New Literacies : Reconstructing Language and Education [1 ed.] 9781443869560, 9781443847780

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New Literacies: Reconstructing Language and Education

New Literacies: Reconstructing Language and Education

Edited by

Ambigapathy Pandian, Christine Liew Ching Ling, Debbita Tan Ai Lin, Jayagowri Muniandy, Lee Bee Choo and Toh Chwee Hiang

New Literacies: Reconstructing Language and Education, Edited by Ambigapathy Pandian, Christine Liew Ching Ling, Debbita Tan Ai Lin, Jayagowri Muniandy, Lee Bee Choo and Toh Chwee Hiang This book first published 2013 Cambridge Scholars Publishing 12 Back Chapman Street, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2XX, UK

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Copyright © 2013 by Ambigapathy Pandian, Christine Liew Ching Ling, Debbita Tan Ai Lin, Jayagowri Muniandy, Lee Bee Choo and Toh Chwee Hiang and contributors All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-4438-4778-X, ISBN (13): 978-1-4438-4778-0

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface ........................................................................................................ ix Chapter I ...................................................................................................... 1 Daring to Define Literacy in the 21st Century Franco Vaccarino, Margie Comrie, Niki Murray, Frank Sligo and Elspeth Tilley Chapter II ................................................................................................... 20 Critical Discourse Analysis of George Bush’s Selected Inaugural Address Shatha Naiyf Qaiwer Chapter III ................................................................................................. 32 Reading the Words and the World through Secondhand Books Selling Marie Grace Dela Cruz Reoperez Chapter IV ................................................................................................. 47 The Stylistic Patterns of Grimm’s Fairy Tales Nazima Versay Kudus and Agelyia Murugan Chapter V .................................................................................................. 64 Domestication and Foreignization in Translation of Children’s Literature: A Textual Analysis Bita Naghmeh Abbaspour Chapter VI ................................................................................................. 77 A Continuum of Focalization: The Narrative Technique in Hemingway’s Short Stories Shirin Khabbazbashi, Thomas Chow Voon Foo and Ambigapathy Pandian Chapter VII ................................................................................................ 94 Developing Literacy and Knowledge Preservation Skills among Remote Rural Children Souba Rethinasamy, Norazila Abd. Aziz, Fitri Suraya Mohamad, Mohd Hafizan Hashim and Dayang Sariah Abang Suhai

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Chapter VIII ............................................................................................ 108 Exploring English Language Academc Literacy and Competency from the Lenses of the Undergraduate Students Wahiza Wahi, Marnie O’Neill and Anne Chapman Chapter IX ............................................................................................... 121 The Use of Critical Discourse Analysis in Developing Critical Consumers of Discourse: Examination of the Construction of Power Relations via Grammar of Transitivity in Speeches on Terrorism Ong Cheng Teik Chapter X ................................................................................................ 142 Literacy and Numeracy: New Zealand Forges Ahead Jan Brown Chapter XI ............................................................................................... 153 Numeracy and the Development of Scientifically Literate Workforce in a Borderless World Mohan Chinnappan Chapter XII .............................................................................................. 166 Workforce Literacy and Numeracy in Indigenous Contexts Lorraine Sushames Chapter XIII ............................................................................................ 186 Difficulties in Learning Mathematics: Is It the Language or the Mathematics? Leong Yong Pak and Gitu Chakravarthy Chapter XIV ............................................................................................ 208 Digital Literacy Nejat Al-Juboury Chapter XV.............................................................................................. 230 Curriculum through Literacy: Applying ‘Parallel Pedagogy’ in Pre-Service Teacher Education Peter McDowell

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Chapter XVI ............................................................................................ 247 OBE Curriculum Implementation Process in Politeknik Kota Kinabalu: A Possible Evaluation Framework Joan Wang, Vincent Pang and Jason William Vitales Chapter XVII ........................................................................................... 264 Reflective Stop Station on Student-Teachers’ Practice in Iraq Shatha Alsaadi Chapter XVIII .......................................................................................... 276 Enhancing Literacy through Language Arts: A Component of the Standard-based Curriculum for Primary Schools Regina Joseph Cyril Chapter XIX ............................................................................................ 283 Interpersonal and Intrapersonal Literacy: Using Traditional Tales to Teach Stranger Danger to Lower Primary Students Indranee Liew Chapter XX.............................................................................................. 293 The Role of Graphic Organisers (GO) in the Teaching of Writing Skills Hj. Muhammad Amir bin Y.M. Shariff and M. Shyamala Rajamoney Chapter XXI ............................................................................................ 310 Teaching English by Video Technology Shirin Shafiei Ebrahimi Chapter XXII ........................................................................................... 318 Exploring the Interconnections between Literacy, Education, Employment and the Library in a Prison’s Self-care Unit Franco Vaccarino and Margie Comrie Chapter XXIII .......................................................................................... 333 Environmental Education in Bangladesh: Problems, Solutions and Recommendations for the 21st Century Sakil Malik and Marium Kawser Chapter XXIV ......................................................................................... 358 Exploring the Linguistic Features used by A. Sillitoe in The Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner: A Stylistic Study Sarab Kadir Mugair and Nawal Fadhil Abbas

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Chapter XXV ........................................................................................... 367 Research into Readability: Paradigms and Possibilities Dahlia Janan and David Wray Chapter XXVI ......................................................................................... 377 Experiential Learning Journals: Theory and Practice Jeanne Dawson Chapter XXVII ........................................................................................ 388 Caught in the Spotlight: Preparing International Students for Professional Placement in Australian Workplaces Marilyn Kell, Marian Davis, Ruth Warwick and Janice White Chapter XXVIII ....................................................................................... 403 Supporting Distance Learners through Effective Tutor Feedback Pramela Krish and S. Nagarajan Chapter XXIX ......................................................................................... 415 Focus Group Research: Assessing Potentials for Collaborative Research Felicidad Galang-Pereña Chapter XXX ........................................................................................... 429 Making Sense about Science Literacy: Views of Secondary School Students on Science Learning in Malaysia Ambigapathy Pandian, Shanthi Balraj and Vivien Chee Pei Wei About the Authors ................................................................................... 449

PREFACE

The notion of change is central to this book. Across the globe, there exists a pressing need for transformation in the way teachers teach, in the manner by which learners learn, and in our approach towards defining literacy in the 21st century. Historically, the term ‘literacy’ has been used to primarily denote reading and writing abilities, a designation which is today largely considered both quintessential and overly simplistic. The field of literacy, like many others within the realm of education, has a tendency to evolve and shift from one paradigm to another, vacillating between the demands of globalisation and the implications brought forth by the advent of new technologies. Reading and writing – communication, in essence – is happening in very different ways and via varied avenues; blogs, podcasts, online news, and tablets coupled with countless applications. These new tools are not only disrupting older modes of communication, but have also effectively dictated a redesigning of conventional classroom tools. Such changes are increasingly borderless and rapidly accelerating, and are bound to impact the nature of literacy itself as well as how it is perceived in diverse contexts in different parts of the world. This calls for a reorientation with regard to how researchers, educators and stakeholders view literacy in today’s terms, as well as the deconstruction and reconstitution of language and education on the whole. The collection of book chapters in this volume deals with the multifaceted nature of literacy, and brings together ideas relevant to the paradigms and possibilities of language and education. In doing so, this collection highlights not only interesting initiatives and realities from all over the world, but also critiques and insights pertinent to the issue at hand. The first section of this book takes a close look at the issue of new literacies affecting those in academia. Franco Vaccarino, Margie Comrie, Niki Murray, Frank Sligo and Elspeth Tilley, in the opening chapter, attempt to define what literacy means in different contexts. They seek to trace the development of the term ‘literacy’ since with advances in information technologies and an increase in globalisation; it has evolved considerably from its original sense of denoting reading and writing. Such

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changes have an impact on the nature of literacy and how it is perceived in diverse contexts in different parts of the world. In their chapters, Shatha Naiyf Qaiwer and Marie Grace Dela Cruz Reoperez attempt to link social and linguistic practices. Qaiwer attempts to deconstruct covert ideology which is “hidden” in the text stemming from the assumption that critical discourse analysis seeks to reveal how texts are constructed so that particular perspectives can be expressed delicately and covertly. The main analytical tool, reflecting the three dimensional method of discourse analysis, are namely the language text, spoken or written, discourse practice and the sociocultural practice. On the other hand, Reoperez, employing ethnography as a key research method, looks at the culture of second-hand bookselling and how it serves as informal literacy training. Focus is specifically placed on the experiences and motivations of the booksellers, and how these were incorporated in their worldviews and world knowledge. It also looks at how it challenges the preconceptions of the trade. The next three chapters provide insights on literary literacy development. Nazima Versay Kudus and Agelyia Murugan’s chapter discusses the linguistic assessments of four texts from the Grimm’s Fairy Tales, namely Cinderella, Hansel and Gretel, Rapunzel and Snow White. Stylistic analyses of the lexis in the texts are undertaken and then assessed to evaluate how they shape and nurture children’s literacy development and their formative minds. Bita Naghmeh Abbaspour also looks at the Grimm’s Fairy Tales, but here the focus of the textual analysis study is to describe and explore the strategies which translators applied on culturebound elements in the translation of children's literature. The study is restricted to the comparison of culture-bound units collected from Persian translations of the texts and within the period of the first forty years of the 14th century (solar calendar: 1300-1340/1920-1960); a period of time when Western culture was not well-known in Iran. Selected units of translation were compared both in the target and source language texts, and findings showed that the domestication/foreignisation strategies applied are more acceptable nowadays. Shirin Khabbazbashi, Thomas Chow Voon Foo and Ambigapathy Pandian take a critical look at textual characteristics and differently focalized narratives of The Old Man and the Sea (1952) by Hemingway, to elaborate the underlying linguistic structures towards a fuller appreciation of one of the most popular genres of his writing.

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In their chapter, Developing Literacy and Knowledge Preservation Skills among Remote Rural Children, Souba Rethinasamy, Norazila Abd. Aziz, Fitri Suraya Mohamad, Mohd Hafizan Hashim and Dayang Sariah Abang Suhai propose the need to empower remote rural children to become heritage preservation agents of orally told stories that have been passed down from one generation to another via a collaborative project involving 40 children of the community of Bario Highland in Sarawak. This will serve not only to enhance their language and ICT literacy skills, but also to ensure the continued survival of the orally told stories and the knowledge imparted through them. Exploring Malaysian undergraduate students’ English language academic literacy and competency, and how they acquire them in their quest to meet the demands of their tertiary education, Wahiza Wahi, Marnie O’Neill and Anne Chapman’s study revealed key findings on issues relating to students’ technical difficulties and pessimistic outlook on their academic literacy practices and competencies in English. Ong Cheng Teik, whose chapter attempts a critical discourse analysis (CDA) predicated on Fairclough’s (1992) three-dimensional framework, explores a study on grammar of transitivity that entails various processes such as material, relational, mental and verbal processes. This study demonstrates the importance of critical literacy in general and CDA in particular in providing teachers with a tool to contextualise the teaching of grammar in relation to current issues, both locally and globally. Numeracy literacy is gaining popularity and research into this area has gained momentum all over the world. Jan Brown, Mohan Chinnappan and Lorraine Sushames highlight the significance of literacy and numeracy skills. To participate fully in a modern, technology-based economy, one needs to have the necessary literacy and numeracy skills, but according to Brown, 43 percent of adults in New Zealand do not have the necessary skills mentioned with the indigenous MƗori population having lower literacy and numeracy skills than the general population in New Zealand. Therefore, the onus is on tertiary education providers to improve productivity by embedding literacy and numeracy skills into the delivery of vocational training, especially since New Zealand intends to compete globally using a workforce with improved levels of generic and technical skills. In the same vein, Mohan Chinnappan articulates issues on numeracy and literacy, and identifies potentially productive approaches for classroom practices and literacy reforms across Asia and beyond. Sushames too profiles pedagogical approaches to implementing a work-

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based literacy and numeracy project. Strategies employed are discussed while challenges encountered in the implementation are addressed. In their chapter, Leong Yong Pak and Gitu Chakravarthy discuss the major problems and issues that arise with the introduction of the use of English for the teaching of mathematics to non-native speakers in year one in primary schools in Brunei. Learners’ diverse needs and literacy practices are also examined. Digital literacy, which is relatively new compared to other literacies, is accorded some prominence in this book. Nejat Al-Juboury touches on skills considered to be the new bases of the 21st century, such as autonomy, active learning, critical thinking, cooperative learning, and digital learning (AACCD). Where second language education is concerned, she stresses that with the revolution of technology in the 21st century, to excel, both teachers and learners need to adopt new roles and be equipped with new skills and competencies that go beyond the basic skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing. The author also explores university teachers’ attitudes towards utilising digital learning. The next section of this book delves deeper into how education and language are being reconstructed to suit the present needs, learning styles and composition of learners. Chapters in this section deal mainly with issues on curriculum design and approaches to language enhancement. Peter McDowell and Joan Wang, Vincent Pang and Jason William Vitales, as well as Shatha Alsaadi explore curriculum design and propose recommendations on curriculum implementation. McDowell’s chapter is on designing a pre-service teacher education unit with the sole aim of introducing pre-service teachers to the principal curriculum requirements of their intended levels of schooling and preferred teaching areas. By means of a vital combination of literacy-based teaching strategies that involves the application and elaboration of the notion of ‘parallel pedagogy’ (Leander, 2009), he further describes how pre-service teachers’ initial reluctance to consume and create digital texts is being overcome. Reviewing and evaluating the Department of Polytechnics’ (Malaysia) newly introduced curriculum with an emphasis on Outcome-based Education (OBE), Wang, Pang and Vitales utilise Stake’s Countenance Evaluation Model to propose a framework for the evaluation of the implementation of this curriculum change in Politeknik Kota Kinabalu, Sabah. On the other hand, Alsaadi examines practice teaching as a core education programme to provide basic links between college academic courses and the world of actual practice in schools.

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With the main focus of the primary English Language Curriculum being building basic literacy among pupils, Regina Joseph Cyril describes how language arts activates pupils’ imagination and interest as well as provides an opportunity to integrate, experiment and apply what they have learnt in fun-filled meaningful learning experiences. Language arts, a new component added to the Standard-Based Curriculum for primary schools, provides pupils with the opportunity to practice language skills learnt through songs, plays, drama as well as express personal responses to literary works. Indranee Liew’s chapter, based on a series of successful lessons carried out with six- to nine-year-olds, focuses on explicit teaching of interpersonal and interpersonal literacy skills using traditional tales that often offer a wealth of material for fun, as well as experiential teaching and learning through the performing arts – storytelling, choral reading, puppetry, drama and singing. The next two chapters look at the role of graphic organisers in enhancing students’ writing skills and the teaching of English using video technology. Hj. Muhammad Amir bin Y.M. Shariff and M. Shyamala Rajamoney carried out a study which investigates the usage of graphic organisers (GOs) in the teaching of essay writing skills and the perceptions of the students with regard to the usage of GOs and came up with findings that support the usage of GOs not only as an effective tool to enhance writing skills but also as a fun and interesting way to promote writing skills. Similarly, to make learning fun and interesting, Shirin Shafiei Ebrahimi looks at how video recording can help to promote the learning of English among students at tertiary levels. She concludes that video recording is entertaining and can help students evaluate their own oral performance, especially in student-centred situations. Literacy and education are deemed crucial for one’s self-improvement, more so for those attempting to reintegrate into their communities. In an interesting case study, Franco Vaccarino and Margie Comrie examine the perceptions of a prisoner in a prison’s self-care unit in New Zealand on the significance and importance of literacy, education, and employment. In another part of the world, Sakil Malik and Marium Kawser focus on the fundamental issues of environmental education in Bangladesh. With high levels of illiteracy and school dropouts jeopardising mass environmental education, their chapter highlights the need to deploy environmental expertise in both public and private sector management systems as the focus of government policy shifts from a short-term one on

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self-sufficiency to the pressing issues of sustainability within the environmental opportunities and constraints offered by the environment. Sarab Kadir Mugair and Nawal Fadhil Abbas present a stylistic analysis of Sillitoe’s novel, The Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner, providing examples of the foregrounding of structural patterns as well as the grammatical forms used by the characters. The study is an attempt at examining the style and language of the text by focusing on the overall structure of the said novel. Meanwhile, in their study on literacy, Dahlia Janan and David Wray illustrate the definition of ‘readability’ and provide interesting background on readability research. They point out that research on readability in general focused on the development of practical methods in terms of matching reading materials to the reading abilities of students and adult readers. These efforts squared in on the development of easily applied readability formulae for teachers and librarians to utilise. More recent readability studies have, apparently, involved a period of consolidation in which researchers sought to learn more about how the formulae worked and how to improve them. In their chapter, Janan and Wray describe major paradigms used by scholars in readability research, the impact of these paradigms on research into readability, and possible solutions to problems created by the application of these paradigms to research into readability. On-going research on learner support and gauging performance continues to be at the forefront of language and literacy education. Many researchers and practitioners are also concerned with workplace readiness of learners. Jeanne Dawson underlines that in order to produce graduates who will be sufficiently prepared for ongoing professional success, universities need to develop their students into lifelong learners who are able to analyse, explore, interrogate, speculate and make sound critical judgements. Dawson’s chapter explores the potential of one pedagogic strategy: the setting of experiential learning journals as a significant component of assessment. The chapter focuses on the role of the university educator in facilitating students’ engagement with and performance in journal-writing tasks, drawing on an experiment at an Australian university. Marilyn Kell, Marian Davis, Ruth Warwick and Janice White, in their chapter on preparing international students for professional placement in Australian workplaces, highlight a case in which an add-on programme was created and taught when industry providers objected to hosting a number of international students because of their poor English communication skills. The students were surveyed on their experience,

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and this chapter utilises the survey data garnered as a framework for discussing this type of add-on programme in terms of pedagogy and adult learning. The chapter also includes recommendations for future similar programmes (including many provided by the students) as well as suggestions for further research. Pramela Krish and S. Nagarajan draw attention to the potentials of effective tutor feedback in supporting distance learners. According to them, distance learners need more customised support in their learning and the use of new technologies offer many fresh possibilities of providing feedback to learners. In their study, ‘feedback’ encompasses intellectual, social, managerial and technical support provided by online tutors. Felicidad Galang-Pereña underscores the key features of focus group research, paying specific attention to the benefits of interaction and group dynamics. Apart from pointing out the challenging role of the moderator/facilitator, the chapter also highlights the strengths and weaknesses of the method. This book closes with a chapter by Ambigapathy Pandian, Shanthi Balraj and Vivien Chee Pei Wei who provided an in-depth description on literacy in science based on their investigation on secondary school students in Malaysia. Views of most stakeholders; pupils, teachers and school administrators were sought in their research resulting in a detailed description on how students study the Science subject in secondary school.

The wide-ranging issues on New Literacies: Reconstructing Language and Education covered in this book provide readers with not only fresh insights into nurturing and equipping individuals with multiliteracies but also helpful tips based on success stories of literacy projects of researchers and educationists from different parts of the world. It is therefore, without a doubt, that this book is a must-read for language practitioners, students, researchers, policy and decision makers, concerned educationists or any interested individuals. Editors Ambigapathy Pandian, Christine Liew Ching Ling, Debbita Tan Ai Lin, Jayagowri a/p Muniandy, Lee Bee Choo and Toh Chwee Hiang

CHAPTER I DARING TO DEFINE LITERACY ST IN THE 21 CENTURY FRANCO VACCARINO, MARGIE COMRIE, NIKI MURRAY, FRANK SLIGO AND ELSPETH TILLEY

The term ‘literacy’ has been used for many centuries, but its meaning has evolved considerably from its original sense of denoting reading and writing. This evolution has been particularly noticeable with advances in information technologies and an increase in globalisation, significantly changing how individuals go about their day-to-day personal and working lives. Such changes have an impact on the nature of literacy and how it is perceived in diverse contexts in different parts of the world. This study seeks to trace the development of the term in order to try to define what literacy means in different contexts. It includes reflections from participants in adult literacy programmes, employers, and secondary school teachers involved in a literacy and employment project in New Zealand. It highlights what these participants think literacy is and their attitudes towards this term which often can have a negative and exclusionary effect on people. Finally, the paper attempts to draw some conclusions about this contestable area.

Introduction Literacy is a social construct overloaded with an immense array of implications, so defining this seemingly easy term becomes a much contested and debated endeavour. This paper stems from a longitudinal community-based investigation into adult literacy and employment in

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Whanganui, a town in the North Island of Aotearoa, New Zealand funded by the New Zealand Foundation for Research, Science, and Technology (FRST). This study grew from a community-identified need for a better understanding of the impact of literacy on employment and community development. The full four-year project entailed many linked studies, but here we concentrate on a range of participants’ understanding and interpretation of the term ‘literacy’. A UNESCO report states that “at first glance, ‘literacy’ would seem to be a term that everyone understands. But at the same time, literacy as a concept has proved to be both complex and dynamic, continuing to be interpreted and defined in a multiplicity of ways” (UNESCO, 2006, p. 147). In our research project we soon became aware that the various stakeholders in the community all had different perspectives on literacy.

Review of the Literature Most dictionaries simply describe literacy with minor variations as the “ability to read and write”, but educators, scholars and various government agencies define the term in different and even contradictory ways. Furthermore there has been an explosion in the number of ‘literacies’ deemed important in contemporary society. It is therefore important to explore the evolving nature of the term and to ask whether more encompassing definitions for the 21st century are required and whether these can be appropriate in many contexts in a global community. This brief review of the literature discusses the evolution of the term and current debates about its nature. Our study hoped to throw light on this discussion by comparing such definitions with those of our participants, who were asked quite simply what literacy meant to them. Etymologically, the term literacy derives from the Latin litteratus, meaning learned (Ford, 1993). The word literate was only used to mean ‘familiar with literature’ or more generally, ‘learned, well-educated, instructed in learning, lettered’. Historically, literacy existed in a tiny minority of the world’s societies. Materials associated with literacy were very expensive and only the rich could afford them. The industrial revolution, however, produced cheap paper and therefore cheap books became available to all classes in industrialized countries in the midnineteenth century (Laqueur, 1976). During much of the twentieth century literacy has thus been broadly defined as the basic ability to read and write.

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Until the mid-1960s, literacy was seen as a set of technical skills: reading, writing and calculating, so mass literacy campaigns emerged in order to assist with the eradication of illiteracy. These campaigns were not successful as literacy cannot be sustained by short-term operations and the contexts and motivations of learners need to be taken into consideration. In 1965, the World Congress of Ministers of Education on the Eradication of Illiteracy held in Tehran emphasised for the first time “the interrelationship between literacy and development, and highlighted the concept of functional literacy” (UNESCO, 2006, p. 153). Functional literacy marked a turning point in the history of education, and “it allied education and especially literacy with social and economic development and expanded the understanding of literacy beyond the imparting of basic technical skills” (UNESCO, 2004, p. 9). A functionally literate person “can engage in all those activities in which literacy is required for effective function of his or her group and community and also for enabling him or her to continue to use reading, writing and calculation for his or her own and the community's development” (UNESCO, 2002, ¶1). Functional literacy therefore necessitates a certain competence level in literacy, rather than a specific type of literacy. Paulo Freire also contributed to an expanded understanding of literacy by highlighting the political dimension of literacy. His teaching method of “conscientization” incorporates cultural actions immediately relevant to the learner, and encourages learners to question why things are the way they are, and consequently take action to change them for the better (Freire, 1972). Central to his approach is critical literacy, which moved “literacy beyond the narrow socio-economic confines ... and located it squarely in the political arena, emphasizing connections between literacy and politically active participation in social and economic transformation” (UNESCO, 2004, p. 9). Hiebert (1991) takes an explicitly constructivist perspective on the definition of literacy and says that over some time a new perspective on literacy has emerged, which entails “a profound shift from a text-driven definition of literacy to a view of literacy as active transformation of texts” in which “meaning is created through an interaction of reader and text” (p. 1). Ntiri (2009) adds that the conventional definition for literacy is no longer adequate, and “literacy is now subjected to constant redefinition to reflect criteria for social, political, religious, and economic relevance and expectations” (p. 97).

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Street (1984) provides a distinction between ‘autonomous’ and ‘ideological’ literacy models. In autonomous or ‘functional’ models, literacy is regarded as a measurable individual attribute, is considered separate from context, is largely print based, with its underlying purpose being “to imbue into individuals an acceptance of the dominant ideologies and its explicit purpose is to enhance the economic productivity of the nation” (Lonsdale & McCurry, 2004, p. 7). In contrast, the ideological or ‘social practice’ models argue for multiple, learner-centred literacies in which critical thinking skills are important, to be assessed through ethnographic tools. These models have a strong focus on social context and “a consequent shift from narrow vocational outcomes for individual learners to more holistic outcomes related to empowerment and capacitybuilding for both individuals and communities” (Lonsdale & McCurry, 2004, p. 8). Many Western governments operate from functional models as does the influential International Adult Literacy Survey (IALS)1. IALS defines literacy skills as “the ability to understand and employ printed information in daily activities, at home, at work and in the community – to achieve one’s goals, and to develop one’s knowledge and potential” (OECD, 2000, p. x). This definition and resulting government strategies, such as New Zealand’s Adult Literacy Strategy of 2001, are clearly rooted in an autonomous approach and lead, as Isaacs (2005) mentions, to deficit approaches in policy development. In its Adult Literacy Strategy, the New Zealand Ministry of Education (2001, p. 4) uses the expanded definition of literacy provided by Workbase, the National Centre for Workplace Literacy and Language: “a complex web of abilities in reading, writing, speaking, listening, problem-solving, creative thinking and numeracy”. In the New Zealand Ministry of Education’s Tertiary Education Strategy (TES) (2002, p. 37) literacy is incorporated within foundation skills, which are defined as “a bundle of skills such as literacy, numeracy technological literacy, communication skills, teamwork, ‘learning to learn’ and selfconfidence skills”. The TES states that “these foundation skills are the same core skills that are described by other names in different nations, for example, ‘key skills’, ‘basic skills’, ‘essential skills’, ‘literacy defined broadly’”. Furthermore, the New Zealand Ministry of Education’s Learning for Living document (2005, p.1) talks about ‘foundation learning’ which:

1

Kirsch (2001) states that IALS was “the first-ever comparative survey of adults designed to profile and explore the literacy distributions among participating countries. It was a collaborative effort involving several international organizations, intergovernmental agencies, and national governments” (p.1).

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…covers competencies in literacy, numeracy and language. In practice, foundation learning for adults may be defined as the application of a complex web of reading, writing, speaking, listening, critical thinking, problem solving, numeracy skills and communication technology so that people can achieve their own goals in meaningful social, cultural, vocational and/or learning contexts.

Importantly, this Ministry document also says that foundation learning may be in English or in Te Reo Mori (an official language of New Zealand). Currently, in some contexts, the term literacy appears to have been extended from its original link with reading and literature to any body of knowledge, and a multitude of perspectives have emerged. A variety of descriptive adjectives are often added to the term literacy to provide a clearer description of the term, depending on the context. One therefore finds information literacy, visual literacy, workplace literacy, health literacy, ancestral literacy, financial literacy, to name a few. Johnson (2007) now talks of “functional Internet literacy”, and De Valenzuela (2002, ¶6) points out that in academia “the definition of literacy has … evolved from an exclusive focus on reading and writing to encompass a more inclusive and expansive perspective”. Dubin and Kuhlman (1992) assert that “the word literacy itself has come to mean competence, knowledge and skills” (p. vi). In terms of workplace literacy, Hull (2000, p. 650) points out that “it’s become customary to characterize literacy in the world of work as reading and writing to mediate action and to contrast that purpose for literacy with school-based ones”. Some researchers have categorized literacy at work as “reading to do” whilst school-based literacy is primarily “reading to know” (Diehl & Mikulecky, 1980). Mikulecky, Lloyd, Kirkley, and Oelker (1996, p. 8) state that: the demands made on skills of workers are increasing all the time. As part of teamwork, planning, and quality control, workers need to be able to solve problems that often involve the application of several skills. Literacy in the workplace requires a combination of prose literacy, document literacy, and quantitative literacy.

Workers need prose literacy when accessing manuals, or reading or writing newsletters and memos. Document literacy includes tables, forms and charts, while quantitative literacy includes calculating, and solving problems with numbers. Mikulecky et al. (1996) continue by saying that very often in order to perform a workplace task, different types of skills are required together, for example, calculation, reading charts or technical

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material, handling data, and problem solving. Verizon (2003) states that “literacy is the foundation for other basic skills, yet large numbers of people in the labour pool are tagged as illiterate. ... however, illiteracy probably is not the inability to read anything at all, but rather the inability to read well enough to fully understand important written material” (p. 2). As Aotearoa New Zealand is a bicultural country, it is important to have a very brief overview of what literacy means to Mori. Rawiri (2005) states that: While literacy has always been valued by indigenous peoples as a means of achieving economic prosperity, within indigenous and First Nations understandings, literacy skills function in a more fundamental and critical way. Literacy is the means with which to express, understand, provide for, and make sense of, one’s self and the ‘whole’ richness of one’s self in its widest cultural, spiritual, intellectual and physical sense (p. 5).

The publication of Te KƗwai Ora in 2001 was a defining moment in addressing the aspirations of Mori in respect of literacy. The report provided a comprehensive Treaty-based2 perspective on literacy. It demanded that literacy be understood within actual social and historical contexts but also as incorporating “the competencies that the literate person is able to demonstrate” (Mori Adult Literacy Reference Group, 2001, p. 5). In this way Te KƗwai Ora made it clear that literacy policy must be grounded in social and historical realities and, on that basis, should be designed to enhance people’s literacy capabilities. We believe Te KƗwai Ora is the key national document which can provide a bicultural vision to inform ongoing governmental strategy development for literacy. In Te KƗwai Ora, Wally Penetito stated the following regarding what it means to be a literate Mori. First he said it should include competence in reading and writing in both Mori and English but also: having the capacity to ‘read’ the geography of the land, i.e. to be able to name the main land features of one’s environment (the mountains, rivers, lakes, creeks, bluffs, valleys etc.), being able to recite one’s tribal/hap boundaries and be able to point them out on a map if not in actuality as well as the key features of adjacent tribal/hap boundaries and being able to ‘read’ Mori symbols such as carvings, tukutuku, kwhaiwhai and their context within the wharenui (poupou, heke etc.) and the marae (tea, rongo etc.). (Maori Adult Literacy Reference Group, 2001, p. 7). 2

The Treaty of Waitangi is a treaty signed between Mori and the British Crown in 1840 and is considered the founding document of Aotearoa New Zealand as a bicultural nation.

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Penetito also speculated that perhaps even the ability to ‘read’ body language should be part of ‘literacy’ in Mori terms. From this brief review of the literature, it is evident that there is no clear universal definition of literacy, but rather implications of what literacy entails within diverse contexts at different times in the history of humanity. Thus, when working within the literacy field, it is imperative to formulate a clear description or definition of what literacy entails within that specific context (Vaccarino, Comrie, Culligan, & Sligo, 2006). As De Valenzuela (2002, ¶5) states, “the definition of 'literate', depends on the skills needed within a particular environment”. In addition, Dubin and Kuhlman (1992, p. vii) highlight that the last few decades have been marked by significant new directions in literacy research brought about by questions which seek to discover how literacy functions in families...in communities...and in workplaces... What does it mean to be 'literate' as a member of a particular culture? What are the patterns of literacy use within fields of work, within professions, within age-groups?

The question this raises is whether we can still refer to literacy as a singular entity, or whether we need to think in terms of literacies. The Knowledge Network (2002, ¶1) talks of 21st century literacies which “refer to the skills needed to flourish in today's society and in the future. Today discrete disciplines have emerged around information, media, multicultural, and visual literacies”. Jones-Kavalier and Flannigan (2006, p. 8) add that “literacy today depends on understanding the multiple media that make up our high-tech reality and developing the skills to use them effectively”, and this begs the question whether we all live in a “high-tech reality”.

Method During the four years of this project, we interviewed a wide range of people from the Whanganui community (including those attending adult literacy courses, employers and secondary school teachers) in order to hear their perspectives on various aspects of literacy, including what the term means to them. First was a series of in-depth interviews with 80 participants selected to be representative of students across all the adult literacy programmes in Whanganui. This exploratory, qualitative interview process was chosen to hear their stories and obtain rich data. We were particularly concerned

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that participants were free to tell their story and that the interviews should not spring from a ‘deficit model’ of literacy. Second, an employer esurvey was presented on the survey software website Zoomerang (www. zoomerang.com) where 256 potential participants, comprising the vast majority of the town’s employers, were invited to take part in the study. Fifty-six employers completed the e-survey (a 26% response rate). In addition, eight employers, representing businesses from the manufacturing, accounting, printing, land transport, plumbing, joinery, hospitality/ accommodation, and energy sectors were asked to define literacy as part of a longer interview about literacy and employment issues. Third, 13 secondary school teachers, representing staff most involved in literacy support and school link-to-work programmes, from all of the city’s five secondary schools took part in open, unstructured interviews. Care was taken to avoid specific, structured questions, using instead an interview guide and open-ended prompts. Again the aim was to obtain rich, detailed clarification of issues, with as many relevant, local examples as possible. Through an awareness of the wide-ranging definitions of literacy, and approaching the research from a strengths-based, multi-literacies perspective, we sought to encourage all our interviewees to speak from their own perspectives and perceptions of the term. Interview data were analysed using qualitative analysis (supported by the use of HyperResearch software), chosen to more fully realise the potential information contained in the interview responses.

Findings and Discussion The findings from the survey and interviews conducted in Whanganui with participants in adult literacy programmes, employers, and secondary school teachers are presented in this section with a brief contextualising discussion.

Participants in Adult Literacy Programmes Participants were asked what the word ‘literacy’ meant to them. More than a quarter of the adult literacy students saw literacy as meaning strictly 3-R type functional skills, with a number adding references to ‘English’, ‘spelling’ or ‘grammar’ and ‘dictionaries’. There was a clear association with school and formal learning, and in some cases this was directly mentioned. Sixteen participants expanded this definition and gave broader responses that included additional kinds of learning to the 3-Rs; with two of these 16 participants including the idea of “being able to speak and

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converse properly”, and of also being able to “actually understand it and to know what it means”. Others mentioned understanding as important – having others understand you and being able to communicate. Twelve respondents said they did not know, or were not sure what literacy meant. Some, even when prompted for a response to a 3-R type definition, still replied that it made no sense to them, or said, “I still don’t know what it means to me”. Six respondents gave responses based on a deficit model, and two immediately brought up the word “illiterate”, with one saying that literacy meant: “Starting again. Literacy was that you were illiterate.” Another participant answered: “People that haven’t learned much in their lives, reading and all that.” A further response was: “To me it’s a problem of learning, comprehension, and understanding”. Another spoke of someone who might have difficulty with reading and writing and another said it meant needing to study and study hard. While some respondents, however, saw literacy as extending slightly beyond these functional skills, for example to include computer literacy, very few if any respondents perceived the word ‘literacy’ as broadly inclusive of multiple strengths or a wide range of life and employment skills. Some who gave these broader responses also signalled that they were confused about the term. A number of participants’ perceptions were clearly based on a deficit model, and conflated ‘literacy’ with ‘illiteracy’ or described ‘literacy’ as meaning some sort of ‘problem’. They felt implicitly judged (and negatively so) by the very word itself. However, more respondents appeared to find the word itself off-putting, perhaps officious or long-winded. This impression was strengthened by the observation that answers were also often accompanied by a laugh and the interviewer noted that the term made respondents appear uncomfortable, as signified by their body language and delayed responses. This apparent discomfort was also present among those who perceived literacy as meaning strictly functional skills. The skills are linked with formal schooling and a significant number of participants had experienced difficulties associated with school. Other respondents could not provide an answer to the question of what ‘literacy’ meant to them and indicated the term was meaningless for them and did not appear to relate to their lives or their needs. These comments and definitions from participants in adult literacy programmes point to problems with the word literacy as a term.

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Employers In the e-survey undertaken with employers in Whanganui, one of the questions asked employers directly for a definition of ‘literacy’ for their organisation. Most employers gave multiple answers to this question. Twenty-three employers noted that reading (a functional literacy skill) was a part of their organisation’s definition of literacy. Nearly half of these 23 employers also included verbal and/or written communication as part of the definition. Interestingly, writing was considered to be part of the definition of literacy (third highest), while the ability to understand (and make use of, in one instance) the English language came a close fourth. Spelling, numeracy, the ability to follow instructions and plans, and computer skills were also mentioned as instances of ‘literacy’ by more than one employer. Other skills that were less readily captured by employers under the definition of literacy were more job-specific skills, including recording data, timesheet completion, proofreading, completing invoices, and working with technical equipment. In terms of defining literacy, therefore, while employers took a functional view, they also focused on the role of oral communication and also defined ‘literacy’ in terms of particular job contexts (Comrie, Vaccarino, Culligan, Sligo, Tilley, & Franklin, 2006). In the in-depth interviews, eight Whanganui employers were asked for a definition of literacy in relation to employees’ needs. Four defined literacy as reading and writing, but two of those qualified this. One added that literacy for employees also included the need for confidence to continue to improve on their skills. Another employer, while suggesting that literacy is reading and writing, argued that employees must also have the literacy ability of communication, saying: “I don’t think it’s confined to reading and writing. I think it’s more a communication thing; being able to communicate”. This was a belief shared by three other employers, with one saying: “We need to be able to communicate with [employees], and they need to be able to communicate with us”. One went so far as to state: “Communication is the most important to get it working in the right direction”. In fact, although not all employer participants specifically mentioned communication skills, most definitions centred on aspects of communication skills as aspects of literacy they considered necessary among their workforce. For example, two spoke of the need to be able to use basic conversational skills, with one saying that employees needed to be able to transfer those conversational skills to their writing. Two participants counted understanding as a vital part of literacy. One expressed it in terms of being able to write in a way that others can understand: “I try and keep the literacy to a base that people will

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understand. I would expect if someone sent something back to me, I could read it without saying, “Well what’s that all about?” Individual employers had varied definitions of literacy which encompassed the traditional literacy skills of reading and writing, as well as the functional aspects of these skills, including communication skills in different settings, life skills, and workplace literacies. At times literacy and communication skills were treated as complementary and almost synonymous. The need for an increase in functional literacy skills was linked to changes in the employment context. Within New Zealand there is now a greater need for workers to engage in documentation, form filling, and reading and understanding regulations, for example, Health and Safety regulations. Industries where workers could previously function with limited literacy now need higher levels of literacy skills. The changes in the workplace that have resulted in a greater need for functional literacy skills are reflected by the greater number of industries pre-screening job applicants. Perhaps more than any other group, small business employers (who are in the majority in New Zealand) have more direct interaction with and reliance on their staff and so are more aware of the need for literacy, numeracy, and communication skills.

Secondary School Teachers Thirteen secondary school teachers, representing staff from the five secondary schools in Whanganui, participated in these interviews. The roles these teachers performed in literacy support covered a wide range of activities, including coordinating literacy programmes; planning literacy programmes and timetables to fit the school curriculum; creating individual literacy plans and goals to cater for each student’s needs; identifying and working with students requiring literacy support; and moving literacy into all departments, across all essential learning areas, ensuring that each subject includes a framework for learning that accommodates good classroom literacy practices. Twelve of the thirteen secondary school teachers gave definitions of literacy, and while each one was different, in content and/or in emphasis, the underlying link between many of them tended to be a view of literacy as empowering through enabling students to function successfully, or, as one participant said, “to survive”, in society. One teacher, for example, preferred to define literacy as “functional literacy” and described this as:

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Chapter I The degree of literacy required to read a newspaper, gain a driver’s licence, go to WINZ3 and deal with their forms; read road signs, read a TV Guide, that sort of thing. It’s not reading a novel every week or anything. It’s just functional literacy.

Two other teachers took an even broader functional view of literacy. One did this through taking a practical approach with students: I don’t take literacy as being able just to read the word. It’s reading symbols and understanding symbols, being able to interpret information in a bus time table, anything like that, being able to follow a flow diagram … It’s using your visual skills to gather the information that you require, to then be able to reconstruct it for yourself so you can use it.

Another described explaining the importance of literacy learning to students at school, by telling them: “Literacy is how you use your skills that you have to be able to effectively work in the community or to speak with others or to use the written text to be able to help yourself in the community”. Other secondary school teachers, while taking what at first glance was a seemingly narrower focus on literacy, still expressed it in broader terms. For example, one defined literacy as “the ability to not just read but … to have a real understanding of what has been read”. Two specified literacy as the need to be able “to assess text or evaluate information especially on the internet”, and another saw literacy as the ability to take information that had been read and to use it “further in the students’ own medium”. All three thus defined literacy as enabling students to be critically aware citizens. Further, in some parts of their discussions when thinking about literacy, teachers began to speak in terms of multiple literacies, referring to life skills and specific literacies such as workplace literacy. A further approach for teachers, rather than defining literacy, was to talk of different levels of literacy. One argument was that schools needed to ensure their students reached a level or standard of literacy that would enable them to function successfully in society. An example was one participant who spoke of “true sorts of literacies” as including the ability to fill in forms for such occasions as medical attention or accommodation, saying, “They’ve all got to have a literacy standard where they can read and understand”. For three participants, literacy was more about having the ability to find or access information or facts through developing both communication and technological skills. One explained: 3 Work and Income New Zealand provides financial assistance and employment services for individuals in need.

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Kids are knowledge workers. They don’t have to know all the facts. They need to know how to access the knowledge; how to manipulate the knowledge; how to recreate the knowledge, and, importantly for me, there’s one other step. And that’s about donating the knowledge back, so finding ways to do that … Core to that are skills development, communication, speaking, listening, ability to use technologies, and to communicate effectively.

Another issue teachers raised in defining literacy was focused on where and how literacy should be taught in the school curriculum. There was an understanding among several participants that, because literacy encompassed more than reading and writing, it should be considered a part of every subject taught and not merely situated in the English department. As one teacher stated, literacy “shouldn’t just be in the hands of the English Department: every teacher is a teacher of English and language and literacy”. However, it appears that the teaching of literacy does not always have an overall strategy throughout the school because the same teacher added, “departments have their own policies”. Similar to employers, individual secondary school teachers had varied definitions of literacy to offer when asked to define the term. When taken as a group, their definitions encompassed not only the traditional literacy skills of reading, writing, and occasionally numeracy, but also the functional aspects of these skills, and multiple literacies, including communication skills in different settings and life skills.

Reflections and Conclusion In our Literacy and Employment project, we embraced a multiple literacies philosophy where we viewed literacy from a broad perspective, incorporating the traditional aspects of reading, writing, speaking and listening; yet also to include critical and creative thinking, understanding, problem-solving and decision-making; as well as other forms of receiving and imparting information. We believe that this approach embraces literacy’s applicability at home, at work and within a community, without ignoring what individuals value as their own social, political, economic, cultural, emotional, and spiritual components (Comrie et al., 2006, p. 5). The approach of the research team has been to recognise that literacies are multiple and are positioned within individual life-contexts. We also agree with Hamilton and Barton (2000) that prose, document, and quantitative literacy as defined by the International Adult Literacy Survey (IALS) is a narrow approach to literacy. Such approaches, which find their reflection

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in government policy, tend to encourage a deficit model (Tilley, Comrie, Watson, Culligan, Sligo, Franklin, & Vaccarino, 2006). As communication scholars we were also interested in the links with communication, including the blurring of the distinction between communication and literacy. Hunter (2004, p. 248) asserts that the key to social practice approaches is: “The interweaving of activities and modes of communication with reading and writing; the specialized knowledge and skills required for understanding the text; and the interpersonal roles and power relationships”. In a great deal of the literature on literacy, “communication is treated as an outcome of literacy, rather than as a process in its own right. Certainly, the terms are often used as synonyms” (Olsson & Comrie, 2005, p. 4). Many definitions given by the various groups interviewed focused on communication as the purpose or outcome of literacy. There was overall agreement that literacy involves reading and comprehension, as well as writing. However, there was some debate about written communication as some respondents felt this could be seen simply as a form of transmitting oral messages, or, in a broader sense, as an opportunity to formulate and fine-tune thoughts. Literacy was seen by a number as a continuum of skills. Literacy, or communication as some put it, was viewed as dependent on three broad parameters. First was the situation or context within which it takes place. It is important to know what needs are motivating people, for example, are they attempting to reach a long-term goal or address a crisis situation. Second were motivational aspects. Literacy was described as the ability to communicate your thoughts beyond yourself and having confidence in the ability to communicate was viewed as important. The third pertained to participating in and responding to information. The ability to use language as a tool was viewed as crucial to the ability to participate optimally in society. There were mixed views as to whether the definition of ‘literacy’ should be broad or narrow. If considered in a broader sense, literacy can include visual and oral aspects. Some participants felt there are dangers if the definition becomes too broad, for example, the practical impact of having an unclear or overly academic definition. If the definition of literacy was all encompassing, it would be difficult to determine where a person would fit in a literacy continuum, and thus allow a measure of progress in skills or abilities. Sligo, Watson, Murray, Comrie, Vaccarino and Tilley (2007) maintain that how to define “literacy” is still contested by academics and others, but argue that the term literacy, as used in everyday discussion in the adult learning community, encompasses both ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ skill sets. S0-

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called hard skills are associated with the ability to demonstrate competence in standardised tests of literacy and numeracy. Soft skills are more to do with the demonstration of personal abilities in situated literacies within what may be highly diverse work and community contexts. In the view of the current research team, both are important and need to be taken into account. During our four-year project, we engaged with numerous definitions from participants in adult literacy programmes, employers, and secondary school teachers. It has become evident that even in one small town, among people who have reason to engage with the concept of literacy, there does not seem to be an overarching definition that is applicable across situations and contexts. Often a definition is either too narrow for one context, or too broad for another, reinforcing the points made in scholarly discussion about the shifting and contested nature of the term. With the many rapid and on-going changes in the 21st century, it is inevitable that the definition of literacy needs to adjust, and as Lonsdale and McCurry (2004) point out, these changes “demand a reconceptualisation of literacy to encompass a broader range of capabilities than in the past” (p. 36). Individuals acquire literacy and apply it in different situations for different purposes. The concept of ‘situated literacies’ focuses on “how the social, cultural and political context shapes the ways in which people acquire and use literacy” (Richmond, Robinson & Sachs-Israel, 2008, p. 17). These different situations are shaped by culture, language, religion, history, social, economic and political settings. We concur with Rawiri (2005) who points out that “Indigenous peoples have consistently maintained that defining ‘literacy’ is an inherently social and political act, determining what is valid and what is valued for today’s society” (p. 17). Richmond et al. (2008) assert that “there is no single notion of literacy as a skill which people possess or not, but multiple literacies” (p. 17). UNESCO (2004) employs the plurality of literacy which “refers to the many ways in which literacy is employed and the many things with which it is associated in a community or society and throughout the life of an individual” (p. 13). Our concept of literacy harmonizes with Street’s (1994) who prefers an ideological model of literacy “that recognises a multiplicity of literacies; that the meaning and uses of literacy practices are related to specific cultural contexts” (p. 139). This is also echoed by Hamilton and Barton (2000) who say that the consensus today is that literacies are multiple, contextual, and embedded in life experiences. Many governments and individuals stick to a functional definition of literacy, but in order for people to become more

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empowered as citizens, this definition needs to be expanded to be more comprehensive. Literacy in this sense opens doors for citizens to have a better quality of life. Finally, we conclude that we dare not define literacy in the 21st century! As Cervero (1985) points out, “a common definition of adult literacy may serve the needs of certain types of people in the adult literacy scene and may be dysfunctional to others” (p. 53). Literacy should enable individuals to achieve their potential in order to participate fully in their community and wider society, whatever this may mean in their context and in their situation. Venezky, Wagner and Ciliberti (1990) aptly state that “social concepts such as literacy and poverty are integrally tied to their labels. Like jelly and sand, they are without intrinsic shape, defined and redefined by the vessels that hold them. Who is literate depends upon how we define literacy” (p. ix). The almost unconscious and restrictive link with the 3Rs poses some problems. However, as we now no longer envisage literacy as a single entity but rather literacies, definitions need to take contextual and situational milieux into account. In addition, it is important to remember that any definition of literacy is not static but evolving as it changes “over time in parallel with changes in our society, economy, and culture” (Kirsch, 2001, p.4).

References Cervero, R.M. (1985). Is a common definition of adult literacy possible? Adult Education Quarterly, 36(1), 50-54. Comrie, M., Vaccarino, F., Culligan, N., Sligo, F., Tilley, E., & Franklin, J. (2006). Common threads: A report for the Wanganui community and stakeholders of the adult literacy and employment programme. Department of Communication and Journalism, Massey University, New Zealand. De Valenzuela, J. S. (2002) Definitions of Literacy. Retrieved April 8, 2011, from http://www.unm.edu/~devalenz/handouts/literacy.html Diehl, W., & Mikulecky, L. (1980). The nature of reading at work. Journal of Reading, 24, 221–227. Dubin, F., & Kuhlman, N. A. (1992). The dimensions of cross-cultural literacy. In F. Dubin & N. A. Kuhlman (Eds.). Cross-cultural literacy: Global perspectives on reading and writing (pp.v-x). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Regents/Prentice Hall. Ford, W. (1993). The problem of literacy in early modern England. History, 78(252), 22 – 37.

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Freire, P. (1972). Pedagogy of the oppressed. Penguin Books, Harmondsworth. Hamilton, M., & Barton, D. (2000). The International Adult Literacy Survey: What does it really measure? International Review of Education, 46, 377–389. Hiebert, E. H. (1991). Introduction. In E. H. Hiebert (Ed.), Literacy for a diverse society: Perspectives, practices, and policies (pp. 1-6). New York: Teachers College Press. Hull, G. (2000). Critical literacy at work. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 43(7), 648–652. Hunter, J. (2004). Implications for theory. In M.E. Belfiore, T.A. Defoe, S. Folinsbee, J. Hunter, & N.S. Jackson. Reading work.: Literacies in the new workplace (pp. 241-260). London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Isaacs, P. (2005). Literacy, adult education and value for money. New Zealand Journal of Adult Learning, 33(1), 66-78. Johnson, G.M. (2007). Functional Internet literacy: required cognitive skills with implications for instruction. E-Learning and Digital Media 4(4), 433-441. Jones-Kavalier, B.R., & Flannigan, S.L. (2006). Connecting the digital dots: Literacy of the 21st century. Educause Quarterly, 2, 8-10. Kirsch, I. (2001). The International Adult Literacy Survey (IALS): Understanding what was measured. Retrieved January 12, 2011, from http://www.ets.org/Media/Research/pdf/RR-01-25-Kirsch.pdf Knowledge Network. (2002). 21st Century Literacies. Retrieved on March 18, 2011, from http://www.kn.pacbell.com/wired/21stcent/index.html Laqueur, T. (1976). The cultural origins of popular literacy in England 1500-1850. Oxford Review of Education, (2)3, 255-275. Lonsdale, M. & McCurry, D. (2004). Literacy in the new millennium. NCVER. Australian Council for Educational Research. Adelaide. Mori Adult Literacy Reference Group. (2001). Te KƗwai Ora Report. Retrieved July 9, 2007, from http://www.beehive.govt.nz/turia/te-Kawai-Ora-Report/Forward.cfm Mikulecky, L., Lloyd, P., Kirkley, J., Oelker, J. (1996). Developing and evaluating workplace literacy programs: A handbook for practitioners and trainers. Philadelphia, National Center on Adult Literacy. Ministry of Education (2001). Adult Literacy Strategy: More than words. Wellington, NZ: Ministry of Education. —. (2002). Tertiary Education Strategy 2002/07. Retrieved May 10, 2011 http://www.tec.govt.nz/downloads/a2z_publications/tertiaryeducationst rategy-2002-2007.pdf

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—. (2005) Learning for Living. Issue 4. Retrieved April 12, 2006, from http://www.minedu.govt.nz/web/downloadable/dl10446_v1/issue-4.pdf Ntiri, D.W. (2009). Toward a functional and culturally salient definition of literacy. Adult Basic Education and Literacy Journal, 3(2), 97-104. OECD. (2000). Literacy in the information age: Final report of the international adult literacy survey. Canada: Statistics Canada. Olsson, S., & Comrie, M. (2005). The unacknowledged divide: Perceptions of literacy and communication needs in the workplace. Refereed paper presented to ANZCA 2005 Conference: Communication at Work, University of Canterbury, July 4-7, 2005. www.mang.canterbury.ac.nz/ANZCA/CommAtWork.shtml Rawiri, .H. (2005). Nga Whiringa Muka: Adult literacy and employment - Whanganui Iwi research project: literature review and annotated bibliography. Whanganui: Te Puna Matauranga o Whanganui. Richmond, M., Robinson, C., & Sachs-Israel, M. (2008). The global literacy challenge. A profile of youth and adult literacy at the midpoint of the United Nations Literacy Decade 2003 – 2012. Paris: United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization. Retrieved on March 18, 2011, from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0016/001631/163170e.pdf Sligo, F., Watson, B., Murray, N., Comrie, M., Vaccarino, F., & Tilley, E. (2007). Lifelong literacy: Issues of strategy. Department of Communication and Journalism, Massey University, New Zealand. Street, B. (1984). Literacy in theory and practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Street, B.V. (1994). Cross-cultural perspectives on literacy. In J, Maybin (Ed.). Language and literacy in social practice: a reader (pp. 139150). London, UK: Open University. Tilley, E., Comrie, M., Watson, B., Culligan, N., Sligo, F., Franklin, J., & Vaccarino, F. (2006). Perspectives of adult literacy learners 20042006: A report from the adult literacy and employment programme. Department of Communication and Journalism, Massey University, New Zealand. UNESCO. (2002). Functional literacy. UNESCO Institute for Statistics. Retrieved on March 18, 2011, from http://www.uis.unesco.org/ev.php?ID=5014_201&ID2=DO_TOPIC —. (2004). The plurality of literacy and its implications for policies and programmes. Retrieved on March 18, 2011, from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001362/136246e.pdf

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—. (2006). Understandings of literacy. Education for All Global Monitoring Report (pp.147-159). Paris: United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization. Vaccarino, F., Comrie, M., Culligan, N., & Sligo, F. (2006). Action research initiatives: The Wanganui adult literacy and employment programme. Department of Communication and Journalism, Massey University, New Zealand. Venezky, R.L., Wagner, D.A., & Ciliberti, B.S. (1990). (Eds.), Toward defining literacy. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Verizon. (2003). Workforce literacy. Equipping your workforce for the 21st century. Retrieved, May 2, 2011, from http://www.proliteracy.org/NetCommunity/Document.Doc?id=40

CHAPTER II CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF GEORGE BUSH’S SELECTED INAUGURAL ADDRESS SHATHA NAIYF QAIWER

This study examines the ideological strategies through the persuasive public speech of George Bush in selected inaugural addresses. The analysis is grounded on the assumption claiming that ideologies reside in texts and that it is not possible to ‘read of’ ideologies from texts which can be open to diverse interpretations as stated by Fairclough (1995). The basis of the analysis is adopted from Norman Fairclough’s ideas on discourse and power and discourse and hegemony. The researcher attempts to link social practice and linguistic practice. Furthermore, this study attempts to deconstruct covert ideology which is ‘hidden’ in the text stemming from the assumption that critical discourse analysis seeks to reveal how texts are constructed so that particular perspectives can be expressed delicately and covertly. The main analytical tool of this study reflects the three dimensional method of discourse analysis introduced namely the ‘language text, spoken or written, discourse practice (text production and text interpretation), and the sociocultural practice. This notion of Fairclough transforms into an analytical method, including “the linguistic description of the language text, interpretation of the relationship between the discursive processes and the text, and the explanation of the relationship between the discursive processes and the social processes”.

Critical Discourse Analysis of George Bush’s Selected Inaugural Address 21

Introduction Politics is the struggle for power in order to put certain political, economic and social ideas into practice. Therefore, the language of politicians plays a vital role in this process since every political action is prepared, accompanied and played by language. It is political discourse that is said to be based on the language of the nation used by politicians with the view of achieving diverse goals introduced by a policy that is not popular in a society. Political text, spoken or written, is produced by a certain speaker who could be overruled by a particular political goal or situation. The kind of text chosen in the present paper is a presidential address to a democratic nation whose support is essential for the achievement of its president's goal. George Bush's discourse specifically concerning war in Iraq is the focus of linguists' attention for this conflict proved to be a greatly controversial issue among linguistic and political experts who conduct research in the field of discourse analysis.

Critical Discourse Analysis Language as a tool for communication plays a vital role in transferring ideas in a form of discourse (text, spoken or written). Discourse integrates a whole palette of meanings ranging from linguistics through sociology, philosophy, politics and other disciplines. The best identification of discourse as a form of language is that stated by Fairclough (1989:24) as the whole process of social interaction of which a text is just a part. Thus, discourse is a wider term than text and the study of discourse analysis refers to analyzing the social interaction between the addressor and the addressee via text either in the spoken or written medium. This gives rise to the question of what makes a discourse analysis a critical one. The answer is that once a discourse presents a critique of social practice, it is a critical one. Critical discourse analysis sees a discourse as a product of society, a dynamic and changing force that influences and reconstructs social practices (Bloor and Bloor; 2007:12-13). Another reason for calling a study a critical one (for ‘critical’ implies showing connections and causes which are hidden) is that it also implies intervention, for example “providing resources for those who may be disadvantaged through change” (Fairclough; 1992:9). Actually, it is important to expose the hidden meanings since they are not evident for the individuals involved. With the proper and correct critical discourse analysis, the speaker’s aims can be successfully implemented.

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Analytical Framework The main analytical tool adopted in this study reflects the 'three dimensional method of discourse analysis introduced by Norman Fairclough (1989: 97). He (1995:97) describes discourse and any discursive practice as 1. language text, spoken or written, 2. discourse practice (text production and interpretation) and, 3. socio cultural practice. Actually, this method involves the linguistic description of text, the relationship between discursive process and text and between discursive process and social processes (Fairclough; 1995:97). This analytical tool represents Fairclough's opinion on the actual nature of discourse and text analysis. Social factors (social conditions of production and interpretation) lead to the origination of a text and at the same time, these factors effect interpretation. Fairclough presents these three stages of CDA to be in accord with the three levels of discourse: 1. Description of the formal properties of text 2. Interpretation of the relationship between text and interaction; seeing the text as a product in the process of production, and a resource in the process of interpretation. The way of interpretation adopted in this study attempts to deconstruct covert ideology which is hidden in the selected text stemming from the aim of critical discourse analysis presented by Batestone (1989:198-199) following Fairclough (1989:97): ‘to seek how texts are constructed so that particular perspectives can be expressed delicately and covertly; because they are covert and elusive of direct change, facilitating the retreat into mystification and impersonality’. 3. Explanation of the relation between interaction and social context; social determination of the process of production and interpretation and their social effects on the audience (Fairclough; 1989: 26).

Ideological Analysis of the Selected Text The selected text is one of George W. Bush's inaugural addresses about the start of war against Iraq. It is dated the 19th, March, 2003. George Bush in this address declares the start of war and provides justifications for it through his communicative skill and persuasive style. He affirms his willingness to spread freedom and secure America's borders against any impending danger. Emphasizing social and religious bond, Bush goes on

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declaring his aims and assuring victory for his cognitively acceptable goals and he ends his address with praying for Americans soldiers’ safety. This analysis of the ideological aspect of George Bush’s inaugural address declaring war on Iraq attempts to link the inaugural discourse with the social process and decipher covert ideology in the selected text. At the same time, clarifying comments are added for contrasting certain goals presented in some statements of the text. 1) 'My fellow citizens. At this hour, America and coalition forces are in the early stages of military operation to disarm Iraq, to free its people and to defend the world from grave danger' Bush starts by addressing ‘his fellow citizens’, identifying himself with his audience and reflecting on the idea that all nonnative Americans are part of American population and are responsible for the hard task he is submitting in his address. Such a form of address can be perceived as being more inclusive, including all nationalities and ethnicities, applying a more citizen-centered attitude. It exemplifies a basic ideology of the American Republic which is strong citizenry. After emphasizing the citizenry which symbolizes unity, Bush provides justifications for starting military operations. He lists a clear set of reasons that may be more cognitively acceptable for handling the matter of war. He lists these goals of disarming Iraq and setting its people free and defending the whole world as it cultivated the belief that Americans are chosen to free the world and maintain peace. Another ideology is presented here. It is freedom. Bush strengthens his speech through his reliance on freedom as an ideology that his predecessors used to emphasize. As an attempt to get his people's support, Bush is well-known for using good/evil dichotomies. Seeking Iraqis' freedom as a substitute to invasion makes the action a good one and worthy of support. This is evident in the use of the word 'striking' to preclude any feelings of evil and aggressiveness on his part as implied in the second part of the speech stated below:

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2) 'On my orders, coalition forces have begun striking selected targets of military importance to undermine Saddam Hussein's ability to wage war. These are opening stages of what will be a broad and concerted campaign'. 'On my orders' shows Bush's unilateralism; the belief or support of unilateral action, especially getting rid of nuclear weapons without waiting for other countries to do so. The content of the above extract is all about justifications. Bush is smart enough in using the word 'striking'. He justifies striking the targets that are of military importance to weaken Saddam Hussein’s ability to start a war giving the indication that unless Hussein intends to wage a war against his people, he would not strike Saddam's powers and start a long military campaign. The word striking is used to refer to hitting military targets before they are used against his country. 'Strike' is used in a way to mean strike against; that is to harm Saddam's regime in an early return to his intended attack, implying Saddam to be the aggressor and Bush as the striker against attacks. Thus, he has the full right to defend America without congressional consent. Parry-Giles (2008:123) states that Bush in invading Iraq articulated a doctrine of unilateralism and seemed to contribute to the erosion in the balance of power between legislative and executive branches. Although Congress was granted the power to ‘declare war’ in Article 1, Section 8 of the Constitution, Bush used this power on his own disregarding the fact that he has only the power of being the commander in chief of the navy and army of the United States as mentioned in Article 2, Section 2 of the Constitution. In negotiating this balance of power, it has been concluded that he set a few precedents for unilateral actions without congressional consent. Accordingly, they concluded that ‘Congress willingly conceded to him most of the executive powers he exercised, especially those in foreign policy matters’ (cited in Parry-Giles; 2009:123).

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3) “More than 35 countries are giving crucial support from the use of naval and air bases to help with intelligence and logistics to deployment of combat units. Every nation in this coalition has chosen to bear the duty and share the honor of serving in our common defense”. The ideologies of duty and unity are expressed here as justifications for the war. Bush explains that America is fulfilling her duty of freeing Iraqis with the help and consent of 35 countries. This is to justify America’s involvement. He makes a reference to his people that countries are honorable to share with America its duty and honor of giving positive determination for the war. He emphasizes these ideologies via using the possessive pronoun ‘our’ indicating unity of people in the time of international danger as evident in the use of troubled war and the dependence of all people on the American people who are well-trusted. “To all men and women of the United States armed forces now in Middle East, the peace of a troubled world and the hopes of an oppressed people now depend on you. That trust is well-placed. The enemies you will confront will come to know your skill and bravery. The people you liberate will witness the honorable and decent spirit of the American military”. Another inclusive form of addressing all members of the United States regardless of their nationalities and ethnicities is used in a citizen-centered expression. Bush relates the strong citizenry ideologies with the duty. He reminds people of the United States of their duty towards a troubled world and the trust placed on them. The use of a ‘troubled world’ is vague here. It is not clear to which world he refers - Iraqi world or American world troubled with the Iraqi regime. Hence, he leaves the audience to decide for themselves, setting Iraqis free from their troubled life, or setting their own life free from terrorism troubles. They will not think twice since they are as he states ‘people of duty’ and they are brave enough to fulfill their duty. Again ‘duty’, ‘honor’, and service are emphasized in talking about the campaign of setting a troubled world free of oppression. This part marks a shift in the standpoint. He is emphasizing the issue of indifference to the sufferings of others

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as an outward and inward solidarity which is also evident in the following lines. 4) “Saddam Hussein has placed Iraqi troops and equipment in civilian areas, attempting to use innocent men, women and children as shields for his own military. A final atrocity against his people” Emphasizing his peoples’ duty, Bush keeps raising their spirit showing all their bravery and power in saying ‘a final atrocity against his people’. He matches their bravery to be used for peace with their ability of defeating the Iraqi regime as they will end Iraqis’ sufferings. That is why the ‘trust is well-placed’. Also, this statement expresses his determination and resolution of striking the Iraqi regime with Americans’ bravery and responsibility in carrying out their duty. He reaffirms the honorable service of the world on Americans’ behalf in helping and spreading freedom and justice to all areas in the world. “I want all Americans and the entire world to know that coalition forces will make every effort to spare innocent civilians from harm. A campaign on the harsh terrain of the nation as large as California could be longer and more difficult than some predict and helping Iraqis achieve a united, stable and free country will require our sustained commitment.” Every nation in the coalition has chosen to bear the duty and share the honor of serving in the common defense. Justice can be another ideological corner stone or principle enshrined in Bush's speech. The emphasis is put on the special quality of the American Republic which has been exercising its power only for good and justice. The principle of justice is transformed into a multilateral perception of international cooperation marked by the phrase ‘35 countries are giving crucial support’. Liberalism and acceptance of religious diversity evident among Iraqi people are also emphasized ideologies. 5) “We come to Iraq with respect for its citizens, for their great civilization and for the religious faith they practice.” Bush speaks in favorable terms of Iraqi citizens, thus recognizing and embracing the social and religious diversity

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which has been suppressed under Saddam’s administration. Thus, an ideological shift is initiated from Americans’ duty towards a troubled world to Americans’ perception of the rights of a liberal and diverse society. Liberal ideology can be clearly identified in this extract. In this way, Bush uses ‘freeing their suppressed religious beliefs’ to get Iraqis’ support and approval of being invaded. Bush is conveying the ideology of liberalism and acceptance of religious diversity in an attempt to get the support of all Iraqis with all their religious dogmas since they are believed to be suppressed from some religious practices. Actually, this is a way of speaking in favor of the audience to achieve certain goals. 6) “We have no ambition in Iraq except to remove a threat and restore control of that country to its own people” Bush is seeking to maintain public awareness of the proposed duty and noble aim. He informs Iraqis of his noble aim of letting them live freely and take control of their country without expecting anything in return except removing the threat of mass destruction weapons from the hand of the regime to preserve world peace. Again, duty is emphasized here. 7) “I know that the families of our military are praying that all those who serve will return safely soon. Millions of Americans are praying with you for the safety of your loved ones and for the protection of the innocent”. In trying to get his peoples’ support, Bush declares that he is aware of their wariness for their loved ones. At the same time, he reminds them of the noble aim. Such a tone can play a vital role in getting his audience’s approval for the soldiers’ going to Iraq. He assures them they are not alone. Millions of Americans including himself share their prayers. In an attempt to sway the emotions of the hearers in his favor, he states the prayer for two purposes; soldiers’ safety and the protection of the innocent emphasizing the nation’s insistence and resolution to take the action of war regardless of any loss. On societal level, in this piece of discourse, the president shows unity (solidarity) with the US people, but clearly claimed the position as their leader tough on the threats to the country as

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he mentions in the next phrases. Obviously, this piece of discourse is partly an effort to solicit support for war from the American people. Such an effort is achieved through appearing to be one of them by assuming a citizen who could be subjected to terrific attacks without the efforts of ‘your beloved’. 8) “For your sacrifice you have the gratitude and respect of the American people and you can know that our forces will be coming home as soon as their work is done” Unity as one of Bush’s ideologies is emphasized here. He claims to be a citizen who appreciates the efforts to protect and defend his country. Here, Bush invokes America’s powerful bond to its civil religion as well as the convenient renewal narrative which unites Americans. The work theme is incorporated. He is implicating the idea that it is the coalition’s job which should be respected and done willingly, to set the campaign. Thus, emphasizing the resolution and insistence and telling the audience implicitly they have approved of it as a duty. To achieve his goals, he made use of the American tradition of hard work which helps Americans define themselves. Bush uses the work theme often to present the action of war as an everyday occurrence; since facing the threat is a kind of work Americans have to accept its being done. 9) “Our nation enters this conflict reluctantly, yet our purpose is sure. The people of the United States and our friends and allies will not live at the mercy of an outlaw regime that threatens the peace with weapons of mass murder. We will meet that threat now with our army, air force, navy, coastguard and marines so that we do not have to meet it later with armies of fire fighters and police and doctors on the streets of our cities”. In all his speeches, Bush uses Saddam as the popular American stereotype of the outlaw. The outlaw regime is the ultimate justification of war since it is known to commit different crimes against people in Iraq and Kuwait. Therefore, Americans should not think twice for the cruelty of this regime might reach the American borders. This usage of ‘outlaw’ is easy to incorporate for Saddam has broken United Nations rules in the past which

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forces the nation to enter the conflict. This is a subtle persuasive rhetorical trick. He makes use of the part/whole relationship between terror and threat. The attribution threat is used as part of the just war narrative. Bush envisions a picture that would urge Americans in a way that they could not help accepting taking the step. He describes a picture of the source of threat wandering American streets and killing people. This way they would surely be convinced that going to war is better than risking their children, women, and the old. The American president is speculating and trying to play on the hearers ‘fear of terrorism’ in general, linking Saddam with the terrorist network and implying there is no difference between Saddam Hussein and Bin Laden, the feared terrorist. Bettman (1979) as cited in Hallahan (2000:470) states that fear can work as a strategy to increase motivation, to make the audience think about a message by enhancing the relevance of the message to the listeners. He uses this vision to cue Americans on why Saddam is such a threat to world security and to assure them he will not wait to see what Saddam can do with his highly dangerous weapons. This implies an assertion of his intention. It is arguably an attempt to get people to ‘support military action taken against Iraq’. He wants them to respond emotionally and to be afraid of what might happen, to think of the worst case scenario and connect that to Saddam Hussein. Bush heightens the potential threat of Saddam and Iraq by saying it is necessary to start defending ‘ourselves’ as America is under attack. 10)“Now that the conflict has come, the only way to limit its duration is to apply decisive force and I assure you this will not be a campaign of half measures and we will accept no outcome but victory.” In this extract, Bush uses the middle passive form: ‘Now that conflict has come’ to give the impression that it was not a war of his choice but a war forced on him and American people so they have to take the challenge. It is imperative for George W. Bush not to appear as the aggressor, but as the protagonist of a necessary war. Bush has to persuade the audience to work together in unison in their collective communities. He must make them believe that it was a matter of time before evil terrorists attacked the country; therefore, it would make sense to

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start the war and be united to guard the borders and neighbors and prepare for the attack. Again the idea of unity is emphasized with Bush’s determination and strength which are reassured in this extract and at the same time it is matched with the insertion of victory assurance. The last part of the speech begins with the invocation of the American family bond. “My fellow citizens, the dangers to our country and the world will be overcome. We will pass through this time of peril and carry on the work of peace. We will defend our freedom to others and we will prevail”. Strong citizenship is reemphasized at the end of the speech as it has been at the beginning of the address. This also involves his solidarity and inclusiveness as a citizen of America. He ends his speech with a list of three anaphoric instances that imply the assurance of victory and America's prevalence. He reemphasized the work theme to remind them that it is duty that should be done. The theme of bringing freedom to (others) the oppressed and demoralized is repeated in all extracts of Bush's address. It is evident at the beginning and the end of Bush’s speech; freedom of Americans and Iraqis. “We will prevail”. Bush ends his speech emphatically repeating that the US will not be made to run or leave the Iraqi people to be governed by the terrorist regime. Finally, Bush prayed for America’s blessing and the soldiers who defend her. This is again a way of encouraging them to take the step since the purpose is said to be divine.

Conclusions This study presents an analysis of the ideological components enshrined in George W. Bush’s address. It is embedded that as ideologies reside in texts, they use language in various ways at various levels and that ideology is both ‘property of structures and events’. The main concept used in this study is that meanings are produced through interpretations. It involves an attempt to decipher the possible interpretations, of various references of Bush. Throughout this process, the framework of Bush’s ideological standpoint present in the address is clearly identified and the main points are concluded as follows:

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1. The results have shown that the key ideological components of Bush’s speech can be summarized in the following concepts: liberalism and freedom, inclusiveness, acceptance of religious and ethnic diversity, and duty. 2. An overall dominance of the personal pronoun ‘we’, which is an evidence of Bush’s inclusive perception of the American society and a need for unity understood as necessary in the time of ‘national peril’. 3. The inaugural address (the discursive event and structure that shaped the text) reflects the discursive event and discursive structure and interrelatedness of ideas.

References Batestone, R. (1995).Grammar in Discourse: Attitude and Deniability. In G Cook and B. Seindlhofer, (ed.). Principle & Practice in Applied Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp.197-213 Bloor, M. and T. Bloor (2007).The Practice of Critical Discourse Analysis. Great Britain: Oxford University Press Inc. Fairclough, N. (1989).Language and Power, London: Longman —. (1992). Discourse and Social Change. London: Polity Press —. (1995). Critical Discourse Analysis. London: Longman Hallahan, K. (2000). 'Enhancing Motivation, Ability, and Opportunity to Process Public Relations Message'. Public Relations Review 26(4):463-480.ISSN:0363-8111: Elsevier Science Inc. Parry-Giles, Shawn (2008)."George W. Bush, Second Inaugural Address (20 Jan.2005)". Voices of Democracy 3: pp.122-138. —. The Full Text: George Bush Inaugural address: The Start of War.

CHAPTER III READING THE WORDS AND THE WORLD THROUGH SECONDHAND BOOKS SELLING MARIE GRACE DELA CRUZ REOPEREZ

Secondhand bookshops have been around for a long time in the Philippines. In a country that promotes formal schooling, (Doronilla, 1996), it may be theorized that Filipinos turn to these shops to help cut educational expenses. But while many studies have been done on the informal sectors in the Philippines especially on prostitutes, street vendors, hawkers, newspaper sellers, shoeshine boys, porters, etc (Guha et al, 2006 ), literature, however, did not yield any study regarding secondhand bookstores as part of the informal economy. Hence, this mini-study which employs ethnography as the main research method takes a look at the culture of secondhand bookselling as an informal trade. Specifically, it a) describes the experiences and motivations of the booksellers, and how these were incorporated in their worldviews and world knowledge; and b) it challenges the preconceptions about the trade of secondhand booksellers. Results showed that the booksellers’ job experiences impact their worldview and world knowledge and serve as informal literacy training. This study also refutes some preconceived notions about the trade as part of the informal sector such as those that pertain to educational attainment, work motivation, and choice of occupation.

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Introduction At the end of the publishing process is the commercial trading of books, bookselling, which is done either through retailing or wholesaling (Eaglen, 2000). Books may be sold in bookstores that are part of a chain, or in independent bookstores, and sometimes directly from the publishing house. Nowadays, books may also be availed in online shops. Another type of bookshops is secondhand bookstores that sell used books. The latter have become popular that even online shops populate the Net, too. In this kind of bookshops, used books are usually purchased from people who want to dispose of them after having read or after outgrowing the books’ usefulness. Secondhand bookshops have been around for a long time in the Philippines and it is not easy to miss the fact that parents, students, and book lovers have been benefitting from them. Since books are commodities that can be re-used, the growth of the used bookstores or secondhand bookshops (Eaglen, 2000) is not unexpected. And in the Philippines where people patronize formal schooling so much (Doronilla, 1996), it may be theorized that people, too, would patronize these secondhand bookshops to help cut educational expenses. And they thrive; the online shops and those stalls selling used books, most of which congregate in an area in Recto Avenue. In fact, one whole stretch of Recto is home to numerous secondhand bookstores. They are either in stalls or simply stacked up in the pavement and overseen by one or two persons. The area is strategically located within the so-called University Belt which is a term given to the place because most of the big universities and colleges in the city are situated there. Consequently, the majority of the customers are students of these schools. Going by the definition of the International Labor Organization (ILO) (1993) and the Philippines’ Social Reform and Poverty Alleviation (SRPA) Act of 1988 (RA 9485), these secondhand bookstores operating in Recto Avenue may be classified as a trade belonging to the informal sector. ILO and SRPA characterize the informal sector as: a) very small-scale units producing and distributing goods and services; b) consist largely of independent, self-employed producers in urban

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areas of developing countries; c) operate with very little capital, or none at all; d) utilize low level technology and skills; e) unregistered and unrecorded in official statistics; f) have little or no organized markets; g) not recognized, supported, or regulated by the government; h) operate outside the framework of law (Litong, et al. 2002). Many studies have been done on the informal sectors in the Philippines. A number of these studies focus on prostitutes, street vendors, hawkers, newspaper sellers, shoeshine boys, porters, etc (Guha et al., 2006). Literature, however, did not yield any study regarding secondhand bookstores as part of the informal economy. Hence, this mini-study takes a look at the culture of secondhand bookselling. It focuses on the trade as part of the informal sector. Specifically, it aims to a) describe the experiences and motivations of the booksellers, and how these were incorporated in their worldviews and world knowledge; and b) challenge the preconceptions about the trade of secondhand bookselling. Although this study focuses on secondhand bookselling as part of the informal sector, it did not explore the culture of the informal sector as a whole. It is partly due to time constraints and a limited number of informants. Rather, it only focuses on secondhand bookselling as a job/business. It is of particular importance to the book trade industry in the formal sector to know the culture of the secondhand bookseller where the main products being offered are books. Nemenzo (1992) observed that Filipinos only troop to the biggest and most popular bookstore in the Philippines during class openings, not to buy books but to buy school supplies. Since this study uses ethnography as the main research method, some parts reflect the experiences and points of view of the researcher, thus the first person point of view is used.

Site Selection and Entry into the Site Only one place came to mind when I finally decided to work on secondhand book vendors for this micro-ethnography – Recto Avenue. It is well-known as a haven for secondhand book hunters. Parents and students looking for cheaper books normally scale the whole avenue where these sellers peddle used books. There are many used bookshops in the Philippines but they cannot be classified as informal trades when analyzed vis-à-vis the criteria that make a trade/job informal. Entering the world of secondhand book vendors did not require me to ask for permission. For one, I studied and later worked in a university that is situated within the area. Second, I am a patron of used books way back

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in college when the most practical and economical thing to do as a student with a scarce budget was to buy secondhand textbooks. Now that I am already working, I still am a big fan of these books, though not necessarily textbooks. I love reading and in reading I prefer the printed materials over the digital ones. For several years now, I have a regular ‘suki’ (patron). It is a book stall located a few steps from one of the school’s main gates. It has become a habit whenever I pass by to browse through the books that are openly displayed and buy whenever I come upon one that I am interested in. Later, when I became friends with the vendor, Joel, I would simply go there and stand by during my free period. In this case, I entered the site as a participant observer since I am a regular customer in one of these secondhand book stalls. My ‘suki,’ Joel eventually became one my key informants. To get two more informants, I also explored some other stalls. To enter into conversations for my informal interviews, all I had to do is to act out the role of a customer. One instance led to my second key informant. Initially my ‘suki’ suggested that I interview another seller whom he knew. At first I agreed and did the interview, however I realized later through informal observations that there are other stalls such as the one belonging to my other informant which deal in another version of book trade, that is, book exchange. Besides, I also considered representations of each gender. My key informants include Joel, Mang Ramon, and Ana. Joel is single, openly gay, and in his mid-20s and he has been manning his uncle’s stall for more than five years now. Their stall which sells and buys used books was a few steps away from the biggest and most popular bookstore in the nation. Some books are placed on a low table while some are piled up in the pavement next to the low table. There are also books in boxes. Joel provides most of the information for this study. Since we have already become friends, he was more open in the interviews. Mang Ramon owns a stall opposite Joel’s place. He owns the store and is helped by a nephew since most of his children are married while the youngest is still studying. Unlike the other two, his stall is housed in a small room. Mang Ramon seemed uncomfortable sharing about his personal life and initially declined to be interviewed. He also refused to be photographed. The data pertaining to his background are concluded from the interviews. Ana, who is in her 30’s and is married with 6 children, has a stall very near the gate of a big university. She engages in exchanging pocket books that are mostly Filipino love stories. Customers exchange old books for five pesos. It has been four years since she started the trade. She used to sell cigarettes in the area and was encouraged to do the business upon

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seeing her other relatives involved in buying and selling used books. In addition, her husband buys and sells used ink cartridges in the area. She has a medium-sized, open cabinet where her books are on display. Data were collected through observations, informal conversations, and formal interviews. To identify key informants, I used purposive sampling, which means that I chose informants who will fit the criteria to be able to suit the purpose of my research. These criteria are: must be doing the job/business for more than three years; and must represent different age levels. Each gender must also be represented. Data collected through field notes, recorded interviews, and photos were triangulated to strengthen the findings of the study.

Informal Economy To understand informal economy further, there is a need to understand what constitutes the formal sector as differentiated from the informal sector. The former means wage labor in permanent employment, such as that which is characteristic of industrial enterprises, government offices, and other large scale establishments which are part of a composite internally well-organized labor structure and are officially registered in economic statistics, and working conditions which are protected by law (Guha et al., 2006 ). Economic activities which do not meet these criteria are then grouped under the term, informal sector. Aside from the characteristics given by the ILO and RA 9485, the informal sector is also seen as connected to urban poverty and to its social determinants, e.g., low income, irregular work, inadequate education, a low degree of organization, and other elements from which a lack of security and protection can be inferred (Sibal, 2007). The informal economy is a term that originated in the early 1970’s and which started as unregulated activities of the marginal poor in Third World Cities. It has since then been recognized as a universal feature of the modern economy (Bromley, 1985). Third World economies were supposed to deliver jobs, but in the absence of machine-based industry, employment creation was left largely to the only economic agent of any significance, public bureaucracy. According to Dejillas (2000), employment in the informal sector can be categorized as follows: homeworker who works or produces goods at home; self-employed or own-account worker who operates own business with some assistance from family members; employer who employs one or more paid employees; employee who is a paid worker in an informal

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enterprise; and unpaid family worker who occasionally works in a family business. Economists saw the informal sector in quantitative terms as a sector of small-scale low-productivity, low-income activities without the benefit of advanced machines, but nevertheless provide a reliable source of income (Guha, 2006). In contrast to the negative evaluation, recent literature shows that activities in the informal sector can be economically quite efficient and profitable. This is probably because activities in the informal sector is characterized by low capital intensity, a low level of productivity, a small and usually poor clientele, a low level of formal schooling, intermediate technology, preponderance of family labor and ownership, ease of entrance, and last but not least, lack of support and recognition on the part of the government.

“Bookstores Ng Bayan” The informal economy has been a brilliant success for over more than three decades (Guha et al., 2006). Economists theorize that it lends the appearance of conceptual unity to whatever goes on outside the bureaucracy. The low rate of industrialization and the presence of surplus labor are listed as principal reasons why a dualistic system has sprung up in the cities of the Third World. Critics, on the other hand, are saying that the backwardness and importance of the informal sector is pre-conditional for the development and progress of the formal sector, while the relationship between the two sectors is expressed in the dependence and subordination of the former to the latter (Lao & Innocian, 2007). At the corner of the street where the secondhand booksellers ply their trade, is a branch of the biggest bookstore chain in the Philippines. It has been there for three decades, targeting the students studying in the University Belt. At the same time that it started operations, those used bookshops began to mushroom in the area. “Pag panggamit sa school, dyan sila bumibili. Pag libro dito sa amin,” (When buying for school supplies, they go to that store. When buying books, they come here.) was what Mang Ramon said when asked to comment on the competition offered by the bookstore. He further observed that the real competition is the other bookstores in the area. Mang Ramon owns a used book stall which, according to him was almost as old as his eldest son, who is now in his late 20’s. The stall used to be a sari-sari store, but when secondhand book sellers began congregating in the area, he saw the potential in the business. Now, their main merchandises are used books in addition to the photocopy and phone for

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rent services. The store has become a main source of his family’s income and has, according to Mang Ramon, been instrumental in sending his children to school. Joel, the overseer of his uncle’s book stall, which is in front of Mang Ramon’s, said that their business has been there for around 22 years. He remembered dropping by the stall whenever he would come from the province to visit his uncle since he was a young boy. He never thought that he would man the store one day. He has been there for five years. Ana, like Mang Ramon, also owns a stall at the other end of the avenue. But unlike Mang Ramon who sells books in a ‘puwesto’, her books are in a cabinet-like-container which is made to stand at the pavement. It’s been four years since she started her ‘business’. She used to sell cigarettes in the same area but upon realizing that her relatives are making money out of the book selling trade, she started her own. Hers is a stall where customers may exchange books for five pesos. Ana and Joel agree with Mang Ramon’s observation that they compete with their fellow booksellers and not with the popular bookstore in the corner. “Kami kasi everyday open, from 7:00 AM to 6:00 PM,” Joel added. In the case of Ana, she opens store from 8:00 AM to 7: 00 PM from Monday to Saturday, and from 8:00 AM to 5: PM on Sundays whereas, the popular store opens at 10:00 AM and closes at around 7:00PM. Again this can be attributed to the fact that the formal sector follows rules strictly. In addition, those who are looking for out-of-print books, old books, and hard-to-find books would usually go to these stalls. Buyers can also make ‘tawad’ (ask for discounts). When asked how far they will give in to a customer’s tawad, Joel said that it all depends upon the demand for the book. If the demand is high, they will not give in to very low tawad. On the average, Joel said that the stall earns 1,000 Philippine pesos a day. The biggest sales are during class openings, Christmas, and vacation. Compared with Mang Ramon and Joel, Ana’s earning is quite smaller. This is because book exchange is only five pesos. Ana said that on the average, she earns 100 - 200 pesos a day. What then are their edges from the other competitors? According to Joel, they don’t lie to their customers regarding the condition of the books that they sell. When they say it is new, then it is really new. They also personally attend to their buyers which earns them regular customers or ‘suki’ like me. And with their regular customers, they know what they want the moment they walk into their stalls. They know who usually buys textbooks, and who is into pocket books as well as the regularity of their visits. Joel and Ana allow their customers to stand by their stalls even when they are not going to buy anything.

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Contrary to popular notion that these bookshops only sell secondhand or used books, it was revealed in the interview that they also sell brand new ones that are relatively cheaper. A bookstore across the street owned by a big and known publishing house in the nation supplies them with new books. When asked if they also get from the branch of the biggest bookstore chain, Joel said no, kasi 5 % lang ang inaalis nila eh, unlike dyan sa _____ 10-15 %, wala kaming masyadong kita don sa 5 % (because they only take off 5 % from the original price compared with _____ which takes 10-15 % off the price, we don’t earn that much from that). This confirms the study of Guha et al. (2006) about the informal sectors in India and Lima where the formal sectors recognize the indispensable role of the informal economy in boosting the formal sector.

Pocket Books vs. Textbooks Books are categorized according to three broad factors: a) the nature of their producers and the types of materials they specialize in; b) the books’ intended audience or market; or c) the method of their distribution to the audience (Eaglen, 2000). A book published for student use in the classroom at any level is generally classified as textbook and falls under the second category. Those books published for well-educated or scholarly audience are examples of the first category while an example of a book categorized by method of distribution is a mass-market paperback. The Association of American Publishers (AAP) classified published books into ten broad categories: trade; religious; professional; mass-market paperbacks; elementary and secondary textbooks; university press; college textbooks; subscription reference books; mail-order publications; and book clubs. Eaglen (2000) points out that publishing and selling textbooks from elementary through college/university levels comprises the largest category of publishing and sales every year. These bookshops in Recto do not only buy and sell textbooks. They also peddle used magazines, bestsellers, classic, and contemporary literary novels. However, for my three informants, and for the rest of the booksellers, there are only two types of books - pocket books and textbooks. According to Joel, textbooks are those that students buy to use in their classes while pocket books are those that people buy to read for entertainment or pleasure. Examples of these are the Harry Potter series, the Paulo Coelho novels, Jostein Gaarder novels and the likes. In both Mang Ramon and Joel’s stores, these books are separated. The pocket books are usually laid out with their titles being shown, while the textbooks are piled up in bundles. Joel explained that textbook buyers,

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especially regular customers are aware that they are selling textbooks and all they have to do is ask if they have the books they need whereas, in the case of pocket books, it is better if the buyers, the passersby, in particular will see at once that they have a book that they might like or might be looking for. It is also amusing to see how knowledgeable they are when it comes to titles and contents of the books. Joel would often help customers identify a book they are looking for, be it a textbook or a pocket book. Often, he would even explain to them the difference between two textbooks of the same title but of different editions. He could also easily determine the price of the book despite the varying conditions of usage. This is also true with Mang Ramon. Ana, on the other hand, also knows all the titles in her stall despite that every day, there are new books that replace the others. Joel said that doing the job every day enables him to acquire a mastery of the titles, prices, and conditions of the books. I told him that I would probably not be able to do that. To which he replied, siguro pag gusto mo yong ginagawa mo, kasama na rin yong madali mong matutunan ang ganito. (May be if you like what you are doing, things will be easier to learn.) Bandura’s self-efficacy theory which is an important factor for a person’s work performance, (Peterson & Gonzales, 2000) stated that a person’s perceived judgments to successfully perform a given task are influenced by career behavior such as intrinsic interests and task interests. Intrinsic interests show themselves in a person’s enduring interest in activities that engage their feelings of personal efficacy and satisfaction. Task interest gives a person more motivation to interact with the task, which in turn offers more of a chance for ‘personal and vicarious success experiences, and further self-efficacy enhancement. Joel also revealed that both pocket books and textbooks sell. During class openings in June and November (for collegiate levels) textbooks sell like hotcakes. Pocket books are mabili (sellable) during summer and Christmas vacations. Joel observed that compared with textbooks, pocket book sale is more evenly distributed throughout the year. But to say that one outsells the other is hard to tell since they both sell.

‘Hulihan Ang Problema.’ Informal processes are indispensable to the trade as variable content to the general form (Guha et al., 2006). Of course, some of these activities may break the law, through a breach of health and safety regulations, tax evasion, smuggling, the use of child labor, selling without a license, etc.

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One way that informal activities relate to formal organization is thus as its negation. Rule-breaking takes place both within the bureaucracy and outside of it; and so the informal is often illegal. When the rule of law is weak, the forms that emerge in its place are often criminal in character. All three are one in saying that the problems that they encounter in this kind of trade are very minimal. Ana likes her ‘business’ for two reasons for one, isang pamumuhunan lang (one has to shelve capital only for one time) and second is that hindi ito tulad ng ibang goods na nasisira (they do not rot like other goods). The three admit that they also encounter problems with customers who are ‘makulit’ or those who return books and ask for refunds saying that they bought the wrong books. That is why part of Joel’s dealing with customers who are buying textbooks is not to give them an alternative book to prevent incidences of returning and refunding. Ana also experiences dealing with customers who return books that do not belong to her stall. After several incidences, she started labeling her books. Mang Ramon experienced losing books to Typhoon Ondoy because his books are usually left in his store at the end of the day. In the case of Ana and Joel, they carry their merchandise back to their houses. Joel’s uncle has a vehicle that is used to transport the goods. ‘Hulihan ang problema’ (nabbing is the problem).’ Though nowadays, this is not much of a problem anymore for they pay 20 Philippine pesos daily to a police for the ‘upa (rent).’ ‘Mas maigi na yon kaysa naman problemahin pa ang tubusan. At least protektado na rin.’ (It’s better that way rather than be caught and have problems with bail. At least we are protected.) They also have a vendor’s association to protect them. But according to Ana, the association is useless. The other downside of the trade especially for an employee like Joel is that since the business is not registered, they don’t have Social Security Systems (SSS) and health benefits. Registering the business would mean paying taxes, Mang Ramon commented.

Job Satisfaction Work can be satisfying, neutral, or threatening (Peterson & Gonzales, 2000). Most jobs do not allow us to avoid pain or help us grow - two very important considerations in work satisfaction. It is said that on average a person is most likely to have seven job changes over a lifetime with job satisfaction related to these changes. Peter & Gonzales (2000) further explained that job satisfaction has two direct components: overall satisfaction with the entire job situation and facet satisfaction with certain aspects of the job. Job satisfaction is also related to: 1) prestige of the job;

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2) autonomy – control over the nature of the job; 3) cohesiveness of the work group which facilitates interaction; 4) challenge and variety of job tasks; 5) employer concern and involvement of employees in decision making; 6) wages with respect to both amount and one’s perception of adequate wages compared to others performing similar tasks; 7) mobility potential of the job; 8) satisfactory working conditions; and 9) job security.

Reading the Words and the World “I do the thing which my own nature drives me to do.” —Albert Einstein

Choosing a job is a natural process influenced not only by decisions made by each individual involved but also by the social forces that affect occupational availability and requirements (Peterson & Gonzales, 2000). People select, and are selected by, occupations. Joel finished a computer science course though originally he wanted to become a teacher. Prior to working for his uncle as overseer of his stall, he worked in an establishment as a cashier. A hold-up incident on the way home made him give up the job. Both Mang Ramon and Ana did not finish their schooling. The latter only reached third year high school and though Mang Ramon did not exactly reveal his educational attainment, I concluded that he reached high school. This is because in one of our informal conversations, he mentioned in passing that he had to stop going to school when he was in high school to help augment the family income. All three of them shared the same interests in reading. I confirmed this when on some occasions that I observed them by simply passing by their stalls, I saw them engaged in reading. ‘Halos nabasa ko na lahat eh,’ (I almost read all of the books) was Joel’s reply when I asked him the average number of books that he usually reads in a month. He was referring to pocket books. He went on to tell me about the stories in some of the pocket books that he has read. There was a time when I chanced upon him talking to somebody over the phone. He was discussing the book The Kite Runner by Khaled Hosseini. He told me that he was talking to his friend who is studying in college and who asked for his help to write a critique about the book. He was convincing him to read the book because it is a good one and there was a movie version which won an award in the Oscars. Later, he said that he ended up writing a four-page critique of the book for his friend. Ana told me that there are two things that she loves doing since she was young - selling and reading. She likes the love stories especially the ones

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that she is peddling. ‘Nakakalibang kasi’ (it is entertaining) was her explanation on why she loves reading. Mang Ramon, on the other hand prefers to read sports, and adventures. The latter also often reads textbooks especially those that are for engineering students for he dreamed of becoming an engineer when he was young. He, however, confessed that initially he was not much into reading. After a while, it became a habit. Informal discussions with my key informants allowed me to observe how this aspect of the job influenced their word and world knowledge. From my constant interactions with Joel, I can see that his readings became integrated with his personality. Joel is openly gay and has a group of gay friends. He would often tell me about his friends, how most of the time he would be advising them about relationships and their problems. There was an instance, when I was about to follow up on a question, his phone rang and I had to wait for almost an hour for him. I could deduce that he was talking to somebody about some job and relationship problems. He was consoling him, giving him his opinions and take on the matter. Later, I casually told him that I admired his points of view in life based on what I overheard in their conversation. All those that he told his friend, he pointed out, are what he inferred from his readings. He commented further, ‘Ay naku, kakabasa ko, pati mga taong dumadaan dito nababasa ko na rin.’ (My readings allow me to read people, even those who are just passing by here.) In fact, he observed that older customers go for pocket books because as people grow older, they get to have more time compared with the younger ones who are more into textbooks. He also noted that aside from the difference in preference for stories, female and male customers also differ in their reasons for buying books. He said that females usually buy books because they love to while the male customers buy books mostly because it is required. In my limited conversations with Mang Ramon, who was not as open as the other two, I was surprised to know that he has read political books such as The Prince by Niccolo Machiavelle and the Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx. When he recalled how his books were destroyed by Typhoon Ondoy, he noted how poor the drainage system is in the city and proceeded to discuss the leadership and the political system in the country. He proposed what should be done to the drainage system and mentioned terms that I am not familiar with. Ana mused that the reason why people prefer to read is to be entertained and to forget for a while their problems. She added that they like the pocket books that she plies in her stall because they deal with light

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topics and that they are easy reading. “Hindi nakaka-stress basahin” (It is not stressful to read these books). All three offered similar reasons to explain why selling secondhand books is profitable. Mang Ramon and Joel agreed that aside from the fact that they are cheaper, Filipinos love to send their children to school. And part of going to school is buying books that they may use in their subjects. They also opined that Filipinos love to read especially in their leisure time. Ana elaborated that it is a cheap form of entertainment and their stores make reading even cheaper. All of the informants also agreed that aside from the fact that their jobs/businesses provide them with an income for daily subsistence, they love it because it allows them more time and freedom which they would not be able to enjoy in an office or factory job. All of them had in the past experienced working in a ‘regular job’ as they call it. Although her earnings are only enough to augment the family income, Ana loves her job/business because ‘walang amo’ (there is no boss) and she enjoys the flexibility of time. She can attend to her six children at the same time. The same is true with Mang Ramon, who upon realizing that he can spend more time with his family and that he did not have to deal with some unreasonable boss, decided to stick with the trade. Joel added that his job also allows him to meet different people such as professors like me. He cited one incidence when he was out with his friends on a ‘gimmick’ and there was this professor who recognized him. He felt quite proud that people, highly educated ones know him. Ana echoed the same experience with people. She is happy to know that she has made friends with her ‘suki’ that consists of students, non-professionals, and professionals. She delighted in the fact that these people respect her opinions regarding books to read. In the competitive labor market work usually becomes too timeconsuming (Guha et al, 2006). As a result, single people like Joel may lose personal connections and social support. For married people like Ana and Mang Ramon, time spent with the family is a very important consideration in work. As Joel aptly puts it, ‘naka-aircon ka nga sa opisina, boring naman. Sila-sila lang ang nakikita mo, walang variety.’ (In office work, one is in an air-conditioned room, but then it is boring. You mingle with the same persons, there is no variety.)

Conclusions One preconceived notion about the secondhand bookselling trade since it is a part of the informal sector is that it only involves people with low

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level of education. This study proved otherwise. Not all of the informants are under-educated. As mentioned, one of them has a college degree. This confirms that more than the monetary aspect, factors such as freedom, flexibility of time, self-esteem, less risk, and interests contribute to a person’s choice of an occupation/trade. Furthermore, a job that deals with books requires not just basic literacy skills as gleaned from the data collected in this mini-research. In addition, the secondhand book trade is not only about peddling used books. Like the formal trade, it also deals with goods that can be purchased from formal establishments. And nowadays, even formal establishments recognize that they can work side by side with informal trades to get their products to people easily. What probably differentiates it from the formal trade is that business dealings are less complicated and more personal. The formal book trade industry may gain insights from how these establishments deal with customers. Although of course, the fact remains that the activities are still considered illegal. Another important conclusion pertains to how job experiences impact a person’s worldview and world knowledge. In a trade like secondhand book selling, what the sellers/traders bring to their job is equally important with what their experiences bring to their lives. And since they are in a trade that exposes them to people and to books, their worldviews and knowledge widen. They get to understand people and situations better. But then it still points out to the motivation that they bring to their work. More than just earning a living, they also make a living out of their earning. As one informant observes, there is nothing more enjoyable than to work and to like what you are doing.

References Broomley, R. (1985). Planning for SME in third world cities. Pergamon Press. Pages 43- 65 Dejillas, L. (2000). Globalization, gender and employment in the informal economy: The case of the Philippines, Manila: ILO DOLE Labstat Updates 2006, “ The 2005 employment situation ,” Manila: DOLE Bureau Of Labor and Employment Statistics, January 2006. Eaglen, A. (2000). Buying books, 2nd ed. Neal Schuman Press. Pages 85 Gonzales, R. and Peterson, N. (2000). The role of work in people’s lives. Thomson Learning Pages 31- 61 Guha, B.G, Kanbur, R, & Ostron, E. (2006). Linking the formal and informal economic concepts and policies. Oxford University Press. Pages 23-261.

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Lee, S. and Eyraud, F. ( 2007). “Globalization, deregulation and workers: changes and outcomes.” Workshop on globalization and changes in Asia and the Pacific. Seoul: ILO and Korea Labor Institute Nemenzo, F. Jr. ( 1992, October). Towards a learning society. The RAP Journal, 8, 7-9 Sibal, J. (2007). “Globalization and changes in work and employment conditions in the in the Philippines.” Workshop on globalization and changes in Asia and the Pacific. Seoul: ILO and Korea Labor Institute Yuson, I.A. (2009). Social protection of the informal sector in Southeast Asia. Central Book Supply Inc. page 1.

CHAPTER IV THE STYLISTIC PATTERNS OF GRIMM’S FAIRY TALES NAZIMA VERSAY KUDUS AND AGELYIA MURUGAN

Children’s literature is made up of stories that have explicit moral values, magic and enchantments. One of the worldwide read children’s literature is fairy tales, for instance those by Brothers Grimm. Naturally tales are rich in language use and styles that shape and nurture children’s literacy development and their formative minds. This study seeks to present how the authors, Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm present these experiences by means of language at the word level. In order to accomplish the task, stylistic analysis of the lexis are undertaken to analyse four popular texts from Grimm’s Fairy Tales namely Cinderella, Hansel and Gretel, Rapunzel and Snow White. The linguistic assessments of these stories are necessary in order to evaluate whether they present worthy experiences for young readers or the texts carry ideologies that may hamper children’s literacy development.

Introduction Many researchers agree that it is not easy to define what children’s literature is. This seems parallel to the long-standing and debatable notion on what literature is. Children’s literature is categorised for readers and listeners up to age twelve. Lynch-Brown and Tomlinson (2005: 3) put forward that children’s literature “is a good quality trade books for children from birth to adolescence, covering topics of relevance and interests to children of those ages, through prose and poetry, fiction and non-fiction.” According to Hillman (1999), children’s literature has simple and direct plots that focus on the action and has happy endings as the

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norm. It has the power to satisfy, invite and compel readers because the material expresses a feeling or an act in beautiful language and also reveals deep and subtle human motives. Lynch-Brown and Tomlinson (2005) opine that it promotes readers’ imagination and inspires them to see the world around them in new ways and consider ways of living other than their own. They add that other values available in children literature are moral reasoning, vicarious experience and also encouraging understanding and empathy towards human needs. Apart from expanding children’s personal development, children literature is believed to have some important academic benefits such as fostering language enrichment and development in the readers and can help them to value reading. As children read, they begin to develop their own writing ‘voice’ or personal writing style. In addition, they will be exposed to rich vocabularies and better choice of words that will create positive effects in their academic achievement. Books from children literature can be used for different purposes such as acquiring literacy and studying social attitudes in coping with issues and problems. It is also a piece of literature that exposes the diverse cultures to the readers. According to Russell (2001), modern theories of child development have revealed that children are psychologically complex individuals, possessing a host of special needs on their way to maturity. A fundamental understanding of child psychology is helpful to the student of children’s literature because how children respond to books is a function of what is happening to them psychologically, physiologically, sociologically and emotionally. Children literature has the ability to shape the thinking of the children, to broaden their horizons, to deepen the understanding and also to increase the sensitivity of feelings, beliefs and attitudes of the people in the world. Adds Russell (2001), culturally diverse literature enriches everyone. It provides children with positive role models, cultural pride and individual dignity. Anderson (2006) states that children’s literature can be classified into six major genres with some important sub-genres. The genres comprise picture books, traditional literature, fiction, non-fiction, biography (including autobiography) and poetry and verse. Fairy tales are in the subgenre of traditional literature. Fairy tales are originally in the oral form; stories that are passed down from one generation to the other. Only later they became available in the written form. Fairy tales are found in all cultures. Among the popular ones are those by Hans Christian Anderson and Brothers Grimm. In the early 19th century, Jakob and Wilhelm Grimm were responsible in collecting and writing down the oral tradition of tales. Grimm’s tales are initially written for adult readers but they somehow

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attract readership among the young as well. Hulse (2011) proposes three reasons why adults’ books eventually become children books. First, fairy tales concern imaginative stories which are regarded within the domain of children’s literature. Second, when books contain children characters, people automatically assume they are for children’s consumption. The final reason posited is that many books for adults became children’s “as a means of expending their reach or extending their life (2008:1).”

Objective of Study This objective of this study is to analyse the lexis employed to represent characters in children’s literature. As such characters’ attributes (i.e. appearances) are analysed using the modifiers in noun phrases and adjectival descriptions. Next, characters’ speaking and action qualities are examined using the verbs and the adverbial phrases. The selected stories are Cinderella, Snow White, Hansel and Gretel and Rapunzel. The versions chosen are based on the translation by Margaret Hunt’s The complete Grimm’s fairy tales (1972). These stories are chosen due to their popularity among most readers of fairy tales.

Synopsis of Stories Cinderella depicts a story of a young maiden who is ill-treated by her stepsisters and stepmother. She dutifully performs the chores instructed of her and is only allowed to wear old working clothes. She is not allowed to attend the function held by the King to find a suitable bride for his son, the Prince. With the magical help of the birds, she is transformed into a beautiful maiden. The story Snow White is about a princess who is saved by a group of seven dwarfs from her wicked stepmother. When her stepmother discovers that she is still alive and lives in a jungle with them, she begins to find ways to kill Snow White. Rapunzel concerns a beautiful young lady with long golden hair being shut away in a tower by a witch in the forest. A prince, who passes through the forest, hears Rapunzel’s singing from the tower and falls in love with her. When the witch knows of their relationship she snips Rapunzel’s tresses and sends her away to a deserted area. Hansel and Gretel involves the plight of a young brother and sister who are abandoned in a forest by their wicked stepmother. After a few days lost in the deep forest, Hansel and Gretel find a beautiful and colourful cottage made of confectionary. Unfortunately, the cottage belongs to an evil witch and the siblings are held in captivity.

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Methodology Various methodologies have been used to understand fairy tales. The available approaches are folkloricist, structuralist, literary, psychoanalytic, historicist, Marxist and feminist approaches (Approaches to the literary fairy tale, 2006). However, the premise of this study is to understand tales using a linguistic tool or stylistic approach. Trask (1999) notes that stylistics is a study of the aesthetic use of language, in particular the use of language in literature. Language is a systematic resource for expressing meaning in context and linguistics. In addition, it is a study of how people make meanings through the use of linguistic features in a language. This study attempts to show how language can function as an effective mode of representation of the narrator. By using stylistic analysis, the relationship between language and its meaning becomes more ‘visible’ to the reader. The goal of the analysis is to find the ‘correct’ interpretation. Green and Lebihan (1996) state that the linkage between linguistics and literary text provides linguistic framework or grammar descriptions of the literary texts. Carter and Simpson (1989: 7) believe that “the precision of analysis made available by stylistic methods offer a challenge to established methods of close reading and practical criticism of texts.” This means a stylistic study of a literary text enables critical reading of the text. After all, children understand tales with words and with words, meaning surfaces. Its methodological procedure offers ‘objective, scientific, simple [and] descriptive approach (Burton 1996: 225)’ interpretation of literary texts as opposed to the subjectivity of traditional literary criticism. In addition, this method provides a way into a text in a more accurate manner as opposed to literary criticism that is seen to be abstract, vague and elusive (Widdowson 1975: 116). Owing to its pedagogical usefulness, stylistics has been used to provide manageable study strategies to learners of literature and otherwise (Widdowson 1975:82, Webb 1992: 49, Carter 1996: 149, Shakila 2004; 92-93). Most importantly stylistic analysis not only discusses the effect of language used in a text but is also a powerful method to understand the ways in which worldviews and ideologies are constructed through language (Burton 1996: 230).

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Analysis and Discussion Analysis of Attributes Characters’ attributes (i.e. appearances) are analysed using the modifiers in noun phrases and adjectival descriptions. Analysis of the Attributes of the Main Characters Table 1. Attributes of the main characters Character Cinderella

Modifiers in noun phrases • maiden (11 times) • partner (3 times) (124, 125, 126) • beauty (125) • wench (121, 127)

Snow White

• dearest possession (257)

• • • • • • • • • • •

Hansel

• sluggard (87) • fool (87)

Gretel

• sluggard (87)

Rapunzel

• • • • • • • • • • • •

Adjectival description pious (121) good (121) stupid goose (121) dusty (121) dirty (121) proud princess (121) little stunted kitchenwench (127) white as snow and red as blood (249) hair as black as ebony (249) as beautiful as the day (250) more beautiful than the queen (step-mother) herself (250) hungry (251) thirsty (251) tired (251) naughty child (88) weary (90) frightened (90) naughty child (88) weary (90) frightened (90) silly goose (93) most beautiful child under the sun (74) magnificent long hair (74)

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Most main characters are named according to their attributes. Before being addressed as Cinderella, she was all along referred to as a “maiden” in the story. According to the Oxford advanced learner’s dictionary, “maiden” shows the status of a girl or woman who is not married (2005: 926). Twice she is called “wench” which in old English is used “humorously to refer to a young woman (1735)”. Wench also is archaic word to mean “a prostitute” (Oxford dictionaries online). As she has to do all the house chores, leaving her to be “dusty” and “dirty” with “cinder” which means “a small piece of partly burnt coal or wood that is no longer burning but may still be hot (Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary; 2005: 264) gives her the name Cinderella. The King’s son thrice announces Cinderella as his “partner” at the dance. The notion of “partner” between the two moves from “dancing partner” to “a person one is married to” (1105). Snow White is named from the noun “white snow” while Rapunzel is named after a kind of rampion or wild plant (Elliot, 2010). Only Hansel and Gretel are German names for a boy and a girl respectively. Most of the children in the texts are envied because of their beauty. Snow White is “white as snow, and as red as blood, and her hair was as black as ebony.” As she grows older she becomes more beautiful than her stepmother which makes her stepmother hates and jealous of her even more. Snow White’s stepmother tries to outdo Snow White’s beauty by seeking confirmation from the looking glass to judge on her beauty. Rapunzel “grew into the most beautiful child under the sun…had magnificent long hair (which is) fine as spun gold.” The adjectival descriptions used by the narrator to describe Cinderella are “pious” and “good”. However, in the eyes of her stepmother and stepsisters she is “stupid”, “dusty” and “dirty”. On one occasion when the King’s son asks Cinderella’s father whether he has any other daughters besides his two stepchildren, her own father’s remark of her is “there is still a little stunted kitchen-wench which my late wife left behind her”. Snow White’s appearance is described via the usage of similes. She is portrayed as “white as snow”, “red as blood”, “hair as black as ebony.” The King’s son declares Snow White as his “dearest possession.” Rapunzel is described as the “most beautiful child under the sun” and has “magnificent long hair.” Hansel and Gretel’s stepmother calls them “sluggard”, “fool” and “naughty”. All the major characters receive abuses from their stepmothers and/or stepsisters. Cinderella has to do all the house-chores. Snow White is “hungry”, “thirsty” and “tired” when she runs away from her stepmother while the siblings in Hansel and Gretel are “weary” and “frightened” when left in the woods.

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Analysis of Attributes of the Main Characters’ Parents Table 2. Attributes of the main characters’ parents Character Cinderella’s mother Cinderella’s father Snow White’s mother Snow White’s father Rapunzel’s mother

Modifiers in noun phrases • wife of a rich man (121) • Queen (249)

• rich (121)

• King (249) • • • •

Rapunzel’s father Hansel & Gretel’s father

Adjectival description

• fool (87)

ail(ing) (73) pale (73) miserable (73) lov(ing) (husband) (73) • poor wood-cutter (86) • heavy heart (88)

The attributes of the parents are minimally mentioned in the stories. When biological mothers are mentioned they are suggestive of good women or women of noble standing. Cinderella’s mother at her deathbed advises Cinderella to be “good and pious and then the good God will always protect you and I will look down on you from heaven and be near you (121).” Hansel and Gretel’s birth mother is not mentioned. She must have died when they were little. Rapunzel’s mother is a woman who longed for a child to care for. Snow White’s birth mother was a queen; she died right after giving birth to her. Similarly, very little is described of the main characters’ father. Cinderella’s father is “rich” and Snow White’s father is the “king”. Somehow their wealth or presence is not used for their children’s welfare. Hansel and Gretel’s father is “poor”. He is depicted as powerless and feels “sorry for his children” and his “heart was heavy” when his new wife plans to abandon his children in the forest.

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Analysis of Attributes of the Abusers Table 3. Attributes of the abusers Character Cinderella’s stepsisters

Snow White’s stepmother

Witch

Enchantress/Dame Gothel

Modifiers in noun phrases • wickedness (128) • falsehood (128) • old pedlar woman (253) • old woman (254) • farmer’s wife (255)

Adjectival description • beautiful and fair of face (121) • vile and black of heart (121) • beautiful (249) • proud (249) • haughty (249) • yellow and green with envy (250) • envious heart (256) • wicked step-mother (258) • wicked woman (258) • pretended to be kind (91) • wicked (91) • wicked and venomous looks (76)

The adjectival descriptions of those who inflict suffering upon the main characters are juxtaposed with extreme ends. Cinderella’s stepsisters are “beautiful and fair of face but vile and black of heart”. Snow White’s stepmother is “beautiful” but “proud” and “haughty” and is always “yellow and green with envy”. Having an “envious and “wicked” heart, she “could not bear that anyone else would surpass her in beauty”. Her obsession of her own beauty makes her feel resentful of Snow White who at seven years old is described “as beautiful as the day, and more beautiful than the Queen herself.” When her first plan to kill Snow White fails, she goes to the extent of disguising herself as harmless women (first as an old pedlar woman, second as an old woman and finally as a farmer’s wife) and uses various techniques such as the lace, comb and apple to kill Snow White. However all the plans are futile when Snow White is rescued by the dwarfs. The enchantress, Dame Gothel, in Rapunzel allows as much rampion to be taken from her garden with the condition that once

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Rapunzel is born, she is to be taken away from her parents. The enchantress is described as “wicked” and has “venomous looks”. In Hansel and Gretel, the witch serves them “milk and pancakes, with sugar, apples, and nuts” and “pretended to be kind” to trick them into believing in her kindness and sincerity towards them. Analysis of Attributes of the Saviours Table 4. Attributes of the saviours Character Prince (in Cinderella) Birds (in Cinderella) The huntsman (in Snow White) The dwarfs (in Snow White) The king’s son (in Snow White) The king’s son (in Rapunzel) Duck (in Hansel and Gretel)

Modifiers in noun phrases • King’s son • turtle doves (123)

Adjectival description

• white pigeons (123) • good dwarfs (252 )

• young and handsome (75) • white and good little duck (93)

The mention of the king’s sons or princes appears in most of the texts. However, details about them are almost absent. There seems to be a commonly understood fact among tale writers and readers that princes are always expected to be positively described; they function just like any good ruler or heir to the throne that is to rescue their subjects when in threat. Therefore, any descriptions of them in texts are merely tautological. Another set of saviours are among the less expected groups of being. Dwarfs and birds are generally seen as lacking in strength and power, but when they work in teams, they can provide help to the main characters. However the nature of huntsman which is expectedly negative is given a twist in this story. He, who is pictured as powerful and heartless, shows his kind-heartedness when he let go of Snow White.

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Analysis of Speaking and Action Qualities Characters’ speaking and action qualities are examined using the verbs and the adverbial phrases. Analysis of speaking and action qualities of the main characters Table 5. Speaking and action qualities of main characters Character Cinderella

Adverbial phrases • do hard work from morning till night (121) • get up before daybreak (121) • picked up lentils from the ashes (3 times) (122, 123)

Verbs • do hard work from morning till night (121) • get up before daybreak (121) • carry water (121) • light fires (121) • cook • wash (121) • wept (3 times) (121, 122) • thanked her father (122) • expressed a wish (122) • obeyed (122) • picked up lentils from the ashes (3 times) (122, 123) • danced (3 times) (124, 125, 126) • weep (250) • terrified (251) • run over sharp stones and through thorns (251)

• walked the whole night and all the next day from morning till evening (90)

• find a way (87) • comforted her sister (88) • took his little sister home (88) • walked the whole night and all the next day from morning till evening (90) • wept (87) • cry (88) • wept (76)

Snow White

Hansel

Gretel Rapunzel

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Qualities are described via adverbial phrases and verbs. Though the physical description of Hansel and Gretel’s and Cinderella’s stepmother are not mentioned in the short stories, their mean attitudes toward their stepchildren are not short. Most of the verbs assigned by the stepmothers to the stepchildren are verbs where the latter need to exert their physical strength. Cinderella has to execute various physical labour activities ordered by her stepsisters such as “she had to work from morning till night”, “get up before the daybreak”, “carry water”, “light fires”, “cook” and “wash”. Her stepmother assigns her impossible tasks such as emptying the peas and lentils into the ashes and forces her to pick them out again to buy time so that she could not attend the festival. She is psychologically abused when her stepsisters call her “kitchen wench” and “stupid goose”. To add, they “took [her] pretty clothes away from her, put an old grey bed gown on her, and gave her wooden shoes.” The only action that makes Cinderella happy is when she is asked to “dance” thrice by the Prince. Adverbial phrases for instance, “from morning till night” and “before daybreak” indicate the long working hours that she has to endure. The stepsisters of Cinderella went to a great extent of self-infliction by cutting their toes and heels in order to fit into a golden slipper belonging to Cinderella. Snow White tries to escape from being killed by her stepmother by running “over sharp stones and through thorns”. The physical endurance of running “all evening” leaves Snow White hungry, thirsty and tired. In the case of Hansel and Gretel the stepmother engineers the plan to abandon them in the forest by first “tak(ing) the children out into the forest”, “light(ing) a fire for them”, “giv(ing) them a piece of bread” while she and the children’s father “go(ing) to our work” and eventually “leav(ing) them alone”. The siblings in Hansel and Gretel walk for the “whole night” to get home the first time. After being resent to the forests they walk for “three mornings” trying to find their way home. Gretel “cries” and “weeps” due to tiredness. The witch in Hansel and Gretel puts various physical pressures onto the children where she “seizes Hansel”, “carries him to the stable and “locks him” for four weeks there to fatten so that he can eat him later. Gretel is “forced to do what the wicked witch commanded”. The enchantress in Rapunzel, “clutched Rapunzel's beautiful tresses, wrapped them twice round her left hand, seized a pair of scissors with the right, and snip, snap, they [the lovely braids] were cut off, and the lovely braids lay on the ground when she found out that the king’s son was there earlier with Rapunzel. The enchantress then leaves Rapunzel in a desert where she “had to live in great grief and misery.”

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Analysis of Speaking and Action Qualities of the Main Characters’ Parents Table 6. Speaking and action qualities of the main characters’ parents Character Hansel & Gretel’s father Rapunzel’s father

Adverbial phrases

Verbs • rejoiced (89) • loved his wife (73) • clambered down over the wall into the garden of the enchantress (73)

Descriptions of the fathers’ presence are accompanied by adverbial phrases “after a year had passed (the death of Snow White’s mother) the King took himself another wife (249)” and “when winter came the snow spread a white sheet over the grave, and by the time the spring sun had drawn it off again, the man (Cinderella’s father) had taken another wife (121)” are mentioned during their remarriages after the death of their first wives. Hansel and Gretel’s father is portrayed as helpless and weak that he could not stop his new wife’s scheme to abandon his two children in the forest when they “could no longer procure even daily bread.” Rapunzel’s father permits the enchantress to take away his daughter as the result of his stealing the rampion from her garden. Earlier he was willing to risk his life to steal the rampion in order to fulfil his wife’s craving but now not strong enough to stop the enchantress from taking away Rapunzel.

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Analysis of Speaking and Action Qualities of the Abusers Table 7. Speaking and action qualities of the abusers Character Cinderella’s stepsisters

Cinderella’s step mother

Adverbial phrases • • • • • • • • • • •

Snow White’s step mother

• •

Enchantress in Rapunzel

• • • •

Hansel and Gretel’s stepmother

• • • •

Witch in Hansel and Gretel

• • • •

Verbs took her pretty clothes away (121) put an old bedgown on her (121) gave her wooden shoes (121) cried, laughed, and led her (Cinderella) into the kitchen (121) comb our hair for us (122) brush our shoes (122) fasten our buckles (122) cut her toe (126) cut her heel (126) “If you can pick two dishes of lentils out of the ashes for me in one hour, you shall go with us.” (123) “All this will not help; you cannot go with us, for you have no clothes and can not dance; we should be ashamed of you!” (123) take the child away into the forest (250) kill her and bring me back her lung and liver (250) shut her (Rapunzel) into a tower (74) clutched Rapunzel’s hair (76) cut off Rapunzel’s braid (76) took poor Rapunzel in the desert (76) take the children out into the forest (86) leave them alone (in the forest) (8687) take them farther into the wood (88) scolded and reproached him (Hansel and Gretel’s father) (89) seized Hansel (92) carried him to the stable (92) locked Hansel (92) shook Gretel till she awoke (92)

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The main characters suffered various psychological and physical abuses by their abusers. Cinderella’s is forced to do various house chores and personal chores of her step-siblings. Snow White and Hansel and Gretel are taken to the woods to be killed by a huntsman and the beast respectively. Rapunzel is locked in a tower and later isolated in the forest. Analysis of Speaking and Action Qualities of the Saviours Table 8. Speaking and action qualities of the saviours Character Pigeons Turtle-doves

Adverbial phrases • • • •

Hunstman Dwarfs

• • • • •

Birds (owl, raven and dove) Duck

King’s son in Rapunzel

• • roamed many years (76) • lived for a long time (76)

• • • • •

Verbs help (122, 123) pecked out (the stepsisters) eyes (128) had pity (250) lifted her (Snow White) up (256) unlaced her (Snow White) (256) washed her (Snow White) with water and wine (256) laid her (Snow White) upon a bier (256) wept for her (Snow white) (256) wept for Snow White (256) take them (Hansel and Gretel) across the water (93) climbed up to her (Rapunzel) (75) talk to her (Rapunzel) like a friend (75) wondered in the forest (76) weep (76) roamed in misery (76)

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Sympathy and kindness strangely are rendered by strangers. The saviours to the children range from men to animals and abnormal beings. Snow White pleads with the huntsman to let her off from being killed by the order of her stepmother. The huntsman takes pity on her and says “run away, then you poor child (250).” When she manages to escape, the seven dwarfs allow her to hide in their home. The pigeons and turtle doves help Cinderella to select the lentils thrown into the ashes by her stepsisters. The birds also help to transform Cinderella from a “dusty and dirty” girl into a “princess” unrecognized by both her stepmother and stepsisters. Hansel and Gretel are assisted by the ducks which show them the way home. The knights in the shining armours provide the final rescue thus final closure to the stories involving the young girls. The marriages mark the end of the young girls’ sufferings. While for the story of the two siblings, Hansel and Gretel end up back in their father’s home. All children abused at the beginning end up happy while most of their abusers are punished for their wrongdoings. Cinderella’s stepsisters’ eyes are “pecked” by the pigeons. Snow White’s stepmother is “forced to put on shoes, and dance until she dropped down dead.” Hansel and Gretel’s stepmother is merely described as “dead” while there is no mention in the text of the enchantress’ fate.

Conclusion There are two conclusions that can be derived from the stylistic analysis of the fairy tales. First, the narrator tries to depict a balanced representation of good and evil characters. The good characters undergo various sufferings at the beginning but through their persistence and patience, they manage to overcome the obstacles in their lives. The evil characters who are able to exert their physical and psychological power upon the good characters at the beginning receive their punishment at the end. The two distinctions are clear from the beginning. Here the concept of whiteness and blackness is painted rather vividly suitable to the age of young readers where they need to be introduced to such concepts first before the introduction of more complex characters with inner conflicts and more sophisticated narratology. These clear demarcations of positive and negative characteristics made available via stylistic analyses are necessary for young readers at this stage. Second, it must be noted that the depictions of characters however are fixed or generalised throughout the texts. All main characters have no negative attributes and significant speaking roles are assigned to them. All fathers have no positive action qualities to contest over the abuses done by

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their new wives on their daughters. All non-family members possess strong action qualities as they are the ones who undertake positive actions towards the main characters. Abusers are rich with speaking roles and have negative descriptions of their attributes. The images painted in the stories are both stereotypically positive and negative. Though the stories are interesting in terms of plot and rich in imagination, typecasted roles can and will reinforce how a particular gender should behave. Such ideas not only can normalise but also endorse and perpetuate standard behaviours which in turn can subjugate them. When no intervention or scaffolding process on the materials that children read is carried out, readers will grow up with the idea that the stereotyped descriptions are the ‘correct’ ways. To prevent this from happening, teachers can appropriate suitable reading strategies so that the stories are read justly. They should teach systematic reading techniques as proposed through the linguistic or stylistic means so that the aspects that are not seen in plain reading can be obfuscated. After all, children are first and foremost language learners. As young learners are developing their understanding of the actual worlds outside their surroundings, by turning to the linguistic method, they can understand the concept of lexical choices made by the author rather than asking them to absorb the perpetuated ideology behind any given text.

References Anderson, N. (2006). Elementary children’s literature. Boston: Pearson Education. Approaches to the literary fairy tale. (2006). The Oxford companion to fairy tales eNotes.com. Retrieved from http://www.enotes.com/ocft-encyclopedia/approaches-literary-fairy-tale> Burton, D. (1996). Through glass darkly: Through dark glasses. In Weber, J.J. (ed). The stylistics reader: From Roman Jakobson to the present. London: Arnold. Carter, R. ( 1996). Study strategies in the teaching of literature to foreign students. In Weber, J.J.ed). The stylistics reader: From Roman Jakobson to the present. London: Arnold. Elliot, V. (2010, May 8). Botanists act to save rare ‘Rapunzel plant’ from extinction. The SundayTimes. Retrieved from http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/science/biology_evolution /article7120173.ece Lynch-Brown, C. & Tomlinson, C. M. (2005). Essentials of children’s literature (5th ed.).USA:Allyn and Bacon.

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Green, K & Lebihan, J (1996). Critical theory & practice: A coursebook. New York: Routledge. Hillman, J. (1999). Discovering children’s literature (2nd ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Hulse, T. (2008, January 30). Functions of children's fairy tales . Ezine Articles. Retrieved from http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=Ty_Hulse Hunt, M. (Ed.). (1972) The complete Grimm’s fairy tales. USA: Random House, Inc. Russell, D. L. (2001). Literature for children: A short introduction. New York: Longman. Shakila Abdul Manan (2004). Developing critical skills in the ESL literature classroom: A stylistic approach. In Jurnal Ilmu Kemanusiaan 11:75-94. Trask, R.L. (1999). Key concepts in language and linguistics. London and New York: Routledge. Oxford advanced learner’s dictionary (7th ed.). (2005). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Oxford dictionaries online. Retrieved May 1, 2011, from http://oxforddictionaries.com/ Webb, E. (1992). Literature in education: Encounter and experience. London: The Falmer Press. Widdowson, H.G. (1975). Stylistics and the teaching of literature. London: Longman Group Limited.

CHAPTER V DOMESTICATION AND FOREIGNIZATION IN TRANSLATION OF CHILDREN’S LITERATURE: A TEXTUAL ANALYSIS BITA NAGHMEH ABBASPOUR

Translation of a literary work always poses many problems caused by the differences between two linguistic and cultural systems. The difficulty seems to be enhanced if the work to be translated is for children who have little knowledge about the culture from which the text originates. The purpose of this textual analysis study is to describe and explore the domestication / foreignization strategies which translators apply for tackling culture-bound elements, in the translation of children's literature. The period covered the first forty years of the fourteenth century (solar calendar: 1300-1340/ 1920-1960) including the early translations of children's literature; a period of time when Western culture was not well-known in Iran. The study restricted itself to the comparison of culture-bound units collected from Persian translations of The Grimm Brothers’ Fairy Tales. To study domestication / foreignization as translation strategies, the selected units of translation were compared in both the target and source texts. The findings showed that not only more recent translations are more foreignized, but this strategy is also somehow more acceptable nowadays.

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Introduction What would the children's life be like without the translation of great pieces of literature? As a matter of fact, translated books are bright windows to the world, opening to children’s minds rich and memorable views on life of people in other countries. Through these stories, children gain an understanding of new cultures, new landscapes and new sets of experiences. The books children read can easily enlighten their perception about other cultures. Children's literature offers a great potential for linguistic and cultural exchange. Contrary to what is commonly believed, writing and translating for children is not an easy job, done in a casual manner, but a problematic and yet fascinating occupation, for numerous reasons. Firstly, children's books are aimed at two different groups of readers: on the one hand, they are intended for the primary target group, children, but on the other hand, they must simultaneously appeal to adult readers (parents, teachers, critics) who are the buyers and who constitute the taste-setting background authority. Secondly, children's literature is governed by various changing principles and norms (didactic, ideological, moral, ethical, religious), which determine what kind of literature children are provided within a certain culture at a certain time. Thirdly, the special characteristics of the child readers, their comprehension and reading abilities, experiences of life and knowledge of the world must be borne in mind; so as not to present them with overly difficult, uninteresting books that may alienate them from reading, but rather to produce books that persuade children to read more. Accordingly, there are various factors that translators must bear in mind dealing with children's literature. As noted above, cultural diversity between source and target languages is one of the eminent factors in translating children's literature. Cultural elements, such as proper names and food items, not only place the story of a book in a specific culture, but also imply certain values. These elements also have an effect on how the reader associates with the story and characters. In the early decades of the 14th century (solar calendar) in Iran, the function of translated children’s literature was to some extent different from what it is today. While today one of its main functions is apparently to enrich our culture by letting us learn about foreign ones; it seems that in the early decades of this century translated children’s literature offered an escape from foreign cultures. Replacing the foreign elements with familiar ones was a common strategy in the first era of translation of children's literature in Iran. Applying unnecessary domestication in the case of culture-bound elements is not considered an appropriate strategy in

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translation. As Newmark (1988a: 95) maintains, “Most ‘cultural’ words are easy to detect, since they are associated with a particular language and cannot be literally translated”. As books are great resources for establishing the child's framework of knowledge about the world, the responsibility of translators multiplies in the field of children’s literature. The present textual analysis study is mainly focused on the translation of children’s literature in the first forty years of the 14th century (solar calendar), when the first children's books were translated into Persian. In that period the place of children's literature in the society was the same as children themselves, they did not get any appropriate attention. At that time although adult literature suffered from incapable translators, the field of children's literature suffered much more. It gives the impression that, in the mentioned era, translators felt very liberate to manipulate the original texts as much as they wished. Consequently translations were mostly like adaptations of the original texts. In this process translators did not mind deleting from or adding to the source text, they even changed the names, and the whole atmosphere of the source text. With these changes they attempted to domesticate texts to be more understandable for children. These domestication strategies, which translators used as a solution for tackling the problem of facing new cultural items, not only show a lack of respect toward other cultures, but also deprive child readers of the chance to realize the wealth of cultural diversity that surrounds them. Depending on the choice of domestication and foreignization translation strategies, translated children’s literature can be either a means of bridging cultural differences or of obscuring them. If culture-bound elements are foreignized the story can serve as a tool for learning about foreign cultures, and customs, and also encourage readers to find out more about them. In other words, foreignized children’s stories are a way of drawing attention to cultural matters: to learn what is different and what is shared between the reader’s culture and that in which the story is set. Domestication is a result of “the preconceived opinion of adults about what children want to read, value and understand”, in other words, “an underestimation of the child reader” (Yamazaki: 59). Regarding this fact the researcher is going to focus on and argue against the domestication strategy especially, the replacing of cultural items such as proper names and food items. Apart from an attempt to analyze translation of these cultural elements in children's literature, the study aims to discover to what extent the early translations are different from the retranslations. This study is based on comparison of translations of The Grimm Brothers’ Fairy Tales into Persian. The researcher anticipates that comparing these translations will illustrate some aspects of domestication /

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foreignization applied to the translation of such books in that period. Besides, she hopes to make it clear that in the case of such domesticated translations, retranslation is essential. Different theoretical frameworks are considered in this research investigating domestication/foreignization strategies applied in translated works of children’s literature in the mentioned era. First of all it detects these norms according to Venuti’s viewpoint about domestication and foreignization. Here the researcher used Venuti’s approach that finds domestication an ethnocentric racism strategy, and emphasizes foreignization as a “highly desirable” one. Secondly she studies translational norms of culture-bound elements based on Newmark’s “General Considerations of Translation of Cultural Elements”. Respecting the first and the ultimate consideration that Newmark mentioned, the researcher used the idea of “recognition of the cultural achievements referred to in the SL text, and respect for all foreign countries and their cultures” (Newmark 1988a: 96), as the main framework of the study.

Children’s Literature & Translation Is a children's book a book written by children or for children? Is a book written for children still a children's book if it is (only) read by adults? What if adult books are read also by children – are they children's literature? These questions posed by Karen Lesnik-Oberstein (qtd. in O’Sullivan 13) have been asked in countless variations by scholars attempting to define children's literature. Despite different definitions of children’s literature, this characteristic is accepted by mostly all of them, that, there is an unequal relationship between the adult writer or translator and the child audience. It is adults who decide the very extent and boundaries of childhood. Emer O’Sullivan clearly acknowledges this point: “Adults … assign texts to children and, in the process, transmit dominant morals, values and ideas” (O’Sullivan: 14). After all, the power and influence belong to adults and definitely they are the ones who decide what is written and, even more importantly, what is published, praised and purchased. As Purtinen has pointed out, the genre is unusual because of: “ …The numerous functions it fulfils and the diverse cultural constraints under which it operates. Children's literature belongs simultaneously to the literary system and the social-educational system, i.e., it is not only read for entertainment, recreation and literary experience but also used as a tool for education and socialization. This dual character affects both the writing

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and the translation of children's literature, whose relationship with literary, social, educational and fruitful field of research” (qtd. in ibid). Despite this important twofold function, there are some more understandable reasons for the tendency to regard children’s literature as ‘the Cinderella of the literary studies’ (Shavit, qtd. in Lathey 18) and these include the fact that children’s literature has tended to remain uneconomical and culturally marginalized. This may be because books for young readers are written for a minority: the primary target audience is children and they and their literature are not considered as central concerns of “high art” and culture. If children’s literature has suffered from problems of low status, it is only to be expected that the translation of children's literature would have to endure a similar fate. On the other hand, children’s literature has a marginal position in translation studies as well. The traditional study of translation barely considered children’s literature as high art sitting in the center, and as Katharina Reiss notices: “for centuries critics have been concerned with both the theory and practice of the complicated and complex phenomenon of translation but scarcely any thing has been said about the translation of books for children and young people” (Reiss, qtd. in O’Sullivan: 76). Reiss looks seriously at the subject by attempting to identify the specific problems of translation of children's literature in the context of her typology of texts. She names three factors which justify its needing a special kind of study: 1. The …asymmetry of the entire translation process: … adults are translating works written by adults for children and young people. 2. The agency of intermediaries who exert pressure on the translator to observe taboos or follow educational principles. 3. Children’s and young people's (still) limited knowledge of the world and experience of life. (Ibid) Around the time Reiss was writing these lines, children's literature and its translation were attracting increasing attention both within and outside of children’s literature studies. One of the pioneers of the subject, Göte Klingberg, the Swedish educationist, introduces five potential areas of research into the translation of children’s book, which are more detailed: 1. Statistical studies on which source languages yield translations in different target languages or countries;

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2. Studies on economic and technical problems associated with the production of translations; 3. Studies on how books are selected for translation; 4. Studies of current translation practice and specific problems encountered by translations; 5. And studies concerning the reception and influence of translation in the target language. (Klingberg, qtd.in Lathey: 15) When Klingberg declares these research areas, he specifically mentions that these areas deserve urgent and detailed investigation. However, in 2000 Riitta Oittinen still claims that: “… to translation of children’s literature and its theoretical basis, little research has been conducted on this subject world wide” (Oittinen 11). In 1981, considering the position of children’s literature in the literary polysystem, Zohar Shavit tries to declare the main patterns of behavior of translation of children’s literature. Five years later, Shavit in her book Children's Poetics, restated this fact and explains that in the translation of children’s literature, translators consciously or unconsciously tend to relate the text to existing models in the target system. This phenomenon, known from general translational procedures; is particularly prominent in the translation of children’s literature because of the system’s tendency to accept only the conventional and well-known. If the model of the original text does not exist in the target system, the text is changed by deleting or by adding such elements to adjust it to suit the integrating model of the target system. She believes that, the translator of children’s literature can permit himself great liberties regarding the text because of the peripheral position children’s literature occupies in the polysystem (114-121). Shavit claims that: the translator is allowed to manipulate the original texts in various ways, as long as he considers the following principles on which translation for children is usually based: a. Adjusting the text in order to make it appropriate and useful to the child, in accordance with what society thinks is ‘good for the child’. b. Adjusting plot, characterization and language to the child’s level of comprehension and his abilities (Shavit, 1981: 172). These two principles are well-rooted in the self image of children’s literature. Thus, as long as the concept of didactic children’s literature was prevalent, the first principle, which is rooted in the notion of children’s literature as a tool for education, was dominant. Nowadays the situation

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seems to be different. Although the first principle still dictates to a certain degree the character of the translations, the other principle; that of adjusting the text to the child’s level of comprehension, is more prevailing (ibid). So, we can obviously see the paradox which exists at the heart of the translation of children’s literature: it is commonly held that books are translated in order to enrich the children’s literature of the target language and to introduce children to foreign cultures, yet at the same time that foreign element (unknown element) itself is often omitted from translations which are heavily adapted to their target culture.

Domestication & Foreignization More recently Lawrence Venuti, an American theorist, introduced two new terms: Domestication and Foreignization. In his book, The Translator's Invisibility: a History of Translation (1995) he comprehensively discusses the concepts of ‘domestication’ and ‘foreignization’. Venuti writes about adapting books in different times for different purposes. He calls adaptation, domesticating and considers it as a phenomenon strictly for issues like time, society, norms and power. Venuti also speaks of foreignizing, which he defines as opposite to domesticating texts: when a reader is taken to the foreign text, the translation strategy in question is called foreignization, whereas when the text is accommodated to the reader, it is domesticated. In other words, foreignizaton generally refers to a method (or strategy) of translation whereby some significant trace of the original ST is retained. Domestication, on the other hand, assimilates a text to target cultural and linguistic values. For Venuti, there are several reasons why foreignization is desirable and domestication is to be rejected. He finds domestication ethnocentric racism and violence, which may only be attacked by challenging the dominant aesthetics and foreignizing texts and shows how invisibility of translator is hand in hand with these two types of translating strategies. He defines domestication as a strategy, which involves downplaying the foreign characteristics of the language and culture of ST. This strategy is opposed to foreignization. Venuti also emphasizes that; he himself prefers the latter and calls it a “Highly desirable” strategy (Venuti: 19- 20).

Analysis This study approaches the translation of children's literature from three different points of view. First of all it is a textual analysis study. Jenny Williams and Andrew Chesterman, in their book MAP, mention that this

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kind of research is specifically a comparison of translations and their source texts, which means a textual comparison of translation with its original1. Apparently in this type of research it is impossible for the researcher to deal with every potential aspect of the text. So here the researcher restricts the comparison aspects to applying domestication and foreignization of culture-bound elements such as proper names, animals and, food items. Secondly, as the researcher restricted the study on the genre of children’s literature, the study can be classified as a Genre Translation research2. Since children’s literature itself spans many genres - from poems and fairy tales to fiction and scientific writing, the researcher limited her study to fiction. Besides consideringKatharina Reiss’ potential research areas, the researcher narrows down this research to Reiss’ third area, which cares about children’s and young people’s (still) limited knowledge of the world and experience of life”. For the reason that books are one of the most important sources, which help children to achieve the knowledge about the world, it seems that too much domesticating and also unnecessary ones can easily deprive children from what they are supposed to gain from a book. Finally, the last point of view, which this research is investigating: the approach to translation - historical. The major research questions in the study of translation history are to do with: Who? What? Why? and, How? 3 Here the researcher is going to answer “HOW?” Translators’ strategies through the ages have varied enormously, depending on the demands of commissioners, publishers, readers as well as their own personal preferences. This study considers the first forty years of the 14th century (solar calendar), when the function of translated children’s literature was to some extent different from what it is today. While nowadays one of its main functions is presumably to enrich our culture by letting us learn about foreign ones; it seems that in the early decades of this century translated children’s literature offered an escape from foreign cultures. Accordingly in this study the researcher will proceed to examine how proper names and food items have been translated in the selected pieces of literature. As mentioned earlier, the present study restricted itself to the comparison of Persian translations of The Grimm Brothers’ Fairy Tales in different periods. The respective Persian translations in this study are as follows: 1

 P. 6 Jenny Williams and Andrew Chesterman , 9 3 Jenny Williams and Andrew Chesterman 17 2

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