Papacy 0297835599

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TH

APA CY

Paul Johnso

THE PAPACY • PAUL

JOHNSON •

Edited by Michael Walsh

WEIDENFELD & NICOLSON LONDON

Introduction and afterword copyright © Paul Johnson, 1997 Text copyright © Weidenfeld & icolson, 1997 The moral right of the contributors to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act of 1988 The acknowledgements on p.224 constitute an extension of this copyright page Illustrations chosen by Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1997 Design & layout copyright© Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1997 First published in 1997 by George Weidenfeld & Nicolson Ltd The Orion Publishing Group Orion House 5 Upper St Martin's Lane London WC2H 9EA All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form, or by any means, electronic, mechanical or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright holder. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 0297835599 Reprinted 2005 Picture research by: Joanne King Designed by: Peter Laws Typeset in: Saban Printed c.1nd bound in ingapore

CONTENTS INTRo DU c TI o N: /

1. THE

'Upon this Rock I will build My Church' Paul Johnson 6

ORIGINS OF THE PAPACY, c. 33-440 The Revd Professor W. H. C. Frend

24

2. POPES

AND EMPERORS, 440-731 Professor R. A. Markus

44

3. REFORM

AND THE PAPACY, 715-1085 Professor Uta-Renate Blumenthal 62

4. PAPAL

MONARCHY, 1085-1431 Dr Robert Swanson 80

5. THE RENAISSANCE PAPACY, 1420-1565 The Revd Dr John W. O'Malley, SJ

104

6. THE REFORMATION - AND THE COUNTER-REFORMATION, 1565-1721 Professor A. H. T. Levi

142

7. THE EMERGENCE OF THE MODERN PAPACY, 1721-1878 Dr Sheridan Gilley 166

8.

THE PAPACY IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY Michael J. Walsh 188 Into the Next Millennium Paul Johnson

AFTERWORD:

218

•

IN TRO D UC TIO N

'UPON THIS ROCK

•

I WILL BUILD

MY CHURCH' PAUL]OHNSON

the truths of Christianity. We may deny the primacy of Roman Catholicism within the Christian communion. We may reject the dogma of Papal Infallibility. But we cannot dispute that the papacy itself, purely as a human institution, is unique. The historian bows his head in humble respect at its antiquity, continuity and durability, and observes in awe its endless splendours and shadows as they flicker across the centuries. It has now survived two entire millennia with its essential functions intact. It is granitic in its capacity to endure. 'Thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build my Church.' The Church is still there. The pope is still the rock on which it leans for guidance and leadership. The papacy is the last of the ancient autocracies, the only one where the autocrat himself has preserved his essential powers intact. Caesars and tsars, kaisers and Holy Roman Emperors, mikados and sultans and Moguls have vanished or shrunk into mere constitutional functionaries, no E MAY DISPUTE

St Peter's Square and its environs.

6

•

THE

PAPAC Y

•

more significant today than the high priests of the Israelites or the pharaohs of ancient Egypt. But the pope is still there, and a larger congregation than every before - over one billion people of all races - acknowledges his spiritual sovereignty. What are the characteristics which have ensured this lonely survival from the first century AD? Leaving aside the factor which Catholics would claim is the most important of all - the support and guidance of the Holy Spirit, springing from the fact that the pope is Christ's vicar on earth - they are three-fold. The first is unity of place. Rome means the papacy, and the papacy is essentially Roman. There is an early tradition that St Peter reached Rome in 42 AD. He is accounted, again by tradition, the first Pope and Bishop of Rome, reigning there twenty-five years and dying there, as a martyr, in 67 AD. He has had 262 successors, not counting anti-popes, and the overwhelming majority of them were elected in Rome, reigned there and died there. Indeed no less than 124 of them were actually born in Rome, and counted themselves Roman through and through. It is true that popes have not always reigned from Rome. Between 1309 to 1377 the papacy directed the Church from Avignon, of which the dramatic papal palace there is a reminder. But this absence from Rome was always referred to as 'the Babylonian Captivity', and when Pope Gregory XI (reigned 1370-78) finally brought the papacy back to Rome, it was soon as though it had never left. It is true that some popes were never able to get to Rome and others were forced to flee it. Urban IV (1261-4), Clement IV (1265-8) and Celestine V (1294) never actually set foot in Rome as pope. John XXI (1276-7) - John XX, curiously enough, never existed, though there have been two John XXIIIs, one an anti-pope - never got to Rome either, being elected in Viterbo and killed there when th( ceiling collapsed. Some popes failed to control Rome and paid for their failure with their lives. Thus John X, Leo VI, Stephe1 VIII, John XI and John XII, all of them tenth-century

8

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IN TR O DUCTIO N

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the relationship between popes and bishops in the ·•ll

Renaissance.

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bedevil the popes even after the important n�, d victory in 1571 at Lepanto. Paul III's principal claim to greatne t ' successful convocation of the Co:mul , , t which after many frustrated attempr'in December 1 545. Though almo flair for exploiting the media went hand in hand with deeply conservative theological convictions. The ul tra -reacti onary i\rchb1shop Lefebvre clearly thought he had a better cha nce of rema ining in the Church under John Paul II than under Paul VI, though efforts ro keep him in the fold ultimately fa iled. C -a rdinal Joseph R�ltzinger, the outsta nding are, 1 2.., Borromeo, Cardinal Carlo, 1 40, 1 70 Bossuet, Jacques-Benigne, 1 62-3 Botttcelli, Sandro, 1 25 Bourbon, Cardinal de, I 54 Bourhon dynasty, 1 6 8, 1 6 9, 1 74-5 Bramante, Donato, 1 2, 1 9, 1 04, 1 2 9, 1 60 Brasch1, Duke, 1 76 Britain, 47, 54- 6, 6 1 , 77, J OO, 1 35, 1 49, 1 50, 1 8 6 Browning, Ehzaheth Barrett, I 2

Browning, Robert, 1 72 Brunelleschi, Filippo, 1 60 Bruno, Giordano, 1 56 Burgundy, 47 Byzantine empire, 52, 6 1 , 62-4, 80, 1 1 6- 1 9 see also Constantinople Caecilian, Bishop of Carthage, 34 Callistus I, Pope, 29-3 1 , 32 Callistus lII, Pope, 1 8- 1 9, 1 06, 1 2 3-5 Calvin, Jean, 1 52 Calvinism, 140 canonization, 70 Canossa, 1 7 Capuchin order, 1 35 Carafa, Cardinal Carlo, 1 3 9 cardinals, 2 1 see also College o f cardinals Ca rlos, Don, 1 7 1 Carthage, 29, 32, 33, 34, 39-4 1 , 6 1 Castel Gandolfo, 1 2 Castel San' Angelo, 1 0 catacombs, 32, 34 Cathars, 84-5, 86-7 Catherine of Aragon, 1 3 5 Catherine the Great, Empress of R ussia, 1 75 Catholic Action, 1 94, 1 98-9 Cavour, Count Camillo di, 1 8 5 Celestine I, Pope, 40, 4 I , 4 7 Celestine IV, Pope, 9 1 Celestine V, Pope, 8 , 96 Celestines, 96 cel i bacy, 73 Chadwick, Professor Owen, 1 7 1 , 1 9 1 Chalcedon, Council of (4 5 1 ), 46-7, 50, 56 Charlemagne, Emperor, 65-8 Charles, Archduke, 1 63 Charles I l l, K i ng of Na ples, I O I Charles V, Emperor, 1 3 5, 1 37 Cha rles VI, Emperor, 1 6 8 Charles of A n1ou, 94 Charles Albert of Piedmont-Savoy, I 85 Charles Martel, 64 China, 1 64 Cho1seul, Due de, 1 73 Chnstole, ,y, 29-32 Clement (( mnthian), 26 Clement II, Pope, 73 Clement I l l , antipope, 79, 80 Clement I V, Pope, 8, 95

2 2 0

Clement V, Pope, 97, 99 Clement VI, Pope, 98, 99 Clement VII, ant1pope, 1 00 Clement VII, Pope, 1 03, 1 06 , 1 35, 1 50 Clement VIII, antipope, 1 00, 1 03 Clement VIII, Pope, 1 56, 1 57 Clement IX, Pope, 1 62 Clement X, Pope, 1 62 Clement XI, Pope, 20, 1 63, 1 6 8 Clement XII, Pope, 1 7 1 , 1 72 Clement XIII, Pope, 1 72-3, 1 74 Clement XIV, Pope, 1 66, 1 74-5 Clermont, Council of ( 1 095), 80 Clovis, K i ng of the I-ranks, 47 Codex Juris Canonici, 1 96 Colbert, Jean-Baptiste, 1 50, 1 62 College of cardinals, 1 06, 1 35, 1 6 8, 20 1 Colon na family, 1 8, 96, 10 6, 1 1 5- 1 6 comm unism, 202, 207, 208 Conde, Prince de, 1 50, 1 54 Condren, 1 6 1 Confucius, 1 64 Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, 208 Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith, 1 45, 1 5 8 Conrad IV, Emperor, 94 Conradin, Kmg of S1uly, 94 Consalvi, Cardinal Frcole, 1 8 1 , 1 83 Constance, Cou ncil of ( 1 4 1 4- 1 5 ), 1 02-3, 1 09, I 1 9 Constans I, Emperor, 35 Constans II, Emperor, 56, 57 Constantine I, 1-.mperor, I 0, 27, 34, 50, 65 Constantine 11, Emperor, 35 Constantine IV, Emperor, 57 Constantine IX Monoma1.:hos, Emperor, 75 Constantmoplc, 24, 49, 5 1 , 6 1 , 70 second ec umenical council ( 3 8 1 ), 35 Creed of, 3 8 Counci l o f Ephesus, 4 1 'Acac1an schism', 4 7 John I ' s embassy to, SO second nunc1I of (553), 50 Gregory I and, 52-3 Council of ( 680- 1 ), 5 7 'Qui111-Sext' wuncil (69 1 -2), 5 8 iconoclasm, 62-4 Constantine I and, 6 S crusades, 80, 86 Turks capture, 1 1 2, 1 1 9 20, 1 23

IN DE X

Constantius II, Emperor, 35, 36 Corinth, 24, 26, 27 Cornelius, Bishop, 32, 33 Cornet, Nicolas, 1 62 Coscia, Niccolo, 1 70-1 Counter-Reformation, 1 66, 1 68, 1 70, 1 72 Crequi, Marechal de, 1 62 Crescentian family, 69 crusades, 80, 86, 9 1 , 1 1 2, 1 25, 1 35 Curia, 83, 1 50, 206 Council of Constance and, 1 0 9 calls for reform of, 1 09, 1 25, 1 2 9 extravagance, 1 1 1 , 1 2 5 Hadrian VI reforms, 1 3 2 Marcellus I I tries t o reform, 1 37, 1 3 9 Council of Trent, 1 40 missionaries, 1 4 5 Pius X and, 1 92 Paul VI and, 204 Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage, 32-3 Cyrena1ca, 35 Cyril, Bishop of Alexandria, 41, 4 7 dalla Costa, Cardinal, 20 1 Damasus I, Pope, 37, 38, 46 Damasus II, Pope, 73 Damian, St Peter, 70-2, 73, 76 Decian persecution, 32 Decius, 32 della Porta, Giacomo, 1 53-4 della Rovere family, 1 9 Descartes, Rene, 1 47 Desiderius, King, 65-6 Di Pietro, Cardinal, 1 8 8 Diderot, Denis, 1 73 Diocletian, Emperor, 3 3 Dionysius, Bishop of Alexandria, 33, 35 Dionysi us, Pope, 33, 35 Dominic, St, 87 Dominican order, 94, 1 57, 1 70 'Donation of Constantine', 65 Donatist schism, 34, 39 Donatus, 34 Dubois, Guillaume, 1 6 8 Duphot, General, 1 8 1 Duprat, Cardinal, 1 4 9 Easter, 26-7, 29, 3 1 Ecumenical councils, second (38 1 ), 37-8 Edmund, Prince (son of Henry III), 94 Eleutherus, 2 9 Elizabeth I, Queen of England, 1 52 England see Britain Enlightenment, 1 64, 1 66, 1 7 1-2, 1 73 Ephesus, Council of (43 1 ), 4 1 , 46 Erasmus, 1 9, 1 04, 1 47 Eugenius III, Pope, 83

Eugenius IV, Pope, 1 8, 1 00, 1 03, 1 06, 1 1 5- 1 9, 1 25 Faber, Frederick Wi lliam, 1 86 Fabian, Pope, 32 Febronianism, 1 73, 1 79 Felix II, antipope, 36 Felix III, Pope, 47, 5 1 Fel i x V, Pope, 1 1 6 Fenelon, Fran�ois de Salignac de la Mothe, 1 47, 1 63 Ferdinand II, Emperor, 1 58 Firmilian, Bishop of Cappadocia, 33 first world war, 1 94-6 Flavian, Bishop of Antioch, 3 8 Florence, 1 29, 1 60 Florence, Council of ( 1 38-9 ), 1 1 9 Fontana, Carlo, 1 54 Formosus, Pope, 69 Fouquet, Nicolas, 1 50 France: Gregory VII's quarrel with Philip I, 77 Cathars, 86-7 Avignon papacy, 97-8, 1 00, 1 0 1 fifth Lateran council, 1 29 papal legates, 149-50 Huguenots, 1 50, 1 63 Henri IV converts to Catholicism, 1 52 Jansenism, 1 6 1-2 French Revolution, 1 6 6, 1 79-8 1 , 1 92 Enlightenment, 1 73 Jesuits disbanded, 1 73, 1 74 Napoleonic wars, 1 83 attempts to restore monarchy, 1 90 Action Fran�aise, 1 94 first world war, 196 Francis I, King of France, 1 29, 1 3 5 Francis of Assisi, St, 87 Francis Xavier, St, 1 5 8 Franciscan order, 87, 94-5, 98, 99, 1 25, 1 3 5 Franks, 47, 54, 55, 6 1 , 64-9 Frederick I, Emperor, 84 Frederick II, Emperor, 86, 9 1 , 92, 94 Frederick the Great, King of Prussia, 175 French Revolution, 1 66, 1 79-8 1 , 1 92 Fuga, Fernandino, 1 72 Galilei, Alessandro, 1 72 Galileo Galilei, 1 64 Gallicans, 1 66, 168, 1 6 9, 173, 1 75, 1 76, 1 79, 1 8 1 Garibaldi, (,1useppe, 1 8 5 Gasparn, Cardinal Pietro, 1 96, 1 97, 1 98, 20 1 Geisenc. the Vandal, 46 Gelas1us I, Pope, 46, 47, 58

Gentile da Fabriano, 1 1 4 Germanus I, Patriarch, 62 Germany, 77-9, 80, 85-6, 9 1 , 1 90, 201 II Gesu, Rome, 1 54 Gibbons, James, Archbishop of Baltimore, 1 9 1 Gioberti, Vincenzo, 1 85 Gladstone, W. E., 1 75 Glyndwr, Owain, 1 0 1 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 1 72 Goths, 47-50 Gratian, Emperor, 37 Great Persecution, 33, 34 Great Schism, 1 00-3, 1 04, 1 09 Gregory I the Great, Pope, 1 7, 5 1 -6, 6 1 , 62, 69, 72, 73, 77 Gregory II, Pope, 57, 58, 6 1 , 62-4 Gregory III, Pope, 64 Gregory VI, Pope, 72-3, 77 Gregory VII, Pope, 9, 1 7, 55, 73, 75, 77-9, 80, 1 29, 1 70 Gregory IX, Pope, 87, 9 1 , 92 Gregory X, Pope, 95, 99 Gregory XI, Pope, 8, 98, 1 00 Gregory XII, Pope, 1 00, 10 1-2, 1 03 Gregory XIII, Pope, 1 5 0, 1 53-4 Gregory XIV, Pope, 1 56 Gregory XV, Pope, 1 45, 1 58 Gregory XVI, Pope, 1 84-5 Grosseteste, Robert, Bishop of Lincoln, 92 Gualherti, John, 72 Guiscard, Robert, 75, 79 Guise, Cardinal de, 1 54 Habert, Isaac, 1 6 1-2 Habshurg Empire, 1 6 1 , 1 68, 1 6 9 Hadrian, Emperor, 1 0 Hadrian I , Pope, 66 Hadrian IV, Pope, 84 Hadrian VI, Pope, 1 06, 1 3 2 Hegesippus, 27 Helvetius, 173 Henri III, King of France, 1 52, 1 54 Henri IV, K ing of France, 1 50, 1 52, 1 54 Henry II, Emperor, 69 Henry I I I , Emperor, 6 9 , 72-3, 75 Henry III, King of England, 94 Henry IV, Emperor, 1 7, 77 9 Henry V, Emperor, 80 Henry VI, Emperor, 85 Henry VII, Emperor, 9 1 Henry VIII, King o f England, I 35 Heraclius, Emperor, 56 Hermas, 26 Himenus, Bishop of Tarragona, 38 Hippolytus, 3 1 -2 Hi tler, Adolf, 20 I

2 2 I

Hohenstaufen dynasty, 9 1 , 94 Holy League, 1 42 Holy Roman Empire, 1 3, 1 66, 1 73, 1 79, 1 8 1-3 Holy Week, 22 Honorius I, Pope, 56 Honorius III, Pope, 87 Hontheim, Johann Nikolaus von, 1 73 Hugh, Abbot of Cluny, 78 Hugh, Bishop of Die, 77 Huguenots, 1 50, 1 63 'Humanae vitae', 206 Humbert, Cardinal, 73, 75 Hume, Cardinal, 206 Hume, David, 1 72 Humiliati, 84, 87 Iberian peninsula, 47-9 iconoclasm, 6 1 , 62-4 Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch, 26 Ignatius Loyola, St, 1 3 5, 1 45, 1 5 8 Immaculate Conception, 1 86 Index of Forbidden Books, 1 39, 1 4 7, 1 72, 1 94, 206 Innocent I, Pope, 38, 39, 46, 55 Innocent III, Pope, 1 7, 70, 85-7, 9 1 , 94, 96, 1 68 Innocent IV, Pope, 87, 9 1 , 92 Innocent V, Pope, 94 Innocent VI, Pope, 99 Innocent VII, Pope, l 00, 1 0 1 Innocent VIII, Pope, 1 09, 1 27 Innocent IX, Pope, 1 56 Innocent X, Pope, 1 47, 1 60, 1 6 1 , 1 62 Innocent XI, Pope, 1 62-3 Innocent XII, Pope, 1 63 Innocent XIII, Pope, 1 66, 1 68, 1 69, 1 72 inquisition, 150, 157, 1 69 Ireland, 47 lrenaeus, Bishop of Lyons, 27-9 Isabella 11, Queen of Jerusalem, 9 1 Isabella of France, I O I Islam and Muslims, 62, 1 1 2, I 50, 208 see also crusades Italy: unification, U- 1 4 relations wnh papacy, I 3- 1 S iconoclasm, 62 Risorgimento, 1 68 Lateran pacts, 1 4· 1 �. 1 97. 1 98, Wl James 11, Kmg of rPgl., 1d. 1 6 James I l l (Old PrerenJerJ 1 6 Jansen, Corr.eliLs, B1 1J£1 161 Jansrn1s.11, 1 47, l b l 1 68-':J. I O I 'l fer