New Testament Greek: A Beginning and Intermediate Grammar

Table of contents :
Table of Contents
Abbreviations
General
Bible Versions
New Testament Books
Chapter 1. Traditional Components of Grammar
1.1 Sounds
1.2 Words
1.2.1 The Nominal System (Entities)
1.2.2 The Verbal System (Activities)
1.2.3 The Abstracts System (Characteristics)
1.2.4 The Structural System (Relations)
1.3 Phrases
1.4 Clauses
1.5 Sentences
Chapter 2. Meaning
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Grammatical Meaning
2.3 Lexical Meaning and Greek Dictionaries
2.4 More about Meaning
2.4.1 Words Do Not Have Fixed, Unchangeable Meanings
2.4.2 Words Are Sometimes Not What They Seem
2.4.3 The Exact Parameters of a Lexeme’s Meaning Can Be Blurry
2.4.4 Words Belong to Groups
2.4.5 Words Belong to Contexts
2.5 Closing Thought
Chapter 3. Alphabet, Orthography, and Punctuation
3.1 The Alphabet and Pronunciation
3.1.1 Vowels
3.1.2 Diphthongs
3.1.3 Iota Subscript
3.1.4 Syllables
3.2 Formation of Letters
3.3 Pronunciation and Punctuation Marks
Exercises
Chapter 4. Verbal System: Primary Active Endings and Tenses, Indicative Mood
4.1 Vocabulary
4.2 Verb Formation
4.3 Two Categories of Verb Tenses: Primary and Secondary
4.4 Parsing Greek Verbs
4.5 Verbal Aspect: How Tenses View Activity
4.6 Greek: A Dynamic Language
4.7 Tense Suffixes, Linking Vowels, and Endings
Exercises
Chapter 5. Nominal and Abstracts Systems: Second Declension; The Verb εἰμί
5.1 Vocabulary
5.2 The Second Declension (-ο Stems)
5.3 Formation of the Second Declension
5.4 Gender and Number
5.5 The Cases
5.5.1 Nominative
5.5.2 Genitive
5.5.3 Dative
5.5.4 Accusative
5.5.5 Direct Objects in Other Cases
5.5.6 Vocative
5.6 The Article
5.7 The Function of Adjectives
5.8 The Verb εἰμί
5.9 Idioms and Translation
5.10 Nouns Made Definite by Context
Exercises
Chapter 6. Nominal System: First Declension; Conditional Sentences
6.1 Vocabulary
6.1.1 Feminine Nouns: καρδία Type & 6.1.2 Feminine Nouns: δόξα Type
6.1.3 Feminine Nouns: φωνή Type & 6.1.4 Adjectives of the καρδία Type in the Feminine
6.1.5 Adjectives of the φωνή Type in the Feminine & 6.1.6 Feminine Forms of Adjectives Already Presented & 6.1.7 First-Declension Masculine Nouns
6.1.8 Second-Declension Feminine Nouns & 6.1.9 Article
6.1.10 Conjunctions & 6.1.11 Second Declension, Irregular Form
6.2 The First Declension (-α Stems): Feminine Nouns and Adjectives
6.3 First-Declension Masculine Nouns
6.4 Formation of the Feminine Article
6.5 Second-Declension Feminine Nouns
6.6 The Name “Jesus”
6.7 First-Class Conditional Sentences
6.8 Nouns in the Attributive Position
Exercises
Chapter 7. Nominal System: Personal and Relative Pronouns
7.1 Vocabulary
7.2 Personal Pronouns
7.2.1 Formation of Personal Pronouns
7.2.2 Function of Personal Pronouns
7.2.3 Special Issues Concerning αὐτός, -ή, -ό
7.3 Relative Pronouns
7.3.1 Formation
7.3.2 Syntax
7.3.3 Function
7.4 οὐ, οὐκ, οὐχ in Rhetorical Questions & 7.5 Conjunctions and Sentence Structure
Exercises
Chapter 8. Nominal System: Demonstrative and Reflexive Pronouns
8.1 Vocabulary
8.2 Demonstrative Pronouns
8.3 Reflexive Pronouns
8.4 Confusing People
Exercises
Chapter 9. Structural Word System: Prepositions; Compound Verbs; ὅτι
9.1 Vocabulary
9.2 Prepositions
9.3 Compound Verbs
9.4 Prepositional Phrases as Adjectives and Substantives
9.5 The Conjunction ὅτι
9.5.1 Causal Clauses
9.5.2 Object Clauses
9.5.3 Direct Discourse
9.5.4 Indirect Discourse
Exercises
Chapter 10. Verbal System: Secondary Active Endings and Tenses; Imperfect Tense; Imperfect of εἰμί; Second-Class Conditional Sentences with the Imperfect; Abstracts System: Adverbs
10.1 Vocabulary
10.2 Secondary Tenses
10.3 Imperfect Tense, Active Voice
10.4 Imperfect of εἰμί
10.5 Second-Class Conditional Sentences with the Imperfect
10.6 Adverbs
Exercises
Chapter 11. Verbal System: Aorist Tense, Active and Passive Voices
11.1 Vocabulary
11.2 Mastering Principle Parts
11.3 Principle Parts
11.4 The Aorist Indicative
11.4.1 Formation of the First Aorist Active
11.4.2 Formation of the Second Aorist Active
11.4.3 Functions of the Aorist Tense
11.4.4 Formation of the First Aorist Passive
11.4.5 Formation of the Second Aorist Passive
11.4.6 Function of the Passive Voice
11.5 Agents of Passive Action
11.6 First Aorist Suffixes on Second Aorist Stems
11.7 More on Agents of Passive Action
11.8 Grammarians Love Their Labels
Exercises
Chapter 12. Verbal System: Perfect and Pluperfect Active; Second-Class Conditional Sentences with the Aorist
12.1 Vocabulary
12.2 Perfect Tense, Active Voice
12.2.1 Definition
12.2.2 Formation
12.2.3 Functions
12.3 Pluperfect Tense, Active Voice
12.4 οἶδα and ᾔδειν
12.5 Second-Class Conditional Sentences with the Aorist
Exercises
Chapter 13. Verbal System: Primary Middle Endings, Indicative Mood; Deponent Verbs; Future of εἰμί; Nominal System: Reciprocal Pronouns
13.1 Vocabulary
13.2 Significance of Middle and Passive Voices
13.3 Formation and Translation of Primary Middle and Passive Voices
13.3.1 Present Tense, Middle and Passive Voices
13.3.2 Future Tense, Middle Voice
13.3.3 Future Tense, Passive Voice
13.3.4 Perfect Tense, Middle and Passive Voices
13.4 Deponent Verbs
13.5 εἰμί: Future Tense
13.6 Reciprocal Pronouns
13.7 Aspect and Verb Formation
Exercises
Chapter 14. Verbal System: Secondary-Tense Endings for Middle/Passive Voice, Indicative Mood
14.1 Vocabulary
14.2 Formation and Translation of Secondary Tenses, Middle and Passive Voices
14.2.1 Imperfect Tense, Middle and Passive Voices
14.2.2 Aorist Tense, Middle Voice
14.2.3 Pluperfect Tense, Middle and Passive Voices
14.3 The Indicative Mood: A Review
Exercises
Chapter 15. Nominal System: Third-Declension Masculine and Feminine Nouns; Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns
15.1 Vocabulary
15.2 The Third Declension
15.3 Masculine and Feminine Stems and Endings
15.4 Formation of Third-Declension Masculine and Feminine Nouns: Stems Ending with a Consonant
15.4.1 Consonant Contractions
15.4.2 Stems Ending in Palatals
15.4.3 Stems Ending in Dentals
15.4.4 Stems Ending in Liquids and Nasals
15.5 Formation of Third-Declension Feminine and Masculine Nouns: Stems Ending with a Vowel
15.6 Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns
15.7 Neuter Plural Subjects with Singular Verbs
Exercises
Chapter 16. Nominal and Abstracts Systems: Third-Declension Neuter Nouns; Adjectives and Numerals
16.1 Vocabulary
16.2 Neuter Stems and Endings
16.3 Formation of Third-Declension Neuter Nouns
16.4 A Summary of Third-Declension Nouns Presented in the Text
16.5 Adjectives and Numerals
16.5.1 Third-Declension Adjectives and Numerals
16.5.2 First- and Third-Declension Type
16.5.3 Mixed-Declension Types
16.6 Translation Tips for πᾶς, πᾶσα, πᾶν
Exercises
Chapter 17. Verbal System: Contract Verbs; Liquid Verbs; Abstracts System: Comparative and Superlative Forms
17.1 Vocabulary
17.2 Formation of Contract Verbs
17.2.1 General Rules of Vowel Dominance in Contraction
17.2.2 -ο Stem Contract Verbs
17.2.3 -α Stem Contract Verbs
17.2.4 -ε Stem Contract Verbs
17.2.5 Principal Parts of Contract Verbs
17.2.6 Non-Contract Verbs with Contract Linking Vowels in the Future Tense & 17.2.7 -ιζω Verbs in the Future Tense
17.3 Formation of Liquid Verbs
17.4 Comparative and Superlative Degrees of Adjectives and Adverbs
17.5 Additional Uses of the Nominative Case
Exercises
Chapter 18. Verbal System: -μι Verbs
18.1 Vocabulary
18.2 -ω and -μι Verbs
18.3 Conjugation of -μι Verbs
18.3.1 The First Principal Part
18.3.2 The Third Principal Part
18.3.3 Second and Fourth through Sixth Principal Parts
18.4 ἀφίημι, ἀπόλλυμι, δείκνυμι
18.4.1 ἀφίημι: I cancel
18.4.2 ἀπόλλυμι: I ruin
18.4.3 δείκνυμι: I show
Exercises
Chapter 19. Participles; Formation of Participles
19.1 Vocabulary
19.2 The Participle
19.3 Formation of Participles
19.3.1 Nominal Endings
19.3.2 The Present Active Participle
19.3.3 The Present Middle/Passive Participle
19.3.4 The First Aorist Participle
19.3.5 Second Aorist Active
19.3.6 First Aorist Middle
19.3.7 Second Aorist Middle
19.3.8 The First Aorist Passive Participle
19.3.9 The Second Aorist Passive Participle
19.3.10 The Perfect Active Participle
19.3.11 The Perfect Middle/Passive Participle
19.4 Contract, Liquid, and -μι Verbs
19.4.1 Present Participles: Contract Verbs
19.4.2 Aorist-Tense Participles of Liquid Verbs
19.4.3 Present- and Aorist-Tense Participles: -μι Verbs
Exercises
Chapter 20. Functions of Participles: Adjectival
20.1 Vocabulary
20.2 Translating Participles
20.3 The Participle and Time
20.3.1 Present-Tense Participles
20.3.2 Aorist-Tense Participles
20.3.3 Perfect-Tense Participles
20.3.4 Future-Tense Participles
20.4 The Adjectival Participle
20.5 ὑπάρχω as “Possessions”
20.6 The Granville Sharp Rule
Exercises
Chapter 21. Functions of Participles: Adverbial and Complementary; Genitive Absolute; Periphrastic Tenses
21.1 Vocabulary
21.2 Adverbial (Circumstantial) Participles
21.3 Types of Adverbial Participles
21.3.1 Cause
21.3.2 Concession
21.3.3 Condition
21.3.4 Manner & 21.3.5 Means
21.3.6 Purpose & 21.3.7 Time
21.3.8 Attendant Activity
21.4 The Complementary Participle
21.5 The Genitive Absolute
21.6 Periphrastic Tenses
21.6.1 The Present Periphrastic Tense
21.6.2 The Imperfect Periphrastic Tense
21.6.3 The Future Periphrastic Tense
21.6.4 The Perfect Periphrastic Tense
21.6.5 The Pluperfect Periphrastic Tense
Exercises
Chapter 22. Verbal System: The Subjunctive Mood
22.1 Vocabulary
22.2 The Subjunctive Mood
22.3 Tense and the Subjunctive Mood
22.4 Formation of the Subjunctive-Mood Tenses
22.4.1 Tense Endings
22.4.2 Tense Stems
22.4.3 Paradigms of the Present Tense
22.4.4 Paradigms of the Aorist Tense
22.4.5 Paradigms of Liquid- and Nasal-Stem Verbs & 22.4.6 Paradigms of Contract Verbs
22.4.7 Paradigm of εἰμί (Only in the Present Tense)
22.4.8 Paradigms of the -μι Verbs
22.5 Primary Functions of the Subjunctive Mood
22.5.1 Hortatory Subjunctive
22.5.2 Subjunctive of Prohibition
22.5.3 Deliberative Subjunctive
22.5.4 Subjunctive of Negated Future
22.6 Subordinate Clauses and the Subjunctive Mood
22.6.1 ἵνα or ὅπως with the Subjunctive to Introduce Purpose Clauses
22.6.2 ὅταν with the Subjunctive to Express Indefinite Time
22.6.3 Indefinite Relative Clauses Expressing Conditional Thought
22.7 Third-Class Conditional Sentences: The Subjunctive Mood
22.8 Questions That Anticipate an Answer
Exercises
Chapter 23. Verbal System: Infinitives; Indirect Discourse
23.1 Vocabulary
23.2 The Infinitive and Tense Aspect
23.3 Noun Characteristics of the Infinitive
23.4 Formation of the Infinitive
23.5 Functions of the Infinitive
23.5.1 Complementary Infinitive
23.5.2 Idiomatic Constructions
23.5.3 Purpose
23.5.4 Time
23.5.5 Cause
23.5.6 Infinitives as Subjects of Verbs
23.5.7 Infinitives as Direct Objects of Verbs
23.5.8 Infinitives as Secondary Objects and Complements
23.5.9 Subject Accusatives of Infinitives
23.6 The Use of ὥστε
23.7 Indirect Discourse
23.8 Translating Time and Point of View in Indirect Discourse
23.9 Less Common Idiomatic Uses of the Infinitive
Exercises
Chapter 24. Verbal System: Imperative Mood; Optative Mood; Fourth-Class Conditional Sentences
24.1 Vocabulary
24.2 Overview of the Imperative Mood
24.3 Formation of the Imperative
24.3.1 Personal Endings
24.3.2 Regular -ω Conjugation Verb
24.3.3 Present-Tense Contract Verbs
24.3.4 Liquid Verbs & 24.3.5 -μι Verbs
24.4 Functions of the Imperative
24.5 Formation of the Optative Mood
24.6 Functions of the Optative
24.7 Fourth-Class Conditional Sentences: The Optative Mood
24.8 Variations in Conditional Clauses: Modifications of the Protasis
Exercises
Chapter 25. Nominal System: Uses of the Genitive, Dative, and Accusative Cases
25.1 Vocabulary & 25.2 Case and Time
25.3 The Genitive Case
25.3.1 Adjectival Genitives
25.3.2 Adverbial Genitives
25.4 The Dative Case
25.4.1 Dative Expressing Personal Interest
25.4.2 The Locative Dative
25.4.3 The Instrumental Dative
25.5 The Accusative Case
Exercises
Appendix 1: Accents
Introduction ~ Chapter 3
Chapter 3: 5 ~ Chapter 4
Chapter 4: 12 ~ Chapter 5
Chapter 5: 15–17
Chapter 5: 18 ~ Chapter 6
Chapter 7 ~ Chapter 15
Chapter 5: 24–27
Chapter 17 ~ Chapter 22
Chapter 23 ~ Chapter 24
Appendix 2: Tables
Table 1: First-Declension Nouns
Table 2: Second-Declension Nouns
Table 3: The Article
Table 4: Adjectives
Table 5: Interrogative Pronouns, Third-Declension Endings
Table 6: The Verb εἰμί, I am
Table 7: Verb Endings, Indicative Mood
Table 8: Tense Suffixes, Linking Vowels, and Endings, Indicative Mood
Table 9: Contract Verb Suffixes When Contracted
Table 10: Verb Contraction Chart
Table 11: Conditional Sentences
Table 12: Some Common Irregular Verbs
Present Active
Imperfect Active & Future Active
Aorist Active & Perfect Active
Perfect Middle/Passive
Aorist Passive
Appendix 3: Greek-English Vocabulary
Α ~ ἀδελφός
αἷμα ~ ἀνοίγω
ἀντί ~ ἀσπάζομαι
αὐτός ~ Γ
γραμματεύς ~ Δ
διδαχή ~ Ε
ἔθνος ~ ἔξεστι(ν)
ἐξουσία ~ εὐλογέω
εὑρίσκω ~ Θ
θηρίον ~ Κ
καλῶς ~ Λ
λογίζομαι ~ Μ
μή ~ Ο
ὅλος ~ οὕτως
οὐχί ~ Π
περιπατέω ~ πρός
προσέρχομαι ~ Σ
στρέφω ~ Τ
τρίτος ~ Υ
Χ ~ Ω
Appendix 4: English-Greek Vocabulary
A ~ as
as far as ~ C
cleanse ~ E
every ~ G
H ~ K
L ~ N
not ~ P
promise ~ S
shine ~ T
thus ~ W
wine ~ Y
Appendix 5: Principal Parts of Common Verbs
Index of Subjects
aorist tense ~ C
conditional clauses, imperatival clauses as protases ~ E
εἰμί, periphrastic use ~ I
imperative mood ~ M
minuscule ~ P
Passive voice ~ principal parts of verbs
principal parts of verbs, means of identifying moods ~ T
tense suffixes, imperative mood ~ W
Index of Scriptures and Greek Literature Cited or Discussed in the Text
New Testament, Mark 5:29 – John
New Testament, John 17:2 – Hebrews
New Testament, Hebrews 2:13 ~ Greek Literature
The regular verb of the omega conjugation (λύω) with selected irregular forms (λείπω)

Citation preview

Table of Contents PREFACE TO THE REVISED AND EXPANDED EDITION

xiii

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION

xvii

ABBREVIATIONS

xxi

1. TRADITIONAL COMPONENTS OF GRAMMAR 1.1 Sounds 1.2 Words 1.3 Phrases

1.4 Clauses 1.5

*

Sentences

10 11

2. MEANING

2.1 Introduction

1

©

13 13

2.2 Grammatical Meaning

13

2.3 Lexical Meaning and Greek Dictionaries

14

2.4 More about Meaning 2.5 Closing Thought

16 20

3. ALPHABET, ORTHOGRAPHY, AND PUNCTUATION

21

3.1 The Alphabet and Pronunciation

21

3.2 Formation of Letters 3.3 Pronunciation and Punctuation Marks

24 24

Exercises

25

4. VERBAL SYSTEM: PRIMARY ACTIVE ENDINGS AND TENSES, INDICATIVE Moop 4.1 Vocabulary 4.2 Verb Formation 4.3 Two Categories of Verb Tenses: Primary and Secondary 4.4 Parsing Greek Verbs 4.5 Verbal Aspect: How Tenses View Activity 4.6 Greek: A Dynamic Language

27

27 28 29 30 31 32

4.7 Tense Suffixes, Linking Vowels, and Endings

32

Exercises

33

NEW TESTAMENT GREEK

5. NOMINAL AND ABSTRACTS SYSTEMS: SECOND DECLENSION;

THE VERB εἰμί

35

5.1 Vocabulary 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7

35 36

The Second Declension (-o Stems) Formation of the Second Declension Gender and Number The Cases The Article The Function of Adjectives

37 39 39 42 43

5.8 The Verb εἰμί

44

5.9 Idioms and Translation

45

5.10 Nouns Made Definite by Context

45 46

Exercises 6. NOMINAL SYSTEM: FIRST DECLENSION; CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

6.1 Vocabulary 6.2 The First Declension (-a Stems): Feminine Nouns and Adjectives 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8

First-Declension Masculine Nouns Formation of the Feminine Article Second-Declension Feminine Nouns The Name “Jesus” First-Class Conditional Sentences Nouns in the Attributive Position

ἢ

Exercises 7. NOMINAL SYSTEM: PERSONAL AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS

7. Vocabulary 7.2 Personal Pronouns

73 Relative Pronouns 7.4 οὗ, οὔκ, οὐχ in Rhetorical Questions 7.5 Conjunctions and Sentence Structure Exercises 8. NOMINAL SYSTEM: DEMONSTRATIVE AND REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS

8.1 Vocabulary 8.2 Demonstrative Pronouns 8.3. Reflexive Pronouns

8.4 Confusing People Exercises 9. STRUCTURAL WORD SYSTEM: PREPOSITIONS; COMPOUND VERBS; ὅτι

9.1 Vocabulary 9.2 Prepositions 9.3 Compound Verbs

47 47 49 50 51 51 52 52 52 53 55 55 56 60

62 62

62

65 65 66 68 69 69 71 71 72 73

Table of Contents

ix

9.4 Prepositional Phrases as Adjectives and Substantives

73

9.5 The Conjunction ὅτι Exercises

74 76

10. VERBAL SYSTEM: SECONDARY ACTIVE ENDINGS AND TENSES; IMPERFECT TENSE; IMPERFECT OF εἰμί; SECOND-CLASS CONDITIONAL

SENTENCES WITH THE IMPERFECT; ABSTRACTS SYSTEM: ADVERBS

10.1. 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5

Vocabulary Secondary Tenses Imperfect Tense, Active Voice Imperfect of εἰμί Second-Class Conditional Sentences with the Imperfect

10.6 Adverbs Exercises

79 80 81 84 84 86 86

11. VERBAL SYSTEM: AORIST TENSE, ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICES

11.1

79

Vocabulary

89

89

11.2. Mastering Principle Parts 11.3 Principle Parts

90 a

11.4 11.5

The Aorist Indicative Agents of Passive Action

92 96

11.6

First Aorist Suffixes on Second Aorist Stems

97

11.7

More on Agents of Passive Action

98

11.8

Grammarians Love Their Labels

_

Exercises

98 99

12. VERBAL SYSTEM: PERFECT AND PLUPERFECT ACTIVE; SECOND-CLASS

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES WITH THE AORIST

101

12.1. Vocabulary

101

12.2

Perfect Tense, Active Voice

103

12.3

Pluperfect Tense, Active Voice

105

12.4 οἶδα and δειν

106

12.5 Second-Class Conditional Sentences with the Aorist

107

Exercises

107

13. VERBAL SYSTEM: PRIMARY MIDDLE ENDINGS, INDICATIVE Moon; DEPONENT VERBS; FUTURE OF εἰμί; NOMINAL SYSTEM: RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS

109

13.1 Vocabulary 13.2 Significance of Middle and Passive Voices

109 111

13.2 13.4

Formation and Translation of Primary Middle and Passive Voices Deponent Verbs

112 115

13.5

εἰμί: Future Tense

116

x

NEW TESTAMENT GREEK

13.6 Reciprocal Pronouns

117

13.7 Aspect and Verb Formation Exercises

117

14. VERBAL SYSTEM: SECONDARY-IENSE ENDINGS FOR MIDDLE/PASSIVE VOICE, INDICATIVE Moop

14.1 Vocabulary 14.2 Formation and Translation of Secondary Tenses, Middle and Passive Voices 14.3. The Indicative Mood: A Review Exercises

118

119 119 121 124 126

15. NOMINAL SYSTEM: THIRD-DECLENSION MASCULINE AND FEMININE Nouns; INTERROGATIVE AND INDEFINITE PRONOUNS

15.1

Vocabulary

15.2 The Third Declension 15.3 Masculine and Feminine Stems and Endings 15.4 Formation of Third-Declension Masculine and Feminine Nouns:

Stems Ending with a Consonant 15.5

16.

127 127 128

129

129

Formation of Third-Declension Feminine and Masculine Nouns:

Stems Ending with a Vowel 15.6 Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns

132

15.7 Neuter Plural Subjects with Singular Verbs Exercises

134

133

135

NOMINAL AND ABSTRACTS SYSTEMS: THIRD-DECLENSION NEUTER

Nouns; ADJECTIVES AND NUMERALS

137

16.1. Vocabulary 16.2 Neuter Stems and Endings

137 138

16.3

139 140

Formation of Third-Declension Neuter Nouns

16.4 A Summary of Third-Declension Nouns Presented in the Text 16.5 Adjectives and Numerals 16.6

Translation Tips for πᾶς, πᾶσα, πᾶν

Exercises

141 144 144

17. VERBAL SYSTEM: CONTRACT VERBS; LIQUID VERBS; ABSTRACTS

SYSTEM: COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE FORMS

147

17.1

Vocabulary

147

17.2

Formation of Contract Verbs

149

173 Formation of Liquid Verbs 17.4 Comparative and Superlative Degrees of Adjectives and Adverbs 175

Additional Uses of the Nominative Case

Exercises

153 155 156 157

Table of Contents

18. VERBAL SYSTEM: -μι VERBS

18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4

Vocabulary -@ and -μι Verbs Conjugation of -μι Verbs ἀφίημι, ἀπόλλυμι, δείκνυμι

Exercises 19. PARTICIPLES; FORMATION OF PARTICIPLES

20.

159 160 160

164 166 169

169

19.4 Contract, Liquid, and -μι Verbs Exercises

177 180

FUNCTIONS OF PARTICIPLES: ADJECTIVAL

183

20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 20.6

183

Vocabulary Translating Participles The Participle and Time The Adjectival Participle ὑπάρχω as “Possessions” The Granville Sharp Rule

170 170

184 184

187 189 189

190

FUNCTIONS OF PARTICIPLES: ADVERBIAL AND COMPLEMENTARY;

GENITIVE ABSOLUTE; PERIPHRASTIC TENSES

21.1

Vocabulary

21.2

Adverbial (Circumstantial) Participles

193 193 194

21.3. Types of Adverbial Participles 21.4 The Complementary Participle

194 197

21.5

198

The Genitive Absolute

21.6 Periphrastic Tenses

22.

159

19.1 Vocabulary 19.2 The Participle 19.3 Formation of Participles

Exercises 21.

xi

Exercises

199 201

VERBAL SYSTEM: THE SUBJUNCTIVE Moop 22.1 Vocabulary 22.2 The Subjunctive Mood 22.3 Tense and the Subjunctive Mood 22.4 Formation of the Subjunctive-Mood Tenses 22.5 Primary Functions of the Subjunctive Mood 22.6 Subordinate Clauses and the Subjunctive Mood 22.7 Third-Class Conditional Sentences: The Subjunctive Mood 22.8 Questions That Anticipate an Answer Exercises

203 203 204 205 205 210 212 215 217 217

xii

NEW TESTAMENT GREEK

23. VERBAL SYSTEM: INFINITIVES; INDIRECT DISCOURSE

23.1 Vocabulary 23.2 The Infinitive and Tense Aspect 23.3 23.4 23.5 23.6 23.7.

Noun Characteristics of the Infinitive Formation of the Infinitive Functions of the Infinitive The Use of ὥστε Indirect Discourse

23.8 Translating Time and Point of View in Indirect Discourse 23.9 Less Common Idiomatic Uses of the Infinitive Exercises 24. VERBAL SYSTEM: IMPERATIVE Moop; OPTATIVE Moop; FOURTH-CLASS CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

219 219 221 221 222 224 229 229 230 231 232

235

24.1 Vocabulary 24.2 Overview of the Imperative Mood 24.3 Formation of the Imperative

235 236

24.4 Functions of the Imperative 24.5 Formation of the Optative Mood

239 241

24.6 Functions of the Optative

242

24.7 Fourth-Class Conditional Sentences: The Optative Mood 24.8 Variations in Conditional Clauses: Modifications of the Protasis

243

Exercises

244

236

\

25. NOMINAL SYSTEM: USES OF THE GENITIVE, DATIVE, AND ACCUSATIVE CASES

243

247

25.1 Vocabulary

247

25.2 Case and Time 25.3 The Genitive Case 25.4 The Dative Case 25.5 The Accusative Case Exercises

247 249 254 256 257

APPENDIX 1: ACCENTS

259

APPENDIX 2: TABLES

269

APPENDIX 3: GREEK-ENGLISH VOCABULARY

277

APPENDIX 4: ENGLISH-GREEK VOCABULARY

297

APPENDIX 5: PRINCIPAL PARTS OF COMMON VERBS

309

INDEX OF SUBJECTS

311

INDEX OF SCRIPTURES AND GREEK LITERATURE CITED OR DISCUSSED IN THE TEXT

321

Abbreviations

General acc.orA

accusative

act.

active

aor. cE ch(s). dat. or D ed(s). e.g. esp. fem.

aorist

feminine

fig.

figuratively

fut. gen. or G GNT Heb. 1:6:

future genitive Greek New Testament Hebrew in other words imperfect imperative indicative infinitive

impf. impv. indic. infin. lit. masc. mid.

compare

chapter(s) dative edition, editors for example

especially

literally

neut.

masculine middle neuter

nom. or N

nominative

NT pass. opt.

New Testament passive optative

xxii

NEW TESTAMENT GREEK

per. pf. pl. plupf. prep. pres.

person perfect plural pluperfect

ptc.

participle reprinted singular subjunctive vocative

repr. Sg. subj. voc. or V

preposition present

Bible Versions JB NASB NEB NIV NKJV NRSV RSV

Jerusalem Bible New American Standard Bible

New English Bible New International Version New King James Version New Revised Standard Version Revised Standard Version

New Testament Books Abbreviation' Matt Mark Luke John Acts Rom 1 Cor 2 Cor

Gal

Eph Phil

English Title : Gospel of Matthew Gospel of Mark Gospel of Luke Gospel of John Acts of the Apostles Paul’s Letter to the Romans Paul’s First Letter to the Corinthians Paul’s Second Letter to the Corinthians Paul’s Letter to the Galatians Paul’s Letter to the Ephesians Paul’s Letter to the Philippians

Greek Title’ Kata Μαθθαῖον Κατὰ Μᾶρκον Kata Λουκᾶν Kata Ἰωάννην Πράξεις Ἀποστόλων Πρὸς Ῥωμαίους Πρὸς Κορινθίους A Πρὸς Κορινθίους B Πρὸς Γαλάτας Πρὸς Ἐφεσίους Πρὸς Φιλιππησίους

‘The English abbreviations used are in accordance with Patrick H. Alexander et al., eds., The SBL Handbook of Style: For Ancient Near Eastern, Biblical, and Early Christian Studies (Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 1999), 74-75. The Greek titles are those used in The Greek New Testament, United Bible Societies, 4th ed. τ

Abbreviations

Col 1 Thess 2 Thess 1 Tim 2 Tim Titus Phlm Heb Jas 1 Pet 2.Pet 1 John

2 John 3 John Jude Rev

Paul’s Letter to the Colossians Paul’s First Letter to the Thessalonians Paul’s First Letter to the Thessalonians

Paul’s First Letter to Timothy Paul’s Second Letter to Timothy Paul’s Letter to Titus Paul’s Letter to Philemon Letter to the Hebrews The Letter of James The First Letter of Peter The Second Letter of Peter The First Letter of John The Second Letter of John The Third Letter of John The Letter of Jude

The Apocalypse of John

*

xxiii

Πρὸς Κολοσσαεῖς Πρὸς Θεσσαλονικεῖς A Πρὸς Θεσσαλονικεῖς Β Πρὸς Τιμόθεον Α Πρὸς Τιμόθεον Β Πρὸς Τίτον Πρὸς Φιλήμονα Πρὸς Ἑβραίους Ἰακώβου Πέτρου Α Πέτρου Β Ἰωάννου Α Ἰωάννου Β Ἰωάννου Γ Ἰούδα Ἀποκάλυψις Ἰωάννου

Chapter 1

Traditional Components of Grammar

1.1 Sounds 1.1.1 Phonemes

Sometimes we think of the “sounds” of a language as the alphabet. But many letters of the alphabet, in different combinations, can make different sounds. Each of these possibilities is called a phoneme. For example, the word “cat” is made up of three letters of the alphabet and usually refers to a household pet. Each of the letters in “cat” is a phoneme and has a particular sound (ignoring regional differences, of course), yet with other combinations of letters, each might make a different sound (cf. the sound of c in “city,” the sound of t in “pithy, ” or the sound of a in “a”). This grammar does not propose to determine precisely how Greek phonemes were pronounced in the New Testament period (even if this were possible). Instead we will present a particular pronunciation and tip our hats to scholars who insist that our pronunciation is wrong. The nature of the debate can be learned and fretted over later. At this stage you want to read Greek. .. and you will.

1.1.2 Morphemes A sound that has a possible grammatical meaning is called a morpheme. The letter s in “cats” is not a word, but it is a morpheme because it signals plurality (“cats”). Some morphemes are combinations of letters, such as -ed, which signals past action: I loved cats yesterday, and I will love them tomorrow.

2

Chapter 1: Traditional Components of Grammar

When the letter a is attached to the front of a word, it becomes more than a meaningless phoneme; it becomes a morpheme and might signal a negation of the word’s meaning: I once was a theist, but

Iam now an atheist.

1.1.3 Affixes When morphemes are attached to the beginning of a word, they are called prefixes. Take, for example, the morphemes dis-, un-, and pre-: disobey

unkind

predisposed

disillusion disengage discontinue

unravel undeserved uncut

prehistory premeditate prescript

A morpheme added to the middle of a word is called an infix; one added to the end of a word is called a suffix or simply an ending. Prefixes, infixes, and suffixes may be referred to generally as affixes.

1.2 Words

;

Anyone who has played word games such as Scrabble knows that, to a certain extent, the speakers of a language are able to recognize what is and is not a word. Furthermore, according to the rules of Scrabble, there are certain kinds of words that

cannot be used, such as proper nouns (names). We all recognize, then, that there are different kinds of words, that proper nouns such as “Jessica” are different from, say, nouns such as “window” or adjectives such as “green.” Kinds of words or parts of speech can be variously listed. In a sampling of grammars, for example, the lists varied from six items to twelve items! All of the different parts of speech belong, however, to one of four word systems: 1. Nominal (entities: nouns, pronouns)

2. Verbal (activities: verbs, participles, infinitives) 3. Abstracts (characteristics: adjectives, adverbs) 4. Structural (relations: prepositions, particles, conjunctions)

The recognition of similar categories is as ancient as the earliest known Greek grammarians, who spoke of category 1 as “the naming,” category 2 as “the speaking,” and category 4 as “the binding.” Category 4 contains words that, for the most part, occur in only one form (e.g., you cannot add an s to “therefore”). They are called func-

1.2 Words

3

tion words because they have no substantial meaning by themselves but are, rather, the joints in a sentence, paragraph, or discourse that provide relationship with the other words (which we will call content words). Consider the following sentence, with

function words italicized: When I got thirsty, I slowed down to take a drink; but in order to stay in the race, I kept jogging because I am a fierce competitor. Learning the function words is critical for a beginner, and they will be emphasized in this grammar. But first let us look at the content words. 1.2.1 The Nominal System (Entities)

»"

Nouns. A noun is a word that stands for a person, place, thing, or idea. It can be the subject of a sentence (Regina loves books) or the object of a verb (Mike reads

books), among other funtions. It can be singular (The boy is shy), plural (The boys caught frogs at the river), or collective (Boys can be messy). Plurality in English is most often signaled by a final -s (boy / boys) or -es (church / churches), but in some English nouns, the stem changes (mouse / mice; goose / geese). Other nouns do not change at all (moose / moose), and still others add a suffix -en (ox / oxen). These changes in the

words are called inflections. The noun system in Greek is even more inflected than in English. The inflection of the Greek noun system is called declension. So a declension is a set of endings added to the stem of a noun to indicate the function of the noun in a sentence (ch. 5).

Nouns in a declension are distributed according to their gender (masculine, feminine, or neuter), their number (singular or plural), and their case (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, and vocative). The meanings of these grammatical categories will be explained in ch. 5. Pronouns. A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun, as the italicized examples below illustrate: I love Annette; she is a faithful friend. I love Maya, who just adores me. Missy is my dog’s name. She is a Labrador. Steve and I got into trouble because we skipped school together.

Each of the pronouns above has a clear antecedent, which is the person, place, thing, or idea that the pronoun refers back to (e.g., Annette-she; Maya-who). Sometimes, however, the antecedent is not explicitly stated in the immediate context, but

must be discerned from the broader context. There are several types of pronouns:

4

Chapter 1: Traditional Components of Grammar

*

personal pronouns: I, you, he, she, it, we, they, etc.

*

possessive pronouns: my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, its, our, ours, their,

theirs ¢

reflexive pronouns: myself, himself, herself, ourselves, themselves

¢

reciprocal pronouns: one another

¢

relative pronouns: who, whom, whose, which, etc.

¢

interrogative pronouns: who?, which?, whose’, etc.

¢

indefinite pronouns: someone, something, anyone, etc.

¢

demonstrative pronouns: this, that

1.2.2 The Verbal System (Activities) Verbs. Verbs are action words; they express an act, an occurrence,

a state of

being, a command, or a question. They are a fundamental part of the predicate of a sentence—that part of the sentence (normally the verb and its object) that predicates (asserts) something about the subject. Greek verbs are highly inflected. The inflection of the Greek verb system is called a conjugation. (a) Transitive, Intransitive, Copulative

ἰ

ἶ

Some verbs need nothing more than a subject to complete them, such as “Greek rocks!” or “Jesus wept.” These are intransitive verbs. But most verbs are transitive, which means that they are incomplete without a direct object. For example, “Ellen loves Steve” or “Books impart knowledge.” The latter sentence could be enlarged with an indirect object to “Books impart knowledge to students.” The indirect object is usually a person or thing that is indirectly influenced by the action of the verb. Some verbs have different qualities and needs, such as the verb “is” or “to be,

which is called a copulative (from Latin copula, meaning “link” or “join”) or equative verb. The copulative verb is intransitive—it cannot take a direct object. It links the subject of the verb to adjectives or noun phrases that qualify the subject: Shaine is happy. Angelique is a creative artist. Jesus is the good shepherd. Maya is agile.

We will learn more about this kind of sentence later; it is enough to say that the italicized words in these sentences are not direct objects but subject complements. ye

»

1.2 Words

5

(b) Tense and Aspect

Verbs may look simple, but they can be indicators of complex information about action. They can indicate time of action and kind of action (aspect), with shades of nuance depending upon their forms, how they are used in a sentence or phrase, and how they function in a wider context. In each sentence below, the verb “to love” has a different form that indicates tense or time of action (past, present, and future). I loved that dog. She loves this dog. They will love this dog. Grammatical constructions can suggest other things about action, such as whether an action is viewed as just beginning or as complete. In the sentence “I had just begun eating when the earthquake struck,” the action of eating is viewed as just beginning, but the action of the earthquake is viewed as complete. The Greek verb system is especially rich in connoting aspect. (c) Voice

If the subject is doing the action, the verb is said to be in the active voice; if the subject is being acted upon, it is in the passive voice. Consider these two sentences: I love my wife very much.

I am loved by my wife very much. In one sentence I do the loving; in the other sentence I receive it. In Greek there is yet another voice, called middle voice. If the middle voice is used, the subject is doing the action but is in some way in the middle of the action as well. For example, in a Greek equivalent to the sentence “I studied my notes for the exam,” the verb “studied” could be placed in the middle voice to infer the personal benefit derived by the subject, “T,” from studying. (d) Mood

A verb form can occur in and signal different moods or manners of affirmation. A verb may express an assertion as a reality, a wish, a desire, or a command. Consider these sentences: We ate breakfast this morning.

We should eat breakfast this morning. “Eat your breakfast!” Mom always said. The mood of the verb in sentence 1 is stating a simple fact, and the verb in Greek would be in the indicative mood. Sentence 2 is stating what should or might occur, and the verb would therefore be in the subjunctive mood in Greek. The subjunctive is the mood of potentiality, uncertainty, prediction, obligation, and desire. Sentence 3 reports that my mom commanded me to eat breakfast, and the verb in Greek would therefore be in the imperative mood. A fourth Greek mood is the mood of wish; it is called the optative mood. It is a mood of even more doubtful certainty than the

6

Chapter 1: Traditional Components of Grammar

subjunctive. In Hellenistic Greek the optative is rarely used, but we will discuss it in ch. 24. Enough has been said here to show how important the verb can be in a sentence and how broad it can be in its shades of nuance. Participles. Participles are often defined as verbal adjectives—verbs functioning as adjectives. Yet participles most often serve as adverbs, modifying or qualifying other verbs. Consider the italicized participles in the following examples: Stephanie and Brian could almost hear the corn growing. The hated finals week was upon them. While studying, Steve remembered to walk his dog Maya. English participles usually end in either -ing (active) or -ed (passive). When used

as adjectives, they typically qualify a noun, much like normal adjectives do: “the living book”; “the beloved friend.” When used as adverbs, they commonly provide additional information about the circumstances under which the action of the modified verb takes place: After sleeping, she rose and ate breakfast. Adjectival participles, like adjectives, agree with the noun they qualify in gender, number, and case. Adverbial participles normally agree with the subject of the qualified verb in gender, number, and case. Beside these adjective-like qualities, the participle also has qualities of a verb, such as tense and voice, and has a subject (implied or stated). All of these qualities are indicated by morphemes, and so the participle is a highly-inflected class of Greek words belonging to both the nominal and verbal system. Furthermore, the versatile Greek participle is used in numerous syntactical arrangements, many of which we will study.

Infinitives. The Greek infinitive is defined as a verbal noun because it has qualities of both a verb anda noun. Asa verb, an infinitive has tense and voice, can take a subject or object, and can be qualified by adverbs. As a noun, it can be used as the subject or the object of another verb and can be qualified by an adjective, a preposition, and a definite article.’ Infinitives also commonly express purpose or intention. Consider the italicized infinitives in the following examples: To forgive is divine. (infinitive as subject) ‘A finite verb is a verb in one of its limiting (hence, finite) moods (such as indicative,

subjunctive, imperative) and time references (past, present, future). An infinitival verb is the verbal idea in an abstract, general, or infinite sense (hence, infinitive). " ,

1.2 Words

7

Missy loves to explore. (infinitive as object) He came to free the slaves. (purpose infinitive)

Although the infinitive is a single word in Greek, it is often translated into English by inserting the word “to” before the verbal idea, as in “to go.” Some infinitives are best represented by the English gerund, as in “I crave skiing.” As we will learn in ch. 23, the Greek infinitive has very limited inflection (unlike the participle) but a broad range of uses.

1.2.3 The Abstracts System (Characteristics) Adjectives. Adjectives are words that qualify or describe nouns. For example, the following blanks can be filled with adjectives, such as “good,” “big,” “long,” “heavy,” or “boring”: “the

book”; “The book is__.” Occasionally, adjectives can function

on their own as nouns, as in Socrates’ trinity of virtues: the good, the true, and the beautiful. In English, as in Greek, most adjectives can be inflected so as to show comparison. Regular comparison inflection includes words such as “big, bigger, biggest,” which indicate the positive, comparative, and superlative forms (or “degrees”) of compari-

son respectively. Irregular inflection is seen in adjectives that have completely different positive, comparative, and superlative forms, such as “good, better, best.” Still other adjectives have no comparative and superlative forms and need to be used in conjunction with the adverbs “more” and “most” to express comparison: “evil, more evil, most evil.” Adverbs. An adverb is most simply defined as a word that qualifies or modifies a verb. However, adverbs can also modify other adverbs, adjectives, prepositions, phrases, clauses, or complete sentences. Adverbs express some relation of manner or quality, place, time, degree, cause, and so forth. They typically answer one of four questions: How? Where? When? or To what extent? Adverbs can also express comparison: for example, “quickly, more quickly, most quickly,” or “well, better, best.” In English, adverbs are often formed by adding -ly to an adjective. Pumpkin quickly drank the water. (How?) Annette hung the picture there. (Where?) Regina immediately fell asleep. (When?)

The student learned the paradigm completely. (To what extent?) Fortunately, Steve remembered to study his Coptic. (adverb modifying a sentence)

8

Chapter 1: Traditional Components of Grammar

1.2.4 The Structural System (Relations)

In addition to content words (the nominal, verbal, and abstracts systems), there is a class of words we will refer to as function words. These are words that organize and meaningfully connect content words but bear little content themselves. In other words, they have little to no lexical (dictionary) meaning, but they have grammatical meaning. Although we are introducing these words last, and they are small, mastering them is imperative for the student because they are signals of structure. Consider this pair of sentences:

Christina swam hard in order to win the race. Missy, Pumpkin, and Maya were restless because they were hungry.

The italicized words signal relationships between content words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. Even if some content words were unknown to you, some sense could be made of the sentences if you could perceive its structure. Christina

hard in order to

Missy, Pumpkin and

were

the race. because they were

Ἷ

The words in this class are alike in another way in that they are uninflected, meaning that they normally occur in the same form. There are three categories of these uninflected words: adverbs, prepositions, and particles. Discussion of them will take us naturally into a discussion of phrases, clauses, and sentence structure, or syntax. Prepositions. Prepositions are words that signal a relationship between the object of the preposition (normally a noun or pronoun that follows the preposition) and another word in the sentence. A prepositional phrase is composed of the preposition, its object, and its object’s modifier(s). Some prepositions can function alone (i.e., without

an object), as in the sentence, “He walked in.” Prepositional phrases most often function like adverbs, further describing the action of a verb, but they can also function adjectivally, modifying a noun. Consider the italicized prepositional phrases in the following sentences: Annette put the pictures into the scrapbook. Merv wrote a letter on his computer. Jennah was like a fish in the water.

The prepositions in these sentences are “into,”

2)

«

“on,” and “in.” The noun that fol-

lows each preposition is the object of the preposition: “the scrapbook,” “his computer,” “the water.” The preposition modifies the words of its object by establishing a relationship between the object and another word in the sentence. In the first sentence,

1.3 Phrases

9

the adverbial prepositional phrase connects the verb “put” with “scrapbook” as the location where the pictures were placed. The third sentence has an adjectival prepositional phrase that connects the noun “fish” with its environment, “the water.” Other prepositions include “beside,” “behind,” “upon,” “into,” “around,” “over,” “under,” “with,” “without,” “out of,” and “through.” Some linguists count nearly a hun-

dred different prepositions in English. These words very often have a basic, spatial sense, but they can often signify abstract relationships as well. Consider the difference in the meaning of the preposition “under” in the phrases “under the bridge” and “ander the impression.” Conjunctions. A conjunction is a connector that jotns words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. A coordinating conjunction joins two independent clauses. A subordinating conjunction joins two clauses or sentences by making one clause dependent on another. Consider these sentences:

Steve went to school to teach, but Ellen went to church to sing. (coordinating) Regina stopped at the shoe store while on her way to school. (subordinating)

Examples of coordinating conjunctions are “and,” “also,” “but,” and “for.” Examples of subordinating conjunctions are “because,” “in order that,” “when,” and “while.” Correlative conjunctions join words or phrases that are paired either for a reciprocal relation or for some other correspondence. They occur in pairs such as “either/ or,” “neither/nor,” and “both/and.” Either study your Greek or get some sleep.

Neither fishing nor golfing will fix the lawnmower. Both reading and writing must be learned in school.

1.3 Phrases

The most basic unit of grammar above the word is the phrase. A phrase is a word cluster that has a single grammatical function and is not a complete sentence by itself (it lacks a predicate). There are five basic types of phrases:

1. The noun phrase normally includes a central noun and all the words that modify that noun, as in “a certain racing car.”

2. The adjectival phrase consists of a key adjective and any words that modify it, as in “unusually well-equipped.” 3. The verb phrase contains a main verb, any verbal auxiliaries, and any words that modify the verb, as in “has occasionally been driven.”

10

Chapter 1: Traditional Components of Grammar

4. The adverbial phrase contains a central adverb and any words modifying it, as in “more feverishly than ever.” 5. The prepositional phrase consists of a preposition, its object, and any words modifying that object, as in “into a nearby pond.” Prepositional phrases can function either adverbially or adjectivally. It is not difficult to see that a sentence is really just a stringing together of various kinds of phrases: “A certain well-equipped racing car has occasionaily been driven more feverishly than ever into a nearby pond.” Consider the following examples: the boy (noun phrase) the dog and cat (noun phrase) the extremely mangy dog (adjectival phrase) The dog and cat are eating. (verb phrase) Stephanie laughed quite gleefully. (adverbial phrase) The book with many pages was boring. (prepositional phrase functioning adjectivally) The grandchildren love traveling in the car. (prepositional phrase functioning adverbially)

Ν

1.4 Clauses

A clause is a cluster of words and phrases that makes a proposition and includes a subject (perhaps implied), a verb, and a predicate. There are many varieties of clauses:

¢

Causal clause: Lemuel cried because he was sad.

e

Comparative clause: Kids learn faster than adults do.

¢

Conditional clause: Rachel laughs ifshe is happy.

¢

Noun clause: Jesus said that he was the good shepherd.

¢

Place clause: Children eat wherever there is food.

¢

Purpose clause: Cassandra practiced in order to be the best.

¢

Relative clause: Steve organizes things that are messy.

¢

Result Clause: Nathan worked so hard that he got sick.

¢ Temporal clause: Children eat whenever they get hungry. ;

1.5 Sentences

11

1.5 Sentences

1.5.1 Types of Sentences A sentence is a word cluster composed of one or more clauses. There are, of course, an infinite number of possible sentences in any language, but the sentence as a grammatical unit has a very manageable number of basic structures. The six basic types of sentence should be learned and remembered. You may notice that the key to distinguishing these types lies mostly with the predicate. 1. Subject (S) + Intransitive Verb (IV):

Kyle ran.

”

2. Subject (S) + Intransitive Verb (IV) + Subject Complement (SC): Jesus is the Christ.

3. Subject (S) + Transitive Verb (TV) + Direct Object (DO): Josiathe loves dinosaurs. 4. Subject (S) + Transitive Verb (TV) + Direct Object (DO) + Indirect Object

(IO): Paul wrote a letter to the Romans. 5. Subject (S) + Verb (V) + Direct Object (DO) + Direct Object Complement (DOC):

Sydney makes people happy. 6. Subject (S) + Verb (V) + Direct Object 1 (DO) + Direct Object 2 (DO):

Jesus taught people the truth. The constituents of these sentences (S, IV, SC, TV, DO, IO, DOC) can be as simple as a single word (the subjects “Kyle,” “Jesus,” “Josiathe,” “Paul,” “Sydney”), or they can be expanded into a phrase. “Kyle ran” is a noun plus a verb, but “Kyle” could be replaced with a noun phrase such as “The boy,” and “ran” could be replaced with a verb phrase such as “was running.” Thus, each of these sentence types can be expanded into more detailed and more complex forms.

1.5.2 Syntactic Rules People whose native language is English instinctively know most of the rules of syntax that can be used to make a good sentence. Even a child would know that “Sydney makes people happy” is a good sentence but that “Happy Sydney people make” is not. In this case, the reordering of the words has turned the sentence into a mere string of unrelated words. The syntactic rules of English have been violated, and the

grammatical relations between the words have been lost. It does not take a linguist to know this. But it does at least illustrate that there are syntactic rules operating that a

12

Chapter 1: Traditional Components of Grammar

person must know in order to understand the meaning of utterances or to produce utterances with meaning. These syntactic rules are not the same for every language. In Greek, for example, changing the order of words in a sentence is a much smaller matter than it is in English, where word order is extremely important. There is also a big difference between “Sydney makes people happy” and “Sydney bakes people happy.” Somehow we know that it is odd to speak of baking people and that the activity would probably not make them happy. But I can say either “Let’s make a cake” or “Let’s bake a cake” with little or no difference in meaning. In the production of cakes, cookies, and cupcakes, “make” and “bake” are interchangeable and therefore have the same semantic (pertaining to meaning) relationship to the other words in the sentence. So clearly, grammatical and semantic relationships between words in a sentence may or may not be acceptable. Sentences might be syntactically correct but semantically incorrect or deviant. Learning a language, then, also means learning which words can be meaningfully joined together and how they may be meaningfully joined together. This brief discussion illustrates how complex languages are but also how predictable they are to those who know their grammatical and syntactic rules. The next chapter will prompt you to think a little about words and meaning.

Chapter 2

Meaning

2.1 Introduction A language is a system of signs that communicate meaning.' Chapter 1 focused on language as a system of signs. Much of learning a new language has to do with this aspect of language; we can call it the study of form. But it is necessary to get beyond form to the function of the signs—the way they communicate meaning. This is, after all, why most people bother to learn a new language. You are probably not learning Hellenistic (Koine) Greek simply because you want to know the paradigms of thirddeclension nouns or the rules of Greek syntax, but because you want to understand

the meaning communicated by the various ancient writers better.

2.2 Grammatical Meaning Some of the meaning contained in an utterance is grammatical meaning—that is, meaning determined by the rules of grammar. For example, the difference in meaning

between two otherwise identical sentences may be due to differences in grammatical meaning (such as verb tense [la,b below], or word order [2a,b; 3a,b], or other indica-

tors, such as tone of voice). Consider these examples and think specifically how the differences change the meaning of the utterance: ' For further reading, the authors recommend John A. L. Lee, A History of New Testament Lexicography (New York: Peter Lang, 2003) and Eugene A. Nida and Johannes P. Louw, Lexical Semantics of the Greek New Testament (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1992).

14

Chapter 2: Meaning

la. Steve has played basketball. lb. Steve is playing basketball.

2a. Ellen’s joy is music. 2b. Ellen’s music is joy. 3a. Hard work makes a better life. 3b. A hard life makes work better.

2.3 Lexical Meaning and Greek Dictionaries The other component of meaning is lexical meaning, or the meaning of words (lexemes).? This chapter introduces you to the world of words and the study of their meanings (semantics)’ in order to better prepare you to understand a Greek sentence and translate it into English. The goal of this book is to train you to read the text of the Greek New Testament. It assumes that you know one language: English. One of the happy results will be that you will develop greater competence in both languages.

2.3.1 Learning to Read Greek: Then and Now The outcome of your learning to read Greek today has parallels with a youngster learning to read Greek in mid-first-century Corinth. For example, both you and that young girl will be able to read Paul’s letter to the Corinthians. And you will both be able to write sentences in Greek and maybe even letters (depending on your diligence). However, there are more differences than parallels. The child in Greece was learning to read and write a language that she already used in conversation; you are not. That offspring learned to speak ancient Greek from her mother, father, and/or siblings; you did not. The young Greek student knew for certain how Greek words are pronounced (at least in first-century Corinth); you will not. That child might have been able to attend the theater and watch a play of Euripides in Greek; you probably will not. You get the idea. But you will do something that youngster never did: you will turn Greek words into English words, and Greek sentences into English sentences!* * A word or idiom is called a lexeme (from the Greek lexis, “word, speech, phrase”). A bilingual (e.g., Greek-English) dictionary is called a lexicon (pl. lexica). > “Semantic” means “pertaining to the meanings of words or other symbols.” Semantics is the study of meaning, especially as it pertains to understanding changes in form and meaning. * All of the italicized words in these two paragraphs belong to a lexeme cluster, a group of words with shared semantic features. Identifying lexeme clusters can help you to identify the distinctive lexical meaning of a specific word in relation to a group of words that share overlapping meanings. i] .

2.3 Lexical Meaning and Greek Dictionaries

15

2.3.2 Semantic Range and Overlap across Languages To explore further the similarities and differences between your language-learning experience and that of the youth from Corinth, a closer look at a specific example is called for. The Corinthian youngster will learn what εὐχή means because she engages in it with her family or sees her mother or father do it. Indeed, εὐχή can mean “prayer.”° But the word “prayer” is simply an English substitute or gloss for εὐχή. Perhaps you learned what “prayer” is in the same way that the child in Corinth learned about εὐχή. Nevertheless, that child will associate things with εὐχή that you (hopefully) do not usually associate with “prayer.” For example, the child may hear people from her city, perhaps even her father, say to God that if God grants them a particular favor (such as a good catch of fish, or a prosperous flock, or a victory in battle), they will give God something in return. This is called a vow and amounts to a contract promising a particular thing to the deity. Perhaps the vow was a thousand goats, a bull, a haircut, or even a child!° The word εὐχή would have been used to describe this negotiation. Clearly, the semantic range (the range or “circle” of meaning) of the word εὐχή is different from that of “prayer.” A certain English word may be an appropriate gloss for a certain Greek word in a particular context, but it does not mean that the two words mean the same thing; rather, they have a shared sense in some contexts. Words are symbols or signs that stand for something, or represent something. The Greek child knows better than you what εὐχή means or represents. Sometimes it is appropriate for you to use “prayer” as an English gloss, and sometimes it is not.’ 2.3.3 Using Lexica

When Greek words are introduced in the following chapters, you will be given one or more English glosses. These glosses are sufficient for you at this beginning stage, although these glosses do not represent the meaning of the Greek word. It is becoming standard in Greek-English lexica to give both a general meaning of a Greek word and a sampling of useful English glosses for the purpose of translation.® The distinction is a useful one to introduce at this stage because you will very soon outgrow the use of the lexicon at the back of this book. It also impresses upon you the fact that a word in one 5 εὐχή is pronounced ya ka’, but with an aspirated k. 6 Judges 11:30. εὐχή is used three times in the GNT; in two of the cases it means “vow” (Acts 18:18; 21:23).

7 Clearly εὐχή needs a different gloss in Acts 18:18 or 21:23, where it refers to a “vow” made. 8 Walter Bauer, Frederick. W. Danker, William F. Arndt, and F. Wilbur Gingrich, GreekEnglish Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature (3d ed.; Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000); Johannes P. Louw and Eugene A. Nida, eds., Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament: Based on Semantic Domains (2 vols.; 2d ed.; New York: United Bible Societies, 1989).

16

Chapter 2: Meaning

language is rarely (if ever) the semantic equivalent of a word in another language. So, in the Greek-English vocabulary at the back of this book, we mimic the presentation style of the latest lexica. The Greek word is given, followed by the chapter in which it is introduced (in parentheses), one or more English glosses (in bold italic), and a brief statement

of meaning (in brackets). The statement of meaning should help you to understand what meaning this word might contribute to an utterance, and the bold gloss is a sampling of an equivalent English word. Here is an example (pronounced ah gah pay toss’): ἀγαπητός, -ή, -όν (6) beloved, dear, only [~ one who is in a special relationship with another; one who is much loved]

Learning only one or two English glosses for a Greek word and then using them mechanically in your translation may not result in Shakespearean prose, but it is a tolerable place to begin. More familiarity with the meaningful dimensions of words and idioms will enhance not only your translations of Greek utterance but, more important, your understanding of them.

2.4 More about Meaning 2.4.1 Words Do Not Have Fixed, Unchangeable Meanings Words have been called open symbols—that is, symbols that can gain or lose meaning. Since words and language are cultural conventions and since cultures are perpetually changing, the words of a culture that define and describe are likely to change frequently as well. Consider these examples:

modern:

“Modern” always refers to the current time; but since the current time constantly changes, so, too, does whatever “modern” might refer to.

phone:

“Phone” used to mean a wired communication device found in most homes, places of business, and phone booths, and incoming calls caused the phone to ring. This no longer describes a typical phone. Most are no longer wired, are no longer confined to buildings, and no longer ring.

pager:

Not very long ago, the word “pager” only referred to a person who pages someone else. If one was “paged,” it meant that one’s name was announced over a loudspeaker. By the 1990s, however, many urbanites owned a portable electronic device called a pager that, when activated by a phone call, would beep, buzz, or vibrate. By the beginning of the twenty-first century, with the advent of the cell phone, pagers became somewhat obsolete, and the day may come when they will no longer be found in college dictionaries.

2.4 More about Meaning

horn:

17

When people use the word “horn,” are they referring to the hard protrusion found on the forehead of certain animals, an instrument in the brass section of an orchestra, or a button on the steering wheel of a car? There is an etymological relationship between these three horns (and many other horns besides), but with few exceptions, when one uses the word in context, only one of these meanings is likely to come to mind.

So the lexemes of a language are open, flexible, and inclined to reconfiguration, loss of meaning, or gain of meaning at the corporate will of the culture that uses them. A linguist once compared language to a chess game, the words being the chess pieces. A game of chess is ever progressing and changing, and with every move of a chess piece, the significance of other pieces on the board change. A pawn may be the least or the most important piece on the board, depending upon where it is placed in relation to other pieces. In a similar way, language is dynamic, evolving, and interconnected. Words mean what they do because of their relationship to other words in a phrase, clause, or sentence.

2.4.2 Words Are Sometimes Not What They Seem In our choice of words to describe and talk about things, what might be suggested (to the naive) by our words is not always what is meant by them. The reference here is not to sarcasm, irony, or satire (although it may be to humor). Rather, it is to the fact that words sometimes develop connotations that seem almost a defilement of their literal meaning, especially when used in idiomatic phrases. For example, a “starfish” is not really a fish; food that “sticks to your ribs” does not really stick to your ribs; and having “two left feet” is not a birth defect. If a fellow carpenter on a job tells me to “cowboy up,” does he or she mean it is time to put on my cowboy boots? Does it mean to look up because there are cowboys above us? In fact, neither ranch hands nor elevations are intended in this idiom. Rather, it implies that I was just hurt and my workmate is telling me to ignore the pain and get on with my work (which, we suppose, is what a real cowboy would do). Even idioms can develop different meanings when they are used in different contexts. Compare “He brought up food from the first floor café” with “She was brought up in Tucson, Arizona,” “He brought up a good point,” and “They were brought up to speed on recent developments.” Are all languages like this? The answer is yes. Is it possible to keep track of all this complexity? Again, the answer is yes. A good place to begin is to pay attention to your own speech habits.

2.4.3 The Exact Parameters of aLexeme’s Meaning Can Be Blurry One can miss a meal and be “hungry,” five meals and be “famished,” or fifty meals and be “starving.” But what are the lines of distinction between these three terms? At

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Chapter 2: Meaning

what point does one move from being “hungry” to being “famished”? A cup of boiling water is “hot”; if water is “not quite hot,” it is “warm”; but at what point does water

cease being hot and begin being “warm,” or even “cold”? Indeed, “warm” means both “not quite hot” and “not quite cold.” But “hot” can also refer to things unrelated to temperature. A group of teenagers may rate certain members of the opposite gender as “hot”—but those “not quite hot” are not “warm,” and the body temperature of everyone involved is usually about 98.6 degrees. And although “cold” never refers to appearance, it can refer to disposition, so that to say that a person is “cold” may be ascribing to that person an unpleasant personality; yet “hot” does not ipso facto ascribe pleasantness. Although most words are polysemous—that is, they have multiple meanings—usually lexica or dictionaries regard at least one of these meanings to be a primary meaning and the others as extensions, metaphors, figures of speech, or idioms.

2.4.4 Words Belong to Groups Most people in our culture are familiar with the terms “synonyms” (words that mean roughly the same thing; e.g., “tasty” and “delicious”), “antonyms” (words that mean roughly opposite things; e.g., “bright” and “dim,” or “alive” and “dead”), and “homonyms’ > (words that sound the same but mean different things; e.g., “mall” and “maul,” “dear” and “deer,” or “beet” and “beat”). These traditional descriptive categories of words could be further refined, but even as broad categories, they illustrate that we find word groups helpful in understanding specific words. As college students, we learned that the use of a thesaurus (a book containing lists of synonyms and antonyms) greatly improved our compositions because it helped us select context-appropriate words from among a group of words with shared semantic features. Specialists in semantic theory have, in the last generation or two, thought long and hard about words, groups of words, and meaning. A few of their insights can be shared without bewildering the student with their often technical discourse. For example, they speak of the semantic range of a word and the semantic domain(s)? to which it belongs. The organization of domains is firstly ordered around the four classes of words mentioned in ch. 1: (1) entities or objects (the nominal system); (2) activities, events, or actions (the verbal system); (3) characteristics or descriptions (the abstracts system); and (4) relations or structure words (the structural system). Each of

these four classes contains lexemes that share semantic features.

2.4.5 Words Belong to Contexts In this grammar you will be asked to translate sentencés that often seem to be stranded. The exercises are single sentences, making statements or asking questions. * Louw and Nida, Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament, is organized on this kind of analysis. They divide the lexemes of the GNT into ninety-three separate domains, with each domain divided into further subcategories. Because most words are polysemous, any single lexeme may be found in more than pie domain.

2.4 More about Meaning

19

In one sense, they are meaningless because they are alone, desolate, like leaves blowing in the wind with no branch or tree to which they are attached. Yet you are asked to turn them into English sentences with the same or approximate meaning. It is possible at one level to do this although it can be difficult. We can call these sentences context-free. Lexemes by themselves have lexical meaning; as part of a sentence, they have grammatical meaning; as part of a paragraph, discourse, story, or larger generic work, they have what we can call narrative or discourse meaning. Consider the following sentence in three different contexts: Socrates departed for nothing.

.

1. In a story describing the philosopher Socrates’ unjust condemnation and consequent suicide, “departed” might refer to his death, and “nothing” suggests that his death was a violation of justice. In such a context this sentence would be considered, on the whole, a true statement. 2. In a story describing Socrates’ contribution to the history of philosophy, “nothing” might suggest the emotional misapprehension of his closest friends who mourn him. In this context the sentence might well be considered an untrue statement, for; in the greater scheme of things, his departure did have meaning. In such a context, the friends’ statement could be a supreme example of the irony of history. 3. Yet another possibility is that “Socrates” here refers to a young man living in the first century who went out to plow the family fields, forgetting that the ground had been frozen for weeks. In this context, “departed” refers to his leaving his cozy, fire-warmed house, and “for nothing” refers to the fact that only after he reached the field with the ox did he remember that the ground was virtually unplowable. Knowing him for occasionally doing such foolish things, his friends (as “friends” are sometimes wont to do) had sarcastically nicknamed him Socrates the same way someone today might be nicknamed after Sherlock Holmes (as in “Get a clue, Sherlock!”).

Stranded, context-free sentences like the one above carry limited lexical and grammatical meaning. Yet you will find that such sentences in the exercises will none-

theless be useful for learning Greek. One other note on context. This grammar will repeatedly refer to the importance of context for translation and interpretation. “Context” will usually refer to the particular phrase (as with idioms), clause, sentence, or paragraph in question. As with the above sentence, it might refer to an even wider discourse. But the importance of context reaches beyond even the bounds of the language and so beyond the bounds of this grammar. The student interested in developing exegetical skills will eventually see the importance of looking at historical, cultural, sociological, and other contexts in order to arrive at a satisfactory understanding of a particular utterance. Nevertheless, one step at a time; this book begins with grammar.

20

Chapter 2: Meaning

2.5 Closing Thought With all of the qualities noted above, words are wonderfully suited to both the cre-

ative, emotive, and impassioned lyric of a poet and the precise, logical oratory of a lawyer, scientist, philosopher, or theologian. We who use language daily to communicate with others do not find any of these remarkable propositions surprising. But it is useful to be reminded of them at this beginning point lest we slowly slide down a slippery surface into the timeworn, tendentious trenches of uncreative and traditional biblical translation. We all may admit that the language we use daily is powerful, flexible, and susceptible to subtle nuance and that words in utterances may be charged with irony, sarcasm, humor, hyperbole, and passion. We are all good (and some of us quite good) at selecting words, arranging them, and delivering them in ways that effectively communicate; we can call this encoding. We are also good at listening and understanding such utterances; we can call this decoding. Effective encoding and decoding are what language and communication are all about. At this point (and for some time to come), your encoding and decoding skills in Greek are not very sharp (we can call this understatement!). But you aspire to read literature written by people with considerable encoding skills in Greek. Therefore large doses of humility are in order.

Chapter 3

Alphabet, Orthography, and Punctuation

3.1 The Alphabet and Pronunciation The Greek alphabet consists of twenty-four characters, many of which correspond to their Latin equivalents and will thus be easily recognized. Capitals, known as uncials, are used infrequently in the United Bible Societies’ Greek New Testament.! When they occur, it is usually under one of the following circumstances: ¢

the beginning of a paragraph (Matt 1:1, 2, 6b, 12);

¢

proper names (Matt 1:1-16);

¢

quotations and direct speech (Matt 1:20, 23);

¢

the beginning of a sentence that, in the editors’ opinions, starts a new thought—rather like a subparagraph (Matt 1:19, 22).

The small characters (minuscules) are commonly used in contemporary texts. The student must carefully memorize both their names and their formations.

‘Kurt Aland et al., eds., The Greek New Testament (4th ed.; New York: United Bible Societies, 1993). The mixed use of uncials and minuscules is a later editorial convention to aid

reading. Ancient Greek writers had other means of indicating direct speech. See ch. 9. > Eberhard Nestle et al., eds., Novum Testamentum Graece (27th ed.; Stuttgart: German Bible Society, 1993), known familiarly as Nestle-Aland, has the same critical text as the Aland edition, but capitalizes only proper names and the beginnings of paragraphs.

22

Chapter 3: Alphabet, Orthography, and Punctuation

The Greek Alphabet Name

Uncial

alpha beta gamma delta

epsilon zeta

Minuscule a β

x, ὃ ε C }> NmOePOD

English equivalent a b δ d e z or dz

eta

n

a

theta

θ

th

ι

i

iota

x —~@

Pronunciation aas in father’ bas in boy gas in go* das in dawn eas in bed zas in zero or dz as in adze®

eas in they th as in theology ias in machine’ i as in bit

yas in yellow kappa lambda mu nu xi omicron pi

rho sigma

tau upsilon phi chi psi

omega

K

k

k as in keep

λ μ ν ἕξ ο

] m n % ο

las in letter

π Pp orc

Ρ r 8

τ

t

v

u

tas in top French u, German ii

o

ph

fas in foot

χ

ch

ch as in loch”

ψ ps 0) 6 HaxKx AEA SOMUVUACH OX

m as in moor nas in now

x asin axe

2

o as in omelet p as in put ras in row®

sas in single?

ps as in hips Ο as in wrote

>Greek has no short a sound as in “pad.” Alpha is always pronounced as indicated here. “Double gamma is pronounced ng as in “sing”; e.g., ἄγγελος is an-ge-los. °This is always short e. Eta is long e. ®When the initial letter in a word, zeta is z; when internal, it is dz. The iota with a circumflex accent (7) is long (as in machine); otherwise it is short (as in

bit). Iota is also used as a consonant, with an English equivalent of y, in transliterated Hebrew words beginning with yod; e.g., Ἰακώβ is ya-kob’. In such words the iota will be followed by a vowel. If no vowel follows, iota itself is a vowel. ’Rho was probably trilled. °A sigma that is the initial letter in a word or is internal to a word appears as 0; a sigma that is the final letter in a word is ¢ (Ἰησοῦς). '°Chi has a rough guttural sound, whereas kappa has a amioaths guttural sound. By aspirating the ch (as the k in “kitchen,” but with more accentuation of the k), one can distinguish the two letters.

3.1 The Alphabet and Pronunciation

3.1.1

23

Vowels There are seven vowels: a, €, 1, L, 0, Ὁ, ὦ. The vowels ε and Ο are always short; ἢ

and ὦ are always long. The vowels a, 1, and Ὁ may be either short or long and can be identified as to length only by consulting a lexicon or by certain rules of accentuation that are provided in appendix 1.

3.1.2 Diphthongs Certain vowel pairs, called diphthongs, produce distinctive sounds.

αἱ as in aisle; e.g., παῖς εἰ as in freight; e.g., προσκυνεῖ ov as in boil; e.g., πλοῖον VL as in queen; e.g., VLOG αὖ as in now; e.g., κχαυθμός €v, Nv as in feud; e.g., θεραπεύω Ov as in soup; e.g., λόγους As distinct phonemes, diphthongs form part of one syllable. Therefore τρεῖς is one syllable, and τρία is two (tpi-a). χρεία is two syllables (χρεί-α), but ἤφιε is three (ἤ-φι-ε). νοός may look like one syllable to a native English speaker, but 00 is not a Greek diphthong; hence νο-ός. All diphthongs act as long vowels except final -at and -οι.

3.1.3 Iota Subscript The iota may also occur beneath the vowels a, ἢ, and ὦ, in which case it is called the iota subscript (e.g., ἑτέρᾳ, πληρωθῇ, λόγῳ, and σῴζω). It does not affect the pronunciation, but it is an important part of the spelling. These two-letter combinations are considered diphthongs and therefore are long.

3.1.4 Syllables A few rules will be sufficient:

1. A word has as many syllables as it has vowels and/or diphthongs. 2. If two consonants that may begin a word occur in succession, they are not divided but begin another syllable. For example, in με-τα-σχη-μα-τί-ζω, ox may begin a word (e.g., σχολή = school), and so it does not divide. 3. When two consonants that cannot begin a word occur together internally, they usually divide so that one closes the first syllable and the other begins the next syllable. For example, ἀ-δελ-φούς, ἐ-γέν-νη-σεν; compare Xpt-otod (cf. στόμα = mouth) and Ἀ-βρα-άμ (cf. βρῶμα = food), which fall under rule 2.

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Chapter 3: Alphabet, Orthography, and Punctuation

4. If three consonants occur in succession, the first closes one syllable, and the

other two are pronounced together as the beginning of the next syllable—for

example, yao-tpi (belly).

5. Consonants followed by p or v usually do not divide: e.g., πνεῦμα = πνεῦ-μα (wind, breath); ἐπιγνῶσις = ἐ-πι-γνῶ-σις (knowledge).

6. The last syllable of a word is called the ultima, the syllable before the ultima is called the penult, and the syllable before the penult is called the antepenult. By practice and observation, you will discover which consonants blend euphonically. Through experience, an aural sensitivity to the language will develop that will assist you in the task of pronunciation and therefore memorization and retention.

3.2 Formation of Letters Certain letters are taller than others, and some extend below the base line:

Note well the following: ¢

Do not dot an iota (as you would dot an i).

¢

Carefully form a point at the base of nu (v) to distinguish it from upsilon (v).

¢

Let the circle of the phi (6), the cross-point of the chi (x), and the arc of the

psi (y) each sit on the line. The vertical bars of phi and psi and the arms of chi extend below the line. e

All uncials rest on the line.

3.3 Pronunciation and Punctuation Marks

3.3.1 Breathing Marks There are two breathing marks, smooth (&) and rough (a). These marks are found

above initial vowels (ἐγέννησεν, ὁδός), rho (ῥῆμα), and the second vowel of a diphthong (οἶκος, οὕτως) or preceding an initial uncial vowel or rho (Ἀδάμ, Ῥαχάβ). ἐγέννησεν and Ἀδάμ have a smooth breathing mark, indicating that the first vowels sound like eh

as in “bed” and ah as in “arm,” respectively. The smooth breathing mark is under the circumflex accent in οἶκος. ὁδός and οὕτως have a rough breathing mark (note the

reversed direction of the sign), indicating that the initial vowels are to be preceded by aspiration (an ἢ sound); thus they are pronounced ho-dos’and hoo~tos. Initial rho always has a rough breathing mark and sounds as though one were slightly panting; thus ῥῆμα and Ῥαχάβ are pronounced hra-ma and hra-chab’. 7

Exercises

25

3.3.2 Accents

Written accentuation of Greek texts began to occur in the fourth century B.c., but it was not systematically practiced until about 200 s.c. In their earliest use, accents indicated changes in pitch. The different accents have come to signify, however, only which syllable to stress. Three accent marks are used: the acute (4), the grave (&), and the circumflex (δ).

They are always placed over vowels. When an accent and a breathing mark are placed over the same vowel, the acute or grave accent follows the breathing mark (αἴρω, ἢ, ai, ὅροι), and the circumflex is placed over the breathing mark (οἶνος, οὗτος). For the

rules of accentuation, see appendix 1. 3.3.3 Punctuation

The period (.) and the comma (,) correspond to the English forms. The semicolon or colon (;) is a dot above the line. The question mark (;) must not be confused with the

English symbol of like form, the semicolon.

3.3.4 Apostrophe and Diaeresis Two other marks you will encounter are the apostrophe (καθ᾽) and the diaeresis (ai). When words ending in short vowels are followed by words beginning with vowels, the final vowel of the first word is dropped for euphonic reasons (when the two words are run together, it sounds better and is easier to pronounce). This deletion is called elision. The apostrophe indicates that elision has occurred. For example, in μετ᾽ αὐτοῦ, the a of μετά has elided, and the two words are pronounced as one. When the second word begins with a rough breathing mark and elision occurs, a resulting final τοῦ 1 is replaced by θ or ᾧ (i.e., th and ph sounds). Compare μετ᾽ αὑτοῦ (met-ow-too’)

and μεθ᾽ ἡμῶν (meth-ha-mo6n); ἐπ᾿ αὐτόν (ep-ow-ton’) and ἐφ᾽ μᾶς (eph-hd-mas’). The diaeresis occurs infrequently and, when it does, is over the second of two vowels that would otherwise be a diphthong. It indicates that the two vowels belong to separate syllables and should be pronounced separately (e.g., καί is one syllable, while

Ἠσαΐου is four syllables: “H-oa-t-ov). EXERCISES

1. Commit to memory the name and sound value of each letter of the alphabet. The sound values are even more critical to learn than the names. Therefore learn that the Greek symbol alpha (& is a as in “Judah,” beta (B) is ὃ as in “Boaz.” gamma (y) is gas in “Gehenna,” and so on.

2. Learn all the diphthongs and their sound values. Do not simply learn to recognize visually the vowel formation that is designated as a diphthong. Instead learn the sound values of each: e.g., αἵ is ai as in “aisle.”

26

Chapter 3: Alphabet, Orthography, and Punctuation

3. Using the GNT, practice the formation of the Greek letters by copying the text of Matthew 1:1-8. € and ψ do not occur in this passage, so practice these letters by copying Matt 12:18a and 20a as well. 4. Divide each word in Matt 1:1-8 into its component syllables. Sound out each syllable deliberately and distinctly. Then try to run the syllables together into a euphonic whole, carefully putting emphasis on the accented syllables.

Chapter 4

Verbal System: Primary Active Endings and Tenses, Indicative Mood

4.1 Vocabulary 4.1.1 Verbs ἄγω; ἄξω

I lead; I will lead

ἀκούω; ἀκούσω

I hear, listen; I will hear, listen (cf. “acoustical”)

ἀνοίγω; ἀνοίξω βαπτίζω; [βαπτιδ-]"; βαπτίσω βλέπω; βλέψω γινώσκω [irregular verb] γράφω; γράψω

I open; I will open I wash, baptize; I will wash, baptize I see; I will see I know, learn, perceive I write; I will write (cf. “graphics”)

διδάσκω; διδάξω

I teach; I will teach (cf. “didactic”)

εὑρίσκω; εὑρήσω

I find; I will find (cf. Eureka, “I have found it!” the motto of the state of California)

1 A few verbs have a more basic stem than the present stem that is helpful in understanding why the various tenses form the way they do. For these verbs, this basic stem is shown in brackets after the present tense form. 2 The future form of γινώσκω is γνώσομαι. Its endings will be presented in ch. 13.

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Chapter 4: Primary Active Endings and Tenses, Indicative Mood

ἔχω; ἕξω

I have; I will have

κηρύσσω [knpvk-]; κηρύξω

I preach, proclaim; I will preach, proclaim

λέγω; ἐρῶ᾽ [irregular verb]

(cf. “kerygmatic”) I say, speak, tell; I will say, speak, tell

λύω; λύσω πέμπω; πέμψω πιστεύω; πιστεύσω σῴζω; σώσω

I loose, release; I will loose, release I send; I will send I believe; I will believe I save, rescue, heal; I will save, rescue, heal

See the section on verbs in ch. 1 (pp. 4-5, esp. [b] and [c]).

4.2 Verb Formation

There are two conjugations of verbs in Greek: the -@ conjugation and the -μι conjugation. We will learn basics about the -@ conjugation first because it is the simplest and has the largest number of verbs. The verb λύω will be used for most of our discussions of -@ conjugation forms because it is memorable and regular. A regular verb has a stem that is very constant in all tenses and does not change with the addition of the various affixes that we will learn. Not all verbs are regular, but it is certainly wise to master a regular verb before you deal with an irregular one. Little children learn that a regular verb usually has -ed added when it is in the past tense (I walk to church; I walked to church); they also learn eventually that not all verbs work this way (I “waked” up; I “eated” already, etc.). Therefore, we will master the forms of the regular verb Avo. Greek verbs are highly inflected. They have stems to which are added prefixes and suffixes. These affixes provide information that nuances the basic meaning of the verb. In this chapter, we will learn stems and suffixes (see p. 2, Affixes).

To identify the stem of a regular present-tense active-voice verb, simply remove the final ὦ from the first form given in the vocabulary list. Thus, the stem of λύω is Av-. Suffixes are added to the end of the stem to express person, number, tense, voice, and mood (see p. 5). In the paradigms that follow, the suffixes of the present and future tense are given; note that the only difference between them is that the future adds a tense suffix, -o-, to the regular active voice stem. Sometimes this -o- produces a change to the stem of the verb. The following chart shows what happens when -ocomes in contact with palatal, labial, and dental consonants: Palatals (k, y, x)

+o = € (e.g., ay + ow = ἄξω)

Labials (x, B, >) + o = ψ (e.g., Ypad + ow = γράψω) Dentals (τ, 6, θ [or internal €]) + *See the section below entitled “Greek: ye

o=0 (e.g., βαπτιὸ + om = βαπτίσω). A Dynamic Language.”

4.3 Two Categories of Verb Tenses: Primary and Secondary

29

Irregular verbs have distinct stems in other tenses that differ from the present tense stem. For example, the future tense of εὑρίσκω is εὑρήσω. Once this future stem is known, the other future tense forms inflect on this stem quite regularly. Happily, even irregular verbs have a measure of regularity. To aid students in learning Greek verbs in all their various inflections, the verb system has been divided into six principal parts, six key forms of the verb from which all the other forms are built. For regular verbs, the way the six principal parts are inflected can be predicted simply by learning the rules of normal inflection for each of the tenses. However, for irregular verbs that do not follow the normal patterns of inflection, it is helpful to learn some or all of the six principal parts. The principal parts are: (1) present active indicative, (2) future active indicative, (3) aorist active indicative, (4) perfect active indicative, (5) perfect middle/passive indicative, and (6) aorist passive indicative.

Not all verbs have all of these tenses. The verb forms learned in this chapter constitute the first two principle parts. Prefixes do not occur with either the present or the future, and so we will postpone discussing them until a later time. In the following paradigms, one finds a -v in parentheses after the third-personplural form. This is called the movable nu (v), and it usually occurs when the verb is

followed by a vowel or a punctuation mark. It does not affect the meaning of the word or the way it is translated.

4.3 Two Categories of Verb Tenses: Primary and Secondary To aid in the memorization of the various tense forms presented in this grammar, indicative-mood verb tenses can be divided into two basic categories: (1) primary

tenses and (2) secondary tenses. Primary tenses are present- or future-oriented and include the present, future, and perfect tenses. Secondary tenses are past-oriented and include the imperfect, aorist, and pluperfect. Although the perfect tense expresses past action, the distinctive aspect of the Greek perfect is that it expresses present result or state of being. 4.3.1 Primary Tenses, Active Voice: Present and Future In the active voice of the indicative mood, the present, future, and perfect tenses use the primary active endings:

Singular first person second person

- (no ending)

-ς

Plural first person second person

third person

- (no ending)

third person

-μεν -σι(ν)

-τε

Chapter 4: Primary Active Endings and Tenses, Indicative Mood

30

All active indicative verbs have linking vowels that connect the endings to the stem. The linking vowels for the present and future tenses are as follows:

Singular first person τοῦ second person -τεις third person τει

Plural first person second person third person

τὸ HEV. - TE -οῦ σι(ν)

Present Active Indicative of Ava, I release

1 2 3

Singular λύ ὦ’ Irelease/am releasing λύ εἰς you release/are releasing he, she, it releases/is releasing λύει

Av ομὲν AO ετε Av ovor(v)

Plural ννε release/are releasing you release/are releasing they release/are releasing

The tense suffix -o-, affixed to the stem before adding the primary endings, distinguishes the future from the present active indicative tenses: Future Active Indicative of Av@

Singular 1

λύσω

Plural

_ Iwill release/be releasing

λύ o Ouev

we will release/ be releasing

i 2

λύσεις

you will release/be releasing

λύ oete

you will release/ be releasing

3

λύσει

he, she, it will release/

AD σοῦσι:

they will release/

be releasing

;

be releasing

4.4 Parsing Greek Verbs When learning an inflected language like Greek, it is important that the various components that affect a verb’s meaning are carefully identified before attempting to translate the verb. For this reason you will often be called upon to parse verbs. Parsing a verb means identifying its person, number, tense, voice, mood, and lexical form. The

lexical form is the ary. Thus the verb indicative (2d sg., way: first (person)

form you would use to look up the word in a Greek lexicon or dictionAvetc would be parsed this way: second (person) singular, present active pres. act. indic.), from 0a. The form λύσομεν would be parsed this plural, future active indicative (151 pl., fut. act. indic.), from Adw. The

“The ὦ, εἰ, and ov represent lengthened o’s and e’s; this is a result of contraction based on primitive Greek endings no longer used with - conjugation verbs. *Spacing between the stem and the linking vowel is for the purpose of observation only. Printed texts will not be so spaced. :

4.5 Verbal Aspect: How Tenses View Activity

31

abbreviations used in this text are given in the abbreviation list at the beginning of this book and should be followed carefully in completing assignments to avoid confusion.°

4.5 Verbal Aspect: How Tenses View Activity 4.5.1 Three Kinds of Action In Greek, there are three fundamental kinds of action expressed by the verb in all of its moods: (1) durative, incomplete action; (2) unitary, complete action; and (3)

completed action emphasizing result or state of being. 1. The present and imperfect tenses view action as durative or incomplete. By themselves, these tenses do not express the limits of the action—only that it was or is taking place.

2. The future and aorist tenses view action as unitary, or as a whole, regardless of how long the action took or might take. 3. The perfect and pluperfect tenses express past or present state or result based on a previously completed action.

Below is a diagram charting the basic aspects of the six tenses in the active voice: represents the present moment

ἘΠ 5

represents continuing action or result represents a complete action

Present:

Igo;Iam |-—— and going and going. The tense itself does going: not tell you if I’m ever going to stop. Imperfect: I was going: -->| and going and going. Like the present, the imperfect is “imperfective’—who can tell if I ever stopped going? Context might tell.

Future: . I will go: Aorist:

I went:

[5 Iwill do this specific future act, without reference to how long it may take me to do it. ¢| pure and simple. The aorist does not say how long it took me to go—simply that I went. No more, no less.

Perfect:

| Ihave gone; *—|—-> I went, but the consequences of that going are ongoing. | am currently in the state of having gone. Iam gone: Pluperfect: I had gone; *——> | but look who’s back! While the consequences of the past action continued until a more recent I was gone: time in the past, they are no longer ongoing. 6 Other grammars and reference resources may use different arrangements of these basic

parsing components.

32

Chapter 4: Primary Active Endings and Tenses, Indicative Mood

4.5.2 Time of Action; Translating Aspect in Context As one can see in the diagram, tenses in the indicative mood also express time of action.’ When translating the present and future tenses, observe that certain Greek verbs can express either durative action (I am speaking well right now) or unitary action (I speak well when I address friendly faces), depending on the context. This means that one should always keep three things in mind when translating a verb: (1) its lexical meaning, (2) its verbal aspect, and (3) the context in which it is used.

4.6 Greek:

A Dynamic Language

“Ancient Greek” is something of a misnomer. The phrase embodies several regional dialects and many centuries of gradual development. One feature of the Hellenistic period was the simplification of certain language forms. As a result, while there were many ways in Greek to express the English Ἵ say,” in the GNT three of these verbs, λέγω, Eipw, and ἔπω, combine to function as one verb pattern or system. Thus Aey- is the stem for the first principal part (present and imperfect tenses), ἐπ- for the third principal part (the aorist active εἶπον), and eip- for the other four (including the future ἐρῶ). See ch. 11 for the full paradigm of λέγω and ch. 17 for the accentuation of ἐρῶ. As is typical of gradual, widespread language development, occasional exceptions to the above pattern occur. ‘

4.7 Tense Suffixes, Linking Vowels, and Endings You would be wise to learn the forms of active indicative verbs by memorizing the entire conjugation of the verb λύω in each of its six tenses. Nevertheless, some students learn conjugation patterns best by learning the components of verb formation. For this reason, these components are presented throughout this grammar. One can break down the indicative-mood active-voice affixes into three basic components: tense suffixes, linking vowels, and endings.

1. The future and the first aorist tenses have the tense suffix -o- attached to the stem. The perfect and pluperfect have the tense suffix -x-. The present and imperfect (and second aorist) do not use a tense suffix.

2. The present and the future tenses use the linking vowels -o and -e. As noted above, τῷ, -Ov, and -εἰ are lengthened forms of -o and -e, and:-w and -e1 function as “With rare exceptions, this is true only in the indicative mood. In the other moods, where context determines time of action, only one tense is needed to express each kind of verbal aspect. Thus, for all of the other moods, the beginning Greek student needs to learn only the forms of three tenses (present, aorist, and perfect)! More advanced students of Greek must deal

with occasional future-tense constructions. ae

Exercises

33

endings in the first and the third singular forms. The imperfect also uses the linking vowels -o and -e. The aorist and the perfect use the linking vowel τα, except for the third singular -e. The pluperfect uses the diphthong -et

throughout. 3. The three primary tenses (present, future, perfect) have the same endings, as do the three secondary tenses (imperfect, aorist, pluperfect). EXERCISES

A. Translate the following: 1. ἄξεις, ἄξουσιν, ἄξει 2. λέγω, λέγετε, λέγομεν 3. κηρύξεις, κηρύσσεις, κηρύξουσιν

4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

ἕξει, ἔχει, γράφω εὑρίσκω, ἄγεις, βαπτίσουσιν ἀνοίξετε, διδάξω, πιστεύσομεν σώσεις, λέγει, εὑρήσουσιν βλέψομεν, πέμψετε, σῴζει

B. In items 1-9, combine the stem and the ending to form the verb. —

. EVPLOK + ομεν = PER

e LIARS Te

πεῖ

Εν

μη

στ

τ

ΝΜ

Ὁ

ς΄

ee

ὃ

ST

ὉὃὋ ee

. γράφ + Ete =

. ἄγ + σομεν = . ἀκού + σει = CO SES πο ἘΞ οὐσοι ἜΤ OO τ. 10 πο

gs ee a ρον {ςτ͵ι κ΄ σεν

το

ὦ

TS

ὁ

MA

a

en a

Dewy person, man

05

-

C. In the following items, provide the requested information. 1. The primary tenses are: eee

2. The secondary tenses are: ee eS

See

΄ὖὃἝὃἝὃὋὃ ὁ

ὃϑῸ πὸ

ν

34

Chapter 4: Primary Active Endings and Tenses, Indicative Mood

3. The primary active endings are: SSS SS

ee

SS

Et

et

ἡκαιυπδικαοιπειρ, σαησποπα ο

4. To identify the verb stem of the first principal part, one should

5. List the labials: the palatals: the dentals: 6. What consonantal blends result as each of the above groups combine with o? the labials: the palatals: the dentals:

Chapter 5

Nominal and Abstracts Systems: Second Declension; The Verb εἰμί

5.1 Vocabulary 5.1.1 Second-Declension Masculine Nouns:

ἄγγελος, -οὐυ, ὁ

angel, messenger

ἀδελφός, -0d, ὁ

brother (cf. “Philadelphia”)

ἄνθρωπος, -ov, ὃ

human being, person, man (cf. “anthropology”)

θεός, -od, ὃ κόσμος, -οὔ, ὃ κύριος, -Ov, ὁ

,

god, God (cf. “theology”) world, cosmos (cf. “cosmic”) lord, master (cf. “Kyrie”)

‘Nouns in the vocabulary lists contain the following information: the noun in the nominative case, singular number; its ending in the genitive case, singular number (to show the noun’s pattern of inflection); and the nominative article (indicating the noun’s gender). (In normal speech, the article usually precedes the noun.) See p. 39, “Gender and Number.”

36

Chapter 5: Second Declension; The Verb εἰμί

word, reason (cf. “logical”)

λόγος, -οὔ, ὃ νόμος, -οὔ, ὁ οὐρανός, -od, ὁ υἱός, -οῦ, ὃ

law (cf. “ergonomic”) heaven, sky (cf. “Uranus”) son

5.1.2 Second-Declension Neuter Nouns

work (cf. “energy”) gospel, good news (cf. “evangelize”) temple (cf. “hierarchy”)

ἔργον, -OD, TO εὐαγγέλιον, -Ov, TO ἱερόν, -00, TO πρόσωπον, -Ov, TO τέκνον, -OD, TO

face, presence child

5.1.3 Second-Declension Adjectives: Masculine and Neuter Forms? good (cf. “Agatha” [= “a good one”]) holy (cf. “hagiography”); pl.: saints (a

ἀγαθός, -όν ἅγιος, -ον

common reference to believers)

other beautiful, good (cf. “calligraphy”) dead (cf. “necropolis”) faithful

ἄλλος, -ο

καλός, -όν νεκρός, -όν πιστός, -όν

5.1.4 Article the (masculine and neuter)

ὃ, TO

5.1.5 Irregular Verb εἰμί

Iam, I exist

5.2 The Second Declension (-o0 Stems) There are three noun declensions (inflectional patterns) in Greek (see p. 3, nouns). We will learn the second declension first. Each declension has five cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, and vocative. A noun’s case determines its grammatical relationship with other words in the sentence—whether it is the subject, direct object,

indirect object, modifier, or has some other relationship. Ifa noun in a Greek sentence

is the subject of the verb, it has the nominative case ending; if it is the direct object of the verb, it normally has the accusative case ending. So, whereas in English the * Adjectives in the vocabulary lists are normally in the masculine gender, nominative case, singular number, followed by the adjective’s feminine and neuter nominative singular endings (to show the adjective’s pattern of inflection). In this chapter, only the masculine and neuter endings follow. " ,

5.3 Formation of the Second Declension

37

function of a noun is determined mainly by its position in the sentence, in Greek it is determined by its ending (also called its form). Compare these Greek sentences and their English counterparts: 6 ἄγγελός ἐστιν καλός. βλέπω τὸν καλὸν ἄγγελον.

The angel is beautiful. 1566 the beautiful angel.

Notice that the noun ἄγγελος has a different ending in each sentence: in the first, ἄγγελος is the nominative case and is the subject of the verb; in the second, ἄγγελον

is the accusative case and is the direct object of the verb. Unlike English sentences, where word order is critical, the meaning of a Greek sentence would remain essentially the same even if the order of many of the words were changed. 5.3 Formation of the Second Declension

5.3.1 Masculine Second-Declension Endings Singular

Plural

N(ominative)

τος

τοι

G(enitive)

τοῦ

τῶν

D(ative)

τῷ

τοις

A(ccusative)

τον

τους

V(ocative)

-ε

;

-Ol

Thus, the noun ἄγγελος and the adjective καλός decline as follows; they are representative of masculine nouns and adjectives of the second declension. Brief English translations accompany the cases of ἄγγελος below to help you grasp the various case functions. Because the vocative case is relatively uncommon, you are better off concentrating on learning the other four cases.

5.3.2 Masculine Nouns and Adjectives in the Masculine Gender ἄγγελος, ἀγγέλου, ὃ, angel

N

G D A

V

Singular ἄγγελ-ος angel ἀγγέλ ov ofan angel ἀγγέλ ῳᾧ to/foranangel ἄγγελ ον angel ἄγγελε angel

ἄγγελ-οι

ἀγγέλων ἀγγέλ οἷς ayyéA ovg

ἄγγελ οἱ

Plural angels of angels to/for angels angels — angels

38

Chapter 5: Second Declension; The Verb εἰμί

Masculine Forms of the Adjective καλός, καλοῦ, beautiful, good

Singular

Plural

Ν

καλός

καλ οἱ

G

καλοῦ

καλῶν

D

καλῷ

καλ οἷς

A

καλόν

καλοῦς

Ν

καλέ

καλ οἱ

Nouns and adjectives in the neuter gender use the same genitive and dative endings as masculine nouns and adjectives in both the singular and plural numbers. The other forms vary slightly. Note that the nominative, vocative, and accusative forms below are identical in the singular and likewise in the plural:

5.3.3 Neuter Second-Declension Endings Singular

Plural

ΜΝ

-ov

-

G

του

τῶν

D

τῷ

τοις

A

τον

τα

5.3.4 Neuter Nouns and Adjectives in the Neuter Gender The Noun τέκνον, -ov, τό, child

Singular

Plural

N/V

τέκνον

τέκν a

G

τέκνου

τέκνων

D

τέκνῳ

τέκν OIG

Α

τέκνον

τέκνα

Neuter Forms of the Adjective καλόν, καλοῦ, beautiful Singular

Plural

ΝΙΝ

Kaa ov

καλ &

G

καλοῦ

KOA ὧν

D

καλῷ

KQA οἷς

A

KOA OV

KOA ἁ

5.4 Genderand

Number

39

5.4 Gender and Number Nouns, adjectives, and pronouns may be masculine, feminine, or neuter in gender and singular or plural in number. Adjectives inflect into all three genders, and agree

in gender with the noun they modify. The gender of Greek nouns, however, is fixed and should be learned when the meaning of the nouns is learned. That is, a masculine noun in any declension will always be modified by a masculine article; a feminine noun will have a feminine article, and a neuter noun will have a neuter article.

You will notice that the vocabulary list at the beginning this chapter shows nouns in

the following form: ἄγγελος, -ov, ὃ. The first item is the lexical form of the noun. The second is the noun’s genitive singular ending (-ov). (This is given so you can see the pattern of the noun’s inflection.) What follows that is the masculine definite article, 6. A masculine, feminine, or neuter definite article is listed with each noun so you can tell what the noun’s gender is. Since ἄγγελος has a masculine article listed with it, it is a masculine noun and will always be modified by masculine adjectives, articles, and other modifiers. Thus when you learn the word’s English meaning, you should also learn that its article is 6—that it is a masculine noun. The easiest way to do this is to repeat the phrase “6 ἄγγελος, angel, messenger” when memorizing the word. The gender of nouns is grammatical; that is, it is unrelated to sexual gender. For example, the Greek word for “sea” is feminine, but “river” is masculine; “house” may be feminine or masculine, but “door” is feminine; “vineyard” is masculine, but “grapevine” is feminine; “teaching” is feminine, “dogma” is neuter, and “teacher” is masculine. With regard to the first and second declensions in Greek, there is general agreement between the form of the noun and its gender. That is, first declension nouns are, for the most part, feminine; second declension nouns are mostly masculine and neuter. There are third declension nouns, however, from all three genders.

5.5 The Cases 5.5.1 Nominative

The nominative is the case of the following: ¢

the subject of a verb ὁ ἄγγελος βλέπει τὸν κόσμον.

e

the predicate nominative (noun)

6 θεός ἐστιν κύριος.

¢

The angel sees the world.

God is Lord.

the predicate adjective ὃ ἄγγελός ἐστιν καλός.

The angel is beautiful.

40

Chapter 5: Second Declension; The Verb εἰμί

e

the adjectival modifiers of any of these 6 θεός ἐστιν ἀγαθὸς κύριος.

5.5.2

God is a good Lord.

Genitive

The genitive, dative, and accusative are sometimes called the oblique cases, by which is meant simply that they are not the nominative or vocative cases. Of the three oblique cases, the genitive is the most diverse, having more uses than is practical to list. With a few examples, however, its general contours can be seen. The genitive has been called the limiting or specifying case because it seems to qualify or circumscribe the word or words it modifies. In this way it resembles the descriptive quality of an adjective in its modification of a noun. When translating into English, the genitive can very frequently be translated “of” or “from.” The genitive is the case of the following: e

possession

Rom 1:1

δοῦλος Χριστοῦ Ἰησοῦ

ἃ slave of Christ Jesus

John 10:9

ὐδεὶς δύναται ἁρπάζειν ἐκ τῆς χειρὸς TOD πατρός.

No one is able to grab out of the hand of the father (or “the father’s hand”). ¢

e

kind, part, or relationship John 3:1

ἣ μήτηρ τῶν υἱῶν Ζεβεδαίου the mother of the sons of Zebedee

Rom 15:26

τοὺς πτωχοὺς τῶν ἁγίων the poor among the saints

separation

Rom 1:4

ἐξ ἀναστάσεως νεκρῶν by resurrection from (the) dead

Matt 10:14

ἐκτινάξατε τὸν κονιορτὸν τῶν ποδῶν ὑμῶν. Shake the dust from your feet.

5.5.3 Dative

The dative signals the indirect object (“She gave the book to me” or “She gave me the book”) or that person or thing for whose advantage or disadvantage an action is done (“He died for the people”). The dative is the case of the following: ¢

the indirect object John 6:33

ζωὴν διδοὺς τῷ κόσμῳ giving life to the world (or giving the world life) ye

5.5 The Cases

e

instrument or manner

John 1:33

¢

41

βαπτίζων ἐν πνεύματι ἁγίῳ baptizing with the Holy Spirit

location, spatial or temporal Rom 1:8

καταγγέλεται Ev ὅλῳ TO κόσμῳ

proclaimed in the whole world Luke 4:5

ἐν στιγμῇ χρόνου in a moment of time

Mark 14:49

ἤμην ἐν τῷ ἱερῷ διδάσκων I was in the temple teaching

,

The preposition “to” is not always necessary for translating an indirect object (cf. “He gave me a book.”). “I say to you” and “I tell you” are equally accurate translations of λέγω ὑμῖν, the common introduction to Jesus’ teachings. The difference lies only in

the choice of the English idiom. 5.5.4 Accusative

The accusative case is most frequently used for the direct object of the verb. It indicates the extent to which an action occurs or specifies the target of the action. In “I see the beautiful angel,” the act of seeing extends to “angel.” In “I read the book,” “book” specifies what is being read. In a basic sentence, use of the accusative case requires a transitive verb. See also the following: John 6:11

ἔλαβεν... τοὺς ἄρτους ὁ Ἰησοῦς. Jesus took... the bread.

John 8:46

ἀλήθειαν λέγω. I speak truth.

βλέπω οὐρανόν. πέμψω tekvia.

I see heaven. I will send children.

Double accusative. A variation on the simple direct object is that of two accusatives expressing two objects. One answers the question “Whom?” and the other the question “What?” This is typical after verbs such as those of naming, saying, calling, making, teaching, and clothing (review p. 11, Sentences, ex. 6). John 14:26

ἐκεῖνος ὑμᾶς διδάξει πάντα.

That one will teach you all things. Matt 22:43

πῶς οὖν Δαυὶδ... καλεῖ αὐτὸν κύριον; How, then, does David.

. . call him Lord?

42

Chapter 5: Second Declension; The Verb εἰμί

5.5.5 Direct Objects in Other Cases Verbs of perception, such as ἀκούω, often have genitives as their direct objects. The person being heard will be in the genitive (ἀκούσατέ μοῦ = “Hear me” or “Listen to me,” Mark 7:14), and the content of what is heard will be in the accusative (ὅταν

ἀκούσωσιν τὸν λόγον = “when they hear the word,” Mark 4:16). . Some other verbs, such as πιστεύω, usually have the dative for the direct object (od πιστεύετέ μοι = “you do not believe me,” John 8:45; πιστεύω τῷ θεῷ = “I believe God” or “I have faith in God,” Acts 27:25). 5.5.6

Vocative

The vocative expresses direct address. Its form will sometimes be distinct from and sometimes be identical to that of the nominative. It may occur with or without the article (which will be nominative in form, since there is no vocative article). Words in

the vocative are grammatically independent from the rest of the sentence. For example, see Acts 17:22, “Athenian men!” and Rev 11:17, “Lord God Almighty.” Sometimes the nominative functions like the vocative: ἣ παῖς, ἔγειρε “Child, rise up” (Luke 8:54).

5.6 The Article 5.6.1

Form

The masculine article is formed by adding the endings of the masculine noun to the τ- stem—except in the nominative singular and plural, where, ὁ and oi are used. (Note the rough breathing marks and the lack of accents.) The neuter article in the nominative and accusative singular adopts the corresponding neuter noun’s ending, but without the v: it is simply τό. Elsewhere the neuter article has the endings of the noun, all affixed to the t- stem. The article must agree with its substantive in gender, number, and case— for example, ὁ ἄνθρωπος but never οἱ ἀνθρώπους. If you memorize the three sets of article declensions (the feminine article will be introduced in the next chapter), you will have at your fingertips the endings of most first- and second-declension nouns, adjectives, and pronouns. Masculine and Neuter forms of the Article ὁ (τό), the

Singular

Plural

Masc

Neut

Masc

Neut

N

ὁ

τό

οἱ

τῶ

G

τοῦ

τοῦ

τῶν

τῶν

5

τῷ

τῷ

TOG.

Α

τόν

τό

τούς,

TOIC

TO

5.7 The Function of Adjectives

43

5.6.2 Functions

If a noun or other word has an article, it is called arthrous or articular; if it does not have the article, it is called anarthrous. The article

*

does not so much make another term definite as it specifies or points out a

given entity, calling attention to it; *

may modify a noun, pronoun, adjective, adverb, prepositional phrase, verbal noun (i.e., an infinitive), verbal adjective (i.e., a participle), clause, or sentence;

*

may not translate smoothly into English, as in the case of the phrase oi πτωχοὶ TH πνεύματι (“the poor in the spirit,” Matt 5:3), which has an article with both nouns; υ

*

may best be translated as a possessive pronoun when the relationship is clear from the context, as in 6 υἱὸς λέγει τῷ ἀδελφῷ, “The son speaks to his brother” (see p. 11, Sentences);

*

is sometimes best translated like a relative or a demonstrative pronoun (and vice-versa).

Since Greek has no indefinite article, the English translation of a Greek word that does not have an article may be preceded by the indefinite article “a” or “an.” «

»

5.7 The Function of Adjectives 5.7.1 Agreement Because adjectives modify nominal forms, they must agree with the modified form in gender, number, and case. In 6 καλὸς ἄγγελος, καλός is masculine nominative singular because it must agree with the noun it modifies, ἄγγελος. Contrast this with βλέπω τὸν καλὸν ἄγγελον. καλὸν must be masculine accusative singular because ἄγγελον is accusative. A neuter noun would require the adjective to be in the neuter case—for example, ἅγιον ἱερόν. 5.7.2 Position

A Greek adjective’s position may be described in terms of its relationship to the noun (or other word or phrase) it modifies and to the article (if present). It is said to be in either (1) the attributive position or (2) the predicate position. In the attributive

position, the article immediately precedes the adjective. The noun may either follow or precede the article-adjective pair; hence, both 6 καλὸς ἄγγελος and ὁ ἄγγελος 6 καλὸς mean “the beautiful angel.” In the predicate position, on the other hand, the adjective is not preceded by the article, and the adjective may either precede or follow the article-noun pair: hence, both καλὸς ὃ ἄγγελος and ὃ ἄγγελος καλός mean “The angel [is] beautiful.”

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Chapter 5: Second Declension; The Verb εἰμί

Attributive position

ὁ καλὸς ἄγγελος

“The beautiful angel”

ὃ ἄγγελος ὁ καλός

Predicate position

ὃ ἄγγελος καλός

“The angel [is] beautiful.”

καλὸς O ἄγγελος

When the adjective is in the attributive position (preceded by an article), its associated noun is simply limited or described by the adjective’s attribute, and the articlenoun combination does not form a complete sentence. But note that the attributive adjective does not require the presence of the article in a noun phrase (¢.g., ἔργον ἀγαθόν, “good work” or “a good work” [Phil 1:6]; ἔργῳ Kai λόγῳ ἀγαθῷ, “good deed and word” [2 Thess 2:17]).

When the adjective stands in the predicate position (without a preceding article), it asserts (or predicates) something about its associated noun by forming a complete sentence. Consequently, to translate the predicate adjective, the verb “is” or “are” needs to be supplied if it is not already present in the Greek. Thus, both 6 θεὸς ἀγαθός and ὁ θεὸς ἀγαθός ἐστιν mean “God is good.” 5.7.3 Substantive

A further noteworthy function of the Greek adjective is its use as a substantive (noun substitute). ot πονηροί is literally translated “the evil ones.” Because it is masculine, it means the same as οἱ πονηροὶ ἄνθρωποι, “the evil people.”’ In such cases, sometimes the English idiom requires an article even when itis not present in the Greek. The familiar verse “[God] causes his sun to rise upon [the] evil and [the] good and sends rain upon [the] righteous and [the] unrighteous” (Matt 5:45) illustrates this phenomenon.

5.8 The Verb εἰμί As with the English “to be,” εἰμί expresses a state of being rather than an action. Hence, it has neither active nor passive voice. Furthermore, εἰμί occurs in only three tenses: present (“is”), imperfect (“was”), and future (“will be”). The conjugation of the

present tense indicative mood follows. Present Indicative of εἰμί, I am

1

εἰμί

Singular Iam

Plural ἐσμέν weare

εἶ

you are

ἐστέ

you are

ἐστί(ν)

he, she, it is

εἰσί)

they are

*Neuter substantives can often be translated using the word “thing(s),” as in τὰ ἀγαθά

“the good things.” “The third person singular form of εἰμί occurs only rarely without the movable nu. δ ἴω

5)

5.9 Idioms and Translation

45

Εἰμί is a copulative (or coupling) verb (see p. 4, Verbs [a]). In the sentence 6 υἱός ἐστιν 6 κύριος, “The son is the Lord,” υἷός is the subject of the verb and in the nominative case. κύριος, a predicate nominative,° qualifies υἱός, and therefore, like an adjective, is also in the nominative case. The verb ἐστίν links the two. Just as the adjective without a preceding article indicates a predicate construction (ὃ ἄγγελος καλός), so also does the use of a copulative verb such as εἰμί. Typically, when the verb εἰμί is present, the predicate is anarthrous. Compare 1 John 1:5, ὃ θεὸς φῶς ἐστιν, “God is light,” and John 1:1b, θεὸς ἦν [was] ὁ λόγος, “The word was God.” In these examples, word order does not determine which nominative-case noun is the subject and which is the predicate. The nominative with the article is the subject; it is definite and is having something asserted about it in the predicate. In such a construction, the subject and the predicate are not equivalent. First John 1:5 says only that God is light, not that light is God. Conversely, if a predicate construction occurs in which both the subject and the predicate are articular (or definite by definition, as with a pronoun or proper name), then the two are equivalent and interchangeable. Consider: Matt 13:38

Matt 16:16

ὁ δὲ ἀγρός ἐστιν ὃ κόσμος. And the field is the world.

wv εἶ ὁ Χριστός. You are the Messiah.

5.9 Idioms and Translation Certain Greek transitive verbs and their objects sound strange in English without some modification. This is due to differences between Greek and English idioms. Note the italicized direct objects in the following literal translations: “Do not swear either the heaven or the earth” (Jas 5:12); “Do not work the food which perishes” (John 6:27);

“For we are not ignorant the designs of him” (2 Cor 2:11b). English idiom would supply “by,” “for,” and “of” respectively.

5.10 Nouns Made Definite by Context The article is not the only way that a word can be made definite in Greek. When a word occurs without the article, it may or may not be definite in Greek. A word’s distinctive character may be indicated by other factors in the context. Take, for example, 1 Cor 1:20: *The predicate nominative is also called the complement; it completes the thought being expressed by “The son is.”

46

Chapter 5: Second Declension; The Verb εἰμί

ποῦ σοφός; TOD γραμματεύς; ποῦ συζητητὴς τοῦ αἰῶνος τούτου; Where is the wise one? Where is the scribe? Where is the debater of this age?

All of the italicized words are anarthrous, yet they are all definite because they are described by the genitive phrase τοῦ αἰῶνος τούτου, “of this age.” Often words described by the genitive form of [6] θεός (which occurs more than 1,200 times in

the New Testament) are definite even though they lack the article—for example, διὰ στόματος θεοῦ, “through the mouth of God” (Matt 4:4); υἱοὶ θεοῦ, “the sons of God” (Matt 5:9); χάρις θεοῦ ἦν ἐπ᾽ αὐτό, “the grace of God was upon him” (Luke 2:40); ῥῆμα θεοῦ, “the word of God” (Luke 3:2). The definiteness of such phrases can be

perceived in English without the article by using the possessive form with “’s”: “this age’s debater,” “God’s grace.” EXERCISES

A. Translate the following sentences into English: . ὃ νόμος σῴζει. ὃ κύριος ἄξει τὸν υἱόν. οἱ θεοὶ σώσουσιν τὸν κόσμον. . οἱ ἅγιοι ἄνθρωποι εἰσὶν οἱ ἀδελφοὶ τῶν ἀγγέλων. . τὰ τέκνα βλέψουσιν τὸν θεόν. . τὰ τέκνα ὁ θεὸς ἄγει τῷ οὐρανῷ; τὸ εὐαγγέλιον σώσει τοὺς νεκρούς; . λέγετε τοὺς λόγους τοῖς υἱοῖς τῶν ἀνθρώπων. . ὃ οὐρανὸς πέμψει τὸν καλὸν ἄγγελον τοῦ θεοῦ τῷ κόσμῳ. . ὁ υἱὸς ὃ ἄλλος διδάξει τὰ ἀγαθάΣ . τὸ εὐαγγέλιον ἅγιον. ὃ κόσμος νεκρός. , Ὅν μα WHY Ὁ HP O ὦ . τῷ προσώπῳ τοῦ τέκνου κηρύξω τὸν νὸμον τὸν καλόν. . ὃ ἄνθρωπος 6 ἀγαθὸς εὑρήσει τὰ ἅγια ἱερὰ τῷ ἄλλῳ οὐρανῷ. . τὰ ἔργα τοῦ κυρίου ἅγια, ἀγαθὰ, καλά. . ὁ ἀγαθὸς θεός ἐστιν πιστός. . ὃ κύριός ἐστιν 6 υἱὸς TOD ἀνθρώπου. . οἱ ἄλλοι ἀδελφοὶ εὑρήσουσι τοὺς νόμους τῶν θεῶν τοῦ κόσμου. μὰ μπῶ ee ͵ὶ WON AP Ὁ . τοῖς πιστοῖς ἀγγέλοις ὃ ἅγιος ἀνοίξει τὸ ἱερὸν τὸ καλόν. ς

,

"

B. Translate the following sentences into Greek. Proper accentuation is not important at this point. 1. 2. 3. 4.

The presence of the Lord [is] good. The holy one of God is sending the faithful son. I will say a good word to the other person. Will you (sg.) rescue the child?

5. We are the sons of the faithful (ones).

Rules of accentuation pertinent to this chapter are found in appendix 1. ye

Chapter 6

Nominal System: First Declension; Conditional Sentences

6.1 Vocabulary 6.1.1 Feminine Nouns: καρδία Type ἀλήθεια, -ας, ἣ ἁμαρτία, -ας, ἣ βασιλεία, -ας, ἣ

kingdom, realm, reign (cf. “basilica”)

ἡμέρα, -ας, ἢ

day

καρδία, -ας, ἣ

heart (cf. “cardiology”)

χαρά, "ὡς, ἣ

joy

truth sin

6.1.2 Feminine Nouns: δόξα Type

γλῶσσα, -ns, ἢ δόξα, τῆς, ἣ

θάλασσα, -ης, ἣ

tongue, language (cf. “glossary”) glory (cf. “doxology”) sea

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Chapter 6: First Declension; Conditional Sentences

6.1.3 Feminine Nouns: φωνή Type

ἀγάπῃ, -Ns, 1

love

γῆ, -fic. ἢ

earth (cf. “geology”)

Can, -ἢς, 1

life (cf. “zoology”)

φωνή, -ῆς, 1

voice (cf. “telephone”)

ψυχή, -ῆς, ἣ

soul, life, living creature (cf. “psychology”)

6.1.4 Adjectives of the καρδία Type in the Feminine δίκαιος, -α, -OV ἕτερος, -α, -OV

righteous, just other (cf. “heterosexual”)

ἴδιος, -α, -ον μακάριος, -α, -OV πρεσβύτερος, -α, -OV

one’s own (cf. “idiom”) blessed elder (cf. “presbyter”)

6.1.5 Adjectives of the φωνή Type in the Feminine ἔσχατος, -ἡ, -OV

last (cf. “eschatology”)

λοιπός, -ή, -όν

(the) rest (i.e., remainder), other

ὅλος, -ἡ, -ov! ὅσος, -n, -ov! πρῶτος, -ἡ, -ον

whole, all as great as, as much/many as, all who first, earlier, earliest (cf. “prototype”)

6.1.6 Feminine Forms of Adjectives Already Presented ἀγαθή, ἁγία, ἄλλη, καλή, νεκρά, πιστή 6.1.7 First-Declension Masculine Nouns Ἰωάνί[ν]ης, -ov, 6

John

μαθητής, -o0d, ὁ προφήτης, -Ov, ὁ

disciple, student prophet

6.1.8 Second-Declension Feminine Nouns

ἔρημος, -οὔ, ἣ ὁδός, -οῦ, ἣ παρθένος, -Ov, ἣ

wilderness, desert; as adj.: desolate, empty way, road, way of life (cf. “exodus”) virgin

6.1.9 Article ς

ἣ

the (feminine)

‘The word occurs in the predicate position, usually preceding the noun it modifies, but translates as though it were in the attributive position—e.g., Rom 1:8, ἐν ὅλῳ τῷ κόσμῳ, “in all [of] the world.” 4“:

6.2 The First Declension (-α Stems): Feminine Nouns and Adjectives

49

6.1.10 Conjunctions καί

and, even, also both...and...

KQi...KQL.. ἀλλά

but, yet, rather (final α elides before a vowel: ἀλλ᾽ ἔστιν) if, whether

εἰ

6.1.11 Second Declension, Irregular Form Ἰησοῦς, -0d, 6

Jesus

6.2 The First Declension (-a Stems): Feminine Nouns and Adjectives The first-declension nouns presented here are all feminine except three, which will be considered shortly. The feminine nouns and adjectives are grouped here into three classes: καρδία type, δόξα type, and φωνή type. The endings of these three

types are presented below. Singular φωνή δόξα καρδία -a

N/V

G-ag Dish -αν

Α

Plural All

-O

-”

-αἱ

Ὡς n

-S ἫΝ

τῶν ταις

ταν

τὴν

τας

6.2.1 καρδία Type This group has either ε, τ, or p before the final α of the stem. The First Declension Noun χαρά, -ἂς, 7, joy Singular

Plural

N/V

χαρ-ά

χαρ-αί

G

χαρ-ᾶς

χαρ-ῶν

Ὀ

χαρ-ᾷ

χαρ-αῖς

Α

χαρ-άν

χαρ-άς

Feminine Forms of the Adjective ἕτερος, other

N/V α D Α

Singular ἑτέρ-α ἑτέρ-ας

Plural ἕτερ-αι ἑτέρ-ων

ἑτέρ-ᾳ

ἑτέρ-αις

ἑτέρ-αν

ἑτέρ-ας

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Chapter 6: First Declension; Conditional Sentences

6.2.2 δόξα Type This group has α in the nominative singular preceded by any consonant other than p. Only the genitive and dative singular will change endings from the previous paradigm: ἃ lengthens to an n. The First Declension Noun θάλασσα, -ης; 1, sea

N/V G D Α

Singular θάλασσ-α θαλάσσ-ης θαλάσσ-ῃ θάλασσ-αν

Plural θάλασσ-αι θαλασσ-ῶν θαλάσσ-αις θαλάσσ-ας

6.2.3 φωνή Type This category includes feminine nouns and adjectives whose nominative singular form ends with ἡ. The ἡ is retained throughout the singular; the plural remains unchanged. The First Declension Noun φωνή, -ἣς, 1, voice

Singular

Plural

ΜΝ

φων-ῆ

φων-αί

G

φων-ῆς

φων-ῶν

D

φων-ῇ

φων-αῖς

Α

φων-ήν

φων-άς..

Feminine Forms of the Adjective πιστός, faithful

N/V

Singular πιστή

Plural πιστ-αί

G

πιστ-ῆῖς

πιστ-ῶὧν

D

πιστ-ῇ

πιστ-αῖς

Α

πιστ-ήν

πιστ-άς

6.3 First-Declension Masculine Nouns

The few masculine nouns in the first declension use the masculine form of the article and are modified by masculine adjectives. Examples are ὁ μαθητής and ὃ προφήτης. The only variation from the φωνή type occurs in the singular form of the nominative, genitive, and vocative cases.

6.4 Formation of the Feminine Article

51

The Noun μαθητής, -0d, 6, disciple

Singular μαθητ-ής

N

6

G

τοῦ

D

A

Plural οἱ

μαθητ-αἱ

μαθητοῦ

τῶν

μαθητ-ῶν

τῷ

μαθητ-ῇ

τοῖς

μαθητ-αῖς

τὸν

μαθητήν

τοὺς

μαθητ-άς

V

μαθητ-ά

μαθητ-αἱί

Be sure to learn the masculine article with these words; it is your clue that masculine adjectives and other modifiers belong with them. + 6.4 Formation of the Feminine Article

The article in this declension utilizes the singular and plural endings of the φωνή type—always. The endings are affixed to the t- stem, except in the nominative singular and plural.

N

ἣ

Singular (χαρά; δόξα)

G D

τῆς τῇ

(χαρᾶς; δόχης) (χαρᾷ; δόχῃ)

τῶν (χαρῶν; δοξῶν) ταῖς (χαραῖς; δόξαις)

Α

τήν

(χαράν; δόξαν)

τάς

αἱ

Plural (χαραΐ; δόξαν)

(χαράς; δόξας)

Thus ἣ θάλασσα, τῆς καρδίας, τῇ ὥρᾳ.

6.5 Second-Declension Feminine Nouns

There are three feminine nouns that have -o stem endings like the second declension. They have feminine articles and modifiers (e.g., adjectives, pronouns, and participles). The declension of 660g, -οὔ, ἢ, “road,” together with an adjective modifier (for

illustration) is representative:

N

ἣ

G

thc

D

th

Α

τὴν

Vv

Singular ἁγία ayiac ayia ἁγίαν ἁγία

ὁδός

αἱ

odd00

τῶν

ὁδῷ

ταῖς

ὃδόν

τὰς

ὃδέ

Plural ἅγιαι ἁγίων ἁγίαις ἁγίας ἅγιαι

ὃὅδοί ὁδῶν

ὁδοῖς ὁδούς ὁδοί

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Chapter 6: First Declension; Conditional Sentences

6.6 The Name “Jesus” The name “Jesus” (6 Ἰησοῦς) occurs only in the singular. Its declension is as follows:

N ΩΝ Α

Ἰησοῦς Ἰησοῦ Ἰησοῦν

6.7 First-Class Conditional Sentences

A conditional sentence has the form “if... , then...” For example, “If you are tired, then you need sleep,” or “Ifyou love her, then ask her to marry you.” The first part (the ifclause) is called the protasis, and the second part (the then clause) is called the

apodosis. Numerous variations of conditional clauses are possible in Greek, but here we will learn what has been called the first-class condition, or the condition of reality. It has the following form: Protasis

Apodosis

ei + indicative verb (present, imperfect, future)

any tense of the indicative , or imperative mood

The first-class condition assumes a condition to be real. Earlier it was observed that the indicative mood is the mood of declaration or statement of fact. Consequently,

when this mood is used with ei, the protasis is assumed to be a reality (although it might not be). The reality of the apodosis is therefore also assumed to be true or possible. Take the following example:

ei εἶ 6 υἱὸς αὐτοῦ, ἐστὶν ἣ ἀδελφή σου If you are his son, [then] she is your sister. The condition is assumed by the speaker to be real, although it may, in fact, not be real.

6.8 Nouns in the Attributive Position

Nouns and certain grammatical forms yet to be discussed (e.g., prepositional phrases, participles, infinitives, and adverbs) may occur in the attributive position, as

do adjectives. When this occurs, the noun or other form has an adjectival function—it modifies. For example:

Exercises

Acts 15:1

53

τῷ ἔθει τῷ Μωῦσέως by the custom (that is) of Moses

Mark 4:15

τὸν λόγον τὸν ἐσπαρμένον the word (that was) sown

EXERCISES τ SRST a

Ec

ES,

eis pene ieee te eee

ee

A. Translate the following sentences into English: 1. ἣ καλὴ ἡμέρα ἐστὶν τὸ ἔργον tod κυρίου Kai ἐστιν ἀγαθὴ τῇ τοῦ ἀνθρώπου ψυχῇ. " 2. ὃ υἱὸς τοῦ θεοῦ κηρύσσει τὸ δίκαιον εὐαγγέλιον τῇ βασιλείᾳ τῇ νεκρᾷ καὶ πιστεύει. . ἣ καρδία ἣ ἁγία εὑρήσει καλὴν ζωήν. . ἢ γῆ καὶ ἣ θάλασσα καὶ ὃ οὐρανὸς λέγουσι τὴν δόξαν τοῦ θεοῦ. . εὑρίσκει τὸν ἀδελφὸν τὸν ἴδιον καὶ λέγει, Εὑρήσομεν τὸν κύριον. νι σι ἃ ὦ . Κύριε τοῦ οὐρανοῦ καὶ τῆς γῆς, σώσεις τοὺς δικαίους καὶ ἀνοίξεις ταῖς ἀγαθαῖς τὴν βασιλείαν τοῦ θεοῦ. 7. ἣ καρδία γινώσκει ἁμαρτίαν, ἀλλ᾽ ὁ νόμος ἅγιος καὶ δίκαιος καὶ ἀγαθός. 8. ei τὴν τοῦ θεοῦ ἀγάπην ψυχὴ ἔχει, εὑρίσκει τὴν ζωήν. 9. μακάριοι Kai? οἱ πιστοί εἰ διδάσκουσι δικαίᾳ γλώσσῃ. 10. οἱ λοιποὶ πρεσβύτεροι κηρύξουσιν ὅλον τὸ εὐαγγέλιον καὶ ὅσοι πιστεύουσιν τοῖς λόγοις τὸν θεὸν βλέψουσιν. 11. ἣ καλὴ παρθένος ἕξει τέκνον τοῦ θεοῦ. 12. ἣ ὁδὸς ἣ ἑτέρα ἄξει τὰς ψυχὰς τῆς ἐρήμου εἰς [into] τὴν ζωὴν τῆς δικαίας.

Β. Decline the following: 1. ἣ ἰδία γλῶσσα 2. ὃ ἀγαθὸς προφήτης 3, ἣ λοιπὴ ἔρημος

C. Translate the following sentences into Greek: 1. The whole realm will hear the words of the Lord. 2. You (pl.) will proclaim the truth to John.

The adverbial use of kai (meaning “also” or “even” ) is indicated when it does not coordinate two grammatical elements (words, phrases, or clauses) of like kind. In this sentence, μακάριοι and οἱ πιστοί are not equivalent.

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Chapter 6: First Declension; Conditional Sentences

3. Is the blessed disciple good? Is [his]? brother faithful? 4. The remaining prophet is the last of the disciples.

5. The children of God know the ways of truth.* Rules of accentuation pertinent to this chapter are found in appendix 1.

Supply an article. “Nouns expressing an abstract quality often take an article. ye

Chapter 7

Nominal System: Personal and Relative Pronouns

7.1 Vocabulary 7.1.1 Pronouns

αὐτός, -ή, -ό

he, she, it (personal pronoun); the same (in attributive position); himself,

ἐγώ

herself, itself (in predicate position) I (cf. “egotism”)

6c, ἢ: ὦ σὺ -

who, which, what you

7.1.2 Nouns

δαιμόνιον, -ου, TO δικαιοσύνη, -ἡς, ἣ δοῦλος, -ov, ὁ δῶρον, -ov, τό

demon

righteousness, justice

εἰρήνη, -ἡς, ἣ

slave, servant gift (cf. “Dorothea” [gift of God]) peace (cf. “irenic”)

ἐκκλησία, -ας, ἣ ἐξουσία, -ας, ἣ

power, authority

church, assembly (cf. “ecclesiology”)

56

Chapter 7: Personal and Relative Pronouns

λαός, -οῦ, ὁ

people (as an entity; cf. “laity”)

ὄχλος, -O, ὁ

crowd (cf. “ochlophobia”)

σημεῖον, -0v, τό

sign (cf. “semaphore”)

Opa, -ac, ἣ

hour (cf. “horoscope”)

7.1.3 Conjunctions The following are postpositives. When used in a Greek sentence or clause, they are usually the second word, but they should usually be placed first in an English translation. for (This is not the preposition “for” but a conjunction that functions with an explanatory force equivalent to

yap

“because.”)

δέ

but, and, now (Sometimes it suggests a contrast; at other times, it is simply a connective or begins a narrative.

Sometimes it is so weak that it is best left untranslated.) therefore, then, so (an inferential,

οὖν

transitional conjunction) Ἁ

7.1.4 Affirmative and Negative Particles ναί od οὐκ

yes, certainly no, not before a vowel with a smooth breathing mark before a vowel with a rough breathing mark

οὐχ οὐδέ

and not, nor, neither, not even;

οὐδέ... οὐδέ...

neither... nor...

7.2 Personal Pronouns A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun (see p.3, Pronouns). Personal pronouns are pronouns that normally take the place of people, although they can also take the place of things. Consider this sentence: Ἰησοῦς ἐδίδασκεν Μάρθαν, GAN αὐτὴ οὐκ ἤκουσε αὐτοῦ. Jesus was teaching Martha, but she did not listen to him. ye

7.2 Personal Pronouns

57

“She” and “him” are personal pronouns. Just as Greek nouns and adjectives are declined, pronouns are declined as well. The pronoun must agree with its antecedent (the word it replaces) in gender and number, but not necessarily in case, which is determined by its use in the sentence. In the above example, “she” is feminine singular, corresponding to its antecedent, “Martha.” Its case is nominative because it is the subject of “listen.” “Him” is masculine singular, corresponding to its antecedent, “Jesus,” and genitive because it is the object of “listen” (see p. 42).

7.2.1 Formation of Personal Pronouns ‘T’ and “you.” The first- and second-person personal pronouns present almost entirely new endings (cf. the genitive forms). The endings for “I” and “you,” however, correspond in every case and number except the nominative singular (ἐγώ and od).

The Personal Pronouns ἐγώ and σύ, I, me, we, us; you

ὑμεῖς

Plural you

of me, my, mine

ὑμῶν

of you, your(s)

ἐμοί, μοι

to/for me

ὑμῖν __ to/for you

ἐμέ, pe

me

Ν

ἐγώ

G

ἐμοῦ, μου

D

Α

Singular I

Singular you

_ ὑμᾶς

Plural we

N

od

G

ood

of you, your(s)

ἡμῶν — of us, our(s)

D_

oot

to/for you

Nuiv __ to/for us

Α

σέ

you

Nua

The most common

ἡμεῖς

you

us

forms of the first person personal pronoun are μοῦ, μοι,

and με. The forms ἐμοῦ, ἐμοί, and ἐμέ are used after prepositions and for special

emphasis.' “He,” “she,” “it.” The third-person personal pronouns in the masculine and feminine genders (αὐτός, αὐτή) decline as the second-declension masculine noun (e.g., λόγος)

and the φωνή type feminine noun decline. The third-person neuter pronoun (αὐτό) declines like the neuter article.

‘The first and second singular forms often lose their accents, except when they follow a preposition. See appendix 1 for a discussion of enclitics.

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Chapter 7: Personal and Relative Pronouns

The Personal Pronoun αὐτός, αὐτή; αὐτό, he, she, it

Ν

M αὐτός

G

Singular F N

Plural F

αὐτῇ

αὐτό

M αὐτοί

αὐταί

N αὐτά

αὐτοῦ

αὐτῆς

αὐτοῦ

αὐτῶν

αὐτῶν

αὐτῶν

D

αὐτῷ.

arth

αὐτῷ

αὐτοῖς

αὐταῖς

αὐτοῖς

Α

αὐτόν

αὐτήν

αὐτό

αὐτούς

αὐτάς

αὐτά

7.2.2 Function of Personal Pronouns Emphasis or contrast. The first- and second-person personal pronouns in the nominative case (ἐγώ, σύ) are used to express emphasis or contrast. For example, at his trial Jesus was asked: Lb εἶ ὃ βασιλεὺς [king] τῶν Ἰουδαίων

[Judeans]’; (“Are

you the king of the Judeans?” Matt 27:11). Strictly speaking, σύ is unnecessary because the subject, “you,” is an integral part of the verb εἶ. Its addition, however, underscores what the governor of Judea felt to be the question’s absurdity. To express the emphasis of the Greek construction in English, one might italicize or underline the pronoun in a written text (Are you... ?) or change pitch in oral reading. Possession. The genitive personal pronoun is the most common means of expressing possession in all forms (μου, cov, αὐτοῦ; ἡμῶν, ὑμῶν, αὐτῶν); e.g., TH ἀγάπῃ

μου, “for my love” (lit., “for the love of me”). ἡ Objects. The accusatives ye and σε are often direct objects (Matt 8:2b, “Lord, if you will, you are able to heal me [ye]”); the datives μοι or cot may occur as indirect objects (see Matt 18:26b, “And I will repay [to] you [oo1]”). Beside their possessive use,

the genitives pov or cov can be the direct objects of certain verbs (“You all hear me [μου]. Mark 7:14b; see p. 42).

7.2.3 Special Issues Concerning αὐτός, -ή, -ό Αὐτός in the attributive position. When the third-person personal pronoun is used with the article in the attributive position, the word functions like an adjective and is translated “same.” 1Cor12:5

d 6 αὐτὸς κύριος = the same Lord

Heb 1:12

σὺ δὲ ὁ αὐτὸς εἶ. = But you are the same.

Or “Jews.” See Walter Bauer, Frederick W. Danker, William F. Arndt, and F. Wilbur Gin-

grich, Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature (3d ed.; Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 478-79a, for a discussion of the translation of Ἰουδαῖος. Ye

7.2 Personal Pronouns

Luke 23:40

You are in the same [τῷ αὐτῷ] judgment.

Mark 14:39

Ηε prayed the same [τὸν αὐτόν] prayer.

59

Αὐτός without the article, nominative case.? In the nominative case, without a

preceding article, αὐτός often intensifies the subject of the verb. Though it is usually to be translated simply as a subject pronoun (he, she, etc.) when the verb is third person, it is sometimes best translated “myself,” “yourself,” “ourselves,” and so on, especially in conjunction with a stated subject. The person of the Greek verb will determine the person of the English reflexive pronoun. 2 Thess 2:16a αὐτὸς δὲ 6 κύριος ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦς Χριστός... Now [may] our Lord Jesus Christ himself...

2Cor 10:1

αὐτὸς δὲ ἐγὼ Παῦλος παρακαλῶ ὑμᾶς. But I myself, Paul, exhort you.

In the second example, Παῦλος identifies, ἐγώ emphasizes, and αὐτός intensifies. It is clear that the writer was mustering all the expressiveness the language afforded.

Αὐτός without the article, in oblique cases. Without a preceding article, the thirdperson personal pronoun in the oblique cases functions like the first- and secondperson pronouns. Gal 4:25

μετὰ TOV τέκνων αὐτῆς = with her children

Luke 10:9

καὶ λέγετε αὐτοῖς = and say to them

Matt 1211

οὐχὶ κρατήσει αὐτό; = Will he not grab if?

In review, the uses of αὐτός are as follows:

1. Attributive position, regardless of case: “same” ὃ αὐτὸς ἄγγελος

λέγει

the same angel is saying

ὃ αὐτὸς

λέγει

the same (person) is saying

2. Nominative case, anarthrous: “

5615

>For ease of learning, some grammarians refer to this as the “predicate position” of αὐτός. The beginning student should remember, however, that αὐτός does not function as a predicate in this position. There are several other words that follow this same pattern, including ὅλος, ὅσος, the demonstrative pronouns οὗτος and ἐκείνος (ch. 8), and πᾶς (ch. 16).

*Cf. Luke 6:33; Rom 10:12; 1 Cor 1:10. >Cf. Rom 7:25; John 6:6b; Acts 20:34.

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Chapter 7: Personal and Relative Pronouns

585.

Gender

Person λέγω

Translation I myself say

αὐτὸς

λέγεις

you yourself say

phen αὐτὸ

he himself says

;

λέγει

she herself says it itself says

PL

αὐτοὶ

λέγομεν

we ourselves say

αὐταὶ

λέγετε

you yourselves say

αὑτὰ

λέγουσι

they themselves say

3. Oblique cases, anathrous: “his,” “her,”

Gen.

2)

«

“them,” etc.

γράφω τὸν λόγον αὐτοῦ (αὐτῶν). = I write his (their) word. (cf. 1 Cor 15:10)

Dat.

ἄξω τοὺς λαοὺς αὐτῷ (αὐτοῖς). = I will lead the peoples to him (them). (cf. John 4:70, 170)

Acc.

βλέπω tov κύριον (τοὺς κυρίους) Kai βαπτίσω αὐτόν (αὐτούς). Ξ I see the lord (the lords) and I will baptize him (them). (cf. John 5:14)

.

7.3 Relative Pronouns 7.3.1

Formation

The relative pronoun declines like the article, except that the t is everywhere deleted. Unlike the article, all forms have a rough breathing mark and are accented. The Relative Pronoun 6c, 1, 6, who, what, which

Singular M

N

ὅς

F

who

7

N

who

ὅ

what, which

G ov ofwhom D @ _ to/for whom

ἧς of whom ἣ — to/for whom

οὗ ὦ

of what, of which to/for what, to/for which

A

ἥν

ὅ

what, which

ὅν

whom

whom

7.3 Relative Pronouns

61

Plural M

F

N

N

ot

who

ai

D

ὧν οἷς

ofwhom to/for whom

ὧν of whom αἷς to/for whom

ὧν of what, of which οἷς to/for what, to/for which

A

οὖς

whom

ἅς

&

who

whom

&

what, which

what, which

7.3.2 Syntax

The rule. The relative pronoun, like the personal pronoun, agrees with its antecedent in gender and number. Also like the personal pronoyn, the case of the relative is normally determined by the function of the relative in its own clause (but see below).

Consider the following examples: ὃ κύριος, ὃς κηρύσσει ὑμῖν the lord, who preaches to us Κύριος and ὅς are both masculine singular; ὅς is nominative because it is the subject of κηρύσσει.

ὃ λόγος, ὃν ὃ κύριος κηρύσσει ὑμῖν the word, which the Lord preaches to us

Here λόγος and ὅν are both masculine singular, but ὅν, which stands in for λόγος,

is the direct object of κηρύσσει and is therefore in the accusative case. μάρτυς γάρ μού ἐστιν ὁ θεός, ᾧ λατρεύω ἐν τῷ πνεύματί μου. For God is my witness, whom I serve in my spirit.

In this example from Rom 1:9, the relative @ agrees in gender and number, but not case, with its antecedent, ὃ θεός. It occurs in the dative because it is the object of the verb λατρεύω (which takes a dative for the one to whom service is given).

The exception to the rule. Occasionally the relative pronoun will also adopt the case of its antecedent regardless of the grammatical rule. John 15:20a shows this:

μνημονεύετε τοῦ λόγου οὗ ἐγὼ εἶπον ὑμῖν. Remember the word which I spoke to you. Tod λόγου, the object of μνημονεύετε, demonstrates the earlier observation (p. 42) that some verbs take the genitive case for their direct objects. But od is the direct object of εἶπον and should be in the accusative case. It has adopted the case of λόγου, however, because a relative pronoun in the accusative case is easily attracted

(and for this reason it is called relative attraction) to the case of a genitive or dative antecedent. Accent rules for relatives are found in appendix 1.

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Chapter 7: Personal and Relative Pronouns

7.3.3 Function

The relative clause in a Greek sentence usually functions as an adjective, modifying its antecedent. Consider the following: 6 λόγος, ὃν ὁ κύριος κηρύσσει ὑμῖν the word, which the Lord preaches to us

In this example, everything after the comma makes up the relative clause, which modifies λόγος. οἱ δοῦλοι γράφουσιν κυρίῳ αὐτῶν, ὃς σῴζει αὐτούς.

The slaves are writing to their lord, who is saving them. In this case, the phrase “who is saving them” modifies “lord.”

7.4 οὐ, οὐκ, οὐχ in Rhetorical Questions A questioner can indicate that a positive response is expected by beginning the question with od. James 2:6 asks, οὐχ οἱ πλούσιοι καταδυναστεύουσιν ὑμῶν; (Do

not the rich people oppress you’). For questions that expect a negative answer, see p 2h

7.5 Conjunctions and Sentence Structure Because the New Testament writers used virtually no punctuation (and certainly no versification) to indicate syntax, conjunctions such as καί and &AAG&—when used as such—and the postpositives yap, δέ, and οὖν often served well as markers to indicate the beginning of sentences and clauses (see p. 9, Conjunctions). EXERCISES

A. Translate the following sentences into English: 1.

ἡμεῖς οὐχ εὑρήσομεν αὐτόν; Vai, εἰ ἀκούομεν τοὺς λόγους αὐτοῦ καὶ πιστεύομεν αὐτοῖς.

2. Κύριε, σὺ εἶ 6 υἱὸς τοῦ θεοῦ: σὺ ὁ δίκαιος εἶ τοῦ Ἰσραήλ. 3. λέγει αὐτῷ ὁ κύριος Σὺ εἶ 6 δοῦλός μου. διδάξεις τῷ λαῷ μου τοὺς αὐτοὺς νόμους οὺς αὐτὸς διδάσκω σοι. 4. ὃ κύριος, ὃς ἐστιν ἣ τῆς ζωῆς ὁδός, αὐτὸς βαπτίζει τοὺς ὄχλους οἵ εὑρίσκουσίν σε. 5. ὁ δὲ θεὸς Od πέμπει τὸν ἄγγελον αὐτοῦ, ἀλλὰ τὸν υἱὸν αὐτοῦ ὃς κηρύσσει τὴν τοῦ θεοῦ ἀγάπην. ye

Exercises

63

6. ὃ κόσμος οὐκ ἀνοίξει τὰ ἱερὰ αὐτοῦ, ὁ δὲ λαὸς τοῦ θεοῦ ἀνοίξουσιν τὰς καρδίας αὐτῶν. 7. od γάρ ἐστιν ἣ βασιλεία τοῦ θεοῦ ἁμαρτία, ἀλλὰ δικαιοσύνη καὶ εἰρήνη καὶ ἐξουσία τοῦ θεοῦ. 8. οὐκ ἀλήθειαν λέγομεν; οὐ δαιμόνιον ἔχεις ὃ ἄγει σε; 9. ἐγὼ δὲ νόμον ἔχω ὃν ὑμεῖς αὐτοὶ οὐ γινώσκετε. 10. βλέπω τὸν ἄνθρωπον ὃς λέγει μοι ἃ πιστεύει.

B. Translate the following sentences into Greek: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

The brother himself will teach the elders. Does the servant know the way that/which leads to the sea? Your tongues will open and the crowds will hear your voices. Yes, Lord, the ones who are preaching your gospel will release your servants. John’s disciples speak to the hearts of the people.

Chapter 8

Nominal System: Demonstrative and Reflexive Pronouns

8.1 Vocabulary 8.1.1 Demonstrative Pronouns

ἐκεῖνος, -η, -O

that (pl. those)

οὗτος, αὕτη, τοῦτο

this (pl. these)

8.1.2 Reflexive Pronouns ἐμαυτοῦ, ἐμαυτῆς [no neut.]; ἑαυτῶν σεαυτοῦ, σεαυτῆς [no neut.];

ἑαυτῶν ἑαυτοῦ, ἑαυτῆς, ἑαυτοῦ;

ἑαυτῶν

of myself; pl.: of ourselves of yourself;

pl.: of yourselves of himself, of herself, of itself

pl.: of themselves

8.1.3 Adjectives ἀγαπητός, -ή, OV

beloved, dear

ἕκαστος, -η, -OV

each, every

Ἰουδαῖος, -a, -ov

Jewish, Judean; as a noun: a Judean, a Jew

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Chapter 8: Demonstrative and Reflexive Pronouns

evil; as a noun: an evil (τονηρόν), an evil one (πονηρός, -&)

πονηρός, -ά, -OV

8.1.4 Nouns οἶκος, -ov, 6 Χριστός, -οῦ, ὁ

house (cf. “economy”) Anointed One, Messiah, Christ

8.1.5 Verbs

δοξάζω, δοξάσω

I glorify (cf. “doxology”)

εὐαγγελίζω, εὐαγγελίσω κράζω, κράξω

I evangelize, announce good news Icry out

8.2 Demonstrative Pronouns

8.2.1 Formation of Demonstrative Pronouns οὗτος, αὕτη, τοῦτο.

Confusion concerning formation of these stems can be

avoided by observing a few simple patterns: 1. The stem οὗτ- has a prefixed t- in the same forms as the article. Thus, masculine and feminine nominative singular and plural have rough breathing marks but no prefixed t-. ‘

2. The stem changes to (t)avt- when the case ending has an @ or n. 3. The endings are first and second declension, following the pattern of αὐτός, αὐτή, αὐτό. ; The Demonstrative Pronoun οὗτος, αὕτη; τοῦτο, this

Singular

Plural

M

Ε

Ν

Μ

Ε

Ν

οὗτος

αὕτη

τοῦτο

οὗτοι

αὗται

ταῦτα

τούτου

ταύτης

τούτου

τούτων

τούτων

τούτων

D

τούτῳ

ταύτῃ

τούτῳ

τούτοις

ταύταις

τούτοις

Α

τοῦτον

ταύτην

τοῦτο

τούτους

ταῦτας

ταῦτα

Ν

ἐκεῖνος, ἐκείνη, ἐκεῖνο. The stem is consistently ἐκειν-. The declension endings

are the same as οὗτος, etc. This now makes six words whose neuter nominative and accusative singular delete the nu (v): the pronouns αὐτό, τοῦτο, ἐκεῖνο, and 6, the article τό, and the adjective ἄλλο. Accent rules pertinent to demonstratives are found

in appendix 1.

8.2 Demonstrative Pronouns

67

8.2.2 Syntax and Functions of οὗτος and ἐκεῖνος Modifiers. οὗτος and ἐκεῖνος can be used to specify nouns and substantives, such as “this fish” or “those loaves.” They occur without the article preceding them. In other words, they do not stand in the attributive position, but they function like adjectives in the attributive position. For example, whereas ἀγαθὸς ὁ κύριος (adjective in the predicate position) is translated “the Lord is good,” οὗτος 6 κύριος is translated “this

lord.” Study the following examples from Luke 12:43 and 2:25: μακάριος ὁ δοῦλος ἐκεῖνος = “Blessed is that servant.” 6 ἄνθρωπος οὗτος δίκαιος = “This man was righteous.”!

In these examples, δοῦλος and ἄνθρωπος are the subjects. The adjectives (μακάριος and δίκαιος) and the demonstratives (ἐκεῖνος and οὗτος) both modify the subjects, and both stand without a preceding article; but only the adjectives are true predicate adjectives. To say “that blessed servant” in Greek, one might write ἐκεῖνος 6 μακάριος δοῦλος, ἐκεῖνος ὁ δοῦλος ὁ μακάριος,

or even ὁ μακάριος δοῦλος Exeivos.’

Substantives. To say, “this one is... ,” one uses οὗτός ἐστιν. The article is not used with οὗτος and ἐκεῖνος simply because it is not needed; “this” or “that” specify in its place. Thus, one reads οὗτός ἐστιν 6 υἱός μου (“This one is my Son,” Matt 17:5) or ἐκεῖνος ὑμᾶς διδάξει (“That one will teach you,” John 14:26). Expressing proximity. οὗτος usually refers to one who is present or close at hand (either literally or mentally). So, when Matt 17:5 reports that God said, “This [one] is

my Son,” one understands that God spoke of someone physically near the hearers. Likewise, in the interpretation of the parable of the Sower (Matt 13:19-23), “this” is used repeatedly, referring to someone or something that is mentally near: The one of which I spoke, this one. By contrast, ἐκεῖνος frequently denotes distance, such as a previous referent now absent or someone or something far away. Consider John 14:20, where “on that day’ (ἐν ἐκείνῃ τῇ ἡμέρᾳ) refers to a yet-to-be-realized future. Like οὗτος, ἐκεῖνος may also be used in narratives simply to refer to a preceding thought. So, in John 14:21, Jesus says, “The one who has my commandments and keeps them, that one [ἐκεῖνος]

is the one who is loving me.” ‘In this clause, context determines the tense of the implied verb and the gender of ἄνθρωπος (Simeon the prophet). ?A fourth option, 6 δοῦλος 6 μακάριος ἐκεῖνος, would be ambiguous without context.

>

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Chapter 8: Demonstrative and Reflexive Pronouns

8.3 Reflexive Pronouns 8.3.1

Formation

Reflexive pronouns are formed by combining the personal pronouns with a form of αὐτός. “Of myself” (ἐμαυτοῦ) is αὐτοῦ with a prefixed éu- from ἐμέ (me). “Of yourself” (σεαυτοῦ) is αὐτοῦ with σέ (you) prefixed. “Of himself, herself, itself” (ἑαυτοῦ, ἑαυτῆς, ἑαυτοῦ) is αὐτοῦ with a prefixed &.° Naturally, first- and second-

declension endings of the αὗτός, -ή, -0 type are used. All plurals are formed with the third-person (€-) prefix. Regardless of person (first, second, or third), the masculine plural is the same for each case. In other words,

the plural form of the datives ἐμαυτῷ, σεαυτῷ, and ἑαυτῷ is ἑαυτοῖς (to/for our-, your-, themselves). The same is true for the feminine. The neuter is found only in the third person: First Person Reflexive Pronoun ἐμαυτοῦ, ἐμαυτῆς, of myself

Singular

Plural

M

F

N

G

ἐμαυτοῦ

ἐμαυτῆς

—

o

ἐμαυτῷ ἐμαυτόν

ἐμαυτῇ ἐμαυτήν

— —

A

sameas ἑαυτοῦ below 4

W

Second Person Reflexive Pronoun

σεαυτοῦ, σεαυτῆς, οὔ yourself G

σεαυτοῦ

σεαυτῆς

—

o

σεαυτῷ

σεαυτῇ

—

A

σεαυτόν

σεαυτήν

—

sameas ἑαυτοῦ below "

Third Person Reflexive Pronoun ἑαυτοῦ, ἑαυτῆς, ἑαυτοῦ, of him-, her-, itself

G

éeavtod

ἑαυτῆς

ἑαυτοῦ

ἑαυτῶν

ἑαυτῶν

ἑαυτῶν

Ὁ

ἑαυτῷ

ἑἕαυτῇ

ἑαυτῷ

ἑαυτοῖς

ἑαυταῖς

ἑαυτοῖς

A

éavtov

ἑαυτήν

ἑαυτό

ἑαυτούς

ἑαυτάς

ἑαυτά

3From an ancient form not found in the GNT. !

8.4 Confusing People

69

8.3.2 Function

Reflexive pronouns occur only in the oblique cases because they receive the action of the verb and refer the action back to the verb’s subject. Thus, one reads, “I see myself” (βλέπω ἐμαυτόν); “You speak to yourself” (λέγεις σεαυτῷ); “He hears himself”

(ἀκούει ἑαυτοῦ)." Compare the nominative use of αὐτός without the article: In “I

myself speak to you” (ἐγὼ αὐτὸς λέγω σοι), “myself” is not reflexive but intensive; the action of λέγω is directed to “you” (σοι), not to “I” (ἐγώ) or “myself” (αὐτός).

Because the plural forms for each case are the same, regardless of person, they are to be translated as first, second, or third person in keeping with the person and number of the verb whose action they reflect. Observe, moreover, that the gender of the reflexive may provide the identification of the subject’s gender. For example, κηρύσσομεν ἑαυτούς = “we [men or people (derived from the masculine ending of the reflexive)]

preach ourselves”; κηρύσσετε ἑαυτούς = “you [men or people (same derivation)] preach yourselves”; κηρύσσουσι ἑαυτάς = “they [women (derived from the feminine ending of the reflexive)] preach themselves.”

8.4 Confusing People The words ἄνθρωπος, λάος, and ὄχλος can be confusing in translation. ὄχλος usually refers to a collected mass of people with no implied identity; hence, the usual translation is “crowd” (or pl. “crowds”). Only modifiers and context can provide more information about group identity. The singular οὔλάος tends to denote a specific group of human beings. For Luke, it is very nearly a theological term, often implying “the

people of God.” Likewise, the plural (Acou, peoples) often implies several distinct groups referred to as one body (compare “the people of the world” with “the peoples of the world”). The plural of ἄνθρωπος can also be translated “the people.” The problem with the English translation “men” is that it implies a gendered group; only context might supply such information. EXERCISES

A. Translate the following sentences into English: 1. (σὺ) ἀκούεις τοῦ προφήτου ἐκείνου; οὐκ. ἀκούω τούτου TOD μαθητοῦ τοῦ κυρίου. . ὃ θεὸς πέμπει με, ἀλλ᾽ ὑμεῖς οὐκ ἀκούετέ μου οὐδὲ ἀκούετε φωνήν μου. . ὃ ἄλλος μαθητὴς οὗ πιστεύει Ἰησοῦ, GAN αὐτὸς πιστεύει ἑαυτῷ. . λέγει οὖν ὃ προφήτης ἐκεῖνος ὃν διδάσκει Ἰησοῦς Πιστεύω. hd WwW nk . εἰ κηρύσσομεν Ἰησοῦν, ἐκεῖναι εὑρήσουσι τὴν βασιλείαν τοῦ θεοῦ. ‘Remember that the direct object of ἀκούω takes the genitive case.

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Chapter 8: Demonstrative and Reflexive Pronouns

εὐαγγελίζετε ἑαυτοῖς καὶ βαπτίσουσιν ἑαυτοῖς καὶ πιστεύσομεν ἑαυταῖς. οὗτός ἐστιν ὃ vidg μου 6 ἀγαπητὸς καὶ εἰ δοξάζετε αὐτὸν σώσει ὑμᾶς. ee ὃ Ἰησοῦς ἀνοίξει ἑκάστῳ ὑμῶν τὴν ἁγίαν βασιλείαν εἰ ἀκούετε αὐτοῦ. οὗτος ὁ ἄνθρωπος od βλέπει καὶ κράζει Ἰησοῦ, Ἰησοῦ, σὺ δοξάσεις σεαυτόν; ᾿ 10. ἐκεῖνος εὐαγγελίσει τούτους τοὺς λαούς. 11. οὗτοι ἡμᾶς ἄξουσιν τῷ ἱερῷ. 17: ἕκαστος μαθητὴς ὃς ἀκούει τὴν φωνήν μοῦ καὶ πιστεύει, ἐκεῖνος

εὑρίσκει τὸν θεόν.

B. Translate the following sentences into Greek: 1. These evil ones will not see the reign of God. De Jesus and his disciples are sending you (pl.) to the sea. 3. Therefore you yourselves know truth and life. 4. For he will preach neither evil nor sin in that hour. 5: She says to herself, “Will I see the Lord’s glory?”

Chapter 9

Structural Word System: Prepositions; Compound Verbs; ὅτι

9.1 Vocabulary 9.1.1 Prepositions with One Case ἀντί ἀπό

ἄχρι (or ἄχρις)

(gen.)! (gen.) (gen.)

instead of, in place of

from (cf. “apostrophe”) as far as, until; as a conjunction:

until εἰς ἐκ (ἐξ before an initial vowel)

(acc.)

into, for, in order to (cf.

(gen.)

“eisegesis”) out of, from (cf. “exegesis,” “exodus”)

ἐν ἐνώπιον ἔξω ἕως πρό πρός σὺν

in, among (cf. “encephalograph”) before

(dat.) (gen.) (gen.) (gen.) (gen.) (acc.)

as far as, until before (cf. “prologue”) to, toward, with (cf. “proselyte”)

(dat.)

with (cf. “synoptic”)

outside (cf. “exotic”)

‘The parentheses following prepositions indicate the particular case in which the object of the preposition will occur.

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Chapter 9: Prepositions; Compound Verbs; ὅτι

9.1.2 Nouns

ἄρτος, -ov, ὃ γραφή, -ῆς, ἣ ἐντολή, -ῆς, ἣ θάνατος, -ov, ὃ κεφαλή, -ῆς, ἣ ὀφθαλμός, -0d, ὃ

bread, loaf writing, scripture (cf. “graphic”) commandment, order death (cf. “thanatology”) head (cf. “encephalograph”) eye (cf. “ophthalmology”)

9.1.3 Compound Verbs ἀπολύω, ἀπολύσω

I release, let go, send away

ἐκβάλλω, ἐκβαλῶ:

I throw out, expel, send out (cf. “ballistics”) I gather (in), bring together (cf.

συνάγω, συνάξω

“synagogue”) 9.1.4 Particle

ἀμήν

so let it be, amen, truly

9.1.5 Conjunction ὅτι

that, because, for

[2

‘

9.2 Prepositions The object of a preposition (ἐν τῷ οὐρανῷ = in heaven; ἐκ τοῦ πόλεως = out of the city) may be in the genitive, dative, or accusative case, depending upon the thought being expressed by the author (see p. 2, Words; p. 8, Prepositions). The objects of some prepositions consistently occur in one case. The objects of other prepositions can be in more than one of the oblique cases, and the case of the object will often alter the preposition’s meaning. In this chapter, only those that use one case are considered.’ The object cases should be learned as the English glosses of prepositions are memorized.

It is important to know that Greek nouns with their case endings can and often do function like prepositional phrases. But Greek prepositions add force, specificity, and

clarity. For example, without context, ἣ ἀγάπη τοῦ θεοῦ (lit., “the love of God”) by itself can mean either “God’s love” or “the love one has for God.” However,

ἣ ἀγάπη

ἐκ τοῦ θεοῦ can only mean “the love [which comes] from God,” that is, God’s love (so

also Eph 6:23, ἀγάπη ... ἀπὸ θεοῦ). * The future-tense form will be discussed in ch. 17, Liquid Verbs. *The preposition πρός is used with other cases, but these fall outside the scope of this text.

We

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9.3 Compound Verbs Prepositions do not always they may be prefixed to verbs to changes may result, which will compound verb may sometimes

occur as separate words in Greek. Just as in English, form compound verbs. When this occurs, some letter be noted as they are encountered. The meaning of a be determined simply by combining the component

parts. Hence, ἐκβάλλω (I throw out) is formed from ἐκ (out of) and βάλλω (I throw); συνάγω is “T lead together,” a combination of σύν (with) and ἄγω (I lead). Often, how-

ever, the compound has a meaning quite distinct from the component parts.* For example, ὑπάγω (ὑπό [under] + ἄγω [ I lead]) does not mean “I lead under, ” but rather

“I depart.” When encountering a new compound verb, first try to make sense of the verb using its components parts; if that fails, consult a lexicon. Not all prepositions were used in building compound words. Those that were not are sometimes called improper prepositions. Four of the prepositions in the vocabulary list above (ἄχρι, ἐνώπιον, ἔξω, ἕως) are such improper prepositions, and these normally take an object in the genitive case.

9.4 Prepositional Phrases as Adjectives and Substantives 9.4.1 As Adjectives Prepositional phrases may be used to describe nouns in the same way that adjectives or other nouns are used. Just as “the good person’ is expressed by either 6 ἀγαθὸς ἄνθρωπος or ὁ ἄνθρωπος 6 ἀγαθός, one may say, “the bread from heaven” by placing “from heaven” in the attributive position; thus 6 ἐκ τοῦ οὐρανοῦ ἄρτος (lit., “the out-of-heaven bread”) or ὃ ἄρτος 6 ἐκ τοῦ οὐρανοῦ (“the bread, [specifically] the one out of heaven”).° In either case, the prepositional phrase ἐκ tod οὐρανοῦ functions as an attributive adjective. 9.4.2 As Substantives

Just as ὃπονηρός is “the evil one,” so οἱ ἐκ tod πονηροῦ is “the ones out of the evil one.” Here the prepositional phrase functions with the article as a substantive. Consider Matt 5:16b: “that they may see your good works and glorify your Father tov ἐν τοῖς οὐρανοῖς [the (Father) in the heavens].” The prepositional phrase ἐν τοῖς οὐρανοῖς, with article tov before it, stands in the attributive position to the noun “Father.” The article is best translated as a relative pronoun (“who is in heaven”). See

also Eph 1:15b.

*The same thing occurs in English. The verb “understand” means something quite different from “stand under.” >John 6:50; cf. 6:58

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Chapter 9: Prepositions; Compound Verbs; ὅτι

9.5 The Conjunction ὅτι ὅτι is a conjunction, a particle that connects two clauses (see p. 9, Conjunctions; p. 10, Clauses). The following are among its primary functions. 9.5.1

Causal Clauses

ὅτι often introduces a clause that provides the basis or foundation for a preceding statement. In this case, ὅτι is commonly translated “because.” For example, Matt 13:16 reads, ὑμῶν δὲ μακάριοι οἱ ὀφθαλμοὶ ὅτι βλέπουσιν, καὶ τὰ ὦτα [ears] ὑμῶν ὅτι ἀκούουσιν. But blessed are your eyes because they see, and your ears because they hear.

In Matt 5:3-10, ὅτι clauses are used repeatedly to explain the basis for declaring certain groups blessed.

9.5.2 Object Clauses The New Testament writers frequently use ὅτι to introduce a clause that serves as the object of the verb. The two most common such object clauses in the GNT are (1) content clauses following verbs of sense or mental perception such as tasting, seeing, hearing, thinking, reading, etc.; and (2) appositional ace ese od clauses. In both cases, ὅτι is commonly translated “that.” Following verbs ofperception. In this structure ὅτι introduces the contents of mental perception represented by the verb. For example, 1 John 4:13a

ἐν τούτῳ γινώσκομεν ὅτι ἐν αὐτῷ μένομεν [we are remaining]. By this we know that we are remaining in him.

What do we know? We know that we are remaining in him.

Appositional explanatory clauses. In this structure ὅτι introduces an object clause that explains, clarifies, or completes a previous word or phrase. First John 4:10 illustrates the appositional use of ὅτι: ἐν τούτῳ ἐστὶν ἣ ἀγάπη, ᾿ οὐχ ὅτι ἡμεῖς ἠγαπήκαμεν [we have loved] τὸν θεόν, GAN ὅτι αὐτὸς ἠγάπησεν [he loved] ἣμᾶς. In this is love, not that we have loved God, but that he loved us.

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75

The phrases beginning with “not that” and “but that” are in apposition to év τούτῳ and define it, explaining, from negative and positive perspectives, how genuine love is best expressed. To put it another way, one could translate 1 John 4:10 as “Love is [defined, epitomized] in this, namely, not that... but that...” In 1 Jn 4:13, the first part of which was cited earlier as an example of ὅτι used in an object clause introducing contents, there is a second ὅτι clause as well. This time consider the entire verse: Ἔν τούτῳ γινώσκομεν ὅτι ἐν αὐτῷ μένομεν Kai αὐτὸς ἐν ἡμῖν, ὅτι ἐκ τοῦ πνεύματος [Spirit] αὐτοῦ δέδωκεν [he has given] ἡμῖν.

By this we know that we are remaining in him and he in us, because he has given to us from his spirit (or Spirit). According to the English translation above, the second ὅτι is understood as causal—it tells why we know that we are remaining in him, etc. However, another interpretation of the second ὅτι is possible in this context. If the second ὅτι were taken in an explanatory sense, the meaning would be slightly different: By this we know that we are remaining in him and he in us, namely, that he has given to us from his Spirit. In the first example, “by this” may be referring to something else in the context, such as the statement in the previous verse that God dwells in us. In the second example, “by this” refers specifically to the fact that God has given to us from his Spirit. These examples highlight the importance of carefully considering all the exegetical options when considering the meanings of ὅτι clauses. 9.5.3 Direct Discourse

The New Testament writers did not have quotations marks to indicate direct discourse (quoted speech). Instead, they used ὅτι as an indicator. It usually follows a verb of speech. John 1:20

[Ἰωάννης] ὡμολόγησεν ὅτι ἐγὼ οὐκ εἰμὶ ὃ χριστός. [John] confessed, “I am not the Christ.”

In some contexts, the uses of ὅτι are mixed and must be carefully distinguished. Read closely, for example, the following question from John 10:36b: ὑμεῖς λέγετε ὅτι βλασφημεῖς ὅτι εἶπον υἱὸς τοῦ θεοῦ εἰμι; Are you saying, “You blaspheme!” because I said I am the son of God?

In this example the first ὅτι introduces direct speech, and thus is translated using quotation marks. (The second singular βλασφημεῖς confirms this—Jesus’ opponents

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are not accusing themselves of blasphemy.) The second ὅτι is causal, giving the reason why the opponents made the accusation of blasphemy. 9.5.4 Indirect Discourse

Indirect discourse is similar to direct discourse, except that the person being quoted is not being quoted word-for-word, but in an indirect fashion. Indirect discourse is most commonly indicated by ὅτι followed by an indicative mood verb. Whereas direct discourse is simply the precise quotation of a statement (Someone said, “Archelaus is ruling over Judea.”), in indirect discourse this would be: “When he heard that Archelaus was ruling over Judea . . .” (Matt 2:22). Indirect discourse may be a declarative

statement, a reported question, or a reported command. The following are examples of declarative statements. As these examples demonstrate, it is not always clear whether direct or indirect speech is indicated by ὅτι. LJohn 1:5

Kaiégotw αὕτη ἣ ἀγγελία ἣν ἀκηκόαμεν ἀπ᾽ αὐτοῦ καὶ ἀναγγέλλομεν ὑμῖν, ὅτι 6 θεὸς φῶς ἐστιν καὶ σκοτία ἐν αὐτῷ οὖκ ἔστιν οὐδεμία. And this is the message which we have heard from him and announce to you, that God is light, and in him there is no darkness at all.

Observe that the message previously heard is announced with present tense verbs. 1John 1:10

ἐὰν εἴπωμεν ὅτι οὐχ ἡμαρτήκαμεν, ψεύστην ποιοῦμεν αὐτὸν καὶ ὁ λόγος αὐτοῦ οὐκ ἔστιν ἐν ἡμῖν. If we say that we have not sinned, we make him a liar, and his word is not in us.

EXERCISES

A. Translate the following sentences into English: 1. od πιστεύεις ὅτι ἐγὼ EV τῷ θεῷ καὶ ὁ θεὸς Ev ἐμοί ἐστιν; τοὺς λόγους οὺς ἐγὼ λέγω ὑμῖν ἀπ᾽ ἐμαυτοῦ od λέγω. 2. οἱ γὰρ προφῆται καὶ ὃ νόμος ἕως Ἰωάννου εὐαγγελίσουσιν. Oo. Σὺ δὲ, ἄνθρωπε θεοῦ, ταῦτα συνάξεις καὶ πέμψεις αὐτὰ τοῖς τέκνοις. 4. ἀμὴν γὰρ λέγω ὑμῖν ὅτι ἅγιοι προφῆται καὶ δίκαιοι κηρύσσουσιν ἃ βλέπετε καὶ TLOTEDOVOLY μοι ὅτι ἐγώ εἶμι ἀπὸ θεοῦ. 5. ἄνθρωποι ἐροῦσί μοι ἐν ἐκείνῃ τῇ ἡμέρᾳ, Κύριε, Κύριε, οὐκ ἐν ἐξουσίᾳ σου ἐκβάλλομεν δαιμόνια; 6. ἀπολύσω τὸν δοῦλόν μου, GAN οὐκ ἄξω αὐτὸν ἔξω τῆς ἐκκλησίας πρός σε.

Exercises

77

7. καὶ λέγει αὐτοῖς 6 Ἰησοῦς, Ei ἐκβάλλω ἐκείνους τοὺς πονηρούς, συνάξουσιν ἑαυτούς εἰς ταύτην τὴν βασιλείαν; 8. ὁ δὲ μαθητὴς ὃ ἀγαπητὸς καὶ ἐκεῖναι σὺν αὐτῷ διδάσκουσι τὴν ἀλήθειαν ἐνώπιον τοῦ θεοῦ καὶ τῶν βασιλείων τοῦ κόσμου. 9. πέμψω τὸν ἀγγελόν μου πρὸ προσώπου σου’ ἐκεῖνος od διδάξει ἀφ᾽ ἑαυτοῦ, ἀλλ᾽ ἀνοίξει τοὺς ὀφθαλμοὺς τῶν υἱῶν τῶν ἀνθρώπων. 10. εὑρίσκει Φίλιππος" τὸν Ναθαναὴλ καὶ λέγει αὐτῷ, εὑρίσκομεν Ἰησοῦν υἱὸν τοῦ Ἰωσὴφ τὸν ἀπὸ Ναζαρέτ. 11. ὃ Ἰησοῦς διδάσκει τοὺς μαθητὰς αὐτοῦ τὰς ἀπὸ τῶν ἀγγέλων ἐντολὰς οἵ κηρύξουσιν αὐτὰς ἄλλοις μετὰ τὸν θάνατον αὐτοῦ.

B. Translate the following sentences into Greek: 1. Will the Messiah (or Christ) gather the righteous Jews before the Lord? 2. The first among the people is crying out, “We shall have the head of John.” 3. He is proclaiming the gospel because the words lead us out of death and into life. 4. If she sees a sign, she will open her heart to the beloved one. 5. Jesus is sending you (pl.) as far as the sea; John will lead you (pl.) into the desert.

The o of ἀπό is deleted before the initial vowel, and the x softened to a ᾧ before the rough breathing mark of ἑαυτοῦ. ’Pronouncing aloud this and the following place and person names (the capitalized terms) should provide adequate clues as to their English counterparts.

Chapter 10

Verbal System: Secondary Active Endings and Tenses; Imperfect Tense; Imperfect of εἰμί; Second-

Class Conditional Sentences with the Imperfect; Abstracts System: Adverbs

10.1 Vocabulary 10.1.1 Adverbs

ETL καθώς

still, yet just as (with οὕτως following: just as . . . so; with καί following: just as . . . so/also)

νῦν

now

ὅτε οὕτως πάλιν πῶς τότε ὡς

when, while, as long as thus, so again, back how? in what way? then, at that time as, about

10.1.2 Nouns ἀπόστολος, -οὔ, ὁ διδάσκαλος, -ov, ὃ

apostle teacher (cf. “didactic”)

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Chapter 10: Secondary Actives; Imperfect Tense; Second-Class Conditional Sentences; Adverbs

throne fruit stone (cf. “Neolithic”) time (cf. “chronology”)

θρόνος, -ov, ὃ καρπός, -0d, ὃ λίθος, -ov, ὃ χρόνος, -οὔ, ὃ 10.1.3 Particle

an untranslated postpositive particle whose presence in a clause introduces an element of contingency

ἄν "

10.1.4 Prepositions with Two Cases διά a

κατά

μετά περί

ὑπέρ

ὑπό

(gen.)

through (cf. “diameter,” ἃ “measure through” an area)

(acc.)

onaccount of, because of (cf. “diameter,” “diacritical”)

(gen.) (acc.)

down from, against (cf. “catapult”) according to, throughout, during

(gen.) (acc.) (gen.) (acc.) (gen.) (acc.)

(cf. “catalogue”) with (cf. “metabolic”) after (“metamorphosis”) concerning, about around (cf. “perimeter”) on behalf of above (cf.““hypertension”)

(gen.)

by

(acc.)

under (cf. “hypodermic”)

10.1.5 Verbs ὑπάγω ὑπάρχω

I depart, go, go away I am, exist (When used as a copulative verb, ὑπάρχω, like εἰμί, takes a

predicate nominative complement.)

10.2 Secondary Tenses The secondary tenses of the indicative mood are those that are past-oriented; they

express past action or consequence. They are the imperfect, aorist, and pluperfect. Of these three, only the aorist tense is used in other moods. ye

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81

Indicative forms that take the secondary-tense, active-voice endings are the following: 1. imperfect tense, active voice

2. first and second aorist tenses, active voice 3. first and second aorist tenses, passive voice!

4. pluperfect tense, active voice

The first person singular and the third person plural exhibit some variation from tense to tense. Nevertheless, there is sufficient consistency in the pattern to make the following organization useful: " Singular 1. 3.

Plural

-v (or no ending)

-μεν

-ς

-τε

-() no ending (movable ν)ὺ -ν (or -σαν)

10.3 Imperfect Tense, Active Voice 10.3.1

Formation

The conjugation of the imperfect tense is built on the first principal part—the present tense stem.’ Both tenses express durative or progressive aspect (see ch. 4, p. 31). There are three steps to identifying the imperfect tense, active voice.

1. Identify the prefix e-. This prefix is called an augment, and it is an indicator of past time.’ If the stem begins with a consonant, an ἐ- will be present (ἐ + βλεπ- = ἐβλεπ-). If the stem begins with a vowel, the ἐ- will be absorbed into the vowel and the vowel will be lengthened according to the following patterns: Sy

te

OC OLE:

=

—

+

Oo

τ

€

+

torv

=

ἢ

(ἐ + ἀγ- = hy-) (ἐ + ὀμνυ- = ὦμνυ-)

nochange

(€+ ὕμν- = ὕμν-)

'The aorist passive is the only form inconsistent with the typical patterns of indicativemood endings presented in this grammar. See appendix 2, table 7. The imperfect tense is found only in the indicative mood. >The augment e- may derive from an old adverb meaning “then.” Note: The augment is used for the secondary tenses only in the indicative mood. This is because time is not an inherent aspect of the tenses and is determined only by context in moods other than the indicative.

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If the verb stem begins with a diphthong, the lengthening will take one of the following forms: eot ok

ΕΠ

nv

(e+ edplok- = NdpPtoK-)

Αἱ OF ει

nN

(e+ aip- = fp-)

Ὃϊ

@

(€ + OiKEe- = ᾧκε-)

AVOEED

1

Note that the iota endures as ἃ subscript.

In a compound verb, the augment is placed on or before the stem but after the prefixed preposition. For example, ἐκβάλλω with an augment (ἐκ + € + βάλλω) becomes ἐξέβαλλον (the κ of ἐκ changes to & before a subsequent vowel), not ἠκβάλλον. If the preposition ends in a vowel, the final vowel will drop off before an augment (except for the prepositions περί and πρό, which retain their final vowels). Thus ἀπολύω becomes &réAvov, but προπέμπω becomes προέπεμπον. 2. Identify the secondary active endings. These endings are linked to the stem with the vowels o or €: o before an ending that begins with yu or v; elsewhere, ¢.*

3. Isolate the verb stem. When the augment and suffixes are identified, what remains is the present active (first principal part) verb stem. (Caveat: If the stem that remains is not identical to the present stem, the verb may be a second aorist form rather than an imperfect.) Once the augment and secondary ending are removed, the verb may be readily found in a lexicon simply by adding -w to the stem. Imperfect Active Indicative from Abo

Singular 1

10.3.2

ἔλυον ἔλυες ἔ λυ e(v)

~ Plural

Iwas releasing you were releasing he, she, it was releasing

ἐ 20 ο μὲν we were releasing ἐλύετε you were releasing ἔλυον they were releasing

Functions

Progressive past action. The most common use of the imperfect tense is to construe past action as ongoing. Acts 18:25 illustrates: “This one (Apollos) had been taught the way of the Lord and, being zealous in (the) spirit, . . . he was teaching (ἐδίδασκεν)

accurately the things concerning Jesus.” Translating as a simple English past is sometimes sufficient and less clumsy. For example, when he stopped in Samaria at Jacob’s well (John 4:6), “Jesus, weary from his journey, sat (ἐκαθέζετο, impf. of καθέζομαι) ‘Although it is sometimes less obvious, these same linking vowels are used with the present and future tense endings. There the ὦ, εἰ, and ov represent lengthened o’s and εἶ. ye

10.3 Imperfect Tense, Active Voice

83

by the well.”° Although the durative aspect of the imperfect may not be translated, it is implied by the context as a woman subsequently comes along to draw from the well

and finds him sitting there. Attempted past action. The imperfect may also communicate action attempted but not accomplished. Speaking of Jesus’ intention to be baptized by John, Matt 3:14 says, “But John tried to prevent [StexmAvev, impf. of διακωλύω] him.” Repeated or customary past action. As ἃ variation of ongoing action, the imperfect

tense can present action that takes place again and again over a short or long period of time. Speaking of the persistent Syro-Phoenician woman, Mark 7:26 says, “She kept asking [ἢρώτα,, impf. of ἐρωτάω] him to cast the demon out of her daughter.” As Jesus was teaching day by day in the temple, Luke tells us that “the chief priests, the scribes, and the leaders of the people kept seeking (ἐζήτουν, impf. of ζητέω) to kill him” (Lk 19:47). Beginninga past action. Finally, the imperfect sometimes focuses on the beginning of an ongoing action, the start of a process. Of the man who has been crippled thirtyeight years (John 5:5), John writes, “He took up his pallet and began walking about [περιεπάτει] (5:9). Later in the story (5:16a), the Jews “began persecuting [ἐδίωκον,

impf. of διώκω] Jesus.” Or consider Matt 2:4: “and calling together all the chief priests and scribes of the people, he started asking [ἐπυνθάνετο, impf. of πυνθάνομαι] them where the Messiah was to be born.” In the temptation narrative of Matthew, the care of the angels begins after the taunting of the devil ends: “then the devil left him, and behold angels came and began to care ἰδιηκόνουν, impf. of διακονέω)] for him” (4:11). Often the context in which the verb occurs will be decisive in determining how an imperfect verb is functioning. Since the imperfect in Mark 7:26 presents repeated action, we might expect that its parallel in Matt 15:22 would have the same usage. However, when viewed in context, Matthew’s imperfect seems to point to the initiation of the action: “Just then a Canaanite woman from that region came out and started shouting [éxpaCev, impf. of κράζω]. Galatians 1:13-14 demonstrates how critical context is in interpreting the sense of imperfect verbs. There Paul employs three of the four senses of the imperfect in a single reflection: “For you have heard, no doubt, of my earlier life in Judaism. I kept violently persecuting [ἐδίωκον, impf. of διώκω; repeated action] the church of God, and was trying to destroy [ἐπόρθουν, impf. of πορθέω; attempted action] it. I was advancing ἱπροέκοπτον, impf. of προκόπτω; progressive action] in Judaism beyond many of my people of the same age, for I was far more zealous for the traditions of my ancestors.”

>While many modern translations use the simple past tense “sat” here (e.g., NKJV, NIV, NEB, 18), some translate “was sitting” (e.g., NRSV, NASB).

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Another important factor in determining the sense of the imperfect is the lexical meaning of the verb itself—what the word means “by definition.” Imperfect verbs that represent actions that are inherently instantaneous (such as “jab” or “glance”) lend themselves more readily to being understood as repeated action (“I kept glancing” vs. “I was glancing” or “I started to glance”). Imperfect verbs that represent actions that are inherently final lend themselves more readily to being understood as progressive (“I was dying” vs. “I kept dying”). In summary, imperfects view action as a process. Yet they can do this in a variety of ways. They can present the past action as 1. progressive (I was seeing)

2. an attempt or intention to enter a process (I tried to see) 3. repetitive or customary (I kept on looking) 4. the beginning of a process (I began seeing)° Which aspect is present in a given example of the imperfect depends both upon the context and the lexical meaning of the verb.

10.4 Imperfect of eipi The imperfect tense of εἶμί is irregular. Its endings have common elements with the secondary active endings except in the first-person singular.’ Imperfect Indicative of εἰμί,

1

Iam

Singular ἤμην Iwas

Plural: ἦμεν we were

ἧς

you were

ἦτε

you were

ἣν

_he, she, it was

ἦσαν

they were

10.5 Second-Class Conditional Sentences with the Imperfect The first-class condition assumes, at least for the sake of argument, the reality of the “if” part of the condition—the protasis (p. 52): “If the professor arrives (and we assume he will), we will take the exam.” With second-class conditions, on the other

hand, the protasis is assumed to be unreal, or even contraryto fact (whether or not this is actually the case): “If the professor were here (and he isn’t), we would be tak°These four senses of the imperfect have been referred to as progressive, conative, iterative (as in “reiterate”), and inceptive imperfects respectively. _ ’See ch. 14 for the secondary middle/passive endings. ye

10.5 Second-Class Conditional Sentences with the Imperfect

85

ing the exam.” Or, “If the professor had arrived (and he didn’t), we would have taken the exam.” Because of their unreal character, these types of conditional sentences are

sometimes referred to as “contrary-to-fact” conditions. Second-class conditional sentences use the past tenses—the imperfect, aorist, or pluperfect—in both the protasis and the apodosis. The protasis is usually introduced by ei. The apodosis is usually indicated by the postpositive particle ἄν, though it may not be present if context makes clear the type of condition. When the imperfect tense is used in a second-class condition, it indicates durative action that would have been taking place in the present:* Gal 1:10

ei ἔτι ἀνθρώποις ἤρεσκον, Χριστοῦ δοῦλος οὐκ ἂν ἤμην. IfI were still trying to please people, I would not be a slave of Christ.

The imperfect tenses in both clauses, along with the ei in the protasis and the (optional) ἄν in the apodosis, signal to the reader that this is a second-class (contraryto-fact) condition. The implication is that Paul is not presently trying to please people, and therefore he is a slave of Christ. In the next example, ἄν is lacking, the (imperfect) verb is implied in the apodosis, and the apodosis takes the form of a rhetorical question with an implied negative answer—there would be no body!

1Cor 12:19

εἰ δὲ ἢν τὰ πάντα ἕν μέλος, ποῦ τὸ σῶμα; : Ifall [the body parts] were one [kind of] part,

where would the body be?

The following examples demonstrate both the durative quality of the imperfect tense and the present time of the condition’s action when the imperfect is used. Luke 7:39 also demonstrates the difference between reality and assumed reality. The speaker assumes Jesus is not a prophet, though the wider Lukan narrative makes it clear that he is.

Luke 7:39 ;

John 5:46a

οὗτος ei ἣν ὁ προφήτης, ἐγίνωσκεν ἄν This one, ifhe were the prophet, he would know [or, more progressively, he would be aware] εἰ γὰρ ἐπιστεύετε Μωῦσεϊῖ [dat. sing],

EMLOTEVETE ἂν ἐμοί. For if you were [in the process of] believing Moses, you would be [in the process of] believing in me. ’Second-class conditions referring to past time most often use the aorist or the pluperfect (see ch. 12), which refer to actions that would have taken place in the past. *Here the imperfect of ἀρέσκω (I try to please/flatter) represents attempted past action.

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Chapter 10: Secondary Actives; Imperfect Tense; Second-Class Conditional Sentences; Adverbs

10.6 Adverbs 10.6.1

Formation

Many adverbs are formed by changing the second-declension nominative singular form of an adjective (e.g., ὅμοιος) to the genitive plural (ὁμοίων), and replacing

the final v with ἃς (hence ὁμοίως; so also καλός > καλῶς and δίκαιος > δικαίως). Other adverbs are formed by adding various case endings: nod = genitive singular; ἰδίᾳ = dative singular; σήμερον (today) and πάλιν = accusative singular; etc. These examples suggest that it is safer to learn adverbs one-by-one rather than attempting to categorize them by structure. 10.6.2

Function

Aside from the usual functions (see p. 7, Adverbs), adverbs may also be used as substantives and as objects of prepositions. An article may even be present. If it is, its case will be determined by the preposition and it will be neuter singular. The Greek idiom ἀπὸ τοῦ νῦν, for example, means “from now on”; ἀπὸ τότε means “from that time on”; and ἕως tod νῦν means “until now” or “to the present.” EXERCISES

A. Translate the following sentences into English: . εἰ ὃ θεὸς κύριος ὑμῶν ἦν, ἐπιστεύετε ἂν ἐμοί. . εἰ δὲ ὑμεῖς Χριστοῦ, tod Ἀβραὰμ τέκνα ἐστέ. . ὁ δὲ υἱὸς τοῦ διδασκάλου ὑπάξει καθὼς ἔλεγον περὶ αὐτοῦ. Bm μα WN . Κύριε, καθὼς καὶ Ἰωάννης ἐδίδασκεν τοὺς μαθητὰς αὐτοῦ, οὕτως διδάξεις ἡμᾶς; ; 5. ἀλλὰ καὶ νῦν ἣ Opa ἐστίν, ὅτε οἱ διδάσκαλοι οἱ πιστοὶ κηρύξουσιν ὅτι ὑπάγω τῷ θρόνῳ τοῦ θεοῦ. 6. πάλιν δὲ λέγω ὑμῖν ὅτι ὡς ἦσαν ἐν ταῖς ἡμέραις ἐκείναις, οὕτως εὑρήσετε αὐτοὺς ὅτε ὁ πονηρός ἐστι σὺν τῷ λαῷ. 7. ὑπῆρχε γὰρ ὁ Χριστὸς ἐν τῷ οἴκῳ τοῦ θεοῦ αὐτοῦ μετὰ τῶν ἀγγέλων αὐτοῦ: καὶ τότε ὁ θεὸς ἔπεμπε αὐτὸν δι᾿ τῶν οὐρανῶν διὰ τὸν κόσμον. 8. πῶς οὖν ἀνοίξεις τοὺς ὀφθαλμούς σου; οὐκ εἶ ὑπ᾽ ἐξουσίαν τῶν δαιμονίων; 9. αὕτη ἔστιν ἣ ἡμέρα δι᾽ ἣν βαπτίσομεν τὸν διδάσκαλον τῆς δικαιοσύνης. ᾿ 10. ὡς γὰρ δι᾿ ἀνθρώπου θάνατος, καὶ δι’ ἀνθρώπου ζωὴ ἐκ τῶν νεκρῶν. 11. οὐχ ὑπάρχει ὑπὲρ τῶν ἀποστόλων; ναί. ὃς ἦν πρὸς τὸν θεὸν ὑπάρχει μεθ᾽ ἡμῶν καὶ συνάξει τοὺς καρποὺς αὐτοῦ ἀπὸ τοῦ κόσμου εἰς τὴν βασιλείαν αὐτοῦ. .

Exercises

B. Translate the following sentences into Greek: 1. Then she began believing the words of the Lord. 2. In you, Lord, is the word of life.

3. If you (sg.) were listening to me, you would hear the truth. 4. Again Jesus was teaching in the temple concerning the gospel of God.

5. The teachers were good. I kept seeing the fruits of their beautiful work among the people.

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11.1 Vocabulary 11.1.1 Verbs ἀγοράζω

ἁμαρτάνω

I buy

|

I do wrong, sin

ἀναγινώσκω ἀποθνήσκω διώκω

I read I die I pursue, persecute

ἐγγίζω

I come near, approach

ἐλπίζω ἐπιγινώσκω ἐπιστρέφω

I hope I come to know, recognize; cf. γινώσκω I return, turn around, turn back; cf. στρέφω

ἐσθίω

I eat (cf. “esophagus”)

ἑτοιμάζω

I prepare

θαυμάζω

I marvel, wonder at

θεραπεύω

I heal, care for, serve (cf. therapeutic)

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καθαρίζω καθίζω κλαίω λαμβάνω λείπω παραλαμβάνω

I cleanse (cf. “catharsis”) I seat, sit I weep, cry out I take, receive I leave I receive, take along or with; cf. λαμβάνω

πάσχω

I suffer, endure (cf. “paschal lamb”)

πείθω πειράζω περισσεύω πίνω πίπτω πράσσω

I persuade I try, attempt, put to the test, tempt I abound, am rich I drink I fall I do, accomplish

σκανδαλίζω

I cause to sin, cause to fail; give offense to

στρέφω ὑποστρέφω

(cf. “scandalize”) Iturn I return, turn back; cf. στρέφω

ὑποτάσσω

active: I subject, subordinate; passive: I subject myself, am subjected I flee (cf. “fugitive” from Latin cognate, fugitivus) I watch, guard, keep

φεύγω φυλάσσω

11.2 Mastering Principal Parts The strategy of this text is to learn the most frequently used words in the New Testament first. However, when learning verbs, it is important not only to master the lexical forms and English glosses, but also the set of principal parts that show how the verb forms its various tenses and voices. To review, a verb’s principal parts are the six

key verb stems that are useful in recognizing the various forms of the verb you will encounter in translation. The six stems, all in the indicative mood, are: present active, future active, aorist active, perfect active, perfect middle/passive, and aorist passive. For most verbs the principal parts can be predicted using the normal rules of verb tense formation and needn't be memorized. For irregular verbs such as πείθω or πίπτω, all or some of the principal parts will need to be learned, based on how significantly they deviate from the normal pattern. ; From this point forward, new verb forms will be given with their principal parts, and the principle parts should be learned as you learn each verb’s meaning. Note that not all verbs use all six principal parts. To avoid confusion, when a verb lacks a principal part, an extended dash (—) will be inserted between commas to take its place, as in the case of ἀκούω, which lacks the fifth principal part: ye

11.3 Principal Parts

91

ἀκούω, ἀκούσω, ἤκουσα, ἀκήκοα, -----, ἠκούσθην I hear, listen

If a verb uses just the first three or four of the principal parts, only those will be listed with no dashes following, as in the case of φυλάσσω, which lacks the fourth,

fifth, and sixth principal parts: φυλάσσω, φυλάξω, ἐφύλαξα

I watch, guard, keep

A goal of the next four lessons is to master the principal parts of the most frequently used -@ conjugation verbs in the GNT. Appendix 5 contains a chart of the principal parts of verbs used more than thirty times in the GNT that have some irregular or difficult forms. However, at this point only the -« verbs from the list will be learned.! The lexical forms and English glosses of those frequent -@ vefbs that have not already been assigned in previous lessons are given in this lesson. In future weeks, only the principal parts listed for each of these frequent verbs will need to be mastered. The translation exercises for each of the lessons that follow will assume a progressive knowledge of these principal parts. The principal parts of compound verbs are not given if their non-compound forms are given. Forms preceded by a hyphen (-) are found only in compound verbs.

11.3 Principal Parts ἀγοράζω, ἀγοράσω, Nyopaca, ——, ——, ἠγοράσθην I buy ἄγω, ἄξω, ἤγαγον, ------, ἤγμαι, ἤχθην I lead ἀκούω, ἀκούσω, ἤκουσα, ἀκήκοα. ----- ἢἠἤκούσθην I hear, listen

ἁμαρτάνω, ἁμαρτήσω, ἡμάρτησα or ἥμαρτον, ἡμάρτηκα I do wrong, I sin

ἀνοίγω, ἀνοίξω, ἀνέῳξα, ἀνέῳφγα, ἀνέῳγμαι ἀνεῴχθην first alternate pattern: 3. ἤνοιξα, 5. ἤνοιγμαι, 6. ἠνοίχθην ‘second alternate pattern: 3. ἠνέῳξα, 5. ἠνέῳγμαι, 6. ἠνεῴχθην I open? ‘The principal parts for two subsets of the -@ conjugation—contract and liquid verbs— are not included in this list. Because oftheir regularity, the principal parts of contract verbs are more easily recognized. Both contract and liquid verbs will be introduced in ch. 17. Tense stems for ἀνοίγω varied significantly in ancient Greek literature according to three distinct patterns, all three of which are found in the GNT. The first pattern treats the verb as a true compound (ἀνά + οἴγω) and augments and reduplicates the stem rather than the prefixed preposition. Yet the augment/reduplication is formed by both the lengthening of the stem vowel (ot>@) and the addition of ε (ἀνοι- > &vew-). In the second pattern, the verb is treated as a non-

compound and the first letter of the whole form is augmented or reduplicated (ἀνοι- > ἤνοι-). The

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11.4 The Aorist Indicative

The aorist indicative is used to express simple past time. It makes no reference to how long it took for an action to be completed—only that it happened. It views an action as a single, unitary event regardless of its duration and without any implication of lasting consequences: “she died”; “he lived”; “we ate”; “you left.” When the aorist is used to say “she died,” the tense does not indicate whether her death took five seconds

or five years, or if she died in infancy or lived to see great-grandchildren. A sense of duration may be implied in the lexical meaning of the verb (e.g., “to live” or “to eat”), but the aorist tense indicates simply that she lived and we ate—single, unitary events. This unitary aspect of the aorist carries over into all of the moods in which the verb occurs. There are two forms of the aorist, referred to as first and second aorist. The difference in form has no bearing on aspect. With the occasional exception, a Greek verb will have either a first or a second aorist form, but not both. Similarly, in English, “I walked” and “I broke” are merely two different ways of forming the simple past tense for two different verbs. The patterns are not interchangeable, as in “wolk” or “breaked.” To ascertain whether a verb has a first or second aorist form, observe the form of the third principal part. 11.4.1 Formation of the First Aorist Active The following steps will help you identify the forms of the first aorist active indicative. The paradigm below should also be committed to memory.

1. Identify the prefixed augment e-. The rules of augment you learned for the imperfect tense (see pp. 81-82) apply to the aorist as well. So ἐδιωκ- is formed from the stem διῶκ-, and banpx- is formed from brapy-. 2. Locate the tense suffix -o (+ a/e) attached to the stem. Review the changes that

occur when o is attached to palatal, labial, and dental consonants (p. 28). These same rules apply to first aorist stems. So ἐδιωκ- + oa = ἐδίωξα, and ἐβλεπ- + oa = ἔβλεψα.

3. Identify the secondary active ending. The ending is attached to the a/e linking vowel. So the second person plural ἐδιώξατε. There is one difference in endings from the other secondary tenses; the aorist active first person singular does not have an ending. Hence, ἐδίωξα.

4. Isolate the verb stem. After identifying the affixes, what remains is the verb stem. Add an -w and the verb is usually easily found in a lexicon. So, for example, διώκω from διωκ-. third pattern is a combination of the first and second patterns, augmenting/reduplicating the prefix and the stem (&vot- > ἤνεῳ-). ye

11.4 The Aorist Indicative

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First Aorist Active Indicative of λύω

1

édAvoa

2

ἔλυσας

3

ἔλυ σεί(ν)

Singular I released youreleased he, she, it released

Plural ἐ λύ σα μὲν

we released

ἐλύ σα τὲ

you released

ἔλυσαν

they released

11.4.2 Formation of the Second Aorist Active Rather than adding the tense suffix -o- to the present stem, second aorists form by means of internal changes in the verb stem. Hence, sfstematic deduction from the present stem is difficult, if not impossible. Once the aorist stem is identified, conjugation is simple. The second aorist tense endings are a replica of the imperfect—even to the use of the linking vowels 0/e—but they are placed on the second aorist stem (the third principal part) rather than the present stem (the first principal part). The verb λείπω (I leave) has a second aorist form; its aorist stem is λιπ- (I left). The

conjugation of ἔλιπον follows: Second Aorist Active Indicative of λείπω

1

Singular ἔλιπον Ileft

Plural ᾿ἐλίπο μεν we left

2

€dAimec

youleft

ἐλίπετε

ἔ Ait e(v)

he, she, it left

ἔλιπον

you left _ they left

Note the use of the same augment, variable vowels, and secondary active endings as the imperfect. The stem alone is altered, from Aetn- (present) to λιπ- (aorist). The

formation of the imperfect and the aorist hinges in this case on the inclusion or omission of a single letter: ἔλειπον (imperfect, “I was leaving”) vs. ἔλιπον (second aorist, “I left”).*

11.4.3 Functions of the Aorist Tense Summary aorist. The summary aorist views the whole of the verbal action as a single, unitary event. The verb of John 2:20a is such: “This temple was built [aorist >Because of their irregular forms, finding the lexical forms for some second aorist verbs in a lexicon can be challenging. Some lexicons include separate listings that cross-reference some second aorist forms. BDAG, for example, has a listing for ἔφαγον that simply redirects the user to ἐσθίω. It does not, however, have a listing for ἔβην, the second aorist of Paiva. If

you have trouble finding a second aorist (or other) form ina lexicon, consult the principal parts list in appendix 5.

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passive] in forty-six years.” This was no simple event, but the perspective is one that views all the work of building as a whole. Observe from John 6:58: “not just as your fathers ate [ἔφαγον] and died [ἀπέθανον]. There were many occurrences of eating

and dying, but from the perspective of the speaker, they are viewed as a totality. Inceptive aorist. With verbs that, by their nature, indicate a state or condition of

existence, the aorist tense can express an action with a view to its inception or beginning. The unitary aspect, common to all the functions of the aorist, is maintained, but the spotlight focuses upon the commencement of the action. Consider Rom 14:9: εἰς τοῦτο γὰρ Χριστὸς ἀπέθανεν Kai ἔζησεν, “For this very reason, Christ died and returned to life” (Nrv). The aorist ἔζησεν decidedly looks to the commencement of

the act of living. The student is here confronted with another of the difficulties of Greek: though the aorist tense expresses unitary kind of action, this aspect is sometimes not immediately apparent. For this reason, the lexical meaning of the verb, the aspect of its tense, and the context must always be kept in mind as one seeks to determine what the author was trying to say when choosing the verb and tense in question.

Resultative aorist. In contrast to the preceding functions, one may view an action from the vantage of its conclusion. Nothing is implied or affirmed by the tense regarding the continued effects of the concluded activity (the aspect of the perfect tense), although such information may be gleaned from either the lexical meaning of the word or from the context. With the resultative aorist, although the verb simply relates the act, the focus of attention is upon the results of that act. English translations often use the perfect tense for this function. Consider the Rsv’s translation of John 10:18b: “This charge I have received [ἔλαβον] from my Father.” In Mark 5:35 and 39, ἀπέθανεν is

translated “is dead.” Revelation 18 offers several excellent examples of the resultative aorist. Since the vocabulary and a number of the forms have not yet been introduced, only the references and the key words are provided (the translations are those of the nv): Voz

“Fallen! Fallen is "Eneoev, ἔπεσεν) Babylon the Great!”; “she has become (ἐγένετο) a home for demons’;

v. 3

“the merchants of the earth have grown rich (πλούτησαν) from her excessive luxuries”;

v.5

“her sins are piled up (ἐκολλήθησαν) to heaven”; “God has remembered (ἐμνημόνευσεν) her crimes”;

v. 10

“your doom has come (iA ev)”;

v. 14

“the fruit you longed for is gone (ἀπῆλθεν) ye

11.4 The Aorist Indicative

95

11.4.4 Formation of the First Aorist Passive When the aorist tense is used in the passive voice, the functions of the aorist tense, as previously presented, continue to be relevant. One need be concerned here only with the structures of the passive voice (see Ρ. 5, [c] Voice). Greek has both first and

second aorist forms in the passive voice. These are formed on the sixth principal part, the aorist passive stem.

With a regular verb, the first aorist passive stem can usually be identified by taking the following steps: 1. Identify the augment. For example, ἐλυ-.

2. Locate the passive voice suffix -θη- attached to the stem. This suffix is found only in the passive voice;* thus ἐλυθη-. 3. Identify the secondary active endings. The third person plural ending is -σαν, not -v; otherwise the aorist passive uses regular secondary active endings attached directly to the -θη- suffix. Thus, the aorist passive indicative, first person singular, is ἐλύθην. First Aorist Passive Indicative of Ada, I release

1

Singular ἐλύθην I was released & Av θη ς you were released &€A0 On

Plural £20 θη μὲν we were released €Av On te you were released

he, she, it was released

& Av On σὰν

they were released

This formation is modified when a regular verb stem (e.g., &y-, ebayyeAtC-, λειπ-) ends with a palatal, labial, or dental consonant. Observe the following changes: palatals:

κ,Ύ χΧ

+On=

χθη

labials:

tt, B, > 1,5,0(orC)

+On= +@n=

φθη σθη

dentals:

Consequently, ἄγω becomes ἤχθην, λείπω becomes ἐλείφθην, and εὐαγγελίζω becomes εὐηγγελίσθην.

*The future tense—the only other tense with a distinct passive voice form—uses both tense and voice suffixes (-θησ-) (ch. 13, p. 114). Because the aorist passive does not use the -o- tense

suffix, the linking vowels αὐ are not used.

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11.4.5 Formation of the Second Aorist Passive The second aorist passive verb formation differs from the first aorist passive only in

that the θ of the -θη passive-voice suffix is missing. Thus, ὑποτάσσω has the second aorist passive form: ὑπετάγην. Note that ὑποτάσσω has a first aorist active and a second aorist passive. Which verbs will have second aorist passives is difficult to predict and should be learned when the principal parts of a verb are being committed to memory. Second Aorist Passive Indicative of ὑποτάσσω, I subject

1 tretaynv dm € TAY NS

3 ὑπετάγη

Singular Iwas subjected

Plural 1 ὑπετάγη μεν we were subjected

you were subjected

2 dmetayN τε

you were subjected

he,sheit wassubjected

3 tae tay 7 σὰν

they were subjected

11.4.6 Function of the Passive Voice When the verb is in the passive voice, the subject receives the action of the verb. For example, in Gal 1:11-12, Paul states, “nor was I taught [οὔτε ἐδιδάχθην, v. 12] the

gospel which was proclaimed by me [τὸ εὐαγγέλιον τὸ εὐαγγελισθὲν ὑπ᾽ ἐμοῦ, ν. 11]. The subjects of these statements are “I” and “the gospel.” Writing to the Romans concerning their new life in Christ, Paul uses a number of passives: “we were baptized,” “we were buried,” “he was raised” (Rom 6:3-- 4). ‘

11.5 Agents of Passive Action Critical to understanding the grammar of the passive voice is noting the variety of ways the agent of verbal action is expressed. The agent is the person or force by which the action of a passive verb is accomplished.

11.5.1 Direct Agent: to + the Genitive; Divine Passive The direct agent, the one doing the action of the verb, is often identified by the preposition ὑπό with the genitive case. This is one of the contextual indicators of the passive voice. Consider two examples: Mark 1:9

ς τὶ Ἣν He was baptized in the Jordan by John [ὑπὸ Ἰωάννου!

Gal 1:11

The gospel that was preached by me (ὃπ᾽ ἐμοῦ) is not a human

gospel. Often in the New Testament the direct agent of a passive verb is left unexpressed as a way of indicating that God is the personal agent. Thus, Luke 6:37 reads, “Do not judge [μὴ κρίνετε] and you will not be judged [od μὴ κριθῆτε] [i-e., by God].” This has been called the divine passive. Ἢ

11.6 First Aorist Suffixes on Second Aorist Stems

97

11.5.2 Intermediate Agent: διά + the Genitive Sometimes, rather than indicating the direct agent, a writer will identify the intermediate agent through whom the action took place, most often by using the preposition διά with the genitive case. In Rom 6:4, Christ is said to have been raised “through the glory of the Father” (διὰ τῆς δόξης tod πατρός). Or consider 2 Thess 2:15: στήκετε καὶ κρατεῖτε τὰς παραδόσεις ἃς ἐδιδάχθητε eite διὰ λόγου εἴτε δι’ ἐπιστολῆς ἡμῶν. Stand firm and hold fast to the traditions that you were taught [by us], either through word [of mouth] or through our letter.

The student of Greek must thus discriminate between the direct agent (ὑπό and the genitive, etc.; usually personal or animate) and the intermediate agent (διά and the genitive, etc.; usually inanimate) in a given text. As with 2 Thess 2:15, often it will be necessary to examine the wider context to determine the direct agent.

11.5.3 Instrumental Dative of Means: ἐν + the Dative or the Dative Alone Unlike x6 with a genitive object, which usually indicates the direct agent of action in a passive construction, or διά with the genitive, often indicating an intermediate agent, the dative case often expresses the indirect means or instrument by which or in relation to which something happens (e.g., John 13:5: “and to dry them with a towel [τῷ λεντίῳ!]")." Although the instrumental dative does not need a preposition in order to convey its significance, Greek frequently employs év with the dative to denote the same thought. Compare 1 Cor 14:2 with Rom 5:9: “For the one who speaks with a tongue [γλώσσῃ = instrument] speaks, not to people [ἀνθρώποις = indirect

object”; “having been justified by his blood [ἐν τῷ αἵματι αὐτοῦ = instrument].” See also Mark 9:29: τοῦτο TO γένος Ev οὐδενὶ δύναται ἐξελθεῖν εἰ μὴ EV προσευχῇ. (lit.) “This kind of thing is able to come out by nothing except by prayer.”

11.6 First Aorist Suffixes on Second Aorist Stems

Occasionally first aorist suffixes (minus the sigma) will be attached to second aorist stems. In such cases, the verbs are nevertheless considered second aorists since they still build the aorist tense on an irregular stem. Consider 1 Thess 4:6: καθὼς καὶ προείπαμεν (from προεῖπον) ὑμῖν...

just as we told you beforehand... ‘Although a passive construction is not always used, the same idea is expressed.

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11.7 More on Agents of Passive Action Here are a few other constructs of agency or means that can occur with passive verbs: ἀπό + genitive: Jas 1:13

μηδεὶς πειραζόμενος λεγέτω ὅτι ἀπὸ θεοῦ πειράζομαι Let no one say when tempted, “I am being tempted by God.”

Luke 17:25

πρῶτον δὲ Sei adtOV.. . ἀποδοκιμασθῆναι ἀπὸ τῆς γενέας ταύτης. : But first he must... be rejected by this generation.

ἐκ + genitive: Gal 2:16

od δικαιοῦται ἄνθρωπος ἐξ ἔργων νόμου. A person is not justified by works of the law.

παρά + genitive: Matt 18:19 γενήσεται αὐτοῖς παρὰ τοῦ πατρός μου. It will be done for them by the Father of me [i.e., by my Father]. John 1:6

ἐγένετο ἄνθρωπος ἀπεσταλμένος παρὰ θεοῦ There came a person sent by (or from) God.

Simple (Instrumental) Dative: Luke 23:15

οὐδὲν ἄξιον θανάτου ἐστὶν πεπραγμένον αὐτῷ Nothing meriting death has been done by him.

2 Pet 3:14

σπουδάσατε... αὐτῷ εὑρεθῆναι ἐν εἰρήνῃ. Strive... ἴο be found by him in peace.

11.8 Grammarians Love Their Labels

As you begin to use more advanced grammatical aids, you will come across a bevy of labels used to describe the same grammatical function. Grammarians often have good reasons for their labels, but they can still add up to confusion for the student. Below is a reference list (not complete) of alternative labels you are likely to come

across for the specific tense functions described in this chapter. Inceptive Aorist

Summary Aorist

_ Resultative Aorist

Ingressive Aorist

Complexive Aorist

Culminative Aorist

Constative® Aorist Global Aorist Historical Aorist

Effective Aorist Perfective Aorist

°We offer for your consideration the following quotation from James H. Moulton’s masterful work, A Grammar of New Testarhent Greek, Vol. 1: Prolegomena (3d ed.; Edinburgh: T&T

Exercises

EXERCISES a

99

.ῃᾳ0{(ᾳ.ᾳ{ΕἜΕΙΝ

A. Translate the following sentences into English: 1. 6 Ἰησοῦς ὁ διδάσκαλος ὑπήγαγε εἰς τὴν Ἰουδαίαν ἔρημον" τότε ἐδίδαξε μετὰ τῶν μαθητῶν αὐτοῦ. 2. ἐπιγινώσκομεν γὰρ ὅτι καλὴν καρδίαν ἔχομεν ὅτι ὁ κύριος τῆς ζωῆς Ὁ

edpe ἡμᾶς.

3. τότε ἐκεῖναι αἱ παρθένοι ἤκουσαν τὴν φωνὴν αὐτοῦ καὶ συνήγαγον εἰς τὴν ὁδόν, ἀλλὰ ὁ ἄνθρωπος οὐκ ἔγνω αὐτάς. 4. αὐτὸς γὰρ ὁ θεὸς σώσει ὑμᾶς, ὅτι ὑμεῖς ἐπιστεύσατε ὅτι ἐγὼ παρὰ [from] τοῦ θεοῦ εἰμι.

΄

5. εἰ τοῦ κόσμου ἦτε, 6 κόσμος ἂν ὑμᾶς ἐπεγίνωσκε᾽ ὅτι δὲ συνήχθητε ἐκ τοῦ κόσμου, OdDK ἐπιγινώσκει ὑμᾶς. . ὑμεῖς οὐκ ἀκούετε ὅτι ἐκ τοῦ θεοῦ οὐκ ἐστέ. . γινώσκομεν δὲ ὅτι ἃ ὃ νόμος λέγει, τοῖς ὑπὸ τὸν νόμον λέγει. . ταῦτα ἔγραψα ὑμῖν ὅτι γινώσκω ὅτι διδάξετε τὴν ὁδὸν τὴν καλήν. oOo aH Oy . εἰς Χριστὸν ἁμαρτάνετε εἰ εἰς τοὺς ἀδελφοὺς ἁμαρτάνετε. 10. οὗτός ἐστιν ὃ Ἰωάννης καὶ βαπτίσει ἀνθρώπους ὅτι πιστεύουσιν τοῖς, λόγοις αὐτοῦ. 11. 6 θεὸς ἠνέῳφξε τὴν βασιλείαν αὐτοῦ ὅτε ἔπεμψε τὸν υἱὸν αὐτοῦ, Ἰησοῦν. 12. οὗτοι ἠγοράσθησαν ἀπὸ τῶν ἀνθρώπων καρποὶ τῷ θεῷ καὶ ἐν τούτοις οὐχ εὑρέθη ἁμαρτία. ᾿

B. Translate the following sentences into Greek: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

We believed our master; therefore we were led before God’s throne. She bought a loaf of bread for herself. The righteous elder leads us in the way to the truth. His lord says to my lord, “I did no wrong; I am telling the truth.” Do you still speak in your brother’s tongue?

Clark, 1908), 109, n. 2 (brackets ours): “Unity of terminology demands our accepting this word [‘constative’] from the German pioneers, and thus supplementing the stores of the New English Dictionary. Otherwise one would prefer the clearer word ‘summary. ” We agree—“summary aorist” is much clearer and more indicative of the totality of action expressed by this aorist.

Chapter 12

Verbal System: Perfect and Pluperfect Active; Second-Class Conditional Sentences with the Aorist

12.1 Vocabulary 12.1.1

Nouns

ἀρχή, -ῆς, ἣ

beginning, ruler (cf. “archaeology”)

ἐπαγγελία, -ας, ἣ

promise

οἰκία, -ας, ἣ παιδίον, -οὐυ, τό

house child (cf. “pedagogy”) parable boat

παραβολή, -ῆς, ἣ πλοῖον, -οὐυ, TO σοφία, -ας, ἣ

συναγωγή, -ῆς, ἣ τόπος, -ου, ὃ

wisdom (cf. “sophistry”)

synagogue, assembly place (cf. “topography”)

12.1.2 Adjectives αἰώνιος, -ον

δεξιός, -ά, -όν μέσος, -ἡ, -ον μόνος, -ἡ, -ον τοιοῦτος, τοιαύτη τοιοῦτον (or τοιοῦτο)

eternal (masc. and fem. are the same form) right (hand) middle, in the midst of (cf. “Mesozoic”)

only, alone (cf. “monarchy”) such

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12.1.3 Possessive Pronoun

ἐμός, -ἡ, -OV

my

12.1.4 Prepositions ἐπί

παρά

(gen.) (dat.) (acc.) (gen.)

on, over (cf. “epidermis”) on the basis of, at on, at, to from alongside (cf. “parameter”)

(dat.)

beside, in the presence of

(acc.)

alongside

12.1.5 Additional Principal Parts ἀποθνήσκω, ἀποθανοῦμαι, ἀπέθανον I die

ἅπτω, &yo, ya, —,

hupar, ἄφθην

I light, touch βαπτίζω, partion, ἐβάπτισα. -----, βεβάπτισμαι, ἐβαπτίσθην I wash, baptize

βλέπω, βλέψω, ἔβλεψα I see

γινώσκω, γνώσομαι, ἔγνων, ἔγνωκα, ἔγνωσμαι, ἐγνώσθην I know, learn, perceive

γράφω, γράψω, ἔγραψα, γέγραφα, γέγραμμαι, ὑπ I write

διδάσκω, διδάξω, ἐδίδαξα, ----- ----- ἐδιδάχθην I teach διώκω, διώξω, ἐδίωξα, -----, δεδίωγμαι, ἐδιώχθην I pursue, persecute δοξάζω, δοξάσω, ἐδόξασα, ----- δεδόξασμαι, ἐδοξάσθην I glorify ἐγγίζω, eyy1,' ἤγγισα, ἤγγικα I come near, approach εἰμί, ἔσομαι, ἤν (imperfect; no aorist exists) I am, exist

ἐκβάλλω, ἐκβαλῶ, ἐξέβαλον, ἐκβέβληκα, ἐκβέβλημαι, ἐξεβλήθην I throw out, expel, send out ἐλπίζω, ἐλπιῶ, ἤλπισα, ἤλπικα I hope

᾿Ἰἐγγιῶ and the following ἐκβαλῶ and ἐλπιῶ are liquid forms, which will be studied in ch. 17.

12.2 Perfect Tense, Active Voice

103

ἐπιγινώσκω I come to know, recognize ἐπιστρέφω I return, turn around, turn back

οἶδα, εἰδήσω, dew I know

12.2 Perfect Tense, Active Voice

12.2.1 Definition ”

The third primary tense, the perfect, indicates that a past event that is now completed or accomplished has a continuing effect or consequence in the present. The action itself does not continue; the results do (review diagram on p. 31). Consider 1 Cor 15:14:

But if Christ has not been raised [ἐγήγερται, perfect passive indicative], then our preaching is without basis, and your faith is without basis. The verb is perhaps better translated “is not raised,” because use of the perfect tense highlights the presently existing result of the resurrection. Paul’s message is not that Jesus is continuing to be raised but that the event has happened and its effects continue— otherwise his preaching and the reader’s faith are baseless. 12.2.2

Formation

1. Identify the letters ofreduplication. One ofthe two distinctive characteristics of the perfect and pluperfect tenses is reduplication. Stems that begin with a consonant will have that same consonant followed by -e- attached as a prefix. This is called reduplication. Thus, from miotev- is formed πεπιστεὺυ-. Like the augment, the reduplication comes after the preposition in a compound verb (so éxBeBAn- from ἐκβαλλ-). The reduplicated stem of a perfect-tense active-voice verb is the fourth principal part of that verb. The consonants @, x, and θ reduplicate in a modified form. Note carefully the fol-

lowing patterns: 6

=

πε

(φιλε- = πεφιλ-)

χ

=

ke

(yapiC- = κεχαρισ-)

6

=

te

(θυ-Ξτεθυ-)}

A verb with an initial vowel may reduplicate by lengthening the vowel just as the augment does:

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a or € lengthens to ἡ (ἐλπιζ- = ἢλπι-);

o lengthens to ὦ (ὀμνυ- = ὠμνυ:); uand v do not change form. With some verbs, however, the initial a, €, or o does not lengthen. Other irregularities in the ways certain verbs form the perfect tense may be observed from the list of principal parts. These should be carefully memorized.

2. Locate the tense suffix -«- (+ linking vowel a/e) attached to the stem. Like the aorist, perfects are subdivided into two groups: first perfects, which have the tense suffix -κ-, and second perfects, which lack the -κ-. Both use the a/e linking vowel. Thus, one finds πεπίστευκα (from πιστεύω) and πέποιθα (an irregular stem from the verb

πείθω). The reduplication in both verbs identifies them as perfects, but they are first and second perfects respectively.

3. Identify the primary active endings. As with the present and future tenses, the perfect first and third singular have only a linking vowel for an ending (a or €). 4. Identify the stem. What remains of the stem after the first three steps should be enough to locate the verb in a lexicon. For regular verbs, add an -@ to this stem to find the lexical form. First Perfect Active Indicative of πιστεύω, I believe

Singular

.

Plural

1

πεπίστευκα

Ihave believed (and the effect continues)

πε πιστεῦ

κα μὲν

we have believed

2

πεπίστευκας

you have

πε MIOTED

KATE

γοι have

believed 3

πε niotev K ε(ν)

he, she, it has believed

believed πε πιστεῦ KA σι(ν)

they have believed

Second Perfect Active Indicative of πείθω, I persuade 1

πέποιθα

Singular Ihave persuaded (and the effect

Plural πε ποίθα μὲν

we have persuaded

continues)

2

πέποιθας

youhave persuaded

πε ποίθα τε.

you have persuaded

3

πέποιθ e(v)

he, she, it has

πὲ ποίθ α σι(ν)

they have

persuaded ye

persuaded

12.3 Pluperfect Tense, Active Voice

12.2.3

105

Functions

To express an existing state. The perfect tense indicates that a past action has some consequence in the present. Most commonly, the perfect declares an existing state. This significance is most clearly seen with perfect passive verbs such as γέγραπται (it is written), where the emphasis is not at all on the past activity but on the resultant state: it stands written. A good English translation may at times render the perfect more like a present tense than the above paradigms’ typical translations. To express a completed action. Sometimes the perfect lays stress on the completed action, although the consequences implicitly abide. Consider Matt 19:27, where Peter says, “Behold, we have left [ἀφήκαμεν = pf. act. of &dinutt everything and we followed [ἠκολουθήσαμεν = aor. act. of ἀκολουθέω)] you.” Matthew’s intent is to express a break with the past that has not been resumed; the departure is an accomplished act that has present consequences. Consider the series of statements from 1 John 2:12-13, each of which focuses on the present status of the believer: ἀφέωνται (pf. pass. indic.) ὑμῖν αἱ ἁμαρτίαι διὰ τὸ ονομα αὐτοῦ.

Your sins have been forgiven (or are forgiven) because of his name. ἐγνώκατε τὸν an ἀρχῆς. You have known (or you know) the [one] from [the] beginning.

νενικήκατε TOV πονηρόν. You have conquered the evil one.

12.3 Pluperfect Tense, Active Voice 12.3.1

Formation

1. Identify the letters of reduplication (and augment). The pluperfect is formed on the stem of the perfect active (the fourth principal part). As a secondary tense, one would expect the pluperfect to have an augment—and indeed it sometimes does. Compare €AnAv6-, which has both reduplication and an augment. However, by the time of New Testament writings, the pluperfect was augmented only sporadically. For verbs beginning with a vowel, the augment would have no effect on the vowel already lengthened due to reduplication. 2. Locate the tense suffix -x- (+ εἰ) attached to the stem. Instead ofthe a/e linking

vowels of the aorist and perfect, the pluperfect uses -e1-. In some cases, this diphthong is the only element that distinguishes the pluperfect from the perfect.

3. Identify the secondary active endings. The only difference between the endings of the pluperfect and those of the imperfect and aorist active tenses is that the third plural ending is -oav instead of -v.

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Chapter 12: Perfect and Pluperfect Active; Second-Class Conditional Sentences—the Aorist

First Pluperfect Active Indicative of πιστεύω, I believe

Singular [had believed

πεπιστεύκειν

1

Plural πε πιστεῦ K ει μὲν

we had believed

πε πιστεῦ κειτεὲ πε πιστεῦ K EL σὰν

you had believed they had believed

(and the effect had continued)

πε πιστεῦ κ εὶς youhad believed πε πιστεύ Ket __ he, she, it had believed

Second Pluperfect Active Indicative of ἔρχομαι, I come

Singular 1

Plural

ἐληλύθειν

Ihad come (and the effect had continued)

ἐ ANADO εἰ μὲν

we had come

ἐ ληλύθ εἰς

you had come

ἐ ληλύθ ete

you had come

& AnADvO et

__he, she, it had come

ἐ ληλύθ ει σὰν

they had come

12.3.2 Function

The pluperfect tense is the perfect of past effect. Thus it expresses a completed action in which the consequences are no longer in effect. In other words, both action and effects are past experiences. Like the perfect, the pluperfect may stress either the completed action (cf. John 11:19), or the state or consequence that existed up to a particular time in the past (cf. John 18:16, 18). Although the translations in the paradigm above are typical, once again the lexical meaning of the verb:and the broader context should influence the way you translate the pluperfect.

12.4 οἶδα and ἤδειν The second perfect verb οἶδα is similar to γινώσκω in meaning. Although the present-tense form of the verb does not occur in the New Testament, the lexical form οἶδα functions as the present tense (I know, I am knowing). Likewise ἤδειν, which is second pluperfect in form, functions as the simple or imperfective past tense (I knew, I was knowing). The conjugation of οἶδα and Sev is as follows: Second Perfect Active Indicative of οἶδα, I know

1

oit6a οἷδ ag otd e(v)

Singular Iknow

Plural οἵδ a μὲν we know

you know

οἵδ

he, she, itknows

οἵδ α σι

ye

ate

you know they know

12.5 Second-Class Conditional Sentences with the Aorist

107

Second Pluerfect Active Indicative of οἶδα, I know

1

ἤδειν

Singular Iknew

Plural ἤδ εἰμεν we knew

ἤδεις

youknew

ἤδειτε

youknew

ἤδ εἰ

he, she, itknew

ἤδ ει σὰν

they knew

12.5 Second-Class Conditional Sentences with the Aorist When a second-class (contrary-to-fact) conditional sentence uses the imperfect

tense, the durative aspect of the present and imperfect ten’ses is in the foreground (see ch. 10). When the aorist tense is used, the kind of action is that of a simple event. 1Cor2:8b

εἰγὰρ ἔγνωσαν, οὐκ ἂν τὸν κύριον τῆς δόξης ἐσταύρωσαν.

For ifthey had known, they would not have crucified the Lord of glory.

Ἔγνωσαν and ἐσταύρωσαν, as aorist tenses, express the summary perspective of the aorist: “had [the rulers] known” gives an overview of all their actions; “they would not have crucified” expresses a single event. The following two examples both use the imperfect in the protasis and the aorist in the apodosis. In the protasis of the second example, observe that the context requires the unitary aspect normally associated with the aorist though there is no aorist form of the verb εἰμί.

John 8:42

εἰ ὃ θεὸς πατὴρ ὑμῶν ἦν, ἠγαπᾶτε ἂν ἐμέ.

If God were your father, you would have loved me.

John 11:21

εἰ ἧς ὧδε, οὐκ ἂν ἀπέθανεν ὁ ἀδελφός μοῦ. If you had been here,

my brother would not have died. EXERCISES

A. Translate the following sentences into English: 1. ἔγνωκε τοῦτον τὸν ἄνθρωπον ἀπ᾽ ἀρχῆς κόσμου ἕως TOD νῦν. 2. ἔλεγον αὐτῷ οἱ Ἰουδαῖοι, Νῦν ἐγνώκαμεν ὅτι δαιμόνιον ἔχεις.

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Chapter 12: Perfect and Pluperfect Active; Second-Class Conditional Sentences—the Aorist

3. εἰ τὸ παιδίον πιστεύει τῇ ἐπαγγελίᾳ, ἕξει ζωὴν αἰώνιον τὴν ἀπὸ θεοῦ. 4. εἶπεν οὖν ἣ ἀρχὴ πρὸς τὸν Ἰησοῦν, Κύριε, εἰ καὶ ἤγγισας" τῇ οἰκίᾳ τῇ ἐμῇ οὐκ ἂν ἀπέθανεν ὁ ἀδελφός μου. 5, ἄνθρωποι ἀπέθανον: ἥτοιμάκαμεν᾽ ὁ ἄγγελος ἤγγικεν’ ἣ ἐκκλησία ᾿ : ἐσώθη. 6. ἐγώ σε ἐδόξασα καὶ νῦν δοξάσεις με σύ, θεέ, ὅτε διδάσκω τὴν σοφίαν σοῦ τῷ κόσμῳ. 7. ἐβλέψαμεν ὅτι τὸ πλοῖον ἦν ἐπὶ τὴν θάλασσαν: Ἰησοῦν ἔβλεψαν παρὰ

8. 9. 10. 11.

12.

τὸ πλοῖον καὶ ἐθαύμαζον. εἰ παραβολὴν τοιαύτην εἶπεν, ἣσυναγωγὴ ἐμοῦ ἂν ἐπίστευσε εἰς αὑτόν. εἰ δὲ ὁ ὀφθαλμός σοῦ 6 δεξιός ἐστι πονηρός, ἐκβαλεῖς αὐτὸν ἐκ σοῦ. οὕτως 6 Παῦλος εὗρε αὐτούς, καὶ ὃ κύριος ἐδοξάσθη ὑπὸ τῶν! τῆς οἰκίας τῆς ἀρχῆς διὰ τὴν ἐπαγγελίαν. : οὗτος ἔφυγε πρὸς αὐτὸν ἐκείνῃ ἡμέρᾳ καὶ εἶπεν αὐτῷ, Ῥαββί," οἴδαμεν ὅτι ἀπὸ θεοῦ ὑπάρχεις διδάσκαλος. ἤδεισαν γὰρ ὁ λαὸς ἐν τῷ τόπῳ ἐκείνῳ ὅτι οὗτοι οἱ ἄνθρωποι δοῦλοι τοῦ θεοῦ τοῦ ἁγίου ὑπῆρχον.

B. Translate the following sentences into Greek: 1. According to the apostle, Jesus has saved them (fem.) from (i.e., out of)

death. . 2. If you (sg.) had approached God with a good heart; such a promise would have been yours. 3. We cleansed our hearts according to God’s wisdom and law. 4, While (or When) I was sitting on the stone and eating bread, I heard the voice of God (or “God’s voice”).

5. She healed the virgin whom the rulers had thrown out of the synagogue.

*In certain constructions, the article functions as a relative pronoun. In this case, τήν might best be translated “which is.” *’EyyiCo is usually intransitive, requiring the dative for its object (though it is best translated here as “come near” or “approach).” “Sometimes the definite article standing alone can be translated as a demonstrative pronoun, such as “this” or “those.” *“Rabbi,” from a Hebrew word meaning “master, 2) ἐς teacher.”

Chapter 13

Verbal System: Primary Middle Endings, Indicative Mood; Deponent

Verbs; Future of εἰμί; Nominal System: Reciprocal Pronouns

13.1 Vocabulary 13.1.1 Nouns

ἱμάτιον, -Ov, TO καιρός, -od, ὁ

garment time (a particular moment or period in time)

σάββατον, -ov, τό

Sabbath

13.1.2 Reciprocal Pronoun ἀλλήλων

of one another (no nominative forms)

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Chapter 13: Primary Middle Endings, Indicative Mood; Deponent Verbs; Reciprocal Pronouns

13.1.3 Conjunction οὔτε οὔτε.. 13.1.4

οὔτε...

and not neither...nor...

Verbs

ἐσθίω, φάγομαι, ἔφαγον

I eat (cf. “esophagus”) ἑτοιμάζω, ἑτοιμάσω, ἡτοίμασα, ἡτοίμακα, ἡτοίμασμαι, ἡτοιμάσθην I prepare

13.1.5 Deponent Verbs ἀποκρίνομαι, , ἀπεκρινάμην᾽, .--- ἀπεκρίθην I answer, reply (its object takes the dative) ἅπτομαι:, ἅψομαι, ἡψάμην, ἧμμαι

I touch, take hold of (used with a genitive object) ἀσπάζομαι, , ἠσπασάμην I greet, welcome povsolal ——— , EBovandnv I wish, am willing γίνομαι, γενήσομαι, ἐγενόμην, γέγονα, γεγένημαι, ἐγενήθην I come to be, become, happen (often a substitute for εἰμί)

παραγίνομαι I come, arrive

δέχομαι,

, ἐδεξάμην,

, δέδεγμαι

I receive, take

Ξ

ἐργάζομαι, ----- npyaoaunv, ——,, εἴργασμαι I work, do, accomplish ἔρχομαι, ἐλεύσομαι, ἦλθον, ἐλήλυθα I come, go ἀπέρχομαι I go away, depart (with various prepositions following) διέρχομαι I go, pass through (with accusative or various prepositions) εἰσέρχομαι I enter, come into, go into (with various prepositions)

‘The conjugation of secondary middle endings will be introduced in the next chapter. -&ntopwat is the middle-voice form of ἅπτω (I light, kindle [as with a lamp or a fire]) and is listed under ἅπτω in Greek-English lexica. Active forms occur only four times in the GNT,

however, and only in the present and aorist tenses.

13.2 Significance of Middle and Passive Voices

111

ἐξέρχομαι I come out, go out (with various prepositions) παρέρχομαι I pass away, pass by (with various prepositions) προσέρχομαι

I come to, go to (with the dative) OVDVEPYOLAL

I come together (with the dative or various prepositions) κάθημαι, καθήσομαι I sit, stay, reside λογίζομαι, ----- ἐλογισάμην, »—— ,ἐλογίσθην I reckon, consider, count

πορεύομαι, πορεύσομαι, : , πεπόρευμαι, ἐπορεύθην I go, proceed, travel ἐκπορεύομαι I go out προσεύχομαι, προσεύξομαι, προσηυξάμην I pray

Recall that the primary tenses are the present, future, and perfect. In this chapter, we will focus our attention on tenses that use the primary-tense middle-voice endings. With this set of endings, one constructs the present-tense middle and passive voices (one formation serves for both), the future-tense middle voice, the future-tense passive voice, and the perfect-tense middle and passive voices (one formation serves for both).

13.2 Significance of Middle and Passive Voices 13.2.1 Middle Voice

In the active voice, the subject of the verb performs an action—for example, “he finds” (εὑρίσκει). In the middle voice, the subject of the verb not only performs the

action, but the action is performed in the subject’s interest or with the subject’s involvement. However, the specific manner of the subject’s involvement must be detected from the context. “Middle” does not suggest halfway between the active and passive voices, but, more correctly, that the actor is in the middle of the action (see p. 5, [c] Voice). The subject may perform an act directly upon itself. This is known as the direct middle. It is essentially reflexive in force because the subject is both actor and recipient of the action. The reflexive pronoun is typically used in English to translate the direct middle (for example, Matt 27:5b, “he hanged himself”; 1 Cor 6:11, “you washed yourselves”; and 2 Cor 11:14, “Satan himself disguises himself as an angel”). The direct middle will not be encountered frequently. The GNT more often uses the reflexive pronoun and the active voice to express a reflexive thought.

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More often the middle voice will occur when the subject is acting so as to bring

about an effect that is in the subject’s own interest. This is called the indirect middle. In this instance the actor (subject) is emphasized as taking part (in some way) in the action expressed by the verb. Consider the following examples: You have need of endurance in order that when you have done the will of God, you may obtain (or receive) [κομίσησθε, aorist middle subjunctive of κομίζω] the promise. (Heb 10:36) Be on guard [φυλάσσου = present middle imperative] against him yourself, for he vigorously opposed our teaching.” (2 Tim 4:15)

13.2.2

Passive Voice

When a verb is in the passive voice, it indicates that the subject is being acted upon rather than acting. Thus the future passive indicative of Ab means “I will be released” rather than “I will release (someone else).” For all tenses formed on the

first and fifth principal parts (present, imperfect, perfect, pluperfect), forms for the middle and passive voice are identical (e.g., About can mean either “I am loosing (for) myself” [middle] or “I am being loosed [passive]).” Consequently, you must

rely upon the context and the lexical meaning of the verb to determine the voice being used. Ν

13.3 Formation and Translation of Primary Middle and Passive Voices Primary Middle and Passive Endings Singular

Plural

1.

-μαι

-μεθα

2

-σαῖι (or -n)

-σθε

3

-ται

-νται

In most second person singular forms, the “intervocalic” (i.e., between vowels)

σ in -σαι drops away and the linking vowel e contracts with a, resulting in -1. The perfect middle/passive form does not contract because the -oat ending is attached directly to the stem. 13.3.1 Present Tense, Middle and Passive Voices

Formation. These tenses are identical in form. To the present active stem (first principal part) is attached the linking vowel o/e, followed by the middle/passive endings. a

13.3 Formation and Translation of Primary Middle and Passive Voices

113

Present Middle/Passive Indicative of λύω

1S

λύ ομαι

Middle I release/am releasing (in my own interest)*

25

λύῃ

35

λύεται

you release/are releasing (in your own interest) he/she/it releases/is releasing (in his/her/its own interest)

1P

λυόμεθα

we release/are releasing (in our own interest)

2Ρ

λύεσθε

you release/are releasing (in your own interest)

3Ρ

λύονται

they release/are releasing (in their own interest)

*“In

Passive

I am released/ being released you are released/ being released he/she/it is released/ being released we are released/ being released you are released/ being released they are released/ being released

own interest” is implied in the Greek but is usually not translated.

13.3.2 Future Tense, Middle Voice

The future tense has separate middle- and passive-voice forms. The middle voice is formed on the future active stem (the second principal part) and is recognized by the following characteristics: +

the tense suffix -o- (or a double consonant containing o, e.g., -w- or -E-);°

¢

0/e linking vowels (with ε lengthened to ἢ in the second singular); and

¢ primary middle/passive endings. The following paradigms for the future middle and passive indicative use ἄγω as a reminder of the effects of attaching the suffixes -o- and -θη- directly to a stem ending with a palatal consonant (ἀγ- + -o- = ἀξ-; &y- + -θη- = &y8n-). Future Middle Indicative of ἄγω

1

ἄξομαι

Singular Iwill lead (in my

Plural

ἀξ ὁ μεθα

own interest)

2

ἄξῃ

3~—-GE erat

we will lead (in our own interest)

you will lead (in your own interest)

GE ε σθε

you will lead(in your own interest)

he, she, it will lead (in his/her/its own interest)

ἂξ ο νται

they will lead (in their own interest)

3 As with the active voice, this is the sole difference in formation between the middle-voice

- present and future tenses.

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Chapter 13: Primary Middle Endings, Indicative Mood; Deponent Verbs; Reciprocal Pronouns

13.3.3

Future Tense, Passive Voice

The future passive is formed on the aorist passive stem (the sixth principal part), yet without the past-action augment ε-. So, instead οἔἐλύ-, one expects λύ-; instead of ἠγοράσ-, one finds &yopao-. To parse a future passive verb: 1. Identify the passive voice suffix -θη-. So ἀχθη- (from ἄγω) or ἀγορασθῃη-.

2. Locate the tense suffix -σ- and its 0/e linking vowel. The most distinctive trait of the future passive is the use of both tense and voice suffixes, -θη- followed by -o-. So ἀχθήσεται or ἀγορασθήσομαι.

3. Identify the primary middle/passive endings. So πορευθησόμεθα. Future Passive Indicative of ἄγω

Singular 1

Plural

ἀχθήσομαι

Iwill beled

ἀχθησό μεθα

we will be led

ay Ono n

you will be led

ἀχθήσεσθε

youwill beled

ax θήσεται

he, she, it will be led

ἀχθήσονται

they will be led

13.3.4 Perfect Tense, Middle and Passive Voices The perfect middle and perfect passive voices are identical in form. Like the present middle and passive, they must be distinguished by context. The primary middle endings are added directly to the stem of the fifth principal part, which is given in the verb charts (e.g., ἤγμαι; δέδεγμαι). Observe that no linking vowel or -«- tense suffix is used. This is one of the distinctive aspects of the perfect middle/passive form. Because there is no linking vowel, the second-person singular ending does not contract; it remains -oau. A second distinctive trait of these tenses is the reduplication of the stem. This follows the same pattern as the perfect active (see p. 103). Perfect Middle/Passive Indicative of A0w Stem ending in a vowel Middle

1S

2S

λέλυ μαι

λέλυ σαι

Passive

[Πᾶνε released (in my own

I have been released (and

interest, and the effect continues)

the effect continues); I am released

you have released (in yourown

you have been released

interest, and the effect continues)

(and the effect continues);

you are released 35

λέλυται

ΠΕ, she, it has released (in his, her, its own interest,

and the effect continues)

_

he, she, it has been released (and the effect continues);

he, she, it is released

13.4 Deponent Verbs

ΙΡ

EAD μεθα

we have released (in our own

we have been released

interest, and the effect continues)

(and the effect continues);

115

we are released

2P

λέλυ σθε

γοιι have released (in yourown interest, and the effect continues)

3P

_ you have been released (and the effect continues);

you are released they have released (in their own __they have been released

AE Av vto

interest, and the effect continues)

(and the effect continues);

they are released

Even though the fifth principal part can and should be‘memorized, there will still be some difficulty when the endings -μαι, -σαι, -ται, etc., are joined to stems ending with consonants. These consonants will undergo changes, but the beginner need not memorize all of them. By noting the stem’s reduplication, the primary middle endings, and the lack of a linking vowel, one should be able to parse and translate any given form. Perfect Middle/Passive Indicative Changes in stems ending in various consonants

Stem endingin a palatal ἄγω

Stem ending _ina labial πέμπω

1S

ἦγμαι

πέπεμμαι

πέπεισμαι

ἔγνωσμαι

ἦρμαι

25 3S.

neon Ata

πέπεμψαι πέπεμπται

πέπεισαι πέπεισται

ἔγνωσαι ἔγνωσται

ἦρσαι ἦρται

1P

ἤγμεθα

πεπέμμεθα

πεπείσμεθα

ἐγνώσμεθα

ἤρμεθα

2P

ξθε

πέπεμφθε

πέπεισθε

ἔγνωσθε

ἦρσθε

3P*

ἠγμένοι εἰσίω)

πεπεμμένοι εἰσί(ν)

πεπεισμένοι εἰσί(ν)

ἐγνωσμένοι εἰσί()

ἢρμένοι εἰσί()

Stemending in a dental πείθω ἶ

Stemending in sigma γινώσκω

Stem ending in a liquid (A, μ, ν, p) αἴρω

13.4 Deponent Verbs Some verbs do not have an active lexical form. Instead, their first principal part is a middle or passive voice form that is active in meaning. These are traditionally called deponent verbs.° The term generally refers to verbs that occur in one voice’s form but *This combination of verbs, called a periphrastic construction, will be discussed in ch. 21. The term is derived from the Latin depono (to put down or lay aside) since it was once thought that these verbs had “laid aside” their active forms. It is a deplorable term that is tolerated by grammarians, but liked by none.

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Chapter 13: Primary Middle Endings, Indicative Mood; Deponent Verbs; Reciprocal Pronouns

have a different voice’s function. The most common examples in the GNT are verbs that occur in a middle and/or passive form but are active in meaning. ἔρχομαι is such a verb. The form ἔρχω does not exist, and ἔρχομαι is conjugated as a middle/passive but translated in the active voice. Thus in John 21:13, ἔρχεται Ἰησοῦς καὶ λαμβάνει τὸν ἄρτον would be translated (without context), “Jesus comes and takes the bread.”° Here are several rules of thumb about deponent verbs to keep in mind:

1. Some verbs may be deponent in one principal part but not another. For example, a verb may be deponent in the present tense (ἔρχομαι, “I come”) but not in the aorist tense (ἦλθον, “I came”). Several verbs presented in ch. 11 are deponent only in the future tense.” Consult a lexicon to ascertain which principal parts appear as deponents. 2. All forms of a deponent principal part will be deponent. Thus the imperfect of ἔρχομαι (Iam coming) is ἠρχόμην (I was coming). 3. Some deponent verbs have aorist and future passive forms that are truly passive, while for others these passive forms also are active in meaning. The future of γινώσκω is the deponent middle form γνώσομαι, with the active meaning “I will know.” But its future passive form γνωσθήσομαι is not deponent and actually has a passive meaning: “I will be known.” However, ἀποκρίνομαι, a deponent verb meaning “I reply,” is deponent both in the aorist middle (ἀπεκρινάμην) and in the aorist passive (ἀπεκρίθην), both of which have the active meaning “T replied.” \

4. Sometimes a verb with a deponent present tense form has no aorist middle form, and the aorist passive form has an active meaning (cf. πορεύομαι). The best way to navigate through the confusion that can surround deponents is to learn the principal parts of these verbs well and to note how they are used in context.

13.5 εἰμί: Future Tense Once you have learned the primary middle endings, the future (deponent) forms of εἰμί should present no difficulties. The only irregularity is the lack of a linking vowel in the third person singular form. Observe the consistent use of the -o- tense suffix. “In narrative—especially when introducing discourse (speech), but also in the telling of a story—where the aorist or imperfect tense might be expected, the present tense is sometimes used. This is called the “historical present.” In context, John 21:13 is typically translated “Jesus came and took the bread.” ᾿ ἀποθανοῦμαι, “I will die” (from ἀποθνήσκω); γνώσομαι, “I will know” (γινώσκω); φάγομαι, “I will eat” (ἐσθίω); λήμψομαι, “I will take/receive” (λαμβάνω); πεσοῦμαι, “I will fall” (πίπτω); and φεύξομαι, “I will flee” (φεύγω). ye

13.6 Reciprocal Pronouns

1

3.

Singular ἔσομαι Iwillbe ἔσῃ you will be & ta he, she, it will be

117

Plural ἐσ ὁ μεθα we will be ἔσεσθε you will be ἔσονται they will be

13.6 Reciprocal Pronouns The middle voice expresses action performed by the subject in its own interest. The passive voice expresses action that is done to the subject. To express action that alternates or reciprocates between two or more persons, the active voice and reciprocal pronoun are used. Only the following masculine plural forms are found in the GNT: ἀλλήλων

of one another

D

ἀλλήλοις _ to/for one another

Α

ἀλλήλους

one another

13.7 Aspect and Verb Formation It may be of help to recognize that the following three pairs of indicative-mood verb tenses, each of which share a distinct verbal aspect, also share certain peculiarities regarding their formation (despite the primary-versus-secondary affixes that differentiate them).

1. Durative, incomplete-action tenses. The imperfect is formed on the present active stem (first principal part). Therefore, because the present has only one form for both middle and passive voices, so also does the imperfect. 2. Unitary, complete-action tenses. The two tenses that express unitary aspect, the future and the aorist, share certain distinctive forms that enable the student to recognize them. For instance, although the future and aorist active stems represent different principal parts (second and third), they both have a -o- tense suffix attached to the stem (when regular and first aorist). Furthermore, they are the only two tenses to have different middle and passive voice forms. This is because the future middle is formed on the future active stem (second principal part), whereas the future passive is formed on the aorist passive stem (sixth principal part). Therefore only the future and aorist passive forms have a -6n- suffix (and

the future passive also retains its -o- tense suffix and linking vowels). 3. Completed, resultative-action tenses. The pluperfect is formed on the perfect stem (fourth and fifth principal part) and therefore shares its reduplication and -κ- tense suffix. Since the perfect has only one middle/passive form, so, too, does the pluperfect.

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Chapter 13: Primary Middle Endings, Indicative Mood; Deponent Verbs; Reciprocal Pronouns

EXERCISES

Ῥ--“---ΦὋ---΄ρ--ς-ο-.---ς-ςς-ςς---ςςπε τ E ττττττττΤΤΠΤΠΤῖ[ῖ;58ῥυ MADR

A. Translate the following sentences into English: i γέγονας. δεδεγμένοι εἰσίν. πεπορεύμεθα. δεδεγμένοι εἰσίν. ἀνεῴχθησαν.

. . . . . . oo. . 10. 11: 12. 19. 14. 15. 16. 17.

18.

i ἀσπάζεσθε. ἐγνώσμεθα πρὸ τούτων τῶν καιρῶν, KAN οὗτος οὐ βεβάπτισται εἰς τὸν Ἰησοῦν. ὅσοι δὲ ὑπήγαγον εἰς τὴν ἔρημον καὶ ἔφαγον τὸ αὐτὸ καὶ ἔπιον τὸ αὐτό" ἤσθιον γὰρ καὶ ἔπινον ἐκ τοῦ Χριστοῦ. ἐξελεύσεται ἐκ τοῦ τέκνου σοῦ τὸ δαιμόνιον τῷ λόγῳ τοῦ προφήτου. ὁ λόγος γενήσεται ὅτι ὁ πρεσβύτερος ὃ ἀγαπητὸς λέγει τὴν ἀλήθειαν ἐν τοῖς καιροῖς τούτοις. τῇ δὲ ἀγάπῃ θεοῦ εἶμι ὅ εἰμι καὶ ὅτι θεὸς ἀγάπη ἐστιν ἐσόμεθα λαὸς ἀγάπης. ὁ ἄρτος ὃν φάγεσθέ ἐστιν ἣ ζωὴ τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν. ἅγιοι ἔσεσθε ὅτι ἐγὼ ἅγιος. ἣ δικαιοσύνη ὑμῶν ἣ πρὸ τοῦ θεοῦ κηρυχθήσεται ἕως τῆς ἡμέρας τοῦ κυρίου. γέγραπται γὰρ ὅτι Τὸ σάββατον πρῶτον ἔσται ἐν ταῖς καρδίαις ἀνθρώπων. ἀλλὰ βεβάπτισθε ἐν τῷ κυρίῳ Ἰησοῦ Χριστῷ. ἅψομαι αὐτοῦ καὶ τότε προσελεύαομαι τῷ ἱερῷ καὶ προσεύξομαι τῷ θεῷ. ᾿ ἔλεγον οὖν οἱ μαθηταὶ πρὸς ἀλλήλους Νῦν καθησόμεθα ἐν σοφίᾳ καὶ χαρὰ παρὰ τῷ κυρίῳ τῷ μακαρίῳ. οὐκ ἦλθον εἰς Ἱεροσόλυμα πρὸς τοὺς πρὸ ἐμοῦ ἀποστόλους, ἀλλὰ ὑπήγαγον εἰς Ἀραβίαν, καὶ πάλιν ἦλθον εἰς Δαμασκόν. ὃ Χριστὸς ἐκηρύχθη: ἐπείσθην: οὐκ ἐθεραπεύθημεν: ἐσώθησαν σὺν ἣμῖν. ἐφάγομεν ἐνώπιόν GOD, καὶ ἐν ταῖς οἰκίαις ἡμῶν ἐδίδαξας. τότε ἀποκριθήσονται αὐτῷ οἱ δίκαιοι, Κύριε, ὅτε σε ἐβλέψαμεν ἐν τῷ ἱερῷ καὶ ἤλθομεν πρός σε; Παιδία, ἐσχάτη ὥρα ἐστίν, καὶ καθὼς ἠκούσατε ὅτι ἀντίχριστος (Antichrist or an antichrist) Ὁπάρξει, καὶ νῦν ἀντίχριστοι γεγόνασιν: νῦν γινώσκομεν ὅτι ἐσχάτη ὥρα ἐστίν.

B. Translate the following sentences into Greek: 1. 2. 3 4. 5:

Then the ruler came out from the midst of the crowd and persuaded him. The holy one (fem.) of the Lord will be tested by the evil one. John said to his disciples, “I have received joy and peace as a gift of God. The Son has received God’s authority; signs are being seen on earth. The beloved child spoke in parables on the Sabbath.

ry

Chapter 14

Verbal System: Secondary-Tense Endings for Middle/Passive Voice, Indicative Mood

14.1 Vocabulary 14.1.1 Principal Parts εὐαγγελίζω,

, εὐηγγέλισα,

, εὐηγγέλισμαι, εὐηγγελίσθην

I evangelize, announce good news εὑρίσκω, εὑρήσω, εὗρον, etpnKka, ——, εὑρέθην I find ἔχω, ἕξω, ἔσχον, ἔσχηκα I have θαυμάζω, θαυμάσομαι, ἐθαύμασα. ----- ------ savudoOnv I marvel, wonder at θεραπεύω, θεραπεύσω, sepanevoa, ——, τεθεράπευμαι, ἐθεραπεύθην I heal, care for, serve (cf. therapeutic)

καθαρίζω, καθαριῶ,, ekabapioa, ——, κεκαθάρισμαι, ἐκαθαρίσθην I cleanse (cf. “catharsis”)

καθίζω, καθίσω or καθιῶ, ἐκάθισα, κεκάθικα I seat, sit

κηρύσσω, κηρύξω, ἐκήρυξα, I preach, proclaim

, κεκήρυγμαι, ἐκηρύχθην

ἱκαθαριῶ and καθιῶ (below) are liquid forms, which will be studied in ch. 17.

120

s Middle/Passive Voice, Indicative Mood Chapter 14: Secondary-Tense Endingfor

κλαίω, κλαύσω, ἔκλαυσα I weep, cry out

κράζω, κράξω, ἔκραξα, κέκραγα I cry out λαμβάνω, λήμψομαι, ἔλαβον, εἴληφα, εἴλημμαι, ἐλημφθην͵ I take, receive

λέγω,2 ἐρῶ, εἶπον or εἶπα," εἴρηκα, εἴρημαι, ἐρρέθην or ἐρρήθην I say, speak, tell λείπω," -λείψω, ἔλιπον, ----- -λέλειμμαι, -ελείφθην I leave λύω, λύσω, ἔλυσα, λέλυκα, λέλυμαι, ἐλύθην I loose, untie, release, set free, abolish

παραλαμβάνω

I receive, take along or with πάσχω, , ἔπαθον, πέπονθα I suffer, endure (cf. “paschal lamb”) πείθω, πείσω, ἔπεισα, πέποιθα, πέπεισμαι, ἐπείσθην

I persuade πειράζω, πειράσω, ἐπείρασα, ------, πεπείρασμαι, ἐπειράσθην I try, attempt, put to the test, tempt

πέμπω, πέμψω, ἔπεμψα, -----, πέπεμμαι, ἐπέμφθην I send

:

περισσεύω, περισσεύσω, ἐπερίσσευσα I abound, am rich πίνω, πίομαι, ἔπιον, NETMKA, ——,

-ETOOHV

I drink πίπτω, πεσοῦμαι, ἔπεσον, πέπτωκα

I fall πιστεύω, πιστεύσω, ἐπίστευσα, πεπίστευκα, πεπίστευμαι, ἐπιστεύθην

I believe πράσσω, πράξω, ἔπραξα, πέπραχα, πέπραγμαι

I do, accomplish σκανδαλίζω,

, ἐσκανδάλισα. -----, ἐσκανδάλισμαι, ἐσκανδαλίσθην

I cause to sin, cause to fail; give offense to (cf. “scandalize”)

*Although the stem Aey- appears only in the first principal part of this verb, some of its compounds construct the other principle parts on the same stem. Cf. καταλέγω, καταλέξω, κατέλεξα, etc. Cf. p. 32. *The aorist forms of this verb often take first aorist endings featuring the -a- linking vowel: εἶπα, εἶπας, εἴπαμεν, etc. “λείπω itself is not common in the GNT, but it has many compound forms—especially καταλείπω. 4

,

14.2 Formation and Translation of Secondary Tenses, Middle and Passive Voices

στρέφω, -στρέψω, ἔστρεψα,

121

, EOTPALUML, ἐστράφην

I turn

σῴζω, σώσω, ἔσωσα, σέσωκα, σέσωσμαι, ἐσώθην I save, rescue, heal ὑποστρέφω I return, turn back ὑποτάσσω, , ὑπέταξα, , Ὁποτέταγμαι, ὑπετάγην active: I subject, subordinate; passive: I subject myself, am subjected φεύγω, φεύξομαι, ἔφυγον, πέφυγα I flee φυλάσσω, φυλάξω, ἐφύλαξα 7 I watch, guard, keep

The six principal parts of the verb have been introduced. In this chapter you will learn the tenses that are formed with secondary-tense middle-voice endings: the imperfect tense, middle and passive voices; the aorist tense, middle voice; and the pluperfect tense, middle and passive voices. You should review the significance of the imperfect tense (pp. 82-84), the aorist tense (pp. 93-94), the pluperfect tense (p. 106), and the middle and passive voices (pp. 111-12).

14,2 Formation and Translation of Secondary Tenses, Middle and Passive Voices The following are the endings of the secondary middle tenses:

l 3

Singular -μὴν -σο -το

Plural -μεθα -σθε τντο

After reviewing the active voice forms of the secondary tenses, you can more readily identify the middle/passive voice forms.

14.2.1 Imperfect Tense, Middle and Passive Voices As with the present tense (on which the imperfect is formed), one conjugation serves for both the middle and the passive voices.

1. Identify the past-time augment and locate the o/e linking vowel. For example, ἐ-λυ-ό-μην. For stems beginning with a vowel, this entails recognizing the lengthened initial vowel, as with ἤγ-ο- μὴν (from e- + &y- [ἄγω)]).

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Chapter 14: Secondary-Tense Endings forMiddle/Passive Voice, Indicative Mood

2. Identify the middle/passive ending. As with the primary middle endings, the intervocalic o of the second person singular ending drops out, and the linking vowel contracts with the remaining 0 to yield -ov. Hence, ἐλύου results from Ave + 00. Imperfect Middle/Passive Indicative of Av

1S

Middle éAvounv _ Iwas releasing (in my

Passive I was being released

own interest)

25

ἐλύου

35

ἐλύετο

you were releasing (in you were being released your own interest) he, she, it was releasing (in _he, she, it was his, her, its own interest)

IP

ἐλυό μεθα

we were releasing (inour

being released

we were being released

interest)

2P 3P

ἐλύεσθε

you were releasing (in your own interest) ἐλύοντο _ they were releasing (in

you were being released they were being released

their own interest)

14.2.2 Aorist Tense, Middle Voice First aorist. The first aorist middle is built on the first aorist stem (the third principal part; e.g., ἔλυσαο).

1. Identify the past-time augment e- and locate the tense suffix -o- with the linking vowel a. Hence ἐ-λυ-σ-ἀ-μην. 2. Identify the middle ending. In the second person singular, the σ of -co drops out, and the linking vowel a contracts with the remaining o to yield -w. Hence, instead of ἐλύσασο, one finds ἐλύσω. First Aorist Middle Indicative of Av@

Singular

Plural

1

ἐδλυ σά μὴν

Ireleased (in my own interest)

ἐ λυ σά μεθα

2

ἐλύσω

you released (in your

&A0 σὰ σθε

own interest)

3

ἐλύσατο

we released (in our OWn interest)

you released (in your own interest)

he, she, it released (in his, her, its own interest) Ye

€A0 σαντο

they released (in their own interest)

14.2 Formation and Translation of Secondary Tenses, Middle and Passive Voices

123

Second aorist. The second aorist middle is built on the second aorist stem (the

third principal part; e.g., ἤγαγον).

1. Identify the past-time augment and locate the o/e linking vowel. Thus, ἠγαγόμην is ἃ result of ε- + ἀγαγ + ο (ἄγω). 2. Identify the middle/passive ending. The second person singular follows the contraction pattern of the imperfect; hence, ἠγάγου. Remember that the only difference in appearance between the imperfect (e.g., jyOunv) and the second aorist (e.g., ἠγαγόμῃην) is the stem.

Second Aorist Middle Indicative ef ἄγω

Singular

Plural

1

q yay 6 pny

ἢ γαγ ὁ μεθα

2

ἤἠγάγου

ἢ yay ε σθε

3

ἠγάγετο

ἢ yay ο ντο

14.2.3 Pluperfect Tense, Middle and Passive Voices The middle and passive voices of the pluperfect tense are formed on the fifth principal part (λέλυμαι; Hypa). As with the perfect middle and passive, their forms are identical, and they do not use a linking vowel or -k- tense suffix. 1. Identify the past-time augment e-. For example, the pluperfect middle of λύω is ἐλελύμην. Often, however, pluperfect forms will not have an augment and the tense is recognizable only from the ending; hence the perfect ἦγμαι and the plu-

perfect hypnv. 2. Identify the secondary middle/passive endings. As with the perfect, the ending is connected directly to the verb stem without a linking vowel. Hence ἐλελύμην or

ἤγμην. Pluperfect Middle/Passive Indicative of χύω Middle

Passive

15.

(ἐ) λὲ Ad μὴν

Lhad released (in my own interest and the effect had continued)

I had been released (and the effect had continued)

25

(ἐ) λέ λυ CO

you had released

you had been released

3S

(€) AE Av TO

he/she/it had released

_he/she/it had been released

ΙΡ

(€) Ae Av μεθα

we had released

we had been released

2P

(ἐ) λέ λυ σθε

youhad released

you had been released

3P

(ἐ) Χέλυ ντο

they had released

they had been released

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forMiddle/Passive Voice, Indicative Mood Chapter 14: Secondary-Tense Endings

Because the pluperfect is formed on the fifth principal part (perfect middle/passive), changes occur to stems ending in consonants (see p. 115): for example, ἡγιάσμην

(from the verb ἁγιάζω = I sanctify).° The following is representative: Pluperfect Middle/Passive Indicative of @y1aGo.

Singular 1

Plural

ἡγιάσμην

nyiao μεθα

ἡγία co ς , hyiac to

ἡγία σθε ἥἧγιασ μένοι ἦσαν

ς

,

14.3 The Indicative Mood: A Review You have now been introduced to all of the tenses and voices of the indicative mood encountered in the GNT. Three ways of understanding or categorizing verbs have been presented: 1. the three basic tense aspects (durative, unitary, and completed with continuing results);

2. the six principal parts (the stem forms upon which all conjugations are based); and 3. the four sets of endings (primary active; secondary active; primary middle/ passive; secondary middle/passive). Tenses in the indicative mood express both time and kind of action. This will not be true of tenses in the subjunctive, imperative, and optative moods or of participles and infinitives (chs. 19-24). Because only indicative mood verbs express time of action,

the past-time augment e- is found only in the indicative mood. In the following two tables, the tenses are organized by the four types of verb ending. The second table uses the slightly irregular verb ἄγω, which illustrates

1. the changes in augment and reduplication when the initial letter is a vowel; 2. the internal stem changes in the second aorist, active and middle voices; and

3. the changes to the stem when o or 0 is attached to a stem ending with a palatal consonant.

Note: The first and second persons plural of the perfect middle/passive are identical to the first and second persons of the pluperfect middle/passive. Thus, context must be one’s guide in their translations. a

14.3 The Indicative Mood: A Review

125

λύω, a Regular Verb of the -ὦ Conjugation, Indicative Mood PRIMARY ACTIVE ENDINGS

SECONDARY ACTIVE ENDINGS

PRESENT

FUTURE

PERFECT

IMPERFECT

AORIST

AORIST

PLUPERFECT

ACTIVE

ACTIVE

ACTIVE

ACTIVE

ACTIVE

PASSIVE

ACTIVE

1S 25

Avo λύεις

Mow λύσεις

λέλυκα λέλυκας

ἔλυον ἔλυες

ἔλυσα ἔλυσας

ἐλύθην ἐλύθης

λελύκειν λελύκεις

3S

ΔΌΡΙ

λύσει

λέλυκε()

ἔλυε(ν)

ἔλυσε(ν)

ἐλύθη

λελύκει

ΙΡ 2Ρ

λύομεν λύετε

λύσομεν λύσετε

λελύκαμεν λελύκατε

ἐλύσαμεν ἐλύσατε

ἐλύθημεν ἐλύθητε

λελύκειμεν λελύκειτε

3Ρ

λύουσιν)

δλύσουσι(ν)

λελύκασι(ν) | ἔλυον

ἔλυσαν

ἐλύθησαν

λελύκεισαν

| ἐλύομεν ἐλύετε

PRIMARY MIDDLE ENDINGS

SECONDARY MIDDLE ENDINGS

PRESENT

FUTURE

FUTURE

PERFECT

IMPERFECT

1AORIST

PLUPERFECT

MIDDLE/

MIDDLE

PASSIVE

MIDDLE/

MIDDLE/

MIDDLE

MIDDLE/

PASSIVE

PASSIVE

PASSIVE

PASSIVE

15 25

Avopar Ady

λύσομαι λύσῃ

λυθήσομαι λυθήσῃ

λέλυμαι λέλυσαι

ἐλυόμην ἐλύου

ἐλυσάμην ἐλύσω

(ἐ)λελύμην (ἐγλέλυσο

35.

λύεται

λύσεται

λυθήσεται

λέλυται

ἐλύετο

ἐλύσατο

(ἐγλέλυτο

ΙΡ

λυόμεθα

λυσόμεθα

δυθησόμεθα λελύμεθα | ἐλυόμεθα

ἐλυσάμεθα

(ἐ)λελύμεθα

2Ρ

λύεσθε

λύσεσθε

λυθήσεσθε

λέλυσθε

ἐλύεσθε

ἐλύσασθε

κ(ἐ)λέλυσθε

3Ρ

λύονται

λύσονται

λυθήσονται

λέλυνται

ἐλύοντο

ἐλύσαντο

(ἐγλέλυντο

ἄγω, a Regular Verb of the Omega Conjugation, Indicative Mood; Stem Beginning with a Vowel and Ending with a Consonant; Second Aorist Active and Middle; Second Perfect and Pluperfect PRIMARY ACTIVE ENDINGS PRESENT

FUTURE

PERFECT

ACTIVE

ACTIVE

ACTIVE®

SECONDARY ACTIVE ENDINGS IMPERFECT

2 AORIST

1 AORIST

PLUPERFECT

ACTIVE

ACTIVE

PASSIVE

ACTIVE

1S

ἄγω

ἄξω

ἦχα

ἦγον

ἤγαγον

ἤχθην

ἤχειν

25

ἄγεις

ἄξεις

ἦχας

ἦγες

ἤγαγες

ἤχθης

ἤχεις

35 ΙΡ 2Ρ 3Ρ

ἄγει ἄγομεν ἄγετε ἄγουσιθν)

ἄξει ἄξομεν ἄξετε ἄξουσιν)

AXE ἤχαμεν ἤχατε ἤχασι(ν)

ἦγε ἤγομεν ἤγετε ἦγον

ἤγαγε ἠγάγομεν ἠγάγετε ἤγαγον

ἤχθη ἤχθημεν ἤχθητε ἤχθησαν

ἤχει ἤχειμεν ἤχειτε ἤχεισαν

PRIMARY MIDDLE ENDINGS

SECONDARY MIDDLE ENDINGS

PRESENT

FUTURE

FUTURE

PERFECT

IMPERFECT

2 AORIST

PLUPERFECT

MIDDLE/

MIDDLE

PASSIVE

MIDDLE/

MIDDLE/

MIDDLE

MIDDLE/

PASSIVE

PASSIVE

PASSIVE

PASSIVE

15.

ἄγομαι

ἄξομαι

ἀχθήσομαι

ἦγμαι

ἠγόμην

ἠγαγόμην

ἤγμην

25

ἄγῃ

ἀξῃ

ἀχθήσῃ

ἦἧξαι

ἤγου

ἠγάγου

ἦξο

35. ΙΡ 2Ρ 3Ρ

ἄγεται ἀγόμεθα ἄγεσθε ἄγονται

ἄξεται ἀξόμεθα ἄξεσθε ἄξονται

ἀχθήσεται ἀχθησόμεθα ἀχθήσεσθε ἀχθήσονται

ἧκται ἤγμεθα ἦξθε ἢγμένοι εἰσί(ν)

ἤγετο ἠγόμεθα ἤγεσθε

ἠγάγετο ἤγαγόμεθα ἠγάγεσθε

ἧκτο ἤγμεθα EGE

ἤγοντο

Hyayovto

ἢἤγμένοι ἦσαν

Although the perfect active of the verb ἄγω does not occur in the GNT, it does occur in classical Greek and is included here for purposes of illustration.

126

Chapter 14: Secondary-Tense Endings forMiddle/Passive Voice, Indicative Mood

EXERCISES

A. Translate the following sentences into English: be 6 οὐρανὸς Kai ἣ γὴ παρελεύσεται, οἱ δὲ λόγοι μου οὗ παρελεύσονται. ~ οἱ δὲ πρὸς αὐτὸν εἶπον: ἡμεῖς οὔτε λόγους περὶ σοῦ ἐδεξάμεθα ἀπὸ τῆς

Ἰουδαίας, οὔτε οἱ ἀδελφοὶ εἰρήκασι περὶ σοῦ πονηρόν. . ὃ πονηρὸς οὐχ ἅψεται αὐτοῦ ὅτι γέγονε υἱὸς τοῦ θεοῦ καὶ ἔγνωκε τὴν ἀλήθειαν ἣν εἴρηται ὑπὸ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ.

. καθὼς δὲ ἤγγιζεν ὁ χρόνος τῆς ἐπαγγελίας ἧς εἶπεν ὁ θεὸς τῷ Ἀβραάμ, .

.

.

. 10.

11. 12.

V3:

ἡμάρτησαν οἱ ἄνθρωποι καὶ ἀπήρχοντο εἰς τοὺς ἑτέρους θεούς. πέπεισμαι γὰρ ὅτι οὔτε θάνατος οὔτε ζωὴ οὔτε ἄγγελος οὔτε δαιμόνιον λήμψεται ταῦτας τὰς πιστὰς ἀπὸ τῆς ἀγάπης τοῦ θεοῦ τῆς ἐν Χριστῷ Ἰησοῦ τῷ κυρίῳ ἡμῶν. ὡς δι᾽ ἀνθρώπου ἣ ἁμαρτία εἰς τὸν κόσμον εἰσῆλθεν καὶ διὰ ἁμαρτίας ὁ θάνατος: καὶ οὕτως εἰς ὅλους ἀνθρώπους ὃ θάνατος ἦλθεν. λήμψεσθε Τιμόθεον ὅτι τὸ ἔργον κυρίου ἐργάζεται ὡς κἀγώ.7 καὶ ἐγένετοῦξ ὡς ἀπῆλθον ἀπ᾽ αὐτῶν εἰς τὸν οὐρανὸν οἱ ἄγγελοι, OL ἄνθρωποι ἔλεγον πρὸς ἀλλήλους, νῦν διελευσόμεθα ἕως Βηθλέεμ καὶ βλεψόμεθα τὸν λόγον τοῦτον ὃν ὁ κύριος ἐκήρυξε ἡμῖν. ἐξήλθεν ἐκ τῆς ὁδοῦ ἐκείνης καὶ ἔπεσε ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς, καὶ προσηύχετο. ὁ δὲ Ἰησοῦς εἶπεν αὐτοῖς, ἀμὴν λέγω ὑμῖν ὅτι ὑμεῖς καθήσεσθε καὶ αὐτοὶ ἐπὶ θρόνους. Πολλοὶ [Many].δὲ ἔσονται πρῶτοι ἔσχατοι καὶ ἔσχατοι πρῶτοι. αἱ γλῶσσαι προφητῶν ὑποτεταγμένοι εἰσὶν τῇ ἐλ δ᾽ ἢὑπὸ τοῦ θεοῦ. καὶ καθὼς ἐγένετο ἐν ταῖς ἡμέραις Νῶε, οὕτως ἔσται καὶ ἐν ταῖς ἡμέραις τοῦ υἱοῦ τοῦ ἀνθρώπου: ἤσθιον, ἔπινον, ἄχρι hs ἡμέρας εἰσῆλθεν Νῶε a τὴν κιβωτόν [ark], καὶ ἦλθεν ὃ κατακλυσμός [flood].

B. Translate the following sentences into Greek: 1. The disciples were brought together in the presence of Jesus. 2. At that time the ruler was persecuting others, 5: but in that day he himself will be persecuted. 4. Peter had seated John at the right hand? of the Lord. oD: He entered the temple (in his own interest). ΤΑ combination (called crasis) of kai and ἐγώ. Dative singular (κἀμοί) and accusative singular (κἀμέ) forms also occur. Translate as “and I,” “but I,” “I also.”

*Often, when ἐγένετο (“it happened”) is used to introduce a narrative, it is not followed by an introductory word such as ὅτι (“that”), even though it is required in the English translation. * The preposition ἐκ with the genitive plural of δεξιός is usually employed to express “at the right hand” (ἐκ δεξιῶν).

ye

Chapter 15

Nominal System: Third-Declension Masculine and Feminine Nouns; Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns

15.1 Vocabulary 15.1.1 Masculine Nouns: Consonant Stems

αἰών, αἰῶνος, ὃ ἀνήρ, ἀνδρός, ὁ ἄρχων, ἄρχοντος, ὃ μάρτυς, μάρτυρος, ὁ πατήρ, πατρός, ὁ πούς, ποδός, ὁ

eternity, age; εἰς τοὺς αἰῶνας = forever man, husband (cf. “androgynous”) ruler (cf. “monarch”) witness, martyr father (cf. “paternal,” “patron”) foot (cf. “podiatry”)

Σίμων, Σίμωνος, ὃ

Simon (occurs only in the singular)

15.1.2 Feminine Nouns: Consonant Stems

γυνή, γυναικός, ἣ

woman, wife (cf. “gynecology”)

ἐλπίς, ἐλπίδος, ἣ μήτηρ, μητρός, ἣ

hope mother (cf. “maternal,” “matron”)

νύξ, νυκτός, ἣ

night (cf. “nocturnal”)

σάρξ, σαρκός, ἣ

flesh (cf. “sarcophagus”)

128

Chapter 15: Third-Declension Nouns; Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns

χάρις, χάριτος, ἣ χείρ, χειρός, ἣ

grace, favor, gift hand [the dative plural stem lacks 1:

χερσί(ν)} 15.1.3

Feminine Nouns: Vowel Stems

ἀνάστασις, ἀναστάσεως, ἣ δύναμις, δυνάμεως, ἣ θλῖψις, θλίψεως, ἣ κρίσις, κρίσεως, ἡ πίστις, πίστεως, ἣ πόλις, πόλεως, ἣ συνείδησις, συνειδήσεως, ἣ

resurrection power, might; ability (cf. “dynamic”) tribulation, affliction judgment (cf. “critic”) faith, trust city (cf. “metropolis”) consciousness, conscience

15.1.4 Masculine Nouns: Vowel Stems

ἀρχιερεύς, ἀρχιερέως, ὁ βασιλεύς, βασιλέως, ὃ γραμματεύς, γραμματέως, ὁ ἱερεύς, ἱερέως, ὃ

high priest king scribe, expert in the law priest (cf. “hierarchy”)

15.1.5 Conjunctions τέ

and (enclitic)

TE RPO TE καί

as... .$0,..3 notonly. τ butalso..:: and

15.1.6 Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns tic (masc. and fem.), τί (neut.)

who? which (one)? what? (τί as an adverb:

why?) τις (masc. and fem.), τι (neut.)

someone, a certain one, anyone; neut.:

something, anything

15.2 The Third Declension

The third declension is a grab bag of all nouns that do not belong to the first or second declension. Two characteristics of third-declension nouns, however, set them

apart from the other declensions.

1. The third-declension stem is found not in the nominative singular form but in the genitive singular form. Therefore, one must learn both the nominative and the genitive singular forms of a third-declension noun. For example, the stem of ἄρχων, ἄρχοντος, ὃ σεν is ἀρχοντ- (not ἀρχ:).

15.3 Masculine and Feminine Stems and Endings

129

2. Masculine and feminine nouns are formed with the same basic case endings.’ For this reason, the gender must be learned for each noun. For example, (tod)

πατρός is masculine genitive singular, but (τῆς) χειρός is feminine genitive singular; (τὰς) χάριτας is feminine accusative plural, but (τοὺς) μάρτυρας is masculine accusative plural.

The interrogative and indefinite pronouns are introduced later in this chapter as a bridge to the third declension neuter in ch. 16. It would benefit you to memorize the paradigms for these pronouns thoroughly, for they are both very common and provide the simplest means of learning the third-declension endings for all three genders, singular and plural. ”

15.3 Masculine and Feminine Stems and Endings 15.3.1 Stems Ending with Consonants and Vowels There are two types of third-declension nouns: nouns whose stems end with a consonant (e.g., ἐλπιδ-), and those whose stems end with a vowel (e.g., toAe-). This

chapter will deal with the peculiarities of each group in turn.

15.3.2 Masculine/Feminine Case Endings The most frequently encountered masculine and feminine endings of the third declension are the following: M/F Singular

M/F Plural

Ν

-c, none

-ες

G

-0¢

τῶν

D

-~

-ou(v)

A

-aor-v

-ας

Ν

Like the nominative or learn by observation

15.4 Formation of Third-Declension Masculine and Feminine Nouns:

Stems Ending with a Consonant 15.4.1

Consonant Contractions

Chapter 4 (p. 28) showed that when o is attached to certain consonant stems, con-

traction occurs, either creating a double consonant or causing the deletion of the stem ‘Some of the neuter-case endings differ; they will be presented in the next chapter.

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Chapter 15: Third-Declension Nouns; Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns

consonant. This also occurs when third-declension nominative singular and dative plural case endings (ς and o1[v]) are added to noun stems ending in a consonant.

palatals (x, y, χ)

+o = ἕξ (σαρκ- + o = σάρξ, σαρξί[ν])

labials (x, B, 6) + o = w (rare)

dentals (τ, δ, 8) +

Ξ σ (ἐλπιδ- + o = ἐλπίς, ἐλπίσι[ν])

liquids and nasals? (A, p, v) + o = observe the individual word

An important item to remember regarding third-declension nouns ending with con-

sonants: The genitive singular ending only looks like the second declension nominative singular (compare 6 λόγος, τοῦ λόγου with ὁ πούς, τοῦ ποδός). 15.4.2 Stems Ending in Palatals This group of words presents no problems as long as one bears in mind the prin-

ciples of contraction reviewed above. Add the regular endings to the stem.’ ἣ σάρξ, τῆς σαρκός, flesh

N/V ας Di Α

Singular ἣ σάρξ τῆς σαρκός τῇ σαρκί τὴν σάρκα

᾿

Plural αἱ σάρκες τῶν σαρκῶν ταῖς σαρξίᾳ(ν) τὰς σάρκας

15.4.3 Stems Ending in Dentals Remembering that the genitive singular reveals the stem, learn the following paradigm: ἡ ἐλπὶς, τῆς ἐλπίδος, hope

Singular N 7 ἐλπίς G τῆς ἐλπίδος τῇ ἐλπίδι A τῆν ἐλπίδα V ἐλπί

Plural αἱ ἐλπίδες τῶν ἐλπίδων ταῖς ἐλπίσι(ν) τὰς ἐλπίδας ἐλπίδες

*Verbs whose stems end in liquids and nasals will be considered in ch. 17. *t γυνή, τῆς γυναικός forms irregularly. The nominative singular has a shortened stem. With 1 νύξ, τῆς νυκτός, the dental consonant t (vvKt-) drops out before the nominative singular ς and dative plural σι(ν); the remaining palatal, « (νυκ-), combines with the o to produce νύξ, νυξί(). Ye

15.4 Formation of Third-Declension Masculine and Feminine Nouns: Stems Ending witha Consonant

131

The commonly used noun ἣ χάρις, τῆς χάριτος is a notable exception to the pattern. It varies in the accusative singular, where χάριν usually occurs (χάριτα would be expected).

ἡ χάρις, τῆς χάριτος, grace

N/V G Did Α

Singular ἢ χάρις τῆς χάριτος οῆεν χάριτι τὴν χάριν

Plural αἱ χάριτες τῶν χαρίτων ταῖς χάρισι(ν) τὰς χάριτας

The ἄρχων, ἄρχοντος pattern, though not common for nouns, is particularly important to memorize because this pattern will be found with all masculine and neuter active and aorist passive participles (see ch. 19). 6 ἄρχων, τοῦ ἄρχοντος, ruler

οἱ

Plural ἄρχοντες

ἄρχοντος

τῶν

ἀρχόντων

td

&pyxovtt

τοῖς

ἄρχουσι)

τὸν

ἄρχοντα

τοὺς ἄρχοντας

N/V

ὃ

G

τοῦ

D

Α

Singular ἄρχων

Before the endings ς and σι(ν), the t drops out and the o in the stem lengthens. The v remains in the nominative singular, but drops out in the dative plural, leading to a “compensatory lengthening” of the vowel that follows a regular pattern: αντ + σι = aot (e.g., πᾶσι) €Vt + σι = εῖσι (e.g., λυθεῖσι)

OVT + Gl = OVO! (e.g., ἄρχουσι)

15.4.4 Stems Ending in Liquids and Nasals The following three paradigms focus on stems ending in the liquid consonant p. In the first paradigm, the p drops out before ¢ and o1(v).

4 And, indeed, it occurs twice in the GNT (Acts 24:27 and Jude 4).

ὅΝο words presented thus far in this grammar occur with this pattern. πᾶσιν is the dative plural of the adjective πᾶς (see p. 143); λυθεῖσι is a masculine/neuter dative plural aorist passive participle (see p. 175).

132

Chapter 15: Third-Declension Nouns; Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns

ὃ μάρτυς, τοῦ μάρτυρος, witness

Plural

Singular

τὸν

μάρτυς

οἱ

μάρτυρες

μάρτνυρος

τῶν

μαρτύρων

μάρτυρι

τοῖς

μάρτυσι(ν) -

μάρτυρα

τοὺς

μάρτυρας

In the second paradigm, observe two differences. In the nominative and vocative singular, which have no ending, the 6 in the stem is replaced by ἢ or e. In the dative plural, an α is added to prevent an impossible-to-pronounce form. ὁ ἀνήρ, τοῦ ἀνδρὸς, man

Singular

Plural ἄνδρες

ὁ

ἀνήρ

τοῦ

ἀνδρός

τῶν

ἀνδρῶν

τῷ

ἀνδρί

τοῖς

ἀνδράσι)

τὸν

ἄνδρα

τοὺς

ἄνδρας ἄνδρες

UD Ὁ» ἄνερ Dez

The third paradigm is represented by 6 πατήρ, τοῦ πατρός and ἣ μήτηρ, τῆς μητρός. Observe how the stem fluctuates between untp- and untep-. The dative plural again adds an a for euphony.

ἡ μήτηρ, τῆς μητρός, mother Singular

ἣ

Plural τῶν

μητέρων

τῃ

μητήρ μητρός μητρί

ταῖς

τὴν

μητέρα

τὰς

μητράσι() μητέρας μητέρες

τῆς

2 Gy ΡΞ μῆτερ

μητέρες

\

15.5 Formation of Third-Declension Feminine and Masculine Nouns:

Stems Ending with a Vowel 15.5.1 Stems Ending in ef

The stems of this group of feminine nouns end in ε, which changes to 1 in the nominative and accusative singular. These nouns can easily be mastered if you observe the following features: ye

15.6 Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns

133

+ ‘The genitive singular ending has lengthened from -ος to -ὡς.

. The accusative singular ending is -v, not -a. + The nominative and accusative plural have the same form: -εις. A typical paradigm follows: ἡ πόλις, τῆς πόλεως, city

Singular ἢἣ πόλις

αἱ

τῆς

πόλεως

τῶν

πόλεων

D

th

moder

ταῖς

πόλεσι(ν)

A

τὴν

πόλιν

τὰς

πόλεις

N

V

πόλι

Plural πόλεις

πόλεις

15.5.2 Stems Ending in €/ev A similar group of masculine nouns has a stem ending in ¢, which lengthens to ev before ς and o1(v). Observe the following:

.« ‘The genitive singular -ος has lengthened to -we. ¢

The accusative singular has the more common αὶ ending (unlike πόλιν).

¢ The nominative and accusative plural have the same form: -eic. ὁ βασιλεύς, τοῦ βασιλέως, king

οἱ

Plural βασιλεῖς

βασιλέως

τῶν

βασιλέων

τῷ

βασιλεῖ

τοῖς

βασιλεῦσι(ν)

τὸν

βασιλέα

τοὺς

βασιλεῖς

N

ὁ

G

τοῦ

D

Α V

Singular βασιλεύς

βασιλεῦ

᾿

βασιλεῖς

15.6 Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns The interrogative pronoun τίς, ti (stem τιν-) and the indefinite pronoun τις, τι

are third declension pronouns that, aside from their accenting, form in identical ways. Thus the presence or position of the accent is critical for identification. In the table below, note carefully that the interrogative pronoun has the acute accent on the single-

syllable forms (and this never changes to a grave). The two-syllable forms consistently

134

Chapter 15: Third-Declension Nouns; Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns

have the accent on the penult; this, too, is invariably an acute. These two points of accent provide an unchanging identification mark in distinguising the interrogative from the indefinite pronoun. In contrast to the interrogative, the indefinite pronoun τις, tt is an enclitic (pp. 262-63); it almost never has the accent on the single-syllable forms, and two-syllable forms are accented only on the ultima.* The only oddity in formation is the lack of the nasal-stem consonant -v in the neuter nominative and the accusative singular forms τί and τι. The Interrogative Pronoun τίς, ti, who? which? why? what?

Ne

M/F oe

Singular M/F/N N τί

M/F τίνες

Plural M/F/N

α

τίνος

τίνων

D

τίνι

τίσι(ν)

Α

τίνα

τί

τίνας

Ν τίνα

τίνα

The Indefinite Pronoun τις; τι, someone, something, anyone, anything

M/F Ni

Singular M/F/N N

FAME

_ M/F τι

Plural M/F/N

τινές

τινά

G

τινός

τινῶν

D

τινί

TLOI(V)

Α

τινά

τ

«τινάς

N

τινὰ

15.7 Neuter Plural Subjects with Singular Verbs Neuter plural subjects with third-person singular verbs are commonly found in the GNT. When writers have a collective entity rather than individual items in view,

they will use a singular verb. If, however, the emphasis is on individuals or discrete entities of a group, a plural verb will normally be used. John 10:25 and 27 illustrate the difference. In 10:25 Jesus says, “τὰ ἔργα [neut. pl.] that Iam doing in the name of my Father ταῦτα testifies [μαρτυρεῖ (3d sg.); lit., “it testifies,” it.being the collection of

works] concerning me.” Then, in 10:27, he says, “My sheep [neut. pl.] hear [ἀκούουσιν, 34 pl.] my voice.” “These works” bear witness to Jesus as a collective entity, whereas each “sheep” hears the Shepherd’s voice individually. °The accent will almost always be a grave; τις and τι receive acute accents only when they end a clause or sentence (which is rare)or are followed by another enclitic.

Exercises

135

EXERCISES ES τὐπΠτὸςῤ᾿ΠῤΠπ σσέΈτν υσυ Ππτι ΠῚ

A. Translate the following sentences into English: 1. ἔλεγον οὖν αὐτῷ, Ποῦ" ἐστιν ὁ πατήρ σου; ἀπεκρίθη Ἰησοῦς, Οὔτε ἐμὲ οἴδατε οὔτε τὸν πατέρα μον’ εἰ ἐμὲ ἤδειτε, καὶ τὸν πατέρα μου ἂν δειτε. 2. ἣ γυνὴ γὰρ τοῦ ἰδίου σώματος" οὐκ ἐξουσιάζει" ἀλλὰ ὁ ἀνήρ, ὁμοίως" δὲ καὶ ὁ ἀνὴρ τοῦ ἰδίου σώματος οὐκ ἐξουσιάζει ἀλλὰ ἣ γυνή. 3. ἄλλοι ἔλεγον, Ἄγγελος αὐτῷ λελάληκεν." ἀπεκρίθη καὶ εἶπεν Ἰησοῦς, Od δι᾽ ἐμὲ ἣ φωνὴ αὕτη γέγονεν ἀλλὰ δι᾽ ὑμᾶς. νῦν κρίσις ἐστὶν τοῦ κόσμου τούτου, νῦν 6 ἄρχων τοῦ κόσμου τούτου ἐκβληθήσεται ἔξω. . ὃ δὲ καὶ Σίμων αὐτὸς ἐπίστευεν ὅτε ἔβλεψε δυνάμεις σου. . εἰ καὶ ἐγνώκαμεν κατὰ σάρκα Χριστόν, ἀλλὰ νῦν οὐκέτι" γινώσκομεν. . χάριτι δὲ θεοῦ εἶμι ὅ εἰμι, καὶ ἣ χάρις αὐτοῦ ἣ εἰς ἐμὲ οὐ κενὴ" ἐγενήθη. . ἀλλὰ λήμψεσθε δύναμιν καὶ ἔσεσθέ μου μάρτυρες. . καὶ ἔργα τῶν χειρῶν σού εἰσιν οἱ οὐρανοί. HAN ἃ OMY . Μετὰ δὲ ἐκείνας τὰς ἡμέρας ὁ Φῆλιξ" καὶ ἤκουσεν αὐτοῦ περὶ τῆς εἰς Χριστὸν Ἰησοῦν πίστεως. 10. ὀργὴ" γὰρ ἀνδρὸς δικαιοσύνην θεοῦ οὐκ ἐργάζεται. 11. Σὺ πίστιν ἔχεις κἀγὼ ἔργα ἔχω. 12. καὶ νῦν, ἀδελφοί, οἶδα ὅτι κατὰ ἄγνοιαν" ἐπράξατε, ὥσπερ" καὶ οἱ ἄρχοντες ὑμῶν. 13. ἡγίασται" γὰρ ὁ ἀνὴρ ὁ ἄπιστος" ἐν τῇ γυναικί, καὶ Hyiaotat ἣ γυνὴ ἣ ἄπιστος ἐν τῷ ἀδελφῷ: ἐπεὶ" ἄρα"" τὰ τέκνα ὑμῶν ἀκάθαρτά" ἐστιν’ νῦν δὲ ἅγιά ἐστιν. 14. Οὐκ εἰμὶ ἐλεύθερος;" οὐκ εἰμὶ ἀπόστολος; οὐχὶ" Ἰησοῦν τὸν κύριον ἡμῶν ἑώρακα;" od τὸ ἔργον μου ὑμεῖς ἐστε ἐν κυρίῳ; 15. οὐ λέγει ὃ ὀφθαλμὸς τῇ χειρί: Χρείαν" σου οὐκ ἔχω, ἢ" πάλιν ἣ κεφαλὴ τοῖς ποσίν: Χρείαν ὑμῶν οὐκ ἔχω.

B. Translate the following sentences into Greek: 1. Grace to you (pl.) and peace from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ. 2. For those days will see a tribulation which the world has not seen (aor.).

3. You (pl.) are pursuing faith, hope, and love—these three [τρία] things. 4. Jesus replied to the scribes and (the) elders and said,

5. “You are speaking the words of men of flesh, not of God.” Rules of accentuation pertinent to this chapter are found in appendix 1. 7Where an asterisk (*) is found in this and subsequent exercises, the vocabulary item has not been introduced (and often will not be listed) in the grammar. The word or idiom can be

identified by consulting a standard Greek lexicon. This will help you develop proficiency with such reference works. SFrom ἁγιάζω. *Note that this word has a particular meaning when it is used with ἐπεί.

Chapter 16

Nominal and Abstracts Systems: Third-Declension Neuter Nouns; Adjectives and Numerals

16.1 Vocabulary 16.1.1 Stems Ending in a Liquid or t (not -uat)

οὖς, ὠτός, TO

ear (cf. “otology”)

πῦρ, πυρός, τό ὕδωρ, ὕδατος, τό φῶς, φωτός, τό

fire (cf. “pyre”) water (cf. “hydroplane”) light (cf. “photograph,” “photosynthesis”)

16.1.2 -ua/-uatos Type Neuter Nouns

αἷμα, αἵματος, τό θέλημα, θελήματος, τό ὄνομα, ὀνόματος, τό πνεῦμα, πνεύματος, τό

ῥῆμα, ῥήματος, τό σπέρμα, σπέρματος, τό στόμα, στόματος, τό σῶμα, σώματος, τό

blood (cf. “hematoma”) will name (cf. “onomatopoeia”)

spirit, breath, wind (cf. “pneumatic”) word, saying seed, descendant(s) (cf. “sperm”) mouth (cf. “stomach”)

body (cf. “psychosomatic”)

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Chapter 16: Third-Declension Neuter Nouns; Adjectives and Numerals

16.1.3 -οςους Type Neuter Nouns γένος, γένους, TO

race, descendants (cf. “genealogy”)

ἔθνος, ἔθνους, τό

nation, pl.: nations, Gentiles (cf. “ethnic”)

ἔτος, ἔτους, TO μέλος, μέλους, TO

μέρος, μέρους, TO ὄρος, ὄρους, τό πλῆθος, πλήθους, τό σκότος, σκότους, TO

year member, part, limb (of the body, whether literal or figurative) part (often geographical or quantitative) mountain multitude, crowd (cf. “plethora”) darkness

τέλος, τέλους, TO

end (cf. “teleology”)

16.1.4 Adjectives and Numerals ἀληθής (M/F), ἀληθές (N)

true

ἅπας, ἅπασα, ἅπαν δύο

whole, all, everybody two (cf. “duet”)

εἷς, μία, ἕν μέγας, μεγάλη, μέγα

one great, large (cf. “megalomania”)

οὐδείς, οὐδεμία, οὐδέν πᾶς, πᾶσα, πᾶν

no, no one, nobody, nothing all, every, whole

TOADS, πολλή, TOAD

much, many (cf. “polygon,” “polychrome”)

τέσσαρες (M/F), τέσσαρα (N) τρεῖς (M/F), τρία (N)

four (cf. “Tetragrammaton”) three (cf. “triangle”)

16.2 Neuter Stems and Endings 16.2.1 Consonant Stem Endings There are three basic types of neuter third-declension nouns: those with stems ending in liquids or -t; those ending in -ματ; and those originally ending in -e¢ (-oc/-0v¢ type).

16.2.2 Neuter-Case Endings Once the masculine/feminine endings are memorized, the neuter will be easy. Note the following simple rules for the neuter third declension: 1. The neuter genitive and dative endings are the same as the masculine/feminine. 2. The nominative and accusative singular have no endings. 3. The nominative and accusative plural endings are like their second-declension counterparts: -a. i] ων

16.3 Formation of Third-Declension Neuter Nouns

Singular

139

Plural

N/V

none

τα

G

τος

τῶν

D

τι

-ou(v)

A

none

τὰ

16.3 Formation of Third-Declension Neuter Nouns

16.3.1 Stems Ending in a Liquid or t ”

πῦρ, πυρός (fire) provides the most “regular” paradigm of the neuter third declension in that the stem never changes. In φῶς, φωτός (light), and ὕδωρ, ὕδατος (water), the t of the stem changes to ¢ or p in the nominative and accusative singular because a Greek word, if ending in a consonant, can end only in ν, p, orc.

N/V

tO

ndp

G

tod

πυρός

Singular τὸ φῶς τοῦ φωτός

D

τῷ

πυρί

τῷ

φωοτί

τῷ

ὕδατι

Α

το

πὺρ

τὸ

φῶς

τὸ

ὕδωρ

τὸ

ὕδωρ

τοῦ

ὕδατος

ΡΙμταὶ.

N/V

τὰ

πυρά

τὰ

φῶτα

τὰ

ὕδατα

G

TOV

πυρῶν

τῶν

φώτων

τῶν

ὑδάτων

D

τοῖς

πῃυρσί

τοῖς

φωσί

τοῖς

ὕδασι(ν)

Α

τὰ

πυρά

τὰ

φῶτα

τὰ

ὕδατα

16.3.2 -ua/-uatos Subtype

A common form of neuter third-declension noun has a stem ending in -ματ-. With these words, the t simply drops out in the nominative and accusative singular (again because Greek words cannot end in τ). The resulting σπέρμα is not to be confused with the plural σπέρματα. τὸ σπέρμα, TOD σπέρματος, seed

Singular

Plural

N/V

τὸ

σπέρμα

τὰ

σπέρματα

G

TOD

σπέρματος

TOV

σπερμάτων

D

τῷ

σπέρματι

τοῖς

σπέρμασι(ν)

Α

τὸ

σπέρμα

τὰ

σπέρματα

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Chapter 16: Third-Declension Neuter Nouns; Adjectives and Numerals

16.3.3 -οςους Type

A significant group of neuter nouns originally had stems that ended in -go. In most cases, the o has dropped out and the stem and suffix vowels have contracted. The exceptions are the nominative/accusative singular, where the second -e- of the stem has changed to an -o-, and the dative plural, where the original stem -€- remains. The uncontracted forms are included in parentheses so that you may see how neuter endings are still being employed. You need learn only the resulting forms. τὸ μέρος, TOD μέρους, part

τὸ

Singular μέρος

τὰ

Plural μέρη (μερεσα)

τοῦ

μέρους (μερεσος)

τῶν

μερῶν (μερεσων)

D

τῷ

μέρει (μερεσι)

τοῖς

μέρεσι (μερεσσι)

ἈΠ

τὸ τ περος

τὰ

μέρη (μερεσαλ)

N/V

These nouns are notorious for confusing the beginner because of obvious likenesses to the masculine and feminine nouns of the first and second declensions.' Give careful attention to clues provided in the context by the article and/or other modifiers.

16.4 A Summary of Third-Declension Nouns Presented in the Text CONSONANT STEMS

Masculine

VOWEL STEMS

Feminine

Feminine

Singular N/V G D Α

ἄρχων ἄρχοντος ἄρχοντι ἄρχοντα

νύξ νυκτός νυκτί νύκτα

ἐλπίς ἐλπίδος ελπίδι ἐλπίδα

D Α

Masculine

Neuter

Singular χάρις χάριτος χάριτι χάριν

πόλις πόλεως πόλει πόλιν

Plural N/V

NEUTER NOUNS

βασιλεύς βασιλέως βασιλεῖ βασιλέα

Singular ὄνομα ὀνόματος ὀνόματι ὄνομα

Plural

ἄρχοντες ἀρχόντων ἄρχουσι

νύκτες νυκτῶν νυξί

ἐλπίδες ἐλπίδων ἐλπίσι

χάριτες χαρίτων χάρισι

ἀρχοντας

νύκτας

ἐλπίδας

χάριτας

πόλεις | πόλεων πόλεσι

πόλεις

γένος ὕδωρ γένους ὕδατος γένει ὕδατι γένος ὕδωρ Plural

βασιλεῖς βασιλέων βασιλεῦσι

ὀνόματα ὀνομάτων ὀνόμασι

γένη γενῶν γένεσι

ὕδατα ὑδάτων ὕδασι

βασιλεῖς

ὀνόματα

γένη

ὕδατα

'E.g., μέρος is neuter nominative or accusative singular, not masculine nominative singular (as in λόγος); μέρους is neuter genitive singular, not masculine accusative plural (as in λόγους); and μέρη is neuter nominative or accusative plural, not feminine nominative singular (as in φωνή). *The boldfaced endings are uniform. There are other third-declension forms that occur

infrequently, but seldom will these so diverge from the patterns presented in this text as to stymie the student.

16.5 Adjectivesand Numerals

141

16.5 Adjectives and Numerals In chs. 5 and 6, you were introduced to first- and second-declension adjectives that had three distinct sets of forms for the masculine, feminine, and neuter genders (e.g., ἀγαθός, ἀγαθή, ἀγαθόν). What follows are adjectives and numerals of the third declension alone or of a mix of the third and other declensions.

16.5.1 Third-Declension Adjectives and Numerals δύο, Ovoi(v). The number “two” has only two forms (plural forms, of course!): δύο functions for the nominative, genitive, or accusative; Svoi(v) for the dative.

τρεῖς, τρία. “Three” has a vowel stem-ending and declines like πόλις. The neuter nominative and accusative is formed with the expected -a ending. Note again the common genitive and dative forms. Plural

M/F Ν

ΜῈΝ

τρεῖς

τρία

G

τριῶν

D

τρισί(ν)

Α

N

τρεῖς

τρία

τέσσαρες, τέσσαρα. “Four” has ἃ liquid stem ending and declines like πῦρ, πυρός (with masculine/feminine endings -ες and -ac for the nominative and accusative).

Plural Ν

M/F τέσσαρες

M/F/N

G

τεσσάρων

D

τέσσαρσι(ν)

Α

τέσσαρας

N τέσσαρα

τέσσαρα

ἀληθής, ἀληθές. Adjectives such as “true” are numerous, but none occurs more than twenty-seven times in the GNT. Nevertheless, the student should be familiar with their pattern. There are two points to consider: 1. The neuter declines like γένος, γένους (except that the nominative/accusative singular has the original -ες stem). 2. The masculine/feminine nominative and accusative forms reflect the loss of the

stem -ς and the resulting vowel contraction.

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Chapter 16: Third-Declension Neuter Nouns; Adjectives and Numerals

Singular Ν G

M/F ἀληθής

ἀληθοῦς ἀληθεῖς

ἀληθές

ἀληθῆ

N ἀληθῆ

ἀληθῶν ἀληθέσι)

ἀληθεῖ

D Α

M/F ἀληθεῖς

N ἀληθές

M/F/IN.

Plural M/F/N

ἀληθῆ

16.5.2 First- and Third-Declension Type εἷς, μία, ἕν. The number “one” in Greek calls to mind the prepositions εἰς (into)

and ἐν (in), but the number is accented and has a rough breathing mark. Naturally, the Greek for “one” declines only in the singular. The masculine and neuter forms are third declension. The feminine gender, however, declines like a kapdia-type firstdeclension adjective.

Ν᾽

M

F

N

εἷς

μία

ἕν

μιᾶς

ἕνός

ἕνός D

ێvi

μιᾷ

ἑνί

Α

ἕνα

μίαν

ἕν

The adjective οὐδείς, οὐδεμία, οὐδέν, no one, nothing, also declines in this way. πᾶς, πᾶσα, πᾶν. This adjective and its derivative ἅπας are the only words of this type occurring more than thirty times. It is significant in its own right, occurring 1,226 times in the GNT. It gains significance, however, in that it is analogous to the paradigm for the first aorist active and passive participles for all three genders. In other words, if the paradigm for πᾶς, πᾶσα, πᾶν (and ἄρχων, ἄρχοντος) is memorized, the lessons of ch. 19 will be greatly simplified. The following observations will help you master the declension: 1. The masculine declines like ἄρχων, ἄρχοντος except in the nominative singular, where -vt- (stem: mavt-) is replaced with -c.

2. The feminine πᾶσα is a first-declension δόξα type. 3. The neuter declines like a neuter third-declension noun ending in -vt, with the τ dropping from the stem in the nominative and accusative singular.

16.5 Adjectivesand Numerals

Singular

Plural

M

F

Ν

Μ

F

N

πᾶς

πᾶσα

πᾶν

πάντες

πᾶσαι

πάντα

παντός

πάσης

παντός

πάντων

πασῶν

πάντων

παντί

πάσῃ

παντί

πᾶσι(ν)

πάσαις

πᾶσι(ν)

πάντα

πᾶσαν

πᾶν

πάντας

πάσας

πάντα

πᾶσα

πᾶν

πάντες

πᾶσαι

πάντα

5 2 ΞΙ ἘΣ πᾶς

143

Note that the feminine is everywhere accented on the penult except the genitive plural, where the ultima receives the circumflex.

16.5.3 Mixed-Declension Types πολύς, πολλή, πολύ; μέγας, μεγάλη, μέγα. Carefully study the following paradigms together with the subsequent comments. Except for the peculiarities noted

in boldface type, these adjectives decline like the second-/first-declension ἄλλος, ἄλλη, ἄλλο. πολύς, πολλή; πολύ, much, many

Singular

Plural

M

F

N

M

F

N

Ν G D

πολύς πολλοῦ πολλῷ

πολλή πολλῆς πολλῇ

πολύ πολλοῦ πολλῷ

πολλοί πολλῶν πολλοῖς

πολλαί πολλῶν πολλαῖς

πολλά πολλῶν πολλοῖς

A

πολὺν

πολλήν

TOAD

πολλούς

πολλάς

πολλα

μέγας, μεγάλη: μέγα, great, large

Singular

Plural

μ᾿

F

N

M

F

N

Ν

μέγας

μεγάλη

μέγα

μεγάλοι

μεγάλαι

μεγάλα

G

μεγάλου

μεγάλης

μεγάλου

μεγάλων

μεγάλων

μεγάλων

D

μεγάλῳ

μεγάλῃ

μεγάλῳ

μεγάλοις

μεγάλαις

μεγάλοις

Α

μέγαν

μεγάλην

μέγα

μεγάλους

μεγάλας

μεγάλα

Ν

μεγάλε

μεγάλη

μέγα

μεγάλοι

μεγάλαι

μεγάλα

The masculine and neuter nominative and accusative singular forms are third declension.

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Chapter 16: Third-Declension Neuter Nouns; Adjectives and Numerals

1. These forms have lost a A from the stem, replaced by masculine/feminine thirddeclension endings (¢ and νὴ or no ending at all (neuter).

2. Along with this loss, an expected second -o in πολύς, πολύ is an -v instead.

16.6 Translation Tips for πᾶς, πᾶσα, πᾶν With the article: Attributive position Gal 5:14

ὃ πᾶς νόμος the whole law

Predicate position Matt 1:17

πᾶσαι αἱ γενεαί all the generations

Without the article: “any or all conceivable kinds of things’ Matt 5:11

πᾶν πονηρόν every kind of evil

Matt 19:3

πᾶσαν αἰτίαν any cause

>

EXERCISES

A. Translate the following sentences into English: 1. ἀλλὰ κεκηρύκαμεν TO εὐαγγέλιον ὃ οὐδεὶς TOV ἀρχόντων τοῦ αἰῶνος τούτου ἔγνωκεν, εἰ γὰρ ἔγνωσαν, οὐκ ἂν τὸν κύριον τῆς δόξης ἐσταύρωσαν ἡ 2. καὶ ἡμεῖς ἐσμεν μάρτυρες τῶν ῥημάτων τούτων, καὶ τὸ πνεῦμα τὸ ἅγιον. . GAN εἰσὶν ἐξ ὑμῶν τινες οἵ Od πιστεύουσιν. Ww i . δ᾽ δὲ εἶπεν αὐτοῖς, Οἱ βασιλεῖς τῶν ἐθνῶν ἔλαβον τούτους τοὺς ἄνδρας ἐκ τοῦ ἔθνους τῶν Ἰουδαίων. . σὺ δὲ ὁ αὐτὸς εἶ καὶ τὰ ἔτη σου οὐκ ἐκλείψουσιν" . ἤδεισαν γὰρ ἅπαντες ὅτι Ἕλλην" ὁ πατὴρ αὐτοῦ ὑπῆρχεν. . ὅσοι γὰρ εἰς Χριστὸν ἐβαπτίσθητε, Χριστὸν ἐνεδύσασθε."

. πάντες γὰρ ὑμεῖς εἷς ἐστε ἐν Χριστῷ Ἰησοῦ. . οὐκ οἴδατε ὅτι τὰ σώματα ὑμῶν μέλη Χριστοῦ ἐστιν;

Oo WN NA Oy

*This is the article used as a demonstrative pronoun. Translate as “this one” or “he,” as in “But this one...” 4 -

Exercises

145

10. ἢ γὰρ ἀγάπη tod Χριστοῦ συνέχει" ἡμᾶς, ὅτι γινώσκομεν τοῦτο ὅτι εἷς ὑπὲρ πάντων ἀπέθανεν: ἄρα οἱ πάντες ἀπέθανον. 11. ὥσπερ" γὰρ τὸ σῶμα χωρὶς" πνεύματος νεκρόν ἐστιν, οὕτως καὶ ἣ πίστις χωρὶς ἔργων νεκρά ἐστιν. 12. οὐκ οἴδατε ὅτι τὸ σῶμα ὑμῶν ναὸς" τοῦ ἐν ὑμῖν ἁγίου πνεύματός

ἐστιν, οὗ ἔχετε ἀπὸ θεοῦ, καὶ οὐκ ἐστὲ ἑαυτῶν; 13. ἠγοράσθητε γὰρ τιμῆς" δοξάσετε δὴ" τὸν θεὸν ἐν τῷ σώματι ὑμῶν. 14. ἐν ἐκείνῃ τῇ ἡμέρᾳ γνώσεσθε ὑμεῖς ὅτι ἐγὼ ἐν τῷ πατρί pov καὶ ὑμεῖς ἐν ἐμοὶ κἀγὼ ἐν ὑμῖν.

B. Translate the following sentences into Greek:

΄

1. She said to him, “I know that the Anointed One is coming.” 2. But Jesus said to the woman, “J am that one.”

3. The disciple bought three loaves and prepared them. 4. Your (sg.) brother’s blood is crying out from the ground. 5. The words of the teacher were like (as) water on the desert.

Chapter 17

Verbal System: Contract Verbs; Liquid Verbs; Abstracts System:

Comparative and Superlative Forms

17.1 Vocabulary 17.1.1 -o Stem Contract Verbs

δικαιόω (δικαιῶ, δικαιώσω)᾽

πληρόω (πληρῶ, πληρώσω) OTAVLPOM (σταυρῶ, σταυρώσω)

φανερόω (φανερῶ, φανερώσω)

I justify, pronounce righteous I fulfill, fill

I crucify I reveal, make known

171.2 -α Stem Contract Verbs

ἀγαπάω (ἀγαπῶ, ἀγαπήσω) γεννάω (γεννῶ, γεννήσω) ἐρωτάω (ἐρωτῶ, ἐρωτήσω) ἐπερωτάω

ζάω (ζῶ, ζήσω)

I love I beget I ask, ask a question, request I ask I live

‘Because of the regularity of their formation, the principle parts of contracts verbs are not given and need not be memorized.

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Chapter 17: Contract Verbs; Liquid Verbs; Comparative and Superlative Forms

paw (ὁρῶ, ὄψομαι (diff. stem])

oO

I see [second aorist: εἶδον; perfect: ἑώρακα or ἑόρακα] (cf. “optic”)

17.1.3 -ε Stem Contract Verbs

ζητέω (ζητῶ, ζητήσω) καλέω (καλῶ, καλέσω [irreg.])

I seek, I look for I call

ἐπικαλέω παρακαλέω λαλέω (λαλῶ, λαλήσω) ποιέω (ποιῶ, ποιήσω)

I call, name; middle: I invoke, appeal to I beseech, exhort, console I speak, give forth a sound I do, make, practice

τηρέω (τηρῶ, τηρήσω)

I keep, observe, fulfill

17.1.4 -λλ or -A Stem Liquid Verbs ἀναγγέλλω I report, announce, proclaim (pf. act.: ἀνήγγελκο) ἀπαγγέλλω, ἀπαγγελῶ, ἀπήγγειλα, ----- -----, ἀπηγγέλην I report, announce, proclaim ἀποστέλλω, ἀποστελῶ, ἀπέστειλα, ἀπέσταλκα, ἀπέσταλμαι, ἀπεστάλην I send away, send out

βάλλω, βαλῶ, ἔβαλον, βέβληκα, βέβλημαι, ἐβλήθην I throw, put, place ὀφείλω (Occurs only in present and impetfect tenses.) I owe, am indebted, ought, must, am obligated (with infinitive following) παραγγέλλω I give orders, command

17.1.5 -v Stem Liquid Verbs ἁμαρτάνω, AUAPTHOW, ἡμάρτησα or ἥμαρτον, I do wrong, sin ἀναβαίνω, ἀναβήσομαι, ἀνέβην, ἀναβέβηκα I go up, ascend

ἡμάρτηκα

ἀποκτείνω OF ἀποκτέννω, ἀποκτενῶ, ἀπέκτεινα, -----, ——, ἀπεκτάνθην

ΚΗ] καταβαίνω I come down, go down κρίνω, κρινῶ, ἔκρινα, κέκρικα, κέκριμαι, ἐκρίθην

I judge, consider, decide μένω, μενῶ, ἔμεινα, μεμένηκα I remain, stay, abide daivw, ——, ἔφανα, ; , ἐφάνην I shine, give light, become visible Ye

17.2 Formation of Contract Verbs

149

The -ὦ verb conjugation has two subcategories that present special problems in formation. Contract verbs are verbs whose stems end in the vowel a, €, or 0. Liquid verbs are verbs whose stems end in a liquid or nasal consonant—A, AA, v, or p.? Both

subcategories use the regular endings of the -@ conjugation. The variations that occur in formation concern linking vowels, stem changes, and changes in accentuation; they do not concern function or meaning.

17.2 Formation of Contract Verbs

The GNT does not contain the lexical forms of contract verbs, such as ctavpda, Opa, or ποιέω; rather, the forms σταυρῶ, ὁρῶ, and ποιῶ occur. The lexical forms

are shown with the contract vowel, and should be learned this way to make it easier to predict how these verbs will inflect. Because there is no tense suffix with the first principal part, linking vowels are attached directly to stems in the present and imperfect tenses. With verb stems that end in a, εξ, or 0, these vowels contract when combined with linking vowels, resulting in long vowels or diphthongs. In the other five principal parts (where the tense suffixes -o- or -«- are attached directly to the stem), the stem vowel lengthens (0 > ὦ; a/e > ἡ).

17.2.1 General Rules of Vowel Dominance in Contraction «

Ofthe three contract vowel sounds, O is the most dominant, followed by A and E.

¢

O overcomes all other vowels or diphthongs, resulting in ὦ or ov. However, if an iota or subscript is present, the result is @ or ot.

¢

Oovercomes A vowels or diphthongs, resulting in ὦ or @ (if an iota or subscript is present).

e

O overcomes E vowels or diphthongs, resulting in ov (with short vowels), ὦ (with long vowels), or ot (if a subscript is present).

« A overcomes E vowels or diphthongs, resulting in a or αὶ (if an iota or subscript is present). A prefers to form long vowels or improper diphthongs rather than proper diphthongs. e

Eis weak and is absorbed unless combined with another short vowel: ε + ¢ = £l,€+0=O00.

e

[is tenacious and always produces an t-diphthong (01 or et) or a subscript (ᾳ or @).

>) and p are liquid consonants, but v is a nasal. However, stems ending in all three consonants are grouped together as “liquid verbs” because of the similarity in their formation.

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17.2.2 -o Stem Contract Verbs

stem

+

linking

ending

= _ resulting

vowel(s)

contraction

ο

-

ῶ

ἘΞ

Oo

tng

OF OD; ONE

oO

+

‘orevuis

ῶ ov olor @

Present Active Indicative of σταυρόω, I crucify

3

Singular oTavp ὦ (0 + @)

Plural OTAVP OD μεν (6 + ομεν)

OTAVP οἷς (O + εἰς)

otavp οὔ τε (0 + ETE)

otavp ot (6 + εὐ)

OTAVP OD σι (6 + οὐσι)

Present Middle/Passive Indicative of σταυρόω

1

Singular

Plural

otavp od pat (6 + onal)

σταῦρ οὔ μεθα (0 + ὀμεθα)

σταῦρ οἵ (ό + ῃ)

otavp od σθε (6 + εσθε)

OTAVP OD Tat (6 + ETAL)

σταῦρ od vtat (0 + ονται)

Imperfect Active Indicative of σταυρόω 1

Singular

Plural

ἐσταύρ ov v (0 + ov)

EOTAVP OD μεν (0 + ομεν)

ἐσταύρ OV ς (0 + ες)

EOTAVP OD τε (O + ETE)

ἐσταύρ OV (0 + €)

ἐσταύρ οὔ ν (0 + ον)

Imperfect Middle/Passive Indicative of σταυρόω Singular EOTAVP OD μὴν (0 + ὀμην)

Plural gotavp od μεθα (ο + ὀμεθα)

EOTAVP OD (6 + Ov)

EOTAVP OD σθε (6 + εσθε)

EOTAVP OD TO (6 + ETO)

EOTAVP OD ντο (6 + OVTO)

17.2.3 -a Stem Contract Verbs

stem

+

ending

linking

= _ resulting

vowel(s)

contraction

a

+

0,00,0r®

=

a

Ἔ

€or)

=

wyporeud

“ee

onlientaals

ye

ῶ ὦ

ᾳ

17.2 Formation of Contract Verbs

Present Active Indicative of ὁράω, I see

1 3

Singular op @=(4+o)

Plural

Op ς (ά + εἰς)

Op ὦ μεν (& + ομεν) ὃρ ἃ τε (ά - ετε)

ὁδρᾳ(άτευ

Op ὦ σι (ά + Ovo)

Present Middle/Passive Indicative of ὁράω

1

Singular Op @ pat (& + onc)

Plural Op ὦ μεθα (a + ὀμεθα)

6p & (4 + n)

dp ἃ oe(& + εσθε)

Op ἃ ται (& + εται)

Op ὦ vtat (& + ονται)

Imperfect Active Indicative of ὁράω

Singular 1

ἑώρω

v (a+ ov)

ἑώρ ας (α 3

Plural ἑὼρ ὦ μεν (& + ομεν)

ες)

EWP ἃ τε (ά + ETE)

ἑώρα !(α τ ε)

EMP ὦ ν (α + ον)

Imperfect Middle/Passive Indicative of ὁράω

Singular

F

Plural

EMP ὦ μὴν (a + ὀμην)

ἑὼρ ὦ μεθα (a + ὀμεθα)

EWP ὦ (ά + Ov)

ewp ἃ σθε (& + EaBe)

EWP ἃ TO (& + ETO)

EWP ὦ ντο (& + OVTO)

17.2.4 -e Stem Contract Verbs

stem

+

ending

linking

= _ resulting

vowel(s)

contraction

€

+

w

=

@

€

+

Ὁ ὉΓΟΌ

=

ov

€

+

n

=

n

€

Ἄν

ἘΟΓΕΙ

ae

ει

Present Active Indicative of ποιέω, I do/make

Singular ὦ)

Plural

1

ποιῶ(έ

ποι OD μεν (έ + ομεν)

2

ποι εῖς (έ + εἰς)

ποι εἶ τε (€ + ETE)

3

ποιεῖ(έ + εἰ)

ποι OD σι (έ + OVOL)

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Chapter 17: Contract Verbs; Liquid Verbs; Comparative and Superlative Forms

Persent Middle/Passive Indicative of ποιέω, I do/make

1

Singular

Plural

ποι οῦ pat (é + ομαι)

ποι ov μεθα (€ + ὀμεθα)

ποι ἢ (6 + ἢ)

ποι et σθε (έ + εσθε)

ποι εἴ ται (έ + ETAL)

ποι οὗ νται (ἐ + ovtar)

Imperfect Active Indicative of ποιέω

1

Singular

Plural

ἐποί ovv (ε + ov)

ἐποι OD μεν (έ + ομεν)

ἐποί εἰς

ἐποι εἴ τε (έ + ETE)

(ε + ες)

ἐποί εἰ (ε + ε)

ἐποί OV ν (ε + OV)

Imperfect Middle/Passive Indicative of ποιέω

1

Singular ἐποι οὐ μὴν (ε + ὁμην)

Plural ἐποι οὐ μεθα (ε + ὀμεθα)

ἐποι οὔ (έ + OV)

ἐποι et σθε (έ + εσθε)

ἐποι εἴ TO (έ + ETO)

ἐποι OD ντο (έ + OVTO)

The following chart summarizes the rules of vowel contract learned thus far.* The far left column presents the final stem vowelsof contract verbs. The top horizontal row has the various linking vowels. A given contraction may be found at the point of intersection beween the two variables.

o

ε-

εἴ

ἢ

:-

οὐ

ὦ

οὐ

Ob

ὦ

οὐ

οὐ

ὦ

Ἐπ.

ΤΟ Ὁ Kifeeov Οὐναϊ

Cal τ Sevreks

17.2.5 Principal Parts of Contract Verbs To repeat, only the first principal part (present and imperfect tenses) exhibits the contraction of stem and linking vowels. With the other principal parts, the vowel that ends the stem lengthens (0 > ὦ; a/e > ἡ) before the tense suffix and endings are

added.* Otherwise, the principal parts of contract verbs are quite regular. > Additional combinations can occur. Appendix 2, table 10, contains a comprehensive chart of verb contractions. “xaAé@ is an exception. It retains the ε in the second and third principal parts but has a lengthened stem vowel in the remaining principal parts: καλῶ, καλέσω, ἐκάλεσα, κέκληκα, κέκλημαι, ἐκλήθην. " .

17.3 Formation of Liquid Verbs

153

Consider the principal parts of φανερόω, ἀγαπάω, and τηρέω: Present Active

Future Active

Aorist Active

Perfect Active

φανερῶὼ ἀγαπῶ τηρῶ

φανερώσω ἀγαπήσω τηρήσω

ἐφανέρωσα ἠγάπησα ἐτήρησα

πεφανέρωκα ἠγάπηκα τετήρηκα

Perfect Middle/ Passive πεφανέρωμαι ἠγάπημαι τετήρημαι

Aorist Passive ἐφανερώθην ἠγαπήθην ἐτηρήθην

Rules of accentuation pertinent to contract verbs are found in appendix 1, p. 266.

17.2.6 Non-Contract Verbs with Contract Linking Vowels in the Future Tense Several verbs that do not have o, a, or ¢ for a stem ending manifest the linking vowels of the present-tense contract verbs in the future tense. The future οἐἀποθνήσκω shows a contracted form: ἀποθανεῖται (Rom 5:7) and ἀποθανεῖσθε (John 8:21, 24).

In Matt 10:29 a future form of πίπτω occurs: πεσεῖται. Matthew 15:14 is another instance: πεσοῦνται. Note that all of these future forms are deponent. 17.2.7 -iCw Verbs in the Future Tense A few verbs that end in -ἰζω delete the ζ and use the present contract linking vowels of the -e stem type to form their futures. Among these are the verbs ἐγγίζω, ἐλπίζω, καθαρίζω, and καθίζω, all of which were introduced in ch. 11.

17.3 Formation of Liquid Verbs Liquid verbs (stems ending in A, AA, v, or p) show peculiarities in forming the future and aorist tenses especially. Usually the verb stem varies from the first principal part and the tense suffix -o- disappears. 5

Future Tense, Active and Middle Voices

The linking vowels and endings of the future tense, active and middle voices (e.g., βαλῶ, βαλοῦμαι), are identical to those of the present tense, active and middle/passive voices, of the -ew contract verb ποιέω." Observe carefully the following conjugations of βαλῶ (I will throw) and βαλοῦμαι (I will throw in my interest). Compare them with ποιῶ and ποιοῦμαι (pp. 151-52). The identifying marks of the future tense are the stem change, the circumflex accent, and the linking vowel diphthongs.

Theoretically, the future of a liquid verb is formed by the attachment of -eo- (the tense suffix preceded by a euphonic vowel) to the stem. The intervocalic o drops out and the remaining ε contracts with the linking vowel(s)—hence the -e- stem contract verb linking vowels.

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Future Active

Singular

Future Middle

Plural

Singular

Plural

1

βαλῶ

βαλοῦμεν

βαλοῦμαι

βαλούμεθα

2

βαλεῖς

βαλεῖτε

βαλῇ

βαλεῖσθε

3

βαλεῖ

βαλοῦσιρ)

βαλεῖται

βαλοῦνται

Often both the stem and the accent will indicate which tense is being used. There are verbs, however, that show differences only of accent. (Even this distinction sometimes disappears; when it does, the reader is completely dependent upon context.) One such verb is κρίνω. Compare the following: Present:

κρίνω, κρίνεις, κρίνει, κρίνομεν, κρίνετε, κρίνουσι(ν)

Future:

κρινῶ, κρινεῖς, κρινεῖ, κρινοῦμεν, κρινεῖτε, κρινοῦσι(ν)

The future tense form associated with λέγω is liquid and also follows this scheme: pO, ἐρεῖς, ἐρεῖ, ἐροῦμεν, ἐρεῖτε, Epodor(v). 17.3.2 First Aorist Tense, Active and Middle Voices

The third principal part of liquid verbs usually undergoes an internal lengthening of vowels (e.g., present μένω but aorist ἔμεινα) and loses the -o- tense suffix. It is still considered a first aorist form, however, since it uses the aorist o/e linking vowels with the typical secondary active or middle endings. The paradigms of ἔμεινα (I remained) and ἐμεινάμην (I remained in my interest) follow:

Liquid First Aorist Active Singular Plural 1

ἔμεινα

Eeiva μεν

Liquid First Aorist Middle “Singular Plural ἐ μειν ἁἀμὴν

ἐμειν & μεθα

ἔμεινας

ἐμείν α τε

ἐ μείν ὦ

ἐ μείν a σθε

ἔ μειν ε

ἔμειναν

ἐ μείῖνα τὸ

ἐμείν ἃ ντο

Most liquid verbs have first aorists. If the verb has a second aorist, the conjugation follows the normal second aorist pattern (cf. ἔβαλον, from βάλλω).

Not all liquid verbs exhibit the typical liquid-verb traits in the second and/or third principal parts. For example, the stem of ἁμαρτάνω forms the second, third, and fourth principal parts like an -a@ contract verb (ἁμαρτήσω, ἥμάρτησα, hudaptnKa).° The verb πίνω has a deponent, non-liquid future tense: πίομαι. *Actually, the disappearance of the v in the second, third, and fourth principal parts leads to a compensatory lengthening of the α to ἡ before the tense suffix. 4"

17.4 Comparative and Superlative Degrees of Adjectives and Adverbs

155

17.4 Comparative and Superlative Degrees of Adjectives and Adverbs 17.4.1 Formation Adjectives exhibit one of two basic patterns to form the comparative and superlative degrees (see p. 7, Adjectives and Adverbs). 1. The comparative suffix -tepog, -a, -ov is quite common, but the superlative suffix -(ατος, -n, -ov is very rare (four times in the GNT). Hence, μικρότερος, the comparative form οὗ μικρός, small, occurs five times in the GNT, but the superlative μικρότατος, smallest, does not occur at all.” The comparatives de-

cline like first- and second-declension adjectives” 2. The comparative form -()ων, -()ων, -(\)ov follows a third-declension pattern.

The superlative form -ἰστος, -n, -ov is far more common than the form -tatoc. ἐλάσσων, lesser, and ἐλάχιστος, least, illustrate this pattern.*

Adverbs do not decline, but like adjectives they can form comparative and superlative degrees. As with adjectives, adverbs form degrees following two main patterns: The most common comparative adverbial form uses the neuter singular form of the comparative adjective suffix -tepoc. Thus the comparative of ἄνω, above, is ἀνώτερον, further above, higher. A variation of this is to form the adverb by adding the adverbial ending -ὡς to the same suffix (cf. περισσῶς, abundantly, and περισσοτέρως, more abundantly.)° For words that form their comparative and superlative adjectives using τῶν and τίστος, the respective adverbs are formed using the neuter singular form of the comparative adjective and the neuter plural form of the superlative adjective. Thus the comparative of the adverb ταχέως, quickly, is τάχιον, more quickly, and the superlative is τάχιστα, most quickly, very quickly. Some words combine the two patterns above. Thus the comparative adverb of ἐγγύς, near, is ἐγγύτερον, nearer, and the superlative is ἔγγιστα, nearest.

ἡπρῶτος, first, earliest, foremost, stands out as a very common superlative—it is even more common than its comparative form. πρῶτος is formed from the preposition πρό and the ending -atoc. The comparative form is πρότερος (former, earlier, more prominent; the adverb is πρότερον [formerly, earlier]). 8In addition to illustrating the -(.)wv, -ἰστος endings, these words also demonstrate that stems may change in the comparative and/or superlative categories from what you would expect; ἐλάσσων and ἐλάχιστος are the comparative and superlative forms of μικρός. Rather

than modifying the stem of μικρός, they derived from an altogether different stem in the Classical era. A paradigm for the -(t)@v/-ov pattern is found in the declension of μείζων, -ov in appendix 2, Table 5, “Adjectives.” °The formation of the superlative degree of the adverb using the suffix -tatov (or -τατως) does not occur in the New Testament.

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17.4.2 Function

The comparative adjective is usually followed by the genitive case or the particle ἤ and translated “ er than” or “more than.” Mark 1:7

ἔρχεται 6 ἰσχυρότερός μου ὀπίσω μου. The one more powerful than I [am] is coming after me.

John 15:13.

μείζονα ταύτης ἀγάπην οὐδεὶς ἔχει. No one has greater love than this.

By the New Testament period, the superlative form was dying out, and comparative forms were used as both comparatives and superlatives. So, where English idiom would use the superlative, Greek will frequently have the comparative. For example, in Matt 13:32 the mustard seed is described as ὃ μικρότερον μέν ἐστιν πάντων TOV σπερμάτων = “which is the least [lit., ‘lesser’] of all the seeds.” When the superlative does occur, it only occasionally functions as a true superlative (ai πλεῖσται δυνάμεις αὐτοῦ = “most of his deeds of power” [Matt 11:20]); more often it has only a height-

ening or elating force, with the sense of “very.” Compare Mark 4:1 (ὄχλος πλεῖστος = a very large crowd) with the parallel in Matt 13:2 (ὄχλοι πολλοί = a large crowd); see the same phenomenon reversed with Mark 11:8 (πολλοί = many) and Matt 21:8 (πλεῖστος ὄχλος = a very large crowd).

17.5 Additional Uses of the Nominative Case Although the nominative is the normal case for the subjects of verbs, this is not always the case. Titles and salutations such as “Grace and peace to you,” for example, are commonly in the nominative. When a nominative occurs without an immediate grammatical connection to a particular sentence, it is referred to as a nominative absolute or independent nominative. In many cases, there is a logical connection between the nominative and some part of a closely associated sentence, as in Acts 7:40: ὁ γὰρ Μωῦσῆς οὗτος, ὃ ἐξήγαγεν ἡμᾶς ἐκ γῆς Αἰγύπτου, οὐκ οἴδαμεν τί ἐγένετο αὐτῷ. As for this Moses, who led us out of the land of Egypt— we do not know what happened to him.

One of the common uses of the nominative case is as the predicate nominative in a sentence featuring the verb “to be” or one of its equivalents. Thus in the sentence, “Jesus is the Son of God,” both the subject, “Jesus,” and the predicate nominative, “Son,”

would be in the nominative case. A variation on the predicate nominative occurs in situations involving naming. After the passive form of the verb καλέω or following

the terms ὄνομα or ὀνόματι, the nominative case will often be used to give someone’s name. For example: 4"

Exercises

Luke 1:32

υἱὸς ὑψίστου" κληθήσεται. He will be called Son of the Most High.

Luke 2:21

ἐκλήθη τὸ ὄνομα αὐτοῦ Ἰησοῦς.

157

His name was called Jesus.

Sometimes the name will be linked to a previous nominative referent: Luke 10:38

γυνὴ δέ τις ὀνόματι Μάρθα... Now ἃ certain woman, by name Martha...

or

Luke 19:2

ἀνὴρ ὀνόματι καλούμενος Ζακχαῖος ἃ man by name called Zacchaeus

In other instances, a person’s name may simply be introduced into the text, essentially grammatically independent of the sentence (although one could call it appositional in relation to the subject). John 1:6

Ἐγένετο &vOpwnos... ὄνομα αὐτῷ Ἰωάννης. A man came...; his name was John [or “named John’; lit., “name to him [ΟΠ].

EXERCISES

A. Translate the following sentences into English: 1. εἰ ἐμὲ ἐδίωξαν, kai ὑμᾶς SidEovou" εἰ τὸν λόγον μου ἐτήρησαν, καὶ τὸν ὑμέτερον" τηρήσουσιν. 2. οὐκέτι λέγω ὑμᾶς δούλους," ὅτι ὁ δοῦλος οὐκ οἶδεν τί ποιεῖ αὐτοῦ 6 κύριος" ὑμᾶς δὲ εἴρηκα φίλους," ὅτι πάντα ἃ ἤκουσα παρὰ τοῦ πατρός μου ἐγνώρισα" ὑμῖν. 3. Ἀπεκρίθησαν καὶ εἶπαν αὐτῷ, Ὁ πατὴρ ἡμῶν Ἀβραάμ ἐστιν. λέγει αὐτοῖς ὃ Ἰησοῦς, Εἰ τέκνα τοῦ Ἀβραάμ ἦτε, τὰ ἔργα τοῦ Ἀβραὰμ ἐποιεῖτε: 4. νῦν δὲ ζητεῖτέ με ἀποκτεῖναι, ἄνθρωπον ὃς τὴν ἀλήθειαν ὑμῖν λελάληκα Hv? ἤκουσα παρὰ τοῦ θεοῦ’ τοῦτο Ἀβραὰμ οὖκ ἐποίησεν. A true superlative! '\Notice the double accusative construction. The two objects stand in apposition to each other, each modifying the verb. See p. 11, Sentences, ex. 6, and ch. 5, p. 40. The infinitive ἀποκτεῖναι complements and clarifies the idea initiated by ζητεῖτε and so is part of a verbal chain. Together they take pe as a direct object. Ἄνθρωπον stands in apposition to με, modifying it. More discussion of this kind of infinitive (as object) will be found in ch. 23. 13Notice that in this relative clause a first person verb is used despite the fact that the relative pronoun already holds the position of the subject. In all likelihood the verb anticipates

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5. ὑμεῖς ποιεῖτε τὰ ἔργα τοῦ πατρὸς ὑμῶν. εἶπαν [οὖν]"" αὐτῷ, Ἡμεῖς ἐκ πορνείας" od γεγεννήμεθα" ἕνα πατέρα ἔχομεν τὸν θεόν.

6. εἶπεν αὐτοῖς ὁ Ἰησοῦς, Εἰ ὁ θεὸς πατὴρ ὑμῶν ἦν, ἠγαπᾶτε ἂν ἐμέ, ἐγὼ

7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

γὰρ ἐκ τοῦ θεοῦ ἐξῆλθον καὶ ἥκω" οὐδὲ γὰρ ἀπ᾽ ἐμαυτοῦ ἐλήλυθα, ἀλλ᾽ ἐκεῖνός με ἀπέστειλεν. : ὁ γὰρ πᾶς νόμος ἐν ἑνὶ λόγῳ πεπλήρωται, ἐν τῷ Ἀγαπήσεις τὸν πλησίον" GOV ὡς σεαυτόν. ὁ πιστὸς ἐν ἐλαχίστῳ" καὶ ἐν πολλῷ πιστός ἐστιν, καὶ ὁ ἐν ἐλαχίστῳ ἄδικος" καὶ ἐν πολλῷ ἄδικός ἐστιν. μακάριοι οἱ καθαροὶ" τῇ καρδίᾳ, ὅτι αὐτοὶ τὸν θεὸν ὄψονται. καὶ ἡμεῖς μάρτυρες πάντων ὧν ἐποίησεν ἔν τε τῇ χώρᾳ" τῶν Ἰουδαίων καὶ TepovoaAnu.* μακάριοι οἱ εἰρηνοποιοί," ὅτι αὐτοὶ υἱοὶ θεοῦ κληθήσονται. Ἀλλ᾽ ἐρεῖ τις, Σὺ πίστιν ἔχεις κἀγὼ ἔργα ἔχω. σὺ πιστεύεις ὅτι εἷς θεός ἐστιν; καλῶς" ποιεῖς καὶ τὰ δαιμόνια πιστεύουσιν καὶ φρίσσουσιν" Ἀβραὰμ 6 πατὴρ ἡμῶν οὖκ ἐξ ἔργων ἐδικαιώθη; εἰ δέ τις ἀγαπᾷ τὸν θεόν, οὗτος ἔγνωσται ὑπ᾽ αὐτοῦ. εἰ οὖν Δαυὶδ καλεῖ αὐτὸν κύριον, πῶς υἱὸς αὐτοῦ ἐστιν; διὸ" ἐκλήθη ὁ ἀγρὸς" ἐκεῖνος Ἀγρὸς Αἵματος ἕως τῆς σήμερον" Ἦν δὲ ἄνθρωπος ἐκ τῶν Φαρισαίων, Νικόδημος ὄνομα αὐτῷ, ἄρχων τῶν Ἰουδαίων. ‘

B. Translate the following sentences into Greek: 1. 2. 3. 4, 5.

The saying was spoken in the light. I live in peace; I love my brother and sister. He had been healed by the power of the Spirit’s fire. What did you (sg.) do? What is truth? Are you a king? Many will come and all will be baptized.

the first person verb ἤκουσα that immediately follows. An awkward literal translation might be: “a person who I spoke.” The easiest way to resolve this in translation is to treat the verb as though it were third person: “a person who spoke.” “The brackets here indicate that the word is omitted from some NT manuscripts. To form the Greek word for “sister,” add a first-declension, φωνή-ἴγρε ending to the ἀδελφ- stem. ye

Chapter 18

Verbal System: -u1 Verbs

18.1 Vocabulary 18.1.1 Second-Declension Adjective διάβολος, -ov

slanderous; as a noun: the slanderer, devil (cf. “diabolical”)

18.1.2 Verbs ἰδού

See! Behold!

18.1.3 -μι Verbs ἀπόλλυμι, ἀπολέσω or ἀπολῶ [liquid], ἀπώλεσα, ἀπόλωλα act.: I ruin, destroy, lose; mid. and pass.: I perish, die, am ruined

ἀφίημι, ἀφήσω, ἀφῆκα, . ἀφεῖμαι, ἀφέθην I send away, cancel, pardon, forgive, leave, allow, let δείκνυμι or δεικνύω, δείξω, ἔδειξα, ; , ἐδείχθην I show δίδωμι, δώσω, ἔδωκα, δέδωκα, δέδομαι, ἐδόθην

I give, yield, hand over, give up ἀποδίδωμι I give away, pay, return, give back παραδίδωμι I hand over, deliver, pass on, hand down ἵστημι, στήσω, ἔστησα (tr.) or ἔστην (intr.), ἕστηκα, -----, ἐστάθην

transitive (pres., impf., fut., Ist aor. act.): I put, place, set; intransitive (2d aor., pf. plupf. act.; fut. mid. and pass.; Ist aor. pass.): 1 stand, appear, stand still (see comments on p. 163)

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Chapter 18: -μι Verbs

ἀνίστημι I raise, raise up; rise, stand up

παρίστημι I place beside, present, offer; stand τίθημι, θήσω, ἔθηκα, τέθεικα, τέθειμαι, ἐτέθην

I put, place, lay ἐπιτίθημι I lay upon, put upon

φημί I say, affirm. Only three forms occur in the GNT: φησίν, 3d per. sg., and φασίν, 3d per. pl., pres. act. indic. (both enclitics); ἔφη, 3d per. sg., 2d aor. act. indic.

18.2 -w and -μι Verbs Aside from the irregular verb εἰμί, all of the verbs introduced thus far have belonged to the -@ conjugation. Now the second class of Greek verbs needs to be learned: the - verbs. They are so named because the first person singular, present active indicative, has this ending. Over the centuries, the - μι forms were gradually replaced by -w forms in Greek. Thus, when you encounter a verb identified as having a -μι verb stem but having many or all -w forms, you should not be surprised. : The -μι verbs have peculiar patterns of formation in the first and third principal parts (present, imperfect, and aorist tenses). Special attention is paid below to δίδωμι, τίθημι, and ἵστημι not only because they are the most common -μῖ verbs (apart from εἰμί) but also because numerous compound verbs in the GNT are formed with them.

18.3 Conjugation of -μι Verbs 18.3.1 The First Principal Part 1. Present active. Four novel characteristics should be noted:

2. Reduplication with .. In the first principal part of many - verbs, the initial stem consonant is reduplicated. Unlike perfect tense reduplication, however, the vowel placed between the reduplicated consonants is 1, not ¢. For stems beginning with o, an τ with a rough breathing mark is added in place of reduplication. This reduplication is a sure indication of the present stem of a -μι verb; hence the δι of δίδωμι (impf. ἐδίδουν; but cf. pf. δέδωκο), the τι of TION (impf. ἐτίθην; cf. pf. τέθεικα), and the i of ἵστημι (impf. ἵστην; cf. pf. ἕστηκα).

3. The stem itself. The plural forms of the present active indicative contain the characteristic stem vowel, while the singular forms have a lengthened form of the stem

18.3 Conjugation of -ui Verbs

161

vowel. Thus the stems of δίδωμι, τίθημι, and iotn are δο-, θε-, and ota- respectively (Ist pl.: δίδομεν, τίθεμεν, iotaper).

4. No linking vowels. Endings are attached directly to the stem, with the final vowel of the stem lengthening in the singular. 5. The endings. The first and third singular forms and, to a lesser degree, the third plural differ from -@ verbs, as shown in the bold-type forms below: Singular 1

3

Plural

-μι

-μεν

We

-TE

-σι(ν)

-ασι(ν)

δ

Present Active Indicative of Common -μι Verbs

Singular dt δὼ μι

τί θη μι

ἵ στη μι

δίδως

τίθης

ἵστης

δί δὼ σιν)

τί θη σι)

ἵ στη σι(ν)

Plural

δίδομεν

τίθε μεν

ἵστα μεν

2

δί δο τε

tOete

totate

3.

διδό ασι(ν)

τι θέ ασι(ν)

Lote ot(v)

The only inconsistency in the paradigms above is that contraction occurs in the third person plural form iot&o1(v) (a + a). The circumflex accent is a clue that contraction has occurred.

Present middle/passive. This tense uses the primary middle endings without linking vowels. The second person singular does not contract. The stem vowel does not change. Present Middle/Passive Indicative of Common -μι Verbs

1 3.

δίδο μαι

Singular τίθε μαι

ἵστα μαι

δίδο σαι

τίθε σαι

ἵστα σαι

δίδο ται

τίθε ται

ἵστα ται

Plural

1

διδόμεθα

τιθέμεθα

iota μεθα

2

δίδο σθε

τίθε σθε

ἵστα σθε

3.

δίδο νται

τίθε νται

ἵστα νται

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Chapter 18: -μι Verbs

Imperfect active. The augment is regular (where it exists), and secondary active endings are attached without linking vowels. There is odd variation in the lengthened stem vowel of the singular. Still, identification is straightforward because the imperfect manifests the reduplicated present stem and familiar secondary active endings. (Note: The third person plural uses the alternate -oav rather than -v.)

Imperfect Active Indicative of Common - Verbs

1 3

ἐδίδουν

Singular ἐτίθην

ἵστην

ἐδίδους

ἐτίθεις

ἵστης

ἐδίδου

ἐ τίθει

ἵστη

Plural ἐ δίδομεν

ἐτίθε μεν

ἵστα μεν

ἐ δίδο τε

ἐ τίθε τε

ἵστα τε

ἐ δίδο σαν

ἐτίθε σαν

ἵστα σαν

Imperfect middle/passive. The secondary middle/passive endings are attached without linking vowels, and the second person singular does not contract. The stem vowel does not change. Imperfect Middle/Passive Indicative of Common -ut Verbs

1.

ἐδιδόμην

Singular ἐτιθέμην

ἧστά μην

ἐδίδο σο

ἐτίθεσο

ἵἕστα GO

ἐδίδο το

ἐτίθε το

ἵστα το

Plural

1 3

88186 μεθα

ἐτιθέ μεθα

ἱστά μεθα

ἐδίδοσθε

ἐτίθε σθε

ἵστα σθε

ἐδίδοντο

ἐτίθεντο

ἵἅἥστα ντο

18.3.2 The Third Principal Part Aorist active. The verbs δίδωμι and τίθημι use the secondary active endings of the τῷ conjugation, but -κ- is used for the tense suffix, not -o-, and the familiar o/e linking vowels are used. Observe that -11 verbs use the lengthened stem vowel throughout the conjugation (é6-, ἐθη-, ἐστη-). Because there is no reduplication in the aorist, there should be no confusion with the perfect tense.

18.3 Conjugation of -ui Verbs

163

First Aorist Active Indicative of Common -μι Verbs

Singular 1

ἔ δῶ κα

ἔ θη κα

2

ἔδωκας

ἔθηκας

3

ἔ δω Ke(v)

ἔ θη Ke(v)

Plural

2

ἐ δώ κα μεν

ἐ θή κα μεν

ἐ δώ κα τε

ἐ θή κα τε

ἔδωκαν

ἔθηκαν

ἵστημι merits individual attention because it has both first and second aorist principal parts. The first aorist form ἔστησα (conjugated like any -ὦ first aorist) is

transitive; that is, it takes a direct object. It means “I caused (something) to stand; I placed (something),” and so on. The second aorist form ἔστην (note that the third plural ending is -σαᾶν, not -v) is intransitive; that is, it does not take a direct object. It means “I stood; I stood firm.” First Aorist Second Aorist Active (Transitive) Active (Intransitive) I caused to stand I stood

Singular 1 3

ἔστη σὰ

ἔστην

ἔστησας

ἔστης

ἔ στη σε(ν)

ἔ στη

Plural

1

ἐ στή σα μεν

ἔ στη μεν

ἐ στή σα τε

ἔ OTN τε

ἔστησαν

ἔ OTN σαν

Aorist middle tense. Of the three verbs just considered, only τίθημι occurs in the aorist middle tense. It conjugates precisely as a second aorist middle of the -@ conjugation (cf. ἠγαγόμην on p. 123). Aside from the contraction in the second singular, the only difference between the imperfect middle/passive and this tense is the imperfect’s reduplication of the first principal part; compare the imperfect ἐτιθε- and the aorist ἐθε-.

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Chapter 18: -μι Verbs

1

Singular ἐθέμην

Plural ἐ θέ μεθα

ἔ θου (ἔθε + co)

ἔ θε σθε

ἔ θε το

ἔ Oe ντο

18.3.3 Second and Fourth through Sixth Principal Parts To conjugate the tenses of the second, fourth, fifth, and sixth principal parts, you simply use the stems of the principal parts and the endings employed in the -@ conjugation. Thus, the future active is στήσω, στήσεις, στήσει, and so on; the perfect active is τέθεικα, τέθεικας, τέθεικε, and so on; and the aorist passive is ἐδόθην, ἐδόθης,

ἐδόθη, and so on.

18.4 ἀφίημι, ἀπόλλυμι, δείκνυμι These three verbs are of sufficient importance and frequency in the GNT to merit comment about their peculiarities. Only the forms that occur in the GNT are given.

18.4.1 ἀφίημι: I cancel In the first principal part, ἀφίημι occurs with a mixture of -μι and -w verb endings. The stem te- (e + reduplication) was obscured in the Koine period and even disappeared in the plural forms of the present active indicative with the addition of (ὦ verb) linking vowels.!

Present Active

Present Middle/

Imperfect Middle/

Passive

Passive

Singular 2

ἀφίημι ἀφεῖς

—— Ξ-

ἀφίησι")

ἀφίεται

ἤφιε(ν)

Plural

1

ἀφίομεν

2

ἀφίετε

——

--

ἀφίουσι(")

ἀφίενται or ἀφίονται

------

᾿ἀφίημι is ἃ compound verb (ἀπό + inut). Eight compound verbs in the GNT are formed from int, including συνίημι (“understand, comprehend, grasp”). ye

18.4 ἀφίημι, ἀπόλλυμι, δείκνυμι

165

All other principal parts of ἀφίημι conjugate like -ὦ verbs, with the exception of the tense suffix -κ- in the aorist active (cf. ἔδωκα, ἔθηκα). Similar to contract verbs,

the stem vowel ε lengthens to ἢ consistently in the second and third principal parts. Otherwise both are regular. The reduplication with 1has properly disappeared, being characteristic of the first principal part only. Future Active

Aorist Active

Perfect Middle/

Aorist Passive

Future Passive

Passive

Singular

1 3.

ἀφήσω

ἀφῆκα

ἀφήσεις

ἀφῆκας

ἀφήσει

ἀφῆκε()

Ξ ----

---

----——

ἀφεθήσεται

——

---.-

Plural

1 2 3

------

ἀφήκαμεν

ἀφήσουσιν

ἀφήκατε ἀφῆκαν

-“-----ἀφέωνται

-----ἀφέθησαν

18.4.2 ἀπόλλυμι: I ruin Although ἀπόλλυμι is a -μι verb, no -μι forms occur in the first principal part. Note the past-tense augment (0 lengthened to ὦ) in the imperfect and the use of familiar primary and secondary endings: Present Active

Ly iter sour 3

ἀπολλύει

Present Middle/ Passive

Imperfect Middle/ Passive

Singular ἀπόλιλυμαῖο

wort

ἀπόλλυται

-ο----

Plural

oo —

ἀπολλύμεθα

=———

ἀπόλλυνται

ἀπώλλυντο

Observe the stem change in the second and third principal parts as well as the past-tense augmentation (0 to @) in the aorist tenses:

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Chapter 18: -μι Verbs

Future

Future

First Aorist

First Aorist

Active

Middle

Active

Middle

Singular 1

ἀπολῶ

———

ἀπώλεσα

ἀπολέσει

ἀπολεῖται

ἀπώλεσε)

2

3

ἀπώλετο

Plural 2

--

ἀπολεῖσθε ἀποχουνται

α-ο---

ἀπώλοντο

18.4.3 δείκνυμι: I show In the indicative mood, one finds only the following examples of δείκνυμι. Ob-

serve that the future and aorist have strictly -@ forms. Present Active

Future Active

Singular δείξω

1

δείκνυμι

2

δεικνύεις

3

δείκνυσι(ν)

First Aorist Active

ἔδειξα

‘

δείξει

ἔδειξε(ν)

EXERCISES

A. Translate the following sentences into English: 1. οὗτος ἔσται μέγας καὶ υἱὸς ὑψίστου" κληθήσεται, καὶ δώσει αὐτῷ κύριος ὃ θεὸς τὸν θρόνον Δαυὶδ τοῦ πατρὸς αὐτοῦ. 2. καὶ βασιλεύσει" ἐπὶ τὸν οἶκον Ἰακὼβ εἰς τοὺς αἰῶνας, καὶ τῆς βασιλείας αὐτοῦ οὐκ ἔσται τέλος. 3. οὐδὲ γὰρ ὁ πατὴρ κρίνει ODSEVA,? ἀλλὰ τὴν κρίσιν πᾶσαν δέδωκεν τῷ υἱῷ. 4. εἶπεν οὖν αὐτοῖς ὁ Ἰησοῦς, Ἀμὴν ἀμὴν λέγω ὑμῖν, οὐ Μωῦσῆς δέδωκεν ὑμῖν τὸν ἄρτον ἐκ τοῦ οὐρανοῦ, GAN ὃ πατήρ μου δίδωσιν ὑμῖν τὸν ἄρτον ἐκ τοῦ οὐρανοῦ τὸν ἀληθινόν" 5. καὶ αὐτὴ εἶπεν, Ποῦ" τεθείκατε αὐτόν;

*Greek often uses redundant double negatives where English idiom uses only one. Translate this clause using only one negative. ."

Exercises

167

6. τὸ ἔθνος τοῦτο σημεῖον ζητεῖ, καὶ σημεῖον Od δοθήσεται αὐτῷ εἰ μὴ" τὸ σημεῖον Ἰωνᾶ ἥ 7. Ἤγαγον δὲ αὐτοὺς καὶ ἔστησαν' ἐν τῷ συνεδρίῳ." καὶ ἐπηρώτησεν αὐτοὺς O ἀρχιερεύς. 8. ἔφη αὐτῷ ὃ Ἰησοῦς, Πάλιν γέγραπται, Οὐκ ἐκπειράσεις" κύριον τὸν θεόν σου. 9. Πάλιν παραλαμβάνει αὐτὸν 6 διάβολος εἰς ὄρος ὑψηλὸν" λίαν," καὶ δείκνυσιν αὐτῷ πάσας τὰς βασιλείας τοῦ κόσμου καὶ τὴν δόξαν αὐτῶν. 10. καὶ λέγει αὐτῷ, Ταῦτά σοι πάντα δώσω. 11. καὶ ὅτε ἑστήκατε καὶ προσεύχεσθε, ἀφήσετε ej τι ἔχετε κατά τινος, ἀφήσει καὶ ὑμῖν ὃ πατὴρ ὑμῶν ἐν τοῖς οὐρανοῖς. 12. ὅτε ἤμην μετ᾽ αὐτῶν ἐγὼ ἐτήρουν αὐτοὺς ἐν τῷ ὀνόματί σου ᾧ δέδωκάς μοι, καὶ ἐφύλαξα, καὶ οὐδεὶς ἐξ αὐτῶν ἀπώλετο εἰ μὴ ὁ υἱὸς τῆς ἀπωλείας." 13. ὑμεῖς ἐστε οἱ υἱοὶ τῶν προφητῶν καὶ τῆς διαθήκης" ἧς διέθετο" 6 θεὸς πρὸς τοὺς πατέρας ὑμῶν. 14. εἶπεν δὲ ὁ θεὸς πρὸς Ἀβραάμ, Καὶ ἐν τῷ σπέρματί σου ἐνευλογηθήσονται" πᾶσαι αἱ πατριαὶ" τῆς γῆς. 15. Ἀλλὰ ἐρεῖ τις, Πῶς ἐγείρονται" οἱ νεκροί; 16. ὁ δὲ θεὸς δίδωσιν αὐτῷ σῶμα καθὼς ἠθέλησεν," καὶ ἑκάστῳ τῶν σπερμάτων ἴδιον σῶμα.

B. Translate the following sentences into Greek: Jesus knew that the woman was placing her hands upon his garment. He turned and said to her, “Why did you touch me?” She stood before him and said, “I perceived that you are the Prophet.” He said, “Your faith has saved you and your sins are forgiven.” She cried out with joy, “I will show myself to the priest now!” ον ες ΣΟΥ

Ξεἶ μή is an idiom. Search for it under εἶ. 4Bear in mind that the first aorist form of ἵστημι is transitive and thus calls for a direct object. In this case, the direct object is the same as for the previous verb.

Chapter 19

Participles; Formation of Participles

19.1 Vocabulary 19.1.1

Verbs

αἰτέω ἀκολουθέω ἀσθενέω βλασφημέω δέω διακονέω δοκέω

Ι ask, ask for, request I follow, accompany (with dat.) I am weak, am sick I blaspheme, revile

I bind, tie I wait upon, serve, care for (cf. “diaconal”)

transitive: I think, believe; intransitive: I seem (cf. “Docetic”)

ἐλεέω εὐλογέω εὐχαριστέω θεωρέω κατοικέω κρατέω μαρτυρέω μετανοέω μισέω οἰκοδομέω περιπατέω

I have mercy, pity (cf. “Kyrie eleison”) I bless, praise, speak well of (cf. “eulogize”) I give thanks (cf. “Eucharist”) I behold, look at, perceive (cf. “theorize”)

I inhabit, dwell, live I hold, take into my possession, grasp I bear witness, confirm, testify (cf. “martyr”) I change my mind, repent I hate, abhor (cf. “misogyny”) I build, edify (cf. “domicile”)

I walk around, go about, walk, live (cf. “peripatetic”)

προσκυνέω

I worship, prostrate myself before

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Chapter 19: Participles; Formation of Participles

φιλέω

I love, like [only twenty-five times, but

φοβέομαι

common in John] (cf. “Philadelphia”) I am afraid, fear, am frightened [only

passive forms occur in the GNT] (cf. “phobia”) φωνέω

I call, cry out, summon (cf. “phonetic”)

19.2 The Participle Participles are a common part of speech (see p. 6, Participles). Depending on the syntactical arrangement in which it is found, the participle, which has the properties of both a verb and an adjective, can function also as a substantive or an adverb. A good understanding of the intricacies of the participle is essential for effective exegesis of the biblical texts. Because the participle is multidimensional in both form and function, the next three chapters will be devoted to learning how to identify and translate the participle in context. As a verbal adjective, the Greek participle has structural characteristics of both a verb and an adjective. It has a verb stem to which case endings are attached. Like a verb, the participle has tense and voice. It occurs in the present, aorist, and perfect tenses! as well as the active, middle, and passive voices. The participle is formed on the six principal parts learned thus far. Like an adjective, the participle has endings that express case, number, and gender, and these forms are determined by the word that the participle modifies. In the following section, a translation is provided for each word used as a paradigm. Take these translations with a grain of salt. As will be seen in chs. 20-21, the way a participle is to be translated depends largely on the context in which it is used.

19.3 Formation of Participles 19.3.1 Nominal Endings Participles use two sets of endings. Both sets follow patterns that have already

been introduced. Observe the additional o in the Table 1 feminine endings. "The future tense is so infrequent in the GNT that it need not be addressed here. There are only three tenses because only three are needed to express the different nuances of verbal aspect. See ch. 4, p. 31. This is also true of the infinitive and the subjunctive, imperative, and optative moods. The imperfect and pluperfect tenses occur only in the indicative mood, and the future tense only rarely occurs in other moods.

19.3 Formation of Participles

171

Table 1 provides the endings for the present active, first aorist active, second aorist active, perfect active,’ first aorist passive, and second aorist passive (cf. πᾶς, πᾶσα, πᾶν):

Table 1: Active & Aorist Passive Participle Endings

Singular

Plural

M

F

N

M

F

N

N

-vor-¢?

-oa

~-vor-c'

-VTEG

-σαι

-ντὰα

G

-vt0oc

-σῆς

-ντος

τντῶν

-OMV

-ντῶν

D

-vt

-σῇ

νντι

-σι

-σαιῖς

-σι

A

-vta

-OaV

-νοῖ-ς

“VIG

“-σὰς

-VTa

Table 2 presents the endings for the present middle and passive, first and second aorist middle, and perfect middle and passive forms of the participle (cf. καλός, καλή, καλόν):

Table 2: Middle and Middle/Passive Participle Endings M

Singular F N

M

Plural F N

N

-ος

τη

τον

τοι

-αἰ]

-α

G

-οῦ

-ς

-οὐ

τῶν

-ὧν

-ῶν

D

-®

-ῇ

τῷ

-σῖς

-QIG

-οις

A

τον

-ν

-ov

τοὺς

-AG

-α

19.3.2 The Present Active Participle Stem. The present tense stem is used in all voices. Thus, the tense aspect is durative or progressive.

Linking vowels. In the active voice, the linking vowels are o in the masculine and neuter (so Av + 0-) and ov in the feminine (so Av + ov-). As with ἄρχων, the masculine nominative vowel is ὦ, not 0 (so λύων).

Endings. The present active paradigms are comparable to ἄρχων, θάλασσα," and πᾶν (Table 1 above). Notice that the forms of the present participle of εἰμί are essentially the endings of the present active participles for other verbs. >The perfect active masculine and neuter participles use these endings, but without the v of -ντος, -vt1, etc. The feminine changes from the δόξα- to the kapdia-type and does not use the o suffix. >The present and second aorist active use -v. All other forms use -ς. ‘Perfects end in -ς. °The pattern of accentuation for the present active participle, feminine gender is identical to θάλασσα (cf. p. 50).

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Chapter 19: Participles; Formation of Participles

Present Active Participle of Ava, releasing

Singular Ν

Plural

M

F

N

M

Ε

Ν

λύων

λύουσα

δλῦον

λύοντες.

λύουσαι

λύοντα

λύοντος

λυούσης

λύοντος

λυόντων

λυουσῶν

λυόντων

D

Avovtt

Avovlon

δλύοντι

λύουσι")

λυούσαις

λύουσι(ν)

A

λύοντα

δλύουσαν

Adov

λύοντας

λυούσας

λύοντα

Present Participle of εἰμί, being

Singular N ( D Α

Plural

M

F

N

M

F

N

ov ὄντος ὄντι ὄντα

οὖσα οὔσης οὔσῃ οὖσαν

ὄν ὄντος ὄντι ὄν

ὄντες ὄντων οὖσι) ὄντας

οὖσαι οὐσῶν οὔσαις οὖὗσας

ὄντα ὄντων οὔσι(ν) ὄντα

19.3.3 The Present Middle/Passive Participle Linking vowel. In the middle/passive voices, the linking vowel is always o. Middle-voice suffix. All middle and middle/passive participle forms come with the suffix -wev-, which indicates voice: Xv + 0 + μὲν + OG = λυόμενος. This voice suffix is a definitive sign of middle or middle/passive participles (but not the aorist passive). Because case endings are attached, it will not be mistaken fora verb in the first person plural (compare λύομεν with λυόμενος). Endings. The middle passive endings are comparable to those of καλός, καλή, καλόν (Table 2 above).

Present Middle/Passive Participle of λύω releasing (for) oneself/in one’s interest, being released

Singular

Plural

M

F

N

M

F

N

Ν

λυόμενος

λυομένη

λυόμενον

λυόμενοι

δλυόμεναι

δλυόμενα

G

λυομένου

λυομένης

λυομένου

λυομένων

λυομένων

λυομένων

D

λυομένῳ

δλυομένῃ

δλυομένῳ

λυομένοις

λυομέναις

λυομένοις

Α

λυόμενον

λυομένην

λυόμενον

λυομένους

λυομένας

λυόμενα

19.3 Formation of Participles

173

19.3.4 The First Aorist Participle No past-time prefix. The aorist-tense participle has no augment. A verb whose present-tense stem begins with a consonant loses the prefixed e- of the aorist indicative (e.g., EBAewa becomes BAe wa); a verb beginning with a vowel reverts to a short form (e.g., εἶδον becomes ἰδον; ἦλθον becomes ἐλθον; ἤγαγον becomes ayayov).° Stem. For all aorist active and middle participles, the stem, be it a first or second aorist, is the third principal part of the word in question. All aorist participles express unitary verbal aspect—the action of the participle is viewed as a single act. Linking vowel. As in the indicative mood, the first aorist uses α (λυσ + @-).

Endings. The first aorist active endings are comparable to those of πᾶς, πᾶσα, and πᾶν.

First Aorist Active Participle of A0@ having released, after releasing

Singular

Plural

M

F

N

M

F

N

Avo ac

λύσασα

Ado av

Mo avteg

λύῦσασαι

Abo avta

G Avo avtosg Avo άσης

Ado αντος

Aus άντων

AVG AO@V

Avo άντων

Ὁ

λύσαντι

λυσάσῃ

λύσαντι

Avo ασι)

Avo άσαις

Avo ασι(ν)

A

λύσαντα

λύσασαν

Ado αν

Moo αντας

Avo ἀσας

Avo αντὰα

N

For the purpose of tense identification, observe the difference in the feminine (nominative singular) forms of the present active, Abovoa, with the first aorist active Moaca.With words like βλέπω, ἐλπίζω, or φυλάσσω, remember that the tense suffix has combined with the final consonant of the stem. This is especially important to remember with feminine forms: BAen- + σ + a + oa = βλέψασα; ἐλπιδ- + GAGA = ἐλπίσασα; φυλαχ- + CATA = φυλάξασα. 19.3.5 Second Aorist Active

Aside from the second aorist stem, these paradigms are virtually indistinguishable from the present active participle.

6A reminder: The past-time prefix occurs only with indicative-mood verbs.

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Second Aorist Active Participle of ἄγω having led, after leading

Singular M

F

N

Ν

ἀγαγών

ἀγαγοῦσα

ἀγαγόν

G

ἀγαγόντος

ἀγαγούσης

ἀγαγόντος

είς.

19.3.6 First Aorist Middle

Linking vowel and middle voice suffix. The first aorist middle uses o for the linking vowel with the middle voice suffix -μεν- (e.g., BAewapevos). Endings. The first aorist middle endings are comparable to those of καλός, καλή, καλόν. First Aorist Middle Participle of Avo having released (for) oneself, in one’s own interest M N G D A

λυσά λυσα Avoa λυσά

F μενος μένου μένῳ μενον

N

Singular λυσα μένη λυσα μένης δλῦσα μένῃ λῦυσα μένην

δλυσά λῦσα Avo λυσά

M μενον μένου μένῳ μενον

λυσά λυσα λυσα λυσα

F μενοι μένων μένοις μένους

Plural δλυσά μεναι λῸῃυσὰα μένων λῦσα μέναις λυσα μένας

N λυσά δλυσα λῦΌσα δλυσά

μενα μένων μένοις μενα

19.3.7 Second Aorist Middle

Aside from the second aorist stem, these paradigms are virtually indistinguishable from the present middle/passive participles. Second Aorist Middle Participle of ἄγω having led (for) oneself/in one’s own interest M

F

N

Singular N

ἀγαγόμενος

ἀγαγομένη

ἀγαγόμενον

G

ἀγαγομένου

ἀγαγομένης

ἀγαγ ομένου

etc.

19.3 Formation of Participles

175

19.3.8 The First Aorist Passive Participle Stem. The first aorist passive participle uses the stem of the sixth principal part (e.g., Av8-).

Linking vowels. The first aorist passive uses εἰ or ε for the linking vowel.

Endings. The first aorist passive endings are comparable to those of πᾶς, πᾶσα, πᾶν.

First Aorist Passive Participle of λύω having been released/after being released

Singular

Plural

M F N N AvO εἰς λυθεῖσα λυθέν G λυθέντος ALO εἰ σης ADO ἐ ντος

M λυθέντες λῃυθ ἐ ντῶν

Ὁ

λυθέντι

λυθεί σῃ

λῃθ ε tor(v) λῃθ εἰ σαις λυθ εἶ ot(v)

A

λυθέντα

λῃυθεῖσαν λυθέν

λὺῃυθέ

ντι

λυθ ἐ ντὰας

F λῃυθ εἶ σαι λῃυθ ει σῶν λῃυθ εἰ σας

N λῃυθέ ντὰ λῃυθέ ντῶν λυθέντα,

19.3.9 The Second Aorist Passive Participle The second aorist passive participle is formed precisely like the first aorist but upon the second aorist stem. It therefore has no passive-voice tense suffix -6-. Simply substitute onap- (from ἐσπάρην, the sixth principal part of σπείρω: “I sow”) for λυθto form the second aorist passive participle. Second Aorist Passive Participle of σπείρω (aorist stem onap-) having been sown/after being sown

Ν G

M

F

N

σπαρείς σπαρέ ντος

Singular σπαρεῖσα σπαρ εἰ σῆς

σπαρέν onap é ντος

etc.

19.3.10 The Perfect Active Participle Stem. The fourth principal part is used for the perfect active participle; the stem for λέλυκα is λελυκ-. The verbal aspect is that of completed action with enduring result.

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Linking vowels. o is used for the masculine and neuter ( for the nominative masculine), and v1 is used for the feminine: AeAvKw/o- (masculine), AeAvKvI- (feminine), and λελυκο- (neuter).

Endings. The endings of the active voice closely parallel those of πᾶς, καρδία, πᾶν, but with the following modifications: ¢

the v of -vtoc, -vtt, and so on, is deleted throughout;

e

the v οἴπᾶν (neuter nominative and accusative singular) is instead -c.

Perfect Active Participle of Av having released (and the effect continues) Singular M

F

Plural N

M

F

N

N G

λελὺυκ ὡς λελυκ via’ AEdvK ός λελυκ ότος AEADK υἱ ας AEADK ότος

λελυκ ότες AEAVK ότων

λελυκυῖαι λελῦυκυι ὧν

AEADK OTH AEADK ότων

D

λελυκότι

λελυκυίᾳ

λελυκ ὀσι(ν)

λελυκ VI AIG

AEADK ὀσι(ν)

A

λελυκότα

AEAvK υ αν λελυκ OG

λελυκ ότας

λελὺυκυί ας

AEADK OTA

AEADK ότι

19.3.11 The Perfect Middle/Passive Participle Stem. The endings are attached directly to the stem of the fifth principal part (λελυ-).

Ὶ

Middle-voice suffix. The suffix -μεν- is the same as in the present and aorist tenses: λελυμεν-; ἥγιασμεν-; ELPNLEV-).

Endings. The endings of the middle/passive are identical to the present middle/ passive participle: λελυμένος, λελυμένη, λελυμένον. Stem reduplication and the lack of a linking vowel enable one to distinguish the two. Perfect Middle/Passive Participle of Avw having released (for)oneself, in one’s own interest (and the effect continues); released M

F

N

N

λελὺ μένος

Singular λελὺυ μένη

λελὺ μένον

G

λελὺ μένου

λελὺ μένης

λελὺυ μένον

etc.

"The final α is considered short for purposes of accentuation, resulting in -via.

19.4 Contract, Liquid, and -μι Verbs

177

19.4 Contract, Liquid, and -μι Verbs

19.4.1 Present Participles: Contract Verbs These verbs use the same endings as regular verbs, but they follow the coupling patterns that were introduced in ch. 17. Review the contraction chart in appendix 2,

Table 10, for the vowel formations. The nominative and genitive singular forms are shown here for the active participles, and the nominative singular forms are shown for the present middle/passive: Samples of Present Active Participles of Contract Verbs otavpow, crucifying

Ν G

M

F

N

σταυρῶν

σταυροῦσα

otavpodv

(= σταυρό wv)

(= σταυρό ουσα)

(= σταυρό ov)

σταυροῦντος (= σταυρό οντος)

σταυρούσης (=otavpo ovens)

OTAVPODVTOG (Ξ- σααυνρό οντος)

etc. Opaa, seeing

Ν G

M

F

N

δρῶν (= ὁρά ων) ὁρῶντος (= ὁρά οντος)

ὁρῶσα (= ὁρά ουσα) ὁρώσης (=dpaovons) εἴς.

ὁρῶν (= ὁρά ov) ὁρῶντος «(Ξ- ὁρά οντος)

ποιέω, doing, making

Ν.

G

M

F

N

ποιῶν

ποιοῦσα

ποιοῦν

(= ποιέ wv)

(= ποιέ OVO)

(= ποιέ ον)

ποιοῦντος (Ξ ποιέ οντος)

ποιούσης (=no1~ ovens)

ποιοῦντος (= ποιέ οντος)

εἴς.

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Samples of Present Middle/Passive Participles e.g., seeing (for) oneself, in one’s own interest; being seen M

F

N

N

otavpovuevog

στασυρουμένη

στασυρούμενον

Ν

ὁρώμενος

ὁρωμένη

ὁρώμενον

Ν

ποιούμενος

ποιουμένη

ποιούμενον

εἴς.

19.4.2 Aorist-Tense Participles of Liquid Verbs Liquid verbs pose no problems so long as you remember that they do not use the tense suffix -o-, even when they are first aorists. Review the paradigm for ἔμεινα on p. 154. The aorist-participle stem has no augment (as always). If first aorist, it uses the endings used with λύσας: -ας, -ασα, -av, and so on. Ifa second aorist (e.g., ἔβαλον), it uses the present-participle endings, as with ἀγαγῶν (cf. p. 174). The forms for the nominative and genitive singular of the first and second aorist participles follow: First Aorist Active Participle of μένω having remained

Ν G

M μείνας μείναντος

F : μείνασα μεινάσης

N μεῖναν μείναντος

ete,

First Aorist Middle Participle of μένω having remained (for) oneself, in one’s own interest M

Ε

Ν

Ν

μεινάμενος

μειναμένη

μεινάμενον

G

μειναμένου

μειναμένης

μειναμένου

ΕΟ. Second Aorist Active Participle of βάλλω having thrown M

F

N

Ν

βαλών

βαλοῦσα

βαλόν

G

βαλόντος

βαλούσης

βαλόντος

εἴς.

19.4 Contract, Liquid, and -μι Verbs

179

Second Aorist Middle Participle of βάλλω having thrown (for) oneself, in one’s own interest

M

F

N

N

βαλόμενος

βαλομένη

βαλόμενον

G

βαλομένου

βαλομένης

βαλομένου

etc.

19.4.3 Present- and Aorist-Tense Participles: -μι Verbs Tables 1 and 2 presented earlier in the chapter continue to provide the endings. The forms for the nominative and genitive singular of the present and aorist participles of δίδωμι (I give), τίθημι (I put), and ἵστημι (I stand) follow. The single difference between

the present and aorist forms is the presence or lack of the -μι verb stem reduplication. Present Active Participle of δίδωμι giving Active

Middle/Passive

N

διδούς

διδοῦσα

διδόν

διδόμενος

-

-ον

G

διδόντος

διδούσης

διδόντος

διδομένου

-ς

-ov

εἴς.

Second Aorist Participle of δίδωμι having given Active

Middle/Passive

N

δούς

δοῦσα

δόν

G

δόντος

δούσης

δόντος

εἴς. The present tense of τίθημι, with its ending, -θεις, looks as though it were an aorist passive, but it is not. Remember the -μι verb reduplication of the present tense and you will not err. Present Participle of τίθημι putting, placing Active

Middle/Passive

Ν

τιθείς

τιθεῖσα

τιθέν

τιθέμενος

-ἢὮ

-ον

(

τιθέντος

τιθείσης

τιθέντος

τιθεμένου

-ς

-Ov

etc.

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Second Aorist Participle of τίθημι having put, having placed Active

Middle/Passive

Ν

θείς

θεῖσα

θέν

θέμενος.

-Ἴ

-ον

G

θέντος

θείσης

θέντος

θεμένου

-ης

-ov

εἴς.

Present Participle of ἵστημι standing

Active

Middle/Passive

Ν

ἱστάς

ἱστᾶσα

ἱστάν

ἱστάμενος

-ἢἼ

-OV

G

iotavtog

ἱστάσης

ἱστάντος

ἱσταμένου

-ς

-οὐυ

εἴς.

Second Aorist Participle of ἵστημι having stood Active N

Middle/Passive

στάς

στᾶσα

στάν

-.“-»

στάντος

στάσης

στάντος

-----

εἴς.

The only participle forms for ἀφίημι that occur in the GNT are the aorist active, nominative masculine singular (ἀφείς) and plural (ἀφέντες). EXERCISES

Parse the following (tense, voice, mood, case, number, gender, and lexical form): 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

αἰτούμενος σταυροῦντος γεννῶσα φάναντι ἀποκτεινάσαις ἀποστεῖλαν βαλόντα ἀναβαινομένους ἀπαγγειλλάσης ἀναβεβηκότος

11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

κεκριμένῳ ἀπαγγελεῖσιν τιθέντα ἱστάντων δόντες ἑστηκότων δεδωκυίας ἐληλυθότες ἀγοράζουσιν γνωσθέντα

Exercises

21. κρατοῦντος

24. κρίναντος

22. καλουμένῃ 23. πεποιηκόσιν

25. ἀναστάντες

Rules of accentuation pertinent to this chapter are found in appendix 1.

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Chapter 20

Functions of Participles: Adjectival

20.1 Vocabulary 20.1.1 -p and Stem Liquid Verbs αἴρω, ἀρῶ, ἦρα, ἦρκα, ἦρμαι, ἤρθην I lift, take or pick up, take away ἐγείρω, ἐγερω, ἤγειρα, , ἐγήγερμαι, ἠγέρθην I wake, raise or raise up, rise σπείρω, , ἔσπειρα, : , ἐσπάρην I sow, scatter φέρω, οἴσω, ἤνεγκα, -evnvoxa',

,. ἠνέχθην

I bear, carry, bring (cf. “transfer”) προσφέρω

I bring (to), offer, present χαίρω, χαρήσομαι, I rejoice, am glad

.π--- ἐχάρην

'The perfect active occurs only in compounds with prepositions, as in προσενήνοχεν

(Heb 11:17).

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20.1.2 More Contract Verbs

ἀρνέομαι

I deny, repudiate

ἐπιτιμάω

I rebuke, reprove, warn

κασυχάομαι πλανάω

I boast, glory, pride myself in I lead astray, deceive, wander about

20.2 Translating Participles The participle is one of the richest modes of expression in the Greek language because it carries both nominal and verbal significations (see p. 6, Participles). One cannot, therefore, find a simple, single, word-to-word correlation between Greek and

English to render all that is inherent in the Greek participle. For example, as seen in the previous chapter, a participle has tense, voice, case, number, and gender. What English term can carry all that significance? None. Therefore, do not be reluctant to use more English words in translation than are in the Greek text. Use all the words and English grammatical structures needed to convey accurately to the reader everything that the Greek construction communicated to its original reader. As an example, consider Matt 26:25, where Judas, who betrayed Jesus, is referred to as ὁ παραδιδούς (present active, nominative singular masculine). It would be

quite inadequate to translate the participle simply as “betraying” because the form tells you additionally that the betrayer is a masculine, singular one who is the subject (nominative) of the clause; and the article tells you that the participle has a distinct nominal function. So the translator adds for the English reader appropriate terms such as “the one who is betraying.” A relative clause will often nicely convey the sense of the Greek participle when its adjectival aspect has the ascendancy. Just as participles have both nominal and verbal significations, so also do they have both adjectival and adverbial characteristics. In any given context, one characteristic may predominate over the other and so must be translated appropriately. Hence, so that you may learn to identify and translate the nuances of participles

in different contexts and grammatical constructions, ch. 20 focuses on the “adjectival” characteristics of the participle, while ch. 21 concentrates on the “adverbial”

characteristics.

20.3 The Participle and Time By itself, the participle has no inherent time value. It takes on temporal value in relation to the main verb of a given context (grammarians call this relative time). The tense of a participle indicates only verbal aspect. The following examples are meant to convey the verbal aspects of the various tenses in translation. y

20.3 The Participleand Time

185

20.3.1 Present-Tense Participles

Antecedent activity. The present-tense participle may reflect action that is prior to that of the main verb, particularly if the main verb is future tense. The following examples represent this class: Rom 5:17b

πολλῷ μᾶλλον οἱ... λαμβάνοντες... βασιλεύσουσιν. much more the ones who... are receiving... will rule.

Gal 1:23

ὃ διώκων ἡμᾶς ποτε νῦν εὐαγγελίζεται τὴν πίστιν. The one persecuting us before is now proclaiming the faith.

In Rom 5:17b the action of the participle λαμβάνοντες is durative and contemporary to the writer, but the action of the main verb βασιλεύσουσιν lies in the future. In Gal 1:23 the adverbs ποτέ and νῦν are needed to make it clear that the present-tense participle διώκων expresses durative action prior to the current and ongoing action of the present-tense verb εὐαγγελίζεται.2 The use of an aorist participle in this instance would not have contrasted the durative nature of Paul’s previous persecution of Christians with the durative nature of his proclamation of the faith.

Simultaneous activity. The present-tense participle most often reflects action that is simultaneous with that of the main verb. Consider the following: John 1:32

τεθέαμαι τὸ πνεῦμα καταβαῖνον ὡς περιστερὰν ἐξ οὐρανοῦ. I have perceived the spirit descending like a dove out of heaven.

Rom 14:4

σὺ τίς εἶ ὁ κρίνων ἀλλότριον οἰκέτην; Who are you who are judging another servant?

Matt 24:46

μακάριος 6 δοῦλος ἐκεῖνος ὃν... ὃ κύριος αὑτοῦ εὑρήσει οὕτως ποιοῦντα. “Blessed is that servant whom . . his master will find so doing.”

Whether the action of the main verb is in the past, the present, or the future, the action of the participle takes place at the same time as that action. John perceived the descent as it was happening. Paul chastises the Romans for their ongoing practice of judging others. And the “doing” of the servant is perceived as a future act occurring at the same time as the verb “will find.”

20.3.2 Aorist-Tense Participles Antecedent activity. Jude 5 provides a clear example of aorist participles expressing action that is prior to the action of the main verb: 2Otherwise, the translation would read, “The one who is persecuting us is proclaiming the faith”—a very different meaning indeed.

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6 κύριος ἅπαξ λαὸν ἐκ γῆς Αἰγύπτου σώσας τὸ δεύτερον τοὺς μὴ πιστεύσαντας ἀπώλεσεν. The Lord, (who) once rescued a people out of Egypt, later destroyed those who did not believe. By use of the aorist tense, the participles translated “(who) rescued” and “did (not)

believe” describe single, unitary events. Both actions, however, occurred before the action of the main verb, ἀπώλεσεν (destroyed). In this case, the adverbs help clarify this temporal relationship between the verb and the participles, but they are not essential to express it. Simultaneous activity. The aorist participle also expresses action that occurs basically at the same time as the main verb, particularly when the main verb is in the past tense. A common example is the idiom ἀποκριθεὶς εἶπεν (“He answered and said”; e.g., Luke 5:5). A translation that aptly conveys the thought of the Greek is “by way of response, he said,” or “replying, he said.” First Thessalonians 2:13 provides another good example: παραλαβόντες λόγον ἀκοῆς TAP’ ἡμῶν τοῦ θεοῦ ἐδέξασθε οὗ λόγον ἀνθρώπων ἀλλὰ καθώς ἐστιν ἀληθῶς λόγον θεοῦ. When you received the word of God [which you] heard from us, you accepted (it) not as a word of people but as it truly is, a word of God.

An oft-cited illustration of simultaneous action is Matt 27:4, where Judas says, ἥμαρτον παραδοὺς αἷμα ἀθῷον “I have sinned, betraying innocent blood.” The aorist indicative verb has a completed force to it (and so the English perfect-tense translation), and the force of the aorist participle is adverbial, modifying the verb. Since Judas recognizes that his sin was the betrayal, the action of the participle must be simultaneous with that of the main verb. To express the temporal relationship between the verb and its aorist modifier, the sentence could be translated, “I sinned

when I betrayed innocent blood”; but the emphasis properly belongs on the main verb (hence the NRsv’s “I have sinned by betraying... .). >

[44

20.3.3 Perfect-Tense Participles The action of the perfect participle precedes that of the main verb, and the effect of the action continues in force.

John 5:10a_—

EAeyov οὖν οἱ Ἰουδαῖοι τῷ τεθεραπευμένῳ.... Therefore, the Jews were saying to the one who had been healed...

Rev 9:15

καὶ ἐλύθησαν οἱ τέσσαρες ἄγγελοι οἱ ἡτοιμασμένοι εἰς τὴν ὥραν. And the four angels, who had been prepared for the hour, were released.

20.4 The Adjectival Participle

187

In preparation for the next section, observe that the articular participle in John 5:10a functions as a substantive and is the indirect object of the verb and that the participle in Rev 9:15, in the attributive position, serves to modify “angels.”

20.3.4 Future-Tense Participles Future participles are rarely encountered. Contrary to the other tenses, they do carry a time value—namely, the future.

20.4 The Adjectival Participle 20.4.1 Attributive Participles With the article. Like an adjective, the participle will occur with the article to modify a noun. In each instance, the noun and the participle agree in gender, number, and case. One finds both attributive positions: ¢

article, participle, noun: Luke 7:9

e

τῷ ἀκολουθοῦντι αὐτῷ ὄχλῳ to the crowd following him (lit., “to the following him crowd”)

article, noun, article, participle:

John 5:12

6 ἄνθρωπος ὁ εἰπών σοι the person who said to you (lit., “the person, the one having said to you”)

Col 1:5

τὴν ἐλπίδα τὴν ἀποκειμένην the hope laid up (lit., “the hope, the one laid up”)

Without the article. Contrary to typical adjectival constructions, the participle may have an attributive relation without the article. See Luke 6:48: ὅμοιός ἐστιν ἀνθρώπῳ οἰκοδομοῦντι οἰκίαν.

“He is like a person [who is] building a house.” Observe the agreement in case, number, and gender. The participle clearly is modifying “person” and can be translated by a relative clause. Indeed, in Matthew’s parallel version (7:24), a relative pronoun is used with a finite verb:

ὁμοιωθήσεται ἀνδρὶ .... ὅστις οἰκοδόμησεν αὐτοῦ τὴν οἰκίαν. “He is to be likened to ἃ man... who built his house.” Matthew construction:

26:7 is another illustration of the anarthrous

(without the article)

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προσῆλθεν αὐτῷ γυνὴ ἔχουσα ἀλάβαστρον μύρου βαρυτίμου καὶ κατέχεεν ἐπὶ τῆς κεφαλῆς αὐτοῦ ἀνακειμένου. “A woman having an alabaster jar of very expensive ointment came to him and she poured [it] on his head as he was reclining.”

The clearest example is in the first line, Matt 26:7a, where ἔχουσα... βαρυτίμου modifies γυνή. But Matt 26:70 offers another example along with an instructive lesson. As noted earlier, an aspect of the participle’s genius lies in the fact that it is not either adjectival or adverbial; it is both. The last participle highlights this truth. That ἀνακειμένου is describing αὐτοῦ is clear from their agreement in case, number, and gender. Because it is modifying the pronoun abtod—a clear adjectival function—one could have translated the participle as “who was reclining” (as in “on the head of him, who was reclining”). There is, however, an adverbial temporal force present in the context as well, and this is best expressed by the translation “as he was reclining.”*

As a substantive. Just as the adjective may be coupled with the article and used as a substantive, so may the participle. Any form of the participle may have this function. The Johannine writings are replete with examples: 1 John 3:70

ὁ ποιῶν τὴν δικαιοσύνην δίκαιός ἐστιν. The one who is doing justice is just.

John 13:28

τοῦτο οὐδεὶς ἔγνω TOV ἀνακειμένων πρὸς τί εἶπεν αὐτῷ. No one among those sitting [there] knew why he told him this.

Rev 1:5b

Τῷ ἀγαπῶντι ἡμᾶς καὶ λύσαντι ἡμᾶς ἐκ τῶν ἁμαρτιῶν ἡμῶν... To the one who is loving us and who released us from our sins...

John 13:11

Ader γὰρ τὸν παραδιδόντα αὐτόν. For he knew the one who was going to betray him.

In Rev 1:5b both participles agree with the dative singular masculine article and therefore fill out its meaning; but observe that the first participle is present tense and the second is aorist.

Substantives, but having objects. From the examples above, you should observe another characteristic of the participle: even substantival participles may have their own direct and indirect objects. For example, in 1 John 3:7b, τὴν δικαιοσύνην is the direct object of ποιῶν; in Rev 1:5b, huts is the direct object of both ἀγαπῶντι and λύσαντι; and in John 13:11, αὐτόν is the direct object of παραδιδόντα. Colossians 1:8 provides an example of both direct and indirect objects: *See ch. 21 concerning the adverbial participle expressing time (pp. 196-97). Further illustrations of attributive participles without the article are Rom 8:24, ἐλπὶς δὲ βλεπομένη οὐκ ἔστιν ἐλπίς (“But hope that is seen is not hope”); Mark 5:36, τὸν λόγον λαλούμενον (“the word that is being spoken”); and 2 Cor 3:2, ἣ ἐπιστολὴ ἡμῶν ὑμεῖς ἐστε, ἐγγεγραμμένη ἐν ταῖς καρδίαις ἡμῶν (“You are our letté?, inscribed on our hearts”).

20.5 ὑπάρχω as “Possessions”

189

... ὃ καὶ δηλώσας ἣμῖν τὴν ὑμῶν ἀγάπην ἐν πνεύματι. ... who also made known to us your love in spirit (or in the spirit). In this case, hiv is the indirect object of the subhstantival participle, and τὴν ἀγάπην is the direct object. Matthew 25:20 is another illustration of the substantival participle. But note the attributive position in which the direct object of λαβών stands: ὁ τὰ πέντε τάλαντα λαβών, “the one who received the five talents.”

20.5 ὑπάρχω as “Possessions” »

When ὑπάρχω is found in participial form with the neuter plural article (τὰ ὑπάρχοντο)), it functions as a substantive and is usually best translated as “possessions.” This construction is particularly prevalent in Luke-Acts (but see, e.g., 1 Cor 13:3).

20.6 The Granville Sharp Rule Luke 6:47

Πᾶς ὃ €pxouEvos πρός με καὶ ἀκούων μου τῶν λόγων καὶ ποιῶν αὐτούς... Everyone who is coming to me and hearing my words

and doing them... The first participle in the above passage is a substantival nominative (“the one coming”) with a modifying prepositional phrase (“to me”). The second participle is a continuation of the substantival nominative and has its own direct object (genitive because it is ἀκούω). The third participle concludes the substantival construction (with its own direct object). These three clauses—from πᾶς to adtovG—are, in effect, the subject of ἐστίν in the next clause; hence, “I will show you what everyone who... them is like.” Yes, it is a complicated sentence, but it is typical Greek. Observe that ἀκούων and ποιῶν above are anarthrous. Luke 6:47 illustrates what H. E. Dana and Julius R. Mantey designate as the Granville Sharp Rule: When the copulative kai connects two nouns of the same case, if the article 6 or any of its cases precedes the first of the said nouns or participles, and is not repeated before the second noun or participle, the latter always relates to the same person that is expressed or described by the first noun or participle; i.e., it denotes a further description of the first-named person.* 4H. E. Dana and Julius R. Mantey, ronto: Macmillan, 1927), 147.

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In Luke 6:47 the three nominative singular masculine participles are connected by καί. Because the second and third are anarthrous, they are additional modifiers of πᾶς 6 ἐρχόμενος. Thus, one understands by the Greek construction that part and parcel of “coming to me” is “hearing and doing”—Jesus is looking for more than just an entourage of yes-men and -women. EXERCISES

A. Translate the following sentences into English: 1. Καὶ μεθ᾽ ἡμέρας ὀκτὼ" πάλιν ἦσαν ἔσω" οἱ μαθηταὶ αὐτοῦ καὶ Θωμᾶς

.

.

. .

.

.

. 10.

μετ᾽ αὐτῶν. ἔρχεται ὃ Ἰησοῦς τῶν θυρῶν" κεκλεισμένων," καὶ ἔστη εἰς τὸ μέσον καὶ εἶπεν, Εἰρήνη ὑμῖν. Οἱ μὲν" οὖν" διαμαρτυράμενοι᾽ καὶ λαλήσαντες τὸν λόγον τοῦ κυρίου ὑπέστρεφον εἰς Ἱεροσόλυμα, πολλάς τε κώμας" τῶν Σαμαριτῶν εὐηγγελίζοντο. καὶ οἱ εἴκοσι" τέσσαρες πρεσβύτεροι οἵ ἐνώπιον τοῦ θεοῦ κάθηνται ἐπὶ τοὺς θρόνους αὐτῶν ἔπεσεν ἐπὶ τὰ πρόσωπα αὐτῶν καὶ προσεκύνησαν τῷ θεῷ λέγοντες, Εὐχαριστοῦμέν σοι, κύριε 6 θεὸς 6 παντοκράτωρ," ὁ ὧν καὶ ὃ ἦν, ὅτι εἴληφας τὴν δύναμίν cov τὴν μεγάλην καὶ ἐβασίλευσας." Σ λέγει αὐτῷ ὁ Ἰησοῦς, Ὅτι ἑώρακάς με πεπίστευκας; μακάριοι οἱ μὴ" ἰδόντες καὶ πιστεύσαντες. Εἰ δὲ κηρύσσεται ὅτι Χριστὸς ἐκ νεκρῶν ἐγήγερται, πῶς λέγουσιν ἐν ὑμῖν τινες ὅτι ἀνάστασις νεκρῶν οὐκ ἔστιν; ἔχοντες δὲ τὸ αὐτὸ πνεῦμα τῆς πίστεως, κατὰ τὸ γεγραμμένον, Ἔπίστευσα, διὸ" ἐλάλησα, καὶ ἡμεῖς πιστεύομεν, διὸ καὶ χαλοῦμεν, εἰδότες ὅτι ὁ ἐγείρας τὸν κύριον Ἰησοῦν καὶ ἡμᾶς σὺν Ἰησοῦ ἐγερεῖ καὶ παραστήσει σὺν ὑμῖν. καὶ ὃ πέμψας με πατὴρ ἐκεῖνος μεμαρτύρηκεν περὶ ἐμοῦ. οὔτε φωνὴν αὐτοῦ πώποτε" ἀκηκόατε οὔτε εἶδος" αὐτοῦ ἑωράκατε, καὶ τὸν λόγον αὐτοῦ OdK ἔχετε ἐν ὑμῖν μένοντα, ὅτι ὃν ἀπέστειλεν ἐκεῖνος, ὑμεῖς οὗ πιστεύετε.

°*Sometimes μὲν οὖν forms an idiom meaning “so” or “then.” “εὐαγγελίζω (aor. ednyyéAtca) is one of several compound verbs in the GNT with the prefixed adverb ev-. Observe that with this verb the past time augment follows the prefix, in contrast, for example, with εὐχαριστέω, which augments the prefix itself (aor. ηὐχαρίστησαο). Other verbs containing this prefix, such as εὐλογέω (aor. εὐλόγησα), form their past tenses without augmentation. Ye

Exercises

191

1: ‘EyoyyvCov* οὖν οἱ Ἰουδαῖοι περὶ αὐτοῦ ὅτι εἶπεν, Ἐγώ εἶμι ὁ ἄρτος ὁ 12.

13. 14.

15. 16. 7:

καταβὰς ἐκ τοῦ οὐρανοῦ. Σοφίαν δὲ λαλοῦμεν ἐν τοῖς τελείοις," σοφίαν δὲ οὐ τοῦ αἰῶνος τούτου οὐδὲ τῶν ἀρχόντων τοῦ αἰῶνος τούτου τῶν καταργουμένων "ἡ ἀλλὰ λαλοῦμεν θεοῦ σοφίαν ἐν μυστηρίῳ," τὴν ἀποκεκρυμμένην," ἣν προώρισεν" ὃ θεὸς πρὸ τῶν αἰώνων εἰς δόξαν ἡμῶν. καὶ ὥφθησαν αὑτοῖς διαμεριζόμεναι" γλῶσσαι ὡσεὶ" πυρός, καὶ ἐκάθισεν ἐφ᾽ ἕνα ἕκαστον αὐτῶν. ὃ φυτεύων" δὲ καὶ 6 ποτίζων" ἕν εἰσιν, ἕκαστος δὲ τὸν ἴδιον μισθὸν" λήμψεται κατὰ τὸν ἴδιον κόπον." Καὶ διαπεράσαντες" ἦλθον ἐπὶ τὴν γὴν εἰς Γεννησαρέτ" Καὶ ἐπιγνόντες αὐτὸν οἱ ἄνδρες τοῦ τόπου ἐκείνου ἀπέστειλαν εἰς ὅλην τὴν περίχωρον" ἐκείνην, καὶ προσήνεγκαν αὐτῷ πάντας τοὺς κακῶς" ἔχοντας.

B. Translate the following sentences into Greek: si Pap 3. 4. ὌΝ

The one who is rejoicing (use a participle) in the Lord will edify the assembly. I heard the man speaking to his disciples. The woman following him touched his garment. To those who have led others astray, I rebuke you. Living for God leads to righteousness.

Chapter 21

Functions of Participles: Adverbial and Complementary; Genitive Absolute; Periphrastic Tenses

21.1 Vocabulary 21.1.1 Adverbs of Place ἐγγύς

near

ἐκεῖ ὀπίσω

there, in that place, to that place behind; as a preposition of time or place (gen.): behind, after

ὅπου ποῦν

ας

ὧδε

where, whither where

here, in this place; to this place; fig.: in this case

21.1.2 Adverb of Comparison ὁμοίως

likewise, so, similarly, in the same way

21.1.3 Adverbs of Time ἄρτι εὐθύς, εὐθέως

now, just now immediately, at once

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ἤδη οὐκέτι πάντοτε σήμερον

now, already, by this time no longer always, at all times today

21.1.4 Adverb ofManner καλῶς

well, beautifully

21.1.5 Adverb Used as an Adversative Conjunction πλήν

but, however, only, nevertheless; as a preposition (gen.): except

21.2 Adverbial (Circumstantial) Participles The adverbial participle (also called the circumstantial participle) primarily modifies, describes, or qualifies the action of the verb in a sentence. It occurs in a predicate construction and is in grammatical agreement (i.e., case, number, gender) with a noun or noun substitute that it also modifies. This noun or noun substitute may be the subject of the verb (whether expressed separately from the verb or only in the verb’s personal ending), the object of the verb, or any other noun or noun substitute in the sentence.’ ἢ The adverbial participle is one way of expressing various circumstances surrounding the primary action of a clause or sentence—for example, cause, condition, concession, manner, means, purpose, and time. These notions are not inherent in the

participle per se, but are derived from the context in which the participles occur. It is only by careful analysis of the context with all of its various parts that the student can deduce which of the functions or significances is most likely present in the given instance. The following analyses and illustrations demonstrate that although the sense is clear in some situations, there is ambiguity in others. More than one of the adverbial senses can be present in a given situation.

21.3 Types of Adverbial Participles 21.3.1

Cause

A participle may express the reason or basis for an action. (Another way would be to use a ὅτι clause.) Consider the following: 'The genitive absolute, which will be discussed below, is an exceptional construction because it is grammatically independent of the sentence in which it is used. ye

21.3 Types of Adverbial Participles

Col 3:9-10

μὴ ψεύδεσθε εἰς ἀλλήλους, ἀπεκδυσάμενοι τὸν παλαιὸν ἄνθρωπον... καὶ ἐνδυσάμενοι τὸν νέον τὸν ἀνακαινούμενον. Do not continue lying to one another, since you stripped off the old person... and put on the new, which is being renewed.

Mark 5:33

ἣ δὲ γυνὴ ... εἰδυῖα ὃ γέγονεν αὐτῇ, ἦλθεν.

195

And the woman, . . . because she knew what had happened to her, came. “Having stripped off,” “having put on,” and “having known” would hardly capture the causal relationship between the participles and the main verbs. Because the symbolic stripping and rerobing has created a new person in Christ, one should no longer lie. Because the woman with the hemorrhage experienced healing when she touched Jesus’ garment (v. 29), she came to him when he called. To express this, the translations

above use “since” or “because.” (Observe the adjectival participle ἀνακαινούμενον, attributive position, in Col 3:10.) 21.3.2

Concession

A participle may express a circumstance that could have thwarted or negated another action. English idiom frequently uses “although” or “in spite of” for such ideas.

John 9:25

ἕν olda ὅτι τυφλὸς OV ἄρτι βλέπω. One thing I do know, that although I was blind, now I see.

1Cor9:19

ἐλεύθερος yap Ov ἐκ πάντων πᾶσιν ἐμαυτὸν ἐδούλωσα.

For though I was free from all, I made myself a slave to all. In each case, the participle ὧν expresses a state that could or should have been contrary to the action of the main verb. 21.3.3

Condition

A participle may express the condition under which something prevails or may prevail. The following are illustrative: 1 Cor 11:29

6 yap ἐσθίων Kai πίνων κρίμα ἑαυτῷ ἐσθίει καὶ πίνει μὴ διακρίνων τὸ σῶμα. For the one eating and drinking eats and drinks judgment to himself, not discerning rightly the body.

Read: For ifyou are eating or drinking without discerning the body, you eat and drink judgment upon yourself.

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Heb 2:3

πῶς ἡμεῖς ἐκφευξόμεθα τηλικαύτης ἀμελήσαντες σωτηρίας; How will we escape, having neglected so great a salvation?

Read: How will we escape ifwe neglect so great a salvation? Luke 9:25.

τί γὰρ ὠφελεῖται ἄνθρωπος κερδήσας TOV κόσμον ὅλον

ἑαυτὸν δὲ ἀπολέσας ἢ ζημιωθείς;

᾿

For what is the profit for a person who has gained the whole world but lost or forfeited oneself?

Read: For what does it profit them if they gain the whole world but lose or forfeit themselves? By expressing the condition upon which the question is to be decided, the adverbial participle in effect becomes the protasis of a conditional sentence. 21.3.4 Manner

A participle may indicate the mode or manner in which an action occurs or something exists. Mark 5:33a again provides an example, the participles expressing the manner in which the hemorrhaging woman approached Jesus.

h δὲ γυνὴ φοβηθεῖσα καὶ τρέμουσα, ... ἦλθεν. And the woman, with fear and trembling, ... came. 21.3.5

Means

‘

A participle may indicate the agency or medium by which action is performed. The example of Matt 27:4, discussed in ch. 20, is appropriate here, betrayal being the means by which Judas has sinned:

ἥμαρτον παραδοὺς αἷμα ἀθῷον. I have sinned by betraying innocent blood. 21.3.6 Purpose

Infrequently the participle may express the intention for which an action occurs. When this is the case, the present or future participle is encountered. Acts 3:26 demonstrates this function: ὑμῖν πρῶτον ἀναστήσας 6 θεὸς TOV παῖδα αὐτοῦ ἀπέστειλεν αὐτὸν εὐλογοῦντα ὑμᾶς. After God had raised up his servant, he sent him to you first in order to bless you. 21.3.7

Time

Probably the most common significance of the adverbial participle is that of time. It is precisely equivalent to a temporal clause. The following examples illustrate action action of the main verb: both prior to and simultaneous to the ye

21.4 The Complementary Participle

Matt 25:20

καὶ προσελθὼν ὃ τὰ πέντε τάλαντα λαβὼν προσήνεγκεν ... And when [or after] the one receiving five talents came, he brought...

Matt 26:8

ἰδόντες δὲ οἱ μαθηταὶ ἠγανάκτησαν.

197

But when the disciples saw [this], they were indignant. Col 1:3

Εὐχαριστοῦμεν τῷ θεῷ. ... πάντοτε περὶ ὑμῶν προσευχόμενοι. We give thanks to God . . . always as we are praying for you.

21.3.8 Attendant Activity ”

There are occasions when the participle provides important information but does not fit neatly into one of the categories above. When this occurs, one might speak of a participle expressing “attendant activity.” It stands in a logical relationship to the main verb of the sentence but does not quite express one of the adverbial notions. Consider Acts 13:11, where the participial clause stands in apposition to the main clause, creating a two-step progression: Kai νῦν ἰδοὺ χεὶρ κυρίου ἐπὶ σέ, καὶ ἔσῃ τυφλὸς μὴ βλέπων τὸν ἥλιον ἄχρι καιροῦ. And now, behold, the hand of the Lord is upon you, and you will be blind, not seeing the sun for a time.

21.4 The Complementary Participle Participles in the predicate position—without the article—are often used to complement the action of the main verb. For this reason, the complementary’ participle is integral to the sentence.

21.4.1 Verbs of Sense Perception and Cognition Verbs such as βλέπω, ὁράω, γινώσκω, οἶδα, and εὑρίσκω are often followed by

a participle in a clause or phrase that completes the verbal idea. Study the following examples: Mark 8:24

βλέπω τοὺς ἀνθρώπους ὅτι ὡς δένδρα ὁρῶ περιπατοῦντας. I see the people, because I perceive [them] as trees walking around.

Luke 7:10

οἱ πεμφθέντες εὗρον τὸν δοῦλον ὑγιαίνοντα.

Those who had been sent found the servant in good health. 2With reference to participles, the terms “complementary” and “supplementary” are used by grammarians to refer to the same thing, and some, such as A. T. Robertson, even use them interchangeably. Throughout this text, the term “complementary” will be used.

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With Mark 8:24, it is not enough that people look like trees; the man having his vision partially restored senses objects like trees yet “walking around” (note the subtle difference between βλέπω and dpa). Although “the servant” is the direct object of ebpov in Luke 7:10, the verbal idea is incomplete without the following participle because the servant had been sick and near death (7:2). It is in this sense of supplying information that the participles are complements to the main verbs.

21.4.2 Verbs of Ceasing, Completing, and So On Verbs of ceasing or finishing perhaps offer clearer illustrations of the complementary participle. “And as he ceased speaking [ἐπαύσατο λαλῶν] (Luke 5:4) shows the participle completing the thought of the main verb.

21.5 The Genitive Absolute

A noun or noun substitute in the genitive case may serve as the subject of a participle that is also in the genitive case. This is the genitive absolute, a clause that is grammatically independent from the remainder of the sentence but adds information that would otherwise be lost. Such clauses often translate aptly as temporal clauses.’ When translating genitive absolutes, the English preposition “of,” so often associated with the genitive case, is not to be used. Mark 14:3 illustrates two genitive absolutes with the present tense: καὶ ὄντος αὐτοῦ ἐν Βηθανίᾳ... κατακειμένου αὐτοῦ ἦλθεν αὐτῷ γυνή. And when he was in Bethany, .. . while he was dining ἃ woman came to him.

In the context, both participles express simultaneous action. The present tense indicates that both actions are ongoing. The Matthean parallel (26:6--7) uses an aorist participle to express simultaneous action:

τοῦ δέ Ἰησοῦ γενομένου ἐν BnOavia ... προσῆλθεν αὐτῷ γυνή. Now when Jesus was in Bethany ...a woman came to him. In Acts 26:14, however, the aorist participle is used to express antecedent time: πάντων TE καταπεσόντων ἡμῶν εἰς τὴν γῆν ἤκουσα φωνήν. And when we had all fallen to the ground, I heard a voice.

The use of the genitive case does not indicate per se that a participle is a genitive absolute. In Matt 26:7 (see pp. 187-88), the genitive participle ἀνακειμένου is gram-

matically related to the pronoun in the genitive case, αὐτοῦ; for this reason alone it is Occasionally, another adverbial sense is intended. E.g., Acts 7:5c is concessive whereas Acts 18:20 can be understood as temporal or concessive (or both, but a choice must be made when translating). Ephesians 2:20 expresses an attendant activity. ye

21.6 Periphrastic Tenses

199

genitive. Yet, it is not the genitive absolute because the clause is very much an integral

part of the grammatical structure of the sentence.

21.6 Periphrastic Tenses The periphrastic construction is a roundabout way of expressing something.‘ In chs. 13 and 14 (pp. 115, 124), it was observed that periphrastic forms (the verb εἰμί and a perfect participle) were used for otherwise unpronounceable third plural forms. But in many cases, the Greeks used the verb εἰμί or ὑπάρχω with the present- or the perfect-tense participle in order to express contextual emphasis, among other purposes. Six categories are identifiable in the GNT: “

Periphrastic Tense present periphrastic imperfect periphrastic future periphrastic perfect periphrastic pluperfect periphrastic future perfect periphrastic

Tense of εἰμί

Tense of Participle

Example εἰμὶ λύων

= _ present

+

present

=

imperfect

+

© present

=

future

+

present

ἔσομαι λύων

= _ present

+

perfect

εἰμὶ λελυκώς

=

imperfect

+ _ perfect

ἤμην λελυκώς

=

future

+

ἔσομαι λελυκώς

perfect

ἤμην λύων

In the above examples, only active participles are shown. However, in each case a passive participle could be used, resulting in a passive meaning. For example, εἰμὶ λελυμένος, the perfect passive periphrastic, would mean, “I am released.”

21.6.1 The Present Periphrastic Tense This tense usually emphasizes either customary action or a general truth, as in the following examples:

“περί (around) + φράσις (speech). The Latin circumlocutio (roundabout speech) expresses the same idea.

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2Cor2:17

od yap éopev ... καπηλεύοντες τὸν λόγον τοῦ θεοῦ. For we are ποῖ... peddling the word of God.

Col 1:6

καθὼς... ἐστὶν καρποφορούμενον καὶ αὐξανόμενον... just as... [the gospel] is bearing fruit and increasing...

In order to express the emphasis on customary action, the NRsv treats the participle in 2 Cor 2:17a as a substantive in the predicate position: “for we are not peddlers of God’s word.”

21.6.2 The Imperfect Periphrastic Tense The periphrastics enhance the continuing nature of the activity in the following examples: Gal 1:23

μόνον δὲ ἀκούοντες ἦσαν ὅτι ὁ διώκων ἡμᾶς... only they were hearing (or kept hearing) that the one persecutIe US 3.7

John 13:3

ἦν ἀνακείμενος εἷς ἐκ τῶν μαθητῶν αὐτοῦ. One of his disciples was reclining.

21.6.3 The Future Periphrastic Tense ‘

In the following examples, the continuative force of the activity is enhanced with the use of the present participle: Luke 21:24b

καὶ Ἰερουσαλὴμ ἔσται πατουμένη ὑπὸ ἐθνῶν. And Jerusalem will be trampled on by the Gentiles.

Luke 22:69

ἀπὸ tod νῦν δὲ ἔσται ὁ υἱὸς TOD ἀνθρώπου καθήμενος. But from now on the Son of Man will be seated.

21.6.4 ‘The Perfect Periphrastic Tense The present tense of εἰμί and the perfect participle are used to emphasize either the existing state or the continuation of the results of an action, as in Col 2:10: καὶ ἐστὲ EV αὐτῷ πεπληρωμένοι. And you have been completed (or have come to fullness) in him.

Colossians 2:10 literally reads, “And you are having been filled/completed in him.” In other words, the reader is currently in the state of fullness—the Greek construction emphasizes both the durative aspect of the present tense ἐστέ and the continuing effect of the perfect participle. ye

Exercises

201

21.6.5 The Pluperfect Periphrastic Tense This construction, like the regular pluperfect tense, simply makes the perfect tense as past action. As noted earlier, it is the common way of forming the third person plural of the pluperfect tense:

Luke 4:16

καὶ ἦλθεν εἰς Ναζαρά, od ἢν τεθραμμένος. And he came into Nazareth, where he had been raised.

John 12:16

τότε ἐμνήσθησαν ὅτι ταῦτα Hv ἐπ᾽ αὐτῷ γεγραμμένα.

Then they remembered that these things had been written about him. ” The future perfect periphrastic tense. This construction occurs only six times in the GNT. Consider Matt 16:19 (and 18:18): “Whatever you bind on the earth will have been bound [ἔσται δεδεμένον] in heaven and whatever you release on the earth will have been released [ἔσται λελυμένον] in heaven.” See also Luke 12:52 and Heb 2:13.

EXERCISES

A. Translate the following sentences into English: Ἰ οὐδέπω" γὰρ ἦν én’ οὐδενὶ αὐτῶν ExitentwKds,* μόνον dé

. . . .

. .

_ .

βεβαπτισμένοι ὑπῆρχον εἰς τὸ ὄνομα τοῦ κυρίου Ἰησοῦ. Πολλὰ δὲ ἄλλα σημεῖα ἐποίησεν ὁ Ἰησοῦς ἐνώπιον τῶν μαθητῶν αὐτοῦ, ἃ οὐκ ἔστιν γεγραμμένα ἐν τῷ βιβλίῳ" τούτῳ. βλέπεις ὅτι ἣ πίστις συνήργει" τοῖς ἔργοις αὐτοῦ καὶ ἐκ τῶν ἔργων ἣ πίστις ἐτελειώθη," καὶ ἐπληρώθη ἣ γραφὴ ἣ λέγουσα, Ἐπίστευσεν δὲ Ἀβραὰμ τῷ θεῷ, καὶ ἐλογίσθη αὐτῷ εἰς δικαιοσύνην, καὶ φίλος" θεοῦ ἐκλήθη. ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ Ῥαὰβ ἣ πόρνη" οὐκ ἐξ ἔργων ἐδικαιώθη ὑποδεξαμένη" τοὺς ἀγγέλους καὶ ἑτέρᾳ ὁδῷ ἐκβαλοῦσα; γενομένης δὲ τῆς φωνῆς ταύτης συνῆλθεν τὸ πλῆθος καὶ συνεχύθη," ὅτι ἤκουον εἷς ἕκαστος τῇ ἰδίᾳ διαλέκτῳ" λαλούντων αὐτῶν. ἐξίσταντο" δὲ καὶ ἐθαύμαζον λέγοντες, Οὐκ ἰδοὺ ἅπαντες οὗτοί εἰσιν οἱ λαλοῦντες Γαλιλαῖοι; καὶ πῶς ἡμεῖς ἀκούομεν ἕκαστος τῇ ἰδίᾳ διαλέκτῳ ἡμῶν ἐν ἢ ἐγεννήθημεν; ἕτεροι δὲ διαχλευάζοντες" ἔλεγον ὅτι Γλεύκους" μεμεστωμένοτ' εἰσίν.

10. καὶ ἐλθὼν πάλιν εὗρεν αὐτοὺς καθεύδοντας." ἦσαν γὰρ αὐτῶν οἱ

ὀφθαλμοὶ βεβαρημένοι." 11. καὶ ἀφεὶς αὐτοὺς πάλιν ἀπελθὼν προσηύξατο ἐκ τρίτου" τὸν αὑτὸν λόγον εἰπὼν πάλιν.

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Chapter 21: Adverbial and Complementary Participles; Genitive Absolute; Periphrastic Tenses

12. Ἀκούσαντες δὲ οἱ ἐν Ἱεροσολύμοις ἀπόστολοι ὅτι δέδεκται ἣ Σαμάρεια τὸν λόγον τοῦ θεοῦ ἀπέστειλαν πρὸς αὐτοὺς Πέτρον καὶ Ἰωάννην. 13. ἐλήλυθεν γὰρ Ἰωάννης ὃ βαπτιστὴς" μὴ" ἐσθίων ἄρτον μήτε" πίνων οἶνον," καὶ λέγετε, Δαιμόνιον ἔχει. ; 14. Ταῦτα εἶπεν ἐν συναγωγῇ διδάσκων ἐν Καφαρναούμ." 15. ἔστιν γεγραμμένον ἐν τοῖς προφήταις, Καὶ ἔσονται πάντες διδακτοὶ θεοῦ: πᾶς ὃ ἀκούσας παρὰ τοῦ πατρὸς καὶ μαθὼν ἔρχεται πρὸς ἐμέ. 16. Ἦσαν δὲ ἐν Ἰερουσαλὴμ κατοικοῦντες Ἰουδαῖοι, ἄνδρες εὐλαβεῖς" ἀπὸ παντὸς ἔθνους τῶν ὑπὸ τὸν οὐρανόν. 17. τότε παραδώσουσιν ὑμᾶς εἰς θλῖψιν καὶ ἀποκτενοῦσιν ὑμᾶς, καὶ ἔσεσθε μισούμενοι ὑπὸ πάντων τῶν ἐθνῶν διὰ τὸ ὄνομά LOD’ ὁ δὲ ὑπομείνας" εἰς τέλος οὗτος σωθήσεται.

B. Translate the following sentences into Greek: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Now when Jesus (gen.) entered® the city, a woman came to him. From the beginning until now, my father has loved the cosmos. The disciple buying the bread returned. Peter saw a child drinking from the waters with his hands.

5. Jesus said, “You (pl., emphatic) sowed a living faith.”

*Since this participial phrase has a different subject from that of the main verb, the participle and its subject should be rendered using the genitive case. ye

Chapter 22

Verbal System: The Subjunctive Mood

22.1 Vocabulary 2.1.1 First- and/or Second-Declension Adjectives ἀκάθαρτος, -ov ἁμαρτωλός, -όν

unclean sinful; as a noun with the masculine or feminine article: the sinner

ἄξιος, -α, -ον

worthy (cf. “axiom”) powerful, possible (cf. “dynamic”) hating; as a noun: an enemy sufficient, able, worthy new

δυνατός, -ἡ, -όν ἐχθρός, -ά, -όν ἱκανός, -ή, -όν

καινός, -ή, -όν κακός, -1), -όν

μικρός, -ά, -όν ὀλίγος, -ἡ, τον πτωχός, -N, -OV τυφλός, -ή, -OV

bad, evil (cf. “cacophony”) small, little (cf. “microscope”)

little, few (cf. “oligarchy”) poor; as a noun: a poor man or woman blind; as a noun: a blind man or woman

22.1.2 Numerals

δεύτερος, -α, -OV δώδεκα

second (cf. “Deuteronomy”) twelve

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ἑπτά

seven

πέντε

five (cf. “pentagon”)

τρίτος, -ἡ, -OV

third (cf. “tritium”)

22.1.3 Terms Used with the Subjunctive Mood ἐάν ἵνα μή μήτε μήτε... μήτε... μηδείς, μηδεμία, μηδέν

if in order that, that not, lest and not neither...nor... no, no one, nobody, nothing (declines like

εἷς, μία, ἕν; see p. 142) ὅπως

in order that, that

ὅστις, ἥτις, ὅ τι

whoever, whichever, whatever

οἵτινες, αἵτινες, ἅτινα ὅταν

(nominative plural forms) whenever

22.1.4 Interjection οὐαί >

22.1.5

,

woe! alas!

Particles that Intensify, Emphasize, or Contrast

Y, ἤ

indeed, at least, really, even or .

μέν

on the one hand, in fact, indeed (postpositive) (context determines whether it expresses contrast or

μέν...δέ...

agreement) on the one hand... οἡ the other hand... (the implied contrast is not always translated)

See p. 5, (d) Moods, and review p. 31 on verbal aspect.

22.2 The Subjunctive Mood When one is speaking with uncertainty about something, the subjunctive mood, rather than the indicative, is used. The subjunctive mood expresses the following:

e

contingency, as in “If I were you, I wouldn't do that”

e

an indefinite or nonrealized state, as in “May he finish the course”

22.3 Tense and the Subjunctive Mood

¢

205

a possibility as opposed to a reality, as in “You may comprehend the subjunctive mood (but probably not in one weekend!)”

Specifically, the Greek subjunctive is used for ¢

exhortations (but not outright commands)

¢

conditional thoughts that have a good likelihood of being fulfilled

e

avariety of subordinate clauses

22.3 Tense and the Subjunctive Mood

»

22.3.1 Verbal Aspect The subjunctive mood has two tenses that concern the first-year student: the present and the aorist. The present tense views activity as durative, ongoing, or repeti-

tive in nature. The aorist tense denotes a unitary action, whether viewed from the perspective of its beginning (inceptive), its completed state (resultative), or its totality (summary). : As with the participle, tenses in the subjunctive mood do not indicate time of action in and of themselves but adopt a time of action dependent upon the context within which they occur. Therefore, the goal of the translator is to convey the type of activity intended by the particular tense that is used. 22.3.2 Future Orientation

Because the subjunctive is a mood of contingency or possibility, it does bear a futuristic orientation. For example, the exhortation “Let us think yesterday” is nonsense. Even to say “Let us think today” demands a future perspective from the point in time when the exhortation is spoken. Nevertheless, this future orientation springs from the mood, not from the tense. As the student of Greek will learn, in certain grammatical constructions, the subjunctive and the future indicative could be used interchangeably. And it would serve you well to know and remember that there is no future subjunctive in Greek. As you will see from the paradigms below, you might at times be tempted to call something a future subjunctive (notice the word λύσῃ below, which can be either an aorist active subjunctive, a future middle indicative, or an aorist middle subjunctive).

22.4 Formation of the Subjunctive-Mood Tenses 22.4.1 Tense Endings The primary active and middle endings are used in all forms of the subjunctive mood. In most cases, the linking vowels are the same for both tenses: present-tense

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linking vowels are lengthened: o/ov to ὦ and ¢/e1 to n/n; the aorist uses these same vowels. Some contract and -1 verbs differ somewhat. Active

Singular 1 3 22.4.2

Middle

Plural

Singular

~ Plural _

τῷ

τ-ῶμεν

-μαι

-ὠμεθα

-Ὡς

τῇτε

-Ὦ

-ῆσθε

-ῇ

-οσι()

-ῆται

-ῶνται

Tense Stems

Identifying the stem is essential for determining the tense of the subjunctive forms. Like the indicative, the present tense subjunctive (any voice) is formed on the first principal part (e.g., Xv-); the aorist active and middle use the third (e.g., Avo-, λιπ-); and the aorist passive uses the sixth (e.g., AvO-, omap-).

22.4.3 Paradigms of the Present Tense Present Subjunctive of λύω Active

Middle/Passive

Singular

Plural

Singular

Plural

1

Av @

λύ ὦμεν

“AO ὦμαι

2

ONS

Ad NTE

AD 1

λύ ησθε

3

Av Nn

Av wor)

MO Ntar

Av ὠνται

Av ώμεθα

The indicative and subjunctive forms of the first person singular, present active, are the same. So are those of the third person singular, present active, and the second person singular, present middle/passive, subjunctive. These forms of the subjunctive are in bold type in the charts above. Context or some other consideration must guide the student when parsing these terms. An appropriate translation of a subjunctive-mood verb is entirely dependent upon its use in a sentence. Therefore a literal translation is not given here. Instead, you should pay close attention to the translated examples in subsequent sections of this chapter.

22.4.4 Paradigms of the Aorist Tense Observe three significant differences from the indicative mood: 1. There is no past-time augment. 2. There is no first aorist o/e linking vowel; ὦ and 1/n are used for both aorists.

3. The aorist does not use secondary endings.

22.4 Formation of the Subjunctive-Mood Tenses

207

First Aorist Subjunctive of χύω Active

Middle

Passive

15

Avo ©

λύσ ὦ μαι

λυθ @

25

λύσῃς

λύσῃ

λυθῇς

35

λύσῃ

λύσ ἡ ται

λυθῇ

1P

MOG ὦ μεν

Avo ὦ μεθα

λυθ ὦ μεν

2P

MOG ἡ τε

λύσ ἡ σθε

λυθ ἢ τε

SF

Avo ὦ σι(ν)

λύσ ὦ νται

Av8 ὦ σι(ν)

Second Aorist Subjunctive of λείπως σπείρω Active

Middle

Passive

15

Ain w

Aim

μαι

σπαρ ὦ

25

λίπῃς

λίπῃ

σπαρῇς

38 15

λίπῃ Ait μεν

λίπ η ται λιπ ὦ μεθα

σπαρ ῇ σπαρ ὦ μεν

2Ρ

λίπ ἡ τε

Ain

σθε

σπαρ ἢ τε

30

λίπ ὦ σι(ν)

λίπ

νται

σπαρ ὦ ou(v)

Because the linking vowel of the first aorist indicative is not used, the first aorist subjunctive looks like the future indicative in the first person singular active and the second person singular middle. These forms of the subjunctive are in bold type in the first aorist chart above. See appendix 1, p. 266, for how to accent the aorist passive subjunctive.

22.4.5 Paradigms of Liquid- and Nasal-Stem Verbs These verbs have second aorist forms like λίπω and λίπωμαι; only the different stem of the third principal part distinguishes the aorist tense from the present. Consider μείνω and μείνωμαι, from μένω (I remain). Aorist Subjunctive of μένω Aorist Active

Singular

Plural

Aorist Middle

2

μείνω μείνῃς

μείνωμεν μείνητε

Singular μείνωμαι μείνῃ

3

μείνῃ

μείνωσιν)

μείνηται

Plural μεινώμεθα μείνησθε μείνωνται

22.4.6 Paradigms of Contract Verbs The contraction and lengthening of linking vowels lead to minor deviations in the pattern for indicative paradigms (see pp. 149-52). The result is that indicative and

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subjunctive -cw forms are identical and -ow forms with -o1 are identical (ov lengthens to @). Illustrative are the following present active and middle/passive verbs: Present Subjunctives of Contract Verbs Active

15

ποιῶ

στασυρῶ

25

ποιῇς

σταυροῖς

35

ποιῇ

OTAVPOL

ip

ποιῶμεν

σταυρῶμεν

28

ποιῆτε

OTAVPOTE

3

ποιῶσι(ν)

σταυρῶσιφ)

Middle/Passive 15

ποιῶμαι

σταυρῶμαι

25

ποιῇ

OTAVPOt

59

ποιῆται

OTAVPATAL

LP

ποιώμεθα

σταυρώμεθα

2P.

ποιῆσθε

σταυρῶσθε

3P.

ποιῶνται

στασυρῶνται

22.4.7 Paradigm of εἰμί (Only in the Present Tense) -μι verbs do not have distinctive endings in the subjunctive mood. Learn the paradigm for εἰμί because all other -μι verbs will follow it (except for the consistent use of

ὦ in δίδωμι: διδῶ, διδῷς, etc.).

ι

Present Subjunctive of εἰμί

Singular ὦ

Plural ὦμεν

ἧς

ἦτε

ἢ!

aou(v)

'The third singular, present subjunctive form ἢ is not to be confused with the particle ἤ (or, than) or the feminine singular nominative and dative relative pronouns ἥ and ἣ (who; to whom). The situation for the struggling student is not as desperate as it may appear: (1) The relative pronouns ἥ and ἣ can be distinguished from ἢ and ἤ by their rough breathing marks. (2) The particle does not have a subscript. (3) The verb (ἢ) has a smooth breathing mark and

the iota subscript typical of the subjunctive second/third person singular. y°

22.4 Formation of the Subjunctive-Mood Tenses

209

22.4.8 Paradigms of the -uu Verbs The prefix is all that distinguishes the present from the aorist. Active Subjunctive of τίθημι Present

Singular

Plural

Aorist

Singular

Plural

1

τιθῶ

τιθῶμεν

θῶ

θῶμεν

2

τιθῇς

τιθῆτε

θῇς

θῆτε

3

τιθῇ

τιθῶσι(ν)

θῇ

θῶσι(ν)

Middle and Passive Subjuctive of τίθημι

Present Middle/Passive’

Aorist Middle

2

Singular τιθῶμαι τιθῇ

Plural τιθώμεθα τιθῆσθε

Singular θῶμαι θῇ

Plural θώμεθα θῆσθε

3

τιθῆται

τιθῶνται

θῆται

θῶνται

1

Active Subjunctive οἵ ἵστημι Present Active

Singular 1

Plural

.

Aorist Active

Singular

Plural

ἱστῶ

LOT@PEV

στῶ

στῶμεν

ἱστῇς

ἱστῆτε

στῇς

στῆτε

ἱστῇ

ἱστῶσι(ν)

στῇ

στῶσι(ν)

Active Subjunctive of δίδωμι Present Active

Singular

Plural

Aorist Active

Singular

Plural

1

διδῶ

διδῶμεν

δῶ

δῶμεν

2

διδῷς

διδῶτε

δῷς

δῶτε

διδῷ

διδῶσι(ν)

δῷ

δῶσι(ν)

2The present middle/passive of τίθημι does not occur in the GNT but is included here for purposes of comparison.

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22.5 Primary Functions of the Subjunctive Mood 22.5.1 Hortatory Subjunctive The first person plural is used regularly to exhort the listener(s) to join the speaker in an action; thus, in John 14:31b Jesus says, “Arise, let us go [ἄγωμεν] from here.”?

The hortatory subjunctive falls somewhat short of an outright command; hence, the subjunctive is used instead of the imperative. Indeed, John 14:31b could even be translated, “Get up! We should be leaving here.” As expected, the present subjunctive expresses durative action. This is seen in 1 John 4:7: ἀγαπητοί, ἀγαπῶμεν ἀλλήλους = “Beloved, let us love one another.” The present subjunctive is used to to encourage constancy, as in “Beloved, let us persist in loving one another.” The aorist subjunctive, signifying a unitary kind of action, contrasts with the durative character of the present subjunctive. Compare the following:

Mark 12:7

ἐκεῖνοι δὲ οἱ γεωργοὶ πρὸς ἑαυτοὺς εἶπαν ὅτι οὗτος ἐστιν ὃ κληρονόμος: δεῦτε ἀποκτείνωμεν! αὐτόν. But those farmers said to one another, “This one is the heir. Come, let us kill him.”

Luke 2:15

οἱ ποιμένες ἐλάλουν πρὸς ἀλλήλους: διέλθωμεν δὴ ἕως Βηθλέεμ καὶ ἴδωμεν τὸ ῥῆμα τοῦτο. The shepherds were saying to one another, “Let us go, then, as far as Bethlehem and let us see this word.”

In each case, the action has yet to take place. Therefore the aorist is inceptive in nature. Furthermore, Mark’s tenant farmers clearly have a single, unitary act in mind—kill! The lexical meanings of Luke’s verbs suggest ongoing activity, but the tense points to the inception of the actions.

22.5.2 Subjunctive of Prohibition The aorist subjunctive is used with un to categorically forbid an action.° In this construction, both the summary and the inceptive aspects of the aorist tense may come into play. Compare the following:

*The first person singular is rare but does occur. The request*is that the listener permit the speaker to do something, usually with the help of a second person imperative. E.g., Matt 7:4 reads, ἄφες ἐκβάλω τὸ κάρφος EK TOD ὀφθαλμοῦ σοῦ (lit., “Allow that I should take the beam out of your eye”; i.e., “Let me take the beam out of your eye”). “The Greek form may be either present or second aorist (see pp. 206-7), but neither the context nor the lexical sense of the verb itself suggests durative activity. The second person singular or plural is most common. Ye

22.5 Primary Functions of the Subjunctive Mood

211

Matt 7:6

μὴ δῶτε τὸ ἅγιον τοῖς κυσὶν, μηδὲ βάλητε τοὺς μαργαρίτας ὑμῶν ἔμπροσθεν τῶν χοίρων. Do not give the holy thing to the dogs, nor cast your pearls before the pigs.

2 Tim 1:8

μὴ οὖν ἐπαισχυνθῇς τὸ μαρτύριον τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν.

Thus, do not begin to be ashamed of the testimony about our Lord.

In both examples, the prohibitions are summary and categorical, but implied in each is “don’t begin to .. .” In the latter case especially, it is clear from the rest of the letter that Timothy was not thought to be ashamed; therefore, the prohibition was to deny its possible inception. »"

22.5.3 Deliberative Subjunctive The deliberative subjunctive asks the question “What should we do?” It usually occurs in the first person plural, aorist tense,° and the focus of the question is on future possibilities. Indeed, the future indicative is also used for deliberative questions. Compare the following examples: Mark 12:14

ἔξεστιν δοῦναι κῆνσον Καίσαρι ἢ οὔ; δῶμεν ἢ μὴ δῶμεν; Is it lawful to pay taxes to Caesar or not? Should we pay or should we not pay?

The previous passage conveys the full sense of the deliberative subjunctive by posing both positive and negative sides of the question. Luke 3:10

καὶ ἐπηρώτων αὑτὸν οἱ ὄχλοι λέγοντες"

τί οὖν ποιήσωμεν; And the crowds were querying him, saying, “What, then, should we start doing?”

John the Baptist chastizes people who are not bearing fruit worthy of repentence; therefore, their subsequent question is inceptive in nature and requires the aorist tense.

John 6:28

εἶπον οὖν πρὸς αὐτόν: Ti ποιῶμεν ἵνα ἐργαζώμεθα τὰ ἔργα τοῦ θεοῦ; So they said to him, “What should we be doing in order that we may be working the works of God?”

The first subjunctive in John 6:28 is present tense because the hearers are already doing things but for the wrong reasons (6:26). So, in response to Jesus’ admonition that they con-

tinue working for the “imperishable food” (6:27), they ask what it is they ought to continue doing. The second subjunctive is part of a purpose clause introduced by ἵνα (see below). °The first person singular and the present tense are much less common.

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22.5.4 Subjunctive of Negated Future The double negative od μή is often used with the aorist subjunctive (and occasionally the future indicative) to emphasize an unlikely future. Mark 13:30

Ἀμὴν λέγωὑμῖν t ὅτι OD μὴ παρέλθῃ ἣ γενεὰ αὕτη

μέχρις οὗ ταῦτα πάντα γένηται. Truly I tell you that this generation will not pass away until all these things happen. The emphasis could also be translated as “will surely not.” The subjunctive in the second line is due to the idiom μέχρις οὗ. Incidentally, the future indicative is used with οὗ μή in the very next verse: οἱ δὲ λόγοι μου OD μὴ παρελεύσονται (“but my words will not pass away”). Why the switch in moods? Perhaps because the end of “this generation” is contingent upon the occurrence of “these things,” whereas, regardless of circumstances, Jesus’ words will not pass away. Perhaps because the double negative has lost some of its force in the Koine period, the author of John adds εἰς τὸν αἰῶνα (“into the ages, forever”) to the construction on

several occasions in order to strengthen its emphasis. John 11:26

πᾶς ὁ ζῶν καὶ πιστεύων εἰς ἐμὲ οὐ μὴ ἀποθάνῃ εἰς τὸν αἰῶνα. Everyone who lives and believes in me will never die. ‘

22.6 Subordinate Clauses and the Subjunctive Mood In the previous categories, the subjunctive is in the main clause. A number of particles introduce subordinate clauses that use the subjunctive mood. The following are among the more important.

22.6.1 iva or ὅπως with the Subjunctive to Introduce Purpose Clauses Any time ἵνα is encountered, think, “Subjunctive is following.” Rarely will you be in error. John 1:7 provides an example of consecutive purpose clauses:

οὗτος ἦλθεν εἰς μαρτυρίαν ἵνα μαρτυρήσῃ περὶ τοῦ φωτός, ἵνα πάντες πιστεύσωσιν δι᾽ αὐτοῦ. This one came as a witness for the purpose ofgiving testimony concerning the light, in order that all might come to believe through him.

In other words, God’s reason for sending John was in order that John might testify to the light (i.e., identify Jesus); but the motive behind the testimony was in order that all ye

22.6 Subordinate Clauses and the Subjunctive Mood

213

people might come to believe in the light. The subjunctives are both aorist. The first is a summary aorist; it portrays John’s witness as a distinct, unitary act, even though he will identify Jesus on several occasions. The second is an inceptive aorist: “so that all might begin to believe.” John 10:38 provides an instructive comparison of tenses in the subjunctive mood: τοῖς ἔργοις πιστεύετε [imperative] ἵνα γνῶτε καὶ γινώσκητε ὅτι ἐν ἐμοὶ ὁ πατὴρ κἀγὼ [καί ἐγώ] ἐν τῷ πατρί. Believe continuously in [my] works, in order that you may begin to know and may continue in knowing that the Father [is] in me and I [am] in the Father.

Here ἵνα begins a purpose clause with both aorist and present subjunctive forms of the same verb. They work together to emphasize the importance of both the initial grasping and the durative understanding of Jesus’ immanent relationship with God. ὅπως introduces purpose clauses in the same manner. Compare the following: Matt 1:22

τοῦτο δὲ ὅλον γέγονεν ἵνα πληρωθῇ τὸ ῥηθὲν... διὰ τοῦ προφήτου. All this took place so that what was spoken .. . through the prophet might be fulfilled.

Matt 13:34-35

χωρὶς παραβολῆς οὐδὲν ἐλάλει αὐτοῖς, ὅπως πληρωθῇ τὸ ῥηθὲν διὰ τοῦ προφήτου. He said nothing to them without a parable, so that what was spoken through the prophet might be fulfilled.

On properly translating the subjunctive into English, compare Matt 1:22 and 13:35 with John 10:38 (above), noting the use of “may” and “might.” “May” acts as an auxiliary to translate the subjunctive in contexts of present or future time, as indicated by the main verb. “Might” translates the subjunctive in contexts of past time, as indicated by the main verb. To put it another way, the main verb determines the relative time of the subordinate verbs in any given sentence.

22.6.2 ὅταν with the Subjunctive to Express Indefinite Time The aorist subjunctive is often used with ὅταν (ὅτε + ἄν) to express an indefinite

time that precedes the action of the main verb. As an aorist, a single event is in mind. On the other hand, the present subjunctive is used with ὅταν to express indefinite time that is simultaneous with the action of the main verb. The following verse provides an example of both:

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1 Cor 15:24

εἶτα τὸ τέλος, ὅταν παραδιδῷ τὴν βασιλείαν τῷ θεῷ καὶ πατρί, ὅταν καταργήσῃ πᾶσαν ἀρχὴν καὶ πᾶσαν ἐξουσίαν καὶ δύναμιν. Then [comes] the end, when [Christ] hands over the reign to God the Father,

when he has destroyed every ruler and every authority and power. The first action (present tense) takes place at the end, while the second action (aorist)

takes place prior to the end (nrsv: “after he has destroyed”). In order to translate the complete action of the aorist tense here, the English perfect is used. The present tense often indicates that a repetitive kind of action is in mind. Matthew’s Sermon on the Mount provides a string of examples:

Matt 6:2

ὅταν οὖν ποιῇς ἐλεημοσύνην ... So, whenever you (sg.) give alms...

Matt 6:5

καὶ ὅταν προσεύχησθε.... And whenever you (pl.) pray...

Matt 6:6

σὺ δὲ ὅταν TPOGEDYN ... But whenever you (sg.) pray...

Matt 6:16

ὅταν δὲ νηστεύητε . .* Now, whenever you (pl.) fast...

In each instance the thought is that, at some time or another, one may do these things. When one does, the terms expressed in the remainder of the verses are the conditions

under which they are to be done.

ἰ

22.6.3 Indefinite Relative Clauses Expressing Conditional Thought Use of the relative pronoun with ἄν or ἐάν (εἰ + ἄν) creates an indefinite subject

and may express a conditional thought.’ The idioms translate as “whoever,” “whatever,” or “whichever.”

Matt 12:32

καὶ ὃς ἐὰν εἴπῃ λόγον κατὰ τοῦ υἱοῦ τοῦ ἀνθρώπου, ἀφεθήσεται αὐτῷ: ὃς δ᾽ ἂν εἴπῃ κατὰ τοῦ πνεύματος τοῦ ἁγίου, οὐκ ἀφεθήσεται αὐτῷ.

And whoever should speak a word against the Son of Humanity, it will be forgiven him;

’The most common forms found in the GNT are ὃς ἄν (35 times), ὃς δ᾽ ἄν (17 times), ὃς ἐάν (17 times), and ὃ ἐάν (17 times). se

22.7 Third-Class Conditional Sentences: The Subjunctive Mood

215

but whoever should speak (a word) against the Holy Spirit, it will not be forgiven him. “Whoever” translates the indefinite relatives and “should speak” captures the tentative nature of the subjunctive mood. Notice, too, that these parallel statements express a conditional thought: “If one speaks thus, one will/will not be forgiven.” Mark 10:15

ὃς ἂν μὴ δέξηται τὴν βασιλείαν τοῦ θεοῦ ὡς παιδίον οὐ μὴ εἰσέλθῃ εἰς αὐτήν. Whoever does not receive the reign of God as ἃ child will never enter into it.

Again, the conditionality of the saying is evident (“Jf you“don'’t receive it as such, you won't enter it”), as well as the indefiniteness of the subject (“whoever”). In light of the

subjunctive of negated future (od μὴ εἰσέλθῃ) and the wider context, the saying also has the character of an admonition (i.e., “Receive it as such or else”).

The idioms ὃς ἄν and ὃς ἐάν with the subjunctive also occur in the oblique cases.® Luke 10:5 has ὃς ἄν functioning as the object of the preposition εἰς: “And whatever [εἰς ἣν δ᾽ ἄν] city you enter, first say...” “You” is the subject of the subordinate clause, and the indirect object of the verb—literally, “into whatever city”—is indefinite in nature. But there is also a sense of conditionality to the sentence that could be translated, “Whenever you enter a city...”

22.7 Third-Class Conditional Sentences: The Subjunctive Mood The structure of the third-class condition is as follows:

Protasis

ἐάν + subjunctive

Apodosis

future, present, or aorist indicative or imperative

Because the subjunctive is used, some uncertainty exists as to the future fulfillment of the condition (the protasis); but this is tempered by an expectation that the condition will be realized. 22.7.1

Present Tense in the Protasis

The following examples highlight the durative aspect of the present tense: 1 John 1:7

ἐὰν δὲ ἐν TO φωτὶ περιπατῶμεν ὡς αὖὗτός ἐστιν ἐν τῷ φωτί, κοινωνίαν ἔχομεν μετ᾽ ἀλλήλων. But ifwe are walking in the light as he is in the light, we have fellowship with one another.

> 5E.g., οὗ ἄν, ᾧ ἄν, ὃν δ᾽ ἄν, ἣν (8) ἄν, ᾧ ἐάν (5 times), and ὃν ἐάν (2 times).

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lJohn 4:12

ἐὰν ἀγαπῶμεν ἀλλήλους, ὁ θεὸς ἐν ἡμῖν μένει. Ifwe are loving one another, God abides in us.

Note that, like the indefinite relative clauses discussed above, these examples are exhortatory in character. They are actually saying, “Let’s be walking in the light and loving one another; there’s a profound spiritual payoff should we persist in doing so.” The following example contains two subjunctives, present and aorist, followed by three consecutive imperatives.

Matt 5:23-24 ἐὰν οὖν προσφέρῃς (pres.) τὸ δῶρόν σοῦ ἐπὶ τὸ θυσιαστήριον κἀκεῖ μνησθῇς (aor.) ὅτι ὁ ἀδελφός GOD ἔχει τι κατὰ σοῦ, ἄφες ἐκεῖ τὸ δῶρόν σου... ὕπαγε... διαλλάγηθι τῷ ἀδελφῷ σου. So ifyou are bringing your gift to the altar and there remember that your brother has something against

you, leave your gift there... go... be reconciled with your brother. In other words, “If, in the process of offering a sacrifice [durative action], you should remember [a unitary act] ...”

22.7.2 Aorist Tense in the Protasis In the first example, the aorist suggests a single, incéptive act. In the second example, both actions are perceived as unitary and are seen as the conditions of salvation.

John 8:36

ἐὰν οὖν ὁ υἱὸς ὑμᾶς ἐλευθερώσῃ, ὄντως ἐλεύθεροι ἔσεσθε. If, therefore, the Son sets you free, truly you will be free.

Rom 10:9

ἐὰν ὁμολογήσῃς.... κύριον Ἰησοῦν καὶ πιστεύσῃς... ὅτι ὁ θεὸς αὐτὸν ἤγειρεν ἐκ νεκρῶν, σωθήσῃ: Ifyou confess .. . Lord Jesus

and you believe... that God raised him from the dead, [then] you will be saved. :

The next example shows that the qualitative difference between the “indefinite relative clause expressing conditional thought” and the “third-class conditional sentence” can be slight at times—even nonexistent. The example employs a common construction—especially in the Gospel of John—of ἐάν plus the indefinite pronoun yd

22.8 Questions That Anticipatean Answer

217

τις. Iwo equally viable translations are presented here: one that expresses the “if/then” nature of the third-class conditional construction and one that highlights the indefinite nature of the pronoun subject. John 6:51b

ἐὰν τις φάγῃ ἐκ τούτου τοῦ ἄρτου ζήσει εἰς τὸν αἰῶνα.

Ifsomeone (or anyone) eats of this bread, he (or she) will live forever. Or, “Whoever should eat of this bread will live forever.”

22.8 Questions That Anticipate an Answer A questioner may indicate whether an affirmative or a negative response is ex-

pected by the manner in which the query is posed. These are often rhetorical questions. (see the previous discussion on p. 62). If the anticipated response is affirmative, the question will begin with od: John 6:70

Οὐκ ἐγὼ ὑμᾶς τοὺς δώδεκα ἐξελεξάμην, καὶ ἐξ ὑμῶν εἷς διάβολός ἐστιν; Have I not chosen you twelve, and one of you is a devil?

If the anticipated response is negative, the question will begin with μή: 1 Cor 12:20

μὴ πάντες ἀπόστολοι; μὴ πάντες προφῆται; Not all (are) apostles, are they? Not all (are) prophets, are they?

EXERCISES

A. Translate the following sentences into English: 1. ἀπεκρίθη ὁ Ἰησοῦς καὶ εἶπεν αὐτοῖς, Τοῦτό ἐστιν τὸ ἔργον tod θεοῦ, ἵνα πιστεύητε εἰς ὃν ἀπέστειλεν ἐκεῖνος. 2. εἶπον οὖν αὐτῷ, Τί οὖν ποιεῖς σὺ σημεῖον, ἵνα ἴδωμεν καὶ πιστεύσωμέν σοι; 3. Ol πατέρες ἡμῶν τὸ μάννα ἔφαγον ἐν τῇ ἐρήμῳ, καθώς ἐστιν γεγραμμένον, Ἄρτον ἐκ τοῦ οὐρανοῦ ἔδωκεν αὐτοῖς. 4. καὶ ἀγοράσας σινδόνα" αὐτὸν ἐνείλησεν" τῇ σινδόνι καὶ ἔθηκεν αὑτὸν ἐν μνημείῳ" ὃ ἦν λελατομημένον᾽" ἐκ πέτρας, καὶ προσεκύλισεν" λίθον ἐπὶ τὴν θύραν" τοῦ μνημείου. 5, ἠτήσατο παρ᾽ αὐτοῦ ἐπιστολὰς" εἰς Δαμασκὸν πρὸς τὰς συναγωγάς, ὅπως ἐάν τινας εὕρῃ τῆς ὁδοῦ ὄντας, ἄνδρας τε καὶ γυναῖκας, δεδεμένους ἀγάγῃ εἰς Ἱερουσαλήμ.

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6. καθὼς ἐμὲ ἀπέστειλας εἰς τὸν κόσμον, κἀγὼ ἀπέστειλα αὐτοὺς εἰς τὸν κόσμον: καὶ ὑπὲρ αὐτῶν ἐγὼ ἁγιάζω ἐμαυτόν, ἵνα ὦσιν καὶ αὐτοὶ ἡγιασμένοι ἐν ἀληθείᾳ. καὶ ἐδίδασκεν καὶ ἔλεγεν αὐτοῖς, Οὐ γέγραπται ὅτι Ὁ οἶκός μου οἶκος προσευχῆς" κληθήσεται πᾶσιν τοῖς ἔθνεσιν; ὑμεῖς δὲ πεποιήκατε αὑτὸν σπήλαιον" λῃστῶν " ' . καὶ ὅταν ὀψὲ" ἐγένετο, ἐξεπορεύοντο ἔξω τῆς πόλεως. . ἐὰν δὲ ἐν τῷ φωτὶ περιπατῶμεν ὡς αὐτός ἐστιν ἐν τῷ φωτί, κοινωνίαν" ἔχομεν pet ἀλλήλων καὶ τὸ αἷμα Ἰησοῦ τοῦ υἱοῦ αὐτοῦ καθαρίζει ἡμᾶς ἀπὸ πάσης ἁμαρτίας. 10. ὃς δ᾽ ἂν ἔχῃ τὸν βίον" τοῦ κόσμου καὶ θεωρῇ τὸν ἀδελφὸν αὐτοῦ χρείαν" ἔχοντα καὶ κλείσῃ" τὰ σπλάγχνα" αὐτοῦ ἀπ᾽ αὐτοῦ, πῶς ἣ ἀγάπη τοῦ θεοῦ μένει ἐν αὐτῷ; 11. Τεκνία," μὴ ἀγαπῶμεν λόγῳ μηδὲ" τῇ γλώσσῃ ἀλλὰ ἐν ἔργῳ καὶ ἀληθείᾳ. Lipa) νυνὶ δὲ ὁ θεὸς ἔθετο τὰ μέλη, ἕν ἕκαστον αὐτῶν, ἐν τῷ σώματι καθὼς ἠθέλησεν" εἰ δὲ ἦν τὰ πάντα ἕν μέλος, ποῦ τὸ σῶμα; 15, Ἐν ἐκείνῃ τῇ ἡμέρᾳ προσῆλθον αὐτῷ Σαδδουκαῖοι," καὶ ἐπηρώτησαν

αὐτὸν λέγοντες, Διδάσκαλε, Modoc εἶπεν, Ἐάν τις ἀποθάνῃ μὴ ἔχων τέκνα, ἐπιγαμβρεύσει" ὁ ἀδελφὸς αὐτοῦ τὴν γυναῖκα αὐτοῦ καὶ ἀναστήσει σπέρμα τῷ ἀδελφῷ αὐτοῦ. 14. ἀποκριθεὶς δὲ ὁ Ἰησοῦς εἶπεν αὐτοῖς, Πλανᾶσθε μὴ εἰδότες τὰς γραφὰς μηδὲ τὴν δύναμιν τοῦ θεοῦ. 15. χρηματισθεὶς" δὲ κατ᾽ ὄναρ" ἀνεχώρησεν" εἰς τὰ μέρη τῆς Γαλιλαίας" καὶ ἐλθὼν κατῴκησεν εἰς πόλιν λεγομένην Ναζαρέτ," ὅπως πληρωθῇ τὸ ῥηθὲν" διὰ τῶν προφητῶν ὅτι Ναζωραῖος" κληθήσεται. 16. ταῦτα δὲ γέγραπται ἵνα πιστεύσητε ὅτι Ἰησοῦς ἐστιν ὃ Χριστὸς ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ θεοῦ, καὶ ἵνα πιστεύοντες ζωὴν ἔχητε ἐν τῷ ὀνόματι αὐτοῦ.

B. Translate the following sentences into Greek: lL. John was preaching in order that he might baptize (or be baptizing) many

people. 7: Whoever guards his own soul will destroy it. 5: If we do not continue to love our enemies, God’s word does not abide in us. 4. Are we not poor servants of Christ? δι If Paul begins preaching the gospel in Judea, the crowds will believe him.

Chapter 23

Verbal System: Infinitives; Indirect Discourse

23.1 Vocabulary 23.1.1 Inferential Particles/Conjunctions ἄρα OG ὥστε

"

so then, consequently therefore, for this reason introducing dependent clauses: so that; introducing independent clauses: for this reason, therefore

23.1.2 Inferential Idiom διὰ τοῦτο

for this reason, therefore

23.1.3 Interrogative Pronoun ποῖος, -α, -OV

of what kind? which? what?

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23.1.4 Negative Particles and not, but not, nor, not even not, no

μηδέ οὐχί

23.1.5 Prepositions

ἔμπροσθεν

(gen.) ἰη front of, before; as an adverb: in front of, ahead

χωρίς

(gen:)

without, apart from

23.1.6 Adjectives μείζων, -ov

larger, greater

πλείων, -OV

more

23.1.6 Adverb

μᾶλλον

more, rather

23.1.7 Comparative Particle ἤ

than

23.1.8 Verbs Usually Followed by an Infinitive

G&pxopat,’ ἄρξομαι, ἠρξάμην I begin (occasionally followed by a finite verb) βουχοπαινς------; , EBovandnv I wish, am willing (occasionally followed by the deliberative subjunctive; no difference in meaning from θέλω in the Koine period) dei (third singular, present active indicative of δέω, used as an impersonal verb) (it) is necessary; one must, one ought

δύναμαι, δυνήσομαι,

,͵πτ τ ,ἠδυνήθην

I can, am able ἔξεστι(ν) (an impersonal verb, third singular present of ἔξειμι) (it) is permitted, is possible, is proper θέλω,Σ θελήσω, ἠθέλησα I wish, want, will (sometimes followed by the subjunctive, with or without

ἵνα, as an object clause) μέλλω, μελλήσω Iam about to, am on the point of, intend, propose ‘&pxopat is found under ἄρχω in most lexica. * The lengthened initial vowel of the imperfect, ἤθελον, and the aorist, ἠθέλησα, reflect ἐθέλω of the classical period. ἡ:

23.2 The Infinitive and Tense Aspect

221

23.2 The Infinitive and Tense Aspect The Greek infinitive is defined as a verbal noun because it has characteristics of both verbs and nouns. (Review p. 6, Infinitives). Like the verb, the infinitive has tense and voice, can have a subject and direct object, and can be modified by an adverb. Like the noun, the infinitive can serve as the object of a preposition, be used with the definite article, and be modified by an adjective. Greek infinitives occur in the present, future, aorist, and perfect tenses. As with the subjunctive mood, tense with the infinitive does not indicate time of action, but only aspect.’ Present tense. The present infinitive indicates that the action is viewed as durative or ongoing. The action may occur in present, past, or future time, as determined by the given context. Consider Matt 14:4, where John the Baptist is said to have repeatedly told (ἔλεγεν) Herod concerning his wife/niece Herodias, οὐκ ἔξεστίν σοι ἔχειν αὑτήν (“To be having her is not lawful for you”). The present infinitive indicates not just a single occurrence: he is keeping her. John addresses not an act, but a lifestyle. Aorist tense. The aorist infinitive, by contrast, expresses action that is unitary in some sense. It may be a single event, as in Matt 14:5: kai θέλων αὐτὸν ἀποκτεῖναι (“And although he [Herod] was wanting to kill him [John]”). Or the action may be in-

ceptive in nature, as in Matt 14:16: od χρείαν ἔχουσιν ἀπελθεῖν, δότε αὐτοῖς ὑμεῖς φαγεῖν (“They do not need to go away; you give them [something] to eat”). The focus of these infinitives is on the inception of leaving and eating.

Perfect tense. The perfect tense is used to express the continuation of a state or the existing results of an activity. Acts 16:27 has two infinitives, the second one in the perfect tense: ἤμελλεν ἑαυτὸν ἀναιρεῖν νομίζων ἐκπεφευγέναι τοὺς δεσμίους!" (“He was about to kill himself, thinking that the prisoners had escaped [and consequently were now gone]”). 23.3 Noun Characteristics of the Infinitive The nominal or substantive aspect of an infinitive becomes apparent only as it is used in composition; no nominal elements exist in the form itself. Like any noun, the infinitive may be used with an article. The article is only neuter in gender and singular in number but occurs in any case. Since the infinitive always conveys both nominal and verbal aspects, do not assume that the nominal aspect has disappeared if the article is not present. >The future infinitive is an exception, but because only six examples of the future infinitive occur in the GNT, it can be addressed in more advanced study. *When an infinitive expresses the action of a subordinate clause, its subject will be in the accusative. Here, τοὺς δεσμίους (the prisoners) is the subject of ἐκπεφευγέναι. This will be explained below.

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23.4 Formation of the Infinitive

Learning a few basic rules makes the recognition of infinitives much easier: 1. A present infinitive uses a present stem; a first or second aorist infinitive uses

the same first or second aorist stem; a perfect infinitive uses a perfect stem. (See the charts below.)

2. Because the infinitive is not of the indicative mood, there is no past-time augment. Reduplication is still used to indicate the perfect tense.

3. Tense suffixes and linking vowels are somewhat the same: € for present and second aorist; o + α for first aorist active and middle; θη for first or second aorist passive;

« + € for perfect active.

4. There are four infinitive endings: -εἰν, -σθαι, -ναι, and -αἰ." Thus, all regular verb infinitives end in εἰν or a. 23.4.1 -w Conjugation Infinitives of Regular Verbs Indicative

Infinitive

Active

Active

Middle

Passive

Present

AD @

λύ Ew

λῦ εσθαι

λύεσθαι

1 Aorist

ἔλυσα

λῦσ αι

λύσ a σθαι

Av θῆ ναι

2 Aorist

ἔ λιπ ον, ἐ χά ρην

λιπεῖν.

λιπ ἐ σθαι

yap ἢ ναι

Perfect

λέλυκα

λελυκ E ναι

λελύ σθαι

λελύ σθαι

Contract Verbs

As with indicative mood verbs, only the present tense contracts. Present Active

Present Middle/Passive

ποιεῖν (ε + ειν)

ποιεῖσθαι (ε + εσθαι!)

ἀγαπᾶν (α - ειν)

ἀγαπᾶσθαι (a + εσθαι)

στασυροῦν (o+ Ev)

σταυσυηροῦσθαι (o Ἐ εσθαι)

The final stem vowel of aorist and perfect infinitives lengthens. Thus, one encounters ποιήσαι (aorist active), ποιήσασθαι (aorist middle), ἀγαπηθῆναι (aorist passive), and so forth. °-oat is also a second singular, primary middle ending.

23.4 Formation ofthe Infinitive

223

23.4.2 Liquid Verbs: Aorist Tenses Recall that in the indicative mood, liquid verbs form the aorist tense with the

characteristic -α- linking vowel, but without the -o- tense suffix. Note in the chart

that follows, however, that βάλλω has a second aorist rather than a liquid first aorist form. Thus with the infinitive, the stem continues to provide an important means of distinction between the present and the second aorist tenses. Infinitives of Liquid Verbs

Present

Active μέν ew

Middle μέν ε σθαι

1 Aorist

μεῖν a

μείν α σθαι

Present

βάλλ ew

βάλλε

2 Aorist

βαλ eiv

Bad ἐ σθαι

σθαι

23.4.3 -μι Conjugation

The active voice of the present infinitive uses the ending that was introduced for an aorist passive: -ναι. The aorist passive infinitive of the -μι verbs also uses this ending, but since it is formed on the sixth principal part (e.g., ἐδόθην becomes δοθῆναι), no confusion between the tenses should occur. No linking vowels are used. Present Infinitives of -u1 Verbs Active

διδόναι

τιθέ ναι

ἱστά ναι

Middle/Passive

δίδο σθαι

τίθε σθαι

ἵστα σθαι

Aorist Infinitives of -μι Verbs Active

Middle

δοῦ ναι

θεῖ ναι

στῆ ναι

θέ σθαι

Εἰμί has the present active infinitive form, εἶναι. Ἀπόλλυμι has the aorist active infinitive form, ἀπολέσαι

(Matt 2:13; Jas 4:12),

and the aorist middle form, ἀπολέσθαι (Luke 13:33; 2 Pet 3:9).

Adinut has the present active infinitive form, ἀφιέναι (Matt 9:6; 23:23; Mark 2:7, 10; Luke 5:24; 1 Cor 7:11), and the aorist active form, ἀφεῖναι (Luke 5:21).

Δείκνυμι (δεικνύω) has the present active infinitive form, δεικνύειν (Matt 16:21).

®°The final stem vowels in δοῦναι, θεῖναι, and ἀφεῖναι are contracted.

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23.5 Functions of the Infinitive

No translations of the preceding forms have been provided because of the difficulty

of providing one- or two-word glosses. “To be in the process of” and “to perform the act of” are only rough, non-idiomatic translations of the present and aorist infinitives. In idiomatic Greek constructions, the infinitive often functions as the verb of a subordinate clause and therefore is translated as a finite verb. Its subject is always in the accusative case.

What follows is a survey of the most common uses of the infinitive in the GNT. There is frequently an overlap between categories, and no attempt is being made to draw exclusive boundaries of meaning, for the language does not allow this. One category bleeds into another, with no more than a shift of emphasis.

23.5.1 Complementary Infinitive Certain verbs are regularly followed by infinitives that complete their meaning. This is true in English as well as in Greek. Verbs such as “I want,” “I am able,” and Ἵ intend” immediately raise questions such as, “I want to do what?” “I am able to do what?” and “I intend to do what?” With verbs such as these, the use of an infinitive is called for to complete the meaning of the verb. Several of these verbs are included in this lesson’s vocabulary list under the heading “Verbs Usually Followed by an Infinitive.” An infinitive used to complete the meaning of such a verb is referred to as a complementary infinitive. The following example includes two such infinitives: Luke 16:3

σκάπτειν οὐκ ἰσχύω, ἐπαιτεῖν αἰσχύνομαι. Iam not able to dig; 1am ashamed to beg.

23.5.2 Idiomatic Constructions In addition, certain articles, prepositions, and adverbs occur with infinitives to create idioms that convey a specific meaning or intention. The idioms dealt with in this section include the following: purpose:

τοῦ

+ infinitive or

εἰςτό

- infinitive

simultaneous time:

ἐν τῷ

+ infinitive

cause:

διὰ τό

+ infinitive

subject ofa finite verb:

τό

+ infinitive

A beginning student would benefit by learning these idiomatic constructions as if they were distinct vocabulary words (using flashcards, etc.). ON

23.5 Functions of the Infinitive

225

23.5.3 Purpose There are three common constructions in which the infinitive is used to convey

purpose, that is, to express the reason for which something occurs. 1. The simple infinitive. This very common pattern is illustrated in Mark 10:45: καὶ γὰρ ὃ υἱὸς τοῦ ἀνθρώπου οὐκ ἦλθεν διακονηθῆναι, ἀλλὰ διακονῆσαι καὶ δοῦναι τὴν ψυχὴν αὐτοῦ λύτρον ἀντὶ πολλῶν. For the son of humanity did not come for the purpose of being served, but [came] in order to serve and to give his life [as] a ransom for many.

The three infinitives tell the purpose of his coming. This is very similar to the infinitive as object of the verb.

2. τοῦ with the infinitive. See Matt 2:13c: μέλλει γὰρ Ἡρῴδης ζητεῖν τὸ παιδίον τοῦ ἀπολέσαι αὐτό. For Herod is about to seek the child in order to destroy him.

The article tod is not translated; this is an idiomatic expression, having no English equivalent. 3. εἰς τό and the infinitive. First Thessalonians 4:9b illustrates this idiom: αὐτοὶ γὰρ ὑμεῖς θεοδίδακτοί ἐστε εἰς τὸ ἀγαπᾶν ἀλλήλους. For you yourselves are taught by God that you are to be loving one another.

Again, there is no precise English equivalent for this idiomatic construction. The phrase “that you are to be loving” is an attempt to capture both the sense of purpose implied in the idiom and the progressive character of the present infinitive. It is often difficult to discern a difference between purpose and result, but εἰς τό with the infinitive can indicate not only intent, but also outcome, as in Rom 6:12: Μὴ οὖν βασιλευέτω ἣ ἁμαρτία ἐν τῷ θνητῷ ὑμῶν σώματι εἰς τὸ ὑπακούειν ταῖς ἐπιθυμίαις αὑτοῦ. Do not let sin reign in your mortal bodies (with the result) that you obey its lusts. 23.5.4

Time

In conjunction with various prepositions, infinitives form idiomatic phrases expressing time of action relative to the main verb. The most common of these idioms is ἐν τῷ and the infinitive, which expresses simultaneous time. Only rarely does ἐν τῷ and the infinitive not express simultaneous time. The introductory words of Luke 11:1 are typical:

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Luke 11:1

Kai ἐγένετο ἐν τῷ εἶναι αὐτὸν ἐν τόπῳ τινὶ

προσευχόμενον .... εἶπεν. And it came to pass while he was in ἃ certain place praying... he spoke. The present infinitive is translated as though it were a past tense because of the past time of the main verb of the sentence, which is εἶπεν. Always determine the temporal setting of the main verb, then cast the idiom accordingly. Note that the subject of the above infinitive is αὐτόν (accusative case). 23.5.5

Cause

Cause is sometimes expressed with διὰ τό and the infinitive. John 2:24, where one finds an infrequent use of πιστεύω, meaning “entrust,” illustrates this idiom: αὑτὸς δὲ Ἰησοῦς οὐκ ἐπίστευεν αὐτὸν αὐτοῖς διὰ τὸ αὐτὸν γινώσκειν πάντας. But Jesus himself was not entrusting himself to them because he was understanding all people.’

Mark 5:4 uses three perfect passive infinitives to express cause: No one was able to bind him because (διὰ τό) many times he (αὐτόν) had been bound (δεδέσθαι) with shackles and chains and the chains (τὰς ἁλύσεις) had been torn apart (διεσπάσθαι) by him and‘the shackles (τὰς πέδας) had been

shattered (συντετρῖφθαι), and no one was able to subdue him.

23.5.6 Infinitives as Subjects of Verbs Impersonal verbs. ἔξεστι(ν), dei, and similar verbs commonly use the infinitive as their subject.’ Consider Matt 12:10b: ei ἔξεστιν τοῖς σάββασιν θεραπεῦσαι; Is it lawful to cure on the sabbath?

In this example, θεραπεῦσαι is the subject of ἔξεστιν, and serves to identify what is

being questioned as lawful. The literal translation is “Is to heal (or “Is healing”) on the

οὐκ ἐπίστευεν can be translated “did not entrust” because the imperfect tense can be understood as inceptive in this context. The translation of the infinitive here reflects the progressive nature of the present tense as well as the past time of the main verb. In John 2:25 the author uses a ὅτι causal clause for the same purpose. “Other impersonal verbs commonly used with infinitives in this way include δοκεῖ

(to

ἄξιον: “to

seems good), ἔστιν (to

is right”).

is possible), and ἐστίν with a predicate noun (e.g.,

23.5 Functions of the Infinitive

227

Sabbath lawful?” Such expressions are commonly rendered in idiomatic English as “Is it lawful to... ?” or “It is necessary to. ..”° Mark 3:4, too, has subject infinitives, but with the added feature of having their own direct objects: Ἔξεστιν τοῖς σάββασιν ἀγαθὸν ποιῆσαι ἢ κακοποιῆσαι, ψυχὴν σῶσαι ἢ ἀποκτεῖναι; Is to do good or to do evil lawful on the Sabbath, to save a life or slay [it]?

The aorist-tense infinitives suggest that only a unitary act is in mind. Finite verbs. The articular infinitive is sometimes used as the subject of a sentence whose main verb is finite. Consider the following exaniple from Rom 7:18b: τὸ yap θέλειν παράκειταί μοι, τὸ δὲ κατεργάζεσθαι τὸ καλὸν od. (“For wishing [for good] dwells in me, but doing the good [dwells] not.”) Paul uses an aphorism here to illustrate his discussion of the impotence of the flesh. Some liberties may be taken in translating the saying into English to salvage its poetic form. There are two infinitives serving as subjects of the verb παράκειται and dividing the saying into two complementary parts; the first part contains the verb (supplied in brackets in the translation of the second part), and the second part contains the object of both infinitives (supplied in brackets in the

first part).

23.5.7 Infinitives as Direct Objects of Verbs Infinitives may function as direct objects of verbs and participles: Phil 2:13

θεὸς yap ἐστιν ὃ ἐνεργῶν ἐν ὑμῖν καὶ τὸ θέλειν καὶ τὸ ἐνεργεῖν ὑπὲρ τῆς εὐδοκίας. For the one who is working in you both the to be wishing and

the to be accomplishing for his good pleasure is God. Note that in the previous example the present tense is used for both infinitives. This indicates that the activities envisioned by both of them are durative in nature (to be wishing vs. simply to wish). Observe, too, the use of the article with both infinitives. The article has a nominalizing effect—that is, it converts the infinitive into a noun that points specifically to the thing the subject (ὃ ἐνεργῶν) is doing: The one working both the wishing and the doing is God.

23.5.8 Infinitives as Secondary Objects and Complements Secondary object. The infinitive expresses an action that limits or gives coloration to the main verb or to a noun (or other substantive to which it is related). It is epexegetical’®

when used with verbs, appositional when used with nouns. Consider two examples: ϑεἰ is introducing a direct question rather than a condition. In this context, leave it untranslated. If this were an indirect question, ei would be translated “whether.” The term “epexegesis” means “additional explanatory matter.”

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Luke 7:40

Σίμων, ἔχω oot τι εἰπεῖν Simon, I have something to say to you.

Luke 11:1

Κύριε, δίδαξον ἡμᾶς προσεύχεσθαι Lord, teach us to pray.

Both of these examples illustrate the epexegetical force of the infinitive used with verbs. In the first example τι is the direct object of ἔχω, εἰπεῖν is the infinitive functioning as a secondary object to further limit or define the main assertion ἔχω, and σοί is the indirect object of εἰπεῖν. In Luke 11:1, the direct object is “us” and the secondary object is “to pray.” Romans 14:13 provides an example of the appositional infinitive: τοῦτο κρίνατε μᾶλλον, τὸ μὴ τιθέναι πρόσκομμα. Rather, let your judgment be this, [namely,] not to be placing an obstacle. Τοῦτο is the direct object of κρίνατε, and μὴ τιθέναι, as a secondary object, defines τοῦτο in this context.

Complement to a noun, adjective, or substantive. The infinitive may be used in relation to a noun, adjective, or other substantive—usually a word expressing ability, authority, need—in such a way as to complete the meaning of that term. The infinitive shows how, to what extent, or in what way something is so. Mark2:10

ἐξουσίαν ἔχει ὁ υἱὸς ταῦ ἀνθρώπου ἀφιέναι ἁμαρτίας. The Son of Man has authority to forgive sins.

ἀφιέναι explains the nature of the authority held. In this function the infinitive has an adjectival force that modifies the substantive. Again, it should be noted that although these infinitives often modify an object, this is not always the case (cf. Rom 11:23b). Although you may initially think that this category duplicates the appositional category, it does not. The infinitive complement cannot stand in lieu of the noun to which it refers. An appositional infinitive can.

23.5.9 Subject Accusatives of Infinitives The subject of an infinitive in a subordinate clause will normally be in the accusative case, whether the word expresses the doer (active-voice infinitive) or the recipient (passivevoice infinitive) of the activity. For example, in Mark 9:5 Peter says the following: ῥαββί, καλόν ἐστιν ἡμᾶς ὧδε εἶναι. Teacher, for us to be here is good. In this example, Rts is the accusative subject of the infinitive εἶναι. (“Our being here

is good” or “it is good for us to be here” are better English translations.) This also means that there may be two accusatives associated with an infinitive— its subject and its direct object. Luke 9:22 provides a example of this: ‘ye

23.6 The Use of date

229

δεῖ τὸν υἱὸν τοῦ ἀνθρώπου πολλὰ παθεῖν. It is necessary for the son of humanity to suffer many things.

Both the subject (son) and the object (many things) of the infinitive παθεῖν are in the accusative case. A rare exception to the accusative subject rule is found in Mark 9:35:

el τις θέλει πρῶτος εἶναι... If anyone wishes to be first .. . In this instance, however, πρῶτος, the predicate of the complementary (and copulative) infinitive εἶναι is nominative because it refers back to the main verb’s nominative

subject, τις. It is, thus, a predicate nominative.

23.6 The Use of ὥστε The particle ὥστε introduces either independent or dependent clauses that express result, whether actual, possible, or intended. Matt 15:30-31 provides an example of ὥστε with the infinitive—and its usual subject accusative—expressing actual result: καὶ ἐθεράπευσεν αὐτούς: ὥστε tov ὄχλον θαυμάσαι. And he healed them, so that the crowd marveled.

Examples of ὥστε and the infinitive showing intended result look very much like purpose clauses. Consider Matt 10:1, which clearly uses ὥστε in a way that could be translated, “with the intended result that . . .” (although this is probably overtranslating): Kai προσκαλεσάμενος τοὺς δώδεκα μαθητὰς αὐτοῦ, ἔδωκεν αὐτοῖς ἐξουσίαν πνευμάτων ἀκαθάρτων ὥστε ἐκβάλλειν αὐτά. And after summoning his twelve disciples, he gave them authority over unclean spirits, that they might cast them out."

23.7 Indirect Discourse

Indirect discourse was introduced in ch. 9 in conjunction with the particle ὅτι. Although indirect discourse is most commonly indicated by ὅτι followed by an indicative mood verb, it can also be indicated by the accusative case with an infinitive. This is especially common after verbs of speech, thought, or perception. Both the subject and the object of the infinitive, if present, will normally be in the accusative case. ᾿ ὥστε also introduces real or possible result in independent clauses that use the indicative, imperative, or subjunctive mood—e.g., Matt 19:6: ὥστε οὐκέτι εἰσὶν δύο ἀλλὰ σὰρξ μία (“Therefore they are no longer two but one flesh”). See 1 Cor 5:8 for the hortatory subjunctive using this construction, and Phil 2:12 for an imperative.

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Mark 14:11

ἐχάρησαν καὶ ἐπηγγείλαντο αὐτῷ ἀργύριον δοῦναι. They rejoiced and made a promise to him fo give silver.

Rom 3:28

χογιζόμεθα γὰρ δικαιοῦσθαι πίστει ἄνθρωπον χωρὶς ἔργων νόμου. For we consider a person to be justified by faith apart from works of law. [or, “For we consider that a person is justified . . .”]

John 4:40

ἠρώτων αὐτὸν μεῖναι παρ᾽ αὐτοῖς. They kept asking him to stay with them.

In the third example, the pronoun αὐτὸν can either be construed as the direct object of ἠρώτων (“they kept asking him to stay”) or as the subject of the infinitive μεῖναι (“They kept asking that he stay”). Either way, the pronoun and the infinitive together form an object clause that functions as the direct object of ἠρώτων: “They kept making a request—that is, “Will you stay with us?’”

23.8 Translating Time and Point of View in Indirect Discourse In indirect discourse, Greek retains the tense—and usually the mood—used in what would originally be direct discourse. English, on the other hand, modifies the tense used in the indirect discourse when reporting the discourse in a past tense. For example, in order to quote the statement 6 Ἰωάννης ἀγαπᾷ tov θεόν as direct discourse, a report might use any of the six tenses of the verb for “say, but the statement itself remains the same: λέγει ὅτι ὁ Ἰωάννης ἀγαπᾷ τὸν θεόν.

εἶπεν ὅτι ὁ Ἰωάννης ἀγαπᾷ τὸν θεόν. Likewise, in English, the quoted statement will be the same:

She says, “John loves God.” She said, “John loves God.”

When quoting a statement as indirect discourse in Greek, the tense of the original statement still does not change. So, for example: λέγει ὅτι ὁ Ἰωάννης ἀγαπᾷ tov θεόν. εἶπεν ὅτι ὁ Ἰωάννης ἀγαπᾷ τὸν θεόν." The use of 6t1 with the indicative can create difficulties for translators because sometimes even context will not help to determine whether a statement should be translated as direct or as indirect discourse. In the example given here, the Greek text for both types of discourse is identical. This is not a problem, however, when context indicates that the original statement was in the first person. Thus, εἶπεν ὅτι ἀγαπᾷ τὸν θεόν will be readily identified as indirect discourse if context indicates that the original statement is ἀγαπῶ τὸν θεόν (I love God). 4 .

23.9 Less Common Idiomatic Uses of the Infinitive

231

In each case, Greek retains the original tense of the discourse. In English, however, the tense of the indirect discourse often changes in accordance with the tense of the report: She says that John loves God. She said that John loved God.

As most Greek sentences are not so simple, the following examples illustrate the phenomenon with more complex sentences using the infinitive.

Present time for both the report and the original discourse. Matt 16:15

λέγει αὐτοῖς᾽ ὑμεῖς δὲ τίνα με λέγετε εἶναι; He said to them, “But whom are you saying me to be?”

The quotation as a whole is direct discourse, but indirect discourse is imbedded within it. The report is ὑμεῖς λέγετε (you say). The indirect discourse, a question, is indicated by the infinitive (εἶναι) with its subject accusative (ue) and predicate pronoun (τίνα).

Since εἰμί is copulative, τίνα is the same case as the subject. The direct question would therefore be τίς εἰμὶ ἐγώ; (Who am 19), and a reasonably idiomatic English translation of the entire quotation might be, “But who do you say I am?”

Past time for the report; present time for the original discourse. Matt 21:45

ot Φαρισαῖοι.... ἔγνωσαν ὅτι περὶ αὑτῶν λέγει. The Pharisees . . . knew that he was talking about them.

In the example above, λέγει is present tense. Therefore the direct statement would be περὶ ὑμῶν" λέγει (He’s talking about us!). But because the reported perception is past time, an English translation of the indirect statement here should also be past time.

23.9 Less Common Idiomatic Uses of the Infinitive

23.9.1 Purpose

Earlier we discussed some of the common ways in which the infinitive is used to express purpose. Below are two less common constructions that use the infinitive to express purpose.

πρὸς τό and the infinitive. When this idiom occurs, it usually expresses purpose. Consider Matt 6:1: When the infinitive is used, it is clearly understood as indirect discourse—but the tense of the infinitive still does not change: λέγει TOV Ἰωάννην ἀγαπᾶν τὸν θεόν (She says that John loves God). εἶπεν τὸν Ἰωάννην ἀγαπᾶν τὸν θεόν (She said that John loved God). 13Context (the identified leaders) indicates that the indirect object in direct discourse

would have been first person plural.

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Chapter 23: Infinitives; Indirect Discourse

Προσέχετε τὴν δικαιοσύνην ὑμῶν μὴ ποιεῖν ἔμπροσθεν τῶν ἀνθρώπων πρὸς τὸ θεαθῆναι αὐτοῖς. Take care not to be doing your act of piety before people in order to be seen by them. Observe that ποιεῖν imperative).

is a complementary

infinitive

with

mpooéyete

(another

ὥστε in purpose clauses. Sometimes a ὥστε clause with the infinitive seems to be more expressive of purpose than result. Where the text suggests purpose, one may perceive only an intended result conveyed by the ὥστε clause. Such is clear in Luke 4:29: ὥστε κατακρημνίσαι αὐτόν in order to throw him down off the cliff

The phrase expresses the townspeople’s intended result, but the following verse makes it clear that they failed. As usual, context is a critical aspect of adequate analysis.

23.9.2 Antecedent and Subsequent Time Antecedent time is expressed by πρίν or πρὶν ἤ (both mean “before”) and the infinitive. Consider the following examples: Matt 26:34

πρὶν ἀλέκτορα φωνῆσαι τρὶς ἀπαρνήσῃ με. Before a rooster crows, thxee times you will deny me.

John 8:58

πρὶν Ἀβραὰμ γενέσθαι, ἐγώ εἰμί. Before Abraham existed, I am.

Subsequent time may be expressed by μετὰ τό and the infinitive. As with the accusative, μετὰ τό with the infinitive often means “after.” Mark 14:28

ἀλλὰ μετὰ τὸ ἐγερθῆναί με, προάξω ὑμᾶς εἰς τὴν Γαλιλαίαν. But after I am raised, I will go before you into the Galilee.

These infinitives have subject accusatives (ἀλέκτορα, Ἀβραάμ, με). EXERCISES

A. Translate the following sentences into English: 1. τόν te ἄνθρωπον βλέποντες σὺν αὐτοῖς ἑστῶτα TOV τεθεραπευμένον οὐδὲν εἶχον ἀντειπεῖν" 2. κελεύσαντες" δὲ αὐτοὺς ἔξω τοῦ συνεδρίου" ἀπελθεῖν συνέβαλλον" πρὸς ἀλλήλους λέγοντες, ye

Exercises

233

. Τί ποιήσωμεν τοῖς ἀνθρώποις τούτοις, ὅτι γὰρ γνωστὸν" σημεῖον γέγονεν δι᾿ αὐτῶν πᾶσιν τοῖς κατοικοῦσιν Ἰερουσαλὴμ φανερόν καὶ οὗ δυνάμεθα ἀρνεῖσθαι. . ὕστερον" δὲ προσελθόντες δύο εἶπαν, Οὗτος ἔφη, Δύναμαι καταλῦσαι" τὸν ναὸν" τοῦ θεοῦ καὶ διὰ τριῶν ἡμερῶν οἰκοδομῆσαι. . Τότε παραγίνεται ὁ Ἰησοῦς ἀπὸ τῆς Γαλιλαίας ἐπὶ τὸν Ἰορδάνην πρὸς τὸν Ἰωάννην τοῦ βαπτισθῆναι ὑπ᾽ αὐτοῦ.

. Καὶ ἐγένετο ἐν μιᾷ τῶν ἡμερῶν καὶ αὐτὸς ἦν διδάσκων, καὶ ἦσαν

.

. .

10. 11.

καθήμενοι Φαρισαῖοι καὶ νομοδιδάσκαλοι" οἵ ἦσαν ἐληλυθότες ἐκ πάσης κώμης τῆς Γαλιλαίας καὶ Ἰουδαίας καὶ Ἰερουσαλήμ: καὶ δύναμις κυρίου ἦν εἰς τὸ ἰᾶσθαι αὐτόν. , Ἰδοὺ ἀναβαίνομεν εἰς Ἱεροσόλυμα, καὶ 6 υἱὸς τοῦ ἀνθρώπου παραδοθήσεται τοῖς ἀρχιερεῦσιν καὶ γραμματεῦσιν, καὶ κατακρινοῦσιν αὑτὸν θανάτῳ, καὶ παραδώσουσιν αὐτὸν τοῖς ἔθνεσιν εἰς τὸ ἐμπαῖξαι" καὶ μαστιγῶσαι" καὶ σταυρῶσαι, καὶ τῇ τρίτῃ ἡμέρᾳ ἐγερθήσεται. Λοιπὸν οὖν, ἀδελφοί, ἐρωτῶμεν ὑμᾶς καὶ παρακαλοῦμεν ἐν κυρίῳ Ἰησοῦ, ἵνα καθὼς παρελάβετε παρ᾽ ἡμῶν τὸ πῶς δεῖ ὑμᾶς περιπατεῖν καὶ ἀρέσκειν" θεῷ, καθὼς καὶ περιπατεῖτε, ἵνα περισσεύητε μᾶλλον. ὁ οἱ δὲ Φαρισαῖοι ἰδόντες εἶπαν αὐτῷ, Ἰδοὺ οἱ μαθηταί cov ποιοῦσιν ὃ οὐκ ἔξεστιν ποιεῖν ἐν σαββάτῳ. ὃ δὲ εἶπεν αὐτοῖς, Οὐκ ἀνέγνωτε τί ἐποίησεν Δαυὶδ ὅτε ἐπείνασεν" καὶ οἱ μετ᾽ αὐτοῦ;

;

12. πῶς εἰσῆλθεν εἰς τὸν οἶκον τοῦ θεοῦ καὶ τοὺς ἄρτους τῆς προθέσεως" ἔφαγον, ὃ οὐκ ἐξὸν ἣν αὐτῷ φαγεῖν οὐδὲ τοῖς LET αὐτοῦ, εἰ μὴ τοῖς ἱερεῦσιν μόνοις; 15. καὶ οὐδεὶς ἐδύνατο ἀποκριθῆναι αὐτῷ λόγον, οὐδὲ ἐτόλμησέν᾽" τις ἀπ᾽ ἐκείνης τῆς ἡμέρας ἐπερωτῆσαι αὑτὸν οὐκέτι. 14. ἐγὼ γὰρ ὑποδείξω" αὐτῷ ὅσα δεῖ αὐτὸν ὑπὲρ τοῦ ὀνόματός LOD παθεῖν.

B. Translate the following sentences into Greek: iy 2 ἊΣ 4. Bi

She cannot cure him because he is her brother. If you (pl.) love me more than these, will you be worthy of me? For this reason, I told them that God will not leave them. If you (sg.) are seeking the reign of God, all these things will be yours. And as they were leaving Galilee, someone said to him, “I will follow you into Jerusalem.” (Use a genitive absolute for the first clause.)

Rules of accentuation pertinent to this chapter are found in appendix 1.

Chapter 24

Verbal System: Imperative Mood; Optative Mood; FourthClass Conditional Sentences

24.1 Vocabulary 24.1.1 First-Declension Nouns

γενεά, -ἂς, ἣ

generation (cf. “gene”)

διαθήκη, -ns, ἣ διακονία, -ας, ἣ διδαχή, -ἧς, ἣ ἐπιθυμία, -ας, ἣ θύρα, -ας, ἣ μαρτυρία, -ας, ἣ ὀργή, -fis. 1 παρρησία, -ας, ἣ περιτομή, -ἣς, ἢ

covenant, will waiting at tables; service, ministry teaching (cf. “didactics”) desire, passion door, entrance testimony, evidence anger, wrath, indignation boldness, confidence circumcision

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Chapter 24: Imperative Mood; Optative Mood; Fourth-Class Conditional Sentences

προσευχῇ, -TS, ἣ σωτηρία, -ας, ἣ τιμή, -ἢς, ἣ ὑπομονή, -ῆς, ἢ φυλακή, -ῆς, 1 φυλή, -ῆς, 1 χρεία, -ας, ἣ

prayer salvation honor, price steadfast endurance guard, prison, watch tribe need

24.1.2 Second-Declension Nouns ἀγρός, -od, ὃ ἄνεμος, -οὔ, ὃ ἥλιος, -ov, ὁ ναός, -od, ὃ

field (cf. “acre”) wind (cf. “anemometer”) sun (cf. “helium,” “heliocentric”) temple

οἶνος, -ov, ὁ

wine

φόβος, -ov, ὁ

fear, terror (cf. “phobia”)

ἀρνίον, -οὐ, TO

lamb

βιβλίον, -ov, TO

book (cf. “bibliography”)

θηρίον, -ov, TO μνημεῖον, -οὐυ, TO ποτήριον, -οὔ, TO πρόβατον, -οὔ, TO

wild beast tomb, monument (cf. “mnemonic” cup sheep ‘

24.2 Overview of the Imperative Mood The imperative mood is used to express a command (“Go!”), make a request (“Will you please go”; note that this is not a question), or give instructions (“In your junior year, take Greek).” It also prohibits continuation of an action (“Stop doing that!”).

The imperative is used with two tenses: present and aorist. Like the participle and the subjunctive mood, the tenses do not refer to time of action. The present expresses a durative or repeated type of activity. The aorist denotes the simple, unitary act itself, with nothing implied or asserted regarding the duration or the completion of the event. Greek imperatives are used in the second and third person singular and plural and in all three voices. The first person is not used. Instead, the hortatory subjunctive is used for first person plural (“Let's go!”). Translating the third person is similar to translating the first person plural: use the added English term “let” with the objective case in the appropriate gender and number: “Let him/her/them go!”

24.3 Formation of the Imperative The tenses are always formed on the appropriate stems. Linking vowels and the first aorist tense suffix are used.

24.3 Formation of the Imperative

237

24.3.1 Personal Endings Group 1 Present or Aorist Active; Aorist Passive

Singular -ov or nothing;

2

Group 2 Present Middle/Passive; Aorist Middle

Plural -TE

Singular -σοίαι

Plural -σθε

-τῶσαν

-σθω

-σθωσαν

aor. pass.: -θι (-τι) 3

-τῷ

The present, aorist active, and aorist passive use group 1. The present middle/passive and aorist middle tenses use group 2. Forms of the second singular are best learned by rote memorization.’

24.3.2 Regular -w Conjugation Verb Active Imperatives

Present

Singular

First Aorist

Plural

Singular

Second Aorist

Plural

Singular

Plural

2

Ave

λύετε

λῦσον

δλύσατε

λίπε

λίπετε

3

AWETO

δλυέτωσαν

λυσάτω

λυσάτωσαν

λιπέτω

δλιπέτωσαν

Middle/Passive and Middle Voice Imperatives Present

Singular

First Aorist

Plural

Singular

Second Aorist

Plural

Singular

Plural

2 Avov

λύεσθε

λῦσαι

λύσασθε

λιποῦ

λίπεσθε

3 λυέσθω

λυέσθωσαν

λυσάσθω

λυσάσθωσαν

λιπέσθω

λιπέσθωσαν

Passive Voice Imperatives

First Aorist

Singular

Plural

Second Aorist

Singular

Plural ypagnte γραφήτωσαν

2

AVOnt.

ALOnTE

γράφητι

3

λυθήτω

AvOHtwcav

γραφήτω

'Regarding the second person singular, the present and second aorist active use no personal ending; only the linking vowel is used. The first aorist active is inexplicable. Present middle/passive and second aorist middle are due to a contraction of the variable vowel e with the ending oo where the σ has been deleted and € + 0 contract to become ov. The aorist passive ending 61 may appear as τὶ if the penult contains a rough consonant (0, x, 8); compare φάνηθι (Appear!) with πορεύθητι (Go!). Where two successive syllables occur with rough consonants, the second (in this case the 9) is replaced by the corresponding smooth consonant τ.

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24.3.3

Present-Tense Contract Verbs

For present-tense contract verbs, the verb’s stem vowel contracts with the -e- linking vowel of the imperative ending (see the patterns on pp. 149-52). The second person singular middle/passive is a contraction of the final stem vowel -e- and the -o- of the verb ending -oo once the intervocalic -o- has dropped out. Present Active Imperatives of Contract Verbs

Singular σταύρου

ὅρα

ποίει

OTAVPODTH

ὁράτω

ποιείτω

Plural otTaAvpodvte σταυρούτωσαν

ὁρᾶτε ὁράτωσαν

ποιεῖτε ποιείτωσαν

Present Middle/Passive Imperatives of Contract Verbs

Singular otavpod

ὁρῶ

ποιοῦ

σταυρούσθω

ὁράσθω

ποιείσθω

Plural

otavpodobe

ὁρᾶσθε

ποιεῖσθε

σταυρούσθωσαν

ὁράσθωσαν

ποιείσθωσαν

24.3.4 Liquid Verbs Liquid aorist imperatives have the regular first aorist -α- linking vowel, but not the -o- tense suffix. The stem continues to be crucial to indentifying them. Aorist Imperatives of Liquid Verbs Active

Middle

2

Singular μεῖνον

Plural μείνατε

Singular μεῖναι

Plural μείνασθε

3

μεινάτω

μεινάτωσαν

μεινάσθω

μεινάσθωσαν

24.3.5 -μι Verbs

Imperatives of the -μι verbs are infrequent in the GNT. Of the verbs presented in this text, only the following forms will occur.’ *For examples from the GNT, see Luke 6:30 for δίδου; Matt 2:13 for ἴσθι; Mark 10:43 for ἔστω; Luke 6:38 and Eph 4:27 for δίδοτε; Luke 12:35 for ἔστωσαν; Matt 5:42 for δός; Luke " .

24.4 Functions of the Imperative

239

Imperatives of -μι Verbs δίδωμι

ἵστημι

τίθημι

ἀφίημι

εἰμί

Present Active

25

δίδου

ἴσθι

38

2Ρ

ἔστω

δίδοτε

3Ρ

ἔστωσαν Aorist Active

2S 2Ρ

80¢ δότε

στῆτε

θέτε

ἄφες ἄφετε

Aorist Passive

2S

στῆθι

2Ρ

θέσθε

24.4 Functions of the Imperative 24.4.1

Commands and Entreaties

The tense of an imperative verb often has narrative significance that must be carefully weighed with each context. Present tense imperatives, in keeping with present aspect more broadly, call for ongoing or repeated action. Aorist imperatives, on the other hand, often have a more urgent force and may focus on the initiation, conclusion, or summary aspect of an action. Matthew 14:27-30 provides several examples of imperatives that bring out nuances of and distinctions between the present and aorist tenses. In v. 22 Jesus has compelled his disciples to row across the lake. Battered by waves, they row through the night but succeed only in finding themselves far from the shore (v. 24). Their persistence has required heart and courage. But then they see Jesus on the water and, thinking him to be a ghost, begin to cry out in fear. He responds in v. 27 by saying: θαρσεῖτε, ἐγώ εἰμι μὴ φοβεῖσθε. Continue having courage; it is I. Do not continue in fear. Taken as an exhortation to continued action, the two present imperatives encourage

the disciples to maintain the resolve that has carried them through the night but to discontinue the attitude that arose with his “appearance.”* 6:8 and Acts 26:16 for στῆθι; Matt 5:24 for ἄφες; Matt 10:8 for δότε; Eph 6:14 for στῆτε; Luke 21:14 for θέτε; Matt 13:30 for ἄφετε; and Luke 9:44 for θέσθε. >The text could also be read: “Be courageous; it is 1. Do not be fearful.” In other words, the present imperative may also exhort Mark's implied readers to develop courage and fearlessness

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In v. 28 Peter responds with an aorist imperative that invites a single, decisive action on the part of Jesus:

εἰ σὺ el, κέλευσόν με ἐλθεῖν πρός σε ἐπὶ τὰ ὕδατα. If it is you, command me to come to you on the water. Jesus responds in v. 29 with a decisive aorist imperative of his own—éA8é, “Come!”)

Contextually, this is an inceptive aorist that commands Peter to “Start walking.” Certainly, Jesus would like Peter to succeed in reaching him, but Peter must first climb out of the boat and walk. Peter complies, but along the way he becomes afraid again and begins to sink (v. 30). He cries out with an aorist imperative that epitomizes the urgency of the moment and calls for categorical, summary action: κύριε, σῶσόν με (“Master, save me!”). Peter’s cry must have summary action in mind because he certainly does not intend for Jesus to initiate the rescue without following through.* These general distinctions between present and aorist imperatives may be difficult to apply consistently. It is important to keep in mind that narrative context, implied reader, and verbal idea will all impact the sense of the construction, and you must be alert and sensitive to these factors. 24.4.2 Prohibitions

A prohibition is simply a negative command. One form of prohibition, the use of the negative particle μή with an aorist subjunctive verb, was already discussed in ch. 22. This is the most common use of the aorist tense in prohibitions. Imperatives are also commonly used for prohibitions, most often in the present tense. Present imperative prohibitions may indicate either that an action is to be generally avoided or that an action already in progress is to cease. The former sense is well illustrated in Eph 5:18, where the prohibition, un μεθύσκεσθε οἴνῳ (“do not be drunk with wine”), need not imply that those to whom Paul wrote were drunkards. He is simply advocating that they avoid that way of living in favor of the Spirit-filled life. Luke 8:49-52 contains several prohibitions that illustrate the latter sense. Jairus is petitioning Jesus for help when members of his household come and say, μηκέτι σκύλλε (“Do not be bothering [him] any longer,” 8:49). Jesus replies to Jairus, Μὴ

φοβοῦ (“Do not continue fearing,” 8:50). When they arrive at the house, Jesus commands the mourners, Μὴ κλαίετε (“Cease your weeping,” 8:52). The one positive command of Jesus in these verses (8:50) is an aorist imperative that may have an in-

ceptive sense—yLOvov πίστευσον (“Only start believing!”). as character traits. ‘Although thesauri commonly list “courage” and “fear” as antonyms, this is not the case for “faith” and “fear.” Yet many of the gospel miracle stories intentionally contrast these concepts. Matthew 14:22-33 is only one such example. Cf. Mark 4:35-5:43. " 4

24.5 Formation of the Optative Mood

241

24.5 Formation of the Optative Mood The optative mood presents action that is doubtful, uncertain, or merely wished for. The optative mood is used in two tenses in the GNT: present and aorist. With regard to its formation, three characteristics stand out: 1. There is no past-time augment on the aorist. 2. Verb endings are attached to an optative-mood indicator (1 or in) after the linking vowel (0, q, or €), creating the diphthongs οἵ, a, and et. 3. Regardless of tense, all endings are secondary endings (except the first singular active [-μι]; see pp. 81, 121). »"

A complete set of optative forms is not presented here since only sixty-seven instances of the optative occur in the GNT. The examples that follow should enable you to cope with the other occurrences. Two forms in particular should be learned well: εἴη and γένοιτο. They occur eleven and seventeen times respectively (about forty-two percent of all the optatives in the GNT). ein occurs only in Luke-Acts, and the negation μὴ γένοιτο occurs fourteen times in rhetorical sections of Romans, 1 Corinthians, and Galatians.

ein

3d sg., pres. act. opt. of εἰμί (cf. Acts 8:20)

γένοιτο

3d sg., 2 aor. act. opt. of γίνομαι (cf. Rom 9:14)

Selected Optative Forms Present Active

1 Aorist Active

(Rom 15:13)

35. θέλοι (Acts 17:18) 2P naoyxorte (1 Pet 3:14)

πληρώσαι"

3P ἔχοιεν (Acts 24:19)

ποιήσαιεν (Luke 6:11)

Present Middle/Passive

1S δυναίμην (Acts 8:31) 3S

βούλοιτο (Acts 25:20)

2 Aorist Active

φάγοι (Mark 11:14) δῴη (Rom 15:5) from δίδωμι

1 Aorist Middle

εὕροιεν (Acts 17:27)

1 Aorist Passive

εὐξαίμην (Acts 26:29) from εὔχομαι λογισθείη (2 Tim 4:16)

from λογίζομαι 3P δύναιντο (Acts 27:39)

>The aorist active infinitive also ends in —c1, but the ending is short and thus the previous syllable is accented with the circumflex rather than the acute accent: πληρῶσαι. See accentuation rules 6, 9, and 32, pp. 260, 267.

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24.6 Functions of the Optative The optative has affinities with both the subjunctive and the imperative moods. It is like the subjunctive in that it communicates a degree of uncertainty, but the degree of uncertainty is often greater with the optative. Like the subjunctive, the optative can be used to form a deliberative question—a question reflecting mental deliberation regarding what is possible or obligatory. Optatives can also have imperatival force— mild or strong—as when used in prayers or curses. The two most common uses of the optative in the GNT follow. .

24.6.1 The Optative of Wishing Romans 15:13 and Mark 11:14 illustrate the optative of wishing with a prayer and a curse, respectively: Ὁ δὲ θεὸς τῆς ἐλπίδος πληρώσαι ὑμᾶς πάσης χαρᾶς καὶ εἰρήνης. Now may the God of hope fill you with all joy and peace.

μηκέτι εἰς TOV αἰῶνα EK σοῦ μηδεὶς καρπὸν φάγοι. May no one ever again eat fruit from you!

In the expression μὴ γένοιτο (“May it not be!” or “Certainly not!”), the most remote possibility is being negated; hence, it is one of the strongest negations of an idea that the speaker may make (examples include Rom 6:2, 15; Gal 2:17). 24.6.2 Deliberative, Indirect Questions

Optatives can be used in either direct or indirect questions.® Like indirect discourse, an indirect question poses a question in a second-hand way, without quoting the words of the questioner. Consider the indirect question of Luke 6:11: καὶ διελάλουν πρὸς ἀλλήλους Ti ἂν ποιήσαιεν τῷ Ἰησοῦ. And they were discussing with one another what they might do to Jesus. The direct question would ask, “What shall we do with Jesus?” In this example,

the optative mood contributes a deliberative sense, involving uncertainty or even perplexity. Another such question is found in Luke 8:9: ἐπηρώτων δὲ αὐτὸν οἱ μαθηταὶ αὐτοῦ τίς αὕτη εἴη ἣ παραβολή. But his disciples were asking him what this parable might be (about).

The direct question in this case would be something like “What is this parable about?” *The optative in a direct question appears only twice in the GNT: Acts 8:31; 17:18. ye

24.7 Fourth-Class Conditional Sentences: The Optative Mood

243

24.7 Fourth-Class Conditional Sentences: The Optative Mood This condition, the least likely to be fulfilled (often called the “future less probable”), uses ei with the optative mood in the protasis and ἄν with the optative in the apodosis. It is not a condition of unreality, but of remote possibility. There is no complete example of this condition in the GNT, although instances of either an apodosis or a protasis occur. Rather, it is usually found in a mixed condition, with another class of condition providing the protasis or apodosis. For an example of a complete fourthclass conditional sentence, consider the following from Aeschylus, Prometheus 979: εἴης φορητὸς οὐκ ἄν, Ei πράσσοις καλῶς You would not be bearable, if you should fare well.

,

First Peter 3:14 provides an example of an incomplete condition with a fourthclass protasis: GAN εἰ καὶ πάσχοιτε ... But even if you should suffer...

The NT writer completes the thought with a simple adjective: “[you would be] blessed!” An example of a fourth-class condition in the apodosis is found in Acts 8:31. In response to the apostle Philip’s question about whether he understood what he was reading, an Ethiopian official replies: Πῶς γὰρ ἂν δυναίμην ἐὰν μή τις ὁδηγήσει με; How can I [understand what I’m reading] unless someone will guide me?

Even in this mixed situation, the force of the optative comes through: How can I possibly understand...”

24.8 Variations in Conditional Clauses: Modifications of the Protasis

Greek has other methods of expressing conditionality besides the formal conditional sentence, as seen in the following examples.

24.8.1 Participial Clause as the Protasis See ch. 21, pp. 195-96. 24.8.2 Relative Clause as the Protasis

Luke 9:50

ὃς οὐκ ἔστιν καθ᾽ ὑμῶν ὑπὲρ ὑμῶν ἐστιν. Whoever is not against you is for you.

Read: Ifsomeone is not against you, he is for you.

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Chapter 24: Imperative Mood; Optative Mood; Fourth-Class Conditional Sentences

24.8.3 Imperatival Clause as the Protasis Luke 10:28

τοῦτο ποίει Kai Chon. Do this and you will live.

Read: Ifyou do this, you will live. Luke 7:7

εἰπὲ λόγῳ, καὶ ἰαθήτω ὃ παῖς μου.

Speak a word and my servant will be healed. Read: Ifyou speak a word, my servant will be healed. Luke 11:9

αἰτεῖτε, καὶ δοθήσεται ὑμῖν.

Ask and it will be given to you. Read: Ifyou ask, it will be given to you. EXERCISES

A. Translate the following sentences into English: 1. AAX ἐρεῖ τις, Σὺ πίστιν ἔχεις κἀγὼ ἔργα Exo. δεῖξόν μοι τὴν πίστιν σου

. .

. .

.

χωρὶς τῶν ἔργων, κἀγώ σοι δείξω ἐκ τῶν ἔργων μοῦ τὴν πίστιν. Μὴ οὖν βασιλευέτω" ἣ ἁμαρτία ἐν τῷ θνητῷ" ὑμῶν σώματι εἰς τὸ ὑπακούειν" ταῖς ἐπιθυμίαις αὐτοῦ, μηδὲ παριστάνετε τὰ μέλη ὑμῶν ὅπλα" ἀδικίας τῇ ἁμαρτίᾳ: ἀλλὰ παραστήσατε ἑαυτοὺς τῷ θεῷ ὡσεὶ" ζῶντας καὶ: τὰ μέλη ὑμῶν ὅπλα δικαιοσύνης τῷ θεῷ. ἀποκριθεὶς δὲ ὃ Ἰησοῦς εἶπεν" ἄφες ἄρτι, οὕτως γὰρ πρέπον" ἐστὶν ἡμῖν πληρῶσαι πᾶσαν δικαιοσύνην. Οὕτως οὖν προσεύχεσθε ὑμεῖς; Πάτερ ἡμῶν ὃ ἐν τοῖς οὐρανοῖς, ἁγιασθήτω" τὸ ὄνομά cov, ἐλθέτω ἣ βασιλεία σοῦ, γενηθήτω τὸ θέλημά cov, ὡς ἐν οὐρανῷ καὶ ἐπὶ γῆς. καὶ τότε ἐάν τις ὑμῖν εἴπῃ, Ἴδε ὧδε ὃ Χριστός, Ἴδε ἐκεῖ, μὴ πιστεύετε. μὴ ψεύδεσθε" εἰς ἀλλήλους, ἀπεκδυσάμενοι" τὸν παλαιὸν" ἄνθρωπον σὺν ταῖς πράξεσιν" αὐτοῦ, καὶ ἐνδυσάμενοι" τὸν νέον" τὸν ἀνακαινούμενον᾽" εἰς ἐπίγνωσιν" Kat’ εἰκόνα" τοῦ κτίσαντος" αὐτόν. ἔλεγον οὖν οἱ Ἰουδαῖοι τῷ τεθεραπευμένῳ, Σάββατόν ἐστιν, καὶ οὐκ ἔξεστίν σοι ἀραι τὸν κράβαττόν" σου. 6 δὲ ἀπεκρίθη αὐτοῖς, Ὁ ποιήσας με ὑγιῆ" ἐκεῖνός μοι εἶπεν, Ἄρον τὸν κράβαττόν σοῦ καὶ περιπάτει.

Exercises

245

9. Kai εἶπεν ὃ καθήμενος ἐπὶ τῷ θρόνῳ. Ἰδοῦ καινὰ ποιῶ πάντα. καὶ λέγει, Γράψον, ὅτι οὗτοι οἱ λόγοι πιστοὶ καὶ ἀληθινοί" εἰσιν. 10. Καὶ τὸ πνεῦμα καὶ ἣ νύμφη" λέγουσιν, Ἔρχου. καὶ ὃ ἀκούων εἰπάτω, Ἔρχου. καὶ 6 διψῶν" ἐρχέσθω, ὃ θέλων λαβέτω ὕδωρ ζωῆς δωρεάν" 11. 6 δὲ κύριος ἔλεγε πρὸς αὐτόν, Ἀναστὰς πορεύθητι ἐπὶ τὴν ῥύμην" τὴν καλουμένην Εὐθεῖαν᾽" καὶ ζήτησον ἐν οἰκίᾳ Ἰούδα ἄνδρα Σαῦλον ὀνόματι ἰδοῦ γὰρ προσεύχεται. 12. εἶπεν δὲ πρὸς αὐτὸν ὁ κύριος, Πορεύου, ὅτι σκεῦος" ἐκλογῆς" ἐστίν μοι οὗτος τοῦ βαστάσαι" τὸ ὄνομά μου ἐνώπιον ἐθνῶν τε καὶ βασιλέων υἱῶν τε Ἰσραήλ.

13. εἶτα" λέγει τῷ Θωμᾷ, Φέρε τὸν δάκτυλόν" cov ὧδε καὶ ἴδε τὰς χεῖράς

14. 15.

16.

17.

18.

LOD, καὶ φέρε τὴν χεῖρά GOD καὶ βάλε εἰς τὴν πλευράν" μου, καὶ μὴ γίνου ἄπιστος ἀλλὰ πιστός. Τίμα τὸν πατέρα καὶ τὴν μητέρα, καὶ, Ἀγαπήσεις τὸν πλησίον" σοὺ ὡς σεαυτόν. ἔφη αὐτῷ ὁ Ἰησοῦς, Εἰ θέλεις τέλειος εἶναι, ὕπαγε πώλησόν" Gov τὰ ὑπάρχοντα καὶ δὸς τοῖς πτωχοῖς, καὶ ἕξεις θησαυρὸν ἐν οὐρανοῖς, καὶ δεῦρο" ἀκολούθει μοι. Ἀγαπητοί, μὴ παντὶ πνεύματι πιστεύετε, ἀλλὰ δοκιμάζετε" τὰ πνεύματα εἰ ἐκ τοῦ θεοῦ ἐστιν, ὅτι πολλοὶ ψευδοπροφῆται" ἐξεληλύθασιν εἰς τὸν κόσμον. καὶ εἰσελθὼν πρὸς αὐτὴν εἶπεν, Χαῖρε, κεχαριτωμένη," ὃ κύριος μετὰ σοῦ. ἣ δὲ ἐπὶ τῷ λόγῳ διεταράχθη" καὶ διελογίζετο" ποταπὸς" εἴη ὁ ἀσπασμὸς" οὗτος. καὶ εἶπεν ὁ ἄγγελος αὐτῇ, Μὴ φοβοῦ, Μαριάμ, εὗρες γὰρ χάριν παρὰ τῷ θεῷ. εἰσῆλθεν δὲ διαλογισμὸς" ἐν αὐτοῖς, τὸ τίς ἂν εἴη μείζων αὑτῶν.

B. Translate the following sentences into Greek: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Jesus told them, “Love one another just as I have loved you.” Is Christ a servant of sin? Certainly not! Believe my testimony, in order that you (sg.) might be saved and live. The wrath of God will descend upon the wild beasts among you (pl.).

5. Simon, son of John, do you love me more than these (masc.)?

Rules of accentuation pertinent to this chapter are found in appendix 1.

Chapter 25

Nominal System: Uses of the Genitive, Dative, and Accusative Cases

25.1 Vocabulary ἅμα

adv.: at the same time; prep. + dat.:

ὅμοιος, -α, -ον

together with like

ὥσπερ

just as, even as

25.2 Case and Time

The three oblique cases express an adverbial sense of time in different ways, often

without the use of prepositions. As the genitive tends to be descriptive, it is used to indicate the type of time during which an activity occurs. The dative specifies the point

of time at which something occurs. As the accusative concerns the extent of the verb’s

action, it expresses the duration or length of time an activity occurs. In each instance, observe that several English words are often needed to express the aspect of time indicated by the particular case in its given context.

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Chapter 25: Uses of the Genitive, Dative, and Accusative Cases

25.2.1

Genitive: Matt 2:14

25222

25.2.3

ὃ δὲ ἐγερθεὶς παρέλαβεν τὸ παιδίον καὶ τὴν μητέρα αὑτοῦ νυκτός. And he rose and took the child and its mother during the night.

John 3:2

οὗτος ἦλθεν πρὸς αὐτὸν νυκτὸς καὶ εἶπεν αὐτῷ... This one came to him in the night and said to him...

1 Thess 2:9

νυκτὸς καὶ ἡμέρας ἐργαζόμενοι πρὸς τὸ μὴ ἐπιβαρῆσαί τινα ὑμῶν working by night and by day in order to not burden any of you

Dative: Mark 14:30

σήμερον ταύτῃ τῇ νυκτὶ πρὶν ἢ δὶς ἀλέκτορα φωνῆσαι today, this very night, before the rooster crows twice

John 6:54

κἀγὼ ἀναστήσω αὐτὸν τῇ ἐσχάτῃ ἡμέρᾳ. And I will raise him up on the last day.

Rev 18:10

ὅτι μιᾷ ὥρᾳ ἦλθεν ἣ κρίσις σου. Because in one hour your judgment has come.

Accusative:

‘

John 2:12

καὶ ἐκεῖ ἔμειναν OD πολλὰς ἡμέρας. And they stayed there for a few days (lit., not many days).

John 11:6

τότε μὲν ἔμεινεν ἐν ᾧ Tv τόπῳ δύο ἡμέρας. Then he remained in the place where he was for two days.

Mark 4:27

ὡς ἄνθρωπος.... καθεύδῃ καὶ ἐγείρηται νύκτα καὶ

ἡμέραν like a person ... who would sleep and rise, night and day (i.e., a long time) The last three sections of this chapter describe many of the specific functions of the oblique cases. Chapter 5 briefly introduced the most common and important functions to learn. What follows is a slightly more advanced and comprehensive list of case functions. As you read, observe that almost all examples consist of nouns, sub-

stantives, or noun substitutes. The point is that proper use of the case often suffices in lieu of more cumbersome adjectival and adverbial constructions. Remember that an English translation often requires more words than are given in Greek so as to convey the sense of the Greek case in context. ye

25.3

The Genitive Case

249

25.3 The Genitive Case The genitive case is used to add more definiteness than the substantive, adjective, verb, or preposition would otherwise have. It specifies, defines, limits, or designates something about the word to which it is related that the bare word itself would not convey.

25.3.1 Adjectival Genitives Possession. The most common function of the genitive, that of possession, consists of the genitive (especially pronouns) following or preceding the substantive. Several examples are found in 1 Thess 1:2-3: ἐπὶ TOV προσευχῶν ἡμῶν... ὑμῶν τοῦ Epyov ..7tod κυρίου ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ... τοῦ θεοῦ καὶ πατρὸς ἡμῶν ... in our prayers... your work... our Lord Jesus Christ... our God and Father... The possessive genitive can be found in several examples that follow; look for it in Heb 1:3; Rev 14:10; Mark 11:22; 6:23; Rom 15:27; and Rev 22:3. Description. A fundamental quality of the genitive case is attribution. Hence, a basic type of genitive is one that describes some quality or attribute of a substantive. Mark 1:4

κηρύσσων βάπτισμα μετανοίας εἰς ἄφεσιν ἁμαρτιῶν preaching a baptism of repentence for [the] forgiveness of sins

Heb 1:3

φέρων TE TA πάντα TO ῥήματι τῆς δυνάμεως αὐτοῦ and bearing all things by his word ofpower

In other words, John came preaching a baptism characterized by repentance (“a repentance baptism”), and the Son sustains all things by his powerful word. Note the number and variety of the “son οἵ... .” idioms in the pages of the New Testament, most of which are not intended to be understood as either gender-specific or literal in meaning: “sons of light” (Luke 16:8; John 12:36; 1 Thess 5:8; Eph 5:8); “sons of disobedience” (Eph 2:2; 5:6); “sons of day” (1 Thess 5:5); “sons of the resurrection” (Luke 20:36); “sons of this age” (Luke 20:34; 16:8); “sons of thunder” (Mark 3:17); “sons of the kingdom” (Matt 13:38); “sons of the evil one” (Matt 13:38). In such uses (some of which look like

relationship genitives and others like partitive genitives [see below]), you can get a feel for the ambiguous lines that separate some of these types of genitive.’ ‘As noted in ch. 11 (“Grammarians Love Their Labels”), various grammars use different

labels to designate the same function. The important thing is to understand the function being expressed by the word and its case in context. Nevertheless, here is a brief list of labels for students who will go on to further study of Greek: genitive of description = “qualitative genitive,” “adjectival genitive,” “Hebrew genitive,” “attributive genitive,” “genitive of reference”; genitive of apposition = “epexegetical genitive,” “genitive of definition.” Context is your best friend here. Some grammarians have ten types of genitive, some twelve, some sixteen, and some even twenty-four. Fewer is better. Get a general feel for the genitive case and a special feel for the context of each utterance. Form is the servant of meaning.

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Chapter 25: Uses of the Genitive, Dative, and Accusative Cases

After a linking verb, the genitive may be used like a predicate adjective describing the subject. Consider 1 Cor 14:33: od yap ἐστιν ἀκαταστασίας ὁ θεὸς ἀλλὰ εἰρήνης. For God is not one characterized by confusion, but one characterized by peace.

Relationship. Similar to the possessive genitive, the genitive of relationship describes a family relationship between two or more people. The specific relation can be determined only by the context. John 21:15

Σίμων Ἰωάννου

Simon, [son] of John

John 19:25

Μαρία ἣ tod Κλωπᾶ

Mark 15:7

Μαρία ἣ Ἰωσῆτος

Mary, the [wife] of Clopas

Mary, the [mother] of Joses

Luke 6:16, which reads Ἰούδαν Ἰακώβου, is usually translated “Judas, son of James” (consistent with 6:15, Ἰάκωβον Ἁλφαίου [James, son of Alphaeus]). However, the au-

thor of the epistle of Ἰούδας (Jude 1) identifies himself as ἀδελφὸς Ἰακώβου. Another possibility is that the author identifies himself as the ἀδελφός of Jesus (Mark 6:3).’ Apposition. Sometimes a word in the genitive, placed in apposition to another

word, defines that word. In this way it makes specific what is general, or concretizes what is otherwise abstract or metaphorical. Rom 4:11

σημεῖον... περιτομῆς

a sign, which is circumcision DOS

5

Heb 12:11

TOV ἀρραβῶνα τοῦ πνεύματος the down payment that is the spirit (or Spirit) καρπὸν... δικαιοσύνης

fruit consisting of righteousness Rev 14:10

ἐκ TOD οἴνου TOD θυμοῦ τοῦ θεοῦ from the wine that is the wrath of God

ἐν τῷ ποτηρίῳ τῆς ὀργῆς αὐτοῦ into the cup which is his anger *Different English names are sometimes used for a Semitic name that appears in the GNT. The Greek name for Jesus, Ἰησοῦς, is the same name translated as Joshua. Ἰούδας is translated Judah, Judas, and Jude. The situation becomes even more complicated when different Greek

spellings are used for names such as Joseph and Joses, and Jonah and John. Compare Matt 16:17,

Σίμων Βαριωνᾶ (Simon, son of Jonah), with John 21:15, Σίμων Ἰωάννου (Simon, son of John); and Mark 6:3, Ἰωσῆτος (Joses), with Matt 13:55, Ἰωσήφ (Joseph). At least the GNT is consis-

tent in not grecizing the patriarch Ἰακώβ (Jacob), although it grecizes all others with essentially

the same name (Ἰάκωβος [James]). For an introductory discussion of the reasons for these dif-

ferent names, see F. Blass, A. Debrunner, and R. Funk, A Greek Grammar of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961), $53. | -

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Contents. Quite close to the sense of apposition is the genitive expressing contents. It is, however, distinct. See Heb 5:12: χρείαν ἔχοντες γάλακτος (“having need of

milk”). Mark 14:3 uses a genitive of contents followed immediately by a genitive of apposition:

ἀλάβαστρον μύρου νάρδου an alabaster flask containing ointment, which was nard Here μύρου identifies the contents of the jar, and νάρδου identifies the particular type of ointment.

Subjective. Nouns that connote activity (forgiveness, circumcision, resurrection, work, desire, etc.) may be followed by a word in the genitive that identifies the actor of the implied activity. This is called the subjective genitive. Heb 1:10

ἔργα τῶν χειρῶν σοῦ εἶσιν οἱ οὐρανοί. The heavens are works made by your hands.

1John 2:16

ἢἣ ἐπιθυμία τῆς σαρκός the desire that the flesh generates

1 Thess 1:3

μνημονεύοντες ὑμῶν τοῦ ἔργου τῆς πίστεως καὶ τοῦ κόπου τῆς ἀγάπης καὶ τῆς ὑπομονῆς τῆς ἐλπίδος.

[We are] remembering your work that faith evokes and your labor that love produces and your steadfastness that hope evokes.

The additional English words (“made by,” “generates,” “evokes,” etc.) here reflect efforts to express the ways in which the genitive specifies the doer of the action. The words themselves are not in the Greek text but are implicit in the genitive case used in conjunction with nouns of action. Standard translations typically use “of” (of your hands, of the flesh, etc.).

Objective. On the other hand, sometimes the word in the genitive receives the implied activity of a noun of action. Observe the wide latitude in the use of English prepositions and other grammatical constructions in order to communicate the sense

of the Greek genitive. Matt 12:31

1 δὲ tod πνεύματος βλασφημία οὐκ ἀφεθήσεται. But the blasphemy against the spirit (or Spirit) will not be forgiven.

John 17:2

καθὼς ἔδωκας αὐτῷ ἐξουσίαν πάσης σαρκός just as you gave to him authority over all flesh

1Corl:18

ὃ λόγος γὰρ ὁ τοῦ OtAVPODdD... μωρία ἐστίν. For the message about the cross is foolishness.

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Mark 11:22

ἔχετε πίστιν θεοῦ. Have faith in God.

Partitive. This genitive identifies the whole of which something is a part. Luke 18:11

οἱ λοιποὶ τῶν ἀνθρώπων

the rest of the people Mark 6:23

δώσω σοι ἕως ἡμίσους τῆς βασιλείας LOD. I will give to you even half of my kingdom.

Comparison. A word in the genitive may identify an item to which the relative value or excellence of something else is compared. Take, for example, the following: Matt 12:6

tod ἱεροῦ μεῖζόν ἐστιν ὧδε. [Something] greater than the temple is here.

Matt 12:12

πόσῳ οὖν διαφέρει ἄνθρωπος προβάτου. By how much more is ἃ man worth than a sheep?

John 14:28

ὅτι ὁ πατὴρ μείζων μοῦ ἐστιν. Because the Father is greater than I.

In the previous examples, the English marker for a comparison, “than,” does not have a Greek counterpart. It is supplied by the genitive and context (and often a comparative adjective such as μᾶλλον). Proper English idiom dictates, however, that one translate the Greek genitive with the nominative case, Se Lh oean elliptical clause to follow: “The Father is greater than J [am great].”

Another way in which a comparison can be formed in Greek is by using the marker for comparison (A = than). In this case the item being compared takes the same case as the item it is compared to. John 3:19

ἠγάπησαν ot ἄνθρωποι μᾶλλον τὸ σκότος ἢ TO φῶς. The people loved the darkness more than the light.

Mark 10:29

εὐκοπώτερόν ἐστιν κάμηλον... ἢ TAODOLOV..

It is easier fora camel ... than fora rich person...

25.3.2 Adverbial Genitives Kind of time. See “Case and Time” above. Source, separation, or authorship.’ The source from which something has come, the idea of separation between two entities, or the author of something may be indicated by the genitive (these are infrequent and somewhat vague in the GNT). Consider the following: *Students of Latin will recognize this as the ablative case. ye

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The Genitive Case

253

Acts 26:12

πορευόμενος.... μετ᾽ ἐξουσίας καὶ ἐπιτροπῆς... τῶν ἀρχιερέων going ... with authority and commission from the high priests*

1 Thess 1:6

δεξάμενοι τὸν λόγον .... μετὰ χαρᾶς πνεύματος ἁγίου having received the word . . . with joy from the Holy Spirit

Rom 1:4

τοῦ ὁρισθέντος υἱοῦ θεοῦ... ἐξ ἀναστάσεως νεκρῶν

designated Son of God... by his resurrection from the (realm of) the dead ones For further examples of the genitive of separation, review those on p. 40.

Means, Agent, or Instrument. Although the genitive of means, agent, or instrument is uncommon, it is present and comparable to the numerous constructs of the genitive agent of passive verbs, discussed in ch. 11 (cf. pp. 97-98 and notice there how prepositions assist in clarifying case function). As one might expect, this genitive is found with adjectives that are passive in meaning (like ἀγαπητός). Rom 1:7

ἀγαπητός θεοῦ

beloved by God John 18:16

ὁ γνωστὸς τοῦ ἀρχιερέως the one known by the high priest?

‘The genitive as the object complement of certain verbs. The following is a list of the more common categories of verbs that frequently have the genitive as their object: ¢

Verbs of sensation. Verbs that express tasting, hearing, or touching—but not seeing—are often followed by the genitive. See Heb 6:4 (but cf. 6:5).

¢

Verbs of emotion/mental activity. These are verbs of remembering, forgetting, desiring, and so on. See Heb 10:17; John 15:20.

«

Verbs of sharing, partaking, filling. See Heb 5:13; Luke 1:15; contrast Heb 2:14 (genitive) with Phil 4:15 (dative).

«

Verbs of departing, lacking, asking, abstaining. See 1 Tim 4:1; Luke 22:35; 10:2; Acts 8:22; 15:29.

‘Compare this with Acts 26:10, where the idea of source is made explicit by τὴν παρὰ τῶν ἀρχιερέων ἐξουσίαν. >John 18:15 has a construct that is equivalent in meaning, but using the dative instead of the genitive: γνωστὸς τῷ ἀρχιερεῖ (known by the high priest); see p. 98 for the simple (instrumental) dative.

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25.4 The Dative Case

The dative case may convey any one of three distinct notions: (1) personal interest, (2) location, or (3) means.® These categories are subdivided to better appreciate the

variegated hues that each displays in the GNT. 25.4.1 Dative Expressing Personal Interest Indirect object. This is the most frequent expression of personal interest. The word in the dative simply indicates to or for whom something is or occurs. 1 Cor 11:22

τί εἴπω ὑμῖν; What should I say to you?

Phlm 11

TOV ποτέ GOL ἄχρηστον, νυνὶ δὲ καὶ σοὶ καὶ ἐμοὶ εὔχρηστον who was useless to you then, but now is useful both to you and to me

The example from Philemon might also be seen to fall under the next category. Advantage or disadvantage. In expressing personal interest, the dative often bears a positive or negative aspect in the light of its context. See Matt 23:31: μαρτυρεῖτε ἑαυτοῖς (“you are testifying against yourselves”). “Against” is an appropriate English expression of the Greek’s sense of personal intetest within that context. In Luke 15:30, ἔθυσας αὐτῷ TOV σιτευτὸν μόσχον (“You sacrificed the fattened calf for him”), “for him” has an advantageous ring to it. Possession. With the linking verbs εἰμί, γίνομαι, and ὑπάρχω, Greek expresses personal interest that is, in effect, possession.

John 13:5

γνώσονται πάντες ὅτι ἐμοὶ μαθηταί ἐστε. All will know that for me you are disciples (i.e., my disciples).

By the use of the dative, the emphasis belongs with the possessor (ἐμοί). Reference or sphere. The dative may define or express the limits within which a noun, an adjective, or a verb is to be understood. Consider “the poor τῷ πνεύματι [in (the) spirit]” (Matt 5:3); “the pure τῇ καρδίᾳ [in (the) heart]” (Matt 5:8); “givers of offense Ἰουδαίοις... καὶ Ἕλλησιν καὶ τῇ ἐκκλησίᾳ tod θεοῦ [to Jews and to

Greeks and to the church of God]” (1 Cor 10:32); “we died τῇ ἁμαρτίᾳ [to sin]” (Rom 6:2). In this category, one is only remotely concerned with personal interest.

*Some older grammars, arguing for eight Greek cases (derived from comparison with other Indo-European languages such as Latin and Sanskrit), identify these functions as distinct cases (dative, locative, and instrumental).

25.4 The Dative Case

255

25.4.2 The Locative Dative

Dative ofplace where. The simple dative used in a local (locative) sense, expressing the place where, is rarely encountered in the GNT. Together with a preposition that specifies place (ἐν, παρά, ἐπί), the dative is quite common. The following are illustrative of the occasional local dative without a preposition: Heb 12:2

ἀλλὰ προσεληλύθατε Σιὼν ὄρει. But you have come to Mount Zion.

Luke 7:12

ὡς δὲ ἤγγισεν τῇ πύλῃ τῆς πόλεως... And as he drew near to the gate of the city...

Dative of time when (point of time). See “Case and Time” above.

25.4.3 The Instrumental Dative Means. See p. 97 for a discussion. Cause. The instrumental dative may express the motive, the basis, or the impetus

that gives rise to a situation.

Luke 15:17

ἐγὼ δὲ λιμῷ ὧδε ἀπόλλυμαι. But I am perishing here because of hunger.

2 Cor 2:7

μή πὼς τῇ περισσοτέρᾳ λύπῃ καταποθῇ ὃ τοιοῦτος lest such a one be overwhelmed by excessive [lit., “greater” ]

sorrow Rom 11:20

τῇ ἀπιστίᾳ ἐξεκλάσθησαν, od δὲ τῇ πίστει ἕστηκας. They were broken off due to unbelief, but you stand because of faith.

Manner. Still another shade of the instrumental spectrum is manner, the way in which something is performed. The word in the dative may function like an adverb, as in John 3:29: χαρᾷ χαίρει (“he rejoices joyfully” [lit., “with joy”).’ Note the intensification that-this dative adds. See Phil 1:18, which contains three datives of manner: παντὶ τρόπῳ, εἴτε προφάσει εἴτε ἀληθείᾳ, Χριστὸς καταγγέλλεται. In every way, whether in pretext or in truth, Christ is being proclaimed.

Association. The dative is frequently used to name a person or thing that has some relationship to the subject of a verb. The verb itself usually expresses the type of relationship that exists. An English translation often includes “with,” and often the verb is a compound with ovv-. 7Under the section “Cognate accusative,” below, cf. the example of Matt 2:10, which also expresses manner.

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Eph 2:5

συνεζωποίησεν τῷ Χριστῷ. He made [us] alive with Christ.

John 11:31

οἱ οὖν Ἰουδαῖοι... ἠκολούθησαν αὐτῇ. Therefore the Jews .. . followed her (or along with her).

Mark 14:51

καὶ νεανίσκος τις συνηκολούθει αὐτῷ.

And ἃ certain young man was following him. Rom 15:27

ei γὰρ τοῖς πνευματικοῖς αὐτῶν ἐκοινώνησαν τὰ ἔθνη For if the Gentiles have come to share in their spiritual (gifts)

Direct object. In addition to πιστεύω, the dative case is used to express the direct object with other verbs that imply close personal relation. Rev 22:3

οἱ δοῦλοι αὐτοῦ λατρεύσουσιν αὐτῷ. His servants will serve him.

Rom 8:8

οἱ δὲ ἐν σαρκὶ ὄντες θεῷ ἀρέσαι οὗ δύνανται. The ones who are in the flesh are not able to please God.

John 11:4

πάτερ, εὐχαριστῶ σοι ὅτι ἤκουσάς μοῦ. Father, I thank you, for you have heard me.

25.5 The Accusative Case

‘

There are four types of accusatives that commonly occur: 1. Direct Object. See p. 41 for a discussion. 2. Cognate accusative. The GNT frequently contains constructions in which the verb and its object are related etymologically. The accusative repeats the idea that is expressed by the verb with different emphases. Compare Matt 2:10 and 22:11: ἰδόντες δὲ τὸν ἀστέρα ἐχάρησαν χαρὰν μεγάλην σφόδρα. Now when they saw the star had stopped, they rejoiced with a great joy. εἶδεν ἐκεῖ ἄνθρωπον οὐκ ἐνδεδυμένον ἔνδυμα γάμου. He saw there ἃ man not clothed with wedding clothes.

Note that English idiom needs “with” where Greek has the simple accusative case. See

also 1 John 5:16 and 2 Tim 4:7. 3. Double accusative. See p. 41 for a discussion.

4. Accusatives expressing time and space. These functions of the accusative are adverbial in sense and express extension. For the accusative of time, see “Case and Time” above. With verbs of activity, the accusative may tell how far or the extent to which ye

Exercises

257

a motion is to be understood. Consider Mark 14:35: προελθὼν μικρόν (having gone forth a short distance). EXERCISES

Translate the following sentences into English: i ἀμὴν λέγω ὑμῖν, οὐκ ἐγήγερται ἐν γεννητοῖς" γυναικῶν ὁ μείζων

Ἰωάννου τοῦ βαπτιστοῦ: 6 δὲ μικρότερος ἐν τῇ βασιλείᾳ τῶν οὐρανῶν μείζων αὐτοῦ ἐστιν. . τὸ δὲ πλοῖον ἤδη σταδίους" πολλοὺς ἀπὸ τῆς γῆς ἀπεῖχεν," βασανιζόμενον" ὑπὸ τῶν κυμάτων," ἦν γὰρ ἐναντίος" ὃ ἄνεμος. . τετάρτῃ" δὲ φυλακῇ τῆς νυκτὸς ἦλθεν πρὸς αὐτοὺς περιπατῶν ἐπὶ τὴν θάλασσαν.

. ἐδύνατο γὰρ τοῦτο πραθῆναι" πολλοῦ καὶ δοθῆναι πτωχοῖς. . γνοὺς δὲ ὃ Ἰησοῦς εἶπεν αὐτοῖς, Τί κόπους" παρέχετε" τῇ γυναικί; ἔργον γὰρ καλὸν ἢἠργάσατο εἰς ἐμέ. . ταῦτα εἶπαν οἱ γονεῖς" αὐτοῦ ὅτι ἐφοβοῦντο τοὺς Ἰουδαίους, ἤδη γὰρ συνετέθειντο" οἱ Ἰουδαῖοι ἵνα ἐάν τις αὐτὸν ὁμολογήσῃ" Χριστόν, ἀποσυνάγωγος" γένηται. . ἣν δὲ Μαριὰμ ἣ ἀλείψασα" τὸν κύριον μύρῳ" καὶ ἐκμάξασα" τοὺς πόδας αὐτοῦ ταῖς θριξὶν" αὐτῆς, ἧς ὃ ἀδελφὸς Λάζαρος ἠσθένει. . Ἐλθὼν οὖν ὃ Ἰησοῦς εὗρεν αὐτὸν τέσσαρας ἤδη ἡμέρας ἔχοντα ἐν τῷ

μνημείῳ. . ἐξῆλθεν ὁ τεθνηκὼς" δεδεμένος τοὺς πόδας καὶ τὰς χεῖρας κειρίαις," καὶ ἣ ὄψις" αὐτοῦ σουδαρίφ᾽" περιεδέδετο." λέγει αὐτοῖς ὁ Ἰησοῦς, Λύσατε αὐτὸν καὶ ἄφετε αὐτὸν ὑπάγειν. 10. χάρις" δὲ τῷ θεῷ διὰ Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν. ἄρα οὖν αὐτὸς 11. 10. 15. 14.

ἐγὼ τῷ μὲν νοῖ" δουλεύω" νόμῳ θεοῦ, τῇ δὲ σαρκὶ νόμῳ ἁμαρτίας. Λέγω οὖν, μὴ ἔπταισαν" ἵνα πέσωσιν; μὴ γένοιτο: ἀλλὰ τῷ αὐτῶν παραπτώματι" ἣ σωτηρία τοῖς ἔθνεσιν, εἰς τὸ παραζηλῶσαι" αὐτούς. πᾶσα δὲ γυνὴ προσευχομένη ἢ προφητεύουσα ἀκατακαλύπτῳ" τῇ κεφαλῇ καταισχύνει" τὴν κεφαλὴν αὑτῆς. οὗ γὰρ ἑαυτοὺς κηρύσσομεν ἀλλὰ Ἰησοῦν Χριστὸν κύριον, ἑαυτοὺς δὲ δούλους ὑμῶν διὰ Ἰησοῦν. ὅτι 6 θεὸς ὁ εἰπών, Ἐκ σκότους φῶς λάμψει." ὃς ἔλαμψεν ἐν ταῖς καρδίαις ἡμῶν πρὸς φωτισμὸν" τῆς γνώσεως τῆς δόξης τοῦ θεοῦ ἐν προσώπῳ Χριστοῦ.

8Consult your lexicon for the use of χάρις here. Its meaning here is an extension ofgift or grace and points to one’s response.

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15; Μὴ γίνεσθε ἑτεροζυγοῦντες" ἀπίστοις; τίς γὰρ μετοχὴ" δικαιοσύνῃ καὶ 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

ἀνομίᾳ; ἢ τίς κοινωνία φωτὶ πρὸς σκότος; ἐμοὶ δὲ μὴ γένοιτο καυχᾶσθαι εἰ μὴ ἐν τῷ σταυρῷ τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ, δι᾽ οὗ ἐμοὶ κόσμος ἐσταύρωται κἀγὼ κόσμῳ. καὶ ὄντας ἡμᾶς νεκροὺς τοῖς παραπτώμασιν" συνεζωοποίησεν" τῷ Χριστῷ--χάριτί ἐστε σεσῳσμένοι. καὶ ἐστὲ ἐν αὑτῷ πεπληρωμένοι, ὅς ἐστιν ἣ κεφαλὴ πάσης ἀρχῆς καὶ ἐξουσίας. ἐν ᾧ καὶ περιετμήθητε" περιτομῇ" ἀχειροποιήτῳ" ἐν τῇ ἀπεκδύσει" τοῦ σώματος τῆς σαρκός, ἐν τῇ περιτομῇ τοῦ Χριστοῦ. τελείων" δέ ἐστιν ἣ στερεὰ" τροφή," τῶν διὰ τὴν ἕξιν" τὰ αἰσθητήρια" γεγυμνασμένα" ἐχόντων πρὸς διάκρισιν" καλοῦ τε καὶ κακοῦ. ἣ χάρις μετὰ πάντων ὑμῶν.

For supplementary exercises that offer a review of much of the beginning and intermediate grammar, you may wish to consider Gal 3:21-29 and/or Acts 8:14-25.

Appendix 1 Accents

Introduction

The rules of accentuation are listed here under the chapters in which they first become pertinent. Only the rules and observations essential for learning to read Greek are presented in the chapters themselves.

Chapter 3 The Accents

1. Three accent marks are employed: e e e

the acute (ά), the grave! (a), and the circumflex (δ).

2. When a diphthong is accented, the second of the two letters receives the accent mark: καί, βασιλεία, ὁδοῦ.

Basic Rules of Accentuation 3. Only the last three syllables of a word may have an accent mark: ¢- the final syllable, called the ultima (e.g., ἀ-γα-θός); ¢ the next-to-last syllable, called the penult (e.g., δι-καί-α); e the second-from-last syllable, called the antepenult (e.g., ἄν- θρω-πος). 4. The grave accent stands only on the ultima. ¢ The grave occurs only when the accented ultima is followed immediately by another word in the same clause (e.g., 6 υἱὸς tod ἀνθρώπου). ¢ The grave does not occur immediately prior to punctuation signaling the end of a clause or sentence (ὃ υἱὸς od νεκρός, ἀλλὰ πιστός). e See also rules 16-21 and 26 below. 'Pronounced grav, as in father.

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5. The circumflex accent stands only on a long syllable (a long vowel or diphthong indicates a long syllable). 6. Final -ou or -ot is short.

Chapter 4 Rules of Placement Many rules of accentuation are pertinent only in verbal, nominal, and abstract types of words. The structural parts of speech (e.g., prepositions, conjunctions, and particles) have fixed accents that do not change, except the use of grave instead of acute on an ultima (see rule 4a).

7. The antepenult may have the acute, but only if the ultima is short (¢.g., ἄνθρωπος). A long ultima draws the acute from the antepenult to the penult (cf. ἀνθρώπου; ἀνθρώπων).

8. The penult may have the acute whether it is short or long (e.g., λόγου, ἤδη). 9. The penult may have the circumflex only if it is long and the ultima short (e.g., οἶκος, δοῦλος).

10. The penult must take the acute if the ultima is long (e.g., οἴκῳ, δούλου). 11. The ultima may have any of the three accents (e.g., υἱός, υἱοῦ, υἱὸν δέ).

Rules 7-11 are graphically presented in the following chart, where a short or long ultima is postulated on the far right, and the potential places of accentuation are presented moving to the left. The chart is useful to predict not where an accent should go, but what kind of accent can occur

acute (ἄνθρωπος)

long penult = circumflex | acute or grave (δοῦλος)

(υἱός)

short penult = acute

(υἱὸς)

(λόγος) no accent

long or short = acute

acute, grave,

possible

(δούλου)

or circumflex

(λόγου)

(πολλή)

(πολλὴ) (πολλῆς)

Accents

261

Verb Accentuation

12. The fundamental rule of verb accentuation is that the accent is recessive. The accent normally goes as far toward the antepenult as the length of the ultima allows. ¢

‘The antepenult receives the acute accent if the ultima is short (rule 7):

«

λαμβάνομεν. When the ultima is long, it draws the accent from the antepenult to the penult (rule 7): λαμβάνει.

Chapter 5

a

Noun Accentuation

13. The fundamental rule of noun accentuation is that the accent remains on the syllable accented in the nominative singular so long as the ultima allows it. ¢ Asa general principle, a long ultima does not pull an accent from the penult to itself—only from the antepenult to the penult (but the genitive plural is strong). e When the accent falls on the ultima in the nominative: o o

itis an acute in both the nominative and the accusative: υἱός, υἱόν, but it is a circumflex in the genitive and the dative in both the first and the second declensions: υἱοῦ, vid, φωνῶν, φωναῖς.

Here are some typical applications of the noun accent: ¢ ἄνθρωπος may have an accented antepenult because the ultima is short (rule 7).

¢

But in the genitive and the dative, the acute accent must shift to the penult because the ultima is long (rule 7). For the same reason, the accent must remain an acute (rule 10). Hence ἀνθρώπου, ἀνθρώπῳ. e λόγος retains the acute on the penult throughout the declension because the acute may stand on a short penult (rules 8, 13a). ¢ λόγος must remain acute, however, because Aoy- is a short syllable (rule 5). . οἶκος can have the circumflex since the penult is long and the ultima short (rule 9).

¢

But the accent must change to an acute when the ultima lengthens: for example, οἴκου, οἴκῳ (rule 10).

General Rules of Observation The following are two general comments about accents: 14. The accent often shows the quantity of its own vowel, or of vowels in following syllables. This information can be helpful in parsing the noun.

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Thus the circumflex on κνῖσα savor shows that τ is long and o is short (rule 9); the acute on χώρα land shows that α is long (rule 10); on τίνες who? that Lis short. On βασιλεία kingdom, the acute shows that the final α is long (rule 10); on βασίλεια queen, that final a is short (rule 7).’

15. The rules of accenting are designed not to predict where the actual accent of a word will go or what it will be, but only what kind(s) of accent may be used under certain conditions. The actual accenting of a word must be learned from the lexical form and by careful observation of the words.’ Εἰμί The accentuation of the verb εἰμί is irregular because, although accents on verbs are normally recessive (rule 12), with this verb the accent almost always falls on the ultima. See appendix 2, table 6 for the paradigms. Proclitics

A proclitic is a one-syllable word that is euphonically so closely related to the word that follows it as to be pronounced with that word. Thus enclitics have no accent of their own. The nominative singular and plural of the article in the masculine and feminine genders (6, ἢ, οἱ, at) are the most common proclitics. Other common proclitics

include the prepositions εἷς, ἐκ, and ἐν; the conjunctions and ὡς; and the negative od (which, however, takes an accent when it ends a sentence or stands alone). Enclitics

An enclitic is a word that unites euphonically with the previous word and thus loses its own accent. This running together of words produces apparent violations of the rule that only the last three syllables may be accented (rule 3). Hence, the accentuation of the enclitic and/or the preceding word may be modified. Ett is an enclitic in all forms of the present indicative except et. Other common enclitics include the indefinite pronoun τις; the indefinite adverbs πού and ποτέ; and the particles γέ and τέ.

The following rules summarize the way enclitics affect accenting: 16. When the preceding word is accented on the ultima, the enclitic loses its accent, but the accent on the ultima does not revert to a grave (rule 4): vidc ἐστιν; υἱῶν μου.

17. When the preceding word has an acute on the antepenult or a circumflex on the penult, an acute is added to the ultima of that word. Ina sense, the enclitic loses its accent to the previous word: κύριός ἐστιν; δοῦλοί εἶσιν. *William Watson Goodwin, Greek Grammar (rev. Charles B. Gulick; New York: Ginn,

1930), 125c. Italics are original. °J. Gresham Machen, New Testament, Greek for Beginners (Toronto: Macmillan, 1923), 15.

Accents

263

18. If a monosyllabic enclitic follows a word that has an acute on the penult, the enclitic loses its accent, but no additional accent is added to the previous word: λόγος μοῦ. 19. If, however, an enclitic with two syllables follows a word with an acute on the penult, then it has an acute on the ultima (which reverts to a grave if another word follows [rule 4a]): λόγος ἐστίν; λόγος ἐστὶν καλός. 20. The enclitic retains its accent for emphasis or when it is the beginning of a clause or sentence.

21. When one enclitic is followed immediately by another, the first enclitic receives an acute accent on the ultima from the following endlitic: καλὸν σοί ἐστιν.

Chapter 6 First-Declension Accentuation

22. In the first and second declensions, the ultima of the genitive and dative cases is always long. Χαρά consistently follows rules 13 and 22: Singular

Plural

N/V

χαρά

. χαραί

Ch

χαρος

χαρῶν

D

χαρᾷ

χαραῖς

Α

χαράν

χαράς

23. Nouns in the first declension always take a circumflex on the genitive plural regardless of the position of the accent elsewhere. The following nominative singular and genitive plural forms illustrate this rule: . χαρά; χαρῶν καρδία; καρδιῶν θάλασσα; θαλασσῶν (cf. θαλάσσης; θαλάσσῃ)

The first example follows rule 13, but the second and third examples are exceptions to the general principle of 13a. This rule applies to all feminine active and aorist passive participles (ch. 19).

καρδία- and 0d&a-Type Nouns and Adjectives Because noun accents tend to remain on the syllable that is accented in the nominative singular (rule 13), you can sometimes determine if the final α of the nominative singular of the καρδία- and 50&a-types is long or short (rule 14). For example,

264

NEW TESTAMENT GREEK

because the accent is on the antepenult in ἀλήθεια, you know that the final a is short (rule 7) and that therefore, aside from the genitive plural (rule 23), the acute accent will

fluctuate between the antepenult and the penult, depending upon the case (rules 13a, 22). Or take the following example of a kapdia-type adjective:

N/V

Singular étépa

Plural ἕτεραι

ας

ἐἕτέρας

ἑτέρων

0

étépa

ἑτέραις

Α

ἑτέραν

ἑτέρας

The nominative/vocative plural ends in - αἰ (see rule 6), and its accent rests on the antepenult. This tells us that the final α is long throughout the rest of the declension (rule 7). Note the genitive plural; rule 23 does not apply to adjectives.

Chapter 7 Relative Pronouns

All nominatives and accusatives have the acute accent except when rule 4a is in effect; all genitives and datives use the circumflex. Ἁ

= N

ὅς

"τΊ

οἷ

Ὧν

αἱ

CO: 7

ἅ

G οὗ D®

ὧν οἷς

ἧς ἣ

ὧν αἷς

οὗ ὧν ᾧ οἷς

ἌΠΟ

οὺς

ἥν

ἃς

ὅ

ἃ

Chapter 8 Demonstrative Pronouns

The accents for ἐκεῖνος, ἐκείνη, ἐκεῖνο make the same accent changes as in οὗτος, αὕτη, τοῦτο (rule 10). Following rule 9, the final α in ταῦτα and ἐκεῖνα must be short

(ταῦτα, τούτων, τούτοις, ταῦτα). The accent is always on the penult.

Chapter 15 Third-Declension Accentuation

In the third declension, rules of accentuation are difficult, if not impossible, to articulate; inexplicable variations abound. Machen’s observation (rule 15) is particuye

Accents

265

larly relevant here. If you are writing in Greek, the sure approach is to use a lexicon or concordance to check the accent of the word in question.‘ 24. Third-declension nouns with monosyllables in the nominative singular usually accent the ultima in the genitive and the dative, but the penult in either the accusative or the nominative plural: σάρξ, σαρκός, σαρκί, σάρκα. 25. In masculine/feminine third-declension nouns with consonant stems, the -av

ending of the genitive plural usually draws the accent to itself and sometimes changes an acute to a circumflex (cf. rule 13): σάρκες, σαρκῶν, σαρξίν),

σάρκας.

Stems Ending in t/e A typical paradigm of the t/e noun demonstrates a not-so-typical accentuation pattern: Singular

Plural

N

ἣ

πόλις

αἱ

πόλεις

G

τῆς

πόλεως

τῶν

πόλεων

Leth

πόλει

ταῖς

πόλεσι(ν)

Α

πόλιν

τὰς

πόλεις

τὴν

Here the accent of the genitives is on the antepenult, the only instance where a long ultima does not draw the accent to the penult. This is due to the accentuation of earlier Homeric forms from which these are derived. (In Homeric Greek, the - Ἢ stem produced the form πόληος).

Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns 26. Interrogative pronouns are always accented, and the monosyllabics τίς and τί always use the acute (never the grave).

27. By contrast, indefinite pronouns are rarely accented.

Indefinite pronouns are enclitic. Therefore, they follow the rules of accentuation for enclitics (rules 16-21). They are accented only when they begin a clause, are used for emphasis, or are preceded by words that are accented on the penult. Because an indefinite pronoun rarely ends a clause or sentence, the accent, when called for, is almost invariably a grave. 4A concordance such as W. F. Moulton and A. S. Geden, Concordance to the Greek New Testament (rev. I. Howard Marshall; 6th ed.; New York: T&T Clark, 2002), especially in electronic form, allows you to easily find all of the GNT forms of a particular word.

266

NEW TESTAMENT GREEK

Chapter 17 Formation of Contract Verbs 28. If, in the uncontracted form, either of the contracting vowels or diphthongs has the accent, then the resulting contraction receives the accent. e

Should the final vowel of the stem be accented (σταυρό + εἰς, ἐποιέ + ovto), the resulting contraction will have the circumflex (σταυροῖς,

ἐποιοῦντο).

.

Should the linking vowel be accented (e.g., ἐἔποιε + Ouny, emote + ὀμεθα), the resulting contraction will have the acute (so ἐποιούμην, ἐποιούμεθολ).

29. If none of the syllables involved in the contraction were accented prior to contraction, then the usual rules apply, and none of the contracted vowels receive an accent (e.g., ἐποίε + ον = ἐποίουν).

Chapter 19 Formation of Participles Accents of the active-voice participles follow the typical pattern for an adjective: Where the accent falls in the nominative singular, there it stays unless the ultima requires a shift (rule 13). The genitive plural feminine accents the ultima like a firstdeclension noun (rule 23). This applies also to the aorist passive participle. Accents of middle/passive participles are like those of first- and second-declension adjectives (rule 13), even in the feminine genitive plural. Hence, the -wv is not accented. 30. With participles of the perfect tense, middle/passive voice, the accent falls on the penult (λελυμένος, ἡγιασμένη).

Chapter 22 Aorist Passive Subjunctive

The aorist passive stem has the circumflex accent throughout because a contraction has occurred. This stem, in the subjunctive, is said to be, for example, λυθε- or onape- (from σπείρω), with n shortened to ε. When the primary endings are attached, ε contracts with the following ὦ or ἢ and receives the circumflex in keeping with previously observed rules of contract verb accentuation (rule 28 [lst bullet]).

Accents

267

Chapter 23 Formation of Infinitives 31. All first aorist active and passive, second aorist middle and passive, and perfect (all voices) infinitives accent the penult. Final -αἰ is still considered short (rule 6). Recall that the circumflex is used

only when the penult is long (rule 5).

Chapter 24 Formation of the Imperative The recessive pattern is normally followed (rule 12). There are, however, exceptions. The following second aorist verbs accent the ultima: εἰπέ, ἐλθέ, εὑρέ, λαβέ, ἰδέ.

In addition, the second aorist middle of these verbs has a circumflex on the ultima. This, however, is not an exception but due to vowel contraction (rule 28 [1st bullet]).

Formation of the Optative 32. The diphthongs created by the optative-mood indicator \—namely, οἱ, αἱ, and €1—are long, even in the final position (cf. rule 6). They, therefore, draw the accent from the antepenult (rule 7) and disallow

the circumflex on the penult (rule 9). Compare the aorist infinitive παρακάλεσαι with the third singular aorist active optative παρακαλέσαι.

Appendix 2

Tables

”

TABLE 1: FIRST-DECLENSION NOUNS

TN χρεία, need, ἣ δόξα, glory, ἣ τιμή, honor, and ὃ προφήτης, prophet

Singular ΝΙΝ

χρεία

δόξα

τιμή

προφήτης

G

χρείας

δόξης

τιμῆς

προφήτου

Ὁ

χρείᾳ

δόξῃ

τιμῇ

προφήτῃ

Α

χρείαν

δόξαν

τιμήν

προφήτην

Plural N/V

χρεῖαι

δόξαι

τιμαί

προφῆται

α

χρειῶν

δοξῶν

τιμῶν

προφητῶν

S0Eaig

τιμαῖς

προφήταις

δόξας

τιμάς

προφήτας

Ὦ

γρείοαιϊς

Α

χρείας

TABLE 2: SECOND-DECLENSION NOUNS

ὁ θεός, God, ὃ νόμος, law, ὁἄνθρωπος, human being,

ὃ οἶκος, house, and τὸ ἔργον, work θεός

νόμος

θεοῦ

νόμου

θεῷ

νόμῳ

θεόν

νόμον

θεέ 0.2 $25

νόμε

Singular ἄνθρωπος ἀνθρώπου ἀνθρώπῳ ἄνθρωπον ἄνθρωπε

οἶκος

ἔργον

οἴκου

ἔργου

οἴκῳ

ἔργῳ

οἶκον

ἔργον

οἶκε

ἔργον

270

NEW TESTAMENT GREEK

Plural

Ν

θεοί

νόμοι

ἄνθρωποι

οἶκοι

ἔργα

θεῶν

νόμων

ἀνθρώπων

οἴκων

ἔργων

D

θεοῖς

νόμοις

ἀνθρώποις

οἶκοις

ἔργοις

Α

θεούς

νόμους

ἀνθρώπους

οἴκους

ἔργα

Ν᾽

θεοί

νόμοι

ἄνθρωποι

οἶκοι

ἔργα

TABLE 3: THE ARTICLE ὁ, 1, τό, the

Masculine

Singular

Feminine

Plural

Singular

Neuter

Plural

Singular

Plural

N

6

οἱ

A

αἱ

"τό

τά

σ.

τοῦ

τῶν

τῆς

τῶν

τοῦ

τῶν

D

%0

τοῖς

τῇ

ταῖς

τῷ

τοῖς

Α

τόν

τούς

τήν

τάς

τό

τά

TABLE 4: ADJECTIVES The First- and Second-Declension Adjective ἅγιος, ayia, ἅγιον, holy

Singular

Plural

M

F

N

M

Ε

Ν

ἅγιος

ayia

ἅγιον

ἅγιοι

ἅγιαι

ἅγια

ἁγίου

ἁγίας

ἁγίου

ἁγίων

ἁγίων

ἁγίων

D

ἁγίῳ

ἁγίᾳ

ἁγίῳ

ἁγίοις

ἁγίαις

ἁγίοις

Α

ἅγιον

ἁγίαν

ἅγιον

ἁγίους

ἁγίας

ἅγια

Ν

ἅγιε

ἁγία

ἅγιον

ἅγιοι

ἅγιαι

ἅγια

Ν

The First- and Second-Declension Adjective ἄλλος, ἄλλη, ἄλλο, other, another Singular

Plural

M

F

N

M

F

all

N

ἄλλος

ἄλλη

ἄλλο

ἄλλοι

ἄλλαι

ἄλλα

G

ἄλλου

ἄλλης

ἄλλου

ἄλλων

ἄλλων

ἄλλων

D

ἄλλῳ

ἄλλῃ

ἄλλῳ

ἄλλοις

ἄλλαις

ἄλλοις

Α

ἄλλον

ἄλλην

ἄλλο

ἄλλους

ἄλλας

ἄλλα

Vi

ἄλλε

ἄλλη

ἄλλο

ἄλλοι

ἄλλαι

ἄλλα

Tables

271

Third-Declension Adjectives ἀσθενής, -ἐς, weak (stem = ἀσθενε-)}"

N/V

Singular M/F/N

M/F ἀσθενής

G D

Α

Plural N ἀσθενές

M/F ἀσθενεῖς

N ἀσθενῆ

(ἀσθενέες)

(ἀσθενέα)

ἀσθενοῦς

ἀσθενῶν

(ἀσθενέος)

(ἀσθενέων)

ἀσθενεῖ (ἀσθενέθ)

ἀσθενέσι(ν)

ἀσθενῆ

΄

ἀσθενές

ἀσθενεῖς

ἀσθενῆ

μείζων, -ον, greater (stem = μειζον-)

ΝΙΝ

Singular M/F/N

M/F μείζων

N μείζον

Plural M/F/N

M/F μείζονες

G

μείζονος

μειζόνων

D

μείζονι

μειζόνοσι

Α

μείζονα

μείζον

μείζονας

N μείζονα.

μείζονα

TABLE 5: INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS, THIRD-DECLENSION ENDINGS

The interrogative pronoun provides a useful paradigm for memorizing thirddeclension endings. tic, ti, who? which? why? what?

N

M/F tic

Singular M/F/N N τί

M/F τίνες

Plural ΜῈΝ

G

τίνος

τίνων

D

τίνι

τίσι(ν)

Α

τίνα

τί

τίνας

'The uncontracted forms of this pattern are shown in parentheses.

N τίνα

τίνα

272

NEW TESTAMENT GREEK

TABLE 6: THE VERB εἰμί, |AM Indicative Mood

Present Singular Plural 1 eipt ἐσμέν εἶ ἐστέ

Imperfect Singular Plural ἤμην ἦμεν ASC ἦτε

3

ἣν

ἐστί(ν)

εἰσί(ν)

ἦσαν

Present Subjunctive

Singular 1 “ὦ 2 ἧς 3.49)

εἶναι

ἔσται

ἔσονται

Present Imperative

Plural ὦμεν ἦτε ὧσι

Singular ἴσθι ἔστω

2 3

Infinitive Present

Future Singular ‘Plural ἔσομαι ἐσόμεθα ἔσῃ ἔσεσθε

Plural ἔστε ἔστωσαν

Participle’ Future

Present

Future

ἔσεσθαι

ὦν, οὖσα, ὄν

ἐσόμενος, -ἡ, -ον

TABLE 7: VERB ENDINGS, INDICATIVE Moop?3 Primary Active Singular Plural pres

-μεν

Secondary Active’ Singular Plural -v (or no

-μεν

ending) 24

ὦ; 2d > 3d sg.: ε > εἰ; 3d pl.: 0 > ov.

TABLE 9: CONTRACT VERB SUFFIXES WHEN CONTRACTED Primary Endings with Linking Vowels Pres. Act. Indic.

Pres. Mid./Pass. Indic. α ε ο

@

ομαι

μαι

οῦὔμαι

οὔῦμαι

εἰς

ῃ

ᾷ

A

οἷ

ει

ETAL

ᾶται

εἴται

ODTAL

ομὲν ETE ουσι

μεν ate | MOL

oduev

οὔῦμεν

ομεθα

ώμεθα

ούὔμεθα

οὕὔμεθα

εἴτε

οὔτε

εσθε

ᾶσθε

εῖἴσθε

οὔσθε

ovo.

οὔσι

ovtat

| @vtar

ODVTAL

ODVTAL

Secondary Endings with Linking Vowels

Impf. Act. Indic. α

ε

Impf. Mid./Pass. Indic. oO

α

ε

ο οὕμην

ον

ων

ovv

ουν

ounv

|@unv 9 οὕὔμην

ες

ας

εις

ους

ου

ῶ

od

od

ε

α

ει

ου

ETO

GTO

€1TO

οῦὔτο

ομεν

᾿ὧμεν

οὔμεν

OdDLEV

ὀμεθα

᾿ώμεθα

οὔμεθα

οὐύμεθα

ετε

te

εἴτε

οὔτε

εσθε

ᾶσθε

εἶσθε

οὔσθε

ον

ὧν

Ovv

ουν

οντο

@VTO

οῦὔντο

ODVTO

273

274

NEW TESTAMENT GREEK

TABLE 10: VERB CONTRACTION CHART

a

ᾳ(ι

εἴ

εἰ

ἢ

nN

0

ol

ov

ὦ

a|

α

α

ῶ

0]

ι @

n ὦ

@ ὦ

ῷῸο΄:

οὐ

O11

οὐῷ

οὐ

οὐ

οὐ

ᾧ

ῷ

TABLE 11: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES Type

Protasis (“if” clause)

Apodosis (main clause)

Examples

First Class Condition: assumed to be real,

et (rarely ἐάν) +

any tense of the

Matt 12:27-28;

any tense of the

indicative; subjunctive

although it may not be

indicative mood

or imperative

Rom 6:8; 1 Cor 15:1-5; Gal 5:25

may occur Second Class Condition: assumed to be unreal

ei + a past tense of the indicative

only past tenses, often with ἄν, indicating

John 15:19, 22; Acts 26:32; 1 Cor 2:8

contingency

or contrary to fact Third Class Condition: Future More Probable

ἐάν + subjunctive (present or aorist)

present or future indicative; sometimes the imperative

Matt 12:29; John 8:52; Acts 27:31; I

Cor 4:15; 1 John 5:16

‘

Fourth Class Condition: Future Less Probable

εἶ + optative mood

ἄν + optative mood

Luke 1:62; Acts 27:39; 17:27,

TABLE 12: SOME COMMON IRREGULAR VERBS In Their Six Principal Parts—Plus the Imperfect Active εἰμί

ἔρχομαι

λαμβάνω

λέγω

Present Active

15

eipt

ἔρχομαι

λαμβάνω

λέγω

29.

εἰ

ἔρχῃ

λαμβάνεις

λέγεις

35

ἐστίν)

ἔρχεται

λαμβάνει

λέγει

ΙΡ

ἐσμέν

ἐρχόμεθα

λαμβάνομεν

λέγομεν

2Ρ 3Ρ

ἐστε εἰσί()

ἔρχεσθε ἔρχονται

λαμβάνετε

λέγετε

λαμβάνουσι(ν)

λέγουσι)

Tables

Imperfect Active 15

ἐλάμβανον

ἔλεγον

25

ἠρχόμην ἤρχου

ἐλάμβανες

ἔλεγες

35

ἤρχετο

ἐλάμβανε)

ἔλεγε(ν)

ΤΡ

ἠρχόμεθα

ἐλαμβάνομεν

ἐλέγομεν

2Ρ

ἤρχεσθε

ἐλαμβάνετε

ἐλέγετε

3Ρ

ἤρχοντο

ἐλάμβανον

ἔλεγον

Future Active

ἐλεύσομαι 25

ἐλεύσῃ

λήμψομαι λήμψῃ

“

35

ἐλεύσεται

λήμψεται

ΤΡ

ἐλευσόμεθα

λημψόμεθα

ἐροῦμεν

ἍΡ

ἐλεύσεσθε

λήμψεσθε

ἐρεῖτε

3P

ἐλεύσονται

λήμψονται

ἐροῦσι)

Aorist Active

ἔλαβον

εἶπον (-α)

25

ἦλθον ἦλθες

ἔλαβες

εἶπες

3S

ἦλθερ)

ἔλαβεφ)

eime(v)

Le

ἤλθομεν ἤλθετε ἦλθον

ἐλάβομεν

eimopev elmete εἶπον (-av)

15

95 ΒΡ

ἐλάβετε ἔλαβον Perfect Active

εἴληφα

εἴρηκα

25

ἐλήλυθα ἐλήλυθας

εἴληφας (-ες)

εἴρηκας

35

ἐλήλυθε(ν)

εἴληφε()

εἴρηκε()

1P

ἐληλύθαμεν

εἰλήφαμεν

εἰρήκαμεν

2P

ἐληλύθατε

εἰλήφατε

εἰρήκατε

3P

ἐληλύθασιν)

εἰλήφασι(ν)

εἰρήκασιν (-καν)

15

275

276

NEW TESTAMENT GREEK

Perfect Middle/Passive 15.

—

25

oe

358

τeA

iP

es

εἴλημμαι

εἴρημαι

a

εἴλημψαι

εἴρησαι

τ

εἴληπται

εἴρηται

εἰλήμμεθα

εἰρήμεθά

Sa

--

ΞΟ

αν...-

εἴλημφθε

εἴρησθε

Ce

eee

εἰλημμένοι εἰσί()

εἴρηνται

Aorist Passive

Sams

eas

6 Se Sn elsee 2

SS

ee

ed

ες ᾿ ε--.--ε-.

ἐλήμφην ἐλήμφης ἐλήμφη ἐλήμφημεν ἐλήμφητε ἐλήμφην

ἐρρέθην (ἐρρή-) ἐρρέθης ἐρρέθη ἐρρέθημεν ἐρρέθητε ἐρρέθην

Appendix 3

Greek-English Vocabulary This listing includes all terms introduced in the vocabularies.’ Numbers after Greek words refer to the chapter where the words are introduced. Basic English glosses

or equivalents, which are in bold italics, may be used by the student in translation. Most, but not all, of these glosses are given in the chapters. Single brackets enclose a sampling of the meaning of the word, or its functional usage. When the word is used in an utterance or a sentence, it is contributing this meaning or something close to it. The symbol ~ means “pertaining to.” (Some glosses represent uses in Greek texts that are outside the GNT but contemporary with it.)

A ἀγαθός, -ή, -όν (5) ἀγαπάω (17)

good [~ meeting a high standard of quality, worth, or merit]

Ilove, cherish [to have warm regard for another; to express love]

ἀγάπη, -ns, ἣ (6) love [~ the quality of high regard for another] ἀγαπητός, -n, -Ov (8) beloved, dear, only [~ one who is in a special relationship with another; one who is much loved] ἄγγελος, -ov, 6 (5) angel, messenger [~ one who is a messenger: human; heavenly]

ἅγιος, -α, -ov (5)

holy, sacred, pure [~ being dedicated or consecrated to the ser-

vice of God] ἀγοράζω (11) I buy, redeem, purchase {to acquire things in exchange for money] ἀγρός, -0d, 6 (24) field [~ open country; used for farming]

ἄγω (4,11) Ilead, bring, guide, take [to direct movement of an object from one position to another] ἀδελφός, -00, 0 (5)

brother [-- a male: from the same womb; in terms of close

affinity] ‘Instructors will recognize that in the production of these brief reports on individual words, the authors are particularly indebted to two contemporary works: Walter Bauer, Frederick W. Danker, William F. Arndt, and F. Wilbur Gingrich, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and other Early Christian Literature (3d ed.; Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000); and Johannes P. Louw and Eugene A. Nida, eds., Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament: Based on Semantic Domains (2 vols.; 2d ed.; New York: United Bible Societies, 1989). In the interest of brevity, however, the definitions and potential glosses in this word list are not complete, and reference to lexica such as the above will still be helpful for an accurate, contextual translation.

278

NEW TESTAMENT GREEK

αἷμα, αἵματος, τό (6) blood [a basic component of a living organism; ~ the life of an individual or animal]

αἴρω (20)

Ilift, take, pick up, take away, carry [to lift up and carry away]

aitéw (19)

ask, ask for, request [to ask for, with a claim on receipt of an answer]

αἰών, αἰῶνος, ὃ (15) eternity, age, period [a long period of time; a segment of time as a unit of history] αἰώνιος, -ov (12)

eternal [~ a long period of time; unending]

ἀκάθαρτος, -wv (22)

unclean [~ being ritually or morally unacceptable; that

which cannot be in contact with God]

ἀκολουθέω (19) ply with]

follow, accompany, obey [to come or go behind someone; com-

ἀκούω (4,11) I hear [to have or exercise the faculty of hearing] ἀλήθεια, -ας, ἣ (6) truth [~ the content of what is true and thus in accordance

with what actually happened] ἀληθής (masc./fem.), -ἐς (neut.) (16) true, truthful, honest [-- being truthful and honest; real; in accordance with fact] ἀλλά (6) but, yet, rather [a marker of emphatic contrast] ἀλλήλων (13) of one another [reciprocal reference between entities] ἄλλος, -n, -ο (5) other, another [~ that which is different in kind or class from all other entities] ἅμα (25) (adv) at the same time; (prep. + dat.) together with [a marker of simultaneous occurrence; association]

ἁμαρτάνω (11,17)

ἁμαρτία, -ac, ἣ (6)

Isin, do wrong [to act contrary to the will and law of God]

sin, guilt [~ a departure from either human or divine ethical

standards; a destructive evil power]

ἁμαρτωλός, -Ov (22) sinful; as a masc. noun: sinner [~ behavior that falls short of moral standards] δ ἀμήν (Θ) so let it be, amen, truly [strong affirmation of what is declared]

ἄν (9) [untranslated postpositive whose presence in a clause introduces an element of contingency] ἀναβαίνω (17)

Igo up, ascend [to move up]

ἀναγγέλλω (17) report, announce, proclaim [to provide information] ἀναγινώσκω (11) Iread [to read something that is written, normally aloud] ἀνάστασις, -EWS, ἣ (15) resurrection [~ a return to life after having once died] ἄνεμος, -ov, ὃ (24) wind [air in rapid movement] ἀνήρ, ἀνδρός, ὃ (15) woman]

man, husband [an adult human male; a man married to a Ὶ

ἄνθρωπος, -ου, ὁ ()

human being, man [a human being, normally adult]

ἀνίστημι (18) raise, raise up; rise, stand up [to cause someone to stand up; to cause someone to live again after having once died] ἀνοίγω (4,11)

open [to cause something to be open] ye

Greek-English Vocabulary

ἀντί (9)

279

(prep. + gen.) instead of, in place of [a marker of an alternative serving as

a contrast]

ἄξιος, -α, -ov (22) ἀπαγγέλλω (17)

worthy [~ having a high degree of comparable worth] Ireport, announce, proclaim [to give an account of something;

make something known] ἅπας, ἅπασα, ἅπαν (16) whole, all, everybody [the totality of a mass or object] ἀπέρχομαι (13) Igo away, depart [to move away from a reference point] ἀπό (9) (prep. + gen.) from [a marker of dissociation] ἀποδίδωμι (18) I give away, pay, return, give back [to meet a contractual or other

obligation; restore to an original owner] ἀποθνήσκω (11,12) I die [to cease to have vital functions, whether at an earthly or at a transcendent level]

ἀποκρίνομαι (13)

I answer, reply [to respond to a question asking for information]

ἀποκτείνω (or ἀποκτέννω) (17)

I kill [to cause someone’s death by violent means]

ἀπόλλυμι (18) ruin, destroy, lose; mid./pass.: I perish, die, am ruined {to destroy or cause the destruction of persons, objects] ἀπολύω (9) I release, let go, set free, dismiss, send away [to grant acquittal; permit someone to leave; dissolve a marriage] ἀποστέλλω (17) Isend away, send out [to cause someone to depart] ἀπόστολος, -0v, 6 (10) apostle [~ someone who is a special messenger]

ἅπτω (12) I light, kindle; mid.: I touch, take hold of (to cause to burn; ~ sensory experience of physical touch, which can be intimate, ritual, or injurious] ἄρα (23)

so, then, consequently [a marker of result as an inference from what

preceded] ἀρνέομαι (20) I deny, repudiate [to say that one does not know about or is in any way related to a person or event] ἀρνίον, -ov, τό (24) lamb [~ a sheep of any age] ἄρτι (21) now, just now [a point of time simultaneous with the event of the discourse itself]

ἄρτος, -ov, 6(9) bread, loaf [~ a baked cereal grain product, relatively small and usually round] ἀρχή, As, ἣ (12)

beginning, ruler [~ a point of time at the beginning of a duration;

one who rules or governs] ἀρχιερεύς, -έως, 6 (15) high priest [a principle priest, belonging to one of the high-priestly families] ἄρχομαι (23) I begin [to initiate an action]; act. apxa: I rule ἄρχων, ἄρχοντος, 6 (15) ruler [one who rules or governs; a supernatural power having some role in controlling the destiny and activities of human beings] ἀσθενέω (19)

ἀσπάζομαι (13)

Iam weak, sick [to be ina

state of weakness or sickness]

Igreet, welcome [to hospitably recognize another]

280

NEW TESTAMENT GREEK

αὖτός, -ἡ, -0(7) he, she, it [personal pronoun]; -self [predicate position: a marker of intensification]; the same [attributive position: a marker of emphasis; ~ that

which is identical to something; a reference to a definite person] ἀφίημι (18)

Isend away, cancel, pardon, forgive, leave, allow, let [to cause a per-

son to leave a place; to let something be put behind] ἄχρι (or ἄχρις) (9)

(prep. + gen.) as far as, until [a marker of extent of time up to

a point]

B βάλλω (17)

I throw, put, place [to cause to move from one location to another]

βαπτίζω (4,11) I wash, baptize [to wash with a view to making things physically clean or ritually pure or acceptable] βασιλεία, -ac, ἣ (6) kingdom, realm, reign [~ the act of ruling; territory ruled by a king] : βασιλεύς, -ἐως, 6 (15) king [~ one who has absolute authority within a given area] βιβλίον, -ov, τό (24) book, scroll, document [~ brief message or long composition]

βλασφημέω (19) I blaspheme, slander, revile [to speak in a disrespectful way so as to hurt someone’s reputation] βλέπω (4,12)

[566 [to see in the sense of taking notice of or becoming aware of

something; ~ a form of sensory perception or mental awareness] βούλομαι (13,23) Iwish, am willing, desire, plan [to desire to have something with the implication of a plan of action] "

Γ γάρ (7) for, then [a marker of cause, reason, clarification, or inference] γέ (12) indeed, at least, really, even [a marker of relatively weak emphasis]

γενεά, -ἂς, (24) generation, age [~ a group or class of people living at the same time, having shared interests; a period of time] γεννάω (17) I beget, bear, produce [to become the parent of; to give birth to; ~ the beginning of a state of being] γένος, -οὐς, τό (16) race, descendants [~ a small or large group with common ancestry] γῆ, -ἧς, ἣ (6) +earth, ground [~ the surface of the earth as the dwelling place of humanity] γίνομαι (13) Icome to be, become, happen [to come into existence by birth, creation, or circumstance]

;

γινώσκω (4,12) Iknow, learn, perceive [to possess or acquire information about; to be aware of or grasp the significance of something; to have personal, experiential knowledge of someone or something] γλῶσσα, -n¢, ἣ (6) tongue, language [a part of the body; a language; a distinct form of a language] Ἢ

Greek-English Vocabulary

281

γραμματεύς, -EM>¢, ὃ (15) scribe, expert in the law, scholar [~ one who through education has special functions with respect to documents or other disciplines] γραφή, -ἧς, ἣ (9) writing, scripture |~ something that is written; a sacred passage or collection of texts] γράφω (4,12) I write [to compose something, express thought or occurrence in

writing] γυνή, γυναικός, ἣ (15) woman, wife [an adult female person of marriageable age; a woman married to a man]

A δαιμόνιον, -ov, τό (7) spirit, demon, power [~ spiritual being of median status between human and divine; an evil supernatural being or spirit] δέ ()ὺ

but, and, now, then [a marker of contrast or relation; linking narrative

segments] δεῖ (23)

it is necessary, one must, one ought |~ something that should or must

necessarily happen] δείκνυμι (δεικνύω) (18) I show, point out, display [to explain the character or significance of something by one of the senses; to prove or make clear by evidence] δεξιός, -ά, -όν (12) right; as a fem. noun: right hand [a part of the body; ~ being to the right of some point of reference (used metaphorically in idioms for power or honor)} δεύτερος, -α, -ov (22) second [after the first in a series; next in a sequence] δέχομαι (13) I receive, take, welcome [to receive or take something offered by

another; to receive someone or something cordially] δέω (19) I tie, bind, chain, restrict, imprison, compel [~ the tying, binding, or restricting of something or someone, hence the control of them] διά (10) (prep. + gen.) through; (+ acc.) on account of, because of, on behalf of {a marker of intermediate agency, instrument, or benefaction] διὰ τοῦτο (23) for this reason, therefore [idiom expressing reality or a potentiality based on inference from another reality] διάβολος, -ov in slander; διαθήκη, -ἡς, tween two

(18) slanderous; as a masc. noun: slanderer, devil [-- engagement the devil] -ἣ (24) covenant, will, contract, testament [~ an agreement bepersons specifying responsibilities and benefits; a last will and

testament]

διακονέω (19) I wait upon, serve, care for [to assist, help, or serve in often menial tasks] διακονία, -ας, ἣ (24) waiting upon, service, ministry |~ the role or position of serving; procedure for caring for people’s needs] διδάσκαλος, -ov, 6 (10) teacher [~ one who provides instruction; title of respect (Heb. rabbi)] διδάσκω (4,12) I teach [to provide instruction]

282

NEW TESTAMENT GREEK

διδαχή, -ἣς, ἣ (244

teaching [~ the activity or content of teaching]

δίδωμι (18) I give, yield, hand over, give up [to give, provide, or dedicate something] διέρχομαι (13)

Igo, pass through [to move within or through an area]

δίκαιος, -α, -ov (6)

righteous, just, right [~ being in a right relation with God, the

law, or social standards] δικαιοσύνη, -n¢, ἣ (7) righteousness, justice [~ doing what God requires; obser-

vances of one’s religion; acts of piety required by one’s religion] δικαιόω (17) I justify, pronounce righteous, vindicate [to cause someone to be in a right relation with someone else; to demonstrate that something is right; to acquit, set free, remove guilt] διό (23) _therefore, for this reason [an emphatic marker of result (inferential conjunction)]

διώκω (11,12) I pursue; persecute [to chase in order to catch up with; to organize a program to oppress and harass people] δοκέω (19)

I think, believe, suppose, choose; seem [to consider as probable; to be

disposed to some desire or intent; to select or prefer something] δόξα, -ης, ἣ (6) glory, splendor; honor, fame, reputation [~ the condition of being bright, radiant, or shining; one’s good reputation through honor] δοξάζω (8,12) I glorify, praise, honor, exalt [to attribute high status to someone by honoring; to cause someone to have greatness by exalting that person] δοῦλος, -ov, ὃ (7) slave, servant [a slave in the sense of becoming the property of another] δύναμαι (23)

Ican, am able [to be able to do something] δύναμις, -εως, ἣ (15) power, might; ability [the mere ability to do something; the

power to do an extraordinary deed; a powerful ruler; a supernatural ruler] δυνατός, -ή, -όν (22) capable, powerful, possible [-- being capable or possible] δύο (16) two [~ the quantity “two”] δώδεκα (22) twelve [~ the quantity “twelve”]

δῶρον, -ov, τό (7)

gift, gift box [~ that which is given; that which holds a gift]

E ἐάν (22) if [a marker of condition, with the inference of reduced probability] ἑαυτοῦ, -ῆς, -00 (8) of himself, of herself, of itself [a reflexive reference to a person or thing] ἐγγίζω (11,12) Icome near, approach [to move nearer to a reference point; the occurrence of a point of time close to a subsequent point of time] ἐγγύς (21) near [a position close to another position; ~ being in close proximity, spatial, temporal, numeral, or relational] ἐγείρω (20) I wake, raise or raise up, rise [to cause to wake up, stand up, or come ' alive] ἐγώ, ἐμοῦ (7) I [first-person singular pronoun; ἃ reference to the speaker] Ye

Greek-English Vocabulary

283

ἔθνος, ἔθνους, τό (16) nation, a people, tribe; pl.: Gentiles, unbelievers [group of people united by kinship, culture, or common religious tradition; ~ a group of people foreign to one’s group] ei (6) if, whether [a marker of condition, existing in fact or hypothetical] εἰμί (5,11)

Iam, exist [to possess certain characteristics; to be identical with]

εἰρήνη, -ns, ἣ (7) εἰς (9)

peace [~ a state of concord, well-being]

(prep. + acc.) into, in, toward, for, in order to, until [extension toward a

goal; location in, on, or toward something; a marker of intent] εἷς, μία, ἕν (16) one [~ the quantity “one” εἰσέρχομαι (13) I enter, come into, go into [to enter into an event, a space, ora state]

Η

ἐκ (ἐξ before an initial vowel) (9) (prep. + gen.) out of, from, with, by, because of [extension from an area; a marker of origin, cause, motive, reason, means, or instrument] ἕκαστος, -ἡ, -ον (8) each, every [~ each one of a totality in a distributive sense] ἐκβάλλω (9,11) I throw out, send out, drive out, expel |to force to leave; to cause

to go] ἐκεῖ (21) there, in that place, to that place {a position relatively far from the speaker or writer] ἐκεῖνος, -n, -ο (8) that [~ an entity mentioned as relatively remote in a discourse’s setting] ἐκκλησία, -ας, (7) church, assembly [a gathering of people: legislative; social; religious] ἐκπορεύομαι (13)

ἐλεέω (19)

Igo out [to move from one area to another; to come forth from]

Ihave mercy, pity [to show kindness or concern for someone in great

need|

ἐλπίζω (11,12) Ihope, look forward to [to look forward to something good and beneficial, confident of it happening] ἐλπίς, ἐλπίδος, ἣ (15) hope [that which is hoped for; the basis for hope] ἐμαυτοῦ, -ἣς (8) of myself [a reflexive reference to the first person singular] ἐμός, -ή, τόν (12)

my, mine, of me (possessive, pertaining to the speaker]

ἔμπροσθὲν (23) (prep. + gen.) in front of, before; (+ acc.) in front of, ahead [a marker of position in front of or an on the front of an object] ἐν (9) (prep. + dat.) in, among, with, because of, during [a marker of position, condition, association, cause, means, agency, circumstance, or duration] ἐντολή, -ἧς, ἣ (9) commandment, order [~ that which is authoritatively commanded] ἐνώπιον (9) (prep. + gen.) before [~ a position in front of an object] ἐξέρχομαι (13) I come out, go out, cease to exist [to move out of an enclosed area;

to go out of existence] ἔξεστι(ν) (23) it is permitted, is possible, is proper [to be authorized for the doing of something; to mark an event as being possible; to be obligatory]

284

NEW TESTAMENT GREEK

ἐξουσία, -ας, ἣ (7)

power, authority [~ the right to control or govern; the domain

of one’s authority; one who has the right to rule] ἔξω (9) (adv.; prep + gen.) outside [~ a position beyond an enclosure or boundary] ἐπαγγελία, -ας, ἣ (12) promise, agreement [~ the content of what is promised; the

content of one’s agreement] ἐπερωτάω (17) Task [to ask for information; to make a request] ἐπί (12) (prep. + gen.) on, over; (+ dat.) on the basis of, at; (+ acc.) on, at, to, toward [a marker of location, movement, or basis] ἐπιγινώσκω (11,12) Iknow, learn, recognize [to have or gain information about]

ἐπιθυμία, ας, ἣ (24) desire, longing, craving, lust [~ a great desire for something; a desire for something forbidden or morally wrong] ἐπικαλέω (17)

I call, name, invoke, appeal to [to call someone something; to

name something; to call upon someone for something] ἐπιστρέφω (11,12)

Ireturn, turn around, turn back [to return to a previous point,

to turn around, to change one’s mind or actions] ἐπιτίθημι (18) Ilay upon, put upon [to place something on something (can be a forceful act)]

ἐπιτιμάω (20)

Irebuke, reprove, warn [to express strong disapproval of someone]

ἑπτά (22) seven [~ the quantity “seven”] ἐργάζομαι (13) I work, do, accomplish [to engage in activity requiring effort] ἔργον, -ov, τό (5) work, deed [~ that which is done, with focus upon the effort involved]

ἔρημος, -ov (6) desolate, deserted, forsaken;as fem. noun ἔρημος, -ov, ἣ: wilderness, desert [an uninhabited region; a state of isolation] ἔρχομαι (13)

Icome, go [to move from one place to another]

ἐρωτάω (17)

Task, ask a question, request [to ask someone for information]

ἐσθίω (11,13)

I eat [to consume food, solid or liquid; fig., to destroy something]

ἔσχατος, -ἡ, -ον (6)

last [~ being last in a series; being lowest of status or rank]

ἕτερος, -ἡ, -ον (6) other [~ that which is different in kind or class] ἔτι (10) still, yet; in addition; nevertheless [~ continuance, extension of time up

to and beyond a point, number; a marker of contrast: something different than expected] ἑτοιμάζω (11,13) I prepare [to cause to be ready for something] ἔτος, ἔτους, τό (16)

year [~ a unit of time including a full cycle of seasons]

εὐαγγελίζω (8, 14) I evangelize, proclaim the gospel, announce good news [to communicate good news about something] εὐαγγέλιον, -Ov, τό (5) gospel [~ the content of good news; oral report of good news|

εὐθύς, εὐθέως (21) immediately, at once, then [point of time immediately subsequent to previous point of time] εὐλογέω (19) I bless, praise, speak well of [to speak favorably; to ask God to show favor]

iW

Greek-English Vocabulary

285

εὑρίσκω (4,14) I find, discover; mid.: attain, obtain [to come upon something (spatially or mentally)] εὐχαριστέω (19) I give thanks, am thankful (to express the feeling of gratitude] ἐχθρός, -ἀ, -όν (22) hated, hating; as a noun: enemy [~ being at enmity with someone]

ἔχω (4,14) Ihave [to have or possess objects, opinions, personal relations, or experiences] ἕως (9) (prep. + gen.) until, as long as, while, as far as, to [a marker denoting a period of time subsequent or contemporaneous; of limit reached]

Z ζάω (17)

ζητέω (17)

I live [to be alive physically, spiritually; to behave]

I seek, look for, strive for, demand [to try to find something, someone,

information]

ζωή, -fs, ἣ (6) _ life [~ life in the physical or spiritual sense]

H ἣ (fem.) (6) _the [reference to an entity, event, or state identified by the context] ἤ (2,23) or; than [a marker of an alternative; of comparison] ἥ (fem.) (7) who, which, what [a relative reference to an entity, event, or state]

ἤδη (21) now, already, by this time [~ point in time prior to another point in time with an implication of completion] ἥλιος, -ov, 6 (24) sun [a heavenly body marking the beginning and ending of a day] ἡμεῖς, ἡμῶν (7) we [first-person plural pronoun] ἡμέρα, -ac, ἣ (6) day [~ a period of time between sunrise and sunset; or between sunset and sunset (i.e., 24 hours)]

Θ θάλασσα, -ἧς, ἣ (6)

sea, lake [~ ἃ relatively large body of water]

θάνατος, -ov, 6 (9) death [~ the end of life: physical or spiritual] θαυμάζω (11, 14) Imarvel, wonder at, am amazed, am astonished (to wonder at, marvel at, or be disturbed by something] θέλημα, θελήματος, τό (16) will, wish, desire [~ that which is desired or wished for] θέλω (23)

I wish, want, will [to have a desire for something; to purpose]

θεός, -0d, 6 (5) God, god, deity [the one supreme supernatural being; a transcendent being with power to influence or control human affairs; an immortal] θεραπεύω (11,14)

I heal, care for, serve {to render service to someone; to cause to

regain health] θεωρέω (19) I behold, look at, perceive [to observe something that is rather unusual or interesting; to observe with perception or understanding]

286

NEW TESTAMENT GREEK

wild beast [~ any living creature (mostly wild) other than

θηρίον, -ov, τό (24)

human; a “beastly” human] θλῖψις, -ews, f (15) tribulation, affliction [~ pressure; trouble that causes suffering] chair, seat, throne; dominion; ruler [~ the chair upon which a

θρόνος, -ov, 6 (10)

ruler sits; the domain of an authority; the one sitting] θύρα, -ας, (24) door, entrance [~ a passage for entering a structure]

I one’s own [~ being the exclusive property of someone or uniquely

ἴδιος, -α, -ov (6)

related to someone] ἰδού (18) Look! See! Behold! [a prompter of attention; a marker of emphasis]

ἱερεύς, -έως, 6 (15)

priest [~ a religious leader who performs sacrificial rituals for

others]

ἱερόν, -0d, τό (5)

temple [~ a temple or sanctuary and the surrounding conse-

crated area] Ἰησοῦς, -0b, 6 (6) Jesus [personal name] ἱκανός, -ή, -Ov (22) sufficient, able, considerable, worthy [~ sufficiency in degree;

meeting a standard; a large degree] ἱμάτιον, -ov, τό (13) garment [~ any kind of clothing] ἵνα (22) in order that, that [a marker to denote purpose, aim, or goal] Ἰουδαῖος, -a, -ov (8) Jewish, Judean [~ Judea]; as a noun: Jew, Judean [one who

adheres to the Mosaic tradition and/or comes from the province of Judea] ἵστημι (18) I put, place, set; stand, appear, stand still [to cause to be in a place] Ἰωάνρ)ης, -ου, ὃ (6)

John [personal name]

K καθαρίζω (11, 14) 1 cleanse [to cause something to become clean; to heal; to

purify] κάθημαι (13)

I sit, stay, reside [to be in a seated position; to remain in a place]

καθίζω (11, 14)

καθώς (10)

Iseat, sit [to be in a seated position; take a seated position]

just as, as, to the degree that [a marker of comparison or degree]

καί (6) and, even, also [a marker of connections, coordinate relations, emphasis, or additions] Kai... καί (6) both... and; not only... but also καινός, -ή, -όν (22) new [~ being in existence a short time]

καιρός, -00, ὃ (13)

time, period [~ a particular moment in time; a period of time]

κακός, -ἡ, -όν (22)

bad, evil [~ being bad with implications of being harmful or

damaging] καλέω (17)

Icall, name, invite, summon [to identify by name or attribute; to

request the presence of someone] καλός, -1), -Ov (5) beautiful, good [~ being attractive; a positive moral quality] rr

Greek-English Vocabulary

καλῶς (21)

287

well, beautifully [-- meeting high standards, high expectations]

καρδία, -ας, ἣ (6) heart [an organ of the body (not in the NT); causative source of one’s psychological, inner life, especially thoughts]

καρπός, -0d, 6 (10)

fruit [~ that which is produced or harvested: of crops or plants;

of wombs; of actions]

κατά (10) (prep. + gen.) down from, against; (+ acc.) according to, throughout, during [a marker of extension or orientation in space or location, normally lower; norm of similarity in relationship; temporal aspect] καταβαίνω (17) Icome down, go down [to move downward] κατοικέω (19) Linhabit, dwell, live [to live in a locality]

καυχάομαι (20) I boast, glory, pride myself in [to take pride in something; boast about something] κεφαλή, -ῆς, ἣ (9) head [~ a part of the body having brain, eyes, etc.; a being of high status] κηρύσσω (4, 14) Iannounce, preach, proclaim [to make: public official announcements; religious announcements] κλαίω (11, 14) I weep, cry out [to weep or cry out from grief or sorrow, with emphasis upon intensity] κόσμος, -ov, ὁ (5)

cosmos, world [~ the visible universe as an ordered structure;'

the earth as a human dwelling place; the system of practices and behaviors associated with humans, but not necessarily of God] κράζω (8, 14)

Icry out, call out [to cry out loudly]

Kpatéw (19) I grasp, seize, control, hold to [to take control of something, hold with one’s hands; to grasp, restrain, or adhere strongly to something] κρίνω (17) I judge, consider, decide, select, separate |to evaluate something, hence to judge, decide, or choose] κρίσις, -εὡς, ἣ (15) judgment [~ the legal process of judgment; a board of judges; administration of what is right and just] κύριος, -οὐυ, 6 (5)

lord, master [one who is in charge as owner or possessor; in a

position of authority]

A λαλέω (17)

I speak, give forth a sound [to speak or talk; make a sound]

λαμβάνω (11, 14)

I take, receive, choose [to take hold of something; acquire pos-

session of; select or choose something] e of λαός, -οὔ, ὃ (7) people [~ a large group of people: a people; a nation; the peopl God; the common people] in λέγω (4, 14) I say, speak, tell, express with words [to express oneself orally or written form] is necessary] λείπω (11, 14) I leave; lack [to leave behind; to lack something that al, large or λίθος, -ov, ὃ (10) stone [~ a piece of rock whether shaped or natur small]

288

NEW TESTAMENT GREEK

λογίζομαι (13) Ireckon, consider, count [to calculate logically or mathematically; to think and have an opinion about something] λόγος, -ov, 6 (5) word, reason [~ a verbal communication; a reckoning or accounting] χοιπός, -n, -όν (6) remaining, [the] rest, other ([τὸ] λοιπόν, finally) [~ the part of a whole that remains] λύω (4,14) Iloose, untie, set free, release, abolish [to untie something that is tied;

to set free something that is constrained; to destroy something]

M μαθητής, -od, 6 (6) disciple, student, follower [~ one who learns from another who is a teacher] μακάριος, -α, -ον (6) happy, blessed [~ being happy, fortunate, or privileged because of circumstances] μᾶλλον (23) more, rather [~ a degree that surpasses in some manner; marker of

an alternative to something] waptopéa@ (19) I bear witness, confirm, testify [to confirm something based upon experience] μαρτυρία, -ας, ἣ (24

testimony, evidence [~ a confirmation of something on the

basis of knowledge or experience] μάρτυς, UaPTLPOG, ὁ (15) witness [one who testifies, especially in court] μέγας, μεγάλη, μέγα (16) great, large [~ above average in size, quantity, intensity, or importance] μείζων, -ov (23) larger, greater [comparative of μέγας; a degree that surpasses a point on a scale of extent] . μέλλω (23) Iam about to, am on the point of; must, am destined; intend, propose [to occur at a future point in time subsequent to another event; to be inevitable or destined; denoting an intended action] μέλος, μέλους, τό (16)

member, part, limb [~ a part of the human body; a part of

a larger unit] μέν (22) on the one hand, in fact, indeed {a marker of: correlation, linkage in discourse, contrast, or mild emphasis] μέν... δέ (20)

onthe one hand... on the other hand [markers of contrast (not

always translated)] μένω (17) Iremain, stay; wait for [to remain in the same place; for a period of time; in the same condition]

μέρος, μέρους, τό (16) μέσος, -ἢ, -ον (12)

part [~ a part of a whole]

middle, in the midst of, among [~ a middle position; any posi-

tion in a group] μετά (10)

(prep. + gen.) with; (+ acc.) after [a marker of association, attendant

circumstance, position behind, or time after] μετανοέω (19) I change my mind, repent [to change one’s mind; to change one’s entire life with respect to sin and righteousness] ye

Greek-English Vocabulary

μή (22) μηδέ (23)

289

not, lest [a marker of negation] and not, but not, nor, not even [a connector of negative clauses and

sentences (usually follows μή)} μηδείς, μηδεμία, μηδέν (22) πο, no one, nobody, nothing [~ there not being any; a

negative reference to an entity] unte (22)

and not [a marker of coordinated negative expressions (often follows

μή)} μήτε... μήτε (22)

neither... ΠΟΥ [markers of coordinated negative expressions]

μήτηρ, μητρός, ἣ (15)

mother [~ female parent]

μικρός, -ἀ, -όν (22) small, little [~ a relatively small quantity or size] μισέω (19) Ihate, abhor [to have strong dislike for another]

μνημεῖον, -ov, τό (24)

tomb, monument, memorial [~ a token of remembrance,

hence a tomb]

μόνος, -η, -ov (12)

only, alone [~ being the only entity in a class]

N vai(7)

yes, certainly |an affirmative response to a question or statement (some-

times emphatic)]

ναός, -ob, 6 (24) temple [a structure: where a deity is worshiped; where a deity is thought to reside] νεκρός, -, -όν (5) dead [~ being dead, lifeless, useless] νόμος, -ov, 6 (5) law, custom [~ a legal system, as an individual law or as a collec-

tive whole; a specific reference to the Torah of Moses; a social practice that has become normative] νῦν (10) now [~ a simultaneous point in time]

νύξ, νυκτός, ἣ (15) of darkness]

night [~ the time period between sunset and sunrise; a period

Ο ὃ (masc.) (5) the [a reference to an entity, event, or state identified by the context] ὅ (neut.) (5) who, which, what [a relative reference to an entity, event, or state]

ὁδός, -οὔ, ἣ (6) way, road, way of life [a way or thoroughfare for traveling from one place to another; the act of traveling; a manner of living]

οἶδα (12) I know [to have knowledge or understanding] οἰκία, -ac, ἣ (25 house, family [a building where one lives; those who live in the

building] οἰκοδομέω (19) I build, strengthen, edify [to engage in the construction of; to enhance one’s ability to live well] οἶκος, -ov, 6 (8)

building] οἶνος, -ov, 6 (24)

house, family [a building where one lives; those who live in the

wine [grape juice after fermentation]

ὀλίγος, -n, -ov (22) _ little, few, small [~ a small quantity or size]

290

NEW TESTAMENT GREEK

ὅλος, -n, -ov (6)

whole, all, wholly [~ a complete quantity]

ὅμοιος, -α, -ov (25) like [~ being similar] ὁμοίως (21) likewise, so, similarly, in the same way [~ being similar] ὄνομα, ὀνόματος, τό (16) name [the proper name of a person or object] ὀπίσω (21) (adv.) behind; (prep. + gen.) behind, after [a marker of position: behind

in either space or time] ὅπου (21)

where, since, whereas [a marker of position in space; an expressed prem-

ise or circumstance; a cause]

ὅπως (22)

(conj.) in order that, that; (adv.) how [a marker of an event expressing

purpose or manner] ὁράω (17) Isee [to see with your eyes, perceive with your understanding] ὀργή, -fis, ἣ (24 anger, wrath, indignation [an emotion of strong displeasure] ὄρος, ὄρους, τό (16) mountain [a relatively high elevation of land] ὅς (masc.) (7) who, which, what, that [ἃ relative reference to an entity, event, or state] 2

ες

,

»

ὅσος, -n, -ov (6)

as great as, as much as, as far as, as many as, all who [~ a com-

pared quantity of events or objects; extent of time or space] ὅστις, ἥτις, ὅ τι (22) whoever, whichever, whatever [a generalizing reference to an event, entity, or state] ὅταν (22) whenever [a generalizing reference to a conditional, possible, or repeated action in an indefinite point in time] ὅτε (10)

when, while, as long as [a marker of a point in time coinciding with an-

other point in time]

,

ὅτι (9) that, because [a marker of narrative content, direct discourse, or cause] οὗ, οὐκ, οὐχ (7) πο, not [a marker of negation] οὐαί (22) Woe! Alas! [-- a state of distress] οὐδέ (7) and not, nor, neither, not even [a connector of negative clauses and sentences] οὐδέ... οὐδέ (7) neither... nor [markers of coordinated negative expressions]

οὐδείς, οὐδεμία, οὐδέν (16) no, no one, nobody, nothing [negative reference to place, thing, or event] οὐκέτι (21) no longer [extension of time up to a point but not beyond] οὖν (7)

therefore, then, so [a marker of result; inference from a process of

reasoning] οὐρανός, -0d, ὃ (5)

heaven, sky [space above the earth; dwelling place of super-

natural beings; circumlocution for God] οὖς, ὠτός, τό (16) ear [body part used for hearing] οὔτε (13) and not [a marker of coordinated negative expressions (often follows od)] οὔτε... οὔτε (13) neither... nor [markers of coordinated negative expressions]

οὗτος, αὗτη, τοῦτο (8)

this [~ an entity mentioned as relatively near in a dis-

course setting] οὕτως (10)

thus, so [~ a way or manner indicated]

iy

Greek-English Vocabulary

291

οὐχί (23) not, no [a marker of negation] ὀφείλω (17) I owe, am obligated; ought, must [to be indebted to someone finan-

cially, socially, morally; to be compelled to act by some social convention] ὀφθαλμός, -0d, ὃ (9) eye [body part used for seeing] ὄχλος, -ov, ὁ (7) crowd [a relatively large gathering of people]

Il παιδίον, -OV, τό (12) child [~ a young child (usually prepubescent)] πάλιν (10) again, back [-- repeating a previous action; a return to a place or state] πάντοτε (21)

always, at all times [~ length and occasions of time]

mapa (12) (prep. + gen.) from alongside; (+ dat.) beside, in the presence of; (+ acc.) alongside [a marker of location or association: beside which, from which, or at which (nearness)|

παραβολή, -ῆς, ἣ (12)

parable, riddle [-- a short, didactic narrative or story with

symbolic meaning} παραγγέλλω (17)

I give orders, command [to announce what must be done]

παραγίνομαι (13)

I come, arrive [to travel so as to arrive at a place]

παραδίδωμι (18)

I hand over, deliver, pass on, hand down {to pass on to another

something or someone of importance or interest] παρακαλέω (17) I beseech, invite; exhort, urge; console [to summon the presence of someone, invite, ask; to encourage, console] I receive, welcome, take with [the reception, welcoming, or

παραλαμβάνω (11,14)

taking of something or someone] παρέρχομαι (13) I pass away, pass by, go through, ignore {to go past something or someone literally, figuratively (ignore), or temporally (disappear)] παρθένος, -ov, ἣ (6)

virgin [~ a person who has not had sexual intercourse]

παρίστημι (18) I place beside, present, offer; stand (to bring someone or something before someone else; to cause to be; to cause to stand] παρρησία, -ας, ἣ (14) boldness, confidence |~ bold, courageous speech in the face of intimidating circumstances] πᾶς, πᾶσα, πᾶν (16) all, any, every, whole [-- the totality of something; each part of a whole]

πάσχω (11,14) I suffer, endure [to experience something that is painful] πατήρ, πατρός, 6 (15) father [~ male parent, ancestor, leader, or supreme deity] πείθω (11, 14)

I persuade [to cause to adopt an opinion or take an action]

πειράζω (11, 14) I try, attempt, put to the test, tempt {to attempt something; to try to discover the nature of something by testing; to entrap through clever questions; to entice to sin]

πέμπω (4, 14) πέντε (22)

Isend [to cause someone to go away for a specific reason]

five [~ the quantity “five”|

περί (10) (prep. + gen.) concerning, about; (+ acc.) around [a marker of general content, association, location around something, or accompaniment]

292

NEW TESTAMENT GREEK

I walk around, go about, walk [to move from one place to another;

περιπατέω (19)

~ a way of living] περισσεύω (11, 14) I abound, am rich [to be in abundance; to cause to be in abundance] περιτομή, -ἣς, ἣ (24) circumcision [to consecrate by the-surgical removal of fore-

skin around the penis with religious and ethnic significance] πίνω (11,14)

I drink [to consume a liquid]

πίπτω (11,14) fall [to quickly and uncontrollably move downward; to lose status] πιστεύω (4, 14) I believe, trust [to be convinced that something is true and trustworthy; to act according to belief] πίστις, -εως, ἣ (15)

faith, trust; faithfulness [~ a state of conviction that some-

thing or someone is trustworthy; evoking trust by being trustworthy] πιστός, -ή, -όν (5) faithful, trustworthy [~ evoking trust by being trustworthy] πλανάω (20)

Ilead astray, deceive, wander about [to cause to wander from a true

path or opinion; to move around aimlessly] πλείων, -ov (23) more [comparative of πολύς; a degree that exceeds a point on a scale of large measures] πλῆθος, πλήθους, τό (16) multitude, crowd [~ a large number] πλὴν (21) (αν) but, however, only; (prep. + gen.) except [a marker of something considered in contrast] πληρόω (17) fulfill; fill [to make something full or complete] πλοῖον, -Ov, τό (12) boat [a floating watercraft of indeterminate size]

πνεῦμα, πνεύματος, τό (16) wind, breath, spirit [moving air; that which animates the body; an aspect of character; an invisible divine being] ποιέω (17) Ido, make, practice [to do or make something] ποῖος, -α, -ον (23) of what kind? which? what? [interrogative reference to type or

kind; ~ identifying an entity or distinguishing between more than one entity] πόλις, -εὡς, (15) city [~ a city, community] πολύς, πολλή, πολὺ (16)

much, many [~ a large quantity or extent]

πονηρός, -ά, -Ov (8) evil [~ being immoral, worthless, dangerous, corrupt] πορεύομαι (13) Igo, proceed, travel [to move from one place to another]

ποτήριον, -Ov, TO (24)

cup [~ an implement holding liquid for drinking]

ποῦ (21) where? [interrogative reference to place] πούς, ποδός, ὃ (15) foot [body part used for walking]

πράσσω (11, 14)

Ido, accomplish [to do, achieve, or experience something]

πρεσβύτερος, -α, -ov (6)

πρό (9)

elder [~ someone of advanced age]

(prep. + gen.) before [a marker of spatial or temporal position: before, in

front of something] πρόβατον, -ov, τό (24) sheep [~ a domesticated animal raised for sacrifices, food, wool, and vellum] πρός (9) (prep. + acc.) to, toward, with; (+ dat.) at, on, near; (+ gen.) for, for the

sake of, from which [a marker of direction of interest or movement toward] ἡ:

Greek-English Vocabulary

293

προσέρχομαι (13) I come to, go to [to move towards] προσευχή, -ἣς, ἣ (24) prayer [~ a communication addressed to God]

προσεύχομαι (13) I pray [to speak to God] προσκυνέω (19) I worship, prostrate myself before {to show reverence to an authority figure by bowing before, kissing feet] προσφέρω (20) I bring (to), offer, present [to carry or bring into someone's

presence] πρόσωπον, -Ov, τό (5) face, presence [~ the visible body part most immediately encountered in social interaction; someone’s face, presence] προφήτης, -ov, 6 (6) prophet [~ someone who speaks oracles for a deity] πρῶτος, -n, -ov (6) first, earlier, earliest [-- being firgt in a sequence or in importance] πτωχός, -ἤ, -όν (22) poor; as a noun: a poor man or woman [~ having relatively little money, possessions, or resources] πῦρ, πυρός, τό (16) _fire [~ the burning of something] πῶς (10) how? in what way? [interrogative reference to manner or means]

P word, saying [~ a spoken communication]

ῥῆμα, ῥήματος, τό (16)

x Sabbath [the seventh day of the seven-day Jewish week; the

σάββατον, -ov, τό (13)

r day of ritual rest] (15) flesh [referring to the body; the part of the body that covers σάρξ, σαρκός, the skeleton; the part of the person that is material, not spiritual] σεαυτοῦ, -ἣς (8)

of yourself [~ oneself; self-reference]

σημεῖον, -ov, τό (7) meaning]

sign [~ some visible thing of divine origin and special

σήμερον (21) today [~ the current day] Σίμων, Σίμωνος, 6 (15) Simon [personal name]

σκανδαλίζω (11,14) Icause to sin, cause to fall or stumble; give offense to [to act maliciously toward someone; to cause them to fail morally] σκότος, σκότους, τό (16)

darkness [an absence of light, of understanding, or of

morality] σοφία, -ας, (12) wisdom [~ understanding, insight; knowledge that fosters moral, prudent behavior] σπείρω (20)

Isow, scatter [to plant seed by casting over the ground]

σπέρμα, σπέρματος, TO (16) seed, descendant(s) [~ the source from which something grows; the product of procreation] σταυρόω (17) I crucify [to kill by hanging on a cross] στόμα, στόματος, TO (16)

mouth [-- the body part used for speaking; the point at

which things enter or emerge]

294.

NEW TESTAMENT GREEK

στρέφω (11, 14) I turn [to cause something to turn (direction, location) or change (essence)| σύ, σοῦ (7) you [second-person singular pronoun] σύν (9) (prep. + dat.) with [a marker of association or accompaniment] συνάγω (9) I gather (in), bring together |to cause to come-together]

ovvaywyn, -ῆς, ἣ (12) synagogue [~ a place of assembly, a building for worship, or the people who assemble] συνείδησις, -ews, f (15)

consciousness, awareness, conscience [~ awareness of

information; an internal moral compass] ovvépyouat (13) I come together [to assemble with others] σῴζω (4,14) Isave, rescue, heal {to deliver from transcendent or natural danger] σῶμα, σώματος, τό (16) body [~ physical body of a person, animal, or plant] σωτηρία, -ας, ἣ (24) salvation; deliverance [~ a rescue of cosmic or earthly proportions]

T τέ (15)

and [a marker of connections; enclitic particle of a conjunction]

τέ... καί (15)

both... and [markers of a totality of two things, τέ (which need not

be translated) pointing to kai] τέ... τέ (5) 45... 50; ποί only... but also [a connector of sentences or parts of sentences]

τέκνον, -οὐυ, τό (5) child [~ a male or a female physical offspring; a spiritual offspring; an offspring of a type or aspect of character] τέλος, τέλους, τό (16)

end, result, goal [~ an end point in duration of time (em-

phasis upon completion of a process)] τέσσαρες (masc./fem.), τέσσαρα (neut.; may occur as τέσσερα) (16)

four [~ the

quantity “four”] ν τηρέω (17) Ikeep, guard, observe, fulfill [to cause a state to continue] τίθημι (18) I put, place, lay [to put or place something somewhere] τιμή, -ἧς, ἣ (24) honor, price [the display of someone’s value, hence honor; the valuation of something, hence price] tic (masc./fem.), ti (neut.) (15)

who? which? what? [interrogative reference to some-

one, something]; τί as an adverb: why? [interrogative reference to a reason] τις (masc./fem.), τι (neut.) (15)

someone, a certain one, something [an indirect

reference to someone or something] τό (5)

the [a reference to an entity, event, or state identified by the context]

τοιοῦτος, τοιαύτη, τοιοῦτον (or τοιοῦτο) (12) of such a kind, such as this, such [~ being like some entity or event mentioned in the context] τόπος, -ου, ὁ (12) place [~ a specified area of any size] tote (10) then, at that time [-- a point of time with reference to other points of time] τρεῖς (masc./fem.), τρία (neut.) (16) three [~ the quantity “three”]

re

Greek-English Vocabulary

295

τρίτος, -ἡ, -ον (22) third [third in a series] τυφλός, -ἡ, -όν (22) blind; as a noun: a blind man or woman |~ being unable to see, understand]

Ὗ ὕδωρ, ὕδατος, τό (16)

water [clear, colorless liquid element of oceans, rivers, lakes,

wells, rain; necessary for life] υἱός, -00, 6 (5) son [~ male offspring: biological, legal, or otherwise closely related or associated]

μεῖς, ὑμῶν (7) you [second-person plural pronoun] πάγω (10) Idepart, go, go away [to leave someone’s presence] πάρχω (10,20)

Iam, exist [to be in a particular state]

Ss Cree Chπέρ

(10) (prep. + gen.) on behalf of; (+ acc.) above [a marker indicating an activity that is in someone’s interest; of comparatively greater degree] ὑπό (10) (prep. + gen.) by; (+ acc.) under [a marker of personal agency, location, or control]

ὑπομονή, -ῆς, ἣ (24) hardship]

steadfast endurance [~ the ability to remain resolute under I return, turn back [to move back to a previous location]

ὑποστρέφω (11, 14)

ὑποτάσσω (11, 14) Isubject, subordinate; pass.: I subject myself, am subjected (to cause to be in submission; to bring something under the control of someone]

® Ishine, give light, appear [to produce light; to become visible]

φαίνω (17)

φανερόω (17) Ireveal, make known {to cause to be visible, known] φέρω (20) I bear, carry, bring [to carry from one place to another] φεύγω (11, 14) I flee, escape [to move from a place to avoid danger]

φημί (18)

I say, affirm [to state something orally]

φιλέω (19)

I love, like [to have special interest in something or someone]

φοβέομαι (19) Iam afraid, fear, am frightened [to be ina distressed state from being terrified of something or someone; to respect or even worship] fear, terror [~ a state of distress and worry over looming misfor-

φόβος, -ov, ὃ (24)

tune; respect or worship] φυλακή, -ῆς, ἣ 24) guard, prison, watch [~ guarding, whether it be the person doing it, the place it is done, or the time it is done] φυλάσσω (11, 14) I watch, guard, keep [to protect by careful supervision; to avoid

transgression of a law by careful observance] φυλή, -fi¢, ἣ (24) tribe [~ a subgroup of a nation of the same bloodline] φωνέω (19)

I call, cry out, summon [to call out to or beckon someone from a

distance]

φωνή, -ἧς, ἣ (6)

voice [a sound, cry, or voice]

φῶς, φωτός, τό (16)

light [light in contrast to darkness; that which gives light]

296

NEW TESTAMENT GREEK

Χ χαίρω (20) 1 rejoice, am glad [to be joyful, happy in pleasant circumstances] χαρά, -ἂς, ἣ (6) joy [the experience of gladness and joy] χάρις, χάριτος, ἣ (15)

grace, favor, kindness, graciousness [~ showing kindness

to someone; something given freely and generously; anexpression of gratitude; an attractive quality that invites a positive reaction] . χείρ, χειρός, ἣ (15) hand [~ a part of the body: hand or part of a hand] χρεία, -ας, ἣ (4) need [~ that which is lacking; that which should be supplied] Χριστός, -οὔ, ὃ (8) the Anointed One, Messiah, Christ [Greek equivalent of the Hebrew word for messiah; title for a special one sent from God] χρόνος, -ov, ὃ (10) time [a unit of time, a period of time, or a special point in time] χωρίς (23) (prep. + gen.) without, apart from [a marker of absence or separation from]

Ψ ψυχή, -ἧς, ἣ (6) soul, life, living creature |~ life: its immaterial essence, the animating force of the body; nexus of inner life, emotions, desires, thoughts]

Q ὧδε (21)

here, in this place; in this case [~ a position nearby the event or entity in

the discourse] Opa, -ας, (7) hour [~ time: a period of time, a point in time, or a special moment in time] ᾿ ὡς (10) (adv.) as, about; (conjunction) as [~ comparison: a weak marker of relationships between entities or events; ~ time: temporal conjunction]

ὥσπερ (25)

just as, even as [~ comparison: a stronger marker of relationships

between entities or events (cf. a