New Zealand [1 ed.] 9781502636294, 9781502636287

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New Zealand

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Smelt/Lin/Newsome

CULTURES OF THE WORLD®

CULTURES OF THE WORLD

New Zealand

CULTURES OF THE WORLD

New Zealand

Published in 2018 by Cavendish Square Publishing, LLC 243 5th Avenue, Suite 136, New York, NY 10016 Copyright © 2018 by Cavendish Square Publishing, LLC Third Edition No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means—electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise—without the prior permission of the copyright owner. Request for permission should be addressed to Permissions, Cavendish Square Publishing, 243 5th Avenue, Suite 136, New York, NY 10016. Tel (877) 980-4450; fax (877) 980-4454. Website: cavendishsq.com This publication represents the opinions and views of the author based on his or her personal experience, knowledge, and research. The information in this book serves as a general guide only. The author and publisher have used their best efforts in preparing this book and disclaim liability rising directly or indirectly from the use and application of this book. All websites were available and accurate when this book was sent to press. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Smelt, Roselynn, author. | Yong, Jui Lin, author. | Newsome, Joel, 1984- author. Title: New Zealand / Roselynn Smelt, Yong Jui Lin, and Joel Newsome. Description: New York : Cavendish Square, 2018. | Series: Cultures of the world | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2017059330 (print) | LCCN 2017060078 (ebook) | ISBN 9781502636294 (eBook) | ISBN 9781502636287 (library bound) Subjects: LCSH: New Zealand--Juvenile literature. | New Zealand--Description and travel--Juvenile literature. Classification: LCC DU408 (ebook) | LCC DU408 .S563 2018 (print) | DDC 993--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017059330 Editorial Director: David McNamara Editor: Kristen Susienka Copy Editor: Nathan Heidelberger Associate Art Director: Amy Greenan Designer: Alan Sliwinski Production Coordinator: Karol Szymczuk Photo Research: J8 Media

PICTURE CREDITS

The photographs in this book are used with the permission of: Cover PictureGarden/Taxi/Getty Images; p. 1 Douglas Pearson/Corbis/Getty Images; p. 3 Foivard Benjamin/Shutterstock.com; p. 5 Puripat Lertpunyaroj/Shutterstock.com; p. 7 David Wall Photo/Lonely Planet Images/Getty Images; p. 8 Boyloso/Shutterstock.com; p. 10 Jon Alkain/Shutterstock.com; p. 12 Jordan Tan/Shutterstock.com; p. 13 Filip Fuxa/Shutterstock.com; p. 15 Grafssimo/Getty Images; p. 17 John Carnemolla/Corbis/Getty Images; p. 18 Jiri Foltyn/Shutterstock.com; p. 19 Vale T/iStock/Thinkstock.com; p. 20 Hulton Archive/Getty Images; p. 22 Print Collector/Getty Images; p. 23 Universal History Archive/Getty Images; p. 24 Pictorial Press Ltd/ Alamy Stock Photo; p. 25 Michael Graham-Stewart/Bridgeman Images; p. 26 Sheng2121/Shutterstock.com; p. 27, 88 Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand; p. 28 Ppart/Shutterstock.com; p. 29 World History Archive/Alamy Stock Photo; p. 30 Natanael Ginting/Shutterstock.com; p. 32 Paul Zimmerman/WireImage/Getty Images; p. 34 Admirari/Shutterstock.com; p. 36 Rob984/Wikimedia Commons/File:Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations.svg/CC BY SA 4.0; p. 37 Hagen Hopkins/Getty Images; p. 39 Yevgen Belich/Shutterstock.com; p. 41 Nigel Watts/Alamy Stock Photo; p. 42 Munalin/Shutterstock.com; p. 45 Raul Rodriguez Arias/Shutterstock.com; p. 49 Brendon O’Hagan/Bloomberg/Getty Images; p. 50 Bart Pro/Alamy Stock Photo; p. 51 Phil Walter/Getty Images; p. 52 Khoroshunova Olga/Shutterstock.com; p. 55 Tui De Roy/ Minden Pictures/ Getty Images; p. 56 Tobias Bernhard/Oxford Scientific/Getty Images; p. 57 SkyLynx/Shutterstock.com; p. 59 3523studio/Shutterstock.com; p. 60 Momatiuk - Eastcott/Corbis/Getty Images; p. 61 ChameleonsEye/Shutterstock.com; p. 62 David Hancock/Alamy Stock Photo; p. 64 Natalia Ramirez Roman/Shutterstock.com; p. 65 Jim Watson/AFP/Getty Images; p. 66 Marco Simoni/Robertharding/Getty Images; p. 69 Neil Rabinowitz/Corbis/ Getty Images; p. 70 corners74/iStock/Thinkstock.com; p. 72 Nathaniel Noir/Alamy Stock Photo; p. 74 Chris Howey/Shuttterstock.com; p. 75 Phil Walter/Getty Images; p. 76 Donald Iain Smith/Digital Vision/Getty Images; p. 77, 103 ChameleonsEye/Shutterstock.com; p. 78 AF Archive/Alamy Stock Photo; p. 79 Sheryl Williams/Shutterstock.com; p. 80 (top) Phil Walter/Getty Images, (bottom) United Archives GmbH/Alamy Stock Photo; p. 81 Sandra Mu/Getty Images; p. 82 NigelSpiers/Shutterstock.com; p. 86 Chameleonseye/iStockphoto.com; p. 90 Hannah Peters/Getty Images; p. 93 Hamish Trounson/Alamy Stock Photo; p. 95 Carol Bond/Alamy Stock Photo; p.96 Theatrepix/Alamy Stock Photo; p. 98 Stillpix/Shutterstock.com; p. 99 Guy Bell Alamy Stock Photo; p.100 (top) Reg Innell/Toronto Star/Getty Images, (bottom) Rex Features/P Images; p. 101 Michael Bradley/Getty Images; p. 102 Phil Walter/Getty Images; p. 104 Robbie Jack/Corbis/Getty Images; p. 105 Timo Kaestner/Shutterstock.com; p. 106 Marty Melville/ AFP/Getty Images; p. 108 Hagen Hopkins/Getty Images; p. 109 Lisa Wiltse/Corbis/Getty Images; p. 110 Stu Forster/Getty Images; p. 111 Z Stock/ Shutterstock.com; p. 112 Tim Clayton/Corbis/Getty Images; p. 113 Destinations In New Zealand/Shutterstock.com; p. 114 Dianne Manson/Getty Images; p. 116 J O Atkinson/Shutterstock.com; p. 117 Chris Jackson/Getty Images; p. 119 Hannah Peters/Getty Images; p. 122 CSP Agcreations/ AGE Fotostock; p. 124 Mind Warp/Shutterstock.com; p. 127 Mark and Anna Wilson/Shutterstock.com; p. 128 Martin M303/Shutterstock.com; p. 130 Fanfo/Shutterstock.com; p. 131 Monica Shaw/Wikimedia Commons/File:AfghanBiscuit.jpg/CC BY SA 4.0. Printed in the United States of America

CONTENTS







NEW ZEALAND TODAY 5

1. GEOGRAPHY Heights and depths • Natural disasters • Bodies of water • Rich soil • Heat beneath the surface • Weather • Wildlife • Urban areas 9

2. HISTORY Beginnings • The first Maori • European arrival • The first settlers • Settlement disputes • Economic growth • Wartime • National identity and social reforms • Economic changes • Economic crisis • Nonnuclear • Current affairs 21

3. GOVERNMENT



Governmental structure • All hail the queen • Simple structure • Consolidated power • Elections • Lawmaking • Executive matters • Applying the law • Confidential advice 35

4. ECONOMY The economy grows • Radical reforms • Inflation • International investors • Commerce • Key industries 43

5. ENVIRONMENT

The dark shadow and future plans • Animal and plant life • Marine life • Plants • Protected areas • Energy • Nonrenewable energy • Environmental tourism • Pollution • Trash • Carbon footprint 53

. NEW ZEALANDERS A growing nation • Honors system • A history of migrants • Britain • 6 Starting out • Modern Maori • Taking action • Modern migrants • Asian migrants • Refugees • Population concerns 63

7. LIFESTYLE Home life • The standing place • Schooling • Work and adulthood • Urban activities • The countryside • Marriage • Death 73



8. RELIGION Beliefs of Maori • Christianity • Biblical ties? • Modern religion • Changing faith 83



9. LANGUAGE Grammar • Intonation • Colloquialisms • Te Reo • Introducing reading and writing • Maori vocabulary 91



10. ARTS Ancient art forms • European influence • Authors • Sounds of New Zealand • Traditional singing and dancing • Opera performances • Films 97



11. LEISURE Competition • Professional sports • Fitness • Natural recreation • The bush • Vacation • Around the house 107



12. FESTIVALS National holidays • Commemorating a treaty • A day to celebrate the army • Christmas traditions • Good Friday and Easter • Other special days • New Zealand Festival 115



13. FOOD Seafood • Maori influence • New Zealand desserts • Beverages 123





MAP OF NEW ZEALAND 133





ABOUT THE ECONOMY 135





ABOUT THE CULTURE 137





TIMELINE 138





GLOSSARY 140





FOR FURTHER INFORMATION 141





BIBLIOGRAPHY 142





INDEX 143

NEW ZEALAND TODAY

W

ITH

ITS

BREATHTAKING

LANDSCAPES,

SPELLBINDING

wildlife, and unique culture, New Zealand has captured the imagination of citizens and visitors alike over the course of its relatively short history. The nation is home to two main cultures: the Maori (inhabitants of Polynesian descent whose presence in New Zealand dates back to about one thousand years ago) and the pakeha (New Zealanders of European descent who began arriving in the early 1800s). In the country’s formative years, conflict arose when British colonizers arrived in droves, plummeting the native population through the introduction of foreign diseases, alcohol, and firearms. Though the nation’s beginnings are fraught with conflict, New Zealand has developed into a strong, confident, and conscientious participant on the world stage. New Zealand was the last significant landmass to be inhabited by man, and the culture reflects a forward-thinking populace. The country was the first to legalize women’s suffrage, remains completely free of nuclear power, and in 2016 New Zealand was considered the least corrupt nation in the world (tied with Denmark), according to the Corruption Perceptions Index. While the country’s colonial ties to

5

Great Britain are largely a thing of the past, New Zealanders have an everevolving sense of national identity. In terms of the landmasses, New Zealand is one of the youngest countries on Earth, in addition to being the last habitable location in the world to be discovered by modern man. The country’s main landmasses are the North Island and the South Island. They are narrow islands, and together they host almost every type of environment seen on Earth. There are glaciers, rain forests, lakes, plains, fjords, and of course, sandy beaches. The massive Southern Alps stretch along the South Island and can only be crossed in three places. Aoraki Mount Cook National Park is home to New Zealand’s tallest mountain as well as twenty-two other peaks rising over 9,840 feet (3,000 meters). Forty percent of the park’s land is also covered in glaciers. Most New Zealand residents live on the North Island with its less harsh landscape and milder climate. Fertile farmland and native forests stretch across the island. Besides its unique landscapes, the country’s remote location has also contributed to forming the New Zealand way of life. New Zealand’s nearest neighbor is Australia, which lies almost 1,250 miles (2,011 kilometers) to the country’s northwest. For this reason, the land went uninhabited by humans until around the thirteenth century. The country’s first inhabitants were Polynesian warriors who lived off the land in tribal groups. The Maori lived there for hundreds of years, fishing the seas, hunting birds, and farming. In 1642, the first European sighted the land, which led to English explorer James Cook mapping the coast. Soon European settlers flocked to the coast, eager to exploit the diverse sea life and the virtually untouched natural resources. In the early 1800s, Christian missionaries began to arrive. They introduced literacy to the Maori, who had previously depended exclusively on oral traditions to pass down their culture. Throngs of British settlers arrived, and the Maori people struggled to survive foreign diseases as well as firearms brought by the new inhabitants. The British government attempted to control the new colony’s land with the Treaty of Waitangi, a document that granted sovereignty to the British queen. In exchange, the treaty was supposed to grant the Maori land (which they already inhabited) and the rights of British citizens. Despite these promises, Maori were soon being pressured to sell plots at unreasonable

6 New Zealand

prices. Bloody war followed. The violence eventually subsided as the British government invested in railways and towns to accelerate New Zealand’s burgeoning economy. From the late 1800s until the mid-1900s, the country was mired in international war and suffered from the effects of a worldwide economic depression. However, from the 1950s through the 1980s, New Zealand’s economy skyrocketed then experienced a bust. Maori rights and cultural preservation began to be taken seriously in the mid-1970s, laying the foundation for the pride that modern residents feel with regards to their native peoples. Today, Maori culture is celebrated as unique to New Zealand and honored by residents of all ethnicities. In terms of lifestyle, New Zealanders are paradoxically laid back and rugged. They are friendly but reserved and have a pleasantly distinctive local vocabulary. They are more secular than many nations, with many citizens professing no allegiance to organized religion, but a wide variety of belief systems are present. New Zealanders also enjoy a vibrant and unique culinary culture that features original recipes, fresh produce, and craft beverages. New Zealanders are highly invested in the sporting life. From hiking to rugby, residents of the island nation are active and hungry for the next physical challenge. Their professional rugby team, the All Blacks, enjoys a dedicated following among the citizens and dominance on the field. As a result of their dedication to leisure, New Zealanders have an optimal work-life balance and, with a healthy expatriate community, the country regularly ranks as one of the best places in the world to live. Thriving arts scenes, massive festivals, and adventure sports mean that boredom has no place in New Zealand. From traditional Maori carving schools to bungee jumping in some of the most beautiful places on Earth, the country’s options for entertainment and relaxation are endless for citizens and visitors alike. From healing the old wounds of the past to valuing each citizen’s contribution to the future, New Zealand’s national character is ever shifting. As the social climate continues to change, the country is becoming more at peace with its unique makeup, allowing it greater presence on the world stage.

A destination for bikers, the Queenstown Trail awards spectacular views.

New Zealand Today 7

GEOGRAPHY

Lakes Rotoaira (foreground) and Taupo (background) are two of New Zealand’s many natural wonders.

N

EW ZEALAND’S NATURAL BEAUTY IS one of the island nation’s chief points of pride. Located in the southwest Pacific Ocean, New Zealand enjoys a wealth of astonishing landforms. The landscape vacillates between mountains, glaciers, fjords, volcanoes, subtropical forests, and beaches. With the countryside offering this much diversity, it’s no wonder New Zealand has become an increasingly popular destination for filmmaking. Australia is New Zealand’s closest neighbor. It lies 1,250 miles (2,011 km) northwest across the Tasman Sea. Antarctica is second closest. It sits just 1,400 miles (2,253 km) to the south. New Zealand’s two major landmasses are the North and South Islands. They are separated by the Cook Strait, which is around 14 miles (23 km) at its narrowest width. South Island is the island nation’s largest landmass and the twelfthlargest island in the world. The country also consists of many smaller islands, including Stewart Island and the Chatham Islands. According to the Central Intelligence Agency World Factbook, the total land area is 102,138 square miles (264,537 square kilometers), approaching the size of Colorado. New Zealand’s islands are slim. The country stretches 1,000 miles (1,609 km) from north to south and spans about 280 miles (450 km) across. This long coastline lies between subtropical waters to the north and the sub-Antarctic Ocean to the south. With a

1 “Toitu he whenua, whatungarongaro he tangata.” (“Land is permanent, man disappears.”) —Maori proverb

coastline more than half the coastal length of the United States, New Zealand is dotted with a plethora of indented, untouched harbors. Both the landforms and the biodiversity of New Zealand are truly staggering to behold.

HEIGHTS AND DEPTHS

Dramatic settings, such as Mount Taranaki, have made New Zealand a major destination for filmmaking.

New Zealand’s islands house a variety of geographical features. Both the North and South Island feature mountain ranges, and an active volcanic plateau is located on the North Island. On the geological time scale, New Zealand is a relatively young country, with most of the modern landscape having developed within the last ten million years. Huge land upheavals that occurred deep in the earth twenty million years ago, and even earlier, caused the mountains to be pushed up gradually. At least 75 percent of the land is 650 feet (200 m) or more above sea level. The height of the Southern Alps, a massive mountain range that runs almost the entire length of the South Island’s western side, continues to grow even today. Mount Taranaki (also known as Mount Egmont) is a dormant stratovolcano. This is a type of volcano composed of both lava flows and pyroclastic material. Mount Taranaki has a symmetrical cone that stands in

SEEING DAYLIGHT Because they are close to the international date line (an imaginary line on the surface of Earth that lies opposite the prime meridian and offsets the date as one travels east or west across it), the Chatham Islands (lying off the east coast of the South Island) and the town of Gisborne (on the eastern side of North Island) are among the first settlements in the world to see the dawn of a new day.

10 New Zealand

splendid isolation on the west coast of the lower North Island. According to Maori mythology, Mount Taranaki once resided in the center of the North Island, along with all the other New Zealand volcanoes. He wooed and won the wife of Tongariro, another mountain. After a great battle involving fire, steam, and rock-hurling, Taranaki was banished to the west coast. The path of his escape is said to be marked by the Wanganui River. The mountains were eroded by glaciers during the last ice age, which began about 2.5 million years ago. These glaciers (there are over 360 of them in the Southern Alps) carved out the fjords and valleys around most of the South Island lakes and rivers, and deposited sediment to form rich alluvial plains, which run down to the sea. The largest, Tasman Glacier, is 18 miles (29 km) long. The fjords are found in the southwestern region of the South Island in an area covered by Fiordland National Park, one of the largest national parks in the world. The park covers 3 million acres (1.2 million hectares) today.

Mount Cook, in the Southern Alps, is the tallest mountain in New Zealand. Standing at a majestic 12,218 feet (3,724 m), it has inspired Maori people to call it Aoraki, the “cloud piercer.”

NATURAL DISASTERS New Zealand is positioned on the southwest corner of the so-called Ring of Fire. This is the area around the rim of the Pacific Ocean where huge sections of Earth’s crust, called plates, collide, causing intense volcanic and earthquake activity. Typically, New Zealand has experienced minor earthquakes. However, in recent years, earthquake activity has been increasing. The year 2016 saw a swarm of over thirty-two thousand earthquakes hit the island nation. In September of that year, a 7.8-magnitude earthquake struck the South Island, causing much structural damage, triggering a tsunami, and killing two people. However, the most disastrous earthquake in recent times occurred in the North Island town of Napier in 1931, when the entire town and the surrounding villages were destroyed and 258 people were killed. There are many volcanoes in New Zealand, but most of them are extinct. A volcanic plateau covers most of the central North Island, where the mountains of the Tongariro National Park rise. These mountains include three active volcanoes: Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, and Tongariro.

Geography 11

BODIES OF WATER

The Canterbury Plains feature some of the country’s most prized farming landscape.

There are at least twenty large lakes in New Zealand and many smaller ones. Lake Taupo in the central North Island is the largest, with a surface area of 234 square miles (606 sq km). It was formed by an enormous volcanic eruption in 186 CE, during which an incredible 3,600 cubic miles (15,000 cubic km) of ash and pumice fell virtually all over the North Island. The magnificent alpine settings and large lakes in the southwestern region of the South Island attract many visitors. Some artificial lakes have been created on both the North and South Islands to service hydroelectric projects. Numerous rivers speed their way down from the mountains to the sea. Because they flow so fast, they have become an important source of hydroelectric power. The longest river is the Waikato on the North Island, which flows 264 miles (425 km) into the Tasman Sea.

RICH SOIL The most extensive flat area in New Zealand, the Canterbury Plains, lies along the eastern coast of the South Island. This is one of the richest farming areas because the soil is the result of millions of years of glacial deposits. Farms here are the country’s main suppliers of wheat and grain, while the many sheep farms have made the area famous for “Canterbury Lamb” (New Zealand lamb that is exported—either chilled or frozen). There are also coastal plains in the Southland and Otago provinces. A number of coastal plains are found in the North Island: the Bay of Plenty produces dairy cattle, seafood, and a wide range of subtropical crops, while East Cape produces the bulk of the country’s corn. East Cape, Hawke’s Bay, and Marlborough in the South Island all have vineyards and fruit orchards.

12 New Zealand

HEAT BENEATH THE SURFACE From the south of Lake Taupo to White Island, an active volcano in the Bay of Plenty, is a belt of geysers, boiling mud pools, and hot-water springs. One of these, Frying Pan Lake, is one of the world’s largest hot springs. The lake has a surface area of 45,450 square yards (38,000 square meters). It is typically between 113 and 131 degrees Fahrenheit (45 to 55 degrees Celsius), but at its deepest point the temperature reaches 389°F (198°C). It also emits carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide—making the lake have an eerie, fog-like quality. Much of the country’s thermal activity takes place in and around the city of Rotorua on the central North Island, located on the banks of the southern shore of Lake Rotorua. Only four other countries have geysers—Iceland, Russia, Chile, and the United States. Geysers occur in areas where water from lakes and rivers seeps down into concentrations of hot rock, heats up rapidly in a confined space, and then explodes up through vents, emitting boiling water and steam. The water expelled by the geysers contains dissolved minerals that solidify into colorful and shapely silica formations on nearby surfaces as the water evaporates. It is claimed that the minerals in thermal waters are beneficial to human health. Rotorua has been a therapeutic bathing center of international repute since the late nineteenth century.

Geothermal energy heats Frying Pan Lake.

WEATHER New Zealand’s ocean environment keeps the climate mild, but the mountains, together with the prevailing westerly winds, cause marked differences in temperature and rainfall from west to east. This is particularly so in the South Island, where westerly winds cause the clouds to draw moisture from

Geography 13

the sea. As they rise, the clouds hit the mountains, and rain is released onto the west coast. Fiordland is one of the wettest areas in the world. Drought often occurs on the east coast of both islands in summer (December– February). However, there is usually plenty of rain throughout the country, with winter (June–August) being the wettest season in the North Island and spring (September–November) being the wettest season on the South Island’s west coast. The provinces of Auckland and Northland enjoy a yearround subtropical climate where citrus fruit is grown. Mean annual temperatures range from 61°F (16°C) in Northland to 50°F (10°C) in the southernmost part of the country. The highest temperatures occur east of the mountain ranges in summer, creating hot and dry conditions, while the lowest temperatures occur during winter in the mountains and in the inland areas of Canterbury and Otago. There are few places where temperatures higher than 86°F (30°C) or lower than 14°F (–10°C) occur. Snow falls mainly in the mountains, but during the coldest month of the year (July), snow often falls for a few days in the eastern coastal provinces of the South Island.

WILDLIFE Before New Zealand was inhabited by people, the land was covered in forest and “bush” (evergreen broadleaf trees and enormous tree ferns, ground ferns, and clinging vines). In the forests, native trees such as rimu (ri-moo), totara (TOR-tah-rah), and kauri (kah-oo-ree) grew to spectacular heights. When the Maori people came to New Zealand from eastern Polynesia in the thirteenth century CE, they cleared one-third of the forests, and later (in the early nineteenth century), the European settlers cleared another third. Today, about 39 percent of New Zealand is covered in forest. Tree species in these areas include radiata pine, elm, birch, poplar, macrocarpa, and beech. Coastal wetlands have other forms of native vegetation, as well as marine birds such as oystercatchers and migratory waders. Mangrove trees grow in swamps, mudflats, estuaries, and tidal creeks in Northland. New Zealand shrubland contains the highest proportion of tree-sized daisies and plants

14 New Zealand

MOA The moa has an important place in New Zealand’s history. Nine species of this flightless bird were endemic to the island nation when Polynesian settlers arrived. It is estimated that there were around fifty-eight thousand moa roaming New Zealand when humans arrived, and their numbers were thought to be increasing. Unfortunately, the arrival of the Maori signaled the beginning of the end for the moa. Generations of Maori hunted the large birds for food and cleared the forests where the moas lived. Some believe the moas went extinct in the sixteenth or seventeenth century, though other researchers suggest they might have gone extinct much sooner after the arrival of the Maori. While modern scientists were never able to directly observe the moas, information about their diet, reproduction, and physicality has been deduced as a result of fossil evidence and DNA samples. Several tracks of fossilized moa footprints have also been discovered. Their analysis has led scientists to believe they walked at speeds ranging from 1 to 3 miles per hour (1.6 to 4.8 kilometers per hour). They are thought to have eaten a wide variety of plant materials, including low-hanging leaves and fibrous twigs. The ancient birds swallowed stones that they held in their gizzards. These gizzard stones allowed them to grind coarse plant material that otherwise would have been impossible to digest. Based on fossil and DNA evidence, it is believed that the moa took approximately ten years to reach adulthood. Materials at preserved nesting sites suggest that the nesting period for the moa was sometime in the late spring to early summer. Dozens of whole moa eggs have been preserved and are on display in museums. These eggs vary greatly in size, from around 5 inches to 9.5 inches (12.7 to 24.1 centimeters) long and around 4 inches to 7 inches (10.2 to 17.8 cm) wide. While the various species of moa ranged in size, it is estimated that the largest species stood about 12 feet (3.7 m) high with their necks outstretched and weighed over 500 pounds (227 kilograms). Despite previous speculation that a climatic event could have been responsible for the moas’ demise, all scientific investigation has pointed to humans as the sole predators and ultimate drivers of moa extinction.

Geography 15

with interlocking and twisted branches in the world. In the grasslands, toetoe, pampas, and flax plants can be found. These were cultivated by the early Maori and were used to make baskets and clothing, thatching for houses, and ropes, sails, and rigging for ships. Because New Zealand was cut off from the rest of the world by its oceans over eighty million years ago, only mammals that could fly were able to reach it. The only native land mammal in New Zealand is the bat. Other land mammals were introduced by the Maori and European settlers. The vast majority of New Zealand’s native species of reptiles and amphibians live only here and nowhere else in the world. New Zealand’s native frogs lay eggs that turn into frogs within the frog egg. They do not have a free-swimming tadpole stage like other frogs do. They have tailwagging muscles, but no tails. They do not croak like normal frogs do. Instead, they let out a thin, high-pitched squeak. They are among the world’s most ancient frogs. In the absence of other mammals and many predators, birdlife in New Zealand was, and still is, amazing. New Zealand is an avian wonderland, with many species evolving to take over niches that would normally be occupied by mammals. The tuatara (too-uh-tah-ruh) is the largest reptile in New Zealand, growing up to 1.6 feet (0.5 m) long. It is the only surviving species of a family of reptiles that became extinct in other parts of the world sixty million years ago. Found only on New Zealand’s offshore islands, the tuatara (which resembles an iguana) has traces of what was once a third eye. Tuataras are aggressive predators, ambushing their prey with spectacular bursts of speed and strength. They are one of the rarest reptiles on Earth. An even more ancient “living fossil” is New Zealand’s weta (we-tah), a giant wingless insect resembling a grasshopper (although it can’t jump). It has hardly changed at all over the last 190 million years. The harmless weta is the heaviest insect in the world, weighing up to 2.5 ounces (71 grams). Its name means “god of ugly things.” Like some insects, the weta breathes through its exoskeleton. Interestingly, it also has ears on its knees. New Zealand also has one of the world’s largest gecko lizards, Duvaucel’s gecko (H. duvaucelii). New Zealand geckos are unusual because they give birth

16 New Zealand

THE KIWI With the incredible biodiversity of New Zealand, the kiwi stands out as one of the most recognizable symbols of New Zealand culture. They are so intrinsically linked with the island nation that New Zealanders are commonly referred to as “Kiwis.” The nocturnal, flightless bird has a unique, long, slender bill with nostrils at the tip. Depending on the species, kiwis can stand anywhere from 10 to 20 inches (25 to 51 cm) tall and weigh anywhere from 3 to 7 pounds (1.4 to 3.2 kg). Kiwis lay only one egg at a time. In relation to the bird’s body size, the kiwi’s egg is the largest in the world, weighing approximately one-third of the female bird’s weight. After the egg is laid, male kiwi partners incubate and rear the young in most species. The kiwi has an incredibly keen sense of smell, an unusual quality in birds. The kiwi sense of smell allows it to locate insects underground without seeing or feeling them. They eat seeds, grubs, worms, fruit, small crayfish, eels, and a variety of amphibians. Once two kiwis have bonded, they are likely to remain a monogamous couple for life.

to live young—usually twins—rather than laying eggs. The only other geckos that do this live in New Caledonia (an island situated 1,056 miles [1,700 km] from New Zealand). The oldest wild Duvaucel’s gecko lived to thirty-six years, but they can live to over fifty years in captivity.

URBAN AREAS When the European settlers came to New Zealand in the early nineteenth century, they settled mainly in the South Island. But for the last one hundred years, people have been drifting north, and now a little over 3.67 million people (77 percent of the population) live in the North Island, with most of the population concentrated in the provinces of Northland, Auckland, Waikato, and Bay of Plenty, where the climate is warmer.

Geography 17

Auckland is New Zealand’s most populated city and offers an impressive urban skyline.

There are four main urban centers in New Zealand: Auckland and Wellington in the North Island and Christchurch and Dunedin in the South Island.

AUCKLAND is New Zealand’s largest urban area. It occupies the isthmus between the Hauraki Gulf on the east coast and the Manukau Harbor on the west coast. With about one boat for every four households, Auckland has earned the name “City of Sails.” A city of more than 1.5 million inhabitants, it is the most cosmopolitan place in the country and is the main tourist and trade gateway.

WELLINGTON, the capital of New Zealand, is located near the southern end of the North Island. It is the second-largest urban area, with a population of 496,000. Wellington Harbor, also called Port Nicholson, covers 31 square miles (80 sq km) and is considered one of the finest natural harbors in the world.

18 New Zealand

CHRISTCHURCH is situated on the Canterbury Plains. It has a population of about 381,500. Early English settlers were successful in recreating an English society here. This is reflected in the city’s English layout.

DUNEDIN has a population of about 127,000 and is located at the top of the long, fjord-like Otago Harbor. Settled originally by people from Scotland, Dunedin was named after the old Celtic name of Edinburgh, Dun Edin. It is sometimes called the Edinburgh of the South. It is here that New Zealand’s only whiskey is distilled.

Dunedin is a large city with Scottish and Maori roots.

INTERNET LINKS http://www.nationalgeographic.com/adventure/destinations/ oceania/new-zealand/21-spectacular-adventure-photos This photo essay features twenty-one images showcasing New Zealand’s majestic beauty. https://www.nzgeo.com Watch videos, read articles, and view images of New Zealand’s beauty at New Zealand Geographic magazine’s website.

Geography 19

HISTORY

The Maori arrived in New Zealand several hundred years before the Europeans.

N

EW ZEALAND IS A YOUNG NATION IN terms of its position on the geological timeline and its populace. Because of its relative isolation, New Zealand is one of the last significant landmasses in the world to be inhabited by humans. BEGINNINGS

The origin of New Zealand settlement is shrouded in mystery. The Maori, New Zealand’s indigenous population, relied exclusively on oral tradition passed down through the centuries to tell their history and had no written language prior to European arrival. According to legend, the Maori are believed to originate from east Polynesia. It is believed that Kupe, a chief of Hawaiki (the original home of Polynesian people), sailed to New Zealand about one thousand years ago. He is thought to have landed on Hokianga Harbor in Northland. He later returned to Hawaiki, calling the new land he’d found “Aotearoa,” or “Land of the Long White Cloud.” Kupe shared the sailing coordinates and encouraged others to go there. Over the next few centuries, more people did. When other Maori landed on New Zealand’s shores, they brought with them the distinct Maori culture. The Maori on New Zealand were expert tattoo artists, carvers, and weavers. The tale of Kupe’s arrival in Aotearoa explains who discovered New Zealand but provides little detail. For instance, we do not know if Kupe sought the island out purposefully or if he happened upon it. In any case, the tale of Kupe’s arrival is widely accepted, as it is one of the few

2 “Kia mau koe ki nga kupu o ou tupuna.” (“Hold fast to the words of your ancestors.”) —Maori proverb

origin stories in existence. Historians believe there was either a massive migration to Aotearoa at some point or numerous voyages from Hawaiki delivered Polynesians to New Zealand over the course of hundreds of years. Whether frequent voyages, mass migration, or sporadic settlement initiatives led to the Maori population taking hold in New Zealand has never been firmly established. Nevertheless, it is believed that as many as 250,000 Maori may have been living in Aotearoa at the time of European arrival.

THE FIRST MAORI

Abel Tasman was the first European to see New Zealand, in December 1642.

22 New Zealand

The first Maori tribes in New Zealand survived by fishing and hunting the moa. Their diet was high in protein as a result of eating birds, fish, and shellfish. They also ate kumara, a sweet potato brought to New Zealand by early Maori settlers. The Maori were experienced horticulturists and grew several different varieties of kumara long before Europeans arrived. The majority of the population lived on the northern coasts of North Island, where forests provided materials for shelter and clothing. Tribes moved across both islands and survived by growing food and through the trading of surplus food and treasured greenstone, or pounamu, as the Maori called it. Pounamu was often carved and used for ornamentation. Tribal society was dependent upon blood ties and possession of land. Within the tribe, ancestry determined status. Those with demonstrable ties to tribal ancestors held leadership positions that affected the entire tribe. Land was communally owned and tribes were divided into semi-dependent groups, called hapus. Group settlements were situated around the marae, an open communal space. Violence sprung up between groups, often over limited food supply. When conflict occurred, the groups would move into fortified dwellings called pas, which were surrounded by intricate defensive earth structures.

EUROPEAN ARRIVAL The Dutch navigator Abel Tasman was the first European to sight New Zealand, in December 1642. He called it “Staten Landt,” but it was soon renamed “Nieuw Zealand,” after a Dutch province. Tasman attempted to come ashore near what is now Takaka but lost four of his men when natives attacked the ship. Europeans would not return to settle the area for more than 150 years. In 1769, Captain James Cook, an English explorer, was sent to the South Pacific on a scientific expedition. He circumnavigated the country and thoroughly surveyed its coastline. Unlike his predecessor, Cook was able to maintain a level of civility with the native inhabitants and made first landfall near the presentday city of Gisborne. Eventually, Captain Cook returned to England and shared what he had learned. His thorough definition of New Zealand’s coastline encouraged whalers and traders to make their own voyages there. French and British sailors began to arrive, along with some Italians and Americans. Seafaring expeditions seeking whale and seal blubber exploited the ocean’s marine life, obliterating species in a matter of decades. Along with environmental destruction, Europeans brought foreign disease and firearms to the shores of New Zealand, which resulted in the death of scores of Maori people.

THE FIRST SETTLERS Three Christian missionary families formed the first organized European settlement in the country. The Reverend Samuel Marsden arrived from England in 1814 and preached his first sermon in the Bay of Islands on Christmas Day that year. By 1838, Bishop Jean-Baptiste Pompallier had founded a Roman Catholic mission in the same area.

Captain James Cook mapped New Zealand’s coastline.

When Europeans arrived in New Zealand, the Maori called them “pakeha,” meaning “foreigner.” Now the term refers to the white population of New Zealand.

History 23

A FOUNDING DOCUMENT FOR A NATION The Treaty of Waitangi was signed on February 6, 1840. It was an agreement between the British crown and Maori chiefs. There were two versions, one written in English and one in Maori. Today it remains New Zealand’s founding document. Because the English and Maori versions of the Treaty of Waitangi carried different meanings on some points, by the 1860s the Maori people began to complain that they had been unfairly treated, particularly concerning the sale of their lands. Over the years, recognition of the treaty declined to a point where it was almost meaningless, having no legal status in domestic law. It was not until 1975 that the New Zealand Parliament set up the Waitangi Tribunal to investigate Maori claims against the British Crown from that year on. The law establishing the tribunal was amended in 1985 to permit the tribunal to examine claims dating back to the first signing of the treaty, on February 6, 1840. Many of these claims have now been made, and today the treaty has a unique place in New Zealand history—a partnership between cultures.

The vision of the early missionaries was one of a Christian and Maori New Zealand. However, commercial interests dominated subsequent developments. In 1839, Edward Gibbon Wakefield formed the New Zealand Company. It was directed by influential men in London commerce, who were eager to get the New Zealand economy going. They dispatched settlers to Aotearoa and profited by selling their newly acquired land to them. By the 1840s there were about two thousand Europeans living in small settlements in New Zealand. Scattered throughout the country was a large transient population of whalers and traders. The Maori population, divided into independent tribes, traded extensively with the Europeans.

24 New Zealand

There was, however, no national government and no single set of formal laws. Maori land was being sold in a disorganized way. Some British settlers feared that New Zealand might be taken over by France, so Maori and pakeha, or European, groups asked Britain to provide some sort of protection and law and order.

SETTLEMENT DISPUTES Great Britain attempted to honor the Maori chiefs’ request to recognize their independence, while at the same time extending British rule over New Zealand. It was hoped that British resident James Busby would bring about law and order in the country. Unfortunately, he lacked the means to enforce his authority and, as more and more immigrants arrived in New Zealand, disagreements between Maori and pakeha began to threaten lives and trade. Busby was replaced by William Hobson, a naval captain, who was sent to New Zealand in January 1840 to negotiate with the Maori for the sovereignty of the country. Britain decided to make New Zealand a colony in order to control the European settlers and protect the rights of the Maori people. Hobson, Busby, and the missionary Henry Williams conceived the idea of drawing up a treaty that would be acceptable to both the British Crown and the Maori chiefs. On February 6, 1840, at Waitangi in the Bay of Islands, a treaty was read in English and Maori to more than four hundred Maori. After much debate and on the advice of Williams, the Maori chiefs agreed to give Queen Victoria of England sovereignty over their land. They accepted her protection and the offer of the same rights and duties of citizenship as the people of England, while still retaining their lands, forests, fisheries, and other possessions. More than forty signatures or marks were appended to the Maori text of the treaty, mostly by chiefs around the Bay of Islands. The Maori version of the Treaty of Waitangi was eventually signed by more than five hundred chiefs. At first the treaty was recognized and observed as a contract that was binding on both parties, and in 1852, Britain allowed New Zealand to be

This painting illustrates a European settler’s hut in the Wairau Valley of New Zealand.

History 25

This map shows the sixteen local government regions New Zealand is comprised of.

self-governing. As people continued to migrate to New Zealand, there was increasing demand for land, and the Maori people became cautious about selling their land. The law seemed to favor the pakeha. Conflict between settlers and the Maori finally led to land wars in the 1860s and the emergence of united tribes in the central North Island that had their own king. (The area is still known today as King Country.) Thousands of British troops were dispatched to control the Maori. During the land wars, the Maori won much admiration for their superb fighting and skill. During the Battle of Gate Pa (a pa is a fortified settlement), a Maori force of about 235 warriors defeated a combined British regiment and naval brigade of approximately 2,000 men who were much better armed than the Maori. However, the Maori eventually lost the war and their land due to the superior firepower of the British troops and the ever-continuing arrival of European settlers. It was at this point that New Zealand became a British colony in reality, not just on paper.

ECONOMIC GROWTH Peace was not restored until 1870. Meanwhile, the discovery of gold in 1861 at Gabriel’s Gully, Otago, a province in the South Island, marked the beginning of a major gold rush in New Zealand. The areas around Queenstown, Arrowtown, and Otago experienced a booming period of growth. In 1865, the capital was moved from Auckland to Wellington, and the Maori received representation in Parliament in 1867. New Zealand’s first university, the University of Otago, was established in 1869 in Dunedin. The gold rush was over by the 1870s, but by then, agricultural industries had developed that could employ the growing population. The invention of refrigeration in the late 1800s meant that meat and dairy products could travel as far as England. Railways and roads were built so that produce could be transported to the coast and shipped all over the world. The government provided free public education. New Zealand was

26 New Zealand

the first country to legalize unions in 1878 and also the first to recognize women’s right to vote in 1893.

WARTIME While New Zealanders were accustomed to domestic land disputes, the population was involved in its first international conflict when it supported Britain in the Boer War, fought in South Africa beginning in 1899. Over the course of the two-and-a-half-year conflict, 6,500 New Zealand soldiers and 8,000 horses, as well as teams of doctors, nurses, teachers, and veterinarians, sailed overseas to war. Of the soldiers, 71 died as a result of battle, while nearly 160 more died from diseases or accidents. This war would set the stage for the country’s involvement in future world conflicts. At the outbreak of World War I in 1914, New Zealand remained loyal to Britain by sending troops to Europe. New Zealanders were present at the battle at Gallipoli in Turkey, and 10 percent of the population joined the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC). New Zealand lost about eighteen thousand men from a population of only one million, largely due to a badly organized campaign by the British in Turkey. New Zealanders became disenchanted with the “motherland,” and a sense of separate nationhood began to grow. During World War II, New Zealand joined the Allied cause independently, officially declaring war on Germany on September 3, 1939. Over the course of the conflict, the country sent 140,000 men and women across the globe to various fronts, including Egypt, Italy, Japan, and the Pacific.

New Zealand soldiers fought for the British in World War I. Here, the soldiers inspect gas masks during the Second Battle of the Somme.

NATIONAL IDENTITY AND SOCIAL REFORMS By the interwar period, many New Zealanders were proud of what they saw as their country’s unique achievements in race relations. This, in turn, was one of the foundations for a belief that New Zealand had a special national role in the Pacific, and in the administration of other Polynesian peoples.

History 27

PARLIAMENTARY MEMBERS There were several outstanding men of Maori and mixed Maori ancestry who were leading members of Parliament and prominent intellectuals. Sir Apirana Turupa Ngata was a prominent New Zealand politician and lawyer who was also known for his work in protecting Maori language and culture. His portrait is on the New Zealand fifty-dollar note. Te Rangi Hiroa (Peter Buck) was a doctor who worked successfully with another Maori lawyer, Sir Maui Wiremu Pita Naera Pomare, to improve health and living conditions. Both men were members of Parliament.

From 1900 until 1965, New Zealand administered the Cook Islands, Niue, Tokelau, and Western Samoa (taking the last from the Germans during World War I). Although Western Samoa became the first Pacific island country to gain independence in 1962, the Cook Islands and Niue remain states in “free association” with New Zealand, and the Tokelauans voted to remain a New Zealand colony in 2007. A period of industrial progress came during the 1920s, but the worldwide Great Depression (from 1929 until about 1939) hit New Zealand severely. The Labour Party, which had been formed out of various labor and trade unions and radical movements, won an election and formed its first government in 1935 under Michael Joseph Savage, leader of the Parliamentary Labour Party and prime minister of New Zealand. A number of social reforms followed, including a social security system, a national health service, and a low-rent state housing program. The National Party also emerged during this period to represent more conservative and rural interests. It won the general election in 1949. The Labour and National Parties continue to compete in elections to form the government. Between 1935 and 2017, the Labour Party has controlled the government six times, while the National Party has controlled the government five times, sometimes in coalition with minor parties.

28 New Zealand

ECONOMIC CHANGES The early post–World War II years saw a boom in New Zealand because of higher prices for wool and other agricultural products. The Korean War was on during the early 1950s, and there was a demand for blankets in that country. In 1952, the country’s population rose to over two million. The boom ended with the end of the Korean War in 1953. That same year, Edmund Hillary, a New Zealander, and Tenzing Norgay became the first humans to summit Mount Everest. Changes in the world economy during the 1960s and 1970s threatened New Zealand’s high standard of living. When Britain joined the European Economic Community (an organization established by a treaty signed in 1957 by Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany [now Germany]) in 1973, New Zealand lost its guaranteed access on favorable terms to England, its largest overseas market. That same year, a worldwide oil crisis threatened oil supplies to New Zealand, and from 1974 on, the impact of much higher world oil prices was felt. New Zealand’s traditional economic and political relations were challenged. In 1975, a leader emerged who was determined to tackle the economic crisis. Robert Muldoon, the new National Party prime minister, extended government protection to the manufacturing industry and increased government funding to the troubled farming sector. To help the economy grow, his government funded an array of expensive “Think Big” projects. To counter inflation, Muldoon assumed increasing control over all aspects of the economy. By 1984, the government was setting all prices and wages, as well as interest rates and the exchange rates between the New Zealand dollar and other currencies. New Zealand had become one of the most centrally controlled economies in the world.

Dunedin is one of several New Zealand cities that experienced a boom in population during the 1950s.

History 29

NEW ZEALAND’S FLAG Like many countries, New Zealand’s flag has gone through many changes over the years. The first known flag was the United Tribes flag. In 1833, James Busby set about creating a flag as a means of encouraging Maori chiefs to participate in collective government. A number of designs were offered, and Busby gathered a selection of Maori officials to his home in order to vote on the flag design. The result was the United Tribes flag. It had a white background and paid homage to England with the Saint George’s Cross prominently displayed at its center. After the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840, New Zealand began flying the Union Jack as the official New Zealand flag. This upset Maori tribes, who saw the abandonment of the United Tribes design as a signal that their perspective was being phased out of New Zealand politics. Nevertheless, the Union Jack was flown for more than a century, well into the 1950s, as the official Kiwi flag. The design for New Zealand’s current flag began back in 1865, when the United Kingdom dictated that all colonial ships fly the Blue Ensign with the badge of the colony on it. New Zealand did not have a badge and ran into trouble with the British navy, prompting them to design one. The flag went through many changes to accommodate maritime uses. The Flags, Emblems, and Names Protection Act of 1981 made New Zealand’s current flag design official. There has been much debate regarding the Union Jack’s presence on the current flag, however, and in 2015, citizens voted on alternate flag designs in a referendum. The winning alternate featured a fern design, but voters ultimately chose to keep the current flag.

ECONOMIC CRISIS Huge and growing economic and political pressures resulted. In 1984, Muldoon called for a general election, in which his National Party lost to the Labour Party. The new government faced a massive economic crisis. The New Zealand dollar was devalued and, over the next six years, the Labour government began a major program of deregulation and financial reform. By the early 1990s, the World Bank and other international

30 New Zealand

organizations said that New Zealand had one of the most deregulated and least centrally controlled economies in the world. Situations grew worse as a result of 1987’s Black Monday. This was a day when world stock markets saw huge losses virtually overnight. One of the negative effects of the economic downturn resulting from the crash was an increase in New Zealand’s unemployment rate. Unemployment rose to 10 percent in the early 1990s but gradually fell to 3 percent by 2007. In 2009, unemployment was back up to 7 percent due in part to another global financial crisis. As of 2016, the unemployment rate was 5.1 percent.

NONNUCLEAR By reducing the role of government, the Labour government of 1984 to 1990 departed from many traditional Labour Party policies. On one subject, however, it held true to its election promises: a nuclear-free New Zealand. The government refused to accept visits from American or other warships that might be carrying nuclear weapons or that were nuclear-powered. Prime Minister David Russell Lange of the Labour Party made the nuclear-free position his personal crusade. Eventually, increasing tensions within the Labour government over the reforms and their impact on the poor marred the later years of Lange’s leadership. Lange resigned as prime minister in 1990, and the Labour Party lost the 1990 and 1993 elections to the National Party. A reformed National Party, free of the influence of Robert Muldoon, continued the reform process and built on the growing acceptance at home and abroad of both New Zealand’s radical economic reforms and its nuclearfree position. The National Party lost the 1999 election to the Labour Party, under the leadership of Helen Elizabeth Clark.

CURRENT AFFAIRS Today, New Zealand’s political and national climate continues to change. On a global level, the country cemented its environmental goals when it ratified the Kyoto Treaty in 2002, binding itself to new regulations, and again when

History 31

HELEN ELIZABETH CLARK When the New Zealand Labour Party came into office as part of a coalition following the 1999 election, Helen Elizabeth Clark became the second female prime minister of New Zealand after Jenny Shipley. During her term in office (1999–2008), women held a number of prominent positions in New Zealand, including governor-general, Speaker of the House of Representatives, and chief justice, not to mention the queen of England. Clark’s government brought significant changes to the New Zealand welfare system, such as child tax credits. Her government also changed industrial relations law and raised the minimum wage several times. Interests on student loans were abolished as well. One controversial bill passed during Clark’s term in office was the anti-smacking bill, which makes it illegal for parents to hit their children. Clark left office in 2008 after the Labour Party was defeated by the National Party in that year’s election. Today she also holds the distinction of being the first prime minister of New Zealand from the Labour Party to hold three consecutive terms in office.

it signed the Paris Climate Agreement in 2015. In its nationally determined contribution, part of the Paris Climate Agreement, New Zealand committed to lowering carbon emissions by 30 percent below 2005 levels by the year 2030. In 2007, Helen Clark announced plans for eventual carbon neutrality. In 2008, the National Party defeated the Labour Party, and John Key was elected prime minister. In December 2016, John Key resigned and endorsed Bill English as his replacement. English ran unopposed for the elected seat. In October 2017, Jacinda Ardern, thirty-seven years old, became the third and youngest female prime minister of New Zealand, as the leader of the Labour Party. Changes also occurred beyond the country’s government. On February 20, 2011, an earthquake measuring 6.3 on the Richter scale hit Christchurch.

32 New Zealand

The city’s structures had been weakened by a 7.1-magnitude earthquake in September of the previous year. As a result, the February 2011 earthquake caused significant damage and killed 185 citizens. The 2011 Rugby World Cup, held shortly after the tragedy, offered New Zealanders a welcome distraction from the devastation at home. In October 2011, the All Blacks, New Zealand’s professional rugby team, managed to defeat France in the tournament final. Tensions between the Maori and pakeha populations have been a recurring theme in New Zealand’s history. Though modern Kiwis are embracing the diversity of Maori culture, there are still conflicts. For instance, in 2003, Maori requested an official investigation into precolonial ownership of the shore and seabed. Thousands of protestors supported the Maori by marching on Parliament. Despite the protest, the Labour Party was able to introduce and pass legislation that removed the right to investigate claims into ownership of the land. As a result of the conflict, the Maori Party, a political organization focused on the rights of New Zealand’s indigenous population, was created in 2004. While conflict regarding Maori land ownership continues, the New Zealand government has made a concerted effort to protect Maori customs. Maori influence on the land and culture are undeniable. Modern New Zealanders have embraced their bicultural heritage and continue to celebrate their diverse history with fellow Kiwis.

INTERNET LINKS http://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/destinations/oceania/ new-zealand/maori-culture-history In this article, National Geographic examines the best travel destinations to experience Maori culture. https://nzhistory.govt.nz Learn about a variety of elements in New Zealand’s colorful past at this website run by the New Zealand government.

History 33

GOVERNMENT

New Zealand’s Parliament serves as the country’s central government and operates within these buildings.

W

ITH A HISTORY THAT CAN BE complex at times, New Zealand’s government has evolved as a partnership between cultures. Between Maori and pakeha, Kiwi and the Crown, the current New Zealand government is the result of years of compromise.

GOVERNMENTAL STRUCTURE New Zealand is an independent state with a democratic form of government. While the government bears some similarities to other advanced nations, the New Zealand structure of government is unique. Much like the United States, New Zealand has three branches of government: the executive branch, the judicial branch, and the legislative branch. Each branch operates independently in an effort to ensure separation of power. Additionally, there are two other levels of government. They consist of regional councils and territorial authorities. Regional councils act like state governments in the United States, whereas territorial authorities act like city or county governments in the United States, but with more limited power. The central government— called the House of Representatives or, more commonly, Parliament— holds democratic elections every three years, while judges in New Zealand are not elected but appointed. There are four levels of courts and several specialized courts for specific legal matters.

3 “Waiho i te toipoto, kaua i te toiroa.” (“Let us keep close together, not far apart.”) —Maori proverb

ALL HAIL THE QUEEN

This map illustrates the countries that currently belong to the British Commonwealth.

As a member of the British Commonwealth, New Zealand is formally headed by Queen Elizabeth II of Britain. The queen is represented in New Zealand by the governor-general, who is appointed by the queen, on the advice of the New Zealand government, for an unspecified term—generally three to five years. Early governors-general were often nobles from England. More recently they have been distinguished New Zealanders. Currently, Dame Patsy Reddy serves as governor-general, recommended by former prime minister John Key. As the queen’s representative, the governor-general opens Parliament, formally appoints the prime minister and other ministers, and signs legislation passed by Parliament. The governor-general has no discretion in such matters. He or she accepts the advice of the prime minister and the government that is in power. Only where there is no clear control of Parliament—and thus, no clear government—would the governor-general have more than a nominal role to play. In recent years there has been some discussion about whether New Zealand should become a republic, replacing the sovereign with a governmentappointed head of state. This would effectively raise the governor-general to the status of president, rather than a representative of the queen. Talk of the country becoming a republic has been more frequent in the twentyfirst century, especially in the lead up to the 2017 election and following the nomination of Jacinda Ardern to prime minister. Ardern said she would welcome national debate on removing the queen as head of state.

SIMPLE STRUCTURE New Zealand has perhaps one of the simplest structures of government of any advanced nation. It is composed of a central government, territorial authorities, and regional councils.

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Like Britain, New Zealand is a parliamentary sovereignty. In other words, the will of Parliament rules supreme. The laws that Parliament makes are the rule of law for the country, and the role of the courts is to interpret them as they are written, without a formal document to guide them, other than the law itself, in decision making. Therefore, New Zealand does not have a single written constitution, like most other countries, but rather gets its sets of laws from various acts and agreements in its history.

CONSOLIDATED POWER The party or coalition of parties that controls Parliament decides who will be appointed as prime minister and other ministers. Each minister is given an area or areas of responsibility. The departments, which are part of the executive branch of government, that cover each area report to and are responsible to the minister in charge of that area. In other words, the group that controls Parliament also controls the executive. The judiciary is independent, but it cannot overturn laws passed by Parliament. Thus it is also subject to the laws passed by the group that controls Parliament. Parliament once had two houses, but the second chamber was abolished in 1950. The single chamber that was retained consists of elected members of Parliament. Control of this body, which is won in elections held every three years, gives the winners control of Parliament. Because of the range of responsibilities delegated to the central government, local New Zealand government is often overshadowed. Unlike in many countries, local authorities have no direct role in the provision of education or health services—these are the responsibility of the central government. As of 2017, there were seventy-eight local authorities within the country. Elected local and regional government bodies are responsible for sewage, water supply, flood control, local roads, planning controls (for example, changes in land use and building permits), and provision of optional local leisure facilities, such as a sports stadium.

Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern is seen here at a Parliament meeting in October 2017.

Thanks to the efforts of Kate Sheppard, on September 19, 1893, New Zealand became the first country in the world to grant women the right to vote.

Government 37

Most matters are settled along party lines, with the party leadership deciding how members of that party should vote. On some issues, however, MPs vote according to their conscience. For instance, private members’ bills to permit casinos have passed, and bills to allow euthanasia have been rejected.

ELECTIONS Until the October 1996 general election, members were elected to Parliament by direct election from constituencies around the country. This usually meant that one party would win control of Parliament. In this winner-take-all system, known in New Zealand as a first-past-thepost electoral system, votes cast for losing candidates were not reflected in the makeup of Parliament. Unhappiness with this system eventually resulted in a call for change from a first-past-the-post electoral system to one of proportional representation (an electoral system that aims at a close match between the percentage of votes that a group of candidates obtains in an election and the percentage of seats the group receives). In two referenda held in 1992 and 1993, New Zealanders voted to adopt a system of proportional representation for Parliament called “mixed-member proportional” (MMP). Under the old system, minor parties could gain a significant minority of votes, but still could not win any individual seats in Parliament. Under MMP, the number of seats that a party gains in Parliament is dictated by the proportion of the vote it receives nationally. The first MMP election, held in October 1996, left a third party, New Zealand First, holding the balance of power between the Labour and National Parties. After lengthy negotiations, New Zealand First entered a formal coalition with the National Party in December 1996. Jim Bolger, the leader of the National Party, remained prime minister. After the 2017 elections, a coalition government was formed between Prime Minister Ardern’s Labour Party and Deputy Prime Minister Winston Peters’s New Zealand First Party, with additional support from the Green Party.

LAWMAKING Parliament is responsible for making laws, voting to “supply” funding to the government, and appointing the ministerial heads of the executive. Proposed laws are placed before Parliament in the form of bills. These are debated both on the floor of the house and generally by a subcommittee

38 New Zealand

of members of Parliament (MPs). A successful bill has to pass through three “readings,” or votes, in Parliament before being sent to the governor-general for signature and passage into law. Most bills are introduced by the government of the day, although the opposition or individual MPs may also seek to introduce bills.

EXECUTIVE MATTERS Executive governmental functions are carried out under the control of the ministers appointed by the governor-general. In practice, these ministers are chosen by the party or parties that control Parliament. There are many staff employed by public service departments. The public service was substantially reorganized as part of widespread economic reforms in the 1980s. These reforms have greatly increased flexibility and accountability and sharpened efficiency. Under the State Sector Act of 1988, the chief executive of each public department is now accountable for running his or her department efficiently and effectively, and agrees on a contract of performance with the minister in charge of that department. In this contractual relationship between ministers and department chief executives, the ministers decide what results they want and how much money is available. As in private sector firms, chief executives determine how they will accomplish the job. They have a large degree of freedom in this role. Financial reforms in the Public Finance Act and elsewhere have required public departments to provide a high standard of financial disclosure, for instance, in distinguishing current expenditure from capital (investment) expenditure. In public sector reforms and accountability, New Zealand is recognized as a world leader. Its system has been studied extensively by overseas delegations and international bodies.

The Beehive, a slang term for the building that hosts New Zealand’s executive branch, is located in Wellington City.

Government 39

SIR APIRANA TURUPA NGATA One of New Zealand’s most famous politicians, Sir Apirana Turupa Ngata, dedicated his life to preserving Maori culture. Ngata was born in a small town north of Gisborne. His father was a tribal leader, thus Ngata was raised in a Maori environment. He grew up speaking the language and engaging in Maori traditions. Ngata excelled in academics and was the first Maori to obtain a degree from a New Zealand university in 1893. He went on to become the first Kiwi to obtain a double degree in 1896 from the University of Auckland. Elected to Parliament in 1905, Ngata quickly distinguished himself as an excellent speaker. He worked with other politicians to create legislation that encouraged more transparency in the sale and distribution of Maori land. During the First and Second World Wars, Ngata recruited Maori to fight for New Zealand. He served as minister of native affairs and even served as acting deputy prime minister occasionally. Ngata is most well known for his dedication to Maori culture. He published a number of books on the subject, including a collection of traditional Maori songs. Ngata promoted and supported Maori sport through intertribal competitions. He also fought to preserve Maori dance and advocated for the Maori language to be taught at the University of New Zealand. Ngata was knighted in 1927 and died in 1950. Throughout his life, he worked to bring dignity to the Maori and pakeha alike. He is revered in the island nation, and a variety of educational institutions bear his name.

APPLYING THE LAW Judges interpret and apply the law, and the judiciary is independent of the government. Aside from the main judicial system that includes district courts, the High Court, the Court of Appeal, and the Supreme Court, there are various specialist tribunals and courts in New Zealand. Most notable are the Employment Court (which considers employment disputes) and the Waitangi Tribunal (which considers claims arising under the Treaty of Waitangi). The most senior court within New Zealand used to be the Court of Appeal. Appeals from lower courts could be made to this body, while appeals from the Court of Appeal could be made to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council

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in England. However, the Privy Council, in reaching its verdicts, was bound by New Zealand statute. In 2004, the Supreme Court, based in New Zealand itself, replaced the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in London as New Zealand’s highest court of appeal.

CONFIDENTIAL ADVICE The word “privy” means “private” or “secret.” Thus, the Privy Council was originally a committee of the British monarch’s closest advisors, who provided confidential advice on affairs of state. The Privy Council heard appeals and judgments that were made before January 1, 2004. After that point, the Supreme Court of New Zealand became the highest court in the nation and replaced the need for the Privy Council. The main form of law in New Zealand is New Zealand statute law—the law passed by the New Zealand Parliament. Subject to this are three other forms of law: common law (case law based on general rules developed by the courts, not only in New Zealand, but also, where relevant, in England and in other Commonwealth countries), United Kingdom statutes, and subordinate legislation (New Zealand statute may delegate some lawmaking powers to the governor-general and to local government).

This photograph shows what the inside of the Supreme Court of New Zealand looks like.

INTERNET LINKS https://www.beehive.govt.nz Read speeches, view photos of state ceremonies, and learn more about the New Zealand government at this official website. http://www.localcouncils.govt.nz/lgip.nsf Curious about local government in New Zealand? Then check out this site, read articles about local ordinances, and view a map of the country that outlines the boundaries of local councils.

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ECONOMY

New Zealand’s colorful currency includes $20, $50 and $100 notes.

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ODAY, NEW ZEALAND HAS AN advanced economy that has struggled to become less dependent on agrarian resources and access to British markets. The modern New Zealand economy is moving toward a more industry-focused free market economy that can compete on a global scale. THE ECONOMY GROWS

From the 1860s on, New Zealand offered a high standard of living to most European settlers, so that an ordinary working-class family could enjoy meat on the table every day and a horse for transportation when these would have been nothing more than dreams for people in Europe. New Zealand’s position, relative to other advanced economies, slowly declined during the twentieth century. However, from the mid-1990s on, the New Zealand economy began to expand, and its GDP grew a little faster than the OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) average. In 2016, the World Bank reported New Zealand’s GDP at $185 billion US, with an annual growth rate of 3.9 percent. New Zealand is responsible for 0.3 percent of the world economy and has the fiftythird largest economy in the world. The country’s currency is called the New Zealand dollar (NZD). About 76 percent of the working-age population is employed, and the median income is about $46,500 NZD annually, or about $32,000 US.

4 “He mahi kai te taonga.” (“Survival is the treasured goal.”) —Maori proverb

In 2016, 85 percent of New Zealand’s energy was produced by renewable sources such as

For years, the primary economic sector consisted of agriculture, horticulture, mining, forestry, and fishing. Figures from Statistics New Zealand and Reserve Bank New Zealand show that agriculture accounted for just 6.1 percent of the 2015 GDP. On the other hand, these same industries contributed to a little over half of New Zealand’s total export earnings. The lion’s share of production and employment is in the service sector, especially tourism, which employed 7.5 percent of New Zealand’s workforce in 2016. The tourism industry is by far New Zealand’s largest foreign exchange earner.

hydroelectric, solar, and wind power.

RADICAL REFORMS The success of New Zealand’s major economic reforms from the mid-1980s to the early 1990s is often debated, both domestically and internationally. New Zealand is viewed as a test case for radical reform. The reforms caused big structural changes in New Zealand, particularly since they followed a period of tight state control. The reforms began with the removal of exchange and loan controls, the deregulation of financial markets, and fluctuation in the value of the New Zealand dollar. Subsidies to farmers were virtually eliminated, making New Zealand agriculture the least subsidized in the world. Import controls were removed and tariffs gradually reduced. Free trade with Australia was established in 1989. The domestic air market was opened up, and ports, coastal shipping, and road transportation were deregulated. The public sector was reformed and the government’s accounts were greatly improved, so that they resembled those of a large company. Government-owned trading activities were set up on commercial lines and, in many cases, sold. The government received some $9 billion from privatization between 1988 and 1995. The Reserve Bank Act of 1989 made the central bank independent of the government, with the sole aim of monetary policy being price stability. The last of the major reforms, the Employment Contracts Act of 1991, decentralized wage negotiations. Previously, such negotiations were handled for large groups of workers by representatives from the labor union to which the workers belonged. Under the new law, any individual worker or group was

44 New Zealand

allowed to negotiate directly with a company concerning wages. Union membership was made voluntary, and workers could choose which union would represent them, if any. The aim of all these reforms was to improve the country’s economic performance and the government’s financial position. The main initial impact of the reforms was to increase efficiency. At the same time, however, unemployment also increased. Forestry, mining, railways, postal services, telecommunications, electricity generation and transmission, and other areas were run as government departments with little concern for profit, return on investment, or for the customer. Under commercial pressures, it was proved possible to run these services with far less staff. Typically employment fell by one-third to two-thirds. Organizations such as the postal services and railways moved from being loss-makers requiring frequent government subsidies to being profitable firms. But tens of thousands of workers lost their jobs. Unemployment climbed from 4 percent in 1986 to 11 percent in 1991. Some rural communities and small towns were devastated, and the large supply of low-skilled but wellpaying jobs that had characterized the New Zealand economy for many decades was permanently depleted. Many traditional occupations and career paths vanished. The removal of financial regulations led to a credit and banking boom in the cities. Speculative companies were launched, and the stock market rocketed upward. However, the New York stock market crash of October 1987 brought New Zealand’s financial bubble to an abrupt end. Many of the banks and financial companies lacked the expertise to make sound investments in the new environment. One big retail bank needed two large capital injections from the government to stay afloat. Despite these problems, the deregulated economy offered new opportunities. The economy finally moved out of recession in 1993. However, it again stagnated in the twenty-first century as a result of the 2008 global financial crisis. New Zealand navigated the crisis through government

New Zealand is known for its sheep farming. The industry draws tourists and sustains rural areas.

Economy 45

CHILD POVERTY As New Zealand’s economy has expanded, so have some of the economic challenges facing the country. One of these issues is children growing up in poverty. An organization called UNICEF New Zealand has been studying the problem and considers child poverty as children living in households that earn less than 60 percent of the median national income (about $28,000 NZD, or $19,200 US). The problem has grown steadily over the years, with the number of children living below the poverty line in New Zealand doubling between 1984 and 2016. In 2016, Child Poverty Monitor reported that about one-third of New Zealand children are experiencing child poverty. Maori and Pacific populations are disproportionately affected. In 2014, prior to his reelection as prime minister, John Key stated that child poverty would be a priority in his administration. However, today the New Zealand government has been criticized for demonizing low-income families by suggesting that finding work is often the route out of poverty. This attitude overlooks the reality that many children in this situation have two-parent, two-income homes. Despite perceived resistance, the government recently approved a slight increase in public assistance benefits for citizens with children.

stimulus measures and cutting interest rates. The economy has grown between 2 and 4 percent from 2011 to 2016. Most of New Zealand’s economic indicators are now good. Its recent past and expected future growth levels are better than those of most other advanced economies. Inflation and government debt are low, and the government has run a budget surplus for several years. Unemployment was at 5.1 percent as of 2016. Private investment has replaced falling government investment. In these terms, the economic reforms of the past have been a success. However, concerns remain about investment and trade and the social impact of the reforms.

INFLATION After World War II, New Zealand fell into a pattern of high inflation—making New Zealand prices higher relative to those of its trading partners—and

46 New Zealand

APEC The Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) is an intergovernmental forum that facilitates economic growth and prosperity, cooperation, trade, and investment in the AsiaPacific region. It operates on the basis of nonbinding commitments, open dialogue, and equal respect for the views of all participants, regardless of the size of their economy.

repeated currency devaluations, which restored New Zealand prices to a lower level, making exports more competitive. As New Zealand’s living standards started to fall behind those of other advanced countries, successive governments tried to meet voters’ concerns and assist industry by spending more. As expenditure was consistently higher than its revenue, the government had to borrow more and more, and then had to pay interest on its debt. This pushed up government expenditure further, making it even more difficult to balance the books. The government’s net public debt peaked at $33 billion in 1992, or 51 percent of the GDP. With subsequent economic growth and restraints and efficiencies in government expenditure, the situation improved rapidly. By 1996, net public debt fell to some $20 billion, or 32 percent of GDP. The central bank has operated a tough anti-inflation policy that has worked, but at the price of high interest rates and exchange rates. In terms of real interest rates (the actual interest rate less inflation), New Zealand has tended to have the highest rates of inflation of any advanced economy. This has deterred domestic investment—the cost of borrowing in New Zealand being so high—but attracted funds from overseas. High exchange rates have made exports more expensive overseas and imports into New Zealand cheaper.

INTERNATIONAL INVESTORS Since privatization began in 1988, major flows of foreign direct investment (where a company buys a controlling interest in a firm, rather than buying stock or lending money on set terms) have come to New Zealand. As a

Economy 47

The first sheep in New Zealand landed with Captain Cook in 1773.

percentage of GDP, New Zealand has consistently attracted the highest levels of such investment of any advanced economy, often some $2 billion per year (3–4 percent of GDP). Investment brings the capital, managerial skills, and contacts of overseas firms to New Zealand and demonstrates confidence in the economy. Many overseas managers work in New Zealand. The New Zealand seller (often the government) gains the sale price. But the sale means a loss of control to foreign investors, who will also look for a return on their investment.

COMMERCE As a small economy, New Zealand is highly dependent on trade. With a relatively small workforce of 2.6 million, it has to specialize in certain industries and import many items, as there is insufficient manpower to cover all sectors of the economy. For much of its history, the New Zealand economy has been dominated by the primary sectors of agriculture, fishing, forestry, and mining. In 1913, New Zealand’s three main exports were (in descending order of importance) wool, meat, and dairy products. In 1983, the same three industries dominated exports, though dairy products had overtaken wool and meat. However, from the 1970s on, exports have diversified and now include forestry products, fish, and fruit. The manufacturing sector also grew in importance as an exporter, and tourism became a significant earner of foreign currency. In 2016, total merchandise exports (excluding trade in services, such as tourism) were worth $32.5 billion. Key exports were dairy, meat, wood, fish, wool, fruit, crude oil, and wine. Until the mid-1970s, the main export market for New Zealand was Britain. Since then, New Zealand has diversified. Four markets are now of significant importance to New Zealand: Australia, Japan, China, and the United States.

KEY INDUSTRIES DAIRY New Zealand’s dairy sector accounts for $7.8 billion of the GDP. It makes up 3 percent of global dairy exports. The combination of low

48 New Zealand

population density, good infrastructure, and grass that grows rapidly makes New Zealand a highly competitive producer of dairy products. Up until 2001, the New Zealand Dairy Board marketed dairy products overseas. That year, the Dairy Industry Restructuring Act came into play. It reorganized the dairy industry, combining the two largest dairy cooperatives into Fonterra. Today, Fonterra and Dairy New Zealand, funded by dairy farmers, represent dairy interests in New Zealand and around the world. Its headquarters are in the city of Hamilton.

Here, cows wait to be milked at a dairy farm. Dairy farming supports New Zealand’s economy domestically and contributes to the world economy through exportation.

MEAT AND WOOL Over one-quarter of New Zealand’s land area is used for sheep farming. There are about six sheep for every person, and most are dual-purpose meat and wool animals. Teams of sheepshearers travel throughout the country, shearing wool from sheep, sometimes two hundred per day. New Zealand’s main markets for meat are North America and the European Union.

Economy 49

TOURISM Tourism has grown rapidly in recent years, with New Zealand’s isolation luring more travelers to visit, rather than deterring them. The industry employs 7.5 percent of New Zealand’s workforce. Some 3.5 million people visited New Zealand in 2016, with most visitors coming from Australia and China. Visitors generated $2.8 billion in tax revenue, while international tourism expenditure rose to $11.8 billion (a 17 percent increase from 2015) and contributed 17.4 percent to New Zealand’s total export goods and services. Tourists in New Zealand take in views from a ferry traveling from North Island to South Island.

FORESTRY In terms of the world’s wood production, New Zealand is a small contributor, accounting for about 1.1 percent of the world’s industrial wood and 1.3 percent of trade in forest products. Forestry accounts for about 3 percent of New Zealand’s GDP, and the industry employs about twenty thousand New Zealanders. Commercial exotic plantation forests cover about 7 percent of New Zealand’s land area. The main commercial tree species, Pinus radiata, accounts for 90 percent of the plantation area and can be harvested on a twenty-seven-year cycle—the fastest of any major supplier. New Zealand accounts for one-third of the world’s radiata pines. Douglas firs occupy about 6 percent of the plantation area, while the remaining 4 percent consists of eucalypts and a variety of other species.

INFRASTRUCTURE New Zealand’s international competitiveness and the quality of life of its population depend partly on its infrastructure. With a low population density, expenditure on roads per person is high. New Zealand relies heavily on sea transportation for overseas trade, although some highvalue goods, such as flowers and seafood, are air-freighted for freshness to sophisticated markets such as Japan. With deregulation of the ports in 1990, New Zealand’s ports changed from some of the least efficient in the world to some of the most efficient,

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with port costs typically falling by one-half to two-thirds within two years. With the opening up of domestic air services to competition in 1987, airport and in-flight facilities improved virtually overnight.

TELECOMMUNICATIONS New Zealand has the least regulated telecommunications sector in the world. Its largest supplier, Spark, has invested heavily in new technology, and prices have fallen rapidly. Today, New Zealanders own about 5.8 million cell phones—more than the country’s total population— and 3.9 million people—or 88 percent of the population—are connected to the internet.

Spark is one of the nation’s major telecommunications suppliers.

INTERNET LINKS http://www.heritage.org/index/country/newzealand A detailed analysis and comparison of New Zealand’s economy to the rest of the world’s countries can be viewed at the Heritage Foundation’s 2017 Index of Economic Freedom website. http://www.treasury.govt.nz/economy New Zealand’s Treasury Department website offers an overview of the country’s economy as well as a breakdown of factors affecting prosperity and government initiatives targeted at growing the economy.

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ENVIRONMENT

The natural environment is one of New Zealand’s most precious resources.

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EW ZEALAND IS A NATION THAT HAS built its identity and wealth on the sanctity of its environment, so the Maori proverb to the right still resonates with the country’s values. Kiwis enjoy a smorgasbord of geological forms, unique flora and fauna, and landscapes unlike any other place in the world. No matter where you are within the borders of the island nation, you are never more than about 80 miles (129 km) from the Pacific Ocean. While the country’s landmasses are fairly narrow, they contain myriad features, including the mighty Southern Alps, towering glaciers, picturesque fjords, and even active volcanoes.

New Zealand’s isolated location has allowed a number of endemic species to evolve, resulting in a one-of-a-kind biodiversity. Though the pristine environment attracts nature lovers worldwide, it is not without its disasters. Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are characteristic of New Zealand and have been for thousands of years. Soil erosion and deforestation are long-standing issues. Thousands of species of

5 “Te toto o te tangata, he kai; te oranga o te tangata, he whenua.” (“While food provides the blood in our veins, our health is drawn from the land.”) —Maori proverb

flora and fauna are threatened with extinction, and the fact that many of these species can only be found in the island nation further complicates the pressing issue. In fact, with the whaling industry having decimated sea life in the 1800s and the moa having been hunted to extinction by the Maori, New Zealand has a marked history of environmental struggle. Nevertheless, citizens are committed to their distinct ecosystems and have put measures in place to preserve the sanctity of their surroundings.

THE DARK SHADOW AND FUTURE PLANS If you were to tramp through New Zealand’s national parks, you would certainly appreciate the “clean and green” environment of New Zealand. The dark side of New Zealand’s environmental record, however, is that significant portions of the nation’s forests have been stripped for timber and pasture over many years. Air pollution, although relatively low compared to other countries around the world, has impacted the environment, and animals introduced to the area have caused havoc on the native flora and fauna. However, more commitments are being made to tackling such environmental issues. In 2015, 7,413 acres (3,000 ha) of new forestland were planted in the country, and carbon emissions plans were included in New Zealand’s pledge to the Paris Climate Agreement in 2016. Still, deforestation happens regularly throughout the country and remains one of the biggest environmental issues in the twenty-first century.

ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE New Zealand’s native flora and fauna are mostly endemic (meaning they are not found anywhere else in the world). With no large native land mammals, birds dominate New Zealand’s wildlife. There are 168 native bird species in New Zealand. Ninety-three of those species are found only in New Zealand. The world’s largest flightless parrot, the kakapo, and the only truly alpine parrot, the kea, are found here. The moa was driven to extinction by the arrival of humans—up to 12 feet (3.7 m) tall and weighing 500 pounds (227 kg), it was easily captured. Other species that are in peril today include

54 New Zealand

the kakapo, the whio, and the kiwi. It is estimated that 80 percent of New Zealand’s bird species are endangered today.

KAKAPO The kakapo is an example of a bird that evolved in the absence of predators but has failed to thrive in the modern competitive world. It has been described as the world’s “largest, fattest, and least able to fly” parrot. It is severely endangered. A male kakapo can weigh up to 8.8 pounds (4 kg). As of June 2017, there were only 154 kakpos left, though this was an improvement from the mid-1990s, when only about 50 kakapos were known to be alive.

PUKEKO The pukeko, or New Zealand swamp hen, is a member of the rail family and is similar to other species found all over the world. It is one of the few native New Zealand birds to have flourished since the arrival of humans. It can be found in almost any grassland area, especially in swampy locations. Groups of pukeko will often be seen foraging for food in roadside areas. With their bright blue plumage and red beaks, these birds easily stand out against the New Zealand greenery.

The kakapo is still endangered, but its population has increased in recent years.

MARINE LIFE Nearly half of the world’s whale and dolphin species can be found off the coasts of New Zealand. Dolphin hotspots include the Bay of Islands in Northland and Kaikoura, north of Christchurch.

HECTOR’S DOLPHIN This dolphin is exclusive to New Zealand waters. It has a small body, with a rounded fin, reaches a length of only 4.6 feet (1.4 m), and weighs at most 110 pounds (50 kg). According to the World Wildlife Fund, the Hector’s dolphin population is between 12,000 and 18,500. Hector’s dolphins feed on small schooling fish, but they stay relatively close to shore year-round. In 1988, the Department of Conservation (DOC) declared the Banks Peninsula (a peninsula in the Canterbury region on the east coast of the South Island of New Zealand) a marine sanctuary after Greenpeace reported that 30 percent of the Hector’s dolphin population had

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been killed in that area. Hector’s dolphin is considered the rarest species of marine dolphin, and the South Island population has been listed as “critically endangered.”

DUSKY DOLPHIN Dusky dolphins usually average a bit less

The only place in the world where you can see Hector’s dolphins is off the coast of New Zealand.

than 6.6 feet (2 m) long, but what they lack in size they make up for in spirit. These are the most playful dolphins, and they are the kind that “dolphin swimming” participants are likely to encounter. While in the water, one may see them executing noisy leaps and somersaults. They feed on small schooling fish and often round up hundreds of fish in a tight ball, from which members of the pod take turns at feeding.

SPERM WHALES Sperm whales are the largest of the toothed whales. The male often reaches up to 66 feet (20 m) in length, while the female is much smaller, with a maximum length of 39 feet (12 m). This is the whale that watchers come to see at Kaikoura. There, the continental shelf (the extended area of each continent into the sea) is so narrow that whales can be observed from the shore. Adult males weigh up to 50 tons (45,359 kg) and females weigh just over 20 tons (18,144 kg). Both live for up to seventy years. Sperm whales have a single blowhole that is offset on the left side of their head.

PLANTS New Zealand has magnificent areas of native forest. About 15 percent of its total land area is covered by native flora, much of it in protected parks and reserves.

KAURI Kauri trees grow only in the Northland and on the Coromandel Peninsula. These large native trees were once ruthlessly cut down for their excellent timber. They grow to over 164 feet (50 m) tall and are believed to live for up to two thousand years.

POHUTUKAWA This beautiful tree is predominantly found in the north part of the North Island, but it has also been successfully planted throughout the South Island. Its brilliant crimson flowers appear in December, giving

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it the nickname “Christmas tree.” It can grow up to 66 feet (20 m) in height and 6.6 feet (2 m) across at its base, and is usually found close to the sea.

PROTECTED AREAS With the passing of the Conservation Act in 1987, the DOC was set up to protect natural and historic heritage, and to provide recreational opportunities on the land entrusted to its care. Today, New Zealand has thirteen national parks and several conservation areas. There are also many subtler and more complex economic contributions that natural environments supply, such as “ecosystem services.” They are the processes that nature provides for free, from which humans benefit, such as freshwater filtration and allocation, soil maintenance, erosion and flood control, and the maintenance of food stocks. These are taken for granted because they are “free”—not traded directly in any markets—but their value to society becomes apparent when they are in decline.

Wind turbines in Wellington convert wind’s natural kinetic properties to electrical energy.

ENERGY In the twenty-first century, New Zealand has expanded its energy production to include more renewable resources. In 2016, 85 percent of its electricity came from hydroelectric, wind, geothermal, and solar energy. Likewise, New Zealanders are starting to drive more hybrid and electric vehicles. At the end of 2016, there were over 2,500 electric vehicles registered in the country.

In 2016, New Zealand produced

NONRENEWABLE ENERGY Nonrenewable energy sources have declined in recent years. In 2015, several mines closed, resulting in a lower coal production rate for 2016. In fact, coal production dropped by 15 percent in 2016. In 2015, the country was 30 percent self-sufficient in terms of natural gas and oil. However, in 2016, domestic production of crude oil dropped by 15.1 percent to its lowest level in a deacde. To offset this decline, imports

enough energy to meet 78 percent of its energy needs. The remaining supply, including oil and diesel, had to be imported.

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New Zealand officially signed on to the Paris Climate Agreement on October 4, 2016. Supported by nearly every country on Earth, the agreement seeks to reduce carbon emissions and prevent the global average temperature from rising more than 3.6°F (2°C) above preindustrial levels.

of foreign crude oil increased. In 2016, overall energy imports were up by 5 percent. This is largely due to a greater demand for diesel fuel. Production of natural gas was up 5.2 percent in 2016. However, the use of gas to fuel electricity plants fell by 8.4 percent, reaching a thirty-fiveyear low. A report in 2016 indicated this decrease was due to New Zealand experiencing wetter than normal weather conditions, enabling a greater reliance on hydropower.

ENVIRONMENTAL TOURISM While New Zealanders have long been dedicated to cultivating and preserving their natural resources, visitors to the island nation are also clamoring to get their hands dirty. Many tourists visiting New Zealand are interested in farmstays. A farmstay is an exchange of lodging on an authentic farm for work and/ or monetary compensation. About 43 percent of the country’s land is used for agriculture, so there are many different experiences available. More than one thousand farmers across New Zealand offer farmstays so travelers can customize the experience. From shearing sheep in Gisborne to checking for broken fences on a dairy farm in Palmerston North, farmstays give tourists the chance to have a unique experience. While you might think accommodations would be modest on the farm, those too range from simple lodging to a more up-scale experience, complete with gourmet meals. Many of New Zealand’s most treasured outdoor activities are within reach when a visitor opts for a farmstay. Guests enjoy fly-fishing, horseback riding, and hiking without having to travel far from their lodging. Farmstays are less expensive than a hotel room, and they come with exciting opportunities for connecting with the environment and the people of New Zealand.

POLLUTION Favorable geographic features, low population, and a late development of industry mean that New Zealand has mostly avoided the air, water, and land

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AN UNDERGROUND POWER STATION Manapouri Power Station is an underground hydroelectric power station and the largest hydroelectric power station in New Zealand. It lies deep within a remote area of New Zealand’s South Island on the western arm of Lake Manapouri, in Fiordland National Park. The first surveyors mapping out this corner of New Zealand noted the potential for hydrogeneration in the 584-foot (178 m) drop from the lake to the Tasman Sea at Doubtful Sound. The construction of the station was a massive feat of civil engineering. Most of the station, including the machine hall and two 6.2-mile (10 km) tailrace tunnels, was excavated under a mountain. During the 1960s, environmental protests against its construction, which resulted in the planned raising of lake levels, galvanized New Zealanders, and was considered one of the starting points of New Zealand environmentalism. Today, the site boasts a visitor center as well as an in-depth tour to the curious visitor.

pollution problems of more densely populated and heavily industrialized countries. However, pollution still exists. This is seen mainly in manufacturing industries as well as through heating homes and transporting goods. While New Zealand air is relatively clean, water pollution is cause for concern. More than seventy rivers have suffered decline in recent years. Some are totally unfishable as a result of mass-scale irrigation and unsustainable farming practices. For the most part, New Zealanders are keen to take environmental responsibility on an individual, national, and international basis. Individuals and their local authorities reduce waste and recycle their trash. There are no nuclear power plants or weapons. However, there is still room for improvement in environmental management.

TRASH Approximately 3.8 million tons (3.4 million metric tons) of waste were dumped in New Zealand landfills in 2006. With an increased focus on waste reduction

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Access to recycling plants like this one has helped New Zealanders reduce their waste.

and recycling, New Zealanders have decreased the amount of landfill waste they produce to around 2.5 million tons (2.3 million metric tons) annually. There has been good progress in improving waste management and waste minimization services and infrastructure across the country, and nearly every New Zealander has access to recycling facilities. Many communities have also taken the initiative to minimize waste and improve resource recovery. Still, there is room to improve further. According to an article in 2015, Kiwis throw out about 50,700 tons (46,000 metric tons) of beverage containers each year that could otherwise have been recycled. That is “enough to fill 700 jumbo jets,” the article states.

CARBON FOOTPRINT New Zealand is unique when compared with other developed countries because most of its emissions come from the agricultural sector. In fact, almost 48 percent comes from the agriculture industry. In 2015, New Zealand’s gross greenhouse gas emissions were equivalent to 88.4 million tons (80.2 million metric tons) of carbon dioxide. The biologically based economy is particularly vulnerable to a changing and unstable climate. New Zealand’s government has made it clear that they acknowledge the challenges they as a nation and the world as a whole face in the midst of such changes. They predict that by the end of the twentyfirst century their country will experience effects of global warming. Among them are rising sea levels, unstable weather patterns, and more intense and prolonged weather events such as droughts. To adapt to the economic and social impacts of climate change, New Zealand’s government has committed to several carbon-fighting initiatives, such as the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Climate Agreement. It likewise encourages its citizens to do what they can to reduce their personal carbon footprint.

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PESTS IN NEW ZEALAND The Australian brush-tailed possum was introduced into New Zealand in 1837 to establish a fur trade. Today there are seventy million of them roaming the country, eating native bush and threatening endangered animals such as giant land snails and kiwis. Stoats and rats also threaten native birds. Efforts to eradicate them have included the use of the biodegradable pesticide 1080 (sodium fluoroacetate). The DOC has also introduced mainland “islands,” which are manageable areas isolated by means of fencing or geographical features. Through intensive management of these islands, the DOC hopes to cultivate them as a way to protect and restore habitats on the mainland by eradicating all pests as thoroughly as possible.

INTERNET LINKS http://www.mfe.govt.nz/climate-change Visit the New Zealand Ministry for the Environment’s climate change website for its stance on climate change and ways the country is working toward reducing its carbon footprint. https://truenz.co.nz/farmstays Visit TrueNZ Guides’ Farmstay Accomodation Guide and learn about the vast range of experiences available during a New Zealand farmstay. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F_tUb-VjN3E View this series of New Zealand landscapes to get a sense of the aweinspiring natural beauty the country offers.

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NEW ZEALANDERS

New Zealanders love to learn about and share culture. Here, women learn Polynesian song and tradition at a music festival.

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HILE THE QUINTESSENTIAL American humorist Mark Twain may have been making a joke at Kiwi expense when he made the statement, “If it would not look too much like showing off, I would tell the reader where New Zealand is,” his comment illuminates the source of the independent and rugged spirit that characterizes New Zealanders.

Kiwis are a diverse group of people with a drive for innovation and invention birthed in part from an incredibly remote locale. Being removed from much of the world has meant that New Zealanders have literally had to fend for themselves. A citizenry made up of a variety of immigrants, Kiwis have had to figure out how to coexist despite differing perspectives. The pioneering spirit that led the first Polynesians to explore the shores also brought Europeans to the island nation. This shared drive to discover continues to define New Zealanders. Whether focused on preserving native arts or developing new adventure sports, Kiwis are motivated by their distant location and inspired by their legacy of innovation.

A GROWING NATION During the first fifty years of European settlement (between 1831 and 1881), the European population of New Zealand increased from fewer than one thousand people to half a million. In 1886, 40 percent of these

6 “I’ve been lucky in life, that’s for sure, but it all started with being born in the greatest country in the world—New Zealand.” —Rhys Darby

Europeans were British. They came from England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland. They came mostly from working-class and lower-middle-class backgrounds. It was the intention of the New Zealand Company and the government to populate New Zealand with Britons—to create a “Britain of the South.” Today, New Zealand is a kaleidoscope of different peoples from Asia, Polynesia, and many other parts of the world. These protestors are standing up for migrant and refugee rights in New Zealand in October 2017.

HONORS SYSTEM New Zealand was oversold in Britain as a “Land of Promise” with very fertile soil, banana plantations, and other tropical fruit orchards. Steep hillsides covered in bush and scrub were described as “perfect for grapevines, wheat, and olives.” A few aristocrats also moved to New Zealand, hoping to establish themselves as the elite of the new society. Many returned to Europe, finding life in New Zealand too tough. Nonetheless, the trappings of success from Europe soon arrived in New Zealand—large houses, servants, balls, fine clothes, and etiquette. It was not long before the British government conferred honors on residents of the colony, such as “knights” and the female equivalent, “dames.” Today New Zealand has its own honors system—a reflection of the confidence that New Zealanders have as a nation that stands apart from Britain.

A HISTORY OF MIGRANTS Migrants came also from Australia (mainly whalers and sealers, but also escaped convicts), France, Germany, Scandinavia, Dalmatia, Lebanon, southern Europe, and Asia. As with the Australians, some of the American whalers and sealers also decided to make New Zealand their base. The Chinese came out to work in the gold fields of Central Otago in the 1860s and

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INNOVATIVE TRANSPORTATION As a result of New Zealand’s remoteness and rugged landscape, its inhabitants have long been industrious and self-reliant. This hardy independence birthed a spirit of inventiveness, and Kiwis have been coming up with new tools, games, and gadgets for centuries. From specialized eggbeaters to extreme sports, a number of inventions have originated on the shores of the island nation. Many of the original designs that have come out of New Zealand are related to transportation. As a child in Auckland, William Hamilton fantasized about navigating up the rivers of his home country. In 1954, Hamilton made his dream come true with the development of his jet boat, a propeller-free boat that could travel upstream. He continued to work with water-propulsion technology and founded one of the most successful water jet–manufacturing companies in the world. The rough waters of New Zealand also inspired Alan Gibbs, a New Zealand businessman. Gibbs sought a way to traverse the tidal Kaipara Harbor and began experimenting with designs for amphibious vehicles in the 1990s. In 2003, he unveiled the Aquada (pictured above), the first street-legal high-speed amphibian. The Aquada can travel over 100 miles per hour (160 kilometers per hour) on land and over 30 miles per hour (48 kmh) on water. In 2004, fellow businessman Richard Branson drove an Aquada across the English Channel and set a new record for fastest crossing by an amphibious vehicle, at one hour and forty minutes—more than four hours faster than the previous record. Other New Zealand inventions include commercial bungee jumping, the electric fence, the disposable hypodermic syringe, and the hand vacuum pump.

1870s (as did many Australians), and a large influx of Dutch migrants poured into the country after World War II. Nestling on the slopes of pristine pastureland by the calm waters of Banks Peninsula (near Christchurch) is the historic French settlement of Akaroa. French street names and stone buildings with shutters preserve its Gallic heritage. The main street, Rue Lavaud, commemorates French seaman

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Charles Lavaud, who captained the warship L’Aube that escorted Captain Jean Langlois’s party of sixty-three immigrants from Rochefort in 1840. The Treaty of Waitangi and consequent British sovereignty over New Zealand ended Langlois’s dreams of a French colony, but his settlers stayed on.

BRITAIN Maori traditions such as dance and crafts are now a treasured part of the nation’s cultural offerings.

Most New Zealanders are descendants of the early European settlers, mainly from Britain. Until fairly recently, Britain was considered the motherland of most New Zealanders, with thousands of people making pilgrimages home to the “old country” every year. Today, large numbers of people still visit Britain and Europe, but their purpose is more to experience life in another country than to rediscover their ancestral roots.

STARTING OUT Unlike early North American settlements, most New Zealand settlers did not come to New Zealand for political or religious reasons. Instead, they came with the common goal of getting ahead in life, owning and establishing their own farms and small businesses. This common purpose was, to some extent, reflected in the motto of the first New Zealand coat of arms (an official symbol of New Zealand), which read “Onward.” But the land was not as fertile as the earlier settlers had been led to believe, and a lot of hard work was needed to clear thick bush before farms could be established.

MODERN MAORI As Anglo-Saxons became predominant in the community, Maori people, who had been dominant in 1840, became subordinate to the Europeans by 1890. Two societies then existed in New Zealand, although there was considerable

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ADVENTUROUS SPIRITS In adapting to their new environment, the early settlers had to make many compromises and improvisations. This has affected the way New Zealanders think of themselves today. “Kiwi ingenuity” is a common expression that epitomizes the positive attitude of New Zealanders when it comes to difficult or challenging situations, often involving the use of ordinary things to achieve extraordinary results. The stories of Richard Pearse and John Britten illustrate this New Zealand pioneering spirit. RICHARD PEARSE (1877–1953) was a Canterbury farmer who began the construction of his first aircraft in the late nineteenth century. He worked alone and without any financial backing. His aircraft had a bamboo and aluminum frame braced with wire. The aluminum came from flattened-out sheep-dip tins—large tins containing preparations of liquid disinfectant into which sheep are dipped to destroy parasites and to clean their wool, especially before shearing. Pearse’s high-wing monoplane was mounted on bicycle wheels and had a span of about 26 feet (8 m). It was powered by a two-cylinder engine, which Pearse built himself. According to witnesses, he flew his aircraft for about 0.6 miles (1 km) on March 31, 1903, months before the famous Wright brothers made their first flight in America. Unlike the American brothers, however, Pearse did not go on to perfect his aircraft. JOHN BRITTEN In little more than a garden shed, John Britten (1950–1995), a Christchurch design engineer, toiled to design and build the fastest four-stroke motorcycle in the world, the Cardinal Britten V1000. A four-stroke is a kind of internal-combustion engine with a cycle of four strokes—intake, compression, combustion, and exhaust. This innovative bike has aerodynamics that are unequaled by other motorcycles and breathtaking sleekness. At its widest point, the Britten V1000’s engine is no thicker than its rear tire. Britten’s achievement was quite remarkable. European and American motorcycle magazine writers heaped praise on the Britten V1000 bike after it won the International Battle of the Twins (two-cylinder bikes) at Assen, Holland, in 1992. For John Britten, designing bikes started out as a hobby. He also wanted to prove “that there is room for the individual to compete against the multimillion-dollar factory jobs.” Now replicas of the Cardinal Brittens are being built for overseas collectors.

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racial interaction between them, including some intermarriages between the Maori and Europeans. Separate schools for Maori and pakeha had the aim of preparing Maori for life among their own people and for Europeans to be trained in the professions, trade, and commerce. The Maori retained their traditional social structures and ceremonies, such as the hui (hooee), a political and social gathering to which Europeans were often invited. Likewise, Europeans invited Maori chiefs to their balls and civic dinners. By the early 1950s, the Maori population had recovered substantially in number, but they had lost control of a significant portion of their land during the land wars of the late nineteenth century. A shift from the rural areas to the towns and cities began, and by 1956 nearly a quarter of the Maori population were urban dwellers. Various programs, including housing assistance, were established to help the Maori, especially the younger generation, adapt to urban living and integrate into mainstream pakeha society. In the rural areas, the Maori social structure follows the kinship networks of whanau (FAA-no-oo), or extended family; hapu (huh-POO), or subtribe; and iwi (ee-wee), or tribe. Within each tribe, there is a clearly defined system of rank and social control consisting of male and female elders, parents, uncles and aunts, religious mentors, and Maori wardens. When the Maori youth stepped out of these constraints— for instance, by moving to the cities from their tribal location—they found themselves in a completely different social structure. As a result, many fell into conflict with the law. Sadly, even today, there is a wildly disproportionate number of Maori offenders in New Zealand prisons relative to their share of the overall population of New Zealand. A serious attempt was made through the support of voluntary associations (including churches and cultural and sports clubs) to help the Maori retain their cultural identity and spiritual values. Central to rural Maori life is the marae (mah-rye) with its ancestral house, where both religious and secular activities take place. Eventually, city marae were established. Today, there are even marae facilities on the campuses of secondary schools, colleges, and universities. However, for special occasions, such as weddings, Maori people journey back to their traditional tribal areas, to the marae where their ancestors debated important tribal decisions for generations.

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TAKING ACTION As they moved to the towns and cities, the Maori people learned much about the pakeha political and social systems that governed their lives, and they began to use radical and activist means to gain equality and social justice and a return of their assets, such as land and fisheries. Land became the symbol of Maori political subjection to pakeha laws and was a sensitive issue in the central government. Today the Maori people represent 14 percent of the total population of New Zealand, and they are enjoying a cultural renaissance that continues to strengthen. They have their own television channel called Maori Television and many radio stations, which meet the needs of their communities. Access to such sources also helps preserve the Maori language and culture. However, there is still improvement needed in the treatment of the Maori in society and government as a whole. On a political level, today the Maori have a bigger representation than previously in Parliament. Likewise, the Maori Council promotes the social and economic well-being of the Maori people and Maori culture. The council has won several court cases concerning land claims against the New Zealand government.

Though the controversial Treaty of Waitangi is centuries old, modern protests continue to highlight Maori struggles.

MODERN MIGRANTS The fourth-largest ethnic group in New Zealand is the Pacific Island Polynesians, or Pacific peoples, whose members make up 7.6 percent of the total population. Today Auckland is the largest Polynesian city in the world, and small island territories such as Niue and Tokelau have more of their people in New Zealand than they do at home.

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The Pacific Islanders have been flowing into New Zealand since the early 1960s, mainly for economic reasons. Young people from Pacific islands such as Western Samoa, Tonga, the Cook Islands, Niue, and Fiji have a greater potential for receiving a better education and finding employment in New Zealand than in their country of origin. A Ministry for Pacific Peoples ensures that the specific needs of the Pacific Islanders are met—for instance, for skills training and employment placement service—while at the same time recognizing the cultural values and aspirations of the Islanders. Rugby is a sport celebrated professionally and recreationally in New Zealand. Here, two friends play touch rugby.

ASIAN MIGRANTS Since the 1980s, an increasing number of Asian migrants have been coming to New Zealand. These include people from Taiwan, South Korea, Hong Kong, and mainland China. The Indian population is the fastest growing of the Asian populations in the country, and a corner “dairy” run by an Indian family is an institution. The increasingly multicultural character of New Zealand has meant that Kiwi society has grown increasingly cosmopolitan and vibrant. No longer restricted to Maori and pakeha, each ethnic group contributes its own customs, culture, and influences to the New Zealand lifestyle.

REFUGEES New Zealand has one of the world’s highest intakes of refugees per head of population. Refugees from Europe arrived in the 1930s and again after World War II. Many of these were Jews and Poles. Following the 1956 Hungarian uprising, there was an influx of refugees from Hungary. In all, the country

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has resettled more than thirty-three thousand refugees since World War II. Today, New Zealand has a yearly quota of 750 refugees, though in 2015 it announced that it would take in an additional 600 refugees beyond that quota from war-torn Syria, spread out over three years. Each year, the country also allows 300 family members of resettled refugees to join their relatives in New Zealand. The Communist victory and takeover of South Vietnam also resulted in an exodus of refugees. Since 1975, thousands of Indochinese refugees have been resettled in New Zealand. Other refugees include Chileans, Russian Jews, Eastern Europeans, and Assyrians.

POPULATION CONCERNS Compared with most developed Western countries, New Zealand has always had a young population because of the large-scale immigration of mainly young adults and a high birth rate during the twentieth century. In 2017, the population growth rate was 0.79 percent.

INTERNET LINKS https://youtu.be/w-u0HfbErE8 Watch the amazing Aquada, New Zealander Alan Gibbs’s invention, traverse land and sea in this video. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RryL3XwUO50 Watch this video to see a Hamilton water jet in action.

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LIFESTYLE

New Zealand is known for being laid back. Here, teenagers in Queenstown relax with some ducks.

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HETHER ON THE NORTH, SOUTH, or any island within New Zealand, New Zealanders’ infectiously upbeat attitude is present. This attitude isn’t just present everywhere within the island nation; it also echoes throughout the daily lives of Kiwis. From school to work to special occasions, rural or urban life, New Zealanders spend less time worrying and more time being happy.

HOME LIFE Family life in New Zealand is changing. Today, more people are waiting longer to get married. In 2015, the average age a man was likely to get married at was thirty, and twenty-nine was the average age of a woman marrying. There are many different kinds of families living in New Zealand as well. Although the traditional nuclear family still predominates, there are now de facto couple families, single-parent families, and same-sex couple families. The divorce rate is decreasing as well, perhaps related to more people waiting longer to marry.

THE STANDING PLACE The Maori believe that a marae is their “standing place,” somewhere, as a family, they know they belong. It is, in a sense, their “home.” The

7 “She’ll be right, mate.” —New Zealand expression meaning that whatever is wrong will right itself in time

The marae functions as a gathering place and is the focal point of Maori communities.

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marae is a social place of hospitality where food and shelter are offered, but it is also a place of strict protocol. Many intricately carved buildings make up a marae. These buildings are used for special occasions, such as meetings, funerals, celebrations, and family events. The most sacred is the wharenui. It is a meeting house. When entering the space, it is important for visitors to show respect. One way to do this is to remove one’s shoes. Women have a special role on the marae. Visitors assemble outside its gates and await the karanga (kah-rah-ngah), or call to enter, which is always made by a woman. A female leader returns the karanga on behalf of the visitors. She then leads the visitors in a slow procession onto the marae, calling as she goes. Very important visitors to a marae are ceremonially challenged—in other words, they first need to go through a ceremony called Te Wero in which the challenger (always a man) makes fierce faces and noises, swinging a taiaha (tye-aha), or spear-like weapon, at the visitors to show that the warriors are ready to defend themselves if necessary. A small carved challenge dart is placed on the ground before the visitors, and is always picked up by a male visitor. This indicates that the visitors arrive in peace. Traditionally this was done to establish whether visitors came in war or in peace. Once visitors are in front of the wharenui, a powhiri (POR-fi-ree), or welcome, is given by elders, both men and women. The powhiri serves to ward off evil spirits, keeping visitors safe as they move onto the marae. Those who take part in the powhiri are protected by the tapu (tuh-poo) of the marae. Tapu is a purely Maori word that is associated with Maori spiritual beliefs. It means “sacred” or “holy.” When the Maori people declare something to be tapu—for example, the ground on a marae—then it is necessary to approach this area according to prescribed ritual. Many Maori believe that ignoring tapu will bring sickness or even death.

After the welcome speeches are made, women sing a waiata (wye-uh-tah), or song. The last visitor to speak lays a koha (kor-hah), or gift, on the ground. Today the koha will often be money, but tribes used to give food. When all the speeches are over, the visitors can greet the hosts with a hongi (hor-ngee). A hongi is a traditional greeting of the Maori people. The pressing of noses during the hongi mingles the breath of two people in a show of unity.

SCHOOLING Schooling is compulsory from age six to sixteen, but nearly all children begin school at age five, and many continue until the ages of eighteen or nineteen. There are three levels of schooling in the country: early childhood education, primary and secondary education, and further education. Children between the ages of three and five can go to early childhood education classes free of charge, so long as they spend twenty hours a week at the class. Primary and secondary schools are usually secular and divided into years. For all primary and secondary education, there are thirteen years. Primary school goes from year one to year eight, and secondary school from year nine to year thirteen. Typically in years eleven, twelve, and thirteen, pupils take the National Certificate of Educational Achievement exams. Students work to achieve credits that will count toward their qualifications when they leave school and their university entrance criteria. Private schools are partially funded by the government and charge student fees to cover their costs. Privately owned schools can also be integrated into the public system and receive funding. Integration has mostly been used by Catholic schools, some of which successfully serve the poorest areas in the cities. The country also has several Maori-focused schools. Called Kura Kaupapa Maori, these institutions concentrate on Maori values, language, and culture. They are owned and funded by the government. Even though their focus is on Maori values, they do teach national curriculum standards to all students.

These primary students in Auckland engage in learning activities that are both fun and educational.

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For further education, New Zealand has several universities. All of the state universities are partially funded by the government. There are also some technical and vocational schools that focus on trades like carpentry, mechanics, and plumbing. The Maori also have special further education opportunities that promote Maori culture and tradition. They offer their students opportunities to earn certificates, degrees, or diplomas in a variety of subjects. There has been a recent increase in the number of women in New Zealand’s workforce. The economic divide in New Zealand is not as marked as, for example, that of New York City, but the gap between the rich and the

WORK AND ADULTHOOD Many men and women have established careers. There are a number of people working in industries such as child care, business, medical professions, and teaching. In recent years, there have been more women entering the workforce. In fact, a 2015 study by Statistics New Zealand found that women were outnumbering male professionals. There were more women managers as well, although many women in those roles were in women-dominated professions. Issues facing women in the workforce include a gender pay gap and underrepresentation in science and engineering professions. Many young people leave home around the age of twenty and live in apartments with their peers. This is often necessary in order to be near their place of work—particularly for those growing up in rural areas.

less well-off is evident. Likewise, an estimated 13.2 percent of people in the labor force between the ages of fifteen and twenty-four are unemployed.

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URBAN ACTIVITIES New Zealand cities are not places where heavy industry dominates the skyline. Modern high-rise office buildings specially designed to withstand earthquakes rub shoulders with sculptured buildings of interesting design and century-old pubs. The area around Wellington, for example, has often been rocked by earthquakes. The city sits on a major fault line. Many of the city’s older buildings have been replaced by buildings that are specially constructed

to withstand severe quakes. As a result, Wellington boasts a modern skyline. Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch are cities of wide ethnic diversity and culture. This is seen in the huge variety of restaurants, street cafés, and colorful street markets. Shopping malls provide convenient onestop shopping and places in which to stroll. Large supermarkets exist, but local dairies continue to operate. Usually managed by Indian families and open until late in the evening, these small corner shops crammed with dairy (convenience store) products, ice cream, cakes, candy, flowers, and magazines are still in demand. Living within a city, residents choose to rent or buy property. There are a variety of dwellings to choose from, including houses, townhouses, and apartments. Owning or renting property in New Zealand can be extremely expensive, however. It is best if prospective residents research an area before committing to one option or the other. Poorer neighborhoods in New Zealand are dominated by individual lowrise state housing. The facilities are adequate, although the neighborhoods are rougher and the schools less desirable.

Pedestrians on Queen Street in Auckland illustrate one of the nation’s bustling urban areas.

THE COUNTRYSIDE Life in the countryside and the small towns is community-driven. Entertainment is less passive than in the cities—country people have to create their own fun, and they are very good at it. Social activities revolve around clubs, the local church, the local pub, and the marae. Life in such an area also tends to be slower than city living. The community hall is a focus for important birthdays such as a twentyfirst, which is still celebrated in style. There are country balls, barn dances, musicals, and plays. There are also agricultural fairs, craft shows, flower shows, shearing competitions, and many other activities.

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A KIWI SENSE OF HUMOR Humor is a mainstay of Kiwi culture. From a plethora of sheep jokes to hilarious stand-up comics, New Zealanders love to laugh. Comedy in New Zealand is similar to many English-speaking countries; dry sarcasm is appreciated, as well as physical gags. There is also a fun-poking rivalry between Kiwis and their nearest neighbors, Australians. Citizens of either country favor jokes about the other’s accent. While New Zealand comedy has translated fairly well in the United Kingdom and Australia, not many acts have found success stateside. One exception to this rule is the work of Bret McKenzie and Jemaine Clement, a musical comedy duo known as Flight of the Conchords. The two were college roommates who met while attending Victoria University of Wellington. They promoted themselves as “New Zealand’s fourth most popular guitar-based digi-bongo acapella-rap-funk-comedy folk duo” and made their first television appearance in 2000 on a local Wellington television show. They continued to perform and cultivated a small but dedicated fan base. They performed in Scotland at the Edinburgh Fringe Festival in 2002 and 2003, and at the Melbourne International Comedy Festival in Australia, where their performance earned the Best Newcomer Award. Over the next few years, they continued to perform at musical festivals like Bonaroo and South by Southwest. They also performed on The Late Show with David Letterman and Late Night with Conan O’Brien. In June 2007, Flight of the Conchords debuted their self-titled HBO television show centered around their attempts to conquer the New York music scene and attain an American fan base. The show ran for two seasons and was also aired in Canada. After recording a comedy record called The Distant Future, the duo won a Grammy for Best Comedy Album in 2008. In 2010, the season premiere of the twenty-second season of The Simpsons featured the pair as camp counselors at an arts camp that Lisa attends. In 2013, they co-headlined a comedy tour called the Oddball Comedy and Curiosity Festival with comedic superstar Dave Chappelle. They also continue to play live. In 2016, they played the prestigious Newport Folk Festival in Newport, Rhode Island. While their popularity stateside may have waned slightly since the cancellation of the HBO show, both McKenzie and Clement continue to appear in television shows and have even performed in several feature films. The Flight of the Conchords is categorically Kiwi humor, but it has translated internationally, giving the world a taste of what New Zealand finds funny.

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New Zealand farms are highly efficient. Unlike farms in some other countries, they are not heavily subsidized. Farms range from those that raise livestock, such as sheep, dairy cattle, and deer, to those involved in intensive horticulture, growing wheat, oats, barley, corn, and potatoes. Farmers also grow fodder crops to feed their herds. There are farms that specialize in citrus fruit, kiwifruit, hops, tobacco, avocados, and many other fruits. Among those who live in remote areas such as the high country sheep stations that nestle under the Southern Alps, the whole family is involved in tending the animals and crops. Children receive their education through rural schools, of which there are few compared to city school options. Many go on to attend a boarding school in the cities for their secondary and vocational education. Not all young people return to work at the family farm. Helicopters are used extensively today to spray insecticides over crops, to drop poisons to rid noxious animals, and to bring fencing and other supplies into an inaccessible country. Environmental protection groups have called for the government to limit pesticide use, as it could lead to dangerous medical issues for those who consume products sprayed with it.

New Zealand’s rural areas can be idyllic and serene, like the view featured here.

MARRIAGE Many people choose to have their wedding in a church (including Maori people, whose church is usually located on the marae). Others have a

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Today, many New Zealanders are opting for unique wedding celebrations. This couple celebrates their wedding in Eden Park stadium.

simple ceremony in the office of a registrar. Contemporary young couples sometimes select a more unusual location, such as a snow-covered mountaintop or a sandy beach. Nowadays there is no set format for the wedding service—couples can decide for themselves how they want to express their vows to one another. Another break with tradition often occurs at the wedding reception that follows the service, when the bride chooses to be one of the speechmakers. Taking photographs is a very important part of the wedding. Couples choose a variety of backgrounds, both unusual and traditional. After the photography session, the feast, the cutting of the wedding cake, speeches, and often a dance, the newlyweds depart on their honeymoon. If the couple can afford it, this might be a romantic holiday on a Pacific island.

DEATH The Maori believe that a body should not be left on its own after death. The family will usually collect the body from the undertaker and place it on the

FOOTROT FLATS Murray Ball created the comic series Footrot Flats and its celebrated inhabitants, Wal and Dog, in the mid-1970s. The famous cartoon strip, which lasted as a newspaper feature until 1994, was a self-mocking portrayal of a New Zealander character who was hardworking and unassertive. The stories, involving a man, his dog, and sheep, were translated into a successful stage musical, a cartoon feature film, and many books.

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marae, where it can be watched over by relatives and friends until burial. To help relieve their emotional pain, Maori will often leave the coffin open so they can touch the body and weep over it. At the funeral service, speeches are made directly to the body in the belief that the spirit does not leave the presence of the body until the burial. Some pakeha also bring the body home from the undertaker for two or three days before burial. Others prefer to visit the body at the mortuary in the days leading up to the funeral. A funeral service is usually held in a church of the deceased’s religious denomination or in the undertaker’s chapel. Hymns are sung, prayers are offered, and eulogies are given by relatives and close friends. The body is then either cremated or buried in a graveyard, which is usually located just outside the town or city.

These Maori are honoring the late Queen Dame Te Atairangikaahu by ferrying her coffin to the burial site by canoe.

INTERNET LINKS http://thisnzlife.co.nz Read articles, watch videos, and learn about life in New Zealand from the country’s popular lifestyle magazines. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=84EoBQfdrb0 Watch the Flight of the Conchords perform on The Late Show with David Letterman.

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RELIGION

This church is known affectionately as the Cardboard Cathedral. It was built almost entirely of cardboard.

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EW ZEALAND’S HISTORY IS RICH with religious influence. From Maori mythology to Christian missionary doctrine and the resulting blend, New Zealand has a diversity of spiritual followings not seen in many other nations. This variant mixture of ideologies means that New Zealanders enjoy a great deal of religious freedom.

Even with many options for worship and the freedom to do so, New Zealand is becoming an increasingly secular nation. There is no official religion, and the results of the 2013 census showed that roughly 44 percent of the population identified as some denomination of Christianity, as compared to 69 percent in 1991. In 2015, the Pew Research Center indicated that New Zealand is one of three nations, including France and the Netherlands, where the secular population is expected to outnumber the religious by the year 2050. Though New Zealand’s organized religions are seeing a decline in popularity, the culture continues to celebrate spirituality’s place in its history. The Maori people’s beliefs and mythology were the first to dictate life on the island nation. When Europeans began to arrive, Christian missionaries offered the Maori the opportunity to become literate, and religious study helped the Maori develop these skills. Christian missionary teachings blended with Maori legend and resulted in new religions that reflected both cultures. While modern New Zealanders are increasingly choosing not to identify with organized religion, they also

8 “Ko to wairua ki to Atua, nana nei nga mea katoa.” (“Give your soul unto God the author of all things.”) —Maori proverb

have more religious freedom than many other countries and celebrate their religious heritage. The main religion in New Zealand today is still Christianity. There are also Hindus, Buddhists, and Jews. Unlike in some European countries, no direct state aid is given to any form of religion.

BELIEFS OF MAORI Traditional Maori mythology gave meaning to the supernatural and to nature. The primal myth “Origins” tells of a supreme god named Io, who brought into being the heavens, the earth, and other gods—notably Io’s Sky Father, Ranginui, and Earth Mother, Papatuanuku, who produced seventy offspring, including man. Woman, however, was created by many gods. Tane, god of the forests, shaped woman’s body from clay, and her eyes were set into pieces of clouds (to make the whites of her eyes). The god of winds gave her lungs, and another god plucked feathers from birds to make her hair. Tumatauenga, the god of war, arranged the muscles of her body, and Rongo, the god of peace, gave her a stomach. Her spirit, blood, and power to breathe were supplied by Io. Another myth tells of the demigod Maui, who hauled the North Island out of the sea with a chip of his grandmother’s jawbone (which was supposed to have magical powers) attached to his fishhook. Once his canoe was resting high and dry on the back of the “fish” (the North Island of New Zealand), Maui went off to make an offering to the gods. While he was gone, his brothers began to cut up the “fish” to eat it. This is how the cliffs, valleys, plains, and mountain ranges of the North Island were formed.

CHRISTIANITY The Protestant missionaries (Anglicans) were the first to arrive in New Zealand. By 1819, they had established two mission stations in the Bay of Islands in the North Island. The Roman Catholics and Wesleyans (Methodists) arrived a few years later.

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CATHEDRALS: RUINED AND RESTORED The city of Christchurch has seen its share of interesting cathedrals in its history. Two examples are Christ Church Cathedral and the Transitional Cathedral, also called the Cardboard Cathedral. Christ Church Cathedral, finalized in 1904, dominated Christchurch’s city square for over a century. It was well respected and admired for its Gothic-style architecture. (Gothic architecture flourished in Europe during the eleventh to the fourteenth centuries—the high- and late-medieval period.) However, earthquakes in 2010 and 2011 damaged it, leaving it mostly in ruins. After debating its fate, in September 2017 Anglican representatives for the church agreed to restore it. Although newer, Christ Church Cathedral’s successor, the Transitional Cathedral, is likewise an icon in the city. It is a short walk from the original cathedral. It earned its nickname since it is the only cathedral made almost entirely from cardboard. Renowned architect Shigeru Ban designed the structure and helped it become what it is today.

To reach out to the Maori, the Anglicans set up a printing press and began publishing portions of the Bible in the Maori language. These biblical texts became the textbook from which the Maori learned to read and write. Maori people were quick to recognize the advantages of Christianity and literacy. There was also enhancement of mana, or prestige, to be gained by the tribal chiefs, who became patrons and protectors of missionaries, “the bearers of knowledge.” Christianity spread very quickly among the Maori people, who became enthusiastic evangelists, often reaching new areas with the Bible ahead of the European missionaries.

BIBLICAL TIES? Culturally, the Maori began to identify themselves with biblical stories. Through their appreciation of an oral history and the delineation of genealogies, or ancestral descent, some Maori supposedly “discovered” their genealogical roots in Judaism, calling themselves Hurai, or Jews. Until the pakeha came, the Maori people did not have a name for themselves. It is thought that seeing themselves as a lost tribe of Israel gave some Maori a new sense of cultural identity.

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This is one of the nation’s mosques. There are many practicing Muslims in New Zealand today.

A number of prophetic movements grew out of the newfound religion. Maori chiefs were inspired by Old Testament (the first section of the two-part Christian Bible) prophets and leaders, who were empowered by a God who communicated with them and helped them. As more and more Maori became literate, they began to interpret the Bible for themselves, and many forms of Maori Christianity emerged. Some forms retained the Maori notion of tapu, with its associated rituals. Toward the end of the nineteenth century, there was more uniformity within Maoridom. In a way, Christianity became a unifying force between the Maori and pakeha, but the Maori were very much subordinate.

MODERN RELIGION Although Christianity remains the main religion, over 38 percent of New Zealanders claim to have no religion at all. Slightly over 44 percent of the population identifies as Christian. Among the Christians in New Zealand, the Roman Catholics, Anglicans, Presbyterians, Pentecostals, and Baptists

GATHERING OF INDIGENOUS PEOPLES The first World Christian Gathering of Indigenous Peoples was held in Rotorua in 1996. Chaired by Monty Ohia, a prominent Maori educator, the conference drew together indigenous groups from around the globe, including Native Americans, Australian Aborigines, and black South Africans. The aim of the international conference was to build bridges between cultures and to encourage individual groups to retain their cultural distinctiveness within a Christian framework. Christianity has truly come a long way from the early missionaries’ view that to become fully Christianized, people had to subordinate their own culture to that of the missionaries.

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MAORI CREATION STORY While there are some tribal variations in the creation myth that Maori people passed down, they essentially relate the same story. In the beginning, Heaven and Earth were joined as Ranginui, the Sky Father, and Papatuanuku, the Earth Mother, lay locked in an embrace. They had many sons who lived in tight darkness between their parents. As they grew, the children began to long for the light, and they tried to decide how they could escape from the darkness of their parents’ clutches. The rashest child, Tumatauenga, suggested that they kill their parents, but his brother Tane had a better idea. Tane suggested that they push their parents apart, forcing Ranginui into the sky. The brothers struggled to separate the loving parents and were successful only after Tane used his strong legs to pry his parents apart. After the separation, war broke out among the brothers. They were in the light and had room to move about for the first time, but the severed embrace had upset their parents, whose grief-stricken cries plagued their children. Ranginui cried and cried, washing the children and their mother in water, while the siblings made war upon each other. After many battles, the brothers ceased their fighting. Tane threw the stars, sun, and moon up to his father to honor him. Ranginui and Papatuanuku are said to grieve for each other to this day. The rains are Ranginui, while it is said that the earth quakes when Papatuanuku is struggling to be nearer to her beloved.

have the biggest percentage of followers. Other groups include Methodists, Lutherans, Brethren, the Salvation Army, Seventh-Day Adventists, and Orthodox Christians. Other religions are also celebrated in the country. About 2 percent of the population identifies as Hindu, 1.4 percent as Buddhist, 1.3 percent as Maori Christian, and 1.1 percent as Muslim. The Pentecostal Church emerged from revivals in Wales and the United States in the early twentieth century. During the 1960s and 1970s, a renewal movement swept through the mainstream churches, softening denominational barriers and bringing refreshing new worship music. New Pentecostal churches, with multicultural and youthful congregations, were founded during this time.

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GOD’S OWN COUNTRY Thomas Bracken, a nineteenth-century poet who was born in Ireland but moved to New Zealand, was so impressed with the lavish beauty of his new home that he wrote a poem about it, calling it “God’s Own Country.” New Zealand is often referred to now with a touch of irony as “Godzone.” Bracken wrote another poem entitled “God Defend New Zealand,” which was set to music by John J. Woods and is now one of New Zealand’s two national anthems. “God Defend New Zealand” was given equal status with the traditional British anthem, “God Save the Queen,” in 1977 as a mark of New Zealand’s identity. The following are the first two of the five verses of “God Defend New Zealand,” in both English and Maori. “God Defend New Zealand”

“Aotearoa”

God of nations at Thy feet In the bonds of love we meet. Hear our voices, we entreat, God defend our free land. Guard Pacific’s triple star From the shafts of strife and war, Make her praises heard afar, God defend New Zealand.

E Ihowa Atua, O nga Iwi matou ra Ata whakarongona; Me aroha roa Kia hua ko te pai; Kia tau to atawhai; Manaakitia mai Aotearoa.

Men of every creed and race Gather here before Thy face, Asking Thee to bless this place, God defend our free land. From dissension, envy, hate, And corruption, guard our state, Make our country good and great, God defend New Zealand.

Ona mano tangata Kiri whero, kiri ma, Iwi Maori, Pakeha, Repeke katoa, Nei ka tono ko nga he Mau e whakaahu ke, Kia ora marire Aotearoa.

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The form of Christian church services ranges from the very traditional (found in some Roman Catholic and Anglican churches), with full choirs and organ accompaniment, chants, formal prayers, and ritualistic observances, to a freer, more informal kind (seen in the evangelical and Pentecostal churches), with contemporary music and spontaneous singing by the congregation.

CHANGING FAITH Today, many Kiwis are turning from an organized religious belief to either a more spiritual or secular belief system. According to a NewsHub article in 2016, more teenagers and migrants are remaining religious, while later in life, Kiwis and others are seeking different ways to express their religious beliefs, such as spiritualism rather than through organized religion. Some are abandoning religion altogether, as census statistics report.

INTERNET LINKS http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/ new-zealand#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_ year=2010®ion_name=All%20Countries&restrictions_year=2015 Visit the Pew-Templeton Global Religious Futures Project web page to learn about how New Zealand’s religious affiliation is expected to change in the coming years and how New Zealand compares to other countries. https://www.teara.govt.nz/en/religion The Encyclopedia of New Zealand’s “Religion” page has a wealth of information about traditional Maori beliefs, differing sects of Christianity, and New Zealand’s atheist community.

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LANGUAGE

New Zealand Sign Language is one of the country’s two official languages. Here, a woman signs while Helen Clark, then the prime minister, gives a speech.

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N NEW ZEALAND, ENGLISH IS BY FAR the most common language, with about 90 percent of the population being fluent, according to the 2013 census. As in the United States, however, despite the language’s widespread use, English is not formally recognized by law as an official language of the country. Rather, the country has two state-recognized official languages: Maori and New Zealand Sign Language.

The Maori language, referred to as Te Reo, has been an officially recognized language since 1987, though just under 4 percent of the population reported speaking Maori in the 2013 census. While almost all Maori currently living in New Zealand speak English, only about onequarter of them speak Maori. There is an effort being made to increase the number of speakers, and some schools offer Maori language classes. New Zealand Sign Language, the country’s own language for the deaf, became an official language in 2006. It is not widely understood, with only 0.5 percent of the 2013 census population reporting fluency. New Zealand has many popular sayings. Kiwis have an exuberance with language that both foreigners and natives find fun and refreshing.

GRAMMAR People in New Zealand are educated in Standard British English. In fact, New Zealand English is more like British English than any other

9 “Ko te reo te tahuhu o tenei whare.” (“Language is the ridgepole of this house.”) —Maori proverb

NEW ZEALAND SIGN LANGUAGE Deaf New Zealanders and their loved ones use New Zealand Sign Language (NZSL) to communicate. While it is similar to American and British Sign Language, there are some key differences. In 2000, the lexical differences between the three languages were compared, and it was discovered that NZSL and British sign Language are about 63 percent similar, while NZSL shares only about 33 percent of signs with American Sign Language. NZSL is more reliant on lip movement than British Sign Language and also has unique vocabulary to describe certain Maori concepts and New Zealand landmarks. Though it is now an official language, the evolution of NZSL was not without controversy. The first known teacher of sign language in New Zealand was Dorcas Mitchell, who taught dozens of deaf pupils in Lyttelton Harbour in 1877. The following year, New Zealand’s first school for the deaf opened, and Mitchell applied for the job of principal but was passed over. Gerrit van Asch, an educator who believed deaf people should learn exclusively through oral instruction, became principal instead. Sign language was forbidden at the school until 1979. Despite it being outlawed, students continued to use sign language covertly, and it developed this way for over one hundred years. In 1979, instructors began teaching Australian Sign Language and adopted NZSL for instruction in 1994. In 1998, a comprehensive NZSL dictionary containing about four thousand signs was published by Victoria University of Wellington and the Deaf Association of New Zealand. After a lengthy period of development, NZSL became an official language in April 2006. non-European variety. The national newspapers and public documents are written in Standard English. Nevertheless, Maori words have found their way into the vocabulary, and the language has been influenced by both Australian and American English. When they are overseas, New Zealanders are often mistaken for Australians, but to a New Zealand ear, the Australian accent sounds quite different—just as a Canadian accent is noticeable to an American. The main difference concerns the short “i” vowel. The Australian term fish and chips sounds like “feesh and cheeps” to a New Zealander, who would pronounce it “fush and chups,” and Sydney sounds like “Seedney.” However, the practice of turning a statement into what seems like a question—what phonetic experts call high-rising terminal intonation—is common to both.

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INTONATION New Zealand pronunciation departs from Standard British English in the intonation of vowel sounds, particularly in closing diphthongs (a diphthong is a syllable that combines the sounds of two vowels). For example, today sounds like “todie,” high sounds like “hoi,” hello sounds like “helleouw,” and trout sounds like “treout.” Another common trait is the centralized “i,” producing “ut” for it and “paintud” for painted. Since the early 1960s, the distinction of vowel sounds in words like ear and air, here and hair, and beer and bare have become less pronounced.

This sign advertises the longest place name in the world. It honors a Maori chief.

COLLOQUIALISMS There are many compounded words, new meanings, and colloquial expressions in the language that derive from a specifically New Zealand experience and environment. Examples are cow-cockie (dairy farmer), section (plot of land), and up the boohai (a boohai is a remote district or area; up the boohai means “very much awry”).

TE REO New Zealand Maori is a Polynesian language closely related to Cook Islands Maori, Tahitian, and Hawaiian. It is the first language of some fifty thousand adult Maori New Zealanders (12 percent of the Maori population). One of the most important aspects of the Maori renaissance of the 1970s was the renewal of interest among the Maori in their indigenous language. There are more speakers of Maori now than there were at the beginning of the twentieth century. Use of the Maori language was encouraged through a Maori-language preschool movement and by Maori-language immersion primary schools. The former is a whanau, or extended family base, where very young children are taught traditional knowledge, crafts, and customs through the medium of the Maori language. Maori-language immersion primary schools teach pupils the entire school curriculum in Maori. Thousands of secondary school pupils

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also take Maori language as a subject. In fact, there are a number of schools where students are taught in the Maori language at least 51 percent of the time. A Maori Language Commission assists government departments and other agencies in offering a range of services in Maori. .

INTRODUCING READING AND WRITING When the first missionaries arrived in New Zealand, the Maori did not have a written form of language. Their genealogies were recorded in stylized figures carved on the wooden poles of their ancestral meetinghouses, while folk art related their myths and legends. Then, in 1820, two Anglican missionaries traveled back to England, taking with them two important Maori chiefs. At Cambridge University in England, they produced the first Maori grammar. This important work was further developed during the next decade by the missionaries. The Maori people were so eager to learn that they would use gunpowder instead of chalk when the latter was not available to them. By the mid-1830s, Maori who wished to be held in high regard recognized the need to be literate.

MAORI VOCABULARY Language is always changing, and the Maori were quick to extend their vocabulary to take foreign ideas and objects into account. Maori people began to fit foreign words to their own phonology. For example, Hune (HOO-ne) means “June,” moni (mor-nee) means “money,” and hipi (hip-ee) means “sheep.” Today, Maori speakers like to adapt Maori words and phrases to express new ideas and objects. Maori vocabulary has also found its way into New Zealand English. Most of these borrowed words are nouns—for example, bird names such as kiwi and kakapo, plant names such as manuka and kumara, and trees such as kauri and rimu. Other Maori words add a richness of expression, such as mana—used to connote a person’s prestige, status, or honor. Mana is a very important concept in Maoridom. There are very many places in New Zealand with Maori names, including mountains, rivers, and lakes. Some of these have an English name as well.

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For example, Mount Taranaki is also called Mount Egmont. In tourist centers such as Rotorua and Queenstown, public information signs are displayed in several languages. Every syllable in Maori should be pronounced clearly and must end with a vowel. Practice sounding the syllables separately at first, then run them together. For example, say “Maa-or-ri” for Maori. There are five vowel sounds, each of which may be said either short or long. The vowels sound like the following: short a, like u in hut long aa, like a in Chicago short i, like i in hit long ii, like ee in keep short e, like e in fleck

long ee, like ai in fair short o, like or in distort long oo, like ore in sore short u, like u in put long uu, like oo in spoon

This bilingual sign features a warning written in English and Maori.

Maori diphthongs retain the sound of the second vowel quite clearly, and most of them are not matched in sound by anything in English. For example, ae sounds like the “igh” in high. Consonants are pronounced as they are in English, with the exception of wh, which sounds more like “f,” and ng, which always sounds like the “ng” in the nasal-sounding clanger rather than linger.

INTERNET LINKS http://www.tetaurawhiri.govt.nz/the-landscape-of-aotearoa-willresonate-with-our-indigenous-language The Maori Language Commission seeks to promote the everyday use of Maori as a living language. Visit their website here. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CbDf0YG2xnA Watch interpreters sign the New Zealand National Anthem in NZSL using both English and Maori signs.

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ARTS

These dancers are performing a haka, a traditional Maori dance, in honor of Shakespeare’s birthday.

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ROM A TIME WHEN ONLY MAORI tribes roamed the land to New Zealand’s modern multicultural society, art has played an important part in forming the country’s national identity. With ancient roots in weaving, carving, and tattooing, the Maori art-making practices continue to be honored by current natives and foreign travelers.

European arrival ushered in an era of portraiture, during which many Maori people were painted or drawn by new arrivals. These portraits were shared with European citizens, and for the first time, people who had never set foot on New Zealand soil could visually observe Maori aesthetics and customs. Visual art continues to flourish in a variety of forms. From carvings to landscape paintings, New Zealand artists continue to be inspired by their history and surroundings. New Zealand’s literary history is also steeped in a diversity of influences. Poets, short-story writers, children’s authors, and novelists have called the island nation home and helped to cultivate New Zealand’s literary profile. Kiwis also celebrate music and dance in their culture. From the modern performance of the ancient war dance haka (huh-kuh) to the revered opera houses, it is clear that performance and song are ingrained in the New Zealand people. One art form that supports New Zealand’s native expression and draws foreign artists to its shores is filmmaking. Both tourists and natives have countless opportunities to participate in New Zealand’s historical and modern interpretations of beauty.

10 “Kaore a te rakau whakaaro, kei te tohunga te whakaaro.” (“The wood has no thoughts, such only belong to its carver.”) —Maori proverb

ANCIENT ART FORMS

Maori carvings are intricate and often honor ancestors.

Art in New Zealand had its origins in Maori culture centuries before European settlement. While the men carved complex images out of wood, stone, and bone, the women crafted flax fiber into clothing, mats, and baskets. Carvers, trained in their youth by pre-European experts, were given high status in traditional Maori culture. The carvings usually symbolized the veneration of ancestors and appeared not only in ancestral meetinghouses but also in their storehouses and on war canoes. Characteristic motifs incorporated in carvings were the single and double spiral. On ceremonial occasions and in times of war, warriors painted colorful patterns on their faces and bodies. Coloring materials (usually mixed with shark oil) included white clay, charcoal, and red ocher. Red was regarded as a sacred color. Tattooing of the body was a ritualized art that was also performed by priestly experts. Spiraled designs were incised with bone and jade chisels tapped with a rod, and colored with blue pigment. Each person’s moko (morkor), or tattoo, was different and was used as a form of identification. The performing priest’s own body was considered too sacred to tattoo. Instead, his body designs were painted with colors derived from plants and ocher. Today, tattoos are still done by experts, but using modern equipment.

EUROPEAN INFLUENCE The first European style of art in New Zealand was the pen drawings that recorded the impressions of the country created by the draftsmen who accompanied European exploratory expeditions. Then came visiting artists from Europe, who were eager to paint Maori activities and artifacts, followed by British artists in the early colonial period who painted to promote the country back home in England. Charles Goldie (1870–1947), one of New Zealand’s best-known artists, is famous for his Maori portraits. Painted in the early years of the twentieth century, at a time when the Maori population was thought to be dying out,

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his detailed portraits are of considerable historical interest and are highly valued. In the paintings of early nineteenth-century artists, nature was portrayed as an overwhelming, dominant force. But as the land was cleared and cultivated by the early colonists, landscapes began to take on a different aspect. Frances Hodgkins (1869–1947) is New Zealand’s most internationally celebrated painter, known for her still-life and landscape paintings. However, much of her painting was done in England, where she spent most of her life in the early part of the twentieth century. Rita Angus (1908–1970) helped give New Zealand painting a sense of its own direction during the 1930s and 1940s. Her landscapes captured the distinctive color and sharp light of New Zealand. Colin John McCahon (1919– 1987) was also an important contemporary artist. He integrated spiritual words and phrases into his landscape paintings in the 1970s and 1980s, with powerful effect.

AUTHORS Women in New Zealand have been closely involved with the arts since colonial times. In contrast with other professions, literature and the arts are more loosely structured, giving women the freedom to attain higher prominence and success. Katherine Mansfield (1888–1923) was a prominent New Zealand modernist writer of short fiction. Born in Wellington, her original name was Kathleen Mansfield Beauchamp. She went to London at the age of fourteen to finish her education and then returned to New Zealand for two years. At age nineteen, she went back to London, where she associated with innovative writers, such as Virginia Woolf, T. S. Eliot, and D. H. Lawrence. Although she spent her short adult life in Europe (she died at the age of thirty-four from tuberculosis), many of Mansfield’s stories draw on her memory of her New Zealand childhood. Her short stories, such as “Prelude” (published in 1918), “At the Bay,” “The Garden Party,” and many others, have earned her a reputation as one of the finest short-story writers in the English language. D. H. Lawrence compared her to Charles Dickens. Her writing is considered to be both poetic and powerful.

Charles Frederick Goldie’s detailed portraits of Maori people made him one of New Zealand’s most famous painters.

Maori women were taught the ritualistic art of weaving. They mainly wove cloaks (loose outer garments): featherdecorated cloaks for mourning, ceremonial dogskin cloaks, and closely woven cloaks designed to ward off spears in battle.

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Janet Frame is one of the nation’s most prized literary figures.

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Another writer, Dame Ngaio Marsh (1895–1982), became an internationally known writer of detective stories, completing more than thirty “whodunits” (stories about a crime). New Zealand’s most gifted novelist, Janet Paterson Frame (1924–2004), came to be recognized internationally in 1957 with the publication of Owls Do Cry. Her autobiographical trilogy—To the Island (1983), An Angel at My Table (1984), and The Envoy from Mirror City (1985)—was later published in one volume as An Angel at My Table, and an acclaimed television film was made under this title by New Zealand director Jane Campion. Keri Hulme (born in 1947) is a novelist, short-story writer, and poet with Maori origins. She won the prestigious Booker McConnell Prize for fiction (today known as the Man Booker Prize) in 1985 for her novel Bone People (1983). Interestingly, her novel, steeped in Maori mythology, was first produced in book form by a Maori women’s collective and became a New Zealand bestseller through word of mouth. Subsequently, an international publisher ensured a worldwide audience. Some contemporary New Zealand writers of adult fiction have also written for children. They include Joy Cowley, Patricia Grace, and Maurice Gee. In earlier years, young people growing up in New Zealand read stories and fairy tales from British and European cultures. Now these and other authors have given New Zealand children stories set in their own culture to which they can relate. Margaret Mahy (1936–2012) is New Zealand’s best-known writer for children. She twice won the Carnegie Medal (the top international award for children’s literature) for her works The Haunting and The Changeover. James K. Baxter (1926–1972) is widely regarded as the most gifted poet New Zealand has produced. He had no regard for materialistic values, and in the 1960s, he became a controversial figure, setting up a center for drug addicts founded on the same principles as Alcoholics Anonymous (an international organization that provides support for people who are trying to overcome alcoholism). His verse is considered both profound and beautiful. Other successful authors include crime writers Paul Cleave and Vanda Symon, young-adult writer Mandy Hager, and New Zealand’s poet laureate from 2017 to 2019, Selina Tusitala Marsh.

SOUNDS OF NEW ZEALAND There is a strong tradition of music in New Zealand—especially choral singing, which has been enriched by the singing traditions of the Maori and Pacific Islanders. At a local level, many people love to perform in musicals, choirs, orchestras, ensembles, and bands of all kinds, including brass bands and Scottish pipe bands. The New Zealand Symphony Orchestra (NZSO), based in Auckland and Wellington, spends much of its time traveling throughout the country, making the music of international and national composers accessible to everyone. It regularly attracts world-famous soloists and conductors and makes recordings for several major international labels. In addition to the national orchestra, there are prominent regional orchestras and a national brass band.

The New Zealand Symphony Orchestra attracts internationally known soloists and conductors.

A PACIFIC POET LAUREATE Poet laureate Selina Tusitala Marsh was born in Auckland to parents of Samoan, Tuvaluan, French, and British descent. Later she became the first Pacific Islander to receive a PhD in English from the University of Auckland. Her work explores indigenous and Pacific traditions and culture. Her poetry has won numerous awards and accolades. Her collection Fast Talking PI, published in 2009, won the Best First Book Award for Poetry at the New Zealand Book Awards in 2010. She appeared in the Poetry Olympics in London in 2012, though she represented Tuvalu, her grandfather’s native country, rather than New Zealand. Her career includes not only writing but teaching. She has worked as associate professor of Maori and Pacific literary studies and creative writing at the University of Auckland for several years. She became poet laureate in 2017, an announcement she made during the launch of her new poetry collection, Tightrope, published that same year.

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PRESERVATION OF MAORI ARTS The preservation of Maori art forms has become an important mission for New Zealand. While the arrival of Europeans in New Zealand caused an erosion of Maori culture as a result of death from disease, the introduction of firearms, and manipulative land deals, the government has taken measures to preserve Maori art forms. In 1926, Parliament passed the Maori Arts and Crafts Act, which established a school where students could learn Maori carving. This important legislation also established the Maori Arts and Crafts Board, which oversaw the carving school. The school’s first students trained for three years, then traveled through New Zealand carving Maori meetinghouses (wharenui). The programming was successful and popular, but the impending crisis of World War II, along with economic downturn, forced the school to close. In 1963, the Rotorua Maori Arts and Crafts Institute Act was passed, which established a new carving school. Four years later, the New Zealand Maori Arts and Crafts Institute Amendment Act recognized the school as a national institute. The school, situated in the Whakarewarewa Valley, saw seven students enroll in its first year. The New Zealand Maori Arts and Crafts Institute currently operates five different schools where Maori art is taught, along with Te Puia, the highlight of New Zealand’s cultural tourism, located in Rotorua. Cooperation between the government and the Maori people has allowed New Zealand’s tourism industry a unique indigenous identity while fostering the creation of Maori arts.

TRADITIONAL SINGING AND DANCING The traditional Maori song of welcome, the waiata, is still alive today in Maoridom. But around the turn of the twentieth century, a new form of Maori music emerged, known as the action song. In a way, the Maori action song has become the national dance of New Zealand. Maori concert groups perform action songs for tourists and also travel overseas. Sometimes these songs use melodies from other countries, such as “Blue Eyes,” the waltz tune behind “E Pari Ra,” a tribute and lament for the Maori soldiers of

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World War I. A Maori woman combined action song with electroacoustic dance rhythms to create an international hit, “Poi-e.” According to Maori legend, the wide, bulging eyes seen on the carved figures inside the traditional meetinghouses represent the eyes of the owl, which is seen as a wise bird. When Rongo, the god of peace, built a sacred house of learning, an owl was buried beneath it for protection against evil. It is also said that the glaring eyes of the carved figures mimic the owl glaring at the fantail (a small native bird with a tail shaped like a fan) when it annoys him with its constant and energetic flitting. Maori performers of action songs and haka imitate both birds. The men do so by making their eyes look fierce during the haka, while the women swing their poi (poy), or small balls on the end of a string, in movements that resemble the flight of the fantail. The haka is an energetic, aggressive action song, more like a chanting war dance, and is traditionally performed by men. Today it is commonly used by rugby teams, notably the touring All Blacks (New Zealand’s national rugby team). The All Blacks perform this dance before every game.

Maori women perform a poi dance in honor of Waitangi Day in February 2013.

OPERA PERFORMANCES New Zealand has a professional opera company that moves between Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch to present several productions each year. Internationally acclaimed opera and concert singers from New Zealand include Patrick Power, Anna Leese, Ana James, Christopher Doig, Dame Malvina Major, Patricia Payne, Heather Begg, Keith Lewis, and Donald McIntyre. However, New Zealand’s most famous opera singer is Gisborneborn Kiri Te Kanawa. In 1982, she was made a Dame Commander (one of the highest ranks that entail admission into knighthood, an honor allowing the recipient to use the title “Sir” [male] or “Dame” [female] before their name) of the Order of the British Empire.

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A WORLD-RENOWNED OPERA STAR Dame Kiri Janette Te Kanawa, one of the most recognized international opera singers, is a Kiwi of both European and Maori heritage. The recently retired soprano has had an illustrious career that lasted almost fifty years. She went to study in London on an arts council scholarship and secured her position as an international star when she performed for a spellbound audience at the wedding of Prince Charles and Princess Diana in 1981. The following year, she was named a Dame Commander of the British Empire. She continued to tour the world, performing songs by a variety of composers and appearing in operatic stage productions. In 2010, she played her final leading role, the Marchioness in Richard Strauss’s Der Rosenkavalier. Kanawa has also appeared on television in dramatic roles. Modern American audiences will recognize her as Dame Nellie Melba from the PBS series Downton Abbey. In 2004, she created the Kiri Te Kanawa Foundation, aimed at cultivating the talents of other singers and musicians in New Zealand. Fostering young talent in her homeland has become Kanawa’s primary focus, and in 2017, after almost a year without performing, she told the British Broadcasting Corporation that she would no longer be singing publicly. While the international community will miss Kanawa’s silken vocals, young musically inclined Kiwis are benefiting from her generous tutelage. After announcing her retirement, she pointed to her dedication to teaching as a reason for ending her singing career. “When I’m teaching young singers and hearing beautiful young fresh voices, I don’t want to put my voice next to theirs,” she explained. Though the world won’t see another public performance from Kanawa, her contribution to New Zealand and to the international opera community is immeasurable.

FILMS Going to the movies is a favorite pastime of New Zealanders, and New Zealand’s feature film, television, and commercial production industries are applauded worldwide. New Zealand’s best-known moviemaker is probably Peter Jackson, who directed the epic Lord of the Rings trilogy. He is also known for his 2005

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remake of King Kong. As a child, Jackson was a film fan, and he cited King Kong as his favorite movie when he was nine. He learned about author J. R. R. Tolkien after watching an earlier Lord of the Rings adaptation. Earning the rights to a film adaptation of the novels in 1997, he eventually directed all movies of the trilogy, with the last appearing in 2003. His panoramic filming of New Zealand as Middle Earth, the setting for the trilogy, served to catapult New Zealand’s majestic scenery to the forefront of the world’s attention. Lord of the Rings tours sprung up in New Zealand after the release of the films as tourists from around the globe converged on New Zealand to enjoy the breathtaking landscapes they had seen on the screen. The movies, which have been verified as some of the highest-grossing motion pictures of all time, won seventeen Academy Awards. Jackson later followed up on the trilogy with a three-part adaptation of Tolkien’s The Hobbit. Not surprisingly, Peter Jackson has become one of New Zealand’s favorite sons. He also worked to create a new kind of tourism experience for visitors to his home country. In 2012, he created Hobbiton, a movie-set experience that allows visitors to tour the set of the Lord of the Rings movies, as well as sample some Shire grub and drink at the Green Dragon Inn.

This hobbit dwelling has become a major tourist attraction in New Zealand. It is part of Hobbiton, a movie-set experience.

INTERNET LINKS http://www.art-newzealand.com/index.html Read select articles from previous issues of Art New Zealand to get a sense of the contemporary gallery exhibitions in New Zealand. http://www.maoriart.org.nz Toi Maori is dedicated to the promotion of Maori art and artists. Visit their website to learn about how they help connect Maori artists with opportunities for exhibition and performance.

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LEISURE

New Zealand’s professional rugby team, the All Blacks, is by far the most beloved team in the country.

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PORT IS ONE OF NEW ZEALAND’S most valued pastimes. Sporting has played a huge role in shaping New Zealand’s national image. Achieving against all odds, overcoming hurdles and difficulties, and facing a challenge head-on are all prized qualities, both on and off the playing field.

The late New Zealand mountaineer Sir Edmund Hillary, who, in 1953, became the first man in the world (with Sherpa Tenzing Norgay) to reach the top of Mount Everest, is a prime example of this conquering spirit. From Hillary’s summit to the absolute dominance of the lauded national rugby team, the All Blacks, Kiwis have been taking part in friendly but fierce competition for decades. For those New Zealanders who prefer to unwind in a more relaxing way, there are a variety of outdoor activities to engage in amid some of the most beautiful landscapes in the world.

COMPETITION Competitive sporting activities are not just favored as entertainment. They are part of the compulsory education system. The international caliber of New Zealand’s athletes has contributed a great deal to the cultural identity of New Zealand. Government policy ensures that sports, fitness, and leisure activities are available to all who wish to participate, including people with disabilities. The Hillary Commission for Sport, Fitness, and Leisure worked from 1987 until 2003 to provide

11 “Losing is not in the DNA of New Zealanders.” —Jonah Lomu, New Zealand rugby player

In 1958, Sir Edmund Hillary became

public funding for sporting and leisure activities in New Zealand. Today, the organization Sport New Zealand performs much the same function.

the first man to drive overland to the South Pole. He did so in specially adapted New Zealand farm tractors. Hillary is now featured on the New Zealand five-dollar note.

PROFESSIONAL SPORTS Rugby is the national sport, with the internationally renowned All Blacks starring as a symbol of national identity. The first World Cup Rugby competition in 1987 was won by the All Blacks. The team also won the World Cup in 2011 and 2015. The All Blacks derive their name from the color of their uniform—a black jersey and pants. Much effort has been made to try to keep politics out of the sporting arena. However, in 1981, an exclusively all-white Springbok team from South Africa toured New Zealand. This upset many New Zealanders and caused protests. Cricket has been played in New Zealand for over 150 years and is New Zealand’s oldest organized sport. There are both men’s and women’s cricket teams. New Zealand secured its first test win in 1956, beating the West Indies, and its first test series (a set of test matches played between two teams

Cricket is the nation’s oldest organized sport.

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MODERN LAND DIVING The spirit of Kiwi innovation has touched all aspects of New Zealand culture, including extreme sport. AJ Hackett, a Kiwi entrepreneur, was inspired by a peculiar ancient practice and updated it, creating one of the most popular activities among adrenaline junkies: bungee jumping. For centuries, the people of Vanuatu (an island nation in the South Pacific) have thrown themselves from huge wooden towers using only vines tied to their feet to stop them from falling to their deaths. They call the practice land diving, and it remains a cultural staple for the people of Vanuatu. In the 1970s, the Oxford University Dangerous Sports Club performed some experimental jumps modeled after Vanuatu land diving. Hackett was inspired by these videos in the 1980s, along with his friend Henry van Asch. They set about devising a modern alternative to the simple vines used by the people of Vanuatu and collaborated with scientists at Auckland University to develop the first bungee cords. Once a suitable cord was developed, Hackett knew he would need to make a publicized jump to garner attention for the burgeoning extreme sport. In June 1987, he and van Asch snuck onto the Eiffel Tower under the cover of darkness. The next morning, Hackett jumped from the towering landmark. He was immediately arrested but was released shortly after. The stunt worked, and the world’s first commercial bungee-jumping site opened at the Kawarau Bridge in November 1988. New Zealanders and foreigners alike couldn’t wait to try bungee jumping and paid seventy-five dollars each for the thrill. Bungee jumping introduced adventure tourism to New Zealand, and both visitors and natives enjoy the adrenaline rush of bungee jumping both at home and around the world.

representing different countries for a championship), against Pakistan, in 1969. Since then, New Zealand has had particular success in international one-day matches, which are very popular with television viewers. The introduction of one-day matches has resulted in greater participation in the sport; it is now New Zealand’s fastest growing sport at the junior level. Sir Richard Hadlee was one of the sport’s outstanding players. He retired in 1990 with the world record at the time for wickets taken in test matches—431. He

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was particularly known as a superb fast bowler (fast bowling is a technique of bowling in cricket) and one of the world’s best all-around cricket players. International success has also been achieved in track-and-field athletics, netball, squash, softball, golf, equestrian events, boxing, ice racing, skiing, and water sports such as yachting, rowing, windsurfing, and swimming. New Zealand athletes are always eager participants in both the Olympic Games and the Commonwealth Games (a multinational, multisport event). The ratio of medals won per thousand of population is often high. The eighteenth Commonwealth Games (2006) were held in Melbourne, Australia, and New Zealand was represented by 255 athletes competing in more than nineteen disciplines. This was the largest team that New Zealand had ever sent to a Commonwealth Games. One prominent sports personality was Arthur Lydiard, a marathon runner who later trained young athletes, notably the successful New Zealand Olympic runners Peter Snell and Murray Halberg.

FITNESS Fitness is an important element of the New Zealand lifestyle, with many people belonging to a sports, fitness, or leisure club. It is not unusual in the cities at lunchtime to see office workers jogging around the streets, parks,

THE HAKA The New Zealand All Blacks have become world renowned for their pregame ceremonial dance called the haka. This tradition in the rugby sport started in 1888 and continues today. It is rooted in ancient tribal custom. The dance involves all members of the team taking the field. They line up with one member at the front and others dispersed in lines behind him. The dance starts with chanting and calling. Throughout the display, team members make large gestures such as stomping their feet, slapping their chests, and pointing to the air. It is a mesmerizing and terrifying sight to behold.

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and waterfronts. The most popular sports are swimming, cycling, snooker/pool, tennis, and aerobics. Golf is popular with middle-aged people, while the older age group plays bowls (a precision sport in which the goal is to roll slightly radially asymmetrical balls—called bowls—closest to a smaller white ball—called the “jack,” “kitty,” or “sweetie”). It is played outdoors on grass or artificial surfaces and indoors on artificial surfaces. People engage in these activities not only to keep fit and healthy but also to enjoy the company of others.

NATURAL RECREATION

A mountain biker enjoys the view in Queenstown.

New Zealanders love the outdoors. They are blessed with a country that possesses great variety and natural beauty. Many people like to walk the peaceful tracks in the national parks and reserves, such as the Milford Track in Fiordland, where they can appreciate the native flora and fauna, experience cascading waterfalls, and listen to the songs of unusual birds. Others prefer rock climbing, mountain climbing, or mountain biking. The warm waters of the east coast of the North Island provide some of the best surf, line, and spear fishing in the world, and big-game hunting offers deer, chamois, tahr, wild pigs, goats, and wallaby.

THE BUSH It is possible to enjoy adventures well away from civilization in New Zealand— to be able to tramp for days in alpine isolation and rough it in the back-country bush. There are a few people who spend most of their lives tramping and camping in splendid solitude. One such person was the late Barry Crump, who now appears on one of the country’s postage stamps wearing the bushman’s national costume—a swandry (a very thick woolen checked overshirt), waterproof hat, and heavy-duty boots. Crump wrote a number of humorous novels, his best and most famous being A Good Keen Man.

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VACATION

Backpacking is a favorite pastime of both native New Zealanders and tourists.

Going on vacation is part of the Kiwi lifestyle. Usually vacations are taken in summer, mainly in January, though many people will take winter breaks to the ski fields. Families flock to camping grounds near the sea or the lakes, where they can fish, swim, water ski, canoe, or sail their yachts. Some of the faster-flowing rivers are ideal for white-water rafting, while others are great for jet boat rides. Many people stay in the family bach, or small cottage. The bach, often set in a fairly remote area and containing the barest essentials, offers relaxed and simple living. The weekend retreat to the bach or a place in a rural area is popular with those who have demanding or very busy lives. It is a chance to explore the countryside, perhaps on horseback or in tough four-wheel-drive vehicles. The more adventurous enjoy hang gliding, parachute jumping, or deep-sea diving. When they are not making the most of their clean, green environment, New Zealanders love to read. In fact, it is estimated that they read and buy more books per head of population than any other English-speaking country.

AROUND THE HOUSE Family life centers around the home. Houses range in style from late nineteenth-century cottages to very modern, individually designed homes. Regional and climatic differences influenced the way the early settlers housed themselves. Large-windowed timber houses with their open verandas in Northland contrast with the stone buildings and their smaller windows in Southland, where the climate is much cooler. Today, there is more emphasis on indoor/outdoor living styles, with wide glass doors that open directly onto balconies, patios, or gardens. Apart from the comparatively few inner-city apartment blocks, each house is detached, sitting on its own land. Many have two stories, while some have their own swimming pools and tennis courts. A shift away from small houses

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on large plots to large houses on smaller plots is noticeable. It is still the aim of the majority of New Zealanders to own their own home. However, home ownership rates have decreased after hitting a peak in 1991. This is attributed to a number of factors, the main one being the higher cost of home ownership. The average home costs $900,000 to $1,000,000 NZD (about $617,000 to $688,000 US) in cities such as Auckland and Manukau. This is a higher price than in many other developed nations, making it more difficult for people to own property. As a nation of “do-it-yourselfers,” New Zealanders devote a lot of energy and leisure time to home improvements. Gardening is a favorite hobby for thousands of New Zealanders. There are cottage gardens, wild gardens, formal gardens, herb gardens, native plant gardens, exotic gardens, and specialist gardens. Flower shows and television and radio programs keep keen gardeners up to date with the latest techniques and hybrids.

European-style houses dot a hillside on Mount Victoria in Wellington.

INTERNET LINKS http://www.allblacks.com Watch video and read articles about New Zealand All Blacks, the dominant national rugby team. http://nzc.nz Learn about New Zealand cricket and watch the Black Caps, New Zealand’s professional cricket team, in action. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T-4TzSPlqX4 Watch bungee-jumping enthusiasts fall from a variety of New Zealand locales.

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FESTIVALS

The Queenstown Winter Festival hosts an event where participants launch themselves into the freezing waters of Lake Wakatipu.

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HOUGH HALF A WORLD AWAY FOR most visitors, New Zealand offers a close-knit, laid-back yet enthusiastic cultural experience for travelers, which is on full display at the many festivals hosted in New Zealand throughout the year. From honoring military veterans to massive rock music festivals to Maori New Year ritual celebrations, gatherings in New Zealand can draw huge crowds, but festivalgoers often feel a strong sense of community. NATIONAL HOLIDAYS

New Zealand’s national holidays include New Year’s Day, Waitangi Day, Easter, ANZAC Day, the Queen’s Birthday, Labor Day, and Christmas. Waitangi Day and ANZAC Day are particularly significant, as they mark turning points in the nation’s history. But festival fun is not confined to national holidays. Throughout the year and around the country, the events calendar is crowded with a great many activities, such as country music festivals, hot-air balloon fiestas, film festivals, air pageants, opera festivals, music fests, fashion shows, spring blossom festivals, and art and craft shows. New Zealand’s wide cultural mix is celebrated in Chinese dragon boat races, Welsh choral singing festivals, Japanese festivals, Irish and

12 “New Zealand is not a small country but a large village.” —Peter Jackson, movie director

NEW YEAR’S FESTIVALS IN NEW ZEALAND Of all the celebratory events enjoyed by New Zealanders, music festivals might be the most dynamic. With a calendar of several annual events that feature a variety of acts, the enthusiasm for live festival entertainment is immeasurable, but the most anticipated events occur around the New Year. Several festivals have emerged as favorites among Kiwi music lovers who are looking to ring in the new year. Rhythm and Vines is a three-day celebration that is held in Gisborne from December 29 until December 31. Founded in 2003 by students at the University of Otago, Rhythm and Vines holds the distinction of being the first festival in the world to see the first sunrise of each new year. International superstars like N.E.R.D., Chromeo, Public Enemy, Franz Ferdinand, Wiz Khalifa, and Empire of the Sun have graced the stages of Rhythm and Vines. In fact, according to the festival’s organizers, 11 percent of tickets are sold to international festivalgoers. In recent years, the festival has added comedy events and even featured motocross riders flying across the main stage in 2015. Highlife is another New Year’s music event popular in New Zealand. Years past have seen the event hosted as an NYE experience, but in 2018 the event was a New Year’s Day celebration occurring on January 1. The event was held at Smales Farm in Auckland and featured local DJs, musicians, dancers, and a variety of other performers. Northern Bass is also held in Auckland and highlights DJs, producers, hip-hop artists, and other performers. It runs from December 29 until January 1. Rhythm and Alps occurs simultaneously in Cardrona Valley, which is located in the Southern Alps. The festival is a highlight of the season for the South Island and sees about ten thousand attendees each year. It features four stages and aims to give festivalgoers an intense sound and light show. No matter what kind of music you enjoy, if you find yourself in New Zealand during New Year’s, there are plenty of entertainment options.

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Scottish cultural festivals, and Asia-Pacific and Maori performing arts festivals. Queenstown’s Winter Festival is a week of entertainment and revelry.

COMMEMORATING A TREATY Every year on February 6, a celebration takes place to commemorate the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840. Maori tribal leaders and many others join the governor-general, the prime minister, and leading dignitaries in a formal ceremony on the grounds of the Treaty House at Waitangi. It is a time for New Zealanders, in particular the Maori and pakeha, to reflect on their past, to appreciate the progress that has been made toward the unification of the two peoples, and to consider the way to move in the future. Waitangi Day focuses attention on the implications of the founding document of the nation. Over the years, the government has faced numerous claims by Maori tribes. Nevertheless, there is still more to be achieved. Indeed, Waitangi Day celebrations are traditionally peppered with Maori protesters.

ANZAC Day honors all New Zealand soldiers and pays tribute to the soldiers who fought in World War I during the Gallipoli campaign.

A DAY TO CELEBRATE THE ARMY ANZAC stands for “Australian and New Zealand Army Corps,” a group that was formed during World War I. On April 25, 1915, at dawn, the ANZAC landed on the beach of Gallipoli in Turkey, which was defended by the Turks. They gallantly fought a campaign that had been planned by British politicians and was led by British officers. Thousands of lives were lost, and so was the campaign.

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However, the courage of the ANZAC in what was an impossible situation led to a celebration of the landing after the war was over. The returned soldiers paraded through the streets of London to receive honor from the king and queen outside Buckingham Palace (the official London residence of the British monarch). It marked the beginning of a new “mateship” between the Australians and New Zealanders. Today, the word “ANZAC” is often used to describe a combination of effort between the two countries. ANZAC Day, celebrated every year on April 25, is a time for New Zealanders to remember and honor their soldiers and heroes from all wars. The day starts with parades at dawn throughout the country. Old soldiers proudly wearing their medals march behind military and other brass bands to a central point of commemoration—usually a cenotaph (a monument built to honor soldiers

STARS MARK THE NEW YEAR New Zealand hosts a unique series of festival events centered around the Maori celebration of the new year, known as Matariki. The word Matariki also refers to the cluster of stars known to astronomers as the Pleiades. The cluster’s rising in midwinter holds great significance on the Maori lunar calendar (also known as Maramataka) as it signals the time for harvest along with the beginning of another year. The Maori have many legends regarding the cluster of stars known as Matariki. One of the more popular legends views the largest star as the “mother,” while the surrounding stars are her six “daughters.” Every year the mother and daughter stars are said to be traveling across the sky in preparation for a visit with their “great grandmother,” Mother Earth. Each star has a distinct personality, which serves to remind the Maori people of what is important in the year to come. For example, the eldest daughter star is said to spend her time with her great grandmother cultivating plants so that they can grow strong and be productive. This reminds Maori people to foster their strengths along with the strengths of the community. Traditionally, Matariki has been celebrated with a remembrance of ancestors, the lighting of ritual fires, Maori dancing, singing, and offerings made to celebrate life and honor the dead. Bidding farewell to the dead is a significant part of Matariki as loved ones who had died the previous year were believed to shine down from the heavens as stars.

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who died in a war) on which the names of the fallen soldiers from the area are inscribed. Many civilians, both young and old, join them. Traditionally, the ANZAC service includes a trumpet fanfare, “The Last Post.” Wreaths are laid, hymns are sung, and speeches are made. A national service is held in Wellington, presided over by leading officials who represent the military, government, diplomats, and the church.

CHRISTMAS TRADITIONS Christmas festivities in New Zealand begin around the middle of November with colorful street parades and brightly decorated shops. Although Christmas takes place in summertime in New Zealand, Santa Claus still arrives in a reindeer-driven sleigh, warmly dressed in his Nordic costume. Little children climb onto his knee in department stores and shopping malls to request toys and presents. Many of the traditions of the Northern Hemisphere are

The annual Farmers Santa Parade has brought joy to the residents of Auckland since 1933.

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followed, including the preparation and baking of large Christmas fruitcakes and mince pies. Gifts are exchanged on Christmas Day, which is traditionally the time when extended families get together to celebrate the festive season. Young children get up very early to see if Santa Claus has brought all the things they asked for, in exchange for the drink and piece of cake they left out for him the night before. Carols (both traditional and contemporary, reflecting Christmas in the Pacific) are sung in the churches and outdoors by candlelight.

GOOD FRIDAY AND EASTER Good Friday and Easter Monday are public holidays in New Zealand. Many Christians give up a favorite food during Lent (a period of forty days from Ash Wednesday to Holy Saturday), which leads up to Easter, as this is a time when they remember the death of Jesus. Special foods that are traditional at Easter include hot currant buns topped with white icing in the shape of a cross, which are symbolic of Jesus’s death, and chocolate eggs, which are symbolic of new life and Jesus’s resurrection. Easter is also a time for special events, such as fairs, craft shows, car rallies, and club activities.

OTHER SPECIAL DAYS LABOR DAY This holiday was introduced in 1899 to commemorate the eight-hour workday. It falls on the fourth Monday of each October.

QUEEN’S BIRTHDAY A public holiday is celebrated on the first Monday in June to mark Queen Elizabeth II’s birthday, which is actually in April. Usually the only “celebration” involves the firing of twenty-one cannon balls as a salute to the queen.

NEW YEAR’S DAY This holiday is really celebrated in style on New Year’s Eve—leaving many people tired the next day after celebrating late into the night.

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Each province also has its own anniversary day to mark its beginnings. From time to time, important events are reenacted in period costume, such as the landing of the early settlers on the beaches of the capital city.

NEW ZEALAND FESTIVAL Every two years, the New Zealand Festival is staged in Wellington, centering on the arts. This three-week event attracts high-caliber international artists and visitors from around the globe. People can immerse themselves in every kind of artistic activity, from large-scale opera to mime and street art. In 2016, there were more than four hundred performances involving 1,200 artists from twenty-five different countries. Seven New Zealand works also premiered there. Over 110,000 people attended events throughout the festival period.

INTERNET LINKS http://www.festival.co.nz Learn about the New Zealand Festival, a biannual celebration that features a variety of live arts performances across New Zealand from mid-February to mid-March. https://www.nziff.co.nz Watch trailers, read reviews, and view schedules for films featured at New Zealand International Film Festival events. https://www.tepapa.govt.nz/learn/matariki-maori-new-year/ matariki-festival-2017 Watch highlights from the 2017 Matariki Festival events and learn all about Matariki rituals at this Museum of New Zealand website.

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FOOD

Lolly cake is a delicious dessert unique to New Zealand.

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IKE THE REST OF NEW ZEALAND’S culture, its food is reflective of a variety of resources and cultural influences. European, Middle Eastern, and Pacific influences have blended to produce a unique culinary culture.

New and creative ways of food preparation and presentation have evolved from a blend of ethnic influences to produce what is described as Pacific Rim cuisine. New Zealand’s seasonally available local ingredients drive culinary trends even as diverse cooking influences and methods flourish. Despite the integration of modern influences, traditional Maori food and cooking methods remain valued elements of Kiwi cuisine. Both food and drink are distinctive in New Zealand, as the nation has a thriving wine market and a history of brewing craft beer. The wealth of produce available in New Zealand is astonishing. Local farms produce venison, lamb, olive crops, and even wasabi on a seasonal schedule. Cherries, garlic, and a variety of berries are also grown domestically. One of New Zealand’s resources never out of season is the ocean. New Zealanders are spoiled with fresh offerings of seafood. From delicious salmon, snapper, and blue cod to crayfish and trout, the waters surrounding the island nation contain a smorgasbord of delicacies.

SEAFOOD New Zealand’s seafood availability is enough to make a food enthusiast’s mouth water. One favorite is the lobster, or crayfish as they are called locally. There are two native species in New Zealand, the spiny red

13 “Kia ki ki te rourou iti a haere.” (“Let the small basket of the wayfarer be filled.”) —Maori proverb, used when giving food to a traveler

Greenshell mussels are one of the nation’s many seafood delicacies.

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rock lobster and the packhorse crayfish. Both are found throughout New Zealand waters, but the red rock lobster is by far the most common. Kaikoura is a treasured crayfish spot in New Zealand. In fact, the name Kaikoura literally means “eat crayfish” in Maori. Tourists might be shocked at expensive prices on restaurant menus, but there are remedies for this. Trained divers are able to harvest their own catch in New Zealand waters. Visitors who don’t dive are encouraged to stop at Kaikoura Seafood BBQ Kiosk in Kaikoura, a small beachside establishment that serves up delicious crayfish for a reasonable price. Another one of New Zealand’s signature seafood delicacies is the greenshell mussel. The greenshell mussel is unique to New Zealand and is so named because of its dark brown/greenish shell that has green tips. Most of the greenshell mussels wash ashore Ninety Mile Beach in northern New Zealand. About 20 percent of the aquaculture is farmed. A mussel farm consists of a series of buoys held together by long lines attached to each side of the buoy. The line is anchored to the sea floor at each end. From the long lines, a series of weighted ropes hang down, but they do not reach the bottom. Young mussels attach themselves to the rope and are then left to grow. After fourteen to eighteen months, when the mussels have reached the desired size, the rope is lifted and the mussels are harvested. Greenshell mussels can be prepared in a variety of ways, but they are often served simply in a half-shell and can be flavored with anything from garlic butter to red pepper. King salmon, also called chinook, is a popular New Zealand seafood dish. This particular species of salmon has the highest natural content of omega-3 oil, which is believed to support a healthy heart and joint function. New Zealand produces just over half of the world’s supply of king salmon, with some of the freshest stock available within its borders. Many fine-dining

establishments serve king salmon grilled, smoked, or as sashimi—raw and thinly sliced. Whitebait, arguably New Zealand’s favorite fish featured in its cuisine, is one of the country’s more expensive delicacies. These tiny juvenile fish are caught in freshwater rivers and lakes and served fried in patties or cooked with eggs (called fritters). These tiny fish are very hard to catch, and they can only be fished from mid-August until late November. Competition for fishing locations and the challenge that catching whitebait poses drives up menu costs. The rivers on the South Island’s west coast often offer the largest volume of whitebait to fishers. Oysters enjoy a wonderful reputation in New Zealand, but none is more sought after than the Bluff oyster. This oyster is endemic to New Zealand and grows in Foveaux Strait just off the coast of Bluff, the country’s southernmost town. The prized oysters are said to be briny and sweet with a tangy metallic finish. These delicacies are rare as only about ten million are pulled from the waters every year. These local favorites are so well loved that each May, the Bluff Oyster and Food Festival attracts thousands of visitors to the modest southern town.

MAORI INFLUENCE When Maori arrived in what is now New Zealand, they had to adapt to the offerings of the land when determining how they would feed themselves. Hunters and gatherers who depended on both the land and the sea, the Maori have passed down culinary methods, dishes, and seasonings that are still enjoyed today. One Maori tradition that has become a favorite experience of visitors to New Zealand is hangi, a method of cooking using an earthen oven and heated rocks. This method of cooking can be found throughout the Pacific, and many variations can be made in order to achieve different results. First, a hole must be dug in the ground. The hole must be sheltered from wind and just big enough to fit the food to be heated and the hot stones. A fire is lit hours before the food is inserted, and wet cloth is used to create steam. The food (meat, then produce) is placed on the heated stones and covered. The

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dish is left to steam for a few hours depending on the size of the oven and the amount of food being prepared. In the past, this method would have been used to prepare fish and root vegetables. Today, hangi is used to cook pork, lamb, pumpkin, and a variety of other foods. Hangi is often reserved for special occasions, including Matariki, the Maori celebration of the New Year. Another Maori culinary tradition that survives today is the making of rewena. Rewena is bread made from potatoes. It has a sweet and slightly sour taste as a result of the lengthy period of fermentation it undergoes. Most often compared to sourdough, rewena is found in many specialty bakeshops and markets in New Zealand. Much of the plant life that was first harvested for use in Maori dishes is still being used in New Zealand dishes today. The leaves of both the horopito and kawakawa are ground or used as larger flakes and included in stuffing and marinades. Pikopiko (fern shoots) are peeled and rinsed to remove some of their bitterness. They can then be steamed, boiled, or stir-fried and added to dough or blended with oils and nuts.

NEW ZEALAND DESSERTS No culinary region’s identity would be complete without delicious desserts. Luckily, New Zealand has several sweet treats that are unique to Kiwis. From dishes named after Russian ballerinas to food for fairies, New Zealanders have their own spin on how to end a meal. The New Zealand dessert with the most controversy surrounding it is probably the pavlova. This dish features a large meringue topped with cream and fresh fruit. Exactly when it was created and the true nationality of the pavlova’s creator are up for debate, however, and therein lies the controversy. It is believed to have been created in honor of the Russian dancer Anna Pavlova during her tour through Australia or New Zealand, sometime during the 1920s. In 2008, Helen Leach’s book The Pavlova Story: A Slice of New Zealand’s Culinary History argued that the first known publication of the pavlova recipe occurred in New Zealand. Others have asserted that the dish originated in the United States, Australia, and Germany. In any case, New Zealanders enjoy the dessert year round but especially during the summer months and at Christmastime.

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Fairy bread is a treat that satisfies younger New Zealanders. Made up of white bread that has been slathered with margarine or butter and covered with sprinkles, fairy bread is a favorite at children’s birthday parties. While it is popular in New Zealand, it is also a favorite food of children in Australia. Another New Zealand treat that appeals to both young and old Kiwis is hokey pokey. Hokey pokey is honeycomb toffee, which is often mixed in with vanilla ice cream. Lolly cake is another treat that New Zealanders love. This confectionary dish features lollies, or candies. Traditional recipes include firm chewy marshmallows, which are chopped and added to a base mixture of butter, condensed milk, and malt biscuits. After mixing, it is rolled into a log shape and dusted with coconut. It is then refrigerated until it sets and is ready to be sliced and served. Lolly cakes can be found in Kiwi bakeries and grocery stores, but this is one of the few New Zealand traditions that is rarely available in foreign areas. Not even Australia, New Zealand’s nearest neighbor, has embraced the lolly cake.

Kiwi kids love fairy bread, white bread slathered in margarine and covered in sprinkles.

BEVERAGES While New Zealand lies a similar distance from the equator as the major wine-producing areas in Europe—from the Rhine Valley in the north, through Alsace, Champagne, Burgundy, Loire, and Bordeaux in France, and into southern Spain—its climatic conditions are quite different. The long, narrow shape of New Zealand’s two main islands means that no location is more than 80 miles (129 km) from the sea, giving it a maritime climate. Most of the vineyards lie in coastal areas, where they bask for an average of 2,200 sunshine hours each year and are cooled at night by sea breezes.

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This climatic pattern provides ideal growing conditions, producing premiumquality grapes. Wine making in New Zealand dates back to the earliest settlers. Pioneer missionary Samuel Marsden planted about one hundred vines at his mission station in Kerikeri, Bay of Islands, in 1819. When James Busby, British resident and a knowledgeable viticulturist (wine expert), arrived in 1833, he set about turning Marsden’s grapes into wine. Even the French navigator Dumont d’Urville was impressed with New Zealand wine, noting in his journal, “I was given a light white wine, very sparkling and delicious in taste, which I enjoyed very much.” The French Catholic missionary Bishop Pompallier also had an interest in wine, and he established another vineyard. During the next few years, grapevines were taken to other parts of New Zealand by French missionary priests.

New Zealand offers the perfect agricultural environment for vineyards, which have dotted the landscape for centuries.

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Hardworking immigrants from Yugoslavia and Lebanon laid the foundations of the modern New Zealand commercial wine industry early in the twentieth century. But it was not until after World War II, when New Zealand servicemen returned from Europe having acquired a taste for European-style table wine, that winemakers in New Zealand had a local market. Since the 1960s, there has continued to be rapid growth in wine production and consumption. Modern viticulturists have combined traditional vineyard practices with state-of-the-art techniques to enhance the flavor and produce wines with a distinctive New Zealand style. Today, New Zealand wine excites the world’s judges and wine media commentators. In international competitions, New Zealand regularly wins high awards for its Sauvignon Blanc, Chardonnay, Cabernet/Merlot, and sparkling wines. The British explorer James Cook pioneered brewing in New Zealand when he established a brewery at Dusty Sound. Today, there are several breweries in the country. New Zealand beer is similar to English- and Netherlands-style lagers, with Steinlager being one of the most popular beers, both in New Zealand and abroad.

INTERNET LINKS http://www.newzealand.com/us/feature/favourite-new-zealandfoods Visit this website to learn more about New Zealand’s favorite foods. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B8sKQeLmax0 Watch culinary tourists learn about traditional Maori foods and cooking methods.

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WEST COAST WHITEBAIT PATTIES Whitebait is a term for immature fish that are caught and fried. A delicacy in New Zealand, whitebait from the South Island’s west coast is said to be the best. The best patties are the result of having less batter and more whitebait. Some New Zealanders also serve the young fry of fish with a mint sauce. If whitebait is not available, some suggest pieces of squid as an alternative. 3 eggs ½ cup milk ¾ cup flour Salt and pepper to taste 1 tsp baking powder 1 pound whitebait 2 Tbsp light vegetable oil or 2 Tbsp butter (for frying) DIRECTIONS 1. Beat the eggs in a large bowl, then mix in the milk. 2. Season with salt and pepper to taste. 3. Lightly beat through the flour and baking powder to ensure there are no lumps. Add the flour slowly—the mixture should be thick but not too gloopy. 4. In a colander, rinse the whitebait and pick out any river stones or other debris. 5. Drain, and mix into the egg mixture until well combined. 6. Heat a frying pan on medium-high heat, and once heated, add the butter/oil. 7. Drop in spoonfuls of the whitebait mixture, and cook until the patty is set (and starts to go golden on the underside). The whitebait will normally have gone white at this stage. 8. Turn, and cook on the other side until golden. 9. Keep warm in the oven until ready to serve.

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AFGHAN BISCUIT This chocolate and cornflake cookie is a national delight in New Zealand. These delicious treats are topped with chocolate icing and flaked almonds. Despite the dessert’s name, it has no ties with Afghanistan. It is important to remember to use unsweetened cornflakes; otherwise the cookies will be too sweet. 14 Tbsp of butter, at room temperature ½ cup of castor sugar 1½ cups of all-purpose flour 3 Tbsp unsweetened cocoa powder 1½ cups of unsweetened cornflakes To make the icing: 1 cup of icing sugar 2 Tbsp of unsweetened cocoa powder 3 Tbsp water ¼ cup of flaked almonds (optional) DIRECTIONS 1. Preheat the oven to 350°F (180°C). Line a baking sheet with parchment paper. 2. Cream the butter and sugar until light and fluffy. 3. Sift together the flour and cocoa powder, and mix into butter mixture with a wooden spoon. Fold in cornflakes, and don’t worry if they crumble. 4. Roll or press the dough into balls, each using 1½ teaspoons of dough, and flatten them slightly. Place them about 2 inches apart on the baking sheet. 5. Bake in the oven for 10 to 15 minutes. Remove from oven, and cool on a wire rack. 6. Prepare the icing by combining the icing sugar, unsweetened cocoa powder, and water in a bowl. Mix well until the mixture is free of lumps and is of a creamy consistency. 7. Spoon a little icing on each cookie, and decorate with flaked almonds.

Food 131

A

B

Capital city Major town Mountain peak

1

Feet

Meters

16,500 9,900 6,600 3,300 1,650 660 0

5,000 3,000 2,000 1,000 500 200 0

D

C

›

North Cape

B

ay

of

Isla

nds

Waitangi NORTHLAND

AUCKL AND

Auckland

North

2

Manukau

Hamilton

Ba

yo fP len

BAY

White

t y Island

Tauranga

Wa i

Rotorua

WAIKATO

R.

CAPE

a e

Park

BAY

Tasman Bay NELSON

s

a

W E L L I N G TO N

WAIRARAPA

WELLINGTON

BAYS

MARLBOROUGH

a

it

E

tr

S

Lake Rotoroa

A

k

N

a

m

Nelson

Palmerston North HOROWHENUA

Coo

Kaikoura Bay

A

O

S

T

Hokitika

C

T

Bay

Hastings

MANAWAT U

n

3

HAWKE'S

Napier Hawke

National WANGANUI

Wanganui

S

N

Gisborne

Tongariro

Mt. Ruapehu

Mt. Taranaki

O

d

Fiordland

CLUTHA/

Queenstown

National Park

IC

Christchurch

F

Banks Peninsula

Akaroa

C

e

Ca

rd S oun

Mt. Cook ins T (12,313ft/3,753m) Pla S ry E AORANGI r b u nt

W M il f o

CANTERBURY

C

I

an sm Ta laci e r G

4

Lake CENTRAL Lake Wakatipu Te Anau OTAGO

SOUTHLAND

5

EAST

PL ENT Y

Lake Taupo TONGARIRO TARANAKI

East Cape

OF

k a to

Island

Hauraki Gulf

COASTAL/ NORTH OTAGO

South

P

A

Island

Dunedin Chatham Island

Invercargill Stewart Island

Pitt Island

››› MAP OF NEW ZEALAND Akaroa, B4 Aorangi, B4 Auckland, C2 Banks Peninsula, C4 Bay of Islands, C1 Bay of Plenty, C2, D2 Canterbury, B4, C4 Canterbury Plains, B4 Chatham Island, D5 Christchurch, B4 Clutha/Central Otago, A4– A5, B4–B5 Coastal/North Otago, B4– B5 Cook Strait, C3 Dunedin, B5 East Cape, D2 Fiordland National Park, A4–A5 Gisborne, D2 Hamilton, C2 Hastings, C3 Hauraki Gulf, C2 Hawke Bay, C3, D3 Hawke’s Bay, C2–C3, D2– D3 Hokitika, B4 Horowhenua, C3

Lake Rotoroa, B3 Lake Taupo, C2 Lake Te Anau, A5 Lake Wakatipu, A4–A5, B5 Manawatu, C3 Manukau, C2 Marlborough, B3–B4, C3– C4 Milford Sound, A4 Mount Cook, B4 Mount Ruapehu, C3 Mount Taranaki, C3 Napier, C3 Nelson, C3 Nelson Bay, B3–B4, C3 North Cape, C1 North Island, B1, C1–C3, D2–D3 Northland, B1, C1 Pacific Ocean, C4–D3 Palmerston North, C3 Pitt Island, D5

Rotorua, C2 South Island, A4–A5, B3– B5, C3–C4 Southland, A4–A5, B5 Stewart Island, A5 Taranaki, C2 Tasman Bay, B3, C3 Tasman Glacier, B4 Tasman Sea, B3 Tauranga, C2 Tongariro, C2–C3 Tongariro National Park, C2–C3 Waikato, C2 Waikato River, C2 Wairarapa, C3 Waitangi, C1 Wanganui, C3 Wellington, C3 West Coast, A4, B3–B4 White Island, D2

Queenstown, B4–B5

Invercargill, A5 Kaikoura Bay, C4

133

ECONOMIC NEW ZEALAND Agriculture Dairy Fishing Forestry Wine

Natural Resources Gas Hydroelectric power Thermal power

Manufacturing Boat-building Communications Horse-breeding

Services Airport Seaports Tourism

Oil Scientific/industrial

›

››› ABOUT THE ECONOMY OVERVIEW

NATURAL RESOURCES

The economy of New Zealand previously relied greatly on international trade. However, in recent years, it has become more self-sufficient. Tourism rates have increased following successful campaigns and films set in the country. Agriculture and manufacturing, once heavily carrying the country, remain important to the economy. Economic free-market reforms over the last decades have removed many barriers to foreign investment. Internally, the country struggles with rising housing prices, making it difficult for people wishing to live in homes to own property. On an international level, New Zealand has free trade agreements with many countries, and it continues to seek other free trade agreements in the Pacific area.

Hydropower, coal, natural gas, oil, iron ore, sand, timber, gold, limestone

GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (GDP)

WORKFORCE

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS Dairy products, sheep, beef, poultry, fruit, vegetables, wine, seafood, wheat, and barley

MAJOR EXPORTS Dairy products, meat, wood and wood products, fruit, crude oil, wine

MAJOR IMPORTS Petroleum, machinery, electrical equipment, vehicles and parts, textiles

MAIN TRADE PARTNERS China, Australia, United States, Japan, Germany, Thailand, United Kingdom, and South Korea

$185 billion (in US dollars) (2016 estimate)

2.598 million (2016 estimate)

GDP GROWTH

UNEMPLOYMENT RATE

3.6 percent (2016 estimate)

5.1 percent (2016 estimate)

CURRENCY

INFLATION

New Zealand dollar (NZD) Notes: $5, $10, $20, $50, $100 Coins: 10 cents, 20 cents, 50 cents, $1, $2 1 USD = 1.37 NZD (September 2017)

EXTERNAL DEBT

EN

CIM

SPE

0.6 percent (2016 estimate) $81.39 billion (2016 estimate)

EN

CIM

SPE

135

CULTURAL NEW ZEALAND The Sky Tower—Auckland At 1,076 feet (328 m), the Sky Tower in the center of Auckland City is the tallest tower in the Southern Hemisphere, offering breathtaking views for more than 50 miles (80 km) in every direction.

Bay of Islands Famous for its stunning coastal scenery, this is the site of New Zealand’s first permanent English settlement. It was here that the Treaty of Waitangi was drawn up and first signed by fo rty-six Maori chiefs in 1840. Rotorua This is the most popular tourist area of the North Island. Nicknamed “Sulfur City,” Rotorua has the most energetic thermal activity in the country, with bubbling mud pools, gurgling hot springs, and gushing geysers, accompanied by the pervasive smell of sulfur.

Lake Taupo This is New Zealand’s largest lake and the source of New Zealand’s longest river, the Waikato. This is the trout-fishing capital of the world, and international trout-fishing tournaments are held here each year.

Tongariro National Park This is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and home to three active volcanic mountains—Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, and Tongariro—which are located in the center of the park. Mount Ruapehu is also home to the Whakapapa ski fields. Mount Cook (Aoraki) This is the tallest mountain in the country. Mount Cook National Park has been incorporated into a World Heritage area. More than one-third of the park is made up of permanent snow and glacial ice.

Wellington Wellington is the arts and culture capital of New Zealand and the center of the nation’s film industry. The Beehive, a unique building that houses the New Zealand Parliament’s executive wing, is located here.

Franz-Josef/Fox Glaciers These glaciers in Westland National Park are unique, as nowhere else in the world, at this latitude, have glaciers advanced so close to the sea. These are on the other side of the dividing range in Mount Cook National Park.

Kaikoura This small town is a mecca for wildlife lovers, as half of all native New Zealand dolphins and whales have been seen off Kaikoura’s shores. This is the home of whale-watching and dolphin swimming.

Christchurch Christchurch is the largest city in the South Island and the most English of New Zealand’s cities. The grand Anglican cathedral that dominated the city square was badly damaged by earthquakes in 2010 and 2011. Queenstown This scenic adventure capital of the world is nestled on the shores of Lake Wakatipu and surrounded by the Remarkables and the Eyre Mountains. The daredevil AJ Hackett began operating his bungee jump here in 1988. Fiordland Fiordland is home to Milford Sound, the most visited of all the fjords. This 14-mile (22 km) fjord is dominated by Mitre Peak. Lake Manapouri, home to the Manapouri Power Station, and quiet Doubtful Sound are other attractions in Fiordland.

136

›

››› ABOUT THE CULTURE

OFFICIAL NAME

RELIGION

New Zealand

Christianity (44.3 percent: Anglican 10.8 percent, Roman Catholic 11.6 percent, Presbyterian 7.8 percent, Methodist 2.4 percent, Pentecostal 1.8 percent), Hindu 2.1 percent, Buddhist 1.4 percent, Maori Christian 1.3, Islam 1.1 percent, no religion 38.5 percent (2013 estimate)

FLAG DESCRIPTION The New Zealand flag features, on a royal blue background, a Union Jack in the first quarter and four five-pointed red stars of the Southern Cross on the fly. The stars have white borders.

TOTAL AREA

BIRTH RATE

103,799 square miles (268,838 sq km)

13.2 births per 1,000 New Zealanders (2017 estimate)

CAPITAL

DEATH RATE

Wellington

ETHNIC GROUPS European and New Zealander 71.2 percent, Maori 14.1 percent, Asian 11.3 percent, Pacific Islander 7.6 percent, others 1.6 percent (2013 estimates)

7.5 deaths per 1,000 New Zealanders (2017 estimate)

MAIN LANGUAGES English, Maori (official), New Zealand Sign Language (official)

137

TIMELINE IN NEW ZEALAND

IN THE WORLD

circa 1200s CE • Polynesian settlers, today known as • 1206–1368 CE Genghis Khan unifies the Mongols and the Maori, arrive in New Zealand. starts conquest of the world. • 1517 1642 • Martin Luther launches the Protestant Reformation with his Ninety-Five Theses. Abel Tasman becomes the first European to sight New Zealand. 1769 • Captain James Cook explores the coasts of • 1776 The United States declares independence from Britain. both the North and the South Islands of New Zealand. He returns in 1773 and 1777. 1815 • The first British missionaries arrive. • 1837 1840 • The reign of Queen Victoria begins. Treaty of Waitangi signed between the British and several Maori tribes. 1845–1872 • • 1861 Czar Alexander II frees the serfs in Russia. The New Zealand Wars, also referred to as the Land Wars, occur. 1893 • New Zealand becomes the world’s first nation • 1900 Hawaii becomes a US territory. to grant women the right to vote. 1907 • New Zealand becomes a dominion within the British Empire. 1914 • • 1914–1918 World War I. Outbreak of World War I; New Zealand commits thousands of troops to the British war effort. 1939–1945 • • 1939–1945 World War II. Troops from New Zealand see action in Europe, North Africa, and the Pacific during World War II. • 1945 1947 • The United States drops atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. New Zealand gains full independence from Britain. • 1949 The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is formed.

138

IN NEW ZEALAND

IN THE WORLD

1984 • Labour Party government elected; Prime Minister • 1986 Nuclear power disaster at Chernobyl in Ukraine. David Lange begins radical economic reforms. 1989 • Prime Minister Lange resigns, replaced by Geoffrey Palmer. 1990 • Palmer resigns just before the general election. • 1991 1993 • Breakup of the Soviet Union. National Party narrowly wins election; referendum introduces proportional representation. 1997 • • 1997 Hong Kong is returned to China. After leadership challenge, Jim Bolger resigns and Jenny Shipley becomes first female prime minister. 1999 • The Labour Party wins election. • 2001 Terrorists crash planes in New York, Helen Clark becomes prime minister. Washington, DC, and Pennsylvania. • 2003 2005 • War in Iraq begins. Incumbent Prime Minister Helen Clark secures a narrow election win over the National Party. 2008 • John Key and National Party • 2010 Arab Spring. win victory in general election. 2011• • 2011 Civil war breaks out in Syria. Massive earthquake rocks Christchurch, killing almost two hundred people. All Blacks win Rugby World Cup. 2013 • New Zealand becomes first country in Asia-Pacific to legalize gay marriage. 2016 • • 2016 Paris Climate Agreement is signed. Donald Trump Prime Minister John Key resigns is elected president of the United States. unexpectedly and Bill English is elected the new leader of the National Party. 2017 • Jacinda Ardern is elected prime minister.

139

GLOSSARY Aorangi (ah-or-rung-ee)

marae (mah-rye)

“Cloud piercer”; Maori name for Mount Cook.

A social place where religious and secular activities take place; a rural Maori concept that has also been established in the cities.

Aotearoa (ah-or-te-ah-roar) “Land of the long white cloud”; Maori name for New Zealand.

haka (huh-kuh) Energetic, aggressive action song traditionally performed by men; commonly performed today by the national rugby team, the All Blacks, before a match.

An earthwork fort commonly built by pre-European Maori.

pakeha (PAA-ke-haa) A Maori term for the European settlers in New Zealand.

hangi (HAA-ngee)

poi (poy)

An earth oven used by the Maori to cook food; today it also refers to the feast itself.

Small balls on the ends of strings used by female Maori performers.

hapu (huh-POO)

pyroclastic

A subtribe.

Rocks that are formed as a result of volcanic ash.

hui (hoo-ee) Maori social and political gathering to which Europeans may be invited.

iwi (ee-wee) A tribe.

karanga (kah-rah-ngah) A call to visitors (always made by a woman) to enter the meetinghouse; the karanga is returned by a female leader on behalf of the visitors.

kumara (KOO-mah-rah) Sweet potato.

mana (mah-nah) Prestige, status, or honor.

140

pa (PAA)

tapu (tuh-poo) Maori word associated with Maori spiritual beliefs, meaning “sacred” or “holy.”

whanau (FAA-no-oo) Extended family.

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION BOOKS Buerger, Dianne, and Zuraidah Omar, eds. DK Eyewitness Travel: New Zealand. New York: DK Eyewitness, 2016. Colson, Mary. New Zealand. Countries Around the World. Chicago, IL: Heinemann, 2012. Larson, Lyn. New Zealand. Country Explorers. Minneapolis, MN: Lerner, 2011. Ortolja-Baird, Ljiljana. New Zealand: Culture Smart!: The Essential Guide to Customs and Culture. London, UK: Kuperard, 2017. Rawlings-Way, Charles, et. al. New Zealand. Melbourne, Australia: Lonely Planet, 2016.

WEBSITES CIA World Factbook, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ nz.html. Lonely Planet, https://www.lonelyplanet.com/new-zealand. NewsHub, http://www.newshub.co.nz/home.html. New Zealand Government, https://www.govt.nz. Radio NZ, http://www.radionz.co.nz.

FILM Lord of the Rings trilogy. DVD. New Line Cinemas, 2001–2003. New Zealand to the Max. DVD. American Public Television, 2007. The Ultimate New Zealand. DVD. Custom Flix, 2006. The Whale Rider. DVD. Pandora Film. 2002.

MUSIC Kiri Te Kanawa: Maori Songs. EMI Classics, 1999. Te Runga Rawa: New Zealand: Maoris Songs. Playsound, 2007. Various Artists: Songs of New Zealand. MasterSound, 2000.

141

BIBLIOGRAPHY Balham, Diana, and Kate Fraser. Frommer’s New Zealand. New York: Frommer Media LLC, 2017. Belton, Rosie, and Margaret Mahy. Wild Blackberries: Recipes and Memories from a New Zealand Table. Sydney, Australia: Allen & Unwin, 2014. Bennett, Joe. A Land of Two Halves: An Accidental Tour of New Zealand. London, UK: Scribner, 2005. Darby, Anabel. Fodor’s Essential New Zealand. New York: Fodor’s Travel Publications, 2017. Elliott, Matt. War Blacks: The Extraordinary Story of New Zealand’s World War I All Blacks. London, UK: HarperCollins, 2016. Emmler, Clemens, and Klaus Viedebantt. New Zealand: Continent in a Nutshell. New York: Bucher, 2007. English, Tom, and Peter Burns. When Lions Roared: The Lions, the All Blacks and the Legendary Tour of 1971. Sweden: Polaris, 2017. Evans, Polly. Kiwis Might Fly: Around New Zealand on Two Big Wheels. New York: Bantam, 2010. Fischer, David Hackett. Fairness and Freedom: A History of Two Open Societies. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012. Loveridge, Steven. New Zealand Society at War. Chicago: IPG-Academic, 2017. Masson, J. Moussaieff. Slipping into Paradise: Why I Live in New Zealand. New York: Ballantine, 2005. McLauchlan, Gordon. A Short History of New Zealand. Auckland, New Zealand: David Bateman, 2014. Smith, Philippa Mein. A Concise History of New Zealand. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2012.

142

INDEX action song, 102–103 agriculture, 6, 12, 14, 22, 26, 29, 44, 48–49, 58–60, 66, 79, 123, 127–129 All Blacks, 7, 33, 103, 107, 108, 110 Angus, Rita, 99 architecture, 65, 74, 76–77, 85, 112–113 Ardern, Jacinda, 32, 36, 38 Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), 47 Auckland, 14, 17–18, 26, 65, 69, 77, 101, 103, 113, 116 Australia, 6, 9, 27, 44, 48, 50, 64–65, 78, 86, 92, 110, 117–118, 126–127 birds, 6, 14–17, 22, 54–55, 61, 84, 94, 103, 111 Boer War, 27 Bolger, Jim, 38 Bracken, Thomas, 88 Britain, 5–7, 23–27, 29–30, 36–37, 40–41, 43, 48, 64, 66, 94, 98–99, 100, 117–118, 128–129 Britten, John, 67 bungee jumping, 7, 65, 109 Busby, James, 25, 30, 128 Canterbury Plains, 12, 19 carbon emissions, 32, 54, 60 carving, 7, 21–22, 74, 94, 97–98, 102–103 cathedrals, 85 cattle, 12, 79 Chatham Islands, 9–10 child poverty, 46 China, 48, 50, 64–65, 70 Christchurch, 18–19, 32–33, 55, 65, 67, 77, 85, 103 Clark, Helen, 31–32 climate, 6, 13–14, 17, 58, 112, 127–128 climate change, 31–32, 54, 58, 60 Cook, James, 6, 23, 129 Cook Islands, 28, 70, 93

crops, 12, 14, 22, 79, 123 Crump, Barry, 111 currency, 28–30, 43–44, 46–47, 108 dairy products, 12, 26, 48–49, 79 dancing, 40, 77, 80, 97, 102–103, 110, 118 deforestation, 53–54 desserts, 126–127 diseases, 5–6, 23, 27, 102 dolphins, 55–56 Dunedin, 18–19, 26 Duvaucel’s gecko, 16–17 earthquakes, 11, 32–33, 53, 76–77, 85, 87 economic reforms, 30–31, 39, 44–46 education, 26, 37, 40, 68, 70, 75–76, 79, 91–94, 102, 107 elections, 28, 30–32, 35–38 endangered species, 53–56, 61 erosion, 11, 53, 57 exports, 12, 44, 47–48 farmstays, 58 festivals, 7, 78, 115–118, 121, 125 fishing, 6, 22, 25, 44, 48, 58–59, 69, 111–112, 125 fjords, 6, 9, 11, 19, 53 flags, 30 Flight of the Conchords, 78 food, 12, 22, 50, 120, 123–127 Footrot Flats, 80 forest, 6, 9, 14–15, 22, 25, 50, 53–54, 56–57 forestry, 44–45, 48, 50 France, 23, 25, 29, 33, 64–66, 83, 127–128 frogs, 16 Frying Pan Lake, 13 funerals, 74, 80–81 Gallipoli, 27, 117–118 gardening, 112–113

geysers, 13 Gibbs, Alan, 65 glaciers, 6, 9, 11, 53 gold, 26, 64–65 Goldie, Charles, 98–99 government local, 35–37, 41, 59, national, 25–26, 28–33, 35– 41, 44–48, 60, 69, 75–76, 79, 94, 102, 107, 117 governor-general, 32, 36, 39, 41, 117 Hackett, AJ, 109 haka, 97, 103, 110 Hamilton, William, 65 hangi, 125–126 Hillary, Sir Edmund, 29, 107–108 Hiroa, Te Rangi, 28 Hobson, William, 25 Hodgkins, Frances, 99 holidays ANZAC Day, 115, 118–119 Christmas, 23, 115, 119–120, 126 Easter, 115, 120 Labor Day, 115, 120 Matariki, 118, 126 New Year’s Day, 115–116, 120 Queen’s Birthday, 115, 120 Waitangi Day, 115, 117 hongi, 75 housing, 28, 68, 77, 112–113 hui, 68 humor, 78 hydroelectric power, 12, 44, 57–59 imports, 44, 47–48, 57–58 inflation, 29, 46–47 infrastructure, 26, 37, 44, 49–51, 60 invasive species, 61 inventions, 63, 65 Jackson, Peter, 104–105 Japan, 27, 48, 50 judiciary, 35, 37, 40–41

143

INDEX kakapos, 54–55, 94 Kanawa, Kiri Te, 103–104 Key, John, 32, 36, 46 kiwis (birds), 17, 55, 61, 94 Korean War, 29 Kupe, 21–22 labor unions, 27–28, 44–45 lakes, 6, 11–13, 59, 94, 112, 125 lamb, 12, 123, 126 land wars, 6–7, 26, 68 Lange, David Russell, 31 languages English, 24–25, 78, 88, 91–95 Maori, 24–25, 28, 40, 69, 74–75, 85, 91–95 New Zealand Sign Language, 91–92 literacy, 6, 83, 85–86, 94 literature, 97, 99–101 mana, 85, 94 manufacturing, 29, 48, 59, 65 marae, 22, 68, 73–75, 77, 79–81 marriage, 68, 73, 79–80 Marsden, Samuel, 23, 128 mining, 26, 44–45, 48, 57, 64–65 missionaries, 6, 23–25, 83–86, 94, 128 moas, 15, 22, 54 mountains Aoraki/Cook, 6, 11 Southern Alps, 6, 10–11, 53, 79, 116 Taranaki/Egmont, 10–11, 95 movies, 9, 78, 97, 104–105, 115 Muldoon, Robert, 29–31 music, 40, 75, 78, 87–89, 97, 101– 104, 115–116, 118 mythology, 11, 21–22, 83–84, 87, 103, 118 national anthems, 88 national parks, 6, 11, 54, 56–57, 59, 111 natural gas, 57–58

144

Ngata, Apirana Turupa, 28, 40 Niue, 28, 69–70 Norgay, Tenzing, 29, 107 nuclear-free, 5, 31, 59 Olympic Games, 110 oral tradition, 6, 21, 85 painting, 97–99 Paris Climate Agreement, 31–32, 54, 58, 60 parliament, 24, 26, 28, 32–33, 35–41, 69, 102 Pearse, Richard, 67 people Asian, 64–65, 70–71 Maori, 5–7, 11, 14–16, 21–26, 28, 30, 33, 35, 40, 46, 53–54, 66, 68–70, 73–76, 79–81, 83–87, 91–95, 97–104, 115, 117–118, 123–126 Pacific Islanders, 28, 46, 69–70, 101 pakeha, 5–6, 14, 16–17, 22–26, 33, 35, 40, 43, 63–66, 68– 70, 81, 83–86, 95, 98–99, 102, 104, 117, 128 political parties, 28–33, 37–39 pollution, 54, 58–59 Pompallier, Jean-Baptiste, 23, 128 Privy Council, 40–41 pukekos, 55 radio, 69, 113 recreation, 7, 57–58, 107, 110–112 refugees, 70–71 religion Buddhism, 84, 87 Christianity, 6, 23–24, 83–87, 89, 119–120 Hinduism, 84, 87 Islam, 87 Judaism, 70–71, 84–85 Maori Christianity, 85–87 renewable energy, 12, 44, 57–59 rivers, 11–13, 59, 65, 94, 112, 125

Savage, Michael Joseph, 28 seafood, 12, 50, 123–126 sheep, 12, 49, 58, 67, 78–79 Shipley, Jenny, 32 social structure, 22, 68–69 sports bowls, 111 cricket, 108, 110 golf, 110–111 rugby, 7, 33, 103, 107–108, 110 Tasman, Abel, 6, 23 tattooing, 21, 97–98 television, 69, 78, 104, 109, 113 Tokelau, 28, 69 tourism, 12, 18, 44, 48, 50, 58–59, 95, 97, 102, 105, 109, 116, 121, 124–125 transportation, 7, 26, 37, 44–45, 50–51 trees, 14, 50, 56–57, 94 tuatara, 16 unemployment, 31, 45–46, 76 vacations, 112 volcanoes, 9–13, 53 Waitangi, Treaty of, 6, 24–26, 30, 40, 66, 117 waste management, 59–60 Wellington, 18, 26, 76–78, 99, 101, 103, 119, 121 Western Samoa, 28, 70 weta, 16 whaling, 23–24, 54, 64 wharenui, 74, 102 wine, 48, 123, 127–129 women’s suffrage, 5, 27, 37 wool, 29, 48–49 World War I, 27–28, 40, 102–103, 117–118 World War II, 27, 40, 65, 70–71, 102, 129 writers, 99–101

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Smelt/Lin/Newsome

CULTURES OF THE WORLD®

CULTURES OF THE WORLD

New Zealand