New documents of Indian painting A reappraisal

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New documents of Indian painting A reappraisal

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NEW DOCUMENTS OF INDIAN PAINTING -A REAPPRAISAL



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UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN

NEW DOCUMENTS OF INDIAN PAINTING -A REAPPRAISAL

MOTi CHANDRA Dt ru ' uw, Prw, of W4l,s Mustltffl

KARLJ. KHANDALAVALA .

C.6.i""°"'

•./

Board ef Trustus,

Pri,," of W4'.,$ M.u"11t

PuJli.Jlwi ;_, THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES OF THE PlllNCE OF WALES MUSEUM OF WESTERN INDIA, BOMBAY 1969

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Limiled Edition (SoO oopio,)

C The Board orTtUltCCS of1he. Prince ofWaJct Museum of Western India. Bombay, 1969

PARAGON BOOK GALLERY, LTD. 14 EAST 38th STREET NEW YOfJC. N , Y. IOO!f

Co\•er lllustratiorc Toild Km.e, Folio &om the MolrlJ1#rlfo painted at Palam near Delhi. Dated A.O. 1540. Sr-t Digamhara Jain AtiAya K.shetra� Jaipur.

Pri n1ed by A.run K . Mehta. at Vakil&. Sons Private Ltd., Narandas Buildi ng, 18 Ballard Estate, Bombay 1, India.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We record our deep and sincere thanb to: Mr. P .C. Jain, Bombay, National Museum, New Delhi, Muni Punyavijayaji, Ahmcdabad, Narasimhajinli PolnliJoana Bhan,cjar, Baroda, J:>evuino Pii,;lo BhaQcjir, Ahmcdabad, Sri Digambara Nayli Mandir, New Delhi, Bhirat Kalli Bhavan, Banaras, Sittung Prcussichcr Kulturbcsitt, TUbingcn, West Germany, British Museum, London, India Office Library, London, $ri Digambara Jain Ati!aya Kshetra, Jaipur, John Rylands Library, Manchester, Culture Centre, Ahmedabad, Central MUICUID, Lahore, Punjab Museum, Chandigarh, Muni Vijayendra Suri Collection, Cleveland Museum of Aru, U.S.A., Freer Gallery of Art, Washington D.C., and Asiatic Society ofBombay, for allowing the use of their material for this publication and to the Government of India for the gr a n tin-aid, to the Lalit Kalli Akadami, New Delhi for lending colour blocks, to M/s. Commercial Art Engravers, Bombay for preparing blocks and to M/s. Vakil and Sons Private Ltd., Bombay for printing.

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PREFACE

T

he prC$CDt volu,mc which is a re-consideration of Indian miniature painting upto the

sixteenth century is no more than an attempt to elucidate the many problems which faee those who have endeavoured to study this period. The ava.ilable evidence is all too often inadequate for firm conclusions and we are conscious of this limitation. Nevertheless, having regard to the new material which has come to light in recent years, we felt that the subject merited an effort on our parts to indicate certa.in trends and lines of development which we think the evidence indicates. It may be that some or many of our conclusions may have to be altered or modified when further research bring, fresh material to light. Nevertheless, the process of discovery in this field can never be rapid and researchers c a n ­ not wa.it for an unlimited period of time to formulate conclusions which would brook no challenge. In the circumstances, it is inevitable that with regard to several matten we have been inftuenced by our personal points of view, though we have always endeavoured to indicate the basis on which we have made surmises. Amongst the major difficulties, which we have encountered, is the uncertainty of date and provenance which besets several of the illusttated manuscripts, often fragmentary, which are frequently designated as Sultanate Pa.inting. This very nomenclature itself is differently understood by different writcn and the beginnings of this style of worl:. are still shrouded in a few vague literary references. The answer to these and other problems may be just round � corner or it may be many many years before new evidence comes to light. In � meantime, if our efforts in publishing the material a.t present available provides a basis for further research and new ideas on these problem,, we feel, o ur labours will have earned their recompense. It is not unnatural that we our,clvcs should not always be in agreement on certa.in aspects of the subjects which fonm � theme of this publication and accordingly we have indicated such differences of opiniom as exist between us. Nonetheless, our collaboration has always been of the happiest order for we are both acutely alive to the fact that pioneers in any field of study should ever be prepared to revise their conclusions. We have, therefore, sought to avoid a feeling 10 detrimental to research of formulating a rigid point of view and then manipulating the evidence to fit in with an a priori conclusion. But at the same time evidence, particularly when it is far from plentiful, may tentatively lead to two different conclusions, facts of which may be plausible. This fact underlines the importance of finding illustrated manus­ cripts which arc not only dated but also indicate the plaee of their origin. Colophoru are all

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too often m.i.saing or tantalizingly ambiguous. But we take comfort i n the thought that time never stands atill and that in a vast and largely unexplored country like oun there may be hidden many valuable manuscripts which will enable scholars i n the future to evolve mon: authoritative development of style than may be we have been able to achieve. It would be a natural expectation to have adequate number of colour and mono­ chrome plates in a book on paintings. This has been poaible in this book only due to the sumptuous grant•in-aid received from the Covcmmc;nt of India for which we arc indeed very grateful. The co-operation received from Shri F. R. Poonawala of Commercial Art Engravcn, Bombay in the preparation of the blocks and that of M/s. Vakil and Sons Private Ltd. Bombay in printing it cannot be adequately acknowledged. In the preparation of this volume we have received the unstinted aid of our A.nistant Curaton, Shri B. V. Shetti, Shri S. K . Andharc and Shri S. V. Gnrakshk•r ud we are. indeed grateful to them for the interest which they have talr.cn in our laboun and also in many other works such as the printing, lay-out, proof correcting and indexing of this volume.

Karl Khandal•vala Moti Chandra

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CONTENTS

Chapten Acknowledgements

Pages

...

...

V

Preface

vii

...

I

Introduction

II

The Beginning

10

Illustrated Penian and Lo,,r.Clw,Ja Manuscripa in the Late Fifteenth Century

44

Ill IV V VI

... ...

Indian Pa.inting in the Fint Half of the Sixteenth Century

Illustrated Avadhi Manuscripts ... The Last Phase

...

57 91 llO

Description of the Coloured Plates

"5

Description of Figura ...

122

Select Bibliography

...

...

151 157

Index

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

T

he closing years of the twelfth century witnessed revolutionary changes in the histo­ ry of India. But after the tirst fury of blamicintolerance bad subsided certain tradi­ tional art fonns reasserted them,elves. Rieb Jain merchants and banlten renewed their patronage of the made-to-order artof theJainillwtrated manuscripts which was purely hieratic in character and basically conservative. Whatever set-back there may have been was only temporary, and it is indeed remarkable that the vast output of Jain illustrated manuscripts was during the rule of the Muslim Sultanates in Gujarat, Malwa, Jaunpur and Delhi. The position i n Bengal and Bibar, however, was not the same. The Buddhist Tlntric illustrated manuscripts which bad become popular during the rule of the Pila kings became very rare in thei r original homeland after the devastation wrought by the armies ofllakhtyir Khaljl, in about A.D. 1200 but, due to the cxodw of the pcnecuted Buddhist monks to Nepal, we 6.nd a continuity of this form of art in this small Himalayan kingdom which had already welcomed the faith of the SU:yamuni since the eighth century A.D. But, t.his Tlntric Buddhist art, though it continued long in Nepal and Tibet and assumed various extrav"8l'nt fonns, particularly in the painting of�. does not come within the orbit of our treatise becaUJe it had no influence in the formation of the styles which are our principal concern. On the other hand the development of the art of the illustrated Jain manuscripts is of primary importance to our study for it projected its influence on miniature painting both prc-Mughal and post-Mughal. Though we have an abundance of references in early Indian literature t o murals, portraiture and several other forms of painting, we 6.nd no mention of illustrated manUJCripu. Ilal)a in the Harsluu/uJrita, while describing the presents of Bhiskaravarman to Harsha, mentions a pair of wooden panels, to one side of which were attached colour pots of small gourds and brushco (aoalonwam"""1flikdJ4bukan).1 Whether this is a reftrcnce to the painted wooden coven of a manuscript or a reference to boards wed for painting it is dHlicult to say. It seems to w very doubtful if the art of manuscript illustration was in vogue prior to the tenth century. It appean to be essentially a mediaeval development with the Jains' and the 1 V. S. Ag...wala, H� slNl(iau �. (Hindi), htna, 1955, p. 170. 2

No illu,tratcdJain MS. earlier than the eleventh ceotwy b UOW1l. A BJ,,.po/,HSlltr-, the latest date of which can be A.O. 1o6g baa only black and white dcooratioru. But U.P. Shah haa refcrttd to an ilh.&1trated palm--k:af MS. elated A.D. 1o6o in hil Praidenti.alAddral, All lodiaOriental Confctalce 1968. See Karl K.handalavala, "Leaves &om R.&jutbaa0 , M1r1, Vol. JV, No. 3, 1950 1 p. 10.

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I

Buddhists. But, there is no doubt that when it did come into being the artists of the Jain manuscripts as abo those of the Tantric Buddhist manuscripts were infiuenced in aome respects by the prevailing practices in contemporary wall-painting. The Plla manwcript illWJtrators were obvioWJly not unaware of the late Ajanta tradition and similarly theJain manuscript illustrators seem to have been familiar with the manner of wall·painting such as we see in the Kailasanltha temple and the Jain Caves of Ellora. The farther projea!/i, or whether it was brought by a horse trader or camel trader it is not p0$Sible to say. Rare animals and binb were not infrequently sent by one king to another with other ambassadorial presents. In the Mirdl-i­ Sikandan .. it is stated that Sultll.n Muzaffar Shllh II sent a rhinoceros" along with seven (or two ?) huge elephants and other wonderful birds and beasts for Isml'il Shih, "King of Iraq and Khurlsll.n" (Persia) with the latter's ambassador, Mir Ibrllhim (or YiidgirBeg?). Two large ships were provided for all the goods of the ambassador. Another account states that the mast of the ship carrying the gev# (rhinoceros), elephants and other presents broke as it was deliberately made faulty and the ship had to return to Surat. The ambassador could not take his presents to Penia. A giraffe is abo depicted in the early founecnth century sculptures of Konarak.11 on the cast coast and was no doubt brought from Africa as a pre­ sent for King Narasimha, the builder of this famo us shrine.But its presence as well as that of finely painted birds, elephants and delightful floral patterns on such pal/is betokens an approach which is fresh and marked by an artistry wherein the painter i, not labouring under the burden of conventional hieratic formulae. Thus, lhc i.nspiration of the great period of wall-painting was not altogether wanting in these early Jain manuscript illustra­ ton but their art was so heavily circumscribed by conservative stylized mannerisms and clichcs that it rarely broke iu bounds to paint the joyo us world of plants and birds and animals which we sec on some ofthe J>alfis of the twelllh century. The rapid linear technique, the decorative motifs already referred to, the treatment at times of female faces in the manner of the early wall-paintings, the elementary col our tonality in reds, yellow, green and black, the angularity of features and limbs and the stiff formal poses in these paJJis, all seem to indicate a mixed inheritance derived from post­ Ajanta wall-painting, contemporary sculpture and some forms of folk art which we cannot define with any certainty but which must surely have existed. These early palm-leaf manu­ scripu usually unrelated to the text seem intended to enhance its. religious potency and its miraculous efficacy. Not much is known about the arti>1ic proclivities of the early Sultans of Delhi and the provinces, though architecture, it is certain, received their patronage. Many of them of though averse to figural arts showed their appreciati on for literature and poetry though we also have the instance of'All-ud-dln Muhammad Khaljl (A.D. 1296-1316) who was a man of liuJc or no learning and remained so all bis life. He could not appreciate even the great talents of Amir Khusrav. But during his reign learning received much support from private philanthro py and there was a vigo rous intellectual life. The naskhi script was greatly in vogue. It is, therefore, not surprising that Amir Khusrav and Amir Hasan produced their masterpieces during hi, reign. The former, though his language bristles with high metaphors and difficult words, has bequeathed to posterity convincing pen pictures of the social and economic conditions of the people. The vignettes of an autocratic royal court show that with 1

Sarabbai N.awab, n, OI4ut Ri,jo.,tJuuci Pllitllif111ftom Jlntt B""1t4ar,, Pl. W . Mirlt�arl, translated by Fadullah Lutfullah Farldi, Dbarampur, n.d., p. 9 4 . • • Sarabha.i Nawab, 7l, 0"4st R.jaslluna P11A'ali"11fr01rt J4i.,e Bltatt,lars, Pl. Y. where a rhi.noocro, is seen in a Jain µ#( . 9

11

0 . C . Oangoly, E41110TIK, Ca.ku.tta, 19�6, Plt. 7 and 1 0 .

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the exception or certain indigcno111 clements it waa entirely Penian and Central Asian oriented in its outlook. With the establishment of Sultanate rule in Delhi it was but natural that in the begin­ ning Baghdad, Bukhara and Samarqand were regarded as the centres of Muslim learning and culture. With the sack of Baghdad in A.D. 1,i58 by the Mongol Huliigii Khln the intercourse between Del.hi and these cities was sorely affected and many scholars from these centres sought safety in India. Later in the times of the Khaljls (A.D. 1296-1320) we again find cultural and trade relationships with foreign centres resumed, this time principally with Penia. During the rule of the Tughluq, this intercourse between the Delhi Sultanate and other centres of Muslim culture outside India greatly increased and these included cities not only in Pcraia but also Iraq, Egypt and Central Asia. That such intercourse led to many manuscripts being imported into or brought to India is not to be wondered at. For instance, we learn that Iltutm.ish procured from Baghdad two important volumes for his sons. No wonder Amir Khu,rav could exclaim that every ,tone i n Delhi concealed a gem of literary brilliance. During the reign of 'Ala-ud-dill Khalji it is said that one Maulanl Shams-ud-dln eame to India from Egypt with a camel load of books. Muhammad bin Tugbluq is also known to have procured books from foreign lands and invited foreign scholars to Delhi. Foreign traders in Delhi were also very frequent and there were many Khurlslni merchants residing in Delhi during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughluq. Amongst the articles they purchased for export were books written in India which fact indicates a great deal of activity i n the penning of manuscripts o n various subjects. Amir Khu,rav mentions 1he use of Syrian paper in Delhi. So also Indian traders frequently vi.sited the lands of the Mongols. The people of Delhi were eloquent in Persian as well a s Hindi while scholara knew Arabic, Persian and Hindavi, In the rime of Firiiz Shih Tughluq the great madrasa of Hauz-i-Khas was one of the greatest seats of MUJ!im culture and learning i n the Islamic world. There we are told that amongst other comforts were carpets from Shiriz, Yemen and Damascus. This picture of Sultanate India makes it easy to comprehend that many illustrated manuscripts from Iraq and Persia and other places must also have been in the libraries of the Sultans, in coll eges and in the houses of cultured nobles and scholars. Illustrated manw,cripts such as those on medicine very popular in Iraq., automata, the MfJl/im41 of al-Hariri, 1hc Fabw of Bidpai, the Jdmi'ai-Taodrilch of Rashid-ud-dln, the Shali Noma, the works of NizJ.ml and a host of others were available to be seen by local painten a.sand when it was thoughtfit to commiuion them to illustrate a manuscript prepared in India for the edilieation of some bibliophile or the needs of some scholar. That such manu.cript at all periods of Sultanate rule had some inJlucnce on the indigenous schools of painting is evident. But whether the practice of illustrating manuscripts written in India was only or a very casual nature as sugges1cd by the limited material hitherto available, or was carried on extensively, it is not pos.tiblc to say. Khandalavala thinks that the latter situation is unlikely. Murals arc oft mentioned but not painted manuscripts. In spite of all their debauchery, political murders and devastating wan, the Sultins showed appreciation for higher forms of art particularly architecture. After destroying the Hindu temples and palaces in the name of Islam they employed Hindu architects and masons to build their palaces, mosques, caravan.scrais, public baths, gardens, tanks and colleges which, though baaed on prototype• from Persia and Central Asia, revealed a

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dhtinctivc Indian flavour. The city was divided ioto separate quartcn occupied by vario111 social groups. The royal establishmentconsisted of a complex ofbuildiop-thc royal palaces, elephant and hone stables, parade grounds, army quartcn, mosques, colleges, baths, gardens etc. The private chambcn of the Sultans must have been painted after the old Hindu manner, though this practice was strictly forbidden by Fln1z Tugbluq io his reign. The numcroia apartments of the palaces were furnished with silk hanging,, velvet tapestries, damaacencd arms, candle aticb, carpeta, writing eases etc. N these luxuri �.required specialized industries, the Sultans had atclicn known from early times as l:4rldiimXs attached to their palaces which produced artistic goods for the penonal use of the rulcn and their entourage. Thus there were M1klr4,o4s for all manner of raiment, costly ailb and velvets, carpets, finely fashioned and damasccned anru and armour, decorated saddles, silver and gold plates, jewellery and ornaments, utensils e t c . How far the Sultins patronized painting is a matter of speculation though i t certainly could not have had any vogue during the reign of the unlearned 'Ala-ud-din Kbalji. The available evidence shows that the art of painting was treated merely as one of the decora­ tive arts used for enlivening the blank surfaces of the bed-room walls. The Delhi Sultlns and this a1so seems to be true of the provincial Sultlns, hardly showed any ioclination for painting as a fine art at least till the last decades of the fifteenth century A.D. Amongst several references to painting in the Sultanate period one appean io the Tarikl,-i-/i"i,� Shlki of 'Aflf," a contemporary ofF!rOz Tugbluq, who observes: "It is customary with the kings that their bed-rooms are paioted so that when alone with the women-folk they could sec the paintings." Sultln F"mlz for fear of God i»ued the following order: ''These atelicn ("4,kMniiJ) should not turn out pictures {taswir dar in khihdna na krmand), as this is against the Islamic law. In the place of fig ural drawing (mratgari) floral decoration (naqsh) ahould be used." Fln1z's bigotry knew n o bounds.u Not content with his prohibitory order against paint­ ing he also prohibited figure engraving in brass, copper, gold and silver ware as they were u Shaou-i+Sirlj 'All(, Tlrti-i-Frrac SltiW, Calcutta, 1891, P.:· S7�: Saiyid Alhar Abbu Rirvi, T"lilof KW.B"41"'4, Part11, (Hindi), Aliprh, 1957, pp. 147°148. " In Elliot and Dow.on, 7l, His,.,, •f b11/ia Ill tt,ltl., ill...,. Hi.t�. (Reprint), Calcu tta, t9s,, t he ttfettDCet to paiatiag arc translated •• fol10W1; (1) "Abwe1which had prc-acd upoo the people io rcve:aue mauen, mal�ctioea in the adminittra­ tion of public bu1incu, aod breache1 of the Holy Law�re all forbidden. One of tbe3e (lut) wu the painting of portraiu in the priv ate aparunenu of kinp. Jt w.u held right among monan::hl to have painted ch.am.hen to gratify their eye, in ttt ircm ent, b u t Flrox Shlh, in hi,f ear of Cod, pro.. bibitcd the painti ng of portraits u contraryto the Law, aod dittctcd that garden socoe,lho u ld be painted imtcad. Fon:ner lr.iog• wed to have ornament, of b rau and ooppc:.r, 1iJvcr and gold, i n oppoa,itionto the Law; thctc he interdktcd. They had also used plate• bd drinking veuels of meta!; tbe1e al10 were forbidden, a..ad he utcd only ttone and eanhcnwarc ta ble furnitun:. Pictu.TU on b amacn and eDllgm were alto forbiddc-n." -TiriU-i...Fito.(SA4hl-Vol. entitled "FlrozShih.'' p. 1 o6 . 0lt 1 () had been the practice in r0rcner re i gn, t o u,e vcud1 or gold and 1ilvcr at the royal tabl e, a.Dtdtword.obelu and qu.ive n were ornamented with gold andjewds. I forbade these thing,, and l ordered the fittings ormy anm to bemade ofbone, and I commaoded that only ,uch veucll 1hould be uted at are rc-cognizcd by the Law. lo former times it bad been the cwtom to wea rornamcotedgvrnentt, and men n:oeivcd robes u tokent of booour from kin,t' couru. Figure, and device, wcrc: painted and ditplaycd 011 aaddJc1 , aod cupt, and lagon1, on di.abet and ewers, in tent,, bridles, and eolian, on oemen, on goblets on curtainl and on chain, and upon all articles and utensils. Under Divine guidaooe and favou.r

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against the Islamic law. It iJ evident from this verdict that the former Sullins used figured gold and silver utensils for eating and drinking. ButP-Uiiz for fear ofGod began using earthen and ,tone utensils. In a Jimilar way in former days the standard, and maralibs were painted. F1rilz stopped this practice as well. Though the information given by 'Af1f i, laconic, it at least shows rhe exiJ1ence of painting in the palaces of some of the Sultins preceding Fln'lz. though nothing iJ lefr to tell about iu arliJtic qualiry. An inrercsting point in tbis short notice on painting in the Sultanate period iJ that the Sultins of Delhi had atelien {kii¥klran4s) which employed painren for . decorating palace walls. O fcoune Ibis does not help us in deciding whether side by side rhere were any k.Wll4ndtof painren which produced individual paintiJ>gt or illustrated manu­ acripu." There iJ no mention of any such production and thus on the available evidence it iJ doubtful if any atelier for book illustration cxiJ1ed a t any Sultanare court a, least till the end of the fifteenth or beginning of the sixteenth century A.D. Such an atelier certainly could not have cxated in P-m1z Shih', time (A.D. 1351-1388) considering that he bad prohibited all figure painting and engraving. But the fact that there was a k.W/i4Mof paint­ en for palace decoration, though ea Jtn"° CAi1rdalpodnmt,o, Pis. 3.2"34. Moti Chandra,, Jain Mi•iahrrt Pai.nJitvs/rom Wtl-lml lndu, Ahmeda.b.ad, 1949, f�. 33-35. ' ]t1iaa Cbilrak4l�avm4, Pis. XX.JU, XXVI-XXVIIJ and XXXI. Jlli• Milff#l•r, Poi1111·•11 /rffl Wutnn ltadi4, p, S3, fig,. 59-78. 10 D1g1t1Zed by

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composition in the latter is ofien elaborate containing in some panels more than ten figurco either grouped round the central figure or arranged in horizontal panels, each panel r e ­ piuenting a part of the incident. A co!Ucious effort is also made to improve the quality of the drawing while the landscape, the furniture and the cortumcs are integrated to achieve balance in the composition. This attempt at refining the technique of manuscript illustration was not confined only to palm-leaf miniatures in the fourteenth century. I t is equally evident in the book-coven of the same period. In one such painted book cover fromJaisalmer depicting incidents from the life of Mah!vlra' this refinement of technique can be observed. It is not known when exactly paper was used for the fint time in wcatcrn India•, but there i s no doubt that by the closing ycan of the fourteenth century it became an important material for painting. In this connection attention may b e drawn to an illustrated manUJCript of the Iralpas/Jtra and Irolak4 over their bodies. This mannerism is undoubtedly borrowed from Penian painting and pottery where it is seen as early as the twelfth century in Rayy pottery (Fig. 205) and remains a stock clich� thereafter. Another court scene is even more elaborate (Fig. 7). Kilal. While in general the foreign SW figures follow the type evolved in the late fourteenth century manuscripts, there ii a suggestion in some figures of the projecting farther eye. It is interesting to note that though the farther projecting eye became a regular feature of the Jain manuscript illustrations, thi! mannerism is alm0tratio m.Tbeb acqn>ul>disu nlfonnly..daed -Jlopinc ba.ckwardo.Tbe1rncn.ldl'cctoltlltfacao f,.·omen in tbiaman...,ript a,wd.J

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as in the Jaunpur Kalpasiitra of A.D. 1465 if visualized wi1hout the fanhcr projecting eyt?-' is akin to that of the fac-cs of women i n the Laur-Chandi miniatures in the Labore Mua.eum and Chandigarh Mu1dhPef«>m1:t$of!hcp>....,.ipclu1ionm>ybcju11i&cd,oncCO\lld hudly gofunhcr on-ud-din's rule could bynostreteh of imagination be termed glorious, yet least in one respect it was of some significance. Though the Persian historians do not at mention it, painting seems to have received some patronage from Ghiyb-ud-dln..a The title of an illustrated cookin& book which gives moot delectable recipes, in the India Ollice Library, iJ Jritob-i-Ni'm41 Na,,ugi Nasir Shahi (Figs. 131-139) which misleads one to believe that the book was written and illustrated in the reign of Nisir-ud-dln, the son and successor of Ghiyb-ud-dln. As a matter of fact, a small appended work on cooling written in Niisir's reign has given a misleading title to the whole work_ The manu.script contains many recipes especially associated in the rubrics with Ghiyb-ud-dln. The text of the Nt"m41 Niim4 deals with a series of recipes of all k.inds with prescrip­ tions for medicines, aphrodisiacs, cosmetics., perfumes and occasional directions for their use and a ocction on hunting. But while the subject matter of the N1'rMI N4m4 throW1 some interesting sidelights on mediaeval culture, the illustrations open up a new chapter in the history of Indian painting in the lint decade of the sixteenth century, just as the Devaslno Pldo Jralpasitra did in the third quarter of the fifteenth century. It iJ very clear that the Ni'm41 Niim4 iJ strongly iolluenced by the Tu,koman school of Shirl% of the late fifteenth and early sixteenth century. The reason iJ not far to se e k . It was most unlikely that the very superior painting of the Herlt school under Blysunghu, and Bayquara, so highly valued in its homeland itaclf would be available to the Sultanate courts in India. In the circumstances it was natural that only the products of a more provincial character such as those of the Tu,koman school would find their way to Sultanate courts and bibliophiles in the Sultanate k.ingdo ms . Whether the Ni',n,u Niim4 iJ the work of one or more Persian artiJts at the Mandu court who imbibed cenain indigenous inlluences such as are seen in their representation of tndian women, or whether it iJ the work of Indian artists who largely followed the Turkoman style from manuscripts which they had seen iJ controversial. Khandalavala inclines 10 the former view, but envisages the possibility of an Indian artist assisting the Pcnian master under his guidance. But be that aa it may, and even if the former vicw..point is correct., the marked intrusion of the Tu,koman style, as seen i n these two manu.scripts painted at Mandu must have had some inlluence on the development of indigenous painting. The following •tylistic points may be noted: 1. The draughtsmanship iJ simple and the lludied refinement of the Herlt school iJ absent. This Turkoman .style, Indiaoiscd to a certain extent, may have alto existed in the ' Robert Sal�, -Tbt Ni.'mat nama! A Landmark in Malwa Pa.in.ting", M"1, Vol. XII, No. S, jW"Le 1959, pp. +r+.S· 1l was tint brought tO public aotice by Mr. Robert SIDeltoa. 1

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!..,_ qllarter of the fin.,nth unlury, ifTurkorn•n illum>cripu h.od n1tylew,.,inemploy>tMar>du prior 10,.A.D.,y,o.Bu1there i>1111evideoce oo,.·hich1obuerondosiom o. The l&l>ntyp«.Th),the ion dla,,docape p ainli n «. A IIUNmum u>< olauhi1ectutt .Joo oncmpto ot timco to ulicv< the monolon y ofthe monoch o r ml'l(,-/l.,wi1hochcma1j,;foldo,.Jlichioa di1tingui.t.ingf,atu1" our notice .and Suma.ti Bai o( Sho1apu r for obtaining the original for our study.

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angularity begins making itself felt in the A","l'Jdk• Pomm of A.O. 1516. The artist> of the Mahlp,lr6¥4 did not, however, favour it thus indicating an individualistic outlook and departure from what seems to have been the norm. 2. Most of the illwtrations of the MaMpv,4¥4 in common with the miniatures of the A","l'Jdk• Panan follow the convention of a red background, but this i s not invariably s o . Backgrounds in other coloun such a s green and pink also make their appearance. 3 . The format of the composition is hori.ontal and no attempt has been made to distinguish the planes. The illustrations usually cover the entire folio and the artist had a much gr-eater scope for developing his composition than in the rather small format employed by the artisu of the ,vestem Indian or Gujarati school and followed by the artists of the developing tradition as seen in the A",a!!Y'"" Pa=• dated A.O. 1516. It is the opportunity t o util ize more space that has contributed considerably to the interest of several compositions, though criticism may be levelled against the manuscript in general that it is repetitive both in types and compositions and on the whole is definitely stylized. Nevertheless, some of the compositions possess a naive charm which entitle them to be comidcred as possessing some aesthetic merit apart from their quaintnw, a feature which most of the illustrations of the Western Indian or Gujarati school as well as the new developing tradition in the early sixteenth century possess. This is certainly not a court art nor is it exactly a folk art. It is pcrhapo best described as a bourgeois art produced for middle class folk, such as the Chaudhurls of the colophons who desired to possess illustrated manuscripts of a religiow or secular character. Chaudhuris were hereditary ofliccn collecting revenue on behalf of the Sullins and it i s said they appropriated to themselves as much revenue as they could. In the time of the Khaljis they are described as riding fine hones, wearing 6.ne clothes, shooting with Penian bows, going out hunting and holding drinking and convivial parties. This description may also be applicable i n Lodi times. Some of these country squires may well have developed a taste for illustrated manuscripts and a bourgeois art more than satisfied their requirements. + There is also a departure from the Western Indian or Gujarati miniatures aa far as colour tonality is concerned. Though the usual red background is largely employed, a variety of coloun- blue, green, yellow, brown etc., are used in the costume details, comple­ x.ions, accessories and in the landscape, giving a varied richness to the compooitions. The tonality is a change from the predominance of red, gold, and ultramarine blue of the Western Indian or Gujarati manuscripts. No gold is used either in the Mahiipv,� of A . D . 1540 or the A',a�yo.ta Pomm o f A.O. 1516. 5. Another signi6cant characteristic of the Mah4p.rii{la is freer movement which char­ acterius both human and animal figures.Though the human figures, particularly of women, have a doll-lilt e appearance with awkwardly drawn bands and feet, their movements expres,­ sed through freer attitudes of the body lead to a loooening ofthe stereotyped attitudes of the Wcatc.m Indian or Gujarati miniatures. The experimenu in colour tonality and movement indicate a fresh outlook, which later on, took a new turn in the C,,_apaiclwikii group. 6. A further advance on the Western Indian or Gujarati miniature painting is seen in more realistic approach in so far as scenes are taken from the daily life which the artists a saw around them. In these genre scenes representing the royal court, dancing and music, marriages, annies on the march, batt1cs, people engaged o n fanns, women bathing in ponds

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Pl.,1{•...i•J. ,__ ... _......,......�aocboololfoll pain,li"1witbprobablyJaunpur u itscentre. /uwebavepointedout bef0tt,tbe..,isno unanimi1yofopin;on about tbedatetand pro.enanceoltbeC1ta,.,,,.,WiUgroup,but intbeMir1bltbe..,isinternalevidrnttwhkb wppon, ito origin in eutem Uuar Pn.d appearance. But the question of a final oolution of the date will always depend on whether i t i.s to be regarded as earlier or later than the Chaura�lf,h4Ji!d. The fact that i t i.s in a folk style compared to the superior manu­ scripts of the ku/41u/dr group is a circumstance which must always be taken into considcra· lion in dating any folk style manuscript. The following characteristics of tbe manuscript �be-ed: 1. The composition is extremely simple. It occupies one or two panels. If there are two panels, each panel represent> a part of the incident. The monochrome background uses dull red, green, yellow and brown, and its monotony is relieved by a liberal use of red blotches and at times by large flowenhanging down from the top. The characters appearing in the paintings vary from one to four and arc aligned i n a row, their stances and gestures indicating action and emotional stresses. The bands separating the panela: are not decorative as in the Prince of Wales Museum Laur-Chaw, but plain. •· The body colour is either yellow or brown following the Western Indian or Gujarati tradition whic. h survived in the ChaurapallchdiiJ:d group. In draughtsmanship, angularity i.s favoured tbough curves are used to emphasize certain part> of lhe body. A remarkable feature is the large eye devoid of any expression and extending almost to the ear as in other manuscripts of the group. The drawin g of hands and feet is weak though the effects of this weakness arc considerably toned down by action. Usually the figures are of medium size, but royalty and men of position are comparatively taller. No doubt the illustrator intended to emphasize their importanoe. This metbod i.s common 10 many schools of Indian painting. The female figure i.s more robustly treated tban in otber manuscript> of tbe Chmua­ �halil1, pp. 368--3-7:a, figs.. 1-36, whctt it it described a.s R.ajast.bani and dAtcd , . A.D. 1)76,

112

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architecture and trees to relieve the monotony, the angular draughtsmanship, rhe male figure with exaggerated chest and recurved moustache, the female figure with well-defined round breasts and the UJual brown and yellow complexion and certain details of female costume show the survival of the ChamapaiknaMa style, though there is no gainsaying that the style is also very much influenced by the Mughal style of the Akbar period. It, however, appears from this manUJcript that when it was painted the laUT-Chand4-Cha•rapalklui1iM. tradition was quickly being assimilated into new modes of expression. The date and pro­ venance arc not certain but it appears to be later than A.D. 1575 and is best ascribed to the last quarter of the lixtcenth century which allows for a margin of twenty-five years. Moreover, it is indeed very doubtful if it belongs to Rajasthan, The survival of the older tradition is also evident in an illustrated manUJCript of the UttariidhJl170M. Siilra dated A.D. 1591 in the Jainlnanda PUJtakAlaya.• The style shows the adoption and assimilation of certain Mughal features, though there are other features which are reminiscent of the la•r-Chand4-Chaurapalkh4Jik4 tradition. In the treatment of architecture, the angularity of the human face, the spray-like treatment of the trees and even in the textile patterns these illustrations seem to have derived some inspiration from the older school. The survival of the laUT-Cha,uJd-ChOUTapalkluiJiM. tradition is again evident in two Gila GoDinda paintings (Figs. 201 and 202) in the National Museum, Their format is hori­ zontal with plain background divided into more than one compartment in red or black. The stormy blue sky, the conventional trees with meandering trunks and ovaloid foilagc, the spray-like planto, and the river Jamuna represented in basket pattern with fish and lotuses are features similar to those seen in the Prince of Wales MUJeum Gita C.Dinda illustrations. The female figure i n both shows a common origin though in the National Museum illustrations an attempt has been made to round off the draughtsmanship with pleasing results. The mode of wearing the o;h,mi with one end crossed over the chest and hanging stiffly, a characteristic feature of the LaUT-Chanda group survives, but in a much modified form. As a matter of fact, the human figu res show a gradual emergence from the La.r-Chatuiii.­ ChOUTapaik1,4JiJ;a tradition which process Khandalavala would attribute to the influence of Mugbal painting as in the case of the Rajasthani school which he considers t o be the out­ come of Mughal influence on the Western Indian or Gujarati style. Similarly the painting of the northern belt from Delhi to Uttar Pradesh was also influenced by Mugbal painting in the second half of the sixteenth century. Khandalavala, moreover, fccb that for want of sufficient data, we may be describing certain miniatures as Rajasthani though strictly speak­ ing they may be the products of the area from Delhi to Uttar Pradesh. In connection with tlie survival of the Laur-Chanda-ChaurapakhdJilca tradition till the beginning of the seventeenth century, ·an early dated RiJ.gamald, popularly known as the Chawand set, now dispersed in many public and private collcctions, may be mentioned. The series was painted i n A . D . 16o5 at Cbawand, not far from Udaipur, where the celebrated Ral)l Pratap had shifted his capital i n A.D. 1578. The Chawand Rdgam4J4' though showing

• W. Norman Brown, M4'RaSeriftl /UIUlrWflJ-q_/tlt, uuar� SQtra, Conntttjcut, 1941. Kati Khandalawla, 'Leaves from bjas 1ha n', Mirg, Vol . IV, No. 3, p p . 16-.18. ' Copi Krishna Kanoria, "An Early Dated RAja,thini Ri.gami.11", ]fM'MI of1M lttdi'"" S«iety of Orimlal Art, Vol , XIX, 1952-53, pp. 1-s-,

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developed RajUthani characteristics revealJ certain feature, which may be derived from the Lmr-Cltand4-ChamapakhWa group. The male figure in the Chawand set ha, pointed nose, paefed. The draughtsmanship is almost the same as in the Prince of Wales Mu,eum Ka/pa,Qtra except that in this manuscript it show, a tendency towards stiffening. The manuscript seems to be of Pa\an origin. 6. $Ahl king granting an interview to Kalaka. From the same MS . as Fig. 5. Within the limited space a more elaborate composition i., attempted. The almost r e d ­ dish Sabi i., seated on an elaborate lion-throne facingKiilaka. I n the foreground appear three seated soldiers and two dappled horses. 7. Capture of GardabhiUa. From the same MS. as Fig. 5. Two scenes are represented; in the upper register the Sahl chief is conversing with Kiilaka, while i n the lower register are represented five soldiers seated on the floor. Garda­ bhilla in chains, stands to the right; there are four armoured horses in the foreground. Again as in Fig. 6 an attempt is made t o enlarge the composition. The background is red; the Sah!.s are dressed i n grc,:n; Kiilaka and Gardabhilla have yellow complexions. Note the rather elaborate canopy. I. Temple of MahAvlra in a garden. From the same MS . as Fig. 5. The chief interest of the miniature lies i n its donor figures and the landscape. The background is red. The hills on either s.ide have blue, red, yellow and cannine rocks; the dc,:orativc trees with monkeys and birds are painted o n blue ground. The donor and his wife in the foreground arc not stereotype but effect a very mobile pose. A3 a matter of fact, they come more in the line of Vasanla Vilisa figure than in the usual line of Kalpa,iltra types. 9. Indra holding court. Folio from the Kalpa,atra painted at Mandu. \Vestem Indian or Gujarati school. Dated A.D. 1439. National Museum, New Delhi. Iu the upper register Indra is seated facing the four courticn; in the lower register appear two prancing horses and an elephant. The outstanding points of the Mandu minia­ tures are a conscious effort to improve the draughtsmanship and colours. The Western Indian or Jain features appear but within its own limitation an effon is made to improve the quality. There i s a suggC$tion at colour modelling and the body colour i., not merely monotonous yellow but also sandalwood. The treatment of the animals is spirited and attempt is made to represent the minute details of the textile pattern. 10. Siddhartha summoning the soothsayers. From the same MS. a s Fig. 9. In the upper register there are two soothsayers facing the king; in the lower register a horse and two soothsayers proce. A,, a matter of fact, the type appean in the Bhlrat Kall Bhavan Lm,r.Clumd4illu•trations. The attendant wearing pair/um and the chila,u thrown over the coilfurc rccalh the similarity in Ni'mal Nilm4 illustrations, except that the female attendant> there wear turbam. There arc two male courtien seated on a cwhion. The architecture comisu of simple archCl. 111. Attempt on the life of Sikaodar. Folio from an illustrated copy of Sil,wJ,ir N ibn4 . Probably Uttar PradClb-Delhi. Late 15th century A.D. Sikandar is seated on a furnished throne shaded by an umbrclla on the right. On the left the burly .....,in dressed in peaked turban and trousen is rushing towards Sikandar with a short broad sword. 11,a. Sikandar and his attendanu proceeding o n a n expedition. From the oame MS. as Fig. 11 r. Sikandar and his two attendaou all mounted on apirited cbargcn arc proceeding in different directions. 113. Return of Sikandar from the northern frontier to his homeland and falling ill on way. Folio from an illustrated copy of Silandar Nama. Probably Uttar Pradeah-Delhi. the Late 15th century A.D. The sick Alexander is lying fiat on a black charger; an attendant seems to be banding him over some ring. The landscape is indicated by a tender Bowering plant and bill with hooked rocks i n the foreground. ••t• Sikandar o n the sickbed. From the aame MS... F",g. 113. Sikandar is lying on bis deathbed. His rolling eyea ,how that death is near. A globe in his right band symbolizes his authority over the world. On the left stands a woman with black hair banging loose awaiting the death of her master. 115. Sikandar's death. Folio from a n illustrated copy of Silandm-N4ma. Probably Uttar Pradeab-Delhi. Late I5th century A.D. On the right Sikandar is lying dead holding a lump of earth signifying that inspite of all hiJ achievemenu internment in the soil is hiJ final deatiny. On the left two ofhia compa­ nion>dressed in black tunica, their hair banging loose, are mourning the death of thei r master. 116. Mourning for the dead. Folio from the oame MS. as Fig. 115. Four women wearing black tunics and trowen, their hair hanging loose, are beating their cheeks and cheats to lament the death of their master. One with white hair seema to represent the queen. 117. Hamza witnessing a dance performance. Folio from an illustrated copy of H-a NOIIUI. Probably northern India. Late 15th century A.D. Sitzung Preussicher Kulturbeaitz, TUbingen, West Germany. On the right Hamza is seated on a carpeted throne wearing a peaked cap, a long half. alccvcd jilm4, creased shirt and pa/kd; behind him stands an attendant wearing a abortjdmd, peaked cap and trousen waving a towel over his master. On the left four female dancen and musicians arc performing. The dancen who arc apparently Hindu wear half-sleeved dtmit and trouacn. One of the dancers is performing the sword dance and the other is throwing up and catching four balls. A musician dressed i n o;Ju,m, ,ho/, and ghdghrd is play­ ing the sahnai, while another a drumming vigorously.

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It is interesting that the dancen and musicians are strictly in profile and the angularity of Western Indian or Gujarati an i s toned down. The monochrome red background is the usual feature of this series. See Col. Pl. g. 118. The visit of Hamza and a soldier to the Fire Temple. F�m the same M S . u Fig. 117. On the righ< is represented a triple-domed temple with two images of Jain T"trthankaras. An attendant holding an open •word is pointing towards them. On the left is Hamza and three priests who have been killed.and have fallen on the ground. The figures of the priests are again in profile. 119. Khandaz, the dcmon..wreitlcr, attacks Hamza in a garden. Folio from an illus­ trated copy of Hamz a Nama. Probably northern India. Late 15th century A.D. Sitzung Preussichcr Kulturbesitz, Tubingen, West Gerrn•ny. The scene is laid in a garden symbolized by two decorative trees and a ft.oral meander in the foreground. The sky is represented by two white zigzags on blue ground. Hamza fanning embers in an open fire-place is being kiclced by the demon from behind. ••· Hamza shooting an arrow at the eye of Daijal. Folio from the same MS. as Fig. 119. On the left is a man dressed in a white flat turban and jama riding a donkey; in the centre stands Dajjiil dressed in aflat turban and shorts with his fanher eye protruding. Hamza is shooting an arrow aimed at his eyes. It is interesting to note that the don.key rider re­ presented by an indigenous type has no fanher eye while Dajjll's fanher eye protrudes. The flat type turban though appearing in the Jaunpur Kalpasatra dated A.D. 1465 i s rare in the fifteenth century illustrated manuscripts. 121. Meeting of Hamza and �afia B3'afah in a garden. Folio from an illustrated copy of Ham,;a }{4ma. Probably northern India. Late 15th century A.D. Sitzung Preussicher Kulturbesitz, Tubingen, West Germany. The lady dressed in a white tunic and ,h4dar is seated under a flat domed pavilion. Hamza is rushing to touch her feet. On the right stand two attendant,; a solitary tree symbolizes the garden. 1a. Hamza conversing with shepherds. From the same MS. as Fig. 121. On the right Hamza seated on an oval carpet is convening with his attendant; o n the left are two shepherds apparently i n a faint. \Vith them are two sheep. The landscape is represented by a plantain and two other decorative trees. 1•3. Meeting of Hamza and Meherniglr. Folio from an illustrated copy of H� N4ma. Probably northern India. Late 15th century A.D. Sitzung Prcussichcr Kulturbeoitz, Tilbingen, West Germany. The scene is laid in a room overlaid with a carpet and decorated with a tasselled ba,u/alUDdr. On the left stands Hamza with folded hands and accompanied by two women in Persian costume. A child has fallen at the feet of Mchemigiir seated on the right; behind her stands a female attendant. ,,... A lady resting in a tent surrounded by angels. From the same MS. as Fig. "3· On the right a bed elaborately furnished with bed post, canopy, pillow and luxurious counterpane is shown; on it is lying a lady wearing a long tunic and scarf. To the left there a.re four angels; one of chem i s carrying away a baby,

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••S• Hamza mcctiJlll a learned man. Folio from an illu.,trated copy of Hamr.a N6m4. Probably northern India. Late 15th century A.D. Sittung Preussicher Kulturbc,itz, Tubin­ gen, West Germany. The convenation between Hamza and the learned man is taking place o n the bank of a lake represented by basket pattern and fish. On the left is painted a mountain represented by a pine-cone l'Oat outlined in white, Banked with a decorative tree on either side. 1n. Hamza in a garden. Folio from the same MS. as Fig. 125. It is by far the most picturesque scene of the Hamr.a }{/im4. The scene is laid in a garden with a plantain and three other ornamental trees. In the centre Hamza seated on a carpeted dias is conversing with his beloved wearing an elaborately decorated pair/um and a ,h4dar covering the hairdrcss. An attendant dressed similarly stands waving a towel behind his mistress. In the right corner Hamza is embracing his beloved. The costume of the women is the same as worn by an attendant in one of the Sikatular Niima pictures. See Fig. 110. 1117. Rustam engaged in a battle. Folio from the Shdh Ndm4. Probably northern India. Late 15th century A.D. Bhmt Kall Bhavan, Banaras. The armed cavaliers are engaged i n a deadly combat.The sky is treated in the manner of a folded curtain. Though the physical types follow the Persian tradition represented in three-quarter profile yet they arc developed in India and met with in the Silcandar NiirM and ebewhere. The colours u.,cd arc also strong. 1"8. Rustam engaged in a battle. From the same M S . as Fig. 127. The composition i s less crowded here and the participants arc dressed in Indo.Penian costume. Th e folded curtain lilce treatment of the s ky appears here as well. 1