Pakistani Englishes: Syntactic Variations [1 ed.] 1138578479, 9781138578470

Table of contents :
Cover
Title
Copyright
Dedication
Contents
Acknowledgements
List of abbreviations
1 Introduction
2 Background and historical perspective
3 Research methodology
4 Results and analysis
5 Conclusion
Index

Citation preview

Pakistani Englishes

This book explores how non-native speakers, especially in postcolonial states, use English to communicate. Focusing on Pakistan, the monograph analyzes word categories, phrase and sentence structures used in the region and compares them to British English. It draws extensively from language used in the media and uses Lexical Functional Grammar (LFG) parsers to develop the phrase structures for qualitative analysis and a manual approach to quantify the frequency of various types of phrases. The volume also highlights the possible reasons for the differences and locates language use in context. The volume will be of great interest to researchers, scholars and teachers interested in linguistics, especially sociolinguistics, postcolonial studies, critical theory, media studies and World Englishes. Asma Iqbal is Lecturer at Divisional Public School and College, Faisalabad, Pakistan. She has completed her MPhil from Riphah University, Faisalabad, Pakistan and has worked in several disciplines including CDA, Semiotics, Socio Linguistics and Syntax.

Pakistani Englishes Syntactic Variations Asma Iqbal

First published 2018 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2018 Asma Iqbal The right of Asma Iqbal to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by her in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record has been requested for this book ISBN: 978-1-138-57847-0 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-429-48991-4 (ebk) Typeset in Times New Roman by Apex CoVantage, LLC

To my praiseworthy parents ‘Your prayers are what I need more than anything else in my life’ To my loving siblings, friends and nephew (Abdullah) ‘You are the spark of my life’

Contents

Acknowledgementsviii List of abbreviationsix 1 Introduction

1

2 Background and historical perspective

4

3 Research methodology

55

4 Results and analysis

59

5 Conclusion

95

Index98

Acknowledgements

It’s the grace of ALMIGHTY ALLAH that has led this work to its completion. The Gracious and All Compassionate. I can never dare to deny HIS gifts that HE has granted me, best of which is that HE has provided me with the torch of eternal guidance in the form of HIS Holy Prophet (PBUH), who is the knowledge for humanity as a whole. I would like to thank Danish Awan, who as a good guide was always willing to help and give his best suggestions during this study. My research would not have been possible without his help. He is always there to give me a guideline and tolerate all my blunders with great courage. He is there to help me with all my thick and thin situations and always gives me the proper attention without time reservations. Thank you so much. I sincerely and honestly thank Dr. Muhammad Sheeraz Dasti for his unmatchable and dedicated supervision for the completion of this study. He has really been extremely patient, helpful and cooperative. A special hanks to Muhammad Nouman for his cooperation in reference setting. I am very much thankful to Naveed Arshad for his cooperation. A special thanks to Routledge, who give me the platform to publish my work. I am also very thankful to all the members of the editing and formatting committee of this publisher who put in their best efforts to make it more presentable. I would also like to thank my parents, elder sister and younger brothers. They were always supporting me and encouraging me with their best wishes.

Abbreviations

CAUS Causative Adverbial Subordinators CONC Concessive Adverbial Subordinators COND Conditional Adverbial Subordinator DEMP Demonstrative Pronoun F-structure Feature Structure FPP1 First Person Pronoun GER Gerunds INPR Indefinite Pronoun JJ Attributive Adjective LFG Lexical Functional Grammar MAT Multidimensional Analysis Tagger NEMD Necessity Modals NN Total Other Nouns NOMZ Nominalizations OSUB Other Adverbial Subordinators PIN Total Prepositional Phrases PIT Pronoun It PLACE Place Adverbials POMD Possibility Modals PRED Predicative Adjectives PRIV Private Verbs Predicative Modals PRMD PUBV Public Verbs RB Total Adverbs Spilt Auxiliaries SPAU SPIN Spilt Infinitives SPP2 Second Person Pronoun STPR Standard Prepositional

x  Abbreviations SUAV THVC TIME TO TPP3

Suasive Verbs The Adjective Complement Time Adverbials Infinitives Third Person Pronoun

1 Introduction

Syntax is a branch of linguistics in which structural features of language at an intra-sentential level are studied. This study is a comparative analysis on arrangement of phrases in Pakistani and British English. Every language is basically a combination of sentences having finite length and is produced from a finite number of alphabets (Noam Chomsky, 1959). If we want to study any language, we have a finite number of rules at our disposal through which we can analyze it. All spoken utterances and written texts can be divided into various units like words, phrases, clauses etc. which play an important role in comprehension and perception (Gee and Grosjean, 1983; Cooper and Paccia-Cooper, 1980; Krivokapic, 2007; Klatt, 1975; Price Ostendorf et al., 1991; Lehiste, 1973). The various units of language play an important role in comprehension and act like a domain in various prosodic and segmental features. The absence of these features may influence lexical access. At the phrase level, they can also be identified phonetically through tones and other intonation patterns. The study of phrases is considered important in all languages because phrases are meaningful parts of sentences in written and spoken data. In spoken language, they are distinguishable, owing to the intonation pattern, while in written language, they are located owing to the rules of grammar and punctuation. In the present study, I have selected newspaper columns from Pakistani and British English to analyze the phrase structures of both varieties of the English language and to investigate the nature, extent and reasons for the differences in the phrase structure as employed in these two ‘Englishes’. I have also explored various cultural aspects that might have impacted the phrase structure of Pakistani English owing to a different linguistic and cultural context available to it in Pakistan. In this study, an attempt is made to focus on the phrase structures of the same language used in different regions. The study explores various features of both cultures,

2  Introduction such as social, cultural or all norms which have a strong impact on our language structures. Word categories have also been studied to investigate the frequency of various expressions in two varieties of the same language. In this part of the research based on the newspaper data, I have explored the comparative frequency of verbs, nouns and other word categories as employed in the two varieties of English under study, and the reasons behind these variable frequencies. Douglas Biber’s approach about word categories was followed to analyze the data. Nouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives and prepositions were studied. However, the study disproves some of Biber’s assumptions, as the data reflects that some of the variations are due to the impact of the native language of Pakistan. I have studied the language of the newspaper columns in which data are available in formal and informal ways. as newspapers are considered to be on the borderlines between formal and informal discourses. For example, in British English, it is common to say, “What you say?”, whereas, in Pakistani English, the more common structure for the same expression is, “What did you say?” The syntax proposition of Pakistani and British writers deviate in terms of lexical choices. The use of language is different, as first-language interference creates structural deviation as compared to the standard language. The proposed study aims at conducting comparative syntactic analysis of phrase structures and word categories of Pakistani and British English, extracting the relevant data from the newspaper columns available online. The reasons for the differences between the syntax of the two varieties with reference to the native language of Pakistan are explored. What is the extent and nature of the use of phrases as employed by Pakistani and British column writers? What are the leading factors and functions performed by the use of these types of phrases? What are the preferred types of phrases and word categories employed by Pakistani and British writers? British English is direct as compared to Pakistani English; Britishers do not add extra formal words in their language. Pakistanis use more noun, adjectival and adverb phrases. Britishers use more verb phrases. The objective of the study is to find the basic differences in the phrase structure of different cultures in the same language. The study has also explored the ways the writers attract readers with various types of structure usage in their works. The study also aims to explore the cultural aspects in which the same language is used in different styles, and to work out the social features which have a strong impact on the language of the column writers. The research is beneficial for exploring the features of Pakistani English as compared to the set norms of British English. It is significant because it

Introduction 3 studies Pakistani English and introduces the new emerging variety of Pinglish. It is helpful to highlight the structures of all those expressions which are commonly used in Pakistani English but least used in British English and vice versa. This study is also helpful for those scholars who want to study the differences of the same language in different cultural and linguistic contexts. The study is also helpful for those scholars who want to continue their studies in the discipline of syntax. They can find not only directions but also locate some informational gaps in this study and conduct their own studies in such disciplines. The major beneficiaries of this study would be the scholars interested in World Englishes and Pakistani English, English-language teachers and practitioners in syntax. It may also be relevant to some scholars from media studies, particularly those who are interested in studying the language of the newspaper columns. The present study has only focused on the phrase structure and word categories of the selected columns from Pakistani and British newspapers. All the data was collected from the online archives of mainstream British and Pakistani newspapers. Selected types of phrases and word categories have been analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively.

References and further reading Chomsky, Noam (1959). Three Models for the Description of Language, IRE Transactions on Information Theory, IT2, 113–114. Cooper, W., and Paccia-Cooper, J. (1980). Syntax and speech. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Gee, J. P., & Grosjean, F. (1983). Performance structures: A psycholinguistic and linguistic appraisal. Cognitive Psychology, 15(4), 411–458. DOI: 10.1016/ 0010-0285(83)90014-2 Klatt, D. H. (1975). Vowel lengthening is syntactically determined in connected discourse. Journal of Phonetics, 3, 129–140. Krivokapic, J. (2007). Prosodic planning: Effects of phrasal length and complexity on pause duration. Journal of Phonetics, 35, 162–179. Lehiste, I. (1973). Phonetic disambiguation of syntactic ambiguity. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 53, 10. Department of Linguistics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210. Price, P., Ostendrof, M., Shattuck-Hufnagels, S., & Fong, C. (1991). The use of prsody in syntactic ambiguation. Journal of the acoustical society of Amercia, 90, 2956–2970. Wightman, C. W., Shattuck-Hufnagel, S., Ostendorf, F., and Price, P. J. (1992). Segmental durations in the vicinity of prosodic phrase boundaries. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 91, 1707–1717.

2 Background and historical perspective

2.1 World Englishes World Englishes is considered as one of the major disciplines in linguistics nowadays. Most of the people of this world live in multilingual societies, and when we coordinate with one another, we use the common lingua franca. English serves as the global lingua franca but it varies from one community or society to the other with changes in the linguistic context. It differs based on lexis, pronunciation, accent, morphology and grammar. Based on these differences, various varieties of English do not resemble the standard variety (Kubota, 2001). Braj B. Kachru is a Kashmiri-American linguist who first studied the varieties of English across the world and founded the discipline of World Englishes (Horn Berger and McKay, 2010). Non-native varieties of English are used in various countries and these varieties are studied in the discipline of World Englishes. Kachru (1986) explains three categories or circles for the spread of English based on his research: inner, outer and expanding circle. The inner circle represents those countries in which English is used as the native language. In the outer circle, English is used as a second language, like in Pakistan. In the expanding circle, English is used as a foreign language (Kachru and Smith, 2008). Crystal (2007) tries to approximate the number of speakers of each circle in his research. According to him, 320–380 million people use English as a native language, 150–300 million people use it as a second language and 100–1000 million people use it as a foreign language. Kachru’s concentric model clearly explains the diffusion and spread of English at the worldwide level (Bhatt, 2001). The Kachruvian model presented in 1986 is also considered a way to remove the superiority from those countries which think that their language is standard (inner circle countries are included in it). They consider the Englishes used in outer and expanding circle as substandard varieties. Kachru’s

Background and historical perspective 5 model represents the reality that languages change when spread. The model also shows that there is no standard variety of English and many varieties have emerged with varying intra-national to inter-national settings. Duygu Candarli, Y. Bayyurt, and L. Marti (2013) analyze three corpora and reader representation in it. The study analyzes that the writers are interacting with the readers in the creative process of writing and dialogues. Comparative analysis has been done on three corpora and researchers conclude that more reader pronouns are used in the Turkish corpus. Anna Cermakova and Frantisek Cermak (2013) conducted a corpus-based study to identify the translation options which are quite frequent and compared them with other languages. Quantitative results are formed of those words which are mostly equivalents in other languages. Maggie Charles (2013) discussed different types of recoveries which can be built with personal corpora, a multiple corpora technique is used to spotlight various factors which contribute towards the success of pedagogy. Linguists around all the corners of the world discuss Australian, American and British English as the native languages. On the other side, linguists, particularly those focusing on World Englishes and sociolinguistics, also give importance to those varieties of English which are used in the outer and expanding circle countries. All the varieties are either used in the inner circle, outer circle or expanding circle countries as a part of World Englishes. Vaclav Cvrcek, Cermakova, Chlumska, Novotna, and Richterova (2013) discuss context-based approaches to study collocations. Comparative analysis has been done by the researchers of English and Czech. Deng Yaochen and Feng Zhiwei (2013) consider words to be the most important tool in verbal communications. The study concludes that words which are quite lengthy are less frequent in verbal communication. Words which are not lengthy are more frequently used. There is a dependency relationship between the word length and word frequency – they are inversely proportional to each other. The study has been conducted on the Chinese language. The reliability and validity of this study can also be checked on other languages in the future. Kachru (1992) discusses that the spread of English at the global level happened because of two factors: firstly, when the inner circle community migrates or moves, like to Australia, it develops a new variety of English with reference to that community; a new dialect is formed. Secondly, in the outer and expanding circle, English spreads because of colonization and new varieties are developed in colonized countries such as Pakistan, India, South Africa etc. Quirk (1988) says that the spread of English is due to eco-no-culture, imperial and demographical factors. It means that language is scattered

6  Background and historical perspective because of cultural transmission, population growth and politico-colonial influences. Schneider (2011) takes globalization as a basic phenomenon in the spread of English. There are also the theories of Ferguson (1959), Fishman (1972), Gumperz (1971), Hymes (1974), Halliday (1973) in which more attention is paid to the usage of language socially. Because of these theories, we came to know about the use of language, its social usage at higher levels, interaction and social context towards linguistic meaning. Some people of the English-speaking countries (inner circle countries probably) consider the English language to be their sole property and their claim has been questioned because of the globalization of English. When various nations use this language and add vocabulary according to their needs and cultural values, no one can claim language to be the property of a single person or group (Widdowson, 1994). According to Luk and Lin (2007), people who use English for communication can claim ownership on it. Based on these arguments, Widdowson establishes a claim that anyone who learns English must consider this language one which belongs to them (Widdowson, 1994; Higgins, 2003) and they can also find identity with respect to it (Norton, 1997). The debate between the native and non-native speakers of English is just like a traditional dichotomy. The natives construct this phenomenon based on ethnic or genetic grounds which are no more digestible to others (Higgins, 2003). If someone assumes or thinks about the ideal speakers of English who belong to the inner circle country, especially British or American, then it is a myth (Davies, 2003). According to Luk and Lin (2007), the concept of native speakers is not understood or fixed, although it is a socially developed phenomenon. On the other side, few researchers, such as Quirk (1990), consider the non-native varieties as deviations; rather they consider them innovations and think that these varieties can’t be considered or targeted for pedagogical purposes without including the norms of the natives in them (see also Jenkins, 2003). They consider these new varieties a threat for the inner circle varieties of English. The views represented in EFL fields by Jenkins (2006) and Canagarajah (2006, 2007) are considered as instrumental to reduce the issues of EFL. There is a large debate on those issues by Jenkins and other scholars, and it is still considered a controversial genre. In this decade, World Englishes have established themselves in a more accurate way as compared to the previous decades. The outer and expanding circles varieties introduce their own English in which their norms and cultural values are involved, and these varieties are increasing day by day to strengthen the approaches of World Englishes (Davies, 2003; Higgins, 2003; Luk and Lin, 2007).

Background and historical perspective 7

2.2 Sociolinguistic approaches towards World Englishes The rapid extension of English all over the world is remarkable but, at the same time, different varieties also play a vital role in letting English adopt many aspects. As English is getting more globalized day by day, many countries have established their own varieties of English, including many other countries where English is not used as a native language but people learn it as a second language or a foreign language. All the varieties of English are commonly called World Englishes, but there must be a slight or a major difference in each variety of English from the others. Kachru elaborately discusses all the varieties in his three circle model. Over the last two or three decades, World Englishes and the native English varieties have been much discussed in forums of applied linguistics. Kachru and Quirk are two of those remarkable scholars who discussed these issues in detail. Kachru’s model also highlighted the differences and importance of it. The difference in these varieties is largely because of cultural and various other sociolinguistic factors. According to Quirk’s (1990) point of view, everyone should follow the patterns of the inner circle countries. He is of the view that if every country generates her own pattern, vocabulary, words and pronunciation style, then the English language is no longer to be considered a worldwide language. He simply claims that the outer circle countries must follow the language rules of inner circle countries, so that the English language can be used for communication at the worldwide level. He is not in favour of proliferation of so many varieties of English and asserts that one variable must be considered as standard and everyone should follow it, no matter how many cultural or sociolinguistics differences are present. Kachru (1985) expresses his views on the same agenda and his views are totally opposite to what Quirk has said. He is in favour of different varieties of English because the reason behind the usage of English is different and, eventually, a culturally strong impact is present in the speaker when he uses it as a lingua franca. Widdowson (1994) has also strengthened the view of Kachru by mentioning the positive aspects of Kachru’s point of view. He also agrees with Kachru that native speakers of English cannot claim the ownership of this language. The English language is not the property of those people who use it as a native or first language. To claim the ownership of this language, nativization is not the only criterion, as the standards are not set according to the people who use it as their first language. The native speakers of English consider their language a standard variety. Kachru is also opposed to this logic, and many other linguists have also commented that it is not a suitable criterion to set such standards

8  Background and historical perspective of nativization. Sociolinguistic factors and number of users of any specific local group or country also play a vital role in the spreading of English and a standard must set on the number of the speakers of any variety or on some other characteristics while nativization must be ignored at that time. Bolton (2004) also discusses the same issues in his research and strengthens the approach of Kachru in his work. The various approaches to studying the World Englishes have been established from the late nineteenth century onwards, which shows that the different varieties have a solid historical background and sociocultural reasons are involved at the backend of each approach, such as in the research of Henry Bradley (1845–1923), Henry Sweet (1845–1912), Otto Jespersen (1860–1943), Charles Talbut Onions (1873–1965), Daniel Jones (1881–1967) and Henry Wyld (1870–1945). Many linguists from Britain also work in the same genre or on World Englishes, such as John Wells, Robert Burchfield, Sidney Greenbaum, Randolph Quirk, Tom Mc Arthur and David Crystal. Many books were published in the field of psycholinguistic approaches towards World Englishes in which the local issues of the English language have been discussed. The renown works of the mid 1980s on ‘English studies’ tradition were also published, including Greenbaum’s The English Language Today (1985), Burchfield’s influential The English Language (1985), and Quirk’s and Widdowson’s English in the World: Teaching and Learning the Language and Literatures (1985). In each book, the issues behind globalization were elaborately discussed. Burchfield discussed the fragmentation of the English language: The most powerful model of all is the dispersal of speakers of popular forms of Latin in various parts of western Europe and the emergence in the early Middle Ages of languages now known as French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and of subdivision (like Catalan) within these languages, none easily comprehensible to the others. . . . English, when first recorded in the eighth century, was already a fissiparous language. It will continue to divide and subdivide, and to exhibit a thousand different faces in the centuries ahead. . . . The multifarious forms of English spoken within the British Isles and by native speakers abroad will continue to reshape and restyle themselves in the future. And they will become more and more at variance with the emerging Englishes of Europe and of the rest of the world. (Burchfield, 1985: 160, 173) From the last 20 and 30  years, great work has been done in the field of World Englishes by relating it to the various creoles and pidgin of English.

Background and historical perspective 9 After some time, they adapt the standard features or make their variety a standard by fulfilling the various criteria which a language needs to set as a variable. Many works have been done on the different varieties of English by various scholars like Todd (1984, 1995), who worked on a pidgin of Nigerian English and claimed: The unidealised truth seems to be . . . that for many speakers in Nigeria it is now extremely difficult, if not impossible, to separate Nigerian English Pidgin from pidginised Nigerian English or anglicised Nigerian Pidgin. Today, in the spoken medium and in the writings of Aik-Imoukhuede, Oyekunle and Saro-Wiwa, we find not compartmentalized English and Pidgin, not even a continuum from basilectal through mesolectal to acrolectal, but a linguistic amalgam where the inter influencing is so complete that even articulate linguists are not always certain which varieties they are using or why. (Todd, 1995: 37) A few other scholars like Mufwene (1997) also worked on the same issue. All the researches completed in this paradigm highlight the sociolinguistic perspectives of different varieties of English and how, with the passage of time, they set their standards by passing that language from the creole/ pidgin and all other such kinds of statuses.

2.3 Pakistani English Language variation has always been an important debate among linguists, focusing on the variables on how language shifts. The English language has many varieties and Pakistani English is also considered to be an emerging variety that can be discussed from all aspects in World Englishes. Pakistani English has some specific features and linguists need to identify the features which are present in this variety. In the last six decades, Pakistani English has developed some new features in it and this language is used in most of fields, like in school, legislation, judgements and all the official documents of federal and provincial governments (Haque, 1993). Features of native languages have emerged in English with the passage of time. Pakistani English borrowed some lexis, phrases, grammatical patterns and a few pronunciation rules from the local languages. The few Pakistani linguists discuss some features of Pakistani English (mainly verbs) in their studies, such as Baumgardner (1987, 1988, 1990, 1992, 1993a, 1995). Talat (1988, 1993, 2002) tried to explain the specific features of Pakistani English and their studies are intuition based. Other researchers (e.g., Mahmood, 2012a, 2012b) also studied a few features of Pakistani English, mainly verbs and noun phrases.

10  Background and historical perspective In a short span of time, English replaced Urdu. It was assumed in the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s that Urdu must be used as an official language, but globalization, international needs etc. made English an official language and English is no longer ignored in the official sector. English is also declared as the language of institutes at all levels in the province of the Punjab (Khattak, 2010). The cultural values and other factors are involved in the acculturation of Pakistani nativized English. Pakistani English itself has many varieties (Talat, 2003) and subvarieties. All these varieties are different based on the norms and cultural values present in them. For instance, the speakers of KPK can’t pronounce a few sounds accurately because their native language is Pashtu, and the same is the case with Punjabis and the speakers of other provinces. When they speak English, the factor of tone of the native language is present in it and those sounds are pronounced improperly which are not present or have some different effect in the native language of the speakers. In the national language of Pakistan (Urdu), the concept of consonant cluster is not present. Thus, when Pakistanis speak, those English words which have syllabic consonants in them are converted into regular syllables. This is how nativization affects the language and a new variety emerges. These types of differences are also present in the regional varieties of Pakistani English. Bilal, Mahmood, and Saleem (2011b) and Bilal, Rasheed, Fatima, and Tiwana (2011) discuss vowel sounds of the Pakistani variety; similarly, Mahboob (2010) also discusses the phonological features of Pakistani English (PE). Anwar (2007) worked on PE and analyzed that there are differences at the clause and phrase levels because of code switching. Mahboob (2004) establishes a claim in his study that Pakistanis pronounce words by involving all the alphabets of the words. Four categories were introduced by Rahman (1990): anglicized, acrolect, basilect and mesolect. PE was first established in the 1970s and 1980s according to Alamgir (1978, 1987) and now Pakistan has the third largest population, about 49%, where speakers are able to use it to an intermediate grade of English (Management Summary Pakistan). English is also used as a communication tool in local schools and colleges. Bilingualism is a common factor at the school, college and university levels. All the signboards and advertisements have an effect on PE. A few news channels were also established which used English like Dawn News, Express 24/7 etc. As far as the works of Pakistani English are concerned, Pakistan is considered to be one of those countries that produces fewer books and researches (Akhter, 1987) despite having a huge population (it is the ninthmost populous country). This is because of low literacy rates and the use of language. In different communities of Pakistan, different languages are used and a large community is unaware of the national language (Baumgardner,

Background and historical perspective 11 1993b). A research has also been done by A. Stanly et al. (1984) asserting that Pakistan has a low percentage in publication of books and researches because of untrained human resources, lack of finances, professionalism and coordination (Ahmed, 1981 also cited in Baumgardner, 1993a). The features of Pakistani English have been studied on many genres, and newspapers are one of those genres. Muhammad Uzair, Mehmood, and Mahmood (2012) establish a claim in their study that, in Pakistan, newspapers affect the language of the readers. The percentages of the new vocabulary items which are introduced through newspapers selected for their study are more common in female language as compared to male language. This study is based on more than 400 participants. Pakistani English is a hybrid in which borrowed and obsolete words are used. Pakistanis use the concepts of other nations or mould them according to their cultural values. Pakistani English newspapers use high-frequency words as compared to the other genres. The detail of percentage of these types of words in various Pakistani English newspapers is discussed by Uzair et al. (2012). They elaborate and discuss the examples of those words in which Pakistanis use apostrophe+s as a suffix but natives don’t use this expression. Other terminologies were also studied, such as the borrowed obsolete -ing forms etc. Many other works have been done by various researchers on the syntactic categories of Pakistani English and the effect of Pakistanization is also studied by various researchers like Sajjad Ali and Ahmad (2014). He discussed the Urduization and other features of Pakistani English with respect to the novels and divided examples in various semantic categories. Sheeraz (2013) also studied the Urduization of English in Pakistani American fiction and investigated the reasons behind them. The present study also aimed to point out the differences in the use of various phrases and word categories of British and Pakistani English.

2.4 Pakistani and British syntax Syntax is the study of various principles and all the processes through which sentences are constituted or constructed. Syntactic investigation of those languages which are used by following the rules of grammar can be seen as a tool of developing sentences and various structures in the language under analysis (Noam Chomsky, 1971). Syntax not only analyzes the grammatical structures but also the context of the sentence. The sentence “Colorless green ideas sleep furiously” was developed by Chomsky, which is grammatically true but syntactically wrong, just to establish the claim that syntax is quite different from the meanings of words, which is conveyed in this example.

12  Background and historical perspective Shewan and Canter (1971) locate the effects of syntactic difficulties, sentence length and vocabulary on auditory apprehension. Length of a sentence can be increased in many ways, like by adding adjectives or PP (prepositional phrases), and difficulty can be measured through frequency and can be increased by adding negations and passive structures. They consider these complexities to be the most difficult one for aphasics. They don’t apply a test on reading comprehension, but apply one on auditory, so the significance of the results are unclear for the researcher and a few readers and researchers who cite them, such as Advaith Siddharthan (2004). Few studies have been done on the lexicogrammatical phenomenon. Starting PP emergence like the PP as far as is also studied and it is concluded that these types of prepositions are derived basically from the clauses by involving the procedure of grammaticalization (Rickford, ­ Mendoza-Denton, Wasow, and Espinosa, 1995). Olofsson (1990) also studied such phenomena and named these types of phenomena infinite clauses. The sentence which start with the word be as a starter of spoken data in British or even in American English is studied by Romaine and Lange (1991). The results of such studies cannot easily be generalized as a whole, but these types of changes can play a role when the changes of grammatical core are studied. These types of changes are far reaching and have ongoing potential. Katrien Deroey (2013) studied the relevance of various discourse markers in the spoken lectures of BASE (British Academic Spoken English). All the discourse markers are studied which are used at the time of lecture. Statistical results of those markers are also the part of this study. Informal discourse markers in the context of the lecture like anyway, not remember, don’t know are less common as compared to briefly, quickly etc., which are quite common. Matteo Di Cristofaro (2013) studied the collocational networks and chunking visualization. The study discusses the dysphemisms and euphemisms of words and the collocational patterns. The results of this study are represented in graph-logical form by using various software. A study has been conducted by Nelleke Oostdijk and Haan (1994) in which they quantitatively studied the corpus of British English by finding the clause patterns in modern BE (British English). They quantitatively analyzed various parts of the sentence and located which types of clauses are excessively used in BE. Constituents and their place in the sentence are also studied by them. The study also closed a few gaps in this genre and how those results would be applied later on the large scale of data (TOSCA corpus, cf. Ostdijk, 1991). Adverbial placements were also considered as a research gap in the BE corpus, according to those researchers. On the other side, the Pakistani English corpus is not available in so many genres. PE English is considered to be a new variety without established standards, so studies in which a large amount of data is used are difficult

Background and historical perspective 13 to locate. Many researchers have conducted various research studies on the limited number of data sets and have discussed verbs and other syntactic categories, phrases and clauses to find their patterns and usages. The various types of differences in the text represent the relevance in the various linguistics. Grammatical differences are considered to be one of the fixed features in various varieties of English. Corpus data sets of various countries formulate the rules of generative grammar according to their language (Kayne, 1996). Labov (1989) also establishes the same claim in his study that variation in the data set results adds various other structures to our knowledge of linguistics. The detailed studies on Pakistani English varieties have not been done yet on a large scale. Ahmar Mahboob (2004), on the other side, claims many comparative studies have been done on the PE variety with reference to the AE and BE. The purpose of this chapter is to locate those studies in which both varieties are studied. Talat (1993), a Pakistani linguist, discusses various variations at the lexical level and the various shifts of lexis. In her study, she explores how lexical changes and the words of indigenous languages are added in the sentence, which is also called a concept of Urduized words. (Also cited by Ahmar Mahboob in 2004). Baumgardner (1987, 1995) discusses the comparison of AE and BE with reference to PE. In his various studies, he elaborates various features of PE and locates structural and lexical differences of PE. He also introduces the concept of various semantic categories which are used as a part of PE. All his work on the lexis and other linguistic features is appreciable, but all these types of studies strengthen this point that the detailed studies narrowed down on PE are not available and this is a research gap that needs to be filled. Adjective complementation is also studied by various Pakistani linguists like Rahman (1990), Baumgardner (1993b), Saleemi (1993). Two types of adjectives are comparatively studied with the reference of BE -ing and to-infinitive, and it has been concluded that, in PE, to-infinitive is used excessively as compared to BE. In BE -ing has more frequency as compared to PE. Rahman (1990) also analyzes the use of article and other word categories in Pakistani English and investigates which community uses articles in which types of structures. He concludes that the way articles are used in standard BE is absent in PE. In PE, articles are normally used in those structures where Britishers don’t use them. The same is the case for prepositions. In PE, prepositions are absent, whereas, in BE, Britishers use various other types of prepositions which Pakistanis don’t have in their variety. Lexis, the concept of borrowing and obsolete words are discussed, as well as how they became the part of PE.

14  Background and historical perspective All these types of studies show that many syntactic studies have been done by various Pakistani linguists, but they relate these studies with the native language of Pakistan and a few researches have been conducted on the phrase level. The present study aims at studying the phrase structure and the reasons behind the differences with reference to the native language of Pakistan.

2.5 Corpus-based studies Corpus can be defined as a large body of machine readable text. Corpus is considered as one of the tools for the collection of data, but with the passage of time its forms are changed. Now, corpus is used in all the fields to conduct researches like in syntax, semantics and pragmatics etc. Many corpora were collected like the Helsinki corpus, Zurich corpus, Lampeter corpus and Archer corpus, which have different data sets collected in different time spans. The Helsinki corpus consists of old English as well as modern English and is divided into three stages. The Zurich corpus is collected from English newspapers. The Lampeter corpus is collected from English pamphlets and the Archer corpus is composed of American and British English. Oleksandr Kolomiyets and Marie-Francine Moens (2013) studied ‘Motion ML: Motion Markup Language a shallow approach for annotating motions in text’. Meninpura Dsskumara (2013) discussed the use of dedicated multimodal corpora for curriculum implications of EAP/ESP programs in ESL settings. Ian Lancashire and Elisa Tersigni (2013): ‘Early Modern English vocabulary growth’. Ekaterina Lapshinova-Koltunski and Kerstin Anna Kunz (2013): ‘Detecting cohesion: Semi automatic annotation procedures’. Ekaterina Lapshinova-Koltunski, Ortlibe, Kermes, and Teich (2013): ‘Procedures for automatic corpus enrichment with abstract linguistic categories’. John Hanghong Li (2013): ‘The correlation between lexical core index, age of acquisition, familiarity and image ability’. Jingjie Li and Wenjie Hu (2013): ‘Phraseological discourse actors in English academic texts’. While using corpora for various comparatives studies, it is found that the corpora of various time spans frequently have some specific features as compared to the other corpora; for example, in the corpus of the fifteenth century, the use of by and of is more common and, in the sixteenth century, its frequency became higher. Corpora can be differentiated in categories: inter-language and intra-­ language corpora. Novels, newspapers, books or anything else, either written or spoken, is included in the corpus. The corpus may be of a general type or may be collected by selecting samples of a particular speech community. A British corpus is considered to be a good example of a general corpus.

Background and historical perspective 15 Corpora which are collected from a selected community are known as sublanguage corpora. Parallel and comparable corpora are considered to be the types of corpora having similar data in all languages or the same data in various varieties of the language. A parallel corpus is a translated corpus from one variety to the others. Sally Hunt and Richard Bowker (2013) discussed the importance of corpora in research. This study also elaborated on the various corpora and how it is helpful in various researches. The Brown family corpora and other famous corpora are discussed and researchers give importance to building new corpora of those varieties which are not built yet or are quite old. A new corpus is introduced in this study, which is named the SAE (South African English) corpus. Researchers also discuss the issues which they face during corpus collection. Many studies were conducted by various researchers in 2013 in which corpus tools were used. Amaha N. Alharthi (2013) used a corpus for checking and assessing the production of learners in collocation competence at various levels. Such techniques are discussed based on statistical results. Through the competence of collocation patterns, results can increase their proficiency because they use such structures at later stages and in upcoming activities or drills for learners. Carolina P. et al., (2013) discussed AntConc developing features in this study. AntConc is considered as a major tool which is used in corpus-based studies for different collocation patterns, regular expressions, keywords etc. Some new features are introduced in this software for better results of corpus-based studies, like the programming language, multi-language support, database architecture and performance improvement. Laurence Anthony (2013b) is of the view that corpus can’t be analyzed without using any types of tools. It is difficult to study or organize a corpus-based study without using any tools. This study is conducted to critically analyze the various corpus tools used by researchers all over the world to analyze their corpora. Only a few use corpus as a tool: Li Wenzhong (2013): ‘China English Corpus construction on an open corpus platform’. Maocheng Liang (2013): ‘Sparing a free hand: context based automatic categorisation of concordance lines’. Alon Lischinsky (2013): ‘ “What is the environment doing in my report?” Analyzing the environment as stakeholder thesis through corpus linguistics’. Cathy Lonngren-Sampaio (2013): ‘Using quantitative measures to investigate the relative roles of languages participating in code switched utterances’. Stefania M. Maci (2013): ‘ “The results demonstrate that.”: A corpus based analysis of evaluative that clauses in medical posters’. Michalea Mahlberg and Kathy Conklin (2013): ‘Reading Dickens’s characters: Investigating the cognitive reality of patterns in texts’. Anna Marchi and Charlotte Taylor (2013): ‘Experimenting with objectivity in

16  Background and historical perspective corpus and discourse studies: Expectations about LGBT discourse and a game of mutual falsification and reflexivity’. Michaela Martinkova (2013): ‘Have causative, or experiential? A parallel corpus based study’. Debora Beatriz De Jesus Martins et al. (2013): ‘Annotating translation errors in Brazilian Portuguese automatically translated sentences: First step to automatic post edition’. Matuda, Rebechi, and Navarro (2013): ‘Corpus driven terminology and cultural aspects: Studies in the areas of football, cooking and hotels’. Paul Baker (2013) uses corpus to analyze the three small corpora which are available online and collected to study the triangulation approach on the adverts. The study was conducted to evaluate a more accurate method in the case of finding. Piotr Banski et al. (2013) discussed the designed principles and aims of the KorAP in the contribution of corpus analysis tools of the internal data set of specific architecture. Michael Barlow (2013) used corpus to analyze the spoken data in the framework of exemplar theory: how spoken utterances are different in various corpora. The study concludes that the role is different in various representatives of media and White House press secretaries, so there is a considerable change in the spoken data sets of both corpora collected from these resources. Leanne Bartley and Tenorio (2013) studied the concept of otherness in the Ireland minorities. The concept of otherness is also quite common in Asian countries. A corpus has been developed to analyze the concept of otherness by using the approach of critical discourse analysis in Ireland. The study summed up various patterns of minorities and the native community of Ireland, and ideological bent and change were analyzed. Ian Gregory (2013) used corpus as a tool and merged two disciplines: computational linguistics and geographical information systems. The study concluded that by combining these two disciplines things can be summarized more accurately. Stefan T. Gries (2013) discussed the division in the study of syntax and lexis. A relation has been built in syntax and phonetics. Collocational similarities have been studied in this research and the researcher also discussed the further proceedings of the research. Kat Gupta (2013) collected the corpus of the suffrage movement and checked how media represented that event. The focus was to locate the hidden approaches behind the representation. The researcher tried to enlighten the new aspects of this movement. Claire Hardaker (2013) studied trolling strategies and considered corpus a very good tool for studying behaviours. Apart from that, keen observation was necessary at the time of data collection. Corpus is also used by Tony Mechnery, A. Potts, and R. Xiao (2013): ‘Is there a reputational benefit to hosting the Olympics and Paralympics? A corpus based investigation’. Seth Mehl (2013): ‘Take a mirror and take a

Background and historical perspective 17 look: Reassessing usage of polysemic verbs with concrete and light senses’. Katrin Menzel (2013): ‘A corpus linguistic study of ellipsis as a cohesive device’. Neil Millar (2013): ‘Student perceptions of university instructors: A multi dimensional analysis of free text comments on RateMyProfessors. com’. Hermann Moisl (2013): ‘Hierarchical cluster analysis of nonlinear linguistic data’. Antonio Moreno-Sandoval, Lanos, Martinez, and Miras (2013): ‘An affix based method for automatic term recognition from a medical corpus of Spanish’. Akira Mirakami (2013): ‘Longitudinal development of L2 English grammatical morphemes: A clustering approach’. Millicent Murdoch (2013): ‘Exploring intra author variation across different modes of electronic communication using the FITT corpus’. Patrica Mrrieta-Flores et al. (2013): ‘Integrating corpus linguistics and spatial technologies for the analysis of literature’. Maria Cristina Nisco (2013): ‘Geographical Text Analysis: Mapping and spatially analysing corpora’. Hilary Nesi (2013): ‘Citation in student assignments: A corpus driven investigation’. Vincent B. Y. Ooi (2013): ‘Semantically profiling and word sketching the Singapore ICNALE Corpus’. Alan Partington (2013): ‘Intimations of spring? Political and media coverage and non-coverage of the Arab uprisings, and how corpus linguistics can speak to “absences” ’. Sabine Bartsch and Stefan Evert (2013) studied collocation patterns in various larger corpora. It is concluded that BNC (British National Corpus) uses more habitual collocation. Only the Firthian notion is studied and analyzed in this study. Monika Bednarek (2013) asserted that visuals are always considered a main discipline to study under the discipline of applied linguistics. The techniques to study the visuals can also be integrated in corpus linguistics. A multimodal is prepared by using the various approaches of corpus linguistics and the Kress model of semiotics analysis to study the visuals. Baramee Kheovichai (2013) used academic and business corpora and POS (part of speech) tags were mentioned via software. AntConc was also used in this study to search the keywords which the researcher analyzed. Evaluations were collected for further analysis which refer to any organization or institute, and the researcher divided them into various semantic categories. Concordances were also under observation to understand the context more accurately. The statistical results of this study are quite similar. In the jobs of academic corpus, measurement and competition adjectives are used. Evaluative resources are also interlinked with academic institutions. Adam Kilagarriff and Carole Tiberius (2013) discussed the programmers through which we can form a better corpus, as corpus is widely used in so many fields for research. In this study, the basic techniques were discussed, such as the fact that better corpora can be developed or researchers can avoid mistakes and make duplicate-free corpora along with the meta-data. All these are applicable in the corpora of all languages.

18  Background and historical perspective Studies conducted by using corpus tools are mentioned in the following studies: Laura Lousie Paterson (2013b): ‘Using corpus data to calculate a rote learning threshold for personal pronouns: You as a target for They and He’. Katie Paterson (2013a): ‘The identification of metaphor using corpus methods: Can a reclassification of metaphoric language help our understanding of metaphor usage and comprehension?’ Matthew Peacock (2013): ‘Stance adverbials in research writing’. Barry Pennock-Speck and Miguel Fuster-Marquez (2013): ‘A pragmatic analysis of imperatives in voice overs from a corpus of British TV ads’. Gill Philip (2013): ‘A defence of semantic preference’. Amanda Potts (2013): ‘Is there a reputational benefit to hosting the Olympics and Paralympics? A corpus based investigation’. Paul Rayson et al. (2013): ‘Integrating corpus linguistics and spatial technologies for the analysis of literature’, ‘Geographical Text Analysis: Mapping and spatially analysing corpora and Linking qualitative and quantitative analysis of metaphor in end of life care’, ‘Using life-logging to re-imagine representativeness in corpus design’. Ines Rehbein and Josef Ruppenhofer (2013): ‘Investigating orality in speech, writing, and in between’. Olga Richterova (2013): ‘It is surprising: Do participial adjectives after copular verbs form a special evaluative construction?’ and ‘Context based approach to collocations: The case of Czech’. Geoffrey Sampson (2013): ‘The empirical trend: Ten years on’. Jose Santaemilia and Sergio Maruenda (2013): ‘Identifying discourse(s) and constructing evaluative meaning in a gender related corpus (GENTEXT-N)’. A brief study has been conducted by Niladri Sekhar in Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) about the corpus and its use as a tool of data collection. He discusses various aspects of a corpus and its salient features, types and issues which researchers face when any corpus is collected or processed, and functional relevance of the various corpora is discussed. The few researchers who use corpora are as follows: Majdi Sawalha and Eric Atwell (2013): ‘Comparing morphological tag-sets for Arabic and English’. Vera Schmiedtova (2013): ‘Comparing collocations in the totalitarian language of the former Czechoslovakia with the language of the democratic period’. Anne-Kathrin Schumann (2013): ‘Linguistic means of knowledge transfer through knowledge rich contexts in Russian and German’. Alison Selay (2013): ‘The discursive representation of animals’. Jana Sindlerova and Katerina Vselovska (2013): ‘Building a corpus of evaluative sentences in multiple domains’. Petra Stoejohann (2013): ‘Lexical, corpus methodological and lexicographic approaches to paronyms’. Janusz Tabore (2013): ‘Verbs with a sentential subject: A corpus based study of German and Polish verbs’. Yukio Tono (2013): ‘ “Criterial feature” extraction from CEFR based corpora: Methods and techniques’. Naouel Toumi (2013): ‘Reflexivity of high explicitness metatext in L1 and FL research articles

Background and historical perspective 19 from the Soft and Hard Sciences: A corpus based study’. Rachelle Vessey (2013): ‘Instrumental and integrative approaches to language in Canada: A cross linguistic corpus assisted discourse study of Canadian language ideologies’. In linguistics, many studies have been done by using small and large corpus data sets. A team of researchers is trying to create a way that compiles corpus and CDA (critical discourse analysis) techniques in one genre. The main focus of CDA is on the political stance, specifically its use in production of talk and text (Baker et al., 2008). SiBol (Siena-Bologna Universities) analyzes the differences in two corpora of UK newspapers; the first one is from 1993 (100 million words) and the second is from 2005 (140 million words). A study has been done by Laurence Anthony on the corpus tools and historical aspects of the corpus. He compiled the history of 50 years of this genre with reference to the various tools and investigates how this genre is helpful in English-language and other classroom settings. Another study by Mohamed Grazib has been done in which he discussed the importance of electronic corpora and how results differ when electronic corpora are compared with others. A study has been done by Farhat et al. (2011) in which corpus is used to study the discourse markers in PE (Pakistani English) or BE (British English). After the analysis, they concluded that Britishers or the native speakers of English use more discourse markers as compared to Pakistani speakers or non-native speakers. Another study has been done by Zubina et al. (2014) in which the distribution of prepositions are discussed in BE and PE. This study established its claim based on their study that Pakistanis use more prepositions as compared to the Britishers, and there is a variety of prepositions present in British English but absent in Pakistani English, or present in Pakistani English and absent in BE. Other relevant studies are as follows: Benet Vincent (2013): ‘V semantic sequences: The communicating function’. Fang Wang (2013): ‘The role of corpus linguistics in social constructionist discourse analysis’. Stephen Wattam, P. Rayson, and D. Berridge (2013): ‘Using life-logging to re-imagine representativeness in corpus design’. My L-Y Wong (2013): ‘Code-mixing: Exploring indigenous words in ICE-HK’. David Wright (2013): ‘Using corpora in forensic authorship analysis: Investigating idiolect in Enron emails’. Richard Xiao and Yan Cao (2013): ‘A multidimensional contrastive move analysis of native and nonnative English abstracts’. Xu Huanrong and Hou Fuli (2013): ‘The metaphoricity of fish: Implications for part-of-speech and metaphor’. Jiajin Xu and Lu Lu (2013): ‘The structural and semantic analysis of the English translation of Chinese light verb constructions: A parallel corpus-based study’.

20  Background and historical perspective Rashid Mehmood and Asim Mehmood (2011) discussed the importance of the Pakistani corpus and the reasons the Pakistani corpus is needed in their study. They also discussed various uses of Pakistani corpora and how they are helpful in the ELT (English-language teaching) environment. The present study also analyzes the set patterns in the collected corpora of Pakistani and British English newspapers.

2.6 Print media Rome and China are considered to be the pioneers in publishing newspapers, as they published them as early as 59 BC to 222 AD. Europe introduced the concept of the letter press for the first time in the 1450s, Italy in 1470, Mexico in 1541, Germany in 1609, Basel in 1610, Vienna in 1615, Hamburg in 1616, Berlin in 1617, England in 1621, France in 1631 and Spain in 1641, with so many others around the world, while in Pakistan it was 1947. Newspaper data is always one of the most selected genres for researchers because of its diverse nature. Each writer and reporter has his own style of writing the news and columns in papers. Bias of the news column writers is difficult to avoid when they write anything. Newspapers are published from every corner of the world. Nowadays, cultural issues and social norms affect the language of the columns and the news writers. Different writers belong to different countries of the world; their expression of writing is different. Newspapers are also one of the most selected genres for critical studies because two reporters cover the same news in different ways and have their own perspective. Critical approaches study such differences. Various studies have been conducted on this genre; a few of these are discussed from a linguistics perspective. Cheyney (1992) established the claim that newspapers are just like textbooks because they provide us the latest information about current issues, whether related to politics, business, film industry or sports etc. Newspapers also have a fine number of readers in developing countries. However, newspapers all over the world are not considered to be the fastest source of spreading any news nowadays. Radio and television are now quicker and more immediate sources as compared to newspapers. The data of newspapers and magazines are considered to be the permanent and authentic source of information as compared to other tools. The other subbranches of the mass media feed on those things or issues which they read in the press. According to the International Mine Action Standard (2005), magazines and newspapers are also used for the specific community within a society. For examples, teachers can use some things in their learning environment

Background and historical perspective 21 which other specific communities cannot. Newspapers spread the information of all the genres. Ola and Ojo (2006) say that newspapers play an important role because they cover the current issues from inside or outside the community to keep readers aware of all the happenings. Newspapers are a fruitful source of entertainment, education, relaxation and recreation etc. The language of the papers is developed in such a way that it must attract readers. Cheney, Knapp, Alan, and Czapla (2006) say that the library’s collection of newspapers plays an important role as compared to radio and television in academic communities. According to Padre and Tripp (2003), newspaper also plays an important role in the field of agriculture because it has a lot of information in it for farmers. According to Mott (1940), the editorial page of the newspapers not only represents the discussions and forums, but it must write something about the daily happenings. The excessive use of the Internet, which provides information so quickly, affects the readership of newspapers, especially in the last few decades (Farhi, 2008). On the other hand, Just et al. (1997) said that newspapers still convey comprehensive details and coverage of the news or journalistic works. The current issues of societies, communities and nations are covered in newspapers (Hofstadter and Metzger, 1969). An earlier concept was also discussed or presented in ancient Greece: truth is represented in newspapers without having bias; only those things are published in newspapers which are right (Monoson, 2000). This idea is also used in Europe at the time of the Enlightenment (Schmuhl and Picard, 2005). The works of John Locke also prove the importance of the concept of exposition (Cahn, 2002). Locke said that man is born free by nature, so it’s his right to live free and know the truth without having any involvement in matters. He considers tolerance and freedom as two of the fundamental rights of human beings when people share their opinions. We should do well to commiserate our mutual ignorance, and endeavor to remove it in all the gentle and fair ways of information, and not instantly treat others ill as obstinate and perverse because they will not renounce their own and receive our opinions. (Vogt, 2008: 73) Tocqueville (2007) comments, “whenever I have seen the freedom of press and gone through the news, I became more in favor of freedom of the newspaper”. According to Mill (1909), everyone comes with the new idea to write something for the press, but these can only get high market placement or readership when they have truth in them. The marketplace of ideas has been an important issue in the last century. Abrams (1919) comments that if

22  Background and historical perspective something good or better is supposed to be written, then thoughts must be free; similarly, by not having freedom of thought, it is not possible to write something good. Hopkins (1996) also focuses on the importance in the legal proceedings of courts. The role of the press is important in history (Emery and Emery, 1984). Before the invention of the printing press, handwritten newsletters were passed for all legal acts. Fujiwara Yasuhiro (2013) used corpus as a tool to study the characteristics under the discipline of discourse. The main focus of the study was to analyze the pragmatic features of the English newspaper. Matteo Fuoli (2013) studied discourse strategies by using corpus linguistics as a tool. Such types of corpora authenticate the results of researchers because more devices are used and, due to the large data sets, the results are more accurate and authentic as compared to small data sets. The quantitative results which are collected by using various software are also more valid and reliable in regard to the large data set which is used for it. Crystal and Davy (1969) assert that language is a very important phenomenon in journalism. Jargon is present in the language of journalists, as they use short sentences as compared to long ones. Language affects the readership of the papers and these specific registers or jargons attract a large number of readers. The language of different newspapers varies in a few aspects. This feature is present to attract the target audience. The language of journalists is clearer as compared to other genre writers. Clarity of concepts to convey ideas is a key feature of newspapers. Newspaper language develops confidence in the reader in such a way that the readers are sure that what they read is true and has no preconceptions in it. Language is used in pithy structures in such a way that it must convey the meanings and avoid ambiguity. Ambiguous statements are not part of any newspaper. Karen Donnelly (2013) studied the lexis outcome of infertility. Three corpora were selected for this study: blogs, fertility clinics in the UK and newspaper articles from the UK. Concordances and collocations are studied by using various approaches. Specifically, three words are checked with the outcome: risk, hope and chance. The study analyzed the words frequently used in the corpus on infertility. Rosa Escanes Sierra (2013) used corpus as a tool to analyze the social stereotypes in a large data set. The CDA approach was used to analyze those stereotypes. Corpus was used as a reference and selected keywords were studied. The same approach can also be applied on other corpora, and a few more features or some other social stereotypes can be studied in the same data set. Stefan Evert, S. Gerold, and M. Lehmann (2013) analyze two corpora by involving the external features as well, which are most probably neglected in various corpus-based studies. The main focus of the researchers was on external features, and they elaborated on them and their importance in this study. They also discussed

Background and historical perspective 23 the negative impact of those features by not involving them in the analysis. Their results were represented via graphs as well. Fiona M. Douglas (2013) analyzed a forum. A mixed method approach was used to analyze that forum and corpus was used as a tool in this study. A specific dialect was used in this forum. The researcher established a claim that a specific dialect is used consciously to get an identity or to establish that dialect, which is a separate variety of the English language. Cultural terms and dialect were used just to get recognition of that local dialect. Du Peng (2013) studied the linking verbs of Chinese learners. Western universities have large numbers of foreign learners so, according to this researcher, it is time to get focused on the language issues of those foreign learners. This researcher locates the linking devices between non-native speakers and native speakers of English. Further suggestions have also been provided by the researcher to get better results in the future. In the last few years, researchers have conducted studies on various other genres as well, such as Santos (1996) on abstracts, Akoto (2009) on dissertations, Afful and Mwinlaaru (2010) on conference papers, and Soler (2007) on research articles. The researches on newspaper articles are fewer in number as compared to the other genres. Newspaper article headlines, editorials, sports columns and other things are under-researched genres. Alison Duguid (2013) used the SiBol corpus and White House briefing corpus to study public apologizing strategies. This study concluded that the strategies are changed with the passage of time and showed the various types of apology strategies. Chilwa (2005) analyzed the social meanings and processes of Nigerian newspaper headlines. He established the claim that newspaper language represents ideological position. He considered context to be one of the major elements in understanding the news or news headlines. He also located those strategies which are used in a newspaper. He identified sociolinguistics, discourse, pragmatic and ethnographic approaches in news headlines. Taiwo (2007) studied the links between power relations and various ideologies. This study also explained the various techniques of representation of headlines having hidden ideologies in them, as well as explored the way these ideologies represent the point of a lay community and its interests. Newspapers always have a fine number of readers all around the world. The elite class normally has a high frequency of reading newspapers as compared to the middle or lower classes to get updates and important happenings. Newspaper columns are considered to be one of the major sources of getting updates about all the facts which happened in the near past. Newspaper columns are interlinked with past and present issues. Every newspaper column writer tries to express his views in a systematic way by using language in such a way that it must appeal to readers. Newspaper columns

24  Background and historical perspective always provide the best source to analyze the political situation of the country. These also help readers know the status of their nation and other international affairs in the world. Newspaper column writers of different newspapers represent their concepts in such a way that the reader psychologically considers them true without analyzing the reality himself. Such tactics are used in them, which increases their readership. Phrases are always considered to be the major unit of newspaper language. Headlines consist of various types of phrases. To follow the economic principle of space, phrases are used to convey the news as compared to clauses or sentences. Short sentences are also used in newspapers as compared to longer ones. A syntactic analysis of Pakistani newspaper columns has not yet been done. A quantitative analysis of the newspapers enlightens the importance of phrases and qualitative analysis focuses on the basic difference of these phrase structures of two communities used in their newspapers.

2.7 Syntactic features in World Englishes Many theoretical approaches fall under the discipline of syntax. One of the schools of thought is located in the works of Derek Bickerton (1990, 2009), who takes syntax as one of the subdivisions of biology. The basic reason behind the knowledge of language is embodied in the mind of human beings. Gerald Gazdar (2001) sees syntax from a Platonistic view and takes syntax as the study or reflection of an abstract formal coordination or system. Joseph Greenberk takes syntax as a taxonomical device that reaches towards the broad generalization about various structures across languages. Theories of syntax can be divided into two categories: formal theories and functional theories. Formal theories of syntax discuss the form of the text and functional theories discuss the functions of the text. Both these approaches have variations in them. In the extreme condition of formal grammar, the main importance is given to the structure or grammar of the text. In the extreme case of functional approaches, the main focus is given to the function of the text and the structure is ignored. All the theories of syntax fall under these two extreme positions or poles. Functional and grammatical theories of syntax are linked with one another. The formal approach can’t work well without the functional approach, as the formal approach mainly focuses on the form, but function can’t be fully neglected when form is discussed. The same is the case with the functional approach: form can’t be neglected when we talk about the structure of the given text. In short, both approaches are linked with each other and can’t be studied separately. According to the Saussurean sense, the grammatical meanings are the signs. They have a quite strong association between the

Background and historical perspective 25 meaning and linguistic form. According to this concept, meaning is a central part of syntax. Andrew Kehoe and Latt Gee (2013) collected the corpus of comments from online resources. These researchers selected a few newspapers which are available online. The comments on the articles of those research papers are collected to form a corpus. Articles about politics, race and religion issues face an outright ban on comments. The researchers also suggested further research gaps such as discourse strategies or semantic analysis to be done on those comments. Dimitrios Kokkinakis and Mats Malm (2013) performed an experimental study on Swedish literature. A small corpus of novels was used after the evaluative study of the modelling in this study. Veronika Kolarova (2013) discussed Czech nouns derived from verbs with an objective genitive, particularly their contribution to the theory of valency. Ana Diaz-Negrillo and Cristobal Lozano (2013) studied the morpheme order and the results of the study are similar to the previous studies, namely that L1 morphemes, which are somehow similar to the morphemes of L2, can be learned easily as compared to those which are not part of L1 or resemble any structure of L1. This study is only different in approach, as the researchers used a large data set to analyze this phenomenon. The results of this study are more scientific as compared to the previous studies and graphlogical results were shown in this research. The semiotic perspective is discussed by various theorists on syntax, such as Langacker’s (1987, 1991) cogitative grammar approach, Shaumyan’s (1987) applicative grammar, Goldberg’s (1995) construction grammar and Halliday’s (1985, 2004) systemic functional grammar. Although these theories differ somewhat, the roots of the semiotics are also present in the syntactic approaches and these approaches are arguably present in the Saussurean course, which was published in 1916 for the first time (1959, 1974). Binary head-argument links or relations are considered to be a fascinating target representation because they especially hold lexical structures or units for syntactic analysis. Foster et al. (2011) and Cer, De Marneffe, Jurafsky, and Manning (2010) have claimed that higher or accurate results of dependencies can be obtained by phrase structure parsing representation and that, later on, these parse structure or trees can be reduced into bi-lexical dependencies. Parsing approaches and their range can be broadened through a few developments; as such, they can be accessed on the ground of bi-lexical syntactic dependencies. Flickinger, Zhang, and Kordoni (2012) provided another layer of annotation over the same (Wall Street Journal) WSJ text, in which the deep syntacto-semantic analysis within the linguistic outline of HPSG (Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar) was conducted by

26  Background and historical perspective Flickinger (2000), Pollard and Sag (1994). Zhang and Wang (2009) and Ivanova, Oepen, Ovrelid, and Flickinger (2012) elaborated the bi-lexical syntactic-dependencies reduction which is named DT (Derivation Tree Derived Dependencies). Spoken words are parsed into phrases which play beneficial and important roles in perception and production. Krivokapic (2007) asserted that phrasing or prosodic units behave or serve as a domain for various or different prosodic and segmental processes. It also generates influences on lexical access in the absence and presence of prosodic boundary (Christophe, Peperkamp, Pallier, Block, and Mehler, 2004) or spoken units syntactic parsing (Millotte et al., 2008) among the phonological and phonetics cues marking the place of prosodic outline when locates increased the duration of syllables present on the pre-boundary (Cooper and Paccia-Cooper, 1980; Oller, 1973; Klatt, 1975; Beckman and Edwards, 1990; Wightman, Shattuck-Hufnagel, Ostendorf, and Price, 1992; Lehiste, 1973; Ferreira, 1993). The above-mentioned units were also included in the pre-boundary by Turk and Shattuck-Hufnagel (2007), and Wightman et al. (1992). Anttiarppe and Dagmara Dowbor (2013) discussed bridging lexical, linguistic variant, and constructional synonymy in the light of auxiliaries and passive construction in two varieties of English in their study. The researchers discussed the construction of passive structures in this regard and established a claim that, in British English, all three types of such constructions are used. Words are selected in such a way that any of the constructions can be used in a British variety of English. Eric Atwell et al. (2013) discussed the holy Quran in the light of corpus and investigated how researchers can use it for their various researches. The holy Quran is a big challenge for the science and computer world, so the corpus of the holy Quran can help those researchers who can work in this field. Language resources and Arabic structures were also elaborated on in this study of the Quranic corpus. Syntax is a wide discipline and covers so many approaches in it. Grammar is considered as one of the subgenres of syntax. Syntactic analysis elaborates the various structure of the text. Syntax also talks about the exceptional cases which are present in a text and provide meaning. All grammatical categories which convey proper meanings are a part of syntax, including all clauses and phrases which convey proper meanings. Syntax also discusses a wide range of things with reference to the meaningful units of words.

2.8 Phrase structure in World Englishes Phrase structures have their roots in ICs (immediate constituents), whether in the case of grammar or any other extended notion for analysis. All these

Background and historical perspective 27 models were developed by the successors of Bloomfield, when Wells’s (1947), Chomsky’s (1957) and Harris’s (1957) transformational analyzes were published. The basic purpose of the IC model is to analyze the expressions by dividing them into various parts: first into immediate constituents (ICs) and then into invisible syntactic units. The strongest relationship is between the ICs. Jennifier Fest and Stella Neumann (2013) used corpus as a tool for comparative analysis of endings of different short stories at the micro and macro levels. This study concluded that, at the micro level, short sentences are used as ending statements in short stories. Comparisons were also made at the macro level. What the basic features of endings are was discussed at length. Lynne Flowerdew (2013) discussed the use of corpus in ESP classrooms. This study concluded that the paradigmatic features must be used to improve the grammatical skills of learners. The results of ESP classrooms can be improved. The primary focus must be on the syntagmatic features. Kazuko Fujimoto (2013) studied those expressions which have multiple uses in society and grammarians have strong arguments about in dictionaries. The expression ‘used to’ is multi-functional. The study concluded that the results of the dictionary are not similar to the corpus findings of the researcher. Lukasz Grabowski (2013) discussed the register variations in the text of pharmaceutical companies by collecting their corpora. Register variation is an important debate among linguists of the present times, and studying the linguistic variations of different genres is quite more systematic and professional. These features can be best analyzed by using various corpus tools and strategies. Change in grammatical structures and use of phrases have been studied by various scholars in the past, such as Barber (1964), Smith (2002, 2003a, 2003b, 2005), Mair and Leech (2006), Mair and Hundt (1995, 1997), Mair (1995, 1997), Leech and Smith (2006, 2009), Leech (2004), Krug (2000) and Denison (1993, 1998, 2001, 2004). Leech, Hundt, Mair, and Smith (2009) culminated all these studies and discussed the changes in various subvarieties of English in which grammar and structure is changed with the passage of time. The introduction illustrates the concept of the phrase structure of the same language in different regions of the world. Phrase is usually defined as: “A Phrase consists of two or more words lacking a complete sense and a complete verb. It may consist of one or more incomplete verbs – the Infinitives or the Participles standing on their own” (Richard C. Trench, 2006). Dick Kaisheng Huang (2013) analyzed the phrase structures in three different learners’ corpora. A distinctive corpus is developed for each of the first and second years to compare with the third and fourth year corpora.

28  Background and historical perspective The study found that the use of lexical bundles is more frequent in seniors’ corpora as compared to the juniors’ corpora. Pakistan, being a multilingual country, is a home of so many regional languages and all these languages are spoken in various part of the same country. The multilingual Pakistani speakers speak the English language, which is normally considered as the second language in this era and shows so many differences from the native variety of English. According to Chomsky (1959), phrase structure is based on or made up of a finite set of the rules which are rewritten. In grammar, some symbols stand for morphemes (the smallest meaningful unit of a word) and some symbols for words. All these symbols represent non-terminal vocabulary. Other signs stand for phrases which represent the terminal vocabulary. S is actually a sign of the longest phrase and, with the help of this rule, we can produce our own sentence with specific structure #S#. If we want to re-write the rule for new sentence or string, we have this type of structure: #~1#. And we move thus with the same rule until we reach a string #~#, which has only terminal signs or symbols that must not be rewritten. All the strings which are created in this way are known as the derivation of #e~# (Chomsky, 1959). The outcome of different automatic assessments shows that hierarchical phrase-based models are comparatively better than the other models. Oneto-one and sentence-by-sentence comparison and oracle combination of the output of all models shows that, the more difficult the translation problem, the more different their output and the greater the gain to be achieved by combining outputs (Rasoul Samad, Zadeh Kaljahi, Raphael Rubino, Johann Roturier and Jennifer Foster, 2013). Translated sentences have been analyzed through some tools to check the phenomena of structuring of these tools. DeNeefe et al. (2007) collate a phrase-based model with a string-to-treebased model. Based on this, the phrase structure model is one of the worst models as compared to the syntax-based model, which is comparatively better when we translate the Chinese language into English. On the other hand, the syntax-based model is inappropriate when we apply it to the Arabic language to translate it into English. Zollmann et al. (2008) perceive that the profit which we get from the syntaxbased models can easily be compensated on a large scale if we increase the limit of reordering in the phrase-based model. They also locate the language pairs in which substantial reordering is involved; for example, the English and Chinese-English phrase-based model cannot perform well while the treebased model performs much better. For all the languages with monotonic pairs, for example, Arabic English, the results of all the models are similar. Alison Johnson (2013a) used corpora to study rape madness in quoted speeches. The study mainly focused on the use of quoting (simulated

Background and historical perspective 29 verbatim, indirect speech and direct speech) in the nineteenth-century corpus. Research concludes that the large corpus is used for extracting and concepts can be analyzed from them systematically. The study also determined the results of keywords and how they are used in the trial corpora. Jane Hellen Johnson (2013b) conducted the quantitative analysis of the words relating to risk, threat and danger, along with the lemmas, where they are used in a few already-built corpora. Collocational pattern, keyword lists and word clusters were also discussed in this research. The phrases where such words are used were studied. The study of phrases and their patterns is one of the basic agendas of syntax, and corpus always plays an important role in studying phrase structures of various data sets. In this study, the researcher also discussed the phrase structure patterns along with the relation to the national language of Pakistan and a few local languages as well. Auli et al. (2009) compared two models: the phrase-based model and hierarchical phrase-based model. The researchers concluded that we can only define the difference in both the models in such a way that either they score hypotheses or produce hypotheses. The researches made their claims after experimenting with German-English, English-German and French-English. Hoang et al. (2009) also used a similar framework in their study by comparing these three models: hierarchical phrase-based model, string-to-tree model and phrase-based model. The researchers found that all these models perform well in comparison to the syntax-based model. They claimed that word alignment must be emended if we want to improve the results of the syntax-based model. So many studies have been trying to differentiate these models which we normally use for translating various languages. Zwarts and Dras (2008) try their level best to differentiate the types of sentences which can be better translated. They also marked three sets of features by using the classification approach separately. Close et al. (2010) compiled their work by using spoken corpora in which they discuss the latest or the present change in the modal system of English regarding have to go, have to and must. They assert that they have to replace the word must in spoken English data, especially in the 1990s. In 1960, the use of must was excessive but, later on, it declined and has to be used as compared to the epistemic must. This phenomenon is attested in DCPSE (Diachronic Corpus of Present Day Spoken English). Bowie, Wallis, and Aarts (2013) and Aarts, Close, and Wallis (2013) discussed the role of verb phrases in their studies on how it changes from 1960 to 1990 in DCPSE of British English. Aarts et al. (2013) studied the various short-term differences or changes in the modal auxiliaries (shall, will) and in progressive constructions. In this study, the pattern was studied where choice is available and people have substitute expressions for it in the same corpora.

30  Background and historical perspective A study has been conducted by Behzad Anwar (2007) on Pakistani English. He analyzed how Urdu phrases are involved in the usage of English and the structural differences of those phrases. He claimed that some linguists assert that there are few languages which have no influence of any other language, and English is not to be considered one of those isolated languages. Wardhaugh (1998) said that command on any single register, dialect, style or language is a rare phenomenon to locate anywhere. Multilingualism is the most preferred and used phenomenon in the world as compared to uni-lingualism. In Pakistan, there are a few researchers who have conducted research on syntax and phrase structure. Two major researchers who worked on syntax are Tauseef and Maryem. They worked on the syntactic features of regional languages of Pakistan. I aimed to develop awareness in this regard and work on this genre, as it is one of the least-researched genres in Pakistan. I intended to locate the basic differences in Pakistani and British English by using various software and phrase structure models to study selected phrases and word categories. Thus, I investigated the historical perspectives behind it and located which nation uses which types of phrases frequently.

2.9 Word categories Words are the building blocks of any language. Every language is made up of a lexis playing a very important role in making a phrase, clause or sentence. Lexis also has a role in giving meaning to a sentence. In all languages, according to their function, words are categorized with different tags or names. Native languages have set patterns of these parts of speech, but the non-native varieties of languages have some variations in the use of those word categories. English also deviates from those set functions where it is not used as a native language or where that variety is not established. Milroy (2002) states that the syntax and morphology of non-standard varieties of English differ from those of Standard English. Some of these differences are relatively superficial: they involve alternative forms of grammatical connectors (conjunctions, prepositions, relativizers and complementizers) without necessarily affecting syntax and meaning; they also involve particular word forms that are chosen to express verb tenses (such as seen from saw) and inflectional differences (such as he don’t for he doesn’t). Lan-Fen Haung (2013) claims that discourse markers are key features in linguistics. Corpus is a tool to study linguistic markers. Dora Zeping Haung (2013) analyzed lexical bundles in two types of dialogues: private and public. Frequency was calculated and, according to this researcher, core bundles are more frequent than periphery ones.

Background and historical perspective 31 Costas Gabrielatos (2013) used corpus analysis to compare the explanatory power of linguistic theories in articles on the modal load in if conditionals, useful methodological synergy, and combining critical discourse analysis and corpus linguistics to examine discourses of refugees and asylum seekers. Albert Gatt and Slavomir Ceplo (2013) discussed the current status and development of digital corpora which are used in various researches. Svetlana Gorokhova (2013) used corpus as a tool to analyze the frequency of errors in Russian speech. This study concluded that the basic reason behind the errors which a speaker made is because of their experiences. Schemata play an important role in this. S. Ersilia Incelli (2013) discussed the importance of corpus, as the scientific knowledge of any field is quite important. Everything has become more systematic with the passage of time. Corpus is a good tool to provide logical and proper background reasoning when we analyze any data set. Specifically, the expression of GOD is studied and analyzed, as is the way it brings more logic with the passage of time. Sylvia Jaworska (2013) studied the concept of ‘otherness’. The concept of otherness has received more importance in linguistics research over the last few years. The researcher calculated the vocabulary related to the concept of ‘other’ in the language of tourists. The dominant strategies of discourse in the surroundings about others were also analyzed in this study. Stereotypical images were under consideration at the time of this analysis. Further, the researcher compared the representation of other and self in this study. To answer all these questions, the researcher used corpus as a tool. Difference was located even during the preliminary results of the study. A considerable change has been observed in corpora, and words which are specific are also discussed in the results. Stephen Jesco (2013) provided new types of data for those researchers who use corpus as a tool and tries to remove the gap between representation of visuals of key tags and XML corpora, which is most probably used as an aid in interpretation of the meanings according to the context. The tags which are used in various contexts convey the meaning according to the context, and listeners are able to understand them because schemata at the time of sharing information is the same. These types of key tags, such as hold on a minute in this study, can help users summarize the thing and listeners interpret the thing. Carmen Gregori-Signes and Begona Clavel-Arroitia (2013) discussed the density of the assignments which are submitted by the university students. Corpus is used as a tool. Lexical density matters a lot in the written tasks of the students. In spoken data sets, this feature is found the least. The study concluded that this feature is developed in four years. Comparative analysis was conducted between the assignments of first-year and final-year students of the University. The study focuses on the factors for more density in their

32  Background and historical perspective writing assignments with the passage of time and locates the learning techniques behind them. Isabella Chiari (2013) evaluated the absolute homonyms and basic vocabulary in the revised edition of a 1980s dictionary in 2013. For the first time in the new edition, she included the issue of absolute homonym disambiguation, more specifically the homograph in the description of basic vocabulary. Jonathan Culpeper and Jane Demmen (2013) discussed the comparative features of Shakespeare and other different playwriters. A corpus was developed to study those comparative features. Online corpora of various modern playwriters was used in this study for analysis. Vaclav Cvrcek (2013) studied the ‘keyness’ of keywords. Keywords are always considered an important tool or a basic thing in corpus-based studies. All the corpus-based results likely started from the keywords and all the researches where the corpus is used as a tool normally deal with the keywords of the text and analyze them from various perspectives. To analyze the ‘keyness’ of keywords was the main agenda of this study. Israela Becker (2013) studied various concepts by using corpus as a tool. Negative and positive adjectives were studied in the behavioural data sets and the statistical results were discussed along the co-relational pattern. Vaclav Brezina (2013) explored BNC 64 to study gender and individual variation, and concluded that in gender variations males use more nominalization, predicative adjectives and definite articles. On the other hand, females use more personal pronouns and adjectives. The results of this study are similar to Biber’s approach. The analysis showed that males use more informational structures in their conversations than females. Andreas Buerki (2013) discussed the approaches through which the automatic instances of change can be studied or analyzed in a diachronic corpus. He concluded that the chi-square method is the most beneficial for identifying those changes. He also discussed those benefits which are present in choosing the chi-square method to study various diachronic corpora. Pakistani English is a non-native variety of English. It has its own distinctive features. In the early 1980s, PE is discussed by Kachru. After Kachru, Baumgardner and Talaat also worked in the same domain: “English in Pakistan can be identified according to certain distinctive linguistic features of grammar, word formation, lexical variation, borrowing etc” (Baumgardner, 1993b). In non-native varieties, variations are possible at the morphological and syntactic levels. Variations at the morphological level have great importance because they have close relations to semantic variations. New Englishes are different in plural noun formation from Standard English: In many of the New Englishes, speakers do not always mark nouns for plurality by adding plural endings. They use the singular form of

Background and historical perspective 33 nouns, even if it follows a number or some other expression which means more than one. (Platt, 1984: 333–334) Pakistani English has four subvarieties (A, B, C and D); according to these subvarieties Pakistani English has many variations in it. These subvarieties vary from one another on different points (anglicized, acrolect, mesolect and basilect). The first one has a slight difference at the phonological level, the second one has a very slight difference at all levels, and the third and fourth have many difference at all levels in comparison to BSE. The first one is considered as identical to BSE, the second one is considered as more close to BSE with little differences, but C and D are not considered like that (Rahman, 1990). Rahman and many other researchers state that, in acrolect, the omission of articles is very common (Rahman, 1990). This omission of article is also found in other varieties of English, like in IE, (Dustoor, 1954, 1955; Kachru, 1969) and African English (Bokamba, 1982). Trudgill and Hannah (1982) compared IE and BSE, stating that progressive and certain stative forms of verbs are commonly used for completed action. Gokhale (1988) also stated that progressive verbs are more commonly used in IE as compared to BSE. Rahman (1990) in his research also stated that these features are common in PE. Baumgardner (1987) worked on the use of adjectives and verbs in PE by comparing them with BSE. His results showed that adjective complementation in BSE is normally followed by an -ing participle clause, while in PE it is frequently used with a to-infinitive. BSE normally uses adjectives with to-infinitive clauses. Rahman (1990) studied some features of PE as compared to BSE. His research showed how verbs, articles, adjectives, infinitives and prepositions are used in a different way in PE as compared to BSE. According to Rahman (1990), a mono transitive verb complementation in BSE normally consists of a that-clause with a finite clause, while in PE in the place of a thatclause complement, a to-clause complement is used. A mono transitive verb complement in BSE has a noun phrase as a prepositional object made up by a prepositional verb and -ing participle clause, while in PE the prepositional verb and -ing participle clause are replaced by a to-infinitive. Another type of mono transitive verb complementation is the non-finite clause; there are three types which differ from BSE: (a) without subject -ing participle, (b) toinfinitive with subject and (c) to-infinitive without subject. In PE, instead of a to-infinitive with subject, a that-clause is used. In BSE, the ditransitive complement is used in three ways: (a) prepositional object with indirect object, (b) that-clause plus indirect object and (c) prepositional phrase idiom. Auxiliaries are also used in a different way in PE: could and would are used for can and will. Further, prepositions are used in a different way in PE; most of the time, prepositions are not used in PE as compared to BSE. Somewhere, the addition

34  Background and historical perspective of prepositions is found in PE whereas, in BSE, it is not used. In PE, mostly in is used for by and off is used in the place of out or from. Nouns are used alone in PE, which are used differently in BSE; for example, a piece of chalk is used as a chalk in PE, two items of clothes is used as two clothes in PE. The use of the reflexive pronoun is also different in PE. Kindesley (1938) and Kachru (1983) state that in the reflexive verbs enjoy and exert, reflexive pronouns are normally omitted, while in PE enjoy yourself is used for enjoy. Similarly Rehman’s (1990) research stated that dummy auxiliaries do, does and did are usually omitted in PE. He also stated that, in PE, there is also a lack of subject-verb agreement; for example, in BSE a sentence such as He always goes there is usually used as He always go there in PE. There is also an omission of indefinite articles in PE; for example, in BSE a sentence such as My father is a lecturer is usually used as My father is lecturer in PE. From all these stative features of Pakistani English and British English, it is assumed that these varieties are different. The present study also locates such differences with relevance to the mother tongue and seeks to know the present differences in both varieties, which is why the corpus of 2014 was selected for the present study. I have already discussed the varieties of English, how the discipline of World Englishes was established and which countries have English as a native language. Kachru’s model of inner, outer and expanding circles is also discussed with respect to the various countries, and specifically according to Pakistan and Britain. The present study also locates the difference in the inner variety of English (that is, British English) and the variety which falls in the outer circle (that is, Pakistani English). The establishment of newspapers in various corners of the world is also discussed, as is how newspapers become more common day by day. A few works with respect to BE and PE are discussed and how these varieties are different in this regard is also discussed. Further, the present study focuses on the language of the newspapers. The differences which are present in both the varieties is located through various newspapers of both nations. Haque (1993), Baumgardner (1992), Talaat (2003) etc. discussed the features of Pakistani English according to various other approaches like semiotics, CDA, corpus etc. Parsing approaches were used by few researchers like Sharon A. Caraballo and Eugene Charniak (1998) on their data set, but these types of approaches are not applied on PE yet. Syntactic analysis of both varieties has been done at a few levels, but phrase structure analysis has not been done yet. A few word categories have been analyzed by various Pakistani researchers and compared with the BE corpus, such as Shakir et al. (2012). Detailed studies have not been done yet; in this research, all the nine main parts of speech were discussed at the word level, locating which community uses specific categories more than the other. The background reasons were also studied.

Background and historical perspective 35 In short, the present research tries to locate the quantitative difference in various types of phrases and word categories. Qualitative results were also analyzed, as was how the native language of Pakistan plays an important role in those differences.

References and further reading Aarts, B., Close, J., and Wallis, S. (2013). Choices over time: Methodological issues in current change. In Bas Aarts, Joanne Close, Geoffrey Leech, and Sean Wallis (Eds.), The verb phrase in English: Investigating recent language change with corpora. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Abrams v. (1919). Error to the District Court of the United States for the Southern District of New York. Justice US Supreme court. Argued October 21, 22, 1919. Decided November 10, 1919. Afful, J., and Mwinlaaru, I. (2010). Commonality and the individuality in academic writing: An analysis of conference paper titles of four scholars. ESP World, 9(27), 1–3. Ahmed, Z. (1981). Problems of book publishing in Pakistan. Islamabad: National Book Council of Pakistan. Akhter, A. Salam. (1987). Pakistan. In Asia/Pacific today (pp. 112–118). Tokyo: Asian Cultural Centre UNESCO. Akoto, P. (2009). Distance Education for Teacher Education in Ghana: an Investigation into Untrained Teachers’ Experiences. University of Sussex. Alharthi, N. (2013). A corpus based study for assessing the collocational competence in learner production across proficiency levels. In Andrew Hardie and Robbie Love (Eds.), Corpus linguistics 2013: Abstract book (pp. 9–12). Lancaster: UCREL. Ali, S., and Ahmad, S. (2014). Impact of Urduised English on Pakistani English fiction. Research Journal of Arts and Humanities, 61–75. Ally, M. (2010). Acknowledging the other: A multidimensional analysis of race and identity. International Journal of Philosophy, 40, 170–182. Anthony, L. (2013a). Developing AntConc for a new generation of corpus linguists. In Andrew Hardie and Robbie Love (Eds.), Corpus linguistics 2013: Abstract book (pp. 14–15). Anthony, L. (2013b). A critical look at software tools in corpus linguistics. Linguistic Research, 30(2), 141–161. Anttiarppe and Dagmara Dowbor (2013). Bridging lexical and constructional synonymy, and linguistic variants the Passive and its auxiliary verbs in British and American English. Corpus linguistics 2013: Abstract book, 16. Anwar, B. (2007). Urdu-English code-switching: The use of Urdu phrases and clauses in Pakistani English (a non-native variety), (17), 1–14. Retrieved September 1, 2010, from http://esp-world.info/Articles_16/issue_16.html Arppe, A., and Dowbar, D. (2013). Bridging lexical and constructional synonymy, and linguistic variants the passive and its auxiliary verbs in British and American English. In Andrew Hardie and Robbie Love (Eds.), Corpus linguistics 2013: Abstract book (pp. 16–18). Arshad, M., and Khan, U. (2012). Impact of Lexical deviations in Pakistani English newspapers on the language of their readers: A gender wise analysis. International Journal of Business and Social Science, 3(5), 181–186.

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3 Research methodology

In the last few years, a change has been noticed in software refinements and in its usage in the field of linguistics to analyze various types of corpora and other data. The development of various linguistic and other software can motivate researchers to perform research on large texts. Renfordt (2011), Kutter (2011), Grabowsky (2011), Kantner (2009), Kantner, Kutter and Renfordt (2008), Liebert (2007), Trenz (2004) and Koenig et al. (2006) used various software to perform analyzes on large amounts of data. One of the most popular methods of analysis is the multidimensional model, which is relevant to this study. Multidimensional analysis has been used for various types of study. Mashuq Ally (2010, revised in 2011) used this to analyze racism and identity within the various communities of South Africa. He also explored individual racism and designed some moral implications for it in his study. Bharath et al. (2007) analyzed the mismatch negativity through multidimensional analysis. In their study, Chinese and English participants were selected to check neuro-plasticity in the transformation of pitch dimensions. Belay File Garoma (2012) conducted a study in which she used multidimensional analysis to study the determinants of the success of microenterprise in the city area of Addis Ababa. A survey was conducted which used analyzes of internal and external factors of success. Asma et al. (2014) analyzed the text of Pakistani and British sports columns to check the frequency of various word categories in the light of Douglas Biber’s approach. They analyzed various categories based on various notions to probe the use of specific category frequency and related the results to Biber’s approach.

3.1 Delimitation of the study To analyze the hypothesis of the study, 50 articles were selected from Pakistani newspapers and 50 from British newspapers. Pakistani newspapers were narrowed down to regional writers who were brought up in Pakistan,

56  Research methodology and have wide exposure in the Pakistani community and write columns. From Pakistan, Pakistan Observer, Pakistan Today, The Express Tribune, The Friday Times and The Lahore Times were selected for the data set. Independent, The Daily Mail, Metro, The Guardian and The Morning Star were selected from British newspapers. Ten articles were selected from each of the selected newspapers and only one article by one author was selected. The Pakistani data set was composed by selecting the articles of 50 different column writers from the above-mentioned newspapers. The same is the case with the British data set. Only those newspaper columns were selected which appeared in 2014. This was done to analyze the latest trends and reasons behind the use of the selected features. Those columns have been set as part of the data for which meta-data is completely available. Every article was copied and placed in a separate file. After the collection of 50 columns, a full file was generated in which these columns were pasted without the title and meta-data. Images, if any, in the columns were not considered for the analysis in this study. Multidimensional analysis tagger V.12 was used to get the quantitative results of various word categories. The z-score option was opted for during the analysis of the data and VASW tags were selected before doing the analysis. The results of all six dimensions were generated through this software, along with the statistics and its variables (z-score statistics). Firstly, the statistics of the Pakistani corpus were selected in which the percentage of all the categories was mentioned. This software only accepts .TXT files. The same process was followed with the British data set. In total 76 categories were generated under this heading and only 29 were selected for further qualitative reasoning. FPP1, SPP2, TPP3, PIT, DEMP, INPR, NOMZ, GER, NN, POMD, NEMD, PRMD, PUBV, PRIV, SUAV, SPIN, SPAU, TO, THVC, JJ, PRED, PLACE, TIME, CAUS, COND, OSUB, RB, PIN and STPR1 were selected for qualitative reasoning. The columns were pasted in LFG parser one by one to get the results. Probabilistic LFG F-Structure parsing was used. Charniaks structure parser, as a c-structure engine with the automatic F-structure annotation algorithm in the pipeline architecture to generate DCU-style F-structures and triples, was used. Default features were selected to check the results. Four types of results were generated after the processing in which splitting the text into sentences, formatting input, parsing, getting F-structures, adding lemmas, annotating, resolving LDDs and getting triplets were involved. The various types of results were generated, such as parser trees, annotated parser trees, LFG F-structure and dependency triplets. Parser trees were selected to check the phrases. Two types of results were generated under this heading; that is, phrase labelled bracket notation in which all the

Research methodology 57 structures are formed in simple lines, sentence-wise. All those results were copied one by one to form a separate folder by setting the meta-data as the name of the file. Later on, all the results of the Pakistani data set were compiled in one .docx file. Bistreams vera sans were also generated with smooth lines to present the data in the form of trees. Those trees were only used in qualitative reasoning where needed. The results of the parser, later on, were pasted into the .docx file one by one. By using the ‘find all’ option, the selected types of phrases were collected. NP, VP, AdvP, AdjP and PP were selected for analysis. After getting the number of all those types of phrases, the same expression was located in the file where the column was as it was pasted from the net. The number of expressions found in the simple file was subtracted from the results of the parsed file to get the accurate number of phrases. This process was repeated for one hundred articles and the results were compiled separately according to the newspapers. Then, their percentage was found by dividing the total number of words in one type of the phrases and multiplying the resultant with one hundred. The results have were also checked by two other people to authenticate them. All the results were compiled and, after that, based on the quantitative results, the qualitative reasoning was developed. The study falls into the realm of a mixed method approach because both approaches were used. The results of both software were interrelated with each other; for example, if noun phrases were collected through the parser, then nine subcategories of nouns were selected for analysis from MAT. I tried to form a new model by combining the results of parser and MAT. Biber introduced MAT and the latest edition of MAT was used. For qualitative reasoning, 18 images were selected; these had been used at the time of qualitative reasoning where needed to exemplify any point. The results of both software were linked to the native language of Pakistan to point out those features which play an important role in the use of English in the Pakistani community.

Note 1 The list of all the abbreviations is provided starting on page ix.

References and further reading Ally, M. (2010). Acknowledging the other: A multidimensional analysis of race and identity, International Journal of Philosophy, 40, 170–182. File Garoma, B. (2012). Determinants of Micro-enterprise success in the urban informal sector of Addis Ababa: A multidimensional analysis, 17–18. Rotterdam: Erasmus University Rotterdam.

58  Research methodology Grabowsky, J. (2011). Who cares about genocide in Europe? Identity-related reactions to interventions and the Srebrenica Massacre in French, German, Dutch and American Newspapers. Berlin: Free University Berlin. Iqbal, A., and Danish, H. (2014). Multidimensional analysis of Pakistani and U.K. sports ColumnWriters. International Journal of Linguistics, 6(5), 1–8. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.5296/ijl.v6i5.6282 Kantner, C., Kutter, A., and Renfordt, S. (2008). The perception of the EU as an emerging security actor in media debates on humanitarian and military interventions (1990–2006). RECON Online Working Paper, Oslo. Kantner, C., and Renfordt, S. (2007). Public debates on humanitarian and military interventions in Europe and the U.S. (1990–2005). In The 48th annual ISA convention ‘Politics, Policy and Responsible Scholarship’, Chicago. Kutter, A. (2011) (n.d.). Polity-construction in multilevel settings. In Recontextualisation and the example of the Polish and French media debates on the EU constitution. Frankfurt, Germany: European University Viadrina. Liebert, U. (2007). Introduction: Structuring political conflict about Europe: National media in transnational discourse analysis. Perspectives on European Politics and Society, 236–260. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15705850701432969 Renfordt, S. (2011). Framing the use of force: An international rule of Law in Media Reporting. In A Comparative analysis of Western debates about military interventions, Dissertation, Baden-Baden, Germany, Baden-Baden Nomos. Trenz, H. (2004). Media coverage on European governance: Exploring the European public sphere in national quality newspapers. European Journal of Communication, 19(3), 291–319. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0267323104045257

4 Results and analysis

In this chapter, I have presented the results of the analysis. This chapter begins with the quantitative results and analysis of them. The parsing results are given by focusing on various types of phrases as employed by the Pakistani and British column writers. MAT results for the analysis of word categories are also given. This tabular quantitative analysis is followed by descriptive qualitative analysis, supported by the figures of relevant tree banking.

4.1 Quantitative analysis 4.1.1 Parser results 4.1.1.1 Noun phrases The Parser results regarding the frequencies of the noun phrases employed in the Pakistani and British newspapers are tabulated in Table 4.1. As Table 4.1 shows, the noun phrases have been used more frequently in Pakistani newspapers (47.2%) than in the British (44.3%). The total number Table 4.1 Noun phrases Name of British newspaper

Independent

The Daily Mail

Metro

The Guardian

The Morning Star

NP

3366

5201

2231

2706

2429

Name of Pakistani newspaper

Pakistan Observer

Pakistan Today

The Express Tribune

The Lahore Times

The Friday Times

NP

4258

5040

3810

4591

6345

Source: Compiled by author

60  Results and analysis of noun phrases used in the data under study from the British newspapers is 15,933, whereas those used in the data under study from the Pakistani newspapers is 24,044. The highest number of noun phrases (i.e., 6345) was found in a Pakistani newspaper The Friday Times. 4.1.1.2 Verb phrase In all the newspapers under study, the use of verb phrases is less frequent than noun phrases. However, the frequency of verb phrases in the British newspapers (24.8%) is slightly higher than those in the Pakistani newspapers (22.3%) (see Table 4.2). Table 4.2 Verb phrases Name of British newspaper

Independent

The Daily Mail

Metro

The Guardian

The Morning Star

VP

1733

3272

1286

1403

1248

Name of Pakistani newspaper

Pakistan Observer

Pakistan Today

The Express Tribune

The Lahore Times

The Friday Times

VP

1909

2682

1832

2166

2791

Source: Compiled by author

As Table 4.2 shows, among the British newspapers, the highest number of verb phrases was found in The Daily Mail (i.e., 3272), whereas the lowest number of verb phrases was found in The Morning Star (i.e., 1248). Among Pakistani newspapers, the highest number of verb phrases was recorded in The Friday Times (2791 occurrences), whereas the lowest number was found in The Express Tribune (i.e., 1832). 4.1.1.3 Prepositional phrases Parser results show that the frequency of the prepositional phrases used is less than both the previously given types of phrases: noun and verb phrases. The difference between Pakistani and British newspapers in the use of this type of phrases is also very slight (i.e., 12% and 11.2%, respectively) (see Table 4.3). Among the British newspapers, The Daily Mail uses the highest number of prepositional phrases, which is 1287 occurrences, whereas their lowest number has been found in Metro. As for the Pakistani newspapers under study, the highest number of occurrences of prepositional phrases can be seen in The Friday Times, whereas the lowest is present in The Express Tribune.

Results and analysis 61 Table 4.3 Prepositional phrases Name of British newspaper PP

Independent

812

The Daily Mail

Metro

1287

584

The Guardian 763

The Morning Star 601

Name of Pakistani newspaper

Pakistan Observer

Pakistan Today

The Express Tribune

The Lahore Times

The Friday Times

PP

1032

1364

949

1271

1538

Source: Compiled by author

4.1.1.4 Adverb phrases As it is evident from Table 4.4, the highest number of adverbial phrases among the British newspapers was found in The Daily Mail, whereas the lowest was found in The Morning Star. The Friday Times, among the Pakistani newspapers, employs the highest frequency (i.e., 383 occurrences) of adverbial phrases. The lowest of them (i.e., 272) was used in Pakistan Observer. The frequency of their use in British newspapers is slightly higher (i.e., 3.5%) than in the Pakistani newspapers (i.e., 3.12%). Table 4.4 Adverb phrases Name of British newspaper

Independent

The Daily Mail

Metro

The Guardian

The Morning Star

ADVP

247

501

193

168

150

Name of Pakistani newspaper

Pakistan Observer

Pakistan Today

The Express Tribune

The Lahore Times

The Friday Times

ADVP

272

352

286

301

383

Source: Compiled by author

4.1.1.5 Adjective phrases The results in Table 4.5 show that in both the Pakistani and British newspapers, the least-used type of phrases is adjectival or adjective phrases. Their frequency in the British newspapers is slightly higher (2.1%) than in the Pakistani newspapers (1.75%).

62  Results and analysis Table 4.5 Adjective phrases Name of British newspaper

Independent

The Daily Mail

Metro

The Guardian

The Morning Star

ADJP

146

265

138

118

101

Name of Pakistani newspaper

Pakistan Observer

Pakistan Today

The Express Tribune

The Lahore Times

The Friday Times

ADJP

162

197

149

178

207

Source: Compiled by author

If the results are compared in general terms, in both the Pakistani and the British newspapers, the highest frequency is noun phrases whereas the lowest is adjective phrases. The frequency of noun phrases and prepositional phrases is higher in the Pakistani newspapers than the British newspapers, whereas the frequency of verb phrases, adverb phrases and adjective phrases is higher in the British newspapers than in the Pakistani newspapers (see Table 4.6). Table 4.6 Frequency of different types of phrases employed in British and Pakistani newspapers

NP VP PP ADVP ADJP

British newspaper

Pakistani newspaper

44.3% 24.8% 11.2% 3.5% 2.1%

47.2% 22.3% 12.0% 3.12% 1.75%

Source: Compiled by author

4.1.2 MAT results 4.1.2.1 Nouns Further categories of nouns were examined (see Table 4.7) and it was demonstrated that first and second person pronouns were excessively used by the Britishers. However, third person pronouns, nominalization and overall frequency is higher in the Pakistani data. The frequency of indefinite pronouns is the same in both corpora.

0.16 0.53

Source: Compiled by author

Pakistani 0.94 British 1.91

2.41 2.21

1.07 1.4

First Second Third Pronoun it person PN person PN person PN (PIT) (FPP1) (SPP2) (TPP3)

Table 4.7 Noun categories

0.39 0.54

0.05 0.05

3.09 2.37

0.39 0.66

28.02 23.97

Demonstrative PN Indefinite PN Nominalizations Gerunds Total other (DEMP) (INPR) (NOMZ) (GER) nouns (NN)

0.44 0.57

Source: Compiled by author

Pakistani British

Possibility modals (POMD)

Table 4.8 Verb categories

0.14 0.22

Necessity modals (NEMD)

0.47 0.8

Predicative modals (PRMD) 0.58 0.99

Public verbs (PUBV) 0.88 1.34

Private verbs (PRIV) 0.39 0.41

Suasive verbs (SUAV) 0.02 0.02

Spilt infinitives (SPIN)

0.41 0.41

Spilt auxiliaries (SPAU)

1.85 2.11

Infinitives (TO)

Results and analysis 65 4.1.2.2 Verbs Various word categories were studied under the heading of verb shown in Table 4.8, and it was found that seven categories have higher frequency in the British corpus and the remaining two categories have the same frequency in both corpora. 4.1.2.3 Adjectives Adjectives were further elaborated into three categories of MAT, as shown in Table 4.9, and I established a claim that adjective complements and predicative adjectives are excessively used by the Britishers, but the frequency of attributive adjectives was higher in the Pakistani corpus. Table 4.9 Adjective categories

Pakistani British

Adjective complement (THVC)

Attributive adjective (JJ)

Predicative adjective (PRED)

0.23 0.37

7.78 7.19

0.49 0.55

Source: Compiled by author

4.1.2.4 Adverbs Adverbs have higher frequency in the British corpus, as shown in Table 4.10, as verbs have higher frequency in the British data set and two subcategories of adjectives also have higher frequency in the British data set. That is why the ratio of adverbs in the British data is higher, as the frequency of RB is 3.38 in the British data set and 2.72 in the Pakistani corpus. Table 4.10 Adverb categories Place adverbials (PLACE)

Pakistani 0.28 British 0.4

Time adverbials (TIME)

Causative adverbial subordinators (CAUS)

Concessive adverbial subordinators (CONC)

Conditional adverbial subordinator (COND)

Other Total adverbial adverbs subor(RB) dinators (OSUB)

0.33 0.51

0.11 0.12

0.05 0.08

0.16 0.25

0.16 0.16

Source: Compiled by author

2.72 3.38

66  Results and analysis 4.1.2.5 Prepositions Prepositional phrases are also calculated via MAT, as shown in Table 4.11. It can be concluded from Table 4.11 that Pakistanis use more PP as compared to the Britishers but standard prepositions are excessively used by the British column writers. Table 4.11 Preposition categories

Pakistani British

Total prepositional phrases (PIN)

Standard prepositional (STPR)

11.06 10.26

0.05 0.1

Source: Compiled by author

4.2 Qualitative analysis 4.2.1 Noun phrase The mother tongue always influences the use of a second language. According to Ashworth (1992), a person can acquire a second language in addition to his native language or mother tongue. According to the statistical results of this study, Pakistanis use more nouns phrases as compared to the British, which was also previously shown in the results of parser and MAT. Nine various subcategories were analyzed and the results show that the British use first and second person pronouns whereas Pakistanis use third person pronouns in abundance, according to the statistical results of MAT (see Figure 4.1). In the first figure, the example sentence begins with the word I, which shows that the direct reporting is done, but on the other side, in Pakistani usage, this feature is less frequent as compared to British English. In Figure 4.2, the use of your is represented, as is how this feature is used in British English. Pakistanis use first and second person pronouns in a lower ratio, as English is not the native language of Pakistanis and so they do not use these authoritative terms as excessively as the British do. This type of direct reporting is least done by Pakistanis; the excessive use of direct and second person pronouns represents the quality of texts, in that the text which is reported has more authenticity as compared to the use of the third person pronouns. In the Pakistani corpus, the use of the third person pronoun is more frequent as compared to the use of the first person pronoun. The use of they is also represented in Figure 4.3.

Figure 4.1 Personal pronouns she and I in the Pakistani corpus Source: Compiled by author

Figure 4.2 Second person pronoun in the British corpus Source: Compiled by author

68  Results and analysis

Figure 4.3 Third person pronoun they in the Pakistani corpus Source: Compiled by author

From these figures, it has been demonstrated that Pakistanis assume things on a larger collective scale. In the native language of Pakistani (Urdu), the personal pronouns are mostly translated as the third person pronouns, and first and second person pronouns are not used as much as in the native language. The issue of respect is there. The use of the third person pronouns is considered more objective according to the norms and cultural values of Pakistan. According to Ashworth (1992), native language is the language which people normally learn at the starting stage of their lives, and they use it as a tool for communication and instrument of thought. It as a pronoun is used by Britishers more than Pakistanis, as shown in Figure 4.4. Pakistanis use it less in this regard as compared to Britishers. When Pakistanis use the third person pronoun, the use of it is less than the third person

Results and analysis 69

Figure 4.4 Personal pronoun it in the British corpus Source: Compiled by author

pronoun and they use it in passives forms. In the native language of Pakistan, such utterances are probably avoided and third person is excessively used, as shown in Figure 4.3. Demonstrative pronouns1 are also used by the British excessively. They use these types of pronouns like this, these etc. more than the Pakistanis. The L1 of Pakistani English speakers is Urdu or Punjabi, or any other regional language, so such types of utterances are prohibited and normally avoided. As such, plurals are used because, in the native language of Pakistan, such utterances are present but the use of these and this is difficult for Pakistanis. They use other simple words to perform the function of demonstrative pronouns. Ellis (1999) said in his study that the process of transfer in using the

70  Results and analysis

Figure 4.5 Demonstrative pronouns in the British corpus Source: Compiled by author

features of the first language in the second language is a negative transfer. The use of the demonstrative pronoun by the British is shown in Figure 4.5. In the Pakistani school system, somehow GTM or the grammar translation method is focused. Labo, cited in Ellis (1999), asserts that the basic issue in learning a second language is not in the features of L2, although the environment created for the learning of the second language has problems in it. The learners of English learn translation skills at the initial stages of the learning experience, even when they are less than 7 years of age. In translation, such types of pronouns are translated word to word and they leave an unethical effect. Such structures, when used in L1, are not considered according to the social norms; thus, unintentionally when speakers use such terms, this feature is less than compared to the Britishers. Pakistanis use this lexis of the English language after translating into their native language, which conveys proper meanings conforming to the cultural norms of the community or nation. Berthhold cited in Ormod (1990) takes interference as transference of things from one language to the other. Indefinite pronouns have the same percentage according to the results of MAT.2 Gray and Orasanu (1987) claim that if anything is similar between the tasks, then the possibility of interference is there. Pakistanis and Britishers both use such words when they refer to a large community or anything else. The use of such words like everybody in Figure 4.6 shows the use of this word in British English and Figure 4.7 shows the use of the same word in Pakistani English. The NP everybody and NN everyone convey the same meanings and refer to a large community. The occurrence of such words in both Englishes is similar because, in newspaper language, a community or a nation

Results and analysis 71

Figure 4.6 Indefinite pronoun everybody in the British corpus Source: Compiled by author

is addressed. Such agendas are discussed in newspaper columns, which are of public interest. In the native language of Pakistan, such structures are also present and are considered to be more ethical as compared to the first or second person pronouns. Nominalization is used by Pakistanis excessively as compared to the Britishers. As English in Pakistan is not used as L1 in any community, Pakistanis are more conscious when they use this language for writing and spoken purposes. They add such bound morphemes as -ness, -ment and -tion consciously at the primary stage of learning and, later on, it becomes their habit. On the other side, English is a first language of Britishers, so they are not so conscious of the structure and frame of the text with reference to

72  Results and analysis

Figure 4.7 Indefinite pronoun everyone in the Pakistani corpus Source: Compiled by author

such words. The frequency of such words is lesser as compared to the Pakistani English newspaper column writers. The use of such words in Pakistani English is shown in Figure 4.8. The NN in the last NP uses the morpheme -ment with the word develop. Britishers avoid such expressions and are less frequent with them. The use of the morpheme -ment is additional in this phrase and can be replaced by so many other expressions conveying the meanings in better form as compared to this expression. Edward Thorndike cited in Ormod (1990) claimed that the features of one language transfer into the features of the second language, or the different varieties of the same language can handle transference of features when the elements are identical in both varieties or in both languages.

Results and analysis 73

Figure 4.8 Nominalization in the Pakistani corpus Source: Compiled by author

Gerunds3 are used by the Britishers excessively according to the results of MAT. The use of gerunds is doubled in British English as compared to Pakistani English. Pakistanis use simple English in simple structures; they don’t use complex structures. It is difficult to learn or memorize such lengthy sentences, so they avoid the use of such words. They write something relatable to readers, who must have such structure so that they easily understand rather than understanding the complex and lengthy sentences. In Pakistan, the major focus of institutes is on memorizing and, therefore, it is difficult for Pakistanis to memorize lengthy words and they use them according to the situation. They use easy words for memorizing and comprehension of the audience. The use of gerunds in British English is shown in Figure 4.9. The use of such words in Pakistani newspapers is less as compared to the Britishers. The total other nouns have a higher percentage in Pakistani English as compared to Britishers. In English-language classrooms, the learners start learning L2 or any other language with common naming words first. For instance, in pre-educational groups, the books start with the word A apple, B bat etc., all names of things. Verbs and other categories are avoided at this stage and, later on when Pakistanis use English as a language of medium,

74  Results and analysis

Figure 4.9 Gerunds in the British corpus Source: Compiled by author

they unconsciously use nouns excessively as compared to the Britishers. The example of noun usage in the Pakistani data set is shown in Figure 4.10. All these examples from Pakistani and Britisher newspaper column writers have demonstrated that Pakistanis use noun phrases at a higher ratio as compared to Britishers. The results of MAT also distinguish the various types of nouns and pronouns the community uses excessively. In the native language of Pakistan (Urdu) or any other regional language (specifically Punjabi), nouns play an important role when speakers use English. The use of nouns in various cultural settings is higher, so the same is the case with the language of the newspaper. Native languages affect the English language and such structures are involved or used, which are not as much in use in the standardized variety. 4.2.2 Verb phrase Ellis (1992) studied differences on two levels: pragmatic and syntactic based on social experiences. According to him, pragmatic differences are based on oral communication and syntactic on different grounds. His study helps in elaborating those syntactic features from the text which are different just because of the social issues. The study of verbs or use of verbs is also different in both target communities. The statistical results of the

Source: Compiled by author

Figure 4.10 Nouns in the Pakistani corpus

76  Results and analysis parser show that Britishers use more verbs as compared to Pakistani English column writers. There are various reasons on the basis of which the use of verbs by Pakistani column writers is lower than the Britishers’. To check the results more elaborately, the quantitative results of a few verb categories were selected after passing the data through MAT, and nine categories were selected from both data sets for qualitative reasoning. Possibility modals4 are excessively used by Britishers as compared to Pakistanis. As English is not the native language of Pakistan, the use of may, might, can and could is a little bit problematic for them. Pakistanis can’t use such structures so fluently as compared to the Britishers. Pakistanis use such structures, but the ratios of the use of these structures is lower because when Pakistanis learn grammatical rules of the English language, they are more conscious of the use of verbs. Pakistanis avoid the fluent use of verbs even when they communicate or write anything in English. Pakistanis use simple verbs and avoid complexity in the usage of verbs. Even when the verbs are used to structure a sentence, the appropriateness of verbs is also one of the major issues for Pakistani writers as compared to the Britishers. In contrast, Britishers often use difficult structures and they are not as conscious of the grammatical rules of their native language. The native speakers of any language are not as conscious of the rules, regulations and choice of vocabulary; but, on the other side, the communities or nations who learn any language as L2 or L3 are conscious of and use such structures less. The use of such structures in British English is shown in Figure 4.11. The use of may in the sentence in Figure 4.11 is quite systematic and more logical. On the other side, such structures are used less in Pakistani English and those structures or verbs are replaced with nouns or other categories. According to the Kellerman (1984), Kellerman and Sharwood Smith (1986), Ringbom (1987), Odlin (1989) and Perdue (1993), the mother language has a strong influence on the second language. Necessity modals5 are also less in usage among Pakistani column writers. The reasons for the lower use of such modals are almost the same as the reasons for the usage of possibility modals. In the British data set, the word ought is used, but in the Pakistani data set, the word ought is not used even a single time. Pakistanis avoid the use of such words even in formal writings. Being native speakers of Urdu or any other language, it is difficult for them to utter or use such words which are even less used by British in their writings. The use of the word ought in British English is shown in Figure 4.12. Britishers use more predicative modals in their writings. Words like will, shall and would are excessively used by British column writers. These verbs show the future status of the news or are used when near-future events are discussed. Pakistani column writers chronicle the events of the past with

Results and analysis 77

Figure 4.11 Possibility modals in the British corpus Source: Compiled by author

fewer recommendations in English newspaper columns regarding the future or any other event. The use of such structures in British English is shown in Figure 4.13. On the other side, such sentences and structures are less used. In the native language of Pakistan, the use of verbs is not as frequent, especially such types of verbs which are known as helping verbs. Main action verbs are used excessively. The singular and plural verb expression is also present in Urdu, so Pakistanis don’t need such verbs or pronouns which specify gender and the singular or plural nature of the action. For instance, the word

78  Results and analysis

Figure 4.12 Necessity modals in the British corpus Source: Compiled by author

urri (to fly) has a female gender expression in it and also shows the expression of past in the native language. Public,6 private7 and suasive8 verbs are excessively used by the Britishers. In the native language of Pakistan (Urdu) or in other regional languages (specifically Punjabi), one verb is used for multiple expressions, but in English, verbs are specified for each and every action. For example, the verb urri (to fly) in Urdu has the same expression with airplane, birds, kite etc. In Urdu, the expression is the same for different actions. The same is the case when Pakistanis use verbs in English, as they use a singular expression for multiple words and phrases, which may convey an ambiguous meaning in

Results and analysis 79

Figure 4.13 Predicative modals in the British corpus Source: Compiled by author

the British society even though its according to the norms of the Pakistani readers’ community and accessibility. The language of columns is a bit more complex as compared to the language of daily routine or the language of the news. To make the expression more complex, Pakistanis use complex sentences with nouns in them but a single verb which refers to the multiple actions within a sentence. In British newspapers, simple sentences are used and each sentence has its own verbs according to their proper expression. This is the basic reason behind the excessive usage of verbs in British English. Split auxiliaries and split infinitives are used and have equal percentage in both the corpora. The use of such categories is the same because the use of structures is similar in both varieties. Urdu also has such structures

80  Results and analysis in it, so when Pakistanis use such structures, they are similar to the Britishers. The use of to-infinitive followed by a verb base or by adverbs in both varieties is similar in the newspaper columns. The similarity index in both categories also shows that the native language of Pakistan doesn’t affect the use of these categories, or that native language has no impact on both these categories. Britishers and Pakistanis have the same percentage of these expressions. Native language affects the second language but, in a few cases, the results are the same. Namely, the similar phenomenon is present in the mother tongue or the phenomenon is totally absent and the speakers of L2 acquire it from the Britishers according to need, so the use of such expressions is similar. According to Lado (1957), people who think that the use or meaning of words of the same languages are similar in both nations and communities are holding on to illusions. Britishers use more infinitives in their writings as compared to the Pakistanis. The infinitive ‘to’ is used by Pakistani speakers but considered a complex structure. Pakistanis use such complex structures in which noun chains are used. Verb chains or a variety of verbs are avoided, as the nouns belong to the category which Pakistanis learn from the initial stages of their childhood. The use of verbs is also taught to them, but in professional degrees it is still not clear. Learners are confused about the appropriate usage of verbs. Column writers use fewer verbs and more nouns in their writings to convey their thoughts. “Conceptual organization and its component concepts are not the same as the meanings for the lexical items of a language. . . . Conceptual knowledge, in other words, is not identical to our knowledge about word meanings” (Clark, 1993: 10). When tenses are taught in Pakistani learning institutes, the use of verbs is mainly focused, which is quite confusing. Learners remain confused about the usage of have and have been. They are still torn by doubts about the usage of infinitives and gerunds. Such confusions lead them towards less use of verbs in academic writing or newspaper columns. On the other side, English being the native language of Britishers, they are not confused about the usage of various verbs and other categories, and have more verb phrases in their writings. This is also one of the basic reasons for less use of verb phrases in the Pakistani corpus and more verb phrases in the British data set. A foreign language facilitates mastering the higher forms of the native tongue. The child learns to see his language as one particular system among many, to view its phenomena under more general categories and this leads to awareness of his linguistic operations. (Vygotsky, 1962: 110)

Results and analysis 81 4.2.3 Prepositional phrase Prepositions are used to link the nouns with other nouns. According to Shaw (2008), prepositions are the words which are used to show the links of pronouns and nouns to the other words of the sentence. Prepositions like in, on etc. don’t have any meanings in themselves, but they are used to link the sentences and to mention the time and place specifically. Prepositions are normally linked with nouns, adjectives or pronouns. They refer to or complete the action by referring them towards any of these categories. Berthold defined the interference of L1 on L2 in the use of articles, word order etc. Labo cited in Ellis (1999) claimed that the grammatical structures of the first language are shifted when L2 is learned or used by the target speakers. Any phrase which is followed by a preposition is known as a prepositional phrase; either the phrase starts with the determiner or maybe we have a NP, adjective phrase or adverb phrase (mainly adverbs of time and place). Prepositional phrases are easy to locate by using MAT. I counted the results of the parser to check the validity of the other results and found that the results are almost the same. According to the results of the parser and MAT, Pakistanis use more prepositional phrases as compared to the Britishers, as I have already mentioned that prepositional phrases are mainly used to specify the nouns, pronouns and adverbs etc. As the use of noun phrases in the Pakistani corpus has a higher frequency as compared to the British corpus, prepositions are normally used with nouns or they refer to nouns, so the frequency of prepositional phrases is higher in the Pakistani data set. Chomsky (1959) emphasizes that the imitations of the first language produces routines in second language practices. Figure 4.14 shows the example of how prepositional phrases refer to the noun of the sentence from the Pakistani data set. In Figure 4.14, the prepositional phrase mainly forms the noun phrase on the next step, having a determiner in the beginning of all the noun phrases which are followed by the prepositional phrases. Standard prepositional phrases are used by Britishers according to the results of MAT. Standard prepositional phrases refer to the prepositions that are followed by the punctuation mark and Pakistanis, not being native speakers of English, use punctuation less frequently than is shown in the British data. The majority of Pakistanis are unaware of the use of all punctuation marks; they are only aware of the punctuation marks which are frequently used. Krashen (1981) stated that L1 has positive and negative transfers through which true and false consideration cognates. In the native language of Pakistan (Urdu), the use of punctuation marks is not considered as important as it is in English by the Britishers. Pakistanis,

NNP

NNP

on

went IN

VBD

a

DT NN visit day

three

to

NN TO

CD

ADJP

NP

NP

PP

Source: Compiled by author

Figure 4.14 Prepositional phrases in the Pakistani corpus

The Prime Minister

DT

NP

NNP

NNP

VP

the United Kingdom

DT

NP

PP

S

S1

to

TO

NNP

NP

PP

NN the Afghanistan conference

in DT

participate IN

VB

VP

VP

S

. .

Results and analysis 83 in their native language, normally avoid the use of punctuation marks, so the same habit transfers when Pakistanis use English. Britishers are normally more conscious of the use of punctuation. As punctuations marks are also a part of all languages, the behaviour of speakers and writers matter a lot. The results of MAT proved that the use of standard prepositional phrases is doubled in British English columns as compared to the Pakistani English columns. Schmidt and Young (1987) claimed that when the speakers of one language learn any other language, they probably apply the features of spoken utterances to get the native-like accent. So the use of punctuation has a lower percentage in Pakistani English. Pakistanis use such prepositional phrases followed by the punctuation mark, but they use this phenomena only where they don’t have any other substitute. The example of such phenomena is shown in Figure 4.15 from the British data set, where such structures have double frequency as compared to the Pakistani corpus. In Figure 4.15, standard prepositional phrases are represented because prepositional phrases are followed by a punctuation mark. The use of nouns in Pakistani English is higher as compared to British English, so the use of prepositions has higher frequency in the same data

Figure 4.15 Prepositional phrases in the British corpus Source: Compiled by author

84  Results and analysis set. Such features depend on the usage of other features and are proportional most of the time. Native language plays an important role in it. As English is not a native language of Pakistanis, they are supposed to elaborate each and everything. Hawkins (1985) stated that some readers or learners say that they understand the expression, but in reality they are not able to get it. Pakistani column writers want to avoid such ambiguities on one side and, on the other side, being a native speaker of Urdu, they are also not able to make use of such features. Britishers use English as their native language and many things are part of their schemata, which is why they don’t need any additional information when referring or elaborating their initial structures of nouns or any other type of phrases. This phenomenon also plays an important role in the lower usage of prepositional phrases. 4.2.4 Adverb phrase Based on parser results, Britishers use more adverbial phrases as compared to Pakistanis. Adverbs are always used for three reasons in a sentence. The first reason is the use of adverbs to qualify a verb or to add meaning to the verb. As in the verb discussion, I mentioned that Britishers use more verbs and elaborated on the reasons behind the excessive usage of verbs. Inevitably, the community that uses verb at a higher ratio can use adverbs with a greater frequency as compared to the other community. Native language also plays an important role in the usage of verbs. We may assume that wherever possible the beginning foreign learner tries to operate with simplified translation equivalences between lexical items. . . . In the learning of related languages, simplified equivalences work well for the development of a receptive competence, even though these equivalences will have to be modified by later learning. (Ringbom, 1986: 154) The second usage of adverbs is when it qualifies any adjective. Adverbs are also used to add meaning to the adjective. The ratio of adjectives is higher in the British data, although nouns are excessively used in the Pakistani corpus; but adjective phrases are used by Britishers, according to the results of the parser. The reasons or logic with relevance to this phenomenon are discussed in the previous section. Adjective phrases are used by Britishers so, conclusively, the use of adverbs with adjectives is higher in the British corpus. The third usage of adverbs is when they qualify or add meaning to another adverb. According to the results of MAT, Britishers use more adverbs as a word category. The ratio of adverbs according to the results of MAT is less

Results and analysis 85 in the Pakistani corpus. Adverbs, as a word category, have higher frequency when referring to another adverb. Adverbs of time, place or any other type have a higher ratio in the British data; when any structure is referred by any other adverb, there is an increase the use of adverbs in the British corpus. Pakistanis are not as expressive in use of any language, either English or Urdu. The use of adverbs is less in such varieties where expressive features are less. As the use of adverbs in the native language of Urdu are fewer in number, Pakistanis normally use negation or the positive side of the scenario in various settings, so the use of adverbs in such settings is not required. In the native language, time adverbials and place adverbials are present, but the ratio is less; when native speakers of Urdu use English, this factor transfers to that language unconsciously. Block (2003), Firth and Wagner (1997) and Johnson (2013) set their focus on the complex structures of old languages between those speakers who live in the same place and that affect their home language, which may be their native language, a second language or any dominant language. According to the results of MAT, seven word categories of adverbs are selected and studied one by one with relevance to the mother or native language of Pakistan. The frequency of adverbs of time in the British data set is higher as compared to the Pakistani corpus. Britishers are more direct in their conversation, so the frequency is high in the British corpus. Britishers are more conscious of the time and, consequently, the use of such adverbials is spontaneously higher in the British data set. On the other side, the issue of time is not as important and Pakistanis normally avoid such statements where time adverbials are used directly. Eventually, the same feature is present in the column writings of Pakistani writers. Cook (2003) talked about the relationship of L1 on L2 and its various factors. The ratio of place adverbials is also higher in the British corpus. The reasons for less use of time and place adverbials are almost the same, which leaves an effect on the English language when native speakers of Urdu use it. Place adverbials like tomorrow, today etc. are least used in the Urdu language. Pakistanis normally use yes or no as compared to such words where time or place adverbials are used. In newspaper language, such adverbials are less because those articles are compiled that narrate current situations or about any other incident where such adverbials don’t need to be used. On the other hand, diachronic and synchronic knowledge is more elaborately represented in newspapers because it is the native language of Britishers and they don’t use such referencing within the newspaper columns, and they use place and time adverbials. Based on schemata sharing, they share new information with readers. Pakistanis are used to building the historical perspective of each event they are discussing in the newspaper and the words which they use belong to any such category in which background

86  Results and analysis knowledge is essential. Pakistani writers also elaborate that idiomatically. In such direct elaboration, the use of adverbs is comparatively less as compared to that data where such elaboration is not needed. Leung, Harris and Rampton (1997) and Rampton (1997) discussed that the speakers of L2 are fluent, but some features will never change when they use L2 or by learning L2. The native language of the speakers is also a little bit influenced. Causative,9 concessive10 and conditional11 adverbials are also used excessively in the British corpus. The example of causative adverbials is shown in Figure 4.16. Because is used when explanation of the previous statement is given. Pakistani English normally defines the phenomenon in the same paragraph or sentence, or avoids such use of words. These types of vocabulary items are less in the native language of Pakistan. The same is the case with the words although, if and useless. These adverbials are also less in the native language. The language of newspapers also selects vocabulary based on the competency level of the audience. The speaker of any other language can’t have access to all the meanings of the words which the native speakers can easily get; to avoid any such ambiguity, such structures are used with less frequency. English in Pakistan is used by translating the events, words are translated to get the proper meanings, and in translation such words normally leave a single sense which might not be true. In the native language of Pakistan, such words are used where they convey single expressions, as these words don’t act as a main word in the native language of Pakistan. When Pakistani column writers write, the same issue moves towards English unconsciously (Ringbom, 1987). Learners assume that the role of L1 is the same in L2 until they discover the differences. This factor also plays an important role when Pakistani column writers use English as a medium of communication and give birth to the various differences influenced by the mother tongue or native language. Other adverbial subordinators and total adverbials also have higher frequency in the British data set. As I have already discussed, the reasons behind the usage of adverbs in the British data set, the number of adjectives and verbs are higher in the British corpus. Adverbs are only used where an adjective verb or another adverb is present. Without these three or two categories, adverbs can never be used anywhere in the sentence. These word categories, later on, form the adverbial phrases, as adverb as a word category has a higher frequency in the British data set. Thus, the number of adverbial phrases is also higher in the British corpus. Adverbs later on turn into an adverbial phrase normally when two or three adverbs are used consecutively, and such types of phrases have higher frequency in the British data set.

‘s

because

IN

workers

NNS

NP

NNS

, NNS

Source: Compiled by author

CC

NNS

S

MD

SBAR

VP

be

their trade unions , socialists and communists will AUX

PRP$ NN

NP

Figure 4.16 Causative adverbials in the British corpus

That

DT AUX

NP

S

S1

confronted

VBN

with

IN

NNS

IN

NP

PP

stark choices about

JJ

NP

VP

VP

VP

NN

NP

RB

ADVP

the way forward

DT

NP

PP

88  Results and analysis 4.2.5 Adjective phrase A survey of bilingualism by Odlin (1989) and cf. Weinreich, (1953/1968) was focused on social differences and use of language in various situations that generate the basis of monolithic effects. The results of adjectives are also different, as social norms play an important role in this. According to the results of the parser, Britishers use more adjective phrases as compared to the Pakistanis. As far as the results of MAT are concerned, the selected subcategories of this phenomenon are opposite, as Pakistanis use more adjectives. The reason behind the practice of using adjective phrases is quite difficult for Pakistanis. They use adjectives as a word category which later on forms a noun phrase. Britishers use adjective phrases as compared to the usage of adjectives as a word category. Being a native speaker of Urdu, the concept of adjective phrases is almost absent in Urdu or in other regional languages, especially in Punjabi. In Urdu, the use of adjectives is quite different and adjectives are used as a part of a word category, and the same is the case with the Pakistani column writers. The effect of native languages is present when they write anything in English. Unconsciously, they use adjectives as a word category and use of adjective phrases is less. Britishers have English as their native language and, in their variety, adjectives are excessively used and nominated as a phrase because they use them in such a way which later on converts into an adjective phrase and, further on, supplements the noun phrase. In Pakistani writings, adjectives are tagged through parser but, at the very first stage, they become part of the noun phrase rather than forming an adjective phrase, as in the British English variety. Cummins (1984) said that the first language role is essential for learners of a second language. Figure 4.17 represents the same phenomenon in the Pakistani data set where adjectives are represented as JJ and presented as a word category which later on directly forms a noun phrase. An adjective phrase is also present in Figure 4.17, but it shows that, after this phrase, the tag ‘S’ is present, which means that a new small statement is present that achieves the status of sentence and the adjective phrase is a part of it. The way adjective phrases are used in the British data set are fewer in number as compared to the Pakistani data set, where the adjective phrases are used in a different way, and sometimes the usage is identical (see Figure 4.18). Based on MAT results,12the adjective complement is excessively used by Britishers as compared to Pakistanis. I have already discussed the reasons for the usage of adjective phrases in both nations. (The complement mostly consists of more than one word and later on the complement makes a phrase.) As far as complements are concerned, Pakistanis use adjectives

my

life has

, PRP$ NN AUX

NP

RB

changed completely

ADVP

VBN

VP

VP

Source: Compiled by author

Figure 4.17 Adjective phrases in the British corpus

Now

RB

ADVP ,

S and

CC

I

am

PRP AUX

NP

to

VB cope IN with

NP NNS challenges

DT the

VP

VP

more able TO

ADJP

VP

S

S

JJ

RBR

S

S1

I

face

day every

NP NN

VP

DT

S

SBAR

PRP VBP

NP

NP

PP

VBZ

NP CC

UK

NNP and

VBD

NNS agreed

NP

other donors

JJ

Source: Compiled by author

to VB

still come

VP

RB

TO ADVP

Figure 4.18 Adjective phrases in the Pakistani corpus

why

WRB

One wonders WHADVP

NN

NP

and

CC

attend

VB

DT

S

NN

NP

SBAR

that

S

to

VB

VP JJ

NNS the intended results

deliver DT

VP

S VP

VP

able TO

VP

SBAR

ADJP

NP

JJ

VP

be

RB

VP

would not AUX

MD

VP

WHNP

VP

the conference WDT

VP

S

S1

Results and analysis 91 in such a way which leads them to qualify a noun phrase. Such adjectives are fewer in number, which takes the expression towards the adjective complement. As a learning process, transfer supports the learner’s selection and remodeling of input structures as he progresses in the development of his inter language knowledge. As a production process, transfer is involved in the learner’s retrieval of this knowledge and in his efforts to bridge linguistically those gaps in his knowledge which cannot be side-stepped by avoidance. (Kohn, 1986: 22) In the native language of Pakistan (Urdu), adjectives are used as quality words of nouns, but these adjectives are in the form of a word category. The concept of adjective phrases is absent in this language. In English, Pakistanis learn the usage of this expression, but as this expression is not fluent in the mother tongue, specifically Punjabi or in the native language Urdu, the ratio of this expression is less than that of Britishers. Adjectives are always used to define the quality of living or non-living entities, but newspapers normally use this expression in an ironic way. Additionally, Pakistanis normally are a bit direct in the use of language because English is not their mother tongue. This reason also plays an important role in the lower usage of adjectives. Pakistani newspaper column writers use such expressions in their writings which effectively convey a clear meaning to readers. Irony is difficult to create, especially when it is performed in any other language. Attributive adjective are excessively used by Pakistani column writers. The simple use of adjectives is to use them before nouns. Adjectives can be defined as words which define the quality of nouns, and the simplest way to define that quality is to use those adjectives before nouns. Pakistanis use attributive adjectives excessively. The native language of Pakistan or the mother tongue (Punjabi or any other regional language) have the same structures. In both languages, adjectives are used normally before nouns, so even when Pakistanis switch to their language, the effect of native languages is present, and they unconsciously follow the same pattern. Attributive adjectives include quality words in them. Pakistani newspapers belong to two categories: the first one is right wing newspapers favouring the government and the other one is left wing newspapers, always against the ruling government. Right wing newspapers cover the news events of any political party that is against the policies of the present government. They use such quality words to highlight the nouns of the news just to get the attention of the reader, on one side, and, on the other, there are some hidden ideologies

92  Results and analysis which they inculcate into the minds of the readers through this technique. The British media is considered free media, so the use of adjectives is for some other purposes. They use adjectives to admire people based on real facts or sometimes ironically. As they are native speakers of English, such techniques are not difficult for them to use. The ratio of predicative adjectives is higher in the British corpus as compared to the Pakistani corpus. Predicative adjectives are those adjectives which are used after the noun to add additional meanings to it. As I have already discussed, this phenomenon in seen in the native language of Pakistan since adjectives are normally used before nouns. The ratio of predicative adjectives in the native language is less in Pakistan, so when Pakistanis use English, they unconsciously follow same structures to utter or write anything. Predicative adjectives are difficult to use and, being non-native speakers of English, the usage of predicative adjectives are lower. The language of newspaper columns is appropriate according to the standards because the newspaper genre accepts deviations and the use of formal language. By being familiar with collocations like a convenient situation and a convenient time, but not with ones like a convenient person or a convenient cat, [students] will realise, however subconsciously, that the adjective convenient is only used with inanimate nouns. (Carter and McCarthy, 1988: 75) Pakistanis also use predicative adjectives, but the ratio is not as high. Predicative adjectives are normally used where a new phrase or sentence is built and that adjective performs double functions. This adjective is also referred to as a subject complement. The reasons behind the usage of adjectives as a complement is considered one of the most difficult uses among all the types of adjectives. The ratio is lower as compared to attributive adjectives in both corpora, but such adjectives are used and the percentage is very low. Linking verbs are also used before predicative adjectives, so after linking verbs in Pakistani English, the use of verbs is a common phenomenon. In Pakistani English, the main verb is used after the linking verb, so the expression of predicative adjectives is lesser. Britishers, being native speakers, also use some other expressions after the linking verbs and predicative adjectives are one of them, so the ratio of predicative adjectives is higher as compared to the Pakistani corpus.

Notes 1 A demonstrative pronoun represents a thing or things near or far in distance or time. 2 A pronoun that refers to an unspecified person or thing. Indefinite pronouns include quantifiers.

Results and analysis 93

3 4 5 6

7 8 9 10 11 12

The noun which ends at -ing or -ings and have more than ten characters in it. Possibility modals mean can, may, could, might. Necessity modals mean ought, should, must. A verb whose meaning includes or implies the idea of ‘speaking’, often taking a that-clause expressing a factual proposition. A verb expressing an intellectual state and often taking a that-clause. A verb having the meaning of ‘persuade’, often followed by a that-clause. Tag is used for because. Tag is for words like although and though. This tag refers to the words if and useless, according to Biber. Any expression that is preceded by any predicative adjectives or adjective.

References and further reading Ashworth, M. (1992). Beyond methodology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Block, D. (2003). The social turn in second language acquisition. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press. Carter, R., and McCarthy, M. (1988). Vocabulary and language teaching (p. 75). London: Longman. Chomsky N. Review of Skinner’s Verbal Behavior (1959). Language, 35:26–58. Clark, E. (1993). The Lexicon in acquisition (p. 10). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cook, V. (2003). Effects of the second language on the first. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Press. Cummins, J. (1984). Bilingualism and special education: Issues in assessment and pedagogy. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Press. Ellis, R. (1992). Understanding second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Firth, A., and Wagner, J. (1997). On discourse, communication, and (some) fundamental concepts. SLA Research, Modern Language Journal, 81, 285–300. Gray and Orasanu (1987). Transfer of Cognitive Skills. Transfer of Learning, 183–215. Hawkins, E.W. and Astley, H. (1985). Using Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Johnson, A. (2013). Rape, madness, and quoted speech in specialized 18th and 19th century Old Bailey trial corpora. In Andrew Hardie and Robbie Love (Eds.), Corpus linguistics 2013: Abstract book (pp. 132–134). Kellerman, E. (1984). The empirical evidence for the influence of L1 on interlanguage. In Davies, A., Criper, C., and Howatt, A.P.R. (eds), Interlanguage. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 98–122. Kellerman, E. and Sharwood-Smith, M. (1986). Cross-Linguistic Influence in Second Language Acquisition. New York: Pergamon Press. Kohn, K. (1986). The analysis of transfer. In E. Kellerman and M. Sharwood Smith (Eds.), Cross linguistic influence in second language acquisition (p. 22). Oxford: Pergamon Press.

94  Results and analysis Krashen, S. (1981). Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning. London: Pergamon Press. Lado, R. (1957). Linguistics across cultures. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Leung, C., Harris, R., and Rampton, B. (1997). The idealised native speaker, reified ethnicities and classroom realities. TESOL Quarterly, 31, 543–560. Odlin, T. (1989). Language transfer. Cambridge: Oxford University Press. Ormod, J. (1990). Human theories, principles, and educational applications. New York: Maxwell Macmillan International Publishing Group. Perdue, C. (1993). Adult language acquisition: Cross-linguistic perspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Rampton, B. (1997). Second language research in late modernity: A response to Firth and Wagner. Modern Language Journal, 81, 329–333. Ringbom, H. (1986). Cross linguistic influence and the foreign language learning process. In E. Kellerman and M. Sharwood Smith (Eds.), Cross linguistic influence in second language acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Ringbom, H. (1987). The role of the first language in foreign language learning. Clevedon, Philadelphia: Multilingual Matters. Schmidt, R., and Young, D. (1987). Transfer of movement control in motor skill learning. San Diego: Academic Press. Shaw, Erin M. (2011). Teaching vocabulary through data driven learning. Brigham Young University. Erin M. Shaw Brigham Young University Copyright © 2011 Erin M. Shaw. All Rights Reserved. Vygotsky, L. (1962). Thought and language. Boston: MIT Press. Weinreich, U. (1953). Languages in contact. The Hague: Mouton.

5 Conclusion

The rationale of the research was to locate the quantitative difference in the British and Pakistani corpus data sets on the use of phrase structure and word categories related to phrases. For this purpose, the corpus was collected from various newspapers from both countries. Pakistani newspapers were selected on a regional basis. Such newspapers were selected where most of the column writers were brought up in Pakistan and had an indigenous experience of learning English as a second or third language. LFG parser was used to process the data in the form of various types of phrases. Later on, the desired types of phrases were collected manually. Five types of phrases were selected for this study. The same data set was passed through MAT to check the various categories of selected phrase items. Nine categories of nouns were selected for further study. Nine categories of verbs, seven categories of adverbs, three categories of adjectives and two categories of prepositions were collected through MAT. The results of MAT help in building the qualitative reasoning. Another main rationale for the study was to locate the differences and determine the role of the native language of Pakistan (Urdu), and another was to determine the role of the native languages when Pakistanis switch their language or use English for professional purposes. The main features were also elaborated, which have the impact of the native languages when Pakistanis use English. Noun phrases and prepositional phrases have higher frequency in the Pakistani corpus. Verb phrases, adverb phrases and adjective phrases are highly used in the British corpus. In MAT, such word categories are selected for further elaborations which are related to those phrases. The results of MAT are similar except in adjective phrases. Noun phrases according to the results of the parser have higher frequency in the Pakistani corpus. The results of MAT prove the various subcategories at the word level and, according to it, first and second person pronouns

96  Conclusion have higher frequency in the British data set. On the other side, third person pronouns are excessively used in the Pakistani corpus. PIT, DEMP, INPR and GER are excessively used in the British data set. NOMZ and NN have higher frequency in the Pakistani data set. The results for verb phrases is opposite as compared to the results determine noun phrases. According to the results of LFG parser, Britishers use more verb phrases and MAT also represents various types of verbs which are excessively used: POMD, NEMD, PRMD, PUBV, PRIV and SUAV have higher frequency in the British data set and SPIN and SPAU have similar ratio in both corpora. TO also has a higher percentage in the British data set. The results for the adjective phrases from both software are different because the parser gave results based on phrases and MAT distinguished them based on word category. According to the results of the parser, Britishers use more noun phrases as compared to Pakistanis. The results of MAT show that Pakistanis use more JJ and the Britishers use more PRED and THVC. Adverb phrases are also used by the British excessively according to the results of parser and MAT. PLACE, TIME, CAUS, CONC and COND have higher frequency in the British data set. The use of OSUB is similar in both corpora. As far as prepositional phrases are concerned, the results are similar to NP in both software. PIN are excessively used in the Pakistani data set while STPR have high frequency in the British corpus. The role of native language is very important. The categories which are excessively used in the native language of Pakistan show their visible influence when Pakistanis use English, as with nouns. The use of a few categories is also higher because Pakistanis do not have schemata for certain concepts. Thus, the Pakistani column writers, in an attempt to elaborate the phenomena, employ extensive phrasal expressions. Action words or verbs are less used in Pakistani English because, in the native languages, these categories are less in use. In Urdu, the use of punctuation marks, adverbial phrases or adjectives is fewer in number, which shows that probably Pakistanis are somehow direct in communication, rely on context while not caring about punctuation, and avoid being highly structured and organized, whereas the British use them relatively more frequently. The use of some of the categories is interdependent. For instance, adverbs are used where adjectives, verbs and adverbs are used. Thus, such phenomena have higher frequency in the British data set where the VP percentage is higher. PP and NP have higher percentages in the Pakistani data set because PP normally needs NP, so they both are directly proportional to each other and the use of such phrases is also higher in the native language of Pakistan.

Conclusion 97 Owing to the small data set, there is no claim for generalizability of this research. It is, however, recommended for the future researchers that more studies may be conducted in the same vein in order to show the differences between the two varieties of English more clearly, which can help policymakers and practitioners.

Index

Note: Page numbers in italic indicate a figure and page numbers in bold indicate a table on the corresponding page Aarts, B. 29 Abrams 21 – 22 academic corpora 17 acrolect 10, 33 adjectives/adjective phrases 13; attributive 91 – 92; as a complement 92; defined 91; MAT results 65, 65; parser results 61, 62; predicative 92; qualitative analysis 88 – 92; in Urdu 88 adverbs/adverb phrases 12; causative 86, 87; MAT results 65, 65; parser results 61, 61; qualitative analysis 84 – 86, 87; reasons to use 84; in Urdu 85; usage of 84 – 85 Afful, J. 23 agriculture, newspaper and 21 Ahmad, S. 11 Akoto 23 Alan, R. 21 Alharthi, Amaha N. 15 Ali, Sajjad 11 Ally, Mashuq 55 although 86 American English (AE) 12, 13 anglicized 10, 33 AntConc 15, 17 Anthony, Laurence 15, 19 Anwar, Behzad 10, 30 apostrophe+s 11 applicative grammar 25 applied linguistics 7 Arabic English 28

Archer corpus 14 articles: in Pakistani English 13 Ashworth, M. 66, 68 Asma, I. 55 attributive adjective 91 – 92 Atwell, Eric 18, 26 auxiliaries 33 – 34 Baker, Paul 16 Banski, Piotr 16 Barlow, Michael 16 Bartley, L. 16 Bartsch, Sabine 17 BASE see British Academic Spoken English (BASE) basilect 10, 33 Baumgardner, R. 9, 13, 32, 33, 34 Bayyurt, Y. 5 be 12 because 86 Becker, Israela 32 Bednarek, Monika 17 Berridge, D. 19, 55 Biber, Douglas 2, 32, 55, 57 Bickerton, Derek 24 Bilal, H. 10 bi-lexical syntactic-dependencies 25 – 26 bilingualism 10, 88 Block, D. 85 BNC see British National Corpus (BNC) Bowie, J. 29

Index  99 Bowker, Richard 15 Bradley, Henry 8 Brezina, Vaclav 32 British Academic Spoken English (BASE) 12 British English (BE) 1; adjective phrases in 88, 89, 92; adverbs/adverb phrase in 12, 84 – 86, 87; clauses used in 12; discourse markers in 19; gerunds in 73, 74; nouns/noun phrases 66 – 74; prepositions in 19, 81, 83, 83 – 84; verb/verb phrase 74, 76 – 80 British media, adjectives in 92 British National Corpus (BNC) 17 Buerki, Andreas 32 Burchfield, Robert 8 business corpora 17 Canagarajah, A. 6 Candarli, Duygu 5 Canter, G. 12 Cao, Yan 19 causative adverbs 86, 87 CDA see critical discourse analysis (CDA) Ceplo, Slavomir 31 Cer, D. 25 Cermak, Frantisek 5 Cermakova, Anna 5 Charles, Maggie 5 Cheney, D. 21 Cheyney, A. 20 Chiari, Isabella 32 Chilwa, I. 23 China 20 Chinese language 5 chi-square method 32 Chlumska, L. 5 Chomsky, Noam 11, 27, 28, 81 classrooms 19, 27, 73 Clavel-Arroitia, Begona 31 Close, J. 29 cogitative grammar approach 25 collocational similarities 16 collocations 5, 22 colonization, and spread of English 5 computational linguistics: and geographical information systems 16 concordances 17, 22 Conklin, Kathy 15

connectors 30 consonant cluster 10 construction grammar 25 Cook, V. 85 corpus/corpora 14 – 20; academic and business 17; categories 14; critical discourse analysis 16, 19; defined 14; electronic 19; importance of 15, 31; mixed method approach 23; selected community 14, 15; studies 14 – 20; tools and techniques 15 Cristofaro, Matteo Di 12 critical discourse analysis (CDA) 16, 19 Crystal, David 4, 8, 22 Culpeper, Jonathan 32 Cummins 88 Cvrcek, Vaclav 5, 32 Czapla, P. 21 Daily Mail, The 59 – 60 Davy, D. 8, 22 DCPSE see Diachronic Corpus of Present Day Spoken English (DCPSE) delimitation of study 55 – 57 De Marneffe, M. 25 Demmen, Jane 32 demonstrative pronouns 69 – 70, 70 Derivation Tree Derived Dependencies (DT) 26 Deroey, Katrien 12 Diachronic Corpus of Present Day Spoken English (DCPSE) 29 Diaz-Negrillo, Ana 25 digital corpora 31 discourse markers 12, 19, 30 Donnelly, Karen 22 Douglas, Fiona M. 23 Dsskumara, Meninpura 14 DT see Derivation Tree Derived Dependencies (DT) Duguid, Alison 23 dummy auxiliaries 34 electronic corpora 19 Ellis, D. 74 Ellis, R. 69 – 70, 81 Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) 18

100 Index English: categories/circles for 4, 5; fragmentation of 8; as global lingua franca 4; non-native varieties of 4; spread of 4, 5 – 6; varieties of 4 English in the World: Teaching and Learning the Language and Literatures (Quirk and Widdowson) 8 English Language, The (Burchfield) 8 English Language Today, The (Greenbaum) 8 English-speaking countries 6 Enlightenment 21 ESP classrooms 27 Evert, Stefan 17, 22 everybody 70, 71 everyone 70, 72 expanding circle 4, 5 Express Tribune, The 60 Fatima, N. 10 Ferguson, C. 6 Fest, Jennifier 27 File Garoma, Belay 55 first person pronoun 62, 66, 68 Firth, A. 85 Fishman, J. 6 Flickinger, D. 25 – 26 Flowerdew, Lynne 27 foreign language, English as 4 Foster, J. 25 freedom 21 Friday Times, The 59, 60, 61 Fujimoto, Kazuko 27 Fuli, Hou 19 fundamental rights of human beings 21 Fuoli, Matteo 22 Fuster-Marquez, Miguel 18 Gabrielatos, Costas 31 Gatt, Albert 31 Gazdar, Gerald 24 Gee, Latt 25 gender variations 32 geographical information systems: computational linguistics and 16 Gerold, S. 22 gerunds 73, 74 globalization, of English 6, 8 Goldberg, A. 25 Gorokhova, Svetlana 31

Grabowski, Lukasz 27 Grabowsky, J. 55 grammar 11 grammatical differences 13 grammaticalization 12 Grazib, Mohamed 19 Greece 21 Greenbaum, Sidney 8 Greenberk, Joseph 24 Gregori-Signes, Carmen 31 Gregory, Ian 16 Gries, Stefan T. 16 Gumperz, J. 6 Gupta, Kat 16 Haan, P. 12 Halliday, M. 6, 25 Haque, A. 34 Hardaker, Claire 16 Harris, R. 86 Haung, Dora Zeping 30 Haung, Lan-Fen 30 have 80 have been 80 Hawkins, B. 84 Helsinki corpus 14 hierarchical phrase-based model 29 homograph 32 homonyms 32 Hopkins, W. 22 Hu, Wenjie 14 Huang, Dick Kaisheng 27 – 28 Huanrong, Xu 19 Hunt, Sally 15 Hymes, D. 6 I 66, 67 IC see immediate constituents (IC) ideological position, newspapers 23 if 86 immediate constituents (IC) 26 – 27 Incelli, S. Ersilia 31 indefinite pronouns 70, 71, 72 infinite clauses 12 -ing participle 13 inner circle 4, 5 inter-language corpora 14 International Mine Action Standard 20 Internet 21 intra-language corpora 14

Index  101 intra-sentential level 1 Ireland minorities: otherness in 16 it 68 – 69, 69 Ivanova, A. 26 jargon 22 Jenkins, J. 6 Jesco, Stephen 31 Jespersen, Otto 8 Johnson, Alison 28 – 29, 85 Johnson, Jane Hellen 29 Jones, Daniel 8 journalism 22 Jurafsky, D. 25 Just, M. 21 Kachru, Braj B. 4, 7 – 8, 32, 34; concentric model of 4 – 5, 7; on spread of English 4, 5 Kantner, C. 55 Kehoe, Andrew 25 Kermes, S. 14 keywords 32 Kheovichai, Baramee 17 Kilagarriff, Adam 17 Knapp, J. 21 Kokkinakis, Dimitrios 25 Kolarova, Veronika 25 Kolomiyets, Oleksandr 14 KorAP 16 Kordoni, V. 25 Kress model of semiotics analysis 17 Krivokapic, J. 26 Kunz, Kerstin Anna 14 Kutter, A. 55 Labov, W. 13 Lado, R. 80 Lampeter corpus 14 Lancashire, Ian 14 Langacker, R. W. 25 Lange, D. 12 language 1; journalism and 22; knowledge of 24; newspaper 2, 21, 22; non-native varieties of 30; social differences and use of 88 Lanos, C. 17 Lapshinova-Koltunski, Ekaterina 14 Lehmann, M. 22 letter press 20 Leung, C. 86

lexical density 31 – 32 lexis 30 Li, Jingjie 14 Li, John Hanghong 14 Liang, Maocheng 15 Liebert, U. 55 Lin, A. 6 linking verbs 92 Lischinsky, Alon 15 Locke, John 21 Lonngren-Sampaio, Cathy 15 Lozano, Cristobal 25 Lu, Lu 19 Luk, J. 6 Maci, Stefania M. 15 magazines 20 – 21 Mahboob, Ahmar 10, 13 Mahlberg, Michalea 15 Mahmood, M. 10 Malm, Mats 25 Manning, C. 25 Marchi, Anna 15 – 16 Marti, L. 5 Martinez, G. 17 Martinkova, Michaela 16 Maruenda, Sergio 18 MAT results 57, 59; adjectives 65, 65; adverbs 65, 65; nouns 62, 63; prepositions 66, 66; verbs 64, 65 Matuda, S. 16 may 76 meaning 25 Mechnery, Tony 16 Mehl, Seth 16 – 17 Mehmood, A. 11, 20 Mehmood, Rashid 20 -ment 71 Menzel, Katrin 17 mesolect 10, 33 meta-data 56, 57 Metro 60 Mill, J. 21 Millar, Neil 17 Mirakami, Akira 17 Miras, G. 17 mixed method approach 23 modals 29, 76; necessity 76, 78; possibility 76, 77; predicative 76 – 77, 79 Moens, Marie-Francine 14

102 Index Moisl, Hermann 17 mono transitive verb 33 Morning Star, The 60, 61 morphemes 25, 28 Mott, G. 21 Mrrieta-Flores, Patrica 17 Mufwene, S. S. 9 multidimensional analysis 55, 56 multilingual societies 4 Murdoch, Millicent 17 Mwinlaaru, I. 23 native language 10, 30, 84; Ashworth on 66, 68; English as 4, 5, 34; nouns in 74; second language and 80; see also Urdu Navarro, S. 16 necessity modals 76, 78 Nesi, Hilary 17 -ness 71 Neumann, Stella 27 news channels 10 newspaper columns 23 – 24 newspapers 34; agriculture and 21; for critical studies 20; data 20; elite class 23; ideological position 23; Internet and 21; language of 2, 21, 22, 23; library collection of 21; online 25; pragmatic features of 22; readers in developing countries 20; for specific communities 20 – 21 newspapers, in Pakistan: affecting readers’ language 11; high-frequency words 11; vocabulary introduced through 11 Nisco, Maria Cristina 17 nominalization 71, 72, 73 nouns/noun phrases 34; MAT results 62, 63; parser results 59, 60; qualitative analysis 66 – 74 Novotna, R. 5 Odlin, T. 76, 88 Oepen, S. 26 Ojo, R. 21 Ola, C. 21 Olofsson, A. 12 Onions, Charles Talbut 8 online corpora 32 online newspapers 25 Ooi, Vincent B. Y. 17

Oostdijk, Nelleke 12 Ormod, J. 70, 72 Ortlibe, D. 14 otherness: concept of 16, 31; critical discourse analysis 16; in Ireland minorities 16 ought 76 outer circle 4, 5 Ovrelid, L. 26 Padre, S. 21 Pakistan: communities and languages 10; literacy rates 10; population 10; publication of books and researches 10 – 11 Pakistani corpus 20 Pakistani English (PE) 9 – 11; acculturation of 10; adjective phrases in 88, 90, 91 – 92; adverbs/ adverb phrase in 84 – 86; differences 10, 13; discourse markers in 19; features 9, 11; as hybrid 11; as language of institutes 10; nouns/ noun phrases 66 – 74; as official language 10; prepositions in 19, 81 – 84, 82; regional varieties of 10; subject-verb agreement in 34; subvarieties 33 – 34; Urdu phrases in 30; varieties 10; verb/verb phrase 74, 76 – 80 Pakistanization 11 Pakistan Observer 61 parser results: adjective phrases 61, 62; adverb phrases 61, 61; noun phrases 59, 60; prepositional phrases 60, 61; verb phrase 59, 60, 60 parsing approaches 25 – 26 Partington, Alan 17 Pashtu 10 Paterson, Katie 18 Paterson, Laura Lousie 18 Peacock, Matthew 18 Peng, Du 23 Pennock-Speck, Barry 18 personal corpora 5 personal pronouns 32, 62, 66 – 69; see also pronouns Philip, Gill 18 phrase-based model: Chinese-English 28; hierarchical phrase-based model vs. 29; vs. syntax-based model 28

Index  103 phrases: cultural aspects affecting 1; defined 27; newspaper language 24; in spoken language 1; study of 1 – 2; in written language 1 phrase structures: Chomsky on 28; in different learners copora 27 – 28; ICs (immediate constituents) 26 – 27; in World Englishes 26 – 30 playwriters 32 plural noun formation 32 – 33 Pollard, C. 26 possibility modals 76, 77 Potts, A. 16, 18 pragmatic differences 74 predicative adjectives: in British English 92; linking verbs before 92; in Pakistani English 92 predicative modals 76 – 77, 79 prepositions 13, 33 – 34 prepositions/prepositional phrases (PP) 12; defined 81; MAT results 66, 66; parser results 60, 61; qualitative analysis 81 – 84 Price, P. J. 26 print media 20 – 24 pronouns: demonstrative 69 – 70, 70; indefinite 70, 71, 72; prepositions and 81; see also nouns/noun phrases punctuation marks 81, 83 Punjabis 10 qualitative analysis 66 – 92; adjective phrase 88 – 92; adverb phrase 84 – 86, 87; noun phrase 66 – 74; prepositional phrase 81 – 84; verb phrase 74, 76 – 80 quantitative analysis 59 – 62 Quirk, Randolph 5 – 6, 7, 8 Quran 26 racism 55 radio 20 Rahman, T. 10, 13, 33, 34 Rampton, B. 86 Rasheed, T. 10, 13, 33, 34 Rayson, P. 18, 19 Rebechi, R. 16 reflexive pronoun 34 reflexive verbs 34 regional languages 28 register variation 27

Rehbein, Ines 18 Renfordt, S. 55 research/study: methodology 55 – 57; overview 1 – 3 results 56 – 57 Richterova, O. 5, 18 Romaine, S. 12 Rome 20 Ruppenhofer, Josef 18 Sag, I. 26 Saleem, R. 10 Saleemi, A. 13 Sampson, Geoffrey 18 Sandoval, M. A. 17 Santaemilia, Jose 18 Santos 23 Sawalha, Majdi 18 schemata 31; Britishers 84; Pakistanis 85 Schmidt, R. 83 Schmiedtova, Vera 18 Schneider, E. 6 Schumann, Anne-Kathrin 18 second language, English as 4 second person pronoun 62, 66, 67, 68, 71 Sekhar, Niladri 18 Selay, Alison 18 semiotics analysis, Kress model of 17 sentence 11; length of 12 shall 76 Shattuck-Hufnagel, S. 26 Shaumyan, S. 25 Sheeraz, M. 11 Shewan, C. 12 SiBol see Siena-Bologna Universities (SiBol) Siddharthan, Advaith 12 Siena-Bologna Universities (SiBol) 19, 23 Sierra, Rosa Escanes 22 Sindlerova, Jana 18 South African English (SAE) corpus 15 split auxiliaries 79 Stanly, A. 11 Stoejohann, Petra 18 string-to-tree model 28, 29 subject-verb agreement 34 Swedish literature 25 Sweet, Henry 8

104 Index symbols 28 syntactic differences 74 syntax: concept 1, 11; formal theories of 24; functional theories 24; meaning 25; Pakistani and British 11 – 14; parsing approaches 25 – 26; as taxonomical device 24 syntax-based model 29; vs. phrasebased model 28 systemic functional grammar 25

useless 86 Uzair, M. 11

Tabore, Janusz 18 tags 31 Talat, M. 9, 13, 32, 34 Taylor, Charlotte 15 – 16 Teich, E. 14 television 20 Tenorio, H. 16 terminal vocabulary 28 Tersigni, Elisa 14 that-clause 33 these 69 they 66, 68 third person pronouns 66, 68 – 69; it 68 – 69, 69; they 66, 68 this 69 Thorndike, Edward 72 Tiberius, Carole 17 -tion 71 Tiwana, D. 10 to-clause 33 Tocqueville, A. 21 Todd, L. 9 to-infinitive 13, 33, 80 tolerance 21 Tono, Yukio 18 Toumi, Naouel 18 – 19 transformational analyzes 27 translation skills 70 Trenz, H. 55 triangulation approach 16 Tripp, R. 21 Turk, A. 26

Wagner, J. 85 Wallis, S. 29 Wall Street Journal (WSJ) 25 Wang, Fang 19 Wang, R. 26 Wardhaugh, R. 30 Wattam, Stephen 19 Weinreich, U. 88 Wells, John 8 Wenzhong, Li 15 Widdowson, H. 6, 7, 8 Wightman, C. W. 26 will 76 Wong, My L-Y 19 word categories 2, 30 – 35 words: constructions 26; Pakistanis pronouncing 10; relationship between length and frequency of 5; verbal communications and 5 World Englishes 4 – 9; phrase structure in 26 – 30; psycholinguistic approaches to 8; sociolinguistic approaches towards 7 – 9; syntactic features in 24 – 26 would 76 Wright, David 19 Wyld, Henry 8

Urdu: adjectives in 88; adverbs in 85; as an official language 10; consonant cluster being absent in 10; English replacing 10; personal pronouns in 68; punctuation marks 81, 83 Urduized words 13 Urdu phrases, in Pakistani English 30

verb/verb phrase: MAT results 64, 65; parser results 59, 60, 60; qualitative analysis 74, 76 – 80 Vessey, Rachelle 19 Vincent, Benet 19 vocabulary 6 Vselovska, Katerina 18

Xiao, R. 16, 20 XML corpora 31 Xu, Jiajin 19 Yaochen, Deng 5 Yasuhiro, Fujiwara 22 Young, D. 83 your 66, 67 Zhang, Y. 25, 26 Zhiwei, Feng 5 z-score 56 Zurich corpus 14