitions and reports. In the diván meetings the two Ifáti'askers and the defterdárs were sitting at the left side of the grand vezir, the vezirs and the ni§anci at his right side in a determined order of seniority. When in 1536 the Beglerbegi of Rumelia joined the diván he was seated next to the vezirs. The Agha of the Janissaries and the kapudan pa¡a participated in the meetings only when they had the rank of vezir. The mir-'alem, kapucibafis, (avuf-bafi, and the kapucilar ketfiüdási were in attendance at diván meetings but they were not seated. The re'isii 'l-kiittab observed the meeting sitting in an adjoining chamber.

P A S H A S , B E G S , AND E F E N D I S

39

Traditionally the diván meetings ended by the time of the ikindi prayer. In the era of the Kdprilis (1656-1691) the grand vezir began to have a continuation of the regular divan in his own residence after the afternoon prayer. Having greater privacy, questions of substance were decided there in the "ikindi meeting", and the regular divan meeting devolved into discussing the questions of promotions and dismissals and other matters of protocol; After 1720, the three main agents of the grand vezir, the kethuda beg, the (avuf-bafi, and the re'is it 'l-kiittab, achieved vezir status managing matters of interior, justice, and foreign affairs respectively (EI2, ii: 357-359). DlVANI A style of calligraphic script used in penning imperial decrees. DIVÁN MEYDÁNI The "Diván Court", the Second Court of the Topkapi Palace between Orta kapu, "Middle Gate" and Bábii 's-sa'áde, the "Gate of Felicity". This court was also known as 'Adálet meydam, the "Court of Justice", since the primary duty of the diván was to mete out justice. The marble colonnade in front of the Bábii 's-sa'áde dominated the Court. Mehemmed II often appeared there but by the 16th century the sultan appeared there only at the time of accession and on the two religious holidays. The Mafbáh-i 'ámire, "Imperial Kitchen", occupied the whole length at the right side of the Second Court. The ístabl-i hássa, "Imperial Stables", were at the left side of the court housing 25-30 horses and their trappings. Between the Council Hall and the stables there was a small gate leading to the Harem; a small outward spreading wing was added to it in the 1520s to house the dormitory of the 115 ziiliiflii baltacis, "halberdiers with tresses". They were employed as guards and for menial chores. The Diván-háne, "Council Hall", used to be adjacent to the Bábü 'ssa'áde but, in 1528, Suleiman I had a new Hall built next to the new Dárii 'l-hizáne, or Hazine-i birúni, "Public Treasury", adjacent to the Kasr-i 'adálet, "Tower of Justice", and the old Council Hall was turned into a mosque. The porticoed building has three domed chambers: the main chamber was for the meeting of the diván, at the right this chamber opened to the chancery where 50 scribes were taking notes, and the third domed chamber held the records of the diván sealed after meetings. At the end of the year the records were put in sealed leather bags for safekeeping. The re'isii 'l-kiittab sat between the first and the second chamber. Sultans could listen to the deliberations of the diván through a latticed window between the main chamber and the Tower of Justice. The Tower was connected by a narrow corridor with the Third court. From its belvedere the sultan could watch ceremonies in the Second court unseen. On paydays, four times a year, the Court accommodated more than 10,000 soldiers, Janissaries and cavalry and administrative personnel who

40

GUSTAV

BAYERLE

waited motionless in orderly silence for their turn to be paid (Necipoglu: 53-88). DlYAR-I BEKR VlLAYETi The Province of Diyarbekir in northeast Anatolia. Selim I conquered the region in 1517 and made it a vilayet. In 1609 the province had 730 kihg units, 42 of wihch were ze'amet estates; with cebelii retainers it provided for 1,800 soldiers from the followng sancaks: DiySr-i bekr, Amid, Harpurd, Ergani, Siverek, Nusaybin, $isn-i Keyf, £emi$gezek, Si'ird, MagafSrikin, Ak?a-kal'e, Sincdr ve $abur, Sigman, Kulb, Mihrani, Tercil, Atak, Pertek, gapak?ur, Palu, and Cennlk. In 1640 the province of Diyar-i bekr had 19 sancaks and 5 autonomous regions providing for 2,990 sipahts ('Ayn' 'Ali: 56-58; Unat; 465; Birken: 185195). DOGANCI "Falconer", already mentioned in Fatih's TK. Hawking was a favorite sport of the sultans who regularly used trained fakirs, "merlins", sahins, "peregrine falcons", and atmacas, "sparrow hawks". The term dogan was used for any kind of bird of prey. The dogancis of the Enderun were commanded by the dofcanci-ba}t and they accompanied the sultan in hunting. In Mehemmed II's reign (1451-1481) there were 9 dogancis; their number grew to 30 by 1609. Three doganci troops were stationed at the Birun of the Palace; in 1609 they had 271 gakirm, 276 fahincis, and 45 atmacacis. The (ahra-ba}t, also known as mir-i }ikdr, was the senior officer of the three companies, the fahinci-bafi being second in command. Falconers were also stationed in the province where suitable places for hunting and nesting existed. In 1564, 2171 of them were stationed in Anatolia and 1520 in Rumelia. The local doganci-bafts were provided by tlmars and the re 'aya dogancis under them were tax-exempt. They annually delivered young falcons to the Palace. The organization of the provincial dogancis faded in the 17th century. In the Palace the companies were abolished only in 1830 ('Ayn 'AH: 95; EI2, ii: 614-615). DOLAMALI "Wearing dolama jacket"; pages in the BiiyUk and KUfiik odas, lowest-grade if-oglan wards of the Enderun of the Topkapi Palace. See also gdman-i enderuni. DOLMA-BAG^E SARAYi The Dolmabahfe Palace on the Bosphorus, built in 1853 to serve as the imperial residence of 'Abdii '1-mecid. DONANMA-t HUMAYUN The "Imperial Fleet", the Ottoman navy. DRAGOMAN English spelling for tercumdn, "interpreter".

P A S H A S , B E G S , AND E F E N D I S

41

DU'AGOYAN Pensioners who, for their salaries, performed token services like praying on behalf of the sultan. DU'ALAR Prayers or benedictions, especially the benediction formulae inserted after an esteemed name: for the prophets, padishahs and their households, state dignitaries, Christian dignitaries, and for the deceased. i. Benedictions for the prophets and

saints:

KADDESA 'LLAH0 SIRRAH tl 'L-'AZlZ "May God sanctify his mysteiy", for Haci Bekta§ Veil (Kavanin : 6a). SALLA 'LLAHU 'ALEYHl VE SELLEM "May God commend and salute him", for the Prophet Muhammad (Schaendlinger, I: xix, 1554). ii. Benediction for the

padishah:

EBBEDA 'LLAHO EYYAME SALTANATIHi tLA YEVMt 'L-HA§R VE 'LMiZAN "May God cause his sultanate to endure until the Day of Resurrection and Judgment", for Ahmed I (Kavanin'. lb). HALLADA tflLAFETUHU "May God make his caliphate perpetual", for Selim II in 159 (BA TD, No. 661: 3). HALLADA 'LLAHU TA'ALA gLAFETOHO ¡LA 'NKIRAZ1 'D-DEVERAN "May God — be His Name exalted — perpetuate his caliphate till the end of time", for Selim II in 1570 (BA TD, No. 507:1). UYYiDAT DEVLETUHU "May God strengthen his state", for Selim II in 1579 (BA TD, 661: 3). Hi. Benedictions DAME FAZLOHtf

for

Ottoman

dignitaries:

"May his virtue endure", for the kadi of y6fa, 1483

(Kraelitz: 65) DAME IKBALUHO "May his felicity endure", for 'Ali, Pasha of Budin, 1553 ('Arif: 31; Schaendlinger, 11: xxviii) DAME 'iZZOHU "May his glory endure", for begs (for Mustafa Beg of Segedin, 1549 in Schaendlinger, II: v), and for the nifanci (Ferldun, i: 9).

GUSTAV

BAYERLE

DÄME MA'ÄLlHl "May his eminence endure", for Ottoman dignitaries (for defterdärs in 'Arif: 31; for A h m e d , Pasha of R ü m - i l t , 1S66 in Schaendlinger, II:xlv, for retired vezirs in Feridün, i:9) DÄME MECHÜHÜ "May his glory endure", for the agha of the Janissaries, other lizengi aghas, the ¡ehr emini, and the re'isil 'l-kättäb ('Arif: 31) DÄME 'ÜLÜVVÜHÜ "May his acclaim endure", for the beglerbegis (for Arslan, Pasha of Budin, 1564 in Schaendlinger, I: xxix), the defterdärs of the Sublime Porte and the nifdnci (Feridün, i: 9). EDÄME 'LLÄHU FEZÄ'lLEHÜ "May God make his virtues lasting", for the feyhii

'l-isläm, the mu'allim-i

sultan, and the two käti-'askers

in TK

('Arif: 30). EDÄME 'LLÄHU ICLÄLEHÜ "May God make his glory lasting", for Grand Vezir Rüstern Pasha, 1549 ('Arif: 30; Schaendlinger, I:xi) EDÄME 'LLÄHU MA'ÄLlHl "May God make his greatness lasting", for Ahmed Pasha, 1S49 (Schaendlinger, I:xi) EDÄME 'LLÄHU 'UMRAHÜ "May God make his life lasting", for fäh-zädes in FAT Arif: 32) ZlDE FAZÄ 'iLÜHÜ "May his virtues increase", for the kadi of Budin, 1549 ('Arif: 31; Schaendlinger, II:v) ZlDE 'ÜLÜVVÜHÜ "May his acclaim increase", for the nifänci (Celälzäde: 436) ZlDE 'iZZÜHÜ "May his glory increase", for Ahmed, Beg of Sirem, 1549 (Schaendlinger, l:x) ZlDE KADRÜHÜ "May his excellence increase", for Mahmud favuf, envoy to Ferdinand 1, 1549 (Schaendlinger, I:xi) iv.

Benedictions

for

Christian

dignitaries:

ER§EDEHÜ 'LLÄHU TA'ÄLÄ "May God — be His Name exalted — guide him [to the right path]", for Ferdinand 1 in 1550 (Schaendlinger, I:xii) ER§EDEHÜ 'L-MELiKÜ 'L-MÜTE'ÄL "May the Supreme Lord guide him [to the right path]", for Ferdinand I in 1553 (Schaendlinger, I:xvi)

P A S H A S , B E G S , AND E F E N D I S

43

yUTiMET 'AVAKiBUHU Bi L-tfAYR "May he end his days propitiously [on the right path]", for Ferdinand I 1541 (Schaendlinger, I:ii) v. Benediction for the deceased: 'ALEYHl 'R-RAHMETi VE 'L-GUFRAN "May God's mercy and forgiveness be upon him." 'ALEYHl 'R-RAHMETt VE 'R-RIZVAN "May God's grace and forgiveness be upon him", for Mehemmed II (Kavanin: 2a) CA'ALE 'L-CENNETE MESVAHO "May he dwell in Paradise", for Murad I (Feridun, i: 116). ESKENEHU 'L-LAHU Fl GUREFl 'L-CINAN "May God let him dwell in the mansions of Paradise". NEVVERE 'L-LAHU MERKADEHU "May God glorify his grave", for Hasan Pa$a (Akgiindiiz, v: 154). RAHMETU 'L-LAHI ALEYHl RAHMETEN VASi'ATEN "May God, the Forgiving and All-Comprehending, bless his soul", for Murad I (Feridun, i: 116). TABE SERRAHU "May he rest in peace", for Murad I (Feridun, i: 116). D0YUN-I 'UMUMIYE The "Public Debts", the Administration of the Ottoman Public Debt established in 1881. A council, consisting of si* delegates representing British, French, German, Italian, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman bond-holders, became a powerful political body influencing the economic life of the Ottoman Empire till its dissolution in 1923. The debt was officially liquidated only in 1944. DULBEND See "Turban". DULBEND AGASI Also diilbend oglant, the "agha of the wardrobe", one of the zUltiflii agas of the Hass oda of the Topkapi Palace, the keeper of the sultan's turban and underwear. DULBEND OGLANI The "agha of the wardrobe", see diilbend agasi. DUNDAR Rear guard in military campaigns.

44

GUSTAV

BAYERLE

E EBCED HESABI The numerical value of the letters of the Arabic script used in esoteric works and occasionally in poetry to date special events. EBNA-YI StPAHtYAN Members of the sipdhi troop of the kapu-kuh cavalry. EBU 'L-FETH Also Fatih, "The Conqueror", epithet for Mehemmed II (14511481), the conqueror of Constantinople. ECNEBl "Foreigner", in the 17th century specifically a fimar-holder whose ancestors came from the re'ayd and as such were considered as an usurping "alien [class]" among the caste-conscious sipdhis. In a similar vein, those recruits to the Janissary Corps who were not eligible according to the tradition, yet accepted were also called ecnebis by 17th-century critics ('Aziz: 7). EDIRNE AGASI The commander of the 'acemi corps in Edirne under the supervision of the Agha of Istanbul (Kavanin: 30a). EDlRNE SARAYI The Imperial Palace in Edirne, the seat of the sultanate prior to the conquest in Constantinople (1453). It was a popular winter residence for the 16th-century sultans and some 17th and 18th-century sultans chose the Edirne Palace as their preferred abode. EFENDt "Master", a title for educated people, especially for scribes. Servants of a home also called their master efendimiz, "our master". Particularly, it signified traditional medrese education, whereas beg indicated military ranks. In the 19th century efendi was also utilized for princes of the Ottoman dynasty. In addition beg and efendi were put together as beyefendi and have been used as the equivalent of the English "Sir". Efendi was officially abolished as a title in 1934 but still used in polite speech today {El2, ii:687). EFENDl KAPUSI The office of the secretary of the Janissary Corps. EFLAK

i. Vlachs, pastoral nomads in Wallachia. ii. Wallachia, an autonomous principality of the Ottoman Empire from the 1480s until 1858. The full independence of Rumania, including Wallachia and Moldavia, was granted at the Congress of Berlin in 1878 albeit without Bessarabia; that province was ceded to the Russians.

EFRENC Or firenk, "French, European".

P A S H A S , B E G S , AND E F E N D I S

45

EGRl VÎLÀYETÎ Prior to Che conquest of its fortress in 1596 the region of Egri, the Modern Eger in northeast Hungary, formed a nâhiye, "subdistrict", of the sancak of iîatvàn. In 1596 the sancaks of Filek, Segedin, §ôlmk and Hatv&n were detached from the Province of Budin and were reorganized into the newly created Egri vilàyeti with thé expectation that eventually further conquests would increase its size. These expectations did not materialize; nevertheless Egri kept its province status — albeit its beglerbegi was subordinate to the Pasha of Budin — till its eventual reconquest by Habsburg forces in 1687. EHL-1 ClHET People of the religious establishment: imàms, "prayer leaders"; fjatibs "preachers"; mu'e&ins, "callers for worship", and the like (Unat: 461). EHL-1 DÎVÀN "People of the [Imperial] Divân". In Fâtih's TK this term included the grand vezir, vezirs, kâti- 'askera, the Agha of the Janissaries, the iizengi aghas, the mir- 'alem,, kapuci-bafts, and the mïr-ahûr. This listing was indicative of the seniority and career path of the individual posts (Akgunduz, i: 319, 321). EHL-i HÎREF "Craftsmen", salaried artisans of a variety of professions working for the Ottoman Court. They were organized in tighly controlled guilds. EHL-i 'ÎLM Or 'ilmiye, "men of learning". EHL-Î KALEM Or kalemiye, "men of the pen", bureaucratic specialists. EHL-i SEYF Or seyfiye, "men of the sword", the military-administrative establishment. EHLÛ 'L-KÎTÀB "People of the Scripture", Jews and Christians who made covenants with God, but refused to acknowledge the supremacy of Muhammad, as Allah's "Seal of the Prophets". The ehlii 'l-kitàb were beneficiaries of limma, the Muslim accord of hospitality and protection if they acknowledged the domination of the Islamic state {El2, i: 264-266). EKRÂD PI. of kUrd, "Kurdish". ELCÏ "Envoy", representative of a foreign ruler or a state. The Ottomans considered their presence at the Sublime Porte as homage to the sultan and the Ottoman government; they were expected to present sizeable largesses at the time of their arrival. In turn the foreign envoys were the guests of the state, under protection, and with specified stipends. Foreign representation

46

GUSTAV

BAYERLE

was not reciprocated since the sultan was held superior to other rulers and as such not subject to paying homage to them. £avu;es and mtiteferrikas were entrusted to carry specific diplomatic correspondence to foreign states but they had not special powers for negotiating and w o e instructed to return immediately after delivery. Although the Sublime Porte began to send ambassadors with specific missions to Europe after the Treaty of Carlowitz (1699) the Ottoman Empire did not have permanent residents in European countries till 1789. For a list of ambassadors to London (1797-1914), Paris (1796-1914), Berlin (1797-1918), Vienna (1797-1918), St. Petersburg (1857-1914), Rome (1856-1915), Tehran (1806-1918), Washington (18671917), Madrid (1858-1922), and Athens (1840-1916), see Oztuna: 10101016. Ambassadors of Western countries to Istanbul are listed in Oztuna: 1021-1032. EL-HAMDU Ll'LLAHI "Praise be to God", the beginning words of the First sure of the Koran; common pious exclamation in Muslim conversation. ELKAB PI. of lakab "title". Individuals who had official positions in society with specified ranks were entitled to be addressed with traditional/honorary titles. Manuals on protocol listed a number of titles suitable for officials of the state. In 1863 these honorary titles were reorganized and were made official by law. They were abolished only at the proclamation of the Turkish Republic in 1923. The following is a list of some of the better known titles used by scribes in Ottoman documents of the Classical period (1453-1699). i. Titles for the padishah: AK-DENlZON, VE KARA-DEN1Z0N, VE KA'BE-i MU'AZZAME VC MEDlNE-1MONEVERRENON, VE KUDS-I §ERlF0N, VE TAtfT-I MISR-I NADtRE-1 AS RUN, VE VILAYET-I YEMEN 0 'ADEN 0 SAN'ANUN, VE DARO 'S-SELAM-I BAGDAD U BA$RA VU LAHSANUN, VEMEDAlN-1 ANO§lN-REVANUN, VE DlYAR-I CEZAYlR 0 AZERBAYCANUN, VE DE§T-t K1PQAK U DIYAR-1 TATARUN, VE DiYAR-I BEKR 0 KORDlSTAN U LORlSTANUN, VE KOLLiYEN R0M-ILI VE ANATOLI VE KARAMAN VE EFLAK VE BCXJDAN VE UNGURUS MEMLEKETLER1N0N, VE BUNLARDAN GAYRI NICE MEMALiK U DlYAR-I AZlMO L-t'TiBARUN PAD1§AH1 VE SULTANI "The Padishah and Sultan of the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea, of Ka'ba the Esteemed, and Medina the Illuminated, of Jerusalem the Sacred, of the Throne of Egypt the most precious jewel of our era, of the provinces of Yemen and Aden and San'a, of Baghdad the Abode of Peace, and Basra, and Lahsa, of the cities of Anushirwan (i.e. the Sasanid Ctesiphon in Iraq), of the lands of Algiers and Azerbaijan, of the land of the Golden Horde and the land of Tartary, of Diyarbekir and Kurdistan and

PASHAS,

BEGS,

AND

EFENDIS

47

Luristan, and all of Rumelia and Anatolia and Karamahia and Wallachia and Moldavia and Hungary, and apart from these, of many other great and esteemed countries and lands", for Suleiman I in 1562 (Schaendlinger, I: xxv). BA'lS-t EMN 0 EMAN "The creator of peace and security", for Suleiman I in 1559 (Schaendlinger I: xxiii). BURHANO 'L-HAVAKlN

"The affirmation of khans", for Suleiman I in 1534

(Schaendlinger, I:i). BURHANO 'L-tfAVAKlN-t DEVRAN "The affirmation of khans of all epochs", for Suleiman I in 1559 (Schaendlinger, Irxxiii). y A D l M O 'L-HAREMEYNl '§-§ERlFEYN

"The protector of the two holy

cities (i.e. Mecca and Medina)", for Ahmed I in 1608 (Feridun, ii: 320) HALlFETO 'R-RAHMAN "The caliph of the All-Compassionate", for Selim II in 1570 (BA TD, 507:1). KAHRAMAN-I KEVN U MEKAN "The hero of the universe", for Suleiman I in 1562 (Schaendlinger, I:xxv). NERrMAN-I MEYDAN-I ZEMIN 0 ZAMAN "Neriman (mytical hero in Ferdowsi's Shah-name) of the epoch", for Suleiman 1 in 1562 (Schaendlinger, I:xxv). SAHiB-KlRAN-I MEMALlK-i RUM U 'ACEM U 'ARAB "The auspicious lord of the dominions of Byzantium, Persia, and Arabia", for Suleiman I in 1562 (Schaendlinger, I:xxv). SAHiBO 'Z-ZAMAN 507:1).

"The lord of the epoch", for Selim II in 1570 (BA TD,

S U L T A N 0 'S-SELATlN (Schaendlinger, I:i).

"The sultan of sultans", for Suleiman I in 1534

SULTAN-I SELATIN-1 ClHAN "The sultan of the sultans of the world", for Suleiman I in 1559 (Schaendlinger, I:xxiii). SULTAN-I SELAriN-I §ARK U 6 A R B "The sultan of the sultans of Orient and Occident", for Suleiman I in 1562 (Schaendlinger, I: xxv).

GUSTAV

BAYERLE

TAC-BAtfS-I flUSREVAN-I RO-YI ZEMIN "Khosrow-like (imperial; allusion to Khosrow II of Persia in Ferdowsi's Shah-name) dispenser of crowns of the world", for Suleiman I in 1554 (Schaendlinger, I: xix). TAC-BAyS-I yUSREVAN-I ZEMIN 0 ZAMAN "Khosrow-like dispenser of crowns of the epoch", for Suleiman I in 1559 (Schaendlinger, I:xxiii). TAC-BAtfS-1 RO-YI ZEMIN "Dispenser of crowns of the world", for Suleiman I in 1534 (Schaendlinger, I:i). ZILLO 'LLAHl Fl 'L-ARAZlN "Shadow of God on Eaith", for Suleiman I in 1534 (Schaendlinger, I:i). ZlLLO 'LLAHI 'L-MELlKi 'L-MENNAN "Shadow of God, the All-Bounteous King", for Suleiman I in 1559 (Schaendling, I: xxiii). ii. Titles

of Christian

sovereigns and dignitaries

:

FAtflRO 'S-SELATlN! 'L-'tZAMi 'L-KlRAMi 'L-MlLLETt 'L-'ISEVlYE "Pride of the great, noble sultans of Christendom", for Ferdinand I by Tuygun, Pasha of Budin in 1554 (Fekete: vii). iFTitfARO 'L-MUtfADDERATi 'L-'ISEVlYE "Laudable pride of ladies of Christendom", for Queen Elizabeth I in 1580 (Skilliter. 252). iFTlyARO 'L-UMERA'i 'L-MILLETi 'L-MESlHlYE' "Uudable pride of the commanders of the community of the Messiah", for Ferdinand I in 1534 (Schaendlinger, 1:1). tFTitfARU UMERA'i L-lZAMI 'L-'ISEVlYE "Uudable pride of the great commanders of Christendom", for Ferdinand I in 1562 (Schaendlinger, I:xxv). iFTiyARti KUBERA'i 'L'FlyAMl Fl MILLETI 'L-MESlHlYE "Choice of illustrious magnates in the community of the Messiah", for Ferdinand I in 1541 (Schaendlinger, I:ii). KIDVETO A'YANi 'L-MiLLETt 'L-MESlHlYE "Paragon of the nobles of the community of the Messiah", for the mayor of Sebin, Transylvania in 1552 (Schaendlinger, II:xv). KIDVETO O M E R A i

'L-'lZAMl

'L-'ISEVlYE "Paragon of the great

commanders of Christendom", for Ferdinand I in 1541 (Schaendlinger, I:ii).

PASHAS,

BEGS, AND E F E N D I S

49

KIDVETO OMERA'I 'L-'lZAMt 'L-MESlHlYE "Paragon of the great commanders of the followers of the Messiah", for Johann Maria Malvezzi, imperial envoy to Istanbul in 1549 (Schaendlinger, I:ix). KIDVETO OMERA'I T-TA'iFETi 'L'lSEVlYE "Paragon of the commanders of Christendom", for Ferenc Kendi of Transylvania in 1552 (Schaendlinger, II:xi). MEFAfliRO 'L-OMERA'i 'L-MILLETl 'L-MESlHlYE "Laudable pride of the commanders of the community of the Messiah", for Hungarian nobles in 1566 (Schaendlinger, II: xlvi). MERACi'O KOBERA'i T-TA'iFETi 'L-'ISEVlYE "Authority of the magnates of Christendom", for Hungarian nobles in 1566 (Schaendlinger, II:xlvi). MUHTARO KOBERA'i 'L-FiyAMI Fl MILLETt 'L-MESlHlYE "The elite of illustrious magnates in the community of the Messiah", for Ferdinand I in 1562 (Schaendlinger, I:xxv). MUHTARO KOBERA'I 'T-TA'iFETi 'L-'ISEVlYE "The elite of the magnates of Christendon", for Ferdinand I in 1534 (Schaendlinger, I:i). MOFAyyARO 'L-OMERA'i 'T-TEMYiZ "Exalted among the distinguished commander", for Peter, voyvoda of Bogdan in 1456 (Kraelitz: 44). MUHTARO 'L-MUVAKKARATI Fl 'L-MiLLETl 'L-MESlHlYE "The elite of ladies honored in the community of the Messiah", for Queen Elizabeth I in 1580 (Skilliter: 252). MUSLtHETU 'L-MASALiHi T-TA'iFETi 'N-NASRANlYE "Arbitress of the affairs of the community of Nazarene", for Queen Elizabeth I in 1580 (Skilliter: 252). MOSLIH0 MASALIHI CEMAHlRI 'T-TA'iFETi 'N-NASRANlYE "Arbiter of the universal affairs of the community of Nazarene", for Ferdinand I in 1541 (Schaendlinger, I:ii). RlM yALKINUS GOZiDE VE HORMETLOSi "Chosen and revered of the people of Rome", for Ferdinand I in 1562 (Schaendlinger, I:xxv). SAHiBO DELA'iLi 'L-MECDi VE 'L-tFTiljAR "Possessor of manifestation of splendor and laudable pride", for Ferdinand I in 1541 (Schaendlinger, I:ii).

GUSTAV

BAYERLE

SAHiBO EZYALi L-HAJMETt VE 'L-VAKAR "Possessor of the trains of majesty and glory", for Ferdinand I in 1541 (Schaendlinger, I:ii). UMDETO 'L-KtJBERA'I T-TA iFETl 'L'lSEVlYE "Pillar among Ulustrious greats of Christendom", for Frater George Martinuzzi of Transylvania in 1550 (Schaendlinger, II:ix). OSVETt) KOBERA'l L-FlyAMt Fl MlLLETl 'L-MESlHlYE "Model of the illustrious magnates in the community of the Messiah", for Ferdinand I in 1541 (Schaendlinger, I:ii). iii. Titles f o r Ottoman

dignitaries:

AKZA KUDATi 'L-Ml)SLlMlN "The most authoritative of Muslim kadis", for kadis with five-hundred-ofca stipends ('Arif: 31; for the judge of Sofya in 1546 in Schaendlinger, II:ii). A'LEMO 'L-'ULEMA'i L-MOTEBAHHiRlN "The most learned of erudite scholars", for the ¡eyhti 'l-islam, the mu'allim-i sultan, and the two kati-'asken ('Arif; 30, Feridun, i:ll). 'AM1L0 'L-yAZAYtN BI-AHSENi 'L-A'MAL "Custodian of the treasuries with the finest conduct", for defterdars (GOkbilgin: 60). ASAFO 'Z-ZAMAN "Asaph (vezir of King Solomon) of his epoch", for Grand Vezir Rilstem Pasha in 1549 (Schaendlinger, I:xi). BEDR-i KUBERA'l L-FIHAM "The moon of the illustrious greats", for Grand Vezir Ibrahim Pasha (Celal-zSde: 433). CAMi'O VOCOHi 'L-EMVAL "Holder of the means of wealth", for defterdars ('Arif: 31). CAMl'U 'L-MA'ALl VE 'L-MEFAHiR "Assembler of eminence and laudable pride", for the Beg of Hersek-ili in 1486 (Kraelitz: 71). CAMf'O 'L-MAHAMiDt VE 'L-MEKARlM "Assembler of excellence and generosity", for the agha of the Janissaries and other iizengi aghas, and for the re'isit 'l-kiittab and emin-i deften ('Arif: 31; Feridun, i: 10). CELlSO 'S-SALTANATi Z-ZAHtRE "Companion of the flourishing sultanate", for grand vezirs ('Arif: 30).

P A S H A S , BEGS, AND EFENDIS

51

CENÄB-I EMÄRET-ME'ÄB-I tYÄLET-NISÄB "The charismatic excellency of proper governing", for the Khan of Crimea (Celal-zfide: 433). DESTUR-I EKREM "Most noble vezir", for grand vezirs ('Arif: 30, Feridün, i:9). DESTUR-I MÜKERREM (Schaendlinger, I:xi).

"Honored vezir", for Ahmed Pasha in 1549

DEVLET-iNTfSÄB-I SA'ÄDET-lKTtSÄB "Prosperous and auspicious", for the Khan of Crimea (Celäl-zäde: 433). DEVLETLU

"IUustrious", for vezirs (Sertoglu: 84).

DEVLETLU ' A T I F E T L U (Sertoglu: 84).

"Illustrious and benevolent", for

DEVLETLU FAHÄMETLU (Sertoglu: 84). DEVLETLU 'INÄYETLU agasi (Sertoglu: 84).

ser-'askers

"Illustrious and excellent", for grand vezirs

"Illustrious and gracious", for the därü

's-sa'äde

DEVLETLU NECÄBETLU "Illustrious and noble", for princes of the Ottoman dynasty (Sertoglu: 84). DEVLETLU SEMÄHATLU "Illustrious and munificent", for the ¡eyhü 'l-isläm (Sertoglu: 84). DEVLETLU SEYÄDETLU "Illustrious and of noble descent", for the Grand Sherif of Mecca (Sertoglu: 84). EFDÄLÜ 'L-FUZALÄ'i 'L-MÜTEVERRi'lN "Eminent among the scrupulously virtuous", for the feyhü

'l-isläm, the mu'allim-i

sultan, and the käii-

'askers ('Arif: 30, Feridün, i: 11). EL-ÖÄZl Fl SEBlLl 'LLÄH "Ghazi on the path of God", for Grand Vezir ibrähim Pasha in 1534 (Schaendlinger, I:i). EL-MAHFOFU Bi-SUNOFt 'L-AVÄTIFt L-MELtKl 'L-A'LA "Invested by arrays of favors of the Supreme Lord", for grand vezirs ('Arif: 30, Feridün, i:9).

GUSTAV

BAYERLE

EL-MAIJFÜFU BÍ-SUNÜFÍ LETÁYIFÍ 'L-AVÁTIFÍ 'L-MELÍKl

L-A'LA

"Invested by the imperceptible of favors of the Supreme Lord", for vezirs (Celàl-zâde: 433). EL-MAtfSOSU BÍ-'ÍNÁYETÍ L-MELÍKÍ 'L-KÁDÍR "Chosen by the favor of the AUmighty God", for the Beg of Hersek-ili in 1486 (Kraelitz: 70). EL-MANZÜRU BÍ-ENZÁR-Í tNÀYÀTÎ 'L-MELlKl 'S-SAMED "Admired because of the many favors granted to him by the Sublime Lord", for the nifànci (Celàl-zâde: 436). EL-MUtfTASSU Bt-MEZlDt 'ÍNÁYETÍ 'L-MELÍKl 'L-ALLÀM "Chosen by the boundless favor of the Lord, the All-Knowing", for beglerbegis ('Arif: 31; for Tuygun, Pasha of Budin in 1553 in Schaendlinger, II:xxxi) and begs ('Arif: 31; for Arslan, Beg of Semendire in 1564 in Schaendlinger, II: xxxviii). EL-MUfJTASSU Bt-MEZÍDt ÍNÁYETÍ 'L-MELÍKÍ 'L-BÀRÏ "Chosen by the boundless favor of the Lord, the Creator", for defterdárs ('Arif: 31). EL-MUyTASSU BÍ-MEZÍDÍ ÍNÁYETÍ 'L-MELÍKÍ 'L-DÁÍM "Chosen by the boundless favor of the Eternal Lord", for the agha of the Janissaries, other ttzengi aghas, t h e f e h r emini, and the re isü 'l-kultàb ('Arif: 31; Feridün, i:10). EL-MUtfTASSU BÍ-MEZlDÍ 'ÍNÁYETÍ 'L-MELÍKÍ 'L-MÜ'ÍN "Chosen by the boundless favor of the Lord, the Helper", for káefis with five-hundredakca stipends, the faculty of the sahn-i semàn and dáhil colleges and the faculty of the semániye colleges ('Arif: 31; Ózcan: 50; Celàl-zâde: 436). EL-MUtfTASSU BÍ-MEZlDÍ 'ÍNÁYETÍ 'L-MELÍKÍ 'S-SAMED "Chosen by the boundless favor of the Sublime Lord", for retired vezirs (Feridün, i:9) and for the defterdàr of the Sublime Porte and the nifánct (Feridün, i:9). EL-MÜCÁHÍDÜ LÍ-VECHÍ 'LLÀH "Champion for the sake of God", for Grand Vezir Ibràhïm Pasha in 1534 (Schaendlinger, I:i). EL-MÜSTAÚNÍ 'ANÍ 'T-TAVSlFÍ VE 'T-TCBYlN "Immune to praise and exempt from explanation", for the feyhli l-islâm, the mu'allim-i sultán, and the two káií-'askers ('Arif: 30). EL-MÜ'EYYEDÜ BÍ-TE'EYYÜDÍ 'LLÁHÍ 'L-'ALLÀM "Supported by the assistance of God the All-Knowing", for the Beg of Hersek-ili in 1489 (Kraelitz: 80).

P A S H A S , B E G S , AND E F E N D I S

53

EMÁCtDÜ VÜLÁTi 'L-MUVAHHÍDlN "Most illustrious of the Muslim vális", for the fajáis of Rüm-ili in 1493 (Kraelitz: 95). EMIRO 'L-ÜMERÁ't 'L-KlRÁM "Commander of the noble commanders", for beglerbegis ('Arif: 31; Feridün, i:9, for Tuygun, Pasha of Budín in 1553 in Schaendlinger, II: xxxi). ENlSÜ 'D-DEVLETt 'L-KÀHlRE "Companion of the Conquering Dynasty", for grand vezirs ('Arif: 30). ES-SÀRIMU 'S-SAMSÀM "The edge of the saber", for Grand Vezir Ibràhim Pasha in 1534 (Schaendlinger, I:i). EVLA VÜLÁTt 'L-MÜVAHHÍDlN "The most suitable of Muslim governors", for kadis with five-hundred-afcfa stipends ('Arif: 31; for the judge of Sofya in 1546 in Schaendlinger, II:ii). HALLÁLÜ 'L-MU DÌLÀTÌ 'D-DlNÍYE "One who solves religious complexities", for the mu'allim-i sultán (Celàl-zàde: 436). HALLALÜ 'MܧKlLÁTÍ 'L-HAKÀY1K "One who solves the difficulties of existence", for the feyhii '¡-isiàm, the mu'allim-i sultán, and the two káti 'askers ('Arif: 30). HÜCCETÜ 'R-RAHMÀN ALÉ 'L-ÌNSÀN "Warrant of the AU-Compassionate for mankind", for Grand Vezir ibràhim Pasha in 1534 (Schaendlinger, I:i). HÜCCETÜ 'L-HAKK ALÉ L-HALKÍ ECMÀ'lN

"Warrant of God for

mankind", for kafis with five-hundred-aifa stipends ('Arif: 31). ÍFT10ÁRÜ 'L-E'ÀLl VE 'L-E'ÀZlM "Laudable pride of the best and the greatest", for the ¡ehr emini, the re'lsii 'I-küitáb, and retired vezirs ('Arif: 31; Feridün, i:9). tFTÍyÁRÜ 'L-EMÀCiDÌ VE "L-EKÀRÌM "Laudable pride of the most illustrious and noble", for the agha of the Janissaries and other iizengi aghas, the re'isü 'l-kiittàb, and atún-i defters ('Arif: 31; Feridün, i: 10). ÍFTiyARÜ 'L-KUDÀTÌ VE 'L-HÜKKÁM "Laudable pride of kájis and magistrates", for kadi of F&ja in 1491 (Kraelitz: 89).

GUSTAV

BAYERLE

IFTÍyARÜ 'L-ULEMÄ't I^MUHAKKIKlN "Laudable pride of professors", for the faculty of the fahn-i semán and dá¡fi¡ colleges, and the faculty of the semániye colleges (özcan: SO; CeUl-zide: 436). lFTtHÄRÜ 'L-ÜMERÄ'l L-KlRÄM "Laudable pride of noble commanders", for the Beg of Hersek-ili in 1491 (Kraelitz: 89) and for Arslan, Pasha of Budin in 1564 (Schaendlinger, I:xxix). IFriyÄRÜ 'L-ÜMERÄ'i VE 'L-EKÄBlR "Laudable pride of commanders and greats", for defterdárs, the nifánci ('Arif: 31, Feridün, i:9; Celäl-zäde: 436), and begs (for Hamza, Beg of Hersek-ili in 1472 in Kraelitz: 55). ÍHTÍYARÜ 'L-KÜBERÄ'l 'L-FltfÄM "Select of the iUustrious greats", for the Beg of Hersek-ili in 1496 (Kraelitz: 96). iFTiYÄRÜ 'L-FUZALÄ'i 'L-MÜDEKKlKlN "Select of the conscientious of scholars", for the faculty of the semániye colleges (Celäl-zäde: 436). KÄ'iDÜ CÜYÜ§Í 'L-iSLÄM "Commander of the army of Islam", for Grand Vezir Ibrahim Pasha in 1534 (Schaendlinger, I:i). KEBÍRÜ 'L-KÜBERÄ'i L-FitfÄM "Great of the illustrious greats", for beglerbegis ('Arif: 31, Feridün, i: 9). KE§§ÄFÜ L-MܧKiLÄTi D-DlNÍYE VE SAHHÄHU MÜTE'ALLIKATÍ 'TTA'YlNlYE "Explorer of religious problems and corrector of designated relationships", for the geyhii 'l-islám, the mu 'altim-i sultan, and the two kali 'askers ('Arif: 30). KE55ÄFÜ RUMÜZÍ 'D-DEKÄYIK "Explorer of the signs of subtle points", for the feyhii 'l-islám, the mu'allim-i sultán, and the two kázi-'askers ('Arif: 30). KIDVETÜ ERBAbI 'L-lZZi VE 'L-lKBÄL "Paragon among men of glory and felicity", for defterdárs ('Arif: 31). KIDVETÜ ERBÁBÍ T-TAHRlR VE 'L-BEYÄN "Paragon among masters of writing and style", for scribes of the diván and the treasury (Celäl-zäde: 438). KIDVETÜ 'L-EFÄZILi VE L-EKÄBlR "Paragon of the superiors and greats", for defterdárs of ulemá origin (Celäl-zäde: 435).

P A S H A S , B E G S , AND

EFENDIS

55

KIDVETO 'L-EMÀCiDi VE 'L-EKÀRÎM "Paragon of the most illustrious and nobles", for the mi-r- alem, kapuci-bafi, and (âfnigir-ba}i (Celâl-zàde: 435). KID VETO "L-EMÀStLt VE 'L-AKRÀN "Paragon among the most eminent and peers", for fovujes ('Arif: 31; for Mahmud, envoy to Ferdinand I in 1549 in Schaendlinger, I;xi) and interpreters (for tbràhîm in 1561 in Schaendlinger, II: xxxvi). KIDVETO 'L-ERBÀBI 'T-TAHRIR VE 'L-KALEM "Paragon among the master of composition and pen", for scribes and the divân kàtibi (Ûzcan: 50; Feridûn, i:10). KIDVETO 'L-KUDÂTÎ VE 'L-HUKKÀM "Paragon among kadis and magistrates", for kàflis with one-hundred-fifty-aJcfa stipends (Ozcan:50). KIDVETO 'L-OMERÂ'Î 'L-KlRÀM "Paragon of noble commanders", for Arslan, Beg of Semendire in 1564 in Schaendlinger, II: xxxviii). KEBlRÛ 'L-KUBERÂ'i 'L-FiyÀM "Great among illustrious greats", for Tuygun, Pasha of Budin in 1553 (Schaendlinger, II: xxxi). MA'DENO 'L-FAZLI VE 'L-KELÂM "Mine of virtue and words", for kadis with one-hundred-fifth-atfa stipends (Ozcan: 50). MA'DENO 'L-FAZLI VE 'L-YAKlN "Mine of virture and certitude", for kadis with five-hundred-atpa stipends ('Arif: 31; for the judge of Sofya in 1546 in Schaendlinger, II:ii). MÂLÎK-t MEMÀLIK-i RE'Y 0 TEDBlR-t UMORl 'S-SALTANATi 'L-'ÂLIYE "Lord of the domains of judgment and management of the affairs of the Sublime Sultanate", for Grand Vezir ibrâhlm Pasha (Celàl-zâde: 433). MAZHARO 'AVÂTlFi 'LLAHl TA'ÀLA "Object of favors of God—be His Name exalted" for Grand Vezir Îbràhïm Pasha in 1534 (Schaendlinger,

1:0. MEF1JARÛ 'L-EMÂCiDi VE 'L-EKÀB1R "Glory of the most illustrious and greats", for defterdàrs (Celâl-zâde: 435). MELÂZ-I EHL-Î SMÀN "Shelter for the religious community", for Grand Vezir Riistem Pasha in 1549 (Schaendlinger, i:xi).

GUSTAV

BAYERLE

MERCt'O 'L-KtlBERA'l L-FlyAM "Authority among the illustrious greats", for the Beg of Hersek-ili ill 1489 (Kraelitz: 80). MERCi'O

VOLATI

'L-MO'MlNlN

"Authority among the valis of the

believers", for the k a j l of tfe$a in 1483 (Kraelitz: 65). MIFTAHU RUMUZi L-HAKAYIK "Key to the symbols of truth", for the mu'allim-i sultan and the two kaii-'asken (Cel&l-z&de: 437). MUyASSiSU ERKANt 'S-SALTANATt VE 'L-ICLAL "One who appropriates the pillars of the magnificence and glory", for grand vezirs ('Arif: 30). MUHTARU 'L-EHALl VE L-EKARlM "The elite among the masses and the most noble", for the fehr emini and the re'isti 't-kiittab ('Arif: 31). MUHTARO 'L-FUZALA'l L-MODEKKlKlN "The elite of the conscientious of research scholars", for the faculty of the sahn-i seman and

dahil

colleges (Ozcan: 50). MUHTARO'L-KUBERA'i V E ' L - E F A y l R righteous", for defterdan ('Arif: 31).

"The elite of the prominent and

MOBEYYlNU '§-§ERAYI'l VE 'L-AHKAM "Declarer of the canonical law and requirements", for the kadi of Fo?a in 1491 (Kraelitz: 89). MODEBBlRtJ UMURl 'L-CUMHOR Bt-'L-FtKRt 'S-SAKIBI R-RAZIN "Prudent manager of the affairs of the community with secret, decisive reasoning", for grand vezirs (Celal-zSde: 433). MUDEBBiRO UMURl 'L-CUMHOR Bi-'R-RE'Yi 'S-SA'tB "Prudent manager of the affairs of the community with proper judgment", for grand vezirs ('Arif: 30). MODEBBiRO MASALlHi 'L-OMEN Bi-'R-RE'Yi 'S-SA'iBl 'L-MET1N "Prudent manager of the affairs of the community with trustworthy, proper judgment", for vezirs (Celal-zade: 433). MC'ESSISO BUNYANt 'L-'iZZI VE 'L-iCLAL "Architect of the building of glory and magnificence", for vezirs (CelSl-zade: 433). MO'ESSiSU CENABi D-DEVLETi VE 'L-iKBAL "Architect of the place of prosperity and felicity", for grand vezirs ('Arif: 30).

P A S H A S , B E G S , AND E F E N D I S

57

MO'ESSlSU KAVA'iDJ 'D-DONYA VE 'D-DlN "Establisher of rules and precepts for the populace and religion", for grand vezirs (CelSl-z&de: 433). MUFAIJHARO 'L-KUDAH 'L-MOSLIMlN "Exalted among Muslim fatfis", for the kadi of Ho?a in 1483 (Kraelitz: 65). MUFAHyARU 'L-KUDATI VE 'L-HOKKAM "Exalted among ka(lis\ and magistrates", for thefajazis were known as champions of the faith who followed the principles of futiivvet. As Paul Wittek quoted Ahmed; (c. 1334-1413), the famed Ottoman author of iskender-ndme on the &azt ideal: "A Ghazi is the instrument of the religion of Allah, a servant of God who cleans the earth from the filth of polytheism; a Ghazi is the sword of God, he is the protector and refuge of the believers; if he becomes a martyr in the ways of God, do not believe that he has died, he lives in beatitude with Allah, he has eternal life". 'Osman I (1300-1324), the founder of the Ottoman dynasty was one of the Turkoman leaders on the Western frontiers who gained autonomy from the deteriorating Seljuk government of Konya. He established an emirate at the Byzantine march and with his akinct followers he relentlessly raided the neighboring Christian region. He succeeded in combining aktnci propensity for looting and plundering with the religious fervor of ghazi ideology. His son, Orhan (1324-1362), who called himself a "sultan, son of the sultan of ghazis, ghazi, son of a ghazi", continued his policy and greatly expanded Ottoman territory. Orhan's son, Murad I (1362-1389) strengthened central authority by laying the foundation for a feudal sipahi cavalry tied to the sultan by fealty and by introducing a personal army of slaves, the Janissary corps. The next sultan, Bayezid I (1389-1402) accelerated the transformation of the semi-nomadic emirate of 'Osman I (1300-1324) to a feudal state; in his reign the akincts/gazis were reduced to auxiliary roles as irregulars. Timur Lenk's invasion of Anatolia (14001402) slowed down the process of centralization for several generations but in the reign of Mehemmed II (1451-1481) the ghazi way of life was forced from the central lands to the periphery of the empire in the Balkans. Yet, in Turkish lore, the glorious image of the ghazi survived to our days (Wittek: 14-15; EP.ii: 1043-1045). GEDtKLt "Experienced, established", an intermediate degree in guilds, the bureaucracy, among the women of the Harem, and in the military, usually denoting people in the personal retinue of a dignitary. Gedikli was considered to be a feudal-type tenured position. i. The gediks of the guilds ii. In the harem gedikli women waited on the sultan in person. iii. Gedikli officers in the Ifapu kuh corps; gedikli agas, gedikli gavu$ts, gedikli mUteferrikas, gedikli folaks, and others. GEDtK SENEDl "Trade license", provided by a deed of authorization known as hiiccet. For a fee, the hiiccet gave exclusive rights to a merchant over his

PASHAS,

B E G S , AND E F E N D I S

69

business, to trade in a specified region. The gedik became tbe property of its owner and could be transferred by sale after the paying of a transfer fee. In the 19th century the government transformed a number of gediks into vakifs, assigning the fees to religious foundations as additional source of revenue. In time operating licences for every sort of trade, craft and commerce were issued by the Ministry of Evkaf. Due to abuses the practice of issuing gedik senedi by the Evkàf Treasury was abolished in 1861 (Barnes: 56-59). GEDlK TÌMÀR A tim&r estate permanently assigned to its non-sipàhi holder for a specific service; garrison squads who were assigned timàrs in lieu of salary also belonged to this category (Sertoglu: 121). GELlBOLl AÙASI the agha of the 'acemt ocak of Gellbóli. GENC "The Young", epithet for "Osman II (1618-1622). GHAZI English spelling of gazi, Muslim warrior who distinguished himself in a gaza. GILMÀN, PI. of gulam, "slave boy", ùilmàn was also used as singular with gilmànàn as its plural. GILMÀN-I 'ACEMÌYÀN The pages in Istanbul and Edirne and in the bostanci group of the Imperial Gardens of the Topkapi Palace. In 1609, 9,406 gilmàn-i 'acemiyàn were registered ('Ayn 'Ali: 89). GILMÀN-I ENDERUNl "Slave pages of the Enderùn", the imperial pages, trainees in Enderùn selected from the 'acemi oglans. Their education began in the two preparatory odas where they lived in isolated dormitories in strict discipline, studying the tenets of Islam, court etiquette, arts, sports, and crafts. They also learned to read the Koran in Arabic, Persian poetry, and the classics of Islamic literature. Their number increased from 400 in 1475 to 709 in 1609 ('Ayn 'All). Novice pages, known as dolamah for their woolen jackets, were assigned to the kUgiik oda and the bttyiik oda dormitories under the supervision of the kapu agasi and by 16 to 30 ak agas. Pages who graduated from the first two odas became known as kaftanli, "in caftan;" they advanced into the hazine and kilàrodas and entered the personal service of the Sultan. Those graduates of the btiyttk and ktigtik odas who were not selected for the higher odas were placed in the two yukari divisions of the alti bdlilk of the Porte; sipaht oglanlari and silàhdàrlar divisions. In 1606 a fifth dormitory, the seferli oda, was organized for the washmen of the sultan's clothes, bath attendants, stokers, clowns, mutes, musicians, and singers, in all 130 to 150 pages. One final

70

GUSTAV

BAYERLE

grade existed for the pages in the three higher odas; after several years, the best of them became seniors with the right to wear daggers (hence their nickname, bicakli) while the rest joined the miiteferrika corps. The seniors of t h e fyaine, kilar and seferli odas were promoted t o thefydffoda. W h e n

time came to leave Palace service the aghas usually received posts as begs, and beglerbegis; the seniors were granted ze'amet estates. Until the 1570s young princes were educated together with the pages; henceforth they were restricted to the harem and had their schooling there (Necipoglu: 11-12). GONULLU "Volunteer", i. especially a ¿azi or an akinci warrior who joined a military campaign not for salary but for the opportunity of plunder, timar, or salaried position, for distinguished service. Before major campaigns public criers encouraged gonUlliis to join. ii. From the 16th century on, salaried "gdniillii" bdliiks performed garrison duties. These units were organized cema'ats under a re'is or agha. Originally they were recruited from true gffniilliis who proved themselves on campaigns but eventually — just as with the Janissary corps — the sons of gdniillii soldiers were permitted to join. They could either be cavalry or infantry. The first bdliik of the cavalry cema'ats was known as afca bdliigi, t h e second as ketfrUdd bdliigi, while in the infantry cema'ats the first bdliik w a s called ketffiida bdliigi. Every boliik had a bifliik-bafi or

ser-bSliik with IS to 30 enlisted men. In Hungary vacant timars were assigned to gdniillii bdliiks in lieu of salary. iii. From the end of 16th century on various gdniillii units were recruited as segb&ns for the duration of a campaign to serve for salary as auxiliaries to the Janissary troops. Additional infantry soldiers equipped with fire-arms were badly needed on the battle fields, but after campaigns the provinces had problems with settling the dismissed veterans who tried to avoid returning to their former re 'aya status (El2, ii: 1120-1121). GRAND SIGNIOR Earlier European term for the sultan (Rycaut: 7). GRAND VEZIR English term for vezir-i a'lam, vezir-i ewe/, and sadra 'iam, the chief of the vezirs and emirs, vekil-i mutlak, the "sultan's deputy in all state affairs", the senior official of the Imperial Council. He was authorized to issue "buyuruldi" edicts using the sultan's tugra, "cipher". The sultan entrusted him with one of the four imperial seals as the insignia of his authority. The grand vezir always carried it on a silk cord around his neck. When the sultan requested the return of the seal by special messengers it signified the grand vezir's dismissal. In 1838 this title was changed to baf-vekil, "prime minister", and his authority was correspondently reduced by Mahmud II. The change lasted just one year when the title sadr-a 'iam regained use until the collapse of the Empire.

P A S H A S , BEGS, AND EFENDIS

71

For a list of grand vezirs from 1323 to 1920 see Oztuna: 941-952 (EI2, viii: 751-752). GULAM, pi. ¿iImdn "Boy, slave". In Ottoman usage the term denoted young slaves trained for palace service and for service of the state. The Seljuk court employed slaves for the service of the ruler, and Ottoman sultans adopted the system from the time of Orhan (1324-1362). The foundation of the Janissary corps was based on Christian slaves, captured on military campaigns; the devjirme method of collecting Christian boys for training was only an extension of the same principle. In their effort to centralize power, the sultans used the &ulam system extensively by granting important administrative and military posts as well as timar estates to slaves whose children could not inherit the positions or estates of their fathers. Under Mehemmed II (1451-1481) the posts of vezirs, including the grand vezir, became reserved for slaves. This extension of the ¡¡uldm system assured Mehemmed II and his successors of central power. They were free to select the most qualified for executive positions from the pool of talented gulams educated in palace schools. Vezirs and begs had similar private gulam troops, the kapu kullart, or beg Julian. Gulams were essential at all levels of Ottoman society (EI2, ii: 1085-1091). GUREBA PI. of garib, "alien", GUREBA-i YEMIN The "Right Wing of the Garib Troops" of the alti bolUk troops of the Porte. GUREBA-i YESAR The "Left Wing of the Garib Troops" of the alti boluk troops of the Porte. GURU§ "Piaster". i. Several types of European silver coins. ii. Due to the debasement of the akqa, it was replaced by the guru} in the 18th century as the stantard coin of the Ottoman Empire. The first gurufcs of 1688 contained six dirhems of silver, but in time the guru} also was debased. GUZAT PL of ¿azi, "ghazi". GUGUM-BA§I The deputy of the fyizinedar kethudasi, the overseer of the hazine oda of the Enderun of the Topkapi Palace. GUL-HANE Rose Garden, specifically the Giilhane Park next to the Topkapi Palace in Istanbul.

GUSTAV

72

BAYERLE

GUMl Overseer of galley slaves. GUMRUK EMiNI The superintendent of the custom duties on goods arriving at Istanbul by boat. According to K69I Beg, in 1640 they collected a ten percent custom duty (Unat: 461). GURCI Georgian.

H HABE§ VÍLÁYETÍ Ethiopia in northeast Africa was conquered by Özdemir Pasha in 1557. His son, 'Osmän Pasha, transformed the region into a vilayet that remained under nominal Ottoman suzerainty until early in the 19th century when Egypt assumed its administration. For a list of the beglerbegis of Habej from 1555 to 1789 see öztuna: 1125-1126 (Sertoglu: 128).

HACC The pilgrimage to Mecca, 'Arafat, and Minä. Hacc is the fifth of the five pillars of Islam. It is a duty for every Muslim who has the means to undertake it. It should be performed in the first two weeks of the month of Zi 'l-hicce (EI2, iii: 31-38). HACE "Elder, senior scribe", also spelled tyváca. HACEGÄN-I DlVÄN-I HÜMÄYÜN Or diván IjaceUri, the "senior scribes of the imperial chancery", the bureau chiefs of the divän. In the 16th century 25 scribes had the title bestowed on them annually by the sultan upon the recommendation of the grand vezir. The following posts for Ifácegáns were mentioned in the 17th century: three defterdärs, the nifdnci, the re'isii 7kiittäb, three riiz-nämecis, the favuf-bafi, four mufmsebecis, and two mukäta'acis. In 1732 the diván had 50 secretaries, 20 apprentices, and 30 candidates. Eventually the title became ceremonial with numerous officials holding it, and by 1834 almost every scribe had the right to use the title (Inalcik: 101; EI2, iv: 908-909). HÁCÍ "Pilgrim", a person who completed the hacc. HADEME-Í HÄSSA "Imperial servant", designation for the personal attendants of the sultan after 1826. HÄDIM, pi. huddäm "Eunuch", especially the white and black hädtm aghas in the personal service of the sultan: the luipu agasi, hai.inedár-ba§i, saráy

GUSTAV

72

BAYERLE

GUMl Overseer of galley slaves. GUMRUK EMiNI The superintendent of the custom duties on goods arriving at Istanbul by boat. According to K69I Beg, in 1640 they collected a ten percent custom duty (Unat: 461). GURCI Georgian.

H HABE§ VÍLÁYETÍ Ethiopia in northeast Africa was conquered by Özdemir Pasha in 1557. His son, 'Osmän Pasha, transformed the region into a vilayet that remained under nominal Ottoman suzerainty until early in the 19th century when Egypt assumed its administration. For a list of the beglerbegis of Habej from 1555 to 1789 see öztuna: 1125-1126 (Sertoglu: 128).

HACC The pilgrimage to Mecca, 'Arafat, and Minä. Hacc is the fifth of the five pillars of Islam. It is a duty for every Muslim who has the means to undertake it. It should be performed in the first two weeks of the month of Zi 'l-hicce (EI2, iii: 31-38). HACE "Elder, senior scribe", also spelled tyváca. HACEGÄN-I DlVÄN-I HÜMÄYÜN Or diván IjaceUri, the "senior scribes of the imperial chancery", the bureau chiefs of the divän. In the 16th century 25 scribes had the title bestowed on them annually by the sultan upon the recommendation of the grand vezir. The following posts for Ifácegáns were mentioned in the 17th century: three defterdärs, the nifdnci, the re'isii 7kiittäb, three riiz-nämecis, the favuf-bafi, four mufmsebecis, and two mukäta'acis. In 1732 the diván had 50 secretaries, 20 apprentices, and 30 candidates. Eventually the title became ceremonial with numerous officials holding it, and by 1834 almost every scribe had the right to use the title (Inalcik: 101; EI2, iv: 908-909). HÁCÍ "Pilgrim", a person who completed the hacc. HADEME-Í HÄSSA "Imperial servant", designation for the personal attendants of the sultan after 1826. HÄDIM, pi. huddäm "Eunuch", especially the white and black hädtm aghas in the personal service of the sultan: the luipu agasi, hai.inedár-ba§i, saráy

P A S H A S , B E G S , AND E F E N D I S

73

agasi, ktlarci-bafi, and the Darii 's-sa'ade agasi, and their associates (EI2, iv: 1092-1093). HADlS "Tradition", an account of what Muhammad said or did as handed down by his companions. Scores of scholars established chains of the transmission of tradition with ingenious critical apparatus. Eventually hadis was regarded as second in authority to the Koran (E12, iii: 23-28). HAFIZ "Guardian", term for those who memorized the Koran. Usually a hafii also had the skill to recite its suras in the traditional fashion. HAFIZ-I KUTUB "Guardian of the books", a librarian, especially of the imperial library in the Topkapi Palace. HAHAM-BA§I The Grand Rabbi of Istanbul. HAKAN "Ruler, khan", a title of sovereignty, usually denoting supremacy over a group of tribes or territories. HAKIM "Ruler, judge", magistrate, often a district governor with hereditary status as ruler of an autonomous tribal region within the Ottoman Empire. HAKlM MU'AVINi Assistant judge. HALAlK A female slave. HALEB VILAYETi A province organized around Aleppo in northern Syria. In the 1520s Suleiman I reorganized Vilayet-i 'Arab into three provinces: those of Haleb [Aleppo], §am [Damascus], and Misir [Egypt]. In 1609 the Province of Aleppo had 903 kilig units, 104 of which were ze 'amet estates; with cebelii retainers it provided for 2,500 soldiers from the following sancaks: Haleb, Adana, Birecik, Ekrad-i Kilis, 'Azir, Ma'arra, Balis. In 1640 the province provided for 878 sipahis. In 1918 the British occupied Haleb. For a list of the beglerbegis and valis of Haleb from 1516 to 1918 see Oztuna: 1111-1117 ('Ayn 'Ali: 55; Unat: 465; Birken: 235239). HALlFE The "caliph". i. The successor of Muhammad, the Emirti 'l-mii'minin, "Commander of the Faithful", the deputy of God on earth, the imam. — "We made thee a halife in the earth; so judge between the people with truth", Kur'an, xxxviii: 26 — The halife had to be a kinsman of the Prophet. In the second half of the 10th century the caliphs ceased to exercise their authority in person; after 1258 they were only titular holders of authority and the

74

GUSTAV

BAYERLE

traditional insignia of the caliphate were used by sultans. After the conquest of Egypt, Ottoman sultans began to use some of the traditional titles of the Caliphate but, in general, they were satisfied with the title ffádimü 7haremeyn, "Servant of the Two Holy Cities", rather than Emlrtl 7mii'minin. In the late 18th century sultans began to apply the term for themselves in diplomatic documents, asserting religious authority over all Muslims including those residing in non-Ottoman territories, but they did not attempt to exercise the functions of the ffalife within the Ottoman Empire. The caliphate was officially abolished in 1924 by the Turkish National Assembly (El2, iv: 937-950). ii. In fufi tradition the term \¡alife may denote diverse functions. He may be the kutb, "pole", around whom the spheres of being evolve; the successor to the founder of a farikat; a spiritual guide on a mystical path; the deputy of the head of tarikaf, and within the Bektajiye order halife is the rank of a baba (El2, iv: 950-952). iii. Also fágird, a junior scribe of the imperial chancery, subordinate to the hacegán-i diván-i hümáyün. HALÍLE A canonically lawful wife. HALVETÍYE One of the súfi orders founded by 'Ómer eiyalveti (d. 1397). His sobriquet refers to his frequent spiritual retreats in solitude. The order's tenets emphasised fasting, silence, vigil, meditation, and seclusion. Periodic retreats up to 40 days were obligatory for the miirid [novice]. They had to pass seven stages for achieving their goal of nefs-i kamile, "perfect spiritual state", in the nearness of God. The seven stages were associated with seven names of God: i. La iláhe illa 'lláh, "there is only one God", ii. Allah. iii. Hü, "He [i.e. God]", iv. Hakk, "The Truth", v. Hayy, "The Ever Living", vi. Kayyüm, "The Ever Lasting", and vii. Kahhár, "The Irresistible". The names also constituted the chant of their zikr ritual. They spread into Anatolia in the reign of Bayezid II (1481-1512) and became influential in Istanbul in the reign of Suleiman I (1520-1566). In subsequent centuries several branches emerged from the order including $emsiye, Sivásiye, §a 'bániye, Siinbüliye, Karaba¡iye, Cerráhiye, Ahmediye, Sinániye, and ' U¡}ákiye. Toward the end of the 19th century 89 ffalveti tekkes existed in Istanbul alone. Today it is still the largest active order in Turkey (Óztürk: 91-102). HAMÁL Porter, day laborer.

P A S H A S , B E G S , AND E F E N D I S

75

HAMÀM Turkish bath. HAN "Sovereign khan", a Turkish princely title, originally a contraction of hàkàn. Its extensive use dates from the Mongol period, when it was adopted by ruling members of the House of Chingghis and later also by others exercising sovereign authority. Khan was the official title of the rulers of the Crimean Tatars and was also one of the titles of the Ottoman sultans. HÀN "Inn", a large hostel, known also as kàrvàn-sarày, built for the accommodation of travelers, their animals, and their wares along the highways of Anatolia. Many of the still extant (fans were built in the era of the Seljuks of Rum (12th-13th centuries). HÀNE A family dwelling, especially the basic household tax unit. HANEFl MEZHEBÌ The Hanefi school of canonical law named after Abu Hanife (699-767). The moderate Hanafi school arose out of the sunna and is the most widespread school of the Prophetic Tradition. HANIM Also hatun, "princess". By the 19th century hanim became a courtesy title similar to the English "lady" (El2, iv: 990-993). HARÀC Head-tax on non-Muslim subjects. In Ottoman terminology haràc was used interchangeably with cizye. In 1856 haràc was abolished since Muslims and Christians were to be treated as equal before the law. Instead of the haràc a new tax, the bedel-i 'askeri, was introduced. It was paid by non-Muslim subjects in lieu of military service (EI2, iv: 1053-1055). HARBENDE Also kattra, "mule driver", of the Imperial Stable commanded by the fyarbende-bafi under the supervision of the mir-affir (Ozcan, 32) HARBÌYE NEZÀRETÌ The "Ministry of War", that replaced in 1908 the Bàb-t ser-'asker. For a list of its naprs from 1908 to 1922 see Óztuna: 986-987. HAREM The harem, "seraglio", the secluded women's quarters of Muslim households. HAREM-I HÙMÀYÙN The "Imperial Harem", the women's quarters adjacent to the Enderùn of the Topkapi Palace. Contrary to conventional wisdom the Topkapi Palace had a small harem section from its inception. True, in the 15th century the sultan's family lived in the Old Palace, but there was a place at the Topkapi Palace for consorts. In 1475 Mehemmed II had 400 women in his harem, 250 in the Old Palace and 150 women in the Topkapi

76

GUSTAV

BAYERLE

Palace; Bayezid II (1481-1512) had 90 consorts, 10 of them in the Topkapi Palace. In the manner of Enderin that had provisions, for the education of pages, the Harem was also a school for young girls. After Mehemmed II (1451-1481), the sultans rarely married due to their exalted status, rather they used concubines for procreation. Daughters of the sultans, as well as concubines, were married off to state dignitaries, strengthening the tie between the dynasty and its elite servants. Young harem girls lived in a crowded dormitory under the supervision of the head matron, "ketfflida kadtn"; the ikbàls, women who slept with the sultan, received their own rooms and servants. The sultan's favorite consort was called baf-ffàfekt, later baj-kadin. In 1534 Suleiman I married Qurrem, his favorite consort, and permitted her to move to the Topkapi Palace with her children. Suleiman's son, Selim II (1566-1574) also married his Venetian consort, Nùrbànù. In his reign approximately 150 women lived in the harem guarded by 18 black eunuchs; the Old Palace had 1500 women. Selim II's son, Murad III (15741595) enlarged the harem and had special quarters built for his mother, Nùrbànù, the first powerful queen mother in Ottoman history. Murad III tripled the size of the harem in 1578-85. The expanded harem was partitioned into four courts: those of the sultan, the queen mother, the concubines, and the black eunuchs (Necipoglu: 159-183). HAREM AÒASI The "Agha of the Harem", also known as dàrii 's-sa'òde agasi or kizlar agasi HAREMEYN-t §ERÌFEYN The Two Holy Cities, Mecca and Medina. HÀRÌC "Exterior"; the undergraduate grades of medreses. This designation included the provincial 20-akfa ibtidà-i hàric, "beginning exterior", colleges, where the professor had a daily stipend of 20 akfas, then the 30akga and the 40-akfa colleges. Students began their education by learning theology, then rhetoric, and then jurisprudence. IIÀRÌCÌYE NÀZIRI The "Minister of Foreign Affairs", a position established in 1836 replacing the position of the re'isii 'l-kuttab. HÀSEKl i. A favorite consort in the harem who mothered the sultan's child. They ranked higher than the sultan's own sisters since they had the potential to become a vàlide sultan. Some of them were able to keep their sultan's affection for life. Suleiman I married his fyaseki, Hurrem, in 1534 and Selim II married his, NOrbàni, in 1571. In the 17th century their daily stipend amounted to 1,000 akfas. Even in retirement in the Old Palace, some hasekis maintained their high status until the era of the Koprilis (1656-1691). By that time the sultan had several "favorites" instead of the

PASHAS, BEGS, AND EFENDIS

77

singular position of earlier fyâfekis. In the late 17th century the term kadin took the place of fcâfekî. Some concubines gave birth to sons yet they never achievedfyâsekistatus and their stipends were raised only to 40 akças (Pierce: 57-90). ii. The yaya-bafis of the 49th, 66th, 67th, and 68th cemâ'ats of the Janissary Corps. The yaya-bafi of the last cemà 'at was also named turnaci-baf i. They performed special duties at the public appearances of the sultan. Until the 17th century these companies raised hounds and supplemented the segbân units on imperial hunts. In 1623 the four cemâ'ats numbered 1,018 soldiers (Kavànïn: 101-103a;£/2; iv: 1100). HÀSS, pl. havàfs "Private property", denoting land and revenue units that produced an annual income in excess of 100,000 akças. In agricultural surveys the listing always began with choice ffàf? properties belonging to the sultan, and continued with the f}àss estates of the begletbegi and sancak begi. Has? lands were also granted to the vezirs and the upper echelon of the administration preempting a sizeable segment of available land income; in 1527,48 percent of the revenues in Rumelia, 26 percent in Anatolia, and 86 percent in Egypt were allocated as ))âff. It should be kept in mind, though, that the bulk of hàss revenue was consumed on the spot, being assigned as salary for provincial garrisons and administrative officials. From the 17th century on, hàss estates were gradually changed to mukàta 'a properties and the officials received cash payments (El2, iv: 1094-1097). HASS HARC EMlNI The comptroller of the expense accounts of the Topkapi Palace and its personnel (Sertoglu: 143). HASSA RE'ÏS Captain of a galley in the Imperial Fleet or commander of a naval squadron. HASS ODA i. The Privy Ward complex of the sultan at the far left corner of the Enderûn Court with a view of the Bosphorus and the Golden Horn. It has four domed halls, some utility rooms and a rectangular hall used as the dormitory for the pages of the jjàsf oda. Its inner façade has a portico of thirteen columns; the outer façade also has an L-shaped portico with double colonnade overlooking a pool. The imperial bedchamber is decorated with tznik-style tile panels. The sultan's bed, consisting of three mattresses, sheets and a baldachin, was assembled every evening by the pages. Murad III (1574-1595) moved his privy ward to the harem and the old bedroom was converted to a hàne-i taf}t, "throne room", and the shrine for the Hirku-i ¡erif, the "Relics of the Prophet". The maintenance of the shrine became the main duty of the pages of the hàss oda. Occasionally the bedchamber still served as a throne room

78

GUSTAV

BAYERLE

for the sultan. The several stages of the accession ceremony also began in this room. The outer portico of the f f a f f oda extended to the hanging garden with a pond and several kiosks (Necipoglu: 141-158). ii. The highest ranking unit for the jjilman-i enderuni. Pages were promoted to the t f d f s oda after satisfactory service in the lower odas. Under the fyasf oda-baf i it had 4 (later S) aghas, 12 seniors known as eskis, and 22 junior personnel, the 'acemis. The five aghas, the silahddr responsible for the sultan's weapons, the rikabdar in charge of his footwear, the fokadar in charge of his clothing, the diilbend oglant in charge of his turban and underwear, and the mifiah agasi responsible for his keys, were known as zuliiflti agas. The pages of the tfds? oda accompanied the sultan everywhere, cleaned his room, made his bed, and two in turn guarded the sleeping sultan in his bedroom (EI2, ii: 1088). HASS ODA-BA§I The overseer of the if oglans of the Enderun, in all 40 aghas not including the five zUliiflii agas (Unat: 470). HATEM-I SADARET The seal of the sultan entrusted to the grand vezir as a sign of power vested in him. HATIB "Preacher", the cleric who delivers the Friday sermon in the mosque and leads the Friday prayer. HATT-I HUMAyON A solemn imperial proclamation. HATUN Also fjamm, "princess". HATT-I §ERlF-i GUL-HANE The "Noble Decree of Gulhane [Park]", containing guarantees of basic civil rights, proclaimed by 'Abdii '1-mecid on November 3, 1839. It was publicly read by Mustafa Rejid Pasha in the Gulhane Park. Along with other promises, 'Abdii '1-mecid solemnly proclaimed that henceforth all subjects of the Ottoman Empire would have the right to private property and due process of the law regardless of race or religion. The proclamation signified the beginning of the Tanilmat Period (1839-1877). HAVALE Cash assignation on a mukata'a to a third party. It was used to avoid the dangers and delays of transportating cash. The timar system can be interpreted as an extension of the havale principle. Instead of collecting taxes and other revenues and then paying sipahis in cash, the state assigned the right of collection to the sipahi as timar (EI2, iii: 284-285). HAVASS PI. of hdss, "private property".

PASHAS, BEGS, AND EFEND1S

79

HAYME-ZEN "Tent pitcher", or fadir mehteri. HAZlNE Or fftzane, treasury. The Ottoman Empire had two treasuries: the (fazme-i enderun, for the imperial household; and the (¡azine-i 'amire, the outer treasury for the state administration. The inner treasury was managed by the tjazinedar kethiidasi, the fyazine-i 'amire by the defterd&r. HAZINEDAR AGA One of the black aghas charged with the expense accounts of the Harem (Sertoglu: 147). HAZlNEDAR-BA§I The chief of the ak agas in the Imperial Treasury (Pakalin, i: 785-6). HAZINEDAR KETHUDASI The intendant of the hazine-i enderun, the Inner Treasury. HAZlNE-I 'AMIRE The state treasury of the Ottoman Empire under the supervision of the defterdar. It was kept distinct from the ffazine-i enderun, the treasury for the imperial household, although surplus income in the Outer Treasury was often transferred to the Inner Treasury and in times of exigency the defterdar used the reserves of the Inner Treasury as a loan. Similarly surplus income from provincial treasuries was sent to the hazine-i 'amire and, as in the case of the Budin treasury, the central treasury was responsible for balancing the budgets of the provincial treasuries. Balancing the budget was, of course, the foremost obligation of the defterdar. By the final decade of the reign of Suleiman I (1520-1566), the expansion of the Ottoman Empire slowed to a halt. There were no new sources of revenues, yet the number and salaries of the personnel in the state administration as well as in the armed forces continued to increase. It became increasingly difficult to balance the annual budget. Means were devised to collect taxes due in future financial years, state offices were sold for cash, and at times of pressing urgency the state turned to the confiscation of the illegally-amassed wealth of high state officials. An atmosphere of permanent financial crisis dominated the administration in much of the post-Suleimanic era culminating in the declaration of bankruptcy of the hazine-i 'amire in 1875. HAZINE-I ENDERUN Or ¡¡azine-i ¡¡assa, the Inner Treasury, for the expenses of the sultan's household. HAZlNE-i EVRAK The "Treasury of Documents", the Ottoman Archives founded in 1846 to house records of the Divan-i hiimaym and those of the Grand Vezir's office. This collection, together with the records of the

80

GUSTAV

BAYERLE

defterdar, served as the core of the present Bajbakanltk. Arftvi, the "Ottoman State [Prime Minister's] Archives", in Istanbul. HEKIM-BA§I The sultan's chief physician. Until 1844 he was also known as the re'isii 'l-etibba, "chief of physicians", afterwards as ser-tabib-i ¡ehriyart, "imperial head-physician" (Sertoglu: 149). HELVACI-BA§I The "master halvah maker". Fatih's TK ranks him above the topfi-bafi, indicating the long tradition and importance of these sesame sweets in Ottoman cuisine (AkgOndiiz, i:319). HENDESE-IJANE-i MULKIYE MEKTEBI The School of Mathematics for Civil Engineers, the first Institute of Technology in the Ottoman Empire for civilians opened in 1884; since 1944 it is called the Teknik Vniversite of Istanbul (Sertoglu: 150). HIRKA-I §ERlF The Relics of the Prophet, housed in the throne room of the Privy Chamber of Enderun of the Topkapi Palace. It included only the most important relics, the rest being stored in the Inner Treasury: the Prophet's mantle and bow and the swords of the first four caliphs taken from the Mamluk treasury by Selim I in 1516; the Prophet's sword was a present in 1574, the Holy Standard was brought from Damascus in 1593. On the 15th of Ramaidn the relics were displayed to dignitaries who kissed the Prophet's mantle in front of the enthroned sultan. Today the Holy Relics are exhibited in the Topkapi Palace Museum in Hirka-i Sa'adet da'iresi, "Ward of the Relics of the Prophet". HlCRET "Hegira", the emigration of Muhammad from Mecca to Medina in September, 622, the starting point (actually July 16, 622) in the Muslim calender, Anno Hegirae, "A.H." (El2, iii: 36-367). HICRI Pertaining to the method of dating in the Muslim calendar. Since the hicri calender is calculated in lunar years, 100 hicri years are rougly equal to 97 solar years of the Christian calendar. Although complex algebraic equations for conversion have been formulated to assit students of Islamic history, modern conversion guides in book format or as computer software make conversion of dates from one system to the other an easy task. The Tiirk Tarih Kurumu, the "Association for Turkish History", has published a conversion guide by Faik Re$it Unat specifically for Ottoman history titled Hicri tarihkri Milddi tarihe gevirme kilavuzu (Ankara, 1940) and numerous amended editions. For an approximate notion it should be kept in mind that H. 800 = 1397 A.D., therefore H. 900 = 1494 A.D.; H. 1000 = 1591 A.D.; H. 1100 = 1688 A.D.; H. 1200 = 1785 A.D., and H. 1300 = 1882 A.D.

P A S H A S , BEGS, AND EFENDIS

81

The Muslim year has the following months: Muharrem, Safer, Rebi'tt 'l-evvel, Rebi'tt 'l-ahir, CemdzVU 'l-evvel, CemOil'tt 'l-al}ir, Receb, $a'ban, Ramat&n, $ewal, Zi 'l-ha'de, and Zi 'l-hicce. HILAL "Crescent", the new moon, has been used as a decorative emblem in pre-Islamic and Islamic art of the Middle East from time immemorial. In the 16th century celestial motifs frequently appeared on Ottoman standards and swords. It was only in the 19th century that a standardized crescent and star appeared on the imperial flag as an official symbol. In the 20th century several Islamic states adopted the crescent-and-star motif for their national flags. HiLAL-t AHMER The "Red Crescent", established in 1877 corresponding to western Red Cross societies. Today it is known as Kmlay. HIL'AT "Robe of honor", given by the sultan to Ottoman dignitaries at festive occasions. Hil'ats were also given to foreign ambassadors and their retinues on the occasion of audiences with the sultan to present their credentials and deliver the presents of their sovereigns. HiZANE-t' AMIRE-i ENDERUNI The Inner Treasury complex built at the far right side of the Enderun adjacent to the hamam-i biizurg, "Larger Bath". The Inner Treasury was used not only for stocking coins but also for storing jewels, swords (including those of the Prophet), gold and silver dishes and furnishings, Chinese porcelains, silk, carpets, manuscripts (Greek, Latin, Arabic, Persian, and Ottoman Turkish), Christian relics (e.g. the skull of St. John the Baptist), spoils of war, gifts, objets d'art, and other valuables in its vaults. The second hall of the Inner Treasury was called divdn-ffdne; it stored the Islamic manuscripts and the imperial throne (Necipoglu: 133-141). HOCA "Hodja, teacher" also spelled hvaca. HOCA EFENDI "Hodja, tutor", see mu'allim-i sultan. HUDDAM PI. of hadim, "eunuch". HUMBARACI "Bombardier". Already in the 15th century both the Janissary and the cebeci corps had fyumbaraci units. But they became prominent only in the reign of Mahmud I (1730-1754) when Bonneval Ahmed Pasha (also known as Humbaraci Ahmed Pasha) reorganized the humbaracis to a separate unit recruiting Bosnian soldiers. In 1826 the kumbaraci corps sided with Mahmud II and were retained in the new army albeit merged into the new artillery corps (Eft, v: 52-53).

GUSTAV

82 HUNKAR

"Sovereign", a variant of

HUNKAR KULI Also padifahiM soldier (Unat: 447).

BAYERLE hiidavendigar.

kuli, the "sovereign's servant", a Janissary

HURUFlYE An unorthodox Muslim sect which exhibited gnostic-cabalistic tendencies, founded by Fazlu 'llah Astarabadi (1340-1394). Interpretation of dreams and prophecy in general were pivotal in hurufi doctrines. As their name indicates central hurufi concepts involved letters — huruf pi. of harf, "letter" — as God manifest. For them it was not possible to grasp the essence of God except through the Word, i.e. through letters representing numerical values. They had their autonomous rites, the seeds of an autonomous religion. For this reason, Miran-§ah, son of Timurleng, had Fazlu 'llah executed in 1394. Hurufi doctrines appeared in Anatolia around 1400. In 1444 a Hurufi dervish was the guest of Prince Mehemmed in Gdirne who had him burned at the stake. In spite of the persecution provoked by the claim that Fazlu 'Hah superseded Muhammad in sainthood, some hurufi ideas survived in the Bektafiye order (EI2, iii: 600-601). HUZUR MURAFA'ASI Also Curn'a divani, the "Friday Council". On Fridays the Council of kali- 'askers met in the divan-lfdne in the presence of the grand vezir to decide on important legal questions of the state. The two kdti- 'askers invited the following officials to the meeting: the buyiik teikireci, favuj-bap gavu}lar kdtibi, muhtir aga, bostancilar odabagisi, kethiida yeri, cebeci (avuf-bafi, topfi (avu$-ba$i, kapucilar kethudasi, su-ba}i, and the 'ases-ba§i. HUDAVENDIGAR The 'creator of the world, sovereign", epithet for sultans, especially for Murad I (1362-1389) (El2, v:44-45). HUKUMET "Government, administration". i. The European-style government of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th and 20th centuries. ii. Form of administration in some sancaks in eastern Anatolia belonging to hereditary tribal chieftains named hakims. All revenues were kept by the beg of the scmcak who was obliged to provide a specific number of soldiers in campaigns. HUTBE The sermon of the Friday-service by the hatib. Traditionally two hUfbes were presented on Fridays; among other things the hatib presented admonitions to piety and offered a prayer on behalf of the faithful. In this prayer the name of the ruling sovereign was to be mentioned; in fact this mentioning was one of the obligatory insignias of being the sovereign (EI2, v: 74-75).

P A S H A S , B E G S , AND E F E N D I S

83

HUVE '-L-BAKI "Only God is eternal", inscription on Muslim tombstones, especially on those of Bektafi members. yVACA "Hodja, teacher, senior scribe" traditional spelling for (foca and hace.

I

ISLAHAT FERMANI "Imperial reform edict", especially the edict issued by 'Abdu'l-mecid in 1856 at the behest of his European allies. In it, the sultan granted, among other reforms, equal status of all of his subjects including non-Muslims. Non-Muslims remained exempt from military service; in exchange they were obliged to pay a special bedel-i 'askeri, "military exemption fee". ISTABL-I 'AMIRE MUDlRI ahur. ISTABL-i HASSA Palace.

The "master of the imperial stables"; see mlr-

The imperial stables in the Second Court of the Topkapi

'IT1K-NAME Certificate of manumission issued by the owner of a slave.

i IBRAHIM PA§A-SARAYI This magnificent building complex on the At meydani was built for Ibrahim Pasha, who became the grand vezir of Suieiman I in 1523. In the 17th century the palace served as preparatory school for the biiytik oda of the Enderun of the Topkapi Palace. Today the restored building serves as the Tiirk ve islam Eserleri Miizesi, "Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts" (Unat: 473; Sertoglu: 158). 1CARETEYN "Double rent", inheritable life tenancy of irnri or vakif property for an initial payment and annual or monthly rent. This practice was legalized at the beginning of the 17th century by a special kanun (Barnes: 52). ICAZET Certificate of a medrese granted to a graduate enabling him to teach.

P A S H A S , B E G S , AND E F E N D I S

83

HUVE '-L-BAKI "Only God is eternal", inscription on Muslim tombstones, especially on those of Bektafi members. yVACA "Hodja, teacher, senior scribe" traditional spelling for (foca and hace.

I

ISLAHAT FERMANI "Imperial reform edict", especially the edict issued by 'Abdu'l-mecid in 1856 at the behest of his European allies. In it, the sultan granted, among other reforms, equal status of all of his subjects including non-Muslims. Non-Muslims remained exempt from military service; in exchange they were obliged to pay a special bedel-i 'askeri, "military exemption fee". ISTABL-I 'AMIRE MUDlRI ahur. ISTABL-i HASSA Palace.

The "master of the imperial stables"; see mlr-

The imperial stables in the Second Court of the Topkapi

'IT1K-NAME Certificate of manumission issued by the owner of a slave.

i IBRAHIM PA§A-SARAYI This magnificent building complex on the At meydani was built for Ibrahim Pasha, who became the grand vezir of Suieiman I in 1523. In the 17th century the palace served as preparatory school for the biiytik oda of the Enderun of the Topkapi Palace. Today the restored building serves as the Tiirk ve islam Eserleri Miizesi, "Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts" (Unat: 473; Sertoglu: 158). 1CARETEYN "Double rent", inheritable life tenancy of irnri or vakif property for an initial payment and annual or monthly rent. This practice was legalized at the beginning of the 17th century by a special kanun (Barnes: 52). ICAZET Certificate of a medrese granted to a graduate enabling him to teach.

P A S H A S , B E G S , AND E F E N D I S

83

HUVE '-L-BAKI "Only God is eternal", inscription on Muslim tombstones, especially on those of Bektafi members. yVACA "Hodja, teacher, senior scribe" traditional spelling for (foca and hace.

I

ISLAHAT FERMANI "Imperial reform edict", especially the edict issued by 'Abdu'l-mecid in 1856 at the behest of his European allies. In it, the sultan granted, among other reforms, equal status of all of his subjects including non-Muslims. Non-Muslims remained exempt from military service; in exchange they were obliged to pay a special bedel-i 'askeri, "military exemption fee". ISTABL-I 'AMIRE MUDlRI ahur. ISTABL-i HASSA Palace.

The "master of the imperial stables"; see mlr-

The imperial stables in the Second Court of the Topkapi

'IT1K-NAME Certificate of manumission issued by the owner of a slave.

i IBRAHIM PA§A-SARAYI This magnificent building complex on the At meydani was built for Ibrahim Pasha, who became the grand vezir of Suieiman I in 1523. In the 17th century the palace served as preparatory school for the biiytik oda of the Enderun of the Topkapi Palace. Today the restored building serves as the Tiirk ve islam Eserleri Miizesi, "Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts" (Unat: 473; Sertoglu: 158). 1CARETEYN "Double rent", inheritable life tenancy of irnri or vakif property for an initial payment and annual or monthly rent. This practice was legalized at the beginning of the 17th century by a special kanun (Barnes: 52). ICAZET Certificate of a medrese granted to a graduate enabling him to teach.

84

G U S T A V

B A Y E R L E

ICMA' The consensus of opinion (of the learned) as the basis of the formulation of a legal principle in slinni practice. i ? IJALKI The "inside people", the officials in the Enderun,, the "Third Court", of the Topkapi Palace. Officials in the service of the grand vezirs, vezirs, and others whose offices or posts were situated in the Birun, the "Outer Courts", were known as kapu (¡alki. An "inside boy", a page, a dev§irme recruit selected for palace service. The selection was made at the arrival of the 'acemi o&lans at Istanbul. Those not chosen were sent to villages in Anatolia to learn the Turkish way of life while working; the if ojflans received initial education at the Ibrahim Pafa-sarayi, or the Galafa-sarayi schools and finally in the kiifiik and btiyiik odas of the Enderun section of the Topkapi Palace. They received a thorough education and graded promotions to higher levels while serving the sultan as pages, the gilm&n-i enderuni. At final graduation they received posts as officials in the Cavaliy of the Porte, the provincial cavalry, as begs, beglerbegis, and eventually some of them as grand vezirs (tnalcik: 78-83).

OCJLAN

IDARE MECLtSI The "Administrative Assembly", a provincial council established in 1864. The council included the vali, the "governor of the province", bureau chiefs and six elected members, three of whom were Muslims, three non-Muslims. The council had no jurisdiction over the judicial affairs of the province (SEShaw: 89). 'IDU 'L-AZHA Also Kurban Bayrami, the "Festival of Sacrifice", or Biiyiik Bayram, the "Great Festival"; a celebration of the high point of pilgrimage on the 10th of the month of Zi 'l-hicce. It is marked by the slaughtering of lambs or other related domestic animals and the distribution of meat among the needy in commemoration of Abraham's sacrifice. 'IDU 'L-FITR The "Festival of Ending Ramatan", or $eker Bayramt, "Festival of Sweets", also known as KtifUk Bayram, the "Lesser Festival"; a three-day celebration on the beginning days of the month of fevval that marks the end of abstinence during the month of Ramazan. IHTISAB Regulations applying public morals to commercial transactions. Of special importance were the fixing of market prices to prevent profiteering, the controlling of weights to prevent fraud, and quality control of merchandise. Market regulations included customs duties, dues on merchants and artisans and weighing dues.

PASHAS, BEGS, AND EFENDIS

85

ÍHTÍSÁB AGASI The superintendent of ihtisáb regulations; he was also known as muhtesib. The existence of his office was already noted in the reign of Bayezid II (1481-1512). The ihtisáb agast levied the dues and taxes on merchants and artisans and inspected the prices of goods ensuring that they conformed with the official list recorded in the skill defter of the local kadi (see narh). His duties were codified in the ihtisáb kánün-námeleri. Traditionally, the ihtisáb agast's responsibility was to supervise the morality of Muslims in public places and his overseeing the market-place was an extension of this duty. He was assisted in the collection of dues and taxes by the kol oglanlari. The office of the ihtisáb agasi was farmed out as iltizám. In 1826 this practice was abolished and a government official, the ihtisáb náiin, took over the supervision of the markets (EI2, iii: 489490)! ÍKBÁL "Good fortune", women in the Harem who were singled out to spend a night with the sultan; they were in line for promotion to the rank of kadin. They were also numbered according to seniority and they had rooms of their own.

ÍKÍNDÍ DÍVÁNI The unofficial discussions of state affairs at the residence of the Grand Vezir after the official diván council ended in the Topkapi Palace with the ikindi, "afternoon" prayer. By the 18th century the official diván sessions dealt mostly with matters of protocol, and serious problems were discussed semi-privately in the ikindi diváni. The káti- 'askers had similar meetings in their residences in order to complete some business that was not resolved at the diván-i hümáyün. These meetings were also known as ikindi diváni (Sertoglu: 160). 'ÍLM "Knowledge", especially the religious sciences taught in medreses. 'tLMÍYE Or 'ulemá, the religious-judicial hierarchy. ILTIZÁM Revenue-farming, a system of selling the right to collect revenues fromfyáss-ihümáyün domains on behalf on the treasury for an agreed sum, introduced by Mehemmed II (1451-1481). The contractor was known as miiltezim. Bidders had to appoint a licensed money-changer who guaranteed the payment for the mukáfa'a. Although it underwent numerous changes in the course of centuries, the iltizám system was abolished only in 1905 (El2, vii: 350-351). ÍMÁM The leader of public ritual prayer in a mescid, "mosque". 'ÍMÁRET A public soup kitchen attached to a mosque and supported by vakif funds.

86

GUSTAV

BAYERLE

IMPERIAL COUNCIL

In Turkish, the Divan-i hUmayun.

iMRAflOR The "master of the [imperial] stable"; better known as mir-affur. IMTIYAZAT Commercial privileges, known as "capitulations" in European languages. In Ottoman practice international commerce was based on unilateral pledges granting commercial concessions. The sultan issued 'ahdnames to Christian powers in order to gain political allies, obtain European goods, and increase custom revenues. Substantial presents to the sultan and to leading Ottoman officials were also preconditions for receiving an 'ahdname. Agents of foreign companies became residents of Istanbul and of main ports of entry, especially Smyrna and Aleppo, and gained limited extra-territorial status. European consuls were given legal authority over agents and merchants from their countries similar to the authority the religious heads of non-Muslim millets had. Political realities dictated the status of foreigners; while the Empire was strong, consuls were handled almost as hostages responsible for the behavior of their compatriots; at times they were beaten and even imprisoned at the whim of the grand vezir for alleged offenses of their sovereigns. Local pashas were permitted to exact levies from foreign merchants for their personal largesse although the capitulations usually exempted them from additional dues beyond the basic 3-5 percent tariff. Although protection was offered in treaties of peace and amity, Ottoman sea-¿axis nevertheless occasionally looted European ships and sold their crews on Muslim slave markets. In spite of these indignities the European merchants stayed on because of the prodigious profits in the huge Ottoman market. After the Treaty of Carlowitz of 1699 the weakened Empire became dependent upon the good will of European powers; their resident diplomats and merchants gained additional concessions. In time the consuls extended these privileges to interpreters and agents they retained from the local ¡immi population; eventually the consuls sold honorary berats, "writs", to rich non-Muslim subjects of the Ottoman Empire who took advantage of the diplomatic immunities. In 1793 there were some 1S00 beratli ¡immis in Aleppo alone. Only in 1869 did the Ottoman government decree that such berats were void without the approval of the state. Finaly the outbreak of World War I gave the Ottomans an opportunity to abolish the institution of imtiyaz&t (EI2, iii: 1179-1189). IN§A "Style", especially the proper style for chancery documents and learned treatises. Documents written according to the rules of irtfd were known as miinfe 'at, their scribes as miinfi. It was customary for the Imperial Chancery to copy infd documents and utilize the collections as manuals of style for chancery trainees. The best known Ottoman miinfe'at collection is

P A S H A S , B E G S , AND E F E N D I S

87

the Miinge'atu 's-selatin compiled by Feridun Beg in 1566 containing hundreds of significant chancery documents (El2, iii: 1241-1244). INTISAB "Attached", patronage relationship with certain rights and obligations. IRSAUYE Annual cash balance of provincial treasuries submitted to the persona] treasury of the sultan by governors of provinces where the timar system of land-holding was not ordained. Egypt had the largest irsaliye obligation; even there, by the 18th century, the local elite succeeded in diverting the bulk of the sum to their own accounts (EI2, iv: 79-80). iSLAM "Submission, submission to God". "Say: you do not believe; rather say 'We surrender' [to God's will]", Kur'an, xlix: 14. In English the term Islam, besides signifying a major religion, denotes Muslim civilization, Muslim peoples, and their geo-political region. For Muslims Islam signifies the action and state of a man who surrenders to God [instead of merely being a set of religious dogmas and beliefs]. Today, approximately one-sixth of the world's population is Muslim (E12, iv: 171-177). ISPENCE The basic tax paid by the non-Muslim subjects of the Ottoman Empire. In former Byzantine territories the ispence was known as gift resmi. In the provincial kdnun-names it was stipulated that married nonMuslim males who were subject to the cizye (paid to the state) were obliged to pay annually 25 akgas to their sipahi. In Hungary the Ottomans made the ispence the equivalent of an earlier portal tax, naming it resm-i kapu. Subjects who performed duties of the state, like serving as auxiliaries to the armed forces, or producing saltpeter for gunpowder mills, were exempted from ispence. iSTANBUL AGASI The commander of the acemi corps in Istanbul. The maintenance of public order in the city was one of his responsibilities. He was also responsible for the expense and transportation of firewood to the Topkapi Palace (Ulufay: 190; Unat: 469). iSTANBUL KADISI Or Istanbul efendisi, the "Kcufi of Istanbul", selected from the ranks of the great mollas, that is from the mollas of Edirne, Bursa, §am (Damascus), Haleb (Aleppo), Misir (Egypt), Selanik (Salonica), Diyar-i Bekr (Diyarbekir), Bagdad (Baghdad), Belgr&d (Belgrade), Sofya (Sofia), and Filibe (Plovdiv). ITTIHAD VE TERAKKI CEM'IYETi The Society of Union and Progress, formed in 1887, transformed to 'Osmanh ittihad ve Terakki Cem'iyeti in 1889. In 1895 on Ahmed Riga's initiative its name was changed to Ittihad

88

GUSTAV

BAYERLE

ve Terakki. The society was represented by a central committee, the merkez-i 'umumi, and was generally known as the "Committee of Union and Progress". They had a program of constitutionalism and Ottomanism. Young Turk groups in exile joined the movement. In 1908 the Young Turks, through a series of mutinies, succeeded in forcing 'Abdtt l'hamid II to recall the parliament and relinquish most of his powers. For ten years the Young Turks remained in control but in 1918, after the Ottoman defeat in World War I, the central committee escaped to Europe (El2, iv: 284-286).

J JANISSARY "In Turkish yeiiigeri, "[soldier in the] new army", the salaried infantry corps. JUDGE In Turkish kadi.

K KAAN Variant of hakan, "ruler". KA'BE The Muslim sanctuary in Mecca the object of hacc, "pilgrimage"; a cubelike building that houses the Black Stone. The Ka'be is the proclamation of God's glory and a symbol of unity of the Muslim world (£72, iv: 317-322). KADIN "Lady, woman". i. A term of respect for adult females, like '"Aliye kadin". ii. Title for the chief hdfekis of the sultan. Their numbers fluctuated between three to seven. In theory, the sultan was supposed to sleep with his kadms in succession, each of them having their ndbet gecesi, "night turn". KADIRGA "Galley", the standard warship in the Ottoman Imperial Fleet, a one-or two-masted galley with 24-26 oars at each side, usually with three oarsmen per oar. It was equipped wtih one large-size, four middle-size and eight small guns on the prow (Imber: 279). KADI "Judge, kadi" legal authority in particular judicial districts known as teas. With a few exceptions, in the Ottoman state they administered the

88

GUSTAV

BAYERLE

ve Terakki. The society was represented by a central committee, the merkez-i 'umumi, and was generally known as the "Committee of Union and Progress". They had a program of constitutionalism and Ottomanism. Young Turk groups in exile joined the movement. In 1908 the Young Turks, through a series of mutinies, succeeded in forcing 'Abdtt l'hamid II to recall the parliament and relinquish most of his powers. For ten years the Young Turks remained in control but in 1918, after the Ottoman defeat in World War I, the central committee escaped to Europe (El2, iv: 284-286).

J JANISSARY "In Turkish yeiiigeri, "[soldier in the] new army", the salaried infantry corps. JUDGE In Turkish kadi.

K KAAN Variant of hakan, "ruler". KA'BE The Muslim sanctuary in Mecca the object of hacc, "pilgrimage"; a cubelike building that houses the Black Stone. The Ka'be is the proclamation of God's glory and a symbol of unity of the Muslim world (£72, iv: 317-322). KADIN "Lady, woman". i. A term of respect for adult females, like '"Aliye kadin". ii. Title for the chief hdfekis of the sultan. Their numbers fluctuated between three to seven. In theory, the sultan was supposed to sleep with his kadms in succession, each of them having their ndbet gecesi, "night turn". KADIRGA "Galley", the standard warship in the Ottoman Imperial Fleet, a one-or two-masted galley with 24-26 oars at each side, usually with three oarsmen per oar. It was equipped wtih one large-size, four middle-size and eight small guns on the prow (Imber: 279). KADI "Judge, kadi" legal authority in particular judicial districts known as teas. With a few exceptions, in the Ottoman state they administered the

88

GUSTAV

BAYERLE

ve Terakki. The society was represented by a central committee, the merkez-i 'umumi, and was generally known as the "Committee of Union and Progress". They had a program of constitutionalism and Ottomanism. Young Turk groups in exile joined the movement. In 1908 the Young Turks, through a series of mutinies, succeeded in forcing 'Abdtt l'hamid II to recall the parliament and relinquish most of his powers. For ten years the Young Turks remained in control but in 1918, after the Ottoman defeat in World War I, the central committee escaped to Europe (El2, iv: 284-286).

J JANISSARY "In Turkish yeiiigeri, "[soldier in the] new army", the salaried infantry corps. JUDGE In Turkish kadi.

K KAAN Variant of hakan, "ruler". KA'BE The Muslim sanctuary in Mecca the object of hacc, "pilgrimage"; a cubelike building that houses the Black Stone. The Ka'be is the proclamation of God's glory and a symbol of unity of the Muslim world (£72, iv: 317-322). KADIN "Lady, woman". i. A term of respect for adult females, like '"Aliye kadin". ii. Title for the chief hdfekis of the sultan. Their numbers fluctuated between three to seven. In theory, the sultan was supposed to sleep with his kadms in succession, each of them having their ndbet gecesi, "night turn". KADIRGA "Galley", the standard warship in the Ottoman Imperial Fleet, a one-or two-masted galley with 24-26 oars at each side, usually with three oarsmen per oar. It was equipped wtih one large-size, four middle-size and eight small guns on the prow (Imber: 279). KADI "Judge, kadi" legal authority in particular judicial districts known as teas. With a few exceptions, in the Ottoman state they administered the

P A S H A S , B E G S , AND E F E N D I S

89

fhari'at law according to the Hanafirite and were also entrusted with the overseeing of the kanun regulations of the sultan. The kjtfVs authority derived from the sultan and his judicial decisions were final. Not even begs and beglerbegis were permitted to intervene in legal cases. s were held accountable for the regulation of the marketplace, including the setting of the selling price of commodities (Unat: 452). In the 14th and 15th centuries kadis were appointed for life; due to the excess number of prospective kftfis in the second half of the 16th century, their terms became limited to three years. In 1640 kadis served twentymonth terms and between terms they were ma'zul, "unemployed", for two years; K6?i Beg suggested that their proper terms should be two years. By the 18th century, corruption and other abuses resulted in a marked deterioration of the judicial system (EI2, iv: 373-375, vi; 3-5; Murphey: 550). KApI-'ASKER

Variant of kaiJ-'asker, "military judge".

KADIR GECESl Also Leyletii 1-kadir, the "Night of Power", the 27th of the month of Ramatan, when the first ayet of the Koran was revealed to Muhammad. KADIRIYE A dervish order named after 'Abdii '1-pdir of Baghdad (d. 1156). He was tolerant and averse to religious fanaticism. Tradition endowed him with the power to perform miracles, even from his grave. 'Abdu 'llah Rumi (d. 1469) established the order in Anatolia, and it still has adherents today along the Black Sea coast, especially among fishermen. In the 19th century they were active as missionaries in North Africa (EI2, iv: 380-382). KADl-ZADELi A follower of Kadi-zade Mehmed of Balikesir, founder of the fundamentalist Kadi-zade movement in 17th-century Istanbul. He was a populist, anti-intellectual, and ultra-conservative; his puritanical followers were against wine, coffee, tobacco, music, and the mystics of the sufi lodges of the city . KAFES "Cage", quarters in the Harem of the Topkapi Palace in which the sons of the sultan were kept in seclusion beginning with Mustafa I (1617-1618, 1622-1623). KAFiR, pi. kiiffar, or kefere "Ungrateful, unbeliever" whose fete is eternal damnation in hell. Unbelievers who were monotheists (Christians and Jews) and acknowledged Muslim sovereignty by paying the cizye were under the protection of the state as limmi; those who refused to do so were open to fcaza and cihad, and their countries were declared to be darii 'I-

90

GUSTAV

BAYERLE

harb, "war zone". Captives taken from darii 'l-harb were fated to slavery (EI2, iv: 407-409). KAFTANLI "Wearing a caftan", one of the pages in the higher grade dormitories of Enderun of the Topkapi Palace in the kildr, ffazine, and ffiiff odas. See also ¿ilman-i enderuni. KAHYA "Steward, deputy", colloquial variant of ketffiida. KA'IME-i MU'TEBERE-i 'OSMANlYE "Legal Ottoman banknote", the first Ottoman paper money issued in 1841. KA'IM-MAKAM "Deputy", especially the deputy who stayed in Istanbul to administer the capital while the grand vezir was away on a campaign. After 1826 the army's lieutenant colonels were given the rank kd'im-makam. In the Taniimat period (1839-1877) at first the governors of sancaks then also the administrators of kotos were titled kd'im-makam (EI2, iv: 461). KALEM "Reed, quill, pen", also "office, department" in Ottoman Turkish. Scribes, accountants, and bureaucrats were collectively known as ehl-i kalem, "men of the pen", or kalemiye. KALEMiYE Or ehl-i kalem, "men of pen", bureaucratic specialists. KALENDERIYE The name of a loosely organized antinomian dervish group. Members, known as abdals, held Merimi doctrines with their own interpretation. Originating in Khorasan in the 13th century, the movement spread to the West due to the activities of Cemalii 'd-dini 's-Savi (d. 1223). Dervishes of the movement displayed Indian existentialist and ascetic tendencies eschewing all customs and traditions. They had contempt for the transient world, even for learning; they were seeking inner contentment. They shaved all their hair on head and face and wore coarse garments fashioned from horsehair, had few if any material possessions, and subsisted on charity. They were active in the Ottoman Empire until the 18th century (EI2, iv: 742-474). KALFA Variant of ffalife, "junior scribe". KALGAY Title for the heir to the throne of the Crimean Khanate. KALYATA From Italian galliot, a light galley with 16 to 24 oars on each side (Imber: 279).

P A S H A S , B E G S , AND E F E N D I S

91

KALYON From Italian galleon, large multi-decked-two- or three-masted vessels with several square sails and a lateen. Due to its superior size and artillery it was more effective than a galley on the open seas. It was only after 1682 that galleons became prominent in the Ottoman fleet (Imber: 218). KAMANi£E VILAYETi The Province of Podylia, region on the left bank of the Dniester. The region was annexed in 1672 and was made a vilayet in 1674. The Russians retook the region in 1699. KANBA VILAYETi Situated in southwest Hungary, the fort of p n i j a was taken by Grand Vezir Ibrahim Pasha in 1600 and, in the expectation of further conquests, this frontier city was immediately made the center of a new province. The sancaks of Sigetvar, Pe^uy, and Pojega of vilayet-i Budin were attached to Kanlja to form the core province. With the Treaty of Zsitvatorok in 1606 the borders between the Ottoman and Habsburg Empires became stable; for generations, attempts at territorial expansion ceased and the province kept its initial size and, just as in the case of the similarly established Egri, the beglerbegi of Kanija remained subordinate to the beglerbegi of Budin. The region was reconquered by Habsburg forces in 1690. KANTAR A unit of weight, equaled 44 okka, i.e. 56.5 kg. A type of scale was also known as kantar. KANUN, pi. kavanin "Rule, regulation". Already in pre-Ottoman times shari'a law was supplemented by various regulations concerned with agricultural taxes, dues, and fines. These regulations were written by administrative officials on the discretionary authority of the sultan supplementing the shari'a. Kanuns were dispatched not only to governors of the appropriate districts but also to the relevant kadis who were held responsible for their implementation. The first Ottoman kanuns were codified in the reign of Mehemmed n (1451-1481) in a kanun-mime. Post-16th century regulations were often legitimized with the expression kanun-i kadim tizere, "in accordance with the traditional kanuns". (E12, iv: 556-558). KANUNi "The Lawgiver", epithet for Suleiman I (1520-1566). KANUN-I ESASI The Constitution, proclaimed on December 23, 1876, providing for the separation of powers, an elected parliament, an improved secular court system, and equal human rights for all subjects. On February 14, 1878, 'Abdii '1-hamid II dissolved the Parliament, ending the First Constitutional Period in Ottoman history.

92

GUSTAV

BAYERLE

KANUN-ISIPAHIYAN "Sipahi regulations", the codification of the privileges and exemptions of the 'askeri class. KANON-NAME "Code of regulations". The first extant Ottoman k&nun-name is connected with Mehemmed II (1451-1481), although sections of that code were elaborated and modified by administrators under Bayezid 0 (14811512) and Selim I (1512-1520). Under the guidance of Ebu 's-su'ud, the great feyfril 'I-islam of Suleiman I (1520-1566), Ottoman kanun-names took their standard formats integrated with the shari'a. Central kanun-n&mes were concerned with the regulations of the administration, financial obligations, and penal law. Provincial kanunnames compiled applicable parts valid for a single sancak; whenever feasible, the obligations were presented as continuations of the pie-Ottoman practice. Provincial sancak kanun-names were copied into defter-i mufassals, the agricultural surveys of the district, to serve as the legal foundation not only for the taxes and obligations but also for the protection of the rights of the subjects with ample warnings to those timar holders who would extort excess levies. In the Tanzimat period (1839-1877), kanuns became state laws drawn on West European models and independent from the shari'a. A special type of kdnun collection, the te$rifat-i Al-i 'Osman, was concerned with the structure and protocol of the Ottoman administration. After the conquest of Constantinople in 1453, the Ottoman way of thinking became increasingly tradition-conscious and engrossed in imperial decorum and propriety rooted in the classical Persian pattern. The first extant tejrifat-i Al-i 'Osman from the reign of Mehemmed II is a reflection of this ideology. The term kdnun-name, designating "rules of conduct", was also used for the by-laws of organizations like guilds and of military and administrative institutions like the Janissary corps or the timar system (EI2, iv: 558-566). KAPITULASYON "Capitulation", referring to treaties that contained terms of economic concessions to European powers. In the 15th and 16th centuries these treaties were designed to encourage foreign trade; in the 18th and 19th centuries capitulations formalized the military domination and economic exploitation of the Ottoman Empire by European powers. KAPTAN PA§A Variant of kapudan pa}a, "commander-in-chief of the Ottoman navy". KAPU "Gate", designating the residence and office of major governmental authorities. In Hungarian defters the term kapu resmi was used to equate an earlier Hungarian portal tax with ispence.

PASHAS, BEGS, AND EFENDIS

93

KAPU AÒASI Also BàbU 'ssa'òde agasi, the "Agha of the [Imperial] Gate (i.e. the BàbU 's-sa'àde)". KAPUCI Also bewàb, "gatekeeper", especially the guards placed at the two main gates of the Palace. KAPUCI-BA§I "Head of [imperial] gatekeepers", in Fatih's TK a single official, then four, and by the 17th century twelve head-gatekeepers under the bag kapuci-basi supervised by the mlr-'alem. In the 1630s Kó?» Beg suggested that their number should be reduced again to four (Akgiindttz, i: 319; Murphey: 549). KAPUCI CEMÀ'ATLAR The "gatekeeper companies" of the Janissary Craps. The 11th cemà'at guarded the 'Àdet Gate of the Janissary barracks together with the 2nd bdliik of the boliiks of the agha; the S6th cemà'at guarded the Solak Gate; the 73rd cemà'at the Karakiry Gate; the 99th cemà'at the Bdlme Gate; the 44th boluk the Gate that opened to Ferhàd Pafa Palace; the 61st folak cemà'at the §ehzàde carni'i Gate; and the 95th deveci cemà'at the Meyyit Gate (Kavànin : R265a-266a). KAPUCILAR KETHUDÀSI The "commander of the [imperial] gatekeepers", who were guarding all the gates of the Palace except the Bàbil 's-sa'àde, the "Gate of Felicity". His position was mentioned in Fatih's TK as being junior in rank to the gavuf-baft (Sertoglu: 174). KAPUDAN Commander of a fleet or a squadron. KAPUDAN PA§A The Grand Admiral, the Commander-in-chief of the Mediterranean Fleet. In Suleiman I's reign (1520-1566) navy commanders had the title ha$sa re'is. Even Piyàle Pasha (pasha because he had the rank of vezir) was known only as kapudan beg\ it was 'All Pasha, the beglerbegi of Algiers who was first addressed as kapudan pafa in 1567. He had a bastarda as his flagship. Beside being an admiral the kapudan paga held considerable power as beglerbegi with 12 sancaks belonging to his vilayet. He resided at the Arsenal but regularly visited the sancaks under his supervision. With a few exceptions the position was reserved for graduates of the Ender&n without any maritime experience. By the 17th century die post was auctioned and went to the highest bidder. In 1863 the title kapudan paga was abolished and the umùr-i bahriye nàiirt took its place as commander of the Ottoman navy. For a list of kxtpdàn-i deryàs see Òztuna: 993-998 (£72, iv; 571-572).

94

GUSTAV

BAYERLE

KAPU QALKI The "people of the [Imperial] Gate", those officials whose posts were in the outer courts (birün) of the Topkapi Palace. See if ffalki (Akgiindiiz, i: 320). KAPU KETíJÜDÁSI A trusted aide of a provincial governor, or of a vassal prince of the Danubian principalities, stationed in Istanbul to represent his interests. íp\PU KULI "Slave of the Porte". i. Collective term for all [slave] servants of the sultan including those in the Topkapi Palace and all the salaried soldiers in Istanbul. At times this term was interchangeable with kapu Ijalip. ii. The retinue of a vezir or a pasha were also known as his kapu kullari. KAPU-KULI SÍPÁHlSÍ The six cavalry troops of the Porte, known as the alti bdliik. KARA-KOL "Patrol". Both the Ottoman army and the navy had special units for patrol duty known as kara-kol (El2, iv: 611). KARA-KOL-yÁNE (1839-1877).

Term for Turkish police stations in the Taniimat period

KARA-KULAK A confidential messenger for vezirs and other high dignitaries. KARA-KULLUKCI An orderly in a Janissary oda. He cleaned the rooms and the slippers, washed dishes, and bought the provisions on the market. Some of them served as personal orderly to senior officers. He was also responsible for mustering married Janissaries to the barracks when needed in addition to their Friday appearances there (Kavanin: 39b; Rycaut: 195). KARAMÁN VÍLÁYETÍ Province in south-central Anatolia. Mehemmed II made it a vilayet in 1468 after its conquest although it became a fully fledged begierbeglik only in 1516. In 1609 the province had 1,620 kihg units 116 of which were ze 'ámet estates; with 3,000 cebelii retainers it provided for 4,600 soldiers from the following sancaks: Nigde, Kayseriye, Kir-jehri, Konya, Beg-§ehri, Ak-jehir, Ak-saray, and Yeñi-jehir ('Ayn 'Ali: 47; Unat: 463). KÁRS VÍLÁYETÍ Situated on the Persian frontier region in eastern Anatolia, Kar$ was conquered in 1534 and became a province in 1574. In the 16th century the Province of Kárs had 7 sancaks: Kars, Kü^iik Ardahan, Hoiuvan, Zaru§ad, Ge