Old English Studies in Honour of John C. Pope 9781442632714

Table of contents :
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgements
The discovery of darkness in northern literature
Three aspects of Wyrd in Beowulf
Social structure as doom: the limits of heroism in Beowulf
Inner weather and interlace: a note on the semantic value of structure in Beowulf
Homage to Caedmon and others: a Beowulfian praise song
'Gifstol' and goldhoard in Beowulf
Elements of the marvellous in the characterization of Beowulf: a reconsideration of the textual evidence
Some observations on the A3 lines in Beowulf
The rhythm of Deor
The prosodic terminology of Anglo-Saxon scholars
Exodus retraced
On Wulf and Eadwacer
Mainly on philology and the interpretative criticism of Maldon
The 'fuglas scyne' of The Phoenix, line 591
The list of chapter-headings in the Old English Bede
The common origin of Ælfric fragments at New Haven, Oxford, Cambridge, and Bloomington
John Collins Pope: a bibliography

Citation preview

O L D E N G L I S H S T U D I E S I N H O N O U R O F J O H N C . POP E

As a tribut e t o th e super b teachin g an d th e exemplar y literar y criticis m o f this eminen t Yal e scholar , th e majorit y o f thes e essay s dea l wit h thematic , textual, an d prosodi c issue s i n Ol d Englis h poetry , seve n o f the m provid ing a valuabl e reassessmen t o f som e o f th e perennia l problem s o f Beowul f criticism: th e implication s o f it s metaphysica l an d socia l system s a s wel l a s its rhetorica l an d imagisti c structures ; an d especiall y th e recurren t nee d fo r a carefu l re-examinatio n o f the tex t an d a return t o the manuscrip t evidence . These contribution s ad d significantl y t o th e debat e ove r th e meanin g o f th e tragic elemen t o f Beowul f an d t o a bette r understandin g o f th e characte r o f its hero . Th e poeti c literatur e i s furthe r represente d b y a ne w evaluatio n o f the centra l literar y problem s o f th e Exodus , a reinterpretatio n o f th e puz zling Wul f an d Ead-wacer , an d philologica l an d syntactica l examination s o f Maldon an d th e Phoenix . Othe r interest s o f Professo r Pop e ar e reflecte d i n two metrica l analyse s an d a thorough lexicographica l surve y o f Ol d Englis h prosodic terminology , a painstaking stud y o f the chapter-heading s i n the Ol d English Bede , an d a n essa y whic h brilliantl y establishe s th e existenc e o f a hitherto unknow n ^Elfri c manuscript . The contributor s t o this volume are : T.M. Andersson; F.A . Payne ; H. Berger , Jr ; H.M. Leicester , Jr ; R.B. Burlin; J.B . Bessinger, Jr ; S.B. Greenfield ; F.C . Robinson; E.G . Stanley ; K. Malone ; R.W. Burchfield ; E.B . Irving, Jr ; N.E. Eliason ; J.E . Cross ; B. Mitchell; D.Whitelock ; R.L. Collins ; P. Clemoes; M . Borroff . ROBERT B . BURLI N

i s chairma n o f th e Departmen t o f Englis h a t Bry n Maw r

College, EDWARD B. IRVING, JR is professor of English at the University of Pennsylvania.

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EDITED BY ROBERT B. BURLIN AND EDWARD B. IRVING, JR

Old English Studies in Honour of John C. Pope

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO PRESS

©University o f T o r o n t o Press 1974 T o r o n t o and Buffalo Printed in Canada ISBN 0-8020-2132-8 LC 73-91566

The initial on the jacket is adapted from an eleventh-century manuscript in Oriel College, Oxford.

Contents

PREFACE

vii

The Discover y o f Darknes s i n N o r t h e r n Literatur e 1 T H E O D O R E M . A N D E R S S O N Harvard University Three Aspect s o f W y r d i n Beowulf 1 5 F . A N N E P A Y N E State University of New

York,

Buffalo

Social Structur e a s D o o m : Th e L i m i t s o f Herois m i n Beowulf 3 H A R R Y BERGER, JR / H. M A R S H A L L LEICESTER, JR

University

of Calif ornia, Santa

Cruz

Inner Weathe r an d Interlace : A N o t e o n th e Semanti c V a l u e o f Structure i n Beowulf 8 1 R O B E R T B . B U R L I N Bryn Mawr College Homage t o C a e d m o n an d Others : A Beowulfia n Prais e Son g 9 1 J . B . B E S S I N G E R , J R New York University ' G i f s t o l ' an d G o l d h o a r d i n Beowulf 10 7 University of Oregon

S T A N L E Y B. G R E E N F I E L D

Elements o f th e Marvellou s i n th e Characterizatio n o f B e o w u l f : A Reconsideratio n o f th e T e x t u a l Evidenc e 11 9 F R E D C. ROBINSON Yale University

7

vi Contents

Some Observation s o n th e A 3 Line s i n Beowulf 13 Queen Mary College, University of

E.G. STANLEY

The R h y t h m o f Deor 16

9 London

5

KEMP MALONE t

The Prosodi e Terminolog y o f A n g l o - S a x o n Scholar s 17 1 R.W. B U R C H F I E L D Oxford Exodus Retrace

d 20 3

E D W A R D B. I R V I N G , J R

University

O n Wulf and Eadwacer 22 5 N O R M A N E . E L I A S O N University

of

Pennsylvania

of North

Carolina

M a i n l y o n Philolog y an d th e Interpretativ e C r i t i c i s m o f Maldon 23 University of Liverpool

J . E . CROSS

The 'fugla s s c y n e ' o f The Phoenix, lin B R U C E M I T C H E L L St Edmund Hall,

e 59 1 25 Oxford

5

T h e L i s t o f Chapter-Heading s i n th e O l d Englis h Bed e 26 3 DOROTHY WHITELOCK Cambridge The C o m m o n O r i g i n o f ^Elfri c Fragment s a t N e w Haven , O x f o r d , Cambridge, an d B l o o m i n g t o n 28 5 R O W L A N D L . C O L L I N S University of Rochester P E T E R C L E M O E S Emmanuel College, Cambridge J o h n Collin s Pope : A Bibliograph y 32 M A R I E B O R R O F F Yale University

7

5

Preface

In 197 1 J o h n Collin s Pop e retire d fro m teachin g a s L a m p s o n Professo r of Englis h a t Y a l e University , the institutio n w i t h w h i c h he ha d bee n associated throughou t hi s academi c career . H i s reputation wa s estab lished i n 194 2 w i t h th e p u b l i c a t i o n o f The Rhythm of Beowulf, a w o r k w h i c h ensure d hi s i m m o r t a l i t y i n th e O l d English field . H i s recent editio n of ^4Llfri c confirmed , b y it s unmatchabl e thoroughnes s an d precision , his scholarl y eminence , an d hi s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o th e O x f o r d H i s t o r y of English Literatur e i s awaited, no t o n l y because i t w i l l fil l a long-standin g need, bu t becaus e i t i s certai n t o be , lik e al l of hi s w o r k , a m o d e l o f it s kind. Those o f u s w h o wer e hi s student s an d colleague s a t Y a l e k n e w h i m in othe r capacitie s a s w e l l — as a subtl e interprete r o f Spenser , a wis e and human e D i r e c t o r o f Graduat e Studies , a teache r gifte d w i t h fin e wit, h u m i l i t y , and patience , a m a n careles s o n l y o f hi s o w n tim e an d health i n his attentio n t o th e problem s o f student s an d friends . Thos e w h o w o r k e d closel y w i th h i m learne d b y example , an d unforgettably , the virtues , an d th e frustration s a s w e l l , o f a n unflinchin g scholarly honesty. E x c e l l i n g i n th e skill s o f th e traditiona l philologist , J o hn Pop e also brough t t o th e stud y o f O l d English literatur e a critica l facult y o f u n c o m m o n sensitivit y an d vigour , a s hi s writings testify ; l o n g before i t was dreame d o f i n most classrooms , h e unhesitatingl y proceede d o n th e assumption tha t O l d English poetr y wa s firs t an d foremos t poetry . T o any on e w h o ha s ha d th e privileg e of k n o w i n g J o hn Pop e thi s volum e of essay s offer s a tribut e w h i c h needs n o justification. R O B E R T B. B U R L I N E D W A R D B. I R V I N G , J R

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O L D E N G L I S H S T U D I E S I N H O N O U R O F J O H N C . POP E

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The editor s wis h t o expres s thei r appreciatio n t o th e contributor s fo r their enthusiasm , promptness , an d courtesy . W e ar e especiall y gratefu l to Marne e Irvin g for actin g a s constan t courie r between B r y n M a w r an d Swarthmore, an d t o D e n t o n F o x fo r givin g freel y o f hi s tim e an d skil l i n generous assistanc e t o th e editors . T o th e Centr e fo r Medieva l Studie s o f the Universit y of T o r o n t o an d it s director , J o hn L e y e r l e , we ar e deepl y indebted fo r th e typesettin g o f thi s v o l u m e ; to Susa n J u p p, fo r over seeing it s p r o d u c t i o n ; and t o Elain e Q u a n z, fo r he r service s a s compositor . P r o d u c t i o n o f thi s volum e wa s mad e possibl e b y th e generou s assistance o f th e Centr e fo r Medieva l Studies , Universit y of T o r o n t o .

THEODORE M. ANDERSSON

The discovery of darkness in northern literature

In 167 4 Thoma s R y m e r adapte d th e Renaissanc e practic e o f comparin g set piece s b y discussin g various treatment s o f nigh t i n ancien t an d m o d e r n authors . * A m o n g st th e c o m m o n places , . . . ' write s R y m e r , 'none ha s bee n mor e generally , an d mor e happil y handled, an d i n none hav e th e Nobles t wit s b o t h ancient an d modern mor e contende d w i t h eac h othe r fo r v i c t o r y , than i n th e description of the night H e goes o n t o cit e A p o l l o n i u s o f Rhodes , V i r g i l , A r i o s t o , Tasso , M a r i n o , Chapelain, L e M o y n e, and , finally , having , as h e says , expose d ou r English t o th e lik e impartia l censure, h e award s th e p a l m t o D r y d e n . R y m e r ' s compariso n i s intriguing not leas t o f al l because ther e i s s o little t o compar e — all his description s pertai n t o th e stillnes s an d soporific propertie s o f night . Thi s is no coincidence , but a fai r reflec t i o n o f th e par t assigne d t o nigh t i n th e classica l tradition; one indus trious A m e r i c a n schola r assemble d hal f a hundred description s o f th e night fro m variou s classica l and medieva l writers, al l of w h i c h bea r ou t the p o i n t . F o r thes e writer s nighttim e mean s th e suspensio n o f actio n and a l u l l i n th e sequenc e o f events . A s H o m er say s (Iliad 11.386-7): ' L e t ther e b e n o respite , no t th e slightest , / E x c e p t whe n o n c o m i n g night part s th e warriors ' f u r y .' O r mor e succinctl y (Iliad VII.282): 'It i s w e ll t o hee d th e dictate s o f n i g h t . ' Late r custodian s o f th e epi c tradition too k Homer' s directiv e t o hear t an d henceforwar d th e nightl y respite i s observed w i t h fe w exceptions . Indicativ e i s the procedur e used b y th e editor s responsibl e fo r ou r H o m e r i c b o ok divisions ; on e of th e natura l break s o f w h i c h the y availe d themselves i s nightfall an d n

2

3

2 Theodore M . Andersson

the intermissio n w h i ch i t provides . T he dar k hour s ar e the n lef t fallo w and th e actio n recommence s o n l y w h e n rosy-fingere d D a w n leave s th e c o u c h o f T i t h o n u s an d appear s th e nex t morning . Those activitie s w h i c h ar e relegate d t o th e nigh t ar e th e even-hande d feast , council s of war , dreams , or , a t most , l o n g accounts o f tribulatio n at th e court s of Phaeacia n A l c i n o u s o r Carthaginia n D i d o . T h e o n l y nigh t actio n proper i n th e tale s o f H o m e r i s th e rai d of Odysseu s an d Diomede s o n the Thracia n camp, a n exceptio n w h i c h become s th e sourc e o f a separate serie s o f imitation s i n V i r g i l , Statius , A r i o s t o , and , u l t i m a t e l y , B y r o n . B u t eve n thi s traditio n betray s a curiou s unfamiliarit y w i t h darkness. Ther e i s no adaptatio n t o th e peculiaritie s of night , n o apparent awarenes s o f change s i n c o l o u r, sound, o r perspective , n o impairment o f vision , an d ver y littl e attempt t o creat e a specia l night time atmosphere . E v e r y t h i n g happens exactl y a s i f it wer e day . V i r g i l is fa r mor e imaginativ e in his d e p i c t i o n o f th e nocturna l assaul t o n T r o y , bu t th e shadow y image s o f Aeneidll ar e uniqu e i n ancien t lit erature. The M i d d l e Age s were slo w t o alte r thi s pattern . A s l o ng as th e classical epi c dominates , nigh t remain s u n e x p l o i t e d . T h is is true d o w n through th e Carolingia n p e r i o d an d change s o n l y w h e n O v i d i a n eroti c models begi n t o displac e th e V i r g i l i a n epi c m o d e l i n th e twelft h century. A t thi s juncture, O v i d an d th e vernacula r lov e l y r i c , howeve r these t w o ar e relate d an d intertwined , co-operat e i n adding a n entirely ne w scen e t o th e narrativ e repertor y — th e lover' s tryst . T h e dawn song , Tristan, an d Chretien' s romance s ar e th e ke y text s an d together the y establis h nighttim e a s th e specia l preserve o f lovers , a tradition w h i c h i n t u r n goe s throug h variou s permutations , b o t h i m i tative an d parodistic , before mergin g w i t h th e classica l stream onc e more i n the Renaissanc e epi c (e.g. , Orlando Furioso V . x l v i i i - l i o r The Faerie Queene I.iv.44). B u t vernacula r romance , havin g reserved th e night hour s fo r th e convenienc e o f lovers , succeeded i n retrieving o n ly a ver y l i m i t e d functio n fo r darkness ; grea t deed s an d th e u n f o l d i n g of p l o t remai n th e prerogative s o f day . R y m e r wrot e a t a tim e w h e n th e N o r t h e r n reviva l wa s just under way, som e twent y year s afte r th e appearanc e o f Junius's e d i t i o n o f th e Caedmonian poem s (1655) , a doze n year s afte r th e recover y o f th e Poetic Edda (1662) , bu t te n year s befor e A m i Magnússon, th e grea t benefactor o f Icelandi c studies , arrive d in Copenhagen (1684) , an d fifteen year s befor e Hickes' s Institutiones grammaticae anglosaxonicae et moeso-gothicae ( 1 6 8 9 ) . T h e resource s o f N o r t h e r n 4

5

The Discovery of Darkness in Northern Literature

3

literature wer e therefor e no t availabl e t o enric h R y m e r ' s comparison . But fo r us , afte r th e m o d e r n p o p u l a r i z a t i o n of Germani c prose an d poetry, i t i s easy an d temptin g t o ad d a fe w page s o n th e o l d theme : descriptions o f th e night . Germanic literatur e ha s fro m th e ver y outse t a predilection fo r night a s a tim e no t o f respit e bu t o f a c t i o n . Passages fro m Beowulf w i l l sugges t themselve s an d th e Fight at Finns burg begin s a s th e m o o n shines fitfull y fro m behin d th e scuddin g clouds . The encounte r be tween C y n e w u l f an d Cynehear d i n th e Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (a d ann. 755) , fo r w h i c h on e ha s generall y assume d som e specia l literary b a c k g r o u n d , als o take s plac e a t night . I n Pau l th e Deacon' s stor y o f R o s e m u n d an d A l b o i n , w h i c h i s almost certainl y th e epitom e o f a Langobardic heroi c lay , the deat h o f A l b o i n seem s t o b e b o t h p l o t t e d and compasse d a t n i g h t . A literar y preoccupatio n w i t h nighttim e actio n i s equally aboriginal in Scandinavia . R o lf k r a k i wa s attacke d an d slai n a t nigh t a s w e learn fro m Sax o G r a m m a t i c u s ' description (ll.vii.2) : 6

7

When therefor e th e other s wer e sun k i n deep sleep , th e Swedes , whose eagernes s t o prosecut e thei r crim e cancelle d th e n o r m a l use o f th e quie t hours , bega n furtivel y t o sli p fro m thei r beds . The l o c k e d store o f weapon s wa s opene d f o r t h w i t h an d eac h m a n armed himsel f i n silence. T h en the y sough t ou t th e r o y a l chamber s and, havin g penetrated t o th e inmos t recesses , the y dre w thei r swords agains t th e sleepin g m e n. Som e o f the m awakene d and , affected a s m u c h b y th e dullnes s o f slee p a s b y th e horro r o f sudden destruction , the y resiste d valiantl y although unabl e t o distinguish whethe r the y wer e se t u p o n b y frien d o r foe , sinc e this wa s mad e uncertai n b y th e confusio n o f n i g h t . 8

T u r n i n g t o E d d i e poetry, W a y l a n d S m i th is surprise d an d capture d b y a night p a t r o l describe d i n Vclundarkviía 6 : The me n marche d a t night , thei r mai l wel l soldered , Their shield s shon e i n th e shor n m o o n . 9

The patter n hold s tru e i n skaldi c poetry, i n th e earlies t exampl e o f w h i c h Brag i B o d d a s o n assign s th e attac k o f Hamáir an d S o r l i o n Ermanaric t o th e nigh t h o u r s . Ermanari c awaken s *vi # illa n d r a u m ' ( ' f r o m ' o r ' t o a ba d dream') , a phrase w h i c h suggest s th e almos t 10

4 Theodore M . Andersson

ghostly natur e o f th e attack , perceive d by th e v i c t i m i n a stat e of suspension betwee n sleepin g and waking . Thi s i s the firs t i n d i c a t i o n i n Germani c literature o f a realizatio n that nigh t alter s perception s and tha t darknes s ha s specia l properties o f fear , suddenness , l i m i t e d awareness, an d l i m i t e d opportunitie s t o react . A specificall y Scandinavia n penchant fo r nighttim e exploit s is documented b y th e Nors e variant o f Sigurd' s death. T h e souther n o r G e r m a n version , as atteste d b y Brot af Siguríarkvüu, th e Nibelungenlied, Piireks saga, an d th e expres s testimon y o f Fra dauia Siguriar, seems alway s to hav e entaile d th e killin g o f Siegfrie d i n b r o ad day light durin g a hunt. T h e Nors e variant, a s reflecte d b y Siguriarkvita in skamma, presumabl y Siguriarkviia in meiri, an d b y extensio n Vçlsunga saga, tell s us tha t Sigur d wa s attacke d i n his bed a s h e slept . The specia l Norse literary instinct in operation her e apparentl y dic tated tha t Sigur d shoul d succumb t o hi s assassi n a t night , just a s Bragi's E r m a n a r i c , Paul th e Deacon' s A l b o i n , an d Saxo' s R o l f k r a k i had done . The persistenc e o f thi s instinc t is c o n f i r m ed by imitation s of Sigurd's fat e i n the sagas . I n Gi'sla saga G i s l i carrie s ou t hi s missio n o f vengeance agains t fcorgrimr i n a night scen e closel y m o d e l l e d on SigurÁarkviia in skamma, an d Droplaugarspna saga i n turn imitate s Gisla saga i n describing the murde r o f Helg i A s b j a r n a r s o n . Thi s latte r scene devise s a particularly ingeniou s use o f darkness , w h i c h ha s no t been sufficientl y appreciated . Saga reader s w i l l recal l h o w th e avenger , G r i m r Droplaugarson, reconnoitres hi s enemy' s house , remove s hi s shoe s an d oute r clothing , then steal s silentl y i n t o th e hal l i n w h i ch hi s v i c t i m an d a large numbe r of guest s ar e asleep . H e make s hi s wa y t o Helgi' s b e d close t an d dis patches h i m w i th a swor d thrust, but , befor e h e ca n mak e g o o d hi s escape, Helgi' s d y i n g shout s arous e th e household . Everyone tumble s out o f b e d an d mill s aroun d ineffectuall y in the darkness . T h e m a n w h o , o d d l y enough , succeed s almos t immediatel y in apprehendin g the culpri t i s the b l i n d farmhan d A r n o d d r . F o r t u n a t e l y fo r G r i m r , h e has th e presenc e o f m i n d t o rebuk e A r n o d d r o n th e pretex t tha t h e himself wa s abou t t o seiz e th e murderer . A r n o d d r hesitates , passe s hi s hands ove r his captive , and, observin g that h e i s w i t h o ut shoe s an d i n linen clothes , assume s tha t h e i s indeed on e o f th e sleepin g guests an d releases h i m . W h y shoul d it b e th e b l i n d m a n w h o seize s G r i m r ? T h e answe r i s that th e autho r o f ou r sag a understand s tha t th e eliminatio n o f on e faculty sharpen s th e others . Becaus e A r n o d dr i s b l i n d, h e i s keener , 11

The Discovery of Darkness in Northern Literature

5

and sinc e darknes s i s his natura l element , h e i s better abl e t o interpre t the apparentl y r a n d o m m o t i o n i n th e darkene d hall . Ther e i s some thing abou t th e murderer' s mor e decisiv e movements, o r hi s breathing , or hi s tensenes s w h i c h communicate s itsel f t o th e b l i n d man . B u t A r n o d d r ' s selectiv e perception s ar e als o hi s weakness, an d sinc e h e i s entirely dependen t o n a tactil e sense , h e i s foole d b y G r i m r ' s clothing and let s h i m go . S u c h ingeniou s m a n i p u l a t i o n o f darknes s i s unparalleled i n m o d e r n fiction u n t i l th e adven t o f th e murde r mystery , bu t i t i s fa r fro m un paralleled i n th e sagas . I m e n t i o n o n l y a fe w examples . In Egils saga th e firs t caus e o f th e fallin g ou t betwee n E g i l l an d E r i k B l o o d a x e is th e slayin g of E r i k ' s stewar d Bár#r. E g i l l leave s a prolonged d r i n k i n g bout supportin g a sodde n c o m p a n i o n w i t h th e apt nam e Qlvi r an d accompanie d b y Báríír , w ho continue s t o p l y the m w i t h drink . As they ste p ou t o f th e hall , E g i l l use s th e dimnes s o f th e entryway t o r u n hi s swor d throug h Bárár ; the stabbe d m a n collapse s gushing b l o o d while Qlvir , m o m e n t a r i l y r o b b e d o f Egill' s support , collapses nex t t o h i m spewin g ou t th e evening' s c o n s u m p t i o n . B o t h lie ther e i n th e semi-darkness , eac h i n his o w n peculia r stat e o f insen sibility. Thos e i n th e hal l ar e unable , becaus e o f th e distanc e an d th e darkness, t o distinguis h between thes e superficiall y similar state s or , presumably, betwee n th e fluids w h i c h emanat e fro m th e t w o pro strate figure s an d combin e i n a spectacl e reminiscen t o f th e con fluence o f b l o o d an d bee r i n Bragi' s picture o f Ermanaric' s demise . O n l y w h e n E r i k order s ligh t t o b e brough t i s th e murde r revealed , bu t b y thi s tim e E g i l l ha s escape d int o th e p i t c h darknes s outside . Again , there i s in thi s passag e a specia l appreciation o f th e propertie s o f dark ness o r semi-darknes s — the larg e outline s o f th e falle n bodie s ar e visible, bu t th e detail s ar e not . T h e reaction s o f th e onlooker s ar e therefore curtaile d by thei r l i m i t e d vision . A m u c h mor e elaborat e visua l deceptio n i s contrived i n Oláfs saga helga. I t entail s b o t h neutralizin g blindness an d capitalizing on darkness . K i n g Ola f ha s capture d an d b l i n d e d th e rebelliou s pett y king Hrœrekr , w h o m h e keep s a t hi s cour t unde r clos e guard an d constant surveillance . B ut Hrœrekr' s ingenuit y i s equal t o th e chal lenge. H e avail s himself o f th e heav y slee p followin g a hard evenin g of d r i n k i n g to mak e hi s wa y ou t t o th e latrin e w i t h hi s t w o ever present guards . Whil e th e thre e o f the m ar e thu s unsuspectingl y occupied, som e o f Hrœrekr's men , accordin g to a prearrange d p l a n , counterfeit a nois y quarre l outsid e th e latrin e an d Hrœrek r direct s 12

13

6 Theodore M . Andersson

his guard s t o quel l th e disturbance . T h e y are p r o m p t l y cut d o w n a s they descen d th e step s fro m th e latrin e an d Hrœrek r i s led away t o safety b y hi s followers . A littl e later , K i n g Olaf' s faithfu l skald , Sighvatr t>ór#arson, gets ou t o f b ed t o mak e th e sam e tri p i n t o th e c o u r t y a r d . H e slip s o n th e b l o o d i e d latrin e steps , mistake s th e natur e of th e wetness , an d make s a m i l d j o k e abou t K i n g Olaf' s liberalit y i n providin g d r i n k . B ut w h en h e return s t o th e lighte d hall, th e c o l o u r of th e fluid w i t h w h i c h h e i s smeared betray s it s rea l nature an d ther e is a n immediat e realizatio n of wha t ha s happened . This episod e i s constructed o n th e awarenes s tha t a seein g m an ca n be a s helples s a s a b l i n d m a n i n the darknes s an d tha t visua l evidenc e can b e interprete d o n l y w i t h th e ai d of light . K i n g Hrœrek r owe s hi s success t o hi s exac t evaluatio n of th e restricte d option s p r o v i d e d by darkness. Darkness i n the saga s can als o be use d t o conve y psychologica l effects, mystery , o r it s opposite , a specia l transparency . There is , for example , a rather complicate d case o f m u l t i p l e trans parencies brough t ou t b y darknes s i n Gisla saga. A certai n Véstein n is abroa d o n a m o o n l i t evening and passe s b y th e far m o f t>orgrimr , his swor n but undeclare d enem y a s a result o f som e amorou s entangle ments. A friendl y membe r o f borgrimr' s household, G e i r m u n d r, warns Véstein n t o b e cautious , but befor e h e move s o n , he i s observed and identifie d b y th e maidservan t Rannveig . Sh e report s t o {>orgrim r accordingly. However , G e i r m u n d r, w ho i s eager t o protec t Vésteinn , contests th e identification , claim s to hav e see n indistinctly , an d ex presses th e o p i n i o n tha t th e m a n wa s a farmhan d belongin g t o Q n u n d r o f Meáaldal. T h e scen e i s intricate. G e i r m u n dr is l y i n g, b u t the darknes s make s hi s lie plausible, borgrim r must accep t th e plaus ibility i f not th e statement . H i s response mus t therefor e b e base d o n what h e k n o w s abou t hi s witnesses an d no t o n wha t the y m a y o r m a y not hav e seen . Rannveig , lik e s o m a n y maidservant s i n the sagas , i s a troublemaker sinc e sh e mus t k n o w of t>orgrimr's hostilit y t o w a r d Vésteinn an d w o u l d no t tel l tale s unles s sh e intende d mischief. t>orgrimr ca n scarcel y have an y illusion s o n thi s score . G e i r m u n d r, on the othe r hand , sympathize s w i th Véstein n an d frorgrimr mus t b e aware o f thi s t o o . G i v e n t w o b a d witnesses , he ha s therefor e n o choic e but t o sen d fo r additiona l i n f o r m a t i on and G e i r m u n d r has a t leas t gained time . (t>orgrim r canno t se t ou t i n pursuit just o n a chance. I f hi s quarry turne d ou t t o b e Qnundr' s farmhand afte r all , h e w o u l d n o t only hav e becom e ridiculous , bu t w o u l d als o have reveale d his secre t 14

The Discovery of Darkness in Northern Literature

7

intentions t o on e an d all. ) Part o f th e dens e psychologica l textur e i n the saga s is accounte d for b y th e constan t awarenes s that , a s i n an y confine d society , every one know s abou t everyon e else , eve n thoug h th e knowledg e goe s un stated. I t i s th e paradoxica l role o f darknes s i n this episod e t o mak e transparent fo r a m o m e n t jus t h o w m u c h th e character s d o k n o w abou t each other' s sympathies , antipathies , intentions , and , o f course , thei r scandalous involvements . A simple r transparency ma y b e foun d i n Laxdoela saga. fcórár ha s divorced hi s wif e Auá r i n orde r t o marr y Gu#rú n an d th e spurne d wif e takes he r reveng e b y invadin g t>órór hallsstao4r i n Grettis saga ar e w e l l k n o w n . O n th e whole , Glámr' s approach i s less effectivel y describe d tha n GrendePs , bu t th e actua l wrestling matc h w i t h G r e t t i r i s conveyed w i t h a uniqu e c o m b i n a t i o n of supernatura l dimensio n an d realisti c detail , embracin g suc h matter s as th e wrestlin g holds use d b y th e antagonist s an d a n inventor y o f th e wreckage don e i n th e house . G r e t t i r i s not eve n temporaril y invincible and i s slowl y dragge d w i l l y - n i l l y t o w a r d th e door . H e finall y realize s that h e ha s los t th e struggl e and , i n a last-ditc h effor t t o gai n th e uppe r hand, h e reverse s his weigh t an d tumble s hi s adversar y b a c k w a r d ove r the doorsill . A s Glámr lie s supine , th e ful l m o o n passe s fro m behin d the cloud s an d illumine s his eyes . G r e t t i r i s paralysed b y th e sigh t an d unable t o dra w hi s swor d a s Glám r intones , n o doub t i n a suitabl y hol l o w voice , that thi s visio n w i l l pursu e h i m th e res t o f hi s day s an d brin g about hi s death . T h e prophec y i s fulfille d i n du e cours e becaus e G r e t t i r succumbs t o th e fea r o f lonelines s engendere d a t thi s m o m e n t an d be comes dependen t o n a n unreliabl e c o m p a n i o n . Th e latte r par t o f Grettis saga, lik e th e latte r par t o f Gisla saga, i s shroude d i n a preternatura l sense o f darkness . In compariso n t o Scandinavia n literature , th e G e r m a n cultivation of darknes s i s very meagre . Th e o n l y substantia l evidenc e o f a n indig enous traditio n come s fro m th e h y b r i d heroic romanc e k n o w n a s th e Nibelungenlied; everythin g els e i s even late r an d mor e dilute d o r dis guised i n L a t i n (Waltharius) o r Nors e (PiÜreks saga). T h e firs t par t o f the Nibelungenlied i s pictured i n th e ful l ligh t o f c o u r t l y romanc e an d the secon d par t use s nigh t scener y i n a way w h i c h turns ou t t o b e secondary an d divorce d from previou s tradition . A s nearly a s w e ca n tell fro m a compariso n with PiÜreks saga, ther e wer e tw o nigh t scene s i n th e epi c sourc e o f th e secon d part , bu t b o t h thes e scene s (Hagen' s interview w i t h th e mermaid s an d hi s intervie w w i t h Eckewart ) wer e transferred t o th e dayligh t hour s b y th e Nibelungenlied poet . O n th e other hand , th e late r poe t adde d t w o ne w nigh t scene s o f hi s o w n , the battl e w i t h th e Bavarian s i n Adventure 2 6 an d th e nigh t watc h in Adventur e 30 . O n l y th e firs t o f thes e scene s m ay b e credite d w i t h anythin g lik e th e us e o f nighttim e effects . Hage n i s in com m a n d o f th e rea r guar d durin g a nigh t rid e an d i s brought t o a 1 7

The Discovery of Darkness in Northern Literature 9

halt b y th e pursuin g Bavarian s (st . 1602) : T h e y cam e t o a standstill , a s need s the y must . T h e y sa w i n th e darknes s th e flash o f brigh t shields . T h e n Hage n n o longe r wishe d t o b e still : 'Who pursue s u s o n ou r w a y ? ' Th e answe r fel l t o G e l p f r a t .

18

The darknes s her e i s b o r r o w ed fro m Hagen' s previou s intervie w w i t h the mermaid s a s i t wa s describe d i n th e epi c source , an d i f we l o o k a t the appropriat e passag e i n PiAreks saga, w e discove r w h y th e Bavaria n shields ar e visible : ' H o g n i takes al l his weapon s an d proceed s d o w n th e river an d ther e i s bright moonligh t s o tha t h e ca n se e hi s w a y . ' B y put ting tw o an d t w o together , w e ca n therefor e deduc e tha t th e Bavaria n shields shin e i n th e moonlight , just a s th e shield s o f NíSkuír' s men shin e in Vçlundarkviia (abov e p . 3) , bu t th e Nibelungenlied poe t show s i n the ensuin g fightin g tha t h e ha s n o abilit y t o visualiz e night action . F o r all th e lightin g indications h e give s us , th e battl e migh t a s w e l l hav e bee n fought a t hig h n o o n . Thus , th e Nibelungenlied serve s o n l y t o exemplif y h o w th e Germani c ar t o f nigh t depictio n wa s los t i n th e transitio n fro m epic t o romance . These illustration s suffic e t o sugges t tha t on e o f th e specifi c contri butions o f Germani c literatur e wa s a mor e full y elaborate d us e o f dark ness. B u t w h y , w e ma y ask , wa s thi s particula r c o n t r i b u t i o n lef t t o Ger manic narrativ e an d no t pre-empte d l o n g before? I n th e eighteent h cen tury th e answe r w o u l d have bee n eas y enough . W e w o u l d simpl y hav e p o i n t e d ou t tha t a t certai n season s Northerners hav e a mor e prolonge d and mor e intens e experienc e o f darknes s s o tha t i t wa s quit e natura l fo r them t o mak e a mor e p r o f o u n d stud y o f it . T o d a y w e ar e les s give n t o climatological explanation s an d I w i l l speculat e i n a differen t vein . A s a genera l p r o p o s i t i o n , w e m a y sa y tha t th e stud y o f darknes s i n Western narrativ e ha s develope d i n thre e traditions , th e traditio n o f criminal literature , th e traditio n o f eroti c literature , an d th e traditio n of militar y literature beginnin g w i t h th e fina l actio n a t T r o y . Sinc e ther e is n o evidenc e i n ou r Germani c text s t o suppor t th e ide a tha t th e Teuton s were eithe r grea t thieve s o r grea t lovers , I w i l l procee d alon g th e militar y avenue an d sugges t tha t the y derive d thei r specia l sens e o f darknes s fro m a lon g familiarit y w i th nighttim e campaigning , a practic e w h i c h se t the m apart fro m th e classica l w o r l d. A s a rule , th e classica l peoples avoide d nighttim e engagement s i f at al l possible. I t i s i n fac t remarkabl e h o w littl e ancien t histor y wa s mad e a t 1 9

10 Theodore M . Andersson

night. Herodotu s report s exactl y on e nigh t battle , a s h e call s i t, w h i c h turns ou t no t t o hav e bee n a nigh t battl e a t a l l , but th e resul t o f a n eclipse, fo r w h i c h th e astronomer s hav e p r o v i d e d th e dat e 2 8 M a y 585 B C . Th e combatant s o n thi s particula r occasion , th e Mede s an d th e L y d i a n s , wer e s o startle d b y th e unfamilia r elemen t tha t the y imme diately separate d an d mad e peac e (1.74). T h u c y d i d es report s a certai n number o f nighttim e actions , usuall y i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h sieg e opera tions, som e w i t h a disturbin g resemblanc e t o th e Gree k stratage m a t T r o y , bu t h e declare s tha t ther e wa s o n l y on e majo r nigh t encounte r i n th e whol e Peloponnesia n War . J u d g i ng fro m th e description , th e occasion wa s characterize d b y incredibl e confusio n an d wa s a sourc e of som e frustratio n t o ou r conscientiou s wa r correspondent . A s h e says (VII.44.1): ' B u t i n a nigh t battle , an d thi s wa s th e o n l y on e w h i c h took plac e betwee n grea t armie s i n thi s war , h o w c o u l d anyone k n o w a n y t h i n g c l e a r l y ? ' X e n o p h o n 's Anabasis likewis e reports on e night time attac k o n th e retreatin g Greek s (VII.4.14) b y th e T h y n i a n s , a people w i t h a specia l reputation fo r nigh t fightin g (VII.2.22). B u t thi s was no t th e w a y o f th e Greek s or , fo r tha t matter , o f th e Persians , w h o , X e n o p h o n tell s u s (III.4.34-5), camped a t som e distanc e f r o m th e Greeks fo r fea r o f a nigh t attack . T h e explanatio n w h i c h X e n o p h o n offers i s that the y wer e apprehensiv e abou t th e p r o b l e m o f arming , u n h o b b l i n g thei r horses , an d m o u n t i n g al l at th e sam e tim e an d a l l in the clamorou s confusio n o f th e night . Fear o f nigh t encounter s i s als o th e not e mos t c o m m o n l y sounde d b y R o m a n historians . L i v y report s som e case s o f nigh t fightin g fro m th e history o f earl y R o m e , als o frequentl y connecte d w i t h sieg e stratagem s (though les s elaborat e tha n th e T r o j a n Horse) , bu t i t i s clear tha t suc h encounters wer e no t courte d o r desire d an d wer e ap t t o b e a counse l of desperation . W e read suc h cautionar y note s a s th e f o l l o w i n g : 'There fore th e enem y despaire d o f an y succes s i n a regula r battl e an d attacke d the consul' s cam p a t night , entrustin g thei r fortune s t o a very dubiou s outcome. ' O r : 'Marcu s Fabiu s wa s assigne d th e cavalr y an d ordere d no t to mov e befor e d a w n becaus e a cavalr y detachmen t i s difficul t t o con t r o l i n th e clamorou s confusio n o f th e n i g h t . ' O r : ' T h e n a t sunset , w h e n no t m u c h o f th e da y wa s left , the y though t [th e Gauls ] w o u ld attack the m befor e nightfall ; then the y though t th e p l a n h a d bee n pu t off u n t i l nigh t i n orde r t o inspir e the m w i t h greate r fear . ' O r : ' F o r the rest , nigh t inspirin g equal fea r o n b o t h side s restraine d the m f r o m j o i n i n g battl e u n t i l d a w n . ' O r : 'Fabiu s hear d th e noise , b u t kep t hi s m e n w i t h i n th e fortification s becaus e h e though t i t wa s a tra p an d shran k

T h e Discovery of Darkness in Northern Literature

11

i n an y even t fro m a battl e a t n i g h t . The sam e fea r o f nigh t fightin g is recorded i n th e firs t R o m a n en counter w i t h th e Germani c peoples. Plutarc h tell s us tha t afte r a n initial bu t inconclusiv e v i c t o ry over th e Cimbrians , M a r i u s' troop s spen t the nigh t listenin g anxiously to th e lamentation s o f th e enemy : T h e plain wa s fille d w i t h a fearfu l wailin g an d th e R o m a n s w i t h fear ; eve n Marius himsel f wa s seize d by terro r a s h e anticipate d som e disordere d and confuse d nigh t b a t t l e ' ( ' L i f e o f M a r i u s ' X X . 3 ) . I t i s clear fro m such passage s tha t nigh t fightin g ran counte r t o R o m a n orderliness . When R o m a n legion s d i d become involve d i n night actions , i t wa s usually becaus e o f th e enemy' s initiative . Sallust's accoun t o f th e wa r against J u g u r t h a include s fou r nighttim e attack s launche d agains t th e R o m a n s b y th e N u m i d i a n s (Bellum Jugurthinum, chap s 2 1 , 38 , 54 , 97) , the las t one , Sallus t tell s u s e x p l i c i t l y , becaus e th e cove r o f darknes s was advantageou s t o th e N u m i d i a n s and a handicap fo r th e R o m a n s . Caesar's Galli c campaign s recor d a coupl e o f nighttim e sortie s (II.33 an d V I I . 2 4 ) , bu t o n l y on e regula r nigh t engagemen t (VII.81), an d thi s on e initiated b y th e Gauls . The pictur e i s not ver y differen t i n Tacitus. T he Annals describ e on e nighttime engagemen t agains t th e German s (1.51) an d t w o agains t th e Thracians ( l V . 4 8 - 5 1 ) . I n th e Histories ther e i s a nigh t battl e betwee n th e legions o f V i t e l l i u s an d Vespasia n because o f a chanc e encounte r i n th e dark (111.22-3) and t w o regula r engagement s agains t th e German s durin g the uprisin g of Civili s (IV.29 an d V . 2 2 ) . I n on e o f thes e engagement s Tacitus note s tha t th e German s deliberatel y chos e a dar k an d c l o u d y night t o cove r thei r advance . I n th e othe r engagemen t ther e i s an inter esting contras t i n the attitude s o f th e combatants . Wherea s th e German s fight w i t h 'reckles s fur y ' an d n o apparen t concer n abou t th e darkness , the R o m a n s ar e describe d a s bein g 'awar e o f th e p e r i l s ' an d mor e cau tious. Thes e passages , alon g w i t h thos e mentione d earlier , sugges t that , even i f it i s nowhere state d e x p l i c i t l y , th e R o m a n s mus t hav e regarde d night fightin g as a n aspec t o f guerill a warfare peculia r t o thei r barbaria n neighbours. Tha t th e G e r m a n i c tribes mad e n o suc h distinction s is indi cated no t o n l y b y th e passage s alread y cited , but als o b y a not e o n th e H a r i i i n T a c i t u s' Germania 4 3 . We ar e t o l d tha t thi s trib e chos e blac k nights fo r battl e an d struc k terro r int o thei r enemie s b y capitalizin g on fear an d darknes s lik e a n arm y o f ghosts . I f i t i s permissible t o generaliz e o n th e basi s o f suc h indications , it w o u l d appea r tha t nigh t fightin g wa s already institutiona l among th e Germani c peoples i n th e firs t century . But whethe r o r no t nigh t warfar e wa s a fir m traditio n a t thi s earl y , 2 0

12 Theodore M . Andersson

period, i t certainl y emerge s a s suc h whe n th e viking s appear o n th e his torical h o r i z o n . The chronicle s mak e i t clea r tha t th e viking s had a cer tain preferenc e fo r earl y m o r n i n g o r nigh t attacks . Bordeau x fel l t o a night rai d i n 8 4 8 , Chartre s i n 858 , N o y on i n 8 5 9 , S t O m e r i n 8 6 1 , an d M e a u x i n 8 6 2 . T h e Anglo-Saxon Chronicle report s nighttim e opera tions b y th e viking s in 8 6 5 , 8 7 5 , 894 , 9 1 7 , an d 9 2 0 . A n d so th e patter n remains w h e n th e firs t mor e o r les s contemporar y vernacula r source s begin t o flow. L e t i t suffic e t o poin t ou t tha t Sverris saga record s n o fewer tha n sixtee n nigh t encounter s w i t h neve r a note o f fea r o r reluc tance suc h a s w e fin d i n th e classica l histories. What happen s whe n Germani c practic e an d classica l discourse meet ? The passag e alread y quote d fro m Sax o Grammaticu s (p . 3 ) provide s the answer . T h e situatio n i s Germanic , bu t whe n Sax o speak s o f 'can celling th e n o r m a l us e o f th e quie t hour s ' an d o f fightin g 'mad e uncer tain b y th e confusio n o f night . ' h e i s echoin g th e phraseolog y o f hi s classical models . The though t w h i c h emerge s fro m thi s compariso n (an d I nee d scarce ly dwel l o n th e fragilit y o f suc h speculations ) i s that th e Germani c aptitude fo r depictin g nigh t actio n ma y ow e somethin g t o a familiar i t y w i t h darknes s fostere d b y a lon g traditio n o f nigh t fighting , perhap s among th e Germani c people s generally , an d certainl y amon g th e N o r t h Germanic peoples . T h e classica l peoples, w i t h n o suc h tradition , tende d to exclud e th e nigh t fro m thei r epics , bu t N o r t h e r n literatur e ha d n o such impedimen t an d include d nigh t o n a n equa l footin g w i t h da y i n its narrativ e range . 2 1

22

NOTES 1 Curt A . Zimansky, ed., The Critical 2 Zimansky,

Works of Thomas

Rymer

(New Haven 1956), 10

15

3 A r t h u r Stanley Pease, ed., Publi

VergiliMaronis

Aeneidos

Liber

Quartus

(Cambridge,

Mass. 1935), 434-6. See also Lore Paust, 'Die Nacht in der griechischen D i c h t u n g ' (Diss. Tubingen 1946 der Nacht

[not available to me] ) and Heidemarie R e y , Die

in der tpischen

ErzShlung

(Diss. Hamburg 1965

der Aeneis

Bedeutung [Hamburg

1967]). 4 Aeneid

IX.224-449; Thebaid

X . 1 5 6 - 4 4 8 ; Orlando

' T h e Episode of Nisus and Euryalus' in Hours

of

Furioso

XVIII.clxiv-xix.16; B y r o n ,

Idleness

5 C . F . Tucker Brooke, ' T h e Renascence of Germanic Studies in England, 1559-1689,' PMLA

29 (1914) 150: 'Hickes estimates that from the time when the dissolution

The Discovery of Darkness in Northern Literature

13

of the monasteries rendered the old manuscripts generally accessible till the year 1689, not more than two foreigners (Vossius the Elder and J . Laet of Antwerp) and about twenty Englishmen had acquired any real mastery of the Anglo-Saxon. * See also Eleanor N . A d a m s , Old English

Scholarship

in England

from

erary History

Yale

1566-1800,

Studies in English 55 (New Haven 1917) and René Wellek, The Rise

of English

Lit-

(1941; rpt New Y o r k 1966), 117-26.1 have outlined the Norse revival

in Scandinavia in The Problem

of Icelandic

Saga Origins: A Historical

Yale

Survey,

Germanic Studies 1 (New Haven 1964), 1-21. A lively essay on the Germanic revival in Germany down to the present is Klaus von See, Deutsche vom Humanismus

Germanen-Ideologie

(Frankfurt a. M . 1970).

bis zur Gegenwart

6 See for example Francis P. Magoun, 'Cynewulf, Cyneheard, and Osric,' Anglia

57

(1933) 361-2. 7 See Paul the Deacon, History

of the Langobards,

trans. William Dudley Foulke

(Philadelphia 1907), 81-3, and L u d w i g Schmidt, Die Ostgermanen

(1941; rpt

Munchen 1969), 594-5. 8

Saxonis

primum a C . Knabe & P. Herrmann recensita, recogno-

Gesta Danorum,

verunt et ediderunt J . Olrik 8c H . Raeder, tomus I textum continens (Hauniae 1931), 52 9 Edda:

Die Lieder

des Codex

Regius

nebst verwandten

hg. von Gustav

Denkmalern,

Neckel (3te umgearb. Auflage von Hans K u h n ; Heidelberg 1962), 118 10

Finnur Jónsson, éd., D e n norsk-islandske

skjaldedigtning,

11 Gisla saga Sûrssonar, ed. BjSrn K . frórólfsson in Islenzk spgur (Reykjavik 1943), 52-4, and Droplaugarsona Islenzk

fornrit

IB (K^benhavn 1908), 1 fornrit

6: Vestfiràinga

saga, ed. Jón Jóhannesson in

11: Austfirûinga sçgur (Reykjavik 1950), 168-71.1 have argued for

this sequence in 'Some Ambiguities in Gisla saga: A Balance Sheet,' of Old Norse-Icelandic

12 Egils saga skalla-grimssonar,

Bibliography

(1968) 28-39.

Studies

ed. Siguráur Nordal in Islenzk fornrit

2 (Reykjavik

1933), 110-11 13 Snorri Sturluson, Heimskringla, (Reykjavik 1945),

ed. Bjarni Aàalbjarnarson in Islenzk

fornrit

27

121-2

14 Gisla saga, 39-42 15 Laxdoela

saga, ed. Einar O l . Sveinsson in Islenzk

16 Heitarviga firUnga 17 Grettis

fornrit

5 (Reykjavik 1934), 97-8

saga, ed. Sigurdur Nordal and Gu^ni Jónsson in Islenzk

fornrit

3: Borg-

sçgur (Reykjavik 1938), 233-4 saga Asmundarsonar,

ed. G u i m i Jónsson in Islenzk fornrit

7 (Reykjavik

1936), 118-23 18 Das Nibelungenlied,

nach der Ausgabe von K a r l Bartsch, hg. von Helmut de Boor,

(19te Auflage, Wiesbaden 1967), 254 19 Henrik Bertelsen, ed.,Pitriks

saga afBern

2 (Kaet hehste go d J>e we nemna< $ G o d ' (129.234); ' s w a bioá f> a midmestan me n o n m i d d a n |>am spacan , an d f) a betra n near jsaer e nafe , an d |> a maetra n nea r áae m f e l g u m ' ( 1 3 0 . 1 - 3 ) . Th e wheel o f W y r d j o i ns al l m en i n a c o m m o n brotherhood, wher e th e wors t men depen d o n th e averag e an d th e averag e o n th e best , an d al l depend for thei r existenc e o n G o d (130.5 ff) . M e n 's freedo m t o escap e fro m the whirlin g o f W y r d consist s onl y i n their bein g able t o mov e neare r the nave , bu t n o m a n crosse s t o th e axle , to th e complet e understandin g of G o d . ' S w a do# á a selesta n m e n ; swa hi h i o ra lufe nea r G o d e laetaá, and swi^o r |>a s eorálico n |>in g forsioá, sw a hi beoae t waere u n c y n l i c r e , gif G od naefde o n eallu m his ric e nane frig e gesceaft unde r hi s anwalde . Foráae m h e gesceo p t w a gesceadwis a ge sceafta freo , engla s an d m e n . ' (142.6-9) B u t me n lac k omniscience : ' Foráon }> e we w i t o n swiá e l y t e l áae s |>e ae r u s wae s b u t o n b e gemynd e and b e geaescum , an d ge t laess e J>ae s #e aefte r u s biá. ' (148.8-10) Free d o m i s thus a m i x e d blessin g because G o d decrees th e on e w a y : ' [ G o d] sealde swid e faeste gif e an d swiíl e faest e a e m id #aere gife aelcu m m en oi his ende ; áae t is se freodo m áae t s e m o n m o t d o n jsae t he w i l e , an d jsae t is si o a e |>aet he gil t aelcu m be hi s gewyrhtu m aegáe r ge o n Jriss e woruld e ge o n £>aer e toweardan sw a good sw a yfel , swaeáe r he dea.' (142.11-15) Angels, th e othe r fre e being s i n th e universe , hav e a n advantag e ove r men. Unles s they f a l l , the y ar e prevente d fro m m a k i n g inaccurat e choices b y thei r possessio n o f absolut e knowledge : 'Engla s habbaá rihte doma s an d goodn e willan , an d eal l |>ae t hi wilniaá h i begitaá swiáe eaáe , foráaemj^ e h i nanes wos n e wilniaá. ' (140.28-30) A n d later: 'fceah w e fel á smean , w e habba á litelln e gearowita n b u t o n t w e o n ; a c |>am englu m ni s na n twe o nane s |>aera |>inga |> e h i w i t o n .' (146.21-3) Because m e n lac k suc h knowledge , they mus t b e conten t w i t h k n o w i n g that thei r freedo m i s proportionate t o th e n o b i l i t y o f thei r aims : 'á a men habba á siml e freodom |> y mara n |> e h i heora m o d nea r g o d c u n d u m áingum laetaá , and habba á |)ae s J) y laessan friodo m J> e hi h i o ra modes wil lan nea r f)iss e weoruldar e laetaá . Nabbaüí hi naenne freodo m jjonn e h i heor a agnum w i l l u m h i self e unáeawu m underáiodaá ; a c son a sw a hi h i o ra m o d onwenda á fro m gode , sw a weoníaá h i ablend e m i d unwisdome. ' (140.31-141.6) Thi s passag e parallels th e whee l o f W y r d passag e quote d above; deliberat e evi l bring s her e th e confusio n o f u n w i s d o m , there th e 4

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dislocation o f W y r d ' s w h i r l i n g; th e deliberat e searc h fo r G o d brings ther e the greates t happiness , her e th e greates t freedom . M a n , i n his righ t t o choose , t o dislocat e th e textur e o f thing s becaus e he lack s omniscience , perform s act s w h i ch require th e direc t attentio n of G o d . T h is attentio n A l f r e d call s W y r d, th e w o r k tha t G o d doe s ever y day: ' A c £>aet f>aet w e w y r d hataá , |>aet biá Gode s weor c f>ae t h e aelc e dae g wyrcá, aegj>e r ge f>ae s 3e w e gesio á g e f>ae s f>e u s ungesewenli c biá . ' (128 . 18-20) Since , in the sam e passage , A l f r e d make s i t clea r tha t al l othe r events i n th e univers e ar e se t b y natura l la w fro m th e beginnin g o f time , the w o r k o f G o d ca n b e draw n fort h o n l y b y thos e being s fre e t o disrup t the perfec t pattern s o f things . W y r d i s th e balanc e tha t keep s th e fre e choices o f me n fro m sendin g th e univers e astray . Th e univers e mus t op erate i n terms o f a n orde r o f it s o w n an d i f men's choice s threate n it , deliberately evi l o r merel y h u m a n l y inadequate , W y r d come s agains t them. A s G o d ' s w o r k , W y r d ha s n o imaginabl e f o r m , canno t hav e bee n per sonified a s a deity . I t i s rather a chameleo n forc e w h i c h manifests itsel f i n man y ways . A l f r e d , i n describin g th e differin g ways i n w h i ch G od em ploys it , writes : ' © a w y r d h e Jjonn e wyrc á oáá e fnir h ¿a. goodan engla s ofáe |)ur h m o n n a sawla , o#ar a scuccen a mislic e lotwrencas; h w i l u m fnir h a n #ara , h w i l u m |)ur h eal l 3a. ' (129.3-7 ) W y r d i s not a pagan opponen t o f th e Christian G o d , except fro m tha t narro w conceptio n o f Christianit y w h i ch imagines G o d a s sittin g in tota l oblivio n t o hi s responsibilitie s fo r th e terrible, ambiguou s consequence s o f bein g h u m a n ; W y r d i s merel y G o d ' s other face . The broa d outline s o f th e definitio n o f W y r d w h i c h may b e deduce d from th e whee l simil e and Alfred' s theor y o f freedo m fin d thei r counter parts i n Beowulf. W y r d ' s functio n her e to o i s th e severel y l i m i t e d one , an orde r unt o m e n alone . It s separatio n fro m th e orde r o f natur e i s evi dent i n t w o passages , th e Brec a episode (569-70 ) an d th e mer e (1570 2 ) . I n b o t h , a descriptio n o f sunligh t i s juxtaposed t o th e passag e des cribing th e m o o d o f W y r d , an d represent s th e m o m e n t w h e n Beowulf' s courage ha s pu t h i m bac k i n t o u c h w i t h universa l order , henc e a n escap e from th e c o m p u l s i o n of W y r d w h i c h w o u ld put h i m there , whethe r h e w o u l d o r n o . I n on e passage , where th e cycle s an d season s o f natur e ar e mentioned i n relation t o thei r ruler , i t i s G od w h om th e poe t mention s (1607). 5

What give s m a n creativ e freedo m i n Beowulf as in th e O E Consolation is his c o m m i t m e n t t o th e highes t orde r h e ca n imagine , a n orde r b e y o n d

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the narro w dictate s o f th e cod e b y w h i c h lesse r me n live . Whil e th e cod e w o u l d b i n d B e o w u l f t o fightin g monsters w h o attac k hi s o w n hal l o r th e hall o f hi s king , i t make s n o stipulation s abou t freein g th e hall s o f for eign king s fro m suc h attacks , no r abou t facin g a drago n whos e catastro phic energie s destro y no t onl y hi s hal l bu t als o th e citie s o f hi s k i n g d o m. The dedicatio n tha t th e poe t represent s i n Beowulf'is th e equivalen t o f Alfred's dedicatio n t o w i s d o m , the o n l y mean s b y w h i c h m e n engag e fully th e space , th e imaginativ e possibilities open t o them , eve n thoug h W y r d wait s ther e fo r thei r fals e moves . Th e poe t link s thi s hig h flight of th e h u m a n w i l l towar d lif e a t it s fulles t w i t h th e searc h fo r G o d . In th e heathe n templ e passage , we hav e man' s negatio n o f hi s freedom. T h e poe t bitterl y attack s th e Dane s fo r worshippin g Death, the 'gastbona, ' fo r forgettin g th e divin e names w h i c h guid e th e highes t goals o f h u m a n effort : la w ( G o d as Measure r an d Judge), fellowshi p ( G o d a s L o r d ) , glor y ( G o d as H e l m o f th e heavens , Wielde r of glory). M e t o d hi e n e cu|)on , daeda D e m e n d , n e w i s t o n hie D r i h t e n G o d, ne hi e h u m heofen a H e l m hería n n e cu|)on , wuldres Waldend . ( 1 8 0 - 3 ) 6

In Hrothgar' s word s t o B e o w u l f w e hav e th e affirmatio n o f th e searc h for divin e certainty . Bebeorh J) e áon e bealoniá , B e o w u l f leofa , secg betsta, o n d }> e £>aet selre geceos , ece raedas ; oferhyd a n e gym , maera cempa ! (1758-61 ) The exercis e o f choic e i n what th e individua l grasp s t o b e th e absolut e milieu o f w i s d o m or herois m i s his greates t happines s an d greates t free d o m . I t i s his u n t o u c h e d , i f o n ly momentary , rewar d fo r dedicatin g hi s life t o facin g the incomprehensibl e forces , laws , darkness, th e manifes tations o f W y r d tha t u l t i m a t e l y defea t h i m . The p o e m i s concerned w i t h th e knowledg e tha t eve n w h e n heroe s choose a n actio n an d perfor m it , w h en the y boas t an d the n carr y ou t the ac t defined , the y enter , a s the y mov e fro m th e w o r d t o th e deed , the unforme d bu t carefull y watched-ove r spac e availabl e to them , th e space wher e W y r d waits . A s their commitment s becom e mor e c o m p l e x , their choice s becom e les s accurat e an d the y becom e awar e o f W y r d ,

20

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become awar e tha t the y ar e violatin g a n orde r whos e form s the y d o no t grasp. 'Sidda n hit fullfreme d bi# , jx>nn e hatao * we hi t w y r d ' (128.13-14) , A l f r e d say s a t on e p o i n t (se e als o 129.1-2) ; the awarenes s o f W y r d means th e dee d i s already c o m m i t t e d . Some o f men' s choice s fit i n w i t h the schem e o f things , a s i n Beowulf's decisio n t o figh t G r e n d e l ; i n som e their action s manag e no t t o interfer e w i t h deep-seate d intermeshin g of ancient pattern s (th e 'geosceaf t g r i m m e , ' 1234) , a s i n Beowulf's battl e w i t h Grendel' s mother. B u t i n some, a s i n Beowulf's decisio n t o figh t the dragon , preceding choices have alread y loade d th e dic e agains t th e act. When al l pretences tha t m a n espouse s ar e swep t away , eve n his heroi c c o m m i t m e n t become s insufficien t t o tel l h i m h ow t o choos e accuratel y enough t o escap e an d W y r d take s h i m into death . Whe n A l f r e d call s W y r d a t on e p o i n t 'f)ae s J) e we n e wenaá ' (132.22) , he emphasize s it s mysterious, uncann y abilit y t o exer t itsel f unannounce d i n that spac e where m a n i s desperately attemptin g t o tak e everythin g into considera t i o n , th e p o s i t i o n of B e o w u l f i n the drago n fight . W y rd i s the dar k sid e o f G o d , th e opponen t i n reality, the tota l terribl e experience o f th e en counter b e y o n d th e comfortable , w e l l - k n o wn game s o f civilization . I t touches wha t ma n i n his freedo m touches . I t i s man's contac t w i t h divi n i t y , shape d i n response t o hi s precise act s an d thought s an d therefor e the mos t exhilaratin g and th e mos t terribl e experienc e h e eve r confronts . While A l f r e d w i l l sa y tha t thi s experienc e i s the resul t o f G o d ' s desire t o keep th e univers e o n it s course , th e Beowulf poet doe s no t dea l i n philo sophy. Instea d o f a n answer , h e convey s to u s th e tragi c visio n o f th e victory an d deat h o f Beowulf . A s w e encounte r W y r d i n the p o e m , i t i s the forc e tha t hover s a t th e outer edg e o f man' s imaginativ e space. A s he i s less abl e t o handl e th e challenge befor e h i m , the l i m i t i n g weigh t o f W y rd shrink s in u p on h i m. In variou s ways i n Beowulf th e poe t envision s four stage s i n man's rela t i o n t o th e spac e availabl e to h i m : 1 / th e stag e i n w h i ch h e feel s n o ob stacle agains t h i m ; 2/ th e stag e i n w h i ch h e i n a sens e set s up a n obstacl e and freel y engage s w i t h hi s action s th e material s o f th e w o r l d aroun d h i m ; 3 / th e stag e o f stalemate , i n w h i ch force s outsid e himsel f mak e hi s acts threate n o n l y frustrate d failure ; 4 / th e stag e o f tota l confinement , the deat h o f m i n d o r b o d y . T he eleve n instances o f W y r d i n th e p o e m reflect thes e stage s o f relatio n to space. M o s t o f th e example s o f th e w o r d refe r a s on e w o u l d expec t t o th e tim e o f crisi s an d death : si x t o 7

Three Aspects of W y r d in Beowulf

21

that m o m e n t w h e n m a n o r monste r doe s no t k n o w h o w t o c o n t r o l th e narrowing spac e aroun d h i m an d th e powe r o f W y r d i s d a r k ly engage d i n manipulatin g the flow o f events ; thre e t o W y r d a s th e p o w e r tha t takes m a n i n t o death , th e tota l confinemen t an d utte r los s o f th e aware ness o f space . Beowulf's thre e battle s w i t h th e monster s represen t hi s progressio n from tota l freedo m i n th e fac e o f W y r d t o hi s eventua l tota l confine ment. A t th e oute r edg e o f things , wher e W y r d doe s no t see m t o imping e u p o n h u m a n activities , where O l y m p i a n projection s o f h u m a n energ y w h i c h accor d w i t h universa l order mak e succes s certain , B e o w u l f ca n dismiss i t w i t h superficia l pessimism. 'Gaeo a w y r d sw a hio seel ' (455) , he say s t o Hrothga r a s h e luxuriate s uncomprehendingl y th e whil e in th e thought o f bein g eate n an d th e necessit y fo r preservin g hi s splendi d bu t i n tha t event , o f course , empt y b o d y armou r fo r Hygelac. His subsequen t figh t w i t h G r e n d e l exemplifies th e h u m a n relatio n t o W y r d wher e th e h u m a n choic e o f a n act , a s fa r a s ma n i s concerned, ha s no counterweigh t t h r o w n agains t it . T he poet' s reference s i n thi s figh t place i t outsid e B e o w u l f ' s conscious knowledge . W y rd i s se t agains t Grendel t o sto p h i m fro m eatin g m e n ; i t i s he therefor e w h o feel s it s presence, no t B e o w u l f , w ho i s o n ly G o d ' s agent . Th e poe t tell s us : ' N e waes |)ae t w y r d |> a gen , / }>ae t he m a most e mann a cynne s / dicgea n ofe r f)a niht . ' (734-6 ) Late r h e tell s us, a s Hrothga r pay s wergel d fo r H o n d scioh, tha t G r e n d e l w o u ld hav e eate n mor e me n 'nefn e h i m witi g G o d w y r d forstod e / o n d áae s mannes m o d . ' (1056-7 ) I n thes e i nstances, ther e ar e plan s i n forc e tha t hav e n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h th e con scious w i l l o f th e hero . Havin g himsel f n o tain t o f th e Danis h retainers ' failure tha t bring s thi s monster , B e o w u l f i n thi s battl e i s merely a n idea l actor i n a universa l mystery p l a y . H is choice t o figh t G r e n d e l perfectl y fits th e occasio n an d a s a resul t ther e i s no hin t i n Beowulf's consciousness o f th e cos t o f th e act . Beowulf's experienc e her e stand s i n shar p contras t t o Hrothgar' s re tainers' earlier ; fo r them , W y r d mean t o n l y death . I t migh t b e men tioned i n passing tha t althoug h W y r d i s ofte n connecte d w i t h physica l deat h it doe s no t describ e th e fac t tha t m e n ar e b y c o n d i t i o n of thei r creatio n m o r t a l . W y r d i s connecte d o n l y w i t h th e deat h o f individual s w ho thin k their choice s giv e the m th e o p t i o n o f stayin g alive , i n particular o f course whe n the y tak e o n th e stanc e o f fightin g warrior; that is , whe n they attemp t bu t fai l a t th e heroi c projectio n o f thei r energies . H r o t h gar say s o f hi s thane s w h o boaste d tha t the y w o u l d sta y i n th e hal l an d fight G r e n d e l : 'hi e w y r d forsweo p / o n Grendle s gryre. ' (477-8 ) I n 1

22 F . A n n e Payne

t h e m , w e have a n instance o f the thwarted heroi c act, the projection o f the imagination , where th e act chosen doe s n o t m a t ch th e order o f the space i n w h i c h the y wis h t o carry it out. T h e retainers , goo d an d ba d alike, throug h thei r boastin g an d willingnes s t o stay i n the h a l l, w o u l d seem t o be heroic, b ut their heroic s are no more effectiv e tha n thos e of M i l t o n ' s falle n angels . F o r the y ar e caught i n a net of disorder create d b y Hrothga r tha t o n l y Beowulf , G o d ' s c h a m p i o n, can cut. The secon d stag e of W y rd describe s man' s awarenes s o f its presenc e when h e challenges hi s spac e w i t h heroi c action . Here, after a p e r i od of trial successfull y passed through , i t is thought o f as an exciting comrade . ' W y r d of t nereá / unfaegn e eorl , }>onn e hi s elle n d e a h ' (572-3), B e o w u l f says o f his struggl e i n the sea w h i c h ende d i n his t r i u m p h agains t Breca . The figh t w i t h Grendel' s mother als o exemplifie s this relatio n to W y r d . The poe t warn s u s as the Geats a n d the Danes feas t jus t befor e he r appear ance tha t th e result o f another violatio n o f rightful behaviou r is suddenly t o be in evidence: 't>ae r waes symbl a cyst, / d r u n c o n w in weras. W y r d n e cuf)on, / geosceaf t g r i m m e . ' (1232-4) Grendel' s deat h and th e feast hav e l u l l e d the m t o the false securit y o f blissful ignoranc e w h i c h i s about t o be destroyed. Th e j oy o f the hall i s a temporary blind ness w h i c h ha s no charm fo r controlling Wyrd' s omnipresen t power . B u t i t is the Danes w h o hav e se t up the errors tha t dra w th e power of W y r d agains t them ; fo r B e o w u lf i n this battle , W y r d i s the distant ad versary. T h o u g h the poet doe s no t use the w o rd agai n in this episode , he describe s tw o mood s associate d w i t h th e experience o f W y r d: its power t o n u mb th e m i nd an d it s power t o exhilarate i t . B e o w u lf i s cal led ' w e r i g m o d ' (1543), w h en H r u n t i n g fail s an d h e lies helpless , excep t for hi s protecting armour, unde r th e knife o f Grendel's mother. T h e poet doe s n o t describe th e terrible effor t o f w i ll an d imaginatio n by w h i c h h e is able t o break th e dark powe r o f the mother tha t ha s encircled h i m . He merel y says : ' w i t i g D r i h t e n , / roder a Raeden d h i t on ryht gesced / yáelice , sy }>aan he eft astod.' (1554-6) T h e c o m m a afte r 'y^e l i c e ' i s assuredly th e correct p u n c t u a t i o n . T h e G o d of men's propensit y for fightin g on e another, lik e A t h e n a watching Odysseus' p r e l i m i n a r y efforts t o fight th e suitors w i t h o u t aid , lends strengt h an d hel p t o thos e w h o ca n endur e overwhelmin g odds a n d still figh t o n . W i th Beowulf' s successful us e of the giant's sword , he rejoices: 'sec g weorce gefeh. ' (1569) T h e poet , b y his descriptio n of the light a s brilliant a s the sun w h i c h suddenl y floods th e cave, mirrors Beowulf's j o y i n the b l o od on the swor d a nd the t o p p l i ng of the monster's head . T h e intens e elatio n is cause d b y the m o m e nt i n w h i c h W y r d seem s to acquiesce i n man' s

Three Aspects of W y r d in Beowulf

23

courage an d i s silent. As B e o w u lf say s t o Hygelac , i n describing this en counter: 'nae s i c faege |> a gyt. ' (2141 ) In th e firs t t w o battles , ou r eye s ar e o n Beowulf' s complet e successes . W y r d seriousl y affects onl y th e m i n o r characters m e n t i o n e d i n the epi sodes o r i s too fa r distan t fro m th e her o t o caus e u s concern . In th e t h i r d fight , th e m o o d changes , fo r i t i s B e o w u lf himsel f w h o i s caugh t i n th e toil s o f W y r d an d struggle s t o escape . G o d is not th e opponen t o f the drago n a s h e wa s o f Grendel , no r doe s W y r d confin e it s attentio n t o another's erro r a s i t d i d in the figh t w i t h Grendel' s mother. B e o w u l f must figh t i n the clutche s o f hi s o w n error . A s he sit s o n th e headlan d b r o o d i n g ove r th e meanin g o f th e battle , th e poe t tell s us : H i m wae s geomo r sefa , waefre o n d waelfus , w y r d úngemet e neah , se áon e gomela n greta n sceolde , secean sawl e h o r d, sundu r gedaela n lif wiálice . (2419-23 ) The formalit y o f th e w o r d ' g r e t a n ' suggest s perhap s a certai n respec t for th e m a n i n the p o e m whos e struggl e t o maste r th e spac e aroun d h i m held ou t longest . B u t it s searc h fo r th e soul' s treasure , it s separatio n o f life an d b o d y sugges t a relentles s an d insidiou s power t o penetrat e an d destroy al l that B e o w u l f represents . Later i n the firs t o f th e thre e segment s o f th e drago n figh t itself , th e poet tell s us : áaer he \>y fyrste forma n dogor e wealdan moste , sw a h im w y r d n e gescra f hred aet he |) a wealaf e weoten a dom e arum heolde , |>ae t 3aer aeni g m o n w o r d u m n e w o r c u m waer e n e braece , ne |>ur h inwitsear o aefr e gemaenden , áeah hi e hir a beaggyfa n bana n folgedo n íeodenlease, J> a h im sw a geJDearfod waes ;

Three Aspects of W y r d in Beowulf

gyf |)onn e F r y s n a h w y lc frecna n spraec e 3aes mor|)orhetes m y n d g i e n d waere , f>onne hi t sweorde s ec g seáa n scolde . (1095-1106

27

)

There i s the silenc e o f O n e l a and Weohsta n abou t th e vengeanc e th e code demand s tha t Onela , as uncl e o f E a n m u n d , take agains t hi s slaye r Weohstan: ' n o y m b e 3 a faeháe spraec , / f)ea h it h e hi s broáor b e a m abredwade.' (2618-19 ) Ther e i s the allusio n t o th e i m p l i c i t silenc e of Hrethel an d Haethcy n in th e fac e o f th e code' s deman d tha t a fathe r avenge himsel f o n hi s son' s slayer , an d it s equall y stron g deman d tha t h e protect, w i t h hi s o w n lif e i f necessary, anyon e w h o i s b l o o d - k in t o h i m (2435 ff) . There i s the implici t silenc e o f B e o w u l f an d th e Swedis h kings: w i t h Onela , against w h o m th e cod e demand s Beowulf' s vengeanc e for th e Swedes ' k i l l i n g o f Heardre d (237 9 ff) , an d late r w i t h Eadgil s from w h o m th e cod e exact s th e dut y o f vengeanc e fo r hi s brothe r Ean m u n d agains t Weohstan , w h o come s t o Beowulf' s cour t afte r th e t h i r d Swedish wa r (239 1 ff ; 261 1 ff) . This silence , a hiatu s i n the tempora l sequenc e o f allegiance s an d ob ligations, i s eventually fille d b y som e inadequat e makeshift , b y th e re newed violatio n o f swor n oath s an d b l o o d kinship , b y exile , b y delaye d vengeance, b y th e acceptanc e o f th e seethin g frustratio n w h i c h even tually kill s H r e t h e l . These makeshift s ar e no t howeve r sufficientl y power ful i n thei r disruptio n of thing s t o attrac t th e attentio n o f W y r d . Ther e is eve n a k i n d o f acquiescenc e i n these i m m o r a l or inadequat e compen sations. T h e Dane s surviv e their tim e o f trouble s becaus e o f th e energ y of m e n lik e H r o t h u l f ( H r o l f k r a k i ) , w h o , thoug h thei r tactic s ar e evi l i n th e give n context o f th e code , nevertheles s ar e evi l i n a very circum scribed w a y ; they stay , a s i t were , o n th e whee l o f W y r d . B u t thos e w h o violat e the centra l s y m b o l i c relation between m e n and G o d at th e hear t o f th e cod e far e worse . T he centr e o f th e fellow ship o f th e comitatus , th e gift-giving , i s man's darin g i m i t a t i on of G o d ' s gifts t o m e n . L i k e A l f r e d , th e Beowulfpoet associate s G o d rather tha n W y r d w i t h th e good s o f th e eart h (Hrothgar' s sermon) ; the y ar e hi s pro vince an d i t i s man's chie f dut y t o lear n t o us e the m t o satisf y hi s spiritual and creativ e needs . T h e injunctio n in Beowulf that attend s th e givin g of gifts is : ' B r u c ealle s w e l l ! ' (2162 ; se e als o 1045 , 1216 , 2 8 1 2 ) . T o us e the gift s w e l l , m a n mus t no t hoar d t h e m ; h e mus t als o pass the m o n w i t h an accurat e feelin g for th e desert s o f th e receiver , his proved w o r t h , an d his potentia l fo r a n equall y adequate us e o f it . G o l d , materia l possessio n par excellence, require s tha t giver s emulate th e divin e knowledge of 8

9

28

F . A n n e Payne

G o d , tha t receiver s sho w themselve s read y t o tak e o n thi s statur e a t need. B u t me n ca n misus e th e gift s o r fai l t o us e the m adequatel y (agai n judged agains t a n idea l but t o ma n al l but incomprehensibl e standard) . The resul t i s that grea t wealt h (thi s include s al l material o f th e uni verse: gold , talents , kingdoms ) create s a k i n d o f tragi c ambivalenc e i n the p o e m . T o kee p lif e vita l m e n , king s in particular, mus t us e th e wealt h i n creation , bu t the y ar e b l o c k e d by thei r h u m a n i t y an d th e intractabl e nature o f th e univers e fro m accurat e estimate s abou t consequence s o f their actions . I t i s not o n l y tha t me n lac k foresight , the y also , u n l i ke G o d , d o no t hav e W y r d t o balanc e ou t th e deviation s fro m th e idea l stan dard w h i c h th e recipients ' freedo m inevitabl y allows to them . M e n hav e only thei r energy , thei r w i s d o m , their courag e w i t h w h i c h t o compensat e for th e imbalance s an d vacuum s o f a univers e indifferen t t o thei r hunge r for creatio n an d th e fragilit y o f thei r bodies . Peace i s the p r o b l e m tha t provoke s th e perpetua l crisi s of m e n . T h e kings o f th e p o e m whos e activitie s ar e presente d w i t h sufficien t scop e for comment , encounterin g th e code' s inabilit y t o suppl y a mean s o f proceeding w h e n th e bloodshe d i s over, ar e face d w i t h th e tas k o f em p l o y i n g thei r material , thei r men , thei r treasure , i n som e constructiv e way. B u t w i t h thi s leisure , the y succee d o n l y i n creating a n artificia l w o r l d tha t interfere s w i t h th e tru e orde r o f thing s an d bring s retaliatio n i n th e for m o f monster s an d o f W y r d . Hygelac's decisio n as h e ride s o n th e hig h wav e o f hi s succes s i n th e first Swedis h war an d perhap s to o o f th e treasur e B e o w u l f ha s brough t from Hrothga r i s t o creat e a n artificia l stat e o f war : t o raid . H is choice is s o p o o r tha t eve n hi s monste r i s artificial ; th e Frank s neithe r attac k the nation , a s th e othe r monster s do , no r ar e the y anythin g othe r tha n men (Daeghref n alon e supplyin g a note o f monstrou s hope) . T h e firs t account o f Hygelac' s raid i s m e n t i o n ed i n connection w i t h Hrothgar' s gift t o B e o w u l f o f th e necklac e o f th e Brosings ; the j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f hi s fall an d th e los s o f th e necklac e highlight s Hygelac's misuse o f th e gift . The punishment : ' h y n e w y r d fornam , / sy|)áa n h e fo r wlenc o wea n ahsode, / faehá e t o F r y s u m . ' (1205-7) W e hear o n thre e othe r occasion s of Hygelac' s fall an d eac h tim e w e ar e reminde d o f th e genera l absurdit y of hi s c o m m i t m e n t t o figh t th e Franks , an d mor e important , a s Bonjou r has p o i n t e d o u t , o f hi s inadequat e relatio n t o treasure . Ther e wa s n o reason t o attac k th e Frank s excep t th e bas e on e o f b o o t y , n o sens e i n wearing a magnificen t necklac e o n a raidin g expedition, no intelligenc e i n remainin g in th e rearguar d w h e n a whol e nation' s warrior s c o u l d b e expected t o b e i n hot pursuit. Hygela c is th e exampl e i n th e p o e m o f 10

11

Three Aspects of W y r d in Beowulf

29

the floundering imagination . He neve r discovere d th e issues , s y m b o l i c or otherwise, w h i c h ar e w o r t h grapplin g w i t h, th e absolut e value s o f th e world's reality . He d i d not dra w fort h a monste r a s d i d Hrothgar an d B e o w u l f i n their attempt s t o follo w ou t th e tenet s o f th e cod e a t th e most generou s o f al l possible levels . He trie d t o imagin e on e elsewhere ; and, i n legend, h e becam e on e h i m s e l f . H e aske d fo r it , an d W y r d take s h i m a s i t too k G r e n d e l . Hrothgar an d B e o w u l f , similarly, mus t decid e wha t t o d o whe n the y find themselve s s o powerfu l tha t n o neighbourin g k i n g w i l l com e agains t them. T h e i r freedo m an d powe r lea d the m t o se t u p a u t o p ia w h i c h i n b o t h case s ignore s a n essentia l requiremen t o f th e code . I f Hygela c violates th e code' s underlyin g contempt fo r irresponsible , aggressive energ y exerted i n th e us e o f an d searc h fo r treasure , Hrothgar' s choic e ignore s the requirement s w h i c h th e powe r politic s inherent i n his syste m o f gov ernment plac e u p o n reward . Hrothgar , a t th e heigh t o f hi s success , pro poses t o b u i l d th e grea t hal l H e o r o t an d i n j o y f ul c o n t e m p l a t i o n o f thi s endeavour resolve s t o distribut e al l his wealt h t o y o u n g an d o l d alike : 12

H i m o n mo d beam , J)aet healreced hata n wolde , medoaern mice l me n gewyrcea n fjonne y l d o b e am aefr e gefrunon , o n d f)ae r o n inna n eal l gedaela n geongum o n d ealdum , swyl c h i m G o d sealde , b u t o n folcscar e o n d feoru m gúmena . ( 6 7 - 7 3 )

13

A n d late r h e carrie s ou t hi s promise : ' H e beo t n e aleh , beaga s daelde , / sine ae t symle . ' (80-1 ) T h e poe t a t onc e juxtaposes th e allusio n to th e burning o f H e o r o t (82-5) . Hrothgar, i n these line s w h i ch shoul d b e footnote d w i t h th e sam e me ticulousness a s th e firs t scen e o f King Lear, make s th e Lear-lik e erro r o f disregarding th e hierarch y w h i c h keep s evi l i n check. Thi s democratic us e of th e gol d w h i c h ough t t o b e reserve d fo r th e ritualisti c d i s t r i b u t i on of the gift-givin g destroy s th e hierarch y wher e th e bes t ar e highes t i n th e court, th e wors t w i t h o u t fam e o r power . I t i s apparent tha t no t al l is wel l i n D e n m a r k w h e n th e ominou s figure s o f U n f e r t h an d H r o t h u l f si t a t th e feet o f th e l o r d o f th e Danes , no t ^ s c h e r e . Hrothgar' s reactio n i s to rec ognize hi s erro r an d adjus t t o th e situation , t o adjus t eve n t o th e monste r w i t h w h o m h e mus t shar e th e rul e o f hi s hall . Whil e Hrothgar , w a l k i n g the narro w lin e of hi s h u m i l i a t i o n , is no longe r heroic , n o longe r con -

30

F . A n n e Payne

fronts th e spac e befor e h i m , he, i n his w i s d o m , als o doe s no t brin g W y r d against h i m . I t i s his retainer s w h o , tryin g i n their futil e fashio n t o re gain c o n t r o l of th e hall , fee l it s power . The erro r tha t take s B e o w u l f int o th e real m o f W y r d i s more comple x than tha t o f Hrothgar o r Hygelac , w h i c h destroy s th e kingl y efficac y o f the on e an d th e lif e o f th e other . W i t h B e o w u l f mor e clearl y tha n w i t h these kings , w e fac e a terribl e and incomprehensibl e w o r l d. T h e misus e of 'treasure ' figure s a s a caus e i n the Danis h episode s an d th e rai d o n the Franks , and m a y b e sai d t o b e th e centra l issu e i n the drago n fight . But whil e i t i s immediately apparent wha t Hygela c an d Hrothga r should not hav e don e w i t h treasure , i t i s not a t al l apparent tha t B e o w u l f c o u l d legitimately hav e don e anythin g else w i t h his . If h e hel d t o th e ceremon y of th e hal l an d th e ethica l requirements o f th e code , protecte d hi s re tainers b e y o n d th e c o m m o n w o nt o f kings , h e obviousl y d i d s o i n pre ference t o conques t an d raidin g w h i c h w o u l d hav e charge d th e ceremon y w i t h ne w life , bu t w o u l d hav e le d to c o n t i n u a l physical deat h o f hi s me n and others . I f he sa w a s th e centr e o f th e meadhal l boasting th e prepara t i o n o f m e n fo r tota l freedom , rathe r tha n merel y a l i m i t e d an d disci plined playin g ou t o f th e dram a o f stres s an d crisis , h e obviousl y d i d s o in th e hop e tha t highe r aim s creat e a better w o r l d . I n orde r t o d o any thing mor e nobl e tha n h e d i d as king , B e o w u l f w o u l d hav e require d a new heave n an d a ne w earth . H i s h u m an w o r l d p r o v i d e d no image s ade quate t o hi s energ y an d hi s visions . Whil e on e ma y spea k o f Hygelac's rashness an d o f Hrothgar' s weakness , on e mus t spea k o f Beowulf' s tra gedy. The fina l episod e o f th e p o e m open s a t th e en d o f fift y year s o f Beowulf's peacefu l reign . T he event s o f hi s kingshi p ar e describe d t o u s in flashback an d th e conclusion s we dra w abou t hi s erro r mus t b e base d largely o n th e event s tha t occu r th e da y h e dies . On thi s da y wha t h e fails t o d o i n terms o f th e cod e i s to recogniz e the necessit y fo r th e reci p r o c i t y betwee n k i n g an d retainers , t o recogniz e that th e axl e perform s its functio n onl y w h e n th e whee l turns o n i t an d support s it s weight . F o r , t o b o r r o w Alfred' s ful l metaphor , n o matte r wha t concession s th e A x l e i s prepared t o make , th e wago n o f th e univers e w i l l o n l y mov e for ward i f the Whee l perform s it s function . If m a n w i l l n o t se e t o thi s ne cessity, the n W y r d w i l l . 1 4

T h r o u g h th e word s o f Wiglaf , w e hea r tha t B e o w u l f ha s maintaine d the ceremon y o f th e hall , th e boastin g an d th e gift-giving , w i t h a gener osity tha t lead s h i m t o see k fa r an d nea r fo r thos e treasure s w h i c h w i l l give hi s retainer s mos t pleasur e (286 4 ff) . He has earne d thei r adulatio n

Three Aspects of W y r d in Beowulf

31

as i s abundantly apparen t i n thei r tribut e t o h i m afte r hi s deat h (3180 2). B u t h e doe s no t recogniz e th e absolut e h u m a n necessit y fo r engagin g them i n a vita l heroi c c o m m i t m e n t t o assemblin g the jagge d piece s o f naked primar y experience . O n thi s day , B e o w u l f doe s no t forc e hi s retainers t o figh t th e drago n w i t h h i m , either b y threa t o f hi s superio r strength, o r b y insistenc e tha t the y figh t whethe r the y understan d o r not, o r eve n b y descendin g t o th e elementar y for m o f challeng e w h i c h Hrothgar ha d offere d t o h i m earlie r before th e figh t w i t h Grendel' s mother: 'se c gi f j xi dyrre!' (1379 ) Whil e h e take s the m w i t h h i m , he i n effect give s them onl y anothe r empt y ceremonia l h o n o u r; speakin g t o them a s 'swaes e gesiáas ' (2518) , h e ye t doe s no t allo w the m t o expe rience thei r c o m m i t m e n t . Nis f)ae t eowe r si$ , ne geme t mannes , nefn e m i n anes , |>aet he wi á aglaecea n eofoá o daele , eorlscype efne . (2532-5 ) Beowulf's extraordinar y strengt h an d kindnes s blot s ou t i n his m i n d th e fated necessit y fo r keepin g aliv e tha t reciproca l c o m m i t m e nt fo r th e edge o f d o o m w h i c h mus t underli e th e relatio n o f th e k i n g an d thos e w i t h w h o m h e celebrate s i n th e meadhall . In hi s fearfu l knowledg e tha t it i s his si n that bring s th e dragon , h e ironicall y protect s agai n th e m e n for w h o m hi s forme r concer n ha s mad e th e unrea l k i n g d o m o f th e dra gon's eterna l earthhal l th e m i r r o r o f hi s o w n . W i t h suc h kindness , Beowulf , i n his fift y year s o f peacefu l reign , ha s created a Utopian w o r ld ultimatel y more dangerou s tha n th e world s Hygelac an d Hrothga r trie d t o creat e w i t h m u c h mor e l i m i t e d success , for Beowulf' s powerfu l choic e had th e tragi c resul t o f destroyin g th e possibility fo r hi s kingdom' s survival . Whe n the secur e w a r m w o r l d h e had create d fo r hi s retainer s i s shattere d b y hi s death , the y ar e to o pro tected t o tak e ove r th e responsibilit y for p u t t i n g th e w o r l d togethe r again. A t thei r m o m e n t o f preliminar y decision, the c o u n c i l tha t precede s the battl e w i t h th e dragon , the y fai l t o understan d th e reason s fo r fight ing th e monster . Wiglaf , an d hi s supporters , though t tha t th e drago n w o u l d no t retur n agai n an d shoul d be lef t alone . Ne meahto n w e gelaera n leofn e J>eoden , rices hyrd e rae d aenigne , |)aet h e n e grett e goldwear d f>one ,

32

F . A n n e Payne

lete hyn e licgean , |>ae r he long e waes , wicum wunian , o â woruldende . (3079-83

)

The battl e ha s no t change d W i g l a f s m i n d: ' O f t sceal l eorl m o n i g ane s willan / wrae c adreogan , sw a us geworde n i s . ' (3077-8) T h e readines s w i t h w h i c h th e messenge r immediatel y produces elaborat e forecast s o f the disaster s tha t w i l l befal l th e Geat s n o w tha t B e o w u l f i s dead (290 0 ff) suggest s anothe r strai n o f argumen t a t tha t c o u n c i l : B e o w u l f a s talis man fo r th e securit y o f th e lan d o f th e Geat s shoul d not figh t th e drago n because i t migh t k i l l h i m . M u c h o f th e powe r an d th e terro r o f th e endin g o f th e p o e m i s crea ted b y thes e t w o retainer s avoidin g an assessmen t o f th e deman d fo r heroic confrontatio n o f th e w o r l d befor e them . I n thei r ceremonia l shielding o f themselves , the y contemplat e thei r o w n deat h an d ar e stir red t o actio n o n l y t o celebrat e th e past , t o b u i l d a grea t barro w t o Beowulf. T h e y attemp t t o retur n thing s t o th e wa y the y wer e before , at leas t i n externals. T h e y ge t r i d of th e dragon , b u r y th e gol d again , b u i l d a m o n u m e nt i n worship o f Beowulf , an d w h e n w e las t se e the m they ar e engage d i n the ritua l orde r o f th e funeral . Wigla f ha s no t ha d the powe r t o understan d hi s experienc e i n the fight ; th e othe r te n m e n ran fro m it ; the res t waite d i n a n enclosur e u p ove r th e edg e o f th e cliff . The Geats , lik e childre n unable t o handl e th e plague , retur n t o thei r game o f Ring-around-the-Rosey . T he symbol s of thi s episode , a s anyon e knows w h o ha s deal t intensivel y w i th them , ar e terrifying . I d o no t mea n to sugges t tha t anyone , w i t h o u t comprehendin g wha t B e o w u l f doe s i n the drago n fight , w o u l d hav e don e an y better , o r tha t ther e i s not a cer tain beaut y i n their elegia c choice . B ut w h en w e compar e lik e thing s t o like, whe n w e plac e the m besid e th e retainer s o f Maldon, w h o als o fac e the terro r o f thei r lord' s deat h an d i n a d d i t i on immediate deat h fo r themselves, th e retainer s o f B e o w u l f ar e h o l l o w men . W y r d destroy s B e o w u l f i n th e fina l episod e o f th e p o e m , no t becaus e of hi s age , no t becaus e h e n o w lack s the strengt h an d courag e t o con front th e dragon , th e mos t terribl e o f al l challenges; it destroy s h i m be cause th e universe , W y r d i n particular, gives little credi t fo r unmaterial ized h u m a n dreams . T h e conflic t betwee n wha t ma n i n his h u m a n i t y as pires t o d o an d wha t W y r d allow s h im t o d o i s the centra l conflic t o f th e dragon fight . Whil e spac e doe s no t allo w a ful l assessmen t o f th e poem' s complex fina l episode , perhap s a fe w skeleta l concluding remarks abou t the relatio n of W y r d an d Beowulf' s heroi c determinatio n ar e i n o r d e r . B e o w u l f doe s no t a t an y p o i n t succee d i n assessing th e natur e o f th e 15

Three Aspects of W y r d in Beowulf

33

error tha t bring s th e drago n agains t h i m . He i s instantly certai n tha t th e error i s his o w n : wende s e wisa , |>ae t he Wealdend e ofer eald e rih t ecea n Dryhtn e bitre gebulge . (2329-31 ) He i s certain tha t h e mus t figh t th e dragon . Befor e th e speec h o n th e headland (242 6 ff ) wher e h e attempt s t o solv e th e p r o b l e m tha t con fronts h i m , he restlessl y sense s th e presenc e o f W y r d , an d th e poe t tell s us tha t i t eventuall y kill s h i m (2419-24) . A f t e r thi s speech , h e deter mines t o fac e W y r d directly , the ' M e t o d mann a gehwaes ' (2527 ) an d t o fight fo r th e gold : Ic m i d eln e sceal l gold gegangan , oülá e gueah secgaá J>aet sio w y r d wealde aegf>er ge gesaelda ge ungesaelda aelces monnes. Ic J>onne secge, swa swa ealle cristene men secgafl, j>aet sio godcunde foretiohhung his walde, naes sio w y r d ' (131.8-12); for discussion, see Payne, 88-9, 95-7. 10 A d r i e n Bonjour, 'Jottings on Beowulf Poetry,

and the Aesthetic A p p r o a c h , ' i n Old

English

ed. Robert P. Creed (Providence 1967), 179-92; ' T h e Problem of Daeghrefn,'

in Twelve

Beowulf

Papers

(Neuchâtel 1962), 77-88

11 F o r historical accounts of Hygelac, see Klaeber, xxxix-xl; D o r o t h y Whitelock, The Audience

(Oxford 1951), 38 ff. F o r an analysis of his lack of wisdom, see

of Beowulf

R . E . Kaske, 'Sapientia thology

of Beowulf

et Fortitudo

Criticism,

as the Controlling T h e m e of Beowulf

9

in An­

ed. Lewis E . Nicholson (Notre Dame 1963), 290 ff.

12 Whitelock, 46, quotes the following passage from the Liber

Monstrorum:

' A n d there

are monsters of a wonderful size; such as K i n g Higlacus who ruled the Getae

and was

killed b y the Franks, w h o m from his twelfth year no horse could carry. His bones are preserved o n an island in the Rhine, where it flows forth into the ocean, and are shown to those who come from afar as a miracle. ' 13 Line 73 would suggest that Hrothgar preserved something, but we are not sure what the folkshare was, nor whether the rest o f the line means that there were royal slaves who were not distributed or whether it merely sets life in opposition to material possessions. Klaeber (cvii) found the line unnecessary and thinks it possibly a 'cor­ rective addition. ' In that case it would have been written b y someone who could not believe that Hrothgar gave away b o t h halves o f the apple. 14 F o r a discussion of Hrothgar's lack of courage, see Kaske, 279 ff. 15 In its original form this article was followed b y an additional section entitled the 'Heroic Imagination,' which dealt with the five challenges Beowulf meets in the course of his life. T h e major share of this section was taken up with an analysis of the dragon fight. I hope to publish this at a later time.

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HARRY BERGER, JR H. MARSHALL LEICESTER, JR

Social structure as doom: the limits of heroism in Beowulf

This essa y i s less a full-scal e interpretation o f Beowulf than a qualifyin g and occasionall y critical extensio n o f som e recen t reading s o f th e p o e m to w h i c h ou r approac h i s heavily indebted. O u r vie w o f Beowulf owes m u c h t o E d w a r d B. Irving, J r 's fin e studies , A Reading of 'Beowulf an d Introduction to 'Beowulf ' w i t h a n assis t fro m J o hn Halverson' s essay , ' T h e W o r l d o f Beowulf ' W e propos e t o navigat e alon g a line o f i n q u i ry somewhere betwee n thos e struc k b y Irvin g and Halverson , for i n signi ficant way s thes e t w o interpretation s contradic t eac h othe r an d ca n therefore b e mad e t o complemen t eac h other . W e shal l tr y t o sketc h ou t the variou s position s b y considerin g some critica l response s t o a partic ular incident , Hrothgar' s raisin g of H e o r o t . The b u i l d i n g o f H e o r o t i s th e clima x o f Hrothgar' s career , a turnin g p o i n t fro m hi s year s o f activ e militar y conques t t o a phase o f stabilit y and ' c u l t u r a l ' leadership. L i k e B e o w u l f ' s barrow i n years t o come , H e o r o t w i l l b e th e sit e an d sourc e o f c o n t i n u i n g group life ; a widel y vis ible centr e o f protection , solidarity , reciprocity, and celebration ; a seemingly permanen t s y m b o l of achieve d Scyldin g glory . Hrothgar's ai m may b e simpl y to settl e d o w n an d enjo y th e fruit s o f lon g battle-years , but th e passag e describin g the raisin g of H e o r o t pose s som e question s about this :

J>aet healreced hata medoaern m i c e l me

H i m o n m o d bearn , n wolde , n gewyrcea n

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f>on[n] e y l do b e a m aefr e gefrunon , o n d f)ae r o n inna n eal l gedaela n geongum o n d ealdum , swyl c h i m G o d seald e b u t o n folcscar e o n d feoru m gúmena . D a i c wide gefraeg n weor c gebanna n manigre maegj> e geon d \>isne middangeard , folcstede fraetwan . H i m on fyrst e gelomp , aedre m id y l d u m, J)ae t hit wear á ealgearo , healaerna maest ; sco p h i m Heor t na m an se J3e his worde s geweal d wid e haefde . H e beo t n e aleh , beaga s daelde , sine ae t symle . Sel e hlifad e heah o n d horngeap ; heaáowylm a bad , laáan liges; n e wae s h i t leng e f> a gen , |>aet se ecghet e aJDumsweora n aefter waelniá e waecna n scolde . D a s e ellengaes t earfoüílic e Jjrage ge^olode , s e |> e i n Jyystrum bad , j>aet he dogor a gehwa m drea m gehyrd e hludne i n healle. ( 6 7 - 8 9 ) 1

It cam e t o hi s m i n d tha t h e w o u l d c o m m a n d me n t o construc t a hall , a mead-buildin g large [r] tha n th e childre n of me n ha d eve r hear d of, an d therei n h e w o u l d giv e to y o u n g an d o l d all that G o d had give n h i m , excep t fo r c o m m o n lan d an d men' s bodies . T h e n I hav e hear d that th e w o r k wa s lai d u p o n man y nations , wid e throug h thi s middle earth, tha t the y shoul d ador n th e folk-hall . I n tim e i t cam e t o pas s — q u i c k l y , a s m e n coun t i t — that i t wa s finished , the larges t o f hal l dwellings. H e gav e i t th e nam e o f H e o r o t, h e w h o rule d wid e w i t h hi s words. H e d i d not forge t hi s promise: a t th e feas t h e gav e ou t rings , treasure. T h e hal l stoo d tall , hig h an d wide-gabled : i t w o u l d wai t fo r the fierc e flame s o f vengefu l fire ; th e tim e wa s no t ye t a t han d fo r sword-hate betwee n son-in-la w and father-in-la w t o awake n afte r mur derous rage . T h e n th e fierc e spiri t painfully endure d hardshi p fo r a time , h e w h o dwelt i n th e darkness , fo r ever y da y h e hear d l o u d m i r t h i n the h a l l . 2

L i k e othe r readers , w e detec t a fain t ech o o f th e buildin g o f th e towe r of Babe l i n thi s passage . B u t u n l i k e some Christia n and allegorizing critics, w e don' t infe r fro m thi s tha t Hrothga r i s a spiritua l son o f C a i n

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and H e o r o t a n emble m o f th e earthl y c i t y . N o r ar e w e persuade d b y th e cooler argumen t o f R . E . K a s k e , w ho view s Hrothgar's flaw throug h pa tristic glasse s a s a failur e o f fortitudo w h i c h affects th e o l d king' s other wise exemplar y sapiential 'h e i s no longe r a t hi s bes t whe n facin g decisions involvin g violenc e o r th e prospec t o f i t , ' an d thi s account s fo r 'suc h mistakes a s th e marriag e o f Freawar u t o Ingel d and , apparently , th e un wise toleratio n o f H r o t h u l f at th e Danis h court . ' Hi s courage havin g waned w i t h age , 'h e n o w relie s chiefl y o n counsel , kingl y munificence , dip l o m a c y , an d wis e enduranc e — all valuable mean s i n themselves , bu t in different substitute s fo r fortitudo a s a defense agains t th e force s o f nake d v i o l e n c e . ' Thu s K a s k e see s G r e n d el 'a s th e produc t o f th e presen t Danish s i t u a t i o n ' (287) , tha t is , as a n allegorica l projection oí fortitudo breaking loos e fro m sapiential c o n t r o l an d j o i n i ng forces w i t h malitia. B o t h Halverso n and Irvin g have persuasivel y argue d agains t suc h Chris tian an d ethica l critique s o f par t I . T h ey defen d Hrothga r an d H e o r o t as good , no t bad . ' T h e p o i n t , ' observe s Irving , 'is tha t H e o r o t i s not a false goo d i n th e p o e m ; i t i s not somethin g lik e Pandemoniu m o r th e T o w e r o f Babe l in Paradise Lost, a n assertio n o f Satani c prid e an d arro gance. ' T h is view, he continues , ma y b e encourage d b y line s 81b- 5 de scribing th e splendou r an d d o o m o f H e o r o t ; ye t th e passag e o n l y implie s that H e o r o t , might y a s i t is , 3

4

w i l l on e da y perish . B u t th e ton e o f thi s passag e i s far fro m th e smu g I-told-you-so o f th e Christia n moralizer; it i s rather a ton e o f dee p regret fo r th e instabilit y of al l h u m an things , eve n th e greatest . Th e sons o f C a i n i n th e p o e m ar e th e Grendels , no t th e Hrothgars . I n terms o f th e dominan t heroi c value s o f th e p o e m , Hrothgar' s Den mark i s represented a s ver y nearl y th e heigh t o f h u m a n achievement.

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G i v e n s o difficul t a w o r l d , thi s achievemen t i s b o u nd t o b e les s tha n per fect, an d Irving' s studie s contai n man y perceptiv e passage s describin g the weaknesse s an d instabilitie s o f Danis h institutions . We agre e w i t h Irvin g that th e poe t i s not b y an y mean s presentin g Hrothgar a s a n exampl e o f h u m a n prid e o r o f th e failur e o f courage . W e see n o ethica l disapprova l i n th e sens e o f criticis m directe d b y th e poe t either a t th e intention s o f thi s individua l o r a t th e sinfulnes s o f falle n man aspirin g to divin e status. B u t w e migh t wel l as k a n ' ethical ' ques t i o n a t anothe r level : ha s th e societ y 'don e w r o n g ' ? — and no t th e Danes o n l y , sinc e th e p o e m clearl y embrace s pan-Germani c institutions . It i s here, fo r th e p o e m a s a whole , tha t Irvin g and Halverso n part com -

40 Harry Berger, J r / H . Marshall Leicester, J r

pany. Irvin g often note s th e inabilit y o f suc h institution s a s vendett a and marriag e t o provid e satisfactor y solution s t o th e ' p o w e r f u l an d cen trifugal force s [that ] mus t alway s hav e bee n fel t i n a societ y s o dedica ted t o aggressiv e behavio r an d th e struttin g nicetie s o f persona l hon or, ' but hi s respons e t o thi s i s expressed i n casual an d discret e obser vations tha t reflec t n o t h i n g s o m u c h a s th e sens e o f th e w o r l d h e l d b y the character s themselves. L i k e Hrothga r an d B e o w u l f , Irving tends t o b u r y th e specifi c institutional bases o f conflic t an d disorde r i n th e purel y ethical an d universa l terms o f th e o p p o s i t i o n between th e heroi c indi vidual an d cosmi c d o o m: th e her o i s all the noble r becaus e h e confront s so dar k a w o r l d . In thi s connection , som e o f Halverson' s brie f suggestion s abou t socia l organization i n th e D a r k Age s p o i nt t o a mor e specifi c set o f polaritie s existing i n what migh t b e calle d the m i d d l e range betwee n hostil e cosmo s and hero : 6

7

The wa y t o stabilit y . . . i s through close r socia l tie s an d greate r com m o n effort . Thi s is implici t i n th e treow-ethic, bu t conflict s w i t h he roic individualism . . . . T h e D a r k Age s p e r i od i s an heroi c age , th e tim e o f th e individua l hero. E v e r y t h i n g depends o n 'th e w i l l o f on e m a n . ' . . . I t i s the grea t m e n w h o , b y forc e o f personalit y an d m i l i t a r y capacity , alon e kee p together th e fabri c o f civilization , an d w h e n the y di e th e orde r the y have establishe d soo n disintegrates . . . . The cod e o f l o y a l t y . .. expresse s th e inten t o f cooperation . W hy does i t fail ? Becaus e o f individualism . T h e ' c o w a r d i c e ' of th e retainer s is simpl y an expressio n o f th e p r i o r i t y o f th e individua l ove r th e group. . . . Beowulf , the greates t o f heroes , i s loved an d revere d b y hi s nephew [ s i c ] , bu t th e heroi c solutio n is not alway s th e bes t solution . It i s not Beowulf' s pride tha t bring s abou t th e ultimat e catastrophe , but precisel y his heroism . He i s not a v i c t i m o f eg o inflation ; h e simply canno t se e othe r alternative s t o hi s o w n way . H e i s a v i c t i m o f the heroi c m i l i e u ; h e i s m o l d ed gloriousl y and inflexibl y b y hi s w o r l d .

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Where Irvin g tends t o agre e w i t h th e mor e reflectiv e character s i n th e p o e m (Hrothga r an d Beowulf ) tha t th e sourc e o t man' s d o o m lie s in th e universal h u m a n c o n d i t i o n , Halverson steps back b e h i n d th e poe t t o sug gest a specifi c historico-social caus e i n conflictin g institutiona l ideals. H e suggests a leve l a t w h i c h ethica l consideration s ar e irrelevan t becaus e w e are dealin g w i th structura l pattern s operatin g fo r th e mos t par t beneat h

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the consciousnes s o f th e character s i n th e p o e m . T h e y ma y wel l fee l th e stresses an d strain s thei r societ y impose s o n them , bu t th e institution s that caus e the m ar e take n fo r granted , an d ar e no t subjec t t o analysi s b y the characters , w h o ten d rathe r t o ascrib e thei r trouble s t o fate , G o d , pride, th e wa y o f th e w o r l d , th e ' i n s t a b i l i t y of al l h u m an things, ' an d other generalize d perception s o f thi s sort . A t thi s leve l Halverso n provides a perspective complementar y t o Irving's , but hi s explanatio n o f the tension s i n th e p o e m centre s o n th e p r o b l e m o f individualis m an d fails t o accoun t fo r th e way s i n w h i ch othe r institution s — r a i d , feud , marriage, feasting , gift-giving , an d th e ritual s fo r magnifyin g honour — equally contribut e t o th e difficult y o f lif e i n heroic s o c i e t y . H e seem s to accep t a t fac e valu e th e poet' s apparentl y positiv e attitud e towar d the socia l orde r o f th e Danes , perhap s becaus e h e assume s tha t o n l y modern reader s an d historian s ca n identif y institutiona l contradiction s of thi s k i n d . F o r example , h e tend s — along w i th Irvin g — to overprais e H e o r o t i n defendin g it . B o t h critic s appeal t o M i r c e a Eliade' s mythography o f th e sacre d centre, w h i c h lead s Halverso n to se e H e o r o t 'a s a repetitio n o f th e orig inal cosmogoni e act' : jus t a s G o d 'brough t for m ou t o f chaos , ligh t ou t of darkness , s o th e k i n g bring s orde r t o hi s w o r l d an d maintain s it . . . . The lord' s hal l define s meaningfu l reality . ' A n d Irving invokes Eliade to suppor t th e ide a tha t th e scop' s ' S o n g o f Creatio n serves t o exal t th e significance o f th e buildin g o f Heoro t b y associatin g divin e creativity . . . w i t h th e purel y h u m a n creativit y o f th e Danis h civilization. ' B u t surel y we ar e mean t t o distinguis h the viewpoin t of Hrothga r an d hi s sco p — w h i c h th e tw o critic s here adop t — from tha t o f th e Beowulf-poet: th e scop's song , itsel f a bright islan d of praise , i s followe d immediatel y b y the poet' s dar k seque l w h i c h we , bu t no t th e Danes , hear . I f G o d himsel f in th e mids t o f hi s leaf y ne w w o r l d wov e kinstrif e a s wel l a s kinlov e into the p r i m a l family structure , h o w c o u l d Hrothga r d o les s (o r more) ? T o create a family , a society , a dynasty , o r a gift-hal l i s to creat e thos e con ditions w h i c h ar e inseparabl e from , an d hav e n o meanin g apar t from , social order : treachery , envy , isolation , and exile . T o creat e a n Insid e i s to creat e a n Outside , bu t a n Outsid e existin g w i t h in th e bond s o f hal l and famil y a s wel l a s b e y o n d them . The Babe l echo , then , suggest s somethin g abou t th e laten t conse quences, th e d o o m , buil t int o th e meadhal l an d — if we ma y exten d th e reference — into al l the interwove n institution s o f Germani c society , and i t i s a t thi s p o i n t tha t w e par t c o m p a n y fro m b o t h Halverso n an d Irving. I f th e latte r tend s t o sta y to o clos e t o th e characters , an d there 9

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n

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fore t o mis s o r occlud e thos e pattern s i n th e p o e m o f w h i c h the y ar e no t conscious, th e forme r tend s t o distanc e himsel f to o full y fro m th e crit ical perspectiv e o f th e poet , an d therefor e t o simplif y th e troubl e w i t h Germanic societ y b y failin g t o hea r wha t th e poe t i s tellin g u s abou t in stitutions othe r tha n tha t o f heroi c individualism . I n th e followin g sec tions w e shal l tak e u p an d develo p som e o f th e clue s offere d b y ou r tw o critics, an d tr y t o articulat e a mor e consisten t o r a t leas t explici t accoun t of th e negativ e aspect s o f socia l structure , treatin g thes e a s specifi c causes o f th e problem s w h i c h confron t th e hero . O u r argumen t turn s o n the hypothesi s tha t whil e the character s focu s o n ethica l behaviour — ideal heroi c consciousnes s — as th e ke y t o order , th e p o e m an d th e poe t direct ou r attentio n t o fundamenta l condition s o f socia l structur e w h i c h operate beneat h o r b e y o n d consciousness , an d w h i c h constrai n heroi c behaviour i n ways no t discernibl e by th e characters . These laten t conditions , a s presente d i n th e p o e m , hav e certai n resem blances t o th e motivationa l and structura l base s o f triba l society w h i c h one anthropologis t ha s characterize d i n terms o f Hobbes' s primitive state o f ' W a r r e , ' th e wa r o f ever y ma n agains t ever y m a n ' : 4

Individuals an d subgroup s o f triba l society maintai n th e certai n righ t and potentia l i n c l i n a t i o n to secur e b y forc e thei r safety , gain , an d glory. . . . Warr e exists , bu t m a i n l y in the for m o f a n u n d e r l y i n g cir cumstance. I n fact, tribesme n liv e i n k in groupings an d communitie s w i t h i n w h i c h feudin g i s usually suppressed , an d the y hav e benefi t to o of economic , ritual, an d socia l institution s conduciv e t o goo d order . T o spea k o f Warre , then , i s t o uncove r b y analysi s tendencie s ordi narily conceale d b y powerfu l imposition s of th e cultura l system . Pri mitive anarch y i s not th e appearanc e o f things . I t i s the unconsciou s of th e system . Y e t a s th e outwar d behavio r o f a person ma y no t b e in telligible excep t a s th e transfiguratio n o f unconsciou s desires , s o th e objective organizatio n o f triba l society ma y o n l y be understoo d a s the repressiv e transformatio n o f a n underlyin g anarchy. M a n y o f th e special pattern s o f triba l culture becam e meaningfu l precisel y a s de fense mechanisms , a s negations of Warre. 12

If w e ignor e th e misleadin g Freudian metaphor , w e ca n mor e easil y adapt thi s descriptio n t o th e differen t condition s o f post-triba l Germani c society b y notin g tha t assertion s o f Warre i n that societ y ar e a s impor tant a s negations . Feudin g is less full y suppresse d i n heroic societ y tha n i n thos e o f w h i c h Sahlin s speaks. I t i s in fact a necessary institution . Ger-

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manic societ y i s post-tribal i n being centre d o n th e comitatus mor e tha n o n actua l kingroups . Kinstrif e widen s a s ' k i n ' relations ar e extende d to , or augmente d b y , th e bond s o f th e comitatus. T h e societ y ha s t o chan nel an d constrai n violenc e chiefl y becaus e i t value s an d encourage s it . The kingrou p give s way , o r i s extended , t o th e comitatus, becaus e th e latter i s a mor e efficien t mean s o f p r o t e c t i o n agains t rai d an d vengeance . Y e t th e comitatus relie s o n raidin g for economi c purposes , an d therefor e encourages ' e l l e n ' and honour-seeking , w h i c h in tur n provid e a heroi c context o f m o t i v a t i o n fo r th e acquirin g and redistributin g o f treasure . The relianc e o n h o n o u r an d performanc e supplan t th e mor e ' a u t o m a t i c ' ascriptions o f functio n an d rol e prescribe d b y kinshi p patterns i n tribal societies. B u t honou r i s zelos, a s jealous an d p r o u d a s i t i s zealous , an d the ceremonia l p u b l i c i t y attending th e rewar d fo r performanc e ma y sti r up env y an d discontent , ultimatel y dishonou r an d treacher y (e.g. , U nferth). A l l thi s naturall y keep s aliv e the ver y danger s w h i c h th e comi­ tatus i s organize d t o fen d off . Intertriba l feud s simme r fo r generations , providing th e environmen t o f Warr e i n w h i ch th e m e n o f heroi c societie s pass thei r lives , fo r example , th e predicte d fat e o f th e Geat s a t th e hand s o f thei r o l d enemies , th e Franks , Frisians , and Swedes . The sam e ambivalenc e an d contradiction s inher e i n peace-weaving in stitutions. Wergel d is substitute d fo r vendett a t o reduc e bloodshe d an d bring feu d unde r j u r a l c o n t r o l ; but i t als o diminishe s th e o p p o r t u n i t y fo r enhancing an d preservin g h o n o u r throug h aggressiv e behaviour . T h e ironic reference s t o Grendel' s refusa l t o pa y wergel d se t th e stag e fo r th e hero t o ente r an d w i n glory. As the F i n n an d Ingel d episode s suggest , marriage bring s int o clos e contac t group s w h i c h w o u ld otherwise b e en emies a t a distance , thu s exacerbatin g tension s an d increasin g th e chan ces tha t soone r o r late r peace-weavin g w i l l becom e war-making . As in exogamy, kingroup s an d warband s hav e b o t h a n economi c an d a met abolic nee d o f outsider s i n orde r t o guarante e th e continuin g suppl y o r circulation o f w o m e n , children , protective alliances , treasure , honour , risk, an d potentia l corpses . Th e structur e o f heroi c institution s i s suc h as t o requir e an d therefor e t o creat e enemie s an d victim s as wel l a s th e heroes w h o thriv e o n them . The backlas h fro m th e comitatus i s fel t w i t h i n dynasti c kingroups . Kinstrife i s intensified . Hrothgar' s son s an d Onela' s nephew s ar e threat ened becaus e th e stake s ar e higher , th e c r o w n mor e attractive , th e sanc tions agains t k i n m u r d e r les s poten t i n th e settin g provide d b y larg e war bands an d ' i n t e r n a t i o n a l ' politics . H y gd i s rightly uneasy abou t Heard red. Wealhtheow' s doubl e uneasines s — about B e o w u l f (116 9 ff ) an d 13

44 Harry Berger, J r / H . Marshall Leicester, J r

H r o t h u l f (121 6 ff ) — testifie s t o th e d i l e m m a posed b y th e necessit y an d danger o f havin g heirs i n suc h a setting . Y e t th e alternativ e exemplifie d b y B e o w u l f , w ho die d childles s (and , perversely , b y Grendel' s mother , w h o die d heirless) , prove s t o b e eve n worse . It i s thi s institutiona l network , o r rathe r tangle , w h i c h i n ou r vie w supplies th e l i m i t i n g condition s o f th e heroi c w o r l d , an d no t merel y the singl e conflic t betwee n herois m an d c o m m o n effor t (a s Halverso n w o u l d hav e it ) no r th e extra-socia l grimnes s o f cosmi c fat e (a s Irvin g w o u l d hav e it) . ' T h e edg e o f th e g r i m p e n ' i s a n edg e create d b y thos e w h o mak e boundaries . I n th e followin g section s w e shal l explor e some aspect s o f th e d o o m create d b y heroi c institutions . THE MUNIFICENT KING A N D T H E M E A D H A L L

Hrothgar ha s spen t mos t o f hi s lif e doin g everythin g righ t an d n o w find s himself sufferin g fo r it . H e 'wa s give n succes s i n warfare, glor y i n battle , so tha t hi s retainer s gladl y obeye d h i m an d thei r compan y gre w int o a great ban d o f w a r r i o r s ' (6 4 ff) . H e buil t th e bigges t an d bes t o f mead halls, acquire d a n exemplar y wif e an d peace-weave r fro m th e Helmings , displayed grea t liberalit y and piety , i s k n o wn abroa d a s a wis e an d goo d king. W h y, then, shoul d h e b e humiliate d b y G r e n d e l an d castigate d b y critical Christians ? Wha t ca n th e alie n 'mearcstapa ' possibl y hav e t o d o w i t h h i m ? Wher e d i d he com e f r o m , an d w h y ? W e k n ow mor e tha n th e Danes d o o n thi s score , sinc e i t isn' t clea r tha t the y hav e bee n fille d i n o n Grendel' s ancestry . G r e n d e l i s less a n outside r tha n h e seems . B u t th e poe t suggest s throug h hi s languag e eve n mor e intimat e re lations betwee n G r e n d e l an d H e o r o t . Conside r onc e agai n line s 82- 9 i n the passag e q u o t e d earlie r (p . 3 8 above) . G r e n d e l , stil l nameless , begin s his caree r i n th e p o e m interwove n w i t h H e o r o t , Hrothgar , an d Ingeld . This convergenc e i s p r o d u c ed i n th e firs t referenc e t o h i m , 'ellengaest, ' and i s intensified i f we momentaril y hea r o r thin k 'ellorgast' : G r e n d e l i s not ye t alien ; for a momen t h e share s th e ' e l l e n ' of b o l d warrior s lik e Hrothgar an d Ingeld . Tha t 'earfoálice ' ca n mea n ' i m p a t i e n t l y ' a s w e l l a s ' p a i n f u l l y ' assimilate s hi s presen t inactivit y to 'th e tim e no t ye t a t han d for sword-hate. ' G r e n d e l an d H e o r o t ar e creature s ' c o n s c i o u s ' o f wait ing; the y ' k n o w ' wha t consciou s m e n d o not . T h e y wai t fo r burnin g o r b o o t y together , an d m o m e n t a r i l y Grendel' s spiri t melt s int o tha t o f th e son-in-law Ingeld , o r int o th e fierc e feudin g spiri t tha t j o i ns Hrothga r w i t h Ingeld i n war, i n marriage , an d agai n i n war. A l l manifes t th e spiri t o f k i nstrife. Presumabl y a t thi s m o m e n t th e feu d betwee n Dane s an d Heatho -

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Bards i s temporarily pacifie d by th e promise d gif t o f Freawaru . Y e t eve n if ferocit y o n l y smoulders , eve n i f it sleeps , th e contentiou s spiri t hold s the marche s o f consciousnes s an d wait s fo r th e inevitabl e d a w n o f k i n strife. G r e n d e l w i l l brea k fort h first , Ingel d later , n o doub t becaus e Gren del a s a walker-alon e i s relatively free, whil e Ingeld i s subjec t t o th e con straints an d displacement s b y w h i c h h u m a n institutions«dela y o r tempe r violence whil e recreating i t i n new an d mor e c o m p l e x forms : th e inces tuous monster s ar e ultimatel y self-destroyin g i n thei r b l i n d violence , bu t the simpl e immediac y o f thei r relationshi p i s clean o f th e kind s o f anxi ety, distrust , betrayal , an d deepl y clef t loyaltie s generated b y th e inter tribal dialecti c of raid , feud, precariou s peace-weaving , an d th e sym biosis o f h o n o u r an d resentment . T h e spiri t o f C a i n i s never to o fa r away. B o t h destroyers , an d b o t h danger s t o H e o r o t , ar e verball y presente d as consequence s o f th e buildin g o f th e hall : it s d o o m f u l futur e i s b u i lt into i t a s surel y a s it s conspicuou s splendou r an d i r o n reinforcements , a s surely a s th e ' d r e a m ' o f feasting , gift-exchange , an d h o n o u r ritual s w h i c h H e o r o t magnifies . Thes e illustriou s activities, brightened b y th e meadhall, w o r k lik e a magne t t o dra w enviou s raider s an d outsiders . Greed, c o m p e t i t i o n , an d distrus t ar e intensifie d amon g k i n s m e n an d re tainers. A n d w hy shoul d the y no t be ? T h e poe t clearl y describes th e b u i l d i n g o f H e o r o t a s Hrothgar' s culminatin g display o f power . I t i s a n heroic deed , anothe r ac t o f conques t toppe d of f w i t h a ' b e o t ' — promise or threa t — of implacabl e p r e s t a t i o n . A n d this i s presented a s H r o t hgar's p l a n : ' H i m on m o d b e a m ' tha t h e w o u l d c o m m a n d m e n t o b u i l d ('gewyrcean') th e h a l l ; n o soone r though t tha n don e — ' w e o rc geban n a n ' o n m a n y peoples , i t ros e q u i c k l y , an d h e whos e word-swa y wa s wide ove r me n gav e i t it s name . ' G e w y r c e a n ' and ' w e o r c ' her e i m p l y mighty achievement , painfu l o r difficul t accomplishment : th e magica l speed c o m b i n e d w i t h th e difficult y o f th e labou r impose d o n m a n y tribes reflect s th e magnitud e o f Hrothgar' s deed . It s likenes s t o th e fia t of G o d is seale d b y th e scop' s son g o f creation . H e o r o t i s th e embodi ment o f heroi c aspiration . A n d it i s not o n l y th e seque l t o year s o f con tention an d violence ; it i s itsel f th e produc t o f a contentiou s spiri t — not Hrothgar's alone , bu t tha t b u i l t int o hi s socia l o r d e r . If contentiousnes s an d violence , the fea r o f kinstrife , the perpetua l uneasiness o f th e 'Warr e . . . o f ever y m a n , agains t ever y m a n , ' ar e a t th e roots o f h u m a n association , the y mus t someho w b e pu t t o use . Conten tiousness mus t b e mad e t o enhanc e grou p solidarity . Thus, amon g th e benefits tha t flow fro m th e graciou s natur e o f a libera l k i n g lik e H r o t h 14

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gar ar e b l o o d y occasions . Thane s ar e unde r obligatio n to thei r l o r d fo r the chanc e t o figh t an d k i l l o r di e n o b l y , t o conten d w i t h other s i n man liness an d compet e fo r th e p o s i t i o n , treasure, an d honour , b y w h i c h valour an d l o y a l t y are rewarded . Hrothga r share s w i t h th e poe t a clea r and consisten t understandin g abou t th e two-phas e tempora l patter n o f ideal lordship , a pattern enunciate d i n the o l d king's l o ng sermon (1700 84) a s wel l a s i n th e passag e unde r consideration : firs t y o u spen d mos t of y o u r tim e fighting , then y o u spen d mos t o f y o u r tim e givin g an d re warding. T h e b u i l d i n g o f H e o r o t mus t see m t o Hrothga r t o signif y th e happy en d o f hi s initia l raidin g career, an d th e peacefu l beginnin g of a more positiv e way t o expres s an d shar e hi s heroi c being . Perhap s also , after year s o f c o n t e n t i o n , o f tense d an d alway s read y awareness , ther e can b e a tempere d détente , a de-tensin g just sufficien t t o allo w mor e ex pansive hall-joy s among w h i c h th e savourin g o f th e gloriou s past w i l l n o doubt b e a prime sourc e o f renewe d pleasur e an d solidarity . Thus Beo w u l f tell s Hygelac that th e o l d Scyldin g wa s accustome d t o spea k ' o f times far-off, ' an d ' o f hi s y o u t h , hi s battle-strength ' (2105 , 2 1 1 2 - 1 3 ) . T h e troubl e w i t h thi s ' d r e a m ' i s that it s creator s an d participant s ar e asleep t o th e laten t motive s an d consequence s w h i c h necessaril y alte r its character . F o r fightin g is not th e o n l y mod e o f c o n t e n t i o n . A s th e language o f ou r passag e reveals , gift-givin g an d reciprocit y ar e equall y contentious. L o r d s and thane s striv e t o outd o eac h othe r i n servic e an d reward, an d i n th e expression s o f love , l o y a l t y, an d obligation . T he con tentious natur e o f gift-givin g i s discussed a t lengt h i n Marcel Mauss' s The Gift\ fo r example : Between vassal s an d chiefs , betwee n vassal s an d thei r henchmen , th e hierarchy i s establishe d b y mean s o f . . . gifts . T o giv e is to sho w one' s superiority, t o sho w tha t on e i s . . . magister. T o accep t w i t h o u t re turning o r repayin g mor e i s t o fac e subordination , t o becom e a clien t and subservient , t o becom e minister. . . . T h e ai m i s to b e th e first , th e finest, th e luckiest , strongest, an d r i c h e s t . 16

This personalisti c economic s provide s th e basi s fo r th e reciprocit y tha t structures th e socia l relation s o f l o r d an d retainers . It s basicall y c o mpetitive characte r i s stresse d i n th e descriptio n o f th e buildin g o f H e o r o t as a n appropriatel y ornat e settin g fo r a liberalit y so heroi c tha t i t mus t surely la y al l w ho approac h th e ' g i f s t o l ' unde r uneas y obligation . 'Chari t y , ' observe s Mauss , ' w o u n ds h i m w h o receives, ' an d 'th e gif t no t ye t repaid debase s th e m a n w h o accepte d i t . ' (63 ) T h i s theme i s not explici t

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in Beowulf, ye t it s presenc e mus t b e fel t whereve r politica l relationship s among individual s are welde d t o ethica l concept s — h o n o ur an d sham e — and ar e fluid enough , fre e enoug h fro m kinshi p prescription, to depen d u p o n reciproca l performance. T h e king' s gift i s not o n l y a rewar d fo r service don e bu t als o a challeng e t o matc h munificenc e an d avoi d sham e by furthe r service . Kings lik e Hrothga r depen d o n th e potentia l w o u n d charity ca n inflic t t o tighte n th e bond s o f l o y a l t y and fellowship. Prestation i s a givin g w h i c h i s lending, a challeng e t o b e me t b y counter-prestation o r som e othe r reciprocatin g a c t . H e o r o t i s a chal lenge — a ' b e o t ' — to th e res t o f th e w o r l d a s wel l a s a gift t o th e Danes , and a glance a t som e response s t o Hrothgar' s demandin g generosit y w i l l help establis h th e institutiona l rather tha n ethica l characte r o f th e trou ble i n D e n m a r k. T h e rang e o f response s i s b o u n d ed b y th e extrem e case s of B e o w u l f an d G r e n d e l : Hrothgar fo r onc e find s i t har d t o matc h w i t h treasure th e generou s herois m o f B e o w u l f ; and h e i s unable t o giv e Gren del anythin g a t al l not merel y becaus e G r e n d e l w i l l no t reciprocat e o r w i l l no t deig n t o receive , bu t becaus e G o d w i l l no t le t h i m approac h th e ' g i f s t o l ' t o receiv e treasur e (168-9 ) — this, i t shoul d be noted , migh t b e a p r o b l e m fo r Hrothga r a s wel l a s fo r G r e n d e l . Whatever els e Grende l represents, h e i s by pedigre e th e produc t o f fault y giving , descende d from on e w h o stirre d u p kinstrif e because hi s o w n gift-givin g wa s les s acceptable t o G o d . To se e th e evi l an d rancou r an d exil e of Cain' s b r o o d of walkers-alon e a s th e effec t o f defeate d o r rejecte d gift-givin g i s t o understand b o t h h o w importan t Hrothgar' s specia l ar t i s to grou p solidar ity an d h o w precariou s i s th e psycho-socia l atmosphere w h i c h suc h a n art creates . This uneasines s i s exacerbated b y th e presenc e o f B e o w u l f . T he alter nate definition s o f hi s missio n w h i ch h e an d Hrothga r giv e constitute a verbal duel . Firs t B e o w u l f tell s th e guar d (25 8 ff ) tha t h e ha s com e t o help th e 'protecto r o f th e p e o p l e , ' teac h h i m h ow t o conque r hi s enemy , and eas e h im o f hi s affliction : ' O r els e eve r afte r h e w i l l suffe r tribula tions, constraint , whil e the bes t o f house s remain s ther e o n it s hig h place. ' Whe n Beowulf's presence i s announced t o th e o l d k i ng b y Wulf gar, th e term s o f hi s answe r ten d t o diminis h th e hero' s overpowerin g image: Hrothga r remember s B e o w u l f a s a b o y, h e know s hi s fathe r re ceived a hom e an d wif e throug h th e generosit y o f Hrethel , a nd n o w Ecgtheow's ' e a f o r a ' ha s com e here , 'sough t a fas t f r i e n d ' ('soht e holdn e wine ') i n Hrothgar. B e o w u l f i s a good m a n sen t b y G o d , and Hrothga r w i l l rewar d h i m w e l l w i t h treasure , repa y h i m fo r hi s 'modj^raece ' (372 85). Agains t this carefull y reductiv e pictur e o f th e her o a s a prope r ob 17

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ject fo r th e king' s friendshi p an d munificence , Beowulf' s address t o Hrothgar (407-55 ) threaten s t o swel l hi s etho s an d th e valu e o f hi s offer , his riskin g o f life , b e y o n d th e limit s o f adequat e repayment . D u r i n g thi s speech, an d befor e hi s ' b e o t , ' h e remind s Hrothga r tha t H e o r o t 'stand s empty an d useless, ' an d say s h e cam e becaus e th e 'bes t wis e earls ' o f th e Geats, k n o w i n g his strength , advise d h im t o voluntee r hi s service s t o th e king. Hrothga r meet s thi s w i t h a differen t accoun t (457-72) , remindin g h i m o f a p r i o r obligation , for Hrothga r ha d settle d a feu d betwee n Geat s and Wylfing s b y payin g th e wergel d fo r a W y l f i n g w h o m E c g t h e o w ha d k i l l e d . Agains t Beowulf's emphasis o n hi s o w n singula r powe r an d gen erosity — the clai m o n Hrothga r i s heightened b y Beowulf' s vivid imag e o f th e les s l i k e l y prospect , Grendel' s v i c t o ry feast (445-55 ) — he affirm s the principl e that son s shoul d h o n o u r th e debt s incurre d b y thei r fathers . N o t l o n g after, w h e n stirre d t o anothe r accoun t o f hi s feat s b y Unferth' s insult, Beowulf' s taunt t o th e fratricid e i s generalized t o includ e al l th e Danes (595-601) : G r e n d e l 'ha s notice d tha t h e nee d no t m u c h fea r th e hostility, no t m u c h drea d th e terribl e sword-stor m o f y o u r people , th e V i c t o r y - S c y l d i n g s . H e exact s force d levy , show s merc y t o non e o f th e Danish people ; bu t h e i s glad, kills , carve s fo r feasting , expect s n o figh t from th e Spear-Danes . ' Thus i n his o w n w a y B e o w u l f threaten s H e o r o t — or wha t i t stand s for — as m u c h a s G r e n d e l , and Hrothga r i s pressed t o pre-defin e th e hero's promis e an d achievemen t s o a s t o kee p i t w i t h i n th e bound s o f reciprocity. I t i s in thi s laten t manne r tha t w e fee l th e presenc e o f th e p r o b l e m articulate d b y Mauss : ' c h a r i t y wound s h i m w h o receives. ' Hrothgar i s armin g himself agains t tha t possibl e w o u n d . A n d w h en Beo wulf's conques t o f G r e n d e l is celebrated , th e poet' s accoun t o f th e treasure-giving stresse s t w o features : th e heroi c qualit y o f Hrothgar' s re payment, an d th e uneasines s tha t lurk s beneath th e j o y f u l surfac e o f th e ceremony (1020-62) . Irvin g comments o n th e fac t tha t gift-givin g mus t be p u b l i c an d ostentatious : 1 9

Gifts mus t no t o n l y chang e hand s bu t mus t b e see n t o chang e hands . M a n y watche d . . . a s th e wargea r wa s brough t int o th e h a l l ; B e o w u l f had n o nee d t o fee l ashame d o f thes e gift s i n fron t o f al l the warriors . . . . [Th e poet ] voice s approva l o f Hrothgar' s m a n l y generosity , re m a r k i n g tha t n o on e ca n fin d faul t w i t h i t (wit h th e suggestio n i m plicit tha t i t i s alway s ope n t o p u b l i c c r i t i c i s m ) . 20

B u t th e negativ e i m p l i c a t i o n seem s t o u s t o b e a littl e stronger tha n that :

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' n o ma n w i l l eve r fin d faul t w i t h the m — not h e tha t w i l l spea k trut h according t o wha t i s r i g h t' (1048-9) . Thi s conspicuousl y suppresses th e opposing thought : tha t someon e migh t fin d faul t — for example , som e one o f thos e fightin g m e n befor e w h o m B e o w u l f ha d n o nee d t o b e ashamed. T h e p u b l i c nature o f th e ceremon y i s suc h a s t o temp t onlook ers t o env y an d fault-findin g as wel l a s gratitud e an d admiration . The institution i n this fashio n demand s c o n t r o l and watchfulnes s no t o n l y from heroi c give r and receiver , but fro m al l those lesse r comrade s w h o depend o n them . Th e poe t emphasize s thi s nee d a fe w line s later i n his sententious conclusio n to th e gift-givin g w h i c h i s also a transitio n t o th e account o f th e d o o m e d hall-joy s of H i l d e b u r h an d F i n n : ' Y e t is discernment everywher e best , forethough t o f m i n d . M a n y a thin g dear an d loath h e shal l liv e t o se e w h o her e i n th e day s o f troubl e l o n g make s us e of th e w o r l d . ' ( 1 0 5 9 - 6 2 ) The ambivalenc e o f gift-givin g i s stressed i n th e F i n n an d Freawar u episodes and , i n a somewha t lowe r key, i n the networ k o f passages trac ing th e necklace , breast-armour, an d standar d fro m Wealhtheo w an d Heorogar throug h B e o w u l f an d H y g d t o Hygelac , w h o wor e an d los t them a l l , along w i th hi s life , ' w h e n fo r prid e h e sough t trouble , feu d w i t h th e F r i s i a n s ' (1201-14). Maus s observes tha t 'th e them e o f th e fate ful gift , th e presen t o r possessio n tha t turn s int o p o i s o n , is fundamenta l in Germani c folklore. T h e R h i n e G o ld i s fatal t o th e m a n w h o win s it. ' (The Gift, 62 ) Freawaru , and probabl y H i l d e b u r h , ar e gift s w h o becom e p o i s o n ; thei r ver y presenc e an d situatio n generate ane w th e anxietie s they ar e intende d t o alleviate . Irving draw s fro m suc h entanglement s the lesso n tha t 'gift s ar e obviou s symbol s of h u m a n succes s an d felicity , but the y canno t gover n th e future , the y canno t kee p peopl e aliv e o r en sure tha t thei r expectation s w i l l alway s come t r u e ' (Reading, 143) . Thi s again seem s t o ske w th e message , w h i c h i s not tha t gift s fai l t o gover n the future , bu t tha t gift-givin g govern s th e futur e o n l y to o w e l l ; i t bear s w i t h i n itsel f th e destructiv e possibilitie s that cance l its manifes t function . The patter n o f reversal , ' e d w e n d e n , ' abou t w h i c h Irvin g ha s man y goo d things t o say , derive s les s fro m th e genera l unreliabilit y o f lif e tha n fro m the excessiv e reliabilit y o f heroi c institution s w h i c h soone r o r late r i mpose o n m e n b o t h side s o f thei r character . T h e p o i n t t o b e mad e abou t ' e d w e n d e n ' i s that i t is , emphatically, a pattern; a predictable structur e dynamically a t w o r k b e y o n d th e consciousnes s o f th e m e n l o c k e d int o it, an d revealin g itself t o the m onl y i n their perpetuall y uneas y con sciousness o f ' w y r d , ' th e d o o m , wha t happen s becaus e lif e an d th e w o r l d ar e th e wa y the y are .

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This uneasines s i s nicely caugh t b y Mauss , w ho describe s h o w , i n primitive societies , men i n times o f feastin g an d ceremon y 'mee t i n a curiou s frame o f m i n d w i t h exaggerate d fea r an d a n equall y exaggerate d gener o s i t y , ' becaus e 'ther e i s no middl e path. Ther e i s either complet e trus t or mistrust, ' therefor e festiva l and warfar e li e very clos e together . I n 'setting u p th e w i l l fo r peac e agains t ras h follies ' o f violence, tribesme n 'succeed i n substitutin g alliance , gift an d commerc e fo r war , isolation and stagnation ' (79-80) . A n d in Beowulf, thes e substitution s retai n thei r original contentiousnes s an d dange r i n transformations tha t kee p the m alive a s sleepers . THE MEADHALL AND THE MONSTER

In Hrothgar' s munificenc e th e substitutio n ha s th e sam e aggressiv e valence an d ma y b e understoo d t o produc e th e sam e laten t anxieties . There i s another reaso n fo r this : consider , fo r example , th e brie f refer ence t o th e Frank s plundering the Gea t bodie s afte r th e deat h o f Hyge lac, an d takin g w i th the m th e vaunte d neck-rin g and armou r give n h im by B e o w u l f (1212-14) . Conside r also th e relate d referenc e t o H a m a , w h o apparently stol e anothe r neck-rin g from E o r m e n r i c and 'go t eterna l favor' (1198-1201) . Conside r finally th e mor e extensiv e speculatio n of B e o w u l f tha t th e gif t o f Freawar u w i l l lea d t o a situatio n i n w h i ch th e Heatho-Bards w i l l rankl e a t th e sigh t o f th e Dane s wearin g the 'gomelr a lafe' o f Ingeld' s peopl e (203 2 ff ) — that is , the b o o t y take n i n previou s raids an d redistribute d b y Hrothgar . Thes e allusion s r e m i nd us tha t th e treasures Hrothga r hand s ou t mus t com e fro m somewhere ; th e poe t refers o n l y twic e t o h u m a n smithies . Hrothgar's gift-givin g i s a chal lenge ful l o f laten t strif e becaus e th e othe r sid e o f givin g i s taking . If the Dane s see m t o hav e fe w activ e enemies , Hrothgar' s thirty-eigh t o r so year s o f successfu l wa r mus t hav e produce d a host o f ill-wisher s — those, fo r example , o n w h o m th e burde n o f buildin g H e o r o t wa s laid , as wel l a s thos e whos e treasure s h e plundered : an d mayb e th e buildin g of H e o r o t i s simpl y t o b e understoo d a s th e positiv e or h o n o r i f i c side o f tha t dar k c o i n . This n o t i o n suggest s th e appropriatenes s o f introducin g Ingeld an d Grendel togethe r w i t h th e b u i l d i n g an d d o o m o f H e o r o t . T he exten t o f the king' s munificence an d th e hall' s magnificence ma y als o be th e meas ure o f h o w man y enemie s lur k — like G r e n d e l — ' d r e a m u m bedaeled ' and ' b e a l o h y d i g ' ( 7 2 1, 723) , ember s unde r ashes . A n d G r e n d el may himself b e a caricatur e i n w h i ch ar e gathere d al l those deprive d an d fes tering spirits , those w o u n d e d an d angere d souls , whose ' m o d ' i s abstrae 2 1

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ted fro m th e networ k o f huma n creature s an d socia l institutions con taining i t i n b o th sense s o f tha t ter m — producing an d domesticatin g th e 'ellengaest,' allayin g and revivin g Grendelian rancour. G r e n d e l takin g his thirt y thane s hom e i s 'huá e h r e m i g ' (124) , lik e a plundering warrior . A s takin g i s th e othe r sid e o f giving , an d contentio n th e othe r sid e o f generosity, s o Grende l shadow s th e darke r antecedent s an d consequen ces laten t i n Hrothgar's goo d w o r k s . B u t thi s i s not, w e repeat , t o b e construed i n term s o f ethico-psychologica l categories, fo r example , ' u n conscious pride , ' t o w h i c h Christianizing critic s appeal w h e n attributin g the gilde d rottenness i n Denmark t o ou r o l d stock , o r t o paga n vanitas. N o r i s Hrothgar a Germani c versio n o f th e fishe r king , thoug h ther e ar e some structura l similaritie s in his d i l e m m a : th e presenc e o f a n evi l intrin sically connecte d t o th e ' l a n d ' — that is , th e societ y — and therefor e era dicable onl y b y on e w h o i s a n outsider , an d w h o i s singula r o r ' t o u c h e d ' in som e magica l o r religiou s sense. Hrothgar' s goo d w o r k s ar e exem plary o f th e bes t i n heroic societ y generally ; what i s good o r ba d i n th e poem i s pan-Germanic. A n d the deep-structura l ambivalence , th e ' e d w e n d e n , ' o f hall-building , gift-giving , honour-seeking , an d peace weaving — w i th raid , plunder, slaughter , feud , vengeance , envy , resent ment, an d treacher y finel y wove n int o the m — is presented a s th e prac tical basi s w h i c h b o th support s an d constrain s th e wa y m e n live , behave , act, choose , an d think . W i t h on e possibl e e x c e p t i o n , G r e n d el does no t appear a s a n allegorica l projection o f somethin g specificall y w r o ng w i t h Hrothgar an d th e Danes . H e an d H e o r o t ar e causall y l i n k e d crystallizations o f th e ba d an d goo d feature s o f heroi c institutions . I f th e defea t of Grende l doe s no t spel l th e en d o f Danis h troubles , th e burnin g o f H e o r o t doe s no t en d eithe r th e Scyldin g dynast y o r th e Danis h people . 22

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This aspec t o f Grendel' s significanc e i s persuasively brough t ou t b y Irving's description s o f hi s h u m a n an d socia l dimension: He i s th e rebelliou s exile , the ymbsittend, th e neighbo r w h o canno t b e tamed, w i l l no t pa y tribute , refuse s t o b e brough t w i t h i n th e fram e o f social orde r b y forc e o f arm s o r rul e o f law . (Reading, 93) Grendel seem s representativ e a t time s o f a n evi l an d arrogan t indi vidualism tha t i s w h o l l y destructiv e i n it s effect s o n societ y an d ha s some connectio n thematicall y w i t h th e feud s smolderin g b e l ow th e surface o f th e p o e m o r w i t h a figur e lik e H e r e m o d , typ e o f th e self willed an d w i c k e d king. ( I l l ) If G r e n d e l has ha d originall y a h u m a n k i n d o f strengt h lik e Cain's , it has n o w blurre d an d becom e almos t unrecognizable ; h e i s a disturb -

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ingly alie n creatur e w h o w i l l n o longe r fi t ou r familia r categories . B u t he i s never totall y unrecognizable. T he p o e m succeed s i n givin g th e figure o f Grende l it s memorable powe r precisel y by keepin g h im flick ering i n that hal f w o r l d o n th e edg e o f th e h u m a n , manncynne fram, far ou t awa y fro m m a n k i n d , and ye t par t o f m a n k i n d . (Introduction, 48) A t onc e a n 'ellorgast ' and a 'mearcstapa, ' h e i s not onl y arrogant , no t only — as Kask e w o u l d hav e i t — an embodimen t o f ' p u r e l y malicious v i o l e n c e . ' H e i s a joyless creature ('wonsael i w e r ,' 105 ) w h o endure d distress ('jsrag e geJDolode,' 87) w h e n h e hear d th e hall-joys ; a despairing walker-alone ('angengea, ' 165 ) forbidde n to t o u c h o r receiv e treasure ; one deprive d of j oy ('dreamu m bedaeled, ' 7 2 1 ) w ho ' G o d e s yrre baer ' (711) — an o d d phrase , suggestin g that Grende l brough t t o other s th e divine wrat h h e fel t (perhap s a s his own ) an d unde r w h i c h h e suffered . Cain's crim e and exil e followe d hi s contentiou s effor t t o pleas e hi s l o r d w i t h gifts , an d th e lord' s rejection o f thi s effort . Grende l i s thus n o pure ly maliciou s outsider bu t a n exil e fro m th e ' c y n n ' o f m an t o w h i c h hi s ancestors belonged . H is hatred spring s fro m th e p a i n of th e have-not , th e violent k n o c k e r at th e doo r w h o want s t o retur n an d posses s o r destro y the forbidde n hall-joys that tormen t h i m . In thes e brie f ethica l references t o hi s underlying helplessness an d fatedness, th e poe t link s hatred , anger , an d violenc e in a general wa y t o a dee p h u m a n fea r — the drea d o f losin g existence , freedom , security , favour, an d companionship . T he structura l ' e d w e n d e n ' o f heroi c insti tutions continuall y jeopardizes thes e necessitie s o f lif e i n the proces s o f sustaining them . L i k e Grendel , w h o i s d o o m ed t o bea r Cain' s mar k an d G o d ' s anger , th e institution s seem t o hav e th e spiri t o f kinstrife w o v en into them . Y e t , unlike Grendel , the y d o no t mak e themselve s k n o w n . Or rather , the y mak e themselve s k n o w n onl y a s Grende l (an d hi s mother). Grende l serve s a s a k i n d o f decoy , drawin g the fea r o f th e Dane s and th e wrat h o f th e her o t o w a r d himself. A nd the poe t show s th e sig nificance o f thi s diversionar y function by changin g the characterizatio n of Grende l a s th e p o e m proceeds . W e n ow t u r n t o explor e thes e changes . Irving's interpretatio n offer s a n approac h t o th e changes , bu t i n vague germinal for m w h i c h remain s undeveloped . A l o ng w i t h othe r critics , h e remarks o n Grendel' s dull-wittedness, his misplaced expectations, an d the self-destructiv e ' c o m b i n a t i o n of passionate juggernau t w i l l an d dim med i n t e l l e c t ' w h i ch mak e h i m seem 'a s m u c h a b l i n d v i c t i m o f fat e a s an agen t o f i t . ' (Reading, 111 ) H e show s h o w th e poe t present s Gren 25

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dePs defea t i n a c o m i c an d derisiv e light, and conclude s tha t ' t o expos e the essentia l incongruit y o f G r e n d e l , half boge y an d hal f outlaw , b y bringing h i m int o th e sunli t w o r l d o f laughte r i s a powerful exorcism , perhaps th e mos t powerfu l o f all . T h e devi l canno t endur e t o b e m o c k e d . ' (111) B u t h e fail s t o distinguis h this narrativ e mod e o f helplessnes s from th e deepe r helplessnes s describe d above , an d h e misse s th e rea l point o f th e c o m i c exorcism , w h i ch i s tha t i t divert s attentio n fro m mor e proximate an d permanen t dangers . T h e stor y o f Grende l is like thos e narrative myth s w h i c h , i n primitive and traditiona l societies , serv e t o b l o c k furthe r explanation s b y givin g definit e answer s tha t se t th e curiou s or anxiou s m i n d a t res t — and serv e ofte n t o distrac t i t fro m th e under l y i n g insolubl e source s o f socia l stress . The initia l helplessnes s G r e n d e l externalizes i s that o f a n embittere d 'wraecca,' a v i c t i m o f ancien t kinstrif e an d rebellio n against a munificen t l o r d ; a n exile d sou l d o o m e d t o privation , isolation, and violenc e as a wa y of life , rouse d t o enviou s rag e b y th e presenc e o f al l he desire s bu t can not share . A f t e r bein g introduce d i n momentary conjunctio n w i t h Heo rot an d Ingeld , h e i s extricated fro m tha t c o m p l e x an d give n his o w n alien being . L i k e a scapegoat , h e bear s th e mar k o f C a i n b e y o n d th e bor der int o th e non-huma n w o r l d . B u t hi s O l d Testament genealog y keep s his h u m a n meanin g befor e u s an d suggest s h ow l i v i n g ' s appea l t o Gren del's mor e universa l significance i s to b e u n d e r s t o o d : a s a n evi l trans cending thi s o r an y individua l monster , sow n i n th e w o r l d w i t h th e gen eration o f th e firs t h u m a n family , an d therefor e neve r t o b e finall y purge d b y th e heroi c solutio n o f singl e encounter . T h r o u g h lin e 189 , Grende l retains thi s universa l significanc e a s a n enem y o f m a n k i n d , reflecting th e k i n d o f spiritua l and psychologica l evil connecte d w i t h transgression s against th e socia l orde r an d custom s o f th e Dane s (15 0 ff) . G r e n d e l is psychologically mos t powerfu l whe n h e possesse s th e hal l an d it s occu pants — w h en hi s assault s communicat e hi s o w n despai r t o hi s victims w h o , i n thei r helplessness , t u r n t o heathe n sacrifice s an d pra y fo r deliv erance fro m th e 'gastbona . ' What happen s t o G r e n d e l after B e o w u l f arrive s i s that hi s h u m a n i t y becomes increasingl y physical and social . Whil e th e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f hi s eerie habita t add s strangenes s t o hi s being , intensifie s hi s alie n q u a l i t y, b y lin e 125 8 h e ha s becom e a membe r o f a truncate d k i n g r o u p . Just a s Grendel ha d materialize d fro m th e Heorot-Ingel d c o m p l e x , s o hi s mo ther appear s i n close c o n n e c t i o n w i t h Wealhtheow' s uneas y reference s t o her sons ' future , followin g th e scop' s son g o f H i l d e b u r h . T h i s introduce s a ne w se t o f theme s a s Grendel' s ' m o t h e r , w o m a n , an d monste r w i f e ' 27

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emerges fro m nowher e t o becom e hi s nuclea r famil y an d j u r al avenger . Hrothgar n o w explain s (134 5 ff ) tha t ther e wer e tw o suc h 'mearcstapan, ' b o t h h u m a n i n f o r m , an d whe n B e o w u l f penetrate s th e depth s o f th e mere, tha t alie n place suddenl y change s int o a m i r r o r imag e o f th e hu man hal l an d hearth . Thu s a s Grende l and hi s mothe r becom e strange r and mor e monstrou s t o th e othe r character s i n th e p o e m , th e evi l the y embody appear s t o u s increasingl y to reflec t locall y specifi c problem s inherent i n Germanic society : problem s o f feu d an d vengeance ; th e re current outbrea k o f violent disorde r — the power , i n Kaske' s terms , ' o f even defeate d violenc e to spaw n furthe r v i o l e n c e ' ; and th e problem s o f succession an d perpetuatio n implie d b y th e fac t tha t G r e n d e l and hi s 'aglaecwif ' ar e th e las t survivor s of thei r particula r branc h o f Cain' s b r o o d . H i l d e b u r h and Grendel' s wif e represen t opposin g extremes : th e former a passiv e politica l object , th e latte r a usurper o f th e mal e aven ger's role . Between thes e extremes , Wealhtheo w feel s th e pressure s an d dilemma o f th e woman' s rol e a s wif e an d mother , feel s hoverin g ove r her perhap s th e spectr e o f th e sam e ultimat e d o o m tha t frustrate s th e Grendel dynasty . B u t th e actua l assaul t o n th e hal l b y Grendel' s wif e has th e effec t o f divertin g everyone t o a n episod e w h i c h , howeve r gri m its onset , fall s clearl y w i t h in th e consolin g category o f adventure s fo r the invincibl e hero . B y convenientl y locatin g and distancin g thes e problem s i n th e hate ful outsiders , th e poe t prepare s the m fo r eas y disposa l by B e o w u l f . Thus poet an d her o co-operat e i n exorcising and destroyin g th e enemies , an d i n bringin g on anothe r happ y ending . O r s o i t appear s t o th e Danes , fo r we se e somethin g different , namely , tha t th e embodimen t o f evi l i n monsters divert s th e character s fro m th e tru e intra-psychi c and -socia l sources o f mor e abidin g trouble. A s a condense d an d melodramati c version o f th e trouble , th e monstrou s manifestatio n followe d b y th e happy endin g provide s th e Dane s w i t h a deceptivel y skewe d e x e m p l u m of evi l an d it s conquest . Th e poe t consistentl y distinguishe s th e mes sages received by hi s character s fro m thos e receive d by us , neve r mor e than w h e n hi s character s ar e m o r a l i z i n g . Hrothgar' s sermo n provide s a beautifu l exampl e o f this . A f t e r receivin g from B e o w u l f th e hil t o f the gian t sword , th e o l d k i n g praise s hi s w i s d o m a s wel l a s hi s strength , foreseeing a successfu l caree r fo r h i m a s leade r o f th e Geat s — if he w i l l learn b y th e exampl e o f H e r e m o d t o kee p u p hi s guar d agains t 'unsnyt t r u ' an d 'oferhygd . ' Heremod's caree r i n its beginnin g was simila r t o Hrothgar's: G o d gave h i m powe r an d strength , se t h i m u p ove r al l men, but, u n l i k e Hrothgar, H e r e m o d neglecte d t o 'giv e rings t o th e Dane s fo r glory. ' Wha t follow s develop s th e contrast . G o d gives w i s d o m, land, an d 28

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earlship t o m a n k i n d , makes th e kingdom s of th e w o r l d s o subjec t t o a man o f illustriou s famil y f)aet h e hi s self a ne mae g his u n s n y t t r u m end e ge|>encean . Wunaá h e o n wiste ; n o hiñ e w i h t dwele á adl n e y Ido, n e h i m inwitsor h o n sefa(n ) sweorceá , n e gesac u ohwae r ecghete eoweá , a c h i m eal w o r o l d wended o n w i l l a n : h e f>aet wyrse n e c o n — , oi JDaet h im o n inna n oferhygd a dae l weaxeá o n d wridaá ; J>onne s e wear d swefeí , sawele hyrde ; bi á s e slae p t o faest , bisgum gebunden , b o n a swiá e neah , se JDe of flanboga n fyrenu m sceoteá . l>onne bi á o n hre|>r e unde r h e l m drepe n biteran strael e — h im bebeorgan n e c o n — , worn w u n d o r b e b o d u m werga n gastes ; JDinceá h im t o l y t e l , |>ae t he lang e heold , gytsaá g r o m h y d i g , nalla s o n gyl p sele á faette beagas , o n d h e f)a forîtgesceaf t forgyteá o n d forgymeá , {>aes |>e h i m ae r G o d sealde , wuldres Waldend , weorámynd a dael . (1733-52 ) . . . tha t i n his u n w i s d o m he ma y no t himsel f hav e m i n d o f hi s end . H e live s i n p l e n t y; illness and ag e i n no wa y griev e h i m, neither doe s dread car e darke n hi s heart, no r doe s enmit y bar e sword-hate , fo r th e whole w o r l d turn s t o hi s w i l l — he know s n o t h i n g worse — u n t il hi s p o r t i o n o f prid e increase s an d flourishes w i t h i n h i m ; then th e watche r sleeps, th e soul' s guardian ; that slee p i s too sound , b o u n d i n its o w n cares, an d th e slaye r most nea r whos e b o w shoot s treacherously . T h e n is he hi t i n the heart , beneat h hi s armor , w i t h th e bitte r arro w — he cannot protec t himsel f — w i th th e c r o o k e d dark command s o f th e accursed spirit . What h e ha s lon g hel d seem s t o h i m to o little , angry hearted h e covets , n o plate d ring s doe s h e giv e in men's h o n o r , an d then h e forget s an d regard s no t hi s destin y becaus e o f what G o d , Wielder o f Heaven , has give n h i m before, hi s p o r t i on o f glories . (30-1 ) It seem s u n l i k e l y tha t Hrothga r i s t h i n k i ng o f G r e n d e l . Grendel' s b o d y is ou t ther e somewhere , dead ; hi s head i s on displa y in the h a l l . ' T h e ac -

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cursed spiri t ' i s probably th e devi l whos e ambus h wa s se t u p b y hi s soul Quisling, th e prid e tha t make s a conquerin g ruler covetou s an d niggardly . The poet' s language , however , ough t t o r e m i n d us o f G r e n d e l chiefly be cause o f th e imag e o f sleep . T h e victim s o f G r e n d e l and hi s mothe r wer e all m e n w h o fel l aslee p i n the hal l afte r feasting , celebrating , an d drink ing. Ther e ar e som e nin e reference s t o th e unhapp y hall-sleepers, a more genera l referenc e t o man' s sou l w h i c h mus t see k 'th e plac e where , after it s feasting , one' s b o d y w i l l slee p fas t i n its death-bed ' (1008) , an d two reference s t o Beowulf' s watchfu l waitin g (660 an d 1268) . Thes e sleepers an d waker s d o no t enac t a n allegor y of prid e an d alertnes s i n th e sense define d b y th e exampl e o f H e r e m o d . On th e contrary , th e sleeper s are al l beneficiaries o f Heremod' s i m p l i e d counter-example , Hrothga r himself. T h e i r slee p i s the consequenc e o f hi s carefu l liberality , a consequence o f golde n H e o r o t . T he goo d k i n g give s them thei r ' d r e a m , ' an d therefore th e evi l monste r take s thei r lives . The institutiona l double b i n d i s apparent i n the wa y th e t w o message s cut athwar t eac h other : H e r e m o d dramatize s th e message , ' i f y ou tr y t o keep it , y ou l o s e , ' while th e laten t messag e is , ' if y ou shar e it , y ou lose. ' The Grendelia n spirit stands behin d eac h ac t o f givin g i n t wo ways . 1 / I t is neutralize d in that th e takin g w h i ch arouse d tha t spirit , or w h i c h de pends o n it , is placated b y th e ac t o f givin g wha t ha s bee n taken . T h e more y o u give , th e mor e y o u ough t t o b e abl e t o neutraliz e th e effec t o f the pridefu l spiri t w i t h in y o u an d w i t h i n thos e t o w h o m y o u give . Y e t, 2/ th e mor e y o u give , th e mor e y o u arous e contentio n b y y o u r conspic uous succes s an d wealth , by th e charit y tha t threaten s t o w o u n d an d th e riches temptin g t o greed . Furthermore , th e neutralizatio n in 1 is actively centred i n th e mos t importan t o f socia l functions , feastin g i n th e mead hall. T h e purpose s o f feastin g ar e t o rene w solidarit y and tighte n socia l bonds; t o giv e treasure o r gifts ; to besto w prais e an d h o n o u r ; t o pledg e help o r vengeance ; t o defin e statu s an d valu e o r impos e one' s charismati c presence o n others ; an d t o commemorat e pas t deed s an d heroes , ofte n by wa y o f celebratin g a mor e recen t t r i u m p h . As the p o e m reveal s i n more tha n on e place , feastin g an d beer-drinkin g may brin g on shame , envy, an d strife . B u t it s manifes t functio n i n Beowulf is t o heighte n th e sense o f grou p security . Its laten t disfunctio n is therefore tha t i t ma y lul l the member s o f th e warban d int o th e slee p o f fals e security . T h ey ma y l o o k i n the w r o n g places fo r th e source s o f trouble . Th e r h y t h m o f fight ing an d feastin g ma y produc e th e fals e sens e o f th e happ y ending . At th e same time , th e variou s hall-scenes als o sugges t th e l u r k i n g uneasines s w h i c h qualifie s the n o t i o n tha t feastin g merel y lull s warrior s t o sleep . 29

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We ma y als o fee l i n those scenes , a s a desperat e undercurrent , th e insis tence tha t th e hall-celebratio n should b e compac t o f ' dream ' — somewha t like keepin g a ba d part y goin g by insistin g that on e i s really havin g a good time , an d provin g it b y d r i n k i n g onesel f t o sleep . Whether th e tensio n i s reduced becaus e th e feaster s believ e the y ar e i n a saf e place , o r exacerbate d becaus e the y ar e neve r sur e i t i s safe , th e sleep tha t invite s G r e n d el is certainly no t th e ethica l slee p exemplified b y H e r e m o d . As individual figures , b o t h G r e n d e l and H e r e m o d ar e dis tractions w h o p r o m p t th e Dane s t o locat e th e sourc e o f thei r troubl e i n corrupt form s o f consciousnes s i n bad m e n an d monsters . T h e self destructive behaviou r o f th e outsider s conceal s fro m th e Dane s wha t i t reveals t o us , th e potentiall y destructiv e aspect s o f heroi c institution s even a t thei r best . The c o n t i n u a t i o n o f Hrothgar' s sermo n reveal s a m o u n t i n g uncertain ty i n his o w n m i n d . H e exhort s B e o w u l f t o kee p himsel f f r o m Heremod' s wickedness bu t the n goe s o n t o itemiz e othe r danger s no t ascribabl e t o ethical failure , an d h e conclude s w i t h a vague, perhap s p u z z l e d , referenc e to hi s o w n predicament . E v i l , h e begins , befall s th e evi l m a n : H i t o n endestae f ef t gelimpeá , |>aet se l i c h o m a laen e gedreoseá , faege gefealleüi ; feh á oJDer to , se f) e unmurnlic e madma s daelef) , eorles aergestreon , egesa n n e gymeá . Bebeorh |) e don e bealoniá , B e o w u l f leofa , secg betsta, o n d f) e £>ae t selre geceos , ece raedas ; oferhyd a n e gym , maere cempa ! N u i s Junes maegnes blae d ane h w i l e ; ef t son a biá , £>aet f>ec ad l oáá e ec g eafof>es getwaefeá , oááe fyre s feng , oüe flode s w y l m , oááe grip e meces , oáá e gare s fliht , o í á e ato l y Ido; oütá e eagena bearht m forsiteá o n d forsworceá ; semning a biá , |>aet áec, dryhtguma , dea á oferswyáeá . S w a i c Hring-Dena h u n d misser a w e o l d unde r w o l c n u m o n d hi g wigge belea c manigum maegj) a geon d {>ysn e middangeard , aescum o n d ecgum , f>ae t i c me aenign e under swegle s begon g gesaca n n e tealde .

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Hwaet, m e })ae s o n e£>l e edwende n cwom , gyrn aefte r gomene , seoj^a n G r e n d e l wearo*, ealdgewinna, ingeng a min; ic |>aer e socne síngale s wae g modceare miele . (1753-78 ) In th e en d i t happen s i n tur n tha t th e loane d b o d y weakens , fall s doomed; anothe r take s th e earl' s ancien t treasure , on e w h o recklessl y gives precious gifts , doe s no t fearfull y guar d them . K e e p yoursel f agains t tha t wickedness , beloved B e o w u l f , best o f men, an d choos e bette r — eternal gains . Hav e n o car e fo r pride , grea t warrior. N o w for a tim e ther e i s glory i n y o ur might : ye t soo n i t shal l be tha t sicknes s o r swor d w i l l diminis h y o u r strength , o r fire' s fangs , or flood' s surge , o r sword' s swing , or spear' s flight , o r appallin g age ; brightness o f eye s w i l l fai l an d gro w dark ; the n i t shal l be tha t deat h w i l l overcom e y o u , warrior. Thus I rule d th e Ring-Dane s for a hundre d half-year s unde r th e skies , and protecte d the m i n war w i t h spea r an d swor d agains t m a n y nation s over middle-earth , s o tha t I counte d n o on e a s m y adversar y under neath th e sky' s expanse . W e l l , disproo f o f tha t cam e t o m e i n my o w n land, grie f afte r m y j o y s, whe n G r e n d e l , ancient adversary , cam e t o in vade m y home . Grea t sorro w o f hear t I hav e alway s suffere d fo r hi s persecution. (31 ) Perhaps G o d sent G r e n d e l because Hrothga r droppe d hi s guard , wa s to o sure o f himself , swallowe d a dro p fro m th e cu p tha t u n d i d H e r e m o d . At any rate , th e lesso n ha s bee n learned , th e A l m i g h t y ha s supplie d a sav iour, an d fo r thi s happ y endin g ther e w i l l b e ' j o y o f th e gla d feast ' an d many 'treasure s w i l l b e share d w h e n m o r n i n g comes. ' (1782-4 ) The passag e incidentall y suggests h ow th e reckles s give r began a s a taker, an d reinforce s w i t h ethica l justification the firs t o f th e t w o phase s of th e goo d ruler' s career . B u t w h e n h e mention s h o w a similar , if les s extreme, plagu e visite d the goo d rule r himself , h e falter s an d offer s Beo w u l f a brie f aphoris m w h i c h , whil e ethical i n tone , i s diffus e an d crypti c i n meaning . F o r ethica l explanatio n i s irrelevant. Wha t happene d t o h i m happened becaus e h e d i d everythin g h e wa s suppose d t o d o . A n d thi s p r o b l e m , thi s irrelevance , w i l l pursu e th e her o int o par t II.

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HOARD AND HERO

Heroic generosit y demand s reciprocit y — demands i t i n t wo senses : a s the repaymen t i n l o y a l ty and servic e throug h w h i c h munificenc e attain s its objectiv e o f stron g grou p solidarity , and a s a contentiou s respons e t o the challeng e inheren t i n giving . I n hi s sermon , Hrothga r take s not e o f th e practical dimensio n o f gift-givin g an d alertness , viewin g the m i n ethical perspective. B u t a goo d k i n g ma y fai l a s wel l a s a H e r e m o d, an d th e con sequences o f hi s failur e fo r hi s peopl e ma y b e a s grave , o r eve n graver . The ethica l focu s o f Hrothgar' s sermo n i s quite irrelevan t t o par t II of Beowulf and i n thi s fac t lie s th e mos t c o m p l e x an d m o v i n g aspect o f th e last part . N o r is it enoug h merel y t o sa y tha t i n part II the g o o d k i n g somehow fails . Rather , h e fail s precisel y becaus e h e i s s o g o o d a king . Thus w e retur n t o Halverson' s insight : 'I t i s not Beowulf' s pride tha t brings abou t th e ultimat e catastrophe , bu t precisel y hi s heroism . ' Onc e again, i f this reintroduce s ' e t h i c a l ' issues i t doe s s o a t a leve l b e y o n d tha t of th e spher e o f consciou s choic e an d actio n t o w h i c h ethica l analysi s n o r m a l l y applies . B e o w u l f i s th e bes t o f me n i n th e p o e m , Hrothga r th e secon d best . Hrothgar an d B e o w u l f hav e b o t h bee n see n a s figure s o f th e goo d king , but th e idea l includes Hrothga r mor e completel y tha n B e o w u l f . B e o w u l f i n par t II fuses tw o differen t roles , her o an d king , ye t thi s i s o n l y on e rea son w h y h e i s atypical. Readers hav e alway s fel t thi s atypicality , and though th e analogie s t o Chris t are ludicrou s they sugges t on e aspec t o f the k i n d o f feelin g B e o w u lf inspires . Irving speaks o f 'tha t vita l extr a margin o f powe r w h i c h distinguishe s th e her o a s individua l an d uniqu e force fro m th e her o a s representativ e m a n , ' an d o f 'tha t specia l b l e nd o f w i l d daring , restles s strength , aler t intelligence , luck, an d divin e favo r that make s a hero. ' (Reading, 121 ) B u t th e p o e m suggest s eve n mor e than that : a k i n d o f mana attache s t o thi s hero , a mist y an d superstition ridden aur a o f th e uncanny , th e ' u n h e i m l i c h . ' This come s throug h i n th e reference s t o hi s specia l relation t o th e ocean, th e water y depths , an d water-monsters. I t come s throug h als o i n th e folktal e o f th e bear-so n hoverin g in th e backgroun d an d recalle d by hi s nam e (Bee-wolf) , by th e narrativ e element s o f th e t w o Grende l adventures, an d b y th e referenc e t o hi s devianc e a s a y o u t h (218 3 ff) . I n the earl y part s o f th e p o e m hi s presence give s of f a power edge d w i t h menace. U n d e r hi s self-possesse d an d well-minde d demeanour live s th e ' m o d ' fo r terribl e violenc e evident i n th e ton e an d substanc e o f hi s firs t address t o Hrothga r an d i n his repl y t o U n f e r t h . We have see n Hrothgar' s 30

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verbal effort s t o c o n t r o l thi s powe r an d kee p th e hero' s offe r o f hel p w i t h i n th e limit s o f reciprocity. In th e figh t w i t h Grende l his eagernes s fo r battl e an d hi s tremendou s energy burs t fort h w i t h suc h fur y a s t o mak e th e tw o enemie s momen tarily indistinguishable . B o th equall y threate n H e o r o t : * Y r re waero n begen, / re3 e renweardas. R e c e d hlynsode , ' s o tha t i t wa s a wonde r th e wine-hall d i d not fal l t o th e groun d (769-72) . Grendel' s gras p affixe d t o the wal l i s a dar k admonitor y imag e o f th e hero' s handgrip . B o t h ar e walkers-alone an d b o t h ar e outsiders , B e o w u l f eve n mor e tha n G r e n d e l . If onl y a s a cancelle d possibility, th e fur y o f G r e n d e l smokes th e con tours o f th e hero' s brigh t outline . When th e sco p w h o praise s hi s e x p l o i t recalls th e glor y o f Sigemun d an d th e infam y o f H e r e m o d , his accoun t of th e latte r (901-15 ) resonate s w i t h a n o d d tone , somewher e betwee n a caveat ('Beware , B e o w u l f , strength an d courag e ar e no t enough' ) an d an exhortatio n ('Please , B e o w u l f , strength an d courag e ar e no t enough') . However domesticate d an d benig n th e bear-so n ha s become , hi s presenc e i n th e hal l add s a touc h o f uncertaint y t o th e genera l uneasines s com municated b y th e poe t i n his accoun t o f th e gift-givin g ceremony . The edgines s abou t B e o w u l f i s partly a functio n o f th e situation : th e helpless an d h u m i l i a t e d Danes ar e force d t o plac e themselve s i n th e hands an d i n the deb t o f a n outsider . I n orde r t o hel p themselve s trus t h i m the y hav e t o tr y t o persuad e h i m t o b e good . T h e outside r i s neces sary becaus e th e evi l tha t ravage s th e Dane s i s partly generate d b y thei r o w n socia l structure . Th e meadhal l attract s her o an d monste r together . Thus th e her o i s not o n l y l i m i t e d i n his role : h e ca n o n l y provide a tem porary cur e b y r i d d i n g the Dane s o f thi s particula r manifestatio n o f thei r p r o b l e m . H e i s als o a potential threa t w h o ma y evok e Grendelia n feel ings i n others i f not i n himself. In hi s fina l speech , Hrothga r i s stil l work ing o n h i m , t r y i ng not o n l y t o b i n d h i m a s a potential all y bu t als o t o neutralize th e possibl e threa t o f a Gea t attack . Henc e th e curiou s refer ence — the firs t an d o n l y on e i n the p o e m — to th e ' s a c u ' an d 'inwitniáas ' w h i c h th e Dane s an d Geat s ha d practise d o n eac h othe r i n th e pas t (1856 ff) , an d hi s concludin g words w h i c h promis e a c o n t i n u i n g supply of gifts , an d appea l t o th e blameles s characte r o f th e Geat s i n indirec t exhortation (1859-65) . Tha t thi s carefulnes s coexist s w i t h Hrothgar' s deep an d fatherl y affectio n fo r B e o w u l f (1870-6 ) point s no t o n l y t o th e ambivalence inheren t i n th e rol e o f alie n hero bu t als o t o Beowulf' s ' u n h e i m l i c h ' charismati c power . Beowulf's strangenes s attache s t o hi s being , not t o hi s consciousness , w h i c h i s singula r i n a more familia r manner : h e i s ethically the bes t o f 31

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all possibl e m e n . I n par t II this c o m b i n a t i o n , as w e suggested , become s the sourc e o f failure . T wo reason s fo r thi s ar e anticipate d i n th e contrast ing imag e o f S c y l d w h i c h open s th e p o e m : 1 / A so n wa s b o r n t o S c y l d , a y o u n g b oy i n his house , w h o m G o d sent t o comfor t th e people : H e had see n th e sor e nee d the y ha d suffere d durin g the l o n g tim e the y lacke d a k i n g . ' (12-16 ) 2 / Whil e stil l y o u n g , a ma n shoul d give gifts ' t o mak e sure tha t late r i n life belove d companions w i l l stan d b y h i m , that peopl e w i l l serv e h i m w h en wa r comes . ' (22-4 ) I t seem s o n l y a logica l conse quence o f hi s uniqueness tha t B e o w u l f leave s n o hei r (2730-2) ; hi s brie f reference t o tha t fac t add s resonanc e t o hi s earlie r comment s o n Hrethe l and th e fathe r o f th e hange d ma n (243 0 ff) , an d t o hi s c o n c l u d i n g remark abou t H r e t h e l : ' T o hi s son s h e lef t — as a happy ma n doe s — his land an d hi s t o w n w h e n h e wen t fro m l i f e . ' (2470-1 ) Beowulf's relatio n t o hi s cowardl y retainers, an d hi s motive s fo r at tacking th e drago n b y himself , raise furthe r questions . Institutiona l contradictions ar e mos t strongl y fel t i n these passages . I n thei r reflectiv e an d past-minded m o o d , th e poe t an d B e o w u l f togethe r expres s inconsisten t sentiments abou t th e c o m i n g encounter. T h e poe t firs t speak s i n his o w n voice, an d B e o w u l f late r amplifie s the sam e sentiment s an d subject s i n his lon g soliloquy . T h e effec t o f thi s peculia r reiteration i s to intensif y the sens e o f inevitabl e d o o m, t o pu t i t of f b y revivin g th e pas t i n orde r to prepar e fo r th e d o o m , an d t o se t th e drago n figh t i n a n extraordinar ily c o m p l e x tissu e o f pas t an d futur e feuds , shiftin g attitudes an d alli ances, an d socia l dilemma s (2324-509) . Beowulf' s consequen t decisio n t o charge th e drago n single-hande d come s almos t a s a relief . The poe t firs t tell s us tha t B e o w u l f wa s confiden t o f w i n n i n g , an d s o 'scorned t o see k th e far-flie r w i t h a t r o o p , a large a r m y . ' (234 5 ff ) A t line 2 4 1 9 b , however , w e ar e t o l d tha t 'hi s m i n d wa s m o u r n f u l , restles s and rip e fo r deat h ' — as if , having ' survived ever y combat , ever y danger ous b a t t l e ' (2397-8) , h e ha d fough t an d live d lon g enough . B e o w u l f him self communicate s thi s feelin g in a sympatheti c remar k abou t Ongen theow's death : 'hi s han d remembere d feud s enough , d i d n ot withstan d the l i f e - b l o w . ' (2488b-9 ) B u t rememberin g hi s past deed s o n behal f o f Hygelac an d Hrothga r seem s t o giv e h im ne w spirit . He i s tempted t o re play hi s conques t o f G r e n d e l and, thoug h th e dragon' s fier y blas t pro hibits hand-to-han d combat , h e w i l l a t leas t engag e th e fo e i n singl e en counter; therefor e h e order s hi s retainer s no t t o hel p h i m (2512-37) . B u t when B e o w u l f i s pressed, Wigla f urge s the m t o hel p thei r k i n g , ignorin g his orde r (2633-60) , an d rushin g t o th e barro w himsel f deliver s the firs t b l o w tha t make s th e dragon' s fir e subsid e (270 0 ff) . Afterwards, he an d 4

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the poe t blam e th e retainer s fo r thei r disloyalt y an d cowardic e (2846b- 9 and 2 8 6 4 - 9 1 ) , but a t lin e 307 7 Wigla f articulate s th e neares t thin g in th e p o e m t o a criticis m o f th e hero : 'Oft sceal l eor l m o n i g ane s willa n wraec adreogan , sw a us geworde n is. Ne meahto n w e gelaera n leofn e |>eoden , rices hyrd e rae d aenigne, J)aet he n e grett e goldwear d JDone, lete hyn e licgean , |>ae r he long e waes , wicum wunia n o á woruldende . Often man y a ma n mus t suffe r distres s fo r th e w i l l o f on e m a n , a s ha s happened t o us . W e might b y n o counse l persuade ou r dea r prince , keeper o f th e k i n g d o m , no t t o approac h th e gold-guardian , let h i m lie where h e lon g was , liv e i n his dwellin g t o th e w o r l d ' s end. (53 ) This tend s retrospectivel y to accentuat e th e heroi c self-concer n of suc h remarks a s th e following , addresse d b y B e o w u l f t o hi s retainers: ' T h i s i s not y o u r venture , no r i s it righ t fo r an y m a n excep t m e ¿don e tha t h e should spen d hi s strengt h agains t th e monster , d o thi s man' s deed . By m y courag e I shal l ge t gold , o r wa r w i l l tak e y o u r king , dir e life-evil . ' (2532b-7) I n th e end , however , th e heroi c assertio n ('n e geme t mannes , nefn(e) m i n anes') i s frustrated b y Wiglaf' s ' e o r l s c y p e , ' j u s t a s hi s re quest t o Wigla f t o distribut e th e treasur e (2799-801 ) i s frustrated. T h e request i s itsel f tonall y weighted w i th th e wearines s o f being a ruler, th e ripeness fo r death : N u i c on maám a h o r d min e beboht e frode feorhlege , fremmaü í gen a leoda |>earfe ; n e maeg ic her len g wesan. N o w tha t I hav e bough t th e h o a r d o f treasure s w i t h m y o l d life, y o u attend t o th e people' s need s hereafter : I ca n be her e n o longer . (49 ) W i t h thi s brie f glanc e towar d ' l e o d a |>earfe' — the phras e i s vague an d generalized, th e sentimen t remot e — he turn s awa y fro m th e care s o f kingship t o spea k w i t h mor e b u o y a n t energ y o f hi s b a r r ow (2801-8) . His final word s ar e no t abou t th e gri m futur e o f his ' l e o d e ' — he ha s shifte d that responsibilit y to Wigla f — but abou t th e en d o f his o w n line ; he an d

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his kinsma n ar e th e las t o f th e Waegmunding s (2813-16) . The cumulativ e effect o f thes e passage s i s to stres s th e conflict , iden tified b y Halverson , between 'heroi c i n d i v i d u a l i s m ' an d th e cod e o f loy alty an d reciprocit y w h i ch lea d t o ' closer socia l tie s an d greate r c o m m o n e f f o r t . ' Halverson' s admirable accoun t o f thi s d i l e m m a prompts u s t o add tha t th e poe t reveal s i t no t o n l y i n th e relation s betwee n B e o w u l f and hi s retainer s bu t als o w i t h i n B e o w u l f himself : th e justifiabl e self concern o f th e her o i s show n no t t o squar e w i t h politica l concern s o f th e ruler. I n th e collaps e or fusio n o f th e t w o roles , th e secon d give s way t o the first . Th e k i n g i s o l d an d wear y o f life , bu t th e her o fulfil s hi s lon g career b y d y i n g i n glory. B e o w u l f embarrow s himself , an d th e Geat s along w i t h h i m ( 2 8 0 4 ) . Th e futur e offer s n o consolation s bu t thos e pro vided b y th e past . H i s death i s made easie r b y th e sigh t o f th e ancien t ' l a f ' an d b y th e m e m o r y o f hi s l o n g career . H i s m i nd dwell s on these , turns i n w a r d and backward , from th e Geat s t o hi s immediat e k i n s m e n and fro m thei r c o n t i n u i n g life-needs — 'Jjearfe' — to hi s m e m o r i a l . Hal verson observe s tha t ' i n an altogethe r personalisti c era , th e cente r o f order i s conceivable onl y a s a person. On e canno t ye t say , " T h e k i n g i s dead, lon g liv e th e k i n g , " bu t onl y " B e o w u l f i s dead — what w i l l happe n n o w ? " ' (607 ) On e can say , however , 'th e kin g i s dead, lon g liv e th e hero, ' an d thi s seem s close r t o th e sentiment s expresse d b y Beowulf . Halverson find s Wiglaf' s criticis m o f B e o w u l f just , sinc e th e king' s death mean s 'th e disintegratio n of th e Geatis h nation. . . . T h e k i n g ha s greater responsibilit y than th e w a r r i o r . ' (607) Thi s i s an importan t in sight, ye t ther e ma y b e mor e t o Beowulf' s dilemm a than th e conflic t i n values generate d b y th e appearanc e o f th e dragon , an d mor e tha n th e general 'exces s o f i n d i v i d u a l i s m ' fro m w h i c h th e D a r k Ages suffered . The p r o b l e m raise d b y particularisti c conceptions o f socio-politica l role s — k i n g , hero , vassa l — is one thing . T he p r o b l e m raise d b y conflictin g roles an d value s — between k i n g an d hero , individualis m an d c o m m o n effort — is another. Ther e i s o n l y a vague historica l similarity betwee n Beowulf's d i l e m m a and tha t o f suc h powerfu l me n a s ' C l o v i s , O f fa , Penda, Charlemagne , A l f r e d , ' whos e ' k i n g d o m s rise, flourish briefly , an d decline w i t h th e death s o f thei r creators. ' (607 ) Afte r a l l , the Dane s out last Hrothgar , an d i n the p o e m th e Swede s outlas t Ongentheow . W e k n o w abou t th e Dane s an d th e Swedes . B u t w h o ha s hear d o f th e Geats ? Klaeber's summar y o f th e evidenc e show s h o w scant y an d confuse d i t i s . Outsid e o f Beowulf ther e ar e o n l y a fe w scattere d Scandinavia n references t o them . I f w e pu t thi s togethe r w i t h hi s remark s tha t B e o w u l f 'is a solitar y figure i n l i f e ,' tha t 'h e die s w i t h o u t leavin g any c h i l d r e n , ' 32

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and tha t h e doe s no t ' p l a y an y rea l par t i n th e importan t event s o f hi s t i m e , ' an d i f we ad d t o thi s th e 'curiou s fac t tha t B e o w u l f himsel f i s never mentione d i n th e survivin g Germanic heroi c literatur e o f Scandi navia an d th e c o n t i n e n t , ' B e o w u l f ' s d i l e m m a ma y tak e o n a complex i o n mor e specifi c tha n tha t w h i c h ca n b e explaine d b y th e particularis m of th e D a r k Ages . That is , his dilemm a ma y ow e les s t o ' an exces s o f individualis m ' tha n to ' a n exces s o f B e o w u l f . ' Consider, i n additio n t o hi s childlessness , th e cowardice o f hi s retainers , note d b y th e poe t a s wel l a s b y Wiglaf . C o n sider als o th e instan t demoralizatio n reflecte d b y th e Geatis h messenge r and w o m a n . O u r accoun t o f th e effect s o f Hrothgar' s liberalit y on hi s sleeping thane s suggest s t o u s tha t th e failur e o f Beowulf' s retainer s may b e intende d t o reflec t o n hi s leadershi p a s wel l a s thei r cowardice . There i s o n l y on e passag e i n th e poe m w h i c h support s thi s hypothesis , but i t seem s t o u s t o b e significant . I t i s Beowulf's d y i n g apologia (2736-43), w h i c h Halverson cite s t o sho w tha t B e o w u l f i s satisfie d tha t 'he ha s live d u p t o th e code , protectin g hi s people , tru e t o hi s oaths , faithful t o hi s k i n s m e n , ' s o tha t 'h e ca n di e c o n t e n t ' becaus e h e ha s honoured 'th e traditiona l contractua l obligations. ' (606 ) B u t Halverso n neither quote s th e immediatel y precedin g line s (2733b-6a) , no r com ments o n thei r implications . B e o w u lf say s tha t h e ' h e o l d ' th e Geat s fifty winters , tha t n o neighbourin g king s 'dare d approac h m e w i t h swords, threate n m e w i t h fears . I n m y lan d I awaite d wha t fat e brough t me, hel d m y o w n w e l l , sough t n o treacherou s quarrels . ' Therefor e G o d 'need no t blam e m e fo r th e slaughte r o f kinsme n whe n lif e goe s fro m m y b o d y . ' (48 ) Earlier , the poe t ha d t o l d u s tha t B e o w u l f ha d com e through man y battle s afte r purgin g Heoro t bu t hi s subsequen t remark s suggest tha t mos t o f thes e occurre d i n th e earl y par t o f hi s reign , endin g w i t h th e victor y ove r Onel a (2349b-400) . B e o w u l f himsel f confirm s thi s impression i n lines 2 5 1 1 - 1 5 . F r o m thes e clue s w e dra w th e i m p l i c a t i o n that hi s unparallele d suc cesses produced th e k i n d o f détent e futilel y sough t b y Hrothga r i n building Heorot . B e o w u l f wa s th e H e o r o t o f th e Geats . Wha t h e fashion ed an d gav e w i t h suc h generosit y wa s himself . A n d in s o doing , he un wittingly bu t unavoidabl y too k somethin g too : hi s uniqu e an d charis matic bein g mad e reciprocit y impossibl e — worse, i t mad e reciprocit y unnecessary. G i v i n g to o m u c h , h e therefor e gav e to o little . T he rol e o f hero, intensifie d b y Beowulf' s uncann y singularity , contain s i n it s struc ture th e sam e pattern o f ' e d w e n d e n ' a s th e othe r heroi c institutions . I n effect, h e absorbe d s o m u c h ' e l l e n ' fro m th e surroundin g atmospher e 36

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that to o littl e was lef t t o nouris h hi s people. H e create d somethin g lik e a powe r o r energ y vacuum , de-tensin g hi s warban d i n a w o r l d wher e ten sion, alertness , an d uneasines s ar e basi c t o survival . L i k e Hrothgar's , hi s success turne d warrior s int o sleepers . Henc e th e behaviou r o f hi s retain ers an d th e chori c sense o f helplessnes s expresse d b y th e messenge r an d the figur e o f th e wailin g w o m a n . I n th e vas t tempora l perspectiv e o f th e second par t o f th e p o e m , Beowulf' s fifty year s a s k i n g — one fo r eac h foot o f dragon-lengt h — pass lik e a whisper , collapsin g between th e pas t and futur e Swedis h r a i d s , and servin g m a i n ly t o sugges t th e doubl e b i n d tha t confront s th e grea t her o a s ruler : i f by hi s excellenc e h e hold s fearful aggressor s i n abeyance , keep s rai d an d feu d t o a m i n i m u m , h e erodes th e Gea t warrio r ethos ; if , o n th e othe r hand , h e wage s continua l warfare ever y t r o p h y h e win s create s ne w enemie s an d lus t fo r ven geance; i n b o th case s th e others , th e ' y m b s i t t e n d , ' ' p a i n f u l l y endur e hardship fo r a t i m e ' (86-7) , an d w h e n h e die s hi s peopl e becom e losers . The her o become s th e o n l y winner , th e o n l y ' l a f ' bequeathe d b y hi s people t o th e w o r l d . A m o n g th e Geats , al l that remaine d o f th e w i l l t o figh t ( ' w i g ' ) wa s concentrated i n his kinsman , appropriatel y name d Wiglaf . A n d even thi s fact reflect s indirectl y on th e p r o b l e m , f ^r Wiglaf' s swor d an d courag e are p o i n t e d l y derive d fro m hi s father , an d connecte d w i t h Weohstan' s participation i n the anti-Gea t campaig n o f Onela . Weohstan's chang e o f allegiance i s lik e Hrethel' s insolubl e wergeld d i l e m m a : these , togethe r w i t h th e analog y o f th e fathe r whos e so n i s hanged, sugges t th e increas ing c o m p l e x i t y and confusion , th e i m m i n e n t b r e a k d o w n , p r o d u c e d b y institutional 'edwenden . ' T he poe t ironicall y an d p o i n t e d l y note s Onela's politicall y inspire d violation o f feudin g custom s (261 1 ff) . H e suggests a genera l crisi s in w h i ch th e wide r bond s o f th e warban d ar e weakening, s o tha t o n l y politica l expedienc y o r th e mor e primitiv e and intuitive bond s o f rea l b l o o d relationship kee p me n togethe r (cf . 2 6 0 0 1). Thu s o n l y anothe r Waegmundin g comes t o Beowulf' s aid. This hypothesi s differ s fro m Halverson' s i n suggestin g tha t th e dis integration o f th e Geat s i s a consequenc e o f Beowulf' s total career , an d not merel y th e consequenc e o f hi s decisio n to mee t th e drago n i n singl e encounter. O u r interpretatio n migh t b e metaphoricall y focuse d b y means o f t w o phrase s w h i c h th e poe t applie s t o Beowulf , and w h i c h seem i n ou r o p i n i o n to sugges t certai n point s o f resemblanc e betwee n B e o w u l f an d th e dragon . A t lin e 242 2 th e poe t tell s us tha t th e fat e wa s very clos e w h i c h shoul d com e t o see k Beowulf' s 'sawle h o r d ' ; an d a t line 279 1 f , w h e n Wigla f return s t o atten d th e d y i n g king, a 'worde s o r d ' 37

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broke throug h Beowulf' s ' b r e o s t h o r d . ' L i k e th e dragon , th e her o i s a hoarder. H i s soul's hoar d consist s o f th e riche s o f heroism , th e hero' s power an d charisma , hi s abilit y t o h o l d a warband togethe r b y hi s prow ess, generosity , courage , an d shinin g example. Theoretically , this shoul d communicate itsel f t o hi s peopl e an d q u i c k e n al l their solidar y institutions. B u t actuall y hi s singula r power s ar e no t c o m m u n i c a b l e t o ordi nary m e n ; failin g t o provid e hi s retainer s w i t h th e nee d (an d therefor e ability) t o reciprocate , hi s ' e a c e n ' spiri t produces a n enervatin g i m balance i n the socia l bond s tha t h o l d th e Geat s together . Strange resonance s b i n d th e t w o o l d hoarders togethe r eve n a s the y differentiate them . E a c h i s a solitar y ' w e a r d , ' a n o l d guardian wis e i n winters (2209 , 2277) , B e o w u l f a n 'e|>elweard, ' 'folce s w e a r d , ' an d ' ^ e o d c y n i n g ' (2210 , 2 5 1 3 , 2694) , th e drago n a ' h o r d w e a r d ' (e.g . 2293 ) and 'jseodsceaáa ' (2688) . A n o t h e r ' h o r d w e a r d , ' Hrothga r (1047) , pre dicts tha t B e o w u l f w i l l becom e a goo d ' h o r d w e a r d ' (1852 ) o f th e Gea t treasure. A t lin e 227 3 f th e drago n i s describe d a s a ' n a c o d ' night-flie r 'fyre befangen . ' At lin e 258 5 B e o w u l f i s faile d b y hi s wa r blade , ' n a c o d aet niáe, ' an d a s a resul t h e w h o befor e ha d ' f o l c e w e o l d ' was 'fyr e be fongen.' (2595 ) W e read th e ' n a c o d ' a t 227 3 metaphoricall y a s ' u n sheathed. ' Th e drago n take s th e ai r a t nigh t an d burn s w h e n h e flies, his barro w i s his hall , hi s ' h o r d w y n n ' (2270 ) hi s hall-joy . U n l i ke Gren del, h e i s not describe d a s a predato r bu t remain s sheathe d (an d sleep ing) u n t i l disturbe d i n his barrow , a t w h i c h p o i n t h e become s ho t an d fierce-hearted, an d exult s i n th e though t o f war , a n enem y o f livin g m e n . B e o w u l f to o wa s lik e this , h e awaite d wha t fat e brough t h i m an d sought n o treacherou s quarrel s (273 6 ff) ; his swor d was ' n a c o d ae t niáe, ' unsheathed i n response t o h o s t i l i t y but no t otherwise . I n deat h th e tw o lie sid e b y side , an d afte r deat h a curiou s interchang e i s suggested : th e dragon i s pushed int o th e water y depth s i n w h i ch B e o w u l f h a d bee n s o m u c h a t hom e — his elemen t — and Beowulf , n ow a barrow-dweller , is consumed b y th e dragon' s element . W h y thes e correspondences , w h i c h sugges t tha t th e drago n ma y i n some manne r b e th e doubl e a s w e l l a s th e antithesi s o f th e hero ? Be y o n d thei r connectio n w i t h hoarding , w e hav e n o answer . W e migh t speculate, however , tha t i t ha s somethin g t o d o w i t h th e them e o f ob l i v i o n . T h e drago n i s an ancien t 'uhtsceaáa ' (2271) , w h i c h c o u l d mea n ' a n enem y o f th e d a w n ' (a s w e l l a s th e mor e usua l translation , 'enem y at d a w n ' ) : h e preside s ove r th e ' l a f ' o f dea d societies , keep s the m un used an d forgotte n i n darkness. A s Irving has suggested, hi s h o a r d con tains object s w h i c h embod y th e custom s an d institution s o f heroi c so 38

3 9

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ciety: cups , rings , helmets, an d a gol d standar d (2760b-9a) , synecdoche s of hall-joys , h o n o ur an d reciprocity , p r o t e c t i on an d attack . T h e symbol ic valu e tha t glint s fro m th e hoard-object s suggest s thos e activitie s whos e ' e d w e n d e n ' lead s inevitabl y t o w a rd th e k i n d o f confusio n an d break d o w n stresse d throughou t par t II. W h e n th e drago n i s aroused, hi s rag e 'is directe d unselectivel y agains t . . . whateve r lives . H e obliterate s men , halls an d all . ' H e preside s ove r an d sustain s th e o b l i v i o n o f tha t w h i c h has bee n obliterated . N o names , n o famou s heroes , ar e connecte d t o hi s hoarded ' l a f . ' T h e dragon' s hoar d i s collective, whereas Beowulf' s is singular. It ma y b e tha t th e drago n himself , emergin g fro m tha t welte r o f institutional confusions , condense s the m int o hi s m y t h i c an d monstrou s form, m a k i n g them rip e fo r heroi c disposal . He ma y b e l i n k e d t o th e fate tha t settle s d o w n o n o l d societies . T h e oblivio n an d fat e B e o w u l f fights migh t the n b e tha t w h i c h threaten s hi s o w n people . B u t hi s battl e is necessaril y i n vain, sinc e th e fat e o f th e Geat s emerge s a s m u c h fro m his o w n breast-hoar d a s fro m th e dragon' s barrow . H i s o wn riche s ar e blessed/cursed n o les s tha n thos e guarde d b y th e dragon . Becaus e th e dragon kill s B e o w u l f , the Geat s w i l l n o longe r b e abl e t o surviv e as a people; th e treasur e w i l l no t b e recirculated . Becaus e B e o w u l f kill s th e dragon, th e Geat s w i l l escap e o b l i v i o n . B u t the y w i l l b e remembere d o n l y fo r B e o w u l f . His glory i s th e bes t an d o n l y ' l a f the y besto w o n the future ; their s i s consumed i n his; along w i th th e treasure , thei r fu ture lie s in his barrow . Thu s i n the specia l sense define d b y th e meaning s of thi s p o e m , th e hauntin g refrai n o f Deor permeate s th e desolat e w o r l d of th e Geats : 'f>ae s ofereode ; |>isse s swa maeg . ' 4 1

C O D A : T H E BEOWULF

POET A N D T H E BARROW

There ar e thre e barrow s i n Beowulf. T h e dragon' s i s one. T h e hero' s i s the second . T h e p o e m i s th e t h i r d . The drago n i s a doom-sitter , hi s bar row o b l i v i o n , hi s hoar d th e golde n an d rustin g artifact s o f dea d societies . The poet' s time-caliper s spa n a thousan d year s i n part II, and i n thi s per spective th e d o o m o f whol e people s an d way s o f lif e i s the sa d an d cen tral theme . I t ma y see m dry , academic , an d anachronisti c t o spea k o f this a s a n institutiona l d o o m, bu t fro m anothe r standpoin t tha t onl y increases th e sadness . L o o k i n g back , w e se e tha t m e n ar e trappe d b y th e order the y hav e made . T h e w o r l d o f h u m a n artific e include s no t o n l y swords, cups , standards , an d halls , but als o kingrou p an d comitatus, good an d evil , gift-givin g an d honour-seeking , marriage , raid , an d feud ,

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and suc h role s a s hero , k i n g , an d monster . T h e * edwenden, ' th e doubl e b i n d , produce d b y th e c o m p l e x interactio n o f thes e structure s an d pro cesses i s bewildering in appearance bu t sur e i n its d o o m . T h e splendi d thing s me n d o — their consciou s act s o f heroi c w i l l , en durance, an d generosit y — they d o i n the settin g o f thi s d o o m , an d against it s drift , ye t u l t i m a t e l y , u n w i t t i n g l y, in its behalf . Sinc e thei r social orde r i s not th e produc t o f consciou s artifice , but i s th e non conscious o r 'crescive ' w o rk o f generation s o f culture , m e n experienc e it a s par t o f th e realit y w h i c h appear s t o the m t o b e given , grim, an d un alterable. T h e y ca n o n l y , as Hrothga r does , giv e ethical counse l an d tr y to ac t accordin g to th e norm s an d value s p r i z e d by heroi c consciousness . Y e t thes e ver y act s an d norm s an d value s an d consciousnes s hav e th e d o o m wove n int o the m an d brin g it o n . O u r m o d e r n sadnes s i s not quit e that o f th e earl y Englis h poet : h e doe s no t spea k o f institution s a s if they wer e 'artifacts ' o f h u m a n cultur e transpose d int o reality . F o r h im they ar e no t th e Frankenstein' s monster s tha t ou r institution s hav e seemed t o becom e durin g th e las t thre e o r fou r centuries . A n d yet — as we hop e w e hav e demonstrate d — h e clearl y locates th e d o o m i n th e processes o f socia l orde r an d just a s clearl y show s tha t hi s character s ar e baffled b y this , tha t thei r institution s conspir e t o diver t thei r attentio n b y misleadin g symptoms an d solutions . I t i s the poe t w h o present s u s w i t h a n old-tim e w o r l d i n w h i ch th e institutiona l d o om i s no les s ap parent an d n o les s rea l tha n th e d o o m e d monsters . T h e movemen t fro m par t I t o par t II w h i ch Irvin g has s o w e l l des c r i b e d strongl y suggest s th e w o r k i n g of thi s patter n o f 'edwenden . ' T o centre attentio n o n Hrothgar , H e o r o t , B e o w u l f , and th e monster s i s t o stress h u m an skil l an d c o n t r o l , the excellenc e o f wha t m e n d o an d make, thei r ultimat e conques t ove r th e force s o f evil . T h e treatmen t i n part I is, figuratively, spatial: th e monster s ar e ' o u t there, ' th e F i n n epi sode i s not o n l y l o n g ago bu t als o elsewhere , an d H e r e m o d i s s o exem plary a s t o b e timeless . E x c e p t fo r occasiona l ominous asides , mos t evil s are o f th e past , w h i c h i s itsel f consoling , but the y ar e presen t i n th e p o e m a s analogie s o r antithese s visualize d in som e spatia l o r quasi-logical relation t o th e brigh t centr e o f Danis h life. T h e effec t o f th e transitiona l section — from th e en d o f Hrothgar' s sermo n t o th e beginnin g o f par t II (1789b-2199) — is t o intensif y forebodin g b y orientin g us t o w a r d th e future. T h e p o e m look s ahea d i n tim e a t threatenin g possibilitie s in ex isting arrangements : th e possibilit y of enmit y betwee n Geat s an d Danes , Hrothgar's p r e m o n i t i o n tha t h e w i l l no t se e B e o w u l f again , th e lon g ac count o f th e Dane s an d Heatho-Bard s w h i c h occupie s nearl y a t h i r d o f 42

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Beowulf's repor t t o Hygelac . His final touchin g word s t o Hygela c ('i c l y t haf o / heafodmag a ne f ne, Hygelac , áec,' 2 1 5 0 b - l ) anticipat e a cluster o f theme s i n part II: hi s childlessnes s an d solitar y nature , th e deso late an d sparsel y inhabite d landscape , th e deat h o f o l d m e n, los s o f sons , and k i l l i n g o f k i n s m e n . In par t II these theme s ar e caugh t u p i n th e dens e interweavin g of var ious Gea t feud s w h i c h cove r ove r tw o generation s an d w h i c h — through the poet' s repetition , amplification , narrative dislocation , and vivi d des c r i p t i o n — produce th e imag e o f a n embattle d societ y o n th e edg e of chaos. I t i s a s i f the l u r k i n g danger s swep t unde r th e ru g o f H e o r o t ha d b r o k e n loos e i n Geatland t o envelo p Beowulf' s people. T h e predicamen t is generalize d b y th e arriva l o f th e dragon , an d th e dramati c increas e i n the poem' s tim e scale : th e d o o m threaten s no t o n l y th e Geat s bu t al l societies founde d o n th e value s an d accomplishment s w h i c h B e o w u l f and th e dragon , i n their differen t ways , hoard . Tha t thi s d o o m i s th e product an d no t merel y th e fat e o f heroi c societ y ha s bee n show n b y Irving i n th e on e passag e i n w h i ch h e clearl y defines th e accountabilit y of heroi c institutions , his stud y o f th e battl e o f R a v e n s w o o d . Irving note s ther e tha t 'a s th e k i n d o f heroi c achievemen t tha t Beo­ wulfRepresents near s it s en d i n B e o w u l f 's o wn death , th e k i n d o f self destructiveness th e feud s represen t — the negativ e sid e o f th e heroi c ideal — comes int o cleare r an d cleare r focus . ' A t Ravenswood , 43

as everywher e i n th e p o e m , w e ca n perceiv e th e centra l tragi c fac t about th e societ y tha t heroi c poetr y reflects : tha t i n its ver y strengt h and beauty , i n it s cohesiv e loyaltie s and allegiances , li e inevitable for ces o f destructio n an d anarchy . Hygelac' s action i n h o n o r i ng th e slay ers o f Ongentheo w i s impeccable heroi c etiquette , ye t i t plant s th e seeds o f disaster ; th e greate r th e Geatis h t r i u m p h , th e mor e violen t the predictabl e vengefu l reactio n o n th e par t o f th e Swedes . L i k e th e story o f Finnsburg , the accoun t o f th e battl e o f R a v e n s w o o d has a n ostensibly happ y ending , but b o t h storie s ar e fundamentall y tragi c prophecies i n thei r c o n t e x t s . 44

The 'centra l tragi c fact ' i s generalized b y a featur e o f part II w h i c h rea ders o f th e p o e m hav e alway s n o t i c e d : th e m y t h i c a l or t y p i c a l qualit y produced b y th e applicatio n of animal-name s t o person s an d places . Irving view s the anima l theme a s symbolizin g th e failur e o f c o n t r o l : th e fighters i n R a v e n s w o o d ar e

70 Harry Berger, J r / H . Marshall Leicester, J r

released fro m an y burde n o f rationa l choic e o r self-disciplin e b y th e animal necessit y o f survival . B r o u g h t t o bay , the y figh t lik e animals . . . . T w o men name d W o l f an d Boa r dra g d o w n th e might y Ongentheo w in th e W o o d o f th e Ravens , an d th e Messenger' s speec h end s w i t h a dialogue betwee n Rave n and E a g l e , 45

a dialogu e i n w h i ch R a v e n mentions th e co-operatio n o f W o l f i n de spoiling futur e Gea t bodies . Immediatel y afte r th e messenger' s speech , the Geat s g o t o th e foo t o f Eagl e C l i f f t o gaz e o n th e bodie s o f B e o w u l f and th e dragon . W o o d an d clif f j o i n th e bird s i n becoming symbols of battle an d devourer s o f carrion . T he messenge r foresee s n o sco p i n th e future excep t th e raven , n o audienc e excep t th e eagle . B u t rave n an d eagle, w o o d an d clif f ar e no t merel y agent s o f cosmi c fate . A s symbol s of battl e an d deat h the y ar e consequence s o f socia l forces , th e reci pients o f meaning s generate d b y h u m a n ' l a f . ' A n d the penetratio n o f animal bein g i n to th e h u m a n w o r l d signifie s not onl y deat h b u t als o o b l i v i o n . Eagl e an d rave n ar e tributarie s o f th e dragon . Beneat h th e he roic self-assertio n o f grea t lord s an d warrior s w o r ks th e anonymou s 'ed wenden ' threatenin g the m w i t h th e namelessnes s o f carrio n in a tim e when ther e w i l l b e n o mor e companion s t o collect , embarrow, an d re member th e dead , o n l y animal s t o despoi l them . The dragon' s arriva l thre e hundre d year s ag o i n Geat territor y i s a prophetic sig n o f thi s genera l an d anonymou s fate . H e wait s an d sleep s u n t i l hi s m o m e n t comes . Tha t m o m e n t i s itsel f significant , and deserve s our attention , becaus e i t reinforce s th e them e o f socia l b r e a k d o w n an d a n o n y m i t y . I t i s brought abou t b y a c o m b i n a t i o n of acciden t an d symp toms o f socia l stress . A slav e (o r captive ) stumble d o n th e hoar d ('Neal les m i d gewealdum . . . sylfe s w i l l u m ' ) whil e fleein g from hi s lord' s 'hete swengeas' (2221-4) . T h e poe t describe s h i m a s ' h y g e g i o m o r ' (2408 ) an d ' s y n b y s i g ' (2226) ; D o n a l d s o n translates th e latte r a s * guilty o f wrongd o i n g ' (39) , bu t i t m a y als o mea n 'distresse d b y (another's ) h o s t i l i t y or crime. ' He i s first calle d a thie f (2219 ) bu t late r th e poe t say s o f hi s suc cessful escap e w i t h th e cup , ' S o ma y a n u n d o o m e d ma n w h o hold s favor fro m th e R u l e r easil y come throug h hi s woe s an d m i s e r y . ' (2291 3) Th e indefinit e reference s t o th e ma n (twic e specifie d by th e ter m ' n a t h w y l c ' ) , hi s a n o n y m i t y ye t narrativ e importance , assum e a choric dimension. Question s o f prais e an d blame , guil t an d innocenc e n o w ap pear mor e c o m p l e x an d mor e irrelevant . Whether th e slav e i s guilty o r not other s w i l l suffe r th e consequence s o f hi s theft . H e steal s th e cu p t o bring hi s maste r a peace-pledge ('friof>owaere, ' 2282) , an d whateve r th e

T h e Limits of Heroism in Beowulf

71

cause o f th e breac h th e generalize d sens e o f straine d socia l relation s i s only increase d b y hi s insignificanc e and a n o n y m i t y . A s one o f thos e w h o accompan y B e o w u l f , his reluctanc e t o retur n t o th e barro w antici pates th e cowardic e o f th e others . Thi s nameless man' s resonanc e deep ens a s w e l o o k a t h i m , for h e become s a figur e o f m a n i n th e societ y w h i c h B e o w u l f ha s ' h e o l d ' fo r fift y year s — a figur e o f socia l m a n shrinking i n th e shado w o f o b l i v i o n . W h e n B e o w u l f firs t learn s o f th e dragon h e blame s himself , t h i n k i n g he ha d i n som e wa y angere d G o d b y offending 'ofe r eald e r i h t . ' (2330 ) B u t onc e agai n th e ethica l concer n i s irrelevant; a t tha t leve l h e find s ou t tha t i t wa s no t hi s fault . I t i s 'hi s fault ' o n l y a t th e deepe r leve l t o w h i c h praise , blame , an d ethica l con sciousness d o no t penetrate . The poe t lay s bare i n part II what h e ha d persistentl y h i n t e d a t i n par t I — that m e n suffe r th e consequence s o f th e dilemma s inheren t i n th e dynamic o f thei r institution s — and show s tha t althoug h everyon e per ceives an d feel s thes e consequences , th e o n l y wa y the y ca n cop e w i t h them i s to continu e behaving , t h i n k i n g , and judging according to th e very norm s b y w h i c h the y ar e bein g destroyed . B e o w u l f unavoidabl y does th e dragon' s w o r k an d thus , a t hi s death , replace s th e drago n a s embarrowed doom-sitter . Sinc e th e drago n i s dead , hi s barro w defeat s o b l i v i o n . Y e t th e poet' s treatmen t o f th e hero' s buria l most movingl y bathes thi s t r i u m p h i n th e tenebrou s ambivalenc e o f th e secon d part . What h e disclose s i s not quit e th e t r i u m p h tha t Irvin g sees: T h e barro w i s the objectificatio n o f m e m o r y an d a d m o n i t i o n . It i s typical o f thi s hero' s practica l altruis m tha t h e intend s hi s grav e t o b e a landmar k an d a n ai d t o navigation . B ut i t i s t o b e a n ai d t o m o r a l navigation a s w e l l . . . . T h e Geatis h sailor s o n th e dar k se a o f th e w o r l d . . . w i l l orien t themselve s b y th e nam e an d stor y o f B e o w u l f . 46

B u t Beowulf' s words plac e th e emphasi s o f th e purpos e claus e no t o n th e ships drive n ove r th e mist s o f th e sea s but o n th e sailors ' recognition of his barrow : '|>ae t hit saeliáen d syááa n hata n / Biowulfe s b i o r h ' (2806-7). A n d later th e poe t merel y note s tha t i t wa s '(wae)gliáendu m wide g(e)syne ' (3158) . Neithe r B e o w u l f no r th e poe t e x p l i c i t l y stresse s its navigationa l function bu t rathe r it s characte r a s a 'wide-seen ' me m o r i a l . H i s emphasis, an d tha t o f hi s peopl e i n the fina l line s o f th e p o e m , is o n th e hero' s marke r place d hig h i n everyone' s view , a beaco n o f inestimable brightnes s speakin g o f wha t ha s passed : 'J)ae s ofereode; pisse s swa maeg . ' A nd if, as Irvin g rightly observes, w e ar e ' w a t c h i n g th e fu -

72 Harry Berger, J r / H . Marshall Leicester, J r

neral o f a n entir e nation , ' i f the Geat s themselve s ar e righ t i n sensin g tha t their dea d k i n g presage s 'th e fac t o f thei r o w n death, ' the n th e provisio n of navigationa l aid t o Geatis h sailor s — nautical o r m o r a l — i s hardly t o the p o i n t . I f thi s i s what B e o w u l f intend s b y th e p u z z l i n g phras e ' t o g e m y n d u m m i n u m l e o d u m ' (2804) , hi s goo d i n t e n t i o n w i l l b e thwar ted, just lik e hi s wis h t o distribut e treasure , b y hi s u n w i t t i n g contribut i o n t o th e dragon' s w o r k o f d o o m . Th e barro w beam s fort h int o th e darkness t o announc e hi s deat h t o Franks , Frisians , and others , an d i n that sens e to o i t ma y stan d a s a n omen , perhap s a cause , o f th e nation' s funeral. Beowulf's funera l itsel f i s divide d int o t w o parts , crematio n an d bur ial, an d move s fro m a lamen t ove r th e effect s produce d b y th e fier y dra gon t o a sorrowfu l but mor e positiv e eulog y t o th e hero . B u r n i n g hi s bonehouse, th e Geat s lamen t 'thei r heart-care , th e deat h o f thei r lieg e l o r d , ' an d th e Geatis h w o m a n prophesie s ' invasions o f armies , man y slaughters, terro r o f troops , h u m i l i a t i o n , and captivity . ' T h a t th e poe t immediately adds , 'Heave n swallowe d the s m o k e , ' ma y b e mean t t o suggest th e fulfilmen t o f he r dir e p r e d i c t i o n . T en day s later , afte r build ing th e m o u n d , twelv e warrior s circl e i t singin g dirges. T h e y ' m o u r n their k i n g ' an d 'spea k o f th e m a n , ' praisin g his ' e o r l s c i p e , ' ' e l l e n w e o r c , ' and 'duguá. ' F i n a l l y , the y sa y tha t h e wa s o f ' w y r u l d c y n i n g ( a ) ' th e 'mildest o f m e n an d th e gentlest , kindes t t o hi s p e o p l e , ' an d 'lofgeor nost,' ' m o s t eage r fo r f a m e ' (3171-8 2 [ 5 5 ] ) . T h e i r eulogy move s bac k and fort h betwee n th e k i n g an d th e hero , bu t end s firml y fixe d o n th e latter. Th e poe t approve s thei r act s (3174-7) , ye t th e p o e m end s i n indirect discours e w i t h th e poe t paraphrasin g thei r words , no t quit e allow ing thei r perspectiv e full y t o fus e w i t h his . In hi s o w n conclusion , Irving observes tha t th e crematio n w i t h it s accompanying 'realizatio n of annihilatio n . .. mus t remai n subordinat e to th e intens e an d unswervin g focus o f attentio n o n B e o w u l f . ' A n d h e comments a s follow s o n th e ton e o f th e fina l lines : The Geat s m o u r n th e passin g o f thei r king , bu t i n words tha t ris e t o something clos e t o t r i u m p h , i n praises ou t o f th e hear t o f lov e tha t p o i n t t o Beowulf' s o wn affectionat e an d k i n d nature . T o th e exten t to w h i c h the y ca n courageousl y fac e thei r o w n destruction , the y w i l l draw thei r courag e an d thei r dignit y fro m thei r lov e fo r thei r dea d k i n g , th e incarnatio n o f th e heroi c spiri t an d th e radian t cente r o f the p o e m . 4 7

T h e Limits of Heroism in Beowulf

73

A l l true ; an d ye t ther e i s something else, sinc e th e heroi c spiri t ha s other, darke r avatar s i n the p o e m , an d indirectl y th e Geat s dra w thei r courage an d dignit y fro m th e sourc e o f thei r destruction . It i s not ex actly tha t th e dua l structur e o f th e ritua l constitute s a k i nd o f heroi c o r stoic evasion ; they ma y b e sai d t o flinch fro m th e spectr e o f annihila t i o n an d clin g t o th e o n l y ' l a f the y ca n expec t t o bequeat h th e future , the hero' s ' l o f . ' B u t a more cautiou s appraisa l is that thei r desperat e fixing o f th e eye s o n th e barro w i s simpl y th e othe r sid e o f everything they d o not , cannot , see . What the y canno t se e i s the dee p doom-structur e w h i c h th e poe t re veals t o us . Assuredl y h e share s thei r feelin g an d joins the m i n the sen timents o f w h i c h h e approves . B u t between hi s sens e o f th e occasio n and theirs lie s th e whol e of Beowulf as a p o e m. L i k e thei r eulogy , the poe m is a n ac t o f c o m m e m o r a t i o n . That is , it i s in part a ritua l burial , a n em barrowing o f th e hero . M o r e effectivel y tha n th e m o u r n i n g Geats, thi s poet ha s t o l d a tal e t o thwar t th e rave n a s wel l a s th e dragon . I f Beo wulf's barro w send s it s message acros s th e seas , eve n acros s J u t l a nd t o England, th e poet' s literar y barrow transmit s i t acros s time . B e o w u l f himself leave s littl e b e h i n d . Heroes an d thei r societie s p r o p el themselve s toward som e inevitabl e grave an d thei r ' l a f — cursed o r useless , golde n or rust y — remains t o haun t th e soul s o f children , romantics , and an tiquaries i n later times . It i s the sco p w h o revive s the heroi c image , pol ishes an d preserve s it , clean s awa y rus t an d restore s i t t o late r c o m m u n ities b o t h a s exampl e an d a s warning. There i s a strang e m o m e n t nea r th e en d o f th e p o e m w h e n th e poet , who otherwis e approve s th e heroi c burial , briefl y abandon s tha t attitud e to c o m m e n t o n th e o l d treasure: '|>ae r hit n u ge n lifa á / e l d u m sw a unn y t , sw a hi(t aero) r waes. ' (3167b-8 ) Ther e i t ' n o w stil l lives, ' useles s to men . Th e emphati c ' n u g e n ' directl y connect s th e pas t ac t o f buria l w i t h th e presen t o f th e poe t an d hi s audience . ' L i fa i ' i s not merel y th e neutral ' d w e l l s , ' a s D o n a l d s o n translates it ; as i f it onl y sleeps , th e trea sure stil l ha s life , ma y stil l b e revive d an d restore d t o men . A n d since the hero' s ashe s ar e mingle d w i t h th e treasure , perhap s th e phras e ma y be extende d t o B e o w u l f . Doe s th e poe t mea n tha t B e o w u l f an d th e trea sure ar e useles s becaus e the y can' t b e unearthed , tha t thei r o n l y us e wa s i n life , an d tha t G o d (the tru e k i n g o f victories) has no t appointe d on e fit t o uneart h an d reviv e them? I f so , th e buria l i s being criticized be cause somethin g important t o m e n i s being denied the m n o w — perhaps the imag e o f heroic consciousnes s an d it s undeniable virtue s a s a work-

74 Harry Berger, J r / H . Marshall Leicester, J r

able idea l w h i c h hard-presse d contemporarie s migh t d o w e l l t o emulate . O r doe s th e poe t mea n tha t B e o w u l f an d th e treasur e w o u l d b e useles s to m e n i f unearthed, an d therefor e ha d bette r remai n buried? I f so , th e burial i s important becaus e th e hero' s soul-hoar d and th e ' l a f ' o f o ld societies ar e finall y useles s i n their origina l f o r m . T h e y canno t b e re stored t o livin g m e n unles s the y ar e significantl y altered . T h e poet' s ambivalen t attitud e t o w a r d heroi c societ y suggest s tha t w e combine thes e t w o responses . W e said earlie r tha t th e sco p revive s th e heroic image , but 'revives ' insufficiently describe s hi s act . H e revises th e image, see s it ane w an d see s it differently . To u s th e p o e m convey s a n implicit message : tha t th e her o ma y perfor m hi s most usefu l socia l func t i o n no t i n his ' h i s t o r i c a l ' bu t i n his literary role — not durin g his lif e but afte r hi s deat h i n the w o r k o f th e scop . If thi s echoe s th e sentiment , the hope , share d b y th e Geat s an d thei r 'lofgeornost ' l o r d , th e negation s expressed i n th e previou s sentenc e cas t i t i n a very differen t light . Beo wulf, th e dragon , Grendel , an d H e o r o t ar e ' w u n d o r l i c ' no t merel y i n th e manner o f o l d legends an d fair y tales ; thi s very qualit y lends the m th e more fata l attractio n o f dragongold , of th e gif t tha t m a y becom e poison . F o r wha t doe s i t mea n t o ' u n e a r t h ' Beowulf , wha t o r w h o i s being unearthed, wha t ca n he d o fo r us , o r t o us ? A s a primitiv e an d uncann y figur e (th e bear-son) , h e seem s les s a n his torical personag e tha n a creatur e o f th e fol k imagination , whil e a s her o he i s more ideal , a better an d pure r exampl e o f th e heroi c etho s tha n figures w h o , lik e Hygela c an d Hrothgar , ar e presumptivel y more histor ical. I n hi s caree r throug h th e p o e m h e move s fro m th e firs t o f thes e qualities t o th e second , b e c o m i ng more h u m a n an d fallible , mor e ' m i l d e ' and 'liáe ' — the potentiall y dangerous outside r w h o firs t confront s Hrothgar is , by th e en d o f th e p o e m , domesticate d int o a beloved cul ture hero . T a m i n g tha t wildness , like conquerin g G r e n d e l, i s exchanging bad dream s fo r good . Of what us e i s it t o brin g fort h suc h dream s fro m the earth , o r fro m th e fol k imaginatio n w i th it s p o w e r f ul longing fo r mystery, terror , beauty , an d peace ? B e o w u l f appease s th e fol k longing ; his strang e bu t consolin g image answer s th e drea d an d passivity , dispels the ennui , that gav e ris e t o it . A drea m o f B e o w u l f migh t rela x an d ener vate th e poet' s audienc e just a s B e o w u l f unstrun g th e Geat s an d H r o t h gar th e Danes . Betwee n the sco p an d hi s subjec t matter , betwee n th e audience an d th e p o e m , reciprocit y has t o b e possible . The sco p reciprocates b y revising , an d w e reciprocat e b y remainin g alert, refusin g t o b e lulled b y th e heroi c dream , listenin g attentively fo r th e sound s o f d o o m w o r k i n g w i t h i n th e socia l order .

The Limits of Heroism in Beowulf

75

This interpretiv e reciprocit y distinguishes ou r relatio n t o th e Beowulf poet fro m th e relatio n o f th e Dane s t o Hrothgar' s scop . T h e Beowulf poet seem s t o shar e w i t h hi s Danis h scop th e i n c l i n a t i o n as w e l l a s th e ability t o tel l a stor y o f time s fa r off , a strang e stor y t o l d i n accordanc e w i t h wha t i s right o r customar y ('reht e aefte r r i h t e , ' 2 1 1 0 ) , a stor y w h i c h migh t pleas e a n o l d k i ng b y harkin g back t o th e way s o f y o u t h and battle-glory . Y e t th e magneti c influenc e exercise d b y th e her o yearning forwar d o n th e audienc e yearnin g pastward ma y b e wors e tha n useless i f the tal e doe s no t a t th e sam e tim e depic t th e * soi o n d sarli c ' contradictions i n heroic society . We ar e no t t o respon d t o Beowulf as the Dane s responde d t o th e tal e o f F i n n , an d perhap s to o w e ar e t o tak e note o f th e omission s tha t deceptivel y illuminat e the scop' s tal e o f th e t r i u m p h o f Sigemund . By what h e reveal s i n his p o e m , th e Beowulf poet offers u s a vie w o f th e sco p an d hi s functio n w h i c h contrast s w i t h tha t w h i c h h e ascribe s t o th e sco p i n heroic society . We might sa y tha t h e contains w i t h i n himsel f th e impulse s o f th e heroi c sco p a s th e innocen t heart o f hi s o w n mor e sophisticate d an d self-consciou s activity , that th e p o e m b y givin g ful l pla y t o thos e impulse s arouse s an d the n temper s them i n its audience , an d tha t i n thi s wa y th e heroi c pas t i s b o th glori fied an d exorcised , b o th celebrate d an d embarrowed , w i t h i n th e 'vicar ious ' boundarie s o f literar y experience . A s one o f th e institution s o f heroic society , th e rol e o f th e sco p share s i n th e fundamenta l ambi valence attendan t o n feastin g an d hall-joys . T he Beowulf poet embodie s in hi s p o e m a revise d version o f tha t rol e b y centrin g o n th e ambivalenc e w h i c h th e w o r k o f th e heroi c sco p tend s t o ignore .

NOTES T h e authors wish to express their gratitude to Professor E d w a r d B. Irving, J r , who read the essay and made many helpful suggestions b o t h substantive and editorial. 1 A l l passages of text quoted from F r . Klaeber, * Beowulf burg* (3rd ed., Boston 2 Beowulf,

and 'The Fight

at

Finns-

1950)

trans. E . Talbot Donaldson (New Y o r k 1966), 2-3. Future references re­

fer to this translation. 3 R . E . Kaske, Sapientia (

Anthology

of Beowulf

et Fortitudo Criticism,

4 See esp. J o h n Halverson, 'Beowulf 5 A Reading

of 'Beowulf

as the Controlling Theme of Beowulf,

' in An

ed. Lewis E . Nicholson (Notre Dame 1963), 285 ana the Pitfalls of Piety,' UTQ 35 (1966) 260-78.

(New Haven and L o n d o n 1968), 92

76 Harry Berger, J r / H . Marshall Leicester, J r 6 Introduction

(Englewood Cliffs 1969), 23

to 'Beowulf

7 With one exception: the treatment o f the battle o f Ravenswood (cf Irving,

Reading,

189), to be discussed o n pp. 69-70. This statement o f the theme, however, is not expanded to the rest of the poem in an operational manner. 8 ' T h e World of Beowulf','

ELH 36 (1969) 606-8

9 This is because he reads part I of the poem primarily as ' the contrast and conflict of two worlds — inside and outside, the world o f man and the world o f monsters, the world of order and the world o f chaos* (Halverson, ' T h e World o f

Beowulf,'

601). This perspective keeps him from exploring the ways in which the major prob­ lems are 'inside' the world of man, and projected 'outside. * 10 Halverson, ' T h e World of Beowulf",' 11 Irving, Reading,

596-7

90

12 Marshall Sahlins, Tribesmen

(Englewood Cliffs 1968), 7-8

13 T h e inadequacy and instability of unextended kinship organization could be exem­ plified b y our First Parents and their feuding sons, and, more perversely, by the Grendel family (in reference to which the term 'unextended' is a hyperbole). 14 Klaeber (cvii) speculates that line 73 — 'buton folcscare o n d feorum gúmena' — might be a legalistic addition to the text. If so, this may suggest that Hrothgar's eagerness to give was felt b y at least one scribe as extreme and in need of some editorial constraint. 15 In an o d d way, Kaske's mistaken idea that Hrothgar is being accused of insufficient fortitudo

(cf note 3 above) supports our opinion because it presupposes that the

aggressive and contentious spirit is essential to survival in the Germanic world, and that it is not to be confused with prideful self-assertion. But Hrothgar does not simply depend o n 'kingly munificence' as one of the 'indifferent substitutes' for the fortitudo

he lacks: as we have just tried to demonstrate, he embraces it aggres­

sively as a constructive mode of expression, at once glorifying himself, strengthen­ ing his dynasty and comitatus,

and benefitting others. Hence his liberality — as we

shall show — is the cause of ensuing violence rather than an ineffective defence against it. 16 Trans. Ian Cunnison (New Y o r k 1967), 72-3 17 T h e only use in the p o e m of the relatively rare word, ' l e o n ' ('lend'), occurs at line 1456, when Unferth ' l a h ' his sword to Beowulf. But the general expectation of 'lean' ('reward'), and the convention of recompense, 'leanian,' makes every gift a loan. 18 In emphasizing Beowulf's tact and courtesy, Irving (Reading,

53 ff) seems to us to

slight the way this section of the poem is structured to bring out the more aggres­ sive but certainly conventional features of 'beot' and counter-'beot. ' 19 Donaldson, 20. T h e verbal dual between Beowulf and Unferth is later followed b y the loan and return of Hrunting. A l t h o u g h superficially this seems to signify a truce

The Limits of Heroism in Beowulf

77

to their bickering, the way b o t h loan and return are described (1455 ff and 1807 ff) strongly suggests that the one-sided contest is being continued in the more positive expressive forms of prestation. 20 Irving, R eading,

131

21 T h e Danish coastguard's challenge to the landing Geats early in the p o e m drama­ tizes the uneasy watchfulness of Hrothgar's people, and tells us the Danes have po­ tential enemies overseas. See especially 240 ff. 22 Irving puts this well, though he makes something else o f it: 'what Grendel seems to represent is a rather complex objectification of antiheroic and antisocial forces in­ timately related by opposition to the positive heroic and social values o f the p o e m , especially as they are embodied in the hero himself.' (Introduction,

48) This stresses

his function as a counter-exemplum — like H e r e m o d — which may be the way the Danes view h i m . O u r emphasis is less o n mere objectification than on allegorical dis­ placement of the evil. B o t h sides of Hrothgar's activity — giving and taking — are compressed into the word first used to describe his generous intention, 'gedaelan,' which appears three times in the poem with two different meanings: to distribute, divide, and share out treasure (71); to sever, as when Grendel mentally 'gedaelde' the men in the hall, hoping to divide lives from bodies (731); and, again, to sever, as when the dragonfate approached Beowulf to seek his 'sawle h o r d ' and 'gedaelan / lif with lice' (24223), dividing that treasure not to share it out but to keep it from use. 23 O n Beowulf's singular and uncanny quality, see p. 59 ff. 24 That is, lines 170-88, where the Danes* turning in despair to hell and the 'gastbona' is described in such a way as to suggest a Grendelian state: cf the later passages des­ cribing Grendel's death (756, 805 ff, 844 ff, 1002 ff). Their sacrifices and inability to praise G o d may echo passages about the Babylonians in Daniel

but they may also

call to m i n d the unacceptable offering of Cain — an ideological if not a verbal ana­ logue. 25 Kaske, 280 26 In context this epithet is immediately proleptic in effect, but it also strikes us as generally descriptive. 27 C f Irving, Reading,

93 f, 96, 111.

28 F o r example, the Danish scop's praise of Beowulf developed as a contrast between the good dragon-killer Sigemund and the evil H e r e m o d . T h e point of Beowulf's con­ nection with the former is apparently, for the scop and the Danes, that b o t h are slayers of monsters. Just which of the elements of the enormously complex Sigemund-Volsung-Sigfrid-Nibelung saga the poet could have expected his audience to know we cannot say, but we may assume that the juxtaposition with Heremod controls the area of reference, and what we then notice is that by concentrating on the difference in ' l o f between the two exemplars the scop slides over the similar-

78 Harry Berger, J r / H . Marshall Leicester, J r ities in their ends in darkness and betrayal. T h o u g h passing and unfocused reference is made to the wider context of Sigemund's tangled career (Waels, Fitela and 'ellendaedum uncuáes felá' [876] ) the scop's focus makes what is traditionally the begin­ ning of the hero's great deeds sound like the culmination of them, and therefore conspicuously excludes the darker elements o f kinstrife, the curse o n the hoard, etc, that were his later fate. 29

129, 640, 703, 729, 741, 1251, 1280, 1580, and less directly, 85 (which suggests that the feud-rage between Hrothgar and Ingeld still sleeps)

30 It is interesting that among the possible etymologies for ' Grendel ' which Klaeber lists (xxviii f), one derives f r o m * g r a n d , ' ('sand,' ' b o t t o m [ground] o f a b o d y of 4

water*). T h e other possibilities — ' g r i n d , ' 'evil,' ' b o l t ' or 'bar,' and ' s t o r m ' or 'bel­ low ' — may be combined with the first in a Spenserian mock-etymology to suggest the darker characteristics that lie at the root of what it means to be a man: the spirit of contentiousness, the capacity for angry and cruel violence, the dread yet need of others, the pain that erupts in vengeance. These potencies are most fully transformed in the figure o f the hero, but their raw power is occasionally glimpsed. T h e y are less fully transformed in the other institutions of heroic society. 31 That is, as our previous discussion of Grendel suggests, the monster has close con­ nections with the family of man and, more specifically, with the social institutions of the beleaguered Danes. 32 Halverson, ' T h e World of Beowulf,

9

606

33 T h e phrase 'to gemyndum m i n u m l e o d u m ' (2804) is not unambiguous. Beowulf could mean that the barrow will be a memorial for surviving Geats to see when they sail b y . Irving reads it this way (Reading,

233 ff) and Donaldson's translation, 'as a

reminder to m y people' (49), while noncommittal, implies a similar understanding. But the phrase could just as easily be read as a double dative, 'for a memorial to m y people, ' which suggests that Beowulf foresees his barrow as the most enduring monument to the Geatish people after they have perished or dispersed. Even if the hero means the first, the poem ' chooses ' the second meaning. 34 Klaeber, xlvi-viii 35 Beowulf's comments o n the probable d o o m of the Freawaru-Ingeld union have often been praised for their political astuteness. But they might as easily be viewed within the context of his own childlessness, and the lack of reference to any wife or immediate k i n outside of Hygelac and Wiglaf. Perhaps the puzzling reference to O f fa is meant to suggest an 'ideal of kingship' more responsible to the needs of his­ tory, less singular and mythic, than that exemplified in Beowulf's career. O f fa was not only brave in war and gift-giving, widely honoured and wise; he domesticated and redeemed a cruel wife, and left an heir. K e m p Malone was led b y the T h r y t h o Offa vignette to wonder why the poet chose Beowulf rather than Offa as his hero, and decided it was because the poet ' f o u n d spiritual values in Beowulf's monster-

T h e Limits of Heroism in Beowulf

79

quelling which he could not find in Offa's man-[and woman-] quelling.' Malone quaintly remarks that O f fa 'proved master of the situation at home as well as o n the field of battle' ('Beowulf,'

in Nicholson, Anthology,

148-9). These qualities may be

meant to accentuate Beowulf's singularity b y contrast. 3 6 Irving, In tro du et ion,

12

37 See the fine discussion by Irving in Reading,

179-91 and 198-205.

38 Significantly, the only other use of 'breosthord' comes in a reference to another hoarder, H e r e m o d (1719), though once again the irrelevance of the ethical failure of H e r e m o d should be noted. 39 Irving notes that the dragon is described as a stingy king, in contrast to the generous Beowulf (Reading,

209). But again, stinginess as a defect o f will, an ethical failure,

is not the problem, and at the deeper level, where Beowulf and the dragon inter­ change qualities, 'stinginess' might be used as an inept — because ethical — metaphor to describe the inability of the singular hero to communicate or share his breasthoard. 40 Irving, Reading,

208, 232

41 Irving, R eading,

214

42 Irving, Reading,

192 ff

43 Some phrases after Hrothgar's sermon have an ominous ring: the reference to night­ fall (1789b-90), and to the sleeping guest and blithe-hearted raven (1800b-2). Beo­ wulf's careful lie to Unferth sustains the sense of an uneasy atmosphere never fully secure in spite of the hero's triumph. In his report to Hygelac, he amplifies the ac­ count o f Grendel's seizure of the Geatish victim, and his brief image o f Hrothgar stresses the old king's age and nostalgia. In all these ways, the superficial character of the happy ending is framed in darker retrospects and anticipations. 44 Irving, Reading,

179, 189

45 Irving, Reading,

188

46 Irving, Reading,

234

47 Irving, Reading,

245 -6

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ROBERT B. BURLIN

Inner weather and interlace: a note on the semantic value of structure in Beowulf Hengest 3 a gy t waelfagne winte r wunod e m i d Finne eal u n h l i t m e . E a r d gemunde , jseah {> e he n e meaht e o n mer e drifa n hringedstefnan; h o l m storm e w e o l , w o n wi á winde , winte r yf> e belea c isgebinde, oj^áae t o|>e r c o m gear i n geardas, sw a nu gy t dea, |>a á e syngale s sel e bewitiaá , w u l d o r t o r h t a n weder . D a waes winte r scacen , fáan he for wlenco

wean ahsode.' T h e second half-line, ap­

plied elsewhere b y Beowulf to the sea-monsters he dispatched in his y o u t h (425), I take to mean something like 'courted disaster.' 'Wlenco,' however, is difficult to assess. Within the p o e m , it is b o t h unambiguously positive — in Wulfgar's interpretation of the Geats' motives (338) — and either ironic or pejorative — at the beginning o f Unferth's taunt (508). T h e related adjective, 'wlonc,' is clearly positive on three occasions — describing Wulfgar (331), Beowulf (341), and Hygelac

A Note on the Semantic Value of Structure in Beowulf

89

(2953) — but, with a dependent noun, is twice applied to monsters 'glorying i n ' their spoils (1332, 2833). Elsewhere in O l d English poetry, the connotations of 'wlenco' range from 'idolatrous pride' (in Genesis

and Daniel)

to 'abundance,'

'prosperity,' 'high honours' (favourably in Psalm 29:6, but threatened b y fortune, pride, or death in the Metres

of Boethius,

1:76, 5:31, 10:28) to the ' p o m p and

grandeur appropriate to the mighty' (in the Exeter Atoara 61: 'jwym sceal m i d wlenco'). T h e adjective follows m u c h the same pattern, but is also used to convey the splendour of such various items as horses (Maldon,

240, Riddles,

of Judgment (Exeter D a y 1, 50), and even the triune G o d (Creed,

80:7), the Day 48).

'Wlenco ' seems to emanate from a sense of confident superiority and is power­ fully reflected in physical appearance. We still speak of a 'high-spirited' horse or a rich man 'exuding prosperity, ' but I find no appropriate w o r d for the heroic contexts. T h e element of pride involved is morally objectionable to the authors of religious narratives, but this may simply reflect that Christian sensitivity which has made the words for ' p r i d e ' in most Western European languages potentially pe­ jorative unless qualified: 'justifiable pride,' 'noble orgueil.' I believe that 'wlenco,' however, is morally neutral, as does T . A . Shippey, Old English

Verse,

28-9: ' O l d

English heroes are not presented to be judged. T h e y inculcate rather an uneasy awareness that good intentions can lead to evil results, that the same mental qual­ ity ("wlenco") may bring success or misery, depending on circumstance.' T h e sec­ o n d half o f line 1206 certainly indicates what Hygelac's 'wlenco' will lead to, but the cluster of occurrences between 331-41, when the Coastguard recognizes in Beo­ wulf that high quality he himself possesses, establishes clearly that a disastrous out­ come is not necessarily consequent to the exhibition of 'wlenco.' 10 J . R . R . T o l k i e n , 'Beowulf: 11 Shippey, 48-9

the Monsters and the C r i t i c s , ' 2 2 (1936) 259

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J.B. BESSINGER, JR

Homage to Caedmon and others: a Beowulfian praise song

O l d Englis h secula r panegyric s i n verse ar e scarc e an d late , s o le t u s imagine a n earl y one : Caedmon' s H y m n secularize d a s a B e o w u l f i an panegyric. W e ma y d o s o no t a s sacrileg e bu t fo r i n q u i r y , somewha t a s Friedrich Klaebe r provided tria l opening s fo r th e B e o w u l f i a n lays o f Sigemund an d H e r e m o d , o r a s K e m p Malon e recompose d th e firs t thula o f Widsith t o includ e K i n g H y g e l a c ; in an y cas e w e nee d no t linger lon g u p on th e medle y itself . I n homag e t o C a e d m o n , t o th e poe t of Beowulf, an d t o J o h n Collin s Pope , w h o ha s t o l d u s s o man y usefu l things abou t the m b o t h , le t u s the n mak e a ne w oral-traditiona l prais e song fo r th e heroi c builde r o f H e o r o t . Thi s i s o f cours e ver y eas y i f th e H y m n i s used a s a frame , fo r i t i s alread y basicall y tha t k i n d o f p o e m , dipreislied aufGott, i n Klaeber's pregnan t d e f i n i t i o n , indeed i n on e sense th e bes t exampl e survivin g from th e O E perio d o f a n heroi c prais e song. 1

2

3

N u sculo n hería n heall-œrnes weard , mann-dryhtnes meaht a an d hi s mod-ge|)anc , weorc weorod-peodnes, sw a h e w u n d r a gehwaes , eorla dryhten , o r astealde . H e aeres t sco p ield a bearnu m Heorot t o hrofe , helm scieldinga; J>a maeran heall magu-dryhte weard , eorla dryhte n aefte r teod e — firum fold-bold fre a scieldinga.

92 J . B . Bessinger, J r

The italicize d substitution s ar e Beowulfia n i n vocabulary (whethe r simply o r i n synthesis ) an d Caedmonia n in prosody — or s o I mus t hope, considerin g the tripl e dedication o f thi s p o e m . Reader s ar e in vited t o improv e it w i t h othe r substitutions . I n th e firs t off-verse , fo r example, on e migh t b o r r o w 'heah-burge, ' (her e an d elsewher e a smal l grammatical adjustmen t i s needed), 'heah-seles, ' 'heah-stedes, ' ' h o r d aernes,' 'hord-burge, ' o r 'hleo-burge ' t o replac e Caedmon' s 'heofon rices,' regretfull y leavin g aside ' H e o r o t e s ' a s metricall y too light. Rathe r like a n olde r traditiona l poet i n a precompositional exercise, on e test s and discard s hi s substitution s an d thei r variation s an d repetitions, pro bably t o discove r that Caedmon' s plai n forma l balance, hi s p r o ud if rather stif f parad e o f epithet s fo r G o d , are firml y grounde d i n a mean ingful structure ; chang e a w o r d an d th e p o e m i s changed . If suppletio n has lef t th e pseudo-poe m reasonabl y tru e t o b o t h orig inals, however , w e ar e reminde d tha t Caedmon' s H y m n an d th e Creatio n sequence i n Beowulf both sin g of a ruler' s power , purpose , creativ e act , and adornmen t o f hi s creatio n — for I shal l argu e tha t ' t e o d e ' i n th e H y m n mus t mea n ' a d o r n e d ' an d no t 'created, ' a s man y hav e though t (it shoul d be th e equivalen t o f 'gefraetwode ' [MS: 'gefraetwade' ] a t Beowulf 96a) ; an d tha t thi s meanin g has consequence s fo r th e theme s and structure s o f th e tw o O E poem s an d fo r a n i n q u i r y i n t o a half definable sub-genre , th e heroi c e n c o m i u m praising a structur e alon g w i t h it s builder. N ot tha t th e m a i n genre — heroic panegyri c — is eas y to define , o r t o identif y a t al l in early Englis h literature . The panegyri c o r e n c o m i u m o r prais e son g i s a component for m o f traditional heroi c vers e i n many ancien t an d m o d e r n societies . T h e Chadwicks, perhap s to o rigorously , held tha t ' n o t h i n g o f i t survive s among th e remain s o f T e u t o n i c an d Gree k heroi c poetry . ' A heroi c praise song , sai d Si r Maurice B o w r a , perhap s a littl e to o concisely , 'celebrates a grea t man' s doing s t o hi s f a c e . ' If , a s seem s reasonabl e and t i m e l y , we broade n th e latte r definitio n t o includ e great w o m e n too (an d s o d o no t overloo k the son g o f Debora h an d Bara k t o th e heroine J a el i n Judges 5:24 , o r th e referenc e t o song s praisin g E a l h h i l d i n Widsith 9 7 - 1 0 2 ) , we stil l hav e n o obviou s Englis h specimens . The panegyric s scattere d throug h th e annal s fo r th e p e r i o d 937-106 5 (with occasiona l laments, sometime s i n the sam e poem ) ar e m o s t l y m i x e d o r debase d examples ; D o r o t hy Whitelock, w i t h goo d reason , w o u l d no t eve n trea t som e o f the m a s verse. Brunanburh, th e bes t o f th e Chronicle poems , c o u l d no t b e calle d a panegyric accordin g to Bowra' s definition i f o n ly becaus e th e person s celebrate d wer e no t presen t a t th e 4

5

6

7

8

Homage to Caedmon and Others

93

c o m p o s i t i o n o f a p o e m hardl y intende d fo r performance . B y comparison, Caedmon' s littl e d o x o l o gy is almost a n o r t h o d o x panegyric . T h e person celebrate d i s by definitio n present, an d th e prais e give n the rule r of heave n i s b o th particula r an d oral-traditiona l in th e heroi c vein . B o t h the C h a d w i c k s and B o w r a , however , wer e l o o k i n g fo r secula r poems . Professor Pop e ha s suggeste d tha t th e buildin g o f H i l d ' s grea t mon astery a t Streonesheal h ma y hav e p l a y e d it s par t i n th e backgroun d o f Caedmon's c o m p o s i t i o n , w h i ch migh t b e eve n mor e likel y i f the poe t had als o hear d som e r o y a l panegyric s containin g architectural matter ; something lik e th e ghostl y macédoin e o f thi s essay . H e i s u n l i k e ly t o have hear d an y early , ora l predecessor o f th e encomium urbis type , fo r Margaret Schlauc h has show n tha t th e genr e o f Durham i s a classical borrowing int o ver y lat e OE p o e t r y . Perhaps , though , h e c o u l d hav e heard, i n English , poem s lik e U l f Uggason's Húsdrápa, ' A Prais e Son g for th e House , ' compose d fo r a marriag e feas t i n a richl y decorate d Ice landic hal l i n the lat e tent h c e n t u r y . T h e skaldi c p o e m, w h i c h survive s only i n fragments , wa s clearl y a panegyric fo r a n importan t perso n an d his ne w residence . Wide-flun g literar y an d oral-traditiona l parallels migh t be cited , fro m Pindar' s firs t P y t h i a n o d e t o a humorous prais e son g fo r a B a n t u (Xhosa ) chieftai n an d hi s ne w offic e building , recorde d o n 4 J u l y 1 9 7 0 , b u t thi s architectura l sub-variet y o f th e panegyri c i s not t o be f o u n d i n O E poetr y i n a simpl e f o r m . I t exist s instea d a s a metapho r in Caedmon' s H y m n an d in other instances o f th e Creation them e in OE verse, a s wel l a s in a remarkabl y expande d Creation sequenc e in Beo­ wulf. W e shoul d n o w examin e thes e poem s mor e closely . In th e imaginar y panegyri c o f Hrothga r above , th e k i n g i s no t praise d by nam e becaus e th e m o d e l forbid s i t i n severa l ways , th e leas t impor tant o f w h i c h i s that hi s nam e neve r appear s i n Beowulf with a post positive epithe t (th e patter n demande d here ) excep t i n th e vocativ e case, an d Caedmon' s i s not a praise-him-to-his-face p o e m ; strictly , thi s w o u l d disqualif y th e poe t fro m Bowra' s panegyric cour t o f appeals , bu t let u s carr y th e cas e farther . I t i s more interestin g tha t G o d is not give n the nam e G o d ' i n Caedmon's H y m n , bu t rathe r i s referred t o b y a fa mous serie s o f heroi c periphrase s i n a pleonastic tou r d e force . I thin k the Beowulf-poet k n e w an d admire d thi s burs t o f themati c embellish ment, fo r h e seem s t o hav e imitate d it , no t indee d wher e on e w o u l d expect it , i n th e Creatio n song (90b-8) , but , afte r a n interva l o f violent action, i n lines 167-83 , wher e hi s probabl e deb t t o C a e d m o n i s mor e challenging t o ou r appreciation . It w i l l b e n o t i c e d tha t th e m o d e r n p o e m an d Caedmon' s similarl y re 9

10

11

12

13

1 4

4

94 J . B . Bessinger, J r

gard a domesti c creatio n an d a dynasti c creator . S o d o th e relevan t pas sages i n Beowulf. C a e d m o n describe s th e Creation , if I rightl y under stand hi s architectonics , a s constructio n followe d b y decoration , rathe r as a n earl y A n g l o - S a x o n churc h w o u l d be b u i l t an d furnished : firs t [ G o d ] made heave n a s a r o o f fo r men , the n h e adorne d th e eart h fo r m e n . I f the sequentia l conten t o f th e paralle l narrative i n Beowulf i s thought fully considered , the n Heoro t call s to m i n d a greate r construction : Hrothgar create d H e o r o t , the n adorne d it , whereupo n i n H e o r ot th e scop san g o f th e creatio n an d adornin g o f th e universe. T h e Danis h scop's divin e son g generate s Grendel' s rag e an d th e m a i n actio n o f th e story, bu t th e Beowulf-pott doe s no t ye t abando n hi s j o i nt them e o f divinity an d praise . Th e difficul t ' g i e f s t o l ' passage ( 1 6 8 - 9 ) a n d th e passage o n apostas y tha t follow s it mak e a strikin g and well-connecte d finale t o a n expande d panegyri c u p o n Creatio n an d H e o r o t . Wha t ha s sometimes bee n rea d a s interpolatio n i s c l i m a x ed by a high-flown , den sely formulai c panegyri c embellishmen t unusua l fo r th e Beowulf-poet — between line s 180 b an d 18 8 w e hea r th e word s ' meo t o d ,' ' d e m e n d , ' ' d r y h t e n G o d , ' 'heofona h e l m , ' 'herían, ' 'wuldre s w a l d e n d , ' 'dryht e n , ' an d 'faeder , ' w h i ch al l but recapitulat e th e Caedmonia n prais e song an d localiz e it onc e again , w i t h a grea t difference , a t H e o r o t . B u t a song o f tha t typ e ha s no t bee n fa r fro m th e poet' s m i n d sinc e th e intro d u c t i o n o f th e 'heall-aern a maest ' fo r w h i c h Hrothgar 'sco p h i m H e o r o t n a m a n , ' a t lin e 78 , fo r h e echoe s Caedmon' s reveren t (and , i f our com posite creatio n son g i s an y guide , thematicall y crucial ) near-pu n o n ' s c o p ' (th e verb ) an d ' s c i e p p e n d ' w i t h th e sequenc e 'scope s . . . gesco p . . . scieppend ' (90 , 97 , 106 ) i n his sectio n o n H e o r o t an d it s attacker ; two Caedmonia n variation s fo r ' G o d ' follow a t onc e — 'ece d r y h t e n ' and ' m e o t o d ' (107 , 1 1 0 ) . A n encomiastic associatio n betwee n cosmi c and w o r l d l y ruler s an d thei r creation s therefor e hold s thi s par t o f th e epic together , precisel y wher e som e reader s fin d i t suspiciousl y diffuse . D i d wha t i s fo r u s th e shadow y genr e o f a praise son g fo r builder s hel p the Beowulf-pott to mak e th e association ? O u r pla y w i t h a reconsti tuted son g o f thi s typ e i s dispensable . W e nee d n o w t o sho w b y a stricte r philology that , i n thei r creatio n poetr y a s w e hav e receive d it , Caedmon's H y m n an d Beowulf art significantl y related. N o t al l scholars hav e thought so . 15

16

17

Klaeber, fo r instance , i n a famou s articl e o n Christia n elements tha t has bee n a landmar k i n Beowulf criticism , a n articl e whos e dat a w e ma y n o w examin e an d partl y reinterpret , though t ih e similarit y between th e two poem s textuall y sligh t an d uninteresting. H e f o u n d o n l y on e i m 18

Homage to Caedmon and Others

95

portant correspondenc e betwee n them , ' o r astealde ' / 'onstealde ' ( H y m n 4b , Beowulf 2407b) , a verse w h i c h i n Beowulf has n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h th e creatio n theme . B u t th e verba l parallel s between th e H y m n and it s enlarge d reflectio n i n Beowulf67b-188 ar e remarkabl e i n su m and i n k i n d . O n l y t w o verse s o f th e H y m n (3 b 'sw a h e w u n d r a ge hwaes,' 4 b ' o r astealde' ) hav e n o counterpart s i n that sectio n oí Beowulf that comprise s th e creatio n an d adornin g o f H e o r o t an d th e universe , the intrusio n of a n ungodl y monste r int o Hrothgar' s wondrou s creation , and th e poet' s animadversion s u p o n th e Danis h inabilit y t o prais e G o d . O f eightee n verse s i n the H y m n , sixtee n shar e idea s o r d i c t i o n , o r b o t h , w i t h thi s par t o f Beowulf. HYMN

BEOWULF

l a sculon heria n l b heofon-rices wear d

182b herian n e cuüto n 182a heofona hel m [Hrothgar called beag-hord a wear d 921b, rice s wear d 1390a ] 180b m e o t o d 67h h i m o n m o d be-ar n 69b gewyrcan, 74 b weorc , 92b worhte , 183 a wuldre s wealdend, 18 8 faede r

2a meotodes 2b his mod-ge£>an c 3a weorc wuldor-faede r

3b swa h e w u n d r a gehwae s 4a ece dryhte n 4b or asteald e 5a scop 5b ielda bearnu m 6a heofon t o hrof e

6b scieppend 7a middan-geard 7b mann-cynnes 8a ece d r y h t e n

108

78b

ece dryhten , 18 1 dryht en go d

scop, 97 b gesco p [90 a swutol san g scopes ] 70a ielda b e a m , 77 a ieldum , 150a ield a bearnu m 182a heofona hel m [ ? 81b 82a sel e hlifod e / hea h and horn-geap ] 106a scieppend 75b middan-geard 110 mann-cynne, 16 4 mann cynnes 108 ece dryhten , 18 1 dryht en go d

96 J . B . Bessinger, J r

8b teod e 9 a firu m folda n 9b fre a aelmihtig

76a fraetwan , 9 6 a gefraet wode 91a frum-sceaf t fira , 96 b fol dan sceata s 92a s e aelmihtiga

A doubte r migh t gran t mor e correspondenc e tha n K l a e b e r d id an d still objec t tha t ther e ar e merel y salmo n i n b o th rivers , or mer e nec essary formular y fragment s i n b o th poems . T h e questio n i s one o f concentration, o r o f boundaries . Klaebe r properly restricte d hi s contex t t o Beowulf 90b-8, th e son g o f Creatio n in Heorot, t o brin g it paralle l w i t h other reference s t o th e Creatio n theme i n the O E poetic corpus . T h e epical context , however , appropriatel y mor e ampl e tha n Caedmon' s p o e m , frame s th e religiou s theme (whic h i n Beowulf i s not simpl y a praise son g lik e Caedmon's , bu t a narratio n abou t anothe r narrativ e con cerning Creation ) w i t h i n a Caedmonia n panegyric o f Hrothga r fo r hi s creative ac t an d a quasi-Caedmonia n castigation o f th e godles s Danes . The panegyri c w i t h it s aftermat h ma y b e calle d Caedmonia n because i t follows th e ' p l o t ' o f th e panegyri c H y m n , double s th e p l o t (tw o ruler s create an d decorat e thei r creation s fo r thei r peoples) , an d the n drama tically invert s th e religiou s message — Hrothgar's w o r k i s to b e damage d by G r e n d e l and destroye d b y fire ; G o d is not praised . C o n c u r r e n t ly we discover th e paragraph-balance d embellishment s o f th e H y m n , it s varied terms fo r G o d , rearranged i n a crescendo. 19

HYMN

L e t u s prais e th e kin g o f heaven (fou r terms ) an d his wonders . He (fou r terms ) create d heaven a s a r o o f fo r me n and adorne d th e eart h fo r men.

B E O W U L F 64-188

1 Prais e o f Hrothga r fo r hi s successful militar y kingship. 2 H e ha d th e greates t o f hall s made an d adorne d fo r m e n ('folc-stede fraetwan, ' 76a) . It w i l l b e destroye d b y fire ; meanwhile G r e n d e l is nearb y (82b-9a). The sco p sang : G o d (on e Caedmonian term ) create d earth w i t h su n an d m o o n a s lights fo r m e n , an d adorne d the earth .

Homage to Caedmon and Others

97

3 T h e enem y o f G o d (thre e Caedmonian terms ) attack s the hall . 4 T h e terrifie d Dane s d i d no t k n o w h o w t o prais e G o d (four Caedmonia n term s plus thre e others) . Some recollectio n or equivalen t o f Caedmon' s H y m n appear s t o hav e been reflecte d i n Beowulf as a n engrossin g an d origina l sequential them e w i t h it s sub-theme s an d vocabular y remarkabl y intact , an d w i t h on e stunning climacti c adaptation, th e w o r k o f a master : ' W e shoul d prais e G o d ' become s ' T h e y d i d no t k n o w h o w t o prais e G o d . ' F r om wha t the matic repertor y d i d th e poe t devis e suc h a ne w sequence ? (W e leav e aside th e problem s o f th e origi n o f th e p o e m a s a w h o l e, th e source s and analogue s o f th e centra l fabl e o r fables. ) Presumabl y fro m th e for mulary commonplace s o f th e Creatio n them e i n earl y O E poetry , a s gathered, w i t h lat e example s also , i n Klaeber's Anglia catalogues, conflated an d presente d her e i n a ne w arrangement : 20

G e n 9 2 - 2 3 4 , esp . 92-4 , * 1 1 2 17a, 135-8a , *206-15 a E x o 24- 9 (wit h analogu e t o B w f 90- 4 separatel y dis cussed b y K l a e b e r in MLN 33 [1918 ] 2 2 1 ) , 4 2 9 b - 3 1 ; cf C r d l - 5 a D a n 3 6 2 - 4 0 8 ; c f A z a 73-161 a XSt l-17 a A n d 324b-9a , 746b-50 , *769b-99 E l e 725-34 a C h r 222-8 , 65 9 G l c 50b- 8 A z a 73-161a ; c f D a n 362-40 8 P h x 129b-31 a (no t i n L a t i n original) J u l l l l b - 1 3 a , 497b-500 a Sfr 104- 5

M x m l *25b-3 4 O r W 38-59 a R d l 4 0 passim , esp . * l - 7 R s g 2b-5 a (Klaeber' s an d Grein-Kohler's 'Gebet e I V ' ) Horn II 1 0 b - l l a B w f 90b- 8 J u d 346b- 9 PPs 73.16 , 9 4 . 5 , 9 5 . 5 , 101.22 , 103.18-19, 135.4- 9 (c f O e d 1-9), 145. 5 an d passi m M B o 4.1-2a , l l . l - 7 a , 17.7-1 5 and passi m M n l 46- 7 G l o l 16b-2 3 C r d l - 5 a ; c f E x o 429b-3 1 Ci s rum e lan d gestaáelode strangu m mihtum , frea aelmihtig . F o l d e waes £> a gieta graes ungrene . . . (Gen 112-17a ) That is , colour was applie d t o th e univers e afte r it s creation . N o ver b meaning 'decorate , a d o r n ' i s used, however . t>a sceawod e scieppen his weorc a wlit e an n i w r a gesceafta . . . .

d ur e d hi s waestm a blaed ,

Homage to Caedmon and Others

99

Nealles w o l c n u j ^ a gie t ofer rumn e grun d régna s baeron , w a n n m i d winde, hwaeár e waestmum sto d folde gefraetwod . (Gen 206-15a ) The ne w creatio n i s decorated w i t h greenery , a s i n Beowulf 96-7a where th e sam e verb * fraetwian ' i s used .

,

S c o l d o n hi e |>a m folc e gecyía n h w a ae t frum-sceaft e furáu m teod e eoráan eall-gren e an d upp-heofon , hwaer s e wealden d waer e £> e |>aet weorc staáolode . (And 796b-9 ) The eart h an d it s decorativ e c o l o u r i n g are create d a t once ; ' t e o d e ' mus t here mea n 'creativel y a d o r n e d ' o r th e like . Compar e Daniel 204-16 , where thi s ver b i s used fo r th e settin g u p o r furnishin g o f a (golden ) image. B e a m scea l o n eoráa n leafum liíían , l i m u gnornian . . . . JDy weoráej ) o n folda n sw a fel a fir a cynnes , ne si e fjaes magu-timbre s geme t ofe r eoráan , gief hi e n e wanig e s e |>a s w e o r o l d teode . (Mxm I 25b-34 ) Leaves mus t fall ; me n w o u l d suffe r over-populatio n i f he w h o create d (and furnished , decorated? ) th e w o r l d d i d not diminis h thei r numbers . The ecologica l theodicy her e i s perhaps mor e interestin g tha n th e pos sible secondar y sens e o f ' d e c o r a t e d ' i n ' t e o d e , ' w h i c h , i f it i s there a t all, depend s o n th e Beowulfia n c o l l o c a t i o n in th e secon d line : ' l i m u m and leafum , ' Beowulf 97a . Ece i s s e scieppen d . . . H e me c wraetlic e worht e ae t frym|)e , JDa h e jrisn e y m b - h w y r f t aeres t sette . . . . Ic eo m faegerr e fraetwu m goldes . . . . (Rdl 4 0 . 1 , 6-7 , 46 ) The univers e b o t h resemble s a n ornamente d objec t an d surpasse s suc h an objec t i n beauty. Here , a s i n the Andreas q u o t a t i o n above , creatio n and decoratio n ar e conceptuall y distinguishe d by th e poet , bu t ar e thought o f a s simultaneou s actions . L i n e 6 i s a translatio n o f A l d h e l m 's

100 J . B . Bessinger, J r

De Creatura, ' M e variam fecit , p r i m o d u m condere t o r b e m . ' In summary , creatio n an d decoratio n ar e distinc t ideas , sometime s presented sequentiall y i n O E poetry , sometime s not ; i f ' t e o n ' / ' t e o g a n ' and * fraetwian ' ar e synonyms , a n importan t themati c c o m p l e x i n O E poetry become s mor e intelligible , bu t paralle l citations d o no t entirel y fix th e s y n o n y m y , unles s thos e i n Caedmon's H y m n and Beowulf are thought t o mak e i t self-evident . T o th e suppor t o f purel y textua l argu ments, however , w e shoul d ad d th e testimon y o f earl y Christia n writer s in Latin . The j o i nt them e o f creatio n an d decoratio n i n Christian poetry i s ap parently a refle x p r i m a r i l y of Genesi s 2 : 1 , 'Perfect i sun t coel i e t terra , et omni s ornatu s e o r u m , ' b u t als o o f som e glos s lik e A m b r o s e ' s t o Genesis 1:1 , ' P r i m o feci t Deus , poste a venustavit . ' I t wa s thi s topos , we ma y believe , tha t A l d h e l m reflecte d i n his De Creatura, approxi mately durin g Caedmon' s lifetime . If a patristic n o t i o n o f suc h powe r and beaut y wer e i n the ai r i t i s not strang e tha t a C a e d m o n i a n p o e m should ech o i t , thoug h perhap s o d d tha t Bede' s L a t i n paraphras e o f the H y m n fail s t o certif y i t , fo r Bede' s o w n L a t i n poetr y notice s G o d ' s activity a s a decorator : 'Deu s ornavi t orbe m e t a e t h e r a . ' On e migh t assume tha t Bed e wa s translatin g a versio n o f th e H y m n differen t fro m those n o w extant , o r tha t hi s foreshortene d L a t i n paraphras e o f Caed mon's p o e m wa s careles s i n suppressin g th e d e c o r a t i o n - m o t i f , o r tha t the apparen t reflectio n o f thi s particula r patristi c n o t i o n i n Caedmon' s poem i s a moder n illusion . T h a t th e H y m n an d Beowulf have a Creatio n them e i n c o m m o n , what ever it s etiology , i s a truis m fo r mos t m o d e r n commentators , eve n though Klaebe r d id no t fin d the m ver y similar : ' V i e l m e h r sind di e bei den Fassunge n s o verschiede n wi e nu r môglich . ' I hav e bee n tryin g t o show a particularit y i n thei r c o m m o n them e w i t h o u t comparin g th e tw o poems excep t i n a fe w crucia l details. N o t surprisingly , two suc h differ ent poem s exhibi t distinctiv e qualitie s eve n i n thei r on e clos e resem blance. Beowulf's cosmolog y i s more free , mor e expansiv e (thoug h les s complete, sinc e heave n i s not create d w i t h th e earth) . It s vers e i n thi s section move s w i t h a fluent l y r i c qualit y tha t wa s justly praise d b y Klae b e r . On e ma y not e a s a curiosit y tha t Beowulf i s th e les s anthropo centric p o e m . T h e H y m n praise s G o d fo r creatin g a r o o f an d adornin g a dwelling-place fo r m a n k i n d alone . I n Beowulf, Hrothga r create s a n i l l fated hal l i n w h i ch to practis e th e generosit y G o d made possibl e fo r h i m , afte r th e exampl e o f a G o d w ho create d a n Englis h universe , a green an d pleasan t island , for al l land-dwellers an d livin g beings , amon g 2 2

2 3

2 4

2 5

2 6

27

28

2 9

30

Homage to Caedmon and Others

101

w h o m th e non-huma n o r sub-huma n G r e n d e l i s shortl y t o b e noticed . While th e H y m n ' s archai c restrain t i s relieved o n l y b y it s m a r c h o f epithet-ornaments, th e m u c h broade r us e o f th e creation-decoratio n topos i n Beowulf seem s by compariso n b o l d l y discursive an d inventive , as i n the strikin g presentiment o f Heorot' s burnin g just afte r it s build ing i s described . Th e t y p i c a l l y B e o w u l f i a n thrust reache s us th e mor e poignantly th e mor e w e ar e awar e o f a n analog y o r correlatio n betwee n the tw o creations , universa l an d local . Tha t predicte d conflagratio n i n the golde n hall , someho w l i n k e d t o a freshl y mad e an d decorate d universe, come s t o see m hal f legend , hal f eschatology . W e ar e brough t as clos e a s O E poetr y ca n brin g us t o a glimps e o f th e Gotterdammerung, or o f 'th e fir e nex t t i m e . ' A s fo r Caedmon' s H y m n , i t i s very har d a t ove r a millenium' s distanc e to settl e finall y u p o n th e explanatio n o f a shor t son g attribute d b y Bed e to a n atypica l singe r a centur y befor e hi s o w n time , a n oral-traditiona l amateur o f uneas y geniu s w h o abandone d th e har p t o sin g his song s fo r scribes t o c o p y d o w n . H e wa s surel y a mos t n o t e w o r t h y transitiona l ar tist, bu t w e k n o w al l too littl e o f th e transitio n w i t h i n w h i c h he mad e his effect . W o u l d suc h a m a n mor e naturall y hav e compose d a new Ger manic d o x o l o g y o r a metamorphose d Christia n praise song ? V e r y pos sibly b o t h , i n som e p r o p o r t i o n b e y o n d ou r analysis , bu t ' m e n n n e cun n o n secga n t o sogar leofa,' 1483, 'glaed-mann HroJ>gar,' 367, *J>eoden HroJ>gar,' 417. In Caedmon's alliterative and syntactic framework, which we are following arbitrarily for the composite p o e m , the king's name w o u l d be restricted to the main stave in lines 1 and 6, where Caedmon's ' h — e s weard' will not accommodate it. One could of course recompose more freely: ' N u sculon herian

HroJ>gares aern,' etc, or,

abandoning both Caedmon's T y p e E off-verse r h y t h m and Beowulfian epithetusage, ' N u sculon herian

HroJ)gar cyning,' etc; which w o u l d be like playing ten­

nis without a net. 15 I am indebted here to E d w a r d B . Irving, J r , A Reading 1968), 89-90, and to A l v i n A . L e e , The Guest-Hall Design

of Old English

Poetry

of Beowulf

of Eden:

Four

(New Haven Essays

on the

(New Haven 1972), 175-9, but m y treatment o f the

two creations differs from that of either scholar in being limited to a relatively simple structural matter. 16 If the 'gief-stol' is a decorated throne (cf Mxm 1.68 'gief-stol [sceal] gegierwed standan') or an object precious and valuable by association with the gift-giving promised and fulfilled b y Hrothgar in his decorated hall (Beowulf,

71-3, 76a, 80-

la, 167 ['sinc-fage sael, ' immediately before the crux] ), it forms part o f a deco­ ration theme and is less likely to be an interpolation or lapse of poet or scribe: 'Grendel c o u l d not approach (or attack) the (decorated) gift-seat of Hrothgar, that precious object, because of God's protection'; but this to be sure gets us only three-quarters o f the way through the crux, and the decoration theme does not help with 'ne his my ne wisse.' 17 1 take for granted that 'scop' ('poet-singer') and 'scieppan' ('shape, create') were heard as related terms b y O E poets and audiences, whether through popular ety­ mology or as acoustic puns; but they are apparently not related. See A l o i s Walde, Vergleichendes

Worterbuch

der indogermanischen

Sprachen,

ed. Julius Pokorny

(Berlin 1927-30). T h e synonomy of O E 'scop' with other words for 'poet' is another question; see N o r m a n E . Eliason, ' T h e t>yle and Scop in Beowulf lum 38 (1963) 267-84. 18 Klaeber, 'Die christlichen Elemente,' 114;Beowulf

note to 90-8

Specu­

Homage to Caedmon and Others 19 This Beowulf

105

passage uses eleven epithets for deity (twelve if 'for meotode,' 169a

refers to G o d ) , eight (or nine) of them Caedmonian. T h e H y m n ' s 'weard,' 'wuldor-,' and 'frea aelmihtig' appear elsewhere in Beowulf sage; Beowulf's

but not in this pas­

' d e m e n d , ' 'heofona h e l m , ' and 'wealdend' do not appear in the

Hymn. 20 Klaeber, 'Die christlichen Elemente,' 113-61. Titles are adjusted from the edi­ tions cited by Klaeber to those in Krapp-Dobbie, and listed in the order of the Krapp-Dobbie volumes. Line references are sometimes corrected or expanded, and I have added a few references to Klaeber's list. Abbreviations are those given b y F . P . Magoun, J r , in Études anglaises 3 (1955) 138-46. Five references touching o n the decoration theme, to be discussed below, are marked with asterisks. 21 Unhappily, the easy reading is vouched for b y Bede's prose paraphrase, in which 'creauit' governs both 'caelum' and 'terram' in the poem's last sentence; this would make b o t h 'scop' and 'teode' mean 'created.' See Charles Plummer, Ven­ erabais Baedae Pope, Seven

Historiam

Old English

Ecclesiastic Poems,

am . . . (Oxford 1886), I, 260. Professor

52, notes that Bede's paraphrase, 'by deliberately

avoiding the repetition and shortening the second section ' of the poetic summary, obscures the poem's symmetry; O E lexicography and literary study have been af­ fected b y Bede's sentence also. N o meaning ' a d o r n ' appears for the appropriate verb in Joseph Bosworth and T . Northcote Toller, An Anglo-Saxon ( L o n d o n 1898), or in Toller's Supplement;

Dictionary

users of Bosworth-Toller may choose

from among 'to make, frame, create, ordain, arrange, contrive, bring about, con­ struct,' a list which is more rationally subdivided, with allowance for ' a d o r n ' also, in J . R . Clark H a l l , A Concise Beowulf

Anglo-Saxon

(4th ed., Cambridge 1962).

Dictionary

editors, glossing the word at lines 43 (where it certainly means 'furnish,

provide') and 1452 (where it could mean 'adorn') have generally followed Bosworth-Toller; so Klaeber (1922-50 editions) and Else von Schaubert (1949), with A . J . Wyatt and R . W . Chambers (1914) relenting to allow ' a d o r n ' as one possible meaning. C . L . Wrenn (1953, 1958) d i d not gloss the word at all. F o r the verb in the H y m n , Professor Pope, in Seven

Old English

Poems,

prepare, create,' but Professor Dobbie's edition in Anglo-Saxon

glosses 'adorn, Minor

Poems

(New Y o r k 1942) translated 'teode' as 'created.' O f modern authorities, only A . H . Smith, Three Northumbrian

( L o n d o n 1933), 40, unequivocally and

Poems

simply translates ' adorn. ' 22 Frederick Tupper, J r , ed., The Riddles

of the Exeter

Book

(Boston 1910), 162

23 Klaeber, 'Die christlichen Elemente,' 115 24 Bernard F . Huppé, Doctrine

and Poetry

(Albany 1959), 99-130.1 cite here from

the reprint in Martin Stevens and Jerome Mandel, eds., Old English (Lincoln, Nebraska 1968), 131. 25 Bloomfield, 43

Literature

106 J . B . Bessinger, J r 26 A s noted b y Smith, 40, n. 7 27 Bede, ' H y m n u s de opere sex dierum,* cited b y Klaeber, 'Die christlichen Elemente,* 115 28 But see again Pope's remarks about Bede's paraphrase, cited in note 21 above. 29 Klaeber, 'Die christlichen Elemente,' 114 30 Klaeber, Beowulf,

note to 90-8: ' T h e rare note of j o y in the beauty of nature con­

trasts impressively with the melancholy inspired b y the dreary, somber abode o f Grendel. ' 31 Charles Green, Sutton Hoo (New Y o r k 1963), 78 32 Plummer, 369

STANLEY B. GREENFIELD

'Gifstol' and goldhoard in Beowulf

A s a tribut e t o J o hn Collin s Pop e i t w o u l d b e satisfyin g t o b e abl e t o offer somethin g a s substantia l an d persuasiv e o f genera l acceptanc e a s his o w n contribution s t o th e stud y o f O l d English literatur e hav e been . I canno t aspir e t o suc h substantialit y an d definitiveness , however ; stil l I hop e th e followin g observation s o n th e meanin g o f th e dragon' s hoar d in Beowulf ma y b e deeme d no t u n w o r t h y a s a 'hygeweonfung ' fo r th e distinguished schola r thi s volum e seek s t o honour . A t t e m p t s a t valuatio n o f th e hoar d hav e bee n many , an d it s w i l d l y fluctuating critica l marke t suggest s i t ha s no t ye t bee n pegge d a t it s true rate . Ther e ar e obviou s reason s fo r thi s critica l stat e o f affairs : cruces o f interpretatio n haun t individua l word s an d line s (fo r example , lines 3074-5) , an d conflictin g testimonie s i n th e p o e m abou t th e pro venance an d statu s o f th e treasur e d o no t len d themselve s t o read y ac c o m m o d a t i o n . A l s o , th e generi c expectation s critic s bring to th e p o e m , their differin g aesthetic response s t o tona l quality , and differen t meth odological approache s hav e i n no smal l wa y contribute d thei r shar e t o the variou s overlapping , and mor e frequentl y incompatible , significations assigned th e treasure . M i c h a el Chernis s has note d tha t suc h assignation s conveniently polariz e int o favourabl e o r unfavourable , goo d o r e v i l . Quite so , bu t thi s reductiv e categorizatio n doe s scan t justic e t o th e range o f propose d s y m b o l i c values: h o n o u r an d men' s worthiness ; th e social g o o d ; w o r l d ly sapientia; transience ; th e vanit y o f w o r l d l y wealth; avaric e an d c u p i d i t y ; spiritual death an d d a m n a t i o n — to men t i o n bu t a few . I t w o u l d see m tha t whil e the poem' s treasur e le d t o 1

2

108

Stanley B . Greenfield

Beowulf's deat h an d wa s useles s t o th e Geats , i t ha s gaine d a lif e o f it s o w n i n , and som e valu e for , critica l controversy . I shoul d lik e t o argu e i n thi s pape r tha t th e contex t o f th e p o e m has deposite d u p o n th e hoar d a contrariet y o f function s tha t rende r attempts t o fin d a n overridin g signification unconvincing. F or th e hoar d is a nucleu s o f differen t meanings , s o m u c h s o tha t E d w a r d Irving sug gests it w o u l d be wel l t o admi t tha t w e canno t recaptur e al l [o f them ] n o w . F o r i t seem s likel y tha t eve n th e pre-Christia n attitude toward s treasure mus t hav e containe d it s o w n inheren t complexities ; when a Christian poin t o f vie w (an d w h i c h Christian point o f view ? ) i s super imposed o n i t w i t h o u t entirel y replacin g it , we hav e r i c h possibil ities fo r ambiguity , i f not fo r genuin e c o n f u s i o n . 3

Nevertheless, I thin k som e o f thes e possibilities , particularly i n th e pre Christian attitude , ca n b e clarified , eve n i f all confusion canno t b e un confounded. L e t u s begi n w i t h th e functio n o f th e treasur e i n th e narrativ e lin e o f Beowulf. Wherea s i n part I the hero' s m o t i v a t i o n an d goa l wer e clearly define d b y a singl e mora l imperativ e — the eliminatio n of a ma rauder (Grendel , Grendel's mother ) t o aveng e a feu d — in part II the y are, a t leas t superficially , disparate: th e m o r a l burde n o f reveng e t o b e taken u p o n th e drago n fo r hi s destructiv e attac k o n th e on e hand , an d the acquisitio n o f a treasur e o n th e other . B u t dragon s an d burie d trea sure wer e i n a wa y inseparabl e t o th e A n g l o - S a x o n m i n d : w e hav e fre quently bee n reminde d i n thi s connectio n o f C o t t o n Gnomes 26b-7a , 'draca scea l o n hlaewe , / frod , fraetwu m w l a n c . ' Further , ther e i s th e suggestion i n part I that th e dee d o f derring-d o w h i c h kills a drago n an d takes hi s treasur e i s indee d a singl e ac t o f heroism , on e w h i c h has pos itive valu e fo r th e poe t an d hi s audience : I refer , o f course , t o th e Dan ish scop' s jubilan t accoun t o f Sigemund' s drago n figh t an d hi s w i n n i ng 'selfes dom e . . . beorht e fraetwa. ' (884b-97 ) M o s t critic s have see n i n this recitatio n a n i m p l i c i t favourabl e compariso n w i t h B e o w u l f . Certain other parallel s betwee n part s I and II hav e no t t o m y knowledge , how ever, bee n sufficientl y acknowledged ; an d thes e parallel s contribut e i n different way s t o th e positiv e valu e o f th e hoard . We m a y not e i n the firs t plac e tha t Beowulf' s Danish exploits ar e not w i t h o u t thei r materia l rewards . T h o u g h th e her o undertake s hi s venture agains t G r e n d e l ou t o f tru e n o b i l i t y of spirit , w i t h perhap s 4

5

' G i f s t o l ' and Goldhoard in Beowulf

109

some though t t o repa y Hrothga r fo r hi s earlie r kindnes s t o hi s fathe r E c g t h e o w , th e concep t o f rewar d fo r suc h favour s rendere d i s obviously i m p l i c i t i n the heroi c ethos , an d Hrothga r make s i t explici t w h en h e finally accept s Beowulf' s offer: ' N e bi á J> e w i l na gad , / gi f f>u |)ae t el lenweorc aldr e gedigest. ' ( 6 6 0 b - l ) W h e n B e o w u l f perform s a s pro mised, Hrothga r no t o n l y wishe s t o adop t h i m a s a son , bu t agai n state s that h e w i l l giv e h im treasur e (946b-50) ; an d a t th e banque t tha t even ing h e doe s so , th e poe t describin g th e gift s i n som e detai l (1020-49) . The sam e patter n hold s i n th e Grendel' s mothe r episode : promis e be fore actio n i n 1380-2 , promis e agai n afte r actio n i n 1706b-7 a an d 1783b-4, an d actua l givin g i n 1866-7 . N o w , if we l o o k carefull y a t th e order o f event s i n part II, w e se e tha t B e o w u l f resolve s t o figh t th e dra gon becaus e o f th e devastatio n h e ha s wrough t befor e h e eve n know s there i s a treasur e involved: 6

Haefde ligdrac a leod ealond utan , eoráwear gledum forgrunden ; h i Wedera |)iode n wraec

a faesten , d 3on e m a gefrunen , hwana n si o faeh á aras , bealoniá biorna ; h i m t o bearm e c w o m maáj)umfaet maer e fnir h 3ae s meldan h o n d . (2403-5

)

A l t h o u g h th e us e o f '|>a ' followin g a n initia l ver b i n an independen t clause i s a c o m m o n syntacti c featur e o f O l d English poetr y i n genera l and o f Beowulf i n particular, usuall y t o b e translate d ' t h e n ' o r no t translated a t a l l , the contex t o f thes e line s suggest s that '|>a ' her e mean s ' b y tha t t i m e ' ; an d th e whol e passag e unmistakabl y indicate s tha t thi s knowledge abou t th e origi n o f th e feu d ha s com e t o B e o w u l f o n l y afte r his decisio n t o aveng e tha t feud . Thu s Beowulf' s motive i n thi s case , although mor e personal , i s no les s nobl e o r ' p u r e ' tha n i t wa s i n hi s earlier ventures . B u t , despit e th e selflessnes s o f m o t i v a t i o n , th e heroi c pattern, a s w e hav e note d above , call s fo r a reward . I n th e D a n i s h instances, Hrothga r wa s a t han d t o provid e th e ' e x p e c t e d ' bonus ; her e Beowulf, i n fulfilmen t o f tha t pattern , become s hi s o w n gift-giver . F o r this purpos e th e dragon' s treasur e w i l l serve . S o th e her o ca n w i t h pro -

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priety subsequentl y say , ' l e m i d elne sceal l gold gegangan , o33 e gu< J nime3, feorhbealu freen e frea n eowerne ! ' (2535b-7

)

That th e poe t ha s t o l d u s 'nae s |)aet yüJ e ceap / t o gegangenn e gúmen a aenigum' (2415b-16 ) an d tha t th e her o w i l l di e i n th e attemp t is , in th e context o f th e p o e m , tragicall y ironic, bu t thi s resul t i n no w a y demean s Beowulf's motiv e an d procedure . Beowulf, however , i s not jus t a hero i n part II, h e i s k i n g , an d a s h e lies d y i n g he give s voice to hi s concer n fo r hi s people , tellin g Wigla f t o attend t o thei r need s ( 2 8 0 0 b - l a ) an d gloryin g i n his havin g w on th e trea sure fo r thei r benefi t (2794-8) . Thi s concern lead s m e t o th e secon d parallel I w o u l d entertai n betwee n part s I and II as layerin g the hoar d w i t h strand s o f positiv e meaning: tha t betwee n Hrothga r an d B e o w u l f as king s i n their moment s o f greates t crisis . E a c h i n effect ha s los t hi s ' g i f s t o l , ' th e latte r b y th e dragon' s breath , th e forme r b y Grendel' s m o u t h e d defiance . E a c h , therefore , find s th e ac t o f gold-giving , s o cen tral t o hi s functio n a s a good k i n g , frustrated . Her e w e t o u c h u p o n th e t h o r n y p r o b l e m o f interpretatio n o f line s 168-9 , an d w e mus t paus e t o consider thi s passag e an d it s contex t i n greater detail . The w o r d ' g i f s t o l ' occur s i n Beowulf only o n t w o occasions : i n th e description o f condition s i n H e o r ot du e t o Grendel' s visitation s an d i n that o f Geatlan d ravage d b y th e dragon . I n th e forme r instance , afte r a great amoun t o f uncertainty , critic s seem toda y largel y t o accep t a read ing i n w h i ch line s 168-9 , ' n o h e |>on e gifstol greta n moste , / maj)3u m for M e t o d e , n e hi s m y n e wisse , ' refe r t o G r e n d e l , w ho canno t 'ap proach (o r attack ) th e thron e o f Hrothga r (or/an d G o d ) , nor k n o w G o d ' s (o r Hrothgar's ) lov e (o r m i n d o r purpose). ' T h e man y explana tions an d rationalization s fo r thi s lin e of interpretation , involvin g suc h concepts a s th e sanctit y o f th e thron e an d G r e n d e l as a n anti-thane, are reasonabl e enough , u p t o a p o i n t; bu t i n th e en d I fin d the m les s than satisfactory . S u c h a n uneasiness , centrin g aroun d th e referen t o f the w o r d 'fraet ' w h i c h begin s lin e 170 , p r o m p t e d A r t h u r G. B r o d e ur i n h i s ^ r i of Beowulf t o argu e a t lengt h fo r a n interpretatio n tha t see s th e ' h e ' o f lin e 16 8 refe r prolepticall y to Hrothgar , w h o i s the n focusse d u p o n i n line 17 0 a s ' w i n e S c y l d i n g a . ' A s B r o d e ur recognized , a majo r difficulty w i t h thi s p o s i t i o n is that i t involve s a sudde n switc h of re ference fro m G r e n d e l to Hrothga r b y mean s o f th e p r o n o u n w h e n th e 7

8

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king ha s no t bee n mentione d sinc e lin e 152a ; b ut h e adduce d a numbe r of syntacti c an d contextua l parallel s o r similaritie s that w o u l d allow , easily enough , fo r suc h a reading . Nevertheless hi s argumen t ha s no t w o n devotees , an d a recen t interpretatio n o f thes e line s does no t eve n m e n t i o n th e possibilit y that th e ' h e ' ma y refe r t o Hrothga r an d no t t o G r e n d e l . Y e t i f we vie w Hrothgar' s p o s i t i o n in this par t o f th e p o e m as paralle l to Beowulf' s later dilemm a ( a structura l featur e unfortu nately no t considere d b y Brodeur) , the n i t make s excellen t sens e t o se e lines 168- 9 referrin g t o Hrothgar' s inabilit y t o approac h hi s ' g i f s t o l ' while Grende l occupies th e hal l a t night . U n d e r thes e circumstance s Hrothgar canno t distribut e treasur e properly , a s a goo d k i n g should : a s he ha d promise d o n th e i n c e p t i o n o f H e o r o t h e w o u l d (71-3) , an d a s he ha d dutifull y performe d ( 8 0 - l a ) ' o á áae t an o n g a n ' t o rende r th e gift-seat nocturnall y unusable . I t i s thi s negatio n o f hi s functio n a s a gold-giver (perhap s a s m u c h symboli c as literal ) tha t i s a 'breakin g o f spirit t o th e friendl y l o r d o f th e Scyldings . ' I f w e rea d th e passag e thi s way, w e avoi d th e a w k w a r d parenthesis aroun d line s 168- 9 (Klaebe r text), an d th e difficult y o f referen t fo r 'fcaet' ; an d w e achiev e no t o n l y a mor e straightforwar d narrativ e accoun t bu t a cleare r readin g fo r 'n e his m y n e wisse. ' We thu s w o u l d hav e th e followin g (th e p u n c t u a t i o n i s m y suggestion ) : 11

S w a fel a fyren a feon d mancynnes , atol angenge a of t gefremede , heardra hynaa ; H e o r o t eardode , sincfage se l sweartu m nihtum . N o h e f)on e gifsto l greta n moste , m a ^ u m fo r M e t o d e , n e hi s m y n e wisse : |>aet waes wrae c mice l win e Scyldinga , modes brecha . Thus (i n summar y o f wha t ha s u p t o thi s poin t bee n detaile d abou t Grendel's behaviour ) th e enem y o f m a n k i n d , th e terribl e lone-goer , often performe d m a n y crimes , terribl e injuries ; he o c c u p i e d Heorot , the treasure-adorne d hall , o n dar k nights . N o t a t al l might h e (Hroth gar) approac h th e gift-throne , (that ) treasur e befor e G o d , nor d i d h e understand hi s purpos e (i n s o deprivin g h i m ): tha t wa s a great dis tress, a breakin g o f spirit , to th e friendl y l o r d o f th e Scyldings . The poe t the n continue s immediatel y w i t h th e descriptio n o f h o w ' m a n y

112 Stanley B . Greenfield

a might y on e sa t i n c o u n c i l ' t o see k a solutio n to th e p r o b l e m o f Gren del, an d h o w man y turne d t o paga n ritua l i n thei r confusion . In thi s reading , a s I indicate d above, 'n e hi s m y n e wisse ' offers littl e difficulty: i t refer s t o Hrothgar' s failur e t o understan d G o d ' s purpos e i n s o deprivin g h im o f th e substanc e o f his k i n g s h i p . It i s o n l y throug h his c o n t i n u i n g experience o f misfortune , w h i c h last s twelv e years, tha t he reache s a p o s i t i o n where, a t th e en d o f tha t time , h e ca n lectur e th e y o u n g B e o w u l f abou t th e pitfal l awaitin g that ma n arrogan t enoug h t o assume tha t h e i s so powerfu l that h e i s exempt fro m al l e n m i ty an d change fo r th e wors e (1772b-3) . I t i s Beowulf's adven t o n th e scen e that give s hope t o th e age d k i n g fo r a n ' e d w e n d e n ' o f hi s troubles , hop e that th e treasure-adorne d hal l ('sincfag e sel' ) ma y becom e onc e agai n a plac e fo r distributin g 'sine. ' When the her o perform s wha t h e p r o m ises, Hrothgar , w i t h hi s ' g i f s t o l ' mad e functiona l onc e again , ca n b e lavish i n bestowing treasure u p o n hi s deliverer. When B e o w u l f i n turn i n ' u f a r u m d o g r u m ' i s deprived o f hi s abilit y to b e a goo d k i n g b y th e tota l destructio n o f hi s ' g i f s t o l , ' i t i s no won der tha t he , lik e Hrothga r befor e h i m , experiences disquietude , feel s he doe s no t understan d G o d ' s purpose i n this w a n t o n an d seemingl y senseless havoc , wonders whethe r h e ha s no t offende d G o d 'ofer eald e r i h t ' ( 2 3 2 7 b - 3 2 ) . ( I thin k i t importan t t o stres s agai n tha t Beowulf' s distress o f m i n d occur s befor e h e discover s th e rol e o f th e hoar d i n th e feud.) B u t Hrothgar' s gift-sea t ha d remaine d a t leas t physicall y intact ; all h e neede d wa s a c h a m p i o n t o remov e th e barrie r betwee n himsel f and tha t literal-symboli c sea t i n order t o resum e hi s powers. Beowulf , on th e othe r hand , i s in need o f mor e drasti c remedy . I sugges t tha t th e dragon's hoard , w h e n h e i s made awar e o f it s existence , offer s itsel f t o his eye s a s a 'maj)áum ' t o replac e hi s destroye d ' g i f s t o l , ' a s a prospec tive redistributio n and rehabilitatio n ' c e n t r e' afte r h e avenge s th e feud . I realiz e the poe t doe s no t mak e thi s quid pro quo explici t (o r I w o u l d cite th e lines) , but th e hypothesi s doe s no t see m t o m e unreasonabl e i f we accep t a perspective o n th e her o a s a m o d e l of deportment , howeve r m u c h h e ma y b e w r o n g as t o th e valu e th e treasur e w i l l hav e fo r hi s nation. Som e recen t criticis m hold s tha t Beowulf' s decisio n to figh t th e dragon an d w i n the treasur e reveal s a n obstinac y o f m i n d , a foolis h trus t i n hi s o w n strengt h ( ' N i s f>aet eowe r si< J / n e geme t mannes , ne f ne m i n anes,' 2532b-3) , a denia l of relianc e u p on G o d , and a n ignorin g of hi s followers' 'ceas e an d desist ' entreat y ' N e meahto n w e gelaera n leofn e |>eoden, / . . . / ]>ae t he n e grett e goldwear d jx>ne, ' 3 0 7 9 - 8 1 ) ; b u t thi s is t o ignor e th e heroi c expectation s o f th e measur e o f th e h e r o w h i c h 12

13

14

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is s o m u c h a part o f th e poem' s fabric . T h e hoar d i s thus , i n its positiv e meaning, no t o n l y th e foca l p o i n t and stimulu s o f heroi c exploi t — it i s as w e l l a s y m b o l of som e themati c consequence. B y concentrating o n thi s valu e o f th e treasur e an d it s dua l relation t o treasure-giving , w e ca n w i t h Chernis s se e th e h o a r d a s repre sentative o f men' s worthines s an d h o n o u r throug h thei r deed s an d it s reburial w i t h th e dea d B e o w u l f a s a s y m b o l of th e Geats ' dishonou r an d unworthiness i n their defection . Suc h a n interpretatio n i s attractive , and I a m tempte d t o pus h i t a b i t farthe r b y suggestin g tha t th e ruste d and ultimatel y useles s hoar d i s an analogu e fo r th e coward s themselves , their h o n o u r gon e t o rust , an d tha t th e still-gleamin g standard tha t lights th e ground-plai n fo r Wigla f insid e th e m o u n d ( 2 7 6 7 - 7 l a ) similarl y is a n analogu e fo r Wiglaf , th e retaine r i n w h om th e heroi c ligh t stil l shines. S u c h a single-minde d interpretation ca n o n l y b e maintained , however, a t th e expens e o f ignorin g other manifestation s o f th e hoard' s being an d essence . F o r ther e ar e obviou s negativ e association s tha t th e poet ha s bee n a t som e pain s t o foreground . Throughout th e p o e m h e ha s vilifie d th e hoardin g o f w e a l t h : h e ha s praised th e practic e o f it s antithesis , fro m B e o w u l f I's d i s t r i b u t i o n of treasure ' o n faede r bearme ' throug h Hrothgar' s dispensatio n o f rewards ; and h e ha s condemne d i t outrigh t i n the twice-tol d e x e m p l um o f Here m o d an d i n Hrothgar's warnin g t o B e o w u l f t o esche w th e pat h o f miser liness. Th e treasur e hoar d b y it s very essenc e i s ' h o a r d i n g ' an d 'not giving'; i n th e poem' s contex t i t canno t avoi d th e implication s of nig gardliness. I t i s indeed a fittin g s y m b o l i c counterpart t o it s anti-king ' a g e n d , ' th e d r a g o n . B u t i t shoul d no t b e confuse d w i t h treasur e per se o r w i t h gold-giving : Hrothgar' s sermo n i s not directe d agains t gol d as such , o n l y agains t a n unremittin g accumulatio n o f it . W i t h it s negativ e an d positiv e implication s of meaning , th e hoar d pulls i n t wo direction s a t once , an d th e narrativ e feature s o f par t II reflect thi s doubl e direction . Beowulf's desire t o gai n it , his eagernes s to se e i t befor e h e die s s o tha t h e ma y di e th e easie r b y hi s vie w o f i t (2749b-51), an d hi s hop e fo r i t a s hi s people' s salvatio n ar e c o n c o m i tants o f it s positiv e themati c r o l e . Th e hoard' s elegia c buria l by th e las t survivor, th e unrightfu l behaviou r o f th e drago n ( ' u n r i h t e , ' 3059a ) i n keeping i t hidden , it s reburia l an d uselessnes s t o th e Geat s — these be long t o it s negativ e meaning . B u t ther e i s a furthe r possibilit y on th e negative side , embodie d i n th e poet' s Christia n perspective. H o w poten t this perspectiv e i s fo r meanin g depend s u p o n th e critic' s generic vie w of th e p o e m an d hi s consequen t understandin g o f Hrothgar' s sermo n 16

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and it s relatio n t o Beowulf' s later actions , th e secon d accoun t o f th e hoard's burial , and th e poet' s explici t remark s abou t burie d treasure . We migh t legitimatel y expec t tha t a n A n g l o - S a x o n Christia n poet and hi s audienc e w o u l d see i n th e burie d rustin g earthl y treasur e a n i n t i m a t i o n o f a heavenl y treasur e b e y o n d th e ravage s o f time . Y e t th e poet ha s don e remarkabl y littl e in a n explici t wa y t o encourag e respons e to suc h a n overton e o f meaning . Ther e i s Hrothgar's a d m o n i t i o n t o B e o w u l f t o choos e 'ec e raedas ' (1760a) ; ther e i s th e curs e o n th e hoar d w h i c h involve s m e n t i on o f 'dome s daeg, ' ' s y n n u m scildig, ' an d 'hell bendum faest , ' phrases w h i c h sho w 'tha t th e poe t i s not reall y t h i n k i ng i n heathe n t e r m s ' despit e th e narrativ e contex t o f th e curse ; ther e i s the poet' s interpolatio n o f line s 2764b-6 : 18

Sine eaá e maeg , s gehwon e gold o n grund(e ;)) gumcynne hyde s e e mann a wae s maegen e strenges t / o n f>ae m daeg e jjysse s lifes ' ( 7 8 9 - 9 0 ) — but h e i s only a stron g m a n , an d th e p o e m thu s reveal s h o w th e bes t o f h u m a n being s migh t c o m p o r t themselve s i n thei r struggle agains t th e hopeles s odd s o f th e enemy . I f th e poe t ha d bee n indiscriminate i n his use o f th e supernatural , i f he ha d lavishe d fab ulous power s o n ogr e an d c h a m p i o n alike , the n th e her o w o u l d hav e become a k i n d o f monste r himself , an d Beowulf, instea d o f bein g a heroic p o e m , w o u l d hav e bee n a romanti c fabl e describin g the conflic t between goo d monster s an d ba d monsters . The poet' s concer n t o portra y B e o w u l f a s a m an rathe r tha n a s superhuman i s revealed i n his repeate d allusion s to th e hero' s physica l limitations an d vulnerability . M o s t memorable , perhaps , i s the accoun t of Beowulf' s sufferin g an d deat h i n th e las t par t o f th e p o e m , a sub ject w h i c h i s discussed w i t h characteristi c eloquenc e i n J o hn C . Pope' s essay fo r th e M e r i t t Festschrift. B u t ther e ar e earlie r reminders o f h u m a n fallibility . I n line s 73 9 an d followin g w e se e tha t B e o w u l f i s incapable o f preventin g G r e n d el from k i l l i n g an d devourin g the Geat 1

2

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ish warrio r H o n d s c i o h, an d late r h e confesse s t o Hrothga r (960-2 , 967-70) tha t h e lacke d the strengt h t o h o l d th e monste r i n th e hal l and k i l l h i m there , a s h e wante d t o do . Th e poe t tell s us tha t B e o w u l f all bu t die d i n his struggl e w i t h th e ha g (155 0 ff) , a fac t w h i c h th e hero himsel f acknowledge s i n his report s t o Hrothga r (1655-7 ) an d t o Hygelac (214 0 ff) . In th e drago n fight , onl y W i g l a f s intervention saves B e o w u l f fro m a n instan t an d ignominiou s death. T h e inade quacy thu s demonstrate d wa s sense d b y th e her o earlie r w h e n h e apologized fo r havin g to us e a swor d and armou r i n his las t adventur e (2518 ff) . Her e a s elsewher e i n his closin g speeches , 'th e sens e o f hi s o w n vulnerabilit y seems t o dra w h i m close r t o th e p e r i o d o f b o y h o o d d e p e n d e n c y , ' an d w e ar e reminde d tha t throughou t th e p o e m h e ha s been p o r t r a y e d a s a m a n , no t a demigod . B u t i s it tru e tha t i n characterizing B e o w u lf th e poe t systematicall y eschews element s o f th e marvellous ? Doesn't h e i n fact sometime s allow th e hero' s physica l power s t o gro w embarrassingl y fa r b e y o n d h u m a n dimensions ? B e o w u l f remain s underwate r fo r hour s — or per haps fo r a n entir e da y — as h e descend s t o th e b o t t o m o f Grendel' s mere. A l o n e , h e carrie s thirt y suit s o f armou r fro m th e battlefiel d in Frisia an d swim s w i th the m throug h th e N o r t h Se a an d th e Skagerra k to Geatland , a distanc e o f som e fiv e hundre d miles . In earl y lif e h e swam fo r fiv e t o seve n day s w i t h hi s c o m p a n i o n Breca , slayin g se a monsters b y night . At thes e point s i n th e narrativ e i t w o u l d see m tha t the d i s t i n c t i o n between th e power s o f me n an d th e power s o f hi s supernatural adversarie s become s quit e indistinct . A t leas t tw o critic s of th e p o e m hav e perceive d just h o w importan t these lapse s ar e fo r ou r understandin g o f th e natur e an d meanin g of Beowulf. C i t i n g th e thre e episode s just mentioned , R o d n e y Delasant a and James Slevi n p o i n t ou t tha t suc h feat s temporaril y remove Beo w u l f fro m th e categor y o f ' h i g h m i m e t i c h e r o' an d mar k h i m instea d as a 'romanc e hero , ' on e w h o i s superio r no t o n l y t o othe r m e n bu t also t o hi s environment. B y applying N o r t h r op Frye' s term s t o Beo­ wulf, Delasant a an d Slevi n b r i n g into clea r focu s th e tension s betwee n epic an d romanc e qualitie s w h i ch seeme d t o troubl e W . P . K e r : 'Ther e was a dange r tha t B e o w u l f shoul d be transforme d int o a sor t o f A m ad i s , ' h e muses , an d conclude s uncertainly , 'thi s dange r i s avoided, a t least i n part. ' It i s my purpos e i n th e presen t essa y t o argu e that , i f we retur n t o the tex t o f Beowulf an d examin e eac h o f th e thre e occasion s wher e Beowuîf seem s t o b e temporaril y endowe d w i t h supernatura l powers , 4

5

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we w i l l discove r a strang e insubstantialit y in the evidenc e fo r suc h en dowments. I n fact , I a m convince d that th e suppose d evidenc e fo r a superhuman B e o w u l f i s largely a fictio n o f editoria l interpretatio n and commen t an d tha t B e o w u l f throughou t i s conceived of a s a hero ic ma n an d no t a s a romanc e hero . Th e reaso n fo r th e supernatural izing misinterpretations , I shal l furthe r suggest , i s that i n reading th e p o e m scholar s ma y hav e bee n excessivel y influenced by it s folktale analogues an d s o hav e sometime s rea d bac k int o th e sophisticate d text o f th e poe t a w i l d extravaganc e w h i c h h e ha d carefull y purge d from th e materia l he adopted . T H E DESCENT INTO GRENDEL'S M E R E

In hi s accoun t o f Beowulf' s figh t w i t h th e ogres s th e poe t i s a t som e pains t o explai n tha t th e conflic t doe s no t tak e plac e under wate r bu t rather i n a dry chambe r wher e n o wate r c o u l d reac h th e combatants : D a s e eor l ongeat , h e [in ] niásel e n a t h w y l c u m waes, |>aer h im naenig waeter wiht e n e sce£>ede , ne h i m fo r hrofsel e hrina n ne meht e faergripe flodes . ( 1 5 1 2 - 1 6 ) J3aet

8

Thus localized , Beowulf' s exploi t i s one w h i c h w e c o u l d imagin e a h u m a n bein g performing, and a s th e figh t progresse s an d h e begin s t o lose ground , we ar e prepare d t o believ e that th e her o i s indeed fight ing desperatel y fo r hi s life . This carefu l circumscriptio n o f th e hero' s powe r i s c o m p l e t e ly undercut, however , b y th e standar d interpretatio n o f th e line s de scribing Beowulf' s descen t throug h th e water : b r i m w y l m onfen g hilderince. D a waes h w i l daeges , aer he |)on e grundwon g ongyta n mehte . (1494-6

)

The surgin g water close d over th e warrior . T h en it wa s the space of a day befor e h e c o u l d se e th e b o t t o m o f th e mere . This i s the sens e supplie d by earl y editor s an d translators . L a t e r edi tors, apparentl y embarrasse d b y th e hero' s holdin g hi s breath an d

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swimming d o w n w a r d for a n entir e day , endeavou r t o reduc e th e tim e spent sinkin g t o th e b o t t o m : ' h w i l daeges, ' say s Klaebe r (186) , mean s " a goo d part o f th e d a y , " no t "th e spac e o f a d a y , "' an d mos t m o d ern scholar s have agreed . B u t i t i s strange tha t ther e i s no m e n t i o n elsewher e o f th e hero' s fantastic abilit y t o trave l underwater fo r hour s o n end , an d strange r still tha t th e poe t proceed s immediatel y to contradic t himsel f b y de picting th e distanc e fro m th e surfac e o f th e mer e t o th e b o t t o m no t as a day' s j o u r n ey bu t a s a very shor t space . F o r in lines 158 8 an d following, w h e n B e o w u l f behead s th e monster , spillin g hi s b l o od int o the water , w e ar e t o l d tha t m e n standin g abov e th e mer e immediately ('sona') se e th e gor e c h u r n u p t o th e t o p : 4

syf^an h e . . .

H r a wid e sprong ,

hine |> a heafde becearf . Sona |>ae t gesawon snottr e ceorlas , |)a á e m i d Hroágare o n holm wliton , |>aet waes yágeblond ea l gemenged , b r i m blod e fah . (1588-94 ) A n d th e hero' s o w n ascen t t o th e shor e seem s a matte r o f moment s (1618-24) rathe r tha n a day's j o u r n e y. S u c h apparen t inconsistencie s certainly justify R . W . Chambers ' exasperation: ' W e may rende r thi s phrase [i.e. , ' h w i l daeges' ] eithe r " a larg e part o f th e d a y " o r " t h e space o f a d a y , " a s w e w i l l . . . unreason lik e thi s i s possible in Beo­ wulf, thoug h on e wonder s h o w s o farfetche d a n ide a ever occurre d t o anybody. ' B u t i s the farfetche d ide a really i n the text , o r i s it o n l y i n th e minds o f th e commentators ? ' H w i l daeges, ' I believe , does no t mea n either 'th e spac e o f a d a y ' o r 'th e larg e par t o f a d a y ' bu t simpl y ' d a y t i m e , ' an d al l the poe t i s saying is that b y th e tim e B e o w u l f reached th e b o t t o m o f th e mer e i t wa s alread y daylight . S. O. A n d r e w suggested thi s interpretatio n briefl y i n his Postscript on Beowulf (Cambridge 1948 , 99) , but E . V . K. D o b b i e dismissed the ide a w i t h o ut a r g u m e n t , an d s o fa r a s I a m awar e i t has neve r bee n advocate d since. A n examination of th e phras e 'daege s h w i l ' i n its occurrence s throughout O l d English poetry , however , suggest s tha t A n d r e w wa s almost certainl y correct : 9

10

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f>a waes o n J)a m ofne , |>ae r se enge l b e c w o m , w i n d i g an d w y n s u m , weder e gelicos t |>onne hit o n sumere s t i d sende d weoráeo * dropena drearun g o n daege s hwile , wearmlic w o l c n a scur. (Daniel 345-9 ) T h e n , w h e n th e ange l came , i t wa s air y an d pleasan t i n th e furnace , most lik e th e weathe r i n summer , w h e n th e droppin g o f rain , th e w a r m showe r fro m th e clouds , is sent i n th e daytime . . . . J D o n n e o n sumere s t i d sende d weorá e dropena dreorun g m i d daeges hwile. (Azarias 63-4 )

[ F r o m th e sam e contex t a s Daniel 345-9 ] . . . w h e n th e droppin g of th e rai n i s sent durin g th e daytime .

dryhtsele dyrnn e ae

h o r d ef t gesceat , r daege s hwile.

(Beowulf 2319-20

)

H e [i.e. , the dragon , w h o flies o n l y a t night ] returne d t o hi s hoard , his secre t dwelling , befor e d a y l i g h t . 11

A paralle l phrase i s used i n th e poet' s statemen t indicatin g that th e dragon flie s b y night :

nihtes h w i l u m

lyftwynne heol d (Beowulf 304 3 -4)

he h e l d swa y i n the j o y o u s ai r b y night . The manifes t meanin g o f th e phras e 'daege s h w i l ' (an d 'nihte s h w i l ' ) i n thes e passages w o u ld see m t o indicat e tha t th e o n l y reasonable in terpretation o f Beowulf 1495- 6 i s ' T h e n i t wa s daytim e befor e h e c o u l d ge t t o th e b o t t o m . ' Thi s reading no t o n l y preserves th e h u m a n dimensions o f th e her o bu t als o conform s w i t h th e poet' s carefull y marked time-sequenc e throughou t th e episode . Grendel' s mothe r raids th e hal l a t night , an d Hrothga r i s n o t i f i ed immediately (1279 1309). B e o w u l f i s summoned, an d h e reache s Hrothgar's chambe r ' s a m o d aerdaege ' (1311 ) — that is , in th e earl y hour s o f th e m o r n i n g

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before d a y b r e a k . I t i s growing light a s th e warrior s procee d t o w a r d the mere , fo r the y ar e abl e t o se e th e b l o o d y trac k o f th e ogres s ove r the m o o r (1402-4) . I n 149 5 th e poe t say s i t wa s broa d dayligh t ( ' h w i l daeges ') w h e n B e o w u l f plunge d t o th e b o t t o m o f th e lake . T h e strug gle i s arduous, an d th e Dane s see m t o wai t a lon g tim e befor e givin g up thei r w a t c h a t ' n o n daeges, ' tha t is , at mid-afternoo n (1600) . I t i s just then , however , tha t B e o w u l f overcome s th e ha g an d behead s Grendel. H e swim s q u i c k l y t o th e to p o f th e mere , rejoin s hi s com rades, an d the y repai r t o th e Danis h hall, wher e Beowulf' s t r i u m ph i s celebrated u n t i l nigh t fall s an d th e banque t end s (1789-90) . Th e poet's markin g o f th e passag e o f tim e i s exceptionall y clea r — 12

1311-12 S a m o d aerdaeg e / eod e eorl a su m . . . 1495 D a waes h w il daege s . . . 1600 D a c w o m n o n daege s . . . 1789-90 N i h t h e l m geswearc / deor c ofe r d r y h t g u m u m . . . — provide d w e understan d ' h w i l daeges ' t o mea n ' d a y t i m e ' an d no t 'the spac e o f a d a y ' o r 'th e larg e par t o f a d a y . ' Once thes e factor s ar e al l taken i n t o account , th e meanin g 'day t i m e ' rathe r tha n 'spac e o f a d a y ' seem s s o inevitabl e tha t on e w o n ders what c o u l d have give n rise an d longevit y t o th e erroneou s in terpretation. Th e answer , I suspect , i s i m p l i e d i n the commen t w i t h w h i c h Klaebe r annotates th e passage : 1 3

1495. h w i l daeges , ' a g o o d par t o f th e d a y , ' . . . A l o n g time i s re quired fo r th e sam e purpos e i n severa l correspondin g folk-tales , see Panze r 119 . Panzer doe s indee d provid e example s o f suc h descent s requirin g twenty-one days , a year , an d eve n thre e years . B u t neithe r her e no r i n othe r part s o f Beowulf, s o fa r a s I a m aware , doe s th e poe t sho w himself t o b e suc h a slav e t o folktal e source s tha t h e canno t alte r a n inappropriate detai l whe n h e wishes . I suspec t tha t i t i s no t s o m u c h his judgment a s th e judgmen t o f m o d e r n scholar s w h i c h has bee n over mastered b y th e folktal e sources . T H E R E T U R N F R O M FRISIA

Lines 2359b-6 8 o f Beowulf

axe generall y suppose d t o tel l th e stor y

Elements of the Marvellous in the Characterization of Beowulf

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of a n astoundin g geste performe d b y th e her o afte r Hygelac' s defea t i n Frisia : fronan B i o w u l f c o m sylfes craefte , sundnytt e dreah ; haefde h i m o n earm e (ana ) fmti g hildegeatwa, |> a he t o h o l m e (st)a g . . . Oferswam a son a sw a |>a m e n n \>e on |>a m scip e waero n u t o n |>aere saes d y p an gesegle d haefdon , |> a onsend e G o d mycelne re n 7 1 4

15

16

1 7

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strangne w i n d 7 grimme yst e o n f> a sae , sw a fjaet |>ae t scip n e miht e na|>er ne for á s w y m m a n n e underbae c . . . A conflatio n of Wentersdorf's conclusion s w i th m y o w n w o u l d y i e l d thi s interpretatio n o f th e verse s quote d above : ' F r o m ther e [i.e., fro m th e battle ] cam e B e o w u l f b y mean s o f hi s o w n physica l strength — undertook a j o u r n ey o n th e sea . H e ha d hel d battle-gear o n hi s ar m w h e n h e move d towar d th e se a . . . T h e n , alone an d wret ched, th e so n o f Ecgtheo w crosse d th e expans e o f ocean , returnin g t o his o w n people . ' Thi s cautiou s translatio n i s better founded , I believe, than previou s one s base d o n th e o l d editorial reconstructions an d a d hoc interpretation s o f word-meanings . Ther e i s nothing i n thi s trans lation abou t fantasti c s w i m m i n g feats, i t w i l l b e noted , althoug h ther e is no deart h o f the m i n Panzer's collectio n o f parallel s ( 2 6 9 - 7 0 ) . , 1 8

19

20

T H E SWIMMING F E A T WITH B R E C A

T h e stor y o f Beowulf' s e x p l o i t w i th Brec a differ s i n k i nd fro m th e two event s discusse d above . I t doe s no t tak e plac e i n th e poem' s pre sent tim e bu t i s reported a s somethin g w h i c h occurre d year s earlier . This tempora l distanc e give s th e adventur e a slightl y differen t valenc e from tha t o f th e centra l narrativ e actions , on e l i n k i n g i t a s m u c h w i t h the remembere d deed s o f H r e t h e l , H e r e m o d, and S c y l d Scefin g a s w i t h thos e o f th e matur e B e o w u l f . I n anothe r sens e to o th e Brec a episode i s different: i t neve r come s t o u s w i t h th e direc t authorit y o f the poet' s o w n voic e but i s reported i n tw o contrastin g version s b y characters w i t h i n th e p o e m — first b y U n f e r t h afte r h e ha d drun k deep o f th e bee r an d win e (531 , 1467 ) an d the n b y th e indignan t Beo wulf. E i t h e r the hostil e circumstance s o f th e tellin g o r th e tempora l remoteness o f th e event s describe d lead s t o a curiou s inconsistenc y and vaguenes s i n the reports . Beowulf' s counter-versio n plays d o w n certain aspect s o f Unferth' s initia l account . H e an d Brec a wer e to gether o n th e se a fo r five , no t seve n nights ; the y wor e protectiv e arms, an d althoug h th e wind s were c o l d , B e o w u l f doe s no t sa y i t wa s winter. A l s o , wherea s U n f e r t h make s i t appea r tha t th e t w o contes tants se t ou t s w i m m i n g ('eagorstream earmu m |>ehto n . . . m u n d u m b r u g d o n ' ) , B e o w u l f use s th e verb s ' r o w a n ' ('t o g o b y water , r o w , s a i l ' ) , a n d ' f l e o t a n ' ('t o float, drift , flow , s a i l ' ) . ( T h e o n l y othe r occurrence o f ' f l e o t a n ' i n the p o e m clearl y has th e meanin g ' s a i l ' : 'fleat famigheal s for á ofe r y á e , ' 1909. ) I t i s onl y durin g the las t night o f th e Brec a episod e tha t B e o w u l f describe s himsel f a s actuall y 21

22

23

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being i n the wate r (55 3 ff) , an d tha t i s when he grapple s w i t h th e 'merefixas. ' B u t even here th e possibilit y o f a raft o r boa t bein g present canno t b e completel y ruled out, althoug h I conside r thi s unl i k e l y . Th e settin g i s also somewha t unclea r i n Beowulf's account . Usually h e agree s w i th Unfert h i n locating the actio n on th e ope n sea , but i n line 56 8 h e indicate s tha t th e monster s h e fough t wer e deni zens o f th e f o r d s . Perhap s ther e i s a rational e fo r thes e variations: Unferth exaggerate s th e dimension s of th e episod e i n order t o empha size Beowulf' s foolhardines s i n undertaking it, and s o Beowulf , i n rebuttal, represent s i t a s a somewha t les s prodigious undertaking. B ut whatever th e reason , Beowulf' s version , w h i c h, I presume , w e ar e ex pected t o credi t mor e seriousl y than w e ar e Unferth's , presents th e events o f th e swimmin g fea t i n terms les s imposing and mor e non committal tha n i s the cas e w i t h Unferth' s jeering a c c o u n t . However problematica l these detail s may be , suc h loca l probing s ignore th e grea t overridin g uncertaint y o f th e Brec a episod e — the mystery a s t o w h o Unfert h i s and wha t i s the natur e o f th e entir e ex change betwee n B e o w u l f an d th e '|>yle . ' I t i s this enigmati c quality of th e ' U n f e r t h Intermezz o ' tha t leave s scholar s undecided as t o whether th e tal e o f Beowul f an d Brec a shoul d be interprete d a s sobe r history, a boisterous flyting , o r ' w h o p p i n g l i e s . ' Therefore , i n th e remaining page s o f thi s paper I shal l tur n t o th e proble m of Unferth , trying t o determin e afres h wha t w e k n o w and d o no t k n o w abou t hi s character an d h o w w e ar e t o interpre t th e stor y w h i c h hi s report introduces int o th e poem . A l t h o u g h interpretation s o f Unferth's characte r hav e bee n richl y diverse, i n general the y fal l int o tw o broa d categories , thos e w h i c h conceive o f th e 'Jjyle ' a s a seriou s an d powerfu l figure an d thos e w h i c h se e h i m as essentiall y a sourc e o f diversio n o r a n objec t o f ridicule i n the Danis h c o u r t . Critic s w h o vie w h i m as seriou s o r sin ister usuall y assume tha t th e contes t w i t h Brec a i s to b e take n mor e or les s a t fac e value . Those w ho vie w h i m as playin g a lighter role often interpre t th e tal e o f th e Brec a swi m a s a n exaggeratio n o r a j o k e . Neithe r view ha s bee n firml y establishe d o r i s like t o be . Quit e possibly th e '}>yle ' represented fo r th e audienc e o f th e poe m som e social rol e involving a combinatio n of grave an d playfu l element s w h i c h i s n ow b e y o nd ou r ken , the institutio n itself havin g eluded precise record . Recently, however, i t seem s t o m e tha t increasin g evidence ha s com e t o ligh t whic h give s support t o th e les s serious inter pretations o f Unferth an d weaken s th e cas e fo r th e sombr e readings . 24

25

26

27

28

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I shal l revie w and supplemen t tha t evidenc e here . M o s t critic s have assume d tha t th e designatio n ' | ) y l e ' mark s U n f e r t h as holde r o f th e solem n offic e o f king' s spokesman o r counsellor , bu t the entr y fo r '|>yle ' i n Bosworth-Toller, Dictionary, point s ou t tha t the glos s 'áelum ' t o ' s c u r r i s ' suggests rathe r tha t 'hi s [Unferth's ] function wa s somethin g lik e tha t o f th e late r cour t jester, an d th e style o f hi s attac k o n B e o w u l f hardl y contradict s th e s u p p o s i t i o n . Recent studie s hav e adde d forc e t o thi s suggestion. A n o t h e r funda mental datu m fo r th e advocate s o f a seriou s U n f e r t h i s his siniste r name, fo r i f we assum e a certai n amoun t o f distortio n in the letter s and sounds , i t ca n b e construe d a s 'Unfriá, ' ' d i s c o r d , un-peace.' B u t , a s I hav e suggeste d elsewhere, th e meanin g o f th e nam e i n it s attested for m w i t h o u t distortio n has a t leas t a s m u c h t o r e c o m m e n d it: 'un-ferá ' t o th e unbiase d ey e w o u l d see m t o mea n ' u n i n t e l l i g e n c e ' or ' f o l l y ' rathe r tha n ' d i s c o r d . ' ( Cf 'leas-ferhá(nes)' ['levity , f o l l y ' ] , ' u n g e m y n d ' ['distractio n o r confusio n o f m i n d ' ] , ' u n g e w i t t' [ ' f o l l y ' ] , 'ungeraed' [ ' f o l l y ' ] , 'unraed ' [ ' f o l l y ' ] . ) Unferth' s nam e an d hi s officia l title p o i n t a t leas t a s m u c h i n the directio n of a jeering, risibl e performe r as the y d o o f a seriou s one . B u t i s such a rol e consonan t w i t h th e m o t i v a t i o n w h i ch th e poe t gives fo r Unferth' s railin g attack ? 929

30

31

32

waes h i m Beowulfe s siá , modges merefaran , mice l aef|>unca , f o r l ó n jj e h e n e u|)e , jsae t aeni g oáer m a n aefre maerá a |>on m a middangearde s gehede unde r heofenu m |>onn e he sylfa . (501-5

)

Surely thi s clea r statemen t justifies Bonjour' s inferenc e tha t U n f e r t h is 'jealou s o f hi s o w n glor y ' an d tha t onl y a m a n ' o f hi s p r o m i n e n t p o s i t i o n , ' ' a distinguishe d and gloriou s thane,' w o u l d harbou r suc h concern fo r hi s martia l reputation? S o i t w o u l d seem , bu t th e cite d passage w i l l bea r scrutin y befor e th e p o i n t i s granted. A s quoted, th e passage say s tha t U n f e r t h was u n w i l l i n g t o admi t tha t ' a n y othe r m a n o n eart h shoul d perform gloriou s deeds. ' B u t thi s meanin g i s achieved o n l y b y mean s o f a n emendatio n o f th e ver b 'gehedde ' t o 'gehede, ' w h i c h i s then interprete d a s preterit e subjunctiv e o f 'gehegan ' an d assigned th e uniqu e meanin g ' t o perfor m (deeds). ' Elsewher e in O ld English th e ver b alway s occurs w i t h 't>ing, ' 'seonoüt, ' 'spraec, ' o r 'maeáel' a s it s direc t objec t an d mean s ' t o h o l d ( a meeting).' Lef t i n 33

Elements of the Marvellous in the Characterization of Beowulf

129

its origina l manuscrip t f o r m , 'gehedde ' w o u l d b e preterit e o f 'gehe d a n ' ( heed, car e for' ) (se e Klaeber' s glossary s.v . 'hëdan') . I f th e sen tence i s read thi s w a y , the n U n f e r t h emerge s a s a characte r w i t h a most unheroic , Falstaffia n attitude towar d heroi c deeds : h e d i d no t want t o gran t tha t othe r me n care d fo r glor y o r fo r deed s o f glor y ('maeráa') an y mor e tha n h e himsel f d i d . This i s not a n inappropriat e sentiment fo r a m a n w h o , th e poe t late r tell s us, willingl y 'forlea s ellenmaeráum ' (1470-1) . Perhap s ther e i s more tha n a little o f th e swaggering c o w a r d in U n f e r t h, and th e speec h remindin g B e o w u lf o f a pas t failur e i s motivated b y a desir e t o scar e th e her o ou t o f hi s com mitment t o fac e G r e n d e l . If th e speec h i s successful, the n U n f e r t h w i l l have show n th e Dane s tha t h e i s not alon e i n his distast e fo r derring do. The accusatio n o f fratricid e (58 7 ff , 116 7 ff ) ha s w i d e l y , thoug h not universally , bee n take n a s a charg e o f cowardic e against U n f e r t h , and i t i s this interpretatio n tha t consort s bes t w i t h th e readin g ' gehedde ' just advocated . U n f e r t h was suc h a crave n tha t h e w o u l d no t even fulfi l th e thane' s dut y t o figh t alongsid e hi s closes t k i n when they wer e i n desperate straits . B u t i f this i s so , h o w ar e w e t o justif y the vehemenc e an d gravit y o f Beowulf' s statement , '|)ae s J)u i n helle scealt / werhií o dreoga n '? M o r e tha n on e criti c ha s bee n trouble d b y the apparen t excessivenes s o f thi s dar k curse . Chamber s suggeste d that Beowulf' s taun t ma y b e merel y a countercheck quarrelsome ' t o the abusiv e ' | > y l e . ' Charle s Donahue says , 'I t i s u n l i k e ly tha t Beo w u l f i s referring here t o a Christia n infernum ' sinc e th e her o w h o i s elsewhere characterize d a s a pious paga n c o u l d hardl y hav e k n o w ledge o f damnatio n i n Christian t e r m s . H e translate s ' h e l l e ' as ' i n the [paga n G e r m a n i c ] real m o f th e d e a d . ' Donahue' s p o i n t i s wel l taken, an d hi s translation , w h i c h mollifie s Beowulf' s taun t consider ably, ma y b e right . Before interpretin g th e text , however , i t i s instructive onc e agai n to l o o k a t th e word s a s the y appear , o r d o no t appear , i n the manu script. A n examination of th e facsimile s of C o t t o n Vitellius A . X V w i l l sho w n o trac e o f a w o r d ' h e l l e ' in the manuscript , an d th e com mentaries o f Z u p i t z a an d M a l o n e c o n f i r m tha t th e onl y vestig e o f a w o r d a t thi s p o i n t i s a fina l '-e, ' w h i c h i s n ow covere d b y th e lea f binding. M o d e r n editor s hav e inserte d th e w o r d ' h e l l e ' solel y o n th e authority o f th e T h o r k e l i n transcripts , an d thes e to o meri t scrutiny . L o o k i n g a t T h o r k e l i n ' s o wn c o p y ( T h o r k e l i n B ) , w e fin d tha t th e w o r d ' h e l l e ' has bee n inserte d ' o n a n origina l blan k i n another i n k . ' 4

4

34

35

3 6

130

F r e d C . Robinson

E v i d e n t l y T h o r k e l i n wa s unabl e t o mak e ou t anythin g in th e manu script a t thi s p o i n t an d s o lef t th e spac e blank ; later, h e mus t hav e copied th e w o r d fro m Transcrip t A into hi s o w n transcription . It i s l i k e l y , then , tha t T h o r k e l i n A constitutes th e sol e authorit y fo r thi s reading. The testimon y o f T h o r k e l i n ' s copyist is not t o b e treate d lightly , o f course , an d ye t thi s i s a peculiarly delicate case . E x c e p t fo r th e covered '-e, ' ther e i s no sig n of a w o r d ' h e l l e ' in th e manuscrip t to day, an d w h e n T h o r k e l i n examine d th e manuscrip t ther e wa s no t enough ther e fo r h i m t o mak e anythin g out . Surel y the copyist , whose transcrip t precede d T h o r k e l i n ' s ' by a fe w month s o r week s o n l y , ' m u s t hav e base d hi s readin g ' h e l l e ' on manuscrip t evidenc e w h i c h wa s alread y quit e deteriorated . Considerin g h ow m u c h dif ficulty th e copyis t had i n transcribing accurately eve n thos e word s w h i c h ar e perfectl y clea r i n th e manuscrip t toda y (especiall y in th e first par t o f th e p o e m wher e h e wa s strugglin g w i th a n unfamiliar script), w e migh t reasonabl y thin k o f hi s ' h e l l e ' a s littl e mor e tha n a game tr y a t reconstructin g los t character s fro m th e vestige s w h i c h h e descried a t th e c r u m b l i n g edge o f th e foli o leaf . One o f th e chroni c errors i n A ' s transcriptio n i s the addin g o r omit ting o f letter s i n a diphthong . O n l y fou r word s afte r th e m o o t ' h e l l e ' he write s 'J)eaeh ' fo r th e manuscrip t readin g 'j^eah. ' Conversely , he writes ' h a l l e ' for ' h e a l l e ' i n line 8 9 an d ' h a l d ' for ' h e a l d ' i n line 2 2 4 7 . He sometime s miswrite s th e ' e a ' d i p h t h o n g a s ' e , ' a s i n ' b e d w a ' fo r ' b e a d w a ' (709 ) an d 'begas ' fo r 'beagas ' (3105) , an d h e start s t o writ e ' p e l h p e o n ' fo r 'wealh{>eon ' (629 ) bu t ' c o r r e c t s ' thi s t o ' p e a l h p e o n . ' In th e ligh t o f thi s latte r tendenc y an d o f hi s earlie r misreading of th e diphthong i n ' h e a l l e , ' I conceiv e th e disturbin g possibility tha t th e original w o r d wa s ' h e a l l e ' rathe r tha n ' h e l l e ' in line 5 8 8 , i n w h i c h case th e passag e w o u l d rea d 'jsae s {>u in healle sceal t / werhíí o dreo gan': ' f o r tha t y o u mus t endur e condemnatio n i n the h a l l . ' I t i s no t m y concer n her e t o promot e thi s reading , althoug h som e migh t fin d it preferabl e o n severa l count s t o th e ' h e l l e ' of th e transcripts . I wan t o n l y t o illustrat e th e tenuit y o f th e hithert o unquestione d ' h e l l e , ' w h i c h ha s bee n though t t o introduc e suc h seriousnes s int o Beowulf' s retort t o U n f e r t h . H o w the n ar e w e t o interpre t Unferth' s character ? I f presse d in sistently fo r a n o p i n i o n , I w o u l d sa y tha t h e seem s t o b e a blustering, mean-spirited c o w a r d w ho doe s no t enjo y th e respec t o f his com r a d e s an d w h o seek s t o bolste r hi s self-estee m b y decryin g Beowulf' s 3 7

38

39

Elements of the Marvellous in the Characterization of Beowulf

131

past performanc e an d presen t qualifications . B e o w u l f imperturbabl y answers hi s hostil e jibes, firs t b y givin g a mor e modes t an d convincin g version o f th e b o y h o o d experienc e w h i c h U n f e r t h recounte d an d the n b y alludin g p o i n t e d ly t o th e cowardic e o f th e ' J D y l e ' an d t o hi s defi cient ' w i t , ' ' h i g e , ' an d ' s e f a ' (589-94) . T h e Dane s ar e amuse d an d i m pressed b y th e hero' s perceptivenes s i n seein g U n f e r t h fo r wha t h e is , and the y rejoic e tha t suc h a resourcefu l c h a m p i o n i s prepared t o assis t them ( 6 0 7 - 1 1 : ' D a waes o n salu m since s b r y t t a . . . Dae r waes haele{) a hleahtor'). U n f e r t h resume s hi s accustome d stat e o f disestee m i n H e o r o t . B u t a s th e narrativ e progresses , B e o w u l f graduall y regenerate s the worthles s U n f e r t h int o a m a n o f som e dignit y an d valu e i n th e court (a n ac t o f generosit y w h i c h has bee n remarke d b y mor e tha n one studen t o f th e poem) . B y allowin g U n f e r th t o suppl y th e swor d needed fo r hi s secon d fight , th e her o impart s a measur e o f reflecte d glory t o th e lesse r man , whos e pusillanimit y nonetheless stand s i n effective contras t t o th e valou r o f B e o w u l f . Later, whe n h e refuse s t o blame H r u n t i n g fo r it s failur e an d return s i t t o U n f e r t h ceremoniousl y and w i t h hig h prais e (1659-60 , 1807-12) , B e o w u l f confer s th e mos t dignity h e ca n u p o n th e 'Jjyle, ' w ho i s n o longe r calle d ' U n f e r t h , ' bu t only 'sun u Ecglafes.' This hypothesi s a s t o wha t Unferth' s characte r an d hi s relatio n t o B e o w u l f ma y b e w o u l d accor d w i t h m y readin g o f th e Breca-tal e a s a semi-serious affai r an d als o ha s a certai n inne r consistency . Moreover , the relatio n I sugges t her e betwee n her o an d p o l t r o o n i s m u ch lik e that describe d i n anothe r narrativ e o f th e Danis h cour t i n Hrothgar' s time — the Hrolfs saga kraka, chapte r 2 3 . Ther e w e ar e t o l d tha t th e r o y a l hous e a t Leir e is plague d b y a nocturna l monster , an d whe n th e bear-like her o Boávar r Bjark i arrive s o n th e scen e prio r t o doin g battl e w i t h th e monster , h e encounter s th e despise d cowar d H o t t r . Boávar r treats H o t t r roughly , bu t eventually , i n th e cours e o f purgin g th e Dan ish cour t o f th e monster , h e regenerate s th e coward , just a s B e o w u l f regenerated U n f e r t h . I n a n inciden t involvin g th e lendin g o f a swor d called ' G u l l i n h j a l t i ' (whic h scholar s hav e note d i s cognat e w i t h th e ' g y l d e n h i l t ' o f Beowulf 1677) , Boávar r contrive s t o gai n som e estee m for H o t t r fro m th e monster-slaying , an d th e erstwhil e b u f f o o n gain s a new reputatio n an d a ne w name . Conceivabl y we hav e her e a remot e echo o f th e interpla y betwee n B e o w u l f an d U n f e r t h . The characterizatio n o f H o t t r i n th e sag a demonstrate s tha t a Ger manic autho r c o u l d conceiv e o f a relatio n suc h a s I hav e suggeste d for B e o w u l f an d U n f e r t h , bu t i t shoul d b e apparen t fro m th e sceptica l 40

132

F r e d C . Robinson

treatment w h i c h I hav e give n to analogue s i n th e firs t par t o f thi s paper tha t I w o u l d b e u n w i l l i n g t o regar d th e paralle l as probativ e evidence o f th e O l d English poet' s intentions . Indeed , a s I hav e sai d before, I fin d th e dat a insufficien t t o warran t an y definitiv e inter pretation o f U n f e r t h . He ma y be , a s som e hav e thought , a serious , sinister character , bu t th e evidenc e fo r thi s i s weak, an d i t i s a t leas t as likel y tha t h e i s a k i n d o f jester, a s B o s w o r t h - T o l l e r suggests , o r that h e i s a fello w o f l o w reputation i n th e cour t lik e H o t t r i n th e saga. G i v e n th e uncertaint y a s t o hi s character , i t i s impossible t o argue w i t h m u c h c o n v i c t i o n from th e evidenc e o f th e swimming-tal e w h i c h h e introduce s i n t o th e p o e m . I t i s conceivable tha t th e Brec a story i s serious, bu t i t c o u l d als o b e a w i l d y a r n spu n b y th e enviou s '|>yle,' o r a flyting , o r Unferth' s effor t t o star t a l y i n g m a t c h . The undu e importanc e w h i c h ha s bee n accorde d th e Brec a episod e in th e pas t i s in part a legac y o f th e earl y m y t h o l o g i z i n g critic s lik e M u l l e n h o f f an d Sarrazin , w ho viewe d th e s w i m m i n g feat a s a slightl y veiled Naturmythus an d henc e though t i t comparabl e i n importanc e to th e drago n figh t an d th e contest s w i t h th e G r e n d e l k i n . T h e pre disposition t o se e th e Brec a adventure a s m u c h bigge r tha n lif e ma y have bee n nurture d b y Panzer' s carefull y collecte d saga-parallels . T r o u b l i n g aspect s o f th e U n f e r t h episod e a s a w h o l e c o u l d alway s b e shrugged of f w i t h th e explanatio n tha t ' t h e y mus t b e l o o k e d u p on a s an inheritanc e fro m th e olde r legend s w h i c h ha d com e d o w n fro m a ruder a g e , ' a n d thi s attitud e ma y hav e discourage d clos e scrutin y o f the textua l mainstay s o f th e receive d interpretatio n — such a s th e name an d offic e o f U n f e r t h a s wel l a s hi s m o t i v a t i o n , the precis e terms i n w h i ch B e o w u l f describe s hi s o w n feat , an d th e manuscrip t evidence fo r hi s threa t o f hel l i n his retort . I f th e earlie r interpreta tions o f thes e matter s hav e no t bee n replace d her e w i t h i n d u b i t a b l y surer an d superio r ones , I believ e the y hav e a t leas t bee n show n t o b e less certai n tha n scholar s ha d previousl y assumed. I f so , thi s mus t qualify one' s interpretatio n o f th e evidenc e fo r astoundin g feat s i n the Brec a episode, just a s th e textua l realitie s o f line s 1494- 6 an d 2354-68 mus t b e take n int o accoun t i n assessin g th e supposedl y mar vellous element s earlie r i n th e p o e m . 4 1

42

4 3

NOTES 1 O f course this does not mean that he was ineligible for divine favour. J u s t as Achilles enjoys the patronage of Athene and Hera, Beowulf occasionally receives

Elements of the Marvellous in the Characterization of Beowulf

133

the support of a G o d w h o m he but little knows or understands. In a Christian view such favour would not set h i m apart from other men. 2 A l l quotations from Beowulf 'Fight

are from Klaeber's edition, 'Beowulf

9

and the

(3rd ed., Boston 1950), except that I have dispensed with

at Finnsburg,

9

Klaeber's macrons and other diacritics. Quotations from other O l d English poems are taken from The Anglo-Saxon

ed. G . P . Krapp and E . V . K .

Poetic Records,

Dobbie (New Y o r k 1931-53). 3 'Beowulf's O l d A g e , ' in Philological Language

and Literature

in Honour

Essays:

Studies

of Herbert

in Old and Middle

Dean Meritt,

English

ed. J . L . Rosier (The

Hague 1970), 55-64 4 Wiglaf's speech in 2663-8 is a fitting emblem of the poet's tactful merging of Beowulf's pre-eminence with his human limitations: L e o f a Biowulf,

laest eall tela,

swa au o n geogudfeore

geara gecwaede,

J>aet ¿u ne alaete

be de lifigendum

d o m gedreosan;

scealt nu daedum rof,

aeàeling anhydig, feorh ealgian;

ealle maegene ic áe fullaestu.

Invoking the king's youthful boasts as a means of urging h i m on to a last desperate effort is fine, but best is the lexical play by which Wiglaf emphasizes that even in his own y o u t h he is inferior to the mighty king: only Beowulf can 'perf o r m ' ; Wiglaf can but 'supplement the performance' ('laest eall tela . . . ic te fullaestu'). Klaeber's note here that 'there is a singular lack of propriety in making young Wiglaf administer fatherly advice to B e o w u l f seems to me to overlook the studiously respectful tone of the speech. 5 Pope, 60 6 'Beowulf

and the Hypostatic U n i o n , ' Neophilologus

52 (1968) 409-16.1 disre-

gard a fourth element of the 'marvellous' which the authors mention ('his voyage from Geatland to Denmark, although not miraculous, is surrounded b y an aura of wonder and majesty ') since this is a matter of interpretation. I also disregard here the main concern of the article, which tends toward theological explication. What I have f o u n d valuable is the authors' perceptive formulation of the apparently mixed quality of the characterization in the narrative. 7 Epic

and Romance

Proceedings

(2nd ed., L o n d o n 1908), 175. C f Frank Beaumont,

of the Royal

Philosophical

Society

of Glasgow

'Beowulf,

38 (1906-7) 201-33,

esp. 210-17. 8 Comparable settings are indicated in Norse analogues, of course; cf R . W . Chambers, Beowulf:

An Introduction

(3rd. ed., Cambridge 1959), 52-3 and 451-85.

9 Chambers, 465 10 Anglo-Saxon

Poetic Records,

I V , 196

11 Dobbie's suggested translation of 'daeges hwile* as 'a [good] part of the day

9

134 F r e d C . Robinson [had passed] ' (196) must have been arrived at without reference to the passages here cited from Daniel

and Azarias

and in the hope of offering some support for

the traditional interpretation of 1495b in Beowulf. sulted agree in rendering Beowulf

A l l the translations I have con-

2320b 'before daytime / the time of day / day-

break / daylight / d a w n ' rather than 'before a [good] part of the day [had passed].' 12 'aerdaeg' appears to be equivalent to ' u h t a ' (Beowulf daege'; cf Andreas

235, 1388; Elene

126: ' o n uhtan m i d aer-

105) and both words are used to translate

Latin 'matutinus.' In the Cleopatra Glossary appears the explanation 'Matutinu m , uhttid, siue beforan daege' (Wright-Wülcker 450:3). C f F . Tupper, Saxon

Dœg-mœl

at Beowulf

Anglo-

(Baltimore 1895), 37. T h e phrase 'somod aerdaege' occurs again

2942, referring, presumably, to the pre-dawn hour at which Hygelac's

troops arrived and saved the Geatish raiding party from being destroyed b y the Swedes 'on mergenne' (2929). 13 In addition to satisfying the time-sequence in the poem, the mention of daylight in 1495 would also accord logically with the immediately ensuing context, if I understand it aright: because b o t t o m of the mere, therefore

it is broad daylight when Beowulf reaches the the ogress is able to observe his arrival instantly

('Sona {>aet onfunde'). This logical relation could be clearly displayed through a repunctuation of the passage if one were willing to accept S . O . Andrew's principles for interpreting introductory 'Da-'clauses (Postscript,

11-12): ' A s it was

daylight before he could gain the b o t t o m , the ravenous, greedy one who had occupied the watery region for fifty years perceived immediately that a man was exploring the realm o f monsters from above. ' 14 Anglo-Saxon

Poetry,

selected and translated by R . K . G o r d o n ( L o n d o n 1954), 47

15 'Beowulf's Retreat from Frisia: Some Textual Problems in LI. 2361 -2362,' SP 62 (1965) 1-16 16 'Beowulf's Withdrawal from Frisia: A Reconsideration,' SP 68 (1971) 395-415 17 Wentersdorf, 402-3. That 'sund-' in 'sundnytt' means 'sea' rather than 'swimming ' seems to me particularly likely when we note that in every other nominal c o m p o u n d with 'sund-' attested in the poetic corpus ('sundbuend,' 'sundgebland,' 'sundhelm,' 'sundhengest,' 'sundplega,' 'sundreced,' 'sundwudu') the first element means 'sea' and not 'swimming.' Further, in the other two O l d English nominal compounds with ' n y t t , ' the first element is in b o t h cases a n o u n denoting the location o f the act, not an abstract n o u n of means: ' c y r i c n y t t , ' 'weoroldn y t t . ' ' S u n d n y t t , ' then, w o u l d appear to mean 'use of the sea' and the poetic phrase 'sundnytte dreah' 'he made use of the sea' or, as Wentersdorf suggests, 'he made the sea trip. ' 18 Paul E . Szarmach, 'Three Versions of the J o n a h Story: A n Investigation of Narrative Technique in O l d English Homilies,' Anglo-Sax

on England

1 (1972) 186.

Elements of the Marvellous in the Characterization of Beowulf

135

The use of 'swim * to refer to the progress o f a boat over the water continues in Middle and early M o d e r n English. (See Wentersdorf, 403-7.) Shakespeare uses the word in this sense in Julius

Caesar, V . i . 6 7 , and in As You Like

It, I V . i . 4 0

('... y o u have swam in a gondola'). 19 A s I point out in 'Beowulf's Retreat from Frisia,' the customary translation of 'hildegeatwe' as 'suits of armour' and the emendation ' a n a ' are incorrect, and the numeral X X X is not to be trusted. See especially 2-7. 20 Wentersdorf's linguistic critique, to which I have referred here, is but a part of his argument. His article subsequently explores analogues in O l d English and cog­ nate literatures which suggest that the Beowulf

poet probably conceived o f his

hero as making his way from Frisia through the Skagerrak by ship. 21 This may seem a shadowy distinction, but I believe it is a real one. M a n y readers w o u l d have been troubled, for example, if the author had introduced giants and the fabulous Weland as royal smiths at Hygelac's court, but it does not seem unfit­ ting that Beowulf's heirloom armour is 'Hraedlan laf, Welandes geweorc,' or that he wields an ancient sword called 'the work of giants' (1558, 1562, 1690, etc; cf 2616, 2979). So long as they do not intrude into the poem's present time such fabulous elements seem to leave undispelled our sense that the characters are human beings. 22 C . L . Wrenn, in his edition of the poem (195), notes that 'Rowan not occur in that sense in poetry outside Beowulf. word 'row, hence

" s w i m " does

' In his glossary he defines the

swim.

9

23 Bosworth-Toller, Supplement,

records two prose occurrences of 'fleotend' used

specifically to modify 'fisc' in the formula 'fleotende fixas and fleogende fugelas,' but there are no instances of the word being used to describe men swimming. 24 T h e earliest editor of the poem conceived that a vessel was present in the adven­ ture — not through one of his many misunderstandings of the text but through retention o f the manuscript reading 'wudu weallendu' in 581, which he trans­ lates 'lignis spumantibus.*

See G . J . T h o r k e l i n , De Danorum

rebusgestis...

(Havni 1815), 46. Zupitza's note to 581 in the E E T S facsimile says, 'wudu

not

wadu without the least doubt; an a open at the top does not occur so late in Eng­ lish M S S . ' Subsequent editors uniformly emend to 'wadu weallendu' in order to bring the line into conformity with 546a, although the formula occurs nowhere else. Syntactical considerations and the similarity of phrases like 'brim weallendu' (Beowulf

847) seem to me to argue strongly for the traditional emendation

'wadu. ' But it should not be forgotten that it is an emendation. 25 Alistair Campbell, ' T h e Use in Beowulf fore

the Conquest:

Studies

in Primary

of Earlier Heroic Verse,' in England Sources

Presented

to Dorothy

be­

Whitelock,

ed. Peter Clemoes and Kathleen Hughes (Cambridge 1971), 284, calls attention to the o d d appearance of ' f o r d ' in this context and questions whether it should

136

F r e d C . Robinson

be emended to ' f l o d . ' Campbell also remarks the o d d application of 'rowan* ('row') to swimmers. Unferth (512) as well as Beowulf uses ' r o w a n ' in descri­ bing the feat. 26 Beowulf's only heightening of the details of the episode would seem to be his in­ troduction of the sea-monsters, and such prodigies, as we have seen, are a given in the poet's portrayal of the hero's adversaries. A further departure from Unferth's account, one which I have not mentioned above, is Beowulf's statement in 541-3 that he would not swim far from Breca, nor could Breca swim far from h i m . Pre­ vailing opinion has it that this is an explicit contradiction of Unferth's statement that the adventure began as a race. Possibly, but there is a simpler explanation: perhaps the gallant hero intended to remain close to the weaker Breca until they were near their goal, at which time he would outstrip him and win the race with­ out ever being b e y o n d call if his companion should need help. Once again, the cryptic mode of the narrative here does not permit certainties. 27 T h e last phrase is that of N o r m a n E . Eliason, ' T h e t>yle and Scop in Speculum

Beowulf,'

38 (1963) 272. This article is a valuable and provocative re-examina­

tion of the entire question of Unferth's character. 28 It is generally agreed, of course, that Unferth serves an important purpose within the economy of the poem in that he tests the hero at a crucial point in the nar­ rative. This function is served whether he is a statesman or a poltroon. 29 T h e gloss occurs in the Cleopatra Glossary as 'de scurris • h o f delum.' I agree with Bos worth-Toller that ' h o f represents ' o f (with inorganic 'h-') rendering Latin 'de.' T h e associations of 'scurra' and *t>yle' in O l d English are expertly treated in James L . Rosier's 'Design for Treachery: T h e Unferth Intrigue, * PMLA

77

(1962) 1-3. 30 See especially the articles by Rosier and Eliason. 31 T h e most persuasive and influential statement of this view is that o f M o r t o n W. Bloomfield, 'Beowulf Traditio

and Christian Allegory: A n Interpretation of U n f e r t h , '

7 (1949-51) 410-15.

32 'Personal Names in Medieval Narrative and the Name of Unferth in Beowulf,' Essays

in Honor

of Riche bourg Gaillard

McWilliams,

in

ed. Howard Creed (Birming­

ham, A l a . 1970), 43-8 33 A d r i e n Bonjour, The Digressions

in Beowulf

(Oxford 1950), 17-22. See further

the important modifications of Bonjour's analysis in his Twelve

Beowulf

Papers

(Neuchatel 1962), 129-33. 34 Chambers, 28 35 'Beowulf Traditio

and Christian Tradition: A Reconsideration from a Celtic Stance, ' 21 (1965) 92

36 Zupitza, 29 37 The Thorkelin

Transcripts

of Beowulf

in Facsimile,

ed. K e m p Malone, Early Eng-

Elements of the Marvellous in the Characterization of Beowulf

137

lish Manuscripts in Facsimile, I (Copenhagen 1951), 4 38 A . G . Brodeur, The Art of Beowulf

(Berkeley 1959), 155, speaks for many when

he observes that 'no one can . . . ignore the weight of Beowulf's assertion that the penalty Unferth must pay for his brothers' death is damnation in hell. ' 39 T h e statement in 1165-6 that the men in the hall trusted in Unferth's 'ferhj>' (probably a p u n on his name) and ' m o d ' means, I take it, that in the joyous atmosphere of the victory celebration good will was extended to even the meanest of the company. T h e statement is preceded b y the allusion to the temporary good will between Hrothulf and Hrothgar and followed by the reminder that U n ­ ferth had failed his brothers 'aet ecga gelacum.' 40 Whether it was the Danish courtiers who conferred the demeaning name ' U n f e r t h ' on the *J>yle' or whether he acquired it elsewhere cannot be determined from the text with certainty. It is to be noted that Beowulf's sympathetic concern for reha­ bilitating Unferth takes on special poignancy when we recall that the hero him­ self was once held in low esteem by his fellow men (2183 ff). 41 See W . W . Lawrence, Beowulf

and Epic

Tradition

(Cambridge, Mass. 1928), 151-

2. C f Klaeber, 147, note 2. 42 Lawrence, 153 43 I wish to thank Professors Stanley B . Greenfield and E d w a r d B . Irving, J r , for reading this essay and offering suggestions for improvement.

INDEX OF T E X T U A L INTERPRETATIONS Beowulf

505

'gehede.' Restore M S 'gehedde* ('heed, care for') 128-9

539

'reon* = 'rowed, sailed'? 126

542

'fleotan' = 'float, sail*? 126

581

' w a d u . ' Restore M S 'wudu* ('wood,' i.e. 'boat')?

588

'helle.'Read'healle'?

499, 530, 1165, 1488 1495

130

' U n f e r * ' = 'nonsense, f o l l y ' 128

'hwil daeges' = ' d a y t i m e ' 121-4

135 note 24

This page intentionally left blank

E.G. STANLEY

Some observations on the A3 lines in Beowulf

Where suc h reaper s a s Sievers , Han s K u h n , A . J . Bliss , an d J o h n Pop e himself hav e bee n harvestin g i t i s presumptuous t o hop e fo r gleanings : when the y hav e reache d n o certainty , certaint y ma y no t b e attainable . Every analysi s o f versification , however , take s a differen t lin e fro m a different poin t o f departure . M i n e bega n w i t h multisyllabi c initial dip s i n th e half-line s o f Beowulf, w i t h K u h n ' s grea t articl e a s a theoretica l and practica l basis ; bu t i t soo n becam e apparen t tha t eve n suc h a ver y l i m i t e d survey , confine d to , i n Sievers' s terminology , A 3 , B and C lines (as wel l a s a smal l numbe r o f others) , al l w i th thre e o r mor e syllable s i n the initia l dip , w o u l d b e ver y b u l k y . Moreover, sinc e A 3 lines ar e con fined t o th e firs t half-lin e wherea s al l others occu r i n eithe r half , A 3 lines mus t b e considere d separately , awa y fro m a consideratio n o f th e peculiarities o f th e initia l di p o f th e secon d half-line . I n considerin g A 3 lines , on e mor e nam e i s t o b e adde d t o th e lis t o f thos e w h o hav e done origina l and usefu l w o r k , tha t o f E r i c h Neune r w h o ha s no t bee n given th e attentio n hi s w o r k deserves. Sinc e i n thi s stud y I confin e my self t o A 3 lines I hav e include d no t o n l y thos e w i t h multisyllabi c initia l dip (whic h ar e c o m m o n ) , bu t als o half-line s o f o n l y tw o unstresse d syllables befor e th e singl e alliterativ e stress : suc h half-line s ar e compar atively rar e (se e Rhythm, 8 3 ff) . It i s a featur e o f th e w o r k o f A n g l o - S a x o n metrists tha t thei r variou s findings canno t b e reconciled . O n th e whol e Bliss' s analysis, w i t h Sie vers a s a foundation , seem s th e mos t helpfu l fo r th e ver y l i m i t e d aim s of thi s study . I diffe r fro m Bliss , however , o n th e doubl e alliteratio n 1

2

140

E . G . Stanley

involving verb s i n th e firs t stresse d positio n o f th e A half-line, in spit e of hi s ver y carefu l discussio n i n Metre, §20 . Hi s view involve s a tighten ing o f K u h n ' s Satzpartikelgesetz t o cove r wha t K u h n himsel f e x p l i c i t l y exempted fro m th e operatio n o f th e ' l a w ' (PBB 57 [1933 ] 11) . It seeme d a t firs t sigh t a n attractiv e propositio n t o regar d line s liste d by Siever s a s bearin g ful l stres s o n media l syllable s (c f Altgermanische Metrik, §78 ) a s expande d A 3 lines o f th e typ e X X _ / \ X , tha t is , w i th the media l syllabl e bearing half-stress , no t ful l stress , suc h half-stres s being th e expansio n (a s i n Sievers's A * , _ / X l _ / X i s expande d t o _ / X l _ / \ X ) . Example s o f suc h line s includ e 'Gewâ t # â nëosian ' (115) , ' F u l of t gebëotedon ' (480) , 'hraá e hê o aejjelinga ' (1294 , unles s trans verse alliteratio n wer e though t t o mak e i t a D line), all of w h i c h hav e been carefull y considere d b y Professo r Pop e i n hi s analysi s o f C line s (see especiall y Rhythm, 293-6) . I n th e en d I abandone d tha t view , partly becaus e suc h half-line s occasionall y occu r w i t h o n l y a singl e un stressed syllabl e i n th e firs t di p ('Sw à rixode,' 144 ; 'Sw â bealdode, ' 2177) w h i c h w o u ld mak e on e wis h t o clas s the m a s a typ e D w i th sin gle lif t rathe r tha n a s typ e A ; and chiefl y becaus e ther e seem s t o b e n o good reaso n w h y ver y simila r half-lines (e.g . 'jjàr a |> e h ë cënoste, ' 2 0 6 b ; 'JDaet i c m ë ¿énigne, ' 1772b ; '|)ae t h ë Wealdende, ' 2 3 2 9 b ; an d w i t h monosyllabic firs t di p '|> â sëlestan, ' 3122b ) shoul d hav e bee n tolerate d i n th e secon d half-lin e i f they ha d bee n fel t b y th e poet s t o b e a t al l lik e A 3 line s use d b y the m i n th e firs t half-lin e o n l y (c f Metre, §88) . Further more, a s Professo r Pop e say s (Rhythm, 295-6) , th e subsequen t histor y of th e languag e a s see n i n th e scansio n an d rhyme s o f M i d d l e E n g l i s h supports th e assumptio n o f ful l stres s i n ordinaril y half-stressed syllables , where th e metr e require s ful l stress . The followin g considerations , w h i c h I pu t i n th e for m o f questions , underlie th e shap e o f thi s stud y o f A 3 lines i n Beowulf: 1 Doe s th e stres s (whic h take s th e alliteration ) fal l A / on a n o u n , adjec tive, adverb , numeral , ' h e a v y ' p r o n o u n , o r B / on a verb (whic h ma y be a n infinitiv e or a participl e formin g par t o f a verb-group) ? 2 Wha t w o r d doe s th e initia l di p begi n w i t h , a connective, o r a verb , or what ? 3 Ha s th e alliteratin g w o r d a n unstresse d prefix ? 4 I s th e alliteratin g stres s resolved ? 5 Doe s th e alliteratin g stres s com e o n a shor t syllabl e f o l l o w e d by o n l y one unstresse d syllable ? 6 I s th e syllabl e f o l l o w i n g th e alliteratin g stres s overweighted ? 7 C o u l d th e half-lin e involv e cross alliteratio n o r transvers e alliteration ? 3

4

5

Some Observations on the A 3 Lines in Beowulf

141

8 Wha t i s Klaeber's p u n c t u a t i on befor e an d afte r th e half-line ? 1 an d 2 provid e a roug h classification , A and B depending o n wher e the o n l y stres s o f th e half-lin e goes, an d the n ther e ar e furthe r sub divisions i n alphabetical orde r o f th e initia l unstresse d w o r d o f th e half line. 3 t o 6 lea d t o m y providin g some prosodi e detail s fo r th e stresse d w o r d . A s far a s I ca n tell , n o systemati c conclusio n is to b e draw n fro m these liste d details , excep t that , a s migh t b e expected , unstresse d pre fixes ar e ver y c o m m o n w h e n th e stres s fall s o n a verb (tha t is , in cate gory B ) , an d rar e otherwis e (example s o f prefixe s c o m i n g on word s othe r than verb s do , however , occu r i n lines 544 , 1626 , 1628 , 1 7 2 1 , 1 7 3 2 , 1998, 2 0 7 5 , 2 2 2 1 , 2 6 3 0 , 2 8 0 4 , 2994 , 3 0 5 8 , 3104) ; th e greate r frequen cy i n th e cas e o f verb s i s presumably merel y th e resul t o f th e frequenc y of verba l prefixes, especiall y *ge-. ' T h e relativ e frequenc y o f typ e A 3 w i t h shor t alliterativ e stress, elicite d b y 5 , i s a fac t m u c h discusse d b y metrists. Complications o f alliteratio n are discusse d unde r 7 . Q u e s t i o n mark s indicate doubt ; thu s singl e ? mean s that , thoug h I a m no t sure , I thin k the alliteratio n c o u ld hav e bee n introduce d b y th e poe t deliberately ; double ? ? mean s that , thoug h I mysel f thin k th e alliterativ e c o m p l i cation i s fortuitous, som e peopl e migh t thin k tha t i t ha s bee n introduce d deliberately. Half-line s introduce d b y th e connectiv e ' o i l |>aet' provide a goo d exampl e o f th e k i n d o f doub t I felt . A s has bee n remarke d be fore, 'o á jjaet ' ca n begi n a numbered section , an d i n that p o s i t i o n an d often elsewher e (wher e ' u n t i l ' make s unsatisfactor y sense ) i t m a y b e translated a s a n adver b w i t h som e suc h meanin g a s 'a t l e n g t h . ' O f th e 32 occurrence s o f 'oafjaet ' i n Beowulf, 2 3 com e a t th e beginnin g of the secon d half-line . 12 o f thes e 2 3 occu r i n half-lines alliterating on vowels: tha t i s a hig h p r o p o r t i o n. Clearly , i n suc h line s 'oaet' canno t share i n th e alliteratio n (double alliteratio n in th e secon d half-line being agains t suc h rule s a s hav e bee n establishe d fo r O l d English i n th e last hundre d year s o r so) . Thi s is merely a troublesom e statistica l fact . N i n e o f th e occurrence s o f 'od |>aet ' come a t th e beginnin g of th e firs t half-line, an d o f thes e al l except 1414 , 1640 , an d 180 1 occu r i n A 3 lines (141 4 an d 164 0 ar e o f th e k i n d wher e th e stres s fall s o n a w o r d w h i c h I hav e discusse d above , tha t is , a trisyllabi c w o r d ordinaril y stressed _ / \ X ) . S i x A 3 line s ar e liste d b e l o w, an d i t i s p u z z l i ng tha t fou r o f them (9 , 2 1 9 , 1740 , 2934 ) hav e vocali c alliteration , so that , i f 'oaet' is though t capabl e o f sharin g i n alliteration, they c o u l d b e regarde d a s having doubl e alliteration . Professor Pop e believe s tha t thi s doubl e al literation i s accidenta l (Rhythm, 2 5 1 , 265-6) , an d o n th e whol e I a m 6

7

8

9

142

E . G . Stanley

inclined t o agre e because I l o o k u p o n th e simila r doubl e alliteratio n i n the secon d half-lin e a s fortuitou s likewise . In th e lis t suc h line s are , therefore, marke d w i t h a singl e questio n mark : I d o no t believ e tha t there i s doubl e alliteratio n i n these lines , bu t I d o no t thin k suc h a be lief unreasonable . I a m no t entirel y convince d tha t transvers e alliteratio n i s eve r mor e than fortuitous . I n hi s importan t listin g of alliterativ e p a t t e r n s , R . B . L e Pag e give s eight y example s o f cros s alliteratio n i n Beowulf an d 2 9 of transvers e alliteration . L i n e 261 5 (whic h lie s outsid e th e presen t study) i s a s clea r a n exampl e o f transvers e alliteratio n a s w e fin d i n Beowulf: 'brûnfàgn e h e l m , hringd e b y r n a n , ' bu t eve n tha t ha s bee n emended ou t o f existenc e metri causa b y s o m e . A t th e othe r en d o f the scal e o f certainty , I shoul d no t hav e though t tha t transvers e alliter ation ca n b e involve d in line s 3 5 5 , 5 3 5 , 8 1 3 , 1721 , 2 3 8 5 , 2 4 0 6 , 3 0 8 1 ; for I doub t i f words s o sligh t a s th e f o l l o w i n g can carr y alliteration : 'aëm daege / |>ysse s Hfes' (197 , 790 , 806 ) o r 'Règne s |>earfe, / swylc e |> y dô gore' (1797) . Tha t stil l leave s ove r twent y case s o f l i k e l y , o r a t leas t not ver y u n l i k e l y , transverse alliteration . 193 3 w i t h initia l 'nábnig ' seem s pretty certain ; an d s o doe s 189 2 w i t h ' n ô . ' Wher e th e ver b come s first , I a m als o i n c l i n e d to thin k tha t i t ma y b e involve d i n transvers e alliter ation, 1184 , 1573 , 173 2 (thoug h I recogniz e tha t i t fall s under th e head ing o f breache s o f K u h n ' s Satzpartikelgesetz, discusse d b y Bliss , Metre, §20), 2158 , 2 3 3 7 , 3 1 8 0 . Th e adverbia l phras e 'N ü h e r ' (2053 ) c o u l d well carr y additiona l weight , an d therefor e allo w o f transvers e allitera t i o n . Initia l ' s w y l c e ' i s involve d in alliterativ e complication s o n severa l occasions, an d ma y b e involve d in transvers e alliteratio n i n lin e 148 2 ' s w y l c e |) ü ¿3L màdmas , |) ë |> û m ê sealdest , ' on e o f thre e line s i n th e p o e m i n w h i ch ' m ë ' alliterates , bu t 249 0 indicate s tha t tha t doe s no t enable u s t o infe r anythin g fro m i t abou t transvers e alliteratio n i n 1482 . (The t h i r d lin e i s 563. ) L i n e 316 4 i s discusse d b e l o w fo r vocali c trans verse alliteration ; i t seem s very u n l i k e l y that 'swylc e . . . s w y l c e ' shoul d be involve d in som e furthe r alliterativ e c o m p l i c a t i o n . ' H w i l u m ' seem s to b e involve d m transvers e alliteratio n o n th e tw o occasion s th e w o r d comes i n a n A 3 lin e (1728 , 2020) , an d i n doubl e alliteratio n elsewher e (175, 864 , 2 1 0 7 ) ; an d a t 1828 b i t bear s th e alliteration . T h e us e o f 'gif ' i n transvers e alliteratio n (an d als o perhap s i n doubl e alliteration , 1846) ha s t o b e considered , becaus e th e p r o p o r t i o n o f A 3 lines w i t h initial ' g i f togethe r w i t h possibl e alliterativ e complication s i s h i g h; eve n 10

11

Some Observations on the A 3 Lines in Beowulf

143

so, i t i s doubtful i f the w o r d i s heavy enoug h fo r transvers e alliteratio n at 182 6 an d 1836 . T he exclamatio n ' H w a e t' i s not involve d i n alliterat i o n i n O ld English verse, and , therefore , transvers e alliteratio n is no t likely i n line 1652 . A t 2442 b th e connectiv e 'hwaedre ' alliterates , bu t in tha t lin e i t come s a s th e firs t elemen t o f th e grou p 'hwaeoV e sw â |)ëah,' quit e differen t fro m th e occurrenc e a t lin e 2 3 7 7 , s o tha t ther e is n o clea r parallel in Beowulf t o lea d t o th e assumptio n o f transvers e alliteration involvin g 'hwaeiíre ' i n line 2 3 7 7 . T h e matte r i s made mor e complicated b y th e emendatio n o f manuscrip t ' h i m ' (wit h h o r i z o n t a l stroke abov e ' i ' f o r ' m ' ) t o ' h i n e ' i n a contex t wher e a direc t objec t i s required fo r th e ver b ' h ë o l d ' ; recen t editor s (se e especiall y E . v. Schaubert's excellen t note ) have , however , retaine d th e manuscrip t readin g here. I f w e emen d t o ' h i n e ' an d a t th e sam e tim e believ e that 'hwaeüíre ' is involve d i n transverse alliteratio n we hav e on e mor e unstresse d syl lable betwee n 'hwaeáre ' an d ' f o l c e ' i n th e half-lin e 'hwaeáre h ê hin e o n f o l c e ' tha n elsewher e i n the p o e m (accordin g to Bliss , Metre, 125 , typ e l A * l c i n his scansio n i s the longes t sequenc e o f unstresse d syllables ; there i s no l A * l d ) . I f we believ e in transverse alliteratio n here w e mus t not emen d (o r w e produc e a lin e w i t h o u t paralle l metrically); i f we d o not believ e in transverse alliteratio n here w e ar e fre e t o emend . Ther e seems eve n les s justification fo r t h i n k i n g that i n lines 1535 , 2 6 6 9 , an d 3058 th e connective s ' j x m n e , ' 'aefter, ' an d ' f ) â ' are involve d i n trans verse alliteration. 12

Lines 779 , 265 1 (whic h i s not liste d b y L e Page), an d 3 1 6 4 hav e t o be considere d furthe r fo r transvers e alliteration . 779 shoul d perhap s not b e i n c l u d e d in thi s stud y a t all , bu t scanne d a s a B type w i t h resolu t i o n an d unusua l alliteration : '|>aet h it â m id gemete mann a âènig ' and tha t i s where Professo r Pop e place s i t (Rhythm, 2 8 5 - 6 ) ; but h e i s inclined t o emen d th e secon d half-lin e to 'ábni g m a n n a' becaus e o f th e unusual a l l i t e r a t i o n . T he o n l y reaso n fo r regardin g th e half-lin e as a short A 3 is that th e peculiaritie s w h i ch com e togethe r i n it hav e mor e and close r parallels among th e half-line s listed i n Rhythm, 2 7 3 - 4 , tha n among th e half-line s listed a s B3 i n Rhythm, 285-6 . I t i s most u n l i k e l y that i n line 265 1 cros s alliteratio n of ' m i e l e ' w i th ' m i n e ' i s involved o r that ' m e ' i s someho w involve d t o o : '£>ae t me" i s miele lêofre, f)ae t minne Hchaman , ' fo r possessiv e adjective s precedin g thei r n o u n i n th e same half-lin e do no t alliterat e - c f 1007 , an d not e 8 1 2 , 1754 , 317 7 for th e sufficienc y o f 'lîchoma . ' Andreas 156 3 ha s a somewha t simila r use o f ' m y c l e , ' clearl y outside th e alliteration : ' Is hi t m y c l e scire, |>aes {>e ic sô< Î talige,' and i t seem s bes t t o regar d th e possibilit y o f cros s 13

144

E . G . Stanley

alliteration i n th e Beowulfline a s accidental , perhaps eve n th e resul t o f scriba l addition o f ' m i e l e . ' T he t h i r d remainder , lin e 3 1 6 4 , involve s even greate r alliterativ e c o m p l e x i t y: 'eall swylc e hyrsta, swylc e o n horde ¿ér , ' words i n b o th half-line s beginning w i th vowel , ' s ' an d ' h . ' Correlative ' s w y l c ( e ) ' does not , however , participat e i n alliteratio n in the p o e m (se e 1249 , an d not e tha t th e mor e c o m m o n correlativ e ' s w a ' never share s i n alliteration) . In lin e 3164 , therefore , ' s w y l c e ' is used un stressed i n b o th halves . Stresse d use s o f ' s w y l e ' (e.g. 5 8 2 , 9 9 6 , 1347 , 2 2 3 1 , 2798 ) ar e quit e differen t fro m correlativ e uses a s i n 3 1 6 4 . U n d e r ' s w â ' i n th e lis t o f A 3 line s given b e l ow I mar k th e possibilit y that i t c o u l d b e involve d i n double alliteratio n w i th tw o questio n mark s fo r lines 109 2 an d 1223 , but d o no t mar k possibl e cros s alliteratio n fo r 943 an d 1283 . L i n e 1223 , 'efn e sw à sid e sw â sâ ê bebúgeá,' provide s the evidenc e tha t ' s w à ' i n the secon d half-lin e cannot alliterate , and , though i t i s not conclusiv e for th e firs t 'swâ, ' tha t make s i t reasonabl e to suppos e tha t th e firs t ' s w â ' i s unstressed too . I n th e listin g o f A 3 lines , Klaeber's p u n c t u a t i o n, considere d unde r 8, i s indicated i n parentheses befor e an d afte r th e half-line . E m p ty parentheses ( ) indicat e tha t Klaebe r has n o mar k o f p u n c t u a t i o n ; wher e Klaeber ha s a ne w paragrap h beginnin g w i th th e half-lin e listed th e mark o f p u n c t u a t i o n precedin g th e half-lin e is followe d w i t h i n th e parentheses b y th e letter s n.p. ; an d wher e a ne w cant o begin s w i t h th e half-line th e cant o numbe r i s given as i n the manuscrip t i f manuscript , or w i t h i n squar e brackets , a s i n Klaeber, if e d i t o r i a l . It seem s tha t A 3 lines frequentl y opene d cantos : abou t a quarte r o f th e canto s i n th e p o e m begi n w i t h A 3 lines . E d i t o r i al p u n c t u a t i o n is , of course , no t cer tain, an d editoria l practice differs . Klaeber' s practice i n general con forms t o th e rule s o f p u n c t u a t i o n fo r M o d e r n G e r m an w i t h som e com promise i n th e directio n of M o d e r n English practice ; Dobbie' s punctua t i o n i s lighter. E v e n so , lik e R u d o l p h Willard an d E l i n o r D . Clemons, I hav e preferre d t o rel y o n a n excellen t editor' s vie w o f th e sentenc e structure o f th e p o e m rathe r tha n adop t m y o w n , fo r I f o u n d that , lik e Willard an d Clemons , I wa s incline d t o th e vie w tha t A 3 lines c o m m o n l y begin th e sentence , tha t bein g a corollar y of K u h n ' s Satzpartikelgesetz and hi s Satzspitzengesetz; an d I wa s tempte d t o repunctuat e som e o f the line s o f th e p o e m t o mak e th e sentenc e structur e agre e bette r w i t h this n o t i o n o f wher e A 3 line s come . I n vie w o f th e frequency , however , w i t h w h i c h relativ e clause s begi n w i t h a n A 3 lin e (o r consis t entirel y o f an A 3 line ) i t i s d o u b t f ul i f we ca n generalize , an d sa y tha t A 3 line s ar e inceptive: i n fact , I doub t i f we ca n ad d t o Professo r Pope' s cautiou s 14

15

Some Observations on the A 3 Lines in Beowulf

145

statement 'tha t typ e A 3 i s e m p l o y e d ver y frequentl y a s a ligh t intro d u c t i o n t o th e weight y verse s tha t f o l l o w ' (Rhythm, 82) . That statemen t draw s attentio n t o wha t follow s the A 3 line , an d here i t i s clear tha t i n th e vas t majorit y o f case s Klaeber has n o mar k o f punctuation a t th e en d o f th e A 3 lin e — that is , in my n o t a t i o n th e half line i s followe d b y () . Som e o f th e difference s betwee n Klaeber' s punc tuation an d D o b b i e ' s lighte r (an d les s consistent ) p u n c t u a t i o n ar e sys tematic. Klaebe r uses a c o m m a w h e n a dependen t relativ e claus e follow s the (A3) m a i n clause ; D o b b i e usuall y doe s not ; Klaebe r uses a c o m m a before th e secon d ' s w a ' o r ' s w y l c ( e ) ' of a pair o f correlatives ; D o b b i e usually doe s not . D o b b i e i s fa r mor e sparin g tha n Klaebe r in hi s us e o f commas befor e n o u n clause s introduce d b y '|>aet. ' A p a r t fro m sporadi c us e o f comma s i n these thre e group s i n Dobbie' s edition (a s w e l l , o f course , a s i n Klaeber's), there ar e severa l A 3 half lines followe d b y a c o m m a w h e n th e A 3 half-line includes a verb , bu t there i s o n l y on e cas e o f suc h a c o m m a w h e n th e A 3 lin e does no t in clude a verb; b o th edition s agre e i n their p u n c t u a t i o n i n these cases . The on e exampl e o f a c o m m a a t th e en d o f a n A 3 lin e w i t h o ut ver b i s 1652, wher e th e sentenc e i s interrupte d b y tw o phrase s o f address : 'Hwaet, w ë |) ê £>â s s i l â c, sun u Heal f denes, / lêo d Scyldinga , lu s turn brôhton . . . ' Punctuatio n a t th e en d o f a n A 3 lin e i s more c o m m o n whe n that A 3 lin e contain s a verb , stresse d o r unstressed . A g a i n D o b b i e punc tuates mor e lightl y tha n Klaeber , systematically s o befor e relative s (bu t cf 5 0 6 , 3009 , fo r exceptions) , an d befor e n o u n clause s introduce d b y '|>aet' (bu t c f 290 , 1671 , 1846 , fo r exception s becaus e o f anteceden t ' h i t ' o r '|>aet') , an d als o befor e othe r kind s o f clauses , whethe r sub stantival o r adverbial , lik e 118 8 an d 240 3 (bu t c f 798 , 1392 , 2 9 7 6 , fo r exceptions). It i s obviou s tha t editoria l p u n c t u a t i on i s not a reliabl e guid e t o th e sentence structur e o f Beowulf', i t tell s u s o n l y h o w a m o d e r n grammar ian, takin g G e r m a n o r Englis h a s punctuate d i n his tim e a s hi s n o r m , thought i t bes t t o punctuat e Beowulf fo r moder n readers . W e ca n mak e assumptions abou t wha t form s a structura l uni t regardles s o f editoria l p u n c t u a t i o n . W e ma y fee l tha t a structur e i s interrupted (a s a t line s 1652-3), o r tha t som e dependen t clause s ar e s o closel y attached t o their m a i n claus e tha t Dobbie' s Englis h lac k o f p u n c t u a t i o n accord s bet ter w i t h wha t w e fee l i s right tha n Klaeber' s commas ; bu t w e hav e n o means o f testin g th e validit y o f tha t feeling . W h en th e m a i n claus e i s expressed b y a n A 3 line th e mos t w e ca n sa y i s that suc h m a i n clause s give th e impressio n o f leadin g forwar d t o thei r dependen t clause s w i t h -

146

E . G . Stanley

out interruption . Tha t impression , however , i s based o n wha t w e shoul d feel i n simila r cases i n M o d e rn English . Som e sentenc e structure s re quire m a r k i n g of f b y commet s i n modern practice , especiall y phrase s o r clauses thrus t int o th e middl e o f a structura l uni t an d fel t t o b e sep arable fro m it . Vocative s (e.g . 4 2 9 , 2000) , interjecte d prayer s (e.g . 435) , interposed explanation s (e.g . 706 , 9 6 7 , 2550) , o r othe r inclusion s (e.g . 7 3 1 , 1508 , 2124 , 2855 ) ar e punctuate d b y th e editor s a s the y w o u l d be i n M o d e rn English ; an d thoug h poeti c variatio n ha s n o c o m m o n l y occurring counterpar t i n M o d e rn English , i t i s near enoug h t o th e con cept o f adjunct s (appositional , o r seriat e i n othe r ways ) t o b e punctua ted similarly , that is , m a r k ed of f b y commas . I t is , however, noteworth y that suc h poeti c variatio n an d othe r form s o f (non-substantival ) paral lelism ar e f o u n d i n Beowulf only afte r thos e A 3 lines w h i c h have a ver b in them , usuall y w i t h th e stres s o n th e v e r b . Variation s an d parallel isms (includin g verbal parallelisms ) o f thi s k i n d ar e foun d i n th e follow ing lines : 3 6 1 , 386 , 1292 , 1573 , 1612 , 1626 , 1782 . Seriatio n o f shor t clauses i s clos e t o som e form s o f parallelism . An A 3 lin e consistin g o f a self-containe d simpl e sentenc e i s unique i n Beowulf (1232) , punc tuated w i t h a ful l sto p befor e an d afte r th e sentence . Ther e ar e othe r cases o f a n A 3 lin e consistin g o f a simpl e sentence , but , thoug h th e ed itors trea t 31 6 an d 132 2 a s self-containe d (thoug h b o t h c o u l d b e l o o k e d u p o n a s introducin g wha t follows) , they trea t 260 9 differently . 31 6 i s troublesome: w e shoul d expec t 'mábl ' t o b e stresse d an d alliterat e i n ' M i l i s më t ô fëran. ' I n th e simila r ' S o r h i s më t ô secganne ' (473 ) b o t h th e n o u n an d th e infinitiv e alliterate (an d c f th e secon d half-lin e o f 700 , 1322 , 1703 , al l w i th participles , no t infinitives , but otherwis e similar; an d al l alliterating o n th e initia l n o u n ) . 132 2 i s a simpl e sen tence, a c o m m a n d , th e abruptnes s o f w h i c h is , no doubt , a deliberat e stylistic device . I n Klaeber' s p u n c t u a t i o n , 260 9 i s punctuated w i t h a c o m m a afte r th e A 3 l i n e ; b u t Grein' s editio n o f 185 7 an d D o b b i e , nearly a hundre d year s later , hav e a c o l o n an d a semicolo n respectively ; the half-lin e i s the firs t o f a sequenc e o f thre e simpl e sentences . We m a y perhaps , therefore , generaliz e abou t th e sentence s i n w h i ch we fin d A 3 line s t o th e exten t that , o n th e whol e (an d a s migh t b e expec ted a s a consequenc e o f K u h n ' s Satzpartikelgesetz an d o f hi s Satzspitzengesetz),A3 line s com e ver y ofte n a t th e beginnin g o f sentences , an d usually lea d straigh t o n t o th e secon d half-line ; except that , w h e n th e A 3 lin e include s a verb , th e c o n t i n u i t y o f th e sentenc e structur e i s no t infrequently b r o k e n b y a n inclusion . V e ry occasionall y A 3 line s consis t of on e self-containe d simpl e sentence , w h i c h may com e a s th e firs t o f a sequenc e o f suc h sentences . 16

17

18

Some Observations on the A 3 Lines in Beowulf

L I S T O F A 3 L I N ES I N B E O W U L F

147

1 9

A Th e stres s fall s o n a n o u n , adjective , adverb , numeral , o r 'heavy * pronoun T h e firs t elemen t i s (o r contains ) a connectiv e (othe r tha n a negativ e or a relativ e pronoun ) ac (,) a c hin e s e môdeg a ( ) 81 3 (;) a c h i m o n hrejsr e ( ) 187 8 (,) a c h ê h i m o n hëafd e ( ) 2 9 7 3 (tr . allit . a c ? ? ) aefter (! ' n.p. ) ^ f t e r pzbm w o r d u m ( ) 149 2 (.' n.p. ) ^ f t e r dar n w o r d u m ( ) 266 9 (tr . allit . ^ f t e r ? ? ) 2tx (c f nô below ) (,)

20

aèr hë |>on e grundwong ( ) 149 6 _ / \

bûton (, — ) büton hi t wae s mar e ( ) 156 0 (,) büto n J>on e hafelan ( ) 161 4 ^ X X efne, se e swâ , swylc(e) , et c for-áam (;) f o r j a n i c hine sweord e ( ) 67 9 (.) F o r j a n bií andgi t ( ) 105 9 _ / \ (,) forba n h ë t ô lang e ( ) 133 6 ful oft , se e of t gif (,) gi f ic ae t Jjearf e ( ) 147 7 (.) G i f ic|>onne o n eorf)a n ( ) 182 2 (.) G i f h im Jjonne Hrë{>ri c ( ) 183 6 hraj>e (.) Hra{> e waes t ô bür e ( ) 131 0

_/\ (tr

. allit . G i f ? ? )

148 E . G . Stanley

(.) Hrae|) e weaní o n

yühim ( )

1437

hum (.) Hür u |)ae t o n lande ( ) 2836 (.' n.p. ) Hür u s e snotr a () 3120 hwaej>re (;) hwae{>r e h im sîo swi^tr e ( ) 2098 (;) hwaedr e hë hin e on folc e ( ) 2377 (tr . allit .

hwzcire?)

21

hwilum (.) H w i l u m h ë o n lufa n ( ) 1728 (tr . allit . i / w i l u m ? ) (.) H w i l u m fo r (d)uguá e ( ) 2020 ^ X X (tr . allit . 7/wîlum? ) nù (?) N ü hër J>âr a banena ( ) 2053

^ X X (tr. allit . TVu? )

oft (.) F u l oft i c for l i s s a n ( ) 9 5 l

2 2

ond (,) o n d J3±r o n inna n ( ) 71 (d . allit. o n d ? ? ) () o n d \>é tô gëoc e ( ) 1834 (,) o n d wë t ô symbl e ( ) 2104 (—,) o n d hi h y ne |)â bëgen ( ) 2707 oi |>ae t (,) oi |>ae t h im ¿ g h w y lc ( ) 9 J \ (d . allit. oi?) ( , ) o a | ) a e t y m b â n t î d ( ) 2 1 9 J \ (d . allit. oi?) ( - , X X V ) oi |>ae t h im on inna n ( ) 1740 (d . allit. oi?) (-,) oi t>ae t hë il bânhu s ( ) 3147 _/\ (cr . allit. - A ü s ? ? ) 2 3

si&fan (,) sifcáa n h i m S c y p p e nd ( ) 106 (,) syi\)an hi e f>aes Huían ( ) 132 ( ! ) S i í í a n t> á f ¿ h á e ( ) 4 7 0 (,) sia n h ë hiñ e t ô güá e ( ) 1472 ( , ) syJDm?)

25

24

Some Observations on the A 3 Lines in Beowulf

(,) (,) (,) (,)

sy^áa n i c on yrr e ( ) 209 2 syááa n hyne Haeácy n ( ) 243 7 J \ syááa n i c for dugeáu m ( ) 250 1 X syo^a n hie tôgaedr e ( ) 2 6 3 0 X _ /X

sôna (;) sôn a m ë s e mábra ( ) 201 1 (.) Sôn a h i m se frôd a ( ) 292 8 swâ (. n.p . V i l l i ) Sw â me c gelôm e ( ) 559 X _ / X ( ) efn e sw â h w y l c maeg{) a ( ) 94 3 () efn e sw â swïd e ( ) 109 2 (d . allit. s w â ? ?) (,) efn e sw â sid e ( ) 122 3 (d . allit . s w â ? ?) () efn e sw â miel e (, ) 128 3 (,) efn e sw â o f hefene ( ) 157 1 ^ XX (.) Sw â wae s on á ¿ m scennu m ( ) 169 4 (.) Sw â w ë JDcêr inné ( ) 211 5 (,) efn e sw â h w y l c u m mann a (, ) 305 7 swylc, swylc e () efn e swylc e mábl a (, ) 124 9 (;) swylc e |> ù aâ mâdmas (, ) 148 2 (tr . allit . swylce? ) (;) g ë swylc e së o herepâd (, ) 225 8 ^ X _ \ (,) eal l swylc e hyrst a (, ) 316 4 (tr . allit . e a l l ? ) 26

sym(b)le (;) syml e i c h im on fë#a n ( ) 249 7 |>â

27

(. n.p . I) Dâ wae s on b u r g um ( ) 5 3 (.) D â wae s on ùhtan ( ) 12 6 (;) f) â waes aefter wist e ( ) 12 8 (.) D â w i t aetsomne ( ) 5 44 X _ / X (! ' n.p. ) t> â waes o n sâlu m ( ) 60 7 (. n.p . XI) D â corn o f môre ( ) 71 0 (. n.p . XIII) D â wae s on morge n ( ) 83 7 (,) hë o unde r swegl e () 107 8 (.) D â wae s on heall e () 128 8 (.) D â wae s o f £>ábm hrôran ( ) 162 9

149

150 (.) frâ

E . G . Stanley w a e s b e f e a x e ( ) 164

7

(.) t> â w a e s o n g a n g e ( ) 188

4

(.) t> â w a e s o n s a n d e ( ) 189

6

(.) t> â waes b e maest e ( ) 190 5 (.) t> â waes ae t 3a m geong^ n ( ) 286 0 (.) D a w i r o n monig e (, ) 298 2 X (. n . p . X L I I ) l>à waes gesyn e (, ) 305 8 peer (,) déèr git fo r wlenc e ( ) 50 8 ( ; ) JDáb r m ë wi á laáu m ( ) 5 5 0 (.) D i r w ^ s o n blôd e ( ) 8 4 7 (,) J3¿r h im n i n i g waete r ( ) 151 4 / (,) tór w ë gesund e ( ) 207 5 X ^ X ^ (,) i?br hë | > y f y r s t e ( ) 257 3

(tr . allit . zt>£ron ? ? ) XjX (tr . allit. Pà??)

2 8

2 9

X

fraet ( c o n j . ) (,) |)ae t hiñ e o n y l d e ( ) 2 2 (,) |>ae t wë hiñ e s w â gôdn e ( ) 34 7 (,) |>ae t ic môte â n a ( ) 43 1 ( , ) | > a e t h i t â m i d g e m e t e ( ) 77 9 X ^ X (tr . allit . à?) (,) î>aet dû hin e selfn e ( ) 96 1 (—,) |>ae t h ë | > o n e wîsa n ( ) 131 8 (,) J>ae t h ë o ¿ o n e f y r d h o m ( ) 150 4 _ / \ >aet hire o n hafela n ( ) 152 1 ^ X X oaet hir e wi á hals e ( ) 156 6 (,) t>ae t hine s ë o b r i m w y l f ( ) 159 9 J \ (,) |>ae t hë fcaes gewinnes ( ) 172 1 X _ / X (tr . allit . pœs?? o r e v e n / ? œ t ? ? ) ( , ) j>ae t ic on f > o n e hafela n ( ) 178 0 ^ X X (,) |>ae t hë | > o n e brëostwyl m ( ) 187 7 _ / \ (,) {>ae t ¿ i r o n worái g ( ) 197 2 (,) J>ae t iû f > o n e w a e l g i s t ( ) 199 5 _ / \ (cr . allit . - £ < è s t ? ? ) (,) |>ae t hë m i d ¿y wif e ( ) 202 8 (,) |>ae t hë t ô Gifáu m ( ) 249 4 ( , ) f>ae t s e m i r a ( ) 258 7 (,) }>ae t më i s miele lëofre (, ) 265 1 (cr . allit . m i e l e ? ? a n d e v e n m ë ? ? ) (,) }>ae t hë f>on e nïagaest ( ) 269 9 J \ 30

3

1

3 2

3

(,) ï>aet h im o n brëostum ( ) 2 7 14

(,) fraet h ë b ï weall e ( ) 271 6 (,) |>ae t hë {>on e grundwong ( ) 2 7 7 0 _/_ \

3

Some Observations on the A 3 Lines in Beowulf

(,) f>aet h im fo r sweng e ( ) 296 6 (,) t>aet gë genôge ( ) 3 1 0 4 X_/X ))ëah (—,) {>ëa h 3ü |)ïnu m broáru m ( ) 58 7 penden (,) pende n hi e áá m w i p n u m ( ) 203 8 |)onne (.) D o n n e wae s j>ëo s medoheal ( ) 48 4 ¿ X _\ (,) {xmn e hë ae t güá e ( ) 153 5 (tr . allit . jíonne? ) (.) fronne bib on hrejw e ( ) 174 5 (,) {>onn e h ë m i d f i m n an ( ) 2 0 3 4 (.) |>onn e cwiá ae t béor e ( ) 204 1 (;) |)onn e wae s |>ae t yrfe ( ) 305 1 The firs t elemen t i s a negativ e 1

naes, nealle s (.) Nalae s hi hine l i s s a n ( ) 4 3 (.) Non e gifstôl ( ) 16 8 J \ (;) n ô h ë m i d hearme ( ) 189 2 (tr . allit . n ô ? ) (;) n ô iy ± r h ë f)one heaülorin c ( ) 246 6 ^ X _ \

X _/X

151

152

E.G.Stanley

The firs t elemen t i s a p r o n o u n

3 4

Relative o r demonstrativ e pronoun s (,) 3 ë mê s e god a ( ) 35 5 (tr . allit . d é ? ? ) ( ) jrára \>e of wealle ( ) 78 5 (. n.p. ) S é wae s wrecçen a ( ) 8 9 8 (d . allit . wae s w ¿ r on m i d Ëotenum ( ) 1 1 4 5 (,) hwae t w i t t ô w i l l a n ( ) 118 6 (d . allit . w i t ? ? ) ( ) f)àra |> e i c on folda n ( ) 119 6 (,) |)ae s \>e hî hyn e gesundn e ( ) 162 8 X _ / X (,) J>ae s áe i c ¿e gesundn e ( ) 199 8 XjX (:) 't>ae t is undyrne (, ) 2 0 0 0 X_/X (,) |>on e |>în farde r ( ) 204 8 ¿X (,) |>on e {>e dû m i d rihte ( ) 205 6 (,) |>on e {>e h im o n sweofot e ( ) 229 5 ^ X X (,) |> ë hë wi á |)â m w y r m e ( ) 2 4 0 0 (.) S e wae s o n aâ m Creat e ( ) 240 6 (tr . allit . Se? ) (,) s ë don e gomela n ( ) 242 1 ^ X X (;) |>ae t waes m i d e l d um ( ) 261 1 () £>à m iwca. maíma ( ) 277 9 (;) s ë sce l t ô g e m y n d u m ( ) 2 8 0 4 X _ / X (.') |>ae t waes J>âm gomelan ( ) 281 7 ^ X X (tr . allit . (. n.p. ) |>ae t ys sï o fxhUo ( ) 2 9 9 9 3 5

3 6

3 7

wœs??)

' H e a v i e r ' (object ) pronoun s (.) Nábnign e i c under swegl e ( ) 119 7 (:) ' F e l a i c o n g i o g o á e ( ) 242 6 ¿XX Personal pronoun s (othe r tha n subjec t persona l pronoun s immediatel y preceding thei r verb ) ( ! ) I c |> ë J ) a f í h á e () 138 0 (;) i c jrábre sôcne ( ) 177 7 (.) H ë me c \>ébr on inna n ( ) 208 9 ( . ) M ë J)on e waelnè s ( ) 210 1 _ / \ (.) I c Í3 5ae s waelmes (, ) 213 5 (;) h ë t>i r [f]o r feorm e ( ) 238 5 (tr . allit . / i ë ? ? ) (.) H ë $3 m id J>±re sorhge (, ) 246 8 (. n.p. ) I c h i m |>à mâamas (,) 2 4 9 0 3 8

Some Observations on the A 3 Lines in Beowulf

(.) H y n e fa m i d handa ( ) 2 7 2 0 (d . allit . / / y n e ? ) (.) H e á a m i d fam mâ3mu m ( ) 278 8 ( - : ) ' I c 3ârafraetwa( ) 2 7 9 4

153

3 9

The firs t elemen t i s an interjectio n (:) 'Hwaet , we " fa fas s i l â c (, ) 165 2 _ / \ (tr (.) Hwaet , mê |>ae s on êj>l e ( ) 177 4

. allit . i / w œ t ? ? )

The firs t elemen t is a verb (o r a verb precede d b y a negativ e o r a sub ject persona l p r o n o u n ) 41

(.) F a n d |>â á ir inn é ( ) 11 8 (.) Haefd e s e goda ( ) 20 5 (.) W « s m ï n f e d e r ( ) 26 2 (!) Habba á w ë t ô j ) i m m i r a n ( ) 27 0 (.) Bë o á ü o n ofest e (, ) 38 6 ¿X X (;) gesag a h i m ëa c w o r d u m (, ) 38 8 (.) Geslô h f)î n faede r ( ) 45 9 ^ X ( - : ) ' E a r t fa s ë Bëowul f (, ) 50 6 J \ (cr . allit . - w u l f ? ? ) (.) Gesprae c fa s e goda ( ) 67 5 (!) C o m b a t o reced e ( ) 72 0 ¿XX (.) Gesea h h ë i n recede ( ) 72 8 ^ X X (,) na m fa m i d hand a ( ) 74 6 (tr . allit . pi??) (. ') H w e a r f fa b ï benc e (, ) 118 8 (.' n.p. ) Ëod e fa t ô setl e ( . ) 1 232 (.) Setto n h i m t ô hëafdo n ( ) 124 2 (. n.p. ) C ô m fa t ô Heorot e (, ) 127 9 ^ X X (.) G a n g 31 l e ( ) 173 0 42

154

E . G . Stanley

(,) gedé á h i m sw â gewealden e ( ) 173 2 X _ / X (tr . allit . (;) |>ince á h i m t ô l y t e l (, ) 174 8 ( ! ) G â n u t ô setl e (, ) 178 2 (;) hë t [h]ine m i d J>abm lâcu m ( ) 186 8 (. n.p . X X V I I ) C w ô m |> â t ô flôd e ( ) 188 8 (. n.p . X X V I I I ) Gewâ t h i m 3 â s e heard a ( ) 196 3 (,) wold e se l â 3 a ( ) 230 5 (;) haefd e h i m o n earm e ( ) 2 3 6 1 (,) lê t don e bregostô l ( ) 238 9 ^ X _ \ (.) Gesae t onn e o n sealma n (, ) 2 4 6 0 (!) Gesea h d â b e weall e ( ) 254 2 (.) Lê t aâ of brëostum (, ) 2 5 5 0 (;) sceold e w i l l a n ( ) 2 5 8 9 (.) G e m u n d e d â d â ar e (, ) 260 6 (.) Bï o n ü o n ofost e (, ) 274 7 ^ X X (. ') D y d e h i m o f heals e ( ) 280 9 (.) Gewâ t h i m 3 â s e goda ( ) 294 9 (.) Lë t s e heard a ( ) 297 7 (tr . allit . L ê t ? ? ) (,) seald e h i o r a gehwaeorum ( ) 299 4 X _ / X (.) Fundó n aâ on sand e ( ) 303 3 (;) âlegdo n ía tômidde s ( ) 314 1 X _ / X (tr . allit . dâ?? ) (.) O n g u n n o n |> â on beorg e ( ) 314 3 4 3

4 4

W i t h initia l negativ e (;) nâ t h ë jrár a goda (,) 68 1 (.) N e gefraege n i c |>â maègf)e ( ) 101 1 (:) ' N e frî n f> ü onne m i t o st ( ) 145 5 (.) N e n o m hë i n J) i m wïcum (, ) 161 2 (.) N e meaht e i c aet hild e ( ) 165 9 (;) nae s ic h im t ô lif e ( ) 243 2 (.) N e Synce d m ë gerysn e (, ) 265 3 XjX (.) N e meaht e h ë o n eoráa n (, ) 285 5 (.) N e meaht e s e snell a () 297 1 (.) Nae s d â o n h l y t m e (, ) 312 6 V e r b precede d b y subjec t persona l p r o n o u n (.) Hë o wae s o n ofst e (, ) 129 2 (.) I c w * s | ) i r inn e ( ) 308 7 (d . allit . / c ? ) 4 6

4 5

gedët?)

Some Observations on the A 3 Lines in Beowulf

V e r b head s mai n claus e o c c u p y i n g o n ly par t o f half-line (;) wën e i c }>aet hë m i d gode ( ) 118 4 (tr . allit . w ë n e ? ) (.—) H y r d e ic |>aet f)âm fraetwu m ( ) 216 3 4 7

B T h e stres s fall s o n a ver b T H E S T R E S S E D V E R B IS A N I N F I N I T I V E O R A P A S T P A R T I C I P L E

Without preceding

finite

verb

(,) o n d t>onn e geferian ( ) 310 7 With preceding

finite

X ^ X X (tr

. allit . o n d ? ? )

verb

The firs t elemen t i s a connectiv e ac (;) a c h ë hafaü í onfunde n (, ) 59 5 X _ / X (;) a c hi e haefdo n gefrüne n (, ) 69 4 X _ / X her (:) ' H e r syndo n gefered e (, ) 36 1

X ^XX

nü (.) N ù g ë môto n ganga n ( ) 39 5 sym(b)le (.) S y m b l e biá gemyndga d ( ) 245 0 X _ / X (. n.p .

[XXXVIIII

] D à wae s gegonge n ( ) 282 1 X _ / X

|>onne (.) t>onn e bïo3 (âb)rocen e ( ) 206 3 T h e firs t elemen t i s a n o u n

4 9

(:) *M± 1 is më t ô fëra n (; ) 31 6

X ^X X

155

156

E . G . Stanley

The firs t elemen t i s followe d b y a n interjectio n (—:) 'baet , l a, maeg secga n ( ) 170 0 (—:) 't>aet , là, mae g secga n ( ) 2 8 6 4

The firs t elemen t i s a finit e ver b (.' n.p. ) G e w i t o n h i m fa fëra n (,— ) 30 1 (.) Will e i c âsecgan ( ) 34 4 X J X (.) Hœbb e i c ëac geâhso d (,) 4 3 3 X _ / X (d . allit . ëac??) (.) Hœfd e fa g e f i l s o d ( ) 82 5 X J X (.) Hafas t fa gefëre d (, ) 122 1 X _ / X (.) Hœfd e 3 â forsïdo d ( ) 155 0 X _ / X (.) Hafas t |> ü gefëred (, ) 185 5 X_/X (;) (h)afa á J>ae s geworden ( ) 202 6 X _ / X (! n.p.) Mae g |>œs fanne o f ^ y n c a n ( ) 203 2 X _ / X (d . allit . jbonne?? ) (;) wae s á a gebolge n ( ) 230 4 XjX (.) H e h t h i m fa gewyrcea n ( ) 233 7 X _ / X (tr . allit . Heht?) (;) haefd e fa gefrüne n (, ) 240 3 XjX (.' n.p. ) Hë t fa gebëoda n ( ) 3 1 1 0 XjX 50

W i t h initia l negativ e (;) n e miht e 3 1 forhabban (, ) 260 9 X _ / X (.) N e meahto n w ë g e l i r a n ( ) 307 9 X J_X V e r b precede d b y objec t p r o n o u n (:) 'Ëo w hë t secga n ( ) 39 1

T H E STRESS F A L L S O N A FINITE V E R B

The firs t elemen t i s a connective (othe r tha n a negative o r a relativ e pronoun) ac (;) a c m ë geü3 e ( ) 166 1 X_/X (d . allit . a c ? ? ) (,) a c h ë hyn e gewyrpt e (, ) 297 6 X _ / X

?br (.) h

i | ) *r gesëga n ( ) 303 8

X _/X

5 1

Some Observations on the A 3 Lines in Beowulf

for-aâm J> e (,) for|>o n \>e hë n e üj> e (, ) 50 3 gif (.) G i f ic pxt gefricg e ( ) 182 6 XjX (tr . allit . G i f ? ? ) (,) gi f \>xt gegange d (, ) 184 6 Xj_X (d . a l l i t . g i f ? ? ) hum (.) H u m n e gemund e ( ) 146 5

X _/X

hwae|>re (!) HwaeJ^er e m ë g e s i l de (, ) 57 4 X _ / X (;) hwae^r e h i m g e s i l d e (, ) 8 9 0 Xj_X (;) hwae|>r e hë gemund e ( ) 127 0 X J_ X ond (,) o n d g ë h i m s y n d o n ( ) 39 3 (,) o n d h i m gesealde ( ) 219 5 XjX (,) o n d f>on e gebringa n (, ) 300 9 X J_X oi J>ae t

o¿ daet hie fortódda n ( ) 203 9 X _ / X ( , ) o a 3 a e t h î o 2 l ë o d o n ( ) 2 9 3 4 X_/X (d . allit . ot?)

(,- [XXVIIII-XXX] )

siááan (,) sydda n hi e gefricgea a ( ) 3 0 0 2 X _ / X sôna (.) Sôn a t >ae t onfunde ( ) 149 7 X J_X swa (.) Sw â h ë n e forwyrnd e ( ) 114 2 X _ / X (,) sw â h ë n e miht e (— ) 150 8

(.) P â g y t h i e h i m âsetto n ( ) 4 7 X _ / X (tr . a l l i t . g y t ? ) (.) âmëbaetgelirdon()415 X _ / X (tr . allit . m ê ? ? ) ( . - ) D â bae t onfund e ( ) 809 X / X (.) D â hi e getruwedo n ( ) 109 5 X ^ X X (tr . allit . /tie?? ) (,) dâhyn e gesôhta n ( ) 2 2 0 4 X ^ X (tr . allit . 6a??) b

157

158

E . G . Stanley

J>aet (,) |)ae t Üü më n e forwyrn e (, ) 429 X _ / X (,) f)aet hïe n e môst e (, ) 706 (,) f)aet hë n e mett e ( ) 751 (,) t>ae t hë n e meht e ( ) 1082 (,) \>œt hïe of t w i r o n ( ) 1247 (,) }>ae t hïe gesâwo n ( ) 1347 XjX (,) |>ae t dû ne a l i t e ( ) 2665 X J_X (,) t>ae t hë n e grëtt e ( ) 3081 (tr . allit . pëa h |) e h ë meaht e ( ) 1130

53

J>onan (.) t>ano n h ë gesôht e ( ) 463 X _ / X (;) áono n h ë gesôht e ( ) 520 X _ / X |>onne (,) farine w ë gehëto n ( ) 2634 X _ / X The firs t elemen t i s a negative nôaer (.) Nôaer hy hin e ne môsto n (, ) 2124 The firs t elemen t i s a p r o n o un Relative pronoun s () 3âr a fa n e wëndo n (, ) 937 ( ) fera fa h ë geworht e ( ) 1578 (,) jbae s ie i c môste ( ) 2797

X _/X

Personal pronoun s

Subject™ (;) h i h y ne fa a e t b i r o n ( ) 28 X J_X (.) I c |>aet gehyre (, ) 290 X _ / X (:) ' I c hin e c ü 3 e ( ) 372 (;) i c |>aet |>onne forhicg e (,) 435 X _ / X (.) W i t |>aet g e c w i d on ( ) 535 Xj_X (tr . allit . W i t ? ? )

Some Observations on the A 3 Lines in Beowulf

(:) ' I c È>œ t hogode (, ) 63 2 ¿XX (.) Hî e fjae t n e wisto n (, ) 79 8 (;) i c hine n e miht e (, ) 96 7 (.) I c hi t t> ê gehâte (: ) 139 2 X _ / X (.) I c hi t f> ê |)onne gehât e (, ) 167 1 X _ / X Object (.) M ê ma n saegd e (, ) 117 5 (. n.p . XLIII) H i m dâ gegireda n ( ) 313 7 X

159

^X X

' H e a v i e r ' subjec t pronoun s (.) Nábni g heor a |>ôht e (, ) 69 1 (;) nábni g jsaet dorst e ( ) 193 3 (tr . allit . neenig? ) Preposition followe d b y p r o n o u n (;) o n h i m gladiad ( ) 203 6 ^ X X

The firs t elemen t i s a ver b V e r b head s mai n claus e o c c u p y i n g o n ly par t o f half-lin e (;) m y n t e |>ae t hê g e d ^ l d e (, ) 73 1 X _ / X (;) cwae d fcaet h yt haefd e ( ) 215 8 (tr . allit . cwaed? ) (,) bae d } ) « t g ê geworhto n ( ) 309 6 X _ / X (;) cwábdo n J>ae t hê wábr e ( ) 3 1 8 0 (tr . allit . cwábdon? )

NOTES 1 E . Sievers, ' Z u r R h y t h m i k des germanisches Allit er at ion ver ses, ' PBB 10 (1885) 209-314, 451-545, of which 220-314 are specifically on Beowulf; ische Metrik

also

AItgerman-

(Halle 1893). H . K u h n , *Zur Wortstellung und -betonung im Altger-

m a n i s c h e n , ' P B B 57 (1933) 1-109, summarized in English by D . Slay, 'Some Aspects of the Technique of Composition of O l d English Verse,' TPS ( L o n d o n 1952)

1-14. A . J . Bliss, The Metre

The Rhythm

of Beowulf

of Beowulf

(Oxford 1958). J o h n Collins Pope,

(New Haven and O x f o r d 1942, rev. 1966).

Other investigations of metre used b y me include: A . Heusler, Deutsche geschichte,

Vers-

I (Berlin and Leipzig 1925, repr. 1956); W . P . Lehmann and T . Tabusa,

The Alliterations

of the 'Beowulf

9

(Austin, Texas 1958); R . B . L e Page, 'Alliterative

Patterns as a Test of Style in O l d English Poetry,' JEGP

58 (1959) 434-41; R . Wil-

lard and E . D . Clemons, 'Bliss's Light Verses in the Beowulf,

9

J E GP 66 (1967)

160 E . G . Stanley 230-44.1 have profited from W . J . Sedgefield's appendix I, ' O l d English Versi­ fication,' in his third edition of Beowulf drew's Syntax Beowulf

and Style

(Manchester 1935), 149-55, S . O . A n ­ (Cambridge 1940) and Postscript

in Old English

on

(Cambridge 1948).

T h e text of Beowulf

used is that of F r . Klaeber's third edition (Boston 1950);

his appendix 'Metrical Observations' (278-82) has been used often. Other editions, referred to below similarly by the editor's name, have been found especially use­ ful for their notes o n textual and metrical matters: E . V . K . Dobbie, in ASPR,

IV

(New Y o r k 1953); E . von Schaubert, 2. T e i l : Kommentar, seventeenth edition o f Heyne-Schücking's Beowulf

1961). A Concordance

(Yaderbom

to Beowulf,

by

J . B . Bessinger, J r , and P . H . Smith, J r (Ithaca, N . Y . 1969), has been used very fre­ quently. Many of these works, especially those by Klaeber and Professors Pope and Bliss, have been referred to b y me throughout, more often than the references to them might seem to indicate. 2 Ueber ein- und dreihebige

Halbverse

in der altenglischen

alliterierenden

Poésie

(Diss. Berlin 1920) 3 Since this study is about A 3 lines (which are confined to the first half-line, a-lines) only b is used, viz. to mark second half-lines, leaving a-lines unmarked. 4 Evidence of this k i n d is perhaps to be found as early as the Chronicle

poem A D

1036C rhyming ' w u n o d e ' and ' l y f o d e ' without alliteration and, with alliteration, 'hamelode' and 'haettode' (and cf A D 1086, last couplet 'mildheortnisse ' perhaps rhyming with ' forgifenesse '). 5 C f Kuhn's use of the term Bindewort,

PBB 57 (1933) 51.

6 'gewealdene,' past participle, is, of course, verbal. 7 See Pope, 272-4; and, especially for references to earlier work, Klaeber, 278 § 1 7 ) . 8 See, for example, von Schaubert's note on line 56. 9 See Klaeber, 280-1 (§28). 10 See above note 1. 11 See Klaeber, 98 footnote; Pope, 315; von Schaubert, note o n line. 12 See von Schaubert, note on line 1. O l d Saxon subsidiary alliteration, relevant be­ cause of Heliand, Versbau

2550, may be a different matter, on which see E . Martin, Der

des Heliand,

QF 100 (Strassburg 1907) 16-17.

13 C f M . Kaluza, Studien ii Beowulf

zum germanischen

Alliterationsvers,

2 Der altenglische Vers,

(Berlin 1894) 66 (Typus 36); Klaeber, 278 (§18); von Schaubert, note

o n line 779. 14 But note line 2039 without canto number, though a new canto is indicated b y the large initial — see Klaeber, c-ci (and fn 7). 15 K u h n defines the Satzpartikelgesetz few pages later, at 43.

at PBB 57 (1933) 8, the Satzspitzengesetz,

a

Some Observations on the A 3 Lines in Beowulf 16 1 have not investigated whether this is a peculiarity of Beowulf

161

(and also per­

haps of some of the other 'metrically exact' O l d English poems), or whether it extends more widely. 17 It is probably best not to adduce 2093 ('To lang y s tô reccenne ') as a parallel, be­ cause that half-line seems to be metrically anomalous; see Bliss, §47. This anomaly involves the anacrusis ' T o , ' and is a separate problem from that of whether or not infinitives were originally inflected, on which see Klaeber, 78 (fn), 277 (§12), Pope, 310, Bliss § 8 7 . 18 Thus most editors, following Heyne's edition of 1863 and Grein's edition of 1857. C f 386, where the editors have a c o m m a at the end o f the first half-line; in this line also two imperative simple sentences follow each other. 19 T h e following abbreviations are used in this list: allit. = alliteration, the various types being described as cr. = cross, d . = double, and tr. = transverse; n.p. = new paragraph (cf p. 144 above). Headwords are spelt as in Klaeber's glossary. Unless the lines marked as having possibly (marked ?) or conceivably (marked ??) double or cross alliteration are thought to exhibit some form of subsidiary allitera­ tion which is non-functional, recognition of proper double or cross alliteration in them would remove them from the b o d y of A 3 lines. I myself cannot believe in non-functional alliteration in O l d English, not even in the case of transverse allit­ eration, and am, therefore, inclined to think that transverse alliteration is dependent on meaningfully stressed words, like all alliteration. C f A . Heusler, in Hoops, Reallexikon,

I V (Strassburg 1918), s.v. 'Stabreim,' §37 (page 239).

20 Dobbie has no punctuation. A s a rule, I have not marked editorial differences in punctuation; cf pp. 144-6 above. 21 Pope, 268, describes transverse alliteration here as 'very doubtful'; cf pp. 142-3 above. 22

'ful ' in the phrase 'ful oft ' is weakly stressed in Beowulf

1252b.

23 See Pope, 265-6. 24 See Pope, 267. 25 Pope, 251, regards this line firmly as an A line with double alliteration, not as an A 3 line. Bliss, 143 (and cf 123 and 125), o n the other hand, regards it as his type a l e (of which there are 57 examples in the poem), not as his type l A * l c with double alliteration, of which there are only two examples in the p o e m , presumably 1230 and 1859, that is, the other two lines given by Professor Pope as metrically like 1204 (but Bliss has left out the asterisk for 1859 in his table). If, however, a less precise matching of metrical patterns than Bliss's full system were thought suf­ ficient (that is, if the number o f unstressed syllables before the second stress were regarded as of no importance for the purpose o f matching, thus aggregating all type 1 A * 1 lines as main type

_/x l(X X )X _/x ), 1204 scanned with initial stress

and double alliteration would be seen to belong to a very c o m m o n pattern (of which Bliss has counted 308 examples in the poem).

162 E . G . Stanley 26 See p. 144 above. 27 In view of the frequency with which adverbial *|>â' is followed b y a verb, most c o m m o n l y 'waes* ('waeron' 2982), but note 710, it might be thought better to list these lines under verbal first elements preceded b y 'J>â,' instead o f under the connective. If that had been done, line 544 (and also 1078 with conjunction — not adverb — *|>â *), in which no verb follows the connective, w o u l d have had to receive separate treatment for which there is no real justification. A n d other connectives w o u l d have had to be treated similarly, for example, 'for-àâm'; for 1059 w o u l d have had to be separated from the other examples under that headword, because in 1059 initial ' F o r j a n ' is followed by 'bid'; and similarly under 'hra|>e' b o t h , under '|>aer' 847, under 'J>aet' 2651 (and cf 431); and under *J>onne' 484,

1745,

2041 (with *cwià' precedes its verb when the verb is unstressed. 29 If, as seems likely, *{>aer' is like initial *{)â' in such lines, the verb following it is unstressed, and it is fortuitous that 'waes' could be involved with 'weallende' in transverse alliteration. See notes 27 and 28. 30 F o r pronominal 'fcaet' (lines 2000, 2817, 2999) see p. 152. 31 S e e p . 143. 32 See Pope, 267. 33 See pp. 143-4. 34 Lines the first element of which is a subject personal pronoun followed within the line b y its verb are listed on p. 154. 35 See Pope, 265-6. 36 Pope, 295-6, lists this line doubtfully as a type C rather than A 3 , but points to the form 'wrecna'; cf A . Campbell, Old English

Grammar

(Oxford 1959), § 6 1 7 .

37 See Pope, 267, for 'Éotenum'; and cf R . W . Chambers, Widsith

(Cambridge 1912),

appendix D , 237-41. If medial ' n ' in the name is not merely the result o f scribal confusion of 'Jutes' with 'etens* (but cf Campbell § 6 1 0 [7] ), the 'e* preceding it is likely to have been syncopated — 'Éotenum.' C f Bliss, §58; Klaeber, 233, fn 3. 38 See Pope, 265-6. 39 See Pope, 251, listing the line as an A line, not an A 3 . M y doubts, viz. that ' H y n e ' is too weak to bear alliteration, are not dispelled b y the arguments advanced b y Willard and Clemons, 243-4: the distribution of post-verbal 'J)â* is not significantly

Some Observations on the A 3 Lines in Beowulf

163

different in lines with double alliteration (30 out of 60) and single alliteration (38 out of 85), and though whatever follows initial '|>â' is weakly stressed, the converse, that when *|>â* is the second element of a half-line the element preceding it is strongly stressed, is not certain. C f note 27 above. 40 Hwaet is probably unstressed — see von Schaubert, note on line 1. 41

See the important discussion of these lines b y Willard and Clemons.

42 See p. 146. 43 Vocalic alliteration seems certain, but is, in fact, dependent o n ' a n a ' i n the second half-line; the w o r d was first supplied b y Grein (1857), the manuscript being damaged. 44 A s Dobbie says in his note on the line, ' A l l recent edd. supply ofer, following Rieger, Z f d P h . H I , 410'; but Grein-Kôhler stuck to the unemended reading as late as 1914, and list it with the use of ' w i l l u m , ' 1821, under 'willa' (see also BosworthToller, s.v. 'willa,' VIII). That gives satisfactory or perhaps even better sense than the emendation (regardless of whether 'willan' is a singular or has ' - a n ' for ' - u m , ' plural): Beowulf's death was not easy but he went willingly as a good man should. It should, however, be noted that ' sceolde willan ' (unemended) is metrically unique in the poem, being an A 3 line with only two syllables belonging to one single w o r d preceding the alliterative stress. A l l other cases of only two syllables preceding the stress are with two words unstressed (see Pope, 83). It may be, therefore, that we must emend for metrical reasons, and that the choice lies between '[mid] willan' and '[ofer] willan'; the former seems preferable in sense. 45

F o r other lines with personal p r o n o u n as first element, see p p . 152-3 above, and cf note 34.

46 See Pope, 250, where this line is listed as type A , not A 3 . T h e emphasis here is o n Wiglaf's own witness of the events. T h a t , however, is true also at 3090b where ' I c ' must be metrically unstressed ('Ic o n ofoste gefêng'). T h o u g h it is unwise to regard the prosody of the two halves as sufficiently similar to allow the findings of a second half-line to apply to a first half-line, it seems best to regard ' I c ' at 3087 as unstressed, and only fortuitously alliterating. 47 See Pope, 268, where the transverse alliteration perhaps to be found here is compared with the double alliteration of 338. But double alliteration seems to me more firmly established than transverse alliteration, and the use at 338 is confirmed b y that at 2172. In line 2163 ' H y r d e i c ' does not participate in any alliteration. 48 Infinitives and participles rank in stress with nouns, etc; see especially A . Heusler, Deutsche

Versgeschichte,

I, sections 135-52. In this list the absence of present

participles is, of course, the result of the fact that their form makes them elements of C lines, and, b y definition, not o f A 3 lines; for examples, see 2218 (in the restoration accepted b y Klaeber), and 2850. 49 See p . 146.

164 E . G . Stanley 50 See Pope, 266. 51 See Pope, 265-6. 52 See Pope 234; Bliss, §27; and von Schaubert's note o n the line. 53 T h e editors alter manuscript ' h e ' to 'ne,' or supply 'ne* after ' h e ' (thus avoiding somewhat unusual omission of subject pronoun in their emended reading); see Dobbie's note o n the line. If the negative is supplied, Hengest dwells with F i n n that winter, not voluntarily to avenge his lord before returning home, but because he could do nothing else. However, he seems to have got reinforcements through, and perhaps even summoned them. In such a difficult context it is perhaps wisest not to emend, but to understand 1129b-31a as introducing 1138b-41, with a lit­ tle piece o n the change of seasons and the growing longing for home intervening: his memory of home takes the form o f plotting vengeance rather than voyaging back. See also von Schaubert's notes o n these lines. 54 It is perhaps worth noting that the ten occurrences are all before Hrothgar's 'sermon,' or, looked at in terms of the scribes, all in the work of the first o f the two scribes. It w o u l d , however, be rash to attempt to draw any conclusion from this distribution.

t KEMP MALONE

The rhythm of Deor

A d m i r a t i o n ofte n beget s i m i t a t i o n and thi s pape r ma y b e summe d u p as a tr y a t doin g for Deor wha t ou r jubilarían d i d so wel l fo r Beowulf. B o t h Pop e an d I hav e edite d Des Sangers Trost (a s th e German s cal l it), bu t neithe r include d in his e d i t i o n a ful l stud y o f th e poem' s r h y t h m i c a l features : Pop e c o m m e n t e d o n verse s 2b , 30b , an d 3 9 b and I deal t briefl y w i t h 4 a an d 8 a ; otherwise , w e too k u p n o partic ular case s an d I contente d mysel f w i t h th e genera l statemen t tha t 'th e Deor poe t wrot e hi s verses i n the conventiona l or standar d O l d Englis h measure. ' Surel y more i s needed t o d o p o e m an d poe t justice , an d i n the followin g I w i l l fil l th e ga p a s best I can . I begi n w i t h a linea r catalogue no t u n l i k e the on e I gav e i n my re vised e d i t i o n of Widsith. I t differ s fro m thi s chiefl y i n classifying th e half-lines a s Pop e d i d in The Rhythm of Beowulf instea d o f simpl y specifying th e typ e i n term s o f th e five-typ e syste m o f Sievers . Thus, I classif y 'haefd e h i m t o gesi|)f) e sorg e an d longaj) ' (Deor 3 ) a s A 7 7 for th e on-verse , A5 fo r th e off-verse . M y catalogue take s shap e i n three columns , the firs t givin g th e line-number , th e secon d th e class ification o f th e on-verse , th e t h i r d tha t o f th e off-verse . 1

2

3

4

5

1 2 3 4 5

A7 El A77 E17 B7

D2 E2 A5 D18 Al

6 7 8 9 10

D33 A5 E7 B55 Cll

Bl A35 B2 B5 C34

11 12 14 15 16

B2 A5 C3 C2 C26

A5 C2 A5 Al D20

166

K e m p M alone

18 19 21 22 23 24 25 26

A28 El C22 E4 A3 DIO A2 C12

Al B16 Al B2 C22 A5 A5 Cll

28 29 30 31 32 33 34

Dll CIO B3 A20 Al All El

A5 Al E2 C23 A5 A5 B2

35 36 37 38 39 40 41

A70 B2 Al C13 Al El B3

Al E5 C22 Al B33 El A2

M o s t o f th e verse s nee d n o commen t bu t som e mak e mor e o r les s trouble fo r th e would-b e scanner . I f th e 'ae ' o f ' w r a e c e ' ( l b ) wer e long (s o Grein-Kôhler , Klaeber , et al. ) th e half-lin e w o u ld com e unde r D40, bu t Bosworth-Tolle r an d N E D rightl y enter th e w o r d w i t h a shor t vowel. F o r th e synonymou s unrecorde d O E ' * w r a e c u ' (fern.) , a n o l d ' - i n ' ste m cognat e w i t h G o t h i c ' w r e k e i' (see N E D s.v . ' w r e c h e , ' where , however, th e O E for m i s wrongly reconstructed). Th e secon d syllabl e of 'earfojsa ' (2b ) wa s originall y l o n g an d w e ma y reasonabl y t h i n k tha t the secondar y stres s i t too k i n proto-English was kep t i n traditiona l metrics afte r shortenin g cam e abou t i n c o m m on speech . A l t e r n a t i v e ly it migh t b e conjecture d tha t thi s an d paralle l shortenings gav e ris e t o a variant o f typ e E w i t h a weak secon d syllable . Compare th e Beowulf poet's 'liss a gelong ' (2150a ) an d 'raeht e ongëan ' ( 7 4 7 b ) . In classifyin g 'winterceald e wraece ' (4a ) a s E l 7, 1 g o par t o f th e wa y w i t h W . P . L e h m a n n , whose stud y o f th e liquid s and nasal s o f Beo­ wulf came ou t i n Nórdica et Anglica, a b o ok go t ou t i n h o n o ur o f Stefan E i n a r s s o n . L e h m a nn too k i t tha t th e poe t uttere d 1 , r , n , m a s consonants i n words lik e ' s e t l , ' where th e syllabl e is light, but a s son ants i n words lik e 'âdl, ' wher e a heavy syllabl e precedes. T h a t i s t o say, th e l i q u i d o r nasa l make s par t o f th e ligh t but no t o f th e heav y syllable: ' s e t l ' i s monosyllabic whereas ' â d l ' i s disyllabic . F o r th e evi dence th e reade r i s referred t o Lehmann' s paper . Her e I w i l l dea l w i t h O E 'winter * o n l y . Thi s w o rd i s cognate w i t h G o t h i c ' w i n t r u s' an d th e N E D give s th e h y p o t h e t i c a l Germani c f o rm a s ' * w e n t r u s , ' seemingl y a misprin t fo r ' * w e n t r u z . ' Her e th e r i s clearly consonantal. T h e proto-English nominativ e singula r for m w o u l d presumabl y b e ' * w i n t r ' and I agre e w i t h L e h m a n n tha t th e r o f thi s for m w o u l d b e sonantal , though I d o no t trac e it s sonanc y bac k t o pre-Germani c times . T h e recorded O E for m 'winter * shows a n ' e ' w h i c h doe s no t appea r i n th e inflectional 'wintres, ' ' w i n t r a , ' 'wintras,' ' w i n t r u , ' and ' w i n t r u m . ' I tak e i t accordingl y that th e ' e ' o f O E ' w i n t e r ' stand s fo r a wea k 6

7

8

9

The R h y t h m of Deor

167

vowel w h i c h aros e a s a transitiona l sound. Whethe r th e Deor poe t said ' w i n t r ' or ' w i n t e r , ' he sai d it i n two syllables , or s o I t h i n k . Klaeber i n his editio n of Deor underdotte d fo r deletio n th e firs t ' e ' o f 'wintercealde, ' his wa y o f showin g that i n his o p i n i o n ' w i n t e r - ' was monosyllabic , bu t ther e i s no metrica l need fo r s o takin g it an d the disyllabi c p r o n u n c i a t i o n strikes m e a s phoneticall y preferable . Doubts o f th e validit y o f th e patter n E l 7 ar e no t justified . A clea r case i s the 'swinsigend e swêg ' (1081a ) o f th e OE Genesis, a n on-vers e w h i c h mus t b e s o scanned . The off-vers e 'wëa n of t o n f o n d ' (4b ) b y it s caesur a i s m a r k ed a s a D type ; th e adver b goe s w i t h it s verb. T h e on-vers e o f th e nex t line , 'sif>f>an hin e Nîahàd o n , ' i s a B7 u n l i k e the Beowulf on-verses o f thi s pattern i n that betwee n it s tw o m a i n stresse s come s a syllabl e w h i c h normally take s a secondar y accen t (i t make s th e secon d membe r o f a compound) bu t her e undergoe s r h y t h m i c a l weakening. In hi s discus sion o f on-vers e B half-lines Pope list s eight case s o f thi s k i n d an d I hav e foun d n o others . T w o o f Pope' s cases , indeed , mus t b e strick e n , sinc e OE ' i n w i d ' o r ' i n w i t ' (OS ' i n w i d ' ) i s no c o m p o u n d ; com pare L a t i n ' i n u i d u s ' and ' i n u i d i a ' w i t h th e correspondin g verb ' i n u i dëre,' wher e th e prefi x give s 'uidêre' a bad sense . W e have n o reaso n to thin k tha t th e secon d syllabl e of OE ' i n w i t ' wa s accented , whethe r as a simple x or a s th e firs t membe r o f th e compound s ' i n w i t n e t ' an d 'inwitsearo.' Sinc e all six of Pope' s tru e case s com e unde r B 2 , a pat tern w h i c h (unlik e that o f B7 ) begins w i t h a rest beat , w e ge t a n instructive contras t i n the metrica l practice o f th e t w o poets . I t shoul d be adde d tha t Beowulf has on e off-verse , 2 1 7 3 b , w i t h a B7 patter n like tha t o f Deor 5a . T h e vers e 'fisse s sw â maeg ' (7b ) agree s i n r h y t hm w i t h Pope' s A 35 but i n thi s patter n Beowulf alway s has a c o m p o u n d fo r secon d meas ure o f th e off-vers e an d I fin d n o exac t parallel s in th e on-verse s either. T h e translatio n ' as regard s thi s likewis e i t ca n ' bring s ou t some thing o f th e OE lift-patter n a s wel l a s m a k i n g clear (clumsil y enough ) what th e vers e means : th e infinitiv e 'ofergân ' i s to b e understoo d an d leaving i t ou t throw s mor e stres s o n 'maeg ' tha n th e w o r d w o u l d nor mally take . I n thi s settin g 'maeg ' ma y mea n ' w i l l ' b y meiosis , but I find i t safe r t o translat e literally . C . R i c h t e r in his Chronologische Studien misdivide d lin e 8 , com ing thereb y t o metrica l conclusions that I nee d no t dea l w i t h here , since I hav e show n thei r falsit y i n my e d i t i o n of th e p o e m . T h e vers e ' o n sefa n sw â sà r ' (9a ) show s a B pattern w h i c h th e Beowulf poet 10

1 1

12

13

168

K e m p M alone

seems t o hav e restricte d t o th e secon d half-line . T he ligh t measur e o f '|>aet hi sê o sorglufu ' (16a ) take s a r h y t h m w i t h th e stres s o n ' s e o ' ('that') neede d t o b r i n g out th e meaning . I t i s n o t e w o r t hy tha t Beowulf show s o n l y on e clea r cas e o f thi s C pattern, th e on-vers e o f lin e 2148 ('á a i c #e , b e o r n c y n i n g ' ) . T he scansio n o f verse s lik e ' w ë geâ s c o d a n ' (21a ) make s d i f f i c u l t i e s . The secon d syllabl e of ' w y l f e n n e gejjôht ' (22a ) take s a secondar y accent (th e OE adjectiva l suffi x ' - e n ' i s cognate w i t h G o t h i c ' - e i n ' ) . The 'Jsaes ' o f lin e 2 6 i s not th e articl e but th e demonstrativ e adjectiv e and take s stress , light thoug h i t be . I n m y e d i t i o n I too k th e 'f>aet ' o f lin e 3 0 fo r th e conjunction ; hence m y B 3 for th e on-verse . I f '|>aet ' is th e p r o n o u n th e righ t classificatio n is B 2. N o te tha t i f we g o b y Pope's b o o k Beowulf show s o n l y thre e clea r case s o f B 3 in th e on verse. B u t som e o f th e one s tha t Pop e put s unde r B 2 can b e rea d w i t h B3 r h y t h m , fo r example , 1057a : ' o n d ¿ae s manne s m o d ' ('and tha t man's courage') . I f ' j j o n n e ' (31 ) alliterates , th e on-vers e her e i s a n A 2 0 , an d s o I tak e i t ; if not, th e classificatio n must b e A 7 4. The off-vers e ' s u m u m wëan a dael ' (34b ) make s troubl e fo r tradi tional scanners , sinc e ' s u m u m ' her e mus t tak e stress , contrastin g a s i t does w i t h ' m o n e g u m ' i n th e lin e next before . Pope' s syste m o f scan sion solve s th e p r o b l e m neatl y enoug h b y givin g a ligh t stres s t o 'sum u m . ' T h e alternative , D l 7 , carrie s w i t h i t a departur e fro m alliterativ e o r t h o d o x y w h i c h n o b o d y w o u l d accept . M y B33 for 'o|>|>ae t Heorren da n ü ' (39b ) i s o r t h o d ox indee d bu t leave s m e unhappy . I f on e allow s anacrusis i n an E verse w e hav e her e a case paralle l to Beowulf 501b, 662a, 1236a , an d 2441a ; A . J . Blis s give s these an d severa l othe r exam ples, bu t reject s E an d recommend s B for the m a l l . I n term s o f r h y t h m , B give s a p o or fi t her e bu t o r t h o d o x y mus t b e served . F o r a p o em o n l y 4 2 line s long , i n w h i ch line s 7 , 13 , 17 , 2 0 , 27 , an d 42 ar e identical , frequency count s ar e no t w o r t h m u c h , bu t her e the y are: o f th e on-verses , 1 3 ar e A's, 6 B's, 8 C's, 3 D's, an d 7 E's; of th e off verses, 1 7 ar e A ' s , 7 B's, 6 C's, 3 D's, and 4 E's. Totals : 3 0 A ' s , 13 B's, 14 C's, 6 D's, and 1 1 E's. B o t h half-line s of th e so-calle d refrain belon g to th e A typ e an d i f we coun t eac h occurrenc e o f thes e th e numbe r o f A type s come s t o 1 8 fo r th e on-vers e an d 2 2 fo r th e off-verse , o r 4 0 all t o l d . W i t h thes e figure s an d a salut e t o J o hn Collin s Pop e I mak e an end . L o n g m a y h e liv e an d mak e th e musi c o f ou r o l d poetry com e alive. 14

1 5

The R h y t h m o f Deor

169

NOTES This essay, among the last written b y Professor Malone, was received b y the edi­ tors after his death. T h e annotation has been altered but the substance o f the article remains unchanged. 1 Seven 2 Deor

Old English

(rev. ed., Indianapolis 1966), 112, 116, 125

Poems

(4th ed., L o n d o n 1966), 19 ff

3 Deor,

19

4 Widsith

(Copenhagen 1962), 65 f

5 The Rhythm

(rev. ed., New Haven 1966), 247-373

of Beowulf

6 See Karl L u i c k , Historische

Grammatik

der englischen

Sprache

(Stuttgart 1914-

21), 277, and compare G o t h i c *arbai{>s,' German 'Arbeit.' 7 O n 747b, see esp. Pope, The Rhythm

of Beowulf',

372, with x x x i of his revised

edition. 8 'Post-consonantal 1, m , n, r, and Metrical Practice in the Beowulf,*

in Nórdica et

Allan H . Orrick (The Hague 1968), 148-67

Anglica,eà

9 So also C . T . Onions, Oxford

Dictionary

of English

Etymology

( O x f o r d 1966),

s.v. 'winter' 10 F r . Klaeber, ' B e o w u l f 'and 'The Fight

at Finnsburg'

(3rd. ed., Boston 1950),

appendix 4 11 Pope, Rhythm,

274-88

12 Presumably 'nealles inwitnet,' 2167, listed b y Pope under B 2 , and 'ne |>urh inwitsearo,' 1101, listed under B23 (Editors) 13 Studien

zur englischen

Philologie,

ed L . Morsbach, v o l . 33 (Halle 1910), 47

14 Pope's classification is followed; see Rhythm, 15 The Metre

of 'Beowulf

( O x f o r d 1958), 43

295 ff.

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R.W. BURCHFIELD

The prosodie terminology of Anglo-Saxon scholars

This i s one o f a serie s o f articles in w h i ch th e terminolog y of schol arly writing s o n A n g l o - S a x o n languag e an d literatur e w i l l b e presente d in a historica l manne r afte r th e styl e of th e O E D . I t i s based o n a reading of a larg e number o f b o o ks and article s on th e subjec t w r i t t en in Englis h fro m th e eighteent h centur y t o th e presen t day . I t seeme d appropriate t o selec t th e prosodi e terms o n thi s occasio n sinc e th e scholar t o w h o m thi s volume i s offered ha s himsel f mad e a distin guished c o n t r i b u t i o n t o th e subject . The systemati c reading of source s fo r th e O E D was largel y c o m 1

2

1 Other studies will be concerned with the terms used for the Anglo-Saxon 'poet' or 'minstrel' ('bard,' 'gleeman,' 'scop,' etc), with types of poems (charm, enig­ ma, epic, lay, lament, etc), with rhetorical terms (anacoluthon, ethopoeia, litotes, prosopopoeia, etc), and so on. 2 T h e greater part of the reading was done by two of my O E D assistants, Miss Jean Buchanan and Mrs Juliet Field. A t a later stage, when the entries were in first draft, I had a great deal of assistance from Miss Buchanan and from M r M . W . Grose, bibliographical editor of A Supplement

to the OED, with the verification

of quotations and antedating of the drafted material. T h e ' L i s t of Words C i t e d ' was prepared b y M r Grose. Without their assistance this article could not have been completed. I am also indebted to Professors E . G . Stanley and F r e d C . R o b ­ inson, who read the article in typescript and made a number of valuable sug­ gestions, and to Mrs M . J . Blackler who typed it.

172

R . W . Burchfield

pleted b y 189 0 o r so , tha t i s before A n g l o - S a x o n becam e firml y es tablished i n the syllabuse s o f Britis h universities . It i s therefore no t surprising tha t th e terminolog y o f A n g l o - S a x o n scholar s i s largely un recorded i n th e dictionary . F o r prosodi e terms , D r M u r r a y an d hi s co editors turne d repeatedl y t o work s o n Gree k an d L a t i n metr e fo r illustrative quotations , or , o n occasion , to w o r k s concerne d w i t h th e prosody o f Englis h writer s lik e M i l t o n an d Shakespeare . Work s o n A n g l o - S a x o n poetr y ar e ver y rarel y cited . In th e lis t tha t follow s th e followin g convention s ar e observed : 1 F o r word s treate d i n th e O E D th e definitio n of th e dictionar y i s retained. C o m m e n t s o n thes e definition s o r o n th e currency , etc , o f the term s ar e sometime s added , precede d b y th e s y m b o l §. 2 T h e s y m b o l + i s used t o mea n ' n o t recorde d i n O E D . ' F o r suc h ex pressions a ne w definitio n is provided unless th e meanin g i s obvious. 3 W i t h i n squar e bracket s afte r eac h l e m m a a reference i s p r o v i d e d, where relevant , t o th e correspondin g w o r d o r sens e i n th e O E D . T h e date-range o f th e illustrativ e quotations i n th e O E D i s also indicated . 4 N o i n d i c a t i o n of stressin g an d p r o n u n c i a t i o n i s provided sinc e thes e are availabl e i n the O E D o r ar e self-explanatory . F o r simila r reason s etymological i n f o r m a t i o n i s provided o n l y fo r expression s tha t ar e not recorde d i n the O E D . 5 Th e illustrativ e examples ar e arrange d chronologically , an d a n attempt ha s bee n mad e i n each instanc e t o trac e th e ' first us e ' i n print. ( I shoul d b e please d t o receiv e detail s o f an y antedating s tha t readers ma y find. ) 6 Th e title s o f articles , books, etc , ar e o m i t t e d fro m th e entrie s themselves bu t ar e readil y availabl e fro m th e lis t o f w o r k s printe d at th e en d o f th e article . Thus '1958 B L I S S 4 0 ' = 'pag e 4 0 o f A . J . Bliss, The Metre of Beowulf ( 1 9 5 8 ) . ' 7 Term s use d o f sectiona l division s of O l d English poems : canto , epilogue, e x o r d i u m , fit, preface, prelude , prologue , stanza , strophe , etc, an d o f phrase s o r line s occurrin g at interval s a t th e en d o f stanzas: burden , chorus , refrain , etc , w i l l b e treate d elsewhere . 8 T h e equivalen t G e r m a n term s (especiall y those use d b y Sievers ) are provide d where relevant , especiall y for thos e Englis h term s that see m t o b e loan-translations .

T h e Prosodie Terminology of Anglo-Saxon Scholars

173

accentué. [ O E D 6 , 1583-1871 ] T h e stress lai d a t mor e o r less fixe d intervals o n certain syllable s o f a verse, t h e succession o f w h i ch con stitutes t h e r h y t h m o r measur e o f t h e v e r s e . # Cf P R I M A R Y a., S E C O N ­ D A R Y a., T E R T I A R Y a. I n quot. 181 3 the ' w r e t c h e d lines ' ar e actuall y Latin. 1813 J . J . C O N Y B E A R E 262 O f the substitution of accent or emphasis for quan­ tity, the following wretched lines afford an example. 1823 BOSWORTH 220 It [sc. emphasis] is . . . properly divided into syllabic emphasis, generally, but impro­ perly, termed accent and verbal or sentential emphasis, commonly denominated merely emphasis. 1860 STEPHENS 22 O u r ancestors grounded their verse on staverhyme and accent. 1910 SCHIPPER 16 Lachmann . . . recognized a freer variety with two chief accents only in each section. 1942 POPE 43 T h e simple fact that five syllables in succession . . . can hardly be spoken without differentiation o f accent.

accented ppl.a. o r stress .

[ O E D 1837 ] Distinguishe d b y o r marked w i t h accen t

1826 W.D. C O N Y B E A R E xxxviii T h e alliteration must always fall o n the accen­ ted syllables. 1857 PATMORE 148 E a c h hemistich contains two accented syllables. 1932 CHADWICK 1.21 Anglo-Saxon and early German poems have the same met­ rical form, each half-line containing two accented units.

accentual a. [ O E D 1610-1875 ] O f o r belongin g t o accent; formed b y accent, a s distinct fro m quantity , [ e t c ] . 1838 GUEST 1.174 What are the forms in which accentual r h y t h m made its first appearance amongst us. 1871 E A R L E 552 Alliteration . . . is an accentual reverber­ ation. 1949 B A U M 158 B y mixing the two molds o f an accentual system and the classical quantitative system, Sievers laid himself open to certain contradictions.

^ a-lin e A l s o a half-line, a half-verse, a-verse . T he first half-lin e o f a line o f O E verse . C f & - L I N E . [ 1891 BRIGHT 230 T h e superior letters a and b denote respectively first and second half-lines.]

1893 J . LAWRENCE 47 In the a half-verses . . . there is . . . no

peculiarity . . . to distinguish them from ordinary first half-verses with single allit­ eration. 1914 WILLIAMS 108 T h e b half-line contains the essential prose gnome, the a half-line representing . . . an attempt at adornment. Ibid

130 Conceiving the

a-line to be the end of the introduction, the M i n e the beginning of the gnomes. 1918 K O C K 77 Hronaes

ban is no verse at all, thus neither the beginning of a mon­

strous a-verse (Haigh and others), nor a fe-verse (Wülker). 1935 B A R T L E T T 69

174 R . W . Burchfield Sporadic instances of an expanded a verse with a normal b verse . . . are not un­ common.

alliteral a . [ O E D 1850-6 4 (o f A f r i c an languages) ] Characterize d b y alliteration. § No longer current. 1826 W.D. C O N Y B E A R E xii T h e same alliteral letter obviously extends to the couplet as formed of the longer lines. 1866 E . K E N N E D Y 102 We do not claim for Saxon alliteral poetry any fixed principle of quantity.

alliterate v. [ O E D 1 , 1816 ] intr. O f words: t o begi n w i t h th e sam e letter o r group o f letters, to constitut e alliteration. 1857 PATMORE 148 In the first hemistich, the two accented syllables alliterate. 1888 T O L M A N 21 T w o accented syllables of the first half-line, sometimes only one, must alliterate with one such syllable in the second. 1938 C A M P B E L L 32 Both arses of the first half-verse alliterate in 38 cases. 1970 FAKUNDINY 138 T h e demonstratives alliterate with each other.

alliteratedppl.a. [ O E D 1776-1859 ] C o m p o s e d w i t h o r characterize d b y alliteration . 1866 E . K E N N E D Y 103 T h e Anglo-Saxon . . . concentrated his physical energies upon the alliterated words. 1892 B R O O K E 1.13 His voice rang out the alliterated words.

alliterating ppl.a. [ O E D 1846 ] Producin g alliteration ; beginnin g w i t h the sam e latter as anothe r w o r d . 1842 THORPE 505 T h e alliterating words sigor-lean

sohtun,

and secgat.

1857

[see DISTICH sb. ]. 1942 POPE 22 T h e second half-line contains by rule only one alliterating letter. 1970 FAKUNDINY 135 T h e verse clause opens somewhat un­ usually with an alliterating noun.

alliteration [ O E D 2 , 1774-1871 ] Th e commencement o f certain ac cented syllable s i n a verse w i th th e sam e consonant or consonanta l group, o r w i t h differen t vowe l sounds , w h i ch constitute d th e struc ture o f versification i n O E an d the T e u t o n i c language s generally. + extra-alliteratio n (se e quot . 1959) . § See also C R O S S - A L L I T E R A T I O N , CROSSED ALLITERATION, DOUBLE ALLITERATION, K E Y ALLITERATION, TRANSVERSE 1765 PERCY [see DISTICH sb.].

ALLITERATION. 1823 BOSWORTH 215 Alliteration, or the be­

ginning of several syllables, in the same or corresponding verse, with the same letter, has been generally considered as one very particular and distinguishing

T h e Prosodie Terminology o f Anglo-Saxon Scholars

175

feature o f Anglo-Saxon poetry. 1857 [see ASSONANCE ] . 1874 HOPKINS 284 A l literation was an essential element in Anglo-Saxon or old English verse. 1928 W. W. LAWRENCE 40 Words like see and heafo . . . are very loosely used in epic, partly in consequence of the demands of alliteration. 1940 T O L K I E N xxxiii T h e socalled 'alliteration' depends not on letters but o n sounds. 1948 B A U M 87 Others . . . based o n the sound, as eode eahte sum / wnder mwithrof, which is pointed up by the extra alliteration in the second verse. 1959 L E PAGE 434 There are in O l d English poetry generally numerous examples of what I have previously called 'extra-alliteration': of lines more heavily loaded with it, of couplets apparently linked b y recurring alliteration, and of short passages of three or more lines where the same initial letter recurs frequently. 1962 C A M P B E L L 17 In O l d English epic verse the adjectives of indefinite quantity take the alliteration . . . only in stock phrases.

alliterative a. [ O E D 1764-1865 ] Pertainin g t o o r characterize d b y alliteration. 1774 H E N R Y 11.437 Their modes of versification . . . chiefly of the alliterative kind. 1839 WRIGHT 8 Some Anglo-Saxon scholars . . . have advocated the printing of the alliterative couplet in one line. 1903 ANDERSON 38 T h e tones of the harp were probably used to mark the emphatic alliterative syllables. 1939 LEWIS 119 It is a little remarkable that few have yet suggested a return to our o w n ancient system, the alliterative line. 1 9 4 8 M A L O N E 21 Runes were used for some alliterative verses inscribed on the Franks Casket. 1970 FAKUNDINY 135 A l m o s t any desired noun could be put in the first lift to fill alliterative requirements.

anacrusis [ O E D 1833-44 ] ' A syllable a t th e beginnin g o f a verse before th e just r h y t h m ' ( K e n n e d y ) . + A l s o occas . anakrusis . § T he cor responding G w o r d i s Auftakt. 1857 PATMORE 150 T h e 'anacrusis', or unaccented portion of a foot or bar, . . . is the nearest approximation to Rask's idea of a 'complement' which the nature o f metre will admit. 1870 M A R C H 145 T h e c o m m o n narrative verse . . . may have four feet and an anacrusis in each section. 1894 H E A T H 380 Anakrusis is oftener lacking than not. 1935 G I R V A N 17 T h e prefix ge- can be an anacrusis in the second half-line. 1948 M A L O N E 25 B o t h Heusler and Sievers began the half-line, o n occasion, with an onset of one or more syllables reckoned as anacrusis.

anacrustic a. [ O E D S u p p l . (1972) , 1878 ] Characterize d b y anacrusis . 1899 BRIGHT 352 T h e anacrustic beat is expanded in pœt is on Hierûsalëm. 1948 ANDREW 113 It is the weak anacrustic syllable which Sievers stresses in every line.

176 R . W . Burchfield

arsis [ O E D 2 , 1834-76 ] I n m o d e rn acceptation : th e stron g syllabl e i n Englis h metr e (o r classica l metr e a s read b y Englishmen) , th e strong not e i n barred music ; thu s identica l w i t h th e m o d e r n meanin g o f L ictus. ( A . J . Ellis ) § C f T H E S I S . [ 1866 E . K E N N E D Y 102 T h e peculiarity of the intonation of the alliterated words was similar in its application to the 'ictus metricus', or 'arsis*, in Greek metrical poetry.] 1870 [see THESIS]. 1877 R E H R M A N N 10 A n arsis of a long line is formed in general by every syllable, the initial letter of which is, at the same time, the alliterative letter. 1910 SCHIPPER 28 Syllables with this secondary accent are necessary in certain cases as links between the arsis and thesis. 1942 POPE 49 Anacrusis derives its effect . . . from being placed in the up-beat or arsis. 1970 C A B L E 86 Alliteration would appear only in the second arsis.

assonance [ O E D 2 , 1823-79 ] T h e correspondence o r r i m i n g o f one w o r d w i t h anothe r in the accente d vowe l an d thos e w h i ch f o l l o w , b u t not i n the consonants. 1830 [see H A L F - R H Y M E ] . 1857 PATMORE 147 Alliteration is so essentially consonantal, that, in Anglo-Saxon and Icelandic poetry, in which this assonance has been cultivated as an art, there is properly no such thing as alliteration of vowels. 1888 COOK liii When the vowels are identical, and the following consonants or consonant combinations are dissimilar (assonance). 1910 SCHIPPER 63 Assonances, in which only the vowels correspond, as waef: lœs E l . 1238. 1967 WRENN 36 As time went on . . . to some extent rhyme and assonance were blended with alliteration.

a-verse = a-LINE (q.v.) .

beat sb. [ O E D sb. 5 , 1885 ] T h e march o f measured sound o r o f verse, (quot. 1892) ; + also , i n O E vers e a stressed syllable, a lift, f C f D O W N 1

BEAT, UPBEAT. 1892 BROOKE 1.103 With the beat o f his voice and of the hand u p o n his instrument at each alliterative w o r d o f the saga, he sings of the great fight with Grendel. 1894 H E A T H 380 T h e OE verse . . . in the short or half-line shows four beats. 1942 POPE 92 T h e assumption of the harp dispels the only practical objection to the theory of initial rests b y enabling us to postulate a regular beat, not merely imagined but heard, as a complement to the voice. 1967 WRENN 40 This light syllable may combine with an immediately following light syllable to form in the pattern o f the half-line a heavy beat or lift consisting of the two syllables 'slurred' together.

The Prosodie Terminology of Anglo-Saxon Scholars

177

t 6-line . A l s o b half-line , b half-verse , 6-verse . T he secon d half-lin e o f a lin e o f O E verse . Cf a - L I N E . 1891 [see a-LINE]. 1893 J . LAWRENCE 47 T h e case is different . . . as regards the b half-verses. 1914, 1918 [see a-LINE]. 1948 ANDREW 89 There are . . . within the major actions, many minor transitions, which usually begin with a b verse. 1961 W H A L L O N 313 sidfaepme

sctp in the b half-line would seem dispensable in

favor of saegëap naca.

cadence [ O E D 1 , c 1 3 8 4 - 1 8 7 3 ] ' T h e flow o f verses or p e r i o d s' ( j ) ; r h y t h m , r h y t h m i c a l construction , measure . 1805 T U R N E R IV.416 T h e words are placed in that peculiar r h y t h m or cadence which is observable in all the preceding extracts. 1813J.J. C O N Y B E A R E 259 I . . . shall endeavour to show . . . that the general r h y t h m and cadence of their verse is not altogether undiscoverable. 1929 L E O N A R D 7 T h e two cadences are in effect on the ear far more alike than many so-called ' subtypes ' o f any one o f the ortho­ dox five. 1970 L E H M A N N 438 T h e cadence of the RP is more regular than that of any other OE poem of the period.

caesura [ O E D 2 , 1 5 5 6 - 1 8 4 1 ] In Englis h prosody : a pause o r breathing place abou t th e middl e o f a metrica l line , generall y indicate d b y a pause i n the sense . [ 1823 BOSWORTH 245 T h e whole ancient poetic art of the Northerns . . . never in any way tolerates the division of verse (Caesura), which is f o u n d in Greek and Latin Hexameters and Pentameters.]

1871 SWEET 3 E a c h long verse has four ac­

cented syllables . . . and is divided b y the caesura into two short verses. 1935 BARTL E T T 41 T h e position of the anaphora at the caesura, a position c o m m o n in Anglo-Saxon verse. 1958 BLISS 37 T h e metrical significance of the caesura has been merely asserted, never proved. 1970 FAKUNDINY 264 T h e separation o f a sentence-part-particle from its related noun by a metrical caesura.

caesural a. [ O E D 1 7 8 3 - 1 8 6 1 ] Of or pertaining t o a caesura. 1857 PATMORE 150 T h e supposition that this unartistic use of the caesural dot reacted upon the practice o f the poets. 1891 G A R N E T T 100 T h e sequence of thought is usually such that the rhetorical pause and the caesural pause coincide. 1941 M E N N E R 133 Grein and Assmann made the same division of lines, but d i d not indicate caesural division. 1943 C.W. K E N N E D Y 18 A normal line o f O l d Eng­ lish verse was composed of two half-lines separated b y a strongly marked caesural pause.

178

R . W . Burchfield

chronometric a. [ O E D 1 8 3 0 - 8 1 ] O f or pertaining t o c h r o n o m e t r y ; re lating t o the measuremen t o f time. § No examples o f the metrica l us e in O E D . 1958 BLISS 106 T h e current interpretation of modern English verse is that it is chronometric . . . Recent interpreters of O l d English verse, notably Heusler and Pope, have attempted to apply this theory to O l d English. 1961 TAGLICHT 349 We may conclude . . . that the metre has a quantitative or chronometric frame­ work.

couplet [ O E D 1 , 1580-1889 ] A pai r o f successive line s o f verse, esp. when r i m i n g togethe r and o f the sam e length. # In som e writers a 'half-line' i s called a ' l i n e , ' an d a ' c o u p l e t ' = t wo 'half-lines. ' 1826 W.D. C O N Y B E A R E xii Braces have been placed against the alliteral coup­ lets. 1830 THORPE 160 We have . . . in the first line of each couplet, three ictus, besides a number . . . of short syllables. 1864 M O R L E Y 264 Germans w h o study Anglo-Saxon, differ from the usual custom of the English and the Danes b y reck­ oning each couplet as a single line. 1957 L E PAGE 97 T h e lines must be regarded as a couplet, and not split up into half-lines. 1962 M A L O N E 61 In the other two thulas no stanzas occur; here we find only single lines and couplets.

cross-alliteration [ O E D S u p p l . (1972 ) s.v. cross- 9 , 193 8 (not o f O E C f next.

verse)] = T R A N S V E R S E A L L I T E R A T I O N .

1910 SCHIPPER 25 If this cross alliteration [in line 1 of Beowulf]

is intentional.

1938 C A M P B E L L 32 Cross alliteration, in the form abab, occurs in 14, 33, 48 and 50. 1962 M A L O N E 73 T h e line has two staves, giving cross or transverse alliter­ ation, with a pattern abab in line 44, abba in line 127. 1963 BESSINGER 28 T h e sequence is climaxed b y a cross-alliteration in sc- and w-.

4= crossed alliteratio n [ O E D Crossed adj. ] = prec. § Siever s use d th e corresponding G term gekreuzte Alliteration fo r th e typ e abab an d also fo r th e typ e baab. J . C . Pop e distinguishe s crossed alliteration (abab) fro m transverse alliteration (baab) . 1893 J . LAWRENCE 46 Crossed alliteration involves alliteration in the final arsis. 1900 EMERSON 127 T h e term transverse alliteration is chosen as least likely to cause confusion . . . T h e name crossed alliteration, from Luick's 'gekreuzte allit­ eration' . . . has never gained currency in English. 1940 T O L K I E N xxxv Crossed al­ literation is occasionally f o u n d in the forms ab\ab and ab\ba.

1953 S L A Y 4 More

probably this is an attempt at a very unusual crossed alliteration / r , / ; / r , / .

The Prosodie Terminology o f Anglo-Saxon Scholars

179

dip sb. [ O E D S u p p l . (1972 ) l g , 1894-1961] A n unstressed element in a lin e o f O E verse . O p p . L I F T . C f G Senkung. 1894 SWEET lxxxviii Each verse usually consists of four metrical elements, two lifts and two dips — that is, two strong- and two weak-stress elements. 1912 CHAMBERS 172 T h e second element may count either as secondary accent or as a dip. 1939 [see LIFT sb.].

1966 S T A N L E Y 120 T h e dip at the beginning of a

half-line is a signalising position.

dipodic a. [ O E D ' I n recent Diets . '] O f the natur e o f a d i p o d y; char acterized b y dipodies ; a s ' a dipodi c measure.' 1918 L E O N A R D 120 Its tendency toward dipodic scansion awakens Germanic memories — ancestral reverberations long antedating the Niebelungen

or

Beowulf.

1949 B A U M 161 Dipodic verse has survived rather in oral tradition . . . than as a literary form.

d i p o d y [ O E D 1844-91 ] A doubl e foot ; t w o feet constitutin g a singl e measure. 1894 H E A T H 384 If it is a sub-stressed syllable, and a Suffix, it can only bear a Verse Accent when, by so doing, it forms a Dipodie. 1929 L E O N A R D 6 A solemn and emphatic pronunciation . . . echoed in the management of subsequent speechmaterial . . . in the second dipody. 1948 [see

verse-unit].

distich sb. [ O E D 1553-1891 ] A coupl e o f lines o f verse, usuall y mak ing complet e sense , and (i n m o d e rn poetry ) riming ; a couplet . 1765 PERCY 11.261 Their brethren, the Anglo-saxon poets, occasionally used the same kind of alliteration . . . Skeop tha and skyrede / S k y p p e n d ure . . . But distichs o f this sort perpetually occur in all their poems of any length. 1813 J . J . C O N Y B E A R E 267 I do not recollect any instance of an attempt to carry o n the same alliteration through a considerable number of lines together. It seldom . . . extends b e y o n d the distich. 1857 PATMORE 147 When the requisite number of alliterating consonants in each verse or distich cannot conveniently be produced, three words beginning with vowels are permitted to take the place o f alliterating consonants.

+ doubl e alliteratio n [ O E D D o u b l e adj . 6] A l l i t e r a t i o n o f t wo stressed words i n a half-line o f O E vers e (see als o quots . 1900 , 1937). C f G Doppelalliteration. 1855 THORPE 2 T h e double alliteration, which rarely occurs in the second line of an alliterative couplet. 1900 EMERSON 127 Unfortunately, double alliteration

180 R . W . Burchfield has already been used in two distinct senses . . . Sievers employed the term for two alliterating syllables in the half line, while C o o k , followed by Crow among American editors, has used the same term for two, rather than three, alliterating syllables in the whole line of alliterative poetry. 1906 KRAPP xlvi D o u b l e alliter­ ation in the first half-line is one fourth more frequent in Andreas

than in Cyne-

wulf. 1937 GORDON 44 Double alliteration also occurs in the pattern abab in 24, 63, 68, [etc]. 1958 BLISS 4 T h e phrase 'double alliteration' is here used to in­ dicate that there are two alliterating words in the a- verse, not that there is allit­ eration on two distinct letters.

down-beat [ O E D S u p p l . (1972) , 1876-195 5 (al l non-metrical exam ples)] A d o w n w a r d beat ; spec , in Mus., (th e d o w n w a r d strok e of a conductor's b a t o n or hand, indicating ) th e firs t o r most heavily ac cented not e o f a measure. 1942 POPE 49 We can reconcile r h y t h m and meaning . . . by assigning each of these pairs to the u p - b e a t . . . of the first measure o f its own verse, while we fill the down-beat or thesis of this measure with a rest. 1953 M A G O U N 458 T h e first down-beat or ictus in the off-verse does not here alliterate with the preceding on-verse.

drop sb. t =

DIP sb. C f G

Senkung.

1 9 4 1 M A L O N E 74 A metrically heightened syllable may be called a lift (Ger­ man hebung); kung).

a metrically lowered syllable may be called a drop (German sen­

1953 WRENN 78 Prefixes are normally parts of the weakly-stressed portion

of the half-line and form the dip or drop.

emphasis

[OED4]

$ spec.

1823 [see A C C E N T sb.].

= S T R E S S s& .

1830 FOX vi In these compositions . . . trochaic feet

predominate, and these are distinguishable by accent or emphasis. 1967 WRENN 37 Its two basic principles of metre are those of stress or emphasis . . . and second­ ly of alliteration.

emphatic a. [ O E D l b , 1837-9 ] O f a w o rd o r syllable : tha t bear s th e stress i n p r o n u n c i a t i o n. 1847 L O N G F E L L O W 4 T h e short exclamatory lines, whose r h y t h m depends o n alliteration in the emphatic syllables. 1883 H . M . K E N N E D Y 1.21 A measure which belonged to the antiquity of all Germanic races; namely, the line with eight em­ phatic syllables, divided into equal parts b y the caesura. 1953 WRENN 79 In that kind of rhetorical declamation which the Anglo-Saxon scop w o u l d use, the em-

The Prosodie Terminology of Anglo-Saxon Scholars

181

phatic syllables receive greater and clearer force than they would in ordinary speech.

end-rhyme [ O E D S u p p l. (1972 ) s.v . end sb . 2 5, 1855-1953 ] = Cf G Endreim.

RHYME.

1 8 3 1 P A L G R A V E 168 End-rhymes were not used. 1949 B A U M 153 E n d rhyme in the two verses of the long line occurs five times.

end-stopping [ O E D s.v. End sb . 2 5, 188 1 (stopping), 187 7 (stopped)] (Of blan k verse ) a division o f the lines , suc h tha t the y en d w i th a pause o r stop ; s o end-stopped a.; + end-stop, such a pause o r stop . 1932 CHADWICK 1.61 T h e two Anglo-Saxon heroic poems which are not nar­ rative [sc. Deor

and Widsith]

show end-stops. 1912 CHAMBERS 175 Whilst the

proportion of end-stopped to mid-stopped lines is in Beowulf . . . i n Widsith

385:282 . . . it is

. . . 29:0. 1948 M A L O N E 26 In the oldest linear verse the end-

stopped style prevailed. 1912 CHAMBERS 174 In two groups of [OE] poems only do we find consistent and unbroken 'end stopping*. 1948 M A L O N E 26 One might have expected to find end-stopping used a good deal in the gnomic verses.

enjamb(e)ment [ O E D 1837-81 ] T h e c o n t i n u a t i on o f a sentence bey o n d th e secon d lin e o f a couplet. [ O E D S u p p l . (1972) , 1929 ] N ow applied les s restrictedly t o th e carryin g ove r o f a sentence fro m on e line t o th e next , f N o n e o f the example s i n O E D i s of O E verse . 1892 FOSTER 41 O u r poet in tasteful variety uses 'enjambement \ or a minor syntactical pause, at the close of the line. 1910 SEDGEFIELD 7 T h e interlocking by alliteration and enjambement

makes for closeness of web and rapidity. 1958

BLISS 109 These shorter phrases . . . serve to mark the division between the lines, a division which tends to be obscured by the characteristic O l d English

enjambe­

ment.

expanded ppl.a. + Used o f an abnormall y lon g lin e o f O E verse , hyper metrical. 1886 COOK li E x p a n d e d lines are employed in passages of peculiar elevation and solemnity or expressive of unwonted agitation. 1894 H E A T H 386 E x p a n d e d lines, called b y German scholars Schwell-verse

or Streck-verse,

are hypercatalec-

tic. 1953 M A G O U N 462 T h e origin and special function, if any, of the expanded or hypermetric verses.

extended ppl.a. + = prec. w o r d . 1910 SCHIPPER 36 These extended hemistichs must be carefully distinguished

182 R . W . Burchfield from the hemistichs which have one or more unaccented syllables before

the first

accented syllable. 1946 D A U N T 61 T h e 'extended types' of O l d English. Here the line shows an increased number of stresses and the 'pattern' can be regarded as an enlargement o f one type or a mixture of two.

extra-alliteration se e

ALLITERATION.

$ extrametri c a. = next . 1942 POPE 19 If he is unafraid of extrametric anacrusis . . . Leonard can follow Heusler in the establishment of two quadruple measures for each verse instead of the four simple ones.

extrametrical a. [ O E D 1863 ] Exceedin g th e numbe r o f feet o r sylla bles prope r t o a metre; hypermetrical . 1958 BLISS 40 This extrametrical prelude to the verse is k n o w n as anacrusis. 1970 S WANTON 126 Grein supplied and at the beginning of the line, assuming it to have been l o s t . . . and justifying it as an extra-metrical syllable.

f a l l i n g p p l a . [ O E D 2 , 1844 ] O f a foot , r h y t h m , etc : decreasin g in stress, having th e ictu s a t th e beginning . O p p . R I S I N G ppla. § An 189 3 example o f 'fallin g stress ' is recorded i n O E D s.v . Stress sb . 8. 1894 SWEET xciv There is a tendency to combine different types in a line, the falling types A and D being most frequent in I, while in II the rising types B and C are preferred. 1962 BLISS 31 A n increase in the proportion of rising rhythms at the expense of falling rhythms. 1967 WRENN 41 T w o feet in falling r h y t h m , two in rising rhythm.

t five types . I n the syste m o f the G e r m a n schola r E d u a r d Siever s (esp . in hi s Altgermanische Metrik, 1893) , th e fiv e principa l classe s of r h y t h m observabl e i n the survivin g O E verse . Also five-type attrib . 1892 M A T H E R 100 H e divides the five types into two classes. 1899 BRIGHT 354 The fixed laws of the five types of r h y t h m . 1946 D A U N T 59 What neither Sievers nor any other writers . . . have ever pointed out, is that the 'five types' are lang­ uage patterns not metrical patterns. 1958 BLISS 81 Sievers' five types really do exist. 1959 L E PAGE 435 F o r the purposes of definition and enumeration I have accepted Sievers' five-type theory.

foot sb. [ O E D II.6, c 1050-1846 ] A divisio n o f a verse, consistin g o f a number o f syllables on e of w h i ch ha s th e ictu s o r principal stress . § Example s referrin g t o O E vers e ar e given i n O E D (1846 ) an d O E D

The Prosodie Terminology of Anglo-Saxon Scholars

183

S u p p l . (1830-1942) . 1735 SHELTON 17 T h e y strictly observed Metre or the Quantity of Feet. 1813 J . J . C O N Y B E A R E 262 T h e verses of the Anglo Saxons . . . will be found to consist for the most part of feet of two or three syllables each. 1888 COOK 1 A normal hemistich contains two metrical feet. 1942 POPE 12 Sievers was only borrowing mistakes from contemporary metrical theory when he marked the 'feet* of his five types. 1958 BLISS 80 T h e vast majority of . . . O l d English verses consist of two 'feet' divided by a caesura.

half sb. t =

HALF-LINE.

1892 BROOKE I. x The Anglo-Saxon line is divided into two halves by a pause. The first half has two 'measures'. 1940 T O L K I E N xxvii T h e O l d English line was composed of two opposed word-groups or 'halves'. Each half was an example, or variation, of one o f six basic patterns.

+ half-lif t A medium-stresse d lif t i n O E verse. C f hebung, Nebenton.

LIFT

an d

G

Neben-

1894 SWEET xc T o make up for the want of an accompanying dip, an extra medium-stressed half-lift is made obligatory. 1953 S L A Y 7 In general he [sc. H . Kuhn] includes the half-lift (nebenhebung)

under the lift. 1967 WRENN 38 Five

basic combinations of stress or lift of the voice, half or secondary stress or halflift, and unstressed syllables.

+ half-lin e T h e p o r t i on o f an O E lin e o f verse that lie s eithe r befor e o r after th e caesura . Cf L I N E , «-LINE, fc-LINE; GHalbzeil. 1864 M O R L E Y 251 T h e most important is a heroic poem . . . extending . . . to 6357 of the short Anglo-Saxon lines, or half lines, as they are usually printed. 1894 [see B E A T sb.].

1906 [see D O U B L E A L L I T E R A T I O N ] . 1939 [see LIFT sb.]

1951 WHITELOCK 10 God eabe maeg ' G o d can easily', always used as a second half-line with its object in the following line.

+ half-rhym e A n imperfect o r near rhyme . § Cf G Halbreim; als o O N skothending w h i c h i s usually rendere d by ' h a l f - r h y m e ' (e.g . G . P . M A R S H Lect. Eng. Lang. [1860 ] x x v . 5 5 3 ) . 1830 THORPE 139 Line-Rime is when two syllables, in the same line of verse, have their vowels and the consonants following them alike, which is called per­ fect rime (consonances), or unlike vowels, and only the following consonants the same, which is called half rime (assonances). 1868 S K E A T xxii There are also half-rimes, as in 'sar and sorge ', 'his boda beod&ri',

8cc.

184 R . W . Burchfield

t half-stres s A secondar y stress . Cf

STRESS.

1938 CAMPBELL 24 Graz . . . regarding butu as having a half-stress o n the second syllable. 1 9 6 1 T A G L I C H T 345 L o n g and short syllables must be distinguished in scansion, when they bear either a strong stress or a half-stress.

t half-vers e = G Halbvers.

HALF-LINE.

# 1 7 1 1 exampl e i n O E D s.v . Hemistich. C

f

1876 SWEET xcviii There is often only one alliterative letter in the first half verse. 1907 B L A C K B U R N x Uncorrected errors are few, though occasional omis­ sions occur, generally of a half-verse. 1938 CAMPBELL 16 It will be convenient to group its half-verses in the 'five types' of Sievers.

head-stave se e

STAVE

sb.

heavy a.4= A s a general ter m i n O E prosody (opp . t o (see quot . 1958) .

LIGHT

a.); spec.

1893 J . L A W R E N C E 46 Verses with double alliteration are as a rule heavier than those with single. 1948 B A U M 81 These heavy and extra-heavy verses, are the ex­ ceptions. 1958 BLISS 8 There are also many verses which contain three stressed elements instead of the normal two: blaed I wide I sprang 18b . . . A l l verses of this k i n d are here termed 'heavy ' verses.

hemistich [ O E D 1575-1839 ] Th e half o r sectio n o f a line o f verse, a s divided b y th e caesur a o r the l i k e ; also , a line o f less than th e usua l length. 1823 BOSWORTH 246 [quoting J . J . Conybeare] T h e question, as to whether the two hemistichs shall be regarded as one or two lines, is evidently that of a writer or printer, not of a singer or reciter. 1857 [see A C C E N T E D ppla.}.

1888

COOK 1 T h e line of poetry consists of two hemistichs, separated b y the caesura. 1925 CLUBB xv T h e mark most consistently . . . employed is the metrical point, indicating the pause between hemistichs. 1970 C A B L E 86 One would not expect pà to provide the only alliteration in the second hemistich.

hypercatalectic a. [ O E D 1704-1886 ] O f a verse or c o l o n : havin g a n extra syllabl e afte r th e las t complet e d i p o d y . A l s o applie d t o th e syl lable itself . F o r m e r l y als o = hypermetric. 1813 J . J . C O N Y B E A R E 265 O f the Trochaic species, with the Hypercatalectic syllable, as, A h t e ic, ealdor, stol. 1894 [see E X P A N D E D

ppla.}.

hypermetric a. [ O E D 1 , 1865-87 ] O f a 'verse' o r line : havin g on e or more syllable s b e y o n d thos e n o r m a l t o the metre ; having a redundant

The Prosodie Terminology of Anglo-Saxon Scholars

185

syllable o r syllables . A l s o sai d o f th e redundan t syllable . 1892 M A T H E R 100 It will be well to note the occurrences of hypermetric lines in the different poems. 1906 KRAPP xlvii Beowulf

(which contains twelve hyper­

metric lines). 1958 BLISS 96 T h e distribution of hypermetric verses varies from poem to poem. 1970 SWANTON 61 Blocks of hypermetric verse used contrapuntally.

hypermetrical a . [ O E D 1 7 5 1 - 1 8 8 6 ] = prec. 1891 BRIGHT 238 These hypermetrical half-lines . . . usually add dignity to the sense and movement of the passage. 1922 K L A E B E R lxxi Groups of emphatic hypermetrical types are introduced three times. 1935 B A R T L E T T 70 T h e hyper­ metrical irregularities of the other Anglo-Saxon poems. 1958 BLISS 88 T h e vast majority of hypermetrical verses end with a group of syllables which is exactly equivalent to an ordinary verse.

ictus [ O E D 1 , 1 7 5 2 - 1 8 7 1 ] Stres s on a particular syllabl e o f a foo t o r verse; r h y t h m i c a l o r metrica l stress . 1823 BOSWORTH 246 [quoting J . J . Conybeare] T h e ear is satisfied, not b y the number of syllables, but by the recurrence of the accent, or ictus, if one may call it so. 1888 T O L M A N 21 March . . . declares that 'the time from each ictus to the next is the same in any section'. 1953 [see DOWN-BEAT].

isochronous a. [ O E D 1 7 8 4 - 1 8 2 2 ] E q u a l i n metrical length . 1857 PATMORE 149 A metre which, totally abandoning the element of natural syllabic quantity, takes the isochronous bar for the metrical integer. 1942 POPE 9 Isochronous measures are the rule . . . and it is easy to produce them in

Beowulf

by means of limited quantitative variation. 1948 B A U M 75 There is . . . no reason to suppose that, if the Beowulf-was

chanted to a real musical accompaniment,

the lines were therefore delivered in isochronous groups.

+ isochron y [ F o r m e d a s p r e c, afte r synchrony, etc the characte r or property of being isochronous .

] Isochronism ;

1 9 6 1 T A G L I C H T 342 There exist all sorts of musical rhythms very different from the isochrony which has dominated European music for so long a time. 1966 POPE x Isochrony and initial rests are . . . vital, in m y opinion, for the achievement of an adequate sense of order in opposition to the extraordinary variety of syllabic patterns in the verses.

186 R . W . Burchfield

t key-alliteratio n A l l i t e r a t i o n o f the + key-letter, tha t beginnin g th e first stresse d w o rd i n the secon d half-lin e o f a line o f O E verse . C f STAVE. 1875 WATSON 35 T h e key letter should begin the former of the two loud syllables in the second section of the line. 1940 T O L K I E N xxxiii T h e keyalliteration or 'head-stave' was borne b y the first lift in the second half. 1948 BAUM 73 T h e dogma (Sievers' word) that the first metrical stress of the second half-line gives the key alliteration.

lengthened ppl. a. E x t e n d e d i n duration, prolonged , long , a s + leng­ thened line, verse, a hypermetric line . 1883 H . M . K E N N E D Y 1.47 Such lengthened lines . . . are especially frequent in the Judith.

Ibid

85 T h e poet [of the later Genesis]

is partial to the long-drawn

lines designated . . . as 'lengthened' verses. 1894 SWEET xciv There are also var­ ious forms of lengthened or three-wave verse, which are introduced only occa­ sionally, generally in solemn, lyrical passages. 1915 B R A D L E Y 179 T h e shortest section [in Judith]

has a larger proportion of lengthened verses than the other

two.

lift sb. + A stresse d element in a lin e o f O E verse . O p p . DIP. C f G Hebung. C f also H A L F - L I F T . 1894 [see DIP sb.].

1927 TOLKIEN 42 This accords with the employment of

the conjunction (notably in the form büton) twice as a lift in Beowulf.

1939

LEWIS 121 T h e half-line consists of Lifts and Dips. 1961 T A G L I C H T 345 Sievers's 'lifts' and ' d i p s ' are not phonetic entities. 1970 FAKUNDINY 135 It occupies the second lift of an off-verse.

light a. [ O E D 12 , 1887-1901 ] O f a syllable : unemphatic , o f littl e weight o r sonorousness . + As a general ter m i n O E prosod y (opp . to H E A V Y a.); spec, (se e quot. 1958) . 1893 J . L A W R E N C E 46 So light a verse is very rare. 1948 B A U M 81 One or more light syllables may precede the first stress. 1958 BLISS 8 A l l verses which consist of only one stressed element are here termed 'light' verses.

line sb. [ O E D sb. 2 3 e, 1563-1894 ] T h e p o r t i on o f a metrical com position w h i c h i s usually writte n i n one line ; a verse; pi. verses , poetry. § F r e q . interchangeabl e w i t h H A L F - L I N E . C f also nex t t w o words. 2

1813 J . J . C O N Y B E A R E 262 T h e line ' T h a t we m o t u n ' evidently consists of two

The Prosodie Terminology of Anglo-Saxon Scholars trochees. Ibid

187

Variety was produced . . . b y the admitting lines of different len­

gths from two to four feet. 1830 THORPE 137 In A . S . poetry the two lines con­ nected by alliteration, need n o t . . . be connected also in sense. 1948 M A L O N E 26 T h e short verse, the basic metrical unit, usually occurred by twos — that is, in lines, the two parts of which were linked b y alliteration. 1951 [see HALF-LINE] 1957 L E PAGE 101 In Beowulf

the line is the rhythmical unit, not the half-line.

long line , long-lin e + In O E verse , t wo half-line s considere d a s a u n i t ; spec, lon g epi c lin e (se e quot . 1892) . C f prec. an d next w o r d, an d S H O R T L I N E ; c f also G Langzeile. § In O E D onl y attrib., 1 7 5 5 - 1 8 4 9 , and no t specificall y o f O E verse . 1868 S K E A T xxiv There has been much discussion as to whether alliterative poems should be printed in couplets of short lines, or in long lines comprising two sections. 1877 R E H R M A N N 9 A l l words of a long-line are fit for alliteration that distinguish themselves in the verse by natural gravity or grammatical accent. 1892 BROOKE 11.283 T h a t Cynewulf, having fixed himself down in the Elene the short-epic line, should . . . use in the Dream

to

that solemn but various, dignified

but rushing long-epic line which is found in the Genesis,

Exodus,

and

Judith.

1929 L E O N A R D 7 T h e law of the meter remains, an eight-beat long-line. 1935 [see O F F - V E R S E ] . 1970 FAKUNDINY 133 T h e metrical division between two verses (hemistichs) of an alliterative long line.

+ l o n g verse , long-vers e = prec. C f

SHORT VERSE.

1871 SWEET 3 Each long verse has four accented syllables. 1889 K E N T 8 T h e so-called 'long-verse' consists of two hemistichs.

m e a s u r e d . [ O E D 16 , c 1450-1869 ] Poetica l r h y t h m , a s ' m e a s u r e d ' b y quantit y o r accent ; a k i nd o f poetical r h y t h m ; a metrical grou p or p e r i o d ; metre. 1774 H E N R Y 11.432 T h e kinds and measures of their [sc. Saxon and Danish poets'] verses. 1802 SIBBALD IV.lviii In the same k i n d of measure [as the Frag­ ment of the genuine Caedmon] are almost all the popular rhymes which still continue to be repeated b y children in their ring-dances. 1873 M O R L E Y 20 There is one measure for Beowulf, Caedmon's Paraphrase, and all subsequent First English poems. 1877 R E H R M A N N 10 A foot or measure is made up . . . of one accented syllable and its connected unaccented syllable, or syllables.

1942

POPE 44 A c c o r d i n g to Heusler, alliteration must introduce the first measure in the second half-line.

188 R . W . Burchfield

metric sb. [ O E D 1760-1905 ] sing, and pi. T h e science o r ar t tha t deals w i t h metre , esp. w i th th e law s o f versification i n Greek an d Latin. 1892 M A T H E R 100 Metrics and aesthetics must go hand in hand. 1941 G I R V A N 331 T h e metric is astonishing and cannot be paralleled in Anglo-Saxon poetry. 1970 C A B L E 81 (title) Rules for syntax and metrics in

Beowulf.

metrical a. [ O E D a. 1 , 1432-1855 ] Pertainin g o r relating t o metr e or versification; consistin g o f or composed i n metre; having th e charac teristics o f metre. 1

1807 T U R N E R 11.294 This poem [sc. Beowulf]

is certainly a metrical romance

in the Anglo-Saxon language. 1813 J . J . C O N Y B E A R E 259 T h e Anglo Saxon poetry does really differ from their prose by the usage of metrical divisons. 1826 W . D . C O N Y B E A R E lxxix Metrical paraphrases of the Lord's Prayer. 1830 THORPE 150 T h e Anglo-Saxons . . . in many M . S . S . , carefully separate the verse b y metrical points. 1840 P E T H E R A M 169 A metrical H y m n , in Anglo-Saxon, from M S . C o t t o n Vesp. D . V I , o f the ninth century. 1855 THORPE viii It is . . . a metrical paraphrase of an heroic Saga composed in the south-west of Sweden. 1897 F R Y E 79 This regularity of arrangement holds only for the half line, the metrical unit. 1900 B L A C K B U R N 5 A conjecture must not violate established metrical laws. 1925

[see

HEMISTICH]. 1946 [see FIVE T Y P E S ] . 1953 M A G O U N 449 T h e discovery of . . . the non-existence of metrical formulas in the poetry of lettered authors. 1963 QUIRK 159 Metrical units in variation.

t off-vers e T h e second half-lin e o f a line o f O E verse . 1935 M A L O N E 291 T h e chief function of alliteration in OE poetry is that o f binding together the two halves (i.e. the on- and off-verses) o f the so-called long line. 1963 M A G O U N 134 These verses tend to be used as off-verses. 1970 F A K U N DINY 134 T h e Anglo-Saxon poets apparently preferred beginning new clauses with the off-verse.

+ on-vers e T he first half-lin e o f a line o f O E verse . 1935 [see O F F - V E R S E ] . 1970 L E H M A N N 438 Rime forces all final lifts in onverse or off-verse into prominence.

pause sb. [ O E D 2 , 1589-1824 ] A brea k occurring accordin g t o rul e a t a particula r p o i n t i n a verse, a caesura; also, a break of definite lengt h in a verse, o c c u p y i n g th e tim e o f a syllabl e o r number o f syllables .

The Prosodie Terminology of Anglo-Saxon Scholars

189

1826 W.D. C O N Y B E A R E xxxviii T h e monotony which would prevail if the pause generally coincided with the close of the alliteral system is avoided. 1838 GUEST 1.148 In the Anglo-Saxon poems, we find the close of every sentence . . . coinci­ dent with a middle or final pause. 1894 H E A T H 382 Absence of Anakrusis is re­ placed b y a Pause. 1948 M A L O N E 25 T h e weaker beat fell on an unstressed syl­ lable, or o n a pause (metrically a rest) in the prose r h y t h m .

prelude sb. + (Se e quot. 1894 ) A l so use d somewha t more generally . 1823 BOSWORTH 224 It is regarded merely as a species of prelude or overture, which is gone over as hastily as possible. 1826 BOSWORTH 72 And is the prelude, and . . . the verse first properly begins with eálle pa. 1894 SWEET xci A n o t h e r licence is the prelude, that is, beginning a verse with a weak syllable which does not form an integral part of it, being uttered rapidly so as to be included in the pause at the beginning o f the verse. 1948 B A U M 82 A l o n g with the simple form ' o n / l e t boren* 1657 . . . occur the form with longer prelude ('anacrusis' is not the term here): |>onne wig cume 23 . . . and the very c o m m o n light f o r m .

primary a. [ O E D 3 ] O f the firs t orde r i n any series , sequence , or pro cess: + spec, primary accent, beat, lift, stress, etc . 1888 COOK 1 O f the lighter syllables following or preceding a primary stress, one may, under certain circumstances, receive a secondary stress. 1910 SCHIPPER 19 Most of the partisans of the four-beat theory for the hemistich agree in mak­ ing two of these beats primary, and two secondary. Ibid

25 T h e first element

of the c o m p o u n d . . . has the primary accent. 1942 POPE 21 Heusler postulated . . . Every verse must contain two syllables capable o f bearing primary accent.

1962

M A L O N E 61 In the rest of the poem we find . . . many lines with a first lift that is not primary.

resolution [ O E D 6 c, 1884 ] I n prosody, th e substitutio n o f t wo short syllables i n the plac e o f a long one . f T h e corresponding G w o r d i s Auflosung. 1888 COOK 1 T h e substitution of two . . . short syllables for a single long one is called resolution. 1925 CLUBB 63 Sievers . . . first objected to the M S reading cearum,

because it w o u l d give a shortened C-verse with resolution of the first

arsis. 1969 DUNNING & BLISS 75 Resolution of a secondary stress is relatively much more frequent than in

Beowulf.

resolved/?/?La. + Of a syllable , etc : resultin g fro m metrica l resolution . C f prec . w o r d .

190 R . W . Burchfield 1891 BRIGHT 229 A resolved stress . . . consists of two syllables of which the first is short and the second is light enough to combine with the first to produce with it the metrical equivalent of a long syllable. 1967 WRENN 42 We have a C type half-line (with resolved first lift).

rest ¿6.

[OED

sb. sens e 7 b, 1612-1824 ] = 1

PAUSE

sb. A l s o +

rest-beat.

1883 VIGFUSSON & POWELL 1.434 When a monosyllabic w o r d is stressed and followed b y no enclitic words before the next stress it is succeeded by a short interval of silence, which we call a rest. 1910 SCHIPPER 18 Where, in a verse, the morae are not filled b y actual syllables, their time must be occupied b y rests. 1929 L E O N A R D 2 Six speech-beats, three in each half-line, with a rest-beat at the end of each half-line. 1942 POPE 21 T h e place of this syllable may be filled b y a rest. 1948 [see PAUSE

sb.].

r h y m e , rim e sb. [ O E D 3 a , 1663-187 1 (rhyme), a 1300-186 8 (rime); 3 c , 1656-186 7 (rhyme), 1599-189 1 (rime)] Agreemen t i n the ter minal sound s of t w o or more words o r metrica l lines , suc h tha t (i n English prosody ) th e las t stresse d vowel an d any sound s f o l l o w i ng i t are th e same , while th e soun d o r sound s preceding ar e different . (Th e term i s sometimes extended to includ e assonanc e and even alliteratio n (initial o r head rime).) A l s o , a n instance of this, f O E D ha s separat e entries fo r rhyme an d rime thoug h the y ar e i n origin merel y graphi c variations o f each other. 1715 ELSTOB 68 Sometimes they use a kind of R h i m e and Verses ending alike. 1774 MITFORD 157 T h e Anglosaxon poets . . . generally used measures without rime. 1830 [see H A L F - R H Y M E ] . 1838 GUEST 1.175 T h e advantages of the initial rhime or alliteration. 1861 WRIGHT 11.159 R h y m e was never, properly speaking, in use in Anglo-Saxon poetry. 1868 S K E A T xxii There are some instances of full-rime in Caedmon. 1909 GUMMERE 16 His [sc. the Beowulf

poet's]

r h y t h m holds to that four-stressed verse with initial rimes which dominates all Anglo-Saxon poetry. 1949 B A U M 153 R h y m e , apart from initial rhyme or alliteration, occurs here and there in the Beowulf,

but it is not functional and pro-

bably not intentional.

rhyme-letter [ O E D s.v . Rime sb. i n a line o f alliterative verse.

1

5, 1865 ] T h e distinctive initia l lette r

1875 WATSON 35 T h e initial letters c o m m o n to two or more of these loud syllables are called the rime-létters.

The Prosodie Terminology of Anglo-Saxon Scholars

191

r h y t h m sb. [ O E D 4 , 1560-1891 ] T h e measured recurrence of arsi s and thesi s determined b y vowel-quantit y o r stress, or b o th c o m b i n e d ; k i n d o f metrical movement , a s determine d b y th e relatio n o f long an d short, o r stresse d and unstressed, syllables i n a foo t o r a line . 1805 T U R N E R IV.414 T h e rhime used was . . . quite distinct from the general metre or r h y t h m of the poem [sc. Judith].

1823 BOSWORTH 218 R h y t h m is

formed b y a periodical syllabic emphasis. 1942 POPE (title) T h e r h y t h m o f Beo­ wulf. 1961 T A G L I C H T 349 In the treatment of syllabic length . . . the verse rhy­ thm is based essentially on the r h y t h m of speech. 1970 L E H M A N N 441 T h e reg­ ular r h y t h m and the rime make the poem [sc. Riming

Poem]

closer to the ex­

pected music of current verse than does the pure alliterative line.

r h y t h m i c a . [ O E D 1 a, a 1631-1889 ] =

next w o r d .

1892 G U M M E R E 113 T h e rhythmic accent coincided with the syntactical or logical. 1936 T O L K I E N 273 There is no single rhythmic pattern progressing from the beginning of a line to the end.

r h y t h m i c a l a. [ O E D 3 a, 1589-1872 ] O f language, verse : m a r k e d b y or movin g i n r h y t h m; compose d i n r h y t h m; often , havin g a good , smooth, o r flowin g r h y t h m . 1813 J . J . C O N Y B E A R E 271 It might also perhaps be questioned by some, whether the rhythmical system itself . . . was originally the property of our nor­ thern ancestors [etc]. 1864 M O R L E Y 253 T h e long rhythmical, alliterative poem [sc. Beowulf].

1909 LOTSPEICH 375 T h e o l d rule of rhythmical stress accent

laid d o w n by Sievers. 1957 L E PAGE 92 Even the best system of musical nota­ tion so far produced — that o f Professor J . C . Pope — has itself led to overconcentration on the theory of a consistent rhythmical norm.

rising ppl.a. + Of a foot , r h y t h m , etc : increasin g i n stress, having th e ictus a t th e end . O p p. F A L L I N G ppl.a. § Cf sense 4 c in O E D , 'increas ing i n p i t c h .' A n 1893 example o f 'risin g stress ' is recorded i n O E D s.v. Stress sb.8 . 1894, 1962, 1967 [see F A L L I N G ppl.a.].

1970 FAKUNDINY 141 T h e verses

formed are always rising types.

run-on at tri b. phr. ox adj. [ O E D s.v . Run ppl.a . 14 , 1877 ] C o n t i n u e d into th e nex t line , couplet , etc . 1903 TINKER 99 There is always a pause at the end of a line in O l d English; run-on lines are u n c o m m o n . 1935 B A R T L E T T 111 T h e Latin hexameter may have influenced the run-on lines in Anglo-Saxon. 1962 M A L O N E 61 In the rest of the poem we find . . . many run-on lines.

192 R . W . Burchfield

secondary a. [ O E D 1 ] O f the secon d order , o r of less than primar y significance, i n any series , sequence , or process: £ spec , secondary accent, beat, lift, stress, etc . # O E D record s secondary accent fro m Guest Eng. Rhythms (1838) ; als o a 178 5 example s.v . Stress sb.8 . 1888 [see PRIMARY a.].

1899 BRIGHT 368 This secondary accent (as by anal­

ogy it may be called). 1910 [see PRIMARY a.]. t y P gyldenne, e

bundenne

1938 CAMPBELL 19 Words of the

have a secondary stress on the second syllable. 1941

[see

T E R T I A R Y a. ] . 1942 POPE 21 A t the middle of each measure there is normally another syllable bearing secondary accent.

section sb. [ O E D 2 h, 1838 ] Use d b y Gues t for : a member o f a verse , esp. a hemistich o f an O E o r M E alliterativ e line . 1838 GUEST 1.163 O u r Anglo-Saxon poems consist of certain versicles, or, as we have hitherto termed them, sections, b o u n d together in pairs by the laws of alliteration. 1870 [see THESIS]. 1910 SCHIPPER 30 T h e regular alliterative line or verse is made up of two hemistichs or sections.

+ shor t line I n O E verse , a hemistich, half-line ; spec , shor t epic lin e (see q u o t. 1892) . C f L O N G L I N E ; c f also G Kurzzeile. 1864 [see H A L F - L I N E ] . 1868, 1892 [see LONG L I N E ] . 1902 W.W. LAWRENCE 251 T h e four short lines 3, 8, 17, 19, must arrest attention, such verses being un­ usual in Anglo-Saxon poetry.

+ shor t verse = prec. w o r d . 1830 THORPE 136 In short verses there occurs sometimes but one sub-letter. 1911 SKEMP 298 O f these . . . thirty-four short verses, seventeen have alliteration concluded within the short verse. 1948 [see LINE

sb.].

slur sb. [ O E D sb. 5 , 1861-98 ] A slurre d utteranc e or sound . + M o r e precisely, i n O E vers e an unstressed syllable o r syllable s n o t essentia l to th e basi c r h y t h m o f the line . 3

1883 [see S L U R R E D ppla.].

1894 SWEET lxxxvi T w o short syllables consti­

tuting a slur . . . which must be uttered very rapidly.

slurred ppla. [ O E D 1746-1883 ] R u n together, rendered indistinct, blurred, etc . + M o re precisely , i n O E verse , unstressed, unaccented . 1883 VIGFUSSON & POWELL 1.433 In many lines there occur one or more un­ stressed syllables, which form . . . the . . . unmeasured part o f the line; these, for want o f a better term, we call slurred syllables, or, collectively, a slur. 1894 SWEET lxxxvi T h e first of which has strong stress, constituting a slur, which we denote by ( ) over the vowels o f the two slurred syllables. u

The Prosodie Terminology of Anglo-Saxon Scholars 193

stave sb.4 = spec . A n alliterating lette r i n a line o f O E verse . S o headstave (se e quot. 1940) . C f G Stab, Hauptstab, O N hçfui-stafr. § Stave in th e sens e 'verse, stanza ' als o occur s i n works o n O E prosody . 1894 SWEET lxxxv In our texts . . . the letters or staves are in italics. Ibid We denote the first and second verse of each line b y I and II respectively. II . . . has only one stave called the head-stave, while I has either one or two called understaves. 1940 [see K E Y - A L L I T E R A T I O N ] . 1959 L E PAGE 434 T h e two alliterating staves, one in each half-line, have a definite structural function. 1962 M A L O N E 67 Grammatically fela ic monna

makes a unit but because of the m-stave that

binds the two halves o f the line together the on-verse must be classified as D in spite o f the f-stave.

stave-rhyme [ O E D s .v. Stave sb. 8, 1888 ] A l l i t e r a t i o n ; a n alliteratin g w o r d i n a line o f alliterative poetry . C f G Stabreim. 1

1860 STEPHENS 21 T h e E p i c is of course in the Old-English stave-rhyme, the stately metre of our oldest verse. Ibid

[see A C C E N T

sb.].

stichic a. [ O E D 2 , 1886-1900 ] Consistin g o f successive line s o f the same metrica l form . 1888 COOK xlix O l d English verse is rarely strophic, but almost without excep­ tion stichic; that is, consists of ungrouped lines, following each other as in M o d ­ ern English blank verse. 1910 SCHIPPER 24 A t a very early period this sung stro­ phic poetry gave way to a recited strophic form. 1922 K L A E B E R lxxi T h e stichic system of West Germanic verse . . . appears in our poem in full b l o o m . 1962 M A L O N E 61 Instead of one-sentence lines, couplets, and stanzas we find a stichic system like that of

Beowulf.

s t r e s s ^ . [ O E D 8 , 1749-1893 ] Relativ e loudnes s o f force o f voca l utterance [ e t c ] . $ T he O E D example s ar e not al l from prosodi e con texts. O E D record s example s o f stress-rhythm (1901 ) an d stresssyllable (1847 , 1901 ) but not w i t h referenc e t o O E verse . 1830 THORPE 136 T h e riming letters must always be found in those words which have the stress or tone on the syllable which begins with them. 1883 VIGFUSSON & POWELL 1.433 In every line two stress-syllables at least, one in each half-line, must begin with a similar consonant or a vowel. 1904 CHILD xxi T h e O l d English verse is made up of two half lines separated by a caesura, linked b y alliteration, marking the chief stresses. 1958 BLISS 61 Light verses are those which contain only one stressed element, and therefore (apparently, at least) only one full stress. 1961TAGLICHT 344 We nowhere find signs regularly indi­ cating the strong stresses or otherwise marking the metrical subdivision of the half-line.

194 R . W . Burchfield

stressed ppla.

[ O E D 2 , 1913 ] M a r k e d w i t h a stress, emphasized .

1883 VIGFUSSON & POWELL 1.442 Stressed words in slur. 1922 KERSHAW 1 T h e ordinary quadruple-stressed alliterative verse.

1963 QUIRK 152 Alliteration

in O l d English verse serves not only to connect stressed forms within the halfline but also [etc].

tertiary a. Of the thir d orde r i n any series , sequence , or process: + spec, tertiary lift, stress, etc . 1941 M A L O N E 75 N o t infrequently . . . a regular four-lift pattern will take a tertiary lift instead of one or both of the secondary lifts. 1958 BLISS 48 T h e variety with tertiary stress is much more frequent in the a-verse then in the bverse.

thesis [ O E D 2 , 1398-1879 ] B y later L a t i n writer s . . . used fo r th e lowering o f the voic e i n an unstressed syllable, thu s practicall y rever sing th e origina l meaning ; hence in prevalent acceptatio n (fro m th e time o f Bentley, 1726) : th e unaccente d o r weak par t o f a foot i n verse (classica l o r modern), o r an unaccented note i n music, f Cf ARSIS. 1 8 7 0 M A R C H 147 T h e regular Germanic epic line has four . . . arses in each section, each of which may have a thesis or not. 1888 T O L M A N 20 O n l y one ac­ cented syllable, out o f the first sixteen in this poem [sc. Beowulf],

has a syl­

lable expressed as its thesis or senkung. 1910 [see ARSIS]. 1938 C A M P B E L L 18 A dissyllabic second thesis seems not to be found in lines of type A . 1942

[see

DOWN-BEAT] .

+ transvers e alliteration I n O E verse , alliteratio n o f the pattern s abab o r baab; = C R O S S - A L L I T E R A T I O N , C R O S S E D A L L I T E R A T I O N . § See note s.v . C R O S S E D A L L I T E R A T I O N . 1900 EMERSON 127 (title) Transverse Alliteration in Teutonic Poetry. 1942 POPE 154 Transverse alliteration occurs once with the whole-line pattern bx I ax II ax I bx. 1949 B A U M 146 T h e most interesting of these minor variations is the crossed or transverse alliteration ab ab. 1962 [see CROSS-ALLITERATION].

unaccented ppla. phasized.

[ O E D 1598-1893 ] N o t accented o r stressed; unem-

1830 THORPE 162 Its first part consisting of an ictus, and several short or un­ accented syllables. 1871 SWEET 3 T h e number of unaccented syllables is indif-

The Prosodie Terminology o f Anglo-Saxon Scholars

195

ferent. 1953 S L A Y 8 A s a heavy unaccented sentence particle it will be placed in the first dip of the clause.

unmetrical a . [ O E D (not defined) , 1 7 9 1 - 1 8 8 5 ] N ot c o n f o r m i ng t o the metrica l convention s o f a specifie d system . 1938 C A M P B E L L 8 T h e unmetrical unsyncopated form hremige.

1953 M A G O U N

461 T h e becoming unmetrical of such a verse [héan landes for héahan

landes]

would have been a gradual process.

unstressedppla. [ O E D (not defined) , 1883 ] N o t stressed. 1883 VIGFUSSON & POWELL 1.433 In many lines there occur one or more un­ stressed syllables. 1953 S L A Y 7 Unstressed words which belong only to one single word or part o f the sentence are called sentence-part particles.

upbeat sb. [ O E D 2 a, b, 1883-99 ] a An anacrusis, b A n arsis or stres sed syllable . 1942 [see A R S I S ] . 1948 ANDREW 120 Anacrusis is an introductory unstressed up-beat.

verse sb. [ O E D 1, c 9 0 0 - 1 8 9 5 ] A successio n o f words arrange d according t o natura l o r recognize d rule s of prosody an d formin g a com plete metrica l line ; on e o f the line s o f a p o em o r piece o f versification . 1715 ELSTOB 68 T h e Saxon Verses consist o f three, four, five, six, seven, eight, or more syllables. 1830 [see M E T R I C A L a.].

1883 H . M . K E N N E D Y 1.22 T h e sen­

tence rarely closes with the ending of the verse. 1938 C A M P B E L L 16 Sievers showed once and for all the combinations of accentual elements, which might be used to build a verse. 1948 B A U M 74 T h e simple 'principle' of two beats or emphasized syllables in each half-line or verse. 1958 BLISS 1 T h e term 'verse' is here used instead o f the more cumbrous 'half-line' or 'hemistich'. attrib. thm,

and Comb,

-stress,

as $ verse accent

(also -accented

[adj.],

-form,

-pair,

-rhy­

-unit).

1894 Verse accent [see DIPODY]. 1892 GUMMERE 113 These verse-accented syllables must also be word-accented. 1906 KRAPP xlvi T h e distinctively epic verse-form. 1966 ROGERS 95 T h e [OE] verse-form (despite alliteration) is m u c h less restrictive than the H o m e r i c hexameter. 1953 M A G O U N 449 T h e recurrence of verses and verse-pairs in Anglo-Saxon poetry. 1942 POPE 22 In no case is it necessary to pass b e y o n d the limits of accentual adjustment that verse-rhythm everywhere allows. 1894 H E A T H 386 E x p a n d e d lines . . . possess a larger number of Verse Stresses than the normal line. 1948 B A U M 77 When the character of the

196

R . W . Burchfield

dipody, or verse unit, is examined, the first impression is one of extreme varia­ tion. 1966 ROGERS 96 T h e verse-unit, the half-line, was quite short.

versicle [ O E D 2 c , 1573-1893 ] A shor t o r singl e metrica l line . 1838

[see SECTION sb. ]. 1860 STEPHENS 15 There are no points or commas

. . . scarcely a capital letter, and not even the usual dot after each poetical ver­ sicle!

LIST O F W O R K S CITED

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of King Alfred. 2 vols . L o n d o n 189 2 Cable, Thoma s M . ' R u l es fo r synta x an d metric s i n Beowulf JEGP 69 (1970 ) 81- 8 C a m p b e l l , A l i s t a i r , ed. The battle of Brunanburh. L o n d o n 193 8 — ' T h e O l d Englis h epi c style, ' i n N . Davis an d C . L . Wrenn, eds . English and medieval studies presented to J . R. R. Tolkien. L o n d o n 1962. 13-2 6 C h a d w i c k , H e c t o r M u n r o , an d C h a d w i c k , N o r a h Kershaw . The growth of literature. 3 vols . Cambridg e 1932-4 0 Chambers, R a y m o n d Wilson . Widsith: a study in Old English heroic legend. Cambridg e 191 2 C h i l d , Clarenc e G r i f f i n . Beowulf and the Finnesburh fragment; trans lated fro m th e O l d English . B o s t o n 190 4 C l u b b , Merre l Dare , ed . Christ and Satan: an Old English poem. N e w Haven 192 5 (Yal e Studie s i n Englis h 70 ) Conybeare, J o h n Josias . ' A c c o u n t [rea d 4 Feb . 1813 ] o f a n A n g l o Saxon paraphras e o f th e Phoeni x . . . i n th e Exete r M a n u s c r i p t , ' Archaeologia 1 7 (1814 ) 193- 7 — 'Observation s o n th e metr e o f th e A n g l o - S a x o n poetr y [ 3 F e b . 1 8 1 3 ] , ' an d ' F u r t h e r observation s o n th e poetr y o f ou r A n g l o S a x o n ancestors, ' Archaeologia 1 7 (1814 ) 257-7 4 — Illustrations of Anglo-Saxon poetry; edite d w i t h additiona l notes , etc b y W . D . Conybeare. L o n d o n 182 6 Conybeare, W i l l i a m D a n i e l (1826 ) See Conybeare , J . J . C o o k , A l b e r t Stanburrough , ed . Judith: an Old English epic fragment. B o s t o n 188 8 Daunt, Marjorie . ' O l d Englis h vers e an d Englis h speec h r h y t h m , ' Transactions of the Philological Society 1943-6 (1946 ) 56-7 2 D u n n i n g , Thoma s Patric k an d Bliss , A l a n J o s e p h , eds . The Wanderer. L o n d o n 196 9 (Methuen' s O l d Englis h L i b r a r y ) E a r l e , J o h n . The philology of the English tongue. O x f o r d 187 1 E l s t o b , E l i z a b e t h . The rudiments of grammar for the English-Saxon tongue. L o n d o n 171 5 Emerson, Olive r Farrar . 'Transvers e alliteratio n i n Teutoni c p o e t r y , ' JEGP S (1900 ) 127-3 7 F a k u n d i n y , L y d i a . ' T h e ar t o f O l d Englis h vers e c o m p o s i t i o n , ' RES 21 (1970 ) 129-42 ; 257-6 6 Foster, Si r Thomas Gregory . Judith: studies in metre, language and style. Strassbur g 189 2 (Quelle n u n d Forschunge n zu r Sprach - u n d Culturgeschichte 71 ) f

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F o x , Samuel , ed . Menologium; seu, Calendarium poeticum, ex Hickesiano thesauro; or, The poetical calendar of the Anglo-Saxons. L o n d o n 183 0 F r y e , Prosse r H a l l . ' T h e translatio n o f B e o w u l f , ' MLN 1 2 (1897 ) 79 82 Garnett, James M . ' T he translatio n o f A n g l o - S a x o n poetry, ' PMLA 6 (1891 ) 95-10 5 Girvan, R i t c h i e . Beowulf and the seventh century. L o n d o n 193 5 (Methuen's O l d English L i b r a r y ) — ' F i n n s b u r u h ' (Si r Israe l G o l l a n c z M e m o r i al Lecture 1941) , PB A 1940 (1943 ) 327-6 0 G o r d o n , E r i c Valentine , ed . The battle of Maldon. L o n d o n 193 7 (Methuen's O l d English L i b r a r y ) Greenfield, Stanle y B r i a n . A critical history of Old English literature. N e w Y o r k 196 5 Guest, E d w i n . A history of English rhythms. 2 vols . L o n d o n 183 8 G u m m e r e , Franci s B a r t o n . Germanic origins: a study in primitive culture. N e w Y o r k 189 2 — The oldest English epic: Beowulf, Finnsburg, Waldere, Deor, Widsith, and the German Hildebrand, translated in the original metres. N e w Y o r k 190 9 Heath, H . Frank . ' T h e O l d Englis h alliterativ e l i n e , ' Transactions of the Philological Society 1891-4 (1894 ) 375-9 5 H e n r y , R o b e r t . The history of Great Britain from the invasion of it by the Romans under Caesar. 6 vols . L o n d o n 1771-9 3 H o p k i n s , Gerar d M a n l e y . The journals and papers; edite d b y H . Hous e and G . Storey . L o n d o n 195 9 K e n n e d y , Charle s W i l l i a m . The earliest English poetry: a critical sur­ vey of the poetry written before the Norman Conquest. N e w Y o r k 1943 K e n n e d y , E v o r y . ' O n th e principle s an d use s o f alliteratio n i n p o e t r y , ' Afternoon Lectures on Literature and Art delivered in Dublin. 3r d series. L o n d o n 1866 . 87-12 8 K e n n e d y , Horac e M . (1883) See T e n B r i n k , B. K e n t , Charle s W i l l i a m , ed . Elene. B o s t o n 188 9 (Librar y o f A n g l o S a x o n Poetr y 3 ) Kershaw, N o r a h , ed. Anglo-Saxon and Norse poems. Cambridg e 192 2 Klaeber, F r i e d r i c h , ed . Beowulf and the Fight at Finnsburg. B o s t o n 1922; L o n d o n 192 3 K o c k , E . A. Jubilee jaunts and jottings: 250 contributions to the in-

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terpretation and prosody of Old West Teutonic alliterative poetry. 1918 (Lund s Universitet s Arsskrift , n.s. 1 , X I V ) K r a p p , Georg e P h i l i p , ed . Andreas and the Fates of the Apostles: two Anglo-Saxon narrative poems. B o s t o n 190 6 Lawrence, J o h n. Chapters on alliterative verse. L o n d o n 189 3 Lawrence, Willia m Witherle . ' T h e firs t riddl e o f C y n e w u l f , ' PMLA 1 7 (1902) 247-6 1 — Beowulf and epic tradition. Cambridge , Mass . 192 8 L e h m a n n , R u t h P . M . ' T h e O l d English Riming Poem: interpretation , text an d translation, ' JEGP 6 9 (1970 ) 437-4 9 L e o n a r d , W i l l i a m E l l e r y . ' B e o w u l f an d th e Nibelunge n c o u p l e t . ' Univer­ sity of Wisconsin Studies in Language and Literature 2 (1918 ) 99-15 2 — ' F o u r footnote s t o paper s o n G e r m a n metrics, ' i n K. M a l o ne an d M . B . R u u d , eds . Studies in English philology: a miscellany in honor ofF. Klaeber. Minneapoli s 1929 . 1-1 3 Le Page , R . B . 'A r h y t h m i c al framewor k fo r th e fiv e types , ' English & Germanic Studies 6 (1957 ) 92-10 3 — ' A l l i t e r a t i v e patterns a s a tes t o f styl e i n O l d English p o e t r y , ' JEGP 5 8 (1959 ) 434-4 1 Lewis, Cliv e Staples . Rehabilitations and other essays. L o n d o n 193 9 Longfellow, H e n r y Wadsworth , ed . The poets and poetry of Europe. Philadelphia 184 7 L o t s p e i c h , C M . ' M u s i c a l accen t an d doubl e alliteratio n i n th e Edda/ MP 6 (1909 ) 375-8 4 M a g o u n , Franci s P . 'Oral-formulai c characte r o f A n g l o - S a x o n narra tive p o e t r y , ' Speculum 2 8 (1953 ) 446-6 7 — 'Béowul f B : a folk-poe m o n Beowulf' s d e a t h , ' i n A . B r o wn an d P . G . F o o t e , eds . Early English and Norse studies presented to Hugh Smith. L o n d o n 1963 . 127-4 0 M a l o n e , K e m p . ' A l l i t e r a t i o n in Widsith, ELH 2 (1935 ) 291- 3 — 'Lift-pattern s i n O l d English verse,' ELH 8 (1941 ) 74-8 0 — ' T h e O l d English period (t o 1 1 0 0 ) , ' i n A . C . Baugh , ed . A literary history of England. N e w Y o r k 1948 . 3-10 5 — ed . Widsith. Revise d edition . Copenhage n 196 2 (Anglistic a 13 ) M a r c h , Franci s A n d r e w . Introduction to Anglo-Saxon. N e w Y o r k 1870 Mather, Fran k Jennett . ' T h e C y n e w u l f question fro m a metrica l poin t of view , ' MLN 7 ( 1 8 9 2 ) 9 7 - 1 0 7 Menner, R o b e r t J . , ed . The poetical dialogues of Solomon and Saturn. N e w Y o r k 194 1 9

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[ M i t f o r d , W i l l i a m ] . An essay upon the harmony of language, intended principally to illustrate that of the English language. L o n d o n 1774 M o r l e y , H e n r y . English writers. I : The writers before Chaucer. L o n d o n 1864 — A first sketch of English literature. L o n d o n 1873 Palgrave, Si r Francis . History of England. I : Anglo-Saxon period. L o n d o n 1831 Patmore, Coventry . ' E n g l i s h M e t r i c al C r i t i c s ,' North British Review 27 (Augus t 1857) 127-61 Percy, Thomas , ed . Reliques of Ancient English Poetry. 3 vols. L o n d o n 1765 Petheram, J o h n. An historical sketch of the progress and present state of Anglo-Saxon literature in England. L o n d o n 1840 Pope, J o h n Collins . The rhythm of Beowulf N e w Have n 1942 — Revise d edition . N e w Have n 1966 Q u i r k , R a n d o l p h . ' P o e t i c languag e and O l d English metre,' i n A . B r o w n an d P . G . F o o t e, eds . Early English and Norse studies pre­ sented to Hugh Smith. L o n d o n 1963. 150-71 Rask, Rasmu s Christian . A grammar of the Anglo-Saxon tongue, with a praxis; translate d fro m th e Danish b y B. Thorpe. Copenhage n 1830 R e h r m a n n , H e i n r i c h . Essay concerning Anglo-Saxon poetry. Lübbe n 1877 Rogers, H . L . ' T h e crypto-psyetiologica l characte r o f the oral for mula, ' English Studies 47 (1966) 59-102 Schipper, J a k o b . A history of English versification [translate d fro m the G e r m a n ] . O x f o r d 1910 Sedgefield, Wa d ter J o h n , ed . Beowulf Mancheste r 1910 Shelton, Mauric e (1735) See W o t t o n, W . Sibbald, James. Chronicle of Scottish poetry from the thirteenth cen­ tury to the Union of the Crowns. 4 vols. E d i n b u r g h 1802 Skeat, Walte r W i l l i a m . ' A n essay o n alliterative p o e t r y , ' i n J . W. Hale s and F . J . F u r n i v a l l , eds. Bishop Percy's folio manuscript. Ballads and romances. L o n d o n 1868. in xi-xli v Skemp, A . R . ' T he O l d Englis h c h a r m s , ' M L R 6 (1911) 289-301 Slay, D . ' S o m e aspect s of the technique o f c o m p o s i t i on o f O ld English verse, ' Transactions of the Philological Society 1952 (1953) 1-14 Stanley, E r i c G e r a l d , ed . Continuations and beginnings: studies in Old English literature. L o n d o n 1966

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Stephens, George , ed . Two leaves of King Waldere's lay. Chea p inghaven [Copenhagen ] 186 0 Swanton, M i c h a e l , ed . The dream of the Rood. Mancheste r 197 0 (Old an d M i d d l e English Texts ) Sweet, H e n r y . ' S k e t c h o f th e histor y o f A n g l o - S a x o n p o e t r y ,' i n T . Warton. The history of English poetry, edite d b y W . C . H a z l i t t. L o n d o n 1871 . II 3-1 9 — An Anglo-Saxon reader in prose and verse. O x f o r d 187 6 — 7t h edition . O x f o r d 189 4 Taglicht, J o s e p h. 'Beowulf an d O l d Englis h verse r h y t h m , ' RES 1 2 (1961) 341-5 1 T e n B r i n k , Bernhard. Early English literature*; translate d fro m th e G e r m a n b y H . M . K e n n e d y [an d o t h e r s ] . 3 vols . L o n d o n 1883-9 6 Thorpe, Benjami n (1830 ) See Rask , R . C . — ed . Codex Exoniensis. L o n d o n 184 2 — ed . The Anglo-Saxon poems of Beowulf The Scop or Gleeman's Tale, and the Fight at Finnesburg. O x f o r d 185 5 T i n k e r , Chaunce y Brewster . The translations of Beowulf: a critical bibliography. N e w Y o r k 1903 . (Yal e Studie s i n Englis h 16 ) T o l k i e n , J o hn R o n a l d R e u e l . ' P h i l o l o g y : general w o r k s , ' Year's Work in English Studies 1925 (1927 ) 32-6 6 — ' B e o w u l f : th e monster s an d th e c r i t i c s ' (Si r Israe l G o l l a n c z M e m orial Lectur e 1 9 3 6 ) , P B A 1936 (1937 ) 245-9 5 — (1940 ) Wrenn , C . L. T o l m a n , A . H . ' T h e styl e o f A n g l o - S a x o n p o e t r y ,' Transactions of the Modern Language Association 3 (1888 ) 17-4 7 Turner, Sharon . The history of the Anglo-Saxons. 4 vols . L o n d o n 1799-1805 — 2 n d edition , correcte d an d enlarged . 2 vols . L o n d o n 180 7 Vigfusson, G u d b r a n d an d P o w e l l , Frederick Y o r k , eds . Corpus poeticum boréale: the poetry of the old Northern tongue, from the earliest times to the 13th century. 2 vols . O x f o r d 188 3 Watson, R o b e r t Spence . Caedmon, the first English poet. L o n d o n 1875 W h a l l o n , W i l l i a m . ' T h e d i c t i o n o f Beowulf',' PMLA 7 6 (1961 ) 309-1 9 Whitelock, D o r o t h y . The audience of Beowulf O x f o r d 195 1 Williams, Blanch e C o l t o n , ed . Gnomic poetry in Anglo-Saxon. N e w Y o r k 1914 . ( C o l u m b i a Universit y Studie s i n Englis h an d Compara tive Literature ) W o t t o n , W i l l i a m . Wotton's short view of George Hickes's Grammatico-

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critical and archeological treasure of the ancient Northernlanguages; translate d fro m th e origina l L a t i n b y M . Shelton. L o n d o n 173 5 Wrenn, Charle s Leslie , ed. Beowulf and the Finnesburg fragment: a translation into modern English prose by John R. Clark Hall. N e w edition completel y revise d w i t h note s an d a n i n t r o d u c t i o n ; w i t h prefatory remark s b y J . R . R . T o l k i e n . L o n d o n 194 0 — ed . Beowulf with the Finnesburg fragment. L o n d o n 195 3 — A Study of Old English literature. L o n d o n 196 7 Wright, Thomas . An essay on the state of literature and learning under the Anglo-Saxons. L o n d o n 183 9 — Essays on archaeological subjects, and on various questions con­ nected with the history of art, science and literature in the Middle Ages. 2 vols . L o n d o n 186 1

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Exodus retraced

The recen t reprintin g o f m y editio n o f th e O l d English p o e m Exodus must b e th e occasio n of a little embarrassment t o a n edito r reflectin g on it s man y stil l unamende d deficiencies . While I hav e alread y publish ed a se t o f textua l note s dealin g w i th line-by-lin e p r o b l e m s , suc h a format hardl y permit s an y reconsideratio n o f large r question s i n th e light o f t w o decade s o f subsequen t research . Henc e thi s presen t essa y may b e regarde d a s a supplemen t t o th e origina l i n t r o d u c t i o n t o th e 1953 edition , and w i l l b e organize d unde r it s headings . 1

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There i s unfortunately littl e new t o ad d unde r thi s category ; apar t from a fe w fain t hints , th e earl y histor y o f th e tex t remain s shroude d in th e usua l mystery . N . R . K e r suggests that th e J u n i u s 1 1 manuscrip t is 'possibl y identical w i th th e "Genesi s anglic e d e p i c t a " i n th e earl y fourteenth-century catalogu e o f Chris t C h u r c h, C a n t e r b u r y . ' Carefu l study o f th e l o c a t i o n in th e manuscrip t o f suc h varian t spelling s a s ' c o m ( o n ) / c w o m ( o n ) ' le d K e n n e th Sisa m t o ventur e tentativel y tha t 'Exodus an d Daniel hav e no t fo r lon g had th e sam e transmissio n a s Genesis A a n d # , ' an d simila r evidenc e incline d R o b e r t J. M e n n e r inde pendently t o th e belie f tha t 'th e scriba l history o f Exodus and Daniel must hav e bee n somewha t differen t fro m tha t o f . . . Genesis A . There ha s bee n furthe r discussio n of th e possibilit y of som e signifi cance i n th e selectio n an d arrangemen t o f th e variou s poem s i n J u n3

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ius 11 . J . W. Bright p o i n t e d ou t lon g ago tha t th e firs t thre e (actuall y four) poems , Genesis A an d B , Exodus, an d Daniel, recoun t O l d Testament event s w h i c h ar e als o a typologica l series i n th e liturgica l servic e for H o l y Saturday. Other s hav e sinc e suspecte d som e desig n i n th e manuscript order . R o b e r t T . Farrel l see s a possible themati c connec t i o n betwee n Exodus an d Daniel; A l v i n A . Lee w o u l d eve n associat e the fina l p o e m i n th e manuscript , Christ and Satan, usuall y exclude d from consideratio n o f thi s k i n d , w i t h a ' p o e t i c an d s y m b o l i c ' u n i ty of th e manuscrip t a s a w h o l e . Sinc e we generall y hav e difficult y esta blishing th e principle s governing the make-u p o f O E poeti c anthologies , there seem s littl e chance o f consensu s here , bu t on e ma y a t leas t con jecture tha t thi s manuscrip t ma y hav e bee n intende d fo r us e b y lec tors i n monasteries. G . C . T h o r n l e y has attempte d t o sho w tha t th e accents an d point s i n th e manuscrip t reflec t familiarit y w i t h th e usag e o f liturgica l r e c i t a t i v e . 6

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The century-ol d wrangle ove r whethe r th e so-calle d ' E x o d us B ' (i.e. , lines 3 6 2 - 4 4 5 , th e sectio n dealin g w i th N o a h an d A b r a h a m ) i s an interpolation o r no t seem s a t las t t o hav e com e t o a ful l stop ; i t i s en couraging t o hav e on e p r o b l e m settle d i n thi s difficul t p o e m . A l l mo dern scholar s se e th e passag e a s a n integra l par t o f th e p o e m , whethe r they defen d it s relevanc e strictl y in term s o f patristi c t h e o l o g y o r i n terms o f interna l literar y structure. In m y editio n I b o l d l y rearrange d th e tex t o f th e las t 7 5 line s of the p o e m , placin g lines 5 4 9 - 9 0 befor e 5 1 6 - 4 8 , no t s o m u c h i n orde r to adap t th e p o e m t o m o d e r n taste s a s t o mak e th e ne w c o n c l u s i o n resemble tha t o f man y O E poem s i n closing w i th a very genera l h o m i l etic passage . I n o w thin k tha t thi s rearrangemen t wa s unnecessar y an d unjustified, perhap s a n instanc e o f scholarl y ' o f e r m o d , ' an d w o u l d agree w i t h N e i l Isaac s w h o concludes , afte r a n abl e defenc e o f th e or iginal order : ' B a r r i n g any positive evidenc e fo r transpose d passages , one ma y assum e tha t th e manuscrip t orde r accuratel y carrie s th e structure o f Exodus' Ther e i s of cours e n o physica l evidence what ever o f an y transposition . E a r l als o offer s a detaile d defenc e o f th e manuscript arrangement , to o lon g to summariz e h e r e . 11

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Liturgy Bright's importan t articl e proposing th e H o l y Saturda y o r Easte r Ev e baptismal servic e a s a m a i n sourc e fo r Exodus (th e scriptura l reading s i n thi s servic e containin g not o n l y th e R e d Se a narrativ e b u t als o th e stories o f Noah' s flood an d Abraham' s sacrific e o f Isaac ) ha s receive d recent support , althoug h i n 195 3 I wa s u n w i l l i n g t o accep t thi s servic e as a certai n m o d e l fo r th e p o e m . On e o f m y remark s the n ha s ofte n been q u o t e d : ' W h i l e n o on e c o u l d den y tha t th e [ H o l y Saturday ] ser vice i s dominated b y th e them e o f baptism , n o san e reader w o u l d b e likely t o cal l Exodus a p o e m abou t b a p t i s m . ' ( I remembe r J o h n Pope onc e suggestin g delicatel y t o m e tha t I migh t ton e d o w n tha t statement, bu t I faile d t o tak e hi s goo d advice. ) I n o w regre t havin g written i t simpl y because i t ha s prove d s o untru e a s p r e d i c t i o n ; mor e than on e presumabl y san e reader ha s sinc e i m p l i e d o r insiste d tha t Exodus i s indeed a p o e m abou t b a p t i s m ! Whethe r callin g i t tha t i s useful o r accurat e stil l seem s t o m e highl y questionable, i f o n ly be cause suc h a classificatio n immediately direct s u s awa y fro m th e poem's grittil y peculia r qualitie s an d specia l achievements i n favou r o f a convenien t labellin g o f i t a s On e M o r e Instanc e o f th e supposedl y uncontrollable impuls e t o allegoriz e to b e foun d i n all medieval poets . It i s better first , befor e prejudgment , t o tr y t o defin e mor e clearl y what Exodus i s as a p o e m, a s I shal l attemp t t o d o late r i n thi s essay . The questio n o f baptism , an d o f symboli c meaning generally , i s discussed fro m tw o interestingl y differen t point s o f vie w b y t w o recen t commentators: A l v i n A . L e e , w h o stresse s th e typologica l background, an d T . A . S h i p p e y , w ho regard s Exodus, togethe r w i t h th e other J u n i u s poems , a s 'resistan t t o allegorica l or figura i readings. ' (153). It i s p r o b a b ly true , I n o w realize , that a liturgica l m o d e l mus t hav e inevitably give n the p o e m som e o f it s shape , thoug h w e mus t b e war y o f simpl y transferring th e ful l ' m e a n i n g ' o f th e liturg y to th e p o e m it self. Possibl y some relativel y obscure earl y liturgy , perhaps o f Celti c origin, rathe r tha n th e mor e conventiona l ancestors o f th e m o d e r n R o m a n rite , ma y hav e bee n familia r t o th e poet . Eleano r M c L o u g h l i n , for example , ha s calle d attention t o a fe w strikin g parallels betwee n 1 5

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Exodus an d th e Antiphonary of Bangor, a seventh-centur y Hiberno L a t i n t e x t , an d M . - M . Lare s suggest s tha t ' L i b e r I ' o f th e J u n i u s 1 1 manuscript reflect s liturgica l practice s o f th e earl y c o m m u n i t y i n J e r usalem, someho w brough t t o E n g l a n d during th e earl y year s o f th e conver s i o n . M o r e investigatio n remains t o b e don e i n this interestin g area . 20

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Biblical sources, other than the immediate sources in Genesis and Exodus M a n y individua l detail s i n th e p o e m ar e ultimatel y derive d fro m othe r parts o f th e O l d Testament, a s b o t h th e E d i t i o n an d ' N e w N o t e s ' point out , bu t specia l attentio n migh t b e give n here t o th e Psalte r an d the B o o k o f W i s d o m . A s Geoffre y Shepher d remind s u s , th e Psalte r wa s th e par t o f th e Bible mos t familia r t o medieva l ecclesiastics, an d it s influenc e o n Exodus seem s m u c h mor e extensiv e tha n I ha d realize d earlier. T h e es cape fro m E g y p t i s o f cours e th e chie f subjec t o f severa l psalm s (e.g. , 104, 105 , 113 , 13 5 i n th e Vulgate ) w h i c h provid e som e strikin g i magery fo r a poet's use . Furthermore , certai n basi c dramati c pattern s found i n Exodus ar e vividl y presen t i n othe r psalm s w h i c h d o no t deal explicitl y w i t h th e event s o f th e E x o d u s fro m E g y p t . M an trap ped i n death's snar e call s out t o G o d for help , an d G o d arrives i n earthquake an d shower s o f fir e t o rescu e h i m fro m ' m a n y waters ' (Ps 17) ; G od gives courag e an d guidanc e t o m a n i n terro r o f hi s ene mies (P s 58 , 141) ; m an earnestl y state s his trus t i n th e L o r d ' s protec t i o n (P s 3 2 an d elsewhere) . The importan t specifi c images o f Exodus appea r i n many psalms . G o d ' s powerfu l righ t han d i s mentioned i n a doze n places ; G o d ' s freeing o f th e (chained ) prisone r i s ofte n describe d (e.g. , P s 106:14 , 115:16, 145:7) ; G o d ' s protectiv e ten t o r tabernaculum (c f 'feldhus a maest,'£xo 85 ) appear s severa l time s (e.g. , P s 2 6 : 5 , 6 0 : 5 ) . T h e meta p h o r o f th e via th e spiritua l road o r pat h (c f 'lifweg, ' 104 ) i s comm o n : th e psalmis t beg s G o d to lea d h i m ' i n via aeterna' (P s 138:24) , and plead s 'dirig e me i n semita m r e c t a m ' (P s 2 6 : 1 1 ) , eve n thoug h G o d ' s wa y ma y lea d throug h unexpecte d place s ( ' i n m a r i v ia tua, e t semitae tua e i n aqui s m u l t i s , ' Ps 76:20) . B u t G o d has mad e th e road s k n o w n t o Mose s (P s 102:7) . F i n a l l y , a numbe r o f wha t wer e onc e p u z z l i n g detail s i n th e O E p o e m ma y hav e com e fro m th e Psalms . G o d 's swor d ('aid e mece, ' 495) i s m e n t i o n ed i n Psalm 7 : 1 3 ; th e 'suáwind ' (289 ) a s a manifesta t i o n o f divin e power appear s i n Psalm 7 7 : 2 6 ; G o d ' s use o f coal s o f 22

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fire t o punis h sinner s (c f ' h a t u m h e o f o n c o l u m , ' 71 ) i s described i n Psalms 10: 7 an d 1 3 9 : 1 1 . Moreover, it migh t b e note d tha t virtuall y all th e H e b r e w name s i n Exodus ar e als o foun d i n th e Psalms , wher e (as w e ca n se e i n the glosse s t o th e L a m b e t h Psalter , fo r example ) they wer e ofte n furnishe d w i t h significan t etymologie s fro m J e r o m e , some o f w h i c h wer e clearl y used b y th e poet . A n o t h e r possibl e sourc e fo r som e part s o f Exodus i s th e B o o k o f Wisdom, th e c o n c l u d i n g chapters o f w h i c h demonstrat e th e operatio n o f divin e w i s d om an d justice i n sacre d history , particularl y in th e E x odus. Verse s 15-2 0 o f chapte r 1 0 migh t almos t serv e a s a brie f sum mary o f th e O l d English p o e m , and , lik e th e p o e m , thi s passag e con tains tw o detail s no t mentione d i n th e B o o k o f E x o d u s , the cloud pillar a s velamentum an d th e captur e b y th e iusti o f th e spoil s of th e Egyptians afte r th e d r o w n i n g in the R e d Sea . A mor e interestin g sim ilarity i s t o b e foun d i n the las t thre e chapter s o f W i s d o m (17-19) , where th e autho r develops , w i t h m u c h elaboratio n o f paradox , th e contrast betwee n th e darknes s surroundin g th e Egyptian s an d th e light grante d t o th e escapin g Israelites , b o t h i n th e vivi d accoun t o f the deat h o f th e firstbor n i n th e las t plagu e an d i n the descriptio n of the d r o w n i n g in the R e d Sea . I n W i s d o m , thes e t w o event s ar e ming led rathe r confusingly , just a s the y ar e i n the firs t par t o f th e p o e m , the deat h o f th e firstbor n bein g see n a s a p r e d i c t i o n o f th e late r catas trophe: 'Soli s aute m illi s superposit a era t gravi s n o x , imag o tenebra r u m qua e superventur a illi s erat ; ips i erg o sib i eran t graviore s tene bris. Sancti s aute m tui s m a x i m a era t l u x (Wis . 17:20-18:1) Im ages of chainin g and imprisonmen t i n darknes s occu r ( 1 7 : 1 5 - 1 6 , 18:4), a s wel l a s th e ide a o f liberatio n (e.g. , 1 0 : 1 5 , 18:5 , 19:9) . W i s d o m 19:13-1 7 justifie s th e hars h punishmen t o f th e Egyptian s i n term s o f thei r gros s violatio n o f hospitalit y towar d stranger s ('bon os hospite s i n servitute m redigeban t ' ) an d thei r ingratitud e t o w a r d their benefactors . Ther e i s some hin t i n the p o e m , i n th e passage s just befor e an d afte r th e manuscrip t ga p a t lin e 141 , that th e poe t was viewin g th e Egyptian s i n simila r terms . Line s 137b-40 a see m t o stress th e specia l cruelty o f enslavin g homeless people , an d line s 144 53 (beginnin g w i th 'ealle s J)ae s forgeton') certainl y accus e th e Egypt ians o f i n g r a t i t u d e . 23

Geographical details Several page s o f th e 195 3 i n t r o d u c t i o n discusse d th e possibilit y that the Gree k geographe r D i o d o r u s Siculus m ay hav e bee n th e sourc e o f

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some o f th e curiou s detail s (e.g. , a shield-lik e sun, a cloud-covered country) include d in th e poet' s descriptio n o f th e countr y betwee n E g y p t an d th e R e d Sea , bu t th e l i k e l i h o o d o f thi s n o w seem s t o m e remote. F a m i l i a r i t y w i t h th e confusio n o f fac t an d allegor y f o u n d i n the glosse s o n place-name s lead s on e t o thin k tha t th e poe t wa s givin g a loca l habitatio n an d a nam e t o allegorica l abstractions rathe r tha n visualizing th e k i n d o f geographica l terrai n w e w o u l d naturall y thin k of. Patristic sources M o s t o f th e ne w evidenc e fall s unde r thi s heading , th e grea t b u l k o f i t consisting o f brie f an d isolate d patristi c an d exegetica l passages tha t seem t o b e reflecte d i n th e p o e m , w i t h varyin g degrees o f certainty . It nee d hardl y b e sai d that decidin g where th e poe t f o u n d suc h exe getical commonplaces , mos t o f the m passe d o n fro m on e commenta tor t o th e nex t durin g th e patristi c perio d an d after , i s virtually i m possible, bu t a fe w highl y probable identification s ca n b e made . In 1 9 5 3 , 1 mentione d J e r o m e an d Josephus a s likel y source s fo r certain d e t a i l s . N e w evidence , m u c h o f i t resultin g fro m th e ener getic researche s o f F r e d C . R o b i n s o n, emphatically confirm s thi s pro b a b i l i t y . A t leas t on e passag e fro m Josephus seem s t o b e almos t lit erally translate d b y th e poet , an d other s see m als o t o b e r e f l e c t e d . The poet' s heav y us e o f Jerome's etymologie s o f Hebre w name s i s re m a r k a b l e . Commentarie s o n th e O l d Testament an d othe r w o r k s b y A u g u s t i n e , I s i d o r e , and A m b r o s e may als o hav e bee n draw n o n (though perhap s no t a t firs t hand) . Commentarie s o n th e Psalm s b y C a s s i o d o r u s ma y als o hav e bee n used . Som e o f thes e detail s ar e found i n the anonymou s commentar y o n th e Pentateuc h b y 'Pseudo B e d e ' w h i c h th e poe t ma y hav e k n o w n . T he detai l abou t J u d a h be ing th e firs t trib e t o ente r th e R e d Se a ultimatel y goe s bac k t o J e w i sh tradition, bu t i s f o u nd neare r a t han d i n th e commentar y o n th e Epis tle t o th e Hebrew s a t variou s time s attribute d t o Pelagius , Primasius, and H a i m o of A u x e r r e , but probabl y compose d i n Irelan d betwee n 650 an d 8 0 0 . It migh t als o b e mentione d tha t non-Vulgat e texts o f th e O l d Testament see m clearl y t o accoun t fo r severa l m i n o r variant reading s i n the p o e m . Sinc e most o f th e passage s i n question for m par t o f th e liturgy, wher e non-Vulgat e text s wer e i n use m u c h longe r tha n else where, thi s fac t i s o f n o valu e a s a criterio n for datin g th e p o e m . T o su m u p , i t i s conceivable that ther e wa s a singl e sourc e fo r al l 24

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or mos t o f thi s miscellaneou s exegetica l material , but I hav e bee n un able t o fin d it . My general impression , for wha t i t i s w o r t h, i s that th e poet i s certainly i n on e sens e m u c h mor e learne d tha n I ha d onc e thought h i m t o be . H e i s someone s o familia r w i t h th e usua l glosse s and explication s of O l d Testament text s tha t h e bring s the m int o hi s p o e m almos t unconsciously . On th e othe r hand , h e neve r seem s t o re produce an y extende d o r elaborat e allegorica l interpretation, thoug h we ma y assum e suc h text s wer e availabl e t o h i m . He freel y borrow s details, bu t no t structure s o f meaning ; o n th e large r scale , h e make s his o w n p o e m . DIALECT AND DATE

Study o f th e scriba l errors i n Exodus suggest s strongl y tha t th e Wes t S a x o n scrib e wa s unfamilia r w i th certai n A n g l i a n word s an d spelling s and tende d t o corrup t them . Thi s seems fairl y goo d evidenc e tha t th e p o e m wa s originall y A n g l i a n , thoug h on e migh t als o argu e tha t th e first scrib e o f J u n i us 1 1 (o r a n earlie r scribe ) wa s merel y unaccustome d to c o p y i n g poetic text s w i t h thei r hig h percentage o f A n g l i a n voca bulary. F o r instance , th e Anglian-poeti c element ' h e o r u - ' seem s t o b e mangled thre e time s i n th e p o e m , appearin g a s ' h e o r a , ' ' h e r e , ' ' h u m ' ; the chiefl y poeti c w o r d ' c y r m ' turn s int o th e pros e w o r d ' e y r e ' ; th e A n g l i a n w o r d ' t a n e ' become s 'tacne, ' an d s o o n . D i e t r i c h H o f m a n n ha s challenge d th e traditiona l assumption o f a relatively earl y dat e fo r Exodus, arguin g tha t evidenc e indicate s tha t b o t h Genesis A and Exodus wer e p r o b a b l y compose d i n th e Danela w i n th e lat e n i n t h o r tent h century , sinc e h e believe s h e find s O l d Norse influence i n b o th p o e m s . I n a detaile d repl y I state d m y c o n v i c t i on that hi s evidenc e seeme d fa r fro m persuasive. On e o f hi s claims , fo r example, tha t th e secon d elemen t i n ' h i l d e c a l l a ' (Exo 252 ) show s th e influence o f th e c o m m o n O N w o r d ' k a l l a , ' ha s since , I t h i n k , bee n re futed b y th e evidenc e fo r th e nativ e origi n o f th e w o r d collecte d b y E . G . Stanley. 3 5

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A s wa s p o i n t e d ou t above , th e medieva l interpretation o f th e E x o d u s and th e crossin g of th e R e d Se a a s a préfiguration o f baptis m an d sal vation seem s t o hav e bee n take n b y som e reader s t o be , quit e simply , the p r i m a r y meanin g o f th e O E p o e m . E v e n i n th e dar k age s o f 1953 ,

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just befor e th e explosio n of interes t i n th e applicatio n of allegor y t o medieval literature , I wa s full y awar e o f th e existenc e o f thi s inter pretation, bu t i t seeme d t o m e the n applicabl e o n ly i n a smal l wa y to th e vigorou s heroic actio n o f th e p o e m , an d b y n o mean s t o b e substituted fo r th e meanin g o f tha t action . T w e n ty year s late r I fee l the sam e w a y , an d I a m please d t o not e tha t som e recen t comment s o n th e allegorica l approach t o th e p o e m offe r som e suppor t fo r suc h a poin t o f view . Philip R o l l i n s o n , w o r k i n g w i t h in th e definition s o f earl y medieva l rhetoric, discusse s Exodus a s a n instanc e o f a n historicall y based he roic fiction , containin g an exemplar y meanin g w i t h i n th e sensus la­ teralis, bu t dispute s Huppé' s clai m tha t th e 'sensus spiritualis con stitutes th e intended , primar y meanin g o f thi s fictiona l n a r r a t i v e . ' H e conclude s hi s brie f analysi s w i t h thi s statement : 39

The firs t purpos e o f th e O l d English Exodus seem s t o b e t o relat e the exemplar y (an d exciting ) stor y o f a J e w i sh hero, o f th e heroi c conflict betwee n G o d ' s people an d Satan' s people , an d o f G o d ' s spectacular judgment , w h i c h decide d tha t contest . Th e historical, literal leve l alon e o f th e O l d Testament accoun t i s re-presented i n the heroi c convention s an d poeti c expectation s o f a G e r m a n i c , if Christianized, tradition . In spit e o f th e liturgica l overtones , w h i c h c o u l d hardl y b e avoided , the essentia l meanin g intende d i s surel y not t o emphasiz e th e relationshi p o f th e poeti c fictio n t o th e rit e of baptism . (18 ) Stanley B . Greenfield cites (an d seem s t o share ) som e o f R o l l i n s o n 's views i n th e chapte r entitled , ' G e n e r i c Expectation s an d th e Ques t for A l l e g o r y , ' i n his recen t b o o k , wher e h e argue s sensibl y fo r a les s Procrustean k i n d o f criticis m b y th e user s o f allegorica l exegesis. A simila r view , thoug h fro m anothe r angle , i s take n b y T . A . Ship pey, w h o point s t o som e significan t difference s i n th e wa y O l d Testament event s ar e handle d b y th e commentator s an d b y thi s p o e t . A n example h e offer s i s the poet' s explanatio n (13 5 ff ) o f th e motiva tions o f th e pursuin g Egyptians , especially their jealousy a t th e Israel ites' prosperity . ' T h i s idea,' he writes , 'i s certainl y laten t i n th e Bibl e itself (se e E x o d u s 1:7-20) , an d i s in itsel f plausible . B ut i t i s a sig n of the poet' s natura l ben t toward s histor y tha t h e include s it , while th e concern fo r h u m a n m o t i v a t i o n on a realistic level i s m a r k e d ly alie n t o the typ e o f commentar y mos t practise d b y Augustin e and hi s follow ers.' 40

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F r o m a literary poin t o f view , t y p o l o g y — and, strictl y speaking, i t is t y p o l o g y rathe r tha n allegor y tha t w e ar e examinin g — means a story tha t repeat s o r suggest s a pattern foun d i n othe r stories , o r i n The S t o r y . B u t a narrativ e p o e m o f thi s k i n d i s aesthetically effectiv e not becaus e i t obtrusivel y keep s drawin g ou r attentio n t o it s simil arity t o anothe r stor y bu t becaus e i t i s first o f al l a vivi d an d ' t r u e ' literary experienc e i n itself . We shoul d certainl y b e aware , fo r exam ple, tha t i n th e late r cycl e plays C a i n i s th e typ e o f Sata n an d Isaa c the typ e o f th e sacrifice d Christ, but t o sa y o n l y thi s i s t o sa y almos t nothing abou t th e actua l play s wher e C a i n an d Isaa c appea r a s intrin sically interestin g character s i n thei r o w n right . T h e Egyptian s in Ex­ odus ar e bullie s and villainou s treaty-breakers; i t add s littl e to thei r dramatic realit y a s character s i n the fictio n t o maintai n tha t the y ar e ' r e a l l y ' mankind' s sins , t o b e washe d awa y i n th e purifyin g baptisma l waters. It i s rather ou r tas k t o asses s th e O E Exodus a s th e poe t wrot e it , and thu s t o dea l w i t h a n artifac t tha t i s not necessaril y identica l in form o r purpos e w i t h an y exegetica l source s h e ma y hav e consulted . L e t u s firs t as k thes e questions : wha t i s apparently th e poet' s chie f concern? Wher e doe s hi s p o e m tak e o n a certai n telltal e lif e an d ex citement? Th e answe r i s scarcel y unexpected , i n th e ligh t o f th e poet ic tradition s i n w h i ch h e w o r k e d : h e think s p r i m a r i l y in term s o f heroism, i n term s o f bein g alternatel y brav e an d frightened , i n term s o f fait h o r lac k o f fait h i n a leader' s powe r an d hi s abilit y t o delive r what h e promise s t o hi s followers . V e ry possibl y Mediterranean Chris tians o f th e poet' s o w n tim e migh t hav e foun d thi s a rathe r strang e way t o describ e th e event s o f th e E x o d u s o r t o compos e a ' p o e m a b o u t baptism, ' i f that wa s wha t the y expected . B y stressin g thi s heroi c aspect , I surel y d o n o t wis h t o sugges t that Exodus i s a secula r o r o n l y half-Christian p o e m; i t i s a n extreme l y didacti c p o em i n a Christia n sense. I t ha s a n obviou s messag e w h i c h take s tw o forms , th e firs t directl y state d a t beginnin g an d end , and th e secon d indirectl y stated i n th e whol e narrativ e actio n o f th e escape fro m E g y p t . T he direc t message , f o u n d i n lines 1 -7 an d i n th e 'ece raedas ' p r o p o u n d ed b y Mose s after th e crossin g ( 5 1 6 - 4 8 ) , i s simply th e goo d new s o f salvation , addressed t o al l men ( ' w e ' i n lines 1 an d 5 2 9 , 'us, ' 531) , w h o hav e th e freedo m whethe r o r no t t o hea r it. I n lin e 7 what seem s t o b e a n o l d minstrel formula , 'gehyr e s e ae r hlifedon halig e seglas , l y f t w u n d o r leoht ; leod e ongeton , dugoá Israhela , |>ae t f)aer D r i h t e n c w o m , weroda D r i h t e n , wicstea l metan. (88b-92

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N o t e th e alliterativ e stress o n ' h a l i g e ' and th e unusua l repetitio n o f ' D r i h t e n . ' G o d n ow emerge s fro m behin d th e images . We se e th e Israel ites i n th e ac t o f developin g the facult y o f s y m b o l i c vision, an d th e poet ask s u s t o participat e i n this process . A s the y follo w th e cloud-pilla r o n thei r j o u r n e y, thei r progres s i s described a s sailin g an d the y ar e calle d 'saemen ' (105) . Whateve r thi s metaphor ma y sugges t i n othe r context s (th e churc h a s shi p o r 'nave, ' the A r k , e t c ) , i n thi s immediat e contex t i t describe s a ne w for m o f l o c o m o t i o n w i t h it s o w n strang e an d j o y o us power , i n contrast w i t h the fierc e effor t o f th e firs t force d marc h int o th e wilderness . N ow they sail swiftl y an d magicall y through th e deser t an d (eventually ) across th e dr y sea-bed , free d fro m th e ver y bond s o f earth . L i k e th e Seafarer, the y ca n n o w experienc e wha t th e p r o u d ma n o n lan d can not imagine . While thi s wa y o f m o v i n g is a stag e towar d thei r liberation , th e Israelites ar e no t ye t entirel y fre e an d confident . E v e n thoug h th e pil lar o f fir e keep s darknes s an d it s terribl e 'westengryre ' awa y fro m them durin g their overnigh t halt , i t doe s no t preven t th e shee r pani c that overcome s the m th e nex t da y whe n the y se e tha t the y ar e pin ned agains t th e R e d Se a by th e o n c o m i n g E g y p t i an army. T h e trap ped fugitive s ca n o n l y sit , wait, anticipat e thei r destruction , n o w i n m u c h th e sam e paralyze d state (an d psychologica l darkness ) i n w h i c h we sa w th e stricke n Egyptians earlier. A t thi s stag e Moses must interven e t o restor e thei r collapse d morale. T o a l i m i t e d degree , thi s excellen t c o m m a n d i n g office r succeed s i n reducing thei r fea r simpl y b y orderin g them t o ris e a t th e blas t o f trum pets, t o ar m themselves , an d t o fal l int o formation , twelv e divisions of fift y companie s each . Th e ver y number s ar e definit e an d comfor ting, th e image s hope-bringing : dawn, p i c k e d me n risin g t o thei r feet , a standar d bein g raised, a herald springin g forward t o cr y silenc e fo r the general' s speech . S o E a r l B y r h t n o t h marshals hi s m e n a t M a l d o n , and perhap s th e mos t usefu l genera l paralle l for thi s scen e i s not a biblical passag e but th e accoun t o f Hygelac' s rescue o f th e Geat s a t Ravenswood (Beowulf 2 9 3 3 - 4 5 ) . Despite thi s respons e t o militar y discipline , th e Israelite s ar e stil l frightened; Mose s must begi n his speec h t o the m w i t h th e word s 'n e beoá g e \>y f o r h t r a n' (259) . H e mus t n o w sharpe n thei r vision , s o tha t they ca n se e tha t th e vas t number s o f th e Egyptian s and th e threa t that the y i m p l y ar e simpl y illusor y an d meaningless , s o clos e ar e th e pursuers t o bein g destroyed. T h e Israelite s see m t o believ e firml y i n 45

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what the y see : the y believe d b o th i n the guidin g c l o u d an d i n th e men ace o f Pharaoh' s army . N ow it i s necessary fo r Mose s to tel l the m t o l o o k — l o ok w i t h thei r eye s — at th e grea t sudde n miracl e taking place before them . That th e poe t depart s rathe r strikingl y fro m th e biblica l accoun t here b y allowin g Moses to describ e th e partin g of th e se a rathe r tha n b y himsel f describin g it directl y ha s trouble d mor e tha n on e reade r of th e p o e m . Thi s i s an importan t literar y change, fo r w h i c h n o ex planation i s likely t o emerg e fro m th e column s of th e Patrología. B u t I t h i n k th e surroundin g dramatic contex t ma y explai n it . U n l i k e Moses, th e Israelite s hav e no t see n G o d , and d o no t ye t comprehen d G o d ' s ful l powe r an d benevolence ; they hav e rise n and forme d thei r ranks o n l y ou t o f a fait h i n their leader . Thu s i t i s the ver y intensit y of thi s persona l relationshi p between Mose s and hi s people tha t de mands tha t Mose s himself mus t tel l the m o f th e miracle , show i t t o them, shif t thei r trustin g eye s fro m hi s gesturing hand t o wha t i s tak ing plac e i n the sea . W h e n the y hav e seen , the y begi n t o act , n o w release d fro m th e pa ralysis o f fear . Onc e agai n th e poe t describe s th e formin g o f m i l i t a r y units, bu t thi s scen e differ s significantl y fro m th e scen e just preced ing Moses' s speech. T h e n the y wer e forme d int o impersona l 'feáan ' and ' c i s t a , ' as numbere d anonymou s units ; n ow the y becom e name d people, marchin g forward t o tak e o n grea t identitie s — they ar e J u d a h , R e u b e n , S i m e o n , the y hav e ' n a m e . ' J u d a h carrie s a s hi s standar d th e golden l i o n , 'deor a cenost ' (322) , th e epitom e o f anima l courage lik e the boar s o n a G e r m a n ic warrior's helmet. Tha t i t materialize s here t o stand fo r hi s tribe' s newl y f o u n d braver y an d selfhoo d seem s mor e important dramaticall y than an y o f th e m y r i a d meaning s th e exegete s assigned t o thi s famou s s y m b o l . Reuben' s m e n n o w swagge r d o w n t o the se a i n the aggressiv e rol e o f 'saewicingas, ' forgetting th e o l d dis grace o f losin g thei r p o s i t i o n of leadership. A n d, a s S i m e o n an d th e other tribe s swin g i n t o lin e an d follow , th e sun , ' G o d e s beacna sum, ' rises ove r th e sea , m u c h lik e th e ligh t tha t blaze s ou t i n Grendel's ' h o f afte r B e o w u l f seize s an d use s th e giant-swor d and, lik e tha t light, a s m u c h a n approvin g response b y divin e power s t o heroi c initiative a s a caus e o f it . A s par t o f k n o w i n g w h o the y are , th e tribe s remembe r n o w tha t they ar e brother s i n a m i g h ty family , fo r ' h i m waes a n faeder ' (353) ; they see m t o b e recallin g Moses ' a d m o n i t i o n to t h i n k o f th e G o d of A b r a h a m . Surel y ther e ar e stron g resonances her e o f th e p r o u d pat 4 6

216

E d w a r d B . Irving, J r

ronymics o f epi c poetry . A s they begi n t o thin k o f thei r ancestors , we ar e t o l d o l d tales abou t them , thos e ancien t Scyld-lik e heroe s w h o acted an d marche d an d sailed , as thei r descendant s ar e n o w learnin g to d o i n thei r t u r n . V i e w i n g thi s passag e fro m suc h a p o i nt o f vie w makes m u c h smoothe r th e apparentl y abrup t transitio n t o N o a h i n line 3 6 2 . N o a h onc e valiantl y cruised the deepes t o f drowningfloods and , lik e an y ' g o d c y n i n g , ' thu s preserve d fo r hi s descendant s the greates t o f al l treasure-hoards. L i k e th e fugitive s fro m E g y p t n o w , A b r a h a m to o onc e live d i n exile , u n t i l h e l e d his o w n greates t treasure , his o n l y son , t o th e sacrificia l altar , a n ac t presente d p r i m a r i l y a s on e of courag e an d unflinchin g fait h i n his king's c o m m a n d. H e r o i s m an d faith ar e r o o t e d i n b o th pas t an d future . A b r a h a m is b o th a n ances tral m o d e l o f behaviou r an d th e receive r o f th e grea t promis e o f a fu ture retur n fro m exil e fo r hi s descendants , a promise w h o l l y earne d b y hi s bravery . It shoul d be obviou s that, i n describing this sequence , I hav e delib erately stresse d it s resemblances t o heroi c poetry, b u t I a m certainl y not denyin g that th e Christia n typologica l patter n i s also there , th e same majesti c serie s o f great name s on e ca n fin d i n the thirteent h chapter o f Hebrew s o r i n th e liturgy . T h e tw o tradition s fus e s o w e l l that on e i s tempted t o inven t a descriptiv e ter m lik e ' h e r o i c t y p o l o g y . ' A f t e r th e secon d manuscrip t lacun a a t lin e 4 4 6 , th e tex t resume s w i t h th e Egyptian s already w a l l o w i n g helples s i n th e R e d Sea . T h e ir seemingly unstoppabl e forwar d m o t i o n has bee n completel y b l o c k e d; indeed, w h e n the y tur n back , the y fin d tha t the y canno t eve n mov e i n retreat . T r a p p e d an d i m m o b i l i z e d , just a s w e sa w the m propheti cally a t th e openin g o f th e p o e m , the y ca n onl y screa m a s th e sea' s great darknes s close s ove r them , chaine d a s the y ar e i n th e stron g fetters o f death . 4 7

H i m onge n gena p ne ¡íae r aeni g b e c w om atol yíl a gewealc , ac behinda n belea c herges t o hame , w y r d m i d waege . . . H e a h ofe r haeleüíu m h o l m w e a l l astah , merestream m o d i g ; maege n wae s o n cwealm e faeste gefererod . (455b-8a ; 468-70a ) What, i n thei r m o m e n t o f panic , th e Israelite s ha d feare d fo r them selves n o w happen s t o thei r enemies . A s the Israelite s prepar e t o

Exodus

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217

march o n towar d th e rewar d promise d the m b y A b r a h a m , the Egyp tians receiv e thei r rewar d (called , p u n n i n g l y, a 'deo p lean, ' 507 ) o n the sea-bottom . S o stoppe d i s all E g y p t i an movement tha t n o t a sin gle m a n survive s t o carr y th e new s bac k t o E g y p t . O ur las t sigh t o f them i s a panoram a o f lifeles s bodies o n th e shore , helples s t o pre vent th e eage r hand s o f Israelit e looter s fro m strippin g them o f th e treasure the y ha d onc e l o o t e d fro m J o s e p h . 'Werigen d lagon / o n deaástede, drihtfolc a mae[st].' (589b-90 ) A s th e Egyptian s becom e finally l o c k e d into death' s prison , th e onc e enslave d Israelite s ar e se t free a t las t ('haef t wae s onsaeled, ' 5 8 4 ) ; thei r ne w freedo m o f move ment find s expressio n b o t h i n th e j o y o u s antiphona l son g o f thanks giving an d i n the bus y activit y of sharin g ou t th e plunder . It shoul d b e eviden t tha t th e rhetori c o f Exodus show s th e sam e fundamentally binar y structur e o f dramaticall y oppose d extreme s w h i c h i s t y p i c a l o f O l d English vers e g e n e r a l l y . Whil e thi s rhetorica l frame i s w e ll suite d t o th e stron g theologica l polarities o f earl y Chris tianity, i t i s used her e t o shap e a stor y no t t o b e f o u n d i n quite thi s form b y th e mos t tireles s searche r o f scriptur e o r commentary . Some aspect s o f th e p o e m ar e m u c h bette r understoo d i n term s o f heroic traditio n tha n i n term s o f ecclesiastica l thought. T h e questio n o f herois m itsel f i s on e o f them . I n heroi c literatur e generally , achieve ment stem s fro m a n ofte n ambivalen t an d subtl e co-operatio n o f hu man w i l l an d supernatura l ai d o r sanction . Indeed , whethe r i n th e Iliad Achille s carrie s ou t th e w i l l o f O l y m p i a n Zeu s o r Zeu s accommo dates himsel f t o th e fierc e w i l l o f Achille s i s notoriously hard t o deter mine. Obviously i n a Christia n p o em ther e i s far les s doub t a s t o w h o i s in charge . W e are t o l d a t th e beginnin g of Exodus tha t w e ough t t o listen t o Moses , but tha t i s because Mose s is above al l else th e m a n who listene d t o G o d , w ho wa s selected , strengthened , h o n o u r e d b y G o d , an d w h o , fac e t o fac e w i t h hi s M a k e r , wa s t o l d th e poten t se crets o f Creatio n an d th e Divin e N a m e (line s 8-32) . Ther e i s no trac e here o f th e sh y an d hesitan t Mose s of th e Bible . W e se e a m an gifte d w i t h intelligenc e and natura l qualitie s o f leadership , bu t hi s divin e inspiration i s s o overwhelmingl y evident tha t h e i s virtually w i t h o u t in dividual character , eve n i n th e heroi c sense , close r perhap s t o on e o f Homer's god s tha n t o on e o f hi s heroes . Doubtles s th e fac t tha t th e typological traditio n equate s Moses w i th Chris t has somethin g t o d o w i t h thi s w a y o f portrayin g h i m. The tru e heroi c protagonis t o f th e p o e m i s not i n fac t Moses , but a 48

49

218

Edward B . Irving, J r

collective hero : th e childre n of Israel . T h ey ar e no t godlik e but en tirely h u m a n , b y turn s scared , despairing , confident. I t i s their emo tions w e ar e aske d t o share , a s w e ca n se e i f we l o o k bac k ove r th e narrative onc e mor e fro m thi s p o i n t o f view . We ar e firs t o f al l interested i n the m a s character s becaus e the y have freedo m o f choice . In thei r marc h ou t o f E g y p t the y hav e th e divine guidanc e o f Moses and th e mysteriou s pillars , bu t the y ar e fre e to disobe y thes e guides . T h e successiv e aspect s o f th e pillar(s ) are o f interest fro m thi s standpoint . Whe n it firs t appears , th e pilla r give s them grea t confidenc e an d the y procee d j o y f u l l y. A p p a r e n t l y the y feel les s secur e a t night , fo r th e pilla r o f fir e illuminate s their cam p principally i n order t o preven t pani c o f th e wildernes s fro m seizin g them (107b-19 ) — w h i ch implie s that the y ar e susceptibl e t o suc h panic, a s Mose s surely i s not. Whe n the pilla r nex t assume s a mor e for midable rol e (120-4) , threatenin g t o destro y b y fir e thos e w h o dis obey Moses , the potentia l o f demoralizatio n is even mor e strongl y implied. A f t e r anothe r march , the y cam p b y th e R e d Sea . Here, i n a fe w lines (130-4) , th e poe t effectivel y suggest s th e relaxin g of tension : se cure, the y ca n n o w res t an d restor e thei r strengt h w i t h f o o d a s the y p i t c h tent s o n th e hill s b y th e sea . S o th e relieve d Danes relaxe d in H e o r o t just befor e th e shatterin g incursio n of Grendel' s mother. Her e too 'faerspell ' crashes i n u p on a peacefu l scene , an d terro r arise s (13 5 ff). When th e Egyptian s appear, th e Israelite s begi n t o recal l th e tim e o f slaver y an d th e w a y th e Egyptian s broke thei r compac t w i t h J o seph. Her e ther e i s a missing leaf, probabl y containin g a passage wher e the them e o f E g y p t i a n perfidy an d ingratitud e wa s develope d a t grea ter length . E v i d e n t l y th e Israelites , lik e som e o f th e character s i n th e episodes concernin g feuds i n Beowulf, ha d onc e pu t fait h i n h u m a n pledges ('waere, ' 140 , 147 ) tha t hav e n o w bee n treacherousl y violated . These recollection s here reall y express thei r o l d fear i n the fac e o f E g y p t i a n evil ; i t i s the poe t w h o remind s u s i n a n if-claus e (152-3 ) o f the grea t pledg e b y G o d on thei r behalf . What the y se e advancin g on the m n o w (154-99 ) i s a nightmar e ob jectification o f thei r o w n terror . Earlie r reader s wer e mistake n i n try ing t o tak e thi s passag e to o literall y an d realistically . O n l y pur e emo t i o n c o u l d produc e thi s fantas y o f countles s thousand s o f gri m riders , thoroughly organize d an d strongl y motivate d b y vengeance , accompan ied b y a l u r i d retinu e o f screechin g carrion-birds and h o w l i n g wolves.

Exodus

Retraced

219

It i s hard t o tel l thes e animal s fro m th e dar k hos t o f wolfis h Egyptians . The clima x o f th e advanc e i s described : F o r l ó n wae s i n w i c um w o p u p ahafen , atol aefenleoí ; egesa n stodon , weredwra waelnet, |> a se woma cwom , flugon frecn e spel . F e o n d wae s a n m o d , werud wae s wigblac , o a hie oálaede d haefdo n feorh o f feond a dome , |>ea h mh }> a heora beadosear o waegon. Hreádon hildespelle , siáéía n hie J)a m [herge ] wiáforon . (570-4 ) This passag e stresse s th e dange r an d th e fea r fel t b y the m durin g th e crossing. I t rathe r clearl y credits the m w i t h heroi c behaviou r an d gen uine achievemen t i n th e fac e o f suc h terror . Thu s th e crossin g is no t viewed a s a retrea t o r flight , o n th e on e hand , no r d o the y strol l com placently acros s i n ful l confidenc e tha t the y canno t b e harmed . Th e b l o o d y sea-wall s towe r ove r the m bu t the y kee p m o v i n g bravely, late r to celebrat e thei r o w n deeds ; the y hav e rescue d lif e fro m th e enemy . The phras e * frecne geneádo n ' i s a f o r m u l a fo r heroi c ris k an d daring . T h e y hav e bee n tested , an d hav e passe d th e test . I n hi s fina l speech , Moses repeat s G o d ' s promis e t o the m (554-64) , predictin g that thei r triumphant advanc e w i l l continu e indefinitel y (']3ae t g e feond a ge hwone for á ofergangaá, ' 5 6 2 ) . A n d the son g the y sin g to celebrat e their crossin g is a marching-song, a 'fyrdleoá. ' Exodus then , i t seem s t o me , offer s it s messag e o f h u m a n salvatio n largely i n heroic terms , term s perhap s quit e unfamilia r or uncongenia l to L a t i n exegetes . Tha t salvatio n is attained throug h a c o m p l ex blend ing o r co-operatio n o f divin e guidance an d individua l effor t an d cour age i s certainl y no t a n unchristia n concept , bu t wha t w e shoul d not e i n Exodus i s the w a y th e traditiona l heroic imaginatio n seize s thi s idea an d expresse s i t i n its o w n energeti c fashion , w i t h it s o w n stron g contrasts an d dramati c heightening . B y suc h mean s th e narrativ e o f the escap e fro m E g y p t becomes almos t entirel y self-sufficient , jus t there; i t doe s n o t hav e t o b e pushe d impatientl y asid e s o tha t w e ca n get a t it s tru e ' m e a n i n g . ' Thos e w h o w o u l d to o closel y imitate th e o l d exegetes i n th e wa y the y rea d th e p o e m d o i t n o service , an d perhap s neglect th e powerfu l an d vali d religiou s experience th e p o e m offers .

Retraced

Exodus

221

NOTES 1 The Old English

Yale Studies in English 122 (New Haven 1953, repr.

Exodus,

A r c h o n Books 1970); hereafter cited as E d i t i o n . I wish to thank here m y coeditor, Robert Burlin, for suggesting several improvements in this paper. 2 'New Notes o n the O l d English Exodus,

9

90 (1972) 289-324; hereafter

Anglia

cited as 'New Notes' 3 Catalogue

of Manuscripts

containing

(Oxford 1957), 408; this pos­

Anglo-Saxon

sible identification is also mentioned b y R . M . Wilson, The Lost Medieval 4 Studies

England

Literature

of

(2d ed., L o n d o n 1970), 78.

in the History

of Old English

5 ' T h e Date and Dialect of Genesis

Literature

(Oxford 1953), 103

A 852-2936 (Part III),' Anglia

70 (1952)

285-94; 292 6 ' T h e Relation of the Caedmonian Exodus 7 ' A Reading of O E Exodus,

9

8 The Guest-Hall

to the L i t u r g y , ' M L N 27 (1912) 97-103

RES n.s. 20 (1969) 401-17; 417

(New Haven 1972), 59-60

of Eden

9 See Geoffrey Shepherd, 'Scriptural Poetry,' in Continuations E . G . Stanley ( L o n d o n 1966), 24; C L . Wrenn, A Study

and Beginnings,

of Old English

( L o n d o n 1967), 103-4; more recently, T . A . Shippey, Old English

ed.

Literature

Verse ( L o n d o n

1972), 137. 10 ' T h e Accents and Points of M S . Junius Eleven,' Transactions Society

of the

Philological

(1954) 178-205

11 See James W. Earl, ' Christian Tradition in the O l d English " E x o d u s , " ' NM 71 (1970) 541-70. 12 See, for instance, Farrell, and Neil D . Isaacs, Structural Poetry

Principles

in Old

English

(Knoxville 1968), 151-9.

13 Isaacs, 157 14 Earl, 547-60 15 E d i t i o n , 14-16; Bright's article cited in note 6 above 16 E d i t i o n , 15 17 See, for instance, Bernard F . Huppé, Doctrine on Old English

Poetry

and Poetry:

Augustine's

Influence

(Albany 1959), 217-23; the more thoughtful and persua­

sive article b y J . E . Cross and S.I. T u c k e r , 'Allegorical Tradition and the O l d English Exodus/Neophilologus

44 (1960) 122-7, which discusses some possible

influence from baptismal tradition, though conceding (124) that the p o e m is 'not symbolically about baptism'; E a r l , passim;

Shepherd, 31.

18 Lee, 43-8 19 Shippey, 136-43 and 153-4 20 ' O E Exodus

and the Antipho

nary of Bangor/NM

70 (1969) 658-67

222 E d w a r d B . Irving, J r 21 'Echos d'un rite hiérosolymitain dans u n manuscrit d u haut M o y e n Age anglais,' Revue

de l'histoire

165 (1964) 13-47. This study should be read

des religions

with caution, however, since the author seems to attribute the poems to Caedm o n , dating them extremely early, and regards the late illustrations as having been an integral part of the b o o k from the start. 22 Shepherd, 13 23 I summarize here other possible parallels: Wis. 18:4 and Exo 49-53; Wis. 18:12 anâExo

40-1; Wis. 18:15-16 andExo

45, 75-6, 485-97a; Wis. 19:7 a n d £ x o

71b-72;Wis. 19:7 and Exo 2 8 3 - 8 , 3 1 2 . 24 E d i t i o n , 19-20 25 Robinson's articles may be found in Anglia 356-64;

Anglia

80 (1962) 363-78; NM 67 (1966)

86 (1968) 14-58; NM 69 (1968) 161-71.

26 See 'New Notes,' note to 27b-29; and also notes to 58, 59, 377-9, 432-46, 460, 462; and Edition's notes to 184, 389-96, 547 ff (i.e., 580 ff in the M S ) . 27 See 'New Notes,' notes to 60, 66b, 87-92, 136, 358; and E d i t i o n , notes to 72, 81, 353b. 28 'New Notes,' notes to 224-32, 233-46, 266-7a, 415-18, 519-20 29 'New Notes,'notes to 1-7, 15, 71-72, 310 ff, 353b, 519-20 30 'New Notes,' notes to 68, 71-2, 164b, 289, 384-6 31 'New Notes,' notes to 15, 66b, 70, 71-2 32 F o u n d inPatrologia

Latina,

vol 91; see 'New Notes,' notes to 37b, 46, 289, 519-

20, 580. 33 See PL, vol 68, col 769; and F . Stegmüller, Reportorium

biblicum

medii

aevi

(Madrid 1951), III, 8, for the attribution. 34 'New Notes,' notes to 81, 91b-2a, 384-6, 432-46, 554-5, 584 35 T h e instances are collected in 'New Notes,' note to 121. 36 'Untersuchungen zu den altenglischen Gedichten Genesis u n d E x o d u s , ' Anglia

75

(1957) 1-34 37 ' O n the Dating of the O l d English Poems Genesis

and Exodus,'

Anglia

11 (1959)

1-11 38 ' O E "-calla", "ceallian,"' m Medieval Memory

of G.N. Garmonsway,

Literature

and Civilization:

Studies

in

ed. D . A . Pearsall and R . A . Waldron ( L o n d o n

1969) 94-9 39 'Some Kinds of Meaning in O l d English Poetry,' Annuale

Mediaevale

11 (1970)

5-21; the quotation is from 17. 40 The Interpretation

of Old English

Poems

( L o n d o n 1972), 133-59

41 Shippey, 134-43; the quotation is from 141. 42 References henceforth to lines after 516 will be to the manuscript order, not the rearrangement in E d i t i o n . 43 E a r l , 55 I f f

Exodus

Retraced

223

44 See the discussion of these lines in 'New Notes.' 45 Earl, 561-3 46 See E d i t i o n , note to 280 ff, and Shippey, 138-40. 47 A point made by Isaacs, 158 48

F o r a similar idea — horror at the dead man's inability to protect himself from outrage — cf the memorable vignette of the hanged man attacked by a raven in Fortunes

of Men

33-42.

49 See the first chapter o f m y book, A Reading

of Beowulf

(New Haven 1968).

50 E d i t i o n kept the manuscript reading ' weredon waelnet,' translating as a paren­ thetic 'corselets protected,' but such a statement seems inappropriate as well as awkward (do the Israelites even have their armour on at this point?). Phrases like 'egesan stodon' often take an indirect object in the dative describing the one affected; emending to 'weredum' (or 'werode') would provide one here. T h e n 'waelnet' 'death-trap(s) ' would be in apposition with 'egesan,' and analogous to such compounds as 'inwitnet' (Beowulf

2167) and 'searonet' (Andreas

64, 943),

both of which suggest treacherous entrapment, exactly the situation here.

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NORMAN E. ELIASON

On Wulf and Eadwacer

A t t e m p t s t o interpre t Wulf and Eadwacer hav e take n tw o radically different courses , th e on e necessaril y endeavourin g t o clarif y th e ob scurities i n th e p o e m an d th e othe r merel y tryin g to justify them . Scholars w h o hav e pursue d th e latte r cours e ar e no t compelle d t o ex plain al l the obscuritie s there , for , howeve r inexplicabl e some o f them ma y be , the y ar e justifiable nonetheles s a s characteristi c o f cer tain genres , mos t notabl y riddle s o r charms . I n riddle s obscuritie s ar e intentional, constitutin g th e ver y essenc e o f th e genre ; i n charms the y provide a suggestio n o f myster y o r magic , th e qualit y w h i c h i s th e most distinctiv e feature o f th e genre . B u t i f Wulf and Eadwacer i s a riddle, a s earl y scholar s maintained , i t require s a solution , and non e of th e variou s solution s w h i c h the y propose d prove d acceptable . F o r almost a hundred year s th e riddl e interpretation ha s bee n abandone d — quite rightly , I believe , for no t o n l y i s the p o e m unsolvabl e a s a riddle bu t ther e i s no goo d reaso n fo r supposin g tha t i t i s one . The m a i n reaso n fo r thi s forme r suppositio n i s th e p o s i t i o n of th e p o e m i n th e E x e t e r B o o k , wher e i t immediatel y precede s an d i s no t distinctly se t of f fro m th e firs t o f tw o group s o f riddle s (1-59 ) in cluded there . Th e othe r grou p (61-95 ) come s a t th e en d o f th e manu script, bein g separate d fro m th e firs t b y som e eigh t folios . T h e indistinct separatio n o f on e p o e m fro m anothe r i s by n o mean s uniqu e either i n th e Exete r B o o k o r i n othe r manuscripts . B u t th e separatio n of poem s naturall y belongin g together — like th e tw o group s o f rid dles an d perhap s als o suc h pair s o f poem s a s The Wanderer an d The

226

N o r m a n E . Eliason

Seafarer, The Wife's Lament an d The Husband's Message, o r Widsith and Deor — is certainl y o d d . I t clearl y indicate s tha t someho w i n th e manuscript histor y o f th e text s recorde d i n th e Exete r B o o k someon e bungled, failin g t o preserv e thei r origina l arrangement. Th e resultin g disarrangement i s w o r th keepin g i n m i n d , fo r i t afford s a clu e t o wha t I thin k Wulf and Eadwacer i s about . The lates t schola r t o pursu e th e cours e adopte d b y thos e w h o ha d attempted t o interpre t th e p o e m a s a riddl e i s D o n a ld K. F r y , w ho took a somewha t differen t tack , however , viewin g it instea d a s a charm. H e migh t hav e ignore d man y o f th e obscuritie s i n the p o e m , claiming a s h e legitimatel y c o u l d have tha t charm s ar e b y thei r natur e cryptic. Instea d h e undertoo k t o demonstrate , b y citin g parallels i n other O l d English charm s an d b y reinterpretin g severa l ke y word s i n Wulf and Eadwacer, tha t mos t o f th e crypti c remark s ther e ar e suscep tible o f reasonabl e explanation . I n al l of thi s h e succeede d s o wel l that I wa s a t firs t convince d by hi s case . B u t doub t ros e w h e n I note d what h e wa s force d t o d o w i t h th e w o r d ' w e n , ' w h i c h , accordin g t o h i m , i s foun d twic e i n th e p o e m ( ' w e n u m , ' 9 ; ' w e n a , ' 13) . I n b o t h instances F r y ha d t o assum e tha t ther e wa s scriba l error, ' w e n n - ' bein g mistakenly w r i t t e n a s ' w e n - . ' S u c h a n error , i t i s true , i s not u n c o m m o n i n O l d English manuscript s bu t her e i t i s unique, fo r n o t o n l y does i t occu r twic e w i t h i n th e spac e o f fiv e line s o f vers e bu t i t occur s only i n th e on e w o r d o f crucia l significance. This, I can' t hel p feeling , is to o unlikel y t o b e credible . A n d if so, F r y ' s whol e cas e collapses , for ther e i s no othe r m e n t i o n o f ' w e n ' i n th e p o e m . W i t h o u t ' w e n , ' it i s neither a w e n char m no r a char m a t all . A l l othe r m o d e r n scholars hav e pursue d th e othe r course , th e on e requiring clarificatio n of th e obscuritie s i n th e p o e m . V i e w i n g i t a s the lamen t o f someon e caugh t u p i n a tragi c love-tangle , the y ar e com pelled t o explai n a numbe r o f thing s w h i c h in th e p o e m ar e unclear . The speaker , al l assume, i s a w o m a n — necessarily so , the y reason , since th e lamen t i s about separatio n fro m a ma n (Wulf ) an d include s m e n t i o n o f thei r c h i l d ('uncern e h w e l p , ' 16) . B u t thoug h thu s i n ful l agreement abou t th e identit y o f th e speake r an d th e k i n d o f tragi c sit uation i n w h i ch she i s involved, scholars disagre e abou t virtuall y every thing else . S t i l l unresolve d ar e suc h crucia l questions a s w h o cause d Wulf's separatio n fro m he r an d w h y , wha t par t Eadwace r p l a y e d i n th e affair, w h o th e fathe r o f he r offsprin g was , whethe r Eadwace r o r Wulf , w h y sh e shoul d refe r t o thi s c h i l d a s a whelp — the o n l y instanc e i n O l d Englis h wher e th e ter m i s thus applie d t o a h u m a n offsprin g — 1

2

O n Wulf and Eadwacer

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and w h y just afte r referrin g t o i t a s 'uncern e h w e l p ' sh e shoul d men t i o n som e poetr y i n precisely th e sam e wa y ('uncern e g i e d d , ' 19) . F o r all o f thes e question s excep t th e las t — to w h i c h w e shal l t u r n late r — answers hav e bee n proposed , bu t lik e th e earlie r riddle-solution s the y gain n o genera l acceptance . V i e w e d a s a dramati c monologu e o r howeve r els e i t ma y b e label led — an elegy , a l y r i c , o r a Frauenlied — Wulf and Eadwacer remain s utterly baffling . T h e a w k w a r d fac t tha t th e p o e m itsel f doe s no t pro vide answer s t o an y o f th e crucia l question s w h i c h thi s vie w pose s i s got aroun d i n t w o differen t ways . Th e firs t i s by maintainin g that th e underlying stor y wa s s o wel l k n o w n t o th e poet' s audienc e tha t h e d i d no t nee d t o fil l i n th e details . M o s t scholar s ar e n o w conten t sim p l y t o assum e tha t thi s wa s true ; som e ar e stil l futilel y attemptin g t o demonstrate it s trut h b y l i n k i n g u p th e underlyin g story w i t h som e w e l l - k n o w n legen d o r other . T h e othe r wa y i s by maintainin g that th e obscurity o f th e p o e m doe s no t reall y matter, for , howeve r littl e w e may understan d wha t i t i s about, i t i s nonetheless a singularl y m o v i ng expression o f grief. Neithe r o f thes e way s o f dodgin g th e issu e settle s it. A n o t h e r issu e w h i c h i s also dodged , i t seem s t o me , i s the on e raise d b y th e f o r m o f th e p o e m , mor e particularl y its inexplicabl y irregular versification. T h e fac t tha t a t leas t twelv e o f it s ninetee n line s ar e ir regular i n this respect canno t b e ignored , a s i t ofte n is , nor ha s i t eve r been satisfactoril y explained . A t t e m p ts t o vindicat e thes e flaw s o n the groun d tha t the y serv e a structura l function , m a r k i n g o ff couplet s or stanza s i n th e p o e m , ar e unconvincing . A nd excusing the flaw s a s characteristic feature s o f ' p o p u l a r p o e t r y ' merel y beg s th e q u e s t i o n . The careles s for m o f th e p o e m , w h i c h surel y ough t t o b e admitte d rather tha n glosse d over , i s evidently th e resul t o f haste , no t mer e in eptitude. Som e touche s o f skil l ar e apparen t there , mos t n o t a b l y th e refrain-like 'ungeli c i s u s ,' w h i c h ha s capture d everyone' s fanc y a s be ing felicitou s in itsel f an d nicel y tantalizin g in its repetition . I n neithe r instance, t o b e sure , i s its meanin g quit e clear , for , explici t thoug h th e comparison seem s t o be , just wha t i t involve s is ambiguous. This , I be lieve, i s deliberate , intende d t o b e amusin g rathe r tha n mystifying , however, o r th e resul t o f a n urg e t o b e cleve r rathe r tha n clear . If I a m righ t i n t h i n k i n g that th e p o e m wa s hastil y w r i t t e n b y some one inten t o n bein g amusin g rathe r tha n clear , th e tw o mos t strikin g characteristics o f th e p o e m , it s careles s f o r m an d it s obscurit y — are thus accounte d for , an d i t als o suggest s what k i n d o f p o e m i t m a y be . 3

4

5

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I a m incline d t o believ e that , instea d o f a dramati c monologue , ad dressed t o a genera l audienc e assume d t o k n o w it s u n d e r l y i n g stor y and t o b e m o v e d b y a n anonymou s w o m a n lamentin g he r tragi c l o t i n bein g separate d fro m he r lover , the p o e m i s a private c o m m u n i c a t i o n addresse d t o a colleague , ruefull y bu t playfull y protestin g abou t the mishandlin g of thei r poetry , w h i c h instea d o f bein g kep t intac t — as i t shoul d i f it i s t o b e appreciate d properl y — has bee n separated , some o f i t bein g c o p i e d i n on e plac e o f a manuscript an d th e res t i n another, les s favourabl e place . W i t h i n th e p o e m , a s thu s construed , this separatio n o f thei r w o r k i s the o n l y fac t clearl y expressed, bein g revealed ther e i n th e tw o c o n c l u d i n g lines, the meanin g o f w h i c h i s clearer tha n tha t o f an y othe r pai r o f line s i n th e p o e m — or s o i t seems t o m e an d w o u l d hav e seeme d also , I shoul d t h i n k , t o it s inten ded recipient , w h o w i t h o u t th e enlightenmen t provide d ther e migh t have faile d t o ge t th e p o i n t . A l l th e res t o f th e p o e m , obscur e a s i t n o w seem s t o us , wa s presumabl y no t obscur e t o h i m , if, as I a m as suming, h e wa s awar e o f th e u n d e r l y i n g facts an d c o u l d b o t h gras p and appreciat e th e fancifu l wa y the y wer e allude d to . Wha t thes e facts were , ther e i s no w a y o f k n o w i n g and littl e p o i nt i n speculatin g about, excep t fo r th e fe w possibilitie s w h i ch I shal l m e n t i on later . A t thi s juncture, however , w e nee d th e t e x t befor e us : 6

7

L e o d u m i s m i n um swylc e h im m o n la c gife ; willaá h y hin e a J D e c g a n , gi f he o n |>rea t cymeá . Ungelic i s us . W u l f i s on iege , i c o n o|>erre . 5 Faes t i s |>aet eglond, fenn e biworpen , sindon waelreow e wera s |)ae r o n ige ; willan h y hin e ajjecgan , gi f he o n |>rea t cymeá . Ungelic i s us . Wulfes i c mines widlastu m w e n u m dogod e 10 J D o n n e hi t wae s reni g weder o n d i c reotugu saet ; jjonne me c s e beaducaf a b o g u m bilegde , waes m e w y n t o J>on , wae s m e hwaef>r e ea c laíí . Wulf, m i n Wulf, wen a m e frin e seoce gedydon , jrin e seldcyma s — 15 murnend e m o d , nale s meteliste . Gehyrest Jm , Eadwacer, uncern e earn e hwelp ? . . . biret f W u l f t o w u d a . {>aet m on ea|> e tosliteá |>aett e naefre gesomna d waes , uncer giedd , geador .

O n Wulf and Eadwacer

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Instead o f a literal , line-by-lin e translatio n an d complet e textua l com m e n t a r y , al l tha t seem s necessar y t o provid e here i s a brie f paraphras e showing wha t I tak e t o b e th e sens e o f th e line s an d a n explanatio n of w h y I thu s constru e t h e m : 8

1-2 A ma n i s welcome if , instead o f alon e an d empty-handed , h e comes bringin g gifts; so i t i s w i th m y peopl e o r songs . 3 I t i s otherwise w i t h W u l f an d me . 4-6 W e ar e alone , isolate d in t wo differen t places , an d th e plac e he occupie s i s especially unfortunate . 7 H e w o u l d b e welcom e there , i.e . th e p o s i t i o n w o u ld b e toler able, i f he wer e no t alone . 8 T h a t i s w hy i t i s otherwise w i t h us , unwelcom e a s w e b o t h thus ar e i n our isolation. 9-10 H i s p o s i t i on sometimes cause s m e m u c h grief , 11-12 w h i c h i s mitigated w h e n I conside r m y o w n secur e p o s i t i o n in the manuscrip t 13-15 bu t i s renewed w h e n I realiz e that th e misplacemen t o f W u l f w i l l neve r b e corrected . 16-17 A r e y o u, Eadwacer — ever aler t a s y o u ough t t o b e — aware o f our Wulf' s pligh t n o w tha t h e i s thus misplaced ? 18-19 (Th e mistak e i s an understandabl e one) , fo r i t i s easy t o sep arate somethin g w h i c h ha s neve r bee n properl y c o m b i n e d , suc h as ou r j o i nt poeti c endeavour . M y interpretatio n proceed s o n th e assumptio n tha t line s 18-1 9 ar e to b e construe d literall y an d line s 1-1 7 figuratively , the revers e o f the procedur e use d i n interpreting th e p o e m a s a dramati c monologue , for the n line s 1-1 7 ar e construe d literall y an d 18-1 9 figuratively , as 'uncer g i e d d ' (19 ) seem s t o require . B u t whethe r ' g i e d d , ' w h i ch mean s poetry o f som e sor t o r other , i s emended o r give n a figurativ e sens e so tha t i t mean s somethin g else , th e resul t i s not ver y satisfactory , p r o d u c i n g a n endin g just a s obscur e a s al l of th e res t o f th e p o e m is . In a p o e m a s obscur e a s thi s on e certainl y is , it seem s reasonable t o expect som e ligh t somewhere , an d eve n thoug h th e ligh t come s o n l y at th e en d i t i s surely welcom e there . Possibl y a n i n k l i n g o f wha t th e p o e m i s about come s earlier , i n th e openin g lines o r indee d i n the ver y first w o r d . If so , ' l e o d u m ' ('people' ) — w h i c h, howeve r th e p o e m i s interpreted, i s rather senseles s — must b e emende d t o ' l e o á u m ' ('songs'), thu s bringin g the firs t an d las t word s o f th e p o e m int o nic e accord. 9

230

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If th e author' s rea l concer n a s expresse d i n 18-1 9 wa s th e separa t i o n o f som e sor t o f poetry ('giedd') , th e j o i nt w o r k ('uncer' ) o f h i m self an d th e recipient , th e latte r wa s expecte d t o gras p th e compariso n e m p l o y e d i n 1-17 , wher e thi s separatio n i s likened t o th e separatio n of t w o people , on e o f w h o m almos t necessaril y therefor e i s given a name (Wulf) . H e l p i n g th e recipien t t o gras p th e compariso n is th e twice use d phras e 'ungeli c is u s ,' w h i c h , sinc e e x p l i c i t l y expresse d similes suc h a s thi s ar e rar e i n O ld English poetry , serve s t o aler t h i m to th e possibility , an d w h i c h , b y bein g negatively put ( ' u n g e l i c ' rathe r than ' gelic ') serve s t o w a r n h i m that th e compariso n involves dissim ilarities o f som e sor t — as indee d i t does . B u t th e comparison , though fanciful , i s not farfetched . Wha t make s it see m s o i s the wa y th e autho r develop s it , letting his fanc y r u n pret ty w i l d i n describing the place s wher e th e poetr y ha s bee n separate d (on differen t islands , in a fortres s surrounde d b y fe n an d guarde d b y fierce men) , it s receptio n ther e (les s welcom e than i f it wer e al l together), th e i l l fat e particularl y of on e p o r t i o n of th e poetr y (referre d to a s W u l f an d a s thei r w h e l p , depicted a s havin g been born e of f t o th e woods, wher e i n his lonel y miser y he i s to b e imagine d as piteously whimpering) an d th e author' s distres s abou t thi s (weepin g in th e rai n and b e c o m i n g sick a t th e though t tha t W u l f w i l l neve r r e t u r n ) . Seem ingly especiall y fanciful i s the descriptio n of th e plac e o c c u p i e d by the othe r p o r t i o n of th e poetry , where , a s th e autho r put s it , 'som e battle-ready m a n ha s lai d o r pu t m e d o w n ' (11) , w h i c h i s rendere d even mor e fancifu l w h e n ' b o g u m ' i s construed a s meanin g ' i n som e tree limb s o r someone' s arms . ' I , however , tak e i t t o mea n ' i n folde d parchment l e a v e s , ' a sens e w h i c h no t onl y fit s th e immediat e con text bette r bu t nicel y fit s th e over-al l contex t o f th e p o e m a s I a m interpreting it . One objectio n t o interpretin g it a s a private c o m m u n i c a t i o n is th e paucity o f i n f o r m a t i o n it provides . It reveal s virtuall y non e o f th e things w e w o u l d lik e t o k n o w no r eve n th e thing s we migh t reasonabl y expect, suc h a s th e identit y o f th e autho r an d o f th e recipient . Nei ther i s named — certainly not th e author , nor , I believe , the perso n h e was addressing . To b e sure , th e latte r i s called Eadwace r b ut thi s i s most l i k e l y a descriptiv e epithet rathe r tha n a name . Meaning , a s i t does, 'eve r aler t o r v i g i l a n t , ' i t i s evidently a h u m o r o u s ly ironi c way o f gentl y chidin g th e recipien t fo r whateve r blam e h e bor e i n th e mishandling o f th e p o e t r y . If , a s I a m assumin g m a i n ly becaus e i t i s the simples t amon g various possibilities, ' E a d w a c e r ' was a scribe , it i s 10

11

12

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interesting rathe r tha n p u z z l i n g tha t th e autho r shoul d refe r t o th e poetry a s their s ('unce r giedd' ) rathe r tha n hi s o w n . F o r th e sam e reason I assum e tha t th e recipien t i s thi s Eadwacer , no t som e othe r undesignated person , an d therefor e I trea t line s 16-1 7 a s I d o , m a k i n g the subjec t o f 'bireá ' t o b e someon e o r somethin g indicate d i n wha t I tak e t o b e a lacuna fillin g ou t lin e 17 . T h e whelp , t o judge b y th e over-all context , mus t surel y refe r t o Wulf , a nam e perhap s inspire d b y th e ter m o r th e ter m inspire d by th e n a m e . A l t h o u g h W u l f migh t be regarde d a s th e nam e o f a p o e t associate d w i t h th e autho r i n som e j o i n t poeti c endeavour , i t i s more l i k e l y tha t th e nam e i s intended t o designate som e p o e m o r poem s w h i c h th e autho r wrot e an d wa s i r k e d to se e misplaced . T he latte r identificatio n best accord s w i t h th e wa y the dua l for m ' u n c e r ' i s used, bein g applie d i n line 1 9 t o th e j o i n t w o r k ('unce r giedd' ) o f th e autho r an d hi s scrib e an d i n line 1 7 t o that p o r t i o n o f thei r w o r k w h i c h ha s bee n misplace d (fancifull y refer red t o ther e a s 'uncern e h w e l p ' but previousl y as ' m i n W u l f ). Wha t this poetr y comprise d — either th e misplace d p o r t i on o r th e whol e w o r k — is impossible to sa y an d idl e t o guess . O f course i f the posi t i o n o f th e p o e m i n the manuscrip t c o u l d safel y b e regarde d a s a clue , then th e w o r k w o u l d see m t o b e th e tw o group s o f riddle s w h i c h I have mentione d earlie r an d t o w h i c h th e riddle-lik e fanc y e m p l o y e d i n ou r p o e m bear s som e resemblance . B u t i f its p o s i t i o n is w i t h o u t significance, th e w o r k referre d t o migh t b e an y o f th e pair s o f poem s i n th e Exete r B o o k w h i c h I hav e als o mentione d o r an y othe r poetr y recorded there , elsewhere , o r n o w lost . Disappointing a s th e p o e m thu s prove s t o b e a s a sourc e o f an y w o r t h w h i l e i n f o r m a t i o n , the suppositio n tha t i t i s a private c o m m u n i cation canno t b e rule d ou t o n thi s groun d alone . Indeed , th e suppo sition gain s i n credibilit y thereby , fo r intimat e communication s — to judge b y thos e I receiv e o r sen d — rarely m e n t i o n fact s o f an y conse quence o r i n such w a y tha t the y mak e m u c h sens e t o a n outsider . The othe r genera l objectio n tha t migh t b e raise d i s that th e inter pretation I a m suggestin g succeed s o n l y i n downgrading a p o em w h i c h has w o n wid e acclaim , reducing i t t o a bit o f vers e to o trivia l t o meri t any acclai m either fo r it s substanc e o r fo r it s execution . I n thi s re spect, however , i t i s not anomalous , fo r amon g th e survivin g O ld Eng lish poem s foun d i n th e Exete r B o o k an d elsewher e ther e ar e other s w h i c h ar e n o bette r an d som e tha t ar e worse . B u t trivia l a s Wulf and Eadwacer thu s becomes , i t i s w o r th notic e a t leas t a s a n instanc e where a n O l d English poet , instea d o f voicin g g l o o m y solemnity , is 13

14

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N o r m a n E . Eliason

having a littl e fun , an d where , instea d o f exercisin g his fanc y t o con jure u p ominou s demon s an d monster s an d dragon s o f m o m e n t o u s significance, h e i s doing so her e t o bante r a scrib e fo r hi s bungling . This i s not th e o n l y instanc e wher e scriba l bunglin g has p r o v o k ed a poe t t o c o m p l a i n an d t o registe r hi s complain t in verse. Chaucer d i d s o t o o , addressin g his c o m m u n i c a t i on directly t o A d a m hi s scrib e and specifyin g wher e an d h o w h e ha d bungled . H ad Chaucer chose n to chid e A d a m otherwise , failin g t o mak e hi s meaning perfectly plai n or t o m e n t i o n h i m by name , bu t instea d exercisin g his fanc y a s freel y as th e autho r o f Wulf and Eadwacer d i d , I suspec t tha t th e * Wordes unto A d a m ' migh t hav e cause d scholar s t o struggl e fo r year s i n a vain effor t t o untangl e it s perplexities and perhap s eve n t o mak e fan tastic claim s about 'th e passionat e intensificatio n of g r i e f expresse d there. 1 5

NOTES 1 'Wulf and Eadwacer: A Wen C h a r m , ' Chaucer Review

5 (1970) 247-63

2 T h e ones w h o m I have consulted and taken into account here are: A . C . Bouman, 'Leodum

Beadohild's C o m p l a i n t , ' Neophilologus

is Minum:

33 (1949) 103-13;

J o h n F . Adams, ' " W u l f and Eadwacer": A n I n t e r p r e t a t i o n , ' M L N 73 (1958) 1-5; P . J . Frankis, *Deor and Wulf and Eadwacer:

Some Conjectures,' Medium

31 (1962) 161-75; K e m p Malone, ' T w o English Frauenlieder, Literature

14 (1962) 106-17; A l a i n Renoir, ' Wulf and Eadwacer:

pretation,' in Franciplegius: Peabody

Magoun,

Medieval

and Linguistic

Studies

&vu

Poetry

A Noninter-

in Honor

of

der altenglischen

A l v i n A . Lee, The Guest-Hall

Francis Prin­

(Knoxville, T e n n . 1968), 114-17; R u t h L e h m a n n ,

' T h e Metrics and Structure of Wulf and Eadwacer, Heinz Gôller, Geschichte

m

Comparative

JK (New Y o r k 1965), 147-63; Neil D . Isaacs, Structural

ciples in Old English

Poetry

*

of Eden:

Four

Literatur Essays

'PQ 48 (1969) 151-65; K a r l (Berlin 1971), 78-84; and on the Design of Old

English

(New Haven 1972), 156-8.

3 Untenable as this critical judgment would seem to be — and to m y m i n d it is sim­ ply preposterous — it has gained wide acceptance. T h e only scholar who is forth­ right about it, however, is Renoir, who devotes his whole essay to its defence, concluding with the extravagant claim, 'Whether or not the speaker is an exile in a foreign land, whether or not the man who embraces her is her lover, Wulf Eadwacer

and

reaches us through the passionate intensification of grief, which it ex­

presses as few poems have done in any language. ' 4 Eight are clearly exceptional in length, four (3, 8, 7, 19) consisting only of half-

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lines, each of which is preceded by a line longer than ordinary and somewhat ir­ regular in metre; three (9, 13, 14) are irregular in metre; and one (12) is irregular in alliteration. 5 Noteworthy is the fact that The Wife's Lament, and Eadwacer,

which Malone couples with Wulf

exhibits none of these features.

6 N o t of course b y the Exeter B o o k scribe but b y some predecessor. T h e poem, I assume, was written in the margin of this earlier work, whence the Exeter B o o k scribe mistakenly copied it off. 7 Cited from the Krapp-Dobbie, The Exeter

Book,

(New Y o r k 1936), the most

readily available edition. Their text is faithful to that of the manuscript, except for the alignment, capitalization, and punctuation, which they supply and which I alter. 8 Which are readily available elsewhere; Malone and Mrs L e h m a n n provide the most detailed commentary. 9 T h e scribal error involved, miswriting '#' as ' d , ' is a frequent one, the Exeter B o o k scribe being guilty of it thirteen verse-lines earlier, where he wrote 'earfoàa' as 'earfoda' (Deor

30).

10 I construe W u l f s 'seldcymas' (14) as litotes, meaning that he will never return, i.e., that the misplacement is not correctable. 11 That is, b y reading the word not as 'bógum ' but as 'bogum. ' ' Boga ' has various senses in O l d English, all of them referring to something bent, curved, or folded; hence, though attested b y only one citation there, Toller's sense V (in his Supple­ ment to the Bosworth Anglo-Saxon

Dictionary,

O x f o r d 1921), 'folded parch­

ment, ' is wholly acceptable. 12 M u c h the same meaning Toller assigns the name ('easily roused [? ] , alert, vigil­ ant') except for the modifier which, in order to be compatible with 'alert' or 'vig­ ilant,' requires the meaning 'keenly' or 'ever' rather than 'easily.' L i k e Toller, I am uncertain whether t h e ' d ' of ' E a d - ' should be emended to '#,' for though the ' d ' may be a scribal error for 'á ' (see note 9) it may well represent a phonological change. Change of M ' to ' d , ' not u n c o m m o n in O l d English, is especially likely in this instance, for when used as combining forms 'eaen e ae t h i l d e ' (55) i s more emphati c agains t it s stylisti c backgroun d than i n M o d e r n English translation . These ar e simpl y word s and , seemingly , the hig h wate r prevent s th e armies c o m i n g t o grip s immediately. Y et B y r h t n o t h, apparently, ha s his m e n nea r enoug h t o th e wate r fo r arrow s o n eithe r sid e t o clai m victims. B o t h armie s wer e restive , as th e poe t says : ' i t seeme d t o the m too l o n g ' (66 ) t o wai t befor e the y c o u l d j o in battle . Th e tensio n i s held fo r a fe w line s as th e t w o armie s ar e presente d ' b e s t r i d i n g ' (68 ) to th e Rive r Blackwate r ' m id p r a s s e ' b u t al l is in readiness . N o w i n a dramaticall y complete shor t verse : ' T h e hig h wate r e b b e d ' (72) an d th e causewa y ( ' b r i c g , ' 74, 78 ; ' f o r d ,' 8 1 , 88 ) i s clear of water. B u t B y r h t n o t h, true t o hi s i n t e n t i o n , offers defenc e b y placin g three m e n i n the pat h o f th e o n c o m i n g V i k i n g s. T h e V i k i n g s i n th e p o e m realiz e that ther e i s no wa y t o brea k thei r resolut e resistance . T h e y ar e n o fool s in war t o whittl e away thei r force s i n this w a y , when the y realiz e that th e causewa y i s held b y suc h ' b i t e r e ' defenders . 32

33

34

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It i s n ow clea r tha t B y r h t n o t h i s not t o b e allowe d th e defensiv e bat tle o n th e term s w h i c h he desired . B u t h e decide s t o figh t forsakin g defence, no t surprisingl y t o thos e w h o hav e caugh t th e previou s po etic hint s abou t h i m . A confiden t ma n w h o ha s prepare d himsel f men tally fo r battl e w o u l d need clear-heade d patienc e t o refuse . Y e t i n th e poet's i m p l i c a t i o n and statement , thi s i s a foolis h an d w r o n g decision , and thi s o p i n i o n is a shock . A s Dr Battagli a and I suggeste d indepen dently i n th e sam e year , tw o point s wer e clea r an d n o w remai n clear . If th e V i k i n g s 'use d c u n n i n g ' ('ongunno n lytegian') , o r eve n b y a n extremely remot e possibilit y they wer e ' a s t u t e ' (o n thei r o w n behalf , not B y r h t n o t h ' s ) , B y r h t n o t h wa s deceive d an d th e actio n i s regarde d as foolis h b y th e poet . N o on e ma y eve n debat e abou t th e secon d statement. I t i s th e c o m m o n poeti c figur e o f litote s o r understate m e n t . I t state s th e poet' s o p i n i o n that th e leade r shoul d no t hav e allowed an y leewa y t o th e V i k i n g s a t thi s poin t o f t i m e . T h e reaso n for thi s delude d an d w r o n g actio n i s B y r h t n o t h ' s ' o f e r m o d . ' T . A . Shippe y ha s recentl y referre d t o thi s w o r d i n a suggestiv e statement that : ' i n O ld English th e qualit y o f th e her o ca n eve n b e verbally a m b i g u o u s . ' S u c h ambiguit y o r dualit y o f meanin g i n a w o r d i s illustrated b y ' w l e n c u ( o ) ' (Beowulf 338-9 , 508) , bu t i n tha t p o e m , o f course , t o indicat e tha t ' w l e n c u ' is not ambiguou s i n th e individual c o n t e x t s . A w o r d ma y hav e distinc t meaning s i n differen t contexts o r eve n b e ambiguou s i n one context , bu t eac h contex t need s to b e assesse d i n it s o w n philologica l term s an d i n relation t o th e em phases o f th e p o e m . Whe n M r Shippey generalize s that : ' O l d Englis h heroes ar e no t mean t t o b e j u d g e d ' an d refer s t o Hygelac' s fata l rai d on th e Frisian s 'becaus e o f wlenco,' on e canno t ignor e it s result s i n the disaste r w h i c h befell th e Geatis h natio n partl y becaus e o f thi s action fo r thi s reason . Th e emphase s o f th e p o e m l i m i t th e semanti c possibilities o f ' w l e n c u ' in th e context , s o tha t eithe r th e ethi c o r th e man i s judged b y th e poe t w i t h th e comment . I n Maldon, however , i t appears tha t th e poeti c emphase s ar e agains t criticis m o f th e heroi c ethic, althoug h th e continue d recal l of earlie r Germani c an d O l d Eng lish poeti c attitude s ha s bee n rightl y labelled a s ' f a l s e ' t o th e rea l conditions o f th e tent h century . T h e 'falseness ' is , I suggest , deliberat e anachronism fo r idealizatio n of rea l m e n fro m a rea l battl e int o nobl e heroes i n a poeti c battle . O n l y a fe w men , B y r h t n o t h an d thos e w h o fled, ar e criticize d b y th e poet , coward s becaus e the y d i d no t liv e u p to th e o l d ideal , B y r h t n o th no t fo r hi s par t i n acceptin g th e idea l an d facing th e V i k i n g s w i t h boldness , bu t fo r givin g u p a tactica l advantage . 3 5

36

37

38

39

4 0

41

244 J . E . Cross

The judgment her e i s on h i m o n l y amon g th e Englis h loyalist s an d only fo r thi s action . No on e doubt s tha t B y r h t n o t h behaves heroicall y and hi s herois m i s not marre d b y hi s tactica l error. A vali d reaso n fo r the notic e o f th e mistak e b y th e poe t is , of course , tha t i t highlight s the herois m o f th e retainer s w h o spea k i n th e o l d heroic term s an d l o y a l l y figh t i n fulfilmen t o f thei r state d o r presume d vow s t o thei r leader. Against th e backgroun d o f emphase s distinguishe d i n the p o e m an d the immediat e contex t o f ' o f e r m o d ' w e n o w conside r th e semanti c possibilities o f th e w o r d . Since there ha s bee n som e sligh t misrepresen tation w e recal l that ' o f e r m o d ' (noun ) occur s i n three othe r context s o n l y , describin g Lucifer i n Genesis B 2 7 3 , 's e enge l ofermodes, ' wher e the genitiv e o f th e n o u n probabl y function s a s a n adjective , i n th e In­ structions for Christians 1 3 0 wher e Pau l i s sai d t o teac h that : 's e 3 e hine sylfn e t o swiá e ahefá / fo r hi s ofermod e h e bi á ear m fo r G o d e , ' and i n th e continuou s glos s t o Defensor' s Liber scintillarum fo r a q u o t a t i o n o f R o m a n s 11:20 : ' N o l i altu m saper e se d t i m e ' as : 'nell e |)u ofermo d w i t a n a c o n d r a e d . ' I n thes e context s ' o f e r m o d ' i s th e sin o f pride , althoug h th e las t cas e need s a little argument. A l t h o u g h as a n o u n i t i s rare, a s a n adjectiv e i t i s well exemplifie d w i th th e meaning ' p r o u d , arrogant, ' a s ar e als o relate d noun s ' o f e r m e d e , ' 'ofer m e t t u ' ('pride' ) i n contex t o r agains t L a t i n 'superbia, ' 'arrogantia, ' ' e l a t i o ' (a s ' s e l f - e x a l t a t i o n ' ) . M r B r i t t on ha s objected , admittedl y i n a brie f lette r t o th e Times Literary Supplement som e twent y year s a g o (bu t cite d an d repeate d b y D r C l a r k ) , tha t th e n o u n occur s i n religious context s u n l i k e Maldon. On e see s th e p o i n t an d agrees . B u t it ma y b e note d tha t th e adjectiv e ' o f e r m o d ' i s used i n a curiou s tex t from C o t t o n Tiberius A J I I w h i c h offer s prognostication s fro m th e moon's age . T h e thirteent h m o o n i s apparently dangerou s fo r startin g a projec t an d a c h i l d b o r n o n tha t da y w i l l be : 'priste , reaful , ofermod , h i m sylfu m gelicigende. ' In term s o f usage ' o f e r m o d ' meanin g ' p r i d e ' must b e th e favourite . B u t th e possibilit y remains tha t a c o m p o u n d ma y hav e a meanin g i n term s o f it s elements . ' M o d , ' a s B r i t t o n show s fro m Beowulf 1167 an d c o u l d hav e note d fro m Maldon itself , ' m o d scea l }> e m a r e ' (313), ha s a meanin g i n contex t 'courage , spirit . ' Th e elemen t ' o f e r ' is not , however , i n m y view , convincingl y discussed b y B r i t t o n , where h e direct s attentio n t o ' oferhygd arrogance , pride , ofernid extreme nee d an d oferprymm grea t p o w e r , ' i n orde r t o sugges t a 'possible m e a n i n g ' o f ' o f e r m o d ' a s 'great , hig h courage. ' Thi s 'pos 4 2

43

44

45

46

47

48

4 9

Mainly on Philology and the Interpretative Criticism of Maldon

245

s i b i l i t y ' h a s n o w becom e accepte d decisio n i n T . A . Shippey' s trans lation ' o u t o f hi s hig h h e a r t . ' B u t w h e n tw o simplice s are firs t com pounded, a s B r i t t o n w o u ld have i t here , the y brin g thei r simple x meanings t o th e c o m p o u n d . I f a c o m p o u n d a t a late r stag e develop s a further meanin g i t ma y the n b e n o longe r paralle l w i th anothe r com p o u n d w i t h w h i c h it share s on e element . I n othe r words , ' o f e r ' w h i c h as a simple x neve r mean s 'great ' but , i n B r i t t o n ' s view, has develope d to 'great ' i n th e c o m p o u n d ' o f e r j n y m m ' shoul d no t n o w w i t h o u t ar gument b e abstracte d fro m th e c o m p o u n d w i t h tha t ne w meanin g an d be applie d t o ' o f e r ' i n ' o f e r m o d . ' A c t u a l l y , I suggest , h e m a y b e wrong eve n i n his basi c analysi s o f ' o f e r f n y m m . ' Th e elemen t 'ofer ' in th e compound s wa s th e O E prepositio n an d adver b ' o f e r ' an d it s meanings a s simple x w h i c h have relevanc e t o a discussio n o f thes e compounds ma y b e represente d b y th e N E words : 'above , over , be y o n d . ' A successio n o f compound s ar e create d i n O ld English wher e these meaning s ar e stil l clearl y seen. ' O f e r f ) r y m m ' appear s onl y i n th e Exete r B o o k p o e m o n Judgment Day wher e th e las t trumpe t a t thi s p o i n t announce s t w o things : 'brynehatne leg , / egsa n o f e r | ) r y m m ' (52-3) , bu t tha t ' t e r r o r ' her e has bee n describe d a fe w line s earlie r as : 'n e mae g naeni g gryr e mar e / geweorf>an aefte r w o r u l d r e ' (43-4) . Thi s terro r i s greater tha n an y i n the w o r l d an d Grein-Kôhler rightly render it s 'ofer|>rymm ' a s 'vi s n i m i a ' wher e ' n i m i u s ' means: ' b e y o n d measure , excessive , to o great , too m u c h . ' I t i s indeed no t simpl y 'great ' bu t supernatura l 'above power. ' The rea l extremit y o f nee d i s als o rightl y describe d b y ' ofernid, ' ' o f e r n e o d ' (noun ) i n th e tw o context s i n w h i ch this n o u n appears . I n the Pseudo Ecgbert Penitential, th e L a t i n abstract s Augustin e o f Can terbury's n i n t h questio n t o Pop e Gregor y th e Great , w h i c h i s als o re corded i n Bede' s Ecclesiastical History. Th e passag e concern s pollu tions o f th e m i n d w h i c h happen durin g slee p an d Gregor y decide s that b o t h celebrato r an d receive r o f mas s ar e guilt y i f such p o l l u t i on arises fro m gluttony . I f h e i s th e masspries t h e ma y celebrat e mass : ' q u o d sacerdo s aliu s i n l o co deest , ips a nécessitas c o n p e l l i t ' or: ' g i f hit oferneo d be o an d |>ae r o#er sacer d n e be o |>ae t |>a |>enung a for3 d o . ' Th e forc e o f th e L a t i n , 'necessit y c o m p e l s , ' i s reflected w h o l l y i n th e O E n o u n ' o f e r n e o d , ' an d th e situatio n wher e n o mas s w o u l d b e celebrated i f the p o l l u t e d pries t d i d no t ac t explain s tha t force . The w o r d ' oferneod ' i s similarl y use d i n a h o m i l e t i c piece o n car e to b e take n abou t baptizin g th e h e a t h e n . A s it says , n o m a n ha s th e 50

5 1

52

53

54

5 5

56

246 J . E . Cross

right t o baptiz e a heathen , i f he ha s ag e an d sense , u n t i l h e ca n lear n what baptis m mean s an d wha t tru e belie f i s and whe n h e k n o w s every thing i t signifies . One manuscrip t o f thi s tex t inserts : 'n e be o m a n f>aes fulluhtes t o hrae d buta n oferneo d geweoráe ' (no r ma y a m a n b e too hast y i n baptism excep t ' o f e r n e o d ' occur) , mos t likel y i n a cas e o f fast-approachin g deat h w h e n th e savin g of a sou l w o u ld overrid e precautions agains t backsliding. It seem s t o m e tha t th e forc e o f ' o f e r ' i n these tw o example s re flects it s meanin g a s simple x an d i s not happil y rendered b y N E 'ex treme ' althoug h ther e i s no othe r N E alternative . Britton's t h i r d example , ' o f e r h y g d ' w i t h it s well-atteste d an d nor mal meanin g 'arrogance , p r i d e ' w h i c h h e gives , doe s no t appea r t o support hi s cas e tha t ' o f e r m o d ' nee d no t mea n pride . B u t w e pres s doggedly o n an d not e tha t ther e ar e tw o recorde d example s o f th e w o r d w h i c h migh t hav e bee n cite d i n his support , b o t h i n A l f r e d i a n pieces. One , fo r w h i c h B T suggest s ' i n a goo d sense , honourabl e pride(?), hig h s p i r i t ' o c c u r s i n th e O E versio n o f Boethius' s Consolation: 57

' G i f 3 u n u gesaw e sumn e swiá e wisn e ma n jj e haefd e swiá e good a oferhyda an d waer e |>ea h swiá e ear m an d swiá e ungesaelig, hwaeáe r ¿u wold e ewe3a n £>ae t he waer e unwyrá e anwealde s an d weorá scipes.' 58

This statemen t howeve r i s based o n th e L a t i n : ' A t s i quern sapienti a praeditu m uideres , n u m posse s eu m ue l re uerentia ue l e a qu a es t praeditu s sapienti a n o n dignu m p u t a r e ? ' 59

Here Boethiu s i s indicating that w i s d o m is w o r t hy o f reverence , an d A l f r e d reinforce s thi s ide a b y addin g tha t i t i s irrespective o f a man' s c o n d i t i o n . I t i s difficul t t o b e certai n abou t ' o f e r h y d a ' becaus e o f th e general A l f r e d i a n adaptatio n o f th e L a t i n bu t on e c o u l d assum e tha t here ' oferhygd ' migh t b e take n i n terms o f it s origina l element s a s 'overthought,' 'superio r thought, ' perhap s synonymou s w i t h w i s d o m . I se e n o particula r reaso n w h y eve n goo d ' p r i d e ' shoul d be brough t i n here . The secon d exampl e appear s i n th e Alfredia n versio n of Augustine' s Soliloquies i n a passage w h i c h i s based o n th e L a t i n :

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247

jubeasque m e d u m ho c ipsu m corpu s ag o atqu e p o r t o , p u r u m , magnanimum , j u s t u m, prudentemqu e esse, 60

w h i c h A l f r e d modifies : and geclaens a m e 3 a hwile 3 e i c on |)iss e woruld e si, and ged o m e unmodign e (al. eadmodne) . Sil e m e ofered a (al. oferhyda ) d o m e gesceawisn e (al. gescadwisne ) an d rihtwisne an d fore|>ancfulne , an d fulfremdne. 61

B T S an d M r Carnicelli cal l attentio n t o th e L a t i n ' m a g n a n i m u m ' an d BTS suggest s a meaning ' m a g n a n i m i t y , h i g h - m i n d e d n e s s , ' t o w h i c h I have n o wis h t o object . We ma y conclud e tha t ' o f e r m o d ' an d it s relate d word s alway s refe r to th e si n of prid e i n the man y clea r context s wher e the y occu r (apar t from th e cas e i n Maldon w h i c h i s being tested) . B u t i n terms o f th e elements o f th e c o m p o u n d i t c o u l d mea n ' over-courage, ' w h i c h i m plies exces s an d presumabl y a flaw, bu t no t 'grea t courage . ' A s a par allel developmen t t o on e (fairly ) certai n usag e o f ' o f e r h y g d ' i t c o u l d possibly mea n ' m a g n a n i m i t y ' although ther e i s no evidenc e tha t any one eve r use d ' o f e r m o d ' o r relate d word s i n this w a y . Words, as w e suggested, ca n diverg e i n development o f meaning . A n d, of course , ' o f e r m o d ' mus t n o w b e place d back i n its immediat e contex t o f a ' l y t e g i a n , ' w h i c h , w i t h overwhelmin g p r o b a b i l i t y, is used ' i n a ba d sense,' an d o f th e poet' s advers e commen t o n B y r h t n o t h ' s a c t i o n . ' P r i d e ' o r 'over-courage ' appea r t o b e th e choice s fo r ' o f e r m o d . ' This exercis e m a i n l y i n semanti c analysi s has bee n presente d s o that thos e w h o stil l wis h t o sugges t tha t B y r h t n o t h was no t deceived , and tha t th e poe t presente d h i m no t onl y a s simila r t o ancien t heroe s but a s a w h o l ly admirabl e tacticia n shoul d realize th e ground s b o t h from th e p o e m an d fro m O E usag e o n w h i c h thei r cas e rests . If a reaso n i s needed w h y a poet shoul d write i n such term s empha sizing th e idea l l o y a l t y o f th e retainer s althoug h approvin g also o f th e heroism o f th e leader , bu t no t hi s tactica l ability, w e ma y offe r a speculation. I f th e p o e m , a s seem s l i k e l y , wa s w r i t t e n durin g th e reign o f E t h e l r e d ' U n r a e d , ' the k i n g w h o ' c o u l d neithe r giv e direction to hi s people no r h o l d hi s greater subject s firml y t o thei r a l l e g i a n c e , ' it c o u l d b e a n indictmen t b y i m p l i c a t i o n o f th e p o l i c y o f b u y i n g off the Dane s bu t als o agains t Englishme n w ho lacke d l o y a l ty t o thei r 62

6 3

64

248 J . E . Cross

leaders i n those times . This p o e m c o u l d b e p o l i t i c a l propagand a against thos e w h o m th e ca p fitted . I f so , ou r poe t w o u l d suppor t other an d mor e ope n critic s o f th e p o l i c y o f leaders an d th e actio n of som e followers , n o t a b l y th e anonymou s m o n k o f A b i n g d o n an d Archbishop Wulfstan. 65

NOTES 1 George Clark, 'The Battle

A Heroic P o e m , ' Speculum

of Maldon:

43 (1968) 52

2 See also valid comments on the lexicographers' difficulties in F . C . R o b i n s o n , 'Lexicography and Literary Criticism: A Caveat,' in Philological of Herbert

Dean Meritt,

3 An Anglo-Saxon

Essay s in

Honour

ed. J . L . Rosier (The Hague 1970), 99 ff.

Dictionary,

Supplement,

by T . N . Toller (Oxford 1931), s.v.

' l y t i g ' 1. Here and afterwards abbreviated as B T S . The Dictionary,

b y J . Bos-

worth and T . N . Toller (Oxford 1872), is abbreviated as B T . 4 The glosses were first printed by Zupitza but are now more conveniently avail­ able in Anglo-Saxon

and Old English

Vocabularies,

ed. T . Wright, second edition

ed. and coll. R . P . Wülcker ( L o n d o n 1884), I, col. 57 seq. T h e section references in Wülcker 's text are to the chapters of Proverbs, and m y references to Proverbs will identify the examples in Wright-Wülcker. 5 Wülcker, I, col. 55, note 1, dates the manuscript as ninth century but N . R . K e r , Catalogue

of Manuscripts

containing

Anglo-Saxon

(Oxford 1957), 268, regards

it as middle tenth century. 6 Obviously if he was in error no conclusions can be drawn about equivalence of O l d English and Latin. 7 Clark, 68 8 B T S , s.v. 'lot. ' T h e gloss is printed in A . S . Napier, Old English unpublished

Glosses,

chiefly

(Oxford 1900), 216, among other glosses to Prudentius's

Psycho-

machia in M S C o t t o n Cleopatra C.VIII. 9 Text and translation from Prudentius,

ed. and trans. H . J . T h o m s o n ( L o n d o n and

Cambridge, Mass. 1962), I, 324, 325 resp 10 K e r , 185 11 See the various examples in A Latin

Dictionary,

ed. C . T . Lewis and C . Short

(Oxford, 1955 impression), s.v. 'dolus.' 12 Clark, 68 13 King Alfred's

West-Saxon

Version

of Gregory's

Pastoral

Care, ed. H . Sweet,

E E T S O S 45, 50 (Oxford 1871, 1958 reprint), part I, 237 14 Regulae

Pastoralis

Liber,

III, xi (al. xxv), Migne, P L , vol. 76, col. 64

15 Lewis and Short, s.v. 'versipellis' B II

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249

16 'lytiglice,' 241.8, ' m i d lytelicum ladungum,' 245.21 and ' l o t , 243.24 1

17 P L 76, col. 64 18 Sweet, Pastoral

Care,

237

19 B T and BTS s.v. ' n i * ' 20 King Alfred's

Orosius,

ed. H . Sweet, E E T S O S 79 (Oxford 1883), part I, 112

21 A n expression used by the artillery to indicate firing into the area of the target, often when they cannot pinpoint it 22 See Lewis and Short, s.v.; only 'inducere* can mean 'mislead.' 23 B T gives three possibilities for unaccented ' b e ' as prefix which need testing against 'laedan' and 'lytegian': 1/ giving intensive signification to a transitive verb; 2/ giving a privative sense as in ' b e n i m a n , ' deprive, 'bereafian,' bereave, 'beheafdian,' behead; 3/ indicating no perceptible variation in sense. It is dif­ ficult to see how a privative sense could be applied to the verbs ' to lead, to se­ duce, trick' except by semantic sophistry. 24 B T s.v. ' l u t a n ' 25 In Sweet's edition o f the O E version of Cura pastoralis,

I, 203, there are five ex­

amples of 'lytegan' (adjective, noun) rendering or referring to 'sapientes m u n d i . ' In the Old English

Prudentius

Glosses

at Boulogne-sur-Mer,

ed. H . D .

Meritt

(Stanford 1959), 15, 'abered,' 'litig* glosses 'callidus' in Prudentius's cathemerinon,

Liber

lib. I l l , 1.41 'callidus inlaqueat volucres / aut pedicis dolus aut

maculis* (Cunning craft snares birds in gins or meshes). 26 'Oswald and Byrhtnoth, a Christian Saint and Hero Who Is Christian, ' Studies

English

46 (1965) 106-9

27 M . J . Swanton, ' T h e Battle o f M a l d o n : A Literary Caveat, * JEGP

67 (1968) 444,

has suggested that 'yrhào' means 'cowardice' here as it certainly does in some other contexts. 28 It is sometimes assumed that these men are untried warriors. W. A . Samouce, 'General B y r h t n o t h , 'JEGP

62 (1963) 132, says: ' H e was aware that some o f his

freemen had no experience in battle and that some d i d not even know how to use their shields. ' But note that every leader has to dispose his troops, and as to the holding of the shields B y r h t n o t h tells them not ' h o w ' but 'that.' I regard this last as an encouragement something like 'and steady, lads.* 29 See Two of the Saxon

Chronicles

Parallel,

ed. Charles Plummer and J o h n Earle

(Oxford 1889), II, notes, pages 84, 89, 90. T h e references for 872 and 876 are not in O l d English versions of the Chronicle

but are statements b y L a t i n writers.

As Plummer and Earle say (84): 'it is most unjust to make Ethelred II respon­ sible for this system as is very c o m m o n l y done. ' 30 Sermo

Lupi

ad Anglos,

ed. D . Whitelock ( L o n d o n 1939, 2nd ed. 1952), 45,

1.109: ' scandlice n y d g y l d ' 31 In 'Oswald and B y r h t n o t h , ' 103,1 suggested that': 'all the indications (from the

250 J . E . Cross English speeches) so far presented in the poem emphasise the identification of the English with Germanic heroes * and referred also to the minor details which created a Germanic atmosphere. This attempt at identification is reinforced b y the choice o f old phrases such as 'yrre and anraed' and 'unforcuaet mannum ofermod y s onscunung y s m i d gode ' where a L a t i n glossator has explained ' altum ' as ' i superbe. ' 45 See ' o f e r m o d ' (adjective), 'ofermede,' 'ofermettu' in B T , B T S . 46 Times

Literary

Supplement,

27 February 1953, 137

47 Clark, 69 48 Printed by O . Cockayne, Leechdoms, land ( L o n d o n 1866), III, 190 49 Britton, TLS, 137 50 Shippey, 28

Wortcunning

and Starcraft

of Early

Eng­

252 J . E . Cross 51

B T and B T S , s.v. 'ofer,' preposition and adverb

52 See the examples of 'ofer' in compounds recorded in B T , B T S . 53 Q u o t e d from The Exeter

Book,

ed. G . P . Krapp and E . V . K . Dobbie (New Y o r k

1936), A S P R 111,213 54 Sprachschatz

der Angelsachsischen

Dichter

von C . W . M . Grein, neu herausgegeben

J . J . Kôhler (Heidelberg 1912), s.v. 'ofert>rym' 55 Quotations of Latin and O l d English from Die Altenglische gar'schen

Bussbuches

(sog. Poenitentiale

version

des

Halit-

ed. J . Raith, Bibl. der

Pseudo-Ecgberti),

Angelsachsischen Prosa 13 (Hamburg 1933), L a t i n , 43, O l d English, 44 56 Printed in Wulfstan,

ed. A . Napier (Berlin 1883). T h e quotation is from 123,

among the variants at 1.25. 57 B T , s.v. 'oferhygd' 58 K i n g Alfred's Old English

version

of Boethius,

De Consolatione

Philosophiae,

ed. W . J . Sedgefield (Oxford 1899), 62 59 AniciiManlii

Severini

Christianorum 60 Soliloquiorum

BoethiiPhilosophiae

Series Latina LibriDuo,

61 T e x t from King Alfred's

Consolatio,

ed. L . Bieler,

Corpus

94 (Turnholti 1957), lib III, pr. iv, §6, p. 43

lib I, cap. i , §6, P L 32, col. 872 Version

of St Augustine's

Soliloquies,

ed. T . A . Carni-

celli (Cambridge, Mass. 1969), 56. Variants cited are taken from the extract in MS C o t t o n Tiberius A.III (Ker, 186 art 9g), printed by W. Logeman, ' AngloSaxonica M i n o r a , ' Anglia

12 (1889) 513. There is a ' c ' in the M S over ' o ' of

'oferhyda' which is taken as a sign to indicate shortness of the vowel (Logeman, 500, note 38). 62 Carnicelli, 56, note 7; B T S , s.v. 'oferhygd' II 63 Clark, 56, suggests a mid-eleventh-century date for the poem's composition as part of an argument against its historicity. F o r this he cites evidence from the language o f the poem in the transcript which we have. But the language in Elphinston's transcript of the burned and lost item from M S C o t t o n Otto A . X I I tells us about a West-Saxon copy of the poem only. This has a few 'eastern' fea­ tures which, if anything, suggest that there was a written exemplar for this copy in a non-West-Saxon dialect. Such a deduction negates Clark's comment (55) that: 'in the post-Magoun era it seems dangerous to assume that the story passed in one leap and unaltered from tenth-century Essex to eleventh-century Wessex.' But, more importantly, the West-Saxon copy gives no evidence either way o n the date of the original creation of the poem except as a terminus

post

quern.

The choice of the mid-eleventh century, however, seems curious in terms of the poem's content and the historical situation at that date. T h e poem has the Danes as an overbearing enemy who demand tribute. But b y 1050 E d w a r d the Confessor was king of England following three Danish kings in Cnut and his sons Harold and Harthacnut. During Edward's reign it might appear that if any for-

Mainly on Philology and the Interpretative Criticism of Maldon

253

eigner were to be the enemy to an Englishman it might be the Normans who were among Edward's favourites. A d m i t t e d l y the only known enemy who raided England was a force of Vikings in 1048 but as F . M . S tentón says England

(Anglo-Saxon

[2nd ed., O x f o r d 1 9 4 7 ] , 422) 'the episode . . . was of little importance

in itself. ' One robin does not make the k i n d of winter for English self-esteem that existed during Ethelred's reign, and Clark's illustrations, 58-9, for the de­ basement of the English during this period make his point that ' Byrhtnoth's patriotism, leadership and courage stand out brilliantly against this background' (59) more effectively to an audience who knew it from experience than to one which was 'looking back o n England's recent and unhappy past' (58). 64 Stenton, 389 65 Stenton, 388

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BRUCE MITCHELL

The 'fuglas scyne' of The Phoenix, line 591

583 Sw a nu aefte r deaá e fnir h dryhtne s mih t somod sif>iaj > sawl a m id lice , 585 faegr e gefraetwed , fugl e gelicast , in eadwelu m aejselu m stencum , JDaer se o sojsfaest e sunn e lihte á wlitig ofe r weoredu m i n wuldres byrig . D o n n e so^faestu m sawlu m seine d 590 hea h ofe r hrofa s haciend e Crist . H i m folgia á fugla s scyne , beorhte gebredade , blissu m hremige , i n j)a m glada n h a m , gaesta s gecorene , ece t o ealdre . t >aer h im yfl e n e m a e g 595 fa h feon d gema h faen e scef)f)an, ac £>aer lifgaá a leoht e werede , swa s e fuge l fenix , i n f r e o J D u dryhtnes , wlitige i n wuldre. (Phoenix) The word s 'fugla s s c y n e ' i n line 591 b o f thi s passag e hav e lon g cause d difficulty t o interpreter s o f The Phoenix. Ettmülle r suggeste d readin g 'fiárum scyne, ' E m e r s o n explaine d tha t th e phoeni x wa s Chris t an d that th e 'fugla s scyne, ' w h i c h h e equate d t o th e bird s w h i c h f o l l o w the p h o e n i x (se e 158-67) , wer e 'th e throng s o f blesse d soul s w h i c h follow th e L o r d , ' whil e D o b b ie note d tha t 'th e referenc e her e seem s to b e t o angels , bu t th e poe t ma y simpl y have becom e confuse d b y

256

Bruce Mitchell

his P h o e n i x - s y m b o l i s m . ' Blake accepts Emerson' s explanatio n o f lines 591-4 a bu t see s a 'shif t i n th e allegory, ' i n that i n line s 583-9 0 and agai n i n line s 594b- 8 Chris t i s represented b y th e su n an d th e phoenix betoken s th e blesse d w h o worshi p h i m , a s th e phoeni x wor ships th e su n (120-4 , 288 , an d elsewhere) . Thu s 'th e blesse d ar e some times compare d w i t h th e phoeni x an d sometime s w i t h th e bird s w h i c h follow th e p h o e n i x , ' an d ther e i s ' a certai n amoun t o f c o n f u s i o n ' an d ' a sligh t harshness.' Cross, however , i n rejecting thi s explanatio n alon g w i t h thos e o f Ettmüller an d D o b b i e , writes : 1

2

B u t ther e ma y b e a simple r explanatio n tha t credit s th e poe t w i t h better c o n t r o l . Throughou t th e anagogica l interpretatio n Chris t i s clearly th e su n an d th e P h o e n i x i s each goo d Christia n and al l goo d Christians. A s th e poe t says , peer lifgatb a leohte were de, / swa se fugel fénix 'the y [gee st as gee orene 'chose n spirits ' (593b) ] liv e there [i n heaven] , alway s clothe d i n light, lik e th e Phoeni x b i r d ' (596-97a) and , a s I hav e suggeste d above , th e righteou s appea r t o simulate on e featur e o f th e P h o e n i x ' beaut y i n se beorhta beag 'the brigh t r i n g ' (602a) , w h i c h adorn s eac h o f the m i n heaven . Since th e fuglas scyne ar e beorhte gebredade ' b r i g h t l y restored ' (592a), a ver b use d o f th e Phoeni x (372b ) t o describ e it s resurrec tion, fuglas mus t refe r t o th e Phoenix . I f th e tex t i s no t corrupt , i t seems t o m e tha t th e plura l fuglas ma y wel l hav e bee n w r i t t e n under th e grammatica l influenc e o f plura l sawlum ' s o u l s ' w i t h i n the precedin g lines. 3

I agre e w i t h Cros s tha t ther e i s no nee d t o accep t a shif t i n th e allegor y here. Late r o n (637 b ff ) Chris t i s indee d represente d — on th e typo logical o r allegorica l level — by th e phoenix . B u t i t i s unnecessary t o i m p o r t thi s paralle l here — on th e anagogica l level . It is , however, a nic e poin t whethe r a poet w h o make s th e gram matical erro r o f writin g a plura l when h e mean s t o writ e a singula r i s showing 'bette r c o n t r o l ' tha n on e w h o confuse s hi s allegory . More over, whil e th e last-ditc h desperatio n o f a ' c o r r u p t ' tex t o r th e n o t i o n of confusio n i n allegor y doe s offe r som e sor t o f solution , I doub t whether th e ide a tha t th e poe t accidentall y wrot e a plura l fo r a sin gular i n lin e 591 b solve s anythin g b e y o n d explainin g th e plura l ' f o lgia3' i n lin e 591a ; i t merel y postpone s th e proble m u n t i l we ge t t o 'gaestas gecorene ' (593) , w h i c h i s i n appositio n w i t h 'fugla s scyne '

The 'fuglas scyne' of The Phoenix,

line 591

257

and w o u l d therefor e presumabl y hav e t o b e rea d a s singula r too , re ferring t o on e singl e spiri t followin g Christ , a s th e phoeni x followe d the sun . C a n we reall y accept this ? I thin k not , fo r i t run s contrar y t o th e whol e logi c o f th e poet' s treatment o f th e allegor y on th e anagogica l level, w h i c h , followin g Cross (141-3) , I tak e a s runnin g fro m lin e 47 4 t o th e en d o f th e an them t o th e Fathe r / S o n a t lin e 63 1 an d perhap s t o lin e 63 3 o r lin e 6 3 7 a . Throughou t thi s section , th e blesse d i n Heaven ar e alway s re ferred t o o r though t o f i n th e plural , startin g w i t h ' h i m ' (474) — w h i c h refer s bac k t o th e nominativ e plura l 'Meotude s c e m p a n ' (471 ) — and endin g w i th th e ver b ' r e o r d i a a ' (632 ) o r 'singa d ' (635) . A pparent exception s fal l int o thre e groups . First, ther e ar e collectiv e nouns. 'Gaest a gedryht ' (615 ) an d 'sib gedryht' (618 ) ar e b o t h construe d firs t w i t h singula r verbs ('hergaéí ' and 'swinsao*' ) an d the n w i t h plura l verb s ('maersiaií , ' 'singad, ' an d 'bletsiaá'). I f w e includ e in this sectio n line s 632-7 a 4

Dus reordia á ryhtfremmend e manes amered e i n |>aere maeran byrig , c y n e j n y m cyjDaá, casere s lof singaá o n swegle , soáfaestr a gedryht , J>am anu m i s ec e weorámyn d for3 buta n ende , there i s also 'sodfaestr a g e d r y h t ' (635) . Th e us e o f plura l verb s throughout thi s passag e suggest s tha t th e collectiv e is in apposition w i t h ' r y h t f r e m m e n d e ' (632 ) an d doe s no t directl y govern an y o f th e verbs. Henc e I us e abov e Blake' s p u n c t u a t i on i n preference t o tha t i n Anglo-Saxon Poetic Records, III, w h i c h ha s a semi-colo n after ' b y r i g ' (633) an d n o c o m m a befor e 'soáfaestra ' (635) . Second, ther e ar e th e expression s i n w h i ch th e singula r o f a n indefinite p r o n o u n i s used w i t h th e genitiv e plural o f ' a n ' o r o f a n ad jective. I n fou r o f thes e th e referenc e i s to som e aspec t o f m o r t a l ma n as a n individua l i n this w o r l d , befor e deat h o r befor e th e Las t J u d gment: hi s lif e i n line 4 8 7 , 'ealdo r anr a gehwaes' ; hi s fea r i n lines 503-4 , 'Weor^eá anr a gehwyl c / forh t o n ferf)f>e' ; th e hea t h e w i l l fee l befor e the Las t J u d g m e nt i n lines 521-5 : Hat bii monegu m egeslic aeled , |)onn e anr a gehwylc,

258

Bruce Mitchell

soÜfaest g e synnig , sawe from moldgrafu m sece forhtafaered;

l m i d lice , á meotude s d o m ,

and hi s w o r k i n line 598 , ' w e o r c anr a gehwaes . ' I n th e remainin g thre e the referenc e i s to a rewar d w h i c h eac h individua l w i l l w i n in Heaven: a nobl e an d perpetuall y y o u n g b o d y i n lines 5 3 4 - 7 :

flaesce bifonge n fir aenlic o n d edgeong , s w i l l u m gewyrce á . . .

Swa bi 3 anr a gehwyl c a cynnes , e |> e hi s agnu m he r

and a radiant c r o w n , mentioned twice i n lines 6 0 2 - 7 : t>aer se beorht a beag , brogde n wundru m eorcnanstanum, eadigr a gehwa m hlifa3 ofe r heafde . Heafela n lixa 3 t>rymme bi{>eahte . Deodne s cynegol d soáfaestra gehwon e selli c glenge á leohte i n lif e . . . But eve n i n these th e genitiv e plura l emphasizes th e fac t tha t th e poe t is thinking , not jus t o f on e individua l w h o i s capable o f j o i n i ng th e blessed, bu t o f al l such individuals . Thi s is o f cours e als o i m p l i c i t i n the us e o f ' g e h w a ' an d ' g e h w y l c , ' to w h i c h (a s C a m p b e l l , Old English Grammar, §71 9 observes ) ' a genera l inclusiv e sense i s given . .. b y th e prefix ge-. ' T h i r d , ther e ar e tw o sentence s w i t h a gnomi c rin g i n w h i ch th e poet i s t h i n k i n g of th e individua l i n thi s w o r l d , o f th e h u m a n bein g who w i l l o r ca n w i n here th e rewar d o f th e righteous . Line s 4 8 2 - 5 : t>us eadig eor l eca n dreames , heofona hame s m i d heahcynin g earnaá o n elne , o{>f)ae t end e cyme á dogorrimes . . . and line s 5 1 6 - 7 : ' W e i bif> f)am |> e m o t / i n f)a geomran t i d god e licîan. The firs t t w o o f thes e thre e group s len d positiv e suppor t t o th e

T h e 'fuglas scyne ' of The Phoenix,

line 591

259

n o t i o n tha t th e poe t o f The Phoenix i s l i k e ly t o thin k o f al l blessed souls rathe r tha n o f on e individua l sou l when h e turn s hi s m i n d t o Christ i n Heaven followe d b y th e compan y o f blesse d ones , th e sol diers o f Chris t w ho hav e earne d thei r reward . Th e thir d grou p show s that, o n th e rar e occasion s w h e n h e use s th e singula r alon e (withou t a genitive plural ) i n th e anagogica l section , h e i s referring (quit e natural ly) t o a n individua l o n eart h w h o mus t w i n by hi s o w n deed s hi s shar e in th e collectiv e reward reserve d fo r th e soul s o f al l the blessed . The sam e distinctio n obtains i n th e othe r allegorica l sections. I n the typologica l or allegorica l (632 o r 637b-77) , al l the relevan t refer ences ar e i n the plural , an d al l are t o th e blesse d i n Heaven. I n th e moral o r tropologica l (381-473), w e hav e tw o singula r references , b o t h t o th e individua l i n thi s w o r l d . T h e firs t i s lines 381-6 , wher e w e are t o l d tha t 'eadigr a g e h w y l c ' w i ll w i n eternal lif e a s th e rewar d fo r his deeds . Th e secon d i s lines 451-65 , wher e w e hav e a catalogu e o f the deed s b y w h i c h a 'dryhtne s c e m p a ' o n thi s eart h w i l l w i n th e pro tection o f G o d . B ut significantl y this sam e expressio n i s used i n th e plural i n lines 470- 3 w h e n th e transitio n i s being made fro m th e m o r a l to th e anagogica l leve l an d th e poet' s interes t switche s fro m th e tem poral w o r l d t o th e heavenly , fro m th e individua l o n eart h t o th e com pany o f th e blesse d one s i n Heaven: Swa n u i n J)am w i c u m willa n fremma á mode o n d maegn e meotude s cempan , maeráa tilgaá; f)aes h im meord e wil e ece aelmihti g eadg e forgildan. The othe r relevan t reference s i n thi s sectio n ar e plura l ones, agai n t o the heavenl y host . A l l thi s accord s w i t h Cross' s contentio n (142-3 ) tha t 'throughou t the anagogica l interpretatio n Chris t is clearly the su n an d th e Phoeni x is eac h goo d Christia n and al l good Christians . ' B u t i t als o suggest s that hi s postulated singula r fo r 'fugla s s c y n e ' (591 ) w o u l d b e ou t o f place i n the contex t o f line s 5 8 3 - 9 8 . F o r , i f he wer e right , w e w o u l d not o n l y hav e t o tak e 'gaesta s gecorene ' (593 ) a s singula r (se e above) ; we w o u l d als o b e lef t w i t h o u t a plura l antecedent fo r ' h i m ' (594 ) an d a plura l subject fo r 'lifgaá ' (596) , an d s o (a s fa r a s I ca n se e i n th e ab sence o f an y explanatio n fro m Cross ) w o u ld b e force d t o exten d th e poet's erro r o f singula r fo r plura l to thes e lines . Cross's interpretatio n w o u l d the n leav e u s w i t h th e p h o e n i x ( = 'fugla s s c y n e ' an d th e subse -

260

Bruce Mitchell

quent plural s take n a s singulars ) bein g ' s w a s e fuge l f e n i x ' (597) . Thi s seems rather pointles s an d almos t a s confuse d a s th e explanation s i t attempts t o replace . If, however , w e f o l l o w th e poet' s argumen t i n line s 5 8 3 - 9 8 , w e find tha t i n line s 583- 8 an d agai n i n lines 594b- 8 h e compare s th e souls o f th e blesse d brigh t i n th e protection , th e glory , th e sunshine , of Chris t th e Su n t o th e p h o e n i x , '}>aer e sunnan |>egn ' (288) . Wha t happens i n th e intervenin g line s 589-94a ? I sugges t tha t Cros s i s righ t in t h i n k i n g 'that th e plura l fuglas ma y wel l hav e bee n w r i t t e n unde r the grammatica l influenc e o f th e plura l sawlum " s o u l s " w i t h i n th e preceding l i n e s ' (143) , bu t w r o n g i n i m p l y i n g tha t thi s wa s a mistak e b y th e poet . I t i s my feelin g tha t th e plura l 'fugla s s c y n e ' i s a n inte gral par t o f th e plura l sequenc e ' s a w l a ' (584 ) . . . 'soáfaestu m s a w l u m ' (589) . . . 'gasta s gecorene ' (593 ) . . . ' h i m ' (594 ) . . . 'Iifga3 ' (596 ) an d has th e sam e referen t — the blesse d soul s w h i c h follo w Christ . We w i l l , I believe , pay th e poe t th e c o m p l i m e n t h e deserve s i f w e credit h i m w i t h sayin g what h e mean t rathe r tha n i f we blam e h i m for a n erro r i n his allegor y o r a sli p i n his syntax . F o r i n 'fugla s scyne ' (591), th e comparison mad e i n 'fugl e gelicast ' (585 ) — w h i ch is take n up agai n i n ' s w a s e fuge l f e n i x ' (597 ) — gives wa y t o a fir m albei t momentary identification o f th e soul s o f th e blesse d followin g Chris t w i t h s o man y brigh t phoenixe s followin g th e sun . Thi s identification is th e c u l m i n a t i o n of on e o f th e image s w h i c h have bee n i n th e poet' s m i n d , an d i t ha s i n i t th e ver y essenc e o f poeti c kenning s lik e tha t i n Christ 8 5 8 - 6 3 : fca us hel p b i c w o m , f>aet us t o hael o hyf> e gelaedde , godes gaestsunu , o n d u s gief e seald e f>aet we oncnawa n magu n ofe r ceole s b o r d hwaer w e saela n sceolo n sundhengestas , ealde yámearas , ancru m faest e — unconscious perhap s an d incongruou s w h e n over-analyzed , bu t spon taneous an d poeticall y effectiv e whe n accepte d ' w i t h a gladsom e mind. ' We ca n i f we wis h accep t th e n o t i o n tha t th e poe t i s ' c o n f u s e d . ' If w e do , i t i s the ' c o n f u s i o n ' o f a poet's imagination , a sor t o f O ld English equivalen t o f th e ' j u m p i n g o f th e p o i n t s ' fro m on e lin e o f imagery t o anothe r see n i n the switc h fro m ' g u n ' t o ' d o g ' a t th e w o r d

T h e 'fuglas scyne' of The Phoenix,

line 591

261

' m u z z l e d ' i n The Winter's Tale I.ii.153-7: L o o k i n g o n th e line s O f m y boy' s face , methought s I d i d recoi l Twenty-three year s an d sa w mysel f unbreeche d In m y gree n velve t coat ; m y dagge r m u z z l e d Lest i t shoul d bit e it s master . POSTSCRIPT, APRIL

1972

I complete d th e origina l manuscrip t o f thi s articl e i n August 1971 . I n M a r c h 1972, 1 rea d i n A . A . Lee' s The Guest-Hall of Eden (Ne w Haven and L o n d o n 1972 ) th e followin g passag e (121) : ' . . . The Phoenix, where faithfu l an d heroi c soul s fro m middle-eart h com e a s perfume bearing phoenixe s t o shar e i n the dreama dream (658 , j oy o f joys) w i t h "th e bes t o f p r i n c e s " ( 6 2 1 ) . ' A l t h o u g h i t i s not clea r tha t th e phrase 'perfume-bearin g p h o e n i x e s ' i s a referenc e t o 'fugla s s c y n e ' (591), i t w o u l d see m possibl e tha t Le e has independentl y reache d a conclusion simila r t o min e abou t thi s expression .

NOTES 1 L . Ettmüller, Engla and Seaxna

Scôpas and Boceras

(Quedlinburg and Leipzig

1850), 276; O . F . Emerson, 'Originality in O l d English Poetry,* RES 2 (1926) 30; E . V . K . Dobbie, note to Phoenix

591 in Anglo-Saxon

Poetic

Records

(New

Y o r k 1936), III, 279 2 N . F . Blake, ed., The Phoenix

(Manchester 1964), 33 and 85

3 J . E . Cross, ' T h e Conception of the O l d English Phoenix Fifteen

Essays,

/ in Old English

Poetry:

ed. R . P . Creed (Providence, R . I . 1967), 142-3.1 acknowledge

gratefully my debt to M r Blake and Professor Cross. Without their work, this note w o u l d obviously never have been written. 4 Lines 632-3 (and perhaps 634-7a) seem to be used apo koinou,

pointing b o t h

back to the preceding speech and forward to lines 637b-54, which can be taken as 'represented speech'; see O . Jespersen, The Philosophy

of Grammar

(London

1924), 290-2, though C . W . Kennedy, in b o t h his prose and verse translations, put lines 636-54 in inverted commas. Examples of this sort are relevant to the problem of 'swa cwaeá ' in Wanderer derer

(London 1969), 30-6.

6 and 111 ; see Dunning and Bliss, The Wan­

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DOROTHY WHITELOCK

The list of chapter-headings in the Old English Bede

There ar e fiv e manuscript s o f th e O l d English translatio n o f Bede' s Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation: Bodleia n L i b r a r y , MS Tanner 10 , cite d a s T , o f th e firs t hal f o f th e tent h century ; Britis h M u s e u m , C o t t o n MS O t h o B . X I , cite d a s C , w r i t t e n i n a m i d tenth century han d t o th e en d o f b o o k V , w i th Bede' s accoun t o f hi s lif e and writing s added som e fift y year s later ; Corpu s Christ i College , O xford, MS 279 , par t i i , cite d a s O , o f th e earl y elevent h century ; Corpu s Christi College , Cambridge , MS 4 1 , cite d a s B, o f th e firs t hal f o f th e eleventh century ; an d Cambridg e University L i b r a r y , MS K k . 3.18 , cited a s C a , o f th e secon d hal f o f th e elevent h c e n t u r y . C wa s badl y damaged i n the C o t t o n i a n fire o f 1731 ; some folio s survived, an d the editor s W h e l o c k a n d S m i t h , w h o sa w thi s manuscrip t befor e the fire , suppl y som e varian t readings , w h i c h I cite a s CW an d CS respectively; ther e i s als o a transcript , excep t fo r wha t precede s chap ter 1 of b o o k I, made b y Laurenc e N o w e l l an d n o w Britis h M u s e u m, A d d i t i o n a l MS 4 3 7 0 3, w h i c h I cite a s C N . A l l manuscript s g o bac k o n a c o m m o n archetyp e w h i c h alread y had som e error s u n l i k e l y t o hav e bee n mad e b y th e translator. Thomas M i l l e r divide d th e fiv e manuscript s int o tw o groups , on e con sisting o f T and B , th e othe r o f C, O, an d C a . H e wa s p r o b a b l y righ t in regardin g C a a s a cop y o f O. W e can cal l hi s firs t grou p Y and hi s second grou p Z . The mos t strikin g differenc e betwee n thes e tw o postulate d bran ches i s that eac h ha s a completel y differen t treatmen t o f th e par t ex 1

2

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tending fro m th e las t fe w sentence s o f bk III. 16 (beginnin g ' Q uo tem pore reuerentissimu m antiste s A i d a n ' ) t o th e en d o f b k III.20. In Y , this sectio n is given complete , except fo r th e secon d par t o f b k III. 17 (from ' S c r i p s i a u t e m ' ) ; bu t Z omits b k III. 19 an d 20 , an d ha s th e rest o f thi s section , including th e par t o f bk III. 17 o m i t t e d b y Y , in a completely differen t translation . M i l l e r hel d tha t th e whol e sectio n was missin g fro m th e origina l translation, i n all manuscripts, an d tha t th e ga p wa s the n partl y fille d in later , independently , in the archetype s o f th e t w o branches . Thi s view ha s bee n dispute d b y S . P o t t e r an d b y J . J. C a m p b e l l , b o t h o f w h o m clai m tha t th e versio n in T and B is the w o r k o f th e origina l translator, an d tha t onl y tha t i n the Z branch wa s mad e b y som e other translator , t o fil l par t o f th e lacun a in its archetype . T h i s view , w i t h w h i c h I full y concur , is based o n th e clos e agreement i n vocabulary an d mannerism s betwee n th e versio n in Y and th e res t o f th e translator's w o r k . Y e t ther e i s a difficult y overlooke d by thes e scholars . B o th B and Ca hav e a lis t o f chapter-headings . Ca p III. 17-20 ar e o m i t t e d n o t o n l y from th e lis t i n Ca, a manuscript o f th e Z branch, where i t wa s a late r translator w h o fille d i n part o f th e missin g p o r t i o n , b ut als o fro m th e list i n B, whose version , o n th e vie w just o u t l i n e d , never lacke d thi s section, an d henc e shoul d have retaine d th e heading s fo r b k III. 17-20. This w o u l d appea r t o suppor t Miller' s vie w o f a lacuna in all manuscripts, fo r i t w o u l d b e a strang e coincidenc e if B's list accidentally o m i t t e d th e heading s o f precisel y the chapter s onc e missin g i n th e Z branch. We mus t therefor e se e i f the absenc e o f these heading s fro m B's list ca n b e accounte d fo r w i t h o u t ou r assumin g that th e sectio n wa s once lackin g fro m b o t h branches . I f w e can , thi s ma y hav e wide r i mplications tha n allowin g u s t o accep t th e versio n of b k III. 16-20 i n T and B as b y th e translato r o f th e res t o f th e w o r k . F o r we hav e bee n slow t o realiz e that, i f it is , M i l l e r 's m a i n argumen t fo r postulatin g a c o m m o n archetyp e fo r T and B vanishes; their agreement , agains t th e other manuscripts , i n their handlin g of thi s sectio n need mea n n o more tha n tha t eac h i s independently c o p y i n g th e origina l w o r k . While M i l l e r wa s clearl y righ t i n seeing that C, O, and Ca for m a group , his lis t o f agreement s i n error betwee n T and B i s not impressive, no r can mor e tha n a handful o f othe r instance s b e adde d t o it . T h us on e may doub t whethe r ther e eve r wa s a n archetyp e Y . 10

11

12

13

The ga p i n bk III.16-20, at whateve r stag e o f th e transmissio n it oc -

The List of Chapter-Headings in the O l d English Bede

265

curred, i s likely t o b e th e resul t o f accident , no t o f deliberat e omis sion, fo r ther e seem s n o conceivabl e reason w h y , i f the latter , i t should begi n i n th e middl e of chapte r 16 , thu s leavin g the accoun t o f a miracl e incomplete. T he missin g section c o u l d easil y have o c c u p i e d a gatherin g w h i c h ha s bee n lost . Th e lis t o f chapter-heading s ma y firs t have bee n draw n u p t o fi t a manuscrip t w h i c h ha d los t thi s section ; o r an existin g list ma y hav e bee n compare d w i t h th e tex t o f suc h a manu script, an d brough t i n t o agreemen t w i t h i t b y th e deletio n o f th e headings o f th e missin g chapters. Thi s fault y manuscrip t w o u l d hav e to b e a predecessor o f Z , no t Z itself, fo r th e thre e manuscripts , C , O , and Ca , w h i ch descen d fro m Z show tha t thi s ha d alread y inserte d into i t a ne w translatio n o f b k III.17 an d 1 8 , and ye t th e lis t ha s n o headings fo r thes e t w o chapters . There ar e tw o possibl e explanation s w h y B, w i t h n o lacun a i n it s text, shoul d yet o m i t ca p III. 17-20. The B scribe, or a predecessor , may hav e compare d it s lis t w i t h tha t o f a manuscript w h i c h o m i t t e d these headings, an d hav e delete d t h e m ; o r B may descen d fro m a manuscript w h i c h originall y lacke d a list , an d B or a predecesso r hav e made goo d thi s lac k b y c o p y i n g , fro m anothe r manuscript , a lis t w h i c h ha d bee n draw n u p fo r a fault y text , o r a t leas t ha d bee n brought int o lin e w i t h suc h a text . The p r o b l e m i s complicated by th e fac t tha t b o t h T an d O are i mperfect a t th e beginning , and hav e los t al l the preliminar y matter . Moreover, w h e n N o w e l l transcribe d C , he o m i t t e d everythin g befor e bk 1.1. N o ne o f th e preliminar y matter i n C survived the C o t t o n i a n fire. W e k n o w, however, tha t C had a list , fo r Wheloc k gav e varian t readings fro m it . We may gues s tha t O also onc e ha d one , fo r th e lis t in C a is in som e way s superio r t o tha t i n C , an d C a is s o faithfu l a copy o f O in th e res t o f th e manuscrip t tha t thi s i s likely t o b e it s source. B u t we hav e n o mean s whateve r o f k n o w i n g whether T eve r had a lis t o f chapters . Whereas i n L a t i n manuscript s o f Bed e th e capitula ar e place d befor e each o f th e fiv e books , th e O l d English versio n brings the m al l together, thoug h C a precedes the m w i t h th e rubri c ' I N C I P I U N T C A P I T ­ U L A L I B R I P R I M I . ' C a numbers the m accordin g to th e fiv e b o o k s , bu t B number s the m c o n s e c u t i v e l y . This ma y b e becaus e i n B there i s nothing t o distinguis h the beginnin g of a ne w b o o k . Y e t its lis t doe s preserve a t thei r prope r place s rubric s i n capitals, fo r example , ' H e r endiat J3 a capitul s [sic ] áaer e forma n bec . He r onginna t 3 a capitula s f)aere odr e bec . ' C a has similar , bu t briefe r rubrics , and Wheloc k show s 1 4

15

1 6

17

266

D o r o t h y Whitelock

that C had a t leas t som e o f t h e m . The lis t i s in a mor e origina l p o s i t i o n in Ca, wher e i t come s afte r Bede's preface , thoug h separate d fro m i t b y a West S a x o n genealog y and regna l lis t w h i c h i s not i n B e d e . A p a r t from thi s insertion , th e list o f chapter s occupie s th e sam e p o s i t i o n as tha t t o b o o k I in L a t i n manuscripts. B u t B has th e lis t righ t a t th e beginning , before Bede' s preface, an d th e firs t headin g ha s bee n altere d t o fi t th e ne w p o s i t i o n ; where Ca has : ' I . B e gesetnyss e Breoten e oáá e H i b e r n i a S c o t t a ea landes, ' B begins, w i t h o u t rubri c o r number , bu t w i t h a larg e i l l u m i n ated initia l an d a lin e o f ver y larg e capitals : ' B i s is se o gesettne s 34ss e Bryteñe oa m bysceop e Wilfriáe ' B gives the correc t sense, w h e n C a has ' f r a m ' fo r 'aefter . ' I n som e place s W h e l o c k ' s variants sho w tha t bette r reading s i n B wer e als o i n C : fo r example , fo r ' c l a u d o ' i n cap 1.21, B an d CW hav e ' h e a l t a n , ' C a ' h a l g a n '; ' i n t r a u e r i t ' in ca p 1.25 i s ' e o d e ' i n B an d C W , b u t o m i t t e d b y Ca ; and similarly , ' d e d e r i t ' i n cap III.24 i s 'sealde 7 f o r g e a f i n B an d C W , bu t o m i t t e d b y Ca . These error s i n Ca need no t g o an y furthe r bac k tha n th e scribe o f tha t manuscript . It w o u l d hav e bee n possible , chronologically, fo r B t o hav e copie d its lis t fro m C ; but i t d i d not, fo r i t avoide d C's errors. W e m ay not e the f o l l o w i n g renderings : ca p 1.21 'emendatis' : ' g e b e t u m ' B , 'gebet t u m ' Ca , ' g e b e d u m' C W ; ca p 111.22 ' C e d d o ' : ' C e d d e ' B, Ca , ' C e a d d a ' C W ; ca p IV. 1 ' B r i t t a n i a m ': ' t o B r y t e n e ' B , ' to B r e o t o n e ' Ca , ' t o R o m e ' C W ; an d ca p V . 5 ' o r a n d o ' : ' g e b i d d e n d e ' B, Ca , 'gelaedende ' 25

CW.

F o r ou r knowledg e o f C w e hav e t o depen d o n variant s cite d b y Whelock an d S m i t h . B o t h thes e editor s t o o k C a as th e basi s o f thei r text. Sinc e we posses s B , w e ca n se e tha t Wheloc k recorde d o n l y a small selectio n of it s variant readings , an d w e ma y therefor e wonde r h o w fa r h e n o t e d thos e i n C. B ut th e numbe r o f difference s betwee n B an d C a is s o grea t tha t h e c o u l d no t hav e i n c l u d e d them i n his mar gins, an d w o u l d hav e ha d t o giv e a larg e textua l apparatus , whereas , if th e relatio n between th e list s in C an d C a was simila r t o tha t be tween thes e manuscript s i n th e res t o f th e w o r k , variants i n C w o u l d be comparativel y few, an d h e ma y therefor e hav e n o t e d a bigger pro p o r t i o n o f them . S m i t h rarel y give s variants t o th e chapter-heading s (which h e place s a t th e hea d o f eac h chapter , no t i n a list) . On e can not safel y assum e tha t C agree d w i t h C a whenever n o varian t i s re corded b y thes e editors . This mus t b e born e i n m i nd w h e n on e examine s som e evidenc e

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w h i c h ma y sugges t tha t th e lis t i n B was fre e fro m certai n error s w h i c h ar e i n b o th C an d Ca , and w h i c h mus t g o bac k t o thei r c o m m o n source , Z . The instance s are : 1 Ca p III. 10, ' U t pului s l o c i illiu s contr a igne m ualuerit , ' i s trans lated i n B '|>ae t o n áaer e y l c an stow e m y l wiá fyr e wae s fremiende . ' Ca i s faulty : '}>ae t Jsaere y l c an stow e m i d fyre wae s freomigende' ; Whelock states : ' m y l B. Sed MS S Cantab . & C o t. deest.' S m i t h put s B's readin g i n his text , an d note s tha t C a reads ' m i d fyre. ' B has th e better reading , bu t i t i s not impossibl e that i t o r som e predecesso r made sens e ou t o f a corrup t headin g eithe r b y consultin g the chapte r in th e tex t (thoug h her e th e w o r d used i s ' m o l d e , ' c o m m o n else where i n the w o r k , whereas ' m y l ' is unique i n pre-Conquest texts) , or b y comparin g a L a t i n manuscript . 2 Ca p 1.19, ' Ut i d e m caus a infirmitati s i b i d em detentus . . . ' i s ren dered b y B '|>aet s e ile a bysseo p fo r áa n intinga n untrumnesse f)aer waes gehaefd. ' Instea d o f '£>ae r waes,' C a has th e meaningles s ' f e r i a , ' while C W ha s ' faeringa, ' w h i c h make s sens e but ha s n o suppor t fro m the L a t i n . A misreadin g of 'f>aer' a s 'faer ' seem s t o li e b e h i nd thes e corruptions. B's reading ma y w e l l b e original , thoug h th e expansio n o f th e participia l constructio n b y addin g 'waes ' c o u l d b e later . 3 T h e secon d par t o f ca p 11.16 'et d e qualitat e regn i E d u i n i ' i s given i n Ca as ' B e J>aere sibbe 7 stillnyss e Eadwines cyninges rices. ' Instead o f 'stillnesse, ' B has ' s m i l t n y s s e , ' a favourit e w o r d fo r 'seren ity ' i n th e O l d English Bede , l i k e l y t o b e th e origina l ter m here . Whe lock record s thi s varian t i n B , leavin g one t o suppos e tha t C agree d w i t h Ca . S m i th give s no varian t t o ' stillnesse. ' 4 I n ca p III. 15, B has correctl y ' s t o r m ' fo r 'tempestatem, ' w h e n Ca has ' s t r e a m . ' W h e l o c k records ' s t o r m ' fo r B, w i t h o u t m e n t i o n i n g C; S m i t h adopt s th e readin g ' storm ' i n his text , givin g th e varian t ' s t r e a m ' a s Ca . A g a i n, i t seem s i m p l i e d tha t C d i d n ot diffe r fro m Ca. T h o u g h th e evidenc e i s not ver y strong , i t l o o k s a s i f B t o o k it s list fro m a manuscrip t fre e fro m certai n error s i n C an d Ca , and henc e i n Z . There i s no difficult y i n ou r assumin g tha t B's list come s fro m a manuscript a t a n earlie r stag e tha n Z , for w e sa w abov e tha t it s lis t agrees w i th a tex t i n w h i ch th e lacun a i n bk III had no t bee n partl y fille d b y th e a d d i t i o n of b k III . 17 an d 18 , a s i t wa s i n Z. Before goin g further, i t i s necessary t o l o o k a t a fe w reading s i n Ca w h i c h a t firs t sigh t mak e i t appea r a s i f Ca is superio r t o b o t h C an d B , w h i c h w o u l d i m p l y tha t thes e t w o share d som e errors . Thes e reading s are: 2 6

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269

1 Ca p 1.14 begins: ' U t Brettone s fam e famos a coact i barbaros sui s e finibus pepulerint , ' w h i c h i s given in Ca as: 'Bae t Brytta s m i d J>y maer ran hungr e genedd e [> a elreordian o f heor a gemaeru m adrifan , ' an d i n B as : 'fcaett e Brytta s m i d pi mara n hunger e genyddo n |> a el|>iodia n of hira gemaeru m a d r i f o n . ' In B ' m a r a n ' i s a n error , 'el})iodian ' the sub stitution o f a mor e usua l w o r d fo r ' e l r e o r d i a n , ' and ' g e n y d d o n ' a fail ure t o recogniz e ' g e n y d d e ' a s a plural pas t participle . A ll thi s c o u l d be pu t d o w n t o change s mad e b y B i f it wer e no t fo r M i l l e r ' s clai m that ' n y d d o n |>a el|>eodian ' i s given by S m i t h a s a variant i n C. In fact , though S m i t h doe s hav e thi s variant , h e doe s no t assig n i t t o an y man uscript, an d i t i s possible tha t h e wa s slightl y misquotin g the readin g i n B. Y e t eve n i f C d i d have this , i t i s not b e y o n d possibilit y tha t tw o copyists c o u l d independentl y hav e replace d a n unfamilia r by a famil iar w o r d , and hav e mistake n a plura l participl e for a m a i n verb . 2 T h e secon d par t o f ca p 111.24, 'e t Osui u pr o adept a u i c t o r i a poss e s s i o n s e t territori a D eo a d construend a monasteri a dederit , ' ha s given m u c h trouble , an d b o t h B an d C a make independen t e r r o r s . T h e onl y par t o f th e headin g w h i c h concern s ou r presen t enquir y i s when C a translates ' a d construend a monasteria ' a s 'mynste r o n t o ge timbrianne, ' w h e n B has onl y ' to j)a m mynstr e ' an d Wheloc k give s this a s th e readin g o f C a s wel l a s o f B. C a is closer t o th e L a t i n , bu t the forc e o f thi s evidenc e i s diminshed w h en on e note s tha t th e pre vious headin g ha s th e phras e ' m y n s t e r o n t o t i m b r i a n n e , ' w h i c h C a may hav e repeated . 3 I n ca p IV.19 (21) , 'inte r E c f r i d u m e t A e d i l r e d u m reges ' i s given in B as ' b e t w e o x Ecgfer á 7 ^4LJ)elred j^a twegen ciningas , ' an d Whe lock record s 'twege n cyningas ' as C' s reading. C a has ' b e t w e o x E c ' g ' feráe 7 ^Eáelrede JDa m c y n i n g u m .' The dativ e cas e afte r ' b e t w e o x ' i s more c o m m o n tha n th e accusativ e i n late O l d English, an d C a may have o m i t t e d ' t w e g e n ' a s self-evident . The evidenc e o f th e lis t o f heading s i s therefor e inadequat e t o show C an d B sharin g errors agains t C a . W i t h n o list s fo r T an d O , and s o littl e evidenc e fo r C , textual cri teria ca n tak e u s n o further . W e can se e tha t B d i d not c o p y it s lis t from eithe r C o r Ca , and tha t i t probabl y c o p i e d a lis t a t a n earlie r stage tha n tha t i n Z. This doe s no t le t u s decid e whethe r B merely de leted th e headings , ca p III. 17-20, b y comparin g a manuscript o f th e Z type , o r whethe r i t o r a predecessor, originall y lackin g a list , sup plied on e fro m suc h a manuscript . B u t ther e i s another lin e o f approach : t o se e h o w th e lis t a s i t ha s come d o w n t o u s fit s th e division s of th e tex t i n th e variou s manu 27

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s c r i p t s . I n general , th e division s correspond t o thos e i n the L a t i n manuscripts, agreein g w i t h Tiberiu s C.II i n thre e ou t o f th e fou r places wher e i t differ s fro m othe r earl y L a t i n m a n u s c r i p t s ; i n on e place th e Englis h versio n has th e arrangemen t i n these. B u t i t some times omit s t o mar k th e beginnin g of a chapter , an d sometime s i t divides a chapte r int o sections. Thi s latte r proces s seem s t o hav e gone furthe r i n Z , th e archetyp e o f C , O , an d Ca , than i t ha d i n th e manuscripts l y i n g b e h i n d T an d B . When on e compare s th e O l d English lis t w i t h th e L a t i n , i t be comes clea r tha t th e p o s i t i o n changes afte r ca p 1.23. Up t o thi s p o i n t , the L a t i n i s f o l l o w e d closely ; heading s fo r b k 1.9, 10 , 17-2 2 ar e retained thoug h th e chapter s ar e o m i t t e d fro m th e t e x t ; s o als o is ca p 1.12, though i n the tex t thi s chapte r i s attached t o it s predeces sor w i t h n o sig n of a division ; an d n o ne w headin g i s supplied w h en i n bk 1.1 al l the manuscript s hav e a divisio n a t M . 2 6 . 2 7 . T h e O l d Eng lish lis t i s clearly not bein g compared w i t h th e stat e o f th e t e x t . Moreover, i n th e fe w place s wher e th e L a t i n headin g i s not translate d literally, ther e i s no sig n tha t th e chapte r i n the Englis h versio n ha s been consulted . T he a d d i t i o n in cap 1.1 of ' S c o t t a ealandes ' repre sents th e translator' s practic e throughou t th e w o r k ; w h e n, i n cap 1.5, ' U t Seueru s recepta m Brittania e partem uall o a cetera distinxerit , ' for ' a cetera ' on e get s 'fra m o3ru m unatemedo n f e o d u m , ' thi s i s translating ' a ceteri s i n d o m i t i s gentibus' i n th e L a t i n chapter , w h i c h is rendere d 'fra m oáru m elreordu m f e o d u m ' Ca , 'fram elreordigu m f e o d u m ' B; th e a d d i t i o n o f ' t o R o m e ' in th e headin g an d ' o n R o m e ' i n the tex t o f b k 1.13, in relation t o th e appea l t o A e t i u s , wa s a natura l assumption . O f greater interes t i s the alteratio n o f ca p 1.4, ' L u c i u s . . . C h r i s t i a n u m se fier i petierit. ' C a reads: 'bae d hin e cris tenne beo n 7 ea c abaed , ' an d B : 'bae d hin e |>ae t he cristendo m lufud e 7 ea c h e hi t abaed . ' Som e c o r r u p t i o n lie s b e h i nd b o t h reading s (per haps on e shoul d read 'geworhtn e b e o n ' fo r ' b e o n ' i n th e f o r m i n Ca), but 'bae d 7 ea c abaed ' seem s t o b e translatin g th e entr y o f thi s even t i n Bede' s chronologica l summary: ' u t Christianu s efficeretur, petii t et impetrauit . ' I f so , sinc e thi s summar y wa s o m i t t e d fro m th e O l d English version , the translato r o f th e lis t appear s t o hav e bee n familia r w i t h th e L a t i n w o r k a s a whole. 29

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A f t e r ca p 1.23 th e procedur e i s very different : th e lis t i s n o w brought int o lin e w i t h th e stat e o f th e O l d English text . W h e n thi s has o m i t t e d an y chapters , th e heading s t o the m ar e als o o m i t t e d , ex cept i n t wo place s wher e th e absenc e o f th e chapte r wa s no t obvious .

T h e List of Chapter-Headings in the O l d English Bede

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B k IV. 18 (20 ) i s o m i t t e d . I t contain s Bede' s p o e m o n S t ^ E t h e l t h r y t h, w h i c h i n severa l L a t i n manuscript s i s given a separate heading , ' H y mnus d e i l l a , ' wherea s i n Tiberius C.II thi s i s tacke d o n t o ca p IV. 17 (19) . The O l d English lis t end s thi s headin g w i t h ' 7 be }>a m hymene |> e w e be hir e geworhton , ' takin g its w o r d i n g from Bede' s word s i n t r o d u c i n g the p o e m i n th e chapte r w h i c h th e O l d English versio n omits: ' h y m n u m . . . i n laudem . . . eiusde m regina e . . . conposuimu s ' — another in dication tha t th e translato r o f th e lis t wa s familia r w i t h th e L a t i n text . The chang e fro m ' h y m n u m ' t o 'b e \>am h y m e n e' reveal s a n awarenes s that th e p o e m itsel f i s not i n c l u d e d ; but i t w o u l d o n l y b e b y readin g right throug h th e lon g chapter , b k IV. 17 (19) , tha t anyon e w o u l d dis cover tha t th e p o e m i s not eve n mentione d i n it; and s o th e referenc e i n th e headin g wa s allowe d to stand . The secon d headin g w h i c h i s retained althoug h th e chapte r i s omitted i s cap V . 1 5 . I n th e O l d English lis t thi s i s c o m b i n ed w i t h ca p V . 1 8 (both tex t an d heading s o f b k V . 1 6 an d 1 7 bein g o m i t t e d ) . T h e L a t i n headings are: ' X V . U t plurima e S c o t t o r u m ecclesia e instant e A d a m n a n o catholic u m pasch a susceperint , atqu e ide m l i b r u m d e loci s Sanctis scripserit. ' 'XVIII. U t Australe s Saxone s episcopo s acceperin t E a d b e r c h t u m e t E o l l a n , Occidentale s D a n i e l um et A l d h e l m u m ; e t d e scrip tis eius dem A l d h e l m i . ' Since ther e i s o n l y one chapte r i n the O l d English text (b k V . 1 5 bein g o m i t t e d ) , o n l y one headin g i s given, b ut i t combine s the two: 'Dae t monega cyricea n on H i b e r n i a laerendu m A t h a m n a n o [ A d e m a n o B ] J)a eallgeleaflican Eastran onfengon ; 7 b e E a l d e l m o se á a boc d e uir ginitate 7 eac o3r a maneg a geworhte ; g e eac |>aet Suáseaxan agenn e biscopas onfengo n E a d b y r h t 7 E o l l a n , 7 Weastseaxan o n f e n g o n D a n i e l u m 7 A l d e l m u m ; 7 be A l d e l m e s g e w r i t u m .' T he c o m p i l e r of this has seen that b k V . 1 8 contain s a n accoun t o f a conversio n to th e o r t h o d o x Easter , not m e n t i o n e d i n its heading ; h e has assume d that this i s what ca p V . 1 5 i s referring to , failin g t o notic e that b k V . 1 8 i s dealing w i t h A l d h e l m ' s conversio n of th e Britons , not w i t h A d a m n a n ' s of th e Irish . He the n replace s th e m e n t i o n o f A d a m n a n ' s b o o k b y on e of A l d h e l m ' s writings , taken fro m th e chapte r itself ; yet h e leave s i n the las t fou r word s w h i c h ar e n o w redundant . I t i s hard t o believ e that thi s clums y c o m b i n a t i o n o f heading s i s the w o r k o f th e translato r of Bede . A p a r t fro m thes e t w o specia l cases, th e heading s o f o m i t t e d chap 37

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ters ar e no t i n th e list . A n o t h e r sig n that th e lis t wa s compare d w i t h the tex t i s the omissio n of th e heading s o f chapter s w h i c h , thoug h they are , i n part o r i n full , i n th e text , ar e n o longe r obviou s ther e be cause o f th e wa y i t i s set out . Thu s ca p II.8 is o m i t t e d, fo r th e t w o sen tences o f th e chapte r w h i c h th e tex t retaine d ar e attache d t o b k II.7 w i t h o u t an y sig n of division . Ca p 11.12 is o m i t t e d, thoug h th e chapter , a lon g an d interestin g on e o n E d w i n ' s vision i n East A n g l i a , i s in th e text, bu t ther e i t follow s w i t h o u t an y brea k th e firs t sentenc e o f b k 11.10, w h en th e res t o f thi s chapter , an d al l of b k 11.11, hav e bee n o m i t t e d . Th e lis t give s ca p 11.10, thoug h al l that thi s n o w relate s t o i s the firs t sentenc e o f th e lon g undivide d section i n th e text . Thi s doe s not l o o k lik e th e translator' s o w n doing , for h e w o u l d surel y hav e re membered translatin g th e accoun t o f E d w i n ' s vision, an d w o u l d no t have delete d th e headin g w h i c h referre d t o it . Ca p 11.17 is o m i t t e d , since o n l y th e paragrap h precedin g th e lette r give n in th e L a t i n tex t has bee n retained , an d attache d w i t h o u t divisio n t o b k 11.16. B k III.2 is retaine d i n full , bu t no t divide d fro m b k III. 1 ; in thi s arrangemen t the O l d English tex t agree s w i t h Tiberiu s C.II, bu t thi s give s th e chap ter a separat e heading , o m i t t e d i n the O l d English list . A l s o , afte r ca p 1.23, many o f th e heading s hav e bee n expande d w i t h material take n fro m th e chapter ; fo r example , ca p 11.18 adds a refer ence t o th e deat h o f Justus an d th e consecratio n o f H o n o r i u s by Paul inus; ca p 11.20 adds tha t E d w i n wa s slai n b y Penda ; ca p 111.22 insert s from th e chapte r th e phras e ' m i d geornfulnysse Oswie s #aes cyninges'; and ca p 111.28 adds tha t W i l f r i d wa s consecrate d b y Bisho p ^Ethel b y r h t an d Ceadd a b y B i s h o p Wine . I n ca p IV. 16 (18 ) 'heahseangere ' is translatin g th e ' archicantator ' o f th e chapter , no t th e ' c a n t a t o r ' o f the heading , a w o r d w h i c h i s rendered ' cyricsangere ' an d 'sangere ' i n bk V.20. N e w heading s ar e usuall y supplie d where th e manuscript s o f th e O l d Englis h versio n have division s not i n the L a t i n manuscripts . B k 11.16 i s divide d i n al l manuscripts a t M . 144.21. Ca p 11.16 has bee n divided, an d th e secon d part , 'e t d e qualitat e regn i E d u i n i , ' replace d b y ' B e jjaere sibb e 7 stillnyss e [smiltnyss e B ] Eadwine s cyninge s r i c e s ' to f o r m a ne w heading . A l l manuscript s divid e bk IV.9 a t M . 2 9 0 . 5 , an d a ne w headin g wa s mad e fo r th e secon d section : 'Dae t Torhtgy á se o Godes f)eowe n áre o gea r aefte r áaer e hlaefdian fordfor e |> a get a o n lif e haes arwuráan biscopes o n 3on e forma n Easterdaeg ; 7 iy ylca n gear e foráferde Osri c Nordanhymbr a cyning. ' Th e origina l heading , ' Q u i sit in praesent i statu s gentis Angloru m ue l Brittania e totius, ' rendere d ' H w y l c s e staáo l is on andweardness e Angelcynne s |>eode ge ea c ealr e Breo tone, ' i s then lef t t o refe r t o th e secon d section , where, indeed , this topi c begins , A mor e complicate d case occurs i n bk IV. 12. This is divided i n all manuscripts a t M . 2 9 8 . 1 2 . I t i s again divide d a t M.298.27, bu t onl y i n CN, O , an d Ca , there being no brea k a t al l in T an d B. On e new head ing i s supplied: '-Dae t s e steorr a aetywd e s e i s cometa nemne d 7 fjre o monaá wae s wuniende, an d symbl e o n uhtatid wae s upyrnende. O n f)am ylca n gear e EcfriS * Noráanhymbra cynin g adraefde Wilfir á |)on e arwyráan biscop. ' Thi s relates onl y t o event s mentione d afte r th e second division , whic h i s in CN , O , an d C a only; event s i n the par t preceding thi s ar e adequatel y covere d by th e origina l headin g o f th e chapter. I t look s as i f the supplie r of th e ne w headin g ha d befor e him a text divide d a s i n th e Z branch o f manuscripts. I f so , he di d no t bother t o suppl y a heading fo r th e sectio n beginning in all manuscripts a t M . 2 9 8 . 1 2 ; i t wa s onl y a brief paragrap h befor e hi s manu script divide d again . There i s only on e othe r plac e wher e a divisio n occurrin g in all manuscripts was no t give n a new heading . Thi s is the fina l paragrap h o f bk IV.5, wher e a t M.280.6 al l manuscripts begi n a new section . B ut this occur s immediatel y after th e statute s o f th e syno d o f Hertford, and eac h statut e has bee n give n a separate paragraph i n B, O , an d Ca, so tha t i t wa s necessar y t o begi n a new paragrap h afte r th e las t stat ute. I t i s not surprising , therefore, tha t n o separat e heading wa s fel t necessary, especiall y when thi s paragrap h begin s w i t h a back refer ence t o th e syno d mentione d i n the headin g t o th e chapter . There ar e tw o places , however , wher e th e Z grou p o f manuscript s divides a chapter , an d ye t n o headin g i s supplied for th e ne w section . One i s at M.286.9 i n bk IV.8. Her e B has n o sig n of division , T begin s with ' E f t ' in small tinte d capitals , yet w i t h nothin g like it s norma l chapter d i v i s i o n , b u t CN, O , an d C a have a ful l division . I t w o u l d have bee n simpl e to mak e a heading fo r th e secon d sectio n by divi ding ca p IV.8 int o two , but thi s was no t done . Similarly , ca p V . 1 0 could hav e bee n divided , an d th e secon d par t the n use d t o describ e the sectio n of thi s chapte r whic h begin s i n CN , O , an d C a at M . 4 1 4 . 15, wher e T an d B have n o break . B u t no headin g i s supplied fo r 38

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this secon d section . We must assum e eithe r tha t whoeve r wa s bringing th e lis t int o lin e w i t h th e tex t wa s no t alway s consisten t i n hi s practice, o r tha t th e manuscrip t h e wa s usin g had n o clea r divisio n in thes e t w o places . A s we hav e seen , th e failur e t o suppl y heading s for th e t w o chapters , b k III. 17 an d 18 , w h i c h ha d bee n adde d i n Z to fil l th e lacuna , show s tha t hi s tex t wa s p r o b a b l y a predecesso r o f Z , an d thi s ma y no t hav e ha d thes e divisions . Cap 1.27-33 hav e bee n reserve d fo r separat e discussion . This par t gave particula r trouble , fo r Bed e include d many letter s w h i c h th e translator o m i t t e d , an d th e chapter s w h i c h containe d the m ar e re presented, i f at a l l , o n ly b y th e shor t i n t r o d u c t o r y remark s precedin g the letters . Th e O l d English Bed e remove d th e lon g tex t o f Augus tine's Interrogationes w i t h Gregory' s replies fro m b k 1.27 u n t i l afte r the en d o f b k I I I , but th e brie f paragrap h precedin g the m i n bk 1.27 was retaine d a t th e origina l place , an d ca p 1.27 i s also kept , fo r i t can refe r t o this . B k 1.28 bein g o m i t t e d , th e beginnin g of b k 1.29 i s attached t o wha t wa s kep t i n bk 1.27, w i t h o ut s o m u c h a s a capita l to mar k th e ne w chapter , a t M . 8 8 . 2 8 . Nevertheless , th e lis t retain s cap 1.29. T h is ca n b e accounte d fo r i f the manuscrip t use d wa s divi ded a s i n C N , O , an d C a , w h i c h begi n a new sectio n a t M . 9 0 . 4 , w i t h the las t sentenc e o f b k 1.29, beginning 'Send e h e ea c swylc e Agustine JDaem biscope p a l l i u m 7 gewrit' ; fo r i t c o u l d b e though t tha t ca p 1.29, 'fraet s e y lea pap a Gregoriu s sende A g u s t i n o p a l l i um 7 mara n fu l turn Godes w o r d t o laeranne, ' referre d t o th e par t afte r thi s d i v i s i o n . T and B have n o divisio n a t thi s p o i n t . B k 1.30 and 3 1 ar e o m i t t e d fro m b o t h th e tex t an d th e lis t o f chap ters. Par t o f b k 1.32 i s retained, an d i s divided fro m th e previou s chap ter (b k 1.29) a t M . 9 0 . 7 i n C N , O , an d C a ; ther e i s no divisio n her e i n T or B . A l l manuscript s star t a ne w chapte r w i t h b k 1.33. Cap 1.32 i s re tained, b u t attache d t o i t i s most o f ca p 1.33, '£>aette Agustinus Cristes cyrican geedniwod e 7 Se e Petre s mynste r getimbrade , ' correspondin g to th e L a t i n headin g excep t fo r th e omissio n of th e fina l words , et d e p r i m o eiu s abbat e Petro . ' T h e n , surprisingly , follow t w o furthe r head ings referrin g t o b k 1.33. T he firs t is : '-Dae t Agustinu s Cristes cyrica n geedniwode 7 worht e m i d f)aes cyninge s fultum e ^Láelbyrhtes' ; an d the second : '-Daett e Agustinu s |>aet mynster f)ar a apostól a Petru s 7 Paulus getimbrad e 7 be hi s |>a m aeresta n abbud e Petro . ' Thu s betwee n them the y repea t wha t ha s alread y bee n given , attached t o ca p 1.32, but w i t h som e expansio n take n fro m th e tex t o f th e chapter , an d w i t h the a d d i t i o n o f th e A b b o t Peter . Perhaps , w h e n thes e t w o heading s 39

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for b k 1.33 were added , i t wa s intende d t o delet e th e n o w redundan t part o f th e c o m b i n e d heading ca p 1.32 and 3 3 , an d thi s wa s forgotten . B u t thi s s u p p l y i n g of tw o heading s fo r b k 1.33 becomes comprehen sible w h e n on e note s tha t thi s chapte r i s divide d i n t o t w o , a t M . 9 0 . 1 8 , at ' S w e l c e eac mynste r getimbrade, ' tha t is , precisely where th e ac count o f th e foundin g o f th e monaster y o f S t Pete r an d S t Pau l begins . B u t thi s divisio n i s o n ly i n C N , O , an d Ca ; there i s no brea k a t al l in T and B. Ther e ca n b e littl e doub t tha t th e lis t o f heading s fit s a tex t se t out lik e tha t i n C N , O , an d C a better tha n tha t i n T o r B . We hav e n o t e d som e indication s that i t wa s no t l i k e l y t o hav e bee n the translato r o f th e w o r k w h o trie d t o mak e th e lis t c o n f o r m t o th e state o f th e t e x t . H e ca n b e show n t o hav e bee n a carefu l an d clear headed m a n , w h o mad e hi s selectio n fro m Bede' s w o r k w i t h remark able consistency , an d remembere d t o o m i t Bede' s cros s reference s t o passages w h i c h h e ha d o m i t t e d , an d t o ad d explanator y expansion s made necessar y b y hi s o m i s s i o n s . He w o u l d surel y hav e mad e a nea ter j ob o f fittin g th e chapter-lis t t o th e text . B u t thi s i s not t o sa y tha t h e d i d not himsel f translat e th e lis t o f headings. Whoeve r d i d, had th e sam e typ e o f L a t i n manuscrip t a s tha t used fo r th e res t o f th e w o r k , on e ver y lik e Tiberiu s C . I I ; b u t n o grea t weight ca n b e attache d t o thi s circumstance , fo r thi s typ e o f manu script wa s th e on e mos t availabl e in pre-Conquest E n g l a n d . Cap 1.4, cap 1.5, and ca p III. 18 (20 ) revea l knowledg e o f th e L a t i n w o r k , w h i c h the translato r o f Bed e certainl y k n e w w e l l . Th e styl e o f th e translatio n of th e lis t i s often over-literal , as i s m u ch o f th e w o r k . T he misunder standing o f ' c r e a t u s ' i n ca p 1.9 and o f ' c r e a t i ' i n cap 1.11 a s ' b o r n ' instead o f 'mad e ' i s foun d als o i n bk 1.8, where i t arise s fro m miscon struing th e L a t i n . ' H i e C o n s t a n t i n um f i l i u m e x c o n c u b i n a H e l e na creatum imperatore m G a l l i a r u m relinqui t ' i s translate d ' 7 Constantinus [sic ] hi s sun u |>a m goda n casere , s e wae s o f E l e n a |>a m wif e acen ned, hi s rice f o r l e t , ' w i t h ' c r e a t u m ' take n w i t h ' f i l i u m ' instea d o f w i t h ' i m p e r a t o r e m . ' S i m i l a r l y , 'Constantinu s i n B r i t t a n i a creatu s i m p e r a t o r ' become s 'Constantinu s s e caser e waer e o n Breoton e acenned. ' B u t th e m a i n tes t o f authorshi p i s the vocabulary . This agree s closel y w i t h tha t o f th e res t o f th e w o r k . T he lis t include s many o f th e translator's favourit e renderings , fo r example , ' b i g e n g a ' ( ' i n c o l a ' ) , ' f i r e n l u s t ' ( ' l u x u r i a ' ) , ' a d l' ('languor') , ' w o l ' ('pestilentia, pestis') , ' b l i n n a n ' ('cesso') , ' i n t i n g a ' ('causa'), 'wiáerweard ' ('adversarius') , ' d e o f o l s e o c ' ( ' d a e m o n i c u s ' ) , 'maegá ' ( ' p r o v i n c i a ' ) an d 'geornfulness ' ('instantia'). I t agree s w i t h th e usag e i n the tex t i n having ' h e r e t o g a ' 42

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276

D o r o t h y Whitelock

for ' d u x , ' a n d ' e a l d o r m a n' fo r ' t r i b u n u s' an d ' p r i m a s .' I n m a ny cases , the w o r d chose n i n the heading i s n ot in the chapter itself . T he follow ing rendering s ar e of special interest: ' g e ' h ' r o r a ' Ca ('gehrero' CW, 'geh r o r o ' B) for ' e x t e r m i n i um ' in cap 1.14 renders th e same L a t i n w o r d in bk IV.7, b u t is otherwise unrecorded ; ' e l r e o r d i a n ' Ca (replaced b y ' e l| ) i o d i a n ' i n B an d perhap s i n C ) fo r 'barbaros' i n cap 1.14 is the norm a l usag e o f the translator o f Bede, whereas othe r writer s use 'elf>eod i g ' ; ' t r y m m e [ n ] d l i c e ' Ca (replaced b y ' t r u m u m' i n B) for 'exhort a t o r i a ' i n cap 1.23 is a rare w o r d , n ot in the text o f this chapter , b u t used t o translat e th e same L a t i n w o r d in bk 11.17 (replaced b y ' t r u m l i c ' B, CW) a n d in bk V . 2 1 ; 'lefnysse ' Ca, fo r ' l i c e n t i a' i n cap 1.25, is very c o m m o n i n the O ld English Bede , b ut o n ly onc e recorde d else where, i n Alfred's laws ; B replaces i t in this headin g an d in most othe r occurrences b y 'leafa. ' The choic e of ' w a e s freomigende ' Ca ( ' w a e s fremiende' B) for ' u a l u e r i t' i n cap III. 10 agree s w i t h th e translation of the sam e ver b i n bk I V . 2 2 . O n th e other hand , ther e i s a handful o f words i n the list w h i c h ar e alien t o the translator's n o r m a l usage. Thu s i n cap II.4 ' o b s e r u a n d o ' i s translated 'healdnyssa, ' a n d this w o r d occur s als o i n cap V . 2 1 , where as i n the rest o f the w o rk word s meanin g 'observance ' ar e consistently translated 'gehaeld ' ( ' g e h y l d ' ) ; in cap 1.3 a nd cap II.9 ' i m p e r i u m ' is translated ' c y n e d o m e , ' bu t is always (excep t whe n i t means ' c o m m a n d ' ) ' r i c e ' in the text, a s it is in cap 1.6; in cap IV.26 ' f o n t e m ' appears a s 'easpring, ' but in the text alway s as ' w y l l g e s p r i n g' o r ' w y l l e ' ; in ca p V.7 'eadem beatoru m apostoloru m l i m i n a ' i s translated ' 3 a y lcan {)aerscwalda s J^ara eadigr a apostóla ' b ut in the five occurrence s of this phras e i n the text, ' l i m i n a ' i s rendered ' s t o w e , ' a n d '{>aerscwald' occurs o n l y fo r '(mortis) l i m i t e ' i n bk V.6 (M.398.23); in the sam e heading, B has ' e s t f u l' fo r ' d e v o t u s' (an d thi s mus t li e b e h i nd the error ' e f t ' in Ca), b ut though thi s i s a c o m m on renderin g i n othe r works, th e translator o f Bede alway s has ' w i l s u m ,' an d renders 'devo t i o ' a s ' w i l s u m n e s '; in cap V.23 'status' become s 'staáol, ' use d o n l y for ' f u n d a m e n t u m ' i n the text, w h i c h use s ' s t e a l l ' for 'status.' A nother w o r d not in the text i s 'rihtgeleafful,' used i n cap II.2 and cap IV.2 fo r ' c a t h o l i c a ,' a nd in cap V.22 for ' c a n o n i c u m .' This i s the norm a l w o r d Werferth use s for ' c a t h o l i c u s ,' but the O ld English Bed e has ' r i h t g e l y f e d ' (1 2 times), ' r i h t ' (1 0 times), ' e a l l i c ' (twice) , a nd 'rihtgesett, ' ' c i r i c l i c , ' a n d ' r e g o l l i c' onc e each . F i n a l l y , w e may not e tha t i n ca p III. 13 ' a mortis a r t i c u l o ' is over-literally translated ' f r a m deanes liáe' Ca ('fram dea^e ' B), bu t in bk 111.23 it is ' f r om JDaere tid e |>aes 4 6

47

The List of Chapter-Headings in the O l d English Bede

277

deanes,' whil e i n bk V.1 2 (M.432.2) ' i n ipso . . . morti s a r t i c u l o ' becomes ' i n áa seolfa n t i d heora deanes . ' The las t exampl e nee d mea n n o mor e tha n tha t th e translato r chos e to translat e mor e freel y a s hi s w o r k advanced . I t i s not eas y t o decid e h o w m u c h importanc e t o attac h t o th e othe r departure s fro m th e translator's n o r m a l practice. E v en fo r word s fo r w h i c h h e ha d a se t p r a c t i c e he occasionall y has a differen t rendering , fo r example , '|>eod' an d ' l a n d ' instea d o f 'maegá ' fo r ' p r o v i n c i a , ' 'getydnes, ' once , instead o f 'gelaeredness ' fo r ' e r u d i t i o , ' 'folgaá,' once , besid e '{jegnung ' for ' m i n i s t e r i u m , ' an d s o o n . It ma y b e possibl e t o ge t th e variation in d i c t i o n betwee n th e lis t an d th e res t o f th e w o r k ou t o f p r o p o r t i o n. Y e t i f one shoul d fee l tha t som e o f th e d i c t i o n i n th e list , suc h a s 'healdnes,' 'estful , ' an d 'rihtgeleafful, ' points t o a differen t perso n from th e translator , ma y no t a fe w change s hav e bee n mad e b y th e person w h o compare d th e lis t w i t h a manuscrip t o f th e text , w h o ap pears no t t o hav e bee n th e translato r h i m s e l f ? Eve n i f we wer e t o g o as fa r a s claimin g tha t th e whol e lis t wa s translate d b y someon e othe r than th e translator , nevertheles s th e amoun t o f agreemen t i n vocabulary w o u l d surel y i m p l y tha t thi s perso n ha d bee n traine d i n th e sam e school. After this , on e ca n o n l y speculate . I t w o u l d see m likel y tha t th e w o r k wa s provide d w i th a lis t o f chapter s a t th e plac e o f p r o d u c t i o n. The translatio n o f th e lis t ma y b e b y th e translato r o f th e w o r k . The fact tha t u p t o ca p 1.23 it include s headings fo r chapter s o m i t t e d fro m the w o r k ma y sugges t tha t h e mad e it , o r a t leas t bega n it , before h e had decide d what t o leav e out . H e ma y the n hav e entruste d th e tas k of addin g th e lis t t o hi s translatio n o f th e res t t o a p u p i l o r colleague , w h o d i d not a t onc e realiz e that som e chapter s ha d bee n o m i t t e d , and o n l y afte r ca p 1.23 began t o brin g lis t an d tex t int o agreement . The manuscrip t h e use d wa s on e w h i c h ha d mislai d a gathering , an d hence h e o m i t t e d th e heading s o f bk III. 17-20. Thi s amende d lis t ma y then hav e bee n c o p i e d into a manuscrip t w h i c h d i d not hav e th e la cuna i n bk III. Thi s theor y w o u l d i m p l y tha t a t leas t t w o manuscript s were p r o d u c e d a t th e plac e o f origin , on e complet e i n this respect , a s T an d B are , th e othe r w i t h th e sectio n i n bk III missing, a s i n the tex t behind C , O , an d Ca ; i n to thi s fault y versio n t wo o f th e missin g chap ters wer e inserte d later , b y a writer whose styl e an d d i c t i o n wer e ver y different fro m thos e o f th e translator , an d w h o wa s p r o b a b l y w o r k i n g elsewhere. B u t thi s c o u l d b e a n over-simplification . T h e origina l centr e m a y 4 8

49

50

278

D o r o t h y Whitelock

have produce d mor e tha n on e manuscrip t i n additio n to th e fault y o n e , and , i f so, T an d B c o u l d descen d fro m differen t manuscripts . T h e fault y manuscrip t ma y hav e bee n a c o p y o f th e manuscrip t fro m w h i c h B is descended. I t h r o w ou t thi s suggestio n becaus e B share s many agreement s i n erro r w i t h th e manuscript s o f th e Z group, thoug h it avoid s a number o f thei r misreadings . I calle d attentio n t o th e share d errors betwee n B an d manuscript s o f th e Z group i n 1 9 6 2 , bu t as a t tha t tim e I accepte d th e establishe d vie w o f a c o m m o n arche type fo r T an d B , I c o u l d o n l y e x p l a i n these error s i n B, w h i c h T avoids, a s th e resul t o f late r contamination . This ma y b e th e correc t e x p l a n a t i o n , but i t n o w seem s t o m e tha t th e whol e questio n re quires reconsideration . I t w o u l d , however , swel l thi s pape r t o inor dinate lengt h t o attemp t t o dea l w i t h thi s h e r e . There ma y b e othe r possibl e interpretation s o f th e peculiaritie s of the chapter-lis t o f th e O l d English Bede . It seem s w o r th whil e t o draw attentio n t o thes e peculiarities , for scholar s studyin g th e prac tices o f earl y scriptoria , especially in A n g l o - S a x on E n g l a n d , ma y find i t convenien t t o hav e th e fact s se t out . T h e y ma y b e abl e t o con firm o r refut e m y tentativ e interpretatio n o f thei r implications. 51

52

53

54

55

56

NOTES 1 I am indebted to Miss Janet Bately for reading and making useful comments on this article. In this paper, Bede's Historia

ecclesiastica

is referred to by b o o k and chapter,

e.g. bk 1.15, with the enumeration as in the edition b y Charles Plummer, abilis Baedae

Vener-

opera histórica (Oxford 1896). Chapter-headings are distinguished

from the chapters themselves by citing them as, e.g., cap 1.15 (with the numbers as in the L a t i n text). Miller's edition (see below), is cited as M , by page and line. A s 'Whitelock,' I refer to m y article, ' T h e O l d English Bede,' Proceedings British

Academy

of the

48 (1962) 57-90.

2 There are also three short extracts from bk I V . 5 , bk 1.27, and bk II.3, in British Museum, C o t t o n M S D o m i t i a n I X , f 11, in a hand of about 900. These were prin­ ted b y J . Z u p i t z a , in Zeitschrift

fur deutsches

Altertum

30 (1886) 185.

3 I.e. ff 1-38, some fragmentary; also some folios now bound up in O t h o B . X , as ff 55, 58, and 62. O n the correct order, see N . R . K e r , Catalogue containing 4

Historiae 1643 and

Anglo-Saxon ecclesiastical 1644)

of

Manuscripts

(Oxford 1957), 230. gentis

anglorum

libri v, ed. A b r a h a m Whelock (Cambridge

The List of Chapter-Headings in the O l d English Bede 5 Historiée eeclesiásticas gentis anglorum

279

libri quinqué, ed. J o h n Smith (Cambridge

1722) 6 O n this see R o b i n Flower, 'Laurence N o w e l l and the Discovery of E n g l a n d , ' P r o ceedings

of the British

Academy

21 (1935) 54. I use my own collation of this

transcript. 7 See Whitelock, 82, note 30. It is possible that these errors arose when the first fair copy was made from the translator's drafts. 8 O n xxiv-xxvi of part i of his edition, The Old English tical History

of the English

People,

Version

of Bede's

Ecclesias-

part i.I (1890), part i.2 (1891), part i i . l and

part ii.2 (1898) ( E E T S O S 95, 96, 110, and 111). He prints f r o m T where it is available, from other manuscripts where T has lacunae; in part ii he gives the variants in other manuscripts. Considering its length and complication, the work is remarkably accurate; yet it has a few errors, which I have corrected in m y quotations. T h e other modern edition, Konig chengeschichte,

Alfreds

Uebersetzung

von Bedas

Kir-

ed. J . Schipper, Bibliothek der angelsachsischen Prosa 4, (Leip-

zig 1899), which gives C a and B in parallel columns, and variants from other manucripts in footnotes, is far less reliable. T h e comparative merit of these editions is discussed in an unpublished doctoral dissertation in the University Library, Cambridge, b y R . J . S . Grant, ' M S . C . C . C . C . 41, with special regard to the B version of the O l d English B e d e ' (1970), 252-4 and 260. This work includes a detailed description of this manuscript. 9 A stemma of the current view of the manuscript relationships is set out in Whitelock, 81. 10 T h e omission of this part of bk III. 17, consisting of an account of A i d a n with a reference to his observing the wrong Easter, is in line with the translator's practice of omitting references to the Easter controversy unless they show the English church reforming the errors of the Celtic church. See Whitelock, 62-3. 1 1 S . Potter, On the Relation Alfred's

Translations,

of the Old English

Bede

to Werferth's

Gregory

and to

Mémoires de la Société royale des sciences de Bohème,

Classes des lettres (1930), 30-3 12 J . J . Campbell, ' T h e O E . Bede: B o o k III, Chapters 1 6 - 2 0 , ' M o d e m Notes

Language

67 (1952) 381-6

13 Miller, xxv. O n l y shared errors are admissible as evidence. T and B often agree in correct readings against the other manuscripts, but this can be attributed to errors made in the archetype of the Z branch. Several of Miller's examples are of a type that can easily arise b y independent error in T and B . 14 One can only speculate why the person who added a new translation of bk III. 17 and 18 d i d not supply one for bk III. 19 and 20. T h e former of these is a long chapter on Fursey's vision. H e might have shrunk from so great a task of translation, or have regarded it as an interruption in a historical work, or have poss-

280 D o r o t h y Whitelock essed it in a separate form; the second is only an account of episcopal succession in East Anglia and Canterbury. 15 It would not be easy to find out from B that these chapters were actually in the text, for B gives no indication where a new book begins, and does not number the chapters. B's exemplar may have shared these defects. 16 C a avoids the errors in C listed o n p. 267. 17 B gives no numbers to cap 1.1-4, which are on the first page; it then numbers from V to CXIII, with some errors. T h e rubricator d i d not complete his work, so that the last six headings have only a dash beside them, and no number. 18 Whelock gives variants from C for the rubrics at the end o f bks I, II, and III. If these were C's only differences from C a , C was closer to C a than to B , though it had 'aeftere' for 'o#er' after bk II, when B has 'aefteran,' and, like B , had *J>a capitulas' after bk III, which is not in C a . 19 This is only in C a , numbered as if it were a third paragraph of Bede's preface. It may once have been in O , but it was never in C ; see Whitelock, 60-1. 20 Blank spaces are left frequently for initial letters, and some initials are only sketched in in outline. 21 One can assume that if C had had headings for these chapters, Whelock would have noted it. 22

F o r further discussion see p p . 277-8.

23 O n this manuscript and its relation to others, see Plummer, I, Ixxxvi-cxxxii, es­ pecially xciii-xcviii; also Bede's

Ecclesiastical

History

of the English

People,

ed.

Bertram Colgrave and R . A . B . Mynors ( O x f o r d 1969), xxxix-xlvi. Mynors refers to the two main types as c-type and m-type. O n the use by the O l d English Bede of a c-type manuscript, see Whitelock, 86, note 123. 24 See Plummer, I, 247, note 1. 25 But C retained a better reading of cap V . 1 0 : 'socii eius Heuualdi sint martyrium passi. ' C W records 'heawaldas. ' Neither C a nor B has recognized this as a per­ sonal name, C a having: 'his geferan twegen healicne martyrdom waeron J>rowiende, * and B : 'his geferan twegen martiras d o m waeron f>rowiende. ' 26 A n o t h e r example w o u l d be 'foresaegde' for 'praedixerit* in cap III. 15, if Miller were correct in assigning this reading to B in his note, I, 14; but B reads 'saede,' as correctly given b y Miller in II, 7, agreeing with 'saegde* in C a . Miller gives 'fore­ saegde' as the reading in C S , but though Smith puts this form, in brackets, in his text, he does not assign it to any manuscript, and it may be that 'foresaegde' is his o w n emendation. Whelock puts an asterisk against ' saegde, ' but records no variant. 27 C a , which has, for 'pro adepta uictoria,' 'for 5am sige sealdan him for G o d e , ' must have taken 'sealdan' (dative singular o f the participle) as a finite verb, for it omits 'dederit.' B has 'for áam sealde h i m for Godes lufan,' omitting 'sige,' and

The List o f Chapter-Headings in the O l d English Bede

281

renders 'dederit' as 'sealde 7 forgeaf.' 'Possessiones' was probably rendered 'aehta miele': B has 'ehta miele,' but C a , taking 'aehta' as if 'eahta' ('eight'), has ' aehta mila '; ' twelf bocland ' for ' territoria ' comes from the text o f the chap­ ter. 28 In the rest of the work, however, there are a number of places where B and C N agree in an erroneous reading, when T , O , and C a are correct. T h e implication of this cannot be seen until we know whether O had access to another text, as well as Z ; see note 55. 29 A comparison o f Nowell's transcript with the surviving parts of C shows that he copied the chapter divisions of his exemplar carefully (even trying to reproduce the decorated initials), and we can therefore accept his evidence for the arrange­ ment of C . 30 Tiberius C.II has no division between bk H I . l and 2; it begins bk IV.2 at what is in other manuscripts the second sentence ('Mox peragrata . . . ' ) , attaching the first sentence to the previous chapter; and it omits bk I V . 14 and attaches bk I V . 15 to bk I V . 13, when the other manuscripts attach it to bk I V . 14. N o headings for bk I V . 14 and 15 are given in the L a t i n capitula, whether o f c-type or m-type, or in the O l d English list. 31 T h e y begin bk III. 13 at 'Nec solum inclyti fama,' when Tiberius C.II does not begin until 'Tempore, inquit, mortalitatis. ' 32 It differs also in attaching the first sentence of bk 1.25 to the preceding chapter (bk 1.23, since it omits bk 1.24), and commencing bk 1.25 at the second sen­ tence. T h e first sentence refers to the letter of Gregory in bk 1.23. 33 I quote the O l d English headings as in C a , unless B has a variant which affects the argument. 34 T h e y were certainly omitted from B , C N , and C a . T does not begin until near the end of bk 1.15, and O not until near the beginning of bk 1.25. 35 C a begins its chapter-numeration here, with I, having no number at the commence­ ment of the chapter. 36 T h e discrepancy between the list for bk I and the text gave trouble to the scribe of C a who supplied numbers to the chapters. When he numbers bk 1.8 as X I , Mil­ ler (42) says the numbering to the end of bk I is confused. This is unfair o n the scribe, who, having more headings than chapters, tried to allot the numbers to the chapters to which the headings referred. Bk 1.8 mentions Constantinus, but the heading does not; on the other hand, cap 1.11 mentions h i m , though the part of the chapter in which he occurs is omitted. T h e scribe therefore assumed that cap 1.11 was referring to bk 1.8. B k 1.9 and 10 being missing, he numbered bk 1.11 as X I I , but his text had no division where bk 1.12 begins, so he gave XIII to bk 1.13. He correctly j u m p e d from X V I to X X I I I when his text omits bk 1.17-22. H e made his chapter numbers agree with the list in bk II, by omitting V I and V I I ,

282 D o r o t h y Whitelock since C a has a lacuna covering most of bk II.6 and 7; he introduced each o f the two chapters bk III. 17 and 18, supplied in the Z branch, for which his list had no headings, merely by ' E f t o#er cwide,' without any number. O n l y in bks I V and V does he number his divisions straight through, getting slightly out o f line with the list o f headings. 37 B repeats ' E a d b y r h t ' at this point. 38 T normally begins a chapter with a decorated, tinted initial and a whole line of capitals. 39 F o r a possible reason for this, see Whitelock, 70. 40 This is obscured b y all the editors, because they remove the Interrogationes

back

to their position in the L a t i n text. T h e y therefore begin bk 1.29 as if the manuscripts marked it as a new chapter. 41

B has space for about six letters at the end of M . 8 8 . 3 0 , and begins the next line with ' I N , ' and C N also has ' I N , ' but in the middle of a line; but there is no division of any kind here in T , O , or C a .

42 See pp. 271-2. 43 See Whitelock, 61-2. 44 See p p . 266-7. 45 O n l y for the north of England is there evidence that a Latin text of the m-type was available. A s Sir Roger Mynors says he knows no evidence for this (xli, note 2 of the edition cited in note 23 above), it is as well to state that the northern recension o f the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (MSS D , E , and F) used a text of Bede which had the entries in the summary at 697 and 698 which are missing from c-type manuscripts; that the error in the preface to this recension, bringing the Britons 'of A r m e n i a , ' seems based on the error of m-type texts, 'armonicano ' for 'armoricano'; and that in annal 731 the chronicler dates the death of Archbishop Bryhtwold ' o n Id. Iañ.' agreeing with m-type texts, when the c-type reads 'die v i d u u m Ianuariarum. ' 46 See p. 269. 47 'efenbiscop,' in cap II.4 and b k V . 1 9 ( M . 460.13), is a w o r d not recorded elsewhere, but it seems so obvious a rendering of 'coepiscopus' that this may be accidental; yet Werferth has 'efenhadan j>aes biscopes' for 'coepiscopi.' A n o t h e r unique w o r d in the O l d English Bede is 'gewerian' in the sense 'make a treaty,* which translates 'iuncto . . . foedere' in cap 1.15 (altered to 'waredon' B) and 'inito . . . foedere' in b k 1.15. 48

'Arraniae uaesaniae' in cap 1.8 becomes 'Arrianiscan gedwolan.' In bk II.5 ( M . 110.32), b k III.l ( M . 154.9), and b k IV.17 ( M . 312.13) 'wedenheortnes'is used for 'vesania'; but only in the last of these places does it refer to heresy, and 'ged w o l a ' is c o m m o n l y used b y the translator for 'error.'

49 F o r many words he had no settled rendering: for example, he uses for 'dignus,'

The List of Chapter-Headings in the O l d English Bede

283

'gedefe(lic),' 'wyrde,' and 'meodume'; for 'negotium,' 'bigong,' 'scir,' 'intinga,' and 'wise'; for 'solerter,' 'geornlic,' 'geornful,' and 'behygdlic'; for his words for 'catholicus' see p. 276. 50 This person presumably composed the new headings, but as these were taken from the chapters, they naturally show no difference in usage. 51 We know that several contemporary copies of Alfred's Cura pastoralis

were pro­

duced. His verse preface says the work was sent 'south and n o r t h ' to his scribes, and that the copies were to be brought back for h i m to circulate to his bishops. British Museum, C o t t o n M S Tiberius B . X I seems to have been kept at head­ quarters, and Bodleian M S H a t t o n 20 has Alfred's prefaces on two leaves added at the beginning, the prose preface in the hand of Tiberius B . X I . See K . Sisam, Studies

in the History

of Old English

Literature

(Oxford 1953), 140-7. Alfred

needed many copies; but there is no evidence that a similar circulation o f the O l d English Bede was intended. 52 Theoretically, it could have been copied from the manuscript from which T de­ scends, but T does not share a number of errors with the Z group of manuscripts, as B does. 53 See Whitelock, 81, note 22. 54 It is the likely explanation of agreements between B and C a , when C a deserts its usual source, O . F o r these agreements tend to occur when the text is difficult, and a copyist might be led to consult another version. Thus at M . 278.18, T has an over-literal rendering of ' Q u o d si semel susceptus noluerit inuitatus redire' as ' G i f he aene sida onfongen, haten ham hweorfan, ne wille,' and this, with some spelling differences, is in C N and O ; but B expands to ' G i f he aene syj>e onfangen sy, hate hine man ham hweorfan, gif he ne wille, ' and C a agrees, except that it omits the first 'he,' has some difference in spelling, and ' n y l e ' for 'ne wille.' Moreover, the agreements tend to come in patches, as if C a was intermittently consulting a B-type text. F o r example, at M . 196.7 the rare word 'eondes' T ('endes,' C N , O) is 'hiwes' B , 'heowes' Ca; at M . 196.19, where T has 'eondes' and B 'hiwaes,' C N , O , and C a have 'endes,' but C a has 'hiwaes' written above it; and between these two cases, at M . 196.13, where T , C N , O , and C a have 'gebaetum, ' and B has 'geraedum, ' C a has 'raedum ' above '-baetum. ' Other in­ stances could be added. 55 A prerequisite for such an investigation is a detailed examination of the very numerous alterations made by the scribes in O , to see if they suggest that another text was available for comparison, in addition to the source which O shares with C . F o r if it were, it w o u l d be difficult to be sure, when C and O differ, which of them is representing their c o m m o n source. Some errors in C could come from that source, but have been corrected in O from another version. One should also note that Nowell's transcript of C proves that this d i d not have the lacuna in

284 D o r o t h y Whitelock bk II.5-7 ( M . 110.30-118.16), which is in O and C a . This means that O's exem­ plar, which had lost this part, cannot have been Z , but some intervening manu­ script between Z and O . 56 A n examination of the relationship between the chapter-lists and the text in other works o f Alfred's reign might repay investigation. Miss Janet Bately will consider the position in the O l d English Orosius

in her forthcoming edition.

It may be of interest to note that the list of headings before the laws of A l ­ fred and Ine was drawn up to fit the division into paragraphs as in the arche­ type of the surviving manuscripts (the oldest, Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, M S 173, from the m i d tenth century), although this division often runs clauses on different topics together in the same paragraph, and occasionally begins a new paragraph in the middle of a subject. A s the list of headings gives only one to each paragraph, usually referring only to the first part of it, many o f the im­ portant clauses in the laws have no headings in the list.

ROWLAND L. COLLINS PETER CLEMOES

The common origin of /Elfric fragments at New Haven, Oxford, Cambridge, and Bloomington In recen t years , seve n fragment s o f A n g l o - S a x o n parchmen t hav e com e to ligh t w h i c h, althoug h i n fou r widel y separate d place s today , wer e probably part s o f th e sam e manuscrip t originally . D a t e d b y thei r scrip t to th e beginnin g o f th e elevent h century , the y contai n portion s o f homilies an d live s of saint s b y ^ E l f r i c , whos e qualit y a s a writer o f lat e O l d Englis h pros e Professo r Pop e ha s don e s o m u c h t o elucidate . T h e kinship o f thes e fragment s establishe s tha t th e manuscrip t (o r jus t possibly manuscripts ) o f w h i c h the y wer e a part ha d importan t fea tures w h i c h n o othe r survivin g manuscript o f yElfric's w o r k s possesses . The fragment s are : 1 T H E NEW H A V E N FRAGMENTS

T w o strips , a an d & , w h i ch represen t adjacen t portion s o f th e sam e manuscript lea f an d w h i c h hav e bee n cu t verticall y from it s left-han d side; i n th e Marie-Louis e an d James M . O s b o r n C o l l e c t i o n , Y a l e Univer sity L i b r a r y , N e w Haven, C o n n e c t i c u t; contain part s o f th e h o m i l y fo r Palm Sunda y i n y£lfric's Firs t Serie s o f Catholic Homilies (The Homilies of the Anglo-Saxon Church ... the Sermones Catholici, or Homilies of ALlfric, ed . Benjami n T h o r pe [ 2 vols , L o n d o n 1844-6 , cite d hencefort h as T h o r p e ] , I x i v ). 2 THE OXFORD FRAGMENT

The uppe r two-third s o f a stri p cu t verticall y from th e left-han d sid e o f a leaf ; i n th e Bodleia n L i b r a r y , O x f o r d , th e shelfmar k bein g M S E n g . th .

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c. 74 ; contains par t o f th e en d o f th e h o m i l y fo r th e secon d Sunda y after Easte r i n ¿Elfric's Firs t Serie s o f Catholic Homilies (Thorp e I xvii) an d part s o f th e beginnin g of his h o m i l y De fide catholica fo r Wednesday i n Rogationtide in the sam e serie s (Thorp e I x x ). 3 THE CAMBRIDGE FRAGMENTS

T w o vertica l strips , a an d b; a has bee n cu t fro m th e m i d d l e of on e lea f and b fro m th e right-han d sid e o f another ; i n the librar y o f Queens ' College, Cambridge , the shelfmar k bein g M S H o m e 75 ; a contain s par t of ^Elfric' s lif e o f S t A p o l l o n a r i s (¿Elfric's Lives of Saints, ed . Walter W. Skeat , E E T S O S 76 , 82 , 94 , an d 11 4 [ 2 vols , L o n d o n 1 8 8 1 - 1 9 0 0 , repr. 1966 , cite d hencefort h a s S k e a t ] , x x i i ) , an d b contain s par t o f ^ . l f r i c ' s accoun t o f th e legendar y lette r o f Chris t t o Abgaru s w h i c h formed a supplemen t t o hi s brie f accoun t o f th e m a r t y r d o m o f kings A b d o n an d Senne s (Skea t xxiv ) an d par t o f th e beginnin g of ^Elfric' s summary o f Maccabees (Skea t x x v ). 4 THE BLOOMINGTON FRAGMENTS

T w o strips , a an d b, w h i c h represen t adjacen t portion s o f th e sam e lea f and w h i c h hav e bee n cu t verticall y fro m it s left-hand side ; n ow sew n together i n their origina l c o n t i g u i t y ; in the L i l l y L i b r a r y o f Indian a University, B l o o m i n g t o n , Indiana , th e shelfmar k bein g M S Pool e 10 ; contain par t o f th e en d o f ^ l f r i c 's lif e o f S t A p o l l o n a r i s (Skea t xxii ) and par t o f hi s accoun t o f th e m a r t y r d o m o f king s A b d on an d Sennes , just extendin g into th e beginnin g of his supplementar y accoun t o f Christ's lette r t o Abgaru s (Skeat x x i v ) . 1

T H E N E W H A V E N F R A G M E N T S ( S E E F I G U R E 1 A N D P L A T E 1)

Fragment a measures 25 5 m m verticall y an d 4 2 m m acros s an d frag ment b o n averag e 25 9 m m verticall y (varyin g from 25 2 m m t o 26 3 m m ) an d 4 3 m m acros s (taperin g somewha t toward s th e b o t t o m ) . The heigh t o f th e margi n survivin g a t th e foo t o f b o th th e rect o an d the vers o o f eac h fragmen t i s about 3 7 m m . T he ragge d left-han d edg e of a seem s t o b e th e resul t n o t o f a cu t bu t o f a tea r w h i c h separate d the lea f fro m it s conjugate . T h e inne r latera l margin thus preserve d o n the rect o o f a i s about 2 0 m m wide . The survivin g tex t begin s a t th e to p o f b recto , \ ..s t • We wyllaá n u fon . . . ' (Thorp e I, 206, lin e 21) , an d continues , w i t h gaps , t o lica á

^ l f r i c Fragments at New Haven, O x f o r d , Cambridge, and Bloomington

287

A c syááan ' (Thorp e I , 212 , lin e 8 ) a t th e foo t o f a verso . E a c h sid e o f a preserve s par t o f eac h o f twenty-seve n line s o f tex t and eac h sid e o f b par t o f eac h o f twenty-eigh t line s (an d descender s from anothe r lin e above) . T h e amoun t o f tex t missin g between th e las t line o f b rect o an d (ignorin g the descender s a t th e top ) th e firs t lin e of b vers o indicate s tha t fou r line s have bee n los t (apar t fro m th e descen ders o f th e fourth ) fro m th e to p o f b verso . Thus , th e origina l w r i t t e n space o n th e vers o o f th e lea f (and , therefore , b y n o r m a l practice , o n the recto , too ) consiste d o f thirty-tw o lines . O ur lin e numberings refe r to thes e origina l lines . The rule s fo r th e survivin g lines ar e usuall y 8 m m apart (o r slightl y more) , s o tha t w e ca n assum e tha t th e origina l heigh t of th e w r i t t e n space , measure d fro m th e top s o f letter s (bu t no t thei r ascenders) o n lin e 1 to th e rul e fo r lin e 32 , wa s slightl y ove r 25 0 m m . The fragments , cu t fro m th e left-han d sid e o f thei r leaf , preserv e th e beginnings o f line s o n thei r rect o an d th e end s o f line s o n thei r verso . The amoun t o f tex t missin g from eac h lin e indicate s tha t rathe r les s than hal f o f eac h lin e o f w r i t i n g ha s survived . The ruling s were mad e from th e vers o w h i c h i s th e hai r sid e o f th e parchment . A dee p stain , 5 o r 6 m m wide , runs d o w n th e ful l lengt h o f a recto , about 5 m m fro m th e right-han d edg e (tha t is , from th e cu t betwee n a and 6) . Ther e i s a simila r stai n runnin g d o w n th e lowe r three-eighth s of th e vers o o f b a t abou t th e sam e distanc e fro m th e cu t betwee n th e strips. A n o t h e r stain , presumabl y a n offse t fro m leather , appear s o n the uppe r left-han d corne r o f a recto . Th e lon g vertical stain o n a rect o is marke d b y a serie s o f holes : th e firs t o f thes e i s like a n elongate d tear an d run s fro m lin e 7 t o lin e 13 ; others ma r line s 14 , 19 , an d 25 , and ther e i s yet anothe r hol e i n th e stai n som e 1 1 m m belo w th e rul e for lin e 32 . Thre e hole s hav e als o damage d b: on e occur s betwee n line s 11 an d 12 , anothe r i n the middl e o f lin e 2 1 , an d anothe r acros s line s 29 an d 30 . T h e lowes t (an d largest ) hol e i n b i s i n th e middl e o f th e vertical stai n o n th e verso . Quit e clearly , from th e evidenc e o f th e stains an d th e holes , an d fro m th e dimension s o f th e fragments , thes e strips wer e use d i n a b o o k b i n d i n g . The shor t vertica l stain o n b verso , in c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h th e vertica l stain o n a recto , indicate s tha t th e tw o strips wer e use d overlappe d fo r a singl e j o i n i ng o f boar d t o b o o k : i f a verso wer e presse d o n t o b verso , s o a s t o allo w th e b o t t o m o f a rect o to com e betwee n line s 2 3 an d 2 4 o f b verso , th e stai n o n b vers o w o u l d continue th e l o n g stain o n a rect o an d th e hole s i n b betwee n line s 1 1 and 1 2 an d o n lin e 2 1 w o u l d fi t th e hole s i n a o n lin e 2 5 an d i n th e lower margin . T he stri p forme d i n thi s wa y w o u l d b e betwee n 34 7 an d

288

R o w l a n d Collins / Peter Clemoes

350 m m long . The t w o fragment s wer e f o u n d b y D r James M o l l o y attache d t o a binding boar d i n a pil e o f rubbis h in a lumber-room containing part o f the o l d presbytery librar y a t Winchester . R e m o v ed from th e board , they wer e sol d a t th e Sotheb y sal e o f 2 9 J u ly 196 5 a s lo t 57 6 an d wer e there purchase d b y Q u a r i t c h for th e O s b o r n C o l l e c t i o n .

T H E O X F O R D F R A G M E N T ( S E E F I G U R E 1 A N D P L A T E 2)

The averag e measurement s o f th e fragmen t ar e 21 3 m m verticall y (varying fro m 20 5 m m t o 21 9 m m ) an d 8 0 m m acros s (varyin g to 6 6 m m abov e th e h o r i z o n t a l tear a t th e b o t t o m ) . Th e heigh t o f th e margi n surviving a t th e to p o f b o th th e rect o an d th e vers o i s about 1 8 m m . The ragge d left-han d edg e o f th e fragmen t seem s t o b e th e resul t no t o f a cu t bu t o f a tea r separatin g th e lea f fro m it s conjugate . T h e w i d t h o f the inne r latera l margin thus preserve d i s about 2 5 m m o n b o t h th e recto an d (measure d fro m th e inne r b o u n d i n g line, se e below ) th e verso . The tex t o n th e firs t eleve n lines of th e recto , par t o f th e h o m i l y fo r the secon d Sunda y afte r Easte r i n ^ L l f r i c ' s Firs t Serie s o f Catholic Homi­ lies, begin s ' H e oncnaew á hi s faede r (Thorp e I, 2 4 2, lin e 31 ) an d continues, w i t h gaps , t o th e en d o f th e h o m i l y , ^ l f r i c ' s h o m i l y De fide catholica, fo r Wednesda y i n Rogationtide and fro m th e sam e series , begins o n th e nex t line ; n o rubri c is preserved, because, presumably , i t was o n th e n o w los t secon d hal f o f lin e 11 . T he tex t continues , w i t h gaps, t o ' . . . habbaá g e g e h y r e d ' (Thorp e I, 2 7 6, lin e 34 ) a t th e foo t o f the verso . E a c h sid e preserve s par t o f eac h o f twent y line s of tex t (wit h trace s o f a twenty-firs t o n th e recto) . Th e amoun t o f tex t missin g betwee n th e traces o f lin e 2 1 o n th e rect o an d th e firs t lin e o n th e vers o indicate s that originall y ther e wer e fiv e mor e line s on th e recto , tha t is , twenty six i n all . Th e rule s fo r th e survivin g line s are 9 t o 1 1 m m apart , s o tha t we ca n assum e tha t th e origina l heigh t o f th e w r i t t e n space , measure d from th e top s o f letter s (bu t no t thei r ascenders ) o n lin e 1 to th e rul e o f lin e 26 , was som e 25 0 m m . C ut fro m th e left-han d sid e o f it s leaf , the fragmen t preserve s th e beginning s of line s on it s rect o an d th e end s of line s on it s verso. The amoun t o f tex t missin g fro m eac h lin e indi cates tha t abou t two-fifth s o f eac h lin e o f writin g hav e survived . A l l rulings wer e mad e fro m th e rect o w h i c h i s the hai r side . T wo vertica l rules, 9 m m apart , b o u n d th e beginning s of line s on th e rect o an d sho w

^Clfric Fragments at New Haven, O x f o r d , Cambridge, and Bloomington

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through t o b o u n d th e end s o f line s o n th e verso ; th e h o r i z o n t a l line s t o u c h o n l y th e inne r o f thes e rules . The stri p o f w h i c h th e survivin g fragment wa s par t wa s use d i n th e binding o f a cop y o f th e Sermones o f Augustin e (Pari s 1520) , w h i c h is n o w Bodleia n L i b r a ry V e t . El b . 1 0 . Whil e th e stri p wa s thu s use d (wit h its to p toward s th e b o t t o m o f th e binding) , a pape r sheet , w h i c h wa s stuck o n t o th e lowe r boar d o f th e b i n d i n g , was presse d har d against , and probabl y lightl y paste d to , th e left-han d edg e o f th e rect o o f th e strip (tha t is , the right-han d edg e i n the upside-dow n p o s i t i o n o f th e strip i n the binding) . Over th e year s th e in k o n thi s edg e o f th e rect o was attracte d t o th e pape r an d i s stil l visibl e in reverse offse t o n th e paper pastedown . Th e firs t fe w letter s o f eac h o f line s 1 t o 2 0 ar e clearly visibl e on th e paper ; th e beginnin g o f lin e 2 1 , o f w h i c h o n l y traces surviv e o n th e parchment , i s clearer o n th e pape r tha n o n th e fragment itself ; a lette r o r tw o o f eac h o f line s 2 2 t o 2 5 , n o w totall y missing fro m th e fragment , ca n easil y b e rea d fro m th e pape r w i t h a mirror; an d smudge s o n th e pape r p r o b a b l y indicat e wher e th e twenty sixth lin e began . A l l legibl e readings i n the offse t ar e include d i n th e transcript o f th e tex t belo w (p . 307) . I n addition , th e genera l outline s o f the origina l strip ar e clearl y visible on th e paper , b o t h fro m th e stain s of past e an d moistur e an d fro m th e impressio n i t ha s left . A s a resul t w e can tel l tha t th e lengt h o f th e stri p wa s originall y between 29 0 m m an d 300 m m . O n th e vers o o f th e survivin g fragment ther e i s a dee p stai n d o w n it s full length , 2 t o 7 m m wide , se t 4 t o 9 m m fro m th e left-han d edg e an d often completel y hidin g the w r i t i n g . Several hole s ar e visibl e in thi s stain a t irregula r intervals , bu t thre e ca n b e identifie d a s hole s fo r th e threads w h i c h tie d th e b i n d i n g to th e b o o k . Startin g w i t h th e lowest , these thre e hole s correspon d i n p o s i t i on t o (startin g fro m th e to p o f the spine ) th e second , t h i r d , an d fourt h band s and , togethe r w i t h th e stain, sho w tha t th e stri p wa s place d betwee n th e lowe r boar d an d th e b o o k w i t h it s to p toward s th e b o t t o m o f th e b i n d i n g and w i t h it s vers o facing inward s an d it s rect o outwards , an d that , a t th e stain , i t wa s folded alon g th e spin e edge , w i t h th e large r par t o f th e stri p extendin g out alon g th e boar d itself . Th e pape r pastedow n covere d th e strip , touching directl y th e large r par t o f th e rect o w h i c h faced ou t fro m th e board. Th e irregula r tea r a t th e b o t t o m o f th e survivin g fragment (a t it s top, a s i t wa s place d i n the binding ) an d th e offse t o n th e pastedow n indicate tha t th e stri p wa s damage d a t som e tim e afte r i t becam e par t o f th e binding , that par t bein g los t tha t wa s o n a leve l w i t h th e firs t band. 2

3

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R o w l a n d Collins / Peter Clemoes

T h e lowe r b o a rd o f V e t . E l b.10 i s th e o n l y origina l on e t o survive ; it i s preserved separatel y fro m th e b o o k , w i t h th e res t o f th e origina l b i n d i n g an d w i t h anothe r leather-covere d boar d o f simila r age , a s B o d leian L i b r a r y V e t . E l b . l O ' X *. T h e origina l b i n d i n g can b e precisel y identified a s th e w o r k o f a L o n d o n binde r ' K . L . - L . K . ' i n th e secon d o r t h i r d decad e o f th e sixteent h century . Th e decorativ e motif s stampe d o n th e leathe r o f th e lowe r board, Oldham' s classifie d side-vie w continuous r o l l n o 6 an d Oldham' s classifie d ornamen t B ( l ) , a r e associate d exclusively w i t h th e w o r k o f thi s craftsman . T h e O x f o r d fragment , a s a part o f th e b i n d i n g of th e Augustine' s Sermones, wa s i n th e presbyter y librar y at Winchester . T he b u l k o f this librar y was sol d t o th e L o n d o n deale r Weinre b i n 196 6 an d fro m h i m thi s b o o k becam e par t o f Hodgson' s sal e n o 4 o f 1966-7 , 2 0 Janu ary 1967 , where , a s lo t 6 3 0 , i t wa s purchase d b y th e B o d l e i a n . 4

T H E C A M B R I D G E F R A G M E N T S ( S E E F I G U R E 1 A N D P L A T E 4)

E a c h fragmen t measure s 30 2 m m verticall y an d 6 5 t o 6 6 m m across . Th e height o f th e margin s survivin g a t th e to p an d b o t t o m o f eac h fragmen t is, a t th e t o p , abou t 1 2 m m o n a recto , 8 m m o n a verso , 1 3 m m o n b recto an d 6 m m o n b verso , and , a t th e b o t t o m , abou t 2 8 m m o n a an d 26 m m o n 6 . Th e ragge d right-han d edg e o f b seem s no t t o b e th e resul t of a cu t bu t t o represen t th e oute r edg e o f th e leaf . Th e oute r latera l margin thu s preserve d o n th e vers o o f b i s about 2 5 m m w i d e . The tex t o n a, par t o f ^ l f r i c 's lif e o f S t A p o l l o n a r i s , begin s ' • 7 |>a m halgan wer e . . . ' (Skea t x x i i , lin e 97 ) an d continues , w i t h gaps , t o "fi £> u forlaete f)ine ' (Skea t x x i i , lin e 213) . Th e tex t o n th e rect o an d first twenty-si x line s o f th e vers o o f 6 , par t o f ^Elfric's accoun t o f Christ's lette r t o Abgarus , begins ' . . . r i a n lande • 7 s e . . . ' (Skea t x x i v , line 83 ) an d continues , w i t h gaps , t o s e soá a gele... a o n J D . . . ' (Skeat x x i v , lin e 190) . T h e res t o f thi s ite m w o u l d n o t hav e require d more spac e tha n th e missin g part o f lin e 2 6 o n th e verso . yfLlfric's sum mary o f Maccabee s begin s o n th e nex t line . Par t o f it s rubri c i s preserve d o n lin e 2 7 an d th e text , w h i c h begin s o n lin e 28 , continues , w i t h gaps , to 7 afligd e £>on e c y n i n g ' (Skea t x x v , line 8) . E a c h sid e o f eac h fragmen t preserve s par t o f eac h o f th e t h i r t y - t w o lines tha t mad e u p th e origina l w r i t t e n space . Th e rule s fo r th e line s are 8 m m apart , an d th e heigh t o f th e w r i t t e n space , measure d fro m the top s o f letter s (bu t no t thei r ascenders ) o n lin e 1 to th e rul e o f lin e

c i t r i c Fragments at New Haven, O x f o r d , Cambridge, and Bloomington

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32, i s 255 m m . Fragmen t a, cu t fro m th e middl e o f it s leaf , preserve s the middle s o f lines . The amoun t o f tex t missin g from eac h lin e indi cates that abou t two-fifth s o f eac h lin e o f writin g hav e survived . Fragment 6 , cu t fro m th e right-han d sid e o f it s leaf , preserve s th e end s o f lines o n it s rect o an d th e beginning s o f line s on it s verso . T h e amoun t o f text missin g from eac h lin e indicate s tha t i n thi s cas e a quarter , o r rathe r less, o f eac h lin e of w r i t i n g ha s survived . In b o t h instance s th e ruling s were mad e fro m th e recto , w h i c h i s th e hai r side . E a c h fragmen t ha s a dee p stai n runnin g d o w n it s ful l length , o n a a t about 9 m m fro m th e right-han d edg e o f th e rect o an d o n b a t abou t 10 m m fro m th e left-han d edg e o f th e recto . I n eac h cas e th e stai n i s more p r o n o u n c e d o n th e verso , ofte n totall y obscurin g th e w r i t i n g i t covers; on th e rect o i t doe s no t hid e an y letters . Ther e is» a hole i n a between line s 2 2 an d 2 3 an d anothe r belo w lin e 3 2 ; ther e i s a simila r hole i n b betwee n line s 3 0 an d 3 1 . These stain s an d hole s doubtles s result fro m th e fragments ' us e a s bindin g strips: a stain , w e ca n assume , corresponds t o a fol d nex t t o th e spin e an d a hole correspond s t o a thread t y i n g the bindin g to th e b o o k . Further , th e uppe r lef t corne r o f b ha s bee n tor n away ; th e tear , sinc e i t extend s t o th e stain , m a y hav e been cause d b y pullin g ou t fro m a n attache d thread . The tw o fragment s wer e discovere d i n 195 3 b y D r N . R . K e r in th e binding o f a c o p y o f H e c t o r Boece' s Historia scotorum (Pari s 1527 ) i n the librar y o f Queens ' College , Cambridge . T h ey hav e bee n remove d from thi s bindin g and ar e describe d a s ite m n o 8 1 i n K e r 's Catalogue of Manuscripts containing Anglo-Saxon ( O x f o r d 1957) . A s Dr K er states, 'on e stri p wa s paste d a t eac h en d [o f th e b o o k ] alon g th e par t of th e boar d l y i n g neares t t o th e spin e an d beneat h th e pape r paste d o w n . ' H e identifie s th e blind-stampin g on th e leathe r b i n d i n g as O l d ham's classifie d side-view continuous r o l l n o 6 an d Oldham' s classified ornament B ( l ) . A S ha s alread y bee n p o i n t e d ou t (above , p . 290) , thi s particular c o m b i n a t i o n o f leathe r stamp s identifie s th e b i n d i n g as w o r k of th e L o n d o n binde r ' K . L . - L . K . V i n th e secon d o r t h i r d decad e o f th e sixteenth century . 5

T H E B L O O M I N G T O N F R A G M E N T S ( S E E F I G U R E 1 A N D P L A T E 3)

The t w o fragments , a an d b, sew n togethe r i n thei r origina l relation , measure 28 2 m m verticall y and hav e a c o m b i n e d averag e w i d t h o f 7 8 m m (varyin g from 7 6 m m t o 8 2 m m ) . T h e heigh t o f th e margin s sur -

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viving a t th e to p an d b o t t o m o f b o t h th e rect o an d th e vers o i s abou t 12 m m a t th e to p an d abou t 1 5 m m a t th e b o t t o m . T h e b o t t o m edg e seems not t o represen t th e edg e o f th e lea f b u t t o b e th e resul t o f a cut . The left-han d edg e o f a i s firml y turne d unde r fo r a w i d t h o f abou t 1 0 m m an d ther e ar e som e fragment s o f threa d i n the fold . A t firs t sight , the fla p thu s forme d appear s t o b e par t o f th e conjugat e leaf . B u t it s edge, sinc e i t i s not clea n cut , i s l i k e ly t o b e th e resul t o f a tea r sepa rating th e conjugates , an d th e fol d an d th e fragment s o f threa d mus t be presume d t o hav e ha d thei r origi n whil e a was use d i n a b o o k b i n d i n g, or, mor e p r o b a b l y , w h en th e fragment s wer e preserve d afte r bein g take n out o f th e binding . T h e w i d t h o f th e inne r latera l margi n thus survivin g on th e rect o o f a (fro m th e edg e o f th e flap t o th e beginnin g of th e w r i t t e n space ) i s about 2 3 m m . The tex t o n th e firs t twenty-tw o line s of th e rect o o f th e c o m b i n e d fragments, par t o f ^Elfric's lif e o f S t A p o l l o n a r i s , begin s ' g o d u m ge offrige . . . ' (Skea t x x i i , lin e 213 ) an d continues , w i t h gaps , t o m i d JDam aelmihtigan ' (Skeat x x i i , lin e 253) . T h e res t o f thi s ite m w o u l d no t have require d mor e spac e tha n th e n o w missin g part o f lin e 2 2 . ^Elfric' s account o f th e m a r t y r d o m o f king s A b d on an d Senne s begin s o n th e next line . Par t o f it s rubri c i s preserved o n lin e 2 3 an d th e text , w h i c h begins o n lin e 24 , continues , w i t h gaps , t o th e en d o f th e accoun t (Skea t x x i v , lin e 80 ) o n lin e 3 1 o f th e verso . ^Elfric's supplementar y accoun t of Christ' s letter t o Abgaru s begins o n th e nex t line , w h i c h i s the las t one o n th e verso . A n y rubric was i n the n o w missin g part o f thi s line , and th e survivin g tex t consist s o f onl y a fe w word s (Skea t x x i v , line s 81-2). E a c h sid e o f th e fragment s preserve s par t o f eac h o f th e thirty-tw o lines tha t mad e u p th e origina l w r i t t e n space . Th e rule s fo r th e line s are 8 m m apart , an d th e heigh t o f th e w r i t t e n space , measure d fro m the top s o f letter s (bu t no t thei r ascenders ) o n lin e 1 t o th e rul e o f lin e 32, i s 25 2 m m . C u t fro m th e left-han d sid e o f th e leaf , th e fragment s preserve th e beginning s o f line s on thei r rect o an d th e end s o f line s o n their verso . Th e amoun t o f tex t missin g from eac h lin e indicate s tha t rather les s tha n hal f o f eac h lin e o f w r i t i n g ha s survived . T he ruling s were mad e fro m th e recto , w h i c h i s the hai r side . There i s a dee p stain , varying in intensity, w h i c h run s almos t th e entire vertica l length o f th e vers o o f eac h fragment . Th e stains , w h i c h are paralle l to eac h other , ar e eac h 1 0 t o 1 1 m m fro m th e mende d cu t and presumabl y wer e cause d b y thei r separat e placemen t alon g th e spine edge s i n a b o o k b i n d i n g . Other , large r stain s alon g th e to p o f

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each vers o wer e p r o b a b l y acquire d throug h contac t w i t h th e paste down. The b o o k i n w h i ch thes e fragment s wer e use d a s b i n d i n g strips i s no t k n o w n , althoug h thei r histor y ca n b e trace d fo r ove r a hundre d years . A p e n c i l note i n th e b o t t o m margi n o f th e rect o indicates , rightly , that this half-lea f was par t o f l o t 111 1 i n th e L i b r i sal e o n 2 8 M a r c h 1859 . Sir Thoma s Phillip s evidentl y wa s th e purchaser , fo r i t wa s subsequentl y part o f l o t 2222 9 i n his collection . I n 1947 , throug h Messr s R o b i n s on of Pal l M a l l , M r George A . P o o l e, J r, o f Chicago , acquired a numbe r o f Phillips manuscripts , includin g these fragments , w h i c h h e planne d t o use i n an e x h i b i t i o n illustrating the growt h o f variou s style s o f printing. In 195 8 th e Pool e C o l l e c t i o n wa s acquire d b y th e L i l l y L i b r a r y an d th e fragments wer e firs t give n p u b l ic notice i n I 9 6 0 . 6

THE HANDWRITING A N D PUNCTUATION

The handwritin g o n al l the fragment s i s insular minuscul e — a small , carefully formed , relativel y plain, an d regula r hand . D r N . R . K e r as signed th e han d o f C t o th e beginnin g o f th e elevent h c e n t u r y an d described i t a s ' a rathe r smal l bu t goo d hand . ' T h e specifi c character istics w h i c h h e note d ar e tha t a i s square o r rounded , tha t hig h e liga tures ar e frequent , an d tha t lon g s is m u ch mor e c o m m o n tha n l o w s . He furthe r note d tha t th e titl e an d initia l o n Cb ar e i n metallic re d and tha t th e p u n c t u a t i o n i s by mid-lin e p o i nt o n l y . B o t h squar e an d rounde d a ar e presen t o n al l four set s of fragments , seemingly w i t h o u t pattern . N H show s squar e a i n th e ligatur e a e ('hac hen, ' r l l , an d 'cwaej*, ' r l 4 ), medially ( ' n a m a n ,' r30) , an d terminall y ('witega,' r l 4 ) , and rounde d a similarl y ('|>aes, ' r 3 0; ^ a m / r 6 ; an d '|>a ' and ' b e b [ o ] d a , ' r31) . B o t h form s appea r i n th e sam e w o r d : i n 'ge sceafta' (v6 ) th e firs t a i s square ; th e second , rounded . O likewise has square a i n th e ligatur e a e ('^aere, ' r2) , mediall y ( ' b u g a V r8) , an d ter minally ( ' l i e r a , ' r l 7 ), an d rounde d a correspondingl y ('|>aere, ' r 3, an d 'faeder,' v l 8 ; ' l a n d e ,' r 6 ; an d ' i u d e a , ' r6) . O n thi s fragment , too , b o t h forms ca n appea r i n the sam e w o r d : i n ' e a l r a ' ( r l O ) th e firs t a i s square ; the second , rounded . A singl e exampl e o f a larg e Carolin e a shoul d als o be note d ( r l 1). The sam e range o f use s o f b o t h squar e an d rounde d a i s to b e foun d o n C (squar e a : ' J D a e r r i h t e , ' a 1 9 ; ' s o ^ a n , ' 6 1 9 ; an d ' m u n d b o r a , ' û 2 ; r o u n d e d a : 'waeron, ' 0 4 ; '|>am, ' a l ; and ' s o n a ' an d ' s w a , ' a 3 ) . Her e agai n b o t h form s appea r i n the sam e w o r d: i n ' h a i g a ' (a 4) 7

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the firs t a i s r o u n d e d; th e second , square . O n B th e usag e i s th e sam e (square a : 'hraed, ' r 8 ; ' b e a r n u m , ' r2 , an d ' m i d d a n e a r d , ' ' l a c , ' an d ' o f f r i a n , ' r l 7 ; and ' h e o r a , ' r 2 7 ; rounde d a : 'betaehte, ' r 5 ; ' f o r j a n , ' r 8 ; and ' s w a , ' r l l ) . B o th form s appea r i n the sam e w o r d : i n 'racenteagum ' (r30) th e firs t a i s r o u n d e d; th e second , square . A singl e large Caroline a als o appear s (r8) . Ligature betwee n hig h e , w h i c h i s not i n th e c o m b i n a t i o n ae, an d a following lette r w h i c h doe s no t begi n w i t h a n ascende r i s frequent o n N H , C , an d B , especially w h en th e secon d lette r i s a, f , n , r , o r l o w s , but occur s o n l y fou r time s o n O (e a twic e an d e r twice) . There i s n o ligature betwee n hig h e an d c , p , o r w o n an y o f th e fragment s an d only t w o (ou t o f m a n y possibl e examples ) betwee n hig h e an d o ( B 7 and 10) . O n al l the fragment s th e ligatur e i s invariable between ae and f, g , n , r (twenty-on e examples) , l o w s or t ; ther e i s also on e exampl e of ligatur e betwee n ae and w . A l l thre e kind s o f s are visibl e o n eac h se t o f fragments ; namel y th e two insula r form s — the l o n g and th e l o w — and th e r o u n d f o r m . T h e long s dominates N H : i n th e firs t seventee n line s o f th e survivin g tex t s occurs twenty-on e times ; al l but t w o o f thes e ar e i n th e lon g f o r m , th e other t w o bein g l o w s' s (th e secon d s in 'assa, ' r 6 , an d th e secon d s in 'cristes, ' r21). R o u n d s can b e see n i n ' S e ' (r25) . Th e l o w for m d o m i nates O : o n th e rect o al l examples o f s are o f thi s for m excep t th e l o n g s's i n ' s t e m n e ' (5 ) an d th e secon d ' s w a ' (20 ) an d th e r o u n d s' s a t 10 , 11, 18 , an d 2 1 . As K er states, l o n g s dominates C . I n th e firs t fiftee n lines o f th e rect o o f B al l forms o f s are l o n g sav e five : ther e ar e thre e examples o f l o w s (the secon d s in '{rises, ' 9, th e secon d i n ' e h t n y s s a , ' 14, an d th e secon d i n 'ehtnysse , ' 15 ) an d t w o example s o f r o u n d s (25) . D o u b l e s is regularly w r i t t en a s hig h s f o l l o w ed b y l o w s on N H , C, an d B (onl y thre e exceptions) ; o f th e tw o example s o n O on e ( r l l ) consist s of t w o r o u n d s' s an d th e othe r ( v l 2 ) o f hig h s f o l l o w ed b y r o u n d s . The crossin g of Í o n al l the fragment s i s don e b y a ligh t curve d flourish, endin g rathe r hig h w i t h a n increase d heavines s i n the lin e v

( N H 5 , 8 , 11 , 17 , etc ; O l , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , etc ; C a l , 2 , 5 , an d 6 ; an d B 3 , 4 , V

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5, 6 , etc) . The y i s regularl y d o t t e d o n al l the fragments . O n N H , C , an d B th e form o f y curve s gracefully , but decidedly , to th e lef t an d u p , endin g i n a thickenin g of th e line . O n O , however , thi s flourish i s nowher e shown. A l l example s o f y en d w i t h a straigh t taperin g line . There i s no enlarge d initia l o r titl e o n N H , bu t eac h o f O , C , an d B has a n initia l and , i n t w o cases , a titl e i n metallic red (se e O 1 2 ; c 6 2 7 - 8 ; r

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and B 2 3 - 4 ) . I n th e o n l y t w o case s i n w h i ch a capita l a t th e beginnin g of a sentenc e coincide s w i th th e beginnin g o f a lin e ( O l an d 9 ) th e capital i s placed outsid e th e inne r vertica l ruled line . Whe n n occur s a t the en d o f a lin e i t i s regularly w r i t t e n i n R o m a n capita l for m i f som e space need s t o b e fille d ( N H 9 an d 32 , B 1 3 and 16 , an d C & 9 ) . Wher e L a t i n occur s i n th e tex t ( c 6 1 2 - 1 7 ) th e scrip t i s th e sam e a s tha t use d for English . Abbreviations ar e rar e o n al l the fragments , excep t fo r th e crosse d f) w h i c h i s regularly use d fo r 'JDaet . ' T h e fe w othe r abbreviation s ar e apparently w i t h o u t patter n ( N H , none; O , ' h e o f o n ü , ' v 3 ; C , ' | ) o ñ , ' a 7, 'Scriptü,' b 12 , an d ' K l s , ' 6 2 7 ; an d B , ' K l s ,' r23) . Th e insula r amper sand i s regularly used o n al l the fragments , b o t h w h e n ' a n d ' i s a separat e w o r d an d w h e n i t i s a syllabl e ( ' 7 w y r d ,' Ca 6). T h e w o r d ' a n d ' i s spelled out onl y onc e ( O l l ) . P u n c t u a t i o n i s generall y b y mid-lin e p o i nt o n al l the fragments . O and C hav e n o othe r typ e o f p u n c t u a t i o n mark , an d B has onl y on e deviant : a ' s e m i - c o l o n ' at r 3 1 , th e ' c o m m a ' par t o f w h i c h ma y ver y w e l l hav e been adde d later . N H a t firs t glanc e show s a greater variety . T h e mid-line p o i n t i s stil l b y fa r th e dominan t mar k o f p u n c t u a t i o n , a s o n th e othe r fragments, bu t ther e ar e fou r ' s e m i - c o l o n s ' (r5 , 7 , 13 , an d 14) , a ' c o m m a ' ( v l O ) , an d thirtee n example s o f th e punctu s elevatu s (r7 , 8 , 9, 11 , 13 , 2 1 , an d 26 , an d v8 , 16 , 17 , 2 1 , 27 , an d 29) . A l l th e ' c o m m a s ' i n th e 'semi-colons, ' the on e ' c o m m a ' o n it s o w n , an d th e uppe r mar k i n al l the example s o f th e punctu s elevatu s can , however , b e assume d not t o b e original , fo r i n eac h cas e thes e mark s ar e c r o w d e d , o r ou t o f line, o r weak , eve n thoug h thei r in k sometime s look s n o differen t fro m that use d i n th e text . Th e t w o ' c o m m a s ' i n th e ' s e m i - c o l o n s ' a t r 5 an d 7 see m gracefu l an d confident , ver y lik e th e on e i n th e ' s e m i - c o l o n ' a t B 31. Original accent s ar e absen t o r rar e o n al l the fragment s (example s a t N H 1 7 an d 3 1 ; Ca 18 an d 19 , an d v l 7 ; and B 1 7 , 19, an d 32 , an d v6) ; there i s n o origina l accen t o n O o r Cb. Th e sam e k i n d o f strok e i s use d i n th e origina l accent s a s i n th e á (se e above) . A t N H 2 4 a substantia l erro r ha s bee n correcte d b y erasin g a w o r d (o r words) o n th e lin e an d w r i t i n g ' l a r e o w a ' above , i n slightl y smalle r script. A t O 1 7 there i s a simila r c o r r e c t i o n ; here th e word s 'áing a ge sewen' ar e w r i t t e n abov e (no t across ) a n erasure , i n scrip t slightl y smalle r than th e p r i n c i p a l hand , presumabl y t o kee p th e correctio n t o th e length o f th e erasure . I n b o t h case s th e correctin g hand i s identical in style t o th e m a i n hand . Thu s b o t h fragment s sho w textua l correction s r

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entered i n the sam e manne r (tha t is , above, no t superimpose d u p o n, a n erasure). A l t h o u g h ther e ar e variations , the h a n d w r i t i n g seems clearl y t o b e the sam e o n al l the fragments . W i t h a fe w exception s th e lette r form s are th e sam e throughou t — square an d rounde d a in all positions, high e ligature s (althoug h m u ch les s c o m m o n on O ) , an d al l three varietie s of s (althoug h lon g s predominates o n al l but O , wher e l o w s is more fre quent). Th e principa l differenc e i s between th e for m y take s o n O an d the for m i t take s o n th e othe r fragments : o n th e forme r i t i s m u ch les s curved and , thus , les s tie d t o th e precedin g letter. T h e p u n c t u a t i o n is the sam e o n al l fragments, eve n t o simila r modification s of mid-lin e points o n N H an d B. Th e pattern s o f decoration , abbreviation, place ment o f accents , an d correction s are demonstrabl y simila r o r w i t h o u t overt conflic t i n all cases. The apparen t difference s i n the han d o n O all seem t o b e accounte d for b y th e m u c h wider spacin g of th e writing . F o r whatever reason , th e scribe doe s no t see m t o hav e ha d th e sam e interes t i n conserving space here a s h e ha d elsewhere . O n the ful l lea f fro m w h i c h th e fragmen t came , twenty-six line s of tex t wer e give n th e sam e vertica l spac e a s thirty-two on th e leave s represente d b y th e othe r fragments ; an d similarl y th e script o n O is m u ch mor e sprea d ou t laterally . T h e peculiaritie s of th e hand fi t thi s genera l pattern: it s dominan t l o w s takes t w o o r thre e times a s m u c h h o r i z o n t a l spac e a s doe s th e lon g s ; it s uncurved y i s less compact tha n th e curve d one; ' a n d ' i s spelled ou t onl y here ; an d th e high e ligature w h i ch i s used les s frequentl y o n thi s fragmen t i s a grea t saver o f space .

THE RELATION OF THE FRAGMENTS

In th e precedin g section it ha s bee n argue d tha t th e scrip t an d origina l p u n c t u a t i o n ar e th e sam e o n al l the fragments . Ther e i s u n i f o r m i t y, too , it ha s bee n shown , in initials, titles , capitals, abbreviations, and origina l accents; i n addition, N H an d O have textua l correction s entered i n th e same wa y an d p r o b a b l y by th e origina l scribe , and th e origina l punctu ation ha s bee n subjec t t o simila r modificatio n i n N H an d B . I n th e description o f th e individua l fragment s i t has bee n show n that th e height o f th e w r i t t e n space wa s th e sam e o n al l the leave s w h i ch th e fragments represen t an d tha t al l the fragment s sho w rulin g fro m th e hair side .

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O (containin g Catholic Homilies) an d C (containing Lives of Saints) have b o t h bee n recovere d fro m bookbinding s done i n L o n d o n b y ' K . L . L . K . ' in the secon d o r t h i r d decad e o f th e sixteent h century . Thi s fac t seems mor e significan t than th e differenc e betwee n th e mor e generou s use o f w r i t t e n spac e i n O (2 6 line s in 2 5 0 m m ) an d th e mor e compac t lay-out o f N H , C , and B (3 2 line s in 250- 5 m m ) : surel y a singl e Renaissance L o n d o n binder y w o u l d b e mor e l i k e l y t o hav e ha d on e manuscrip t containing ^ . l f r i c 's Catholic Homilies an d Lives of Saints tha n t w o manu scripts simultaneously , one containin g Catholic Homilies an d Lives of Saints ( N H , C , and B) and th e othe r containin g Catholic Homilies (o) , and b o t h w r i t t e n b y th e sam e scrib e an d havin g w r i t t en spac e o f th e same height . I t seem s saf e t o infe r tha t O ' s peculiarities were bu t brie f deviations i n what wa s originall y a sizabl e codex . C an d B , i n fact , wer e onc e quit e intimatel y related. Ca was cu t fro m the middl e of a leaf (se e figur e 1) . The las t lin e o n it s verso read s ' n u i s se t i m a -1p f)u forlaet e jrine. ' The firs t word s o n th e rect o o f B, w h i c h was cu t fro m th e left-han d sid e o f a lea f (se e figur e 1) , ar e ' g o d u m ge offrige • A p o l l o n a r is h i m . . . ' Referenc e t o th e Skea t text , base d o n B M C o t t o n J u l i u s E . V I I , show s tha t probabl y onl y fou r word s ar e missin g in between . T h e complet e sentenc e w o u l d b e ' . . . n u i s s e t i m a pu forlaete jrin e ydelnysse an d la c 3a m godu m geoffrig e ' (Skea t x x i i , line s 211-12). Th e fou r word s concerne d ar e precisel y enough t o hav e fille d comfortably th e b o t t o m lin e o f a stri p betwee n Ca and th e spin e edg e of th e lea f fro m w h i c h i t wa s cut . Therefore , i n the origina l manuscript , the lea f fro m w h i c h Ca came mus t hav e directl y preceded th e on e fro m w h i c h B was cut . Cb wa s cu t fro m th e right-han d sid e o f a lea f (se e figur e 1) . The tex t w h i c h i t preserve s follow s tha t w i t h w h i c h B ends . Th e las t lin e o f B reads 'ea c jsysn e c w y d e • gelencgan • 7 be s u m u m • ' The firs t lin e o f Cb read s ' . . . r i a n lande • 7 se. ' (Thi s line preserve s a n especiall y shor t piece o f text , becaus e o f a tea r o n th e left-han d sid e o f th e strip. ) T a k i n g Skeat's tex t a s ou r guide , w e ca n se e tha t probabl y eleve n word s ar e missing i n between. Th e complet e w o r d i n g w o u ld b e ' . . . ea c |>ysn e cwyde • gelencgan • 7 be sumu m • cynincge eow cyáa n gi t • Abgarus wae s geciged • sum gesaeli g cynincg o n Syrian land e • . . .' (Skea t x x i v , line s 813). Th e eleve n word s concerne d ar e precisel y enough t o hav e fille d th e first three-quarter s o f th e lin e o f w h i c h C & l i s the survivin g las t quarter . Therefore, i n the origina l manuscript , th e lea f fro m w h i c h B wa s cu t must hav e directl y preceded th e on e fro m w h i c h Cb came . Thu s C an d B no t o n l y wer e originall y part s o f th e sam e manuscrip t bu t als o wer e v

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Figure 1 The Fragments and the leaves from which they were cut

^Elfric Fragments at New Haven, O x f o r d , Cambridge, and Bloomington

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cut fro m thre e consecutiv e leaves : Ca from th e first , B fro m th e second , and Cb fro m th e t h i r d . It shoul d be remembere d tha t fo r eac h o f Ca , B , and Cb th e rect o i s the hai r side . Thus, th e thre e leave s o f w h i c h thes e fragment s wer e orig inally par t wer e i n a quir e i n w h i ch th e hai r side s o f th e sheet s al l faced outwards. Thi s i s not th e ' n o r m a l ' eleventh-century arrangemen t out lined b y K e r (Catalogue, x x i i i ) ; i n such a ' n o r m a l ' ordering, the hai r side o f th e oute r shee t o f th e quir e face s o u t w a r d bu t th e fles h sid e o f the nex t shee t face s out , th e hai r sid e o f th e t h i r d , and s o o n , s o that , w h e n on e open s a b o o k, a hai r sid e face s anothe r hai r sid e o r a flesh side face s flesh. F o r th e thre e leave s represente d b y Ca, B , and Cb, how ever, hai r side s d i d not fac e hair , no r flesh, flesh ; a hai r sid e face d a flesh sid e eac h time . Thi s arrangement , w i t h al l hair side s outwards , i s recorded b y K e r as a n ' o l d insular c u s t o m ' (Catalogue, x x v ) . Furthermore, sinc e i n each instanc e th e rect o i s the hai r side , thes e thre e leave s must hav e bee n i n th e firs t hal f o f thei r quire . I f thi s patter n wa s fol l o w e d throughou t th e manuscript , N H , w h i c h ha s it s hai r sid e a s it s verso, wa s i n th e secon d hal f o f it s quire , whil e O , w i th it s hair sid e a s its recto , wa s anothe r ' f i r s t - h a l f fragment . Ther e i s no physica l feature , however, t o sho w th e orde r tha t Ca + B + Cb, N H , and O had relativ e t o one another . Sinc e T h o r pe I x v i i an d T h o r p e I x x, as consecutiv e item s i n O , c o n f o rm t o th e sequenc e o f th e churc h yea r (an d sinc e Skea t x x i i , x x i v , an d x x v in Ca + B + Cb d o too) , i t i s reasonable t o assum e that , o n the sam e principle , N H , containing (parts of ) T h o r p e I x i v , preceded O . A s t o whethe r N H an d O , containing Catholic Homilies, precede d o r followed Ca + B + Cb, containin g Lives of Saints, w e hav e n o evidenc e at all . F o r th e purpos e o f thi s articl e N H an d O ar e place d ahea d o f Ca, B , and Cb onl y becaus e th e Catholic Homilies ar e earlie r tha n th e Lives of Saints i n the chronolog y of yfLlfric's works . F i n a l l y , i t shoul d be note d tha t N H an d O have bee n closel y con nected sinc e th e destructio n o f th e manuscript . O was purchase d b y the Bodleia n a t Hodgson' s i n 196 7 whe n i t wa s stil l par t o f th e b i n d i n g of a c o p y o f Augustine' s Sermones. Thi s volume , w h i ch possesse d o n l y one origina l board , th e lower , came fro m th e deale r Weinreb , w ho i n turn ha d purchase d i t fro m th e presbyter y librar y a t Wincheste r in 1966, w h e n tha t librar y wa s dispose d o f a s a w h o l e. The N H fragment s were sol d a t Sotheby' s i n 1965 , an d als o cam e fro m th e Wincheste r presbytery library . D r James M o l l o y , w h o acte d a s advise r ove r th e sal e o f th e library , f o u n d the m i n a damage d b i n d i n g from w h i c h the y wer e removed an d offere d fo r sal e ahea d o f th e m a i n collection . O , as par t

300

Rowland Collins / Peter Clemoes

of th e b i n d i n g of th e Sermones, wa s attache d t o a boar d an d covere d by a paper pastedow n w h i c h measure d 36 2 m m vertically . I f th e stain s and hole s i n the N H fragment s ar e goo d guide s (se e above , p p . 287-8) , the tw o strip s wer e overlappe d t o for m a b i n d i ng parchment w h i c h was 34 7 t o 35 0 m m long . T h e hole s i n th e N H fragments , a s overlapped , w o u l d fi t fairl y w e l l th e band s o n th e c o p y o f th e Sermones t o w h i c h O wa s attached . I t is , then, highl y likel y tha t th e N H fragment s wer e attached t o th e fron t boar d o f th e Augustine , n ow lost , an d tha t thi s front boar d ha d fo r som e tim e bee n separate d fro m th e b o o k w h e n D r M o l l o y remove d th e fragment s fo r separat e sal e i n 1965 . A t least i t i s certain tha t N H an d O were ver y nea r eac h othe r i n the Wincheste r presbytery librar y befor e thei r separatio n i n the mid-sixties. T o su m up , i t seem s reasonabl e t o conclud e tha t thes e seve n frag ments, n o w separate d b y thousand s o f miles , were onc e part s o f a larg e codex w h i c h containe d Catholic Homilies an d Lives of Saints b y ^4Llfri c and w h i c h wa s w r i t t e n i n a smal l scrip t b y on e scrib e ver y earl y i n th e eleventh centur y o n leave s measurin g abou t 30 0 m m verticall y an d w i t h a spac e fo r w r i t i n g measurin g 25 0 t o 25 5 m m verticall y an d generall y ruled fo r thirty-tw o lines . The t i n y fragment s tha t surviv e today , som e four an d a hal f centurie s afte r thi s code x wa s cu t u p i n th e L o n d o n bin dery o f ' K . L . - L . K . , ' ma y no t b e a handfu l fro m w h i c h w e k n o w th e whol e sack, bu t a t leas t the y for m a sampl e fro m w h i c h w e ca n tel l a good deal .

THE

TEXT

The tex t o f th e fragment s i s transcribe d accordin g to th e followin g principles: 1 A l l letter s w h i c h ar e positivel y identifie d from th e fragment s them selves an d w h i c h ar e origina l ar e included , even thoug h obscure d o r fragmentary; lost , obscured , o r fragmentar y letter s w i t h i n th e survi ving text , whos e identit y ca n b e confirme d o n l y b y referenc e t o another manuscript , ar e indicate d by thre e hiatu s dot s an d discusse d in th e notes ; a n obscure d o r fragmentar y lette r o r mar k o f punctu ation a t eithe r edg e o f a stri p i s ignored unless i t i s misleading, in w h i c h cas e i t i s discussed i n th e notes . 2 M a r k s o f p u n c t u a t i o n , accents , an d capital s ar e retaine d i f it i s rea sonably certai n tha t the y ar e original ; thos e tha t ar e p r o b a b l y o r cer tainly no t origina l ar e describe d i n th e notes . 3 Abbreviation s are no t expanded .

^Elfric Fragments at New Haven, O x f o r d , Cambridge, and Bloomington

301

4 ' W y n n ' i s transcribe d a s w ; dots ove r y ar e o m i t t e d ; capita l 3.[m t ] i m bunden sw a 15 {> a asend e go d tigan • [7 ] t o h i rihtne gel e m e d o n • {) a a eallum sy n 20 claen e • 7 to f aer criste s leahtrum m i n go d • A n crist c o m 25 t o claenu m3 {>e wae s get e odres fol c fulle {> aá a áende • fa r 30 ñama n \ > |>a b e b [ o ] d a his assa n

st • W e wyllao * n u fo n o n Í ist send e aefte r {ja m ass a enne • Twege n h i waero n • f o • "f ) h e maeg e gode s fol c m i eorcum • {)a m folc e w e l b nunge • "fe laewed e fol c gebi g a fol c • p i s iudeis c • 7 haeáe n n hae{>enscip e b u t o n áa m an • h i waero n getiged e • f o swa s e witeg a cwae{ ) • A n r a his apostóla s • 7 heor a aef t m laeda n • h u untigdo n h i 3 afan 7 gode s bebod a * 7 ea c beah "j i fol c fra m deofle s # n u m • {>urh"f j halig e full u oran oáru m n y t e n u m • t o c y . . . e • stu n te • 7 uncla e 7 bugo n t o áa m anlicnes s d sw a h w y l c e byrâen e s w to mancynn e • {> a awen d eawum • S e getemed a m e d • unde r {>aer e ealda n es {> e wae s f> a gi t haeáe n • crist send e hi s leorn i aá geon d ealn e m i d d aes faede r • 7 £>ae s sun a • }>e i c eo w taeht e • f)a e Swa ea c {) a heafod m

303

304 R o w l a n d Collins / Peter Clemoes 4

T h e descenders survive at the top of b recto; comparison with T h o r p e I, 206,

lines 20-2, indicates that the text to which these descenders belonged was pro­ bably * . . . an de manega |>aes folees. *

5

A * c o m m a ' added later below the

mid-line point after 'st'; similarly after 'laerenne' (7), timan* (13), and 'cwaej>' (14). 4

6

* [as JD]

7

T h e mid-line point after 'waeron' changed later to a punctus elevatus; simil­

all bracketed letters for N H were recovered by J o h n C . Pope.

arly after ' [ l a j r e ' (8), ' w e o r c u m ' (9), 'iudeisc' (11), 'getigede' (13), 'stunte' (21), and 'getemed' (26).

11

'iudeisc': an accent added later over first i ; similarly

*hae|>enscipe' (12), * [ t ] i m a n ' and 'getigede' (13), 'witega' (14), 'tigan,' ' h i m , ' and 'untigdon' (16), ' m i n ' (23), 'git' (27), and ' m i d d ' (29).

21

'tocy...e':

a hole in the parchment has eliminated what must have been m. 'unclae': the e part of the ae removed by the cut; cf Thorpe's 'unclaene. *

29

'farad ':

above f is written another f, perhaps for clarity.

verso b

5 foráriht e hlafor d • foro * he sen t h i ef t aira gesceaft a • h i cwaedo n ydde • Donn e rice • a c w e n e syn d n a gen agenum eyr e • e beoo * forlaeten e t o u r u m es mildheortnes s • is~| p w e untigede sindo n • 10 gif u g e ea c ur e age n geo r nfulness • oráan de ur e age n c y r e naefo * nann e et cris t h im e aelmihtega n go d • N eh eraedum gefraetewodn e • A c J D o n e waca n taehte syml e ea^modn e sse 7 f)ur h 15 nia á ae t m e ^ i c eo m lia e • 7 swiá e eaámod tegod b e crist e • 7 eall e js a o4ng J) e he dyd e • s á n dú n • 7 he o i s gecwe d en sceawun g r i s se o gelaáun g gelea f fuira mann a o n áaer e i s syml e sib b e gesyh á buta n 20 f w e h i m gelaestaf ) • Cri s tes leornin g san • f o r j a n ic h . . . n o l de o n n a c o d u m waeá • Drihte n weorc • sw a swa se witeg a c

^ l f r i c Fragments at New Haven, O x f o r d , Cambridge, and Bloomington

twisnesse • S e nacod a i mi d wisr a lareow a 25 h e donn e bero * cris t • s w uldriaá forf) i• 7 ber a n• forja n 3 e w e beo # escyldaá • B e J)a m cwaef ) hine fordej ) • S e [J>e ] n e j^ene o n hi s baec[e ] W e ne sylfn et o cyning e sylfum lica á him

4

305

assa bi d m i d mynegungum a sw a se apósto l á go d o n e o w r u m tempel 7 faetel s se y l c a apósto l bid gode s temp i willaá eo w gedón • ac"£ > fol c A c syáda n

T h e descenders survive at the top of b verso; comparison with T h o r p e I, 210,

lines 1-3, indicates that the text to which these descenders belonged was probably

a# J>aera assena • 7 sent.'

6

Second ' h i ' : an accent added later over

i; similarly 'rice' (7), 'mildheortness, ' 'untigede,' and ' s i n d o n ' (9), 'aelmihtegan' and ' h i m ' (12), 'niad' (15), 'ding' (16), ' h i m ' and 'leorning' (20), 'witega' (22), 'twisnesse' (23), 'crist' (25), 'uldria*' (26), and 'hine' (29).

8

T h e mid-line

point after 'eyre' changed later to a punctus elevatus; similarly after 'criste' (16), ' d u n ' (17), 'san' (21), ' n ' (27), and ' t e m p i ' (29). written and another small t is written above it.

9 10

after the mid-line point following 'geornfulness.' vellum has eliminated what must have been e. an erasure for insertion.

28

'mildheortness': t is illA ' c o m m a ' added later

21 24

' h . . . ' : a hole in the

'lareowa' written above

' y l c a ' : y written above to correct i .

Plate 2 The O x f o r d Fragment, recto, lines 1-17

vClfric Fragments at New Haven, O x f o r d , Cambridge, and Bloomington

307

T H E O X F O R D F R A G M E N T (O)

recto (see plate

2)

He oncnaewo * his faede r hine • m i d J)aere lufe |> e h JDaere he cydd e hu m i c l u m odre see p |) e n e syn d n a of 5 hira á min e stemn e 7 scea o n iude a land e |>aer wae s a o n £>a m leodscype • D a odre to god e bugaá • 7 cris t h i geb Manega syn d hyrda s und e 10 ealr a hyrd e • S e am creda n he scea l hi 15 £>on e geleafan |>e o n f>a be J^aer e halgan J^ryn n 3inga gesewenlicr a 7 un forJDam |> e h e i s so3 god angynn naefd e • a c h e s 20 7 ordfruma n forge a S w [ a ] s.. . h [áa 7m but 25 gan ]

1 12

A letter erased between 'his' and 'faeder.'

6

'be' inserted above ' o n . '

*^£LC ': ^£ set out b e y o n d the inner vertical bounding line, extending

from the rule of 11 to the tops of letters on 13, in red metallic ink. set in from the inner vertical bounding line to accommodate

13

'ge'

above. A 'com-

m a ' added later below the mid-line point after 'credan. ' '|>am ': the last m i n i m of m removed by the cut; cf Thorpe's '{>am. ' an erasure for insertion. 21

18

17

'¿inga gesewen' written above

*god': an accent added later over o.

*Sw[a] ': S set out b e y o n d the inner vertical bounding line; [a] recovered

from offset on the paper.

22-5

Recovered from offset.

308

R o w l a n d Collins / Peter Clemoes

verso t • H e i s scyppend s e áe gesceop ceafffi s e s o á a s c y . . . p e n d g e e o n heofonú wunia á • 7 syááan }>eos á • 7 sae m i d eallu m J D a m JDe hyr e 5 i d anum ñama n genemnede o d h i .. .esceop pa. gesceafta syn d p s e ana is aelmihtig go d • he h i m . . .ylfum • 7 jDurh hin e sylfn e • on t w . . . ne miht e h e beo n ael 10 7 g c . e a p en i s • naef á nan e god s~|} is g...sceaft • A n d ^ # e gesceaft e un...daeledli c • 7 on annysse e L . r • oáe r i s se sun u • oáe r pr.. . a i s an godcundne s 15 n . . . aelmihtig go d is se faeder h . . . gas t • A c |>eahhwaeáere i h . . .g god • pry h i synd o n pry for|) i á e s e faeder biá alga gas t bi3 aefre hali g gas t • 20 i s . .. habbaá g e gehyre d

2

* scy.. .pend *: a wormhole has eliminated what must have been p.

3

' s y i a a n ' : second # written above for insertion.

6

'...esceop': the long

vertical stain accounts for the hiatus; similarly on 8-17 and to some extent on 20.

^ l f r i c Fragments at New Haven, O x f o r d , Cambridge, and Bloomington T H E C A M B R I D G E F R A G M E N T S (C)

a recto • 7 pam halga n wer e • J D u r h don e \>e hi w ae£>en m u n d b o ra pe d a b u rh bewis t na t o |)a m bisceop e • 7 son a sw a he J>id pe J D a e r i n n e waero n • 7 s e haig a we r cwa e 5 m i d ade • gi f pin d o h t o r n u ha l bid st n u hi s miht e • Rufu s h i m 7 w y r d d leofa d • i c herige pon gode s miht e • 7 pa. eode h e t o pa.m lice • 7 clypod e m id ge areowe petr e • forgeaf e hi s gewil n 10 maede n • o f {)isu m rejsa n dead e - f o ana • H e o ara s pa. sona • 7 m id hr e d • 7 nis na n ode r go d b u t o n h e an a • "fi maede n wear d gefullo d • 7 hir e anna • 7 fel a JDaera hae£>enra fengo n 15 e s r e f m y s s e • n e dorst e geopenia n • "f) leaffullan bisceo p • 7 m id w i s t um ome • 7 }>urhwunode maede n • A p o l l ge gelae d • 7 o n pam w i t u m geandet t t onwán n awedd e jsaerriht e • 7 hi s 20 eweria n pone halga n • 7 ofslogo n £>ae n pone geleaffulla n bisceop i n t forwyrnan • "f) he sw a ateorod e • A eordode • 7 m id his raed e gehyrt e • e o n hwae t á a o n don e feoráa n dae g • h e 25 dr e racenteag e feo r o n wraecsi d • lice hreofli g • pa axod e s e bisceo p e haig a • G e l y f o n pone haelen d cris t • n haelen d go d • A p o l l o n a r i s pa. hrep s ñaman • 7 he wear d ha l son a • m i d 30 e • Pa. awearp s e gehaeled a hi s haep leafan wear d gefullo d • H i t gela an gebundo n pone bisceo p • 7 t o

2 *ae{>en': the a part of the ae removed b y the cut; cf Skeat's 'haeden.

309

310 8

Rowland Collins / Peter Clemoes

'he' written above for insertion.

20

'Jjae': the e part of the ae removed by

the cut; cf Skeat's *t>aera. '

a verso ice • p... gebae d hin e s e bisceo p be. . .lie a temp i toworpe n • b a gesawe n á a ha e h l y d . . . b e pam geleaffulla n wer e • B e synd toworpen e pa. w u l d o r f u l l an go 5 fa n "fi se i s an a so 3 go d • \>e swilce w u n to s i . . .ge • s u . . . arleasa n cwelle r ast...gew...an h i m t o • 7 axod e pon or.. .can . . .cna • 1p swa m i c e l wer o an oáe r m i h t • b u t o n haciende s cris t 10 w u . . . o3rum spraecu m • cwaeJ D se y s u n . . . h e acwella n hete J>on e halgan b aes... • JDur h a h a e J D e n a n

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^Clfric Fragments at New Haven, O x f o r d , Cambridge, and Bloomington 6 19

'aehte ': the a part of the ae removed b y the cut; cf Skeat's 'be-taehte. ' 'gan': an accent added later.

mid-line point after 'onwrigennysse.' the mid-line point after 'ende.'

28

A ' c o m m a ' added later below the 31

A ' c o m m a ' added later below

315

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T h e Cambridge Fragments, ¿>, recto, lines 1-21

i>crn< cjaii \ptrar*crn»^

^ I f r i c Fragments at New Haven, O x f o r d , Cambridge, and Bloomington T H E C A M B R I D G E F R A G M E N T S (C)

b recto (see plate 4) rian land e • 7 s e ge a x o d b e J>aes arus gre t eadmodlic e le haebb e gehyre d b e d e 5 t • hreoflig e pu geclae n a deada n • N u cwaef) i c come t o mann ü •