Ordinary People, Extraordinary Lives: A Study of the Political and Economic Change in a Tohoku Village 9780824843366

Table of contents :
CONTENTS
PREFACE
INTRODUCTION
Chapter One TANOHATA EMERGES
Chapter Two THE PROCESS OF DEVELOPMENT, 1955-82
Chapter Three THE POLITICS OF DEVELOPMENT: HAYANO IN THE LEAD
Chapter Four EDUCATION AS SOCIAL ENGINEERING: THE FULCRUM AND THE LEVER
Chapter Five THE DESPERATE SEARCH FOR JOBS
Chapter Six THE HYBRID ENTERPRISE AND REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Chapter Seven CONCLUSION
APPENDIXES
NOTES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INDEX
ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Citation preview

ORDINARY PEOPLE, EXTRAORDINARY LIVES

ORDINARY PEOPLE, EXTRAORDINARY LIVES Political and Economic Change in a Tohoku Village

Jackson H. Bailey

University of Hawaii Press Honolulu

©1991 University of Hawaii Press All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America 91 92 93 94 95 96 5 4 3 2 1 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Bailey, Jackson H. Ordinary people, extraordinary lives : political and economic change in a Tohoku village / Jackson H. Bailey, p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8248-1299-9 1. Tanohata-mura (Japan)—History. I. Title. DS897.T635B35 1991 952'.11—dc20 91-15781 CIP Text design by Alexandru Preiss Kennedy & Preiss Design Frontispiece: Kyoiku Risson (A Village Built on Education). Calligraphy by Hayano Senpei, mayor of Tanohata. University of Hawaii Press books are printed on acid-free paper and meet the guidelines for permanence and durability of the Council on Library Resources

CONTENTS Preface vii 3 INTRODUCTION Chapter One 35 TANOHATA EMERGES Chapter Two 65 T H E PROCESS OF DEVELOPMENT, 1955-82 Chapter Three 97 T H E POLITICS OF DEVELOPMENT: HAYANO IN THE LEAD Chapter Four 121 EDUCATION AS SOCIAL ENGINEERING: THE FULCRUM AND THE LEVER Chapter Five 143 THE DESPERATE SEARCH FOR JOBS Chapter Six 185 THE HYBRID ENTERPRISE AND REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT Chapter Seven 203 CONCLUSION Appendixes 225 Notes 237 Bibliography 247 Index 253

v

PREFACE

M y relationship to Tanohata began in 1972 and came about as a result of happenings in other parts of Japan and of the world. In the late 1960s, in the heat of the Vietnam War and the unrest on American campuses, students were hungry for constructive outlets for their energies. This desire to make their lives count for something larger than self-interest was thwarted by the Selective Service system and the devouring demands of the American military. As a teacher, as director of the Earlham College East Asian Studies Program, and as a long-time student of Japan and U.S.Japan relations, I was eager to find ways to link these student concerns with opportunities for service. Earlham College had a long tradition of witness to the peace and social service imperatives of Quakerism. During World War II it had offered support and educational opportunity to young Japanese-Americans incarcerated with their families in the relocation camps. In the early 1960s, the college had pioneered in establishing faculty and student exchange programs with Waseda University in Tokyo. At the same time, the U.S.-Japan Cultural Conferences of the 1960s, which had been initiated by Ambassador Edwin O. Reischauer, had addressed a number of issues in binational relations. One of the early conference communiques declared that improving the teaching of English in Japan and of Japanese in the United States was "in the national interest" of Japan and the United States. This phrasing meant that young men who were conscientious objectors could apply to teach English in Japan as Alternative Service under the Selective Service law and that their applications would almost surely be approved by local draft boards. (The Selective Service law stated that conscientious objectors must be assigned to do work that was "in the national interest.") I began to negotiate opportuvii

viii

PREFACE

nities for such work for Earlham graduates, and between 1968 and 1972 our program placed fifteen to twenty men in alternative service positions teaching English in various parts of Japan. As word of this work spread in Japan, I was approached by the educational authorities in Iwate Prefecture, who wished to employ young Americans to teach English. I visited the prefectural capital, Morioka, met Governor Chida Takashi and the superintendent of education, and we launched a small but effective program. By the early 1970s Earlham was looking for a place in Japan to establish an undergraduate program in comparative education. The prime requisites were (1) opportunities for first-hand experience tutoring in schools, (2) intensive Japanese language study, and (3) hands-on work experience. From our experience with the Japan Study Program at Waseda University and from directing international Quaker work camps in the 1950s, I knew that cultural understanding and language learning could be significantly enhanced by an intensive work experience sharing life with other students and local people. Friends and colleagues at Waseda University urged me to meet Professor Oda Yasuichi, a geographer and the architect and sponsor of the Shii no Mori-kai self-help reforestation project in which Waseda students worked with local people in the remote village of Tanohata in Iwate Prefecture. Professor Oda thought carefully about our requirements for a site, and finally agreed to take me with him to Tanohata on his next visit to see if our students could join the program. In the fall of 1972,1 accompanied him to Tanohata and I spent several days in the village. As will be clear in the chapters that follow, the relationship developed steadily. By the end of the 1970s, I was also convinced that a significant project in scholarly research lay before me. As I reviewed the social science research that had been done on rural Japan, my judgment was confirmed. As the decade of the 1980s began and Earlham's relationship with Tanohata grew, it became even clearer to me that the story of what was happening in the village needed to be told. The residents of the village were ordinary people in most respects, but their experience had been far from ordinary. Why? What was happening here? Why here and not in one of Tanohata's seemingly better-placed and better-endowed neighboring towns and villages? I resolved to attempt to explain and analyze the village's extraordinary story and examine its causes. Between 1977 and 1982 I pieced together a tentative outline of the story from documents and scattered conversations. This was what brought my wife and me to Tanohata in the summer of 1982 to spend a year's research leave unraveling and absorbing the story of the changes that had occurred in Tanohata over the past three decades. One major development in Japanese studies in the decade of the 1970s was a recognition of the importance of regional variation and the need for studies that would give a fuller picture of rural Japan. The early

Preface

ix

studies by John Embree and later Richard Beardsley and the University of Michigan group were done in southern and western Japan. More recent studies by William Kelly and Keith Brown focused on the prosperous rice-producing areas of the north and east, as does the work of Richard Moore in Miyagi Prefecture. It was in this spirit of adding a new dimension to our understanding of rural Japan that I undertook my research in Tanohata. Having lived in the main cultural centers of Tokyo and Kyoto, I felt a need to broaden my own perspective on Japanese culture. Fortunately, for over a decade I had been collecting information. The picture that began to emerge was wonderfully expressive of the mix of mainstream traditional culture, regional variation, and specific differences peculiar to this village. I resolved to spend a lengthy period living in the village, in an attempt to get as full a picture as I could of both the changes and continuities in this particular place. My wife and I spent eleven months, from August 1982 to July 1983, in Tanohata, living in village-run housing and pursuing this research. To my research on Tanohata I brought thirty years of professional engagement with Japan as a historian, teacher, educator, and observerparticipant in Japanese life. Not only my professional training in East Asian studies but also my experience living and working in Japan and designing study programs for American students and teachers convinced me of the need for a multidisciplinary approach to the study of another culture. My research in Tanohata has been an attempt to apply that conviction. My primary tools and instincts are those of a historian. I have a healthy respect for documents and data. I have also borrowed freely and unabashedly from the work of sociologists and from the ethnographic approach of the anthropologist, and I have tried to be sensitive to the need for structural analysis that is so important to the political scientist and economist. My aim has been to analyze, assess, and explain a total process of change and development over time. What has happened in Tanohata in the past three decades, and why? How do Tanohata's people perceive themselves and their lives now compared to thirty years ago? How does this picture relate to the larger picture of Japan as a whole? What insight can we gain on a national or even international level as we try to understand modern Japan and its place in the world? This last series of questions will, of course, remain largely unanswered, but ultimately they need to be posed. This study attempts to provide specific data about a specific place in order that larger generalizations can be more firmly grounded in reality. In this research I have established a baseline of data from which to describe the Tanohata of the 1950s. I have then traced the origins and sources of the thrust for change, both from within and from outside the village. With those forces in mind, it is then possible to follow the process of change that began in the mid-1960s and continues unabated today. The village completed a planning document in the fall of 1982 that gives a

X

PREFACE

detailed profile of conditions and projects planned for the future. Tracing the implementation of this document as far forward as 1985 provides a convenient punctuation mark with which to end this study. At the same time that I began serious research on Tanohata-rawra, I had the good fortune to begin a cooperative research relationship with a Japanese colleague, Hashimoto Ryoji. Professor Hashimoto, a Wasedatrained sociologist, was on the faculty of Musashino Bijitsu Daigaku in Tokyo. He spent a sabbatical year as visiting research scholar at Earlham College and I worked with him on his study of family farms and American agriculture in Wayne County, Indiana. Professor Hashimoto offered to work with me on my research in Tanohata, and he and I spent many hours discussing the Tohoku region and Japanese agriculture. He visited Tanohata on numerous occasions, where he became well acquainted with the village and its people. He has been generous in sharing his knowledge and insights. The work that he and my wife and colleague, Caroline Bailey, have done in interviewing women in the village and participating in women's activities has been especially important, and gives this study a dimension that is lacking in most other studies. In 1986, Professor Hashimoto conducted and edited a series of interviews with women in Tanohata that were published in the journal Aruku, miru, kiku (Wander, look, listen). His help and encouragement have been invaluable, and these interviews, along with the material that Caroline Bailey and I collected in 1 9 8 2 - 8 3 , are the basis for the material on the women of Tanohata. It is interesting—and reassuring—to find that the data, analyses, and information that I acquired through other channels are corroborated by these women, speaking from their own experience. Represented in the interviews are women in their seventies, their sixties, their fifties and their forties, each with vivid stories of Tanohata as it was and as it is. Their testimony gives humanity and substance to the statistics, generalizations, and analysis that are the central task of research and deepens our sense of what life was like in Tanohata in earlier decades. The introductions to the interviews in Professor Hashimoto's article are extremely helpful; I have frequently quoted from them here, as well as drawing on his interviews with the women. They speak for Tanohata as well as for themselves in their insights into and descriptions of their experience and their attitudes toward family, children, men, and life itself. Professor Hashimoto sees the women as "the carriers of the local culture . . . [and] the bridge between . . . the world of Tokyo and the world of Tanohata." In one such introduction he quotes Kudo Fusako, a local woman: "It's the women; they are gentle, kind people," Kudo Fusako offers in a small voice. She was born and raised in the coastal hamlet

Preface

xi

of Shimanokoshi. She created a household herself—she's the kind of woman who raised us all after the war, working hard, caring for kids. Her words have a deep, meaningful ring that I cannot capture on paper. In one sense civilization represents a man's construct, but, as for culture, perhaps, women are its agents. At the same time, I suspect that those who say such things are standing in a place where men occupy the center and women are seen as on the periphery. 1

This is one reason it is so important to listen to what these women have to say. To interweave personal experience with scholarly inquiry has presented a challenge. The ethnographer is always at least a participantobserver. In addition, however, I have also been an actor in the process of economic and social change in Tanohata, and for that reason my psychological distance from the other actors and my attempts at objective assessment of the meaning of the data are perhaps less satisfactory than in some other scholarly studies of rural Japan. At the same time, because I have been involved personally and professionally in Tanohata, I have been allowed to move about freely inside the village, accepted as a normal part of on-going life, in ways that have significantly deepened my knowledge and insight. Further, local people have shared information and opinions with me at a deeper level than would have been accorded the objective observer from the outside. The results will have to speak for themselves. I have tried to render this story as accurately and fairly as I could. Mistakes are the result of my inadequacies, not those of my colleagues and informants. Throughout the seven years that I worked to complete this study, I benefited enormously from advice, suggestions, and reactions from friends and colleagues in Japanese studies. Two anthropologists have been particularly generous and supportive. Professor David Plath of the University of Illinois, Urbana, and Professor Keith Brown of the University of Pittsburgh have read draft chapters and provided thoughtful critiques. My colleague at Earlham, Dr. Evan Farber, head librarian, has been generous with time and editorial suggestions, and Caroline Bailey, in addition to her interviews with the women in Tanohata, has been my partner in collecting and organizing data and has devoted hours and days at the computer, preparing the manuscript. As I noted above, Professor Hashimoto Ryóji has worked closely with me in Tanohata, as I have worked with him on his research in rural Indiana. Each of these people has been a friendly critic and helpful sounding board for ideas and approaches. In my sabbatical year of writing (1985-86), I benefited substantially from the opportunity to use East Asian library holdings related to Japan at Harvard, Yale, and Michigan. Colleagues in Japanese studies at each of these institutions as well as at MIT were generous and helpful in

xii

PREFACE

reading draft chapters and making suggestions about my approach and my interpretations. I am deeply indebted to the Tanohata village officials for supplying me with many of the photographs of village life then and now. I am grateful, too, for permission to quote extensively from Date Katsumi's book on Tanohata and Hashimoto Ryoji's article, "Tanohata-mura: The Women Speak." The story of Tanohata goes on. Nineteen eighty-five is a convenient stopping point for this study. Four visits to the village since the end of 1985 have allowed me to update my data and check facts and interpretations again with the principals of the story. These visits have also reminded me forcefully of how artificial a thing an arbitrary date or punctuation mark is. At the same time I feel a sense of urgency, fed by inquiries from colleagues and friends, to complete this phase of the study and present it to a wider audience. It is in that spirit that I have written what follows. Funding for various parts of my research activities has been provided by the following agencies and foundations, whose support is gratefully acknowledged: the Lilly Endowment for a Faculty Open Fellowship in 1982-83, the National Endowment for the Humanities for a College Teacher Research Fellowship in 1985-86, the Social Science Research Council for travel and research funds in 1985-86, and Earlham College for sabbatical leave in 1985-86.

ORDINARY PEOPLE, EXTRAORDINARY LIVES

The loneliness of isolation My parted friend Again this evening I remember Sasaki Saki

Hitori-i no sabishiki mama ni koyoi Mata wakareshi tomo o omoitsutsu ori Saki

INTRODUCTION

T h e resiliency and vitality of Japanese rural society and culture have long fascinated all those interested in comparative social change. Whether one examines social structure, basic values, economic development, or the phenomenon of urbanization, one is impressed by that resiliency and vitality. Sitting in the home of a fishing-farming family on the Rikuchu coast of Iwate Prefecture late one night in March 1983, my wife and I were again struck by this fact. We were there because the family's eldest son and his wife had rescued us from a blinding snowstorm that had clogged the roads and reduced visibility to zero. On the spur of the moment, they had invited us to spend the night in their home. Here were humble folk. The eldest son ran heavy road equipment in the off-season when his father (sixty-five and still an active fisherman) didn't need him in the fishing and farming operation. He and his bride of a few weeks, returning from their first official visit to her parents since their marriage, had found us about to be stranded for the night. He had a junior high school education and had been abroad once on the Iwate Prefecturesponsored ship Seinen no Fune, which travels on a goodwill mission to Southeast Asia each year. None of the rest of his family had ever met a foreigner directly, however, to say nothing of hosting two overnight. They soon recovered from their initial awe of having both a foreigner and a professor in their midst, and we spent a delightful evening around the fire talking till well past midnight while the storm howled outside. They were impressive people, unsophisticated but wise, generous, and kind. They represent a tremendous strength in a society that is being battered ever more fiercely by the worldwide storms of social and economic change. Although these people and many others we met in our year in Tanohata have the same solid, sensible humanity that we find in the people

3

4

INTRODUCTION

farming the cornfields of Indiana and the soybean and wheat fields of Illinois, Iowa, and Nebraska, the common strands of humanity that bind us fall far short of telling the whole story. There are fundamental cultural differences between Americans and Japanese, which are produced and reinforced by differences in historical experience. For instance, the home of some of our closest friends in Tanohata, a dairy farm family, was built before 1730. It has a traditional thatched roof (kayabuki), and the original beams, blackened with age and smoke, still show here and there in the main rooms. Two hundred fifty years of family tradition in one spot make the life experience of this family very different from that of an Indiana farm family, with less than half that history on the same land. Equally important to recognize is the variety of rural culture that exists within Japan itself. Differences of climate—from the subtropical conditions of southern Kyushu to the short growing season of northeast Honshu and Hokkaido, from the snow country on the Japan Sea side of Honshu, to the temperate Inland Sea and the harsh northeast Pacific coast —have provided dramatically different physical environments for the development of variations on the basic patterns of mainstream Japanese culture. The researcher and student of Japanese culture must take these regional differences into account and be careful not to overgeneralize from one set of research data. Studies of Japanese villages and rural life abound in Japanese scholarly literature, and there are a significant number of them in English as well. The first important study by a Westerner, John Embree's Suye Mura: A Japanese Village, has been supplemented in recent years by the publication of his wife's research on the role of women in the life of the village (Robert J. Smith and Ella Lury Wiswell, The Women of Suye Mura). Basic rural social structure (the so-called dozoku system) was studied by John Bennett and his Japanese colleagues in the early 1950s. At the end of that decade, Richard Beardsley and the University of Michigan Center for Japanese Studies published a baseline book, Village Japan. More specialized studies followed in the 1960s and 1970s, and a number of significant monographs appeared: Edward Norbeck's study of Takashima, which includes a follow-up some fifteen years later (Takashima: A Japanese Fishing Community), and Smith's study, Kurusu: The Price of Progress in a Japanese Village, 1951-1975, are particularly important for the longitudinal depth they give to social science research. Theodore Bestor's recent book Neighborhood Tokyo brings a fine counterpoint to studies of rural Japan, and Ronald Dore's Shinohata sets new standards for scholarly research and writing. L. Keith Brown's translation of the village records of Shinjo in Iwate Prefecture just as the village was being absorbed in a municipal consolidation gives insight into Japanese views of themselves as they confront social and economic change. Also important to this study has been the growing body of literature on regional politics and economic development. The work of Ronald

Introduction

5

Aqua, Richard Samuels, and Steven Reed, in particular, provides significant new ways of examining the structure and working of Japanese society at the regional and local level. (See, e.g., T. MacDougall, ed., Political Leadership in Contemporary Japan.) Additionally, I have drawn heavily on regional publications in Japanese from such organizations as the Iwate Keizai Kenkyu-sho (Iwate Economic Research Institute) and official documents from the prefectures, towns, and villages of the Tohoku region. These studies and others like them in English and Japanese provide a relatively full and broad-ranging view of the nature of Japanese society, its values, and the worldview of rural and small town Japanese. As the pace of social and economic change has quickened in Japan over the last thirty years, Japanese sociologists and social critics have hastened to point out the tensions and dislocations that have resulted. They have also examined the basic shift in national government policy for agriculture that occurred in the early 1960s. A new national policy was put in place by the Basic Agricultural Law of 1961. This law established two fundamental policy objectives: (1) rationalization of land-holdings (i.e., bringing together a family's various holdings to make all of them contiguous) to increase the scale of production and (2) mechanization of the agricultural production process. These policies accelerated the pace of change and dramatically stimulated the shift of population from rural to urban areas. In 1955, 39 percent of the working population was in agriculture; in 1980, only 9 percent. In 1955, 18 percent of GNP was generated by agriculture; by 1980 only 2.5 percent came from that sector. These changes have produced vectors of force in Japanese life that are still at work. They have been disruptive and disorienting for many, but at the same time the material benefits and the rise in the overall standard of living in rural Japan has been dramatic. Ironically, the crisis in Japanese agriculture in the early 1990s, precipitated by massive surpluses of subsidized home-grown rice and deepened by rising trade friction with the United States, is, in one sense, the result of the success of that 1961 policy shift. The study of political development and economic change takes on added meaning when it is placed against the background of national trends, especially since it complements the studies of other regions of Japan done over the past three decades. The accompanying map of Japan, which show's the locations of these studies, brings this point into clear focus. Tanohata, situated as it is on the northeast coast, away from the main rice-growing areas, represents a very different part of Japan. Yet its differences, significant as they are, can be seen in proper perspective only as part of the larger picture of national trends of development and change. Since Tanohata, though rural, is not a rice-producing area, it has, until recently, been outside the pale of mainstream developments in Japanese agricultural life. Then in the 1970s, with its fledgling dairy business,

^

13. J 4» »5 J*

15

6

*

V

J

\

8» J .9


- 1,500,000 o o o 1,000,000

O

Expenses Infrastructure investment

500,000 I—I—i—I—I

1 9 6 5

1 9 6 7

1 9 6 9

1 9 7 1

1 9 7 3

1 9 7 5

1 9 7 7

1 9 7 9

Year FIGURE 1. Relationship between expenses and infrastructure investment. Source: Tanohata-mura, Tanohata-mura noson sogo seibi keikaku-sho, p. 156.

Local Revenue 9E+09 8E+09 7E+09 c a> >» o o o o" o o o~ o

6E+09

•

5E+09

Local Taxes Equalization Tax

4E+09 3E + 09 2E + 09 1E + 09 0E + 00

-

19 65

•

19 67

19 69

19 71

19 73

1 111 19 75

19 77

• 19 79

Year FIGURE 2. Tanohata growth in tax revenue, 1965-79. Source: Tanohata-mura, Tanohata-mura nôson sôgô seibi keikaku-sho,

p. 68.

232

APPENDIX

1

F I G U R E 3- Tanohata 1 9 8 2 income. Source: Tanohata-mura, Tanohata sonsei yoran,

1982, p. 20.

F I G U R E 4. Tanohata 1982 expenses. Source.Tanohata-mura, Tanohata sonsei yoran, 1982, p. 20. Note: "Primary sector" refers here to forestry, agriculture, and fisheries.

Appendix

1

233

2,500 —

2,000 c CD >• 1,500 o c •g 1,000 Ü 500

_

i; J JLI Ï JWlS «ÏI 1965

1970

1975

• •

H

tal

Agricultural Primary Secondary Tertiary

1980

Year FIGURE 5. Changes in production by economic sector. Source: Tanohata-mura, Tanohata-mura nöson sögö seibi keikaku-sho,

p. 27.

500

400 Farm households

in

Full-time farming

i

£ 300 a> 0) 3 O E 200 k_ CO LL

•

Percent full-time households

H

Pt-time farmg/with prim, work Pt-time farmg/with sec. work

100 -

J

1965

1970

1975

1980

Year FIGURE 6. Farming population in Tanohata. Source: Tanohata-mura, Tanohata-mura nöson sögö seibi keikaku-sho,

p. 128.

2^4

APPENDIX

1

1978

1973 Fishing population

Year

Fishing households 1968

1963

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

People FIGURE 7. Fishing population in Tanohata. Source: Tanohata-mura, Tanohata-mura noson sógó seibi keikaku-sho,

p. 36.

APPENDIX 2 The Charter of the People of the Village

W e , the people of Tanohata, do hereby establish the following Charter, promising to work day by day to build a strong and progressive village, one which will seek peace, emphasize cooperation, and think deeply in this emerging new era. Mindful that we are the inheritors of the traditions built by the efforts of those who went before, we shall strive to preserve our natural surroundings and our rich heritage and in this environment to nurture people with a simple and honest way of life. 1. We, the citizens of Tanohata, resolve to create families and a village which are productive and in which we are careful to preserve a safe and healthy environment. 2. We, the citizens of Tanohata, resolve to create families and a village in which there is joy, where hazards to life are eliminated, and where we treat our beautiful environment with respect and care. 3. We, the citizens of Tanohata, resolve to create decent and orderly families and a village where people observe the social amenities and return thanks with direct honesty to all with whom they deal. 4. We, the citizens of Tanohata, resolve to create families and a village where harmony prevails, where public morality is high, and where freedom and rights are carefully respected. 5. We, the citizens of Tanohata, resolve to create families and a village which provide happiness for our children who hold the key to our future, helping them to develop their knowledge and their creative thinking.

235

NOTES

PREFACE Unless otherwise attributed, all translations from Japanese sources are my own. 1. Hashimoto Ryoji, "The Women Speak: Rikuchu Aruku, miru, kiku 238 (Dec. 1986): 5.

Tanohata

mura,"

INTRODUCTION 1. The term enjutsu is a variant of the more usual term for a speech, enzetsu. 2. After World War II, as Japanese were brought back from overseas, many of them really as refugees, the government looked for places to resettle them. The remote, sparsely populated areas of such villages as Tanohata were identified as "pioneer settlement" areas. In Tanohata, people repatriated from Sakhalin were resettled in these areas. 3. Hashimoto, "The Women Speak," p. 39. 4. It is still quite common in Japan for the husband to "marry into" a family where there are no sons and take his wife's family name to ensure the preservation of the paternal family line. 5. Date Katsumi, Tanohata-mura no jikken (Experiment in Tanohata), pp. 70 ff. 6. Ibid., p. 44. 7. Hashimoto, "The Women Speak," p. 36.

CHAPTER 1 I960.

1. Translated from a copy held in Tanohata-mura files and dated March 24,

237

238

NOTES TO CHAPTER 2

2. Translated from notes of a conversation with Mr. Makuuchi, November 6, 1982. 3. Mayor's speech to the Village Assembly, March 16, 1966. 4. Mayor's speech to the Village Assembly, March 23, 1967. 5. Interview with the mayor, November 1982. 6. Hara was an able politician who played a central role in Japanese political life from 1900 to his assassination in 1921. He was president of the Seiyukai, the dominant political party, from 1913 and premier from 1918. 7. Sasaki Kyoichi, a history teacher in Iwaizumi, the town next to Tanohata, has edited some of these documents for use by junior high school students. His pamphlet "Heii-gun musen koshiki" is a fine Japanese history primer. 8. Like Hatakeyama, Kumagai is a common family name. Apart from this family name, each honke or main family ie has an ie name. Thus the Hatakeyama ie cited above is called Nakasaki-ya. The Kumagai ie is called Wayama-ke. The eldest son carries special responsibility to preserve and enhance the fortunes of the ie. 9. See the seminal study by Iwao Ishino and John Bennett. 10. Hashimoto, "The Women Speak," p. 11. 11. Ibid., pp. 12-15. 12. This was a national phenomenon in rural Japan in the 1870s and 1880s. It resulted in large part from the change from in-kind to cash tax levies. 13. Hashimoto, "The Women Speak," p. 6. 14. In many parts of Japan it is not acceptable to use the term buraku (hamlet) because burakumin (hamlet people) is a code word for the 2 - 3 million people sometimes called "untouchables" who have been segregated and discriminated against. The generic term shuraku is now used for hamlet. People in Tanohata continue to use the term buraku without the perjorative connotation it has elsewhere. 15. Hashimoto, "The Women Speak," pp. 6-8. 16. Ibid., pp. 8-11. 17. Interview with one of the repatriate couples, March 1983. 18. Hashimoto, "The Women Speak," pp. 15-19 passim. 19. Tanohata-mura: Zen-son kyoiku keikaku, 1953, pp. 8-14. 20. Hashimoto, "The Women Speak," pp. 19-23.

CHAPTER 2 1. This analysis emerged from my reading of the village records, especially those of the Village Assembly and the transcripts of the mayor's yearly address to the assembly. It was confirmed through interviews with a number of key people, including the mayor and the chairman of the Village Council. 2. Date, Experiment in Tanohata, pp. 39-44. 3. In March 1983 my wife and I were unable to return to the village because of a driving snow storm and had to stay overnight some five kilometers down the coast. However, by early morning the roads were plowed and we drove across Makisawa Bridge, thankful for it as so many other residents of Tanohata have been. 4. Even this figure masks the stark reality. There was only one private car for every 100 households—most of the vehicles were public or commercially

Notes to Chapter 2

239

owned, and so did not provide access to the outside world for ordinary people. These statistics are drawn from the 1964 edition of the Sonsei Yoran (A review of conditions in the village). 5. Mayor's State of the Village speech, March 16,1966, pp. la-3a. 6. In the early 1960s Tanohata had had a very low percentage of children going on from middle to high school. In 1964 only 1 in 8 or 12.5 percent went on to high school. By the mid-seventies the village was at or above the national average of 92 percent. 7. State of the Village speech, March 16,1967, p. 8a. 8. The mayor announced this in his speech to the council, March 23, 1967, p. 8. 9. This term is a buzzword all over Japan. Its thrust and nuance are difficult to convey in English. The mayor used the term frequently in speeches and in private conversation. He once said to me that it was the most important discovery of his years as head of the fishing co-op. He felt that developing the leadership capacity of people was the key to his success in that job. 10. Hatakeyama is one of three of the most common family names in Tanohata; the others are Kumagai and Sasaki. To speak of "Mr. Hatakeyama" in a group of a dozen people is not very useful, since a number in the group are likely to have that name. Accordingly I will refer to him by his given name, Shoichi, in the American way. 11. The most important post theoretically is the number three person in the village hierarchy, the village comptroller (.shunyu-yaku); however, it carries with it little policy or leadership initiative and the comptroller normally serves at the pleasure of the mayor. 12. The name in Japanese is Hokubu Rikuchu Kaigan Kanko Kaihatsu Kaisha. 13. Hashimoto, "The Women Speak," pp. 23-25. 14. This was Yoshizuka Kimio, a protege of Kumagai Ryuko. See Chap. 7 for more on the Yoshizukas. 15. His findings were published in 1975 in the book Soshite, waga Sokoku Nippon (What can we say about our fatherland, Japan), in which he denounced the Tanohata authorities and the mayor in particular for the consolidation plan and the way they were implementing it. His argument is interesting and, on the surface, persuasive. 16. Honda claims to be quoting from the mayor's speech to the Village Assembly in 1974, but these words do not appear in the text, though he does discuss the problem on p. 187. 17. Honda, What Can We Say, p. 190. 18. Ibid., p. 191. 19. Tsukue gave up its middle school in March 1978, and Numabukuro in 1979. 20. Hashimoto, "The Women Speak," p. 22. 21. Ibid., pp. 16-18. 22. The bird is the pheasant (yamadori), the flower, the white rhododendron (shirabana shakunage), and the tree, the paulownia (kiri no ki). 2 3. A translation of the charter appears in Appendix 2. 24. In most of Japan, Adulthood Day is January 15. In Tanohata it is August 15, so as to coincide with the Obon festival, when most villagers are at home.

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Tanohata has been successful in using this ceremonial day to build a sense of village identity. In 1982, 62 of the 106 young people who had attained adulthood (that is, age twenty) during the year attended the village-sponsored ceremony. 25.1 presented the story of this exchange relationship and an analysis of this program in international education in two articles in the Japan Quarterly, vol. 30, no. 2, April-June 1983 entitled "Bridging the Cultural Gap." 26. Mayor's State of the Village speech, March 1981, p. 13. 27. Mayor's State of the Village speech, March 1982, p. 1. 28. Hashimoto, "The Women Speak," pp. 22-23.

CHAPTER 3 1. See Mark Kesselman, The Ambiguous Consensus. 2. See Ronald Aqua, "Mayoral Leadership in Japan: What's in a Sewer Pipe," in MacDougall, Political Leadership in Contemporary Japan. 3. Samuels, Politics of Regional Policy, pp. 246-47. 4. For instance, stories abound of white collar workers complaining to and about their superiors in the bar at night after a few drinks. 5. Hashimoto, "The Women Speak," p. 19. 6. It is almost impossible to get statistics on this land-holding pattern since much of it is hidden. People with whom I talked estimated that only about half of such land is in the public record. 7. In the hamlet of Tsukue, for example, the common family names are Kamitsukue (Upper Tsukue), Nakatsukue (Middle Tsukue), and Shimotsukue (Lower Tsukue). This gives evidence of the way family names were acquired in the Meiji period (commoners had no family name in pre-Meiji times): many people simply took the name of their hamlet. In Tashiro the most common name is Kumagai; in Tanohata, the central hamlet in the village, it is Hatakeyama. 8. Suzuki is an interesting figure. He was forced out of office as prime minister in the fall of 1982 but he remained a powerful force in Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) politics. He inherited the mantle and the faction of Ohira Masayoshi, who died suddenly in 1979- He has been very adept at the game of pork barrel politics, though with none of the suggestions of corruption associated with former Prime Minister Tanaka in Niigata Prefecture. 9. The material in this section is based on several lengthy interviews with the mayor held on November 22, 1982, May 16, 1983, and June 17, 1983, with a follow-up interview in April of 1986. 10. Interview with Hayano,June 17, 1983. 11. iwate nippo, March 25, 1983. 12. Interview with Hayano, June 20, 1983. 13. See below for a discussion of the 1978 reform. 14. In Japanese, Okurenai, yasumanai, hatarakanai. 15. For example, making arrangements to see the mayor or taking care of special requests for photocopying, introductions, and contact with local people all required extra work. Workers in the village office frequently took the initiative and offered to help me. 16. Date's wife, Toshiko, also from outside, is a member of the Advisory Committee to the Board of Education and is active in the women's club. Though she once complained about being an outsider, my observation is that she and her

Notes to Chapter 4

241

h u s b a n d are n o w fully a part of the community. See Chapter T w o for a fuller discussion of the Dates' status in the village and Chapter Five for an analysis of Katsumi's leadership in e c o n o m i c development a n d for Toshiko's c o m m e n t s o n their life in Tanohata. 17. Mayor's State of the Village speech, March 10, 1978, pp. 6 b - 7 a . 18. Interview, J u n e 1, 1983. 19. Mayor's State of the Village speech, March 1 6 , 1 9 6 6 , pp. 1 , 1 a . 20. See Appendix 1, Figure 1 for statistics o n infrastructure investment. 21. Interview, D e c e m b e r 23, 1982. 22. See Chapter Four for m o r e details about this project. 23. T w o of the most interesting of such efforts are in Oita Prefecture in the northern and Kagoshima in the southern part o f Kyushu. In Oita the governor took the lead in the "each village, o n e p r o d u c t " project. In Kagoshima it was the governor w h o initiated what c a m e to be called the Karaimo Exchange Program (Karaimo Koryu) with young p e o p l e from all over J a p a n and the world invited to s p e n d two w e e k s in towns and villages in Kagoshima. 24. By 1989 the council m e m b e r s h i p included 21 towns and villages, with several others clamoring to get in. 25. See Chapter Six for a full discussion of this project.

CHAPTER 4 1. Narita, Kyoiku p. 15. 2. State of the Village speech, March 22, 1967, p. 11. 3. Koho Tanohata (News from Tanohata), April 1968, p. 3. 4. K u d o is a signally able and humane person, generous in spirit and o p e n to n e w ideas and people. He served as superintendent of education for nearly five years (December 1 9 6 2 - J u n e 1967) and then was elected mayor of Morioka where he served for eight years ( 1 9 6 9 - 1 9 7 7 ) . In 1978 he was elected a m e m b e r of the Lower House of the national Diet. 5. Kurosawa, Iwate kindai kyoiku shi (A m o d e r n history of education in Iwate), vol. 3, p. 745. 6. Mayor's speech to the Village Assembly, March 16, 1966, p. 8. 7. My basic sources for this analysis are his yearly State of the Village speeches to the Assembly, in which he reports very specifically o n the accomplishments of the past year and the plans for the next year and explains his budget requests. 8. See note 14, Chapter One. 9- The crucial importance of this issue is seen w h e n o n e notes the steep decline in population b e t w e e n 1965 and 1970. The population d r o p p e d from 6 , 1 7 0 to 5,320 (13.7 percent). In the period 1 9 6 0 - 6 5 it had declined from 6 , 5 9 0 to 6 , 1 7 0 (6.5 percent). The accelerated decline in the s e c o n d half of the 1960s reflects the m o m e n t u m of forces set in motion b y Tanohata's desperate e c o n o m i c straits in the aftermath of the merger debacle a n d the kerosene revolution. 10. The basic information a n d data for this section of Chapter Four are drawn from three sources: (1) Yamanaka, Zenson kyoiku keikaku, 1953; (2) Narita, Kyoiku, 1964; (3) Tanohata Kyoiku Iinkai, Tanohata sonsei yoran, 1964. 11. Mori, Nippon: A Charted Survey of Japan, 1984/85, p. 292. 12. Article II of this law states that certain areas of the country shall be des-

242

NOTES TO CHAPTER 4

ignated as hekichi when they are "regions which are surrounded by mountains, are remote islands or other places which have unfavorable conditions culturally, economically or in terms of natural environment or access by [public] transportation." Narita, Kyoiku, p. 3. Designated areas were to receive aid by various categories under the law, and schools within such areas were classified according to criteria such as commuting distance, population density, local tax base, etc. 13. Budget figures for investment are presented in Appendix 1, Table 1. Statistics were supplied by the Construction Section of the Village Office, 1986 chart. 14. From 1971 to 1979 a total of ¥1.277 billion (roughly 8423,000) was invested in educational and cultural development alone. 15. Attendance is, of course, voluntary. The centers are a service offered to citizens by the village. One hundred percent of the five year olds were attending in 1982 and a majority of the four year olds. 16. It was not until the early 1980s that this became a frequent pattern. Before that, not many part-time jobs were available, and the local social ethic frowned on such work by young mothers. 17. The original hekichi law was promulgated August 20, 1900, as part of the general rescript on primary school education. Kurosawa, Iwate kindai kyoiku shi, vol. 3, p. 256. 18. Bad as things were in Tanohata in the 1950s they had been even worse in some of the other villages in Shimohei-gMM. Earlier Kawai-mwr«, which is landlocked, had one hamlet in which, at about the time the Meiji hekichi law was implemented, not even one primary school age child was in school. At that time the prefecture's rate of attendance for primary school age children was already 90 percent. 19. A discussion of this legislation and the conditions under which it was applied in Iwate is contained in vol. 2 of Kurosawa, Iwate kindai kyoiku shi, pp. 255-60. 20. In the fall and winter of 1982-83 Hatakeyama supported the incorporation of the post for the second foreign teacher in the village in the Board of Education's regular budget and guided that proposal through the budget procedures. It was clear that he was ahead of the people in the Board of Education on this matter. 21. In certain planning documents as many as thirty hamlets are listed, but the cluster of households which have some real social cohesion and history and could be termed real shiiraku (hamlets) is more like seventeen or eighteen. There are seventeen kominkan (community centers) in the village and their presence suggests the reality and potential of hamlet life. 22. Conversation with the postmaster of Raga hamlet, February 1983. 23. Narita, Kyoiku, p. 24. 24. Preface to the 1972 planning document (Tanohata-mura, Shin sogo kaihatsu keikaku koso hokoku), p. 1. 25. State of the Village speech, March 17, 1972, pp. 3a-4. 26. Notes from an interview on November 22, 1982. 27. Honda, What Can We Say, p. 189. 28. In the postwar period there has been a series of episodes involving textbook revision and recentralization in which the Minister of Education has publicly taken severely revisionist positions on such things as interpretation of Japan's wartime aggression in China and on ethical education in the schools. In

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243

1986 Premier Nakasone actually dismissed the minister of education because he refused to retract his publicly enunciated revisionist position. 29. Honda, What Can We Say, p. 191. He develops this thesis at some length in his book. 30. State of the Village speech, March 22, 1967, pp. 11-12. 31. In 1984, a member of the dormitory staff went to the United States to participate in the January Institute on American Culture and Education, an exchange program for public school teachers held annually at Earlham College. He had been on the staff of the dormitory from the beginning. At the institute he emphasized repeatedly, in conversations as well as in his formal report, what an integrative role the consolidated middle school and dormitory had played in the village. 32. Notes from a conversation with the mayor, November 22, 1982. 33. Most high schools in Japan, except in the biggest cities, are run by prefectural boards of education. 34. Interview with Kumagai Ryuko in Numabukuro, November 1982. A reluctant convert, Ryuko would have preferred to have his own children go to middle school in Numabukuro. However, by 1989, after two of them had lived in the dormitory, he came to recognize its value. 35. Notes from a conversation, November 22, 1982. 36. By 1985 the focus of this problem nationally was the phenomenon ijime, literally " teasing, vexing." Ijime is the bullying of one student by a group. It has become a widespread problem in middle schools all over Japan. 37. See Chapter Two for the details of this specific episode. 38. Typical of these was one called Hanayome gakkyu (A text for brides). 39. By the end of the 1970s kominkan (community centers) had been constructed by village funds in the most populous hamlets. In 1982 there were seventeen such facilities. These provide space for community meetings, for recreation and for youth and adult education activities. The mayor also holds briefing and dialogue sessions at them on a regular basis to keep the formal lines of communication open between the village office and local constituents. 40. Kyoiku shinko kihon keikaku, p. 1. 41. A Report on a Survey of Young People's Perception of Their Lives, 1983, privately printed by the Tanohata Board of Education. 42. Tanohata received national publicity in a lengthy article in the national daily Nihon keizai shinbun on April 27, 1982. The article, headlined "Village Education Toward the Twenty-first Century," told of the various efforts in international education and described the establishment of the Study Fund. 43. One set of parents told us their children refused to help take care of pigs and complained when the family continued to raise them. "They stink!" the children said.

CHAPTER 5 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

For the legal criteria for hekichi designation, see Chapter Four, n. 12. Narita, Kyoiku, p. 15. State of the Village speech, March 1966, pp. 1-la. Interview, June 1, 1983Statistics measuring the farming population are confusing. Full-time

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NOTES TO CHAPTER 5

farmers in 1988 constituted only 8.4 percent of the total population and constituted only 14.5 percent of the total farm population. Part-time farming has become a way of life for a substantial number of Japanese. Over 85 percent of those who farm do so part time and they yield nearly 80 percent of Japanese agricultural production. This phenomenon has been one of the major national economic trends of the period 1970-85. Statistics from Deeta de miru kensei (A statistical view of the prefectures) (Tokyo: Kokuseisha, 1987-90), p. 196. 6. Iwate-ken Iwate-ken ni okeru dekasegi no jittai (Actual conditions of dekasegi in Iwate-ken) (Morioka: Iwate-ken Shoko Rodo-bu Shokugyo Antei-ka 1985), p. 5. 7. These figures are from the Norin Suisan Nenkan, 1980-81, pp. 48-49. 8. Yamashita Yuzo, Dekasegi no shakaigaku, p. 113. 9- Ono Shinya, "What Makes Tanohata a Depopulated Village?" 10. Ibid., pt. 2, sect. III-3, p. 1. 11. Ibid. 12.Ibid. 13- Iwate nippo, January 5, 1984. 14. Ono, "What Makes Tanohata a Depopulated Village?," pt. III-2, pp. 1-2. 15. Okawa Taketsugu, Sengo Nihon shihon shugi to nogyo, p. 302. 16. Tanohata koho, no. 182, January 1983, p. 11. 17. Iwate nippo, August 6, 1984. 18. Nihon keizai shinbun, August 13, 1985. 19. Ibid., September 10,1985. 20. Tanohata-mura, Komyunitei karejji koso, p. 10; Tanohata-mura, Tanohata-mura noson sogo seibi keikaku-sho (cited hereafter as 1982 Study), p. 29. 21. Tanohata-mura, 1982 Study, p. 27. See Appendix 1, Figure 3. 22. See Appendix 1, Figures 3 and 4. 23. Tanohata-mura, 1982 Study, p. 36. 24. Ibid., p. 68. See Appendix 1, Figure 2. 25. Tanohata-mura, Sonseiyoran, 1964, 1968. 26. For comparison nationally, personal income doubled between 1965 and 1970 and doubled again between 1970 and 1975. ShOwa Kokusei Yoran, Vol. 1, p. 110. See Appendix 1, Tables 2 and 3. 27. Tanohata-mura, 1982 Study, pp. 66-67. 28. Date, Experiment in Tanohata, pp. 92-95 passim. 29. Once the root vegetable blossoms, it begins to go to seed and the tuberous root no longer grows. 30. Ibid., pp. 96 ff. 31. Ibid., p. 100. 32. Ibid. 33. In Nenkan Kashu (1981), p. 53. 34. The verb kaeru (kaete kimashita) is used to refer to return to one's own home place. Thus, the emotional tone of this phrase expresses the relationship the young people from Waseda felt with Tanohata. 35. Date, Experiment in Tanohata, pp. 39-44. 36. Hayano, State of the Village speech, March 1966, p. 3. 37. Hayano, State of the Village speech, March 20, 1969, p. 5. 38. Hayano, State of the Village speech, March 13, 1970, pp. 5, 8-9.

Notes to Chapter 6

39. 40. 41. hata, pp. 42. 43.

245

Tanohata-mura, Shin sogo kaihatsu, p. 1. See Appendix 1, Table 4 for an outline of the structure of the company. The following lengthy excerpts are from Date's Experiment in Tano108-19 passim. Tanohata koho, no. 194, January 1984, pp. 4-5. Yomiurishinbun, January 25, 1985.

CHAPTER 6 1. Johnson, Japan's Public Policy Companies, p. 45. 2. Date, Experiment in Tanohata, pp. 99-202 passim. 3. Ueno Toshiakira, "The Quiet Campaign of Tsutsumi Yoshiaki," Purejidento, December 1985, p. 323. The details of the story of the establishment of the Sanriku Railroad are drawn from this article. 4. Ibid., p. 324. 5. Ibid. 6. Ibid. 7. Ibid., p. 325. 8. The Seibu Group includes department stores and private rail lines in the Kanto area as well as a department store and hotels in Hawaii. It is considered one of the most successful and enterprising of such conglomerates, which are a distinctive phenomenon in Japanese economic life. 9. Ueno, "Quiet Campaign," p. 327. 10. Ibid., p. 328. 11. Ibid., p. 322. 12. In August 1987 the National Land Agency published the results of a study it had done of 13 third sector or privatized transportation companies nationwide. The Sanriku Railroad was one of the three that were already running in the black. Asahi shinbun, August 31, 1987. 13. This small capitalization seems strange. However, the company is only running the line, not constructing it, since that job had essentially been done. 14. Ueno, "Quiet Campaign," p. 335. 15. Ibid., p. 336. 16. Quoted in ibid., p. 335. 17. Date, Experiment in Tanohata, p. 330. 18. Hokubu Rikuchu Kaigan Kanko Kaihatsu K.K., Eigyo hokoku sho, 1985. 19. Hayano, State of the Village speech report, March 1986. 20. See Figure 3. 21. Date, Experiment in Tanohata, pp. 195-98. 22. Tanohata koho, November 1985, p. 6. 23. e.g. This meeting was one of the first times, if not the first, that Fudai and Tanohata had come together to work cooperatively on the initiative of one of them since the merger fiasco of the early sixties. Representatives of both villages meet regularly in larger prefectural groupings, of course. 24. It is interesting to note that in the end Hayano decided to celebrate the 101st anniversary of the creation of Tanohata instead. He said, "We must look to the future, not the past." So 1990 was chosen as the year of celebration rather than 1989.

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NOTES TO CHAPTER 7

CHAPTER 7 1. Excerpted and translated from "The Sanriku Road," pt. 1, Iwate nippö, April 25, 1984. 2. Hayano, State of the Village speech, March 1985, p. 2. 3. "The Sanriku Road," pt. 3, Iwate nippö, April 27, 1984. 4. Date, A Proposal submitted as a basis for adjustments, Shöwa 60 (1985), October 5. 5. Yomiurishinbun, January 25, 1985. 6. "The Sanriku Road," pt. 2, Iwate nippö, April 26,1984. 7. Interview with Takeda Seiichi, Japan Economic Journal, May 25, 1982, p. 24. 8. Hashimoto, "The Women Speak," p. 28. 9- Makabe Jin and Nozoe Kenji, eds., Customs beyond Culture, p. 10. 10. Hashimoto, "The Women Speak," pp. 28-33.

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Noson Sogo Seibi Taisaku Shitsu. Aru Tanohata sonmin no tegami (Letters from people in Tanohata). Tanohata: Tanohata Yakuba, 1981. Ohta, Takashi. Sengo Nihon kyoikushi (A postwar history of Japanese education). Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 4th printing, 1981. Oikawa, Jun, ed. Tanohata sonsbi (A history of Tanohata). Vol. 1. Tanohata: Privately printed, 1985. Okawa Taketsugu. Sengo Nihon shihonshugi to nogyo (Postwar Japanese capitalism and agriculture). Tokyo: Ochanomizu Shobo, 1979. Ono Shinya. Naniga Tanohata-mura o kaso ni suru no ka?: Tanohata-mura no kakaeru kadai to tembo (What makes Tanohata a depopulated village?: The perspective and concerns of Tanohata). Tanohata: Matsushita Institute for Politics and Economics, privately printed, 1981. Rekishi Kyoikusha Kyogikai Tohoku Burokku, ed. Tohoku minshu no rekishi: Nihon shi o minaosu tame ni (A history of ordinary people in the Tohoku: An attempt to rethink Japanese history). Tokyo: Minshu Sha, 1977. Samuels, Richard J. The Politics of Regional Policy in Japan: Localities Unincorporated. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983. Shichinomiya, Keizo. Iwate saisho ron (A discussion of Iwate prime ministers). Tokyo: Shinjinbutsu Orai-sha, 1981. Shichoson Zeimu Kenkyukai. Kojin shotoku shihyo, Showa 60 (An index to personal income, 1985). Tokyo: Nihon Maketingu Kyoiku Senta, 1985. Shokugyo Antei-ka (Section for Stabilization of Employment). Iwate-ken ni okeru dekasegi no jittai (Conditions regarding dekasegi in Iwate). Morioka, Iwate-ken Shoko Rodo-bu, 1985. Smith, Robert J. Kurusu: The Prince of Progress in a Japanese Village. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1978. Sorifu (Prime Minister's Office). Jumin kihon daicho jinko ido hokoku, Showa 41-50 (Report on fundamental movement of population, 1966-75), Tokyo: Sorifu Tokeikyoku, n.d. . Annual Report on Internal Migration. Tokyo: Office of the Prime Minister, 1969, 1973, 1976, 1981. .Japan Statistical Yearbook. Tokyo: Office of the Prime Minister, 1966, 1971,1976,1985. . Population Census of Japan. Tokyo: Office of the Prime Minister, 1965, 1970, 1975, 1980. Statistics Bureau. Nihon tokei nenkan 1985 (Japan statistical yearbook, 1985). Tokyo: Somucho Tokeikyoku, 1985. Steiner, Kurt. Local Government in Japan. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1965. Takeda, Seichi. Kokusai rikai kyoiku ni tsuite (Regarding education for international understanding). Tanohata: Tanohata-mura Kyoiku Iinkai, 1987. . Tanohata shogakko shakai-ka fuku tokuhon (Tanohata supplemental text for elementary school social studies). Tanohata: Tanohata Office of Education, 1987. Tanohata Kikaku Somu-ka. Tanohata 101. Morioka, 1990. Tanohata Kocho Kai. Kokusai rikai o fukameru tame no kyoiku wa do arebayoi ka? (What should we do to deepen education for international understanding?). Tanohata, 1985. Tanohata Kyoiku Iinkai. Hanayomegakkyu (A text for brides). Tanohata, n.d.

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252

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Iwate keizai kenkyu-sho (Iwate economic research institute). February 1983 (4); October 1983 (12); November 1984 (25); June 1985 (31); July 1985 (32); December 1985 (37). Iwate nippo. January 1-May 4, 1984. Japan Quarterly. April-June 1983- 30 (2). Mainichishinbun. April 30-May 13, 1984. Nihon keizai shinbun. April 27, 1982. Purejidento (The president). June 1985; December 1985. Tanohata koho (Report from Tanohata). 1980-90. Yomiurishinbun. January 25, 1985.

INDEX

Accommodation, tourist, 62, 166-171, 174-175, 177,195-196 Activism: social, 61-62; student, 69-70 Agricultural policy, national, 5 Agriculture: contract vegetable, 7, 18, 24, 87,90-91, 107, 156, 158-161, 209; and dekasegi, 146; development of, 115,122, 160-161,175, 208-210; employment in, 151-152; and Japanese economy, 5, 7; subsistence, 48, 54, 57-60, 86, 91, 161; of Tanohata, 18, 24-25, 48, 54, 57-60, 73, 75-76, 90-91, 107; and tourism, 195. See also Dairy farming Ainu, 37, 43 Akedo,144-145, 174-175,210-211 Alliances, political, 101-103, 216 Artifacts: Jómon, 9, 43; Yayoi, 43 Assistant mayor, 112 Autonomy, of local government, 11,98, 103,116-119 Basic Agricultural Law (1961), 5 Beauty, of Tanohata, 41-42 Behavioral problems, 92, 134, 243 n. 43; in schools, 140, 206 Benedict, Ruth, The Chrysanthemum and the Sword, 97 Board of Education: prefectural, 59; village, 136-138, 140, 207, 242 n. 20 Brain drain, 78, 80, 85, 100, 125 Budget: national, 140; of Tanohata, 88, 103-104, 106-108, 112, 115, 127-128, 131, 135, 138,242 n. 20 Buraku, 238n. 14 Bureaucracy: of agricultural co-op, 161; and

educational policies, 140-141;JNR, 118, 185-188; national, 83-85, 97 Bureaucracy, village, 107, 110-113, 196, 239n. 11; and contract vegetables, 158159, 161; and education, 207; organization of, 110-113; reorganization of, 215 Charcoal production, 36, 47-48, 54-55, 58-59, 102, 180; and kerosene revolution, 66,100 Charter, village, 88 Chida Tadashi, 16, 66, 94, 101-103, 152; and education, 124, 126, 133 Childbirth, 15, 22-23, 47, 59 Child care, 82-83, 127-128, 136, 242 n. 15 Childhood, 60 Children: mdbiko mondai, 92, 134, 140, 206, 243 n. 43; in work force, 51, 84, 130. See also Students Chrysanthemum and the Sword, The (Benedict), 97 Civil servants, 110-113, \ \6. See also names of individuals Climate: Japanese, 4; ofTanohata, 7, 29, 4142, 45, 50-52, 70, 160 Communications: development of, 62, 7374; horizontal, 116-117; inadequacy of, 59, 70, 121; and social problems, 92 Community centers, 106, 115, 136, 242 n. 21, 243 n. 39 Community identity: development of, 72, 7 4 , 8 0 - 8 1 , 8 5 - 8 6 , 8 8 , 9 1 - 9 3 , 9 5 , 104, 106, 115, 211 -212; and economic development, 205-206; and education, 121—123, 126, 129-133, 137-138, 140; and

253

254

INDEX

marketing, 172-173, 198; need for, 62, 125 Companies: fourth sector, 217; joint stock, 191; public development, 191; third sector, 26, 75, 185, 194. See also names of companies Comptroller, village, 112, 239n. 11 Conflict: coastal-mountain, 100-102; and consolidated middle school, 8 2 , 1 0 5 106, 129-134; between fishing co-ops, 152-154; north-south, 189; trade, 5; urban-rural, 189 Construction: of community halls, 106, 115, 136; and economic development,

Dislocation, and rural development, 5 Doctors, 2 3 , 4 7 , 1 1 3 , 115 Documentation, 4 - 5 ; and educational policy, 136-137; and municipal consolidation, 4, 25, 3 5 - 3 6 , 6 7 - 6 8 , 9 9 ; of planning, 9 - 1 0 , 129-130, 153-154, 166-167, 209-210, 242 n. 21 ; and Tanohata's history, 8 - 1 0 , 43. See also Publications; Records Dökö Toshio, 189

24, 53; of infrastructure, 73-74, 87, 104106, 154-155, 165; management of, 77; and property values, 76; of schools, 136 Continuity: and development policy, 73; in local bureaucracy, 112 Cooperation: inter-village, 199-200, 245 n. 23; and regional development, 8; Waseda-Tanohata, 73. See also Earlham Program; Waseda Program Cooperatives: agricultural, 58, 73, 105, 159, 161, 208; fishing, 5 2 , 6 1 , 6 5 - 6 6 , 102, 104, 114, 152-154, 208; forestry, 46, 73, 208 Corruption: electoral, 109; official, 240 n. 8 Crime, petty, 92 Culture, Japanese, 4, 7, 37-39, 43; rural, 3 4,44

Earlham Program, 1 9 - 2 1 , 8 9 , 116, 133-135, 139,205 Earthquakes, 51 Economic activity, 62-63; linked, 187; third sector, 168-169, 185, 200. See also Entrepreneurship Economic aid: agricultural, 5; availability of, 94; for education, 126-128, 134-135; for hekichi, 143; for regional development, 1 1 - 1 2 , 7 4 - 7 6 , 8 7 - 8 8 , 102, 115-116, 118, 154, 165, 168-169, 216-217 Economic development, 4 - 5 , 7 - 8 , 11-12, 6 2 - 6 3 , 68, 121-125, 140, 152-154, 173175, 194-196, 217-218; and dekasegi, 146-150; philosophical basis for, 72, 207-211; third sector, 115, 118, 185-200 Economy: Japanese, 5, 7, 49, 66, 68, 146149, 217; of Tanohata, 8, 36, 4 8 - 4 9 , 5 7 6 0 , 6 2 - 6 3 , 6 6 , 8 6 - 8 8 , 121-125 Education: agricultural, 75-76; attitude toward, 144-145; commitment to, 1213,16, 19-21, 66, 7 2 - 7 3 , 86, 89-90; and community identity, 63, 91 ; controversy over, 8 2 - 8 6 , 105-106, 129-134; elementary, 242 n. 18; funding for, 75; higher, 44; international, 11-12, 13, 1 6 , 6 7 , 8 9 , 116119, 127, 134-135, 138-140, 215, 241 n. 23; Japanese, 26, 140-141, 2 0 6 207; and regional development, 197, 204-207; rural, 56-57, 59-60; social, 135-138; and transportation, 194; for women, 4 4 , 6 0 - 6 1 . See also Earlham Program; Waseda Program Educational policy: national, 131, 136; prefectural, 124, 126, 128; in Tanohata, 121-141

Daily life, accounts of, 51-56, 58-62, 2 2 1 224 Dairy farming, 5, 7, 18, 24, 44, 73, 75-76, 8 6 - 8 7 , 105, 156-158, 179, 217, 219-220 Date Katsumi, 17-20, 32, 78-80, 89, 110, 213-214; development policies of, 171173, 197, 209-210; and education, 116, 134; Experiment in Tanohata, 158-160, 1 6 9 - 1 7 3 , 1 8 6 - 1 8 7 ; and food production, 158-161, 163, 170-173; and forest products, 161-163; quoted, 19-20, 70; and tourism development, 153, 167, 169173, 195-196, 1 9 8 - 2 0 0 , 2 1 7 Date Toshiko, 240n. 16; quoted, 7 9 - 8 0 Dekasegi, 7, 15, 26, 78, 125, 146-150; effects of, 84, 125; resistance to, 175, 210-211 Development policy: national, 197; of Tanohata, 72-78, 8 0 - 8 1 , 8 8 - 9 1 , 9 4 - 9 5 , 104-107, 171-175, 185-187, 197-198, 204-207,209-210,217-218 Development process, in Tanohata, 11-13, 25, 74-75; phase I, 67-72; phase II, 67, 72-81; phase III, 67, 82-88; phase IV, 67, 88-95 Development projects, 72, 87-88; educational, 137-138; energy, 106-107; funding for, 1 0 2 , 1 1 5 - 1 1 8

Dormitories: middle school, 105, 122-123, 131-134, 138, 243 n. 31; Shii no Mori, 69-70,162

Educational projects, 137-138. See also Education; Schools; names of projects Educators: organizations of, 98; and policy initiatives, 117. See also Teachers Elections: mayoral, 9 9 - 1 0 0 , 102-103, 132; national, 109; Village Assembly, 108-109 Employment: agricultural, 5, 143, 146, 151152; civil service, 110-113; coastal, 55; creation of, 74, 107, 125, 150, 154, 156, 173-175, 194, 197-200, 207-211; and

Index

255

education, 86; lack of, 26, 100, 145; seasonal, 7,15, 78, 84, 146-150; third sector, 185-187; urban, 145-146; of women, 15, 128 Employment patterns, 59-60, 151-152, 244n.22 Entrepreneurship: of Date Katsumi, 161, 169; of Kumagai family, 45-46, 56 Environmental concerns, 15, 83, 107, 205; and economic development, 207-209; and tourism, 164-165, 167 Experiment in Tanohata (Date), 158-160, 169-173, 186-187

period, 9, 38, 48-49; and municipal consolidation, 35-36, 49, 98-99; and policy initiatives, 215; and regional development, 11,87, 115, 154, 188-189; and resettlement, 57; and welfare, 75, 127 Government, prefectural: and bureaucratic reform, 113; and development projects, 11,87, 115, 118, 154; and educational subsidies, 126-127, 135; and local politics, 98-99, 103-104 Government, of Tanohata: objectives of, 149-150; and political power structure, 99; structure of, 102-113

Families, 9, 26. See also names of families Family names, 238n.8, 240n.7 Family structure, 237n.6, 238n.8; and dekasegi, 26, 146-150; and economic development, 210; and succession, 56, 237n.6; in Tohoku, 18-19,43-44 Farmers: and contract vegetables, 158-161; and dekasegi, 146; marriage of, 7; numbers of, 143, 147, 151-152; pioneer, 5759; revolt of, 49 Farming. See Agriculture; Dairy farming Festivals: ice cream, 179; forestry, 81; New Year, 19, 47, 53; Obon, 19, 47, 53, 239n. 24; shrine, 32, 53-55, 153 Finances, municipal, 88, 103-104, 115; and civil service, 112; and development projects, 106-107, 127-128, 154, 156; and education, 127-128, 131, 135,138, 242 n. 20; sources for, 115; and Village Assembly, 108. See also Economic aid Fire, forest, 66, 69, 100 Fishing, 24, 47, 48, 59, 75, 86, 152-153, 170, 181-182; development of, 115, 122, 195,208-209 Foreigners: contact with, 139; as teachers, 89-90, 116-117, 134-135, 138-139,207, 215; treatment of, 21, 23, 25, 89-90. See also Earlham Program Forest products, 45-48, 56, 62, 87-88, 102, 161-163, 182; development of, 175. See also Charcoal production Fudai, 50, 56, 245 n. 23; proposed merger with, 35-36,66-68, 93, 98-99, 102103

Hamaiwaizumi, 10, 35, 50 Hamanasu Park, 168 Hamlets: numbers of, 242 n. 21; rivalry between, 152-153. See also names of hamlets HaraKei, 41, 188, 238n.6 Harbor facilities, 62, 86; development of, 24, 53, 75, 105,154; funding for, 102, 152 Hashimoto Ryoji, Professor, 56, 77; quoted, 45,51,219, 223-224 Hashimoto Tetsuo, quoted, 136 Hatakeyama family, 43 Hatakeyama Shóichi, 76-77, 239n. 10, 242 n. 20 Hayano Senpei, 12-13, 20-21, 26-27, 33, 67,86, 104; development policies of, 717 8 , 8 0 - 8 1 , 8 8 - 9 1 , 9 4 - 9 5 , 104-107, 114116,149-154,156,158,164-166,169, 173-175, 185-187, 197-198,204-207, 210; and education, 82, 104-107, 116119, 121-125; and fishing cooperative, 65-66, 102, 104, 114, 152; leadership of, 211-216; management strategies of, 7680, 105, 195-196; quoted, 36-37, 72-73, 89-92, 104, 106-107, 113, 116, 122, 124-125, 130-134, 145, 165-167, 173174, 204-205, 207-208; and Tanohata's political structure, 103-113 Healthcare, 14-15, 22-23, 47, 59, 71, 82; development of, 73, 113, 115; need for, 51, 121, 125-126, 143 Hekichi, 9, 72, 126, 143-145, 241 n. 12,

Fujishiro family, 91,161,168 Furniture industry, 62, 87-88, 163 Gender, and decision making, 62 General affairs chief, 112 Geography: and local politics, 100-102; of Tanohata, 7 Government, national: and atomic energy, 106; criticism of, 83-84, 130; Edo period, 9, 35, 43, 49; and education, 75, 83, 126128, 130-131, 134-135, 242 n. 28; and local politics, 11,97,101-102, 116; Meiji

242 n. 17; use of term, 128,223 Hikó mondai. See Social problems Hiraiga hamlet, 50, 55 Hironai Kotaró, 68 History: of Shii no Mori, 17; of Tanohata, 8 10, 25, 43-63; of Tohoku region, 37-42, 49 Honda Katsuichi, 105, 130-131, 239n. 15, 243 n. 29; quoted, 83-84, 130 Honshü, 37 Housing, 44-45, 54, 58; and economic development, 24,91; and natural disasters, 50-52,69

256

INDEX

Ijime. See Social problems IkedaHayato, 187, 190 Income, 51, 145; average, 72, 122, 143— 145; dekasegi, 149; and development projects, 72, 74, 76, 86; increased, 15, 82; Iwate, 196; national, 143-144; sources of, 36, 45, 58-59, 66, 86-87, 152-154, 160 Infant mortality, 71, 82, 125, 143 Infrastructure, 13-15, 16-17, 30, 67, 8 9 90; development of, 23-24, 41, 52, 62, 7 0 - 7 6 , 8 1 , 104-106, 118, 121, 154-156, 165, 207; and economic development, 86-87, 160, 163, 165, 173-175, 195, 197-200, 207; need for, 59,66, 121; social, 121

Kumagai family, 1 8 - 2 1 , 2 5 , 43-48, 56-57, 74,157-158 Kumagai Kumajirô, 18-20, 33, 43-46, 5 6 57, 157 Kumagai Ryükó, 18, 33, 44, 56-57, 74, 115116, 157-158, 219, 221, 243 n. 34 Kumagai Sachiko, 18, 44, 57, 157 Kumagai Shôzô, 18, 43, 45-46, 56-57, 157 Kumagai Tsuya, 18, 43, 45, 56; quoted, 4 6 48 Kumagai Yasuke, 179 Kurusu, study of, 4 Kuwagata Nobuko, quoted, 57-59, 87-88, 101

Internationalization, 13, 134-135, 218. See also Education Interviews, 13-16, 21-23, 46, 48, 51-56, 58-59, 60-62, 79-80, 85-86, 87-88, 9 2 93, 101, 219-223; as research technique, 9 - 1 1 , 2 5 . See also names of interviewees Investment, private: in education, 139; and regional development, 115, 118, 168169, 191 Ishihara, 210; quoted, 208 Isolation: consequences of, 143-145; and education, 122; and regional development, 173, 197; of Tanohata hamlets, 4 1 42, 70 Iwami Hisako, 5 9 , 7 1 , 107; quoted, 13-16, 21-23,160 Iwate Council for the Promotion of Activities in International Understanding, 118, 139,213 Iwate nippö, 2 0 4 - 2 0 6 Iwate Prefecture, 4, 9, 16; and dekasegi, 146-150; and education, 13, 59, 66, 72, 8 5 , 9 0 , 9 4 , 116-118, 122, 124, 126, 128, 139; historical background of, 38, 40-42; income in, 72, 122, 144-145; and municipal consolidation, 35-36, 59-60, 65-68, 93, 98-99; and resettlement, 57; and Sanriku Railroad, 190-192; "U-turn" p h e n o m e n o n in, 151. See also Government, prefectural Iwate Prefecture Council of Mayors, 117

Labor force: children in, 51, 84, 130; erosion of, 100; w o m e n in, 15, 128, 242 n. 16 Land: agricultural, 160; ownership of, 5, 49, 54, 58, 101, 152; resettlement of, 57 Laws: of consolidation, 8 - 9 , 2 5 , 3 5 , 49-50, 93, 98, 102, 214; educational, 126; hekichi, 242 n. 17; and Japanese agriculture, 5 Leadership: community, 56-57; educational, 127, 136, 1 4 0 - 1 4 1 , 2 0 6 - 2 0 7 . See also Political leadership Linkages, and economic development, 198,

Japan Communist Party, 109 Japanese National Railways (JNR), 118, 165, 188-189,191 Johnson, Chalmers, Japan's Public Policy Companies, 185-186 Kerosene Revolution, 66, 100-101 Kinship, and Tanohata politics, 101, 109 Kishi Nobusuke, 187 Kitayama hamlet, 31 Kudö Fusako, quoted, 6 0 - 6 2 , 85-86, 9 2 - 9 3 Kudö Iwao, 66, 94; and education, 124, 126 Kudö Takeo, 71; quoted, 114, 145

208-210

Literature, scholarly, 4 - 5 , 185-186; and Japanese political structure, 9 7 - 9 8 Living standards, 36, 4 6 - 4 7 , 71, 76, 137, 203 Lumber industry. See Forest products Magisawa pioneer settlement, 15 Makisawa Bridge, 15, 7 0 - 7 2 Makuuchi Shigeya, 68, 99, 102-103 Males, rural, 7 Management policy: o f H a y a n o , 76-79, 105; and hybrid enterprises, 195-197; Japanese, 97 Maps: of Iwate Prefecture, 38, 40; of Tano.hata-mura, 10; of Tóhoku region, 39; tourist, 163-164 Marketing, 26, 171-173, 198, 209 Marriage, 7, 51-52; and dekasegi, 147-150 Maruishi Furniture Co., 8 7 - 8 8 Marukita Ocean Products, 171-173 Matsumae hamlet, 54 Mayors: 54-55; appointment of, 50, 102; cooperation of, 200; election of, 9 9 - 1 0 0 , 102-103, 132; and municipal consolidation, 36, 68, 98-99; organizations of, 98, 117; power of, 26-27; and Sanriku Railroad, 188, 191-192; and Tanohata's political structure, 102-110. Seealso Hayano Senpei; names of mayors Methodology, of study, 4 - 5 , 7, 9 - 1 1 , 25, 2 3 8 n . 1, 2 4 0 n . 9 Milk production. See Dairy farming

Index

Mining, 48 Ministry of Education, 75, 83, 127, 242 n. 28 Ministry of Welfare, 75; subsidies from, 127 Morioka, historical background of, 3 7 - 4 1 Movement to Promote Education, 122, 124, 126, 128 Municipal consolidation, 4, 8 - 9 , 12, 25, 3 5 3 6 , 6 0 , 6 5 - 6 6 , 102; resistance to, 6 7 - 6 9 , 93,98-99 Nagamine Dairy Station, 156-157 Nagamine Experimental Farm, 24, 28, 7 5 76, 86, 105 Nakane Chie, Tate no sbakai, 97 Nambu fiefdom, 38-39, 4 8 - 4 9 Negotiations, and Fudai-Tanohata merger, 67-69,99 New Year, celebration of, 19, 47, 53 Ninomiya Sontoku, influence of, 206 Nishiwano hamlet, 29 Nitobe Inazo, 19 Northern Rikuchü Coast Tourist Development Corporation, 168-169, 175, 195196, 198-200 Numabukuro, 10, 28, 35, 48; dominance of, 102; and middle school, 130, 132-133 O b o n , celebration of, 19, 47, 53, 2 3 9 n . 2 4 Oda Yasuichi, 16-19, 6 9 - 7 0 , 77-78, 114, 128

Óhira Masayoshi, 187, 190, 2 4 0 n . 8 O m o t o , 50 Ó n o Masaya, 147-149 Personnel policy, 76-80, 110-113 Photographs, used in study, 10, 28-33, 176-183 Pioneer settlements, 15, 57-59, 161, 237n. 4 Planning: central government, 131; development, 166-167; economic, 209-210; village, 9 - 1 0 , 129-130, 153-154 Political initiatives, local, 116-119, 215; top-down, 97 Political leadership, 11; future, 211,214; local, 1 1 - 1 3 , 6 5 - 6 6 , 71-72, 74, 93-95, 9 7 - 1 0 0 , 108, 1 1 5 - 1 1 6 , 2 1 1 - 2 1 6 , 2 1 8 ; national, 11, 97, 214; prefectural, 100; and regional development, 2 6 - 2 7 Political structure: Japanese, 97-98, 108, 116, 214-216; local, 100, 102-113 Politics: local, 21, 9 7 - 9 8 , 100-113, 215, 2 4 0 n . 8; mayoral, 102; national, 97-99, 101-102, 187-190, 215; pork barrel, 75, 107, 2 4 0 n . 8 ; regional, 4 - 5 , 118119 Politics of Regional Policy in Japan (Samuels), 98 Population: farming, 243 n. 5; of Shimanokoshi, 50; of Shimohei county, 200; of

25 7

Tanohata, 5 0 , 5 7 , 7 1 , 100, 143, 145, 1 4 7 148, 152,200, 241 n . 9 Population distribution, 5 Poverty, in Tanohata, 51-52, 143-145 Power: electric, 56; nuclear, 16, 106-107, 216 Power structure, and Japanese politics, 97, 99, 108 Prefectural Council of Superintendents of Education, 117 Preschools, 127, 136. See also Child care Press: and dekasegi, 148-149; and middle school controversy, 83-84; and Sanriku Railroad, 193; and Tanohata's development, 205-208, 212; and "U-turn" phen o m e n o n , 150-151. See also Honda Katsuichi Prime ministers, from Iwate Prefecture, 41. See also names of individuals Publications, in Tanohata, 9, 136, 152-153 Public Corporation for Development, 217 Publicity: and community identity, 212; and international education, 216; and middle school controversy, 105; and Sanriku Railroad, 192; and tourism development, 175; use of, 74, 8 0 - 8 1 , 9 5 , 114, 126, 133 Raga hamlet, 32, 50, 181-182 Ragasö hotel, 168-170, 177, 183, 196, 198, 200,218 Railroads, 115, 118, 156, 165, 174-175, 191; third sector, 218. See also Sanriku Railroad Records: school, 9; village, 82, 127, 136137 Reforestation, 6 2 , 6 9 - 7 0 , 77, 86-87, 103, 128, 133, 161-163, 205. SeealsoSHi no Mori Kai Reforms: bureaucratic, 112-113; land, 101 Regional development, 7, 11-13, 20-21, 25-26; funding for, 74-76, 216-217; impetus for, 36-37; public-private, 8; and railroad, 187-200; success of, 93-95, 156-175; and Tanohata's experience, 216-223 Repatriation. See Pioneer settlements Research: agricultural, 156-157; ethnographic, 6; and Japanese development, 4 7; and Japanese politics, 5, 116; and Japanese villages, 4, 6, 9 Rikuchü coast, 41-42, 49, 148-149; develo p m e n t of, 118, 168-169, 174-175, 199200, 204; railroad for, 187-196 Rituals, village, 25, 47, 55-56, 2 3 9 n . 24. See also Festivals Roads, 160, 176, 178; construction of, 45, 73-74, 87, 104-106, 154-155, 165; development of, 104-106, 154-155; funding for, 102; toll, 87, 165-166, 195 Russo-Japanese War, 50, 161

258

INDEX

Saitó Makoto, 41 Salt-making, 45, 47-48 Samuels, Richard, 116; Politics of Regional Policy in Japan, 98 Sanhei Conference, 199-200 Sanriku Railroad, 118, 163, 181, 185-200, 217-218 Sasaki family, 53-54 Sasaki Masa, quoted, 53-56 Sasaki Seiichi, 54 Scholars: and Japanese politics, 97-98; and Japanese rural life, 4-5; and vertical insularity, 11. See also names of individuals School-lunch program, 124, 126, 128 Schools: and behavioral problems, 140, 206; branch, 125; consolidated middle, 67, 82-86, 105-106, 122, 129-134, 140; elementary, 54,82, 121, 125, 127, 128; and health care, 14; bekichi, 126,128, 134; high, 243 n. 33; inadequacy of, 51, 60; middle, 105-106, 126, 132; inTanohata, 60

Students: activism of, 69-70; Earlham, 89, 116, 133-134, 162, 167-168, 171; high school, 126, 133, 135, 140, 239n.6; middle school, 85, 135; in Tanohata, 89; Waseda, 70, 77, 128, 133, 162, 171 Studies: and dekasegi, 147-149; and education, 9, 122, 128, 137, 144-145; and municipal consolidation, 9, 98; and political leadership, 97-98; and Sanriku Railroad, 192-193; sponsored by Iwate Prefecture, 9, 60,65; and "U-turn" phenomenon, 151 Succession, and family structure 7, 26, 45-

Seafood production, 62, 86, 90, 163, 208210; development of, 153-154, 170-173, 196,198-199 Seibu Group, 189-190, 193,245n.8 SekiKójuró, 213-214 Senshü University, 9, 144 Services, public, development of, 121-122. See also Child care; Health care ShiinoMori Kai, 17,69-70, 78,94, 116,

Takahashi Yoshio, 210,213 Takahashi Yukio, 77-78 Takashima, study of, 4 Takeda Seiichi, 138-139; quoted, 213 Tanohata: centennial of, 201, 211, 245 n. 24; charter of, 88; coastal, 28; development of, 11-12, 93-95; and educational movement, 66; as hekichi, 143-145; history of, 8-10, 42-63; and municipal consolidation, 10, 35-36, 66-67, 93, 98-99, 102103; as object of study, 7-8; "Prize of Excellence" for, 91 Tanohata Economic Development Corporation, 208-210 Tanohata Industrial Development Corporation, 86 Tanohata-mura. See Tanohata Tanohata Taisuke, 49 Tashiro hamlet, 18, 45 Tate no sbakai (Nakane), 97 Tax base, 12,60, 74, 76, 100 Taxes: equalization, 156; local, 154; Nambu, 48-49

128-129, 133, 161-163, 205. See also Reforestation Shii Bridge, 196 Shimanokoshi hamlet, 48, 50, 54, 59, 178 Shimanokoshi Women's Club, 61-62 Shimizu Takeshi, 190 Shinjó, 4 Shrines, 42,55-56, 153 Sino-Japanese War, 50 Social change, 4, 11-12 Social engineering, through education, 8 2 86, 122-123, 129-134, 140 Social problems, 5, 92-93, 134, 140, 147148, 206, 243 n. 43. See also Dekasegi; Succession Social welfare, 72-73, 82, 115 Societies: of mayors, 117; for women, 59, 61-62,221 Society, Japanese rural, 3-5 Soil: erosion, of, 42; improvement of, 73 Sonmin Daigaku, 137-138 State of the Village addresses, 9, 36-37, 7273,83,89-92, 109, 112-114, 122-123, 129-132, 145, 165-166, 206 Statistics: budget, 154; development, 160; educational, 136-137; employment, 151153; health, 143; population, 147; sources of, 9, 25; and Tanohata's poverty, 143-144; tourism" 196 Stores, 24, 52,55

46, 56, 146, 148, 150-151,210 Sugenokubo, 53-56 Suzuki Heizaburò, 97-98 Suzuki Naono, quoted, 51-53 Suzuki Zenkó, 41,75,92, 101-103, 109, 152, 187-190, 216, 240n.8 Symbolic gestures, use of, 74, 80-81. See also Publicity

Teachers: and behavioral problems, 140, 206; foreign, 89-90, 116-118, 134-135, 138-139, 207, 215; quality of, 128 Television: and children, 92-93; coverage of Tanohata, 21, 92, 203 Temple, Buddhist, 42, 50 Terminology: for family structure, 238 n. 8; for hamlet, 238n. 14; and village status, 128,223 Tidal waves, 42, 50-52, 152 Tòhoku region, historical background of, 37-42,49 T ô j ô Hideki, 41 Topography: and cultural development, 37-38; of Iwate Prefecture, 41 ; of Tanohata, 41-42, 50

Index

Tourism, 7-8, 15,41,62,89, 161,217-218; development of, 115, 153-154, 156-158, 163-173, 194-196, 198-200; and economic development, 86-87 Town and Village Consolidation Law of 1889,9,49-50, 102 Town and Village Consolidation Law of 1953,9,35,93,98,214 Trade, with United States, 5 Transportation, 13-14, 16-17, 26; by horse, 45, 47, 55, 71; improved, 15, 23-24, 52, 62, 70-71; need for, 59-60, 238n.4; by railroad, 115, 118, 156; statistics on, 9; and Tanohata's agriculture, 42; and tourism, 165-166 Travel, 13-14, 16-17, 23-24, 52, 59, 70, 194 Trends, national, and development, 11, 218-219 Tsukue, and consolidated middle school, 106, 130, 133 Tsunami. See Tidal waves Tsutsumi Yoshiaki, 189-190, 193 "U-turn" phenomenon, 78, 80-81, 150151,203,211,218 Ueno Toshiakira, 189; quoted, 193 United States, 5. See also Earlham Program Urbanization, 7, 146-150 Values, cultural, 5, 17 Vegetable production. See Agriculture Vertical insularity, 11, 117-119, 215 "Vertical society," 118 Village Assembly: and bureaucratic reform, 113; and international education, 135, 138; leadership of, 71; and Tanohata's politics, 107-110

259

Villagers: community identity of, 91-93, 95; diet of, 47-48, 53, 58,60-62, 221-222; and foreigners, 21, 89-90; kindness of, 3, 15, 57, 77, 126; and middle school controversy, 83-86; and municipal consolidation, 36; and outsiders, 77-80, 240 n. 16; pictured, 31; recollections of, 13-16,2123, 46-48, 51-62, 219-224; and reforestation, 162; and social problems, 92-93; and "U-turn" phenomenon, 203, 211. See also names of villagers Villages, 7, 40; consolidation of, 4, 8-10, 12, 25, 35-36, 60,65-69, 93, 98-99; cooperation between, 199-200, 245 n. 23; studies of, 4-6. See also names of villages Violence: and taxation, 48; teenage, 92 Wallin, Franklin, 164 Waseda Program, 17, 69-70, 73, 77, 114, 128, 133,205 Water supply, 71, 73, 143, 160 Wayama family, 69 Women: activism of, 16,61-62; and dekasegi, 130; education for, 44, 60-61; and healthcare, 14-15; shortage of, 147-148, 150-151, 210; social life of, 48; and village life, 4, 46; in work force, 15, 128, 242 n. 16 Worldview, Japanese, 5 World War 11,21, 57-60, 237 n. 4 Yagohei, 49 Yonai Mitsumasa, 41 Yoshizuka family, 219-224 Yoshizuka Kimio, 33, 81, 157-158, 219, 239n. 14 Yoshizuka Toshiko, 33; quoted, 219-223

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

J a c k s o n H. Bailey holds a doctorate in History and Far Eastern Languages from Harvard University. He first went to Japan as a member of the Occupation forces. Following completion of a masters degree in Far Eastern History at the University of Wisconsin, he and his wife spent three years in Japan as staff members of the American Friends Service Committee responsible for international student seminars and work camps. For his work in international education and cultural exchange, the Japanese government honored him in 1988 with the Order of the Sacred Treasure Third Class; in 1990, Waseda University awarded him an Honorary Doctorate of Humane Letters for his role in designing student and faculty exchange programs. Professor Bailey is currently professor of history and director of the Institute for Education on Japan at Earlham College and serves as a consultant in international education and Japanese studies to American schools and colleges.