Palaeobiological Investigations: Research Design, Methods and Data Analysis 9780860543398, 9781407342771
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Table of contents :
Cover Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
PALAEOBIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS: EDITORIAL NOTES
ON DISTINGUISHING BUTCHERY FROM OTHER POST-MORTEM DESTRUCTION: A METHODOLOGICAL EXPERIMENT APPLIED TO A FAUNAL SAMPLE FROM ROMAN LINCOLN.
ASSESSING VARIATIONS IN IRON AGE AND ROMAN BUTCHERY PRACTICES: THE NEED FOR QUANTIFICATION.
RUBY AND HOW MANY SQUIRRELS? THE DESTRUCTION OF BONES BY DOGS.
A METHODOLOGY FOR RECORDING THE PATHOLOGY AND OTHER ANONA.LIES OF UNGULATE MANDIBLES FROM ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES.
ASSESSING THE ROLE OF PIGS FROM FAUNAL DEBRIS ON ARCHAEOLOGICAL SETTLEMENTS.
SOME EFFECTS OF PRESERVATIONAL BIASES ON INTERPRETATIONS OF ANIMAL BONES.
THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS OF CHANGEOVER RATES IN VERTEBRATE FAUNAS.
DEGRADED BONES, FEATURE TYPE AND SPATIAL PATTERNING ON AN IRON AGE OCCUPATION SITE IN OXFORDSHIRE, ENGLAND.
OUTDOORS - INDOORS? THE OUTDOOR COMPONENT OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL INSECT ASSEMBLAGES.
TRICHURID OVA IN ARCHAEOLOGICAL DEPOSITS: THEIR VALUE AS INDICATORS OF ANCIENT FAECES.
SEASONALITY FROM SHELLS: AN EVALUATION OF TWO TECHNIQUES FOR SEASONAL DATING OF MARINE MOLLUSCS.
LAND SNAIL ANALYSIS IN ARCHAEOLOGY: THEORY AND PRACTICE.
FLANDRIAN MOLLUSCAN BIOSTRATIGRAPHY AND ITS APPLICATION TO DRY VALLEY INFILL DEPOSITS IN EAST SUSSEX.
PAST AND PRESENT DISTRIBUTIONS OF HYDROBIA ULVAE (PENNANT), GASTROPODA, AND MACON& BALTHICA (L.), BIVALVIA, ALONG THE SOUTHERN SHORES OF 'THE SEVERN ESTUARY IN RELATION TO WATER POLLUTION, FIELD SURVEY AND LABORATORY METHODS.
RECENT ADVANCES IN POLLEN EXTRACTION TECHNIQUES: A BRIEF REVIEW.
THE PROBLEM OF THE TIME SPAN REPRESENTED BY POLLEN SPECTRA IM PODZOL TURVES, WITH EXAMPLES FROM THE ROMAN SITES AT BAR HILL AND MULLINS, CENTRAL SCOTLAND.
EVIDENCE FOR CROP PLANTS FROM NORTH-EAST ENGLAND: AN INTERIM OVERVIEW WITH DISCUSSION OF NEW RESULTS.
GRAZING DAMAGE TO SCOTS PINE (PINUS SYLVESTRIS) BY RED DEER (CERVAS KLEPHAS) IN HIGHLAND SCOTLAND DURING THE MID-FLANDRIAN: A SHORT NOTE.
Citation preview
Palaeobiological Investigations Research Design, Methods and Data Analysis edited by N. R. J. Fieller, D. D. Gilbertson and N. G. A. Ralph
�ymposia of the Association for Environmental Archaeology No. SB
BAR International Series 266 1985
B.A.R.
122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, UK
GENERAL EDITORS A.R Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R Walker, M.A.
BAR-S 266,1985 .:'Palaeobiological Jnvestigations'
©
The Individual Authors,1985
The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860543398 paperback ISBN 9781407342771 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860543398 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com
Palaeobiological Investigations: R esearch D esign, Methods and I nterpretation.
e dited b y N .R.J.
F ieller, D .D. Gilbertson a nd N .G.A. Ralph
( University o f
S heffield,
S heffield,
S 10
2 TN,
U .K.)
Association f or Environmental Archaeology Symposium 5 (ii) held a t S tephenson Hall, University o f S heffield S eptember 1 983
C ONTENTS
Page N .R.J.
F ieller, D .D. G ilbertson a nd N .G.A. P alaeobiological I nvestigations:
R alph e ditorial n otes
Vertebrates
P .M . A ird.
J .M .
3
O n d istinguishing b utchery f rom o ther p ostm ortem d estruction : a m ethodological e xperiment a pplied t o a f aunal s ample f rom R oman L incoln.
M altby.
A ssessing v ariations
b utchery p ractices: S .
P ayne a nd P .J. M unson.
3 1
L evitan. A m ethodology f or r ecording t he p athology a nd o ther a nomalies o f u ngulate m andibles f rom
C oy.
A ssessing t he r ole o f
4 1 p igs
f rom f aunal d ebris
o n a rchaeological s ettlements. S .M .
S tallibrass. S ome e ffects o f p reservational b iases o n i nterpretations o f a nimal b ones.
R .D.S.
R .
1 9
R uby a nd h ow m any s quirrels?
a rchaeological s ites. J .
5
i n I ron A ge a nd R oman
t he n eed f or q uantification.
T he d estruction o f b ones b y d ogs. B .
1
J enkinson.
W ilson.
5 5
6 5
T he e nvironmental i mplications o f
c hangeover r ates i n v ertebrate f aunas.
7 3
D egraded b ones, f eature t ype a nd s patial p atterning o n a n I ron A ge o ccupation s ite i n O xfordshire, E ngland.
8 1
I nsects
H .K .
K enward.
O utdoors - I ndoors?
T he o utdoor
c omponent o f a rchaeological i nsect a ssemblages. A .K .G.
J ones.
9 7
T richurid o va i n a rchaeological
d eposits: a ncient
t heir v alue a s i ndicators o f
f aeces.
1 05
Page 1 17
M olluscs
M .R .
D eith. S easonality f rom s hells: a n e valuation o f t wo t echniques f or s easonal d ating o f m arine m olluscs.
K .D.
T homas.
1 19
L and s nail a nalysis
i n a rchaeology :
t heory a nd p ractice. C .
E llis.
1 31
F landrian m olluscan b iostratigraphy a nd i ts a pplication t o d ry v alley i nfill d eposits i n e ast S ussex.
D .D.
1 57
G ilbertson a nd A .B . H awkins. P ast a nd p resent d istributions o f H ydrobia u lvae ( Pennant), G astropoda, a nd M acoma b althica ( L.), B ivalvia, a long t he s outhern s hores o f t he S evern E stuary i n r elation t o w ater p ollution, f ield s urvey a nd l aboratory m ethods.
B otanical a pproaches
C .O.
H unt.
W .E.
1 79
R ecent a dvances t echniques:
B oyd.
1 67
i n p ollen e xtraction
a b rief
T he p roblem o f
r eview .
t he
1 81
t ime s pan r epresented
b y p ollen s pectra i n p odzol t urves, w ith e xamples f rom t he R oman s ites a t B ar H ill a nd M ullins,
c entral S cotland.
1 89
M . v an d er V een. E vidence f or c rop p lants f rom n orthe ast E ngland: a n i nterim o verview w ith d iscussion o f n ew r esults.
1 97
R .G.W .
W ard.
G razing d amage t o S cots P ine
( Pinus
s ylvestris) b y r ed d eer ( Cervas e lephas) i n h ighland S cotland d uring t he m id-Flandrian : a s hort n ote.
2 21
I ndex 1 :
s ubjects
2 29
I ndex 2 :
b iological t axa
2 47
I ndex 3 :
l ocations a nd p eople
2 51
P ALAEOBIOLOGICAL I NVESTIGATIONS:
T he
5 th Annual
Archaeology w as
S ymposium h eld
a t
o f t he
E DITORIAL N OTES
t he Association University o f
f or
Environmental
S heffield i n S eptember
1 983. T he c onference w as a ttended b y w ell o ver 1 00 p eople. I t h ad t he i nter-related t hemes o f r esearch d esign, r esearch m ethods a nd i nterpretation. T he t opics d iscussed f ocussed o n t wo s ubjects w hich w e h ave t ermed " Palaeoenvironmental I nvestigations" a nd " Palaeobiological I nvestigations". T hese f orm t he t itles o f t he t wo s ymposia v olumes 5 (i) a nd 5 (ii) w hich r ecord t he p roceedings o f t his c onference. T he e mphasis o n " investigation" i s e specially i mportant i n t he d evelopment o f t he s ubject a t t his moment i n t ime. I n Karl B utzer's n ew b ook ( 1982) Archaeology a s Human E cology , C ambridge: C ambridge U niversity P ress, w e h ave t he f irst o f a n ew g eneration o f t exts w hich e mphasize t he n ature a nd d evelopment o f c onceptual m odels
i n e nvironmental a rchaeology.
T he
t esting
and
e laboration
o f t hese m odels w ill o nly b e a chieved b y i nvestigation i n w hich t he s kills o f r esearch d esign, methods a nd d ata analysis w ill b e p aramount. I n t his d ay a nd a ge t he a cademic a nd n on-academic w orlds a re i ncreasingly b eset w ith q uestions o f s tyle, and g uarantees o f e xcellence. W e w ish t o p lace o n r ecord t he f ollowing i nformation w hich c oncern t he r esearch p apers i n t his v olume. E very p ublished p aper
h as
b een
s ubject
t o p eer g roup r eview .
E ach p aper h as b een
s crutinised b y t wo r eferees o f i nternational o r n ational s tanding, a nd h as a lso b een r ead b y a n " informed r eader" - u sually a S heffield p ost-graduate - a s w ell a s
t he e ditors.
T hese t wo s ymposium v olumes h ave a lso p resented m ajor t echnical c hallenges t o u s. W e h ave e ndeavoured t o u se t he "new t echnologies" i n t heir p roduction, e vidence o f w hich i s i llustrated b y t he c omputer-generated s et o f i ndices. S everal p apers h ave b een r eceived i n t he f orm o f m agnetic t ape o r f loppy d isk. U nhappily, t he o ther n ew c omputer t echnologies h ave f ailed t o r esolve p roblems o f p rotocol a nd c ompatability. C onsequently v ery d ifficult t yping a nd r e-typing t asks h ave f allen u pon M iss V al K insler a nd M s. B etty G owland, w ho h ave c oped a dmirably u nder d ifficult c ircumstances. F ortunately, t he f rustrations a nd p roduction d elays e xperienced h ave n ot a ffected t he p ublication d ate o f t hese v olumes. T his i s b ecause w e d id n ot r eceive t he f inal c orrected p roofs f rom t hree c ontributors
( who
s hall
r emain n ameless)
O ur b est e fforts w ere c learly o f
u ntil m id-January 1 985.
l ittle a vail.
T he m anagement a nd s uccess o f t he S heffield c onference o wed m uch t o t he c ourtesy o f t he s taff o f S tephenson H all o f t he University o f S heffield a nd M s. C .M . G riffin, M s. M .V. A ndrews, M r G eraint C oles a nd D r. C .O. H unt, w ho a ssisted a dmirably w ith b oth a dministration a nd c onference d elegate m anagement.
T he f ield t rip t o t he c aves a nd magnificent V isitor C entre a t C reswell C rags w as a g reat s uccess a nd w e w ould l ike t o r ecord o ur g ratitude t o t he S enior R anger, D r. R .D.S. J enkinson, h is s taff a nd t he C ounty C ouncils o f N ottinghamshire a nd D erbyshire. Professor V .D. f acilities a nd S tatistics o f
B arnett k indly made a vailable s upport i n t he D epartment o f
t he U niversity o f S heffield.
D .D.
N .R .J. F ieller D epartment o f P robability a nd
G ilbertson
a nd N .G.A. R alph D epartment o f A rchaeology
S tatistics U niversity o f S heffield S heffield S 10 2 TN
F ebruary 2 7th,
w ord p rocessing P robability a nd
a nd P rehistory U niversity o f S heffield S heffield S 10 2 TN
1 985
2
V ertebrates
ON D ISTINGUISHING B UTCHERY FROM OTHER POST-MORTEM DESTRUCTION : A METHODOLOGICAL EXPERIMENT APPLIED TO A FAUNAL SAMPLE FROM R OMAN L INCOLN.
P .M . A ird D epartment o f P rehistory a nd A rchaeology U niversity o f S heffield S heffield S 10 2 TN
A BSTRACT
A ctualistic s tudies h ave c haracterised t he m odifying e ffects o f d ifferent t aphonomic a gents o n b one. H owever f aunal s amples a re u sually t he p roduct o f t he i nteraction o f s everal o f t hese a gents. T he p roblem n ow f acing a rchaeozoologists i s t he d evelopment o f a m ethodology w hich c an s eparate t he e ffects o f o ne a gent f rom a nother i n o rder t o u nravel t he t aphonomic h istory o f t he s ample. T his p aper d escribes t he m ethod u sed t o i solated t he e ffect o f b utchery o n a n a ssemblage o f a nimal b one f rom R oman L incoln. F ragments o f t he m ajor l ong b ones w ere c lassified b y s hape i nto ' types' a nd t he p roportion o f c ut ( as o pposed t o b roken) e dges o f e ach e stimated o n a s imple 1 - 4 s cale. I t w as t hen p ossible t o a ssess t he d egree o f a ssociation o f s hape w ith b utchery p ractice. T he m ethod c ould b e d eveloped w ith t he a id o f a c omputer.
I NTRODUCTION
T he s tudy o f b utchery i s n ow r ecognised a s a v aluable m eans o f n ot o nly u nderstanding e conomic s trategy b ut a lso r ecognising d ifferences i n c ultural a nd s ocial o rganisation o f s ocieties i n t he p ast ( Grant 1 975, N oe-Nygaard 1 977). H owever, t he e vidence i s n ot a lways
u nequivocal.
M ost
f aunal
s amples
a re
l ikely
t o
b e t he
c umulative p roduct o f a w hole s eries o f c omplex t aphonomic p rocesses a nd t heir i nteractions. O ver t he p ast f ew d ecades a n umber o f r esearchers h ave t urned t o a ctualistic s tudies i n o rder t o c haracterise t he e ffects o f v arious
t aphonomic
f actors o n b one
( e.g.
M uller 1 976, B ehrensmeyer 1 978, B inford 1 981, B rain 1 981, B ahn 1 983), b ut u nfortunately i t s eems t hat s plintering p atterns, s uch a s s piral f ractures, d epend m ore o n t he c ross-sectional s tructure o f t he b one t han t he a gent o f f racture ( Miller 1 976, G ifford 1 981). A s a r esult i t h as n ot b een c riteria b y w hich ' natural' d istinguished o n s tone.
p ossible t o d evelop t he s ame s ort o f a nd ' cultural' m odifications a re
S ince r egularity i n f ragmentation p atterns w ithin a b one a ssemblage c an n o l onger i ntuitively b e a scribed t o d eliberate b reakage a m ethodology i s n ow n eeded w hich w ill a llow a rchaeozoologists t o d etermine t he d ifferential e ffects o f v arious t aphonomic a gents o n a ny
o ne
f aunal
s ample.
T his
p aper d escribes a n a ttempt
5
t o
f ulfill
s uch a n o bjective u sing a n a ssemblage
o f
a nimal
b one
f rom
R oman
L incoln.
T HE S ITE A ND S AMPLE
E xcavation
a t
" The
P ark"
i n
L incoln b egan i n 1 968
i n a dvance o f
d evelopment o f t he s ite f or n ew m unicipal o ffices. T he f aunal r emains w ere r ecovered d uring e xcavation o f t he r ampart s equence o f t he l ower c olonia ( Colyer 1 975). P reliminary e xamination o f t he b ones h ad s hown t hat m ost w ere o f c attle a nd o nly a v ery s mall p roportion w ere u nidentifiable. O ne c ontext, " JO", h ad b een d eposited a s a r ubbish d ump i n t he s econd h alf o f t he s econd o r f irst h alf o f t he t hird c entury A .D. I t c ontained m ainly s everely f ragmented c attle l ong b ones w hich s howed e vidence o f g nawing b ut h ad a lso b een c ut o r c hopped. I n a ddition, s ome b reakage h ad o ccurred a fter r ecovery. T he s urface c ondition o f t he b ones w as f airly u niform , a nd g enerally g ood, s o i t s eemed l ikely t hat t hey h ad
b een
b uried
f airly q uickly.
A lso,
n one o f
t he
f ragments b roken
p rior t o r ecovery c ould b e m atched, s o i t w as p ossible t hat f ragmentation h ad o ccurred p rior t o b urial, o r e ven d isposal, r ather t han i n s itu. T he f aunal s ample t herefore s eemed t o b e i deal f or d eveloping a m ethodology t o i solate t he d ifferent a gents w hich m ay h ave
i nteracted
t o c ause
t he b reakage o bserved.
T HE M ETHOD
E ach l ong b one h ad b roken i n a f airly s tandard m anner w ith g reat r egularity, t herefore f ragments w ere g rouped v isually i nto t ypes a ccording t o t heir s hape. C onventionally, f ragments a re d escribed a ccording t o a n i mposed f ormula b y w hich t he b one i s d ivided i nto f ractions a long t he m edial/lateral, a nterior/posterior a nd d istal/proximal p lans ( e.g. M eadows 1 978). H owever b ones b reak n aturally a long l ines o f w eakness o r a re c ut ( or b roken) i nto p ortions w hich p eople f ind u seful. T he b one t ypes ' identified' f or e ach o f t he l ong b ones a re s hown o n F igures 1 - 2 7, a nd a re d escribed a s f ollows:
H umerus
( 10 t ypes)
1 .
m edial d istal a rticulation w ith p art o f
2 .
d istal a rticulation ( usually t rimmed o n m edial a nd w ith p art o f s haft d istal s haft e xcluding e piphysis
3 .
( more
s haft
4 .
s haft o nly
5 .
l ateral e dge o f d istal
s haft
6 .
p roximal s haft
t o 5 0% o f d istal s haft
t han 7 5%)
w ith u p
e xcluding e piphysis
7 .
p roximal
8 . 9 .
d istal e piphysis p roximal a rticulation ( fragmented) w ith p art
1 0.
l ateral e dges)
s haft
d eltoid r idge
6
o f s haft
T ype 1 0 h umerus w as n ot a lways d istinguishable f rom t ype 1 0 t ibia.
R adius a nd u lna ( 8 t ypes) 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 .
m edial p roximal a rticulation w ith p art o f s haft ( radius o nly) l ateral p roximal a rticulation w ith p art o f s haft ( radius o nly) m edial d istal a rticulation w ith p art o f s haft ( radius o nly) l ateral d istal a rticulation w ith p art o f s haft ( radius o nly) m id s haft ( radius a nd u lna) p roximal a rticulation w ith p art o f s haft ( radius a nd u lna) m edial s haft ( excluding u lna) l ateral s haft ( excluding u lna)
P atterning w as n ot o bserved o n u lnae s eparated f rom r adii.
F emur ( 4 t ypes) T he f emur w as o riginally d ivided
i nto
f ive
t ypes
b ut
s ubsequent
a nalysis s howed t hat t wo c ould b e a malgamated. 1 . 2 . 3 .
s haft a nterior i ncluding d orsal r idge ( excluding e piphyses) s haft i ncluding t he s upracondyloid f ossa ( excluding e piphyses) s haft p osterior i ncluding t he t rochanter m inor ( excluding
e piphyses) 4 /5. f ragments f rom t he d istal a rticular s urface F ragment t ype 1 c ould n ot a lways b e i dentified w ith c onfidence t o s pecies. I n c ases o f u ncertainty t he p resence o f " possible c attle f emur" w as r ecorded b ut n ot i ncluded i n f urther a nalysis o f t he d ata. F emur h eads w ere n ot c oded.
T ibia ( 5 t ypes) T he t ibia w as i nitially d ivided i nto f our t ypes b ut l ater t wo w ere s ubdivided a nd o ne o f t he o thers w as a malgamated w ith a s ub-type. I a. m edial d istal a rticulation i ncluding p art o f s haft l b. l ateral d istal a rticulation i ncluding p art o f s haft 2 . s ubsequently i ncluded w ith l b. 3 a. l ateral s ide o f p roximal s haft p osterior 3 b. m edial s ide o f p roximal s haft p osterior 1 0. s haft i ncluding d orsal r idge. T his t ype w as c oded 1 0 t o m ake i t e asier t o c ompare w ith h umerus t ype 1 0 f rom w hich i t w as n ot a lways d istinguishable.
E ach f ragment o f o ne t ype w as t hen p lotted o nto a s ingle d rawing o f t he b one f rom w hich i t c ame i n o rder t o s how t he r ange o f v ariation. A c olour c oded s ystem w as u sed t o d istinguish c ut e dges f rom t hose w hich w ere f reshly b roken, c hewed, b roken i n a ntiquity, o r f or w hich t he a gent o f f racture c ould n ot b e d etermined. T he c riteria u sed f or d istinction w ere a s f ollows:
7
c uts
t he e dge w as
s traight w ith a g ranular
u pper 0 .5mm w hich w as f resh b reaks d og b reakage
f rom t he
e asily d istinguished b y t he c olours d enticulated o r c renulated e dges o ften a ssociated w ith p itting,
O ther
t exture a part
s mooth a nd p olished
f urrowing o r s coring
( Binford 1 981)
b roken e dges w ere c haracterised b y a c onchoidal p rofile w hich
w as p robably t he
r esult o f
t he b one
s napping u nder p ressure.
C ut m arks, p uncture m arks, f laking o r a ny o ther s urface s carring f ound o n e very f ragment w ere d escribed a ccording t o t he t erminology u sed b y S isson ( 1966) a nd R yder ( 1969), a nd p lotted o nto a c omposite d rawing
f or e ach b one
t ype.
W herever p ossible t he d irection f rom w hich t he b one w as c ut h as b een n oted. H orizontal c uts a re t hos m ade i n t he m edial/lateral p lane o r a nterior/posterior p lane; v ertical c uts a re t hose m ade i n t he p roximal/distal p lane. c oded a ccording
t o
F or
c onvenience,
t he p ositions o f
d iagonal
t he e nd
c uts
p oints a s
h ave
b een
f ollows:
M ( medial) L ( lateral) P r ( proximal) D ( distal) P ost ( posterior)
A s t he m ain o bjective w as t o i solate b utchery f rom t he o ther t aphonomic p rocesses f ragments w ere c oded ( adapting a s ystem u sed i n s edimentology t o r ecord a ngularity o f p ebbles) a ccording t o t he p ercentage o f d eliberately c ut e dges. I . w ell o ver 5 0% 2 . a pproximately 5 0% 3 . l ess t han 5 0% 4 . n o c ut e dges
T hese
f igures
m ay
n eed
t o b e a djusted i f
t he
s ame s ystem i s
t o b e
u sed o n a nother s ample. N one o f t he b ones f rom " The P ark" h ad b een c ut o n a ll e dges. A s b reaks o ften c ontinued a long t he s ame a lignment a s
t he
c ut e dges
i t
i s
p ossible
t hat a p ractice o f
' cut a nd b reak'
w as u sed f or s econdary b utchery. A lternatively b ones m ay h ave b een f ragmented a fter m eat s tripping a long l ines o f w eakness m ade b y s urface c uts, a lthough e lsewhere o f b reakage ( Sadek-Kooros 1 972).
t his h as
b een d iscounted a s a c ause
F rom t his e xperiment i t w as h oped t hat a ssociations b etween b one t ypes a nd b utchery p ractices.
c ould
b e
m ade
F inally, w herever p ossible a d escription o f e ach f ragment w as c ompleted w ith d etails f e piphyseal f usion, a nd s ide o f t he b ody. F rom t he l atter i t w as t hought t hat d ifferences m ight b e d etectable
8
i n t he p osition o f
c utmarks
o n
b ones
f rm
o pposite
s ides
o f
t he
a nimal w hich w ould p erhaps s how h ow t he c arcass w as l ying w hen i t w as b utchered. A lthough t here a re d ifficulties w ith u sing e piphyseal f usion t o a ssess a ge a t d eath ( Sue S tallibrass, p ersonal c ommunication) i n t his s tudy t he d ata h ave o nly b een u sed i n a r elative s ense s o t hat t he v ariable o f a ge m ight b e c onsidered i n t erms o f
d ifferential b utchery.
R ESULTS 1 :
A
t otal
F RAGMENTATION
o f
2 99
f ragments
d etermine t he c auses o f d escribed a bove.
f rom " The P ark"
t he o bserved
w ere
b reakage
e xamined b y
t he
t o
t ry a nd
m ethodology
H umerus 9 7
h umerus
f ragments w ere
r ecovered
f rom " JO".
t hese f ragments b etween b one t ypes, w ith f usion a nd % c ut e dges, i s s hown i n T able 1 . T ype
1
( n
=
1 2)
T he d istribution o f
d etails
o f
e piphyseal
A ll f ragments w ere c ut f rom t he d istal ( Fig. 1 ) a rticular s urface i nto t he o lecranon a nd c oronoid f ossas. P roximal t o t hese p arts, b reakage t ype w as v aried.
I n s ome c ases
t he
c ut
e dge c ontinued o n t he a nterior f ace a s f ar a s t he t eres t ubercle b ut o n t he p osterior f ace t he c ause o f t he b reak w as u sually i ndeterminate. T he f ragments f rom p roportionately l ess s haft r ight. T he a rticulation
m edial w as
t he l eft t han t hose
e dge o f f requently
i ncluded f rom t he
t he c ut
d istal o ff,
p articularly o n t he r ight-hand s ide. E vidence o f c anid g nawing w as f ound o n t wo e xamples o f t his t ype. T ype 2 ( n = 1 1) M ost
f ragments w ere a lmost c ompletely c ut ( Fig. 2 ) t o s hape. T he l ateral e dge o f t he d istal a rticulation w as
f requently c ut
f rom t he l eft-hand s ide o f t he p osterior s haft
o ff.
r ight. E vidence o f c anid g nawing w as o nly o ne e xample o f t his t ype. T ype 3 ( n = 7 )
I n m ost 3 )
F ragments
t ended t o i nclude l ess t han t hose f rom t he f ound o n
c ases t he d istal a rticulation s eemed t o h ave b een b roken r ather t han c ut
( Fig. o ff.
O therwise t he c ut e dges w ere c oncentrated a t
t he
p roximal a nd d istal e nds o f t he b reaks w ith t he m iddle p ortion b roken o r i ndeterminate. E vidence o f c anid g nawing w as t his t ype. T ype
4
=
7 )
f ound o n
t wo
e xamples
o f
B reakage a t t he d istal e dges o f f ragments o f t his ( Fig. 4 ) t ype w as i nvariably t he r esult o f
9
d eliberate c uts, a lthough a t t he p roximal e dges t he c ause w as m ore u ncertain, b ut a ssociated i n t hese e xamples w ith e vidence o f c anid g nawing. T ype
5
( n
= 6 )
T ype 6 ( n = 7 )
F ragments o f t his t ype c ould e ither b e c onfidently ( Fig. 5 ) d escribed a s c ut t o s hape o r a ll b reakage w as o f u ncertain o rigin. T here w as n o e vidence o f c anid g nawing o n a ny f ragment.
I n m ost c ases t he c ause o f b reakage f or t his ( Fig. 6 ) t ype w as i ndeterminate, a lthough e vidence o f c anid g nawing w as f ound a t t he p roximal e dges o f t wo e xamples.
T ype
7
( n
=
1 5) E xamples o f t his t ype w ere u sually c ut a long t he ( Fig. 7 ) p roximal e dges b ut t he r emaining b reakage w as e ither a ccidental o r t he c ause w as i ndeterminate. T here w as g nawing o n a ny f ragment.
T ype
8
( n = 1 9) A lmost a ll e xamples o f 8 ) s hape b ut a rticulation
t his
n o
e vidence
t ype w ere c ut
o f
t o
c anid
( Fig.
t he p roportion o f t he d istal i ncluded v aried c onsiderably.
A lthough s ome b reakage w as o f i ndeterminate o rigin, p articularly t hrough t he c ancellous b one o f t he e piphyses t he s traight, a nd t herefore,
e dges w ere r emarkably p robably c ut. N o t races
o f k nife o r s aw w ere v isible b ut t his m ay b e d ue t o t he s pongy n ature o f t he b one. T ype 9 ( n = 3 )
S o
f ew e xamples o f t his t ype w ere f ound t hat ( Fig. l ittle c an b e s aid a bout p atterning v ariability.
9 ) o r
T ype 1 0 ( n = 1 0) C ut e dges w ere c oncentrated a round t he d eltoid ( Fig. 1 0) t uberosity b ut o therwise m ost o f t he b reakage o n f ragments o f t his t ype w as o f i ndeterminate o rigin. O ne e xample w as g nawed a long t he m edial e dge o f t he b reak.
S ummary
T ypes 1 , 2 , 4 , 5 a nd 8 s eem t o d isplay t he b est c orrelation b etween s hape a nd c ut e dges a nd a re m ost l ikely t o b e t he r esult o f d eliberate b utchering. T ypes 1 a nd 2 a re c omplementary i n s hape a nd a lmost
e qual
i n t erms o f
n umber o f
5 c omplement t ype 8 a nd t hree i s a pproximately e qual
f ragments
p resent.
T ypes
3 ,
4 a nd
t he s um t otal o f f ragments o f t he f irst t o t he t otal n umber o f t he l atter. I t
i s p erhaps t hen p ermissable t o l ook a t t he e vidence o f t he d istal h umerus i n t erms o f t wo d ifferent k inds o f b utchery t echniques: o ne b eing a l ongitudinal s plitting o f t he b one w ith t he e piphysis i ntact; t he o ther t he r emoval o f t he e piphysis i n t he m edial/lateral - p osterior/anterior p lane. T he d ifference i n t he a mount o f s haft
1 0
p resent i n r ight a nd l eft f ragments o f t ypes 1 a nd 2 i s m ore d ifficult t o i nterpret w ithout b utchery e xperience o r f urther w ork. O nly
a
t hird
o f
t he
c lassified a s t ypes h alf. T his m ay b e d ue t he
b one
i s
t otal
n umber
o f
h umerus
f ragments
w ere
6 , 7 , 9 a nd 1 0, w hich r epresent t he p roximal t o d ifferential d estruction a s t his p art o f
m ore
f ragile
( Binford
1 981)
d ifferential b utchery a nd d isposal p ractices.
o r
t he
r esult
o f
T he e vidence w hich h as
s urvived e xhibits v ariable p atterning a lthough m ost o f t he c uts s eem t o o ccur b elow t he h ead i ndicating t hat i n b utchering t he c arcass t his
a rticulation
w as
d eliberately
r emoved
f rom t he r est
o f
t he
b one.
R adius a nd u lna 5 4 r adius a nd r adius + u lna f ragments w ere r ecovered f rom " JO". T he d istribution o f t hese f ragments b etween b one t ypes, w ith d etails o f e piphyseal f usion a nd % c ut e dges, i s s hown i n T able 2 .
T ype 1 ( n = 1 2)
( Fig.
1 1)Most
f ragments w ere c ut
f rom
t he
p roximal
a rticular s urface a s f ar a s t he f usion p oint, p articularly o n t he p osterior f ace, b ut f ew c uts c ontinued i nto t he s haft a lthough i n s ome c ases b reakage c ontinued a long t he s ame l ine, t erminating i n a s econd c ut e dge. F ragments f rom t he
l eft-hand
s haft T ype
2 ( n = 9 )
t han
s ide u sually i ncluded m ore o f
t hose
f rom t he
t he
r ight.
( Fig. 1 2) F ragments o f t his t ype w hich i ncluded v ery l ittle o f t he s haft, t ended t o b e c ut t o s hape, w hereas t hose w ith a l arge a mount o f s haft w ere u sually c ut o nly a s f ar a s t he f usion p oint f rom w hich t he l ine o f t he c ut c ontinued a s a b roken e dge a s f ar a s t he f usion p oint w ith t he u lna. T he l atter g roup w ere c onfined t o t he r ight-hand s ide f ragments. O ne e xample o f e vidence o f c anid g nawing.
T ype 3 ( n = 7 )
( Fig.
t his
t ype
s howed
1 3) M ost o f t he b reaks o n e xamples o f t his t ype w ere o f i ndeterminate o rigin. C ut e dges w ere m ore
f requent
b etween
t he
d istal
a rticular
s urface a nd t he f usion p oint, s ometimes c ontinuing a s a b reak a long t he l ine o f t he c ut w hich w as o ccasionally i nterrupted t erminated i n a s econd c ut e dge. T ype 4 ( n = 6 )
( Fig.
1 4) T he c utting p attern o f s imilar
t o
f requently c ontinued e xample b eyond T ype
5 ( n = 1 )
( Fig.
i nto
s haft
1 1
b ut
t he
t ype c ut
w as
o r
v ery
e dges m ore
s haft,
i n
o ne
t he m id-point.
1 5) M ostly b roken a part
u lna
t his
t hat o f 3 ( above)
b y,
f rom a c ut
e dge o n t he
T ype 6 ( n = 7 )
( Fig.
1 6) C ut b etween
e dges w ere c oncentrated I n t he a rea t he p roximal a rticular s urface a nd
p roximal f usion p oint, a nd o n t he p osterior e dge o f t he u lna o pposite t he a rticulation. T he r emaining b reaks w ere o f i ndeterminate o rigin. O ne e xample w ith e vidence o f c anid g nawing. T ype 7 ( n = 3 )
T ype
8
n
( Fig.
=
9 )
1 7) M ostly b roken a part f rom a c ut e dge r unning p arallel t o t he l ongitudinal a xis o f t he b one. T wo e xamples w ith e vidence o f c anid g nawing. ( Fig.
1 8) A part
f rom o ne e xample a ll e dges w ere
b roken.
T he e xception w as
r unning
p arallel
t o
t he
w ith a
c ut
l ongitudinal a xis o f
a f ragment
t he
b one.
S ummary
A ll
t he
e vidence
s uggests
t hat d eliberate b reakage o ccurred o nly
a long t he p roximal/distal, a nterior/posterior c oncentrated a t t he a rticulations.
a xes,
o r
w as
F emur 9 6 f emur f ragments w ere r ecovered f rom " JO". T he d istribution o f t hese f ragments b etween b one t ypes, w ith d etails o f e piphyseal f usion a nd % c ut e dges i s s hown i n T able 3 .
T ype 1 ( n = 15)
( Fig.
1 9) C ut e dges o nly o ccur a t t he d istal a nterior a nd a re c oncentrated a round t he d orsal r idge, o rientated i n a w ay t hat s uggests t hat a b low f rom t he p roximal d irection s liced d own i nto b one w here i t f lares i nto t he t rochlea.
T ype
2
= 24)
( Fig.
2 0) A n umber o f
g nawed a t
t he d istal
e xamples o f
t his
f usion p oint
a nd
t he
t ype w ere o n
s ome
e vidence o f c anid a ctivity w as a lso p resent o n t he m edial e dge. M uch o f t he b reakage w as o f i ndeterminate
o rigin.
H owever,cut
e dges
n oted a t m edial a nd l ateral e dges o f t he p oint, a nd t hese s ometimes c ontinued s haft b eyond s upracondyloid T ype
3 ( n = 2 7)
( Fig.
2 1) T his
t he f ossa.
p roximal
t ype r epresents
e dge
i n m ost
w ere f usion u p t he
o f
c ases
t he
l ittle
m ore t han t he p rojecting t rochanter m inor a nd t he m edial p art o f t he a nterior p roximal s haft. C ut e dges a re f requent o n t he p osterior a nd a nterior b elow t he h ead ( horizontal) a nd o n t he a nterior ( diagonal
s haft
( vertical)
a nd
p osterior
s haft
- p roximal/lateral t o d istal/medial).
O n s ome e xamples
1 2
t here
i s e xtensive e vidence
o f
c anid g nawing. T ypes 4 & 5 ( n=26)
( Fig. 2 2)1though m ost e xamples o f t hese t ypes a re o nly s mall f ragments b roken o n a ll e dges, o r m ore t han 7 5% o f t he e dges, c uts d o s eem t o h ave, o n o ccasion, b een d irected d iagonally t hrough t he d istal a rticulation a nd h orizontally a cross t he b one a t t he s eparating t he e piphyses
H eads
( n = 5 )
( not
d istal f usion f rom t he s haft.
p oint,
i ll.) O nly o ne h ead h ad d efinitely b een c ut f rom t he r est o f t he f emur. A f urther t wo w ere u nfused
e piphyses
r emainder w as o f
a nd
t he
b reakage
o n
t he
i ndeterminate o rigin.
S ummary
F ragmentation o f t he f emur s eems t o h ave b een c aused b y a n umber o f i nteracting a gents. i rregularities o n t he p rofile o f
t he b one,
a c omplex p rocess C uts a re c entred o n
w hich s uggests
t hat
t hese
w ere r emoved w ith a s licing a ction d uring s ome k ind o f b utchery p rocess. B reaks o n s ome f ragments i ndicate t he r emoval o f e piphyses i n t heir e ntirety w hilst o n o thers t he c ut e dges s how t hat p ieces w ere c hipped f rom e ither e dge o f t h d istal a rticulation a nd t he h ead w as s ometimes r emoved a t t he p roximal a rticulation. T he d ouble b evelled e dge o f m any f ragments o f t ype 5 i s s imilar t o t he s ort o f ' toggle s hape c aused b y t rampling ( Bahn 1 983). I n a ddition t here i s e vidence t o s how t hat d ogs h ave c onsiderably m odified s ome f emur
f ragments.
T ibia 5 2 f ragments o f t ibia w ere r ecovered f rom " JO". T he d istribution o f t hese f ragments b etween b one t ypes, w ith d etails o f e piphyseal f usion a nd % c ut e dges i s s hown i n T able 3 . T ype l a
( n = 4 ( Fig.
2 3) M ost f ragments w ere c ut f rom t he d istal a rticular s urface a s f ar a s t he f usion p oint. S ome c ut e dges c ontinued i nto t he s haft. T ype l b ( n = 1 ( Fig. 2 4)) M ost f ragments w ere c ut f rom t he d istal a rticular s urface a s f ar a s t he
f usion p oint a nd i n s ome c ases
c ontinued a long t he s ame l ine t erminating i n a s econd c ut e dge. T ype 3 a
( n = 11
( Fig.
2 5)
C uts w ere c oncentrated a bout
t he i nto
t he
b reakage t he
s haft
n utrient
f oramen a nd a cross t he l ateral e dge o f d istal f usion p oint. O ther b reakage w as i ndeterminate o rigin. T ype
3 b
( n = 9)
( Fig.
2 6) M ost o f
1 3
t he b reakage w as o f
t he o f
i ndeterminate
o rigin b ut a f ew c ut e dges w ere n oted j ust a bove t he m edial e dge o f t he d istal f usion p oint. T ype
1 0
( n = 16)(Fig.
2 7)
C uts w ere
i nvariably c oncentrated
s ides o f t he d orsal o n f ragments o f i ndeterminate
o n
b oth
r idge b ut o therwise b reakage t his t ype w as o f a n
n ature.
S ummary
F ragmentation o f t he t ibia r epeats t he p attern n oted f rom a nalysis o f t he o ther l ong b ones: c ut e dges a re c oncentrated a round i rregularities o n t he p rofile; t he l ateral o r m edial e dges o f a rticulations a re f requently c ut o ff, a nd s ometimes s plitting o f t he b one o ccurs a long t he p roximal/distal a nd a nterior/posterior a xes; o n o ccasion t he e piphyses a re c ut o ff h orizontally f rom t he s haft.
R ESULTS 2 :
S URFACE C UTS
H umerus
C ut m arks w ere c oncentrated a bout
t he
d eltoid
r idge;
t he
d eltoid
t uberosity w as o ften s haved o ff a nd c hipping a nd f acetting f requently c ontinued a s f ar a s t he c oronoid f ossa. B oth h orizontal a nd v ertical c uts w ere c lustered o n t he l ateral s ide o f t he c oronoid f ossa b ut o n t he m edial s ide d iagonal c uts w ere m ore c ommon. O n b oth t he a nterior a nd p osterior a spects j ust b elow t he p roximal a rticulation t here w as a s eries o f d iagonal c uts ( proximal/lateral t o d istal/medial) p articularly t owards t he m edial e dge. T he t eres t ubercle w as c ut i nto h eavily a nd o ccasionally c ompletely s haved o ff. O ften v ertical c uts o ccurred i n t his a rea. C hipping a nd c utting w as a lso c ommon o n t he p osterior f ace o f t he h umerus w here i t f lares i nto
t he o lecranon f ossa.
T he
p attern o f
c ut m arks d escribed a bove w ould b e c onsistent w ith a
b utchery p ractice
i n w hich t he m ajor
d eltoid
a nd
t riceps
m uscles
w ere d etached a t t heir e nds b y v ertical, h orizontal a nd d iagonal c uts a nd t hen r emoved f rom t he b one b y a k nife b eing r un p arallel t o t he s haft o n t he p osterior a nd a nterior s ides f rom a p roximal d irection, c hipping a nd s licing t he b one a s i t c ame u p a gainst i rregularities i n t he p rofile. C uts o n t he d istal a rticular s urface m ay b e r elated t o l ongitudinal s plitting o f t he b one ( 3: 1 ).
1 4
R adius a nd u lna
S urface c ut m arks w ere v ery r are a nd o ccurred o nly o n t he l ip o f t he p roximal a rticular s urface o f t he r adius a nd j ust b elow t he u lna a rticulation, o n t he d istal e piphysis a nd a long t he l ine o f f usion b etween t he u lna a nd r adius s hafts. A ll t hese c uts c ould r esult f rom d etaching t he l esser m uscles o f t he l egs a t t heir p oints o f a ttachment
t o
t he b one.
F emur
S urface c uts o n t he f emur w ere c oncentrated a round i rregularities o f t he p rofile s uch a s t he s upracondyloid f ossa a nd t rochanter m inor o r w here t he b one f lared o ut i nto t he d istal a rticulation o n t he d orsal r idge a nd t he r idge a bove t he m edial c ondyle. F requently c uts i n t hese a reas w ere a ccompanied b y s having, c hipping a nd f acetting. C uts w ere a lso c ommon b elow t he
t rochanter m ajor o n t he m edial
s ide
o f t he t rochanter f ossa ( usually d iagonal) a nd j ust b elow t he f emur h ead. A s w ith t he h umerus t he m arks d escribed a bove a re c onsistent w ith a p ractice t he
m eat
a fter
i n w hich a k nife w as d etachment o f
t he p roximal a nd d istal
e nds o f
s craped d own t he b one
t he
t endons w hich h old
t he
f emur.
t o
r emove
t he m uscle
t o
T ibia
C uts o n t he t ibia w ere c onfined m ostly t o h orizontal c uts a cross t he d orsal r idge a nd v ertical c uts t o e ither s ide. T hese m ight h ave b een t he r esult o f c utting t hrough t he f lexor m uscles o f t he h ind l eg. I t i s i nteresting t hat t he h eavy c hipping, s having a nd f acetting a pparent o n t he h umerus a nd f emur i s n ot s o m uch i n e vidence o n t he t ibia. T his m ay b e d ue t o t he s moother o utline o f t he t ibia, o r, a lternatively, t o t he f act t hat t he b one f lares o ut i nto t he p roximal a rticulation s o t hat a k nife w ould b e l ess l ikely t o e ncounter o bstacles. A f ew c uts a lso o ccurred o n t he p osterior s haft b elow t he p roximal a rticulation, a round t he d istal f usion p oint, a nd a t
t he d istal e nd o f
t he m uscular
r idging o n t he
p osterior.
S ummary
T he a vailable e vidence s eems t o p oint t o a b utchery p ractice i n w hich t he m eat w as s tripped o ff a ll t hese l ong b ones p rior t o t heir f ragmentation, b ut i t i s n ot c lear w hether t his w as w hilst t he l imbs w ere s till a rticulated,
o r h ad b een s eparated
b ones.
1 5
i nto
t heir c onstituent
E piphyseal f usion
D etails
o f
e piphyseal
f usion
h ave
b een
i ncluded w ith t he
t ables
s howing f ragmentation o f t he l ong b ones. M ost a nimals r epresented i n t he s ample s eem t o h ave s urvived b eyond t he a ge o f 2 .5 y ears a lthough a t l east o ne a nimal w as k illed a t a round 1 8 m onths. H owever, t he f irst m ain s laughtering p eak s eems t o o ccur b etween t hree a nd f our y ears o f a ge, e ither b efore o r a t t he t ime w hen t he p roximal h umerus, d istal a nd p roximal f emur, p roximal t ibia a nd d istal b eyond
r adius
f use.
T he
r emaining
a nimals
s eem t o h ave s urvived
t his a ge.
C ONCLUSIONS
A fter c ompletion o f t he a nalysis i t w as p ossible t o d etermine w ith c ertainty t o w hat e xtent c leavage h ad r esulted f rom d eliberate b utchery. I t i s i mportant t o s tress t he p ositive n ature o f t his a pproach. W ithout s uch a m ethod o nly a n egative c onclusion c an b e d rawn, s uch a s " there s eems t o b e n o o bvious r eason f or a h igh f requency o f f racture i n o ne r estricted l ikely t o b e r esponsible" ( O'Connor 1 982).
z one a nd
b utchery i s
N evertheless w hilst t he m ethod i s b asically s ound t here w ere a n umber o f p roblems t hat o ccurred d uring t he a nalysis. T he d egree o f f ragmentation m ade i t p ossible t o m atch p aired f ront a nd b ack, u pper a nd l ower a nd r ight a nd l eft f ragments: s o r esults m ay b e d istorted b y i nclusion o f t he s ame a nimal s everal t imes. S econdly s ome b ones h ave m ore d istinctive f eatures t han o thers a nd s ome p arts o f t he b ones a re m ore d istinct t han o thers, t herefore m ore f requently r ecognised a s t ypes. H owever, t his p roblem m ay b e o vercome b y c onsidering t he s hape o f t he u nidentifiable f ragments. I f t he s hape a nd s tructure a nd s ize o f a b one c onditions t he b reakage p attern t hen i t m ay e ventually b e p ossible t o m atch t he s hapes o f u nidentified b one p ieces t o t he s hape l eft w hen a ll t he r ecognisable t ype f ragments a re a ccounted f or. U ltimately t his m ay l ead t o a n a dvance i n o ur p resent m ethods o f a ssessing t he n umber o f a nimals r epresented i n t he s ample ( by c ounting e ven s haft f ragments w hich a re o f t ypes t hat a re m utually e xclusive) a nd t he d egree o f t aphonomic F inally
i t
l oss. w as
u nfortunate
i ndeterminate b ecause
t hat
m any
f ractures w ere c lassed a s
t hey c ould n ot b e a scribed w ith c onfidence
t o
d eliberate o r a ccidental b reakage. I n s uch c ases i t m ight h ave b een m ore u seful t o d escribe t he n ature o f t he b reak; s ome g rouping o r " typing" m ay t hen h ave b een p ossible. C learly t his s ort o f i nformation w ould b e m ore e asily n oted a s a w ritten r ather t han i llustrated
r ecord,
a nd
t hus
a nalysis
o f
t he d ata m ight h ave t o
p roceed w ith t he a id o f a c omputer d ata l ogging s ystem. b e a ccomplished
f airly e asily i f
t he o utline o f e ach b one
T his t ype
c ould s hape
w as d ivided i nto n umbered s egments w hich c ould b e a llocated a c ode a ccording t o t he n ature o f t he f racture a long i ts l ength. I ndeed, t he
e ntire
a nalytical
s ystem d escribed
1 6
i n p art 2 c ould
b e a dapted
w ithout
d ifficulty
t o e nable
s torage
a nd m anipulation o f
t he d ata b y
c omputer.
A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I w ish
t o a cknowledge
e nabled
m e
t o
t ake
P alaeoeconomy a t
t he
w ork s ubmitted a s
w ould
l ike
t o
i deas t o
t he
s econdly L incoln
" The P ark"
i nformation s he
c ould
S tudentship
S heffield.
T his
f or
f irstly
p aper
t echniques.
a lso
T rust
f or
a nd p roviding m e
f ind
f rom
i nterim r eports.
F inally,
w ork i n t he b one
l aboratory a t
f or h elping
I w ould
b ones
I w ould
w ith a ll
o ld
e xcavation
l ike
t o
S heffield;
i s
t hat
s o g enerously s haring
A rchaeological
w hich
A rchaeology a nd
t he d issertation c omponent o f
a bout a nalytical
J enny M ann o f a ccess
a nd
C ourse
i n E nvironmental
t hank T erry O 'Connor,
s ample
l atest
A dvanced
c ourse
t he U niversity o f
u pon f aunal
S ERC
t he M .A.
b ased
c ourse.
o btain s ome l ike
t he
o f t o
I
t his t hank
a llowing
m e
t he b ackground
r ecords
t hank t he o ther
a nd
t he
p eople w ho
G raeham M ountenay a nd J udy
C artledge, b ut m ost o f a ll G ill C lark w ho t hrough m any h ours o f d iscussion h as h elped m e f ormulate m y i deas a nd s treamline t his f inal p resentation.
R EFERENCES
A ird,
P .M .
( 1983)
B utchering
e xperiments
c attle
i n M ethodology.
University
o f
S heffield,
i n
R oman
L incoln ;
U npublished M A D epartment
o f
s ome
d issertation,
P rehistory
a nd
A rchaeology. B ahn,
P .G.
( 1983) T he
c ase o f
t he
c lumsy
c ave-bears,
N ature
3 01,
5 65. B ehrensmeyer, A .K.
( 1978)
b one w eathering, B inford, B rain,
L .R.
( 1981)
C .K.
( 1981)
C .
( 1975)
C olyer,
T aphonomic a nd e cologic P aleobiology 4 ( 2),
B ones:
A ncient M en a nd M odern M yths.
T he H unters o r t he H unted. E xcavations
d efences
o f
t he
i nformation f rom
1 50-162.
a t
l ower
L incoln t own,
L ondon.
L ondon. 1 970-72;
Antiquaries
t he
w estern
J ournal
5 5,
2 27-266. G ifford,
D .
( 1981)
T aphonomy a nd P alaeoecology:
A C ritical R eview o f
A rchaeology's S ister D isciplines. A rchaeological M ethod a nd T heory 4 , e d. 3 65-438. G rant,
A .
( 1975) C astle L ondon:
N ew Y ork:
A dvances S chiffer,
i n p p.
A cademic P ress.
T he a nimal b ones. I
I n M .
R oman e d.
B .
I n E xcavations a t P ortchester C unliffe,
1 7
p p.
3 78-408 a nd 4 37-450,
M eadow,
R .H. ( 1978) " Bone c ode" a s ystem o f n umerical c oding f or f aunal d ata f rom M iddle E astern s ites. I n Approaches t o F aunal Analysis i n t he M iddle E ast, e d. R .H. M eadow a nd M .A.
M iller,
G .J.
Z eder.
( 1976)
r ecent
a nd
H arvard P eabody M useum B ulletin.
A s tudy f ossil
o f
c uts,
b one:
2 .
g rooves
a nd U sing S tone T ools, e d. E .H. C hicago : C hicago U niversity P ress.
N oe-Nygaard,
N .
( 1977)
t aphonomic f actor 3 , O 'Connor,
R yder,
B utchery
a nd
S wanson,
m arrow
( 1969)
H .
Animal B ones
( 1972)
f rom F laxengate,
i n A rchaeology,
P rimitive
b one
r esearch, American Antiquity 3 7 S .
m arks
p p.
o n
M aking
2 11-288.
f racturing
a s
a
P aleobiolo3y
2 18-237.
S adek-Kooros,
S isson,
o ther
T echnology :
i n a rchaeological d eposits,
T .P. ( 1982) Animal B ones L ondon.
M .L.
a nd
I n L ithic
( 1976) J .D.
T he Anatomy o f
G rossman)
L incoln,
O xford.
f racturing, ( 3),
t he D omestic A nimals
L ondon.
1 8
a m ethod
3 69-382. ( revised
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ASSESSING VARIATIONS I N I RON AGE AND R OMAN B UTCHERY P RACTICES:
T HE
NEED F OR Q UANTIFICATION.
J .M . M altby R esearch F ellow,
D epartment
o f
A rchaeology,
U niversity
o f
S outhampton.
A BSTRACT
T his p aper a rgues f or t he d esirability o f c areful q uantification o f b utchery e vidence f rom a rchaeological f aunal a ssemblages. U sing t he d ata f rom s ome I ron A ge a nd R omano-British s ites i n s outhern E ngland, a spects o f c attle b utchery a re d iscussed. S pecific e xamples o f d ifferent t ypes o f b utchery a nd f ragmentation p atterns a re g iven t o d emonstrate s ome o f t he a ims a nd p roblems o f q uantification. I t i s
c laimed
t hat,
p rovided d etailed
r ecords
a re m ade o f
t he l ocation
o f b utchery m arks t ogether w ith i nformation a bout f ragment s ize, g nawing a nd e rosion d amage, a m uch b etter u nderstanding o f t he f requency a nd d istribution o f v arious b utchery t echniques c an b e o btained. I n s ome p eriods, s uch a s t he R omano-British p eriod, t here w as a g reat d eal o f v ariability i n b utchery p ractices. Q uantification o f s uch d ata w ould e nable n ew i nsights t o b e f ormed i nto h ow c arcases w ere u tilised a nd t heir m eat p rocessed. T he r esults m ay h ave w ider i mplications f or s tudies o f t he R omanoB ritish p eriod
i n g eneral.
I NTRODUCTION
T he s tudy o f b utchery p ractices e mploying t he e vidence o f c ut m arks a nd f ragmentation p atterns o n a nimal b ones f rom B ritish a rchaeological s ites h as b een o f a h aphazard n ature. A s urvey o f p ublished r eports s hows t hat i n t he m ajority o f c ases s uch e vidence w as i gnored, o r a t b est, g iven s cant a ttention. F or e xample, i n h is s urvey o f b one a ssemblages m ainly o f R omano-British d ate, K ing ( 1978: 2 18-24) l isted 1 16 s ite r eports, o f w hich o nly 2 6 m entioned b utchery e vidence a t a ll. O nly i n a f ew i nstances h ave d etailed s ummaries o f t he t ypes o f b utchery m arks o bserved b een g iven ( e.g. W ilson 1 978; M altby 1 981; T hawley 1 982a). I n s till f ewer c ases h ave t he d etailed r esults o f f ragmentation a nd b utchery a nalysis b een d iscussed i ncreased
( e.g. W all 1 980). T his i nterest o f a rchaeologists
i s s urprising i n v iew o f t he i n f aunal a nalysis i n t he l ast
2 0 y ears. I n g eneral, h owever, s tudies o f b utchery p ractices h ave b een c onsidered o f l ess i mportance t han t he i nvestigation o f s pecies a bundance, a geing a nd m etrical a nalysis.
1 9
H owever, s everal d etailed e thnoachaeological s tudies o f b utchery h ave b een c arried o ut i n r ecent y ears ( e.g. B inford 1 978; Y ellen 1 977), i ndicating t he g rowing a wareness o f t he i mportance o f s uch s tudies
f or
a rchaeozoologists.
S everal
s tudies
b one a ssemblages o f h unter g roups h ave o bservations ( Binford 1 981; S peth 1 983).
o f a rchaeological
b enefitted
f rom
s uch
I n B ritain, g radually m ore a rchaeozoologists h ave b egun t o r ecord b utchery m arks i n d etail. T his i s a w elcome t rend, b ut w ith t he a ccumulation o f t his n ew b ody o f d ata, t he t ime h as a rrived t o c onsider h ow s uch d ata s hould b e a nalysed. I t w ill b e a rgued t hat c areful q uantification o f b utchery m arks a nd f ragmentation p atterns i s n ecessary t o o btain a b etter u nderstanding o f h ow c arcases w ere u tilised, s egmented a nd d istributed. I n a ddition, i t i s c lear t hat i n s ome p eriods t here w ere v ariations i n t he t reatment o f c arcases b oth w ithin a nd b etween s ettlements. T he t ypes o f b utchery i mplement u sed ( knife, c leaver, s aw e tc.) a lso v aried a nd s everal t ypes o f c ut m arks m ay b e f ound o n b ones f rom t he s ame s ettlement o r e ven i n t he s ame d eposit. I n s uch c ases i s r equired t o i nvestigate
i t i s c lear t hat c areful q uantification s uch i nteresting f unctional a nd c ultural
v ariability.
T o i llustrate t he t ypes o f q uestions a nd p roblems f acing a rchaeozoologists c oncerned w ith a nalysing b utchery d ata, t his p aper w ill f ocus o n a spects o f c attle c arcase u tilisation i n s outhern E ngland d uring t he I ron A ge a nd R omano-British p eriods. T he d ata w ill b e u sed t o e xamine s ome o f t he q uestions a nd p roblems t o b e f aced i n a ssessing s uch e vidence.
T HE Q UANTIFICATION O F B UTCHERY M ARKS
I s Q uantification N ecessary?
I t
f irst h as
t o b e
s hown
t hat
q uantification
o f
b utchery
d ata
i s
n eeded. C ertainly, i f i t c an b e s hown t hat a u niform s ystematic p rocedure o f b utchery w as p ractised, t here m ay b e n o n eed t o p roceed b eyond a t horough d escription o f t he m arks a nd t heir c auses ( s kinning, d isarticulation , f illeting e tc.) a nd t he t ypes o f i mplement u sed. T hus, i n t he c ase o f m any I ron A ge s ites, w here f ine s harp k nife c uts w ere c ommonly p roduced d uring t hese p rocesses ( Wilson 1 978:119-23; M altby 1 981), b utchery t echniques c an b e v ery c onsistent a nd c an b e i nterpreted a s e vidence f or a r egular b utchery t radition. S uch t raditions c an b e c ontrasted w ith c ertain R omanoB ritish b utchery t echniques. T he u se o f c hoppers a nd c leavers w as g enerally m ore c ommon E ngland.
I n
s ome
i n
c ases
t he
R omano-British
c oncentrations o f
p eriod
c attle
i n
s outhern
b ones d isplaying
c haracteristic c hop m arks b ear w itness t o s ystematic l argescale b utchery. S uch a ssemblages h ave t o d ate m ainly b een a ssociated w ith u rban s ites m icrofiche;
s uch a s M altby
C irencester i n p ress 1 ),
2 0
( Thawley 1 982a: C olchester ( Luff
2 17-20; 1 982b: 1 982: 1 01-4) a nd
G reat C hesterford
( Serjeantson n .d.).
C learly,
t here
a re
o ccasions
w hen d iscrete a ssemblages d isplaying c onsistent b utchery n eed o nly b e a ssessed q ualitatively r ather t han q uantitatively t o e stablish w hich
b utchery
t radition
o r p rocess w as
i n o peration .
H owever,
i n
t he R omano-British p eriod s uch d iscrete b utchery t raditions a re n ot u niversal. I n H ampshire, f or e xample, r ural s ettlements i n t he e arly R omano-British p eriod h ave p roduced a m ixture o f b utchery m arks p roduced w ith k nives o r c hoppers ( e.g. a t W innall D own ( SU 4 98304) M altby n .d.1; C owdery's D own ( SU 6 58532) M altby n .d.2; a nd O wslebury ( SU 5 25246) M altby i n p rep.) I n s uch c ases, i n a ddition t o s imply s tating t hat v arious b utchery t echniques w ere p ractised, q uantitative a re n eeded, v ariations
a ssessments o f t he d ifferent t ypes o f b utchery m arks t o e stablish t heir r elative i mportance a nd a ny r elating
t o
t heir
l ocation w ithin a s ettlement
a nd
t heir
d ate.
C auses o f B utchery V ariation
V ariations i n t he l ocation a nd t ypes o f b utchery m arks a nd i n t he b reakage o f b ones c an b e t he r esult o f a n umber o f f unctional f actors r elating t o h ow c arcases w ere t reated. B utchery t echniques m ay h ave d epended o n w hether m eat w as f or i mmediate c onsumption o r f or s torage b y m eans o f s alting o r s moking. T he i mportance o f m arrow e xtraction a nd t he b oiling o f s ome b ones h ad a b earing o n b utchery s trategies a nd
f or b roth c ould a lso h ave s ubsequent f ragmentation o f
t he b ones. T he l ocation o f c ut m arks c an b e d ependent u pon w hether t he c arcase w as b utchered o n t he g round o r h ung. T he s ize a nd f requency o f t he b utchery o perations m ay h ave r esulted i n t he u se o f d ifferent t ools a nd b utchery t echniques. p ossibility t hat s ome b utchery v ariability w as p references o r t raditions.
T he d evelopment o f b utchery s tudies n eeds f irst i s t o o btain a b etter u nderstanding
T here i s a lso t he r elated t o c ultural
t o t ake t wo c ourses. T he o f w hat t he o bserved
b utchery m arks a nd f ragmentation r epresent. T o w hich o f d iscussed a bove ( and o thers) c an t he o bserved v ariations
t he f actors i n b utchery
b e r elated? B inford ( 1981) h as m ade s ome p rogress t hrough e thnoarchaeological s tudies o f b utchery p ractices a long t hese l ines. A shdown & E vans ( 1981: 2 14-5) a ttempted t o r eplicate c hop m arks f ound o n c attle h umeri a nd r adii a t S keleton G reen, H ertfordshire. M ore e xperimental w ork i s u rgently r equired, a s b y n o m eans a ll t ypes o f b utchery m arks f ound o n a rchaeological m aterial h ave b een e xplained. T he s econd c ourse i s t he n eed t o d evelop r eliable t echniques t o q uantify b utchery m arks. T he r emainder o f w ill d eal w ith s ome o f t he i ssues i nvolved.
t his
p aper
P roblems o f Q uantification
R eliable
q uantification
o f
b utchery
m arks
i s
f aced w ith s erious
d ifficulties. I n m any i nstances t hese a re t he e ncountered i n t he a nalysis o f o ther a spects o f
2 1
s ame p roblems f aunal d ata. T he
d etail o f r ecording o f b utchery a nd f ragmentation d ata v aries b etween w orkers. E xperience, s kill, w orking ( particularly l ighting) c onditions, t ime a vailable a nd r ecording m ethods a re a ll f actors t hat c ould l ead t o i ncompatibility b etween r esults. U nfortunately s uch f actors a re e xtremely d ifficult t o c ontrol f or i n q uantitative c omparisons a nd i t m ist b e l eft t o t he j udgement o f t he a rchaeozoologist t o a ssess t he r eliability o f m aking c omparisons w ith o ther w orkers' d ata. O ther b iasing f actors t he v ariation
i n
t he
f requency
o f
b utchery
m arks
d irect i nclude
p roduced
b y
b utchers o f d ifferent s kills a nd t echniques. I t i s p ossible t o b utcher a c arcase l eaving v ery f ew m arks o n t he b ones. A s killed b utcher, f or e xample, i s l ess l ikely t o l eave m arks o n t he b ones t han a n u nskilled o ne. I t i s l ikely t hat b utchers u sing c hoppers a nd c leavers
t o
d isarticulate
a
s keleton
w ill
l eave
m arks
m ore
f requently t han t hose u sing k nives f or t he s ame p urpose. E qual n umbers o f c hop m arks a nd k nife c uts o n s pecific b ones n eed n ot m ean t hat t wo a lternative m ethods o f b utchery w ere e mployed w ith e qual f requency. S uch c omparisons w ould t end t o b e b iased t owards c hop m arks. H owever, i t s hould b e p ossible t o m onitor t he c hanges i n t he r elative a bundance o f d ifferent t ypes o f b utchery m arks p rovided o ther b iasing
f actors a re
O ne
m ajor
o f
t he
t aken i nto a ccount.
p roblems
i s
t hat
t he
n umber
o f
b utchery
o bservations i s c onditioned p artly b y t he s tate o f p reservation o f t he a ssemblage. W eathering a nd s cavenging o f b ones b oth d estroy c ut m arks a nd i ncrease f ragmentation. S everal r eports o n B ritish d ata h ave n oted t he p ercentage o f b ones w hich w ere b utchered W hitehouse & W hitehouse 1 974;220; S uch f igures c ould b e i nfluenced b y
f aunal ( e.g.
T hawley 1 982b: m icrofiche 1 3). a ny o f t he v ariable f actors
d iscussed a bove. T he e ffects o f p oor p reservation, i n p articular, c an h ave a d ramatic e ffect u pon t he f requency o f o bserved c ut m arks. B utchery o bservations o n c attle b ones a t W innall D own, H ampshire w ere i n g eneral f ound m uch m ore f requently o n b ones w hich h ad n ot b een e roded o r g nawed b utchery w ere m ade
( Table
1 ).
C onsequently,
m uch f ewer
i n t he g enerally l ess w ell p reserved
r ecords o f a ssemblages
f rom t he R omano-British d eposits t han t he M iddle I ron A ge a ssemblages. I f r elative f requencies o f b utchery o bservations a re t o b e u sed a s g uidelines t o t he i ntensity o f b utchery, a ny c alculations m ust t ake t aphonomic f actors i nto a ccount.
S OME S PECIFIC E XAMPLES O F Q UANTIFICATION P ROBLEMS
B utchery m arks n ear t he p roximal a rticulation o f
t he m etatarsus
D ifferential p reservation m ay b ias t he f requency o f o bservations o f c ut m arks o n d ifferent p arts i f t he s ame b one. I n t he I ron A ge s amples f rom H ampshire, w here d isarticulation o f t he l imb b ones w as u sually a chieved u sing a f ine-bladed k nife, m ost c ut m arks a re f ound c lose t o t he a rticulations o f t he l imb b ones, t he s ame a reas m ost s usceptible v olume).
t o
T he
c anid
g nawing
f requency o f
( Binford
1 981:
s urviving k nife c uts
2 2
3 5-86; i s
P ayne
t herefore
t his
l argely
d ependent u pon
F or e xample,
t he a mount o f
k nife
s ubsequent
s cavenging.
c uts a nd s uperficial
c hop
m arks
a re
s ometimes
f ound c lose t o t he p roximal a rticulation o f c attle m etatarsi. w ere m ost p robably p roduced d uring t he d isarticulation o f b ones
f rom
t he
u pper
h indlimb.
I n
a ssemblages
o f
T hese t hese
I ron A ge a nd
R omano-British d ate t hese m arks h ave b een f ound i n v arying n umbers o n a ll a spects ( anterior, m edial, l ateral, p osterior) o f t he b one. A t t he I ron A ge s ettlement a t A bingdon, O xfordshire ( SU 4 83973) m ost o f t he f ine k nife c uts w ere s ituated o n t he a nterior o f t he m etatarsi w ith o thers a lso o n t he m edial a nd l ateral a spects, a s i llustrated b y W ilson ( 1981:119-20)
( 1978:122).
e thnographic
T hese
c orrespond
o bservations o f
c ut m arks
w ith
B inford's
p roduced d uring
d ismemberment o f t he m etatarsus f rom t he u pper h indlimb. T he m ajority o f k nife c uts o n c attle m etatarsi i n t he M iddle I ron A ge a ssemblages a t O ld D own F arm ( SU 3 56465)(Maltby 1 981:151), W innall D own ( Maltby n .d.1) a nd B alksbury ( SU 3 50445) ( Maltby i n p rep.), i n H ampshire c ontrast,
w ere a lso l ocated m ainly o n s everal R omano-British
o n t he a nterior a spect. s ites s uch k nife c uts
I n o r
s uperficial c hop m arks w ere m ore f requently l ocated o n t he p osterior p rojections o f b one t owards t he m edial a nd l ateral a spects. E xamples o f s uch b utchery h ave b een f ound C irencester ( Thawley 1 982b; M altby
a t i n
E xeter ( Maltby 1 979: 1 1), p ress 1 ) a nd S ilchester
( Maltby n .d.3). I n s ome a ssemblages t hese m arks e xclusive, o n o thers c uts a ppeared i n v arying n umbers p osterior s pecimen).
w ere m utually o n b oth t he
a nd a nterior a spects ( although r arely i f e ver o n W hatever t he r easons f or t hese v ariations,
o bviously d esirable r elative f requency o f
t he s ame i t i s
t o o btain s ome q uantitative a ssessment o f t he t he d ifferent l ocations o f t he c utmarks. T o d o
s o, t he p ossible e ffects o f s ubsequent s cavenging m ust b e t aken i nto a ccount. O bservations o f g nawing d amage o n t he p roximal p ortions o f c attle m etapodia f rom a rchaeological a ssemblages i ndicate t hat t he p osterior p ortion o f t he a rticulation w as u sually a ttacked f irst. I n s ome c ases t his h as r esulted i n t he d estruction o f t he p osterior h alf o f t he a rticulation s urface ( along w ith a ny e vidence o f b utchery). O nly i n t he m ore s evere c ases o f g nawing i s t he a nterior h alf
a lso
B inford e ffects
d estroyed
l eaving
1 981: 3 5-86; P ayne o f c anid g nawing).
b y s cavengers,
c ut m arks
o n
o nly t he
s haft o f
t his v olume C onsequently, t he a nterior o f
b etter c hance o f s urvival. C omparisons o f o n t he a nterior a nd p osterior a spects o f
t he b one
( see a lso
f or d iscussions o f t he i n a n a ssemblage m odified c attle m etatarsi h ave
a
t he f requency o f c ut m arks t hese b ones m ust t ake t his
i nto a ccount. T o d o s o, r ecording m ethods r equire d etails o f e xactly w hich p arts o f t he p roximal a rticulations h ave s urvived. T he p ercentage o ccurrence o f m arks o n e ither a spect c an t hen b e a ssessed m ore
a ccurately.
r ecorded a lthough
U nfortunately
m ost
f aunal
s amples h ave n ot
b een
i n s ufficient d etail f or s uch c alculations t o b e m ade, r ecording m ethods o n s amples c urrently b eing e xamined f rom
O wslebury ( Maltby i n a nalysis t o t ake p lace.
p rep.)
a nd
2 3
e lsewhere
s hould
e nable
s uch
F illeting m arks o n c attle s capulae
T he s ame c are w ith q uantification i s r equired w ith o ther t ypes o f b utchery m arks. A c ommon m odification o f c attle s capulae o n R omanoB ritish s ites i s t he r emoval o f t he l ateral s pine b y c hopping ( or o ccasionally s awing) i t a long i ts l ength s tarting f rom t owards t he d istal e nd ( above t he g lenoid c avity). T he p rocess i s i llustrated b y M arples ( 1974: 1 23). T he r easons f or s uch a p rocedure h ave r eceived s ome a ttention i n t he l iterature. T he g eneral c onsensus h as n ow f avoured t he t heory t hat t hese m arks w ere m ade d uring b utchery r ather
t han
l ongitudinal f illeting o f
b oneworking
( Luff
1 982:100).
I n
w hich
c ase,
t he
c hopping i s m ost l ikely t o h ave b een c aused d uring t he t he s houlder m eat. A t O wslebury s uch c hop m arks t end t o
r eplace l ongitudinal k nife c uts o n s capulae, w hich w ere t he u sual e vidence f or f illeting o f t hese b ones i n t he I ron A ge ( although o ne o r t wo s pecimens h ave b oth t ypes o f c ut m ark o n t hem - a gain e xperimental w ork w ould h elp t o c larify t he c auses o f t hese m arks). H owever, t he p ractice o f c hopping t he s pine w as b y n o m eans c onsistent o n R omano-British s ites a nd i t w ould b e o f i nterest t o p lot t he r elative f requencies o f o ccurrence o f s uch b utchery o n s capulae
f rom
d ifferent
s ettlements.
I n
s ome
i nstances
i t w as
o bviously a c ommon p rocedure. M arples ( 1974:123) n oted t hat 1 3 o ut o f 2 6 s capulae a t t he f ortress o f L ongthorpe ( TL 1 58977) h ad s uch m arks. T his a gain r aises t he q uestion o f h ow s uch d ata s hould b e q uantified. G iven t he f ragmentary n ature o f s capulae i n m any a ssemblages, i t m ay b e m isleading t o e xpress t he n umber o f b utchered s pecimens a s a p roportion o f t he t otal n umber o f f ragments, s ince n ot a ll t he f ragments w ould h ave c onsisted o f t he r elevant p art o f t he b one. F or e xample, a mong t he 1 43 s capulae f ragments f rom l ayer 5 i n t he T ower S treet e xcavations a t C irencester ( 1980/137 - T . D arvill p ers.comm.), o nly 3 4 ( 23.8%) o f t he s pecimens b ore e vidence o f c hop m arks a ssociated w ith t he r emoval o f t he s pine. H owever, i f o ne c ounts o nly t he f ragments p ossessing p art o f t he s pine, o nly 3 3 s pecimens d id n ot h ave b utchery r ecorded o n p ercentage o f b utchery o bservations t o 5 0.7% .
t hem, i ncreasing I n a ddition, 2 2 o f
t he t he
s pecimens w ithout b utchery m arks c onsisted o f v ery s mall f ragments o f t he s pine, m any o f w hich w ere b roken i n p laces w here b utchery m arks m ay n ot h ave b een m ade. E xcluding t hese, t he p ercentage o f o bserved b utchery r ecords
r ises
t o 7 5.5%.
T his
l ast
f igure
g ives
a
b etter r eflection o f t he h igh d egree o f u niformity i n b utchery t echniques o bserved o n c attle s capulae i n t his e xtensive m idden d eposit ( Maltby i n p rep.).
I t i s e ssential t o m ake d etailed r ecords o f f ragmentation i n o rder t o a ssess b utchery d ata a ccurately. S uch r ecording h as e nabled d irect c omparisons t o b e m ade b etween t he C irencester d ata a nd t he b utchery p atterns o bserved o n c attle s capulae f rom t he e arly R omanoB ritish d eposits a t t he r ural s ettlement a t C owdery's D own, H ampshire ( Maltby n .d.2). I n t his a ssemblage o nly t wo ( 6.5%) o f 3 1 s capula O mitting
f ragments b ore t he s pecimens
f ragments d id n ot h ave p ercentage o f
t he
t o 1 1.1%).
a rea o f
t he
l ongitudinal c hop m arks l acking t he r elevant p art
e vidence o f O f
t hese,
s pine,
o n t he s pine. o f t he b one, 1 6
b utchery ( increasing
t he b utchery
7 c onsisted o f v ery s mall
w hich w ere b roken a t
2 4
f ragments
p oints w here
i t w as
n ot c lear w hether t hey h ad b een b utchered o r n ot. O mitting t hese, t he p ercentage o f s capulae w ith l ongitudinally c hopped s pines r ises t o 1 8.2%. T his f igure c an b e d irectly c ompared w ith t he p ercentage o btained f rom t he C irencester d ata ( 75.5%) a nd i t s hows t hat, a lthough t he C owdery's D own s ample i s q uite s mall, i t a ppears t hat t his m ethod o f b utchery w as l ess f requently u sed t here t han a t C irencester. I n t his c ase, a lthough t he p reservation o f t he C owdery's D own b ones w as g enerally p oorer t han t he C irencester m aterial, i t i s n ot t hought t hat t his h ad a s ignificant b earing o n t he r esults. T he e xample d emonstrates t hat p rovided t he r ecording m ethods o f f ragmentation a nd p reservation a re o f s ufficient d etail, t he a nd
f requency t he
o f
s pecific b utchery m arks c an b e d irectly c ompared
r esults u sed
b utchery
t o m onitor
t he
f requency
a nd
d istribution
o f
t echniques.
F ragmentation o f m etapodia
Q uantification o f f ragment s ize a lso r equires c areful c onsideration. F ragmentation c an b e t he r esult o f d eliberate b utchery, p articularly f or m arrow ,
w eathering,
s cavenging o r
t rampling.
S uch a ncient b reaks
n eed a lso t o b e d istinguished f rom t he m odern b reakages o ccur d uring e xcavation a nd t ransport o f a nimal b ones.
t hat c an I n t his
i nstance s ome a dvances i n d ata p resentation h ave a lready b een m ade. S everal r eports ( e.g. W all 1 980) h ave i llustrated t he f requency o f d ifferent s ize c ategories ( 1/2 a b one, 1 /4 o f a b one e tc.) f or e ach s keletal e lement u sing p ie d iagrams. S uch o bservations d o e nable t he o verall p icture o f b one f ragmentation t o b e a ppraised. E mploying s imilar s ize d ivisions, v ariations i n t he d egree o f f ragmentation o f c attle m etapodia h ave b een o bserved b etween I ron A ge s ites i n H ampshire a nd R omano-British a ssemblages
( Table
2 ).
T he
I ron
A ge
s amples f rom W innall D own a nd B alksbury c ontained h igh p ercentages o f c omplete b ones a nd f ragments c onsisting o f c .3/4 o f t he c omplete b one. C onversely, t he s pecialised b utchery a ccumulations S ilchester a nd C irencester p roduced n o c omplete b ones a nd
f rom w ere
d ominated b y f ragments c onsisting o f o nly 1 /4 o f t he b one o r l ess. I n t his c ase t he m uch g reater d egree o f f ragmentation i n t he R omanoB ritish d eposits w as d ue t o t he d eliberate b reakage o f t he b ones f or m arrow , s ince n o g nawing a nd v ery l ittle e rosion w as f ound o n t he b ones.
T he
m etapodia o f M iddle
I ron A ge d ate
f rom W innall D own a nd
B alksbury w ere d eposited m ainly i n p its a nd t he b ones h ad g enerally i n a g ood s tate o f p reservation. H owever,
s urvived t here w as
a bundant
d eposits,
w hich
e vidence
h ad
f or
d estroyed
t he g nawing o f m etapodia o ne o r b oth o f
i n
t hese
t he a rticulations.
M any o f
t he
3 /4-fragments h ad b een r educed t o t his s ize b y s uch s cavenging a nd h ad n ot p reviously b een b roken f or t heir m arrow c ontent. I n a ddition, t he E arly I ron A ge a nd R omano-British a ssemblages f rom W innall D own i ncluded a m uch g reater p roportion o f e roded b ones, w hich a lso i ncreased f ragmentation ( Maltby i n p ress 2 ). N onetheless, t he d egree o f
f ragmentation o f
h igh l evels w itnessed a t
t he m etapodia d id
n ot a ttain
S ilchester a nd C irencester
t he v ery
i ndicating
t hat
m arrow e xtraction w as l ess i ntensive a t W innall D own. T his a gain d emonstrates t he v ariability o f c arcase u tilisation o n d ifferent R omano-British s ettlements.
2 5
M any
m ore
e xamples
f ragmentation q uoted.
P rovided
p reservation a nd p ossible p ractices o f
o f
p atterns
v ariability
o n c attle b ones
t hat
q uantitative
o ther b iasing
b utchery
t hese
c omparisons
f actors
i nto
m arks
p eriods
a nd
c ould
b e
t ake d ifferential
a ccount,
i t
s hould
b e
t o p roduce a c oherent p icture o f c arcase u tilisation i n t he p eriods i nvolved. T he r ecognition o f c lear p atterns
b utchery
v ariability o ur
o n
d ifferent
s ubstantially
t o
p rocessing a nd
r edistribution s ystems
i n
o f
i n
k nowledge
o f
s ettlements
t he i n
s cale
t he
c ould
a nd
a dd
f orm o f m eat
R omano-British
p eriod
p articular.
A SSESSMENTS O F T HE D ISTRIBUTION O F S KELETAL E LEMENTS
A n
i mportant
c onsequence
o f
t he
r ecognition
o f
v ariability
i n
c arcase u tilisation i s t he n eed f or m ore c areful c onsideration o f h ow t o a nalyse a nd i nterpret t he d istribution o f d ifferent a natomical e lements w ithin a s ettlement. a nalysis
p articularly
e lements
a re c ombined
d ivisions
o f
t he
w ith
s mall
i nto c ategories
c arcase
( e.g.
m arrow b ones
e tc.).
A lthough
f orm a nd p roperties
l imited t hat
t he
s eries
t he
s keletal
c ategories. ( 1979:7)
f rom
h umerus,
i n
p elvis,
s ome
2 )
d istal
p ortions
t he
l ess
t raditions m ay c reate
q uite
s ame s keletal
S imilarly, o f
t he
t hat
H alstead,
t o
d ifferent
f lanks
o f
a
a ssume
p reconceived
E xeter,
M altby
" high m eat v alue" o f
" moderate
m eat
f rom s ubsequent
p ortions
p ortions w ere
o f
s heep
s eparated
r egularly
f ound
r emoved
I n o ther c ases ( e.g. o n I ron s heep t ibia w as n ot a c ommon
s eparation
v ertebrae,
b etween
b utchery,
o f
t he
o ccur.
p roximal
D ifferent
p atterns o f
( 1978:
1 21)
p elves
a nd
a nd
b utchery
d isposal
o f
t he
s mall
a nd
t he
t he
r elevant
s uggested s capulae)
a t
a nd
t able w aste
W endons
f illeted
A mbo,
i n t he E ssex.
b utchery e vidence m ay
b ones
n ot
o f t o
I ron T he h ave
t echniques o f b utchery w ere p ractised a s s ettlements i n s outhern England, t he
a nimals w ere o ften s tripped a way
t he m eat
t hat
r epresented
i n t he r elative p roportions a nd l imb b ones t o a ttempt
k itchen
a ssemblages
b een f ound, b ut i f t he s ame f ound c ommonly o n I ron A ge c olumn a nd
o nly t o
t he d istal p ortions w ere
l ikely
H odder & J ones
( ribs,
A ge a nd R omano-British w as
o ffer
i nto
h owever,
p roximal
p roximal
w hereas
m eat-bearing c uts a nd u sed v ariations t hese b ones c ompared w ith s kull b ones
s ample
t hose
c lear,
t he
a ssumed
e lements.
t runk
d istinguish
f all o f
f rom
t o
d angerous
b ones
s patial
w as
i s
l imb
w ith t he b ones o f t he l imb e xtremities. A ge s ites i n H ampshire) t he b reakage o f b utchery p ractice a nd
c arcases i t
f rom
i s
o f
s keletial
o ften d eliberately b roken a nd
T he
f emora,
a nimal
b ones
I t
c onvenience
p oor q uality m eat b ones,
a nimal
f emur)
p eriods
f or
d ifferent
c orrespond
o r
c onsistently
o f
t ibia).
t heir d istal h alves.
i n a ssociation w ith
o f
s eparated
u lna,
t hat
g ood
t he b utcher,
e lements
( Maltby i n p ress w ere
f or
t he a nalysis
( radius,
a nalysis t ibiae
I n
a rbitrarily
( scapula, v alue"
o f o ptions
O ften,
s amples,
f rom t he
2 6
t horacic a nd
f rom
t he
l umbar
v ertebral v ertebrae.
T he s ections o f ( Maltby 1 981: c ommonplace v ertebrae
I t
i s
v ertebrae w ere t hen 1 51; W ilson 1 978:
a t W endons
a s
o nly b y p aying
p atterns t ype o f
A mbo
i t
b utchery r ather
w ould
t han
r egard
t o
o f i ndividual b ones f aunal a ssemblage
t he
b utchery m arks
t o d emonstrate t he
d istinct ( Maltby
b etter
t o
r egard
s uch
a nd
f ragmentation
t hat a r eliable u nderstanding o f b eing s tudied c an b e o btained. I t
c attle
i n
b e
d umped a s a u nit s uch a p ractice w as
t able w aste.
a lready b een p ossible c arcases
s ometimes 1 19). I f
t hat
l argescale
R omano-British
p eriod
t he h as
p rocessing
c an
l eave
o f
q uite
s patially s eparated a ccumulations o f p articular b ones i n p ress 1 & 2 ). G iven a b etter u nderstanding o f t he r ange
o f b utchery p ractices, i t m ay b e p ossible t o e xtend s uch s tudies f urther o ur k nowledge o f c arcase p rocessing o n a l arger s cale t hus
m ake b etter
a ssemblages
s ense
o f
t he
d erivation o f
t he m ajority
o f
t o a nd
f aunal
i n a rchaeological d eposits.
C ONCLUSIONS
I t o f
i s c lear f rom t he a bove d iscussion t hat s uccessful i nterpretation b utchery d ata r elies o n d etailed r ecording, n ot o nly o f t he
l ocation o f b one
t he c uts b ut
p resent,
S ystems t he
f or
u se
t he a ccurate
o f
d iagrams
d escriptive c oding s ystem
a lso o f
a nd d etails
a lso
t he
p art
e rosion,
t he
b utchery
W ilson
( e.g.
1 978:
J ones
f acilities
c riteria
i n
a nd
t he
p roportion o f
t he
w eathering a nd g nawing d amage.
r ecording o f ( e.g.
s ystems
h as
p reservation
o f
t o
e xist,
e ither
1 19-23)
t hrough
o r b y m eans
e t.al.
n .d.)
r ecord
f ragmentation
s ufficient
d etail
t he
f or
o f
l atter a nd
s uccessful
q uantification o f b utchery d ata t o b e f easible. I t h as n ot b een t he i ntention o f t his p aper t o g ive a d etailed d escription o f t he r ange a nd
v ariety o f b utchery m arks a nd
c attle s uch
i n
t he
p eriods
a n e nterprise
c ollated.
I t
c arcase u tilisation s trategies
u nder d iscussion.
I t
i s
t o b e u ndertaken u ntil
i s h oped,
h owever,
t hat
i ndeed
f urther
o n
p remature
f or
e vidence h as
b een
t he d emonstration
o f
s ome
o f
t he v ariability i n b utchery p ractices t hat e xisted w ill e ncourage a m ore r igorous a ttitude t oward t he r ecording o f t his d ata. I t h as b een
s hown
c are,
b e
t hat
u sed
p ractices.
t o
v ery
s imple
e lucidate
M ore
m ethods o f q uantification c an,
i mportant
s ophisticated
o nce a b etter u nderstanding o f
i nformation
s tatistical t he
r ange
a bout
t echniques
o f
m ay b e
v ariability
w ith
b utchery n eeded
h as
b een
o btained.
I t a s
c an b e a rgued i mportant a s
d epositional s cavenging) o f
c arcase
t he n eed t o i nvestigate b utchery u nderstanding o f t he e ffects
t aphonomic t hat
a rchaeozoologists' d ifferent
t hat t he
p rocesses
h ave
o ccupied
t ime
i n r ecent
u tilisation, s pecies
i nterpretation
o f
t o
t he
m uch
y ears.
a ctivity d iet,
d evelopments
( particularly a
i n
s uspect.
2 7
t he
w eathering
g reater
F or w ithout
p atterning, a nd
p ractices i s o f p ost-
t he
u ltimately p astoral
a mount
i t,
a nd o f
a ssessments
i mportance o f t he e conomy
a ccurate m ay b e
I n a ddition, i f a c lear p attern o f b utchery t raditions c an b e m onitored i n t he R omano-British p eriod, f or e xample, i t s hould b e p ossible t o o bserve h ow t hose p atterns r elate t o o ther a spects o f a rchaeological d ata. V ariations i n b utchery p ractices m ay i n p art b e a ssociated w ith d istribution o r t rading s ystems, s ocial t raditions o r e conomic s tatus.
S uch t opics h ave g enerally
b een
c onsidered
t o
l ie b eyond t he d omain o f a rchaeozoological s tudies, w hereas t hey h ave s ometimes e xercised t he m inds o f s cholars s tudying o ther a spects o f R oman a rchaeology ( e.g. i n s tudies o f a rtefacts o r s ettlement p atterns). T he p otential t hat t he d evelopment o f r eliable m ethods o f q uantifying r amifications e xtending
b utchery a ffords m ay f ar b eyond t he n ormal
t herefore b ounds o f
h ave f aunal
s tudies.
A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I w ould l ike t o t hank D ale S erjeantson f or p ermission u npublished i nformation.
t o
r efer
t o
R EFERENCES
& E vans,C ( 1981). A nimal b ones. P art I . M ammalian b ones. I n ( C. P artridge) S keleton G reen : a L ate I ron A ge a nd R omano-British S ite. L ondon : B ritannia M onograph S eries 2 , 2 05-235.
A shdown,R
B inford,L.R.
( 1978) N unamiut A cademic P ress.
B inford,L.R.
( 1981). B ones: A ncient M en a nd M odern M yths. L ondon: A cademic P ress.
H alstead,P.,
H odder,I.
E thnoarchaeology.
& J ones,G.
( 1978).
a nd r efuse p atterns: A rchaeological R eview 1 1, J ones,R.T.
W all,
S .M .
L ocker,A.M.,
N ew
B ehavioural
a c ase 1 18-131.
C oy,J.P.
&
s tudy.
( 1978).
A c omparative
s urvey o f
b one a ssemblages
s ites i n B ritain. U niversity o f L ondon : A rchaeology B ulletin 1 5, 2 07-232. L uff,R.M.
N ew Y ork/
a rchaeology N orwegian
M altby,J.M.
C omputer-based o steometry: d ata c apture A ncient M onuments L aboratory R eport 3 342. K ing,A.
Y ork/London:
( n.d.)
u ser m anual.
f rom
R oman
I nstitute o f
( 1982). A Z ooarchaeological S tudy o f t he R oman N orthw estern P rovinces. O xford: B ritish A rchaeological
M altby,J.M.
R eports
( International S eries)
( 1979).
F aunal S tudies a nd U rban S ites:
f rom E xeter 1 971-1975.
2 8
1 37. t he A nimal B ones
( Exeter A rchaeological R eports
2 )
S heffield
U niversity:
D epartment
A rchaeology M onograph S eries M altby,J.M.
o f
P rehistory
a nd
1 .
( 1981). T he a nimal b ones. I n ( S.M . D avies) E xcavations a t O ld D own F arm, A ndover: P art I I P rehistoric a nd R oman. P roceedings o f t he H ampshire F ield C lub a nd A rchaeological S ociety 3 7,
M altby,J.M.
8 1-163.
( in p ress 1 ). A nimal B ones a nd t he R omano-British e conomy. I n ( J. C lutton-Brock & C .Grigson,Eds) A nimals a nd A rchaeology: V olume 4 : H usbandry a nd t he E mergence o f B reeds. O xford: B ritish A rchaeological R eports ( International S eries).
M altby,J.M.
( in p ress
2 ).
p atterns B arker &
i n f aunal a ssemblage v ariability. I n G .W.W. C .Gamble ( Eds) B eyond D omestication... N ew
Y ork/London: M altby,J.M.
P iecing
t ogether
t he
w aste:
i nterpreting
A cademic P ress.
( n.d.1) T he a nimal b ones
f rom W innall D own ( M3 M otorway
A rchaeological R escue C ommittee, S ite R 17), A ncient M onuments L aboratory R eport 3 453. M altby,J.M .
( n.d.2).
T he
B asingstoke,
a nimal
H ampshire.
b ones
f rom
A ncient
H ampshire.
C owdery's
M onuments
D own,
L aboratory
R eport 3 875. M altby,J.M.
( n.d.3). T he a nimal b ones f rom t he 1 974, 1 975 a nd 1 978 e xcavations a t S ilchester. A ncient M onuments L aboratory R eport 3 595.
M arples,B.J.
( 1974). R eport o n t he a nimal b ones. J .K. S t. J oseph) T he R oman L ongthorpe.Britannia 5 , 1 22-128.
I n
( S.S. F rere & f ortress a t
S erjeantson,D. ( n.d.). A nimal b ones f rom e xcavations i n t he R oman l evels a nd t he A nglo-Saxon c emetery a t G reat C hesterford, 1 953-4. A ncient M onuments L aboratory R eport 3 995. S peth,J.D.
( 1983). B ison K ills a nd B one C ounts: D ecision M aking b y A ncient H unters. C hicago: U niversity o f C hicago P ress.
T hawley,C.R.
( 1982a).
T he a nimal r emains.
I n ( J.Wacher & A .
E arly R oman O ccupation a t C irencester. C irencester E xcavations I , 2 11-227. T hawley,C.R.
( 1982b).
T he a nimal b ones.
I n ( A .
M cWhirr,
C .Wells) R omano-British C emeteries a t C irencester E xcavations I I, m icrofiche. W all,S.M.
( 1980).
T he
a nimal
h ospital o f S t. 9 6 2 27-266. W hitehouse,R.
&
b ones
f rom
t he
M ary o f O springe.
W hitehouse,D.
( 1974).
2 9
T he
L .
V iner
C irencester
e xcavation o f
A rchaeologia
f auna.
M cWhirr)
C irencester:
I n S .C.
t he
C antiana
S tanford,
C roft Ambrey.
H ereford:
p rivately p rinted,
2 15-221,
2 38-
2 42. W ilson,R.
( 1978). M ethods a nd r esults o f b one a nalysis/ G eneral c onclusions a nd d iscussion o f t he b one s ample. I n M . P arrington,(Ed.) T he E xcavation o f a n I ron A ge S ettlement, B ronze A ge R ing-ditches a nd R oman F eatures a t A shville T rading E state, A bingdon ( Oxfordshire) 1 9747 6.
( Oxfordshire
C ouncil 1 26, Y ellen,J.
A rchaeological U nit R eport
1 )
f or B ritish A rchaeology R esearch R eport
L ondon: 2 8,
1 10-
1 33-139.
( 1977).
C ultural
p atterning
i n
f rom t he ! Kung B ushmen. I n D .W. W .MacDonald,Eds. E xperimental C olumbia U niversity P ress,
3 0
f aunal
r emains:
e vidence
I ngersoll, J .E. Y ellen & A rchaeology. N ew Y ork:
2 71-331.
E roded/Gnawed N
B ut.
U ndamaged
N B.
% But.
B ut.
N B.
% But.
9
3 4
5 .6
8
3 0
2 1.1
4 6 6 9
6 .8
1 2 1
4 8 1 7
2 0.0 5 .5
M andible E IA
7 4
M IA R -B
1 06 9 2
0 5
E IA
3 4
2
1 7
1 0.5
7
8
4 6.7
M IA R -B
5 1 4 5
1 1
1 4 3 8
7 .1 2 .6
1 6 5
2 0 1
4 4.4 8 3.3
S capula
H umerus E IA
4 1
5
2 2
1 8.5
6
8
4 2.9
M IA R -B
5 5 4 6
2 3
2 6 3 6
7 .1 7 .7
1 2 3
1 5 4
4 4.4 4 2.9
E IA M IA
3 7 5 3
2 5
2 2 1 7
8 .3 2 2.7
4 8
9 2 3
3 0.8 2 5.8
R -B
3 8
2
3 2
5 .9
1
3
2 5.0
R adius
O s C oxae E IA
4 1
3
1 5
1 6.7
6
M IA
3 4
2
1 2
1 4.3
9
1 7 9
2 6.0 5 0.0
R -B
3 8
3
2 6
1 0.3
1
8
1.1
E IA
3 8
2
2 9
6 .5
3
4
4 2.9
M IA R -B
3 3 5 0
5 2
1 6 4 0
2 3.8 4 .8
1 1
1 7
8 .3 1 2.5
M etatarsus
N = n umber o f
K ey
s pecimens
f ragments;
r ecorded;
b utchery r ecorded;
N B.
B ut.
= n umber o f b utchered
= n umber o f
% But.
s pecimens w ith n o
= p ercentage o f
b utchery r ecorded; E IA = E arly I ron A ge : A ge; R -B = E arly R omano-British.
T ABLE
1 :
s pecimens w ith
M IA = M iddle I ron
F requency o f B utchery O bservations o n S elected C attle B ones f rom S uccessive P hases H ampshire.
o f O ccupation a t W innall D own,
M etacarpus A ssemblage
( %)
W innall D own
1 978
C irencester
4
1 1 7
T otal
3 9
3 5
4
2 2
2 3
M IA
1 4
3 8
0
4 8
2 1
2 2
4
6 5
2 3
3 6
6 3
9
M IA
S ilchester
4 2
E IA
R -B B alksbury
C
2 1
1 2 6
1 980/137
5
3 2
1
0
5
5
9 0
2 2
0
0
1
9 9
6 9
M etatarsus ( %)
A ssemblage W innall D own
S ilchester
T ABLE 2 :
T otal
0
3 6
2 8
M IA
1 8
4 6
4
3 2
2 8
2 1
7
6 7
4 3
1 2
4 1
5 6
1 8
7 8
2 8
5
9 5
1 90
o f b one p resent; 1 = c .1 o r l ess o f
t he
5
1
2 0 2 6 5
C = c omplete b one; i= c 1 =. c . 4 t he b one p resent; b one A ge;
1 4
3 9
C irencester 1 980/137
K ey
1 7
2 5
M IA 1 978
7 3 , -
E IA
R -B B alksbury
C
2 7
0
4
0
0
p resent; E IA = E arly I ron A ge, R -B = E arly R omano-British.
M IA = M iddle I ron
P ercentage o f D ifferent
s ize C ategories
M etapodia f rom S elected A ssemblages.
I ron A ge a nd R omano-British
o f C attle
R UBY AND HOW M ANY S QUIRRELS?
T HE D ESTRUCTION O F B ONES B Y D OGS.
S ebastian P ayne R esearch A ssociate, P rogram i n C lassical A rchaeology, I ndiana U niversity, B loomington , I ndiana, U SA . 9W ilberforce R oad, C ambridge, C B3 O EQ, G reat B ritain P atrick J . M unson D epartment o f A nthropology, R awles H all,
B loomington,
I ndiana U niversity,
I N 4 7405,
U SA.
A BSTRACT
A n umber o f e xperiments w ere c arried o ut t o e xamine t he d estruction o f b ones b y d ogs, a nd t he p ossible b ias t hat t his m ay c ause i n b one s amples
f rom a rchaeological s ites.
T he c ombined e ffects o f c rushing
a nd c omminution b y t he t eeth, a nd o f c orrosion b y t he d igestive j uices, w ere g enerally v ery d estructive, a ffecting w eaker p arts o f t he s keleton m ore t han s tronger p arts, a nd s maller a nimals ( squirrels a nd c ottontails) m ore t han l arger a nimals ( goats). B ones a nd b one f ragments t hat s urvived p assage t hrough t he d igestive s ystem
w ere
u sually v isibly c orroded.
M inimum n umber e stimates m ay
b e b adly a ffected: i n o ne e xperiment t he h eads a nd f eet o f 3 7 s quirrels w ere f ed t o R uby, a nd t he m inimum n umber o f i ndividuals c alculated f rom t he s urviving b ones w as o nly 1 4, b ased o n p halanges, w hich s urvived b etter t han a ny o f t he t eeth.
s econd
I NTRODUCTION
T he l ikelihood t hat f aunal s amples f rom a rchaeological s ites m ay b e b iased a s a c onsequence o f t he d estruction o f b ones b y d ogs a nd o ther s cavengers h as l ong b een r ecognised b y z oo-archaeologists. T he w ork o f S teenstrup ( 1862) o n D anish M esolithic m idden s ites i s a n e arly e xample o f
s uch
a wareness:
S teenstrup
r ecognised
t hat
t he
w eaker p arts o f t he s keleton w ere c onsistently u nder-represented i n h is a nimal b one s amples, a nd c oncluded t hat d ogs w ere p robably r esponsible. T his c onclusion w as s upported b y e thnographic a nd e xperimental o bservations: S teenstrup e xamined c ollections o f b ones f rom c ontemporary E skimo m iddens, a nd f ed b ones t o d ogs t o s ee w hat w as d estroyed. t he
S teenstrup a lso r ecognised
s keleton w ere
t hat
t hose w hich d evelop l ater,
t he w eaker a nd s uggested
p arts
o f
t hat
t he
b ones o f y ounger a nimals w ere m ore l iable t o d estruction t han t hose o f a dults, a nd t hc t he w eaker b ones o f d omestic a nd m arine m ammals w ere m ore l iable t o d estruction t han t hose o f m ost w ild l and m ammals.
S teenstrup's r emarkable p aper h as b een l argely i gnored b y z ooa rchaeologists, b ut t he r ecent s urge o f i nterest i n t aphonomy h as s timulated r enewed w ork o n t he s ubject. O f p articular i mportance i s a s eries o f p apers b y B rain ( 1967, 1 969, 1 981), w ho h as u sed o bservations o n b one s amples f rom H ottentot v illages a nd m odern c arnivore d ens
t o
r e-examine D art's
' osteodontokeratic'
h ypothesis,
c oncluding t hat d ifferences i n t he r elative r epresentation d ifferent a ntelope s keletal p arts a t M akapansgat r equire e xplanation i n t erms o f s election a nd t ool-use
o f n o b y
A ustralopithecines,
b ut
e xpected
b one
i n
a ny
i nstead
r eflect
s ample
t hat
t he b iases
t hat
t o
b e
h as
' chewed-over'
b y
b een
a re
c arnivores. S teenstrup's s uggestion t hat t he b ones o f s ome s pecies m ay b e m ore l iable t o d estruction t han o thers h as b een t aken f urther b y L yon ( 1970), w ho s uggests, o n t he b asis o f e thnographic o bservations o n t he d estroy t he b ones
W achipaeri o f s maller
i n P eru, m ammals,
t hat d ogs b irds a nd
m ay t otally f ishes, w hose
d ietary a nd e conomic i mportance w ould t hus b e u ndetected b y f uture z oo-archaeologists; a nd t hough C asteel ( 1971) a rgued i n r esponse t hat t otal d estruction i s u nlikely, h e a greed t hat i t i s i mportant t o r ecognise t he p artial a nd b iased n ature o f t he z oo-archaeological r ecord.
I n
r ecent y ears,
a n i ncreasing n umber o f
s tudies o f c arnivore k ill-
s ites, c arnivore d en b one s amples, d og p en b one r efuse b one s amples h ave b een p ublished; b ut
s amples a nd v illage t here a ppear t o h ave
b een s urprisingly f ew f ully c ontrolled e xperimental s tudies w ith b oth p recise i nformation a bout w hat t he c arnivore s tarted w ith, a nd c onsideration o f a ll b ones t hat w ere l eft a nd c ould b e f ound b y t he a rchaeologist i nstance,
o r
p alaeontologist
d escribing
a n umber
o f
o f
m ention o f t he b ones t hat m ay h ave p assage t hrough t he d igestive s ystem.
T his
p aper
t he a uthors c ollecting
t he f uture.
f eeding
B rain ( 1981),
e xperiments,
s urvived
i n
t he
m akes
f or n o
f aeces a fter
r eports b riefly o n a s eries o f
s uch e xperiments.
( PJM) w as r esponsible f or t he s amples; t he o ther
f eeding t he d ogs a nd ( SP) f or p reparation,
i dentification a nd a nalysis. T he d ogs C oonhounds, b oth s tanding a bout 5 5 w eighing 2 5-30 k g ( 55-65 l bs.). A t t he
O ne o f
c oncerned a re t wo R edbone c m ( 22") a t t he s houlder a nd t ime o f t he f irst e xperiment,
R uby w as a bout 4 y ears o ld; a t t he t ime o f t he o ther e xperiments R uby w as a bout 1 1 y ears o ld w hile S lick, h er s on, w as a bout 4 y ears o ld. T HE E XPERIMENTS A .
R UBY
1 :
S ciurus.
D uring t he c ourse o f o ne s ummer a nd a utumn, R uby w as k ept i n a s mall e nclosure a nd a r ecord w as k ept o f a ll t he b ones a nd p arts o f a nimals t hat w ere f ed t o h er. N ext s pring, t he b ones t hat w ere v isible o n
t he
e nclosure w as a ny
s urface o f e xcavated
d isturbance.
T he
t o
t he
e nclosure
r ecover b ones
e xcavated
w ere d own
e arth w as
c ollected, t o b elow t he
a nd
t he
l imits o f
d ry-screened w ith a 1 /4"
( ca. 6 m m) m esh; 2 5% o f t he e arth w as t hen w indow-screening w ith a m esh o f a bout 1 /16" ( ca.
w ater-sieved ) .5 m m).
u sing
A mong t he b ones f ed t o R uby i n t he c ourse o f t his e xperiment w ere t he u ncooked h eads a nd f eet ( including d istal r adius, u lna, t ibia a nd f ibula) o f 3 7 s quirrels, a nd t he c ooked ( some f ried, o thers b oiled)
l imb-bones
n iger),
w hich
s quirrels,
t hem.
a verage
S ome w ere c a .
f ox
7 50g.;
s quirrels t he
r est
( Sciurus w ere
g rey
w hich u sually a verage c a . 5 50g.
T able 1 r ecords S ciurus.
o f 1 5 o f
u sually
A fter
t he b ones d ue
t hat
w ere
r ecovered
a nd
i dentified
m ultiplication t o a llow f or s ub-sampling
a s
( only
2 5% o f t he e arth w as w ater-sieved, a nd o nly a q uarter o f t he 1 /8"1 /16" f raction ( ca. 3 - . 5mm) w as s orted), t he e stimated t otal n umber o f s urviving b ones ( Table 1 c olumn e ) c an b e c ompared w ith t he n umber t hat w ere f ed t o t he d og, g iving a n e stimate f or t he s urvival r ate o f d ifferent p arts o f t he s keleton ( Table 1 c olumn f ). A s t his a nd
F igure
b eing ( 28%)
1
s how,
s urvival r ates w ere g enerally l ow ,
t he h ighest
f or d istal s econd a nd t hird p halanges ( 38%, 3 4%), i ncisors a nd c alcanea ( 27%). O nly 1 1-12% o f c heek-teeth s urvived, a nd
s urvival r ates f or t he e nds o f t he l ong-bones w ere s urprisingly l ow. T he n umber o f s quirrels w ould b e s eriously u nderestimated o n t he b asis o f t he r ecovered b ones ( 14, a s c ompared w ith 3 7 o riginally f ed t o R uby), a nd a z oo-archaeologist d ealing w ith a s ample o f t his k ind f rom a n a rchaeological c ontext m ight, o n t he b asis o f t he r elative a bundance o f t eeth a nd p halanges, h ave w rongly c oncluded t hat t his w as a ' processing ' c ontext, a nd t hat a ll t he m eat-bearing p arts h ad b een t aken e lsewhere. W ithout w ater s ieving ( many s ites a re s till e xcavated w ithout e ven t oken water-sieved s amples) t he n umber o f s quirrels w ould h ave b een s till m ore s eriously u nderestimated: o nly 1 6 i dentified s pecimens w ere r ecovered b y t rowelling and d rys creening ( Table 1 c olumn b ), o f which 1 0 w ere i ncisors; a nd t he r elative a bundance o f
s quirrel p halanges w ould h ave g one u ndetected.
T his e xperiment c an r easonably b e c riticised o n s everal g rounds. F irst, m ost o f t he l ong-bones w ere c ooked w hereas t he h eads a nd f eet were n ot, a nd i t m ight b e t hought l ong-bones r eflects t his d ifference.
t hat t he p oor s urvival o f t he S urvival, h owever, w as e qually
p oor f or t he u ncooked l ong-bone e nds - a round 1 % ( 4/296) f or d istal r adius, u lna, t ibia a nd f ibula t aken a s a g roup. A more s erious c riticism would b e t hat t he b ones l ay f or s ome m onths, t hrough a n I ndiana w inter,
a t o r n ear t he
s urface
o f
a r ather
a cid
s oil,
and
t hus b one d estruction m ight h ave b een c aused b y s urface w eathering a nd a cid a ttack a s w ell a s b y R uby h erself.
B .
R UBY 4 -9 A ND S LICK 1 -2.
A s econd s eries o f e xperiments w as t herefore c arried o ut i n m ore c ontrolled c onditions. I n e ach e xperiment, o ne a nimal w as f ed t o t he d og,
r ejected b ones w ere m onitored a nd c ollected o nce
3 3
t he d og
s howed
n o f urther i nterest f or s everal d ays, b efore t hey c ould b e t rodden i nto t he g round o r b uried ( the d ogs w ere t ethered o n s hort g rass w here a ny a ttempt t o b ury b ones w ould h ave b een d etected, a nd i n f act n one w ere b uried) a nd a ll f aeces w ere c ollected e ach d ay u ntil a t l east 3 -4 d ays a fter t he l ast b ones w ere e aten o r c hewed. T he f aeces
w ere a gitated i n w ater t o b reak t hem u p a nd m acerated a t 6 00
C w ith t he a ddition o f s mall a mounts o f N a3PO4,
a fter w hich h air a nd
o ther f loating m atter c ould b e c arefully d ecanted o ff, c hecking a ny f loating b ones, u ntil a c lean b one s ample w as o btained.
8 1 R UBY 4 ,6 a nd S LICK 1 ,2:
f or
C apra.
T wo a dult g oats w ere u sed i n t hese e xperiments. I n t he f irst p air o f e xperiments ( RUBY 4 /SLICK 1 ), a n 8 -year-old f emale g oat w as s kinned ( apart f rom t he h ead a nd f eet) a nd r oughly s tripped o f m ost o f t he m eat. T he s tripped c arcass w as t hen d isarticulated i nto u nits, a nd t he s kull a nd p elvis w ere s plit d own t he m idline. T he b ones o f t he l eft s ide ( left s ide o f s kull, m andible, f orelimb a nd h indlimb) w ere f ed t o R uby o ver a p eriod o f a bout 1 0 d ays ( during w hich s he a lso r eceived h er n ormal. p rocessed f ood), w hile t he b ones o f s ide, t ogether w ith t he a xis a nd a tlas v ertebrae a nd a bout
t he r ight t en r ibs,
w ere f ed t o S lick. T he r emainder o f t he r ibs a nd v ertebrae a nd t he s ternum w ere f ed t o o ther d ogs. I n t he s econd p air o f e xperiments ( RUBY 6 /SLICK2), a 5 -year-old f emale g oat w as s imilarly t reated, e xcept t hat o nly t he l imbs w ere f ed a nd n ot t he h ead a nd o ther p arts, a nd t he d ogs w ere k ept a l ittle h ungrier t o s ee w hether t hey w ould d estroy m ore o f
t he b ones.
T he r esults o f t hese e xperiments a re g iven i n T able 2 . T he b ones a nd b one f ragments t hat w ere n ot s wallowed b y t he d ogs ( Table 2 c olumns b a nd h ) w ere g enerally i n g ood c ondition, i ncluding c omplete m etapodia a s w ell a s n umbers o f l ong-bone s haft s plinters a nd b one c hips
( Plate
1 ).
S ome
s howed
c lear
t races
o f
g nawing:
b oth
m andibles, f or i nstance, h ad l ost a scending r ami a nd m uch o f t he a ngle, a nd s everal o f t he l ong-bones s howed c lear t ooth-marks a nd g nawing d amage; b ut m ost o f t he b one f ragments s howed n o d efinite t races o f t he a ctivity o f t he d ogs. S ome o f t hese ' rejected' a re f airly l arge - o ne r adio-ulna i s j ust o ver 2 0 c m l ong; w ere u nder 7 c m l ong, a nd n early h alf w ere b one c hips l ess c entimetre i n l ength ( Table 5 ).
p ieces b ut 9 0% t han a
T he v ery l arge n umber o f b one f ragments t hat w ere r ecovered f rom t he f aeces w ere a ll s mall : t he l argest w as l ess t han 5 cm. l ong, a nd o ver 8 0% were l ess t han a c entimetre i n l ength ( Plate 2 ). T he a verage w eight o f b one f ragments t hat h ad p assed t hrough t he d ogs w as 0 .05g, a s c ompared w ith 3 .63 g i n t he c ase o f t he " rejected" b ones. T he s urfaces o f
t he b one f ragments
p oor c ondition:
m any o f
f rom t he
t he b ones w ere
v ery
f aeces w ere c orroded
t ypically i n -
a rticular
s urfaces h ad s ometimes b een c ompletely r emoved, e xposing t he c ancellous b one b elow - a nd n o t ooth-marks r emained. I t w as c lear t hat t wo d estructive p rocesses h ad a ffected t he b ones: f irst t hey * i .e.
" boneless"
3 4
h ad b een c rushed a nd c omminuted b y t he d ogs' t eeth a nd j aws, a nd t hen t hey h ad s uffered c orrosion b y t he d igestive j uices ( Plates 3 , 4 ). ( A s mall g roup o f b one f ragments w hich h ad b een v omited a lso s howed c onsiderable c orrosion d amage.) O nly a s mall p roportion o f t he r esulting m ass o f t iny c orroded b one c hips c ould b e i dentified, a nd, a s i ndicated, s ome o f t he i dentifications a re u ncertain ( Table 2 c olumns c a nd j ). S ome f ragments w ere o nly i dentified i n t he l ight o f t he k nowledge o f w hat h ad b een f ed t o t he d ogs; f or t his r eason, i n a n a ttempt t o p rovide c ounts t hat c an m ore f airly b e c ompared w ith a rchaeological d ata, T able 2 c olumns d a nd k t reat t he b ones f rom e ach g oat a s a s ingle s ample, c ounting o nly t hose s pecimens w hich w ould h ave b een i dentified t o t he ' sheep/goat' l evel i n a n ormal a rchaeological s ample. T his h as t he e ffect o f e liminating s mall f ragments w hich c an b e i dentified t o a natomical p art b ut w hich m ight b e f rom a lmost a ny m ammal o f s imilar s ize, s uch a s s mall p ieces o f d istal f emur o r p roximal t ibia. C ounted i n t his w ay, t he f irst g oat w as r educed b y t he d ogs t o 6 2 i dentified f ragments ( 15 c ranial a nd 4 7 p ostcranial), w hile t he s econd g oat, f ed w hen t he d ogs w ere k ept h ungrier, w as r educed t o 2 9 p ostcranial ( the s econd g oat's h ead w as n ot g iven t o t he d ogs). T hese
f ragments t otals a re
s till f urther r educed b y e liminating s pecimens o f w hich l ess t han h alf i s p reserved, a s o ne m ight d o t o a void t he p ossibility o f d ouble-counting
( Table 2 c olumns e a nd m ).
O ne m easure o f b one s urvival i s g iven b y T able 2 c olumns o a nd p . S urvival i s h igh f or t he t eeth ( though o ne u pper p remolar h as g one), h igh f or e arly-fusing l ong-bone e nds ( e.g. d istal h umerus, p roximal r adius, d istal t ibia), m oderate f or m etapodia, c arpals a nd t arsals, a nd r elatively l ow f or l ate-fusing l ong-bone e nds, s capula, p elvis a nd p halanges.
I n F igure w ith t hose c alculated
1 , t he s urvival r ates i n B rain's H ottentot f or t he M akapansgat
f or s elected e lements a re c ompared v illage s ample a nd w ith t hose s ample. T he o verall p attern i s
c learly s imilar, d espite t he s mall s ize o f t he s ample g iven b y t he p resent e xperiment. W hile s urvival r ates f or s ome p arts o f t he s keleton a ppear t o b e c omfortingly h igh, t wo n otes o f c aution s hould b e s ounded. I n t he M akapansgat a nd H ottentot v illage s amples, w e h ave n o w ay o f t elling h ow m any a nimals w ere i nitially p resent; s urvival r ates h ave b een c alculated o n t he b asis o f t he m inimum n umber o f i ndividuals g iven b y t he c ommonest e lement, a nd t hus d epend o n t he i nitial a ssumption t hat a ll s pecimens o f t he c ommonest e lement h ave s urvived. I f n ot, t rue b one s urvival r ates m ay i n f act b e m uch l ower - t hese a re r elative s urvival r ates r ather t han a bsolute a bsolute
r ates. I n t he p resent e xperiment t he r ates g iven r ates s ince w e k now h ow m any a nimals w e s tarted w ith,
a re b ut
1 ) s ome o f t he c ounted s pecimens a re o nly f ragments: n o p ostcranial s urvival r ate i s a bove 7 5% i f s mall f ragments a re e liminated ( see T able 2 c olumns e a nd m ), 2 ) a n umber o f t he f aecal s pecimens h ave b een s o w eakened b y d igestive c orrosion t hat t hey w ould e asily b e d estroyed b y a ny f urther m echanical o r c hemical a ttack ( e.g. t rampling o r s oil c orrosion), a nd 3 ) b oth g oats w ere a dults, w ith f ully-fused p ostcranial s keletons; a rchaeological s amples o ften i nclude j uvenile s pecimens, w hose s urvival r ates a re p robably m uch
3 5
l ower. I n a nother e xperiment ( RUBY 3 ) t wo j uvenile C apra h eads w ere f ed t o R uby: t he m axillae a nd m andibles w ere c ompletely d estroyed, a nd o nly a bout h alf
B 2.
R UBY
5 ,7:
t he m ilk t eeth s urvived.
S ylvilagus.
I n t hese e xperiments, t wo a dult c ottontails ( Sylvilagus f loridanus ( Allen), a l agomorph a bout t he s ame s ize a s a E uropean w ild r abbit, w eighing 1 -1.5kg) w ere f ed t o R uby. B oth w ere r oad c asualties w ith d amaged s kulls ( no t eeth w ere m issing), a nd w ere n either s kinned n or g utted. B oth w ere e ntirely c onsumed, a nd n one o f t he b ones w ere r ejected ( Tables 3 ,5). F ragmentation w as e xtreme: e ach a nimal w as r educed a ll l ess
t o a bout 3 00 b one s craps w ith a n a verage w eight o f 0 .01 g , t han 3 c m l ong. T he t otal w eight o f b one t hat s urvived ( 3.0
g , 4 .3 g ) i s o nly 5 -10% o f t he o riginal w eight o f t he s keleton ( four c omplete s keletons i n t he I ndiana U niversity ( Bloomington) Z ooa rchaeology c ollection w eigh f rom 4 8.6 t o 6 3.7 g ). T he d egree o f f ragmentation i s s uch t hat f ew o f t he b ones w ould b e r ecovered b y e xcavation w ithout w ater-sieving: a ll
l ikely t o b e t he i dentified
s pecimens p assed t hrough a n 8 m m m esh, a nd o nly a f ew w ere b y a 4 m m m esh ( Table 3 c olumns e ,f,j a nd k ).
r etained
S urvival r ates ( Table 3 c olumns 4 ,m ) w ere g enerally l ow . T he h ighest r ate ( 50%) i s g iven b y t he a stragalus, w hile r ates f or t he t eeth ( 49 %) a re n otably l ow. T he r elatively h igh s urvival r ate f or t he d istal t hird p halanges i s c aused b y t heir p rotection w ithin t he k eratin o f t he c law, w hich i s r elatively u naffected b y d igestion: s everal c laws w ere f ound w ith t he t hird p halanx s till i n p lace, b ut w ith
i ts
p roximal
e nd d estroyed b y d igestive c orrosion
( Plate 5 ).
S urvival r ates ( Figure 1 ) a re m uch l ower i n g eneral t han f or C apra, a nd t he p attern o f s keletal p art s urvival a ppears t o b e s ignificantly d ifferent, e ven t hough s amples a re s mall. T eeth, i n p articular, s urvive p oorly i n S ylvilagus b ut w ell i n C apra. T his m ay r eflect t he r elative s izes o f t he a nimals i nvolved: R uby c ould e asily t ake a c ottontail's h ead b etween h er j aws a nd c runch i t , w hile a n a dult g oat m axilla o r m andible i s t oo l arge, a nd h as t o b e g nawed f rom t he e dges.
B 3 R UBY 8 ,9 :
S ciurus.
I n t hese e xperiments, t wo s quirrels w ere f ed g rey s quirrel ( RUBY 8 ), w as n either s kinned a f ox s quirrel ( RUBY 9 ), t o t he d og. A s w ith ( Tables 4 ,5).
I n R UBY 8 ,
w as t he
b one d estruction
c ottontails:
o nly 5 7
t o R uby. T he f irst, a n or g utted; t he s econd,
s kinned a nd g utted b efore b eing g iven c ottontails, e verything w as s wallowed
w as
e ven
f ragments o f
3 6
b one
g reater
t han
s urvived w hich,
f or
t he
t wo
w ith a t otal
w eight o f 0 .7 g , r epresent o nly 3 -4% o f t he o riginal w eight o f t he s keleton ( four s keletons o f S ciurus c arolinensis G melln i n t he I U(B) c ollection w eigh f rom 1 8.1 t o 2 6.1 g ). T he p attern o f b one s urvival i s s imilar t o t hat i n R UBY 1 : m ost o f t he s pecimens w hich c ould b e i dentified w ere t eeth a nd p halanges, m any o f w hich c learly s howed t he e ffects o f d igestive c orrosion, a nd a gain t here w ere t hird p halanges w hose d istal e nds h ad b een p rotected b y t he c law.
I n
R UBY
9 b one d estruction w as
i s a round 1 5-20% o f
t he
o riginal
l ess:
6 .3 g o f b one s urvived,
w eight
o f
t he
s keleton
w hich ( three
s keletons o f S ciurus n iger ( Linnaeus) i n t he I U(B) c ollection w eigh f rom 3 3.4 t o 4 3.0 g ), a nd m any m ore s pecimens c ould b e i dentified. A gain,
m any o f
t he b ones
s howed
t he e ffects o f d igestive c orrosion,
e specially t he l ong-bone e nds. T he r easons f or t he d ifferences b etween t he r esults o f t he t wo e xperiments a re n ot c lear - o ne p ossibility i s t hat t he d og b olted t he s econd s quirrel m ore q uickly, w ith l ess c hewing a nd b one b reakage, w hile a nother i s t hat i ts d igestive
T he
j uices w ere
p attern
o f
f or s ome r eason l ess
s urvival
s hown
b y
c orrosive.
t hese s quirrels a nd b y R UBY
1
( Figure 1 ) a gain c learly d iffers f rom t hat s hown b y C apra, a nd s urvival i s g enerally p oorer. S urvival r ates a re l ow f or t eeth a nd j aws,
a s i n S ylvilagus,
b ut
r elatively
h igher
f or
p halanges.
A s
s quirrel f eet a re r elatively s mall, i t m ay b e t hat t hey a re o ften b olted w hole, w ith l ittle o r n o c hewing, a nd t his m ay g ive t he p halanges s ome m easure o f p rotection.
D ISCUSSION
W e
would
s tress
t hat
t hese e xperiments a re o nly a s mall b eginning:
l arger s amples a re n eeded, f eel a ny r eal c onfidence o bserved c an b e e xpected t o a ny p redictive v alue. M any - f or i nstance t he r elative i ndividuals, s urvival.
a nd
t he
u sing a v ariety o f
d ogs,
b efore
o ne
c an
i n t he e xtent t o which t he p atterning b e r epeated, and c an t he r esults h ave o ther v ariables a lso n eed t o b e e xamined s urvival o f b ones o f o lder and y ounger
e ffects
o f d ifferent k inds o f
c ookery o n b one
L imited t hough t hey a re, h owever, t hese e xperiments a dd t o t he b ody o f e vidence t hat i ndicates t hat t he c ombined e ffects o f d ogs' t eeth a nd d igestions m ay d estroy l arge n umbers o f b ones, a nd m ay b e a v ery s ignificant
f actor
i n t he b iasing o f a rchaeological
s amples.
A s h as
b een p reviously p ointed o ut ( Steenstrup 1 862, B rain 1 982), h arder a nd m ore r esistant p arts o f t he s keleton c an b e e xpected t o s urvive b etter,
t o w hich s hould p robably a lso b e a dded
t he
e ffects
o f
t he
r elative s ize o f t he d og a nd t he b one o r a nimal i nvolved. G reater d estruction i s t o b e e xpected f or b ones t hat a re s mall e nough t o b e c runched a nd a t t he s ame t ime worth c runching, s uch a s g oat p halanges a nd r abbit-sized l ong-bones, while s urvival i s p robably b etter
f or b ones
t hat
a re b oth l arge a nd
3 7
s trong,
s uch a s a dult
c ow b ones a nd a dult g oat m andibles, a nd f or b ones t hat a re s mall, s trong a nd h ave l ittle t o o ffer s uch a s s quirrel p halanges. P robably a ll t hat c an b e d one t o c ompensate f or t his d estruction i s t o b e a ware o f t he p roblem i n i nterpreting f aunal d ata; t hough s ome i ndication o f t he p robable s eriousness o f s uch b iasing i n a s ample m ay b e g iven b y t he f requency o f d og b ones, o f b ones s howing t races o f d og-gnawing, a nd o f b one f ragments a ffected b y d igestive c orrosion. ( Digestive c orrosion c an b e d istinguished f rom s oil c orrosion b y t he f act t hat i t w ill o nly a ffect b ones o f a c ertain s ize - t he s ize t hat a d og c an c omfortably s wallow . T he c ommon p resence o f s uch c orroded f ragments m ay i n f act p rovide o ne s ource o f e vidence f or e arly d og d omestication - t hough s cavenging w ild c arnivores w ill a lso l eave s cats o n s ites; c ave s ites i n p articular a re o ften u sed a s p ens b y w ild c arnivores.) D eer p halanges w hich a ppear t o h ave p assed t hrough d ogs a re i dentified a nd i llustrated b y G uiday ( 1971, F igure 7 k) i n a r eport o n b ones f rom a 1 7th-century I ndian v illage i n W est V irginia.
A t t he s ame t ime i t i s e ncouraging t hat i n a ll t hese e xperiments s ome i dentifiable b ones s urvived, a nd t his w as e qually t rue o f a nother e xperiment i n w hich t wo f ishes w ere f ed t o R uby ( RUBY 4 A) ( Jones 1 984). T his t hen i ndicates t hat w hile d ogs m ay s eriously b ias a rchaeological s amples, t hey a re u nlikely t o d estroy a ll t race o f a ny s ignificant v ertebrate f ood r esource a s l ong a s t he e xcavations i nclude a reas w here d ogs d efecated, a nd a s l ong a s r easonable s amples a re w ater-sieved.
A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS
W e a re g rateful t o W .R . A dams, D irector o f t he Z oo-Archaeology L aboratory, I ndiana U niversity, B loomington, f or k indly a llowing u s t o u se h is l aboratory a nd c omparative c ollection.
R EFERENCES
B rain ,
C .K .
1 967. H ottentot f ood r emains a nd t heir b earing o n t he i nterpretation o f f ossil b one a ssemblages. S cientific P apers o f t he N amib D esert R esearch S tation, 3 2, 1 -11.
B rain ,
C .K .,
1 969. T he c ontribution o f N amib D esert H ottentots t o a n u nderstanding o f a ustralopithecine b one a ccumulations. S cientific P apers o f t he N amib D esert R esearch S tation, 3 9, 1 3-22.
B rain ,
C .K .
1 981. T he h unters o r t he h unted? A n i ntroduction A frican c ave t aphonomy. U niversity o f C hicago P ress.
C asteel,
R .W. 1 971. D ifferential b one d estruction : A merican A ntiquity, 3 5, 4 66-469.
3 8
t o
s ome c omments.
G uilday,
J .E. 1 971. B iological a nd a rchaeological a nalysis o f b ones f rom a 1 7th c entury I ndian v illage ( 46 P U 3 1), P utnam C ounty,
W est
V irginia.
I nvestigations S urvey, J ones, A .K.G. o n
4 ,
W est
M organtown,
R echerches T echniques P .J.
1 970.
W est V irginia,
meeting.
A rchaeological
U SA.
C . N.R.S.
Archaeologiques. 1 6,
P aris;
D ifferential
e xample. S teenstrup,
o f
1 984. S ome e ffects o f t he m ammalian d igestive s ystem f ish b ones. I n D esse-Berset, N . ( ed), 2 nd F ish
O steoarchaeology
L yon,
R eport
V irginia G eological a nd E conomic
6 1 b one
d estruction:
I nbydelsesskrift t ul e rindring
3 5,
t idligste dl K jSbenhavns
a n
e thnographic
o g O ldforskningens S porgsmaalet o m
O ptraeden
i
U niversitets
o m K irkens R eformation.
3 9
d e
Monographies
2 13-215.
B lik p aa N aturB esvarelsen a f
M enneskeslaegtens
C entre e t
- 6 5.
A merican A ntiquity,
J .J. 1 862. E t F orstudier t ul
N otes
E uropa. A arsfest
K. Obenhavn.
•
S ciurus
c ) o
e o
v . : e s . . . I W
• . — I
c l • › , R I . f : 3 c e " c 1 C u • , i
0 4 O D Z • , i >
' — I C I . )
•c / f
( I ). . . . . • ,I W M r i I Z . . 4 . E c u c d 3 M
3 0
I > , $ 4
x 4 Ja
. ,
C I . 0 M M
0 . ) > 2 e r t C \ I > , • . 0 . 0 ., " C W :
› , ö • Z ' . 0 , r ) r s i . ..
C D C > D
0 C . )
W . , I M I
:
1 1
_ _ _ , 4
> 0 , . , , ) C 1 ) 0
0
0
4 . i
r ate:
N umber f ed
C l ) I i M O: c . ) . i , t
VD
x 4 . 2
S urvival
R UBY 1 :
E stimated
T ABLE 1 :
a
P art o f s keleton M axilla
0
0
0
0
M andible C heek-teeth
7 4 7 4 5 92-666 *
( 1) 0
( 1) 6
0 3
(5 ) 7 2
I ncisors
1 48
1 0
8
0
4 2
0 % ( 7%) 1 1-12% 2 8%
S capula H umerus p d
3 0 c ooked 3 0 c ooked 3 0 c ooked
0 0 0
0 0 ? 1
0 0 0
0 0 ? 4
0 % 0 % 0 -13%
R adius
p d
3 0 c ooked 7 4
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 % 0 %
U lna
p d
3 0 c ooked 7 4
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 % 0 %
I nnominate
3 0 c ooked
0
0
0
0
0 %
F emur
3 0 c ooked 3 0 c ooked
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 % 0 %
p d
3 0 c ooked
0
0
0
0
0 %
T ibia
P atella P d
3 0 c ooked 7 4
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 % 0 %
F ibula
P d
3 0 c ooked 7 4
0 0
0 1
0 0
0 4
0 % 5 %
7 4 7 4
1 4
2 4
0 0
9 2 0
1 2% 2 7%
p d
6 66 6 66
0 0
3)1
0
1 6 4 8
P halanx 1
P d
7 40 7 40
0 0
3 +?11 ? 1 6 8 5
P halanx 2
P d
6 66 6 66
0 0
1 4
P halanx 3
P d
7 40 ( 740)
0 0
0 ( 3)
A stragalus C alcaneum M etapodia
S ome o f t he S ciurus w ere S .
N ote:
n iger,
7
1
3 6+?20 1 36
1J 1
523
( 8)5
0 1
I n T ables 1 -4,
t he f ollowing a re i ncluded i n t he c ounts:
1 4% 3 8%
1 08 ( 248)
w hich h as o ne u pper p remolar,
c arolinensTs, w hich h as
5 -8% 1 8%
9 2 2 52
3
7
o thers w ere S .
l east h alf
2 % 7 %
1 5% ( 34%)
w hile
t wo. t eeth w hen a t
t he t ooth i s p resent, m axilla a nd m andibles w hen c ontaining a t
l east o ne c ountable t ooth,
a nd t he l isted p ostcranial p arts w hen a t
l east
p art o f t he r elevant a rticulation ( or i ts f usion s urface) i s p resent. C ounts a re a lso g iven i n p arentheses, b ut n ot i ncluded i n c olumn t otals, f or e dentate j aws, p halanges.
t eeth w hich a re s till i n t he
j aw,
a nd d istal
t hird
T ABLE
2 :
R UBY 4 ,
6 a nd S LICK
g
a
C O
M
.
2H
, . , . . , 0
.
4 W
O
.
• I
c
b
M
. .
..
4 . + U
C apra
.
c
d
e
0 0
f
. .
. u
6 2
W M
< 0 . 4 mm .
.
C .
. C
0 H
4 M
,
. . >
, . .. . .
w
1
h
8
R UBY 4 , a nd S LICK 1 ,
S LICK 2
°
›
m
. o
NJ
M
. . >
" 82 '
s rD . . . . ,
.
. o
u
t .4
2
. 2 M
. ,.
. .
3
0
2
2 :
R UBY 6 a nd
nd S LICK 1 R UBY 4 a
M
1 ,
M W
.
0 H
j
0 S
P otential
O
L
.
4 .
0 H C O
eu m
a rchaeological s urvival: ( d+k)/(a+g)
n
m
o
P
i dentified f rs.
T otal b one f rs. T otal b one w eight
( g)
3 7 1 65 7 01.3
+
v , . . .
4 , 7 )
0
1
1 1) 7 20
3 +?2/4 2 +?2/4
5 0-100%
1 +?2
0
1 +?2
0
0
0
0
0 6 +?1
6 +?1
6 +?1
1 5+?2/24
2
0
0
4
1 +?2
1 +?1
2 +?3/4
5 0-125Y
2
0
1
0
1
0
1
1 +72/4
2 5-75%
0
0
1
1
0 1
0 /4 3 /4
7 5%
1 2
0
h . ,
•.1 - -N J
, NJ . . . . .. . . . 1 . 0 0 NJ
1 +71
2 5% 6 3-71%
0 %
0 1
0
0 2 +?1 ? 1
0 /4
0 %
0 0 0
? 5 1 1
0
0
1 0
2 +?1 ? I .
4 +?1/4 2 +?1/4
1 00-125% 5 0-75%
1 5
? I 2 +?3
0 2 +?2
? 1 2 +?1
2 +?1/4
5 0-75%
8 +?3/16
5 0-69%
2
0
0
0
1 +? l i
0 0
0 9 +71
0 5 +?4
8 8 8
0
0
0 0
0 0
2 +71) 1 +?1 0
8 8 8
0 0
0 0 0 0
2 ) O i
l
0 0
(8 )
0
1 /4
? 1
0
4 4
J I n
7 2 0
? 3 1
0 0
4 7+?8
4 987 9 53.6
1
0 0
1 6
NJ
NJ
NJ NJ NJ
2
,
2
NJ +
2
NJ
+ ..
C,
1 • . .. ... . . .-. . . . .-
3 +?1 0 7 +?1
o
NJ
1 1 ?
7 5% 1 00% 7 5-125%
C, c . , . .. . .. . . . .
7 1 0
0 %
3 /4 4 /4
i • • +
0 0 0
0 %
0 /4
NJ
0
0
1 00%
0 /4
0 0
0
0
. . . .. .., . . --
0 0 to 0 ry h . , ,
0
0 0
0
ch h ,
0 . . . . . .... .
0
0
0
,
0
0
h, h,
0
2
8
0
( 12)/12 0 0
2
2
5 7+?2
1 00%
1 1 1 3
2 2
Ch
4 822 2 52.3
6 2+?10
9 2% 1 00%
8 /8
2
r- 0 • •. .. •
, 1 . . 1 -‚ NJ e .
4 0+710
1 50%
2 /2
2 2
,
T otal
3 /2 ( 9)+2/12
2 2
0
. . . .
.0 , . 0
, -
+
0
0
. .
0 VD 1 . NJ CD t . . , 0 NJ 1 +
v
NJ OD
0
r y 0 0
0 0 NJ C> CD CJ
0 0
NJ v
NJ . . -.
NJ
CC
0 0 0 0 0 0 •. ) 0 1 . . 0 NJ NJ i . NJ NJ e . 0 NJ l • • t ., NJ +
NJ ,
+ • -----
•, J p -, L ., NJ NJ c,
+ -4 r •
0 .4, N J
0 0 0 0 0
0
CO CO CO CO
d
v
CO
d D istal s esamoids P halanx 3 p
, ,
, .
t>J 0
C r, . ., CO CO
d P halanx 2 p
N J
OD t-
p
d P roximal s esamoids P halanx 1 p
0
, . . . , 0 0 1, P . .-.
NJ N . : NJ
C alcaneum O ther t arsals * M etapodia
0
NJ
p
d A stragalus
5 ..-- ".-
0 0 0
NJ
P atella
0
NJ
d
0
NJ
p
0 .-.
NJ
I nnominate
0
NJ
C arpals
T ibia
0
NJ NJ NJ NJ
p d d
NJ
d p
NJ
R adius U lna R adius U lna
NJ
S capula H umerus p
NJ
m andibular c heek-teeth
0
CO
I ncisors
F emur
+ e .
NJ
M andible
. . . .
NJ
M axillary t eeth
VD
NJ
M axilla
h . ,
P art o f s keleton
7 1 02 2 67.5
4 +?3 3 5 1 4.4
2 +?1
2 ), 7 11 i 1 +71
1
1 0
0
1 +?1)
1
0
5 +?4
0
0
J 2
1
1 +71
Si
6 +?2/8
7 5-100%
5 +71/8
6 3-75%
1 1+74/32
3 4-47%
5 +?2/16 3 +?2/16
3 1-44% 1 9-31%
1 +71
2 +71/16
1 3-19%
i
1 7 1
1 7 1
1 0
1 /16 2 +?1/16
6 % 4 3-19%
0
0
0
0
2 +?1/16
1 3-19%
0
0
0
0
1 +73 1
4 0+717 3 021 1 47.7
2 9+?21
2 3+79
( 0/16)
2 4+712
3 158 4 29.6
* i ncluding l ateral m alleolus N ote:
S ometimes,
a nd e specially i n c olumns o a nd
P b
t he
f igures a ppear
t o s uggest
t hat m ore b ones w ere
r ecovered a nd
o riginally f ed t o t he d ogs. T his i s b ecause, a s i n m any h one r eports, t he c ounts i nclude a ll i dentified m ay t hus b e c ounted m ore t han o nce. C olumns e a nd m g ive c ounts a fter e liminating s mall f ragments.
i dentified
f ragments,
t han w ere
a nd o ne b roken b one
( 0%)
T ABLE 3 :
R UBY
R UBY
5 ,
7 :
S ylvilagus
R UBY 7
5
.
i n N Lmber P art o f
s keleton
. u . m . 4 1
0 w
„
. .
b
c
o 1 . H
O
. 0
. 1 .
T ) . . c
. o .. .c
2 .
g
R UBY 5 a nd R UBY
e
W
B
2H
0 H
C O
e
d
a n
U
.B C U
0
2 H o
.0
W
. „
0 W U
. , .
F. - ,
g
0 .
f
8
h
. I
. m o
. 4 . . .
.. 2 5 g i . o 2 . , o
F .
, t 1
a n
v .
. 0
c s ,
. 0
2T , . 2H 4 1 0 4 .
i
m ,
4 1 . 0 0 0 0
. .
H
2H
P otential a rchaeological s urvival: ( d+i)/2a
,
5 0
j
k
1
m
s keleton 2
0
0
0
0
0
1 6 2 1 2
0
2
2
0
0
0
3 /32
0 % 9 %
0
0
0
1 0
0
0 1
0 0
1
0 0
0
0
0
0 /4
0 %
1
0
0
0
S capula
2
0
2
1 +?1
0
1 +?1
0
H umerus p d p
2 2
0 0
2
0
d p
2 2
0 0
0 1
d
2
0
0
M axilla M axillary t eeth M andible M andibular t eeth
R adius U lna
2 0
C arpals
2
I nnominate F emur p
2
d
0
0
0 ? 1 1
7 1
0
0
0
0
0
0 0
0 0
0
0 ? 1
0 0
1 0
0 0
1
0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
? 1
0
0
0
0 /4
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 0 0
? 1 0
? 1/4
0 1
0 /4
0 %
0
1 +?1/4
2 5-50%
0 1 0
0 0
0 0
0 /4 1 /4
2 5%
0
0
0 /4
0 %
? 1
1 /24 1 +?1/4
4 % 2 5-50% 0 -25%
0 %
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 /40
0 %
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 /4
0 %
0
0 0
0 0
1
? 1 0
0
0
0 0
0
2
0 0
0
1
0 0
0
2
0
0
0 0
0
0
0 /4
0 %
0
0
0 /4
0 0 0
? 1/4
0 % 0 -25%
0 /4 ? 1/4
0 % 0 -25%
T ibia
p d
2 2
0 0
0 1
0 ? 1
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0
0 0 0
F ibula
p
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 /4
0 %
A stragalus C alcaneum
2
0
i f?'
1
2 /4
5 0%
0
1
0 0
1
0
0 0
1
0
1 0
1
2
0 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
? 1/4 1 /24
P atella
O ther t arsals
1 2
? 1 1
0 -25% 4 %
M etapodia
p
1 6
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 /32
O X
P halanx 1
d p
1 6 1 6
0 0
6 0
6 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
1 2
1 1 +71
0 0
0 0
d p
1 6 1 8 1 8
0 0 0
1
0
0 ) 2P
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
2 2% 3 -6% 0 % 1 1-14%
O 1H
0 0 0
7 /32 1 +71/32 0 /32 4 +?1/36
0 0
0 ( 2 »
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 ) ; 2
0
0 0
5 +71/36 3 /36 ( 10/36)
1 4-17%
1 8 ( 18)
0
2 +?1
0
9 +?4
0
0
1 2
0
P halanx 2
d P halanx 3
p
d
T otal i dentified T otal b one f rs. T otal b one w eight
f rs.
0 0
( g)
0
2 5+?3 3 39 3 .0
0 ( 2)
1
1
1 7+?4 3 39
0
? 1
0 4 2
1 3+?2 2 72 4 .3
( 5)
2 72
0
2
1 +?1 2 6
8 % ( 28)%
T ABLE 4 :
R UBY 8 ,
9 :
S ciurus
R UBY 9 :
arolinensis S ciurus c
R UBY 8 :
0 . .
7 4 . 2 . 1
..
E i w
2 .1 .
w w
w
.
• , .
g
o u 0
=
0 1 . . 0 3 f . 0 3 0 1
.
R UBY 8 a nd R UBY 9
S ciurus n i pr
1
2
0
0
u B 0 F CC
I 'i .
! S 0 E .. 1
2 o
% , . ,
g
1 9
g
u d • 1
0 1 1 .
.
, 0
2T ,
21 3
2 1
. B
2O
. 2 3 ,2
. B
I O F . 1 0
I ? . C C
2 e V /
P otential a rchaeological s urvival: ( d+i)/2a
F S' n e
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k
2
0
0
0
0 0
2 2
2 2
0 0
2 1 1 +(7)
0 0 0
( 2)
2
0 0
0
0
2
2
1
m
P art o f s keleton M axilla M axillary i ncisor M axillary c heek-teeth
8 /10 *
M andible
2
M andibular i ncisor M andibular c heek-teeth
2 8
0
0
S capula
2
0
0
H umerus p d
2
0
0
2
0
1 +?1
R adius U lna
0
0
2
0
0 0
0 0
1 1 +(7)
0 0
0 0
0
1
1
0
( 1)
0
0
0
0
0 0
2 /4 3 /4 3 +(
7) / 18
1 /4 2 /4 2 +(1)/16
5 0% 7 5% 5 6% 2 5% 5 0% 1 9%
0
0
0
0
2 +(1)
2 +(1)
0
0
0
0
0
2
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1 /4
2 5%
0
0
0
2
1 +21 1 +21
1
1 +21
1 +?2/4
2 5-75%
0
1 +?1
1 +22/4
2 5-75%
2
0
0
2 1
p
2
0
1
0
0
0
2
d
2 2
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0 0
0 0
1 1
p d
0 0
2 1
1 2 1
1
1 /4
2 5%
0
1
2 /4 1 /4
5 0% 2 5%
0
0
2 1/4
0 -25%
0
0
0
0
0
0
4 +21
4
0
0
4 /36
1 1Z
I nnominate
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
1 /4
2 5%
F emur
2 2 2
0 0 0 0
0
0 0 0
2 1/4 2 1/4
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 -25%
2 1 0 0
0 0 0 3
0 0 0 3
0 0 0 0
0 , i1
0 0 0 0
1 8
C arpals
p d
P atella T ibia p d F ibula p d
2 2 2 2
A stragalus C alcaneum O ther t arsals
2 2 1 4
0 0 0 0
M etapodia
0
1 1
0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 1 3 9 +21
0 0
0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0
1 8 2 0 2 0
p d
1 8 1 8
0 0 0 0 0
2 0 ( 20)
0 0
0 17 ( 2)i
0 r7 ( 2)i
T otal i dentified f rs.
0
2 2+?2
2 0+22
0
0
0
1 04+?2
T otal b one f rs. T otal b one w eight
0 0
5 7 0 .7
5 7
0
0 0
0 0
4 41
P halanx 3
p d
*8 i n S . n iger,
( g)
1 0 i n S .
c arolinensis
0 3
1
0
4 5
3 ;
2
4 1+ 21
4
l i
0 ( 2) 16
6 .3
0 1 ? 1+?1 8
0 0 0
l ' *2 2, 0 0
1 1 2
1 8
P halanx 2
0 0 0 0 0
1 0
p d p d
P halanx 1
0 2 1
? 1 2 1
0 1 1 0
0 0 0 0
j
)
2 4
1 5
8 3+?13 4 41
0 0 0 0
0
2 +?1 3
2 1 .2 1
0 /4 0 /4
0 -25Z O Z O Z
1 0
1 /4 0 /4
2 5% O Z
0 1 1
0 /4 1 /4 1 +21/4
0 0
O Z
0
8 /28
2 5% 2 5-502 2 9%
0 0
9 +22/36 1 1+24/36
2 5-31% 3 1-42%
0 0
3 +?1/40 9 /40
8 -10% 2 3%
0 0
6 /36 1 5/36
1 7% 4 2%
0 0
2 2/40 ( 26/40)
5 52 ( 65)%
9 +?4 3 6
.
. .
•
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.
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.
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.
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. 7
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.
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1
.
.
2
.
.
1
2 3
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1
7 .0
7 .3
r n C o r e ) . +
Identified i n a rchaeological c ontext
1
. .
2 +?1
1 1
.
2
CO 1 r 1 CV .7 • i. -4 OD
8 +?1
. .
.
1
o
2 6+?8
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. 1
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6
0 o s e
3 5+?17
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.
. .
2 2
.
1 0
( g)
A verage w eight
0 .01
0 .01
t r ,
e ces Identified All f ragments
I- 0
,
0
s Identified All f ragments Identified i n
Z— 1
o
0
1 +?3
E— Z •
1
8- Z .
.
4
11
3
-
2
ZI
1 3
Z .1
2
-
1 7
El 4 ' 1 -4 CO N-
5 8
ei
1 0+?2
-
g
3 7+?9
SI
c o
2 57
gl
N. CV
5 4+?18
a ,
1 184
-
e
4 +?1
91
. 4 ".
6 579
9I
•
Z1
•
-
•
91
•
91
1 / 1
.
6 .1
-
c 1
1
G.- e
5 +?1
-
61 • . 7
2 8
c g
2 6+?7
C .1
2 21
( g)
T otal w eight
OD
4 6+?18
-
c o
1 127
1 . 1 .
. .
. .
2 2
. 1
. .
1 1
2 3
3 3
3 3
1 1
1 2
1 6
T otal
( RU M ' 8 ,
6
0Z
ci
3 +?1
7 ) a nd S ciurus
-
6- 8 OZ
. 4 . . t
6 466
. .
. .
C . ) 9- 5
.
a ) N , 1 ( J )
L -9
1 +?1 5
• c n t o ( a . i 01
1 4
0 4 01
-
1 +?2 8
0 .7 N.
2 2 0
z
3 1 0
E
e v o
0 2
0 • • 1 X 0
2 1 3
o a ) , i
2 1 5
4 2 5
. c 4 . ) -
TZ
1 0 2 8
( RUBY 5 ,
Z1
II 1Z
6 3 7
S ylvilagus
l a c . ) . . . . ) -
1 1 11
F ragmentation d ata:
, -, ZZ
s . 0
e n . CV
.
.
'
.
•
C o
P late 1 .
P late 2 .
P lates
1 a nd 2 :
f aeces
( Plate 2 ) after Ruby was g iven a Capra f orelimb a nd h indlimb.
RUBY 6 :
bones
' rejected'
( Elate
1 )
a nd r ecovered f rom
P late
3 :
phalanx
The effects of d igestive corrosion on a Capra ( bottom:
' rejected'
P late ( left:
4 :
( top:
RUBY 6 ,
f rom f aeces)
RUBY 4 ).
The effects of digestive corrosion on a Capra
SLICK 2 ,
' rejected'
f irst
a s c ompared with one that was
f rom f aeces)
( right;
RUBY 4 ).
a stragalus
as compared with one that was
P late
5 :
The
phalanges. end
( on
effects of digestive corrosion on Sylvilagus third
Top:
l eft );
unaffected;
bottom;
part of phalanx.
( All
P late 6 :
RUBY 8 ;
s quirrel
( all
a ll
middle:
s pecimen w ith corroded proximal
c law s heath containing and protecting distal f rom RUBY
that was
f rom f aeces).
7 ).
l eft after Ruby was given a whole
C ap ra R UBY 4 , 6 S L ICK 1 , 2
A n te lopes M akapansga t
C ap ra H o t ten to t V i l lage
5 0 %
0
5 0% r i
0
5 0%
M d H u d T i d R aU l p M p p S c P e R aU l d M p d F e p A s C a T i p F ed P hs H u p
S c iu rus R UBY 1
S y lv i lagus R UBY 5 7
5 p %
0
S c iu rus R UBY 8 ,9 5 0%
0
5 0%
M d H u d T i d R aU l p M p p S c P e R aU l d M p d F e p A s C a T i p F e d P hs H u p
Figure
1 .
Survival
dö ( j-feeding C anra
f rom H ottentot
M a kanansc iat.
r ates
e xperiments,
f or d ifferent parts o f compared w ith data
v illage
r efuse
and
f or
t he
s keleton
given by Brain antelones
f rom
i n
( 1991)
f or
A METHODOLOGY FOR RECORDING THE PATHOLOGY AND OTHER ANONA .LIES O F U NGULATE MANDIBLES FROM ARCHAEOLOGICAL S ITES.
B Y B RUCE
L EVITAN
S outh W estern E ngland F aunal A nalysis C ity M useum a nd A rt
P roject
G allery
B ristol
A BSTRACT
T eeth
h ave
t here a nd
a n
i s g reater n utrition
a spect
i n
t his
i n r econstructing
i n b one
f or
m ethodology
d evised b y
1 855
o f
H ill,
W est
i s
t han
H owever,
l ittle t his
s tudies
d escribed
e xamples
o f
p ossible,
i llustrated.
r esults
h as
r esearch. T he
o btained
b een i s
s ites
f rom
d one
t o b y
f ill
t o t his
p roviding
I t
i s
a n o riginal b ased
o n
f irst m illennium A D r eference
t he m ethod o f p aper
i n
m odern
r ecording
c oncludes
t he W est H ill
t o
a
s ite
a nomalies e ncountered
w ith
a nd
T he
b een q uite
t he m andibles o f u ngulates.
f rom t he
G loucestershire.
A k ey
s ometimes
p aper
s o
h ealth
h as
i mproved v ersion o f
u ndergraduate
w here
a nd
t his i s
f rom a rchaeological
o vicaprid m andibles
a bout
f rom o ther b ones.
p athology
p athology o f
e nvironment,
d etails
T he a im o f
a m odified a nd
U ley,
e xternal
p alaeopathology;
s ample a re d escribed a nd d iscussed
v eterinary i s
b ones
t he a uthor a s
s ample o f t his
o f
t he
a nd o ral
r eports.
r ecording
w ith j aws
i s
i n d etail.
g ap i n t he a nalysis
T he
a nd
s tudy
b one a nalysts,
a spect
a m ethodology
t eeth
s uch
b y
w ell d escribed s tudy
c ontact
f rom
a ny
r ecognised
i ntimate p otential
w ith
t hem t hree
a ssemblage u sing
t his m ethodology.
I NTRODUCTION
M andibles a nd t eeth s urvive w ell i n t he c omparison w ith o ther b ones. T eeth a re o nly b ones
w ith a d irect
a nd
m outh
i ntimate
t han o ther b ones. m ade O ne
t o
T hus
p athology,
o ral
p athology
i s
i n v ertebrate
m ore c ommon
a nd m andibles a re m ore
S omewhat
s tudy
t his
t opic
p roblem h as
b een
t he
s urprisingly, i n d etail,
l ittle
d espite
t he
l ack o f a n on-subjective
4 1
a nd a nd
o ther
t o
a ttempt a nd
a natomy
t han
s ensitive o bvious
i n t he
e xternal
t he e ntrance f or f ood, t he r egion o f m astication, t he a rea o f g reatest a ccess f or t oxins, p arasites
b one
z one
t he
b ecause i t i s a s s uch i s o f
i mportant
w ith
T he
f orms
a n
c ontact
e nvironment.
o ther a lien m aterial.
i s
a rchaeological r ecord u nique i n t hat t hey a re
c hange
h as
b een
p otential.
w ell
d efined
m ethod
o f
r ecording
s uch a s ystem. f rom
t he
T he
s ite
u ndergraduate
t he
a nomalies,
a nd
t his
a uthor m ade a s tudy o f
o f
W icken
B onhunt,
d issertation
E ssex
( Levitan,
p aper
s eeks
a g roup o f ( TL
1 977).
t o
p rovide
s heep m andibles
3 34502)
T his
a s
f ormed
t he
a n b asis
f or a m uch m ore d etailed s tudy o f a l arger g roup o f s heep a nd g oat m andibles f rom t he f irst m illennium A D r itual s ite o f W est H ill, U ley,
G loucestershire
( ST
7 92998).
T he
s ome r esemblance t o t he e arlier i t. A lthough t he m ethodology h as u ngulates,
i t
c ould
b e
p resent
s tudy, b een
m odified
m ethodology
b ears
b ut s urpasses a nd r eplaces d evised s pecifically f or
t o
i nclude
o ther
g roups
o f
v ertebrates.
A M ETHODOLOGY F OR R ECORDING MANDIBULAR P ATHOLOGY O F U NGULATES
T he Anomalies
T he
r ecording
s heet,
F igure
B racketed a bbreviations t he r elevant s ections o f s heet
f illed
d escribed
o ut
1 ,
i s
u sed
f or
s coring
f or a n i maginary m andible.
b elow a nd
t he
a nomalies.
f ollowing e ach s ub-heading b elow r efer t o t he r ecording s heet. F igure 2 i s a s pecimen
' recorded'
i n F igure
M any
2 a re
t he
f eatures
i llustrated
o f
i n F igure
3 .
i )
t ooth p resence/absence
( P/A)
T his s ection m ay b e u sed t o r ecord w ear s tages a nd e ruption s tatus o f t eeth w here t hey a re p resent: d eciduous ( milk) t eeth a re r ecorded i n t he D r ow, ( mature)
a nd
r ow.
I f
p ermanent
( adult)
t eeth
e ruption/wear a re
a re
r ecorded
r ecorded e lsewhere,
i n
t he
M
p resence m ay
b e i ndicated b y p lacing a c ross ( +) i n t he r elevant b ox. A bsence i s r ecorded i n t he P r ow f or p ost-mortem l oss, a nd i n t he A r ow f or a nte-mortem l oss. t eeth
a s
l ogical
S ome a uthorities
m olars,
u sing
t he
s ystem o f d eciduous
d esignate
c onventions m l,
p remolars
( p2,
p 3
t he m 2,
d eciduous e tc,
o r
p m2,
b ut
c heek
t he m ore
p m3,
e tc)
b eing r eplaced b y p ermanent p remolars ( P2, P 3 o r P m2, P m3, e tc) i s f ollowed h ere. M olars m ay b e a bbreviated u sing t he c onventions M l, M 2,
e tc.
i i)
f ragmentation
F ragmentation t he m andible r ecorded z ig-zag
i s
r ecorded d iagrammatically
i llustrated
i n F igure l ine.
2 .
W here
T he
i n F igure z one o f
t he b reak
i s
b reakage f resh,
W hen t he m andible i s s evered d ue u sed i nstead o f a z ig-zag o ne.
i ii)
a ttrition
i n t he
3 i ndicates
( ATT)
4 2
t o
t he
i s
t he
P /A s ection. z ones
o f
T hus
b reakage
i ndicated b y d rawing a
l ine m ay b e
b utchery,
l abelled
a s traight
l ine
F . i s
D ental a ttrition i s d ue t o t he o pposing f orces o f g rowth a nd w ear a nd i s r elated t o p hysiological, e nvironmental a nd i ndividual f actors. D ifferent s pecies a nd d ifferent d iets p roduce c haracteristic w ear p atterns o n t he o cclusal ( biting) s urface o f t he t eeth. I ndividual v ariations o ccur w ithin a s pecies, a nd i t i s i mportant t o e stablish t he r ange o f t hese v ariations, t o n ormal r ange, a nd t hus i dentify t he a nomalies. e nvironmental
f actors m ay b e e xtremely i mportant,
a s
d efine a S ometimes
i n t he c ase
o f
i ngested s oil. T he r ole t hat t his p lays i n t ooth w ear h as b een i nvestigated i n a s eries o f s tudies w hich h ave s hown t hat a ttrition c an b e e xtreme w here m uch s oil
i s
i ngested a nd s upplementary f eeding
i s n ot c arried o ut. S uch c onsiderations h ave a n i mportant b earing o n t he t ooth w ear m ethodologies e mployed b y b one a nalysts t o e stimate a ge, ( Healy a nd L udwig, 1 965; L udwig, H ealy a nd C utress, 1 966; H ealy, C utress a nd M itchie 1 967). E ven t he r elatively s ubtle e ffects o f p asture j uices h ave a p art t o p lay i n d ental a ttrition d ue t o t he v arying e ffects
A nomalies
o f
p roduced o n d entine
a ttrition
c an
( Cutress a nd H ealy,
o ccur
i n t wo w ays:
1 965).
a nomalies
i n c rown
h eight, a nd i ntra-dental a ttrition. T he l atter o ccurs w hen a n a djacent t ooth r ubs a gainst i ts n eighbour a nd w ears a way t he e namel s heath o f t he t ooth. I t i s o ften a s ymptom o f o vercrowding, a nd r ecording i ts f requency a nd o ccurrence h as a n i mportant b earing o n t his
t opic.
I t
i s s cored
i n t he I DA r ow w ith a n
a rrow
p ointing
t o
t he r ight ( + ) t o i ndicate a ttrition a t t he m esial e nd, a nd a n a rrow p ointing t o t he l eft f or a ttrition o f t he d istal e nd. I t i s s cored o nly w hen t he e namel h as w orn a way c ompletely ( Plate 1 ).
e )
O vercrowding i n m odern s heep i s r ecorded b y C olyer, P anir, R ocky M ountain B ighorn a nd M oufflon ( Colyer,
p articularly 1 936: 3 76).
i n
T he u pper l ine o f t he A TT s ection ( CH) i s u sed f or s coring o f a nomalous c rown h eight. T his i s a chieved b y m aking a d iagrammatic s ketch o f t he t ooth r ow. W here a m inority o f t eeth h ave a l esser h eight t han t he r est o f t he r ow, a d ownwards p ointing a rrow i s a ppended ( ) . C onversely, w here a m inority h ave a g reater c rown h eight, t he a rrow i s r eversed E xamples o f b oth a re i llustrated
( e ) .
i n P lates 2 a nd 6 . O ligodentia m ay o ccur w hen o pposing t eeth a re l ost, t he s urviving a ntagonist s howing e longation a nd d isplacement. S uch
f actors a re i n a ny c ase
f airly c ommon o n a l ess
s evere
s ense a s
t he d ental a rcades s eldom c oincide d irectly, a nd m ay c ause c onditions s uch a s h ook f ormation o n t he m ost m esial a nd m ost d istal t eeth. R estricted c hewing p ractices - w hat e ver t he r eason - m ay a llow r idges i n h erbivore t eeth t o b ecome a ccentuated a nd t o l ead t o ' shear m outh' ( Jubb a nd K ennedy, 1 963:2). ' Weave m outh' a nd ' step m outh ' o ccur f rom d ifferent r ates o f w ear i n w hich s uccessive t eeth i n a n a rcade w ear d ystrophies d ecrease
a t d ifferent r ates ( Plate 2 ). w ear r esistance. D eficiencies
D evelopmental i n e ssential
e lements s uch a s c alcium a nd p hosphorus s often t he t eeth i n g rowing i ndividuals ( Franklin , 1 950:28) a nd t here i s a lso s evere r etardation o f e namel a nd d entine d evelopment.
A nomalous
e ruption s equences
b e d ue i n s ome c ases t o m alnutrition i n e arly p atterns m ay a lso b e a ffected ( Jensen, 1 974:209-210).
4 3
l ife,
m ay
a nd w ear
i v)
p eriodontal d isease
V arious n ames a re u sed
( PER)
f or
t his c ondition :
p eriodontitis,
p aradontal d isease a nd p eriodontal d isease. T he o vine p eriodontal d isease i s u nknown, b ut i t i s m ixed
s pecies o f
o ral
b acteria
w hich
p yorrhoea,
s pecific c ause o f p resumably d ue t o a
p enetrate
t he
p eriodontal
m embrane. T he c ourse o f t he d isease i s w ell k nown a nd d efined ( Jensen, 1 974:211). I t i s c haracterised b y i nflammation o f t he p eriodontal m embrane ( Armstrong,1960:429). I ntroduction o f b acteria m ay b e b y m eans o f f ood d eposits ( dental c alculus) w hich b ecome l odged b etween t he t eeth a nd u nder t he g ums, l eading i n t he f irst i nstance t o i nfection o f t he g ingival m embrane ( gingivitis). I t s hould b e n oted t hat t his i s v ery m uch t he t raditional v eterinary v iew, b ut i n f act i t m ay b e t hat c alculus h as a l ess i mportant p rimary r ole ( see b elow). T his s tage i s f ollowed b y r ecession o f t he g um a nd a ggravation w hich l eads t o i nfection o f t he p eriodontal m embrane ( Jensen, 1 974:212). T he b ony a lveolus m ay t hen r ecede, e ventually s welling a nd e nlarging ( Plate 4 ). l oosens a nd
f istulae
o f
t he
v entral
m argins
m ay
b egin t o T he t ooth
o ccur
i n
t he
m andible. I n s evere c ases t he t ooth m ay b e l ost a nd e ventually r esorption o f t he a lveolar c avity m ay o ccur ( Plate 7 ) ( Jubb a nd K ennedy 1 963:5). I n m odern f locks i nfection r ates m ay b e b etween t wo a nd e leven p ercent ( Hart a nd M acKinnon, 1 958:120; A rmstrong, 1 960:431).
S coring f or t his a nomaly i s i n t he f orm o f f ive S tage 1 - c haracterised b y r ecession o f t he
s everity s tages: a lveolar m argin,
e specially l ingually, b ut n o w idening o f t he a lveolus. p erhaps t he m ost d ifficult s tage t o r ecognise a s a lveolar m ay b e v ery s light. ( Plate 3 ).
T his i s r ecession
S tage 2 - t he a lveolus h as w idened o ut a nd t he t ooth h as b ecome l oose. F urther r ecession o f t he m argins m ay o ccur, a nd t he e xternal s urface o f t he m andible i s s ometimes p itted a nd ' porous' i n a ppearance. T eeth m ay b e l ost p ost-mortem a t t his s tage d ue t o t he l oosening d escribed a bove a nd c are m ust b e e xercised i n s eparating t his f rom a nte-mortem t ooth l oss. ( Plate 4 ).
S tage 3 - t he t ooth h as b een s hed a nte-mortem . T he a lveolar c avity w ill b e c haracterised b y f irst s tages o f i nfilling a nd n ew b one f ormation - t his h as n ot o ccurred w here t he t ooth h as b een s hed p ost-mortem.
( Plate
5 ).
S tage 4 - t he i nfilling o f t he a lveolar c avity w ell a dvanced b ut n ot c omplete, a nd a c avity o f s orts w ill s till b e p resent. ( Plate 6 ).
S tage 5 - t he n ew b one
f ormation i s
n early
c omplete
o r
h as
b een
c ompleted. T here w ill b e n o c avity p resent, b ut t he s urface o f t he m andible m ay b e p itted a nd ' porous' i n a ppearance. I n s ome c ases i nfilling
m ay
b e
s o
s uccessful
4 4
t hat
n o s uperficial s ign o f
t he
c avity w ill b e p resent.
( Plate
7 )
T hese s everity s cores a re r ecorded i n t he l ower l ine o f s ection. T he u pper l ine m ay b e u sed f or n otes o r s ketches.
v ) a bscess
t he
P ER
( ABS)
A bscess o f t he a lveolus o r p ulp c avity m ay r esult f rom a n umber o f i nfections, s ome o f w hich m ay b e c aused b y i njury, o thers f rom e ruption a nomalies ( especially i n p iglets) a nd o thers f rom p eriodontal d isease. W hatever t he c ause, t he g ross e ffect i s l ikely t o p roduce s imilar c onditions i n t he b one, s o t hat i t m ay n ot b e p ossible t o a ssign a c ause i n a rchaeological s pecimens. I n p ulpitis, w hich a ffects t he p ulp c avity, t he i nflammation i s u sually a cute b ut m ay b e c hronic. O nly m ild f orms m ay h eal, m ost f orms t erminating i n n ecrosis ( Jubb a nd K ennedy, 1 963:4). T his m ay b e c aused b y, o r b e t he c ause o f p eriodontal d isease! E arly s tages o f a bscess w ill b e e xtremely d ifficult t o r ecognise u nless d etailed X -ray c overage i s u sed ( Baker a nd B rothwell, 1 980:154). W here X -ray c overage i s p ossible, t he f ollowing s coring s ystem m ay b e u sed. S tage 1 - l ow g rade i nfection: a nd/or
t here i s o bvious
a lveolus,
b ut
t his
d isturbance
i s n ot d iscernable
t o
t he
p ulp
c avity
f rom t he e xterior
( X-
r ay m ust b e u sed). S tage 2 - m edium g rade i nfection : t he d isturbance h as s pread t o t he e xtent t hat t he c ondition i s o bvious e xternally; t here i s s evere r oot d isfigurement, b ut t he t ooth i s r etained ( Plate 6 s econd m olar). S tage 3 - h igh g rade i nfection : t he t ooth h as b een s hed a nte-mortem ( Plate 6 f irst m olar). T he s coring o f t his c ondition i s v ery p roblematic b ecause a bscess a nd p eriodontal d isease o ften g o h and i n h and. F urthermore, u nless X -ray c overage i s p ossible, o nly t he m ore s evere c ases w ill b e r ecorded, a nd t he q uantification
w ill t hus b e b iassed.
A s
i s s cored i n t he l ower l ine ( of t he A BS b eing r eserved f or n otes/sketches.
v i)
s upernumerary t eeth,
a bsent t eeth,
f or p eriodontal d isease, s ection),
t he
u pper
i t
l ine
t ooth r otation ( S/A.R)
T he p resence o f e xtra t eeth ( and e xtra c usps), a bsences i n t eeth, a nd t ooth r otation m ay a ll a rise f rom a n umber o f c auses i ncluding g enetic a nd c ongenital d efects, d evelopmental c onditions, d isease, e tc. a nd
C olyer d iscussed t he p resence o f e xtra t eeth i n m odern b reeds f ound ' fourth ' m olars t o b e p resent i n t wo o f a s ample o f 4 4
d omestic s heep. A s imilar s ample o f w ild s heep h ad n o e xtra t eeth. H e a lso n oted t hat e xtra i ncisors s ometimes o ccur ( Colyer 1 936:120). S uch c ases p robably a rise a s c ongenital c onditions. I f e xtra t eeth d o o ccur, t hey a re r ecorded w ith t he l etter S , f ollowed b y a ' designation', e .g. S (M4), i n t he S /A r ow.
T eeth s ometimes b ear e xtra c usps o r p illars ( 'bovine' p illars). T hey m ay o ccur i n s heep a nd g oats ( Plate 1 5), a nd t he p resence o f ' bovine ' p illars o n t he d eciduous f ourth p remolar i s a ( not e ntirely
4 5
r eliable) i ndication o f c usp p atterning o n c haracteristic t hat
t he
' Bovine' t he
R
p illars l ine,
t ooth
1 0).
( Plate
1 5c h as
r ecorded w ith
u nder
t he
I n s uch c ases
c omm.).
D eciduous
b etween
p 3!
b eneath
f ourth p remolars
t he m ain c olumns
t he m esial
N ote
b ut a ' sheep'
l etter B i mmediately
t ooth.
s ituated
p ers. p 4,
t he h as
p illar
i s
o f
t he
l abelled
B i,
t he d istal B 2.
A bsence o f h as
t eeth
n ever
m ay g ive t he
o nly r ecorded
p resent.
i n
a lveolus
o ccurred, t he
c ongenital,
S /A
a nd
O ccasionally
t eeth t he
t he
t hird
w ith f or
t he
t he
S uch t he
c usp
l ack c usps
i t
i s
o r
a bsent
d ue
t o
a bove:
t he
l ocation).
m axillary m andibular
I t
p remolars
( according t he
m esial e nd
t o
t he
a ngle o f
c an b e
( a)
T his
o ccurs
t he
t hird m olar w here
c ondition i s
t he a bsent
p laced
s cored
c usp,
i n t he
i n t he R l ine.
e .g.
S /A l ine.
W here
m ay
a lignment, d ue b ut I n
t hough
t his e tc.
o r
e ven
t o d isease,
i n
t he
t rauma,
e tc.
s eemed c onfined m ainly t o a rchaeological
r otated,
a lignment
s pecimens,
p articularly
t he
s econd
o r
i n r elation 3 i s
r otated
t he
f ourth
a nd
t o
t he m esial
l abially p remolar
l abial,
e dge
s ince
t he
( b)
i s
m esial e nd a ligned i nwards) u p s een g reater r otation t han
i llustrated r ecord t hem.
e namel,
r elated
t o
i mpaired c alcification o f d efects
a nd
i n s uch c ases,
t o a n t his.
m esial
o r d istal.
T he v arious
i n F igure 3 ,
w hich a lso
i llustrates
( HYP)
i n t he b e
t o
o r d evelopmental d isorders,
i n F igure
l ingual
p ossibilities a re t he s ymbols u sed t o
h ypoplasia
t o b e
w hilst d isplacement o r m alalignment m ay o ccur i n T eeth m ay b e r otated l ingually o r l abially
a ligned o utwards,
v ii)
l ikely
i t
b e
s ometimes
l ingually, w ith t he 9 0 - I h ave n ever
D isplacement
t o
a lso
t rue
a ppropriate
1 975).
o vercrowding,
1 936:377).
a re
f irst m olar i s
o f
m ost
T his
i s
r ecorded
i n m odern s heep,
( Colyer
p remolar ( Plate 8 ), a lmost a ny t ooth.
T his
t he w rong
c ould
o bserved
t eeth
i s
r esult
t ooth e rupts w ith
R otation w as
C 3.
c ongenital d efects
( where
s eems
i ll-formed.
t he
s how
W here
p remolar a ppears
p illars,
i s
g enerally t he
w rong
r otated a ngle o f
a re
s econd
c ommonly a ffected
t ooth
g enerally
f or
a nd N oddle
o r
t he
d ense b one.
l etter C f ollowed b y a d esignation o f
b e
- t hus
a nomalies p ermanent
T ooth r otation o r m alalignment a lso
l ess
i nserted
( Andrews
w here
5 p eriodontal d isease
b ut X -rays
o f
t ooth m ost
t hird m olar d escribed
o ccurs
s ection S tage
a bsence,
l etter A i s
r ow.
m ay
t his
c ases
a ' ghost'
i n u ngulates
a ppears
t o b e
t rue
a s
a bsence o f
f airly c ommon
i n
I n s ome
t he a ppearance o f
i nfilled
t ooth
i s
b een
a bsence h as
T he
( Payne
a ' goat'
t he
r elevant
p illars
T his c an b e r elated t o t hird p remolar w hich
p atterning
i n P late
a re
t wo
b e
( Plate 1 0). d eciduous
s heep a nd g oat
m andible
s ometimes h ave a nd
g oat t he
a re m ost
w hen t he a meloblasts
g enerally
a s
h orizontal
b anding,
v itamin D d eficiency w hich a lso d entine
c learly
i nvolved
( Baker
s een o n i n e namel
4 6
a nd
t he
B rothwell
i ncisors.
l eads
a nd t o
1 980:143).
T hey a re c aused
p roduction a re
i nactivated.
T his i s i rreversable, s o a ny d amage c aused i s p ermanent. H owever, s ubsequently f ormed p arts o f t he t ooth m ay b e u naffected - h ence t he b anding ( Jubb a nd K ennedy 1 963:2). D etailed s tudies o f h ypoplasia t hus h ave t he p otential o f i ndicating p eriods o f i ll h ealth o r m alnutrition d uring t he g rowth o f a n i ndividual. I t h as b een i n d ogs, p igs a nd m an, a nd m ay s ometimes o ccur i n h erbivores. s cored w ith a c ross s urface,
( +)
i n t he L N l ine
a nd i n t he L B l ine
v iii) d ental c alculus
f or o ccurrence o n t he
f or o ccurrance
f ound I t i s
l ingual
l abial s urface.
( CAL)
D ental c alculus o r t artar i s c ommon i n o ld d ogs a nd i n h orses, c attle a nd o vicaprids. A pparently i t i s u ncommon i n o ther ( domestic) s pecies ( Jubb a nd K ennedy 1 963:4) t hough o ne w ould e xpect i t t o o ccur i n o ther h erbivores. I t i s a c omposite m ass o f b acteria, f ungi, f ood p articles, d esquamated e pithelium a nd l eucocytes. I t i s n ot a d ental f unctioning
t issue, b ut i t i s c losely l inked w ith h ealth a nd w ith o f t he t eeth. I n o vicaprids a nd c attle i t i s
r ecognisable a s a b lack d eposit w ith a m etallic s heen. B uild-up o f d eposits m ay b e e xtremely h eavy, a nd i t c an b e i nstrumentäl i n p eriodontal i nfection, a s h as b een s hown, w hen d eposited o n c ementum i n t he g ingival s ulcus ( Jensen 1 974:212); b ut i mportance o f c alculus
a s a
c ausal
a gent
i n
p eriodontal
t he t he
d isease
s hould n ot b e t aken a s f act u ntil m ore c onclusive e vidence i s a vailable. I n f act i t w ould a ppear f rom t he a rchaeological e vidence t hat c alculus a cts a s a b acterial r eservoir o nce i nfection h as s tarted, c omm.).
b ut m ay n ot a ctually c ause I n s coring f or c alculus,
t he t he
d isease ( Hillson, p ers. u pper l ine i s t aken t o
r epresent t he l ingual ( LN) a spect o f t he t ooth r ow, a nd t he l ower l ine t o r epresent t he l abial ( LB) a spect. T he e xtent o f t he d eposit c an b e s ketched i n d iagrammatically, a nd t he h eaviness o f t he d eposit i s s hown b y b lacking i n f or a h eavy d eposit, a nd h atching f or a l ight d eposit. W here c leaning o f t he t eeth h as b een a ssiduous, a ll o r p art o f t he d eposit m ay h ave b een r emoved, a lthough i t
i s s ometimes p ossible t o s ee w here t he d eposit h ad
a nd t o s how i ts e xtent, c areful c onsideration.
t oo a nd b een
t his i s a p roblem w hich s hould b e g iven m ore P late 1 i llustrates a m andible w ith a h eavy
d eposit o f c alculus. B eyond n oting i ts p resence a nd e xtent, i t m ay a lso b e c ollected i n o rder t o e xtract a nd i dentify s ome o f t he p lant c onstituents ( Armitage 1 975).
i x)pigmentation ( PIG)
' Normal e namel i s
n ever d iscoloured '
( Jubb a nd K ennedy
1 963:4),
t hus
a ny d iscolouration o f t he e namel i n t he l iving a nimal w ill b e a nomalous. S uch d iscolouration i s d ue t o p igmentation o f t he d entine w hich t hen s hows t hrough t he s emi-transparent e namel. P igmentation o f t he d entine m ay b e c aused b y p ulpal h aemorrhages, a n i nflammation ( when i t i s r eddish-brown), p utrid p ulpitis ( when i t i s g reyishg reen) o r i cterus ( when i t i s y ellowish). S o c alled ' pink t ooth' i n c attle b rown
a nd i n
p igs a dults
i s
a
( Jubb
c ongenital p orphyria - t his b ecomes d arker a nd
K ennedy
4 7
1 963:4).
I ts
p resence
i n
a rchaeological s pecimens ( Plate 9 ) c an b e m ore p roblematic s ince p igmentation o f t he d entine m ay o ccur b y c hemical s taining, p articularly i n u rban w aterlogged c ontexts w hen t he d entine m ay b e s tained b lack. I n s uch c ases t here i s n o w ay o f s eparating a rtificial a nd p athological p igmentation. W here s uch s taining i s n ot p resent - f or e xample w here p igmentation o nly o ccurs o n s ome t eeth f rom a s ingle d eposit o r t ype o f d eposit - i t i s r ecorded a s p resent u sing a c ross ( +). T his i s p laced i n t he u pper l ine w here s econdary d entine i s a ffected ( 2ary), a nd i n t he l ower l ine w hen p rimary d entine
x )
i s
p igmented
( lary).
p ulp c avity e xposure
T his c ondition a ppears
( PCE)
t o b e r are
i n a rchaeological s pecimens.
I t
i s
d ue t o e xcessive d ental a ttrition, a nd o ccurrence w ill d epend o n s uch f actors a s s oftness o f d entine, i ngestion o f s oil a nd m alnutrition ( Jensen 1 974:209-210). I n a n ormal t ooth, a s s oon a s w ear e xposes t he d entine, n ew s econdary ( or s ubstitution) d entine i s d eposited t o p rotect t he p ulp c avity b ecause d entine w ears m ore r apidly t han e namel. T he s econdary d entine i s o ften e asily d istinguishable w here p igmentation h as o ccurred ( Plate 9 ). I n t ime t he s econdary d entine m ay c ompletely f ill t he p ulp c avity a nd c ause t he
d eath
o f
t he
t ooth. W here
t here h as b een e xtremely r apid w ear,
o r i nsufficient d eposition o f s econdary d entine, t he t ooth m ay w ear d own t o e xpose t he p ulp c avity ( Plate 9 ). T his i s s cored u sing a t wofold s ystem . A c ross ( +) i s e ntered w here s econdary d entine i s p resent b ut n ot c ompletely f illing t he c avity, a nd a s tar ( *) e ntered w hen n o s econdary d entine i s p resent. T he P CE s ection t aken t o t he t eeth.
i s i s
r epresent a d iagrammatic v iew o f t he o cclusal s urface o f T he u pper l ine r epresents t he l abial s ide i n a l eft-hand
j aw , a nd t he r ight-hand j aw.
l ower l ine t he l ingual s ide. T his i s r eversed f or a T hus i f t he m esial e nd o f t he l abial s urface o f a
l eft-hand t ooth i s a ffected, t he s ymbol i s p laced o n t he r ight-hand s ide o f t he u pper l ine i n t he r elevant t ooth b ox.
x i)
b utchery a nd g nawing/chewing
( B.G.)
S coring f or t hese i s n ot t he p rovince o f o ral p athology, a nd b utchery a t l east i s a dequately c overed i n m ost b one r eports. I nclusion h ere i s i n o rder t o p rovide a c omplete r ecord o f t he m andible a ssemblage. N otes a nd/or s ketches f or b utchery a re r ecorded i n t he u pper l ine, t he l ower l ine.
a nd
x ii) n utrient f oramena
r ecords
a bout
c hewing/gnawing a re p laced i n
( FOR)
I n s heep a nd g oats t here i s g enerally o ne l arge n utrient ( or m ental) f oramen o n t he l abial s ide o f t he m andible, c lose t o t he i ncisors. O ccasionally
o ne
d iscontinuous
t rait w hich m ay b e v ery v ariable,
o r
m ore
e xtra,
4 8
s maller f oramena a re p resent,
a
p ossibly e ven w ithin
a s ingle p opulation. I t i s w orthwhile r ecording b ecause t here i s p otential i n d iscovering p opulation v ariability. T he f oramena m ay b e l ocated m esially t o t he m ajor f oramen, o r a s f ar d istally a s b eneath t he f ourth p remolar. T hey a re a lmost a lways m uch s maller, b eing 1 -2mm i n d iameter. R arely t hey a re o f s imilar s ize t o t he m ajor f oramen. T hey a re p robably c ongenital i n o rigin, t hough s ometimes t hey m ay f orm a s e xit c anals f or i nternal i nfection. I n t he l atter c ase, a ssociated p athology s hould m ake t his e vident. A t p resent l ittle i s k nown a bout t his p henomenon b ut i t i s p ossible t hat i t m ay b e r elated t o d ifferent t ypes, b lood l ines o r e ven b reeds. U ntil r esearch o n m odern s pecimens h as r esolved t his, t he p roblem m ust r emain. D etailed r ecording o f t his a nomaly w ill p rovide b oth a c orpus o f i nformation f or f uture w ork, a nd a m easure - a lbeit u nqualified - o f v ariability w ithin t he a rchaeological s ample. P lates 2 a nd 3 i llustrate m andibles w ith e xtra n utrient f oramena. I t i s r ecorded b y d rawing a c ircle i n t he d iastema b ox t o r epresent t he m ajor f oramen a nd a n a rrowed l ine ( or l ines) r adiating c ircle, a nd t erminating w ith a n a rrowhead r epresenting t he o f n ot
f rom t he l ocation
t he e xtra f oramen ( Figures 2 a nd 3 ). W here t he m ajor f oramen i s p resent d ue t o f ragmentation, t he a rrowed l ine i s s hown e merging
f rom a z ig-zag
x iii)
l ine w hich i ndicates
d isturbance o f v entral m argin
t he
l ocation o f
t he b reak.
( VMD)
O ccasionally d isturbances o f t he v entral m argin o f t he o ccur i n t he f orm o f s mall l umps w hich m ay b e r oughened. c ommon l ocation i s b eneath t he f ourth p remolar i n
m andible T he m ost j uvenile
m andibles, t hrough o ther l ocations h ave b een o bserved. T hese a re f ormed a s a r eaction t o t he d eveloping p ermanent t ooth w ithin t he a lveolus. T he l argest o f t he p ermanent p remolars i s t he f ourth, a nd t his a ccounts f or t he r eason w hy t his i s t he c ommonest l ocation o f t he d isturbance, ( Plate 1 0). P resumably i t i s c aused b y r etarded s hedding o f t he d eciduous t ooth, a dvanced d evelopment o f t he p ermanent t ooth, o r s imply t oo s mall a r amal w idth ( or d epth) t o a ccommodate t he d eveloping t ooth. T his c auses t he r oots o f t he t ooth b ud t o c ome i nto c ontact w ith t he v entral p ortion o f t he r amus, a nd s ometimes e ven p enetrate i t. I t m ay b e r elated t o c ongenital c onditions, w hich m ay
o r d ue t o d evelopmental d efects ( e.g. m alnutrition) n ot a lways b e o bvious. A s imple p rotuberance i s r ecorded
b y a ppending a n i nverted t riangle i mmediately b elow t he F OR s ection u nder t he r elevant t ooth. W here p enetration h as o ccurred, a n a rrow i s a dded t o
x iv)
t he a pex o f
o ther a nomalies
T he s ection a t
t he
t riangle
( Figure 2 ).
( Other A nom)
t he b ase o f
t he
s heet
i s
r eserved
f or
a nomalies
n ot
c overed i n t he a bove. T hey a re d iscussed b elow i n o rder o f f requency o f o ccurrence f or W est H ill, t hough i n n o c ase ( except t he f irst) a re t hey c ommonly o ccurring.
A ppended
t o
t hese a re a
f ew
a nomalies
m entioned i n t he v eterinary l iterature w hich d id n ot a ppear a t W est H ill, t hough s ome d id s o f or o ther s ites. T he l ist i s n ot m eant t o b e e xhaustive. d escriptively.
T hey
m ay
b e
4 9
r ecorded
d iagrammatically
o r
a ) D evelopmental d eposits a nd a nomalies. T he m ost c ommon a re t hin, ' platey ' d eposits o f e xtra b one n ear t he a lveolar m argins, g enerally b ut n ot e xclusively o n t he l abial s ide o f t he m andible ( Plate 1 1). T hese a ppear t o b e a ge r elated i n t hat t hey o ccur m ost c ommonly o n j uvenile m andibles. P resumably t hey a re r elated t o d isturbances c aused d uring t ooth d evelopment a nd ( especially) e ruption. S ometimes t he ' platey' d eposits a re a ccompanied b y p itted ' porous' m argins, a nd t he l atter m ay a lso o ccur
i n
i solation.
b ) ' Traction e piphyses'. I n a ged a nimals, b ony p rominences a re s ometimes f ormed a round m uscle a ttachment p oints ( Silver 1 969:284). O ne s uch p oint i s a t t he a ngle o f t he h orizontal a nd a scending r ami o n t he l abial s urface. W here p robably w orth n oting.
t his
i s u nusually
w ell
f ormed
i t
i s
c ) D evelopmental d eposits o f t eeth. B aker a nd B rothwell ( 1980:150) i llustrate e xamples o f a bnormal d eposits o n b ovid t eeth f rom W estbridge P riory. S imilar o vicaprid t eeth ( Plate 1 2).
d ) E ffects s uperficial 1 6,
e xamples
w ere
f ound
a t W est H ill o n
o f t rauma. T hese i nclude f ractures, r eaction t o d amage, e tc. A n u nusual e xample i s i llustrated i n P late
p ossibly a r eaction t o m uzzling.
e ) A ctinobacillosis. T his c ondition i s c ommonly r eferred t o a s ' lumpy j aw '. I n s heep t he c ondition i s c aused b y t he b acteria A ctinobacillus l igniersi, i n c attle i t i s a r eaction t o t he ' ray f ungus' A ctinomyces b ovis, ( Baker a nd B rothwell 1 980:150). T he a etiology a nd p athogenesis o f t his c ondition i n s heep i s d escribed b y J ensen ( 1974:213-215). O ne s pecimen f rom W est H ill e xample o f t his c ondition ( Plate 1 4).
i s
p ossibly a n
f ) M iscellaneous p henomena. T hese i nclude e xamples s uch a s t he c ompound t ooth i llustrated i n P late 1 3, d epressions i n t eeth a nd m andibles, e tc.
g ) O ther a nomalies. C aries a re u ndoubtedly c ommon i n s ome s pecies, b ut a pparently a re v ery r are i n u ngulates ( Baker a nd B rothwell 1 980:146). D entigerous c ysts a re r eported t o b e q uite c ommon i n m odern s heep ( Colyer a rchaeological s pecimens.
1 936:693), b ut a re e xtremely r are i n A m andible f rom t he m edieval s ite o f E xe
B ridge,
a n
l esions
E xeter
m ay
b e
i nclude a domantinoma,
e xample o f
t his
a melobastoma a nd
( Plate 1 7). o dontoma
N eoplastic ( Jubb
a nd
K ennedy 1 963:7). I n s heep t hey o ccur i n b oth m andibles a nd m axillae, b ut a re r are ( Marsh 1 965:302-304). F luorine p oisoning p roduces a c halky a ppearance a nd 1 950:6)
a nd
m olars
m ottled m ay
d iscolouration
i n
b e e xtensively m alformed,
t eeth
( Franklin
d eciduous
t eeth
s eem u naffected. G rass c ontamination h as b een r esponsible f or f luorine p oisoning i n m odern s heep ( Marsh 1 965:380). A n umber o f o ther a nomalies
a re d iscussed
i n m ore a ccessible p apers a nd
5 0
n eed
n ot
b e r epeated h ere
( Baker a nd B rothwell
1 980;
B rothwell 1 981).
T his c oncludes t he d escription o f t he a nomalies a nd o f t he m ethodology. E ach r ecording s heet r epresents o ne m andible, a nd w here a s erious
s tudy o f
i s s uggested
t hat
t he m andibles t he s heets b e
f rom a s ite i s b eing u ndertaken, f illed i n f or a ll m andibles,
i t
w hether
o r n ot t hey h ave a ny a nomalies. S uch a r ecord w ill t hen f orm a c omplete a nd s elf c ontained c orpus o f i nformation a bout t he m andible a ssemblage w hich c an b e a nalysed i n d epth a nd a t l ength i f n ecessary. T he m ethodology i s a m anual i nconceivable t hat i t c ould b e t ransformed
s ystem, i nto a
b ut i t i s n ot c omputer b ased
s ystem.
A NALYSIS O F T HE W EST H ILL MANDIBLES
T he m ethodology w as u sed
t o
n umbering
f rom t his a ssemblage w ill a ppear
1 855.
t he b one r eport t herefore,
R esults f rom
i s n ot
t his
r ecord s ite
t he p lace
t he W est H ill m andibles, ( Levitan
i n
p rep).
t o p resent o r d iscuss
a s ample
i n f ull
T his
t hese r esults,
t he f inal p art w ill s ummarise a s election o f t he r esults p rovide a p ractical e xample o f h ow t he s ystem w orks.
i n
p aper,
i n o rder
b ut t o
p eriodontal d isease
T he W est H ill a ssemblage c ontained a lmost e qual p roportions o f m andibles w ith d eciduous a nd p ermanent d entition: 9 36 p ermanent ( 50.5%), 9 19 d eciduous ( 49.5%). T able 1 s hows t hat p eriodontal d isease w as a lmost e ntirely c onfined t o p ermanent
t eeth.
F requency
o f o ccurrence r anged f rom 0 .3% i n d eciduous s econd p remolars t o 1 7.5% i n p ermanent f ourth p remolars. T able 1 i ndicates c learly t hat o ccurrences w ere c entred o n t he f irst m olar - p ermanent f ourth p remolar,
a nd i n f act
t he
f requency i n t he l atter
i s m ore t han t wice
t hat o f a ny o ther t ooth. T his i s a n i nteresting r esult b ecause i t p rovides a c lue a s t o t he i nitial c ause o f i nfection. S ince i t i s c entred o n t he f ourth p remolar, b ut i s v ery r are i n d eciduous t eeth, i t w ould s eem l ogical t o c onclude t hat m ost c ases o f i nfection d o n ot
o ccur
u ntil
t he
p ermanent
t eeth a re p resent.
I t w ould a ppear
f rom t his t hat i nfection m ight t ake p lace w hile t he p ermanent p remolars a re e rupting - p articularly t he f ourth, w hich i s t he s ite o f m aximum d isruption d ue t o t he s ize o f t he t eeth i nvolved. P erhaps c alculus a lso h as a p art t o p lay, b ut t he f act t hat i t i s m ore o r l ess a s c ommon o n d eciduous t eeth a s p ermanent ( see b elow) i ndicates t hat p erhaps t he e ruption e vent i s t he m ajor c atalyst. T able 1 a lso s hows t hat s evere i nfection w as r are - n ever m ore t han 1 .5% o f t eeth w ere l ost d ue t o t he d isease ( Stages 3 -5). T his r esult m ay, h owever, r eflect t he s pecial n ature o f t he s ite, a nd t his a spect i s d iscussed m ore f ully i n t he r eport
( Levitan i n p rep).
c alculus
5 1
T able 2 p rovides a c alculus d eposits.
s ummary o f t he f requency a nd o ccurrence o f N o a ttempt h as b een m ade t o a nalyse h eaviness o f
d eposit b ecause o f t he p ost e xcavation c leaning p roblem d escribed a bove. T he t able s hows t hat w ith t he e xception o f t he s econd p remolars, f requencies w ere f airly c onsistent: 1 4.2-18.8% o n t he l ingual s ide, a nd 1 1.6-16.8% o n t he l abial s urface. S econdly, c alculus w as a lways m ore c ommon o n t he l ingual s ide. A s ubtle p attern c an b e m ade o ut f rom t he f requencies, w hich s how p eaks f or t he f ourth p remolar a nd f irst m olar, a r esult w hich t ends t o u nderline a nd c orroborate t he p eriodontal d isease r esults. T he f requencies d o s eem a l ittle l ow , h owever - p articularly i n t he l ight o f v eterinary i nformation - a nd u ndoubtedly t he c leaning p roblem h as c aused a b ias i n t his r espect, s uspicion o n t he r esults a s a w hole.
w hich t ends
t o
t hrow s ome
i ntra-dental a ttrition
I ntra-dental a ttrition w as v ery c ommon, w ith f requencies a s h igh a s 8 8.8% ( Table 3 ). L ogically, t he s econd p remolars a nd t hird m olar e scaped w ith t he l east a mount o f a ttrition - l ess t han 1 5%. I n t he c ase o f t he t hird m olar t his i s b ecause i t i s t he l ast t ooth t o e rupt, s o u ndergoes a s horter p eriod o f a ttrition t han t he o ther t eeth.
T he
s econd
p remolars a re s mall,
n early v estigial
t eeth,
s o
t he s urface a rea i nvolved i s s mall a nd t he r elatively s hallow r oots a llow f or m ovement a way f rom a natagonistic f orces d istally. A ll t he o ther t eeth h ave i n e xcess o f 2 5% a ttrition o n a t l east o ne i nterface.
I t
i s
i nteresting
t o n ote
t hat f or
t he p remolars g reatest
a ttrition i s d istally, a nd f or t he m olars i t i s m esially. S uch a p attern m ay b e r elated t o t he e ruption s equence a nd m orphology o f t he t eeth. T hus t he m olars e ach e rupt w ith a t ooth a lready p resent m esially, b ut n one d istally, a nd t hey p resent a g reater s urface a rea a t t heir m esial e nd. C onversely, t he p remolars p resent t heir g reatest s urface a rea d istally, a nd t he p ermanent f ourth p remolar t o e xaggerate a p oint - o ften e rupts a t a n a ngle e xtremely a ntagonistic t o t he f irst m olar ( Plate 1 8)!
T hese
t hree
e xamples
h ave
b een
g iven
o nly b rief a ttention,
b ut
h opefully t hey i llustrate t hat i nteresting a nd i mportant i nformation c an b e r ecovered f rom m andibles, a nd t hat t he a bove m ethodology i s a u seful w ay o f r ecording a nd r etrieving t his i nformation. I t i s h oped t hat
t his
p aper w ill l ead
t o
t he w ider a doption o f
t his m ethodology,
t hus p roviding t he b asis f or c ompiling a c orpus o f i nformation a bout o ral p alaeopathology a nd a g reater u nderstanding o f h ealth, n utrition a nd h usbandry i n a ncient t imes.
5 2
ACKNOW LEDGEMENTS The excavation and post excavation programmes for West Hill are being financed by the Historic Buildings & Monuments Commission for England The British Museum, The Society of Antiquaries of London and The Bristol and Gloucester Archaeological Society. All the finds, including the bones, have been donated by the landowner, Major C.A. Goldingham, to the British Museum.
REFERENCES
Andrews, A. and Noddle, B. (1975) Ab sence of P remolar Teeth from Ruminant Mandibles found at Archaeological Sites, Journal of Archaeological Science 2, 137-144. Armitage, P.L. (1975) The Ex traction and Identification of Opal Phytoliths from the Teeth of Ungulates, Journal of Archaeological Science 2, 187-197. Armstrong, M.C. ( 196 0) Paradontal Disease of Sheep in South Canterb ury, New Zealand Journal of Agriculture 100, 429-431. Baker, J. and Brothwell, D. (1980) Animal Diseases in Archaeology London: Academic Press. Brothwell, D.R. (1981) Disease as an Environmental Paramater, In The Environment of Man: the Iron Age to the Anglo-Saxon Period, Eds. Jones, M. and Dimbleby, G., 231-247. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, British Series 87. Colyer, F. (1936) Variation and Diseases of Teeth of Animals. London: Bale and Danielsson. Cutress, T.W. and Healey, W.B. (1965) Wear of Sheep's Teeth II. Effects of Pasture Juices on Dentine, New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 8, 753 -762. Franklin, M. C. (1950) The Influence of Diet on Dental Development in the Sheep, Commonwealth Science and Industrial Research Organisation, Australia Bulletin 252.
53
H art,
E .K.
H ealy,
a nd M acKinnon, i n A dult S heep,
W .B.,
C utress,
T eeth
M .M. ( 1958) E nzootic P aradontal D isease N ew Z ealand V eterinary J ournal 6 , 1 18-123.
T .W.
I V.
a nd M itchie,
R eduction
o f
S upplementary F eeding, R esearch
H ealy,
W .B.
a nd
R ole
1 0,
J ensen,
Jubb,
R .
K .
( 1974)
a nd
T .G.
( 1965) S oil,
L evitan,
B .
L evitan,
R esearch 8 ,
P .
L ondon :
( 1977)
( 1963)
W ear o f N ew
S heep's T eeth. Z ealand
I .
T he
J ournal
o f
N ew Y ork:
L ea a nd F ebiger.
P athology o f D omestic Animals.
P athological Anomalies
i n S heep M andibles:
A pproach.
o f A rchaeology,
u npublished u ndergraduate d issertation.
i n p rep.
T he
T .G.,
H ealy,
T eeth I II.
W .B.
U niversity o f L ondon,
a nimal b ones
f rom t he
H ill,
a nd C utress,
U ley,
T .W.
S easonal V ariation
H .
( 1965)
f irst m illennium A D
( 1966)
W ear o f
i n W ear a nd
N ewsom 's S heep D iseases
3 rd
I nstitute
G loucestershire.
e dn.
S heep's
I ngested
N ew Z ealand J ournal o f A gricultural R esearch 9 ,
Marsh,
2
a
M ethodological
B .
b y
A cademic P ress.
r itual c omplex a t W est
L udwig,
S heep's
7 37-752.
D iseases o f S heep.
K ennedy,
v ols.
W ear o f
N ew Z ealand J ournal o f A gricultural
I ngested
A gricultural
( 1967)
I ngestion a nd T ooth W ear
2 01-209.
Ludwig, o f
C .
S oil
S oil,
1 57-164.
M ontana:
V eterinary R esearch L aboratory.
S ilver,
I .A.
( 1969) T he A geing o f D omestic
i n A rchaeology 2 nd e dn., p p 2 83-302, L ondon : T hames
5 4
A nimals,
I n S cience
E ds. E . H iggs a nd D . a nd H udson.
B rothwell,
Species:
Mandibular Pathoiogy Ref: Site: Ascending Ramus
M1
M2
M3
Right/Left
Mand.No:
P3 P2 Diast. [I.IC I3 12 I 1
PL.
P/A
M
CH
I
I
I
I
I
IDA
ATT
I
I
PER
ABS S/A R
LN
HY P
LN LB
CAL
2ary
PIG
LB
1ary
I -
-....__
-- B
G
- --1----
-·--·
- - ···-
A.R.
M3
IM2
M1
P4
P3 P2 Diast. If+/C I3 I 2 11
FOR
VMD Other t,nom
Figure 1. Recording sheet for Ungulate mandibular pathology.
Mandibular Pathology Site: �et,\- HJJ. Ref: rH,
Ascending Ramus
A
M D
CH IDA
M2
M3
Mand.No:
P3 P2 Diast. 14/C 13 I2 I 1
P4
M1
Species: sh�/,ua..t Right/�
r=tr2.
P/A
t�
-cm
ea
all
+
CJ
rtYl�� YP-l +
�
I
��
I
ATT
I
"-r-�
11¥\clr'!li Ill
1
PER
1
ABS
�7
"
LN
i,
�
S/A R
�t
I
LB
LN
LB
\(/// ////,,, v////V/,-0 1/_/4
\ljJ.�
�..,,v
-t-
+
+
�
1ary
+
T
1-
-r
+
;+
.
CAL
/ ././�
2ary
-- HYP
�--
+
I
PIG
--
* *
PCE
I
B
G
�� c:li�h\tff'd
A.R.
M3
l
-..
� ''\bto 4 ( 1 ) t f )
e
L t ?
r c i
0 cc \ • , 0 < 3 1
c r i
r 4
4>
p remolar a nd
f irst
ASSESSING THE ROLE OF PIGS
FROM FAUNAL DEBRIS
ON ARCHAEOLOGICAL
S ETTLEMENTS.
J ennie C oy,
F aunal R emains
P roject,
U niversity o f
S outhampton
A BSTRACT
I n r ecent b een g iven
y ears b oth e nvironmental a nd c ultural e xplanations h ave t o a ccount f or f luctuations i n t he r elative n umbers o f
p igs
a ssessed
o ther
c ommon d omestic
s triving p resence, m ore
t o i t
u ngulates.
a nd
t o
d efine
M ethodological
a ssessment o f
R esults
f aunal m aterial c ompared w ith T his
p aper
t he n umbers
s uggests
t heir
m ethod
s afeguards
m ust
o f b e
f rom s ome r ecent
a nalyses
c onducted
b y
c ompared
r esults
' PIG
( A)'
w hich r epresents
r ole
i n t he i n
a n
t he w riter o n W essex
a re
u sing
w ith
s ettlement u sage.
a nd
p ig
t he
w hile
c alculation m ore c ombined
m aterial a re d iscussed o f
o f
t hat,
d evelop t he c alculation o f a bsolute v alues f or p ig s hould m eanwhile b e p ossible t o m ake r elative v alues
a ccurate
p recisely.
f or
a n i ndex
t otal u ngulate
c ount a nd
t hose u ngulate b ones
w ith
' PIG
i dentified
e arlier
( B)'
t o
p ublished
t he r elative
r epresenting
s pecies.
r ole t heir
Two a dditional
u seful i ndices w hich t hrow f urther l ight o n p ossible b iassing f actors a re a n I NDEX O F I DENTIFIABILITY f or b ones a t a s ettlement a nd
a n i ndex d eveloped
p resence o f
j aw a nd
b y
K ing
( 1978)
w hich
g ives
t he
r elative
l imb b ones.
I NTRODUCTION
I n r ecent y ears b oth e nvironmental a nd c ultural e xplanations b een g iven f or f luctuations i n t he r elative r epresentation o f i n
f aunal
m aterial c ompared w ith r esults
f or o ther
h ave p igs
c ommon d omestic
m ammals.
G rigson ( 1982) s uggested r elative i ncrease i n p ig r epresentation i n t he L ate N eolithic i n E ngland c ompared w ith r esults f or t he E arly N eolithic a nd l inked t his w ith t he f rontier a spect o f p ig-keeping i n a ny e xpansion t o a w ider r ange o f e nvironments a nd e specially t o t he p ig's g reat b enefits f or c learance o f r egenerating w oodland a nd a reas s he
o f
b racken
d iscussed
0 91583), ( 1979).
( Pteridium a quilinum) . T he h igh i ncluded
D urrington
a nd M ount P leasant
( SY
W alls
7 10899)
5 5
a ll
( SU
f requency p ig 1 50453),
s tudies
b y
s ites
Marden
( SU
H arcourt
C unliffe
( 1978:182)
r elative n umber o f o f
s uggested
p ig
b ones
e cological v ariation,
a nd
o pen
B radley
d ownland
( 1978:37)
t hat
w ith w oodlands
s ettlements
a lso
t he
l arge
v ariation
o n I ron A ge s ites m ay b e b eing m ore
t herefore
s uggested
t hat
a
s uitable
p roducing
r egional
a nd
i n
t he
r eflection f or p igs
l ow
v alues.
e nvironmental
f actors w ere i mportant i n a ny s uch a nalysis. K ing's e xcellent a nd p rovocative s urvey o f R omano-British f aunal m aterial s uggested t hat p ig
w as
c ommoner
o n
' Romanised
s ettlements'
t han o n n ative
s ites
w hich m ight b e c aused b y t he f ormer b eing n ear w oodlands o r b y c ultural f actors a ssociated w ith t he R oman's h igh r egard f or p ork. T hese
F or
n ew d ata p resented h ere m ake
a c ontribution t o
t he Anglo-Saxon P eriod C lutton-Brock
p igs
a re n ot
s o w ell
( 1976:378)
r epresented o n a rchaeological
t his
h as
d ebate.
s hown
t hat
s ites a s w ould
b e
e xpected f rom t he d ocuments a nd h as s uggested t hat c arcases m ay h ave b een b oned a nd s alted f or b acon a nd t heir b ones a re t herefore n ot f ound
i n k itchen w aste.
H arcourt
( 1979)
p ointing
o ut
t he
m ajor
P leasant
h as
m eat
d espite
( Harcourt
p ut
a ll
t his
i n
t he
p roper
f or h is L ate N eolithic m aterial,
p erspective
c ontribution a t D urrington W alls, t he v ery
h igh
b y
c attle w ould h ave m ade
r epresentation
M arden a nd M ount
o f
p ig
f ragments.
1 979:222).
O f r elevance t o a ll s uch q uantification o f s pecies r epresentation, M altby h as p ointed o ut t hat t he r esults o btained m ay b e h ighly b iassed t he
b oth
b y
t he m ethods
c ontextual o rigins
f actors
o f
o f
a nalysis
t he m aterial
- m ethodology a nd
u sed a t
( Maltby
a ll
s tages
1 981:164).
a nd b y
T hese
t wo
i ntra-site v ariability - a re d iscussed
d etail b elow a nd t he i deas f or t he Wessex I ron A ge.
a re
t hen a pplied
t o
s ome
r ecent
i n
r esults
T HE Q UANTIFICATION O F P IG R EMAINS - M ETHODOLOGY
T he v alue t hat w e e xample, t he n umber
s eek s hould r eally b e o f f ragments o f p ig,
i ndividuals
( MNI),
s ome
o f h uman o ccupation,
o f
u nit
p eople y ears'.
d emonstrated
f or
w eight
o f
I n e xactly
b one, t he
t he
s ame
l evel
s ame m anner a s T homas p er h uman g roup
a lthough i ts r elative d omesticates m ay v ary.
v alue
A ny c alculation o f
v olume'
d iscussion
o f w ith
c ompared
w ould
d ensity
a nd
v olumes
( perhaps
f ace t he
t he
5 6
o ther
p roblem
( this
m olluscan u sing
' number v olume) h ave
t hroughout a p eriod,
c ould u sefully c arry o ut m ore w ork
d eposit
o r
( this
p ig k eeping m ay
w ith
b y G ilbertson a nd H awkins
b ulk
A rchaeozoologists e vidence
' deposit
m entioned
F or o f
e stimate m easured a gainst
' deposit v olume'
t he m ollusc P omatias e legans,
b een g oing o n a t
c ompaction,
o r m eat
s uch a s
a n a bsolute o ne. m inimum n umber
o f
v olume)
m ajor
s oil i n h is
f requencies. r elating
b one
b one d ensities,
e .g.,
n umber o f f ragments p er c ubic m etre) a nd r esults w ould b e e xpected t o v ary e normously b etween d ifferent t ypes o f f eature. M altby ( per c omm) h as r ecently d emonstrated t he g reat d ifferences b etween t he c ontent o f t he t op h alves o f s ome I ron A ge p its c ompared w ith t he b ottom h alves. A t horough k nowledge o f t he r efuse o f a s ettlement w ould t herfore b e e ssential v ariations o n a n i ntersite c omparative b asis
d isposal a spects f or p utting t hese
j ust a s
i t
i s
f or
t he
c urrent m ethodology d iscussed b elow .
A lthough
a bsolute
v alues
m ay b e
t he u ltimate a im w e a re m eanwhile
r educed t o u sing r esults f or p ig a vailable n ow a nd c omparing t hem w ith s imilar v alues f or o ther s pecies - t hat i s, c alculating a r elative v alue. T his i s a cceptable s o l ong a s w e a re o nly s aying t hat t he r elative i mportance o f p ig d eclines o r i ncreases. T here m ay h ave b een e xactly t he s ame n umber o f p igs p er p erson. I n a ddition i t s hould a lso b e r emembered t hat p igs m ay n ot i n f act c ompete w ith t he g razing a nimals e ither f or f ood o r f or p eople's a ttention. T hree o ther f actors s hould a lso b e t aken i nto a ccount w hen d iscussing t he r elative v alue o f t he m ajor s pecies ( i) t he r elative m eat v alues, e .g.,
a s d iscussed b y H arcourt
p rolificity
o f
t he
s pecies
( 1979:222); i nvolved
( ii)
t he
l ife-span
a nd
( Bourdillon a nd C oy 1 980:91);
a nd ( iii) f luctuations w hich p resumable o ccurred w ith t he s eason. T he l ast a spect i s r elatively u nexplored i n B ritish A rchaeology.
T he u se o f p ercentages r ather t han t he r elative f requencies t hemselves i s m isleading a nd t empts a rchaeologists t o m ake m isleading i nterpretations f rom b one r eports. O bviously o riginal f requencies a re w hat a re s ubjected t o s tatistical t ests ( like c his quared) b ut p ercentages a re w hat a re u sually p ublished f or i ntraa nd i nter-site c omparisons a nd t hey a re u sed i n t his p aper i n t he h ope t hat t heir l imitations w ill b e a ppreciated.
W hat w e h ave a ctually q uantified i n t he p ast h as b een n umbers o f f ragments, M NI ( calculated i n v arious w ays), o r w eight o f b ones o f t he v arious s pecies. T he s uggestion o f F ieller a nd T urner ( 1982) t hat t he P etersen e stimates u sed i n b iological c apture-recapture m ethods c ould b e u sed t o g ive q uite a d ifferent b asis f or s uch c omparisons g ives n ew p ossibilities. T he r esults f rom t hese m ethods o f r epresentation v ary w idely a nd t hey c an a ll b e c alculated i n m any d ifferent
w ays.
U nless
t he
w ay
r igorously d efined a nd c onsistent
i n i t
i s
w hich
t hey w ere o btained
s till n ot
r eliable
t o
i s
m ake
i nter-site c omparisons, e ven w hen t he s ame m ethod o f q uantification a ppears t o h ave b een u sed. T hese m ethods o f q uantification w ill n ow b e e xplored i n t urn.
N umbers o f f ragments
A c rucial f ragment i s b een
f actor h ere i s t he ' level o f i dentification ' ., w hether a i dentified t o s pecies o r t o a w ider c ategory. T his h as
d iscussed e lsewhere
( Coy
1 980:42).
5 7
O n s ome
s ites
t here i s v ery
l ittle i nput i nto t he d iet b y h orse o r r ed d eer L innaeus), s o t hat w orkers a ssume t hat f ragments o f f or e xample, a re t hose o f c attle. m ajority ( or e ven a ll) l arge u ngulate
( Cervus e laphus l arge v ertebrae,
O ther w orkers m ay l eave t he r ibs a nd v ertebrae i n t he
' unidentifiable' c ategory. V arious w ays r ound t his h ave i ntroduced. S ome w orkers u se a m ethod o f o nly s coring b ones
b een w ith
e piphyseal e nds a nd t herefore r ecognizable t o s pecies ( Grant 1 975: 3 79), C oy h as a dopted a r ecent p olicy o f o nly c ontrasting r esults f or ' small' a nd ' large u ngulate' g roupings r ather t han f or i ndividual s pecies w hich a voids t he p roblem t hat ' small u ngulate' f ragments m ay c ome f rom p ig o r s heep
( Coy n .d.
1 ,2 a nd 3 ).
T herefore i f a p ercentage i s g iven f or t he r epresentation o f p ig i t s hould c learly s tate w hat i t i s a p ercentage o f. I s hall u se i n t his p aper t wo d ifferent p ercentage v alues f or p ig n umber o f f ragments P IG ( A) a nd P IG ( B). T hese a re d efined i n T able 1 u sing t he c odes i n t he A ncient M onuments L aboratory's s ystem ( Jones n .d.). A i s t he p ercentage o f p ig b ones a mongst t he t otal n umber o f f ragments a ccepted a s b eing f rom t he m ajor u ngulates. T here a re m any d ifferent f actors w hich c omplicate t he c alculation o f t his i ncluding t he a ccessibility o f a g ood a nd r elevant m odern c omparative c ollection, s kill o f t he o perative, a nd t he e xtent t o w hich t he m aterial b ears m odern b reaks. T he c ut o ff f or t he s coring o f f ragments h ere i s t he p oint a t w hich t hey c an o nly j ust b e i dentified a s l ikely t o c ome f rom t he m ajor u ngulates. T hose n ot i dentifiable t o s pecies a re s cored a s S AR ( small a rtiodactyl) o r O X0 ( large u ngulate). A fter t hat f ragments a re s cored a s U NM ( unknown M ammal f ragments) i f i t i s j ust p ossible t o s ay t hat t hey a re l ikely t o b e m ammalian. T hese a nd t hose f rom b irds, f ish, i dentifiable o ther m ammals, a nd U NX ( unknown v ertebrate i ndex.
s pecies)
a re e xcluded f rom t he c alculation o f
t he P IG
( A)
T he r esults g iven i n t his p aper a ssume t hat a ll m odern b reaks a re d iscounted w here p ossible. O bviously P IG ( A) c ould a lso b e c alculated f or c attle, s heep a nd g oat, a nd f or h orse o n s ettlements w here t his f orms a p art o f t he d iet. T he v alue o f S AR a nd O X0 i s a u seful i ndicator t oo o f t he l evel o f i dentifiability o f a c ollection a nd 1 ).
t heir v alues
i n f act c ontrol
t he
I dentifiability
I ndex
( Table
I ndex B i s t he p ercentage o f p ig b ones a mongst t he b ones o f t he m ajor d omesticates t hat a re i dentifiable t o s pecies ( or t o o vicaprid). I n t he s ites d iscussed g oat a nd h orse h ave b een i gnored a s t hey w ere n ot s ignificant i n t he f ood s upply. S o t he B i ndex t otals
f or c attle,
s heep
a nd
p igs,
u nlike
t he
A
t otals, w ill a dd u p t o 1 00%. W hat i s s o c onfusing i n t he l iterature i s t hat A i ndices a re s ometimes c ompared w ith B i ndices o r w ith i ntermediate v alues. O ften w e p ercentages w ere d erived a t a ll.
d o n ot k now h ow S ometimes p ig i s
t he s pecific q uoted a s a
p ercentage o f a ll t he s pecies i ncluding t hose f or w hich t here i s n o b utchery e vidence. T his i s p ermissible s o l ong a s o ther i ndices c an b e e xplored f requencies.
f rom
t he
d ata
p rovided,
5 8
p referably
t he
o riginal
O f c omparative i nterest ( Table 2 ) a re t he s uccessive v alues d erived f rom r esults f or t he H amwic P it ( Colley, t his v olume) s howing t he e ffect o f ' level o f i dentification' o n s pecies p ercentage i n a n e xcavation w here e very b one u p t o 1 0mm i n l ength w as s aved. T hese f igures d o n ot i nclude t he m aterial r etrieved b y s ieving t he s poil, a lthough o n m ost s ites m ost o f t he U NM a nd U NX m aterial w ould o nly b e r etrieved b y s ieving.
W eights
M ost o f t he a bove c omments a pply a lso t o t he d erivation o f i ndices f rom b one w eights. F ew w orkers i n B ritain u se t hem b ut B ourdillon m aintains t hat t hey h ave s ome c omparative u se i n h er c ontinuing s tudies i n S outhampton. T heir u se w as d iscussed f or H amwic f or t he M elbourne S treet s ites ( Bourdillon a nd C oy 1 980 :83).
M inimum N umber o f I ndividuals
G rigson s howed t hat t he L ate N eolithic i ncrease f or p ig r epresentation i s s o s triking t hat i t m atters l ittle w hether n umbers o f f ragments o r m inimum n umbers o f i ndividuals ( MNI) a re u sed ( Grigson 1 982:306). L ess s triking c hanges m ight b e o bscured i f o nly o ne m ethod o f r epresentation w ere u sed. N umbers o f f ragments c an s everely u nder-represent p ig c ompared w ith M NI i n c ases w here t here i s a h igh f requency o f m andibular r emains.
T his
p oint
i s m ade c learly i n K ing's w ork ( 1978:211) w hich
g ives d etails f or a n umber o f s ettlements u sing a n i ndex w hich h as b een c alled t he ' King I ndex' i n T able 1 . T his i s t he n umber o f j aw f ragments a s a p ercentage o f t he n umber o f l imb b ones. A lthough K ing t alks a bout t he n umber o f m andibular f ragments t his a ppears t o i nclude u pper
j aws
( maxillae)
a s w ell.
O n s ites w ith a h igher K ing I ndex f or p ig t han f or s heep a nd c attle, i t i s p ossible t hat m inimum n umbers w ould g ive a b etter i ndication o f r elative v alue o f p ig t han n umbers o f f ragments o r w eights. A n umber o f o ther m ethods h ave b een u sed i n t he p ast t o t hrow u p b ias i n a natomical r epresentation a nd s ome o f t hese h ave b een u sed i n a ssociation w ith m inimum n umbers ( Binford a nd B ertram 1 977:80 , C oy 1 980:45,
R eichstein a nd T iessen 1 974:21).
A t H amwic s witching t o M NI f rom ' numbers o f f ragments' d oubles t he a pparent p ercentage o f p ig, w hether i t i s c ounted f or t he s ite a s a w hole o r c umulatively b y f eature ( Table 3 ). F or m aterial s tudied f rom B ury W ood C amp, W iltshire, w here a s a t H amwic f ragment, w eight a nd M NI m ethodologies w ere c ompared, t he s witch f rom o verall t o c umulative M NI r aised t he p ercentage o f p ig e ven m ore, f rom 1 0.5 t o 1 7% ( Coy u npublished m anuscript r eferred t o i n C oy 1 964:47). T his m aterial h ad a p articularly h igh K ing I ndex a nd d emonstrates t hat t he c alculation o f t hat i ndex i s a u seful i ndicator a s i t c an e xplain i n s ome c ases w hy t he d ifferent m ethods o f c alculating
5 9
s pecific p ercentages g ive s uch d ifferent
r esults.
E qually i mportant w hen M NI i s b eing u sed i s s ome d iscussion o f t he m ethod b y w hich i t w as d erived. O ne l imitation o f K ing's d iscussion ( 1978:208) i s t he u se o f d ifferently d erived M NIs b ut i n s uch a g eneral a nd
l arge s cale d iscussion t his
i s n ot s erious.
C apture-Recapture M ethods
F ieller a nd T urner's u se o f c apture-recapture a s a n a nswer t o t he p roblem o f s pecific r atios r epresents a n ew d eparture w hich a rchaeozoologists m ay w ish t o a pply ( Fieller a nd T urner 1 982). A s t hey s tress M NI i s, a fter a ll, j ust t he a nimals o n t he a nalyst's t able. U se o f t he P etersen I ndex i s, h owever, m easuring s omething q uite d ifferent s o t hat t his m ay i ndeed g ive q uite n ew i nsight i nto a rchaeological m aterial a nd a ct a s a n ew c omparative m ethod. W inder, w ho h as t ried t his t echnique o n a rchaeological m aterial i s f inding t hat p roximal-distal m atches m ay f orm a m ore p ractical a lternative t o l eft-right m atches f or l ong b ones ( Winder, p ersonal c ommunication).
T HE Q UANTIFICATION O F P IG R EMAINS - I NTRA-SITE V ARIABILITY
T here i s a l ikelihood t hat b ones o f t he t hree m ajor u ngulates, b ecause o f a n umber o f f actors i ncluding t heir l ikely d ifferences i n d erivation a nd t reatment a nd t heir v ery d ifferent b one s hapes a nd s izes, a re n ot d eposited o r p reserved i n t he s ame w ay. D ifferent c ontext t ypes m ight b e e xpected t o p roduce d ifferent r esults f or p ig a nd t he a nalyses b elow w ere t herefore v ery s trongly t ied t o f eature t ype. I n f act, a lthough t here i s a l ittle e vidence t hat p oor p reservation
i s
l inked w ith h igher p ercentages
f or p ig
( Bourdillon
a nd C oy 1 980:104, C oy n .d.2) t he p ig v alues w ere r emarkably c onsistent a cross t he s ettlements i n m ost c ases. B ut f eature t ypes a re i ndicated i n T ables 4 -6 f or i nterest.
T he i ndices a lready d iscussed w ere p lotted f or c orrelations a nd t here w as n o d irect o bvious c orrelation b etween t he p ercentage o f p ig b ones a nd t he d egree o f f ragmentation.
R ESULTS F OR S OME R ECENT A NALYSES
G roundwell F arm ,
B lunsden S t.
A ndrew,
W iltshire ( SU
1 51891)
s howed
I ron A ge B anjo a nd R omano-British f eatures o f A .D. f irst a nd s econd c entury d ate a nd w as e xcavated b y M r. C . G ingell f or t he W essex A rchaeological C ommittee. T he b ones c ame m ostly f rom w all t renches o f
s uccessive p hases o f h uts.
M uch o f
6 0
t he b one w as v ery
f ragmentary,
o ften a s
s plinters,
r ather
t han c ylinders,
o f
l ong
b ones
a nd
m ay
h ave b een s ubjected t o t rampling a nd s econdarily d eposited i n t he w all t renches. T his t ype o f d eposit i s q uite d ifferent f rom t he a vailable c omparative m aterial i n W essex o f t his p eriod w hich t ends t o b e f rom p its o r d itches.
T able 4 s hows
t hat
t he P IG
( B)
i ndex i s
e xtremely h igh,
r anging
f rom
2 7 t o 4 9%. T his i s m ost u nusual f or a n I ron A ge s ite i n W essex a nd c ompares w ith v alues f or P IG ( B) o f 8 % f or I ron A ge p hases o f W innall D own, H ampshire, ( SU 4 98304), w hich h ad a s imilar l evel o f i dentifiability, a nd 8 % f or C owdery's D own I ron A ge f eatures, ( SU 5 26369) w ith a v ery s lightly h igher l evel o f i dentifiability ( Maltby, p ersonal c ommunication). U npublished r esults f rom t he M icheldever B anjo, H ampshire ( SU 6 58532) g ave s lightly h igher v alues f or P IG ( B) o f 1 5% f or I ron A ge f eatures a nd 1 2% f or R omano-British f eatures. B ones f rom t he I ron A ge f eatures w ere h owever l argely f rom p its.
C leavel P oint, O wer, D orset ( SZ 0 03860) p rovided a v ariety o f f eatures f rom A .D. f irst t o f ourth c entury w ith t he b iggest s amples f rom P hases 1 a nd 2 a nd t he 3 -4th c entury P hase, P hase 7 . T he e xcavations w ere c arried o ut b y A rchaeological C ommittee.
M r.
P .
W oodward
f or
t he
W essex
T able 5 s hows t hat s amples w ere s mall a nd t hat v alues f or P IG ( B) w ere e xtremely v ariable a nd o ften v ery h igh. T he K ing I ndex f or t his s ite w as v ery h igh.
T hese d eposits w ere g enerally n ot g ood o nes
f or
p reservation o f a nimal b one a nd i n s ome t here i s a h igh d egree o f f ragmentation, e rosion a nd d og-gnawing. T he d egree t o w hich t he K ing I ndex m ight
i ndicate a c onsiderable d isappearance o f
p ig
f ragments
a nd t he e xtent t o w hich f ragmentation a nd e rosion m ight a ffect t he d ifferent s pecies d ifferently a re d ifficult t o a nalyse, p articularly f or s uch a s mall s ample. S urprisingly, t he I dentifiability I ndex f or t his
s ite w as m uch h igher
t han f or W essex I ron A ge s ites n ormally.
R ope L ake H ole K immeridge, D orset ( SY 9 31776) i s g eographically a nd a rchaeologically v ery c lose t o E ldon's S eat ( Cunliffe a nd P hillipson 1 968) a nd f rom w hat c an b e d educed f rom t he a ccount o f f aunal r emains a t t he l atter i t h as c omparable r elative r esults f or p ig. T able 6 s hows a n o verall r esult f or P IG ( B) o f 6 % c ompared w ith a n e stimated r esult f or E ldon's S eat o f 5 %. T hese r esults a re m ore i n l ine w ith t he W essex I ron A ge r esults f rom e arlier s tudies. L ike C leavel t his s ettlement s hows q uite h igh I ndices o f b ut i t d oes n ot h ave p articularly h igh K ing I ndices.
I dentifiability
T he K ing I ndices o bviously v ary m adly f or s ites w here p ig i s s uch a s mall p roportion a nd, a s K ing s uggests, s ites w here f ewer t han t en i ndividuals a re r epresented c annot b e e xpected t o g ive r eliable r esults
( King 1 978:210).
6 1
T he p hases o f t his s ettlement R omano-British d ate.
r anged
f rom E arly
I ron A ge
t hrough
t o
C ONCLUSIONS
C an
w e a ctually d etect a s hift
w ork o ut a s pecific m ethodological
r atio
i n s pecies
t here m ust
s afeguards
b e
r atios w hen i t
a
c areful
e nsuring c ontinuity a nd
m ethodology c ombined w ith a n i ncreased c omplexity o f s ite f ormation p rocesses a nd
o ccurs? T o
c ombination
o f
c omparability o f
u nderstanding o f t he s easonal e ffects. O nce w e
h ave c omparable s pecific r atios t here m ay b e s econdary f actors l ike m eat v alue, l ife s pan a nd p rolificity t o b e t aken i nto a ccount w hen c omparing
T he
t he
r oles
r esults
o f
t he d ifferent
o btained
s hould
s pecies.
a lso b e v iewed a gainst
t he d ifferent
h usbandry p ractices a nd i t s hould n ot b e f orgotten t hat t he k eeping o f p igs m ay n ot c ompete w ith t he k eeping o f g razing u ngulates f or r esources w hich
o f h abitat,
c an
b e
g ive a m ore r emains
f eed,
r eliable g uide
b ut
o r h uman
d ependent o n w aste w e
s hould
l abour.
p roducts
I n
m any
w ays
t o h uman a ctivity t han c attle n eed
p igs,
o f h uman a ctivity, a nd
m ight s heep
t o c alculate a n a bsolute v alue n ot a
r elative o ne.
T he d ifferences
s een
f ragmentation,
d istribution
h igh K ing
i n
I ndex o n s ome
p ig
s keletal a round
s ites m eans
m aterial
a t hat
b e e xamined c arefully b oth w ith r espect
a nd
d ifferential
a natomical
t hese f actors f or P IG ( B) a nd h igh
f eature
t o
T he
t o
t he n otably a nd
M NIs
f ragmentation l evels
r esults
f rom t he
t hree
s how a n i nteresting m ixture o f a ll
a nd, i n a ddition, t wo o f t hem h ave v ery h igh v alues i ndex w hich o n t he w hole a re c onsistent f or a ll p hases
t ypes o n t he
n umber
s urvival.
p resented h ere
r espect
a nd
f ragment n umbers
must
W essex s ettlements
w ith
s ettlement,
o f
p ig
s ettlements.
b ones
G roundwell
f or a n I ron A ge
h as
s ettlement
a n b ut
u nusually t here
i s
n o
e cological p roblem a bout p ig k eeping i n s uch a r ich a rea, n ear a r iver v alley. C leavel P oint, O wer, i s a c ompletely d ifferent t ype o f s ettlement
b ut
w as
a t
t he
t ime p robably p rovided w ith a r ich a nd
v aried h interland a nd t here m ay h ave b een a ccess t o s altmarsh a nd t o m arine m olluscs. T here s eem t o h ave b een g ood s upplies o f t he l atter b ut w hether
t hese
s upplemented p ig a s w ell a s h uman d iet
D angers o f
t he e cological
t he
t oday a s
a rea
a bundance b ut c attle g razing c an
s urvive
i t
i s
o aks
e xplanation a re b rought a re
l ikely
i n r ecent t his
t he
t hat
W e
a re
l eft
u nknown. v iewing
o nly n aturally s eeding t his
c enturies
i s
a s
s uccessfully
c ommunication). T he o nly o ther p eriod w ith s imilarly h igh p ig
i s
h ome w hen
t he
t his
i s
( Oliver
r esult
t rees o f
i n a ny
i ntensive
t he o nly s pecies w hich R ackham ,
p ersonal
c oastal W essex s ettlement o f t he v alues i s F ishbourne ( Grant 1 971).
t hen w ith a n umber o f
v iable
v ariations f rom s ettlement t o s ettlement c onsistent m ethodology w ill b e n ecessary
6 2
t heories
b ut i t i f w e a re
t o e xplain i s t o
t hese
c ertain t hat l earn m ore.
R EFERENCES
B inford
L .R. a nd B ertram J .B. ( 1977) B one f requencies a nd a ttritional p rocesses. I n ( L.R. B inford e d.) F or T heory B uilding i n A rchaeology N ew Y ork :, A cademic P ress 7 7-153.
B ourillon J .
B radley
a nd C oy J .P. ( 1980) T he a nimal b ones. I n ( P. H oldsworth e d.) S axon S outhampton : Excavations a t M elbourne S treet 1 971-6. C ouncil f or B ritish A rchaeology R esearch R eport 3 3 7 9-121.
R .
( 1978)
T he
P rehistoric
S ettlement o f B ritain L ondon:
R outledge a nd K egan P aul. C lutton-Brock J .
( 1976) T he a nimal r esources.
T he A rchaeology 3 73-392. C oy J .P.
C oy
( D.M.
W ilson
e d)
M ethuen
( 1969) T he a nimal b ones. I n ( D.Grant K ing) B ury W ood C amp. W iltshire A rchaeological a nd N atural H istory M agazine 6 4 4 7-48.
J .P.
( 1980) T he a nimal B ones. I n ( J. H aslam) E xcavation o f a m id-Saxon i ron s melting s ite a t R amsbury, W iltshire. M edieval A rchaeology 2 4
C oy
I n
o f A nglo-Saxon E ngland L ondon :
J .P.(n.d.1) T he a nimal G roundwell F arm.
4 1-51.
b ones. I n ( C. G ingell) E xcavations a t T o b e p ublished i n W iltshire
A rchaeological a nd N atural H istory M agazine. C oy
J .P.
( n.d.2) T he a nimal b ones. I n ( P.J. W oodward) E xcavation o f a L ate I ron A ge t rading s ettlement a nd R omano-British B B1 p ottery p roduction s ite a t O wer, D orset. T o b e p ublished i n t he D orset N atural H istory a nd A rchaeological S ociety M onograph S eries.
C oy
J .P.
( n.d.3) T he a nimal b ones. I n ( P.J. W oodward) E xcavation o f a n I ron A ge a nd R omano-British s ettlement a t R ope L ake H ole, C orfe C astle, D orset. T o b e p ublished i n t he D orset
N atural
H istory
a nd
A rchaeological
S ociety
M onograph S eries. C unliffe
B .
( 1978)
I ron
A ge
C ommunities
R outledge a nd K egan P aul, C unliffe B .
a nd P hillipson W . E ncombe, D orset.
i n
B ritain,
L ondon:
2 nd E dn.
( 1968) E xcavations a t E ldon 's S eat, P roceedings o f t he P rehistoric S ociety
3 4 1 91-237. G rant A .
( 1971) T he a nimal b ones. I n B .Cunliffe ( ed) E xcavations a t F ishbourne 1 961-1969 L ondon: S ociety o f A ntiquaries R esearch R eport
2 7,
V ol.II.
3 77-383.
G rant A ( 1975) T he a nimal B ones i n B . C unliffe ( ed) E xcavations P orchester C astle V ol.I R oman L ondon: S ociety
6 3
a t o f
A ntiquaries R esearch R eport G rigson C .
( 1982)
P orridge
E ngland. A spects
I n o f
a nd
H arcourt R .A.
( 1979)
T he
p annage:
M . B ell a nd W oodland
A rchaeological 3 14.
3 2,
R eports
p ig h usbandry
R .T.
( n.d.)
I nternational
a nimal b ones.
C omputer-based
i n
N eolithic
S . L imbrey(eds) A rchaeological E cology O xford: B ritish
I n
( G.J.
P leasant, D orset: E xcavations o f A ntiquaries R esearch R eport J ones
3 78-408.
S eries
1 46,
W ainwright)
1 970-1971 L ondon: 3 7 2 14-223.
O steometry.
2 97-
M ount S ociety
Ancient
M onuments
b one a ssemblages
f rom R oman
L aboratory R eport N o.3342 K ing
A .
( 1978) A c omparative
s urvey o f
s ites i n B ritain I nstitute o f 2 07-232. M altby
J .M.
( 1981)
I ron A ge,
A ge
D imbleby t o
( eds)
t he
A nglo
a nd T iessen
M
f aunal e vidence.
S axon
( 1974)
H austiers H aithabus H aithabu 7 9 -101.
t he
1 5
I n M .
J ones
t he
I ron
T he E nvironment o f M an :
A rchaeological R eports. R eichstein H .
B ulletin
R omano-British a nd A nglo-Saxon a nimal
h usbandry - a r eview o f a nd G .
A rchaeology
O xford:
B ritish S eries 8 7 M aterialen
B erichte
6 4
P eriod.
z ur
B ritish
1 55-203. K enntnis
d er
u ber d ie Ausgrabungen i n
F requencies • • L B
n umber o f p ig f ragments n umber o f p ig j aw f ragments n umber o f p ig l ong b one f ragments ( excluding f ibula, m etapodials, a nd p halanges)
A
t otal u ngulate f ragments
•
u ngulate f ragments
i dentifiable t o s pecies
I ndices B ased o n Above i ndex
h ow c alculated
i dentifications P IG
p ig ( A) - x 1 00 A
p ig ( B)
x 1 00
P IG C OW S HE S +G + S AR O X0
P
P IG
x 1 00
- x 1 00 P IG C OW S HE S +G
i dentifiability
B - x 1 00
s pecific u ngulate x 1 00
A
t otal u ngulate
J - x 1 00
p ig j aws
K ing i ndex
L B
p ig l ong b ones
K ey t o AML C odes C OW - c attle S HE - s heep S +G - s heep o r g oat S AR - s mall a rtiodactyl ( sheep, g oat, p ig, r oe d eer) O X0 - l arge u ngulate ( horse, c attle, r ed d eer)
T ABLE
1 :
F requencies a nd I ndices U sed
x 1 00
S PECIES
% P IG
p ig
co w
1 3.4 p ig ( B)
s heep 7 .0 p ig ( A)
g oat
s h/go
6 .3
5 .9
S AR
T AR
U NM
U N
o thers
T ABLE 2 :
P ercentage o f P ig F ragments f or H amwic P it C alculated f or s ucessive ' levels o f i dentification '
, — I
e o 4 . i 4 1
L r l L n -3 . t f ) 3-
C O 0 % . 0
el 11
A C
CA L n
C O C O C\ I . , i
c • I
C A
4 / 10 0
( TN
C\ 1
CO
el
r -1
Cr )
•0 . 2-
O r— c0 c " , 1
% . 0
o vC c -4 . r-)
C l )
, i
•0 CA CO C I
.I A
C h c l )
3
, 1 ri
C • I
c N C r l
c ‘,1 c v l C s 4 C ' l . 3
T he P IG ( A)
ül ( 1 )
C l ) 4 -)
c u R I X S 4 41 • 0
. . r 1 r I
a )
. , a ) > , I 4 . I R I
E
c orresponds
0 ' 1 c v
> X 0 . . . ,
Z X U , . . ./
C l ) • r 4
H Z Z
H Z Z
i c
C E — I
I
— 4 o I n c q , 1
i ndices %
4
0 1
1
, — I
C V , 4 f - Ch 00
I
, 1 L r t c q c e l L n o
4 c n c e l . 4- Z r n i Z r
1r -
C O c n
" e • H
, . ."
0
I . i
C l
0 1 c f . )
• r I
1 -- C • 1 OD . — f CT CV . 1- C V el -Z r
L . r )
el
A .
, — .
c v 0 c oo c \ i , — +
` . . ."
—4 , -
, —
, —
,— I
14
ON 1 /
Cn r •— I
• r i P .
c o a )
• H
P O
IN . 0 — 4 c i l L n . 0c ‚ n c r , ( N C r) VD C • 1 CO -Z r 00
C . )
, i N
C V
e l N . , 1
C O
i n . -I
C O . c e l
-
1 41
U ) b u C
9 1
D l
C ) $ . 4
s ee T able
( )C s
c f . , c h e l , 1 . 1 r .
VD 0 0
N- 03
0
• i . I ' t . /-1 * 1 C 7 N 0 , 1 Z r c 0 ( N I t n Z r ,1
I l l 0
c g
0 , 1
c e l
c q
o • c o o ) C D
. 0
c t i
f eature t ype
4 1 0
c o 1
u c n 0 c u a )
, I
g i
C
0
C d
c o c o c o
. 4 c \ i C " ' )
. 1 '
L e l
a )
1 4
C D
C › , c l z 3 , I
g t
, . 1, -1 r I
I
0 c o 0 0
U u 0 0 c i ) ( 1 )
g i
, -
4 c i l
C L )
4 )
, C,
0 9-I
C I )
. i-i
c d
o
g i I 2
< E I 4 0 E -I
4 )
0 ( i ) Z
C ) c g
i ndices ( %)
Oh VO
L n
P Z C l ) C I ) • , 1 C . )
r I
C D
00 •
r -
N .
c o
i r
I f )
00
V c . N 1 ,
-Z r
L r
C O \ C D . . 1-
r I el 1
C \i c \ 1 . 1
' . 0 el ' Z r
ON L . n , i . , . I
0 ,
I n
— 1 % . o
o o
•
m ainly d itch
o
f eature t ype
l n
0 0
< e l
D orset ( Coy n .d.2)
-
0
r a1
L n
0 4 4
a )
• r I
e a ) r 1
a )
r 4
C l )
a ) r z 4
C t i
L ;-; c l a
c 9
v z +
+ u 1
r n
L r l + . Z r
4 e l N .
E l 0
H
v z 1 0
0 0 • H
C D
C G C * r-) v -1
( N 1
0 C D
V D
L r ) L r )
I s -
CO
V D
Cn
1 -1
C .)
0
1 7 )
I
i n V )
I
C V
V D
i n % . 0
I
c n
C \ J
f z i n
WI
L il
c p Cn
. 1-
C V • — t
. -1 Cn
C V
r -
C O L r )
CV , -1
c o
r e )
CI c n
rs . , i
L . r.)
t ips
C g
c o
s hale a nd f lint
— I
. 1 . — 1
% .0
C 7 N , . 1
o
c V \ s z .
01
. 1c i ,
c r %
. 4 r -
Ln
i n c r ) . • 1
a N CV CV . C n
0
4 / 10
. i n
( inc
c d 5
< H
H H
H H H
P C 1 H
< H H
T OTAL
s tone h uts
f eature t ype
• 0
C V
c ollapsed
, I I
( 4 1I
1 . i n C V
4 )
0
f or R ope L ake H ole,
, . 1
d isturbed o ccupation
0 1
v z .
c n
i nto o ccupation
, 4
C f l
p its
C YN
. . r •
c n
s tone h uts
P Z C O W • H C . ) 0 W
1-1
o ccupation
•
1 ) 0
. 4-
SOME EFFECTS B ONES.
S ue
OF PRESERVATIONAL B IASES O N I NTERPRETATIONS O F ANIMAL
S tallibrass
D ept.
o f
P rehistory & A rchaeology
T he U niversity o f
S heffield
S HEFFIELD S 10 2 TN
A BSTRACT
A m ethod f or a nimal b ones i s s ites
i n
C astleford.
a nd E rosion. a n
r ecording d escribed
o f
c ontext
t ypes.
a verage
f ragment
T he
d ifferences
C ombined w ith s izes,
f or
i n
a re u sed - T exture,
s eems
t he o ther
i nto
o f
t o b e
c onditions
v ariables u sed
a nd,
t o
f ragments
o f
C attle,
E xperiments
t ogether w ith t he a ge
m aterial a nd t he r esults c onditions, t he r elative f ragments T his
a re
l eads
d ifferent
r eanalysed t o
S heep/Goat
b y
N icki
o f
F inally,
t hese
g roups,
a bsence'
a ssessment
a nd
m ethods i s
a rchaeological
t aking a nd
a
a re
u sed
o f
t he C astleford
b iases
o f
o f
i nto
a ccount.
t he c ollections i s
m ade
f rom
b etween
e vidence'.
t o m ake
t heir
C leminson
o f p reservation S heep/Goat a nd P ig
d istinction
' absence o f
m ade
a nimal
p reservational ' reliability '
a nd P ig a re
t end t o p reserve t han y oung o nes.
s tructure o f
f rom t he a nalysis n umbers o f C attle,
r anking o f
c ontext
' evidence
a n
a
d ifferent
t he d ifferent c ontexts.
e ach c ontext g roup.
r esults,
a s
b etween
i n s ome c ases,
s uggest
S outhampton U niversity h ave s hown t hat C attle b ones b etter t han P ig b ones, a nd m ature b ones b etter U sing h er
M inerals
t he m ost u seful
p reservation
t hese d ata a re
b one d isposal
r elative n umbers
g iven
T hree v ariables
T he v ariable o f T exture
i ndicator
m ethods o f
t he p reservational s tate o f a rchaeological u sing m aterial f rom t wo R omano-British
i ntersite c omparisons,
u sefulness
i n
a nalyses
a nd o f
b ones.
I NTRODUCTION A ND M ETHODS
E very s tratified a nimal b one f rom t he W est Y orkshire U nit's e xcavations o f R omano-British C astleford w as r ecorded f or s everal v ariables r elating t o i ts i t c ould b e i dentified t o v ariables w ere: f act,
T exture,
r ecorded
c onfined
t o
f or
t he
a
p reservation, r egardless o f w hether o r n ot s pecies l evel. T he m ost i mportant o f t hese M inerals
a nd E rosion.
v ariety
o f
c ommonest
a nd
s tates, w ill
E ach o f b ut
t his
o nly
t hese w as,
i n
p aper w ill
b e
c onsider
s imple
p resence/absence d ata. T exture
w as
( ie w as
n on-greasy).
r ecorded
B rittle
f ragments
a re
a s T he
z ero
i f
t he
c ommonest
l ight
a nd
6 5
b one w as o ther
r ather
s imply c lean a nd d ry
s tate
w as
b iscuity.
' brittle'. T hey
s hatter
e asily. T hey h ave l ost m uch o f t heir o rganic c ontent a nd a re r ather p orous a nd, t herefore, s usceptible t o l eaching. I a ssume t hat a h igh p roportion o f b rittle f ragments i ndicates p oor p reservation. M inerals: m ainly a nd
m any
o f
t he
i ron c ompounds,
m ineral
b ones
a nd
d eposits.
a re
d usted w ith m ineral s tainings,
s ome h ave e ncrustations
T he
s ite a t
C astleford
o f
c emented
g rit
i s o n s ands a nd c lays
n ear t he r iver a nd h as a h igh, s ometimes f luctuating, w ater t able. T he w orst a ffected b ones t end t o b e f rom c ontexts w ith g leyed s oils a nd, a gain, I a ssume t hat h igh p roportions o f f ragments w ith M ineral d eposits i ndicate p oor p reservation c onditions, w ith w ater a ction. E rosion:
a lthough
a re c lassified h ave a lmost l ost a re u p.
c razed
T he
f irst
a nd
h ad
s ite
3 ,000
D itch
f eatures
( gullies
s ite w as q uite b een
t reated
a nalysis w as a ttributes
v ery f ew o f
t hem
a
f rom
c ontexts
t urf
p art
i nto
R ampart,
a s
t han o ne
o f
t he
s tratified s even
e arly
c entury)
g roups
e qually
t est
t he
-
P its, L inear
T he o ccupation a t a nd
s o
b eing b roadly c ontemporaneous. t o
f ort,
R omano-British
t he R oad s urface,
a nd a l arge L atrine.
( less
c alculated w ere
t o d isintegrate w hen p icked
C astleford w as
t hese
6 ,
e tc.),
s hort
l iable
f ragments
I h ave d ivided 1 -5,
F igure
t hey a re
e xcavated a t
a bout
c ontexts.
a re n ot w ell p reserved,
a ssociated
a s ' eroded a ll o ver'. T hese f ew, E roded, f ragments t heir s tructure. T hey h ave a p owdery s urface a nd
t hroughout-
D itches
h ave
t he b ones
p robably
t he
t his
c ontexts
A c hi
s quare
n ull
h ypothesis
t hat
a ll
d istributed a cross
t he c ontext
t ypes
( see
1 ).
I n a c hi s quare a nalysis a ll t he v ariables h ave t o w hereas e ach f ragment h ad b een r ecorded t hree t imes t hey w ere
s eparated o ut
i nto T exture
( ie b rittle),
m inerals p resent) a nd E roded ( ie e roded a ll o ver), w ith M inerals, M inerals w ith E rosion e tc..
b e i ndependent, o ver, t herefore, M inerals
( ie w ith
a nd
t hen T exture
b een
e mphasised:
R ESULTS A ND D ISCUSSION
I n F igure e ncircled i n
t his
1 ,
c hi
s quare v alues
v alues
c ategory
e g 2 1
o f
2 0 o r m ore h ave
a re O verrepresented
t han w ould
b e
e xpected
e qually d istributed b etween c ontext e g
2 0 a re u nder represented.
a rbitrary c ut-off F igure 1 s hows P its:
t he
b asically a s
t here a re f ewer n ot s urprising i f t he p resence o ther f eatures D itches:
p oint
t o
T he
t he
t here a re m ore b ones a ll
a ttributes
a nd v alues 2 0 h as
w ere
b eneath a b ar
b een c hosen a s a n
l arger a nomalies.
f ollowing a spects:p redicted b y
t he
n ull
h ypothesis,
e xcept
t hat
M ineral-affected f ragments t han e xpected. T his i s t he m ineral d eposits a re, i ndeed, a ssociated w ith
o f w ater, s ince ( eg t he d itches),
t he b ones
i f
t ypes),
f igure o f
h ighlight
( ie
f rom t he
t he P its a re l ess l ikely t han s ome t o h ave a cted a s w ater c ollectors.
d itches
6 6
t hemselves a re
g enerally
b adly
preserved. A total of seventy-three percent of the bones from Ditches 1-5 are brittle Textured, and an unexpectedly high number (56%) are both brittle Textured and affected by Minerals. Ditch 6 has high scores fo� all three categories with brittle Texture, and for two each of the Eroded and Mineral categories. Both the Texture and Mineral aspects are thought to relate to the presence of water, and the ditches are thought to have acted as collectors of surface and ground waters, draining these down towards the river. Is the Eroded category related to water abrasion, or does it reflect residual material incorporated into the ditch? Linears: no anomalies. These contexts were shallow, and so less likely to be affected by water than the ditches, since their deposits were probably always above the water table. Road: high on brittle Texture. Probably due to fragments lying around on the Road surface exposed to sub-aerial weathering. Trampling may have further·emphasised this aspect by comminuting the fragments into greater numbers. The average size of the Road fragments is, in fact, the smallest of all the context groups. Rampart: this was built of clayey turves, and so it was expected that the bones would be well protected from leaching and water abrasion. As expected, there are few with Minerals, implying a relative absence of water compared with the other context types, and yet there are relatively high numbers of Eroded and brittle Textured, brittle Textured, and Eroded fragments. These are probably earlier material incorporated into the turf Rampart when it was constructed. Pieces lying around on the ground surface or in the turf would probably have become leached and brittle like the ones on the Road surface. It is important to be able to distinguish residual material- although the ditches and Rampart were constructed at the same time, their contents relate to two different periods - one, the Rampart, relating to a pre-defensive stage, and the other the accompanying ditch fill, to activities post-dating their construction. On some sites, especially prehistoric ones where pottery is rare or poorly preserved, residual bones may be able to give important clues about earlier phases of the site. Certainly, their presence should be noted before any attempt is made at interpretation. Latrine: three categories are under-repesented ie the bones are better preserved than expected. The Latrine is low on brittle Texture, brittle Texture and Erosion, and on brittle Texture, Minerals and Erosion. This is probably the best preserved collection from the site, and the fragments also tend to be larger than average. Most of the material seems to.have been discarded directly into the context and not left around to be weathered or trampled. In this chi square analysis, very low numbers were expected in all context types for two of the three categories to include Eroded fragments (vis. Erosion, and Minerals plus �rosion). Because of this, no precise statistics have been given here, although there are cl�arly very significant differences between the states of preservation of the bones from different context groups. The 67
a nalysis h as n umbers
b een
i ncluded
o f E roded
f ragments
F igure 2 r epeats E rosion,
t he c hi
d ifferences d egrees
O ne o f a ny
s quare
a s F igure 1 , o f
t he
O therwise,
f reedom ,
r easons
f or
a nd P ig,
a re
l ow
s hows
t he
o f
t he
t he
P ig
( all
f or C attle a nd S heep/Goat
f rom 1 2%
a re
a rtefacts
s ome
o r
s pecies
l eaching,
t hey m ore
h ad
l ab.,
f ew
o f
p attern
f or o f
s quare v alue o f 7 65 w ith
f ragments. l ess
t o
s ee
i f
t here w as
F igure 3 s hows
A lthough
t han
t o 3 2%. o f
s usceptible
B ut
1 0%),
a re
a ll t he
s even
r elative
t hese
f rom
d ifferences
t he p reservation c onditions?
t o
t he
s pecies - C attle,
S heep/Goat v ary c onsiderably- C attle
d estruction ,
b ut
a
t ime
t o d o m y o wn e xperiments
y ears
a go N icki
e specially
m ature
b ones
o f
( Cleminson ,
1 979).
S he
s urvived b etter y oung o nes.
C attle f ound
t han P ig,
U nfortunately,
C astleford,
m ost
o f
t he
a nd P ig
A re b y
r elative
d id n ot
t he C attle
t est
S heep/Goat
b ones
d isadvantaged o n a t
l east
L ooking
a gain
F igure 3 ,
p resent
i n
a t
t he
p reservation
o ne
d ifferent
c onditions
a lso
C attle
b etter
t han
a ny S heep b ones.
b ones w ere m ature a nd,
w ere
y oung
s olutions
t hat
s urvived
s hould h ave p reserved w ell, w hereas P ig b ones w ere i mmature, a nd s o w ere d isadvantaged o n b oth f actors. C astleford
i n t he
s urvival o f
s howing
t hat m ature b ones
s he
t his
S outhampton d id h er
i n c ontrolled a cid
c lear d ifferences
a nd
t esting
C leminson a t
u ndergraduate d issertation c omparing
A t
l ow v alues
t han o thers?
I h ave n ot y et
a nd
a nomalous
t he v ariable o f
s ame
r epresented.
a re
6 4%
v alid,
a c hi
t he
t hree m ajor d omestic
p roportions t o 8 7%,
t he
i gnores
c ontexts w as
s pecies
u sing n umbers
o n
b ut
e xactly
i t g ives
g rouping
p roportions
S heep/Goat g roups
s how
p 0 .05, X > 3 .84; 1 1 df: S iegel 1 956:107. R aw d ata i n W ilson, i n p rep., T able 1 3).
T D
E D
P
HF1
H G
E nclosure d itches ( ED) T rackway d itches ( TD)
3 .96 3
P its
4 .03 a
0 .00 +
7 .34 3
1 .30
0 .94
0 .22
0 .06
1 0 .22 a
0 .8 1
( p)
H ouse p osth oles ( HPH)
7 2%
H ouse g ullies ( HG)
1 3.42 a
4 .25 3
L ayers
2 7 .52 a
1 9 .54 a
( L)
5 0%
a
7 2%
S ignificantly d ifferent
7 3%
7 3%
8 2%
8 2%
8 6% 0 .53
8 6%
r esults.
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( reference
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+
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loo
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r
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-1
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F igure
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a nd t he
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s howing
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p attern f or g rouping b ones.
a t
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H igh 7 0-90%
b ones i n e ach
*Leve l a f ter s tr ipp ing o f t opso i l .
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I NSECTS
9 5
OUTDOORS - I NDOORS?
T HE O UTDOOR C OMPONENT O F ARCHAEOLOGICAL I NSECT
ASSEMBLAGES. H arry K enward E nvironmental
A rchaeology
U nit,
U niversity
o f
Y ork,
Y O1
5 DD,
E ngland.
A BSTRACT
I nsect c orpses d eposited i n m odern b uildings h ave b een e xamined. T he d eath a ssemblages m ay i nclude m any ' outdoor' f orms, w hile t he n umber a nd p roportion o f i nsects a ssociated w ith b uildings m ay v ary f rom n ear z ero t o v ery l arge. O n t he b asis o f p reliminary o bservations t hree f actors a ppear i mportant: t he p resence o f b irds' n ests; d istance f rom o penings; a nd a irflow p attern. D eposition o f f lying i nsects i n t he ' dead s pace' b etween n arrow o penings m ay l ead t o t he i ncorporation
o f
a
m odern r oof g utters. f rom b uildings o r r esult o f
l arge b ackground f auna m uch l ike
t hat
f ound i n
I nterpretation o f a rchaeological a ssemblages p utative b uildings r equires r e-thinking a s a
t hese o bservations.
I NTRODUCTION
A n ' outdoor c omponent' i n i nsect d eath a ssemblages m ay b e d efined a s c omprising t hose s pecies u nable t o f ind h abitats i n a b uilding o f a ny k ind ( Kenward 1 978, 1 4). T his c oncept o f a n o utdoor c omponent h as b een f ound t o b e v ery u seful i n t he i nterpretation o f u rban a rchaeological i nsect a ssemblages. I t s hould, h owever, b e r emembered t hat m ost s pecies c annot b e c ategorised a s l iterally ' indoor' o r ' outdoor ' i nsects; t heir a bility t o b reed w ithin a t ypical b uilding w ill i n m ost c ases h ave v aried w ith t he p eriod. R oman s tone b uildings m ay h ave s upported o nly h alf-a-dozen o r s o s pecies, V iking-age e arth-floored w attle o nes s everal h undred. F or t he r eason,
s pecies
e xcluded
i nvariably l ive i ndoors; b uildings i n B ritain.
f rom i ndeed,
t he
' outdoor'
c ategory
b ut s ame
d o
v ery f ew i nsects a re r estricted
n ot t o
F or m ost p urposes t he n umber o f c ertain-plus-probable o utdoor s pecimens, a bbreviated ' OB', i s t he m ost u seful s tatistic. I t i s b elieved t hat t wo t hings a re b eing m easured b y e stimates o f O B: ( 1) t he i mportance o f ' outdoor' h abitats a t o r c ircumjacent t o t he s ite o f d eposition ; ( 2) h ow m uch b ackground f auna ( Kenward 1 975, 8 8) w as i ncorporated.
T he
l atter
f actor
r econstruct e cological c onditions
i s
i mportant
i n
i n r estricted a reas,
a ttempts a s
t o
i s u sually
t he c ase w ith o ccupation s ites. O bviously, i t m ust b e s hown t hat t he i nsects u sed f or t he r econstruction a re a utochthones ( ie s pecies b reeding o n t he s pot) a nd d id n ot a rrive i n f light o r i n t he d roppings o f p redators; b oth m echanisms h ave b een s hown t o b e a ble
9 7
t o c ontribute a c onsiderable d eposits ( Kenward 1 976).
a llochthonous
c omponent
t o m odern
T he p roportion o f b ackground f auna i s s een a s a m easure o f s everal f actors: ( 1) t he r ate o f d eposition a nd t otal t ime t aken f or t he d eposit t o f orm ; ( 2) t he a bundance o f a utochthones; a nd ( 3) t he d egree o f p rotection f rom f lying i nsects a nd s uch s ources o f c orpses a s b ird d roppings. T his p aper i s c oncerned p rimarily w ith t he l ast f actor.
I t h as b een a rgued t hat b ackground f auna m ay b e m easured c ombination o f O B a nd a n i ndex o f d iversity ( Kenward 1 978, a nd t hat t hese t wo p arameters c an b e u sed t o d etermine
b y t he 1 6-26), w hether
d eposits f ormed w ithin b uildings, a s i n t he c ase o f t he L loyds B ank s ite, 6 -8 P avement, Y ork ( loc. c it., 3 5-6). A t t his s ite f our n arrow t renches w ere d ug w ithin m odern c ellars, c utting a s uccession o f e ssentially h orizontal l ayers o f r ichly o rganic d eposits. I n o ne t rench ( II) m ost l ayers w ere s ampled f or i nsect a nalysis. F isher's A lpha ( an i ndex o f d iversity a ppropriate t o r andom c ollections, F isher, C orbet a nd W illiams 1 943, M ay 1 975) a nd O B w ere m easured a nd t wo g roups o f a ssemblages, t he f irst o f h igh A lpha a nd O B a nd t he s econd o f l ow A lpha a nd O B, w ere d etected. T hese, i t w as o riginally p ostulated, m ight r epresent d eposits o f o utdoor a nd i ndoor o rigin r espectively. I n t he f inal e nvironmental r eport ( Hall, K enward, W illiams a nd G reig 1 983, 1 96-201) t his c onclusion w as r evised i n t he l ight o f f urther a nalyses. T he s amples c ertainly f all i nto t wo m ajor g roups ( loc. c it., f ig. 4 4), b ut e ven t he h igher g roup, b est t ermed i ntermediate, i s o f m uch l ower A lpha a nd O B t han m any o ther s amples f rom t he L loyds B ank s ite a nd, m ore e specially, f rom o ther s ites. T he t wo g roups f rom T rench I I m ost p robably r epresent t wo k inds o f i ndoor d eposit, a v iew w hich a ccords b etter w ith t he a rchaeological i nterpretation o ffered b y A ddyman a nd H all ( forthcoming) a nd w ith o bservations o f V iking-age b uildings a t t he 1 6-22 C oppergate, Y ork, s ite.
M ODERN I NDOOR D EPOSITS
I n o rder t o i nterpretation,
p rovide a s tudy
a o f
b etter b asis f or a rchaeological m odern i ndoor d eposits h as b een
u ndertaken. T he f irst s ample w as b arn ( Kenward, H all a nd J ones
t aken f rom a s mall m odern t hatched f orthcoming). T he a ssemblage o f
b eetles a nd b ugs w as f ound t o h ave v ery h igh v alues o f b oth A lpha a nd O B, c ontaining m any s pecies i n s mall n umbers. T his a ssemblage i s i n s ome w ays m ore r eminiscent o f r oof-gutter a ssemblages ( regarded a s
e ssentially
d eposits
b ackground
i nside a ncient b uildings.
s mall n umber o f a utochthones t he
f ive
f auna,
K enward 1 976)
t han o f
O ne r eason m ay b e t he
i n t he m odern b arn a ssemblage
m ost a bundant s pecies
t hose f rom r elatively ( although
p robably b red i n i ts r oof);
a nother
m ay b e t he f act t hat i t h as t wo o penings ( see b elow). F urther s amples f rom w ithin m odern b uildings h ave s ubsequently b een e xamined b y t he a uthor a nd b y F ionnagh S tone ( Kenward a nd S tone,
9 8
f orthcoming). T he m aterial h as b een c ollected f rom u noccupied r oof s paces; f rom a n o ccupied r oof s pace; f rom a c ellar; a nd f rom u nder g round-floor f loorboards. O ne-kilogramme s amples w ere p rocessed i n e ach
c ase.
a g reat
A lthough f ew s amples c ould b e e xamined,
t he r esults g ive
d eal o f e nlightening a nd c autionary i nformation.
S AMPLES F ROM U NOCCUPIED R OOF S PACES
T wo s amples o f d ust l ate-Victorian
f rom b etween t he r afters
t erraced
t wo-storied h ouses
i n
t he
r oofs
o f
t wo
i n s outh e ast u rban Y ork
h ave b een e xamined. B oth r oofs w ere u nlined a nd c ontained d ry b irds' n ests. T he f irst o f t hese ( Belle V ue S treet, M OD F AS 1 /1) g ave a l arge a nd d iverse a ssemblage o f b eetles a nd b ugs ( minumum n umber o f i ndividuals ( MNI) = 2 22; 9 9 s pecies; A lpha = 6 9, S E = 8 ). T he m ost a bundant s pecies i s A notylus t etracarinatus ( Block) ( 22%), n ever l ikely t o h ave b red i n t he r oof a lthough i t i s n ot a n o utdoor s pecies w ithin t he d efinition u sed f or a rchaeological m aterial. T he o ther m ore a bundant
s pecies a re P tinus
t ectus
B oieldieu,
A tomaria
s pp., P tenidium s p. a nd L athridius m inutus ( Linnaeus) g roup. O f t hese, o nly P . t ectus a ppears l ikely t o h ave b red i n t he r oof. O ther t han P . t ectus a nd a s ingle i ndividual o f A nobium p unctatum ( Degeer),
t he
v ast
m ajority
o f
t he a ssemblage m ust b e b ackground
f auna. A f ew s pecimens, f or e xample s ome o f t he C arabidae, S carabaeidae a nd C urculionidae, s how b reaks i n t he s clerites w hich a re c haracteristic o f b eetles f rom b ird d roppings, b ut t he b ulk p robably a rrived i n f light. H alf t he s pecies a re o utdoor f orms ( OB) a nd t hey m ake u p 2 8% o f s pecies
a re r are
h abitats
i n t he
t he a ssemblage.
( together 2 %),
A quatics
a nd
r eflecting t he g reat
d amp
g round
r arity o f
s uch
s urroundings.
T he s econd s ample ( Farrar S treet, M OD F AS 3 ) a lso g ave a f auna d ominated b y A notylus t etracarinatus ( 30%). T he a ssemblage i s o f m odest s ize ( 170 i ndividuals, 5 9 s pecies). I t i s r emininscent o f t he p revious o ne, b ut t he o utdoor c omponent i s s maller ( 24% o f s pecies, 1 0% o f i ndividuals). T here a re m any f ewer s pecies r ecorded a s s ingle i ndividuals a nd t he d ifferences b etween t he t wo a ssemblages m ay l argely r esult f rom d ifferences i n t he b ackground f auna i n t he t wo a reas; 1 /1 c ame f rom a b uilding q uite c lose t o p arkland, a llotments a nd a l arge c emetery, w here t here a re d iverse h abitats, 4 f rom a h ouse w hich f or m uch o f i ts l ife h as b een e mbedded i n t erraced s treets. T hese r oofs p resented o nly v ery d ry n est h abitats a nd a lmost
t he
w hole
f light c omponent o f
o f
b oth a ssemblages m ust h ave o riginated i n t he
t he b ackground
f auna.
S AMPLE F ROM A N O CCUPIED R OOF S PACE
T his
s ample o f d ust a nd
l itter
( MOD F AS 4 ) w as c ollected f rom a r oof
s pace u sed a s a w orkshop i n a t hree-floored l ate V ictorian t erraced h ouse i n P ortland S treet, n ear t he c entre o f Y ork b ut a djacent t o
9 9
p arkland. I t g ave a v ery l arge a ssemblage o f m oderate d iversity ( 818 i ndividuals, 1 11 s pecies, A lpha = 3 5, S E = 2 ). T he o utdoor c omponent i s s ubstantial ( OB = 5 1%) a nd t he c ondition o f t he s pecimens i ndicates t hat a m ajority o riginated i n b ird d roppings. T he m ost a bundant o utdoor f orms a re S itona s pp., A mara s pp., P terostichus s pp., B embidion p roperans S tephens, A griotes s pp., C livina f ossor ( Linnaeus) a nd S implocaria s emistriata ( Fabricius). A mong t he i ndoor f orms, t wo s pecies t ypical o f r oof s paces p redominate ; P tinus t ectus a nd A nobium p unctatum . A part f rom t hese t wo, n one o f t he a bundant s pecies c ould h ave b red i n t he r oof. T here w as n o o bvious f low o f a ir t hrough t his r oof s pace, b ut t here w as a bundant e vidence t hat b irds h ad n ested o ver a l ong p eriod o f t ime.
S AMPLES F ROM A C ELLAR
T he s amples w ere c ollected f rom t he c ellar f loor a nd f rom t he l edge o f a n u nglazed w indow i n t he h ouse i n P ortland S treet. T he m aterial f rom t he f loor ( MOD F AS 1 ) g ave a l arge a ssemblage ( 703 i ndividuals, 5 0
s pecies)
o f
l ow
d iversity
( Alpha
= 1 2,
S E = 1 )
d ominated b y
s everal a bundant s pecies l ikely t o h ave b red i n t he c ellar: A ridius n odifer ( Westwood), L athridius m inutus g roup, M ycetaea h irta ( Marsham), E uophryum c onfine ( Broun), P entarthrum h uttoni W ollaston, A nobium p unctatum , C ryptophagus s scutellatus N ewman a nd C . a cutangulatus ( Gyllenhal). T he o utdoor c omponent i s s mall ( 2%), w ith a f ew s pecimens o f a m oderate n umber o f s pecies. T he s ample f rom t he w indow
l edge
( MOD
F AS
2 )
g ave
a
q uite
s mall
a ssemblage
( 157
i ndividuals, 5 9 s pecies, A lpha = 3 4, S E = 4 ) i n w hich t he o nly a bundant s pecies a re P tinus t ectus a nd L athridius m inutus g roup. T he o utdoor c omponent i s m uch l arger t han i n t he p revious p roportion ( 20%) a nd i n a bsolute n umbers.
s ample b oth i n
S AMPLE F ROM U NDER F LOORBOARDS
T his s ample ( MOD 1 20) w as c ollected f rom u nder t he h all f loor o f t he h ouse i n B elle V ue S treet. T here w as n o n earby g round l evel a ccess, b ut d ust a nd i nsects m ay h ave e ntered t hrough c racks i n t he f loorboards n ear t he d oor. T he a ssemblage i s s urprisingly l arge ( 509 i ndividuals, 1 30 t axa) a nd d iverse ( Alpha = 5 6, S E = 4 ). S pider b eetles ( Ptinus t ectus, N iptus h ololeucus ( Faldermann) a nd T ipnus u nicolor ( Piller a nd M itterpacher) a re a bundant, a nd s ome o f t he o ther
s pecies
m ight
h ave
b red
u nder
t he
f loor
P entarthrum h uttoni). S pecies a ssociated w ith d ecaying m atter a re p redominant. T here a re, h owever, o f
' outdoor'
A notylus b uilding.
s pecies
( %0B = 1 0.2)
t etracarinatus
( 14%),
a nd t he m ost a bundant
u nlikely
1 00
( for
t o
h ave
e xample
r elatively d ry m any s pecimens b red
s pecies i s i n
t he
D ISCUSSION
C learly l arge n umbers o f i nsect c orpses f rom 'outdoor' h abitats m ay b ecome d eposited w ithin b uildings. T hese i nsects m ay e nter i n t hree w ays: h uman i mportation - b elieved t o b e n egligible i n t he p resent c ases, e xcept p erhaps f or s ome w ood-feeders i n t he c ellar; a s r esult o f t he a ctivities o f b irds a nd o ther i nsectivores u ndoubtedly r esponsible
f or m any c orpses
i n M OD F AS 3 ;
a nd
a
t hrough
t heir o wn a ctivity, p rincipally i n f light - a s s eems l ikely i n t he c ase o f M OD F AS 1 /1 a nd M OD F AS 4 . M any o f t he o utdoor s pecies i n M OD 1 20 a lso s eem l ikely t o h ave a rrived o n t he w ing, a lthough i n t his c ase,
a nd t he
w indow
l edge
s ample,
a
p roportion
m ay
h ave
c rawled.
I nsects, e specially s mall s pecies, h ave l ittle i mmediate c ontrol o ver t he d irection o f t heir f light, b eing c arried w ith t he a ir f low. T hey a re
t hus
l ikely t o
b e
d eposited
i n
m uch
t he
s ame
w ay
a s
i nanimate p articles, r emaining s uspended i n f ast a ir s treams a nd b eing d eposited i n ' dead s paces' w here a ir m oves s lowly. R oofs ( and b uildings i n g eneral) w ith a t hrough-flow o f a ir e nclose s uch a d ead s pace.
T he a ssemblages f rom t he r oof s paces m ay b e c ompared w ith t hose f rom e xternal r oof g utters ( Kenward 1 976 a nd u npublished). M OD F AS 1 /1 a nd M OD F AS 4 g ave a ssemblages w hich a re s ubjectively v ery l ike t he s ample M OD 1 5, f rom a r oof g ulley i n t he c entre o f Y ork, e specially i n t he a bundant A notylus t etracarinatus ( Kenward 1 976); t he d ifferences a re e asily e xplained b y d ifferences i n t he s urroundings ( Kenward a nd S tone f orthcoming). O n t he o ther h and, M OD F AS 3 , f rom t he o ccupied r oof s pace, i s v ery r eminiscent o f a s ample f rom a r oof i n s uburban Y ork ( Kenward, u npublished). T his, t oo, g ave a n a ssemblage d ominated b y A mara a nd S itona s pecies, a lso a pparently d eposited b y b irds.
H ow a pplicable a re t hese r esults t o t he i nterpretation o f a rchaeological d eposits? T he p resent a ssemblages p robably d iffer f rom m ost i ndoor a rchaeological o nes i n h aving a ccumulated o ver l ong p eriods o f t ime ( perhaps t he w hole l ife o f t he h ouses i n t he c ase o f t he r oofs a nd u nderfloor c avity), a nd b eing p reserved b y a c ombination o f d ryness, s oot a nd m ortar r ather t han w aterlogging. I n a ddition, m ost c ontain r ecently i ntroduced a liens i n l arge n umbers: A ridius s pp., E uophryum c onfine, P entarthrum h uttoni a nd P tinus t ectus.
H uman i mportation w as p robably a l ittle m ore i mportant i n t he p ast t han i n t he d eposits e xamined h ere, s ince t here i s a bundant e vidence t hat a v ariety o f o rganic m aterials i nsects w ere, i n m ost p eriods, i ncorporated
i nto
t heir
s tructure.
l ikely t o c ontain l ive a nd d ead c arried i nto b uildings o r T here a re,
h owever,
f ew c ases
w here s pecimens c an c onfidently b e s aid t o h ave b een i mported i n t his w ay. S mall n umbers o f i ndividuals w ill b e h ard t o d istinguish
1 01
f rom t hose w hich a rrived b y n atural d ispersal. T wo c ases m ay b e c ited: t he f lightless h eathland w eevil S trophosomus s us S tephens a t t he L loyds B ank s ite ( Hall e t a l. 1 983); a nd s ome w oodland s pecies b elieved ( Kenward
t o
h ave
b een i mported
i n m oss
t o a m edieval s ite i n O slo
f orthcoming a ).
I nsects o riginating i n b ird d roppings a re g enerally e asily r ecognised; a n a rchaeological e xample i s c ited b y G irling ( 1977) a nd t he c haracteristics o f s pecimens o f t his k ind o utlined b y K enward ( 1976, 1 0). T here a re f ew s pecimens f rom u rban d eposits s eemingly f alling i n t his c ategory, b ut t he p ossible i ntroduction o f l arge n umbers o f s pecimens b y b irds m ust a lways b e k ept i n m ind. A n e xample m ay b e p rovided b y t he p utlog h oles i n t he m asonry i n t he c hurch o f S t M ary B ishophill J unior ( Kenward f orthcoming b ). O bviously, t he p rimary f actor a ffecting t his c omponent w ill b e t he p resence o f i nsectivores; e vidence o f t hese w ill b e u seful i n a rriving
a t
a d escription o f
t he b uilding i n w hich d eposition t ook
p lace.
T ransport b y w ind o r f light l eaves n o d istinguishing m arks o n f ossils b ut d eath a ssemblage s tructure a nd c omposition m ay p rovide c lues; o n u rban s ites, v ery h igh d iversity a nd a l arge c oncentration o r p ercentage o f O B i s g enerally, o f a l arge b ackground c omponent.
b ut n ot r igidly,
t aken a s e vidence
F actors a ffecting t he d eposition o f t he f light c omponent o f b ackground f auna a re m entioned a bove. I ts r elative i mportance i n a rchaeological a ssemblages i s l ikely t o h ave b een d etermined b y f actors a ffecting, f irstly, t he a bundance o f a utochthones.
a irflow a nd d eposition a nd,
s econdly,
I f t here i s n o a irflow t hrough a b uilding, f lying i nsects c an o nly e nter t hrough e ddies o r i n d irected f light a nd t he n umbers a re n ot l ikely t o b e v ery l arge i n m ost c ases; t his i s s upported b y t he s amples f rom c ellars ( MOD F AS 1 , M OD F AS 2 ), w here t he d eposit b y t he o pening c ontained m any m ore s pecies a nd i ndividuals o f o utdoor i nsects t han t he d eposit o n t he f loor t wo m etres a way. M igrating i nsects s eem u nlikely t o f ly i nto d ark, r elatively c ool p laces. I t i s,
h owever,
p ossible
t hat
s ome
s pecies f ound i n a rchaeological
d eposits, f or e xample H eterogaster u rticae ( Fabricius), e ntered b uildings t o h ibernate. W ithout a t hrough-flow o f a ir, t he n umbers e ntering t he b uilding a re l ikely t o b e p roportional t o t he s ize o f t he h oles a vailable - w hether d oors, M any i nsects,
h aving e ntered,
m ight
w indows, o f c ourse
s moke h oles
o r c racks.
l eave a gain.
I f t here i s a t hrough-flow, t he q uantity o f a ir p assing a nd t he m agnitude o f t he v elocity d rop w ill b e i mportant d eterminants o f s ettling r ate. T he t imes w hen t he a pertures a re o pen w ill a lso h ave a n e ffect; t hey m ust b e o pen w hen t he i nsects a re o n t he w ing. T his m ay l ead t o s election i n f avour o f p articular s pecies, f or e xample t hose f lying o n v ery h ot d ays o r o n m uggy e venings. I t i s
1 02
c onceivable, b ut n ot t hought l ikely, t hat t he C arpelimusbilineatus S tephens f ound i n q uantity i n m any s amples f rom a t t he L loyds B ank s ite e ntered i n t his w ay.
T he
p ossibility
t hat
l arge
c omponents o f
b ackground
f auna m ay b e
d eposited i n b uildings i f t he c onditions a re r ight c asts d oubt o n o ur a bility t o d etermine w hether d eposits f ormed i ndoors o r o ut. H ow r elevant i s F ew o f t hem ,
t his t o t he a rchaeological b uildings s o f ar e xamined? i f a ny, h ave l arge c oncentrations o r p ercentages o f O B
o r h igh d iversity w hen c ompared w ith m odern o utdoor d eposits, o r w ith a rchaeological d eposits b elieved o n o ther e vidence t o h ave f ormed o utdoors. T his s uggests t hat t he c onclusions d rawn r egarding t he L loyds B ank d eposits w ere c orrect; t he l ayers i ndeed f ormed i ndoors, i n b uildings w hich i t n ow a ppears w ere k ept w ell c losed, o r p erhaps h ad o nly s ingle s mall o penings.
C ONCLUSION
T hese o bservations e mphasise, y et a gain, t he n eed f or c aution i n t he i nterpretation o f i nsect a ssemblages f rom a rchaeological d eposits. I n p articular, m ore m odern a nd a ncient c omparative m aterial m ust b e e xamined. I nterpretations m ade w ithout s uch c omparisons a re l ikely t o b e n o m ore t han g uesses. I nterpretation o f d eath a ssemblages f rom w ithin b uildings p resents a v ariety o f s pecial p roblems. H owever, t here i s n o r eason t o d espair w here t here i s a g ood a rchaeological r ecord: i n s uch c ases, w e h ave a t ool t o d etermine, a mong o ther t hings, h ow w ell v entilated b uildings w ere, s urely a n i mportant f actor
i n d escribing p ast h uman l ife.
A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I a m g rateful
t o J im S priggs a nd P atrick O ttaway f or a ccess
t o
t heir
h omes t o c ollect m aterial; t o F ionnagh S tone, w ho c arried o ut t he p ractical w ork a nd p reliminary a nalyses o f c ertain s amples; t o F rances L arge, A lan R obertson a nd P hilip T homas, w ho p rocessed a nd m ounted t he g reater p art o f t he m aterial; a nd t o m y c olleagues i n t he E AU f or
t heir c omments o n t he m anuscript.
R EFERENCES
A ddyman, F isher,
P .
V ., a nd H all, A . R . ( forthcoming). A rchaeology o f Y ork 8 . R . —Ä ., C orbet, A . S . a nd W illiams, C . B . ( 1943). T he r elationship b etween n umber
o f
t he
i ndividuals
n umber
o f
s pecies
p opulation. J ournal o f A nimal E cology 1 2,
1 03
a nd
t he
i n a r andom s ample o f a n a nimal 4 2-58.
G irling,
M .
H all,
R .,
A .
A . ( 1977). B ird p ellets f rom a S omerset L evels N eolithic T rackway. T he N aturalist 1 02, 4 9-52.
K enward, H . K ., W illiams, D . a nd G reig, J .R.A. ( 1983). E nvironment a nd l iving c onditions a t t wo A ngloS candinavian s ites. A rchaeology o f Y ork 1 4 ( 4), 1 57-240 p lus f iche 1 . L ondon, C ouncil f or B ritish A rchaeology. H . K . ( 1975). P itfalls i n t he e nvironmental i nterpretation
K enward,
o f i nsect d eath a ssemblages. J ournal o f a rchaeological S cience 2 , 8 5-94. H . K . ( 1976). R econstructing a ncient e cological c onditions f rom i nsect r emains: s ome p roblems a nd a n e xperimental a pproach. E cological E ntomology 1 , 7 -17. H . K . ( 1978). T he a nalysis o f a rchaeological i nsect
K enward,
K enward,
a ssemblages: a n ew a pproach. A rchaeology o f Y ork 1 9 1 -68. L ondon, C ouncil f or B ritish A rchaeology. K enward, K enward,
H . K . ( forthcoming a ). I nsect r emains f rom G amlebyen, O slo. H . K . ( forthcoming b ). I nsect r emains f rom p utlog h oles. I n B riden, C . a nd B uckland, P . C ., T he C hurch o f S t M ary
K enward,
H .
B ishophill J unior'. A rchaeology o f Y ork 8 . K ., H all, A . R . a nd J ones, A . K . G . ( forthcoming). r oofs
K enward,
M ay,
( 1),
R . M .
H .
T urf
a nd u rban a rchaeological b uild-up.
K . a nd S tone, F . A . ( forthcoming). E xperimental i nvestigations o f t he 'background c omponent' i n u rban i nsect d eath a ssemblages.
( 1975). P atterns o f s pecies a bundance a nd d iversity. i n M . L . C ody a nd J . M . D iamond ( eds.), E cology a nd E volution o f C ommunities ( Cambridge, M ass.) 8 1-120.
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E nv ironmen t 2
S era l s tages t o e nv ironmen t
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F igure 9
P ossible
t rajectories
o f c hange
f rom a n e xtension o f w oodland c leared
a rea,
l iving
s nail
p hase
a re
l ocation I I
i s
c ommunities a t t aken
a s
i n
l and-snail c ommunities
c learance.
S ampling
i n a n a rea w hich b ecomes
e ach
t ime-zero;
s ite
j ust p rior
s ubsequent
t o
c hanges
I i t i s a ssumed t hat t here T he p ossible c hanges a t s ite
t he
T he v arious
T he
c learance
a re r eflected s oils.
i n A t
i s n o c hange i n t he m olluscs o ver I I a re n umerous; t hey m ay b e
r apid
o r
p hases c ould
o f d evelopment o f v arious t rajectories o f c hange; e ach b lock r epresent t he m ollusc s equence which c ould b e p reserved i n a
s oil
s low.
i n a
c leared.
t he a ge-stratified a ssemblages w hich a re p reserved i n t he s ite t ime.
r esulting
l ocation I i s
b uried a t v arious
t imes
i ntermediate
s ituations
f undamental
a lternatives
a re
b ut
b etween
t hem.
c onnect
a t
o ne
a ny
c ommunities
t ime; ( as
t he
a fter
c learance.
O bviously,
c ould h ave b een i llustrated,
a re e qually p robable, A rrows
b locks w ithin t he d iagram s how v arious
i t
p resented h ere.
i s
n ot
p ossible
t hose h istograms
t rajectories
r epresented a t
t o
s ite
I )
s top
b ut
N ot a ll
when
t he t he
s ome
o ther o f
t he
t rajectories
c hoose, f or
m any
a
p riori,
l iving s nails e quilibrium
h ave b ecome e stablished.
WOODLAND
CLEARANCE
r
V A
> 7
KE Y
7
A dINf 103
> 7
D I1 OHIV3
1 00 %
0
F igure 1 0
P ossible t rajectories o f c hange i n l and-snail c ommunities r esulting f rom a t emporary l ocalised c learing i n w oodland. ' S' i s t he s ampling l ocation. T he l iving l and-snail c ommunity i n t he w oodland j ust b efore
t he
c reation o f
t he
c learance
i s
t aken t o
a nd s ubsequent a ssemblages b ecome i ncorporated f ossil a ssemblages. T he a rrows l ink h istograms
b e
t ime i n t he l iving s nail c ommunities. Various p ossible b ut n ot a ll a re e qually p robable ( e.g. i t t hat
t he a ssemblages w ill
r esult
o f
t he
t ime-zero;
t rajectories a re i s n ot l ikely
s how a bsolutely n o e cological
e nvironmental
s hifts;
e qually,
t he a ssemblages w ould r eflect
c hanges
f rom
t his
i nto t he s oil a s s ubs howing c hanges o ver
i t
f ully
i s
c hanges a s a
i mprobable
s haded
t o
t hat f ully
o pen c onditions, a nd t hen b ack a gain, o ver a s hort t ime-span). M odels o f t his s ort w ere u sed b y T homas ( 1982) i n r econstructing t he p robable E ngland.
e nvironmental
s etting o f
n eolithic
e nclosures
i n
S ussex,
WOODLAND
r "--
\
CLEAR ING
REGENERAT I ON
C o
A
OPEN -
W OODLAND
COUNTRY
CATHOL IC
SHADE LOV ING
F igure 1 1
A ge
( time)-depth
r elationships
V arious m odels a re L inear
i n l and-snail
i llustrated
t ime-depth
( see
f unction
f or
I I:
a ssemblages o f s hells. A m ore r ealistic d ecreasing
I II.
T he m ost a
r ealistic m odel,
m aximum
i ncreased
l imit, d epth,
a nd
A d evelopment
I V
V I:
A n e xtreme m odel
i ncorporation o f
s nail
p robable
V :
s hells o f
a ge-mixed
a t
t he
s tratified
a re
l owered t o
a ssemblages w ith ( and
p edological
p ossibly
l imiting d epth.
s hells a re m oved u pwards
i n w hich y ounger
o f a t hin
f rom s oils.
p ower-function.
a ssemblages
A m odel i n w hich s ome o lder p rofile b y w orm a ction. o f
a ssemblages
f or d iscussion).
a ge-compression
I V:
b iological a nd o ther
t he
i n w hich
w ith
e cologically-mixed)
t ext
s hells
a re m oved
i n t he d own b y
p rocesses.
s oil w ith i ntense
s oil m ixing.
Age
V I •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1•• • • • ••• • ••• • ••• • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . . . . . .
Age-s tra t if ied a sse mb lages
M ixed a ssemb lages
l n tr us ive
e lemen ts
F igure 1 2
S cales o f e nvironmental r esolution. A h ypothetical m odel o f a l andscape w ith t hree m ajor h abitat u nits a nd a s ampling l ocation i n a c ontext w hich h as a ccumulated a nd p reserved a ssemblages o f l and s nails. T he c ontext o f t he s amples i s l ocated i n a r elatively s mall a rea o f ' local e nvironment'. C atchment I : h ere, t he m olluscs w ould o nly b e a ccumulated f rom s pecies C atchment I I:
l iving w ithin t he c ontext
i tself.
h ere, s nail s hells w ould b e d erived f rom t hose i n t he c ontext a nd t hose o f t he l ocal e nvironment.
E tc. f or C atchments I II a nd I V. A m ajor p roblem l ies i n i nterpreting t he t rue n ature o f t he l andscape e ven i f, a s i n t he c ase o f c atchment I V, t he c ontext i s r eceiving i nformation f rom a ll a vailable h abitats. A ssemblages o r c ommunities l iving n ear t o t he s ampling c ontext w ould b e o verr epresented i n t he f inal a ssemblage. I t i s a lso d ifficult t o r econstruct
t he
s patial a rrangement
i t i s d etected. T he m odel a pplies
t o v arious
s cales
o f
t he h abitat m osaic - e ven i f
o f a nalysis:
C ontext
L ocal E nvt.
H abitat
A rable f ield
A rea o f m ixed
O pen g rassland
1
H abitat 2
H abitat 3
W oodland
D ense w oods
f arming P it
i n v alley
S ettlement
D ry-valley f loor
D amp h ollow
L ush
D itch
v egetation
V alley s ides
p asture
C oarse A rable v egetation f ield
T he m ollusc b ar-charts, w ith t he e xception f or t hat o f i ndicate o nly a f ew o f
U pland
c atchment I ,
t he h uge v ariety o f p ossible c ombinations.
S ca le?
S amp le
l ocat ion
H ab i ta t 1
Con text
H ab ita t 2
L oca l e nv ironmen t
H ab ita t 3
MOLLUSC
BAR - CHARTS
c a tchmen t I
' I l l
I V
FLANDRIAN MOLLUSCAN B IOSTRATIGRAPHY AND ITS APPLICATION TO DRY VALLEY I NFILL DE POSITS I N E AST S USSEX.
C aroline E llis D epartment o f G eology R oyal S chool o f M ines I mperial C ollege o f S cience a nd T echnology U niversity o f L ondon L ondon S W7 2 AZ
A BSTRACT
F landrian m olluscan b iozones h ave b een e stablished b y w ork c arried o ut i n K ent ( Kerney 1 977; K erney, P reece a nd T urner 1 980) a nd h ave b een c orrelated w ith t he p ollen b iozones b y r adiocarbon d ating. T hese m olluscan z ones h ave e nabled b iostratigraphical c orrelations b etween d eposits i n d ifferent p arts o f s outhern E ngland a nd h ave b een a pplied t o d ry v alley i nfill d eposits
i n
t he
S outh
D owns
a t
A sham Q uarry n ear L ewes a nd a t t he D evil's D yke n ear B righton. S ections t hrough t hese i nfill d eposits r eveal L ate-glacial d eposits o f s hattered c halk f ragments a nd c halky s ilts o f s olifluxion o rigin, o verlain b y a P ostglacial s oil t hat h as b een b uried b y c olluvial ( hillwash) d eposits. T he P ostglacial d eposits c an a ll b e a ssigned t o m olluscan b iozones d , e a nd f , r epresenting a t ime p eriod o f a pproximately 6 000 B .P.
I NTRODUCTION:
t o
t he p resent d ay.
P REVIOUS W ORK
M ost Q uaternary p alaeoenvironmental s tudies h ave b een c arried o ut i n n on-calcareous a reas o n f ossil p ollen, p lant m acrofossils a nd c oleopteran r emains, t hereby e xcluding t he c halk a nd l imestone a reas o f B ritain. I n c alcareous a reas i t i s o nly u nder e xceptional c onditions o f w aterlogging o r i n s ubaqueous e nvironments t hat p ollen i s p reserved. T hese s ediments a re u sually t otally o xidized, s uitable o nly f or t he p reservation o f m ollusc S ome
p alaeoecological
w ork
h as
s hells,
b een
c harcoal a nd b one.
c arried o ut
i n t hese a reas.
E vans ( 1972) h as s tudied s tratified m olluscan r emains i n a n a rchaeological c ontext o n t he C hilterns a nd o n S alisbury P lain : O n t he N orth D owns i n K ent, K erney ( 1963, 1 977), K erney, B rown a nd C handler ( 1964), a nd K erney, P reece a nd T urner ( 1980) h ave s tudied t he m olluscan s uccession i n d ry v alleys p resent d ay. O n t he S outh D owns, T homas
f rom t he L ate-glacial t o t he ( 1982) h as s tudied n eolithic
e nclosures a nd a ssociated f ossil m olluscs a nd B ell ( 1981) h as u sed m olluscs t o r econstruct t he p rehistoric l and u se a round t he s ettlement a reas a t I tford H ill a nd a t B ullock D own.
T he
m olluscan
s uccession i n d ry v alleys h as b een s tudied b y E llis ( 1983) t o c ompare w ith t he b iozones e stablished i n t he N orth D owns b y K erney ( 1977).
T hese
b iozones
s pan t he L ate-glacial a nd t he F landrian a nd
a re b ased o n t he o ccurrence o f c hanging
d ominance.
c ertain i ndicator s pecies
I n z ones y t o d i nclusive,
1 57
a nd
t he c hanges
t heir a re d ue
t o m igration r eflecting c limatic a nd n atural v egetation c hange w hereas t he f aunas o f b iozones e a nd f r esult f rom t he i nfluence o f m an o n t he e nvironment: c learing a reas o f w oodland, c reating o penc ountry c onditions a nd i ntroducing a lien s pecies. T he b iozones a re s hown i n a n i dealised d iagram w ith m odifications f rom w ork i n S ussex ( Fig.
1 ).
I n t he L ate-glacial p eriod ( molluscan b iozones y a nd z ) t here i s a r estricted o pen-country a ssemblage. B iozone z d iffers f rom y b y t he a ppearance o f t he t hermophile, A bida s ecale ( Draparnaud). T he e arly P ostglacial b iozones a a nd b a re c haracterised b y t he d ecline o f t he o pen-country g enera a nd t he e xpansion o f w oodland s pecies i ncluding D iscus r uderatus b iozones c a nd
( Ferussac), a s pecies n ow e xtinct i n B ritain. I n d t he w oodland g enera p redominate u ntil f orest
c learance w hich m arks
t he b ase o f
b iozone
e .
T hese
a nthropogenic
b iozones ( e a nd f ) a re c haracterised b y t he r e-expansion o f t he o pen-country g enera a nd t he a ppearance a nd s ubsequent e xpansion o f m any
o f
( Müller) ( Kerney
t he
i ntroduced s pecies.
W ithin z one e , M onacha c artusiana
a ppears, t his s pecies i s t hought 1 970) t hat c olonises a reas a fter
c ultivation.
t o b e a m olluscan " weed" t hey h ave b een c leared f or
Z one f i s d efined b y t he a ppearance
o f
H elix
a spersa
M uller ( the c ommon g arden s nail) w hich i s a M editerranean s pecies t hat i s t hought t o h ave b een i ntroduced i nto l owland B ritain d uring t he R omano-British p eriod. T hroughout t his z one m any o ther a lien m olluscan s pecies C ernuella v irgata
a ppear. W ork i n S ussex h as e stablished t hat ( da C osta) a nd C andidula g igaxii ( Pfeiffer) a rrive
a fter H .
a nd
a spersa,
t hat C andidula i ntersecta
( Poiret)
a nd M onacha
c antiana ( Montagu) a re v ery r ecent i mmigrants a s t hey a re f ound o nly i n t he t opsoil ( Ellis 1 983). O ther v ery l ate z one f i ntroductions i nto B ritain i nclude C ochicella a cuta ( Müller) w hich i s f ound v ery o ccasionally i n f ossil c ontexts, t he a ge o f w hich a re u ncertain, a nd H ygromia l imbata ( Draparnaud) a nd H . c inctella ( Draparnaud), s outhern E uropean s pecies t hat a re k nown t o b e t wentieth c entury i ntroductions
t o
t he T orquay a rea
( Kerney
1 966).
T he e stablishment o f t hese m olluscan b iozones h as a llowed b iostratigraphical c orrelations b etween d eposits i n d ifferent p arts o f s outhern E ngland. T hey h ave b een a pplied i n E ast S ussex t o s ections a t A sham Q uarry n ear L ewes a nd a t t he D evil's D yke n ear B righton. B oth o f t hese s ites a re s carp f ace d ry v alleys t hat h ave b een i nfilled f irst b y L ate-glacial c halky s olifluxion d eposits a nd s lope w ash, a nd l ater b y P ostglacial c olluvial d eposits, o ften b urying a s oil t hat f ormed d uring t he w oodland b iozones p rior t o c learance. T he e arliest P ostglacial s ediments f ound a t t hese s ites c ontain a z one d m olluscan a ssemblage. T he a bsence o f t he e arlier b iozones ( a - c i nclusive) i s a ttributed t o p hysical-chemical p rocesses w ithin t he s oil, s oil l oss t hrough e rosion a nd t he g radual d estruction o f t he s hells b y c orrosion a nd s olution. T he s hells f ound i n t he b uried s oils a re u sually o f m ixed p reservation d ue t o s olution w hich r esults i n a n o ver-representation o f t he s helled s pecies s uch a s C lausiliidae a nd P omatias e legans a nd a n u nder-representation o f
t hin
s helled
s pecies
s uch
r obust a s
t he
Z onitidae. A f ragmentary r ecord o f t he e arlier b iozones m ay h owever o ccasionally b e f ound i n t hese d ry v alleys i n c hance s ubsoil h ollows, p reserved s tratigraphically u nderlying a nthropogenic c olluvium.
1 58
b eneath
t he
b uried
s oils
T wo
s ites w ill b e d iscussed i n d etail
t o i llustrate t he
s equence
o f
t he m olluscan s uccession o n t he S outh D owns.
A SHAM Q UARRY
( TQ 4 40061)
H olocene d eposits w ere f irst s tudied a t t his Q uarry i n t he l ate 1 960's b y E vans a nd W illiams ( Williams 1 971), w ho s tudied L ateg lacial s olifluxion d eposits w hich w ere f ound t o c ontain m olluscan a ssemblages o f b iozones y a nd
z .
T his
p articular
s ection
i s
n o
l onger a ccessible b ut q uarrying i n t he l ate 1 970's p rovided n ew s ections t hrough L ate-glacial a nd P ostglacial d ry v alley i nfill d eposits. T hese c onsist o f L ate-glacial s olifluxion d eposits o f u nstratified c halk r ubbles i nterbedded w ith p ockets o f s ilt t hat a re o verlain b y a b rown P ostglacial s oil i n t urn b uried b y c olluviation. A lso p resent a re s ubsoil h ollows t hat a re o verlain b y t he b uried s oil ( Fig. 2 ). F rom t he s outh s ection t wo c olumns o f s amples w ere t aken f or m olluscan a nalysis a nd t he r esults f rom c olumn A a re p resented i n a p ercentage h istogram ( Fig. 3 ). T he s pecies a re p lotted i n a n o rder o f e cological p reference, w oodland s pecies o n t he l eft, i ntermediate i n t he c entre a nd o pen-country s pecies o n t he r ight ( a p lus s ign i ndicates
l ess
t han 1 % o f
t he t otal).
T he L ate-glacial d eposits w ere f ound t o c ontain a z one z a ssemblage o f T richia h ispida ( L.), A . s ecale, P upilla m uscorum ( L.), P unctum p ygmaeum ( Draparnaud) a nd N esovitrea h ammonis ( Ström). B etween t he L ate-glacial d eposits a nd t he e arliest r ecord o f t he P ostglacial i n t he s ubsoil h ollow ,
a h iatus o f
s everal t housand y ears o ccurs.
T he s ubsoil h ollow ( column B ) c ontains a w oodland f auna ( biozone d ) c haracterised b y D iscus r otundatus ( Müller) a nd O xychilus c ellarius ( Müller). T owards t he t op o f t he h ollow A cicula f usca ( Montagu) o ccurs, a s pecies t hat i s c onsidered t o b e a l ate z one d i mmigrant. S ubsoil h ollows a re v ery c ommon i n c halk a reas; t hose s tudied b y E vans ( 1972) a t A scott-under-Wychwood a nd a t A vebury c ontain w oodland a ssemblages s imilar t o t hose a t A sham . T he o rigin o f t hese h ollows i s s till a m atter o f d ebate. E vans ( 1972) c onsiders t hem t o f orm w hen a t ree i s b lown o ver l eaving a c avity w hich i s g radually f illed b y t he i nwashing o f t he s urrounding s oil. A lternatively t hey c ould h ave f ormed b y a ny o ne o f a n umber o f p rocesses i ncluding s olution, s ubsidence, o r e xcavation b y f rost o r b y m an. T he h ollow a t A sham w as p robably f illed r ather r apidly a s i ts c ontents s how o nly a w eak l ithological a nd b iological s tratification. O verlying t he L ate-glacial d eposits
a nd
t he s ubsoil h ollow i s a w ell
d eveloped d ark s oil t hat r epresents t he a ncient s oil t hat c overed t he v alley s ides a nd b ottom . T his s oil c an b e d ivided i nto a l ower s tone-free h orizon
a nd
a n
u pper
s tony
h orizon.
T he
s tone-free
h orizon r epresents t he i n s itu s oil a nd c ontains a w oodland f auna o f C arychium t ridentatum ( Risso), D . r otundatus, A egopinella p ura ( Alder), A egopinella n itidula ( Draparnaud) a nd O . c ellarius. T he u pper s tony h orizon c ontains l arge n umbers o f s mall c halk f ragments t hat h ave b een r emoved f rom t he c halk b edrock o n t he v alley s ides
1 59
a nd
m ixed
a nd
t ransported
w ith
t he
s oil
c overing
t o
t he v alley
b ottom . A t t he j unction o f t hese h orizons t here i s a m arked c hange i n t he M ollusca f rom a z one d w oodland a ssemblage t o a z one e o penc ountry a ssemblage, r eflecting c learance a nd t he o nset o f c olluviation. T his c hange i n e nvironmental c onditions i s s hown c learly b y t he m arked e xpansion o f t he V allonia s pecies a nd o f H elicella i tala ( L.), a nd b y a p eak i n t he a bundance o f P . e legans, a s pecies
t hat r equires a l oose r ubbly s ubstrate i n w hich
t o b urrow.
T he c olluvial d eposits ( including t he t ransported s oil) r epresent t he r emoval o f t he s urface m aterial u nder t he i nfluence o f g ravity, a p rocess w hich h as b een a ccelerated b y t he d estruction o f t he p rotective v egetation c over. A ll t he M ollusca f ound i n t hese s ediments a re o pen-country s pecies a nd c an b e a ssigned t o b iozone e . S ections o n t he n orth s ide o f t he r oad-cutting s how a m ore c omplete s tratigraphy, m ore r ecent c olluvial d eposits ( biozone f ) b eing p reserved h ere. M olluscan a nalysis s hows a s imilar s equence o f e vents, w ith t he o ldest s ubsoil h ollow a nd w ith a c ountry
s pecies
P ostglacial d eposits b eing f ound i n a m arked c hange f rom w oodland t o o pen
i n t he o verlying b uried s oil.
W ithin t he s oil t here
w as a c harcoal-rich h orizon, s tratigraphically a bove t he c learance l evel. C arbonised s eeds f rom t his l ayer h ave b een i dentified b y D r D .T. H olyoak a s s pecies t hat a re s econdary c olonisers o f b are c ultivated g round h ederifolia L .)
( e.g.
P lantago
l anceolata
L .
a nd
V eronica
I n t he u pper c olluvial d eposits a z one f m olluscan a ssemblage o ccurs; i n t hese s ediments t he m ore r ecently i ntroduced h elicellids ( C. v irgata, C . g igaxii a nd C . i ntersecta) a ppear a nd e xpand i n n umbers, w ith a c orresponding d ecline o f H . i tala a nd M . c artusiana. T he
e vidence
a t
A sham
d emonstrates
t hat
t he
v alley
a nd
t he
s urrounding d ownland w ere o nce w ooded. T his s upports t he p ollen w ork o f T horley ( 1981) a t t he V ale o f B rooks w ho s howed t hat t his a rea o f t he D owns w as o nce w ooded a nd t hat c learance c an b e d ated t o 3 190 + 1 25 B .P. ( I - 4 454). S ubsequent c learance o f t he w oodland f or c ultivation a ccelerated s oil e rosion a nd a s a r esult t he s oil o n t he v alley f loor w as b uried a nd b ecome
i ncreasingly
c halky
p reserved. u pwards
T hese
c olluvial
s ediments
r eflecting a n i ncrease i n t he
b edrock c omponent o f t he s oil. T he u pper c olluvial d eposits a re l ithologically s imilar t o t he p resent d ay s oil c over o n t he d ownland s lopes a nd c ontain a s imilar o pen-country f auna.
D EVIL'S D YKE
( TQ 2 66201)
T his i s a w ell k nown S ussex l andmark e scarpment, s outh o f P oynings. I ts f orm i s
c ut i nto t he f ace o f t he e ssentially s imilar t o
t he m any o ther c halkland s carp f ace d ry v alleys s uch a s R ake B ottom, H ampshire ( Small 1 968, G ordon a nd S hakesby 1 973, S hakesby 1 975) a nd P egsdon, H ertfordshire ( Sparks a nd L ewis 1 957). I n 1 982 a nd 1 983 s even p its w ere e xcavated i n t he f loor o f t he D yke. T hey a ll s howed a s imilar s tratigraphy o f c halky, c olluvial
1 60
p ostglacial s ediments 2 -3m t hick o verlying s olifluxion d eposits o f p robable D evensian a ge. I n t he p it f urthest d own t he v alley ( TQ 2 6641053) a b uried s oil 3 0cm t hick w as d iscovered a t a d epth o f 2 05cm l ying d irectly o n t op o f L ate-glacial d eposits. T he p it h ighest u p t he v alley ( TQ 2 6641027) w as s ampled t he m ost f ully a s i t s howed t he m ost d etailed s tratigraphy, i ncluding a c harcoal-rich l ayer w ith a ssociated p ottery f ragments. ( Fig. 4 ). A m olluscan h istogram ( Fig. 5 ) h as b een c onstructed f rom t he s amples f rom P it 1 . T he b asal P ostglacial s ediments ( 170-200cm) c ontained a w oodland f auna o f C . t ridentatum , D . r otundatus, V ertigo p usilla M uller, H elicigona l apicida ( L)., C ochlodina l aminata ( Montagu), C lausilia b identata ( Ström) a nd Z onitidae. A t 1 70cm t here i s a c hange t o a m ore o pen-country f auna w ith V . c ostata, V ertigo p ygmaea ( Draparnaud) a nd H . i tala e xpanding r apidly. V . c ostata b ecomes t he d ominant s pecies b etween 1 40 a nd 7 0cm c omprising u p t o 5 5% o f t he f auna; t his i s b ecause i t i s a p ioneering s pecies a ble t o c olonise p oorly v egetated h abitats s uch a s l and t hat h as b een c leared o f i ts v egetation c over a nd u ndergoing s oil e rosion. V . c ostata t ends t o p refer d rier h abitats t han Vallonia e xcentrica S terki ( Evans 1 972) a nd t he c hange i n r elative d ominance
t hat o ccurs a bove 7 0cm
c an
b e
a ttributed t o s uccessional p rocesses t owards a m ature e cological c ommunity. A s t he g round c over i ncreases a fter c learance, t he s oil b ecomes m ore s table a nd s o t he m icrohabitats b ecome m ore h umid. A t t he s ame
t ime m olluscan c ompetition f or t hese
i ncreased.
h abitats
i s
T he o ccurrence a t 3 0-40cm o f Vallonia p ulchella
g reatly ( Müller),
a h ygrophilous s pecies, a lso i ndicates a c hange t o d amper c onditions. T he r e-expansion o f t he s hade-loving g enera a t t he t op o f t he s ection i s a r eflection o f t he t all g rassland v egetation c overing t he s ite t oday - a g rassland p lagioclimax c ommunity. I n t he c olluvial d eposits a t t he D evil's D yke t he m olluscan s uccession i s s imilar t o t hat a t A sham Q uarry. W ithin b iozone e M . c artusiana a rrives a nd e xpands. T his l evel a t t he D yke h as b een r adiocarbon d ated t o 2 315+35 B .P. ( BM 2 137). T his p ostdates c learance a s t he c harcoal l ayer i s 3 0cm a bove t he b ase o f b iozone e . Z one f i s a lso r epresented a t t he D yke i n t he u pper c olluvial d eposits a nd i n t he t opsoil s amples w here M onacha c antiana ( Montagu) a nd C . i ntersecta, v ery l ate i ntroductions, o ccur. T he e arliest d ated r ecord o f M . c antiana i s f rom a 4 th c entury o ccupation l evel a t L ullingstone V illa, K ent ( Kerney u npublished). S amples
f rom t he o ther
p its r evealed a s imilar m olluscan s uccession.
D etailed s ampling w as a lso c arried o ut a t t he p it f urthest d own t he v alley, t hat s howing a b uried s oil. T he m olluscs p reserved i n t his s oil w ere i n a v ery p oor c ondition b ut f ormed a w oodland a ssemblage s imilar o ther T o
t o
t hat p resent
i n
t he
b asal
c olluvial
s ediments
i n
t he
t renches.
s ummarise,
a t
t he
D evil's
D yke
t he L ate-glacial s olifluxion
d eposits c ontained n o s nails, a ny r ecovered f rom t he L ate-glacial s amples b eing c ontamination f rom t he o verlying P ostglacial s ilts. O nly i n t he p it
f urthest d own t he v alley w as a n i n s itu b uried
s oil
f ound ; c ontained M ollusca w ere a ll w oodland s pecies i ndicating t hat t he D yke a nd s urrounding d ownland w ere f ormerly c overed b y f orest. T his
w oodland
p ersisted
u ntil
p ermanent
1 61
c learance w hich p robably
t ook p lace d uring t he L ate B ronze A ge o r E arly I ron A ge. I t i s p ossible t hat t he w oodland m ay h ave b een c leared i n o rder t o b uild t he
I ron A ge F ort
T he P ostglacial c olluvial f auna;
d eposits
o rigin a t
f orest
t he i s
u nrepresented.
i n t he
t he
o f
i ncomplete, i s
o ther
b asal
p its
d eposits
w ere
A s
a nd
h aving
r epresents
a t A sham Q uarry,
t he
f irst
i n c ontrast
t o
h alf
t he
e ntirely
c ontained
i nterpreted a s
c learance
s lope w ash.
T his
t he D owns.
t herefore
o nset
s oil b y
P ostglacial
i s
o f
f ound
a lthough
t his m aterial
r apidly t he
o n t he c rest
a ccumulated
t he t he
r eworking r ecord o f
b eing
s ections
o f
a w oodland o f t he
a pparently
s tudied b y K erney
e t a l. ( 1964, 1 980) i n d ry v alleys o n t he N orth D owns w here m olluscan a ssemblages o f t he e arly p art o f t he P ostglacial a re p reserved i n t ufaceous d eposits t hat a re o verlain b y c olluvial d eposits.
D ISCUSSION
A g eneral
p icture
c an b e
a nd t he D evil's c halklands i n E ast I t
i s
t he
n ow w ell d ate o f
e stablished
p ermanent
t o v alley.
T he
a ttributed
t o
v alue
b uilt
u p
f rom t he
s tudies
a t
A sham
Q uarry
D yke o f t he e nvironmental c hanges t hat t he S ussex h ave u ndergone s ince t he m id P ostglacial. t hat
c learance
l ateness t he
t he
o f
i s k nown
t o h ave v aried
c learance
s teepness
f or a griculture o r
S outh D owns w ere w ooded a lthough
o f
a t
t he
t he v alley
f rom v alley
D evil's
s ides
a nd h ence
D yke
i s
i ts
l ow
s ettlement.
A n e cological m odel c an b e c onstructed b ased o n t he c hanges t hat t he D owns h ave u ndergone. A s a r esult o f w oodland c learance i n t hese v alleys, b y
a
b are
p eak
g round w as i n
C olonisation
o f
p ioneering w eed h ispida
a nd
D yke b y t he
e xposed a nd
a bundance t he
b are
s pecies
o f
V .
t hese
e nabling
m olluscs
p refers
c reate s uch
l ater M .
c oloniser
p lants
c artusiana h ave
t he
n itidula a nd D owns.
d ependent t he
i nfill
s uggests
T he
o n t he
c ultivated
v alley
b ecome
t hat
t his
i n
a s
p ulchella w hose o f
a
S ussex
t he
f or
l ong
p ygmaea,
W hen
t he
a
C .
H .
l ate
g rassland o f
t ridentatum,
c haracteristic
A .
l ate
t he N orth
a nd
p lagioclimax i s s tabilisation
o f
A t
t he
g rassland i n t he t able
o f
t hese d ry c olluvium
p eriods a nd h as ( Fig.
t he m olluscan b iostratigraphy
1 62
p reviously
V .
o f w eeds.
t hickness
a nd
r e-expansion
g rassland
s pecies
o ccurred
s aid
o n b oth
a rable a ctivity a nd
i s o nly c omparatively r ecently t hat e stablished. T hese c hanges a re s ummarised
A f urther a mplification o f
t he
F ollowing g rasses
m icrohabitats,
e stablished
s uch
t he D evil's
s uch a s
c ostata),
s ees
b y
s uch a s T .
t otal).
e stablished.
f irmly
e stablishment
c ultivation h as
p lace
c learly a t
e xposed
i n d ry v alley d eposits
c essation o f
t ook
( which a s
t han V .
g round b y p ioneering s ites
l ess
m olluscs
t he h ygrophilous V .
e xpansion m ay b e n oted
b oth s ites
z one d /e b oundary.
t he
c olonisers
b ecome
r eached;
s hade-loving
( 55% o f
e xcentrica
t o
t he t hen
s een m ost
h umid,
a s V .
r eflected a t
a t
s urface
l ate
c onditions
p lagioclimax e cosystem i s o f
i s
a re
i s
a nd a ssociated m olluscs
c ostata
m ore
s lightly m oister
i tala a nd
S outh
T his
c olonisers
t histles;
t his
e legans
g round
c ostata.
p lant
P .
p lants
t he d ominance o f V .
e arly
s ome
o f
i s
t hat
i t
b ecome 6 ). b ased o n
w ork a t A sham, t he D evil's D yke a nd a t C ow G ap n ear B eachy H ead. A t a ll t hese s ites t he e arliest P ostglacial d eposits c ontain a z one d a ssemblage c haracterised b y t he l ate a rrival o f A cicula f usca t owards t he e nd o f b iozone d . A fter i nitial c learance, z one e i s m arked b y t he e xpansion o f t he o pen-country g enera i ncluding M . c artusiana. T he b ase o f z one f i s d efined b y t he a rrival o f H . a spersa w hich a t a ll t hese s ites c learly p redates t he a rrival o f C . v irgata, C . g igaxii a nd C . i ntersecta. C . v irgata a nd C . g igaxii a ppear
a pproximately
s pecies
t hat a bounds a t
t ogether a ll t he
i n S ussex, s ites
w hereas C .
t oday,
i ntersecta,
o ccurs m uch l ater,
a
a nd
i t i s o nly f ound i n t he t opsoil. A ssociated w ith t he e xpansion o f C . g igaxii a nd C . v irgata i s a d ecline i n t he n umbers o f H . i tala; t his m ay b e d ue t o t he r emoval o f t he g rassland a nd i ts r eplacement b y a c leared l and s urface o r a lternatively c ould p ossibly r esult f rom c ompetition f rom t he i ntroduced h elicellid
s pecies.
C ONCLUSIONS
I n c onclusion, t he d etailed s ampling o f d ry v alley d eposits i n E ast S ussex h as e nable t he r econstruction o f t he p alaeoecological h istory o f t he D owns d uring t he l ater h alf o f t he P ostglacial a nd a d irect c omparison w ith t he b iozones e stablished o n t he N orth D owns. s equence o f b iozone d t o f i s e ssentially s imilar t o t hat o f
T he t he
N orth D owns a lthough t he a rrival a nd e xpansion o f t he i ntroduced h elicellids h as n ot a s y et b een w ell d ocumented i n c halk a reas o utside S ussex.
A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I w ould l ike t o t hank t he F ourth I nternational F lint S ymposium f or p roviding t he m oney f or t he e xcavations a nd D r R .B.G. W illiams f or a rranging a nd h elping w ith t hem . A lso I w ould l ike t o t hank B righton C orporation, B lue C ircle C ement C ompany a nd M r L ee f or p ermission t o d ig o n t heir l and a nd M r M . W ingman a nd M r D . G ordon f or h elping w ith t he e xcavations. A lso M r R . B urleigh a t t he B ritish M useum f or p roviding t he r adiocarbon d ate a t t he D evil's D yke, D r D .T. H olyoak f or i dentifying t he c arbonised s eeds f rom A sham Q uarry a nd M r I . K innes f or e xamining t he p ottery f rom t he D evil's D yke. F inally, I w ould l ike t o t hank m y s upervisor D r M .P. t his w ork w ould n ever h ave b een d one. I a cknowledge N ERC w ho a re s upporting m e
K erney w ithout w hose
h elp
i n a r esearch s tudentship.
R EFERENCES
B ell,
M .
( 1981) Valley s ediments a s e vidence o f P rehistoric l and u se: A s tudy b ased o n d ry v alleys i n s outheast England. U npublished P hD t hesis, U niversity o f L ondon.
1 63
E llis,
C .S. ( 1983) D ry v alley f ills a t A sham a nd t he D evil's D yke, E xcursion G uide F ourth I nternational F lint S ymposium, B righton P olytechnic 1 0-15 A pril 1 983,
E vans,
J .G.
( 1972)
p p 9 -23.
L and S nails i n Archaeology.
L ondon :
S eminar
P ress. G ordon,
P .
a nd S hakesby,
R akes 6 , K erney,
M .P.
B ottom,
R .A.
( 1973)
B utser
H ill,
S tudy o f S outh
t he V alley I nfill,
H ampshire G eographer
1 0-20. ( 1963) L ate-glacial d eposits
o n t he
c halk o f
S outh-east
E ngland, P hilosophical T ransactions o f t he R oyal S ociety o f L ondon B 2 46, 2 03-254. K erney,
M .P. ( 1966) S nails a nd M an i n B ritain, J ournal o f C onchology 2 6, 3 -14.
K erney,
M .P. ( 1970) T he B ritish d istribution o f M onacha c antiana ( Montagu) a nd M onacha c artusiana ( Müller), J ournal C onchology 2 7, 1 45-148.
K erney,
o f
M .P. ( 1977) A p roposed z onation s cheme f or L ate-glacial a nd P ostglacial d eposits u sing l and M ollusca, J ournal o f A rchaeological S cience 4 ,
K erney,
3 87-390.
M .P., B rown, E .H. a nd C handler, a nd P ostglacial h istory o f B rook, K ent, P hilosophical S ociety o f L ondon B 2 48,
K erney,
M .P., P reece, R .C. b iostratigraphy
T .J. ( 1964) T he L ate-glacial t he c halk e scarpment n ear T ransactions o f t he R oyal
1 35-204.
a nd T urner, C . o f s ome L ate
( 1980) M olluscan a nd p lant D evensian a nd F landrian
d eposits i n K ent, P hilosophical T ransactions o f t he R oyal S ociety o f L ondon B 2 91, 1 -43. S hakesby,
R .A . ( 1975) A n i nvestigation i nto t he o rigin o f t he d eposits i n a c halk d ry v alley o f t he S outh D owns, S outhern E ngland, U niversity o f E dinburgh, D epartment o f G eography R esearch D iscussion p aper 5 .
S mall,
R .J. ( 1958) T he o rigin o f R ake B ottom , B utser H ill, P roceedings o f t he H ampshire F ield C lub 2 1, 2 2-30.
S parks,
B .W .
a nd L ewis,
W .V.
( 1957) E scarpment d ry v alleys
P egsdon, H ertfordshire, P roceedings A ssociation, L ondon 6 8, 2 6-38. T homas,
K .D. t he
( 1982) S outh
N eolithic e nclosures D owns
i n
S ussex,
o f
t he
n ear G eologists
a nd w oodland h abitats o n E ngland.
I n A rchaeological
A spects o f W oodland E cology S . L imbrey a nd M . B ell ( eds) p p. 1 47-170. B ritish A rchaeological R eports I nternational S eries 1 46. T horley,
A . ( 1981) P ollen a nalytical e vidence r elating t o t he v egetational h istory o f t he C halk, J ournal o f B iogeography
1 64
8 , W illiams,
9 3-106.
R .B.G.
( 1971) A spects
D owns.
I n G uide t o S ussex Excursions R .B.G.
S ussex,
I nstitute o f
o f
t he G eomorphology o f
B ritish G eographers.
1 65
t he
S outh
W illiams
( ed),
S UCCESSION O N C HALK I N S USSEX
F LORA
ENVIRONMENT
L ate-glacial
o pen
MOLLUSCA
g rasses, w illow,
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e xcentrica
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S fUOlu i .u04 DaJpAosaN
PAST AND PRESENT DISTRIBUTIONS OF HYDROBIA ULVAE ( PENNANT), GASTROPODA, AND MACON& B ALTHICA ( L.), B IVALVIA, ALONG T HE S OUTHERN SHORES OF ' THE SEVERN E STUARY I N RELATION T O WATER P OLLUTION, F IELD S URVEY AND L ABORATORY M ETHODS.
D .D . G ilbertson D epartment o f P rehistory a nd A rchaeology U niversity o f S heffield S heffield S 10 2 TN
a nd
A .B. H awkins D epartment o f G eology U niversity o f B ristol B ristol B S8 1 TR
A BSTRACT
A c omparison i s m ade b etween t he r ecorded m odern a nd U pper Q uaternary d istributions o f t he i nter-tidal m olluscs H ydrobia u lvae a nd M acoma b althica f rom s ites f ound o n t he s outhern s hores o f t he S evern E stuary. D ifficulties o f c omparison a nd i nterpretation a re d iscussed i n d etail; a nd m odifications t o f ield a nd l aboratory m ethods a re s uggested. Q ualified s upport i s g iven f or t he p roposal t hat t he m odern a bsence o r r arity o f M acoma a t t he m outh o f t he R iver A von i s d ue p ollution.
t o a r ecent
e nvironmental c hange,
p ossibly
w ater
I NTRODUCTION
B oyden
a nd
L ittle
( 1973)
w hen u ndertaking a s tudy o f
t he p resent
f auna a long t he s outhern s hores o f t he S evern E stuary f ound t he m olluscs H ydrobia u lvae ( Pennant) a nd M acoma b althica ( L) t o b e e ither r are o r a bsent i n t he m odern s oft, i nter-tidal s ediments a t A vonmouth a nd d ownstream f rom t he m outh o f t he R iver A von. S ewage p ollution t ransported i nto t he e stuary b y t he B ristol A von w as s uggested
a s
a
p ossible
c ause.
T heir d ata h ave b een r e-drawn a s
F igure 1 . S ubsequent s urveys i ndicated a s light i ncrease i n t he n umbers f ound a round t he m outh o f t he A von ( Little a nd B oyden 1 976). T hese d ata m ay b e c ompared w ith t hat f rom L ate Q uaternary b each/inter-tidal d eposits i n t he r egion w hich d iffer f rom t he m odern e stuarine s ediments o nly b y v irtue o f t he f act t hat t he f ormer p re-date t he i mpact o f t he n ineteenth a nd t wentieth c entury
1 67
i ndustrialisation,
u rban g rowth a nd a ssociated p ollution.
S ub-fossil H ydrobia u lvae a nd M acoma b althica o ccur a t m any s ites i n t he a rea a t w hich Q uaternary i nter-tidal s oft s ediments h ave b een f ound ( Figure 2 ). T hese Q uaternary s ediments r epresent d eposition w hich t ook p lace e ither i n t he p resent E stuary b etween 4 ,000 t o 7 ,000 y ears a go, i .e. i n t he m iddle F landrian, o r a pproximately 8 0,000 t o 1 00,000 y ears a go i n t he I pswichian i nterglacial a long e arlier s horelines o f t he E stuary ( see M itchell e t a l., 1 973 f or e xplanations o f t erms). T he m ore i mportant Q uaternary s ites a re s ummarised i n T able 1 . T he t wo m ost c ritical e xposures w ere t he e xcavations f or t he i nner g ates o f A vonmouth D ock a t t he s outh e ast o f w hat w as o nce D umball I sland ( Bolton 1 908) a nd a t K enn, S omerset, d uring t he r e-routing o f t he d rainage s ystem ( Gilbertson a nd H awkins 1 978).
W right ( 1973) e mphasised t he i mportance o f t he l onger t ime p erspective p rovided b y Q uaternary d eposits. W ith a ppropriate a nalyses, t hese c ould o ffer t he o pportunity f or e valuating r ecent h uman i mpacts b y f acilitating t he r econstruction o f t he ' base-line' f auna o f i nter-tidal s ediments i n t he E stuary b efore u rbanisation a nd
i ndustrialisation.
I n a ddition i nterpretive p roblems c aused b y
s easonal o r s hort-term p opulation f luctuations a re l ikely t o b e r educed i n v iew o f t he m any ( if n ot p recisely q uantifiable) y ears w hich t he d eposits t ook t o a ccumulate. O ften t he p otential o f t his c omparative m ethod i s n ot r ealised f or v arious r easons; s ome o f t hese a re d iscussed b elow a nd a s olution o ffered f or o ne m ajor t ype o f p roblem .
P ROBLEMS O F C OMPARISON
G eological a ge d ifferences
T he c urrent v iews o f t he g eological a ge(s) o f t he p rincipal s ubf ossil a ssemblages f rom Q uaternary i nter-tidal d eposits a re g iven i n T able
1 .
E xamination o f
t he
s cientific l iterature r ecording t he f ull
s edimentary c ontext a nd f aunal a ssociations o f b oth
H ydrobia
u lvae
a nd M acoma b althica, i ndicate t hat t here a re n o r easons t o s uspect t hat t he e cological t olerances a nd/or h abitat p references o f t he s pecies h ave c hanged f rom t he I pswichian i nterglacial s tage, t hrough t he F landrian t o t he p resent. H ence d ifferences b etween p resent a nd p ast d istribution p atterns a re u nlikely t o b e t he r esult o f t he d ifferent a ges o f t he i nter-tidal d eposits i nvestigated.
1 68
C limatic d ifferences
T he
a vailable
t he
Q uaternary
p alaeoecological s ub-fossil
e vidence c urrently o btainable f rom
s ites
i s
i ncapable
o f
p recisely
i dentifying t he s ea o r a ir t emperatures p revailing a t t he t ime o f d eposition. T he v alves o f t he t hermophilous, f reshwater b ivalve C orbicula f luminalis (W i ller), w hich d uring t he I pswichian i nterglacial p eriods w ere w ashed i nto m ore b rackish w ater d epositional e nvironments a t K enn ( Gilbertson a nd H awkins 1 978) a nd i n t he B urtle B eds ( Kidson, G ilbertson, H aynes, H eyworth, H ughes a nd W haley ( 1978) a re i mportant i n t his c ontext. T his s pecies i s n ow e xtinct i n E urope; i ts c losest l ocation b eing n orthern E gypt ( Ellis 1 962). T here i s g eneral a greement t hat i ts p resence s uggests m ean a nnual a ir t emperatures a pproximately 2° C h igher t han a t p resent ( Sparks a nd W est 1 970, G ilbertson a nd H awkins 1 978). T here i s a s y et n o e vidence f rom t he o ther l ocal I pswichian s ites t hat a ir t emperatures
w ere
s ignificantly
d ifferent
f rom
t hose p revailing
t oday.
T he g eneral c onsensus o f e vidence s ummarised i n S tuart ( 1979) a nd W est ( 1977) s uggests t hat m id-Flandrian m ean a nnual a ir t emperatures m ay h ave b een 1 - 2° C h igher t han t hose a t p resent. N o s pecies i ndicating s ea o r a ir t emperatures h igher t han t hose p revailing t oday h ave b een f ound i n l ocal d eposits o f t his a ge. E xamination o f K erney's ( 1976) d istribution m ap o f H ydrobia u lvae a nd t he p ublished m aps o f t he m arine m olluscan s urvey o f t he B ritish I sles ( Seaward 1 982) s uggest t hat d ifferences o f t his m agnitude a re u nlikely t o a ffect
t he d istribution o f
e ither
s pecies a long t he
S evern
E stuary
i n a ny s ignificant m anner.
F acies v ariation
S even p rincipal t ypes o f e stuarine b io-sedimentary r epresented b y t he s ub-fossil f aunas l isted i n T able 1 .
f acies a re T he m iddle
a nd l ower z ones o f t he Q uaternary i nter-tidal m ud f lats r epresented a t G reylake ( Figure 2 t his p aper; a nd K idson e t 1 978) a nd ( Penzoy F arm F igure 2 , t his p aper; a nd K idson, B eck ,
a re a l. a nd
G ilbertson, 1 981). T he m iddle a nd u pper l evels o f Q uaternary s alt m arshes a re r epresented a t G ravel B anks a nd t he I CI r eservoir s ites ( Figure 2 ) w here H ydrobia v entrosa a gg., d ominates ( Gilbertson a nd H awkins
1 980 a nd u npublished d ata).
S ites r epresenting l ocations w here Q uaternary s treams e ntered e ither t he u pper p arts o f s alt m arshes o r s andy b each z ones a re a lso r elatively c ommon i n t he l ocal f ossil r ecord. T hey o ccur a t G ravel B anks, K enn ( Gilbertson a nd H awkins 1 978), G reylake ( Kidson e t a l. 1 978; G ilbertson 1 979), a nd P enzoy ( Kidson e t a l. 1 981). H ydrobia v entrosa a gg., u sually d ominates, w ith H ydrobia u lvae p resent i n l ow n umbers. T he l atter s pecies m ay h ave f loated i n w ith t he t ide ( Newell 1 962; C hatfield 1 972; L ittle a nd N ix 1 976). A lternatively H . u lvae m ay h ave b een l iving i n t he s lightly d eeper w ater o f a s mall
1 69
t idal c reek, p ossibly w ith M acoma b althica. A f urther p ossibility i s t hat b oth H . u lvae a nd M . b althica s hells m ay h ave b een i ntroduced b y w aves o r t ides.
T he p recise c haracter o f
t he Q uaternary d epositional e nvironment
a t
t he i mportant s ite o f D umball I sland ( Bolton 1 908) i s d ifficult t o a ssess w ith c onfidence f rom t he s pecies l ist p rovided. Q uite p ossibly a n umber o f d ifferent h abitats w ere r epresented t hrough t he s equence, b ut w ere n ot r ecognised i n t he o riginal s tudy o f t he 1 .7m t hick s helly l ayer. T he " box s ample", o f u nknown d imensions, w hich w as s tudied b y B olton ( 1908) h abitats. T he r ecorded f auna
i ncluded s uggests
s hells f rom s everal d ifferent t he f ollowing e nvironments
w ere r epresented: w oodland o r s hrub; m arsh ; f reshwater p ools; s treams a nd r ivers; u pper s alt m arsh l evels; s andy, g ravelly o r r ocky b eaches a nd e stuarine t idal a nd m udflats. T he p resence o f s pecies f rom s uch a w ide r ange o f h abitats, a nd t he r eported f requency o f s eparated v alves i ndicates e xtensive r e-working a nd t ransportations b y r iver, w aves o r t ides. M acoma b althica w as o bviously a bundant; H ydrobia u lvae w as n ot r ecorded, b ut t here a re r ecords o f t he p redominantly u pper s alt m arsh s pecies - L euconia b identata ( G. M ontague) = L eucophytia b identata ( Montagu), a nd o f P aludestrina s tagnalise ( Baster) = H ydrobia v entrosa ( G. M ontagu), ( see E llis 1 969 f or s ynonomy).
Q uaternary b each e nvironments a re r epresented a t t he o ther s ites ( Figure 2 ). A t W eston-in-Gordano ( ApSimon a nd D onovan 1 956) o nly t he l argest, m ost s trongly s helled t axa a ppear t o b e r epresented. T his p robably r eflects t he l ack o f s ieving a nd d etailed s earching o f s ands, a nd t he h igher e nergy c haracter o f t he d epositional e nvironment l eading t o g reater f ragmentation. T he s torm b each d eposits t ypified b y S wallow C liff ( Prestwich 1 892; G ilbertson a nd H awkins 1 977) a re d ominated b y v ery s trong s helled s pecies s uch a s M acoma a nd P atella s pp. T hese h ave b een d erived f rom a djacent m udf lats, s and-flats a nd r ocky s hores b y w aves a nd t ides, a nd a ccumulated i n v ery d ensely p acked, c obbly, s torm b eaches. I t i s r easonable t o a ssume t hat t he a bsence o f t he s maller h ydrobiids i n s uch d eposits i s b ecause t he s mall t hin s hells w ould b e p referentially a braded o r r emoved b y a ssociated w ith s torm b each f ormation.
t he
v ery
s trong b ackwash
I t i s c lear t hat n early a ll t he s ub-fossil a ccumulations r eported a re d eath a ssemblages, r ather t han t he l iving c ommunities s tudied b y B oyden a nd L ittle ( 1973), L ittle a nd B oyden ( 1976). P enecontemporaneous r e-working, d erivation, t ransportation, a nd p referential d estruction h ave a ll p layed a p art i n t he a ssemblage f ormation; t he s ignificance o f e ach f actor v arying a ccording t o t he p articular c ircumstances o f
t he
l ocal d epositional e nvironment.
1 70
M ethodolocal p roblems
S everal t ypes o f m ethodological c omparative a pproach. T he f irst i dentification. S wallow C liff
p roblems c oncerns
o ccur w hen u sing t his c uration a nd s pecies
T he e arlier f inds f rom D umball I sland ( Bolton 1 908), ( Prestwich 1 892), a nd s ome o f t he B urtle B eds s ites
( Bulleid a nd J ackson 1 937, 1 941) c ould n ot b e c hecked a s l osses o ccurred t hrough w ar d amage o r o ther u nknown r easons. T he s mall h ydrobiids s ometimes p resent d ifficulties o f i dentification, p rincipally H ydrobia v entrosa, b ut n ot u sually H . u lvae.
P otentially
m ore
s ignificant
a re d ifficulties
r esulting f rom p ast
d ifferences i n f ield a nd l aboratory e xtraction a nd c ounting m ethods. B efore t he m id-1960s t he m ajority o f s tudies o f s ub-fossil M ollusca f rom t he r egion y ielded l ists o f t axa n oted b y e ye, o ften a fter o nly l imited o r n o w ashing, a nd t hen w ith a c oarser s ieve t han t he 0 .5mm m esh u sed
t oday.
I nevitably,
s maller
t axa
s uch
a s
t he
h ydrobiids
w ere m issed. E xceptions a re t he s tudy b y B olton ( 1908) a nd i n t he C arnelly C ollection f rom t he B urtle S and B eds n ear O thery ( Table 1 , s ee G ilbertson 1 979). H ere s maller t axa s uch a s t he g enus P isidium a nd h ydrobiids a re r ecorded o r p reserved.
A ssessments o f f requency a re e ither n on-existent, o r u sually a t b est r elative ( for e xample - r are, a bundant). F ield a nd l aboratory p rocedures w ere d esigned t o s earch s ections f or p articularly ' good' s pecimens o r u nusual t axa, w ith l ittle o r n o a ttempt b eing m ade t o s ample t he f auna s ystematically, o r t o m ake f aunal c ounts p er u nit w eight, o r p er v olume o f s ediment.
I n m ost c ircumstances i t i s d ifficult o r i mpossible t o m ake q uantitative c omparisons b etween t he s pecies l ists o f e arlier p alaeoecological s tudies a nd t he q uantitative f requency d ata o f m odern p alaeoecological s urveys. W here o nly s pecies l ists a re a vailable f or c omparison, a ll s pecies r ecords t end t o h ave t he s ame s ignificance. C onsequently i t i s v ery d ifficult t o m ake c omparisons, o ther t han i n t erms o f p resence/absence m easurements. T his c auses d ifficulties. F or e xample, a t t his n ominal s cale o f m easurement i t i s e xtremely d ifficult f rom t he p ublished l iterature t o i dentify s pecies o r g roups o f s pecies w hose p resence i n s mall n umbers w ould b e s o a nomalous t hat t hey w ould b e u sually i nterpreted a s t he r esult o f d erivation. T his r eworking m ight b e f rom a djacent c ontemporary f aunas a nd e nvironments, o r a s a r esult o f r e-cycling f rom m uch o lder d eposits. T his l atter p rocess c an b e s een o perating o n t he c ontemporary G ravel B anks, 1 .5 k m s eaward o f I CI S evernside ( Figure 2 ) w here s mall n umbers o f m id-Flandrian t errestrial a nd f reshwater m olluscs s pecies
a re b eing m ixed w ith l arge n umbers o f m odern e stuarine a s a r esult o f e rosion o f o ld s ediments a nd s ubsequent r e-
d eposition o f
t he
f ossils.
I n t he l ast d ecade p alaeoecological s tudies h ave c oncentrated o n i dentifying a nd c ounting t he n umber o f i ndividuals p er u nit w eight
1 71
o f
s ediment:
u sually 1 o r 2 k g o f m aterial o ven d ried a t
1 00 ° C .
D ry
u nit w eights r ather t han u nit v olumes a re u sed a s t he l atter a re s ubject t o s ignificant, b ut o ften n ot p recisely q uantifiable v olume c hanges, d ue t o d e-watering o r c ompaction.
I n c ontrast t he B oyden a nd L ittle
f aunal s urvey a long ( 19 3) w as c onducted
f auna f rom a 0 .25m a pproximately 0 .1m a nd w as
t he s outhern E stuary s hore b y b y ' normally' e xtracting t he
q uadrant w hich w as s ampled t o a d epth o f t hen s ieved t hrough a 0 .5mm s ieve; t he s ample
s upplemented b y c ores w hen t he m odern i nter-tidal
e ither
t oo
h ard
o r
s hallow
t o
y ield
t he
s ediments w ere
s tandard
v olume.
C onsequently i t i s i mpossible t o f requency d ata f rom t he q uantitative
c ompare d irectly t he m olluscan w eight-based p alaeoecological
s tudies w ith t he m odern v olume-based i n t erms o f s pecies p resence/absence.
e cological
s tudies,
o ther
t han
D ISCUSSION
T hese o bservations i ndicate t hat u seful c omparisons b etween p resent a nd p ast d istributions c an b e m ade a s l ong a s p roblems o f d erivation, H owever, a re m ore d iscussed
t ransportation a nd
p roblems
r esulting
i ntractable. h ere,
I n
f ragmentation
t he
p roblems
a re
f rom d ifferences c ontext
d ue
t o
o f
b orne
i n p ast
t he
i n
s horeline
d ifferences
m ind.
s tudy m ethods d eposits
i n g eological a ge,
c limate, f acies v ariation, a re s een n ot t o r ule o ut t he u se o f t he c omparative m ethod. I ndeed f aunal t ransportation a nd m ixing e nables t he p alaeoecologist
t o
i dentify
s pecies
a nd e nvironments
a t
p resent
n earby, w hen t he a ctual o riginal h abitat m ay n ot b e e xposed s ection s tudied.
i n t he
M acoma b althica
I t i s c lear f rom t he d ata ( Figure 2 ) t hat s ub-fossil M acoma b althica w as a bundant t o t he s outh o f t he R iver A von d uring t he m iddle F landrian a nd t he I pswichian i nterglacial ( Figure 2 ) i n c ontrast t o i ts
' modern'
A vonmouth w as
s carcity
( Figures
s ufficiently c ommon
" The w hole w ith
t he
i n
t he
1 a nd 2 ). f or
s urface
r egion
A t
t he
B olton
o f
t his
T he
p resent
t o
t he
l ayer
c ould b e
d ata
H ead
I sland
s ite
a nd i t
s een d otted o ver
b althica
t he m aterial
t hroughout
s urface l ayers
p alaeoecological
A nchor
t o w rite:
o f T ellina
A n e xamination o f
s hells w ere d istributed c onfined
( 1908:241)
s eparated v alves
b althica).
b etween
c ritical D umball
( =
s howed
t he m ass,
M acoma t hat
a nd w ere
t he n ot
o nly."
( Figure 2 )
i ndicates M acoma i s
e ither r are o r a bsent i n t he s ub-fossil a ssemblages n orth o f t he m outh o f t he A von. H owever, t he b iofacies f ound i n t his a rea t o d ate
1 72
a re
a ll
t he
s outh, t he o f
o f
s pecies
i nsufficient w ater i n q uantity
b etween
l ow e nergy
( Table
d epth o r
1 ).
I n
s alinity
t he
A vonmouth a nd A nchor H ead, i nter-tidal
t he A von a t K enn,
s ilt,
s and
t he
b ank,
W eston-in-Gordano,
t o e xpect
c ritical
a rea
s pecies
i s
t o
c ommon
a nd b each d eposits
a nd
i n
t he B urtle
f ind
f urther i n
s outh
S and
B eds
( Figure 2 , T ablc 1 ). U nlike t he h ydrobiids, i t i s a bundant i n t he s torm b each e nvironments a t S wallow C liff, N orth B ay a nd A nchor H ead.
T herefore i t i s c oncluded t hat i ndicates M acoma b althica s hould b e q uantities
a t
t he m outh o f
t he p alaeoecological e vidence p resent n owadays i n s ignificant
t he R iver A von a nd
c oast b etween A vonmouth a nd A nchor H ead. a bsence a s r eported b y B oyden a nd L ittle t he
r esult
o f
o r a n e ffect i ntroduced
c hance,
s hort
t he R iver A von
s outh o n t he
t erm p opulation f luctuations,
i nduced b y h uman
b y
f urther
I ts c ontemporary r arity o r ( 1973, 1 976) m ust e ither b e
a ctivity;
q uite
p ossibly
d isease, p ollution
( Boyden a nd L ittle 1 973).
H ydrobia u lvae
H ydrobia
u lvae
d eposits
i s
n orth o f
s outh a t K enn,
a nd
W eston-in-Gordano a bsence o f r ather
c ommon
i n
i n t he i ts
B urtle
B eds
Q uaternary
s uitable h abitat;
t han
l ow e nergy e arly- a nd m id-Flandrian
A vonmouth a t G ravel B anks, r arity
s andy
i nter-tidal m udflats.
I sland d eposits
i t
i s
a bsent,
I CI
a nd
i s
2 ,
T able
a ssociated
c obbly
H owever,
e ven
S evernside,
( Figure
f urther 1 ).
A t
w ith t he
b eaches
o ccurring
i n t he c ritical D umball
t hough
s imilarly
s mall
a nd
f ragile u pper s alt m arsh s pecies s uch a s L eucophytia a nd H ydrobia v entrosa a re r ecorded a long w ith s lightly d eeper w ater e stuarine s pecies
T he
p resence
a bsence l ack i ts
s uch a s M acoma b althica a nd
o f
a ll
t he
a bove
a t D umball I sland
o f
h abit,
o r
i nadequate
f luctuations
e xplanation,
s ince a lthough w e
r epresented b y t he
t he
s everal
e vidence
a re
s ediment s uch
s pecies i s
s uggests
n ot
d ifferential d estruction,
p opulation
e ncompass
i nter-tidal
o f H ydrobia u lvae
s uitable h abitat,
f loating
S crobicularia.
s tudy
u nlikely
c an o nly g uess
i n t he
p resently a vailable
a t
b ox s ample,
i t
i s
t hat
o f
S hort-term t o
b e
t he p eriod o f
C onsequently,
s uggests
t he p ast
r esult
t ransportation,
m ethods.
s imilarly
f luctuations.
t he
t he t ime
l ikely i t w ould w e c onclude
e ither
t he
t hat
s pecies
w as g enuinely a bsent a t t he m outh o f t he R iver A von f or r easons c urrently u nknown ( clearly n ot i nvolving h uman i nterference w ith t he e nvironment),
o r
s pecies
m issed
s pecies
w as h e
d id
t hat
r ecord,
t hrough i n t he
c hance
B olton's l atter
( 1908)
o f
m isidentification,
s tudy.
i s u nlikely.
1 73
G iven t he n umber
t he o f
I MPROVEMENTS T O F IELD AND LABORATORY P ROCEDURES
T his
s tudy
o nce
a gain
d emonstrates
t hat
p recise
q uantitative
c omparisons o f p opulation n umbers i n p resent a nd Q uaternary d eposits a re p rohibited b y t he i mpossibility o f c omparing m ollusc n umbers p er u nit v olume o f s ample w ith m ollusc n umbers p er d ry u nit w eight o f s ample. B oth s ampling u nits a re l ikely t o c ontinue t o b e u sed s ince b iologists r equire d ata o n i ndividual ( volume) w hile Q uaternary d eposits
s pacing a nd d ensity i n a n a rea a re p rone t o c ompaction a nd
t herefore a re u sually r epresented i n t erms o f d ry w eight m easurements. C onsequently i t i s a dvocated t hat i n m odern f aunal s urveys s mall
i n a ddition s ample
c ontainer;
o f
t o
t he a rea
k nown
o r
v olume
t he o ven-dried w eight
D ensity r ecorded
( B.D.)
-
v olume
b e o f
o ven
t he
S imilarly,
t he
u nder
s ample
v olume o f
p rocedures
u sing
w eight
p er
p er u nit w eight
i s
a
a s ealable
u nit
t he B ulk v olume.
t hen a s imple
p alaeoecologists m ay d etermine t he v olume o f
s tudy i n t he
s and p oured
s ampling t aken
s ample b e n oted a nd
d ried
C onversion t o m olluscan f requencies c alculation.
a lso
f ield b y m easurement,
f rom a g raduated c ontainer
o r n oting
i nto
t he
t he
s ampled
h ole. B oth d ata s ets m ay t hen b e s imilarly r ecorded i n t erms o f b ulk d ensity, p ermitting c onversion o f t he f requency d ata t o n umbers p er u nit v olume o r w eight.
C ONCLUSIONS
W ith c ertain p rovisions i t i s p ossible t o c ompare s uccessfully t he m odern a nd U pper Q uaternary m olluscan f aunas o f p resent a nd p ast i nter-tidal s ediments a ssessing
w hether
i n t he S evern E stuary w ith
a n
a pparent
t he r esult o f ( a) f airly r ecent h uman t erm p opulation f luctuations: a bsence/scarcity i s d ue
t he
o bjective
c ontemporary a bsence o r
t o o ther
a ctivity: a nd/or
o f
s carcity i s
a nd/or ( b) s hort ( c) w hether t he
f actors.
Whereas M acoma b althica i s c urrently r are o r a bsent i n t he v icinity o f t he m outh o f t he R iver A von a nd d ownstream f rom i t, t his d oes n ot a ppear
t o
h ave
b een
t he
c ase
i n
t he
m iddle
F landrian o r t he
I pswichian i nterglacial w hen i t w as a bundant a nd w idely a long
t he
s outhern
a nd A nchor H ead. a nd
I ts
s hores o f
t he
c ontemporary s carcity i s
p ossibly r elated
d istributed
S evern E stuary b etween A vonmouth t herefore
a nomalous,
t o p ollution i ntroduced b y t he B ristol A von a s
d iscussed b y B oyden a nd L ittle
( 1973).
H ydrobia u lvae w as s imilarly w idely d istributed i n t he p ast, e xcept i n t he a rea o f t he m outh o f t he R iver A von, w hen f or u nknown r easons p robably f ound
r elated
t o B olton's
i n a m id-Flandrian s ite a t
s hould b e d ue
n ot h ave
o ccurred.
( 1908)
o r
C onsequently
t o u nknown b ut n atural
f actors
e ffects.
1 74
n ear
s tudy m ethods, w here
s uitable
i t w as n ot h abitats
i ts m odern s carcity/absence m ay a s w ell a s
p ossible
p ollution
F urther c omparative s tudies w ould b e p alaeoecologists o rganising f ield t ype o f d eposit s amples.
s o
t hat
t he
g reatly a ided b y e cologists a nd a nd l aboratory s tudies o f t his
b ulk d ensity d ata
i s
o btained
f or
t he
A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS
T he
a uthors
a re
g rateful
E nvironment R esearch C ouncil n o.419) o f t he
w hich h elped D epartment o f
c omments
f or a nd
t he
a ward o f
g rants
t he U niversity
f inance t his r esearch; Z oology, U niversity
o f
f rom t he N atural S heffield
( URG
a nd t o D r C olin L ittle o f B ristol, f or h is
o n t he m anuscript.
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C ambridge.
L ate P leistocene d eposits a t
W retton, N orfolk. 1 . I pswichian I nterglacial d eposits, P hilosophical T ransactions o f t he R oyal S ociety o f L ondon B 258,
S tuart,
1 -30.
A .J. ( 1979) t ortoise
P leistocene o ccurrences o f t he E uropean p ond ( Emys o rbicularis L .) i n B ritain. B oreas 8 , 3 59-
3 71.
W elch,
F .B.A. o f
W est,
R .G.
( 1956)
N otes
o n g ravels
a t K enn,
t he S pelaeological S ociety 7 ( 3),
S omerset,
P roceedings
1 37.
( 1977) P leistocene G eology a nd B iology w ith S pecial R eference t o t he B ritish I sles ( 3rd e dition). L ongmans: L ondon.
W right,
H .E.
( 1973)
Q uaternary
S cience a nd P ublic
Q uaternary R esearch 3 ,
5 15-519.
1 77
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Macoma b a l th ica
F igure
1 .
M aximum d ensities o f H ydrobia u lvae a nd M acoma b althica f ound a long t he s oft p articulate s outhern s hores o f t he S evern E stuary, e xpressed a s a p ercentage o f t he g reatest o verall d ensities; 9 600/quadrat f or H .ulvae; 8 80/quadrat f or M acoma b althica ( redrawn f rom B oyden a nd L ittle, 1 973).
Hydrob ia 0
u lvae 2 0 Iun
G louces te r
G rave l B ank I C I R ese rvo i r f / 7 7i t 7 ‚ • l e ,o rdano
C ard if f
B r is to l
K enn
N o r th B ay C l if f A ncho r f l ea 1 2I S TO
G louces ter
L CH AN N EL
B u r t le B eds a t •Shapw ick •
B u r t le B eds a t P enzoy B un t, B eds a t G rey lake
g
C ard iff
B r is to l
LEGEND A
absen t b ecouse a t i nappropr iate d epos it iona l e nv iron men t obsen t t o r r eason
•
BR
I STOL
CH A NN
n o apporen t
0
Maco mo p resen t i n n u mbe rs
2 0k rn
1 0 p e r Ik q s ed i men t
•
Hydrob ia p resen t i n nu mbe rs
M acoma b a lth ica
1 0 p e r Ik g s ed i men t
F igure 2 .
O ccurrence o f ( sub)fossil r emains o f H ydrobia u lvae a nd M acoma b althica i n U pper Q uaternary i nter-tidal d eposits o f t he
f ormer s outhern s hore o f
t he S evern E stuary.
B otanical a pproaches
1 79
R ECENT A DVANCES I N P OLLEN E XTRACTION T ECHNIQUES:
C .O.
A B RIEF R EVIEW.
H unt
D epartment o f P rehistory a nd A rchaeology T he U niversity o f S heffield S heffield S 10 2 TN.
A BSTRACT
E nvironmental a rchaeologists a nd Q uaternary g eologists w ould f ind s ubstantial i mprovements i n p ollen p reparation q uality a nd s avings i n t ime i f t hey a dopted s ome o f t he p ollen e xtraction t echniques w hich h ave r ecently b een d eveloped, m ostly b y p alynologists w orking o n p re-Quaternary s ediments. T hese t echniques i nclude d eflocculation i n S odium p yrophosphate, m icropore f iltration, ' swirling', u ltrasonic d eflocculation a nd f iltration, a nd f roth f iltration. M icropore f iltration a nd ' swirling' a re p articularly s uitable f or t eaching p urposes,
n oxious
c hemicals
b eing
f ar
l ess
f requently
u sed
t han i n c onventional t echniques. A lternatively, t hese n ew t echniques o ffer s upplements o r a lternatives t o m ore w idely-known p reparation t echniques f or r esearch p alynology.
I NTRODUCTION
P ollen a nalysis h as g reat p otential a s a p alaeoecological t ool f or a rchaeologists, f or t he p ollen r ecord g ives a n i mpression o f v egetational c hanges i n t he p ast. S ince t hese v egetational c hanges a re a lmost s ynchronous o ver l imited a reas, p ollen a nalysis m ay a lso b e u seful a s a d ating t ool, i f a w ell-dated p ollen d iagram i s a vailable n earby a s c omparison. T hree p roblems c onfront t he a nalyst. T he f irst i s t o s elect
p rospective a rchaeological s ediment t hat w ill c ontain
t hat c an u sefully b e i nterpreted. T he s econd f rom t he s ediment. T he t hird i s t o i dentify t he m icrofossils
p ollen p ollen
i s t o o btain p ollen p ollen a nd o ther
p resent.
T he p roblems c onnected w ith s ampling h ave b een d ealt w ith b y, a mong o thers, D imbleby ( 1976) a nd V an d er V een ( for p lant m acrofossils, t his w as,
v olume): p ollen s ince p ollen k eys
a vailable
i dentification i s l ess o f a p roblem t han i t s uch a s M oore a nd W ebb ( 1977) a re n ow w idely
( although a t ype
c ollection
i s
s till
e ssential
f or
p recise
w ork). M ethods o f p ollen e xtraction h ave a lso i mproved c onsiderably i n r ecent y ears, m ainly b ecause o f a dvances o f p re-Quaternary p alynology c onnected w ith t he o il i ndustry, b ut s everal o f t hese m ethods a re n ow w idely k nown t o e nvironmental Q uaternary p alynologists. T his p aper s ummarises a dvances.
1 81
a rchaeologists a nd s ome o f t hese r ecent
A CETOLYSIS A ND H YDROFLUORIC A CID MACERATION.
M ost
p ollen
s uch a s
a nalytical
p eat,
u sing
w ork
i s
c arried o ut
t he a cetolysis
o n o rganic
t echnique
o f
s ediments,
E rdtmann
( 1934).
M ineral s ediments a re g enerally p rocessed u sing H F ( Hydrofluoric a cid) m aceration ( Assarsson a nd G ranlund 1 924). T hese p rocedures c oncentrate
p ollen
t he s ample. A s a n i norganic s amples
b y
s olution o f
t he
o rganic
c entrifuging i n h eavy l iquids ( Knox 1 942). e xtensively r eviewed i n B rown ( 1960), p ollen a nalysis. e quipment
o r m ineral m atrix o f
a lternative o r s upplement t o H F m aceration, a re d isaggregated a nd t he p ollen s eparated b y
T hey s hare
( fume c upboards,
A ll t hese t echniques a re a nd i n m ost t ext-books o n
t he d isadvantages c entrifuges)
o f
r equiring e xpensive
t o h andle
t he
t oxic a nd v ery
u npleasant c hemicals i nvolved. A n umber o f w orkers h ave a lso n oted t hat a cetolysis i s s electively d estructive o f t he s pores a nd p ollen o f
c ertain
t axa
' affection '
o f
f rom t he p oint
( Erdtmann m any
1 952,
w orkers
o f v iew o f
W enner
f or
1 947).
t hese m ethods,
l aboratory
s afety,
D espite
i t
i s
e xpense
c lear
o f
t he t hat,
c hemicals,
e xpense o f e quipment, t ime, t eaching, a nd p reparation q uality, o ther, ' simpler' t echniques a re h ighly d esirable.
R ECENT A DVANCES
D EFLOCCULATION. B ates, C oxon a nd G ibbard ( 1978) h ave d escribed t he u se o f S odium p yrophosphate t o d isaggregate c lay-rich s amples. T heir p rocedure d ecant,
i s
( ii)
c entrifuge, r emain
( i) b oil
a nd
t o t he
b oil
d ecant.
T hey c an b e p oured o ff,
T his
s ince
c lay
s amples
l eaving
a
a nd s and
a re
a nd
f or 2 0 m inutes,
d eflocculated
a nd
s edimented b y c entrifuging.
s ample
r elatively
e nriched
r emaining a fter p yrophosphate t echniques.
f rom
t ills
i n S odium p yrophosphate, f ilter,
M ICROPORE
c entrifuge,
m ay b e u sed i n p lace o f H F m aceration f or s ilt
c ollections
m icropore
m inerals
t he p ollen i s
a re e asily r emoved b y o ther e xcellent
i n N a O H,
i n
l arge m ineral g rains.
t echnique
s amples,
s ample
i n S odium p yrophosphate
T he
i n s uspension w hen
p ollen a nd
t he
s ample
a nd
T hus
H unt
( boulder
s ieving
( 1984)
c lays)
c lay-rich t reatment o btained
b y b oiling
t hrough a 1 0
m icron
t he
n ylon
s wirling.
F ILTRATION.
N eves
a nd
D ale
( 1963)
p ioneered
t he f irst
m icropore f iltration t echnique, u sing a s intered g lass f ilter-funnel w ith a n a perture o f 2 m icron, l inked t o a r eversible p ump, t o r emove f ine o rganic
p articles
S intered g lass w ashing
f unnels
p ollen
d ewatering
w ith
s amples.
H F
m aceration
( and
a cids,
a lkalis,
s tains
T hey c an t hus
b e
e xtensively
a nd
S intered g lass
f unnels
s o a re,
n eutralisation).
s ubsequently b een f ound
a re
c entrifuging,
w ith a r eversible
a fter h ave
u sed
h owever,
u sed p rone
a s t o
t o b e u seful
a nd a n b y
s olvents, a lternative
t he o il
c logging,
f or a nd t o
i ndustry.
e ven i f u sed
p ump.
T he i ntroduction o f n ylon b oulting-cloth h as s olved t he p roblem o f c logging. T hese f ilters a re m ade w ith a pertures o f 5 , 1 0, 2 0, 4 0 a nd
1 82
6 0 m icrons. T he 1 0 m icron a perture Q uaternary p ollen, e ven t iny g rains l etting
t hrough
a
m aximum
o f
i s s ufficiently s mall t o r etain s uch a s C hrysosplenium w hile
f ine
p articles.
I t
i s,
h owever,
t oo
c oarse t o r etain a ll a lgal m icrofossils; i f t hese a re t o b e s tudied t he 5 u m a perture i s m ore s uitable. S urface t ension w ill p revent w ater
a nd
f ine
p articles
s trong, b ut f ine t he s urface e ffect. M icropore p articles
j et
p assing o f
t hrough
f iltered w ater
t he i s
b oulting
c loth;
g enerally u sed
t o
a
b reak
f iltration w ill r apidly r emove c lay a nd f ine o rganic f rom p ollen p reparations p reviously d isaggregated i n
S odium p yrophosphate
o r
P otassium
h ydroxide
( KOH),
' clean' p reparations. S ilt i n t he s ample, a nd a re b est
a nd s and-size p articles, r emoved b y ' swirling'.
' SWIRLING'.
i s
T his
p rocedure
e xtensively
u sed
g iving
h owever,
b y
v ery r emain
p re-Quaternary
p alynologists. A n a queous s uspension o f s ediment i s ' panned' i n a c lock-glass. I f t he c lock-glass i s v ery g ently a gitated, s ilt a nd s and w ill
f all
o ut
o f
a nd m ay b e
p oured o ff.
m icropore
f iltration,
t o h eavy-liquid
s uspension, S amples a re
w hile p ollen r emains
t reated
c omparable
i n
t his w ay,
i n s uspension
a nd s ubjected
i n q uality t o
t hose
t o
s ubjected
s eparation.
U LTRASOUND. U ltrasound h as b een u sed b y a n umber o f w orkers ( Marceau 1 969, F aegri a nd I versen 1 974) t o d isaggregate f locculated o rganic m atter. R ecently C arratini ( 1980) h as d escribed t he u se o f a n
u ltrasonic
l inked
s ieving
t o a m icropore
d etritus.
d evice,
f ilter
E xcessive e xposure
p ollen g rains, a re p reference
w here
t o a id t o
t he u ltrasound g enerator
t he p assage o f
w ater
a nd
i s
f ine
l ow-frequency u ltrasound m ay d amage
s o u ltrasound g enerators e mitting m ore ( Marceau 1 969).
t han
8 0
kHz
F ROTH F LOTATION. D umait, M arceau, D evin a nd v an C ampo ( 1963) a nd C ampbell ( 1976) h ave d escribed u sing t he e volution o f f roth t o c arry p ollen a way
f rom a m ineral m atrix.
D IELECTRIC t echnique
S EPARATION.
W ang
w hich m akes u se o f
Y u-xian
( 1981)
h as
d escribed
t he d ifferent d ielectric p roperties
a o f
s ediment a nd m icrofossils t o s eparate t hem . T his t echnique h as o nly b een a pplied t o c alcareous m icrofossils, b ut m ay h ave a pplications i n p alynology.
D ISOUSSION
T he m ethod u sed l ithology o f ( Figure M ost
t o o btain p ollen
t hat
s ample.
f rom a ny
s ample m ust
S ome g eneralisations m ay,
d epend o n
h owever,
t he
b e m ade
1 ).
p eats,
s ilts,
s ands
a nd c lays w ill
1 83
g ive e xcellent
p reparations
w ith
1 0 m inutes
m icron
m esh
m icropore s ilt. S amples
b oiling i n 5 % K OH;
t o
f ilter
f ull
o f
r emove t o
r emove
l ignin
s econd o xidation
l arge
i n
( Erdtmann a nd E rdtmann
f ines;
( opaque
a
f ollowed b y
p articles; a nd
s wirling
t o
o rganic m atter)
m ixture
1 933).
s ieving
s ieving
o f
r emove
a re
c oncentrated
S amples
f ull o f
t hrough
1 50
o n a 1 0 m icron s and
a nd
i mproved b y a 1 0 b leach
c ellulose
a nd
H Cl
( for e xample
c ell w alls) m ay, h owever, n eed a cetolysis. T he c ombination o f o xidation a nd a cetolysis t end t o d estroy c ertain p ollen t ypes ( Hafsten 1 959) T enacious
a nd
i n K OH.
T hey a nd
c ontaining
d isaggregate t he
b efore
m icropore
f ollowing t o
s ilt
n ot
a
e asily;
b ecause
S hould
m ay
b e u sed.
s hould b e b oiled i n 5 % s odium p yrophosphate f or 2 0 m inutes, v igorously s tirred, a fter w hich t hey c an b e s ieved a nd s wirled. S amples
c lays
s hould n ot b e
h igh p roportion o f
b ut
i t
p articles
f iltration w ill
t echniques
s ediment
h ave
o r
o f
t he
t o m acerate
o f
i t m ay b e
s erved
t ills
i nvestigations
o f
w ell
i n
s everal
s ite a t K enn,
( boulder-clays)
a nd
r est.
n ecessary
p alynological
A von,
s ites:
( Hunt
1 981)
f ailed t o y ield
1 978); ( Hunt,
a nd e stuarine 1 984);
1 984);
s ediments
a rchaeological s equences
( Jenkinson a nd G ilbertson 1 984) 1 984,
s ilt, t he
i n H Cl a nd H F.
( Gilbertson a nd H awkins
o f
t hem
' Swirling'
M ETHODS
( iii) i n i nvestigations o f f luvial S omerset ( Bradley, M acklin a nd H unt,
S outhgate
s ieve t he
r emove m ost
p ollen e xtraction t echniques h ad
i n i nvestigations
i n
t o
f ilter.
r emove t he w orst o f
' NEW'
f rom a n i nterglacial
c onventional
C reswell
o r m ica w ill u sually
o f Q uaternary a rchaeological a nd g eological
s atisfactory a ssemblages
a nd
p ores
s wirling w ill
i n h eavy l iquids
i nvestigations
( iv)
s ilt
d ifficult
t he p ollen s till b e u nacceptably d iluted
T hese
( ii)
p rove
b lock t he
E XAMPLES O F T HE U SE O F T HESE
( i)
m ay
f iltration r epeated
c entrifuge
w here
d isaggregated b y b oiling
f rom
f rom c aves a t
a nd L ancashire
( Gale,
H unt
i n p ress);
( v) s ediment o f M edieval a ge f rom f luvial s equences i n T uscany ( Gilbertson, H olyoak, H unt a nd P aget, i n p ress, H unt i n p rep.); ( vi)
l acustrine
d eposits
a t
a nd m arsh
A zraq
O asis
s equences
o f
s aline
a nd
i n t he J ordanian D esert
c arbonate-rich
( Gilbertson,
H unt
a nd B radley i n p ress); ( vii)
L ate-glacial
H olderness ( ix)
t he
i n C ollis
c oast
f ills
o f
l acustrine
d eposits
f rom
S kipsea
o n
t he
( Gilbertson 1 984); I ron A ge w ells
a nd o thers,
a nd
i n p rep.).
1 84
p its
f rom A ulnat,
F rance
( Hunt,
I n a ll c ases r emove e xcess a cceptable m inutes
e xcept a t K enn, w here H F m aceration w as n ecessary t o s ilt a fter m icropore f iltration a nd ' swirling'
p ollen
c oncentration
' hands-on'
t ime
c heapness
o f
a s w ell
r esearch,
a s
t hese
p er
w as
t echniques m ake w hile
t he
t echniques h ave b een,
G eology
a t
' cleanness'
a nd
t he U niversity o f
u ltimately d erive
( for
T he
t he
o f
f or
c ontinue
l ess
t he
N eves a nd D ale
a nd
p reparations m akes
i n u se a t w hence
t han 1 0
s afety
t eaching p urposes
c ounting o f
S heffield,
i nstance,
a fter
r apidity,
t hem i deal
i dentification o f p ollen e asier a nd l ess t iring p rocedure. T hese
a chieved
s ample.
p ollen
a
m uch
t he D epartment o f
s ome o f 1 963);
t he m ethods
a nd
n ow
a re
a lso b eing s uccessfully u sed a nd t aught a s s tandard p rocedures a t t he D epartment o f P rehistory a nd A rchaeology a t t he s ame U niversity.
C ONCLUSION
T he t echniques a cetolysis
o utlined a bove
a nd
o ffer
H F m aceration.
c onsuming a nd much c heaper a nd n eed
f or
s pecialist
a lternatives
s afer:
l aboratory
t hey r educe o r
f acilities,
b etter-quality p alynological p reparations. t hat
o ther m icrofossil g roups - d iatoms,
c ysts, s pores
o r
s upplements
T hey m ake p ollen a nalysis
l ess
t o
t ime-
e liminate
t he
a nd c ommonly p roduce
A n
a dded
a dvantage
i s
a moebid a nd d inoflagellate
d esmids, C hrysostomaceae, o ther a lgal r emains a nd f ungal a re n ot a utomatically d estroyed i n t he q uest f or p ollen a nd
s pores.
A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS
T he a uthor w ould G ilbertson,
w ho
l ike r ead
t o
t hank
M .
e arly d rafts
M acklin, o f
t his
S .
p aper,
B radley
a nd
a nd K en D om ing
D .D. f or
f acilities.
R EFERENCES
A ssarson,
G . a nd G ranlund, E . ( 1924) E n m etod f or p ollen a nalys a v m inerogena j ordarter, G eologiska F oreningen i S tockholm, F orhandlingar 4 6
B ates,
B rown,
C .D.,
C oxon,
P .
( 1-2),
7 6-82.
a nd G ibbard,
P .L.
p reparation
o f
p alynological
i nvestigation,
C .A.
( 1960)
c lay-rich
( 1978) A n ew m ethod s ediment
N ew P hytologist 8 1,
P alynological T echniques.
f or t he
s amples
B aton R ouge,
L ouisiana,
p rivately p ublished. C ampbell,
J .B.
( 1977) T he U pper P alaeolithic i n B ritain.
C larendon P ress,
2 v ols.
1 85
f or
4 55-465.
O xford:
C aratini,
C .
( 1980)
U ltrasonic
s ieving
t o
i mprove p alynological
p rocessing o f s ediments, I nternational P alynology N ewsletter 3 ( 1), 4 . D imbleby,
G .W.
( 1976)
A
a rchaeological
r eview
d eposits.
o f I n
p ollen
P .,
M arceau,
L .,
D evin,
C .
p auvres 2 31-233. Erdtmann,
G .
Erdtmann,
Uber
G .
( 1952)
A lmqvist G .
M .
o f
E arth
S hackley
( 1963) N ouvelle
d an
l es
C omptes R endus
s ediments
( Paris)
2 65,
S vensk B otanissker T idskrift
3 54-358.
Pollen morphology
Angiosperms:
Erdtmann,
M .L.
f or
d ie V erwendung v on E ssigsaureanhydrid
Pollenuntersuchungen, ( 2),
p ollens
m icroflottation,
( 1934)
b ei 2 8
p ar
a nd
a nd v an C ampo,
m ethode d e c oncentration d es
a nalysis
G eoarchaeology,
S cience and t he Past, D .A. D avidson ( eds) p p. 3 47-354. L ondon : D uckworth. D umait,
C ommission
a nd
an
a nd W iksell, V ol. Erdtmann,
analysis
a nd
p lant
t axonomy.
i ntroduction t o p alynology.
H .
( 1933)
t echnique,
S tockholm:
1 .
S vensk
T he i mprovement o f B otanissker
p ollen
T idskrift
2 7,
3 47. F aegri,
F rey,
Gale,
K .
a nd I versen, J . ( 1974) T extbook o f p ollen a nalysis. 3 rd e dition. O xford: B lackwells.
G .D.
( 1951) P ollen s uccession i n t he L ake, N orth C arolina, E cology 3 1
S .J.,
Hunt,
C ave: t he
G ilbertson,
C .O.
S outhgate,
D .D.
G .
( in
t he c olonisation
l ast g laciation.
p ress) o f
K irkhead
B ritain
a fter
N aturwissenschaft.
( 1984) L ate Q uaternary Environments a nd M an i n
H olderness. G ilbertson,
and
n ew e vidence o f
s ediments o f S ingletary ( 3), 5 18-533.
D .D.
O xford.
and
B .A.R.
Hawkins,
A .B.
( 1978)
The
Pleistocene
s uccession a t K enn, S omerset, B ulletin o f t he G eological S ociety o f G reat B ritain. HMSO N o. 6 6, 4 4pp.
G ilbertson, D .D., p ress)
H olyoak , D .A., H unt, C .O. a nd P aget, N . ( 1984 i n Palaeoecology o f Late-Quaternary f loodplain
d eposits M edievale,
G ilbertson,
D .D.,
i n X ,
H unt,
Tuscany:
t he
F eccdia
Valley,
A rchaeologia
3 40-350.
C .O.
a nd B radley,
M icropalaeontological a nd
S .B.
( 1985
s tratigraphic
i n p ress)
i nvestigations
r ecent
s ediments
f rom t he A zraq M arshes o f
D esert.
I n H adini,
A ( ed.)
1 86
1 985.
S tudies
i n
o f
t he J ordanian t he
H istory
a nd A rchaeology o f J ordan L ondon, P itmans a nd A mman; D epartment o f A ntiquities, R oyal H ashemite K ingdom o f J ordan. H afsten,
H unt,
U . ( 1959) B leaching + H F + a cetolysis, P ollen e t S pores 1 ( 1), 7 7-79.
C .O.
( 1981)
P ollen a nd
i nterglacial
a h azardous
o rganic-walled m icrofossils
d eposits
a t
K enn,
A von,
C .O.
( 1984)
Erratic
p alynomorphs
f rom
P roceedings o f
S omerset A rchaeological a nd N atural H istory 7 3-76. Hunt,
p rocess.
S ociety
a nd
t he 1 25,
P alaeolithic
s tratigraphy. I n F ieller, N .R.J., G ilbertson, D .D. and R alph, N .G.A. Palaeoenvironmental I nvestigations: R esearch
D esign,
Methods
and
I nterpretations.
O xford:
B .A.R . J enkinson,
R .D.S.
a nd G ilbertson,
E xtinction : L akes,
D .D.
F issures
S heffield.
a nd
S maller
U niversity
o f
P rehistory a nd A rchaeology. Knox,
A .S.
( 1942)
T he u se o f
n on-calcareous M arceau,
( 1984)
I n t he S hadow o f
A Q uaternary G eology a nd P alaeoecology o f C aves
S heffield
M onographs
t he
S cience 9 5
L . ( 1969) E ffets, s ur l e p ollen, f requence, P ollen e t S pores 1 1,
( 2464),
d es u ltrasons 1 47-164.
3 07-308. d e h asse
P .D. a nd W ebb, J .A. ( 1978) A n I llustrated G uide t o P ollen A nalysis. L ondon: H odder a nd S toughton.
N eves,
R .
M .
a nd D ale, B . ( 1963) A m odified f iltration s ystem f or p alynological p reparation, N ature ( London) 1 98, 7 75-776. v an d er, ( 1984) C arbonised s eeds, s ample s ize a nd o n s ite s ampling I n F ieller, N .R.J., G ilbertson, D .D. R alph, D esign,
W ang Y u-Xian.
N .G.A.
C -G.
P alaeoenvironmental I nvestigations:
M ethods a nd I nterpretations.
( 1981) H igh
m icrofossils, W enner,
i n
s eparation o f
M oore,
V een,
t he
C reswell C rags.
C hapter 2 .
B romoform i n
s ediments,
a t
( 1947)
O xford:
f requency d ielectrical
L ethaia 1 4,
P ollen d iagrams
f rom G eografisker A nnaler
1 87
a nd
R esearch
B .A.R.
s eparation o f
2 61-268. f rom L abrador. 1 -241.
T hesis,
r eprinted
SA MPLE
e xa m ine
t enac ious
p eats , s ilts , s ands
c lay
c alcareous
a nd s i lty c lays
t ufas
‘ I / b o il i n Sod iu m
macerate
p yrophosphate
bo il i n KOH
s ieve a t
i n HC l
1 20 e m
s ieve a t 1 0 pm
sw irl N if e xa m ine
e xcess
f loccu lated
e xcess
o x idation a ceto lysis
v ery f ine s ilt
o rgan ic matter
l ign In
c e llulose
e xcess m ica a nd/or
macerate
c entr ifuge
i n
i n h eavy
u ltrasound
( b leach & HC I)
HC I & HF
s ieve a t l Orm
s ieve a t 10 p m
s ta in
mount
e xa m ine
F igure
1 .
S equence
o f
p ollen p reparation
t echniques.
l iqu id
T HE PROBLEM O F T HE T IME SPAN REPRESENTED B Y POLLEN S PECTRA I M PODZOL TURVES, WITH EXAMPLES FROM T HE ROMAN S ITES AT B AR H ILL AND MULLINS, C ENTRAL S COTLAND.
W .E.
B oyd
D epartment
o f
B otany
U niversity o f G lasgow G 12
G lasgow
8 QQ
A BSTRACT
D itch i nfill a ssociated w ith t he R oman f orts a t B ar H ill a nd M ollins, i n c entral S cotland, i ncludes w ell-preserved f ossil t urves. O n
t he b asis
o f
t he a rchaeological c ontext,
s urface p resent o n t he a rrival o f w ere a nalysed ( Iron d ata
A ge) i s
t o p rovide d etails e nvironment a nd
d ifficult,
i ts
r egarding
v egetational c hanges
y ears. n eed
T he u ncertainty f or
a
i n
a re
t hese
t he
l and
s ites,
a nd
t he i mmediately p re-Roman I nterpretation o f
p aper c oncentrates
t his
o n
o ne
i s t he t ime-span r epresented b y t hese s ites, t he r ecorded I ron
s hown t o h ave o ccurred o ver 1 50
t his
c oordinated
a t
d evelopment.
a nd d iscussion i n t his
a spect o f t he i nterpretation; t hat t he p ollen c ontent o f t he t urves. A t A ge
t hey r epresent
t he R omans
c onclusion,
h owever,
t o 3 50
e mphasises
a rchaeological-cum-environmental
t he
r esearch
p rogramme.
I NTRODUCTION
T his p aper e xamines o ne o f t he p roblems e ncountered i n t he i nterpretation o f t he p ollen s pectra c ontained i n f ossil p odzol s oils.
F ollowing a b rief
i nterpretation a ssessing
t he
d iscussed
f or t ime
u sing
d escription
s oil
p ollen
s pan r epresented d ata
o f
t he
s pectra, i n t he
p rincipal
t he s oil
p ollen
f rom t he R oman A ntonine
f orms
o f
t hat
o f
s pectra,
i s
p roblem, f ort
a t B ar H ill a nd
t he A gricolan m arching c amp a t M ollins.
P OLLEN A NALYSIS O F S OILS:
S ediment f or i ts
A N I NTRODUCTION
r ecovered f rom a rchaeological c ontexts i s o ften a nalysed p ollen c ontent, p roviding d ata a bout t he v egetation a t t he
s ite b efore o r a s
t he
s ediment w as
i ncorporated
i nto
t he
s tructure
c oncerned. P ollen
a nalysis
i nformation o r s ediment
u sed
p ollen d ata
i s
a lso
c ontrol
o f
c omprises
f rom
s oils
f requently
u sed
a rchaeological f ossil
t urves.
c ontrasts
w ith
t o
s ites. T he t hat
p rovide
d ating
F requently
t he
i nterpetation f rom
p eat,
o f
l ake
d eposits a nd o ther a ccumulated s ediments. T he p rocesses b y w hich p ollen i s i ncorporated i nto t hese l atter a re r elatively s traightforward,
a nd c onsequently s tratigraphic c hanges
1 89
c an u sually
b e i nterpreted i n t erms o f t o a l esser e xtent, p ollen e ntrainment
i nto
t aken o f t he d estruction o f
s oils
t emporal c hanges i n t he v egetation a nd, t ransport p rocesses. H owever, p ollen
i s m ore
c omplex,
a nd a ccount m ust
f irst
s oil p rocesses r esponsible f or t he m ovement p ollen a nd o ther m aterial w ithin t he s oil.
b e a nd
I n b ase-rich a nd/or w ell-drained s oils, s uch a s t hose t ypically f ound a t l owland a rchaeological s ites, i t i s g enerally c onsidered t hat
p ollen
i nto
t he
e xtent,
i s
l ower,
i ncorporated i norganic
d own-washing.
d istribution
a re
f rom t he
l ayers
I n s uch
b y
s oil,
d ominated
b y
t ime t he
i s
r elatively
p rofile,
a
l esser
e nvironment i tself h ighly p ollen, b ut a lso u nder s uch
f auna i s
C onsequently,
r ecent,
t o
c ontrolling p ollen
t hose c ausing r apid d estruction o f
c onditions a h ighly a ctive m icrobial t he p ollen d egradation.
o rganic-rich l ayers
t he p rocesses
p ollen; n ot o nly i s t he c hemical u nsuitable f or t he p reservation o f t o
s urface,
f aunal m ixing a nd,
a nd what
p roviding a h omogeneous
p resent,
c ontribution
t he c ontained p ollen a t a ny
t here i s,
p ollen
i s m ixed
s pectrum
t hroughout
d own
t o
t he
l ower l imit o f f aunal m ixing ( Dimbleby a nd E vans 1 974). I f a cidity i ncreases ( for w hatever r eason), t he s oil m ixing d ecreases a nd u ltimately
c eases
p reservation
f aunal
i mproves.
h omogeneous d ating
a s
t hroughout
T he t he
f rom a t ime p rior
p ollen s oil,
t o
t he
1 963,
T ubbs a nd D imbleby 1 965).
m ay
b e
r ecognised
a ctivity
b y
s pectra,
D imbleby
p H a nd
1 965,
i ncrease
i n a cidity
S everal p hases o f
t he
p resence
f aunal c hanges
K eatinge
w hile
a nd
p ollen
s till
b eing
t hen r epresents a n e arlier p eriod,
b iostratigraphic u nits w ithin a s oil, t o c ritical
d eclines,
( e.g.
D imbleby
i ncreasing a cidity
o f
d iscrete
( pollen)
r epresenting t he p eriods
( e.g.
G odwin 1 958,
K eef,
p rior
W ymer a nd
1 983).
T he s ituation i s d ifferent w ith a cid s oils ( pH l ess t han c . 5 .5), s uch a s p odzols, w hich a re n ow w idespread i n u pland B ritain: I n m any c ases,
t urves
o f
p odzol
i nto a rchaeological
s oil h ave b een i ncorporated a nd p reserved
s tructures
( see
r eferences
i n
T able
1 ),
a nd
where p ollen a nalysis i s c onducted t hrough s uch t urves, t he p atterns o f p ollen s tratigraphy a re o ften s een t o b e d ifferent t o t hose d escribed a bove.
R ather
t han d iscrete
b iostratigraphic
u nits,
t he
c hanges t end t o b e g radual, f orming w hat m ay b e t ermed a " graduated s tratigraphy". I t i s n ot p ossible t o e xplain s uch a s tratigraphy i n t erms
o f
f aunal
m ixing
d ownwashing a nd p ollen
o r
p reservation
p reservation
p rocesses.
d ominate
t he
p ollen h aveing b een s lowly w ashed d own t hrough t he
I n t his
c ase
p rocesses,
t he
s oil,
p robably i n
a ggregates b ound t ogether b y o rganic m atter. C onsequently d eeper p ollen r epresents p ollen d eposited o n t he s oil s urface e arlier t han p ollen
which
o ccurs n earer
I n c ertain c ases, t he
s oil
g raduated
s equence,
s lightly h igher p ollen a nd
t he
t op o f
t he p rofile
c an b e d emonstrated
i n t his m anner w as
s oil p H w as A
i t
a lso m ixed b y t he
s oil
f auna,
w here
i nto t he
( Andersen 1 979).
s tratigraphy
o ffers
( Dimbleby 1 961).
t hat p ollen i ntroduced
i mportant
m ay
b e
i nterpreted
o pportunities
a s a t imet o
g ather
p alaeoenvironmental d ata a t a rchaeological s ites, n ot o nly r egarding t he v egetation p resent w hen t he f eature w as c onstructed, b ut a lso t he m ost c ontrasts
r ecent w ith
h istory o f t he v egetation a t t he s ite. T his t he s ituation i n w hich f aunal m ixing a nd p ollen
d estruction a re d ominant,
a nd w hich
1 90
t herefore
p rovide d ata
r egarding
t he v egetation a t i solated p eriods o nly. O ne i mportant c onsequence o f t he p resence o f g raduated p ollen s tratigraphy i n c ertain s oils i s t hat
t he
a nalysis
o f
s ingle
s amples
t aken
f rom f ossil
t urves
( e.g.
C asparie 1 976, J ones 1 981) m ay n ot p rovide d ata r egarding t he v egetation w hen t he t urf w as i ncorporated i nto t he a rchaeological s tructure.
I NTRODUCTION T O A N E XAMPLE
I f
t he p ollen s pectra
f rom p odzol
s oils
d o
r epresent
t ime-sequences,
t here r emains t he p roblem o f e stimating t he l ength o f t ime r epresented. T his p roblem a rose d uring t he i nterpretation o f p ollen d ata
f rom t wo R oman s ites
f ossil H ill
p odzol
( NS
7 07
t urves
7 59),
m ostly w ith t urf t he
A ntonine
W all
S cotland
A ge
1 ),
w here
f rom i nfilled d itches.
A t B ar
d itch
i n A D
1 42
( Keppie,
7 14
7 19),
t he
d itch
( Figure
s ystem
i mmediately p rior
f ort
( NS
c amp w as
c entral r ecovered
a n ative I ron
f ragments,
s outh a t M ollins m arching
i n
w ere
t o
t he
w as
i n p rep.),
a nd a bout 4 km
s urrounding
d eliberately b ackfilled w ith
i nfilled,
c onstruction o f a n
A gricolan
t urves a nd o ther
s oil
d ebris when t he c amp w as a bandoned a fter s everal y ears o f o ccupation a round A D 8 0-90 ( Hanson a nd M axwell 1 980, H anson, p ers. c omm.). A t b oth
s ites
t he
r emarkably
t urves
( Table
1 )
w ell-preserved.
i ndicate
t hat
p resent,
a nd
i n b oth c ases, t hey
c an,
a nd
T he
t heir
p ollen
g raduated
w ith
c ontained
a nalyses p ollen
p ollen
a re
( Figures 2 a nd 3 )
s tratigraphies
m inor e xceptions,
b e
a re
i nterpreted a s
t ime-sequences. T he main q uestions i mmediately
t o b e a nswered c oncerned
p rior
t o
h istory o f t hat v egetation . v egetational h istory, i t r epresented b y h iscory
c an
t he p ollen. b e
c ontemporary v egetation,
T he
p roblems
i n
a nd
a
t his
n ot b e d iscussed h ere,
b ut w ill b e o f
o f
t he
r egarding
s tandard a spect o f
v egetational p eriod(s)
v egetation t hese
s ites,
a t
o r
a nd
t he
A s p art o f t he i nterpretation o f w as i mportant t o e stablish t he t ime
a nswered
h istory
t he
t he R oman o ccupation a t
t he
m anner
v egetational
b y r eference
t he i nterpretation
p resented e lsewhere;
a rea
p robable c learance n ot
i s
t hat
t he s pan
a fter
b riefly, s ome
t o
w ill t he
e arlier
r ecorded i n t hese d iagrams,
t he
l ocal v egetation c onsisted o f o pen o r s cattered w oodland, p rimarily o f A lnus ( alder), Q uercus ( oak) a nd p ossibly C orylus ( hazel), f ollowed
b y
f urther
a griculture a nd d ifficult o ccurred:
f orest
c learance
a ssociated
l ater p artial
e xpansion
o f
p roblem t o d o
t hey
s olve
i s
t he
r epresent
t ime
o nly
C alluna
w ith
p astoral
( heather).
A
s cale o ver w hich s uch c hanges i mmediately p re-Roman I ron A ge
a ctivity ( say o ver t ens o f y ears) o r l onger t erm a ctivity a ttributable t o I ron A ge a nd p ossibly e ven B ronze A ge c ommunities ( that
i s,
o ver h undreds
o r
t housands
D ISCUSSION T he p ollen d ata u sed
i n
o f
t his
y ears)?
d iscussion a re p resented
o n
F igures 2 a nd 3 . T hree i ndependent a pproaches a re t aken t o e stimate t he t ime d uring w hich t he v egetational c hanges t ook p lace. T he d ata p resented c hanges, s ites
h ere a nd
( ii)
e lsewhere.
i s
c ompared
p ast
w ith
r egional
T hirdly,
t he
( i)
m odern r ates
v egetational d ata
1 91
s ets
c hanges f rom t he
o f v egetation r ecorded
a t
t wo s ites a re
c ompared w ith e ach o ther. P lant a nd v egetation e cology a re w idely d iscussed i n t he l iterature, f rom w hich i t m ay b e p ossible t o e stimate r ates o f p ast v egetational c hange. H owever, a ll t he m ajor c hanges r ecorded a t B ar H ill a nd M ollins, a s p robably i s t he c ase i n m ost a rchaeological c ontexts, w ere i nfluenced b y h uman r elated a ctivity , a nd c hanges p robably d id n ot p rogress a t n atural r ates. I n t he e xample d iscussed h ere, o ne t rend w hich m ay b e s ignificant, i n t urf 3 a t B ar H ill, i s t he C alluna c urve. T he s harp r ise i n v alues m ay r epresent t he p eriod b etween t he e stablishment o f
s eedlings
a s
C alluna
c olonised
t he
a rea, a nd t he p eriod i n t he g rowth c ycle i n w hich p rofuse f lowering o ccurs a bout 1 5 t o 2 0 y ears l ater ( Gimingham 1 972). S ince t he g rowth o f y oung C alluna p lants m ay h ave b een r etarded b y g razing ( at B ar H ill), t his t ime s pan i s p robably a m inimum v alue, a nd s uggests t hat t he t urves c ontain p ollen r epresenting a t l east 1 y ear p er m m d epth o f s oil, a nd t hus t hat t he v egetation c hanges d escribed a bove o ccurred d uring, a t l east, 1 00 y ears, a nd p ossibly d uring a l onger p eriod. I f t he l ocal v egetational c hanges, e specially w oodland c learance, r ecorded a t t hese s ites o ccurred w idely i n c entral S cotland, t hey s hould b e r ecognisable i n r egional d iagrams, a nd i ndeed a t s everal r egional s ites, t rends a round o r b efore c . 2 ,000 b .p. a re s imilar t o t hose a t B ar H ill a nd M ollins ( Durno 1 956, T urner 1 965, 1 975, W alker 1 975, S tewart 1 979, B oyd 1 982). M ostly t hese t rends a re n ot d ated a ccurately. H owever, a t B loak M oss, i n N orth A yrshire ( Godwin e t a l. 1 975, T urner 1 975), v egetational c hanges r epresenting e xtensive c learances a re s imilar t o t he c hanges r ecorded a t M ollins a nd, e specially, B ar H ill, a nd t wo r adiocarbon d ates [ 2,375 + 9 0 b .p. ( Q723); 1 ,535 + 9 0 b .p. ( Q722); d ifference = 8 40 + - i 30 y ears] b racket a n a ssociated A lnus d ecline w hich f ollows a-d ecline i n Q uercus. I t i s d ifficult t o a pply d ates f rom o ne s ite t o a nother a bout 4 0km a way. H owever, a s a f irst w orking h ypothesis, t he v egetational e vents r ecorded a t t hese s ites a re a ssumed t o r epresent s imilar h uman a ctivity w hich o ccurred a t a bout t he s ame t ime. T he d ate d ifference i s b est t aken a s a n o rder o f m agnitude v alue, a nd s uggests t hat a t b oth B ar H ill a nd M ollins, v egetational c hanges, s imilar i n f orm a nd t iming t o
t hose a t
a
d istant
s ite,
m ay
h ave
o ccurred o ver s everal h undred y ears a nd p ossibly o ver 1 ,000 y ears. T his s uggests t hat t he p ollen w ithin t he t urves c ould r epresent u p t o a pproximately 9 y ears p er m m d epth o f
s oil.
S ince B ar H ill a nd M ollins a re o nly a bout 4 km a part, t here i s g ood r eason t o c ompare t he d ata f rom t hese t wo s ites. E xamination o f t he p ollen c urves a t B ar H ill a nd M ollins r eveals t hat p arts o f t he c urves a t t he t wo s ites p robably r epresent s imilar v egetational c hanges; t he u pper p art o f t he M ollins d iagram i s e quivalent t o t he l ower p art o f t he B ar H ill d iagrams. S ince t he t urves a t B ar H ill r epresent t he s oil s urface a t a bout A D 1 42 a nd t hat a t M ollins r epresents t he s oil j ust p rior t o A D 8 0-90, t he v egetational d evelopments r epresented a t B ar H ill b ut n ot a t M ollins p resumably o ccurred b etween t hese
t wo
d ates,
i .e.
o ver
a pproximately
5 0-60
y ears. T his p eriod i s r epresented a t B ar H ill b y p ollen i n a pproximately 2 0 t o ( mostly) 4 0mm o f s oil d epth, a nd t hus t hat r ate a t w hich p ollen r epresents t ime i s a bout 1 .25 t o a pproximately 3
1 92
y ears p er m m d epth o f s oil. A t B ar H ill, t his r ange o f r ates i ndicate t hat t he r ecorded v egetational c hanges o ccurred o ver a p eriod o f a pproximately 1 50-350 y ears, p robably n earer t he f ormer.
C ONCLUSIONS
T hese t hree a pproaches p rovide r esults w hich a re s lightly a t v ariance w ith e ach o ther. T he f irst a nd t hird m ethods u sed l ocal d ata, a nd b oth i ndicated t hat t he r ates o f t ime w ith s oil d epth r epresented b y t he p ollen a re o f t he s ame o rder ( about o r s lightly g reater t han 1 y ear/mm). I n t erms o f t he v egetational h istory r ecorded a t B ar H ill, t his r epresented a t ime s pan o f t he o rder o f 1 00-200 y ears. I n t erms o f t he o riginal q uestions p osed, t his r epresents m oderately l ong-term I ron A ge i nterference i n t he l ocal v egetation, b ut p recludes r ecords o f e arlier B ronze A ge a ctivity. O f t he t wo m ethods i t i s c onsidered t hat c omparison b etween t he t wo s ites p rovides t he m ost r eliable r esults, s ince t here i s g reater c ontrol o n t he d ata u sed. T he s econd m ethod, a pplying r adiocarbon d ates f rom a r egional s ite, i s f raught w ith d ifficulties. A part f rom t he o bvious p roblems r egarding t he c ontrasting n ature o f t he s ites a nd p ollen e vidence b eing u sed ( regional v ersus l ocal), p roblems r egarding t he t ransposition o f r adiocarbon d ates f rom o ne s ite t o a nother a nd u ncertainties r egarding t he d ates t hemselves ( there a re s ome s purious d ata r egarding o ther r adiocarbon d ates f rom t he B loak M oss c ores s ince t hese d ates - n ine i n a ll - i ndicate v ery i rregular p eat-growth r ates, a nd t wo o f t he d ates a re i nverted) i ntroduce a l ack o f c onfidence i nto t his m ethod o f d ating f rom B ar H ill a nd M ollins, a nd c onsequently, t his m ethod i s r egarded a s t he l east r eliable o f
t he
t hree.
T o p ut t his d iscussion i nto p erspective, i t i s i nteresting t o c ompare t he r esults d iscussed h ere w ith r esults o f s imilar p ollen a nalysis u ndertaken o n s oil p rofiles, m ostly f ossil p odzols, a t s ites e lsewhere. S ome o f t he a vailable d ata i s s ummarised o n T able 2 . T he v alues m ust b e t reated w ith c aution , a nd a re, a t b est, o rder o f m agnitude v alues. T he v alues r epresent p ollen a nalyses o f v arious s oil t hicknesses, t he s ediment a nalysed a lways i ncluding t he u ppermost, o rganic-rich h orizons a nd, i n m any c ases, p art o r a ll o f t he l eached a nd l ower, i norganic r ich h orizons. W hether t he r ates o f t ime r epresented v ary b etween h orizons i s u nclear, a lthough t his r emains a s trong p ossibility. C ertainly p ollen c oncentration m ay b e v ariable, e specially b eing g reater t han a verage i n t he h umus l ayer, w here t hat l ayer m ay b e c ompacted. T he r ate v alues p resented i n T able
1 r epresent a verages
t hrough t he e ntire a nalysed p arts o f
t he
s oil d escribed, a nd p otential d ifferences b etween h orizons a re m asked. M ost o f t he r ates l ie b etween 1 a nd 1 0 y ears/mm, a nd i t i s e ncouraging t o n ote t hat t he r ates e stimated f or t he d ata a t B ar H ill a nd M ollins f all w ithin t his r ange. A lthough t here a re c ertain c ases w here t he r ate i s v ery m uch h igher t han t hese v alues, i t a ppears t hat w here t here i s a r ecognisable g raduated p ollen s tratigraphy w hich c an r easonably b e i nterpreted a s a t ime-sequence,
1 93
t he r ate a t w hich t ime
i s r epresented i s m oderately l ow .
C ONSEQUENCES F OR R ESEARCH D ESIGN
T here a re r ectified
c ertain w eaknesses i n t his a nalysis w hich c ould b e b y c hanges i n a nd/or d evelopment o f a r esearch d esign.
T here a re p roblems o ften s pecific t o w ork s uch a s t his w hich w as u ndertaken a s t wo s eparate s pecialist i tems o n c ontract t o a rchaeological i nvestigations. A s s uch, t he s oils w hich w ere a nalysed w ere e ssentially c hance f inds, a nd t he o pportunity o f a nalysing a nd c omparing s imilar t ypes o f e vidence f rom t wo n earby s ites a lso h appened b y c hance. S ince t he c omparison o f d ata f rom s imilar m aterial f rom n earby d ated s ites p rovided t he m ost r eliable r esults i n t he e xample d iscussed a bove, m ore a ctive i nvolvement b y t he s pecialist b oth a t t he s ampling s tage a nd, p erhaps m ore i mportant, a t t he e xcavation p lanning s tage, e lement o f c hance f rom t his t ype o f r esearch,
s hould r educe t he a nd i ncrease t he
r eliability a nd v alue o f t he r esults p rovided b y t he s pecialist. A lthough t he c omparison o f t he s oil p ollen d ata w ith t he r egional d ata i s r egarded a s b eing t he l east r eliable m ethod i n t he c ase d iscussed h ere, i t i s f elt t hat t his i s t ill a p otentially v aluable m ethod. I f a r egional s ite w as c hosen w ith c are, i t w ould p rovide a l ong a nd c ontinuous r ecord o f t he v egetational h istory i n t he v icinity o f t he a rchaeological s ite(s) b eing i nvestigated, a r ecord w hich w ould n ot o nly b e d irectly r elevant t o t he a rchaeology o f t he a rea, b ut a lso b e f ree o f s ome o f t he p roblems d iscussed h ere. I t w ould p rovide a s trong f ramework f or d iscussion o f s amples t aken a t a s ite, a nd i ncrease t he v alue o n r eturn o f e mploying s pecialist i nvestigators w ithin
t he t he
i nvestment i n a rchaeological
i nvestigation.
A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS
T his w ork w as f unded b y t he A ncient M onuments B ranch o f t he S cottish D evelopment D epartment, a nd c arried o ut i n t he D epartment o f B otany, U niversity o f G lasgow.
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G .W.
( 1976)
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W .E
( 1982)
T he s tratigraphy a nd c hronology o f L ate Q uaternary
1 94
r aised c oastal d eposits i n R enfrewshire a nd A yrshire, W estern S cotland. U npublished P hD T hesis, U niversity o f G lasgow. C ase,
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C o. t he
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( 1961)
S cience
1 2,
a nd
S oil
J .A.
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1 96
T able
1 :
S ummary s tratigraphies o f i n m m.
t he t urves.
D escription
I nterpretation
B ar H ill t urves
2- 5
L ayer t hicknesses
1 t o 4
p odzols
c ompressed m oss f ragments, m ostly P olytrichum c ommune; c harcoal a bundant; C alluna t wigs & l eaves c ommon ; J uncus c onglomeratus/effusus s eeds p resent t o a bundant; C arex c f. p anicea n utlets a nd P otentilla e recta a chenes o ccasional. A h orizons ( humus-rich)
2 0 - 3 0
d ark b rown h umus-rich s andy s ilt; c harcoal a bundant; J uncus c onglomeratus/effusus s eeds p resent t o a bundant; m oss f ragments a nd C alluna t wigs & l eaves c ommon; C arex c f. p ilulifera n utlets, P otentilla e recta a chenes a nd P olygala s p. p resent.
m in.
9 0
l ight-coloured s andy s ilt,
s eeds
b ecoming
l ess o rganic a nd i ncreasingly l eached t owards t he b ase; c harcoal a bsent t o c ommon; J uncus c onglomeratus/effusus c ommon t o a bundant; o ther p lant r emains
M ollins t urf
5-
m in.
1 0
6 5
E h orizon ( leached)
s carce.
1
b rown h umus-rich s and; p lant r emains s carce; o ccasional m oss f ragments a nd J uncus s pp. s eeds. v ery l ight y ellow-brown s and w ith o ccasional o range p atches a nd s andstone g ravel; n o p lant m acro-remains.
p odzol
A h orizon ( humus-rich)
E h orizon ( leached)
l J d t D k u a n e m r a ,
c n ( 1 ) ^ c n a )
G M
z r 2 E .
0
. ..
E .
C t I
4 . J h . •
V ]
i l . ‹ C 4 e 7 M E . > . z . . . , , i
N •
c r ,
0
0
•
, .
, 4
C V •
I ,
( 4
C ,1 •
U I
. 1 -
• L A
. ;
U l
. I ') i f.
L e ) •
u l
C V •
UI
1 ,
t r
V D . .
C O e n
UI
uI
1 .
0 • . . 0 ,1 0 4 J 0 > ( 1 . 1 1 . i i G G . 0 , 4 > , • V ) , . 1 , 1 4 1 $ . 4 O W C I 0
0I
N
4
Z
C f )
C 0
0 Z
C e
C . . 1
N J
C C
0 0
C V
t r )
0 0
.
C) 0
0 C
e n
C C
L e ' )
0 — i.
i 1 g . . ,
U I
C 0
( J l
U I
0 0
C 0
C
C
0
0
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ABBREV IAT IONS F OR T AXA
D
S3SSV2 : 10
p a ipivap !un
aD al . 11 W DJ O
0
EVIDENCE
FOR CROP
PLANTS
FROM NORTH-EAST
ENGLAND:
AN
INTERIM
O VERVIEW W ITH DISCUSSION OF NEW RESULTS.
M arijke v an d er V een D epartment o f A rchaeology U niversity o f D urham E ngland.
A BSTRACT.
I n
t his
E ast
r esults t he
a rticle
t he
e vidence
o f E ngland d uring o f
t he
f or a rable a griculture
p rehistoric
t he p ollen d iagrams
r esults
f rom t he a nalysis
p rehistoric
s ites
p eriod
f rom t his
o f
i s
r egion a re
c arbonised p lant
a re p resented.
I t
i s
s uggested
i n t he N orth-
d iscussed.
T he
s ummarised a nd
r emains t hat
f rom
t he
f ive
c hanges
i n
l andscape a nd a griculture k nown t o h ave o ccurred a round 5 00 B C. i n t he s outh o f E ngland, d id n ot t ake p lace i n t he N orth-East u ntil m uch l ater.
I n
d iesem
A rtikel
L andwirtschaft d iskutiert.
i m
D ie
w ird
d ie
N ord-Osten E rgebnisse
M ( Sglichkeit
v on
E ngland
e ine
i n
d er
a grarische V orgeschichte
d er P ollendiagrammen a us
d ieser G egend
w erden z usammengefasst, u nd d as R esultat d er A nalyse d er v erkohlten P flanzenreste v on f ünf v orgeschichtlichen A usgrabungen w ird v orgelegt.
E s
L andschaft
u nd d er L andwirtschaft,
v .
C hr.
i n
w ird
v orgeschlagen,
S Z 2-England
d ass d ie,
s tattfanden,
d ie
V eränderungen
u nserem W issen n ach, i m
N ord-Osten
d er u m 5 00
e rst
s päter
s tattfanden.
I NTRODUCTION.
M any
r eaders
p eople
w ill
b e
l iving n orth o f
f ootloose
a nd
f amiliar
u npredictable,
p asture a nd m oorland"(Piggott E ngland o f
s torage
c arbonised
g rain
c omments
t hat
c ultivate l ed P iggott W oodbury
t o
t ype,
p its o f b ut
f or
d ivide
o f
t he
f arming c ommunities, s ystems
t he
C eltic-fields d ate,
f or
a nd
i nto
t he
W est
o f
1 958:
t ypes:
p art 1 6) t he
c onsisting o f
u sing w ell o rdered a nd t he
t he
S tanwick
c ountry,
o n p astoralism a nd w ith a p robable e lement
1 97
o f
C aesar's m ost
t wo
o f E ngland,
r ough
f inds
b y
( Piggott
p roducing a s urplus, a nd
o ver
t he N orth o f
r einforced
e conomy
s outh-east
N orth
i n
t he
s hepherds,
t heir a nimals
i nterior d o n ot A ge
a nd
T he a bsence
g rowing c ereal c rops,
c apable o f
c haracteristic o f b ased
t he
i n t he
f ield e conomy
g rain,
I ron
s table t ype,
2 5).
d escription o f
c ow-boys
l ive o n m ilk a nd m eat..."
p revalent a nd
" Celtic
m oving w ith 1 958:
p rehistoric
" the p eople
g rain,
w ith P iggott's
t he H umber:
o f
a n
l imited
n omadism.
A griculture
i n t his
r egion w as
l imited
t o
h oe-cultivation
i n t he B ronze A ge t radition. T he a rea n orth o f t he T yne - S olway l ine w as a ssumed t o h ave r emained i n a r etarded B ronze A ge c ultural t radition,
u ntil
c entury B C
( Piggott
r efugees
f rom s outhern B ritain a rrived
i n t he
f irst
1 958).
P iggott's v iew o f t he n orth o f E ngland a s a s parsely i nhabited r egion w ith a s ubsistence b ase o f s emi-nomadic p astoralism n o l onger f inds
g eneral
f avour,
b ut,
s o
f ar,
p lace. R ecent s urveys o f t he E ngland ( Clack 1 982, G ates 1 982b, J obey
1 982)
a re
v ery l ittle h as a rchaeology G ates 1 983,
a ll v ery c autious
b een p ut
i n
i ts
o f t he N orth-East o f H aselgrove 1 982 a nd
i n e xpressing t heir
i deas
a bout
t he p revailing e conomy. I t i s g enerally a ccepted t hat t he p opulation i n t he N orth-East w as l arger t han o riginally p ostulated a nd t hat s ome
f orm o f
a reas.
c rop p roduction w as
H owever,
n otions
a bout
e specially i n t he c oastal
r ole o f a griculture
s ubsistence
b ase
p hotography
h ave g reatly i mproved o ur k nowledge o f
o f
s ettlements
a nd
1 983,
H arding
s till
a bsent
d ifferences g rains
r emain
p resent,
t he
f ield
1 979). f rom
i n
s o
t he
s oil
t hat
b een p roved
s ystems S torage
Extensive
l east
a nd
b ut i n
t his l ast
( Gates
t he
m ight
1 982b
a nd
h owever,
a re
r elated
t o
b e
t wo y ears
f inds
N orth-East
h ave
t wo o f P iggott's
a erial
t he d istribution
f or c ereal g rains,
I n t he
c ontexts
b y n ow a t
i n t he o verall
f ieldwork
i n t he N orth-East p its
r egion,
t ypes.
f rom p rehistoric
l ight,
v ague.
o f c ereal c ome
t o
t hree c riteria h ave
i ncorrect.
I n a ddition t o t he e xtensive f ieldwork a nd a erial p hotography, t he r esults o f p ollen a nalysis h ave g reatly i mproved o ur k nowledge o f s ettlement
a nd
a lone,
r esults
t he
t he
l ast o n
p arts
t he
i ndicators
s howing o f
c ould o ffer
t he
s ome
i n
p ractice
t he
r egion.
V arious
d iagrams
h as
i n t he
p roduction i n a p articular
a nd
t he
t hrough t ime
t he
a nd
a gricultural
a ctivities
f irst
i n
i mpact o f
c learance
a nd
o ccurrence
H owever,
f urther
t he
f orest
t ype o f T he
r egion.
o f c rop
o f
o f E ngland
b een p ublished i n
p astoral
o ften b een
c an r arely g o
i mprove
a nd
t he p ollen s ite.
a nalysis
t o
p hases
d etected,
p ollen
i n t he p roducts
t he N orth-East
t he v egetational c hanges
s uggestion f or
o f a griculture
I f w e w ant
F or
p ollen d iagrams h ave
r egion a nd e specially s howing
b e
i n t he v icinity o f
p ollen
t he
s ome 2 5
v egetation.
r egeneration o ut
o f
1 0 y ears,
t he v arious m an
l and u se o f
c arried
o f
c ereal
i ndication o f t he
t echnique
t han i ndicating
t he o f
t he p resence
r egion.
o ur u nderstanding o f
t he
s ubsistence
p atterns
r egion i t i s n ow t he t ime t o s tart l ooking a t t he p rimary o f t he a ctivities w e w ant t o s tudy: i .e. t he c rop p lants
d omesticated a nimals
a nimal h usbandry,
b ecause
t hemselves. t he
V ery l ittle
f requent
a cid
s oils
i s k nown a bout i n
t he
r egion
t he d o
n ot p reserve a nimal b ones. H owever, t he s urvival o f c arbonised p lant r emains i s n ot i nfluenced b y s oil c onditions a nd t he m aterial s hould b e
p resent
w ere n ot S ince p lant
o n
t hat
d ate
r emains
t wo y ears
m ost
s ites.
s ystematically I h ave a n
l ater,
U nfortunately,
c ollected o n a ny t ried
t o m ake
i ntegrated p art s ome
f ruits
o f
c an b e
1 98
c arbonised p lant
s ite
p rior
t he
c ollection
a ll
e xcavations
r eaped.
r emains
t o O ctober 1 981. o f
c arbonised
a nd n ow ,
a lmost
I n t his a rticle a s ummary i s g iven o f t he r esults o f p ollen a nalysis i n t he r egion, f ocussing o n t he e vidence f or a rable a griculture. I n t he s econd h alf, n ew e vidence f rom t he a nalysis o f t he c arbonised p lant r emains f rom f ive e xcavations, s panning t he p eriod o f t he L ate N eolithic t o t he L ate I ron A ge, w ill b e p resented. T he e vidence f rom b oth t he p ollen a nalysis a nd t he c arbonised p lant r emains w ill t hen b e s et a gainst t he i nformation f rom t he s outh o f t he c ountry. T he s cope o f t he a rticle i s g eographically r estricted t o t he c ounties N orthumberland, T yne a nd W ear, D urham a nd C leveland n orth o f t he R iver T ees. T he l ocations o f a ll p ollen s ites a nd e xcavations m entioned i n t he t ext a re g iven i n F igure 1 .
T HE P OLLEN E VIDENCE F OR A RABLE A GRICULTURE.
I n t his s ection t he e vidence f or c rop p roduction a s r eflected i n t he p ollen d iagrams w ill b e d iscussed. F or c onvenience t he r egion i s h ere d ivided
i nto
t hree a reas:
1 .
N orthumberland,
i .e. u pper W eardale a nd u pper T eesdale, c oastal z one.
1 .
a nd 3 .
2 .
W est-Durham ,
E ast-Durham,
i .e.
t he
N orthumberland.
A t otal o f 6 p ollen d iagrams h ave b een p ublished f or t his r egion, t hree f rom c entral a nd n orthern N orthumberland: C amphill M oss, B road M oss a nd S teng M oss ( Davies & T urner 1 979), a nd t hree f rom t he s outh w estern p art: F ellend M oss ( Davies & T urner 1 979), C oom R igg M oss ( Chapman 1 964) a nd M uckle M oss ( Pearson 1 960). O nly t hree o f t hese d iagrams h ave b een r adiocarbon d ated ( Camphill M oss, S teng M oss a nd F ellend M oss), a nd s ome o f t he d ates f rom C amphill M oss a re, i n f act, n ot r eliable, b ecause o f s uspected c ontamination. A s a r esult t he d ating e vidence f or c rop p roduction d iagrams f rom S teng M oss a nd F ellend M oss.
r elies
h eavily o n t he
O f t he d iagrams f rom c entral a nd n orthern N orthumberland o nly o ne c overs t he N eolithic p eriod ( Steng M oss). D uring t his p eriod t he a rea w as s till h eavily w ooded a nd n o s ubstantial h uman i nterference w ith t he v egetation c ould b e d etected. I n a ll t hree d iagrams s mall c learances s tart a ppearing i n t he B ronze A ge, e ach c learance n ormally
f ollowed
b y a p hase o f
f orest
r egeneration.
A t S teng M oss
t hese c learances a re d ated t o 1 644+45 b c ( only p astoral i ndicators p resent), 1 065+45 b c a nd 6 36±45 b c ( in t he l ast t wo p hases c ereal p ollen p resent). F rom 5 78+35 b c o nwards a p eriod o f l imited, b ut c ontinuous p hases a re
f orest
c learance
p resent a t
s tarts.
A t B road M oss
s upposed B ronze A ge
l evels,
a nd p ollen o f a rable w eeds p resent i n t he C amphill M oss a n i ncrease i n t he f requencies ( Gramineae,
P lantago
l anceolata,
R umex
t hree c learance
w ith c ereal p ollen
l ast t wo p hases. A t o f p astoral i ndicators
s pp.)
i s
d ated
b etween
1 560+70 b c a nd 1 160+80 b c. A nother c learance p hase s tarts a t 720 +70 b c, J ontaining c ereal p ollen a nd p ollen o f a rable w eeds. T he d ate f or t he e nd o f t his p hase ( ad 1 325480) i s a ssumed t o b e i ncorrect,
1 99
p ossibly d ue
t o m odern c ontamination.
I n a ll t hree d iagrams t hese c learance e pisodes a re f ollowed b y w idespread a nd l arge-scale f orest c learance, d uring w hich t ree p ollen f requencies a re r educed t o v ery l ow v alues, o ften s imilar t o t hose o f t oday. T he b eginning o f t his p hase i s d ated t o 2 0+60 b c a t S teng M oss. H ere c ereal c ultivation s eems t o h ave o btained s ome i mportance. A t B road M oss t he s upposed L ate I ron A ge/Romano-British l evels c ontain c ereal p ollen, t hough n ot i n l arge q uantities. I t i s a ssumed t hat t he p astoral e conomy h ere c ontinued t o b e i mportant, a ssociated w ith o nly s mall-scale c ultivation. A t C amphill M oss a c learance p hase c ontaining v ery l ow v alues f or t rees a nd h igh o nes f or c ereals, C annabis a nd Juglans ( with c ereal p ollen r ising t o a m aximum o f 2 2% A .P.) c ould p ossibly b e d ated t o t he R oman p eriod, b ut u nfortunately n o r adiocarbon d ates a re a vailable. T he e nd o f t his l arge s cale f orest c learance p hase i s d ated t o a d 4 60 + 6 0 i n t he S teng M oss d iagram.
O f
t he t hree d iagrams
f rom s outh-western N orthumberland o nly F ellend
M oss i s r adiocarbon d ated. I n t his d iagram t he f irst s ign o f m an 's i mpact o n t he f orest i s d ated t o t he B ronze A ge, w hen a s mall f orest c learance i s a ssociated w ith s ubstantial a mounts o f p ollen o f G ramineae, P lantago l anceolata, R umex e tc. N o c ereal p ollen w ere f ound, b ut s ome p ollen o f a rable w eeds w ere r ecorded. T his p hase i s d ated a round 1 735+60 b c. A fter t his p hase t he f orest r egenerates a nd n ot u ntil a d 2 +45 - i s a n ew c learance d etected. P ollen o f p astoral i ndicators a re p revalent a nd o nly a f ew c ereal g rains a re r ecorded f rom o ne l evel.
T his p hase e nds c .
a d 6 20+40.
A t C oom R igg M oss e vidence f or f orest c learance i s r ecorded f or l evels a ssumed t o p re-date t he R oman o ccupation ( Chapman 1 964). A t M uckle M oss p ollen o f P lantag0 l anceolata, C ompositae a nd c ereals w ere f ound i n l evels d ated t o A D. 1 00 - 2 00 ( Pearson 1 960). A t b oth s ites, h owever, t he d ating i s b ased e ntirely o n G odwin 's p ollen z ones a nd e stimated r ates o f p eat g rowth. T he b oundary o f z one V IIb a nd V III i s s et a t 5 00 B C. b y b oth a uthors. T his m ethod o f d ating p ollen d iagrams i s n owadays r egarded a s i naccurate ( Godwin 1 975).
T he p icture e merging f rom t he d iagrams o f t his r egion i s f airly u niform. T he f irst s mall c learances o ccur i n t he B ronze A ge ( dates r anging f rom 1 738+60 b c t o 6 36+ 4 5 b c), e ach f ollowed b y f orest r egeneration. M ost p hases, e xcept t he e arlier o nes, c ontain c ereal p ollen a nd/or p ollen o f a rable w eeds, b ut p ollen o f p astoral i ndicators t end t o d ominate a ll c learances. I n a ll d iagrams t he f irst l arge s cale c learance o ccurs i n t he L ate I ron A ge/early R omano-British p eriod, w ith d ates f or t he b eginning o f t his p hase o nly a vailable f rom S teng M oss: 2 0+60 b c a nd F ellend M oss a d 2 +45 , i .e. s tarting 3 0 - 1 50 y ears b efore t he R oman a rmy a rrives i n t he r egion. D uring t his p hase t he c ultivation o f c rops a ppears t o b ecome m ore i mportant. I n a ddition t o w heat a nd b arley, s ome r ye i s r ecorded a t S teng M oss, a nd C annabis a nd J uglans p ollen a re r ecorded i n t he p ossible R oman l evels a t C amphill M oss.
2 00
T he e nd o f
t his p hase
i s d ated t o a d 4 60+60 a t S teng M oss a nd t o a d 6 20+40 a t F ellend M oss, t hat i s, a fter t he w ithdrawal o f t he R oman a rmy a t t he e nd o f t he f ourth c entury. T his s uggests t hat a d egree o f p olitical a nd e conomic s tability i n t he r egion w as m aintained a fter t he R omans h ad l eft ( Davies & T urner 1 979: 8 02).
2 . W est _ D urham .
T his r egion c an b e d ivided i nto u pper W eardale a nd u pper T eesdale. T wo p ollen d iagrams a re a vailable f rom u pper W eardale: S teward S hield M eadow a nd B ollihope S hield ( Roberts, T urner & W ard 1 973). T he d iagrams o f b oth t hese s ites s tart a t c . 1 200 b c a nd s how a r easonable a mount o f w oodland, b ut l ittle o ak. A t S teward S hield M eadow a s harp d ecrease i n t he t ree p ollen f requencies o ccurs a t 1 10+120 b c, a ssociated w ith a i ndicators a nd s ome c ereal p ollen. a d 1 110+100, g rowth. — A t
r ise i n t he p ollen o f p astoral T he e nd o f t his p hase i s d ated t o
b ut t here i s t he p ossibility o f a h iatus i n t he p eat B ollihope S hield t he c learance b egins a t a d 2 00+100 b ut
c ereals d o n ot o ccur u ntil m uch l ater. T he e nd o f t his p ha se i s d ated t o a d 1 700, b ut a gain t he p ossibility o f a h iatus i n t he p eat g rowth m akes t his d ate a l ittle u nreliable.
A l arge n umber o f p ollen d iagrams f rom t he u pper T eesdale a rea h ave b een p ublished : R ed S ike M oss, W iddybank M oss, S lapestone S ike M oss, F oolmire S ike M oss, W eelfoot M oss, D ead C rook , D ead C rook M oss, F urness M oss, D ubby M oss a nd W eelhead M oss ( all i n T urner e t a l. 1 973). T he l ocalities o f m ost o f t hese d iagrams a re n ow s ubmerged b y t he C ow G reen R eservoir ( Fig. 1 ). T he e vidence f or c rop p roduction i s n ot a s e asily e xtracted f rom t hese d iagrams a s i n s ome o ther a reas o f t he r egion, m ainly b ecause o f t he l ack o f r adiocarbon d ates f or m ost o f t he c learances. F or t his r eason t he d iagram f rom V alley B og, t hough j ust i n C umbria, i s i ncorporated h ere, a s i t p rovides
s ome r adiocarbon d ates
f or
l and u se i n t he r egion ( Chambers
1 978).
T he u pper T eesdale d iagrams a re a ll d ivided i nto l ocal p ollen a ssemblage z ones, t wo o f w hich c oncern u s h ere: i .e. z one A a nd z one G . Z one A i s a n o ak-alder a ssemblage a nd i s r oughly e quivalent t o G odwin 's z one V IIb ( Sub-Boreal), s tarting a t c . 3 000 b c. Z one G i s a g rass-plantain-heather a ssemblage a nd i s s imilar t o G odwin 's z one V III ( Sub-Atlantic). S tarting d ates f or z one G a re: 1 200+100 b c a t W eelhead M oss W HI a nd 6 20+ 8 0 b c a t R ed S ike M oss T SI.
I t i s n ot p ossible h ere t o d iscuss t he d iagrams i ndividually, a nd o nly a v ery g eneral i mpression c an b e o ffered. F rom c . 3 000 b c o nwards t here a re s light c hanges i n t he p ollen f requencies o f G ramineae a nd P lantago l anceolata a nd f rom 1 200+100 b c a t W eelhead M oss a nd 6 20+80 b c a t R ed S ike M oss t hese f luctuations b ecome m ore m arked
,
p robably
i ndicating
o ccupation i n t he a rea
t he
( Turner e t
a l.
2 01
v arying 1 973:
i ntensities 4 03).
o f
h uman
T here i s a n e arly o ccurrence o f c ereal p ollen i n t he W iddybank M oss d iagram ( i.e. b elow z one A ), t here a re t hree d iagrams w ith o ccurrences o f c ereal p ollen i n z one A , a nd s even w ith c ereal p ollen i n z one G ,
b esides
t wo w ith p ollen o f a rable w eeds
a ssociated c ereal p ollen,
a lso
( Cirsium ) w ithout
i n z one G .
F rom c . 3 000 b c o nwards t he e xisting o pen w oodland w as r eplaced b y b lanket p eat e xcept o n t he b etter d rained s oils w here g rassland d eveloped. B y 1 000 - 5 00 b c m ost o f t he p resent d ay b lanket p eat w as i n
e xistence.
O nly
t he
b etter
d rained
s oils
s till c arried s ome
w oodland.
A gain,
t he p icture o f
l and u se a rising
f rom t hese d iagrams
i s o ne o f
s mall s cale h uman i nterference d uring t he B ronze A ge w ith b oth a rable a nd p astoral a ctivities r epresented, t hough c ultivation p resumably o nly o n a s mall s cale, a nd a n i ncrease i n t he i nterference w ith t he v egetation f rom t he I ron A ge o nwards, w ith p robably a s lightly m ore i mportant r ole f or a rable a griculture, r emarkable f act c onsidering t he a ltitude o f t he s ites: 4 50+ m . l arge p arts o f d evelopment
o f
( Turner e t a l.
t he a rea
t he
b lanket 1 973:
t rees w ere n ot a ble
p eat
p roved
t o
r egenerate,
a I n t he
t o b e a n i rreversible p rocess
4 03).
E qually, t he d iagram a t V alley B og ( Cumbria) s hows w oodland c learances d uring t he B ronze A ge, m ainly o f a p astoral n ature, t hough s ome c ereal p ollen a re p resent. T hese a re, h owever, a ssumed t o h ave b een b lown i n f rom m ore l owland a reas ( Chambers 1 978: 2 79). T he m ajor p hase o f d eforestation a t V alley B og b egins i n t he L ate I ron A ge a t 2 62+55
3 .
b e t o 2 25+45
b c.
E ast-Durham .
T his
a rea
i ncludes
l ower
W eardale,
l ower T eesdale a nd
t he e ast-
D urham p lateau. E ight p ollen d iagrams f rom t his a rea h ave b een p ublished: H allowell M oss ( Donaldson & T urner 1 977), C ranberry B og ( Turner & K ershaw 1 973), H utton H enry, T horpe B ulmer, B ishop M iddleham , N unstainton C arrs, M ordon C arr a nd N easham F en*1 ( Bartley e t a l. 1 976). T he d iagrams w ill b e b riefly d iscussed s tarting i n t he n orthern p art o f t he a rea, w ith C ranberry B og a nd H allowell M oss, b oth i n l ower W eardale.
N o p eat w as f ormed a t C ranberry B og d uring t he A tlantic ( Vila) S ub-Boreal(VIIb), b ut d eposits d ated t o t he S ub-Atlantic(VIII) p resent. D uring t his z one t here i s e vidence f or f orest w ith h igh v alues f or G ramineae a nd P lantago l anceolata. h ave b een r ecorded. T he d iagram i s n ot r adiocarbon H allowell M oss 6 0
b e
6 +70 b e.
( no
c learance, N o c ereals d ated. A t
s mall c learances a re r ecorded f rom 1 695+60 b e
c ereal
p ollen p resent)
I n b oth c ases
t here
i s o nly
2 02
a nd a gain b etween c . e vidence
f or
a nd a re
t o 4 82+
4 00 b e a nd
s light
g razing
p ressure ( Donaldson & T urner 1 977). c hange s tarts. T he l andscape r apidly t oday a nd r emains o pen u ntil a d m eadows a re p ostulated; t he e vidence
A t 6 +70 b c a p eriod o f d ramatic b ecomes a s o pen a s t hat o f 6 00. L arge a reas o f p asture a nd f or c rop p roduction i s l imited.
T he d iagram f rom B ishop M iddleham s tands o ut
i n t hat
i t
i s
t he
o nly
o ne w ith l arge s cale d eforestation a s e arly a s t he B ronze A ge. S ome m inor f luctuations a re r ecorded a t l evels d ated a round 3 230+110 b c. T he d ecline i n t ree p ollen s tarts a t 1 710+80 b c. T he f irst c ereal p ollen a ppear a t 1 410+80 b c. A t t his l evel P lantago l anceolata r eaches 4 1% a nd r emains a round 1 0% f or a c onsiderable p eriod. T he i ntensity o f t he c learance i s n ot m atched a nywhere i n t he N orth o f E ngland. T here a re n o d ates f or t he u pper l evels o f t he d iagram , b ut a fter t his l arge c learance i n t he m iddle B ronze A ge t here i s v ery l ittle r ecovery o f t he f orest. T he a rea a round t he s ite w as n ever c overed w ith t rees a gain.
A s imilar d evelopment i s r ecorded i n t he d iagram f rom H utton H enry, a lthough t he B ronze A ge c learance h ere w as n ot a s d ramatic a s a t B ishop M iddleham . A t 1 594+ 8 0 b c s ingle o ccurrences o f c ereal a nd C annabis p ollen a re r ecorded: A fter t he m ajor m iddle B ronze A ge c learance t he f requencies f or t rees a nd h erbaceous p ollen f luctuate. A l arge p eak i n t he a gricultural a ctivity t akes p lace a round a d 1 08+70. A t T horpe B ulmer t he m ajor c learance s tarts a t 1 14+60 b c. T he h igh v alues f or c ereals a nd C entaurus c yanus a nd t he e xtremely h igh v alues f or C annabis ( up t o 1 9% a t a d 2 20) i ndicate t he w idespread p ractice o f a griculture. T he d iagram s hows e vidence f or c ontinuous s ettlement a nd c ultivation u ntil a d 1 098+60.
T he h ighest l evels o f t he N unstainton C arrs d iagram s how l ow v alues f or t ree p ollen a nd h igh v alues f or h erbaceous s pecies. C ereal p ollen a re p resent i n s mall a mounts. T he d iagram i s n ot d ated. A t M orden C arr s mall s cale c learances a re d ated a round 2 986+85 b c a nd m ore c learly a t 2 593+70 b c. F rom t his d ate o nwards c ereal p ollen o ccur o ccasionally. — T he m iddle B ronze A ge c learance i s m oderate i n s cale. T here i s a n i ncrease i n c ereals i n t he l ater p art o f t he d iagram, b ut n o r adiocarbon d ates a re a vailable.
N easham F en i s t he s outhern m ost p ollen s ite o f t he r egion. D uring t he e arly B ronze A ge a s mall f orest c learance i s r ecorded m ainly f or p asture, b ut t he o ccurrence o f a f ew a rable w eeds s uggests t he p ractice o f a ppear , b ut s mall s cale
s ome a rable f arming. A t 1 292+70 b c t he f irst c ereals t he c learance i s o f m oderate s cale. T here i s a nother c learance i n t he l ate B ronze A ge - e arly I ron A ge
( 900+60 b c t o 5 38+ 7 5 b c), a fter w hich t he f orest r egenerates. N o f urther c learances a re r ecorded u ntil a d 7 37+60 w hen a d ramatic r eduction i n t ree p ollen i s a ssociated w ith a n
i n -crease
i n
a rable
w eeds.
T he i nformation f rom t hese d iagrams d oes n ot s how a u niform p icture o f l and u se f or t he e ntire r egion. A d istinction c an b e m ade b etween
2 03
t he p ollen s ites s ituated o n t he e ast D urham p lateau ( a M agnesian L imestone o utcrop) w ith i ts m ore f ertile, w ell-drained s oils ( Hutton H enry, T horpe B ulmer a nd B ishop M iddleham) a nd t hose i n t he W ear a nd T ees l owlands. O n t he e ast D urham p lateau l arge s cale d eforestation a nd a griculture s tarted a s e arly a s t he m iddle B ronze A ge ( c. 1 410 b c), a nd a t B ishop M iddleham t he f orest n ever r egenerated. A t T horpe B ulmer t he l arge s cale d eforestation a ppears t o h ave s tarted l ater, n ot u ntil 1 14 b c, b ut a griculture i s t hen p ractised o n a v ery l arge s cale. T he o ther d iagrams f rom t he r egion, t hat i s t hose l ocated i n t he W ear a nd T ees l owlands, s how t he m ore f amiliar p attern o f s malls cale c learances d uring t he B ronze A ge a nd e arly I ron A ge ( though v ery m inor a t H allowell M oss), a nd l arge-scale c learances d uring t he L ate I ron A ge/early R omano-British p eriod. N easham F en i s t he o nly e xception. P ossibly d ue t o t he v ery p oorly d rained s oils i s n ot c leared u ntil t he 8 th c entury A D.
t his
a rea
D iscussion.
W hen w e c ombine t he e vidence f or c rop p roduction f rom a ll t hree a reas ( i.e. N orthumberland, W est- a nd E ast-Durham), w e s ee v ery r are o ccurrences o f c ereal p ollen d uring t he N eolithic p eriod ( Widdybank M oss a nd M orden C arr). D uring t he B ronze A ge s mall s cale c learances a re r ecorded f or a ll p arts o f t he r egion, d uring w hich t here i s g enerally s lightly m ore e vidence f or p astoral t han a rable a griculture. A fter t hese c learances t he f orest w ould n ormally r egenerate, w ith t he e xception o f t he a rea a round B ishop M iddleham w here t he m iddle B ronze A ge c learance i nitiated p ermanent d eforestation. D uring m ost o f t he I ron A ge, c learances o ccur o n r oughly t he s ame s cale a s t hose o f t he B ronze A ge, w ith t he e xception o f F ellend M oss. T he v alues f or p astoral i ndicators a re h igh,
b ut p ollen o f c ereal p ollen
a nd
a rable
w eeds
a re
n ormally
p resent a s w ell. W ith t he e xception o f t he e ast D urham p lateau a nd a t l east p art o f t he T ees l owlands, a ll a reas o f t he r egion b ecome l argely d eforested a t t he e nd o f t he I ron A ge o r e arly . R omanoB ritish p eriod. D uring t his p eriod t he v alues f or c ereal p ollen a nd a rable w eeds a re h igher t han b efore. T he v arious d ates f or t he b eginning o f t his p hase c onvincingly s uggest a s tart b efore t he a rrival o f t he R oman a rmy i n t his r egion ( c. A D 7 0), a nd t he c leared l and r emained i n u se u ntil a fter t he R omans h ad w ithdrawn a gain ( Turner 1 979).
T he e vidence f rom t he d iagrams s hows a g eneral i ncrease i n t he o ccurrence o f c rop p roduction t owards a c limax i n t he L ate I ron A ge/early R omano-British p eriod ( with t he e xception o f B ishop M iddleham a nd N easham F en). t hen m aintained u ntil a t l east
T he h igh i ntensity o f a griculture i s t he 6 th o r 7 th c entury a d, a nd i n
s ome c ases u ntil t he a rrival o f t he N ormans i n t he l ate 1 1th - e arly 1 2th c entury. H owever, i t i s n ot a t a ll c lear w hether t his m eans a g radual c hange i n t he r ole o verall s ubsistence b ase,
o r i mportance o f a griculture i n t he o r w hether i t o nly r eflects a g eneral
i ncrease i n t he p opulation. A n i ncrease i n t he p opulation w ould a lmost a utomatically c ause a n i ncrease i n d eforestation , a nd t his
2 04
w ould f acilitate
I t
t he r ecording o f c ereal p ollen i n t he d iagrams.
i s a w ell k nown f act
t hat c ereal p ollen d o n ot
t rave2
v ery
f ar.
C ereals a re s elf-pollinated a nd o nly r elease s mall a mounts o f p ollen, i n c ontrast t o P lantago l anceolata a nd G ramineae w hich b oth p roduce p ollen i n a bundance. T his f act, c ombined w ith t he s trong ' filtering ' e ffect o f h eavily w ooded a reas m ight w ell c ause a n u nderrepresentation o f t he a rable i ndicators, a nd a b ias i n f avour o f t he p astoral i ndicators, f or t he p eriod u p t o t he l ate I ron A ge. H owever, t he a pplication o f a P rincipal C omponents A nalysis t o p ollen d iagrams ( see T urner 1 983) m ight w ell s olve s ome o f t hese p roblems. T his t echnique r ecognizes t he v ariation p resent i n t he d ata w ithout m aking a ny a ssumptions a bout t he e cology o f t he p ollen t axa, a nd i t g ives e qual w eigh tings t o t he p ollen t axa, i rrespective o f w hether t hey h ave h igh o r l ow p ollen f requencies. T he m ethod i s s pecifically d esigned t o d etect t he n ature o f f orest c learances a nd e ven w hen a p ollen o r s pore f requency i s v ery l ow , a s i s o ften t he c ase f or s ome o f t he m ajor c rop p lants, a p rincipal c omponent a nalysis i s o ften s ensitive e nough t o d etect t he w ay i n w hich t he t axon i s v arying " ( Turner 1 983: 1 1).
N evertheless, t here a re c ertain q uestions t hat p ollen a nalysis i s n ot a ble t o a nswer. I t c annot t ell u s v ery m uch a bout t he t ype o f a griculture p ractised, a bout w hich s pecies o f c ereals w ere c ultivated, o r w hen e xactly n ew s pecies w ere i ntroduced. N or c an i t g ive u s i nformation c oncerning i nter - s ite d ifferences a nd s pecialisations. T his i s t he s ort o f d etail t hat c an o nly b e a cquired b y t he a nalysis o f t he c rop p lants t hemselves, a s t hey a re p reserved o n s ite. T he r esults o f t he a nalysis o f c arbonised p lant r emains w ill b e
t he s ubject o f
t he n ext
s ection.
E VIDENCE F ROM T HE A NALYSIS O F C ARBONISED P LANT R EMAINS.
N one o f t he p rehistoric s ettlement s ites e xcavated i n t his r egion h as c ontained w aterlogged d eposits, a nd t hus t he a nalysis o f t he c rop p lants i s b ased o n t he s tudy o f c arbonised p lant r emains o nly. A s tudy o f t hese r emains c an p rovide d ifferent k inds o f i nformation. I n t he f irst p lace i t w ill s how w hich c rop p lants w ere g rown a nd w hen m ajor c hanges o ccurred, i .e. t he h istory o f c roplants. T hese c hanges c an b e r elated e ither t o c hanges i n d ietary p references, o r t o t he i ntroduction o f n ew s pecies b y i nvading p eople, o r t o a n ew d emand f or c rops s pecifically s uited t o n ew c onditions, s uch a s t olerance t o a cid s oils o r s uitability f or h eavy s oils. C hanges i n t he c rop r ecord c an r efer t o p eriods o f p opulation i ncrease a nd p ressure, d uring w hich a n i ntensification o f c rop p roduction i s r equired ( Jones 1 981). S econdly, t he s pecific c haracter o f t he a ssemblage
o f
c arbonised
p lant
r emains
c an
s uggest
t he t ype o f
a ctivities t hat i t r epresents: n ot o nly i nformation c oncerning t he v arious c rop-processing t echniques t hat w ere c arried o ut ( e.g. w hich s ize
o f
s ieve
w as
u sed
f or
c leaning
2 05
g rain),
b ut
a lso
m ore
f undamental i ssues l ike w hether w e a re d ealing w ith c rop p roduction o r c onsumption ( Jones f orthcoming).
a ctivities
o f
B oth t hese a ims o f a rchaeobotanical r esearch a re s erved b est b y h igh q uality d ata. H owever, w hile t he s econd l ine o f a nalysis, c oncerned w ith a c haracterisation o f t he a gricultural a ctivites, c annot b e c arried o ut u nless a dequate s ampling t echniques h ave b een a pplied ( Van d er V een 1 984 a nd f orthcoming a ), t he f irst l ine o f a nalysis, c oncerned w ith t he h istory o f c rop p lants, l argely r equires w ell d ated r ecords, a nd c an t herefore u se s mall a nd/or i solated s amples, a s l ong a s t hey a re a ccurately d ated. A s t he i nformation a vailable f rom n orth-east E ngland i s s till l imited a nd p atchy, o nly t he f irst l ine o f a nalysis i s a pplied h ere.
T he
a nalysis
o f
c arbonised p lant r emains h as o nly j ust
s tarted i n
t he N orth o f E ngland, a nd c onsequently t he i nformation a vailable i s s till v ery l imited. H owever, i n t he l ast y ear a nd a h alf a s mall c ollection o f d ata h as b een s tudied f rom f ive d ifferent s ites i n t he N orth-East,
t wo L ate N eolithic,
o ne l ate B ronze
A ge
a nd
t wo
L ate
I ron A ge. E xcept f or t he m aterial f rom C oxhoe ( Van d er V een & H aselgrove 1 983) t he m aterial i s s till u npublished. I n t his s ection t he p lant r emains f rom a ll f ive s ites w ill b e p resented i n c hronological o rder a nd t he g eneral i mplications o f b e d iscussed.
t he r esults w ill
A ll s amples w ere b rought b ack t o t he l aboratory i n D urham , a nd w ere d ried b efore f lotation. S imple m anual f lotation w as a pplied, m ixing t he s ediment w ith w ater i n a b ucket a nd p ouring t he w ater o ff i nto a 0 .5 m m m esh s ieve. T his g uaranteed t he r ecovery o f b oth f loating a nd s uspended p lant r emains. I t w as f elt n ecessary t o d ry s amples f rom w et s ediments b efore f lotation t o i mprove t he r ecovery r ate. H owever, s amples w ith a h igh c lay c ontent w ere n ot a llowed t o d ry o ut c ompletely, t o p revent r ock-hard s ample v olume i s g iven i n t he T ables.
' lumps'
f rom d eveloping.
T he
T he N eolithic P eriod.
W hitton H ill,
N orthumberland
( NT 9 33
3 47).
D uring t he 1 982 e xcavation o f t wo r ing-ditches a t W hitton H ill ( site 1 a nd 2 )(Miket 1 982) t hree s amples w ere c ollected f or f lotation. T wo o f t he s amples c ame f rom t he c entral c remations s et w ithin t he r ingd itches, a nd o ne s ample c ame f rom o ne o f t he d itch t erminals o f s ite 1 .
T he r esults a re
s et o ut
i n T able
1 .
S ome p lant r emains o ther
c harcoal w ere f ound i n t he r adiocarbon s amples a nd a re t he c olumn
T he
l isted
t han u nder
' miscellaneous'.
s amples
a re
d ated
t o
t he L ate N eolithic p eriod.
2 06
T he d itch o f
s ite 1 p roduced s herds o f a s mall b ucket-shaped v essel o f G rooved W are t radition. T he c entral c remation o f s ite 1 c ontained p ottery o f a r egional v ariation i n t he P eterborough s tyle. S ite 2 d id n ot p roduce p ottery, b ut t he j uxta-position o f t he t wo s ites w ould s eem t o s uggest t hat t hey m ay b e c ontemporaneous ( R . M iket, p ers. T he r adiocarbon s amples h ave n ot y et b een e xamined. * 2
c omm.).
F our g rains o f b arley w ere f ound. T hey w ere a ll i n a r ather p oor s tate o f p reservation. H owever, o ne g rain c learly b elonged t o t he n aked v ariety o f b arley, a s i t h ad n o r idges o n t he d orsal s urface. S ix-row b arley i s t he o nly b arley s pecies p resent i n p rehistoric B ritain, a nd b oth n aked a nd h ulled v arieties o ccur. H ere c ertainly H ordeum v ulgare, v ar. n udum ( naked, s ix-row b arley) i s p resent, b ut t he p resence o f t he h ulled v ariety c annot b e t otally r uled o ut. O ne g rain o f T riticum d icoccum , e mmer w heat, w as f ound.
S eeds o f v arious w eed s pecies w ere f ound, b ut u nfortunately s everal w ere t oo b adly p reserved t o a llow d etailed i dentification. T he s mall v etches ( Vicia s p.) a re c ommon w eeds i n a rable f ields. R ibwort p lantain ( Plantago l anceolata) f avours g rassland h abitats a nd i s o ne o f t he m ain p astoral i ndicators u sed i n p ollen a nalysis. I nteresting i s
t he p resence o f c arbonised t ubers o f o nion
e latius,
v ar.
b ulbosum).
c ouch
( Arrhenatherum
T hese t ubers h ave a lso b een f ound
B ronze A ge d itch o n R ockley D own, B ronze A ge c remation p its i n A bingdon ,
i n a l ate
W ilts. ( Godwin 1 975), a nd i n O xon. ( Jones 1 978). I t i s a
s trongly t uberised g rass t hat c an b e a s erious w eed o f c ultivated g round ( Godwin 1 975). T he f act t hat i t o ccurred w ith b arley i n t he R ockley D own s ample a nd t hat i t w as f ound i n c remation p its i n A shville, m ade b oth G odwin a nd J ones s uggest t hat i t m ight h ave b een p urposely g athered. H ere i n W hitton H ill i t i s a lso a ssociated w ith c remation r emains. O nly a f ew f ragments o f h azelnut s hell ( Corylus a vellana) w ere f ound i n t he s amples; t his i s i n c ontrast t o t he s amples f rom T hirlings ( see b elow), w here h azelnut f ragments o ccurred i n v ery l arge n umbers.
T hirlings,
N orthumberland
( NT 9 56
3 24).
E xcavations w ere c arried o ut a t T hirlings f rom 1 973-1981 ( O'Brien 1 982, M iket & O 'Brien f orthcoming). T he m ain c oncern w as a n A ngloS axon s ettlement. H owever, f inds o f N eolithic p ottery a ssociated w ith s ome s cattered p its a nd p ostholes d emonstrate t he p resence o f p ossibly t wo p hases o f o ccupation d uring t he N eolithic. M ost o f t he N eolithic f eatures w ere e xcavated d uring e arlier s easons, b ut i n 1 981 f our l arge p its c ontaining G rooved W are p ottery w ere u ncovered. T hey w ere c . 1m i n d iameter a nd 2 5-30 c m d eep. E ach o f t hese w as s ectioned, a nd h alf o f e ach p it w as t aken f or f lotation. T he r esults a re s et o ut
i n T able 2 .
T he s amples a re d ated t o t he L ate N eolithic. N o r adiocarbon d ates a re a vailable. P it 1 858 c ontained t wo s herds o f p ottery w ith f ingertip
a nd
i ncised
d ecoration,
2 07
b oth i n G rooved W are t radition.
P it 1 894 c ontained o ne s herd, s craper a nd k nife, n either
n ot v ery d iagnostic; a nd a f lint o f w hich i s u nusual i n a G rooved W are
c ontext. P it 1 898 c ontained t wenty s herds w ith f ingertip d ecoration a nd o ne s herd w ith i ncised d ecoration i n c hevron p attern a nd h orizontal l ines. A t l east t wo v essels a re p resent, b oth i n G rooved W are t radition. P it 1 901 c ontained f our v ery s mall s herds o f N eolithic O 'Brien,
O nly
a ppearance, p ers.
b ut
o therwise
n ot
v ery
d iagnostic
( Colm
c omm.).
t wo c ereal g rains w ere
r ecovered i n t he T hirlings
s amples.
T he
b arley g rain s howed n o r idges o n t he d orsal s urface a nd c an t hus b e i dentified a s H ordeum v ulgare, v ar. n udum ( six-row n aked b arley). T he o ther g rain w as t oo b adly p reserved t o j ustify f urther i dentification. O ne g rain o f o at w as f ound, A vena s p. I t c ould n ot b e e stablished w hether i t w as o f c ultivated o r w ild o rigin. I n t he a bsence o f f loret b ases i t i s i mpossible t o m ake r eliable i dentifications t o s pecies l evel. T he s ize r anges f or w ild a nd c ultivated o ats a re n ot m utually e xclusive, w hich p revents a d istinction p urely o n s ize. T he m easurements f or t he g rain f rom p it 1 894 a re: l ength 6 .75 m m , w idth 2 .25 m m a nd t hickness 1 .26 m m .
A l arge n umber o f h azelnut s hell f ragments ( Corylus a vellana) a re p resent i n t he s amples, a lthough o ne s hould r emember t hat h azelnut s hells c an b reak u p i nto m any m ore f ragments t han a ny o f t he o ther s pecies p resent. T heir p resence p resence o f n earby w oodland,
i n a s
l arge n umbers p oints t o t he d oes t he p resence o f h awthorn
( Crataegus) a nd b ramble ( Rubus) f ruits. T he s mall v etches ( Vicia s p), b romegrass ( Bromus s p.), f at h en ( Chenopodium a lbum) a nd c hickweed ( Stellaria m edia) a re a ll w eeds o f a rable f ields o r o ther d isturbed g round. B links s edge ( Carex s p.) i ndicate
( Montia f ontana, s pp. c hondrosperma) t he p resence o f d amp g round n earby.
a nd
D iscussion.
C arbonised p lant r emains f rom L ate N eolithic s ites a re s till a r are p henomenon i n B ritain, w hich m ade s ome a uthors s uggest t hat t he e conomy o f t he G rooved W are c ultures m ight h ave h ad a p redominantly p astoral b ase ( eg. M egaw & S impson 1 979). A s J ones h as r ightly p ointed o ut ( Jones 1 980) t he a bsence o f p lant r emains w as p urely a f unction o f i nadequate r ecovery t echniques a nd a w rong i nterpretation o f t he a bsence o f g rain i mpressions. W hen a dequate r ecovery t echniques a re a pplied, i .e. l arge s cale f lotation, c ereal g rains a nd o ther p lant r emains a re f ound o n e very s ite, t hough i n s mall n umbers, a s w as s hown f or M ount F arm a nd B arton C ourt F arm, O xon., D own F arm , W ilts. ( Jones 1 980), B romfield, S hrops. ( Colledge 1 982), T relystan, P owys ( Hillman 1 982), a nd a t W hitton H ill a nd T hirlings. O nly a t T relystan w ere c ereal g rains a bsent. T he r esults f rom W hitton H ill a nd T hirlings a re v ery s imilar t o t hose f rom t he a bove m entioned s ites, w eed s eeds, f ragments.
i .e.
v ery s mall
q uantities
o f
s ome c ollected f ruits a nd l arge q uantities
T he p resence o f c ereals o n G rooved W are
2 08
s ites
c ereals
a nd
o f h azelnut
s eems n ow s ufficiently
d emonstrated t o a llow a r evision o f t he o riginal v iew o f t heir e conomy. I t s eems c ertain t hat a rable a griculture p layed a p art i n t heir s ociety, a lthough w e a re s till u ncertain a bout t he a ctual r ole i t p layed i n t he t otal s ubsistence b ase. U nfortunately, n o c haff f ragments h ave b een r ecovered i n a ny o f t he s amples, b ut t he a ssociation o f t he c ereal g rains w ith a rable w eeds, a t l east a t t he W hitton H ill a nd T hirlings s amples, m ight s uggest s mall s cale l ocal p roduction. T he c onsistent p resence o f l arge n umbers o f h azelnut f ragments a nd o ther w oodland f ood p lants i ndicates t hat t he e xploitation o f w oodland r esources s till f ormed a n i mportant p art o f t he o verall e conomy.
T he B ronze A ge.
H allshill F arm ,
E ast W oodburn ,
N orthumberland
( NY 9 06 8 86).
T he e xcavations i n 1 981 r evealed t he w all l ine a nd p ostholes o f a n u nenclosed t imber r ound h ouse, 9 m i n d iameter a nd o f r ing-grooved c onstruction ( Gates 1 982a). T he s ite w as a ssociated w ith a 0 .6 h ectare f ield a nd s everal s mall c learance c airns. I n v iew o f i ts r ather i nsubstantial n ature, t he b ank a round t he f ield w as p robably n ot i ntended t o a ct a s a b arrier. T he f ield w as t herefore n ot a ssumed t o h ave a cted a s a s tock p en , b ut r ather a s a n a rable f ield. T he b ank m ay h ave b een f ormed a s a p roduct o f f ield c learance 1 982a).
( Gates
A t otal o f s even s amples w as c ollected f or f lotation. A ll b ut o ne c ontained p lant r emains. S ample n o.8 c ame f rom t he c entral h earth o f t he h ouse. A ll t he o ther s amples a re p osthole f ills. T he r esults o f t he a nalysis a re g iven i n T able 3 . T he s amples a re d ated t o t he l ate B ronze A ge b y t hree r adiocarbon d ates: 5 70+70 b c ( Gates 1 983).
8 30+80 b c,
6 10+
6 0
b c
a nd
T he s amples a re d ominated b y t he r emains o f w heat: 5 9 g rains a nd 1 46 c haff f ragments. O nly t he r easonably w ell p reserved g rains w ere i dentified t o s pecies l evel, t hough b earing i n m ind t he f act t hat i dentifications o f w heat g rains b ased o n s hape a lone a re n ever c ompletely r eliable. O f t he 5 9 w heat g rains 3 4 c ould b e i dentified a s T riticum d icoccum , e mmer w heat. T he c haff f ragments c onsisted o f o ne s pikelet f ork o f T riticum d icoccum , s ix r achis i nternodes o f a b rittle r achis w heat a nd 1 39 g lumebases o f a g lume w heat. O f t he l atter 1 21 w ere w ell e nough p reserved t o b e m easured. F igure 2 g ives a h istogram o f t he g lume w idths, m easured a t t he l evel o f s pikeleta rticulation.
T he m easurements
i ndicate
t hat w e a re d ealing w ith o ne
s pecies o nly, a s t he h istogram a pproaches t he c urve f or a n ormal d istribution v ery c losely. T he r ange o f g lume d imensions c orresponds w ell w ith t hose f or T riticum d icoccum , e mmer, u sing f igures g iven b y H elbaek ( 1952). W e c an t herefore c onclude t hat b oth t he g rains a nd t he c haff f ragments i ndicate t hat T riticum d icoccum , e mmer w heat, w as
t he o nly w heat
s pecies p resent.
2 09
N ine b arley g rains a nd 8 b arley r achis i nternodes w ere f ound. A s t he g rains w ere a ll b adly p reserved, i t c ould n ot b e e stablished w hether b oth c entral a nd l ateral g rains w ere p resent. H owever, t wo o f t he r achis i nternodes s how t he b ases o f t he g lumes a nd b elong c learly t o t he s ix-row v ariety. N one o f t he f ew g rains t hat s till p ossessed t heir s urface b arley, i .e. c ross-section , n aked v ariety.
c oat, h ad t he c haracteristic f eatures o f h ulled r idges o n t he d orsal s urface a nd a s lightly a ngular w hich m eans t hat w e a re p robably d ealing w ith t he T he b arley i n t he s amples c an t herefore b e i dentified
w ith r easonable n aked b arley.
c ertainty a s H ordeum v ulgare,
v ar.
n udum ,
s ix-row ,
T wo g rains o f o ats, A vena s p., w ere f ound i n t he s amples. C ultivated o at g rains c an o nly b e r eliably d istinguished f rom w ild o nes w hen t he f lower b ases h ave b een p reserved. U nfortunately t his w as n ot t he c ase h ere.
O ne s eed o f f lax o r l inseed w as f ound. T he s eed w as b adly b listered, b ut t he b eaked s hape a nd c ellular s urface s tructure w ere d istinct e nough t o 3 .33 mm ,
j ustify t his t he w idth
i dentification . T he l ength o f t he s eed i s 1 .81 m m . T his m akes i t a bout t he s ame s ize a s
L inum b ienne M ill. ( or L . a ngustifolium H uds.), t he s eeds o f w hich a re c . 3m m l ong. H owever, i f w e a ssume t hat t he l ength o f t he s eed i s r educed t hrough c arbonisation b y c a. 1 0%, t he s eed c omes i n f act i n t he l ower r ange o f L inum u ssitatissimum , c ultivated f lax. L inum b ienne o ccurs n owadays i n d ry g rassland, e specially n ear t he s ea, f rom t he I sle o f M an, L ancashire a nd Y orkshire s outhwards a nd i s c ommonest i n t he s outh-west ( Clapham e t a l. 1 962). H allshill F arm l ies o utside t he p resentd ay r ange o f L inum b ienne. W e m ight t herefore b e d ealing w ith c ultivated f lax, w hich i s, i n f act, t hought t o h ave d erived f rom L inum b ienne. M easurements o f c arbonised s eeds o f L inum u ssitatissimum s ettlement A artswoud, t he N etherlands,
f rom t he L ate N eolithic r ange f rom 2 .71 - 3 .43 m m
( length) a nd 1 .71 - 2 .06 m m ( width)(Buurman & P als 1 974). T he H allshill F arm s eed f its n icely i n t his r ange. H owever, w ith o nly o ne r ather b adly p reserved s eed p resent, w e h ave t o c onfine o urselves t o a n i dentification o f L inum s p.
C henopodium a lbum ( fat h en) i s c ommon i n w aste p laces a nd c ultivated g round. R umex a cetosella ( sheep's s orrel) g rows o n h eaths, g rassland a nd c ultivated l and, c ommonly o n a cid s oils. P lantago m edia ( hoary p lantain) o ccurs i n g rassy p laces, o n n eutral a nd b asic s oils.
D iscussion.
T he s ite o f H allshill F arm i s c . s even k m s outh- w est o f S teng M oss. A s m entioned a bove, t his d iagram s hows f or t he l ater B ronze A ge a nd I ron
A ge
a
s eries
o f
s mall-scale
c learance
a nd
r egeneration
e pisodes. T he p art o f t he d iagram t hat c overs t he o ccupation p hase o f t he s ettlement ( c. 8 30-570 b c) r ecords o nly o ne o ccurrence o f c ereal p ollen,
i .e.
a t a l evel d ated t o 6 36+45 b c,
2 10
a nd i n f act
t his
r ecord o nly r epresents o ne p ollen g rain. p roblems o f u sing p ollen a nalysis f or t he a griculture, b etween r emains.
a nd
p ollen
i llustrates a nalysis
a nd
t he
n eed
t he
a nalysis
f or
T his h ighlights t he d etection o f a rable a o f
c lose c ooperation c arbonised
p lant
T he m ost s triking a spect o f t he c arbonised p lant a ssemblage f rom H allshill F arm i s i ts ' conservative' c haracter. A t B lack P atch ( Sussex) a l ate B ronze A ge s ite w ith r adiocarbon d ates r anging f rom 1 130+70 b c - 8 30+80 b c, i .e. s lightly e arlier t han H allshill F arm, s pelt, c eltic i b eans a nd h ulled b arley a re p resent i n a ddition t o e mmer w heat ( Hinton 1 982). T he a bsence o f h ulled b arley i n H allshill F arm i s r emarkable. A n i ncrease i n t he o ccurrence o f h ulled b arley h as b een r ecorded f or t he l ater B ronze A ge i n B ritain. F rom t he I ron A ge o nwards 1 952).
n aked
b arley
o nly
p lays
a v ery m inor r ole
( Helbaek
T he f irst h alf o f t he f irst m illennium B C. i s r egarded a s a p eriod o f i nnovation, w itnessing t he i ntroduction o f m any n ew c rop p lants, s uch a s s pelt w heat ( Triticum s pelta) b read w heat ( Triticum a estivum), c eltic b ean, ( Vicia f aba, v ar. m inor) o at, ( Aven s ativa) a nd r ye, ( Secale c ereale) ( Helbaek 1 952, J ones 1 981). T here a re a f ew e arlier r ecords f or b read w heat a nd c eltic b eans, a nd t here i s o f c ourse t he m uch d iscussed N eolithic r ecord f or s pelt w heat i n H embury ( Field e t a l. 1 964). N ot u ntil t he f irst h alf o f t he f irst m illennium B C., h owever, d o t hese s pecies o ccur w ith a ny r egularity. B y c . 5 00 B C. t he n ew i ntroductions s eem f irmly e stablished, o ften a t t he e xpense o f t he p reviously c ultivated s pecies, l ike n aked b arley a nd e mmer w heat. N one o f t hese n ew i ntroductions a re r epresented a t H allshill F arm, w hich a ssemblage i s s till f irmly b ased
i n t he e arlier B ronze A ge
t radition.
T he I ron A ge.
C oxhoe,
c o.
D urham ( NZ 3 26 3 60).
T his c rop m ark s ite w as e xcavated i n 1 979
a nd
1 980
( Haselgrove
&
A llon 1 982). T he r ectilinear e nclosure d itch, c . 0 .4 h ectare i n a rea, e ncompassed a c entral c ircular f eature, p robably a h ouse. A n e arlier p hase w as r ecognised, r epresented b y a l ong l inear g ully. N o r adiocarbon d ates a re a vailable f rom t he s ite. T he p resence o f a f ragment o f a r otary q uern s uggest a d ate n ot e arlier t han t he 2 nd c entury B C. a nd t he a bsence o f R oman i mports s uggests a n a bandonment b y a t l east t he e nd o f t he f irst c entury A D. T he e arlier p hase c an o nly b e s aid t o a nte-date t his p eriod ( Haselgrove a nd A llon 1 982).
U nfortunately, n o f lotation s amples w ere c ollected d uring e xcavation, b ut t hree s oil s amples w ere s till a vailable
t he f or
a nalysis. T he r esults a re p ublished e lsewhere ( Van d er V een & H aselgrove 1 983), b ut t hey w ill a lso b e b riefly p resented h ere.
2 11
S ample 5 06 b elongs t o t he e arlier • p hase o f t he s ettlement ( the l inear g ully), w hile s ample 1 013 a nd 5 04 b elong t o t he e nclosure d itch a nd c ircular h ouse r espectively. T he r esults a re g iven i n T able 4 .
T he c ereal g rains w ere a ll b adly p reserved a nd o nly t wo o f t hem c ould b e i dentified t o g enus l evel: o ne a s w heat ( Triticum s p.) a nd o ne a s b arley ( Hordeum s p.). H owever, a t otal o f 1 1 g lumebases w as r ecovered, n ine o f t hem w ell e nough p reserved t o b e m easured. T he m easurements o f t he g lume-widths a t t he l evel o f s pikelet a rticulation a re g iven i n F igure 2 . A t l east f our f all o utside t he r ange o f T riticum d icoccum ( emmer w heat) t he o ther f ive a re a t t he t op e nd o f t his r ange o r a t t he b ottom e nd o f T riticum s pelta ( spelt w heat) u sing f igures g iven b y H elbaek ( 1952). I n a ddition , t he f our w idest g lumebases, i .e. t hose w hich f all w ithin t he r ange o f s pelt, a lso s how t he v enation p attern c haracteristic f or s pelt w heat. T he o ther g lumebases a re e ither t oo d amaged o r s how a n i ndistinctive v enation p attern. T hus T riticum s pelta ( spelt w heat), i s d efinitely p resent i n t he C oxhoe s amples. T here i s n ot s ufficient e vidence t o e xclude t he p resence o f T riticum d icoccum ( emmer w heat).
T horpe T hewles,
C leveland
( NZ 3 96 2 43)
T horpe T hewles i s a l ate I ron A ge s ettlement s ite s ituated o n t he f oothills o f t he e ast D urham p lateau. A erial p hotographs r evealed a c rop m ark s ite c onsisting o f a l arge ( 0.7 h ectare) s ub-rectangular e nclosure w ith a c entral h ouse. T he s ite w as e xcavated d uring 1 980 1 982 ( Heslop 1 983). T he e xcavations h ave p ointed t o t he e xistence o f o ccupation p hases b oth b efore a nd a fter t he m ain o ccupation p hase, w hich i s r epresented b y a s ub-rectangular b ank-and-ditch e nclosure. T his m ain e nclosure p hase d ates f rom t he l ate 3 rd o r 2 nd c entury B C. D uring t he f irst c entury B C. a nd t he f irst c entury A D. t he b ank a nd d itch w ere l evelled a nd t he s ettlement e xpanded b eyond t he o riginal e nclosure. D uring t his p hase a s mall a mount o f i mported R oman p ottery ( Samian) f ound i ts w ay t o t he s ite. T he s ettlement i s n ot t hought
t o h ave c ontinued a fter t he e nd o f t he
i st c entury A D.
D uring t he f irst s eason o f e xcavations ( 1980) n o s amples f or f lotation w ere c ollected. D uring t he s econd s eason ( late 1 981-1982), h owever, t he c ollection o f f lotation s amples b ecame a n i ntegrated p art o f i t w as
t he e xcavation. n ot p ossible
B ecause o f t he l arge s cale o f t he e xcavation t o c ollect s amples f rom e very f eature, a nd a
p rogramme o f r andom s ampling w as a pplied. A d escription o f t he r andom s ampling p rogramme c an b e f ound i n V an d er V een ( 1984 a nd f orthcoming a ) . A t otal o f 1 30 s amples w as c ollected, o f w hich 1 00 h ave b een a nalysed s o f ar, t ogether c ontaining c . 1 6000 s eeds. I t i s n ot p ossible h ere t o g ive a f ull t able o f t he r esults, a s t his w ould r equire t oo m uch s pace. A d etailed d iscussion o f t he m aterial i s f orthcoming ( Van d er V een f orthcoming b ). I n T able 5 . a s ummary o f t he r esults i s g iven. T he s ample v olume w as l itres o f s ediment ( i.e. t wo b uckets).
2 12
s tandardised
t o c a.
2 8
T wo t ypes o f c ereal g rains w ere p resent: s pelt w heat a nd s ix-row, h ulled b arley. T he w heat g rains w ere o n t he w hole b adly p reserved a nd i dentification t o s pecies l evel w as r arely p ossible. T he b est p reserved
c aryopses
c ould
b e
i dentified a s T riticum s pelta
( spelt
w heat) t hough t here m ight b e a f ew g rains o f T riticum d icoccum ( emmer w heat) p resent. T his s till n eeds f urther a nalysis. L arge n umbers o f c haff f ragments o f w heat w ere p resent a nd t he i dentification o f s pelt w heat i s m ainly b ased o n t he c haracteristics o f
t he g lumebases.
A t otal o f
1 000 g lumebases h as b een m easured a nd
a h istogram o f t he m easurements i s g iven i n F igure 2 . T he h istogram a pproaches t he c urve f or a n ormal d istribution, i ndicating t hat i t i s
l ikely
t hat w e
a re
d ealing
w ith
j ust
o ne
s pecies;
a nd
t he
m easurements f all c learly i n t he r ange f or s pelt w heat. M oreover, a ll t he w ell p reserved g lumebases s how c learly t he v enation p attern s o c haracteristic f or s pelt w heat, i .e. o ne p rominent v ein a nd s everal s econdary v eins. T here c an t herefore b e n o d oubt t hat t he w heat p resent i n t he s amples b elongs t o s pelt w heat. T he e vidence f rom t he g lumebases w ould s uggest a n a bsence o f e mmer w heat.
T he b arley g rains w ere e qually p oorly p reserved. I n f act, t he m ajority o f t he c ereal g rains h ad t o b e p ut i n t he c lass: C erealia i ndet. H owever, o f t he f ew g rains t hat w ere w ell e nough p reserved s everal w ere l ateral g rains a nd a ll s howed t he r idges o n t he d orsal s urface a nd a s lightly a ngular c ross-section c haracteristic o f h ulled, s ix-row b arley, H ordeum v ulgare. f ragments c onfirmed t his i dentification.
T he
r achis
i nternode
N o f urther c rop p lants h ave b een f ound s o f ar, w ith t he e xception o f p ossibly o at. S mall n umbers o f A vena s p. ( oat) a re p resent i n t he s amples. U nfortunately, v ery f ew f loret b ases w ere f ound, a nd a ll o f t hese a re b adly f ragmented, b ut t here i s p ossibly o ne f loret b ase o f c ultivated o at ( Avena s ativa) p resent.
I n a ddition t o t he c ereal g rains a nd c haff f ragments l arge n umbers o f g rasses w ere p resent i n a ll s amples, e specially S ieglingia d ecumbens ( heath g rass) a nd B romus s p. ( bromegrass). F urthermore, l arge n umbers o f a rable w eeds a nd o ther p resent. T hey c annot b e d ealt w ith h ere.
h erbaceous
s pecies
w ere
D iscussion.
T he e vidence f rom b oth C oxhoe a nd T horpe T hewles s hows c learly t hat b y t he 2 nd c entury B C. s pelt w heat a nd h ulled, s ix-row b arley a re f irmly e stablished a s c rop p lants, a t l east i n t he D urham l owlands. H owever, t here i s a s y et n o e vidence f or t he w heat, c eltic b eans o r r ye, a nd t he e vidence
c ultivation o f b read f or o at i s v ery s light.
T he i ntroduction o f t hese n ew c rop p lants i n t he f irst h alf o f t he f irst m illennium B C. a nd t heir e stablishment b y c . 5 00 B C. i n t he s outh o f t he c ountry h as b een s uggested t o b e t he r eaction t o p opulation p ressure,
a s
t he n ew s pecies a llowed
2 13
t he
s ustenance
o f
c ultivation o n d eteriorating l and ( oat, r ye, b eans) a nd t he e xpansion o nto h itherto m arginal l and ( spelt, b read w heat)(Jones 1 981). T he e vidence f rom t he s ites s tudied s o f ar w ould s uggest t hat t his p opulation p ressure w as n ot f elt i n t he N orth-East o f E ngland u ntil m uch l ater.
S UMMARY A ND S UGGESTIONS F OR F UTURE W ORK.
W hile t he r egion i s r easonably w ell o ff f or p ollen d iagrams, t he i nformation a vailable f rom c arbonised p lant r emains i s s till v ery l imited. N evertheless, s ome i nteresting p atterns c an a lready b e d istinguished. T he L ate N eolithic s amples f rom W hitton H ill a nd T hirlings a re i mportant i n t hat t hey c onfirm t he e vidence ( admittedly s till l imited) f rom o ther p arts o f t he c ountry, t hat a rable a griculture p layed s ome p art i n t he e conomy o f t he G rooved W are c ultures. T he e xact n ature o f t he r ole o f c rop p roduction i n t heir s ociety i s, h owever, s till u ndetected a nd m any m ore e xcavations a re r equired. T he a ctivities o f t he L ate N eolithic p eople a re r arely r ecorded i n t he p ollen d iagrams, w hich i s p robably a f unction o f t he f act t hat t he a rea w as s till o nly s parsely p opulated a nd o f t he f act t hat p ollen a nalysis i s i nadequate i n p icking u p a rable a ctivities i n d ensely w ooded a reas. T he m ost s triking a spect o f t hese t wo L ate N eolithic p lant a ssemblages, h owever, i s t hat t hey a re r emarkably s imilar t o t hose f rom s outhern B ritain.
T he o ne s ite o f H allshill F arm c an o bviously n ot b e r egarded a s r epresentative f or t he B ronze A ge o f N orth-East E ngland, a nd i t i s h oped t hat m any m ore s ites w ill s oon b e e xcavated. N evertheless, t he r ather c onservative c haracter o f t he a ssemblage f rom t his s ite i s r emarkable a nd w ould s uggest t hat t he d evelopments a s w e c an t race t hem i n s outhern B ritain, t ake p lace i n t he N orth-East a t a s lightly l ater t ime.The L owland - H ighland Z one d ivision i s g enerally t hought t o h ave b ecome i mportant a t t he b eginning o f t he f irst m illennium B C. ( Evans 1 975), a nd i t i s p ossible t hat w hat w e a re s eeing a t H allshill F arm i s e vidence f or t his s tatement.
U nfortunately, n o i nformation f rom e arly I ron A ge s ites i s y et a vailable, s o w e a re u nable t o t race w hen e xactly s pelt w heat a rrives i n t he N orth-East o f E ngland. T he e vidence f rom C oxhoe a nd T horpe T hewles d emonstrates t hat t he c ultivation o f s pelt w heat i s f irmly e stablished b y t he L ate I ron A ge o r 2 nd c entury B C. H owever n one o f t he o ther n ew i ntroductions a ppear t o b e p resent t hen.
T he b eginning o f t he l arge-scale d eforestation o f t he l andscape i n s outhern E ngland i s g enerally d ated t o c . 5 00 B C. ( Turner 1 981), a lthough i n p arts o f S outh-East E ngland t he l andscape w as a lready f airly o pen i n t he B ronze A ge. T his d evelopment c oincides w ith t he e stablishment o f a w hole
s eries o f n ew c rop p lants a nd t he e xpansion
2 14
o f a griculture o nto p reviously m arginal l and. A lthough n o d irect l ink h as e ver b een s uggested b etween t hese t wo d evelopments, i t i s v ery l ikely t hat t hey a re c losely r elated. T he f orest c learances w ere, u ndoubtedly, l argely t he r esult o f t he i ntensification a nd e xpansion o f a griculture. T his l arge-scale d eforestation o f t he l andscape o ccurred p rogressively l ater i n t he n orth o f t he c ountry, a nd a s w e h ave s een a bove, d id n ot s tart i n t he N orth-East u ntil t he l ast c entury B C. o r t he f irst c entury A D. ( with t he a rea a round B ishop M iddleham o n t he e ast D urham p lateau a s t he o nly e xception). A lthough t he i nformation c oncerning t he c rop p lants i n t he N orthE ast i s s till s carce, t he e vidence a vailable s uggests t hat t he i ntroduction o f n ew c rop p lants a nd t he a ssociated d evelopments, a s k nown f rom t he s outh o f E ngland, t ook p lace h ere a t a m uch l ater d ate. A gain , t he r esults f rom p ollen a nalysis c an b e c losely l inked w ith t hose f rom t he s tudy o f c arbonised p lant r emains. T hus, t he e vidence a vailable a t t he m oment w ould s uggest t hat t he p opulation p ressure w hich i s t hought t o h ave b rought a bout t hese c hanges i n l andscape a nd a griculture i n t he s outh o f t he c ountry, i n t he N orth- E ast u ntil s everal c enturies l ater.
w as n ot
f elt
A s w ill b e c lear f rom t he a bove d iscussion , t here a re s till m any b lanks i n o ur k nowledge o f t he d evelopment o f c rop p roduction i n t he N orth-East. I t i s h oped t hat s oon m any m ore s amples f or p lant r emains c an b e c ollected f rom m any e xcavations t o f ill i n s ome o f t he d etail. h ere:
1 .
S ome s uggestions
f or
p ossible
f uture
w ork
a re
g iven
U pland N orthumberland.
C arbonised p lant a ssemblages a re r equired f rom m ore B ronze A ge a nd I ron A ge s ettlements t o t est w hen e xactly t he d evelopments i n c rop p roduction s tart l agging b ehind a nd w hen e xactly , i f e ver, t he n ew c rop p lants a re i ntroduced. T he L owland - H ighland z one d ivision a nd p ossible e nvironmental c onstraints f or t he c ultivation o f c rops s hould b e i ncorporated i n t he a nalysis.
2 .
T he R oman W all a rea.
T he R oman W all f orms o ne o f t he m ost r emarkable f eatures i n t he l andscape o f t he r egion a nd t he a rrival o f v ery l arge n umbers o f R oman t roops m ust h ave m ade a p rofound i mpact o n t he e conomy o f t he a rea. P iggott a rgued t hat i t w as v ery u nlikely t hat t he N orth o f E ngland w as c apable o f p roducing g rain f or a s urplus a nd t hat t he a dvance o f t he R oman a rmy n orthwards w ould h ave h ad t o r ely u pon e laborate a rrangements f or i ts c orn s upply ( Piggott 1 958). M anning, h owever, a rmy
a rgued
a lways
t hat
f or e conomic a nd
m ilitary
t ried t o a void m oving s upplies o ver
r easons
t he
R oman
l ong d istances a nd
a rgued t hat a c onsiderable p art o f t he r equirements w as l ocally p roduced ( Manning 1 975). I t s hould b e p ossible t o a nswer t his q uestion b y s tudying t he p lant r emains f rom n ative s ites c omparing t hem w ith t hose f rom v ici a nd f orts i n t he W all z one.
2 15
a nd
3 .
L owland D urham.
A t l east p art o f t his a rea a ppea/s t o h ave b een d eforested a s e arly a s p arts o f S outh-East E ngland. P lant r emains a re r equired f rom B ronze A ge a nd e arly I ron A ge s ettlements t o f ind o ut w hether t his e arly c learance w as a ssociated w ith a n e arly i ntroduction o f t he n ew c rop p lants, e arlier t han i n t he r est o f t he r egion. E xcavations o f R omano-British
s ites
c rop p roduction t o
a re
r equired
t he a rrival o f
t o
s tudy t he r eaction o f
l ocal
t he R oman g arrisons.
What h appened d uring t he l ater p eriod, a fter t he R oman w ithdrawal f rom t he r egion, i s s till v ery m uch a n e nigma. P ollen e vidence s uggests
c ontinuation
a nd
s tability
o f
c ultivation,
b ut
t he
a rchaeological e vidence s trikes b y i ts a bsence a nd c onsequently n o c arbonised p lant a ssemblages a re a vailable. W e h ope t hat i n a f ew y ears
t ime m ore d etailed e vidence w ill b e a vailable f or
d iscussed h ere,
i n a ddition
t o
n ew
i nformation
f or
t he p eriods t he
e arlier
N eolithic a nd t he S axon p eriod.
F ootnotes:
* 1 T he g rid r eference f or N easham F en i s g iven b y B artley e t a l. ( 1976) a s N Z 3 32 1 66. I s uggest t hat t his i s a t yping e rror. F rom t he M ap 1 16.
l ocation ( 1
m ap g iven b y t he a uthors a nd f rom t he O rdnance S urvey
:5 0 0 00)
O n F ig.
i t
i s
1 t his
c lear
t hat
t he c orrect
c orrected g rid
r eference
l ocation
i s
N Z
3 32
i s u sed.
* 2 T he r adio-carbon d ates h ave s ince b ecome a vailable. T hey i ndicate t hat t he c entral b urial S ite 2 i s o f m uch l ater d ate, p robably f irst m illenium B C
( Nov.
1 984).
A cknowledgements:
T he
w ork
a t
t he
B iological L aboratory i n D urham i s
f inanced b y a
g rant f rom t he D epartment o f t he E nvironment ( Ancient M onuments L aboratory) t o t he U niversity o f D urham. I w ould l ike t o t hank G ordon
H illman
a nd
M artin
J ones
f or
t heir
h elp
w ith
t he
i dentifications, a nd J ulian B ennett, M artin J ones a nd J udy T urner f or c ritically r eading a n e arlier d raft o f t his a rticle. F inaly, I w ould l ike t o e xpress m y g ratitude t o C olm O 'Brien , D avid H eslop, T im G ates a nd R oger M iket f or a llowing m e t o c ollect l arge b ags o f s oil h is
o n
t heir
c upboard.
a bstract was
s ites,
F igures
a nd C olin H aselgrove f or a llowing m e 1 a nd 2 w ere d rawn b y
t ranslated
Y vonne
B rown
i nto G erman b y B ettina H artas.
2 16
t o e mpty a nd
t he
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3 0
s ize a nd o n-
v an d er f orthcoming b T he p lant r emains. I n H eslop, D . ( ed.) T he e xcavations a t T horpe T hewles, C leveland. v an d er & H aselgrove, C .C. 1 983 E vidence f or p re-Roman c rops f rom C oxhoe, C o. f ifth s eries 1 1, 2 3-25.
2 19
D urham.
A rchaeologia A eliana,
B ER W ICK
R ige l Tweed
-
WH ITTON H ILL
. 6 TH IRL INGS
C amp F i l l Moss -A
B road Moss
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r o e s
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A
P o l len s i tes L and o ve r 400 f 1 L and o ve r 1 000 f 1
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H a l lsh i l l F a rm 1 981
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t
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2 .
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G RAZING
D AMAGE
T O
( CERVAS KLEPHAS) A S HORT N OTE.
R .G.W .
S COTS
I N
P INE
H IGHLAND
( PINUS
S COTLAND
S YLVESTRIS) D URING
T HE
B Y
R ED
DEER
M ID- F LANDRIAN :
W ard
S ir J ohn C ass Q uaternary R esearch U nit C ity o f L ondon P olytechnic C alcutta H ouse O ld C astle S treet L ondon E l 7 NT
A BSTRACT
C haracteristic
s cars
a ttributable
t o d eer
g razing d amage h ave b een
i dentified o n c ross-sections o f m id 141andrian S cots P ine p reserved i n t he p eat b ogs o f R annoch M oor, S cotland. F uture m aps o f s uch s car t issue f requencies m ay h ave n otable b iogeographic a nd a rchaeological s ignificance f or o ur u nderstanding o f M esolithic s ubsistence, h erding a nd t he e cology o f t he h ighland m oors a nd f orests.
I NTRODUCTION
D endrochonology i s p rincipally k nown p owerful t ool f or p recisely d ating w ood
t o a rchaeologists a s a i n s tanding s tructures o r
w aterlogged s ites ( Bannister a nd R obinson 1 975). H owever s ince i ts i nception, s tudy o f l iving a nd s ub-fossil t ree s tumps h ave b een p ut t o
o ther
u ses.
T he
e ffect
o f
f ire
o n
t ree
c ambium
i s
w ell
k nown
a nd a s l ong a go a s 1 910, F .E. C lements i dentified f ire s cars i n w ater p ine a nd u sed d endrochronological m ethods t o e stablish t he f ire h istory o f a c oniferous f orest. F ire h istories i dentified i n t his m anner h ave n ow b een e stablished i n m any r egions ( see S tokes a nd D ietrich 1 980). S everal o ther p rocesses m ay l eave c haracteristic s cars o r t issue t ypes. T hese i nclude s oil e rosion ( e.g. L a M arche 1 963, 1 968), m ass-movement ( Alestalo 1 971, S chroder 1 975, 1 976), t ectonic a ctivity ( La M arche a nd W allace 1 972), f rost d amage ( La M arche 1 970), f lood f requencies a nd m agnitudes ( Sigafoos 1 964, H elley a nd L a M arche 1 968, 1 973), i nsect s uppression ( Morrow a nd L a M arche 1 978), a ir p ollution ( Thompson 1 981) a nd a valanches ( Potter
1 969, W ard
1 984).
S CAR T ISSUE F ROM G RAZING D EER O N S COTS P INE
I n
t he
c ourse
t issues S cots o f
o f
t his
a ttributable
p ine
( Pinus
t o
l atter
w ork ,
g razing
s ylvestris)
b y i n
S cotland.
2 21
W ard r ed
G len
( 1984)
d eer F eshie
r ecognised
( Cervas i n
t he
s car
e lephas)
o n
C airngorms
W hen e xposed i n c ross=section, r ed d eer d amage s hows u p a s a ' V' s haped n otch i n w hich a l arge q uantity o f b ark h as b een t rapped b y s ubsequent g rowth. O ccasionally ' streamers' o f b ark m ay b e f ound w ithin c ross-sections. I n b oth c ases, a n i mportant c haracteristic o f t he s carring i s t hat i t i s c lose t o t he p ith, i .e. t he d amage o ccurred w hen t he t ree w as y oung, a nd n ot m ore t han 1 5 o r 2 0 y ears o ld. T hese f eatures a re s hown i n F ig. 4 o f t he p aper d iscussing a valanche f requency ( Ward
1 984).
S CAR T ISSUE I N S UB-FOSSIL P INUS S YLVESTR1S
R ecent w ork b y t he D endrochronology S ection o f t he S ir J ohn C ass Q uaternary R esearch U nit h as c oncentrated a ttention o n s ub-fossil r emains o f P inus s ylvestris. T ree s tumps a nd o ccasional t runks h ave b een f ound p reserved i n m id-Flandrian p eat d eposits o n t he B lack M ount E state o n t he s outhern e dge o f R annoch M oor. T wo s ites h ave b een e xamined. C lashgour ( NGR N N 2 59425) i s a t a pproximately 1 85m a .s.1., a nd t he p eat a verages 1 .5m d eep, r eaching a m aximum o f 3 .0m. C oire S eilich ( NGR N N 3 35464) i s a t a pproximately 3 05m a .s.l.
a nd t he p eat a verages
2 .0m d eep,
w ith a m aximum o f 4 .5m .
C lear e vidence o f g razing h as b een f ound i n s ub-fossil w ood s amples f rom C lashgour a nd C oire S eilich, s howing t hat t he p resence o f d eer i n a n a rea c an b e d emonstrated f rom s ub-fossil t rees ( Plate 1 ).
D ISCUSSION
I t m ay b e d istribution
p ossible o f d eer
t o s uggest i n s uitable
t he r elative a bundance a nd s ites f rom t he f requency o f
g razing s cars w here t ree s tumps a re p reserved. O bviously a s m uch d eer g razing o ccurs o n t he m oors a bove t he t reeline, o bservations o n s tumps w ill p rovide i nformation o n t he e dge o f t he g razing r ange. S uch u nderstanding
t race f ossils h ave o f t he e cology a nd
s ignificance f or i mproving o ur s ubsistence s trategies o f b oth
m esolithic h unter-gatherers a nd l arge v ertebrates; e specially i n t he h ighland z one w here h unting, f iring a nd g razing h ave l ong b een r ecognised a s i mportant ( e.g. S immons 1 975, M ellars 1 976). T he f irst r equirement i s t o e stablish t he r elationship b etween t he s ize a nd r ange o f m odern d eer p opulations a nd t he f requency o f d amage t o y oung s cot's p ine. T his r elationship m ay t hen b e a pplied, w ith s uitable c aution, t o t he i nterpretation o f s ub-fossil f orests i n m esolithic l andscapes. S econd, i t w ould b e m ost u seful t o e xplore t he p recise c haracter o f s car t issues g enerated b y o ther g razing a nimals s uch a s h orses. A t
p resent,
r adiocarbon
d ates
h ave
n ot
b een
o btained
f rom
t he
s amples s howing d eer p resence a t C lashgour a nd C oire S eilich. H owever, a d ate n ot y ounger t han 4 000 y ears b .p. i s a nticipated.
2 22
R EFERENCES
A lestalo,
J . ( 1971) D endrochronological i nterpretation o f g eomorphic p rocesses, S ocieta G eographica F ennica 1 05, 1 -140.
B annister,
B .
a nd
R obinson,
W .J.
( 1975)
T ree-ring
a rchaeology, W orld Archaeology 7 ( 2), C lements,
F .E.
( 1910)
T he
l ife
h istory
U nited S tates D epartment B ulletin N o. 7 9, 5 6pp. H elley,
E .J.
a nd
L a M arche,
V .C.
o f
N i :.
o f
w ater
Agriculture
( 1968)
E .J.
a nd
L a
M arche,
i nformation
f rom
V .C.
J r.
n orthern
b urn
V .C. J r. ( 1963) O rigin r oots o f b ristlecone p ine, U nited S tates G eological 4 74-C,
L a
M arche,
V .C.
S ervice,
f lood
G eological
( 1973)
i n
S urvey
H istoric
C alifornia
f lood
s treams
g eological a nd b otanical e vidence, U nited G eological S urvey P rofessional P aper 4 85-E, 1 -16. L a M arche,
i n
f orests.
F orest
A 4 00-year
n orthern C alifornia, U nited S tates P rofessional P aper 6 00-D, 3 4-37. H elley,
d ating
2 10-225.
f rom S tates
a nd s ignificance o f b uttress W hite M ountains, C alifornia, S urvey P rofessional P aper
1 49-150. J r.
( 1968)
R ates
o f
s lope
d egradation
a s
d etermined f rom b otanical e vidence, W hite M ountains, C alifornia, U nited S tates G eological S urvey P rofessional P aper 3 52-I, 1 341-1377. L a
M arche, V .C. J r. ( 1970) F rost-damage r ings i n s ub-alpine c onifers a nd t heir a pplication t o t ree-ring d ating p roblems. I n T ree-Ring Analysis w ith S pecial R eference t o N orthwest America J .H.G. S mith a nd J . W orrall ( eds) U niversity
o f
B ulletin N o. L a
7 ,
B ritish
C olumbia
F aculty
o f
F orestry
9 9-100.
M arche, V .C. J r. a nd W allace, R .E. ( 1972) E valuation o f e ffects o n t rees o f p ast m ovements o n t he S an Andreas F ault, N orthern C alifornia. G eological S ociety o f America B ulletin 8 3
M ellars,
P .A.
( 1976)
( 9),
2 665-2676.
F ire e cology,
a nimal p opulations a nd m an :
a
s tudy o f s ome e cological r elationships i n p rehistory, P roceedings o f t he P rehistoric S ociety 4 2, 1 5-45. M orrow ,
P .A.
a nd
L a
M arche,
V .C.
f or c hronic i nsect s ub-alpine E ucalyptus,
J r.
( 1978)
T ree-ring
e vidence
s uppression o f p roductivity S cience 2 01 ( 4362), 1 244-1246.
2 23
i n
P otter,
N .
J r. ( 1969) T ree-ring d ating o f s now a valanche t racks a nd g eomorphic a ctivity o f a valanches, N orth A bsaroka M ountains, W yoming, G eological S ociety o f America P aper N o. 1 23, 1 41-165.
S chroder, J .F.
J r.
( 1975)
D endrogeomorphological a nalysis o f m ass
m ovement Annals o f G eographers 7 , 2 22-226. S chroder,
J .F.
J r.
( 1976)
t he
A ssociation
D endrochronologic
g laciers a nd s now a valanches, Association Abstracts 4 , 1 15. S igafoos,
R .S.
( 1964)
o f
American
a nalysis
American
o f
r ock
Q uaternary
B otanical e vidence o f f loods a nd f loodplain
d eposition,
U nited
S tates
G eological
S urvey
P rofessional P aper 4 85-A ? S immons,
I .G. ( 1965) u plands o f S cience 2 ,
S tokes,
M .A.
a nd
T owards a n e cology o f m esolithic m an i n t he G reat B rit 4n, J ournal o f Archaeological 1 -15.
D ietrich,
h istory w orkshop.
J .H .
( 1980)
O ctober
2 0-24
P roceedings 1 980,
U nited S tates D epartment o f A griculture G eneral T echnical R eport, R N-81, 1 42 p p. F orest a nd R ange E xperiment S tation, C olorado, U SA. T hompson,
W ard,
o f
t he
f ire
T ucson, A rizona. F orest S ervice R ocky M ountain F ort C ollins,
M .A. ( 1981) T ree r ings a nd a ir p ollution : a c ase o f P inus m onophylla g rowing i n e ast-central N evada, E nvironmental P ollution S eries A 2 6, 2 51-266.
R .G.W.
( 1984)
A n
e stimate
o f
a valanche
F eshie, S cotland, u sing t ree P alaeoenvironmental I nvestigations, D .D. G ilbertson a nd N .G.A. R alph B ritish A rchaeological R eports.
2 24
f requency r ings. N .R.J. ( eds).
i n
G len
I n F ieller, O xford :
P late 1 . o n
S cars c haracteristic of d eer g razing a nd r ipping
t he trunk of a s tump of Scots P ine i n e xcess o f 4 ,000 y ears
o ld,
Rannoch Moor,
S cotland.
I NDEX 1
a biotic f actors : 7 4 a brasion : 6 7 A bscess : 4 5 a bsent t eeth : 4 5 a bsolute d ating : 1 32 a bsolute f requencies : 5 6, 1 43 a bsolute p opulation n umbers : 1 31 a bundance : 1 35 a byssal d epths : 1 21 a cclimatization : 1 36 a ccumulation r ates : 1 93 a cetolysis : 1 82 a cid b rown e arths : 1 90 a cid s oils : 1 98 a cid s olutions a nd b one p reservation a cidity : 6 8, 1 90 A ctinobacillosis : 5 0 a ctivity p atterning : 2 7 a daptation : 1 36 a daptive r esponses : 1 36 a domantinoma : 5 0 a erial p hotography : 1 98, 2 12 a etiology : 4 4, 5 0 a ge d ata : 8 6 a ge e stimation : 4 3 a ge s tructure : 8 6 a ge s tudies : 9 a griculture : 2 04, 2 15 a ir f low : 9 7, 1 01 a lien s pecies : 1 41 a liens : 1 01, 1 58 a lkalinity : 8 9 a llochthonous : 1 33, 1 41, 1 44 a llochthonous c omponent : 9 8 a lluvium : 1 33 a lveolus : 4 5, 4 9 a melobastoma : 5 0 a meloblasts : 4 6 a mplitude i n b iome c hanges : 7 4 a mplitude o f c hange : 7 3, 7 4 a naerobic c lays a nd s ilts : 8 9 a ncient b uildings : 9 8 A nglo-Saxon s ettlement : 2 07 a nimal b ones : 6 5 a nimal h usbandry : 1 98 a nomalously w ide t ree g rowth r ings
2 29
:6 8
2 22
a nte-mortem
:4 5
a nte-mortem l oss : 4 4 a nthropogenic b iozones
: 1 58
a nthropogenically i nduced c hange : 1 92 a nthropogenically i nduced e nvironmental c hange A ntonine f ort : 1 89 a rable
:1 40,
a ssemblage f ormation a ssociation a nalyses
:9 8, :1 34
1 40
a utochthonous a ssemblage : 1 33, 5 a utotrophs : 7 requency : 2 21 A valanche f agnitude : 2 26 A valanche m unout d istances a valanche r a valanche t alus : 2 22
:9 7,
1 46
:2 27
rimline : 2 22 a valanche t a valanche v elocities : 2 26 A vebury h enge m onument : 1 38,
b ackground f auna b arriers : 1 45
2 14
1 70
A sturian : 1 25 a ttrition : 4 2, 5 2 a utecology : 1 31, 1 35, 1 37, a utochthones : 9 7 a utochthonous : 1 43, 1 44
1 39
9 9
d ata : 9 9 f auna : 9 7, 1 68 :7 0 9 7, 1 34 2 2, 3 1, 3 2, 3 8,
5 5,
b io-sedimentary f acies : 1 69 b iogeography : 1 19, 1 21, 1 25,
5 6, 1 31,
5 7, 1 36,
b iological c apture-recapture m ethods b iological c locks : 1 20 b iomes : 1 41 b iometrical s tudies b iometrics : 2 0, 5 5 b iostratigraphy
: 1 34
:1 32,
b iozones : 1 32, 1 57 b ird d roppings : 9 8, b irds : 1 34 b irds n ests
1 57,
9 9,
1 90
1 02
:9 7
b lanket p eat : 2 02 b lown s and : 1 33 b lue-green a lgae b oiling : 2 1 b one : 1 57 b one a ssemblages b one d ensities
1 60
1 43
a rable a griculture : 1 97, 1 99, 2 09, a rable f arming : 1 62 a rchaeological a nimal b one : 6 5 a rchaeozoology : 2 0, 5 5 a rticulation : 1 5, 2 2
b ase-line b ase-line b athhouse b eetles : b ias : 1 6,
: 1 58,
: 1 25
:2 2
: 5 6
2 30
5 9,
6 2,
1 40,
:5 7
6 5,
1 48,
6 7, 1 91
7 2,
8 1,
9 1,
2 08
b one b one b one b one b one b one b one
d estruction : 3 1, 3 5 d isposal : 6 5 p reservation : 6 5, 6 8 r emains : 1 19 s hape : 1 6 s hapes a nd s izes : 6 0 s plitting : 1 4
b one s tructure : 5 , b one s urvival : 3 5, b one w eights : 5 9 b ones : 1 9, 3 1, 5 5, b oneworking : 2 4 b ony a lveolus : 4 4
1 6, 3 7
6 6
8 1,
9 1
b ovine p illars : 4 5 b racken : 5 5 b read w heat : 2 11 b reakage : 4 2 b reeding : 9 9 b ronze a ge : 1 41, 1 61, 1 93 b ulk d ensity : 1 35, 1 74, 5 6 b urial : 6 b uried s oils : 1 33, 1 38, 1 44, 1 46, 1 58 b urnt b ones : 8 4 b utchery : 5 , 8 , 1 0, 1 6, 2 7, 3 3, 4 2, 4 8,
c alcification : 4 6 c alcite : 1 21 c alcium : 4 3,136 c alculus : 5 1, 5 2 C alluna c ycle : 1 92 c amouflage : 1 37 C apra : 3 4 C apture-Recapture M ethods : 6 0 c arbon f ractionation : 1 23 c arbonised g rain : 1 97 c arbonised p lant r emains : 1 97, 1 98, c arcase u tilisation : 2 6, 2 7 C aries : 5 0 c arnivore d en b one s amples : 3 2 c arnivore d ens : 3 2 c arnivore k ill-sites : 3 2 c arnivores : 1 36 c atchment : 1 48 c attle : 6 , 1 9, 5 8, 8 1, 8 2 c attle g razing : 6 2 c aves : 7 9 c ellulose : 1 84 c eltic b ean : 2 11 C eltic-fields : 1 97 c entipedes : 1 34 c ereal g rains : 1 98 c ereal p ollen : 1 98, 1 99 c halk : 1 39, 1 57, 1 59 c hance : 1 45 c hance f inds : 1 94
2 31
2 05
8 2,
8 5,
9 1
c hangeover r ates : 7 3, 7 5, 7 7 c harcoal : 1 57 c hewing : 3 7 c hi-squared t ests : 5 7, 1 35 c hronology : 1 20, 1 22 c ircular d ouble d itched e nclosure : 8 1 c lays : 1 83 c learance : 1 58, 1 60, 1 99 c leavage : 1 6 c limatic : 1 57 c limatic c hange : 7 3, 7 6, 1 32, 1 42, 1 57, c lustering : 6 c oding s ystems : 2 7, 7 3 c old s tage f aunas : 7 7 C oleoptera : 9 7 c olloids : 1 90 c olluvial : 1 57 c olluvium : 1 33, 1 57, 1 59, 1 60, 1 61, 1 62 c olonisation : 1 41, 1 44, 1 62 c olour : 8 2 c olour a nd b anding p atterns : 1 37 c omminution : 3 1, 7 2 c ommunity d ynamics : 1 31 c ompaction : 1 72 c omparative c ollection : 5 8 c omparative m ethods : 5 9 c omparative s tudies : 1 31 c ompetition : 1 34 c ompound t ooth : 5 0 c ompression : 1 47 c ompression w ood : 2 22, 2 28 c oncentric s ample p attern : 8 1 c ongenital p orphyria - : 4 7 c onsumption : 2 1 c ontamination : 1 61 c ontemporary r ockfall : 2 22 c ontext : 1 33 c ontext t ypes : 6 5 c ontract w ork : 1 94 c ookery : 3 7 c oprolites : 3 3 c orrelation c oefficients : 1 43 c orrelations : 1 57 c orrosion : 1 58 c orrosion : 3 1, 3 5, 3 6 , 3 7 c ottontails : 3 6 c rop c onsumption : 2 06 c rop p lants : 1 97, 1 98, 2 05 c rop p roduction : 2 06 c rushing : 3 1 c rystal s tructure : 1 21 c ultivated g round : 1 62 c ultivation : 1 47, 1 58 , 1 62, 2 14 c ultural t ypicality : 8 2 c usps o r p illars : 4 5 c ut m arks : 1 9
2 32
1 69
c uts : 7 c ycles : 1 20
d ata l ogging s ystems : 2 4 d ata p resentation : 1 34 d ata r ecording s ystems : 5 8 d ating : 1 57 d e-watering : 1 72 d eath a ssemblages : 1 02, 1 33, 1 41 d ecay : 1 90 d ecaying : 3 8, 1 00, 2 24, 2 25 d efinitions : 5 8 d eflocculation : 1 81, 1 82 d eforestation : 1 38, 1 39, 1 44, 1 48, 1 58, 1 61, 1 62, 1 91, 1 92, 1 93, 2 03, d egradation : 6 8, 8 1, 8 2, 8 3, 8 4, 8 6 , 8 8, 8 9, 9 1 d egraded b ones : 8 1 d eltoid a nd t riceps m uscles : 1 4 d emography : 5 7 d endrochronology : 1 22, 2 21 D ental a ttrition : 4 2, 5 2, 4 7 d ental c alculus : 5 1 D entigerous c ysts : 5 0 d eposition : 8 9, 1 19, 1 41, 1 90 d epth : 9 1 d erivation : 2 7, 6 7, 6 9, 9 7, 9 8, 1 19, 1 33, 1 35, 1 39, 1 41, 1 70, 1 90 d estruction : 6 5 d etritivores : 1 36 D evelopmental d ystrophies : 4 3 D evensian : 7 3, 7 6, 7 8, 7 9, 1 42, 1 61 d iagenetic c hange : 1 25 d ielectric s eparation : 1 83 d iet : 2 7, 4 3, 1 19 d ietary p references : 2 05 d ifferential b utchery : 1 1 d ifferential d egradation : 9 1, 9 2 d ifferential d estruction : 1 1, 1 98 d ifferential p reservation : 6 5, 6 8, 8 8 d ifferential r ecovery : 8 5 d ifferential s urvival : 6 8 d igestion : 3 6 d ilution : 1 35 d isarticulation : 1 5, 2 0, 3 4 d iscard b ehaviour : 1 20 d iscolouration : 4 7 D ispersal : :1 45 d isposal p ractices : 1 1 d issolution : 1 25 d istance e ffects : 9 7 d istribution : 1 35 d istribution a nd a bundance : 1 36 d isturbance o f v entral m argin : 4 9 D itch i nfill : 1 89 d itch-fills : 1 44 d itches : 6 1, 6 6, 6 8, 8 3, 8 5, 8 9 d iversity i ndices : 8 , 1 43, 1 44
2 33
2 14
d og-pen b one s amples : 3 2 d ogs : 3 1 d omestic m ammals : 5 5 d omestic u ngulates : 5 5 d omesticated a nimals : 1 98 d ouble-counting : 3 5 d own-washing : 1 90 d ry v alleys : 1 33, 1 57, 1 58, 1 60, 1 62 D urrington W alls h enge m onument : 1 38,
1 40
e arthworm : 1 46 e cocatastrophes : 7 5, 7 8 e cological m odels : 1 62 e cological r esolution : 1 31 e cological t olerance r ange : 7 4, 9 7 e cological t olerances : 1 68 e cology : 1 31, 1 36 e conomy : 1 20 e cophysiological s tress : 1 31 e cosystem : 1 47, 1 62 e cosystem d iversity : 7 7 e mersion : 1 23 e mmer w heat : 2 11 e mpirical a pproaches t o m olluscan s tudies : 1 48 e mpirical o bjectivity : 1 31 e namel p roduction : 4 6 e ncrustations : 6 6 e ndogenous r hythms : 1 20 e nvironmental a rchaeologists : 1 81 e nvironmental c hange : 1 37, 1 44, 1 46, 1 67, 1 89 e nvironmental h istory : 1 63 e nvironmental r econstruction : 5 6, 1 32, 1 34, 1 35, e nvironmentalism : 1 32 e piphyseal f usion : 1 6 e piphyses : 6 , 8 1 e piphysial f usion d ata : 8 2 e quilibrium c ommunities : 1 41 e rosion : 2 7, 6 1, 6 5, 6 6, 8 2, 1 58 e stuaries : 1 24, 1 26 e stuaries-salinity v ariation : 1 25 e thnoarchaeology : 2 0 e thnography : 1 19 e valuating r ecent h uman i mpacts : 9 7, 1 98 e xcavation : 8 3, 9 2, 1 62 e xcavation s trategies : 8 1 e xotics : 1 58 e xperimental d esign : 3 3 e xperimental s tudies : 3 2, 6 8 e xtinction : 7 5, 1 44
f acies : 1 69 f acies v ariation : 1 69 f acultative o mnivores : 1 36 f aecal s pecimens : 3 5
2 34
1 37,
1 41,
1 57,
1 90
f aeces : 3 2 f allow : 1 43 f auna : 6 5 f aunal a ssemblages : 1 31 f aunal d ebris : 5 5 f aunal m ixing : 1 90 f aunal s urvey : 1 72 f aunal t urnover r ates : 7 5, 7 7 f eature t ype : 8 1, 8 3, 8 5, 9 1 f emur : 7 f ibula : 3 3 f ield p rocedures : 6 9 f ield s urvey : 1 67 f ield s ystems : 1 97, 1 98 f illeting : 2 3 f iltration : 1 81 f irst m illennium A D :4 1 F ishers a lpha i ndex : 9 8 F landrian : 1 57, 1 68 , 1 74, 2 21 f lotation : 2 06, 2 08 f low d epth : 2 26 f luorine p oisoning : 5 0 f ood : 1 36 f ood p references : 1 36 f ood s upply : 1 21 f orest c learance : 1 58, 1 91, 1 98, 2 00, 2 04, f orest r egeneration : 1 98 , 1 99, 2 00 f ossil s oils : 1 89 f ragment f requencies : 8 8 f ragment s izes : 6 5 f ragmentation : 1 5, 1 9, 2 1, 2 2, 2 5, 3 6, 4 2, f ragmentation p atterns : 5 f requencies : 1 35 f requency d ata : 1 71 f resh b reaks : 8 f rontier s tudies : 5 6 f rost : 1 59 f roth f iltration : 1 81 f roth f lotation : 1 83 f undamental n iche : 1 36
g enetic a nd c ongenital d efects : 4 5 g enetic c hanges : 1 36 g enetic v ariability : 1 37 g enetic v ariation : 1 49 g enotypic v ariation : 1 37 g ingivitis : 4 4 g leyed s oils : 6 6 g nawing : 6 , 2 2, 2 3, 2 7, 3 4, 6 1 g nawing/chewing : 4 8 g oats : 3 4, 6 5 g raduated s tratigraphy : 1 93 g rain : 1 97 g rain i mpressions : 2 08 g rassland : 1 37, 1 39, 1 46, 1 62
2 35
2 05,
5 8,
2 15
6 0,
6 1,
6 2,
8 1,
8 2
g rassland p lagioclimax g ravity : 1 60
:1 62
g razing : 5 7, 6 2, 1 43, 1 92, 2 24 G rooved W are c ultures : 2 14 g round w ater : 1 25 g rouping : 6 g rowing s eason : 1 26 g rowth i ncrement s tudies : 1 19, 1 21 g rowth-line a nalysis : 1 19, 1 20, 1 26 g ullies : 6 6
h abitat p references : 7 3, 7 8, 1 68 h abitat v ariation : 1 23 h abitat-type : 7 3 h abitatualism : 1 32 h ealth : 4 1 h eavy l iquids : 1 82 h erbivores : 1 36 h erbivores : 4 7 h eridity : 4 9 h eterotrophs : 7 5 h istograms : 1 34 h oe-cultivation : 1 98 H olocene ( Post-glacial) : 2 21 H olocene : 1 59 h orse : 8 1, 2 24 H ottentot v illages : 3 2 h ouse d eposits : 9 8, 9 9, 1 02 h uman a ctivity : 9 0, 1 26 h uman i mportation : 1 01 H umerus : 6 h unter-gatherer : 1 19, 1 24 h usbandry p ractices : 6 2 h uts : 6 0 H ydrofluoric a cid m aceration : 1 82 h ydroxides : 8 4 h ygrophilous s pecies : 1 61 h ypoplasia : 4 6
i cterus : 4 7 i dentifiability I ndex : 5 8, 6 1 i dentification : 5 7, 8 4 i mmersion : 1 23 i mprovements t o f ield a nd l aboratory p rocedures i ncrement c ores : 2 23 i ndex o f b one d egradation : 8 1, 8 4, 8 5, 8 8, 9 1 i ndex o f d egradation : 8 3 i ndex o f i dentifiability : 5 5, 6 1 i ndicator s pecies : 1 31, 1 35, 1 38 i ndividual v ariation : 4 3 I ndustrialisation : 1 67 i nfection : 4 3, 5 1 i nfill : 1 59 i ngested s oil : 4 3
2 36
:1 73
i nnovation : 2 11 i n c . : ct a ssemblages : 9 7 i nsect d eath a ssemblages : 9 7 i nsectivores : 1 02 i nsects : 9 7 i nter s pecies c ompetition : 7 4 i nter-site c omparisons : 5 7 i nter-specific c ompetition : 1 34 i nter-tidal d eposits : 1 67, 1 68 , 1 69 i nter-tidal h abitats : 1 67 i nter-tidal m olluscs : 1 67 i nterpretation : 1 32 i ntersite c omparisons : 6 5 i ntersite v ariation : 5 7 i nterstadials : 7 8 i ntertidal : 1 26 i ntertidal z one : 1 19, 1 21 i ntra- a nd i nter-site c omparisons : 5 7 i ntra-dental a ttrition : 4 3 i ntra-site v ariability : 5 6, 6 0 i ntra-specific v ariation : 1 31 i ntrasite v ariation : 9 2 I pswichian : 7 6 I pswichian i nterglacial : 7 3, 1 68, 1 69, 1 74 I ron A ge : 2 2, 8 1, 1 43 , 1 61, 1 89, 1 93 I ron A ge e conomy : 1 97 I ron A ge F ort : 1 62 i ron c ompounds : 6 6 i ron o xides : 8 4 i ron-panning : 8 9 i sotope a nalysis : 1 26 i sotopic c omposition o f t he w ater : 1 23 I sotopic e xchange : 1 25 i sotopic r atio : 1 23
K ing I ndex : 5 9,
6 1,
6 2
l aboratory c ontrols : 6 8 l aboratory m ethods : 1 67 l ake d eposits : 1 89 l and s nail : 1 31 l andscape c hange : 1 32 l ate I ron A ge/Romano-British l evels : 2 00 l ate-glacial : 1 57, 1 58 , 1 59, 1 61 l ate-Victorian t erraced t wo-storied h ouses l ateral v ariation : 6 5, 6 8 l atrine : 6 6, 6 7, 6 9, 7 0, 7 1 l eaching : 6 7, 6 8, 8 1, 8 2, 8 3, 8 6, 8 9, 9 1 l ife a ssemblages : 1 33 l ife s pan : 5 7, 6 2 l ife t ables : 1 46 l ignin : 1 84 l imb-bones : 3 3 l imiting f actors : 1 35, 1 36, 1 47
2 37
:9 9
l impet : 1 22 l inear : 6 9, 7 0 L inears : 6 7 L loyds B ank s ite Y ork : 9 8, l og t ransformation : 2 27 l ow-shore : 1 22 l umpy j aw : 5 0 l ynchet : 1 35, 1 43
1 03
m agnitude/frequency r elationship : 2 21 M akapansgat : 3 5 m ammal b ones : 8 1 m ammalian p redators : 1 19 m ammals : 7 3, 1 34 m an : 1 59 m andibular f ragments : 5 9 m andibular p athology : 4 2 m arginal l and : 2 14 m arine m olluscs : 1 19 m arine m olluscs : 6 2 m arine s pecies : 1 26 m arrow e xtraction : 2 1 m astication : 4 1 m atter : 1 00 m axillary t eeth : 4 6 m ean m onthly s ea t emperatures : 1 24 m eat e stimate : 5 6 m eat p rocessing : 2 6 m eat s tripping : 8 , 1 5 m eat v alue : 6 2 m edieaval a griculture : 2 04 m edieval : 5 0 m elody m akers : 6 1 m esolithic : 1 23, 1 25 m ethodological s afeguards : 5 5, 6 2 m ethods : 1 33 m etrical v ariation : 1 49 m icro-habitat d iversity - : 1 44 m icrobial f auna : 1 90 m icropore f iltration : 1 81, 1 82 m id-Flandrian : 1 69 m iddens : 2 4, 5 7 m igration : 1 41, 1 44, 1 57 m igration r outes : 1 45 m illipedes : 1 34 m ineralization : 8 3, 8 9 m inerals : 6 5, 6 6 m inimum n umber e stimates : 3 1 m inimum n umber o f i ndividuals : 3 5, 5 6,
5 9,
7 6,
7 7,
8 6,
9 9
m ites : 1 34 M NI : 3 1, 3 6, 9 9 m odels : 1 32 m odern b uildings : 9 7 m odern d istributions : 7 3,75,97,99,119,121,136,137,140,147,167,169,191 m odern f aunal s urveys : 4 4, 4 9, 5 2, 7 5, 9 7, 9 9, 1 03 , 1 67
2 38
m odern i ndoor d eposits : 9 8 m odern s oils : 1 31 m odern s pecies d istribution : 1 31 m odern v eterinary s tudies : 4 1 m oles : 1 47 m ollusca : 1 31, 1 32 m olluscan b iostratigraphy : 1 57 m olluscan b iozones : 1 32 m olluscan f requencies : 5 6 m olluscan s pecies a ssociations : 1 42 m olluscs : 6 2, 1 57, 1 67 m orphological v ariations : 1 22 m ulti-dimensional s pace : 1 36 m ultivariate a nalyses : 1 35
n aked b arley : 2 11 n arrow r ings : 2 23 n atural h azards : 2 21, 2 27 n aturally o ccurring e nvironmental c hange : 1 58 n ecrosis : 4 5 n egative e vidence : 6 5 n eolithic : 1 24, 1 25, 1 31, 1 38, 1 39, 1 40, 1 41, 1 44, n eolithic e nclosures : 1 45, 1 48 n eolithic h enge m onument : 1 35 n eolithic l and-use : 1 38 n eolithic p eriod : 2 04 n eoplastic l esions : 5 0 n eutral s oil : 8 9 n iche : 1 36 n omadism : 1 97 n ominal s cale o f m easurement : 1 71 n onsieving : 7 2 n ull h ypothesis : 6 6 n umbers o f s hells p er u nit w eight o f s oil : 1 35 n utrient f oramena : 4 8 n utrition : 4 1, 4 3, 1 19 n ylon b oulting-cloth : 1 82
o at : 2 11 o bserver b ias : 7 2 o ccupation s ites : 9 7 o dontoma : 5 0 o ld r ockfalls : 2 22 O ligodentia : 4 3 o pen-country : 1 58 o ral b acteria : 4 4 o ral p alaeopathology : 4 1, 5 2 o ral p athology : 4 1 o riginating s pecies : 7 5 o steodontokeratic h ypothesis : 3 2 o ut-breeding s pecies : 1 37 o vercrowding : 4 3 o xidation : 1 57 o xygen i sotope a nalysis : 1 19, 1 20,
2 39
1 23
1 48
o xygen-isotope d eterminations
:1 32
p alaeo-biomes : 7 4 p alaeo-zoogeography : 7 4 p alaeoecology : 5 2, 1 31, 1 32, 1 36, 1 37, 1 43, 1 57 p alaeoeconomy : 5 , 1 32 p alaeogeography : 5 6 P alaeolithic : 7 3, 7 9 p alaeopathology : 4 1 p alaeosols : 1 31, 1 33, 1 38, 1 44, 1 46, 1 47, 1 58, 1 59, 1 61, 1 89, p alaeotemperature a nalysis : 1 32 p aradontal d isease : 4 4 p arasites : 4 1 p ast d istributions : 1 31 p astoral e conomy : 2 7 p astoral i ndicators : 1 99, 2 00 p astoralism : 1 97 p asture : 1 40 p asture j uices : 4 3 p athology : 4 1 p atterning : 3 7 p eat : 1 89 p enecontemporaneous r e-working : 1 70 p ercentage f requencies : 1 31, 1 34, 1 35, 1 43 p ercentage f requency h istograms : 1 40 p eriodontal d isease : 4 3, 4 4, 5 1 p eriodontitis : 4 4 P etersen e stimates : 5 7 p H :6 8, 1 23, 1 36, 1 90 p henotypic v ariation : 1 37 p hosphorus : 4 3 p hytoliths : 5 3 p ie c harts : 2 23 p ig : 5 5, 5 8, 8 1 p ig-keeping : 5 5 p igmentation : 4 7 p igs p er p erson : 5 7 p ith : 2 23 p its : 6 1, 6 6, 6 9, 7 0, 8 5 p lagioclimax : 1 61, 1 62 p lant m acrofossils : 1 57 p odzols : 1 90 , 1 93 p olitical a nd e conomic s tability : 2 01 p ollen : 1 47, 1 57, 1 89 p ollen a nalysis : 1 32, 1 81, 1 89, 1 93, 1 98 p ollen a nalysis f or t he d etection o f a rable a griculture : 2 11 p ollen b iozones : 1 57 p ollen d egradation : 1 90 p ollen d iagrams : 1 97, 1 98, 2 14 p ollen e ntrainment : 1 90 P ollen e xtraction : 1 81 p ollen s pectrum : 1 90 p ollen s tudies : 7 8 p ollution : 1 67, 1 74 p olymorphisms : 1 31, 1 37, 1 49
2 40
1 93
p opulation
:8 6
p opulation a ge s tructure : 9 ,16, 3 2, 6 8 p opulation d ynamics : 1 31, 1 34, 1 37, 1 38 , 2 06 p opulation f luctuations : 5 7, 7 3, 7 4, 7 5, 7 7, 7 9, 9 7, p opulation i ncrease a nd p ressure : 2 05 p opulation p ressure : 2 14 p opulation s tructure : 1 37 p opulation s tructures : 6 5 p ost e xcavation m ethods : 5 2 p ost-depositional c hange : 1 25 p ost-excavation m ethods : 4 7 p ost-mortem c hanges : 4 8 p ost-mortem d estruction : 5 p ost-mortem l oss : 4 4 p ostglacial : 1 57-163 p ostholes : 8 5 p re-Quaternary : 1 81 p re-Quaternary p alynology : 1 81 p recision : 1 34 p redation : 1 37 p redators : 9 7 p referential d estruction : 3 2, 1 70 p resence/absence d ata : 6 5 p resence/absence m easurements : 1 71 p reservation : 2 2, 2 5, 6 0 , 6 1, 6 5, 6 6, 8 1, 8 4, 1 36 p reservation c ategories : 7 2 p reservation ; :1 33 p reservational b ias : 6 5 p rey-predator r elations : 1 34 p rimary p roducts : 1 98 p rincipal C omponents A nalysis : 2 05 p rolificity : 6 2 p roxy d ata : 2 21 p ulp c avity : 4 5 p ulp c avity e xposure : 4 8 p ulpal h aemorrhages : 4 7 p ulpitis : 4 5 p utrid p ulpitis : 4 7 p yorrhoea : 4 4
q uantification : 2 2, 2 7, 5 6, 1 31, 1 35, q uantitative a nalysis : 1 34 q uantitative s tudies : 1 9 q uaternary : 1 57, 1 67 Q uaternary c hronology : 7 3, 1 68 Q uaternary d istributions : 7 4, 9 7,119, Q uaternary g eologists : 1 81 Q uaternary s tratigraphy : 7 3, 7 6
r abbit : 3 6 r adiocarbon : 1 32 r adiocarbon d ates : 1 61, r adiocarbon d ating : 1 57 r adius : 7 , 3 3
1 92
2 41
1 68,
1 73
1 47,
1 67,
1 49
1 36,
1 37,
1 41,
1 91
r ampart : 6 7, 6 9, 7 0, 7 1 r andom s ampling : 2 12 r ank o rder : 8 4 r anking p rocedures : 7 2 r ates a nd s cales o f r esponses : 1 31 r ates o f r esponse : 1 44 r e-cycling : 1 71 r e-deposition : 1 33 r e-working : 6 7, 6 9, 1 90 r eaction w ood : 2 22 r eaction w ood g rowth : 2 23 r ealised n iche : 1 36 r ecording : 2 7, 6 5 r ecording p athology : 4 1, 4 2 r ecording s heets : 4 2 r ecording s ystems : 2 4 r ecording t ooth p ositions : 4 2 r ecovery t echniques : 2 08 r ecrystallization : 1 25 r ecurrence i ntervals : 2 21, 2 26 r ed d eer : 5 7 r edistribution : 2 6 r efuse d isposal : 5 7 r egeneration : 5 6 r elative d ating : 1 32 r elative f requencies : 5 6 r elative m eat v alues : 5 7 r elict s hells : 1 39 r endzina s oils : 1 46 r eprecipitation : 1 25 r epresentation : 5 6 r escue ( salvage) a rchaeology : 1 33 r esearch p alynology : 1 81 r esidual m aterial : 6 9 r esolution : 1 26, 1 34 r esorption o f t he a lveolar c avity : 4 4 r esponses : 1 31 r eturn p eriods : 2 26 r eworking : 1 19, 1 35, 1 39, 1 71 r hythmic g rowth p atterns : 1 26 r iver g ravels : 8 1 r oad : 6 7, 6 8 , 7 0 r oad c asualties : 3 6 r oad s urface : 6 6, 7 1 r ockfall : 2 22 R oman : 5 , 1 89 R oman a rmy : 2 01, 2 04, 2 15 R oman f orts : 1 89 R oman L incoln : 5 R oman s ites : 1 58 , 1 61 R oman s tudies : 6 R oman w ithdrawal : 2 16 R omano-British : 6 5, 1 58 R omano-British d eposits : 2 2 R omano-British s ites : 6 5 r oof-gutter a ssemblages : 9 8
2 42
r ye
:2 11
s alinity : 1 24 s alt m arshes : 1 69 s alting : 2 1 s altmarsh : 6 2 s ample r eliability : 6 8 s ample r epresentativeness s ample s ize : 1 43 s ampling
:1 6,
9 2,
s ampling s trategies
1 32,
:3 8,
1 33,
:1 6, 3 1, 1 33, 1 43,
8 6
2 06
e 9 ,
3 8, 5 7, 5 8, 6 5, 1 47, 1 67, 1 71, 1 91,
7 6 , 9 7, 1 94, 2 06,
s ands : 1 83 S axon p eriod : 2 16 s car t issue : 2 21, 2 23 s cavengers : 8 6 s cavenging : 2 2, 2 7, 8 5, 9 0, 9 1 s ciurus : 3 3 s coring p rocedures : 4 2, 4 4, 4 5, 4 7, 4 8, 4 9, 1 42 S cots P ine : 2 25, 2 28 s ea t emperatures : 1 24 s easonal : 1 68 s easonal d ating : 1 19, 1 21 s easonal e ffects : 6 2 s easonal i ndicators : 1 19 s easonal m arkers : 1 21 s easonal p opulation f luctuations : 7 3„ 7 5, 9 7, 1 68 s easonality : 1 19 s econdary b utchery : 8 s econdary c arbonate : 1 25 s edimentation : 6 s edimentation r ate : 1 35, 1 43, 1 92 s edimentology : 1 31 s election : 1 37 s ettlement : 1 20 s ettlement u sage : 5 5 s ewage p ollution : 1 67 s hape : 6 s hear m outh : 4 3 s heep : 5 8, 8 1, 8 2 s heep m andibles : 4 2 s hell d estruction : 1 58 s hell d iscard b ehaviour : 1 20 s hell g rowth : 1 20 s hell s hape s tudies : 1 22 s hellfish c onsumption : '120 s hells : 1 19, 1 57 s hort-term p opulation f luctuations : 1 68 s ieving : 6 9, 7 2, 8 4 s ilts : 1 83 S intered g lass f unnels : 1 82 s ite f ormation : 6 2 s ite o ccupation : 1 19 s keletal e lement r epresentation : 8 2 s keletal e lements : 8 1
2 43
2 08
s kinning : 2 0 s laughtering : 5 , 1 6, 8 2, 8 6 s odium p yrophosphate : 1 81, 1 82 s oil : 1 58 s oil c orrosion : 3 8 s oil d eterioration : 2 02, 2 14 s oil e rosion : 1 58, 1 60 s oil p ollen : 1 89, 1 93 s oil s tudies : 1 31 s oils : 7 0, 2 04 s olifluxion : 1 57, 1 58, 1 59, 1 60, 1 61 s olution : 1 25, 1 58 S outh S treet l ong b arrow : 1 38, 1 39 s patial d istribution : 8 1 s patial p atterning : 8 1 s pecies a bundance : 6 5, 8 6, 1 31, 1 39 s pecies c omposition : 6 5, 6 8 s pecies d iversity : 7 4 s pecies d iversity i ndices : 9 8, 1 34 s pecies f luctuations : 5 7 s pecies p roportions : 6 5 s pecies r epresentation : 5 6, 6 2 s pecies-area r elationships : 1 48 s pecies-associations : 1 31, 1 42 s pecies-diversity i ndices : 1 48 s pecies-fluctuations : 1 43 s pecies-interactions : 1 37 s pelt w heat : 2 11, 2 14 s piral f ractures : 5 s plintering p atterns : 5 s pring g rowth : 1 22 s pringtails : 1 34 s quirrels : 3 3, 3 3 s tability : 1 32 s tatistical d ifferentiation : 7 3 s tatistical i ndices : 5 5 s tatistical t echniques : 2 7 s tatistics : 1 9, 5 5, 5 6, 5 7, 6 2, 6 5, 6 6 s tenoecious : 1 49 s tenotopic : 1 47, 1 48 s tep m outh : 4 3 s torage : 2 1 s torage p its : 1 97 s tratification : 1 33 s tratified m olluscan r emains : 1 57 s ubjective c lassifications : 7 2 s ubsidence : 1 59 s ubsistence s trategies : 2 8 s ubsoil h ollows : 1 59 s ubstantive u niformitarianism : 1 35, s ubtidal s pecimens : 1 26 s ubtidal z one : 1 21 s uccession : 1 41 s upernumary t eeth : 4 5 s urvival r ate : 3 5, 3 6, 3 7 s wirling : 1 81, 1 83
2 44
1 36
s ystematic
t aphonomy
s ampling
:5 ,
8 ,
:2 22
1 9„ 2 7, 3 1, 3 2, 5 5, 6 0, 6 1, 6 2, 6 5, 8 1, 9 1, 9 7, 9 8 1 19, 1 39, 1 41, 1 43, 1 69, 1 70 , 1 89, 1 92, 2 23, 2 24
t artar : 4 7, 5 2 t axonomy : 5 8, 1 34, 1 71 t eeth : 4 1, 7 2 t emperature : 1 21, 1 23, t exture
7 1, 7 3, 1 46, 1 58,
1 36
: 6 5
t hatched b arn t heory : 1 31
:9 8
t ibia : 7 , 3 3 t idal i mmersion : 1 20 t idal p eriodicity : 1 22 t illage
: 1 39,
t illed l and t ills
1 41,
1 43
:1 41
( boulder c lays)
:1 82
t ime r esolution : 1 46 t ime-depth f unctions : 1 31 t ime-depth r elations : 1 47 t ime-sequence : 1 90 t ime-span
:1 89
t ooth e ruption : 4 2 t ooth p resence/absence
:4 2
t ooth r otation : 4 5 t ooth w ear : 4 2, 4 3 t oothwear m ethodologies t op s oil s tripping t oxins : 4 1 t raction e piphyses
:4 3
:9 0 :5 0
t rade : 2 6 t rampling : 1 3, 3 5, 6 1, 6 7, 8 6, 8 9, 9 1 t ransportation : 6 5, 9 8, 1 02, 1 19, 1 33, t rauma : 5 0 t ravertine : 1 33 t ree r ing d ating
:2 28
t ree r ings : 2 21 t ropical s hells : 1 24 t ropical w aters : 1 24 t ropical z ones : 1 21 t ufa : 1 33, 1 62 t ufaceous d eposits
:1 62
t urbulent f riction c oefficient t urf r ampart : 6 6 t urves : 6 7, 1 89 t wentieth c entury
:1 58
u lna : 7 , 3 3 u ltrasonic d eflocculation u ltrasound : 1 83 u ngulate m andibles U pper P alaeolithic u pper s hore : 1 22
: 2 27
:1 81
:4 1 : 1 25
2 45
1 35,
1 41,
1 70 ,
1 90
u rban g rowth u rban g rowth
: 1 67 : 9 7
u rban s ites : 4 8, u ser b ias : 7 2
v ariability
5 0,
9 7,
9 8,
1 02
: 2 7
v egetation d ynamics : 1 92 v egetational c hanges : 1 89 v egetational h istory : 1 91 v entilated b uildings 1 03 v ertebrate c ommunities : 7 4 v ertebrates : 7 3 v illage r efuse b one s amples v oids : 1 47 v olume m easures v omited : 3 5
:3 2
:5 7
w ater p ollution : 1 67, 1 74 w ater s ieving : 3 8 w ater t emperature : 1 23 w ater-table : 8 9 w aterlogged c ontexts w aterlogged d eposits
:4 8 :2 05
w aterlogged s ites : 1 02 w aterlogging : 6 7, 1 57 w aterlogging : 6 7 w attle : 9 7 w ear r esistance : 4 3 w eathering : 2 2, 2 7, 3 8, W eave m outh : 4 3
1 46
w eed s pecies : 1 62 w eeds : 1 58 w ild s heep : 4 5 w ind : 2 25 w inter g rooves w oodland w oodland w oodland w oodland w oodland
o n b ivalves
w oodland m anagement w oodlice : 1 34 w orm-sorting
X -rays
:1 21
:1 37, 1 58 b iozones : 1 58 c learance : 1 38, 1 39, d istribution : 5 6 f auna : 1 42
1 44,
:5 6
: 1 39
:4 5
z onation : 1 32 z ooarchaeology
: 1 32
2 46
1 45,
1 46,
1 48,
1 58,
1 62,
1 91,
1 92
I NDEX 2
A . A .
n itidula : 1 37, 1 62 s ecale : 1 58, 1 59
A cari
: 1 34
A cicula f usca : 1 59, 1 63 A ctinobacillus l igniersi : 5 0 A ctinomyces b ovis : 5 0 A egopinella n itidula : 1 37, 1 59 A egopinella p ura : 1 59 A lnus
C . C . C .
: 1 91
e dule : 1 22 g igaxii : 1 60, g laucum : 1 22
1 63
C .
i ntersecta
C . C .
n emoralis : 1 37 t ridentatum : 1 61,
: 1 60,
C . v irgata : 1 60, C alluna : 1 91 C andidula g igaxii
1 61,
1 63
1 62
1 63 : 1 58
C andidula i ntersecta : 1 58 C anis l upus : 7 6 C arabidae : 1 42 C arychium t ridentatum : 1 41, C epaea n emoralis C epaea n emoralis
1 59
( L.) : 1 36 :1 37
C erastoderma e dule : 1 20, 1 23 C erastoderma g laucum : 1 21, 1 25 C ernuella v irgata : 1 58 C hilopoda : 1 34 C hrysosplenium : 1 83 C lausilia b identata : 1 61 C lausiliidae : 1 58 C linocardium n uttalli : 1 22 C ochicella a cuta : 1 58 C ochlodina l aminata : 1 61 C oelodonta a ntiquitatus : 7 3 C oelondonta a ntiquatis : 7 6 C oleoptera : 1 34, 1 42, C ollembolla : 1 34
1 57
C orbicula f luminalis C orylus : 1 91 C rocuta c rocuta : 7 6
: 1 69
D .
1 61
r otundatus
D iplopoda
: 1 59,
:1 34
2 47
D iscus r otundatus : 1 59 D iscus r uderatus : 1 58
H . H . H .
a spersa : 1 58, 1 63 c inctella : 1 58 i tala : 1 43, 1 60 , 1 61,
1 62,
1 63
H elicella i tala ( L.) : 1 35, 1 43, 1 60 H elicellids : 1 60, 1 63 H elicigona l apicida : 1 61 H elix a spersa : 1 58 H ydrobia u lvae : 1 67, 1 68, 1 69, 1 70, 1 73, H ydrobia v entrosa : 1 69, H ygromia l imbata : 1 58
I sopoda
1 70,
1 71,
1 74
1 73
: 1 34
L euconia b identata : 1 70 L eucophytia : 1 73 L eucophytia b identata : 1 70 L ittorina l ittorea : 1 25
M . c antiana : 1 61 M . c artusiana : 1 60, 1 61, 1 62, 1 63 M acoma b althica : 1 67, 1 68, 1 69, 1 70, M ammuthus p rimigenius : 7 3, 7 6 M egaloceros g iganteus M ollusca : 1 19
1 72,
1 73,
1 60 ,
1 62
1 74
:7 6
M onacha c antiana : 1 58, 1 61 M onacha c artusiana : 1 58
N esovitrea h ammonis N esovitrea h ammonis
:1 37 :1 59
O xychilus c ellarius
: 1 59
P .
e legans
: 1 38,
1 39,
P . i ntermedia : 1 25 P aludestrina s tagnalise
1 40,
1 43,
1 44,
: 1 70
P atella t abularis : 1 26 P atella v ulgata : 1 22, 1 25 P ectinidae : 1 21 P enitella p enita
: 1 22
P inus
:2 22,
s ylvestris
2 23
P isidium : 1 71 P lantago l anceolata : 1 60 P omatias e legans : 1 31, 1 35,
1 38,
1 40,
1 41,
P unctum p ygmaeum : 1 59 P upilla m uscorum ( L.) : 1 35,
1 43,
1 46,
1 59
1 43,
1 44,
1 58
Q uercus
:1 91
R angifer t arandus
:7 6
S crobicularia : 1 73 S olen v agina : 1 24
T . h ispida : 1 62 T richia h ispida : 1 59
U rsus a rctos
:7 6
V . c ostata : 1 61, 1 62 V . e xcentrica : 1 62 V . p ulchella : 1 62 V . p ygmaea : 1 62 V allonia : 1 60 V allonia c ostata : 1 46 V allonia e xcentrica : 1 61 V allonia p ulchella : 1 61 V eronica h ederifolia : 1 60 V ertigo p usilla : 1 61 V ertigo p ygmaea : 1 46, 1 61
Z onitidae : 1 58 ,
1 61
2 49
I NDEX 3
A artswoud
:2 10
A scott-under-Wychwood : 1 59 A sham Q uarry : 1 57, 1 58, 1 59, A ustralopithecines : 3 2
1 61,
1 62
A vebury : 1 38, 1 59 A vonmouth : 1 67, 1 68
B ailey : 1 27 B altic : 1 25 B anjo : 6 0 B ar H ill : 1 89 B eachy H ead : 1 62 B iggins : 7 2 B ishopstone
: 1 43
B lue C ircle C ement C ompany B oyd : 1 89 B righton : 1 57, 1 58 B righton C orporation : 1 63 B ristol : 4 1
: 1 63
B ristol a nd G loucester A rchaeological B ritish M useum : 5 3, 1 63 B ronze A ge : 1 98, 1 99, 2 03, 2 04 B ullock D own : 1 57 B urtle B eds : 1 71 B urtle S and B eds : 1 71, 1 73
C aesar's : 1 97 C airngorm C lub J ournal : 2 22 C airngorm M ountains : 2 22 C andelaro r iver : 1 25 C antabria : 1 24, 1 25 C astleford : 6 5, 6 8 C hilterns : 1 57 C ity o f L ondon P olytechnic C lark : 1 7 C leveland : 1 99, 2 12 C oppergate : 9 8 C ow G ap : 1 62 C ow G reen R eservoir : 2 01 C oxhoe : 2 11 C reag M higheachaidh : 2 22 C reswell C rags C umbria
:2 01
:7 3
:2 21
S ociety
:5 3
D eith
: 1 19
D enmark
: 3 2,
1 25
D epartment o f E ducation a nd S cience : 1 27 D epartment o f H uman E nvironment ; 1 31 D epartment
o f
t he E nvironment
D evil's
D yke
: 1 57,
D r D .T.
H olyoak
D r J .G.
E vans
D r M .P.
K erney
1 58,
: 1 60,
1 61,
1 62
1 63
: 1 49 :1 63
D r R .B.G. W illiams : 1 63 D umball I sland : 1 68, 1 70, D urham
:5 3
1 60,
: 1 99,
1 71,
1 72,
1 73
2 01
E xe B ridge : 5 0 E xeter : 5 0
F ourth I nternational F lint
G ilbertson
S ymposium
: 1 27
G len F eshie
:2 21,
G odwin L aboratory G ravel B anks
2 22 : 1 19
: 1 71
H adrian's W all : 2 15 H allshill F arm, E ast W oodburn H ardwick w ith Y elford H umber
:2 09
: 8 1
: 1 97
H untingdonshire
: 1 37
I ndiana U niversity
: 3 1
I nstitute o f A rchaeology : 1 31 I nstitute o f T errestrial E cology I ron A ge I taly
:5 6,
5 7,
2 04,
: 2 27
2 14
: 1 25
I tford H ill
K enn,
: 1 63
: 1 57
S omerset
L a R iera
: 1 25
L ewes
: 1 57
L ewes
: 1 58
L imfjord L incoln
: 1 68
:1 25 : 5 ,
6
L incoln A rchaeological T rust L ullingstone V illa,
Maltby : 1 9 M anfredonia
K ent
: 1 7
: 1 61
: 1 24
2 52
M ann : 1 7 M asseria V alente
:1 24,
M editerranean : 1 21, M esolithic : 3 1 M ingie's D itch : 8 1
1 25
1 26,
1 58
M ollins : 1 89 M orton : 1 23 M unson : 3 1
N atural E nvironment R esearch C ouncil : 1 63, N ature C onservancy C ouncil : 2 27 N elson B ay C ave, S outh A frica : 1 26 N eolithic : 5 5, 1 99, 2 06, 2 07, 2 10, 2 14 N etherlands : 2 10 N ormans : 2 04 N orsminde : 1 25 N orth D owns : 1 57,
1 62,
N orth-East o f E ngland N orthumberland : 1 99
1 75,
1 63
: 1 97
O 'Connor : 1 7 O wlesbury : 2 4 O xford : 8 1 O xfordshire
:8 1
P ayne : 3 1 P egsdon : 1 60 P eru : 3 2 P etersen I ndex : 6 0 P in H ole C ave : 7 3, 7 6, P oynings : 1 60
7 7,
7 8
R ake B ottom : 1 60 R iver A von : 1 67 R iver R obin R oman R oman
W indrush : 8 1 H ood's B ay, Y orkshire :9 7 W all : 2 15
:1 22
S alisbury P lain : 1 57 S cience a nd E ngineering R esearch C ouncil S cotland
:1 23
S cotland : 2 21 S evern E stuary
: 1 67,
1 69
S heffield : 6 5 S ociety o f A ntiquaries o f L ondon S outh D owns : 1 57, 1 59, 1 62, 1 63 S outheastern I taly S outhern E uropean S pain : 1 25 S tallibrass
:5 3
:1 24 :1 58
: 6 5
2 53
:1 27
2 27
S tanwick
:1 97
S tonehenge S ussex
: 1 38
: 1 43,
1 62
S wallow C liff
: 1 71
T ame Valley : 1 42 T avoliere : 1 24 T ees : 1 99 T eesdale : 2 01 Thirlings,
N orthumberland
T horpe T hewles T orquay
:2 07
: 2 12
: 1 58
T ree R ing L aboratory T yne a nd W ear
:2 27
: 1 99
U niversity o f A berdeen
: 2 27
U niversity o f A rizona
: 2 27
U niversity o f B ristol
: 1 67
U niversity o f C ambridge U niversity o f D urham
: 1 19
: 1 97
U niversity o f G lasgow U niversity o f L ondon
: 1 89 : 1 31
U niversity o f
S heffield
U niversity o f
S outhampton
U pper T hames V alley
V ale o f B rooks V an d er V een
W achipaeri
: 3 2
W essex
; 8 1
: 1 42 6 1,
:4 9,
W est V irginia
1 38,
W hitton H ill
1 48
5 0
:3 8
W eston-in-Gordano
: 1 70
: 2 06
W icken B onhunt, W ilson
5 5
:2 01
:5 6,
W est H ill
1 75,
: 1 60
: 9 7
W eardale
: 1 9,
: 1 97
V iking-age
W arwickshire
: 1 67,
E ssex
: 4 2
:8 1
W iltshire : 1 38 W oodbury : 1 97
Y ork
: 9 8
2 54
1 81