Partition and the South Asian diaspora : extending the subcontinent 9781315816111, 1315816113

Table of contents :
Content: Introduction 1. Negotiating Nations 2. Claiming Pakistan 3. Resisting Hindutva 4. Redoing South Asia 5. Conclusion

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Partition and the South Asian Diaspora

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Partition and the South Asian Diaspora Extending the Subcontinent

Papiya Ghosh

O Routledge Taylor & Francis Group LONDON

NEW Y O R K

N E W D E LH I

F ir s t p u b lis h e d 2 0 0 7 b y R o u tle d g e 5 1 2 M e r c a n tile H o u s e , 1 5 K a s tu r b a G a n d h i M a r g , N e w D e lh i 1 1 0 0 0 1

S im u lta n e o u s ly p u b lis h e d in th e U K b y R o u tle d g e 2 P a r k S q u a r e , M i l t o n P a r k , A b in g d o n , O x o n , O X 1 4 4 R N

R o u tle d g e is a n im p r i n t o f th e T a y l o r & F ra n c is G r o u p

T r a n s f e r r e d t o D ig ita l P r in tin g 2 0 0 7

C o p y r ig h t 2 0 0 7 G h o s h

Typeset by B u k p r in t I n d ia B -1 8 0 A G u r u N a n a k P u r a , L a x m i N a g a r D e lh i 1 1 0 0 9 2

A ll rig h ts r e s e rv e d . N o p a r t o f t h i s b o o k m a y b e r e p r o d u c e d o r u tiliz e d in a n y f o r m o r b y a n y e le c tr o n ic , m e c h a n ic a l o r o t h e r m e a n s , n o w k n o w n o r h e r e a f te r in v e n te d , in c lu d in g p h o to c o p y in g a n d r e c o r d in g , o r in a n y in f o r m a tio n s to r a g e o r re tr ie v a l s y s te m , w i t h o u t p e r m is s io n in w r itin g f r o m t h e p u b lis h e r s .

B r itis h L ib r a r y C a ta lo g u in g in P u b lic a tio n D a ta A c a ta lo g u e r e c o r d o f th is b o o k is a v a ila b le f r o m th e B r itis h L ib ra ry

IS B N 0 - 4 1 5 - 4 2 4 0 9 - 7

For Nim ma, Kakuri and Julu

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Contents

L is t o f A b b re v ia tio n s

ix

Preface

xiii

A c k n o w le d g e m e n ts

xvii

In tr o d u c tio n

xix

1. N e g o tia tin g N a tio n s 2 . C la im in g P ak istan

1 57

3 . R esistin g H in d u tv a

123

4 . R e d o in g S o u th Asia

175

C o n c lu sio n

230

R eferen ces a n d S elect B ib lio g ra p h y

244

In d ex

265

A b o u t th e A u th o r

286

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List of Abbreviations

AFM I AHC AIM AM C ASATA ASDSA ASAW A IR BMS B A M CEF BSP B H BC U C BNP CAC CAG CA A M B CA AA V C A IR CERAS C IM C C IM CSFH CSP CPI DRUM FABO

A m erican F ed eratio n o f M u slim s F ro m In d ia A sad H u s a in C o llectio n A sso ciatio n o f In d ia n M u slim s A m erican M u slim C ouncil A lliance o f S o u th A sians T a k in g A ctio n A lliance fo r a Secular a n d D em o c ra tic S o u th Asia A w aaz— S o u th A sia W atch All In d ia R ad io B h aratiy a M a z d o o r Sangh B ack w ard a n d M in o ritie s C lasses Em ployees’ F ed eratio n B ah u jan Sam aj P a rty B an g lad esh H in d u B ud d h ist C h ristia n U nity C o u n cil B an g lad esh N a tio n a lis t P arty C o a litio n A gainst C o m m u n alism C o a litio n A gainst G enocide C a m p a ig n A g ain st A tro cities o n M in o ritie s in B angladesh C o m m itte e A gainst A nti-A sian V iolence C o u n cil o n A m erican -Islam ic R elatio n s S o u th A sia R esearch C e n tre C o u n cil o f In d ia n M uslim s C o n su ltativ e C o m m ittee o f In d ian M uslim s in N o rth A m erica C a m p a ig n to S to p F u n d in g H ate C o m m itte e fo r S tra n d e d P a k ista n is in B angladesh C o m m u n ist P a rty o f India D esis R isin g U p & M o v in g F e d e ra tio n o f A m b e d k a rite a n d B ud d h ist O rg a n iz a tio n s

x ♦ List of Abbreviations

F IA C O N A F O IL FO SA GHEN G O P IO HAF H SC HSS IAAD IBO IC N A IC R P ID R F IJI Im a n N e t IM C IM F IM R C INSA F ISI ISNA IW A JD JIJK JK L F KK JS Q M LD C L D EC LJP LRC M PAC MQM M SD NARA

F e d e ra tio n o f In d o -A m e ric a n C h ristia n s o f N o rth A m erica F o ru m o f In d ia n (la ter In q u ilab i) Leftists Friends o f S o u th Asia G lo b al H in d u E lectro n ic N e tw o rk G lo b a l O rg a n iz a tio n o f People o f In d ia n O rig in H in d u A m erican F o u n d a tio n H in d u S tu d e n ts C ouncil H in d u S w ayam Sevak Sangh In te rn a tio n a l A sso ciatio n fo r th e A d v an cem en t o f D alits In te rn atio n al B ah u jan O rg a n iz a tio n Islam ic C ircle o f N o r th A m erica In te rn atio n al C o u n cil fo r R e p a tria tio n o f P ak istan is fro m B angladesh In d ia D e v elo p m en t a n d R elief Fund Islam i J a m h o o ri Itteh ad In d ia n M u slim A lert N e tw o rk In d ia n M u slim C ouncil In d ia n M u slim F ed eratio n In d ia n M u slim R elief C o m m itte e In te rn atio n al S o u th A sia F o ru m Inter-Services Intelligence Islam ic Society o f N o r th A m erica In d ia n W o rk e rs A sso ciatio n J a n a ta D al Ja m a a t-I-Isla m i J a m m u a n d K ashm ir J a m m u K a sh m ir L ib e ra tio n F ro n t K hudai K h id m atg a r Je ay S indh Q a u m i M a h a z Lease D riv ers C o a litio n L o n d o n D e v elo p m en t E d u catio n C e n tre L ok J a n sh a k ti P arty L a tifu r R a h m a n C o llectio n M u slim Public A ffairs C ouncil M u h a jir Q a u m i M o v e m e n t (la ter M u tta h id a Q a u m i M o vem ent) M u slim s F o r S ecu lar D em ocracy N a tio n a l A rchives a n d R eco rd s A d m in istra tio n , USA

List of Abbreviations ♦ xi

NDA NRC NRI NPR N W FP NYTW A OBC O IC OY PA A N A PF1 PIO PIPFPD PM L PO NM PO TA PPP PR C R JD RPI RSS SA A RC SA FHR SAFTA SA H M A T SA H O SALDA SA M A R SA NSA D SASG SBC SC IM SHC SIUK SPC R C SPEREL SPG R C

N a tio n a l D e m o c ra tic Alliance N a tio n a l R e p a tria tio n C o m m ittee N o n -R e sid en t In d ia n N a tio n a l Pu b lic R ad io N o rth W e st F ro n tie r Province N e w Y o rk T a x i W o rk e rs Alliance O th e r B ack w ard Classes O rg a n iz a tio n o f Islam ic C on feren ce O rg a n iz in g Y o u th P a k ista n A m erican A sso ciatio n o f N o r th Am erica Progressive F o ru m F o r In d ia People o f In d ia n O rig in P ak ista n -In d ia People’s F o ru m F o r Peace a n d D e m o cracy P ak istan M u slim League P a k ista n O p p re ssed N a tio n s M o v e m e n t Prev en tio n o f T e rro rism Act P ak istan People’s P arty P ak istan R e p a tria tio n C ouncil R a sh triy a J a n a ta D al R ep u b lican P a rty o f India R a sh triy a S w ay am Sevak Sangh S o u th A sian A sso ciatio n fo r R eg io n al C o o p e ra tio n S outh A sian F o ru m fo r H u m a n R ig h ts S o u th A sian Free T ra d e A rea S afd ar H a sh m i M e m o ria l T ru s t S ikh A m erican H e rita g e O rg a n iz a tio n S o u th A sia L eft D em o c ra tic A lliance S o u th A sian M a g az in e fo r A c tio n a n d R eflection S outh A sian N e tw o rk fo r Secularism a n d D em ocracy S outh A sia S o lid arity G ro u p S top B iharis C o m m ittee S tan d in g C on feren ce o f M in o ritie s o f In d ia S u ru r H o d a C o llectio n Sew a In te rn atio n al UK S tra n d e d P ak istan i C e n tra l R e p a tria tio n C o m m itte e S tra n d e d P a k ista n i E a ste rn R ailw ay E m ployees League S tran d ed P ak istan is G en eral R e p a tria tio n C o m m itte e

xii ♦ List of Abbreviations

SPR P TA DA TLC UFR UMA UNHCR USC1RF VHP V H P-A VAK V IS IO N VODI W CAR

W SC W SI W TO YSS

S tran d ed P a k ista n i R esettlem en t P roject T e rro ris ts a n d D isru p tiv e A ctivities P rev en tio n Act T a x i a n d L im ousine C o m m issio n U n ited F ro n t fo r R e p a tria tio n U n ited M u slim s o f A m erica U n ited N a tio n s H ig h C o m m issio n e r fo r Refugees US C o m m issio n o n In te rn atio n al R eligious F reed o m V ish w a H in d u P arish ad V ish w a H in d u P a rish a d -A m e ric a V ik as A d h y a y a n K en d ra V o lu n teers in Service to In d ia ’s O p p ressed a n d N eglected V oice o f D a lit In te rn atio n al W o rld C o n feren ce A gainst R acism , R acial D isc rim in a tio n , X e n o p h o b ia a n d R elated In to leran ce W o rld Sindhi C ongress W o rld Sindhi In stitu te W o rld T am il O rg a n iz a tio n Y o u th S o lid arity S um m er

Preface

P a rt o f a trilo g y , th is stu d y g rew o u t o f m y fo rth c o m in g w o rk o n th e P a k ista n m o v em e n t in B ih ar. T h e th ird v o lu m e will lo o k a t O th e r B ack w ard C lasses (O BC s) a n d D a lit M u slim p o litics in c o n ­ te m p o ra ry B ih ar a n d c o n n e c t it w ith th e n o n -a sb ra f c o n te sta tio n of th e tw o -n a tio n th eo ry in th e th irtie s a n d forties. As o f n o w , p o s t- p a rtitio n im p e d im e n ts c o n tin u e to c o n s tric t in tra-reg io n al research a n d , th erefo re, th e c o n to u rs o f p a rtitio n stu d ­ ies. I h av e d iscu ssed th is lo ss in th e In tro d u c tio n . A fter tra c in g M u h a jir h istories b e y o n d S o u th Asia I b eg an lo o k in g a t som e of th ese q u e stio n s: h o w d id th e su b c o n tin e n t g e t e x te n d e d in to th e d ia s p o r a a ro u n d th e p a r t i ti o n e x p e rie n c e , e sp e c ia lly a f te r th e seventies? W h en did d iasp o ric activism a c q u ire a n increasingly su b ­ c o n tin e n ta l dim ension? W h en is th e d iasp o ra en listed fo r S o u th A sia, a n d S o u th Asia fo r th e d iasp o ra? In a tra n s n a tio n a l c o n te x t it is cru c ia l to tra c k th e to a n d fro betw een th e su b c o n tin e n t a n d its d iasp o ra : to tra c e th e c h an g in g e q u a tio n betw een p a rtitio n ’s n a tio n s , th e ir m u lti-stra n d e d d iasp o ra a n d a reconfiguring region. B ut these sto ries need to be seen to g eth er w ith v e ry d if f e r e n t, t h o u g h b r o a d l y r e l a te d s tu d ie s . B esid es p a rtitio n ’s d iasp o rics th ere a re tra n s b o rd e r m ig ra n ts w h o ignore a n d m arginalize p a rtitio n ’s b o rd ers (S am ad d ar 1 9 9 9 ), enclave people w h o n a v ig a te th e ir c o m p lic a te d c a rto g ra p h ic w o rld s (Schendel 2 0 0 2 ), M u slim s liv in g in a re a s d e scrib ed a s ‘m in i-P a k is ta n s ’ in d iffe re n t p a rts o f In d ia (Brass 2 0 0 5 ; B rem an 2 0 0 5 ; R o b in so n 2 0 0 5 ), a n d so on. T h e c o n c e p t o f d e n o m in a tio n a l h o m e la n d s s w irls a r o u n d a t sev eral levels. W h e n th e K h o k r a p a r- M u n a b a o railw a y lin k w as a b o u t to be resu m ed a fte r fo u r decad es, som e S indhi n atio n a lists ex p ressed fears o f a m ass m ig ra tio n o f In d ia n M u slim s to Sindh th a t w o u ld red u ce Sindhis to a m in o rity . B ut so m e o f th em also fea re d a n ex o d u s o f S indhi H in d u s to In d ia , resu ltin g in a fu rth e r

xiv * Preface

d ecline o f th e e th n ic S indhi p o p u la tio n (Sikand 2 0 0 6 ). T h e fo rtie s’ h o s ta g e th e o ry a b o u t p a rtitio n ’s m in o ritie s h a s m ea n w h ile been o v e rla id b y th e tra jec to rie s o f th e p o st-eig h ties’ p ro jects o f po litical Islam a n d H in d u ism , th a t h av e o ld e r h isto ries. A nd all o f th is has n o w e x te n d e d in to th e d iasp o ra. If th e d iasp o ra m ed iates S o u th A sian n a tio n s , th e c o n to u rs o f th e reg io n in flect d iasp o ric fo rm a tio n s; a n d th e tw o realm s in te r­ sect e a ch o th e r increasingly. M o re th a n th e m y th o f re tu rn , th e re is a n in v estm en t in m o n ito rin g o r c h a n g in g th e id ea o f n a tio n s a n d th e reg io n . B oth th e M u slim L eague’s tw o -n a tio n th eo ry a n d th e d iffe re n t v ersio n s o f H in d u rasbtra in th e H in d u tv a fo rm a tio n o u t­ lin e d d e n o m i n a ti o n a l h o m e la n d s t h a t w e r e c o m p lic a te d by p a r titio n ’s sta g g e re d s u b c o n tin e n ta l m ig ra tio n s a n d p a r titio n ’s d iasp o ric s tra n d s: th a t o f P u n ja b is, Bengalis, K ash m iris, Sindhis, B iharis, a n d so o n . T h ese h isto ries need to b e fac to re d in. T h e scope o f th is stu d y is a lo n g u e d u ree lo o k a t d iffe re n t layers o f th e S outh A sian d ia s p o ra in ta n d e m w ith th e n a tio n - a n d re g io n -m a k in g p o litics o f th e fo rtie s a n d a fte r. In th a t sense it is a b eg in n in g o f a c o m p a ra tiv e m ap p in g th a t a w a its in sig h ts fro m m o re stu d ie s o n P a k ista n , B angladesh, th e M id d le E ast a n d th e old d iasp o ra . T h e d im en sio n s o f th e 1 9 4 6 rio t in B ih ar p ro v id ed a p rev iew o f th e p o s t-p a rtitio n flo w o f M u h a jirs to th e e a st a n d w est, a n d th e jo u rn ey to th e h o m elan d based o n religion. In th e epic th a t unfolded, B iharis becam e so m e th in g o f a sim u lta n e o u s m e ta p h o r o f q u rb a n i (sacrifice) a n d g a ir-m u lk in e ss [alien-ness] in P a k ista n .1 A t a n o th e r level, th a t r io t still resides in th e d iscou rse o f th e V ish w a H in d u P a ris h a d (V H P) g e n e ra l s e c re ta ry , P ra v in T o g a d ia (an d o f th e R a sh triy a S w ayam Sevak S an g h [RSS]). R ecalling th a t ‘th o u sa n d s o f p e o p le w ere killed in rea ctio n to N o a k h a li’(su b stitu te G o d h ra ), h e recently a rg u e d th a t th o u g h G a n d h i discovered th e com plicity o f C o n g ressm en , surely N e h ru , a s h e a d o f th e in te rim g o v ern m en t (an d p resu m a b ly M o d i), w a s n o t resp o n sib le fo r th e killings (my em p h asis).2 B iharis figure ag ain in th e p o litics o f b o rd er-w atch in g. T h e p o st-1 9 7 1 ‘in flu x o f M u slim s fro m B an g lad esh ’ in to In d ia is a tre n d th a t is seen to h av e b eg u n w ith th e flo w o f ‘B ih ari-M u slim

1. See fo r e xam ple, w w w .chow k.com , Syed M u zam m il, ‘F rom P atn a to D etro it (A T ru e L ifelong M igration}’. 2 . T h e Indian E xpress, 4 N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 4 , interview w ith T avleen Singh.

Preface * xv

c o lla b o ra to rs o f th e P a k ista n i reg im e’.3 B ut th a t is a n o th e r story. B ih ar is th e e n try p o in t fo r th is stu d y w h ich arg u es th a t accessing a nu an ced d o c u m e n ta tio n o f th e p a rtitio n ex p erien ce in th e s u b c o n ti­ n e n t a n d d iasp o ra ca n a d d sev eral n ew d im en sio n s fo r th e re-th eo riz a tio n o f n a tio n s , d iasp o ra a n d th e region.

3 . M u k h e rji (2005) is a n exam ple o f th is p o sition.

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Acknowledgements

For m en tio n in g th e s to ry o f th e Bihari M u h a jirs in B an g lad esh , in th e co u rse o f h elp in g o u t w ith tra n sla tio n s fo r a n o th e r p ro je c t, I w o u ld lik e to th a n k R eza Sam i. In 1 9 9 4 , C .M . N a im p o in te d m e to A sad H u sa in w h o generously gave m e access to his collection o f d o cu­ m en ts in C h icag o . H e a lso p u t m e in to u c h w ith p e o p le in th e US a n d U K , in p a rtic u la r S u ru r H o d a , w h o , to g eth e r w ith h im , h a d long been a sso ciated w ith th e d iasp o ric e ffo rt to re p a tria te th e stranded Pakistanis fro m th e B angladesh refugee cam p s to P ak istan , D avid Ennals a n d Israrul H a q u e . O m a r Q u resh i filled m e in o n his research in terest, th e M u h a jir Q a u m i M o v e m e n t (M Q M ), a n d M o h a m m a d Y o u n u s o f th e O v erseas M Q M g av e m e so m e p u b licatio n s. T h is w o rk w as m ad e p o ssib le by tw o R o ck efeller fellow ships. T h e firs t a t th e In stitu te o n C u ltu re a n d C o n scio u sn ess in S outh A sia, U niversity o f C h icag o , in 1 9 9 4 . T h e second, w ith th e Triangle S o u th A sia C o n so rtiu m R esidency P ro g ra m in N o r th C a ro lin a in 1 9 9 6 - 9 7 .1 w o u ld like to th a n k S u san n e R u d o lp h , J o h n F. R ich ard s, D av id G ilm a rtin , B ruce L aw ren ce a n d T o n y K. S tew art. I w o u ld a ls o lik e to th a n k A .S. N a k a d a r , K aleem K a w a ja , M a n z o o r G h o ri, A rif a n d U zm a R aza, T a re k F a tah , Biju M a th e w , B hairavi D esai, a n d A m rit W ilso n , fo r a d d in g to c h a p te rs th re e a n d fo u r. F ro m th e m id -n in eties, a t v ario u s stages o f m y w o rk , I have b en efited fro m p re s e n ta tio n s m a d e a t S h im la , C h ic a g o , O x fo rd , N o r th C a ro lin a , K o lk a ta a n d P h ilad elp h ia. M a n y th a n k s to R e s h m a a n d A n il, P a tsy , R ita a n d M a n o j, P ra m a th a n d G a u ri, A n w a r a n d Y asm in , R a n i, S h ah la, Feisal a n d Ish ra t, fo r th e ir s u p p o rt d u rin g m y field w o rk in th e US a n d C a n a d a in 1 9 9 6 - 9 7 . A n d t o S h a h n a z R o u s e , S u m a th i R a m a s w a m y , M o h a m m a d K alam , N a g in a a n d T a m a n n a , C la re T a lw a lk e r a n d M u n is F aru q u i. F o r o u r d o s ti I’d lik e to m en tio n M e era a n d G irja , J a y a , C h aitali a n d B a re n , A n v ita a n d A jit, N i d h i, S id h i, B e a v e r, P r a b h a d i,

xviii ♦ Acknowledgements

A n u ra d h a a n d S a n d ip , M u n ib a a n d S h a n k e r, a n d Sita a n d Jo h n . F o r all th a t w as Sum m erhill: K a ru n a G o sw am i, M a h e sh S h arm a, Ish ita B a n erjee a n d S a u ra b h D u b e , G r a h a m C h a p m a n , S u resh S h a rm a , S ucheta M a h a ja n , U d ay a K u m a r, U d a y o n M isra , Sujata a n d M rin a l M iri, C h e ta n S ingh a n d J y o tirm a y a S h a rm a . K baas th a n k s to In d ra n i fo r m a k in g m e c o m p le te th is o n e . Sm iles fo r A n u r a d h a B h a s in , M e e n a B h a rg a v a , V a r s h a R a n i, J a y a s h r e e R a m a n a th a n , A shis B an erjee, B o d h P ra k a s h , K u m k u m S a n g a ri, R e b a S o m , N e e ra C h a n d h o k e , Su p riy a R o y c h o w d h u ry , S u ch itra M u k h e rje e a n d P a k h i, fo r b ein g there. F o r th e ir ba ra h m a sa s u p p o rt a n d p y a r, ch eers to J a y a , Keya a n d T u k tu k ; fo r fu n tim es to S n igdha, Ja g riti, M a d h u r, G a u ra b , G itan jali a n d S a u rav , a n d Sujit a n d M a n as. F o r th e ir fo n d c o m p a n y , hugs fo r D u m ro o , T u m tu m a n d M a lti N a n i. A lso rem e m b e rin g R a m d i, B ok, M a h to a n d Sitab w ith salam s. M a n y th a n k s to R am G u h a a n d In d ra n i C h a tte rje e fo r th e ir c o m ­ m en ts o n p a rts o f th e ro u g h c u t. A n d fin ally , to O m ita G o y al o f R o u tled g e.

P a tn a F e b ru ary 2 0 0 6

Introduction

D uring th e last d e c ad e m u ch h a s b een w ritte n o n h o w p e o p le have lived th ro u g h p a rtitio n a n d its a fte rm a th .1 At th e sa m e tim e, several studies o n politics in th e p re-p a rtitio n pro v in ces have ad d ed regional in sig h ts in to th e d iffe re n t d im e n sio n s o f p a rtitio n ’s legacies th a t en d u re. B ut a m o re c o n te m p o ra ry w id e n in g o f p a rtitio n stu d ie s is still to h a p p e n . F o r a n o v erv iew o f th e c o n tin u in g , th o u g h c h a n g ed , p lay in g o u t o f th e a d ja c e n t n a tio n -m a k in g scrip ts o f th e tw en ties to th e fo rtie s, it is im p o rta n t to fo ld in th e ch an g es in th e c o n to u rs o f b o th s u b c o n tin e n ta l a n d d iasp o ric p o litics, a n d to c o n sid e r th em in th e b a c k d ro p o f a c o n te x t th a t is in creasin g ly tra n s n a tio n a l. Such a v iew p o in t w ill n o t o n ly u n d o w h a t h a s been d escrib ed a s th e p o st­ p a rtitio n fra g m en ta tio n o f S o u th A sian h isto rio g ra p h y ,2 b u t ulti­ m ately m ak e fo r a n a lte rn a tiv e ped ag o g y o f a n d fo r th e region. O v e r th e y ears p a rtitio n h a s been revisited in In d ia afte r m om ents su c h a s 1 9 8 4 (B utalia 19 9 8 : 5 - 6 , 9 - 1 0 , 1 8 ), 1 9 9 2 ,3 a n d 2 0 0 2 ,4

1 . S arah A nsari (2005: 8) rem ark s th a t w ith th e fiftieth anniversary o f indepen ­ dence, p a rtitio n studies becam e m o re sensitive to its a fte rm ath a n d po p u la r dim ension. 2 . F o r th e frag m en tatio n p o in t see W illem Schendel (2002: 142). E arlier, Ayesha Jalal (1995: 1), discussed h o w th e loss o f 'a sub c o n tin e n ta l vision’ c o m p a rt­ m entalized S outh A sian h isto rio g ra p h y a n d deflected from any com parativ e un d e rstan d in g o f the com m on dilem m as o f th e region and th e ‘interlocking tra je cto ries o f its fu tu re’. 3 . M u sh iru l H a sa n (2 0 0 0 : 12) tra ce s th e increased intere st a m o n g social scien ­ tists in researching p a rtitio n t o th e B abri M a sjid -R am ja n m ab h u m i d isp u te a nd th e recognition o f p a rtitio n a s a ‘defining m o m e n t’ for un d erstan d in g In d ia ’s histo ry a n d th e co n tem p o ra ry ‘tu rm o il o v e r religion’. 4 . M u sh iru l H asan (2 0 0 3 : 2 41) argues t h a t f o r h isto ria n s located in S outh A sia it is im p o rta n t to sensitize rea d ers to p a rtitio n as ‘th e d efining m o m e n t in South

xx * Partition and the South Asian Diaspora

b o th to d ra w a tte n tio n to its u n w ritte n aspects a n d to u n d e rsta n d c o n te m p o ra ry p o litics. E ach tim e th e re a re killings in th e n a m e of relig io n a n d p o g ro m s, selective m em ories o f p a rtitio n resu rfac e a n d th e o rig in al d iv id e is ‘com p u lsiv ely ’ re-en acted . T h is e x p la in s th e a rg u m e n t th a t th ere is still a need fo r a ‘sy stem atic, m ulti-faceted e x p lo ra tio n o f w h a t w e m ight call “ P a rtitio n issues” fo r they define n o t on ly o u r p a s t b u t, in cru c ia l w ay s, o u r collective fu tu re ’ (K aul 2 0 0 1 : 3—4). T h e fiftieth y ear o f ‘freed o m w ith p a rtitio n ’ s a w a focus o n th e d a rk e r side o f n atio n -m ak in g . A ro u n d th is tim e th e ‘n ew his­ to ries’ o f p a rtitio n w ere w ritte n largely b y fem inist sc h o la rs.5 In th e la te n in eties, R itu M e n o n a n d K am la B hasin filled in p a rt o f th e g e n d ered n a rra tiv e o f d isp lacem en t a n d disp o ssessio n a ro u n d th e th em a tic clu ste rs o f violence, a b d u c tio n a n d reco v ery , w id o w h o o d , w o m e n ’s re h a b ilita tio n , r e b u ild in g a n d b e lo n g in g (M e n o n a n d B hasin 1 9 9 8 ). U rvashi B utalia retriev ed th e sto ries o f th e ‘sm aller, o fte n invisible players: o rd in a ry people, w o m en , c h ild ren , scheduled c astes’, a n d u n d erlin ed th e need to lo o k a t h o w p e o p le rem em b er p a rtitio n (B utalia 1998). T hese stu d ies w ere described b y G y an en d ra P an d ey as a refresh in g b rea k fro m hig h p o litics a n d a significant rec o g n itio n a n d d o c u m e n ta tio n o f violence. H is o w n a rg u m e n t w as th a t th e violence o f 1 9 4 7 created ‘new subjects a n d subject p o sitio n s’ a n d th e m o m e n t o f v iolence req u ired g re a te r a tte n tio n th a n had b een fo rth c o m in g fro m In d ia n h isto ria n s (Pandey 2 0 0 1 a , 2 0 0 1 b ). B ut w rite rs o f p a rtitio n ’s h istories h av e h ad to c o n te n d w ith th e im p ed im en t o f b o rd ers, co m p o u n d e d b y th e com plexities o f su bconti­ nental politics. G y an en d ra Pandey has ex p lain ed th a t alth o u g h his rec e n t stu d y w o u ld ideally have d e a lt w ith b o th In d ia a n d P ak istan , th e exigencies o f in te rn a tio n a l rela tio n s a n d th e ‘c o n seq u e n t diffi­ cu lty o f o b tain in g visas fo r travel (n o t to m en tio n research)’ m ad e him restric t his focus to In d ia .6 Sim ilarly w h en L u b n a N a z ir C h a u d h ry r e c e n tly re s e a rc h e d M u h a jir ( p a r t it io n ’s m ig ra n ts ) w o m e n in K arach i, she fo u n d th a t th e in secu rity in O ra n g i w a s su c h th a t even in th a t tim e o f relativ e peace in 2 0 0 0 , in terv iew s w e re c o n d u c te d in ‘on ly o n e sittin g o f tw o to th re e h o u rs sin ce th e fo llo w -u p visits

A sian h istory’, a nd explain it a s ‘a m e tap h o r, a n e vent a nd m e m o ry ...to rem ove w idely-held m isconceptions’. T his article w as originally published in T h e H indu , 2 - 3 J a n u a ry 200 2 . 5 . See T a n ik a S a rk a r in a b o o k review in Sem inar, D ecem ber 2 0 0 4 , pp. 6 5 -6 8 . 6 . P andey 2 0 0 1 a : 18. F o r th e sam e p o in t see S uranjan D a s (2001: 16).

Introduction ♦ xxi

w e re risk y fo r th e rese a rch p a rtic ip a n ts a s w ell a s th e rese a rch tea m ’(C h a u d h ry 2 0 0 4 : 2 6 7 ). R itu M e n o n h a s a lso discussed w hy th e w ritin g o f a c o lla b o ra tiv e o ral h isto ry o f w o m e n in p a rtitio n , ‘from a combined perspective’, did n o t w o rk o u t (her em phasis). In the early nineties, Karachi w as in such turm oil w ith the M uhajir Q aum i M ovem ent (M Q M ) th at no one, w om en included, was willing to talk ab o u t 1947. It became increasingly dangerous for the tw o Pakistani w om en w ork­ ing o n th e project to pursue their enquiry a b o u t th e refugees o f 1947 and resettlement program m es, o r ab o u t violence against wom en, given the violence currently prevailing. Broaching the subject o f Partition could trigger off suspicion o r hostility, because the very status of m uhajirs (refugees) w as predicated on an em battled identity. M e n o n h a d orig in ally se t o u t to d o c u m e n t th e ex p erien ces 'o n both sides o f both b o rd ers— Pu n jab a n d Bengal’ (original em phasis). She fig u red th a t g e ttin g all th re e p ersp ectiv es— In d ia n , P a k ista n i a n d B angladeshi— w o u ld d ecen tre n a tio n a list h isto rio g ra p h y , ‘ju st a little ’, even if briefly. B ut th e Bengal p a rt o f th e s to ry b eg an to reced e, b ecau se it tu rn e d o u t th a t f o r B a n g lad esh , ‘th e defin in g m o m e n t w a s 1 9 7 1 ...1 9 4 7 a lm o s t d id n ’t e x ist’ (M e n o n 2 0 0 3 : 1 2 0 03) H a d it n o t been fo r th ese fac to rs, th is stu d y w o u ld have been u n d e rta k e n very d ifferently to e x p lo re th e g e n d ered d im en sio n s of c h a n g in g h o m elan d s. A lim ita tio n th a t need s to b e p o in te d o u t a t th e o u tse t, b u t o n e th a t w ill hop efu lly b e filled in w h e n th e b o rd ers so ften a n d th e p o st-fo rtie s’ su sp icio n s give w ay so m e w h at. A rra n g ed in tw o p a rts , th e first h a lf co v ers th e d etails o f B iharis n e g o tia tin g g e ttin g to , a n d c laim in g , P a k ista n in th e tw o M u h a jir fo rm atio n s, o n e in th e e a st a n d th e o th e r in th e w est. T h e co m p a n io n seco n d p a rt lo o k s a t th e p o st-eig h ties y e a rs a n d sh o w s h o w p a rti­ tio n is a m a jo r refe ren c e p o in t, b o th in in sta llin g a n d resistin g H in d u tv a, a s well a s in recastin g th e S outh A sian reg io n a n d d iasp o ra b eyond th e politics o f th e religious rig h t. Focusing o n th e interface of n atio n s, d iasp o ra a n d reg io n even as th ey reconfigure, a n d covering six decades, th e stu d y ex p a n d s a n d re-m aps th e insights o f p a rtitio n , refugee, d iasp o ra , tra n sn a tio n a l a n d peace studies. T h e c h a p te rs are a n c h o re d in th re e m ain them es: a retrieval o f th e voices o f p a rtitio n ’s n o rth In d ia n M u h a jirs w ith a focus o n th e Bihari experience; the persistence o f p a rtitio n , even in th e S outh A sian d iasp o ra; a n d the reco n fig u ratio n o f S outh A sia b eyond p a rtitio n th a t is in process.

xxii * Partition and the South Asian Diaspora The

Aqalliat Story

In his review in th e early nineties o f th e h isto rio g rap h y o f th e decade p reced in g p a rtitio n , M u sh iru l H a s a n m ad e th e p o in t th a t in m u ch o f th e w ritin g s u n til th e eighties, ‘UP w a s seen as th e h e a rtla n d of H in d u a n d M u slim rev italiza tio n m o v em en ts, th e c h ie f a re n a w h ere co m p e tin g elites devised a n d follow ed th eir political trajecto ry w ith in c o m m u n ita ria n fra m ew o rk s’. T h e n th ere w as a sh ift in fo cu s, fro m U P to th e ‘M u slim -m a jo rity ’ pro v in ces o f B ritish In d ia (M . H a sa n 19 9 3 : 3 6 -3 7 ). T h is stu d y retu rn s th e focus to th e aqalliat (m inority) pro v in ces b y filling in th e B ih ar sto ry o f th e m ak in g o f P a k ista n as a cru c ia l a d d itio n in d o c u m e n tin g a n d u n d e rsta n d in g th e c a re e r of th e tw o -n a tio n th eo ry o n th e su b c o n tin e n t a n d in th e S o u th A sian d ia sp o ra . B u t w h a t is th e aqalliat story? S u g ata Bose a n d A yesha J a la l h av e w ritte n th a t P a k ista n w as ‘little m o re th a n a n u n d efin ed slo g an ’, a m ean s w ith w h ich J in n a h aim ed fo r a n e q u itab le sh a re o f p o w e r a t th e all-India centre: ‘It w as n o t a strategy designed fo r th e benefit o f M uslim m ajo rity provinces a lo n e ; n o r w as it in th e in te rest sim ply o f M u slim s in th e m in o rity p ro v in ces. R a th e r, it w a s th e line o f a se aso n ed p o litic ian w h o , th ro u g h o u t his lo n g c a re e r, h ad se t his sights o n th e a ll-In d ia sta g e ’ (Bose a n d J a la l 2 0 0 4 : 1 5 9 -6 0 ). A ijaz A h m ad has recen tly a rg u e d th a t th e ‘bala n c e b etw een M u slim m ajo rity a n d M u slim m in o rity pro v in ces e tc ., belo n g ed to a rea lm o f elite p o litics’.7 B ut as it tu rn e d o u t, th e im plications o f th e e q u a tio n betw een provinces enum erated alo n g th ese lines im p acted b o th o n elite a n d n o n -elite lives, in p a r­ tic u la r, o v e r th e c o p y rig h t o f th e n ew h o m ela n d . M ig ra n ts fro m th e p re -1 9 4 7 m in o rity p ro v in ces, m ain ly U P a n d B ih ar, n o t on ly reta in th e ir p re -p a rtitio n aqalliat p refix b u t in v ariab ly u n d e rlin e it in th eir recall o f th e ir sacrifices in th e m ak in g o f P ak istan . B efore 1 9 2 0 , po litical o rg a n iz a tio n a m o n g th e M u slim s a t th e a ll-In d ia level w as d o m in a te d by U P , B ih ar a n d B o m b ay , w h e re th e elite w e re in a p o litic a l a llian c e w ith th e C o n g ress fo r c o n s titu ­ tio n a l refo rm . H o w e v e r, w ith th e M o n ta g u -C h e lm s fo rd refo rm s, n u m b ers b eg an to m atte r. T h e p o litical sp o tlig h t shifted a w a y fro m 7 . A . A hm ad (2005: 30). T h e la rg er p o in t m ad e is th a t th is w a s a realm to w hich G h a ffa r K h a n did n o t b e lo n g , e ith er by tem p e ra m e n t, c o n v ic tio n o r class affiliation.

Introduction ♦ xxiii

th e m in o rity p ro v in ces su c h a s U P a n d B ih ar w h e re M u slim s c o m ­ p rised 14.3 p e r c e n t a n d 1 0 .3 p e r c e n t o f th e p o p u la tio n , to th e m ajo rity p ro v in ces o f P u n ja b a n d Bengal w h e re th ey a d d e d u p to 5 5 .2 p e r c en t a n d 5 4 .6 p e r c en t o f th e p o p u latio n . A lth o u g h su p p o rt fo r th e P a k ista n m o v em en t ca m e in itially fro m th e m in o rity p ro v ­ inces, it w a s on ly w h e n th e M u slim L eague w id en ed its reach to th e m ajo rity p ro v in ces th a t P a k ista n becam e a p o ssib ility .8 T h e re w e re tw o k in d s o f c o lo n ia l e n u m e ra tio n s th en : o n e o f d e n o m in a tio n a l co m m u n ities, a n d b a sed o n th a t th e seco n d , th a t o f th e pro v in ces. B oth flo w ed fro m th e priv ileg in g o f religious dis­ tin c tio n s w h ic h h a d b eco m e e v id en t b y th e late n in ete e n th century. By th e tim e th e H u n te r C o m m issio n b e g a n its d e lib e ra tio n s in 1 8 8 2 , th e id ea o f a ‘m ajo rity ’ a n d a ‘m in o rity ’ c o m m u n ity in fo rm ed th e d e b a te o v e r lan g u ag e, e d u c atio n a n d e m p lo y m en t. Even b e fo re th e fo rm a l in tr o d u c tio n o f s e p a ra te e le c to ra te s th e p re s u m p tio n o f ‘m ajo rity ’ a n d ‘m in o rity ’ in te rests w a s firm ly in stalled in th e dis­ co u rse o f In d ia n n a tio n a lism (Jalal 2 0 0 1 : 1 1 5 , 1 5 5 ). In 1 9 2 8 , a t b o th th e L a h o re a n d th e C a lc u tta sessions o f th e All In d ia M uslim L eague led by M u h a m m a d Shafi a n d J in n a h , th ere w a s a d em an d fo r c o m m u n a l su p e rio rity in five p ro v in ces so a s to b e in a p o sitio n to av en g e a n y a tta c k s o n M u slim s in p ro v in ces w h e re H in d u s w ere in a m ajo rity (ibid.: 2 9 9 ). L a te r th is h o sta g e th eo ry w a s p ro m o te d to justify th e c re a tio n o f P a k ista n in th e eyes o f th o se M u slim s w h o w o u ld rem a in in In d ia a fte r p a rtitio n . It w a s based o n th e fea r of re ta lia tio n a n d th e idea o f d eterren ce. L ike m an y o th e rs , a M uslim L eague lea d e r fro m B ih ar, H o ssa in Im am , believed th a t if P ak istan ca m e in to b ein g , M u slim s in th e m in o rity p ro v in ces w o u ld b e a s­ su red th a t ‘H in d u s co u ld n o t tre a t th em b a d ly o r w ith im p u n ity , th ere w o u ld b e fea r o f rep risals [in P a k ista n ], w h ic h w o u ld sto p su c h th in g s h a p p e n in g ’.9 T w o y ears later, a t th e All In d ia M uslim L eague’s L ah o re session in 1 9 3 0 , Iq b al called fo r a M u slim s ta te w ith in In d ia w h ic h w o u ld b e based o n th e te rrito ria l a m a lg a m a tio n o f P u n ja b , th e N W FP, Sindh a n d B aluchistan. T h is w a s to o obviously in th e interest o f th e 8 . Page (1982: 3 4 , 3 6 , 4 0 - 1 , 25 9 ). T h e 1 9 2 9 -3 0 provincial percentages o f M us­ lim s in M a d ra s w a s 6 .7 ; in B om bay, 19 .8 ; 4 .4 in C P a n d 3 2 .3 in A ssam . 9 . See Z in s (2 0 0 1 : 6 4 -6 5 ). ‘E ach m in o rity in each c a m p w as view ed as a p o te n ­ tial targ e t o f reciprocal reprisals w hich m e an t t h a t m illions w ere conceived o f a s exchangeable hostages’.

xxiv ♦ Partition and the South Asian Diaspora

m ajo rity p ro v in ces to e n th u se a n All In d ia M u slim L eague C ouncil d o m in a te d by M u slim s fro m th e m in o rity provinces. N o t su rp ris­ ingly, his ideas w ere dism issed as m ere poetics. Sub seq u en tly , Jin n a h arriv ed a t a stra te g y to w in a sh a re o f p o w e r fo r M u slim s a t th e a ll-In d ia level o n th e basis o f th e co m b in e d n u m erical m ajo rities in th e n o rth -w e st a n d n o rth -e a s t o f th e su b c o n tin e n t. T o th is h e stap led th e h o sta g e th eo ry m en tio n ed e a rlie r, if on ly to a p p e a r to offer som e­ th in g to all M u slim s: in th e m ajo rity as w ell as in th e m in o rity pro v in ces. T h o u g h th e d e m a n d fo r P a k ista n w a s designed to safe­ g u a rd th e in terests o f all In d ia n M u slim s, it failed to c o n ta in th e reg io n alism s o f th e M u slim m ajo rity pro v in ces. It w as a lso o b v io u s th a t th e ‘in terests o f In d ia n M u slim s did n o t p o u r n eatly in to allIn d ia “ c o m m u n a l” m o u ld s, a n d th is g o t reflected in th e co n flict of in terests b etw een M u slim m ajo rity a n d m in o rity p ro v in ces’.10 Since its in ce p tio n in 1 9 0 6 , th e M u slim L eague w a s largely d o m i­ n a te d by p e o p le fro m th e M u slim m in o rity pro v in ces. O u t o f th e to ta l m em b ersh ip o f 5 0 3 in th e 1 9 4 2 co u n cil, 2 4 5 belo n g ed to th o se are a s a n d o n ly te n o f th e tw e n ty -th re e w o rk in g co m m ittee m em ­ b ers in 1 9 4 5 - 4 7 ca m e fro m th e M u slim m ajo rity pro v in ces. T h e U P lead er, C h a u d h ry K h a liq u zzam an la te r p o in te d o u t th a t ‘c o m ­ ra d e s’ fro m th e m ajo rity are a s w ere to o busy th in k in g o f th e ir o w n fu tu res in th e fo rth co m in g set u p a n d th a t th ere w as a ‘n a tu ra l b a r­ rie r’ b etw een th em a n d th o se living in say U P a n d B ihar (M . H a sa n 19 9 7 : 6 2 , 9 8 -9 9 ). E ven earlie r th ere h ad been a ro u n d o f tussle be­ tw een th e m ajo rity a n d m in o rity p ro v in c e M u slim s o v e r th e d etails o f th e L u ck n o w P act o f 1 9 1 6 (M . H a sa n 1991: 95). It is th is tension th a t is stro n g ly e v id e n t in th e s to ry o f th e n o r th In d ia n M u h a jirs, b o th in E ast a n d W est P a k ista n . As S a rah A nsari h a s p o in te d o u t recen tly , ‘R elatively little a tte n tio n h a s b een p a id to w h a t h ap p en ed to th e refu g ee c o m m u n ities p ro d u c e d b y P a rtitio n ’. A nd w h e re research h a s b een ca rrie d o u t, it has ‘c o n c en trate d o n dev elo p m en ts o n th e In d ia n side o f th e n ew b o rd e r’. N o t on ly is th e p a u c ity of su c h w o rk in P a k ista n s ta rk , b u t it is P u n jab -cen tred . It w a s only a fte r e th n ic violence in S in d h , th a t th e politics o f th e M u h a jirs cam e in to focus (S arah A n sari 2 0 0 5 : 8 -9 ). B ut A nsari arg u es th a t in m an y 10. Jala l (19 9 5 (1 9 9 6 ]: 1 4 -1 5 ; 1997: 9 0 -9 2 ). In S e lf a n d S overeignty (2001: 323 ) Jalal m akes a c ry p tic co m m e n t th a t, ‘political a n d n o t religious con sid era tio n s’, led Iqbal to pro p o se leaving M uslim s in th e m in o rity provinces, ‘to th e ir o w n devices’.

Introduction * xxv

w ay s, ‘b y th e e n d o f th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry , life in S indh replicated th a t o f th e y e a rs fo llo w in g P a rtitio n , w ith b o u n d a rie s b etw een c o m ­ m u n itie s a s , if n o t m o re , s h a rp ly d e lin e a te d ’ (ibid.: 2 1 3 ) .11 It is on ly b y in se rtin g th e B ihari sto ry in E ast P a k istan /B an g lad esh , th a t w e g et a n aqalliat persp ectiv e o n so m e o f th e c o m p lex ities o f th e p o s t-p a rtitio n years. T o b eg in w ith , u n lik e o th e r m ig ra n ts su c h a s P u n jab is, G u ja ra tis, a n d M e m o n s, th e U rd u -sp eak in g M u slim s fro m n o r th In d ia h ad n o e th n ic o r linguistic lin k s w ith th e are a s th a t fo rm e d P a k ista n (Adeel K h a n 2 0 0 5 : 169). T h is gives a clue to w h y th e B iharis in th e east h av e b een d escrib ed a s ‘victim s o f tw o d iv erg en t stre a m s o f n a tio n ­ a lis m — t h e P a k is ta n i f r o m 1 9 4 7 to 1 9 7 1 , a n d t h e B e n g a li/ B angladeshi fro m 1971 to th e p rese n t’ (P. G h o sh 19 9 8 : 2 2 9 - 6 4 ; H a sh m i 19 9 8 : 3 8 7 ). I h av e discussed h o w 1971 b e c am e a w a te r­ shed n o t on ly fo r B iharis in th e e a st, b u t fo r M u h a jirs in rem ain in g P a k ista n , a s w ell a s th e p a rtitio n d ia s p o ra . M e a n w h ile , Sindhis b eg an to see M u h a jirs a s h av in g tra n sfo rm e d th em in to stra n g e rs in th e ir o w n la n d ,12 b u t m o re o n th a t later. Partition and D ia sp o ra Studies

T h e S o u th A sian d iasp o ra is m o re th a n eleven m illion s tro n g a n d is s p re a d ac ro ss th e w o rld fro m S u rin am in S o u th A m erica to Fiji in th e P acific.13 C h ro n o lo g ically , th e d iasp o ra in clu d es th e descen d an ts o f th e girmitiyas (a te rm derived fro m th e ag re e m en t m ad e b y th e in d e n tu re d la b o u re rs ), tra d e rs , p o st-S e c o n d W o rld W a r la b o u r m ig ran ts, pro fessio n als a n d m o re recen tly , p e tty b o u rg eo is a n d sm all b u sin ess m ig ra n ts. A n o v erv iew o f S o u th A sian d ia s p o ra stu d ies suggests th a t p a rtitio n ’s m ig ra n ts a re e ith e r invisible, m erely listed, o r on ly th o se fro m som e regions have been w ritte n up. A collection o f stu d ie s in th e e a rly n in eties o n o v erseas S o u th A sians e d ited by 11. ‘Indeed, it c o u ld have been the la te 1940s and 1950s all over a g a in ...’ 12. See Sam ad (2002: 68). Sam ad argues th a t in the face o f a resu rg en t S indi n a ­ tionalism U rdu a n d G uja rati spe ak e rs suppressed th eir intern a l a n d inter-ethnic differences a n d reim agined them selves as M uhajirs. 13. P a ran jap e (2001: 1 -2 ). In co u n trie s like M a u ritiu s, G u y a n a, F iji, T rin id a d a n d S urinam , th e n u m b e r o f th o se o f S outh A sian d escent range from 35 to 7 5 per ce n t o f th e p o p u la tio n . By c o n tra s t th e C h in e se a n d A frica n d isp o ra s are app ro x im ately 2 2 a n d 3 0 0 m illion strong.

xxvi * Partition and the South Asian Diaspora

C o lin C la rk e , C eri P each a n d Steven V erto v ec is stru c tu re d a ro u n d tw o b ro a d p e rio d s o f m ig ra tio n s. A first p h a se c o n to u re d b y im p e­ ria lism co v ers m o stly in d en tu red lab o u re rs, fo llo w ed by tra d e rs a n d a d m in istra to rs. A n d a seco n d , s ta rtin g since th e early tw e n tie th cen­ tu ry , in clu d es p e o p le o f S o u th A sian descen t w h o travelled freely a n d in in cre a sin g n u m b e rs to w e stern c o u n tries a n d th e M id d le E ast to u n d e rta k e a w id e ran g e o f o c c u p atio n s. T o th is is ad d ed ‘a n ew kin d o f overseas S outh A sian’, th e tw ice m ig ra n ts w h o m oved fro m K enya a n d U g an d a to B ritain , a n d fro m Fiji a n d th e C a rib ­ b e a n to B ritain, C a n a d a a n d th e N e th e rla n d s (C lark e et a l. 19 9 0 : 3, 1 7 -1 8 ). W h ile sta tistic s o f p a rtitio n ’s d isp lacem en ts a re m en tio n ed, th ey d o n o t g o b eyond th e fifties a n d th e focus o n P u n ja b .14 A s a resu lt w h a t g oes m issin g is a lo o k a t th e p o st-1 9 7 1 fo ld in g in o f th e s u b c o n tin e n ta l p a rtitio n d iasp o ra (see c h a p te r o n e), in to th e p o st­ w a r a n d post-sixties’ d iasp o ric fo rm atio n s. P a rtitio n ’s o w n tw ice a n d th ric e m ig ra n ts th ere fo re , d o n o t fig u re in th ese close-ups. In a n o th e r v o lu m e o f e th n o g ra p h ic a c c o u n ts w ritte n in th e late n in eties a n d e d ited b y R o g e r B allard , o n h o w S o u th A sians have m ad e them selves a t h o m e in B ritain a n d irreversibly ch an g ed it o n th e ir o w n term s, th e fo cu s is o n th e s e ttle r a s e n tre p re n e u r a n d c u ltu ral n a v ig a to r. T h e ov erall a rg u m e n t is th a t a n y talk o f a n ‘A sian c o m m u n ity ’ o r even o f ‘In d ia n ’, ‘P a k ista n i’ o r ‘B an g lad esh i’ soli­ d a ritie s a re a fic tio n , b ecause real c o m m u n ities a re a n y th in g b u t h o m o g en eo u s: th ey a re p a ro c h ia lly o rg an iz e d ac co rd in g to caste, se ct a n d d e s c e n t-g ro u p (B a lla rd 1 9 9 6 ). In a n e x a c tly o p p o s ite ren d itio n , B arb ara D . M etcalf h a s a rg u ed th a t d esp ite th e v ariations in th e d iasp o ric c o n te x ts th a t M u slim s find them selves in , th ey are tied to g e th e r g lo b ally th ro u g h a ran g e o f in stitu tio n s a n d m edia. And th a t th ere is a n ‘ap p ro p riaten ess o f studying th is “ d iasp o ra” a s a single p h e n o m e n o n ’. T h is v alo rizatio n o f diasp o ric cu ltu ral a n d reli­ gious sp ace m ak in g is p resen ted as reflecting th e agency o f ‘hum ble p o stm o d ern ists’ w h o h av e m o v ed aw a y fro m th e ‘n a rro w h istories o f M a rx ism o r n a tio n a lism h a n d e d to th em ’ (M e tc alf 19 9 6 : 2 -4 ). B o th th ese view s ig n o re th e d im en sio n s o f d iasp o ric m ed ia tio n s th a t c o n tin u e to b e inflected by th e rem ain s o f th e n atio n -m ak in gs a ro u n d th e p a rtitio n ex p erien ce, th o u g h fro m d ifferen t sta rtin g p o in ts. 14. C larke e t al. (1990: Introduction to P a rt II, p. 167). A lso see W erbner (1990: 3 2 33) for d etails o f th e p o st-p a rtitio n m ig ratio n to M an c h ester o f som e m em bers o f tw o biradarts, originally from E a st P unjab: the A rain a n d R aw al.

Introduction « xxvii

F o r a lo n g u e d u ree an aly sis o f th e e q u a tio n b etw een n a tio n s a n d d ia s p o ra s, a lo o k a t p a rtitio n ’s im p a c t o n th e old d iasp o ra m ay p ro v id e so m e c o m p a ra tiv e in sig h ts in to h o w it co n n e cts v ariously w ith th a t d efin in g m o m e n t o f po litical ch an g e in th e su b c o n tin e n t. Som e e th n o g ra p h ic case stu d ie s o f th e rec e p tio n o f In d ia n cinem a in th e old d iasp o ra seem to suggest th a t film s (and b y im p licatio n , n o t c o n te m p o ra ry politics) a re th e lin k w ith S o u th A sia (K au r a n d Sinha 2 0 0 5 ). B ut s ta y in g w ith film s, it w ill b e w o rth e x p lo rin g h o w screenings o n th e p a rtitio n th em e fare in th e o ld d ia sp o ra , o r w o rk fo r th o se fro m th is s tra n d w h o h av e re-m ig ra te d to n o r th A m erica/ E u ro p e w h ere th e legacies o f p a rtitio n a re m o re p a lp a b le . W h a t d o th e la tte r have to say a b o u t n e w e r S o u th A sian d iasp o ric s inv estin g in lo n g d istan ce in te rv en tio n s in S o u th A sian p olitics? W ritin g o n th e w ay in w h ic h th e o ld d iasp o ra relates ‘to th e m o th e rla n d ’, V ijay M is h ra fo u n d so m e clu es in th e Sky E n te rta in m e n t sc h ed u le fo r Fiji. H e n o tic e d th a t in c o n tra s t to th e A T N ca b le p ro g ra m m e s in C a n a d a , fo r in stance, n e w s fro m In d ia w a s n o t tra n sm itte d to houses in Fiji: ‘W h a t h a p p e n s in In d ia o n a d aily basis is o f little in te rest to Fiji Indians’ (M ishra 2 0 0 2 :2 4 1 ). Even so, facto rin g in th e old diaspora m ay illu m in a te th e n u a n c es o f e n g ag em en ts w ith th e s u b c o n tin e n t left b e h in d , in th e m an y layered S o u th A sian d iasp o ra . A nd this b ecau se th e ex -in d e n tu re d ca m e largely fro m n o r th In d ia, th e scene o f p a rtitio n ’s tra u m a . T h e in d e n tu re d m ig ra n ts o f th e n in ete e n th c e n tu ry h av e had m ix ed relig io u s b a c k g ro u n d s. O f th o se h e a d ed fo r S u rin am betw een 1 8 7 4 -1 9 1 7 , 1 5 .3 p e r c e n t w ere M u slim s. T h e fig u res fo r T rin id a d a n d B ritish G u y a n a w ere 1 3 .9 a n d 15.1 p e r c e n t respectively (Van d e r V eer a n d V erto v ec 1 9 9 1 : 1 5 1 ). A n d fo r Fiji, 1 0 p e r cen t. T h e lead s th a t I have com e acro ss so f a r a p p e a r to b e rem ark ab ly un d er­ research ed . A b o u t th e Fiji M u slim s, V ijay M ish ra m erely m en tio n s th a t ‘th e c re a tio n o f P a k ista n effectively c re a ted a d ifferen t h o m e­ lan d fo r th e M u slim s’, even a s h e w rite s a b o u t th e b o n d s o f jahazi bhais (sh ip b ro th e rs) b e in g s tr o n g a m o n g th e d e sce n d a n ts o f th e girmitiyas (M ish ra 2 0 0 1 b : 3 2 7 ). In th e case o f so m e In d o -T rin id a d ian M u slim s, P a k ista n a n d M ecca a re sa id to b e ta k in g th e p lac e o f In d ia a s sites o f h e ritag e a n d id en tific atio n (A isha K h a n 1 9 9 5 :1 1 2 ). B u t a n e a rlie r s tu d y c o n c lu d e d th a t social scien tists w o rk in g o n T rin id a d a n d G u y a n a w ere o f th e o p in io n th a t ‘b ein g In d ia n ’ w as a n id en tity th a t o v e rro d e ‘e x te rn a lly c re a ted relig io u s id en tities’ (Fisher 19 8 0 : 8 5 ). T h e re is o n ly a sk e tc h y in d ic a tio n in a stu d y o n

xxviii * fàrtition and the South Asian Diaspora

M a u ritiu s th a t M u slim s g en erally o p t fo r a n Islam ic id en tity rath e r th a n a n In d ia n o r P a k ista n i o n e (E riksen n .d .: 5 ). A p ro fe sso r of h isto ry filling in o n Z a n z ib a r m en tio n ed th a t th o u g h a n In d ia n M u s­ lim A sso ciatio n w a s fo rm e d th e re a fte r p a rtitio n , it w a s short-lived. ‘T h e div isio n s b etw een H in d u s a n d M u slim s d o n o t ru n to o deep here— In d ia a n d P a k ista n a re sim ply to o d ista n t’.15 T h e g a p s in th e sto ry a re ob v io u s. D o su b co n tin en tal developm ents sim ply n o t m atter o r o n ly so m ew h at? O r on ly in c e rta in co n tex ts? W e d o have so m e d e ta ils o f th e fallo u t o f p a rtitio n fro m som e la te r m ig ra n t fo rm a tio n s. A m o n g th e e a rliest g ro u p o f im m ig ran ts fro m S o u th A sia to th e US w ere P u n ja b i m en w h o settled m ain ly in th e a g ric u ltu ral valleys o f C a lifo rn ia in th e te n s a n d th e tw en ties of th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry a n d c o n stru c te d a ‘H in d u ’ e th n ic id en tity , w h ich in th o se d a y s sim ply m e a n t ‘fro m H in d u s ta n o r In d ia ’, even th o u g h 9 0 p e r c e n t o f th e m en w ere Sikhs a n d 8 p e r c e n t w ere M u slim s. T h ey m arrie d M e x ic a n a n d M e x ic a n -A m e ric a n w o m en . A fter p a rtitio n th ere w ere ru p tu re s a m o n g C a lifo rn ia ’s ‘H in d u s ’. In ethnic rep resen tatio n s a t co u n try fairs, a ‘P ak istan Q u een ’ so o n joined th e ‘H in d u Q u e e n ’ a n d m an y M u slim -fath e re d fam ilies ren am ed them selves ‘S p an ish P a k ista n is’(L eo n ard 19 9 5 : 1 0 , 13). A cross th e A tlan tic, in L o n d o n , w ell in to th e e a rly seventies, th e im p a c t o f p a rtitio n a n d its a fte rm a th w a s fo u n d to h av e been ‘a s in ten se’ a s in th e su b c o n tin e n t. It h a d ‘tan g ib le o rg an iz a tio n a l co n seq u en ces o n S o u th a ll’s p u b lic sp h ere’. T h u s, P a k ista n i S o u th a llia n s w ere only en title d to a sso ciate m em b ersh ip in th e p o w e rfu l In d ia n W o rk e rs ’ A sso ciatio n . L ocal M u slim s se t u p th e ir o w n s e p ara te co m m u n ity o rg an izatio n s a n d social o r w elfare associations th a t w ere inclusively M u slim o r specifically P a k ista n i o r B angladeshi (B au m an n 1996: 8 2 -3 ). A n a n th ro p o lo g ic a l stu d y o f L o n d o n ’s P u n jab i H in d u s w hich did n o t solicit th o u g h ts o n p a rtitio n fo u n d its m em o ry und erp in n in g th e n a rra tiv e s o f b o th m ig ra n ts a n d th e ir B ritish -b o rn ch ild ren (Raj 19 9 7 : 1 0 -2 7 ). Sifting th ro u g h th e archives I ca m e acro ss th is early story. In 1 951, th e N e w Y o rk -b a se d P a k ista n L eague o f A m erica m ad e a stro n g in te rv en tio n a g a in st th e d e p o rta tio n o f ‘illegal’ P a k ista n is in N ew Y o rk , N e w Jersey , M ic h ig a n a n d C a lifo rn ia a n d s o u g h t a se p ara te c o u n try q u o ta f o r P ak istan is. M u b a ra k Ali K h a n , th e w elfare c h a ir­ m an o f th e L eague w ro te to P resid en t H a r r y T ru m a n th a t m an y o f 15. Interview w ith D ileep P ad g a o n k ar, T h e T im e s o f In d ia , 2 7 July 200 2 .

Introduction « xxix

th e P ak istan is in q u estio n w o rk e d in th e factories a n d fields a n d w ere w a r v e te ra n s, o th e rs w e re ‘refugees fro m th e h o lo ca u st o f d e a th w h ic h s w e p t o v e r d iv id e d I n d ia in th e f irs t m o n th s fo llo w in g p a rtitio n — still o th e rs , K ash m iris, refugees fro m th e D e a th w h ich h o v ers ov er th e lovely valleys o f th e ir h o m ela n d ’. 16 As late a s th e six tie s a n d sev en ties, sev eral m ig ra n ts m o v ed o u t o f p a rtitio n ’s n a tio n s a n d tu rn e d d iasp o ric n o t in th e s u b c o n tin e n t, b u t b eyond th e reg io n , b ecau se o f th e e x c lu sio n ary e v e ry d a y e x p e rie n ce s o f n a tio n -b u ild in g . T h is is a sto ry still to b e pieced to g eth er. But th ere a re o th ers. T h e re is b rie f c o n s id e ra tio n o f p a rtitio n a n d th e S o u th A sian d iasp o ra in a rec e n t stu d y b y T a i Y o n g T a n a n d G y a n e sh K udaisya. H o w e v e r, th e ir fo cu s is o n Sikhs a n d S indhis, th e tw o c o m m u n ities th a t sh o w e d ‘a re m a rk a b le p ro p e n s ity o f in creasin g ly b e c o m in g d iasp o ric , p a rticu la rly a fte r 1 9 4 7 ’. T h e ir o verseas m ig ra tio n s are d escrib ed as ‘fam ily strateg ies’ w h ic h w ere rem a rk a b ly successful a n d p u rsu e d to c o p e w ith th e lo ss o f m ate ria l w e a lth a n d sta tu s th a t faced m o st refugees a fte r p a rtitio n . E conom ic o p p o rtu n itie s, fam ily, k in a n d m arria g e n e tw o rk s ac te d a s p o w e rfu l p u ll facto rs f o r th e ir o v e rse a s m ig ra tio n . T h e re w e re e sta b lish e d im m ig ra n t c o m m u n ities in S in g a p o re , M a la y sia , H o n g K o n g a n d n o rth e rn C a lifo rn ia w h ic h facilitated p a rtitio n ’s Sikh d ia sp o ra . B ut th ey also m o v ed to n e w e r d e stin a tio n s in UK a n d W estern E u ro p e. L ike th e Sikhs, th e S in d h is w ere a lso k n o w n a s a d iasp o ric c o m m u n ity , well e s ta b lis h e d in S in g a p o re , S h a n g h a i, H o n g K o n g , J a k a r t a a n d M a n ila . A fter 1 9 4 7 th ey w ere jo in ed by so m e p a rtitio n refugees (T an a n d K udaisya 2 0 0 0 :2 3 0 -3 4 ) . T h o u g h C lau d e M a rk o v its looks a t tw o S indhi m e rc h a n t n e tw o rk s (fro m S h ik a rp u r a n d H y d e ra b a d ), o u tsid e th e fra m ew o rk o f th e n a tio n a l h isto ries o f e ith e r In d ia o r P a k ista n , a n d places th em a t ‘th e in te rse c tio n o f sev eral h isto rie s’, h e f o u n d th a t ‘a fte r 1 9 4 7 th ey w e re c o n d e m n e d to a d iasp o ric existence w h ich w a s n o t o f th e ir o w n c h o o sin g ’. 17 K aren L eo n ard h a s tra c k e d th e D eccan H y d e ra b a d is w h o first m o v ed to Pak istan ,

1 6 . 18 A ugust 1 95 1 , U S S tate D e partm ent, Box n o . 5 5 4 9 , 8 9 0D /17-1952, N ational A rchives a n d R ecords A dm inistration. 17. See M a rk o v its (2000: C h a p te r 9 a n d conclusion). Besides S ingapore a n d H o n g K ong, d u rin g th e fifties a n d sixties th e ir d e stin a tio n s in clu d ed th e C an ary Islands, G ib ra lta r, In donesia, th e P hilippines a n d s o on. In the post-p artitio n years th e H in d u ism o f th e S indhis u n d e rw e n t a red efin itio n a n d a fte r 1984 th ere has been ‘a n increasing a lig n m en t w ith th e V ishw a H in d u P arishad’.

xxx * Partition and the South Asian Diaspora

a n d h o w m an y o f th em becam e tw ice m ig ra n ts w h e n th ey relo cated in B ritain , C a n a d a , th e US, th e G u lf a n d A u stralia (L eo n ard 1999: 4 1 , 4 5 , 4 9 , 65). T h e sto ry o f th e Bihari M u h a jirs s ta rte d w ith th e s u b c o n tin e n ta l d iasp o ra th a t acco m p an ied th e n a tio n -m a k in g s o f th e forties. T h e s u sp ic io n w ith w h ic h In d ia n M u slim s su b seq u e n tly c a m e to be perceived as fifth c o lu m n ists,18 ru led o u t th e M u h a jirs k e ep in g in to u c h w ith th e a n c estra l h o m ela n d , e x c ep t in sp u rts. T h is ex p lain s w h y , to d a te , h a rd ly a n y o n e is fo rth c o m in g a b o u t th e B iharis w h o retu rn e d to In d ia fro m B an g lad esh in 1 9 7 1 , o r m ad e B ihar th e ir b ase, en r o u te to P a k ista n . F o r m o re th a n tw o d ecades it w a s th e B ihari d iasp o ra in th e UK a n d USA th a t in terv en ed to g et th e B iharis re p a tria te d to P a k ista n . A t o n e p o in t o f tim e, in a tellin g tw ist, it even suggested d iasp o ric d e stin a tio n s o u tsid e P a k ista n a n d th e su b ­ c o n tin e n t fo r B iharis w h o d id n o t w a n t to sta y o n in B angladesh, b u t w ere d e n ied P ak istan i citizenship. I h av e a lso discussed h o w several M u h a jirs, b o th fro m B ih ar a n d o th e r p a rts o f In d ia , decided to m o v e to th e US a n d C a n a d a because th ey d ecid ed to o p t o u t o f a P a k ista n th a t h a d c h a n g ed . L ater, w h e n th e re w a s a c ra c k d o w n o n th e M u tta h id a Q au m i M ov em en t (M Q M ) o f th e M u h ajirs in P akistan in th e e a rly nin eties, m an y o f th e m s o u g h t a sy lu m in th e U K , US, C a n a d a a n d E u ro p e. Several E ast P ak istan i fam ilies m o v ed to these d e stin a tio n s via P a k ista n w h e re th ey h a d relo c a te d in th e seventies, because o f in creasin g e th n ic violence. B u t several th o u sa n d s rem ain stra n d e d in c a m p s acro ss B angladesh. W h e re a s th e first p a r t o f th is s tu d y lo o k s a t th o se m in o rities w h o cro ssed b o rd ers as M u h a jirs in to th e n ew h o m ela n d -n a tio n P a k ista n , a n d th e n y e a rs la te r d e p lo y e d d iasp o ric sites fo r th e ir red efin ed , e th n ic p o litics; th e seco n d h a lf d o c u m e n ts h o w d iasp o ric In d ia n M uslim s have in tervened to sto p th e idea o f In d ia fro m being claim ed f o r H in d u tv a . In h e r recen t stu d y o n th e In d ia n d iasp o ra , S andhya Sh u k la h a s w ritte n th a t she did n o t w a n t to ‘red u ce d iaspora to lo n g d istan ce n a tio n a lis m ...b e c a u s e d iasp o ra is n o t on ly a b o u t 18. I have discussed th is in , ‘P a rtitio n S tudies a n d P edagogy’, p resented a t the sem in a r-c o n su lta tio n o n ‘T h e P a rtitio n o f India Revisited: T h in k in g T h ro u g h and Beyond V iolence, T raum a a n d M em ory’, co-organized by the C entre fo r Refugee Studies, Ja d av p u r U niversity, K olkata, th e International Institute for M ediation and H istorical C onciliation, B oston, the International C entre fo r Peace Studies, N e w D elhi a n d W IS C O M P , F o u n d a tio n fo r U niversal R e sponsibility, N ew D elhi. 25 A ugust 2 0 0 5 (in press).

Introduction « xxxi

h o m ela n d o r n a tio n -sta te fo rm a tio n ’ (Shukla 2 0 0 5 : 1 3 ). B ut it is precisely th is view th a t m ak es h e r arriv e a t a n u n research ed c o n ­ clu sio n , th a t ‘a p a n -Islam ic d iasp o ra has en g ag ed M u slim s fro m In d ia f a r m o re read ily th a n d iasp o ric In d ia n n e ss...’ (ibid.: 1 8 ).19 As c h a p te r th ree reveals, this is n o t h o w it h ap p en ed . D iaspo ric Indians h av e g o n e b e y o n d S h u k la ’s d e scrip tio n o f th e rela tio n sh ip th a t th e In d ia n g o v e rn m e n t h a s ‘lexically b e s to w e d ’ o n th e N R I, i.e. o f re p a tria tin g in v estm e n t fro m a b ro a d (ibid.: 10). T h ey have sh o w n v ario u sly th a t m an y o f th em a re atte n tiv e ly tra c k in g th e idea o f th e n a tio n , a n d in th e case o f so m e lib erals a n d th e left, in c h an g in g th e c o n fig u ratio n o f th e S o u th A sian reg io n as well. N ations, D ia sp o ra and Region

A w id e ran g e o f stu d ies h av e h isto ricized th e co m p lex ity a n d d iv er­ sity o f th e S o u th A sian d iasp o ric fo rm a tio n s th a t g o b a c k to th e n in eteen th c en tu ry . T h e shifts a n d co n tin u ities in m ig ra tio n p a tte rn s rev ealed b y stu d ie s o n se aso n a l in te rn a l m ig ra tio n s ca n n o w be spliced to g eth er w ith findings related to p a rtitio n a n d o th e r diasp o ric m ig ra tio n s. T h ro u g h all o f th is, p e rc e p tio n s o f m ulk (h o m elan d) a n d pardes (foreign lan d ) h av e ch an g ed e n o rm o u sly a n d p o in t to several sto ries, so m e to ld , so m e u n to ld , o r on ly h a lf-to ld . A t o n e p o in t o f tim e pardes w as as close a s Bengal fo r m ig ra n ts fo r w h o m B ih ar o r U P w a s th e ir m ulk.20 F o r th e in d en tu red lab o u re rs w h o m ad e it fro m ‘G a y a to G u y an a a n d F a iza b a d to Fiji’,21 th e m ulk left b e h in d w as a n y w h e re b etw een te n to tw e n ty -six w eeks a w a y , fo r th e very few w h o g o t back . T h e h o m ela n d w a s recreated v ariously in th is o ld d iasp o ra. T h ere is a sto ry they tell in G u y an a, a b o u t a river b en eath th e A tlantic th a t ru n s all th e w ay to th e G an g a.22 Simi­ larly , th e n o rth In d ia n Shias im p o rte d M u h a rra m to th e C a rib b e a n 19. In fa c t Shukla a rg u e s th a t Sikhs a n d M uslim s have ‘th eir o w n a u to n o m o u s dia sp o ras’ a n d ignoring t h e c onnectedness o f S outh A sia’s p a rtitio n a n d post­ p a rtitio n p o litics, in p a rtic u la r, a b o u t religious m in o rities, w rites t h a t ‘th e n a tio n -s ta te In d ia h a s been fo rm u la te d d istin c tly fro m th e o th e r n a tio n a l p rojects, like P akistan, Sri L anka o r Bangladesh’. 2 0 . These m ig ran ts w ere k n o w n a s paschim w alas (w esterners). See Bates a n d C a rte r (1992: 22 3 ). 2 1 . F o r t h e c a rto g ra p h ic a llitera tio n see A rvind D a s (1998). 2 2 . A rnold H a rric h a n d Itw a ru in C helva K an a ganayakam (1995: 37).

xxxii « Partition and the South Asian Diaspora

w h e re it c a m e to b e called H o sa y , d eriv ed fro m H u ssa in , w h o died in th e b a ttle o f K a rb a la (P ra sh a d 2 0 0 1 : 7 9 -8 3 ). Like in m an y p a rts o f In d ia , H o sa y w a s in itially ce le b rate d b o th by H in d u s a n d M u s­ lim s in T rin id a d , G u y an a, S urinam a n d Jam aica a n d w as tran sfo rm ed in to a n e th n ic festival a n d a n e x p re ssio n o f th e c o m m u n ity id en tity o f In d ia n lab o u re rs.23 B ack in th e su b c o n tin e n t, in 1 9 4 7 , p a rtitio n sw itch ed th e h o m e­ lan d s o f n e a rly tw elve m illion p e o p le in S o u th A sia by s ta rtin g a m assive m ig ratio n o f m inorities in o p p o site directions. T h is happened a g a in st th e b a c k d ro p o f a ro u n d o n e m illio n d e a th s a n d w id esp read sex u al savagery: 7 5 ,0 0 0 to 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 w o m e n a re said to have been rap e d a n d a b d u c te d by m en o f th e o th e r religions a n d som etim es by m en o f th e ir o w n relig io n (B utalia 2 0 0 1 : 1 0 2 -3 ). P a rtitio n also lan d e d a Lalvani ‘s a tu ra te d w ith th o u g h ts o f K a ra c h i’, in G a y a , as assista n t s ta tio n m aste r, a n d a K am al b h a i, w h o ‘p in ed fo r th e breeze o f G a y a ’, in K arachi (B ad iu zam an 19 9 5 : 1 3 8 -3 9 ). In a d d itio n , it ch a n g ed th e p a tte rn o f s u b c o n tin e n ta l m ig ra tio n . A ro u n d th e first d e c ad e o f th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry , th e bu lk o f lab o u re rs fro m B ihar, O riss a a n d U P in D h a k a ( 3 5 ,0 0 0 ), M y m e n s in g h ( 7 5 ,0 0 0 ) a n d F a rid p u r (1 2 ,0 0 0 ) w e re H in d u s w h o w ere K u rm is, K a h a rs, N o n ia s, K an d u s a n d M allh as. Significantly, th e n u m b er o f M uslim s m oving east fo r em p lo y m en t as co a ch m e n , cart-d riv ers a n d railw ay servants w as ‘very sm all’.24 W ith p a rtitio n th e m ig ra tio n o f la b o u r to th e e a ste rn p a rts o f Bengal ca m e to a visible h a lt (d e H a a n 1 9 9 3 :1 9 3 ). B ut th e sto ry w a s d ifferen t in th e b o rd erlan d s. C o n n e c tin g th e th ree field s o f p a rtitio n , la b o u r a n d b o rd e r la n d s tu d ie s , W illem v an Schendel has sh o w n th a t p a rtitio n w as n o t q u ite ‘a n a b so lu te caesura in th e h isto ry o f th e su b c o n tin e n t’. In m an y regions a n d in th e lives o f m an y in d iv id u als, th e ‘realities’ o f p a rtitio n w e re slo w in m ak in g th e ir im p act. W h e n th e 4 ,0 0 0 k m in te rn a tio n a l b o rd e r c u t th ro u g h Bengal a n d A ssam a n d c re a ted su d d e n h av o c in th e la b o u r, land

2 3 . M a h a p a tra (2003: 19 6 , 19 9 ). M a h a p a tra sum s up o n p. 229 th a t th e su p p re s­ sio n o f H o sa y in T rin id a d increased c o m m u n ity aw are n ess a n d sharp e n ed bou n d a rie s betw een In d ian s a n d the re st o f th e p o p u la tio n , a s w ell a s betw een H in d u s a n d M uslim s. It w as in this p eriod t h a t B rahm anical H induism em erged in T rin id ad . 2 4 . O ’M alley (1913: vol. V , p t. 2 , p p . 1 8 0 -8 1 ). A lso see Y ang (1979: 3 7 -5 8 ) fo r details o f th e m ig ra n ts headed fo r B engal t o w o rk in the m ills, factories, docks a n d c o a l m ines a n d to harv est crops. W hereas a n o rd in a ry unskilled labourer in S aran ea rn ed o n ly a n average o f 2 o r 3 a n n as p e r d ay , in R a n g p u r h e c ould ea rn as m uch as 10 a n n a s a day.

Introduction * xxxiii

a n d p ro d u c e m a rk e t, th o se living in th ese p a rts devised w ay s to c o n tin u e th e ir o ld n e ig h b o u rly re la tio n s a n d c re a te d n e w on es. Basically, even a fte r 1 9 5 2 , w h e n p a ssp o rts a n d v isas w e re in tro ­ d uced to reg u late b o rd e r crossings betw een In d ia a n d E ast Pak istan, ‘all k in d s o f c ro ss-b o rd e r w o rk c o n tin u e d ’(Schendel 2 0 0 3 : 5 5 -8 9 ). A t a n o th e r su b a lte rn level, a fte r th e eig h ties, th ere h av e b een c o n ­ tin u o u s a n d relativ ely n o n -re lig io u s tra n s b o rd e r m ig ra tio n s fro m B angladesh in to India, a n d a t tim es, o n to P ak istan a n d back . R an ab ir S a m a d d a r has d escrib ed th is as a pro cess th a t c o n sta n tly u n d e r­ m ines th e S o u th A sian s ta te system sp a w n e d by p a rtitio n (Sam ad d ar 19 9 9 : 6 0 - 6 2 , 105). M e a n w h ile , th e re w e re o th e r re c o n fig u ra tio n s ta k in g place. A b o u t tw o d ecades in to th e m ak in g o f P a k ista n th e c o u n try w a s n o lo n g er a d e stin atio n fo r In d ia n M uslim s, m o re so afte r 1 971. Beyond th e s u b c o n tin e n t, d iasp o ric fo rm a tio n s w ere a t d ifferen t stag es o f u n fo ld in g , in d iffe re n t sites. In th e US, fo r e x a m p le , a w e lte r o f d ia ­ s p o ric p o litics becam e visible: o f th e M e x ic a n s in S o u th C a lifo rn ia , H a itia n s in M ia m i, C o lu m b ia n s in N e w Y o rk a n d K o rean s in Los A ngeles (A p p ad u rai 19 9 6 : 11). A nd o f S o u th A sians a s w ell. But as A v ta r B rah p u t it, in a n o th e r c o n te x t, ‘it is a x io m a tic th a t each em p irical d ia s p o ra m u st b e an a ly se d in its h isto ric a l sp ecificity’ (2003: 1 8 3 ). O v e r th e y ears th e c o n to u rs , c o n te n t a n d d im en sio n s o f lo n g d ista n c e p o litics h av e ch an g ed hu g ely , as is e v id e n t fro m th is illustrative d etail. In 1921 it w as discovered th a t m ig ra n t coolies o f th e C h o ta N a g p u r village K a ru ja g h a ra , w o rk in g in th e H alem tea g a rd e n in A ssam , h a d been sen d in g m o n ey h o m e fo r o v e r a y ear to in stall M u n d a ra j.25 T o d a y , th e re is a c o n s ta n t co n n ected n ess o v e r lo n g er d istan ces. T o m ak e sense o f th e c o n te m p o ra ry traffic b etw een S o u th A sia a n d its d ia sp o ra , a b rie f o v erv iew o f th e reg io n in th e p o s t-p a rtitio n y ears is in o rd er. In th e c o n te x t o f Bengali n atio n alism in E ast Pak istan , a n atte m p t w as m ad e to (re )fo rm u la te a n ideology fo r P a k ista n w ith th e idea o f ap p e alin g to th e p e o p le o f b o th th e E ast a n d W est w ings to keep P a k ista n u n ite d . A fter th e em erg en ce o f B angladesh th e term Pak i­ s ta n Id eo lo g y ca m e to m ean th e Islam izatio n o f th e s ta te a n d its in stitu tio n s (Ali 2 0 0 2 : 2 5 0 - 7 1 ). T w o d ecades late r, in In d ia , ‘th e 2 5 . C ID SB 7 0 3 /1 9 2 1 , C o n f. N o . 2 0 2 0 , 28 A pril 192 1 , SB A ssam to D IG C ID , B ihar a n d O rissa a n d C D R n o . 6 1 , R anchi, 12 July 192 1 , SP, R anchi to first assista n t to D IG , C rim e a n d R ailw ays.

xxxiv ♦ Partition and the South Asian Diaspora

co m b in e d effect’ o f H in d u tv a a n d M a n d a l ‘rad ically ch an g ed th e social m a p o f p o litic s’. T h e H in d u tv a p ro je c t a im s a t red efin in g In d ia in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h H i n d u c o n s c io u s n e s s a n d id e n tity (Z . H a sa n 2 0 0 2 : 1 3 -1 4 ), b u t h a s h ad to c o n te n d w ith th e politics o f social ju stice a m o n g th e in te rm e d iate castes, D alits a n d m inorities. In B an g lad esh , th e ineffectiveness o f th e A w am i L eague c re a ted a sp ace fo r th e m ilita ry a n d th e re tu rn o f th e Ja m a a t-I-Isla m i w h ich in c o lla b o ra tio n w ith th e B an g lad esh N a tio n a lis t P a rty ch an g ed a d em o cratic s ta te in to a n Islam ic o n e (Feldm an 1998: 3 7 -4 1 ). In b o th P a k ista n a n d B angladesh, sta te -sp o n so re d Islam becam e p ro m in e n t d u rin g d iffe re n t spells o f m ilitary ru le (L u d d en 2 0 0 2 : 2 2 5 ). In a d d i­ tio n to e th n ic strife d u rin g th e last tw o a n d a h a lf decad es, S outh A sia h a s seen several w aves o f c o m m u n a l, se cta ria n a n d fu n d am e n ­ talist violence. All o f th is h a s been m ark e d by o ld a n d n e w vio­ lence, b o th a g a in st a n d b y w o m e n ; d islo c a tio n , fo rced m ig ra tio n a n d hom elessness. As R itu M e n o n p u ts it, ‘w e w e re fo rced to reck o n w ith th o se age-old b o rd ers a n d b o u n d aries: n a tio n , relig io n , c o m ­ m u n ity , g e n d e r, a n d th o se a n c ie n t m y th s a b o u t sh a m e a n d h o n o u r, b lo o d a n d b elo n g in g ’ (M e n o n 2 0 0 4 : 5 8 ). A useful e n try p o in t in to th e s tro n g lin k ag es b etw een s u b c o n ti­ n e n ta l m ajo rita ria n ism s a n d b o th H in d u tv a a n d po litical Islam is th e h o s ta g e th e o r y a b o u t th e p o s t- 1 9 4 7 m in o ritie s m e n tio n e d earlier. In W illem v a n S chendel’s e la b o ra tio n , b o th th e s ta te s o f In d ia a n d P a k ista n sa w th em selves a s ‘being in c h a rg e o f th e p o p u ­ la tio n s w ith in th e ir b o rd ers, b u t a lso o f a ca te g o ry o f p e o p le living in th e te rrito ry o f th e o th e r s ta te ’. ‘T h u s, In d ia ’s p ro x y citizen s w ere th e H in d u s in P a k ista n , a n d P a k ista n ’s p ro x y citize n s w e re th e M u slim s in In d ia. T h is co m p le m e n ta ry tra n s te rrito ria lity — backed u p by v a rio u s ag reem en ts a n d in stitu tio n s— w a s seen a s a safeg u ard fo r th e w ell-b ein g o f m in o rity relig io u s co m m u n ities, b u t it also w eak en ed th e ir p o s itio n ’ (because th ey w e re seen a s h a v in g th e ir ‘tra n s te rrito ria l o r p o te n tia l n a tio n ’). T h e q u e stio n o f th e lo y alty o f p r o x y c itiz e n s th e n b e c a m e ‘a m o o t issu e in th e a n ta g o n is tic n a tio n a lism s th a t P a k ista n a n d In d ia p ro ce e d e d to b u ild ’. W hile c itizen sh ip w a s based o n te rrito ria l lo ca tio n , p ro x y citizen sh ip w as a ttrib u te d to religious c o m m u n ity (Schendel 2 0 0 2 : 1 2 7 -3 0 ). T h e tw o -w a y d eluge o f refugees w a s a ‘to ta lly u n e x p e cte d ’ a n d u n in te n d e d c o n seq u en ce o f th e P a k ista n d e m a n d . In fact, th e h o s­ tag e th eo ry sa w a n a d v a n ta g e in th e ex isten ce o f th e larg e m in o rity p o p u latio n s in In d ia a n d P ak istan (T alb o t 2 0 0 0 : 198). T h e ultim ate

Introduction * xxxv

h istories o f th is e x p e cta tio n h av e o fte n figured a t th e c e n tre o f heated cy b er e x ch an g es a n d h av e b een selectively dep lo y ed d u rin g th e last th re e d ecades in a w h o le ran g e o f m a jo rita ria n politics. A m o n g those w h o did n o t cro ss b o rd ers th e re w as ‘a d iasp o ra ’ o f th e frightened a n d th e v u ln era b le , th ere w ere in te rn al refugees, a n d ‘lesser p a rti­ tio n s’ in several n eig h b o u rh o o d s (C hatterji 2 0 0 5 : 2 4 3 -4 9 ). P artitio n a n d its a fte rm a th a lso created d iasp o ra s o f fam ilies,26 o f c o m m u n i­ ties, regions a n d villages, b o th in th e su b c o n tin e n t a n d b ey o n d . In h e r c o m p a ra tiv e analysis o f p a rtitio n -re la te d conflicts R a d h a K u m ar h a s usefully observ ed th a t p a rtitio n s on ly ‘restru c tu re th e sources o f c o n flic t a ro u n d b o rd e rs , refu g e e h o o d a n d d ia s p o ra s ’ (R ad h a K u m a r 2 0 0 3 : 15). In a ta k e a k in to th is, I h av e lo o k ed a t th e c a r­ to g ra p h ies o f refu g eeh o o d a n d citizen sh ip a n d so m e in terv en tio n s flo w in g fro m th e p a rtitio n epic to tra w l to g e th e r in sig h ts in to th e dyn am ics o f n a tio n s , d iasp o ra a n d reg io n in S o u th Asia. T ill re c e n tly , th e p re v a ilin g s o c io lo g ic a l f ra m e w o rk w o rk e d th ro u g h categ o ries su c h a s m ig ra tio n , e m ig ratio n a n d im m ig ratio n to u n d e rsta n d th e assim ila tio n o f im m ig ra n t c o m m u n ities in to h o st co u n tries. As V in ay Lai has p o in te d o u t, th e te rm ‘d ia s p o ra ’ cam e in to usage to c o m b in e a n d u n d erlin e th e d im en sio n s o f p e o p le ra d i­ a tin g ‘o u tw a rd s a s m u ch a s in w a rd s’.27 In his b o d y o f w o rk , Steven V erto v ec h a s em p h asized th e im p o rta n c e o f stu d y in g th e co n n ec­ tio n b etw een relig io n a n d d iasp o ra to tra c k th e g en eral p a tte rn s of religious tra n s fo rm a tio n in th e d iasp o ra s a n d th e h o m ela n d , in a c o n te x t o f tra n s n a tio n a l c o n n e c te d n e ss . M o re s p e c ific a lly , his a rg u m e n t is th a t b y iso la tin g th e co n d itio n s su rro u n d in g m ig ra tio n a n d m in o rity sta tu s , a n d tre a tin g d iasp o ra a n d tra n sn a tio n a lism as d iscrete ca te g o rie s, m o re ‘concise in sig h ts’ c a n b e g a th e re d o n th e processes a n d p a tte rn s o f relig io u s ch an g e. H e a lso discusses h o w d ia s p o r ic ‘re lig io u s - c u m - p o litic a l g ro u p s a n d n e tw o r k s ’ h av e develo p ed th e ir a g e n d as in n ew a n d d istin c t, tra n s n a tio n a l w ays. A m o n g his ex am p les is a m en tio n o f th e reliance o f th e religious n a tio n a lism o f th e S an g h P a riv a r in In d ia o n d iasp o ric fo llo w ers in th e US, B ritain, C a n a d a a n d E u ro p e (V ertovec 2 0 0 0 ). 2 6 . T h ak u rta { 2 0 0 3 :99) refers to th e diasporic fam ilies o f H indus, M uslim s, Biharis, C h a k m a s, G aro s a n d s o o n . 2 7 . Lai (2 0 0 3 b : 2 1 ). ‘In th e revised m odel d iasp o ric p eople b o re a centrifugal rela­ tio n sh ip to th e ir a d o p te d la n d ...In th e era o f g lo b a liz a tio n , th e n o tio n o f “d ia sp o ra ” w as perforce am o n g th e first t o be g lobalized.’

xxxvi * Fertili on and the South Asian Diaspora

T h is stu d y seeks to co m p lica te th e e q u a tio n b etw een religion, d iasp o ra a n d politics b y lo o k in g a t th e d iasp o ra fro m a s u b c o n ti­ n e n ta l site m ark e d b y th e specifics o f p a rtitio n . I have d o cu m en ted th e tra n s n a tio n a liz a tio n o f p a rtitio n ’s issues: o f its m in o rities acro ss S o u th A sia; th e c o n te s t o v e r th e idea(s) o f n a tio n s; citizen sh ip ; a n d a rec a stin g o f th e reg io n itself. If d iasp o ra s m ed ia te n a tio n s , th e reverse is a lso increasingly e v id en t b ecau se o f th e d im en sio n s o f a visible to a n d fro . It is, th ere fo re , im p e rativ e to tra c k events, tren d s, d e b a te s, activism s a n d re -th eo riza tio n s in S o u th A sia, as w ell its d iasp o ra.28 W h a t com es across sh arp ly is th a t th e idea o f th e n a tio n still ‘flourishes tra n s n a tio n a lly ’.29 But, m o re recen tly , recastin g th e S o u th A sian r e g io n , a n d b y e x te n sio n its d iasp o ric fo rm a tio n s, has a lso in fo rm e d a w h o le ran g e o f in te rv en tio n s discussed in c h a p te r fo u r. It tu rn s o u t th a t th o u g h th e d iasp o ric ‘S o u th A sian ’ categ o ry h a d its o rig in s in fo rg in g in terv en tio n s a g a in st racism in im m ig ra n t fo rm a tio n s (Shukla 2 0 0 5 : 2 3 4 ), in th e last fifteen years, reg io n al m ajo rita ria n ism s have a d d e d a s tro n g s u b c o n tin e n ta l d im en sio n th a t c o n tin u e s to flo w fro m th e re m a in s o f p a rtitio n . T h e s e h a v e a b e a rin g o n b o th th e q u e s tio n o f d u a l c itize n sh ip a n d h o m ela n d p o litics. T h e first c h a p te r show s th a t p a rtitio n ’s refugee h istories a n d the tw o M u h a jir fo rm a tio n s in E ast a n d W est P ak istan h ad th eir begin­ nings in th e a fte rm a th o f th e killings o f th e M uslim s in B ihar in the last q u a rte r o f 1 9 4 6 , several m o n th s before p a rtitio n . T h e em ergence o f B an g lad esh in te rru p te d th is h o m ela n d a n d m ap p e d o u t huge n u m b ers o f B iharis in to th e statelessness o f sixty-six refugee cam p s w h ere they still languish, aw a itin g rep a tria tio n to Pak istan . T h e ex ­ h o m elan d , B ihar, becam e a tem p o rary base fo r th o se w h o h ad the resources to trap eze to th e fo rm er W est P ak istan via N e p a l, B angkok a n d Sri L an k a. T h is sto ry is p u t to g eth er w ith refugee statistics and re p o rts, th e archives o f d iasp o ric rep a tria tio n activists, c a m p n a rra ­ tives, fam ily histories, literatu re a n d w eb exchanges, a n d a fte r 1 992, fro m ac co u n ts o f asylum -seeking by M u h ajirs based in Sindh. T h e seco n d c h a p te r has th re e sectio n s. T h e first focuses o n th e c a m p s in B angladesh a n d a n eighties’ reco n stru ctio n o f p a rtitio n by 2 8 . A p o in t m ade b y Jo h a n n a L essinger (1 9 9 6 :1 5 7 -5 8 ). A lso see M a n k e k a r (1994: 3 4 9 -7 1 ); D avid B ergm an (1998: 9 -1 4 ); and M .M . (1993/94: 4). 2 9 . T his w as a dm itted by A rjun A ppadurai in w h a t professed t o be a study anim ated by a sense o f th e e nd o f th e e ra o f the nation-state. See A ppadurai (1996: 172).

Introduction * xxxvii

th e S tra n d e d P ak istan is G en eral R e p a tria tio n C o m m itte e (SPGRC) w h ich sq u a re ly b lam es th e M u slim L eague fo r th e d o u b le loss o f h o m es in 1 9 4 7 a n d 1 9 7 1 . T h e lo n g w a it fo r re p a tria tio n has seen th em a p p e al to th e U N fo r ‘refugee’ sta tu s , selectively c a st th em ­ selves a s ‘M u slim refugees’ fo r fu n d s, a n d as ‘S tra n d e d P ak istan is’ to in sist th a t P a k ista n ferries th e m a c ro ss. O v e r th e y e a rs th ese 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 B iharis h av e received s u p p o rt fro m th e B ihari d iasp o ra in L o n d o n , N e w Y o rk a n d C h icag o a n d th e s u b c o n tin e n ta l J a m a a t-IIslam i. T h e seco n d sectio n p o in ts o u t h o w c e n tra l th e Bihari ex p e­ rien ce is to th e M Q M ’s c ritiq u e o f th e tw o -n a tio n th e o ry , its stro n g sense o f a d isp lacem en t still to co m e , a n d its strateg ies to a n c h o r in Sindh. It a lso d o c u m e n ts th e d iasp o ric o rg a n iz a tio n o f th e M Q M a n d its lead ersh ip in exile in L o n d o n . T h e last sectio n d etails th e re s o n a tio n o f th e B ihari issue in th e W o rld Sindhi C o n g ress a n d th e W o rld Sindhi In stitu te a n d th e ir s ta n d o n th e B iharis a n d th e M Q M w h o th ey see a s aim in g to tu rn th e Sindhis in to a m in o rity in th eir o w n a n c estra l, civ ilizatio n al h o m ela n d by div id in g th e pro v in ce. M o re recen tly , th e H in d u tv a fo rm a tio n , co n cep tu alized a ro u n d a v ersio n o f th e tw o -n a tio n th e o ry , p re d a tin g th a t o f th e M uslim L eague’s, h a s b een sy stem atically w o rk in g o n a co n scio u s strateg y to e n list th e d iasp o ra f o r its p o litics. T h e th ird c h a p te r m ap s its c o n te s ta tio n b etw een 1 9 9 2 a n d 2 0 0 2 by M u slim s a n d D alits in th e US a n d U K . T h ese in te rv en tio n s h av e u n d erlin ed th a t th e craftin g o f a H in d u rashtra is based o n th e s te re o ty p in g o f M u slim s a ro u n d th e m ak in g o f P ak istan . T h e n in eties’ focus is o n th e A sso ciatio n o f In d ia n M u slim s (A IM ) a n d a lso th e A m erican F e d e ra tio n o f M u s ­ lim s F ro m In d ia , w h ich h a d a n allian ce w ith th e In te rn atio n al D alit Sena. A fter th e killings in G u ja ra t in 2 0 0 2 , th ese o rg an iz a tio n s, to g e th e r w ith th e new ly fo rm ed In d ia n M u slim C ouncil (IM C ) in th e US a n d th e C o u n cil o f In d ia n M u slim s in th e UK, h av e been w o rk in g w ith C h ristia n , Sikh, D a lit, fem in ist a n d pro g ressiv e g ro u p s to o p p o se th e V ish w a H in d u P a rish a d (V H P). T h e last sectio n o u t­ lines th e s u b c o n tin e n ta l ag en d a o f d iasp o ric H in d u tv a. A fter a n o v erv iew o f th e religious rig h t in S o u th A sia, c h a p te r fo u r lo o k s a t th e d iasp o ric a ctiv ism o f th e B angladeshi H in d u s a n d K ash m iris a n d th en focuses o n th e F o ru m o f In d ia n (la te r Inquilabi) L eftists in th e US; th e S o u th A sia S o lid arity G ro u p a n d A w aaz— S o u th A sia W a tc h in th e UK ; a n d th e S o u th A sia R esearch C en ter (C ER A S) a n d th e In te r n a tio n a l S o u th A sia F o ru m (IN SA F) in C a n a d a . M y a rg u m e n t is th a t th e ir lo n g d istan ce re-m ak in g o f S outh

xxxviii ® Partition and the South Asian Diaspora

A sia fo rm s a n integral p a r t o f th e ir d iasp o ra p o litics. T h is is evident fro m th e n in e tie s d o w n to th e C a m p a ig n A g a in st G e n o c id e (in G u ja ra t) in 2 0 0 5 , a n d th e o rg a n iz a tio n s o f w o m e n , c a b d riv ers, d o m estic w o rk e rs a n d re c e n t im m ig ra n ts. A c o n c lu d in g sectio n co v ers s u b c o n tin e n ta l in itia tiv e s like th e S o u th A sian F o ru m fo r H u m a n R ig h ts (SA FH R) a n d th e P a k ista n -In d ia P eo p le’s F o ru m F o r P eace a n d D e m o cracy (PIPFPD) w ith w h ic h d iasp o ric s have m ad e a n d k e p t c o n n e ctio n s. All o f th is sig n als th e need to rew o rk b o th S o u th A sian a n d d iasp o ric pedagogies.

1

Negotiating Nations

L e t m e begin th e sto ry fro m S in d h a n d K h a n u ’s b a rb e r s h o p in Sh ik arp u r. T h e sh o p h a d a stock o f fancy p o w d ers a n d oils a n d p h o to ­ g rap h s o f A shok K u m a r a n d Prithvi Raj K a p o o r, a g o o d n u m b er o f H in d i a n d U rd u m ag azin es, a n d th e jo u rn a ls o f all th e colleges o f Sindh. K h a n u w a s a m em b er o f th e M u slim L eague a n d p ro u d o f h is Islam ic h e ritag e , a n d y et h e felt th a t th e lives o f H in d u s a n d M uslim s w ere closely w oven a n d p a rt o f th e sam e cloth. Sh aik h Ayyaz c a p tu re s th e d rift o f th e la te fo rtie s in h is s to ry ‘N e ig h b o u rs’ w h en h e lets us in to K h an u ’s m in d , o n e day in th e seco n d q u a rte r o f 1 947, a s h e gave Seth Shyam D a s a h a irc u t.1 H e h ad often tho u g h t a b o u t the cruelties com m itted by the H indus o f Bihar o n th e M uslim s [in 1946]. They had shed th e blood o f his faith a n d com m unity. T hey h ad insulted w om en w h o h ad never come o u t o f p u rd ah . H e w ondered if th e rio ts would sta rt in his city to o , afte r the second o f June. Are we going to avenge the killings of Bihari M uslims? Should I, for exam ple, cu t th e th ro a t o f this seth w ith my razor? H is h eart trem bled a t th e thought. L a ter in th e evening, w h en his n eig h b o u r Pesu R am ’s m o th er to ld his w ife Jeebal th a t she w o u ld ta k e shelter w ith th em if th ere w as a rio t, K h a n u h a d teased her: ‘I b elo n g to th e M uslim L eague a n d I w e a r a J in n a h cap . Y o u sh o u ld be a fra id o f m e’. H is n eig h b o u r ignored th is saying, ‘y o u will alw ay s rem ain K h an u Bhaiya fo r m e’. K h an u w o n d e re d if he c o u ld kill her: ‘N o . N ever. It c a n n o t be. If the H in d u s in B ihar have killed th e M u slim s, Pesu’s m o th e r has no th in g to d o w ith it’. 1. See B halla (1 9 9 4 , vol. 1: 1 8 7 -9 1 ).

2 » Partition and the South Asian Diaspora

O n his w ay h o m e K h a n u n o ticed a n u m b e r o f c a rria g e s h eading fo r th e railw a y s ta tio n w ith p e o p le w h o w ere leaving th e ir native lan d fo r ‘places th a t did n o t h av e S h ah L atif, Sam i, Z in d a P ir, Bhaga o r th e fa ir o f th e tw elfth d a y , o r th e raa g o f th e c h a u d h a v in ’. K hanu th o u g h t to h im self th a t o n ly a c o u p le o f ric h se tb s w h o h ad b u n g a ­ lo w s in J a ip u r a n d U d a ip u r w o u ld p e rh a p s leave fo r th ey h ad th e m o n ey . ‘B ut w h a t a b o u t th e clerk s, th e a c c o u n ta n ts a n d th e tea c h ­ ers?’ W ith sim ila r q u e stio n s, th is c h a p te r lo o k s a t th o se w h o left B ih ar fo r th e e a st a n d th e w e st, b o th b e fo re a n d a fte r p a rtitio n . But first, a n o th e r s n a tc h o f co n v e rsa tio n fro m K h a n u ’s s h o p fro m th e d ay before. K hanu heard som e college boys discussing th at the identity o f the Sindhi nation w as in danger. These Punjabis, G u jaratis a n d Biharis w an t to destroy our cu ltu re a n d language; they also w an t to take over our business a n d our land. It is o u r du ty to prevent th at from happening im m ediately. T h e G ujaratis are in com m and o f th e Sindh Congress. And th e M uslim League is busy distributing free meals to the Biharis a n d the Punjabis. N eith er o f them is concerned w ith the hungry a n d dying Sindhis. E ven a s h e a b so rb e d w h a t h e h e a rd , K h a n u felt a s th o u g h som e o n e h a d sp rin k led h is b o d y w ith ro se w a te r w h e n h e h e a rd a H in d u m an s h o u tin g , ‘Ja i S in d h ’, to relay h is resolve to sta y o n in his c o u n ­ try , n o m a tte r w h a t. B ut b y th en m an y refugee lives h a d b eg u n o n b o th sides o f th e b o rd e r. F o r th e Biharis, th e ir stag g ered m ig ratio n s to th e n ew h o m ela n d b e g a n in 1 9 4 6 a n d gave a p rev iew o f th e tw o M u h a jir fo rm a tio n s in th e fo rth c o m in g E ast a n d W e st P a k ista n , w ith a th o u sa n d m iles b etw een th em . T h e re is a need to d etail this early d a y s’ m o v em en t o f p e o p le a t so m e len g th , b o th to historicize th e s u b c o n tin e n ta l p a rtitio n d iasp o ra th a t u n d e rp in s several stra n d s o f th e w id e r S o u th A sian d ia sp o ra , a n d to m ak e sense o f M u h a jir p e rc e p tio n s o f th e tw o -n a tio n th eo ry in th e eth n icized , a n d in som e cases, th e d iasp o ric te rra in s th ey h a d to n e g o tia te . T h ese sto ries h av e b een fo llo w ed closely in th e first tw o c h a p te rs to e n a b le tra c k ­ in g th e sh ifts in th e e q u a tio n b etw een th e n a tio n s in th e reg io n a n d to co m p lica te th e layered b u t co n n ected h o m ela n d q u estio n s in th e d iasp o ra th a t is still b ein g c o n to u re d b y th e rem a in s o f p a rtitio n . I h av e m ap p e d th e d im en sio n s o f th e killings o f th e B ihari M u s­ lim s in O c to b e r-N o v e m b e r 1 9 4 6 elsew h ere. W h ile th e C ongress figures sto o d a t 2 ,0 0 0 a n d th e n 5 ,4 0 0 , th e M u slim L eague estim ate

Negotiating Nations ♦ 3

v aried b etw een 3 0 ,0 0 0 to 5 0 ,0 0 0 (P. G h o sh 1991 ).2 W avell’s guess w a s th a t th o se killed a d d e d u p to a n y w h e re b e tw e en 5 ,0 0 0 a n d 1 0 ,0 0 0 b u t h e w ro te , ‘n o b o d y really k n o w s y et a n d n o b o d y ever will k n o w ac cu ra te ly ’.3 By D ecem b er 1 9 4 6 ,6 0 ,0 0 0 refugees m oved to c a m p s in C a lc u tta , A san so l, B u rd w a n a n d th e 2 4 P arg an as, in M u slim L eague-ruled Bengal. A ro u n d th is tim e so m e refugees fro m B ih ar a lso s ta rte d h e a d in g fo r S in d h . By M a rc h 1 9 4 7 , th e re w ere a b o u t a th o u sa n d refugees in S indh a n d th e re w ere re p o rts o f th e S indh c a b in e t rea d y in g to receive 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 B iharis.4 A d d ressin g a g ro u p o f B ihari refugees a t a c a m p in K arach i o n 2 3 F e b ru ary 1 9 4 7 , J in n a h em p h asized th a t it w a s th e sufferings o f th e B iharis th a t had m ad e th e in a u g u ra tio n o f P a k ista n im p erativ e: ‘N a tio n s a re built th ro u g h sacrifices a n d I a m really p ro u d o f th e B ihari M u slim s w h o h av e sacrificed so m u ch . T h e sacrifices w ill n o t g o in v ain. T h ey h av e certa in ly b ro u g h t th e g o a l o f P a k ista n n e a re r a n d sh o w n o u r read in ess to m ak e a n y sacrifice fo r its a tta in m e n t’.5 T h re e m o n th s late r, G h a z a n fa r Ali K h a n , h e a lth m em b er o f th e g o v e rn m e n t o f In d ia , e x p re sse d m u c h th e sa m e se n tim e n ts a t a m eeting o rganized by th e B ihar M uslim S tudents F ed eratio n in P atn a. T h e M u slim s o f B ih ar h ad laid th e f o u n d a tio n o f P a k ista n a n d vin­ d icated J in n a h ’s a rg u m e n t th a t th ere w ere tw o n a tio n s in In d ia. H e said th a t th o u g h th e B iharis w o u ld n o t becom e citizens o f P a k ista n d esp ite h av in g m ad e h u g e sacrifices, th ey w o u ld in d irectly benefit fro m th e esta b lish m en t o f a n in d ep e n d e n t M u slim s ta te b ecause th e p o sitio n o f th e m in o rities in P a k ista n w o u ld b eco m e w o rth em u la t­ ing in all o f In d ia . If M u slim s w ere a g a in su b jected to th e h o rro rs th ey h a d a lre a d y b een th ro u g h , th e P a k ista n g o v e rn m e n t w o u ld co nsider it a d ec la ratio n o f w a r ag ain st its n a tio n als a n d th e q u estion w o u ld co m e u p b e fo re th e U nited N a tio n s .6 A co u p le o f m o n th s b e fo re th e d isso lu tio n o f th e B ih ar M uslim League, its c o u n cil held a n in -cam era m eetin g in A pril 1 9 4 8 ag ain st 2 . A lso Papiya G hosh (unpublished), ‘C om m unity and N a tio n : B ihar in the 1940s’. 3 . T o Pethick-Law rence, N ew D elhi, 2 2 D ecem ber 1 946 in M ansergh e t al. (1980, vol. 9: 140); D . O . N o . 310-G B , P a tn a , 2 2 /2 3 N o v em b er 194 6 , H . D ow to W avell, p . 149, m en tio n s th e follow ing figures fo r casualties/displaced p e r­ so n s. P atna distric t: 6 5 ,0 0 0 ; G aya district: 2 0 ,0 0 0 ; M u n g e r d istric t: 2 6 ,000 ; B hagalpur d istrict: 4 ,0 0 0 a n d S aran district: 3 ,0 0 0 ; to tal: 118,000. 4 . M o rn in g N e w s, 2 3 M a rch 1947. 5 . M o u n tb a tte n P apers (N e h ru M e m o rial M useum & L ibrary), File 114 A , tele­ g ra m n o . B -177, N e w D elhi, 2 4 F eb ru a ry 1947, Press in fo rm a tio n Bureau to In fo rm atio n D ep a rtm e n t; M o rn in g N e w s, 24 F ebruary 1947. 6. M o rn in g N e w s, 3 0 M a y 1947.

4 » Partition and the South Asian Diaspora

th e b a c k d ro p o f fre q u e n t p o lice searches o f th e ho u ses o f M uslim s a n d d id a rea lity ch e ck o f th e h o sta g e th eo ry (see in tro d u c tio n ). T h e co u n c illo rs ex p re sse d th e ir d ism ay a t th e n eglect o f th e In d ia n M u slim s by th e P ak istan i leaders. T h e ir c o m p la in t w as th a t Z a h id H u ssa in , th e hig h co m m issio n er fo r P a k ista n , w a s n o t ta k in g a n y in te rest in th e ir affairs, n o r d id he sh a re th e ir p ro b le m s, m ak in g th em feel a b a n d o n ed . H a v in g ask ed th e M uslim s to stay o n in India a n d th en d o in g n o th in g to b u ild th e ir co n fid e n c e b y a p p o in tin g d e p u ty hig h co m m issio n ers in th e d iffe re n t p ro v in ces w as reg a rd e d as c o m p letely ‘un ju stified a n d a tro c io u s ’.7 B ut th ere w a s a lso a n ­ o th e r dim en sio n . Several M u slim L eag u ers m ad e a po litical tu rn ­ a b o u t to jo in th e C o n g ress, a th em e I lo o k a t in a n o th e r p ro je c t.8 T o g o b ack a b it, th e B ih ar M u slim L eague m ad e its e lecto ral d e b u t by w in n in g 3 4 o u t o f th e 4 0 seats set asid e fo r M u slim s, only in 1 9 4 6 . T h e C o n g ress w o n m erely 1 o f th e 1 0 seats it co n tested in th is categ o ry . T h e p rem ier, Sri K rishna Sinha, how ever, claim ed th a t n o n -L e ag u e M u slim s g o t 2 5 p e r c e n t o f th e M u slim v o tes, a n d a ttrib u te d th e L eague’s sw eep to a vio len t e lectio n eerin g th a t h ad p lay ed o n th e fears o f M u slim v o ters. H is view w a s th a t P ak istan w o u ld d o n o th in g fo r th e M u slim s. A tra n s fe r o f p o p u la tio n s w as q u ite im p ractical a n d even e d u c a te d M u slim s d id n o t k n o w w h a t P a k ista n m e a n t o r im p lied .9 As it tu rn e d o u t, s o o n a fte r th e killings o f th e M uslim s in B ihar, a ro u n d N o v em b er 1 9 4 6 , Jin n a h advocated a n im m e d ia te ex c h an g e o f p o p u latio n s. A m o n th later, h e discussed a tele g ra m fro m th e B ih ar M u slim R elief C o m m itte e a sk in g him to m o v e th e g o v e rn m e n t to w o rk o n th is a m id ru m o u rs th a t m o re atta c k s o n M uslim s w ere being co n te m p la te d . A ccording to th e B ihar g o v e rn o r, th o u g h F ero ze K h a n N o o n a n d K h w a ja N a z im u d d in realized th a t m ass tra n s fe r o f p o p u la tio n s w a s im p ra ctica l, th eir effo rts a t p e rsu a d in g th e M u slim s n o t to m ig ra te ca m e u p ag ain st J in n a h ’s o p e n ad v o cacy o f th e ir m o v in g o u t o f B ihar. B ut Jin n a h s o o n reco g n ized th a t th e tra n s fe r o f p o p u la tio n s w a s d ifficu lt, a n d if a n y th in g , a lo n g p ro c e ss.10 7 . D aum , 2 7 J a n u a ry 1948. 8 . W o rk in progress. 9 . See M ansergh e t a l. (1 978, V ol. 7 , 1 9 7 7 :1 5 6 ) fo r record o f m eeting betw een ca b in e t d e legation, W avell a n d B.G . K her, G .B . P a n t, Sri K rishna S inha, Pt. R avi S h a n k a r S hukla a n d H .K . M a h ta b o n 6 A pril 1946. 10. See M ansergh e t al. (1 980, V ol. 9: 285); 5 D ecem ber 194 6 , B ihar M uslim R elief C o m m ittee telegram fo r J in n a h to P ethick-L aw rence fo r in fo rm atio n

Negotiating Nations ♦ 5

In F e b ru ary 1 9 4 7 , th e B ih ar Pro v in cial M u slim L eague lead er J a fa r Im am ex p la in e d th a t it w as th e sh e er scale o f th e rio t th a t had c o n v in ced th e M u slim s th a t, ‘th is lan d is n o t f o r us a n d w e h av e to leave th e p lac e ’. H e felt J in n a h ’s co n c ep t o f th e ex c h an g e o f p o p u ­ latio n s w o u ld have been co m pletely ig n o re d befo re th e 1 9 4 6 rio t. E ven h u n d red y ears o f p ro p a g a n d a to m ig ra te w o u ld h av e d ra w n a b lan k , sin ce m ig ra tio n im plied a b rea k w ith m o sq u es, g rav ey ard s a n d o n e ’s h e rita g e .11 A b d u l A ziz, a n earlie r p resid e n t o f th e Bihar M u slim League, h a s w ritte n th a t th e p a rty p aid railw a y fares to th e ‘ru in e d , b ew ild ered a n d terrified p e o p le w h o se reso lu tio n to leave th e p ro v in c e w a s u n b rea k a b le ’. B ut th e re w ere a lso th o u sa n d s o f p e o p le fro m d ifferen t p a rts o f th e p ro v in c e w h o left B ihar a ro u n d J a n u a ry 1 9 4 7 , ‘w ith o u t ta k in g a p e n n y fro m th e L eague’. 12 T h e B ihar M uslim L eague w as divided o n th e q u estio n o f m ig rat­ in g fro m B ih ar. B ut in early J a n u a ry 1 9 4 7 it p assed a reso lu tio n in d ic a tin g th a t if th e C o n g ress g o v e rn m e n t failed to resto re th e c o n ­ fidence o f M u slim s by c o n c ed in g th e d e m a n d o f c re a tin g M uslim d o m in a te d p o c k e ts (o f n o less th a n 5 ,0 0 0 p erso n s) by th e e n d o f th e m o n th , it w o u ld be c o m p elled to ad v ise th e B iharis to m ig rate en b loc. A t th e sa m e tim e, it ad v ised th em n o t to m ig ra te in a h u rry fro m places w h e re th ey w ere n o t in a ‘ho p eless’ m in o rity , a n d to s ta n d by fo r ad v ice.13 T h is w as rep e a ted in F eb ru ary 1 9 4 7 , in a n ti­ c ip a tio n o f a d ecisio n o f th e All In d ia M u slim League, even th o u g h th e c o u n cil rec o rd e d th a t th e silence o f th e B ihar g o v e rn m e n t a b o u t its d em an d s w as fo rc in g M u slim s to m ig ra te to p ro v in ces w h ere th ey w ere a m ajority. M ean w h ile, a c o m m ittee w as ap p o in te d to d o tw o things: to c o n sid er settling B iharis in stro n g , M u slim -dom inated p o c k e ts w ith in B ih ar a n d to stu d y a n d re p o rt, w ith in six w eeks, o n th e M u slim m ajo rity p ro v in ces w h e re th ey co u ld b e settled in a p lan n e d w a y .14

11. 12. 13. 14.

a n d con sid e ratio n ; p . 3 3 0 , D . O . N o . 331-G B , 10/11 D ecem ber 194 6 , H . D ow to J . C olville; p. 3 4 5 , N o te by P ethick-L aw rence o n his conversation w ith J in n a h and L ia q u a t Ali K han a t the India O ffice o n 13 D ecem ber 1946. B ih a r L egislative A ssem b ly D e bates, 13 F eb ru ary 194 7 , pp. 6 4 2 -4 7 . R e fle ctio n s N o . 2 O n T h e B ihar T ragedy: 2 5 th O c to b e r 1 946 to 2 0 th January 1 9 4 7 , P a tn a , D ilkusha, 194 7 , p p . 1-2 . M o rn in g N e w s , 9 Ja n u a ry 1947. Ibid., 13 F ebruary 1947. T h e com m ittee had eleven m em bers: M . Y unus, M . N a u m a n , Ja fa r Im am , A bdul G hani, S.M . M ehdi, M a tiu l Im am , M .A . W arsi, S alm an U sm ani, S.M . Sharif, M . F arid a n d A bdul M oid.

6 * Partition and the South Asian Diaspora

T h o u g h th e c o m m ittee w a s m ea n t to g o in to m in u te d etails a n d im p licatio n s o f m ig ratio n , it a p p e ars to have been a n o n -sta rte r. And d esp ite th e o ft-re p e a te d a rg u m e n t th a t th e 1 9 4 0 L a h o re reso lu tio n w a s v ag u e a b o u t th e s ta tu s o f th e M u slim m in o rity p ro v in ces, it m u st be p o in te d o u t th a t it w a s a m p ly c le a r th a t th ey w o u ld rem ain o u tsid e P a k ista n . In fact, a su b -co m m ittee w a s c o n stitu te d a t th e 1 9 4 0 L a h o re session o f th e M u slim L eague to c o n sid e r th e c re a tio n o f ‘in d e p e n d e n t h o m e la n d s ’ in th e p ro v in c e s o f U P , B ih a r a n d M a d ra s , b u t th e co n c ep t w a s given u p a s im p ractical a n d u n w o rk ­ ab le. All th e sam e, b etw een A pril a n d Ju ly 1 9 4 7 , tw o very d iffer­ en tly m ap p e d h o m ela n d d e m a n d s (o n e lo cated in n o r th B ih ar a n d th e o th e r in c e n tra l B ih ar) w e re briefly c o n sid e red in th e B ihar M u slim League, w h ic h in effect w o u ld have e x p a n d ed P a k ista n to in clu d e p a rts o f th is m in o rity p ro v in ce. W h e n th ese fell th ro u g h , an unsuccessful a tte m p t w a s m ad e to g et a t lea st e a st P u rn e a included in E ast P a k ista n (P. G h o sh 19 9 8 : 2 3 3 - 3 8 ). T h e d e m a n d fo r th e fo rm a tio n o f M u slim -dom inated po ck ets w a s sim ultaneously repeated u p to Ju n e 1 9 4 7 a s a c o n d itio n fo r th e M u slim L eague accep tin g th e g o v e rn m e n t’s re h a b ilita tio n sch em e.15 By late Ju ly 1 9 4 7 , ho w ev er, th e M uslim L eague lead er M . Y o u n u s m ad e a n a p p e al to th e B iharis to eith e r seek s ta te p ro te c tio n if they felt un safe, o r to m ig ra te to P a k ista n if th ey w e re dissatisfied. H e d ecid ed to sta y o n in B ih ar a n d w a s o p tim istic th a t th e ho stag e th eo ry w o u ld co m e in to p lay fo r th e security o f th e m in o ritie s.16 Som e o f th e 1 9 4 6 refugees w ere still in c a m p s in a co u p le o f Bihar to w n s a s la te a s S ep tem b er 1 9 4 7 , w a itin g fo r re p a tria tio n to th eir villages.17 T h e n u m b e r o f B ihari refugees in Bengal h a d , m ean w h ile, c o m e d o w n fro m 6 0 ,0 0 0 in A pril (w ith 8 ,0 0 0 located in C a lc u tta ),18 to a ro u n d 5 1 ,0 0 0 in Ju n e 1 9 4 7 . By th en th e o n e s in C a lc u tta n u m ­ bered a ro u n d 4 ,8 7 6 ; th ere w ere 9 ,0 0 0 in 2 4 P arg an as, a n d B u rd w an h a d 2 4 ,0 0 0 . T h e re s t w e re d istrib u te d in B a n k u ra , M id n a p o re , H o o g ly , H o w ra h a n d D in a jp u r.19 In Ju ly 1 9 4 7 , a rra n g e m e n ts w ere 15. L /P & J/5/182, G ov e rn o r’s re p o rt for th e second h a lf o f Ju n e 1947. 16. M o rn in g N e w s, 2 3 J u ly 1 9 4 7 (The ho sta g e th e o ry co n cep t w a s th a t m in o ri­ ties in e ach c o u n try w o u ld be safe fo r fe a r o f reciprocal attack s in th e o ther). 17. Ibid., 25 S eptem ber 1947. 18. Ib id ., 17 A pril 194 7 . T h e av e rag e ex p e n d itu re o n th em w a s estim ated a t Rs 4 0 ,0 0 0 a d ay; 1 D ecem ber 1947 m entions th a t b etw een N ovem ber 1946 and Ju n e 1 947 the Bengal governm ent had spent R s 22,4 8 ,6 1 0 on the Bihari refugees. 19. L /P & J/5/154, re p o rt fo r the second h a lf o f Ju n e 1947.

Negotiating Nations ♦ 7

m a d e f o r th e ir r e tu r n to B ih a r. T h e y w e re to d e tr a in a t K iu l, B a k h tia rp u r, B arh, F u tw a h a n d P a tn a, fro m w h e re th ey w o u ld be ta k e n to th e ‘refugee sta tio n s ’ clo sest to th e ir h o m es.20 T h e Bengal go v ern m en t arra n g e d fo r free railw ay w a rran ts, special train s, p o ck et m o n ey a n d c o o k e d fo o d fo r th e jo u rn e y b a c k , a n d b y A u g u st a b o u t 2 4 ,0 0 0 refugees retu rn e d to B ihar. O f th e rem a in in g 2 7 ,0 0 0 , seven th o u sa n d refugees w e re to b e re p a tria te d e a ch w e e k .21 M ean w h ile, th e All In d ia H in d u M a h a s a b h a w o rk in g co m m ittee w h ich m et in C a lc u tta in e a rly 1 9 4 7 , p assed a reso lu tio n ac cu sin g th e M uslim L eague m in istry in Bengal o f d elib erately try in g to tu rn th e M uslim m in o rity districts in W est Bengal in to ‘P ak istan ’ by settlin g M uslim s fro m B ih ar a n d o th e r p ro v in ces.22 B ut H .S . S u h ra w a rd y d enied th e c h arg e o f th e C o n g re ss p rem ier o f B ihar th a t th e p r o p a g a n d a o f th e M u slim L eague ( a b o u t B ih ar b ein g unsafe) w a s resp o n sib le fo r th e ex o d u s fro m B ih ar (P. G h o sh 1 9 9 8 : 2 3 4 ). It w a s in th e a fte rm a th o f th e B ih ar r io t o f 1 9 4 6 , several m o n th s b e fo re p a rtitio n , th a t P a k ista n s ta rte d g e ttin g filled in a s a d e n o m i­ n a tio n a l h o m ela n d , even if w ith to k e n n u m b ers. Iro n ically , th o u g h th e p o s t-1971 B iharis seek in g re p a tria tio n to th e resid u a l P ak istan fro m B a n g la d esh a re p e rc e iv ed a s g a irm u lk is (o u tsid ers) by th e S indhis, th e p re -p a rtitio n sc en a rio w a s q u ite d ifferen t. By th e e n d o f D ecem b er 1 9 4 6 , a b o u t a h u n d re d refugees m ad e th e ir w ay to S indh fro m B ih ar. A n d by J a n u a ry 1 9 4 7 , M a u la n a A b d u l Q u d d u s B ihari o f th e J a m ia t ul U lam a e Islam a n d c h a irm a n o f th e B ihar R elief C o m m itte e , K a ra c h i, circ u la te d th e in fo rm a tio n th a t th ere w a s a sy stem atic a n d o rg an iz e d schem e fo r th e settle m e n t o f Bihari refugees in v a rio u s p a rts o f S indh w ith th e s u p p o rt o f th e p ro v in ­ cial M u slim League. A n u m b e r o f flats h a d been req u isitio n ed in K arach i a n d so m e lan d h a d been g ran te d fo r th e c o n stru c tio n o f resid en tial q u a rte rs. H e sa id h e w a n te d to c o rre c t th e C o n g ress p ro ­ p a g a n d a th a t S indh w a s a n u n fertile, sem i-desert. Q u d d u s p resen ted th e p ro v in c e a s a d e s tin a tio n th a t o ffe re d o p e n in g s f o r tra d e rs , c u ltiv a to rs, la b o u re rs , c o n tr a c to r s , m a n u fa c tu re rs , w e a v e rs a n d 2 0 . M o rn in g N e w s, 25 J u ly 1947. 2 1 . L /P & J/5/154, r e p o rt fo r th e second h a lf o f Ju ly 1947 a n d C a lc u tta , 12 A ugust 194 7 , J.F . B urrow s to M o u n tb a tten . 2 2 . L/P & J /5 /1 5 4 ,12 F ebruary 1947. T he resolution is reported to have m entioned th a t th e re w ere alre ad y 1,5 0 ,0 0 0 M uslim s from o th e r provinces in th e w est­ e rn districts.

8 * Partition and the South Asian Diaspora

p ro fessio n als a n d a s th e ‘b est su b s titu te fo r B ih ar’.23 In h is version th ere w a s read in ess in term s o f lan d fo r th e reh a b ilitatio n o f 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 im m ig ran ts: ‘I a p p e al to in te n d in g im m ig ra n ts to d ecid e s o o n a n d m ove to Sindh. I have req u ested th e C e n tra l G o v ern m en t to arran g e fo r special tra in s etc. A ny dilly-dallying w o u ld b e extrem ely harm ful to th e w h o le cau se a n d th e ho u ses a n d flats a lre a d y req u isitio n ed will h av e to b e released if n o t o c c u p ie d ’.24 J in n a h a p p ro v e d a su m o f R s 4 2 ,0 0 0 fo r th e railw a y fares o f th e B ihari refugees, a n d o f R s 5 ,0 0 0 fo r Q u d d u s Bihari o f th e B ihar R elief C o m m itte e , in F e b ru ary 1 9 4 7 . H e a lso ask ed th e S indh g o v­ e rn m e n t to p ro v id e facilities su c h as tra d e a n d business p e rm its to th em .25 T h o u g h th ere w as som e o p p o sitio n fro m m iddle-class Sindhi H in d u s w ith reg a rd to th e re h a b ilitatio n o f th e Bihari M u slim s w h o p rea c h e d rev en g e o n th e m , th e S in d h g o v e rn m e n t w ere k een to e n c o u ra g e th e B iharis to se ttle in S in d h , b u t w ere m o re o p e n to ta k in g in lab o u re rs a n d c u ltiv ato rs (P. G h o sh 19 9 8 : 2 3 4 - 3 5 ). T h e w o rk o f th e d isp o sal o f th e im m ig ra n ts’ p ro p e rty w a s e n tru ste d to th e B ih ar R efugees L an d D isp o sal C o m p a n y w h ic h h a d a tie-up w ith th e O rien ta l B ank in P a tn a. T h e S indh g o v e rn m e n t a n n o u n c ed th a t 8 0 0 p lo ts o f 5 0 0 s q u a re y a rd s each , to ta lin g 1 0 ,0 0 0 acres, h ad been set asid e n e a r th e K arachi m u n icip al b o rd e r in G o lim a r fo r th e c o n stru c tio n o f a B ih ar m o d el co lo n y . T h e PW D m in ister, M .A . K h u h ro , o u tlin e d th a t th e c o n s tru c tio n o f th e L o w er S indh B arrage w o u ld b rin g a n a re a o f 6 0 ,0 0 0 acres u n d e r c u ltiv atio n w ith in tw o y e a rs a n d th ese w o u ld be a llo tte d to M u slim im m ig ra n ts a t a p rice fix ed b y th e g o v e rn m e n t. B ut h e said h e did n o t e x actly e x p e ct th a t tw o lak h (2 0 0 ,0 0 0 ) im m ig ra n ts fro m B ih ar w o u ld p o u r in to Sindh, fo r th ey w o u ld su rely p refe r se ttlin g in th e a d ja c e n t p ro v in ces o f Bengal a n d A ssam .26 E ven so , s h o rtly befo re p a rtitio n , th e Sindh M u slim L eague council p assed a reso lu tio n reco m m en d in g th a t m o re facilities b e m ad e a v a ila b le fo r th e refugees fro m B ih ar.27 M e an w h ile , in th e e a st, th e p resid e n t o f th e B ih ar Refugees U n io n in A san so l, to g e th e r w ith th e C a lc u tta a n d K id d e rp o re M u slim L eagues, w ro te to J in n a h in M a y 1 9 4 7 th a t th e M u slim s o f W est 23. 24. 25. 26. 27.

M o rn in g N e w s, 1, 13 and 15 Ja n u a ry 1947. Ibid., 2 4 J a n u a ry 1947. Ibid., 2 8 F eb ru ary 1947. Ibid., 2 3 M arc h 1947. Ibid., 24 Ju n e 1947.

Negotiating Nations ♦ 9

Bengal a n d th e Bihari refugees settled in B u rd w a n a n d M id n a p o re d istric ts h ad stro n g feelings a g a in st th a t th e ‘idea o f sacrificin g W est B engal’ to In d ia , b ecau se it w o u ld b e ‘m o st u n ju st to th e refugees o f B ih ar w h o h a d sacrificed o n e lak h M u slim s to secu re a free H o m e ­ lan d in Bengal’. J in n a h w a s ask ed ‘n ev er’ to ag ree to give u p C alcu tta o r W est B engal, a n d to ‘d o so m e th in g to o rg an iz e a n d w in o v e r th e trib a ls o f A ssam , W e st a n d N o r th Bengal a n d C h o ta n a g p u r a n d th e d epressed classes o f Bengal a n d A ssam ’. F o u r d a y s later, R a g h ib A h sa n o f th e C a lc u tta d istric t M u slim L eague suggested to J in n a h th a t C h o ta N a g p u r a n d th e S a n th al P a rg an a s a n d A ssam b e given th e o p tio n to jo in eith er P ak istan o r H in d u s ta n (P. G h o sh 1 9 9 8 :2 3 8 ). B ut a c o u p le o f m o n th s late r, R a g h ib A h sa n en d ed u p in E ast P a k ista n . A n ex-general secretary o f th e B ih ar M u slim R elief C o m ­ m itte e in B engal, he w ro te to L a tifu r R a h m a n o f th e G aya M uslim L eague fro m D h a k a , m ailin g h im a n a sso rted slice o f th e tim es. H e w a n te d R a h m a n to retrieve th e n e w ty p ew riter o f th e M u slim League a n d a b o x o f vital d o c u m e n ts fro m tw o p a rty m en , J a fa r Im am a n d H a jja n Saheb (K.B. Ism ail) a n d to ta k e c a re o f th e vehicles th a t had b een a llo tte d to B ih ar a fte r th e 1 9 4 6 rio t. A h san a lso w a n te d help in tra n sfe rrin g h is savings b a n k a c c o u n t fro m th e G a y a Im perial B ank to its D h a k a b ra n c h . F o r th e m o m e n t h is fam ily w a s based in C h itta g o n g . H is u p b e a t lo w d o w n w a s th a t re p o rts o f relo c a tin g difficulties w ere m isleading. In his version, th e w h o le o f E ast Bengal w a s in fluenced b y th e Q u a id a n d ex cep t fo r a few , m o st p eople seem ed to b e o p e n to a c ce p tin g th em . T h e re w e re o p e n in g s fo r tra d e a n d com m erce in C h ittag o n g , K hulna a n d Jessore. D in a jp u r, R an g p ur a n d Sylhet, to o , w ere d e stin a tio n s w ith sim ila r o p p o rtu n itie s.28 B ut things w ere to u g h fo r m o st o th ers. T h e Bihari refugees o f 1 946, w h o w ere still in Bengal, h a d ex p ected E ast P a k ista n to se ttle th em th ere. O n e such a p p e al w a s m ad e b y S h a rfu d d in A h m ad K h a n , th e general secretary o f th e M u slim L eague a t th e Salb o n i R elief C am p in M id n a p o re .29 B ut th e p re m ie r o f E a st P a k ista n , N a z im u d d in , so u n d ed distressed w h en a b o u t 1 ,5 0 0 B ihari refugees left M id n a p o re in W e st Bengal fo r Jesso re w h e re th ere w ere n o a rra n g e m e n ts to receive th em . H e m ad e a n an g u ish ed a p p e al to th e B ihari refugees to stay o n in W est Bengal b ecause ac co rd in g to a n a g reem en t arrived a t in D elh i, th e W e st Bengal g o v e rn m e n t h ad u n d e rta k e n to lo o k 2 8 . 24 M a rc h 1 9 4 8 , L a tifu r R a h m a n ’s priv ate c o llection, G aya. 2 9 . M o rn in g N e w s, 28 July 1947.

10 ♦ Partition and the South Asian Diaspora

a fte r th em u n til it w a s d ecid ed ‘w h e th e r th ey will g o to B ihar o r to E ast Bengal’.30 T h e re h a b ilitatio n o f th ese Bihari refugees w as sch ed­ uled to co m e u p fo r discu ssio n b y th e M u slim L eague a n d th e g o v­ e rn m e n t o f P a k ista n in S ep tem b er 1 9 4 7 . T h e n a ib salar-e-su b a o f th e M u slim N a tio n a l G u a rd s o f B ih ar, M a u la n a A sad u l Q a d ri, w as to fly to K arach i to rep re se n t th e ir case to J in n a h .31 T h e Bihari refugees a t th e relief c a m p a t A sansol d ecid ed to fo rm a n a sso c ia tio n to rep re se n t th e ir case to th e g o v ern m en ts o f B ihar a n d P a k ista n .32 T h e ir sen tim en ts a re e v id e n t in a d etailed letter to th e e d ito r o f M o rn in g N e w s fro m S. N u ru l A inan in th e A sansol cam p. W e the Bihari refugees w ere driven to th e painful necessity o f mi­ gratin g to Bengal. 3 0 0 ,000 strong cam e here firmly determ ined never to return to th e hell called Bihar a n d w e are sincerely th an k fu l to th e ex-prem ier o f Bengal, M r H.S. Suhraw ardy w h o durin g his ten­ ure o f office tried his level best to perform th e duties o f a tru e ansar. But it is a pity th a t since A ugust 15, th e G overnm ent o f Pakistan seems averse to o u r m iserable plight. W e have so far been enduring all hardships in th e hope th at w ith th e establishm ent o f Pakistan, th e survivors o f th e Bihar Killings [1946] will get an o p p o rtu n ity of leading a peaceful a n d h o nourable life. But to o u r u tte r disappoint­ m ent w e find ourselves totally forsaken a n d coldly neglected due, p robably, to th e proverbial provincialism o f th e M uslim s o f this land. Perhaps th a t is why they a re observing an om inous silence as a result o f which m ost o f th e refugees had to leave their old and ailing p arents a n d innocent young ones and, fighting ag ain st all the odds o f th e foul and rainy w eather, starvation and sickness, some proceeded to M u rsh id ab ad a n d then finding n o accom m odation there, to Jessore, K hulna o r D acca. W hile o th ers falling an easy victim to th e enemy’s false pro p ag an d a had to return to Bihar only to retrace their steps back to Bengal, finding it practically im pos­ sible to stay a n d resettle in Bihar...... T h e o th e r se n tim e n t in th e le tte r reso n a tes stro n g ly even to d ay : th a t it w a s ‘th e b lo o d o f th e Bihari m a rty rs ’ th a t p ro v id e d ‘th e fo u n ­ d a tio n sto n e o f P a k ista n ’.33 30. 31. 32. 33.

Ibid., Ibid., Ibid. Ibid., B ihar

25 A ugust 1947. 16 S eptem ber 1947. 17 O c to b e r 1947. ‘W h a t a h o rrib le scene! W h a t solace the souls o f the m a rty rs w ill g e t a t th e p lig h t o f survivors a n d h o w m uch w ill they bless

Negotiating Nations ♦ 11

T h e sam e n e w sp a p e r w ro te a n e d ito ria l o n th e ‘F o rg o tte n R efu­ gees’, d etailin g h o w ‘several lakhs’ o f Bihari refugees in W e st Bengal fo u n d them selves in a q u a n d a ry , n o t k n o w in g w h ic h w ay to g o . It fo u n d th e silence o f th e E ast P a k ista n g o v e rn m e n t ‘sp h in x -lik e ’, a n d th a t o f th e L eague lead ers in P a tn a , very ‘s tra n g e ’. T h e M uslim L eague hig h co m m a n d a lso a p p e are d to have ‘d iso w n ed all resp o n ­ sib ility ’ fo r th e re h a b ilitatio n o f th e Bihari refugees o f 1 9 4 6 w h o w ere ‘s tra n d e d ’ in W est B engal.34 M u c h th e sa m e co m m e n ts w ere rep e a ted a co u p le o f m o n th s later. ‘B ih ar M u slim refugees w a n d e r aim lessly in B ih a r to w n s , a re f o u n d sc a tte re d all o v e r C a lc u tta , M u rs h id a b a d a n d in B u rd w an . M a n y o f th em r o t in B ih ar jails’. T h e M u slim L eague a n d its B ih ar C e n tra l R elief C o m m itte e had left th em ‘hig h a n d d ry ’. A n o th e r e d ito ria l a rg u e d th a t th e large n u m b e r o f B ihari refugees o f th e a g ric u ltu ra l a n d th e lab o u rin g classes in W est Bengal co u ld have been sen t to E ast P a k ista n o r K arach i w h e re a sh o rta g e o f la b o u r w a s rep o rte d to b e a cu te: ‘T h is is a task w h ich th e C o m m itte e c a n easily ta k e . It h a s h o w ev er, so f a r b een su p rem ely in d ifferen t to its resp o n sib ilities’.35 By D ecem b er 1 9 5 1 , ro u g h ly 6 ,5 9 7 ,0 0 0 refugees h a d m oved fro m In d ia to W e st P a k ista n a n d 7 9 4 ,1 2 7 to E ast P a k ista n .36 O f those head ed fo r P ak istan betw een 1 9 4 7 -4 8 , 9 5 .9 p e r c en t o f th e m igrants fro m A ssam , W est Bengal a n d B ih ar m o v ed to E ast P a k ista n a n d 3 .2 p e r c e n t to K arach i.37 A cco rd in g to th e 1951 P a k ista n census, 6 6 .6 9 p e r c e n t o f th e m ig ra n ts in E ast P a k ista n ca m e fro m W est B engal, 1 4 .5 0 p e r c en t fro m B ih ar, 1 1 .8 4 p e r c e n t fro m A ssam a n d

34. 35. 36.

37.

th e Free Islamic S tate o f P akistan w hen they see th e ir k ith and kin driven from d o o r to d o o r a n d know n ow here to rest their h ead. W e learn from m any o f the refugees com ing back from Dacca a n d o th e r tow ns o f E astern P akistan th a t the Bengali M uslim s regard it a s a sin a n d totally against the Islamic sh a ria t to let the B ihari M uslim s settle there. T h is a ccounts fo r th e negligence o n th e p a rt o f th e L eague leaders in th e m a tte r o f o u r rehabilitation a nd n o d o u b t th a t is w hy they a re all k eeping q u iet over it. T h e Q uaid e A zam w henever approached says th a t the m atte r w as to be d ealt w ith by the Bengal leaders, b u t w hen a ccording to Q uaid’s instructions w e contacted them they have never given us a satisfac­ to ry reply w ith th e result th a t they a re ro ttin g h ere o n false h opes’. Ibid., 8 O c to b e r 1947. Ibid., E d ito rial, 12 Ja n u a ry 1948. N a tio n a l A rchives a n d R ecords A d m inistration (N A R A , USA), B ox 4 1 4 5 , File 7 9 0 D , 0 0 /4-1652, 2 4 M a rch 195 2 , A m erican Em bassy, K arachi to D e p art­ m en t o f State, W ashington. See K halidi (1997: 3 7 , tab le 1).

12 * Partition and the South Asian Diaspora

6 .7 9 p e r c e n t fro m o th e r p a rts o f In d ia .38 By c o n tra s t, a ro u n d 6 0 p e r c e n t o f th e 4 6 4 ,0 0 0 M u h a jirs fro m U P settled in S indh (T alb ot 1 9 9 8 :1 0 9 ). B ehind th ese sta tistic s lie a w h o le ran g e o f sto ries a n d d etails th a t reveal th e v a ria tio n s in th e p a c e o f m ig ra tio n s to th e east a n d w est, a n d th en b eyond S o u th Asia. Seen to g eth er, th ey give us in sig h ts in to lives m ad e a n d u n m ad e b y th e m a p s o f n a tio n s th a t h av e flo w ed fro m s tra n d s o f p o litic s, in fo rm e d b y c o lo n ia l e n u ­ m era tio n s o f relig io n a n d language. M a n y B iharis left fo r P a k ista n b ecause o f p o lice search es o f th e ir h o u se s f o r a rm s a n d a m m u n itio n s in th e a fte rm a th o f p a rtitio n . T h is h a p p e n ed , fo r ex am p le, in R a m z a n p u r a n d G o rb ig h a in th e M u n g e r a n d P a tn a d istricts. R esid en ts o f th ese villages held a m eet­ in g th e d a y a fte r th e searches a n d d ecid ed to m o v e e n m asse to W est P a k ista n if th e B ih ar g o v e rn m e n t did n o t end th e ir h a ra ss­ m en t. T h ere w ere sim ila r police searches in D esna, A sth a w a n , Dekuli a n d som e m o k a lla s (n eig h b o u rh o o d s) in B ih a rsh a rif.39 In O c to b e r th ere w a s a r e p o rt th a t ‘a b o u t o n e th o u sa n d ’ fam ilies w ere m o v in g every d ay , e ith e r fo r ‘th e flo o d -ra v a g e d E ast Bengal’, o r ‘th e sunsco rch ed W e ste rn P a k ista n ’, leav in g b eh in d th e ir u n so ld p ro p e r­ tie s.40 T h e p o st-A u g u st 1 9 4 7 m ig ra tio n s w e re a ls o a ttrib u te d to th e a c u te fo o d sh o rta g e in n o r th B ih ar, w h ich h ad a co m m o n fro n ­ tie r w ith E ast P a k ista n .41 By m id -Ju ly 1 9 4 7 , th e M o rn in g N e w s rep o rte d th a t 9 0 p e r c ent o f th e M u slim em ployees in cen tra lly -a d m in iste re d d e p a rtm e n ts in B ih ar h ad in d icated th e ir in te n tio n to leave fo r P ak istan . T h is in­ c lu d ed all m em b ers o f th e In d ia n Civil Service (ICS) serv in g in B ihar, ‘alm o st all’ in th e p o sta l a n d m ilitary a c co u n ts d e p a rtm e n ts, a n d ‘a b o u t 2 ,0 0 0 ’ em ployees serv in g a s teleg rap h ists a n d tic k e t co llecto rs 3 8 . N A R A , N N D 8 6 7 9 2 0 , B ox 5 0 1 8 , e nclosure w ith A m erican C onsul, D h a k a to D ep a rtm en t o f S tate, 5 J u n e 1959: m em o ra n d u m , ‘R efugees in E ast P akistan ’ p re p a re d by Sham s ul A lam K han, an em ployee o f th e E conom ic Section. 3 9 . M o rn in g N e w s, 2 7 A ugust 1947. 4 0 . Ibid., 24 O c to b e r 194 7 . T h e re p o rte r added his surprise a t th e governm en t d o in g n o th in g to reassure M uslim s a n d d issuade them from ‘h az ard in g a jo u r­ ney in to th e u n k n o w n land w hich c a n n o t a fter a ll be c om p a red to th eir sw eet B ihar to w hose greatness th e ir fo refa th e rs h a d c o n trib u te d th e ir fullest q u o ta ’. A lso, th a t H in d u s n o t buying a n y th in g belonging to M uslim s, even a t c h eap ­ est ra te s, a p p ea red to be ‘p a r t o f a n o ver-all p la n ’. 4 1 . M ushirul H asa n (1 9 9 7 :1 7 6 ). According to H asan m igrants from Bihar ‘totaled 4 -5 0 0 ,0 0 0 , although som e re tu rn e d to th e ir hom es in 1 9 5 0 -1 ’.

Negotiating Nations ♦ 13

in th e E ast In d ia n R ailw ay in th e D a n a p u r div isio n , as w ell as th e m ajo rity o f d riv ers a n d fitters. W h ile, m o st o f th em w ere said to h av e b een inclined to w a rd s K a ra c h i, ‘o n clim atic g ro u n d s ’, they w ere w illin g to serve w h e re v e r req u ired . In its v ersio n , a very large n u m b e r o f m id d le -c lass M u slim s w e re m ig ra tin g to S in d h , a n d w o rk e rs a n d lab o u re rs to E ast P a k ista n .42 T h e B ih ar go v ern m ent issued a c irc u la r in N o v e m b e r 1 9 4 8 say in g th a t w h ile it w as ‘u n ­ d e rsta n d a b le ’ th a t so m e g o v e rn m e n t serv an ts h ad sen t th e ir fam i­ lies o u tsid e th e In d ia n U n io n fo r th e ir ‘safety ’, b e fo re a n d a fte r p a r­ titio n , co n d itio n s h a d stab ilized since th e n . T h e re w a s, th erefo re, n o rea so n w h y g o v e rn m e n t serv an ts (gazetted, m in isterial o r o th e r ran k s) sh o u ld keep th e ir fam ilies in P ak istan . T h e y w e re directed to g et th e ir fam ilies b ack w ith in o n e m o n th . T h e c irc u la r specified w h o th e fam ily o f th e g o v e rn m e n t s e rv a n t w o u ld include: w ife/hus­ b a n d , a n d ch ild ren in clu d in g step ch ild ren ; b u t n o t a w ife/h u sb an d legally se p ara te d fro m th e g o v ern m en t s e rv a n t, o r a child o r ste p ­ child w h o w a s n o lo n g er d e p e n d en t o n th e g o v e rn m e n t s e rv a n t in a n y w a y , o r w h o se cu sto d y h a d been d ep riv ed o f b y law . C ases o f g o v ern m en t em ployees w h o failed to b rin g b ack th e ir fam ilies w ith in th e s tip u la te d p e rio d w ere to b e re p o rte d , to g eth e r w ith th e ir ex ­ p la n a tio n a n d th e rem a rk s o f th e d e p a rtm e n t h e a d s c o n c ern e d .43 T h e In d o -P ak p a s sp o rt a n d visa sch em e w a s in tro d u c ed o n 15 O c to b e r 1 9 5 2 .44 In 1 9 5 7 , citizens o f P ak istan cam e w ith in th e scope o f th e F o reig n ers’ A ct o f 1 9 4 6 a n d th e F o reig n ers’ O r d e r o f 1 9 4 8 , w h ich m ea n t th a t th e ir sta y in In d ia w as to b e reg u lated b y resid en­ tia l p e rm its. P a k ista n is, u n lik e o th e r fo reig n ers lik e th e G e rm a n s o r D u tc h , c o u ld e n te r In d ia o n a tw o -m o n th visa a n d th e n h av e th eir visa e x te n d e d fro m tim e to tim e, to a m ax im u m o f o n e y e a r, o n g ro u n d s o f h e a lth , d o m estic rea so n s, etc. T h e n o n w a rd s a rec o rd o f all in co m in g P ak istan is w as to b e m ain tain e d . P a k ista n i n a tio n a ls w h o h ad been in em p lo y m en t in In d ia even p rio r to th e in tro d u c tio n o f th e p a ssp o rt a n d visa system w e re a lso to ap p ly fo r p a ssp o rts

4 2 . M o rn in g N e w s, 19 July 1947. 4 3 . Im p o rta n t Circulars a n d O rders Issu e d b y th e Political D ep a rtm en t (Special Section , B ihar), n o . 2 2 9 6 2 8 -1 5 A (V I)/48-C , P a tn a , 2 2 N o v em b er 194 8 , chief secreta ry to all d e p artm en ts o f governm ent/all heads o f d e p artm ents/all com ­ m issioners o f d ivisions/IG , Police etc. 4 4 . Ibid., see n o . C /F3-601 l/G e n /5 7 -P a rt IV -8338-C , P a tn a , 12 A ugust 1 95 7 , B.K. D ubey, ad d itio n a l u n d er s ecretary, Political D e p artm e n t to all SPs.

14 * Partition and the South Asian Diaspora

a n d visas.45 T h e re w e re a ro u n d 8 0 ,0 0 0 P ak istan is in th e C alcu tta a re a a n d a to ta l o f a b o u t 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 o f th em in th e e a ste rn zo n e o f In d ia , well in to th e late fifties.46 As late a s D ecem b er 1 9 7 1 , th e P ak istan i hig h co m m issio n er in N e w D elhi w a s a u th o riz e d to issue d o c u m e n ts to ed u c atio n ally qualified In d ian s to m ig ra te to Pakistan. T h e less well o ff co ntinued to m ig ra te via R a ja sth a n in to S indh till th e 1 9 6 5 w a r, a n d until 1971 m ig ran ts to th e w est often m ad e th e jo u rn ey via E ast P akistan (Khalidi 1 9 9 7 : 4 1 ). A se le c tio n o f M u h a jir s to rie s fro m U rd u lite ra tu re n u a n c e o u r u n d e rsta n d in g o f th e circu m stan ces u n d e r w h ic h p eople left fo r P a k ista n . In A b d u s S a m ad ’s no v el, D o G a z Z a m e e n , w e are to ld th a t, ‘M u slim y o u th go in g in se arc h o f jo b s w e re lo o k ed a t w ith su sp icio n . A t a n in terv iew th ey co u ld give sa tisfa c to ry replies to a lm o st all th e q u estio n s b u t w ere c o m p letely stu m p ed by o n e q u estio n — ‘W h y d o n ’t y o u g o aw a y to P a k ista n ” ’.47 H is su b -sto ry o n H a m id a d d s a n o th e r dim en sio n . W o rk w as n o t co m in g his w ay a n d his fa th e r, a d e p u ty m in ister, refu sed to p u ll strin g s fo r him . H a m id ’s lo n g su lk e n d e d w h e n his g r a n d m o th e r, Bibi S a h e b a ’s sp e cia l m a id -se rv a n t’s s o n , C h a m u , m a d e a v isit to B ih ar fro m C alcu tta. C h a m u to o k H a m id to a re s ta u ra n t a n d o v e r egg p a k o ra s a n d coffee a sk ed him w h y h e h ad n o t co n sid ered go in g to Pak istan. W ith a rec o rd o f h av in g sen t ‘n o t h u n d red s, b u t th o u sa n d s’ o f y o u n g m en to P a k ista n o n gard a n ia (forged) p a ssp o rts, C h a m u p ro m ised him a d isc o u n t o n his usual fee o f R s 2 ,0 0 0 . A y e a r la te r H a m id left fo r E a st P a k ista n w ith a le tte r in tro d u c in g him to a c e rta in Badrul Islam a s C h a m u ’s sister’s so n . H a m id th o u g h t to h im self, ‘so he w as C h a m u ’s n ephew ! N o t th a t it m a tte re d , if h e co u ld c h a n g e his c o u n try , his n a tio n a lity , w h y c o u ld n ’t h e ch an g e fro m a sy ed za d a to a m u lla za d a V .48 T h e flipside o f this p h e n o m e n o n is c o m m o n p lace in p o p u la r retellings o f P a k ista n h av in g m ad e m any b o rd er-p d a r Syeds o f th e n o n -ashraf. W h e n C h a k k o ( A b d u r S h a k o o r ) m ig r a te d t o P a k is ta n in B a d iu z am a n ’s, ‘T h e A lien’, it w a s n o t b ecau se o f a n y ex p erien ce o f 4 5 . Ibid., Secret n o . C /F 3 -6 0 11/G en/57-6185-P t.-C , P a tn a , 10 J u n e 195 7 , U.K . G h o sh , a d d itio n a l se cretary, Political D e p artm e n t to all SPs, ‘Foreigners L aw (A m endm ent) A ct, 1957 a n d F oreigners (E xem ption) O rd e r, 1957: C o n tro l o f e n try in to , stay in a n d e x it from India o f P akistani n atio n als’. 4 6 . N A R A , N N D 8 6 7 4 1 4 , B ox 2 71 5 , clip from H industan Standard, 2 7 M ay 1959. 4 7 . I have used th e tra n sla tio n . See S am ad (1997: 60). 4 8 . Ibid.: 1 0 7 -1 7 .

Negotiating Nations ♦ 15

v io le n c e . H e h a d b e e n a w a y fro m h o m e , f irs t in H a z a r ib a g h , Jh u m rita la y a , a n d th en in C a lc u tta . W h en a letter b e a rin g th e Pak i­ s ta n p o s tm a rk reach ed his h o m e it b e c am e c le a r th a t he h a d ‘ac te d im pulsively, o n th e s p u r o f th e m o m e n t’, o u t o f ‘sheer th o u g h tle ss­ ness a n d n o t necessity’. Ilahi M a ste r su d d en ly a n n o u n c ed th a t he w a s g o in g to o p e n a ta ilo rin g s h o p in P a k ista n a n d w a n te d his w o rk e rs to g o w ith h im . C h a k k o w a s in a fix a n d h a d n o tim e to w rite h o m e fo r advice. N o r co u ld h e g et h im self to say n o to som e­ o n e h e h ad w o rk e d w ith fo r so long. W ith in fo u r d ays th ey landed in D h a k a in a hovel-like ro o m in Ilahi M a ste r’s b ro th e r-in -la w ’s h o u se , b ecau se a s h o p w as p ro v in g d ifficu lt to co m e by. T h e refrain in his letters w a s th a t h e felt lik e a n alien : ‘D acca is a nice city. It is full o f Bengalis. T h e y h a te u s. F ro m w h e re h av e w e co m e, they w a n t to k n o w [sic ]...T h e p e o p le h e re a re very d iffe re n t fro m us. T h e y sp e ak B engali. T h e y s ta r t m u tte rin g th e m o m e n t th ey set eyes o n us’. W h e n Ilahi M a ste r g o t a huge g o v ern m en t c o n tra c t, h e p ro m ­ ised to in crease th e ir salaries. C h a k k o felt q u ite c o m fo rta b le, b u t n ev er a t h o m e. H e p assio n ately m issed his m o h alla M u h a rra m a n d w as d isa p p o in te d to lea rn th a t th ere w a s g o in g to b e n o illu m in a­ tio n a t th e h ead o f th e p ro ce ssio n , a n d th a t his m o h alla h ad settled fo r a th ree-u n it b a n d . In th e p a s t he used to engage a fo u r-u n it b and. H a d he been a ro u n d h e w o u ld have collected funds fo r a g ran d show . T h e ch an g e in his citizenship sta tu s sa n k in on ly a couple o f y ears la te r w h en h e w as o n a visit h o m e. W h e n h e c o u ld n o t g et his visa e x te n d e d b y a n o th e r m o n th it h it him th a t Ilahi M a ste r h ad duped h im . H e h ad a sk ed him to fill th e p a s sp o rt fo rm w ith o u t tellin g him w h a t it w a s a b o u t. It w a s p ain fu l to d iscover th a t his g o in g aw a y h a d tu rn e d o u t to b e so d iffe re n t fro m th a t o f th e o th e rs w h o w ent o ff o n w o rk fro m his locality. H is old ch ild h o o d frien d , K haje Saheb, w a tc h ed C h a k k o w e ep in g b itte rly w h e n he left fo r P a k ista n a t th e end o f his sta y to ‘a n a lien lan d w h e re ev ery th in g w a s a n u n k n o w n en tity to him ’(M . H a s a n 1 9 9 5 : 2 1 4 - 2 7 ). W ritte n fro m th e perspective o f M u n n i Bitiya, U m m e U m m ara ’s ‘M o re Sinned A gainst T h a n Sinning’, gives us a ch ild ’s view o f a fam ily sw itching co u n tries, as it m oved fro m P atn a to S a n tah a r and th en to D h a k a . H e r fath er h ad sud d en ly an n o u n ced th a t th ey w ere m oving. H e c o u ld n o t send th em m o n ey fro m ‘th e n ew co u n try ’. H e said they h ad all b eco m e aliens w h ere th ey lived; th e e a rth n o longer b e lo n g e d to th em . H e r a m m a (m o th e r) w a s in a flo o d o f te a rs b ecause she w o u ld have to leave b eh in d h e r b ro th e rs a n d sisters, the fields, haveli, village a n d h e r p e o p le forever.

16 ♦ Partition and the South Asian Diaspora

T h a t w as p erh ap s th e first a n d last tim e Am m a had failed to have her ow n w ay ....W h en I saw h o w depressed Am m a w as, I couldn’t understand w hy Baba th o u g h t th a t his ow n hom e w as a place of exile....I w as puzzled a n d anxious. I w ondered how a w orld which w as so fam iliar had suddenly become a w orld o f strangers. After all Amma h ad n ’t changed, the house h ad n ’t changed, the city h ad n ’t changed! Besides, how had th e place w here Baba lived, a n d which we had never seen becom e o u r country?’ In E ast P a k ista n h e r b a d e b h a iya (elder b ro th e r) m arrie d h er Bengali frien d , P ak h i. H e w a n te d his ch ild ren to b e ta u g h t in Bengali to b eco m e ‘a p a r t o f th e so il’. T h o u g h h e sto o d by his m ig ra tio n decisio n , b y th en h e r b a b a (father) h a d b eg u n h a v in g several d o u b ts. H is ex p erien ce h a d ta u g h t him th a t, ‘even if w e ta k e r o o t in this soil, w e will alw ay s b e reg a rd e d as tra n sp la n ts. A g rafted tre e can n ev er b e reg a rd e d as a n y th in g else’. In th e c o n te x t o f th e em erg in g B an g lad esh m o v em en t his y o u n g e r s o n rem in d ed him th a t it w a s he w h o h a d u p ro o te d a flo u rish in g tree. T h e n ‘th e s to rm h a p p e n e d ’ in 1 9 7 1 . T h e ir h o u se w as se t o n fire. H e r fath e r’s w ish n o t to b e b u r­ ied th e re w a s g ran te d in a s tra n g e w ay: ‘N o t o n ly w a s his b o d y n o t b u ried , it w as n o t even enclosed in a coffin’. Pak h i a n d h e r children, to o , en d ed b u r n t u p (Bhalla 1 9 9 4 , V ol. 1: 1 0 -1 7 ). R efugees fro m E ast P a k ista n , u n lik e th o se fro m th e w est, did n o t flo o d in to In d ia in o n e h u g e w ave: ‘th ey ca m e so m etim es in su rg es b u t o fte n in b a re ly p e rc e p tib le trick les o v e r five d e c ad e s’ (C h a tte rji 2 0 0 1 : 7 4 ). It w a s largely th e sa m e sto ry fo r th o se w h o left In d ia fo r E ast P a k ista n till th e sixties. B etw een O c to b e r a n d N o v e m b e r 1 9 4 7 , refugees fro m B ih ar reach ed Jesso re, R ajsh ah i, D in a jp u r , B o g ra a n d K h u ln a a n d d e m a n d e d t h a t th e d is tr ic t a u th o ritie s a rr a n g e fo r th e ir r e h a b ilita tio n . R a ilw a y em p lo y ees w h o h a d o p te d fo r P a k ista n m ad e th e ir w a y to P a rb a tp u r a n d o th e r sta tio n s in th e R ajsh ah i division ‘in th o u sa n d s’.49 By m id-A pril 1 950, th ere w ere a to ta l o f o v e r 8 2 2 ,0 0 0 M u h a jirs in E ast P ak istan . T h e relief co m m issio n er believed th a t m o st, if n o t all, w o u ld ev en tu ally r e tu rn to th e ir h o m es in In d ia . T h is w a s based o n th e ‘p a th etically sm all e x te n t o f th e m o re p e rm a n e n t r e h a b ilita tio n ’. O n ly 7 ,5 0 0 M u h a jirs h a d b een settled o n lan d th ro u g h p ilo t schem es; a b o u t 5 0 0 fo u n d e m p lo y m en t in th e c o tto n m ills, a n d sev en ty -eig h t joined 4 9 . L /P & J/5 /3 2 1 , special re p o rts f o r th e fo rtn ig h ts en d in g 2 6 O c to b e r a n d 2 7 N o v em b er 1947.

Negotiating Nations ♦ 17

g o v e rn m e n t offices a n d th e D h a k a un iv ersity . In e a rly 1 9 5 0 th ere w ere a b o u t 1 5 0 ,0 0 0 p e rso n s in v a rio u s refugee cam p s. O n a n a v e r­ age th e re w e re a b o u t 5 0 0 d aily a rriv als in D h a k a o f w h o m a b o u t 1 5 0 reach ed b y a ir a n d th e rem a in d e r b y tra in .s0 In early 1 9 5 0 , o fficials o f th e P a k ista n R e h a b ilita tio n Financial C o rp o ra tio n w e n t ac ro ss fro m K arach i to E ast P a k ista n to c o n su lt w ith th e p ro v in cial relief m in ister a b o u t se ttin g u p refugee c o lo ­ nies, o n e o f w h ic h , it w a s decided, w o u ld co m e u p a t M ir p u r n ear D h a k a .51 By M a rc h th ere w ere a b o u t a d ozen refugee cam p s in D haka. A big tan n e ry w a s to b e sta rte d to em ploy m o re th a n 2 ,0 0 0 p ersons, th e p u b lic w o rk s d e p a rtm e n t w a s se t to a b s o rb refugee tech n ician s a n d th e g o v e rn m e n t p r o p o s e d to s e t u p sm a ll-sc ale in d u strie s th ro u g h o u t th e pro v in ce.52 O f th e 4 8 2 ,0 0 0 refugees in E ast P akistan in e a rly A p ril, o v e r 1 1 5 ,0 0 0 w ere stay in g in g o v e rn m e n t-ru n cam ps. By th en th ere w ere c a m p s in every d istric t, th e larg est n u m b e r o f refugees (5 9 ,0 0 0 ) w ere c lu stered in R a n g p u r.53 Even in M a y 1 9 5 0 , on ly a little o v e r 1 p e r c en t o f th e 9 2 0 ,0 0 0 refugees h a d registered w ith th e reg io n al em p lo y m en t e x ch an g e. M a n y refugees w e re sm all shopkeepers, h aw k ers a n d rickshaw -pullers. T h ere w ere also unskilled in d u stria l w o rk e rs w h o h a d left th e ir jo b s in m ills a n d facto ries a n d w ere n o t to o ho p efu l o f finding em ploym ent. T h e M in o rities C o m ­ m ission to u re d th e cro w d e d refugee a re a s o f M y m en sin g h , p e rs u a d ­ in g th e M u h a jirs to r e tu rn to th e ir o rig in al hom es. O n ly a ro u n d M a y 1 9 5 0 did D h a k a a irp o rt lo o k less c ro w d e d , ‘less like a th ird class p la tfo rm o f a railw a y s ta tio n a n d m o re lik e a n a ir p o r t’. But m an y refugees w ere still ro u g h in g it o u t in railw a y w a g o n s, o n s ta ­ tio n p la tfo rm s a n d in refu g ee c a m p s.54 U ntil th e e n d o f 1 949, th e n u m b er o f refugees fro m B ihar and W est Bengal in E ast P akistan w a s ‘n o t large’. But th e flo w suddenly to o k a ‘se rio u s tu r n ’ in F e b ru ary 1 9 5 0 .55 T h e re w a s rec ip ro c a l 5 0 . L /P & J/5/326, E ast Bengal W eekly R ep o rts from UK D eputy H igh C om m is­ sioner, D acca, no s. 15 a n d 1 6 , p erio d e n d in g 13 and 2 0 A pril 1950. 5 1 . Ibid., w eekly re p o rt n o . 5 , p e rio d en d in g 2 F eb ru ary 1950. 5 2 . Ibid., w eekly re p o rt n o . 1 2 , period en d in g 2 3 M a rc h 1950. 5 3 . Ib id ., w eekly r e p o r t n o . 14, period ending 6 A pril 1950. T h re e reh a b ilitatio n p ilo t schem es w ere located in M ym ensingh, B ogra a n d th e C h ittag o n g H ill T racts. 5 4 . Ibid., w eekly re p o rt n o s. 19 a n d 2 0 , perio d s e n d in g 11 a n d 18 M ay 1950. 5 5 . N A R A , N N D 8 4 2 9 0 9 , Box 5 5 5 5 , 'T h ird Y ear o f R efugee P roblem ’: enclosure 1 w ith F oreign S ervice o f th e USA, K arachi to D e p a rtm e n t o f S tate, 12 A ugust

18 ♦ Partition and the South Asian Diaspora

violence in M u rsh id a b ad , C a lc u tta , H o w ra h , 2 4 Parg an as, N a d ia , C o o c h B ehar a n d in B arisal a n d K h u ln a. ‘W h erev er th e refugees a rriv e d th ey c a s t th e ir s h a d o w s o n in te r-c o m m u n ity re la tio n s , p ro v o k in g violence. T h e arriv al o f M u slim refugees in E ast P akistan fro m A ssam , W e st Bengal a n d B ihar h a d sim ilar effects’. O n c e again in 1 9 6 4 as new s o f violence in K h u ln a filtered in to W e st Bengal, C alcu tta a n d B u rd w an tu rn e d violent. A ccording to th e P akistan presi­ d e n t, 2 0 ,0 0 0 refugees crossed o v e r fro m W e st Bengal in to E ast Paki­ sta n as a resu lt o f th e co m m u n al carn ag e. T h e re w a s m o re violence s o o n a fte r, in N a ra y a n g a n j a n d D h a k a , a n d in M a rc h 1 9 6 4 , in R o u rk ela a n d Ja m sh e d p u r.56 By Ja n u a ry 1 9 6 4 , a b o u t 2 0 0 Pakistanis em ployed a t th e C alcu tta p o rt resigned a n d m ad e p lan s to re tu rn to Pakistan. M o re th a t 1 0 ,000 persons representing a b o u t 7 0 ,0 0 0 family m em b ers fro m C a lc u tta a n d su rro u n d in g are a s p u t in m ig ra tio n requests.57 T h ere w as a p ercep tio n th a t p a rt o f th e tro u b le in East P ak istan lay in th e tensions betw een Bengali a n d Bihari M uslim s. Bihari M uslim s a tta c k ed n o t on ly H in d u s b u t also Bengali M uslim s durin g th e co m m u n al violence.58 A ccording to th e e d ito r o f Pakistan O b server, th e B iharis w ere largely resp o n sib le fo r th e tro u b le in D h a k a -N a ray a n g a n j. In his view, they h ad n o t forg o tten th e violence o f th e H in d u s th a t h ad driv en th em in to E ast P ak istan in 1 9 4 7 and lo st n o tim e in atta c k in g th e H in d u s.59

56. 57.

58. 59.

1950: R eview o f th e Refugee Problem . A ccording to th is rep o rt, ‘n o less th a n 1 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 refugees’ crossed th e b o rd er th a t m o n th , as a result o f large-scale d istu rb a n ce s in W e st Bengal. A . G h o sh (1 9 9 8 : chs 3 , 4 ); a lso see C h a tte rji (2 0 0 5 : 2 2 8 -3 0 ). N A R A , N N D 9 5 9 0 0 0 , R G 5 9 , B ox 2 2 8 1 ,3 1 Jan u ary 1964, A m erican em bassy to D e p a rtm e n t o f State. W h e n th e K hulna refugees arrived in W est Bengal th ere w as w idespread a rso n a n d lo o tin g o f M uslim o w n e d hom es a n d shops. T h e violence also sp re ad a ro u n d th e H in d u refugee pockets in p a rts o f 24 P arganas a n d N ad ia districts. Ibid., B ox 2 2 9 3 , A -l 137, enclosure w ith 8 M ay 1964: c o nfidential, N ew D elhi to S tate D e partm ent. Ib id ., B ox 2 5 5 2 , enclosure 2 , A m consul D acca to D ep a rtm en t o f S tate, 10 F ebruary 196 4 , M em o ran d u m o f C o n v ersatio n : P a rticip a n ts: A bdus Salam , ed ito r, P akistan O bserver (D acca) a n d J o h n F . M c je n n e tt, J r., A m erican C on ­ sul a n d K enneth E. B lock, A m erican Vice C onsul. Place: office o f P akistan O bserver. Salam m entioned in passin g t h a t ‘W est P a k ista n i businessm en o p ­ e ra tin g in D acca a n d N ara y a n g a n j w ere enco u rag in g tro u b le because they w ere interested in having m o re B ihari lab o u rers in th eir m ills. T hey w an ted th is because th e y regarded th e Biharis as m o re docile th a n th e Bengalis’.

Negotiating Nations ♦ 19

T h e B iharis w h o m ad e it to E ast P ak istan fo u n d th a t an ch o rin g th ere w as a n uphill task . O n e o f th em w ro te a b o u t th e larg e n u m b er o f Bihari refugees ‘p o u rin g in to D acca’ a fte r h av in g been ‘driv en o u t o f th e ir o w n h o m e p ro v in ce’. B ut th ey fo u n d m iddlem en in th e city a ‘g rea t nuisance’. T h e refugees w ere b ein g co m p elled to p ay salam i o f an y th in g betw een Rs 4 ,0 0 0 to Rs 5 ,0 0 0 fo r a sm all ro o m o r house, in ad d itio n to th e ren t o r price. ‘Som etim es all th e c ap ital is sp en t in giving salam i, leaving p ractically n o th in g to c a rry o u t even sm all businesses fo r th eir m ain ten an ce’.60 O th e rs h a d to h a n d le ‘Bengali provincialism ’ in th eir w o rk p lace.61 A b d u r R afay D esnavi felt sh at­ tered o n jo u rn ey in g fro m D esna in P a tn a d istrict to C h ittag o n g , only to b e faced w ith a B engal-for-Bengalis a ttitu d e a n d seeing Biharis reg a rd e d a s blo o d su ck in g , aliens a n d foreigners w h o w o u ld so o n have to m ak e w ay fo r th e ‘ch ild ren o f th e soil’. M an y considered retu rn in g to In d ia.62 T h e M o rn in g N e tv s ag ain w ro te a lo n g ed ito rial th a t ‘dejected E astern P ak istan citizens’ h ad w ritte n to th e new sp a­ p e r, ‘n a rra tin g tales o f m isery, th e indignities a n d day to d ay harass­ m e n t th ey face[d ] in E a s t B en g al’s to w n s sim p ly b e c a u se th ey h appen[ed] to b e u p -co u n try M uslim s’. R eaders w ere rem in d ed th at E ast Bengal’s sacrifices fo r th e P ak istan cau se p aled in to insignifi­ can ce befo re th a t o f B ihar a n d UP. It a lso trie d to so u n d reassu rin g b y p o in tin g o u t th a t th e stu d en ts o f D h ak a a n d go v ern m en t em ploy­ ees did n o t rep resen t all M uslim s in Bengal w h o w ere ‘gen ero u s’, and th a t provincialism w as in a n y case a n un-Islam ic th in g .63 In th e w est, refugee co lo n ies w ith B ritish In d ia n p ro v in cial p re ­ fixes m u sh ro o m ed all o v e r S in d h .64 B ut th ere w ere m isgivings a b o u t th is tre n d . M ir M . A zam o f th e M u h a jir N a tio n a l G u a rd s m ad e a sta te m e n t th a t h e w a s a g h a st a t p e o p le d e scrib in g them selves as P u n jab is, S indhis, Bengalis a n d Balochis. H e th o u g h t th a t th e set­ tin g u p o f B ih ar, D elh i, P u n ja b , K h o ja a n d M e m o n co lo n ies w o u ld 6 0 . N A R A , N N D , B ox 2 5 5 2 , 9 5 9 0 0 0 , R G 5 9 , B ox 2 2 8 1 ,1 O cto b er 1947, letter to the e d itor, from ‘A B ihari R efugee’, D haka. 6 1 . Ibid., 6 S eptem ber 1 9 4 7 , le tte r to th e e d ito r from a ‘N on-B engali M uslim ’, C h itta g o n g , m en tio n e d th a t th e railw ay s ta ff w ere being ‘victim ized by the M uslim Bengalis in general’, a n d w an ted the M uslim League to intervene on th eir behalf. 6 2 . Ibid., le tter t o th e ed ito r, 2 3 S eptem ber 1947. 6 3 . Ibid., 9 S eptem ber 1947. 6 4 . See K arachi Pictorial G u id e, K arachi, 198 3 , fo r the lo c atio n s o f B ihar and S her Shah colonies a m o n g o thers.

20 ♦ Partition and the South Asian Diaspora

leave n o sp ace f o r th o se in w h ic h every M u slim , ‘irresp ectiv e o f th e p ro v in c e he com es fro m co u ld lay a claim in his c a p ac ity a s a M u s­ lim ’.65 In itially , th e M u h a jirs ten d e d to o rg an iz e them selves a ro u n d th e b o n d s o f th e pro v in ces th ey h a d m ig ra te d fro m . In early 1 9 4 8 , a m eetin g o f B ihari refugees in K a ra c h i p assed a reso lu tio n ag ain st th e jo in t e sta te o fficer fo r d isc rim in atin g a g a in st th em b y o rd erin g th e p u llin g d o w n o f so m e ho u ses in th e B ih ar C o lo n y th a t h ad been s a n ctio n ed by th e S indh g o v e rn m e n t.66 T w o m o n th s late r, a b o u t 5 0 0 B iharis fro m all o v e r K arach i held a m eetin g in th e B ih ar C o lo n y a n d decided to dissolve th e A n ju m an -e -M u h a jarin -e -B ih a r a n d set u p a n e w , cen tral b o d y rep resen tin g all th e Bihari refugees in S in d h .67 A ro u n d this tim e, th e Ja m iy a tu l M u h a ja rin m et th e M u h a jir p rim e m in iste r, L ia q u at Ali K h a n , a n d gave him a m e m o ran d u m fo r rec­ o g n itio n a s th e sole refugee o rg a n iz a tio n in P a k ista n a n d d e m an d ed th a t ‘p ro v in cialism ’, in a n y fo rm , b e m ad e a penal o ffence.68 L iaq u at Ali m ad e a n a p p e al to e n d th e d istin c tio n b etw een M u h a jirs a n d Sindhis a n d ask ed th e Sindhis to ac ce p t th e M u h a jirs a s th e ir o w n , b ecau se th ey h a d n o h o m e, o th e r th a n Sindh. H e w a s o p tim istic th a t b y th e n e x t g e n e ra tio n th e tw o w o u ld h av e in term in g led co m ­ pletely. H is m essage w as th a t P a k ista n w as m ea n t to b e th e h o m e o f all th e M u slim s o f th e su b c o n tin e n t a n d n o t m erely o f th e M u s ­ lim s o f th e M u slim m ajo rity pro v in ces. In a n a d d re ss to th e Sindhi w a d e ra s in H y d e ra b a d , L ia q u a t Ali said th a t P a k ista n h ad been m ad e b y th e sacrifices o f th e M u slim m in o rity pro v in ces, th o u g h M u slim s fro m th e m ajo rity p ro v in ces’, to o , h ad c o n trib u te d to th e m o v em e n t.69 As f a r as J in n a h w as co n cern ed , h e co n sid ered it a ‘cu rse ’ th a t su b c o n tin e n ta l M uslim s th o u g h t in term s o f b ein g Sindhi, P u n ja b i, P a th a n a n d D elh i M u slim s,70 a n d in M a rc h 1948 he sp oke o u t a g a in st th e ‘p o iso n o f p ro v in c ialism ’ in a speech in D h a k a .71 It a p p e are d to him as th o u g h th e P ak istan is h ad fo rg o tte n th e lesson th ey w e re ta u g h t 1 ,3 0 0 y ears a g o , th a t th ey w ere all o ne. If I m ay point out, you w ere all outsiders here. W ho are the original inhabitants o f Bengal? N o t those w ho are living here. So w h at is the 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71.

D aum , 2 J u n e 1948. Ibid., 6 M a rc h 1948. Ibid., 19 M ay 1948. Ibid., 2 M a y 1948. Ibid., 7 a n d 9 J u n e 1948. Ibid., 26 Ja n u a ry 1948. Ibid., 2 0 M arc h 1948.

Negotiating Nations ♦ 21

use o f saying ‘we are Bengalis, or Sindhis or Pa than or Punjabis’?.. .You belong to a nation now . You have carved o u t a territory, a vast terri­ tory, it is all yours. It does n o t belong to a Punjabi, o r a Sindhi, a Pathan o r a Bengali, it is y o u rs...if you w an t to build up yourself into a nation, for G od’s sake give u p this provincialism.72 N o t lo n g a fte r, in resp o n se to a civic a d d re ss in Q u e tta , h e ag ain rep e a ted th a t th e d isco u rse o f ‘m u lk a n d n o n - m u lk ’ w a s u n accep t­ a b le to him . As P ak istan is th ey o u g h t to ‘feel, behave a n d a c t a n d ...b e k n o w n as P ak istan s a n d n o th in g else’.73 B ut th a t w a s n o t to be. By th e e n d o f th e fifties th ere w ere a to ta l o f 1 0 0 ,6 2 3 fam ilies w ith o u t sh e lte r in K arach i. T h e larg est n u m b er, 4 4 ,5 1 5 , w ere fro m UP; th ere w ere 6 ,3 5 2 fro m B om bay, 4 ,3 9 2 fro m C e n tra l Provinces, 6 8 2 fro m B ihar a n d 5 1 1 fro m M a d ra s.74 O u t o f th e 4 ,2 9 7 residents in th e B ihar C o lo n y , 2 ,5 3 8 w ere m en a n d 1 ,7 1 4 w ere w o m en . S ta­ tistics p o in t to a m ix ed o c c u p atio n al b rea k d o w n . In th e B ihar C olony th ere w ere 2 2 4 sem i-g o v ern m en t a n d p riv a te se rv a n ts, 1 7 4 unskilled lab o u re rs, th irty -e ig h t rick sh aw -p u llers, th irty -tw o p e tty b u siness­ m e n , tw e n ty - o n e ta ilo rs , th ir te e n w a te r c a rr ie r s , tw e lv e s h o e ­ m ak e rs, a n d eig h t w eav ers, a m o n g o th ers. T h e S her S h ah C o lo n y resid en ts in clu d ed co t-m ak e rs, c o o k s, a b o o k b in d e r a n d a b ro k er. In th e late fifties, 5 4 5 o f th e B ih ar C o lo n y fam ilies w ere living in jh uggies a n d 2 8 6 in k u tc h a stru c tu re s, a n d o f th e 3 3 5 fam ilies in th e Sher S h a h C o lo n y , 2 2 1 w ere in k u tc h a stru c tu re s a n d eighty-six in s e m i-p e rm a n e n t o n e s.75 R eg io n al a n d e th n ic issues have been in teg ral to th e p o litics of P a k ista n fro m th e very b eginning (S arah A nsari 1 9 9 8 :1 0 1 ; P. G h o sh 19 9 5 : 133). As a resu lt, th e b o u n d a rie s o f M u h a jir id en tity have sh ifted c o n sta n tly , a s a lso o f th e ir allies a n d ad v ersaries. T h e ir rela­ tive p o sitio n to o has flu c tu a te d (T an a n d K ud aisy a 2 0 0 0 : 2 3 5 -3 7 ). In itially , th e late fo rtie s’ use o f th e te rm M u h a jir fo r refugees fro m In d ia w a s m e a n t to e n list th e s u p p o rt o f th o se a lre a d y living in th e 7 2 . Ibid., 23 M arc h 1948. 7 3 . Ibid., 16 J u n e 1948. 7 4 . N A R A , N N D 8 6 7 9 2 0 , R G 5 9 , B ox n o . 5 0 1 8 , Lt. C ol. N az ir A hm ed, Survey o f Shelterless P ersons in K arachi, 1959, p . 12. T he n u m b e r o f displaced fam i­ lies from D elhi sto o d a t 15 ,5 8 8 , E a st P unjab a t 8 ,9 6 3 , those from th e w estern India states a t 7,3 6 5 a n d R a jp u ta n a a t 7 ,0 1 2 . 7 5 . Ibid., p p . 2 3 , 3 1 , 3 7 , 5 8 - 5 9 , 6 6 - 6 7 a n d 9 5 ; p . 5 2 lists o u t o th e r colonies w ith betw een 1 -1 5 Bihari families.

22 * Partition and the South Asian Diaspora

a re a s th a t becam e P a k ista n . L a ter, w ith th e h a rd e n in g o f e th n ic b o u n d a rie s, a ‘revised c a te g o ry ’ o f th e term c a m e in to use, in co rp o ­ ra tin g th e U rd u -s p e a k in g M u h a jirs , b u t e x c lu d in g o th e r e th n ic g ro u p s sim ilarly u p ro o te d a ro u n d p a rtitio n . T h u s, w ith in a few years o f p a rtitio n , differences b etw een P a k ista n ’s refugees w e re a p p a re n t a s th e d istan ce g rew b etw een th e U rd u -sp ea k in g m ig ra n ts a n d a Pakistani state w hich cam e to b e associated w ith th e province o f Punjab (S. A nsari 19 9 8 : 91). T h re e -fo u rth s o f all th e M u h a jirs, a d d in g up to 4 .7 m illion, w ere P unjabis a n d they rap id ly d ro p p ed th e M u h a jir label because fo r th em h ijra t did n o t im ply a linguistic o r cu ltu ral change. N o r did it fo r th e K h o jas o r M em o n s, as K arachi used to be p a rt o f th e Bom bay Presidency in th e p a s t (T alb o t 1998: 109). T aj-u l H ash m i has described th e B iharis in B angladesh a s ‘victims o f tw o d iv erg en t stre a m s o f n atio n alism — th e P a k ista n i fro m 1947 to 1 9 7 1 , a n d th e B engali/B angladeshi fro m 1971 to th e p re s e n t’. T r a c in g th e e x o d u s o f th e M u s lim s fro m B ih a r, U P a n d W e st Bengal to th e killings o f 1 9 4 6 - 4 7 , h e lo o k s a t w h y th e ‘B ih ari’, U rd u -sp eak in g M u slim refugees w h o a d d e d u p to m o re th a n a m il­ lio n , did n o t in te g rate in th e ir ‘a d o p te d h o m e ’. In h is an aly sis, ‘th e b u lk o f th e “ B ihari” refugees w ere m isguided b y th eir W est Pakistani p a tro n s a n d th e ir local non -B en g ali ag e n ts’, w h o a lie n a te d th em fro m th e B engalis in E ast P a k ista n . A c c o rd in g to H a sh m i, since m o st o f th e refugees w e re B ihari M u slim s fro m B ih ar a n d C a lc u tta , all o f th em ca m e to b e collectively called ‘B iharis’. M a n y o f th em w ere sm all tra d e rs a n d m echanics. O th e rs w ere g o v ern m en t officials a n d c le rk s, tea c h e rs a n d p ro fe ssio n a ls a n d skilled w o rk e rs in th e railw ay s, m ills a n d facto ries. By th e early six ties, a lm o s t all o f th em h a d been p ro v id ed w ith c h e a p h o u sin g in refugee co lo n ies in D h ak a (M irp u r a n d M u h a m m a d p u r), C h itta g o n g , S a id p u r, R a n g p u r a n d o th e r p a rts o f n o rth e rn a n d w e stern E ast P a k ista n . T h o se w h o w ere b e tte r o ff lived in p riv a te residences in D h a k a , C h itta g o n g , K h u ln a, Sylhet a n d o th e r b ig g er to w n s.76 In th is ov erv iew , th e P a k ista n i ru lin g a n d b u siness elite iso lated th e ‘B iharis’ fro m th e B engalis. H a sh m i arg u es th a t th e W e st Pak i­ s ta n is b eh av ed a s th o u g h th ey w e re a rac ia lly a n d in tellectu ally su p e rio r rac e , w ith a d iv in e m a n d a te to ru le E ast P ak istan . And

7 6 . See H ashm i (1998: 3 8 7 - 8 8 ). H ash m i’s details are based on T h e Biharis in Bangladesh, M in o rity R ights G ro u p , R e p o rt n o . 11, fo u rth e d itio n , L ondon, 1982.

Negotiating Nations ♦ 23

th a t th e u p p e r ech elo n s o f th e ‘B iharis’ believed th a t th e ir existence d ep en d ed o n th e go o d w ill o f th e P a k ista n i elite. T h is w a s w h y they jo in e d th e ‘a n ti-E a st P a k ista n i a n d p ro -W e s t P a k ista n i s tre a m , m o b iliz in g th e h a lf-e d u c a te d o r illite ra te , p o o r e r w o rk in g class sections o f th e “ B iharis” a g a in st th e ir Bengali n e ig h b o u rs’. O n sev­ eral o ccasio n s, th e ‘B ihari’ m ill-w o rk e rs a t N a ra y a n g a n j, D h a k a , K h u ln a a n d C h itta g o n g p a rtic ip a te d in a n ti-B e n g a li c o m m u n a l rio ts th a t w ere sc rip ted b y ‘th e ir P a k ista n i m aste rs’ in th e fifties a n d sixties. M o s t ‘B iharis’ believed th a t a s U rd u -sp ea k e rs th ey w ere n o t on ly b e tte r P ak istan is th a n th e ir Bengali n eig h b o u rs, b u t also racially su p e rio r to th em : ‘T h ey reg a rd e d them selves as im p o rta n t p a rtn e rs o f th e P u n ja b i-U rd u -sp e a k in g o lig a rch y o f P a k ista n a n d accep ted th e W est P a k ista n i ru lin g a n d b u siness elite as th e ir sole p a tro n s , gu id es a n d p ro te c to rs ’.77 B ut th e re is a n o th e r side to th e sto ry th a t c a n b e p ieced to g eth e r fro m lite ra tu re , n e w sp a p e rs a n d th e d isco u rse o f g ro u p s focusing o n w o rk in g o u t th e ‘in te g ra tio n ’ o f th e M u h a jirs in P ak istan . In ‘D o G a z Z a m e e n ’ a w o m a n tells H a m id , M ian , n o Bengali can ow n you a t heart. H e can’t be one w ith you. But am ong them selves they a re a s thick as thieves. You d o n ’t know the am o u n t o f suffering we had to undergo a n d th e privations we had to face. W e w ere beleaguered, looted a n d th ro w n o u t o f our country. Pakistan held o u t such rosy hopes before us. It w as our E ldorado. But there w as n o Pakistan here. Only Bengalis sw arm ing in all directions. H e r h u sb a n d sa id th a t in c o n tra s t to E ast P a k ista n , every Bihari living in W e st P a k ista n w as h a p p y a n d secure: ‘H e feels h e is living in P arad ise. N o t to talk o f jo b s, th ese B iharis have th e b est o f every­ th in g — h o u ses, lan d s, p ro p erty . E v erything’. H a m id c o n clu d ed th a t th e m a in g ro u se o f th e B iharis w as th a t u n lik e th e a n sa rs in M e d in a , th e Bengalis h a d d o n e little to acco m m o d ate th em : ‘T h e sig h t o f th e refugees o f W e st P a k ista n gave th em a sense o f in ferio rity . P erh ap s it w a s th is in ferio rity co m p le x th a t w as n o w m an ifestin g itself in th e fo rm o f h a tre d ’ (A bdus S am ad 1 9 9 7 : 1 2 5 -2 6 ). O r c o n sid e r th e o u tb u rs t o f M u h a m m a d A sg h a r A li, a s tu d e n t w h o felt h e w as tre a te d sh a b b ily a t th e C h itta g o n g general p o s t office a n d tau n te d fo r b ein g a n U rd u -sp ea k e r. H e w ish ed to k n o w if it w as ‘a crim e ’ to 7 7 . Ibid.: 3 9 0 -9 1 .

24 * Partition and the South Asian Diaspora

sp e ak in U rd u in P ak istan : ‘I w a n t to k n o w in w h ic h c o u n try sh o u ld w e sp e ak U rd u ? ’.78 H e still h a d to lea rn his e th n ic lessons. A ro u n d 1 9 6 6 th e re w e re ru m o u rs in D h a k a th a t o n e o f th e re a ­ so n s b e h in d th e d ifficu lty in g e ttin g a ir tick ets to W e st P a k ista n w a s th e flight o f non-B engali resid en ts o f C h itta g o n g , in th e afterm a th o f a r io t in M ay . T h is w a s c o n firm ed b y th e U rd u m agazine, P a ya m -e-M a sh riq , p u b lish e d fro m C h itta g o n g . Its 2 2 Ju ly articles in d ic a te d th a t th e E ast P a k ista n A sso ciatio n h a d been reo rganized to p ro te c t th e in te re sts o f th e B iharis a g a in s t d isc rim in a tio n by B engalis. T h is w a s th e refra in o f th e ed ito ria l: ‘T o co m e to Pak i­ s ta n , refugees left e v ery th in g . N o w th ey a re called ‘B iharis’ (o u tsid ­ ers). A lso, p e o p le th in k th a t th ese m en , w h o lo st ev ery th in g to settle in P a k ista n , a re enem ies to th e s ta te ’. T h e A sso ciatio n w a s m ea n t to give sh elter ‘to all th e M u h a ja rin ’, m ain ly to th o se w h o w ere ‘still co m in g in fro m In d ia ’, a n d to o p p o se th o se in te n d in g to se p a ­ r a te E ast fro m W est P a k ista n . B asically, ‘to a c q u ire th e rig h ts o f n a tiv e -b o rn in h a b ita n ts o f P a k ista n ’.79 It w a s th e term s o f a n c h o rin g in th e P a k ista n h o m ela n d th a t w ere a t issue, a n d eq u ally , th e s ta tu s o f th o se w h o h a d m o v ed to P a k ista n fro m p ro v in ces in p re -1 9 4 7 In d ia w h e re th ey w e re in a m in o rity . A case in p o in t is th e p rin te d p a p e r s u b m itte d by th e E ast P a k ista n In te g ratio n L eague to A y u b K h an o n th e o c c asio n o f th e m eetin g o f th e P a k ista n M u slim L eague w o rk in g co m m ittee o n 1 7 N o v e m b e r 1 9 6 7 .80 S. R a h m a tu lla h b e lo n g ed to th e w e ll-k n o w n N e o ra fam ily o f B ih ar a n d w a s g ra n d -n e p h e w o f Ali Im am a n d A b d u l Aziz. H e h a d seen several w aves o f refugees u p close, b o th as c o llecto r, M id n a p u r, in 1 9 4 6 - 4 7 , a n d a s d istric t m ag istra te , D h a k a , in 1 9 4 7 . T h e In te g ra tio n L eague h a d a b ra n c h in W e st P ak istan a n d a im e d a t th e g r a d u a l d is a p p e a ra n c e o f th e M u h ja ir- a n s a r d istin c tio n b y e n su rin g th a t th e M u h a jirs w ere tre a te d ‘like o th e r

7 8 . N A R A , N N D 9 5 9 0 0 0 , B ox n o . 2 5 4 6 , 12 A ugust 196 6 . A m erican C onsu l G eneral, D acca to D e p a rtm e n t o f State: letter in ‘T h e U nity o f C h itta g o n g ’, 10 A ugust 1966. 7 9 . Ibid., 2 A ugust 196 6 , A m erican C onsul, D acca to D e p artm e n t o f S tate. H is ‘com m ent’ n o ted th a t these articles w e re ‘y e t a n o th e r evidence o f th e deep sea te d a n d w ell fo u n d ed insecurity o f th e non-B engali co m m u n ity in E ast P akistan’. N o details o f th e rio t in C h ittag o n g a re m entioned. 8 0 . W h a t follow s is based on S. R ah m a tu llah , ex-ICS (m em ber, P akistan M uslim League w o rk in g c om m ittee a n d pre sid en t, E a st P a k ista n In teg ra tio n League). See R a h m atu lla h (1967: 1 9 -2 5 ). I am than k fu l to R eza Sami fo r th is booklet.

Negotiating Nations ♦ 25

citizen s’. Its b ro a d a p p ro a c h w a s to insist o n e q u a l o p p o rtu n itie s, irresp ectiv e o f ‘m o th e r to n g u e , sc rip t, c u ltu re , p ro v in c e o f o rig in o r b irth p la c e o f th e ir p a re n ts ’. It a lso m ea n t to fo cu s o n co m p letin g th e re h a b ilita tio n o f th o se w h o c a m e in to E ast P a k ista n betw een 1 9 4 7 a n d 1 9 6 4 , a n d even a fte r th a t y ear. T h is in itiativ e lo o k ed to A y u b K h an fo r s u p p o rt a n d hinged o n a n ex ten siv e rec o u n tin g o f th e h o rrib le d im en sio n s o f th e 1 9 4 6 r io t in B ih ar. T w en ty o f th e fo rty -o n e pag es in th e b o o k let c a rrie d a c co u n ts o f th e violence by Francis T u k e r, G .O .C ., E astern C o m m a n d , a n d th e B ihar Provincial M u slim League. J in n a h w a s q u o te d a s h a v in g said o n 3 J u n e 1 9 4 7 th a t h e h a d n ev er d re a m t th a t P a k ista n w o u ld b eco m e a rea lity in his lifetim e, a n d it w as th e ‘tra g e d y o f B ih ar’ th a t h ad b ro u g h t it in to being. R a h m a tu lla h in sisted th a t th e L a h o re re so lu tio n o f 2 3 M a rc h 1 9 4 0 w as a ‘trip a rtite ’ h o m ela n d pledge. T h e re w ere ‘th re e p a rties to th e reso lu tio n ’: th e M uslim League headed b y Jin n a h , th e M uslim m ajo rity p ro v in ces, rep re se n te d b y Fazlul H u q , a n d th e M u slim m in o rity p ro v in ces rep resen ted b y K h aliq u zzam an . H e recalled th a t th e L ah o re reso lu tio n w as su p p o rte d b y five o th ers fro m th e M uslim m ajo rity p ro v in ces a n d seven m em b ers fro m th e M u slim m in o rity pro v in ces. Evidently, w ithout contem plating a wholesale transfer o f population, there w as to be a hom eland no t only for th e M uslim s o f the prov­ inces in w hich they were in the m ajority bu t also for the M uslim s of th e provinces in w hich they w ere in the m inority. Reading between the lines o f the resolution, the dem anded hom eland w as to give equal citizenship to such M uslim s o f th e H in d u m ajority provinces as w ould be forced to m igrate to it (my emphasis). It w a s th e p ledge o f th e reso lu tio n th a t m ad e M u slim s o f th e m in o rity provinces s u p p o rt th e d em an d fo r P ak istan a n d suffer heavy c asu alties a n d losses fo r its ach iev em en t. M in o rity -p ro v in c e M u s­ lim s felt th a t if th e situ a tio n d e te rio ra te d a t a n y p a rtic u la r p lace o r a re a in In d ia , th ey w o u ld g et n o t o n ly te m p o ra ry sh e lte r, ‘b u t p e r­ m a n e n t c itizen sh ip ’ in th e ‘n ew c o u n try ’. T h e y w o u ld be e q u a l p a rt­ ners w ith th o se in th e M u slim m ajo rity pro v in ces. ‘R efugees’ w ere, th e re fo re , ‘C IT IZ E N S , N O T A L IE N S’ (o rig in a l e m p h a sis). T h e In te g ra tio n L eague w a n te d th e P a k ista n M u slim L eague a s ‘succes­ s o r’ to th e All In d ia M u slim L eag u e, to im p lem en t th e ‘trip a rtite L a h o re R e s o lu tio n ’ a n d reh a b ilitate th e rem a in in g refugees. T h e

26 ♦ Partition and the South Asian Diaspora

b o o k let a lso ask ed A yub K h an to ‘tak e necessary m easures to prevent a n ti-M u slim rio ts in In d ia ’ a n d to a c co m m o d ate th o se w h o m ay be fo rced to m ig ra te to P a k ista n b ecau se o f ‘c o m m u n a l w a r o r fu ry ’ (R a h m a tu lla h 19 6 7 : 2 2 -2 5 ). T h e o d o re P. W rig h t J r., h a s m ad e th e p o in t th a t A y u b K h an ’s M a rtia l L a w A d m in istra tio n in 1 9 5 8 - 6 2 a n d th e a d v e n t o f th e sec­ o n d rep u b lic in 1 9 6 2 w e re a m ix ed blessing fo r th e M u h a jirs. O n th e d o w n sid e, som e p ro m in e n t refugee p o litic ian s w ere p u rg ed fro m politics a n d th e n a tio n a l c a p ita l w as shifted fro m th e M u h a jir stro n g ­ h o ld , K a ra c h i, to Isla m a b a d . O n th e u p sid e , refu g ee c la im s fo r c o m p e n sa tio n , h o u sin g a n d lan d settle m e n t w e re b ro u g h t to a c o n ­ clu sio n , even if th ere w a s a scalin g d o w n o f claim s. W rig h t fo u n d it d ifficu lt to d iscern a n y c le a r p a tte rn o f p a rty p referen ces a m o n g th e M u h a jirs a fte r th e revival o f p a rty p o litics in 1 9 6 2 . H is guess w a s th a t b y th e 1 9 7 0 n a tio n a l e le c tio n a n ew g e n e ra tio n w o u ld c o m e to th e fo re a n d to so m e e x te n t m ay v o te fo r th e A w am i League in E ast P a k ista n a n d th e P a k ista n People’s P a rty in W est P ak istan , m u ch to th e ch ag rin o f th e Jam aat-I-Islam i a n d th e fragm ents o f the M uslim League: ‘T h is younger g en eratio n m ight have begun assim ilat­ ing w ith th e indigenous p o p u latio n if th e civil w a r o f 1971 h ad not m ad e th em th e sc ap eg o ats o f p ro v in cial resen tm en ts in b o th E ast a n d W est’. F o r W rig h t, w h a t lay a t th e b o tto m o f th e ten sio n in East P a k ista n a n d in S in d h w a s a c o m b in a tio n o f ‘linguistic d isso n a n c e ’ a n d a M u h a jir sense o f c u ltu ra l su p e rio rity a n d self-sacrifice fo r th e c a u se o f P a k ista n (W rig h t 19 7 4 : 1 9 2 , 1 9 6 -9 9 ). In d ia n M u slim s co n tin u e d to m ig ra te to P a k ista n in se arc h o f em p lo y m en t till th e 1 9 6 5 w a r. W ith th e c lo sin g o f th e b o rd e rs, ‘o r p e rh a p s b ecau se o f it’, th ey s ta rte d h e a d in g fo r th e M id d le E ast, USA a n d UK (I. A h m a d 19 7 5 : 4 5 ). A fter th e w a r, m o st M u slim s m ig ratin g to P ak istan w e n t th ere via th e In d ia -E a st P ak istan b o rd er, i.e. first to D h a k a a n d fro m th ere to K arach i. V ery few M u slim s w e n t to P a k ista n a fte r 1 9 7 1 , w h e n ‘th e illu sio n o f P a k ista n as th e h o m e la n d fo r all M u slim s o f u n d iv id ed In d ia ’ w a s sa id to have b een ‘fin ally s h a tte re d ’. W h ile a tig h te r c o n tro l o f in te rn a tio n a l b o rd ers m ad e illegal m ig ra tio n h a z a rd o u s, legal tra v e l h a d its o w n p ro b le m s o f visa restrictio n s. A cco rd in g to O m a r K h alid i, b y th en m o st m iddle- a n d low er-class M u slim s w e re reco n ciled to sin k o r sw im w ith In d ia a n d ‘by 1971 sto p p e d lo o k in g to P a k ista n as a d e s ira b le d e s tin a tio n ’: o n ly 3 ,3 9 3 o f th e 8 0 0 ,0 0 0 v isito rs fro m In d ia to P a k ista n stay ed o n th e re (K halidi 19 9 7 : 4 1 - 4 3 ).

Negotiating Nations ♦ 27

W h en th e a u to n o m y m o v em en t un fo ld ed in E ast P a k ista n in th e la te six ties, so m e B iharis o p e n ly sided w ith th e A y u b K h an regim e. As a resu lt, a tta c k s o n th e ir sh o p s a n d p ro p e rtie s b e c am e co m m o n in D h a k a a n d C h itta g o n g by D ecem b er 1 9 7 0 . T h o u s a n d s o f B iharis w ere killed in C h itta g o n g , Jesso re, K h u ln a, M y m en sin g h , R a n g p u r a n d S a id p u r in early 1 9 7 1 , even b e fo re th e m ilita ry a c tio n began. A c c o rd in g to th e E ast P a k ista n R efugee A sso ciatio n in D in a jp u r, b a re ly 1 5 0 o f th e 5 0 ,0 0 0 refugees survived th e m assa c re o f n o n Bengalis in M a rc h -A p ril 1 9 7 1 . A lth o u g h o n ly a h a n d fu l o f Biharis jo in ed th e au x iliary forces like th e R a za k a rs a n d A l S h a m s raised b y th e P a k ista n i a u th o ritie s, h u n d red s o f B iharis w e re killed o n ch arg es o f c o lla b o ra tio n b y th e Bengali fre e d o m fig h ters (H ashm i 19 9 8 : 3 9 2 -4 0 1 ). F o r t h e B ih a ris t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f E a s t P a k is ta n i n to B an g lad esh m ea n t a n in te rru p tio n o f th e ir d e n o m in a tio n a l h o m e ­ lan d o f th e fo rties. W h e re th is sea ch an g e w o u ld leave th e m a n d h o w th ey w o u ld co p e w ith it h a s d ep en d ed o n th e ir reso u rces a n d reso u rcefu ln ess, a n d th e p o licies o f th e S o u th A sian sta te s since th en . T h e seco n d p a rt o f th e ir refugee lives th u s b eg an o v e r tw en tyfo u r y e a rs a fte r 1 9 4 7 . T h is tim e a ro u n d th e ir p red ic a m e n t d rew in th e B iharis b ack in B ih ar a n d in P a k ista n , a n d th e reg io n al d iasp o ra w h ich in clu d ed b o th th e B iharis w h o h a d m ig rated directly fro m In d ia a n d th o se w h o h a d m oved b e y o n d S o u th Asia a fte r living a c o u p le o f y ears in Pak istan . In Ju n e 1 9 7 2 , S. A b d u l H a m e ed , a retired s e n io r tra n s la to r o f th e B ih ar H ig h C o u r t w ro te to th e p rim e m in iste r, In d ira G a n d h i, ‘in a s ta te o f a c u te helplessness’, a sk in g fo r h elp in lo ca tin g his so n, S. Sayeed A lam . H is s o n h a d b een w o rk in g as a ssista n t electrical en g in eer a t th e K a rn a p h u li P a p e r M ill in C h itta g o n g . In A pril 1 9 7 1 , H a m e ed h e a rd th a t h e w a s ta k e n a lo n g w ith eig h ty -tw o to eightyfive o th e rs b y th e a d d itio n a l d e p u ty co m m issio n er a n d la te r ‘ev acu­ a te d ’ f o r th e ir ‘safety ’ e ith e r in th e d ire c tio n o f T rip u ra o r A ssam a n d th en h a d lo st tra c k o f him . H is fa th e r w ro te th a t A lam h ad g o n e th e re o n ly to e a rn his livelihood a n d ‘h a d n o p o litical m otive w h a tso ev e r’. If, h o w e v e r, h e w a s a p ris o n e r f o r ‘a n y re a s o n ’ he sh o u ld a t lea st b e a llo w e d to w rite letters to his p a re n ts .81 A n o th er B ihari, Iq b al A n sari o f A lig arh , w ro te to S.A. Z a k i o f S urrey a b o u t 8 1 . S u ru r H o d a C ollection [SH C ], Surrey, UK: Subzibagh, P a tn a , 3 J u n e 1972. M y th a n k s to S. H oda.

28 ♦ Partition and the South Asian Diaspora

h is sister N a jm a S h a rafa t H u ssa in a n d h e r six c h ild ren w h o w e re in a d e sp era te c o n d itio n h a v in g escaped fro m P a rb a tip u r in D in a jp u r, to S a id p u r a fte r th e su rre n d e r o f th e P a k ista n arm y . N a jm a ’s h u s­ b a n d , a railw a y e m p lo y ee since 1 9 5 2 , w a s killed d u rin g ‘th e d istu r­ b a n c es’ in A pril 1 9 7 1 . A nsari m en tio n ed th a t th e R ed C ro ss had sto p p e d su p p ly in g fo o d . H e co u ld send h e r letters b u t n o rem it­ tan ces. N a jm a h a d a p p lied fo r re p a tria tio n to K arach i th ro u g h th e R ed C ro ss a n d his relativ es in K arach i w ere w illin g to ac ce p t th em , b u t n o th in g w a s p o ssib le till th e P a k ista n a n d B an g lad esh g o v e rn ­ m en ts a g reed to a n ‘a d h o c ex c h an g e ’ o f peo p le. H e h o p ed th a t Z a k i w o u ld send h e r som e m o n ey fro m ‘an y fu n d ’ m ea n t fo r th e p u rp o se .82 Q u ite a larg e n u m b e r o f B iharis w h o h a d m o v ed to E ast Pak i­ s ta n ov er th e y e a rs h ad co n tin u e d to m ain ta in th e ir links w ith Bihar. T h e y m ad e fre q u e n t visits to th e ir fo rm e r h o m ela n d , fo r m arriag es a n d social fu n ctio n s till th e m id-sixties. W h e n th in g s ca m e a p a rt fo r th em in E ast P a k istan /B an g lad esh , th ey sen t n ew s o f th e ir p e r­ secu tio n to frie n d s a n d fam ily m em b ers in E u ro p e a n d A m erica, w h o th e n re d ire c te d th e ir m ail to B ih ar. T h e U rd u n e w sp a p e r, S angam (P atn a), p u b lish e d ‘h u n d red s o f su c h letters’. T h e ir ‘c o m ­ m o n a n d rec u rren t th em e ’ w a s th a t th ey h ad left In d ia o u t o f fear o f th e H in d u s o n ly to d isc o v e r th a t B engali M u slim s w e re f a r w o rse .83 A B ih a ri B a ch a o (Save T h e Biharis) C o n v e n tio n w a s held in P a tn a in F e b ru ary 1 9 7 2 . R e so lu tio n s w e re p assed d e m a n d in g th a t th e g o v e rn m e n t o f In d ia ta k e resp o n sib ility fo r th e p ro te c tio n o f th e B ihari M u slim s in B angladesh a n d n e g o tia te w ith B angladesh fo r c o m p en satio n fo r th eir loss o f p ro p erty . It also urged th e g o v ern­ m e n t to a llo w all th e n o n -B e n g a lis to r e tu r n to I n d ia .84 L a te r, H u ssa in Im a m , e x -p re sid e n t o f th e B ih ar Pro v in cial M u slim League, 8 2 . Ibid., 29 J u ly 1972. 8 3 . A shraf (1 9 8 2 :5 0 .) U nfortunately, I w as unable to locate these copies o f Sangam . 8 4 . Ibid.: 5 1 . A sh ra f ad d s th a t th e state branches o f th e C o ngress-O , SSP a n d the J a n a Sangh su p p o rted th e d e m a n d , even th o u g h th ere w as n o end o rse m e n t o f th eir sta n d by th eir ce n tra l leaderships. T h e C ongress-I, CPI a n d C P M w ere op p o se d to the convention a n d its d e m a n d s. T aq u i R ahim , G hulam S arw ar, S hah M u sh ta q u e a n d A bdul M o g h n i em erged a s p ro m in e n t leaders cham pi­ o n in g th e cause o f th e Biharis; p . 115 m entions th a t th e e d ito r o f Sangam , G hulam S arw ar, form ed th e U rdu Bahini in 197 2 , in su p p o rt o f th e Biharis, he w a s jailed th a t year for this; p . 116 m e n tio n s th a t T aq u i R ahim q u it the C P M over th e p a rty ’s sta n d on Bihari M uslim s stra n d e d in Bangladesh.

Negotiating Nations ♦ 29

trie d to sh a m e th e P a k ista n g o v ern m en t in to re p a tria tin g th e B iharis b y claim in g th a t th e g o v e rn m e n t o f K e d a r N a th P an d ey , th e early seventies’ C ongress chief m in ister o f B ihar, h a d g o t a u n anim o u s re­ so lu tio n p assed in th e B ihar Legislative A ssem bly to re p a tria te all the B iharis to B ihar. A ccording to Im am , th e In d ia n cen tral g overnm ent h a d , ho w ev er, d isap p ro v ed o f it a n d replaced th e ch ief m inister.85 O n e still h e a rs o f sev eral B iharis s q u e ak in g to th e p o lice a b o u t th o se w h o q u ietly retu rn e d to In d ia to re s ta rt th e ir lives. T h is often h a p p e n ed to p re-e m p t p ro p erty claim s b ein g m ad e b y M u h a jir re­ tu rn ees. T h ere is a rem a rk a b le relu ctan ce to g o o n reco rd a b o u t those w h o resettled in B ih ar a fte r 1 9 7 1 , ex cep t in very v ague term s a n d even th e n th e in fo rm a tio n is a ttrib u te d to h e a rsa y .86 O n e o f th e B ritish d e v e lo p m e n t v o lu n te e rs w o r k in g a m o n g th e B ih a ris in B an g lad esh in th e early seventies su m m ed u p th a t ‘several ten s of th o u s a n d s — t h e e x a c t fig u re s a r e w ith h e ld — h a v e b e e n ta c itly accep ted in to th e c o u n try [India] in th e p a s t fo u rte en m o n th s’. H e w e n t o n to suggest th a t it w a s th e ‘m o ral d u ty ’ o f th e In d ia n g o v ­ e rn m e n t to ac ce p t th o se B iharis w h o h a d s u p p o rtiv e relatives w ill­ in g to ‘ta k e th em b a c k .’87 A n o te p rep a re d fo r th e U n ited N a tio n s H ig h C o m m issio n e r fo r Refugees (U N H C R ), a lm o s t certa in ly b y a B ihari d iasp o ric, m en tio n ed th a t th o u g h th e In d ia n g o v e rn m e n t m ay n o t b e w illin g to ac ce p t th em , ‘q u ite a su b sta n tia l n u m b e r o f B iharis w o u ld like to r e tu rn to th e ir o rig in al h o m ela n d , h a v in g been co m ­ pletely disillu sio n ed w ith th e logic th a t relig io n c o u ld b e a basis fo r cre a tin g n a tio n a lity ’. T h e y felt th a t in B ih ar, ‘a lth o u g h th ey ru n th e risk o f facing religious p o g ro m s, th ey still will have th e satisfactio n o f stay in g in th e ir h o m ela n d ’. B ut th e w rite r w as c e rta in th a t this w o u ld ‘raise a p o litical p ro b le m ’.88 Betw een m id -1 9 7 2 a n d early 1 9 7 3 , th e Biharis w ere h u d d led to ­ gether in colonies a n d cam p s a ro u n d a b o u t a d o zen to w n s including 8 5 . Im am (1 983:8). I have n o ty e t been able to confirm this version on K edar Pandey. 8 6 . T aslim u d d in (of th e R a sh triy a J a n a ta D al) is a n e x ception. H is c o n firm atio n o f th is trend is m entioned in M a th e w (1 993). A lso, interview s in K ishanganj, P u rn ia, G h az ip u r, T a r a p u r , M a n ia n d a , M u n g e r and G aya in Ja n u a ry 1995 a n d in R a m z an p u r, A sth a w a n , D esna and N ag arn a u sa in F ebruary 1996. 8 7 . SH C : B ogra, 19 M a rch 197 3 , R oger M o o d y to S aru r (Surur): ‘I f India w el­ com ed th e Bengali refugees, a t least p a rtly because th e y w ere victim s o f a P akistan th a t h ad fallen a p a rt a t the seam s, h o w c a n she tu rn a w ay the Biharis now — th e d e tritu s o f a sta te she v irtu ally m a d e herself?’. 8 8 . Ibid., unsigned n o te in SH C , ‘B iharis in B angladesh’, n.d.

30 ♦ Partition and the South Asian Diaspora

D h a k a , C h itta g o n g , S a id p u r, B ogra a n d R a n g p u r. T h e re w a s a p e rio d w h e n 1 2 0 ,0 0 0 B iharis h ad to g o w ith o u t fo o d a n d w ith o u t relief fo r six w eek s in R a n g p u r.89 A cco rd in g to o n e a c c o u n t, by early 1 9 7 3 , th e n u m b e r o f non-B engalis in B angladesh ca m e d o w n fro m 1 ,2 0 0 ,0 0 0 to 6 0 0 ,0 0 0 since th e rest h ad m an ag ed to tre k to In d ia , M y a n m a r, N ep al a n d th en o n to P a k ista n . It m en tio n ed th a t a t least e ig h ty -fo u r B iharis fro m C h itta g o n g h a d lan d ed u p in p riso n in M y a n m a r a fte r tw ice b ein g th ro w n b ack a n d f o rth ac ro ss th e H ill T r a c ts b o rd e r.90 T h e m an y ro u te s ta k e n d u rin g th e seco n d m ig ra tio n fro m B an g lad esh to P a k ista n in th e e a rly seventies are d escrib ed in In itiz a r H u s a in ’s Basti: So m e p e o p le m oved th ro u g h In d ia. Som e ‘stag g ered a n d stu m b led h a lf-d ea d in to N e p a l’. Som e w o rk e d o u t a jo u rn e y via R a n g o o n o r B an g k o k . ‘O n c e in a w hile so m eo n e w o u ld su d d en ly a p p e a r a n d p e o p le w o u ld lo o k a t him in a s to n is h m e n t....T h e n th ey ’d a sk h o w h e g o t o u t, a n d h o w h e cam e to th e city (K arach i)’. In o n e case th e jo u rn e y co vered H o w ra h , A lig arh , D elhi (w ith a sto p o v e r fo r a d a y to c a tc h M e en a K u m a ri in P a keeza h ), a n d A m ritsar, befo re g e ttin g to P ak istan . B ut th e re w as a lso K h v ajah Sah ib w h o k e p t w a itin g fo r his s o n , K a ra m a t. W hen h e h e a rd th a t so m e p e o p le h a d seen him a t th e M y a n m a r b o rd e r he w a n d e re d all o v e r K arach i in se arc h o f h im .91 In N a sim A n sari’s a c co u n t, w h e n p e o p le reach ed K arach i a fte r lo sin g e v e ry th in g they felt ‘as th o u g h they w ere forcing th eir w ay in to o th e r p eople’s h o m es’; h e a d d s, ‘ev erybody k n o w s w h a t h a s been th e ir fate’. (N . A nsari 1999: 1 8 3 -8 4 ). Events in E ast P ak istan /B an g lad esh in th e early seventies oc c a ­ sio n ed a h u g e d e b a te in th e In d ia n p a rlia m e n t a n d in au g u ra te d th e tra c k in g o f th e ‘B ih ari M u slim in flu x ’92 R a n a b ir S a m a d d a r has p o in te d o u t th a t p a rtitio n legitim ized th e s ta te sy stem in S o u th A sia, b u t th e relatively n o n -relig io u s n a tu re o f c o n tin u o u s tra n s b o rd e r 8 9 . Ibid., R ep o rt o f O p e ratio n O m ega, Ju n e 1 9 7 2 -Ja n u ary 1973. T h is w as a B ritish d e v e lo p m e n t te am w o rk in g in th e region from A u g u st 1 9 7 1 . It a im ed a t re co n ciliatio n betw een th e Bengalis and B iharis. It had plans o f se ttin g up c a rp e n try a n d ta ilo rin g w o rk sh o p s. S ta tistics o n B iharis w ere, 6 0 ,0 0 0 in C h itta g o n g , 1 0 ,000 in B ogra a n d 1 5 ,0 0 0 in R a ngpur. 9 0 . Ibid., B ogra, 19 M a rch 197 3 , R oger M o o d y to S u ru r H oda. 9 1 . Intizar H u sa in , B asti (trans. F rancis P ritchett), C h a p te r 9 . N ew D elhi: Indus, 199 5 . 9 2 . See for e xam ple, L o k Sabba D ebates, 197 2 , N ew D elhi, V ol. 13, N o s. 2 1 -3 0 , 11 a n d 13, 19 a n d 20 A pril 1972.

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m ig ra tio n in th e reg io n c o n sta n tly u n d erm in es it. H e reg a rd s th is as a ‘stran g e co-existence’ o f statist c a rto g ra p h ic a n x iety a n d m igrant u n c o n c e rn o f b o rd e rs . In th e c o n te x t o f e x te n siv e in te rn a tio n a l in te g ratio n h e sees th e p o p u la tio n m o v em en t o f th e eighties as a su ccesso r to earlie r stre a m s o f la b o u r m ig ra tio n . M a n y B ihari M u s­ lim s g ro u n d ed in B an g lad esh a fte r 1971 (as a lso Bengali M uslim s), h av e m ad e th e ir w ay to th e M e tia b ru z lo cality o f K o lk a ta a n d tak e n u p ta ilo rin g , e m b ro id ery , d o m estic a n d b rick-field jo b s. Several o th ­ ers w h o a re n o t sto p p e d w h e n c ro ssin g in to M a ld a o r D in a jp u r, h ead fo r B h ag alp u r o r P u rn e a in B ih ar, a n d o fte n m o v e o n w a rd s to D elh i, P u n ja b , H a ry a n a , R a ja sth a n a n d P a k ista n , o r sim ply g o b ack (S a m a d d a r 19 9 9 : 6 0 - 6 2 , 1 1 0 , 1 4 2 , 1 6 5 ). In his view such m ig ra­ tio n s serio u sly q u e stio n th e c a re e r o f p o litical n a tio n h o o d in S outh A sia, ‘b o th fo r th e n a tio n w h ich th e m o v in g p o p u la tio n leaves, as w ell a s , th e n a tio n w h ic h it e n te rs’ (ibid.: 4 5 ). W h ile th is p h e n o m ­ e n o n is a g ro u n d reality a t o n e level, it needs to b e seen to g eth er w ith th e discourse o f n a tio n s m ad e, un m ad e, a n d still to co m e in th e region. H is o w n stu d y m en tio n s h o w , in th e a fte rm a th o f th e B h ag alp u r r io t in 1 9 8 9 in B ih ar, th ere w ere ru m o u rs a b o u t th e c re a tio n o f a ‘M u slim ista n ’, co v e rin g P u rn e a, B h ag alp u r, D in a jp u r a n d R a n g p u r (ibid.: 185). In th e e a rly n in e tie s th e r a te c h a rg e d b y a g e n ts f o r h e lp in g B angladeshis cro ss in to P a k ista n fro m G u ja ra t w a s b etw een R s 75 a n d R s 2 5 0 . In A pril 1 9 9 2 , th e B o rd er Security Fo rce (BSF) in te r­ c ep ted a g ro u p o f 1 3 0 B iharis fro m B angladesh in R a ja sth a n w h en th ey w e re p o ise d to m o v e in to P a k ista n .93 In D o G a z Z a m e e n H a m id escaped fro m a M u k d B ahini c a m p o n ly w ith th e h elp o f his p rev io u s ag e n t, C h a m u . H e th e n p a id his w ay to C a lc u tta , head ed fo r B ih ar S h arif, a n d finally reach ed K arach i via N e p a l. In K arachi h e stay ed w ith his uncle A sg h ar, a n d th en pro ceed ed to Saudi A rabia a n d (like m an y o th ers) m ain tain e d a base in K arach i, a s w ell (Sam ad 19 9 7 : 1 5 6 ). In th e early eighties, m o st m ig ra n ts to th e M id d le E ast fro m S indh w e re n o t e th n ic Sindhis b u t, ‘in d iv id u als involved in a tw o -ste p m ig ra tio n process— first to K a ra c h i fro m In d ia o r a n o th e r p ro v in c e in P a k ista n ; a n d on ly th en to th e M id d le E ast (A ddleton 19 9 2 : 95). T h is p u ts in persp ectiv e w h y th e G u lf is o n e o f th e m ajo r fu n d raisin g a re a s fo r M u h a jir p o litics.94 9 3 . S u n d a y, 1 9 -2 5 J u ly 199 2 , p . 85. 9 4 . See fo r e xam ple. D a w n , 3 F ebruary 1997.

32 » Partition and the South Asian Diaspora

M o s t o f th e M u h a jirs in K a ra c h i’s s q u a tte r se ttlem en ts a re U rd u ­ sp e ak in g B iharis fro m B angladesh. T h e y a re c o n c e n tra te d in th e p o o r se ttlem en ts o n th e n o rth -w e ste rn fringes o f K a ra c h i, in p a r­ tic u lar th e to w n sh ip o f O ra n g i, a n d c o m p rise 2 5 p e r c en t o f th e p o p u latio n o f a b o u t a m illion living there. By a n d large, th e M u h ajirs o f B ihari o rig in in th e city a re p o o r, b u t m an y o f th em h av e been a b le to e sta b lish th em selves eco n o m ically w ith th e ir a rtisa n a n d sh o p k e ep in g skills th ere b y p ro v o k in g th e envy o f even p o o re r a n d n ew er refugees.95 T h e m ajority o f th e residents in O ra n g i’s G haziabad m o h allas a re B iharis w h o m ig rated fro m B angladesh a fte r 1 9 8 1 . At o n e p o in t o f tim e, th e elected m em b er fro m O ra n g i w a s a Bihari w h o m igrated fro m Bangladesh a n d joined th e P ak istan People’s Party (PPP) (H . A hm ed 1997: 3 5 0 -5 7 ). T h e U nited F ro n t fo r R ep atriatio n o r U F R (o f B ihari M u h a jirs fro m B angladesh), h e a d q u a rte re d in O r a n g i, w a s o u tra g e d in t h e la te e ig h tie s a t th e d e te n tio n a t K h o k ra p a r, o f a ‘helpless carav an o f p a trio tic stra n d e d P ak istan is’ w h o h a d m an a g e d to rea c h ‘th e fro n tie rs o f th e ir c o u n try fro m B angladesh’.96 In th e co u rse o f tw enty-five years, th e sto ry o f th e Bihari refugees o f 1 9 4 6 sa w th em flo u n d e r a n d n a v ig a te to M u h a jir, a n d th en live th e h y p h e n a te d s ta tu s o f M u h a jir-c itize n in b o th p a rts o f Pak istan. It sh o w e d th e B ih ar M u slim L eag u e d iv id e d o n th e q u e stio n o f m ig ra tio n to P a k ista n , a n d o s c illa tin g s im u lta n e o u s ly b e tw e en rec itin g th e logic o f th e h o sta g e th e o ry , w o rk in g o u t a n ex ch an g e o f p o p u la tio n a n d try in g to e x p a n d th e m a p o f P a k ista n to include p a rts o f B ihar. Som e y ears late r, w h e n B an g lad esh in te rru p te d b o th th e h o m ela n d o f 1 9 4 7 a n d th e c a re e r o f th e tw o -n a tio n th eo ry , th e seco n d p a rt o f th e m ig ra n t h isto ries o f B iharis sa w th em dispersed o v e r a ran g e o f d e stin atio n s: refugee c a m p s, s q u a tte r co lo n ies in K arach i o r tu rn e d th em in to tra n s b o rd e r m ig ra n ts o r d iasp o rics, d e p e n d in g o n th e ir class lo ca tio n . F o r th o se w h o co n tin u e d to th in k w ith in th e fra m e w o rk o f th e n a tio n , th e lifeline w a s th e insistence o n a n a q a llia t rea d in g o f th e L a h o re reso lu tio n o f 1 940. 9 5 . T a m b ia h (1 9 9 6 : 1 8 3 -8 4 ). It is e stim a te d th a t o f a to ta l o f th re e m illion A fghan refugees in P a k ista n a b o u t 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 h a d d rifte d to K arachi. In O rangi, P ath an s com prised a n o th e r 2 5 p e r c e n t o f th e p o p u latio n . T h e rem aining 50 p e r c e n t w ere a m ix tu re o f P u n ja b is, S in d h is, B aluchis, B engalis, (older) M u h a jirs a n d A fghan refugees. 9 6 . D aily N eu/s, 26 A pril 1988.

Negotiating Nations ♦ 33 U n m o o re d A gain

W h en A y esha, th e p re g n a n t d a u g h te r o f a m o to r m ech an ic in P a tn a m o v ed to D h a k a in 1 9 4 7 , ‘like m illio n s o f A yeshas’ she h a d m erely fo llo w ed h e r h u sb a n d ; in h e r case, th e ta x i d riv e r, A b d u l W aheed. She h ad left h e r s a lw a r a n d kam eez d ays h a n g in g o n a h o o k in P a tn a in h e r p a re n t’s h o use a n d w o rn o n ly a s a ri, ‘like th e o th e r B engali w o m e n ’. B u t ev en a fte r tw e n ty -fo u r y e a rs , h e r B engali n e ig h b o u rs in T a a n ti B azar called h e r A yesha B ihari, rem in d in g h er w h ere she ca m e fro m . W h e n P a k ista n w a s ‘p u sh ed aw a y by som e th irte e n h u n d re d m iles’ in 1 9 7 1 , A yesha sav ed h erself b y h e r ab ility to sp e ak Bengali in T a a n ti B azar a n d U rd u in M o h a m m a d p u r. As Ib ra h im Jalees’ sto ry , ‘A G rav e T u rn e d In sid e -O u t’, u n fo ld s p o stB a n g la d esh , w e fin d A y esh a m o v in g to K a ra c h i b ecau se o f yet a n o th e r m an . T h is tim e she w a s a w id o w a n d N u ru l h a d talk e d h er in to m ak in g h e r seco n d m ig ra tio n . H e h a d h e lp ed h im self to all h er go ld a n d m o n ey a n d d u p e d h e r w ith th e sto ry th a t h e r 13 -y ear-o ld d a u g h te r, a b d u c te d d u rin g 1 9 7 1 , h ad been sen t o n to K arach i fo r h e r safety a n d th ey sh o u ld lo o k fo r h e r th ere. T h e on ly tim e she h a d tra v e le d b y tra in w a s w h e n she h a d m ig rated fro m B ih ar. T h a t w a s in 1 9 4 7 w h e n th e ric h M u slim s o f P a tn a , th e ir relativ es, d ep en ­ d e n ts a n d m istresses, h a d fled in a e ro p la n es fo r safety to Pak istan . P o o r M u slim s like h e r, m ea n in g sm all tra d e rs , iro n -sm ith s, c o b ­ b lers, b a rb e rs , w a sh e rm e n , m aso n s a n d o th e rs , h a d ‘slow ly c raw led o n w a rd s to P a k ista n in o v e rc ro w d e d tra in s ...th e y h a d been p u sh e d , sh o v ed a n d jo lted to w a rd s E ast a n d W est P a k ista n ’. In 1 9 4 7 , A bdul h a d c o m fo rte d h e r b y ex p la in in g th a t J in n a h h a d sa id th a t P ak istan h a d b een created fo r p o o r M u slim s like th em . B u t she h a d n o t been d ra w n by a p o litical visio n . H e r seco n d jo u rn e y first to o k h e r to C a lc u tta a n d th en to K a th m a n d u . T h e PIA flig h t fro m K a th m a n d u to K a ra c h i w a s th e first o n e in h e r life. She w a s terrified a n d scream ­ in g lo u d ly m a k in g N u ru l th re a te n to to ss h e r o u t. A y esh a w as m ig ra tin g fo r th e seco n d tim e in 1 9 7 1 , ‘n o t b ecause she h a d been lu re d by a p o litical visio n , o r h ad b een e n c h an te d by th e idea o f P ak istan . She w a s m erely d o in g w h a t N u ru l h a d ask ed h er t o .. .. ’97 T h e g e n d ered m ig ra n t ex p erien ces o f th e fo rties a n d th e seven­ ties o n w a rd s a re still to be recovered fo r c o m p a ra tiv e in sig h ts in to 9 7 . See B halla (1 9 9 4 ; vol. 2 :1 4 1 - 5 2 ) .

34 » Partition and the South Asian Diaspora

M u h a jir h isto rie s a n d th e re -th e o riz a tio n o f g e n d e r a n d n a tio n m ak in g a ro u n d th e p a rtitio n ex p erience. T h is u n fo rtu n a te e x am p le o f b o rd ers cra m p in g th e rew o rk in g o f h isto rio g ra p h y is a th em e I h av e discussed in th e in tro d u c tio n . B ut th e re a re a c o u p le o f leads. D ra w in g o n a h u n d re d in terv iew s in ru ra l a n d u rb a n S in d h a n d P u n ja b , a stu d y b y N ig h a t Said K h an (n.d.: 1 5 8 -6 1 ) fo u n d th a t, by a n d large, w o m e n w ere n o t c o n su lte d w h ile d eciding to m ig ra te to P a k ista n , ‘b u t th is w as in v ariab ly becau se, a s th ey say, th e re w as n o tim e to c o n s u lt w ith a n y o n e ’. Significantly, o f th o se in terv iew ed, on ly th e te n w o m e n w h o h ad p ro fe ssio n a l b ack g ro u n d s h ad m ade a co n scio u s c h o ice to m o v e to P a k ista n . H e r o th e r fin d in g w as th a t ‘th e m ig ra n ts fro m In d ia h av e n o t been a ssim ilated so cially in to th e P akistani fab ric even a t th e m icro level. T h ey a re still seen as refugees o r panahgir’. T h e n o tio n o f co u n try w a s described variously, a s m u lk , q a u m a n d w a ta n . In fact these w om en use[d] the sam e term s to describe w h at they left behind, as in ‘we left our watan and cam e here’. T h e watan is in India but is n o t India...Identity w ith the country is, therefore, (also) tru n ­ cated with political loyalties being given to th e space th at they now inhabit a n d em otional loyalties given to one’s hom e in another. D is lo c a tio n w a s ‘m o re tra u m a tic ’ fo r w o m e n t h a n f o r m en. ‘W o m e n w ere th u s d islo cated a t tw o levels (an d in th e case o f B iharis in K arach i w h o cam e a fte r 1 9 7 1 , a t tw o levels tw ice), fro m th eir h o m e a n d fro m th e ir fam ily’. Som e o f th e w o m e n I m et a t th e M ir p u r c a m p in D h a k a also m en tio n ed th a t th e ir w a ta n w as ‘in In d ia ’, b u t it w a s th eir p a re n ts w h o m o v ed to E ast P a k ista n a n d n o w th ey fo u n d them selves e n d­ lessly u p ro o te d .98 N a jm a , w h o m oved fro m P a tn a to R ajsh ah i in 1 9 4 7 , to Isla m a b a d ‘befo re th e fall o f D h a k a ’, a n d th en to th e US in 1 9 8 1 , says sh e d o e s n o t believe in th e ‘co n c ep t o f w a ta n , as such, a n y lo n g er’, b ecause th ere h av e been f a r to o m an y changes in her life. If a n y th in g , R a jsh ah i w a s h e r w a ta n , b ecau se sh e felt ‘very c o m fo rta b le w ith B angladeshis’, a n d n o w th e US is h e r ‘h o m e ’, a n d relig io n h a s co m e to m a tte r f a r m o re th a n ‘co u n try ’.99 H e r frien d, S h a u k a t, to o , h a d ‘a g o o d ex p erien ce’ in D h a k a a n d th e tw o o f 9 8 . Interview on 18 N o v em b er 1989. 9 9 . Interview on 13 A pril 199 7 , H o u sto n .

Negotiating Nations ♦ 35

th em sa id th ey ta lk , ‘all th e tim e ’, a b o u t th e ir d a y s in E ast Pak istan. S h a u k a t’s fam ily m o v ed fro m B ih ar to D h a k a in 1 9 4 7 , w h e re she w a s b o rn . W h e n th ey escaped in 1 9 7 1 , th ey w e re in te rce p te d b y th e p o lice a t S eald ah sta tio n . She recalled h o w she h a d talk ed h e r w ay o u t o f th e situ a tio n a n d h e a d ed fo r th e ir village n e a r B hagalpur. F ro m th ere th ey m o v ed in ‘g ro u p s o f fo u r’ to K a th m a n d u , B an g k o k, a n d th en to K arach i a n d Isla m a b a d . W h a t she m issed m o st o f all in th e d ry K arach i lan d sc a p e w a s th e b a riya li (greenery) o f D h a k a . S h e s a id , ‘o u r p a r e n t s w e r e s a c r ific e d f o r P a k is ta n , w e f o r B a n g la d e s h ....W h a t o u r p a re n ts acco m p lish ed g o t left b e h in d in B an g lad esh , likew ise, b y u s in K a ra c h i, I d o n ’t k n o w a b o u t o u r c h ild r e n ...’. S h a u k a t felt c o n c ern e d a b o u t th o se still in th e cam p s in B angladesh (‘achcbe, a ch ch e g h a r w ale th ein ’— ‘they belonged to w ell-o ff h o m es’). In a m ed itativ e m o m e n t she sa id , ‘so m etim es w e th in k /sa y w e sh o u ld n o t h av e left B ih a r...p e rh a p s such th in g s h a p ­ p en if y o u ch an g e y o u r m u lk ...w h o k n o w s ...’. T h e re w a s a stro n g feeling a m o n g th ese w o m e n th a t ‘B iharis sacrificed a lo t a n d th ree tim es o v e r ( 1 9 4 6 ,1 9 4 7 ,1 9 7 1 ) , yet th ey d id n o t g e t a n y th in g ...’.100 U n d o u b te d ly , o n ly so m e M u h a jirs h ad th e reso u rces to c o n sid er m ig ra tin g o u t o f th e p o st-1 9 7 1 P a k ista n . B ut th ey did so , largely b ecause o f th e ir ch an g ed p e rc e p tio n o f th e n a tio n . T h is d iasp o ric s tra n d s ta rte d ta k in g s h a p e th re e d ecad es a g o a n d is still in th e m ak in g , in th e U K , US, th e G u lf a n d m o re recently in E u ro p e a n d A u stralia. T h e s ta rtin g p o in ts o f th e jo u rn e y s have b een v a ried , b o th in term s o f tim e a n d ro u te s ta k e n , a s w ill b e e v id e n t in th e re s t o f th is a n d th e n e x t c h a p te r. M y n e x t focus is o n retriev in g so m e fam ­ ily h isto rie s, cases o f a sy lu m -seek in g a n d d iasp o ric en g ag em en ts a n d m ed iatio n s. It w a s ev id e n t, ‘a s early a s 1 9 5 4 ’, to o n e fam ily th a t n o t on ly w a s m ig ra tin g to E ast P a k ista n a ‘big m istak e’, b u t ‘P a rtitio n itself, th e rea so n a n d th e c a u se o f th e m ig ra tio n w a s a b ig g er m ista k e ’. F o r p a rtitio n ‘c o u ld n o t h av e ta k e n p la c e w ith o u t th e 1 9 4 5 -4 6 v o te o f th e m in o rity M u slim pro v in ces. T h e y w ere d u p ed by selfseekers, o p p o rtu n is ts a n d c ro o k s ’. T h e fam ily d isco v ered th is view w a s n o t s h a re d b y o th e r Bihari m ig ra n ts a t th a t tim e. B ut it decided to leave th e e a st fo r th e w e st w in g , ‘b etw een 1 9 5 6 a n d 1 9 5 8 ’, a n d late r, ‘seeing th e w ritin g o n th e w a ll’, it left P a k ista n b etw een 1 9 6 9 a n d 1 9 7 2 fo r C a n a d a a n d F ran ce. T h is w a s ‘n o t a t all a political 10 0 . Ibid.

36 ♦ Partition and the South Asian Diaspora

fam ily ’, a n d it still tries to figure o u t ‘w h o w e re th e losers a n d th e g ain ers’. In its v iew , ‘v irtu ally all (Bihari) M u slim s (in th e d iasp o ra ) a re ro u te d th ro u g h P a k ista n ’, a n d a lm o s t all o f th em a re ‘eco n o m ic refugees’. In th is in tro sp ec tio n , e th n ic a n d reg io n al a rticu la tio n s in p re- a n d p o st-1 9 7 1 P a k ista n find n o m en tio n , b u t rem a rk a b ly , th e p re -p a rtitio n lin k s b etw een B ih ar a n d Bengal d o . T h e refo re , th e su g g estio n th a t it m ay b e w o rth w h ile stu d y in g w h y th e m ig ra tio n o f B iharis to Bengal a fte r 1 9 4 7 ‘en d ed u p in a d isa ster, w h ereas, h u n d red s o f th o u sa n d s o f Bengalis have been living in B ih ar fo r c e n tu ries w ith o u t m u ch p ro b le m ’. 101 Several B iharis w h o m oved fro m D h a k a to K arach i h av e resettled in th e US o v e r a lo n g p e rio d o f tim e. T h e ‘fam ily re u n io n ’ im m ig ra­ tio n pro cess h a s o fte n ta k e n o v e r te n y ears to h a p p e n .102 Som e have m ad e it fro m K arach i o n ly in th e la te n in eties a n d in th e visa lo ttery c a teg o ry .103 Som e trip le m ig ran ts p o in t to th e D esna d iasp o ra. Desna is a village close to P atn a a n d m an y o f its M alik (ashraf) ex -residents m ad e it to D h a k a , K a ra c h i, Saudi A rab ia a n d th e n , in th e m ain , to th e e a st c o a st a ro u n d N e w Y o rk a n d N e w Je rse y .104 K a m ra n Ali sh ares th is D esn a b a c k g ro u n d . H e recalls th a t his m o th e r w h o ra n th e fam ily trav el ag en cy a fte r his fa th e r p assed o n in 1 9 6 5 , decided to leave E ast P a k ista n in M a rc h 1 9 7 1 . H e w as 9 y ears old th e n a n d vividly rem em b ers his eig h t h o u rs to Sri L a n k a , en r o u te to Pak i­ s ta n , a n d th e in -flig h t so ft d rin k , F a n ta. H e a n d his b ro th e r stayed w ith a n uncle in R a w alp in d i fo r th re e y ears a n d his sister w as w ith a fam ily friend in K arach i. T h e y m et u p in th e su m m ers. H is m o th e r retu rn e d to D h a k a to sell o ff th e ir p ro p e rty a n d g o t s tu c k in a refu ­ gee c a m p th ere fo r a w h ile, a n d th en w e n t o n to B ih ar fo r fo u r o r five m o n th s. Som e o f h e r cam p frien d s a re n o w in O ra n g i, K arachi. T h e fam ily w a s reu n ited o n ly in 1 9 7 4 .105 A cco rd in g to D r. H a q , it 101. E -m ail from S.A. A sad, 2 2 A ugust 2 00 0 . 10 2 . In te rv ie w w ith F e ro z a S u laim a n , 2 0 D e ce m b e r 1 9 9 6 , R o ckville. She w as expecting h e r bro th ers to join h e r a ro u n d this tim e. 103. Interview w ith B adar A bid, 12 O c to b e r 199 6 , R aleigh. T his d etail is a b o u t his classm ate S alim uddin o f N ew Y o rk . B adr him self left K arachi for a Ph.D . in th e US in 198 1 . H is f a th e r w as from N a g a rn a u sa , o ne o f th e w o rst h it villages in the 1 9 4 6 rio t in B ihar. H a lf h is relatives a re still in Bihar. 104. T elephone con v ersatio n w ith K am ran Ali o f R ochester, 14 O c to b e r 199 6 . I w o u ld like to th a n k S h ah n a z R ouse fo r m en tio n in g him . 105. Ibid., A bdul B ari o f the B ihar C ongress w as the m aternal uncle o f Ali’s m other and his fam ily lore has it th a t B ari w as bum ped o ff in 1947 because he had evidence o f th e abduction o f M uslim w om en from Jehan a b ad during the 1946

Negotiating Nations ♦ 37

w as n o t th e lan d ed Syed fam ilies th a t left D esn a in 1 9 4 7 . T h e o nes w h o left fo r K o lk ata, M u m b a i a n d D h ak a w ere M a lik professionals. H is fa th e r w a s w ith th e All In d ia R a d io a n d o p te d to sw itch to D h a k a . H e recalls m an y p e o p le try in g o u t P a k ista n fo r six m o n th s a n d th en re tu rn in g to In d ia . F irm e r decisions, e ith e r w a y , h ad to be m ad e a fte r th e p a s sp o rt system w a s in tro d u c ed in 1 9 5 2 . T h o u g h th e re w e re m o re tra v e l restric tio n s a fte r th e 1 9 6 5 w a r, th ey visited In d ia u p to 1 9 7 0 . F o r H a q , th e m em ories o f 1 9 4 6 , o f bo d ies d u m p ed in to w ells, ‘th a t w ere ev er vivid’, g o t rep lay ed w h e n ev en ts tu rn e d an ti-B ih ari in E ast P a k ista n in 1 9 7 1 . ‘W e decided w e a re n o t going to let it h a p p e n to o u r c h ild ren a n d sen t th em to P a k ista n ’. T h e ex it w as m ad e via B ih ar a n d K a th m a n d u , w h e re th ey stay ed a t a hotel fo r six w eeks. T h e y reach ed K arachi via B a n g k o k a n d la te r m oved to th e US.106 It w a s in 1 9 6 5 th a t J a fa r Im am a n d tw o o th e r geology stu d en ts o f P a tn a decided to leave In d ia b ecau se o f som e o ffensive rem a rk s a b o u t M u slim s m ad e b y a teach er. Im am reach ed D h a k a via K h u ln a, b o th in se arc h o f e m p lo y m en t a n d to tra n sc e n d a deep sense o f h u m ilia tio n . In D h a k a , in 1 9 6 6 , a rela tiv e a le rte d h im th a t th e Bengalis w e re in te n d in g to s e p ara te fro m P a k ista n , th a t th ere w ere h a rd feelings a b o u t U rd u -sp e a k e rs a n d th a t h e sh o u ld m o v e to K arach i. H e relo c a te d th ere b etw een 1 9 6 6 -7 3 ; ‘1971 is th e o n ly tu rn in g p o in t in m y life a n d I a m p o sitiv e a b o u t it, I a m su re a b o u t it’ (his em phasis). T h a t w as w h e n his ‘co n c ep t a n d d re a m o f Pak i­ s ta n w a s s h a tte re d ’. O n 1 6 D ecem b er, h e says h e w o n d e re d , ‘w h a t s o rt o f P a k ista n is th is?’. H e w as c ateg o rical th a t it w a s th e e x p e ri­ ence o f B iharis in E ast P a k ista n , d esp ite th e ir sacrifices fo r th e m ak ­ in g o f P a k ista n , th a t h a d m ad e him d ecid e to leave P a k ista n . H e c laim ed th a t a b o u t 8 5 p e r c e n t o f th e M u h a jirs (h e p refe rs to call th em P ak istan is) in E ast P a k ista n w ere B iharis. Im am recalled sp en d ­ in g sleepless n ig h ts w h e n h e g o t n ew s o f th e ir killings in 1 9 7 1 , w hile o n w o rk a t a sa lt m in e in P u n jab . W h en h e m o v ed to th e US in 1 9 7 3 , he p a rticip a te d in a d e m o n stra tio n , to g eth e r w ith forty-five to fifty o th ers, o u tsid e th e P a k ista n c o n su la te in M a n h a tta n . T h e rio t. K am ran recounted th a t it w as o nly m uch la te r, th a t his father’s generation w hich earlier used to justify pa rtitio n , sta rte d talking fondly o f their hockey m atches in M e eru t a n d A ligarh a n d friends like R am das a nd th e choti (railway) line routes in Bihar. 106. Interview o n 6 J a n u a ry 1 9 9 7 , N ew Jersey.

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s lo g a n s m a d e ju s t o n e p o in t: ta k e b a c k t h e P a k is ta n is fro m B angladesh. H e h a s b een in to u c h w ith th e d iasp o ra a ctiv e o n this issue, a n d h a s z a k a t a n d fitra fro m th e W a sh in g to n , D .C . a re a sent to th o s e w h o d e s c rib e th em se lv e s a s S tra n d e d P a k is ta n is a n d lan g u ish in th e c a m p s in B angladesh. H e said th a t th o u g h threeq u a rte rs o f th e B iharis w h o h a d m ig rated to D h a k a a n d K arachi live o n th e e a st c o a st in th e US, w o rk in g fo r th o se left behind in Bangladesh in th e P akistani com m unity h a s been a n uphill task (‘ba h ut w a q t lagta hai, b a h u t sam ja h a n a h o ta hai, b a h u t. . . '— ‘it ta k e s a lo n g tim e, o n e h a s to d o a lo t o f c o n v in cin g , a lo t...’). Im am th in k s th a t h a d th e c o n tig u ity fa c to r n o t b eck o n ed In d ia n M u slim s to E ast P a k ista n fro m th e ir o rig in a l w a ta n in B ih ar a n d UP, th ey m ay well h av e escaped b e in g s tu c k in refu g ee c a m p s fo r all th ese y e a rs .107 M o h a m m a d A b d u l Q aiy u m ’s fam ily m oved fro m C h a p ra in n o rth B ih ar to K o lk a ta a n d th en to E ast P a k ista n in th e m id-fifties. T h e fam ily c o n tin u e d to m ak e fre q u e n t trip s to C h a p ra . In 1971 he m o v ed to K arach i, fo r a b it to Sau d i A ra b ia , a n d th en to th e US in th e early nin eties. ‘N o t b ecause o f th e p ro b le m s in K a ra c h i’, a s he ch o se to p u t it, b u t fo r ‘bu siness rea so n s’. Q a iy u m recalled th a t in th e y e a rs befo re 1 9 7 1 , D h a k a C h itta g o n g , S aid p u r, Ish u rd i, R a n g p u r a n d Jesso re h a d local M u h a jir o rg an iz a tio n s. H e w a s a ctiv e w ith th e D h a k a -b a se d , H a sib H a sh m i led, M illi tan zim . L o o k in g b a c k , h e c a n n o t figure o u t w h y th e B iharis refused to lea rn B engali, w h en fo r e x a m p le , th o se in th e US d o lea rn E nglish. H e d eeply reg rets the U rd u -sp ea k e rs sid in g w ith th e W e st P a k ista n a rm y . T o him p a rti­ tio n w a s ‘a w ro n g d ecisio n ’ b ecau se it sp lit In d ia n M u slim s, first in to tw o , a n d th e n , th re e c o u n tries. W h e n h e g o t to K a ra c h i in 1 9 7 1 , h e says h e re th o u g h t P a k ista n a n d c o n c lu d e d th a t its cre­ a tio n h a d n o t really h e lp ed th e su b c o n tin e n t’s M u slim s. F o r, ‘if P a k ista n w a s n o t a h o m ela n d fo r In d ia n M u slim s, w h o w a s it m ad e fo r, a fte r a ll?’. H e th in k s th e ‘biggest m is ta k e ’ L ia q u a t Ali a n d J in n a h m ad e w a s m o v in g to ‘a n u n k n o w n c o u n try ’. Q a iy u m c o n­ firm ed th a t m an y e x -E ast P a k ista n is h a d jo in ed A lta f H u s s a in ’s M u h a jir Q a u m i M o v e m e n t (M Q M ) in th e eighties. O n his re tu rn fro m Sau d i A ra b ia , in 1 9 8 0 , h e becam e a ctiv e in c o m m u n ity w o rk in O ra n g i, K a ra c h i, a n d ‘in th a t c a p a c ity ’, elec tio n e e re d f o r th e

107. Interview on 2 2 D ecem ber 1 996, W ashington, D .C . N asim K han o f the Stranded Pakistani G eneral R ep atriatio n C om m ittee (see c h ap ter tw o) sends his n ew slet­ ters to Im am a n d h is friends. H e spoke o ff th e record a b o u t a n o th e r affiliation.

Negotiating Nations ♦ 39

M Q M c a n d id a te in 1 9 8 9 . H e w a s a lso ‘very a ctiv e’ o n th e issue o f th e re p a tria tio n o f B iharis fro m B an g lad esh to P a k ista n a n d had ac co m p a n ie d L o rd E n n als (long asso c ia te d w ith th e effo rt) o n his trip to O ra n g i. In th e US h e h a s b een s u p p o rtiv e o f th e o verseas M Q M . A t a n o th e r level, h e h a s b een a tte m p tin g to b rin g to g eth er th e s u b c o n tin e n ta l d iasp o ra th ro u g h th e C rescent C ity C e n tre in A tla n ta .108 F o r th e M u h a jirs in W e st P a k ista n th e d ecisio n to m ig ra te a sec­ o n d tim e w as q u ite o fte n d eterm ined b y percep tio n s o f h o w P akistan h a d ch a n g ed a s it u n fo ld e d . A faq H a y d e r w a s a college tea c h e r w h o m o v ed to P a k ista n fro m U P in th e fifties. O n h is r e tu rn to P a k ista n a fte r stu d y in g in th e US h e fo u n d it d iffic u lt to h a n d le h a v in g to h e a r ‘n o t less th a n fo u r tim es a d a y ’, in S u k k u r, th a t th e M u h a jirs h a d e a te n in to Sindhi jo b s. H e d isco v ered th a t b y c o m ­ p a ris o n , settlin g in th e US w a s ‘m u ch e asier’ th a n relo c a tin g in Sindh h a d been. T h e re w a s a lso th e b o n u s o f a n A m erican c itizen sh ip th a t m ad e it e asier to g et a n In d ia n v isa .109 In a n o th e r case, it w a s q u ite definitively th e ‘sh o ck ’ o f seeing P a k ista n b re a k in to tw o th a t firm ed u p th e d ecisio n to sta y o n in th e US: ‘W e co u ld have b eco m e citi­ zens earlier. B ut w e w ere alw ay s th in k in g o f g o in g back . 1 9 7 1 w as th e tu rn in g p o in t’. 110 A fter th e m ilitary c ra c k d o w n o n th e M Q M in 1 9 9 2 , th e US a n d C a n a d ia n g o v e rn m e n ts h av e b een in to u c h w ith its o verseas u n its to a u th e n tic a te asylum a p p lic a tio n s.111 M ean w h ile

108. Interview on 15 F eb ru ary 199 7 , A tlanta. 10 9 . Interview on 2 0 O c to b e r 1 99 6 , M ad iso n . I la te r cam e across h is, ‘T he M ohajirs in Sindh: A C ritical Essay’, see H a y d e r ( 1 9 9 3 :1 0 7 - 2 4 ), in w h ic h h e m entions th a t re la tio n s betw een S indhis a n d M u h a jirs dete rio ra te d in th e m id-sixties a n d th eir ‘fru stratio n s’ e x p la in b o th th e Jiye S indh a n d M u h a jir Q au m i m ove­ m ents. T h e fo rm er focused o n perc ep tio n s o f b ecom ing ‘second class citizens in th eir o w n la n d ’ a n d th e la tte r em erged because they w ere, ‘still aliens in th eir n e w ho m elan d ’. 110. Interview w ith W aheed Siddiqui, 11 N ovem ber 1996, S aratoga, C alifornia. H is first m igration w as from H y d era b ad , D eccan. O n 1971 he said, ‘U skay b aad se bharosa n ahi raba k isi cheez par. K e itn a bara bissa [East P akistan] n ika l gaya, to b w o b P akistan jo bam aray zeban m ein tbaa, w o b i b a k i nabi ra b a ...to h iss kadar sh o c k tb a a .... (‘A fter th a t w e c ould n o t d epend o n anything. W hen such a huge c h u n k left P akistan it w a s n o longer th e sam e c o u n tr y .. . it w as a huge shock’) W aheed recalled th e creation o f Pakistan a s ‘one o f the m ost glorious m om ents’ o f his life. H e w as 16 o r 17 a n d in H yd e rab a d then. 11 1 . Interview w ith M o h a m m e d Y o u n u s (O verseas M Q M ), 2 2 O c to b e r 199 6 , C h icago.

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Partition and the South Asian Diaspora

several M Q M lead ers o n th e ru n h av e been in h id in g in th e G ulf a n d in th e US sin ce 1 9 9 2 . W h en ev er p o ssib le th e ir s u p p o rte rs a r ­ ran g e fo r th em to m eet th e d iasp o ric c o m m u n ity a n d w o rk o n this co n stitu en cy . H o w e v e r, till th e late n in eties w h e n I did m y field­ w o rk in th e US, m an y h eld b ack fro m co m in g o u t in th e o p e n as M Q M s u p p o rte rs fo r fea r o f rep ercu ssio n s o n th e ir fam ilies back h o m e. T h e re w e re a ls o o th e rs w h o e ith e r rejected its p o litics o r had co m e to d istan ce th em selves fro m its ‘te rro ris m ’ a fte r h av in g ini­ tially s u p p o rte d it, o r w ere p lain in d ifferen t to its c areer, do m estic o r d iasp o ric . B ut in a c o u p le o f in stan ces, P a k ista n i c o m m u n ity o rg a n iz a tio n s in th e US sp lit a lo n g M u h a jir/P u n ja b i lines in th e n in eties.112 By all a c c o u n ts 1971 becam e a tu rn in g p o in t in b o th p a rtitio n ’s su b c o n tin e n ta l, a s w ell a s th e w id e r S o u th A sian d ia sp o ra . A fter th a t, q u estio n s o f n a tio n h o o d , citizen sh ip a n d h o m ela n d ca m e to th e fo re even m o re sh a rp ly th a n before. M u c h o f th is hinged o n th e c a re e r a n d c a rto g ra p h y o f th e tw o -n a tio n th eo ry . W h a t linked th e M u h a jir fo rm a tio n s in th e e a st a n d w e st w a s th e h isto ry o f th e S tran d ed P a k ista n is. A b o u t 7 0 p e r c en t o f th e ‘B iharis’ w h o had been living in th e a rea befo re th e 1971 w a r, i.e. 7 8 0 ,0 0 0 p erso n s, m a in ly f r o m t h e m id d le c la s s , o p t e d t o b e c o m e c itiz e n s o f B a n g la d esh .113 U n d e r th e Shim la a n d D elh i ag re e m en ts o f 1 9 7 3 a n d 1 9 7 4 , P a k is ta n a g re e d to a c c e p t th e f o llo w in g ca te g o rie s: (a) th o se b o rn in W e st P a k ista n ; (b) fo rm e r m ilita ry p e rso n n e l; (c) ce n tra l g o v e rn m e n t em ployees; (d ) divided fam ilies; a n d (e) h a rd ­ sh ip cases. A to ta l o f 5 3 4 ,7 9 2 p e rso n s a p p lie d fo r re p a tria tio n to P a k ista n . O f th ese 1 1 8 ,8 6 6 w ere accep ted as co m in g w ith in these categories. L a ter, o th e rs w ere acce p te d fo r ad m issio n to P ak istan a n d 1 2 1 ,2 1 2 p e rso n s w ere tra n s fe rre d fro m B an g lad esh to Pak i­ s ta n betw een 1 9 7 4 a n d 1 9 7 9 . A n a d d itio n a l 4 1 ,8 6 0 w ere a d m itte d , so m e o f th em via N e p a l, M y a n m a r a n d Sri L an k a. O n th e w h o le, P a k ista n claim s to have received a to ta l o f 1 6 3 ,0 7 2 p e rso n s (Ennals 1 9 8 2 : 3 0 ). In m id - 1 9 7 2 th e n u m b e r s in t h e c a m p s f o r th o se

11 2 . Interview s in B altim ore, N ew Je rsey, T o ro n to , D e tro it, A tla n ta , M iam i, H o u s ­ to n and C alifornia betw een S eptem ber 1 9 9 6 a n d A pril 1997. 113. T aju d d in (1999: 98 ). A ccording to K h u rsh id a Begum Sayeed ‘T h e S tranded P akistanis in B angladesh a n d In tern a tio n al Im plications’, In te rn atio n a l W o rk ­ sh o p o n Intern a tio n aliz atio n o f E thnic C onflict, 2 - 4 A ugust 198 9 , C en tre F o r E th n ic Studies, Sri L a n k a , p. 1, Bangladesh g ra n te d citizenship to m o re th a n 6 0 0 ,0 0 0 persons w h o w a n te d to stay o n .

Negotiating Nations * 41

a w a itin g re p a tria tio n sto o d a t 7 3 5 ,1 8 0 . F o u r y ears late r th e n u m ­ b e r fell to ju st o v e r 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 . (ibid.: G u est 19 8 2 : 2 5 ). By th e late eighties 2 5 8 ,0 2 8 p erso n s w ere rep o rted to b e living in sixty-six cam ps in B an g lad esh (IC R P 1 9 8 8 ). T h ese refugee cam p s w e re b u ilt w ith th e h elp o f th e R ed C ro ss a n d th e U N H C R (W ein er 1 9 9 3 : 1 7 3 9 ), a n d a re sp read o u t a m o n g o th e r places, in D h a k a , K h u ln a, Ish u rd i, R a n g p u r, S aid p u r, R ajsh ah i, B ogra, M ym ensingh, C o m illa, Sylhet, Jessore a n d D in ajp u r (W hitaker 19 7 2 : 17). T h o s e w h o m an a g e d to m o v e to P a k ista n a n d b eyond w ere clearly th e b e tte r off. It w a s ag ain th e rich B iharis w h o engaged US a tto rn ey s to claim th e ir a b a n d o n e d p ro p e rtie s.114 M o s t o f th e cam p s a re lik e ‘a big g rav e’. T h e h u tm e n ts a re 4 feet b y 6 feet a n d a c o u p le o f th em , 6 feet by 8 feet. T h o s e w h o a re lan g u ish in g in th e cam p s a re full o f q u estio n s a n d o f history-telling. W hat happened to our right to repatriation? W hat the arm y did, it did as a professional body. It w as paid and rem unerated for its ser­ vices, bu t w e sacrificed everything for the country w ithout asking for any rew ard o r rem uneration. Is th a t why w e have forfeited th e right to live in o u r ow n country? Earlier in 1946 we w ent through carnage a n d b lo o d b a th in B ih a r f o r s u p p o rtin g th e d e m a n d fo r Pakistan. In 1947 we paid th e sam e price in blood a n d destruction— for th e sam e cause. W h y are w e n o t Pakistanis? [my emphasis]. A resident o f th e M irp u r cam p in D h ak a a sk ed , “ W hen Idi Amin expelled the Asians, Britain accepted in to the county 200,000 o f its Asian citizens. Those w ho had retained their citizenship in Pakistan, mostly followers o f Aga Khan w ere allowed into Pakistan. So why this slam ming o f the d o o r against we Pakistanis? (Salahuddin 1980). T o M o h a m m a d A slam w h o ra n a sm all g ro ce ry s h o p in th e G eneva cam p in D h a k a in th e late eighties, it seem ed th a t th e Stranded P ak istan is w ere ‘th e w o rld ’s fo rg o tte n lo t’. H e felt it w a s a w o rld ‘so busy w ith A fg h a n ista n , K am p u ch ea a n d V ie tn a m ’, th a t n o o n e b o th ere d a b o u t th em . In th e sa m e ca m p , th e 7 5 -y ear-o ld Sakina Bibi said sh e h ad n o t seen P a k ista n , b u t sh e w a n te d to d ie th ere, ‘th a t is m y last w ish ’.115 N u ru l H o d a w o rk e d as a m ech an ic in a 114. ‘T h e S ituation in th e B ihari C a m p s in J u n e 1 9 7 7 by a D o c to r W o rk in g in B angladesh’ in T h e B iharis in B angladesh, 1982, p p . 2 8 -2 9 . T h e a u th o r w ished to sta y a n onym ous. 115. N e w sw e e k , 9 M ay , 1988 p . 11.

42 * Partition and the South Asian Diaspora

ju te m ill fo r fo u rte en years. H e lo st ‘th e best y e a rs’ o f his life w h en h e w as sack ed a fte r 1 9 7 1 a n d en d ed u p in D h a k a ’s G en ev a cam p w h ich houses a b o u t 5 0 ,0 0 0 stateless peo p le. B ut h e believed th a t g o in g to P a k ista n w o u ld still b e ‘m ean in g fu l’, fo r a t least h e c o u ld ‘h o ld u p ’ his h e a d . Som e o f th e o th e r resid en ts o f th e c a m p have tak e n u p w o rk in za ri sh o p s a n d eateries serving biryani. M o h a m m e d H u ssa in K h a n b e c am e a z a ri w o rk e r a t ag e 7 0 a fte r h e q u it his h o tel business in M a n ik g a n j w h e n th e local p e o p le tu rn e d hostile. G o in g to P a k ista n w o u ld m ea n ‘dy in g w ith d ig n ity ’, even if he w ere to e n d u p jobless. In th e early nin eties, S h a m sh e r Ali, a lso o f th e sam e c a m p , w a s b itte r a n d hopeless. H e said , ‘if I h ad k n o w n th a t I w o u ld h av e to live h ere fo r tw o decad es, I w o u ld h av e co m m itted suicide. All th ese y ears w e h av e b een h e a rin g w e will g o to d ay , go to m o r ro w ...’. A tea c h e r in a c a m p sc h o o l said th a t m an y o f th e c h ild ren did n o t u n d e rsta n d th e n a tio n a lity q u e stio n , ‘th ey on ly k n o w th a t th ey live in a c a m p ...T h a t’s th e ir on ly id en tific atio n ’. A w o m a n w h o h a d tw o so n s living in P a k ista n w a n te d to m o v e th ere b u t sh e c a n n o t b ecause B angladesh will n o t give h e r trav el pap ers. S om eone w h o w a n te d th e o p tio n o f ap p ly in g fo r B angladeshi citi­ zen sh ip p u t it like this: ‘W e feel P a k ista n i, w e w a n t to g o to Pak i­ s ta n , b u t if w e c a n ’t, th e n w e m u st h av e so m e reso lu tio n . N o w w e a re living in th e m id d le o f a river. W e a re n o t o n o n e sh o re , n o r o n th e o th e r [sic].116 T h e b ittern ess o f th o se a sso ciated w ith th e p re -p a rtitio n M uslim L eague co m e acro ss differently: ‘W e a re like A nglo-Indians. N e ith e r England accep ts, n o r India. Is it n o t? ’, ask ed a n ageing ex-railw ay o p tee. H e h ad been w itness to a do w n slid e w h ich he n o w rhym es for effect. H a d th ey n o t g o n e to E ast P ak istan a s ‘a h e ro ’, only to be­ com e ‘a z ero ’? In th e sam e m o d e h e su m m ed u p th a t th eirs w as a sto ry o f ‘a heera' (a diam o n d ) becom ing ‘a keera’ (an insect). It w as a ‘to ta lly d em o ralized d o g ’s life’ in th e cam p s: ‘W e h av e h e a rd th a t P a k ista n will ta k e u s, J a p a n will ta k e u s, Saudi A ra b ia will ta k e us, B a h ra in will ta k e u s ....W h o m to a p p ro a c h a n d h o w to a p p ro a c h ? ’. It lo o k ed like th ey w ere d estin ed to fad e o u t, ‘u n su n g a n d u n w e p t’. T h is is h o w he p u t across his e x p ectatio n o f a territo rial a n d n o tio n al w a ta n w a p a si (re tu rn to th e h o m ela n d ), w ith so m e flair: ‘I d o n ’t w a n t to see th e latitu d e a n d lo n g itu d e o f th e g o v e rn m e n t in Pak i­ 116. w w w .refugees.org/w orld/artides/India_w rs98.htm , H iram A. R uiz, ‘Fifty Years in Exile: T h e B iharis R em ain in In d ia’.

Negotiating Nations ♦ 43

s ta n o r B angladesh, b u t th e a ttitu d e o f th e g o v e rn m e n ts’. A n o th e r o ld -tim e r a sk ed w h a t th e S indhis, B aluchis, P u n ja b is a n d S arh ad is h a d ‘d o n e fo r P a k ista n ’, a d d in g th a t sev eral S tra n d e d P a k ista n i w o m e n h ad to sell th em selves fo r a living, ‘a u r h u m k y a k a h e in V (w h a t m o re c a n w e say ?).117 A cco rd in g to a statistical stu d y u n d e rta k e n fifteen y ears a g o by a fo reig n -aid o rg an iz a tio n , C o n c e rn , m o st B iharis w ere fro m a m o n g th e low est stra ta in society. M a n y o f th em w ere self-em ployed. O th ­ e rs p u lled rick sh aw s o w n ed b y Bengalis w h o m th ey p a id 15 to 2 0 ta k a s fo r a n e ig h t-h o u r shift. T h e y co u ld n o t a p p ly fo r g o v ern m en t jo b s a n d w h e n try in g fo r fac to ry jo b s th ey co n cealed th e ir identity. O n c e th e ir id en tity becam e k n o w n th ey o fte n lo st th e ir jo b s o r they received h a lf th e a m o u n t th a t a Bengali g o t (H u ssein 19 9 0 : 4 9 ). In th e m id -n in eties th e re w e re still 2 3 8 ,0 0 0 stateless p e o p le b elonging to 4 1 ,0 0 0 fam ilies in B angladesh living in six ty -six ‘G eneva C a m p s’ (K h an 19 9 7 : 145). Som e in te rn a tio n a l M u slim o rg an iz a tio n s, th e g o v e rn m e n t o f B an g lad esh a n d th e d ip lo m a tic m issions o f Saudi A ra b ia , K u w a it a n d P a k ista n p ro v id e relief a n d occasio n al g ran ts to th ese c a m p s.118 B ut w ith o u t th e c itizen sh ip o f e ith e r P a k ista n o r B an g lad esh , it is n o t p o ssib le fo r th em to m ig ra te to a n y o th e r place. So o n a fte r 1 9 7 1 , so m e B iharis in D h a k a ’s M o h a m m a d p u r cam p m en tio n ed th a t a b o u t 9 5 p e r c en t o f th em w a n te d to g o to P akistan a n d 5 p e r c en t to India (W h itak er 19 7 2 : 14). B ut b y th e tim e th e R efugee a n d M ig ra to ry M o v em en ts R esearch U n it did a survey in 1 9 9 7 in th e tw o m ajo r c a m p s in D h a k a , 5 9 p e r c en t identified th em ­ selves a s B angladeshis, 6 2 .7 4 p e r c en t o p ted fo r local in te g ratio n a n d 5 5 p e r cent did n o t w a n t to g o to P ak istan (M o h a m m a d T a ju d d in 19 9 9 : 99). W h en M o h a m m a d A yub K h an m o v ed to E ast P a k ista n in 1 9 4 8 , h e h ad left b e h in d 3 acres o f lan d a n d a sm all b u siness in B ihar. H e to o k u p w o rk a s a sp in n e r in th e C rescen t J u te M ills a t K h u ln a. H e w a s n o t p a r t o f th e 4 6 2 ,0 0 0 B iharis w h o fled to P a k ista n a fte r 1 971. By th e late n in eties, th e 6 5 -y ea r-o ld K h a n h ad lived in a cram m ed c a m p in K h u ln a fo r tw en ty -fiv e years. W h en a fire b ro k e o u t in th e 117. E xcerpts fro m , ‘S tranded P ak istan is in B angladesh’, a m id-nineties v ideo cas­ sette o f th e M o h e b an-e-P akistan, a G u lf based g ro u p . I am tha n k fu l to J a fa r Im am fo r a copy. 11 8 . M oh a m m a d T a ju d d in (1999: 100); T h e K haleej T im es, 2 9 Ju ly 2 0 0 2 , m entions seventy cam ps w hich receive som e funds from the Bangladesh governm ent a nd the R ed C rescent Society. B ut o n th e w hole they a re left to fend fo r themselves.

44 * Partition and the South Asian Diaspora

c a m p in 1 9 9 5 th e in m ates lo st ev ery th in g . K h a n h a d co m e a ro u n d to se ttlin g d o w n in B an g lad esh b ecause h e d id n o t w ish to becam e a p a w n in so m e ‘p o litical g am e’. B ut th e re a re o th ers w h o a re still d eterm in ed to g et to P a k ista n (M .N . K h a n 19 9 7 : 1 4 3 -4 4 ). In early 2 0 0 3 , th e D h a k a city c o rp o ra tio n a n d th e h o u sin g a n d p u b lic w o rk s m in istry razed a ro u n d 3 0 0 ho u ses o f th e th irty -y e a r-o ld M irp u r A .D .C . cam p w h ere a b o u t 3 ,0 0 0 Stran d ed Pakistanis h ad been living since 1 9 7 2 . A c c o rd in g to A b d u l J a b b a r K h a n , th e p resid e n t o f th e S tran d ed P ak istan i G en eral R e p a tria tio n C o m m itte e (SPG R C ), this w as a v io la tio n o f th e hig h c o u rt o rd e r a sk in g th e g o v e rn m e n t n o t to d istu rb , evict o r dem o lish th e cam p s till th eir fate is d e te rm in e d .119 M a n y in te rn a tio n a l a n d B angladeshi h u m a n rig h ts o rg an iz a tio n s c o n sid e r th e Bihari M u slim s in B angladesh to be refugees a n d 'th e u n finished business’ o f p a rtitio n . T h e y a re seen a s facin g m an y p ro b ­ lem s sim ila r to th o se o f o th e r refugees. F ru s tra tio n a n d th e h o rrib le c o n d itio n o f th e c a m p s h av e m ad e th o u sa n d s o f B iharis m ove to P a k ista n o n th e ir o w n o r to leave th e c a m p s a n d in te g rate in to th e local co m m u n ity . T h o se still in th e c a m p s a re seen a s bein g , ‘to o p o o r to have o p tio n s ’. (Bose 2 0 0 0 : 2 0 - 1 ). T h e c a m p sto ries a re still alive a n d a n im a te n o t m erely s u b c o n ti­ n e n ta l a n d d ia s p o ric in itia tiv e s to c o m p le te th e r e p a tria tio n o f S tran d ed P a k ista n is, b u t a lso th e letters to th e e d ito r co lu m n s. F o r in sta n c e, w h e n S artaj Aziz, th e P a k ista n i foreign m in ister said th a t ‘B iharis a re n o t P a k ista n is’ in 1 9 9 9 , th e re w a s th e u su al o u tra g e . Syed M o h a m m a d Id ris, a B ihari fro m P a tn a d istric t w h o w as o n th e s ta ff o f th e n e w s p a p e r D a w n in D elhi in 1 9 4 6 , w ro te fro m K arach i w ith a s h a rp so u n d in g a u th o rity to th e (sam e) n ew sp ap er. In O ctober 1946, 13,000 young and old Biharis were done to death and 32,000 w om en a n d children jum ped in to w ells....N early 11,000 young wom en w ere carried off by com m unal m arauders a n d raiders. This is th e figure o f M uslim s living in Patna district only. This suffer­ ing w as to contribute to the success o f the M uslim League for Paki­ stan. And such people are declared non-Pakistanis by M r. Sartaj Aziz. Idris w ro te th a t he h ad visited th e villages in P a tn a d istric t a s th e n e w s p a p e r’s c o rre s p o n d e n t a n d recalled th e h o rrib le k illings. In M u n g e r a n d C h a p ra h e w as to ld th a t 1 5 ,0 0 0 M u slim s h ad been

119. w w w .w eekIyholiday.net, 2 8 F eb ru a ry 200 3 .

Negotiating Nations ♦ 45

killed a n d n e a rly 4 ,0 0 0 g irls h a d been c a rrie d aw ay . In 1 9 7 1 , Bihari teen ag ers w ere given rifles to fight alo n g w ith th e a rm y a n d th o u ­ san d s o f Bihari w o m e n a n d ch ild ren w ere killed by th e M u k ti Bahini. T h o s e w h o m an a g e d to survive a n d reach P a k ista n w ere still stru g ­ gling. T h o se w h o c o u ld n o t m ak e it on ly g o t a ‘w re tc h e d life in th e c a m p s in B an g lad esh ’, in r e tu rn fo r th e ir loyalty. ‘T h e tra g e d y is th a t p e o p le w h o g o t P a k ista n w ith o u t s h e d d in g a d ro p o f b lo o d , lo sin g a p en n y , n o w p ro c la im th a t B iharis a re n o t P ak istan is’. Idris th en m ad e a p o in t often rep eated by M u h ajirs: since K arachi already h a s th e larg est n u m b e r o f illegal im m ig ra n ts, S tra n d e d P ak istan is c o u ld su rely b e ferrie d ac ro ss w ith o u t m ak in g m u ch o f a d e m o ­ g rap h ic d ifferen ce.120 T h e presen ce o f o v e r th re e m illio n A fg h an refugees in P ak istan h a s alw ay s to u c h e d a r a w M u h a jir nerve. A rep re se n ta tiv e letter to th e e d ito r p o in te d o u t th a t n o t on ly h a d A fg h a n ista n n o t c o n trib ­ u ted to th e P a k ista n m o v em e n t, b u t A fghans h a d left b e h in d a trail o f d ru g s, illegal a rm s, sm uggling a n d terro rism . ‘T h e A fghans sh o u ld leave a n d m ak e ro o m fo r th e re p a tria tio n o f P ak istan is stra n d e d in B an g lad esh sin ce th e fall o f D h a k a ’.121 T h e o th e r p ere n n ia l p ro b ­ lem is th a t th e statelessness o f th e B iharis a m o u n ts to a b ypassing o f th e tw o -n a tio n th eo ry . G h u la m K a b ir o f K arach i w ro te to D a w n , th a t it w a s ‘u n p a trio tic ’ n o t to have g o t ac ro ss th e B ihari refugees to th e ‘resid u al P a k ista n ’, s o o n a fte r 16 D ecem b er 1 9 7 1 . ‘N o o th er P ak istan is h av e p a id such a heavy p ric e fo r th e ir lo y alty to P ak istan in th e p a rtitio n h o lo ca u st, a n d ag ain in th e 1 9 7 1 trag ed y , a s d id th e B iharis s tra n d e d in B an g lad esh a n d , th ey a re still p a y in g d early fo r it, lea d in g to a n u n e n d in g life o f in se c u rity a n d u n c e rta in ty ’.122 A ro u n d a d e c ad e a g o , Isra ru l H a q u e , a r e p a tria tio n a c tiv is t in L o n d o n , joined issue w ith Z a h u r B hat fo r his co m m e n t th a t Bihar a n d U P h a d e x p erien ced very few in cid en ts o f c o m m u n a l frenzy a ro u n d th e tim e o f p a rtitio n . H a q u e rem inded h im th a t acco rd in g to Jin n a h it w a s th e Bihar killings in 1 9 4 6 th a t h a d vindicated th e tw on a tio n th eo ry . A n d th a t th e c o n trib u tio n o f th e B ihar railw ay optees 12 0 . D a w n , 7 A pril 199 9 . A lso see P ro f. Salm a Z a m a n ’s le tter t o th e e d ito r from K arachi in th e 9 M a rc h 1999 issue, asking S artaj A ziz to p u t him self ‘in the place o f stra n d ed P akistanis in E ast Bengal’ a nd a d d e d , ‘H o w w ould he [then] re a c t to n o t being called a P akistani?’. 121. Ib id ., 7 M a rc h 1999. 12 2 . Ib id ., 5 M ay 1997.

46 ♦ Partition and the South Asian Diaspora

to E ast P ak istan h a d been crucial a n d con firm ed th e q u rb a n i o f the aqalliat su b a (m inority province) M uslim s in installing P a k ista n .123 A n o th e r letter w rite r fro m K arach i, Safir A. Sid d iq u i, fo u n d a co m m u n ica tio n fro m H u m a y o u n A k h ta r o f C a n a d a o n th e B iharis in th e B angladesh c a m p s, p lain callous. H e w rites he has dual nationality a n d his children have th e best of both w orlds. It w as sheer good luck th a t M r. H um ayoun left form er E ast Pakistan ju st in tim e, otherw ise he w ould have found himself in a sim ilar situ atio n as th e B iharis a re fac in g ...I th o u g h t since M r. H u m ayoun is living in an affluent country, in opulence and style he w ould mobilize w orld opinion and raise requisite fund[s] for [the] speedy repatriation o f Biharis, alas! H e is asking them to recon­ cile and forget ab o u t Pakistan. Can Biharis forget their dream land? S iddiqui a lso m en tio n ed a se n tim e n t co m m o n a m o n g Biharis: T h e Biharis are Pakistanis because they had m ade th e eastern wing o f th e country their hom eland. If th a t hom eland o f theirs has be­ come Bangladesh, how can th e Biharis have lost their Pakistani iden­ tity o r nationality o r sentim ental a ttach m en t w ith Pakistan? Such [a] tho u g h t defies logic.... Some people are obsessed w ith the idea th a t if Biharis are rep atriated , it will change th e dem ographic com ­ plexion o f Sindh. If tw o m illion Bengalis are living freely in Karachi and six million Afghans in Pakistan, w hy are 2.5 lakh [250,000] Biharis being denied the right o f living in their ow n country? M r. Jin n ah had visited Bihar several tim es durin g his long struggle to carve o u t a hom eland for M uslim s o f the subcontinent, every time he w as given a standing ovation a n d w holehearted su pport. Today th e sam e people are being denied entry into Pakistan.124 W h en G en eral M u s h a rra f visited B angladesh in 2 0 0 2 , th e BBC w e b site in v ite d v ie w p o in ts o n w h e th e r th e S tra n d e d P a k ista n is sh o u ld b e settled in P a k ista n . M o s t o f th o se w h o w ro te in said ‘yes’. T h ey in clu d ed K h a w a r K arim o f L o n d o n , M o h a m m a d K han o f USA, Saeed A. Sh eik h o f M o n tre a l a n d T a riq o f U K . A deela A n sari o f C h icag o su ggested th a t th ey be settled ‘n o t o n ly in Sindh, b u t in d iffe re n t a re a s o f P a k ista n ’. M a z h e r w ro te fro m A u stralia 12 3 . T h e D aily J u n g , L o n d o n , 2 7 F eb ru ary 1 9 9 4 .1 w o u ld like to th a n k M r. H aque for a copy. 124. D a w n , 2 9 D ecem ber 2 00 1 .

Negotiating Nations ♦ 47

th a t ‘th e so-called e th n ic p ro b le m s m ay b e a v o id e d by settlin g th em in p ro v in ces o th e r th a n S indh’. Syed Z e e s h a n H a id e r o f Isla m a b a d felt th a t th ey sh o u ld b e relo cated in P u n ja b a n d th e N o r th W est F ro n tie r Province (N W FP), n o t in Sindh. B u t M o sin M o e g h an i a n d A yaz B uzdar o f T o r o n to w ere o f th e view th a t it w o u ld b e w iser fo r th e B ih aris/S tran d ed P ak istan is to sta y o n in B angladesh. T h e U rd u ­ sp eak in g p e o p le w h o h ad been living in a b ject po v erty in th e refugee cam p s in D h a k a since th irty -o n e y ears deserved a n a p o lo g y from b o th P akistan a n d Bangladesh, according to S h ah A ffan o f T o ro n to .125 H e a lso w ro te to D a w n th a t th ey w ere ‘n o t b eg g ars’ a n d h a d th e skills to c o n trib u te to P a k ista n , a n d su ggested th a t th ey b e c o n ­ tac te d to solve th e re p a tria tio n p ro b le m .126 T a im u r M a su d K han o f P h ila d e lp h ia felt th a t e v e ry o n e h a d f o rg o tte n th e P a k ista n is stra n d e d in B an g lad esh th re e d ecad es ago. By c o n tra s t, th e A fghan refugees h a d easy access to P a k ista n .127 A m o n g o th e r o rg an iz a tio n s, th e re p a tria tio n issue has b een k ept alive b y th e P ak istan R e p a tria tio n C ouncil (PRC ) w h ich w a s fou n ded b y y o u n g stu d e n ts fro m E ast P a k ista n in K arachi in 1 9 7 1 .128 A t a rec e n t cele b ratio n o f Iq b al D ay b y th e C o u n c il in J e d d a h , tw o reso ­ lu tio n s w ere p a sse d . O n e in s u p p o rt o f th e S tran d ed P ak istan is a n d th e o th e r o n th e K a sh m iris.129 T h e S tra n d e d P a k ista n is G en eral R e p a tria tio n C o m m itte e (SPGRC) w h ic h w a s fo rm ed in B angladesh in 1 9 7 7 is discussed in c h a p te r tw o . It has trie d to g et th e U N to c a teg o rize th em a s ‘w o rld refugees’ a n d n o t m erely as ‘displaced p e rso n s’. S im u ltan eo u sly it p resen ts its m em b ers a s ‘M u slim R efu­ gees’ to e n list th e s u p p o rt o f th e M a k k a-b a se d R a b ita al A lam al Islam a n d Islam ic c o u n tries, to fu n d th e ir re p a tria tio n . W ith suc­ cessive g o v e rn m e n ts in P a k ista n , it has in sisted th ey a re ‘P ak istan is’ a n d th e ir n a tio n a lity d id n o t g e t e ra se d b e c a u se E a st P a k ista n 125. 12 6 . 127. 12 8 .

w w w .b b c.c o .u k , ‘H ave Y o u r Say’, 31 Ju ly 2 00 2 . 16 A ugust 200 2 . 2 8 F ebruary 200 3 . w w w .d e sp ard e s.co m /O p in io n /m a r3 % 2 0 b e h aris.h tm , Faiz Al N a jd i, ‘A Tale of T w o T ragedies’. T h e m ain sp irit b ehind it, E htesham U ddin A rsh ad is n o w w o rk in g fo r the P R C in the US. T h e P R C p ro p o sed a self-financing schem e fo r re p a tria tio n a n d reh a b ilitatio n . T his h a s th e su p p o rt o f D r A bdullah O m a r N aseef, ex-secretary general o f the M uslim W orld League a nd F rancis L am and, a French M uslim sc h o la r a n d fo rm e r m e m b e r o f th e U N H C R a n d o thers. 12 9 . w w w .co n ta ctp ak istan .c o m /n e w s/n ew sl2 1 .h tm , W e ekly Jeddah R ep o rt, 9 -1 5 N ovem ber 200 0 .

48

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Partition and the South Asian Diaspora

becam e B angladesh in 1 9 7 1 . Its trilin g u a l d e scrip tio n o f th o se in th e c a m p s a s S tra n d e d IM e b so o rlA a tk a y Pora P a k ista n s in d icates th e c o n to u rs o f its o u tre a c h effo rts o v e r th re e decades. T h e firm in g u p o f a tru s t b etw een th e R a b ita a n d th e P a k ista n g o v e rn m e n t o n 9 Ju ly 1 9 8 8 w as rec o rd e d by its ch ief p a tro n N a sim K h a n as a day o f deliverance: ‘W e tre a te d th is d a te as th e d a te o f o u r deliverance a n d ce le b rate d it ju st in th e m a n n e r th e “ D eliverance D a y ” w as o b se rv e d in th e s u b c o n tin e n t o f In d ia in 1 9 3 9 [w h e n C o n g re ss m in istries resig n e d ]...th is is a d a te w h ic h in d icates th e d a te o f o u r release fro m sh a b b y c a m p s’. A t th a t p o in t o f tim e it h ad seem ed to him th a t, ‘so o n th ese tru e a n d trie d P ak istan is’ w o u ld ‘see th e light o f d a y in th e ch erish ed h o m ela n d ’ fo r w h ic h th ey a n d th e ir an ces­ to rs h a d m ad e ‘historically a ck n o w led g ed , tre m en d o u s sacrifices’.130 Five y ears la te r w h e n a b a tc h o f a ro u n d 3 2 3 S tran d ed P ak istan is w ere rep a tria te d a n d settled in P u n ja b , N asim K h a n described th e d ev elo p m en t as ‘th e tru e rea liz a tio n o f Iq b a l’s d re a m ’. T h is w a s th e first tim e a fte r a lo n g g a p , th a t th e ir ‘d o u b le sacrifice’ (in 1 9 4 7 a n d 1 9 71) w as ‘ack n ow ledged by P ak istan ’.131 Since th en , how ever, there h a s been n o fu rth e r re p a tria tio n , b u t m o re o n th a t later. L o o k in g a t th e B iharis in B angladesh in th e fra m ew o rk o f p u b lic in te rn atio n al law analysis, Sum it Sen h a s suggested th a t a legal solu­ tio n to th e ir p ro tra c te d refu g ee-h o o d c a n b e fo u n d b y estab lish in g th e ‘g e n u in e lin k o f th e B iharis w ith P a k ista n ’. H is p o in t is th a t th e ‘m ass d e n a tio n a liz atio n ’ o f B iharis is a v io latio n o f h u m a n rig h ts a n d rep resen ts ‘a n a tte m p t to avoid th e responsibilities o f territo rial so v ereig n ty a n d sta te h o o d ’. A c c o rd in g to him it is w ell established in rules o f in te rn a tio n a l law th a t n o o n e c a n be a rb itra rily deprived o f his n a tio n a lity , a n d if necessary, th e d e p riv a tio n m u st b e ‘p re ­ scribed by law ’. Sen’s a rg u m e n t is th a t th e d e n a tio n a liz atio n flow s fro m n o n - a d h e r e n c e to th e 1 9 7 3 - 7 4 a g re e m e n ts b y P a k ista n . H e a lso m ad e a case fo r th e d e fin itio n o f th e ‘ce n tra l g o v ern m en t em ployees a n d d iv id ed fam ilies’ g e ttin g ‘a fresh legal assessm en t’. 13 0 . Prof. A sad H usain Collection (hereafter A H C ), C hicago: T h e M uslim R efugee, 14 A ugust to S eptem ber 198 8 . I a m very g ratefu l to P rof. H u sa in a n d in the first place, to P rof. C .M . N a im fo r p u ttin g m e in to u c h w ith him . 131. A H C : N asim K han, A L e tte r F rom T h e S ic k B ed: T o H on o u ra b le G hulam A h m e d W yne, C h ie f M inister o f P unjab, Pakistan. H e added th a t he hoped th a t B ah ad u r S hah Z a fa r’s , 'k itn a h a i badnaseeb Z afar, do g a z zam een b h i na m illa...’ (‘See h o w u n fo rtu n a te Z a fa r is: n o t even tw o y ard s fo r a final resting place’) w o u ld n o t a p p ly to h im , to o .

Negotiating Nations ♦ 49

F o r o n e , it w as th e go v ern m en t th a t h ad re-categorized th e railw ays a s a provincial service (see c h a p te r tw o) a n d fo r a n o th e r, th e exclusion o f g ra n d p a re n ts , p a re n ts a n d u n m arrie d sib lin g s fro m th e ‘fam ily’ ca te g o ry strik es him a s , to o restrictiv e a n d w estern. Pick in g o n th e 1 9 5 1 /6 7 U N c o n v e n tio n th a t defines a refugee as a n y p e rs o n w h o is in fea r o f b ein g p erse c u te d , h e e m p h asizes th e killings o f B iharis in 1971 a n d th a t so m e eyew itness a c co u n ts p u t th e figure a t 5 0 ,0 0 0 , a n d a lso th a t th e c a m p s have been targ e ts o f a tta c k . T h e ir s ta tu s is, th ere fo re , o f ‘d e fa c to stateless refugees’, th o u g h th a t is seld o m rec­ o g nized in in te rn a tio n a l law . Sen in sists th a t ‘th e rig h t to re tu rn is g u a ra n te e d w ith o u t restric tio n s to all n a tio n a ls, in clu d in g d e facto stateless refugees’.132 B u t th a t w a s n o t to be. It is th e sp lit c a rto g ra p h y o f th e P a k ista n o f 1 9 4 7 th a t ex p lain s h o w successive P ak istan i g o v e rn m e n ts a n d d ifferen t Sindhi n a tio n ­ a list g ro u p s h av e resp o n d e d to th e d isco u rse o f th e ‘rig h t to r e tu rn ’ to P a k ista n fro m B angladesh. T h e sa m e is th e case w ith th e U nited N a tio n s (U N ). T h ese p o sitio n s h av e e v o k e d e la b o ra tio n s o n th e h isto ry o f th e P akistan m ovem ent in B ihar a n d o f th e B iharis in East Pak istan . B ut let us first w alk th ro u g h th e U N s ta n d o n p a rtitio n ’s refugees a n d th e n o n th e p o st-1 9 7 1 Biharis. It is useful to rem em ­ b e r th a t th e in te rn a tio n a l refugee reg im e in th e fo rtie s w a s ‘e x p lic­ itly E u r o p e c e n tr e d a n d p r e o c c u p ie d w ith a id in g E u r o p e a n s u p ro o te d , d isp laced a n d p ersecu ted d u rin g W o rld W a r II’. W h a t rein fo rc e d w e stern in d ifferen ce w a s th a t th e p a rtitio n o f In d ia did n o t co n n e ct w ith th e em erg in g su p e rp o w e r co n flict b etw een th e US a n d th e Soviet U n io n . In th e fifties, th e in te rn a tio n a l refugee regim e p u t in p la c e a n d fin a n c e d larg e ly b y th e W e s te rn p o w e rs h ad assisted o n ly tw o larg e refu g ee p o p u la tio n s o u tsid e E u ro p e , th e P a le stin ia n s a n d th e K o re a n s , f o r w h o m s e p a ra te in te r n a tio n a l refugee o rg an iz a tio n s w ere estab lish ed . It did n o t seem to m atter th a t th e K oreans, like th e refugees o n th e In d ia n su b c o n tin e n t, w ere technically sp eaking, n o t refugees, as th ey h ad a ‘ho m ela n d ’. It is n o t su rp risin g th a t th o u g h th e In d ian a n d P akistani delegates to th e U N 13 2 . See Sen (1998: 4 8 -5 9 ). ‘T he definition o f the term refugee applies to any per­ so n w h o : “ ...o w in g to a w ell-founded fear o f being p ersecuted fo r reasons o f race, religion, n ationality, m em bership o f a p a rtic u la r social g ro u p o r p olitical o p in io n , is o u tsid e th e c o u n ty o f h is n a tio n a lity a n d is unable to o r unw illing to avail o f him self o f th e p ro tectio n o f th a t cou n try ; o r w h o , n o t having a n a tio n a lity a n d being ou tsid e th e c o u n try o f h is fo rm er h a b itu a l residence is u n a b le o r, o w in g to s u ch fear is unw illing to re tu rn to i t ”’ (p. 51).

50 ♦ Partition and the South Asian Diaspora

desperately p lead ed fo r a id fo r th eir m illions o f refugees th ey only received ‘p altry h elp ’ (Z o lb erg e t al.: 1989: 1 3 4 -3 5 ). G en erally sp eak in g , in in te rn a tio n a l law , th e term ‘refugee’ a p ­ plies o n ly to p e o p le w h o se p a th o f flight c ro sses n a tio n a l b o u n d ­ aries a n d th o se w h o h av e been reco g n ized by th e a u th o ritie s as refugees (M a rx 1990: 1 9 0 ). B ut a s N asim K h a n , th e lea d e r o f th e SPG R C in v ariab ly p o in ts o u t, ‘o th e r refugees have fled th e ir c o u n ­ trie s, b u t o u r c o u n try h a s fled u s’.133 T e ch n ically , th e U N c a n n o t a rtic u la te a n official p o s itio n o n th e B ihari issue w ith o u t th e c o n ­ sen t o f th e B angladesh g o v e rn m e n t. T h is is b ecause it is a n in te rn al m a tte r a n d n o n a tio n h a s alleged th a t th ey a re a ‘th re a t to p e a ce ’. In itially , b ecause o f in te rn a tio n a l c o n c ern , a u th o ritie s in B angladesh allow ed th e U N to pro v id e th e R ed C ro ss w ith fo o d g rain fo r distri­ b u tio n in th e Bihari enclaves. A t o n e p o in t, th e B angladesh g o v ern­ m en t is rep o rted to have ask ed th e U N to ta k e o n th e responsibility o f lo o k in g a fte r th e Biharis. B ut th e U N w a s n o t in th e financial p o sitio n to a ffo rd a n o th e r co m m itm en t sim ila r to th e o n e m ad e in Palestin e (W h itak e r 1 9 7 2 : 1 9 -2 0 ). In th e m id -eig h ties, th e A u stra lia n g o v e rn m e n t w a s a p p ro a c h e d fo r th e rese ttle m e n t o f 1 0 ,0 0 0 B iharis fro m B an g lad esh (see c h a p ­ te r tw o ), b u t its resp o n se w a s th a t A u stra lia n rese ttle m e n t offers w ere reserved fo r ‘th o se w ith g e n u in e claim s to refu g ee s ta tu s ’. T o q u alify f o r c o n s id e ra tio n u n d e r A u s tra lia ’s R efugee P ro g ra m m e , a n a p p lic a n t w o u ld have to e sta b lish a w e ll-fo u n d ed fear o f perse­ c u tio n o n th e g ro u n d s set o u t in th e U N C o n v e n tio n o n refugees. C o n ced in g th a t th e ir situ a tio n w a s ‘f a r fro m sa tisfacto ry ’, th e B iharis w e re n o t seen a s su b je c ted to sy stem atic o r o fficially c o n d o n e d p ersecu tio n . ‘A cco rd in g to th e C o n v e n tio n , refugee s ta tu s c a n be c o n sid e red on ly w h e re p e o p le a re o u tsid e th e ir c o u n try o f n a tio n a l­ ity o r , if stateless, o u tsid e th e ir c o u n try o f h a b itu a l resid en ce’. T h e B iharis resid in g in B angladesh c o u ld , th ere fo re , n o t b e co n sid ered to b e refugees. B ut th ey co u ld a p p ly to m ig ra te u n d e r th e g lo b al n o n -d iscrim in ato ry policy a n d w o u ld b e considered o n th eir m e rit.134 T h e C h itta g o n g -b ase d S tran d ed P ak istan i C e n tra l R e p a tria tio n C o m m itte e (SPCR C) w ro te to th e U N D ivision o f H u m a n R ig h ts in early 1 9 8 3 th a t it w a s rea ssu rin g to k n o w th a t it w a s m ain tain in g a 13 3 . See fo r e xam ple, N e w Y o rk T im e s, 18 M ay 1986. 13 4 . A H C : 22 M a rc h 198 5 , C a n b e rra , I.C . M cK enzie, fo r Secretary, D e p artm e n t o f Im m igration and E thnic A ffairs t o T . B addiley, B righton, V ictoria.

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file o n it to w a rd s solving th e ir tw elv e-y ear-o ld p ro b le m . It b ro u g h t it to th e n o tice o f th e U N th a t 7 5 p e r c en t o f th e re p a tria tio n w o rk , even w ith in th e fra m ew o rk o f th e D elhi ag reem en ts o f 1 9 7 3 -7 4 , w as ‘still to b e d o n e ’. It s o u g h t th e se ttin g u p o f a sub -co m m issio n to ‘clear u p all th e p ro b le m s th a t c ro p p e d u p a fte r 1 6 .1 2 .1 9 7 1 ’, a n d t h e in te r v e n tio n o f th e U N H C R w ith t h e P a k is ta n i a n d B an g lad esh g o v e rn m e n ts o n th is issue. T h e re w as a su g g estio n th a t th e In d ia n g o v e rn m e n t b e a p p ro a c h e d to issue tra n s it v isas fo r p e r­ so n s w h o w a n te d to u n d e rta k e th e jo u rn e y to P a k ista n by rail, via In d ia , to b rin g d o w n th e co st o f th e a ir p assag e b y o n e -te n th .135 O v e r th e years, th e SP G R C has b een seek in g U N refu g ee sta tu s to en su re th e ir ‘re tu rn ’ to P a k ista n . In 1 9 8 4 , it p assed a reso lu tio n ask in g th e U N H C R to tre a t S tra n d e d P a k ista n is as ‘w o rld refugees’ so th a t th ey co u ld g e t th e a d v a n ta g e s a n d p ro te c tio n g ran te d to th e ‘V ietnam ese, B urm ese, K am p u ch ean s a n d A fghans’. In s u p p o rt o f th is d e m a n d it m en tio n ed th a t th ey h a d ‘alw ay s been su b je c ted to p o litical p e rse c u tio n ’, d e n ied a m en ities a n d tre a te d as ‘a lien s’. Ba­ sically, th ey w ere P a k ista n is, ‘lo ck ed u p in a co u n try d iffe re n t fro m th e ir o w n c o u n try ’.136 T h e SPG R C a g a in ap p e ale d to th e U N a n d th e U N H C R in 1 9 8 5 a n d 1 9 8 6 to a m e n d th e d e fin itio n o f ‘w o rld refugees’ to in clu d e ‘all categ o ries o f d isp laced p e rso n s u p ro o te d fro m th e ir an cestral lan d ’, a n d ‘n o t ta k e sh e lte r b e h in d tec h n ical­ ity ’.137 In m id -1 9 9 0 , th e In te ra n tio n a l A lert C o m m itte e o n S tran d ed P ak istan is in L o n d o n m ad e a n a p p e al to th e U N H C R to register S tra n d e d P ak istan is as refugees, ‘o n th e sa m e basis as V ietnam ese b o a t p e o p le o r th e A fg h an refugees in P a k ista n ’, a n d to ta k e th em u n d e r th e ir m a n d a te . B ut th e U N H C R p o sitio n w a s th a t it w o u ld b e d ifficu lt to classify th e S tra n d e d P ak istan is a s refugees sin ce they h a d n o t left th e ir c o u n try to seek refu g e in a n o th e r c o u n try . A nd, given th e fin an cial s ta te o f th e U N H C R n o th in g m u ch w o u ld g o th e ir w a y , even if th ey w ere b ro u g h t u n d e r its m a n d a te . B ut it w as w illin g to fac ilitate th e pro cess o f re p a tria tio n if it w a s invited to

13 5 . Ibid. 136. Ib id ., M in u te s o f the 5 th J o in t A nnual C on v e n tio n o f th e S tranded Pakistani G eneral R e p atria tio n C om m ittee a n d th e S tranded P akistan E astern R ailw ay Em ployees League, K hulna, 2 3 -2 5 M a rc h 1984, re so lu tio n 10. 137. Ib id ., M in u te s o f th e 6 th J o in t A nnual C onference o f th e SPG RC a n d SPEREL, D h a k a , 2 2 A pril 198 5 , reso lu tio n 9; 7 th J o in t A n n u a l G eneral C onference o f S G R C & SPEREL, D h a k a , 2 7 - 2 9 198 6 , reso lu tio n 14.

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d o so b y th e g o v e rn m e n ts c o n c ern e d .138 A 1 9 9 3 flier o f th e SPG R C ex pressed m u ch b ittern ess a b o u t b ein g neglected b y th e ‘C h a m p i­ o n s o f H u m a n R ig h ts’ a n d th e U N , leaving th em w ith a feeling th a t th ey w e re ‘n o t p a r t o f h u m an ity b u t [a] ra c e o f an im a ls’. N o o n e h a d b o th e re d a b o u t th em . ‘N o n e o f th em even d a re d to visit o u r c a m p s d u rin g tw o d ecad es’. B ut it v o w ed th a t th e stru g g le w o u ld c o n tin u e ‘till such tim e th e sm all c h u n k o f S tran d ed P a k ista n is are b o d ily lifted a n d th ro w n a w a y e ith e r in Bay o f Bengal o r boiling A ra b ia n sea’ (sic).139 L o r r a i n e M ir z a m e t t h e le a d e r s h i p o f t h i r t e e n c a m p s in B an g lad esh in th e late eighties a n d fo u n d th a t m an y lived th ere , ‘by c h o ic e ’. T h e y h a d refu se d o ffe rs b y fam ily m em b e rs a lre a d y in P a k ista n to ta k e th em ac ro ss illegally th ro u g h b ro k ers. T hey felt they m ust rem ain in th e cam ps w ith the m ajority w h o had n o such o p tio n ...th e y felt it w as their m oral im perative to force th at country to practice th e principles it w as created on. N o n e h ad the illusion th a t Pakistan had ever com e anyw here near its ideals; not p rio r to 1971, a n d certainly n o t now . But th at did no t sto p them from th e belief th a t they m ust keep trying to m ove closer to the visions they held o f Pakistan being a hom eland for all M uslim s of th e subcontinent. E arlier, in th e m id-eighties, she h a d fo u n d th a t th o se living in O ra n g i to w n in K a ra c h i, so m e legally, o th e rs illegally, s h a re d a co m m o n p a s t in E ast Pak istan /B an g lad esh . T h e y ten d e d to ‘actively w o rk ’ fo r th e re p a tria tio n o f B iharis a n d h elp th e n ew a rriv als to resettle. O f th o se w h o reach ed P a k ista n a fte r 1 9 7 7 , less th a n h alf h a d b een a b le to g e t o n e o r m o re close fam ily m em b er o u t o f th e cam p s. T h e y o u n g e r m en h a d tre k k e d th ro u g h In d ia. U n a b le to g et th e ir fam ilies to jo in th em , m an y o f th em h ad sim ply given u p a n d rem a rried in P a k ista n .140 138. Ib id ., R esolution a n d R e p o rt o f M ee tin g on 2 M ay 1990 o f In te rn atio n a l A lert [a h u m a n rig h ts body]. 13 9 . Ib id ., N asim K han, In tro d u c in g S tra n d ed P akistanis G eneral R e p a tria tio n C o m m itte e (SP G R C ) in B angladesh, D h ak a , 19 F eb ru ary 199 3 , p o in ts 7 a nd 8. It m en tio n e d t h a t only th e R a b ita a l A lam a l Islam , th e M ak k a-b a se d In te r­ n a tio n a l M uslim N G O had com e fo rw a rd to help it. 140. I b i d ., ‘I n t e r n m e n t C a m p s o f B a n g la d e s h ’, t y p e s c r ip t; a ls o see w w w .m u slim m edia.com /archives/book99/biharbk.htm w hich c arries a review o f M irza ’s b o o k w ith th e sam e title (published by C re sc en t In te rn a tio n a l,

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In 1 9 7 2 , Ben W h ita k e r o f th e L o n d o n -b a se d M in o rity R ig h ts G r o u p m ad e th re e su g g e stio n s. T h o s e w h o h a d id en tifie d w ith P ak istan o r h a d close fam ily ties be m oved there. Second, th a t ‘India sh o u ld accep t a s m an y as she ca n ’, o n c o m p assio n ate g ro u n d s, ‘in the sam e w ay a s’ she h a d o n occasions ‘m ad e rep resen tatio n s fo r In d ian im m ig ran t fam ilies to b e reu n ited in th e UK’. But h e ad d ed th a t India w as ‘a d a m a n tly o p p o se d to allo w in g a n y sizeable n u m b e r b ack to B ihar’. T h ird , th e rest sh o u ld try a n d becom e a p a rt o f th e n ew n a ­ tio n o f B angladesh (W h itak er 1 9 7 2 :1 8 -2 0 ). Broadly, th is has tu rn ed o u t to b e th e p a tte rn o f th e choices m ad e. B ut as d etailed earlier, there w ere a lso tw o o th e r dim ensions: p a rtitio n ’s tw ice a n d th rice diasp o ric m ig ran ts, a n d tra n s b o rd e r m ig ran ts w h o a re hugely dism issive o f the b o rd ers o f 1 9 4 7 a n d 1 9 7 1 , w h ich th ey c o n stan tly disregard. B en azir B h u tto o n ce called th e S tra n d e d P ak istan is ‘Bangladeshi B iharis’ in a statem en t m ad e in K uala L u m p u r som e years ago. T a k ­ in g a cue fro m h e r, M a k h d o o m K h aleeq -u z-Z am an , th e P ak istan People’s P a rty , M e m b e r N a tio n a l A ssem bly, w h o h a d n o t lo n g a g o resigned fro m th e C o m m itte e fo r th e R e p a tria tio n o f B iharis w as d ism issiv e a b o u t th e ir f u tu re in P a k ista n . H e s a id th e y , ‘nev er b e lo n g ed to a n y o f th e pro v in ces— S in d h , P u n ja b , B alu ch istan o r th e F ro n tie r’, so th e q u e stio n o f th e ir re p a tria tio n to a n y o f those pro v in ces did n o t arise. ‘If th ere is a n y case o f re p a tria tio n o f Biharis, it co u ld on ly b e b ack to B ihar’. 141 B ut th a t w a s n o t o p e n ly d o -able. N o r w a s P a k ista n w o rk in g o u t to b e th e ir d e stin a tio n . W ay b a c k in 1 9 7 3 , V ic to r U m b ric t, th e fo rm e r h e a d o f th e U N R elief O p e ra tio n in D h a k a , w h o w a s o n a visit to R a w alp in d i, su b m itte d a p lan to th e P a k ista n g o v e rn m e n t fo r th e settlem en t o f B iharis o n u n c u lti­ v a te d la n d in S in d h w ith in te r n a tio n a l a id . B u t th e P a k is ta n g o v e rn m e n t rejected th e p ro p o sa l say in g it w a s co m m itted to tak e b a c k o n ly 2 5 ,0 0 0 ‘h a rd s h ip cases’. M o re o v e r, th e B iharis w ere n o t a g ric u ltu rists, b u t a rtisa n s, in d u stria l w o rk e rs a n d tra d e rs a n d th e M a rk h a m , O n ta rio in 1998) by T a h ir M a h m o u d and m e n tio n s t h a t M irz a, a jo u rn a list, w a s on a council a t th e P akistan em bassy in W a sh in g to n , D .C . dealing w ith th e press a n d m edia from 1971 to 197 4 . ‘She left because she refused to ab a n d o n the cause o f ‘B ihari M uslim s’ a fte r th e 9 0 ,0 0 0 P akistan i priso n e rs-o f-w ar in India w ere re p atria te d to P akistan in 1974’. 141. T h e H erald, Ja n u a ry 199 0 , p p . 5 4 - 5 5 . Z a m a n claim ed th a t neith e r the p a rty ’s ce n tra l com m ittee n o r th e parliam en tary c o m m itte e h a d san c tio n ed his nam e f o r th e com m ittee a n d th a t he to g e th e r w ith tw e n ty -tw o o th e r M N A s had even before th a t p ro teste d o v e r th e allocation o f R s 2 5 0 m illion fo r th e re p a ­ tria tio n o f Biharis.

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p ro p o sa l w o u ld m ee t w ith o p p o s itio n fro m th e S in d h is (R ashdi 19 8 8 : 116). T h e re is a stro n g feeling a m o n g S in d h is th a t th ey are b ein g tu rn e d in to a m in o rity in th e ir ‘o w n h o m e la n d ’. A nd th a t even if th e B iharis a re settled in o th e r p a rts o f P a k ista n , th ey u lti­ m ate ly h ead fo r S in d h . T h is s e n tim e n t h a s been seen in v a rio u s v ersio n s o f th e ‘B ihari R o k o '(S to p th e Biharis) m o v em en ts (see c h a p ­ te r tw o ). O c casio n ally , th ere h av e b een so m e su g g estio n s th a t th e B iharis b e relo cated o u tsid e P ak istan . W h e n th e in te rio r m in ister, N a se e ru lla h B a b a r, w a s a sk ed to c o m m e n t o n th e O rg a n iz a tio n o f Islam ic C o u n trie s (O IC ) having co n tacted th e P ak istan g overnm ent o n th e re p a tria tio n issue, th is is w h a t h e h a d to say: ‘W e a re n o t read y to accep t th e m .... L et th e A rab s ta k e th e “ B ih aris” , a s p len ty o f lan d is a v a ila b le to se ttle th e m in th e U A E, o r Ira q o r elsew here in W est A sia’.142 T h e re p a tria tio n issue rem ain s unresolved a n d fo r m an y M u h a jirs it has b eco m e sym bolic o f d iscrim in atio n ag ain st th e U rdu-speaking p o p u la tio n a n d ‘a litm u s test fo r th e s ta te ’s co m m itm en t to its ideal o f M u slim n a tio n a lism ’.143 In a rep re se n ta tiv e sp eech , th e M Q M lead er, A lta f H u ssa in , o n c e a sk ed if th e S tra n d e d P ak istan is w o u ld h av e sp en t so m an y y ears in th e c a m p s in B angladesh h ad th ey been B aluch, S indhi o r P u n ja b i. T h o u g h th ere h ad been d e m o n stra tio n s a n d p ro ce ssio n s fo r th e M u slim s o f ‘S om alia, M o z am b iq u e, E ritrea, E th io p ia a n d B osnia’, th e c h a m p io n s o f M u slim s in P a k ista n had n o t d o n e so fo r th e M u h a jirs o f m a sh riq u i (east) P a k ista n .144 O n th e sa m e th em e, b u t o n a d iffe re n t n o te , N a sim K h a n , th e SPG R C lea d e r o n ce p o in te d o u t th a t it w a s iro n ical th a t, w hen in Pakistan there is n o d earth o f people w ho w an t to m igrate to th e W estern countries for a better future, there a re people w ho despite all hardships, w an t to come to Pakistan because they still ow e their allegiance to the ideology a n d flag o f th a t co u n try .. .perhaps the only true Pakistanis w h o are now w ith o u t a state are the Stranded Pakistanis living in th e 6 6 cam ps.14S 14 2 . T h e T ribune, 2 N o v e m b e r 1995. 14 3 . Q u re sh i (1 994). I am th a n k fu l to O m a r Q u resh i fo r his p a p e r. F o o tn o te 14 m e n tio n s th a t he w as often to ld in K arachi in 1992 th a t th e hierarchical M Q M leadership w as ‘firm ly controlled by th e U Pites and B iharis’. 144. V ideo cassette o f M o h e b an-e-P akistan. 14 5 . w w w .jan g .co m .p k /th en e w s/au g 2 0 0 2 -d a ily /2 0 -0 8 -2 0 0 2 D r. M o o n is A hm ar, ‘P light o f S tranded P akistanis’. T h e q u o te is from N asim K han a t a press c on ­ ference in D h ak a o n 9 J u ly 1995.

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In th e la te e ig h ties, M . S h u k ru d d in , g e n e ra l se cre ta ry o f th e SPG R C , very d ram a tic a lly to ld m e a t th e G en ev a c a m p in D h ak a th a t till th ere w a s ‘even a n in ch o f la n d ’ b e a rin g th e n a m e o f Pak i­ s ta n o n th e m ap o f th e w o rld , it w o u ld b e th e ir d e stin a tio n to seek .146 B ut a co u p le o f y e a rs a g o , a d ish e a rte n e d N a sim K h a n so u n d ed reflective. M an does n o t live by bread alone a n d it is o n such days th at we are em otionally stirred to o u r very depth a n d w onder w hether w e, the M uslim s o f the M inority Province o f India, now looked dow n upon as Biharis in Bangladesh w ere dubbed [bluffed?] a n d cheated by the leaders o f the Pakistan m ovem ent in to supporting the vivisection of India, a su p p o rt, th e H indus then said w ould cost us dear. These are m elancholy thoughts indeed, bu t they keep on com ing, in spite o f us, forced by th e sense o f betrayal o f Pakistan’s Governm ent which adds insult to o u r injury by harp in g o n Pakistan’s Islamic ideology a n d n o t th e con trib u tio n o f th e Indian M uslim s to th e cause o f Pa­ kistan. W e, Pakistanis Stranded in Bangladesh are a m iserable lot. A head o f us th ere is no th in g cheering o r hopeful, we see nothing in the future bu t sickness a n d sorrow a n d paralysis or imbecility (sic).147 Som eth in g o f th e sen tim en ts o f th e M u h a jirs o f th e m in o rity p ro v ­ inces a re ex p ressed in th ese lines o fte n q u o te d in th e ir circles, a n d w ith e m p a th y , a m o n g a q a llia t su b a M u slim s in India: Nairangie daure siyasat to h dekhiye M a n zil unhe m ili jo sharike safar na th a y.148 O r c o n sid e r th e elusiveness o f th e p ro m ised h o m ela n d in: W atan thaa to h azadi dh o o n d h ta h thaa, A b azad h o o n to h w atan dh o o n d h ta h h o o n .149 146. Interview on 18 N o v em b er 1989. 147. w w w .rev ista-a rie l.o rg /p ak istan istran d ed .h tm R evista A riel N o . 104, V ol. 11, speech by N asim K han a t a sem in a r organized by R ab ita , D h a k a, n .d . (post 1996). 148. I o w e this t o M .A .M . G ilani, P a tn a . T h e lines roughly tra n sla te a s: w itness the q u irk s o f p o litics, th o se w h o have n o t und e rtak e n th e jo u rn e y g o t t o th e des­ tin atio n . T h e reference is to M uslim s o f th e m ajo rity provinces having 'g o t' th e P a k ista n th a t th o se o f the m in o rity p rovinces h a d w orked for. 149. Q u o ted to m e by A lta f H u sa in in a n interview o n 2 3 J u n e 199 4 , L ondon (w hen w e h ad o u r la n d w e looked fo r freedom ; n o w th a t w e h ave o u r freedom

56 ♦ Partition and the South Asian Diaspora

In th e n e x t c h a p te r I d o c u m e n t th e v a rio u s lay ers o f th e aqalliat su b a sto ry . T h o u g h it is o fte n a rg u e d th a t ‘B ih ari’ w a s a generic te rm th a t in clu d e d all M u h a jirs in E ast P a k ista n , th e s to ry th a t em erges is clearly o n e a b o u t B ihar. T h e p re -1 9 4 7 d e n o m in a tio n a l e n u m e ra tio n o f th e ir reg io n al id en tity is m u te d by th e S tran d ed P a k ista n is a s a strateg y to co m p le te th e ir re p a tria tio n to Pak istan. B ut th e ir h isto ry -tellin g is firm ly lo cated in B ih ar a n d th e Bihari ex p erien ce in th e p re-1 9 7 1 years. T h e th ree-d ecad es lo n g in te rv en ­ tio n by th e Bihari d iasp o ra d e tailed late r, p o in ts to stro n g b o n d s o f reg io n . T h is h a p p e n ed b e fo re th e d a y s o f e le ctro n ic, long -d istan ce n a tio n a lism /d ia sp o ric p o litics, a n d w a s p e rh a p s a first o f so rts. T h e id eo lo g y o f P a k ista n w a s id en tifie d w ith th e m in o rity p ro v in c e M u slim s o f B ritish In d ia , u p to th e early seventies, th a t is, till th e M u h a jirs w ere g rad u a lly dislo d g ed fro m p o w e r by th e P u n ja b is a n d U P M uslim s w ere seen as cen tral in th e genesis o f M uslim n atio n a l­ ism . (Jaffrelot 2 0 0 2 : 9 , 31). As politics g o t reconfigured in Pakistan, it w as th e B iharis w h o becam e a m e ta p h o r o f th e gairm ulkis-ness (alien-ness) o f th e M u h ajirs, first in E ast P ak istan a n d th en in Sindh. It is in these tw o sites, se p ara te d b y o v e r a th o u sa n d m iles, th a t re­ a rticu la tio n s o f h o m ela n d , citizenship a n d n a tio n a lity co n tin u e to resh ap e a n d th en reso n ate in S outh A sia’s d iasp o ric form ations.

w e lo o k fo r o u r la n d . A lso see the W isconsin V ideo A rchive, video cassette n o . S A -167, A lta i H u ssain a t a jalsa in H y d e rab ad , 31 O c to b e r 1989. T h e speech w e n t o n to u n d e rlin e, 'a m ja b chalees saal y a h a n reh k e g uzarein toh p a ta chala k i w ahi w a ta n thaa, y e h m era w a ta n n a h i hai’ (‘A fter forty y ears o f living here it tu rn ed o u t th a t th a t w as th e h o m eland, n o t this’).

2

Claiming Pakistan

T h is th re e -p a rt lo o k a t th e fo rtie s’ h o m ela n d fro m th e perspective o f th e M u h a jirs in E ast P a k istan /B an g lad esh a n d P a k ista n , a n d o f th e S indhis, traces th e s to ry o f th e tw o -n a tio n th eo ry b o th in th e su b c o n tin e n t a n d th e d ia sp o ra . It tu rn s o u t th a t d iasp o ric in te rv en ­ tio n s, m ed ia tio n s a n d o rg an iz a tio n s have been a t th e c e n tre o f a ran g e o f e n g ag em en ts w ith issues o f refu g eeh o o d a n d citizenship; a n d eq u ally , a b o u t h o stin g th e h o m elan d . From the East

By th e early eighties, M o h a m m a d Ib ra h im h a d h ad a political career s p a n n in g six ty years. A s w a s n o t u n c o m m o n , it h a d b een varied a n d lay ered , w ith so m e y e a rs sp e n t w ith th e C o n g ress, th e K h ilafat m o v em en t a n d th en th e M u slim League. A b o o k (1984) w ritte n in h is sev en ty -n in th y e a r d o c u m e n ts m u ch o f p a rtitio n ’s a q a llia t suba (m in o rity pro v in ce) s to ry , in th is case, o f B ih ar.1 It p ro v id e s a gist o f th e S tra n d e d P a k is ta n is G e n e ra l R e p a tr ia tio n C o m m itte e ’s (SPGRC) a c c o u n t o f th e m ak in g o f a n a tio n th a t w a s in te rru p te d in 1971 w h e n P a k ista n w a s m ap p e d o u t o f th e east. It is th e a b ru p t­ ness o f th e b re a k in th e ir c itizen sh ip th a t is d e ta ile d to reg ister a sense o f disbelief a t b ein g d iso w n ed by th e n ew n a tio n sta te . Ib rah im rec o u n ts th e ‘ten sio n a n d h e a t in th e d e b a te s o f sp o k e sm e n o f th e d eleg atio n s o f M u slim m ajo rity p ro v in ces a n d th o se o f th e M uslim m inority provinces’, a t th e L ah o re session o f th e M uslim L eague w hich 1. W h a t follow s is based o n p p . x i, x v -x v ii, 16, 4 8 -4 9 , 7 2 - 7 5 . 1 a m th a n k fu l to the SPG RC for a copy (N ovem ber 198 9 , D haka).

58 ♦ Partition and the South Asian Diaspora

h e a tte n d e d in 19 4 0 : J in n a h h a d to in terv en e a n d a ssu re M u slim s o f th e H in d u m ajority provinces th a t th eir interests would be safeguarded; Fazlul H a q o f Bengal, to o , m ad e a n e lo q u en t speech p ro m isin g to in v o k e th e ho stag e th eo ry reg ard in g m inorities (see In tro d u c tio n ), if req u ired . It w a s o n ly th en th a t K h a liq u z z a m a n , th e U P M u slim L eague lead er, a g reed to seco n d th e L a h o re reso lu tio n . A s general secretary o f th e M u n g e r d istric t M u slim League, Ib ra h im rem em ­ b ers th a t th ere w a s a ‘defin ite in stru ctio n ’ f ro m th e c e n tra l office of th e M u slim L eag u e to all its b ra n c h e s to p e rs u a d e th e railw a y em ployees a n d s ta ff o f th e essential services to m o v e to P a k ista n , to fill th e v acu u m c re a ted b y th e m ig ra tio n o f th e ir c o u n te rp a rts to In d ia, w ith th e assu ran ce th a t th eir statu s, p ay a n d p ro sp ects w o u ld rem a in in tact. R eflectin g o n ‘h o w P a k ista n beh av ed a fte r its a p p e ara n c e o n th e m ap o f th e g lo b e’, Ib ra h im fo u n d it m o st d isa p p o in tin g . A fter Jin n a h a n d L ia q u at Ali d ied , P a k ista n fell in to th e h a n d s o f ‘a risto c ra ts, b u re a u c ra ts , ca p ita lists a n d a d v e n tu re rs’. H e w ro te th a t it w a s a ‘w ell-estab lish ed h isto rical fac t’ th a t th e M u slim s o f th e m in o rity p ro v in ces w ere ‘u n g ru d g in g ly ’ u p ro o te d fro m th e ir a n c estra l h o m e­ lan d a n d w ere m ad e to ‘w a d e th ro u g h p o o ls o f b lo o d ’ to g et to Paki­ sta n . B ut it s o o n a p p e are d a s th o u g h th e n ew n a tio n w a s ‘a b o o ty to b e s h a re d on ly b y th e tw o m a jo r p ro v in c e s o f th e c o u n try ’. T h e p u rp o se fo r w h ic h P a k ista n w a s m ad e w a s ‘lo st w ith in a y e a r o r tw o o f its a p p e ara n c e ’. T h is h a p p e n ed b ecau se th e so n s o f th e soil, ‘in v io la tio n o f Islam ic in ju n c tio n s a n d th e id eo lo g y o f P a k ista n ’, b eg an to d iscrim in ate a g a in st th e n o n -lo cals. F o r th o se w h o had left In d ia , th ere w a s ‘n o w ay to re tra c e th e ir ste p s’, a s th ey had ‘b u r n t th e ir b o a ts ’. B ut Ib ra h im a d m itte d th a t th e m ig ra n ts h a d n o t trie d to m ix w ith th e local p o p u lac e o r d evelop fam ily relatio n s. W h a t co m es acro ss is a deep an g er ov er successive P akistani g o v ern­ m en ts ab an d o n in g th em a s ‘stateless beings’ afte r 1971 a n d leaving th em to m a rk tim e in th e cam p s. ‘T h e y a re tre a te d a s aliens a n d reviled a s B iharis’; in o th e r w o rd s, th o se w h o h ad a d o p te d P ak istan a s th e ir h o m ela n d fo u n d th em selves b ein g reg a rd e d as ‘in terlo p ers a n d e x p lo iters’. In tro d u c in g T a jja m m u l H u s a in ’s b o o k le t, A la m iy a D o Q a u m i N a z a r iy a A u r M e b s o o r P a k is ta n i,2 N a s im K h a n , th e S P G R C

2 . A sad H u sa in C ollection (A H C ), C hicago: D h ak a , SPG RC (1983?).

Claiming Pakistan ♦ 59

p a tro n , e m p h asized th e cru cial lin k b etw een th e B iharis a n d th e m ak in g o f P ak istan . H ad their m other’s breasts no t been chopped off, their sisters not [been] w idow ed a n d ravaged, their tiny, innocent children no t been im paled o n bayonets, it is my belief th at Pakistan w ould never have com e in to existence... .The Q uaid had said th at th e tragedy o f Bihar becam e th e reason fo r the existence o f Pakistan. But alas! Even to­ day lakhs o f M uslim s continue to languish inside sixty-six cam ps in an alien land. W ritin g o n th e su b je c t o f th e d e a th o f six B iharis in O ra n g i, K arach i, h e q u o te d a c o u p le t w h ich w a s p u b lish e d ‘fo rty y e a rs a g o ’ in th e m ag azin e M a d in a , s o o n a fte r th e c re a tio n o f P akistan: N o a kh a li se ph o o ta jo chashma h i k e tez rau dhara ne mara, Bechare bekhabar m ehsoor M usalm an Inhe dar asal batw are ne mara (‘T h e violence th a t welled u p in N oakhali engulfed th e helpless, unknow ing, stranded M uslim s. It w as Partition th at killed them ’). T h e b o o k let discusses h o w th e first g e n e ra tio n M u h a jirs have k e p t a liv e th e ir h isto ry o f th e c re a tio n o f P a k ista n a n d th e sacrifices th ey m ad e fo r it in th e fo rtie s a n d in 1 971. T h e SP G R C w a s fo rm e d in D ecem b er 1 9 7 7 to d e m a n d th e rep a ­ tria tio n to P a k ista n o f th o se w h o th ey d escrib ed as, ‘P a k ista n i in th o u g h t a n d e m o tio n , in lan g u ag e a n d c u ltu re ’. A cco rd in g to th e SPG R C , P a k ista n reso rte d to ‘every p o ssib le tric k ’ to m ak e rep a ­ tria tio n im possible. It has created artificial a n d untenable ‘categories’ such a s ‘central governm ent employee’, ‘divided family’, ‘distressed person’ a n d ‘W est Pakistan origin’, as qualifications fo r rep atriatio n , conveniently for­ getting th a t in 1971, w hen it gave a call to these non-Bengalees to com e o u t a n d join th e w ar for Pakistan’s sovereignty a n d territorial integrity, th ere w as no m ention o f any kind o f category th a t could serve as qualification for th e said w ar. It is th e categ o ry , ‘W e st P ak istan o rig in ’, th a t it finds ‘particu larly cru el a n d cynical in view o f th e h isto ry o f th e P a k ista n m o v em en t’,

60 ♦ Partition and the South Asian Diaspora

w h ich w a s ‘n o n -te rrito ria l in its a p p e a l’ a n d h a d led th em to m ak e sacrifices in In d ia a n d th en in E ast P ak istan . F o r th e SPG R C , ‘th e tra g e d y is th a t P a k ista n is n o t sincere even a b o u t th e re p a tria tio n o f th e c ateg o ries it h o ld s s a c ro sa n c t’. Its o p e n a rm s fo r A fg h an refu ­ gees, a n d ig n o rin g o f th e S tra n d e d P a k ista n is, is seen a s n o th in g s h o rt o f th e ‘h isto ric b e tra y a l’ o f th o se ‘it h a s utilized a n d e x p lo ited in all its h o u rs o f n eed ’.3 T h e SP G R C u su ally d escribes itself a s rep re se n tin g , ‘th e m o st o p p resse d , m o st d ep ressed a n d m o st to rtu re d P ak istan is’, w h o are s tra n d e d a n d lan g u ish in g in s q u a lid c a m p s. Its c a ta lo g u e o f ‘sacri­ fices’ focuses o n th e tra u m a e x p erien ced in 1 9 4 6 , 1 9 4 7 a n d 1 971. Since th e e a rly seventies, th ese c a m p s h av e been u n d e r th re a t o f d e m o litio n a n d d e stru c tio n a n d th en o f ev ictio n . In a n e x asp erated c o m m u n icatio n to th e Bangladesh au th o rities, N asim K han w ondered, ‘A re w e su p p o sed to suffer because w e are a d efeated n atio n ? D o w e h av e a rig h t o f ex isten ce o r w e shall b e liq u id a te d fro m e a rth ? Are w e living in S o u th A frica o r p a ssin g th ro u g h eig h te e n th c e n tu ry ? ’ [sic]4 T h e SPG R C p o sitio n is th a t B an g lad esh c a n n o t be fo rced to ac ce p t th e ir resp o n sib ility sim p ly b ecause it is a M u slim c o u n try . T h e a rg u m e n t is th a t th e S tra n d e d P a k ista n is a re su sp ect in th e eyes o f th e local p e o p le w h o ‘sp e ak a d ifferen t lan g u ag e a n d h av e a dif­ fere n t c u ltu re ’. F o r N a sim K h a n , it is th e o b lig a tio n o f a b e tte r p laced M u slim b ro th e r ‘to relieve th e b u rd en o f his less p ro sp e ro u s b ro th e r, a n d P a k ista n is certa in ly b e tte r p laced th a n B angladesh, as it h a s a te rrito ry five tim es g re a te r th a n B an g lad esh ’, a n d a ‘m u ch b e tte r develo p ed so cio -eco n o m ic in fra stru c tu re ’.5 In th e early eig h ties, th e J a m a t-e -M o sla m e e n , in th e US, p u b li­ cized th e case o f th e S tra n d e d P a k ista n is in A u stralia. As a fo llo w u p , th e A u stra lia n F e d e ra tio n o f M u slim S tu d e n ts A sso ciatio n s in C a n b e rra to o k u p th e ir issue. N o t su rp risin g ly , th e SPG R C fo und th e re p ly o f M o e e n J a n N a im o f th e P a k is ta n e m b a ssy to th e A u stra lia n stu d e n ts u n a c ce p ta b le . N a im w ro te th a t th e B iharis h ad 3 . ib id ., SPG R C to Ja n a b A tiq u r R ah m an , B ani-e-T ehreek, A ction C om m ittee f o r th e R ep a triatio n o f S tranded P akistanis (Biharis) in B angladesh, Chicago, N asim K han, n.d. 4 . Ibid., SPG RC M e m o ran d u m , 2 7 N ovem ber 1 99 3 , to A bdul M a tin C h ow dhury , M in istry o f H o m e A ffa irs a n d M u sta fiz z u r R a h m a n , M in istry o f F oreign A ffairs, G ov ern m en t o f B angladesh. 5 . w w w .rev ista-a riel.o rg /P a k istan istran d e d .h tm , R e vista A riel, 1 1 (104), speech by N a sim K han a t a sem in a r organized by R a b ita , D h ak a , n.d .[p o st-1 9 9 6 ].

Claiming Pakistan *» 61

m ig rated to E ast P a k ista n in 1 9 4 7 a n d th a t a fte r th e fo rm a tio n of B a n g la d e s h in 1 9 7 1 , th e y ‘a u to m a tic a lly b e c a m e c itiz e n s o f B an g lad esh ’. It w a s th ere fo re th e resp o n sib ility o f th e g o v ern m en t o f B an g lad esh to c re a te c o n d itio n s fo r th e ir re h a b ilitatio n a n d re­ se ttlem en t, ‘in th e ir h o m e la n d ’. N a sim K h an w ro te h is resp o n se in th e SPG R C w eekly b u lle tin , w h ic h h e a s usual m ailed to th e Bihari d ia sp o ra . T h e B iharis, h e e x p la in e d , h a d m o v ed e a st n o t to se ttle in B an g lad esh b u t in P a k ista n , ‘w h ic h m e a n t a d efin ite ideology a n d w h ich g u a ra n te ed flo u rish in g o f th e ir language (U rdu) a n d p reserva­ tio n o f th eir cu ltu re’. T h e E ast P ak istan o f th e forties, w a s afte r all, as m uch a p a rt o f Pakistan as Punjab or Sindh o r Baluchistan or the N o rth W est Frontier Province a n d had the sam e thinking, th e same ideology, sam e national heroes, th e sam e national flag a n d the same national arm y. T o say th a t E ast Pakistan and W est Pakistan were integral p arts o f Pakistan bu t people m igrating to W est Pakistan alone w ere Pakistanis is a rem arkable piece o f reasoning. It is p er­ h aps this very m entality which is responsible for the destruction of Pakistan a n d th e creation o f Bangladesh. Bangladesh is a country entirely different from Pakistan or E ast Pakistan, its form er p art. It has an altogether different am bience a n d is a new w orld altogether. It takes pride in Decem ber 16th, w hereas Pakistan to o k a n d takes pride in A ugust 14th. E ast P a k ista n w a s, ‘n o t a c o u n try , b u t a p ro v in c e o r w in g o f an Ideological h o m ela n d n a m e d P a k ista n a n d w a s in te rn atio n ally rec­ o g nized a s su c h ’. N a sim K h an p o in te d o u t th a t u n lik e P ak istan , B a n g la d esh , ‘lik e a m an ly N a tio n ’, h a d rea d ily receiv ed all th e 1 2 8 ,0 0 0 Bengalis w h o h a d registered fo r re p a tria tio n fro m Pak i­ s ta n a fte r 1 9 7 1 .6 T h is eig h ties’ re c o n stru c tio n o f p a rtitio n b y th e SPG R C is s trik ­ ing, b o th b ecause o f its g lo w in g recall o f th e B ihari h o m ela n d a n d its b lam in g th e M u slim L eague’s P a k ista n m o v em en t sq u arely fo r th e d o u b le loss o f h o m es in 1 9 4 7 a n d in 1 9 7 1 .7 T w o stra n d s of 6. A H C : T h e Bulletin w as received by Israrul H aq u e of L ondon a nd w as forw arded to all m em bers of th e UK- a n d US-based S tranded Pakistanis R esettlem ent Project (detailed la te r in this c hapter) o n 2 5 A pril 1983 by its m em ber, David Stephen. 7 . W h a t follow s is based on A H C : S P G R C /786/R ep/F/83, 2 7 J u ly 198 3 , to the delegates o f the O rg an iza tio n o f Islam ic C onference in B angladesh, draw ing th e ir a tte n tio n to th e ‘u n-Islam ic a ttitu d e o f th e G ov ern m en t o f P akistan’, and a n e n c lo su re : ‘C o m p re h e n s iv e S ta te m e n t a b o u t 2 ,5 0 ,0 0 0 P a k is ta n is in B angladesh, O th erw ise called B eharis since 16 .1 2 .7 1 ’.

62 » Partition and the South Asian Diaspora

B iharis a re id en tified a s h a v in g m ig rated to E ast P ak istan . O n e , th e m em b ers o f essential services, n am ely th e fed eral railw a y services, c e n tra l excise, c u sto m s, a rm e d fo rces, p o s ts a n d tele g ra p h a n d m ill a n d se a p o rt w o rk e rs. S eco n d , th e victim s o f carn a g e s in B ih ar, W est B engal, A ssam , D elhi a n d so o n , b etw een 1 9 4 6 a n d 1 9 5 0 . It is u n­ d e rlin ed th a t B iharis w ere ‘b e tte r p laced a n d w ell p ro v id ed in life’, th a n th e M u slim s o f M u slim m ajo rity pro v in ces. In th is retro sp e c ­ tiv e v e rs io n th e y w e re u n y o k e d fro m a n u n p ro b le m a tic B ih ar b ecause o f th e tra je c to ry o f M u slim L eague p o litics. B ih ar is d e­ scribed as th e ‘rich est p ro v in c e o f th e In d o -P a k ista n su b c o n tin e n t’; as th e lan d o f B u d d h a a n d o th e r sa in ts, o f A sh o k a, S her S h a h Suri a n d th e Syed b ro th e rs, a n d w h e re M u slim s a n d H in d u s h ad a c o m ­ m o n sh a re in th e w e a lth a n d c u ltu re o f th e p ro v in ce. T h e M u slim s o f m in o rity p ro v in c e s ‘h a d in tim a te r e la tio n s ’ w ith th e H in d u m ajo rities ‘till th ey w ere in d u ced in th e n a m e o f Islam a n d Islam ic b ro th e rh o o d ’ to jo in th e M u slim L eague’s stru g g le fo r P a k ista n . It w as th e M u slim L eague’s c a m p a ig n a g a in st th e 1 9 3 7 C ongress m in ­ istries th a t ‘affected th e tim e h o n o u re d b ro th e rly a n d friendly rela­ tio n s o f th e H in d u s a n d M u slim s’. T h e o b se rv a n c e o f th e D ay o f D eliv eran ce in 1 9 3 9 h a d ‘in fu ria te d th e lead ers a n d th e m asses o f th e H in d u m ajo rity p ro v in c e s’. A n d late r, th e o p p o s itio n o f th e M u slim L eague to th e Q u it In d ia M o v e m e n t in 1 9 4 2 , ‘w idened th e G u lf o f differences b etw een H in d u s a n d M u slim s a n d c u lm in ated in c a rn a g e s’ in B ih ar a n d n e ig h b o u rin g areas. T h e SPG R C lead er, N a sim K h a n , a lso d o u b led a s th e secretary general o f th e S a id p u r-R a n g p u r-b a s e d S tran d ed P a k ista n i E astern R ailw ay Em ployees L eague (SPEREL). B efore 1971 K h a n w as a railw a y g u a rd ,8 a n d a t o n e tim e h e w a s th e o rg an iz in g secretary o f th e All In d ia R ailw ay M u slim Em ployees L eague in C a lc u tta , a m em b er o f th e C e n tra l C o m m itte e o f th e E ast P a k ista n R ailw ay Em ployees League in C h ittag o n g , a n d vice p resid en t o f th e P akistan A H C : A rabia, 23 A ugust 1985; See T h e M u slim R efugee, F e b ru ary -M a rch 1 9 9 2 , p . 1 0 , fo r th is e la b o ra tio n b y S .M . E h te sh am u l H a q u e , P resident, SPEREL, C h itta g o n g Z o n e : ‘Ideologically those w h o w ere stra n d e d w ere d i­ vided in [their] view s, th is h a d cre ate d obstacles in o u r e n d ea v o u r to g o to P ak istan . T h o se w h o w ere f o rtu n a te h a d shifted th eir fam ilies a n d w ere m a n ­ aging th e ir industries th ro u g h th e ir agents a n d d id n o t o p t for P ak ista n , as th eir future w as m ore b right h ere th a n being in Pakistan. T hose w h o w ere p o o r w ere left in the lurch. T his com pelled us to u n ite u n d er SPEREL a n d SPG RC’.

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R ailw a y m e n ’s League, S a id p u r, R a n g p u r.9 T h e K arach i-b ased ex ­ p re s id e n t o f th e B ih ar P ro v in cial M u slim L eag u e, Syed H u ssa in Im am (also o n th e SP G R C m ailin g list), h a s trie d to a rg u e th a t th ere w a s ‘n o m ass m ig ra tio n ’ fro m B ihar. T h is w as, o f c o u rse , an e x a g g era tio n to e n ab le his a sk in g h o w so m an y B iharis ended u p in E ast P a k ista n . H is a n sw e r is th a t th e B iharis w ere railw a y o p tees, 5 0 ,0 0 0 o f w h o m w ere a b so rb e d in E ast P ak istan . ‘Fifty th o u sa n d em ployees m u st b e h av in g a fam ily o f ten m em b ers e a ch a t least, even m o re. T h a t is th e stre n g th o f th e B iharis in B an g lad esh ’. In th is o b v io u s o v e rsta te m en t it is c laim ed th a t ‘9 9 p e r c e n t’ o f th e stra n d e d B iharis in B angladesh a re o p tees w h o h a d resp o n d ed to J in n a h ’s c a ll. B u t th e y , a n d b y e x te n s io n , th e M u s lim s o f th e m in o rity p ro v in ces, w ere ‘b e tra y e d ’ by th o se w h o succeeded Jin n a h . T h is h a p p e n ed w h e n th e ir ce n tra l service s ta tu s (g u aran teed a t th e tim e o f o p tin g fo r service in P ak ista n ) w as ch an g ed to a p ro v in cial service o n e (in 1 9 6 2 ). It w a s th is d o w n g ra d in g o f th e ir s ta tu s th a t la te r becam e th e b asis o f th e ir e x c lu sio n fro m th e re p a tria tio n c a t­ e g o ries a c c e p ta b le to P a k is ta n .10 Syed H u s s a in Im a m m a d e an a p p e al to th e P a k ista n g o v ern m en t in his c a p ac ity ‘as a m em b e r o f th e All In d ia M u slim L eague W o rk in g C o m m itte e ’ a n d , ‘a s a very clo se c o m rad e-in -arm s’ o f J in n a h , to re p a tria te th e ‘stran d ed B iharis’. H e s im u lta n e o u sly a p p e a le d to th e h e a d s o f M u slim sta te s, ‘to reh a b ilitate th em in a lm o s t all th e M u slim c o u n tries, if th ey a re n o t p ro v id ed sh e lte r u n d e r th e sk y o f P a k ista n [sic]’. T h a t w a s ‘th e on ly a lte rn a tiv e to sav e th em fro m m ass co n v e rsio n to C h ristia n ity ’.11 T h e SPEREL em p h asizes th e ‘h isto rical fac t’ th a t M u slim s fro m th e m in o rity p ro v in ces m o v ed to E ast P a k ista n n o t to e a rn th eir living, b u t b ecause th ey w ere ‘in d u ced to believe’ t h a t w ith o u t th eir o p tin g to serve th e P a k ista n railw ay s th e n e w s ta te w o u ld collapse. 9 . Ib id ., M . N asim K han, N e w sletter, P akistan vis-ä-vis P akistanis Stra n d e d in Bangladesh, R an g p u r, SPG RC a n d SPEREL, 198 0 , p . 6. 10. B ooklet e ntitled T h e Sad P light o f th e B iharis F rom 1971 to 1983: A n A p p ea l to the P resident o f P akistan A n d A ll H eads o f th e M u slim S tates o f th e Islam ic W orld, K arachi, M o h a m m ad A n isu r R a h m a n fo r th e E a st P akistan Sufferers W elfare A ssociation, 1983 (first pu b lish e d in 1 9 79). T h e cover describes Im am a s th e ‘o ld est p a rliam en tarian in th e In d o -P ak istan su b -co n tin en t’. T h e W el­ fare A ssociation w as founded by W a ra sa t H u ssain K han, an advocate and p re sid e n t o f th e A njum an M oh a ja ree n E ast P a k ista n (A H C ). 11. Ibid., p. 10. Im am a lso details th e ‘h isto ric al c o n trib u tio n o f th e Biharis’ to th e P akistani a rm y o p era tio n in D h ak a in 1971, to argue th a t ‘it is th e b ounden d u ty o f th e P ak A rm y to fight fo r th e c ause o f th e B iharis’.

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If th ey h a d left b e h in d th e ir h o m es a n d lan d e d p ro p e rty it w as b ecau se th e ir ‘S en tim en ts a n d E m o tio n s’ h ad b een ro u se d ‘in th e n a m e o f Islam a n d Islam ic b ro th e rh o o d ’. In o th e r w o rd s, th ey had p ro ceed ed to P a k ista n , ‘to serve it’. 12 C learly m an y o p tees h ad also m ig rated to P a k ista n fo r b e tte r c a re e r p ro sp e c ts. Q u ite a few w h o o p ted fo r service in P a k ista n ch a n g ed th e ir m in d s w ith in th e p e r­ m issible p e rio d a n d rejo in ed th e In d ia n railw a y s.13 E ven if o n e is circ u m sp e c t a b o u t th e fo llo w in g v ersio n , it is p o ssib le th a t th ere w a s som e co n fu sio n a b o u t th e issue o f citizen sh ip , a t least a m o n g som e o f th e optees. A ccording to th e SPEREL p resid en t, th e M uslim s h a d m oved to P a k ista n , th e c o u n try (read n a tio n ) a n d n o t to E ast P a k ista n (w hich w a s o n ly a p ro v in c e o f P a k ista n ), a s serv an ts o f th e c e n tra l g o v e rn m e n t o f P a k ista n , w ith th e ir ‘citize n sh ip rig h t in ta c t a n d u n affected ’ in th e ir ‘p a re n t lan d , i.e. In d ia ’. B ut, ‘su d ­ d en ly a n d w ith o u t ta k in g a n y o p tio n again fro m th e R ailw ay m en, t h e C e n t r a l G o v e r n m e n t o f P a k is ta n s u o m o to d e c la r e d a ll R a ilw ay m en a n d th e ir fam ilies in P a k ista n a s C itizen s o f P a k ista n ’ (m y em phasis). A s a resu lt th e ir h o u ses, lan d ed p ro p e rtie s, assets, sh a re s a n d o th e r an cestral h e re d ita ry rig h ts left b eh in d in In d ia w ere d eclared E vacuees’ p ro p e rtie s a n d w ere ta k e n o v e r b y th e In d ia n go v ern m en t so they w ere ‘h it h a rd a t b o th e n d s’. T h ey w ere ‘low ered in sta tu s, denied service benefits a n d treated as fo u rth g rad e citizens a n d th ere w a s n o w ay left’ fo r th em to r e tu rn to th e ir ‘fo rm e r places o f a b o d e a n d service’. T h e n ca m e th e b lo w o f th e ir c e n tra l service b e in g d eclared a p ro v in cial service in 1 9 6 2 . ‘T h e final b lo w cam e u p o n u s in 1 9 7 1 -2 w h en th e G o v e rn m e n t o f P a k ista n d eserted th e R a ilw ay m en (S tran d ed P ak istan is) th e n serving in th e fo rm e r E ast P a k ista n ’, leaving th em b e h in d in sh ack s a n d hovels called cam ps. T h o u g h a P a k ista n i g o v e rn m e n t team a ssu re d th em , in 1 9 8 3 , th a t th ey a n d th e ir d e p e n d en ts w ere b o n a fid e citizen s o f P a k ista n they h av e co n tin u e d to live neglected lives in c ra m p e d c a m p s .14 In Ju ly 1 9 8 3 , th e SPG R C w ro te to th e U N H C R w ith a n ap p eal to solve th e re p a tria tio n im p asse. T h e re w a s a b a c k lo g o f 2 0 ,0 0 0 p erso n s w h o h ad been cleared fo r rep a tria tio n in th e early seventies. 12. A H C : S.M .A . H asn a in , P resident, SPEREL, a t a jo in t conference o f th e SPGRC a n d SPEREL, D h ak a , 2 0 A pril 1985. 13. Interview w ith Ja sim u d d in , a n ex-em ployee o f th e J a m a lp u r R ailw ay W o rk ­ sh o p , 17 J a n u a ry 199 5 , M unger. 14. A H C : P resident SPEREL, a t a jo in t conference o f the SPG R C a n d SPEREL, D h a k a , 2 0 A pril 1985.

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In a d d itio n , m o re th a n 5 ,0 0 0 railw a y e m p lo y e e s o f th e fo rm e r P a k ista n E a ste rn R ailw ay a n d su rv iv in g fam ily m em b ers o f th e rail­ w ay em p lo y ees, ‘k illed /d ied /retired d u rin g th e d e c ad e lo n g jobless­ ness [and] a d m itte d to b e q u alified fo r re p a tria tio n to P a k ista n by th e G o v e rn m e n t o f P a k ista n ’, by a n A u g u st 1 9 7 8 m em o ran d u m , rem a in e d u n re p a tria te d . T h e y h a d n o t been given a n y subsistence a llo w a n c e a n d o th e r allied b enefits ad m issib le u n d e r th e n a tio n a l a n d in te rn a tio n a l ru les since 16 D ecem b er 1 9 7 1 . T h e ir p ro v id e n t fu n d s w e re fro z e n a n d liq u id a te d . T h e S P G R C a rg u e d th a t U N in te rv en tio n w a s p o ssib le o n g ro u n d s o f h u m a n rig h ts v io latio n s, a n d th a t it w a s tim e th e U N d id so a n d sto p p e d say in g th a t th eir in te rv e n tio n w o u ld b e called u n so licited ‘in te rfe ren c e ’. Since th e U N H C R h a d a lre a d y assisted th em in th e seventies it co u ld surely end th e lin g erin g p ro b le m o f 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 S tra n d e d P a k ista n is.15 Besides th e U N a n d U N H C R , th e IL O a n d th e ‘T h ird W o rld ’, th e SP G R C h a s ro u tin e ly se n t its ‘S.O .S. a p p e als’ to th e ‘Islam ic W o rld ’. In S ep tem b er 1 9 8 0 it w ro te to th e a m ir o f K u w ait, a m o n g o th ers, a n d gave a b a c k g ro u n d e r f o r th e s u p p o rt it s o u g h t fro m th e u m m a b . D escribing th e S tran d ed P ak istan is a s in d ig en t a n d th e ‘m ost affected c h u n k o f M u s lim s ’, it a sk ed h im to in te rv en e w ith th e g o v e rn m e n ts o f B angladesh a n d P a k ista n to e n d th e v io la tio n o f h u m a n rig h ts a n d o f Islam ic codes. T h e y w ere called B iharis, ‘m o re in rid ic u le th a n in esteem ’, d esp ite h a v in g m a d e ‘su p re m e sacri­ fices’ fo r th e c re a tio n a n d in teg rity o f P a k ista n fro m th e fo rtie s u p to 1 9 7 1 , a n d w ere su fferin g und ig n ified lives b ecause o f th e ir n o n ­ re p a tria tio n to P a k ista n . Living in h u ts b arely m ea su rin g six feet, th ey h a d n o o p p o rtu n ity to e a rn a livelihood. As a resu lt, q u ite a few o f th em w ere c o n v e rtin g to C h ristia n ity . T h e le tte r m en tio n ed th a t th e SPG R C h a d been sen d in g ‘telegram s/cables, letters, m em o­ ra n d u m , re p r e s e n ta tio n s a n d p a p e rs ’ to th e M u s lim c o u n trie s , besides w ritin g to ‘h u m a n ita ria n o rg an iz a tio n s all o v e r th e w o rld ’ to p ressu rise th e P a k ista n g o v e rn m e n t to solve th e ir p ro b le m a n d end th e ir ‘geno cid e’. 16 T h e d elegates o f th e O rg a n iz a tio n o f Islam ic 15. Ibid., S P G R C /786/R ep/F/83, 10 J u ly 198 3 , ‘P rayer fo r solu tio n o f th e p ro b ­ lem o f rep a triatio n o f th e S tranded P akistanis including P akistan R ailw ay E m ­ ployees o f th e C en tral Services o f P ak istan o n tran sfe r from Bangladesh to P a k ista n ’. 16. Ib id ., SPG R C to S haikh J a b a r Al A hm ed Al S abah, D h a k a , 10 S eptem ber 1980. T h e letterhead rea d s th a t th eir d e m a n d w as ‘the im m e d iate a n d uncon ­ ditio n a l re p atria tio n to P akistan o f 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 S tranded P akistanis in B angladesh’.

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C o n feren ce (O IC ) w h ic h m et in D h a k a in 1 9 8 3 w ere h a n d e d its p rim e r o n th e ir B ih ar a n d o p te e p a s t.17 W h en Z ia u r R a h m a n ca m e to p o w e r in B angladesh in 1 9 7 5 , he w ith d re w th e b a n im posed by M u jib u r R eh m an o n Islam ic political p a rties su c h a s th e Ja m a a t-I-Isla m i a n d M u slim League. T h e J a m a a tI-Islam i h a s d ire c t lin k s w ith th e Sau d i A ra b ia n g o v e rn m e n t a n d w ith so m e n o n -g o v ern m en ta l in stitu tio n s like th e R a b ita -a l A lam al-Islam .18 Set u p in 1 9 4 1 , th e J a m a a t w a s initially o p p o sed to th e c re a tio n o f P a k ista n , b u t late r fra m ed its stra te g y w ith in th e stru c ­ tu re o f th e n e w s ta te a n d h a s a tte m p te d to Islam ize it (G ra re 2 0 0 1 : 1 1 ,1 2 ,2 4 ) . It justified its c o lla b o ra tio n w ith th e m ilitary regim e o f Y ah y a K h an a g a in st Bengali n a tio n a lism by ta k in g th e p o sitio n th a t it w a s a relig io u s o b lig a tio n to o p p o s e th e d isin te g ra tio n o f th e n a tio n . In E ast P a k ista n , its w o rk e rs a n d fo llo w ers a m o n g th e s tu ­ d e n ts o rg an iz e d them selves in th e p a ra m ilita ry u n it, Al B adr, w h ich fo u g h t w ith th e reg u la r P a k ista n a rm y tro o p s a n d a g a in st th e M u k ti B ahini rebels. In th e seventies, th e J a m a a t co n so lid a te d its o rg an i­ za tio n a l o u tre a c h in th e M id d le E a st, E u ro p e a n d N o r th A m erica, w h e re m an y o f its w o rk e rs h a d m o v ed fo r jo b s.19 T h e J a m a a t has o v e r th e y e a rs been d e m a n d in g th e re p a tria tio n o f th e S tra n d e d P a k ista n is fro m B angladesh.20 In early 1 9 9 2 , th e m o n th ly review o f th e Stran d ed P ak istan is, T h e M u slim R efu g ee, w ro te th a t th e SPG RC h a s n ev er been ‘b rac k e ted ’ w ith a n y p o litical p a rty a n d th a t th ere w a s n o d en y in g th e fac t th a t it w a s ‘o n ly ’ th e Ja m a a t-I-Isla m i Pak i­ s ta n th a t h ad lifted ‘th e big s to n e ’ o f th e e m b a rg o (1 9 8 3 -9 1 ) o n N a sim K h a n trav elin g to P ak istan . W ith o u t n a m in g it, b u t clearly h in tin g a t co rrectin g th e M u h a jir Q u a m i M o v e m e n t’s (M Q M ) claim o f b ein g th e ‘c h a m p io n a n d p io n ee r o f th e c a u se o f S tra n d e d Pak i­ s ta n is’, th e sa m e issu e re -ra n a le tte r w ritte n by G h u la m A zam , a m ir, Ja m a a t-I-Isla m i, B angladesh, to th e R a b ita t al-A lam al-Islam i 17. Ibid., S P G R C /786/R ep/F/83, 2 7 J u ly 1983. 18. Banu (1994: 1 1 2 -1 3 ). F o o tn o te 41 o n p . 136 p o in ts to th e Bengali w eekly B ichitra o f 1 J u n e 198 4 , w hich p u b lish e d a new s item w ith a p h o to co p y o f a cheque fo r $ 3 2 7 ,0 0 0 to ‘Prince’ G hulam A zam from Saudi A rabia. 19. M u m ta z A hm ad ( 1 9 9 1 :4 7 5 -7 8 ). F o r the Ja m a a t’s d iasp o ric n e tw o rk also see G rare (2001: 1 0 2 -5 a n d 1 1 3-15). 2 0 . See, fo r exam ple, Radiance, 5 -1 1 F eb ru a ry 1989; D a w n , 2 8 S eptem ber 2 00 0 . P rofessor G h a fo o r A hm ad, d ep u ty chief o f th e J a m a a t, re p ea te d th e dem and w hile p residing o ver a sem inar o n ‘S tranded P akistanis’ in K arachi. Radiance, published by th e Ja m a a t in In d ia h a s been tra c k in g th e rep a triatio n issue. See 1 2 -1 8 J a n u a ry 198 6 , p . 6.

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in 1 9 8 0 , a s a ‘se lf-ex p lan ato ry a n d cle a r-c u t in d ic a tio n o f J a m a t Islam i’s s ta n d a n d in te rest’ in th e ir issue.21 T h e S tra n d e d P ak istan is h a d a n o th e r en sem b le o f s u p p o rt th a t w e n t b ack to th e early seventies a n d co n n ected D h a k a , R a n g p u r a n d C h itta g o n g w ith L o n d o n , N e w Y o rk , C h ic a g o , a n d K arachi. T h is in clu d ed th e Bihari d iasp o ra (b o th M u h a jir a n d n o n -M u h a jir), refugee a n d h u m a n rig h ts cam p aig n ers, a n d ex -S tra n d ed P ak istan is w h o h a d m ad e it to K arach i. Before I m a p th is n e tw o rk , I sh o u ld m en tio n tw o a rticu la tio n s o f c o n c ern a b o u t w h a t w a s h a p p e n in g to B iharis in E ast P ak istan /B an g lad esh . T h e In d ia n M u slim F e d e ra tio n o r IM F (see c h a p te r th re e ), w hich d escrib ed itself as lo o k in g a fte r ‘th e in te rests a n d w e lfa re ’ o f all M u slim s ‘o f In d ia n o rig in in th e U K ’, sen t a n u rg en t a p p e al in early D ecem b er 1971 to th e In d ia n p rim e m in ister, In d ira G a n d h i, th e U N Secretary G en eral, U. T h a n t, th e In te rn atio n al R ed C ro ss a n d a lso o th e r o rg an iz a tio n s, ‘to sav e th e lives o f 2 m illio n In d ia n M u s­ lim s (Bihari) in B an g lad esh ’ b ecause th ey w e re ‘in g rav e d a n g e r of w h o lesale m assacre by Bengali g u erillas’. T h e le tte r m en tio n ed th a t B ihari M u slim s h a d ta k e n refu g e in E ast P a k ista n fo llo w in g p a rti­ tio n , b u t b e in g ‘linguistically a n d c u ltu rally d ifferen t fro m B engalis’ th ey w e re n e v e r acce p te d by th e B engalis. Since th ey w ere refugees a n d a m in o rity g ro u p th ey d id n o t w a n t to be o n th e w ro n g side of th e W e st P ak ista n -d o m in ate d g o v e rn m e n t, ‘m o re d u e to th e feeling o f insecurity th a n a n y th in g else’, a n d h ad th u s n o t p a rticip a te d in th e in d ep en d en ce m o v em en t. T h is e a rn e d th em th e ‘disp leasu re a n d w r a th ’ o f th e Bengalis a n d resu lted in th e ir large-scale k illin g d u r­ in g th e p e a k o f th e A w am i L eague m o v em ent a n d th e in itial W est P a k ista n a rm y a c tio n a g a in st th e A w am i L eague in M a rc h 1 971. W ith th e d e fe a t o f th e W e st P a k ista n i a rm y ‘a lm o s t in sig h t’ in early D ecem b er 1 9 7 1 , th e F e d e ra tio n feared th a t th e re w a s ‘a grave d a n g e r th a t th ese Bihari (Indian) M u slim refugees’ w o u ld be ‘m as­ sacred m ercilessly’, so m e th in g th a t h a d , in fact, ‘a lre a d y s ta rte d ’.22 2 1 . A H C : F e b ru a ry -M a rc h , p p . 4 - 5 ; See Banerjee (1999: 17, n o te 2). F orm er freedom fighters in Bangladesh w h o believe in secularism a n d d em ocracy have se t u p a C om m ittee for th e E lim ination o f th e A ssassins and C o llab o rato rs o f 1971 a n d a re d em a n d in g the p u n ish m en t o f G hulam A zam a n d o th e r leaders and m em bers o f th e J a m a a t g uilty o f killings in 1971. 2 2 . A H C : P ress release, 10 D ecem ber 197 1 , signed by A .M . P ath an a n d S.A. Z ak i. T h ere is a n ob liq u e reference to B ihari com plicity in th e killings d u rin g the civil w a r: ‘T h e re is n o d o u b t th a t d u rin g th e W est P akistani A rm y ru le a g rea t

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In th e US, a co u p le o f acad em ics sen t a teleg ram to H e n ry Kissinger seeking his in terv en tio n to sto p ‘th e persecu tio n a n d killing o f h u n ­ d red s a n d th o u san d s o f p eople [read Biharis] in M u h a m m a d p u r and M irp u r areas’ in D h ak a a n d ‘a lso in o th e r p a rts o f E ast P ak istan ’.23 A fter th e ‘fall o f D h a k a ’ in D ecem b er 1 9 7 1 , a UK B ihari, S u rur H o d a o f th e In d ia D ev elo p m en t G ro u p , p u t to g e th e r a ‘Save B iharis A ctio n C o m m itte e ’ in L o n d o n . F o r H o d a th e im m e d ia te p ro b lem w as th e safety o f ‘several h u n d re d th o u sa n d B iharis w h o h a d m i­ g ra te d fro m In d ia in 1 9 4 7 ’. ‘Q u ite a few B ih aris to g e th e r w ith Bengali R a z a k a rs h ad sided w ith th e G o v e rn m e n t o f P a k ista n ’, a n d w ere co m p licit in th e m assacre o f a larg e n u m b e r o f Bengalis ‘in th e n a m e o f th e un ity o f P a k ista n ’. As a resu lt, th e larg e m ajo rity o f in n o ce n t B iharis w ere b ra n d e d c o lla b o ra to rs a n d p ick ed u p a n d killed. T h e p u b lic b a y o n e tin g to d e a th o f six B ihari R a za k a rs in a cro w d e d D h a k a s ta d iu m b y th e M u k ti B ahini lead er, T ig er Siddiqui, received m u ch in te rn a tio n a l telev isio n coverage. S u ru r H o d a a n d his b ro th e r M a n su r g o t in to u c h w ith th e ir p o litic a l c o n ta c ts to ru stle u p in te rn a tio n a l p ressu re to sto p th e killings. But, as H o d a re c o u n ts , in te r n a tio n a l o p in io n a t th a t p o in t o f tim e w a s p ro B an g lad esh a n d a n ti-P a k istan a n d th e ir perceived c o lla b o ra to rs , th e B ih aris.24 S u ru r H o d a a n d h is b ro th e r M a n su r th en a p p ro a c h e d S u ru r’s ‘lo n g tim e frien d ’, D av id E n n als, th e L a b o u r P a rty M P , w h o read ily agreed to jo in th e c a m p a ig n .25 U n d e r th e c h a irm a n sh ip o f n u m b e r o f atro citie s w ere com m itted a g a in st th e Bengali p o p u la tio n w hich resulted in a n ex o d u s o f m illions o f refugees to India. T h is resulted in the guerilla m ovem ent a n d th e In d ia n A rm y a g a in st th e W est P ak istan a rm y in E ast Bengal’. 2 3 . N a tio n a l A rchives a n d R ecords A dm in istra tio n (N A R A ), USA, N ix o n Papers, B ox 5 9 , N ew Y o rk , 2 7 D ecem ber 197 1 , from M .A .B . Beg a n d D r. K ashm iri o f R ockefeller U niversity, A .S. D il, S tan fo rd U niversity, N . P arvez, M o u n t Sinai H o sp ital, a n d S. S adiq, P a k ista n S tudents A ssociation. 2 4 . S u ru r H o d a C ollection, Surrey (henceforth referred to a s SH C): 'A id F or Biharis in B angladesh (Save B iharis C om m ittee)’, a n o te b y S u ru r H o d a . “ M a n y p o li­ ticians including th e G eneral S ecretary o f the S ocialist In tern a tio n a l w ith w hom M S H [the a u th o r o f the note] h a d w orked fo r th e lib era tio n o f B angladesh re fu se d to in te rv e n e o n b e h a lf o f th e B ih aris. M a n y M P s su ch a s J o h n S tonehouse (L ab o u r M P ) w ere positively ru d e w hen a p p ro ac h ed a n d suggested th a t B iharis d eserved t o b e k illed. H o w a public figure c ould sh u t h is eyes t o a g re at h u m a n ita ria n pro b le m w a s beyond us’. 2 5 . Ibid. T h e H o d a s a lso c o n tacted th e M in o rity R ights G ro u p , Q u a k e r Peace & Service In te rn a tio n a l, O p e ratio n O m ega a n d m a n y o th e r h u m an rights o rg a ­ niz atio n s, a n d P aul C onnet; interview w ith S u ru r H o d a , S urrey, J u n e 1994.

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E n n als, th e co m m ittee a p p ro a c h e d Ben W h ita k e r, c h a irm a n o f th e M in o rity R ig h ts G ro u p . S u ru r H o d a ’s b ro th e r M a n su r recalls H o d a o rg an izin g d e m o n stra tio n s in f ro n t o f 1 0 D o w n in g S treet a n d en ­ su rin g w id e m ed ia coverag e o f th e B iharis a fte r w h ic h th e R ed C ro ss a n d o th e r relief agencies h e a d ed fo r B angladesh to p ro v id e a id to th e B iharis.26 In A pril a n d M a y 1 9 7 2 H o d a w as p a rt o f a m ission o f rec o n c ilia tio n th a t in clu d ed D av id E n n als, F a ru k h C h o w d h u ry , Pau l C o n n e tt a n d B en W h ita k e r, to in v estig ate th e situ a tio n o f th e B iharis in B angladesh a n d th e Bengalis in P a k ista n .27 D av id E n n als w a s a lso c h a irm a n o f th e A sian C o m m itte e o f th e B ritish R efugee C o u n cil, a n d ov er th e y ears m ad e several trip s to P a k ista n , B an g lad esh a n d several M u slim c o u n tries to m o b ilize su p ­ p o rt fo r th e re p a tria tio n o f th e S tra n d e d P a k ista n is.28 In 1 9 7 2 , he m et Z .A . B h u tto in P a k ista n a n d M u jib u r R eh m an in B angladesh, b o th o f w h o m a g reed to a ‘o n e fo r o n e ex c h an g e ’ o f non-B engalis a n d B engalis. In O c to b e r 1 9 8 0 , E n n als visited th e cam p s in D h a k a . O n th is se co n d m issio n to B an g lad esh in th e early eighties, h e w as ‘ap p a lle d to fin d th a t th ere w ere still o v e r 5 0 cam p s, so m e n o b e tte r th a n in 1 9 7 2 , a n d n e a rly 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 p e o p le still w a itin g to be tra n s ­ ferred to P a k ista n ’. H e m et Z ia u r R a h m a n a n d Z ia ul H a q , th e B an g lad esh i a n d P a k ista n i p resid e n ts, a n d b o th o f th em to ld him th a t in te rn atio n al fu n d s w ere needed fo r th e resettlem en t p ro g ram m e o f th e Biharis. In M a y 1 9 8 1 , Ennals raised th e issue o f th e S tran d ed P ak istan is a t a n N G O c o n feren ce th a t th e U N H C R co n v en ed in G eneva. T h o u g h th e d ip lo m atic p ro g ress w a s ‘slow ’, h e fo u n d ‘w id e­ s p re a d ’ in te rest in th e p ro b le m ‘in P a k ista n , in Sau d i A ra b ia a n d o th e r M uslim states a n d a m o n g M uslim o rg an izatio n s’. C om m ittees w ere se t u p in th e US a n d A u stralia, a n d th e British Refugee C ouncil 2 6 . H o d a (1989: 1 1 2 -1 3 ). ‘I t is m ainly d u e to o n e individual S urur, w ho knew how to o p e ra te th e levers o f in tern a tio n al p o w e r th a t [the] Bihari problem becam e in tern a tio n al a n d ea rn e d th e sym pathy o f th e w o rld ’. M a n su r w as p u ttin g Ben W h ita k er’s d e scrip tio n o f B iharis a s th e ‘m o st a rticu late m in o rity g ro u p in th e w o rld ’, in perspective. T o underline his p o in t h e w e n t o n : ‘T h e d u m b , q u iet, shy a n d p o o r people in th e ca m p s o f M irp u r a n d M o h am m a d p u r in D h ak a w ere stu n n e d w ith disbelief to see in te rn atio n a l help arriv in g fo r th em in a big w ay a lo n g w ith a n in tern a tio n al m ission a n d assu ra n ce s fo r th e ir re p a tria tio n to P akistan’. 2 7 . SH C : Ben W h ita k e r (1 972), p .1 0 , f.n. 5 . C opies o f th e m ission’s re p o rt w ere priced 10 p a n d w ere a vailable w ith S. H o d a . 2 8 . M u slim In d ia , M ay 1 9 8 5 , p . 2 2 8 , e x tr a c t fro m A hm ed N a d im in A fkar, L o ndon, A ugust 1984.

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a lso ex p ressed “ a d eep c o n c e rn ” 29 o n th e relo c a tio n issue. In 1 982, D av id E n n als w a s in C h icag o to sp e ak o n th e p lig h t o f th e B iharis.30 M e an w h ile , in th e e a rly eighties, th e A n ju m an -e -N a u , w h ic h w as ‘k n o w n a s a n o rg a n iz a tio n o f th e B iharis’ in th e U K , d ecid ed to b ro a d e n th e ir b a se b y c o n ta c tin g L o rd E n n als a n d ‘a few ’ B iharis in th e US w h o w ere active o n th e B ihari q u estio n . T h e o u tc o m e w as th e S tran d ed P a k ista n is R esettlem en t P ro ject (SPRP)31, w h ich h ad D av id E n n als a s c h a irm a n a n d A sad H u s a in o f C h icag o a s vicec h a irm a n . T h e C h icag o -b ased C o m m itte e f o r S tran d ed P ak istan is in B angladesh (CSP) g rew o u t o f a m eetin g o f c o n c ern e d M u slim s o f th e city in th e la te seventies.32 Its o n e o b jectiv e w a s to facilitate th e re p a tria tio n o f th e S tra n d e d P a k ista n is. T h e CSP’s ta k e w as th a t th e S tran d ed P ak istan is h ad ‘u n d o u b ted ly e a rn e d th e rig h t o f ad m issio n to P a k ista n th ro u g h th e ir en o rm o u s sacrifices fo r Pak i­ s ta n a n d th e exercise o f citizen sh ip o p tio n a fte r th e 1971 w a r ’. T h e CSP c o n ta c te d th e SPG R C in D h a k a a fte r c o n firm in g th a t it w a s ‘a w ell o rg an iz e d a n d rep re se n ta tiv e b o d y o f th e p e o p le living in th e c a m p s’,33 a n d rem a in e d in clo se to u c h w ith it. T w o o f its m em b ers, A tiq u r R a h m a n a n d W asiu llah K h a n , m et P resid en t Z ia ul H a q in N e w Y o rk in O c to b e r 1 9 8 0 a n d ask ed him to sp eed up 2 9 . E nnals (1982: 30) a n d h is, T h e B iharis in B angladesh’, a 1982 n o te ; interview w ith D avid E nnals, J u n e 199 4 , L o ndon. 3 0 . T h e C hicago T rib u n e, 26 S eptem ber 1982. 3 1 . A H C : M .N . K han (o f th e SPRP) to D r A.J.K. A la, L o n d o n , 3 J u n e 1991. 3 2 . A H C : W h a t follow s is based o n a n o te o n the C om m ittee by A sad H usain , 1981; ‘A n Eye W itness R e p o rt O n ‘S tranded P akistanis’ in B angladesh: R e­ p o r t O n the C o n d itio n s a n d P roblem s o f S tranded P akistanis in B angladesh’, 3 0 M arc h 198 2 , by M u h a m m a d Im tia zu d d in , C h airm a n , a n d Asad H usain , m em ber, C om m ittee fo r S tran d e d P akistanis in B angladesh, USA, w hen n o t specified o therw ise. A sad H u sain w as a professo r o f political science in th e N o rth E astern U niversity, Illinois. 3 3 . A H C : D uring the sta y o f th e CSP’s A sad H u sa in and Im tiazuddin in C hittagong in D ecem ber 198 1 , they m e t G holam M u stafa , a lias M o h am m a d K alim uddin, ch airm a n o f th e SPRC. B u t th e ir discussions revealed th a t h is w a s ‘a very sm all g ro u p w ith o u t any g rass-ro o t o rg an iza tio n o r p o p u la r su p p o rt’. They the refo re advised M usta fa to coo p e rate w ith th e SPG RC a n d SPEREL. See D avid E nnals (1982: 30) ‘T hey n o w have a m ilitan t leadership a n d u n d er the title o f th e S tranded P a k ista n is G eneral R e p atria tio n C o m m ittee, they claim to have branches in th e B ihari cam ps spread th ro u g h o u t th e c o u n try . I f the th o u san d s w h o g reeted m e w ith ban n ers w elcom ing m e by n am e a re a n y indi­ ca tio n th e y have a very effective o rg a n iz a tio n ’.

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th e re p a tria tio n p rocess. It p re p a re d a n d d istrib u te d h a n d o u ts o n th e Stran d ed P ak istan is fo r general in fo rm a tio n . C o p ies o f its prin ted a p p e al w e re sen t to D h a k a fo r d istrib u tio n a m o n g th e d elegates of th e I n te rn a tio n a l E d u c a tio n a l C o n fe re n c e h eld in D h a k a d u rin g M a rc h 1 9 8 1 . T itle d ‘S tra n d e d P ak istan is in B angladesh: A n A ppeal T o T h e M u slim W o rld C o n sc ien c e ’, it re m in d e d d e le g a tes th a t ‘Islam req u ires us to b elieve th a t th e M u slim U m m ah is in o n e n a tio n . . . . It is very u n fo rtu n a te th a t th ere a re still a b o u t 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 so called ‘Bihari M u slim s’ living in extrem ely sh o ck in g a n d sub-hum an c o n d itio n s in tem p o rary cam p s in B angladesh’. T h e one-page ap p eal a sk ed th e d elegates to visit th e c a m p s a n d w rite to th e p resi­ d e n t o f P a k ista n fo r th e ir re p a tria tio n to P a k ista n , ‘o n Islam ic a n d h u m a n ita ria n g ro u n d s’. A t th e a n n u a l c o n v e n tio n o f th e M uslim S tu d e n ts A sso ciatio n o f th e USA a t th e U niversity o f In d ia n a , in 1 9 8 1 , th e CSP o rg an iz e d a n in fo rm a tio n b o o th a n d se n t several h u n d re d letters o f ap p eal to th e p resid e n t o f P ak istan . A ro u n d this tim e, so m e o f th e co m m ittee m em b ers c o n ta c ted A b d u llah N aseef, p resid en t, K in g A b d u l Aziz U niversity, J e d d a h , a n d M a h m o o d Safar, d e p u ty m in iste r o f h ig h er e d u c a tio n , Sau d i A ra b ia , to seek th eir s u p p o rt a n d a ssistan ce f o r th e S tra n d e d P a k ista n is.34 A co u p le o f su p p o rtiv e co m m ittee s w o rk in g o n b e h a lf o f th e SP G R C a n d SPEREL in th e US, U K , F ra n ce a n d A u stra lia w ere in v ite d to th e ir f o u rth a n n u a l co n fe re n c e h eld in C h itta g o n g in D ecem b er 1 9 8 1.35 M . Im tia z u d d in a n d A sad H u sa in o f th e CSP w ere a m o n g th e 2 0 ,0 0 0 p e o p le w h o a tte n d e d it. T h e re w ere also 1 6 0 lo cal d eleg ates rep re se n tin g m o re th a n th irty cam p s. M o st of th em h a d been sc h o o l teach ers, law y ers, s ta tio n m asters, tic k e t co l­ lec to rs, railw a y g u a rd s a n d skilled w o rk e rs. ‘B efore th e 1971 civil w a r, m an y o f th em h a d th e ir o w n h o m es a n d lived w ell. T h e y k ept rep e a tin g o n e q u e stio n , “ H o w lo n g m u st w e suffer th is d e p riv a ­ tio n , in su lts a n d s ta rv a tio n ? ” ’. T h e ir p o in t w a s th a t th e ir P ak istani 3 4 . A H C : K hursheed A . M allick, M ah fo o z H a q u e , A sad H u sa in a n d M oh a m m ad Im tiazuddin. 3 5 . I h a v e n o t been able to locate any m ate ria l on th e su p p o rt g ro u p s in France a n d fo u n d only one reference to a n initiative in A ustralia (see c h a p te r one). H o w ev e r, A H C : S P G R C /786/R ep/7th J o in t A n n u al C o n fe ren ce-D h ak a /8 6 , 30 Ju ly 198 6 , A nnexure A , carries a list o f w ell-w ishers w h o se n t messages a n d th is in c lu d e s T a r a ju d d in , p re s id e n t, S P G R C b ra n c h , B ru sse ls, a n d F ehlm ann G u y , p e rm a n en t representative o f th e SPG R C in F rance, 'f o r th e w h o le o f E urope’.

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c itizen sh ip w a s ‘n o t n eg o tia b le ’. T h e c o n feren ce a sk ed th e CSP to o rg an iz e a n In te rn a tio n a l C o o rd in a tin g C o m m ittee. T h e tw o CSP rep resen tativ es th e n m et a w id e ra n g e o f p e o p le in several places fo r in sig h ts a n d s u p p o rt. T h e y in clu d ed ‘s e ttle d ’ Bihari M u slim s in D h a k a , G h u la m S a rw a r in P a tn a (see c h a p te r o n e), Syed H u sa in Im am a n d M u h a m m a d S a lah u d d in in K arach i, a n d Shiekh A hm ed S alah Ja m jo o m in J e d d a h . In L o n d o n , th ey m et S u ru r H o d a a n d S .H . S hareef, b o th fro m A n ju m an -e -N a u , a n d lin k ed u p w ith th em to w o rk o u t a rese ttle m e n t p ro ject. A y e a r la te r a c o n feren ce o f th e In te rn a tio n a l C ouncil o f V o lu n ­ ta ry A gencies w a s held in G eneva fro m 1 3 -1 5 D ecem b er 1 9 8 2 a t th e in itiativ e o f D av id E n n als a n d th e A n ju m an -e -N a u .36 T h e p a r­ tic ip a tio n o f N a sim K h an a n d S.M .A . H a s n a in w as s p o n so re d by th e CSP, C h icag o , a n d A n ju m an -e -N a u , L o n d o n . B ut P a k ista n did n o t a tte n d th e co n feren ce, th o u g h invited.37 T h e d e c la ratio n o f th e co n fe re n c e resta te d th e p o s itio n o f th e SP G R C th a t m o st o f th e p e o p le w h o o rig in ally m ig rated to E ast P a k ista n w ere c e n tra l g o v­ e rn m e n t o p tee s, a n d ask ed fo r a sp eed y s o lu tio n to th e re p a tria tio n im p asse, ‘n o t la te r th a n 1 9 8 5 ’. It suggested a red e fin itio n o f th e fam ily reu n ific a tio n clau se in th e 1 9 7 3 - 7 4 ag reem en ts in Islam ic term s; clearan ces fo r all fo rm e r em ployees o f th e c e n tra l g o v e rn ­ m en t, p a rticu la rly railw a y w o rk e rs a n d th e ir fam ilies; a n e x p a n ­ sio n o f th e h a rd sh ip cases s lo t a n d a c ce p tin g th o se w h o h a d been o ffered full sp o n so rsh ip b y in d iv id u als a n d o rg an iz a tio n s in Pak i­ s ta n .38 T h e c o n feren ce resu lted in th e fo rm a tio n o f th e S tran d ed 3 6 . T h e provisional list o f particip an ts included the British Refugee C ouncil, C atho ­ lic R elief S ervices, In tern atio n a l L eague o f M inorities, UK, Islam ic C ouncil o f E u rope, th e governm ents o f B angladesh and P akistan, observers o f th e In te r­ n a tio n a l C om m ittee o f th e R ed C ross, the U N H C R , th e SPG RC a n d N asim K han. 3 7 . A H C : Presidential speech o f N asim K h an a t the fifth jo in t a n n u a l convention o f the SPG RC and SPEREL, K h alisp u r-K h u ln a, 2 3 - 2 5 M a rch 1984. 3 8 . A H C : ‘D ec lara tio n o f th e In tern atio n a l C onference T o C o n sid e r th e P light o f th e N on-B engalis in Bangladesh W h o O p t T o G o T o P akistan’(‘non-B engali’ w a s su b stitu te d fo r the d ra ft v ersion, ‘B ihari’). A p p e n d ix A : T h e concept o f fam ily u n d e r the Islam ic la w , w hich the people o f P a k ista n , the non-Bengalis stra n d e d in Bangladesh a n d th e people o f B angladesh a d h ere to , includes: 1) h u sb a n d , w ife (o r w ives); sons a n d d a u g h ters; p a re n ts; g ran d ch ild re n ; g ra n d ­ p a re n ts; b ro th e rs and sisters; half-b ro th ers a n d h a lf sisters from fath er’s and m o th e r’s side; progeny o f b ro th e rs a n d sisters a n d uncles and au n ts; A p p e n ­ d ix B: includes a copy o f the G ov e rn m e n t M em o N o . 3 1/7 8 -R ep -1 ,2 6 A ugust

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P a k ista n i R esettlem en t P ro ject (SPRP) referred to e a rlie r.39 M e a n ­ w h ile in his sta te m e n t o f 8 M a y 1 9 8 3 , Z ia ul H a q sa id th a t if funds w ere p ro v id e d b y Islam ic c o u n tries a n d w e lfa re o rg an iz a tio n s to tra n s p o rt a n d resettle th e non-B engalis, h e w a s p re p a re d to ferry th em to P a k ista n o n his sh o u ld ers. T h e SPR P estim a te d th a t tra n s ­ p o rta tio n a n d rese ttle m e n t w o u ld co st $ 1 0 ,0 0 0 fo r tw o y ears fo r a n av erag e fam ily o f six , a n d ex p e cte d to ra ise m o st o f it fro m Islam ic sta te s a n d th e Islam ic C o n feren ce. ‘T h u s if 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 w ere to se ttle in P a k ista n th e co st to b e f o u n d fro m o u tsid e P a k ista n w o u ld b e o f th e o r d e r o f th re e h u n d re d m illio n d o lla rs ’. T h o u g h th e ‘sim p lest’ s o lu tio n w a s th a t th e a p p ro x im ate ly 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 Stran d ed P ak istan is b e a d m itte d in g ro u p s in to P a k ista n , th e SPR P a ls o sug­ gested a n ‘in te rn a tio n a l a p p ro a c h ’. In ‘m o st cases’ P a k ista n w o u ld b e th e c o u n try o f citizen sh ip , b u t it a lso c o n sid e red th e p ro sp e c t of b o th settle m e n t a n d te m p o ra ry e m p lo y m en t in o th e r c o u n tries. For ex am p le, it w a s p ro p o se d to th e A u stra lia n g o v e rn m e n t th a t 1 0 ,0 0 0 B ih aris sh o u ld b e s e ttle d in its n o r th e r n te rrito rie s . D iscu ssio n s in itia ted b y th e US C o m m itte e F o r S tran d ed P ak istan is suggested th a t 1 0 ,0 0 0 co u ld b e a d m itte d to th e US; p ro p o sa ls w ere a lso m ade fo r a sim ila r n u m b e r to b e tak e n b y M alay sia. F o r th o se w h o h ad w o rk e d in th e railw a y s a n d in fac to rie s, th e SPR P h a d in m in d em p lo y m en t o p p o rtu n itie s in Sau d i A ra b ia a n d th e G u lf S tates, b u t rem in d ed th a t fo r th a t to h a p p e n P a k ista n i c itizen sh ip w a s th e first step . T h e d ra ft v ersio n o f th is p lan w a s b a sed o n a n age b rea k d o w n o f th e S tra n d e d P ak istan is, ac co rd in g to w h ic h ch ild ren u p to th e age o f 1 7 a n d th o se o v e r 6 0 a d d e d u p to 2 0 p e r c e n t e a ch a n d those b etw een 1 8 a n d 5 5 co m p rise d 6 0 p e r c e n t o f th e to ta l. T h e th in k in g w as th a t th e first tw o categ o ries c o u ld b e settled in P a k ista n , a n d th e re s t in o th e r p a rts o f th e w o rld , ‘to c re a te a n e c o n o m ic b a se fo r th em a n d th ro u g h th em fo r th e re s t o f th e fo rty p e r c e n t’ settled in 197 8 , from th e C a b in e t D ivision c oncerning th e re p a tria tio n o f P akistan E ast­ e rn R ailw ay em ployees advising, ‘w ith o u t a n y am biguity’, th e M in istry o f R ailw ays t h a t the em ployees o f P ak istan E astern R ailw ays a p p o in ted before 1 Ju ly 1962 (w hen th e railw ays w ere provincialized) w ere F ederal G overnm en t em ployees a n d a s such w e re e ntitle d fo r re p a tria tio n to Pakistan. 3 9 . W h a t follow s is based o n ‘P roposals F or A L ong-term S ettlem ent O f T he Biharis (Stranded Pakistanis) in B angladesh’, Septem ber 1983: M em o ran d u m by Lord Ennals, chairm an o f th e S tranded Pakistanis R esettlem ent P roject a n d c h air­ m a n o f the A sian C om m ittee o f the British Refugee C ouncil; ‘A D raft Proposal F or T h e Re-settlem ent o f S tranded P akistanis in B angladesh’, Je d d ah , 4 Sep­ te m b e r 1983 (AHC).

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P a k ista n . T h e d e stin a tio n s th a t w e re co n sid ered included USA, UK, A u stra lia , K u w a it, Q a ta r, B ah rain , Sau d i A ra b ia , UA E, M alay sia, a n d even S u rin am a n d T rin id a d in th e o ld d iasp o ra! B ack in D h a k a th e SP G R C a n d SPEREL pu b licized th a t th e SPR P h a d b een fo rm ed w ith D avid E n n als a s c h a irm a n , A sad H u s a in as v ice-ch airm an a n d S u ru r H o d a a s Secretary G en eral w ith b ran ch es in J e d d a h a n d Isla m a b a d . It w a s a t th e in te rv en tio n o f th ese office­ b e a re rs th a t N a s im K h a n d eferred his self-im m o latio n w h ic h he h a d p la n n e d to p ro te s t th e ‘in d ifferen ce’ o f th e Islam ic (Foreign M in isters) C o n feren ce in D ecem b er 1 9 8 3 . B ut K h a n w a s b itte r th a t H a b ib Al C h a tty , th e O IC S ecretary G en eral, h ad n o t a c k n o w l­ edged his letter inv itin g him to th e G eneva c a m p in M o h a m m a d p u r, D h a k a : ‘C o u ld h e n o t sp a re h a lf a n h o u r fo r this? L ead ers o f his class d esp ise p o o r a n d fallen M u slim s’. H o w e v e r, D av id Ennals a n d A sad H u s a in sta y e d o n in D h a k a fo r fo u r day s, m et th e foreign m inisters a n d officials o f B angladesh, Sau d i A rab ia, K u w ait, B ahrain, Q a ta r, a n d ‘o th e r reso u rcefu l G u lf sta te s’. A sad H u sa in a n d S u ru r H o d a ( th e n S e c re ta ry G e n e ra l o f th e I n te r n a tio n a l M in o ritie s League) visited th e G eneva cam p a n d h a d lo n g d iscu ssio n s w ith th e SP G R C lea d e rsh ip a n d to g e th e r, w ith E n n als, ad d re sse d a m ass m ee tin g th ere . B efore leav in g D h a k a , E n n a ls to ld th e BBC th a t $ 2 0 0 m illio n h ad been p ro m ised b y th e O IC a n d R a b ita al-A lam al-Islam i.40 T h e fifth a n n u a l c o n v e n tio n o f th e SP G R C a n d SPEREL in K h u ln a w a s a tte n d e d b y S .H . S hareef, p resid e n t, A n ju m a-e-N au , a n d Israru l H a q u e , m em b er, A n ju m an -e -N a u , w h o w ere L o n d o n based m em b ers o f th e SPRP. In h is p resid en tial sp eech , N asim K h an a c k n o w led g e d th e s u p p o rt o f s y m p a th iz e rs in L o n d o n , F ra n ce , A u stra lia a n d USA, s o u n d e d satisfied a n d sa id , ‘th e m o o n is in sig h t’.41 Som e m o n th s la te r th e SP G R C a n d SPEREL rep e a ted th eir ack n o w led g em en t o f d iasp o ric s u p p o rt a n d g av e th e SPR P u p d a te th a t th e g o v e rn m e n t o f P a k ista n h ad called fo r ten d e rs fo r th e c o n ­ s tru c tio n o f h o u se s a t L a h o re a n d K a ra c h i, in itia lly f o r 5 0 ,0 0 0 S tran d ed P a k ista n is.42 4 0 . A H C : J o in t B ulletin N o . VII o f the S PG R C a n d SPEREL, 14 D ecem ber 1983. 4 1 . A H C : Ref. SPG R C /786/R ep/M eet/84, 25 M a rch 1984. T h e convention w as held betw een 2 3 -2 5 M a rch 198 4 . R esolution 4 th a n k e d D avid E nnals, A sad H u sain , Im tiazuddin, S u ru r H o d a , M a n z a r H assan , Israru l H a q u e a n d so on fo r th e ir s u p p o rt fo r o v e r tw elve years; presidential speech by N asim K han. 4 2 . A H C : ‘M in u tes o f th e J o in t C onference o f presid e n ts a n d secretaries o f all the bran ch e s o f SPG R C a n d SPEREL, G eneva C a m p , M o h a m m a d p u r, D haka, from 13 t o 14 J u ly 1984.

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In his speech to th e SPG R C in D h a k a in 1 9 8 5 , D av id Ennals o u tlin e d his lo n g a sso c ia tio n w ith th e B iharis sin ce A p ril 1 972. H a v in g w o rk e d w ith A fghan, E th io p ian a n d S outh A frican refugees, h e felt th e p ro b le m s o f th e S tran d ed P ak istan is w as ‘p o ten tially th e easiest’ to resolve: ‘In sp ite o f th e lo n g y ears o f m isery , rejectio n a n d h u m ilia tio n ’, in th e m id-eighties th ey seem ed to b e ‘o n th e b rin k o f success’. Z ia ul H a q a n d th e R a b ita al-A lam al-Islam i h a d c o m ­ m itte d to fin an ce th e m o v em en t to , a n d rese ttle m e n t in P ak istan , o f u p to 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 S tra n d e d P a k ista n is. In a d d itio n , th e P a k ista n g o v e rn m e n t h a d a p p ro a c h e d th e U N H C R to assist w ith th e ir tra n s ­ p o rta tio n . A t th a t sta g e E n n als advised re s tra in t, rem in d in g th em it w a s ‘n o t a tim e f o r d ra w in g o n h isto ry to sc o re p o in ts ’.43 T h e d iasp o ric su p p o rte rs w ere ag ain p resen t a t th e six th a n d seventh a n ­ n u a l co n v e n tio n s o f th e SP G R C a n d SPEREL in D h a k a in 1 9 8 5 a n d 1 9 8 6 .44 O v e r th e y ears th e SPR P n e tw o rk w as a lso in to u c h w ith th e B iharis settled in P a k ista n a n d th ey to o h a d been in to u c h w ith th e SPRP.45 R aziq u e K h an o f th e N a tio n a l R e p a tria tio n C o m m it­ tee (N R C ) a n d S.S. O m a r o f th e U n ited F ro n t F o r R e p a tria tio n (UFR ), b o th fro m K a ra c h i, a tte n d e d th e six th a n n u a l c o n feren ce o f th e SP G R C a n d SPEREL. A t th e sa m e co n feren ce, D av id Ennals p o in te d o u t th a t a p p ro x im ate ly 1 7 5 ,0 0 0 B iharis a lre a d y settled in P a k ista n h a d a n im p o rta n t ro le to p lay in th e re p a tria tio n p ro je c t, n o t o n ly in term s o f fu n d s, b u t in e n listin g sp o n so rsh ip c o m m it­ m en ts.46 T h e P a k ista n -b a se d re p a tria tio n g ro u p s have been deeply involved w ith th e fate o f th o se in th e B angladesh c a m p s. In 1 983, th e N R C m ad e d e tailed su g gestions a b o u t th e ir tra n s p o rta tio n by a ir, sea a n d lan d (w ith tra n s it visas) a n d s p re a d in g o u t th e ir settle­ m en t in S in d h , A zad K ash m ir, P u n ja b a n d th e F ro n tie r, a n d sent 4 3 . A H C : S um m ary o f speech delivered to sixth A n n u al C onference o f th e SPG RC , D h a k a , 21 A pril 198 5 , by L o rd Ennals. 4 4 . A H C : S P G R C /7 8 6 /R e p /C o n fe re n c e -D h a k a /8 5 , 2 0 - 2 2 A pril 1 9 8 5 . T h o se present included D avid E nnals, S.H . Shareef, Israrul H a q u e a n d A sad H usain ( c o o r d in a to r o f R a b ita fro m U SA ); S P G R C /7 8 6 /R e p 7 th J o in t A n n u a l C o n fe re n c e -D h a k a /8 6 ,3 0 Ju ly 1 9 8 6 . T h is w a s a tte n d e d by A sad H u sain , S .H . S hareef a n d Isra ru l H a q u e . 4 5 . A H C : See, fo r ex a m p le, M o rn in g N e w s , 5 D ecem ber 1 9 8 3 ; T h e S ta r, 1 7 D ecem ber 1984; D a w n , 12 D ecem ber 1986. 4 6 . A H C : SPG R C /786/R ep/C onference-D haka/85, 2 0 - 2 2 A pril 198 5 , A nnexure A ; ‘S u m m ary o f speech by L o rd E n n a ls’; See S P G R C /7 8 6 /R ep 7 th Jo in t A nnual C o nference-D haka/86, 30 July 198 6 , A nn ex u re A , fo r the p a rticip a ­ tio n o f H aseeb H ash m i o f th e T eh rik -e-Itte h ad , O ra n g i, K arachi.

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co p ies m ark e d to A sad H u sa in a n d so m e o th e rs .47 B o th th e U FR a n d th e N R C w ere in to u c h w ith th e P ak istan i p resid e n t, Z ia ul H a q ;48 o th e r g ro u p s to o , h av e b een a ctiv e o n th e issue.49 M ean w h ile, o n ce th e R ab ita co m m itted to h elp raise $ 3 0 0 m illion to fin an ce th e re p a tria tio n , th e R a b ita al-A lam al-Islam i, D h a k a , co m m issioned a survey o f th e Stran d ed P akistanis. T h e study carried a n a c c o u n t o f th e P a k ista n m o v em e n t, th e killings o f 1 9 4 6 , th e civil w a r in th e early seventies a n d a n o verview o f th e c o n d itio n o f 3 5 ,211 fam ilies a d d in g u p to 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 p e rso n s in six ty -six cam p s. M u c h o f th is w as based o n th e M in o rity R ig h ts G ro u p re p o rts o f 1 9 7 2 a n d 1 9 8 2 . It ec h o ed th e 1 9 8 0 m e m o ran d u m o f th e Ja m a a t-I-Isla m i a n d its p a tria rc h a l c o n c e rn a b o u t th e fam ily p la n n in g c en tres o f th e M e n n o n ite C e n tra l C o m m itte e ‘sp re a d in g im m o ra l activities a m o n g y o u n g g irls’, a n d m en tio n ed th e co m p licity o f som e ‘d ish o n e st cam p lead ers’. T h e re p o rt suggested th a t re p a tria tio n w a s th e o n ly so lu ­ tio n to all o f th is, a n d co n v e rsio n to C h ristia n ity b y so m e cam p resid e n ts.50 T h e fo rm a l a n n o u n c em e n t th a t th e R a b ita h ad decided 4 7 . A H C : ‘R elief, Rescue, R e p atria tio n & R eh a b ilita tio n o f S tranded P akistanis o f B angladesh’, edited by S hahbaz H ussain and M o h a m m ad H assan Im am S iddiqui (unpulished). A nnexure A carries a detailed table o f the n u m b e r o f flights, th eir capacity a n d th e n u m b e r o f passengers actually carried to a rrive a t statistics o f the n u m b e r o f persons ‘deprived’ o f airlifting d u rin g th e U N H C R o p e ratio n : 4 ,1 0 6 in O c to b e r 197 3 , 4 ,0 1 5 in N o v em b er 197 3 , 2 ,4 6 6 in De­ cem ber 1973 a n d 1,785 in J a n u a ry 1974. 4 8 . A H C : S.S. U m er A lam , president, UFR, to Z ia ul H a q , K arachi, 9 February 1984: ‘D o you th in k th a t the tw o-nation theory is still alive? A re only the p eople living in Pakistan a lo n e Pakistani n a tio n a ls o r those M uslim s, living a n d dying fo r P akistan in o th e r c ountries also have a claim to Pakistani nationality? A re the M uslim s living in B angladesh, w h o have sacrificed so m uch for the sake o f Paki­ stan a n d w ho are n o w condem ned a s “Biharis” , Pakistani nationals o r not?’; Cables to Z i aul H a q from the N R C , 31 M arc h 1988 a ppealing fo r early repatriation . 4 9 . A H C : See, for exam ple, D a w n , 19 A pril 198 6 , fo r a re p o rt o n H aseeb H ashm i, pre sid en t o f th e T eh rik-e-Ittehad a dd re ssin g a largely a tte n d e d public m eeting in O ra n g i a n d dem an d in g a fixed d a te from th e g ov ern m en t fo r re p atria tio n ; D a w n , 2 6 A pril 1 9 8 6 , m en tio n s a procession tak e n o u t by th e M o h a jir Ittehad T e h rik in S u k k u r in p ro te st ag a in st police firing on people d em o n stra tin g in O ra n g i to w n sh ip a b o u t th e c a m p s in B angladesh; D a w n , 6 M ay 198 6 , has a n ac c o u n t o f M N A A taq Shahid a n d seven m unicipal councillors from O rang i to w n rep e atin g their d e m an d for early re p a triatio n . T hey suggested th e fo r­ m a tio n o f a tr ip a rtite com m ittee o f th e new ly elected representatives o f th e people o f O ra n g i to w n , the gov e rn m e n t a n d re p resen tativ es o f th e S tranded P akistanis in B angladesh. A lso see the issues o f 7 - 1 0 M a y 1986. 5 0 . A H C : A .T .M . H a n ifu d d in , ‘Situation o f M uslim Refugees in Bangladesh’ (A Survey R e p o rt), M ay 198 4 , R a b ita t al-A lam al-Islam i” . See p. 15 fo r this

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‘to re p a tria te 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 -2 5 0 ,0 0 0 “ N o n -B en g alis M u slim s (B iharis)” stra n d e d in B an g lad esh ’ w a s m ad e in M a rc h 1 9 8 4 . T h e R a b ita had b een se t u p in 1 9 6 2 in M a k k a , ‘to p ro te c t th e M u slim U m m ah fro m all k in d s o f su fferin g ’, th ro u g h its w o rld w id e social, c u ltu ral, relig io u s o rg an iz a tio n . Its in te rv en tio n in th e re p a tria tio n process w a s e x p la in e d a s flo w in g fro m ‘feelings o f Islam ic b r o th e rh o o d , ju stice a n d h u m an ism , a n d in p a rtic u la r, th e k een p e rso n a l a n x iety o f th e p resid e n t o f P a k ista n ’. T h e fin a n c ia l liab ilities w ere to be b o r n e b y th e R a b ita , w h ic h its c o m m itte e e s tim a te d w o u ld be a p p ro x im ate ly $ 1 0 ,0 0 0 fo r th e tra n s p o rta tio n a n d rese ttle m e n t of a six -m em b er fam ily.51 By J a n u a ry 1 9 8 6 th e R a b ita claim ed to have collected $ 2 0 0 m il­ lio n a n d a n o th e r $ 7 8 m illio n b y A u g u s t.52 H o w e v e r, th is w a s c o n tra d ic te d in 1 9 8 7 by S u ru r H o d a . A c c o rd in g to him th e R ab ita ‘n e v e r ra is e d $ 2 7 0 m illio n ’. In fa c t, it w a s th e L o n d o n -b a se d R esettlem ent T ru st th a t h a d raised $ 2 7 8 m illion u n d e r th e guidance o f L o rd E n n als. ‘T h e R a b ita w a s in v ited b y L o rd E n n als to jo in th e T r u s t in a co o p e ra tiv e e ffo rt w ith th e help o f th is fu n d to resettle th e so -c a lle d B ih aris in P a k ista n . A fter sev eral y e a rs o f evasive tactics, th e R a b ita h a s n o w v ery recently issued a sta te m e n t say in g th a t th ey d id n o t w a n t a n y th in g to d o w ith th e T ru s t’. H o d a ad d ed th a t th e sta te m e n t to o k th em b y s u rp rise a n d , ‘b ro u g h t th e e n o r­ m o u s effo rts p u t in b y th e T r u s t a n d L o rd E n n als ov er a n u m b e r of y e a rs b ack to s q u a re o n e ’. S o o n a fte r, w h e n H o d a visited th e Bihari c a m p s in m id -1 9 8 7 , h e fo u n d m u ch fru s tra tio n re g a rd in g th e ‘volte face o f th e R a b ita ’. M e an w h ile , th e P a k ista n g o v e rn m e n t insisted th a t it w o u ld ‘o n ly d eal w ith th e R a b ita ’. H o d a ’s p o in t w a s th a t a lth o u g h th e R a b ita h a d c o m p leted sm all scale-projects in th e cam p s o f D h a k a a n d b u ilt ro a d s a n d m o sq u es, it w a s ‘n o t in a p o s itio n ’ to raise th e fu n d s req u ired fo r th e rese ttle m e n t o f th e B iharis. B ut w h en L o rd E n n als ‘rep e a ted ly ’ a p p ro a c h e d th e P a k ista n g o v e rn m e n t o n d e tail, th a t before 1971, the highest nu m b e r o f respondents (4 1 .3 7 per cent) had returned ‘service’ a s th eir m ain o c cupation. In the eighties th a t fell to 15.39 p e r c ent a nd the highest n u m b e r o f respondents w ere d ay labourers (28.85 per cent) a n d 91.4 3 per c e n t o f th e fam ilies w ere found to be ‘in deficit’. 5 1 . Ibid., M uslim W orld League, Islam ic C ouncil F or C oordination In A sia, 6 M arch 1984, D raft D eclaration: R abita al-A lam al-Islam i D eclaration in Connection W ith the R epatriation o f N on-B engali M uslim s F rom B angladesh to the Islam ic R epublic o f P akistan, signed A m in Aqil A tta, fo r Secretary G eneral, R abita. 5 2 . AFIC: D a w n , 3 J a n u a ry a n d 1 A ugust 1986.

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b e h a lf o f th e R esettlem en t P ro ject to s ta rt w o rk w ith th e availab le fu n d s h e did n o t g et a p o sitiv e reply. T h e B iharis in th e c a m p s fo und it d ifficu lt to ac ce p t th e ir n o n -re p a tria tio n w h en fu n d s w e re a v ail­ ab le. M o re so (an d th is is fam ilia r), w h en m illions o f A fg h an refu ­ gees w ere acce p te d ‘w ith o p e n a rm s’ w h ile th ey , w h o h a d m ad e ‘tre m en d o u s sacrifices fo r P a k ista n o n tw o o ccasio n s, i.e. in 1 9 4 7 a n d 1 9 7 1 ’, h a d been ‘a lto g e th e r ig n o re d a n d neglected ’.53 O n 9 Ju ly 1 9 8 8 th e R a b ita signed th e T r u s t D eed to e n a b le th e re p a tria tio n a n d reh a b ilitatio n o f Stran d ed P akistanis. P ak istan m ade a c o n trib u tio n o f Rs 2 5 0 m illio n to th e R a b ita T ru s t w h ic h w as registered a t Islam ab ad . T h e R a b ita ’s in itial c o n trib u tio n w a s Rs 5 0 m illio n . It w as estim a te d th a t th e p ro g ra m m e w o u ld c o s t a t least R s 5 ,5 0 0 m illio n (P ak istan i ru p ees); th e R a b ita w a s to s ta r t a fu n d ­ raisin g c a m p a ig n in v a rio u s c o u n tries.54 T h e S tran d ed P ak istan is tre a te d th e f o rm a tio n o f th e T r u s t as a d a te o f d eliv e ra n c e a n d ‘ce le b rate d it in th e m an n e r “ D eliverance D a y ” w as o b serv ed in th e su b c o n tin e n t o f In d ia in 1 9 3 9 , th a t w a s th e o c c asio n c re a ted b y th e dism issal o f inim ical forces a n d th is th e d a te w h ic h in d icates th e d a te o f o u r release fro m sh a b b y c a m p s’. T h e C e n tra l C o m m ittee resolved to c e leb rate 9 Ju ly e a ch y e a r. D esp ite th e co n tro v ersy a b o u t th e fu n d s ju st m en tio n ed , a fte r th e fo rm a tio n o f th e R a b ita T ru s t, th e m o n th ly review o f th e SPG RC m entioned th a t it w ou ld be failing in its d u ty if it did n o t a c k n o w led g e th e ‘y e o m a n services’ ren d ered, sin c e 1 9 7 2 , by th e ir a c tiv e s u p p o rte rs . T h is in c lu d e d th o s e in ‘L o n d o n , F ran ce, W e st G e rm a n y , Saudi A rab ia a n d USA o n w h o se a c c o u n t th e issue o f R e p a tria tio n becam e a n in te rn a tio n a l issue’.55 5 3 . SH C : C opy o f a le tte r w ith the tagline ‘A B ihari by origin’, a ddressed to T h e E ditor, T h e G uardian , co rre ctin g a re p o rt in th e 6 July 1987 issue th a t the R a b ita h a d raised $ 2 7 0 m illion; fo r D avid E nnals’ ta k e o n th e R a b ita ’s a b o u tface regarding its c on n e ctio n w ith the R esettlem ent T ru st a n d P a k ista n ’s u n ­ responsiveness to th e offer o f the $ 2 7 8 m illion w ith it (it w a s a stalem ate, he w ro te, th a t ‘d o es n o c red it to the P a k ista n g ov ern m en t o n its fortie th a nniver­ sary’), see Im p a c t In ternational, 1 4 -2 7 A ugust 1987. F o r the R a b ita position see M u slim In d ia , n o . 5 6 , A ugust 198 7 , w hich carries a n ex ce rp t from The M u slim W orld, K arachi, 2 5 A pril 1 9 8 7 , a n d a m essage from A bdullah O m a r N asee f d enying th a t a T ru st had been in existence u n d e r the c h airm an sh ip o f T a la l A sa d a n d t h a t L o rd E n n a ls h a d a n y th in g to d o w ith th e R a b ita pro g ra m m e. 5 4 . A H C : T h e M u slim W orld, 1 A ugust 1988. 5 5 . A H C : T h e M u slim Refugee, 14 A u g u st-S eptem ber 1988.

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In Ju ly 1 9 8 8 , tw o h u m a n rig h ts o rg an iz a tio n s, In te rn atio n al A lert a n d th e M in o rity R ig h ts G ro u p , co n v en ed a n in te rn a tio n a l co n fe r­ ence o n th e B iharis s tra n d e d in B angladesh in th e H o u se o f L o rd s, L o n d o n . It w a s a tte n d e d by som e fifty rep resen tativ es o f h u m an rig h ts o rg an iz a tio n s, U N agencies a n d activ ists a m o n g refugees a n d d isp laced p e rso n s. T h e re w e re th re e rep resen tativ es o f th e M Q M (M . A n w a r, M a n z o o r Y azad an i a n d S.A. R aq u e e b ), th re e fro m th e In te rn a tio n a l C o u n c il F o r th e R e p a tria tio n o f P ak istan is (ICRP) in N e w Y o rk (Shafi Bezar, Syed H a k im u lla h a n d Syeda S aleha), a n d s o m e re p r e s e n ta tiv e s o f t h e A n ju m a n - e -N a u . T h e c o n fe re n c e ap p re c iate d th e P a k ista n p resid e n t a n d R a b ita signing th e Ju ly agree­ m en t a n d a sk ed th e p resid e n t o f B angladesh n o t to evict B iharis fro m th e cam p s. T h e re w as a n e x p e cta tio n o f h elp fro m ‘all c o u n ­ trie s, p a rticu la rly th e G u lf S tates’, in fu n d in g th e R a b ita T ru s t, a n d fro m th e U N H C R a n d th e In te rn atio n al C o m m itte e o f th e R ed C ross (IC R C ) fo r ferry in g th e B iharis to P a k ista n . T h e re w as a n insistence th a t th e rep a tria tio n w o rk b e sta rte d in 1 988, w ith o u t w aitin g for 5 0 p e r c en t o f th e estim a te d a m o u n t being raised . It a lso w a n ted p rio rity to b e given to th e o ld , th e ailin g a n d th o se w h o co u ld p ay th eir w ay th ro u g h to Pak istan . T h ere w a s a lso a n ap p eal to political p a rties, o rg an iz a tio n s a n d th e p e o p le o f P a k ista n , a sk in g th em ‘to w elco m e th e B iharis (stran d e d P a k ista n is) as e q u a l a n d g e n u in e citizens o f P a k ista n ’, a n d to assist in th e ir re h a b ilita tio n .56 Less th an a m o n th later Z ia ul H a q died in a n a ir crash o n 17 A ugust 1988. D a v id E n n a ls rec a lle d th a t th o u g h h e g o t a c o m m itm e n t fro m P resid en t H a q in 1 9 8 4 to resettle ‘u p to 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 ’ B iharis th ere had been to o m an y delays in e x ecu tin g th is p lan . O n b e h a lf o f those in v o lv e d in th e J u ly 1 9 8 8 c o n fe re n c e — I n te r n a tio n a l A le rt, th e M in o rity R ig h ts G r o u p , th e O c k e n d e n V e n tu re a n d th e B ritish 5 6 . A H C : ‘International C onference O n Biharis (Stranded Pakistanis) in Bangladesh’, H ouse o f L ords, L o n d o n , 19 Ju ly 198 8 . T he m ain speakers w ere L ord Ennals, S u ru r H o d a , A hm ad J a ffe r, S hareef a n d Shafi B ezar. T h e conference decided to form a w o rk in g p a rty to m o n ito r the progress o f follow -up action. This included S .H . S hareef, Israrul H a q u e , S hafi Bezar, N asim K han [SPGRC] and from the M Q M , M . A n w a r, M a n z o o r Y azdani and S.A .R aqueeb. F or th e ‘S ta te m e n t o n B iharis (S tranded P akistanis)’ see A p p e n d ix 1. T he follow ing w ere am o n g th e In te rn a tio n a l A lert b o ard m em bers: A rchbishop D esm ond T u tu , Ben W h itak e r a n d S tanley W olpert.

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R efugee C o u n cil— he h o p e d th a t Z ia ul H a q ’s successors w o u ld s ta n d by th e a g re e m en t.57 T h e w o rk in g p a rty th a t ca m e o u t o f th is L o n d o n conference m et in O c to b e r 1 988. It discussed th e evictions o f Stran d ed Pakistanis fro m th eir cam p s a n d railw ay q u a rte rs in C h itta g o n g a n d th e flood d am ag e caused to cam p s in A dam ji a n d M irp u r in D h a k a . In the c o n te x t o f e th n ic ‘distu rb an ces’ ag ain st th e M u h a jirs in H y d erab ad a n d K arach i, it w a s decided th a t ‘it m ight be p ru d e n t to a v o id Bihari settlem en t in d istu rb ed areas in a n y resettlem en t p ro g ra m m e ’. T here w as a suggestion th a t th e w o rk in g p a rty sh o u ld p ro te st ag ain st th e sp ate o f (ethnic) killings in th e cities o f H y d e ra b a d a n d K arachi in w h ich m an y M u h ajirs h ad d ied.58 T h e In te rn atio n al A lert C o m m it­ tee o n S tran d ed Pakistanis ag ain m et in M a y 1 9 9 0 . As usual, th e reso lu tio n s th a t w ere p assed reach ed o u t to several q u a rte rs. T h e ap p eal to th e U N H C R w as to register Stran d ed Pakistanis a s refu­ gees, ‘o n th e sam e b asis a s V ietnam ese b o a t p eople o r th e A fghan refugees in P ak istan ’, a n d to ta k e th em u n d e r his m an d ate. T here w as a n ap p eal to th e IC R C to c o n d u c t a referen d u m in co n su lta tio n w ith th e g o v ern m en t o f B angladesh, to find o u t h o w m an y Stran d ed P ak istan is w a n ted to a p p ly fo r Bangladeshi citizenship. B ut th ere w as a n x iety because th ere h a d been n o m eeting o f th e R a b ita T ru st in P ak istan .59 Q u ite a p a rt fro m th e lo n g a n d w inding ro ad to get th e rep atriatio n 5 7 . A H C : T h e In dependent, 23 A ugust 198 8 . ‘H e [Z ia] repeated th is agreem en t in p u b lic o n m any o ccasions. But th ere w ere intolerable a n d in term in ab le d e ­ lays caused by the to tally n egative a p p ro ac h o f P rim e M in iste r Ju n ejo , sacked by Z ia tw o m o n th s ag o . Soon a fte r the d ep artu re o f J u n ejo and th e suspen ­ sion o f the A ssem bly, P re sid e n t Z ia signed a n ag reem ent, am id a flurry o f p u blicity, w ith th e M uslim W o rld L eague, pro v id in g fo r th e resettlem ent o f th e B iharis. T h e re seem ed to be a sense o f u rgency in th e President, w h o w as a w a re o f “ th e suffering o f these c itizens’” . 5 8 . A H C : M in u te s o f M eeting o f 2 0 O c to b e r 1 9 8 8 o f In te rn atio n a l A lert’s W o rk ­ ing P arty o n S tranded P akistanis (Biharis) in B angladesh. N asim K han could n o t m ak e i t to L o n d o n ; those p re se n t w ere D avid E n nals, S u ru r H o d a , Israru l H aque, M .N . K han, Syed M a n z o o r Y azdani, A th a r Ali, M . N aim U llah, A ym an A . A hw al, Syed N izam A hm ed and S. A hm ed. 5 9 . A H C : ‘In tern atio n al A lert C om m ittee O n S tranded P akistanis: R ep o rt O f M ee t­ ing O n 2 M ay 1990’. T h e p a rticip an ts included D avid E nnals, S u ru r H o d a , Javed Iqbal o f th e P ak istan H igh C om m ission S.M . Ali and M r A bedi o f the BBC W orld Service, Israrul H a q u e, M .N . K han a n d S.H . S harif o f the A njum ane -N au , A.S. A h m a d o f th e Indian M uslim F e deration, Syed M a n z o o r Y azdani o f th e M Q M -U K , R.A . Siddiqui o f th e UK Islam ic M ission, H ugh H u d so n o f the U N H C R a n d M . F aro o q u i o f Im pact In te rn a tio n a l.

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a n d resettlem en t pro ject fu n d ed , q u estio n s o f w h en /if a n d w h ere this w a s to unfo ld in P a k ista n h a s h ad a co n te n tio u s a n d snail-paced history. T h e decibels o f th e re p a tria tio n d e b a te a re telling. In 1 983, Z a f a r Ali S h a h , a fo rm e r d e p u ty s p e a k e r o f th e W e st P a k ista n A ssem bly, m ad e a lo n g sta te m e n t a b o u t Lord Ennals. Surely the countries which wish to provide funds can also find av­ enues for th e rehabilitation o f these persons in Bangladesh where they originally settled a n d o f which they are citizens for all practical purposes....A nd now Lord Ennals has com e for his w inter holidays to solve the Bihari problem by arranging to du m p them here. If Lord Ennals is genuinely interested in solving w h at he calls a hum anitarian issue he should persuade his G overnm ent to accept the Biharis in Britain.60 Q a m a r Bhatti o f th e Jeay Sind T eh rik also suggested th a t Ennals reh ab ilitate th e B iharis in ‘his h o m e c o u n try , th e UK’.61 T h ere w ere a n im ated letters to th e e d ito r w ith o p p o sin g view s o n th e Bihari right to P akistani citizenship a n d th e th em e o f S indh being sa tu ra te d .62 As it tu rn e d o u t, gettin g to P ak istan im plied giving a n u n d e rta k in g th at Sindh will n o t be th e re p a tria tio n d estin a tio n (discussed ah e ad ). Even w ith th is rid er it w as a very lo n g h au l a n d o n e th a t sto p p ed ab ru p tly. In 1 9 9 0 , a b o u t 3 0 0 B iharis b u r n t a n effigy o f th e S indh chief m in ister in D h a k a a n d th re a te n e d to sail to K arach i. T h e follo w in g y e a r th ere w e re d e m o n stra tio n s ac ro ss B an g lad esh d e m a n d in g re­ p a tria tio n to P a k ista n .63 So o n a fte r N a w a z S h a rif w a s elected p rim e m in ister o f P a k ista n a n d In te rn a tio n a l A lert se n t h im a telegram rem in d in g h im o f his p a s t c o m m itm en t, ex p e ctin g him to speed up th e r e p a tria tio n p ro c e s s .64 M e a n w h ile , N a s im K h a n h a d b een in to u c h w ith A sa d H u s a in , u p d a tin g h im a b o u t th e g ro w in g 6 0 . M o rn in g N e w s, 5 D ecem ber 1983. 6 1 . D a w n , 1 D ecem ber 198 3 . Syed G hulam M usta fa S hah, a fo rm e r vice-chancelIor o f th e S indh U niversity described L o rd E nnals’ v isit to P ak istan in connec­ tion w ith th e re p a tria tio n o f B iharis a s a n ‘A m erican a n d in tern a tio n al Jew ish con sp irac y ’. 6 2 . See the letters to the e d ito r c o lu m n in T h e M u slim , 2 5 M ay , 31 M ay a n d 16 Ju n e 1 9 8 3 , for sam ples o f the usual them es. 6 3 . w w w .b sos.um d.ed/cidcm /m ar/bangbiha.htm , ‘Biharis in Bangladesh’ by S hinw h a Lee a n d A am ena M a li, 5 S eptem ber 1994. 6 4 . 13 N o v e m b e r 1990; see T a lb o t (2 0 0 0 : 2 6 1 ); in th e second h a lf o f 198 9 , the M uslim League (N aw az Sharif) and M Q M signed a seventeen-point a ccord in w hich th e re p atria tio n o f B iharis figured prom inently.

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fru s tra tio n in th e c a m p s o v e r th e delay in g e ttin g to P a k ista n ,65 a n d a lso o v e r th e ‘lo b b ies’ in K a ra c h i, Islam ab ad a n d B an g lad esh th a t w ere try in g to sp lit th e SPG R C .66 In m id -1 9 9 2 , A sad H u s a in flew d o w n fro m C h ic a g o to Isla m a b a d to m ee t th e Islam i J a m h o o ri Itte h ad (IJI) g o v e rn m e n t a n d h a ste n th e re p a tria tio n p rocess. H e w a n te d P a k ista n to reveal precisely h o w m u ch m o re fu n d s w ere req u ired so th a t th e deficit co u ld b e cov ered . H e a ls o trie d to find o u t w h e th e r re p a tria tio n w a s p o ssib le o r n o t.67 T h e en sem b le th a t h a d w o rk e d o n th e issue fo r so lo n g w a s clearly b ecom ing e x a sp e r­ a te d . T h o u g h D a v id E n n a ls e x p re s s e d ‘to ta l c o n fid e n c e ’ in th e in te n tio n s o f b o th th e P a k ista n g o v e rn m e n t a n d th e R a b ita al-A lam al-Islam , given h is lo n g in v o lv em en t w ith th e ‘g rea t h u m a n ita ria n p ro g ra m m e ’, h e ex pressed so m e co n cern s. W h e n h e reach ed D h ak a a s th e g u est o f th e B an g lad esh g o v e rn m e n t o n 3 0 D ecem b er 1 9 9 2 , h e discovered a n o th e r in ex p licab le delay in th e p rocess. H e also fo u n d o u t th a t th e c o n s tru c tio n o f p e rm a n e n t a c co m m o d atio n fo r th e S tra n d e d P ak istan is in M ia n C h a n n o t in P u n ja b h ad been slow . T h e b lan k e ts a n d k itc h e n u ten sils w e re n o t rea d y in th e tem p o rary h o u sin g facility in O k a ra . T h e re w a s a lso m u ch u n c e rta in ty a b o u t w h o w a s resp o n sib le fo r tra n s p o rta tio n : th e g o v e rn m e n t o f Saudi A ra b ia o r th e U N H C R ? E n n als rem a rk e d th a t th e re o u g h t to be ‘c le a r lines o f resp o n sib ility ’ a n d th e in v o lv em en t o f S tran d ed Pak i­ sta n is in e x ecu tin g th e re p a tria tio n . A b o u t w o rk in g o u t su b seq u e n t fu n d in g a fte r th e first 3 ,0 0 0 fam ilies (ab o u t 1 6 ,0 0 0 to 2 0 ,0 0 0 people) w ere re p a tria te d , h e rem in d ed th o se inv o lv ed , th a t g o v ern m en ts, th e U N H C R a n d U N IC E F o n ly resp o n d e d to a p p e als fro m g o v ern­ m en ts a n d n o t v ice-ch airm en o f th e T ru s t, a s h ad been th e case in M a rc h 1 9 9 2 . H is earlie r rec o m m e n d a tio n w a s th a t th e first th in g fo r th e P a k ista n g o v e rn m e n t to d o w a s to ‘secu re a b so lu te pledges fro m fa v o u ra b le so u rc e s su c h a s S a u d i A ra b ia , th e G u lf S tates, p e rh a p s th e USA a n d A ra b D ev elo p m en t F u n d s’, b e fo re lau n ch in g a w id e r a p p e a l to c o v e r th e E u ro p e a n E c o n o m ic C o m m u n ity , A u stra lia a n d N e w Z e a la n d .68 65. 66. 67. 68.

G eneva ca m p , M o h a m m a d p u r, D h a k a , 2 6 J u n e 1985. T elegram from S a idpur, 2 3 A pril 1991. P akistan O bserver, 18 June 1992. A H C : 'T h e R esettlem ent o f the S tranded P akistanis n o w in Bangladesh: R eport by L ord E nnals, C h airm an, S tranded P akistanis R esettlem ent Project’, 1 January 1 9 9 3 : ‘In A u g u st 1 9 9 2 a public statem en t h a d been m ade by the tw o Prim e M in isters to s ta rt the resettle m e n t o f the f irst 3 ,0 0 0 fam ilies before th e e nd o f

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W h en th e first b a tc h o f 3 2 3 B iharis lan d ed in P a k ista n in J a n u ­ a ry 1 9 9 3 , o v e r th irte e n p e o p le w e re killed in a b o m b b la st in a B ihari settle m e n t in K o tri, n o r th o f K arach i.69 T h is w a s d esp ite th e rese ttle m e n t p ro je c t b ein g lo cated in P u n ja b . T h e re w ere fears th a t th e B iharis w o u ld s o o n d rift to S in d h . ‘B ihari R o k o ’ co m m ittees ca m e u p in places like H y d e ra b a d , w h e re several Sindhis w o re b lack b a n d s a n d h eld d e m o n stra tio n s. T h e issue figured o n th e ag en d a o f a n ew allian ce o f Sindhi n a tio n a list p a rties a n n o u n c ed b y th e fo rm er S indh c h ie f m in ister, M u m ta z B h u tto . T h e ru lin g IJI h ad th e su p ­ p o rt o f th e Ja m a a t-I-Isla m i a n d th e M Q M , b u t th e P a k ista n P eop le’s P a rty (PPP) a n d A w am i N a tio n a l P a rty w ere o p p o se d to th e rep a ­ tria tio n p ro je c t.70 T h e PPP’s S indh p ro v in c e lea d e rsh ip decided to lau n c h a p ro te s t ca m p a ig n a g a in st th e re p a tria tio n o f B iharis fro m B an g lad esh d esp ite resistan ce fro m th e U rd u -sp ea k in g leadership d u rin g a m eeting o f its S indh C ouncil to discuss th e issue. T h e Sindhi m em b ers sa w in th e re p a tria tio n p ro je c t a co n sp iracy to red u ce th em to a m in o rity in th eir o w n land.71 W h en N a w a z Sharif’s g overnm ent w as dism issed, N asim K h an described it a s a ‘terrible setb ack ’ fo r th e S tran d ed P a k ista n is.72

69. 70. 71. 72.

1992 a n d I h a d und e rsto o d t h a t 5 0 o r so fam ilies w o u ld fly o u t from D haka to L ahore o n D ecem ber 3 0 th o r 3 1 s t....N o t surprisingly there w as g re a t c o n ­ s te rn a tio n a m o n g th e S tranded P ak istan is them selves: n o t o n ly a m o n g the fam ilies in A dam jee c am p (w ho h a d b een r e ad y to d e p a rt, h av in g sold all their p ro p e rty e x c ep t clo th in g a n d im m ediate p e rso n al p ossessions), b u t a m o n g the le ad e rs...N asim K han and th e o th e r m em bers o f th e G eneral C om m ittee a n ­ no u n c ed a p ro g ram m e o f self im m o latio n (b u rn in g t o d e ath by fire) unless a new d a te w as set before the end o f 199 2 . Such a ctio n s, th o u g h u n d e rsta n d ­ ab le in v iew o f th e d e p th o f th e ir em otions, w o u ld have been de p lo ra b le and m ight have dam aged th e prospect o f the resettlem ent program m e’. Subsequently, E nnals a n d H a sa n Shareef, th e secretary general o f a new ly-created P akistan C itizens C om m ittee fo r R e p a tria tio n o f S tranded P ak istan is (M ajid N izam i o f L ahore a n d S .H . H a sh m i o f K arachi w ere c h airm a n and vice-chairm an), w ho had flow n to D h ak a from P akistan fo r th e o c casion, g o t a n assu ran c e from th e representative o f the P a k ista n g ov ern m en t th a t it w as h o p e d th a t th e first fam ilies w o u ld fly o u t 'o n Ja n u a ry 5 th o r 6 th , b u t n o t la te r th a n Ja n u a ry 10th’. P a k ista n T V m ad e a n an n o u n cem en t th a t the p ro g ra m m e w ould s ta rt o n 1 0 th J a n u a ry a n d G hulam H aider-W yne, th e P u n jab chief m in ister, gave details o f th e housing arran g em en ts in th e P unjab. H in d u sta n T im es, 12 J a n u a ry 1993. Ibid., 25 J a n u a ry 1993. Ibid., 2 0 J a n u a ry 1993. Friday, 23 A pril 1993.

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A co u p le o f m o n th s late r, th e SPG R C a g a in w o rk e d o n th e Pak i­ s ta n a n d B angladesh g o v e rn m e n ts to re s ta rt th e re p a tria tio n w o rk o n o r b e fo re 7 N o v e m b e r 1 9 9 3 . It th re a te n e d th a t if th e d eadline w a s n o t m et it h ad a n a c tio n p la n in place. T h is in clu d ed a m ass c o u rtin g o f a rre s t, m ass fastin g in all th e c a m p s o f th e Stran d ed P a k ista n is, lau n c h in g a po litical p a rty th a t w o u ld rein v o k e th e tw o n a tio n th e o ry , h irin g b o a ts to ‘m o v e fro m s h o re to sh o re , islan d to islan d lik e V ietn am ese’ to h ig h lig h t th e ir p red ic a m e n t, a n d selfim m o la tio n . It a lso ask ed th e P a k ista n g o v e rn m e n t to a llo w a fivem an d e leg atio n led by N a sim K h a n to ch e ck o u t th e c o n d itio n o f th e ‘3 2 5 ’ S tra n d e d P a k is ta n is w h o h a d b e e n r e p a tria te d fro m B angladesh in Ja n u a ry 1 9 9 3 a n d reh ab ilitated a t O k a ra , a n d to m eet a n d ex c h an g e view s w ith p o litical lead ers a n d in tellectu als o n th e issu e o f re p a tria tio n .73 In N o v e m b e r 1 9 9 3 , th e R a b ita D irec to rG eneral in P a k ista n , Sh eik h H a m z a W ali J a la id a n , m en tio n ed th a t a th o u sa n d h o u sin g u n its w ere rea d y in P u n ja b fo r th e stra n d e d fam ilies. In all, 4 1 ,0 0 0 u n its w ere to b e b u ilt, all o f th em in P u n jab, a n d a th o u sa n d fam ilies w ere to b e re p a tria te d , D ecem b er o n w a rd s. T h e p ilo t p ro je c t fo r 3 ,0 0 0 fam ilies w a s to b e c o m p leted in tw o years. H e m en tio n ed th a t n o n e o f th o se resettled in O k a ra had m oved o u t o f th e h o u sin g c o m p le x .74 W h e n th e P a k ista n i fo reig n m in ister visited D h a k a fo r a SA A R C m eetin g , th e SPG R C gave him a m em o­ ra n d u m . A ttrib u tin g th e ir c o n tin u in g m isery to th e ir co m m itm en t ‘to th e id eo lo g y o f P a k ista n ’, th e m em o ran d u m d rew h is a tte n tio n to th e ‘co m p le te d e a d lo c k ’ p o st-Ja n u ary 1 9 9 3 . T h e d o c u m e n ta tio n o f 3 ,0 0 0 fam ilie s fro m A d a m je e N a g a r , B o g ra a n d so m e fro m C h itta g o n g h a d b een c o m p le te d b u t th ey w e re w a it-liste d since D ecem b er 1 9 9 2 . ‘W ith th e h o p e o f re p a tria tio n th ey h av e eith er b een fo rced o r th ro w n o u t o f e m p lo y m en t a n d sold th e ir negligible b e lo n g in g s fo r su rv iv al to b eco m e b e g g a rs...A d a m je e N a g a r a n d o th e r c a m p s to d a y p re s e n t a d e serted lo o k a n d h a v e tu rn e d to S o m alia o r B osnia lik e s itu a tio n in B a n g la d esh ’.75 In 1 9 9 4 , th e 7 3 . A H C : ‘P roceedings A nd R esolutions o f 3 rd M eeting o f SPG RC S uprem e C oun ­ cil H eld A t T o w n H a ll, S a idpur, O n a n d F rom 6 th -7 th S eptem ber 1993’. 7 4 . A H C : T h e N e w N a tio n , D h ak a , 5 N o v em b er 1993. 7 5 . A H C : N asim K han to S ardar A seef A hm ed A li, 5 D ecem ber 1993. It a cknow l­ edged the g ra n t o f Rs 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 by the Pakistan H igh C om m issioner in Bangladesh for the reconstruction o f the g u tte d cam ps o f M o rap ara a t M irp u r section 12. But it m entioned th e deplorable condition o f the cam ps in R a ngpur, Saidpur, M ym ensing a n d D haka and elsew here in B angladesh a nd s o u g h t funds fo r their reconstruction.

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SP G R C w a s still th re a te n in g self-im m o latio n a n d a lo n g m arc h to P a k ista n (via In d ia) b y cro ssin g in te rn a tio n a l b o u n d a rie s. T h o u g h th e h o u sin g flats w ere co m p le te in M ia n C h a n n u , S h e ik h u p u ra a n d o th e r p laces, th e c o n tin u a tio n o f re p a tria tio n w o rk w as n o w h e re in s ig h t.76 E ven as th e p ressu re w as k e p t u p , th e lead er o f th e SPG R C , N asim K h a n , c o u n te d e a ch m ilesto n e a n d th e endless ‘d u p e o f to m o rro w ’, s ta rtin g w ith Z .A . B h u tto ’s e a rly 1 9 7 2 L a h o re speech, w h e n he said th a t ‘every Bihari (M uslim m ig ra n t fro m In d ia) w a s a P ak istan i a n d h a d th e rig h t to g o to P a k ista n ’, to th e R a b ita D eed o f A greem ent o f Ju ly 1 9 8 8 a n d th e first m eetin g o f its B oard o f T ru ste e s being held in N o v em b er 1 9 9 1 . By m id -1 9 9 2 N asim K h a n said h e n o longer u n d e rsto o d th e m ea n in g o f ‘few m o n th s ’, p e rh a p s it m e a n t ‘years o r c e n tu ries’.77 T h e 1 9 9 4 Eid g ree tin g o f th e S tra n d e d P ak istan is to ‘th e e n tire M u slim U m m ah a n d th e ir k ith a n d k in in P a k ista n ’ c a r ­ ried th ese lines: H ad we the wings o f doves, we w ould have flow n a n d landed cross­ ing th e barriers, b u t n o t lam ented fo r long 22 years. These ill fated are residing in sixty six cam ps all over Bangladesh in sub-hum an co ndition, a re m ade th e paw n o f political treachery. Is th ere no M oham m ed Bin Q asim to rescue these ill fated, w h o are equally M uslim s a n d their fault is patriotism for Pakistan [sic].79 It b o th ere d N a sim K h a n th a t w h ile th e w h o le Islam ic w o rld w as u p in a rm s o v e r S alm an R u sh d ie , it h a d rem ain ed u n m o v ed b y th e fate o f th e S tra n d e d P a k ista n is, so m e o f w h o m w ere a b o u t to tu rn to C h ristia n m issio n aries a n d Q u a d ia n is.79 T h e tex t o f th e R s 10 SP G R C c a le n d a r fo r 1 9 9 6 m en tio n ed th e ‘lack o f g lo b al resp o n se ’ d u rin g 1 9 9 5 a n d th a t th e th ird g e n e ra tio n w a s o n th e b rin k o f ru in ­ a tio n . T h e ap p eal to th e ‘M u slim W o rld a n d th e w o rld a t larg e ’ w a s th a t th e S tra n d e d P a k ista n is d e serv e d h e lp , sy m p a th y a n d 7 6 . A H C : press release, 12 D ecem ber 1994. 7 7 . A H C : SPG R C press c onference h a n d o u t, 3 0 M a y 1992. 7 8 . A H C : sig n ed N a sim K h a n , c h ie f p a tr o n S P G R C a n d G e n e ra l S e cre ta ry , SPEREL, in T h e M u slim R efugee In ternational, C h itta g o n g Special, A p rilM ay 1994. 7 9 . A H C : Q u estio n s a n d A n sw e rs, p a r t II, D h ak a , SPG R C , 199 5 , p . 4 . T h is w as in tro d u ce d by Im a m u d in K h a n , N asim K han’s a d visor, w h o d escribed him as Q uaid-e-M ehsooreen (leader o f t h e Stranded).

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s u p p o rt like th e K ash m iri a n d B osnian M u slim s.80 A n o th e r R s 5 flier m en tio n ed th a t w h ile P a k ista n h a d p lay ed a p io n ee rin g ro le in s u p p o rt o f M u slim s fro m K ash m ir, B osnia a n d A fg h an istan , ‘she in n o w ay sh o u ld fo rg et h e r o w n n a tio n a ls s tra n d e d in B an g lad esh fo r th e last 2 5 y e a rs’. T h e ir issue w a s a fte r all ‘n o less im p o rta n t’, they w ere ‘also p a rt a n d parcel o f h u m an k in d a n d o f (the) M uslim U m m ah’ a s th ey a w a ite d re p a tria tio n to th e ir ‘ideological h o m ela n d ’, Pak i­ s ta n .81 A t a p ress co n feren ce, b e fo re a n O IC s u m m it in Islam ab ad in 1 9 9 7 , N a sim K h a n a g a in a sk ed his o ld q u e stio n , ‘fo r h o w long shall w e b e d u p e d ? ’.82 O v e r th e y e a rs th e SP G R C h a s p lo d d ed o n , sim u ltan eo u sly seek­ in g s u p p o rt fro m several q u a rte rs to keep th e ir o n e -p o in t a g e n d a o f a ‘r e tu rn ’ to P a k ista n alive. In M a y 1 9 9 3 , N asim K h an w ro te to D av id E n n als w o n d e rin g ju st w h e n th e epic w a it w o u ld e n d a n d ask ed him to c o n tin u e to ‘g u id e ’ th em . H e su ggested th a t Ennals o rg an iz e a n in te rn a tio n a l co n feren ce, ‘in a n y p lac e ’, lik e th e o n e in G eneva in 1 9 8 2 , to m o b ilize w o rld o p in io n o n th e issue. If E n n als, w h o h a d ‘c o n trib u te d a lo t’, c o u ld ru stle u p s u p p o rt a t th e E u ro ­ p e a n level, K h an felt it w o u ld ‘certa in ly su p p le m e n t’ th e ir stru g g le.83 Som e m o n th s la te r h e a g a in w ro te to E n n als say in g th a t if a n in te r­ n a tio n a l co n fe re n c e w a s n o t p ossible, h e sh o u ld p e rsu a d e A m nesty 8 0 . A H C : Issued by the SPG R C , G eneva C am p, M o h a m m a d p u r, D h a k a, it read b o th P akistan a n d B angladesh Z in d ab a d . 8 1 . A H C : ‘M o h a ta rm a B enazir B hutto, Prim e M in ister sh o u d n e ith e r fo rg et n o r be p ro u d o f h e r th ro n e .... H isto ry alw ays repeats itself, it is j u s t a m a tte r o f tim e ....H o w v exing i t lo o k s th a t d espite all ag reem ents, a ssu ran c e a n d p ro m ­ ises P a k ista n evaded and avoided re p a tria tio n ....H o w can P akistan affo rd to ig n o re a n d neglect th e legitim ate rig h t o f S tran d e d P a k ista n is w h o consis­ te n tly su p p o rted its p olicy rig h t since its c re atio n in 1 9 4 7 a n d w h o w ere “used a s spearhead o f th e ir policy in Bengal” ’. I t m entioned th e 2 7 0 toilets fo r th e 1 8 ,000 residents in th e G eneva C am p to illu stra te the ‘sq u alid ’ co n d itio n o f th e c a m p s. T h e a p p e a l w a s a d d re sse d to th e g o v e rn m e n ts o f P a k ista n , B angladesh, U nited N a tio n s, th e O IC and all w ell w ishers. 8 2 . D a w n , 17 M arc h 1 99 7 . N asim K han a ppealed to Prim e M in iste r Sheikh H asina to raise th e issue o f th e ir re p a tria tio n a t th e m eet. 8 3 . A H C : D h a k a , 12 M ay 199 3 . A lso see a p o stscrip t appended w ith a copy o f the Proceedings a n d R e so lu tio n s o f an SPG R C m eeting held a t K hulna o n 5 D ecem ber 1993, asking Israru l H a q u e to relay a request to L ord E nnals, th a t he lead th e d e m o n stratio n s in fro n t o f the British P arliam ent, C om m onw ealth S ecretariat, a n d th e P a k ista n a n d Bangladesh H ig h C om m issions, ‘to m ake effective’ th e ir issue a t th e in te rn a tio n a l level since 1,0 0 0 flats w ere ready a t M ia n C h a n n u in Pakistan.

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In te rn a tio n a l a n d th e M in o rity R ig h ts G ro u p to visit B angladesh to c o n firm th a t th e ir c o n d itio n w a s w o rse th a n th a t o f th e B osnians a n d Som alis. H e ex p ected th a t a r e p o rt su b m itte d by th e m w o u ld h av e a ‘far-re a c h in g ’ im p a c t o n th e ir sta tu s .84 W h e n N a w a z Sharif retu rn e d to p o w e r in 1 9 9 7 , th e re p a tria tio n p ro g ra m m e lo o k ed like it w a s g o in g to b e revived. A c a b in e t d ecisio n w a s ta k e n o n 2 6 D ecem b er 1 9 9 7 th a t a n o th e r 4 ,7 0 0 p e rso n s w o u ld b e m oved by A pril 1 9 9 8 . T h is w a s discussed a t a c o n feren ce in th e A m erican Islam ic C ollege, C h icag o , b y H a s a n S h arif o f th e R a b ita T ru s t. T h e o th e r p a rtic ip a n ts, Shafi B ezar (see a h e ad ) a n d A sad H u sa in , gave a n o v erv iew o f o v e r tw o d ecades o f d iasp o ric m ed ia tio n s o n th e su b ject. T h e R e fo rm M o v e m e n t o f W a sh in g to n D .C . a n d th e Pak i­ s ta n H u m a n R ig h ts W a tc h , C h ic a g o , t o o d e m a n d e d t h a t th e S tran d ed P ak istan is b e ‘b ro u g h t b a c k ’ w ith h o n o u r a n d d ig n ity ,85 b u t n o th in g ca m e o u t o f it. In th e d isco u rse o f th e S tra n d e d P ak istan is th e re is a ra n g e o f h o m elan d s: th e ‘fa th e rla n d ’ left b eh in d , th e ‘n e w h o m ela n d in th e E a ste rn w in g o f P a k ista n ’ a n d th e p ro m ised /id eo lo g ical h o m ela n d , Pak istan , th a t m oved w e st a fte r 1 9 7 1 . D u rin g th e years o f stateless­ ness in th e cam p s, im ages o f th e p re-1 9 4 7 d ays w ere o fte n deployed to m ak e a p o in t. W h e n ‘a m o b o f m o re th a n tw e n ty th o u sa n d local h o o lig a n s in flicted heavy c asu alties o n th e lives, h o n o u r o f w o m en a n d p ro p ertie s o f th e s tra n d e d P ak istan is a t M irp u r, n o t f a r fro m th e se at o f G o v e rn m e n t’ in 1 9 8 4 , it is th is c o m p a riso n th a t ca m e to N a sim K h an : th e a tta c k e rs h a d ‘lead ers o f th e types o f M a h asa b h a a n d RSS [sic] in In d ia ’.86 S tu n g b y th e u n eq u al d istrib u tio n o f flood relief by th e B an g lad esh g o v e rn m e n t in S a id p u r, R a n g p u r a n d o th e r places in 1 9 8 4 , th e SP G R C w o n d e re d , ‘a re w e H a rija n s to m eet su c h a fa te ? ’87 A t a n o th e r level, th is is h o w N a s im K h a n o n ce su m m ed u p th e situ a tio n : W e are p oor refugees in a p o o r country, a n d everybody ignores our problem : Clinton o f America, Rafsanjani o f Iran, a n d even o u r sister 8 4 . Ibid., R ef. 786/S P G R C /L N /94, 13 F ebruary 1994. 8 5 . h ttp ://p ak n ew s.co m /artla p l-3 .h tm l, ‘R e p a tria tio n o f S tran d ed P a k ista n is to L aunch in A pril: O n e T h o u sa n d H o u sin g U nits R eady to H o u se 5 ,0 0 0 People’ by M u ta h ir K azm i, ch airm a n , P akistan H u m a n R ights W atch, C h icago, and d irec to r, R eform M o v e m e n t, W ash in g to n D .C . 8 6 . A H C : ‘SPG RC In B angladesh: A Solem n A ppeal’ (end 1984). 8 7 . A H C : ‘Jo in t Im p o rta n t B ulletin Issued by SPG RC & SPEREL’, 19 July 1984.

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in Pakistan. W hen Falklands w ere in danger o n the high seas, troops w ent. W hen K uw ait w as in danger, tro o p s w ent. H istory is all there. Are they helping us? M y people w ere travelling through rivers and jungles, fighting a n d dying for Pakistan w hen these politicians Lady Benazir B hutto a n d N aw az Sharif w ere no t even in th e m o th er’s w om b [sic]. H e a lso recalled s p e n d in g six m o n th s in p riso n a fte r P a k ista n ’s d e fe a t in 1 9 7 1 (F ren ch 19 9 7 : 4 2 3 ). A sked if h e h a d ever th o u g h t o f re tu rn in g to B ih ar, h e sa id , ‘T h e re is n o th in g fo r u s in B ih ar. W h a t w o u ld th e H in d u s say to u s if w e retu rn ed ? T h e y w o u ld lau g h a t us a n d say , “ B ro th er, w h a t h a p p e n ed to y o u r Pak istan ? W h e re is y o u r p a ra d ise n o w ? ” W e co u ld n e v e r g o b ack to B ihar’(ibid.: 4 2 4 - 2 5 ).88 A lth o u g h its d o c u m e n ts re p e a t th e h isto ry o f sacrifices a n d th eir b ein g s tra n d e d , w ith ‘th e y o u n g e r g e n e ra tio n s’ in m in d , in 1 9 9 3 th e SP G R C resolved to p rep a re a d o c u m e n ta ry film ‘o n th e b a c k g ro u n d a n d m ovem ent leading to th e c reatio n o f P ak istan in th e b a c k d ro p o f sufferings o f Pakistanis stra n d e d in B angladesh’.89 B ut th e em o tio n al c o m m itm e n t to P a k ista n h a s m e a n t d iffe re n t th in g s to d iffe re n t p e o p le , a t v a rio u s p o in ts o f tim e. W h e n o n e o f th e 3 2 5 Stran d ed P a k ista n is w h o lan d ed in L a h o re in J a n u a ry 1 9 9 3 w a s ask ed b y th e BBC U rd u service fo r h is th o u g h ts o n P a k ista n , h e said it all: ‘k u c h ilm n a h i h a i, le k in usse a p n a w a ta n sa m a jh ta y h a in ’ (I d o n ’t k n o w an y th in g a b o u t P a k ista n b u t I c o n sid e r it to b e m y c o u n try ). For Z u b a id a K h a to o n g e ttin g to P a k ista n a fte r y e a rs o f c a m p life m eant a r e tu rn to a a b ro o (privacy).90 N a sim K h a n ’s ta k e h a s lo n g b een as follow s: ‘w e d o n ’t w a n t to b e Bengalis a n d w e d o n ’t w a n t to g o b a c k to In d ia ...w e sh all c o n tin u e u n til th ey th ro w us in to th e Bay o f B en g al’(W eism an 1 9 8 6 ). B ut o th e r v iew p o in ts h av e su rfaced d u rin g th e last d ecade. In D ecem b er 1 9 9 6 , a n ew o rg an iz a tio n , th e C o m m itte e f o r R e h a b ilita tio n o f N o n -B e n g a lis in B a n g la d esh , em erg ed w ith a view to g e ttin g B an g lad esh i c itize n sh ip f o r th e B iharis. It claim ed th a t in its first w eek, som e 2 ,2 0 0 fam ilies applied 8 8 . W hen French m ade a reference t o his fellow B iharis, N asim K han ‘sn a p p ed ’ a t him : ‘B iharis! D o n o t use insulting w ords! W h a t d o w e h ave to d o w ith Bihar? N o n e of us have been in B ihar for fifty y ears’. 8 9 . A H C : ‘P roceeding & R e so lu tio n s o f G eneral M eetin g H eld a t H ad is P ark, K hulna, 5 D ecem ber 1993’. T he m eeting appealed to the international c om m u­ n ity a n d organizations to extend financial assistance to com plete the filming project. 9 0 . M o rn in g tran sm issio n (7 .0 0 a.m .), 11 Ja n u a ry 1993.

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fo r citizen sh ip .91 A late n in eties’ stu d y o f th e R efugee a n d M ig ra ­ to ry M o v e m e n ts R e s e a rc h U n it in fifty -o n e h o u s e h o ld s in th e M o h a m m a d p u r G eneva c a m p a n d T e jg ao n c a m p in M irp u r fo und th a t 5 9 p e r c en t o f th o se in terview ed sa w them selves a s B angladeshis a n d o n ly 3 5 p e r c e n t a s P a k ista n is. Fifty-five p e r c e n t w e re n o t w illin g to g o to P a k ista n a n d o f th e 4 5 p e r c e n t w h o w a n te d to go, 3 0 p e r c e n t sta te d th a t th e p rim e rea so n fo r such a d ecisio n w as fam ily reu n io n . O n ly 2 9 .4 p e r c e n t sa w re p a tria tio n a s a feasible o p tio n , a b o u t 2 3 .5 3 p e r c e n t d id n o t c o m m e n t o n th e issue, 6 2 .7 4 p e r c e n t p refe rre d local in te g ra tio n .92 A few y o u n g B iharis have m an ag ed to m ak e frie n d s a m o n g Bengalis a n d even g o to schools o u tsid e th e c a m p s, lik e Jav eed A lam , a n u n d e rg ra d u a te stu d e n t in D h a k a . H e is in th e c a m p a ig n fo r B an g lad esh i citizen sh ip : ‘W e are five b ro th e rs a n d th re e sisters a n d n o n e o f us w a n ts to g o to Pak i­ sta n . P a k ista n is u n k n o w n to m e a n d I h av e n o feelings fo r it. But m y p a re n ts still w a n t to live th e ir la s t d ays in P a k ista n ’. M u sta q u e A h m ed , c h ie f a d v iser to th e S tran d ed P a k ista n is Y o u th R e p a tria ­ tio n M o v e m e n t says th a t stateless a n d jo b less lives a re n o longer acce p ta b le a n d B an g lad esh is th e ir m o th e rla n d . B ut s e n io r Bihari lead ers fea r th a t su c h c a m p a ig n s w ill on ly e n c o u ra g e P a k ista n to d ro p a n y re p a tria tio n p ro g ra m m e fo r g o o d .93 In M a rc h 2 0 0 0 , S a d a k a t K h a n , p re s id e n t o f a refu g ee y o u th o rg an iz a tio n , sa id th a t th ey p refe rre d to re h a b ilita te a n d se ttle in B an g lad esh , fo r th e e a rlie r s ta n d o f re p a tria tio n seem ed to b e ‘a clo sed c h a p te r w ith n o p ro sp e c t a t a ll’.94 T h e SPG R C is n o w seen a s rep resen tin g th e o ld e r B iharis, b u t its p resid e n t, A b d u l J a b b a r K h a n , is o f th e view th a t ‘th e o p tio n to g o o r sta y in B an g lad esh has to rem a in o p e n ’ a n d th e B iharis sh o u ld b e reh a b ilitate d a n d m oved o u t o f th e filth y c a m p s if th ey a re p e rm itte d to s ta y o n .95 N o 9 1 . w w w .b sos.um d.ed/cidcm /m ar/bangbina.htm , ‘B iharis in Bangladesh’ by S hinW h a Lee a n d A am ena M ali. 9 2 . w w w .m eg h b a rta .o rg . N o . 5 , M a rc h 2 0 0 0 . It q u o tes U dbastu, N o . 4 , A p rilJ u n e 1998. 9 3 . w w w .d a ilyexcelsior.com /01nov24/inter.htm , ‘N e w G eneration B iharis O p t to S tay in B angladesh’. 9 4 . w w w .d aily sta m e w s.c o m /law /2 0 0 0 2 0 9 /0 5 /c o rn er.h tm . N o . 6 1 , 2 9 Septem ber 2 0 0 2 , Z ia ul H a q , ‘Biharis in Bangladesh’. 9 5 . Ibid. R u k san a Begum m en tio n e d they get p a id less because they a re refugees. M a n y B iharis w o rk in priv a te offices a s security g u ard s, file-keepers a n d tea boys by c oncealing th e ir identity.

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h ead w ay w a s m ad e o n th e re p a tria tio n issue w h e n Parvez M u sh a rra f visited D h a k a in 2 0 0 2 . ‘Leave th e task to m e’ is w h a t he said to a fiv e-m em b er d e leg atio n o f th e SP G R C led b y N a sim K h an th a t m et him o n 3 0 th Ju ly . T h e y ap p e ale d to h im to a t lea st e n su re a n early re p a tria tio n o f 6 ,0 0 0 p o o r S tran d ed P ak istan is in th e A dam jee N a g a r c a m p in N a ra y a n g a n j. T h o u g h th e SP G R C n e w sp a p e r, W atan, in its A u g u st issue rep o rte d th a t h is resp o n se w a s p o sitiv e,96 J a b b a r K h a n said th ey w ish ed M u s h a rra f h a d seen th e c o n d itio n th e B iharis lived in a n d ta k e n ste p s to ta k e th em ‘b ack ’.97 T h e S tran d ed P a k ista n is h av e co m e a lo n g w a y . In 1 9 7 9 , 5 0 ,0 0 0 o f th em h ad a tte m p te d a lo n g m arc h to P a k ista n a n d w ere tu rn e d back a t th e In d ia n b o rd er. T w o decades late r th ere w ere alleg atio n s of a d a rk e r side o f th e w a it fo r w h ich th e leaders w ere held responsible. T o p leaders o f the SPG RC are allegedly involved in sending people, bo th Bengalis a n d Biharis a b ro a d by issuing false docum ents th at certify them as stranded Pakistanis in return for large am ounts of m oney. M any p eople have already travelled to Sw eden, France, G erm any, Italy a n d th e US a n d sought political asylum in those countries posing as stranded Pakistanis by using these fake certifi­ cates bought from th e SPG RC headquarters a t th e Geneva cam p. As A b d u r R o u f, a 3 0 -y ea r-o ld s a n d al-m a k e r w h o w a s b ro u g h t to a c a m p a s a b ab y a n d is n o w a fa th e r o f tw o p u t it, ‘o u r lives h av e been o n e big m isu n d e rsta n d in g ’. Som e tim e a g o N a sim K h an w a s co n te m p la tin g n e g o tia tin g re p a ra tio n s fo r th e lo ss o f p ro p erty a n d c itizen sh ip a n d sa id w ith b ittern ess th a t P a k ista n w a s n o t ex ­ a ctly a lan d o f m ilk a n d h o n ey a fte r all.98 H e b lam ed th e ‘ruling elite o f P a k ista n , especially th e p o litic ian s a n d b u re a u c ra ts ’ fo r th e p lig h t o f th e S tra n d e d P a k ista n is.99 F o r him th e e p ic w a it ended w h e n h e p assed o n in A u g u st 2 0 0 5 .100 9 6 . w w w .ja n g .c o m .p k /th e n e w s /a u g 2 0 0 2 -d a ily /2 0 - 0 8 -2 0 0 2 , T h e N e w s , 2 0 A ugust 2 0 0 2 , ‘P light o f S tranded P akistanis’ by M o o n is A hm ar. 9 7 . w w w .satrib u n e .co m , 1 9 -2 5 A ugust 2 0 0 2 , by E kram K abir. 9 8 . http ://a sian affa irs.co m /n o v /2 0 0 2 , ‘T h e Leftovers o f H istory: B ihari M uslim s in Bangladesh’, by E k ra m K abir. 9 9 . D a w n , 17 D ecem ber 2003. 100. w w w .statelesspeopleinbangladesh.net, N e w sletter-I, 21 O c to b e r 200 5 .

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B efore m o v in g w e st to discuss th e M u h a jir (n o w M u tta h id a ) Q a u m i M o v e m e n t (M Q M ), let m e o u tlin e th e e q u a tio n b etw een N asim K h a n a n d th e M Q M . T h e SPG R C h a s lo n g been very close to th e Ja m a a t-I-Isla m i. B u t w h e n th e M Q M w o n seats in th e n a tio n a l a n d p ro v in c ial ele c tio n s, N a sim K h a n se n t A lta i H u ssa in a teleg ram a sk in g him to include th e re p a tria tio n p ro g ra m m e ‘o n th e to p ’ of its list o f d e m a n d s.101 L a ter w h en a ro u n d 3 0 0 S tran d ed Pakistanis w ere rep a tria te d to P a k ista n in Ja n u a ry 1 9 9 3 , he w ro te to th e Pu n jab ch ief m in iste r say in g it w a s really a rea liz a tio n o f Iq b a l’s d ream . B u t his a rg u m e n t w a s revealing: th e c o m p le tio n o f th e re p a tria tio n o f all S tra n d e d P ak istan is w a s cru cial fo r th e sta b ility a n d p rogress o f P a k ista n b ecause it c o u ld m ak e ‘negative’ M u h a jir p o litics irrel­ ev a n t. K h a n believed th a t it w as th e B an g lad esh ex p erien ce th a t h a d tu rn e d th e M u h a jir y o u th in to s u p p o rte rs o f A lta f H u ssa in . If th ere w a s n o closure o n th a t fro n t, th e issue w o u ld rem a in o p e n fo r p o litical e x p lo ita tio n ; a n d b asically, th a t th e SP G R C w a s th e sole re p re s e n ta tiv e o f th o se s tr a n d e d in B a n g la d e s h .102 In th e m id ­ n ineties K h an w a s c ateg o rical th a t th e division o f S in d h w as ‘no so lu tio n ’ to th e p ro b le m s o f th e M u h a jirs: ‘W e are firm ly o p p o sed to th e n ew -fangled c o n c e p t o f M o h a jir n a tio n a lism a n d w e refuse to a d m it th a t th e M o h a jirs a re a n a tio n d iffe re n t fro m th e Sindhis, B alochis, P u n jab is a n d P a th an s; alto g e th e r th ey c o n stitu te o n e single P a k ista n i n a tio n ’. 103 O n a n o th e r o ccasio n , N a sim K h a n h ad th is to say a b o u t th e M Q M : ‘H o w c a n th ere be a “ n a tio n ” o f p e o p le w h o m ig rated to jo in th eir M u slim b ro th ers a n d bu ild a n ew co u n try ? It is a sn a re a n d a delusion to th in k o f su c h things a n d it creates m any pro b lem s. T hese gu n -sh o o ters a re d estro y in g th e P ak istan w e believe in’ (French 1997: 4 2 4 ). W h en th e M Q M lead er F aro o q S a tta r visited th e Bihari cam ps, N asim K h an p ro m p tly m ad e a sta te m e n t ag ain st h im fo r try in g to create a ‘K arachi a n d H y d e ra b a d situ a tio n ’.104 10 1 . A H C : T h e M u slim Refugee: A M o n th ly R e v ie w o f th e Stra n d e d P akistanis, O c to b e r-N o v e m b e r 198 8 , telegram o f 2 3 N o v em b er 1988. 102. A H C : ‘A L etter F rom th e Sick Bed’, from N asim K han (A P a kistani), n o d ate . 10 3 . T h e N e w s, 20 A ugust 2 0 0 2 , ‘P light o f S tranded P akistanis’, by M o o n is A hm ar, in w w w .jan g .co m .p k /th e n e w s/a u g 2 0 0 2 -d a ily /2 0 -0 8 -2 0 0 2 . 10 4 . D a w n /N e w s in tern a tio n a l, 11 M ay 199 8 . N asim K han reportedly said th a t the S indh m in iste r a n d m em bers o f h is team w ere th e re on behalf o f a M iddle

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A fter th e c re a tio n o f B angladesh, th e fa ith o f th e M u h a jirs in th e tw o -n a tio n th eo ry w a s deeply a lte re d . D em o g rap h ically , P unjabis becam e th e o v erw h elm in g m ajo rity o f th e p e o p le , a d d in g u p to 5 0 p e r c e n t. T h e M Q M c h a rte r o f objectives in 1 9 8 7 included th e rec­ o g n itio n o f M u h a jirs a s th e fifth n a tio n a lity (in a d d itio n to th e P u n ja b is , P a th a n s , B alo ch s a n d S in d h is); a n d th e se ttle m e n t o f Stran d ed P a k ista n isa s citizens o f P akistan (Q ureshi 1994). T h e latter d e m a n d is a ttrib u te d to th e o ld e r M u h a jirs m ak in g a c o m m o n cau se w ith th e B iharis fro m B an g lad esh w h o a re c o n c en trate d in th e p o o r se ttlem en ts in th e n o rth -w e st frin g es o f K a ra c h i, in p a rtic u la r, th e to w n sh ip o f O ra n g i, K a ra c h i’s larg est k a c h i a b a d i (sq u a tte r se ttle ­ m e n t).105 In itially , th e p rev io u sly settled M u h a jirs did n o t c o n sid e r th e B iharis a s o n e o f th em a n d th ey resen ted B ihari m iddle-class in d iv id u a ls g e ttin g jo b s a n d a d m issio n s to p ro fe ssio n a l colleges. B ut w h e n th e P a th a n s a n d th e B iharis clash ed ov er o th e r m atters a n d th e P a th an s failed to d istin g u ish b etw een th e o ld M u h a jirs a n d th e B iharis w h ile re ta lia tin g , th e ‘th in d istin c tio n w a s m o re o r less o b lite ra te d ’ (A hm ed 19 8 8 : 4 0 ). T o g o b ack briefly, cra c k s h a d b eg u n to a p p e a r in M u h a jir su p ­ p o rt fo r th e M uslim L eague b y th e e n d o f th e first decade o f Pakistan. T h a t space w a s s o o n filled b y th e Jam aat-I-Islam i. T h e M Q M , form ed in 1 9 8 4 , b e g a n its c a re e r a s th e All P a k ista n M u h a jir S tu d e n ts O rg a n iz a tio n . W ith a ‘hig h ly discip lin ed sem i-fascistic o rg an iz a ­ tio n ’, it s o o n eclipsed th e relig io u s p a rties lik e th e Jam aat-I-Islam i in u rb a n Sindh. D u rin g th e eighties, rio ts b etw een M u h a jirs a n d P a th an s, M u h a jirs a n d Punjabis, a n d M u h a jirs a n d Sindhis indicated th e tex tu re o f e th n ic e q u a tio n s.106 Basically, ‘territo rial n atio n alism E ast-based M uh ib b a n -I-P ak ista n O verseas a n d w ere chased o u t o f th e cam ps because they w a n te d to d istrib u te o ld clo th , p u rch a se d locally, a m o n g th e S tra n d ed Pakistanis. 10 5 . T am b ia h (1996: 17 2 , 1 8 3 -8 4 ). M o st M u h ajirs o f B ihari origin have been, a n d a re , p o o r, alth o u g h b y v irtu e o f th e ir artisan a n d sm all shop-keeping skills m an y o f them have been able to establish them selves o n a firm er econom ic basis, p ro v o k in g th e envy o f even p o o re r a n d n e w e r refugees like th e A fghans. 106. Jalal (1995: 196): ‘D ru g m afias operating u n d er the um brella o f the national logistical cell o f the arm y and its intelligence w ing, th e ISI, are believed t o have extended m onetary su p p o rt to th e com peting g ro u p s....A lth o u g h th e struggle betw een the S ind h i-M u h a jir dim ension h a s received m ore a tten tio n o f late , the struggle b etw een P unjabis a nd M u h ajirs over the spoils o f th e political econom y a n d the sta te m ay well be th e structurally m o re significant conflict’. V erkaaik (19 9 4 :6 0 ) m entions th a t A ltaf H ussain w asea rliera m e m b ero f th ejam at-l-lslam i.

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p u sh ed asid e ideological n atio n alism as th e d o m in a n t m o d e o f th in k ­ in g ’. In resp o n se to th e em erg en ce o f th e n ew id io m o f fo u r n a tio n ­ alities, th e M u h a jirs b egan to a rtic u la te th e ir n a tio n a lism d u rin g th e eighties (W aseen 2 0 0 1 : 2 5 0 , 2 5 3 ). A t a h u g e p u b lic m eetin g in K arach i in A u g u st 1 9 8 6 , a rain d ren ch ed A ltaf H u ssa in m en tio n ed th e lack o f s u p p o rt fro m ‘am eer’ (rich) M u h a jirs, a n d p itte d L an d hi versus th e p o sh Defence. H e e x ten d ed th e p o in t by recalling h o w the b e tte r o ff M u h ajirs h a d so m eh o w trap ezed o u t o f E ast P akistan— ‘k is i tia k is i tarah s e ’ (so m eh o w o r th e o th er)— m u ch b e fo re those s tra n d e d th e re co u ld d o so. I t w a s th e ‘ga reeb ’ (p o o r) M u h a jirs w h o h ad fo u g h t f o r P a k ista n a n d en d ed u p in R ed C ro ss cam p s. In his w o rd s ‘A a j M ashriqi P akistan k e M u h a jiro n k e liye h u m h a in jo aa iva a z u th a rahe h a in ’ (to d a y w e a re th ere to raise o u r voice in s u p p o rt o f th e M u h a jirs in th e east). B u t if like th e E ast P ak istani M u h a jirs th ey rallie d a ro u n d th e idea o f P a k ista n a n d en d ed u p in cam p s, w h o w o u ld ca m p a ig n fo r th em , h e a s k e d .107 In a 1 9 9 4 video o n th e S tra n d e d P a k ista n is, A ltaf H u ssa in a sk ed if so m an y lives w o u ld have lan g u ish ed endlessly in cam p s if th o se stra n d e d th ere h a d been B aluch, S in d h i, P u n jab i o r P a th a n . T o him it lo o k ed like th e M uslim s fro m S om alia, M o zam b iq u e, E ritrea, B osnia, K ashm ir, Palestine a n d A fghanistan w ere closer to th e h earts o f th e Pakistanis th a n th e M u h ajirs. T h e M Q M has a s tro n g b a se a m o n g th e B iharis w h o m ig rated fro m fo rm e r E ast P a k ista n to P a k ista n .108 A cco rd in g to o n e p o in t o f view th ere is a n in creasin g d isillu sio n m en t a m o n g th em o v e r th e n o n -re p a triatio n o f th e Stran d ed Pakistanis from Bangladesh (Q ureshi 1 9 9 4 ). B ut o v e r th e y e a rs th e M Q M h a s m ain tain e d th a t re p a tria ­ tio n is a p rio rity . In 1 9 9 0 , its c h a irm a n , Azeem T a r iq said , ‘H o w ca n w e fo rg et th is basic d e m a n d ...? It w as o v e r th is very issue th a t A ltaf received a n in e m o n th p riso n sentence a n d 1 4 lashes in 1978. N o w e ca n ’t c o m p ro m ise’.109 A ltaf H u ssain , to o , denied w h a t ‘m an y ’ h a d w ritte n a b o u t his having given u p th e ir case. A t a p u b lic m eeting in K arach i h e rec o u n te d his p a c ts w ith th e PPP in 1 9 8 8 a n d th e IJI 107. S outh A sia V ideo A rchives, U niversity o f W isconsin, SA -170. 10 8 . B a k h tia r (1992: 36); Q u resh i (1994) m entions th a t in 1 9 9 2 he w as o ften told in K arachi th a t F aro o q S a ttar, th e G u ja ra ti M Q M m a y o r o f K arachi from 1 9 8 7 -9 2 , w a s m erely a to k en a n d d id n o t c a rry m uch influence w ith in the highly hierarchical M Q M leadership w hich w as firm ly co n tro lle d by M uhajirs from U P a n d Bihar. 10 9 . T h e H erald, J a n u a ry 199 0 , p. 55.

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in 1 9 8 9 in w h ic h th e re p a tria tio n issue w a s in clu d e d .110 Ia n T a lb o t h a s a rg u e d th a t th e S tran d ed P ak istan is becam e a ‘ce n tra l elem ent o f M Q M rh e to ric a n d c o m m u n ity id en tity ’. T h e M Q M ’s e x p la n a ­ tio n fo r th e rift w ith th e PPP w a s th e n o n -im p le m e n ta tio n o f p o in t 3 4 o f th e ir jo in t K arach i D e c la ra tio n ac co rd in g to w h ic h ‘th o se P a k ista n is living a b ro a d b y c h o ice o r co m p u lsio n ’ (read Stran d ed P ak istan is) w o u ld h av e ‘all th e privileges a c co rd e d to th e citizens o f P a k ista n ’. T h e re p a tria tio n issu e figured p ro m in e n tly in th e seventee n -p o in t a c co rd w ith th e M u slim L eague in 1 9 8 9 (T a lb o t 2 0 0 0 : 2 5 9 - 6 1 ). B ut a m id -n in eties c o m p ilatio n o f M Q M d e m a n d s m en­ tio n e d th a t a q u a rte r o f a m illio n P a k ista n is w e re ‘still aw a itin g th e ir re tu rn to th e ir h o m ela n d ’, d esp ite th e ag reem en ts w ith B enazir B h u tto a n d N a w a z S h a rif.111 T h e re p a tria tio n p ro m ise w a s ag ain w o rk e d in to th e p a c t betw een th e M Q M a n d th e M u slim League (N ) in 1 9 9 7 .112 B u t m o re o n th a t in th e last seg m en t o f th is c h a p te r. A b o o k let o f th e M Q M ’s c h a rita b le b ran c h , th e K h id m at-e-K h alq, w h ich w a s set u p in 1 9 7 8 , gives d etails o f th e a ssistan ce (fo o d a n d clothing) pro v id ed to th e Stran d ed Pakistanis w h en a ‘m ass ex o d u s’ reach ed K arach i in 1 9 7 9 a n d 1 9 8 2 . T h is c h a rity w in g p ro v id e s help to th o se living in th e B an g lad esh c a m p s a n d en lists d o n a tio n s b o th in P a k ista n a n d a b r o a d .113 In D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 0 , m em b e rs o f th e M Q M U n ited K in g d o m U n it a n d o th e r P a k ista n is fro m th e UK a tte n d e d a fa te h a k h w a n i (re c ita tio n o f th e Q u ra n ) o rg an iz e d by th e M Q M In te rn atio n al S ecretariat in L o n d o n fo r th e m a rty rs o f th e ‘d eb a cle o f E ast P a k ista n ’. A lta f H u ssa in d e m a n d e d th a t th e Stranded Pakistanis, w h o w ere a ‘com pletely fo rg o tten ’ lot, be b rought back im m ediately.114 A c o u p le o f m o n th s late r H u ssa in claim ed th at ‘n o o n e ex cep t th e M Q M ’ w a s struggling fo r th eir rep a tria tio n .115 110. S outh A sia V ideo A rchives, U niversity o f W isconsin, SA -1235. 11 1 . M Q M D e m a n d s f u n d a m e n ta l & C o n s titu tio n a l R ig h ts F or M o h a jirs , M iddlesex, M Q M In te rn atio n a l S e cretariat, A ugust 1995 (first edition , June 1994), p. 3 , p o in t 7 (o u t o f a to ta l o f 18) a n d ap p e n d ix G , p. 1 2 . 1 w o u ld like to th a n k M . Y ounus, C hief O rg a n iz er o f the M Q M , U nited S tates a nd C a nada, fo r a co p y o f th e sam e. 11 2 . D aum , 7 M a rch 1997. 11 3 . M Q M N ew s (a division o f M Q M In fo rm atio n Services n e tw o rk launched in 1995), 16 Ja n u a ry 1997. T he K hidm at-e-K halq C om m ittee’s ad d ress in th e USA w a s located in N ew Y ork. 114. w w w .m q m .o r g /E n g lis h -N e w s /D e c -2 0 0 0 /n e w s 0 0 1 2 1 6 .h tm , L o n d o n , 16 D ecem ber 200 0 . 11 5 . T h e T im e s o f In d ia , 13 Ju ly 2 0 0 1 , live c h a t s h o w o n indiatim es.com

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T h e situ a tio n in S indh a n im a te d several d iasp o ric s. In th e m id ­ nineties, th e C o alitio n o f M u slim O rg a n iz a tio n s o f th e G re a te r H o u s­ to n a re a , a n um b rella g ro u p o f fifteen o rg a n iz a tio n in T e x a s, w ro te a n o p e n letter sig n ed by 1 ,821 c o m m u n ity m em b ers to all P akistani lead ers to resolve th e e th n ic c o m p lex ities in S indh w ith ‘a n o p en m in d ’ a n d p assed a reso lu tio n c o n d e m n in g th e m assacre o f citizens in K arach i. S p o n so red b y th e P ak -A m erican T a sk Fo rce fo r th e Soli­ d a rity o f P a k ista n so m e P a k ista n is o rg an iz e d a se m in a r in D e tro it. T h e p a n e lists in clu d ed M o h a m m e d Y o u n u s, w h o w a s th en ch ief o rg an iz e r o f th e US a n d C a n a d a O v erseas M Q M , fro m C hicago, a n d M a n z o o r A ijaz o f th e People’s P a rty , fro m V irg in ia .116 A ro u n d th e sa m e tim e, M ira j H . Siddiqi, th e c h a irm a n o f th e C o u n cil o f P a k ista n i O rg a n iz a tio n s b a sed in A rlin g to n , V irg in ia, sen t a fax to B en azir B h u tto fo r a p o litical so lu tio n to th e S indh s itu a tio n . H e referred to h e r K a su r speech in w h ic h she h ad called th e M u h a jirs ‘te rro ris ts a n d tim id m ice’ a n d th e p ress release o f th e P a k ista n em bassy in W ash in g to n in w h ic h she d escrib ed th e M Q M as in­ d u lg in g in a ‘foreign [Indian] in sp ired , foreign fu n d ed a n d foreign m o tiv a te d in su rg en cy ’ a g a in st P a k ista n ’s so lid arity : ‘M a y I rem in d y o u th a t th e M Q M d oes rep re se n t th e collective o p in io n s o f a sig­ n ific an t n u m b e r o f th e M o h a jir c o m m u n ity w h o a re all P akistanis. Y o u r sta te m e n ts d e g ra d e a n d d efam e a lm o st tw e n ty m illio n o f y o u r fello w citize n s’. As a n ‘o ld tim e r, w h o w a tc h ed a c o u n try b ein g b o rn fro m a m ix tu re o f e th n ic g ro u p s’, h e a sk ed B enazir B h u tto to ta k e th e in itiativ e fo r a d ialo g u e w ith A ltaf H u ssa in a n d c o n sid er g ra n tin g him a n d th e elected M Q M rep resen tativ es a n d o th e r p a rty m em b ers a g en eral a m n e sty .117 W h en B en azir B h u tto visited th e US in A pril 1 9 9 5 , th e San Josebased U n ited M u slim s o f A m erica (U M A ), suggested a n a ll-p arty re s o lu tio n o f th e ‘v io le n t tu rm o il in K a ra c h i’, in th e in te re st o f P a k ista n .118 In J u n e , th e U M A , th e P a k ista n A sso ciatio n o f th e San F ran cisco Bay A re a , a n d A m erican M u slim A lliance, S an Francisco, 11 6 . U n ity T im es (C hicago), M arch/A pril 1995. 11 7 . Ib id ., M ay /Ju n e 199 5 . T h e fax a lso a sked B h u tto to ‘u nify th e n a tio n to focus its collective resolve o n th e pro b lem s o f o u r bre th re n in occupied K ashm ir. P resident N ix o n w as p a rd o n e d , N elson M an d e la w as released from jail by the A frik a n er g o vernm ent, Y asser A rafa t sh o o k th e hand o f Y itzak R abin. I am su re i f y o u sit w ith M r. H u ssain you w ill find co m m o n g ro u n d as Pakistanis. T h e fu tu re o f the c o u n try d e p en d s o n it’. 11 8 . H a n d o u t dated 12 A pril 1995.

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o rg a n iz e d a fo ru m — W h y Is K a ra c h i B leeding?— to e x p lo re th e ‘resp o n sib ilities o f P a k ista n i A m erican s a n d M u slim A m erican s’. A M Q M w o rk e r, T a n v e e r, su m m ed u p his o rg a n iz a tio n ’s h isto ry since 1 9 8 4 a n d b lam ed th e m ilitary a n d th e M Q M ’s H a q iq i fac tio n fo r th e 1 8 ,0 0 0 d e a th s in th e th re e y ears since 1 9 9 2 . T h e U M A c h a ir­ m a n , R ifat M a h m o o d , sp o k e a b o u t th e seriousness o f th e situ a tio n fo r th e en tire u m m a . H e sa id th e M u h a jirs h ad b u ilt P a k ista n fo r all P a k ista n is, b u t th ere w e re P ak istan is still stra n d e d in B angladesh. T h e fo ru m p assed a reso lu tio n fo r a su m m it con feren ce o f all p arties, ‘in clu d in g th e M Q M ’.119 A sim ila r re so lu tio n w a s p assed o n 19 A u g u st 1 9 9 5 , a t a P a k ista n In d ep en d en ce D ay festival a t th e G o ld en G a te p a rk , San F ran cisco . C opies w e re sen t to th e P a k ista n i p resi­ d e n t, B enazir B h u tto , N a w a z S h a rif a n d A ltaf H u ssa in . L a te r in th e y e a r, th e fo ru m m ad e a n o ffe r to send a team o f ‘highly skilled a n d qu alified a rb itra to rs o f e m in e n t A m erican M u slim s to fac ilitate a n d en h a n ce th e peace n e g o tia tio n ’ in Sindh. O n P a k ista n ’s fo rty -n in th In d ependence D ay a t th e G o ld en G a te p a rk in 1 9 9 6 , R ifat M a h m o o d recalled th e h isto ric L ah o re reso lu tio n o f 1 9 4 0 w h ile a d d re ssin g a m eetin g o f m o re th a n 5 ,0 0 0 P a k ista n i A m ericans. H e m oved a reso ­ lu tio n d e m a n d in g a n in d ep e n d e n t ju d icial co m m issio n , in clu d in g rep re se n ta tiv e s o f th e P a k ista n i A m erican C o m m u n ity , ‘to guide th e p e o p le o f P a k ista n to tru e in d ep en d en ce’. 120 In A pril 2 0 0 2 , th e a n n u a l lea d e rsh ip co n fe re n c e o f th e P a k ista n A m erican A ssocia­ tio n o f N o r th A m erica (PA A N A ), in C h icag o , ap p ealed to P resi­ d e n t M u s h a rra f to fo rm a c o m m issio n to fac ilitate a n early rep a ­ tria tio n o f S tra n d e d P ak istan is in B an g lad esh .121 In th e e a rly eighties, Shafi B ezar head ed th e N e w Y o rk -b ased I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o u n c il f o r R e p a t r i a t i o n o f P a k i s t a n is f ro m B an g lad esh (IC R P). H a v in g m ig rated fro m B ih ar to E ast P ak istan , h e h a d m o v ed to th e US in 1 9 6 3 . Besides g e ttin g in to u c h w ith P a k ista n i lead ers, th e IC R P d o c u m e n te d c am p -w ise statistics o f th e S tra n d e d P a k ista n is. In 1 9 8 6 , it o rg an iz e d a d e m o n s tra tio n o f a larg e n u m b e r o f M u h a jirs living in N e w Y o rk o u tsid e th e P ak istan c o n s u la te to p ro te s t a g a in s t th e ‘g e n o cid e’ o f fello w c o m m u n ity 11 9 . F o ru m flyer; U nity T im e s, M ay /Ju n e 1995; interview s w ith R ifa t M ah m o o d a n d W ah e ed Siddiqui, 11 N o v em b e r 199 6 , S an Jose. 12 0 . C opies o f th e U M A ’s correspondence w ith P akistani p olitical leaders a n d UM A U pdate, 1(1) N ovem ber 1 9 9 6 .1 w ould like to th a n k R ifat M a h m o o d fo r them . 121. w w w .p a k ista n lin k .co m , ‘PAA NA C onference a Big Success’, by S ham im B ano.

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m em b ers in K arach i. O n e o f its rep resen tativ es suggested th a t th e K arach i e th n ic v iolence h a d been c h o re o g ra p h e d to p ro v id e th e Z ia reg im e w ith a n ex cu se to refuse th e re p a tria tio n o f th o se stra n d e d in B angladesh. In a d d itio n to th is o rg a n iz a tio n w h ich still exists, B ezar flo a ted th e M o h a jir In te rn atio n al F o ru m in 1 9 9 5 , w ith c o m ­ m u n ity links in N e w Y o rk , C h icag o a n d C a lifo rn ia . W h e n Benazir B h u tto w a s in N e w Y o rk th a t y e a r, Bezar th reaten ed self-im m olation b ecause th e B h u tto g o v e rn m e n t w a s ‘sy stem atically ’ slau g h terin g M u h a jirs .122 T h e fo ru m ’s s o lu tio n o f th e situ a tio n is th e c re a tio n o f a M u h a jir s u b a (province) in so u th e rn S in d h , co m p risin g K arachi a n d H y d e ra b a d . B ezar claim s th a t his in te rv en tio n has received ‘tre ­ m en d o u s s u p p o rt’ in K arach i, a n d th o u g h h e h ad n o t received a d ire c t resp o n se fro m A ltaf H u ssa in , th ere h ad been ‘n o o p p o sitio n e ith e r’.123 E ig h t y ears a fte r th e m ilita ry o p e ra tio n w as lau n ch ed a g a in st th e M Q M in 1 9 9 2 , A lta f H u ssa in rec o u n te d h o w ‘m an y th o u sa n d s ’ fled th e c o u n try , a n d m an y becam e hom eless o r w e n t m issin g .124 C h a p te r o n e m en tio n s th e p o st-1 9 9 2 asy lu m -seek in g M u h a jirs, a n d th o se w h o m o v ed o u t o f P a k ista n to e scap e th e situ a tio n in S in d h .125 A cco rd in g to T a riq M e er, a n M Q M o rg an iz e r in E u ro p e, in th e a fte rm a th o f th e a rm y c ra c k d o w n in S indh in 1 9 9 2 , in th e sp ace o f a co u p le o f m o n th s , ‘th o u sa n d s ’ h a d g o n e u n d e rg ro u n d to escape d e a th a n d to rtu re , ‘h u n d red s’ claim ed refugee s ta tu s in B ritain alo n e, a n d h u n d red s m o re h e a d ed fo r th e US a n d G erm an y . In th e m id ­ n in eties h e sa id m u ch o f th e ir w o rk revolved a ro u n d d ealin g w ith ‘g o v e rn m e n ts ac ro ss th e w o rld ’ c h e ck in g w ith th e M Q M a b o u t claim s fo r a sy lu m a n d refuge: ‘W e a re b eg in n in g to g et in q u iries a lso fro m c o u n tries lik e A u stra lia , N e w Z e a la n d , J a p a n , T h a ila n d a n d m an y o th e rs ’. M a n y M u h a jirs h ad a lso escaped to A fg h an istan to lo o k fo r w ays o u t fro m th ere .126 In 1 9 9 7 , th e M Q M p ro tested to 122. IC R P 1988; T h e T im es o f In d ia , 21 D ecem ber 1986; a n d T h e A sia n A g e , 9 A pril 1995. 123. Interview w ith Shafi B ezar, 10 F ebruary 1 9 9 7 , N ew Y ork. 124. w w w .m qm .org, L o ndon, 12 A u g u st 2 0 0 0 , ‘M essage to N a tio n on the 53rd independence d ay o f P akistan’. See G u p ta a n d H ussain ( 1 9 9 2 :5 9 ) fo r th e detail th a t ‘H u ssain h a d been calling fro m L o n d o n , unsuccessfully urging th e US C onsul-G eneral in K arachi to g ive a sylum to h is follow ers’. 12 5 . T a lb o t (2000: 262) m en tio n s t h a t w hen the M Q M p rovincial m inister. B adar Iq b al, a n d jo in t secretaries, A am ir K han a n d A faq A hm ed, w ere expelled from the M Q M they fled to the US. 12 6 . In d ia A b ro a d , 11 O c to b e r 1996.

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th e British H o m e O ffice a n d th e French a n d G e rm a n in te rio r m inis­ tries th a t th e refu sal to c o n sid e r th e po litical a sy lu m ap p lic a tio n s o f th e M Q M ca d re s w a s in serio u s co n flict w ith th e U N c o n v en tio n s o f 1951 w h ic h d e a lt w ith th e rig h ts o f refugees. O n its p a r t th e B ritish H o m e O ffic e tu rn e d d o w n th e a p p lic a tio n s b e c a u se th e M Q M h ad b eco m e a c o a litio n p a rtn e r o f th e g o v e rn m e n t in 1 997. B ut th e M Q M co u n ter-arg u m en t w as th a t th e arm y h ad lau n ch ed an o p e ra tio n ag ain st its ca d re s in 1 9 9 2 , d esp ite th e fact th a t it w a s a co alitio n p a rtn e r o f th e N a w a z S h a rif g o v e rn m e n t.127 A rju n A p p a d u ra i h a s d escrib ed th e M Q M a s a n ‘ex cellen t ex ­ a m p le o f a m o v em en t th a t is d iasp o ric , tra n s n a tio n a l a n d a n ti-sta te ’ w ith a lead ersh ip in e x ile in L o n d o n (A p p a d u rai 19 9 6 : 152) (ever since th e a rm y lau n c h e d o p e ra tio n s a g a in st it in m id -1 9 9 2 o n th e g ro u n d th a t th e M Q M in te n d e d to secede). T h e p a rty is th e th ird larg est in P a k ista n a n d th e seco n d larg est in Sindh. O n th e su b ject o f tra n s n a tio n a l A sian c o m m u n ities a n d th e p o litic s o f h o m ela n d , Ia n T a lb o t h a s m ad e th e useful p o in t th a t ‘size is n o t, o f co u rse ev ery th in g ’. W ell ed u c ate d a n d a fflu en t a ctiv ists fro m th e 'm u c h sm a lle r c o m m u n itie s ’ h a v e m a d e th e ir p re s e n c e k n o w n in th e M Q M ’s stru g g le w ith th e P a k ista n i s ta te .128 B ut th a t is w h e re he leaves it; w h a t fo llo w s is a filling in o f its d iasp o ric career. A ltaf H u ssa in h a s a d m itte d th a t lead in g a n d g u id in g th e M Q M fro m L o n d o n h a s n o t been very easy. B ut th e ex p en siv e stru g g le is a d e q u ate ly fu n d ed b y h is s u p p o rte rs all o v e r th e w o rld . H is p o si­ tio n is th a t h u m a n rig h ts v io la tio n s in P a k ista n left n o o p tio n b u t to sta g e w o rld -w id e p ro te s t rallies a g a in s t th e o p p ressio n o f th e M Q M inside P a k ista n .129 In 1 9 9 5 , A ltaf H u ssa in ask ed th e M u h ajirs living a b ro a d to d o n a te 1 p e r c en t o f th e ir m o n th ly in co m e to th e n ew ly -created M u h a jir Q a u m i F u n d .130 H u ssa in o n c e m en tio n ed th e p o p u la rity o f th e v id eo cassette, H u m D o o r N a h i (I a m N o t T h a t F a r A w ay) th a t sto o d in fo r him in P a k ista n .131 A ccord in g to 12 7 . H in d u sta n T im es, 16 D ecem ber 1997. 12 8 . T a lb o t (2000: 2 4 8 ); c o n tra s t th is w ith Ishtiaq A hm ed (1996: 28 6 ), and his rem ark a b o u t th e M u h a jirs lacking th e su p p o rt o f 'a p ro sp e ro u s diaspora com m unity’, o n th e issue o f the c reation o f a new p rovince based on separating K arachi and H yd e rab a d fro m th e rest o f S indh. 129. D a w n , 18 A pril 1997; see 3 F eb ru ary 1 9 9 7 fo r politica l p artie s, including th e M Q M , g ettin g funds from s u p p o rte rs in th e G u lf d u rin g th e 1 9 9 7 elections. 13 0 . T h e S ta te sm a n , 20 S eptem ber 1995. 13 1 . M Q M re p o r t o n his te le p h o n ic speech fro m L o n d o n to H y d e ra b a d o n 8 A ugust 1994.

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h im , it is tw o d ecad es o f stru g g le th a t has g o t th e M u h a jirs reco g n i­ tio n as a n a tio n , n o t on ly in P a k ista n , b u t ‘th ro u g h o u t th e in te rn a ­ tio n a l w o rld ’.132 Som e y ears a g o w h e n h e w as a sk ed h o w h e k ept in to u c h w ith M Q M activ ists in P a k ista n , h e gave th is reply: ‘For th e first tim e a lea d e r living in exile fo r n in e y ears has been a b le to g u id e a p o lity o v e r th e telep h o n e, o r th ro u g h letters a n d statem en ts. In d eed , th e tele p h o n e a n d I.T . h av e n ev er been used th e w ay I have used th em ’.133 Ish tiaq A z h a r p o in te d o u t o n ce th a t, ‘in th is co m m u ­ n ica tio n s e ra , u n lik e th e tim es o f im am K h o m en i o r L enin (w ho h a d stay ed o u tsid e th e ir c o u n try fo r lo n g p e rio d s), A lta f sa h e b can a d d re ss his s u p p o rte rs fro m w h e re v e r h e is, a s w ell a s , rem a in in­ fo rm ed a b o u t th e d evelopm ents unfo ld in g a t h o m e’. 134 T h o u g h A ltaf H u ssa in m ad e several speeches a d ay o v e r th e tele p h o n e w h ile elec­ tio n e e rin g fro m his L o n d o n office d u rin g th e la te nin eties, as an M Q M w o rk e r p u t it, th e re a re lim itatio n s to a lead ersh ip o f a p a rty by tele p h o n e fro m a n o th e r c o u n try .13S A lta f H u ssa in specially rec o rd e d a v id eo speech fo r th e first a n ­ n u a l ben efit b a n q u e t o rg an iz e d b y th e o verseas b ra n c h o f th e M Q M in th e US a n d C a n a d a , in C h icag o in O c to b e r 1 9 9 4 . It w as a n a p ­ p eal to ‘th o se c o n cern ed a b o u t d em o cracy a n d freed o m ’, to in te r­ vene a g a in st th e h u m a n rig h ts a b u ses faced by M u h a jirs a n d a r ­ gued th a t th e M Q M w a s being targ e te d fo r ta k in g o n th e c o rru p t p o litical sy stem in P a k ista n . Sim ilar b a n q u e ts w e re o rg an iz e d in N e w Y o rk , N e w Jersey , W ash in g to n D .C ., M ic h ig a n , T o r o n to a n d M o n tre a l in N o v e m b e r 1 9 9 4 .136 T h e C h icag o a n n u a l b a n q u e t ed i­ tio n o f M Q M V isio n d escrib ed d iasp o ric M u h a jirs as its ‘n a tu ra l co n stitu e n c y ’. As Pakistanis living a n d w orking in N o rth Am erica [it elaborated] you are ideally positioned to play a key role in shaping o u r n atio n ’s destiny for the better. O u r effectiveness a n d survival depend on your 13 2 . w w w .m qm .org, L o n d o n , 2 5 A pril 2 0 0 0 , A ltaf H u ssain to M Q M E lders W ing. 13 3 . T h e T im e s o f In d ia , 13 J u ly 2 0 0 1 , live c h a t sh o w on indiatim es.com ; Y unas S am ad (2002: 64) com m ents th a t H u ssain ’s relentless m ultim edia cam paign h a s enabled him to co m m an d his p arty b u t, ‘escape the clutches o f th e law enfo rc em en t agencies’. 13 4 . T h e H erald, Ju ly 199 3 , interview w ith c o nvener, R a b ita C om m ittee by Idrees B a khtiar, p . 62. 13 5 . India A b ro a d , 14 F eb ru ary 1997. 13 6 . M Q M (O verseas) USA a n d C a n a d a press release, n .d .

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active involvem ent, no t only financially, bu t m ore im portantly, in sharing y our tim e a n d talent. T h e M Q M is uniquely dependent on the su p p o rt a n d com m itm ent o f o u r overseas chapters, particularly as o u r security and prosperity are under siege a t hom e. Y our sup­ p o rt m ay be decisive in restoring o u r m uch attack ed econom ic and political freedom s. In America w e take hum an rights, dem ocracy a n d the dignity o f m an for granted. W ith y our help, these same benefits can a n d will o n e day be equally assured in Pakistan.137 In th e late eighties, th e g eo g ra p h ic al s p re a d o f th e M Q M w as g iv en o u t a s in c lu d in g I s la m a b a d , S a u d i A r a b ia , ‘A m r ik a a n d B ritta n ia '; basically a n d sw eep in g ly , ‘w h e re v e r M u h a jirs live’. 138 By th e m id -n in eties, th e M Q M h a d n in ete e n b ran ch es in th e US a n d tw o in C a n a d a (in T o ro n to a n d M o n tre a l; C a lg ary w a s still co m in g u p th en ). T h e US b ran ch es w e re s ta rte d in D ecem b er 1988 a n d rev a m p e d in 1 9 9 1 . A c c o rd in g to M o h a m m e d Y o u n u s, w h o w as th en c h ie f o rg an iz e r, M Q M (O verseas), ro u g h ly a b o u t 10 to 1 5 p e r c e n t o f th e P ak istan i d iasp o ra in C h icag o a n d N e w Y o rk w ere M u h a jirs a n d a ro u n d 1 0 p e r c en t o f th e M u h a jirs g o t th ere p o s t-1 9 9 2 .139 In m id -2 0 0 2 , th e C a n a d a unit w as sep arated fro m the US unit because o f th e ‘fa s t in creasin g w o rk ’ in th e tw o u n its a n d to e n ab le ex te n d in g th e p a rty in th e d ia s p o ra .140 By th e e n d o f 2 0 0 3 , th e C a n a d a u n it h a d b ra n c h e s in G r e a te r T o r o n to , M o n tr e a l, C alg ary , W in d so r a n d O tta w a , a n d claim ed th a t fo rty -th ree events h a d been o rg an ized in its b ran c h e s th a t y e a r.141 In th e US, M Q M b ran ch es c o v e r B o sto n , C h ic a g o , D a lla s, D e tro it, G re a te r H o u s ­ to n , G re a te r Los A ngeles, N e w Jersey, N e w Y o rk , O k la h o m a , Ph ila­ d e lp h ia , San F ran cisco , St. L o u is, S o u th F lo rid a , T a m p a a n d W a sh ­ in g to n , D .C .142 In 2 0 0 2 , M Q M -U S A w as d escrib ed as ‘th e biggest ev er set u p o f th e M Q M o u tsid e P a k ista n ’, 143 a n d it lau n ch ed a 13 7 . M o h a m m a d Y ounus a n d Shahid Pervez 1(1): 8 , O c to b e r 1994 138. W isconsin V ideo A rchive, video c assette SA -725, Im ran F aro o q a t a reception given by P a k ista n F riends o f Saudi A ra b ia , 11 M a y 1989, K arachi. 139. Interview , 22 O c to b e r 199 6 , C hicago. T h e p ercentages s o u n d im pressionistic. 140. w w w .m qm .org, L o n d o n , 21 J u n e 200 2 . 14 1 . w w w .m q m c an a d a.c o m , d a telin e d 14 D ecem ber 200 3 . 14 2 . w w w .m q m u sa.co m 14 3 . w w w .m qm usa.com , ‘F inal D ay A nnual con v en tio n o f the M Q M U nited States, F lorida’ (19 A ugust 2 0 0 2 ). ‘T h o u san d s o f d o llars’ w ere do n ate d in response t o A l t a f H u s s a in ’s c a ll; w w w .m q m .o r g /E n g lis h - N e w s /A u g u s t- 2 0 0 2 / n e w s0 2 0 8 1 7 m en tio n s th e w o rk sh o p s lined u p d u rin g th e c o n v e n tio n on Foreign A ffairs, C o rp o ra te Practices, Im m igration a n d Civil R ights.

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n atio n -w id e c a m p aig n to raise fu n d s fo r elections in Pak istan . It also set u p satellite connected election cells in W ashington D .C ., Chicago, Los Angeles, M ia m i, H o u s to n a n d N e w Y o rk . In a h a lf h o u r speech to th e reo rg an ized M Q M -U S A , A lta f H u ssa in sp o k e a b o u t its let­ ters to US Congressm en a n d N G O s— a b o u t th e n o -go areas in K arachi a n d th e p o ssib le rig g in g o f e lectio n s in P a k ista n . T h re e w ebsites— w w w .m q m .o r g ,w w w .m q m u sa .c o m a n d w w w .m q m c a n ad a .c o m — w ere readied to pro v id e election resu lts a ro u n d th e clock in O c to b e r 2 0 0 2 .144 W h e n A ltaf H u ssa in a n n o u n c ed h is d ecisio n to re tu rn to P a k ista n a ro u n d th is tim e, th e ce n tra l o rg an iz in g co m m ittee o f th e M Q M -U S A p assed a reso lu tio n a g a in st it, till th ey finished c o n ­ su ltin g w ith th e d ifferen t M Q M w ings ‘th ro u g h o u t th e w o rld ’. 145 In N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 2 , a b u siness a n d reso u rce d ev elo p m en t w in g w as a n n o u n c ed to g e n e ra te fu n d s fo r th e o rg a n iz a tio n .146 In 1 9 9 7 , A ltaf H u ssa in led his p a rty ’s e lectio n c a m p a ig n w ith several speeches a d a y , o v e r th e tele p h o n e , fro m his L o n d o n office. H e also reo rg an ized th e p a rty ’s S indh u n its b y tele p h o n e .147 In 2 0 0 2 , h e s p o k e sim u lta n e o u s ly to e le c to ra l ra llie s in K o ra n g i, R izvia Society, G u lb a h a r a n d Q a s b a h C o lo n y d istric ts in K arach i, fro m L o n d o n .148 W h en h e ad d re sse d th e resid en ts o f J a c o b a b a d he hig h­ lig h ted th e ir p ro b le m s o f w a te r s h o rta g e , a n in a d e q u a te sew erage sy stem a n d lo a d -sh e d d in g , a n d sa id th a t all p ro b le m s w o u ld be solved w h e n th e M Q M w o u ld fo rm th e g o v e rn m e n t in S in d h .149 M eetin g s held o u tsid e P a k ista n to o h ad a s u b c o n tin e n ta l focus. At a rally o f w o rk e rs a n d s u p p o rte rs fro m L o n d o n , B irm in g h am a n d M a n c h e s te r, o rg a n iz e d b y th e M Q M - U K , in L o n d o n , H u s s a in d iscu ssed th e feu d a l sy ste m , th e m a rg in a liz a tio n o f th e sm a lle r p ro v in c e s, th e relig io u s p a rtie s a n d th e g e o p o litic a l s itu a tio n in 144. w w w .m qm usa.com /electionl7S tations.htm l, A ltaf H ussain’s speech, 6 O ctober 2002; also see w w w .m qm usa.com /Y ear_in_R eview 2002.htm fo r ‘Glimpses from 2002’: in M arc h M Q M O verseas launched a ‘Green C am paign’ to celebrate Afza A ltaf’s birth; on 2 7 J u n e , the chief organizer, M uh a m m ad Y ounus, pre­ sided o v e r a general w orkers session o n the phone to m ark the ten th anniver­ s a ry o f th e O p e ra tio n a g a in s t th e M Q M in P a k is ta n ; 13 Ju ly o n w a rd s M uh am m a d Y ounus m oved to the M Q M International R elations W ing. 14 5 . w w w .m q m u sa.co m /Q u aid sR etu m .h tm l, W ash in g to n D .C ., 3 N ovem ber 200 2 . 14 6 . w w w .m qm u sa.co m /M e etin g /m e etin g N o v l 10 2 .h tm l. 14 7 . India A b ro a d , 14 F eb ru ary 1997. 148. w w w .m qm .org/E nglish-N ew s/S ep-2002/new s020915.htm K arachi, 15 S eptem ­ ber 200 2 . 149. w w w .m q m .o rg /n e w s0 2 0 9 2 8 .h tm , J a c o b a b a d , 28 S eptem ber 200 2 .

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P a k is ta n .150 A g a in , w h ile a d d r e s s in g t h e p a r t i c i p a n ts o f th e M u tta h id a C o n v en tio n 2 0 0 2 in T o ro n to ov er th e p h o n e, he said it w as th e responsibility o f every Pak istan i, ‘w h e th e r th ey a re in Pak istan, C a n a d a o r a n y w h e re else’, to stru g g le a g a in s t th e jagirdars a n d w a d era s, o r lan d lo rd s, in P a k ista n .151 Before th e N o r th A m erican units w ere b ifu rcated a n d ex p an d ed, A ltaf H u ssa in ad dressed ifta r (th e b reak in g o f fa s t d u rin g R am ad an) g et-to g eth ers o f th e US a n d C a n a d a u n its by tu rn s .152 In th e late nineties, th e M Q M n ew s n e tw o rk s ro u tin e ly circu lated catalo g u es o f h u m a n rig h ts v io la tio n s in P a k ista n .153 O v e r th e y ears several d e m o n stra tio n s a n d rallies h av e b een o rg an ized , o fte n in L o n d o n , w h e re a larg e n u m b e r o f M Q M su p p o rte rs w h o a re victim s o f the a rm y o p e ra tio n s in Sindh, a re said to b e ‘alw ay s o n h a n d ’.154 In Sep­ tem b e r 1 995, th e M Q M lau n ch ed a series o f p ro tests ag ain st Benazir B h u tto in six teen c o u n tries a n d o v e r tw o d o zen cities. It claim ed to h av e d istrib u te d a b o u t 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 leaflets to th o se e n te rin g a n d leav­ in g L o n d o n . P ro te sts w e re a lso lau n ch ed in B irm in g h am , Leicester a n d Leeds. A n M Q M sp o k e sm a n claim ed th a t o v e r a m illio n p a m ­ p h lets w ere d istrib u te d in th e US a n d C a n a d a . T h e focus w a s o n th e p e rse c u tio n a n d h u m ilia tio n o f M u h a jir w o m e n a t th e h an d s o f th e P ak istan i m ilitary a n d p o lice. A cco rd in g to th e M Q M , its cam ­ p a ig n a g a in st h u m a n rig h ts v io latio n s co vered F ran ce, D e n m ark, G erm an y , G reece, N o rw ay , F inland, Belgium , Sw eden a n d A ustralia, S o u th A frica, C y p ru s, K enya, S o u th K o rea a n d th e Ph ilip p in es. It ex p ected th a t th e u n its s ta rte d d u rin g th e p ro te st w o u ld live o n .155 T h e r e w e re sim ila r p r o te s ts in m id -1 9 9 9 in E u ro p e a n d N o r th A m erica. N a sre en Jalil o f th e M Q M sa id th a t th e id ea w a s ‘to p ro ­ test a n d save K arach i fro m b eco m in g a n o th e r K o so v o ’. 156 A ro u n d 15 0 . w w w .m q m .o rg /n e w s0 2 0 9 2 3 .h tm , L o ndon, 23 S eptem ber 200 2 . 15 1 . w w w .m q m .o rg /E n g lis h -N e w s /S e p - 2 0 0 2 /n e w s 0 2 0 9 2 9 .h tm , T o r o n to , 2 9 S eptem ber 200 2 . 152. C o m m u n ic atio n from M . Y ounus 10 J a n u a ry 1997. 153. See fo r e xam ple, M Q M N e w s, 19 N o v e m b e r 1996, enclosure: press release issued by the H u m a n R ights C om m ission o f P ak istan se n t o u t by M . A nw ar, chief o rg an ize r, M Q M —U K a n d M Q M -E u ro p e . 15 4 . T h e T im e s o f India, 7 S eptem ber 199 5 , re p o rt by M .B . N aqvi. 15 5 . T h e S ta te sm a n , 17 S eptem ber 1995. 156. D aw n, 2 1 J u n e 1999. A ccording to th e M Q M h u n g er strike cam ps w ere set up in G erm any, Belgium, N ew Y ork, W ashington, C hicago; see T he T im es o f India, 2 2 Ju ly 1 9 9 9 , f o r A lta f H u ssa in ’s ju stific a tio n o f th e p a rty ’s a g ita tio n a l program m e in E ngland o n th e g ro u n d t h a t he w as o nly e m ulating th e P akistani

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th is tim e th e M Q M c o n d u c te d a ten -d ay , w o rld -w id e referen d u m , o n w h e th e r A ltaf H u ssa in sh o u ld g o o n a fast u n to d e a th to p ro test ag ain st ex traju d icial killings. T h is co vered P a k ista n , B ritain , N o rth A m erica, B elgium , G erm an y , Sw eden, O m a n , A u stra lia , a n d S outh A frica; 1 ,5 7 2 ,4 7 4 o f th e 1 ,5 7 6 ,7 3 6 v otes c a st w e re a g a in st th e fast. M o h ib b a n -e -P a k ista n , to o , a rra n g e d a refe ren d u m in Sau d i A rabia a n d o th e r G u lf sta te s fo r M Q M w o rk e rs.1S7 T h e tw e n ty -fifth a n n i­ v ersary o f th e All P a k ista n M u h a jir S tu d e n t’s O rg a n iz a tio n w as ce le b rate d by th e M Q M -U S A , a n d th e M Q M co n v en er, F a ro o q S a tta r, u p d a te d th e au d ie n c e o n th e po litical situ a tio n in P ak istan , w h ile A lta f H u ssa in ad d re sse d th em fro m L o n d o n .158 In th e p a s t, a d ele g a tio n led b y M u h a m m a d A n w a r, ch ief o rg an iz e r o f th e M Q M in UK a n d E u ro p e, w o rk e d o n g e ttin g its h u m a n rig h ts v io latio n ca m p a ig n m en tio n ed in cru cial U N H C R d o c u m e n ts .159 In 2 0 0 2 , M Q M -U S A a sk ed m em b ers a n d s u p p o rte rs to c o n ta c t th e US C o n ­ gress, U N , A m nesty a n d E u ro p e an U n io n a n d so o n a b o u t rigged electio n s in e a ste rn K a ra c h i.160 T h e M Q M p ro d u c e d th e tw in videos, E xtra -ju d icia l E x e c u tio n a n d T h e G e n o cid e in th e m id -n in eties. T h ese in clu d e d close-ups of r e p o r t s o f A m n e s ty I n te r n a t i o n a l , A s ia W a tc h , th e US S ta te D ep a rtm e n t, scenes o f ta n k s in K arachi, m o rg u e sequences, a n d clips o f th e fu n era ls o f b o th A lta f H u s s a in ’s b ro th e r a n d n ep h ew w h o d ied to g eth e r, w ith a voice-over d e ta ilin g th o se w h o a tte n d e d .161 A C ata lo g u e o f th e V ic tim s (T h e M o h a jir N a tio n ) o f S ta te C rim e, is a 1 3 4 -p ag e a c c o u n t o f th e ‘ex tra -ju d icia l killings, a rre s ts a n d to rtu re ’ o f M Q M lead ers, w o rk e rs a n d s u p p o rte rs d u rin g 1 9 9 5 a n d h a s a m ap o f S indh o n its co v er. O n e o f th e e n tries m en tio n s th a t d u rin g a p a rtic u la r ra id th e in tellig en ce b u re a u officers sa id th a t th ey w ere u n d e r o rd e rs to terro riz e a n d elim in a te M Q M s u p p o rte rs a n d w o rk ­ e rs ‘so th a t th e w h o le M o h a jir N a tio n a n d th e ir n e x t g e n e ra tio n will co m pletely fo rg et a b o u t th e M Q M ’. 162 T h e M Q M a lso b ro u g h t governm ent w hich has tried to internationalize the K ashm ir issue through its action in K argil. w w w .karach ip ag e.c o m /n ew s/A u g -9 9 /0 8 1 9 9 9 .h tm l w w w .m qm .org, 21 J u n e 200 0 . T h e T im e s o f In d ia , 3 A pril 1998. Ib id ., 12 O c to b e r 200 2 . I w ould like to th a n k M oh a m m e d Y ounus fo r copies o f these publications a n d th o se m en tio n e d in fo o tn o tes 1 6 2 -6 5 . 162. L o n d o n , M Q M In tern atio n a l S ecretariat, 199 6 , p . 103

15 7 . 15 8 . 15 9 . 16 0 . 161.

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o u t a 3 0 -p ag e collection o f p h o to g ra p h s o f ‘victim s o f sta te crim e’ a n d so m e press clippings. T h e co v er o f D ea th W arrant w a s d ram atic, it said th e P a k ista n g o v e rn m e n t h a d issued tw e n ty -tw o m illion d eath w a rra n ts a g a in st th e M u h a jir ‘n a tio n ’.163 T w o o th e r p u b lic a tio n s, G e n o cid e o f T h e M o h a jir N a tio n a n d M o h a jir R ig h ts A r e H u m a n R ig h ts ,164 ca rrie d illu stra tiv e co p ies o f th e re p o rts o f in te rn a tio n a l h u m a n rig h ts o rg an iz a tio n s a n d w e stern g o v e rn m e n ts a n d a rg u ed th a t th e lead ersh ip o f th e M Q M w a s v in d icated in th e n a tio n a l a n d p ro v in c ia l e le c tio n s in u r b a n S in d h in 1 9 8 8 , 1 9 9 0 a n d 1 9 9 3 . A cco rd in g to th e M Q M , th e a lleg atio n s o f terro rism a g a in st it w ere co n co cted in o rd e r to ju stify its relen tless rep re ssio n to th e p eople o f P a k ista n a n d th o se living overseas. In resp o n se , th e M Q M p re ­ p a re d fo u rte en v o lum es to c o u n te r th e g o v e rn m e n t’s ‘in te rn atio n al c a m p a ig n ’ a g a in st it.165 B ut o v e r th e y e a rs h u m a n rig h ts g ro u p s h av e ex p ressed th e ir c o n cern a b o u t th e h u m a n rig h ts a b u se b y th e M Q M itself, a p o in t w h ic h it u n d erp lay ed o r p assed o ff a s flow ing fro m th e in creasin g levels o f fru s tra tio n in th e c o m m u n ity . B asically, th e M Q M resp o n d e d to th e PPP a rg u m e n t th a t in th e a b sen ce o f lan d o f th e ir o w n th e M u h a jirs c a n n o t b e defined a s a n a tio n a lity .166 In its view , th e M u h a jirs a re ‘d istin g u ish ed fro m o th ­ e rs in P a k ista n b y th e ir d istin c t c u ltu re a n d c iv ilizatio n , lan g u ag e, aesth e tic a n d a rtistic a sp ira tio n s, (and) h ad im m ig rated to P ak istan fro m u n d iv id ed In d ia in 1 9 4 7 a n d th e re a fte r, a s a m a tte r o f rig h t a n d n o t refu g e’. W h a t m ak e s th e ir m ig ra tio n ‘tru ly u n iq u e in w orld h isto ry ’ is th a t n o t o n ly w ere m illio n s o f p e o p le inv o lv ed , b u t th a t ‘th ey b ro u g h t w ith th em th e ir c u ltu ral h eritag e, cu sto m s, tra d itio n s a n d civ ilizatio n w h ich h a d a h isto ry o f ov er th o u sa n d y e a rs’. T h e re ­ f o re , M u h a ji r s , ‘p o s s e s s e d ] a ll t h e i n g re d ie n ts o f a n a ti o n ’. M o re o v e r, U rd u , th e m o th e r to n g u e o f th e M u h a jirs, a s th e official lan g u ag e o f P a k ista n h a d p ro v id ed ‘th e n ew co u n try w ith a n ov er­ r id in g u n ific a tio n f a c to r ’. T h e ‘u n tir in g e ff o r ts ’ o f th e M u slim m in o rity provinces in m ak in g th e h o m elan d is un d erlin ed , as alw ays. ‘T h e fe u d o -p o litic ia n s [sic] a n d p e o p le o f p re s e n t P a k ista n ’ are d escrib ed a s h av in g o p p o sed its c re a tio n ‘un til it becam e im m in e n t’. By lead in g th e m o v em en t a n d ‘sacrificing m o re th a n tw o m illion 16 3 . 16 4 . 165. 16 6 .

L o n d o n , M Q M In tern atio n a l S ec reta ria t (n. d.) L ondon, M Q M International S ecretariat [n. d . ] 159 a n d 94 pages respectively. See M Q M (1996: 1 1 -1 2 ); M Q M (1 9 6 6 b [29 pages]). See fo r e xam ple, T h e N e w s, 2 F ebruary 1996.

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lives, th ey fully estab lish ed th e ir rig h t to m ig ra te a n d live in th eir n ew h o m ela n d ’. B ut g o v ern m en ts in P ak istan h ad rep eated ly stressed th a t th e M u h a jirs w ere refugees a n d trie d to convey th e im p ressio n th a t th ey h a d o n ly c o m e in ‘te m p o r a r ily ’, w h e n , in fa c t, th e ir m ig ra tio n h a d involved a n a b a n d o n in g o f B ritish In d ia ‘fo rev er’. T h e re w as a lso th e rem in d er th a t ‘M u h a jir’ tra n sla te s as im m ig ran t, n o t refugee.167 T h e M Q M ex p lain ed th a t it felt th e need ‘to re-state th e definition a n d co n cep t o f th e term s M o h a jir a n d M o h a jir N a tio n ’ b ecau se th e cam p aig n s o f ‘successive g o v e rn m e n ts’, a n d in p a rtic u la r, th a t o f B en azir B h u tto , h a d a tte m p te d to ‘co n fu se th e p e o p le a t h o m e a n d a b ro a d ’ a n d a ls o th e ‘In te rn a tio n a l C o m m u n ity ’ a b o u t th e ‘tru e im p o rt a n d m ea n in g o f th ese co n c ep ts’. It believes th is w a s d o n e to ‘e n s u re ’ t h a t th e i n te r n a tio n a l c o m m u n ity d o e s n o t rec o g n iz e M u h a jirs as o n e o f th e several o th e r n a tio n s th a t co m p rise Pakistan. Its o th e r p o in t is th a t w h a t has ‘also (been) deceptively k e p t aw a y fro m in te rn a tio n a l sc ru tin y is th e v ictim izatio n , d isc rim in atio n a n d o th e r form s o f d e n ia l’ th a t th e M u h a jirs h ad b een receiving ‘since th e c re a tio n o f P a k ista n in 1 9 4 7 ’. T h e ‘heg em o n ic E stab lish m e n t’ is sa id to h av e p rec lu d e d th em fro m rep re se n tin g th e ir grievances in te rn atio n ally , ‘as a d istin c t e th n ic e n tity o f th e co u n try o r as a N a tio n w ith in th e F e d e ra tio n o f P a k ista n ’. T h is am o u n te d to dis­ m an tlin g ‘th e p h ilo so p h y th a t created P a k ista n ’. 168 W h y else, it asks, is G en eral A y u b K h a n o n rec o rd fo r h a v in g sa id th a t ‘th e o n ly place fo r M o h a jirs is th e seas’? W h y else d id Z .A . B h u tto in tro d u c e th e u rb a n -ru ra l q u o ta system o n ly in S indh a n d n o t in th e o th e r, equally b a c k w a rd states? P a k ista n w a s a fte r all ‘crea ted fo r th e e n tire M u s ­ lim s o f u n d iv id e d In d ia a n d n o t o n ly fo r th e M u slim s o f th e p resent P a k ista n a n d fo r m e r E a st P a k ista n — n o w B a n g la d esh ’ (o rig in al em phasis). T h e M O M claim s th a t th irty m illion M u h a jirs in Pak i­ s ta n c o m p rise a p p ro x im a te ly 2 5 p e r c e n t o f th e p o p u la tio n a n d a d d u p to th e ‘larg est m in o rity in P a k ista n ’; a n d in S indh w h ere th ey n u m b e r o v e r 2 2 m illio n , th ey c o n s titu te 5 2 p e r c en t o f th e p o p u la tio n , m ak in g th em a ‘m ajo rity in S o u th e rn P a k ista n ’. 169 T h e figures a re , h o w ev er, dism issed b y Sindhi n a tio n a lists. 16 7 . M Q M V ision, O c to b e r 199 4 , p. 3; M Q M 1 9 9 6 a :4 -6 ; M Q M n.d.: 5 - 1 0 . 16 8 . M Q M (n.d.: 6 -1 0 ). 169. M Q M (1996a: 4 - 1 5 ) . B ut acco rd in g to Adeel K han (2 0 0 5 : 14 7 , 159) th e ir ra tio in th e Sindh p o p u la tio n in th e early seventies w a s ‘a ro u n d 20 per ce n t’ a n d 24 per c e n t in 1981.

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T h e M Q M felt th a t if o th e r n a tio n a litie s ca n b e accepted a s su b ­ n a tio n a litie s o f P a k is ta n , ‘w h y c a n n o t th e M o h a jirs , h a v in g a stre n g th o f o v e r 2 2 m illio n , a n d a ls o h av in g d istin c t c u ltu re, lan­ g u a g e , sam e p sychological rea c tio n s, sa m e fate, co m m o n p ro b le m s a n d co m m o n ec o n o m ic in terests be acce p te d a s a N a tio n like o th ­ ers?’. W h y is it th a t, u n lik e o th e r n atio n a litie s, th e M u h a jirs are d e n ied th e ir rig h t to p resen t th e ir c u ltu ral h eritag e in R e p u b lic D ay flo a ts? T h e n o n -a c c e p ta n c e o f M u h a jir n a tio n h o o d a m o u n ts to say in g th a t ‘P a k ista n is o n ly a h o m ela n d fo r th e fo u r co n tig u o u s p ro v in ces o f th e fo rm e r B ritish In d ia ’, a n d a n u n d e rm in in g o f th e tw o -n a tio n th e o ry .170 A cco rd in g to A lta f H u ssa in , th e p e o p le of E ast P a k ista n ‘red eem ed them selves o f th e b lu n d er th ey co m m itted in p u rsu in g th e tw o -n atio n th eo ry ’171 w h e n ‘th e titan ic o f th e Islamic u m m a b ro k e in to tw o p a rts ’. 172 In th e light o f th e ex p erien ces of five decad es, H u ssa in sees th e th eo ry a s unsuccessful, f o r n o t only did it divide th e su b c o n tin e n t in to th re e p a rts , it a lso divided its M u slim s. In fa c t, h e says, it w a s ‘b u rie d in 1 9 5 1 ’ w h e n th e P ak istan b o rd ers w e re sealed f o r th e M u slim s o f In d ia , a n d it ‘ceased to ex ist’ in 1 9 7 1 . A bove all, it left th e M u slim s o f th e m in o rity p ro v ­ inces ‘d e stitu te ’: ‘N a k h u d a h i m ila n a w isa l e sa n a m , N a id ha r k e rahe n a u d h a r k e ra h e' (I g o t n e ith e r G o d , n o r a g lan ce a t m y lover, I en d ed u p n e ith e r h ere n o r th ere ). But h e says he c a n re-su b scrib e to th e th eo ry even to d ay , if P a k ista n o p e n s its b o rd ers fo r th e M u s­ lim s o f In d ia , a n d th e S tra n d e d P ak istan is a re b ro u g h t b ack fro m B a n g la d esh .173 A ltaf H u ssa in a sk s w h a t th e c re a tio n o f th e h o m ela n d achieved if ‘th o se w h o im m ig rated to P a k ista n a re faced w ith b ru ta l sta te 17 0 . 17 1 . 17 2 . 17 3 .

M Q M (n.d.: 8 -9 ). w w w .m qm .org, statem en t by A ltaf H u ssain , 21 Ja n u a ry 2 0 0 0 , L ondon. T h e Friday T im es, 1 0 -1 6 N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 0 . w w w .m q m .o rg , statem en ts by A ltaf H u ssa in , 2 5 A pril a n d 21 J u n e 2 0 0 0 , L o n d o n ; w w w .zeenew s.com , interview w ith A lta f H u ssain, telecast o n 3 Jun e 2 0 0 1 ; T h e T im e s o f ìn d ia , 13 Ju ly 2 0 0 1 , live c h a t sh o w w ith A ltaf H u ssain o n in d iatim es.com ; see T h e Indian E xpress, 12 Ju ly 2 0 0 1 , for a re p o rt on an interview w ith A lta f H u ssain t o BBC radio: ‘T he M uslim p o p u la tio n in India is higher. I t is larger th a n th e po p u la tio n o f Pakistan. So w h a t have w e achieved? N o th in g . N o th in g . T h e division o f re lations, th e d ivision o f c u ltu re, the divi­ sion o f people’. H o w ever, D a w n , 21 O c to b e r 2 0 0 0 , m entioned t h a t th e M Q M con v en e r Im ran F a ro o q said th a t the d e b a te o n the tw o -n a tio n th e o ry ‘w as purely a cadem ic’ a n d th a t th e p a rty w a n te d to a tta in th e ir rights, ‘w ith in the bou n d a rie s o f P a k ista n ’.

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o p p ressio n a n d th o se w h o a re stra n d e d in B angladesh a re lan g u ish­ in g in th e R e d C ro ss c a m p s, w h ile th o se left in In d ia a re n o t in peace e ith e r...’. In 2 0 0 2 , h e said th a t th o se sh e dd in g ‘cro co d ile te a rs’ o n th e killings o f th e M u slim s in G u ja ra t h ad in fact left th em in In d ia to die, by sh u ttin g th e P a k ista n b o rd e rs u p o n th em . If o n th e o n e h a n d th a t so u n d s like a n en d o rse m en t o f th e tw o -n a tio n th eo ry , a lb e it a n u nfulfilled o n e , o n th e o th e r, th e h isto ry o f its p re-1 9 4 7 tra n sm issio n is retro sp ectiv ely a d a p te d to clinch th e a rg u m e n t th a t a q a llia t p ro v in c e M u slim s h ad been let d o w n d u rin g th e m ak in g o f P a k ista n . S tressin g a d ec eitfu l m o b iliz a tio n b y th e p re -p a rtitio n M u slim League, it is o fte n stressed th a t P a k ista n w a s g iv en o u t as b ein g m ad e fo r ‘h u n d re d m illio n M u slim s’ (basically fo r b o th th e m ajo rity a n d m in o rity p ro v in c e M u slim s).174 A c o n sta n t b y te fro m A ltaf H u ssa in g oes lik e th is: ‘If M u slim s o f In d ia w e re to rem ain u n d e r th e H in d u m ajo rity th e n w h y w ere th ey ta u g h t th e d o ctrin e o f th e P a k ista n m o v em en t a n d th e tw o n a tio n th eo ry ? ’. In o th e r w o rd s, if th e M u slim s o f In d ia w e re to rem a in th ere , th e lead ers o f th e M u slim L eague sh o u ld n e ith e r h av e p ro p a g a te d th e tw o -n a tio n th e o ry in th e M u slim m in o rity p ro v in c e s, n o r sh o u ld th ey have ‘allo w ed th e ir sacrifices’ in th e first p la c e .17S In a fo rth c o m in g co m ­ p a n io n stu d y I have sh o w n th a t th o u g h th ere w a s indeed a fuzziness a b o u t th e m ap o f th e u p co m in g P ak istan , th e re w ere a lso c o n te m ­ p o ra ry m o v em e n ts o f th e M o m in C o n fe re n c e a n d th e Im a rat-eS h a ria h in B ih ar th a t fo cu sed precisely o n th e p o in t th a t m in o rity p ro v in c e M u slim s lo o k in g fo r a h o m ela n d w o u ld d r a w a b lan k in P a k is ta n .176 B u t th e M Q M in sis ts t h a t th e f o re f a th e r s o f th e M u h a jirs w h o m ad e h u g e sacrifices in ‘g o o d fa ith ’, ‘did n o t k n o w th a t o n ly th e reg io n s k n o w n a s M u slim m ajo rity p ro v in ces w ere to b eco m e P a k ista n ’.177 174. See vvw w .m qm .org, statem en t by A ltaf H u ssain , 15 A ugust 2 0 0 2 , L o ndon. 17 5 . See w w w .m qm .org, sta te m e n t, 21 Ju n e 2 0 0 0 , L ondon: ‘W hy w ere th e y c o n ­ sta n tly prea ch e d th a t th e religious, c u ltu ra l a n d social values o f th e H indu s a re different from th e M uslim s a n d th erefore, they n eed a sep ara te hom eland fo r them selves?’. 17 6 . ‘C o m m u n ity a n d N a tio n : B ihar in th e 1940s’, un p u b lish e d . See also G hosh (1 995, 199 7 , 1998). 17 7 . See, fo r exam ple, A lta f H ussain’s interview w ith Idrees B a k h tiar in H erald, O c to b e r 2 0 0 0 , p o ste d o n w w w .m q m .o rg .

108 ♦ Partition and the South Asian Diaspora in Sindh

D iscussing th e p o p u la rity o f th e M Q M , O s k a r V e rk a a ik d escrib ed it a s ‘a t o n ce a sp ectacle a n d sacrifice to its s u p p o rte rs ’. W h ereas th e first g en e ra tio n o f M u h a jirs v alorized Islam ra th e r th a n eth n icity, th e M Q M w h ic h rep re se n te d th e u rb a n un d erp riv ileg ed sa w Pak i­ s ta n as a n e th n ic m o saic h eld to g e th e r by Islam a n d d e m a n d e d to be reco g n ized as a s e p ara te e th n ic q a u m (n atio n ). It rem em b ers a n d rep ro d u c e s p a rtitio n ’s m ig ra tio n as a fo rm o f sacrifice. B u t w ith a lead ersh ip in ‘p ro lo n g ed exile’, a n d heavy casu alties a m o n g its local rep re se n ta tiv e s, V e rk a a ik sees th e p a rty a s ‘se rio u sly d a m a g e d ’. Its e lecto ral w ins in 1 9 9 3 , 1 9 9 7 a n d 2 0 0 2 have been m a rk e d by ‘decreasingly large m arg in s’.178 B ut A deel K h an is o f th e view th a t th e P a k ista n i s ta te m ay have u n d e rm in ed th e o rg an iz a tio n a l stru c ­ tu re o f th e M Q M , b u t it h a s n o t b een a b le to d e n t its s u p p o rt base (K h an 2 0 0 5 : 183). W h en th e M u h a jirs p o sitio n e d them selves as a n e th n ic g ro u p it w as ‘precisely b ecause o f th e c h a n g in g circu m stan ces th ey face[d] in P a k ista n ’(V erk aaik 19 9 4 : 8). Before discu ssin g Sindhi d iasp o ric in terv en tio n s o n h o m ela n d a n d c itizen sh ip issues, a n o v erv iew o f Sindhi politics is in o rd e r. A fter 1 9 7 1 , a n d in th e b a c k d ro p o f th e S in d h i-U rd u lan g u ag e rio ts, som e M u h a jirs c o n te m p la te d ca rv in g o u t a M u h a jirista n in S in d h , w h ich w o u ld have been rein fo rc e d by th e B iharis fro m B angladesh. T h e re w a s a feeling th a t th is w o u ld m ak e th e M u h a jirs a s u n w a n te d in S in d h , as th e B iharis in th e E ast (W rig h t J r . 1 9 7 4 : 1 0 9 9 ). B u t se v era l y e a rs la te r, H a m z a A lavi a rg u e d th a t all ta lk o f M u h a jir se p ara tism w as b o th ‘a b s u rd a n d m ischievous’, a n d o n ly in te n d e d to a ro u se S indhi fears o f dism em ­ b e rm e n t.179 178. See V erkaaik ( 2 0 0 5 :1 6 5 -8 3 ) . V erkaaik also m akes th e follow ing p oints: th a t ‘th e politics o f ethnicity has pro d u ce d ethnically distin ct in te rp re tatio n s o f sacrifice’; th e r e p u ta tio n o f being a fun p a rty (as op p o se d to the seriousness o f elite-led a nd Islam ic parties) has been im p o rtan t in recruitm ent and m obilisation fo r the M Q M ; a n d th a t jo k es, rid ic u le a n d self-irony have been deployed by th e M Q M to d isplace th e s tate describing it a s a te rro rist o rganization. 17 9 . Alavi (1 9 8 9 :1 5 3 3 ):‘T his [view] is nonsense because the cities in w hich M uhajirs p re d o m in ate c a n n o t be lifted o u t o f th eir ru ra l env iro n m en t in o rd e r to con ­ s titu te a M u h ajiristan . M o re o v e r a large p ro p o rtio n o f M u h a jirs d o n o t live in th e th re e large cities b u t a re d ispersed th ro u g h o u t S indh in sm all ru ra l tow ns w h ere th e livelihoods d epend o n th eir re la tio n sh ip s w ith S indhi speakers w ho

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O v e r th e years, p a rtitio n ’s s u b c o n tin e n ta l h o m elan d d e b a te has hinged o n w o rk in g o u t a d e stin a tio n fo r th e S tran d ed P akistanis. A t o n e tim e Z u lfiq a r B h u tto p ro p o se d se ttlin g th em in th e US, A us­ tra lia o r C a n a d a (K h an 19 7 6 : 7 5 ). In th e m id -n in eties, th e in te rio r m in iste r, N a se e ru lla h B a b a r, h a d dism issively sa id , ‘L et th e A rabs ta k e th e “ B ih aris” a s p len ty o f lan d is a v a ilab le to se ttle th em in th e U n ited A ra b E m irates o r Ira q o r elsew h ere in th e M id d le E a st’.180 In P a k ista n , fo r ov er tw o d ecad es, th e re h a s been resistan ce to th eir a n c h o rin g in S in d h . In th e early eig h ties, a m o n g o th ers, th e Jeay S indh S tu d e n ts F e d e ra tio n observ ed a p ro te s t d ay to ex p ress fears a b o u t b eco m in g a m in o rity in th e ir o w n p ro v in c e .181 A Sindhi leader d e m a n d e d th a t th o se w h o w ere n o t n ativ e S indhi sp eak ers, in clu d­ in g th e M u h a jirs, be ex pelled fro m Sindh. W h e n h e w a s ask ed w here th e th ird a n d fo u rth g e n e ra tio n s w o u ld g o , h e sa id th ey c o u ld be h a n d e d o v e r to th e U N H C R : ‘H e sh o u ld fin d so m e p lac e fo r th em so m ew h ere in th is w o rld . T h a t is h is jo b ’(Alavi 19 8 9 : 1 5 3 3 ). In th e early nin eties, a t a se m in a r o rg an ized by th e F rontier P o st o n ‘R e­ settle m e n t o f B iharis’, a S indhi h a ri lead er, J a m S ad iq , described th e p la n to resettle th e B iharis ‘w h o h elped th e b rea k u p o f Pak i­ s ta n by p lay in g a m erc e n ary ro le a g a in st th e Bengali M u slim s’, as Isla m a b a d ’s g re a t desig n to co n v e rt th em in to a m in o rity in th e ir n ativ e lan d . Likew ise, R aso o l Bux Palijo, a Sindhi n a tio n a list, term ed ta lk s o f rese ttle m e n t o f B iharis a s a n ‘in te rn a tio n a l crim e’ ag ain st th e 5 ,0 0 0 y ear civ ilizatio n a n d a ste p to co n v e rt Sindhis in to a m i­ n o rity . T h e y c o u ld b e settled in Sau d i A ra b ia , o r in B an g lad esh , ‘an e q u ally g o o d M u slim c o u n try ’. H e fo u n d it d ifficu lt to ru le o u t th e B iharis rep e a tin g in Sindh ‘w h a t they did ag ain st th e p e o p le o f form er E ast P a k ista n ’.182 In a fo llo w -u p piece, P alijo w ro te th a t ‘n o p eople in th e w o rld , in clu d in g B iharis’ h a d th e ‘rig h t to g o o n c h an g in g p re d o m in ate there’. A lavi n oted a n ongoing process o f ‘Sindhification’ in third a n d f o u rth g en e ratio n M u h a jirs a n d fo u n d it ‘sad in th e circum stances t o find sch o lars such as Feroze A hm ed fan n in g th e fires o f Sindhi chauvinism and progressive jo u rn a ls publishing such m a te ria l’. 180. T h e H in d u sta n T im es, 3 N o v e m b e r 1995. 181. Star, 22 D ecem ber 1983. 182. T h e F rontier P o st, 23 S eptem ber 1992. See 17 A ugust 1991 fo r a re p o rt on th e ‘ “ influx o f B angladeshi B iharis” th ro u g h W a g a h ...A fte r reaching L ahore, they travel by every available K arach i-b o u n d tra in in tw o special bogies. In this w a y a b o u t 1,5 0 0 B iharis a re p o u rin g in[to] Sindh (everyday). W hen these Biharis a re asked a t R o h ri, K h a irp u r a n d N a w a b sh a h railw ay s ta tio n s a b o u t th e ir final d e stin atio n , they usually r e p ly “ L a u k h e t”, a locality in K ara ch i’.

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th eir places o f residence like sh irts every o th e r d a y ...to g o o n a b u s­ in g th e h o sp itality o f o n e p e o p le [Bengalis] a n d th ru stin g them selves u p o n a n o th e r w h en ev er th ey lik e.’183 T o him , one o f the form s o f upro o tin g historical ow ners o f territories o f the earth has been mass m igrations o f people com plaining o f being u p­ ro o te d fro m th eir o w n h isto rical ho m elan d s by m ore pow erful neighbours, as in th e case o f Arghoons, th e H u n s, th e Scythians, the A ryans a n d the M ongols w h o began as invaded a n d u p rooted, only to becom e th e invaders a n d uprooters o f others. P alijo’s case is th a t th e p e o p le o f Sindh, th e ‘in h erito rs o f [one of] th e o ld est civilizations o f m an k in d i.e. th e civ ilizatio n o f M o h e n jo -D a ro ’, h ad n o t p lay ed a p ro m in e n t ro le in th e fo rm a tio n o f Pak i­ s ta n in o r d e r to b e red u c e d to ‘a m in o rity a n d th e s ta tu s o f th ird r a te citizens in th e ir 5 0 0 0 y e a r o ld o w n h o m ela n d ’. F irst, th ere w as th e ‘m ass m ig ra tio n o f In d ia n M u slim s’ a n d th e n th e ‘S tra n d e d P a k ista n is’ w e re p o ised to jo in th em . Since th e B iharis h a d ‘never seen ’ w h a t is n o w P a k ista n n o r se t f o o t th ere , th e ir claim to be ‘s tra n d e d ’ w a s a ‘m isrep re sen ta tio n ’. 184 O n 1 6 O c to b e r 1 9 9 2 , lead ers o f v a rio u s Sindhi n a tio n a list g ro u p s m et in H y d e ra b a d a n d fo rm e d a ‘S to p B iharis C o m m itte e ’ (SBC). R a so o l B ux Palijo, lea d e r o f th e S indhi A w am i T e h rik , a n d a m em ­ b e r o f th e SBC, insisted o n using th e term ‘Bihari’ in stead o f ‘Stranded P a k ista n is’ a n d q u e stio n e d h o w a p e rs o n w h o h a d n o t seen Pak i­ s ta n co u ld b e id en tified as P ak istan i. Sim ilarly, th e P a k ista n S araiki P a rty a sk ed th e P u n ja b a n d fed eral g o v e rn m e n t n o t to u n d e rta k e th e resp o n sib ility o f th e B iharis, say in g th a t ‘th e B ihari M u slim s a re sta te le ss p e o p le a n d it is th e res p o n s ib ility o f th e U N H C R to se ttle th em in a c o u n try o th e r th a n P a k ista n ’ (K au sh ik 1994: 18 3 . w w w .angeIfire.com /az/S indh.politl.htm I, ‘T h e O th e r Side o f the P icture’: ‘T h a t they [Biharis] failed to live w ith th eir Bengali M uslim b ro th e rs in peace and chose to help b u m d o w n th e ir chosen hom eland in fire a n d blood is n o t the fa u lt o f an y o n e else m uch less o f th e S indhis so a s to m ake them liable for the p u n ish m e n t o f h a v in g a h e ap o f h u m a n b u rn in g co als, w hich h a d already helped b u rn d o w n h a lf o f P ak istan , to be th ro w n u p o n th eir a lre ad y burning co tta g e’. 184. Ibid.: ‘M ay o n e ven tu re to a sk w h e n a n d from w hich place o f presen t P akistan have these, o u r Bihari Islamic b rothers, g one t o B angladesh and th e n suddenly have becom e “ S tra n d e d ” th e re a n d th u s have becom e entitled to the oft-repeated title o f “stra n d e d ” P akistanis?’

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2 0 8 - 9 ) . In th e e a rly n in eties, th e L ok Sew a P a k ista n p resid e n t, C h a u d h ry N a z ir K a h o t, to o , o p p o se d th e re h a b ilita tio n o f B iharis in P u n ja b say in g th a t o n ce th e B iharis w o u ld a rriv e th ere th ey w o u ld ‘b r a n d ’ them selves M u h a jirs a n d th e n ‘s ta r t q u a rre llin g w ith th e local p o p u la tio n as th ey h a d d o n e in o th e r p a rts o f th e c o u n try ’. 18s I have a lre a d y discussed th e rea c tio n to th e ferry in g acro ss o f a ro u n d 3 0 0 S tra n d e d P ak istan s to P a k ista n in early 1 9 9 3 . T h e SBC response w as o b serv in g a Black D ay o n 10 Ja n u ary 1 9 9 3 (ibid.: 2 0 9 ). F o u r y ears late r th e re w e re re p o rts o f th e M u slim L eague (N a w a z Sharif) giving th e M Q M a n a ssu ra n c e o f re p a tria tin g B iharis s tra n d e d in B a n g lad esh .186 Sindhi Itte h a d , a n u m b rella o f Sindhi g ro u p s, led by R a so o l B ux P a lijo , d ecid ed o n a p ro te s t w eek m id -M a rc h , a fte r p a ssin g reso lu tio n s d ec la rin g ‘B ihari N a m a n z o o f (B iharis U n a c ­ cep tab le), a d d in g th a t n o t a p e n n y sh o u ld b e given to ‘te rro rists’.187 In M a y , a Black D ay w as o b serv ed in m an y p a rts o f in te rio r Sindh ag ain st th e P M L -M Q M A cco rd .188 T h is issue also reso n ates in som e stra n d s o f th e Sindhi d ia s p o ra .189 T h e W o rld Sindhi C ongress (W SC), w h ic h goes b ack to th e late eighties a n d n o w covers U K , USA, C a n a d a a n d S in d h , d escribes i ts e lf a s ‘o n e o f th e m o s t p r o m in e n t h u m a n rig h ts a d v o c a c y o rg an iz a tio n s’ fo r b o th S indh a n d Sindhis a n d th e ir rig h t to selfd e te rm in a tio n .190 In th e e a rly n in eties it claim ed th a t ‘m o st Sindhi o rg an iz a tio n s in S in d h ’ w e re a ffiliated to it. T h e W SC seeks co n tro l o f ‘all n a tu ra l reso u rces o f S in d h , in c lu d in g o il, gas, c o a l, g o ld, u ran iu m a n d o th e r m in erals’. A cco rd in g to its S ecretary G en eral, M .A . H a le p o ta , S indh h a d jo in e d P a k ista n ‘a s a n a tio n w ith in a fed eral S ta te ’. But th e ag re e m en t ‘becam e n u ll a n d vo id a fte r its larg est m em b er b ro k e a w a y in 1 9 7 1 ’ fo llo w in g w h ic h P u n ja b cam e 185. D aum , 25 A pril 1991. 18 6 . D a u m , 7 M a rc h 1997. 18 7 . Ib id ., 8 a n d 2 7 M a rc h 1 9 9 7 ; 10 M a rch 1 9 9 7 m entions Im ran K han o f the T ehreek-I-Insaf su p p o rtin g th e ir rep a triatio n a n d a d em o n stratio n a g a in st the p ro p o sa l, organized by th e Je a y Sindh Q a u m P arsa st P arty ¡they raised slo ­ gans for G .M . Syed a n d S indhu D esh a n d Sindhi). 188. Ib id ., 4 , 6 a n d 7 M ay 1997. 189. See w w w .sindhilink.net/w sc/2003 fo r H assan N . G ardezi, ‘C h a rtin g the C ourse o f Sindhi’s Struggle: O p tio n s a n d S trategies’, fo r th e c o m m en t th a t Sindhi n a tio n alists ou tsid e P akistan a re ‘pe rh ap s th e m o st d ed icated a n d w ell o rg a ­ nized a m o n g th e S o u th A sian d ia sp o ra a fte r the Sri L an k an T am ils’. 190. w w w .w o rld sin d h ico n g ress.o rg

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to d o m in a te P a k ista n .191 Since a b o u t tw o d ecad es th e W SC has m ad e several rep re se n ta tio n s to th e U N a n d th e E u ro p e an P arlia­ m en t a b o u t th e d en ial o f p o litical rig h ts a n d th e v io la tio n o f h u m an rig h ts. Its ta k e is th a t th e Sindhi civ ilizatio n h a s ex isted fo r 1 0 ,0 0 0 y e a rs a n d th a t ‘th e ru le o f 5 0 y e a rs c a n n o t n eg ate th e c o n tin u ity o f 1 0 ,0 0 0 y e a rs’.192 A t o n e tim e its w e b site p o stin g o f Sindhi h isto ry w e n t lik e th is . T h e f irs t p rim e m in iste r, L ia q u a t Ali K h a n h ad enco u rag ed U rd u -sp eak ers to im m ig rate a n d settle in u rb a n Sindh so a s to c re a te a n ele c to ra l co n stitu e n c y fo r him self. Sindhi M u slim s, w h o ‘alw ay s c o n stitu te d 8 0 p e r c e n t m ajo rity ’ in th e p ro v in c e w ere ‘b a n n e d ’ fro m bu y in g th e p ro p e rty o f S indhi H in d u s fleeing states p o n so re d linguistic rio tin g . All th e ev acu ee p ro p erty w a s given to ‘U rd u -sp eak in g refugees fro m In d ia , w h o p refe r to c all them selves M u h a jirs (im m ig ran ts)’. It w a s p o in te d o u t th a t th e rep re se n ta tio n o f M u h a jirs a s highly ed u c ate d w a s a ‘fab rica te d m y th ’, fo r ‘on ly th e p o o r, lo w e r class’ ca m e in a s ‘ec o n o m ic im m ig ra n ts’. In th e W SC ’s estim ate th e M u h a jirs a d d u p to ‘a b o u t 2 0 p e r c e n t’ o f th e p o p u la tio n . T h e o th e r ‘m y th ’ th a t th e w e b site w ro te a g a in st w as th a t m ig ra n t H in d u s w ere a m ajo rity in S indh a n d highly ed u c ate d , fo r it im plied th a t Sindhis w ere illiterate. In s h o rt, th e a rg u m e n t w a s th a t it w a s th e ‘highly ed u c ate d Sindhi m ajo rity ’ w h o w ere a t th e h elm o f s ta te affa irs even b e fo re 1 9 4 7 .193 T h e W SC w h ic h w a s e a rlie r led b y G .M . Syed w h o died in April 1 9 9 5 , a fte r m o re th a n th irty y ears in d e te n tio n , h a s been a p p ealin g to th e U N H u m a n R ig h ts C o m m issio n a n d h a s ask ed th e P ak istan g o v e rn m e n t to re sto re th e ‘h isto rical n a tio n a l rig h ts o f S in d h is in­ clu d in g th e rig h t o f self-d eterm in atio n ’, w h ic h w a s g u a ra n te ed by th e L a h o re re so lu tio n o f 1 9 4 0 o n w h ic h P a k ista n is b a s e d .194 T h e b ifo cality o f th e W S C is e v id e n t in its h av in g estab lish ed ‘clo se co ­ o p e ra tio n w ith local b o d ies in o r d e r to m o n ito r dev elo p m en ts o n 191. Pioneer, 16 A pril 1993; T h e Statesm an, 10 A ugust 1993 m entions th a t M .A . H alepota told th e U N sub-com m ission on th e protection o f m inorities in G eneva th a t forty m illion Sindhis c a n n o t b e d enied th eir rig h t o f self-determ ination. 19 2 . India A b ro a d , 13 S eptem ber 1 9 9 6 , a ttrib u te d to W SC Secretary G eneral; T he S tatesm an, 12 O c to b e r 1 99 5 , q u o te s th e d e p u ty S ecretary G eneral o f th e W SC, S afd a r S arki’s rem in d e r th a t Sindh h a d ‘existed a lo n g tim e before P akistan w a s scribbled o n th e globe’. 193. w w w .u n lim ited.net/saghir/w sc/w sc-background.htm l, ‘Som e H isto rica l Facts A b o u t S indh & Sindhis’. 19 4 . India A b ro a d , 2 8 M a rch 1997.

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th e g ro u n d ’, a n d its d iasp o ric ag en d a o f rally in g to g e th e r po litical a n d social w o rk e rs, p ro fessio n als a n d ‘d e d ic a ted ’ S indhis, to u n d o th e p o st-in d ep e n d e n c e ‘su fferin g ’ im p o sed o n S in d h is.195 O v e r th e y ears th e W SC has c o m m e m o ra te d G .M . Syed’s b irth an n iv ersary . In 1 9 9 9 , th e re w ere g a th e rin g s in B rad fo rd , UK, S a c ra m e n to a n d C h icag o in th e US, a n d O k in a w a in J a p a n .196 In 2 0 0 3 (an d in 2 0 0 4 ) Sindhis m et in H o u s to n a n d L o n d o n to rem e m b e r G .M . S yed.197 A t a n activ ists’ w o rk s h o p o rg an iz e d in early 2 0 0 4 o n th e th em e, ‘T h in k G lo b a lly , A ct Locally’, S ag h ir S h aik h , c h a irp e rso n o f th e W SC , sa id th e Sindhis sh o u ld d ecid e w h e th e r th ey a re Sindhi A m eri­ c a n s o r P ak istan i A m ericans. T h e fo rm e r sh o u ld p a rtic ip a te in all sp h eres o f A m erican life a n d g enerally d isso ciate them selves fro m th e ‘crim es o f th e P akistani sta te , such as, n u clear w eap o n s, m ilitary d icta to rsh ip , e x p o rt o f terro rism a n d so o n ’. T h e ‘co n sen su s’ th a t c a m e o u t o f th e fifteen th a n n u a l c o n feren ce o f th e W SC in 2 0 0 3 , fo cu sed o n d ra w in g a tte n tio n to th e ‘w id e sp re a d v io latio n s o f basic h u m a n rights o f op p ressed m in o rity n a tio n s in P ak istan ’. T h e prem ise is th a t ‘P a k ista n is n o t a m o n o lith ic , h o m o g en o u s e n tity b u t a h o m e­ lan d o f five h isto ric n a tio n s , in clu d in g S indh’, b u t a b o v e all th a t Sindh is being ‘tre a te d as a colony by P akistan’ (by Punjab). M eh m o o d K h a n A ch ak zai, lead er o f th e P a k ista n O p p re ssed N a tio n s M o v e­ m e n t (P O N M ) w h o s p o k e o n th e o c c a s io n o u tlin e d th e a im o f m a k in g P a k ista n a ‘tru ly d e m o c ra tic , m u ltin a tio n a l P a k ista n in w h ich th e rig h ts o f th e o p p ressed n a tio n s a re h o n o u re d ’.198 T o r e tu rn to th e late eighties, M .A H a le p o ta , th e W SC Secretary G en eral, h a d w ritte n to L o rd D . E n n als (see earlie r d iscu ssio n ), to p u t th e la tte r’s c o n c ern a b o u t th e ‘S tran d ed Refugees in B an g lad esh’ in a ‘p ro p e r persp ectiv e’. In his v ersio n , M u slim s fro m B ih ar a n d th e su rro u n d in g are a s h a d em ig rated to E ast P a k ista n in 1 9 4 7 ‘o f th eir o w n free w ill, in search o f a b e tte r life’. But, ‘in stead o f m erging 19 5 . h ttp ://m em b ers.u n lim ited .n et/~ sag h ir/w sc/w sc-4 4 .h tn i, W SC subm ission fo r co n sid eratio n in Proceedings o f S ub-C om m ission o n P revention o f D iscrim i­ n a tio n and P rotection o f M in o rities W o rk in g G ro u p o n Indigenous P o p u la ­ tio n s, Seventeenth Session, G eneva, 2 6 -3 0 July 1999. 196. http://m em bers.unlim ited.net/~ saghir/w sc/w sc-38.htm , p ress release, 18 J a n u ­ ary 1999. T h e acting ch airperson, U m ed Ali L aghari, rem inded th a t it w as Syed w h o introduced th e idea o f S indhudesh a n d m a d e S indhis realize their d istinct identity. 197. w w w .w orldsindhicongress.org, 21 Ja n u a ry 200 3 . 198. Ib id ., Press release, L o ndon, 3 0 S eptem ber 2 00 3 .

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w ith th e n a tiv e p o p u la tio n , th ey trie d to im pose th e ir lan g u ag e a n d c u ltu re ’ o n th em a n d late r esta b lish e d ‘te rro ris t o rg an iz a tio n s called Al Sham s a n d Al B adr’, w h ic h w ere active in th e m assacre o f Bengalis in 1 9 7 1 . ‘All th is h a p p e n ed b ecau se th e im m ig ra n t B iharis trie d to a n n ih ila te th e n a tiv e B en g alis, h en ce a fte r th e in d e p e n d e n c e o f B an g lad esh th ey becam e u n w a n te d p a ra site s, so-called “ S tran d ed R efugees in B a n g la d esh ’” . T h e se refugees h a d b een h e a d in g fo r P a k ista n w ith ‘a t least 7 0 ,0 0 0 refugees’ co m in g in every m o n th to Sindh. It w a s iro n ic , ac co rd in g to H a le p o ta , th a t h isto ry w a s re­ p e a tin g itself in tw o w ay s. O n th e o n e h a n d , th e ‘illegal im m ig ra n ts’ w e re try in g to im p o se th e ir c u ltu re a n d lan g u a g e o n th e n a tiv e Sindhis, a n d ‘o n th e o th e r, th ey h a d esta b lish e d th e M Q M , ‘o n th e lines o f th e Al Sham s a n d Al B ad r a n d w a s involved in th e m assacre o f Sindhis’. H e a ttrib u te d th is to G en eral Z ia ul H a q w h o p lan n e d ‘a sy stem atic geno cid e o f th e Sindhis b y th e Inter-Services Intelli­ gence (ISI) a n d its illeg itim ate p ro d u c t, th e M u h a jir Q a u m i M a h az (M Q M )’, in th e a fte rm a th o f th e m o v em en t fo r th e re s to ra tio n o f d em o cracy w h ic h h a d been stro n g e st in Sindh. A cco rd in g to th e W SC , th e lo n g -te rm ‘c o n sp ira cy ’ w a s to tu rn Sindhis in to a m in o r­ ity a n d m ak e th em ‘alien s in th e ir h o m e la n d ’.199 E ven a decad e la te r th e W SC p assed reso lu tio n s a g a in st th e re p a tria tio n o f B iharis to S in d h .200 A t th e to p o f th e reso lu tio n s p a sse d by th e tw e lfth a n d 199. A H C : W S C /M A H /03/89, w ith enclosure: ‘M assacre o f S indhis’, W SC, Lon­ do n , 16 M ay 198 9 . C opies w ere m a rk e d t o S. W o lp e rt, A rch b ish o p D esm ond T u tu , In te rn atio n a l A lert, th e U N a n d R abita al-A lam al-Islam i. L ord E nnals w rote to M .A . H alepota o n 12 July 1989 em phasizing th a t he a n d the m any organizations th a t had expressed concern ab o u t the Stranded Pakistanis in Bangladesh h a d , ‘n o con n e ctio n w ith th e M Q M o r th o se w ho legally o r illegally’ h a d m ad e their w ay to Sindh a n d o th e r p a rts o f P a kistan , sin c e E a s t P a k is ta n bec am e B a n g la d e sh . ‘O u r c o n c e rn is w ith 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 P akistani citizens, w h o have rem ained loyal to P akistan a n d seek to have th e o p p o rtu n ity o f living w ithin th e S tate o f P a k ista n ’. H e a lso a d d e d th a t he had been involved in the c am paign fo r hum an rights since the U niversal D eclaration o f H u m a n R ights w a s signed in 194 8 , a n d if perm itted , w ould su p p o rt the rig h ts o f every suppressed m in o rity . T h e o nly th in g w a s t h a t he did n o t look u p o n S indhis a s ‘falling in to th a t category’. 2 0 0 . w w w .w orldsindhicongress.org, Press release o n th e conference o n Sindh in L on ­ d o n , 2 Septem ber 199 9 . T his w as the fifth o u t o f fifteen resolutions passed on 2 9 A ugust 1999. T he first resolution dem anded th e rig h t o f self-determ ination as ‘prom ised in th e P akistan resolution o f 1940’; press release, L o ndon, 30 N ovem ber 1999 o n th e executive com m ittee m eeting in C a rd iff w hich reviewed th e c u rre n t p olitical situ atio n in Sindh.

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th irte e n th sessions o f th e W SC in 2 0 0 0 a n d 2 0 0 1 , w as a c all to all m in o rity e th n ic g ro u p s living in S indh to jo in th e stru g g le o f th e S indhi p e o p le to save th e ir ‘histo ric h o m ela n d ’ fro m th e ‘evil cam ­ p a ig n o f “ M u h a jiris ta n ” a n d th e ‘d e fa c to p a rtitio n o f S indh b y th e u n d e m o c ra tic m ilitary g o v e rn m e n t’.201 But, a t th e sa m e tim e, th ere w ere a lso signs o f oscillatio n in the in teractio n betw een th e M Q M a n d W SC. In th e late nineties there w ere rep o rts o f th e M Q M , W SC (an um brella fo ru m o f various Sindhi g ro u p s) a n d th e Jeay S indh activists gettin g to g eth er to o p p o se the K alab ag h d a m a n d th e Sh ariah Bill. 202 In Feb ru ary 2 0 0 0 , th e W SC c h a irm a n , S a fd ar S ark i, a p p re c iate d A lta f H u s s a in ’s le tte r to th e Sindhis saying it w as th e ‘first tim e’ H u ssa in h a d explicitly expressed his view s o n th e injustice inflicted o n Sindh a fte r th e cre a tio n o f Pa­ k istan . H e sa id som e ‘religious a n d political g ro u p s’ a n d th e Punjabi establishm ent h ad ‘h in d ered th e m ix in g o f th e tw o p o p u latio n s o f Sindh, [in] try in g to av ert th e historical process o f un ificatio n ’, w hen in fact th eir political a n d eco n o m ic interests w ere sim ilar.203 B ut Sarki described th e anti-Sindhi rio ts in H y d e ra b a d as ‘th e biggest m istake o f [the] M Q M in its h isto ry ’. H e w a n te d to k n o w w h y th e M u h ajirs did n o t call them selves ‘Sindhis’ a n d becom e a p a rt o f th e Sindhi n a tio n . H ave we n o t seen a sim ilar tren d all over th e w orld? Especially in th e UK a n d th e USA, w here you a n d I now live, im m igrants like us have accepted local identities in one w ay o r o th er, a n d m any people proudly call them selves, ‘British’ o r ‘A m erican’. T h e sam e holds true for im m igrants from A frica, C hina, a n d Latin America, w ho m ade UK o r USA their hom e. T hey m ake [keep] their languages a n d cul­ tures in tact a n d practice their custom s. Yet they are p a rt o f the host 20 1 . Ib id ., press release o n conference o f 16 S eptem ber 2 0 0 0 ; press release o n the conference held betw een 7 -9 S eptem ber 2 0 0 1 . ‘T h e m eeting w as a tte n d ed by large n u m b e r o f delegates from N G O s a n d S indhis from S indh, U K , USA, E u ro p e a n d o th e r co u n tries’. A m ong th o se pre se n t w ere R asool B ux Palijo, p re sid e n t, A w am i T e h rik , M o h am m e d Y o u su f L a g h a ri, c h a irm a n , Sindhi D em ocrats, som e m em bers o f the PPP and Jeay Sindh M ahaz. 2 0 2 . India A b ro a d , 13 N ovem ber 1998. 2 0 3 . w w w .w orldsindhicongress.org, ‘R esponse L etter to M r. A lta f H u ssain , L eader o f th e M u tta h id a Q au m i M ovem ent (M Q M ) by D r. S a fd a r S arki, C h a irm an o f the W o rld Sindhi C ongress (W SC)’, L ouisville, 4 F e b ru a ry 2 0 0 0 . Sarki rem inded H ussain h o w Saeen G .M . Syed ‘alw ays e ncouraged you in th e past’ and h o w Syed h a d seen in his m ovem ent the rise o f a low er- and m iddle-class leadership am o n g U rdu-speakers ‘fo r th e first tim e in histo ry ’.

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nations. W h y d o n ’t w e accom m odate a com parable schem e in the case o f Sindh? [my emphasis]. B u t th e p ro b le m a c c o rd in g to Sarki w a s th a t A ltaf H u s s a in ’s policies ‘w e re q u ite w a v e rin g in th e p a s t’.204 Som e m o n th s later, M . A n w a r o f th e M Q M , rea d o u t a speech by A lta f H u ssa in a t a se m in a r c o -o rg an ized by th e W SC a n d B aloch V oice o n ev en ts in S o u th A sia.20s B ut n o t lo n g a fte r, M . A n w ar, m em b er o f th e M Q M C e n tra l C o o rd in a tio n C o m m itte e , m ad e th e alle g a tio n th a t M .A . H a le p o ta (W SC) w as m ak in g a n ti-M Q M statem en ts a t th e behest o f th e Inter-Services In telligence (ISI), w h o h e h a d s tru c k a deal w ith .206 T h e W SC h a s recen tly ex p ressed its m isgivings a b o u t th e ‘am b ig u o u s a n d c o n tra d ic to ry ’ p o sitio n s o f th e M Q M o n un ity a m o n g S indhis.207 A c o u p le o f p o in ts em erge fro m a lo o k a t th e discourse o f g ro u p s a n d o rg an izatio n s th a t have connected w ith th e W SC. In th e early nin eties, th e S indh D e m o crats G ro u p p rep a re d a resp o n se to th e M Q M C o n stitu tio n al Petitio n N o . 4 6 o f 1 9 9 4 w hich h ad m ad e a case o f d iscrim in atio n by th e federal a n d S indh p ro v in cial g o v ern­ m ents. A ccording to it, th e M Q M lead ersh ip a n d its su p p o rte rs ‘are on ly rep resen tativ e o f 2 2 .6 4 % p o p u latio n o f S indh a n d 5 % p o p u la ­ tio n o f P ak istan ’; th a t M u h ajirs h o ld ‘far m o re jobs (7 8 % G o v ern­ m en t a n d 6 7 .7 % n o n-G overnm ent) th a n their d u e sh a re (2 2 .6 4 % )’;208 a n d a sizeable n u m b er o f th e ‘up w ard o f 2 m illion Pakistanis w orking in th e G u lf States a n d th e W est’, a re U rd u speaking. T h e arg u m ent based o n this is th a t ‘m o st o f these p e o p le ca m e to P ak istan m uch 204. 20 5 . 20 6 . 207.

Ibid. w w w .w orldsindhicongress.org, press release, 2 D ecem ber 200 1 . M Q M press release, L o n d o n , 3 A ugust 2002. w w w .w orldsindhicongtress.org, ‘T h e M Q M a n d th e u n ity a m o n g th e people o f Sindh’ (n .d ., d o w n lo ad e d o n 16 F eb ru a ry 2 0 03). 20 8 . h ttp ://y an g tze .cs.uiuc.edu/-jam ali/sindhi/re/docum ents/m oh-dem .htm l, Sindhi D em ocrats G ro u p P e tition. T h ere is th is b it o n th e M u h a jirs, . .. ‘m o st o f w hom com e a n d g o w henever they like from In d ia , m ost o f w hom a re illegal im m i­ g rants, h ave th e tem erity to d em an d , a n d then to kill a nd b u m . . . o nly because, p e rh ap s, o n e o f th e ir g ra n d fa th e rs w aved a P akistani flag 5 0 y ears a g o in the streets o f J u n a g a d h ’. A lso th a t, ‘n o t all M uslim provinces w ere developed as U P o r C P. F o r exam ple, H y d e rab a d D eccan w as as backw ard as Sindh if n o t m o re. T here fo re a ll refugees w ere n o t m o re ed u c ate d o r em an c ip ated t h a n the Sindhi people’. If U rdu-speakers becam e ex p erts in vario u s fields it w as o f th eir ‘m o st fav o u ra b le loca tio n in u rb a n S indh ra th e r t h a n a ny previous expe­ rience in In d ia’.

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afte r p a rtitio n a n d o b tain e d ad m issio n to professional colleges a n d / o r necessary experience a n d exp ertise in different fields, em igrating th ere a fte r to g reen er p astu res [and] using P ak istan on ly a s a stepping sto n e ’. W ith reg a rd to th e B iharis th e Sindhi D em o crats G ro u p p eti­ tio n m entions th a t they h ad chosen to m ig ra te to E ast P ak istan a n d h a d ‘assim ilated ad m irab ly in th e M uslim h o m elan d they chose to live in th e first p lace’. If they n o w w a n te d to m ig ra te to P ak istan it w as because o f th e p ro m ise o f ‘a b e tte r life’. ‘H av in g been affiliated w ith th e ig nom inious Al Sham s a n d Al B ad r has only ad d ed urgency to th eir desire fo r m ig ra tio n ’. T h e re is rew in d to th e rio t o f 1946 in B ihar afte r w h ich H u ssain S u h raw ard y is said to have req u ested G .M . Syed, th e th en p resid en t o f th e Sindh M uslim League, to help settle th e ‘u n fo rtu n a te ’ Bihari M uslim s in Sindh. K arach i’s B ihar colony w as m en tio n ed as ‘a testa m e n t to th e generosity o f Sindhi m in d s’. But, it w en t o n , 5 0 years dow n th e ro ad , after immense betrayals a n d colossal treach­ ery a n d double cross, when Sindhi people are being m urdered in their ow n hom eland for jobs a n d adm issions by those very people for w hom they opened their hom es a n d hearts, it will be an a ct of m iracle if any Sindhi agrees to accept even one outsider. It a lso a s k e d w h y th e M Q M w ere d e m a n d in g th a t 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 m o re p e o p le (th e S tra n d e d P ak istan is in B angladesh) be re p a tria te d if they w ere a g ita tin g fo r m o re seats in p ro fe ssio n a l colleges a n d m o re jobs in g o v e rn m e n t service.209 A ccording to M u n a w a r L aghari, p ro g ram m e d irecto r o f th e W o rld Sindhi In stitu te (WSI), a rights advocacy w a tc h g ro u p based in W ash­ in g to n , th o u g h th e P akistan m o v em en t g o t stro n g s u p p o rt in Sindh, Sindhis w ere also th e first to be disillusioned....W e believe, Pakistan is n o t a natural country. It is a fraud p erpetrated o n th e Sindhis a n d o th er oppressed nations— the Baluchs, th e Saraikis a n d th e Pakhtuns. Sindh has a 2 0 9 . Ibid.; also see w w w .san alist.o rg /C o n v e n tio n _ 1 9 9 9 .h tm , fo r a re p o rt o f th e 199 9 , S an F rancisco convention o f the Sindhi A ssociation o f N o rth Am erica, fo r its stan d a g a in st th e re p a tria tio n o f B iharis to S indh. ‘W hile term in g the sam e m ove a c onspiracy to c o n v ert S indhis in to a m in o rity in th e ir o w n h o m e ­ land a n d stren g th en th e h a n d s o f u rb a n te rro rist e lem ents, the convention dem anded th a t the m oves o f rep atriatio n o f B iharis, k illers o f 3 0 lakh peaceful Bengalis, o n th e land o f S indh, be sto p p ed fo rth w ith ’.

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m uch longer history th an Pakistan. As against Sindhu Desh, Paki­ stan is an accid en t o f history, a freak o f n atu re....S in d h is m ore th an just a province o r a country. It is a civilization.210 O u tlin in g th e fac t th a t th ere a re th irty -fiv e m illio n S in d h is in P a k ista n , th re e -a n d -a -h a lf m illio n in In d ia a n d o v e r o n e m illion w o rld w id e, L ag h ari h a s s o u g h t th e in te rv en tio n o f In d ia a n d L.K. A d v an i (o f th e BJP a n d a Sindhi) to ta k e u p th e S indhi cau se ‘in a n y b ilateral d ialo g u e w ith P a k ista n ’. H is a rg u m e n t is th a t o n ce Sindh gets freed o m fro m P a k ista n ‘th e K ash m ir p ro b le m ’ will be a u to ­ m atically resolved. F o r w ith o u t 7 0 p e r c e n t o f revenue th a t com es fro m S in d h , ‘P a k ista n w o u ld n o t be a b le to fig h t th e p ro x y w a r’. T h e W SI h a d p lan e d to se t u p offices in L o n d o n a n d a t som e stage, in N e w D elh i. D escrib in g th e M Q M a s a c re a tio n o f th e P a k ista n a rm y to c o u n te r th e B h u tto s, L ag h ari feels th e M u h a jirs have trie d to d o m in a te th e Sindhis ‘ever since they m ig rated fro m In d ia ’, th o u g h h e a d m its th a t in th e last c o u p le o f y e a rs th e M Q M lead ersh ip ‘has ch a n g ed tra c k s a n d a re c o m in g c lo se r to o u r s ta n d to fig h t th e co m m o n e n em y ’, th e a rm y .211 In m id -2 0 0 3 , th e WSI o rg an ized a m eetin g o f Sindhis w h o m M u n a w a r L ag h ari d escrib ed a s ‘th e n ew Bengalis’, to m em b ers o f th e Bengali co m m u n ity o f th e W ash in g to n a re a in th e au d ien ce. Sheikh H a s in a , th e fo rm e r p rim e m in ister of B an g lad esh , w a s a special guest. Significantly, L ag h ari ap p e ale d to h e r to use h e r influence to en su re ‘th a t B iharis a re w ell settled in B an g lad esh a n d are n o t in stig ated to m ig ra te to S in d h ’.212 A t a c o n feren ce o rg an iz e d by th e W SI o n ‘In te rn atio n al M e d ia ­ tio n fo r a Peaceful R e so lu tio n o f C o n flicts in P a k ista n ’, in 2 0 0 0 , 2 1 0 . T h e T im e s o f In d ia , 7 A pril 2 0 0 1 . ‘P akistan h a s c om e in to being a s a result o f a clash o f ex p lo itativ e vested interests in India o f the H in d u c ap ita list and bureaucracy on th e o n e h a n d a n d th o se o f th e M uslim feudal bureau crac y o n th e o th e r. T his is w h a t o u r le ad e r G .M . Syed said w ay back in 1 9 7 4 ’. 21 1 . Ib id .; see w w w .sindhlink.net/w sc/2003/hassan-gardezi-speech-agm fo r H assan N . G ardezi, ‘C h a rtin g th e C ourse o f Sindh’s S truggle: O p tio n s a n d S trategies’, for th e c om m ents t h a t perh ap s th e ‘greatest lim itation o f th e Sindhi nationalist m o v em e n t is th e uncritical overem phasis on se p ara tism ’ a n d th a t it is ‘inter­ esting to see th a t som e o f th e Sindhi n a tio n a list friends look up to H in d u ra sh tra fanatics in India for m o ral s u p p o rt because th e y h appen t o be o f Sindhi origin, w hen th eir c a u se c o u ld be fa r b e tte r served w ith th e blessings o f th a t w o m a n from K erala, the tireless c ru sad e r ag ain st m ega dam s and a d elightful G eorge W . Bush basher— A ru n d h a ti R oy’. 21 2 . w w w .w o rld sin d h i.o rg , press release, 8 J u n e 200 3 .

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S afd ar Sarki o f th e W SC m ad e th e fo llo w in g e la b o ra tio n . T h e Sindhi d e m a n d fo r th e rig h t to se lf-d e te rm in a tio n flow ed fro m fru s tra tio n w ith ‘th e c u ltu ral h e g em o n y o f th e P u n ja b i a n d U rd u sp e ak e rs’. It h a d th ere fo re decided o n a strateg y co m b in in g th e rally in g ro u n d o f ‘S in d h is in d ia s p o ra ’, w ith a fo rg in g o f allian ces w ith Sindhi, B aluchi, S araik i a n d P a sh tu n activ ists.213 L a ter, th e tw elfth a n n u a l co n feren ce o f th e W S C p assed a reso lu tio n th a t th e re w a s a n ‘ac u te need fo r u n ity a m o n g st S in d h i-D ia sp o ra [sic]’. S a fd ar S ark i said th a t th e W S C , w ith its lim ited reso u rces, w a s try in g to m ak e th e w o rld a w a re o f th e S indh situ atio n , a s also , th e disad v an tag ed statu s o f B aluchistan a n d P a k h tu n k h w a by p a rtic ip a tin g in U N a n d o th e r in te rn a tio n a l fo ra .214 It is n o t th e W S C a lo n e th a t in v o k es th e fed eral s u b -te x t o f th e L a h o re re so lu tio n o f 1 9 4 0 . T h e M Q M h a s a lso been calling fo r ‘a n ew c o n s titu tio n ’ in line w ith it. T h e difference is th a t its list of e th n ic n a tio n a litie s in clu d es M u h a jirs, in a d d itio n to th e Sindhis, B aloch, P a sh tu n a n d Saraikis.21s In a n early n in eties’ in terv iew , A ltaf H u ssa in sa id th a t th e id ea o f a s e p a ra te p ro v in c e w a s n e ith e r his, n o r th a t o f th e M Q M , b u t a d e m a n d m a d e by th e p e o p le (‘th e general p u b lic ’) w h o h a d faced ‘sev eral d ecad es o f d e n ia l’.216 Since th e late n in eties th e M Q M h a s s u p p o rte d th e Jeay S indh Q a u m i M a h a z (JS Q M ),217 b u t p o in ts o u t th a t w h ereas th e la tte r d em an d s a s e p a ra te Sin d h u D esh, it w a n ts to w o rk fo r p ro v in cial a u to n o m y w ith in th e fra m ew o rk o f P ak istan . B ut if p ro v in cial a u to n o m y is d e n ied to S indh th ere w o u ld be n o ch o ice left, o th e r th a n d e m a n d ­ in g th e rig h t to se lf-d e te rm in a tio n ac co rd in g to th e Q a ra rd a d -e L a h o re, th e L a h o re re so lu tio n o f 1 9 4 0 .218 T h e M Q M v ersio n is th a t th e a rm y h a d fa b ric a te d m a p s o f th e s e p a ra te p ro v in c e o f J in n a h p u r a n d th en accused it o f co n te m p la tin g it.219 In o n e o f his 213. 214. 215. 216.

w w w .w orldsindhicongress.org, p a p e r presented a t W a sh in g to n , 2 0 M a y 200 0 . h ttp ://m em bers.unIim ited.net/-saghir/w sc/agm O O report.htm . w w w .m qm .org, press release, 2 5 A pril a n d 18 S eptem ber 200 0 . ‘M o h a jir Province? a n Interview o f M r. A ltaf H u ssain w ith A rab N ew s, 12 O c to b e r 1994’ (M Q M h a ndout). 2 1 7 . T h e Indian E xp ress, 12 J u n e 199 5 , m e n tio n s t h a t d u rin g G .M . Syed’s lifetim e th e Jeay S indh m ovem ent h a d split in to various factions b u t som e o f them cam e together a fte r his d eath ’s to flo a t th e JS Q M to c arry on h is m ission. 21 8 . w w w .m qm .org, press release, 5 A ugust 1999; 12 F ebruary 200 2 . 2 1 9 . Ib id ., press release, 21 N o v e m b e r 2 00 1 .

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s h a rp so u n d in g speeches h e sa id , ‘If w e b rea k th e c o u n try , w e will n ev er n a m e it a fte r J in n a h ’.220 Since th e la te nin eties, A lta f H u ssa in h a s stressed th e need to b rin g Sindhis a n d M u h a jirs to g eth e r. S indh is c o n sta n tly described as th e ‘lan d o f g rea t Sufis’ a n d ‘th e lan d o f S h a h L a tif B h ittai’. T h e M u h a jirs, h e says, ‘d o n o t w a n t to u su rp a n y b o d y ’s rig h ts’, a n d n e ith e r d o th ey w a n t th e division o f S in d h .221 H e b lam es th e Punjabi esta b lish m en t fo r th e linguistic rio ts in S indh in 1 9 7 2 , a n d in 1 9 8 8 in H y d e ra b a d , w ith th e in te n tio n o f c re a tin g ‘a p e rm a n e n t g u lf’ betw een th e Sindhis a n d M u h a jirs. A fter all, th e M u h a jirs bu ried th e ir d ead in S indh a n d rem itted th e ir m o n ey th ere . S indh is ‘n o w th e ir H o m e la n d ’. It w a s u n fo rtu n a te , th a t th e ‘so-called S indhi lead ­ e rs’ th re a te n e d to th ro w th e M u h a jirs in to th e A ra b ia n Sea a n d rid icu led h im fo r say in g , ‘I a m th e so n o f S indh D h a rti. Please d o n o t tre a t m e as a n a lien ’.222 In th e last co u p le o f y ears th e M Q M h a s b een in to u c h w ith th e JS Q M a n d activ ists fro m th e W SC to d isc u s s th e r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n S in d h is a n d U rd u - s p e a k in g S indhis.223 N o w his p o sitio n is th a t th e p e o p le o f S indh w a n t th eir rig h ts ‘w ith in th e g eo g ra p h y o f P a k ista n ’.224 A t th e U n ited N a tio n s W o rld C o n feren ce A gainst R acism in D u rb a n in 2 0 0 1 , th e M Q M d ele g a tio n led b y M u h a m m a d A n w ar, th e ch ief o rg an iz e r, M Q M UK a n d M Q M -E u ro p e , p resen ted a n a c c o u n t o f ‘th e p lig h t o f th e S indh a n d its o c c u p a tio n by th e Pu n jabi E stab lish m e n t’, a n d em ­ p h a siz e d th e ‘n a rro w in g ’ d o w n o f th e M u h a jir-S in d h i d iv id e by A ltaf H u ssa in .22s D u rin g th e 2 0 0 2 electio n eerin g , M Q M rallies in 2 2 0 . O u tlo o k , 2 O c to b e r 2 0 0 0 , p . 56. 2 2 1 . D aum , 23 F ebruary 1997; see 2 0 A pril 1999 fo r th e statem en t o f th e c o o rd i­ n a tio n com m ittee o f th e M Q M th a t a jo in t struggle o f th e p e rm a n e n t citizens o f Sindh w a s th e need o f th e h o u r to save th e p rovince from being tu rn ed into a ‘colony o f P unjab’. 2 2 2 . w w w .m qm .org, ‘A ltaf H u ssain ’s O p en L etter to the M o st R everend Sindhi Elders, C a rin g M o th e rs, L oving Sisters a n d E x u b e ran t Y o u th ’, 2 6 Ja n u a ry 2 0 0 0 ; also see ‘A ltaf H u ssain ’s A ddress to Sindhi Jo u rn a lists a t th e M Q M Z o n a l O ffice in H y d e ra b a d ’, from L o n d o n , 8 Ja n u a ry 2 0 0 1 : ‘S indhis a n d M o h a jirs a re tw o branches o f th e sam e tree— they a re tw o sons o f M o th e r S indh’. 2 2 3 . T h e T im es o f In d ia , 1 Ju n e 2 0 0 1 , w hich carrie d S alm an H ussein’s re p o rt in T h e Friday T im es, 2 5 -3 1 M a y 2 0 0 1 , ‘A ltaf H u ssa in Plays Sindhi C ard ’. 22 4 . w w w .m qm .org, statem en t, 2 Septem ber 2 0 0 1 , L o ndon. 2 2 5 . Ib id ., ‘M Q M A t T h e U N C onference in D u rb a n , S outh A frica’, 4 S eptem ber

2001.

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H y d e ra b a d c h a n te d slo g an s o f S in d h i-M u h a jir, B ha i-B h a i,226 b u t m isgivings e n d u re a m o n g Sindhis. By th e m id-eighties, th e M Q M h ad em erged a s ‘th e m o st o rg a ­ nized e th n ic g ro u p ’ in P a k ista n , w ith re m a rk a b le p o p u la r s u p p o rt, b u t w ith th e ‘m o d u s o p e ra n d i o f u rb a n te rro ris m ’.227 It is th e claim ­ in g o f th e P a k ista n i h o m ela n d in S indh th a t com es acro ss in M Q M p o litics. T h is search w as in itially tied to u n d o in g th e stereo ty p in g o f M u h a jirs as m a k k a r s (locusts) a n d tiliars, (little b ird s),228 a n d reso n a ted in o n e o f its la te eig h ties’ e lectio n songs: Kisi ne bhaiya bola Kisi ne m a k k a r bola Kisi ne bola rehne n a dena229 O s k a r V e rk a a ik n o ticed th a t fro m th e early n in eties o n w a rd s ‘th e n o tio n o f d iasp o ra is a n im p o rta n t n o tio n in p rese n t-d a y M u h a jir id en tity ’. H e a ttrib u te s th is to ‘a ra th e r rec e n t réé v a lu atio n o f th e M u h a jir’s h isto ry a n d p lac e in P a k ista n ra th e r th a n b ecause o f a given p ro b lem atic p o sitio n as m ig ran ts’. T h e ‘sense o f being displaced’ is tra c e d to th e p o litical d e v elo p m en ts in P a k ista n , ‘a n d especially S in d h ’, a n d th e d isillu sio n m e n ts cau sed b y th e u n fu lfilled h o pes g e n e ra ted b y th e M Q M in th e eighties.230 O n a trip to In d ia, H ussain recently recited these lines to m ak e a n o v erarch in g p oint: Y eh w a q t b h i d ekh a ha i tareekh k e safahon ne L a m h o n n e k h a ta k i thi, sadiyon n e sazaa payee231 2 2 6 . Ib id ., press release, 2 O c to b e r 200 2 . 2 2 7 . K han (2005: 16, 16 3 ,1 8 2 ). ‘T h e n a tu re o f v iolent, pop u list a n d sem i-fascist politics in tro d u ce d by the M Q M is d irectly linked to its class com position— pred o m in an tly y o u n g , u rb a n m iddle class a n d low er m iddle class stu d en ts a n d professionals’. 2 2 8 . See V erk aa ik (1994: 13) fo r these tra n sla tio n s. 2 2 9 . Ilakshart T ar an a , P -S2-89-93218, R egenstein L ibrary, C hicago. T h e m usic a r ­ ra n g em en t is the sam e a s in th e p o p u la r H in d i film so n g , 'H a i a p n a d il toh aw ara’. (Some called u s b h aiya, som e m a k k a r, som e said d o n ’t let th em live h e re ...). 2 3 0 . w w w .p scw .u v a .n l/g m /a rticle s/o v 2 0 0 0 b .h tm , ‘Back In D ia sp o ra: “ F u n ” a n d N o stalg ia A m ong M u h a jirs in P akistan’, p ap e r given a t S outh A sia W o rk ­ sh o p , U niversity o f C hicago. 2 3 1 . w w w .s a trib u n e .c o m /a rc h iv e s/n o v /0 4 /P l_ a ru n 4 .h tm , A ru n R a jn a th , ‘A lta f H ussain Seeks E asier Political A sylum F o r H is S upporters: India R ejects’, 8 N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 4 . T he lines tra n sla te as: ‘th e an n a ls o f history have w itnessed

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M e an w h ile , it is n o t ju st th e h ijra t o f 1 9 4 7 th a t sets o ff e m o ­ tio n a l ev ery d ay d e b a te s o n th e su b c o n tin e n t a n d in th e d iasp o ra , b u t a lso M u h a jir a n d S indhi p o litics. B oth th ese realm s in te rse c t o n th e w eb , as th e issues o f th e re p a tria tio n o f B iharis a n d th e q u o ta system in S in d h c o n tin u e to ev o k e h eated ex ch an g es.232 B oth th e M Q M a n d th e SP G R C h av e reco n ciled th em selves to th e relo ca­ tio n (if it h a p p e n s) o f th e S tra n d e d P a k ista n is in P u n ja b . A ltaf H u ssa in keep s rep e a tin g th a t it is th e P a k ista n i a rm y ’s o b lig a tio n to se ttle th em th ere .233 By th e e a rly nin eties, th e p resid e n t o f th e SPEREL, C h itta g o n g zo n e said th a t th e S tra n d e d P ak istan is w o u ld ac ce p t b e in g ‘re h a b ilita te d a n y w h e re in P a k ista n ’. H e a ls o m en­ tio n e d N a sim K h a n ’s a ssu ra n c e to N a w a z S h arif th a t th ey w o u ld ‘p refe r P u n ja b o v e r S indh’, to ‘e n jo y th e b enefits o f th e m ajo rity p ro v in c e ’.234 E x p ectin g a c lo su re, N asim K h an h a d o n c e sa id th a t P u n ja b , th e final restin g p lac e o f H a z r a t D a tta G anj Bux a n d Iq b al, w o u ld b e a n a p t d e stin a tio n .235

th e p h e n o m e n o n , th a t blunders com m itted in a sh o rt sp an o f tim e unspoo l p u n ish m e n t fo r centuries’. 23 2 . F o r a n illustrative exam ple see th e discussion th a t follow ed T alh a Siddiqui, ‘A lta f H u ssain ’s M Q M : A C ause G o n e A stra y ’ in th e S o u th A sia T ribune, n o . 2 2 ,2 3 -2 9 D ecem ber 2 0 0 2 (w w w .satrib u n e.c o m ) in w hich S iddiqui, a M u h a jir settled in C a n ad a , arg u ed t h a t th e M Q M h a d m oved aw ay from ‘principal issues’ and ‘v iolated the tr u s t o f th e o rd in a ry lite rate M o h a jir’. F or a re p o rt on th e m ilitary regim e having e stablished a w o rk in g re la tio n ­ sh ip w ith A lta f H u ssain in re tu rn fo r th e pro m ise o f ‘th e lion’s sh are in a future p rovincial set-up’ (Sindh is n o w headed by a thirty-eight-year-old M Q M g o v e rn o r, Ish ratu l Ib a d , w h o w a s in self-exile fo r o v e r a decade), see M an so o r 2 0 0 3 : 2 8 -3 3 . 2 3 3 . w w w .m qm .org, Q uestion a n d A nsw er Session w ith S indhi jo u rn a lists a n d e di­ to rs in H y d era b ad , 8 J a n u a ry 2 0 0 1 ; statem en t o f 15 A ugust 2 0 0 2 , L o ndon. 2 3 4 . T h e M u slim R e fugee, S e p te m b e r-O cto b e r 1 9 9 1 , p p . 4 - 5 : ‘T h e m in o rity p ro v ­ inces w ill realize th e ir blu n d er b u t th a t w ould be to o la te ’. 2 3 5 . Ib id ., p . 1 3 . See p . 2 3 fo r th e e la b o ra tio n th a t th o se w h o w ere rep a tria te d betw een 1 9 7 9 -8 2 a n d settled in L ahore (4 ,0 0 0 ), F aisab a la b ad (16 ,0 0 0 ) and K o h a t a n d R a w alp in d i (2 ,0 0 0 ) w ere still living th ere a n d h a d n o t m oved to K arachi. H e even suggested th a t th e g o v e rn m e n t could m ak e a law u n d e r w hich th e rep a triate d w ould n o t b e registered a s v o ters, n o r w ould they have th e rig h t to settle in Sindh.

3

Resisting Hindutva

T h e c o n to u rs o f n a tio n a lity ch an g ed in a m ajo r w ay in S o u th Asia a fte r 1971 a n d b y th e eighties, a w h o le ran g e o f stru g g les in te rro ­ g ated n a tio n a l id en tity a s it p rev ailed in th e sixties. M e an w h ile , social ch an g e p ro d u c e d n ew fo rm s o f n a tio n a lity th a t ch an g ed th e d y n am ics o f p o litics; a n d em ig ratio n o u t o f S o u th A sia dispersed its n a tio n a l id en tities m o re w id ely ov erseas. N e w fo rm s o f religious n a tio n a lism m oved c e n tre sta g e w ith s u p p o rt fro m d iasp o ric s a n d sim u ltan eo u sly reg io n al a u to n o m y m o v em en ts em erg ed in d iasp o ra c o m m u n ities. O n th e w h o le , o v e r a p e rio d o f th re e decad es, collec­ tiv e id en tities h av e u n d e rg o n e significant tra n s fo rm a tio n a s n atio n a l te rra in s h av e ch an g ed b ecau se o f local, reg io n a l, in te rn a tio n a l a n d g lo b al tre n d s in te rse c tin g each o th e r (L u d d en 2 0 0 2 : 2 3 5 - 3 8 ). T h is in te rp la y is m ap p e d h ere to lo o k a t H in d u tv a a n d its p ro je c t o f n a tio n -m a k in g th a t goes b a c k to th e e a rly tw e n tie th c en tu ry . M y fo cu s is o n th e d iasp o ric c o n te sta tio n o f H in d u tv a b etw een 1 9 9 2 a n d 2 0 0 2 , b y M u slim s w h o so u g h t to stall th e u n d o in g o f p luralism , a n d b y D alits w h o in te rro g a te its version o f H in d u unity. B ut first, a b rie f b a c k g ro u n d e r o n th is p o litical fo rm a tio n . In a n o verview o f th e fifty y ears fro m th e e ig h teen seventies to th e tw en ties o r th e th irtie s o f th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry , S u m it S a rk ar h a s o u tlin ed th a t th ere w a s b o th a m ark e d h a rd en in g , a n d th e inven­ tio n o f ‘a w ide ran g e o f identities: anti-colonial “ n atio n a l” , “ regional” , relig io u s, caste, class, g en d er, d iverse “ trib a l” “ eth n ic itie s” . T h o u g h th e ro le o f census e n u m e ra tio n a n d classificatio n in th e u n fo ld in g o f th is pro cess h a s b een e sta b lish e d , S a rk a r p o in ts o u t th a t it is o fte n n o t n o ticed th a t even a s id en tities h a rd e n e d , th ey becam e m o re fragile. A m u ltitu d e o f in te rse c tin g id en tities c o u ld w ell un d erm in e

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p u tativ e unities o r s o lid a ritie s.1 H is genealogy o f H in d u co m m u n alism tra c e d tw o h isto ric a l tra n sitio n s. T h e first h a p p e n ed in th e la te n in ete e n th c e n tu ry w h e n th e ideology o f unified H in d u ism w as c o n s tru c te d . T h e seco n d is ‘ro u g h ly d a te a b le to th e m id -1 9 2 0 s ’, w h e n th ere w a s a m ove to w a rd s a n aggressive H in d u tv a , based o n a n e n em y im age o f a sim ilarly conceived Islam (S ark ar 19 9 6 : 2 7 3 ). P o litical H in d u ism ac q u ire d u n p rec e d e n te d stre n g th fro m th e late e ig h tie s in th e c o n te x t o f c o m m u n a l c o m p ro m is e s m a d e b y a C ongress o n th e decline.2 In th e nineties, th e B h aratiy a J a n a ta P a rty ’s (BJP) rise to p ro m in e n ce becam e a ‘defin in g fea tu re o f In d ia n p o li­ tics’ (Z o y a H a sa n 2 0 0 2 : 13). T h e n fo llo w ed ‘th e in crem en tal suc­ cess o f c o m m u n a l p o litics’. A ijaz A h m ad h a s stressed th a t A yodhya a n d G u ja ra t ‘h av e indeed been co n n ected since th e very b eg in n in g ’, a n d argues th a t th ere has been a ‘sea-change in In d ia n politics’. This w as e v id e n t w h e n all p o litical forces o u tsid e th e H in d u tv a ensem ble co n d e m n e d th e A yo d h y a v an d alism , b u t th e BJP w a s ‘sheltered by a w id e a rra y o f reg io n a l p a rtie s ’, d u rin g th e G u ja ra t m assacres (A. A h m ed 2 0 0 4 : 2 1 9 -2 2 ). W ritin g o n 1 9 4 7 , Sunil K h iln an i has usefully rem a rk e d th a t b o th , ‘th e p recise sp a tia l e x te n t a n d specific h u m a n c o n te n t o f every sta te in S outh A sia’, have rem ained ‘vigorously em b a ttle d ’ o n th e su b co n ­ tin e n t because o f ‘th e p e rm a n e n t d istu rb an ce o f P a rtitio n ’. H isto ry h a s ‘n o t an a esth e tiz ed th e crisis o f P a rtitio n ’, it still ‘ru stles th ro u g h th e su b c o n tin e n t’s p u b lic im a g in atio n , a su rre p titio u s a n d alw ay s a v a ila b le m o tif a ro u n d w h ic h th e in ev itab le d isa p p o in tm e n ts o f m o d ern politics c a n g a th e r’.3 B ut P ao la B acchetta has sh o w n th a t 1. See S a rk ar (2 0 0 2 : 2 5 9 ). S a rk a r a d d s th a t th e a p p e al o f H in d u tv a h a s ‘w axed a n d w an e d across tim es a n d territo rial social spaces a n d c a n n o t b e reduced to a n y single, form ulaic e x p la n atio n ’. 2 . See Z o y a H asan (1996: 89) fo r th is c o m m en t: ‘U ntil th e m id-1980s, H in d u n a tio n alism h a d rem ained a w eak e lectoral force, but there h a d a lw a y s been a conceptual space for it in U ttar P radesh society p rovided by the s tro n g influence o f H in d u revivalism a n d m em ories o f interreligious conflict and the M uslim s e p a ra tist m o v em en t cu lm in a tin g in th e c o u n try ’s p a rtitio n in 1947. T h e state had a p o o r rec o rd in pro v id in g th e healing to u c h a fte r th e p a rtitio n tra u m a ’. 3 . K hilani ( 1 9 9 7 :1 9 8 -2 0 4 ): ‘E xactly w h y India c am e to have th e te rrito ria l shape it does rem ain s a puzzle a n d a n in c item e n t to the political im a g in a tio n o f S outh A s ia ....It [Partition] b o th defines a n d c o n stan tly suspects India’s iden ­ tity , dividing it betw een th e responsibility to tole rate differences, a n d the d ream o f a te rrito ry w h e re all a re com pelled to w o rsh ip in u n iso n . T h e deep, valu ­ ab le d iversities o f India have k e p t alive th e fe a r a n d a m b itio n o f fu tu re crises

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fo r th e R a sh triy a Sw ayam Sevak Sangh (RSS), p a rtitio n , o r th e events lead in g to , a n d fo llo w in g , th e c re a tio n o f P a k ista n in 1 9 4 7 , is a ‘rec u rrin g ’ th em e [m y em phasis]. T h e ‘m em ory’ o f ‘Partition’ is re-evoked continually thro u g h o u t time, th ro u g h o u t th e Sangh’s literature, to conjure up dem onized images o f M uslim s— The purpose is to justify continual ‘retaliation’ against M uslim s. T h e events are represented in a schem atic a n d one-sided m anner. It does no t ever indicate concern o r even curiosity ab o ut h o w M uslim s m ight have experienced th e sam e events, or why In­ dian M uslim s rem ained in India, for ultim ately it has dehum anized them . They are constructed to represent a th reat (or a promise, inso­ far as th e Sangh’s n atio n alism req u ires a th reaten in g O th er) of future violence’.4 Id eo lo g u es o f H in d u tv a hav e, o v e r th e years, co n ju re d u p th e im ag e o f M u slim s a s o u tsid e th e ‘n a tio n a l m ain stre a m ’, a s ag g res­ sive fu n d am e n ta lists a n d d e sce n d a n ts o f ty ra n n ica l m edieval ru lers w h o dem o lish ed tem p les a n d forcibly co n v e rte d H in d u s to Islam . D ep icted a s ‘fifth c o lu m n ists’ tied to th e w o rld o f Islam , th ey have b een held resp o n sib le fo r p a rtitio n a n d a re p o rtra y e d a s su p p o rte rs o f th e C o n g ress a n d left fo rm a tio n s, a n d a s u n d e rm in in g In d ia n / H in d u c u ltu re a n d civ ilizatio n . In o th e r w o rd s, w h a t M u slim s a re , a n d w h a t th ey o u g h t to be, have rem a in e d a H in d u tv a p reo c c u p a ­ tio n (M . H a sa n 19 9 6 : 1 8 5 -8 6 ). Z o y a H a sa n h a s d ra w n a tte n tio n to th e ‘little o r n o ac ad e m ic in te rest’ in th e s ta tu s o f m in o ritie s based o n social d isa d v a n tag e . In stead , M u slim s c o n tin u e to b e p o rtra y e d a s ‘b o th th re a te n in g a n d p a m p e re d ’. T h e h isto ry a n d c o n te m p o ­ ra ry p o litics o f H in d u o rg an iz a tio n s th a t see M u slim s a s ‘aliens, o u tsid e rs , a n d p r o -P a k is ta n is ’ h a v e h a d p r o fo u n d im p lic a tio n s fo r citize n sh ip a n d e n title m e n ts a n d is cru c ia l in s u sta in in g th a t p reju d ice a n d d isc rim in atio n .5 O n th e basis o f a first-ev er n a tio n a l o f division. It w ill rem ain so u n til In d ian s begin to com e to term s w ith P artition’s political a n d h isto rica l significance’. 4 . Bacchetta (2 0 0 4 a : 2 8 -2 9 ). F o r m ore o n th e Sangh’s rep resen tatio n o f M uslim m en a n d w om en see p p . 3 7 -3 8 a n d 4 4 . 5 . Bacchetta (2004b: 2 4 -6 0 ). A lso see K atju ( 2 0 0 5 :1 7 6 -9 0 ). K atju argues th a t it was th e RSS w hich ‘m ade H indutva a m ass phenom enon in the post-independence period’. A nd th a t in th e backdrop o f th e uncertainties g enerated by g lobaliza­ tio n , H in d u tv a has found acceptance am ong ‘large sections o f th e m iddle and th e w o rk in g classes, a n d am ong b o th th e u p p er a n d th e d isadvantaged castes’.

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survey o f 1 0 ,0 0 0 M u slim a n d H in d u w o m e n in In d ia , Z o y a H a sa n a n d R itu M e n o n h av e recently sh o w n th a t th e s ta n d a rd o f living of M u slim s is g enerally p o o r a n d ‘in c o m p a ra tiv e term s m u ch below th a t o f H in d u u p p e r ca ste s, lo w e r even th a n o f O B C ’. T h e y also fo u n d th a t H in d u -M u s lim d isp a rities in so cio -eco n o m ic s ta tu s are sta tistically sig n ifican t a n d c o n s titu te a m a jo r s o u rc e o f d iffe re n tia ­ tio n in th e s ta tu s o f w o m e n : ‘W ith th e p o ssib le ex c ep tio n o f Sched­ uled C a ste w o m e n , M u slim w o m e n p ro b a b ly c o m p rise th e p o o rest a n d m o st d isa d v a n tag e d g ro u p in th e c o u n tr y .. .th e m ajo rity o f th em being a m o n g th e p o o re s t o f th e p o o r in In d ia ’. T h e y a re ‘d isa d v a n ­ tag ed th ric e over: a s m em b ers o f a m in o rity c o m m u n ity , a s w o m en , a n d a s p o o r w o m e n ’. T h e im p o rta n t a rg u m e n t is th a t p e rso n a l law s rep re se n t on ly o n e asp ec t o f w o m e n ’s s u b o rd in a tio n fo r even if all su c h law s w e re refo rm e d o r c h a n g ed , th e ir m ate ria l c o n d itio n s, ‘w o u ld c o n tin u e to b e o p p ressiv e’.6 W e need to ju x ta p o se th e sp read a n d c o n te sta tio n o f th e H in d u tv a fo rm a tio n w ith th ese b ro a d b ru sh stro k e s o n In d ia n M u slim s. T h e RSS h a s been described by P ao la B acchetta a s ‘p e rh a p s S outh A sia’s largest in te rn a tio n a l, m ic ro -n a tio n a list o rg a n iz a tio n ev er’. It h a s 3 7 ,0 0 0 local h e a d q u arters co n c en trate d m ain ly in n o r th a n d c e n tra l In d ia; h a s been rec ru itin g aggressively in K erala, K a rn a ta k a ; a n d has d iasp o ric b ran ch es in forty-seven co u n tries. T h ey a re located in a t lea st six teen sta te s in In d ia , a n d a lso in th e d iasp o ra (B acchetta 2 0 0 4 a : 5 , 12). It is th is ‘tra n s n a tio n a l c o n fig u ra tio n o f th e Sangh P a riv a r’, th a t is seen a s th e ‘key rea so n fo r th e im p o rta n c e o f a m u lti-a re n a e n g a g e m e n t’. T a k in g in to a c c o u n t th e resp o n se s o f activ ists, sc h o la rs a n d jo u rn a lis ts, A m rita Basu a n d S riru p a R oy h av e w ritte n o n th e v iolence a g a in st M u slim s in G u ja ra t a n d its im p licatio n s fo r secu lar d e m o c ra cy in In d ia. L ike m an y o th e rs , they believe th a t tra n s n a tio n a l a ctiv ism h a s a key ro le to p lay in th e a fte rm a th o f G u ja ra t a n d have c alled fo r ‘a m u lti-sited a n d m u lti­ level e n g ag em en t w ith th e local, n a tio n a l a n d tra n s n a tio n a l ag en ts a n d stru c tu re s’ t h a t have been im p lic a te d in G u ja ra t. In th e c o n te x t 6 . H a sa n a n d M e n o n (2004: 6 , 23 2 , 2 4 2 ). ‘M u slim s a re p o o r in th e n o rth and very p o o r in th e ru ral n o rth , a n d they a re a lso generally p o o r in th e e a st w here they are co n c en trated in th e low er b ra c k e t....B u t M uslim s are n o t uniform ly p o o r a n d uneducated; they a re m uch b e tter o ff in th e so u th a n d a lso in the w est a n d c ertain ly b ette r o ff th a n th eir c o u n te rp a rts in th e n o rth a n d east zones’ (p p . 2 3 2 -3 3 ).

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o f th e ‘dire c t lin k b etw een th e S an g h ’s activ ities in in te rn a tio n a l a re n a s a n d th e h o r ro r o f G u ja ra t’, th ey see th is a p p ro a c h a s ‘fea­ sible, a p p ro p ria te a n d even m a n d a te d ’.7 H o w d id H in d u tv a c o m e to s p a n t h e s u b c o n tin e n t a n d its d iasp o ra ? C h e ta n B h att has s h o w n th a t th e ‘hig h ly active H in d u tv a presence’ in A frica, th e US, C a n a d a a n d E u ro p e, is largely th e result o f a ‘co nscious id eological stra te g y ’ to cu ltiv ate d iasp o ra H in d u s. T h e v isio n o f a u n ite d , s tro n g a n d exclusive H in d u R a sh tra , su b ­ scribed to b y th e fo u n d ers o f th e RSS, h a s fo u n d ‘sy stem atic a n d o rg an iz e d e x p re ssio n in th e d iasp o ra ’. T h e d o m in a n t d isco u rse o n H in d u s in th e d iasp o ra w a s a rtic u la te d b y G o lw a lk a r w h o se view s a b o u t th e d iasp o ra a re ‘c e n tra l’ to th e cu rricu lu m o f th e ideological in cu lc a tio n sessions in th e UK a n d th e US, a n d in flect h o w c o n te m ­ p o ra ry d iasp o ra H in d u tv a m o v em en ts visualize th e ir g oals in th e w est. G o lw a lk a r’s basic belief, th a t on ly H in d u s o rg an ized u n d e r th e S an g h h a v e th e w h e re w ith a l to e n lig h ten all o f h u m a n k in d , recu rs in d iasp o ric H in d u tv a p u b lic a tio n s a n d is co n sta n tly e m p h a ­ sized b y o v e rs e a s S a n g h w o rk e rs. B h a tt re m in d s u s th a t w h ile G o lw a lk a r critiq u e d th e p ro p o sa ls o f th e L eague o f N a tio n s fo r m in o rity rig h ts a n d p ro te c tio n , th is p a rtic u la r RSS sta n c e ‘co u ld n o t b e su sta in ed a fte r th e 1 9 6 0 s a n d 1 9 7 0 s’, as m o re a n d m ore In d ia n s tu rn e d d iasp o ric (B h att 2 0 0 0 : 5 6 4 , 5 6 7 - 6 8 , 5 8 8 ). P arita M u k ta has p o in te d o u t th a t th e V ishw a H in d u P a rish a d (VH P) is as re lian t o n ‘a g lo b al p o w e r-n ex u s’ a s it is a n c h o re d to th e n a tio n ­ sta te . S tarted in 1 9 6 4 in In d ia o n G o lw alk ar’s initiative, it h a s been ‘cru cial’ in c o n stru ctin g a g lo b al H in d u c o m m u n ity , ‘b o th as histo ri­ cally v ictim ized a n d as (necessarily) resu rg e n t’ (ib id .; M u k ta 2 0 0 0 : 4 4 3 -4 4 ). A nd a s D h o o le k h a S a rh ad i R aj su m s u p (2 0 0 0 : 5 4 0 ), H in ­ d u s a re ‘increasingly co n scio u s o f b ein g a p a rt o f a g lo b al E ternal R eligion w h o se m em b ers a re fo u n d in o v e r 6 5 c o u n tries in th e w orld as w ell as th e su b c o n tin e n t’.8 A late n ineties’ V H P p u b licatio n , H in d u Vishw a: Voice o f H in d u s in N o r th A m erica , characteristically described H in d u s as including Jain s, Shaivites, B o u d d h as, V aishnavites, Sikhs, V edantins, Shaktas 7 . Basu a n d R o y (2004: 3 2 0 , 3 4 8 -5 0 ). ‘W hile located o r gro u n d e d interventions w ith in th e s tate o f G u ja ra t a re im perative, acts o f “ long-distance w itnessing ” have th e ir o w n , a n d equivalent role to play’. 8 . ‘“W h o the hell d o you th in k you are ? ” P rom oting religious identity am ong y o u n g H in d u s in B ritain’, p . 54 0 .

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a n d , ‘th o se w h o fo llo w various o th e r religious tra d itio n s w ith ro o ts in B h arat’.9 Based o n this sp re a d , it w ro te u p th e layers o f th e ‘H in d u D ia sp o ra ’ a n d ad d ed th em u p to ‘m any m illions’. T h e first H in d u dispersal or D iaspora in recorded history w as a t the tim e o f E m peror A shoka. W hen o u r m issionaries w ent to various p arts o f th e w orld to spread th e m essage o f G autam Buddha. Later, m issionaries w en t to th e countries o f South East Asia to sp read the Vaishnav religion. T h en cam e the d a rk tim e o f foreign invasions__ H indus lost their vision a n d India becam e progressively w eaker and p o o rer.... T h e n ca m e th e in d en tu red d ia s p o ra o f th e n in ete e n th century. B u t it is th e m o st recen t s tra n d o f th e d ia s p o ra in th e US a n d UK, th a t it p o in ts to a s h a v in g ‘p e rh a p s m o re f a r rea c h in g effects th an a n y o th e r D ia s p o ra ’. 10 C h e ta n B h a tt sees th is a rtic u la tio n o f a reli­ gious h isto ry o f d iasp o ric fo rm a tio n s a n d th e disp lacin g o f th e ‘secu­ la r im p erativ es fo r m ig ra tio n ’ a s a rein v e n tio n o ccasio n ed by th e c o m p u ls io n s o f u n d e rlin in g th e ‘w o r ld -h is to r ic m is s io n o f th e H in d u tv a m o v em en t’. T h is developed in th e c o n te x t o f chan g in g circ u m sta n ce s o f m ig ra tio n , s e ttle m e n t a n d m in o rity s ta tu s a n d deletes th e c o m p lex ities o f class, g e n d e r a n d race. W h a t h e finds s tr ik in g is h o w ‘so c io lo g ic a lly d iff e re n t’ th e v a rio u s d ia s p o r a H in d u tv a m o v em en ts a re , even th o u g h th ey su b scrib e to th e sam e ideological a n d p o litical a g e n d a. T h e re is th u s a w o rld o f difference betw een rec e n t te c h n o c ra t m ig ra n ts to th e US, a n d th e sev en ties’ m ig ra n ts fro m e a st A frica to th e UK w h o w ere G u ja ra ti a n d Pu n jabi d e scen d an ts o f in d en tu red lab o u re rs a n d m erch an ts. M o re o v e r, in th e U K , th e religious b o u n d a rie s b etw een H in d u ism a n d Islam o f­ te n c o in cid e w ith class b o u n d a rie s betw een th e e a st A fric a n m er­ c h a n t c o m m u n ities a n d th e relatively im p o v erish ed P a k ista n i a n d B angladeshi co m m u n ities.11 9 . Ja n u a ry 199 9 , 26(1): 3. 10. Ibid.: 7. 11. B hatt (2000: 5 6 3 -6 4 , 5 6 8 -7 1 ).‘T h ere is n o space h ere for the histories o f, for exam ple, the m ainly ea st A frican A sian w om en factory w o rk ers, m ostly H indu , w h o to o k o n th e challenge o f p a tria rc h a l co m m unity, B ritish industrialists a n d th e g ov e rn m e n t itself d u rin g a w ave o f strikes in lig h t e ngineering facto ­ ries d u rin g th e 1970s’.

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By th e m id -n in eties, d aily sh a k h a s o f m em b ers b elo n g in g to ‘th e RSS fra te rn ity ’ w ere h eld a t ‘1 7 8 places in 18 c o u n tries’. 12 A few y ears late r th e RSS c laim ed a n o rg an iz e d p rese n c e in a b o u t 150 c o u n tries, w ith a ro u n d six ty b ran ch es in th e UK a n d a presence acro ss E u ro p e. T h e H in d u tv a n e tw o rk w as in p lac e in USA, UK, C a n a d a , G e rm a n y , S o u th A frica, K enya, U g a n d a , M a u ritiu s , Fiji, T rin id a d , M y a n m a r, In d o n esia a n d M alay sia (B hatt 2 0 0 0 : 5 5 9 ). O ne o f th e fo u n d ers o f th e H in d u Sevak S an g h in C a n a d a recalls receiv­ in g a le tte r fro m G o lw a lk a r in 1 9 7 3 to o rg a n iz e H in d u s in th e re g io n .13 T h o u g h th e V H P has b ran ch es in eig h ty c o u n tries it h a s a sig n ifican t presence m ain ly in th e U K a n d th e USA. Its o rg an iz a ­ tio n a l w o rk in UK b eg an in 1 9 7 2 . A cco rd in g to 1 9 8 9 - 9 0 e stim ates, it h ad fo u rte e n b ran ch es a n d a m em b ersh ip o f a b o u t 2 ,0 0 0 , w ith G u ja ra tis (largely th o se w h o m ig ra te d fro m A frica) fo rm in g th e h ig h est n u m b er. A ro u n d th is tim e, V H P -A m e ric a (V H P -A ) w h ich w as s ta rte d in 1 9 7 0 h a d b ran ch es in fo rty sta te s in th e U S .14 T h e V H P is fo cu sed o n its s tu d e n t o u tre a c h a n d its US p resid e n t sa id as m u ch a b o u t th e H in d u S tudents C ouncil (HSC) in 1998: ‘W e expect th a t w h e n its m em b ers jo in th in k ta n k s , colleges a n d universities, th ey will be a b le to u n d o th e n e g ativ e p r o p a g a n d a L eftist In d ia n acad em ics have c a rrie d o u t o v e r m an y y ears a g a in st th e V H P , th e 12. P rakash (1995: 5 1 ); the n u m b e r o f upa-shakhas w ere a s follow s— A ustralia (5), H o n g K ong (2), M y a n m a r (5 1 ), N ep a l (5), S outh E ast A sia (1 9 ), T h ailan d (1), M id d le E a st (5), M au ritiu s (2), Kenya (5), S outh A frica (1), T an z an ia (1), D en m ark (1), H o lla n d (6), U K (5 3 ), C a n a d a (3), USA (1 7 ), T rin id a d (1), G erm any (1). 13. Ja in (1 998). T h ere is a m en tio n o f e ig h t branches in C a n a d a : six in T o ro n to a n d o n e each in C a lg a ry a n d V ancouver. O verseas F riends o f th e BJP w as sta rte d h e re in 1992. A lso see Sum an G uha M o z u m d er, ‘H in d u O rg an iza tio n ’s E xp a n d in g Influence in th e US’ in India A b ro a d fo r th is q u o te from th e o rg a ­ nizing secretary o f th e H SS, N ew Y o rk , th a t they h a d n o form al m em bership o r fees a n d ‘a n y b o d y , w h e th e r from G uyana o r B angladesh, can com e and w o rk w ith us’. 14. K atju (2 0 0 3 : 1 5 -6 0 ). See p. 106 for th e perspective th a t till the m id-eighties, w h e n it tu rn e d its atte n tio n to politics w ith in In d ia, its central concern w as th e d ia sp o ra . H o w ever, acc o rd in g t o G a u ta m A d h ik ari, T h e T im e s o f India, 28 D ecem ber 199 3 , th e V H P only h a d tw e n ty -e ig h t fu n c tio n in g u n its in the U S , w ith its a c tiv e s u p p o r te r s c o n c e n tr a te d in N e w Y o r k , B o s to n , C h icago, San Francisco, L os A ngeles, H o u sto n and A tla n ta . A lso see van der V eer (1994: 654) fo r reso lu tio n 6 o f th e V H P ’s 1964 in au g u ral session w hich described itself a s th e w o rld o rg an iza tio n o f ‘six hu n d re d m illion a t presen t residing in 8 0 co u n trie s’.

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RSS a n d th e BJP’.15 T h e V H P-A d escribes th e H S C , w h ich h ad c h a p ­ te rs in ‘alm o st 5 0 university c am p u ses’, in th e la te nin eties, as th e ‘c ro w n jew el’ o f its a ch iev em en ts: ‘I t is b e c au se o f th e b rillia n t w o rk o f so m e o f th e very b rig h t p e o p le in th e H S C , th a t th e H in d u D h a rm a h a s a m a jo r presen ce o n th e In te rn e t a n d th e W o rld W ide W eb ’.16 T h e im a g in atio n o f ‘n ew H in d u tv a ’ a s a g lo b al H in d u id en tity is p rem ised o n a c o m b in a tio n o f em e rg e n t tra n s n a tio n a l p ractices a n d tra n s b o rd e r tech n o lo g ies a n d th e o th e rin g o f M u slim s (A .N . D as 1 9 9 7 ). T h e H in d u rig h t p rese n c e o n th e In te rn e t h a s a ls o been a ttrib u te d , by A rvind R a ja g o p al, to th e H S C . It c re a ted sites fo r e a ch university c h a p te r, a n d its ‘o v e ra rc h in g w e b site ’, th e G lobal H in d u E lectro n ic N e tw o rk (G H E N ), c o n ta in s links to o th e r sites o f th e Sangh P ariv ar. T h e In te rn e t is clearly seen a s a ‘key b a ttle ­ g ro u n d th a t m u st b e o c c u p ied a n d d e fen d ed ’ fo r v irtu a l H in d u tv a (R ajag o p al 2 0 0 0 : 4 7 6 , 4 8 4 -8 5 ). Biju M a th e w a n d V ijay P rash ad to o fo u n d th e In te rn et, a n d n o tab ly G H E N , crucial in h o ld in g to ­ g e th e r th e ‘e n tire la b y rin th o f V H P-A o rg a n iz a tio n s ’ (ib id .; M a th e w a n d P ra sh a d 2 0 0 0 : 5 2 6 ). A n aly sin g ‘cy b e r-d ia sp o ric H in d u m ili­ tan c y ’ in w h a t h e d escribes a s ‘d h a rm a k sh e tre , cy b erk sh e tre ', V inay L ai fo u n d th a t ‘very few p ro fe ssio n a l h isto ria n s, if a n y ’, c o n trib u te to th ese w ebsites w h ich a re typically ru n b y m iddle-class, m ale g rad u ­ a te stu d e n ts. W h ile th e In d ia n d iasp o ra is m u ch sm aller th a n th e C hinese o r A frican d ia s p o ra s, it h a s g rea te r g eo g ra p h ic re a c h , a n d ‘th ro u g h cyb ersp ace, H in d u s h av e fo u n d a n e w aw a re n ess o f th em ­ selves a s p a rt o f w h a t th ey n o w im ag in e is a g lo b al relig io n ’. T ra c k ­ in g G H E N , L ai f o u n d Isla m a lw a y s re n d e re d a s m o n o lith ic , a d e lib e ra te o b fu sc a tio n o f th e d istin c tio n b e tw e en H in d u ism a n d H in d u tv a a n d a cata lo g u in g o f tem p le d e stru c tio n o n th e s u b c o n ti­ n e n t a n d th ro u g h o u t th e d ia sp o ra , to e sta b lish H in d u s a s victim s o f ‘M u slim atro c ities’ (Lai 2 0 0 3 :2 4 9 - 6 3 ) . L e tte rs o n th e In te rn e t fro m In d ia n s in San A n to n io , T e x a s, o r B urlington, V e rm o n t, o fte n p reach th a t In d ia ‘sh o u ld in v ad e PoK , n u k e P a k ista n o r th ro w all M u slim s o u t’ (Sanghvi 2 0 0 3 ). 15. Y ashpal L a k ra q u o te d in S ucheta M a z u m d a r (2003: 26 2 ). See p . 2 5 2 fo r the im p o rta n t co m m en t th a t fo r d e an s o f stu d e n t activities th e larger political con n ectio n s o f th e H SC rem ain ‘invisible o r even u n k n o w n ’. 16. H in d u V ishw a, Ja n u a ry 199 9 , 16(1): 7.

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B o th e x c lu s io n a n d te rrito ry fig u re p ro m in e n tly in th e lo n g ­ s ta n d in g H in d u tv a p ro je c t. W h e n K.S. S u d e rsh a n to o k o v e r a s RSS ch ief in 2 0 0 0 , he a sk ed th e H in d u s to rea d y them selves fo r a n 'ep ic struggle ag ain st n o n -H in d u s’. H e q u o ted th e RSS fou n d er-id eo lo g u e, H e d g e w a r, a s say in g th a t sin c e M u slim s d id n o t b elieve in th e n a tio n th ey c a n n o t even b e called a n ti-n atio n al, o n ly ‘aliens’ (C henoy 2 0 0 2 : 166). U m a B h a ra ti h a s b een k n o w n to su m m o n H in d u m en to a rm s w ith th e c o m m e n t th a t n e ith e r d o H in d u s w a n t a cu t-u p (p artitio n e d ) n a tio n n o r c u t-u p (circum cised) m en in th e ir m id s t.17 A t a D iw a li m ela in 1 9 9 9 , th e Los A ngeles-based F e d e ra tio n o f H in d u A sso ciatio n s m ad e a free d istrib u tio n o f o v e r 1 0 ,0 0 0 copies o f a b o o k , B h a g w a n ’s C a ll fo r D h a rm a R a k sh a , o n th e d estru ctiv e n a tu re o f Islam , a n d b y c o n tra s t, o f th e in n o cen ce o f H in d u ism . A m a jo r th em e w a s th e lo ss o f ‘m o re th a n h a lf o f o u r V edic la n d ’ d u rin g ‘th e L ast (1000) D read fu l Y ears’. T ied to th a t w a s th e anxiety th a t ‘H in d u s c o u ld becom e [a] m in o rity in [the] very n e a r fu tu re’. 18 Som e y ears a g o , a w e b site p o stin g ask ed : ‘H in d u s! W h e re W ill You G o N o w ? ’. T h e sto ry o f loss significantly sp a n n ed b o th th e d iasp o ra a n d th e su b c o n tin e n t. ‘P a k ista n is g o n e ; B an g lad esh is g o n e ; K ash­ m ir is goin g ; Eight D istricts o f W e st Bengal a re n o w M o h a m m e d an m ajo rity a re a s, a s is M a la p p u ra m in th e S o u th . H in d u s a re being d riv e n o u t o f everyw here: F ro m Fiji, U g a n d a , P a k ista n , Sri L an k a, B angladesh, K a sh m ir a n d n o w A ssam a n d so o n ...’. T h is loss o f ‘h a lf o u r lan d ’ w a s a ttrib u te d to a m isp laced s u p p o rt to G a n d h i’s call fo r H in d u -M u s lim u n ity a n d th e ‘ap p e asin g ’ o f M u slim s. T h e to ta l n u m b e r o f P alestin ian s w h o w ere u p ro o te d b y th e c re a tio n o f Israel w a s ‘on ly 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 ’, a n d h a d se t o ff ‘terro rism , in tifa d a a n d w h a t n o t’. So, it a sk ed , w h y co u ld n o t th e claim s o f m o re th a n ‘tw o c ro re hom eless H in d u s d riv e n o u t o f B an g lad esh ’ b e h eard? ‘W e ca n easily ta k e o v e r th e six B an g lad esh d istricts a d ja c e n t to In d ia, n am ely K h u ln a , Jesso re, F a rid p u r, B arisal, P a tu ak h a li a n d K ushtia a n d resettle th em o n th a t lan d to b e n am ed “ B an g a b h u m i” ’. 19 17. Lai (2003: 248). In 1995, the Los Angeles-based Federation o f H indu A ssocia­ tions gave h e r th e ‘H in d u o f th e Y ear’ a w a rd . In 1 9 9 4 , it w e n t to Sadhvi R ita m b a ra a n d Bai T h ackeray. 18. Ibid.: 2 4 7 . L ai m entions a course o n ‘H induism ’, arra n g ed by students affiliated to th e H S C a t S tanford U niversity th a t d edicated an entire w eek to ‘H indus as M in o rity ’ (p . 245). 19. w w w .s w o rd o f tr u th .c o m /s w o rd o f tr u th /a r c h iv e s /o ld a r c h iv e s /h in d u s .h tm l, dow n lo a d ed on 3 S eptem ber 200 1 .

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A n o th e r w eb site s u p p o rtiv e o f th e Shiv S ena, B a jran g D al a n d th e RSS, p rese n ted a fo rty -fo u r p o in t ‘H in d u a g e n d a b e fo re th e p o litical p a rtie s to salvage B h a ra t’. T h e acco m p a n y in g ‘FA Q s a b o u t H in d u u n ity .o rg ’ c a rrie d th is re p ly to a q u e ry a b o u t w h e re ‘all existing M u slim s in In d ia ’ sh o u ld go: ‘W e believe th a t th ey all should h av e ta k e n a d v a n ta g e o f th e 1 9 4 7 p a rtitio n . All M u slim s sh o u ld g o b a ck to P a k ista n a n d B an g lad esh w h e re I a m su re th ey will be w el­ com ed’ (my em phasis). Since ‘n o t a single H in d u ’ h a s held a political se at in P ak istan , n o r sh o u ld M u slim s in In d ia. A n o th er a n sw e r stated th a t th e survival o f H in d u ism h ad d e m a n d e d th a t G a n d h i ‘b e a s­ sa ssin a te d ’. H is pacifism h a d a fte r all, ‘p a raly zed th e m an h o o d of In d ia , m en ta lly a n d p hysically, to su c h a n e x te n t th a t th ey w ere (an d still are) a d eg en erated , d o cile, su bm issive a n d su b serv ien t race o n e a rth , ev er rea d y to a p p e a se a n d su rre n d e r (1 9 4 7 ), g et slau g h ­ tered (Kashm ir) a n d b e kicked (U ganda, 1 9 7 2 ), a n d Fiji (1 9 8 7 and 2 0 0 0 )’. G an d h i, it w en t o n , m ay have been th e w ay h e w a s because, ‘h e h a d n o U nited N a tio n s to g o to a n d did n o t have th e in te rn et to fo rm a p o w e r b ey o n d a p p re h e n sio n . T o d a y w e ca n sit o n o u r co m ­ p u te rs a n d send m essages a t th e click o f a fin g er a n d if th e m essages a re p o w e rfu l e n o u g h a n d in su b sta n tia l n u m b ers th e achievem ents th u s derived will keep o u r cau ses o n th e f ro n t b u rn e r [sic]*.20 W h ile th e Sangh P a riv a r d o e s n o t rep re se n t th e H in d u n a tio n as co n fin ed to th e p rese n t b o rd ers o f In d ia , th e d elin e a tio n o f its ‘p ris­ tin e ’ b o rd ers varies in its p ro d u c tio n s (B acchetta 2 0 0 4 a : 2 9 ). For ex am p le, th e 1 9 9 3 d iary o f th e tra d e u n io n w in g o f th e RSS, th e B h a ra tiy a M a z d o o r S a n g h (BM S), c a rrie d fo u r s a ffro n p a g e s o f q u o ta tio n s o f S w am i V iv ek an an d , Sw am i R a m tirth , H e d g e w ar a n d G o lw a lk a r. T h e se w e re su p e rim p o se d o n its m ap o f th e c o u n try . T h is ‘A k h a n d B h a ra t’ (un d iv id ed India) included th e w h o le o f P a­ k ista n , N e p a l, B h u tan , B angladesh, M y a n m a r Sri L a n k a , T h a ila n d a n d C a m b o d ia .21 A co u p le o f y e a rs a g o , th e first c h a p te r o f th e RSS te x tb o o k fo r th e A k h il B h a ra tiy a S a n sk rit G y an P a rik sh a w h ich w a s b ein g ta u g h t to class VII stu d e n ts in L u c k n o w , ca rrie d a m ap 2 0 . w w w .h in d u u n ity .o rg , ‘T o g e th e r w e stan d to p reserve o u r heritage s o th a t w e c a n pass t h e lig h t to o u r c hildren!’, dow n lo a d ed on 20 D ecem ber 2 0 0 1 . ‘T he pro b lem betw een India a n d P a k ista n is n o t K ashm ir, it is Islam and th e te ac h ­ ings o f K o ra n , w hereby th e w orld has to be con q u e red by all m eans to be converted to th e p a th to A llah’. 2 1 . T h e P ioneer, 5 J a n u a ry 1993.

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o f A k h a n d B h a ra t th a t in clu d ed P a k ista n a n d B angladesh.22 T h e H in d u tv a view o f In d ia is n o t th a t o f a te rrito ry defined b y a n a d ­ m in istra tiv e m ap . ‘It is a b h o o m i, e a rth , defined b y H in d u ritu a l places: riv ers, lak es, lin g a m s, m o u n ta in s. As a resu lt, its b o rd e rs d o n o t c o in cid e w ith th o se o f th e In d ia n s ta te b u t w ith sp read o f such ritu a l places’. W h ile in m o st e th n ic b ra n d s o f n a tio n a lism , lan d is on ly ‘a seco n d ary fac to r’, C h risto p h e Jaffrelo t w rites th a t ‘here it p lays a m ajo r ro le’. In th e p o st-1 9 4 7 H in d u tv a asp ira tio n to reunify In d ia , P a k ista n a n d B an g lad esh fo r a n A k h a n d B h a ra t, J a ffrelo t n o tices a p ro je c t th a t reflects ‘a n e x tre m e v a lo riza tio n o f la n d ’, a n d o n e th a t ‘c o n tra d ic ts th e d e fin itio n o f th e n a tio n a s based o n H in d u c u ltu re ’jja ffre lo t 2 0 0 4 : 2 1 4 -1 5 ). W h en th e B ritish e co n o m y ex p an d ed a fte r th e Second W o rld W a r, w o rk e rs w ere recru ited fro m S o u th Asia a n d th e C a rib b e a n . A sian w o rk e rs in B ritain fo u n d them selves w o rk in g a t th e low est levels in factories, fo u n d ries a n d tex tile m ills, w ith lo w w ages a n d in insecure c o n d itio n s. In th e six ties, w o rk e rs m ig rated th e re m ain ly fro m th e n o rth e rn p a rts o f In d ia a n d P ak istan : G u ja ra t, M irp u r, Sylhet a n d P u n ja b (LD EC n .d .: 42). In th e seventies, descen d an ts o f indentured la b o u re rs a n d m e rc h a n ts fro m G u ja ra t a n d P u n ja b m o v ed fro m e a st A frica to th e UK (B h att 2 0 0 0 : 5 6 3 ). W h e n B ritain sta rte d tig h t­ e n in g its im m ig ra tio n p o licies in th e early six ties, th o se w h o m ay h av e g o n e to B ritain h e a d ed fo r th e US (P ra sh a d 2 0 0 0 : 77). T h is ch an g ed th e p ro file o f A sian A m erican s w h ic h w a s p red o m in an tly C h in ese, J a p a n e se a n d Filip in o , till th e a b o litio n o f th e n a tio n a l o rig in q u o ta s in 1 9 6 5 . A p a rt fro m In d ia n s a n d P a k ista n is, th e im ­ m ig ra n t fo rm a tio n e x p a n d e d to in clu d e S o u th -east A sian refugees fro m V ietn am , C a m b o d ia a n d L ao s (K ita n o a n d D an iels 1 9 8 8 :1 3 8; L o w e 19 9 6 : 102). S outh A sian im m ig ratio n to b o th th e US a n d C a n a d a h a s been a tw o -p h ase p h en o m en o n : o n e d a tin g fro m th e early tw e n tie th cen­ tu ry , a n d a ph ase th a t w a s m o re staggered a n d d isco n tin u o u s, co m ­ p risin g in th e m ain o f th e lab o u rin g a n d ag ricu ltu ral class; a n d the s e co n d a r o u n d th e m id -six tie s c o m p risin g m ain ly m id d le -c lass 2 2 . H in d u sta n T im es, 7 D ecem ber 2 0 0 0 ; see C om m u n a lism C o m b a t, M arc h -A p ril 2 0 0 2 , fo r a press conference s ta te m e n t by P ravin T o g a d ia , o n 7 F ebruary 2 0 0 2 , th a t th e V H P h a d tw o dem ands: ‘ta k e o v e r P ak istan a n d allo w th e [A yodhya] tem ple co n stru ctio n ’.

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professionals.23 Betw een 1 9 6 6 a n d 1 9 7 7 , 83 p e r c en t o f th e In d ian A m ericans w h o m ig rated to th e US w ere professional a n d technical w o rk ers. T h e percentage o f technical w o rk e rs a m o n g S o u th A sian m ig ran ts decreased steadily fro m th e eighties w h e n th e percen tag e of fam ily m em bers m oving th ere increased visibly. In d ia a n d P akistan co n tin u e to send th e largest n u m b er o f im m ig ran ts, b u t Bangladesh h a s edged in slow ly. A n in creasin g n u m b er o f S outh A sians have recently jo in ed th e ran k s o f th e w o rk in g class a n d p e tty bourgeoisie in th e US.24 W ith shifts in th e w o rld eco n o m y a n d th e closing of b o rd ers in E u ro p e, p e o p le w h o m ig rated fro m sm aller to w n s a n d less privileged b a c k g ro u n d s fro m th e eighties a re n o w w o rk in g at resta u ra n ts, new s sta n d s, grocery sto res, o r a re d riving tax icab s (Bald 1996: 6 6 -6 7 ). O f th e ro u g h ly o n e -a n d -a -h a lf m illion M u slim s in B ritain in th e m id -n in eties, slightly m o re th a n h a lf w ere o f S o u th A sian origin (E ickelm an a n d P iscato ri 19 9 6 : 154). A cco rd in g to o n e estim ate, a ro u n d th is tim e, S o u th A sian M u slim s in th e US w ere so m ew h ere b etw een 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 a n d 4 5 0 ,0 0 0 , w ith a b o u t 1 6 0 ,0 0 0 In d ian s, 8 0 ,0 0 0 P ak istan is a n d 1 0 ,0 0 0 B angladeshis. In C a n a d a , as in B ritain , S outh A sian M u slim s h av e p re d o m in a te d (F en to n 19 9 5 : 1 1 ,1 9 ) . A n o th er estim ate p o in ts to S o u th A sians com prising 2 4 .4 p e r c en t o f M uslim A m e ric a n s. Y et a n o th e r p u ts th e fig u re a t 2 9 p e r c e n t.25 E arly M u slim im m ig ra n ts w e re m o stly farm lab o u re rs fro m P u n ja b w h o m o v e d to th e US fro m w e s te rn C a n a d a , s e ttlin g in C a lifo rn ia , O re g o n a n d W a sh in g to n . In th e tw en ties a n d th e th irtie s sailo rs, sm all tra d e rs a n d fac to ry w o rk e rs fro m Bengal, in p a rtic u la r Sylhet, s e ttle d in N e w Y o rk , N e w J e rse y a n d C o n n e c tic u t, w ith a few m o v in g to in d u stria l c en tres like B o sto n a n d D e tro it. D u rin g th e fifties a n d early sixties several M u slim stu d e n ts en ro lled in A m eri­ ca n universities d ecid ed to sta y o n . T h e larg est a n d m o st h o m o g e­ n eo u s g ro u p o f In d ia n M u slim s b e lo n g to H y d e ra b a d . In n u m b ers, M u slim s fro m G u ja ra t a n d M a h a ra s h tra co m e n e x t, fo llo w ed by 2 3 . Bahri a n d V asudeva (1996: 4 - 5 ) . In 1991, there w ere 9 2 5 ,8 0 3 S outh A sians in th e US a n d people o f S outh A sian origin in C a n ad a totalled 4 2 0 , 4 3 3 . 2 4 . P rashad (2000: 7 5 -8 1 ). F o rty -fo u r p e r c e n t o f H -1B visa (for th e high-skilled to w o rk fo r th ree y ears) m ig ra n ts com e from India a n d 2 p e r c e n t from P aki­ sta n (C hina follow s India w ith 9 per cent). 2 5 . See L eonard (2 0 0 2 : 2 2 9 3 ). B ut th e co m m e n t th a t in th e ninties S outh Asian M u slim s assum ed le a d ersh ip p o s itio n s in th e 'n e w ly -o rg an ized A m erican M uslim political co alitio n s’, rem ains unela b o ra ted .

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th o se fro m A ssam , Bengal a n d B ihar. T h o u g h w idely d isp ersed in t h e U S , th e r e a r e la rg e c o n c e n tr a tio n s o f I n d ia n M u s lim s in C a lifo rn ia , Illinois, N e w Y o rk , N e w Jersey , C o n n e c tic u t, a n d in T e x a s, F lo rid a a n d G eo rg ia (Afzal 19 8 9 : 4 - 5 ). T h e In d ia n M u slim F e d e ra tio n (IM F ), w h ic h describ es itself as th e largest a n d o ld est o rg an iz a tio n o f M u slim s in th e UK, w as started in 1 9 6 9 in th e w a k e o f th e a n ti-M u slim rio ts in A h m e d a b ad . It received a n N G O s ta tu s w ith th e U N in 1 9 9 9 .26 A fter th e B h agalpur r io t in B ih ar in 1 9 8 9 , a n d in th e b a c k d ro p o f th e sh ila n ya s m ove­ m en t, th e IM F w h ic h c laim ed to rep re se n t 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 In d ia n M u slim s in B ritain , stro n g ly criticized th e g ro w th o f th e RSS a n d th e th re a t to th e Babri M asjid. A letter to th e th en p rim e m inister, Rajiv G an d h i, p o in te d o u t th a t th ere w a s ‘a n un d isg u ised m o v em en t to co n v ert h u n d red s o f o th e r m o sq u es in to te m p le s ...a n d to d estro y , gradually a n d sy stem atically ’, th e id en tity o f In d ia n M u slim s. Sim u ltan eo u sly, a n o th e r L o n d o n -b a se d o rg a n iz a tio n , th e S ta n d in g C o n fe re n c e o f M in o ritie s o f In d ia (SC IM ), held a m eetin g in th e P a rlia m e n t co m ­ m ittee ro o m a n d p assed a reso lu tio n p ro testin g ag ain st th e B hagalpur r io t a n d a sk ed th e In d ia n g o v e rn m e n t to g et th e V H P to p ro v e its claim o v e r th e B abri M a sjid in a c o u rt o f law . It a lso d e m a n d e d a d e q u a te re p re s e n ta tio n to M u slim s a n d o th e r m in o ritie s in th e a d m in istra tio n , th e police a n d a rm e d fo rces, a s well a s in D o o rd a rs h a n , A IR , PTI a n d U N I, ‘in o rd e r to c o m b a t co m m u n alism a t every level’. T h e re w e re a n g ry scenes w h e n ‘a n u n in v ited g u est’, th e p resid en t o f th e UK b ran c h o f th e V H P, Lai C h a n d Puja, p o in te d o u t th a t H in d u s did n o t n eed to p ro v e th a t R am w a s b o rn in A yodhya b ecause M u slim s a n d C h ristia n s co u ld n o t p rese n t sim ila r p ro o fs e ith e r.27 In th e la te nin eties, th e o n e m illion s tro n g In d ia n c o m m u n ity in B ritain becam e active in cities a n d to w n s w ith sizeable In d ia n p o p u ­ latio n s th ro u g h o rg an iz a tio n s a ffilia te d w ith m a jo r In d ia n political p a rties w h e n In d ia w e n t to th e m id -te rm p o ll. T h e re w ere m eetings in s u p p o rt o f th e U n ited F ro n t (UF) by F rien d s o f C P I(M ) a n d th e A sso ciatio n o f In d ia n C o m m u n ists (CPI). A cco rd in g to o n e rep o rt, th e IM F w a s sh a rp ly divided o v e r its a p p ro a c h to th e BJP. M a d h u k a r A m b e d k a r, p resid e n t o f th e O v erseas F rien d s o f BJP (UK), claim ed 2 6 . w w w .indianm uslim .org; fo r its positio n o n the killings o f B iharis in 1971 see c h a p te r tw o. 2 7 . Radiance, 1 0 -1 6 D ecem ber 1989.

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th a t som e M u slim s h a d ex pressed th e ir s u p p o rt. B ut th o u g h G h u lam Q a d ir N o o n , a w e ll-k n o w n b u sin e ssm a n a n d a p a tr o n o f th e IM F , a p p e a le d to th e M u s lim s to g iv e th e BJP a c h a n c e , its h e a d , S h am su d d in A gha sa id , ‘T h e d ay th ey d isso c iate them selves fro m G o lw a lk a r’s a n ti-M u slim ideo lo g y , all o u r d o u b ts will b e rem o v e d ’. A t th a t p o in t o f tim e th e IM F w a s said to b e d o m in a te d by s u p p o rt­ ers o f th e J a n a ta D al o r th e C o n g ress. It sen t a c h a rte r o f six teen d e m a n d s to every p a rty , a n d in clu d ed th e reb u ild in g o f th e Babri m asjid a n d n o n -in terferen ce in M u slim p e rso n a l law . It p la n n e d to give fin an cial s u p p o rt to a few ca n d id a tes w ith se cu la r c re d en tials a n d p u t o u t ad v ertisem en ts in m a jo r E nglish, U rd u a n d G u ja ra ti dailies ask in g M uslim s to exercise th e ir v o te w ith ca u tio n . A gha said th e IM F w o u ld n am e ‘som e fu n d am en talist p a rties th e co m m u n ity sh o u ld b e carefu l o f’ (S.Z. A hm ed 1998). T h e m a jo r o rg an iz a tio n s w o rk in g w ith cau ses a n d issues c o n ­ ce rn in g In d ia n M u slim s in th e US in th e late eighties in clu d ed th e In d ia n M u slim R elief C o m m itte e (IM R C ) o f th e Islam ic Society o f N o r th A m erica (IS N A ), th e C o n s u lta tiv e C o m m itte e o f In d ia n M u slim s in N o r th A m erica a n d C a n a d a (C C IM ), C h ic a g o , a n d th e A sso ciatio n o f In d ia n M u slim s (A IM ), W ash in g to n D .C .. F und-raisin g activ ities w ere largely crisis d riv e n a n d th e re w a s a reg io n al p a tte rn to co llectio n s. W h e n M u slim s fro m a c e rta in p a rt o f India w ere affected , m o st fu n d s raised fo r th em ca m e fro m im m ig ra n t M uslim s fro m th a t p a rticu la r city o r region in In d ia. M o re th a n 7 5 p e r c e n t o f th e m oney com es fro m z a k a t fu n d s a n d alm o st 9 0 per c e n t o f th e disb u rsem en t goes to rio t victim s (H usaini 19 8 9 : 9 6 -9 7 ). T h e C C IM h a s fo cu sed o n c a m p a ig n s a g a in st a n ti-M u slim rio ts a n d o n k e ep in g In d ia n M u slim s in A m erica in fo rm e d a b o u t th e e d u c atio n al p ro b le m s a n d u n d e rd e v e lo p m e n t o f M u slim s.28 2 8 . V ogelaar (1994: 25 0 ). T h e pu b lic atio n o f the A m erican M uslim s F rom India, A F M i-N ew s-B rie f, A p ril-M a y 199 3 , carries a c o n trib u tio n o n 'C o m m u n a l H arm o n y ’ by M oh a m m ed Y acoob, fo rm er ch airm a n o f th e C C IM in USA a n d C an a d a. H is suggestions included ho ld in g sem inars th ro u g h o u t th e US to discuss e conom ic a nd com m unal p ro b lem s in In d ia, to b uild bridges o f u n d er­ sta n d in g am o n g va rio u s In d ia n com m unities, in fo rm in g ‘cre d u lo u s p eople and H in d u fu n d a m entalists in India a n d in th e U nited States t h a t their e nem ies are p o v e rty , ignorance a n d e conom ic p ro b lem s a n d n o t th e m em bers o f th e M u s­ lim co m m u n ity ’, condem ning ‘in flam m ato ry a n d anti-M uslim speeches and w ritin g s by H in d u chauvinists in India a n d the U nited States’, a n d helping in ‘th e deve lo p m en t o f n e w lead ersh ip o f M uslim s in India’, by su p p o rtin g de­ serving students.

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T h e IM R C w as s ta rte d in 1 9 8 2 .29 In its estim ate th e a p p ro x i­ m ately h a lf a m illio n In d ia n M u slim s resid in g in th e US co n stitu te a b o u t 10 p e r c en t o f th e to ta l US M u slim p o p u la tio n . It profiles m o st o f th em as p ro fessio n als a ctiv e in th e fields o f m edicine, engi­ n e erin g , science a n d b u sin ess. In th e first ten y ears o f its w o rk th e IM R C fo cu sed o n h u m a n ita ria n a id to victim s o f ‘re c u rre n t’ an tiM u slim p o g ro m s a n d h elped ‘m o re th a n 6 ,0 0 0 fam ilies in so m e six sta te s th a t fo u n d them selves o n [the] d a rk e r side o f in d ep e n d e n t In d ia ’. T h e IM R C h a s b een c o n cern ed a b o u t th e ‘d ra m a tic rise of H in d u fu n d am e n ta lism in In d ia ’, w h ic h h a s a d d e d to th e d e s p a ir o f M u slim s in th e ir ‘fo rm e r h o m ela n d ’. Its w o rk h a s included sen d in g e d u catio n al assistance fo r o rp h an e d a n d d e stitu te ch ild ren (to 2 5 ,0 0 0 ch ild ren in eleven sta te s in tw elve years) a n d su p p o rtin g h e alth care p ro jects in slum s a ro u n d M u m b a i a n d H y d e ra b a d .30 O v e r th e years th e IM R C h a s given elected US rep resen tativ es a n d th e US m edia in fo rm a tio n a b o u t M u slim s in In d ia .31 T h e IM R C a lso circu lates in fo rm a tio n o n issues lik e th e B abri M a sjid , M u slim p e rso n a l law a n d h u m a n rig h ts v io la tio n s to all m em b ers o f Islam ic societies in th e US a n d C a n a d a . It has o rg an ized sem in ars by visiting M uslim sch o lars a n d relief w o rk e rs fro m In d ia in m a jo r cities in b o th c o u n ­ trie s ,32 a n d c a m p a ig n e d a g a in s t th e T e r ro r is ts a n d D is ru p tiv e A ctivities P rev en tio n A ct (TAD A). A cco rd in g to th e IM R C , th e c o n ­ s ta n t th re a t o f p h y sical violence a n d loss o f businesses a n d e a rn in g s in rio ts , a n d th e lack o f in co m e, h av e red u ced th e o n ce v ib ra n t M u slim c o m m u n ity to a g ro u p ‘m o re b a c k w a rd th a n In d ia ’s low est castes’.33 In its first th irte e n y ears it claim s to h av e d isb u rsed $ 3 m illio n , in clu d in g 2 3 ,2 4 5 sch o larsh ip s to stu d e n ts.34 In th e th ree y ears sin ce 1 9 9 3 , d o n a tio n s to th e IM R C fell fro m $1 m illio n to

2 9 . W h a t follow s is based on som e m id-nineties’ a n n u al re p o rts and fliers o f the IM R C f o r w h ich I w o u ld like to th a n k its c h a irm a n , M a n z o o r G h o ri (4 D ecem ber 1996). T h e IM R C is b ased in C alifo rn ia , a n d ISN A , o f w hich i t is a co m m ittee, is based in Plainfield, In diana. 3 0 . IM R C flier, ‘C arin g a n d S haring is W h a t we A re A b o u t’ [1994]. 3 1 . IM R C A nnual R ep o rt, 1993. 3 2 . Ibid., 1994. 3 3 . Ibid., 1995. T h e ch a irm an , M a n z o o r G hori o bserved, ‘w hile M uslim s o f N o rth A m erica have do n ated generously to help M uslim s o f B osnia a n d C hechnya, d o n a tio n s to IM R C h ave d eclined sh arp ly c om p are d to 199 3 . W e a ll c a n h elp alleviate th is s itu a tio n ...’ . 3 4 . IM R C N ew s, W in ter 1 9 9 4 -1 9 9 5 a n d Sum m er 1995.

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$ 6 0 0 ,0 0 0 , w h ic h w a s ‘a d ro p o f 4 0 % in tw o y ears’. T h e c h a irm a n , M a n z o o r G h o ri, figured th a t th is w a s ‘p e rh a p s a resu lt o f m o re p ressin g need s in B osnia 8c C h ech n y a w h ich receive w id e m edia coverag e’, a n d in v ited b a c k c o n trib u tio n s fo r its ‘im p o rta n t w o rk in In d ia ’. M o s t o f its w o rk h a s b een in th e field o f e d u c atio n , in term s o f su p p o rtin g Islam ic sc h o o ls a n d c ra ft c e n tre s in A n d h ra P rad esh , B ih ar, K a rn a ta k a , M a h a ra s h tra , O rissa , T am il N a d u a n d U tta r P rad esh .35 T h e A ssociation o f In d ia n M u slim s o f A m erica (A IM ) w a s started in 1 9 8 5 w h en ‘n o such o rg an izatio n existed in th e USA’. T h e feeling w a s th a t w hile th ere w ere m an y o rg an izatio n s o f e x p a tria te Indians in th e USA ‘generally th e issues o f In d ia n M u slim s w h ic h a re u n iq u e ’ did n o t g et ‘an y a tte n tio n ’ in th em . Since th e p ro b le m s o f M uslim s w ere ‘c o n tin u in g to in crease’ A IM w a s lau n c h e d a s a p la tfo rm to a d d re ss issues co n c ern in g M u slim s in In d ia . In th e la te nin eties, A IM c a ta lo g u ed c h a p te rs in th irte e n cities in clu d in g Los A ngeles, H o u s to n , W e st P alm B each, M in n e a p o lis, R o c h e ste r, P h ilad elp h ia, N e w a rk , a n d R ich m o n d . By th e m id -n in eties, w ith a m em b ersh ip com prising ‘70 0 fam ilies, co ast-to -co ast, in 4 0 m ajo r states’, it claim ed to b e th e ‘larg est o rg an iz a tio n o f In d ia n M u slim s in N o r th A m erica’. It h a s b e e n in to u c h w ith th e IM F in U K a n d th e A sso c ia tio n M u su lm a n e L’In d e in Paris. In th e US, A IM m em b ers reg u larly a t­ ten d th e a n n u a l co n v e n tio n s o f ISN A . It a lso w o rk s th ro u g h In d ia n asso c ia tio n s like th e In d ia C u ltu ra l C o o rd in a tio n C o m m itte e a n d th e F e d e ra tio n o f In d ia n A sso ciatio n s to bu ild b rid g es w ith Pak i­ stan i A m erican s a n d h elps o u t n ew In d ia n M u slim im m ig ra n ts w ith tu itio n fees a n d in fin d in g h o u sin g .36 O v e r th e y ears A IM h a s p u t to g eth er p o sitio n p ap ers a n d articles w h ich it p u b lish es in In d ia n a n d A m erican n e w sp a p e rs a n d circu­ la te s a m o n g o p in io n -m a k e rs, th in k ta n k s a n d US S e n a to rs a n d C o n g ressm en , to d ra w a tte n tio n to th e p ro b le m s faced b y M uslim m asses in In d ia a lo n g th e fo llo w in g lines: th a t 5 5 p e r c e n t live b elo w th e p o v e rty line, co m p a re d to th e n a tio n a l av erag e o f 3 5 p er

3 5 . ‘IM R C A t W o rk : A P rogress R e p o rt’, W in ter 1996. 3 6 . T h e A sso c ia tio n o f Indian M u slim s O f A m erica: A Profile, n .d .; c om m u n ic a ­ tion from A IM d ire c to r, K aleem K aw aja, 3 F ebruary 1997: ‘It is th a t a p a ­ th etic a ttitu d e [to w ard In d ian M uslim s] o f Indian A ssociations t h a t led to the fo rm atio n o f A IM ’, T he A IM Journal, (1), J u n e 1 9 9 5 .1 w o u ld like to th a n k K. K aw aja fo r the A IM fliers a n d new sletters.

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c en t; 4 3 p e r c en t a re illite ra te, co m p a re d to th e a ll-In d ia av erag e o f 2 8 p e r c e n t; a n d th a t th ey h a v e to s u ffe r s p e lls o f c o m m u n a l violence. In th e nin eties, A IM say s it d istrib u te d ‘several th o u sa n d d o lla rs’ to in stitu tio n s in U tta r P rad esh , B ih ar, K a rn a ta k a , A n d h ra P rad esh , T am il N a d u a n d G u ja ra t. A cco rd in g to A IM , th e e d u c a ­ tio n a l b a c k w a rd n e s s o f In d ia n M u slim s is rec e iv in g in a d e q u a te a tte n tio n b ecau se th ey ‘c o n tin u e to b e p reo ccu p ied w ith po litical p ro b le m s’. In th e a fte rm a th o f co m m u n al violence in th e e a rly n in e­ ties, it d isb u rsed assistan ce to th e affected th ro u g h c h a rita b le o rg a ­ n iz a tio n s lik e th e A n ju m an -e -Isla m , M u m b a i, T a m e e r-e -M illa t, H y d e ra b a d , Im arat-e-S h aria, P a tn a , a n d M u slim M ajlis, C h e n n a i.37 In ‘T h e P lig h t o f In d ia n M u slim s’, w ritte n in m id -1 9 8 9 , Kaleem K a w a ja w ro te th a t ‘fo r fo rty lo n g years, th e p o st-in d ep e n d e n c e gen­ e ra tio n o f In d ia n M u slim s h a s e n d u re d th e tra u m a o f th e cre a tio n o f P a k ista n , d esp ite h a v in g n o th in g to d o w ith i t . .. ’. T h e o v e rsta te ­ m e n t w a s o b v io u s ly m e a n t to c o rr e c t a f a m ilia r s te r e o ty p in g a sso ciated w ith th e ir m ak in g P a k ista n . H e a lso to o k o n th e p ress in th e su b c o n tin e n t a n d N o r th A m erica f o r p u b lish in g sto ries th a t p o rtra y e d In d ia n M u slim s a s h av in g tu rn e d fu n d am e n ta list a n d in­ to le ra n t o f th e H in d u m ajo rity . A ttrib u tin g th is to th e ‘th o ro u g h ly d isto rte d h isto ry o f In d ia , p e d d led b y c h a u v in istic H in d u o rg an iz a ­ tio n s’, h e w ro te th a t th is w e n t unch allen g ed b y lib eral H in d u s a n d th e n a tio n a l press. M u slim s b e lo n g ed to In d ia a n d c o u ld n o t be ‘w ish ed a w a y ’. T h e y a re n o t a t h o m e a n y w h e re else, ‘n o t [even] in p red o m in an tly M u slim m id d le e a ste rn c o u n tries’. In a n o th e r piece K a w a ja w ro te th a t th o u g h 6 0 m illio n M u slim s ch o se to sta y o n in In d ia a fte r p a rtitio n , reje c tin g th e tw o -n a tio n th e o ry , th ey ‘so o n fo u n d th em selves th e victim s o f th e b a c k la sh o f th e fo rm a tio n o f P a k ista n , a n a c tio n w h ich th ey h a d stro n g ly o p p o se d ’.38 S p eaking a t a se m in a r o n ‘M in o ritie s in In d ia ’ in W a sh in g to n in M a rc h 1 9 9 3 , h e a rg u e d th a t secu larism h a d ‘b eco m e a farc e ’ a s M u slim citizens w ere o n th e verge o f b e c o m in g seco n d -class citizen s in In d ia .39 Soon a fte r th e 1 9 9 2 rio ts, K a w a ja stressed th a t it w a s tim e fo r p ro g re s­ sive In d ia n M u slim s to ta k e th e leadership o f th e co m m u n ity fro m its ‘o b sc u ra n tist leaders’ a n d d em an d th a t go v ern m en t a n d all political 3 7 . Ibid. 3 8 . N e w s In d ia , 24 A pril 1992. 3 9 . ‘D ep riv atio n o f th e M uslim C o m m u n ity in India’, 17 M a rc h 1993.

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p a rties a d d re ss th e p ro b le m s o f p o v e rty , a n d illiteracy; a n d forge b o n d s w ith se cu la r H in d u s .40 W h en A IM o rg an ized a se m in a r to c e leb rate fifty y ears o f In d ia ’s In d e p e n d e n c e , O m a r K h a lid i o f th e M a ss a c h u s e tts In s titu te o f T ech n o lo g y (M IT) sa id th a t th e ‘jo lt’ th a t M u slim s g o t in 1 9 4 7 h ad c o n tin u e d to rev e rb e ra te in th e ir co llectiv e psyche. Successive g o v­ e rn m e n ts h a d d rag g e d th e ir feet in p ro v id in g b a sic a m en ities to M u slim s. T h e y w ere u n d e r-re p re se n te d in g o v e rn m e n t, in th e a rm e d services a n d p o lice, a n d th u s felt a lien ated . B ut it w a s secu lar lead ­ ers like V .P. Singh, Jy o ti Basu, M u la y a m Singh Y a d a v a n d Lalu P ra sa d Y ad av w h o k e p t M u slim s o p tim istic. M o d e ra tin g th e sem i­ n a r, K a w a ja (an e n g in eerin g m an a g e r w ith N A SA ), sa id th a t th e fiftieth y e a r w a s a tim e fo r so u l se arc h in g , p a rtic u la rly in th e b a c k ­ d ro p o f th e d e m o litio n o f th e B abri M a sjid in 1 9 9 2 . T h e sem in ar reso lu tio n a sk ed w h y th e In d ia n g o v e rn m e n t h a d n o t b ro u g h t to ju stice th e c u lp rits o f th e violence th a t s p re a d in its w a k e , even five y e a rs a fte r th e e v e n t.41 A IM c o m p la in e d to th e P re sid e n t, K .R. N a r a y a n a n , a b o u t th e n o n -co m p lia n c e o f th e J u stic e S rik rish n a r e p o rt o n th e 1 9 9 2 -9 3 rio ts b y th e BJP-led c o a litio n g o v ern m en t in N e w D elhi a n d th e BJP-Shiv Sena g o v e rn m e n t in M a h a ra s h tra . It a lso d e m a n d e d th a t Bal T h a c k e ra y a n d M a n o h a r Jo sh i b e trie d in a c o u rt o f law f o r th e ir ro le in in citin g large-scale violence ag ain st M u slim s in M u m b a i.42 In 1 9 9 4 , A IM lau n c h e d its ca m p a ig n to rep eal T A D A , w h ich w as m e a n t to c o p e w ith terro rism b u t w a s used in th e early n in eties to h a ra ss M u slim s. It estim a te d th a t ‘o f th e 6 5 ,0 0 0 T A D A d eten u s, a b o u t 8 0 % ’ w ere M u slim s a n d m an y o f th em w e re o ld p e o p le , w o m e n a n d c h ild ren . T h e th re a t o f T A D A w as a lso used by th e p o lice in several larg e cities to e x to r t h u g e su m s o f m o n ey fro m M u slim s. T h e ca m p a ig n in clu d ed a m ass letter w ritin g to th e US 4 0 . ‘W here D o Indians G o F rom H ere?’, unpublished p aper, 1 Jan u ary 1993: ‘Local issues like th e B abri m o sq u e should n o t b e a llow ed t o becom e n a tio n a l issues, despite th e p ro v o ca tio n o f th e com m unal forces. T h e n e w leadership o f M u s­ lims s h o u ld d efinitely n o t w age c am paigns o n sym bolic issues’ like Shah Bano a n d Satanic Verses. 4 1 . H in d u sta n T im es, 11 Ja n u a ry 199 8 . A lso see K halidi, (2003). 4 2 . India A b ro a d , 18 S eptem ber 1998. A lso see T h e A IM , J u n e 196 6 , fo r the A IM m em o ran d u m to P resident S h a n k ar D ayal S harm a o n 10 M ay 1996 on th e v io la tio n o f h u m a n rights o f M uslim s in M a h a ra sh tra , such a s th e des­ ecratio n o f th e sh rin e o f Baba A b d u r R e h m a n M alan g , th e dele tio n o f the n a m e s o f ‘several th o u sa n d ’ M uslim s from electoral rolls, a n d so o n .

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Secretary o f S tate, th e p rim e m in ister o f In d ia , th e c h ie f ju stice o f In d ia , a n d h u m a n rig h ts o rg an iz a tio n s in th e US, C a n a d a , England a n d In d ia .43 O n th e issue o f M u slim p e rso n a l law refo rm , K a w a ja ’s p o sitio n is th a t th e in itiativ e sh o u ld co m e fro m th e c o m m u n ity .44 H e feels In d ia n M u slim s living in N o r th A m erica c a n p lay a n im ­ p o r ta n t ro le in p rev e n tin g In d ia n M u slim s fro m su fferin g th e sam e fate as ‘th e M u slim s in Sp ain ’. Its e d u c a tio n p ro je c ts d r a w o n fu n d s raised in N o r th A m erican cities, w h e re v e r M u slim s live in ‘signifi­ c a n t n u m b e rs ’.45 A la te n in eties’ A IM p ress sta te m e n t sa id th a t it h a d d o n a te d $ 5 0 ,0 0 0 to a n u m b e r o f e d u c atio n al in stitu tio n s in A h m e d a b ad , A lig arh , A n a n d , P a tn a , R an ch i a n d o th e r cities, a n d s ta rte d a m in o rity w o m e n ’s p o ly tech n ic in D elh i.46 B ut like m o st d iasp o ric In d ia n M u slim s, K aw aja a p p e ars to be u n a w a re o f th e e x te n sio n o f th e M a n d a l C o m m issio n rec o m m e n d a tio n s to M uslim O th e r B ack w ard C lasses (O BC s). H e d e m a n d e d th a t M u slim s fro m ‘b a c k w a rd p ro fe ssio n fam ilies’ b e c o v ered by affirm a tiv e ac tio n : in p ro fe ssio n a l co u rses in colleges a n d universities, if n o t in g o v e rn ­ m en t em p lo y m en t. U n lik e th e s u b c o n tin e n ta l b a c k w a rd a n d D alit M u slim m o v em en ts th a t I h av e discussed elsew h ere, K aw aja a ttr ib ­ u ted th e b a c k w a rd n ess o f M u slim s in ‘lo w level p ro fessio n s’ to th e lack o f o p p o rtu n itie s in e d u c a tio n a n d g o v e rn m e n t e m p lo y m en t, ra th e r th a n to c a ste s tra tific a tio n in th e c o m m u n ity .47 A flie r o f th e A m e ric a n F e d e ra tio n o f M u s lim s F ro m In d ia (A FM I),48 situ a te d itse lf by m ak in g th e p o in t th a t th o u g h In d ia n M u slim s a d d u p to 1 2 .5 to 13 p e r c e n t o f th e u m m a , th e p ro b le m s faced b y M u slim s in In d ia g o t ‘th e lea st p rio rity ’ a m o n g A m erican M u slim s.49 B ut a t a n o th e r level, th e A F M I’s in te rv en tio n ag ain st 4 3 . T h e A I M , 9 (1 ), J u n e 199 5 . See the N o v em b er 1995 issue for the ‘M em o ran ­ d u m o f th e A ssociation o f Indian M uslim s o f A m erica t o M r R a n g a n ath M isra, C h a irm an , N a tio n a l H u m a n R ights C om m ission’. 4 4 . ‘M uslim P ersonal Law N eeds R eform ’, unp u b lish e d p a p e r, 13 July 1995. 4 5 . ‘C all T o U plift In d ia n M uslim s’, 1 A ugust 1993; see T h e T im e s o f In d ia , 23 F eb ru a ry 199 9 , fo r a le tte r to the e d ito r from K aleem K aw aja asking Indian leaders t o solve th e m ajo r issues facing Indian M uslim s such as u nem ploym en t a n d lack o f e d ucation. 4 6 . w w w .red iff.co m /n e w s/1 9 9 9 /ju n /1 7 u sc o m 2 .h tm 4 7 . See h is, ‘R eservation in E m ploym ent/C olleges F or M uslim s in India’, u n p u b ­ lished p a p e r, 1 N o v em b er 1996. 4 8 . N o w ren a m e d A m erican F e d era tio n o f M uslim s o f Indian O rigin: see T h e T im e s o f In d ia , 9 J a n u a ry 2 00 4 . 4 9 . ‘S tatus o f M uslim s in In d ia’, n.d.

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s u b c o n tin e n ta l a n d d iasp o ric H in d u tv a need s to b e seen in a terrain w h e re p a n -In d ian o rg an iz a tio n s in th e US largely co n fin e d th em ­ selves to se p aratin g A sian In d ian s a s a census categ o ry , cam paigning to m ain ta in th e fam ily reu n ific a tio n im m ig ra tio n c lau se, e n ab lin g inv estin g in In d ia as N R Is, ren a m in g streets, in sta llin g sta tu e s o f In d ia n s a n d so o n (H elw eg a n d H elw eg 1 9 9 0 : 7 0 - 7 5 , 1 0 9 -1 5 ). T h e A F M I e x p la in e d th a t it w a s n o t as th o u g h M u slim s d id n o t w a n t to b e p a r t o f th e In d ia n c o m m u n ity a t larg e, ‘b u t q u ite o fte n ’ th ey felt a s if th ey w e re ‘ta k e n fo r g ra n te d a n d o fte n u sed f o r to k e n ­ ism ’.50 A. R e h m a n S. N a k a d a r, th e A F M I general se cretary , recently recalled h o w th e o rg a n iz a tio n c a m e a b o u t: As head o f a few In d ian o rg an izatio n s in M ichigan, I saw tw o associations o f Patels a n d one o f Indian Catholics. Every Indian com ­ m unity, it seemed, w as taking care o f its o w n, bu t there w as n o asso­ ciation for Indian M uslims w h o felt neglected. I felt th e comm unity needed to be taken care o f__All M uslim s are going through a diffi­ cult tim e after 9/11. But because M uslim s in India have lived in a pluralistic society, the w ay we present ourselves is different from the w ay others, say, Pakistanis M uslims, do. O u r ap p ro ach is different.51 In its fo rm a tiv e s ta g e , so m e m e m b e rs d e c id e d th a t a n a n ti ­ g o v e rn m e n t a ttitu d e w o u ld b e co u n te r-p ro d u c tiv e . A p relim in ary A sso ciatio n o f In d ia n M u slim s, M ich ig an , w a s fo rm ed in O c to b e r 1 9 8 7 .52 T w o y ears later, th e A FM I w a s sta rte d in 1 989. Based in D etro it, b y th e la te nin eties, it h a d reg io n al v ice-presidents in C a lifo rn ia , Illin o is, M a ssa c h u se tts, N e b ra s k a , T e x a s , W a sh in g to n D .C . a n d C a n a d a . Its liaiso n c o m m ittee c o v ered US, U K , G erm an y , A u stra ­ lia , Saudi A ra b ia a n d K u w ait. D escrib in g itself a s a g ra ss-ro o t o r ­ g a n iz a tio n c o m p risin g in tellectu als, acad em ics, social activ ists a n d th o se c o n c ern e d w ith a rriv in g a t social ju stice, it su m m ed u p th e s ta tu s o f th e In d ia n M u slim s: A F M I fig u res p u t 6 5 p e r c e n t o f M u slim s a t o r b e lo w th e p o v e rty line, w ith on ly 1.6 p e r c e n t reach ­ in g th e college level. T h e ir em p lo y m en t in priv ate a n d p u b lic sectors 5 0 . ‘Indo-U S R elations in th e 2 1 st C entury: A G lobal Perspective’, 6 th A nnual C o nvention, 5 - 6 O c to b e r, R adisson H o te l, N e w ark , NJ. 5 1 . T h e T im e s o f In d ia , 9 J a n u a ry 2 0 0 4 ; Interview w ith A.R .S. N a k a d a r, 17 Ja n u a ry 199 7 , D etroit. 5 2 . Interview w ith M . Q a m ru z za m a n , 18 J a n u a ry 199 7 , D etroit.

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v aried b etw een 1 .2 to 4.1 p e r c e n t. All o f th is a d d e d u p to th e ir b ein g ‘th e m o st under-p riv ileg ed g ro u p (class) in In d ia ’.53 In A F M I’s an aly sis, th e policies o f a ‘c e rta in seg m en t o f ch a u v in istic fo rces’, w h ich form ed ‘a p p ro x im ate ly 2 0 to 2 5 % o f th e p o p u la tio n ’, aim ed to keep M u slim s ‘h u m ilia ted a t all levels’. T h o u g h th e m ajo rity w as ‘fair m inded, liberal a n d secu lar’, w ith a few ex cep tio n s, th ey kept silent a n d d id n o t d e n o u n ce ‘th e d o in g o f these chauvinistic forces.’54 F o r th e A F M I, th e d e m o litio n o f th e Babri M a sjid o n 6 D ecem ­ b e r 1 9 9 2 p u sh e d th e issue o f th e security o f In d ia n M u slim s in to s h a rp fo cu s. It sa w In d ia ’s ‘real a d v ersaries’ a s th e fascist a n d c h a u ­ vinistic forces th a t p rea c h e d h a tre d a g a in st o th e r c o m m u n ities a n d su b v erted In d ia ’s p lu ralistic society by d eflectin g a tte n tio n fro m its m ate ria l p ro b le m s.55 A sta te m e n t g iv en by it to th e p rim e m in ister, N a ra s im h a R a o , o n 2 6 D ecem b er 1 9 9 2 , u n d erlin ed th a t th e c o u n ­ try sto o d to rn b etw een ‘th o se w h o w a n t to tu r n th e 4 6 y e a r old rep u b lic in to a H in d u s ta te ...a n d th o se w h o a re keen to estab lish secu larism ’. T h e stru g g le h a d ‘sh a rp e n e d ’, p o st-6 D ecem b er 1 9 9 2 , b ecau se th e citizen sh ip o f In d ia n M u slim s w a s ‘still u n d e r suspi­ c io n ’. N o t on ly did th ey h av e th e lo w est literacy a n d em p lo y m en t rate s, th ey h a d a lso b eco m e ‘targ e ts o f h a tre d a n d rid icu le b y g ro u p s o p p o s e d to s e c u la ris m ’. B u t o v e rse a s M u s lim s fro m I n d ia h ad decided ‘n o t to sit idle’; th ey saw them selves as ‘p a rt o f th e d estiny of th eir co u n try a n d co m m u n ity ’ a n d w a n te d to intervene ‘vigorously a n d p ositively’.56 In M a y 1 9 9 4 , A F M I, A IM , IM R C a n d C C IM g a v e a jo in t m e m o ran d u m to th e In d ia n p rim e m in iste r w h o w a s o n a visit to 5 3 . Fliers o f th e A m erican F e d era tio n o f M uslim s fro m India (A FM I), fo r w hich I w o u ld like to th a n k A .R .S N a k a d a r. 5 4 . ‘S tatus o f M uslim s in India: Som e o f th e Solutions P roposed by A m erican F ederation of M uslim s from In d ia , (A FM I docum ent). 5 5 . ‘Indo-U S R elatio n in th e 2 1 st C en tu ry ’ 6 th A nnual C o n v e n tio n , 5 - 6 O ctober; fliers; A F M I-N e w s B rief, Ju n e-Ju ly 199 5 , p p . 4 - 5 . 5 6 . A F M I-N e w s Brief, A pril/M ay 1993, p. 12. ‘O verseas M uslim s o f Indian origin rose from th e ranks o f M uslim m asses a n d e arned a respectable p osition in their present countries th ro u g h th e ir hard w o rk a n d d eterm ination. T hey ow e it to their c ountry a n d the c om m unity to share their fruits o f la b o u r’. T he statem ent w as subm itted by delegates atte n d in g an in tern atio n al conference in N ew D elhi, initially o rganized to focus o n th e c ontributions o f M uslim s o f Indian o rigin in the d evelopm ent o f M uslim s o f In d ia. H ow ever, in th e w ake o f the dem olition o f th e B abri M asjid, the delegates m entioned ta k in g ‘full cognizance o f th e feel­ ing o f the com m unity they a re trying t o w o rk w ith ’.

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W ash in g to n D .C ., raisin g som e issues o f c o n c ern to ‘N R I M u slim s in N o r th A m erica’. T h ese included th e release o f th e larg e n u m b er o f M u slim y o u th h eld u n d e r T A D A ; rem o v in g a n ti-M u slim a n d a n ti-Islam ic s te re o ty p in g in sc h o o l e d u c atio n al m ate ria l th a t rein ­ fo rc e d c o m m u n a l m isu n d e rsta n d in g ; a n d p re -e m p tin g ch a u v in ist fo rces fro m a s sa u ltin g p lac e s o f m in o rity w o rsh ip . B u t th is w as p resen ted a s im p o rta n t ‘in th e light o f th e need to e sta b lish a n d m ain ta in o u r c o u n try ’s im ag e a s a sta b le society ru le d b y law so th a t w e c a n a ttr a c t m u ch need ed fo reig n in v estm e n t’.57 T h e A FM I gave a n o th e r letter to th e p rim e m in iste r in 1 9 9 5 a g a in st th e e x te n ­ sive m isu se a n d a b u se o f T A D A : ‘M isu sed , b ecause 9 0 % o f d e ta in ­ ees u n d e r T A D A a re th e p rin c ip al m in o rity a n d a b u sed , because th e biggest n u m b e r o f a rre sts h av e ta k e n p lac e fro m sta te s w h ere th e re a re n o te rro ris t activities. O n ly 1 2 % o f th o se a rre ste d w ere c h a rg e sh eeted a n d o n ly 4 % o f th e T A D A tria ls w ere c o m p le te d ’. T h e a p p e al o f tw en ty -six US C o n g ressm en fo r its rep eal m ea n t th a t th e im age o f th e c o u n try h a d b een ta rn ish e d , a d ev elo p m en t th a t tro u b le d th em a s In d ia n s living a b ro a d . A cco rd in g to A F M I, ‘no o th e r issu e p e rh a p s (except [the] d e m o litio n o f B abri M a sjid )’, had a lie n a te d th e m in o rities fro m th e C o n g ress-I, a s w a s e v id en t in th e electio n s.58 T h e A F M I’s T A D A p ro je c t w a s u n d e rta k e n in liaison w ith its in te rn a tio n a l co m m ittee , o th e r In d ia n M u slim o rg an iz a ­ tio n s in th e USA, a s w ell a s secu lar fo rces in India: ‘W e w o rk e d h a rd fo r th e a b o litio n o f T A D A , a n d a s y o u a re a w a re , T A D A w as a llo w ed to lap se o n M a y 2 3 rd 1 9 9 5 ’.59 In th e a fte rm a th o f th e 1 9 9 2 -9 3 rio ts, th e c h a irm a n o f th e A FM I c o m m ittee o n p o litical e d u c a tio n m obilized s u p p o rt fo r th e f o rth ­ co m in g U P assem bly electio n . H e said it w a s g o in g to b e a ‘cru cial b a ttle g ro u n d f o r secu lar a n d fascist forces’, ad d in g , th a t ‘if y o u are fro m UP, p a rtic u la rly fro m c e rta in d istric ts, w e m ay n eed y o u r 5 7 . A F M I: N e w s B rief., M ay/June 1994, p . 15. 5 8 . A F M I: N e w s B rief, Ju n e/Ju ly 199 5 , p . 9 , 4 A pril 199 5 , A.S. N a k a d a r to N arasim h a R ao. 5 9 . A FM I 5 th A nnual C onvention, Indian M inorities: P artners in Peace, Progress & P rosperity, R ichardson, T exas, 7 - 8 O cto b e r 199 5 . T A D A had figured in A FM I’s m eeting w ith th e Indian a m b a ssad o r to the US, S iddharta S hankar R ay, in A pril 1994 in D etroit, a n d its F o u rth A nnual C onvention in C alifornia o n the them e, ‘Pluralism & Secularism—Issues a nd C hallenges F o r India’, in O ctober 1994. See A F M I-N e w s B rief, M ay/June 199 4 , p . 11 a n d N ovem ber/D ecem ber 1994, p p . 4 - 5 . (T h a t T A D A is still invoked selectively is a n o th e r story.)

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h e lp ’.60 T h e stra te g y w a s to u n d e rta k e stu d ie s to e n su re electing ‘M u slim can d id a tes/sec u la r n o n -M u slim ca n d id a tes’.61 Som ew here a lo n g th e lin e [1 9 9 7 ?], th e p o litical c o m m ittee w h ic h w a s ch aired b y N aeem R a sh id o f G eo rg ia, fell b y th e w ay sid e.62 B ut in s u p p o rt o f its social ju stice fo cu s, th e A F M I w a s in a ‘clo se w o rk in g rela ­ tio n sh ip , ra th e r th a n a tie-u p w ith D a lits’.63 D u rin g 1 9 9 4 , it to o k w h a t it d escribes a s th e ‘histo ric ste p ’ o f fo rg in g a n allian ce w ith th e In te rn a tio n a l D a lit Sena. A ro u n d th is tim e R am V ilas Pasw an o f th e J a n a ta D al (JD ) a n d Secretary G en eral o f th e D a lit Sena of In d ia w a s in v ited to its fo u rth a n n u a l co n v e n tio n in Los Angeles a n d a co n feren ce in C h icag o . A c c o rd in g to A F M I th is d ev elo p m ent ev oked m u ch a n x ie ty in fascist circles, as w a s e v id en t fro m s ta te ­ m en ts m ad e in th e In d ia n p a rlia m e n t a n d th e US a n d In d ia n n ew s­ p a p e rs.64 R am V ilas P a sw a n h ad g o t to k n o w o f th e A F M I in 1 9 9 3 w h e n it c o n ta c ted him d u rin g his trip to C h ic a g o .65 L a ter, it w as i n v ite d a t h is in it ia t iv e to t h e f ir s t I n te r n a t i o n a l D a lit a n d M in o ritie s C o n feren ce held in N e w D elhi in D ecem b er 1 9 9 4 . T h e c o n fe re n c e w a s a ls o a tte n d e d b y R a h u l D e e p a n k a r w h o h e a d s V IS IO N , a n o rg an iz a tio n o f A m b ed k arites a n d B u d d h ists in th e US a n d C a n a d a .66 T h e reso lu tio n s in clu d ed h a n d in g th e B odh G aya tem p le in B ih ar to B u d d h ists, lo b b y in g a g a in s t th e e x te n sio n o f T A D A , seek in g a c tio n a g a in st th o se g uilty fo r th e m assacre o f th e Sikhs in 1 9 8 4 , reb u ild in g o f th e B abri M a sjid a t th e o rig in al site o f d e m o litio n a n d th e d e p lo y m e n t o f R a p id A c tio n Fo rce (RAF) in rio t-p ro n e a re a s .67 6 0 . A F M I-N e w s B rief, A pril/M ay 1 9 9 3 , p . 12. 6 1 . S tatu s o f M uslim s In India: S om e S olutions P roposed by A m erican F ederation o f M uslim s F rom In d ia, A FM I d o c u m e n t, n .d . 6 2 . T h e re is n o m ention o f th e com m ittee in A F M I-N e w s B rief, M arch/A pril 1997. See interview w ith A .R .S. N a k a d a r, T h e T im e s o f In d ia , 1 Ja n u a ry 2004: ‘W e have invited a lm o st a ll In d ian P M s to o u r an n u a l conventions in A m erica as p a r t o f o u r p olitical ed u c atio n pro g ram m e’. 6 3 . Interview w ith A .R.S. N a k a d a r, 17 J a n u a ry 199 7 , D etroit. 6 4 . A F M I-N e w s B rief, N ovem ber/D ecem ber 199 4 , p . 1. 6 5 . Ibid., p p . 7 - 9 a n d 1 2 -1 3 fo r P asw an’s speech a t th e 4 th A nnual C onvention of A FM I, 2 1 st-2 2 n d O c to b e r 199 4 , C alifornia. 6 6 . Ibid. M arch/A pril 199 5 , p p . 2 4 -2 5 . A .R .S. N a k a d a r m entioned the follow ing sta tistics: n o t o n e a m o n g th e 116 to p in d u strie s in India w as o w n e d by a M uslim . O n ly 116 o u t o f a to ta l o f 1 6 ,0 0 0 d ire cto rs on t h e b o a rd s o f various com panies w ere M uslim s. 6 7 . Ibid., clip from T h e Pioneer, 30 D ecem ber 1995.

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R a h u l D e e p a n k a r w a s b o m in U P’s B u la n d sh ah r d istric t.68 H e ro o te d fo r R a m V ilas P a sw a n lead in g th e D alits in th e m id-nineties a n d sa w in a D a lit-M u slim u n io n th e p o ssib ility o f ‘a n u n ig n o rab le c e n trip e ta l fo rce, a ttra c tin g o th e r, n o t so a d v a n ta g e d segm ents of th e In d ia n society’. In his view In d ia h ad ‘e n o u g h p o ten tial to op p o se d estru c tiv e forces o f co m m u n a lism ’, so th e re w a s ‘n o rea so n to let d e sp air a n d fea r o v erw h elm u s’. H e h a d in m in d V .P. Singh, Lalu P r a s a d Y a d a v , M u la y a m S in g h Y a d a v , s o m e m e m b e rs o f th e C o n g ress, a n d so m e in th e left p a rties. E ven if th e BJP succeeded in ‘d e stro y in g ’ th e B ah u jan Sam aj P a rty (BSP) w h ic h h ad ‘ad v an ced th e co n c ep t o f D a lit-M u s lim u n ity , b ey o n d sim ple w ish fu l d ream s o r a n ac ad e m ic th eo ry ’, th ere w e re ‘o th e r n a tio n a l a n d p ro b ab ly m o re effective lead ers’. R am V ilas P a sw a n h a d ‘a p ro v en rec o rd o f h is c a p ac ity to rea c h o u t to all D alits a n d o th e r h av e-n o ts, w ith in a n d o u tsid e th e c o u n tr y ’. D e e p a n k a r d e scrib ed th e D a lit S ena, h e a d ed by P a sw a n , a s h a v in g ev olved in to ‘th e m o st disciplined a n d faste st g ro w in g o rg an iz a tio n a sso ciated w ith issues o f D alits, M u slim s, C h ristia n s, Sikhs, a n d o th e r ig n o red m in o rities’. H e said h e w a s w itn ess to th e D a lit Sena o b serv in g th e a n n u a l rem em b ran ce o f th e d e m o litio n o f th e Babri M asjid u n d e r th e lead ersh ip o f Pasw an ‘every D ec. 6 th ’.69 A t th e a n n u a l c o n v e n tio n o f th e A F M I in C h icag o in O c to b e r 1 9 9 3 , R am V ilas P a sw a n , w h o w a s th en vice-p resid en t o f th e JD , blam ed b o th th e In d ia n a n d P a k ista n i g o v e rn m e n ts fo r th e ir high defence sp en d in g . If G e rm a n y , V ie tn a m a n d Y em en ca n b e reu n ited , h e a sk ed w h y In d ia a n d P a k ista n c a n n o t learn to a t lea st live in p eace. H e a lso discussed th e d e le tio n o f n a m e s o f M u slim s fro m D elh i’s v o tin g lists (on th e g ro u n d s th a t th ey w ere Bangladeshis) a n d th e c o m m u n a liz a tio n o f In d ia n h isto ry w ritin g . H e sa id th e c a u se o f c o n v e rsio n s w a s n o t A ra b m o n ey , b u t social in eq u ality. W h ile a D a lit’s co n v e rsio n to B ud d h ism a n d C h ristia n ity evoked n o m u rm u rs, co n v ersio n s to Islam m ad e h ead lin es. V elu A n n am alai o f a D a lit o rg a n iz a tio n in T e x a s sa id th a t th e d e m o litio n o f th e B abri M a sjid o n 6 D ecem b er w a s sig n ifican t a s it c o in cid ed w ith th e d e a th a n n iv e rsary o f B.R. A m b ed k ar. T h e rein lay a m essage fo r M u slim s a n d D a lits to u n ite a n d jo in h a n d s to fig h t th e H in d u tv a 6 8 . w w w .im c-usa.org/convention/spealcers/rahul_deepanlcar.htm , b o rn in 1953 he practices internal m edicine in a C hicago s u b u rb . 6 9 . A F M I-N e w s Brief, June/July 1995, ‘C onfusion for D alit Activism a n d D ilem m a for M uslim Struggle’.

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forces. O n th e p o litical p a n e l, O m a r K halidi o f th e M IT suggested th e strateg y o f M u slim s m ak in g co m m o n cau se w ith D a lits, w o m en a n d o th e r m in o ritie s. O n e o f th e reso lu tio n s passed a t th e c o n v en­ tio n w a s a b o u t th e v ic tim iz a tio n o f D a lits in so m e in cid e n ts in A n d h ra P rad esh , R a ja sth a n a n d K a rn a ta k a .70 T h e fo llo w in g y ear R am V ilas P a sw a n w as th e c h ie f g u est o f th e fo u rth a n n u a l c o n v e n tio n o f th e A F M I in C a lifo rn ia . T h is w as th e d rift o f his k e y n o te ad d ress: ‘I f A m erican s to o s ta r t say in g th a t this is a “ C h ristia n S ta te ” w o u ld y o u [basically M u slim b aiters] n o t be h u r t? ’; ‘If w e fig h t o v e r tem p les a n d m o sq u e s c a n th e c o u n try survive?’. H e a lso d re w a tte n tio n to 1 9 ,0 0 0 o f th e 6 5 ,0 0 0 T A D A d etain ees b elo n g in g to G u ja ra t, w h e re h e sa id , th ere w as n o te rro r­ ism . ‘T h e re is a big p ro b le m in H u b li as to w h o shall h o ist th e flag. I to ld M r. A d v an i, if he is so e n th u sia stic a b o u t flag h o istin g , w hy n o t d o it in K arach i fro m w h e re h e o rig in a lly co m es. H e c a n n o t d a re to d o th a t b u t h e ca n d em o lish th e [Babri] m o s q u e ...’. G o in g b y sa ffro n logic even P a rlia m e n t H o u se , T a j M a h a l a n d R ed F o rt o u g h t to b e destroyed: ‘E veryone preserves o u r o w n c u ltu re. W hereas in In d ia w e a re in te n t u p o n d estro y in g o u r o w n c u ltu re ....W e d o n o t have e n o u g h c o u ra g e a n d b ra v a d o to c o n fro n t c o u n tries like A m erica, w e c a n on ly m isb eh av e w ith M u slim s a n d D alits’. D u rin g th e struggle fo r Independence ‘every religion shed its b lo o d ’. R eferring to A b d u l H a m e ed , A b d u l K a la m , N a u s h a d Ali a n d M o h a m m e d R afi h e s a id th a t th e M u slim s w e re n o t f a r b e h in d th e H in d u s eith er in politics, m usic, th e battlefield o r in science, b u t w h en it cam e to ab u sin g th em they w ere called ‘descendants o f B ab u r o r Pakistani ag e n ts’. M u slim s w ere n o t alien s, n o r a re th e Sikhs, C h ristia n s a n d D alits. A nd th e ele c to ra l d efeat o f th e BJP, ‘even’ in R a m ’s b irth ­ place, UP, p ro v ed th a t In d ian s w ere n o t c o m m u n a l.71 N o t lo n g a fte r, R a m V ila s P a s w a n a ls o s p o k e a t a n A F M I co n feren ce in C hicago. H e discussed h o w a m ere ‘six p e r c en t’, m ean ­ in g th e h ig h er castes, h ad been cre a tin g frenzied situ atio n s ‘in the n am e o f Babri M asjid , th e statu e o f A m b ed k ar, th e M a n d al C o m ­ m ission etc ’. D escribing th e idea o f a H in d u R a sh tra as sy nonym ous w ith B rahm in R aj, Pasw an said th a t th e RSS, BJP, B ajrang D al and V H P h a d a sin g le a im : ‘to su p p re ss th e D a lits a n d M in o ritie s ’. 7 0 . A F M I-N e w s B rief, Janu a ry /F e b ru ary 1994. T h e conference w a s held on 29 a n d 3 0 O c to b e r 1993. 7 1 . Ib id ., N ov em b er/D e ce m b e r 1 9 9 4 . T h e conference w a s held o n 21 a n d 22 O ctober.

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U ltim ately , a b e tte r rela tio n sh ip betw een In d ia a n d P a k ista n w as im p o rta n t fo r th e cause o f peace a n d w ell being o f b o th countries. T h e am o u n t spent to buy one tan k can be used to construct 1,000 prim ary schools....A m eager 900 crore rupees are allotted to Social W elfare...com pared to 4 0 ,0 0 0 cro re rupees for arm s a n d am m uni­ tion. T h e sam e am o u n t is being spent by Pakistan, to o ....Is there no w ay to end this w ar o f wills a n d thus change the ro u te o f Rs. 1,00,000 crores from destruction to welfare?72 W h en R am V ilas P a sw a n jo in ed th e N a tio n a l D em o c ra tic Alli­ an c e (N D A ) g o v ern m en t so m e y ears later, a n A F M I team visiting In d ia w as ‘ca n d id in lettin g him k n o w th a t th e M u slim s in USA w ere n o t h a p p y w ith his d ecisio n ’ o f jo in in g th e BJP-led g o v e rn ­ m en t. P a sw a n is sa id to have given a ‘len g th y ’ e x p la n a tio n . H e trie d to tell th em th a t ‘it w a s th e m a tte r o f su rv iv al a n d th e local politics o f B ih ar th a t fo rc e d him to ta k e th is d ecisio n ’. B ut h e w as u p b e a t a b o u t his n ew p a rty (L ok J a n sh a k ti Party) a n d to ld th e A F M I th a t th e M u slim s w o u ld h av e a ‘sig n ifican t ro le ’ in it.73 T h e im p ro b a b le aim o f 1 0 0 p e r c e n t literacy a m o n g In d ia n M u s­ lim s b y th e y e a r 2 0 0 5 w a s a m a jo r A F M I p ro je c t. B etw een 1 9 9 4 a n d 1 9 9 6 it o rg an iz e d e d u c a tio n a l m eets in D elh i, L u c k n o w a n d P a tn a to m eet th is ta rg e t a n d g o t w id e p ress coverage. It ask ed th e US g o v e rn m e n t to a llo c a te a c e rta in p ercen tag e (‘say 1 0 - 1 5 ’) o f US in v estm en t specifically fo r m in o rity e n trep ren eu rs. T h e re w as a naive e x p e cta tio n o f m an y ‘o p p o rtu n itie s ’ o p e n in g u p fo r M u slim s be­ cau se o f th e In d ia n g o v e rn m e n t’s policy o f ec o n o m ic lib eralizatio n . T h o u g h it tra c k e d a n d co n te sted H in d u tv a in th e e a rly n in eties w ith a focus o n n o r th In d ia , it co m pletely ig n o re d o r w a s o b liv io u s of th e sh ifts in lead ersh ip a n d ag en d a a m o n g M u slim s o f th is region. T h e I n te rn a tio n a l D a lit a n d M in o ritie s C o n fe re n c e in 1 9 9 4 , an o u t c o m e o f R a m V ila s P a s w a n h a v in g b r o u g h t A m e ric a n A m ed k arites a n d M u slim s to g eth e r, p assed a reso lu tio n fo r 10 p er c en t rese rv a tio n fo r M u slim s in jo b s a n d e d u c atio n al in stitu tio n s.74 W h en I m et A .R.S. N a k a d a r he sa id th a t it w a s on ly fro m m e th a t h e g o t to k n o w , ‘fo r th e first tim e’, th a t th ere is a d ifferen t p o sitio n o n rese rv a tio n s w ith in th e c o m m u n ity (i.e. a g a in st rese rv a tio n fo r 7 2 . Ibid. T his w as o n 2 8 O c to b e r 1994. 7 3 . A F M I USA & Canada, 10(2), S e p tem ber/O ctober 1 4 2 1 , a .h . 7 4 . A F M I-N e w s B rief, M arch/A pril 1995, clip o f H in d u sta n T im es, 3 0 D ecem ber 1994.

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th e en tire co m m u n ity ). H e did m en tio n th o u g h , th a t he h ad received a m e m o ran d u m fro m so m e b a c k w a rd M u slim s d u rin g his trip to In d ia in D e c e m b e r 1 9 9 6 .75 M . Q a m ru z z a m a n , a n o th e r fo u n d e r m em b er o f A F M I, revealed th a t it w as o n ly d u rin g his trip to Bihar in D ecem b er 1 9 9 6 th a t h e g o t th e lo w d o w n o n th is s tra n d o f p o li­ tic s f ro m h is M o m in r e la tiv e s , in a n in fo r m a l c o n v e r s a tio n , ‘d u rin g a tra in jo u rn e y ’.76 R a sh id N a im w h o head ed th e political e d u c atio n c o m m ittee c o n firm e d th a t th e A F M I h a d n o t discussed th e su b ject till e a rly 1 9 9 7 .77 T h e re h a s b een n o en g a g em e n t b y th e A F M I w ith th e m o v e­ m en ts fo r affirm a tiv e a c tio n th a t have been p re d o m in a n t a m o n g th e n o n -a sh r a f M u slim s in th is reg io n sin ce th e nin eties. T h is is so m e th in g it has in co m m o n w ith th e R a sh triy a J a n a ta D al (RJD) fo rm a tio n in B ih ar, a p o in t th a t I e la b o ra te elsew here. D a lit a n d b a c k w a rd M u slim fo rm a tio n s h av e in te rro g a te d th e a s h r a f lead er­ sh ip th a t led th e P a k ista n m o v em en t a n d th en co n fin e d th e ir focus o n ‘em o tiv e’ issues c e n tre d o n u p h o ld in g id e n tita ria n sym bols. By c o n tra s t, a n d significantly, th ese m o v em en ts in B ih ar have k e p t tra c k o f th e A FM I. T h e All In d ia B ack w ard M u slim M o rc h a gave it a c o p y o f its a g e n d a w h ic h c en tres o n th e in clu sio n o f D a lit M u slim s in th e sch ed u led c a ste c a te g o ry .78 A n d in 1 9 9 7 , th e n o n -ashraf, A m a ra t e A hle A n sar (th e P asm an d a M u slim M a h a z late r g rew o u t o f th is ensem ble) p assed a reso lu tio n a g a in st th e A F M I seek in g res­ e rv a tio n fo r ‘all’ M u slim s.79 O n his p a rt, Ali A n w a r, th e P asm an d a M u slim M a h a z lea d e r m en tio n s th a t w h ile his b o o k , M a sa w a t K i J a n g (2001) h a s m ad e it to C h icag o a n d p a rts o f th e G ulf, as o f n o w , th e o rg a n iz a tio n is n o t n e tw o rk e d e n o u g h to seek d iasp o ric s u p p o rt a n d fu n d s. T h e re is a ls o th e (W ah ab i) fa c to r in th e M id d le E ast th a t p rev en ts th e discu ssio n o f in eq u alities w ith in th e c o m m u ­ nity: ‘W a h a n aisi b a a tein h o g i to h k o r e pa ren g e’ (such talk will on ly in v ite lashes o u t th ere ).80 7 5 . Interview , 17 J a n u a ry 199 7 , D etroit. 7 6 . Interview , 18 J a n u a ry 199 7 , D etroit. 7 7 . Interview , 15 F eb ru a ry 199 7 , A tla n ta . I com pleted m y fieldw ork in th e USA in m id -1997. 7 8 . I am than k fu l to A.R .S. N a k a d a r fo r the in fo rm atio n a n d a copy. 7 9 . ‘B ackw ard a n d D a lit M uslim s in B ihar, 1 9 3 0 s-1 9 9 0 s’, p a p e r p resented a t the In tern a tio n al C onference o n B ihar in th e W o rld a n d the W orld in B ihar, co ­ org a n ize d by th e A sian D ev elo p m en t R esearch In stitu te a n d th e E uropean Science F o u n d a tio n in P a tn a , 18 D ecem ber 1997. 8 0 . Interview , 20 J u n e 2 0 0 4 , P atna.

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T h e A F M I h a s been ta k in g o n th e H in d u tv a fo rm a tio n in th e US b y rep rin tin g e x tra c ts fro m th e In d ia n p rin t m ed ia in its n ew slet­ te r,81 a n d in Im p a c t In te rn a tio n a l,82 a n d p u ttin g o u t ad v ertisem en ts in In d ia n n e w sp a p e rs in N o r th A m erica, ‘to c o u n te r th e m y th s a n d lies p ro p a g a te d b y H in d u ex tre m ists’. T h e ‘m y th s’ in clu d e th o se a b o u t M u slim s in creasin g a n d m u ltip ly in g , th e ir c o llu sio n w ith th e B ritish , th e ir a p p e ase m en t b y th e g o v e rn m e n t a n d th e ir d e stru c tio n o f In d ia n h eritag e w ith o u t c o n trib u tin g m u ch to In d ia. In o n e su m ­ m in g u p , it w a s g rap h ic: ‘W e a re n o w s ta n d in g a t a c ro ssro a d w here w e n eed to carefu lly c h o o se b e tw e en tw o p ro sp e c tiv e sh a p e s o f India: M a h a tm a G a n d h i’s o r th a t o f N a th u ra m G o d se ’s, th e killer o f th e fa th e r o f o u r n a ti o n ...’. 83 O n e o f th e sp eak ers a t th e A FM I c o n v e n tio n in C h icag o h a d a q u e stio n fo r th o se s u p p o rtin g a n d fin a n c in g th e RSS, BJP a n d th e V H P c o m b in e. H e ask ed if th e US h a d p ersisted in its p o licy o f ‘W h ite c o n fo rm ity ’, w h a t w o u ld have h a p p e n ed to th em : ‘Y o u n o w live th e g o o d e n v iab le life h e re b e­ cau se th is c o u n try resp ects a n d o b se rv e s c u ltu ral p lu ra lism . Y ou d en y th e sam e fo r th e m in o ritie s, lo w c astes a n d D a lits living in y o u r n a tiv e c o u n try In d ia ’.84 M o re recently A .R.S. N a k a d a r said th a t th e z a k a t (charity) given to th e A F M I is used ‘fo r n o th in g else b u t e d u c a tio n ’, a n d th a t it a d d s u p to ‘h a rd ly o n e -te n th o f w h a t th e RSS gets fro m H in d u s a b ro a d ’.8s In 1 9 9 4 , a le rte d b y som e In d ia n leftists in th e US th ro u g h V oice o f Isla m , th e A F M I p u b lish e d a letter p ro te stin g a g a in st A T 8c T ’s A sso ciatio n R e w ard s P ro g ra m n o . 3 R A E 1 1 6 6 , w h ic h w o u ld have b en efited th e V H P-A . U n d e r th is p ro g ra m m e , A T 8c T cu sto m ers c o u ld call in to a ffirm th e ir s u p p o rt to th e V H P a n d h av e 5 p e r cent o f th e ir p h o n e bill d o n a te d b y th e c o m p a n y to th e V H P . Its c u sto m ­ e rs in th e US w e re ask ed to call/w rite to A T 8c T in tim a tin g th a t 8 1 . See, for e x am p le , A F M I-N e w s B rief, Janu ary /F eb ru a ry 199 4 , p p . 18 a n d 20; M ay /Ju n e 199 4 , p p . 2 - 3 and 19; M arch/A pril 1 9 9 5 , p p . 1 7 -2 2 . 8 2 . Ibid., A pril/M ay 199 3 , p p . 8 - 9 , ‘G u lf G old fo r th e R a m a T em ple!’. 8 3 . Ibid., p . 1 8 , ‘U nited W e S tand, D ivided W e F all’. T h is w a s a full-page a d v er­ tisem e n t b ro u g h t o u t w ith o th e r a sso c iatio n s as w e ll, a n d cou n tere d som e ‘poiso n o u s beliefs’. 8 4 . Ibid., N ovem ber/D ecem ber 199 4 , p . 1 4 , A b d u r R ahim Q u resh i, ‘Secularism and Pluralism in India’. 8 5 . T h e T im es o f In d ia , 9 Ja n u a ry 2 0 0 4 : ‘Every M uslim m u st pay a p a r t o f his incom e fo r z a k a t o r c h a rity , every ye ar. M uslim s have to find channels for th is, s o they find it con v en ie n t to send th e ir m oney to m asjids and m a d rassas’.

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th ey w o u ld sh ift th e ir b u siness elsew h ere. P ro te sts w ere a lso sen t to th e Federal C o m m u n ic a tio n s C o rp o ra tio n . D escrib in g th e dem o li­ tio n o f th e B abri M a sjid a s p o sin g ‘th e single m o st serio u s th re a t to d em o cracy in In d ia a n d p o litical sta b ility , since th e p a rtitio n o f th e su b c o n tin e n t in 1 9 4 7 ’, th e A F M I a le rt h a d th is to say to th e co m ­ p an y : ‘W e a re d eeply tro u b le d th a t a p restig io u s c o m p a n y su c h as A T & T — a c o m p a n y w ith sig n ifican t g lo b al presen ce a n d co n sid ­ e rab le business in terests in In d ia -w o u ld w illingly be a p a rty to V H P ’s fu n d ra isin g effo rts. T h e success o f su c h fu n d ra isin g effo rts c a n lead on ly to th e u n leash in g o f m o re te r r o r a n d d e a th o n m in o ritie s in In d ia ’. T h e p ro g ra m m e w a s su b seq u e n tly can celled by A T & T ‘a s a re s u lt o f th o u sa n d s o f ca lls’ m ad e by M u slim s a g a in st th e p ro g ra m m e ’.86 D u rin g th e large-scale violence in G u ja ra t in 2 0 0 2 , a ch a rita b le h o sp ita l ru n by A F M I in B aro d a w a s b u rn t d o w n , a n d its X -ray, s o n o g ra p h ic a n d EC G m ach in es lo o te d b y a m o b led b y RSS a n d V H P leaders. T h e A F M I w a n te d to k n o w if th e A m erican H in d u c o m m u n ity w o u ld c o n d e m n su c h a n a tta c k o n M u slim in stitu tio n s. O n 8 M a rc h 2 0 0 2 it gave a p e titio n to th e c o n su l g en eral o f In d ia in N e w Y o rk , co n d em n in g b o th G o d h ra , a n d th e ‘m o re d e p lo ra b le ’ p o g ro m s th a t w e re c a rrie d o u t in its w a k e by th e V H P , RSS a n d B a jran g D a l, a n d d e m a n d e d th e ir b a n a n d a n in v estig a tio n in to th e p a rtisa n ro le o f th e police a n d p a ra m ilita ry . It a lso sen t a reso lu­ tio n to th e H u m a n R ig h ts C o m m issio n . T h e recent atrocities in G ujarat, India, rem inds us o f the H um an R ights violations in Bosnia. T h e m ayhem a n d pogrom in th e state o f G u ja ra t w here th o u san d s o f m en, w om en, children, aged a n d infirm ed have been m aim ed a n d b u rn t alive [s/c]. T here have been alleged incidences o f gang rape, w here th e fam ily m em bers were forced to w atch th e gruesom e a c t follow ed by th e killing o f the victim . A lm o st all th e M u slim b u sin ess in G u ja ra t have been destroyed system atically, leaving them penniless, breaking their life­ line. T h e standing crops have been bulldozed o r burnt. T h e A F M I m en tio n ed th a t th ere w ere w id e sp re a d re p o rts o f th e violence b ein g ste p p e d u p o n 15 M a rc h 2 0 0 2 : ‘J u stic e d em an d s 8 6 . A F M I N e w s-B rie f, M ay /Ju n e 1 99 4 , p. 12, ‘E scape F rom T h e C lutches o f VHP: T h a n k s T o O u r B rothers a n d Sisters’. T h e A FM I a cknow ledged being a lerted by J a m a l H a sa n , R aja M ir, Biju M a th e w (see c h a p te r fo u r), Shyam Ja jodia, Ja y a R eddy a n d A bdul K h u d d u s a b o u t A T & T.

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th a t th e g o v e rn m e n ts o f th e US a n d all m o d e rn d em o c ra tic n a tio n s h o ld In d ia a c c o u n ta b le fo r its d ire c t a n d in d ire ct co m p licity in these h u m a n rig h ts v io la tio n s, as th ey have held a c co u n ta b le c o u n tries su c h as C h in a , Ira q , Y ugoslavia a n d th e fo rm e r T a lib a n g o v e rn ­ m en t o f A fg h a n ista n fo r sim ila r v io la tio n s’. In ste a d , it w ro te , th e US w as alig n in g itself w ith In d ia ’s ‘ineffective a n d c o rru p t religious m ajo rity g o v e rn m e n t w h ic h p ractices its o w n b ra n d o f e th n ic a n d relig io u s c le a n sin g ’. In A p ril 2 0 0 2 , a n A F M I d e le g a tio n led by N a k a d a r m et th e US g o v e rn m e n t C o m m issio n o n I n te rn a tio n a l R e lig io u s F re ed o m , A m n esty I n te rn a tio n a l U SA a n d th e In d ia n a m b a s s a d o r to th e US to d iscuss th e h a ra ssm e n t a n d p e rse c u tio n o f m in o ritie s.87 L a ter, w h e n th e p rim e m in iste r, A tal B ihari V ajpayee, visited N e w Y o rk , a n A F M I d ele g a tio n to ld h im th a t th ere w a s a need to e n su re th a t In d ia ’s se cu la r, p lu ra listic s ta tu s w as n o t c o m ­ p ro m ised . A .R .S. N a k a d a r s p o k e a g a in s t th e k illers a n d lo o te rs h a v in g g o t a free h a n d .88 O n 5 M a rc h 2 0 0 2 , a d e leg atio n led by A IM h a d a n h o u r-lo n g m eetin g w ith th e In d ia n a m b a ssa d o r, L alit M a n sin g h , in W a sh in g to n . It in clu d ed rep resen tativ es fro m G u ja ra t, UP, A n d h ra P ra d esh a n d K erala. T h e G u ja ra tis to ld M an sin g h h o w m em b ers o f th e ir e x te n d e d fam ilies h a d been killed a n d th e ir houses to rc h e d in d ifferen t p a rts o f th e sta te . T h e y d e m a n d e d th a t th e V H P be p rev e n te d fro m sen d in g v o lu n teers to A y o d h y a, a n d th a t fin a n ­ c ial a n d o th e r help be given to M u slim s to reb u ild th e ir h o u ses, in stitu tio n s a n d m o sq u es.89 T h re e n ew o rg an iz a tio n s w ere fo rm ed in th e US a fte r th e 2 0 0 2 G u ja ra t killings: th e In d ia n M u slim A ffairs C ouncil (C alifo rn ia), th e In d ia n M u slim A le rt N e tw o r k (N e w Y o rk ) a n d th e In d ia n M in o r itie s P o litic a l A c tio n C o m m itte e ( P h ila d e lp h ia ). O n 15 A u g u st th e ad v o c ac y g ro u p s c a m e to g e th e r to fo rm th e In d ia n M u slim C o u n cil (IM C ), USA, ‘to p ro v id e a resp o n sib le voice fo r th e In d ia n M u slim D ia sp o ra in th e U n ited S tates’. T h e p resid e n t o f th e g ro u p , Sh aik h U b aid , sa id th a t th e h o rrific g e n o cid e a n d rap e s in G u ja ra t h a d ‘o p ened th e eyes o f th e In d ia n D iasp o ra to th e reality o f th e H in d u tv a -F a s c is t m en a c e in In d ia ’, a n d sen t th e m in to a ‘flu rry o f activ ity ’ to c o u n te r th e rising fascism a n d salvage ‘G a n d h i’s vision o f a secu lar a n d d e m o c ra tic In d ia ’. U baid said th e strateg y is 8 7 . A F M I USA & Canada, M a rch 200 2 . 8 8 . T h e H in d u , 15 S eptem ber 200 2 . 8 9 . w w w .new sindia-tim es.com

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to w o rk closely w ith ‘o u r C h ristia n , Sikh, D a lit a n d H in d u b re th ­ r e n ’. T h e p r o te s t a g a in s t t h e H i n d u tv a p r o p a g a n d i s t S a d h v i R ita m b a ra in Flu sh in g , N e w Y o rk , in Ju ly 2 0 0 2 w a s seen a s an in d e x o f th e ‘o v e rw h e lm in g s u p p o rt’ o f th e In d ia n d ia s p o ra in o p p o sin g H in d u tv a . In th e IM C ’s view ‘th e lack o f aw a re n ess’ of H in d u tv a-F a sc ism w a s resp o n sib le fo r th e US silence o n th e G u ja ra t geno cid e a n d th e c o n tin u in g fu n d -ra isin g b y H in d u tv a fro n ts o n US so il ‘fo r p e rp e tra tin g v iolence a g a in st in n o c e n t m in o ritie s in In d ia ’, w h ic h a d d e d u p to 5 ,0 0 0 d e a th s, 2 ,0 0 0 ra p e s a n d 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 p e o p le b ein g ren d e re d hom eless refugees in th e ir o w n c o u n try .90 In M a y 2 0 0 2 , th e In d ia n M u slim A lert N e tw o rk (Im an N et) a n d IM R C o f ISN A lau n c h e d a c a m p a ig n fro m th e N e w Y o rk -N e w Jersey a re a to in crease aw a re n ess a b o u t th e geno cid e in G u ja ra t. T h is ca m p a ig n h a d th e s u p p o rt o f th e M ajlis-ash -S h o o ra o f N e w Y o rk a n d W o m e n in Islam . It w a s o rg an iz e d a ro u n d a n e x h ib itio n b y In d ia n h u m a n rig h ts g ro u p s a n d th e screen in g o f G o p a l M e n o n ’s d o c u m e n ta ry H e y R a m : G e n o c id e in th e L a n d o f G a n d h i. Sikhs, D a lits a n d so m e In d ia n C h ristia n s a lso a tte n d e d th e e v en t to m ark th e ir so lid a rity . M a n z o o r G h o ri, d ire c to r o f IM R C , w h o h ad got b a c k fro m In d ia discu ssed th e d im en sio n s o f th e su fferin g o f th e G u ja ra ti M u slim s, a n d Ja v ed S ik a n d a r a n d Fayyaz H a s a n o f I M R C N e w Jersey described th e co n d itio n o f th e refugee cam ps. T h e m edia d ire c to r o f Im a n N e t, S h a ik h U b a id , a s k e d M u slim s to jo in th e c a m p a ig n to e d u c a te th e A m e ric a n m asse s, m e d ia a n d p o lic y ­ m ak e rs by b u ild in g allian ces w ith A m erican w o m e n ’s rig h ts g ro u p s, In d ia n C h ristian s, Sikhs a n d D alits: ‘O u r a im is to b a n V H P-A m erica a n d o th e r fascist o rg an iz a tio n s h ere a n d in In d ia a n d b rin g th e m ass m u rd e rers to ju stice’. H e sa id th e strateg y h a d w o rk e d fo r Bosnia a n d th a t it w o u ld ‘w o rk a g a in ’.91 In J u n e , Im a n N e t o u tlin e d its p la n to d istrib u te o v e r 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 b ro c h u re s a m o n g ‘a t le a s t h a lf m illio n o f th e US p o p u la tio n ’. T h e ‘G u ja ra t B ro ch u re’ w a s to be d istrib u te d a t m o sq u es, ch u rc h e s, schools, sh o p p in g m alls a s well a s electro n ically . A d o c u m e n ta ry w a s to b e screened a n d a p o ste r e x h ib itio n tak e n a ro u n d v a rio u s cities ac ro ss th e US. T h e focus w as o n u n d e rlin in g th e co m m o n th re a d in th e killings o f th e Sikhs in 9 0 . h ttp ://w w w .im c-u sa.o rg , p ress release, 15 A u g u st 2 0 0 2 , W ash in g to n D .C .; th e I n d ia n M uslim A lert N e tw o rk , h ttp ://w w w .im an et.co m /lin k s, includes IM R C , A FM I, S abrang C o m m unications, and E kta. 9 1 . w w w .im an n et.co m /p re ss/m a y l9 0 2 .asp , 19 M ay 2002.

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1 9 8 4 , th e 1 9 9 2 m assacres, th e a tta c k s o n C h ristia n ch u rch es a n d m issionaries a n d th e D alits. T h e th ru s t w as th a t th e H in d u tv a agenda a im e d a t ‘a n n ih ila tin g ’ In d ia ’s e th n ic /re lig io u s m in o ritie s , ‘a n d a n n e x in g In d ia ’s n eig h b o rin g c o u n tries to c reate a “ G re a te r In d ia ” u n d e r H in d u tv a -F a s c is t ru le’.92 W h en th e US C o m m issio n o n In te rn atio n al R elig io u s Freedom (USCIRF) held a h e a rin g o n G u ja ra t o n 1 0 Ju n e 2 0 0 2 , rep re se n ta ­ tiv es o f Im a n N e t a n d A F M I w e re a m o n g th o se w h o a tte n d e d . T e stim o n ie s w ere given by K am al C h e n o y , F a th er C ed ric P ra k ash a n d T e esta S etalvad fro m In d ia , w h o a lso ad d ressed a g a th e rin g of co n g ressio n al s ta ff a n d s ta te d e p a rtm e n t m em b ers. Sh aik h U b aid m et lead ers o f th e A m erican M u slim C o u n cil (A M C ), C o u n cil o n A m e ric a n -Isla m ic R e la tio n s (C A IR ), th e M u slim P u b lic A ffairs C o u n cil (M P A C ), ISN A a n d th e Islam ic C ircle o f N o r th Am erica (IC N A ) to a sk fo r ‘m o re visible s u p p o rt to th e In d ia n M u slim s’, w h ich th ey p ro m ised to give in th e ir u p co m in g co n v en tio n s.93 W hen th e U SC IR F, in O c to b e r 2 0 0 2 , d escrib ed In d ia a s a ‘c o u n try o f p a r­ tic u lar c o n c e rn ’, S h a ik h U b a id said it w a s a sh a m e a n d called o n ‘all p e o p le co nscience, p a rtic u la rly fro m th e In d ia n D ia sp o ra , to jo in h a n d s in freein g In d ia fro m th e ugly ideology o f H in d u tv a F ascism , so th a t w e d o n o t h av e to b e a r such ign om in y a n d sh am e in th e fu tu re w h e n in te rn a tio n a l h u m a n rig h ts o rg an iz a tio n s sh o w us o u r face in th e m irro r’.94 T h e IM C to o k o n th e V H P-A cam ­ p a ig n a g a in st th e PBS sh o w in g a d o c u m e n ta ry , S o u l o f a N a tio n , o n th e G u ja ra t killings. Its p ress release e la b o ra te d th a t, ‘In d ia is to o big a c o u n try to be a llo w ed to be ta k e n o v e r by th e H in d u tv a fascists. A n u c le a r In d ia c o n tro lle d by th ese g e n o cid al m an iacs is a 9 2 . w w w .im an net.com /press/june2602.asp, 2 6 J u n e 200 2 . D etails o f th e victim s c a n be read a t: h ttp ://w w w .im annet.com /articles/survivorspeak.htm l; th e H u ­ m a n R ights W atch re p o rt is available a t: http://w w w .h rw .o rg /rep o rts/2 0 0 2 / india. 9 3 . w w w .im annet.com /press/junel202.asp, 12 J u n e 2 0 0 2 . Setalvad, the a u th o r o f ‘G enocide’, a re p o rt o n the G u ja ra t m assacres d escribed th e system atic rapes of 5 0 0 M uslim w om en a n d girls a n d th e d estru ctio n o f M uslim pro p erty and asked th a t n o investm ents be m ad e in G u ja ra t u nless th e p erp e tra to rs o f th e crim es a g a in st h u m a n ity w ere b ro u g h t to justice a n d th e g o v e rn m en t paid reparations for the $ 3 .5 billion loss o f M uslim businesses and properties. She also blam ed the governm ent fo r c reating a w a r h ysteria w ith Pakistan to tak e th e s p o tlig h t a w a y fro m G u ja r a t. C h e n o y a n d P ra k a s h s p o k e o n th e governm ent’s com plicity in the m assacres a n d rapes. 9 4 . w w w .im an n et.co m /p ress/o ct2 9 0 2 .asp , 29 O c to b e r 200 2 .

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th re a t to w o rld p eace. T h e H in d u tv a -fa s c ist m o v em en t RSS w as s ta rte d o n th e m o d el o f th e Ita lia n Fascist p a rty in th e 1 9 2 0 s. L ater it a d o p te d th e N azi m o d el’.95 A fter som e m o n th s, w h en th e N a tio n a l P u b lic R a d io (N P R ) a ir e d tw o s h o w s o n H i n d u tv a , th e IM C s u p p o rte d it, m et US g o v ern m en t officials a n d asked th e m to inves­ tig a te H in d u tv a g ro u p s in th e US. T h e IM C d rew u p th is sam p le le tte r to N P R a n d p u t it online: It is disturbing to see th at the ideology o f H indutva is active in the U nited States am ong som e m em bers o f th e Indian D iaspora. These groups are involved in run n in g cam ps for youth a n d raising funds. W e request N P R to d o a follow u p story covering th is asp ect.... H indutva sites in th e US such a s hinduunity.com a n d hindutva.org openly collude w ith groups listed o n th e State D epartm ent’s list of terro rist organizations a n d incite h atred against C hristian, M uslim s and m oderate H indus.96 W h en th irty w o rsh ip p e rs w ere killed a t th e A k sh a rd h a m tem ple in G a n d h in a g a r in S e p te m b e r 2 0 0 2 , t h e IM C c o n d e m n e d th e in cid e n t a n d a sk ed th e g o v e rn m e n t to e n su re th a t c o m m u n a l forces did n o t use it a s a p re te x t fo r violence a g a in st th e M u slim s.97 In N o v e m b e r, n a tio n a l level M u slim o rg an iz a tio n s in th e US, su c h as C A IR , IS N A , IC N A a n d IM R C e n d o rs e d t h e I M C a p p e a l to o b serv e th e seco n d w eek o f R a m a d a n a s G u ja ra t G en o cid e R em em ­ b ran c e W eek a n d th e seco n d ju m a h a s G u ja ra t G en o cid e M e m o ria l D ay . T h e IM C w a s a n x io u s a b o u t th e ‘h u g e c h a llen g e’ o f H in d u tv a s u p p o rte rs h av in g access to th e m edia a n d C o n g ress in ‘c o n trib u t­ in g to th e g ro w in g h a tre d a g a in st M u slim s a n d Islam in th e US’. By N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 2 , th e IM C h ad p ro d u ce d a n d m ass d istrib u te d th ree b ro ch u re s a n d fifty a le rts ‘in a q u a n tity o f 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 ’ o n th e G u ja ra t g e n o c id e . I t h a d a ls o a rc h iv e d ‘m o re t h a n 6 ,0 0 0 a r tic le s o n H in d u tv a -fa s c ism ’ fo r research . Lectures, tea c h -in s a n d sem in ars in m o sq u es, ch u rch es a n d college c a m p u se s w ere o rg an ized all over th e US a b o u t th e d an g ers o f H in d u tv a to In d ia n m in o ritie s.98 W h en S a b ran g C o m m u n ic a tio n s (India) a n d th e S o u th Asia C itizen s W eb (France) released th e re p o rt, ‘A Fo reig n E x ch an g e o f H a te ’, it asked 95. 96. 97. 98.

w w w .im a n n e t.c o m /p ress/sep tem b erl6 0 2 .a sp , 16 S eptem ber 2 0 0 2 . w w w .im an n e t.c o m /a ctio n /ale rt3 2 .a sp , 2 7 M arc h 200 3 . w w w .im annet.com /press/septem ber 2 4 0 2 .asp , 24 S eptem ber 200 2 . w w w .im an net.com /press/nov0402.asp, 4 N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 2 .

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th e US J u stic e D e p a rtm e n t a n d S ta te D e p a rtm e n t to in v estig ate th e U S-based In d ia D ev elo p m en t a n d R elief Fu n d (ID RF) fo r ro u tin g tax -e x e m p t d o n a tio n s to th e RSS a n d th e V H P in In d ia (see c h a p te r fo u r). It ex p la in e d th a t th e V H P h a d b een a t th e fo re fro n t o f th e rec e n t c a rn a g e in G u ja ra t a n d its w o rk in g p resid e n t, A sh o k Singhal, h a d called it ‘a successful e x p e rim e n t’ th a t w o u ld b e rep eated all o v e r th e c o u n try ; a n d th a t th e sam e g ro u p s w ere resp o n sib le fo r a n ti - C h r is t ia n v io le n c e in I n d ia . B e tw e e n J a n u a r y 1 9 9 8 a n d F e b ru ary 1 9 9 9 a lo n e , th ere w ere 1 1 6 a tta c k s a g a in st th e C h ristia n c o m m u n ity in In d ia. T h e IM C a ls o called u p U n ited W ay a n d o th e r m a jo r c o rp o ra tio n s in clu d in g C IS C O , S u n , O ra c le , H P a n d A O L T im e W a rn e r to a sk th em to d ro p th e ID R F fro m th e ir list o f c h a ri­ ties, ‘so th a t th e ir fo u n d a tio n d o lla rs a re n o t a b u sed to p ro m o te th e fascist id eo lo g y in In d ia a n d a lso in th e US’. " O n th e te n th a n n iv e rsary o f th e d e m o litio n o f th e B abri M asjid, A IM , A F M I, IM C -U SA a n d IM R C m ad e a jo in t sta te m e n t o n its im p licatio n s fo r th e fu tu re o f p lu ralism . N o t a single unit o f th e country’s m ighty m ilitary w as called, no special com m andos w ere rushed to th e sp o t a n d n o effective resis­ tance offered by th e police forces present, as a m ob o f vandals, egged on by their H indutva-fascist demagogues (that included L.K. Advani, w h o has subsequently risen to becom e India’s D eputy PM ), pulled dow n th e historic four hundred year m osque w ith axes a n d scythes in b ro ad daylight. D om e by dom e a n d wall by w all, India’s secular­ ism w as ham m ered u p o n until it w as nothing b u t rubble. Each brick w as then assiduously removed— som e taken hom e as souvenirs, as if th e p erp etrato rs feared th a t th e centuries old pluralistic tradition m ight som ehow arise o u t o f the ru b b le a nd stak e its claim again. It m en tio n ed th e ren e w a l o f H in d u tv a v ow s to d em o lish 3 ,0 0 0 m o re m o sq u e s a n d th e d a n g e ro u s c o m b in a tio n o f fasc ism a n d n u c le a riz a tio n , ‘in a v o latile p a r t o f th e w o r ld ’.100 T h e seco n d c o n c e rn w a s a g a in rep e a ted w h e n th e BJP h a d a lan d slid e w in in G u ja ra t, in D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 2 , b ecause it su g g ested a ‘w id e sp re a d en d o rse m en t fo r th e savage violence o rg an iz e d by C h ie f M in ister M o d i’. T h is a d d e d to th e th re a t o f th e ‘w in n in g fo rm u la ’ o f G u ja ra t being a p p lie d a t th e n a tio n a l level. It a lso d re w a tte n tio n to th e 9 9 . w w w .im a n net.com /press/nov2302.asp, 2 3 N o v e m b e r 200 2 . 100. w w w .im c-usa.org/cgi-bin/cfm /PressR elease.cfm rPR ID = 36

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ov er 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 sch o o ls o p e ra te d by th e Sangh P ariv ar w h e re th e young a re ta u g h t to h a te m in o rities a n d to reg a rd th em a s fo reigners. W ith th e S a n g h P a riv a r r u n n in g o v e r fo rty -fo u r c h a p te rs a n d raisin g ‘m illio n s o f d o lla rs’ to fin an ce H in d u ex tre m ism , a n d w in n in g th e G u ja ra t e lectio n , th e IM C p red ic te d a ‘g lo b al p ro life ra tio n o f reli­ g io u s h a tre d ’, unless in te rn a tio n a l p ressu re ca m e in to p la y .101 T h e first a n n u a l c o n v e n tio n o f th e IM C -U SA w a s held a t Santa C lara in C alifo rn ia o n 2 8 Ju n e 2 0 0 3 a n d w a s a tte n d e d b y o v e r 5 0 0 p e o p le , in clu d in g jo u rn a lists a n d acad em ics. Its p resid e n t, Sh aik h U b a id , stre sse d th a t re m a in in g sile n t a b o u t th e ac tiv itie s o f th e In d ia n d iasp o ra in th e US w o u ld h u rt fu tu re g en e ra tio n s; a n d re­ sistin g th e s p re a d o f H in d u tv a in In d ia a n d th e US w a s ‘th e highest p a trio tic d u ty ’ (m y em p h asis). O th e rs w h o sp o k e o n th e G u ja ra t k illin g s a t th e c o n v e n tio n w e re S m ita N a r u la o f H u m a n R ig h ts W a tc h a n d G o v in d A ch ary a, In d ia d ireco r a t A m nesty In te rn atio n al. R a ju R aja g o p al, p resid en t, C o a litio n A gainst C o m m u n alism (CA C ), ex p la in e d th e d istin c tio n b etw een H in d u tv a a n d H in d u ism . T h e G u ja ra t p o g ro m w a s p u t in persp ectiv e by K .P. Singh, th e co n v en er o f th e I n te rn a tio n a l A sso c ia tio n fo r th e A d v a n c e m e n t o f D alits (IA A D ), in th e c o n te x t o f ‘2 0 0 0 y e a rs o f p e rse c u tio n o f D a lits’, a n d R a h u l D e e p a n k a r (m en tio n ed earlie r), th e in te rn a tio n a l p resid en t, In d ia n B uddhist A ssociation, sp oke o n th e ‘dalitizatio n o f M uslim s’. F a th e r C e d ric P ra k a s h , d ire c to r, P ra sh a n t, th e J e su it C e n te r o f H u m a n R ig h ts, Ju stic e a n d Peace, G u ja ra t, sp o k e o n th e ‘o n g o in g p e rsecu tio n ’ o f M u slim s a n d C h ristian s in G u ja ra t. A n o th e r sp eak er, K u lm it Singh, n a tio n a l c o o rd in a to r o f th e Sikh co a litio n , said th e a tte m p ts o f th e S an g h P a riv a r to refer to Sikhs a s H in d u s w a s p a rt o f a ‘policy o f d e stru c tio n th ro u g h assim ila tio n ’.102 T h e IM C -U SA , w h ic h fo cu se s o n b u ild in g ‘b rid g e s b e tw e e n th e v a rio u s In d ia n D ia sp o ra c o m m u n ities in th e U SA’, recen tly s u p p o rte d th e fight p u t u p b y th e IA A D a g a in st th e se g reg atio n o f D a lit ch ild ren in sch o o ls in S u re n d ra n a g a r d istric t in G u ja ra t w h e re tea c h e rs w h o o p p o se d th e p rac tic e h a d been p u n ish ed w ith tra n sfe rs. T h e IA A D ’s K .P. S ingh d escrib ed th e D a lits a s sq u eezed a n d cru sh e d b y th e H in d u tv a f o rc e s .103 T h e IM C -U S A a ls o o b s e rv e d th e s e c o n d 101. w w w .im c-usa.org/cgi-bin/index.cfm 102. w w w .im an n et.co m /p re ss/ju ly l0 1 3 .asp , 3 0 J u n e 200 3 . 10 3 . w w w .silchspectrum .com /022004/dalit.htm , S ikhSpectrum .C om Q u arterly , n o . 15, F eb ru a ry 200 4 .

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a n n iv e rsary o f th e G u ja ra t g e n o cid e a n d Sh aik h U b a id sa id th a t ‘th e very c h a ra c te r o f th e secu lar d em o cracy a n d society th a t India is’ w a s a t sta k e . It w a s u n d e r a tta c k th ro u g h a h isto ry cu rricu lu m sp a w n in g ‘vicious killers a n d ra p is ts ’ a n d p o g ro m s .104 A fte r th e e lecto ral d e fe a t o f th e BJP in m id -2 0 0 4 , h e rem in d ed b o th In d ian s a n d th e In d ia n d iasp o ra n o t to let d o w n th e ir g u a rd , a n d to recog­ nize th a t it w a s im p erativ e to d eto x ify th e e d u c a tio n a l system . But h e w a s h a p p y th a t ‘th e d ays o f th e self-p ro claim ed a n d BJP-blessed lead ers try in g to m islead th e M u slim s fo r th e ir o w n p e rso n a l b en­ efit’ w ere o v er. T h is w as o b v io u s in th e rejectio n o f th e a p p e als o f A rif M o h a m m e d K h a n , W a h ee d u d d in K h a n a n d th e im a m o f th e J a m a M a sjid , A hm ed B u k h a ri, to v o te fo r th e BJP.105 If G u ja ra t a n im a te d d e b a te s a n d activism in th e d ia sp o ra , th e d ia s p o ra a ls o b e c am e th e d e s tin a tio n fo r a t le a s t tw o o f th o se a ccu sed in th e m assa c re in O d e village in A n a n d d istric t w h ere tw en ty -sev en p e rso n s w e re b u r n t alive: N a tu b h a i S a tta b h a i P atel a n d N ik u l R a v jib h ai P atel w ere rep o rte d to have fled to th e US a n d UK resp ectiv ely .106 G o d h ra a n d th e ev en ts b e fo re a n d a fte r w ere h o tly d e b a te d in th e UK to o . T h e G u ja ra ti d iasp o ra w a s in th e th ick o f it. T h re e B rad fo rd H in d u fam ilies lo st th eir relatives in th e G o d h ra tra in b u rn in g in cid e n t a n d fo u r M u slim fam ilies stay in g clo se by lo st th e ir so n s in th e rio ts th a t follow ed. Z a f a r S a resh w ala, a p ro m i­ n e n t Y o rk sh ire b u sin e ssm a n fro m A h m e d a b ad said : ‘P eo p le, say P a k ista n is, co m e in to th e m o sq u es a n d a sk , w h a t a re y o u In d ia n M u slim s d o in g a b o u t d efen ce b a c k in In d ia ? W e s h u t th em u p b ecau se w e tell o u r p e o p le , it is n o t H in d u s w h o a re c o m m u n a l, it is th e Sangh P a riv a r’. W h y else d id th e V H P in te rn a tio n a l g en eral se cretary , P raveen T o g a d ia say th a t th e R am tem p le m u st b e b u ilt b ecau se ‘o verseas H in d u s ’ ex p e cte d it? 107 T h e H in d u a n d M uslim lead ers o f In d ia n o rig in m et th e fo reig n secretary , Ja ck S tra w se p a ­ rately . Friends o f In d ia Society In te rn atio n al discussed n o t ju st th e G u ja ra t violence b u t also h u m an rig h ts abuses o f H in d u s in ‘M uslim m ajo rity B an g lad esh ’. 108 In D ecem b er 2 0 0 2 , U K ’s C h an n el 4 T V telecast a sto ry o n th e o verseas w in g o f th e RSS, th e H in d u S w ay am sew ak S an g h a n d Sewa 104. 105. 10 6 . 10 7 . 108.

w w w .m illig aze tte .co m /In d M u sS ta t/2 0 0 4 a/0 9 0 -im c-2 8 F eb 0 4 .h tm w w w .im c-usa.org, 14 M a y 2 0 0 4 . T h e T im e s o f In d ia , 2 J u n e 200 4 . Ib id ., 31 M arc h 2 0 0 2 . Ib id ., 2 6 M arc h 200 2 .

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In te rn a tio n a l (a flagship o rg a n iz a tio n th a t co llects d o n a tio n s in th e U K ), a n d th e c h a n n e lin g o f fu n d s to o rg a n iz a tio n s su c h a s th e V anvasi K alyan A shram (VKA). A long w ith th e VKA, th e RSS, H in d u S w ayam S ew ak Sangh a n d Sew a In te rn a tio n a l w e re a lso im plicated in th e violence in G u ja ra t in 2 0 0 2 . A s a fo llo w up, th e IM F o rg a ­ nized a se m in a r in L o n d o n th a t w a s a tte n d e d by lead ers o f S outh A sian o rg a n iz a tio n s in J a n u a ry 2 0 0 3 . Its p resid e n t, S h am su d d in A g h a , sa id th a t th e a rriv a l o f p a rtic ip a n ts fro m all o v e r B ritain p ro v ed th e ir c o m m itm e n t a n d c o n c e rn a b o u t h u m a n rig h ts a n d d em o cracy in th e ir ‘m o th e rla n d ’. It w a s d ecid ed th a t d e b a te s w o u ld be o rg an iz e d in o th e r p a rts o f th e c o u n try — L eicester, B lack b u rn a n d so o n — to m ak e p e o p le a w a re o f th e rise o f fascism in th e n am e o f H in d u n a tio n a lism in B ritain , to e n list th em to d e fe a t th e ir c o m ­ m u n al ideology in th e c o u n try a n d ‘se n d a m essage to o u r b ro th e rs a n d sisters in In d ia th a t [a] re p e a t o f N a z i G e rm a n y w o u ld b e di­ sa stro u s fo r In d ia a n d th e w h o le w o rld ’. 109 Eighty-five M u slim s fro m th e n o rth L o n d o n a re a h ad fo u n d th em ­ selves s tra n d e d in G u ja ra t w h e n th e killings h a p p e n ed in 2 0 0 2 . T h e N o r th L o n d o n M u slim C o m m u n ity C e n tre , w h ic h w a s involved in w elfare activ ities in H a c k n e y , o rg an iz e d a n em ergency m eetin g o f M u slim s rep re se n tin g v a rio u s o rg an iz a tio n s a n d m o sq u e s fro m all o v e r U K . T h e o u tco m e w a s th e fo rm a tio n o f a n a tio n a l b o d y , th e C o u n cil o f In d ia n M u slim s (C IM ). It m et J a c k S tra w , m ad e rep re ­ s e n ta tio n s to th e In d ia n H ig h C o m m issio n , p u b lish e d new sletters a n d sen t a m em o ran d u m to th e O rg a n iz a tio n o f Islam ic C on feren ce’s (O IC ) tw e n ty -n in th fo reig n m in iste rs’ c o n feren ce in K h a rto u m in Ju n e 2 0 0 2 . O n e o f th e C IM objectives is to ‘m o n ito r a n d p ro m o te ’ th e in te re s ts o f M u slim s in In d ia , b e c au se o f th e ir ‘c o n tin u o u s d isc rim in atio n sin ce in d ep en d en ce a n d ...a n u n b rid le d w a v e o f an a n ti-M u slim co m m u n a lism ’.110 M u n a f Z e e n a , th e C IM c h a irm a n sa id th e H in d u s w ere a lso p rese n t a t a p u b lic m eetin g o rg an iz e d by it in B la c k b u rn th a t w a s ad d re sse d by th e fo reig n secretary , Ja ck S traw . H e e m p h asized th a t it w a s n o t ‘a M u slim issue a n d d espite th e V ishw a H in d u P a rish a d ’s p ro p a g a n d a m an y H in d u s ’ w e re as m u ch c o n c ern e d a b o u t w h a t w a s h a p p e n in g in G u ja ra t a s th ey w ere. A t th a t p o in t, th e C IM w a s e x p lo rin g legal a v e n u es to a rra ig n N a re n d ra M o d i, th e G u ja ra t c h ie f m in iste r, fo r h is g o v e rn m e n t’s 10 9 . w w w .m illig azette .co m /In d /M u s/S tat/2 0 0 3 a /0 0 2 1 2 ja n 0 3 .h tm 11 0 . C IM hom epage, w w w .coim .org.uk

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com plicity w ith rio ters a n d to w o rk closely w ith th o se fam ilies w hose relatives w ere killed o r h a d g o n e m issin g in G u ja ra t.111 L a te r in th e y e a r, w h e n L.K. A d v an i, In d ia ’s th en d e p u ty p rim e m in ister, w as in L o n d o n he ap o lo g ized fo r G u ja ra t, c allin g th e events ‘indefensible’ a n d a ‘b lo t’ o n th e BJP governm ent. T h e C IM responded to h is re m a rk s s a y in g it w a s a ‘ste p in th e rig h t d ire c tio n ’. 112 C o n trastin g his a p o lo g y o n ‘foreign soil’ w ith his aggressive defence a n d c e le b ratio n o f M o d i in In d ia , T h e H in d u p o in te d o u t th a t it c a m e ‘a w h o le six m o n th s a fte r th e c a rn a g e ’, a n d a d d e d th is c o m ­ m en t: ‘M r. A d v an i m isrem em b ers th a t w e live in th e g lo b al age, th a t s ittin g in D elh i, w e c a n fin d o u t w h o says w h a t in d ista n t L o n d o n ....M r. A d v an i’s p e rfo rm a n c e in L o n d o n w a s f o r th e c o n ­ su m p tio n o f a largely critic a l fo reig n a u d ie n c e ...’. 113 L eaders o f th e B ritish M u slim s, in clu d in g th e C IM c h a irm a n , M u n a f Z e e n a , c o n ­ tin u e d to a sk J a c k S tra w to p ressu re In d ia to e n su re ju stice to th e victim s in G u ja ra t. H e a ls o led a d ele g a tio n th a t d e m a n d e d a b an o n th e activities o f th e H in d u Seva S an g h a n d Sew a In te rn atio n al since th e ir fu n d s h a d been used to ta rg e t M u slim s in In d ia .114 But th e C IM w a s d istressed a t th e silence o f th e Fo reig n O ffice o n its d e m a n d to refu se M o d i, e n try in to UK in A ugust 2 0 0 3 (to a ttra c t in v estm en t in G u ja ra t), a n d rem in d ed th a t h e w as a d a n g e r to race rela tio n s in U K .115 T o g e th e r w ith th e IM F , th e C IM u rg ed th a t M o d i’s visa b e re v o k e d .116 O n th e e le v e n th a n n iv e rs a ry o f th e d e m o litio n o f th e Babri M a sjid , Z e e n a d e m a n d e d th a t M u slim s be a llo w ed to rec o n stru c t th e Babri M a sjid , a n d th a t T A D A a n d P O T A c a se s a g a in s t in n o c e n t c itiz e n s w h o w e re d e ta in e d in 1 9 9 3 in B o m b ay , a n d in 2 0 0 2 in G u ja ra t, be w ith d ra w n .117 W h en th e BJP lo st in 2 0 0 4 , Z e e n a said th e BJP h a d ‘s h o t itself in th e fo o t by n o t 11 1 . T h e H in d u , 28 A pril 2 0 0 2 . 112. Ib id ., 2 4 A ugust 2 0 0 2 . H o w ever, a sp o k esp erso n o f th e S o u th A sia Solidarity G ro u p (see c h a p te r 4) said the ‘test’ o f A dvani’s rem ark s lay in w h eth er they w o u ld be m a tc h ed by ac tio n ag a in st those w h o w ere behind the violence— ‘n o t ju st th o se a t th e lo w e r level b u t th o se a t the highest levels o f the M od i G o vernm ent, including th e C hief M in iste r him self’. 11 3 . Ib id ., E d ito rial, 2 7 A u g u st 2 00 2 . 11 4 . Ib id ., 3 F ebruary 200 3 . 115. w w w .c o im .o rg .u k , 13 A u g u st 2 00 3 . 11 6 . T h e H in d u , 18 A ugust 2 0 0 3 . 11 7 . w w w .m illig aze tte .co m /In d M u sS ta t/2 0 0 3 a/0 7 3 cim u k 6 D e c0 3 .h tm

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ta k in g effective a c tio n a g a in st th e fascist C h ief M in iste r o f G u ja ra t, N a re n d ra M o d i’.118 In th e a fte rm a th o f th e G u ja ra t carn a g e , a w id e ran g e o f d iasp o ric g ro u p s h av e co m e to g e th e r in d ifferen t p a rts o f th e US (an d in th e UK) to resist th e H in d u tv a fo rm atio n . In A pril 2 0 0 2 , R ahul D eepankar o rg an iz e d a c o n feren ce u n d e r th e au spices o f N e w R e p u b lic India I n te r n a tio n a l in C h ic a g o . T h e A F M I, C C IM , G u ja ra ti M u slim A sso ciatio n o f A m erica, th e In d ia n C a th o lic A sso ciatio n , th e Fed­ e ra tio n o f In d o -A m erican C h ristian s o f N o r th A m erica (FIA C O N A ) a n d th e In d ia n B u d d h ist A sso ciatio n w e re a m o n g th e p a rticip a tin g o rg an iz a tio n s. T h e reso lu tio n s d escrib ed th e killers o f m o re th a n a th o u sa n d p e o p le as ‘te rro rists a n d enem ies o f In d ia ’. T h e b u rn in g o f fifty-eight H in d u s in G o d h ra , to o , w as co n dem ned. T h e com plic­ ity o f th e p o lice a n d b u rea u c ra cy recalled ‘sim ila r p a tte rn s ’ in th e a n ti-S ik h rio ts o f 1 9 8 4 , a n d a fte r th e d e stru c tio n o f th e B abri M asjid in 1 9 9 2 . T h e p a rtic ip a n ts held th e V H P a n d B ajrang D al resp o n ­ sible fo r sp re a d in g h a tre d a n d v iolence a g a in s t m in o ritie s. T h ey d e m a n d e d th a t th e o rg an iz a tio n s b e b a n n e d b ecause th ey ‘p ractice fascism in th e n am e o f H in d u tv a N a tio n a lism ’. T h e y also ask ed ‘all In d ian s (“ th e silent m ajo rity ” ) living a b ro a d ’, to w o rk to g eth er, in su p p o rt o f ‘secularism , tolerance, peace a n d dem ocratic ru le o f law ’.119 In Ju ly 2 0 0 2 , Im a n N e t m ad e a n a p p e al to th e In d ia n co m m u n ity a n d ‘all p e o p le o f co n scien ce’, to jo in th e p ro te s t in itia ted by th e F o ru m o f I n d ia n L e ftists (F O IL ) a n d I n te r n a tio n a l S o u th A sia F o ru m (INSAF) a n d som e o th e r g ro u p s in fro n t o f th e G an esh T em ple w h en Sadhvi R ita m b h a ra w as scheduled to raise fu n d s in N e w Y ork. Its p ress release a n d flyers p o in te d o u t th a t th e US a d m in istra tio n , as w ell as o rd in a ry citizen s, w e re c o m p letely u n a w a re o f fascist fu n d -ra isin g activities o p en ly ta k in g p lace in th e ir m id st. H o w w ould we have reacted if Joseph Goebbels had descended on N ew Y ork to collect funds for th e H olocaust?...S adhvi has been a t th e fo refro n t o f the m o st hein o u s p ro p ag a n d a ag ain st m inority com m unities in India. She has been instrum ental in brain-w ashing m em bers o f the m ajority H indu com m unity to perpetrate acts of unspeakable violence on m inorities. Sadhvi w as right there urging 118. w w w .headlines.sify.com , 15 M ay 200 4 . 11 9 . w w w .am b ed k a r.o rg /N e w s/N ew s0 4 1 0 0 2 .h tm . A sad H u ssain (active in th e re­ p a tria tio n o f the S tra n d ed P akistanis: see c h a p te r 2) w as a m o n g those w ho sp o k e a t th e conference.

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the H indutva—Fascist m o b w hen it illegally b rought dow n the Babri M osque in Ayodhya in 1992, a n d which w as followed by th e slaugh­ te r of innocent M uslim s across India. H e r ‘Bajrang D al’ (‘Youth W ing’) w as th e m ajor force in th e recent genocide of M uslim s in G u jarat w here 5 ,000 w ere brutally killed, 2 ,0 0 0 raped a n d 2 5 0 ,000 m ade refugees in their ow n co u n try .120 Sixty to seventy In d ia n s a n d In d ia n A m ericans, b o th H in d u s a n d M u slim s, fro m th e N e w Y o rk m etro a re a , p ro te ste d th e recep tio n fo r Sadhvi R ita m b h a ra o n 2 6 Ju ly 2 0 0 2 w ith slo g a n s a g a in st th e ‘sa ffro n N a z is’, a n d a g a in s t P a n d it Ja sra j fo r p e rfo rm in g o n th e o c c a s io n . T h e s ig n ific a n c e o f th e d e m o n s tra tio n a c c o r d in g to C h a n d a n a M a th u r o f IN SA F a n d S o u th A sian M a g az in e fo r A ction a n d R eflectio n (SA M A R ), w a s th a t ‘o th e r H in d u sp aces m ay begin to th in k tw ice b e fo re le ttin g th e S an g h P a riv a r ho ld ev e n ts o n th eir p rem ises’. A fter all, th e h u g e scale o f th e m assacre h ad n o t been w itnessed sin ce p a rtitio n a n d it h a d th e o b v io u s assistan ce o f th e g o v e rn m e n t.121 W h en th e BJP w o n a tw o -th ird m ajo rity in th e G u ja ra t election in 2 0 0 2 , th e F IA C O N A fea re d th a t th e BJP ‘ex p e rim e n t’ o f u n ­ leash in g te rro r cam p aig n s a g a in st religious m in o rities h a d h elped it ‘c o n s o lid a te th e “ H in d u ” v o te ’; a n d a s in d ic a te d b y th e S an g h P a riv a r, it w o u ld b e rep e a ted ‘in th e re s t o f In d ia ’. It ask ed w estern g o v ern m en ts, in p a rtic u la r th e US a n d B ritish, to rem e m b e r th a t th is w a s a n im m en se th re a t to p lu ralism a n d n o t to d isre g a rd it fo r a n y sh o rt-te rm strategic g ains th e BJP m ay o ffer in th e ‘w a r o n te r­ ro rism ’. W h a t w a s a t sta k e , a fte r all, w ere th e lives o f ‘o v e r 170 m illion’ people: ‘4 0 m illio n In d ia n C h ristia n s a n d 1 3 0 m illion o th e r relig io u s m in o ritie s living in In d ia ’.122 Six m o n th s later, th e C o ali­ tio n to S u p p o rt D e m o cracy a n d Plu ralism in In d ia, co m p risin g som e D a lit, M u slim a n d C h ristia n g ro u p s, o rg an iz e d a p e a ce vigil a t G a n d h i’s sta tu e in W a sh in g to n D .C . a n d gave a letter to L.K. A dvani, th e th en In d ia n d e p u ty p rim e m inister, o n a visit to th e US, p ro testin g 120. w w w .im an net.com /press/july2502.asp, 2 5 Ju ly 200 2 . 121. Jiw an i (2 002). ‘T h e G anesh T em ple Society to ld a re p o rte r th a t the V ishw a H in d u P arishad o f A m erica m isled a n d m an ip u late d th em in to holding the ev ent, a n d th a t she’d never have a g re ed to it if she’d k n o w n th a t Sadhvi w as a n RSS m ilitan t’. 122. w w w .g en ocidew atch.org/G ujaratF IA N C O N A statem ent.htm , press release, 16 D ecem ber 200 2 .

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a g a in s t t h e ‘d a n g e r o u s p o l it ic s ’ o f t h e RSS a n d t h e B JP .123 A n o th e r le tte r w ritte n to th e US p resid e n t, G eo rg e Bush, p o in ted o u t th a t s u p p o rt to ‘a religious fu n d am e n ta list p a rty ’ su c h as th e BJP w o u ld cau se ‘p e rm a n e n t d a m a g e to th e civil society in In d ia ’. T h e a rg u m e n t w a s th a t A dvani h ad u n d erm in ed th e g lo b al w a r o n te r r o r by e n c o u ra g in g religious e x trem ism in In d ia , w h ic h in tu rn en c o u ra g e d g re a te r Islam ic m ilita n cy in S o u th A sia, th u s destab iliz­ in g th e In d ian su b co n tin en t. M o re o v e r his religious politics w as also ‘b a d fo r b u siness’. U n d e r his lead ersh ip th e u n io n h o m e m in istry h a d ‘co n sisten tly refused to ta k e a c tio n a g a in s t H in d u e x trem ists responsible fo r d estro y in g C h ristian ch urches, schools a n d h ospitals, a n d fo r killing p a sto rs a n d rap in g n u n s’. H e h a d also p ro te c te d th e p e rp e tra to rs o f o rg an ized , large-scale violence a g a in st th e M uslim c o m m u n ity . T h e le tte r suggested th a t th e US g o v e rn m e n t should d iscu ss w ith A d v an i w h e th e r U S -b ased c o n tr ib u tio n s to H in d u fu n d am e n ta list g ro u p s in In d ia w ere b ein g m o n ito re d as closely as o verseas fu n d s received b y C h ristia n a n d M u slim in stitu tio n s. T h e C o a litio n a lso referred to th e M a y 2 0 0 3 US C o m m issio n o n In te r­ n a tio n a l R eligious F reed o m (USCIRF) w h ic h h ad c o n clu d ed th a t th e BJP cap italized o n religious in to le ra n c e a n d h a tre d a g a in st m i­ n o ritie s fo r e lecto ral gains. W o rse still, A dvani a n d o th e r BJP m em ­ b ers h a d pu b licly lau d ed th e G u ja ra t c h ie f m in ister w h o h ad been in d icted b y a w id e ran g e o f In d ia n a n d in te rn a tio n a l h u m a n rig h ts g ro u p s fo r ‘co n n iv in g w ith ’ m o b s a tta c k in g religious m in o rities in G u ja ra t.124 A b ro ad -b a se d c o a litio n o f S o u th A sian g ro u p s ca m e to g e th e r in O c to b e r 2 0 0 3 in th e C h icag o M e tro p o lita n A rea a ro u n d a c o m ­ m o n a g e n d a o f p lu ra lism , c o m m u n a l h a rm o n y a n d eq u ality . T h e s p o n so rin g o rg an iz a tio n s in clu d ed th e C o a litio n fo r S ecu lar a n d D em o c ra tic In d ia , S o u th A sian Progressive A c tio n C ollective, S outh A sia G r o u p f o r A c tio n a n d R e fle c tio n , IM C -U S A , A F M I, N e w 123. w w w .em alayalee.com /807n.htm , press release, 10 J u n e 2 0 0 3 .T h e signatories o f the letter included th e A m b ed k ar M em o ria l T ru st, A ssociation o f India’s D evelopm ent (AID), A IM , the A hsan Ja fri F o u n d a tio n , B haratiya E ducation F o u n d atio n , E thics a n d Public Policy C entre, FIA C O N A (C hicago), Indian A m erican C a th o lic A ssociation, In d ian C h ristia n F o ru m , N ew Y o rk , M .K . G andhi Institu te fo r N on-V iolence, M em phis, V aishnav C e n te r for E nlighten ­ m e n t, a n d M .I. Z u b e r Ja fri, w hose fath er, A hsan Ja fri, fo rm er m em ber o f P arliam ent, w a s killed in G u ja ra t, w as a lso p a rt o f th e vigil. 124. w w w .re d iff.co m /u s/2 0 0 3 /ju n /1 0 ad v l.h tm , 10 Ju n e 2 0 0 3 . T he IM C is a lso a m e m b e r o f the C oalition.

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R e p u b lic In d ia , th e W o rld T am il O rg a n iz a tio n a n d th e Sikh A m eri­ ca n H e rita g e O rg a n iz a tio n .125 A n o th e r e x a m p le o f such initiatives w as th e in te rv en tio n o f A F M I, IM C -U SA , th e N a tio n a l F ed eratio n o f In d ia n A sso ciatio n s a n d N o n -R e sid en t In d ia n s fo r a Secular a n d H a rm o n io u s In d ia , a n d th e A n n A rb o r C o m m itte e fo r Peace in th e D e tro it a re a . T h ese o rg an iz a tio n s s p o n so re d R am P u n iy an i, a m em ­ b e r o f E k ta -C o m m itte e fo r C o m m u n a l A m ity, M u m b a i, to sp eak o n th e challenges to In d ia n dem o cracy .126 M in e is n o t a n exhaustive a c c o u n t o f su c h in te rv e n tio n s, b u t a m ap o f th e resista n c e a n d o p p o sitio n H in d u tv a has e v o k ed in th e d iasp o ra (th e discu ssio n is co n tin u e d in th e n e x t c h a p te r). T h e o th e r p o in t th a t need s to be m ad e is th a t th ese c o n te sta tio n s a re avidly w a tc h ed a n d tra c k e d in In d ia . T h u s , w h e n a d e le g a tio n o f C o n g re ssm e n (‘a n d M u slim lead ers’), led b y S h an k ersin g h V ag h ela left fo r th e US to c a m p aig n a g a in st th e BJP, N a re n d ra M o d i w e n t ballistic: ‘T h ese sham eless C o n g ressw allah s c a n n o t fight us h e re , so th ey h av e g o n e a b ro a d to d efam e th e en tire s ta te ’. T h e BJP ca d re s p ro m p tly p ick ed u p th eir cue to s p re a d th e w o rd th a t ‘M u slim s based in th e US w ere p u m p ­ in g fu n d s in to th e co m in g G u ja ra t p olls, to in stall a p ro -M u slim g o v e rn m e n t in th e b o rd e r s ta te ’ (M a h u rk a r 2 0 0 1 ). In a rep re se n ta tiv e p iece w ritte n a fte r th e first a n n u a l conference o f th e IM C -U SA , th e H in d u tv a s u p p o rte r, Y a tin d ra B h a tn a g ar, claim ed th a t th e ‘m a ra th o n session’ o f fifteen h o u rs o f lectu res by o v e r th re e d o zen sp e ak e rs h a d o n ly ‘succeed ed in h a rd e n in g th e s ta n d o f M u slim g ro u p s a g a in st th e H in d u g ro u p s in th e U nited States’, a n d set th e to n e fo r ‘a n ugly p e rio d o f c o n fro n ta tio n b e­ tw een th e tw o c o m m u n ities’. W h ile c o n ced in g th a t ‘it w a s som e­ th in g u n iq u e ’ to see th a t th e o rg an izers o f th e c o n feren ce w e re able to g e t to g e th e r (‘ro p e in ’) p e o p le o f d ifferen t faith s a n d ideologies, h e w ro te th a t it w as ‘h a tre d fo r H in d u g ro u p s ’ th a t ‘b o u n d ’ th em to g eth e r. M eets such as these, aim ed a t a coalition o f m inorities against groups o f th e m ajority H in d u s, only m ake th e task of forgetting a n d forgiv­ ing m ore difficult.... T here w as n o atte m p t to sp read the idea th at M uslim s— and o th er m inority com m unities have to live w ith the 125. w w w .m ail-archive.com /sapac@ w w w .residentlounge.com /m sg00025.htm l 126. w w w .d e tro it.eknazar.com /E vents/events.shtm lP 4289

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overw helm ingly large num ber o f H indus in India a n d so it is much better, a n d w iser, n o t to spread fu rth er hatred against th e m ....127 N o t su rp risin g ly , th e piece re a d s q u ite lik e th e re so lu tio n o f th e a ll-In d ia g en eral c o u n cil o f th e RSS, p assed s o o n a fte r th e G u ja ra t killings. It w a rn e d M u slim s th a t th e ir safety dep en d ed o n th e g o o d ­ will o f th e m ajo rity a n d justified th e p o st-G o d h ra violence as ‘na tu ra l a n d s p o n ta n e o u s ’. T h e f irs t o f th e th re e re s o lu tio n s w a s a b o u t ‘A tro cities o n B angladeshi H in d u s ’. T h e RSS d e m an d ed th a t India sto p e x p o rtin g rice, p o ta to , o n io n s a n d m ea t to B an g lad esh u n til it sto p p e d co m m ittin g atro c ities o n H in d u fam ilies. T h e g o v ern m en t w a s ask ed to d e m a n d th e c re a tio n o f a s e p a ra te h o m ela n d fo r th e B angladeshi H in d u s , if B an g lad esh failed to resp o n d p o sitiv ely .128 L a te r in th e y e a r, w h e n M .G . V aid y a, a n RSS sp o k e sm a n , w a s asked w h a t w a s n e x t o n th e ag en d a a fte r th e G u ja ra t lab test, h e said, ‘T h e w h o le co u n try h a s been o u r la b o ra to ry since 1 9 2 5 (w h en th e RSS w a s fo u n d ed ). W e have been ex p e rim e n tin g since th e n ’.129 T o th a t w a s spliced th e d iasp o ra in th e last co u p le o f years. T h e in ro a d s m ad e b y th e S an g h P a riv a r a m o n g O B C s, D alits a n d trib a ls in d iverse reg io n s o f th e co u n try h a s been d istu rb in g for th o se c o n testin g th e H in d u tv a p ro je c t (A. A hm ad 2 0 0 4 :2 3 4 ). A nand T e ltu m b d e h a s w ritte n th a t ‘p a ra d o x ic ally th e D a lit p o litical e s ta b ­ lish m e n t a p p e a rs to b e recep tiv e to th e H in d u tv a o v e rtu res’. A m ong o th e r in stan ces th is w a s e v id e n t in M a h a ra s h tra , ‘th e very c e n tre o f [the] A m b e d k a rite m o v em en t’, in th e d isco u rse o f a B h eem sh a ktiS h iv a s h a k ti a llia n c e (T e ltu m b d e 2 0 0 5 : 2 1 6 - 2 2 0 ) . B u t th e p ro H in d u tv a c h a ra c te riz a tio n o f A m b e d k a r by th e P a riv a r h a s also been stro n g ly c o u n te re d . A n an d T e ltu m b d e d escribes ‘th e vilifica­ tio n o f A m b e d k a r’ a s being a n ti-M u slim (by V inay K a tiy a r a n d so o n ), a s a cra fty ‘m u ta tin g ’ o f ‘th e A m b e d k a r-ic o n ’, to rec re a te th e G u ja ra t-lik e p o la r iz a tio n else w h e re . H e a rg u e s th a t A m b e d k a r reg a rd e d H in d u ism a s a th re a t to lib erty , eq u a lity a n d fra tern ity , as in co m p a tib le w ith d em o cracy , a n d w a n te d to p rev e n t a H in d u R aj, ‘a t a n y co st’. B ut c o -o p ta tio n h a s o b v io u sly been a t w o rk . T h u s, th o u g h G u ja ra ti D a lits w e re ‘b ru ta lly b a tte re d ’ by th e H in d u tv a 127. w w w .h v k .o rg /articles/0 7 0 3 /7 2 .h tm l (published originally by w w w .in tern atio n a lo p in io n .co m o n 1 Ju ly 2 0 03). 12 8 . H in d u sta n T im es, 18 M a rch 2 0 0 2 a n d T h e H in d u , 18 M a rc h 2 0 0 2 ; Organiser, 31 M a rc h 2 0 0 2 , p . 4 . 12 9 . T h e Indian E xpress, 17 D ecem ber 200 2 .

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s u p p o rte rs d u rin g th e re se rv a tio n rio ts, th ey becam e th e fo o t so l­ d iers o f th e H in d u tv a in th e c o m m u n a l c a rn a g e o f M u slim s.130 O n th e ir p a rt, sin ce ov er a d ecad e, d a litb a h u ja n fem inists have in te rro g a te d th e d o m in a n t p a ra d ig m s o f u n d e rsta n d in g D a lit ex p e­ riences, in b o th n a tio n a l a n d tra n s n a tio n a l sites. As A n u p a m a R a o su m s u p , ‘By d ra w in g a tte n tio n to th e rela tio n sh ip b etw een caste ideo lo g y , g e n d e r rela tio n s in th e in tim a te a n d p u b lic sp h e re , a n d b ro a d e r stru g g les fo r d em o cracy a n d social ju stice, d a litb ah u ja n s a re d e m a n d in g a ch a n g ed p o litic s o f fem inism ’ (R ao 2 0 0 3 : 5). R a o n o tices th a t th e d e m a n d fo r social ju stice a n d eq u a lity h a s g ro w n sim u ltan eo u sly w ith H in d u tv a . T h e re h a s a lso b een a tu rn to w a rd s ‘tra n s n a tio n a l d isco u rses o f h u m a n rig h ts th a t e q u a te caste discrim i­ n a tio n w ith racism ’, a n d a p o sitio n in g o f D a lit h u m a n rig h ts a s a m a tte r o f g lo b al co n cern . T h e s ta n d tak e n b y th e In d ia n g o v e rn ­ m en t w a s th a t fo cu sin g o n c a ste d isc rim in atio n a t th e U N W o rld C o n fe re n c e A g ain st R acism , R a c ial D isc rim in a tio n , X e n o p h o b ia a n d R ela te d In to leran ce (W C A R ) in D u rb a n , in 2 0 0 1 , w o u ld dilu te th e a im s o f th e co n feren ce. Like o th e r D a lit rep re se n ta tiv e s, th e N a tio n a l F e d e ra tio n o f D a lit W o m e n (1 9 9 5 ) in siste d th a t caste d isc rim in atio n w a s a k in to racism (ibid.: 8 ,1 2 ). Its D e c lara tio n o n G e n d e r a n d R acism e la b o ra te d th a t in th e In d ia n c o n te x t casteb a sed e x c lu sio n is a d istin c t m an ifesta tio n o f racism a n d is legiti­ m ized ‘th ro u g h th e ideology o f h in d u tv a (a “ h in d u ” state) th a t...h a s serio u sly e ro d e d th e o p e ra tio n a n d fu n ctio n in g o f th e In d ia n State, th e In d ia n C o n s titu tio n a n d its secu lar a n d e g a lita ria n c h a ra c te r’. T h e h e g em o n izin g p ro je c t w a s u sin g e d u c atio n a s a ‘to o l fo r th e c ru d e e x c lu sio n a n d p e rp e tu a tio n o f stereo ty p es o f D a lits, w o m en , in d ig e n o u s p e o p le s a n d religious m in o rity c o m m u n ities’, to in au ­ g u ra te a H in d u s ta te (Ibid.: a p p e n d ix 3 6 3 -6 7 ). D a lits a d d u p to 3 0 0 m illion in th e su b c o n tin e n t a n d co m p rise o n e -fo u rth o f In d ia ’s p o p u la tio n . T h e re c e n t ‘u p s u rg e o f D a lit 130. T eltu m b d e ( 2 0 0 3 : 1 9 - 2 2 ,3 4 , 3 7 ,4 0 , 4 4 a n d 8 9 -9 0 ). V ikas A dhyayan K endra (VAK) w a s established in 198 1 , a n d is a ‘secular v o lu n ta ry o rg an iza tio n en­ gaged in th e stu d y a n d research o f co n te m p o rary issues. G eographically, VAK’s activities a re orie n te d to w a rd s w estern India: M a h a ra sh tra , G u ja ra t & G o a ’; a lso see T eltu m b d e (2 0 0 5 :2 1 9 ): ‘Som e progressive g ro u p s a m o n g D alits strove to w o rk am o n g them selves in th e w a k e o f the G u ja ra t c arn a g e b u t th e y could n o t even sc ratch th e H in d u tv a im p rin t o n the m in d s o f the D alits’. O n the w hole, H in d u tv a h a d only faced active resistance from ‘certain progressive intellectuals a n d th e leftist o rg an izatio n s’ in th e c o u n try , so ‘it w o u ld be w ro n g ’, to single o u t D a lits on th a t c o u n t (p. 220).

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in te rn a tio n a lism ’ a n d a ‘s h a rin g a n d s o lid a rity o f p e o p le living in d iffe re n t p a rts o f th e w o rld w ith In d ia n D a lits’, has d ra w n m u ch a tte n tio n . In S ep tem b er 2 0 0 1 , th e W C A R in D u rb a n sh o w ed th e w ay . A c a m p a ig n w a s a lso lau n ch ed by th e N a tio n a l C a m p a ig n for D a lit H u m a n R ig h ts a t th e n a tio n a l a n d in te rn a tio n a l level. W ith th e s u p p o rt o f v a rio u s N G O s , D a lit S o lid arity N e tw o rk s h av e also b een fo rm e d in th e U K , U SA , N e th e rla n d s , S o u th A fric a a n d B elgium .131 D alits in L o n d o n a re o f th e view th a t In d ia n s h av e rec­ rea te d th e c a ste sy stem in th e UK a n d th e p a tte rn is slow ly e x te n d ­ in g to A m e ric a .132 V ivek K u m a r d ivides th e D a lit d iasp o ra in to tw o stra n d s: th e ‘o ld ’ a n d th e ‘n ew ’. W h e re a s th e ‘o ld ’ co m p rised th e in d e n tu re d , th e ‘n e w ’ includes sem i-literate a n d pro fessio n allytra in ed D alits w h o m o v ed to UK a n d th e US a s in d u stria l lab o u re rs, tech n ician s, o th e r p ro fessio n als a n d stu d e n ts. H e fo u n d th a t caste id en tities ‘w ere (are) stro n g w ith in th e In d ia n d ia s p o ra ’. T h e Bud­ d h ist C o u n c il, a fe d e ra tio n o f seven A m b e d k a rite o rg a n iz a tio n s w o rk in g f o r D a lit In d ia n s, w as estab lish ed in UK in 1 9 8 5 . T w o o th e r UK o rg an iz a tio n s, th e F ed eratio n o f A m b e d k a rite a n d B ud­ d h ist O rg an izatio n s (FABO) a n d V oice o f D a lit In te rn atio n al (VO DI) a re w o rk in g ‘to u p lift D alits b ack in In d ia ’. K u m a r m en tio n s th a t ‘a m o re o rg an iz e d e ffo rt ca m e in th e US fro m lite ra te N R I D a lits’, w h e n th ey fo rm ed ‘V o lu n teers in Service to In d ia ’s O p p ressed a n d N eg lected ’ (V ISIO N ) in 1 9 7 5 . T h e A m b e d k a r C e n tre fo r Ju stice a n d Peace w a s s ta rte d in C a n a d a a d e c ad e befo re th e issues c o n ­ c e rn in g D a lits m ad e it to in te rn a tio n a l fo ra . T h e B ack w ard a n d M in o ritie s C lasses E m ployees’ F e d e ra tio n (BA M C EF) s ta rte d its in te rn a tio n a l n e tw o rk based in th e UK in 1 9 9 9 . It h a s held co n fe r­ ences in U K , USA a n d M a la y sia to e x p la in th e c o n d itio n o f th e D alits in In d ia a n d to ex p o se th e ro le o f th e V H P . As a resu lt, th e 131. S harm a (2 0 0 4 : 1 3 -1 7 ). S harm a places th e role o f th e H einrich Boll F o u n d a ­ tio n (based in Berlin a n d closely affiliated w ith th e G erm an G reen P arty) in the ‘sphere’ o f a n ti-H in d u rig h t initiatives a n d D a lit intern a tio n alism a n d sees D alits as ‘a united w hole o f Scheduled C astes, Scheduled T ribes, and O th e r B ackw ard C lasses’. In th e sam e volum e, see S ukhdeo T h o ra t (2004: 4 7 -4 8 ) for a discussion o f th e regional c h a rac te r o f the N G O m ovem ent a m o n g the D alits: it h a s ‘a h isto ry o f th irty t o fo rty years in the s o u th , b u t is w eak and o f re cen t o rig in in th e n o rth a n d th e e a st’. T h o ra t is profe sso r o f econom ics, Ja w a h a rla l N e h ru U niversity a n d th e d ire c to r o f th e Indian Institu te o f D alit S tudies N ew D elhi. H e is presently C h airm a n o f th e U niversity G ra n ts C o m ­ m ission (2004: 1 1 4 -1 6 ). 132. K ancha Ilaiah, ‘C aste S hadow s in L ondon’, (reproduced from D eccan C hronicle, 3 Septem ber 2 0 03), in Ilaiah (2004: 90).

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D alits have sto p p e d m ak in g d o n a tio n s to th e V H P .133 A cco rd in g to G ail O m v e d t, C a n a d ia n D alits h av e been in a ‘stro n g e r p o sitio n th a n D alits in USA sim ply b ecause th ere h a s been m u ch m o re w o rk ­ in g class im m ig ra tio n ’. 134 M o st o f th e m em b ers o f V IS IO N a re p ro ­ fessionals o r highly-skilled tech n ician s. T h o u g h it h a s been largely d o rm a n t o f late , it is q u ick to p ro te s t a g a in st atro c ities o n D alits in In d ia .13s In A ugust 2 0 0 0 , th e A m b ed k ar C e n tre fo r Ju stice a n d Peace p ro te ste d a g a in st th e o rg an iz a tio n o f a sp iritu a l c o n feren ce b y th e V H P u n d e r th e au spices o f th e U N . ‘H u n d re d s o f sig n ed p e titio n s ’ w ere sen t by D a lit e-g ro u p s to Kofi A n n a n , to p o in t o u t its ro le in 1 9 9 2 -9 3 a n d th e killings o f ‘h u n d red s o f D alits th ro u g h o u t India y e a r a fte r y e a r’.136 T h e D a lit d ia s p o ra stay s c o n n e cte d using th e In te rn et, w ith ‘a b o u t 51 sites’ prov id in g in fo rm atio n a b o u t D alits in In d ia a n d overseas to en ab le ‘p ro m p t a c tio n ’ (V. K u m a r 2 0 0 4 : 115). A cco rd in g to FA B O , th e larg est n u m b e r o f A m b e d k a rite D alits, a p p ro x im ate ly 1 4 5 ,0 0 0 , o u tsid e In d ia live in th e UK. T h e y include R av id asis, V alm ik is, Scheduled C astes a n d Sch ed u led T rib e s, B ud­ d h ists a n d so o n . P a rt o f its in te rv en tio n h a s been th e d o n a tio n of six ty p u b lic a tio n s o f th e co m p le te w o rk s o f A m b e d k a r’s speeches a n d w ritin g s to th e C a m b rid g e , O x fo rd a n d L o n d o n un iv ersities.137 D alits fro m th e tris ta te a rea a n d C h icag o a n d W a sh in g to n p a rtici­ p a te d in a d e m o n s tra tio n o u tsid e th e U N in 1 9 9 7 a g a in st police

13 3 . V . K um ar (2004: 11 4 -1 6 ); w w w .w eb.net/~ acjp/acjpam bedkar.htm l, m entions th a t the A m bedkar C entre fo r Justice a n d Peace (1991) has branches aro u n d the w orld including C a nada, USA, England, D enm ark, Chile, A ustria, the M iddle E ast a n d s o o n . Its fo u n d e r president, Y ogesh V a rhade, is also a founding m em ­ ber o f V ISIO N , USA. 13 4 . T h e H in d u , 2 7 M ay 2 0 0 3 . ‘In th e US m o st D a lits a re d o cto rs, engineers o r even busin essm e n ...O n ly in som e p laces in C an a d a h a s som ething like a D alit co m m u n ity d eveloped, a n d strikingly, this has been m a d e p ossible by th e reli­ gious in te g ratio n a n d m o tiv atio n provided by th e G u ru R avidass in stitu tio n s’. O m v e d t d escribes th e R avidass m o v e m e n t a s o n e th a t h a s d eveloped a stro n g sense o f a n ti-H in d u identity. 135. w w w .a asianst.org/abst/S outh/S -54.htm , O w en M . L ynch, ‘V ISIO N : D a lit Pio­ neers in th e N ew Y ork C ity A rea’. A lso see th e a b stra c t o f J o h n C .B. W ebster, ‘T h e D a lit In te rn a tio n a l N e tw o rk ’, w hich m en tio n s th a t D alits have been active in th e U K, C a n a d a , U S, the C arib b ea n , th e U AE a n d M alaysia in o rg a ­ nizing a n d in p e titio n in g fo r c hanges in th e Indian situ atio n . 13 6 . w w w .d alitsta n .o rg /jo u rn al/h in d u tw a/h tv O O O /u n su h in d .h tm l, ‘D alits P ro te s t A gainst U N S u p p o rt to V H P ’. 13 7 . w w w .am b ed k ar.o rg , ‘A m bedkarite M o v em e n t in th e W estern H em isphere’, C. G au tam , vice-president, FA B O , UK to K am bleji, 2 9 M ay 1999.

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firin g o n D a lits b y th e M a h a ra s h tra g o v e rn m e n t in w h ic h th ere w ere th irty d e a th s. T h e p a rtic ip a tin g o rg an iz a tio n s w ro te th a t this w a s ‘th e c ru d e s t m a n ife sta tio n o f a n ti-u n to u c h a b le p o lic y being co n sisten tly p u rsu e d b y th e tw o fu n d a m e n ta lis t H in d u p a rties— th e B h aratiy a J a n a ta P a rty (BJP) a n d th e Shiv Sena g o v e rn m e n t of M a h a ra sh tra a n d o th e r states’.138 T h ere h av e been fo u r in te rn atio n al D a lit co n fe re n c es: in K u a la L a m p u r, M a la y s ia (1 9 9 8 ), L o n d o n (2 0 0 0 ), In d ia (2 0 0 3 ) a n d in V a n c o u v e r (2 0 0 3 ). T h o u g h th e D alit m o v em en t engages w ith th e challen g e fro m co m m u n al fo rces, Vivek K u m a r h a s rem a rk e d th a t th ese co nferences h av e on ly sh o w n th e ir c o n cern ‘w ith o u t co m in g o u t w ith a strateg y to c o u n te r it’ (V. K u m ar 2 0 0 3 : 2 7 9 9 ). H e n ri T ip h ag n e, o f People’s W a tc h , T am il N a d u , w h o w a s a t the cen tre o f th e D a lit in terv en tio n a t D u rb a n in 2 0 0 1 , h a s described the In d ia n go v ern m en t’s p o sitio n a b o u t th e conference: T hey said they w ere particularly concerned for the Indian diaspora in m any countries, including th e US, w hose interests they want[ed] to represent in term s o f racial discrim ination. You bring caste here, and you are w orking ag ain st o u r ow n people w h o a re discrim inated against, because o f co lo u r a n d Asian/South A sian origin in different countries. This w as th eir argum ent. W h ile D u rb a n g o t D alits m u ch v isibility, T ip h a g n e say s in te rn a ­ tio n a liz a tio n o f th e issue is on ly ‘five p e r c en t’ o f th e ir w o rk . ‘N in ety five p e r c en t o f o u r w o rk h a s to b e , a n d will c o n tin u e to b e th e m o b iliz a tio n o f D alits, e m p o w e rm e n t o f th e D a lit lead ersh ip , a n d

13 8 . w w w .sa x a k a li.c o m /C o m m u n ity L in k u p s/d a litl.h tm . T h e sig n ato rie s a t the U nited N a tio n s P laza, N ew Y ork o n 21 Ju ly 1 9 9 7 included V ision, USA, In ­ tern a tio n al B ahujan O rg an iza tio n (IB O ), USA, C a n a d a and UK; Shree G uru R avidass S abha, USA, C a n a d a , U K, F ran c e a n d India; A m b e d k ar C en tre for Justice a n d Peace, C a n a d a , USA a n d UK; C en tra l C o m m ittee, Sri G uru Ravi D as D h a rm a sth a n s, India; D a lit I n tern a tio n al, USA; A m b e d k ar In tern a tio n a l M issio n , C a n a d a ; B u d d h ist I n te rn a tio n a l O rg a n iz a tio n , USA a n d C a n ad a ; Indian B uddhist A ssociation, USA; P hoolan D evi In te rn atio n a l D efense C o m ­ m ittee, USA; a n d , S axakali, USA a n d G uyana. A lso see In d ia A b ro a d , 1 A u ­ g u st 1 9 9 7 fo r this d etail from V irendra K. C h o w d h u ry , c h airm an o f V ISIO N , th a t th ere a re a b o u t 3 ,0 0 0 D alits living in th e trista te a re a a n d th o u g h n o t m o re th a n 150 people p a rticip ate d in th e d em o n stra tio n , the a tte m p t w a s to d ra w th e a tte n tio n o f th e w o rld a n d th e U N a n d in the US.

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o f c o u rse , b ro ad e n in g th e s o lid a rity o f D a lits, m in o ritie s, a n d th e O th e r B ack w ard C astes in o u r c o u n try .’139 T h e D a lit d iasp o ra h a s seen a co m in g to g e th e r o f V alm ikies, A m b e d k a rite s a n d C h ristia n D a lits,140 b u t n o t y et o f D a lit a n d O B C M u slim s w h o , w ith a few ex c ep tio n s, a re n o t d iasp o ric a n d focus o n m ak in g a sp ace in ele c to ra l p o litic s in In d ia .141 I h av e alread y s h o w n th e lim ite d a n d u n in fo r m e d e x te n t to w h ic h d ia s p o ric In d ia n M u slim s h av e en g ag ed w ith th e q u e stio n o f rese rv a tio n , even a s th ey h av e actively ta k e n u p h u m a n rig h ts issues in p o s t-rio t s itu ­ a tio n s b etw een 1 9 9 2 -9 3 to 2 0 0 2 . In th is co n te x t, K an ch a Ila iah ’s p o s itio n th a t th e O B C y o u th h a v in g b e e n le ft o u t o f m o d e rn English e d u c atio n , ‘th e ir presen ce in th e d iasp o ra is m in im al’, needs fu rth e r e x a m in a tio n .142 T h is is o n e s tra n d th a t still a w a its d e ta ilin g in different d iasp o ra fo rm a tio n s.143 T h e L on d o n -b ased IM F discussed earlier, co m m issio n ed a tw e n ty -p a g e r e p o rt o n relig io u s d iscrim i­ n a tio n a n d h u m a n rig h ts a b u se in In d ia ‘sin ce 1 9 4 7 ’, fo r th e D u rb a n co n feren ce in 2 0 0 1 .144 It, ho w ev er, d id n o t fa c to r in th e co n te m p o ­ r a r y d e b a te a b o u t t h e s ta tu s o f D a lits a n d O B C s w ith in th e c o m m u n ity in th e c o n te x t o f th e rise o f th e relig io u s rig h t, th u s 139. w w w .co u n terc u rren ts.o rg /d alit-tip h ag n e 0 7 0 1 0 4 .h tm , interview b y C ha n d an a M a th u r a n d Sujani R eddy. T h is piece originally a p p e are d in Sam ar, n o . 15, S um m er 200 2 . 140. w w w .a m b e d k a r.o rg /W o rld w id e _ D alits/R e p o rt.h tm for a re p o rt on the In te r­ n a tio n a l C o n fe re n c e o n D a lit H u m a n R ig h ts , 1 6 - 1 7 S e p te m b e r 2 0 0 0 , L ondon. 141. T his is d iscussed in m y fo rth c o m in g w o rk o n D alit a n d O B C M uslim s. 14 2 . Ilaiah (2004: 3 ). I m u st a d d th a t h is com m ents o n p p . 1 1 -1 2 , th a t follow ing th e M a n d a l m ovem ent n o M uslim sch o la r w ro te on Islam ic un d e rstan d in g o f caste a n d unto u ch a b ility is a n unresearched g e neralization, a s is h is a rgum en t th a t ‘th e M uslim intellectuals d id n o t ta k e u p th e social causes o f th e A divasis, D alits a n d O B C s a n d hence th ere are n o deep sym pathies for th e m ’. Ilaiah is o f th e op in io n th a t instead o f ‘r eta liato ry politics’ it is U N involvem ent th a t c a n reduce violence: ‘T he responsibility fo r n o t ta k in g th e G u ja ra t c arnage to th e U N lies e ntirely w ith th e English sp e ak in g M uslim intelligentsia o f I n d ia ’. 143. C onsider R am K rishna B andi’s letter to the ed ito r, T he H in d u , 2 0 M a rch 2 002, in response to K ancha Ilaiah’s article (m aking the sam e point) o n M a rch 18. ‘I th in k h e is w rong. M o st p eople w o rk in g in G ulf countries are from this c aste. I am a n O B C from A ndhra P radesh w orking in the co m p u ter se c to r... M r. Ilaiah also seem s to m ake a suggestion th a t O B C presence in the co m p u te r sector is m inim al. I am sure h e is w rong, based o n m y experience in India and a b ro a d ’. 144. w w w .in d ian m u slim .o rg .u k /B lan k % 2 0 P ag e % 2 0 2 .h tm

Resisting Hindutva * 171

u n d e rlin in g th e d isco n n ect b etw een th e d iasp o ra a n d th e s u b c o n ti­ n e n t o n th is issue. T h e U n io n Social J u stic e a n d E m p o w e rm e n t m in iste r, Satya N a ra y a n J a tiy a , ex p la in e d th e e x c lu sio n o f D alit C h ristia n s a n d D a lit M u slim s fro m th e list o f Scheduled C astes a n d Scheduled T rib e s in a d ecisio n m ad e o n 18 D ecem b er 2 0 0 3 . H e said his d ecisio n w a s based o n th e o p in io n o f th e reg istrar-g en eral o f In d ia a n d th e N a tio n a l C o m m issio n fo r Scheduled C astes a n d Scheduled T rib e s, th a t th e s tra tific a tio n o f C h ristia n s o n th e b asis o f c a ste w o u ld b e ‘m isu n d e rs to o d in te rn a tio n a lly , a s if In d ia is im p o sin g its c a ste system a m o n g C h ristia n s’ a n d sa id th a t th e sam e a p p lied to M u slim s.145 B ut D a lit C h ristia n s a n d M u slim s th in k o th ­ erw ise. R a h u l D e e p a n k a r o f th e N e w R ep u b lic In d ia In te rn a tio n a l w as a m o n g th o se w h o p ro te ste d a g a in st th e In d ia n g o v e rn m e n t’s resis­ ta n c e to discu ssin g c a ste a t D u rb a n . H e did th is a t a m eetin g of m o re th a n 4 0 0 N R Is w h ic h w a s a lso a tte n d e d b y th e In d ia n a m b a s­ sa d o r, L alit M a n sin g h , in C h icag o o n 3 Ju ly 2 0 0 1 : ‘It is tim e to reco g n ize th a t th e D a lits h av e s u p p o rte rs all o v e r th e w o rld , a n d th e a c cu m u lativ e p o w e r g e n e ra ted b y all a ctiv ists w ill m ak e th e cycle o f social ch an g e in In d ia irrev ersib le’. 146 A b o u t a m o n th later, D e e p a n k a r’s o rg a n iz a tio n h eld a sy m p o siu m in C h icag o . It w as a tte n d e d b y rep resen tativ es o f m o re th a n tw e n ty o rg an izatio n s. K .N . P a n ik k a r d eliv e re d th e k e y n o te a d d re s s o n th e S an g h P a riv a r’s p ro je c t o f red efin in g th e n a tio n a n d rew ritin g h isto ry . D e e p a n k a r sp o k e o n th e a tm o sp h e re o f fea r a n d in tim id a tio n in In d ia w h ich h a d d em o ralized m in o rities like M u slim s, C h ristia n s, Sikhs, B ud­ d h ists a n d th e D a lit m asses. H is m ad e a n a p p e al to all ‘aw a k e n e d , c o n c ern e d a n d p ro g ressiv e p e o p le’ to b o n d a g a in st o b sc u ra n tist a n d ‘b a c k w a rd lo o k in g M a n u w a d is ’. 147 Shiv V isw an ath an has p ro vocatively a rg u ed th a t th e D u rb a n s tra t­ egy o f D a lit p o litics, ‘b y ju x ta p o sin g a n d even a ssim ilatin g th e c a t­ egories o f c a ste a n d race’, w a s m o re a c h a llen g e to M a n d a list p o li­ tics, th a n to ac ad e m ic sociology: In a deep a n d fundam ental w ay the dalit discourse is a search for a different politics beyond M andalism which narcissistically sees itself 14 5 . C om m u n a lism C o m b a t, D ecem ber 2 0 0 3 , p. 33. 14 6 . w w w .am b ed k ar.o rg /N ew s/D alit_ P ro test_ in .h tm 14 7 . w w w .am b ed k a r.o rg /N e w s/R ah D e ep c h allen .h tm

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as a new stage in Indian dem ocracy. M andalism w orks w ithin the paradigm s o f Indian dem ocracy, th e C o n stitu tio n , socialism , the nation state, affirm ative action a n d electoralism . T h e search for a new d a lit discourse seeks to push beyond it, using D u rb an as text a n d p retex t for a new politics o f freedom .148 P ra k a sh L o u is, to o , m ak e s th e p o in t th a t D a lit a c tiv ists a n d in te lle c tu a ls w e re n o t c o n c ern e d w ith e sta b lish in g th e sim ilarity betw een caste a n d race as concepts. T h ey basically w a n te d to expose th e b a rb a rity o f caste d isc rim in atio n . O b v io u sly , raisin g th e issue a t D u rb a n w o u ld n o t e n d th e ir o p p ressio n b u t co u ld a id in fo rg in g s o lid a rity in a g lo b al fo ru m (L ouis 2 0 0 1 : 5 4 ). A b o u t th e te rra in in In d ia , R a m V ilas P a sw a n p o in te d o u t a t a w o rk s h o p in B erlin, in S ep tem b er 2 0 0 3 , th a t as D alits co n stitu te on ly 16 p e r c e n t o f th e p o p u la tio n th ey c a n n o t fo rm a politically sig n ifican t m ajo rity o f th e ir o w n , even if th ey w ere to u n ite. Since O B C s fo rm e d 5 2 p e r c en t o f th e p o p u la tio n , it w a s cru c ia l th a t D a lits fo rg ed allian ces w ith th em a n d w ith M u slim s in th e ir fight a g a in st u p p e r-c a ste H in d u forces (S harm a 2 0 0 4 : 1 3 5 ,1 3 7 ). T h ere a re , h o w ev er, lim ita tio n s to a n u n c o m p lica te d co n c ep tu a liz a tio n of th e d ia s p o ra a s a cru cial te rra in fo r fo rg in g an ti-ca ste resista n c e in S o u th A sia, a n e x p e c ta tio n th a t ca m e u p w h en th e K u ala L u m p u r D a lit c o n v e n tio n in 1 9 9 8 b ro u g h t to g e th e r lead ers lik e P h o o la n D evi, K an sh i R a m a n d R a m V ilas P a s w a n .149 T h u s , R a m V ilas P a sw a n ru le d o u t th e p o ssib ility o f D a lit p a rties c o m in g to g e th e r in th e 2 0 0 4 M a h a ra s h tra electio n s b ecause th e R P I, BSP a n d LJP h a d ‘ba sic d ifferences’. 150 A n d in B ih ar h e m ad e it h is m issio n to defeat L a lu P ra sa d Y ad av by d e scrib in g th e e lecto ral c o n te st in 2 0 0 5 a s a ‘fig h t b etw een tw o secu lar fo rces’ (instead o f o n e betw een th e secu­ larists a n d H in d u tv a ).151 I sh o u ld m en tio n h ere th a t th ere is a lso a 148. V isw an a th a n (2 0 0 1 : 3 1 2 3 -2 6 ): ‘A n atro city c a n n o t be dom esticated as m ere h u m an rights v io latio n . It h a s to be a th eo ry o f freedom w h ere litera tu re and political th eo ry c om bine in a new w ay’. 149. w w w .sax ak a li.co m /in d o ca rib /ca stel.h tm , M oses Seenarine, ‘T h e Persistence o f C aste a n d A nti-C aste R esistance in India a n d th e D ia sp o ra’. T h e re is a m e n tio n o f th e K anshi R am influenced (IBO) in N ew Y ork having o v e r 5 ,0 0 0 m em bers. 15 0 . T h e T im e s o f In d ia , 12 Ju ly 2 00 4 . 151. T h e Indian Express, 28 A ugust 2 0 0 4 . M anini C hatterjee w rites th a t P asw an’s decision to go i t alone flow s from ‘th e belief th a t B ihar is divided in to pro-L aloo a n d a n ti-L alo o forces (th a t n o w include a sig n ifican t sectio n o f M uslim s,

Resisting Hindutva * 173

p o in t o f view th a t H in d u tv a c a n n o t b e co u n te re d o n ly w ith a p p e als to H in d u -M u s lim u nity: th e ‘su re st w ay ’ to c o m b a t it is seen to lie in u n d e rlin in g th e im p licatio n s o f H in d u tv a fo r D a lit-B a h u ja n s.152 T h e e n listm en t o f th e S outh A sian d iasp o ra b y H in d u tv a h a s ex ­ ten d ed th e a re n a o f th e co n test to keep su b co n tin en tal citizenship a n ch o red in p lu ralism .153 But, th ere w a s a n o th e r kin d o f citizenship th a t h a s been em erging sim ultaneously in th e diaspo ric co n tex t. In th e c h a n g e d c o n te x t o f g lo b a liz a tio n in th e e a rly n in e tie s , th e N e h ru v ia n view o n ‘O v erseas In d ia n s’, w h ic h co n sid ered d o u b le n atio n ality a s im possible, gave w ay to a new perspective o n ‘People O f In d ia n O rig in ’ (PIO ). ‘T h e ch an g e o f co in ag e in itself’ h a s been seen a s sig n ify in g ‘a s h ift b a c k to th e G a n d h ia n v iew th a t h a d in clu d e d th e In d ia n d ia s p o ra in th e c o n c e p t o f th e n a tio n w hile sim ultaneously ty in g id en tity w ith p lace’ (S inha-K erkhoff a n d Bal 2 0 0 3 : 4 0 0 8 - 1 2 ) . T h e G lo b a l O r g a n iz a tio n o f P e o p le o f In d ia n O rig in (G O P IO ) w a s fo rm ed in 1 9 8 9 in N e w Y o rk . T h is w a s a t th e in itiativ e o f bu sin essm en in th e US, C a n a d a a n d th e C a rib b e a n w h o w a n te d to o rg an iz e In d ia n s alo n g th e lines o f th e Jew ish , A ngloS a x o n a n d C h in ese d iasp o ra s. T h e G O P IO h a s been c a m p aig n in g fo r p e rm a n e n t rep re se n ta tio n in th e u p p e r h o u se o f th e In d ia n p a rlia ­ m e n t a n d v o tin g rig h ts f o r e x p a tria te s. T h e g o v e rn m e n t s ta rte d issu in g P IO c a rd s to p e o p le o f In d ia n o rig in a n d th e ir sp o u ses in 1 9 9 9 . T h is m ea n t qu asi-citizen sh ip rig h ts: th o se o f m u ltip le e n try fo r ten y e a rs, o f d o in g business, tra n sfe rrin g foreign c u rren cy , o w n ­ in g p ro p e rty a n d ad m issio n to e d u c atio n al in stitu tio n s. T h e G O P IO a im s a t g e ttin g th e rig h ts e x te n d e d to d e sce n d a n ts o f in d en tu red lab o u re rs a n d cam p a ig n in g fo r d u a l citizen sh ip (H an sen 2 0 0 2 : 16). In 2 0 0 0 , th e N D A g o v e rn m e n t se t u p a hig h level c o m m ittee o n th e d iasp o ra u n d e r th e c h a irm a n sh ip o f L .M . Singhvi.154 T h e co m m it­ tee trav elled a ro u n d th e w o rld fo r fifteen m o n th s to stu d y th e In­ d i a n o v e r s e a s c o m m u n i t y , 155 a n d r e s h a p e t h e r e l a t i o n s non-Y adav OB C s, a n d even a grow ing section o f Y adavs) th a t w ill never c on ­ solidate behind the BJP’. 15 2 . w w w .d a litin d ia .o rg /g u e s t/H in d u tv a & D b a h u ja n s .h tm , Y o g in d e r S ik a n d , ‘H in d u tv a a n d the D alit-B ahujans: D an g ero u s P orten ts’. 15 3 . Ja w a id Q u d d u s (2 0 0 5 : 1 5 0 - 5 1 ), p o in ts o u t th e ‘h y p o c ritic al p a ra d o x ’ o f H in d u tv a su p p o rte rs subscribing to the idea o f H in d u ra sh tra in India while ch o o sin g to live in w estern secular d em ocracies. 15 4 . T h e T im e s o f In d ia , 14 J a n u a ry 2 0 0 2 , interview w ith L. M . Singhvi. 15 5 . India T o d a y , 20 M a y 200 2 .

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b e tw e en In d ia a n d th e tw e n ty m illio n P IO s settled a b ro a d . T h e ‘fu n d am e n ta l c h a n g e in In d ia n fo reig n policy to w a rd s th e P IO ’ has b een a ttrib u te d to th e BJP (K. M a th e w s 2 0 0 0 :1 8 ). F ro m 2 0 0 3 , 9 Ja n u a ry , th e d ay G a n d h i re tu rn e d to In d ia fro m S o u th A frica, is b ein g ce le b rate d a s Pravasi D ay b y th e g o v e rn m e n t in asso c ia tio n w ith th e F e d e ra tio n o f In d ia n C h a m b e rs o f C o m m e rc e .156 D u a l citizen sh ip w a s a n n o u n c ed in 2 0 0 3 , b u t it w a s restric te d to seven c o u n tries: th e US, U K , C a n a d a , S in g ap o re, M alay sia, A u stra ­ lia a n d N e w Z e a la n d .157 H o w e v e r, p o litical rig h ts w ere d e n ied to b o th P IO s a n d d u a l citizens. T h is list left o u t larg e c h u n k s o f th e d iasp o ra in th e G ulf, besides M y a n m a r, a n d sm a lle r n u m b ers in T rin id a d a n d T o b a g o , Fiji, G u y a n a a n d so o n .158 L.K. A d v an i, w h o w a s th en d e p u ty p rim e m in ister, clarified th a t d u a l citizenship w ould n o t b e ap p lic a b le to P a k ista n a n d it w a s n o t g o in g to b e a u to m a tic , p e o p le w o u ld h av e to ap p ly fo r it.159 T h e S o u th A sia s tru c tu re d by p a rtitio n th u s d o e s n o t fig u re fo r d u a l citizen sh ip , a p o in t I re tu rn to later. T h e re w a s a n o th e r o m issio n : o f th e w o rk in g -c lass In d ian s, th e s h o p k e ep e rs a n d th e tax i d riv e rs.160 T h is d re w th e co m m e n t th a t it a m o u n ts to th e h isto ry o f th e In d ia n d iasp o ra b ein g rem em ­ b e re d a s ‘th e h isto ry o f th e N R I, th e e c o n o m ically afflu en t m ig ra n t, n o t th a t o f th e su g a rc a n e w o rk e rs in G u y a n a , th e tax i d riv e rs in N e w Y o rk o r th e d o m estic serv an ts in th e G u lf (P ra sh a d 2 0 0 4 : 28). M o re th a n 4 0 0 ,0 0 0 In d ia n s w o rk e d in th e M id d le E ast betw een 1 9 9 2 a n d 1 9 9 7 a n d a c c o rd in g to th e In d ia n m in istry o f la b o u r, th e re w ere m o re th a n th re e m illion In d ia n s in th e M id d le E ast in th e y e a r 2 0 0 0 (Lai 2 0 0 4 : 2 6 ). T h e g u lf m ig ra n ts a re still th e single larg est so u rce o f rem ittan ces (A b ra h am 2 0 0 3 : 54). T h is ‘in cip ien t’161 d iasp o ric fo rm a tio n , h o w ev er, a w a its a tte n tio n a n d co u ld w ell p ro ­ vide in sig h ts a n d a d d to o u r u n d e rsta n d in g o f so m e o f th e them es c o n sid e red in th is a n d th e fo llo w in g c h a p te r. 15 6 . 15 7 . 15 8 . 15 9 .

T h e In d ia n E x press, 14 O c to b e r 2 0 0 2 . T h e Indian Express, 8 J a n u a ry 200 3 . T h e T im e s o f In d ia , 8 J a n u a ry 2 0 0 3 . T h e Indian Express, 6 Ja n u a ry 2 0 0 3 ; Ju g Suraiya, in his T h e G re at Indian D ia sp a k o ra ’, T h e T im e s o f In d ia , 12 Ja n u a ry 2 0 0 3 , teased th a t th ere w a s one big p ro b le m a b o u t P IO : 'B ecause i t c o u ld a lso m ean P a k ista n i o f In d ian O rigin. F o r w here d id P akistan com e from b u t o u t o f In d ia, no?’. 160. Interview w ith S unaina M a ir a , T h e T im es o f In d ia , 14 Ja n u a ry 2 0 0 3 : ‘I t seems to o m uch like the Indian governm ent trying to get its rich citizens ab ro ad to invest’. 161. T he de scrip tio n is M y ro n W einer’s: see Lai (2 0 0 4 : 26).

4

Redoing South Asia

H o w have so m e o f th e tra n s n a tio n a l activism s in th e US, UK a n d C a n a d a en g ag ed w ith p o s t-p a rtitio n S o u th A sia? In rec e n t years, b o th terrain s— th e reg io n a n d its lay ered d iasp o ric fo rm a tio n s— h av e flo w ed o v e r in to e a ch o th er. B oth in term s o f th e p o st-eig h ties s u b c o n tin e n ta l m a jo rita ria n ism s a n d a ls o th e o p p o sitio n a l effo rts a t rec o n to u rin g th e su b c o n tin e n t s tru c tu re d by p a rtitio n . T h e tw o th em es a re ex p lo re d h e re to g et a sense o f h o w th e d iasp o ra lives w ith th e s u b c o n tin e n t, th o u g h w ith d iffe re n t id eas o f it. A c o u p le o f years ago, a n o ld -tim er w a s tak e n a b a c k to find ‘Pak i’ (a rac ist w o rd fro m six ties’ a n d seventies’ E n g lan d a n d C an ad a) fig u rin g in m essag es f ro m In d ia n s in a S o u th A sian d isc u ssio n w eb site, w ith th e in te n tio n o f d e n ig ra tin g P ak istan is. She decided to w rite o n h o w th e te rm h a d b een in co n g ru o u sly retriev ed fro m th e p a s t, fo r th e slu r w a s o rig in ally inclusive: Y our local racists...ig n o red class, creed, colour, co u n try o f origin and caste when it cam e to th e h u n t. T h e histories o f nations were w iped clean by a steel-toed b o o t, a tabula rasa created by young m en blinded by hate. T hey knew no th in g o f P a rtitio n , th e wars between India a n d Pakistan, the civil w a r in Sri Lanka a n d the fight fo r Bangladeshi independence. It did n ’t m atter w hether you were Parsi o r C h ristian , w orking-class o r filthy rich, Sinhala o r Sikh, Bangladeshi o r Guyanese. T h e c o n te m p o ra ry a p p ro p ria tio n o f th e term , she w ro te , n o t only p a rtitio n e d its m ean in g , it a lso u n d erm in ed a n ‘A sian’ so lid arity la b o rio u sly b u ilt by th e S o u th A sian c o m m u n ities in th e UK. In

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o th e r w o rd s , ‘lo n g b e fo re w e b e c am e h y p h e n a te d citizen s in th e W est, w e w e re all P ak is o n c e .’1 In th e seventies (C lifford 19 9 4 : 3 1 5 ) a n d eighties som e an ti-racist a n d leftist A frican C a rib b e a n a n d S o u th A sian g ro u p s in B ritain h a d w o rk e d to p ro d u c e a b lac k p o litical id en tity . T h is d id n o t g o u n co n tested a n d w a s la te r u n d e rm in ed by in creasin g class d iffer­ ences a m o n g A frican C a rib b e a n a n d S o u th A sian p o p u la tio n s. In th e p o s t -Satanic Verses y e a rs several M u slim s b eg an to m o b ilize as M u slim s. T h o u g h b lack id en tities survived fo r so m e rad icals o f b o th S o u th A sian a n d A frican C a rib b e a n d escent, th ere w a s a n in clin a­ tio n to w a rd s d ia s p o ric id e n titie s su c h a s B ritish A sia n , B ritish M u slim [also B ritish H in d u ] a n d A frican C a rib b e a n , a n d th e term A sian c a m e to b e a p p ro p ria te d by p e o p le o f S o u th A sian d escent. (W estw ood 1 9 9 5 :1 9 7 -9 8 ). A stu d y o n B radford fo und th a t th e A sian Y o u th M o v e m e n t o f 1 9 7 8 , w h ic h in clu d e d S ik h s, H in d u s a n d M u slim s, c a m e a p a rt n o t lo n g a fte r. T e n y e a rs d o w n th e line, ‘th e c o n s o lid a tio n o f d istin c t c o m m u n ities’ becam e even m o re evident a s conflicts in S o u th Asia m ad e c o o p e ra tio n in th e UK m o re difficult. C o m m u n ity a n d civic lead ers h ad to in te rv en e to m o n ito r th e s itu ­ a tio n in 1 9 9 2 - 9 3 in th e a fte rm a th o f th e d e m o litio n o f th e Babri M a sjid (Lew is 1 9 9 7 : 1 2 6 -4 6 ). M u c h b e fo re th a t th o u g h , o th e r sh ad es o f s u b c o n tin e n ta l p o litic s to o reso n a ted in B ritain. In th e fifties th e In d ia n W o rk e rs A sso ciatio n (IW A) w a s o n e o f th e m o st a c tiv e p o litic a l o rg a n iz a tio n s a m o n g th e S o u th A sian ec o n o m ic m ig ra n t la b o u r in S o u th a ll a n d B irm in g h am . It h a d c o n n e ctio n s w ith th e p o litics o f th e C o m m u n ist P a rty o f In d ia (CPI). L a te r th e fo rm a tio n o f th e C P I-M a n d th e C P I-M L s a w th e em erg en ce o f n ew b ran c h e s in th e IW A .2 In C a n a d a , th e ‘S outh A sian’ id en tity w a s forged p a rtly in response to th e m a rg in aliza tio n a n d racism faced b y im m ig ran ts, a n d p a rtly b ecau se o f th e presen ce o f stro n g ly id en tified g ro u p s su c h a s th e b lac k s a n d natives. T h e te rm ‘S o u th A sian ’ d e n o te d a n y o n e fro m 1. R oy (1999: 4 3 -4 4 ): ‘O rig in atin g in E n gland, “ P aki” w as th e kind o f w ord th a t w o u ld easily sp u rt o u t o f a n English ra cist in a n early H an if K ureishi film ....T h e term crossed th e A tlan tic to C a n a d a in th e early 1970s. By the 1980s, “d o th e a d ” and “ cu rry h e ad ” h a d been coined as A m erican alternatives to “ P a k i”’. 2 . K alra e t a l. (1996: 1 3 0 -3 1 ). A t its peak the IW A in th e m id-seventies, along w ith P akistani a n d K ashm iri W ork ers A ssociations h a d a follow ing o f u p to 5 0 ,0 0 0 people; a lso see G rew al (2003: 87).

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th e s u b c o n tin e n t, w h e th e r o f th e in d en tu red o r th e n ew d ia s p o ra .3 In th e US, A sians w ere elev ated ‘a t th e ex p en se’ o f th e b lack s, as a m o d el m in o rity . Y et, m an y y o u n g d esis in N o r th A m erica (and E ngland) cra fte d th e ir c u ltu ra l politics a ro u n d icons o f th e black d iasp o ra c u ltu re . E n g lan d ’s So u th all B lack Sisters (1 9 7 9 ), a n o rg a ­ n iz a tio n o f A sian a n d A fro -C a rib b e a n w o m e n w h o w e re active a g a in st d o m estic violence, fu n d am e n ta lism , T h a tch e rism , sexism a n d racism , ca m e to b e seen a s a m o d el th a t w as ‘rep licab le a n d n ecessary ’. G ro u p s d o in g sim ila r w o rk in th e US a re p a r t o f th e C e n tre fo r T h ird W o rld O rg an izin g based in O a k la n d , C alifo rn ia. T h is s tra n d o f th e desi (su b co n tin en tal) left co n n e cts itself w ith th e h e ritag e o f th e San F ran cisco -b ased G h a d a r P a rty (1 9 1 3 ) w h ich h a d m a n y b ra n c h e s in th e p la n ta tio n c o lo n ie s. O v e r th e y e a rs, several g ro u p s h av e o fte n been o rg an ized in th e US in resp o n se to events in S o u th A sia. T h e S o u th Asia F o ru m w a s form ed in N e w Y o rk a n d W a sh in g to n D .C ., a fte r th e em erg en ce o f B angladesh. W h en em ergency w a s d eclared in In d ia in 1 9 7 5 , th e In d ia n People’s A ssociation o f N o rth Am erica w a s sta rte d in V ancouver, th e Indians fo r P olitical F reed o m in C h icag o a n d th e G ro u p o f C o n cern ed S outh A sian s in B o sto n . L ik ew ise, sev eral g ro u p s c a m e u p d u rin g th e K h a lista n m o v em en t a n d a fte r th e d e m o litio n o f th e Babri M a sjid .4 In th e a fte rm a th o f rec e n t ra c e rio ts, rig h t w in g In d ia n s in th e UK o b jected to th e use o f th e w o rd ‘A sian’ in m edia rep o rts o n s u b c o n tin e n ta l c o m m u n itie s . T o m a k e t h e ir p o i n t th e y c ite d ‘o th erin g ’ details, such as th e p red o m in an c e o f M irp u ris in B rad fo rd a n d th e larg e B angladeshi p o p u la tio n o f B urnley (D u tt 2 0 0 1 ). A fter S ep tem b er 1 1 , in E n g la n d , th ere h a s b een a d ista n c in g betw een th e H in d u s a n d Sikhs o n th e o n e h a n d a n d o f th e M u slim s o n th e o th e r.5 B ut th ese tre n d s need to b e seen w ith a n o th e r a n d sim u ltan eo u s process: th a t o f c o a litio n -b u ild in g in th e su b c o n tin e n t a n d in th e S o u th A sian d ia s p o r a . T h is h a s b e e n v isib le fro m th e n in e tie s o n w a rd s, o fte n w ith a co n scio u s co n n e ctin g o f b o th ends.

3 . See V assanji (1996: 116). H o w ever, he saw this as a term ‘im p o rte d from ac ad e m ia’ by politica l a n d lite rary activists a n d as being ‘purely geographic, artificial, re cent, a n d e ntirely d evoid o f a n y im aginative force’, p a rtly b ecause S outh A sians ‘th in k o f them selves a n d live as v ario u s com m unities’. 4 . P rashad (2000: 167, 1 8 3 -8 7 ); see T a lb o t (2000: 2 4 8 - 5 1 , 2 7 0 ), fo r details o f the ho m ela n d politics in th e S ikh diasp o ra in USA, UK a n d C a nada. 5 . O u tlo o k , 10 Ju n e 2 0 0 2 , p . 37.

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R a n a b ir S a m a d d a r has w ritte n th a t in p lac e o f w h a t u sed to be H in d u s ta n , ‘th e su b c o n tin e n t w h o se m arg in s v an ish ed im p ercep ti­ bly in to a n o th e r reg io n — th e T u rc o -P e rsia n p a r t o f th e c o n tin e n t’, p a rtitio n ‘c re a ted S o u th A sia’ a s a ‘fra c tu re d reg io n ’. In his view , g e ttin g p a s t th e ‘th eo lo g y o f th e b o rd e r’ it g e n e ra ted , a n d fo rg in g S o u th A sian u n ity is th ere fo re ‘im possible, unless th e p ro b le m o f territo ria lism is so lv ed d em o cratically , o r th ro u g h th e c o n q u e rin g sw o rd o f th e m ajo r p o w e r’. W h a t c o m p licates th e p ictu re is th e a c c e n tu a tio n o f p a rticu la ritie s o f b o th th e self a n d th e c o m m u n ities in th e c o n te x t o f g lo b aliza tio n . T h e re is a lso a n o th e r d im en sio n w h ic h is th e ‘p sy c h o lo g ical fra m e w o rk ’ th e p o p u lis t rig h t lea rn t fro m p a rtitio n , o n e th a t c o m b in es th e p o litics o f id en tity w ith terri­ to ry (S a m a d d a r 2 0 0 3 b : 2 5 -3 1 ). T h e B ritish p a rliam e n ta ry a c t o f 1 8 9 9 c o n v e rte d In d ia fro m ‘th e n a m e o f a c u ltu ral reg io n in to a p recise p in k te rrito ry ’ (K hilnani 19 9 7 : 155). L a ter, p a rtitio n a d d e d th e p rec isio n o f a tw elve-inch b o rd e r b etw een In d ia a n d P a k ista n a t W a g ah th a t m ad e a h isto ria n w o n d e r irrev eren tly if th e re w a s ‘a n o th e r ra z o r s h a rp lin e o r a tin y sp ace b etw een th e first six inches a n d th e n e x t six in ch es’ (Sim eon 2 0 0 0 ). T h e re a re o th e r legacies o f p a rtitio n w h ich R itu M e n o n has listed as a c o m b in a tio n o f fragile n a tio n s, p o ro u s b o rd ers a n d th e rea lity o f m ig ra tio n . T h e re is a ls o a lita n y o f fears: At th e height of our p aran o ia w e say Pakistan will no t rest till it has dism em bered us com pletely. At th e height o f theirs, they say India will n o t rest till it sw allow s u p Pakistan, reverses the Partition. They blam e India fo r Bangladesh, w e blam e them fo r Kashm ir. T hey raise th e bogey o f RAW w henever Sindh erupts, w e p roduce the 1511 w hen Punjab does. N either can forget w h a t it believes th e o th er has done (M enon 2003: 118, 128). B u t th ere h av e been several shifts acro ss th e su b c o n tin e n t in th e p o s t-p a rtitio n d ecades a n d th ese n eed to b e p u lle d to g eth e r before ta k in g a lo o k a t th e to a n d fro b etw een S o u th A sia a n d its d iasp o ra , in term s o f fin e -tu n in g /co m p letin g p a s t po litical p ro je c ts o r a cco m ­ p lish in g fu tu re o n e s. B a rb a ra D . M e tc a lf h a s a rg u e d th a t by th e seventies Z .A . B h u tto h a d ‘tu rn e d his b ack o n th e su b c o n tin e n t’ b ecause o f w h ic h th e im age o f P a k ista n as th e ‘h o m ela n d a n d p ro ­ te c to r o f M u slim s’ ca m e to a n e n d . P a k ista n b eg an to stress its ‘g eo g rap h ic p lace w ith o th e r M u slim s ta te s ’. By m o v in g a w a y fro m its s u b c o n tin e n ta l ro le it becam e m o re o f ‘a M id d le E a ste rn s ta te ’

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(M e tc alf 2 0 0 4 : 2 3 0 - 3 3 ). B ut ac co rd in g to S h ah n az R ouse, th e cre­ a tio n o f th e P a k ista n i s ta te o n th e basis o f co n c ep tu a liz in g In d ia n M u slim s a s a s e p a ra te n a tio n is a p ro b lem th a t has ‘persisted and h a u n te d ’ P ak istan : ‘A re P ak istan is M uslim s? W h a t kin d o f M u s ­ lim s? W h a t a b o u t n o n -M u slim s? W h a t is th e ir p o sitio n in th e Pak i­ s ta n i n a tio n /sta te as citizens a n d su b jects?’. R o u se w rite s th a t w hile in itially th is w a s largely a c o n c ern o f th e b o u rg eo isie a n d u rb a n m id d le classes, to d a y m o st sectio n s o f th e p o p u la tio n a re g rap p lin g w ith th is d ilem m a in th e c o n te x t o f S h ia -S u n n i an ta g o n ism s a n d an ti-A h m ed iy a sen tim en ts. She finds th a t th ree key sectors o f the n a tio n have co m e u n d e r a tta c k a t d iffe re n t p o in ts o f tim e: th e p ro ­ d u c in g classes, m in o r eth n icities a n d w o m e n . T h e m ilita riz atio n of th e s ta te a n d civil society a s a resu lt o f tw o d ecades o f in te rn a tio n a l a n d g lo b al p o litics, a n d th e relian ce (Z ia ul H a q o n w ard s) o n Is­ lam ic ideology a s c o n stru cted b y m ilita n t a n d c o n serv ativ e religious g ro u p s, h a s m e a n t a n ‘a la rm in g m asc u lin isatio n o f p u b lic sp ace’ (R ouse 2 0 0 4 : 1 2 9 -3 2 , 139, 142). T h e H in d u tv a fo rm a tio n in In d ia a n d th e d iasp o ra has b een dis­ cussed in c h a p te r th ree. Its ideologies o f virility a n d ag g ressio n have h a rd e n e d o f la te b e c a u s e o f n u c le a r w e a p o n iz a tio n . K u m k u m San g ari sees th is as d ra w in g u p o n a n d b reed in g c o n sen t ‘fo r higher levels o f violence’ a g a in st w o m en , religious m in o rities a n d Islam ic n e ig h b o u rs. T h u s , p ro -n u c le a r segm ents o f th e m id d le class have b een en listed fo r a ‘bellig eren t co m m u n a lism ’, even a s m ilita rist a n d fam ilial ideologies g et in tertw in ed to justify everyday aggression (Sangari 2 0 0 2 : 1 6 1 ,1 6 7 -6 8 ). In n e ig h b o u rin g B angladesh, it w as th e inability o f th e A w am i L eague to arriv e a t a politics o f consensus th a t p ro v id ed a n o p en in g fo r th e m ilitary a n d th e Jam aat-I-Islam i th a t h a d e a rlie r lo st legitim acy fo r h a v in g s u p p o rte d P ak istan . T h e rec re a tio n o f B angladesh as a n Islam ic s ta te d u rin g m ilitary ru le h e lp ed th e J a m a a t in in sistin g o n Islam ic ten ets in th e realm s o f law a n d go v ern an ce. T h o u g h it is ran g e d a g a in st secu lar g ro u p s a n d in d iv id u a ls t h r o u g h o u t th e c o u n tr y , it is p a rtic u la rly a c tiv e in C h itta g o n g a n d R aja sh a h i (C henoy 2 0 0 2 : 6 5 , 7 0 -7 1 ). T h e rise o f H in d u tv a in In d ia , th e e lecto ral success o f th e Ja m a a t-I-Isla m i in B an g lad esh a n d th e p ro -T a lib a n M u tta h id a M ajlis-e-A m al in P a k i­ s ta n p o in t to th e resu rfacin g o f religious m ajo rita ria n ism s th a t aim a t p o litical p o w e r b y targ e tin g m in o rities a n d e ra sin g p lu ralism s. It is id en tical h a te c a m p a ig n s a g a in st religious o th ers th a t b in d th e

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H in d u a n d Islam ist rig h t.6 S u p p o rte rs o f p o litical Islam in P ak istan a n d B an g lad esh have been targ e tin g n o t on ly n o n -M u slim religious m in o r itie s b u t a ls o M u s lim s w h o i n te r p r e t I sla m d iff e re n tly (S. B anerjee 19 9 9 : 8 -9 ). M u slim s a re th e la rg e s t relig io u s m in o rity in In d ia — a ro u n d 12 p e r c e n t o f th e p o p u latio n — a n d C h ristia n s c o n stitu te a ro u n d 3 p e r c e n t o f th e p o p u latio n . B o th a re sp read all o v e r th e co u n try w ith siz e a b le p o c k e ts in so m e sta te s. In P a k ista n , n o n -M u s lim m inorities a d d e d u p to 4 .9 1 9 m illio n in a p o p u la tio n o f 143 m illion in 2 0 0 2 . C h ristian s have th eir largest po ck ets in Pu n jab a n d H in d u s in Sindh. A cco rd in g to th e 1991 cen su s, B angladeshi H in d u s c o n ­ s titu te d 10.5 p e r c en t o f th e p o p u la tio n a n d B uddhists a n d C h ris­ tia n s 0 .6 a n d 0 .3 p e r c e n t re s p e c tiv e ly .7 A m o n g o th e r s , S m ita N a ru la s ’ stu d y o f H in d u n a tio n a lism has s h o w n th e deep co n n ec­ tio n s b etw een s u b c o n tin e n ta l m ajo rita ria n ism s: A ttacks o n M uslim s in India have their corresp o n d in g effect on H in d u s in Bangladesh a n d Pakistan. Sim ilarly, atro cities against H indus in Bangladesh a n d Pakistan-supported m ilitancy in Kash­ m ir are often cited as justifications for th e persecution o f M uslim s in India. As th e religious right gains significant footholds in elec­ toral politics in Bangladesh a n d Pakistan, attack s o n religious mi­ norities in those countries have also reached alarm ing p ro p o rtio n s.8 R a d h a K u m a r h a s su m m ed th is u p usefully: ‘th e su b c o n tin e n t’s m in o rities a n d m ajo rities im p in g e o n each o th e r ac ro ss b o rd e rs ’.9 A n d , as th is stu d y sh o w s, th is reflex o lo g y n o t on ly reso n a tes in th e d ia s p o ra , b u t is a t th e c e n tre o f a d ja c e n t p o litical p ro jects in th e su b c o n tin e n t a n d its d ia s p o ra , th o u g h in d iffe re n t w ays. In its 2 0 0 1 r e p o rt, A m n esty I n te rn a tio n a l su g g ested th a t th e B angladeshi g o v e rn m e n t need ed to ta k e u rg en t a c tio n to p ro te c t th e co u n try ’s H in d u m in o rity , follow ing weeks o f g rav e h u m a n rights 6 . w w w :/w lum l.org/english/new sfulltxt.shtm l?cm d, M ollica D astider, ‘Bangladesh: N o C o u n try is Safe A ny M o re ’; also see B eena S arw ar, ‘India: T h e C o m m o n ­ ality o f “F undam entalism s’” , on the sam e w ebsite. 7 . w w w .u n h c h r.ch /h u rid o cd a/h u rid o c a.n sf, I.A . R ehm an, ‘M in o rities in South A sia’. 8 . w w w .la w .h a rv a rd .e d u /s tu d e n ts /o rg s /h rj/is s l6 /n a ru la .s h tm l, ‘O v e rlo o k e d D anger: T he Security and R ights Im plications o f H in d u N ationalism in India’, H a rva rd H u m a n R ights Jo urnal, v o l. 1 6 , Spring 200 3 . 9 . w w w .apcss.org, ‘R eligious R adicalism a n d M in o rities in S outh A sia’.

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a b u ses. T h e H in d u c o m m u n ity w a s ta rg e te d b e fo re th e g en eral election in O c to b e r by th e B an g lad esh N a tio n a lis t P a rty (BNP) su p ­ p o rte rs b ecau se th ey w e re perceived to be s u p p o rte rs o f th e rival A w am i League. A fter th e elections, th e back lash becam e ‘system atic a n d severe’. A m nesty a lso p o in te d o u t th a t successive g o v ern m en ts h a d let d o w n th e H in d u m in o rity in B angladesh. M o re th a n a h u n ­ d red w o m e n w ere believed to h av e been rap e d , o fte n in f ro n t o f th e ir h u sb a n d s o r fath e rs, a n d a n u m b e r o f H in d u girls h ad been a b d u c te d .10 In 2 0 0 2 , several d iasp o ric B angladeshi sch o lars in th e U K , US, C a n a d a , A sia a n d A u stra lia issued a sta te m e n t ex p ressin g t h e ir c o n c e rn a b o u t c o m m u n a l v io le n c e a g a in s t m in o r itie s in B a n g la d esh .11 H is to ria n T a j H a sh m i, o n e o f th e co-conveners o f th e c u ltu ra l m o v em en t, N o T o P olitical Islam (2 0 0 2 ), h a s so u g ht s u p p o rt ‘fro m In d o n esia to M o ro c c o , a n d A u stra lia to A m erica a n d b ey o n d ’, to ta k e o n v iolence in th e n a m e o f Isla m .12 T h e B a n g la d e s h H in d u B u d d h is t C h r is tia n U n ity C o u n c il (BHBCU C) o f U K , USA a n d E u ro p e h a s been c a m p a ig n in g since th e eighties fo r a r e tu rn o f th e secu lar s ta te by rep e a lin g b o th th e 1 9 8 8 e ig h th a m e n d m e n t w h ich d eclared Islam a s th e s ta te religion, a n d th e Enem y (Vested) P ro p e rty A ct. It h a s o rg an iz e d sem in ars a n d co nferences to d ra w a tte n tio n to th e o p p ressio n s o f th e Islam ic fu n d am en talist forces w h o , it em phasizes, h ad o p p o sed th e lib eratio n m o v em en t in th e early sev en ties.13 In 2 0 0 2 , several in te rn a tio n a l g r o u p s in c lu d in g th e H u m a n R ig h ts C o n g re ss f o r B an g la d esh M in o ritie s, th e In te rn atio n al F e d e ra tio n o f Bangla H in d u s a n d th e B H B C U C held p ro te s ts in th e US, C a n a d a , A u stra lia a n d E u ro p e, a g a in st th e rep ressio n o f m in o rities a n d lib eral M u slim s.14 In early 2 0 0 3 ,2 0 0 p e o p le a tte n d e d a m ee tin g o f th e B H B C U C in N e w Y ork. T h e p o sitio n p a p e r o f th e o rg an iz e rs m en tio n ed th a t th e c a m p aig n 10. R efugee W atch, D ecem ber 2 0 0 1 , p . 1 5 . A lso see 'L iving W ith T e rro r: M in o ri­ ties in Bangladesh’, C om m u n a lism C o m b a t, S eptem ber 2 0 0 4 , pp. 8 - 1 6 ; h ttp :/ / w w w .m e g h b a rta .o r g /2 0 0 2 /ja n u a ry /m in o r.h tm l, M e g h n a G u h a th a k u rta , ‘A ssault on M in o ritie s in B angladesh: A n A nalysis’, argues th a t land being a scarce c o m m o d ity in ov erp o p u lated B angladesh, it becam e a re aso n fo r local vested interests in com m unalizing politics. 11. h ttp ://w w w .m eg b a rta.o rg /2 0 0 2 /ja n u ary /m in o r.h tm l, ‘S tatem ent o f Concerned B angladeshi S c h o lars...in D ia sp o ra’. 12. w w w .m u k to -m o n a.c o m /h u m a n _ rig h ts/n o _ to _ p o litic al_ islam / 13. w w w .b h b c u c.o rg .u k /d efa u lt.h tm , ‘B H BCU C: A Brief In tro d u c tio n ’. 14. w w w .m ayerdak.com /m insitdec2002.htm , ‘T h e M inority Situation in Bangladesh’.

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a g a in st m in o rities h ad en tered a very v io le n t p h a se in O c to b e r 2 0 0 1 , ‘fo rcin g 2 5 m illio n relig io u s m in o rities to flee to In d ia a fte r being su b jected to relentless d isc rim in atio n , to rtu re , g a n g -ra p e , a n d dis­ p o ssessio n o f th e ir p ro p e rtie s ’. 15 A ro u n d th is tim e it p u b lish e d Bangladesh: A Portrait o f C o vert G en o cid e in N e w Y o rk .16 In M arch 2 0 0 4 , N ira n ja n R ay , th e p resid e n t o f th e L o s A ngeles BH B C U C , m ad e a p rese n tatio n a t th e te n th session o f th e w o rk in g g ro u p o n m in o rities a t th e U N H C R in G eneva o n th e ‘T o rtu re a n d C leansing o f R elig io u s a n d E th n ic M in o ritie s o f B an g lad esh ’. H is case w as th a t th e m in o rities in B an g lad esh h av e been ta rg e ts o f d iscrim in a­ tio n a n d rac ia l p ro filin g sin ce 1 9 4 6 . In 1 9 6 5 , th e g o v e rn m e n t p ro ­ m u lg a ted a n ‘an ti-m in o rity la w ’, th e Enem y P ro p e rty A ct, to seize th e p ro p e rty o f H in d u s w h o h a d to leave th e c o u n try follo w in g m u ch p ersecu tio n . A lso, to en su re th a t a fte r 1971 th e secu larists did n o t rep eal th e a c t, by 2 0 0 1 , successive g o v e rn m e n ts h a d seized ‘2 .5 m illio n acres o f lan d fro m th e H in d u s ’. F ro m b ein g 3 0 p e r cent o f th e p o p u latio n in 1 941, they w ere d o w n to barely 10 p e rc e n t. R a y ’s fea r w a s th a t if th e ex o d u s c o n tin u e d , ‘th e rem a in in g 15 m illion p e o p le will be elim in a te d in th e n e x t th re e d ecad es, a s h a s been th e case in P a k ista n ’.17 S u p p o rte d b y th e BH B C U C , th e C a m p a ig n A gainst A trocities o n M in o ritie s in B an g lad esh (CAA M B) o rg an iz e d a n in te rn atio n al co n feren ce in K o lk a ta in J a n u a ry 2 0 0 5 .18 A w eek la te r a sim ilar c o n fe re n c e w a s o rg a n iz e d in D e lh i. T h e B H B C U C (U K , USA, C a n a d a a n d E u ro p e), th e H u m a n R ig h ts C o n g ress o f B angladesh M in o ritie s (USA a n d B an g lad esh ), a n d H o tlin e B ang lad esh w ere a m o n g th e d o zen p a rtic ip a n ts. T h e c o n feren ce m ad e a n a p p e al to th e In d ia n g o v e rn m e n t to rescu e th e m in o rities o f B an g lad esh ‘once 15. w w w .rediff.com .us/2003/feb/19bang.htm , ‘Bangladesh R uling P arty Accused o f E th n ic C leansing’, 19 F eb ru ary 200 3 . 16. h ttp ://isg -ia g s.o rg /n e w slette r/3 1 /b a n g la d esh .h tm , In stitu te fo r th e S tudy o f G enocide, N e w sle tter N o . 31 (Fall 2 0 0 3 ). T his w as based o n new s a n d evalu­ a tio n s from A m nesty In te rn a tio n a l, BBC N ew s, H u m a n R ights W a tc h , th e US S tate D e p artm en t, N e w Y o rk T im es, R eu ters, th e W all Street Jo u rn a l and A sian new spapers. 17. w w w .un h c r.ch /m in o ritie s/sta te m e n ts 10/B H B C C S3a.doc 18. w w w .hrcbm dfw .org/bk_new s/C A A M B IntlC onf.asp, In te rn atio n a l C onference o n Civil Society, H u m a n R ights a n d M in o ritie s in B angladesh, 2 2 -2 3 Jan u ary 2 0 0 5 , K olkata.

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ag ain ’.19 So o n a fter, Balbir K. Punj, M P a n d co n v en er o f th e B haratiya J a n a ta P a rty ’s (BJP) th in k ta n k , w ro te th a t th e K o lk a ta p ress d elib­ e rately b lan k e d o u t th e n ew s o f th e J a n u a ry co nference. T h e ‘progressives’ a n d ‘seculars’ w h o still cry [themselves] hoarse over G u ja ra t rio ts th in k they can conveniently overlook th e plight o f Bangladeshi m inorities. U n fo rtu n ately , they are m isinform ed. Bangladesh is n o longer ju st a problem for its H in d u , Buddhist and C hristian m inorities. It’s going to be a problem for H indus o f W est Bengal a n d Assam , C hristians o f M eghalaya a n d N agaland, if not fo r Buddhists o f B urm a.20 T h e re p o rt, ‘H in d u H u m a n R ig h ts in S o u th A sia’, p u t to g eth er by th e H in d u A m erican F o u n d a tio n (H A F) w h ich w as s ta rte d in W ash in g to n in m id -2 0 0 4 , co v ers B an g lad esh , P a k ista n a n d J a m m u a n d K ashm ir. T h e re p o rt em phasizes th a t ‘B angladesh represents an on g o in g crisis fo r H in d u s a n d is o f u tm o st a n d im m ediate c o n cern ’.21 L a ter in th e c h a p te r I discuss h o w th e s ta te o f th e H in d u m in o rities in B an g lad esh a n d K ash m ir is d e p lo y ed b y th e H in d u rig h t to tak e o n its c o n te sta tio n by th e left-liberal g ro u p s. I h a v e o u tlin e d in c h a p te r o n e th a t a fte r th e e m e rg e n c e o f B an g lad esh , m an y Ja m a a t-I-Isla m i a n d Al B ad r lead ers escaped to P a k ista n a n d so m e w e n t o n to E n g la n d , th e USA a n d C a n a d a . At lea st tw o o f th e m o st s e n io r lead ers o f D a w a tu l Islam (UK) w ere s e n io r m em b er o f Al B ad r a n d accused o f m an y killings in 1 9 7 1 . By th e early eighties, th e D a w a tu l Islam h a d g a in ed to ta l c o n tro l of th e E ast L o n d o n m o sq u e , th e b iggest m o sq u e serving th e B ritish B engalis. B ut n o t m an y in B ritain w ere a w a re o f th is b ac k g ro u n d , 19. w w w .hindunet.coxn/forum , P ram od K um ar, ‘H elpless H in d u s in Bangladesh’, O rganiser, 13 F ebruary 2 0 0 5 . A ccording to th e B HBCUC, if Islam ic hardliners claim ed t h a t Bangladesh w as a ‘M uslim dem ocracy’, ‘th ere m u st be three o ther dem ocracies— a “ H in d u dem ocracy”, a “ C h ristian dem o crac y ” a n d a “ B ud­ d h ist dem ocracy” ’. 2 0 . w w w .h in d u n e t.c o m , ‘E x te rm in a tio n o f N o n -M u s lim s in B a n g la d e s h ’, O rganiser, 8 M ay 2 0 0 5 : ‘C ould th is b e h a n d iw o rk o f p ow erful Islam ic lobby, a s th e o rganizers su spect, o r o u r o w n “sec u la r” lethargy to focus o n th is u n ­ ple asan t “ com m unal* issue?’ [sic]; L ai (2004: 2 5 ) m e n tio n s th a t it w as ‘r ep re ­ sented’ to h im th a t the B H B C U C a scribed to H in d u tv a ideology. 2 1 . w w w .redhotcurry.com /new s/hindu_forum _haf.htm . T his re p o rt w as to be dis­ cussed by the H in d u F orum o f B ritain, an um brella body covering 2 4 0 organi­ zations; http://ghadar.insaf.net/June2004/M ainPages/zionism .htm , m entions th a t the H A F p resident w as a founding m em ber o f the H indu Students Council.

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till a C h a n n e l 4 T V d o c u m e n ta ry o n th e ro le o f th e J a m a a t in th e 1971 w a r crim es ‘re-e d u c a te d ’ th e y o u n g e r g e n e ra tio n o f B ritish B engalis. G h u la m A zam (see c h a p te r tw o ), o n e o f th e ‘m o st w a n ted c o lla b o ra to rs ’ o f th e P a k ista n a rm y , w e n t a c ro ss to B rita in a n d c o o rd in a te d th e v a rio u s J a m a a t refu g ees, leav in g s o o n a fte r th e s e ttin g u p o f th e D a w a tu l Islam (B ergm an 19 9 8 : 9 - 1 4 ). T h e J a m a a tI-Islam i lau n ch ed itself in th e US in th e sixties, th ro u g h th e N e w Y o rk -b a se d Islam ic C ircle o f N o r th A m erica (IC N A ) in 1 9 6 8 . T h e M u slim stu d e n t asso c ia tio n s w e re in itially very in flu en ced by th e J a m a a t.22 By t h e s e v e n tie s , th e J a m a a t- I -I s la m i (P a k is ta n a n d B angladesh) c o n so lid a te d th e ir o rg a n iz a tio n in th e G u lf, E u ro p e a n d N o r th A m erica, w h ere m an y o f th e ir w o rk e rs h a d m oved fo r jo b s. Since th en th e rem itta n ce s fro m e x p a tria te w o rk e rs becam e a m a jo r so u rce o f th e J a m a a t’s in co m e (M . A hm ad 1 9 9 1 : 4 7 8 , 4 8 5 , 4 9 3 - 9 4 ,5 0 3 ) . F red eric G ra re ’s s u b c o n tin e n ta l stu d y h a s sh o w n th a t th e P a k ista n i a u th o ritie s h a v e u sed th e J a m a a t to e x p a n d th e ir reg io n al in terests in K a sh m ir a n d A fg h an istan . B ut to g o b ack a b it, it w a s in th e six ties th a t th e J a m a a t s ta rte d fo rg in g ties w ith Saudi A rab ia. T h e Saudi m o n a rc h becam e th e m ain su p p lie r o f fu n d s a n d ju stified h is s u p p o rt in th e n a m e o f p u ttin g to g e th e r a n Islam ic In te rn atio n ale to stall b o th socialism a n d Shia fu n d am en talism . A fter th e Islam ic rev o lu tio n in Ira n th e J a m a a t sided w ith Sau d i A rabia b u t becam e a firm p a r t o f th e ‘Islam ist o r b it’ o n ly a fte r th e A fghan conflict. T h e n th e J a m a a t tu rn e d to p o litical activism a n d cam e to sp e arh e a d th e ‘lib e ratio n o f K ash m ir’. Its n e tw o rk in S o u th A frica, E u ro p e a n d th e US (th ro u g h IC N A ) is a ttrib u te d to th e s u b c o n ti­ n e n ta l d ia sp o ra . In fact, first g e n e ra tio n s u b c o n tin e n ta l im m ig ran ts ca rrie d o v e r th e ir p re-m ig ra tio n p o litical allegiances, th u s m ak in g th e B ritish J a m a a t a p ro je c tio n o f th e P a k ista n i a n d Bangladeshi Ja m a a ts . In B ritain , th e J a m a a t h a s a stro n g presen ce in cities w ith a la r g e M u s lim p o p u l a t i o n , lik e M a n c h e s t e r , B ir m in g h a m , W o lv erh am p to n , a n d S o u th a m p to n . It co n tro ls five im p o rta n t o rg a ­ nizations: th e Islam ic F o u n d a tio n o f L eicester (1 9 7 3 ), th e Islam ic M issio n o f th e UK (1 9 6 2 ), th e M u slim E d u c a tio n T ru s t (1 9 6 6 ), th e D a w a tu l Islam (1976) a n d th e Y o u n g M u slim s o f th e U nited King­ d o m . O rg a n iz a tio n s asso c ia te d w ith th e J a m a a t in th e s u b c o n tin e n t a n d in E u ro p e a n d th e US have w o rk e d to p o p u la riz e its p o sitio n o n K a sh m ir (G ra re 2 0 0 1 : 1 1 - 1 2 , 1 5 , 6 6 , 7 6 - 7 8 , 1 0 2 - 9 , 126). 2 2 . w w w .cssaam e.ilstu.edu/issues/v20/A m ina.pdf, A m inah M o h a m m ad -A rif, ‘A M asala Identity: Y oung S outh A sian M uslim s in th e US’.

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O v e r th e y e a rs, n a tio n a lists s ta n d in g fo r a secu lar a n d d e m o ­ c ra tic K a s h m ir h av e g iv en w ay to th e Isla m ists, in itia lly to th e Jam aat-I-Islam i J a m m u a n d K a sh m ir (JIJK) a n d th en to even m o re rad ic a l Islam ist g ro u p s based in P ak istan . A p o in t th a t is rep eated in th e w ritin g s o f th e JIJK id eo lo g u es, a s well a s o f th e P ak istanb a sed jih a d ist g ro u p s is th a t th eirs is a resp o n se to th e rise in an tiM u slim violence in In d ia a t th e h an d s o f th e H in d u tv a g ro u p s, in leag u e w ith th e In d ia n sta te . H o w e v e r, th e ‘P a k ista n fac to r’ has b een cru cial in th e rise o f th e Islam ists, w h o u n lik e th e J a m m u K ash­ m ir L ib e ra tio n F ro n t (JKLF) w a n t K a sh m ir to accede to Pak istan. In c o n tra s t to th e jih a d o f th e JIJK , th a t o f th e M a rk a z D a ’a w a t ul Irsh a d (1986) a n d its m ilitary w in g , th e L ash k a r-I-T a ib a (1 9 9 3 ), is m o re ‘am b itio u s’. It is n o t lim ited to lib e ratin g K a sh m ir fro m In­ d ia, b u t is in te n t o n ‘lib e ratin g ’ In d ia itself. Its p ro je c t o f th e d isin­ te g ra tio n o f In d ia , fo llo w ed b y its ta k e -o v e r b y P a k ista n , is given o u t a s o n e th a t w ill lib e rate n o t on ly th e M u slim s o f K ash m ir, b u t a lso th e lo w e r castes a n d D alits fro m th e op p ressio n s o f B rahm anical H in d u ism a n d H in d u tv a g ro u p s (Sikand 2 0 0 1 : 2 1 8 - 2 7 ). B u t som e y ears a g o , S h ab ir C h o u d h ry o f th e JK L F (UK a n d E urope) h a d this to say to em p h a size th e ir focus o n lib e ratin g K ashm ir: ‘If th ere are p e o p le w h o w a n t to u n fu rl th e ir flag o n R ed F o rt’, th ey ca n find a r o u te th ro u g h L a h o re a n d A m ritsar, ‘n o t th ro u g h S rin a g a r’.23 M o s t K ash m iri po litical g ro u p s a re rep re se n te d in th e co m m u ­ n ity in UK. In 1 9 9 8 , it b e c am e k n o w n th a t th e fu n d s a llo cated to a B ritish M P to d efen d th e P ak istan i cau se o n K ash m ir w as a n in d ex o f th e im p o rtan ce o f K ashm iri constituencies in B ritish local politics. A cco rd in g to o n e version fifty seats in th e H o u se o f C o m m o n s d e­ p e n d p a rtly o n K ashm iri constitu en cies. K ash m iri m ig ra n ts a d d up to a lm o st 9 0 p e r c en t o f th e P ak istan is in B rad fo rd (Blom 2 0 0 2 : 2 9 9 ). In fact, tw o -th ird s o f all B ritish P a k ista n is a re o f K ashm iri origin a n d a re c o n cen trated in B irm ingham , B rad fo rd , M an ch ester, Leeds a n d L u to n . In M a y 2 0 0 0 , five m em b e rs o f B irm in g h am ’s Ju stice F o r K a sh m ir P a rty w o n local electio n s o n a ca m p a ig n th a t fo cu sed o n th e L a b o u r g o v e rn m e n t’s ‘p a ra ly sis’ o n th e K ash m ir q u estio n . B ritish K ashm iris a re believed to h av e fu n d ed th e L ash k arI-T aib a w ith £ 2 m illio n .24 O f late , h o w ev er, th e K ashm iri d iasp o ra 2 3 . K h a re (2 0 0 1 ): ‘T h e d aily exp e rie n ce in a m u ltic u ltu ra l B rita in m ak e s the K ashm iri D iasp o ra re je ct a n y suggestion o f a sectarian K ashm ir’. 2 4 . A hm ed (2002); see H in d u sta n T im e s 2 5 J u n e 1999 fo r a re p o rt o n th e funding o f the L ashkar-I-T aiba a n d the H ark a t-u l-A n sar from B ritain.

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in B ritain a n d th e US h av e reco n sid ered th e u n c o n d itio n al s u p p o rt given to Islam ic m ilitias. T h e y back ed th e ceasefire n e g o tia tio n s of 2 0 0 0 - 2 0 0 1 a n d th e p e a ce p ro ce ss b e g a n in 2 0 0 1 . A c c o rd in g to R a d h a K u m a r, ‘th e ir ch an g e o f h e a rt c o u ld b e cru cial to e n d in g violence in K a sh m ir’, b u t n e ith e r In d ia n o r P a k ista n h av e m ad e full use o f th e ‘o p p o rtu n ity d iasp o ra lead ers o ffered ’.25 O n th e o th er h a n d th e r e a re a ls o K a s h m iris w h o see th e m s e lv e s a s B ritish K ashm iris. C la im in g to b e th e larg est e th n ic g ro u p a fte r th e Irish, th ey h av e been seek in g a s e p a ra te K a sh m iri e th n ic ity in B ritain, a n d a s th e ir lead er, Syed H u ssa in o n ce p u t it, ‘W e d o n o t live in th e S o u th A sia p o litical c o n te x t’.26 W h ile c o m p a rin g S o u th A sians in th e UK a n d th e USA, A rvind R ajag o p al fo u n d a significant difference betw een th e tw o . T h e form er a re im m ig ra n ts w h o cam e in a fte r th e S econd W o rld W a r a n d a fte r 1 9 4 7 , a n d w e re m ain ly skilled a n d sem i-skilled w o rk e rs o f p e a sa n t a n d u rb a n p e tty b o u rg eo is o rig in . T h e racism th ey ex p erien ced fro m th e s ta te a n d so ciety m o v ed th em in to a ‘fa r m o re p o litical rela tio n ­ sh ip w ith m ain stre a m so ciety ’. G iv en th e ir p ro x im ity to A frican C a rib b e a n s in term s o f class a n d sta tu s , a n d th e c o n te x t o f th e Black P o w er m o v em en t in th e US, th ey c o u ld fo rg e racial c o a litio n s in th e UK. T h e very d ifferen t im m ig ra n t ex p erien ce o f th e In d ia n s m ad e th is less likely in th e US. T h e re , o v e r 5 0 p e r c e n t o f th e In d ian s arriv ed a fte r 1 9 8 0 , a n d th e ir m id d le- to u p p er-class sta tu s , su b u r­ b a n d isp e rsio n a n d p ressu re s to assim ilate in th e sc h o o ls m ad e th e b o n d in g to g e th e r o f c o m m u n ities m o re d iffic u lt th a n in B ritain. T h is e x p la in s w h y In d ia n s h av e ‘ten d e d to id en tify w ith w h ites p o litic a lly , if n o t c u ltu ra lly ’ (R a ja g o p a l 1 9 9 4 : 6 ). A c c o rd in g to S ucheta M a zu m d a r, th e issue o f racial politics becam e ‘m o re press­ in g fo r In d ia n s b y th e late 1 9 8 0 s’. As m o re o f th em b egan o p e ra tin g sm all businesses in th e cities a n d a w o rk in g class em erg ed , im m i­ g ran ts sta rte d facing m o re ov ert fo rm s o f racial hostilities (M azu m d ar 2 0 0 3 : 2 4 3 ). In w h a t h e d e scrib es a s ‘Y a n k e e H in d u tv a ’, V ijay P ra sh a d situ a te s th e o ffer o f a b ig o ted w ay fo r m ig ra n ts to rec o n ­ stru c t th eir dig n ity in a racist society. H ow ev er, in a stu d y inspired 2 5 . R. K u m ar (2005: 9 9 -1 0 0 ,1 2 4 ): ‘D iaspora funds h ave tra d itio n a lly k e p t arm ed sec tarian g ro u p s a flo a t long a fte r th e ir local sources o f su p p o rt h ave d ried up. It w a s, in fa ct, th e A m erican Irish d ia sp o ra ’s decision to sto p s u p p o rtin g th e sectarian groups fighting in N o rth e rn Ireland t h a t paved th e w ay fo r a N o rth ern Ireland ceasefire...’. 2 6 . S uri (1999); also see Ali (2003: 2 7 7 -7 8 ).

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b y W .E . D u Bois’s T h e Souls o f B lack Folk (1903), a b o o k h e stum bled u p o n in a c lu ttere d K o lk a ta b o o k s to re , th is is w h a t h e tries to re­ trieve: th e lo n g h isto ry o f b lack a n d S o u th A sian s o lid a rity evident in jo in t stru g g les in th e US, th e C a rib b e a n a n d S o u th A frica, w h ich h a d fad ed fro m h isto ric a l m em o ry a n d g o t o v e rla id w ith In d ia n s u p p o rt fo r a n ti-B lack racism (P ra sh a d 2 0 0 0 : 1 3 1 -5 6 ). T h e F o ru m o f In d ia n Leftists (FO IL) w a s fo rm ed in 1 9 9 5 in re­ sp o n se to th e H in d u tv a m o v em en t in N o r th A m erica. It g rew o u t o f a d iscu ssio n to c reate ‘so m e s o rt o f a clearin g -h o u se’ fo r rad ical In d ia n activ ists in th e US, C a n a d a a n d E n g lan d . T h e fo cu s o n India (till 2 0 0 3 , see a h ead ) w a s p u t in persp ectiv e like th is: ‘T h e re are c e rta in issues th a t a re b o u n d b y th e n a tio n -sta te a n d its p ro d u cts o verseas w h ic h a re n o t id en tical w ith th o se o f S o u th A sia as su c h ’. T h e F O IL w a s a n in te rv en tio n to p rev e n t c o n serv ativ e m iddle-class p o litic s fro m ‘s h a p in g th e p o litic s o f th e e n tir e c o m m u n ity ’. It in te n d e d to d o th is b y rea c h in g o u t to seco n d g e n e ra tio n In d ian s, ta k in g o n th e IM F /W o rld B a n k /M N C en sem b le, a n d H in d u tv a .27 Six p ro je c ts w ere decided o n . T h ese in clu d ed s ta rtin g a p a m p h le t series, a sp e ak e rs’ b u re a u o f intellectual activ ists, a w eb p ro je c t o n issues c o n c ern in g S o u th A sia, a su m m e r school fo r S o u th A sianA m erican y o u th a n d in se rtin g left o p in io n in th e m ain stre a m a n d e th n ic m ed ia.28 A sm all g ro u p affiliated to F O IL s ta rte d Y o u th S o lid arity Sum ­ m er (YSS) in 1 9 9 6 , a su m m e r p ro g ra m m e fo r rad ic a l S o u th A sian y o u th activists. T h is w a s a resp o n se to y o u th c a m p s lau n ch ed by th e H in d u rig h t. It trie d to a d d re ss th e need s o f second g en e ra tio n S o u th A sian p ro g ressiv e y o u th w h o w ere stru g g lin g w ith th e dilem ­ m as o f b ein g rad ic a l desis. As o n e o f th e fo u n d e r m em b ers p u t it, ‘m an y felt th a t to b e d esi w a s to b e co n serv ativ e, a n d to b e rad ical w as n o t to b e desi. W e w a n te d to p ro v id e th ese y o u n g p e o p le w ith a w ay to b e rad ical desis’; it is a ‘fig h t o v e r d esin ess'. T h e id ea is to m ak e th e y o u th feel like th ey b e lo n g to th e h e ritag e o f th e G h a d a r P a rty th a t w a s s ta rte d b y rad ic a l desis in San F ran cisco in 1 913. 2 7 . S a n sk riti (‘a b im o n th ly m agazine o f p rogressive S outh A sian politics’), 6 (1): 1 2 , D ecem ber 199 5 , signed by Vijay P rasad (then o f th e D ep a rtm en t o f H is­ to ry , C ornell U niversity) a n d Biju M a th e w (College o f Business, R ider U ni­ versity). T hey felt th a t a significant im p a rt c o u ld b e m a d e even if ‘ju st o n e h alf o f S a n sk riti’s read ersh ip c o m m itte d to left p olitics’ g o t to gether, (‘th a t w ould be a ro u n d 2 0 0 people’). 2 8 . Ibid., 7(1): 12, 2 O c to b e r 1996.

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T h e h o m e la n d is vividly e x p a n d e d in to a n im a g in ary o n e ‘th a t stre tc h e s fro m J a c k so n H eig h ts to th e G h a d a r P a rty , fro m th e ra l­ lies a g a in s t D o tb u s te rs to th e K o m a g a ta M a ru , fro m th e 1 9 6 5 Im m ig ra tio n A ct to D e v o n S treet’. T h e su m m e r p ro je c t basically hinges o n exp o sin g th e m y th o f In d ian s being th e m odel m in o rity , in c o n tra s t w ith A frican A m ericans a n d L atinos. T h e historical process th a t sh a p ed th e A sian im m ig ra n t fo rm a tio n s is p u t in perspective. ‘W e ca m e h ere n o t a s en slav ed p e o p le , b u t a s tec h n ical w o rk e rs th ro u g h th e g o o d g rac e s o f th e im m ig ra tio n reg im e’. T h e success o f th e In d ia n c o m m u n ity is ex p la in e d a s th e resu lt o f s ta te selectio n .29 T h e m o d el m in o rity m y th is in te rro g a ted b y th e e c o n o m ic h e te ro ­ geneity o f In d ia n im m ig ran ts a n d th e experiences o f th e less affluent seco n d g e n e ra tio n y o u th (M a ira 1 9 9 5 : 6 , 1 0 -1 1 ). B asically, ‘H in d u c e n tric s’ su c h a s th e V ish w a H in d u P arish ad A m erica (VH P-A ) a re seen as w o rk in g to c re a te h o m o g en e o u s y o u th id en tities. A cco rd in g to V ijay P ra sh a d , in c o n tra s t to th e desi left, th e H in d u rig h t teaches ‘c u ltu re ’ a s a set o f certainties, a n d struggle a s anti-desi. ‘Y an k ee H in d u tv a ’ in v o k es desi c h ild ren to w ith d ra w in to H in d u enclaves, in stead o f fo rg in g co llectiv e stru g g les ag ain st racism a n d injustice. H is p o in t is th a t th e V H P-A a n d th e H in d u S tu d e n ts C o u n cil fail to c o m p re h e n d th e co m p le x itie s o f life in th e US b ecause m an y o f th e lead ers a re ‘b o u n d to th e po litical im p e ra ­ tives o f th e su b c o n tin e n t ra th e r th a n to th e lives o f th e p e o p le ’. It is s u b c o n tin e n ta l m a tte rs th a t d o m in a te th e ir ag en d a a n d a s a resu lt, th e d ilem m as o f ev ery d ay life in th e US a re era se d (P ra sh a d 2 0 0 0 : 1 3 1 , 148—4 9 , 151). T h e H in d u tv a p ro je c t is described a s d riv e n by a b o u rg eo is-te c h n o cra t tra n sn a tio n a l elite w hich co n d u c ts its politi­ c al w o rk in tw o n a tio n s , in a c o n te x t o f g lo b al c ap italism . In th e US, it focuses o n ele c tro n ic n e tw o rk s, u n iv ersity c a m p u se s a n d also d ra w s u p o n tra d itio n a l o rg an iz in g sites su c h a s tem p les, c o n fe r­ ences a n d reg io n al e c o n o m ic a n d c u ltu ra l in stitu tio n s (M a th e w a n d P ra sh a d 1996). 2 9 . w w w .asiasource.org/society/P rashad.cfm . A n interview w ith Vijay P rashad , ‘S m ashing th e M y th o f th e M o d el M in o rity ’, 8 D ecem ber 2 0 0 0 : ‘P hrases like A frican A m erican, A sian A m erican, H isp an ic A m erican etc, are bureaucratic w o rd s th a t d o n o t h o ld w ith in them the rev o lu tio n ary a sp iratio n s a n d h isto ­ ries of a people (categorized b u t n o t co ntrolled). I p refe r w o rd s like Black, D esi, L atin o , C h icano, because th e se w o rd s raise associations o f s truggles... D esi seem s to be a sim ila r w o rd , one filled w ith s o m uch historical e m o tio n ’.

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V ijay P rash ad a n d Biju M a th e w o f F O IL b egan th eir stu d y o f the H in d u rig h t in th e US several years ago. It w a s w h en th eir research in to th e w ay m o n ey flo w ed to th e su b c o n tin e n t w a s sto n ew alled, th a t th ey tu rn e d th e ir a tte n tio n to h o w fu n d s w ere raised in th e US a n d C a n a d a . T h ey d isco v ered th a t fu n d -raisers w ere w a ry o f dis­ cussing m o n ey m a tte rs b ecause th ey ‘ten d to m ak e ex ten siv e use of t h e i ll e g a l h a w a la n e t w o r k t o t r a n s f e r c a s h f u n d s ’ . T h e m u ltic u ltu ra lism o f th e US a n d C a n a d ia n sta te s g av e a m p le space fo r th e religious rig h t, ac ro ss th e s p e ctru m , to p rese n t them selves a s in te r p re te r s o f S o u th A sia n c u ltu r e . A t t h a t p o in t o f tim e , a c c o rd in g to th e K a s h m ir P e o p le ’s D e m o c ra tic F r o n t, a leftist K ash m iri o rg an iz a tio n in th e US, th e Islam ic rig h t g o t its m oney fro m th e d ru g m afia, th e P a k ista n i ISI a n d th e Saudi g o v ern m en t. B u t sin ce m o st o f th ese o rg a n iz a tio n s in clu d ed b o th In d ia n a n d P a k ista n i M u slim s it w as d ifficu lt fo r th e ‘Islam ic O rth o d o x y ’ to ta k e full b la st p o p u list p o sitio n s o n s u b c o n tin e n ta l p o litics, ‘som e­ th in g [th a t w as] a v a ila b le ’ to th e ‘In d ia-lean in g ’ H in d u rig h t.30 T h e V H P-A w as m atc h e d a t e a ch tu rn by th e Ja m aat-I-Islam i, w ith b o th o rg an iz a tio n s tra n sla tin g c u ltu ral d ilem m a in to religious so lu tio n s. B ut V ijay P ra sh a d ’s stu d y o f im m ig ra n t S o u th A sians co n c en trate d o n th e V H P-A , ra th e r th a n th e J a m a a t, b ecau se h e believed th a t th e fo rm e r w a s d em o g ra p h ic a lly a n d financially ‘f a r m o re p o w e rfu l’, a n d m o re liab le to divide th e desi c o m m u n ity a n d co m e in th e w ay o f a n e n g ag em en t b y d esis w ith th e ir lo ca tio n in th e US (Prashad 2 0 0 0 : 134). W ritin g o n th e S o u th A sian b o u rg eo is lead ersh ip , V ijay P rash ad h a s u n d erlin ed its c o m m e m o ra tin g a ‘c a n o n ic a l version o f h isto ry ro o te d in th e su b c o n tin e n t’, su c h a s In d ep en d en ce D a y , etc. T h ere is n o m en tio n o f th e h isto ry o f in d e n tu re w h ic h tra n s p o rte d six m illion su b c o n tin en tals to S o u th A m erica, th e C a rib b e a n , M a u ritiu s, M alay sia a n d Fiji. R acist d etails a re co m pletely b lan k e d o u t. P rashad w o n d e rs w h y th e tw e n tie th a n n iv e rsary o f th e e x p u lsio n o f A sians fro m E ast A frica w a s n o t c o m m e m o ra te d by all frag m en ts o f th e 3 0 . w w w .him alm ag.com , 12 (1 2 ), 199 9 , V ijay P ra sh a d a n d Biju M ath ew , ‘D eceit o f th e R ig h t’. T hey po in te d o u t th a t since t h e H in d u rig h t ‘d oes n o t co n d u c t “te r ro ris t” activity o n N o rth A m erican so il, th e US a u th o rities d o n o t pay m uch atte n tio n to th e tra n sfe r o f saffro n do lla rs a s th e y d o to th e K halistani a n d LT T E m oney. T h e la tte r tw o o rg an iza tio n s, a fte r a ll, have conducted e x to rtio n a n d a ssassin atio n s in N o r th A m erica, w hereas the H in d u R ight has been, if an y th in g , m o re s u b tle’.

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o verseas c o m m u n ity , as well as b y th e In d ia n a n d P a k ista n i g o v e rn ­ m en ts. E n o c h Pow ell, Idi A m in a n d o verseas A sians all seem ed to believe th a t ‘races’ h ad ‘c u ltu re s’ w h ich c a n n o t b e fash io n ed . T h ere w as, th ere fo re , a need to reveal th e co m p licity o f c o n serv ativ e b o u r­ g eois lead ersh ip w ith racist ideologies. A fter all, th e n o tio n o f an ‘a n c ie n t c u ltu re ’ d e p lo y ed b y o verseas A sians w a s ‘id en tical’ w ith th e n o tio n o f a n ‘a n c ie n t c u ltu re ’ dep lo y ed by th e m u ltic u ltu ra l, rac ist s ta te (P rash ad 1 9 9 5 : 1 -2 ). S o u th A sians e n te r th e sp ace o f racial p o litics ‘as “ n o t w h ite ” by d efin itio n , a n d “ u n w illin g to b e b lac k ” ’, ac co rd in g to Biju M a th e w . T h e y h av e m oved to th e m etro p o lis n o t a s ‘S o u th A sians’, b u t rath e r as In d ian s, P a k ista n is, N e p a lis o r B angladeshis, as ‘p ro d u c ts o f spe­ cific a n d s tro n g natio n alism s’. F o r M a th e w , th ere a re o b v io u s ‘lim its to S o u th A sia-ness, unless re -a rtic u la te d fro m w ith in a stro n g ly d efin ed politics o f class’.31 A 1 9 9 7 e d ito ria l in th e F O IL p u b lic a ­ tio n , G h a d a r, a rg u e d th a t ‘th e su b c o n tin e n t is n o t th e on ly site o f th e d e te rm in a tio n o f S o u th A sian n a tio n a l id e n tities, o r c o n se ­ q u e n tly , th e on ly sites w h e re violence is visited o n S o u th A sian s’. A n d sin ce ec o n o m ic m ig ra tio n p u ts w o rk in g class S o u th A sians sq u arely in th e m id st o f rac ia l violence, e n g ag in g w ith c o m m u n ities th a t w e re n o t territo ria lly S o u th A sian is im p e rativ e.32 V ery sim p ly , fo r Biju M a th e w , S o u th A sian m iddle-class politics is ‘in ca p a b le o f b ein g p a rt o f th e larg er p o litical b attles o f th e US’, a n d ‘th e p o ro sity o f id en tities is k e p t a liv e on ly a s lo n g as class p o litics is recognized as a n im p o rta n t basis o f allian ces th a t need to b e c re a ted ’. H e d escrib ed th e L ease D rivers C o a litio n (LDC ) as ‘p o s­ sibly o n e o f th e few ex am p les o f S o u th A sian g ro u p s a tte m p tin g su c h a lucid p o litics in th e US’.33 T h e L D C g rew o u t o f fem inist a n d leftist A sian A m erican p o litics in 1 9 9 2 , in N e w Y o rk . It w as a c o m m u n ity -b ased o rg an iz a tio n o f th e C o m m ittee A gainst A nti-A sian V iolence (CAA AV , 1986) a n d organized S outh Asians w h o com prised 3 1 . ‘D eploying H istory/S ubverting N atio n alism : N o te s o n S outh A sian Politics in the M etro p o lis’, A b stra cts fo r th e 2 5 th A n n iversa ry C onference o n S o u th A sia, 1 7 -2 0 O c to b e r 1 99 6 , C enter fo r South A sia, University o f W isconsin-M adison, p. 85.

3 2 . S a nskriti, 1(2), 2 6 N o v em b er 1997. 3 3 . Ibid., 6(1), 25 D ecem ber 1995, p p . 3 -5 : ‘Peelay P aiyon K i N a y i U m m eed o r Reshaping Im m igrant Identity Politics’. T h e o th e r potential exam ple, M athew ad ded, ‘though in a far m o re lim ited sense, being th e different w om en’s groups’.

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a b o u t 5 0 p e r c en t o f N e w Y o rk ’s 3 0 ,0 0 0 yellow ca b drivers.34 T h e fo cu s w a s o n n e g o tia tin g th e racialized p o lice fo rce, th e e x p lo it­ a tiv e g a ra g e o w n ers, th e T a x i a n d L im o u sin e C o m m issio n (TLC) in sp e c to rs a n d c o u rts. M o s t d riv ers w o rk a b o u t e ig h ty -fo u r h o u rs a w eek in tw e lv e -h o u r sh ifts. In th e late nin eties, w h en I did m y fie ld w o rk , so m e d riv e rs h a d invested in citizen s’ b a n d ra d io n e t­ w o rk s to b o n d them selves linguistically. A b o u t th irty -o n e o f th e forty n e tw o rk s w ere P u n jab i a n d a ro u n d five, B engali. T h e o rg an izin g co m m ittee m em b e rs used to m eet tw o o r th re e tim es a m o n th a n d general m em b ers, o n ce every tw o m o n th s. In itially , th e b u lk o f its ro u g h ly 2 ,0 0 0 m em b ers w e re P ak istan is. T h e L D C p ro file d itself as b ein g d ifferen t fro m o th e r u n io n s a n d d riv e r o rg an iz a tio n s in th a t it h a d ‘e q u a l resp ect fo r B angladeshis, In d ia n s a n d P a k ista n is’. T h is s o lid a rity -m a k in g w a s co n cep tu alized a s a p relu d e to lin k in g up w ith d riv ers o f all c o m m u n ities, such a s A frican A m ericans, L atinos, E u ro p e an s a n d no n -co lo u red A m ericans. A ccording to its organizers th e very d efin in g im p erativ es o f its m ass base m ad e th e L D C very d iffe re n t fro m o th e r m iddle-class desi o rg an iz a tio n s th a t rem ained co n fin ed w ith in n a tio n a l b o u n d e d n e ss a n d th ere fo re w o rk e d w ith fro z e n id en tities. E m p h asizin g th e co n stru c te d n e ss o f th e fo rtie s’ n a tio n a lism s, such a s ‘In d ia n ’ a n d ‘P a k ista n i’, th e a tte m p t is to re­ trieve th e co m m o n stra n d s o f h isto ry ‘th a t w ere lo st to n atio n alism ’ since th e last c en tu ry . O ccasio n ally th is e n ta ils n e g o tia tin g a n d c o p ­ in g w ith th e s u b te rra n e a n fallo u t o f s u b c o n tin e n ta l m em o ries of 1 9 4 7 ,1 9 7 1 ,1 9 8 4 a n d 1 9 9 2 -9 3 [and 2 0 0 2 ]. As o n e o f th e organizers p u t it, ‘a m id d le class P akistani a n d a m id d le class In d ian im m igrant sh a re very little. T h e y c a n a n d d o lead lives d isco n n ected fro m each o th e r’. It is life o n th e m ea n stre e ts th a t m ak e s sense to co n so lid ate th e S o u th A sian c u ltu ral categ o ry . In 1 9 9 7 , th e L D C decided to leave CA A A V b ecau se it fo u n d it in a d e q u a te in s u p p o rtin g a ‘g ro u n d u p la b o u r o rg an iz in g e ffo rt’. T h e d riv e rs a n d o rg an iz e rs recast them selves a s th e N e w Y o rk T axi W o rk ers A lliance (N Y TW A ) to reach o u t to n o n -S o u th A sian drivers, 3 4 . W h a t follow s is based o n interview s w ith the L D C (now N ew Y ork T axi W ork ­ ers Alliance) activists, B hairavi D esai a n d Biju M a th e w , 6 a n d 7 F ebruary 1997, N ew Y ork; C AAAV a n d LD C fliers; T h e C A A A V Voice, Spring 199 5 , p p . 1 a n d 4 , S um m er 1 99 6 , p . 9 ; Peela Paiya: A P ow erful V oice For S o u th A sian T a x i D rivers, Sum m er 1995 (this w as an L D C m agazine w ith articles in Bengali, U rdu a n d English) a n d the L D C w ebsite (1997); O u tlo o k , 21 Septem ber 1998, pp. 7 8 -7 9 ; Sam ar, S um m er/Fall 199 8 , p. 63.

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a n d by 2 0 0 2 it h a d a b a se o f 1 ,5 0 0 d rivers. Its s trik e call o n 13 M a y 1 9 9 8 n o t o n ly u n ite d th e 2 4 ,0 0 0 e th n ic a lly d iv erse w o rk fo rc e (98 p e r cent o f w h o m stru ck w o rk ), b u t d rew s u p p o rt fro m an o th e r 3 0 ,0 0 0 drivers fro m th e o u te r b o ro u g h s. T h o u g h In d ia a n d P akistan w e re lo ck ed in a n u c le a r e sc a la tio n s itu a tio n , a c c o rd in g to Biju M a th e w th e P a k ista n i a n d In d ia n d riv ers ‘k e p t g o in g o n , n o t fo r a m o m e n t a llo w in g n a tio n a lis m to in te rfe re w ith th e o rg a n iz in g ’. H a itia n s , W e st A fricans a n d Ira n ia n s, to o , ca m e fo rw a rd to tak e lea d e rsh ip p o sitio n s. M a th e w fo u n d th a t ‘th e m o st successful s tr a t­ egy in d e a lin g w ith eth n ic ity a n d n a tio n a lism is to ta lk m o st e x p lic­ itly a b o u t it, c o n sta n tly rem in d in g p e o p le th a t p ro b le m s ca n com e u p ’. T h e im m e d ia te cau se o f th e strik e w as a p ro p o se d set o f seven­ teen rules, in crease in fines a n d th e su sp en sio n o f licenses fo r ru d e b e h a v io u r .35 B h a ira v i D e s a i, c o -f o u n d e r a n d o r g a n iz e r o f th e N Y T W A , says th a t th e first fare h ik e in eig h t y e a rs a fte r th e strik e w as th e resu lt o f th e stru g g le o f th e c a b d riv ers.36 S ta rtin g w ith a m em b ersh ip o f 7 0 0 , b y m id -2 0 0 2 , it w a s 3 ,3 0 0 stro n g (K. Sh arm a

2 0 0 2 ). T h e U S-based S o u th A sian M a g az in e fo r A ctio n a n d R eflection (SAM AR) p rovides us w ith a n insight in to w hy it o p ted fo r th e term ‘S o u th A sian ’. It w a s to d r a w a tte n tio n to th e fac t th a t ‘S o u th A sians a re a g ro u p o f p e o p le w ith a sh ared h isto ry a n d th a t th is h isto ry p ro v id es a co m m o n b asis fo r u n d e rsta n d in g ’, o f th e ir p lac e in th e c o n te m p o ra ry w o rld . W h e re a s m o st o th e r S o u th A sian m agazines a re based o n differences o f reg io n , relig io n a n d n a tio n a lity w ith in S o u th A sia, SA M A R ch o se to base itself o n ‘a S o u th A sian collec­ tivity th a t is n o w sp read acro ss th e g lo b e’. As a n in te rv en tio n ag ain st th e c o n te m p o ra ry rig h tw a rd d rift in p o litics, it sta te s its co m m it­ m en t to social a n d e c o n o m ic ju stice b o th in N o r th A m erica a n d S o u th Asia (m y em p h asis). T h e In d ia n elections, n u c le a r test ex p lo ­ sio n s in th e su b c o n tin e n t a n d th e ta x i w o rk e rs’ m o b iliz a tio n w ere a m o n g th e subjects c o v ered b y a ra d io p ro g ra m m e p ro d u ce d by 3 5 . P rashad (2002: 3 2 -4 1 ); B. M a th e w (1 998). T h e second strike o n 21 M ay w as m o re th a n 80 p e r ce n t successful a n d th e o n e o n 13 M ay w as called by th e N Y T W A ‘w ith o u t any su p p o rt o f a ny o th e r o rg a n iz atio n ’. 3 6 . w w w .n ew in d p ress.co m /N e w sItem .asp ? ID = IE 8 2 0 0 4 0 4 2 5 0 8 3 9 3 7 & P a g e= 8 & T itle, 2 6 A pril 2 0 0 4 ; see T h e C A A A V Voice, 8(2), Sum m er 199 6 , p . 9 for the detail th a t before jo in in g CAAAV in M a y 1996 she h a d w o rk ed fo r M anavi, th e N ew Jersey-based South Asian w om en’s anti-dom estic violence organization .

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SA M A R in N e w Y o rk in th e la te nin eties.37 In th e sa m e city, Desis R isin g U P & M o v in g (D R U M ), a n o rg an iz a tio n o f w o rk in g -class a n d p o o r S o u th A sian im m ig ra n ts w a s s ta rte d in 1 9 9 9 to org an izes IN S d etainees a n d th eir fam ilies, undocu m en ted im m ig ran ts a n d desi y o u th . A fter 9 /1 1 , it lau n c h e d tw o cam p aig n s: S to p th e D isa p p ea r­ an ces C a m p a ig n a n d th e 9/11 C o m m u n ity Self D efense P ro ject.38 A m id-nineties stu d y o f N e w Y o rk fo u n d th a t th e S outh A sian identity w a s m o re a c ce p ta b le to th e im m ig ra n t seco n d g e n e ra tio n th a n to th e ir p a re n ts .39 It is o n th e in itiativ e o f th e seco n d g e n e ra tio n in th e US th a t a n o th e r stu d y to o tra c e d th em co m in g to g eth e r o n issues of rac ism , lab o u rin g lives, sex u ality , g e n d e r violence, a n d to p ro m o te th e co n c ep t o f ‘S o u th A sian’ a s a sym bol o f u n ity (A.T. M o h a m m a d 2 0 0 1 : 3 0 3 ). Several g ay o rg an iz a tio n s h av e c o lla b o ra te d w ith p ro ­ gressives in co n te stin g co m m u n alism in S o u th A sia.40 In th e n in eties, ov er fifteen o rg an iz a tio n s w e re fo rm ed to end w o m a n a b u se in S o u th A sian fam ilies, ac co rd in g to Sh am ita D as G u p ta , a c o fo u n d e r o f M a n av i (1 9 8 5 ); th is in clu d ed Sak h i (1989). T h o u g h m o st o f th e m w e re c o n c e n tra te d o n th e E a st a n d W est co asts, th e M id w e st a n d S o u th a lso h a d th e ir o w n g ro u p s. 'T h e m ajo rity ’ o f S o u th A sian w o m e n ’s o rg an iz a tio n s w ere fo u n d ed by w o m en w h o m ig rated fro m In d ia. T h ey w ere m ain ly fro m th e m iddle a n d u p p e r classes: ‘In m o st o f th ese agencies th ey a re th e o n e s w h o h o ld lead ersh ip p o sitio n s. W h e n B angladeshi, P a k ista n i, N ep ali a n d Sri L a n k a n m em b ers o r w o rk in g class m em b ers ex ist in th ese o rg a ­ n iza tio n s, th ey a re to o few in n u m b e r to e n jo y e q u a l voice o r space to th e ir u p p e r class’. D a sg u p ta a d d s th a t th e ‘S o u th A sian’ label ‘signifies a p o stu re o f in clu sio n a n d a tte m p ts to rectify th e h ith e rto u n even p a rtic ip a tio n ’; b u t o rg an izin g ac ro ss class is still to h a p p e n (D as G u p ta 19 9 9 : 6 -7 ). A sm all g ro u p o f w o m e n in Sakhi fo r S outh A sian W o m e n s ta rte d th e D o m estic W o rk e rs C o m m itte e in 1 9 9 4 in N e w Y o rk . T h re e y ears late r, a fte r d ifferences w ith Sakhi, it w ent in d ep e n d e n t a s W o rk e rs ’ A w aaz. M o s t o f its m em b ers a re In d ian s a n d B angladeshis, b u t th ere a re a few P ak istan is. Besides reaching 3 7 . S um m er/Fall 199 8 , p. 63. 3 8 . w w w .d ru m n a tio n .o rg 3 9 . Lessinger (1995: 7): T hey w ere ‘less preoccupied w ith religious antagonism s w hich derived In d ian from P ak istan , Bangladesh a n d Sri L a n k a’. 4 0 . See, fo r exam ple, w w w .trik one.org/calendar/2003-02-12 and w w w .T hirdi.org / ~ sf/past_events_june_02.htm l, (film screenings).

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o u t to S o u th A sians it h a s b een b u ild in g tie s w ith L a tin a , C a rib ­ b e a n a n d Filip in a o rg an iz a tio n s o f d o m estic w o rk e rs (A lam 1997: 1 5 -2 0 ). In C a lifo rn ia , N a rik a d ecid ed to w o rk ‘specifically w ith in n a tio n a l lines, su c h a s w ith th e P ak istan i c o m m u n ity in San F ra n ­ cisco, th e N ep ali c o m m u n ity in th e E ast Bay a n d th e F ijian -In d ian c o m m u n ity in th e P en in su la’. T h is stra te g y is a p relu d e to a unified S o u th A sian a p p ro a c h (Patel 19 9 9 : 2 5 ). W ritin g o n w h a t it m ean s to b e ‘S o u th A sian’ in th e US, C h a n d ra T a lp a d e M o h a n ty h a s th is to say: ‘Identifying a s S o u th A sian ra th e r th a n In d ia n a d d s n u m b ers a n d h ence p o w e r w ith in th e U.S. sta te . Besides, reg io n al differences a m o n g th o se o f d iffe re n t S o u th A sian c o u n tries a re o fte n less rel­ e v an t th a n th e com m o n alities based o n o u r experiences a n d histories o f im m igration, treatm en t a n d location in th e U nited States’ (M ohanty 2 0 0 3 : 1 2 7 ). B ut th ere a re m isgivings o n th e g ro u n d . F o r exam p le, th ere is a p o in t o f view th a t S o u th A sian w o m e n ’s o rg an iz a tio n s in N e w Y o rk ten d to b e d o m in a ted b y In d ian a n d P akistani w o m en : ‘In S o u th A sian um b rella asso c ia tio n s fro m lo cal to n a tio n a l a n d left to rig h t, B angladeshi a n d In d o -C arib b ea n s a re rare ly in clu d ed in to p lead ersh ip a n d decision m ak in g , a n d o u tre a c h in g e ffo rts rarely rea c h th e ir c o m m u n ities’.41 T h o u g h th e re is m o re o n th is a h e a d , let m e m en tio n th a t m an y o f th e g ro u p s m en tio n ed h ere h av e been o p p o se d to th e V H P-A b ecause o f its g e n d e r ideo lo g y , a n d w o m e n ’s o rg an iz a tio n s su c h a s M a n av i (N ew Jersey), Sakhi (N ew Y o rk City) a n d N a r ik a (O a k la n d ), to g e th e r w ith left g ro u p s su c h as F O IL a n d IN SA F (see a h e ad ) h av e b een o ffe rin g a lte rn a tiv e a p p ro a c h e s to im m ig ra n t lives.42 B etw een 1 9 9 2 a n d 2 0 0 2 , a s w e sa w in th e p rev io u s c h a p te r, th e politics o f H in d u tv a o ccasioned several d iasp o ric in terv en tio n s. Soon afte r th e killings th a t follow ed th e dem o litio n o f th e Babri M asjid in In d ia in 1 9 9 2 , progressives g o t to g eth er in different N o r th A m erican re g io n s . A m o n g th e d e m o n s tra tio n s in s u p p o r t o f s e c u la r a n d d e m o c ra tic forces in In d ia, w ere th o se o rg an iz e d b y th e follow ing g ro u p s: th e In d ia n Progressive S tudy G ro u p a n d th e n ew ly form ed C o n c e rn ed S o u th A sians in N e w Y o rk C ity , th e C o a litio n A gainst C o m m u n a lism (C A C ) in A rtesia a n d San F ran cisco , a n d th e In d ia n 4 1 . w w w .sax a k ali.c o m /in d o crib /c aste l.h tm , M oses S eenarine, ‘T h e P ersistence o f C aste a n d A nti-C aste R esistance in India a n d th e D iasp o ra’, p. 6. 4 2 . w w w .g a n ash k a ti.co m /o ld /2 0 0 0 /0 0 0 9 2 5 /fea tu re 2 .h tm , V ijay P rash a d , ‘Y ankee H in d u tv a R ebuffed’.

Redoing South Asia * 195

People’s A sso ciatio n in N o r th A m erica a n d th e N o n -R e sid en t In d i­ a n s fo r Secularism a n d D e m o cracy in V an co u v er.43 T h e C A C w as fo rm ed in th e Bay A rea in 1 9 9 2 a few d ays a fte r 6 D ecem ber. O n e o f its m em b ers co m m e n te d th a t th e rig h t w in g ers in th e S o u th A sian c o m m u n ity w e re a m o n g th e m o st effective o rg an izers: ‘A t th e d ro p o f a h a t th ey c a n g et 4 0 p e o p le in to a ro o m to sit w ritin g letters ex p ressin g o u tra g e a b o u t so m e th in g o r th e o th er. So th e id ea w as to fo rm so m eth in g to c o u n te r th a t. A nd to say th ere is a n alternative p o in t o f view ’. T h e g ro u p h ad In d ia n s a n d B angladeshis a n d som e P akistanis, b u t its focus w a s m ainly o n In d ia ‘because In d ia n com m u n alism w a s, a t th a t p o in t’ th e p ro b le m th a t b o th ere d it ‘th e m o st’ (Eranki 1997: 1 0 -1 1 ). In th e B oston a re a , th e A lliance fo r a Secular a n d D e m o c ra tic S o u th A sia w a s fo rm e d , in J a n u a r y 1 9 9 3 , in resp o n se to th e v iolence in In d ia. Its p o sitio n w a s th a t secularism is ‘n o t a ch o ice b u t a necessity fo r th e d iverse a n d d eeply interlin k ed societies o f S o u th A sia’. T h e A lliance h a s been o rg an izin g lectures a n d p an el discu ssio n s, screenings o f d o c u m e n ta ry vid eo s a n d film s a n d , in 1 9 9 8 , it held a y o u th c o n feren ce it c o -o rg an ized w ith th e Progressive S o u th A sia E x ch an g e N e t (a F O IL p ro je c t), th e F o ru m o f Progressive A rtists a n d th e S o u th A sian A c tio n a n d A dvocacy Collective. It has also been o rg an izin g S o u th Asia D ay e a ch A ugust, since 1 9 9 9 .44 In early 1 9 9 8 , th e Progressive F o ru m F o r In d ia (PFI) p u t in a fu ll-p a g e a p p e a l to ‘p ro g re s s iv e N R Is ’: p r o fe s s io n a ls, a cad em ics, in te lle c tu a ls, e tc ., to resist relig io u s fu n d am e n ta lism , s u p p o rt secu lar d em o cracy a n d to sto p th e a tte m p t to p u sh India b ack ‘to th e 1 5 th c e n tu ry ’. T h e a p p e al ex p ressed o u tra g e a t th e m ed ia sp ace given to fu n d am e n ta list activ ities a n d c o n c ern a b o u t N R I d o lla rs g o in g to In d ia to fu n d ‘fan aticism a n d relig io u s h a tre d u n d e r th e g uise o f social service a n d relig io u s w o rk ’. It p o in te d o u t th a t th e neo -fascist N R Is iro n ically en joyed ‘se cu la r d em o cracy in th e US’.45 T h is a p p e al w a s p laced in ‘all In d ia n n e w sp a p e rs in th e US a n d C a n a d a ’. F o rm ed in 1 9 9 8 , th e PFI claim ed a n o v erw h elm ­ in g resp o n se a t a m eetin g in N e w Y o rk in O c to b e r 1 9 9 8 w h ic h w as 4 3 . T h e E co n o m ic T im e s, 28 F eb ru ary 1993. 4 4 . w w w .allian ceso u th asia .o rg 4 5 . India A b ro a d , 20 F ebruary 199 8 , p . 9 . T he a p p ea l w as from Vijay P rashad a n d Progressive S outh A sia E xchange a n d m entioned several su p p o rtin g o rg a ­ n iz atio n s a n d individuals including th o se in A m herst, I n d ia n a, M ad iso n , N ew Jersey, N e w Y ork a n d C alifornia.

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a tte n d e d by a c o a litio n o f stu d e n ts, w o m e n ’s g ro u p s, D a lits, in tel­ lectu als, m in o rities a n d pro g ressiv e N R Is.46 A t th e e n d o f 2 0 0 0 , so m e S o u th A sians in C h icag o p u t to g eth er a S outh A sian Progressive A ction Collective to ta k e a c tio n ‘o n issues p e rta in in g to th e D ia s p o ra ’. T h e focus is o n b u ild in g bridges o f u n d e rsta n d in g , ‘to c o u n te r th e h a tre d o f co m m u n alism ’, a n d to w o rk a g a in st US m ilita rism a n d th e loss o f civil rig h ts in th e US.47 T h e sam e y e a r, th e A lliance o f S o u th A sians T a k in g A c tio n (ASATA) w a s s ta rte d to o rg an iz e B ay a re a S o u th A sians a g a in s t violence, racism a n d e x p lo itatio n , ‘w ith in a n d ag ain st’, diverse com m unities. B etw een A p ril 2 0 0 2 a n d M a y 2 0 0 3 it p a rtic ip a te d in th e m u lti­ ethnic U nited R esponse C o llab o rativ e o f five Bay a rea o rg an izatio n s w o r k in g w ith M u s lim s , A ra b s a n d S o u th A sia n s a g a in s t h a te v io le n c e a n d in s u p p o r t o f c o m m u n ity e m p o w e rm e n t.48 A fter th e G u ja ra t killings in 2 0 0 2 , in th e Bay a re a , E k ta a n d C A C , co ­ s p o n so re d a m o n g o th ers by th e IM R C , N a rik a a n d T rik o n e , raised $ 5 0 th o u sa n d fo r th e su rv iv o rs.49 So m e m u lti-faith P IO s residing in th e US p u t a full-p ag e ad v e rtise m en t in T h e H in d u a p p e alin g to ‘S to p th e K illing in G u ja ra t A t O nce’.50 T h e B oston-based Alliance fo r a Secular a n d D em o c ra tic S o u th A sia ra n a sig n a tu re c a m p aig n to ho ld th e V H P a n d H in d u tv a forces acco u n tab le fo r th eir actio n s.51 Friends o f S o u th Asia (FOSA) in th e Bay a re a , C alifo rn ia, organized a rally u n d e r th e b a n n e r o f Peace B etw een P a k ista n a n d In d ia , a n d several peace vigils.52 In J a n u a ry 2 0 0 3 , c o m m u n a l violence, lab o u r r ig h ts , a n d p e o p le ’s m o v e m e n ts in S o u th A sia w e re s o m e o f th e issu e s d isc u sse d a t th e S o u th A sia P ro g re ssiv e C o n fe re n c e in C a lifo rn ia . T h e se co n d c o n fe re n c e w a s h eld in M a y 2 0 0 4 .53 4 6 . w w w .secularindia.com /P F I.htm . I t w as c o m m itted to giving th e second gen­ e ra tio n b a ck g ro u n d ers o n th e teachings o f G an d h i a n d th e G h a d a r m ovem en t o f th e tw enties. 4 7 . w w w .sap ac .dream host.com /new /sapacw ebpage_files/P age361 .htm 4 8 . w w w .a sa ta .o rg /ab o u t/h isto ry .h tm l 4 9 . w w w .ek tao n lin e .o rg 5 0 . 14 A pril 2 0 0 2 ; th is a lso c arried th e a p p e al o f th e A ssociation o f In d ia n M u s­ lim s (W ashington D .C .) a n d th e C A C (C alifornia). 5 1 . w w w .a llian cesouthasia.org/appeal_2002.cfm 5 2 . http://asia p ea ce .o rg /a ch a /0 8 -0 7 -2 0 0 2 .h tm ; See w w w .ek tao n ln e.o rg /-frin d so / for the FO SA a im to a chieve a peaceful, p ro sp ero u s, a n d hate-free S outh Asia th ro u g h people-to-people con ta cts a n d dialogue fo r a d em ilitarized, nuclearfree S outh A sia, by bringing tog e th e r people w ith ro o ts in various p arts o f S outh A sia a n d w ell-w ishers o f th e region. 5 3 . w w w .so u th asian p ro g ressiv e .o rg /2 0 0 4 /

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U p d a tin g th is o verview w ill e n ab le a lo n g u e d u ree lo o k a t th e su b ­ c o n tin e n ta l d im en sio n o f S o u th A sian initiatives. In th e U K , th e L o n d o n -b ased S o u th A sia S olidarity G ro u p (SASG) h a s ‘dire c t lin k s’ w ith a n u m b e r o f d em o c ra tic , so cialist struggles in th e c o u n tries o f S o u th A sia.54 It s u p p o rts p e o p le ’s stru g g les in th e su b c o n tin e n t a n d believes in stre n g th e n in g th e links betw een these struggles a n d th o se o f th e A sian co m m u n ities in B ritain. Its activities h av e in clu d ed s u p p o rtin g A sian w o m e n w o rk e rs d e m a n d in g basic rights, o rg an izin g ag ain st racist atta c k s; cam p a ig n in g ag ain st repres­ sive im m ig ra tio n a n d a sy lu m law s a n d racist h e a lth a n d ed u c atio n policies. O n e o f th e ev en ts in its c a m p a ig n a g a in st w a r a n d fascism in In d ia a n d P a k ista n in clu d ed m ass leafletin g a n d c o llectin g sig n a ­ tu re s a t th e W o rld C u p final a t th e L o rd ’s cric k e t g ro u n d in th e late nineties. Its q u a rte rly , In q u ila b , c a rrie s a rticles rep re se n ta tiv e o f its p o litical b ifo cality , co v e rin g a g ra ria n a n d w o m e n ’s stru g g les, reli­ gious fu n d am e n ta lism , etc. T o m a rk fifty y ears o f freed o m fro m B ritish ru le in S o u th Asia SASG o rg an ized a c o n feren ce o n ‘G lo b a l­ iza tio n , Id en tity a n d R esistan ce’ in O c to b e r 1 9 9 7 . T h is d rew nearly 2 0 0 p a rtic ip a n ts , b o th activ ists a n d acad em ics fro m S o u th A sia, B ritain a n d C a n a d a . T h e w o rk sh o p s e x am in ed th em es su c h as th e in te rfa c e o f w o rk e rs’ stru g g les a n d c u ltu ra l p ro d u c tio n a n d th e p ro ­ cess o f g lo b aliza tio n ; n a tio n a lism a n d refugees; c o m m u n al/fascist p a rties ro o te d in th e d e n o m in a tio n a l politics o f p a rtitio n ; a n d th e lib e ratio n struggles in K ash m ir, B alu ch istan , Sri L a n k a a n d a m o n g th e Ju m m a s in B angladesh. As a fo llo w -u p , th e SASG b egan e x a m ­ in in g th e g ro w th o f co m m u n alism in th e B ritish A sian co m m u n ity .55 A fter th e n u c le a r b lasts by In d ia a n d P a k ista n in th e su m m e r of 1 9 9 8 th e SASG o rg an ized a d iscu ssio n m ee tin g in L o n d o n o n 17 5 4 . B attlefields O f India: T h e Crisis o f th e In d ia n S tate, L o n d o n , S outh Asia Soli­ d a rity G ro u p , 198 9 , con ten ts page. 5 5 . Interview w ith A m rit W ilson, 4 July 1 9 9 8 , L o n d o n ; p a s t issues o f Inquilab a n d the SASG w ebsite, w w w .angelfire.com /in/SA SG ; In quilab, Spring 1998, p p . 24—2 6 m e n tio n s th a t a t th e 1 9 9 7 conference th e n a tu re o f g lobalization w a s exam ined by D ip a n k a r B hattacharya o f th e C PI-M L a n d th e Pakistani a c a d em ic H a ssa n G ard e zi a n d N ig h a t K h a n (P ak istan ), A nu M u h am m a d (B angladesh) a n d U m a C h ak rav a rti (India) discussed co m m unalism , racism a n d identity. K alpana W ilson discussed th e ag ra ria n m ovem ent in B ihar; T h e Pioneer, 2 7 O c to b e r 199 7 , m e n tio n s W ilson rep re sen tin g the SASG a t the C PI-M L congress in V a ran a si in 199 7 . F o r ac c o u n ts o f the experiences o f A sian (M irp u ri, G u ja ra ti, B angladeshi a n d Sikh) w om en in B ritain ‘in their ow n w o rd s’ see W ilson (1978).

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J u n e . T h e th e m e w a s th a t th e th re a t o f w a r b e tw e en In d ia a n d P a k ista n w a s ‘being used b y fascist forces to w h ip u p h ysteria ag ain st relig io u s m in o rities in b o th c o u n tries, especially M u slim s in India a n d H in d u s in P a k ista n ’. A n o u tb re a k o f w a r w a s th ere fo re to be a v o id e d t o p r e v e n t ‘th e e s c a la tio n o f t h e h o r rific c o m m u n a l violence’ o f th e p a s t y e a rs, a n d th e p o ssib ility o f a m assive arm ed in te rv en tio n b y g lo b al p o w e rs in th e reg io n to p u sh th ro u g h th e ir o w n stra te g ic a n d e c o n o m ic in te rests. T h e SA SG s ta te m e n t w as aim ed a t In d ia ’s BJP-led g o v e rn m e n t fo r in itia tin g th e n u c le a r arm s race in S o u th A sia, a n d fo r ‘w h ip p in g u p co m m u n al feeling ag ain st In d ia n M u slim s th ro u g h th e te s t a n d its a fte rm a th ’. It received s o lid a rity m essages fro m th e JK L F (U K /E u ro p e), th e an ti-fa sc ist d e m o c ra tic c o m m itte e fo rm e d in M a y 1 9 9 8 in B a n g lad esh , th e H u m a n R ig h ts C o m m issio n o f P a k ista n a n d th e a n ti-n u cle a r c o ali­ tio n , B angalore. T h e C P I-M L m essage fro m D ip a n k a r B h attach ary a d escrib ed th e e x p lo sio n a s a ‘c o m m u n a l b o m b ’, a n d ack n o w led g ed th a t su c h p ro te sts, stre n g th e n e d th e m o v em en t a g a in st th e n u clear testin g in In d ia ‘a s th ey d e m o lish e d ] th e im age o f N o n -R e sid en t In d ia n s a s e u p h o ric a lly su p p o rtin g th e tests, w h ic h h a s been built u p so assiduously by th e BJP a n d th e o th e r sections o f th e Sangh P arivar’.56 W hen B h attach ary a called fo r th e dem o b ilizatio n o f tro o p s fro m th e In d o -P a k is ta n b o rd e r in m id -2 0 0 2 , h e m ad e a specific m en tio n o f th e s u p p o rt o f a n ti-w a r, peace in itia tiv e s o f th e su b c o n ­ tin e n tal d iasp o ra in B ritain , C a n a d a a n d th e US.57 In th e a fte rm a th o f th e G u ja ra t violence o f 2 0 0 2 , th e SASG a n d A sian W o m e n U nite! o rg an iz e d th e p ick e tin g o f th e In d ia n H ig h C o m m issio n . T h e p ro te s t w a s called to o p p o se th e g ro w in g influ­ ence o f o rg an iz a tio n s, ‘in p a rtic u la r’ th e V H P , w h ic h h ad b een u n ­ d e rm in in g rela tio n s b etw een S o u th A sian c o m m u n ities in B ritain .58 In M a rc h 2 0 0 3 , th e SASG o rg an iz e d a c a n d le light vigil o u tsid e th e h ead offices o f th e B ritish C h a rity C o m m issio n in L o n d o n to get th e ch a rity s ta tu s o f th e H in d u S w ayam Sevak Sangh (HSS) a n d th e V H P (UK) w ith d ra w n . It g o t s u p p o rt fro m fo u rte en o th e r o rg a n i­ z a tio n s such a s th e S o u th all Black Sisters, th e C o u n cil fo r In d ia n 5 6 . I am than k fu l to A m rit W ilson fo r copies o f th e s tatem en ts a n d messages. 5 7 . T h e H in d u , 14 J u n e 2 0 0 2 . A lso see L iberation: C entral O rgan o f C P I(M L), Ju ly 199 8 , N ew Series V ol. 5 , N o . 4 , p . 22 for a b o x item , ‘M o n trea lers D em ­ o n stra te F or Peace in S outh A sia’. T h e d em o n stratio n w as organized by the S outh A sian W om en’s C o m m u n ity C e n te r and CERAS. 5 8 . w w w .angelfire.com /in/S A S G /gujaratpicketl.htm l, (11 M a rc h 2 0 02).

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M u slim s, th e In d ia n M u slim F e d e ra tio n (see c h a p te r th re e ), th e S o u th A sian A lliance, B irm in g h am , a n d a c o n tin g e n t fro m W o m en L iving U n d e r M u slim L a w s.59 W h e n th e G u ja ra t ch ief m in iste r, N a re n d ra M o d i, head ed fo r UK to p resen t his sta te as a n investm ent d e stin a tio n , th e SASG led a ca m p a ig n a g a in st him a n d w as jo in ed by A w a a z a n d th e In d ia n C o u n cil o f M u slim s.60 T h e SA SG a n d o th e r S o u th A sian o rg an iz a tio n s in B ritain th a t h ad been ca m p a ig n ­ in g a g a in st th e ch a rity s ta tu s o f th e HSS fo u n d v in d ic a tio n in th e screen in g o f G o p a l M e n o n ’s film th a t w a s b ro a d c a s t o n B ritain ’s C h a n n e l 4 n ew s p ro g ra m m e o n 12 D ecem b er 2 0 0 2 . S h o t in B ritain a n d G u ja ra t th e film d e a lt w ith Sew a I n te rn a tio n a l, th e biggest In d ia n c h a rity in B ritain , a n d a n o ffsh o o t o f th e RSS’s in te rn atio n al w in g , th e H SS. It sh o w e d h o w th e activists o f th e V an v asi K alyan A sh ra m in G u ja ra t, w h ic h received n e a rly £ 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 fro m Sewa In te rn a tio n a l, h a d sy stem atically s p re a d H in d u tv a a n d la te r led th e a tta c k s o n th e M u slim s.61 A c c o rd in g to A m rit W ilso n o f th e SASG, u n lik e in th e US, in B ritain , th e m ain s o u rc e o f fu n d -ra isin g fo r th e Sangh P a riv a r is th e p red o m in an tly w o rk in g class a n d p e tty b o u rg eo is G u ja ra ti H in d u com m unities. Factory w o rk ers fro m these com m unities, in particu lar th e w o m e n w o rk e rs, h a d p a rticip a te d in so m e o f th e m o st m ilita n t in d u stria l stru g g les in th e seventies. T h is included th e G ru n w ic k ’s strik e led b y Ja y ab e n D esai. B ut by th e nin eties, w h e n m o st o f th e facto ries closed d o w n , m an y G u ja ra tis shifted to sm all sh o p s based o n fam ily la b o u r. T h e Sangh P a riv a r a n c h o re d itself a m o n g th em (b o th th e w o rk in g class a n d th e lo w er-caste g ro u p s o rg an ized in to a sso ciatio n s), aid ed by th e m u ltic u ltu ra l p o licies o f th e B ritish sta te th a t valorized ‘faith co m m u n ities’ in term s o f local g o v ern m en t fu n d ­ ing. It has a ls o m an a g e d to b u ild o n th e d o m in a n t a n ti-M u slim d isco u rse. W ilso n w rite s th a t th e G u ja ra ti H in d u s a re ideologically d o m in a te d b y th o se w h o m ig rated to B ritain fro m E ast A frica. H a v ­ in g b een a n in te rm e d iate class u n d e r B ritish co lo n ia l ru le in E ast A frica th ey have a n e n d u rin g , ‘su p e rio r-ra ce ’ self-im age w h ich m ade th em su sceptible to fascist ideo lo g y . T h is a lso fo ld ed in n e a tly w ith th e id ea o f G u ja ra ti a n d In d ia n p rid e a n d resu rg en ce p ro m o te d by th e Sangh P ariv ar. G u ja ra t is reg a rd e d b y th em a s th e m o st m o d ern 5 9 . w w w .cpim l.o rg /lib e ratio n /y ea r% 2 0 2 0 0 3 /A p ril 20 0 3 /aad h iza m e en .h tm 6 0 . T h e T im e s o f In d ia , 15 A ugust 2 0 0 3 ; T h e H in d u sta n T im es, 21 A ugust 2 00 3 . 6 1 . w w w .groups.yahoo.com /group/indiathinkersnet/m essage/2844, A m rit W ilson, ‘B ritish S tate a n d H in d u tw a ’ (reproduced from L ib e ra tio n , J a n u a ry 2003).

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a n d d y n a m ic p a rt o f In d ia a n d th ey feel th is en ab les th em to rec o n ­ s tru c t ‘In d ian n ess’. T h u s a n y criticism o f th e V H P is tra n s la te d as criticism o f G u ja ra tis.62 K a lp a n a W ilso n , a lso o f th e SASG, sees the fu n d in g o f p ro -H in d u tv a g ro u p s b y th e g o v e rn m e n t a s a ‘direct resu lt’ o f N e w L a b o u r’s a p p ro a c h to w a rd s ‘e th n ic m in o ritie s’. She lo ca te s th e ro o ts o f th is a p p ro a c h in a tte m p ts to u n d e rm in e th e a n ti-ra c ist stru g g les o f th e b lack p o p u la tio n w h ic h b egan fro m th e seventies o n w ard s. State funding for com m unity organizations w as used to successively divide these com m unities firstly betw een those o f Asian a n d African-C aribbean origin, then according to linguistic g roup (Punjabi, G ujarati, Bengali etc) a n d finally, since th e late 1990s, according to religion o r w h a t N ew L abour term s “ faith com m unities” .63 By se ttin g u p local g ro u p s claim ing to rep resen t H in d u ‘faith co m ­ m unities’, th e V H P a n d HSS have m an ag ed direct access to British g o v ern m en t fu n d in g fo r th e ir activities. Sim u ltan eo u sly , th ere has been a n intensification o f a n ti-M u slim racism . All o f th is h a s deep­ ened th e divisions a m o n g S outh A sian com m unities. R ecognizing th at struggles ag ain st p a triarc h y hinge o n con testin g co m m u n alism w ith in com m unities, th e first n atio n a l S o u th A sian w o m e n ’s conference w as held o n 8 M a rc h 2 0 0 3 in B ritain, w ith th is a s th e focus.64 A fter th e G u ja ra t rio ts a C a m p a ig n to S to p F u n d in g H a te (CSFH) w a s lau n ch ed in th e US. ‘T h e Fo reig n E x ch an g e o f H a te ’, a re p o rt research ed w ith in p u ts fro m th e US, w a s p u b lish e d b y th e S outh A sia C itiz e n s W e b in F ra n ce a n d S a b ra n g C o m m u n ic a tio n s in M u m b a i o n 2 0 N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 2 . It d e tailed th e lin k s b etw een th e In d ia D ev elo p m en t a n d R elief F u n d (ID R F), se t u p in 1 9 8 9 in th e USA, a n d th e S an g h P a riv a r, a n d h o w m u ch m o n ey h a d g o n e fro m th e ID R F to specific Sangh o p e ra tio n s o v e r a p e rio d o f six years. It fo u n d th a t th e ID R F h a d filed f o r ta x -e x e m p t sta tu s , cla im in g to be a se cu la r, n o n -se c tarian o rg a n iz a tio n . Y e t, m illio n s w ere se n t to th e S an g h n e tw o rk in In d ia: th e Sew a B h a ra ti, th e V anvasi K alyan A sh ram s a n d th e V idya B h arati. M o re th a n 8 0 p e r c en t o f th e fu n d s 6 2 . Ibid. 6 3 . ‘F oreign D irec t Investm ent in H a tre d ’, T h e H in d u , 2 3 M a rc h 2 00 3 . H asm u k h Shah w h o is recognized as a B radford ‘leader’ o f th e ‘H indu c om m unity’ aligned him self w ith th e w hite su p rem a cist British N a tio n a l Party. 6 4 . Ibid.

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it c o n tro lle d w e n t to S an g h o p e ra tio n s in In d ia; a n d m o re th a n 6 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e f u n d s h a d b e e n f o r w a r d e d f o r H in d u iz a tio n p ro g ra m m e s. In p a rt, th e fu n d s w ere s ip h o n e d o ff fro m larg e c o r­ p o ra tio n s su c h a s Su n a n d C isco , in th e n a m e o f d e v elo p m en t, w el­ fare a n d relief. ‘W ith in 2 4 h o u rs ’ o f th e r e p o rt b ein g released these tw o co m p an ies su sp en d ed ID R F , a n d O ra c le fo llo w ed . T h e c o u n te r­ c a m p aig n ig n o red th e h a te ed u c atio n a m o n g th e adivasis a n d w o rk ed o n th e fea r o f c o m m u n ism a n d Islam . Biju M a th e w o f th e CSFH figured o n th e B a jran g D al w eb site h it list fo r b ein g a co m m u n ist a n d a n evangelist p rea c h e r (actu ally a n a m e sa k e in th e US).65 T h e ID R F d escrib ed th e ca m p a ig n as a n ti-H in d u a n d led b y leftists w ith ‘n o cred ib ility a n d n o h u m a n ita ria n service o f a n y w o r th ’.66 G irish A g raw al o f th e C S FH w a s p o in te d a b o u t th e ID R F -fu n d ed schools w h o ta u g h t c h ild ren th a t M u slim s a n d C h ristia n s w e re foreigners. As N R Is, o u r focus on th e Sangh a n d ID RF w as precipitated by the sheer scale o f th e G u jarat pogrom , follow ing w hich w e read reports th at N R I funding had played a role there. If Christian o r M uslim groups in India ever unleash a sim ilar p o grom ag ain st innocents w ith N R I funding a n d governm ent connivance, w e’ll a ct in th e same w ay.67 T h e C S FH u sed T h e Fo reig n E x ch an g e o f H a te r e p o rt to d raw th e a tte n tio n o f th e A m erican p u b lic a n d th e In d ia n d iasp o ra to th e tra n s n a tio n a l en listm e n t o f fu n d s to p ro m o te rio ts. A cco rd in g to A n g an a C h a tte rji, a m em b er o f th e c a m p a ig n , w h ile so m e o f th e 6 5 . P.S. K u m ar ( 2 0 0 3 :2 0 - 2 2 ) : ‘M a n y large c o rp o ra tio n s h av e a policy o f “ m a tc h ­ ing g ifts” . F o r every d o lla r in ch arity t h a t a n e m ployee gives, th e sam e c harity is given a d o lla r o r m ore by th e c o rp o ratio n . F o r in stance, in th e y e a r 200 1 , C isco g a v e tw o d o lla r s f o r e v ery d o lla r t h a t a C isco em p lo y e e g av e to ID R F ....C o rp o ra tio n s o p e ra te u n d e r the b ro a d auspices o f m ulticulturalism w h ere an y th in g th a t b ro w n a nd black p eople d o u n d e r th e u m brella o f culture is a c cepted, because th e y d o n o t a c cep t i t m a y be racist. A n d , if the b ro w n o r black people claim to be d o in g w elfare— even b e tter’, w w w .fo e .o rg .a u /m r/ m r_ 2 5 _ ll_ 0 2 .h tm , m edia release o f 25 N o v em b e r 2 0 0 2 m e n tio n s th a t the re p o rt, ‘T h e F oreign E xchange o f H ate’, w as based o n the analysis o f m ore th a n 150 pieces o f d o c u m e n ta ry evidence, a n d alm o st thre e-q u a rte rs o f them w ere RSS p u b lica tio n s. D oc u m e n ta tio n e xists to sh o w th a t th e sam e H indutva org a n iz atio n s involved in t h e a n ti-C h ristian v iolence o f 1 9 9 8 -2 0 0 0 w ere also involved in th e G u ja ra t c arn ag e o f 2 00 2 . 6 6 . V ijay P allod, R egional V -P, ID R F, T h e T im es o f India, 14 D ecem ber 2 00 2 . 6 7 . Ibid.

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fu n d s ca m e fro m d iasp o ric fu n d am e n ta lists, c o n trib u tio n s h ad also g o n e fro m ‘in n o cen t d o n o rs w h o h ad been deceived by th e seem ingly in n o cu o u s ID R F ’. T h e C isco c o rp o ra tio n a n d its em ployees alo n e g av e $ 1 3 3 ,0 0 0 to ID R F a n d m o st o f th is a m o u n t w e n t to th e Sangh n e tw o rk in In d ia . ‘T h e ID R F did n o t raise a n y fu n d s in s u p p o rt o f G u ja ra t’s v ictim s. W a s it b ecause th e o rg a n iz a tio n s it u p h o ld s w ere in crim in ated ? O r is it th a t th e ID R F h a s h isto rically in terv en ed to h elp p red o m in an tly H in d u victim s?’. C h atterji has also w ritte n a b o u t th e w o m e n m em b ers o f th e cam p aig n a n d th o se belonging to m in o r­ ity c o m m u n ities being targ e te d a n d th re a te n e d by e-m ail a n d o th e r cam p aig n s by H in d u tv a w eb sites a n d th e rig h t w in g press. In h e r v iew th e u p s id e w a s th a t a d e b a te h a d b e g u n a m o n g d ia s p o ra d ev elo p m en t o rg an iz a tio n s o n th e need to secularize d e v elo p m en t.68 U ntil th e r e p o rt o f th e C S FH ca m e in , V ijay P rasad w ro te , ‘m o st o f w h a t w e k n e w h a d been by in n u en d o a n d th ro u g h in terv iew s w ith exiles fro m th e lan d o f Y ankee H in d u tv a. N o w w e have in fo rm atio n a n d d o c u m e n ta tio n th a t larg ely p ro v es th e c u lp a b ility o f g u ilty d o lla rs in th e b a rb a ro u s a c ts o f th e Sangh P a riv a r’.69 O n its p a rt, th e ID R F resp o n d e d by p o in tin g o u t th a t th e rep o rt h a d b een ‘sim u lta n e o u sly p u b lish e d by a n u m b e r o f L eft/M arx ist, P a n -Islam ic, a n d C h ristia n F u n d a m e n ta lis t w e b site s a ro u n d th e w o rld ’. T h a t it w a s ‘sim ply a re h a s h ’ o f w h a t F O IL h ad publicized o v e r five y ears a g o a n d w a s ‘in th e classic m o u ld o f p o litical p a m ­ p h leteerin g a n d p ro p a g a n d a , a n d sh o u ld be tre a te d a s su c h ’. In d ia n society w a s a fte r all being u n d e rm in ed by aggressive proselytizing religions, M arxist a n d C om m unist groups a n d parties, a n d India’s M uslim neighbors w h o have chafed a t the success o f a m ultireligious, m ultiethnic, a n d dem ocratic India. The death , trau m a a n d dam age from these attem pts surpass those from any com m unal rio ts afte r the Partition events o f 1947, by o rd ers of m agnitude’ (sic). 6 8 . w w w .sam arm agazine.org/archive/articIe.php?id=136, ‘C hallenging the F oreign E xc h an g e o f H a te : T h e C a m p a ig n T o S top F u n d in g H ate D o c u m e n ts th e H in d u tv a M oney T ra il’ (this piece originally a ppeared in Sam ar, 1 6 , F all/W in­ te r, 2 0 03). 6 9 . w w w .flo n n et.co m , F rontline, 7 -2 0 D ecem ber 2 0 0 2 : ‘In W agahi, th e IDRF funded the ash ram o f Sw am i A shim A n an d , w h o consolidated th e B ajrang D al units across t h e S tates, g ro o m e d them fo r c arnage, a n d disap p eare d once his role in th e 1999 [anti-C hristian] violence becam e c lear. T h e ID R F c o n tin ­ ued to s u p p o rt his ash ra m a n d o th ers like it’.

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In th e ID R F v ersio n , o u tb re a k s o f c o m m u n a l violence w e re ‘in general preceded by so m e p ro v o ca tio n b y M u slim s’. It a rg u ed ag ain st th e d e scrip tio n o f H in d u tv a a s a su p re m a cist id eo lo g y b y referrin g to th e In d ia n Su p rem e C o u r t ru lin g th a t it w a s a w a y o f life. It c laim ed th a t it w a s ‘n o t a n official o r legal affiliate o f th e RSS’, a n d th a t th e RSS a n d its affiliates ‘a re n e ith e r se cta ria n n o r h a te o rg an i­ z a tio n s b u t th e victim s o f u n relen tin g p ro p a g a n d a b y vested In d ia n a n d fo re ig n in te re s ts ’.70 W h e n th e D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 2 , C h a n n e l 4 r e p o rt o n Sew a In te rn atio n al UK (SIUK) b ein g a f ro n t o f th e RSS w a s a ire d o n th e eve o f th e G u ja ra t assem bly p o lls th is is w h a t P.V. R u p erlia, secretary HSS (UK) h ad to say: ‘It boils u p m y blo o d [sic]. H in d u s in In d ia have g o n e th ro u g h a p e rio d o f h u m ilia tin g su b ju ­ g a tio n fo r th e p a s t 7 0 0 years, w e a re p rep a re d to forgive, b u t w e c a n ’t fo rg et’.71 W h en C h a n n e l 4 rep o rte d o n th e H in d u tv a fu n d in g fro m UK a n d th e im p lic a tio n in th e a n ti-m in o rity violence in 2 0 0 2 o f th e V an v asi K a ly an A sh ra m (w h ich h a d received th e fu n d s via Sewa In te rn atio n al), A w aaz— S o u th A sia W a tc h (ASAW) d escrib ed it as a d ire c t c o n firm a tio n o f th e evid en ce a n d co n clu sio n s o f th e C SFH , USA, o n th e ID R F . T h e C S F H jo in e d A w a a z to d e m a n d th a t th e c h a rity co m m issio n ers o f UK w ith d ra w th e S an g h ’s s ta tu s a s a c h a r­ ity a n d ren ew ed its d e m a n d s w ith US M N C s to s trik e o ff th e ID R F fro m its list o f ch arities. Sh alin i G era o f th e C S F H co m m e n te d th a t ‘th e ev id en tiary lo o p w a s co m p le te ’.72 A w aaz is a U K -based secu­ la r n e tw o rk o f in d iv id u a ls a n d o rg a n iz a tio n s a im in g to m o n ito r a n d c o m b a t relig io u s h a tre d (‘relig io u s n a tio n a lism , fu n d am e n ta l­ ism a n d co m m u n a lism ’) in S o u th A sia a n d in th e U K .73 It h a s th e s u p p o rt o f p ro m in e n t civil rig h ts a n d c o m m u n ity o rg an iz a tio n s such a s Aaj K ay N a a m , A sian W o m en ’s Refuge, All In d ia C h ristia n C o u n ­ cil, U K , C a m b rid g e S o u th A sia F o ru m , th e C o u n cil o f In d ia n M u s ­ lim s, U K , D a lit F o ru m fo r Social Ju stic e, U K , th e In d ia n M uslim 7 0 . w w w .hvk.o g /sp ec ia lre p o /id rf/ch a p te rl.h tm l, 'A F actual R esponse to the H ate A ttac k o n th e India D evelopm ent a n d R elief F und (ID RF)’. 7 1 . H in d u sta n T im es, 15 D ecem ber 200 2 . See P.S. K um ar (2003) for th e detail th a t Sew a In tern atio n a l h a d been openly using th e HSS (“th e RSS foreign o p e ra ­ tio n ’) ch arity a c c o u n t n u m b er for all its collections. 7 2 . w w w .aw aazsaw .o rg /aw aaz_ c4 .h tm , ‘R e p o rt Links Sew a In tern atio n a l UK and ID R F funded V anvasi K alyan A shram D irectly to V iolence’. 7 3 . w w w .aw aazsaw .org/aw aaz_aim s.htm . I t aim s a t getting the su p p o rt o f political parties, M P s, c ouncillors, w om en’s g roups, tra d e u n ions, c ultural associations, academ ic c entres a n d p ro m in en t individuals.

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F e d e ra tio n , U K , So u th all Black Sisters, W o m e n A gainst F u n d a m en ­ talists a n d so o n . O n th e eve o f th e seco n d a n n iv e rsary o f th e G u ja ra t killings A w a a z released a r e p o rt, ‘In B ad F aith ? B ritish C h a rity a n d H in d u E x tre m ism ’, o n 2 6 F e b ru ary 2 0 0 4 . Its findings sh o w e d th a t UK o rg a n iz a tio n s h a d been raisin g fu n d s in th e n a m e o f c h a rity fo r n a tu ra l d isa sters like e a rth q u a k e s a n d giv in g th em to o rg an iz a tio n s th a t p reach ed h a tre d a g a in st M u slim s a n d C h ristia n s. T h e UK -based Sewa In te rn atio n al h ad sent £ 2 m illion to its In d ia n c o u n te rp a rt Sewa B h a ra ti, a n d a RSS fro n t, fo r th e e a rth q u a k e in G u ja ra t in 2 0 0 1.74 T h e A w a a z re p o rt w a s based o n site visits to th e G u ja ra t villages in S ep tem b er 2 0 0 3 , in terv iew s in G u ja ra t fro m M a rc h to M a y 2 0 0 3 , a n d in terv iew s in th e US, UK a n d o th e r p a rts o f In d ia n d u rin g 2 0 0 3 . A w a a z a ls o a c k n o w le d g e d in s ig h ts d r a w n fro m ‘T h e F o re ig n E x ch an g e o f H a te ’, discussed earlier. It reco m m en d ed th a t th e c h a ri­ tab le s ta tu s o f th e H SS-U K, V H P-U K a n d th e K a ly an A sh ra m T ru s t, U K , all o f w h ic h a re b ran ch es o f th e RSS, b e w ith d ra w n by th e UK C h a rity C o m m issio n . T h e UK organizations pretend to be sim ply religious o r cultural organizations th a t represent H indus a n d they atte m p t to disguise their links w ith political extrem ism in In d ia__In key G u jarat earth ­ q uake fundraising appeals SIUK did n o t disclose its associations w ith th e HSS UK a n d RSS, it did n o t state th at it w as fundraising exclusively for RSS affiliates a n d it did n o t state th e sectarian or political agenda o f the RSS a n d its affiliates’ [i.e. th e building o f a H in d u nation]. A w aaz a rg u e d th a t it h a d itself established th e ‘H in d u tv a su p rem a­ cist strategies a t w o rk in w h a t sh o u ld have been p u rely h u m an itarian activ ity ’. Its p o in t w a s th a t b o th th e O rissa cyclone a n d G u ja ra t e a rth q u a k e a p p e als d e m o n s tra te d a p a tte rn in w h ich ‘a n a tu ra l tra g ­ e d y ’ w a s u sed to e n ab le ‘th e d ra m a tic e x p a n sio n o f RSS in stitu tio n s especially e d u c atio n al o n e s, in th e afflicted reg io n s th ro u g h th e use o f fu n d s fro m o v erseas’. T h e a le rt w a s th a t O rissa w a s all se t to be th e se q u el ‘H in d u tv a l a b o r a to r y ’ a fte r G u ja ra t. It d e ta ile d th e H in d u tv a o r g a n iz a tio n a l e n s e m b le in U K , m e n tio n in g tw e lv e 7 4 . w w w .aw aa zsa w .o rg ; also see T h e Sangh P arivar in th e U K ’ u n d e r A w aaz Resources; O u tlo o k , 8 M a rc h 2 0 0 4 , for th e A SAW finding th a t a th ird o f the m o n ey collected fo r e a rth q u a k e reh a b ilita tio n w as sp e n t in se ttin g u p RSS schools; a n d T h e H in d u , 2 6 F eb ru ary 200 4 .

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b ran c h e s o f th e V H P-U K , w h ic h ac q u ire d c h a rita b le s ta tu s in 1 972. In N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 2 , th e V H P -O v erseas w a s set u p to c o o rd in a te its activ ities in A m erica, E u ro p e, A frica, Asia a n d th e Pacific.75 T h e A w a a z persp ectiv e is th a t th e resu rg en ce o f H in d u tv a a n d Islam ic fu n d am e n ta lism in S o u th Asia ‘illu stra te d b y th e G u ja ra t c a rn a g e in 2 0 0 2 a n d th e allian ce o f Islam ist p a rties in P a k ista n ’s n o r th w e st fro n tie r p ro v in ce, poses a serio u s d a n g e r to th e stab ility o f th e reg io n ’. M o re o v e r, religious co n flict in S o u th A sia h a s seri­ ously p o larize d th e U K S o u th A sian co m m u n ities.76 S tarted in 2 0 0 2 , in th e a fte rm a th o f th e G u ja ra t violence, its F A Q p ag e o f M a rc h 2 0 0 4 c arries th ese b a c k g ro u n d e rs: its m em b ers c o n sid e r them selves ‘left’, ‘lib eral-left’ o r sim ply ‘lib erals’, b u t so m e o f its m em b ers d o n o t use th ese labels. H um an rights a n d the rise o f H indutva in India are issues in their ow n right a n d it is com pletely legitim ate to focus o n them alone. But for the record, cu rren t Aw aaz m em bers have been involved in active w o rk against bo th Islamic fundam entalism and m ilitary dic­ tato rsh ip s in Pakistan a n d elsewhere. T h is in clu d ed resistin g Z ia ul H a q ’s d ic ta to rs h ip a n d th e in stitu ­ tio n a l influence o f th e P ak istan i Ja m a a t-I-Isla m i, w a r crim es o f b o th th e P a k ista n i a rm y a n d th e J a m a a t forces in B an g lad esh , a n d fo rced m arria g e s in P a k ista n a n d B angladesh. Several A w aaz m em b ers h a d been inv o lv ed , ‘fo r d ecad es’, in w o rk o n w o m e n ’s rig h ts in M uslim c o u n tries a n d in p u b lic cam p aig n s a g a in st ‘b o th Islam ic a n d Sikh e x trem ism in B rita in ’ a n d h a d ‘directly c o n fro n te d ’ Islam ist g ro u p s b o th in th e UK a n d in Pak istan . T h is e la b o ra tio n is representative of A w aaz’s ran g e o f co n cern s, ‘in ad d itio n to [contesting] H in d u tv a ’. T h e ir p o sitio n is th a t if C h ristia n o r M u slim c h arities in th e UK w ere c o n n e cte d to h a tre d a n d violence in In d ia , o r elsew h ere in S o u th A sia, it will ‘sim ilarly o p p o se th e ir a c tiv ities’ a n d th a t it h ad been lo o k in g a t ‘tw o such Islam ist ch a ritie s fo r th e p a s t tw o y e a rs’. F u n d a m en ta lly , A w a a z ’s s ta n d is th a t v io latio n s by Islam ist te rro r­ ists d o n o t justify ig noring v io latio n s by H in d u tv a g ro u p s: ‘H in d u tv a 7 5 . w w w .a w aazsaw .og.ibflores.pdf: ‘In D ecem ber 2 0 0 0 th e general secretary o f Sew a In te rn atio n a l In d ia, Shyam P a ra n d e c onfirm ed th a t HSS, UK a n d SIUK a re branches o f th e In d ia n RSS’. 7 6 . w w w .aw aa zsa w .o rg /a w a az_ ca m p .h tm

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po ses th e g rea te st d a n g e r to In d ia n society a n d to In d ia n n a tio n a l­ ism , a s w e h av e seen in 2 0 0 2 . G iven th e e x te n t o f H in d u tv a ’s p o w e r in In d ia , say in g H in d u tv a in In d ia is ju st lik e a n y o th e r fu n d am e n ­ talism is serio u sly m islead in g ’. It a lso u n d erlin es th a t RSS lite ra tu re fro m In d ia ‘rep e a ted ly ’ say th a t th e H SS, Sangh In te rn a tio n a l a n d N a tio n a l H in d u S tu d e n ts F o ru m (N H SF) a re p a r t o f its w o rk in th e UK. Significantly, th e N H S F has ‘vigorously a n d unceasingly opposed th e use o f th e term “ A sian” since it links H in d u s a n d M uslim s’. By c o n tra s t, A w aaz is co m m itted to th e secu lar tra d itio n o f S o u th A sian o rg a n iz a tio n in th e U K .77 As in th e rest o f th e S outh A sian d iasp o ra , w ith a few exceptions, th e S o u th A sian c o m m u n ity in C a n a d a is larg ely o rg an iz e d in to n a tio n a l, reg io n a l a n d relig io u s o rg a n iz a tio n s . U n lik e th e m , th e M o n tre a l-b a se d S o u th A sia R esearch C e n te r (C ER A S), se t u p in 1 9 9 3 , w h ich is p a r t o f th e se cu la r fo rm a tio n , d oes n o t reflect su b ­ c o n tin e n ta l n a tio n a l b o u n d a rie s. It w o rk s w ith in th e fra m ew o rk o f C a n a d ia n society a n d d escribes itself a s ‘in tro d u c in g S o u th A sia to C a n a d a a n d C a n a d a to S o u th A sians living in C a n a d a ’. It believes th a t n a tio n a l conflicts a m o n g th e c o u n tries o f S outh Asia underm ine th e p ro g re ss o f th e e n tire region. G iven th e h isto ric a l, social a n d c u ltu ral co m m o n a lity a m o n g S o u th A sian s, C ERA S sees differences a s secondary. T h is is a n upside w h ich it feels ca n b e b u ilt o n to press fo r c u ts in m ilita ry s p e n d in g a n d to solve lo n g -stan d in g pro b lem s. It a im s to give o u t in fo rm a tio n o n eco n o m ic, social, p o litical a n d c u ltu ral d e v elo p m en ts in S o u th A sia, a n d to e sta b lish lin k s betw een in d iv id u a ls a n d o rg a n iz a tio n s in C a n a d a a n d th o se in S o u th A sian c o u n tries. Its p ro g ra m m e h a v e b een a d d re s s e d b y v isito rs fro m B an g lad esh , In d ia , N e p a l a n d P a k ista n , a n d activ ists fro m C a n a d a a n d th e US w h o a re en g ag ed w ith d ev e lo p m e n ts in S o u th A sia. C o m m u n ity w o rk a m o n g S o u th A sian im m ig ran ts in Q u e b e c is ‘n o t th e m ain p lan k ’ o f its p ro g ra m m e a n d it has assisted in th e activities o f o th e r se cu la r d e m o c ra tic o rg an iz a tio n s in M o n tre a l, T o ro n to , N e w Y o rk , B o sto n a n d K in g sto n .78 7 7 . w w w .a w a az sa w .o rg /faq .h tm : ‘O p p o sin g H in d u tv a is one o f th e m o st con ­ stru c tiv e th in g s p e o p le c a n d o in th e c u rre n t situ a tio n prevailing in India’. 7 8 . See CERAS N ew sletters n o . 9 , W inter 1 996, a nd n o . 18, Fall 200 0 , for its profile a n d history. Invited speakers betw een 1993 a n d 1996 included a m o n g o thers, Asm a Je hangir, H asan G ardezi, Fehm ida Riaz (Pakistan), U m a C h akravati, R ati R ao , Vivan Sundaram , R an ab ir S am addar (India), K hushi K abir, Subodh Bikash C h a k m a a n d M a sih u d d in S h ak e r (B angladesh) a n d R a u n a k Ja h a n , Shelly Feldm an, Lee L akerm an a n d Bara M bengue (N o rth Am erica).

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O n th e eve o f th e fiftie th an n iv e rsary o f In d ia a n d P a k ista n ’s in d ep en d en ce, a n in tro sp ec tiv e C ERA S d ecid ed o n a jo in t c eleb ra­ tio n o f a co m m o n h e ritag e a n d d e stin y a n d , indep en d en ce. Both India a n d Pakistan w ere to guarantee dem ocratic rights to all its citizens regardless o f their religion a n d cultural characteristics. Both have failed. N either could Pakistan becom e the country o f all M uslim s o f th e region n o r could India be th e exclusive co u n try of H indus. Seen in this correct historic co n tex t, the division o f India in to India a n d Pak istan , in itself d oes n o t co n stitu te a negative developm ent. O n the o th er h and, a lack o f understanding o f this developm ent, which leads to a rivalry rather th an friendship is a negative feature. This negative aspect needs reversal. This process has begun with similar thinking am ong the people o f both countries. C E R A S m a d e a n illu s tr a tiv e m e n tio n o f th e P a k ista n -In d ia People’s F o ru m fo r Peace a n d D em o cracy (PIPFPD) (see a h e ad ). It situ a te s itself a s ‘a p a r t o f th is n e w tre n d ’.79 W ritin g in th e fiftieth y e a r o f in d ep en d en ce, Faisal Bari, a P a k ista n i research s c h o la r a t M cG ill U niversity, w ro te o n th e need to lo o k a t ‘h o w th e m eaning a n d significance o f th e “ tw o n a tio n th e o ry ” ch an g ed o v e r tim e ’: fro m a n e g o tia tio n strateg y to a m o v em en t based o n th a t n o tio n a n d th en a call fo r d istin c t c o u n tries via a b la ta n t use o f religion. M u c h h a d h a p p e n ed th a t ‘ch allenges th e p o w e r o f th e th eo ry ’. O n th e s u b c o n tin e n t, th e em ergence o f n a tio n a list m o v em en ts based o n lan g u ag e, e th n ic ity a n d race q u e stio n e d a rg u m e n ts b a sed o n ‘so m e th in g a s s ta tic as th e tw o n a tio n th eo ry ’, p o in tin g to th e need fo r n ew perspectives. A n d in th e d iasp o ra th e th eo ry w a s ‘to o in ad ­ e q u a te ’ f o r c re a tin g n e w im m ig ra n t id en tities b ecau se ‘id en tity does n o t a n d c a n n o t rest o n relig io n a lo n e ’.80 Biju M a th e w o f F O IL w a s a m o n g th e 2 0 0 activ ists, m o stly y o u n g S o u th A sians, w h o m et in M o n tre a l in S ep tem b er 1 9 9 9 , to discuss th e b u ild in g o f a secu lar a n d d em o c ra tic p la tfo rm fo r th e d iasp o ra to co p e w ith th e m irro rin g o f ev en ts a n d d e v elo p m en ts o n th e su b ­ c o n tin e n t. It w a s in th e c o n te x t o f th e ten sio n b etw een an ti- a n d p ro -b o m b stu d e n ts th a t C ERA S a tte m p te d w o rk in g o u t a co m m o n f ro n t o f th e p ro g re ssiv e se ctio n s o f th e d ia s p o ra . It o rg an iz e d a tw o -d ay ‘N o r th A m erican C o n fe re n c e o n Peace a n d H u m a n R ig h ts 7 9 . Ibid., n o . 10, W in te r 1996. 8 0 . Ibid., n o . 1 2 , Sum m er 1997.

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in S o u th A sia’, w ith sp e ak e rs fro m In d ia a n d P a k ista n a n d o th e r co u n tries. T h e m ee tin g discussed th e s p re a d o f th e rig h t in S outh A sian im m ig ra n t c o m m u n ities u n d e r th e influence o f ev e n ts in th e su b c o n tin e n t. A cco rd in g to th e C ERA S c o o rd in a to r, Fero z M e h d i, th e m ee tin g w a s ‘h isto ric ’ in th a t it b ro u g h t to g eth e r progressive in d iv id u a ls a n d g ro u p s fro m all o v e r n o r th A m e ric a .81 M a th e w stressed th a t S o u th A sians sh o u ld use th e m an y fo ra a v a ila b le to th em to b re a k d o w n th e w a lls b etw een In d ia n s a n d P a k ista n is, H in ­ d u s a n d M u slim s, a n d ‘c re a te b rid g es h ere a n d c o n tr ib u te to th e d em o cra tic p ro cess a t h o m e ’ (m y em p h asis). H e m en tio n ed a ta x re tu rn s d o c u m e n t o f th e V H P o f N o r th A m erica o f 1 9 9 9 , a c co rd ­ in g to w h ic h th e official figures o f th e c o llectio n fo r o n e y e a r w as $ 6 2 0 ,0 0 0 . T h a t w a s re g a rd in g on ly o n e o f th e seven o r eig h t o rg a ­ n iza tio n s th a t o p e ra te d o n its b eh alf. H e believed th a t ‘a n equal n u m b e r o f f ro n t o rg an iz a tio n s in im p o rt a n d e x p o rt tra d e b u sin ess’ h a d been se t u p in th e P a k ista n i c o m m u n ity to m o v e m o n ey b ack a n d f o rth ‘w ith d istin c t c o n n e ctio n s b o th to th e M u slim L eague a n d th e J a m a t b ack in P ak istan ’. M a th e w ’s cen tral p o in t w a s th at th e link betw een w h a t is h a p p e n in g in S o u th A sia a n d its im p a c t o n h a p p e n in g s in th e d iasp o ra need ed to b e estab lish ed : ‘th a t is w h a t w e need to b e w o rk in g o n h ere’. T h is v iew p o in t w a s c o n c ep tu a l­ ized to u n p a c k th e s tru c tu re o f c o n serv atism w ith in th e S o u th A sian co m m u n ity . H e sa id th a t m u ch o f th e c o n serv a tism flow s fro m th e im m ig ra n t ex p erien ce w h ich beg in s w ith th e ‘u n m o o rin g o f a n id en­ tity ’. T h is conservatism in th e n ew society is a lso a response to the racism faced in ev ery d ay lives a n d is very d iffe re n t fro m th e co n ser­ v atism b ack h o m e. ‘W h e n y o u th in k a b o u t relig io n h ere, m o st im ­ m ig ra n ts, faced w ith p ac k ag e d relig io n h av e access to relig io n w h ich is co m pletely h o m o g en ized ’. H is reference w a s to b o th , th e V H P a n d th e Islam ic cen tres. T h e a lte rn a tiv e h e su ggested w a s th e u n ­ h o o k in g o f c u ltu re fro m religion a n d lo catin g it w ith in th e history a n d th e real w o rk in g co n d itio n s th a t m an y p e o p le ex p erien ced afte r im m ig ra tio n . M a th e w recalled h o w th e p ress a n d th e N e w Y o rk T im e s, in p a rtic u la r, h a d trie d to c re a te a rift b etw een P akistani a n d In d ia n tax i d riv e rs w h o w e n t o n strik e in N e w Y o rk in th e su m m e r o f 1 9 9 8 in th e b a c k d ro p o f th e s u b c o n tin e n ta l n u c le a r tests. 8 1 . w w w .o n e w o rld .o rg /ip s2 /se p t9 9 ;w w w .red iff.com /new s/1999/sep/15us4.htm

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B ut th a t s o rt o f so lid arity com es fro m experiences o f m arg in alizatio n a n d needs o rg an iz a tio n a l a tte n tio n .82 In S ep tem b er 1 9 9 9 , a C ERA S co n feren ce decided to fo rm th e In te rn a tio n a l S o u th A sia F o ru m (INSAF) to w o rk fo r a peaceful a n d secu lar S o u th A sia. T h e fo ru m w as ded icated to th e m em o ry of E q b al A h m a d , N a re n d ra Singh a n d V in o d M ish ra w h o h ad recently p assed o n a n d w h o se stru g g les fo r p eace, d e m o c ra cy a n d social ju stice ‘w as th e ce n tra l th em e ’ o f th e co nference. O v e r 8 0 p e r cent o f th e p a rtic ip a n ts co n sisted o f th e y o u th . D a y a V a rm a , th e CERAS p resid e n t w h o has sp e n t ov er th re e d ecades in C a n a d a , sees INSA F as ‘a h a n d in g o v e r o f th e b a to n to th e n e w g e n e ra tio n ’. Several sp eak ers d w e lt o n th e in creasin g ly im p o rta n t ro le o f d iasp o ric S outh A sia n s in th e p o litic a l d e v e lo p m e n ts in S o u th A sia .83 T h e 1 2 4 d elegates in clu d ed p a rtic ip a n ts fro m USA (N ew Y o rk , N e w Jersey, M a s s a c h u s e tts , O h io , I llin o is , W a s h in g to n ), C a n a d a (B ritis h C o lu m b ia , O n ta rio , N e w fo u n d la n d , Q u e b e c ), F ra n ce , E n g la n d , In d ia a n d P ak istan . T h e fo u n d in g reso lu tio n o f IN SA F w as based o n th e ‘a la rm in g s itu a tio n in th e s u b c o n tin e n t’, a re s u lt o f th e ‘g rad u a l T a lib a n iz a tio n o f P a k ista n a n d th e sp read o f th e Sangh P ariv ar in In d ia’. Since th e forces o f religious e x trem ism h ad p e rm e ­ a ted all levels o f civil so ciety it w a s felt th a t m ere ch an g es o f g o v e rn ­ m en t w o u ld n o t b e a d e q u a te in e n su rin g p eace, secu lar valu es a n d d e m o c ra cy in th ese c o u n trie s . T h e IN SA F w a s to f u n c tio n as a c o a litio n o f g ro u p s a n d in d iv id u als, a n d its objectives included d e­ m ilita riz atio n a n d d e-nuclearization in In d ia a n d Pak istan , resolving th e K ash m ir issue in a c co rd a n c e w ith th e w ishes o f th e Kashm iri people, p ro m o tin g th e rights o f th e m inorities in all co u n tries o f South A sia, a n d p ro tectin g th e h u m a n rig h ts o f w o m e n , D a lits, trib a ls a n d p o o r p e a sa n ts. F o r all o f th is, s u p p o rt w a s to b e en listed fro m tra d e u n io n s a n d o th e r d em o c ra tic o rg an iz a tio n s.84 T h e 1 9 9 9 conference 8 2 . http ://in saf.n et/ce n traI/in saf-o ld /sp l.h tm l, Biju M a th e w , ‘R ole o f th e South A sian D iasp o ra in D efense o f S ecularism , H u m a n R ights a n d Peace’: ‘M uch o f con so lid a te d frozen identities t h a t th e r ig h t co n sta n tly offers, c om es o u t o f a need to resp o n d to things like racism ’. 8 3 . w w w .o n ew o rld .o rg /ip s2 /se p t9 9 /1 4 _ 1 7 _ 0 5 2 .h tm ;w w w .insaf.net/central/insafo ld /ls t.h tm l, ‘1st IN SA F C onference R e p o rt’. 8 4 . w w w .insaf.net/central/insaf-oId/decla.htm l. F ounding D eclaration: International S outh Asia F orum Founded. T h e conference resolution w as a lso endorsed by th e S ecular People’s A lliance (E d m o n to n ), E a st India W ork e rs A ssociation (T o ro n to ), N o n -R esid en t Indians for Secularism a n d D em ocracy (NRISAD)

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w o rk sh o p s decided to w o rk fo r so lid arity betw een S o u th A sian c o m ­ m u n itie s in th e d ia s p o ra in s u p p o rt o f c o m m o n c au ses o f S outh A sians th a t w en t b eyond th eir e th n ic a n d n atio n a l identities. These included ta k in g a c tio n ag ain st h u m an rig h ts v iolations a n d th e lack o f d e m o c ra cy in p lac e s lik e K a sh m ir; c h a lle n g in g s te re o ty p ic a l n o tio n s o f ‘th e o th e r’ a m o n g S o u th A sian c o m m u n ities a n d building positive im ag es o f e a ch o th e r; p ro m o tin g g e n d e r p o sitiv e a n d n o n ­ h o m o p h o b ic form s o f cu ltu re a n d id en tity ; c reatin g a ltern ativ e spaces to d evelop se cu la r id ea s a n d frien d sh ip a m o n g S o u th A sians; s h o w ­ in g th e lin k s b etw een neo -lib eral a g e n d as a n d th e rise o f th e rig h t; in flu en cin g d iasp o ric rep resen tativ es re g a rd in g p e a ce a n d h u m an rig h ts in S o u th Asia; a n d , rew o rk in g a n d c reatin g ed u c atio n al m ate­ rials in th e d iasp o ra a n d S outh Asia to reflect th e diversity o f history a n d c u ltu re.8s T h e focus o f th e c h a rte r a d o p te d a t th e second conference o f INSA F a t V a n c o u v e r in A u g u s t 2 0 0 1 w a s o n th e n e e d to d e e p en a n d stren g th en secu lar a n d d em o cratic forces in th e S outh A sian d iasp o ra, p a rticu larly a m o n g th e y o u th . W hile m em b ers w h o a re to be recruited sh o u ld orig in ally b e fro m all S o u th A sian co u n tries, th e p rio rities a re p ro m o tin g p eace, ‘p a rticu larly betw een In d ia a n d P ak istan ’, a n d (V ancouver), CER A S (M o n tre al), a n d th e P ak istan A ssociation o f Q uebec (M ontreal). H ere is a n e x tra c t from th e resolution: ‘W e th e m em bers o f the S outh A sian D iasp o ra lo ca te d in N o r th A m erica and E u rope, desire peace, h a rm o n y a n d good neighborliness am o n g th e co u n tries o f S outh A sia, and social justice a n d econom ic w ell being fo r the people th ere. W e also h av e a responsibility to m a k e a c o n trib u tio n in these d irections. O v er the y ears m any o f us h ave been e ngaged in individual o r o rganized capacity t o w o rk fo r secu ­ larism , d e m ocracy, h u m a n rights a n d social justice. T im e h a s com e fo r us to com e tog eth er a n d w o rk in c o n c e rt w ith each o th e r’ [sic]. See w w w .insaf.net/central/insaf-old/m em bers.htm l fo r a list o f INSA F m em bers: A llian c e fo r a S ecular a n d D e m o c ra tic S o u th A sia (B oston), A lte rn ativ e s (M ontreal), A m bedkar C entre fo r Justice and Peace (T oronto), C oalition F o r an E galitarian a nd Pluralistic India (Los A ngeles), D epartm ent o f Sociology a nd A n thropology, L an g ara C ollege (V ancouver), E ast Indian W orkers’ A ssocia­ tion (B ram pton, O n tario ), EKTA (N ew Y ork), Institute for the H um anities, Sim on Fraser University (Burnaby, British C olum bia), N avrasa D ance T heatre (Boston), P unjabi L iterary and C ultural A ssociation (W innipeg), Secular People’s A sso c ia tio n (E d m o n to n ), S o u th A sia L e ft D e m o c ra tic A llian c e (SALDA ) (T oronto), South A sian N e tw o rk fo r Secularism a n d D em ocracy (SANSAD) (B urnaby, British C olum bia), S outh A sia P artnership (O ttaw a ), CERAS and Y oung India (W ashington, D .C .). 8 5 . http://insaf.net/central/insaf-old/w orkshop.htm l, ‘R e p o rt from the W ork sh o p s’.

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c o m b a tin g n a tio n a l c h a u v in is m a n d relig io u s fu n d a m e n ta lis m . Specific p ro g ram m es a re to b e m ad e ‘in acco rd an ce w ith local co n d i­ tio n s’ to e n c o u rag e th e p articip a tio n o f S outh A sian y o u th in p ro ­ gressive n o n -sectarian org an izatio n s a n d in stitu tio n s. T h is includes o rg an izin g A n n u al S outh Asia D ay o n th e first S atu rd ay o f M a y .86 IN S A F believes th a t ‘th e larg e S o u th A sian D ia s p o ra ’ p la y s an ‘im p o rta n t ro le’ in th e im p lem en tatio n o f th e policies o f In d ia and P ak istan b y stren g th en in g m u tu a l tru s t in th e d iasp o ric co m m u n ity to m ak e a peaceful S o u th A sia. O th e r reso lu tio n s d etailed h o w the erosion o f secularism a n d dem ocracy in In d ia after th e rise o f H indutva needs to b e ap p ro a c h e d ; h o w th e m o b ilizatio n o f th e S outh A sian d iasp o ra in su p p o rt o f a n ti-d em o cratic policies m ak es it im perative to tra c k an ti-m in o rity tre n d s in In d ia, P ak istan a n d Bangladesh; a n d th a t K ash m ir needs reso lu tio n w ith o u t division.87 A ro u n d th is tim e, D aya V arm a joined th e S outh Asia Forum fo r H u m a n R ights (SAFHR) to a tte n d a c o u rse o n peace ‘o n b e h a lf o f CERAS a n d INSA F’, a n d sp o k e a b o u t th e need fo r d em o cratic forces ‘b o th a t h o m e a n d a b ro a d to actively c o u n te r racism a m o n g th e S outh A sians’.88 In M a y 2 0 0 2 , INSA F, S outh Asians in O n ta rio a n d th e S outh Asia Left Dem ocratic Alliance (SALDA) o rganized a public fo ru m in T o ro n to ag ain st the v io le n c e in G u ja ra t. T h e C a n a d ia n g o v e rn m e n t w a s a s k e d to p ressu re th e In d ia n g o v ern m en t to en su re th e reh a b ilitatio n o f the displaced a n d a le rt th e C o m m o n w ealth a n d U N fo r th e p ro te c tio n of m inorities in G u ja ra t.89 O n e o f th e m em b ers o f IN SA F, th e S o u th A sian N e tw o rk fo r Secularism a n d D e m o cracy (SAN SAD ), believes th a t ‘a secu lar a n d d e m o c ra tic S o u th A sian d ia s p o ra c a n h elp to b rin g a b o u t peace a n d w ell-b ein g in S o u th A sia’. T h e a rg u m e n t is th a t ‘its p o sitio n in g o u tsid e th ese sta te s’ c a n e n a b le th e S o u th A sian d iasp o ra ‘to fo re ­ g ro u n d a n d p ro m o te th e co m m o n in te rest o f th e S o u th A sian p eople a g a in st th e c u rre n t s ta te o f d estru c tiv e violence a n d d isa b lin g m ili­ ta riz a tio n ’. T h e a im is to p ro m o te m u tu a l resp ect b etw een p eople o f th e d iffe re n t S o u th A sian c o u n tries a n d b etw een th e v ario u s reli­ gious g ro u p s th ro u g h o u t S o u th Asia. At th e d iasp o ric e n d , it intends ‘to e d u c ate ’ th e S o u th A sian d iasp o ra in th e L o w er M a in la n d of B ritish C o lu m b ia in p a rtic u la r, a n d N o r th A m erica in g en eral, a b o u t 8 6 . w w w .in saf.n et/ce n tra l/in saf-o ld /c h arter.h tm l 8 7 . w w w .in saf.net/central/insaf-old/resolutions.htm l 8 8 . w w w .safh r.o rg /c o n te n ts2 1 _ 7 .h tm l 8 9 . w w w .o n lin ev o lu n teers.o rg /g u jarat/ev en ts/in saf.h tm

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th e ch allenges a n d stre n g th s o f th e v a rio u s S o u th A sian p eo p les.90 A w h ile a g o , SA NSA D h a d issued a c irc u la r clu b b in g to g e th e r sev­ eral re p o rts o n th e forces a n d m o v em en ts o p p o se d to H in d u tv a. T h is in clu d ed A w aaz a n d a n ‘O p e n L etter to th e W o m e n o f G u ja ra t’ th a t ca m e o u t o f a c o n feren ce o f S o u th A sian W o m e n ’s o rg an iz a ­ tio n s in th e US held in A u g u st 2 0 0 3 .91 A rep re se n ta tiv e o f SA NSA D a tte n d e d th e first co n v e n tio n o f In d ia n M u slim s held in San F ra n ­ cisco in Ju n e 2 0 0 2 , to e x p re ss s o lid a rity in th e a fte rm a th o f th e G u ja ra t r io t s .92 SA N SA D h a s d e v e lo p e d o u t o f N o n -R e s id e n t In d ia n s fo r Secularism a n d D e m o cracy (N RISA D ) w h ic h h ad been fo rm ed in V a n c o u v e r a fte r th e d e m o litio n o f th e B abri M asjid o n 6 D ecem b er 1 9 9 2 to o p p o se th e g ro w th o f in to le ra n c e in In d ia a n d to p ro m o te secu lar a n d d em ocratic values a m o n g overseas In d ian s.93 I will retu rn to th e decade-long diasp o ric cam paigns ag ain st H in d u tv a a fte r th e n e x t sectio n o n s u b c o n tin e n ta l in itiativ es to recast S outh A sia. Since th e m id-eighties, w o m e n ’s g ro u p s in S o u th A sia have fo rg ed lin k s ac ro ss b o rd ers o n a re a s o f sh ared c o n c ern , in p a rtic u la r th e g e n d e re d e x p e rie n ce o f relig io u s fu n d a m e n ta lism (M e n o n 2 0 0 3 : 1 1 9 -2 0 ). H u m a n rig h ts g ro u p s, to o , h av e been w o rk in g o n th e q u e stio n o f e th n ic a n d religious m in o rities a n d o th e r issues lik e th e ex ch an g e o f fisherm en a n d tra ffic k in g o f w o m e n , th o u g h th ey recog­ nize th a t th e challen g e o f ‘c h an g in g ideas a n d c h an g in g m indsets ta k e s y e a rs ’.94 T h e S o u th A s ia n fe m in is t d e c la r a tio n o f 1 9 8 9 d o c u m e n te d th e activism o f fem inists o f th e reg io n in challenging a u th o rita ria n ism , fu n d am e n ta lism a n d s ta te violence, b u t it also rev ealed th a t w h e n w o m e n s u p p o rte d o th e r w o m e n fig h tin g ag ain st p a tria rc h a l a n d s ta te v io len ce th ey w e re p ro m p tly labeled a n ti­ n a tio n a l. 9 0 . w w w .san sa d .org /co n stitu tio n .h tm 9 1 . w w w .vancouv er.in d y m ed ia.o rg /n ew s/2 0 0 4 /0 3 /1 2 1 7 8 7 .p h p , ‘SANSAD C ircu ­ la r M a r/2 5 /0 4 , A nti H in d u tv a Forces’. T h e le tte r to th e w om en o f G u ja ra t w a s end o rse d by A asra (B oston), C haya (Seattle), D aya (H o u sto n ), M anav i (N ew Jersey), N a rik a (Berkeley), Saheli for A sian Fam ilies (A ustin), S akhi for S outh A sian W om en (N ew Y ork). 9 2 . w w w .san sad .o rg /se c_ re p o rt.h tm , ‘S ecretary’s R e p o rt: SAN SA D A G M , July 12, 2 0 0 3 ’. 9 3 . w w w .san sa d .o rg /h isto ry .h tm 9 4 . Interview w ith Asm a J e hangir, H im al, M a y 2 0 0 1 , p. 3 6 . Also see M anchanda (1999: 2 6 -3 1 ).

Redoing South Asia »2 13

Support fo r w om en in Pakistan a n d Bangladesh, in their fight against religious fundam entalism by th e w om en’s m ovem ent in India is seen as a H indu reaction a n d these organizations are seen as Indian agents. C o n v ersely , w h en o rg a n iz a tio n s in In d ia h av e hig h lig h ted th e protofascist tendencies o f hindu fundam entalists a n d raised the issue o f attacks against m inority com m unities, they are suspected of being Pakistan agents a n d betrayers of national interests. T o o v e rc o m e reg io n a l ten s io n s a n d d is tr u s t it rec o m m e n d e d a d o p tin g fem in ist d ev elo p m en t m o d els.95 T h e re w a s a lso a n a tte m p t a t a jo in t ca m p a ig n o n a c h a rte r o f rig h ts fo r w o m e n in o rd e r to m ove th e su b ject o f w o m e n ’s rig h ts o u t o f th e d isco u rse o f p e rso n a l law s, ‘w ith all its p ro b lem s o f co m m u n al id en tity ’. A n o th er p rio rity to w a rd s fo rg in g a S o u th A sian persp ectiv e is s h a rin g in fo rm a tio n , ex p eriences a n d strateg ies a n d c h allen g in g th e a tte m p ts b y ruling p a rties to ex ag g erate differences in to div isio n s betw een c o u n tries a n d peo p les (Bhasin e t a l. 1 9 9 4 ).96 O v e r th e y ears S o u th A sian fem i­ n ist activ ists have fo u n d th a t ex c h an g in g in fo rm a tio n a b o u t th e ir v aried ex p eriences h elps clarify strateg ies a n d k eep th e w id e r issues in v iew .97 By c o n tra s t, s ta te sp o n so re d (SAA RC) a tte m p ts a t reg io n al b o n d ­ in g have been d escrib ed as privileging ‘n a tio n a list id en tity , as ag ain st a reg io n al, a n e th n ic o r even a fem in ist id en tity ’.98 B ut th ere have been initiatives to arriv e a t reg io n alism s n o t b o u n d b y b o rd ered n a tio n a lism s. In 1 9 9 0 , th e K ath m a n d u -b a se d SA FH R w a s se t u p to p ro m o te ‘th e linkages betw een h u m a n rig h ts, peace a n d su b sta n ­ tive d e m o c ra cy ’. C o n cep tu alized as a reg io n al fo ru m to g enerate a ltern ativ e h u m a n ita ria n perspectives o n p eace, refugee a n d m inority issues, SA FH R focuses o n th e tw o c o n stitu en cies o f w o m e n a n d th e m ed ia to b u ild civil so ciety reg io n a l a ctiv ism . I t h a s s u p p o rte d 9 5 . w w w .sacw .net/w m ov/sasiafem inistdecla.htm l 9 6 . ‘Identity Politics’, in K am la Bhasin a n d R itu M en o n (for India) a n d N ighat Said K han (for P a kistan), p p . 3 , 8 a n d 1 1 -1 2 . 9 7 . Jeffery ( 1 9 8 8 :2 3 9 -4 0 ); also see w w w .m eg b arta.org/2004/january/gender.htm l ‘M e g h n a G u h a th a k u rta , M in o rity R ig h ts, Iden tity P olitics a n d G en d e r in B angladesh: C u rre n t P roblem s a n d Issues’, on th e need to ‘join h a n d s across bo rd e rs and a ro u n d th e w o rld ’, t o stren g th en voices ag ain st o b sc u ra n tist a nd co m m u n al politics. 9 8 . See M a n c h a n d a (1 9 9 9 : 30 ). T h e re is a m en tio n o f T a p a n Bose, S ecretary G eneral o f S A FH R atten d in g a people’s SA ARC F o ru m in C olom bo.

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tra n s b o rd e r , p e o p le -to -p e o p le d ialo g u e s a n d in itia tiv e s lik e th e PIPFPD , a n d in itia ted civil society activism fo r a d e m o c ra tic peace in n o rth -e a st In d ia , K ash m ir, N e p a l a n d th e C h itta g o n g H ill T ra cts in B a n g la d esh ." T h e th ru st o f SA FH R is to p u sh b eyond n atio n alist o rth o d o x y a n d to p r o m o te a c u ltu r e o f r e g io n a l d ia lo g u e a n d reg io n al n e tw o rk s. T h e id ea is to rea c h s h a re d reg io n al persp ec­ tives a n d a n a lte rn a te security a n d rig h ts fra m e w o rk .100 P a rt o f its reg io n al c o n su lta tio n series w a s a discu ssio n in L a h o re o n ‘W o m e n ’s R ig h ts in S o u th Asia: Im p act o f A rm ed C onflict, S ectarian Violence a n d R eligious F u n d a m en ta lism ’. T h e six -c o u n try re p o rts an aly sed th e in creasin g m a rg in aliza tio n o f w o m e n b ecause o f th e in terp lay o f n ew ec o n o m ic policies, s tru c tu ra l a d ju stm e n t p ro g ra m m e s a n d th e rise o f fu n d am e n ta lism .101 T h e PIPFPD w as lau n ch ed in L a h o re in S ep tem b er 1 9 9 4 a n d has b een d escrib ed as ‘th e m o st am b itio u s o f th e reg io n ’s initiatives fo r p e o p le to e m p o w e r them selves’. A sm all g ro u p o f In d ia n a n d Pak i­ stan i h u m a n rig h ts activ ists th o u g h t o f s ta rtin g a m ass-b ased jo in t p e o p le’s fo ru m a n d p u t to g e th e r a n ‘alte rn a tiv e rela tio n a l n a rra tiv e o f In d ia n a n d P a k ista n ’ in p lac e o f th e a n ta g o n is t a n d s ta tis t o ne. T h e PIPFPD has ch ap ters in ‘a t least n in e cities’ in In d ia a n d in ‘al­ m o st every p ro v in ce in P a k ista n ’. O v er th e years, jo in t conventions h av e w id en ed th e n e tw o rk s o f o rd in a ry In d ia n s a n d P a k ista n is.102 T h e idea is to m ak e visible th e c o n stitu en cy fo r a su b c o n tin e n ta l p e a c e m o v e m e n t a n d in te r ro g a te s ta te -s p o n s o re d id eo lo g ies o f d em o n izin g th e o th e r th a t in fo rm th e ‘n a tio n a l secu rity ’ a g e n d as o f 9 9 . w w w .safhr.org: ‘SA FH R program m es a re structured a ro u n d regional dialogues, peace a u d its, H u m an R ights P eace S tudies C o urses, tra in in g w o rk sh o p s, p u b ­ lications a n d advocacy cam paigns. SA FH R w o rk s th ro u g h a n e tw o rk o f 40 p a rtn e rs a n d associates com prising civil society org a n iz atio n s com m itted to p ro m o tin g h u m a n rig h ts a n d peace’. 10 0 . w w w .safh r.o rg /b est_ 1 9 9 9 .h tm , ‘A nnual R e p o rt 2 0 0 2 ’; fo r a follow -up read see P. Banerjee e t a l. (2 0 0 4 :3 6 8 -7 6 ). S am addar (co-author) w as earlier founderd ire c to r of th e Peace S tudies P rogram m e a t th e SAFHR. 101. w w w .safhr.org/contents5212.htm l, ‘R egional C onsultation o n W om en’s Rights in S outh A sia: Im p ac t o f A rm ed C o nflict, S ectarian Violence & R eligious Fun­ dam en talism ’ [2001?]. 102. M a n ch an d a (2 0 0 2 : 13 6 , 1 4 6 - 4 7 ,1 4 9 ). A lso see (2000: 65 ), for a m e n tio n o f regional chap ters in M u m b a i, P atna, D elhi, V a ranasi, C hennai a n d H y derabad , a n d in P a k is ta n in K a ra c h i, L a h o re , Q u e tta , P e s h a w a r, Isla m a b a d and H y d era b ad .

Redoing South Asia »2 15

th e tw o sta te s.103 A t th e B a n g alo re session in 2 0 0 0 a t least 6 0 p er c e n t o f th e d elegates w e re first-tim e m em b ers. T h e F o ru m h a s had m ass jo in t con v en tio n s in D elhi, L ah o re, K o lk ata, Pesh aw ar, B anga­ lo re a n d K arach i. P a rtic ip a n ts h av e in clu d ed fo rm e r m in isters, c a b i­ n e t se cre ta rie s, re tire d a d m ira ls , m a jo r g e n e ra ls, so cial activ ists, en v iro n m en ta lists, fem inists, p ro fessio n als, scien tists, tra d e u n io n ­ ists a n d ac ad e m ic s.104 T h e PIPFPD sees th e d isp u te o v e r K a sh m ir a s d o in g tw o things: d isru p tin g th e s m o o th m o v em en t o f p e o p le b etw een th e tw o c o u n ­ tries a n d c o n trib u tin g ‘directly a n d in d irectly to th e in ten sificatio n o f co m m u n al violence in b o th In d ia a n d P a k ista n ’. In its perspective, th e religious fu n d am e n ta list fo rces in In d ia, in p a rtic u la r, use th e K a sh m ir q u e stio n a g a in st th e M u slim m in o rities, ‘accu sin g th em o f s u p p o rtin g th e ir co-religionists in th e V alley in th e secessionist m ove­ m en t, a n d o f ex tra -te rrito ria l loyalty to P ak istan ’. A nd in Pak istan, th e successive g o v e rn m e n ts a re seen a s h a v in g c o m p ro m ise d w ith, a n d u ltim ately stre n g th e n in g , th e fu n d am e n ta list Islam ic fo rces.10s T h e F o ru m ’s p o sitio n o n K a sh m ir is th a t th e b o u n d a rie s o f p o st­ c o lo n ia l n a tio n -sta te s a re n o t sa cre d a n d th e a s p ira tio n s o f th e K ash m iri p e o p le need to b e settled d em o cratically . T h is is seen as basic to red u c in g c o m m u n a l a n d e th n ic ten sio n in th e s u b c o n tin e n t a n d scalin g d o w n defence e x p e n d itu re a n d m ilita riz atio n .106 103. W h a t follow s is a revised version o f m y unp u b lish ed p a p e r, ‘B eyond B ound ­ aries: R edefining S outh A sia’, presented a t th e 13th P a k ista n W o rk sh o p c o ­ organized by th e N o rw eg ia n Institu te fo r U rb a n a n d R egional R esearch and the D e p artm e n t o f Sociology a n d Social A n th ro p o lo g y , Keele U niversity at Lake D istrict, 4 July 1998. 104. w w w .alternatives-action.org/ceras/18/value.htm , R ita M a n c h a n d a , ‘T h e Value o f S ym bolism : J o in t C on v en tio n s o f P ak-India People’s F o ru m ’. 10 5 . A n in tro d u c to ry flier: ‘P ak istan -In d ia P eople-T o-People D ialogue o n Peace a n d D em ocracy’ (1 995). T h ere is a m e n tio n o f th e th e n fo rth c o m in g F ebruary 1995 convention in D elhi h aving received s u p p o rt a m o n g o th ers, from A nkur, A IC C T U , A IT U C , BEEU, C IT U , C IEDS, D isha, H M K P , IC R A , K am ani Em ­ ployees U nion, N a tio n a l F ederation o f C o n stru ctio n L a b o u r, N a tio n a l Fish W ork ers F o ru m , S abrang C om m u n ic atio n s, SEW A (M P), SEW A (UP), SVA, T a m iln ad u C o n stru c tio n W ork e rs U nion, V ikalp, W om en’s V oice a n d Y W CA . 10 6 . See ‘P akistan-India Peoples’ C on v en tio n o n Peace a n d D em ocracy, N ew D elhi, F ebruary 2 4 -2 5 , 1995: Proceedings a n d R ecom m endations’ (hereafter ‘1995 N ew D elhi Proceedings’); P akistan-India P eoples’ F orum f o r P eace a n d D e­ m ocracy: P roceedings, R ec o m m en d a tio n s, a n d D eclaration o f T h e T h ird J o in t C o nvention, C alcutta, D ecem ber 2 8 -3 1 ,1 9 9 6 ; ‘C alcutta D ec la ratio n ’ in M ain ­ stream , 11 Ja n u a ry 199 7 , p p . 7 -8 .

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T h e co m p ilatio n o f O th e r Voices From Pakistan, b y th e PIPFPD ,107 is on ly o n e o f its a tte m p ts a t m ak in g th e p o in t th a t p e o p le th in k d ifferen tly fro m gov ern m en ts. Its larg e r co n c ep t w a s to g o in fo r jo in t p re p a ra tio n o f reso u rc e b o o k s a n d p a m p h le ts a n d lite ra tu re , alte rn a te peo p le-to -p eo p le television ch a n n els a n d jo in t c u ltu ral p ro ­ d u ctio n s to c o u n te r th e hostilities flow ing fro m th e n atio n -m ak in g s o f th e forties. T h is, h o w ev er, is a co m p le x te rra in a n d n o t m u ch h e a d w a y h a s been m ad e alo n g th ese lines. T h e reso lu tio n a d o p te d a t its te n th a n n iv e rsary c e le b ratio n in L a h o re, in S ep tem b er 2 0 0 4 , rep e a ted its lo n g -stan d in g d e m a n d s th a t th e visa reg im e sh o u ld be c o m p letely o v erh a u le d to m ak e it easy a n d citizen-friendly, w ith v isas b ein g issued fo r th e e n tire c o u n try , ra th e r th a n fo r specific cities; th e K h o k ra p a r b o rd e r b e o p ened (the T h a r E xpress w a s started in F e b ru ary 2 0 0 6 ), a s a lso th e c o n su la tes a t M u m b a i a nd K arachi. It a lso a sk ed b o th g o v e rn m e n ts to in itia te th e pro cess o f review ing a n d revising sc h o o l c u rricu la to rem o v e h a te m ate ria l a n d p ro p a ­ g a n d a a n d in clu d e p e a ce e d u c a tio n a s a c o m p u lso ry p a r t o f th e c u rric u la . A s a lw a y s, it c a lle d o n b o th g o v e rn m e n ts to lift th e restric tio n s o n th e ex c h an g e o f e a ch o th e r’s p u b lic a tio n s, w h ich it p o in te d o u t ‘is in a n y case re d u n d a n t in to d a y ’s satellite a n d in te rn et age’. O n th e sev en ty -fifth an n iv e rsary o f th e L a h o re C o n g ress, th e PIPFPD reso lv ed to fen d o f f th e im p a c t o f g lo b a liz a tio n o n th e in d ep en d en ce a n d so v ereig n ty o f b o th c o u n tries, a n d to e x p a n d its d istrict- a n d p rovincial-level o rg an iz a tio n a n d a c tiv ities in th e f o rth ­ co m in g y e a rs .108 R a n a b ir S a m a d d a r, w h o is p a r t o f b o th SA FH R a n d PIPFPD , h a s m ad e th e p o in t th a t th e co n stitu e n c ies o f d ialo g u e, dem o cracy a n d p e a ce d r a w o n th e reso u rces a n d go o d w ill o f ‘th e v ast su b c o n ­ tin e n tal d ia s p o ra ’, n o t th e w e a lth y N R Is a n d N R P s, b u t th e w o rk ­ in g p e o p le in th e n o r th .109 O n e o f th e reso lu tio n s o f th e PIPFPD in 10 7 . T h e H in d i v e rsio n , P akistan: D o o sra P ehlu: L e k h , R e p o r t E v a m Sah ity ik R achanaye, included articles such as Faw zia G ardezi, ‘P a k ista n M ein Islam , N a riv a d A u r M a h ila A n d o la n ’, H am za A lavi, ‘Ja tiy a ta K a S am ajik A a d h a a r’; M uh am m a d Aslam S hah, ‘Pakistani Sam aj M ein H in saa '; I.A. R ehm an, ‘Islam A u r A dalatein’; the verse o f Fehm ida R iaz a n d a sam pling o f press extracts. 108. w w w .sacw .insaf.net/P IF /R esolution_S ep2004.htm l 10 9 . S a m a d d a r (2 0 0 1 : 30 8 ). I find it diffic u lt to go com pletely alo n g w ith this sim plification, th o u g h : ‘In fara w a y lan d s, they d isplay little o r a lm o st n o n e o f th e jingoism ev id en t h e re , w hile th e y a re very m uch a n org an ic p a r t o f th e su b c o n tin e n ta l p o p u la tio n . T h e y re ta in th e p re -p a rtitio n lin k s, th riv e on

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N e w D elhi in 1 9 9 5 h a d in d ic a te d th a t in ‘fu tu re su c h p e o p le to p e o p le m eetings sh o u ld in clu d e [the] In d ia n a n d P a k ista n d ia s p o ra ’. A s o lid a rity m essage fro m CE R A S, C a n a d a , w as rea d o u t a t th e sam e c o n v e n tio n .110 In D ecem b er 2 0 0 3 , it w ro te to its m em b ers a sk in g fo r c o n ta c t d etails o f th o se N R Is ‘w h o m ay b e w illin g to p a rtic ip a te a n d c o n trib u te to th e F o ru m ’s activ ities’.111 In early 2 0 0 5 it u n d e rto o k ‘to w o rk a g a in st th e d isru p tiv e activities o f th o se sec­ tio n s o f N R Is a n d N R P s w h o a re a id in g co m m u n alist a n d extrem ist forces in th e ir respective c o u n tries o f o rig in ’. 112 T h e M u m b a i-b a se d m ag a z in e, C o m m u n a lism C o m b a t, w h ich has consistently a rg u ed th a t b o th m ajo rity a n d m in o rity co m m u n al­ ism w ere equally to b lam e fo r v iolations o f h u m a n a n d d em ocratic rig h ts, h a s p lay ed a n im p o rta n t ro le in peace in itiativ es in S outh A sia. It h a s d o n e th is th ro u g h o rg an iz a tio n s like th e PIPFPD a n d by n e tw o rk in g a n ti-co m m u n al se cu la r g ro u p s in th e d iasp o ric c o m ­ m u n ities o f B ritain , th e US a n d C a n a d a (B h aru ch a 2 0 0 0 : 5 1 -5 2 ). Its w ebsite m entions th at its subscribers include an ti-com m unal groups in th ese c o u n tries.113 I sh o u ld m en tio n th a t th e w o rk o f b o th CERAS a n d F O IL w ere sh ared w ith d elegates a tte n d in g ‘D a s ta k ’, a c o n v en­ tio n a n d festival o n secu lar c u ltu ra l a c tio n o rg an iz e d b y th e S afd ar H a sh m i M e m o ria l T r u s t (SA H M A T) in D elhi in early 1 9 9 9 .114 B ack in th e US, F O IL d ecid ed o n a c h a n g e in n a m e fro m th e F o ru m o f In d ia n Leftists to th e F o ru m o f In q u ila b i Leftists d u rin g th e fall o f 2 0 0 3 fo r a b e tte r re p re se n ta tio n o f th e b re a d th o f its m em b ersh ip a n d th e sco p e o f its activities. Its m ag azin e G h a d a r w as revived a fte r b ein g d o rm a n t fo r n early tw o y ears w ith th e idea o f c o n tin u in g to b e a fo ru m fo r left d e b a te a n d d ialo g u e ‘th ro u g h rep o rts o n p o litical activism o n th e g ro u n d in S o u th Asia a n d th e d ia s p o ra ’. T h e aim n o w is ‘to m o v e b ey o n d th e “ In d ia n ” , b o th as reflexivity, rem ain in a m e n ta lity o f e x ile, in sh o rt they have the requisites vital fo r c ritical thin k in g ’. 11 0 . A lso see P atw ard h a n (1998) fo r h is a c c o u n t o f th e K olkata session o f PIPFPD w hich had ‘a sm atterin g o f th e S outh A sian diasp o ra living in th e W est’. 1 1 1 . 2 0 D ecem ber 2 0 0 3 . 112. ‘D ec lara tio n o f th e Seventh Jo in t C on v en tio n o f th e P akistan India People’s F o ru m fo r Peace a n d D em ocracy’, N ew D elhi, 2 8 F ebruary 200 5 . 113. S ab ran g C o m m unications has und e rta k en to w iden th e base o f th e PIPFPD in w est India. 11 4 . http://indiaserv e r.co m /fro n tlin e /1 9 9 9 /0 1 /1 6 /1 6 0 2 0 9 5 0 , V ijay P ra sh a d , ‘Soli­ d a rity F o r S ecularism ’ in F rontline, 1 6 -2 2 Ja n u a ry 1999.

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id en tity a n d p o litic s’, in o r d e r to fo cu s o n th in k in g in c o m p a ra tiv e th e m a tic te rm s o n th e r o le o f th e le ft in S o u th A sia a n d th e d ia s p o ra .115 G h a d a r ca rrie d a n an aly sis o f w h y th e US pro v id ed ‘th e m o st n u rtu rin g sp a ce ’ fo r th e sp read o f H in d u fu n d am e n ta list activities. T h is w a s a ttrib u te d to lin k s fo rg ed w ith th e hugely in flu ­ en tial ‘Z io n is t lo b b y ac ro ss college c a m p u se s’, th e c o n d u c tin g o f v a rio u s fu n d -ra isin g activ ities ‘in th e n a m e o f d ev elo p m en t’, a n d a stre n g th e n in g o f th e ir presen ce in ‘seem ingly in n o ce n t sp aces like y o u th c u ltu re a n d c h a rita b le o rg a n iz a tio n s ’. U n lik e In d ia , w h ere th e c o n n e ctio n s to p o litical p a rties c a n b e easily esta b lish e d , ‘th e d e c en tralized n a tu r e o f th e H in d u tv a lea d e rsh ip ’ in th e US is seen a s a n e x p la n a tio n fo r th e s p re a d o f H in d u tv a in to e v ery d ay life. Its response is a C a m p aig n to S top C o n sen tin g to H a te , to ‘ch an g e b o th m in d s a n d s tru c tu re s ’.116 C o a litio n -b u ild in g o c c asio n a lly th ro w s u p p o in ts o f fric tio n . W h ile o rg an iz in g p ro te s ts in 2 0 0 2 a g a in st th e killings in G u ja ra t in th e W ash in g to n , D .C . a re a , w h ich h a s ‘ap p ro x im ate ly 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 A sian In d ia n s’ b u t n o re p u ta tio n fo r p ro g ressiv e activism , ‘a m a jo r tro u ­ b lin g q u e stio n ’ rela te d to th e ro le o f a religious id io m in su c h o rg a ­ n izing. T h e re w a s a feeling th a t ‘w ith o u t d ec en te rin g H in d u idiom a n d In d ia n n a tio n a lism ’, b o n d in g a s a S o u th A sian g ro u p w o u ld rem a in on ly n o m in a l. A m em b e r o f th e A sso ciatio n o f In d ia n M u s­ lim s o r A IM (see c h a p te r three) a lso p o in te d o u t th a t th e re w a s a need ‘to a d d re ss relig io u s e x trem ism fro m all g ro u p s in S o u th Asia a n d n o t ju st o n e relig io n ’. A ctivism w a s ‘all a b o u t H in d u s ’ because o f th e fo cu s o n th e V H P -A . In o th e r w o r d s , it w a s b e c o m in g ‘self-referen tial” .117 B ut th e w o rk b o o k o f th e seven-year-old Y o u th S o lid arity S u m m er (YSS) p ro g ra m m e o f F O IL w h ic h h a s a n alu m n i n e tw o rk o f m o re th a n 2 5 0 g ra d u a te s involved in o rg an iz in g fo r la b o u r a n d im m ig ra n t rig h ts, e tc ., ‘in sp ired ’ a sim ila r in itiativ e in th e Bay a re a in C a lifo rn ia , to o rg an iz e pro g ressiv e S o u th Asians: 115. w w w .g h ad a r.in sa f.n et/M ain P a g es/E d ito riall.h tm , ‘R etu rn o f G hadar’ by the G h a d a r E d ito r ia l C o lle c tiv e . T h e c h a n g e h a p p e n e d a f te r th e U rb a n a C h a m p aig n ’s F O IL er p o p u latio n ‘h it c ritical m ass’. 116. w w w .g h a d a r.n e t/M a in P ag e s/E d ito ria l2 .h tm , R a R a v ish a n k a r a n d Shefali C h a n d ra , ‘B rahm anizing th e D iasp o ra’, v o l. 6 , J u n e 2 0 0 4 . 117. w w w .p ro x sa.org/resources/ghadar/v5n2/organizing.htm l, A shw ini T am b e and A p arn a D evare, ‘O rganizing A gainst E xtrem ism : F inding a n Idiom ’, G hadar, 5 (2 ), 21 July 200 2 .

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O rg an izin g Y o u th (O Y !). T h e YSS has o rganized six d ay w o rk sh o p s since 2 0 0 4 w h e re in p a rtic ip a n ts tra c e d th e e v o lu tio n o f c o m m u n ity o rg an izin g in S o u th A sia a n d th e S o u th A sian d ia sp o ra . T h e o rg a ­ nizers m en tio n w h a t m ad e th em a tte m p t rep licatin g th e YSS m o d el o n th e W e st c o a st: th e rise o f th e c o n serv ativ e rig h t in th e US, ‘th e in creasin g p o litical p ro w ess o f neo-fascism in In d ia ’, th e genocide in G u j a r a t , a s a ls o t h e r is e o f m il it a r y d i c t a t o r s h i p in P a k ista n a n d its e n d o rse m en t b y th e U S .118 T h e O Y ! g ro u p has p lan s o f lin k in g u p w ith o th e r sim ila r rad ical e d u c atio n p ro g ram m es fo r S o u th A sian y o u th , such a s th e YSS in N e w Y o rk a n d R adD esi S u m m er in A u stin , T e x a s .119 T h e F O IL d escribes itself as ‘th e larg est left n e tw o rk o f th e S outh A sian d iasp o ra in th e U n ited States’, 120 a n d w a s p a rt o f th e C o ali­ tio n A gainst G en o cid e (C A G ), w h ic h w as fo rm e d in F eb ru ary 2 0 0 5 to p ro te st th e p ro p o se d business visit to th e US by th e ch ief m inister o f G u ja ra t, N a re n d ra M o d i, in M a rc h 2 0 0 5 . T h e C A G includes th irty -e ig h t o rg a n iz a tio n s a n d te n s u p p o rtin g g ro u p s ac ro ss th e US a n d C a n a d a ,121 th a t g o t to g eth e r to d e m a n d a c co u n ta b ility a n d ju stice fo r th e 2 0 0 2 G u ja ra t victim s. T h e stra te g y is ‘to ex p o se a n d m arg in alize th e e x tre m ists’ a n d w o rk to s a fe g u a rd ‘th e p lu ra list e th o s o f In d ia a n d th e ec o n o m ic well being o f th e In d ia n D iasp o ra in th e US’.122 Its ca m p a ig n received s u p p o rt fro m H u m a n R ig h ts 11 8 . w w w .y o u t h s o l i d a r i t y . o r g / o y / 2 0 0 5 / f a q / ; w w w .y o u th s o lid a r ity .o r g /o y / in dex.htm 11 9 . w w w .y o u th so lid arity .o rg /o y /a b o u t 12 0 . w w w .nyc.in d y m ed ia .o rg /n ew sw ire/d isp lay /1 4 5 1 3 5 /in d e x .p h p , ‘D e m o n stra te A gainst H in d u F ascist L eader M o d i, 3 /2 0 M SG ’, from Biju M ath ew , co o rd i­ n a to r , FO IL , O rg an ize r, N Y T W A , a n d b o ard m em ber, T h e B recht F orum . 12 1 . w w w .c o a litio n a g a in stg e n o c id e .o rg /n e w s/2 0 0 5 /m a r/2 .a a .m o d i.p h p ; A ngana C h a tte rji, ‘H o w W e M a d e U.S. D eny V isa t o M o d i’, T h e A sian A ge, 21 M a rch 2 0 0 5 ; ‘Som e C A G m em bers lobbied w ith C a p ito l H ill, a n d 125 S outh Asia S tudies a n d o th e r faculty in th e US w ro te to th e state d e p a rtm e n t, th e H ouse a n d Senate Foreign R e la tio n s C o m m ittees, a n d the U nited N a tio n s, to decline M o d i’s visa’. 122. w w w .c o alitio n ag a in stg e n o c id e.o rg /a b o u t.p h p . A m ong the m em b er organiza­ tio n s a re th e A lliance fo r a S ecular a n d D em o cra tic S o u th Asia (ASDSA), A m erican F ed e ratio n o f M uslim s o f Indian O rig in (A FM I), A ssociation o f Indian M uslim s o f A m erica (A IM ), C am paign to S top F unding H a te (CSFH), S outh A sia R esearch C entre (CERAS, M o n tre a l), C o a litio n A gainst C om m u ­ nalism (C A C ), E k ta , F ederation o f In d ian A m erican C h ristia n O rganization s o f N o r th A m erica (FIA C O N A ), F O IL , S A M A R, Indian M uslim C ouncil— USA (IM C-USA), Indian M uslim Relief a nd C harities (IM R C ), In te rn atio n a l South

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W a tc h , th e In stitu te o n R eligion a n d Pu b lic Policy a n d A m nesty In te rn a tio n a l. C o n ta c ts w ere m ad e w ith th e M S N B C h o st C hris M a th e w s, A m erican E xpress a n d th e C alifo rn ia S tate U niversity, L o n g B each, w h o w ere to s p o n so r a n d p a rtic ip a te in ev en ts d u rin g M o d i’s US visit. (B oth M a th e w s a n d A m erican E xpress late r pulled o u t). T h e d en ial o f a visa by th e US g o v e rn m e n t is seen a s ‘a clear victo ry fo r s u p p o rte rs o f h u m a n rig h ts a n d ju stice in th e U.S. a n d in In d ia ’. T h e In d ia n g o v e rn m e n t w a s ask ed to p ress c rim in a l ch arg es a g a in st M o d i a n d to c h o k e ‘th e fu n d in g p ip elin e th a t r u n s fro m th e U.S. to fac ilitate th e g ro w th o f H in d u tv a ’s vio len t p o litic s’.123 W h en M o d i a n d his en sem b le sa id th a t th e visa d en ial am o u n te d to an ‘in su lt to In d ia a n d th e [Indian] C o n s titu tio n ’, C A G d a sh ed o ff a le tte r to th e In d ia n p rim e m in iste r say in g th a t th is c o m m e n t w as ‘lau g h a b le c o m in g a s it d o e s fro m p e o p le w h o h av e sta in e d th e In d ia n c o n s titu tio n w ith th e b lo o d o f th o u sa n d s o f its citize n s’. It ask ed h im n o t to c o n te s t th e d en ial o f th e visa a n d rem in d ed him th a t th e M o d i go v ern m en t h a d actively shielded cu lp rits a n d harassed su rv iv o rs, w itn esses a n d social ju stice g ro u p s, a n d th a t it h ad been in d icted by th e In d ia n Su p rem e C o u rt fo r b ein g ‘m o d ern d ay N e ro s ’ a n d lo o k in g aw a y d u rin g th e violence in 2 0 0 2 .124 E arlier, six o rg an iz a tio n s— Saheli f o r A sian Fam ilies, N a rik a fo r S o u th A sian W o m e n , Sak h i fo r S o u th A sian W o m e n , M a n av i (an o rg an iz a tio n fo r S o u th A sian W o m en ), D a y a Inc. fo r S o u th A sian Fam ilies a n d T u la n e A m nesty In te rn a tio n a l S top V iolence A gainst W o m e n C o m m itte e — m a d e a s ta te m e n t in s u p p o rt o f th e C A G c a m p a ig n a n d a g a in st th e d ecisio n o f th e A sian A m erican H o te l O w n e rs ’ A sso ciatio n a n d th e A sso ciatio n o f In d ia n A m erican s o f A sia F o ru m (IN SA F), M a n a v i, S o u th A sian N e tw o rk fo r S ecularism and D em ocracy (SANSA D, C an a d a), W orld T am il O rg an iza tio n (W T O ), Y outh S o lid arity Sum m er (YSS), Sikh A m erican H e rita g e O rg a n iz a tio n (SA H O ), F riends o f S outh A sia (FOSA). T h e C ouncil o n A m erican-Islam ic R elations (CA IR) is a m o n g the s u p p o rtin g o rganizations. 12 3 . w w w .co alitio n a g ain stg e n o c id e .o rg /p re ss/v ic to ry .p r.p h p , ‘N o to rio u s In d ian H u m a n R ights A buser D enied E ntry In to US!’, 18 M a rch 2 0 0 5 . 124. w w w .co a litio nagainstgenocide.org/press/pm .open.letter.php, 1 9 M a rch 2 005 ; H in d u sta n T im es, 19 M arc h 2 0 0 5 , rep o rte d th a t the US gov e rn m e n t n o t o nly denied M o d i a d ip lo m a tic visa b u t a lso cancelled h is ten-year business and to u rist visa u n d e r section 212(a)(2)(g) o f the Im m ig ratio n a n d N a tio n ality A ct w h ich m ak e s ‘a n y gov e rn m e n t official w h o w a s responsible fo r o r directly ca rrie d o u t a t a n y tim e p a rticu larly severe v io la tio n s o f religious freedom , ineligible for visa’.

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N o r th A m erica to felicitate N a re n d ra M o d i. T h e ir c h arg e w a s th e M o d i g o v e rn m e n t h a d ‘actively a n d covertly en c o u ra g e d violence a g a in st w o m e n d u rin g th e G u ja ra t p o g ro m s w h e n sex u al m u tila ­ tio n a n d rapes o f w o m en a n d children’ w ere used as e th n ic cleansing devices, a s h a d b een d o c u m e n te d b y th e In te rn atio n al In itiativ e fo r J u s tic e a n d th e A m n esty In te r n a tio n a l’s S to p V io len ce A g ain st W o m e n rep o rt. T h e RSS to w h ic h M o d i belo n g s h ad b een k n o w n to e x h o rt th e ir m em b ers to ‘defile, v io la te a n d d e stro y m in o rity w o m e n a n d girls as th ey a re seen as rep o sito ries o f M u slim a n d C h ristia n relig io n a n d c u ltu re ’. G iven all o f th a t, th e d ecisio n to in v ite a n d h o n o u r M o d i w a s a n ‘un c o n scio n a b le to le ran c e o f th e m iso g y n ist n a tu r e o f M r. M o d i’s BJP p a rty a n d h is H in d u tv a allies’.125 As a fo u n d in g m em b e r o f C A G , th e In d ia n M u slim C o u n cil-USA described th e rev o c a tio n o f M o d i’s visa a s a ‘h isto ric achieve­ m e n t’ a n d a ‘g re a t v icto ry fo r p lu ra lism , ju stice a n d th e ru le o f la w ’. B ut its p resid e n t, S h a ik h U b aid , rem in d ed th a t th e struggle a g a in st th e ‘su p re m a cist h ate-id eo lo g y ’ o f H in d u tv a w as f a r fro m o v e r.126 A n o th e r C A G m em b er, th e F e d e ra tio n o f In d ia n A m erican C h ristia n O rg a n iz a tio n s o f N o r th A m erica (F IA C O N A ), sa w th e visa d en ial a s a ‘stro n g a n d rig h t d ecisio n ’. 127 T h e C A G ca m p a ig n w a s a tra n s a tla n tic e ffo rt w ith so m e G u ja ra t N G O s sta rtin g a sig n a tu re c a m p aig n in Ja n u a ry 2 0 0 5 ag ain st A m eri­ ca n E x p ress, o n e o f th e co m p an ies s p o n so rin g th e M o d i e v en t in th e US.128 D u rin g a m o n th lo n g ca m p a ig n in th e US a b o u t six ty to seventy e-m ails w e re sen t e a ch d a y , c o n feren ce calls w e re m ad e in w h ich n early fifty p e o p le ac ro ss th e US a n d C a n a d a w e re involved a n d 1 2 5 acad em ics sig n ed a letter to th e s ta te d e p a rtm e n t. U lti­ m ately , A m erican E xpress w ith d re w its $ 1 5 0 ,0 0 0 d o n a tio n to th e h o tel c o n v e n tio n fo r w h ich M o d i w as to g o to th e U S .129 C learly th e ca m p a ig n w a s a hig h p o in t o f a w id e r ca m p a ig n g o in g o n since 12 5 . w w w .coalitionagainstgenocide.org/press/support/w om en.orgs.php, ‘S tatem en t o f S u p p o rt from W om en’s O rg an iza tio n s’, 11 M a rc h 2005. 12 6 . w w w .im c-usa.org/cgi-bin/cfm /P ressR elease.cfm ?P R ID = 97, press release, 18 M a rc h 200 5 . 12 7 . T h e T im e s o f In d ia , 19 M a rch 2005. 12 8 . w w w .c o a ltio n a g a in s tg e n o c id e .o rg /n e w s /2 0 0 5 /m a r/1 8 .n d tv .c a m p a ig n .p h p so u rc e n d tv .co m , 18 M a rc h 200 5 . 12 9 . Sirohi (2 005). ‘O rg an ize rs say they w ere careful to keep A rab , P akistani and B angladeshi g ro u p s a t bay to avoid th e all-too-easy alle g atio n th a t th e c a m ­ p a ig n w as a P akistani ploy’.

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‘fifteen y ears’, to m o n ito r th e activities o f th e US b ran c h o f H in d u tv a, a n d to c re a te ‘a lib eral In d ia n A m erican c o m m u n ity ’. 130 T h e sto ry g oes b a c k to th e A y o d h y a d ays in th e early nin eties, w h e n m an y in th e S o u th A sian d iasp o ra fo rm ed secu lar a n d d e m o c ra tic o rg an iz a ­ tio n s to c o n te st H in d u tv a . ‘A lo n g th e A tlan tic se a b o a rd , th ere w ere dozens o f such g ro u p s, m eeting each w eek, p lan n in g events, bringing sp e ak e rs fro m In d ia , try in g d esp erately to c o u n te r th e H in d u tv a ju g g ern au t th a t w as ro llin g th ro u g h th e o verseas landscape’ (Prashad 2 0 0 2 b : 10). A cross th e A tlan tic, in th e U K , g ro u p s like S o u th Asia S o lid arity G ro u p , th e C o u n cil o f In d ia n M u slim s a n d A w a a z p res­ su red th e g o v e rn m e n t to fo llo w th e US a n d rev o k e N a re n d ra M o d i’s visa a h e a d o f his e n d o f M a rc h trip a n d p la n n e d p ro te s t rallies to k eep u p th e in te rn a tio n a l p ressu re .131 As it tu rn e d o u t h e cancelled th e trip fo r security reasons. T h e ce n tra l th em e o f th e rea c tio n to th e C A G ca m p a ig n fro m th e H in d u tv a fo rm a tio n w a s th a t it h a d ig n o re d th e gen o cid es in B an g lad esh a n d th e e th n ic clean sin g in K a sh m ir.132 T h e r e p o rt o n th e ID R F fu n d s w as dism issed fo r b ein g in line w ith six ty -p lu s y ears o f ‘b itte r po litical o p p o s itio n to H in d u tv a ’ b y In d ia n leftists a n d co m m unists. T h e arg u m en t w a s th a t th e ID R F w as being ‘victim ized fo r s u p p o rtin g th e Bangladeshi H in d u s’, b y a rep o rt w h ich w a s ‘a d ire c t a tta c k o n H in d u s a s a religious c o m m u n ity ’. S o th e d em an d w as th a t ‘If th e re is to b e a n en q u iry in to ID R F , let th e re a lso b e an en q u iry in to C h ristia n fu n d in g o f m ilitan cy in th e n o rth e a s t, Saudi fu n d in g o f M a d ra s a h s a n d H in d u geno cid e in B an g lad esh , Pak i­ s ta n a n d In d o n esia (a n o th e r a re a o f d isc rim in atio n )’. T h e ce n tra l 13 0 . w w w .f r o n lin e o n n e t.c o m /fl2 2 0 7 /s to rie s /2 0 0 5 0 4 0 8 0 0 3 3 1 3 1 0 0 .h tm , V ijay P rashad, ‘N o E ntry F o r M o d i’, F rontline, 1 2 -2 5 M a rch 2 0 0 5 . 13 1 . H in d u sta n T im e s, 21 a n d 25 M a rch 2 0 0 5 ; T h e T im es o f In d ia , 23 M a rch 2 0 0 5 ; T h e H in d u , 2 4 M a rc h 2 0 0 5 , m e n tio n s A m rit W ilson o f S outh A sia S o lid arity W atc h p o in tin g o u t th a t ‘p ro m in e n t figures in N ew L a b o u r are k n o w n fo r th e ir s u p p o rt to H in d u tv a g ro u p s’. M oh a m m ed M u n a f Z eena, ch a irm a n , C ouncil o f In d ia n M uslim s (UK) w ro te to th e foreign secretary , Ja c k S traw , a sking: ‘is it n o t tim e t h a t w e m ak e a sta n d fo r justice a n d send a c lea r signal t h a t th e likes o f M r. M o d i a re u nacce p ta b le n o t ju st to th e p eople o f the US b u t a lso to th e p eople o f th e U K ’. 132. w w w .in fia-forum .com /C olum ns/N arayan_K om erath/Y esterday_O nce_M ore/ 2 6 , N a ra y a n a n K o m era th , ‘Y esterday O nce M o re ” P a rt 1: F O IL P rim er’, 11 A pril 200 5 .

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p o in t w a s th a t B an g lad esh a n d K a sh m ir ‘p re d a te G u ja ra t’.133 In th e U K , th e BBC d rew flak fro m th e HSS jo in t secretary , D h iraj S h ah , f o r its c o v erag e o f th e A w aaz re p o rt discussed earlier. Aw aaz, which is predom inantly dom inated by M uslim a n d Far-Left organisations, claims to be the South Asia W atchdog, b u t they have been completely silent over ethnic cleansing of H indus in Bangladesh and Pakistan. Thirty thousand Kashmiri H indus have been massa­ cred in Kashm ir a n d h alf a million have been driven o u t o f their homes by Islamic terrorists and m ade refugees in their ow n hom eland. W hy doesn’t the BBC question Awaaz’s selective choice o f the hum an rights issue to understand th e lack of credibility in their reporting?’.134 I h av e discussed th e A w aaz F A Q p ag e w h ic h c a rrie s m u ch o f its resp o n se to th is rep e rto ire o f alleg atio n s. M o re recen tly , a fte r th e tsu n a m i d isa ster, A w aaz ag ain ap p e ale d to p ro sp e c tiv e d o n o rs to send th e ir c o n trib u tio n s ‘th ro u g h o rg a n iz a tio n s w ith estab lish ed se cu la r, h u m a n ita ria n a n d n o n -v io le n t c re d e n tia ls’. It m en tio n ed th a t p e o p le h a d ex p ressed c o n c e rn o v e r w h e th e r th e m o n ey they d o n a te d w o u ld b e used to ‘a id th e e x p a n sio n o f e x tre m ist H in d u tv a o rg an iz a tio n s in In d ia o r e x tre m ist Islam ist o rg an iz a tio n s in In d o ­ n esia, M alay sia o r elsew h ere’. A w aaz feared th a t th e d isa ster gave a n im p o rta n t o p p o rtu n ity to th e RSS to e x p a n d its activ ities in th e so u th e rn sta te s like T am il N a d u . It a ls o sa id th a t it o p p o se d ‘th e p o litical use o f relig io n to a tta c k in d iv id u als a n d m in o rities in clu d ­ in g M u slim s in In d ia , C h ristia n s a n d d a lits a c ro ss S o u th A sia, H in d u s in B angladesh a n d Shias a n d A h m ad d is in P a k ista n ’.135 A recen t e d ito ria l o f C o m m u n a lism C o m b a t m ad e a c all to all secu lar g ro u p s a n d m in o rities in In d ia to raise th e ir voice ag ain st th e a la rm in g rise o f relig io u s in to le ra n c e in B angladesh: 13 3 . w w w .h v k .o rg /article s/0 1 0 3 /2 6 7 .h tm l, H a rsh V erm a, ‘T h e L eftist A ttack on IDRF’, o riginally p o ste d on w w w .sulekha.com , 17 Ja n u a ry 2 0 0 3 : ‘T hose w ho d u tifu lly tro t o u t re p o rts & p ro p a g a n d a film s a b o u t th e Sangh sh o u ld first a sk them selves w h a t th e y have d o n e for B angladesh o r K ashm ir. W hy d o so m an y In d ian s n o t even w a n t to a cknow ledge th e a tro c ities c om m itted ag ain st H in d u s in K ashm ir o r B angladesh? Is i t ju s t p lain a nd sim ple p olitical c o rrec t­ ness, a leftist bias, o r so m e th in g m o re serious/deeper t h a n th a t? ’. 134. w w w .h in d u stan tim es.co m , 4 M a rc h 200 4 . 13 5 . h ttp ://c o m m u n a lism .b lo g sp o t.c o m /2 0 0 5 /0 1 /b e w a re -o f-fu n d in g -h a te -p re ss release.htm l, ‘B ew are o f F unding H ate’, press release by A w aaz S outh A sia, 5 Ja n u a ry 200 5 .

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Intolerance a n d the targeting o f m inorities, religious o r otherwise, anyw here in th e w orld m ust be challenged. M o re so in th e case of Bangladesh a n d Pakistan fo r, the ‘Islam isation’ drive of M uslim fa­ natics in eith er country directly fuels the sangh p ariv ar’s drive to ‘H induise’ India a n d vice versa.136 T h e re is a lso th e a rg u m e n t th a t in su fficien t a tte n tio n p a id to th e p lig h t o f H in d u s in B an g lad esh h a s left it free ‘fo r a p p ro p ria tio n by rig h t w in g , o fte n fan a tic a l H in d u fo rm a tio n s ’, o n ly to a d d to th e c o m m u n a l ten s io n . T h e w ay fo rw a rd is seen in a n o n -p a rtis a n reg io n al fo ru m , rescu in g th e issue fro m a m a jo rity -m in o rity fram e­ w o rk (Sethi 2 0 0 1 ). I sh o u ld a d d th a t, in 2 0 0 2 , a p p e als w ere m ad e to all S o u th A sians to p ro te s t th e G u ja ra t p o g ro m . T h e S o u th A sian d ia s p o ra w a s a lso ad d re sse d a n d a sk ed to jo in in , especially th o se living in c o u n tries allo w in g u niversal ju risd ic tio n fo r h ein o u s crim es (Bidw ai 2 0 0 2 :1 3 ). M o v in g o u r a tte n tio n b ack to B angladesh, V inay L ai h a s w ritte n th a t th e p ersecu ted H in d u s th ere have received little sch o larly a tte n tio n . H e suggests th a t th ey need to b e view ed a s p a rt o f th e In d ia n d ia s p o ra ‘clo sest to th e “ h o m e la n d ” ’ th a t lives ‘u n d e r d u ress’, ra th e r th a n w ith in th e h isto ry o f H in d u -M u s lim relatio n s in th e In d ia n s u b c o n tin e n t. W h a t o u g h t to ‘raise p ressin g q u estio n s fo r stu d e n ts o f th e In d ia n d ia s p o ra ’, ac co rd in g to h im , is th a t ‘th ere is n o p ro sp ectiv e retu rn to th e h o m ela n d ’ (m y em p h asis) (Lai 20 0 4: 2 5 ). If a n y th in g , th is sh o w s th e p itfa lls o f d ia s p o ra stu d ie s a n d of th eo rizin g th e e q u a tio n b etw een d ia sp o ra s a n d h o m ela n d s w ith o u t fac to rin g in th e com p lex ities o f p a rtitio n ’s s u b c o n tin e n ta l d iasp o ras. F o r it w a s n o t ju s t relig io u s, b u t reg io n al c o m m u n ities a n d fam ilies to o , th a t w ere ren d e re d d iasp o ric a n d /o r refugee/refugee-citizens. M o re o v e r, u n d e r th e L ia q u a t-N e h ru p a c t o f A pril 1 9 5 0 , P a k ista n a n d In d ia p ledged to g u a ra n te e e q u al c itizen sh ip a n d fu n d am e n ta l rig h ts to th e ir relig io u s m in o ritie s, w h ich even if d isre g a rd e d , is still in v o k ed b y peace ac tiv ists.137 E a rlie r in th is c h a p te r I o u tlin e d th e sh ifts in th e p o litics o f th e h o m ela n d s th a t p a rtitio n c re a ted to indi­ ca te th eir b e a rin g o n citizen sh ip ac ro ss S o u th A sia. In th e C o n clu­ sio n th a t fo llo w s th is c h a p te r th ere is a co n n ected discu ssio n o n 13 6 . S eptem ber 2 0 0 4 , p . 7. 13 7 . See fo r exam ple, P akistan-India P eoples’ F orum fo r Peace a n d D em ocracy: Proceedings, R ec o m m en d a tio n s a n d D eclaration o f th e T h ird J o in t C onven ­ tio n , C alcutta, D ece m b er 2 8 - 3 1 , 199 6 , N e w D elhi/L ahore, PIPFPD, p. 61.

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p a rtitio n ’s m ig ra n ts a n d th e ir e x c lu sio n fro m th e d u a l citizenship being pro cessed b y th e In d ia n g o v ern m en t. T h e P a k ista n i w rite r M o h sin H a m id o n ce sp o k e o f a m o re in clu­ sive S o u th A sian id en tity e x istin g o n ly in N e w Y ork: 'I w o u ld say th a t N e w Y o rk to m e feels lik e th e c a p ita l o f th e S o u th A sian d ia sp o ra , a n d in a c e rta in sen se, th e c a p ita l o f S o u th A sia, ju st be­ cau se, given th a t S o u th A sians h av e been so h o stile to e a ch o th e r, so m u ch o f o u r m ix in g h a s h a d to h a p p e n o u tsid e o f S o u th A sia’.138 H a m id h a s a p o in t. B ut, a s c h a p te r th re e a n d th is c h a p te r have sh o w n , it is a hugely co n te sted field in w h ic h stereo ty p es e n d u re , b o th o n th e su b c o n tin e n t a n d in th e d ia sp o ra . K rish n a K u m a r has rem a rk e d th a t K now ledge a b o u t Pakistan has little w o rth in India. And the case of knowledge a b o u t India in Pakistan is n o t very different....In general, the pow er o f stereotypes in bo th countries has proved to o strong to allow scope fo r any serious enquiry a n d knowledge a b o u t each other. As a resu lt, p a rtitio n ‘co m p rises th e la test n ew s th a t In d ia n s tu ­ d e n ts receive a b o u t P a k ista n ’ (original em p h asis). B ut if a S outh A sian h isto ry o f th e freed o m stru g g le w ere to b e w ritte n fo r ‘co m ­ bined re a d e rs h ip ’ o f th e ch ild ren o f In d ia a n d P a k ista n a n d o th e r c o u n tries in th e reg io n , th e re a re co m m o n m em o ries th a t c a n be p u t to g e th e r (K. K u m a r 2 0 0 1 : 4 , 7 4 , 7 6 -7 7 ). A t a n IN SA F m eeting, a p r e s e n ta tio n o n tea c h in g a b o u t p a rtitio n discu ssed th a t recent im m ig ran ts in C hicago said th ey w ere ‘barely ta u g h t a b o u t P artitio n a n d h ad little o r n o kn o w led g e a b o u t th e e v en t a n d its im p licatio n s’. In resp o n se, a co u rse w a s in tro d u c ed to d iscuss th e p a rtia l h isto ri­ cal n a rra tiv e s th a t p e rp e tu a te p a rtitio n ’s an im o sities; th e co u rse is said to have p ro d u ce d a ‘tra n sfo rm ativ e effect’.139 Such p ed ag o g i­ cal in te rv en tio n s a re b ein g m ad e b o th in th e su b c o n tin e n t a n d th e 13 8 . w w w .sam arm ag a zin e.o rg /arc h iv e/a rtic!e .p h p ? id + 1 7 1 , H irsh Saw hney, ‘T h e T ro u b le W ith S ecularism : A R eview o f A m ita v a K u m a r’s H u s b a n d o f a Fanatic’, Sam ar, 3 N o v em b er 2 0 0 4 : ‘B ut H a m id is a successful a n d privileged w riter, a n d w riters by n a tu re a re idealistic. W h a t a b o u t everyone else— th e o th er im m igrants w h o c om e fro m S outh A sia to refu rb ish bro w n sto n e s o r sell fru it a n d m agazines?’. 13 9 . w w w .insaf.net/central/insaf-old/y7.htm l, D aisy R ockw ell, ‘T eaching th e P a r­ tition: T h e T ran sfo rm atio n o f C om m unal Prejudice th ro u g h a L iterature C lass’. But th e BJP s u p p o rte r w hose positio n occasioned the launch o f the course,

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d iasp o ra in a n a tte m p t to u n d o th e p o litic s o f h a te as p a rt o f th e p relu d e to recastin g S o u th A sia. In 1 9 9 9 , th e ‘first ev er’ S o u th A sian h isto ria n s m eet w a s o rg a ­ nized b y th e K hoj p ro g ra m m e ru n b y C o m m u n a lism C o m b a t. T h e p a r t i c i p a n ts in c lu d e d R o m ila T h a p a r , K .N . P a n ik k a r , L eslie G u n a w a rd a n a a n d M u b a ra k Ali. T h e d iscu ssio n s ex a m in e d 'P a rti­ tio n as L oss (in th e In d ia n c o n te x t), P a rtitio n a s A chievem ent (in th e P a k ista n i co n te x t) a n d P a rtitio n a s a Sym bol (as d e p lo y ed by p ro p o n e n ts o f H in d u tv a to ju stify th e ir p o litics)’. T h e p a rtic ip a n ts suggested th a t it w o u ld b e very useful to o rg an iz e w o rk s h o p s fo r h isto ry tea c h e rs in d ifferen t p a rts o f th e c o u n try a n d th e re s t of S o u th A sia ‘a r o u n d th e s in g le th e m e : H o w P a r titio n C a n Be T a u g h t’. 140 A co u p le o f y e a rs late r, a ‘B ook o n th e W e b ’ w a s c o n ­ cep tu alized fo r m id d le a n d hig h school stu d e n ts, to b e w ritte n join tly b y a tea m o f h isto ria n s fro m S o u th A sia. T h e id ea is to ch an g e th e w ay th e y o u th o n b o th sid es o f th e b o rd e r th in k , a n d to g et p a s t th e b a n o n ex c h an g e o f p rin te d m ate ria l; th e fu n d am e n ta l idea b ein g to in te rro g a te th e d isto rtio n o f h isto ry to c re a te enem y im ages o f th e o th e r in sc h o o l te x tb o o k s in In d ia a n d P a k ista n .141 P resu m ab ly , th e b o o k is still in th e m aking. O v e r th e years, K .K . A ziz, M u b a ra k Ali, R u b in a Saigol, T a riq R a h m a n a n d A .H . N a y y a r h av e rev iew ed th e p o litic s o f h isto ry w ritin g in P a k ista n i school tex tb o o k s. A rec e n t r e p o rt o f th e Sus­ ta in a b le Policy D e v elo p m en t In stitu te (SDPI) p o in te d o u t th a t th e sy stem atic in clu sio n o f h a te m aterial a b o u t o th e r n a tio n s a n d faith s, th e g lo rific a tio n o f m ilitarism a n d th e m isuse o f th e Islam ic c o n ­ ce p ts o f je h a d a n d sh a h a d a t (to e n list m ilitan ts) in school tex tb o o k s s ta y e d p u t ; w w w .in s a f .n e t/c e n tr a l/in s a f - o ld /y 3 .h tm I , K a m a l M u n ir , ‘D e co n structing P ak istan ’s Im age o f India: F act a n d F olklore’, arg u e d t h a t the n o tio n th a t ‘solving th e K ashm ir pro b le m w ill w ash a w ay all traces o f this age-old con flic t from o u r m em ories is d elusional a t b e st. T h e c onflict persists because the p o w e r stru c tu re in o u r co u n tries w o u ld be rendered extrem ely vu ln erab le w ith o u t it. A nd it persists because w e d o n o t m ak e en o u g h a t­ te m p ts to d eco n stru c t th e m y th , w hich o u r states p a in t fo r us’. 140. w w w .secu larindia.com /allahs_arm y_in_pakistan.htm , a lso see Setalvad 1999. 141. w w w .c h o w k.com /bin/show a.cgiP qdaupota_sep2600, F oqia Sadiq K han and Q . Isa D a u d p o ta , ‘J o in t Ind o -P ak School H isto ry T e x tb o o k o n th e W eb ’; B hushan (2 0 0 0 ), m en tio n s D a u d p o ta acknow ledging th a t h e g o t th e idea o f such a p ro je c t from a n Israeli site on th e n e t w h e re A rab a n d Jew ish school children in teracted w ith each o th er.

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h av e m ad e ch ild ren p ro n e to sectarian ism a n d e x tre m ism .142 T h e p e d ag o g y o f M u slim m ajo rita ria n ism is largely th e o u tco m e o f th e pro cess o f Islam izatio n u n d e r Z ia ul H a q . By c o n tra s t, th e early tex tb o o k s in P a k ista n th a t w ere m o stly w ritte n a fte r p a rtitio n , ‘w ere free o f th e p a th o lo g ica l h a te ’ seen to d ay (N a y y a r 2 0 0 3 : 7 1 -8 4 ). W h ile M u slim s a re rep re se n te d a s h y p e r m ascu lin e, th e fem iniza­ tio n o f H in d u s is c o m m o n p lac e in P a k ista n i te x tb o o k s .143 A recent survey o n th e in flu en ce o f su c h sc h o o l tex tb o o k s fo u n d th a t alm o st h a lf o f th o se surveyed did n o t s u p p o rt e q u a l rig h ts fo r m in o rities; a th ird s u p p o rte d jih ad i g ro u p s; tw o -th ird s w a n te d th e S h a ria h to be im plem ented; n early a th ird w a n te d K ash m ir to be lib erated b y force; a n d n e a rly 8 0 p e r c e n t s u p p o rte d a n u c le a r P a k ista n .144 H isto ry w ritin g in B angladesh, to o , h a s seen its sh a re o f m y th -m a k in g a b o u t g ro u p s in p o w e r a n d th e e x c lu sio n o f th o se w h o w ere a t th e fo re ­ f ro n t o f th e freed o m m o v em e n t.145 In In d ia , tex tb o o k s w ritte n b y R.S. S h a rm a , R o m ila T h a p a r a n d B ipan C h a n d ra w ere w ith d ra w n b y th e J a n a ta g o v e rn m e n t in 1 977. A n o th e r r o u n d o f rig h t w in g a tta c k s ta rte d in 1 9 9 9 a n d w a s aim ed a t ‘secu lar fu n d am e n ta lists’. T h e alle g a tio n a g a in s t secu lar h isto ri­ a n s is th a t th ey d o n o t h ig h lig h t th e ach iev em en t o f H in d u s d u rin g th e V edic p e rio d ; th a t H in d u p e a sa n ts w e re d elib erately k e p t a t su b sisten c e level b y M u slim ru le rs, fo rc in g th em (u ltim ately ) to m ig ra te to M a u ritiu s a n d th e W e st In d ies a s in d en tu red lab o u r; a n d th a t th e A y o d h y a issue ex isted sin ce W ajid Ali S h a h ’s tim e (M . H a s a n 2 0 0 2 : 109). T h e re a re several o th e r su c h e x am p les. In effect, th e c re a tio n o f ‘a H in d u c o u n te rp a rt to Islam ic fu n d am e n ­ talism , a m o u n ts to legitim izing th e co lo n ia l view o f In d ia n so ciety’ 14 2 . w w w .ja n g .c o m .p k /th e n e w s/m a r2 0 0 4 -d a ily /2 0 -0 3 -2 0 0 4 /o p e d /o 5 .h tm , A .H . N a y y a r, 'D eb a tin g E d u catio n Reform -II’, 2 0 M a rc h 200 4 . 14 3 . w w w .c re sc e n tlife .c o m /a rtic le s /so c ia l% 2 0 issu e s/m ilita riz a tio n _ g e n d e r.h tm , R ubina Saigol, ‘M ilitarisa tio n , N a tio n a n d G ender: W o m e n ’s Bodies a s A re­ n a s o f V iolent C onflict’. 144. w w w .n ew slin e.co m .p k /N e w sM a y 2 0 0 4 /N ew ssp M a y l.h tm , M a sso u d A nsari, ‘Lessons in Intolerance’, N e w slin e , M ay 2 0 0 4 . T he federal e d u catio n m inister, Z u b eid a Jalal rejected th e SDPI re p o rt because it represented a n ‘extrem ist’ view . 145. w w w .indow indow .com /akhbar/article.phjp?article=142& category=8& issue=19, M u b a ra k A li, ‘B angladesh a n d Its N atio n a lism ’ (a review o f R an ab ir Sam addar, P aradoxes o f th e N a tio n a list T im e: P olitical E ssays o n B angladesh, o riginally published in Daum)-, I m u st p o in t o u t th a t, a s o f n o w , I d o n o t h ave access to th e d eb a te o n tex tb o o k s in Bangladesh.

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as m ad e u p o f m o n o lith ic religious b locs (ib id .; T h a p a r 2 0 0 2 :1 5 7 ). T h e RSS n o tio n s o f citizen sh ip , p a trio tism a n d id en tity (based o n th e c o n s tru c tio n o f enem ies w ith in ) a re ta u g h t to stu d e n ts in its v ast n e tw o rk o f sc h o o ls, th ro u g h its v ersio n o f h isto ry a n d th e use o f p u rely H in d u c u ltu ral m ark e rs in a p e d ag o g y th a t is c e n tra l to th e m ak in g o f H in d u rashtra. 146 If tea c h in g a g a in st co m m u n alism co m es u p a g a in st ‘unreflexively c o m m u n a l p o sitio n s’, it is a lso b e­ c a u se ‘ev ery d ay co m m u n a lism ’ is p icked u p in th e h o u se a n d school fro m p a re n ts a n d tea c h e rs. So m e e x a m p le s a re : ‘Islam is rig id; H in d u ism is to le r a n t. M u slim s a re fo re ig n ; H in d u s a re n a tiv e . M u slim s p ro v o k e; H in d u s rea c t. T o d a y ’s b ro k e n m o sq u es p ay fo r yesterday’s b ro k en tem ples’ (Vajpeyi 2 0 0 2 : 5 0 9 3 -9 7 ). A n im p o rta n t w ay o u t is seen in filling in w h a t is d eleted fro m collective m em o­ ries in th e pro cess o f m ak in g a H in d u rashtra, i.e. th e e sp o u sa l of th e tw o -n atio n th eo ry b y th e H in d u M a h asa b h a a n d H in d u violence in p a rtitio n rio ts, a n d even m o re so , sin ce th ese d im en sio n s faced official su p p ressio n u n d e r th e BJP-led g o v e rn m e n t o f th e late n in e­ tie s.147 T a n ik a S a rk a r h a s a rg u e d incisively th a t th e p a tte rn s o f violence in G u ja ra t in 2 0 0 2 w ere ‘aligned to Sangh teachings, stereo­ types, a n d fantasies’, a n d th a t th e ‘m o tif o f infinite, elastic revenge’ fo r th e h isto ric a l w ro n g s o f M u slim s w h ic h is ta u g h t ‘as h isto ry , as relig io n a n d a s n a tio n a lism ’, w a s a t th e c o re o f th e sexualized aveng­ in g te r r o r un leash ed to e sta b lish m a jo rita ria n m ascu lin ity (Sarkar 2 0 0 2 : 2 8 7 2 -7 6 ). M a n y o f th ese a n d sim ila r pedag o g ical in sig h ts a re p o sted o n th e w eb as reso u rces fo r activists. S o u th A sia W a tc h is a n e x am p le w ith its focus o n issues su c h as relig io n , caste, g e n d e r a n d class, a n d h a s links w ith sites su c h a s S o u th A sia D o cu m en ts, A k h b a r, Ja al a n d S a x a k a li’s S o u th Asia Pag es.148 T h e S o u th A sia C itizens W eb is a n o th e r su c h reso u rce w h ic h s u p p o rts th e ex c h an g e o f in­ fo rm a tio n ‘b etw een a n d a b o u t citizen s’ in itiativ es fro m S o u th Asia

146. See S undar (2004: 1 6 0 5 -1 2 ): ‘C h ild ren serve as m essengers by ta k in g hom e pam p h le ts a b o u t RSS o r V ishw a H in d u P arishad activities fo r th e ir p a rents. T eachers k eep a n eye o u t f o r p ro m isin g stu d en ts o r v olunteers w h o c an g o o n to RSS su m m e r c am ps’. In a d d itio n , th ere is a fascist e m phasis o n ‘the physi­ cal “defence” o f religion couched in b ro a d n a tio n alist term s’. 14 7 . w w w .ind ia -sem in a r.co m /2 0 0 3 /5 2 2 % 2 0 tan ik a% 2 0 sa rk a r.h tm , T a n ik a S arkar, ‘H isto ric al Pedagogy o f th e Sangh P ariv a r’. 148. w w w .zm ag.org

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[an d its d iasp o ric co m m u n ities]’.149 A sim R oy has recen tly sh o w n th a t a close e x a m in a tio n o f th e h isto rio g rap h y o f c o m p o site cu ltu re in In d ia co n firm s its ‘stro n g lin k ag e a n d resp o n siv en ess to its ch an g ­ in g p o litical c o n te x ts’. T h u s , th e b u lk o f its lite ra tu re belo n g s to th e ‘last six o r seven decad es, w h e n n a sce n t In d ia n n a tio n a lism , liber­ alism , a n d secu larism h ad b een serio u sly en g ag ed a n d ch allenged, b o th in tellectu ally a n d p o litically , b y religious n a tio n a lists a n c h o re d in e ith e r p o litical Islam o r p o litical H in d u ism o r o th e r religious faith s’. H o w e v e r, R oy is o f th e view th a t th e m ultitudinous a n d m ultifarious academ ic discourses on secularism rem ain to tally irrelevant— only em pty sound— unless w e find an effective constitutional-legal w ay of protecting the m inorities not only ag ain st a m urderous ‘m ajority’ b u t also against a delinquent governm ent a n d state. (A. Roy 2005: 2 - 3 , 18). In a n a d ja c e n t d iscu ssio n o n peace stu d ies, R a n a b ir S a m ad d a r is m in d fu l o f th e ‘p e rm a n e n t resid u e’ o f p a rtitio n in th e reg io n . In his v iew , th e a g e n d a o f p e a ce ‘req u ires th e e v o lu tio n o f a S outh A sian m in d ’, b u t th is need s to be w o rk e d o n in stag es. D e sp ite ‘th e p e rm a n e n ce o f S o u th A sian c o m m o n alities’, to begin w ith , peace s tu d ie s ‘h a s to b e I n d ia n , B a n g la d e s h i, P a k is ta n i, Sri L a n k a n , N ep alese etc.’ (S a m a d d a r 2 0 0 4 : 3 4 - 3 5 ). M e an w h ile , th e d iasp o ric in terv en tio n s m ap p e d h e re give us a sense o f a ran g e o f engage­ m en ts w ith b o th th e n a tio n s in th e reg io n , a n d p o s t-p a rtitio n S outh A sia as it unfolds.

14 9 . w w w .sacw .n et

Conclusion

I n th e nin eties, th e K h u d ai K h id m atg a rs (KK) o fte n m ad e th e ir p o in t b y a sk in g th is q u estio n : ‘If E ast a n d W est P a k ista n c o u ld b e sep a­ ra te d b y In d ia , w h y c o u ld n o t w e fo rm W e st In d ia a n d b e se p ara te d fro m th e re s t o f In d ia b y P a k ista n ? ’ (M . B anerjee 2 0 0 1 a : 3 1 ). T h is a lte rn a tiv e co n c ep tio n o f h isto ric a l ev en ts rem ain ed su b m erg ed a n d su p p ressed fo r a lo n g tim e. T h e m arg in alized KK o f th e N o r th W est F ro n tie r h ad ‘little o c c asio n , o p p o rtu n ity o r d e m a n d fo r th em to tell th e ir sto ries’. N o t su rp risin g ly , w h e n M u k u lik a B anerjee re­ search ed its ra n k a n d file, ‘ra th e r th a n p rep a c k a g e d rem iniscences’ she fo u n d th a t sto ries a n d facts em erged o n ly g rad u a lly (ibid.: 67; B anerjee 2 0 0 1 b : 8). T h e rea so n w h y I m en tio n th e KK is in o r d e r to c o n tra s t it w ith th e sto ry o f th e c a rto g ra p h ic sp lit b etw een E ast a n d W est P a k ista n , fo r in term s o f a fallo u t, th is issue seem s n o w h e re n e a r clo su re. It h a s o ccasio n ed rep e a ted , if d ifferently d o n e h isto ry tellings, b y th e S tra n d e d P ak istan is G en eral R e p a tria tio n C o m m it­ tee (SPG R C) a n d th e M u h a jir Q u a m i M o v e m e n t (M Q M ), a n d p ro ­ vided a c o n tin u in g a q a llia t persp ectiv e o n p a rtitio n . M u c h o f this h a s b een a d d re sse d to tra n s n a tio n a l h u m a n rig h ts a c tiv ists,1 th e U N , a n d agencies a n d c o u n tries u n fam ilia r w ith th e ir sto ry . But even w ith in th is s tra n d o f M u h a jir m ig ra n ts th ere a re in stan ces o f silence o r n o n -en g ag em en t, m ea n in g it is o fte n a g en eratio n al thing. F o r e x a m p le , M e h r-u n -N isa k n o w s very little a b o u t h e r p a re n ts ’ m ig ra tio n to K a ra c h i fro m B ih a r, v ia B a n g la d esh . H e r m o th e r ex p lain s: ‘th ey d o n o t w a n t to h e a r a b o u t it. I d o n o t w a n t to talk a b o u t it. W e a re h ere n o w ’ (C h a u d h ry 2 0 0 4 : 2 7 6 - 7 7 ). B ut it is in 1. See R on et a l. (2 0 0 5 : 5 7 1 ) fo r th e insight (based o n a study o f A m nesty In ter­ natio n al), th a t a fte r th e c old w a r N G O s w ere n o longer north -c en tric , if o nly to build u p th eir c redibility in th e s o uth.

Conclusion • 231

th e tw o M u h a jir fo rm atio n s in th e e a st a n d w est th a t th e tw o -n atio n th eo ry has b een lived o u t a n d in te rro g a ted m o st sh a rp ly a ro u n d th e issues o f w a ta n a n d g a ir-m u lki-n ess b y th e M u h a jirs a n d by th e Bengalis a n d Sindhis. Y ears a fte r h e left his n a tiv e village, Irk i in B ih ar, fo r P a k ista n at 1 3 y e a rs o f ag e in 1 9 4 7 , th e s c h o la r a ctiv ist, E q b al A h m ad , w ent b a c k to it fo r a BBC d o c u m e n ta ry . H e ch o se to tra c e his step s a lo n g th e G ra n d T ru n k R o a d b ecau se it sym b o lized th e u n ity o f In d ia fo r h im , till th e ‘tw o n a tio n a lism s’ b ro k e it up. H e recalled th a t th e lib rary his g ra n d fa th e r h ad b u ilt h eld n e a rly 5 ,0 0 0 b o o k s a n d 3 ,0 0 0 m an u sc rip ts, all o f w h ich w ere d estro y ed d u rin g th e killings o f 1946. W h en G a n d h i visited th e village a n d to o k H in d u a n d M u slim ch il­ d re n a lo n g w ith h im as a n e x a m p le o f u n ity , A h m ad rem em bered tra v ellin g w ith him fo r six w eeks. T h o u g h h e w as very m u ch w ith th e P a k ista n m o v em en t h e w e n t a lo n g b ecau se his p a re n ts h ad C o n ­ gress co n n e ctio n s.2 In th e early nin eties, a fte r a c o n feren ce o rg a ­ nized b y T h e F rontier P o st o n th e rese ttle m e n t o f B iharis, E qbal A h m a d w ro te a distressed piece. A fter a trip to th e B angladeshi cam p s, th e n e w sp a p e r’s p u b lish e r o b v io u sly w a n te d to h elp those stra n d e d th ere , b u t th e exercise b a c k fire d . H e fo u n d to p -ra n k in g P a k ista n i p o litic ian s a n d intellectu als refu sin g to en g ag e seriously w ith th e issue o f citizen s’ rig h ts. A h m ad la te r p u t th e q u e stio n to several em in en t law yers w h o said th a t u n d e r th e law they w ere citi­ zens o f Pak istan . Y et, he w ro te, they w ere w itness to ‘th e legalized to rm e n t o f fellow citizens’, because o f th e c o n tin u ed o p p o sitio n to th eir rep a tria tio n ,3 a n d th a t sto ry o f statelessness continues. In J a n u a ry 2 0 0 5 , fo rty -fiv e B iharis w ere sto p p e d w h ile try in g to cross in to P ak istan fro m B o b iy an -T arn a N a a la in H ira n a g a r in n o rth In d ia. T h e y sa id th ey h ad h e a d ed fo r K o lk a ta a fte r p a y in g a n a g ent a n d b o a rd e d th e H im g iri E xpress p o sin g as lab o u re rs retu rn in g to P u n ja b fro m B ih ar, on ly to b e d itch ed by th e ag e n t. T h e y decided to m o v e o u t b ecau se th ey sa id th e su p p ly o f electricity a n d food

2 . Eqbal A hm ad interview ed by D avid B arsam ian, H im al, M arc h 199 9 , p p . 2 7 -2 8 ; a lso see w w w .n ybooks.com /articles/10451, T h e N e w Y o rk R e v ie w o f B ooks, 17(3), 2 Septem ber 197 1 , E qbal A hm ad, ‘L etter to a P akistan D iplom at’: am on g o t h e r p o i n t s , A h m a d m e n tio n s t h a t m o s t o f h is p e o p le h a d m igrated to E a st P a k ista n a n d several o f them w ere k illed by ‘B engali zealots d u rin g th e period im m ediately preceding th e m ilitary’s in terv e n tio n ’ (in 1971). 3 . w w w .bitsonline.net/eqbal/articles_by_eqbal_view s.asp?id+ 61& cid+ 9,‘Q uestion of R ights’, D a w n , 2 7 S eptem ber 1992.

232 ♦ Partition and the South Asian Diaspora

h a d b een sto p p e d in th e c a m p s in B angladesh.4 O v e r th e years, th e fate o f th e B iharis in B an g lad esh h a s sym b o lized th e possib ility o f a fo rth c o m in g u n -an c h o rin g o f M u h a jirs fro m Sindh. In th e c o n te x t o f th e M Q M lead ersh ip leaving P a k ista n in th e early nin eties, O s k a r V e rk a a ik fo u n d th a t m an y in H y d e ra b a d feared th e sam e could h a p p e n to th em a n d th ey co u ld e n d u p in ‘a U N refugee c a m p in so m e d ista n t d esert’. T h e M u h a jirs in P a k k a Q ila ‘sa w a c o n tin u ity in th e h isto ry o f In d ia n M u slim s, w h o w ere tim e a n d a g a in fo rced to leave, fro m In d ia , fro m B angladesh, a n d n o w , po ssib ly , fro m P a k ista n . W h a t w o rrie d th em m o st w a s th e a b sen c e o f a n o th e r p o ten tial h o m elan d o u tsid e P ak istan ’. Forced ‘as f a r a s th e w estern­ m o st p o in t o f th e s u b c o n tin e n t, th ey co u ld n o t trav el a n y fu rth e r as a n a tio n ’. T h e y h a d tw o o p tio n s: ‘O n e increasingly difficult o p tio n w a s to b eco m e a lab o u r m ig ran t a n d in tim e b eco m e p a rt o f a n o th e r n a tio n . T h e o th e r o p tio n , in case o f esca la tio n o f violence, w a s to d efen d K a ra c h i a n d H y d e ra b a d a s M u h a jir te rrito ry a n d b eco m e a m ajo rity ’.5 It is th e possib ility o f th e seco n d o p tio n th a t a n im ates S indhi resistan ce a n d keeps th e fo rtie s’ h o m elan d d e b a te o p en. In a c h a rte r p re se n te d a n d a p p ro v e d b y th e S in d h i N a tio n a l C o n feren ce a t B h itsh ah o n 21 M a y 2 0 0 5 , Sindhis living in P a k ista n a n d o v erseas asserted th e rig h t ‘to revisit th e S indhi h isto ric deci­ sio n ’ to jo in P a k ista n ‘in [the] light o f th e w ay it h a s been (m is)treated w ith in th e u n io n ’. T h e c h a rte r sto p s s h o rt o f d eclarin g th a t Sindh w a s p a rtin g w a y s fro m P a k ista n b u t in d icates th a t th is m ay h a p p e n u ltim ately. T h e re is a c ateg o rical d e m a n d th a t th e P a k ista n i g o v­ e rn m e n t p a ss a leg islatio n a s su rin g th e ‘stab le m ajo rity o f Sindhis a n d th e ir rig h t to ru le o v e r th e ir h o m ela n d , fo rev er’. T h e P ak istan a rm y is d escrib ed a s n o n -in clu siv e a n d ‘c o n tin u o u sly ’ su b v ertin g p ro v in cial a u to n o m y ‘u n d e r th e p re te x t o f N a tio n a l In te g rity ’. T h e c h a rte r sta te s th a t on ly a re-w ritte n , g enuinely federal c o n stitu tio n ca n re ta in th e m em b er s ta te s in P ak istan . P a rtitio n e n d u re s a s a

4 . w w w .pakob serv e r.n e t2 0 0 5 0 1 /2 7 /n ew s/to p sto rie s0 7 .asp , M a h m o o d H ussain, ‘India to R aise B iharis Issue a t S AARC S um m it Sidelines’, P akistan O bserver, 2 7 J a n u a ry 2 0 0 5 . T h is re p o rt m entioned th a t th e last m eeting of th e R abita T ru st (see c h a p te r tw o) w as h eld in 1997: ‘W hen the US State D e p artm en t o n 2 3 S eptem ber, 2 001 categorized th e R a b ita T ru s t a s a n org a n iz atio n linked to in tern atio n a l te rro r everything w e n t a g a in st th e Bihari M uslim s’. 5 . w w w .p s cw .u v a .n l/g m /a rtic le s/o v 2 0 0 0 b .h tm , ‘Back in D iasp o ra: ‘F un’ a n d N o stalg ia A m ong M u h a jirs in P akistan’, p ap e r given a t S outh A sia W o rk ­ sh o p , U niversity of Chicago.

Conclusion • 233

p o in t o f reference in th e c h a rte r a n d th is is e v id e n t in th e d em an d fo r a co m p e n sa tio n o f R s 1 0 0 b illio n fo r th e ‘fo rcib le u s u rp a tio n of th e c a p ita l o f S in d h , K a ra c h i, d u rin g th e y e a rs 1 9 4 8 - 7 0 ’, a n d a co m p e n sa tio n o f R s 2 0 0 b illio n to th e p e o p le o f S in d h , ‘fo r giving aw a y th e u rb a n p ro p e rty a n d b u siness to th e im m ig ran ts [M uhajirs] u n d e r c o n fis c a to ry s e ttle m e n t la w s e n a c te d b y th e im m ig ra n t b u rea u c ra cy , th ere b y closing all av en u es fo r in d ig en o u s p e o p le to u rb an iz e a n d to e n te r in to b u siness a n d in d u stry ’. T h e re is a n ex ­ p ressio n o f rese n tm e n t b ecause all businesses a n d properties o f the prosperous H indus w ere arb i­ trarily allotted to the im m igrants w h o did no t have to provide any p ro o f o f ow nership o f property o f equal value in India... . N o native Sindhi w as allowed to keep any property even if legally purchased and ow ned before the partition. T h e c h a rte r says S indh has a ‘d ic ta to rs h ip o f m in o rity ’; th o u g h th e M Q M is n o t n a m e d , th is is a n in d ic a tio n o f th e sen tim en ts th a t p e rv a d e m u ch o f th e d o c u m e n t. ‘A n e th n o -lin g u istic te rro ris t a n d fascist o rg an iz a tio n h a s been h a n d e d ov er th e G o v e rn m e n t o f Sindh a g a in st all n o rm s o f d e m o c ra cy a n d decency a n d th is te rro ris t o rg a ­ n iz a tio n is u sin g its p lac e o f priv ileg e to c o n s ta n tly c o n sp ire to d iv id e S in d h o n e th n ic lines’. T h e d e m a n d is to ch eck ‘th e p e rsistent in flu x in to S indh o f m ig ra n ts fro m o th e r p ro v in ces a n d o th e r c o u n ­ tries’. O n read in g betw een th e lines, th e reference to th e ‘dem o g rap h ic re-en g in eerin g o f S in d h ’ to c o n v e rt th e ‘n ativ e p o p u la tio n in to [a] m in o rity th ro u g h m assive im p o rta tio n o f im m ig ra n ts fro m all ov er th e w o rld ’ o b viously m ea n s th e S tra n d e d P ak istan is in B angladesh, th o u g h th e re p a tria tio n pro cess a p p e ars to b e co m pletely shelved. T h e s u b -te x t is u n m ista k a b le . E co n o m ic m ig ra tio n (read p a rtitio n m ig ratio n s) is n o t a h u m a n rig h t, it is on ly a privilege d e p e n d en t o n th e d isc re tio n o f th e ‘h o st c o u n try ’.6 6 . w w w .s atrib u n e .co m /arc h iv e s/2 0 0 5 0 5 /P l_ c h arter.h tm M .A . Siddiqui, ‘Sindh D em an d s R e-w riting o f C o n stitu tio n , Social, Political T e rm s to Stay in P aki­ s ta n ’: ‘T h e spo n so rs o f th e C h a rte r sa y i t has been d ra fte d , pro p o se d and app ro v ed by m o re 6 0 ,0 0 0 H a ri a n d m a z d o o r activists, stu d e n ts a n d by the office bearers a n d representatives o f p olitical p a rties, m en a n d w om en from all w a lk s o f life, including leaders o f th e Sindh C o n su ltativ e F orum , P akistan P eoples’ P arty , A w am i T a h re e k , Sindh T a ra q i P asand P a rty , Sindh N a tio n a l F r o n t, S indh C u ltu re a n d L ite ra tu re D e v e lo p m e n t C o m m itte e , S in d h ia n i T ah re ek , Sindhi A ssociation o f N o r th A m erica, M uslim L eague (N aw az) S indh

234 ♦ Partition and the South Asian Diaspora

I have p o in te d to th e g e n d ered dyn am ics o f th e h o sta g e th eo ry o n th e su b c o n tin e n t a n d its c o n tin u in g reso n a tio n s in th e S o u th A sian d ia sp o ra . B ut th e p o in t to b e a b so rb e d is th a t, p a rticu la rly in th e a fte rm a th o f H in d u tv a p o litic s in In d ia , M u slim s h av e d efini­ tively in terro g ated th e ir rep resen tatio n a s p ro x y citizens o f Pak istan, w h e th e r in th e d ia sp o ra , in b a c k w a rd a n d D a lit p o litics,7 o r b y an o rg an iz a tio n like th e M u m b a i-b a se d , M u slim s F o r S ecu lar D em o c­ rac y (M S D ) w h ic h d e n o u n c e s ‘th e in sid io u s h a b it o f th e sa n g h p a riv a r a n d its fo llo w ers’ o f u sin g ‘M u slim s’, ‘P a k ista n ’ a n d ‘an tin a tio n a l’ a s ‘in te rch a n g e a b le w o rd s ’. W ith o u t d en y in g th e ‘reality o f P a k ista n ’, th e M SD ‘categ o rically rejects th e tw o -n a tio n th eo ry p ro p o u n d e d b y J in n a h , S a v a rk a r a n d o th e rs , a n d recognizes th a t In d ia n M u slim s a re th e w o rs t victim s o f th e tra g ic p a rtitio n o f th e c o u n try ’. Its stra te g y is to ta k e o n b o th H in d u a n d M u slim co m m u ­ n alism b ecau se th ey b o th feed o ff e a ch o th e r. T h e S an g h P a riv a r’s endless loyalty tests o f M u slim s a re ro u n d ly co n d em n ed . T h e M SD believes th a t ‘th e o n ly g u a ra n te e o f su rv iv al w ith d ig n ity lies, n o t in g a in in g th e so-called “ g o o d w ill o f th e m a jo rity ” a s th e RSS a d ­ vises, b u t in th e defense o f In d ia ’s c o n s titu tio n th a t g u a ra n te es th em fu n d am e n ta l rig h ts a s e q u a l citizen s’ (original em p h a sis).8 C h a p te r, W o rld S indhi C on g re ss (W a sh in g to n , D .C .), S in d h i In te lle ctu a l F o ru m , Sindhi A dabi R esearch C ouncil, J a m ia t Ulem a Islam , P akistan L a b o u r P arty , B alochistan N a tio n a l M o vem ent, Sindh R esearch C ouncil, C en ter fo r Peace a n d H u m a n D evelopm ent, F riends o f In dus, N a tio n a l W ork ers Party a n d Sindhi G ra d u a te A ssociation’. T h e signatories include R asool B ux Palijo (see c h a p te r tw o ). 7 . P. G hosh (2005: 3 5 5 -8 8 ) is a c o m p ara tiv e s tu d y o f th e T ehreek-e-N isw an o f the C PI-M L (L iberation) a n d the P asm a n d a M uslim M a h a z , a n d p a r t o f m y larger a n d fo rth c o m in g w o rk o n this them e; A lso see J . A lam ( 2 0 0 0 :1 3 7 -5 1 ) f o r th e arg u m en t t h a t O th e r B ackw ard C lasses (OBCs) political form ations a n d the M a n d a l fa cto r have facilitated M uslim s to becom e p a r t of social jus­ tice politics by aligning w ith com m unities ad ja c e n t to th e m ; Sikand (2004) discusses su b altern M uslim s building alliances w ith m arginalized non-M usIim g ro u p s, in p a rtic u la r, D alits, trib als a n d bac k w ard castes, a n d th eir cri­ tiq u e o f th e Jam aa t-I-Islam i, T ablighi J a m a t a n d th e c u sto d ian s o f Sufi shrines, f o r ig n o rin g th e social liberation c o n te n t o f Islam. 8 . See w w w .m fsd.org/press/m sdpressstatem ent.htm . T h e first n a tio n a l m eeting o f the M uslim s f o r S ecular D em ocracy w a s h e ld o n 1 O c to b e r 2 0 0 3 . T h e M S D describes itself as ‘a re sponse, o n th e o n e h a n d to th e sustained hate p ro p a g a n d a a n d t h e cele b ratio n o f violence by th e Sangh P a riv a r a n d its affili­ ates, a n d o n th e o th e r to fanatics a n d extrem ists am o n g M uslim s w h o claim to be th e sole representatives o f th e M uslim C om m unity’; F ilm fare, O c to b e r 2 0 0 4 , p p . 1 2 4 -2 5 carried details on this org a n iz atio n o f w hich th e lyricist

Conclusion » 235

W ritin g o n th e In d ia n d ia s p o ra in th e e a rly n in eties, W illiam S afran (1991: 8 8 -8 9 ) h ad a rg u e d th a t it differed ‘in im p o rta n t w ay s’ fro m th a t o f th e J e w s a n d A rm en ia n s in th a t th e In d ia n h o m elan d h a d ‘ex isted c o n tin u o u sly ’ (m y em p h asis). T h e b rie f referen ce w as based o n th e o ld la b o u r d ia sp o ra , stre tc h in g fro m Fiji to T o b a g o , a n d clo ser h o m e, to N e p a l a n d Sri L a n k a , all o f w h ich h e nam ed. T h e filling in o f th e p a rtitio n d iasp o ra in th is stu d y is m e a n t to u p d a te a n d co m p lica te th e tw o c e n tra l th em es o f d iasp o ra studies: th e o rig in al h o m ela n d a n d th e m y th o f re tu rn . A ny re-th eo riza tio n will n eed to lo o k a t th e s ta te ’s in itial a p p ro a c h to w a rd s different d iasp o ra s. T h e ‘rig h t to r e tu rn ’ w a s to be given u p , b o th b y People o f In d ia n O rig in (PIO ) settled o v erseas a n d by p a rtitio n ’s refugees (S a m a d d a r 2 0 0 3 a : 5 7 - 5 8 ) . L a te r, th e c itiz e n s o f P a k ista n a n d B an g lad esh w ere specifically e x c lu d ed fro m th e p u rv ie w o f th e C iti­ z e n sh ip A m e n d m e n t A ct o f 2 0 0 3 .9 W h e n th e p rim e m in iste r, M a n m o h a n Singh, recen tly sa id h e w o u ld c o n sid e r d u a l citizen sh ip fo r o v erseas In d ia n s in all c o u n tries, th is is w h a t a h o rrifie d L.K. A dvani o f th e BJP h a d to say: ‘D o es th is m ean th a t all th o se In d ian s w h o h ad m ig rated to W e st P a k ista n a n d E ast P a k ista n a fte r J a n u ­ a ry 2 6 , 1 9 5 0 in s u p p o rt o f th e tw o -n a tio n th eo ry , in clu d in g m an y o f th o se w h o have since th en indulged in an ti-In d ia n activities, w ould be w elco m ed w ith d u a l citizen sh ip ?’. 10 T h e q u e stio n w a s a rh e to ri­ c al o n e (see c h a p te r th ree), b u t th e P ak istan In d ia People’s Forum fo r Peace a n d D em ocracy (PIPFPD) m ad e th e d e m a n d in N e w D elhi in F e b ru a ry 2 0 0 5 , th a t ‘H in d u s fro m P a k ista n w h o m ig ra te to In d ia a n d M u slim s fro m In d ia w h o m ig ra te to P a k ista n a lo n g w ith th e ir fam ilies be g u a ra n te e d d u a l n a tio n a lity ’. 11 Javed A k h ta r is a fo u n der-m em ber (so is Javed A n a n d , co -ed ito r o f C o m m u ­ nalism Combat)-, N a n d g o a n k a r (2004) re p o rte d th a t its vice-president Sajid R ashid w as stab b e d by M uslim hard lin ers a n d m e n tio n s th e M SD form ing stu d y circles in differe n t p a rts o f India a n d engaging w ith a cross-section o f people from vario u s stra ta . 9 . T h e T im es o f In d ia , 10 Ja n u a ry 2 0 0 5 ; see th e ed ito ria l, ‘D iasp o ra a n d C iti­ zenship’, T h e H in d u , 1 A pril 2 0 0 5 : ‘Since a ll requests fo r overseas citizenship a re p rocessed o n a case-by-case basis, th ere is n o ratio n a l basis fo r d isqualify ­ ing p eople m erely because they previously held citizenship o f a c o u n try figur­ ing in a n egative list. A n e xam ple o f this irratio n a lity w ould be the ineligibility o f a c hild b o rn in India w h o m ig ra te d w ith h is o r h e r p are n ts t o P a k ista n a fte r 26 J a n u a ry 1 9 5 0 , a n d is to d a y a citizen o f the US o r the UK’. 10. T h e Indian E x press, 9 J u n e 200 5 . 11. ‘D ec la ratio n o f th e Seventh J o in t C on v en tio n o f th e P akistan India People’s F orum fo r Peace a n d D em ocracy’, 2 8 F ebruary 200 5 .

236 * Partition and the South Asian Diaspora

W h en th e M Q M lea d e r A lta f H u ssa in w a s in In d ia in 2 0 0 4 , h e is sa id to h av e s o u g h t e asier p o litical a sy lu m fo r his s u p p o rte rs b u t w a s tu rn e d d o w n . It w a s sp e cu la te d th a t th o u g h h is n o m in e e is g o v e rn o r o f S indh a n d h e is a key ally o f th e g o v e rn m e n t, in a p o st9 /1 1 w o rld , th e c h a n c e s o f h is s u p p o rte rs g e ttin g a sy lu m have d im inished in th e US a n d th e UK. H u ssa in ’s o th e r p lea, th a t M u h ajirs be g ra n te d lo n g -term v isas w a s n o t co n sid e red . H e is rep o rte d to have said th a t m an y seco n d g en eratio n M u h ajirs, ‘facing th e acrim o­ n io u s fru it o f th e 1 9 4 7 p a rtitio n ’, w a n te d th eir In d ia n citizenship b a c k .12 Som ething o f th is se n tim en t com es acro ss in th e reflections o f a d iasp o ric M u h a jir fro m U tta r P rad esh (UP) w h o is disillusioned w ith p o s t-p a rtitio n P ak istan : I now hardly see a n d feel any resem blance to the Pakistan th a t I cam e to study a n d live in a n d th a t th e tatty o n e which exist today {sic). Today there are large settlem ents o f educated m ohajirs in USA, UK, G erm any and o th er p arts o f Europe. T h e D iaspora o f Indian M uslim s w h o m igrated to P akistan is fo u n d all over afte r their rem igration. Even highly placed officials, after retirem ent, are joining their children a b ro a d w h o left earlier. D uring my travels I have come across P akistani C an ad ian s w h o retrieved th e ancestral p roperty their p arents have left in India. They prefer to spend their holidays in India rath er th an in Pakistan which w as their last co u n try of a b o d e .13 12. w w w .s a trib u n e .c o m /a rc h iv e s /n o v 0 4 /P l_ a ru n 4 .h tm , A ru n R a jn a th , ‘A lta f H ussain Seeks E asier P oltical A sylum F o r H is S upporters: India R ejects’. T h e m in iste r o f s tate fo r h o m e affairs, S. R eg h u p ati said: ‘Such pro p o sa ls a re n o t viable o r p ractical, a n d M r . H u ssain him self u n d erstan d s it. If w e g ra n t asy­ lum to th e P akistani M o h ajirs (refugees), w hy n o t to B angladeshis? T h e n w e sh o u ld also cease o u r a ctio n o f identifying illegal m ig ra n ts from B angladesh a n d w e s h o u ld open o u r d o o rs fo r every M o h a jir a n d give them legal s ta tu s ’. 13. w w w .lo gosjournal.co/issue_4.1/khan.htm , Sayeed H a sa n K han, ‘C ritical R e­ flections o f a M o h a jir’. B o m in U P in a ‘m id d le-ra n k lan d o w n in g fam ily’, he h a d been ‘deeply a ttra c te d to the risin g P ak istan m o v e m e n t w hose a im s and im plications, how ever, n o p ro p o n e n t bo th e red to ex p lain clearly’ to th em . K han w a s disillusioned w ith th e th e o cratic inclinations o f ‘o p p o rtu n istic p o li­ ticians’ a n d th e disow ning o f th e Biharis in B angladesh. H e sum m ed up: ‘L o o k ­ ing back o n all these events o n e w o u ld be a fool n o t to w o n d e r w h e th e r it w as w o rth it. T h e leadership lacked s tatesm an sh ip and M o u n tb a tte n w a s in a h urry to g e t b ack to E n gland. W h a t o n e n eeds to d a y is w h a t w a s l o s t in th e 1940s: th e pro sp e ct th a t In d ia, P akistan a n d Bangladesh sh o u ld e n te r in to a close relatio n sh ip th a t m ay lead to a F ederal sta te ’.

Conclusion • 237

T h e d iasp o ric w ay o u t o f th e ch an g ed P a k ista n is o p e n to o n ly a few M u h ajirs. M a n y in th e cam p s in Bangladesh still insist o n being relo c a te d in P a k ista n , even u n d e rta k in g to sta y p u t in P u n ja b , a n d a v o id S indh w h e re th e re h av e been m o v em en ts to s to p B iharis. An in te rn a tio n a l refugee o rg a n iz a tio n recen tly o u tlin ed th e sa m e sug­ g estio n s th a t ad v o cacy g ro u p s have m ad e since th e seventies: th a t th o s e w h o w is h to s e ttle in P a k is ta n b e r e lo c a te d th e re ; th a t B an g lad esh sh o u ld g ra n t c itizen sh ip to th o se B iharis w h o w a n t to sta y o n ; a n d th e U N H C R sh o u ld p ro v id e relief co n sisten t w ith its m a n d a te to a d d re ss stateless p e o p le in th e sam e m a n n e r as refugees a n d fac ilitate e ith e r P a k ista n i o r B an g lad esh i c itizen sh ip o r ex p lo re o p tio n s fo r th ird c o u n try rese ttle m e n t.14 M e an w h ile , th e stateless­ ness o f th o se in th e c a m p s c o n tin u e s to b e c o n tra s te d w ith th e ‘m ag­ n an im ity ’ sh o w n to A fg h an refugees in P a k ista n .15 T h e m ak in g o f B angladesh ren d ered th e refugee-citizens o f th e forties to th e sixties, refugees y et ag a in , b u t th is w a s a sto ry th a t th e U N refused to pick u p a n d o n e th a t th e P a k ista n i g o v e rn m e n ts tu rn e d in to a n epic w ait. F ro m th e eighties o n w a rd s a co u p le o f d iasp o ric rese ttle m e n t p ro ­ po sals (in clu d in g in ‘a n y o th e r M u slim c o u n try ’) cra sh e d because o f th e statelessness fac to r. In th e p e rc e p tio n o f th e S tra n d e d Pak i­ sta n is th ey h av e alw ay s been a t th e b o tto m o f th e to te m p o le o f c o n te m p o ra ry A sian a n d A frican refugees, a n d m arg in alized b y th e u m m a 's focus o n B osnia a n d K ashm ir. T h o u g h P a k ista n w a s c re a ted in th e n a m e o f relig io n , A deel K han h a s a rg u e d th a t ‘even a fte r o v e r 5 0 y ears o f its existence’, it has n o t b een a b le to d eterm in e ‘w h a t ro le relig io n sh o u ld have in th e affairs o f th e s ta te ’. In th e a b sen ce o f a c o h e re n t n a tio n a l ideo lo g y , ‘Islam has been cynically used to suppress th e voices o f regional a n d ethnic d isco n ten t’. 16 In th is b a c k d ro p , th e M Q M has been d o in g tw o things 14. w w w .re fu g e e sin te rn a tio n a l.o rg /c o n te n t/a rtic le /d e ta il/4 6 6 6 ? P H P S E S S ID = d la 7 0 c 5 3 2 0 0 , ‘S tateless B iharis in B angladesh: H u m a n ita ria n N ig h tm are ’, 13 D ecem ber 2 0 0 4 . T h e recom m endations w ere based o n a v isit to B angladesh in N ovem ber 200 4 . 15. S e e , f o r e x a m p le , w w w .p a k is ta n lin k .c o m /O p in io n /2 0 0 5 /M a r c 0 5 /2 5 / 07.htm S unday, 10 A pril 2 0 0 5 , M ah fu zu r R a h m a n , ‘Plight o f S tranded Paki­ stanis’. 16. A . K han (2005: 68 a n d 77): ‘T his is w hy m any different kinds o f Islam have been p rojected a t different stages in P akistan’s h istory a ccording to th e dem ands o f th e tim es. F or instance, the early rulers’ Islam w as a “liberal-m odernist Is­ la m ”, A yub K han’s “developm ental Islam ”, Y ahya K han’s “n a tio n a list Islam ”, B hutto’s “ socialist-populist Islam ”, a n d Z ia ’s “ revivalist-fundam entalist Islam ”’.

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sim u ltan eo u sly : fo rg in g a reg io n al collectivity w ith Sindhis fo r p ra g ­ m atic re a so n s,17 a n d rep e a tin g its critiq u e o f th e tw o -n a tio n th eo ry a n d its idea o f P a k ista n a s a h o m ela n d fo r th e M u slim s o f th e su b ­ c o n tin e n t. A ltaf H u ssa in says th e tw o -n a tio n th eo ry c o n tin u e s to w re a k ‘u n to ld m iseries o n th e p e o p le o f th is reg io n fo r th e p a s t five decades’; a n d th a t p e rh a p s th e idea o f P ak istan w a s ‘dead a t its in­ cep tio n , w h e n th e m ajo rity o f M u slim s c h o se to sta y b ack afte r p a rtitio n ’. H e a ls o fo cu ses o n 1 9 7 1 a n d th e p lig h t o f ‘3 0 0 ,0 0 0 S tran d ed P ak istan is in B an g lad esh fo r th re e d ecad es’, a w a itin g th e ir p assag e to ‘th e ch o sen lan d ’. T ill SA FTA co m es th ro u g h a n d les­ so n s a re le a rn t fro m th e E u ro p e a n U n io n , a s o f to d a y , H u ssa in d escribes th e p e o p le -to -p e o p le in itiativ es b etw een In d ia a n d Pak i­ s ta n a s m erely a ‘P u n ja b -to -P u n ja b ’ o n e .18 A c o u p le o f y ears ago, A lta f H u s s a in sa id h e w o u ld w rite a n o p e n le tte r to th e In d ia n M u slim s u p d a tin g th em a b o u t th e ir ‘plig h t’ in th e h o p e th a t th e M u slim s o f In d ia ‘m ig h t raise th e ir voice a g a in st th e o p p ressio n faced by th e M u h a jirs .19 T h a t th is rec o n n e c tio n did n o t h a p p e n is in itself a n in d ex o f th e lo ad e d c o m p lex ities o f th e h o sta g e th eo ry u n d e rp in n in g p a rtitio n ’s s u b c o n tin e n ta l d ia sp o ra , w h ic h c o n tin u es to c o n to u r a n im a te d c o n v e rsa tio n s in d iasp o ric settin g s.20 Y et o n e o f th e p a m p h le ts c irc u la tin g in G u ja ra t in 2 0 0 2 sug­ gested a fin an cial b o y c o tt o f M u slim s a n d in clu d ed th is fam iliar a n n ih ila tio n th re a t: T o date, all th e governm ents have been supporting M uslim s. These M uslim s d o n o t know th a t H in d u society has w oken up a n d is in th e process o f sending all M uslim s to P ak istan ....T h e violence th at erupted afte r th e killings in G odhra is a w arning to you M uslim s th at th ere is still tim e fo r you to go to Pakistan if you w a n t to .21 17. Ibid.: 177, a ttrib u te s th e 'M Q M ’s flirtatio n w ith S indhis’ to tactical reasons: ‘it d id n o t w a n t a B engal-like situ a tio n , w here M o h ajirs h a d sided w ith the P ak istan i estab lish m en t a g a in st B engalis a n d therefore h a d to suffer a fte r th e d e fea t o f the P akistan a rm y ’. 18. w w w .m qm .org/English-N ew s/N ov-2004/ah-speech-india-061104.htm ,‘Keynote Speech o f A ltaf H u ssain, M Q M F ounder & L eader o n International C onfer­ ence, India A nd W orld: A B lueprint F or P artnership a n d G ro w th O rganized By H in d u sta n T im es Leadership Initiative, N ew D elhi, 5 - 6 N ovem ber 2004. 19. w w w .m q m .o rg , A lta f H u ssa in ’s o p en le tte r to th e p e o p le o f P a k ista n , 19 O c to b e r 200 0 . 2 0 . See, fo r e xam ple, T . M o h am m a d (2001: 29 6 ). 2 1 . C om m u n a lism C o m b a t, M a rc h -A p ril 2 0 0 2 , p . 135.

Conclusion • 239

Iro n ically , a d e c ad e b e fo re th is w a s circ u la te d , B enazir B h u tto m ad e a p a ra n o id rem a rk a b o u t H in d u fu n d am en talism being a th re a t to In d ia ’s in te g rity : ‘If In d ia d isin te g ra te d , th e M u s lim s o f th e co u n try w o u ld co m e to P a k ista n w h ic h w e c a n n o t a ffo rd ’.22 Both th e p a m p h le t a n d th e re m a rk p o in t to a d a te d referen ce to P ak istan as a s u b c o n tin e n ta l d e stin a tio n fo r In d ia n M u slim s, th o u g h fro m d iffe re n t p ersp e c tiv e s. A n o th e r p a m p h le t th a t w a s c irc u la te d in G u j a r a t in e a rly 2 0 0 2 i n d ic a te s a n e n d u r i n g p o s t- p a r t i ti o n territo ria lism : ‘In 1 947, th e M uslim s sn atch ed aw a y all o f Sindh and h a lf o f Bengal to c re a te P a k ista n , a M u slim c o u n try . 2 0 % M u slim s to o k a w a y 3 0 % o f th e lan d , a n d ch ased o u t o f th e c o u n try 2 c ro re H in d u s w h o o w n e d a b o u t R s. 8 0 ,0 0 0 c ro re s o f a n d b usinesses em p ty -h an d e d ’. A n d w h e n M u slim s in creased to ‘2 5 % to 3 0 % ’ of th e p o p u la tio n , several m o re P a k ista n s w o u ld be c re a ted in In d ia .23 A ro u n d th is tim e, P rav in T o g a d ia o f th e V H P held f o rth o n th e ‘jeh ad i m en ta lity ’ b ein g c o n tin u o u s: h e sa id h e fo u n d it in B ab ar d e stro y in g th e R a m tem p le a t A yo d h y a 4 0 0 y ears a g o , in th e p a rti­ tio n o f 1 9 4 7 , in 9/11 a n d th e a tta c k o n th e In d ia n p a rlia m e n t in 2 0 0 1 . O n th is h e based a n eed ‘fo r In d ia , Jew s a n d th e W estern w o rld to co m e to g eth e r a n d fig h t Islam ic m ilita n ts’,24 a v iew p o int th a t th e d iasp o ric H in d u rig h t h a s been fo llo w in g u p closely. T h ree y ears late r, in a telev isio n in terv iew o n his being refu sed a visa to th e US b ecause o f a successful ca m p a ig n a g a in st N a re n d ra M o di (see c h a p te r fo u r), th e G u ja ra t c h ie f m in ister h a d th is to say: if th e p resid e n t o f P a k ista n a n d th e p rim e m in iste r o f B angladesh c a n go to th e US, even a fte r th e m in o rities h a d been c o m p letely w ip ed o u t fro m b o th co u n tries, h e c o u ld surely d o so.25 A b rief m ail to a m ag a­ zine th a t d id a co v er sto ry o n co n te m p o ra ry m ig ratio n s o u t o f India com es to m y m ind: ‘E x o d u s [th e th em e o f th e special issue] o m its o n e rea so n o n e w o u ld w a n t to q u it India: th e h o r ro r o f th e p ro u d ly self-d estru ctiv e s ta te th a t H in d u tv a will m ak e In d ia ’.26 Besides resisting th e s u b c o n tin e n ta l fo rm a tio n s o f th e religious rig h t in th e S o u th A sian d ia sp o ra , fro m th e fiftieth an n iv ersaries of P a k ista n i a n d In d ia n in d ep en d en ce o n w a rd s , th e m o n th o f A ugust 22. 23. 24. 25. 26.

T h e H in d u sta n T im es, 21 M a rc h 1993. C om m u n a lism C o m b a t, M a rc h -A p ril 2 0 0 2 , p . 133. Ibid., p p . 7 and 8. Interview w ith R ajdeep Sardesai o n N D T V India in 'T a k k a r’, 1 A pril 200 5 . L etter from Som T h o m as, B angalore, O u tlo o k , 3 F eb ru ary 2 0 0 3 , p . 5.

240 ♦ Partition and the South Asian Diaspora

h a s o fte n b een th e o c c asio n f o r jo in t c e le b ra tio n s to in tro s p e c t c o n te m p o ra ry political trajectories in b o th terrain s. Som e o f these initiatives g o b eyond p a rtitio n ’s n atio n s. By th e late nineties, fo r ex ­ am p le, th e s u b c o n tin e n ta l d iasp o ra in T o r o n to ca m e in c o n ta c t w ith th e T am il a sy lu m d iasp o ra a n d th is flo w ed in to a w id e r c o a litio n m ak in g effo rt. T h e re w as a fo rg in g o f ties b etw een th e Progressive P a k ista n i C o m m itte e , th e N o r th A m erican S ikh League, th e T am il E elam Society, th e C a n a d ia n C o u n c il o f S o u th A sian C h ristia n s a n d th e S ca rb o ro u g h M u slim A sso ciatio n , to p a rtic ip a te in C a n a ­ d ian politics a n d o rg an iz e a g a in st racism (in clu d in g a m o n g S outh A sians).27 E x cerp ts fro m a p an el d iscu ssio n in c o m m e m o ra tio n of I n d ia a n d P a k is ta n ’s fifty -s ix th in d e p e n d e n c e d a y c e le b ra tio n s o rg an iz e d b y th e S o u th A sian L eft D e m o c ra tic A lliance in C a n a d a in A u g u st 2 0 0 3 a re illu stra tiv e o f d iasp o ric in itiativ es to rew o rk S outh Asia. T h e them es included peace initiatives betw een In d ia and Pak istan , fu n d am en talist violence, a n d th e p ro te c tio n o f m inorities in th e b o th c o u n tries. T a p a n Bose, th e n H u m a n R ig h ts C o m m is­ s io n e r fo r S o u th A sia, based in N e p a l, sa id he fo u n d th e d iasp o ra as n a tio n a listic a s p e o p le in S o u th A sia, a n d th a t pro g ressiv e p eople n e e d e d to u se th e ir p o s itio n o v e rs e a s to in flu e n c e In d ia n a n d P ak istan i p o licy -m ak ers a n d th e ir c o u n te rp a rts in th e C a n a d ian g o v­ e rn m e n t. T h e T o ro n to -b a s e d jo u rn a list T a re k F a ta h , a rg u e d th a t th e g rea te st differen ce b etw een In d ia a n d P a k ista n lies in th e e v o lu­ tio n o f th e left. In his v iew , th e P ak istan i left is d isco n n ected fro m th e m asses, w h o a re a lm o s t en tirely in fluenced b y th e religious rig h t. As a resu lt, m o st P ak istan is id en tified them selves m o re w ith th e M id d le E ast, ra th e r th a n w ith S o u th A sia. B ut H a m id B ash an i, a K ash m iri a c tiv ist fro m O tta w a , h ad th is view o n th e region: T h e only solution is to reunite K ashm ir. O utsiders are trying to find a solution based on th e tw o-nation theory. As a K ashm iri I d o n ’t care a b o u t this theory. W e have the right to self-rule. Dem ocracy c an n o t be dictated by Pakistan’s wishes o r by India’s designs. W hen it com es to the question o f th e subcontinent, the people o f Kashm ir are n o t sep aratists. They identify w ith , a n d wish to be p a rt o f South Asia’.28 2 7 . Interview w ith T a re k F a ta h , 2 1 Ja n u a ry 199 7 , T o ro n to . Som e o f th e activists belong to th e S outh A sian C o m m itte e o f the N ew D em ocratic P arty; interview w ith U zm a a n d A rif R aza, 2 0 J a n u a ry 1 9 9 7 , T o ro n to . 2 8 . w w w .sald a.org/P eaceInitiativeP anel.htm

Conclusion • 241

H o w e v e r, th e re a re o th e r co n cep ts c irc u la tin g in th e d iasp o ra , b o th a b o u t K a sh m ir a n d th e su b c o n tin e n t. A dv o cacy w o rk b y th e N a tio n a l C a m p a ig n fo r D a lit H u m a n R ig h ts a n d th e In te rn a tio n a l D a lit S o lid arity N e tw o rk w h ich m ad e it to th e W o rld C o n feren ce A g ain st R acism in D u rb a n in 2 0 0 1 , has recently g o t a b re a k th ro u g h a t th e U N . O n 1 9 A pril 2 0 0 5 , th e UN C o m m issio n o n H u m a n R ig h ts d e c id e d to a p p o in t tw o sp ecial rap p o rteu rs to m ak e a th re e y ear stu d y o f caste-based d iscrim ination a n d reco m m en d g u id elin es fo r th e ir e lim in a tio n . M e an w h ile , an In te rn a tio n a l C o n su lta tio n h eld in 2 0 0 4 a rriv ed a t th e K a th m a n d u D a lit D e c la ra tio n w h ic h suggests m easu res th a t c a n b e ta k e n by g o v e rn m e n ts, th e U N a n d d e v e lo p m e n t ag en cies, as w ell a s , th e p riv a te se cto r, tra d e u n io n s a n d in te rn a tio n a l fin an cial in stitu tio n s. D a lit g ro u p s h av e rese a rch e d to s h o w th a t c a ste d isc rim in atio n ex ists in v a rio u s fo rm s rig h t acro ss th e In d ia n d iasp o ra (T h ek aek ara 2 0 0 5 ). F ro m th e n ineties o n w a rd s, to g eth er w ith M u slim s, C hris­ tian s, Sikhs, liberals a n d leftists, different D alit g ro u p s a n d n e tw o rk s h av e been p a r t o f th e w id e-b ased resistan ce ta k in g o n th e d iasp o ric sp read o f H in d u tv a org an izatio n s. In a late n ineties’ stu d y o f o p p o s­ in g c o n stru c tio n s o f In d ian n ess, Prem a K u rien fo u n d th a t In d ian s in S o u th e rn C alifo rn ia w ere stro n g ly d ra w n to H in d u n a tio n a lism . S h e a tt r ib u t e d th is to t h e ir d is p e r s e d d is tr ib u tio n a n d ra c ia l m a rg in aliza tio n a n d a n o th e r facto r: ‘T h e a b sen ce o f a progressive presen ce is cru c ia l since in o th e r regions o f th e c o u n try , th ey have fo rm e d a c o u n te r-fo rc e to th e H in d u tv a voice a n d p rev e n te d its hegem ony’. K urien w rites th a t th e F ed eratio n o f H in d u A ssociations d escrib ed th e allian ce o f th e A m erican F e d e ra tio n o f M u slim s From In d ia w ith D alits a n d B u d d h ists, as u n n a tu ra l a n d artificial, a n d as n u rtu rin g w edges b etw een th em a n d th e H in d u s .29 In o th e r w o rd s, th e co n test ov er th e idea o f each o f th e S outh A sian n a tio n s, a n d tied to th a t o f th e region as a w h o le, is g e ttin g p layed o u t b o th in the su b c o n tin e n t a n d th e d iasp o ra , th o u g h w ith situ a tio n a l v ariatio n s w h ich req u ire a tte n tiv e u p d a te s a n d analyses. W h a t is strik in g a b o u t th e d iasp o ric left a n d lib eral in terv en tio n s discussed in c h a p te r fo u r is th e in itia tio n o f th e y o u th to a p o litics based o n a S o u th Asia th a t

2 9 . w w w .u s c .e d u /d e p t/g e o g r a p h y /S C 2 /s c 2 /p d f /k u r ie n .p d f , ‘C o n s tr u c tin g “ In d ian n ess” in th e U nited S tates a n d India: M uslim In d ian Im m ig ra n ts’, U niversity o f S outh C alifornia, S eptem ber 1997.

242 ♦ Partition and the South Asian Diaspora

p rio ritiz e s p e a c e a n d ju stic e a s a n im p o r ta n t p a r t o f w id e n in g d iasp o ric c o a litio n s b e y o n d th e s u b c o n tin e n ta l reg io n , to include b lac k s a n d hispanics. It is w idely accep ted th a t th e stu d y o f th e d iasp o ra is n o lo n g er based o n th e ‘Je w ish p a ra d ig m o f e x p u lsio n a n d r e tu rn ’ (M ishra 2 0 0 1 : 2 5 ). T h e w o rd ‘d iasp o ra ’ is, in fact, n o w b ein g used in a v ari­ ety o f ‘n ew , b u t in terestin g a n d suggestive co n tex ts’.30 I have a rg u ed th a t w h en s u b c o n tin e n ta l p o litic s tu rn e d d iasp o ric so m e s tra n d s o f th e S o u th A sian d iasp o ra b egan to lo o k seriously a t th e su b co n tin ent a n d its n a tio n re-m ak in g s a n d m ajo rita ria n ism s, to w o rk o u t th eir strateg ies a n d in te rv en tio n s. It is o b v io u s th en th a t in tra n s n a tio n a l tim e s, th e n a tio n h a s b e c o m e ‘in d is p e n s a b le in th in k in g a b o u t d iasp o ra s’.31 T h e re w ere clo se co n n ectio n s even b e fo re th a t, th o u g h . T h u s, if th e p o st-1 9 6 5 d iasp o ra a p p e ars to b e ‘a n in ten d ed d isp ersal’ (D ehejia 2 0 0 4 : 5 2 ), it is on ly b ecau se so m e h isto ries h av e n o t been fa c to re d in . D o c u m e n tin g th e p a rtitio n d ia s p o r a , fo r e x a m p le , rev ealed tw ice a n d th ric e m ig ra n ts fro m P a k ista n , w h o o fte n m ade th eir decisions to m o v e b ecause o f th e w ay th e su b c o n tin e n t stru c­ tu re d b y p a rtitio n h a s u n fo ld e d . T h e s to ry th a t still w a its to be w ritte n is h o w so m an y p e o p le m oved to th e M id d le E ast a n d /o r N o r th A m erica a n d E u ro p e b ecau se o f th e tra jec to rie s o f d e n o m i­ n a tio n a l politics. M y s ta rtin g p o in t w a s th a t p a rtitio n p ersists, b u t n o t ju st o n th e su b co n tin en t. D iasp o ric sites, n e tw o rk s a n d activism s h av e been im p o rta n t a t fo u r levels: fo r p a rtitio n ’s m ig ra n ts, in p a r­ tic u la r, th e a qalliat M u h a jirs n av ig a tin g th e ch an g ed h o m ela n d o f th e fo rtie s ; p a rtitio n ’s m in o ritie s, m ea n in g In d ia n M u slim s a n d B an g lad esh i a n d P a k ista n i H in d u s facin g c o rre la te d s u b c o n tin e n ta l m a jo r ita ria n is m s ; th e H in d u tv a f o rm a tio n a im in g a t a H in d u R a s h tra a n d /o r A k h a n d B h a ra t b y b o n d in g a ‘H in d u d ia s p o ra ’; a n d fo r lib erals a n d p rogressives w o rk in g to g et p a s t th e S o u th Asia c re a ted b y p a rtitio n . H o w ev er, all o f th is n e e d s to b e seen to g eth e r

3 0 . C ohen (2001: 21); also see T am b ia h (2000: 164): ‘B oth v o lu n tary m igrants a n d displaced refugees w h o m ake tra n sn a tio n a l passages a n d a re relocated in o th e r co u n tries m ay be labeled as form ing d ia sp o ra com m unities’. 3 1 . T h e founding e d ito r o f D iaspora: A Jo u rn a l o f T ransnational S tudies, K hachig T o lo ly an , q u o te d in D ehejia (2004: 53). 3 2 . See fo r exam ple, T h e Telegraph, 16 Ju n e 2 0 0 5 . Even if one is circum spect ab o u t it, L.K. A dvani felt the need to invoke D een D ayal U padhyaya and to underline th a t, ‘except fo r th e first election m anifesto o f o u r p arty (then the

Conclusion • 243

w ith a S o u th A sia th a t is c h a n g in g a s a reg io n ,32 b y c u ttin g th ro u g h th e ‘d e e p -ro o te d n e ss’ o f p a rtitio n w ith s u b -re g io n a l a p p ro a c h e s m e a n t to reo rie n t th e su b c o n tin e n t.33

B haratiya J a n Sangh) in 1 9 5 2 , A k h a n d B h ara t is m en tio n e d no w h ere’. This w a s to ta k e o n t h e Sangh P a riv a r u p ro a r a fter h is sta te m e n t, w hile o n a t rip to P ak istan , th a t p a rtitio n w a s a n ‘u n alterab le reality o f h isto ry ’. 3 3 . See S am a d d a r (2 0 0 5 : 3 4 2 , 3 4 8 -5 3 ) fo r an overview o f these initiatives.

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T h o r a t, S u k h d eo . 2 0 0 4 . ‘C a ste, E xclusion a n d Po v erty ’, in M u k u l S h a rm a (ed.), U n q u iet W orlds: D a lit V oices a n d Visions. N e w D elhi H ein rich B o ll F o u n d a tio n . V ajpeyi, A n an y a. 2 0 0 2 . ‘T ea c h in g A gainst C o m m u n alism : R ole o f Social Science P edagogy’, E c o n o m ic a n d P oltical W e e k ly 3 7 (5 1 ), 21 D ecem ber. V eer, P eter v an d e r. 1 9 9 4 . ‘H in d u N a tio n a lism a n d th e D iscourse o f M odernity’: T h e V ish w a H in d u P a rish a d ’, in M a rtin E. M a rty a n d R. S cott A ppleby (eds), A c c o u n tin g For F undam entalism s: T h e D y n a m ic C haracter o f M o ve m e n ts. C h icag o : T h e C h icag o U niversity Press. Veer, Peter v a n d e r a n d Steven Vertovec. 1 991. ‘B rahm anism A broad: O n C a rib b ean H in d u ism As A n E thnic Religion’, E th n o lo g y, 30(2), A pril. V a s s a n ji, M .G . 1 9 9 6 . ‘L ife a t th e M a rg in s : In T h e T h ic k o f M ultiplicity’, in D eep ik a Bahri a n d M a ry V asudeva (eds), B etw een T h e Lines: S o u th A sia n s a n d P ostcoloniality. Philadelphia: T em ple U niversity Press. V e rk a a ik , O sk a r. 1 9 9 4 . A People o f M igrants: E th n ic ity , S ta te a n d R e lig io n in K arachi. A m sterd am : V .U . U niversity Press. ----------. 2 0 0 5 . ‘O n T e rro r a n d Sacrifice’, in R a v in d e r K a u r (ed.), R eligion, V io len ce a n d P olitical M o b ilisa tio n in S o u th A sia . N e w D elhi: Sage Pu b licatio n s. V erto v ec, Steven. 2 0 0 0 . ‘R eligion a n d D ia s p o ra ’. P resen ted a t th e co n feren ce o n ‘N e w L an d scap es o f R eligion in th e W e st’, School o f G e o g ra p h y a n d E n v iro n m e n t, U niversity o f O x fo rd , 2 7 - 2 9 S e p te m b e r, w w w .tr a n s c o m m .o x .a c .u k /w o rk in g % 2 0 p a p e r s / V ertovecO l .PDF. V isw a n a th a n , Shiv. 2 0 0 1 . ‘D u rb a n a n d D a lit D isco u rse’, E c o n o m ic a n d P o ltica l W ee k ly, 3 6 (3 3 ),1 8 A ugust. W a se e m , M o h a m m a d . 2 0 0 1 . ‘M o h a jirs in P a k ista n : A C ase o f N a tio n a liz a tio n o f M ig ra n ts ’, in C risp in B ates (ed.), C o m m u n ity , E m p ire a n d M ig ra tio n : S o u th A sia n s in D iaspora. N e w Delhi: O rie n t L ongm an. W ein er, M y ro n . 1 9 9 3 . ‘R ejected Peoples a n d U n w a n te d M ig ra n ts in S outh A sia’, E co n o m ic a n d Political W eekly, 2 8 (3 4 ), 21 A ugust. W eism an , Steven R . 1 9 8 6 . ‘In B angladesh, “ F o rg o tte n R efugees’” , N e w Y o rk T im e s, 18 M ay.

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W e stw o o d , Sally. 1 9 9 5 . ‘G e n d e rin g D ia sp o ra : Space, Politics a n d S o u th A sian M ascu lin ities in B rita in ’, in P e ter v an d e r V eer (ed.), N a tio n a n d M ig ra tio n : T h e Politics o f S pace in th e S o u th A sia n D iaspora. P h ilad elp h ia: U niversity o f P ennsylvania Press. W e rb n e r, P n in a. 1 9 9 0 . ‘M a n ch e ster Pak istan is: D ivision a n d U n ity ’, in C o lin C la rk e , C eri P each a n d Steven V erto v ec (eds), S o u th A sians O verseas: M ig ra tio n a n d E thnicity. C am bridge: C am bridge U niversity Press. W h itak er, Ben. 1 972. T h e Biharis in Bangladesh. L o ndon: M in o rity R ig h ts G ro u p . W il k i n s o n , S te v e n I. 2 0 0 4 . V o te s a n d V io le n c e : E l e c to r a l C o m p e ti ti o n a n d C o m m u n a l R i o ts in I n d ia . C a m b rid g e : C a m b rid g e U niversity Press. W ilso n , A m rit, 1 9 7 8 . F inding a Voice: A sia n W o m e n in Britain. L o n d o n : V irago. W rig h t. J r. T h e o d o re , P. 1 9 7 4 . ‘In d ia n M u slim R efugees in T h e Politics o f P a k ista n ’, J o u rn a l o f C o m m o n w ea lth a n d C om parative P olitics, 12(2). Y an g , A n a n d . 1 9 7 9 . ‘P easan ts o n th e M ove: A S tudy o f In tern al M ig ra tio n in In d ia ', J o u rn a l o f In te rd iscip lin a ry H isto ry , 10(1). Z in s, M a x Je an . 2 0 0 1 . ‘T h e V ivisection o f India: T h e P olitical Usage o f a C a rn a g e in th e Era o f C itizen -m assacres’, in M u sh iru l H a sa n a n d N a ria k i N a k a z a to (eds), T h e U n fin ish e d A g enda: N a tio n B u ild in g in S o u th A sia . N e w D elhi: M a n o h a r. Z o lb e rg , A ristid e R., A sti S u h rk e a n d Sergio A guayo. 1 9 8 9 . Escape F rom Violence: C o n flic t a n d th e R efu g ee Crisis in th e D e v e lo p in g W orld. N e w Y ork: O x fo rd U niversity Press.

Index

1 4 2 , 1 7 7 , 1 9 3 ; C o m m u n ity S e lf D e fe n s e P r o je c t, 1 9 3

A ija z , M a n s o o r , 9 5

A aj K ay N a a m , 2 0 3

A in a n , S. N u r u l , 1 0 A k h a n d B h a r a t, 1 3 2 - 3 3 , 2 4 3

A c h a k z a i, M e h m o o d K h a n , 1 1 3

A k h il B h a r a tiy a S a n s k r it G y a n

A c h a r y a , G o v in d , 1 5 7 A d v a n i, L .K ., 1 1 8 , 1 4 7 , 1 5 6 , 1 6 0 , 1 6 2 , 1 6 3 ,1 7 4 , 2 35

P a r ik s h a , 1 3 2 A k h ta r , H u m a y o u n , 4 6 A l B a d r, 6 6 , 1 1 4 , 1 1 7 , 1 8 3

A ffa n , S h a h , 4 7

Al S h am s, 2 7 ,1 1 4 ,1 1 7

a f f ir m a tiv e a c t i o n , 1 4 1

A la m , J a v e e d , 8 9

A fg h a n r e f u g e e s , A f g h a n s , 4 5 , 4 7 ,

A li, I m a m , 2 4

51, 7 8 ,2 3 7 A fg h a n is ta n , 4 1 , 1 5 2 ; M u h a jir s ,

A li, M u b a r a k , 2 2 6 A li, M u h a m m a d A s g h a r , 2 3

9 7 ; M u s lim s , 8 6 , 9 3 ; P a k is ta n i n t e r v e n tio n , 1 8 4 A fric a n A m e r ic a n , 1 8 8 , 191 A fric a n C a r ib b e a n , 1 8 6 A g h a , S h a m s u d d in , 1 3 6 , 1 5 9

A ll I n d ia B a c k w a r d M u s lim s M o rch a, 149 A ll I n d ia C h r is tia n C o u n c il, U K , 203 A ll I n d ia M u s lim L e a g u e , x x iii,

a g r ic u ltu r a l c la s s , 1 3 3

x x iv , x x x v ii, 1 - 1 1 , 2 5 , 4 2 , 9 2 ,

A h m a d , A ija z , x x ii, 1 2 4

5 7 , 5 8 , 6 1 , 6 2 , 1 0 7 ; L a h o re

A h m a d , E q b a l, 2 0 9 , 2 3 1

s e s s io n (1 9 4 0 ) , x x iii, 6 , 2 5 - 2 6 ,

A h m e d , M u sta q u e , 8 9

3 2 , 5 7 , 1 1 2 , 1 1 9 ; W o r k in g

A h m e d a b a d , G u ja r a t: a n ti-

C o m m itte e , 6 3 ; s e e a ls o P a k is ta n M u s lim L e a g u e

M u s lim r io ts , 1 3 5 A h s a n , R a g h ib , 9 a id /f u n d in g , 5 3 , 1 4 1 ; t o H in d u o r g a n iz a tio n s , 1 5 9 , 1 6 1 , 1 9 5 ,

A ll I n d ia R a ilw a y M u s lim E m p lo y e e s L e a g u e , 6 2 A ll P a k is ta n M u h a j i r S tu d e n t’s

1 9 9 - 2 0 4 , 2 2 1 ; f o r re s e ttle m e n t

O r g a n iz a tio n , 9 2 , 1 0 3

o f S tr a n d e d P a k is ta n is , 6 9 , 7 3 ,

A llia n c e f o r a S e c u la r a n d

7 5 - 7 8 , 8 2 ; f o r r i o t v ic tim s ,

D e m o c r a tic S o u th A sia

1 3 6 - 3 7 , 1 5 0 ; f o r m ilita n t

(A S D S A ), 1 9 5 , 2 1 0 « * 4,

o r g a n iz a tio n s , 1 8 5 , 1 8 9

2 1 9 « 121

266

«

Index

A llia n c e o f S o u th A s ia n s T a k in g A c tio n (A S A T A ), 1 9 6 A m a r a t e A h le A n s a r , 1 4 9 A m b e d k a r C e n tr e f o r J u s tic e a n d Peace, 1 6 7 -6 8 A m b e d k a r , B .R ., 1 4 6 , 1 6 5 A m b ed k ar, M a d h u k a r, 135 A m b e d k a r ite s , 1 4 5 , 1 4 8 , 1 7 0 A m e r ic a n E x p r e s s , 2 2 0 , 2 2 1 A m e r ic a n F e d e r a tio n o f M u s lim s

A s a r i, N iz a m , 3 0 A sh o k a, 6 2 , 128 A s ia W a tc h , 1 0 3 A s ia n A m e r ic a n H o te l O w n e r s A s s o c ia tio n , 2 2 0 A s ia n a n d A f r o C a r ib b e a n w om en, 177 A s ia n C o m m itte e o f t h e B ritis h R e f u g e e C o u n c il, 6 9 , 7 3 n i9 A s ia n i m m ig r a tio n f o r m a tio n s , 1 8 8

f r o m I n d ia ( A F M I ), x x x v ii,

A s ia n W o m e n U n ite , 1 9 8

1 4 1 - 5 2 ,1 5 4 , 1 5 6 , 1 6 1 , 163, 164

A s ia n W o m e n ’s R e f u g e , 2 0 3

A m e r ic a n M u s lim A llia n c e , S a n F r a n c is c o , 95

A s ia n Y o u th M o v e m e n t (1 9 7 8 ) , 176 A s la m , M o h a m m a d , 41

A m e r ic a n M u s lim C o u n c il

A s s o c ia tio n M u s u lm a n e L ’In d e ,

(A M C ) , 1 5 4 A m n e s ty I n t e r n a tio n a l, 8 6 - 8 7 ,

P a r is , 1 3 8 A s s o c ia tio n o f A m e r ic a n s o f

1 0 3 , 1 5 2 ,1 5 7 ,1 8 0 - 8 1 , 1 8 2 « 16, 2 2 0 - 2 1 A n g lo - I n d ia n s , 4 2 A n ju m a n - e - I s la m , M u m b a i, 1 3 9 A n j u m a n - e - M u h a j a r in - e - B ih a r ,

20 A n ju m a n - e - N a u , 7 2 , 7 4 , 7 9 A n n A r b o r C o m m itte e f o r P e a c e , 164

N o r t h A m e r ic a , 2 2 0 - 2 1 A s s o c ia tio n o f I n d ia n C o m m u n is ts (A IC ), 1 3 5 A s s o c ia tio n o f I n d ia n M u s lim s (A IM ), W a s h in g to n , D .C ., x x x v ii, 1 3 6 , 1 3 8 , 1 3 9 - 4 1 , 1 4 3 ,1 5 2 ,1 5 6 ,

2 1 8 , 2 1 9 n 121

A s th a w a n , 1 2

A n n a m a la i, V e n u , 1 4 6

A T & T , A s s o c ia tio n R e w a r d s P ro g ra m , 1 5 0 -5 1

A n s a r i, A d e e la , 4 6

A u s tr a lia , 1 0 2 , 1 0 3 ; B ih a ri

A n s a r i, I q b a l, 2 7 - 2 8 , 1 2 2 a n ti- A h m e d iy a s e n tim e n ts , 1 7 9

re fu g e e s f ro m , 5 0 , 7 4 ; M u h a jir s , 9 7 ; p r o t e s t a g a in s t

a n ti- C h r is tia n v io le n c e in In d ia ,

re p r e s s io n o f m in o r itie s in

156 A n w a r , A li, 1 4 9 A n w a r, M u h a m m a d , 7 9 , 103, 1 1 6 ,1 2 0 a q a llia t, s e e m in o r itie s

B a n g la d e s h , 1 8 1 ; R e fu g e e P r o g a m m e , 5 0 , 7 3 ; S tr a n d e d P a k is ta n is , 6 0 A u s tr a lia n F e d e r a tio n o f M u s lim S tu d e n ts

A r a b D e v e lo p m e n t F u n d s , 8 2

A s s o c ia tio n , 6 0

A ra b s, 19 6 A rg h o o n s, 1 1 0

A w aaz, 19 9 , 20 4 , 2 0 5 , 2 2 2 , 223

A r m e n ia n s , 2 3 5 A s a n s o l, B ih a ri M u s lim r e fu g e e s , 3 , 8 ,1 0

A w a a z - S o u th A s ia W a tc h (A S A W ), 2 0 3 A w a m i L e a g u e , B a n g la d e s h , x x x iv , 2 6 , 6 7 , 1 7 9 , 181

Index » 2 6 7 A w a m i N a t i o n a l P a r ty , 8 3

61,

A y o d h y a is s u e , 1 2 4 , 1 3 0 , 1 5 2 ,

a tr o c itie s a g a in s t, x x x v ii, 1 6 5 ,

2 2 7 ; s e e a ls o B a b r i M a s jid A yub K han, 2 4 -2 5 , 2 6 , 2 7, 43,

9 2 ; H i n d u m in o r ity ,

1 8 1 -8 3 , 2 2 2 -2 3 , 2 2 4 , 242; h u m a n rig h ts o r g a n i z a t i o n , 4 4 ;

105 A y y a z , S h a ik h , 1

m ig r a n ts t o P a k is ta n , 4 0 ;

A z a d K a s h m ir , 7 5 , 1 3 0

n o n -B e n g a lis , 3 0 ; re f u g e e

A z a m , G h u la m , 6 6 , 1 8 4

cam p s, 4 1 , 6 9 , 7 1 , 75;

A zam , M ir M ., 19

re lig io u s in to le r a n c e , 2 2 3 - 2 4 ;

A z h a r , I s h tia q , 9 9

S tr a n d e d P a k is ta n is , 9 6 , 1 0 6 ,

m o v e m e n t, 1 6 ; M u h a jir s , 2 3 7 ;

1 1 3 ,1 1 7 ,

A z iz , A b d u l, 2 4

2 3 3 , 2 3 8 ; s e e a ls o

P a k is ta n , E a s t

A z iz , K .K ., 2 2 6

B a n g la d e s h H i n d u B u d d h is t

A z iz , S a r ta z , 4 4

C h r is tia n U n ity C o u n c il B a b a r , N a s e e r u lla h , 5 4

(B H B C U C ) ( U K , U S A , C a n a d a

B a b r i M a s jid is s u e , 1 3 5 - 3 6 , 1 3 7 ,

a n d E u ro p e ), 1 8 1 , 1 8 2 ,

1 4 0 ,1 4 3 -4 5 ,1 4 6 , 1 5 1 ,1 5 6 , 160, 1 6 1 , 1 7 6 - 7 7 ,1 9 4 , 2 1 2

1 8 3 » '9' 20 B a n g la d e s h N a t i o n a l i s t P a r ty (B N P ), x x x iv , 1 8 1

B ab u r, 1 4 7 B a c k w a r d a n d M in o r itie s E m p lo y e e s ’ F e d e r a tio n (B A M C E F ), 1 6 7 - 6 8

B a ri, F a is a l, 2 0 7 B a ris a l, 1 3 1 ; r e c ip r o c a l v io le n c e , 18

b a c k w a r d n e s s , 1 2 9 , 141

B a s h a n i, H a m i d , 2 4 0

B a h r a in , B ih a ri M u s lim r e fu g e e s , 74

B asu , J y o ti, 1 4 0

B a h u ja n S a m a j P a r ty (B S P ), I n d ia ,

B e n g a l: B ih a ri M u s lim r e fu g e e s ,

1 4 6 ,1 7 2 B a jr a n g D a l, 1 3 2 , 1 4 7 , 1 5 1 , 1 6 1 , 16 2 , 201 B a k h tia r p u r , 7 B a lo c h is /B a lu c h is , 1 9 , 4 3 , 9 1 , 9 2 , 93, 117

B e lg iu m , 1 0 2 , 1 0 3 6 -7 , 36 B e n g a l f o r B e n g a lis , 1 9 , 2 2 B e n g a li, B e n g a lis , 1 9 , 2 2 , 3 7 , 4 3 , 6 7 , 2 3 1 ; f r e e d o m fig h te r s , 2 7 ; M u s lim s , 2 8 , 3 1 ; n a tio n a lis m , x x x iii,

66

B a lu c h is ta n , x x iii, 6 1 , 1 1 8 , 1 9 7

B e z a r, S h a fi, 9 6 - 9 7

B a n g a b h u m i, 1 3 1

B h a g a lp u r r i o t s (1 9 8 9 ) , 3 1 , 1 3 5

B a n g la d e s h , B a n g la d e s h i( s ), x x x , x x x v i, 66,

B h a r a ti, U m a , 1 3 1

2 2 , 3 1 , 3 8 , 4 2 - 4 3 , 5 7B, h a r a tiy a M a z d o o r S a n g h (B M S ),

8 9 ,1 3 1 -3 3 , 13 4 , 177,

1 9 0 - 9 1 ,1 9 3 - 9 4 ,1 9 8 , 2 0 5 ,

132 B h a r tiy a J a n a t a P a r ty (B JP ), 1 1 8 ,

2 1 1 , 2 3 5 ; B ih a ri M u s lim s , 3 1 ,

1 2 4 ,1 3 0 ,1 3 6 , 1 4 0 ,1 4 6 -4 7 ,

4 3 -4 8 , 5 2 -5 3 , 5 5 -5 6 , 6 7 -6 9 ,

1 5 0 ,1 5 8 ,1 6 0 ,1 6 2 ,1 6 3 ,1 6 4 ,

7 7 , 86, 9 1 ,1 0 9 , 232; c itiz e n s h ip , 8 0 ; E n e m y

1 5 6 ,1 6 9 ,1 7 4 ,1 8 3 ,1 9 8 ,

(V e s te d ) P r o p e r ty A c t, 1 8 1 ; f o r m a tio n o f ( 1 9 7 1 ) , x x x iii,

2 2 8 , 2 3 5 ; s e e a ls o H in d u , H in d u tv a B h a t, Z a h u r , 4 5

221,

268

*

Index

B h a tta c h a r y a , D ip a n k a r , 1 9 8

B la c k P o w e r m o v e m e n t, U S , 1 8 6

B h a tti, Q a m a r , 81 B h e e m s b a k ti- S h iv a s h a k ti a llia n c e ,

B o g ra : B ih a ri M u s lim re fu g e e s ,

165 B h itta i, S h a h L a tif , 1 2 0

16, 3 0 , 31 B o r d e r S e c u rity F o rc e (B S F ), 31 B o se , T a p a n , 2 4 0

B h u tto , B e n a z ir, 5 3 , 8 6 n 8, 8 8 , 9 4 - 9 7 ,1 0 2 ,1 0 5 , 1 1 8 , 23 9

B o s n ia , 5 4 , 1 3 8 , 2 3 7 ; B ih a ri

B h u tto , M u m ta z , 8 3

B o s n ia n s , 8 7 ; M u s lim s , 8 6 , 9 3

B h u tto , Z u l f i q a r A li, 6 9 , 8 5 , 1 0 5 ,

b o u r g e o is ie , 1 7 9

1 0 9 ,1 1 8 ,

178

B ih a r , x x iv , 1 4 8 , 1 4 9 ; e x o d u s o f M u s lim s , 2 2 ; fo o d s h o r ta g e ,

M u s lim r e f u g e e s , 84

B r itis h C h a r ity C o m m is s io n , 1 9 8 B r itis h P a r lia m e n ta r y A c t ( 1 8 9 9 ) , 178

1 2 ; H in d u - M u s lim c o n flic ts ,

B r itis h R e fu g e e C o u n c il, 6 9

1 - 3 ; L e g is la tiv e A s s e m b ly , 2 9 ;

B r itis h R e f u g e e C o u n c il, 7 9 - 8 0

M u s lim m a jo r ity p r o v in c e , x x i i - x x i i i ; M u s lim R e lie f

B u d d h a , G a u ta m , 6 2 , 12 8 B u d d h is m , 1 4 6

C o m m itte e , 4 , 7 , 9 , 1 1 ; M u s lim S tu d e n ts F e d e r a tio n ,

B u d d h is ts , 1 4 5 , 1 6 8 , 1 7 1 , 1 8 3 , 241

P a tn a , 3 ; p o lic e s e a r c h e s f o r

B u k h a r i, A h m e d , 1 5 8

M u s lim s , 1 2 ; P r o v in c ia l

B u r d w a n : B ih a ri M u s lim

M u s lim L e a g u e , 3 -4 , 6 , 2 5 , 2 8 , 3 2 , 63;

r e f u g e e s , 3 , 6 , 9 , 1 1 ; re c ip r o c a l v io le n c e , 18

d is s o lu tio n , 3 ; R e fu g e e L a n d

B u rm e s e r e f u g e e s , 5 1

D is p o s a l C o m p a n y , 8 ; R e fu g e e

B ush , G e o rg e , 1 63

U n io n , 8 ; r e fu g e e s

B u zd ar, A yaz, 4 7

r e h a b ilita tio n , 1 0 - 1 1 , 1 6 ; r io ts (1 9 4 6 ) , x x x v i, 4 , 7 , 9 , 1 0 , 2 5 , 4 1 , 4 5 -4 6 , 6 2 ,1 1 7 , 231; and th e f o r m a t i o n o f P a k is ta n , l in k , 2 5 , 5 9 B ih a r i B a c h a o (S av e T h e B ih a ris) C o n v e n tio n , P a tn a (1 9 7 2 ) , 2 8 B ih a ri R o k o (S to p th e B ih a ris) m o v e m e n t, 5 4 , 8 3 B ih a ris , B ih a ri M u s lim s , x x i, x x v , x x x , x x x v ii, 2 , 3 , 2 2 - 2 4 , 2 7 3 2 , 3 6 , 3 8 -4 0 , 4 3 ^ 9 , 5 2 -5 6 ,

C A G , 2 2 0 -2 2 C a lc u tta , B ih a ri M u s lim r e fu g e e s , 3 , 1 1 ; P a k is ta n is , 1 4 ; r e c ip r o c a l v io le n c e , 1 8 C a m b o d ia , 1 3 3 C a m b r id g e S o u th A s ia F o r u m , 203 C a m p a ig n A g a in s t A tr o c itie s o n M in o r itie s in B a n g la d e s h (C A A M B ), 1 8 2 C a m p a ig n t o S to p F u n d in g H a te

6 0 -6 2 , 6 5 , 6 7 -7 0 , 72, 75, 7 8 -

( C S F H ), 2 0 0 - 2 , 2 1 9 n 121

7 9 ,8 3 , 9 3 ,1 0 9 -1 1 ,1 1 7 , 118, 2 3 1 - 3 2 , 2 3 7 ; c itiz e n s h ip , 8 8 -

C a n a d a : B ih a ri d ia s p o r a , x x x ;

8 9 ; d i a s p o r a ( M u h a jir a n d

D a lits , 1 6 8 ; H i n d u tv a n e tw o r k , 1 2 9 ; I n d i a n a c tiv is ts ,

n o n - M u h a jir ) , 6 7 ; m a s s

1 8 7 ; M u s lim m ig r a n ts , x x v i,

d e n a tio n a liz a tio n , 4 8 ;

3 5 , 3 9 , 1 3 4 , 1 3 7 ; r a c is m , 2 4 0 ;

re h a b ilita tio n , 8 , 1 0 - 1 1 , 1 6 , 2 5

S o u th A s ia n d ia s p o r a , 1 9 4 ,

Index » 269 2 0 6 , 2 1 7 ; p e a c e in itia tiv e s ,

c o a litio n - b u ild in g , 1 7 7 , 2 1 8

1 9 8 ; p r o t e s t a g a in s t re p r e s s io n

C o a litio n f o r S e c u la r a n d D e m o c r a tic I n d ia , 1 6 3

o f m in o r itie s in B a n g la d e s h , 181 C a n a d ia n C o u n c il o f S o u th A s ia n C h r is tia n s , 2 4 0 C a n a d ia n s , 2 3 6 C a r ib b e a n , x x x i, 1 8 6 - 8 7 , 1 9 4 c a s te , x x x iv , 1 2 3 , 1 6 6 - 6 7 , 1 7 1 , 175,

228

C e n tr a l C o m m itte e o f th e E a s t P a k is ta n R a ilw a y E m p lo y e e s L e a g u e , C h itta g o n g , 6 2 C e n tr e f o r T h i r d W o r ld O rg a n iz in g , O a k la n d , C a lif o r n ia , 1 7 7 C h a m p io n s o f H u m a n R ig h ts , 5 2

C o a litio n o f M u s lim O r g a n iz a tio n s o f th e G r e a t H o u s to n a re a , T e x a s, 9 5 C o a litio n t o S u p p o r t D e m o c ra c y a n d P lu r a lis m in I n d ia , 1 6 2 C o m m is s io n o n I n te r n a tio n a l R e lig io u s F r e e d o m , 1 5 2 C o m m itte e A g a in s t A n ti-A s ia n V io le n c e ( C A A A V ), 1 9 0 - 9 1 C o m m itte e f o r R e h a b ilita tio n o f N o n - B e n g a lis , B a n g la d e s h , 88 C o m m itte e f o r S tr a n d e d P a k is ta n is in B a n g la d e s h (C S P ), 7 0 , 7 1 - 7 2

C h a tte rji, A n g a n a , 2 0 1 - 2

C o m m itte e f o r th e R e p a tr ia tio n

C h a t t y , H a b i b A l, 7 4

o f B ih a ris , 5 3 c o m m u n a l v io le n c e ,

C hechnya, 138 C h e n o y , K a m a l, 1 5 4 C h itta g o n g , 9 , 1 9 , 1 7 9 ; a n tiB e n g a li c o m m u n a l r io ts , 2 3 , 2 4 ; B ih a ri M u s lim re fu g e e s , 22, 27, 30 C h o u d h r y , S h a b ir , 1 8 5 C h o w d h u ry , F a ru k h , 6 9 C h r is tia n ity , C h r is tia n s , 6 5 , 7 6 , 1 4 6 ,1 8 3 , 2 0 1 , 2 0 4 , 2 2 3 , 24 1 ; s tr a tif ic a tio n , 1 7 1 C is c o C o r p o r a t i o n , 2 0 1 , 2 0 2 c itiz e n s h ip , x x x iv , x x x v i, 1 5 , 4 0 , 56, 57, 64, 70, 72, 7 3 , 80, 88, 1 0 8 ,1 2 5 ,1 4 3 , 2 2 4 , 2 2 8 , 2 3 7 civ il s o c ie ty a c tiv is m , 1 6 3 , 1 7 9 , 209,

2 1 3 -1 4

c o m m u n a lis m , 1 3 9 , 1 5 5 , 1 5 9 , 1 7 9 ,1 9 3 ,1 9 6 ,

1 9 7 -9 8 , 2 0 3 ,

213, 228 C o m m u n a lis m C o m b a t , 2 1 7 , 223,

226

C o m m u n is t P a r ty o f I n d ia (C P I), 176 C o m m u n is ts , 2 0 2 c o m m u n ita r ia n , c o m m u n ity , x x ii; e m p o w e r m e n t, 1 9 6 ; id e n tity , x x x ii, 9 4 C o n c e r n e d S o u th A s ia n s , N e w Y o rk , 194 C o n g r e s s , x x ii, 2 , 4 , 7 , 5 7 , 1 2 5 , 136,

1 4 6 , 231

C o n n e t t , P a u l, 6 9

C iv il W a r , 2 6 , 4 0 , 7 1 , 2 3 8

C o n s titu tio n o f I n d ia , 1 6 6 , 1 7 2 ,2 2 0

c la s s , 1 2 3 , 1 2 8 , 1 8 6 , 2 2 8

C o n s u lta tiv e C o m m itte e o f I n d ia n

C lin to n , B ill, 8 7 C o a litio n A g a in s t C o m m u n a lis m ( C A C ) , A rte s ia a n d S a n F r a n c is c o , 1 5 7 , 1 9 4 - 9 5 , 2 1 9 m 121

M u s lim s in N o r t h A m e ric a a n d C a n a d a ( C C I M ) , C h ic a g o , 1 3 6 ,1 4 3 ,1 6 1 C o o c h B e h a r: r e c ip r o c a l v io le n c e , 18

270 ♦ Index C o u n c il o f I n d ia n M u s lim s

d e p r iv a tio n , 4 8 , 71

(C I M ) , U K , x x x v ii, 1 5 9 - 6 0 ,

D e s a i, B h a ira v i, 1 9 2

1 9 8 -9 9 , 2 0 3 , 222

D e s a i, J a y a b e n , 1 9 9 D e s is R is in g u p 8c M o v in g

C o u n c il o f P a k is ta n i O r g a n iz a tio n s , A r lin g to n , V ir g in ia , 9 5 C o u n c il o n A m e ric a n -I s la m ic R e la tio n s (C A I R ) , 1 5 4 , 1 5 5

(D R U M ), 19 3 D esna, 1 2 -1 3 , 3 6 -3 7 D e s n a v i, A b d u r R a f a y , 1 9 D h a k a (D a c c a ); a n ti- B e n g a li

C r e s c e n t J u t e M ills , K h u ln a , 4 3

c o m m u n a l r i o t s , 2 3 ; B ih a ri

c y b e r s p a c e a n d H i n d u m ilita n c y ,

M u s lim r e f u g e e s , 1 0 , 1 6 - 1 7 ,

130 C y p ru s, 1 0 2

19, 2 2, 3 0 , 4 3 -4 4 , 4 7 , 6 8 , 72; C ity C o r p o r a t i o n , 4 4 ; r e c ip r o c a l v io le n c e , 1 8 ; re fu g e e

D a lits , x x x iv , x x x v ii, 1 2 3 , 1 4 8 , 153, 1 5 4 ,1 5 7 ,1 6 5 - 6 7 , 1 6 9 -

c a m p s , 41 d ia s p o r ic f o r m a t i o n s , 5 6 , 1 7 5

7 0 ,1 8 5 , 1 9 6 , 2 0 9 , 2 2 3 ,2 4 1 ;

D in a jp u r , 3 1 ; B ih a ri M u s lim

B a h u ja n s , 1 7 3 ; C h r is tia n s , 1 7 0 - 7 1 ; d ia s p o r a , 1 6 7 ;

re fu g e e s, 6 , 1 6 d is c r im in a tio n , 5 4 , 1 0 5 , 1 1 6 , 1 2 5

e m p o w e r m e n t, 1 6 9 ;

d is illu s io n m e n t, 9 3 , 1 2 1 , 2 3 6

in te r n a tio n a l c o n f e r e n c e s , 1 6 9 ;

d is p la c e m e n t a n d d is p o s s e s s io n ,

a n d M u s lim u n io n , 1 4 6 - 4 7 ; p o litic s , 1 6 5 , 1 7 1 D a lit C o n v e n tio n , K u a la L a m p u r (1 9 9 8 ), 17 2 D a lit F o r u m f o r S o c ia l J u s tic e , UK, 203

XX, xxvi

D o G a z Z a m e e n , 2 3 , 31 d o m e s tic v io le n c e , 1 7 7 D o m e s tic W o r k e r s C o m m itte e , N ew Y o rk , 193 d u a l c itiz e n s h ip , x x x v i, 1 7 4

D a lit S e n a o f I n d ia , 1 4 5 - 4 6 D a lit S o lid a r ity N e t w o r k s , 1 6 7

E a s t B e n g a l, 1 0 , 1 2

D a s G u p t a , S h a m ita , 1 9 3

E a s t I n d ia R a ilw a y , 1 3

D a s ta k , 2 1 7

E a s t P a k is ta n A s s o c ia tio n , 2 4

D a w a tu l I s la m (U K ), 1 8 3 - 8 4

E a s t P a k is ta n I n te g r a tio n L e a g u e ,

D a y a In c f o r S o u th A s ia n F a m ilie s , 2 2 0 D e c c a n H y d e r a b a d is , x x ix D e e p a n k a r , R a h u l, 1 4 5 - 4 6 , 1 5 7 , 1 6 1 ,1 7 1

2 4 -2 5 E a s t P a k is ta n R e fu g e e A s s o c ia tio n , 2 7 E a s te r n C o m m a n d , 2 5 e c o n o m ic m ig r a tio n , 1 9 0 , 2 3 3

D e k u li, 1 2 D e lh i A g r e e m e n t ( 1 9 7 4 ) , 4 0

E k ta - C o m m itte e f o r C o m m u n a l A m ity , M u m b a i , 1 6 4

d e m o b iliz a tio n , 1 9 8

E n n a ls , L o r d D a v id , 3 9 , 6 8 - 7 0 , 7 2 , 7 4 -7 5 , 7 7, 7 9 , 8 1 , 8 2, 86,

d e m o c ra c y , 9 9 -1 0 0 , 1 2 6 , 1 5 1 , 158, 164, 172, 2 1 1 -1 3 , 223, 2 3 3 , 241 d e n o m in a tio n a l c o m m u n itie s , x x iii

113 E r itr e a , M u s lim s , 9 3 E th io p ia , 5 4

Index » 271 e th n ie is s u e s , e th n ic ity , x x v iii, 2 1 -2 2 , 8 0 ,9 1 , 1 0 8 ,1 1 5 , 12 3, 154, 192, 2 07, 210 E u r o p e a n E c o n o m ic C o m m u n ity , 82 E u r o p e a n P a r lia m e n t, 1 1 2

fr e e w ill, 1 1 3 F r ie n d s o f C P I (M ), 1 3 5 F r ie n d s o f I n d ia S o c ie ty I n t e r n a tio n a l, 1 5 8 F r ie n d s o f S o u th A s ia (F O S A ),

E u r o p e a n U n io n (E U ), 1 3 0 , 2 3 8

196 F r o n tie r P o s t, t h e 2 3 1

E u ro p ean s, 191

f u n d a m e n ta lis m , 1 7 7 , 1 8 4 , 1 9 7 ,

e x tr e m is m , 2 2 7

2 0 2 , 2 0 5 , 2 0 6 , 2 1 0 , 2 1 2 -1 3 F u tw a h , 7

fa n a tic is m , 1 9 5 F A Q s, 1 3 2 , 2 0 5 , 2 2 3

g a ir m u lk is ( o u ts id e r s ) , 7 , 2 3 1

F a r id p u r , 131

g a ir m u lk is - n e s s (a lie n -n e s s ), 5 6 G a n d h i, I n d ir a , 2 7 , 6 7

fa s c is m , 1 5 2 - 5 6 , 1 5 9 , 1 9 7 , 1 9 9 F e d e ra l C o m m u n ic a tio n s C o r p o r a t i o n , 151 F e d e r a tio n o f A m b e d k a r ite a n d B u d d h is t O r g a n iz a tio n s (F A B O ), 1 6 7 - 6 8 F e d e r a tio n o f H i n d u A s s o c ia tio n , L o s A n g e le s , 1 3 1 , 2 4 1 F e d e r a tio n o f I n d ia n A s s o c ia tio n s , 1 3 8 F e d e r a tio n o f I n d ia n C h a m b e r s o f C o m m erce, 174 F e d e r a tio n o f I n d o - A m e r ic a n C h r is tia n s o f N o r th - A m e r ic a (F IA C O N A ) , 1 6 1 , 1 6 2 ,

219n12', 221 fe m in is m , 1 6 6 F iji: H in d u tv a n e t w o r k , 1 2 9 ; in d e n tu r e d m ig r a n ts , x x v i,

G a n d h i, M . K ., 1 3 2 , 1 5 0 , 1 5 2 , 174, 231 G a n d h i, R a jiv , 1 3 5 g a r d a n ia (fo rg e d ) p a s s p o r ts , 1 4 G a y a Im p e r ia l B a n k , 9 G a y a M u s lim L e a g u e , 9 g e n d e r, x x , 1 2 3 ,1 2 8 ,1 9 4 , 2 1 2 , 2 2 8 ; d im e n s io n o f m ig r a tio n , x x i, 3 3 - 3 4 ; v io le n c e , 1 9 3 G eneva C am p s, 4 1 , 4 3 , 55 g e n o c id e , 6 5 , 9 6 G e r a , S h a lin i, 2 0 3 G e r m a n y , 1 0 2 , 1 0 3 ; H i n d u tv a n e tw o r k , 1 2 9 ; M u h a jir s , 9 7 ; W e s t, 7 8 G ha d a r, 1 9 0 , 2 1 7 -1 8 G h a d a r P a r ty , S a n F r a n c is c o , 177,

1 8 7 -8 8

x x v ii, x x x i; M u s lim s , 1 3 1 ,

G h o r i, M a n z o o r , 1 3 8 , 1 5 3

132, 235

g ir m itiy a s , x x v

F in la n d , 1 0 2

g lo b a l c a p ita lis m , 1 8 8

F o r e ig n e r s ’ A c t ( 1 9 4 6 ) , 1 3

G lo b a l H i n d u E le c tr o n ic

F o r e ig n e r s ’ O r d e r ( 1 9 4 8 ) , 13 F o r u m o f I n d ia n L e f tis ts (F O IL ), 1 6 1 , 187, 1 8 9 -9 0 , 1 9 4 -9 5 ,

N e tw o r k (G H E N ), 1 3 0 G lo b a l O r g a n iz a tio n o f P e o p le o f I n d ia n O r ig in ( G O P I O ) , 1 7 3

207, 2 1 7 , 2 1 8 , 2 1 9 « '21 F o r u m o f P ro g re s s iv e A r tis ts , 1 9 5

g lo b a l p o litic s , 1 7 9 g lo b a l w a r o n t e r r o r is m , 1 6 3

F r a n c e , 7 8 , 1 0 2 ; M u s lim

g lo b a liz a tio n , 1 7 3 , 1 7 8 , 1 9 7 , 2 1 6

m ig r a n ts , 3 5 f r a te r n ity , 1 6 5

G o d se , N a th u ra m , 1 5 0 G o lw a lk a r , M .S ., 1 2 7 , 1 2 9 , 1 3 6

272

«

Index

G r o u p o f C o n c e r n e d S o u th A s ia n s , B o s to n , 1 7 7

c o n s c io u s n e s s , x x x iv ; e x tr e m is m , 1 5 0 , 1 5 7 , 2 0 4 ;

G r u n w ic k , 1 9 9

fa s c is m , 1 5 2 - 5 6 , 1 5 9 ;

G u j a r a t , 1 3 3 ; v io le n c e a g a in s t M u s lim s , x x x v ii, 1 0 7 , 1 2 4 ,

f u n d a m e n ta lis m , 2 0 6 , 2 1 8 ; id e n tity , x x v iii, 1 3 0 ;

1 2 6 - 2 7 ,1 5 1 , 1 5 3 , 1 5 6 , 1 5 8 6 2 , 1 6 5 ,1 8 3 , 1 9 6 , 2 0 0 -2 ,

n a tio n a lis m , 1 5 9 , 1 6 1 , 2 4 1 ;

204,

v ic tim o f M u s lim a tr o c itie s ,

2 1 1 , 2 2 1 , 2 2 4 , 2 3 8 -3 9 ;

p o lic e a n d b u r e a u c r a c y , c o m p lic ity , 1 6 1 G u j a r a t i M u s lim A s s o c ia tio n o f A m e ric a , 161 G u ja r a tis , x x v , 2 , 2 0 0 ; C h r is tia n s ,

r e v ita liz a tio n m o v e m e n t, x x ii; 130 H i n d u A m e r ic a n F o u n d a tio n (H A F ) , 1 8 3 H i n d u H u m a n R ig h ts in S o u th A s ia , 1 8 3

1 5 7 ; H in d u s , 1 9 9 ; M u s lim s ,

H in d u M a h a s a b h a , 7 , 2 2 8

1 5 3 ,1 5 7

H i n d u S tu d e n ts C o u n c il (H S C ), 1 2 9 -3 0 , 188

G u lf , B ih a ri M u s lim r e fu g e e s , 8 2 ; M u s lim m ig r a n ts , 3 5 , 4 0 , 7 3 ; P a k is ta n is , 1 1 6 G u n a w a r d a n a , L e slie , 2 2 6

H in d u S w ay am sev ak San gh (H S S ), C a n a d a , 1 2 9 , 2 0 6 ; U K , 1 5 8 - 5 9 ,1 9 8 - 2 0 0 , 2 0 3 , 2 0 4 , 223

H a id e r , Syed Z e e s h a n , 4 7 H a itia n s , 1 9 2 H a k im u lla h , S y e d , 7 9 H a l e p o t a , M .A ., 1 1 1 , 1 1 3 - 1 4 , 116 H a m e e d S. A b d u l, 2 7 H a n if u d d in , A .T .M ., 76w 49 H a q , F a z lu l, 5 8 H a q u e , I s r a r u l, 4 5 , 8 6 n lli

H in d u is m , 1 3 1 , 1 6 5 , 2 2 8 , 2 2 9 ; a n d H in d u tv a , d is tin c tio n , 130, 157 H in d u - M u s lim r e la tio n s , 2 2 4 ; d is p a r itie s , 1 2 6 ; u n ity , 1 3 1 , 173 H in d u tv a , x x i , x x x , x x x iv , 1 3 0 , 157, 2 0 0 , 2 0 3 -6 , 2 1 1 , 212, 2 2 0 -2 1 , 2 4 0 , 242

H a sa n , Fayyaz, 153

h i n d u u n ity .o r g , 1 3 2 , 1 5 5

H a s h m i, H a s ib , 3 8 H a s h m i, T a j u l- I s la m , 1 8 1

h in d u u n iy .c o m , 1 5 5

H a s i n a , S h e ik h , 1 1 8

H o d a , S u ru r, 6 8 - 6 9 , 7 2 , 7 4 , 7 7

H a s n a in , S .M .A ., 7 2

H o o g ly , B ih a ri M u s lim r e fu g e e s ,

H a y d e r, A fa q , 39

H o d a , N u r u l , 41

6

H a z ra t D a tta G an j B u x , 12 2

H o s s a in Im a m , x x iii

H e d g e w a r , K e s h a v B a lir a m , 1 3 1 ,

H o tlin e B a n g la d e s h , 1 8 2

132 H e in r ic h B o ll F o u n d a tio n , 1 6 7 m131 H i n d u , H in d u s , x x iii, x x v iii, 1 ,

H o w r a h : B ih a ri M u s lim re fu g e e s , 6 ; r e c ip r o c a l v io le n c e , 18 h u m a n r ig h ts , 1 0 0 , 1 4 4 , 1 6 6 , 2 0 5 , 2 0 9 , 2 1 2 -1 4 , 22 0 , 230;

18, 2 8 , 5 5 , 6 2 ,1 2 5 , 1 2 7 ,1 3 0 ,

v io la tio n s , 4 8 , 9 8 - 9 9 , 1 0 2 - 4 ,

1 7 6 , 1 7 7 ,1 8 3 , 1 9 8 , 2 3 5 , 2 3 9 , 2 4 2 - 4 3 ; c o m m u n a lis m , 1 2 4

210, 217

112, 1 3 7 ,1 5 1 -5 2 ,1 5 8 , 180,

Index » 273 H u m a n R ig h ts C o m m is s io n o f

C o m m itte e , 1 3 8

P a k is ta n , 1 9 8 H u m a n R ig h ts C o n g r e s s o f B a n g la d e s h M in o r itie s (U SA a n d B a n g la d e s h ), 1 8 1 - 8 2 H u m a n R ig h ts W a tc h , 1 5 7 , 2 1 9 -

20 H u n t e r C o m m is s io n , x x iii H u s s a in , A lta f , 3 8 , 5 4 , 9 1 , 9 3 9 6 - 1 0 3 ,1 0 6 - 7 , 1 1 5 -1 6 ,

1 2 0 -2 2 , 2 3 6 -3 8 H u sa in , A sa d , 7 0 , 7 1 , 7 4 , 7 6 , 8 1 82,

I n d ia D e v e lo p m e n t a n d R e lie f F u n d (ID R F ), 1 5 6 , 2 0 0 - 2 , 2 2 2 I n d ia n B u d d h is t A s s o c ia tio n , 1 5 7 , 161, 1 6 9 k 137 I n d ia n C a th o lic A s s o c ia tio n , 1 6 1 I n d ia n M i n o r itie s P o litic a l A c tio n

H u n s, 110

94,

I n d ia C u l t u r a l C o o r d in a tio n

C o m m itte e , P h ila d e lp h ia , 1 5 2 I n d ia n M u s lim A ffa irs C o u n c il, C a lif o r n ia , 1 5 2 I n d ia n M u s lim A le r t N e tw o r k ( I m a n N e t) , N e w Y o r k , 1 5 2 , 153, 154

87

H u s s a in Im a m , 2 8

I n d ia n M u s lim A s s o c ia tio n

H u s s a in , N a jm a S h a r a f a t, 2 8 H u s s a in , S y e d , 1 8 6

(I M A ), x x v iii I n d ia n M u s lim C o u n c il ( I M C ),

H u s s a in , T a jja m m u l, 5 8 H u s s a in , Z a h i d , 4 H y d e r a b a d , 9 1 ; lin g u is tic r io ts , 1 9 8 8 , 1 2 0 ; M u h a jir s , 8 0

U S A , x x x v ii, 1 5 2 - 5 3 , 1 5 5 - 5 6 , 1 5 7 , 1 6 3 , 1 6 4 , 2 1 9 m 121, 2 2 1 I n d ia n M u s lim F e d e r a tio n (IM F ) , U K , 6 7 , 1 3 5 -3 6 , 1 3 8 ,1 5 9 , 1 6 0 ,1 7 0 ,1 9 9 ,

2 0 3 -4

I b r a h im , M o h a m m a d , se e

I n d ia n M u s lim R e lie f C o m m itte e

M o h a m m a d Ib r a h im

(IM R C ), 1 3 6 - 3 7 , 1 4 3 , 1 5 3 ,

id e n tity , 2 , 2 1 , 4 3 , 1 2 3 , 1 3 0 , 1 7 6 , 178,

1 5 5 ,1 9 6 ,

2 1 9 - 2 0 « 121

1 9 0 , 2 1 0 , 2 1 3 , 2 1 8 , 2I 2n 5d ,ia n P e o p le ’s A s s o c ia tio n in

228

N o r t h A m e r ic a V a n c o u v e r , 177, 195

I d i A m in , 4 1 , 1 9 0 I d r is , S a y e d M o h a m m a d , 4 4

I n d ia n P ro g re s s iv e S tu d y G r o u p ,

Ila ia h , K a n c h a , 1 7 0 Im a m , S y ed H u s s a in , 6 3 , 7 2

I n d ia n W o r k e r s A s s o c ia tio n

I m a r a t- e - S h a r ia h , B ih a r , 1 0 7 , 1 3 9 im m ig r a tio n p o lic ie s , 1 3 3

194 (IW A ), x x v iii, 1 7 6 I n d ia n s , 1 9 1 ; A m e r ic a n s , 1 3 4 ,

I m p a c t In te r n a tio n a l, 1 5 0

1 6 2 ; C h r is tia n s , 1 5 3 , 1 6 2 ;

I m t ia z u d d in , M . , 71

M u s lim s , x x iv , x x x , 1 3 5 , 1 4 8 ,

in d e n tu r e d l a b o u r e r s a n d

1 6 9 ,1 7 9 ,1 9 8 ,

212, 223, 232,

m e r c h a n ts , x x v ii, x x ix , x x x i,

2 3 9 , 2 4 2 ; b a c k w a rd n e ss, 12 9 ,

x x x ii, 1 2 8 , 1 3 3 , 2 2 7

1 4 1 ; a t r o c i t i e s a g a in s t, im p a c t

I n d ia , x x , 1 1 8 ; a n ti- M u s lim r io ts , 2 6 ; C itiz e n s h ip A m e n d m e n t A c t ( 2 0 0 3 ) , 2 3 5 ; P a k is ta n r e la tio n s , 1 4 8 ; s e e a ls o G u j a r a t , K a s h m ir

o n H i n d u s in B a n g la d e s h a n d P a k is ta n , 1 8 0 ; in N o r t h A m e ric a , 1 3 8 , 1 4 1 - 4 4 ; in S o u th C a lif o r n ia , 2 4 1 I n d ia n s f o r P o litic a l F re e d o m , C h ic a g o , 1 7 7

274 ♦ Index I n d o - C a r ib b e a n , 1 9 4 I n d o n e s ia : H in d u tv a n e tw o r k , 1 2 9 In d o - P a k p a s s p o r t a n d v isa schem e, 13 In d o - P a k W a r ( 1 9 6 5 ) , 1 3 , 2 6 , 3 7 I n s titu te o n R e lig io n a n d P u b lic P o lic y , 2 2 0 I n te r n a tio n a l A le r t C o m m itte e o n

I n te r n a tio n a l M e d ia tio n f o r a P e a c e fu l R e s o lu tio n o f C o n f lic ts in P a k is ta n (2 0 0 0 ) , 118 I n te r n a tio n a l M in o r itie s L e a g u e , 74 I n te r n a tio n a l M o n e t a r y F u n d ( I M F ), 1 8 7

S tr a n d e d P a k is ta n is , L o n d o n ,

I n te r n a tio n a l R e d C r o s s , 6 7

51,

in te r n a tio n a l re fu g e e r e g im e , 4 9

7 9 -8 0

I n t e r n a t i o n a l A s s o c ia tio n f o r th e A d v a n c e m e n t o f D a lits (IA A D ), 1 5 7 in te r n a tio n a l b o u n d a r ie s , 2 6 , 8 5 I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m itte e o f th e R e d C r o s s (IC R C ), 7 9 - 8 0 in te r n a tio n a l c o m m u n ity , 1 0 5 I n te r n a tio n a l C o o r d in a tio n C o m m itte e , 7 2 I n te r n a tio n a l C o u n c il f o r R e p a tr ia tio n o f P a k is ta n is

in te r n a tio n a l r e la tio n s , x x I n te r n a tio n a l S o u th A s ia F o r u m (IN S A F ), C a n a d a , x x x v ii, 1 6 1 - 6 2 ,1 9 4 , 2 0 9 - 1 1 ,2 2 5 in te r n e t, 1 3 0 , 1 3 2 In te r- S e rv ic e s I n te llig e n c e (ISI), P a k is ta n , 1 1 4 , 1 1 6 , 1 8 9 I r a n ia n s , 1 9 2 Ira q , 109 I s h u r d i; M u h a jir s , 3 8 I s la m , Is la m ic , 4 7 , 1 0 8 , 1 2 5 , 1 3 1 ,

f r o m B a n g la d e s h (IC R P ), N e w

1 8 0 , 2 2 8 ; b ro th e rh o o d , 6 2 ,

Y o rk , 7 9 , 96

6 4 , 7 7 ; e x tr e m is m , 2 2 3 ;

I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o u n c il o f V o lu n ta r y A g e n c ie s , 7 2 I n te r n a tio n a l D a lit a n d M in o r itie s C o n f e r e n c e (1 9 9 4 ) , 1 4 5 , 1 4 8 I n te r n a tio n a l D a lit S e n a , 1 4 5 I n te r n a tio n a l D a lit S o lid a r ity N e tw o rk , 2 4 1 I n te r n a tio n a l E d u c a tio n a l C o n f e r e n c e , D h a k a , 71 I n te r n a tio n a l F e d e r a tio n o f B a n g la H in d u s , 181 i n t e r n a t i o n a l f in a n c ia l in s titu tio n s (IF Is), 2 4 1

f u n d a m e n ta lis m , 1 8 1 , 2 0 5 , 2 1 5 ; o r th o d o x y , 1 8 9 Is la m i J a m h o o r i I tte h a d (IJI), 8 2 83 Is la m ic C ir c le o f N o r t h A m e ric a (I C N A ) , 1 5 4 , 1 5 5 , 1 8 4 Is la m ic F o u n d a tio n o f L e ic e s te r, 184 Is la m ic I n te r n a tio n a le , 1 8 4 Is la m ic M is s io n o f th e U K , 1 8 4 Is la m ic S o c ie ty o f N o r t h A m e ric a (IS N A ), 1 3 6 , 1 3 8 , 1 5 3 , 1 5 4 , 155

in te r n a tio n a l h u m a n rig h ts

Is m a il, K .B . ( H a jja n s a h e b ) , 9

o r g a n iz a tio n s , 1 5 4 I n te r n a tio n a l In itia tiv e f o r J u s tic e ,

J a f a r Im a m , 9

221 I n te r n a tio n a l L a b o u r O r g a n iz a tio n ( I L O ) , 6 5 in te r n a tio n a l la w , 4 8 - 4 9

J a l a i d a n , S h e ik h H a m z a W a li, 8 4 Ja lil, N a sre e n , 1 0 2 J a m a a t- i- I s la m i, x x x v ii, 2 6 , 6 6 , 8 3 , 9 1 , 9 2 ,1 7 9 , 1 8 3 -8 4 , 189, 2 0 5 ,208

Index » 275 J a m a a t- i- I s la m i J a m m u a n d K a s h m ir (JIJK ), 1 8 5 J a m a t- e - M o s la m e e n , 6 0 J a m i a t u l U la m a e I s la m , 7 J a m iy a tu l M u h a j a r i n , 2 0 J a m jo o m , S h e ik h A h m e d S a la h , 72 J a m m u K a s h m ir L ib e r a tio n F r o n t (JK L F ), 1 8 5 ; ( U K /E u ro p e ) , 1 9 8 J a m s h e d p u r : c o m m u n a l v io le n c e ,

K a s h m ir , K a s h m ir is s u e , x x ix , x x x v ii, 1 1 8 , 1 3 1 , 1 8 0 , 1 8 4 , 197,2 09, 210, 2 15, 237, 2 4 0 4 1 ; e th n ic c le a n s in g , 2 2 2 - 2 3 ; e th n ic ity , 1 8 6 ; H in d u m in o r itie s , 1 8 3 ; M u s lim s , 8 6 , 93,

1 8 5 ; P a k is ta n in te r v e n tio n ,

1 8 4 -8 6 K a s h m ir P e o p le ’s D e m o c r a tic F r o n t, 1 8 9

J a n a t a D a l (J D ), 1 3 6 , 1 4 5

K a th m a n d u D a lit D e c la r a tio n , 241

J a p a n : M u h a jir s , 9 7

K a w a ja , K a le e m , 1 3 9 , 1 4 1

J a t i y a , S a ty a N a r a y a n , 1 7 1

K e n y a , 1 0 2 ; H in d u tv a n e tw o r k ,

J e a y S in d h Q a u m i M a h a z

129 K h a lid i, O m a r , 1 4 0

18

(JS Q M ), 1 1 5 , 1 1 9 -2 0 Jehad, 2 2 6 , 239 J e s s o r e , 1 3 1 ; B ih a ri M u s lim

K h a liq u z z a m a n , C h a u d h r y , x x iv ,

re fu g e e s, 9 , 1 0 , 1 6 , 2 7 , 4 1 ;

58 K h a lis ta n m o v e m e n t, 1 7 7

M u h a jir s , 3 8

K h an , A bdul Ja b b a r, 8 9 -9 0

J e s u it C e n te r o f H u m a n R ig h ts , J u s tic e a n d P e a c e , G u ja r a t, 157

K h a n , A d e e l, 1 0 8 K h a n , A g a , 41 K h a n , A r if M o h a m m e d , 1 5 8

Jew s, 235

K h a n , G h a z a n f a r A li, 3

J i n n a h , M u h a m m a d A li, x x i,

K h a n , L ia q u a t A li, 2 0 , 3 8 , 5 8 ,

x x iii, x x iv , 3 - 4 , 8 , 9 - 1 0 , 2 0 , 2 5 , 3 3 , 3 8 ,4 5 , 5 8 -5 9 , 63, 120, 234 J u s tic e F o r K a s h m ir P a rty , B ir m in g h a m , 1 8 3

1 1 2 ; N e h r u P a c t, 1 9 5 0 , 2 2 4 K han, M oham m ad, 46 K h a n , M u b a r a k A li, x x v iii K h a n , N a s im , 4 8 , 5 0 , 5 4 , 5 8 , 6 0 6 2 , 74 , 8 1 , 8 3 , 8 5 -8 8 , 9 0 , 91,

122 K a h o t , C h a u d h a r y N a z ir , 111

K h a n , N ig h a t S a id , 3 4

K a ly a n A s h r a m T r u s t , U K , 2 0 4

K h a n , R a f iq u e , 7 5

K am puchea, 41

K h a n , S a d a k a t, 8 9

K a m p u c h e a n r e fu g e e s , 51

K h a n , S h a r a f u d d in A jm a d , 9

K a r a c h i, 2 8 , 3 1 , 3 9 , 5 2 , 9 1 , 9 5 ;

K h a n , T a im u r M a s u d , 4 7

B ih a ri M u s lim r e fu g e e s , 3 , 1 1 ,

K h a n , W a h e e d u d d in , 1 5 8

13, 20, 21, 32, 34, 3 5 ,3 6 , 38,

K h a n , W a s iu lla h , 7 0

52, 83, 94, 230, 233;

K h a to o n , Z u b a i d a , 8 8

M u h a jir s , 2 6 , 8 0 K a r im , K h a w a r , 4 6

K h id m a t- e - K h a lq , 9 4 K h ila f a t m o v e m e n t, 5 7

K a r n a p h u li P a p e r M ill, C h itta g o n g , 2 7

K h o j, 2 2 6 K h o k ra p a r, 3 2

K ashi R a m , 1 7 2

K h u d a i K h id m a tg a r s (K K ), 2 3 0

276 * Index K h u h r o , M .A ., 8

M a th u r , C h a n d a n a , 1 6 2

K h u ln a , 9 , 1 3 1 ; B ih a ri M u s lim

M a u r itiu s : H in d u tv a n e tw o r k ,

re fu g e e s, 1 0 , 1 6 , 2 2 , 2 7 , 4 1 , 4 3 ; r e c ip r o c a l v io le n c e , 18 K id d e r p o r e M u s lim L e a g u e , 8

1 2 9 ; M u s lim s , x x v iii M a z h e r, 4 6 M e d in a , 2 3

K is s in g e r, H e n r y , 6 8

M e e r, T a riq , 9 7

K u w a it, 6 5 , 8 6 ; B ih a ri r e fu g e e s ,

M e h d i, F e ro z , 2 0 8 M em o n s, xxv

43 , 74

M e n n o n ite C e n tr a l C o m m itte e , l a b o u r r ig h ts , 1 9 6

76

L a g h a r i, M u n a w a r , 1 1 7 - 1 8

M e n o n , G o p a l, 1 5 3 , 1 9 9

L a s h k a r - i- T a ib a , 1 8 5

m id d le c la s s , 1 3 0 , 1 7 9 , 1 8 7 , 1 9 0 ,

L a tin o s , 1 8 8 , 191 L e a g u e o f N a tio n s , 1 27 L e a s e D r iv e r s C o a litio n (L D C ),

191 M id d le E a s t, x x v i, 6 6 , 1 7 8 ; I n d ia n s , 1 7 4 ; M u s lim s , 2 6 ; P a k is ta n is , 2 4 0 ; S in d h is , 3 1 ;

190 lib e r a lis m , 2 2 9 lib e r ty , 1 6 5 L o k J a n s h a k ti P a r ty (L JP ), 1 4 8 L o k S e w a P a k is ta n , 1 1 1 L u c k n o w P a c t ( 1 9 1 6 ) x x iv

W a h a b i f a c to r , 1 4 9 M id n a p o r e , B ih a ri M u s lim re fu g e e s, 6 , 9 m ig r a tio n , x x ii, x x v - x x v i , x x ix , 6 , 1 2 ,1 3 , 3 1 ,1 2 8 , 17 8 , 23 0 , 2 3 3 ; in te r n a l/s e a s o n a l, x x x i

M a h m o o d , R if a t, 9 6

m ilita r iz a tio n , 1 7 9 , 2 2 6

M a jlis - a s h - S h o o r a , 1 5 3

M in o r itie s C o m m is s io n , 17 m in o r itie s (a q a llia t) , x x ii- x x v ,

m a jo r ita r ia n is m , x x x iv , x x x v i, 1 7 5 ,1 7 9 ,

242

M a k h d o o m K h a le e q - u z - Z a m a n , 53 M a la y s ia : B ih a ri M u s lim r e f u g e e s , 7 4 ; H i n d u tv a n e tw o r k , 1 2 9 ; im m ig r a n t c o m m u n itie s , x x ix

x x x iv , 5 - 6 , 1 2 7 - 2 8 , 1 4 8 , 1 5 4 , 164 , 2 1 1 -1 3 , 2 2 3 ,2 3 9 ; a tr o c itie s , r e c ip r o c a l im p a c t, 180 M in o r ity R ig h ts G r o u p , L o n d o n , 53,

6 9 , 7 6 , 7 9 , 87

M irp u r, 1 3 3

M a n a v i, 1 9 3 , 1 9 4 , 2 2 0

M ir p u r is , 1 7 7

M a n d a i C o m m is s io n , 1 4 1 , 1 4 7

M ir z a , L o r r a in e , 5 2

M a n d a lis m , x x x iv , 1 7 1 - 7 2

M i s h r a , V in o d , 2 0 9

M a n s in g h , L a lit, 1 5 2 , 171

M o d i, N a r e n d r a , 1 5 6 , 1 5 9 - 6 1 ,

M an su r, 6 8 -6 9

164, 2 1 1 -1 3 , 2 2 3 , 239

M a n u w a d is , 1 7 1

M o e g h a n i, M o s in , 4 7

m a r g in a liz a tio n , 1 0 1 , 1 7 6 , 2 4 1 M a r k a z D a ’a w a t u l I r s h a d , 1 8 5

M o h a j i r I n te r n a tio n a l F o r u m , 9 7 M o h a m m a d I b r a h im , 5 7 - 5 8

M a r t i a l L a w A d m in is tr a tio n , 2 6

M o h a n ty , C h a n d r a T a l p a d e , 1 9 4

M a r x is ts , x x v i, 2 0 2 M a th e w , B iju , 1 8 9 - 9 0 , 1 9 2 , 2 0 1 ,

M o h e n - jo - D a r o , 1 1 0 M o m in C o n f e r e n c e , 1 0 7

2 0 7 -8

M o n t a g u C h e lm s f o r d r e f o r m s , x x ii

Index » 277 M o z a m b iq u e : M u s lim s , 9 3 M u h a j i r , M u h a jir s , x x i, x x v , x x x , x x x v i, 2 , 1 2 , 1 4 , 1 6 , 1 7 , 2 0 - 2 2 , 2 4 , 2 9 , 3 2, 3 4 -5 , 3 7 -4 0 , 45, 5 4 -5 7 , 5 9 , 8 0 , 9 1 -9 3 , 9 5 -9 6 , 1 2 0 ,1 6 4 , 1 7 2 ,1 6 4 , 172 , 2 3 1 -3 2 , 2 3 6 -3 8 ; and an sar d is tin c tio n , 2 4 ; a s y lu m s e e k in g , x x v i, x x x , 9 7 - 9 8 ,

1 3 7 , 1 4 1 ; r e v ita liz a tio n m o v e m e n t, x x ii; w o m e n , 1 2 6 , 205 M u s lim E d u c a tio n T r u s t , 1 8 4 M u s lim M a jlis , C h e n n a i, 1 3 9 M u s lim N a t i o n a l G u a r d s o f B ih a r , 1 0 M u s lim P u b lic A ff a ir s C o u n c il ( M P A C ), 1 5 4

2 3 6 ; f o r m a tio n s , 2 ; id e n tity ,

M u s lim U m m a h , 7 1 , 7 7 , 8 5 , 8 6

2 1 , 1 2 1 ; n a tio n a lis m , 9 1 ; a n d

M u s lim s f o r S e c u la r D e m o c r a c y

P a th a n s , 9 2 ; p o litic s , 9 1 ; s e n se o f c u ltu r a l s u p e r io r ity a n d se lfs a c rific e , 2 6 ; a n d S in d h i d iv id e , 1 2 0 M u h a j i r N a t i o n a l G u a r d s , 19 M u h a jir Q a u m i F u n d , 98 M u h a jir Q u a m i M a h a z (M Q M ), 1 1 4 -1 5 M u h a j i r ( M u tta h id a ) Q a u m i

(M S D ) , 2 3 4 M u t t a h i d a C o n v e n tio n , 2 0 0 2 ,

102 M u t t a h i d a M a jlis - e - A m a l, P a k is ta n , 1 7 9 M y a n m a r : H in d u tv a n e tw o r k , 129 M y m e n s in g h , B ih a ri M u s lim re fu g e e s, 1 7 , 2 7 , 4 1

M o v em en t (M Q M ), x x x , x x x v ii, 3 8 - 4 0 , 5 4 , 6 6 , 7 9 , 8 3 ,

N a im , M o e e n J a n , 6 0

9 1 -1 0 7 , 1 0 8 , 1 1 1 , 1 1 4 -1 5 ,

N a im , R a s h id , 1 4 9

1 1 8 -2 2 , 2 3 0 , 2 3 2 -3 3 , 23 6 ,

N a k a d a r , A . R e h m a n S ., 1 4 2 ,

2 3 8 ; C a n a d a , 9 5 , 1 0 0 ; H a q iq i

148, 15 0 , 152

f a c tio n , 9 6 ; O v e r s e a s , 9 5 , 1 0 0 ;

N a r a y a n a n , K .R ., 1 4 0

U K , 1 0 1 ; U SA , 9 5 ,1 0 0 ,1 0 1 ,

N a r a y a n g a n j; a n ti-B e n g a li c o m m u n a l r io ts , 2 3 ; r e c ip r o c a l

103 M u k t i B a h in i, 4 5 , 6 6 , 6 8 m u l k ( h o m e la n d ) a n d p a r d e s (f o re ig n la n d ) , p e r c e p tio n s o f , xxxi M u r s h id a b a d : B ih a ri M u s lim r e f u g e e s , 1 0 , 1 1 ; re c ip r o c a l v io le n c e , 18 M u s h a rra f, P a rv ez , 4 6 , 9 0 , 96 M u s lim ( s ) , x x i i i - x x i v , x x v iii,

v io le n c e , 1 8 ; S tr a n d e d P a k is ta n is , 9 0 N a rik a , O a k la n d , 1 9 4 , 1 9 4 ,1 9 6 ,

220 N a r u l a , S m ita , 1 5 7 N a tio n a l C a m p a ig n f o r D a lit H u m a n R ig h ts , 1 6 7 , 2 4 1 N a tio n a l D e m o c r a tic A llia n c e (N D A ), 1 4 8

x x x v ii, 1 , 2 , 1 0 , 5 8 , 9 6 , 1 2 3 ,

N a tio n a l F e d e r a tio n o f D a lit

126, 130, 134, 148, 171, 1 7 6 -

W o m e n (1 9 9 5 ), 1 6 6 N a tio n a l F e d e r a tio n o f I n d ia n

77, 196, 2 01, 2 04, 2 28, 241; d a litiz a tio n , 1 5 7 ; d iv id e d , 1 0 6 ; o f t h e M in o r ity P r o v in c e s o f I n d ia , 5 5 ; o f I n d ia n o r ig in , 6 7 ; n a tio n a lis m , 5 4 ; p e r s o n a l la w ,

A s s o c ia tio n s , 1 6 4 N a tio n a l H i n d u S tu d e n ts F o ru m (N H S F ), 2 0 6

278

*

Index

n a t i o n a l o rig in q u o t a s , a b o litio n ,

N o r t h L o n d o n M u s lim C o m m u n ity C e n tr e , 1 5 9

133 N a t i o n a l P u b lic R a d io ( N P R ), USA , 155 N a t i o n a l R e p a tr ia tio n C o m m itte e , 7 5 - 7 6

N o r t h W e s t F r o n tie r P ro v in c e ( N W F P ), x x iii, 4 7 , 6 0 , 2 3 0 N o rw a y , 1 0 2 n u c le a r w e a p o n iz a tio n , 1 7 9

n a tio n a lis m , x x v , x x v i, x x x iii, x x x iv ,

2 2 , 4 0 , 5 4 , 6 6 , 9 1 -9 3 ,

O c k e n d e n V e n tu r e , 7 9

1 5 9 ,1 6 1 ,1 9 0 - 9 2 , 1 9 7 , 2 0 6 ,

O k a r a : B ih a ri M u s lim s , 8 4

2 2 8 , 2 2 9 , 231

o lig a r c h y , 2 3

n a tio n a lity , 5 6 , 1 9 2

o p p r e s s io n , 1 0 7

n a tio n s , d ia s p o r a a n d re g io n , x x x i- x x x v iii

O r a c le , 2 0 1

N a y y a r , A .H ., 2 2 6

O r a n g i , K a r a c h i, 3 2 , 3 6 , 3 9 , 5 2 , 7 6 m49, 9 2

N a z im u d d in , K h a w a ja , 4 , 9

O r g a n iz a tio n o f Is la m ic C o u n tr ie s

N e p a lis , 1 9 0 N e w R e p u b lic I n d ia

(O IC ), 5 4 , 6 5 - 6 6 , 7 4 ,1 5 9 O r ie n ta l B a n k , P a tn a , 8

I n t e r n a tio n a l, C h ic a g o , 1 6 1 , 1 6 3 -6 4 N e w Y o r k T a x i W o r k e r s A llia n c e (N Y T W A ) , 1 9 1 - 9 2

O t h e r B a c k w a rd C la s s e s (O B C s ), 126, 1 4 1 ,1 6 5 , 1 7 0 ,1 7 2 O v e r s e a s F r ie n d s o f B JP (U K ), 135

N e w Z e a l a n d , 8 2 ; M u h a jir s , 9 7 n o n -g o v e r n m e n ta l o r g a n iz a tio n s (N G O s), 6 6 , 1 6 7 n o n - r e s id e n t I n d ia n s (N R Is ) , x x x i,

217

N o n - R e s id e n t I n d ia n s f o r a S e c u la r a n d H a r m o n io u s I n d ia , 1 6 4 N o n - R e s id e n t I n d ia n s f o r a S e c u la r is m a n d D e m o c ra c y

p a c ifis m , 1 3 2 P a k - A m e r ic a n T a s k F o r c e f o r th e S o lid a r ity o f P a k is ta n , 9 5 P a k h tu n k h w a , 1 1 9 P a k h tu n s , 1 1 7 P a k is ta n , x x , 3 0 , 3 6 , 1 0 , 1 1 8 , 1 3 1 - 3 3 ,2 1 1 ,2 3 2 ,2 3 5 ; A fg h a n r e f u g e e s , 4 7 , 6 1 ;

( N R IS A D ), V a n c o u v e r , 1 9 5 ,

B e n g a lis , 6 9 ; B ih a ri M u s lim re fu g e e s, 1 1 - 1 2 , 4 3 , 4 5 , 4 8 ,

212

5 2 , 8 3 , 9 2 ; c r e a tio n o f , x x iii,

N o n - R e s id e n t P a k is ta n is (N R P s ), 217

x x v ii, x x x iii, 6 6 , 1 0 5 , 1 0 7 ,

N o o n , F ero z K h a n , 4

c o r r u p t p o litic a l s y s te m , 9 9 ;

N o o n , G h u la m Q a d i r , 1 3 6

D e c c a n H y d e r a b a d is , x x ix ;

N o r t h A m e ric a , 1 9 2 ; H i n d u tv a

H in d u s , 1 9 8 , 2 4 2 ; h u m a n

m o v e m e n t, 1 8 7 N o r t h A m e r ic a n C o n f e r e n c e o n

rig h ts v io le n c e , 9 8 - 9 9 , 1 0 3 0 4 ; id e o lo g y s u p p o r t o f B ih a ri

1 1 5 ,1 2 5 ,1 3 9 ,1 7 9 , 239;

P e a c e a n d H u m a n R ig h ts in

M u s lim s , 8 4 ; illu s io n a s

S o u th A s ia , 2 0 7

h o m e la n d o f M u s lim s , 2 6 , 2 3 8 ; Is la m ic f u n d a m e n ta lis m ,

N o r t h A m e r ic a n S ik h L e a g u e , 240

2 1 5 ; m in o r itie s , 3 , 2 2 4 - 2 5 ;

Index » 2 7 9 m o v e m e n t, 4 5 , 4 9 , 5 5 , 2 3 1 ; M u s lim m a jo r ita r ia n is m , 2 2 7 ;

P a k is ta n R e h a b ilita tio n F in a n c ia l C o rp o ra tio n , 17

M u s lim s , 1 8 9 ; o f m in o r ity

P a k is ta n R e p a tr ia tio n C o u n c il

p r o v in c e s , 5 8 ; n e g le c t o f I n d ia n M u s lim s , 4 ; p r o x y

( P R C ), 4 7 P a k is ta n S a r a ik i P a r ty , 1 1 0

c itiz e n s , x x x iv , 2 3 4 ; s e c o n d

P a k is ta n - I n d ia P e o p le ’s F o r u m f o r

m ig r a tio n f r o m B a n g la d e s h , 3 0 ; T a lib a n iz a tio n , 2 0 9 ; u r b a n - r u r a l q u o t a s y s te m , 1 0 5 P a k is ta n , E a s t, x x v , x x x v i, 9 , 1 9 , 2 2 -2 5 , 3 5 , 4 2 , 6 0 -6 1 , 66,

P e ace a n d D e m o c ra c y (P IP F P D ), x x x v iii, 2 0 7 , 2 1 4 - 1 6 P a k is ta n is , 1 9 0 - 9 1 , 1 9 3 , 2 3 5 , 2 4 0 ; A m e ric a n s , 9 6 , 1 3 8 ; B a n g la d e s h is , 31

1 0 6 , 1 1 3 , 1 1 7 ; a u to n o m y

P a le s tin e , 5 0 ; M u s lim s , 9 3

m o v e m e n t, 2 7 ; B ih a ri M u s lim

P a le s tin ia n s , 4 9 , 1 3 1

re fu g e e s, 1 1 , 1 7 , 1 8 -1 9 ; m ig r a n ts f r o m A s s a m , W e s t

P a lijo , R a s o o l B u x , 1 0 9 - 1 1 , 234«é

B e n g a l a n d B ih a r , 1 1 , 1 8 , I n d ia n M u s lim s , 3 8 ; M u h a jir s ,

P an d ey , K ed ar N a th , 2 9 P a n ik k a r , K .N ., 2 2 6

1 6 ; n o n -B e n g a lis m a s s a c r e , 2 7 ; r e f u g e e s in I n d ia , 1 6 ;

P a r b a t p u r , 16

P a k is ta n , W e s t, x x x v i, 2 2 - 2 4 , 3 8 , 40,

6 1 ; a r m y a c tio n a g a in s t

P a r titio n o f I n d ia n s u b c o n tin e n t, x i x - x x i , x x iii, x x v , x x v i, x x x ii, 1 2 , 4 0 , 4 9 , 1 0 8 - 9 , 1 1 7 ,

A w a m i L e a g u e , 6 7 ; B ih a ri

1 2 4 - 2 5 ,1 3 2 ,1 3 9 ,1 5 1 ,1 9 7 ,

M u s lim r e f u g e e s , 1 1 , 1 2 ;

224,

M u h a jir s , 3 9

2 3 8 , 2 4 2 , 2 4 3 ; a n d d ia s p o r a

P a k is ta n A m e r ic a n A s s o c ia tio n o f N o r t h A m e r ic a (P A A N A ), C h ic a g o , 9 6 P a k is ta n A s s o c ia tio n o f S a n F r a n c is c o B a y A r e a , 9 5 P a k is ta n E a s te r n R a ilw a y , 6 5 P a k is ta n H u m a n R ig h ts W a tc h , C h ic a g o , 8 7 P a k is ta n L e a g u e o f A m e r ic a ,

s tu d ie s , x x v - x x x i P a s m a n d a M u s lim M a h a z , 1 4 9 P a s w a n , R a m V ila s , 1 4 5 - 4 8 , 1 7 2 P a te l, N a t u b h a i , 1 5 8 P a te l, N ik u l R a v ib h a i, 1 5 8 P a th a n s , 2 0 - 2 1 , 9 1 , 9 2 , 9 3 p a tr io tis m , 2 2 8 P a tu a k h a li, 1 3 1 P e n in s u la , F ijia n I n d ia n s , 1 9 4 P e o p le o f I n d ia n O r ig in (P IO ) ,

x x v iii P a k is ta n M u s lim L e a g u e , 2 4 - 2 5 , 26,

226, 226, 230, 235, 236,

6 6 , 9 4 , 2 0 8 ; (N a w a z

1 7 3 -7 4 , 235 P e o p le ’s W a tc h , T a m il N a d u , 1 6 9

S h a r if ) , 9 4 , 1 1 1 ; M Q M

p e r s o n a l la w , 1 2 6

A cco rd , 111

P h ilip p in e s , 1 0 2

P a k is ta n O p p r e s s e d N a tio n s M o v em en t (P O N M ), 1 1 3 P a k is ta n P e o p le ’s P a r ty (P P P ), 2 6 , 3 2 , 5 3 , 8 3, 9 3 -9 5 P a k is ta n R a ilw a y m e n ’s L e a g u e , S a id p u r , R a n g p u r , 6 2 - 6 8

p lu r a lis m , 1 2 3 , 1 5 6 , 1 6 2 , 1 6 3 , 1 7 3 ,1 7 9 p o litic a l, p o litic s , x ix , x x v ii, x x x v i,

x x x v ii, 5 6 , 9 1 , 1 2 1 ,

1 2 3 ,1 4 8 ,1 6 6 ,1 7 8 ,1 7 9 ,1 8 7 , 1 9 0 ,1 9 2 , 2 1 8 , 2 2 6 , 2 2 9 , 2 4 2 ,

280

«

Index

2 4 0 ; e x tr e m is m , 2 0 4 ; f r e e d o m ,

1 6 9 ,1 7 1 ,1 7 5 - 7 7 ,1 8 2 ,1 8 6 -

1 0 0 ; H in d u is m , 1 2 4 ; id e n tity ,

8 7 ,1 9 0 -9 1 ,1 9 7 , 2 0 7 , 2 4 0 , 241

1 7 6 ; r e la tio n s , 1 8 6 ; r ig h ts , 1 1 2 , 174 p o v e r ty , 1 4 0

R a f s a n ja n i, 8 5 R a h m a n , A tiq u r , 7 0 R a h m a n , L a tif u r , 9

P o w e ll, E n o c h , 1 9 0

R a h m a n , T a r iq , 2 2 6

P r a k a s h , F a th e r C e d r ic , 1 5 4 , 1 5 7

R a h m a n , Z ia u r, 6 6 , 69

p r e ju d ic e , 1 2 5

R a h m a tu lla h , S ., 2 4

P r e v e n tio n o f T e r r o r is ts ’ A c t

R a ja g o p a l, A r v in d , 1 3 0 , 1 8 6

(P O T A ) , 1 6 0 p r i n t m e d ia , 1 5 0 P ro g r e s s iv e F o r u m f o r I n d ia (P F I), 195 P ro g r e s s iv e S o u th A s ia E x c h a n g e N e t, 195

R a ja g o p a l, R a ju , 1 5 7 R a js h a h i, 1 7 9 ; B ih a ri M u s lim r e f u g e e s , 1 6 , 41 R a m t i r t h , S w a m i, 1 3 2 R a m z a n p u r , e x o d u s o f M u s lim s ,

12

p r o v in c ia lis m , 1 0 , 1 9 , 2 0 - 2 1 p ro x y w a r, 118

R a n g p u r, 3 1 , 8 7

p s y c h o lo g ic a l f r a m e w o r k , 1 7 8

4 1 ; M u h a jir s , 3 8 R a o , P .V . N a r s i m h a , 1 4 3

P u ja , L a i C h a n d , 1 3 5 P u n j, B a lb ir K ., 1 8 3 P u n ja b , 4 7 , 1 3 3 ; B ih a ri M u s lim

R a n g p u r , B ih a ri r e f u g e e s , 2 7 , 3 0 ,

R a p id A c tio n F o r c e ( R A F ), 1 4 5 R a q u e e b , S .A ., 7 9

r e f u g e e s , 7 5 ; r e s e ttle m e n t

R a s h id , N a e e m , 1 4 5

p r o je c t, 8 3 ; S tr a n d e d

R a s h tr iy a J a n a t a D a l (R J D ) , 1 4 9

P a k is ta n is , 8 2 , 1 2 2

R a s h tr iy a S w a y a m s e v a k S a n g h

P u n ja b is , x x v , 2 , 1 9 , 2 1 , 2 2 , 4 3 , 5 6 , 9 1 , 9 2 , 93 P u n y a n i, R a m , 1 6 4 p u rd a h , 1

(R S S ), 8 7 , 1 2 5 - 2 7 , 1 2 9 - 3 2 , 1 3 5 ,1 4 7 ,1 5 0 ,1 5 1 ,1 5 5 ,1 5 6 , 1 5 8 - 5 9 ,1 6 3 ,1 6 5 , 2 0 3 , 2 0 4 , 206,

2 2 1 , 22 3 , 2 2 8 , 234

P u r n e a , 6 , 31

R a v id a s is , 1 6 8 R azakars, 2 7 , 68

Q a d r i , M a u l a n a A s a d u l, 1 0

R ed C ro ss, 2 8 , 4 1 , 5 0 , 6 9 , 93

Q a iy u m , M o h a m m a d A b d u l, 3 8

R e fo rm M o v e m e n t o f

Q a m ru z z a m a n , M ., 1 4 9

W a s h in g to n , D .C ., 8 7

Q a s im , M o h a m m a d B in , 8 5

re f u g e e h o o d , 5 7

Q a t a r : B ih a ri M u s lim r e f u g e e s , 7 4

R e f u g e e s a n d M ig r a to r y

Q u a d ia n is , 8 5 Q u d d u s B ih a r i, M a u l a n a A b d u l, 7 -8 Q u e t t a , 21 Q u i t I n d ia M o v e m e n t (1 9 4 2 ) , 6 2 R a b i t a a l A la m a l I s la m , M a k k a , 4 7 - 4 8 ,6 6 ,7 4 - 8 0 ,8 2 ,8 4 - 8 5 ,8 7 r a c e , r a c is m , x x x v i, 1 2 8 , 1 6 6 ,

M o v e m e n ts R e s e a r c h U n it, 4 3 r e f u g e e s ’ r ig h ts , 9 8 r e g io n a l a n d e th n ic is s u e s , 21 r e g io n a l a u to n o m y m o v e m e n ts , 123 r e g io n a l e c o n o m ic a n d c u ltu r a l i n s titu tio n s , 1 8 8 r e g io n a l id e n tity , 5 6 R e h m a n , S h e ik h M u j i b u r , 6 6 , 6 9

Index » 281 re lig io n , r e lig io u s , x x , x x iii, x x x ii,

1 2 3 , 1 4 7 ,1 6 6 ,1 9 2 ,

S a n th a l P a r g a n a s , 9 S a r a ik is , 1 1 7

207, 2 0 8 ,2 1 8 , 2 2 8 ; a n d d ia s p o r a , x x x v , x x x v i;

S a r e s h w a la , Z a f a r , 1 5 8 S a r h a d is , 4 3 , 9 1 , 9 2

e x tr e m is m , 1 6 3 ;

S a r k i, S a f d a r , 1 1 5 - 1 6

f u n d a m e n ta lis m , se e

S a r w a r , G h u la m , 7 2

fu n d a m e n ta lis m ; h is to r y o f

S a tta r , F a r o o q , 91

d ia s p o r ic f o r m a tio n s , 1 2 8 ;

S a u d i A r a b ia , 6 6 , 7 8 , 1 0 9 ; B ih a ri

id e n tity , x x v ii; p o litic s , 1 6 3 ;

M u s lim r e f u g e e s , 4 3 , 7 3 , 7 4 ,

r ig h t, 2 4 0

8 2 ; a c tiv itie s o f J a m a a t- I -

r e p a t r i a t i o n p r o c e s s , x x x v i, 3 9 , 4 1 , 4 4 - 4 5 ,4 8 , 5 1 -5 4 , 5 6 , 71, 7 5 , 7 7 , 7 8, 8 1 -8 2 , 8 4 -8 5 , 89, 9 1 ,9 4 ,1 1 4 , 233

Is la m i, 1 8 4 ; f u n d in g o f m a d r a s a s , 2 2 2 ; M u h a jir s , 1 0 0 ; M u s lim m ig r a n ts , 3 1 , 3 5 , 3 6 S a v a rk a r, V eer D a m o d a r, 2 3 4

r e s e r v a tio n r io ts , 1 6 6 r e s e ttle m e n t p r o je c t, 8 0

S a v e B ih a ris A c tio n C o m m itte e ,

R it a m b h a r a , S a d h v i, 1 5 3 , 1 6 1 - 6 2

S a y e e d A la m , S ., 2 7

R o u f, A b d u r, 90

S c a r b o r o u g h M u s lim A s s o c ia tio n ,

R u p e r lia , P .V ., 2 0 3 R u s h d ie , S a lm a n , 8 5

S c h e d u le d C a s t e (S C s), 1 6 8 , 1 7 1 ;

SAARC, 84, 213

S c h e d u le d T r ib e s (S T s), 1 6 8 , 171

S a b r a n g C o m m u n ic a tio n s , I n d ia ,

S c y th ia n s , 1 1 0

68

240 w om en, 126

155,

200

S a d iq , J a m , 1 0 9 S a f d a r H a s h m i M e m o r ia l T r u s t

s e c ta r ia n is m , 2 2 7 s e c u la r is m , 1 2 8 , 1 3 9 , 1 4 3 , 1 6 1 , 2 1 1 ,2 2 9

( S A H M A T ), D e lh i, 2 1 7 SA FTA , 2 3 7 -3 8

s e p a r a tis m , 1 0 8 S e tla v a d , T e e s ta , 1 5 4

S a g h ir S h a ik h , 1 1 3

S e w a B h a r a ti, 2 0 0 , 2 0 4

S a h e li, 2 2 0

S e w a I n t e r n a tio n a l, 1 5 8 - 5 9 , 1 6 0 , 1 9 9 , 2 0 4 ; U K (S IU K ), 2 0 3 ,

S a id p u r , 8 7 ; B ih a ris , 2 7 , 3 0 ; M u h a jir s , 3 8 ; r e f u g e e c a m p s , 4 1

204

S a ig o l, R u b in a , 2 2 6

s e x u a lity , s e x is m , 1 7 7 , 1 9 3

S a k h i, N e w Y o r k , 1 9 3 , 1 9 4 , 2 2 0

S h a fi B e z a r, s e e B e z a r, S h a fi

S a la h u d d in , M u h a m m a d , 7 2

S h a f i, M u h a m m a d , x x iii

S a le h a , S y e d a , 7 9

S h a h , D h e e r a j, 2 2 3

S am ad , A b d u s, 14

S h a h , Z a f a r A li, 81

S a m a d d a r , R a n a b ir , 2 1 6

S h a h a d a t, 2 2 6

S a n F r a n c is c o : P a k is ta n i

S h a re e f, S .H ., 7 2 , 7 4 S h a r ia h B ill, o p p o s itio n , 1 1 5

c o m m u n ity , 1 9 4 S a n g h I n t e r n a tio n a l, 2 0 6 S a n g h P a r iv a r , x x x v , 1 2 6 - 2 7 , 1 3 0 , 1 3 2 , 1 5 7 ,1 5 8 ,1 6 2 ,1 6 5 , 1 7 1 ,1 9 9 -2 0 2 , 2 0 9 , 2 3 4

S h a rif, H a s a n , 8 7 S h a rif, N a w a z , 8 1 , 8 3 , 8 7 , 8 8 , 94,

9 6 , 98

S h a r m a , R .S ., 2 2 7

282

«

Index

S h e ik h , S a e e d A ., 4 6

S in g h a l, A s h o k , 1 5 6

S h ia f u n d a m e n ta lis m , 1 8 4

S in h a , S ri K r is h n a , 4

S h ia -S u n n i a n ta g o n is m , 1 7 9

s o c ia l c h a n g e , 1 2 3 s o c ia l in e q u a lity , 1 4 6

S h iv S e n a , 1 3 2 , 1 4 0 , 1 6 9 S h u k r u d d in , M . , 5 5

s o c ia l ju s tic e , x x x iv , 1 4 5 , 1 6 6 , 2 0 9

S id d iq u i, M ir a j H ., 9 5

s o c ia l w e lf a r e , 1 4 8

S id d iq u i, S a fir A ., 4 6

s o c ia lis m , 1 8 4

S id d iq u i, T ig e r , 6 8

s o c io - e c o n o m ic s ta tu s , 1 2 6

S ik h A m e r ic a n H e r ita g e

s o lid a r ity , x x v i, 1 2 4 , 1 7 5 , 1 8 7 ,

O r g a n iz a tio n , 1 6 4 S ik h s , x x ix , 1 2 7 , 1 5 3 , 1 5 4 , 1 7 1 , 176,

1 7 7 , 2 4 1 ; a n ti-

S ik h r io ts , 1 9 8 4 , 1 6 1 ; e x tr e m is m , 205 S im la A g r e e m e n t, 1 9 7 3 , 4 0 S in d h , S in d h i( s ), x x iii, x x ix , 1 - 2 , 7 - 8 ,1 9 , 2 1 ,4 3 , 4 7 , 5 4 , 57,

209, 212, 217 S o m a lia : B ih a ri M u s lim re fu g e e s , 8 4 ; M u s lim s , 9 3 S o m a lis , 8 7 S o u th A fric a , 1 0 2 , 1 0 3 , 1 8 7 ; H in d u tv a n e tw o r k , 1 2 9 S o u th A s ia C itiz e n s W e b , F ra n c e ,

200

9 1 ,9 3 , 9 5 ,1 1 5 ,1 1 8 ,1 2 0 ,

S o u th A s ia F o r u m , 1 7 7

2 3 1 , 2 3 2 , 2 3 3 , 2 3 8 -3 9 ; A m e r ic a n s , 1 1 3 ; B ih a ri

S o u th A s ia G r o u p f o r A c tio n a n d

M u s lim r e f u g e e s , 8 , 1 3 , 2 0 ,

S o u th A s ia L e ft D e m o c r a tic

5 3 , 7 5 , 1 1 7 ; e th n ic c o m p le x itie s , 9 5 ; e th n ic v io le n c e , x x iv ; lin g u is tic d is s o n a n c e /r io ts ( 1 9 7 2 ) , 2 6 , 1 0 8 , 1 1 2 , 1 2 0 ; M u h a jir s / M u h a j i r is s u e , x x x v i, 1 2 , 2 0 , 9 7 -9 8 , 1 0 5 ,1 0 8 -2 2 , 2 3 2 ,

R e f le c tio n , 1 6 3 A llia n c e (S A L D A ), 2 1 0*«4, 2 1 1 S o u th A s ia P r o g re s s iv e C o n f e r e n c e , C a lif o r n ia , 1 9 6 S o u th A s ia R e s e a r c h C e n te r (C E R A S ), M o n t r e a l , x x x v ii, 2 0 6 - 9 , 2 1 1 , 2 1 7 , 2 1 9 m121 S o u th A s ia S o lid a r ity G r o u p

2 3 6 ; c r e a tio n o f M u h a j i r s u b a ,

(S A S G ), 1 9 7 - 2 0 0 , 2 2 2

9 7 , 1 0 8 ; M u s lim L e a g u e , 1 1 7 ; M u s lim s , 1 1 2 ; n a t i o n , id e n tity ,

S o u th A s ia W a tc h d o g , 2 2 3 S o u th A s ia W e b , F r a n c e , 1 5 5

2 ; n a tio n a lis t g r o u p s , 4 9 ;

S o u th A s ia n A c tio n a n d

p o litic s , 1 0 8 ; S tr a n d e d P a k is ta n is , 1 1 0 ; w a d e r a s , 2 0 ,

102 S in d h C o u n c il, 8 3 S in d h D e m o c r a ts G r o u p , 1 1 8 S in d h i A w a m i T e h r i k , 1 1 0 S in d h i N a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e , B h its h a h (2 0 0 5 ) , 2 3 2 S in g h , K .P ., 1 5 7 S in g h , K u lm it, 1 5 7

A d v o c a c y C o lle c tiv e , 1 9 5 - 9 6 S o u th A s ia n A llia n c e , B ir m in g h a m , 1 9 9 S o u th A s ia n F o r u m f o r H u m a n R ig h ts (S A F H R ), x x x v iii, 2 1 1 , 2 1 3 , 2 1 4 ,2 1 6 S o u th A s ia n M a g a z in e f o r A c tio n a n d R e fle c tio n (S A M A R ), 1 6 2 , 1 9 1 - 9 2 , 2 1 9 m 121 S o u th A s ia n N e t w o r k f o r

S in g h , N a r e n d r a , 2 0 9

S e c u la r is m a n d D e m o c ra c y

S in g h , V .P ., 1 4 0 , 1 4 6

(S A N S A D ), 2 1 0 » 84, 2 1 1 - 1 2

Index * 283 S o u th A s ia n P ro g re s s iv e A c tio n C o lle c tiv e , 1 6 3

T a lb o t, Ia n , 9 8 T a lib a n , 1 5 2 ,1 7 9

S o u th a ll B lac k S iste rs, 1 7 7 , 1 9 8 ,2 0 4

T a m e e r - e - M illa t, H y d e r a b a d , 1 3 9

s o v e re ig n ty , 4 8 , 2 1 6 S ri L a n k a , 1 3 1 , 1 9 7 ; C iv il w a r , 1 7 5

T a m il a s y lu m d ia s p o r a , 2 4 0 T a m il E e la m S o c ie ty , 2 4 0 T an v eer, 9 6

S r ik ris h n a C o m m is s io n R e p o r t, 1 4 0 S ta n d in g C o n f e r e n c e o f M in o r itie s o f I n d ia (S C I M ), 1 3 5 s t a t e s y s te m in S o u th A s ia , 3 0

T a riq , 4 6 T a x i a n d L im o u s in e C o m m is s io n (T L C ), 191

S to p B ih a ris C o m m itte e (S B C ),

T e h r e e k - e - N is w a n , 2 3 4 k 7 T e h r ik - e - I tte h a d , 7 6 n 4 9 te r r ito r ia lis m , t e r r ito r ia l

S in d h , 1 1 0 S tr a n d e d P a k is ta n is , x x x v ii, 3 8 ,

n a tio n a lis m , 4 8 , 9 1 , 1 7 8 , 2 3 9 t e r r o r is m , 4 5 , 1 0 4 , 1 2 1 , 1 3 1

s ta te h o o d , 4 8 s te r e o ty p e s o f D a lits , 1 6 6

4 0 , 4 1 , 4 3 , 4 4 , 4 7 -4 8 , 51, 5 4 5 6 , 6 0 , 6 4, 6 6 -6 7 , 6 9 -7 1 , 7 5 76, 7 8 , 8 2 -8 8 , 9 0 -9 2 , 106, 1 0 9 - 1 0 , 2 3 3 , 2 3 7 - 3 8 ; in

T e r r o r is ts a n d D is r u p tiv e A c tiv itie s P r e v e n tio n A c t (T A D A ), 1 3 7 , 1 4 0 , 1 4 4 -4 5 , 147, 160

B a n g la d e s h , 9 6 , 1 0 6 , 1 1 3 ,

T e x a s , c o a litio n o f M u s lim

1 1 7 ,2 3 3 , 2 38

o r g a n iz a tio n s , 9 5 T h a ila n d : M u h a jir s , 9 7

S tr a n d e d P a k is ta n i E a s te rn R a ilw a y E m p lo y e e s L e a g u e (S P E R E L ), 6 2 , 6 3 , 7 4 - 7 5 , 91 S tr a n d e d P a k is ta n is G e n e ra l R e p a tr ia tio n C o m m itte e (S P G R C ), x x x v ii, 4 4 , 4 7 , 5 0 - 5 2 , 5 4 -5 5 , 5 7 -6 6 , 7 0 -7 2 , 7 4 -7 5 , 78, 82, 8 4 -9 0 , 9 1 ,1 2 2 , 2 3 0 S tr a n d e d P a k is ta n is R e s e ttle m e n t P r o je c t (S P R P ), 7 0 , 7 2 - 7 3 , 75 S tr a n d e d P a k is ta n is Y o u th R e p a tr ia tio n M o v e m e n t, 8 9 S tr a w , J a c k , 1 5 8 , 1 5 9 - 6 0 S u d e r s h a n , K .S ., 1 3 1 S u fis, 1 2 0 S u h r a w a r d y , H .S ., 7 , 1 0 , 1 1 7 S u r in a m : in d e n tu r e d m ig r a n ts , x x v ii; M u s lim s , x x x ii S u s ta in a b le P o lic y D e v e lo p m e n t I n s titu te (S D P I), 2 2 6 Sw eden, 102, 103

T h a n t , U ., 6 7 T h a p a r , R o m ila , 2 2 6 , 2 2 7 T h a tc h e r is m , 1 7 7 T h i r d W o r ld , 6 5 T ip h g a n e , H e n r i, 1 6 9 T o g a d ia , P ra v e e n , 1 5 8 , 1 6 0 , 2 3 9 tr a f f ic k in g o f w o m e n , 2 1 2 t r a n s n a t i o n a l a c tiv is m , 1 2 6 , 1 7 5 t r a n s n a t i o n a l c o n n e c te d n e s s , x x x v T rik o n e , 19 6 T r in id a d ; H in d u tv a n e tw o r k , 1 2 9 ; in d e n tu r e d m ig r a n ts , x x v ii, x x x ii T r u m a n , H a r r y , x x v iii T u k e r , F ra n c is , 2 5 2 4 P a r g a n a s , B ih a ri M u s lim r e f u g e e s , 3 , 6 ; re c ip r o c a l v io le n c e , 1 8 t w o - n a t i o n th e o r y , x x x v ii, 2 , 3 2 , 4 0 , 5 7 ,1 0 6 ,1 0 7 ,1 3 9 ,2 0 7 , 2 2 8 ,2 3 1 ,2 3 5 , 2 3 8

S y e d , G .M ., 1 1 2 - 1 3 , 1 1 5 , 1 1 7 S y lh e t, 1 3 3 ; B ih a ri M u s lim re fu g e e s, 2 2 , 4 1

U b a id , S h a ik h , 1 5 2 - 5 3 , 1 5 4 , 1 5 7 , 158

284 ♦ Index U g a n d a , x x v i, 1 3 1 ; H i n d u tv a n e tw o r k , 1 2 9

A g a in s t R a c is m , D u r b a n ,

U m b r ic t, V ic to r , 5 3 u n d e r d e v e lo p m e n t o f M u s lim s ,

A g a in s t R a c is m , R a c ia l

136 U N IC E F , 8 2 U n ite d A r a b E m ir a te s (U A E ), 1 0 9 ; B ih a ri M u s lim re fu g e e s , 74

2 0 0 1 , 1 2 0 ; W o r l d C o n fe re n c e D is c r im in a tio n , X e n o p h o b ia a n d R e la te d I n to le r a n c e (W C A R ), 1 6 6 - 6 7 U n ite d R e s p o n s e C o lla b o r a tiv e o f B a y A r e a o r g a n iz a tio n s , 1 9 6 U n ite d S ta te s o f A m e r ic a , 7 8 ,

U n ite d F r o n t (U F ), 1 3 5

1 1 5 ; A m b e d k a r ite s , 1 4 8 ;

U n ite d F r o n t f o r R e p a tr ia tio n

B ih a ri M u s lim r e fu g e e s , x x x ,

(U F R ), 3 2 , 7 5 - 7 6 U n ite d K in g d o m , 1 1 5 ; B ih a ri M u s lim r e f u g e e s , 5 3 , 7 4 ; B e n g a lis , 1 8 3 - 8 4 C h a r ity C o m m is s io n , 2 0 4 ; D a lits , 1 6 7 — 6 8 ; H in d u is m a n d I s la m

7 4 , 8 2 ; C o m m is s io n o n I n te r n a tio n a l R e lig io u s F r e e d o m (U S C IR F ), 1 5 4 ; C o m m itte e f o r S tr a n d e d P a k is ta n is , 7 3 ; D a lits , 1 6 7 - 6 8 ; H in d u tv a n e tw o r k /H in d u s ,

r e lig io n b o u n d a r ie s , 1 2 8 ;

127,

H in d u tv a n e tw o r k U K , 1 2 7 ,

a c tiv is ts , 1 8 7 ; I n d i a n d ia s p o r a ,

1 5 8 -5 9 , 1 9 8 -2 0 0 , 2 0 3 , 20 4 ,

1 5 7 ; I n d i a n M u s lim s , 1 3 7 ,

1 2 9 , 1 5 0 - 5 1 , 2 2 2 ; I n d ia n

2 2 2 , 2 2 3 ; K a s h m ir is , 1 8 5 ;

1 5 2 ; K a s h m ir is , 1 8 6 ;

M u h a jir s , 2 3 6 ; M u s lim

m ilita r is m , 1 9 6 ; M u h a jir s , 9 7 ,

m ig r a n ts , 2 6 , 3 5 , 1 3 4 , 1 3 5 ;

2 3 6 ; M u s lim m ig r a n ts , 2 6 , 3 5 -

P a k is ta n is , 1 8 5 ; P u n ja b i H in d u s , x x v iii; S o u th A sia n

36, 3 7 -3 8 , 3 9 -4 0 , 9 6 ,1 3 4 , 1 4 1 , 1 4 8 , 1 6 4 ; a n ti- M u s lim

d ia s p o r a , 1 7 5 - 7 6 , 2 1 7 ; p e a c e

p o g r o m s , 1 3 7 ; P a k is ta n i

in itia tiv e s o f , 1 9 8 ; p r o te s t a g a in s t re p r e s s io n o f

x v ix ; s p lit, 4 0 ; S o u th A s ia n

d ia s p o r a , 1 0 0 ; ille g a l, x x v iii-

m in o r itie s in B a n g la d e s h , 1 8 1 ;

d ia s p o r a /m ig r a n ts , x x v iii, 1 9 4 ,

r e s is te d H i n d u tv a f o r m a tio n

2 1 7 ; p e a c e in itia tiv e s , 1 9 8 ;

a f t e r G u j a r a t v io le n c e , 1 6 1

p r o t e s t a g a in s t re p r e s s io n o f

U n ite d M u s lim s o f A m e ric a ( U M A ), S a n J o s e , 9 5 - 9 6 U n ite d N a t i o n s , 3 , 9 8 , 1 0 3 , 1 1 2 ,

m in o r itie s in B a n g la d e s h , 1 8 1 ; re s is te d H in d u tv a f o r m a tio n a f t e r G u j a r a t v io le n c e , 1 6 1 ;

1 3 2 , 1 3 5 ; B ih a ri re f u g e e s , x x x ,

a n d S o v ie t U n io n , p o w e r

x x x v ii, 4 7 , 4 9 , 5 0 , 5 2 , 6 5 ,

c o n f lic t, 4 9 ; t e c h n o c r a t

2 3 3 ; C o n v e n tio n o n re fu g e e s, 5 0 ; D iv is io n o f H u m a n R ig h ts ,

c o n f o r m ity p o lic y , 1 5 0

m ig r a n ts , 1 2 8 ; W h ite

5 0 ; H u m a n R ig h ts C o m m is s io n ( U N H C R ) , 2 9 ,

u p p e r - c a s te s , 1 2 6 U rd u , x x v , 2 2 , 2 4

4 1 , 5 1 , 6 4 -6 5 , 6 9 , 7 5 , 7 9 -8 0 ,

U t t a r P r a d e s h , x x iv ; M u s lim

82, 1 0 3 ,1 0 9 , 110 , 1 1 2 , 181,

L e a g u e , 5 8 ; M u s lim s , e x o d u s ,

2 3 7 , 2 4 1 ; R e lie f O p e r a tio n ,

2 2 ; M u s lim m a jo r ity p r o v in c e ,

D h a k a , 5 3 ; W o r ld C o n fe re n c e

x x i i- x x iii

Index » 285 V a id y a , M . G ., 1 6 5

W ils o n , K a lp a n a , 2 0 0

V a is h n a v ite s , 1 2 7

w o m e n , w o m e n ’s: h u m a n r ig h ts ,

V a jp a y e e , A ta l B ih a r i, 1 5 2

2 0 9 ; m a r g in a liz a tio n , 2 1 4 ;

V a lm ik is , 1 6 8 , 1 7 0 V a n v a s i K a ly a n A s h r a m (V K A ),

o r g a n iz a tio n s , 1 9 3 - 9 4 , 2 1 2 1 3 ; im p a c t o f p a r t i t i o n , x x i;

1 5 9 ,1 9 9 ,

2 0 0 -1 , 203

r e h a b ilita tio n , x x ; s ta tu s , 1 2 6

V a rm a , D ay a, 2 0 9 , 211 V e d a n tin s , 1 2 7

W o m e n A g a in s t F u n d a m e n ta lis ts ,

v ic tim iz a tio n , 1 0 5 ; o f D a lits , 1 4 7

W o m e n in I s la m , 1 5 3

V id y a B h a r a ti, 2 0 1

W o m e n L iv in g U n d e r M u s lim

V ie tn a m , 4 1 , 1 3 3

204

L aw s, 199

V ie tn a m e s e re f u g e e s , 5 1 , 85

W o rk e rs’ A w aaz, 193

V ija y P r a s h a d , 1 8 6 , 1 8 8 , 2 0 2

w o r k in g c la s s , 1 3 4 , 1 7 4 , 1 8 6 ,

v io le n c e , x x , 1 4 0 , 1 5 6 , 1 9 6 , 2 2 8 , 2 3 2 ; a g a i n s t m in o r itie s , 1 6 1 ; a g a in s t M u s lim s , 1 6 3 , 2 3 8 V is h w a H i n d u P a r is h a d (V H P ), x x x v ii,

127, 129, 135, 148,

1 5 0 - 5 1 ,1 5 6 , 1 5 9 , 1 6 1 , 1 6 8 , 1 9 8 , 2 0 0 , 2 0 8 , 2 3 9 ; A m e ric a (V H P -A ), 1 2 9 - 3 0 , 1 5 0 , 1 5 3 , 1 5 4 ,1 8 8 , 1 8 9 ,1 9 4 , 21 8 ;

190, 193, 199 W o rld B a n k , 1 8 7 W o r l d C o n f e r e n c e A g a in s t R a c is m , 2 4 1 W o r l d S in d h i C o n g r e s s (W S C ), x x x v ii, 1 1 1 - 1 3 , 1 1 5 - 1 6 , 1 1 9 ,

120 W o r l d S in d h i I n s titu te (W S I), x x x v ii,

1 1 7 -1 8

N o r t h A m e ric a , 2 0 8 ; O v e rs e a s ,

W o r l d T a m il O r g a n iz a tio n , 1 6 4

2 0 5 ; U K , 1 9 8 , 2 0 4 -0 5

W o r l d W a r II, x x v , 4 9 , 1 3 3 , 1 8 6

V iv e k a n a n d , S w a m i, 1 3 2

W o r l d W id e W e b ( w w w ) , 1 3 0

V o ic e o f D a lit I n te r n a tio n a l (V O D I), 1 6 7 V o lu n te e r s in S e rv ic e t o I n d ia ’s

Y a d a v , L a lu P r a s a d , 1 4 0 , 1 4 6 , 1 7 2 Y a d a v , M u la y a m S in g h , 1 4 0 , 1 4 6

O p p r e s s e d a n d N e g le c te d

Y a z a d a n i, M a n z u r , 7 9

(V IS IO N ), 1 4 5 , 1 6 7 - 6 8 , 1 6 9 m137

Y o u n g M u s lim s o f th e U n ite d K in g d o m , 1 8 4

W a jid A li S h a h , 2 2 7 w a r c r im e s , 2 0 5 w a ta n w a p s i, 4 2 W a v e ll, L o r d , 3

Y ou n u s, M o h am m ed , 6 , 9 5 , 100 (c h e c k s p l v a r ia tio n ) Y o u th S o lid a r ity S u m m e r (Y SS), 187, 2 1 8 -1 9

W e s t A fr ic a n s , 1 9 2 W e s t B e n g a l; B ih a ri M u s lim re fu g e e s, 1 1 , 1 6 ,1 7 ;

z a k a t fu n d s , 1 3 6 , 1 5 0 Z a k i , S .A ., 2 7 - 2 8

M u s lim s , 7 - 9 ; e x o d u s , 2 2

Z e e n a , M u n a f , 1 5 9 - 6 0 , 2 2 2 « 130

W e s te r n p o w e r s , 4 9 W h ita k e r , B e n , 5 3 , 6 9

Z i a u l H a q , 7 0 , 7 3 , 7 6 n AS, 7 9 - 8 0 , 9 7 ,1 1 4 , 205, 227

W ils o n , A m r it, 1 9 9

About the Author

P ap iy a G h o sh is P ro fesso r o f H isto ry a t P a tn a U niversity. She has b een R o c k e fe lle r F e llo w in R e sid en c e a t N o r th C a ro lin a S ta te U n iv ersity , a n d a t th e U n iv ersity o f C h icag o . She h a s a lso been Fellow , In d ia n In stitu te o f A dvanced S tu d y , Shim la, a n d th e In d ia n C ouncil o f H isto rica l R esearch , N e w D elh i, a n d h a s p u b lish ed in several jo u rn a ls a n d e d ited w o rk s. H e r c u rre n t are a s o f research a re c o n te m p o ra ry p a triarc h ie s, gangaja m n i lite ra tu re , b a c k w a rd a n d d a lit p o litics, B h o jp u ri c in em a a n d e lectio n m usic. She is p resen tly co m p letin g tw o stu d ies o n p re- a n d p o s t-p a rtitio n Bihar.